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KF/7^?
1
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LIBRARY
or
UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE.
A REPRINT
OF THE LAST (1880) EDIKBXIRGH AND LONDON EDITION
OP CHAMBERS'S ENCTCJLOP.EDIA,
WMji Copious ^bbitions bg ^mmcmi (lEbitors.
FIFTEEN VOLUMES,
VOLUME IX.
Nkv Tobk:
A1IEBI0AN BOOK EXCHANGE,
764 BROADWAY,
1881.
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((F 174-^2
HARVARD
UNiVti?SITY
L RARY
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jUIERICAN PUBLISHER'S NOTICE
Tun work, atthoo^ based upon Chambers's EDcyc1opeBdi% whose distinguished
nerit is widely known, differs from it in important respects. It could scarcely be
expected that an Encyclopaedia, edited and published for a foreign market, would give
ttmuch prominence to American topics as American readers might desire. To supply
these and other deficiencies tbe American Editors have inserted about 15,000 titles*
miDgiog the whole, including Chambers's Supplement, m a single alphabet The
total Dimtber of titles is now about 40,000. The additions give greater fullness in the
departments of biography, geography, history, natural history, and general and applied
KJeoce. Scrupulous care has been taken not to mutilate or modify the original text of
the edition of 1880; no changes have been made except such verbal alterations as are
nqdied by the omission of the wood-cuts. The titles of articles from Chambers's
Encydopadia, either from the main work or from the Supplement, are printed in bold-
iiced tjrpe— AHEBICA. The titles of the American additions, whether of new topics or
of enlaigements of the old, are printed in plain capitals— AMERICA. Should it appear
that an article from the English work and its American continuation disagree in any
pointa, tbe reader will readily refer the conflicting statements to their proper sources.
Tbe labor of consultation will be much reduced by the catch-words in bold-faced
tnw at tbe top of the page, being the first and last titles of the pages which fa^^e each
other; and by the full title-words on tha back of the volume, being the first and last
titlea oontainad therein.
The woffd mni$ refers to Chambers's Encyclopaedia, as represented in this issue.
Whenever the word {ante) follows a title in the American additions, it indicates that
tha article is an enlaigement of one under the saoM title in Cliambers's £ncydop«ii»->
MaDy to be found immediately preceding.
I AnBUUH BOOK
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LIBRARY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE.
LISB-BOAT, a boat adapted to " live'* in a stormy sea, with a view to the saving of
life from shipwreck. Its qualities must be buoyancy, to avoid foundering when a^
sea is shipped; strenfi^th to escape destruction from the violence of waves, from a
rocky beach, or from collision with the wreck; facility in tuniiug; and a power of
righting when capsized.
A melancholy wreck at Tynemouth, in Sept, 1789, suggested to the subscribers
to the South Shields news-room, who had witnessed the destruction of the crew one liy
one, that some specuil construction of boat might be devised for saving life from stranded
vessels. They immediately offered a premium for the best form of life-boiit; and the
first boat built with the express object of saving life was that constructed on this occa-
sion by Mr. Henry Qreathead. It was of great strength, havinj^ the form of the quarter
of a spheroid, with sides protected and rendered buoyant wiihin and without by the
superposition of layers of cork. So useful was it in the first twenty-one years after ita
introduction that WX) lives were saved throujeh its instrumentality in the mouth of the
Tyne alone. Mr. Greathead received the gold medals of tho 6i)ciety of arts and royal
Iiumane society, £1200 from parliament in 1802, and a purse of lOOpiineasfrom Lloyd's,
the members of which society also voted £2,000 to encourage the building of life-boats on
different parts of the coast. Although various other life-boats were invented from time
to time, Greathead*s remained the general favorite until about the year 1851. and manv
of his construction are still to be seen on different points of the coast. They faileo,
however, occasionally; and several sad mishaps befell the crews of life-boats, especially
in the case of one at South Shields, in which twenty pilots perished. Upon thia ti)e
Section lengthwiM.
duke of Northumberland offered a prize for an improved construction, and numerous
designs were submitted, a hundred of the best of which were exhibited in 1851. Mr.
James Beechmg of Yarmouth obtained the award; but his l)oat was not considered
entirely satisfactory, and Mr. R. Peake, of her majestv's dockyard at Woolwich, was
intrusted with the task of producing a life-boat which should coaibiue the liest (qualities
of the different inventions. His efforts were very successful, and the national life-boat
institution adopted his model as the standard for the boats they should thereafter estab-
lish on the coasts.
Sections of Mr. Peake's life-boat are shown above, one lengthwise through the keel,,
the other crosswise in the middle. A, A, are the thwarts on which the rowers sit; BB. a
water-tight deck, raised sufficiently above the bottom of the boat to l)e almve the level of
the sea when the l)oat is loaded; C, C, are air-tight chambers runninar along each side»
and occupying from 3 to 4 ft. at eiicli end the buoyancy afforded l»y these more than
ftulflces to sustain the boat when fully laden, even if filled with water. To diminish the
liability to capsize in a heavy sea, the life-boat has great beam (breadth) in proportion to
her length, viz., 8 ft. l)eain to 80 length. In addition, the bottom is almost flat. As in
her build it has been found convenient to dispense with cross- pieccn, gome means are
required to preserve the rigidity of the whole stractiire amid the buffeiingsof a tempest.
To achieve this, and also to serve the purposes of light ballast. Mr. Peake fills the space
between the boat's liottom and the water-tight deck (BB) with blocks. tUhtly wedged
together, of cork and light hard wood, D, D. These would form a fal.»*c Itottom. were
a rent made in the outer covering, and, by their comparative wt-ight. counteract in some
degree the top-heaviness induced* by the air-vessels, which are entirely above the water-
line (H). This arrangement would be insufficient to maintain the equilibriunaiMif ^e
UfB.
6
t)oat, lioweyer, and especially under sail, so Mr. Peake has added a beayy iron keel (E)
of from 4 to 8 cwt., which enectually keeps the boat straight. Som* builders object to
this iron ballast: the Liverpool and Norfolk boats take out their plugs, and preferablj
admit water until steadiness is secured; bat Mr. Peake has an additional object in vie^w —
tliat of causing the bout to immediately right itself if turned upside down, as the best
boats sometimes will be in heavy i^aies. It will be noticed that the ends of the boat rise
above the center H to 2 feet. This, for one thing, facilitates turning, as tlie pivot on
which her weight rests is shortened ; for another, if she capsizes and is thrown bottom
up, these raised caissons are sufficient to sustain her by their buoyancy. So long, then,
as she floats precisely in an inverted state, she will be steady; but the slightest motion
to either side-*- which, of eourse, in practice ensues instantly— throws the iieayy keel off
the perpend iculdr, in which its center of gravity was exactly over the line between bow
and stern, and the boat must immediately right itself. There is a covered trougli over
the keel to contain the tackle, sails, etc., when not in use; in service, it is also useful to
receive any water that may penetrate among the cork and wooden chocks beneath the
water-tight deck: this leakage is at times considerable when the outer skin of tlie boat
has susained damage. The Irough may be fitted with a small hand-pump, to enable one
of the sitters to clear it out when necessary.
Perhaps the most beautiful contrivance in the life-boat is that for dischamng the
water which she ships. This consists of 0 relieving tubes, G, each 6 in. in diameter,
passing through the deck, B, the ballast, D, and the bottom. The tubes, which are
near the center of the boat, 8 on each side, have at the bottom a valve openings out-
wards. As tlie deck, B, is always above the water-level, any water in the boat neces-
sarily flows out through these tubes, so that if a wave bursts over her, and completely
fills the boat, the relieving tubes free her, and she is empty again in a few minutes.
The greater the height of water within, the faster will it run out. The advantages of
the life- boat may be thus summed up. The air-chambers and the light ballast render
sinking impossible; the keel nearly prevents capsizing, and rectifies It, if it does hap-
pen; while the relieving tubes effectually clear off any water that finds its way within.
With such precautions, the safety of the crew appears almost assured, and, in fact, loss
of life in a life-boat is a very rare occurxince.
The boat is kept on a truck — of considerable strength, as the life-boat weighs two
tons--closc to the l)cach. and is drawn to the water's edge when ix^quired; the crew*
are trained to their work, and, it need not be added, are among the hardiest of sea-
men. Ordinary life-boats arc rowed bv 8 or 12 oars (of the best fir) double banked;
but for small stations, whore it would bo difficult to collect so many men at short
notice, smaller boats are made, rowing six oars single banked.
The importance of the life-boat in savine life can scarcely bo over-estimated. Hun-
dreds of vessels have their crews rescued through its use every year; and as the
DdMonal life-boat institution obtains funds, this invention is beinff gradually extended
all round the coast of the United Kingdom, while foreign nations have not been remiss
in thus protecting their shores.
The Boyal National Lifeboat InMuthn, after an unrecognized existence for several
years, was formally incorporated in 1824. Its objects are to provide and maintain in
efficient workiuji^ order lifc-lioats of the most perfect description on all parts of the coast;
to provide, through the instrumentality of local committees, for their proper manage-
ment, and the occasional exercise of their crews; to bestow pecuniary rewards on all
who risk their lives in saving, or attempting to save, life on the coast, whether by means
of its own or other l)oats, and honoraiy rewards, in the form of medals, to all who dis-
play unwonted heroism in the noble work. It is supported entirely by voluntary' contri-
butions. It saves aboui 900 lives annually, and is therefore eminently worthy of support.
In 1875 it expended £36,186 on life-boat establishments, pecuniary rewiutis (£8,289),
etc. The society has now a fleet of 256 life-boats stationed all round our shores. The
coxswains of tlie boats alone are paid at the rate of about £8 a year. The members of
the crew are paid for each service performed. From its formation up to the end of 1875,
the society was instrumental in saving 28,789 lives, and gave rewards m cash to the extent
of £48,000. besides 92 gold and 871 silver medals.
The size of a common life-boat renders it inconvenient for stowage on shipboard. To
obviate this, the rev. E. L. Berthon, of Fareham, invented a collapsing boat, which is
readily expanded, possesses great strength, and at the same time occupies comparatively
little space when out of use. Its sides are connected by various hingeSb This boat is
extensively employed for ocean steamships.
LITE-ESTATE, in English law, is an estate or Interest in real property for a life. The
life may be either that of the owner or of some third party, in which latter case it is
called an estate pur avtre vie. Life-estates in lands are classed among freeholds (q.v.).
The tenant for life has certain rights in regard to the uses of the estate. He is entitled
to cut wood to repair fences, to burn in the house, etc. He cannot open a mine on the
estate, but, if it was already opened, he is entitled to carry it on for his own profit. Life-
estates are created by deed, but there are certain estates created by law, as courtesy
(q.v.), dower (q.v.), tenancy in tail after possibility of issue extinct. As to Scothmd, see
LiFB-RENT.
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LIFE-QITABIMIi tbe two senior regiments of the moanted portion of the body<guard
of tlie British sovefeii^n and garrison of London. They took tlieir origin in two Irooos
of borse-grenadiers nused respectively in 1098 and 1702: these troops were reduced in
1783, and reformed as regiments of life-guards. Although usually employed about the
court and metropolis, tbe life-guards are not exempt from tbe liability to tureign service
when required, having distinguished themselves in tbe Peninsula and at WaterToa Tbe
men are all six feet high and upwards, armed with sword and carbiue» wear knee-boots,
leather breeches, red coats, and steel helmets. They also wear steel cuirasses, tbe utility
of which is considered very doubtful. With this unwieldy armor, they require powerful
horses, which are uniformly bbick. Tbe two regiments comprise 868 men, with 550
horses: their pay and personal allowances amount to about £50,000,
LIFE INSURANCE. See Insusaitcb.
UTE M0BTAB8 and B0CXET8. When a life-boat is not at hand, or a raging sea and
a shoal coast render its use impracticable, a distressed ship may often receive belp from
shore, provided tlie distance be not too great for the throwing of a rope. A small rope
may draw a tbicker, and that a hawser, and Uie hawser may sustain a slinging apparatus
for bringing the crew on sbore. For short distances, capt. Ward*8 ktamng-sttck uas been
found useful : it is a piece of stout cane 2 ft. long, loade<l at one end with 2 lbs. of lead,
and at the otber attached to a thin line. It is wbirled round vertically 2 or 8 times, and
then let go; but it cannot be relied on for more tban 50 yards. Kites of various kinds
have been employed, but are not found to l)e certain enough in action. The firing by
gunpowder of some kind of missile, with a line or rope attached to it, is the method
which has been attended with most success. In 1791 sergt. Bell, of tbe royal artillery,
devised a mode of iiriug a shot and line from a distressed sliip to tbe shore. It was
afterwards found to be more practically useful to fire from tlie sbore to the ship. In
1807 capt. Man by invented his l^e-mortar (see Makbt>. His mortar was an ordinal y
5i-in. 24-pounder cohorn, fixed at a certain angle in a thick block of wood. The missile
discharged from it was a shot with curved bnrbs. something like the flukes of an anchor,
to catch hold of tbe rigging or bulwarks of a ship. How to fasten tbe sbot to tbe rope
was at first a difiiculty . chains were not found to answer; but at length strips of raw -hide
were found suitable. To assist in descrying the exact position of a distressed ship on a
dark night, in order to aim tbe mortar-rope correctly, Man by used a cbemical composi-
tion as a firework, which would shine out in brilliant stars when it had risen to a certain
height A third contrivance f^f his for replacing the shot by a shell filled with combus-
tibles, in order to produoe a light which would render the rope visible to the cxew, was
not so successful.
Many variations have been made in the line-throwing apparatus. Col. Boxer has
recently substituted a bolt for the shot, with four boles at tbe end; fuses thrust into these
holes abed a light which marks the passage of the bolt througli tbe air. Trengrove's
rocket-apparatus, invented in 1821, consisted of an ordinary 8-oz. sky-rocket (see
RocsBT). Certain practical difficulties, liowever, affected it, and it did not come much
into use. In 1882 Dennett's apparatus whs invented. It nearly resembled the old sky-
rocket, but with an iron case instead of a paper one, and a pole 8 ft. long instead of a
mere stick; it weighed 28 lbs., was propelled by 9 lbs. of composition, and bad a range
of 260 yarda A ship's crew having been saved by the aid of this rocket at Bembiidge,
in tbe isle of Wight, the board of customs caused many of the coastguard stations to be
supplied with the apparatus in 1884. Carte's apparatus, brouirht forward in 1842,
depended on the use of a Congrere rocket (see Kockxt) instead of an ordinary sky-
rocket It does not appear that tbis apparatus was ever adopted by tbe authorities. Mr.
Dennett next sought to improve the power of his apparatus, by placing two rockets side
by side, attached to the same stick; and it certainly did increase the range to 400 yards;
but fts the simultaneous and equal action of the rockets could not be alwavs insured, the
scheme was abandoned. Col. Del vigne, of tbe French army, invented a Ufe-arroto, to be
fired from an ordinary musket. It b a stick of mahogany, shaped something like a bil-
liard-cue; the thicker end presses on the powder; while the thinner end, loaded with
lead, is fitted with loops of string; a line or thin rope is attached to the loops, and the
thin end of the stick projects beyond tbe barrel. The lerk, when the arrow or stick is
fired, causes the loops to ran down the stick to the thick end ; this action has an effect
like that of a spring, preventing the stick from darting forward so suddenly as to snap
tbe line. The apparatus will send an arrow of 18 oz. to a distance of 80 yards, with a
mackerel line attached. Another French contrivance, Tremblay's rocket with a barbed
heaa, was soon adopted for the emperor's yacht; but as it is to l)e fired from the ship to
the shore, it partakes of the same defects as sergt. Bell's original invention.
The most effective apparatus yet invented is col. Boxers. Finding tbat Dennett's
parallel rockets on one stick do not work well, he succeeded after many trials in a mode
of plftcing two rockets in one tube, one behind the other. The head is of hard wood ;
there is a wrought-lron case, with a partition between tbe two rockets. When fired, the
foremost rocket carries the case and the attached line to its maximum distance, and tbe
rearmost rocket then gives these a further impetus. The effect is found to lie greater
than if the two rockets were placed side by side, and also greater than if the quanti^
of composition for the two rockets were made up into one of lar|^]^ si|^. v7|^R9$|$^ ^
fired from a triangular stand, and is lighted by fuse, port-flrc, or percussion-tube ; tke ele-
yation is determined by a quadmnt or some similur insirument.
Tlie lines used witli tliese several projectiles buve varied greatly'; but the best is found
to be Italian hemp, spun loosely. It is very elastic, and when thick enough for the pur.
pose, 500 yards weigb 46 lbs. In Boxer's rocket, the line passes through the tail of the
stick, then throuj^ the head, where it is tied in a knot, with Indiiurubber washers or
buffers to lessen the Jerk. The line is carefully wound on a reel, or coiled in a tub, or
faked in a box provided with pins ranged round the interior— to enable the line to run
out quickly without kiuldngor entangling. Dennett's faking box for this purpose is tho
one now generally adopted.
Lifebelts, jackets, and buoys of various kinds are used, made of cork, inflated India-
rubber, etc. ; but one apparatus now employed in conjauctiou with the life^rockets is
known by the curious name of petticoat-breeches, or more simply, ding Iffe-buoy. It is not
strictly either a belt or a buoy, but a garment in wliich a man may be slimg clear out of
the water. When a rocket nas been flred, and a line has reached the distressed ship»
signals are exchanged between the ship and the shore; a thicker rope is pulled over to
the ship by means of the line, and a hawser by means of the rope. When all is stretched
taut, by fastening to the masts, etc.. articles can be slung and drawn to and fro. The
petticoat-breeches, invented by lieut. Kisbee. consists ot a circular cork hfe-buoy form-
ingthctop ring of a pair of canvas breeches; one of these is liauled over from the
shore to the ship; a man gets into it, liis legs protruding below the breeches, and his
armpits resting on the buoy; and he is hauled ashore by block-tackle. Tho crew of a
wrecked ship can thus one by one be relieved. To prevent losing ihe hawser and other
apparatus, when the last man has left the ship, an apparatus called a hawser-cutter is
useil, working in the ship, but worked /it>m the shore. Other apparatus will be found
noticed in Lifb-Presbrvers.
After the destruction of the Narthfleet in 1878, oft Dungeness, an exhibition waa
organized at tlie London tavern, to which the inventors of new life-saving appliances
were invited to contribute. Among the apparatus were Hurst's life-raft, consisting of a
double pontoon, brid.i^ed over, stowed outside a ship, and lowered by simply cutting tlie
lashings; Chri^stie's l*fe-raft, a large rectangular framework, rendered buoyant by numer-
ous air-tiglit spaces, some of which are available for stowing water and provisions; and
Parratt's tubular life-raft, composed of cylindrical air-bags made of painted canvas, sup-
porting a flooring of S2ul-cloth and netting, and rendered rigid by poles fixed in various
directions. Many otiier novelties were displayed at the London tavern, and also at &
similar collection in the annual international exhibition, in the forms of life-boats, rafts,
^rments, belts, buoys, etc. Since then, notliing new and imp irtant has been introduced
in connection with life mortars and rockets or their appendages.
Lm-PRESEBYEBS, inventions for the preservation of life in cases of fire or ship-
wreck. The fire life-preservers will be found treated of under FiRS-EBCAPBa. The
other class includes the various contrivances for preserving the buoyancy of tlie human
body, and for reaching the shore. Of these, the readiest and most effective are empty
water-casks, well bunged-up, and with ropes attached to them to hold on by. It has
been found that a 8d-g)il. cask so prepared can support 10 men conveniently, in tolera^
bly smooth water. Cook's and Kodger's patent life-rafts consist of square frames
buoyed up by a cask at each corner. Among foreign nations, fnmies of bamboo, and
inflated goat and seal skins, have been long employ^ as life-preservers: and in Cliina»
it is customary for those living on the b:ink.s of the canals to tie gourds to their children,
to buoy them up in case of their falling into the water. Since the introduction
of cork, jackets and belts of that material in immense variety have been patented.
It has been calculated that one pound of cork is amply sufficient to suppf)it a man of
ordinary size and make. A few years ago, on the invention of india-rublier cloth,
inflated belts of this material were made, and found to be superior in buoyancy to the
cork belt, besides, when emptied of air, l)eing very portalxle. They are. however, much
more liable to dam:ige by being punctured or torn, or to decay by being put awuy wliile
damp. Some of these defects are remedied by having the interior of the belt divided
into several compartments; so that, when one is damaged, the remainder may still suf>
flee. Various forma of inflated mattresses, pillows, etc., have been made on the same
principle, and been found very effective; one shown at the great exhibition of 1861 hav-
ing sustained 96 11)S. for five days without injury. But the favorite life-buoy among^
sailors is composed of slices of cork neatly and' compactly ammge^l. so as to form a
buoyant zone of about 30 or 82 in. in diameter, G in width, and 4 in Uiickness. It t>on-
sequently contains about 12 lbs. of cork, and is generally covered with painted canvas
to add to its strength and protect it from the injurious aotinn of the water. A buoy so
constructed can sustain 6 persons, and it is generally furnished with a Ufe-Une (a cord
runnin^^ n)und the outside of the buoy and fastened to it at 4 points) to afford a more
convenient hold. This life-preserver is found on board all vessels. See Livb Mobtabs
AKD ROCKBTS.
LIFE-RAFTS, structures made to serve the purposes of life-boats when the latter
are lacking. They may be made of various materials, such as are at hand. Logs,
boards, stools, broken timbers, bound together with ropes or)^|d^(3 ooff C%^ bark of
^ life.
trees when ropes cannot be fouDQ. are susceptible of being formed into rafts which may
be managed by resolute aud experienced muu iu the saviug of life from a wrecked 8bip.
But appui-atus is bometimes provided for the purpose of forming rafls to be u;ied m
emergeucies. A number of cork hfe-preservers or inflated bag» c«)vered with canvas,
and divided into two sections with a space between, may be used. Mr. H. B. Mountaia
has devised a raft in which a water-^roof canvus sack has ils edges secured along the cen«
ters of two mattresses so as to provide an open chamber between them in whidi persotis
may be seated. It has been attempted to construct a vessel in such a way as to have
cabins or structures removable, so that they may be floated away iu case of wrei-k, but
all such iogeuious devices are probably much less useful and manageable than life-boats,
which can be as easily provided.
UXS-XEVT, in Scotch law, means a right to use a heritable estate for life, the person
enjoying it being called a lifeorenter. The rights of a life-renter nearly resemble, though
they are not identical with, those of a tenant for life iu England. Bee Lifk-£statb.
UXS-SOCXST BXPABTKSVT, or, rather, that branch of the marine department of
the boanl of trade whicli has the management of life-rockets, mort^irs, lines, buoys, and
belts, divides with the national life-boat institution the labors connected with the pre-
vention of shipwreck, and the rescue of shipwrecked persons. This has been the
arrangement since 1855. Until that year the life-mortars in use were partiy under the
control of the admiralty, partly under the board of customs, partly under the institu-
tion just named, and paitly belonging to private individuals. The merchant shipping
act. passed in 1854, and put in force in the following year, placed the whole under a
different organization.
To work out properly the rocket and life-saving svstem, a topographical organization
is iu the first instance adopted. The coasts of the United Kiugdcm are classitied into
59 coastguard divisions or wreck-registrars' districts; and the coast-guard inspector of
each division or district has control over all the rockets, mortars, buoys, belts, aud lines
kept at the various seaside stations in his district. There were in 1874 about 800 such sta-
tions; some supplied with mortars, some with rockets as well as mortars, but the greater
number with rockets only. Most of the mortars are Boxer's improvement on Mauby's;
and most of the rockets are Boxer's improvement on Dennett's. Boxer's rockets, found
more effective than mortars, are made at the royal laboratory at Woolwich, and are sup-
plied by the war department to the stations, on requisition from the board of trade; as
are likewise mortar-shot and shells, fuses, portfires, signal-lights, gunpowder, etc. At
each station is kept a cart, expressly made to contain all the requisites for the rocket
apparatus, ready fNacked. Eighteen rockets are supplied with each apparatus; and a
new supply is obtained before thestf are exhausted. Between 1874 and 1880, the 8}*stem
has extended year by year in the number of stations and of men; but while details of
organization have clmnged, no new principle has been introduced. Simpler apparatus,
consisting of life-belts and life-lines, is kept at a much greater number of stations. The
system is worked by the coast-guard, the men being paid for perio<iica1 drilling, and for
regular service. Special services are rewarded with gifts of money, medals, etc.
LIFE SAYING SERVICE. The first mstance on record of a combined public effort
in the direction of life-saving is that of tlie national life-boat association, in England,
founded in 1824 under the name of the royal national association for the preservation of
life from shipwreck. But as early as 1786, when the first patent was granted for a life-
boat, the subject was attracting general attention; and a second boat, invented four
years later, is said to have saved nearly 900 lives from vessels wrecked near the mouth
of the Tvnemouth haven, during the following fifteen years. The life-boat association
was eatabUshed "to grant funds for making life-boats, boat-houses, and life-buovs; to
assist in training boatmen and coast-guardsmen to aid ships in distress; to interchange
the fullest Information, with corporate bodies and local committees, concerning life-
saving appliances; and to reward by money, medals, and votes of thanks, those who
might render aid to ships in distress, or to persons escaping from such ships." Between
1824 and 1877 Uiis institution saved 25.435 lives: in 1876 it had 2,541 life-boats. But
this association had been already indirectly preceded in the United States in the s^ime
direction, through the application of the machinery of the Massac'husetts humane society
to live-saving, as early as 1786. This orgimization, formed for general benevolent pur-
poses, and incorporated 1791, devoted attention to the dangers of the coast of Massachu-
setts and to the succor of shipwrecked seamen and others, by erecting huts for their
shelter on specially exposed portions, the first of these having l)een set up on Lovell's
island, near Boston. The first life-boat station of the society was established at Cohasset
in 1807. and was followed by the erection of a number of others. This movement at-
tracted the attention of the government, whicli in 1847 appropriated |5.000 ** for furnif^h-
ing the light-houses on the Atlantic coast with the means of rendering assistance to ship-
wrecked mariners." In 1855 a second appropriation, of flO.OOO, was made by con-
gress; In 1857, one^of $10,000; and in 1870, one of $15,000. This society is still in active
service, having 78 stations. Other societies, designed to aid in the protection and safely
of life, were organized from time to time in different localities, but accomplished little
or nothing, excepting tlie live-saving benevolent association of New York, founded in .
1849, and still in operation, but whoaie work has generally been in other directions from
lAfU, 1 A
Ugatore. ^^
that under considerntion. In the meantime the U. S. government bad frequently had
the life-suviug qu(*8tiou under considemtiun. As early as 1807 an effort wus made to
organize a coast survey, but it was unsuccessful; uud it was not until 1(;32 that this
most imporumt department of the government was finally established; being followed
by the organization of tbe lake survey in the bauds of the engineer corps of tbe U. S.
army, lu 1848 congress appropriated $10,000 to provide surt'-boats and organize a life-
saving service for the coast of New Jersey. With this sum eight buildings, f^uitably
appointed, were erected; and when, in 184», congress appropriated (20.000 for the gen-
eral purpose, a similar number of buildings was erected on the coai^t of Long island, and
six additional ones on that of New Jersey. In 1850, $20,000 more a | preprinted by con-
gress, enabled tbe establishment of stations at other points along the C(iast of the Atlantic
and the gulf, provided with life-boats and other material. In 1862 tbe reformation of
the light-bouse system gave a great impetus to the movement towards a suitable life-
saving service; a system which now operates 1330 lights on tlie seacoa«>t and inland
shores, besides fog-signals, buoys, and other machinery. In the two years following
1852 congress appropriated $42,500 to the purposes of Jifesaving, and the sc*rvice, while
being continued along the sea-coast, was also extended to the gieat lakes. In lb54 a law
was passed by congress which increased the efficiency of this servic*e, and from that time
slight improvements continued to Ije made. But it was not until 1871 that the present
system may be said to have been fturly organized. On April 20 in that year, congresa
appropriated $200,000, and the sei-vice was reorganized, under the general direction of
Mr. tiumner I. Kimball, tbe present (1881) superintendent. New sUitions were appointed
and provided ; the efficiency of the ptr»/nnfl of the service was improved ; and a suitable
commission decided upon tlie selection of appliances for life-saving, which were adopted
and procured. In 1873 the limits of this service were broadeneti, the sum of $100,000
being appropriated by congress for this purpose. Finally, by the act of June 20, 1874,
congress perfected its work. This act authorized the arranccment of the life-saving
stations into complete stations, life-boat stations, and houses of refuge; created new dis-
tricts with salaried officials; established a system of honors in tbe bestowal of medals;
and arranged for the tabular collection of statistics displacing the efficiency of the serv-
ice, and directing attention to places requiring protection at its hands. TiiQ storm-
signal department of the signal service was now connected whh the life-saving Mations*
through the use of an appropriation by congress of $30,000 specifically for that purpose.
The record of this season showed how admirably the service had been adapted to the
purpose for which it bad been organized: 1165 lives were saved on the three coasts cov-
erea by its operations, while only two were lost The years following were maiked by
constant and marked improvement in the scope and the woiking of the service. A valu-
able code of signals to enable vessels in danger to communicate with tbe stations was
adopted in 1878; a line of teleeraph between capes Henry and Hatleras. and in the
vicinity of the .<«tations on the Korth Carolina coast, connecting with the head-quarters
of the signal service in Washington, was applied to the uses of the life-saving service;
and preparations were made which resulted in the adaptation of a system of telephones
to the same purpose at twelve of the stations on that coast. The act of congress of
Juno 18, 1878. organized the life-saving service into a distinct department; it having
been previously associated with the revenue marine. This act also extended the annual
term of service of the crews, doubted the pay of station-keepers, and authorized compen-
sation for the voluntary life-boat service which had been established on the lakes.— The
scene of the labors of the life-saving service covered, in 1871-72, tbe coast of Long Island
and New Jersey ; the seasons of 1872-74, that of cape Cod in addition to these ; the season
of 1874-75, the coasts of New England, Long island. New Jersey, and the coast from
cape Henry to cape Hatteras; season of 1875-76, coasts of New England. Long island.
New Jersey, coast from cape Henlopen to cape Charles, and that from cape Henrv to
cape Hatteras; season of 1876-77, all the foregoing, with the addition of Florida and the
lake coast; season of 1877-78, the coast of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts. Rhode
island and Long island. New Jersey, cape Henlopen to cape Charles, cape Henry to
cape Hatteras, eastern coast of Florida, lake coast, and Pacific coast: 1878-79, same as
the last. Following is a general summary of disasters which have occurred within the
scope of live-saving operations from Nov. 1, 1871 (date of introduction of present sys-
tem), to close of fiscal year ending June 80, 1879:
Total number of disasters • 797
Total value of vessels $10,782,788
Total value of cargoes 5.928,294
Total value of property saved 9.610.408
Total value of property lost 7,099,619
Total number of persons on vessels •....• 8,892
Total number of persons saved 8,080
Total numl)er of lives lost 862
Total number of persons sheltered 1,758
Total number of day's shelter afforded 4,790
Of the number of lives lost, 188 were at the disasters to the U. 8. steamer Huron, Nov.
24, 1877, and that of the steamer MetropoUa Jan. 20, 1878.— At the close of the fiscal year
1 1 I.lfU.
^ «• UglfttllM.
ending Jane 80, 1878, there were 12 life-saviQ)^ districts, coverinff 178 stations; 981 surf-
nen emploved; net expenditures fortlie year $863,674.72; Imhiuce of uppropriutiona
imexpendecf. $^.017.28. Tiie personnel of the service included one u-encral superiutend-
ent, Sumner I. Kimball; one assistant general superiutcudent, William I). O'Connor;
one inspector of life-SHving stations, capt. James H. Merry man; two superintendents of
eonstnjction of life saving stations, ctipt. John McOowan, capt. James H. Merry man;
13 assistant inspeetors. 2 lieutenants h, S. revenue marine on special duty, 12 districfc
raperintendents, 1 assistant district superintendent.
LUTBf ropes on shipboard for raising or lowering and maintaining in position the
jraids. They pass from the deck over pulleva at the mast-head, and thence to near the
extremities of the yard. The lift bears the designation of the yard to which it is
sttached, aafore-l/ft, maintopi^aUantMfl, etc. 6ee Rieewo.
JJOMMBttB are cords, bands, or membranous expansions of white fibrous tissue,
which play an extremely important part in the mechanism of Joints, seeing that they
pass in fixed directions rrom one bone to another, and senre to limit some movements
of a joint, while they freely allow others.
Todd and Bowman, in their Phyeiologieai Anaiom^, arrange ligaments in three clasws!
1. Funicular, rounded cords, such as the external lateral ligament of the knee-joint, the
perpendicalar lignment of the ankle joint, etc. ; 3. Pkueieylar, flattened bands, more or
\e8s expanded, such as the lateral ligaments of the etbow-Joint, and the great majority
of ligaments in the body; 8; Capsular, which are barrel-shaped expansions attached by
their two ends to the two bones entering into the formation of tlie joint, which th^
completely but loosely invest: they constitute one of the chief characters of the ball-ana-
socket Joint, and occur in the shoulder and hip Joints. See Joint&
LIGAMENTS (ante). See Skeleton.
LIO^N. See Flctsaic, ante,
lMATn"SLLf an Italian term in music, meaning binding, frequently marked hv a
fliur, thus '"— *«^ which is placed over certain notes for the purpose of showing that they
are to be blended together; if in vocal music, that they are to be sung with one breath;
also used in instnimentai music, to mark the phrnaing.
LIOATmKB, tlie term applied, in surgery, to the thread tied round a blood-vessel to
ftop bleeding. The ligatures most commonly used consist of strong hempen or silk
threads; but catgut, horsehair, etc., have been employed by some surgeons. A ligature
should be tied round an artery with sufficient tightness to cut through its middle and
internal walla. Although the operation of tying arteries was clearly known to Rufus of
Ephesus. who flourished in the time of Trojan, it subsequently fell into desuetude, till
it was rediscovered by Ambrose Par4, in the 16th century.
LIGATURE (ante). The ligature had been partially applied by the Roman surgeons,
but it fell into disuse during the dark asres, ana was not revived till 1686-87, when the
celebrated Ambroise Pnr6 (q.v.) introduced it while in Italy with the army of marshal
Rene de Mont-Jenn. This example did not, however, sufHce to make the pmcticc gen-
eral, and it was long before it was introduced into England, where, as late as 1761, it
needed advocates in cases of wounded arteries. Thirty years after this, John Hunter
employed the ligature in the treatment of aneurism in a new way, viz., by tying the
artery at a considerable distance from the aneurysmal sack, and where it was in a healthy
coodition. But this great improvement was coldly received.
Ligatures are applied chiefly: 1. For removing tumors of various kinds,- such
as hemorrhoids of the rectum, and fibrous, fleshy, and erectile tumors* in various
parts; 2. For arresting hemorrhage in arteries, either at the time of nn amputation, or
any operation in which an artery is divided, or when an artery is wounded by accident;
3. For arresting the flow of blood, to diminish either the supply of blood going to a part,
or the^eo of blood in an aneurismal or otherwise weakened arterv.
Ligatures are of various materials, as linen thread or twine, silk, animal membrane,
such as the gut of the silk-worm, deer-skin, catgut, gold, silver, platinum, or lead wire.
The principles indicating the use of these various materials vary with circumstances. It
is often desirable, instead, of keeping a wounc. oi)en, to close it immediately, in which
case the ligature must be of such material that it can be left in the wound and allow of
the flesh to heal over it. Linen thread or silk will not then answer, because of the irri-
tation they would create. Fine gold and silver wire has been successfully used in such
cases, the ends of the ligature being cut ofif short After a while the small piece of liga-
ture will make its way to the surface, after having fulfil led its ofllcc, or it may lK»conie
covered with a cellular capsule. The older surgeons used animal membranes, but with
mdifferent success. Wararop used the gut of the silk-worm, and catgut was employed
by sir AstleyOooper. with a view to absorption of the ligature. In one patient of
Cooper's, 80 years of age, the wound healed in four days; another in twenty, and it
was supposed that the material was absorbed. Other surgeons who attpmpte<l to imi-
tate the process failed; the catgut was often found too weak, or wanting in flrniness;
and sir Astley himself, after having some unsuccessful cases, abandoned the use of this
material and returned to that of the ordinary hempen thread. The wire ligature now
ao much used, and which in many modern operations is absolutely necessary for sue.
Digitized by VjiOUV IC
ligature. 13
cess, is an American invention. It originated with Dn. Pliysick and Levert, who per-
formed several operations with threads of gold, silver, platinum, and lead. When the
ends of tlie ligature were cut off close to tlie vessels thev usually became imbedded in a
cellular capsule, and did not occasion irritation. But this practice also fell into disuse,
to be revived in recent times with certain modifications which render it almost one of
the neces^ry adjuncts of modern surgery. The use of the catgut ligature has also
recently been revived with the very important improvement of treating it with a solution
of carbolic acid.
The immediate effects on an artery of a ligature applied with sufficient force are the
division of the internal and middle coats and the constriction of the outer one. See
Aktkrt, ante. An examination of the vessel a few days after will reveal tlie formation
of a pyramidal coagulum, composed of plastic matter at its base and a fibrinous clot at
its apex. The vessel at this point will also be surrounded by coagulable lymph. At the
expiration of two or three months the end of the artery will be converted into a fibro-
cellular cord as far up as the first branch above the ligature.
The principles involved in the application of ligatures to wounded arteries may be
brieflv stated in two axioms: 1. Cut directly down on the wounded ptart, and tie the
vessel there; 3. Apply the ligature to both ends of the wounded vessel if it be divided,
or. if it lie only punctured, to both distal and proximal sides of the puncture; or, in
other words, in either case tie the artery in two places. The principles are: if we wish
to ffci at both ends of the vessel conveniently, we should cut directly down to tlie point
of injury; we tie both ends of the divided vessel, or on both sides of the wound in it,
because if the i)roximal side (that towards the heart) alone is tied, vascular connections
which may exist between the distal portion of the artery and other vessels may cause
recurrent hemorrhage. If ii does not take place soon after the application in the form
of arterial blood, venous blood will be likely to make its appearance in the course of two
or three days.
At first ligatures were applied to arteries, in operations for aneurism, near the sack,
and on the proximal side (that nearest the heart). The vessel so near the aneurism rarely
being healthy, generally soon gave way, and the operation proved fatal. John Hunter,
as above mentioned, made the improvement of tying at a distance from the tumor, and
also on the proximal side, and that is still the most favorable position; butBrasdor after-
wards conceived the idea of tying on the distal side, because the flow of blood may be
arrested in this way, and consolidation effected in the usual way by the laminated
deposit of fibrlne. The proximal operation is, however, preferable wlisn anatomical dif-
ficulties do not prevent or greatly interfere. The immediate object of applying a liga-
ture for aneurism is to cause consolidation in the parts, thereby producing a condition
which will prevent the rupture of the vessel by the heart's action. This consolidation it
I)roduces by producing coagulation of blood within the vessel, and a deposit of plastic
ymph arounn it. In successful cases, after consolidation and formation of tissue have
advanced sufficiently, the tissues give way which are included in tlie ligature, and this
mny be easily removed. The success of "the operation depends upon the re-establish-
ment of the circulation in those parts which are supplied by that portion of the vessel
which is severed from its connection with the heart. This is effected by nature in
establishing anastomosing circulation with collateral branches. The bleeding which
may result after the ligature of an artery is called secondary hemorrhage, and may arise
from tlie giving way of the coats of the vessel, because it may not have been properly
tied, or liecause the condition of the patient is not such as to allow of natural coagula>
tion of the blood.
The great operations in arterial ligature are the tying of the subclavian, innomi-
nate, carotid, and iliac arteries. See CracuLATiON, ante. The axillary, brachial,
femoral, and smaller arteries of the limbs are frequently tied for various reasons; but
sometimes succea«« is rendered difficult, even in these minor operations, from liability to
^ngrene of the limb, in consc<juence of the deprivation of circulation; and the opera-
tion is justified where an aneunsm has burst or a ligature of an already tied artery has
given way. Life is sometimes prolonged for manjr hours and even several days, which,
under some circumstances, is a matter of great importance. The lipition of arteries
often demands the greatest dexterity, skill, and surgical knowledge. Tissues which lie
at considerable depths require to be divided by the knife; much of the work has to be
done without the aid of the sight
Tfie abdominal aorta has been tied in seven instances. The first operation was per-
formed by the great Engli^^h surgeon, sir Astley Cooper, in 1817. the patient surviving
48 hours. The next was by James of Exeter, in 1829, the patient living only a few
hours afterwards. Murray, at the cape of Qood Hope, in 1884. performed the next
operation, which terminated fatally in 24 hours. Monteiro of Rio Janeiro, in 1842,
had the most n*markable prolongation of life under this operation, the patient living 10
days. South of London performed the fifth operation in 1856, with 43 hours* lease of
life. McOuire of Richmond, U. S. A., performed the sixth operation in 1868, the
patient surviving 12 hours. Stokes of Dublin tied the artery in the seventh instance in
1869. with a fatal issue in 13 hours.
JVie commfrn iliae arfrrj/, according to statistics of Dr. Stephen Smith of New
Tork, has been ligated 40 times, with 10 recoveries. Of 14 cases in which this vessel
Digitized by VjiOOV IC
^3 Ugatar«.
was tied for hemorrbage, 18 proyed fatal. The majority of the recoveries took place
liter ligature for aQeurism, which constituted abuut one-half of the cases. The first
time a ligature was ever placed around this artery in the living subject was by Dr. Wil-
liam Oibson of Philadelphia, in 1812, in a case of gun-shot wound. The pniient died
on the 18th day of periumitis and secondaxy hemorrhage. It was tied in lb27 by Dr.
Valentine Mott, with a successful result. The operntiou lasted less than one hour. It
was performed on Mar. 15, and the ligature was removed on April 8 following. On
May 20 the patient made a journey of 25 miles. Tlie internal Uiae artery wns li^tured for
the flrsi time in 1812 by Stevens of St. Croix, since which it hits been tied 19 times, in 6
cases with success — viz., by Arndt, Dr. White of Hudson, N. Y. (on a tailor 60 years
old). Valentine Mott, Syme, Morton, and Gkillozzi. The external iUac artery was first
tied by the celebrated Dr. Abemethy of London, in 1796, in a case of fcmonil aneurism
(Power). Durinff the following 50 years the operation was performed in 100 recorded
cases for inguinal aneurism (Norris), with a result of 78 cures and 27 deaths. In one
remarkable case both external iliacs were tied, with a successful result, by Tait (Erich-
sen). Ib 1814 sir Astley Cooper had performed the operation seven times, witli burcess
in four cases. In 1860 it baa been tied for aneurism of the femoral artery 48 timet
(Power),
Ligatfire cf <^ tnn&mMata, or ^raehw^eephaUe artery. — ^From a table in an essay
awarded the second prize Uy the American medical association in 1878 to Dr. John A.
Wyeth of the university of^ Louisville, Ky., there are recorded 16 cases of ligature of
this artery, the lareest of the branches of the aorta, and which divides into the right
subclavian and rignt common carotid. One of these operations was attended with suc-
cess, that by Dr. A. W. Smyth of New Orleans, in 1864, in a case of aneurism of the
subclavian arteiy. The following note is taken from the table: *' Aneurism resulted
from violent stretching of the arm; three mouths later innominate and carotid were tied
simultaneously; did well until the 14tli day, when hemorrhage (16 oz.) occurred, which
was controlled bv compress; 15th and 16th days, continued slight hemoirhaee; 17tli day,
wound was filled with small shot; 51st day, terrible hemorrhage: 54th chiv, vertebral
artery tied; 55th day, shot removed from wound; patient continued to do well, and
recovered." The man died 10 years afterwards of hemnrrhaee from the original sack of
the aneurism. The first ligation of this artery was by Valentine Mott, in 1818, and
marked an era in surgery. The patient survived till the 26th day. Four years later
Von Graefe of Berlin performed the operation, and the patient lived till the 67ih day.
Ligature cf the anbclatian artery, — In a report made to the American medical associa-
tion in 1867 by Drs. Willard PArker, George W. Norris, J. H. Armsby, and William U.
Mussev. there are tabulated 157 well-authenticated cases. The first operation was per-
formed by Eeate, in 1800, for traumatic axillary aneurism, four months after the inlury.
The patient recovered. The next operation was by Ramsden, in 18(19, also for axillary
aneurism. The patient died on the nfth day. Four other fatal opc^rations followed, till,
in 1815. Chamberlayne was successful, llie eighth case was by Dr. Wright Post of
New York, in 1817, which also terminated favorably, the patient recovering. The
ninth and tenth cases were by the celebrateii French surgeon, Dupuytren, both in 1819,
one being successful and the other fatal. These early and pioneer operations are sur-
rounded withjnreat interest. They were careful steps in the art of For^ry, taken by
great men. The second American operation for ligature of the Fubclavian artery was
by Valentine Mott. in 1880, for axillary aneurism, and was successful. Dr. Mott's
second case, in 1881, was fatal on the 18th day. The first distal ligature of the sul>-
clavian artery was by Wardrop, an English surgeon, in 1827, for aneurism of the inno-
minata. This distal operation on arteries was conceived by Brasdor, but fir^t carried out
by Deschamps. See Brabdor's Operation, anU. The next operation on the distal
sfde of the aneurism was performed by Dupuytren, in 1829, but did not result in
recovery, the patient dying of exhaustion on the 7th day. There were 10 distal cfk9C9,
8 of which died. The two successful ones were by Wardrop and Heath. Between
1831 and 1844. not inclusive, ligature of the subckvinn artery was performed 41 times,
with 16 favorable and 25 unfavorable results. Dr. Mott's third operation for ligature
of the subclavian was in 1888, and resulted in recovery. Drs. John 0. Warren of Bos-
ton, Valentine Mott and A. C. Post of New York, each tied the artery with successful
results in 1844. all of the patients recoveriuk:. Dr. Mott's fifth case, m 1850, was also
successful, making a recorn of five cases of ligature of the subclavian artery, two being
upon the left, the most difiScuU side, with only one fatal result. Dr. Willard Parker
has also tied the subclavian artery five times, with but two ftital results, in one of which
the patient survived till the 42d day. Of the whole 157 cases. 79 were succosFful and
78 fatal. The committee reported 89 additional cases, with 28 fatal results. They also
remark that the subclavian artery, in its first division, has been tied 18 times without a
single recovery; in Its second division, 9 times, with 4 deaths; and in its third division,
174 times, with 89 deaths.
In the essay of Dr. Wyeth, above quoted, there is a tabulated collection of 286
ca.«e8 of ligature of the subclavian, which he comprises in three sections: those in
which the ligature was applied to the first division of the artery; those in which it was
applied in the middle ptut of its coivse; and those in which the third division was the
ieat of operation. This report agrees with the preceding m regard to the 18 cases of
14
ligature in the first division of the. vessel. One of thefse cases, that of Rossi, in 1844^
possesses iincommon interest, from the faet that the autopsy showed thut the only artery
goin<; to the brain which was not obliterated, and therefore capable of carrying bloocf^
was tlie left veriel>ral, and yet tlic patient survived six days, dying of cerebral aDsemia.
In its second division, the subclavian has been ligated 18 times, with four cui-es, the
first hy Dupuytren in 1819; the second by Nichols of Norwich, England, in 1882; the
third by J C. 'Warren of Boston in 1844; and the fourth by T. G. Alorton of Phila-
delphia in 1866. The sul)clnvian has been tied in its third division, that next the axilla,
in 254 cases. Tlie first was Ranosden's case in 1809. Recovery followed in 120 caaee, or
nearly 50 |)cr cent
LigfUioti of tlu eomman carotid artery, — Dr. Wj-eth, in an essay on the surgical
anatomy and history of the common, external, and internal carotid arteries, and wliicli
was awiirded the first prize by the American medical association in 1878, reports 794
cases of ligature of the common carotid artery, 18 of the internal, and 91 of the exter-
nal carotid. These are collected from all parts of the world, and embrace many in
military surgery furnished during the late American and European wars, the records of
which, until recently, have not been accessible. The cominon carotid artery was first
tied bv Aberiicthy m 180B. the patient surviving 80 hours. The operation was per-
formed[ six times by Dr. Gordon Buck of New York between the years IbSd and 1857.
All recovered from the operation but cme; ami three were cured. Five operMtiuns were
performed hy Dr. Detniold of New York, with four recoveiics, two cures, and one
checking of malignant growth for seveml months. Dr. Frank II. Hamilton has tied
the common carotid U times, with 8 recovej'ies, one cui-e, and one improvement. The
case of cure was for aneurism. Most of the other cases were of malignant disease* in
which only temporary relief was expected. Three cases were hy Dr. J, C. Hutchison
of Brooklyn, two of 'which were cured. One of these was a wound, and Ujc other a
case of severe neura'gia. for which many teeth and portions of the alveolar process had
been removed. The fatal case was one of aneurism of the innominate artery, and the
patient survived till the 41st day. Five oper.itious were by Yon Langenl>eck, with two
recoveries, including one cure. Pour were by Listen, with one temporary recovery.
Three were by Dr. Qeorge McClellan of Philailelphia, one for erectile tumor of orbit,
one for erectile tumor of cheek, and one for Viibcular fungus of the dura-raater. All
were cured. Thei-e are 31 cases of ligature of the common carotid given in Dr. WyetU*s
table, |)erformed by Dr. Yalentine Mott, with 26 recoveries, including 9 cures and 6
improvements. Dr. A. B. Mott, son of Valentine, has performed the operatitm 11 times,
with 10 recoveries, including 7 euros. Nunneley has tied the artery six times for aneu-
rism of the orbit, with five recoveries, including two cures, and one decided improve-
ment. There are 13c;ises hy Dr. Willard Parker. The first, in 1848, was one of epilepsy.
The patient lijid h:ul a portion of skull removed by tlie trephine, with tem|M)rury
improvement; but. Uie attac:ks recurring, the carotid was tied. Tlie patient dieil of some
other affliction 27 years after. Of the other 12 cases, 10 recoverecl, including 8 cured,
and 8 benefitetl. In four there was no benefit, but they were cases of malignant dis-
ease, which demanded interference. Pirigoff has tied the artery 12 times, with 6 recov*
eries, iut-luding 1 cure, but they were dimcult cases; three for aneurism of the innomi*
nata, others for shot- wounds and tumors. Preston, in India, tied the artery six times,
with recovery in all. One Wiis for epilepsy of 6 years' standing. TherQ was no return
of the attack for 5 months, and mudi improvement of the ^neral health. Dr. Sands
of New York has ligated the artery 8 times, with 5 recoveries, including 2 cures, one
of which was in an operation for the removal of the lower ]jiw-l)one. Syme has tied
the artery 6 times, with 4 cures. Dr. John C. Warren of Boston tied the artery 9
times, wiih 8 recoveries, including 8 cures. The first operation was in 1827, for aneur-
ism of 4 years* standing, and was successful. Dr. James R Wood of New York has
tied the artery 9 timo% with 6 recoveries, including 2 cures and 2 improvements.
The other casus were of a malignant nature, and incurable. Of 27 cases tabulated by
Erichsen of ligature of both right and left common carotids, 19 recovered. There was
an interval l>etwecn the two operations of a few months; in one case of a year; and in
one case of 88 years; tlie right carotid Jutving been tied bv Dupuytren in 1819, the left
by Robert in 1857, tlie latter operation being soon followea by death.
In nigard to tlie effects upon, the brain of ligation of the carotids, it may be mnarked
that ligature of one carotid causes cerebral disturbance in more than one-fourth of the
cases, and of tbescmore tlian one-ludf are fatal. The tying of botli carotkls. with an
interval of several days or weeks» appears not to cause D»oro cerebral disturbance than
when iMit one is tied The oerebral symptoms caused bv ligature of one or both carot-
ids somptimes depend opon a -dimimshed 6U]>p]y of blood, and consist of convulsive
movements, syncope, and paralysis. In other oases there will >be increased pressure
upon tlie bndn, followed by drowsiosssi stu|>or, conn, and apoplexy. Inflaaamation is
also one of the effects, usually coming on in a few hours after the operation. The
lungs are also frequently affoctad i^ter ligation of the earoUds, as has iieen q^ecially
pointed out by Jobert and Miller, becoming congested, with ^ .tendency to « low form
of infl}imraatioQ, In consequence of deficient innervatioB.
UOXT is the eutiject of tlie science of optics (q.-v.). We here just notice iteprincipal
pheuNBeim» and tlie iLjpetiwseB advanced to explain them. Svery one knows that light
15
diTCiges fmin a luminous oeuter in all directioos, and that its transmission in any direo-
WonUttnught, It travels with gi-eat velocity, wliicli has beeo ascertained, by observa-
doos on the ec1ip^e8 of Jupiter s satellites and other means, to be 186,000 miles i^er
second. Shadows (q.v.) are ii result of its stniiglit transmission; and it follows fmm its
diTciging in all direc-titius from a luminous center that its iiifeusity diminishes inversely
IS the souare of tiie distance from the center. When it fulls on the surfaces of bodies,
it is reflected frum them regularly or irregularir, totally or partially, or is partly or
wholly transmiitcd or refracted through them. The phenomena of the reflection and of
the n'fruction of light arc tn*nted of respectively under the heads catoptrics (q v.) and
dioptrics (q.v.). The facts of observation on which catoptrics is founded are two: 1.
In the reflection of light, the incident ray. the normal to the surface* and the reflected
ray arc in one plane; 2. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
Similar to these arc the phvsical laws on which dioptrics is founded. When a ray of
homogeneous light U incident on n refmcting «urfuie, 1. The incident and refracted
nj lie in tlic same plane ns the normal at the point of incidence, and on opposite sides
of it; 2. The sine of the angle of incidence, whatever that angle may be, bears to the
angle of refraction a ratio dependent only on the nature of tiic media between which
tlicn fraction takes place, and on the nature of the light. In stalling these laws, we
have hinted at light being of dififcreut kinds. At one time it was not supposed that
color hud anything to do with light; now, there is no serious dispute but that there ara
lights of different colors (sec Chromatics and Spectrum), with different properties,
though olK*ying the same general laws. Among the most striking phenomena of light
are tliosc treated of under the head Polnrizatiou (q.v.). Next to these in interest are
the pbenoniena of double refraction. See Refraction, Doubije. For an account of
the chief chemical properties of light, see Photoorapht and Spectrum. Bee also for
phenomena not noticed above, the articles Aberration, Difvbactiov, DisPSBatON,
brrERPERENCE.
Two hypothcs;cs have been advanced to explain the different phenomena of light,
Tiz.. the theory of eminion, or the corpuscular theory, and the tlieory of vibration^ or
tlie undulatory theory. According to the former, U<:ht is nn attenuated impondernble
substance, whose colors depend on the velocity of its transmission. It rc^rds reflection
83 aiialagous to the rebounding of elastic bodies; while, to explain refraction, it assumes
that there are interstices in transparent bodies, to allow of the passage of the particles
of light, and that these particles are attracted by the molecules of bodies— their
attraction combining with the velocity of the particles of light to cause them to devuite
in their course. The nndulatory theory assumea that light is propa^ited by the vibra-
tions of an imponderable matter termed ether (q.v.). On this view light is somewhat
simiLir to t-oaud (see Intkbferkncic). Kewton was the author of the former theory,
and Huygens may lie regarded as the author of tha latter. The theories were long
rirals, but now no doubt remains tliat tlie theory of undulations has tnnmphed over
tile other. Its soundness may be said to rest on similar evidence to that whicn wa have
for the theory of gravitation: it had not only satisfactorily accounted for all the pheno-
mena of light, but it has been tJie means of discovering new phenomena. In fact, it
ha3 supplied the philosopher with the power of prescience in regard to its subject.
Those who wish to study the theory may advanttigeoualy consult its popular expoMtion
by Young (/.Pterin o/h Natural PkUotofky, London, 1645), and Lloyd's Wai9e Theory
<fLfght (Dublin, 1866). Tke maihematioal theory ii very fully investigated in Airy's
MaUtmatieitl T^cuiM.
LIGHT. In point of law. the rieht to light is one of the rights incident to the owner-
ship of land and houses. When it is claimed in such a way as to interfere with a
neighbor's absolute rights, it is called in £ngland and Ireland an easement (q.v.), and
m Scotland a servitude (qv.l In England and Ireland the right to lij^t, as between
oeisrhbors. is qualified in this wnv, and forms a subject of frequent dispute in towns
uid populous places. If A buihf a house on the eage of his ground with windows
looking into B's field or garden which is adjacent, B mi^ next dav, or any time within
20 years, run up a house or screen close to A*s windows, and darken them all, for one
has as jmod a right to build on his own land as the other. But ff B allow A's house to
^aDd20 3'ear8 without building. B is forever after prevented from building on his own
land 60 as to dark(*n A's lights, for A then acquires a prescriptive right to an easement
oyer B's lands. In the I&roan law a person was entitled not only to a servitude of
li^ht, but also of prospect; but in this country the right of prospect, or of having a fine
^ew. is not recognized by the law, except so far tliat the lights, after 90 years, must not
^aenaibly darkened. In Scotland a servitude of light may exist in like manner, but it
cannot be constituted except bv special grant; whereas in England, if nothing is said,
^ right is acquired by prescription, or mere lapse of time. In Scotland a neighbor,
B,in&y, after iO. years, or any atstanoc of time, build on his own land, and darken A's
Endows, provided he do not act wantonly, emulously, or so as to cause a nuisance.
LIQHT («i»l^ . Anom; the latest conclnsione with regard te the velocity of light
ue those which are pnbliahed in tlie Annaiee de C Obtertatair^ de /^m, vol. xiii.. beinjg
u aooouDt by ML Comu of the experiments made between the observatory of Paris
ttd the tower of HamUMry. Tiie Ksult of these experiments gave, for the velocity of.
I.ISht.
16
light, 800.400 kfloineters per second. Foucault's experiments, made in 18(13, placed it
at 288,000 kilometers, or 185,000 miles; and the investigattous made at the naval acad-
emy. Aunnpolis. 1879, gave a mean lietween these two conclusions— 180,805 miles, or
299,951 kilometers.
LIGHT {afite). Bee Undulatory Theory of Light, ante.
LIOHT, Aberration of. See Aberration of Light, ante,
LIGHT, Zodiacal. See Zodiacal Light, ante,
LIOHTEB, a large flat-bottomed barge or boat, usually propelled or gnided by two
heavy ours, aud used for conveying merchandise, coals, etc., between ships and portions
of the shore they cunnot reach by reason of their draught.
LIOHTFOOT. JoH^, one of the earlier Hebrew scholars of England, was b. in 1603
at Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire. He studied at Christ's college, Cambridge, and,
after entering into orders, l)ecame chaplain to sir Rowland Cotton, who, being himself
a good Hebrew scholar, inspired Lightfoot with a desire to become one also. In 1627
appeared his EmbJUm, or Miscellanies Christian and Jvdaical, which were dedicated to
sir Rowland, who, in 1631. presented him to the rectory of Ashley in Stafifordshire.
Subsequently, he removed to London, that he might have better opportunities for the
prosecution of his favorite study; and in 1642 he was chosen minister of St. Bartholo-
mew's, to the parishioners of which he dedicated his Handful of Gleanings out of the
Book of Exodus (London, 1643). His most important work is Bora Hebraicce et Tal-
mudicm, etc. (Cambridge. 1648), recently re-edited by R. Gandell (4 vols., Oxford, 1859).
Lightfoot was one of the assembly of divines who met at Westminster in 1643. and in
the debates tliat took place there, betrayed a decided predilection for the Presbyterian
form of chunh government. In the same year he was chosen master of Cntharine
hall, Cambridge, and in 1655 vice-chancellor of the university. At the restomtion he
complied with the terms of the act of uniformity. He died at Ely, Dec. 6, 1675.
LIOHTFOOT, The Rev. Joseph Barber, d.d., bishop of Durham, a distinguished
English scholar and theologian. Bom at Liverpool in 1828. he was educated at Cam-
bria^, obtained numerous distinctions there, and in 1857 became a tutor of Trinily.
In 18(51 he was made professor of divinity; in 1871, canon of St. Paul's; and in 1879,
bishop of Durham. His best known works are revised texts, with introduction and
noti-s. of St. Paul's epistles to the C^latians (4th ed. 1874). Philippians (3d ed. 1873),
and Clolossians (1875), and of Clement's epistles to the Corinthians. He has also written
on the Gnostic heresies and on the canon of Scripture.
LIOHT-HOtrSE, a building on some conspicuous point of the sea-sbore, island or rock,
from which a light is exhibited at night as a guide to mariners. The light-houses of
the Unit^ Kingdom now numl)er, with harbor- lights, upwards of 500 stations, and
include some of the finest specimens of engineering, such as Smeaton's Eddvstone,
Roliert Stevenson's Bell rock, Alan t^tevenson's Skerryvore, and James Walker's
Bishop rock. Moi^ recently, somewhat similar structures have been erected on the
Wolf rock in the English channel by Mr. Douglass, aud on the Dubeartach rock,
Argyleshire, and on the Chickens, oflf the isle of Man, by Messrs. D. & T. Stevenson.
As mformation will be found under their respective heads regarding Fonie of these
interesting works, we shall restrict ourselves in the following short memoir to the most
approved means of pn)ducing a powerful light for the use of the mariner.
Caiopfrie or Eefleetinff System.^AW of those raj'S of light proceeding from the focus
of a pnraboloid which fall upon its surface are reflected panillel to the axis so as to form
a solid beam of light. When a scries of such reflectors are arranged close to each other
round a cylinder in a liirht-house, they illuminate constantly, though not with equal
intensity, the whole horizon. As the property of the parabolic reflector is to collect the
rays incident upon its surface into one beam of parallel rays, it would be absolutely
impossible, were the flame from which the rays proceed a mathematical point, to pro-
duce a light which would illuminate the whole of the horizon, unless there were an infinite
number of reflectors. But as the radiant, instead of being a mathematical point, is a
physical object, consisting of a flame of very notable size, the rays which come from the
outer portion of the luminous cone proceed, after reflection, in such divergent directions
as to render it pmctically possible to light up, ihougli unequally, the whole horizon.
The useful divergence profVuced in this way by a burner of one inch in diameter, with
a foeal distance of four inches, is in the horizontal plane about 14* 22'. The whole hori-
zon may thus be illuminated by reflectors.
If, for the purpose of distinction, it is desired to show a retdving light, then several
of those reflectore are plnced with their axes parallel to each other on each of the faces
of a four sided frame, which is made to revolve. In such a case, the mariner seoa a
light only at those times when one of the faces of the frame is directed towards him,
but at other times he is left in darkness. The rotation of the frame upon its axis thus
produces to his eye a succession of light and dark intervals, which enal)lofl him to dis-
tinguish it from the fixed light which is constantly in view in every azimnth. The dis-
tinction of a red light is produced by using a chimney of red instead of white glass for
each burner. 'The flashing or scintilkting light, giving b^ S^P&13T^^^^ ^* ****
17
fnme, flashes once every five seconds, 'wbicli is one of the most striking of all the dis-
tinctions was first introducetl by the late Mr. Kol)ert Stevensou, tJic cirjiiiieer of the
D<»rthi.*rn Itgiit-Uouscs, in 1822, nt lUiinns of Islay, in Argyleshire. The same engineer
al>o inlruduceil what hus been catleil the intermittent liglit. liy which a stationary frame
with reflectors is instantaneously eclipsed, and is again as suddenly revealed to view by
the vcrticsil mfivement of opaque cylinder in front of the reflectors. The iiitermitteut
is distinguished from the revolving light, wbicli also appears and disappears successively
to the view, by ilie suddenness of the eclipses and of the reappesuances. whereas in all
revolving lights there is a grsidual waxing and waning of the light. -The late Mr. Wilson
introduceti at 'Iroou harbor an intermittent light which was produced by a beautifully
simple contrivance for suddenly lowering and raising a gas-flame. Mr. Robert Louis
Stevensfm has proposed an intermittent light of unequtU pritnU by causing unequal
sectors of a spherical mirror to revolve between tile flame and a fixed tlioptric appara-
tus (sQch as thai shown in flg. 1). The power of the light is increased by the action of the
spheric2il mirror, which also acts as a mask in the opposite azimuths. The number of
distinctive light-house characteristics has not yet been exhauste<l in practice, for various
other distinctions may he produced b^ combin ition of those already in use?; as, for
example, revolving, flashing, or intermittent lights might be made not only red and
white alternately, but two red or white, with one white or red. Similar combinations
could of course be employed where two lights are shown from the ssinie or from sep-
arate towers.
Dioptric System. — Another method of Ijending the diverging rays proceeding from a
lamp into such directions as shall be useful to the mariner is that of refraction. If a
fhmie be placed in the focus of a lens of the proper form, the diveri^ing rays will be
bent parallel to esich oihei*, so as to form a single solid beam of light. ]\I. Augustin
Fresiiel was the first to propose and to introduce lenticular action into li.irht-house illu>
nilnation, by the adoption of the annular or built lens, which hod lieen suggested ns a
burning instrument by Buffon and Condorcet He also, in conjunction with Ara^o and
Mnthieu, used a large lamp having four concentric wicks. In order to produce a
revolving light on the lenticular or dioptric system, a different arrangement was adopted
from that which we have descril)ed for the catoptric system. Tiie large lamp was now
made a flxtui*e, and four or more annular lenses were fitted together, so as to form a
frame of glass which surrounded the lamp. AVhen this frame is made to revolve round
the lamp, the mariner gets the full effect of the lens whenever its axis is pointed toward
him, and thi-i full light fades gradually into darkness ns the axis of the lens passes from
him. In order to operate upon those rays of light which i):i83ed above the lens, a
system of doubU optical agents was employed by Fresnel. These consisted of a pyramid
of ]eu.se8 with mirroi*s placed al)ove at the proper angle for rendering the rays passing
upward parallel to those which came from the annular lens. But Fresnel did not stop
here, for, in order to make the lenticular .system suitable for fixed as well ns revolving
lights, he designeci a new optical agent, to which the name of eylindrie refractor \\f\s\min
given. Tliis consisted of cylindrical lenses, which were the solids that would be gen-
erated wei^ the middle veriicatl profile of an annular lens made to circulate round a vertical
axis. The action of this instrument is obviouslpr, while allowing the rays to spread
naturally in the horizontid plane, to suffer refraction in the vertical plane. The effect
of this instrument is, therefore, to show a light of equal intensity constantly all round
the horizon, and thus to form a better and more equal light than that wlii(;h was for-
merly produced for fixed lights by pambolic inflection. It i^ obvious, however, from our
description that the diverging rays which were not intercepted by this cylindric hor)p,
or those which would have passed upwnrd and been uselessly expended m illununating
the clouds, or downwaixl in uselessly illuminatinjj the light-room floor, were lost to the
mariner; and in order to repder these effective Fresnel uUimatelv adopted the use of
what has lieen called the internal or total reflection of glass; and here it is necessary to
explain that one of the great advantages of the action 'by glass over reflection by metal
is the smaller quantity of light that it absorbs. It has l)een asci'riained that there is a
gain of nearly one-fourth (.249) by employing glass prisms instead of metallic reflectors
for llght-houst? illumination. There were, therefore, introduct*d above and below the cylin-
dric refracVng hoop which we have described, separate glass pnsms of triangular sec«
tion, the first surface of each of which refracted to a certain extent any ray of light that
fell upon it. while the second surface was placed at such an angle ns to rcflect. by totid
reflection, the ray which had before been refracted by the first Mirface; and the last or
ouler surface produced another refraction, which made the rays finally pass out parallel
with those refnicted by the central cvlindric hoop. The light falling above the cylin-
dric hoop was thus by refractions and. reflections bent downwanl, and that falling below
was bent upward, so as to be made horizontal and parallel with that proceeding from
the refnicting hoop. Fig. 1 represents in vertical section thi«, which is the most perfect
of Fresnel's inventions in light-house illumination, especially when made in pieces of the
rhomboidal form, and used in connection with the diagonal framing introduced by Mr.
Alan Stevenson. In the fig., p shows the refracting and totally reflecting prisms, and
R the cylindric refractor.
From wliat has l>ecn stated, it will be readily seen that, in so far ns regards fixed
lights, which arc required to illuminate conetantly the whole of ^i^fJ^Z(^^|^^f|MJ
U. K. IX,— •« ^
UghU
18
intensity, the dioptric light of Fresnel with Mr. Alan Stevenson's improvemcDts is a
perfect iustrument. But the case is.diit'erent as regards
revolving lights, or those where the whole rays have to
be concentrated into one or more beams of parallel rays.
To revert to the paraL)olic reflector, it must be obvious
that all rays which escape past tlie lips of the reflector,
never reacli the eye of the mariner, while, if we return
to the dioptric revolving light of Fresnel, we find that
those rays which escape past the lens are acted on by
tico agents, both of which cause loss of light by absorp
tion. The loss occasioned by the inclined mirrors,
and in passing through the pyramidal incHned lenses,
WHS estimated by Fresnel liimself at one-half of the
whole incident rays. In order to avoid this loss of
light, Mr. Thomas Stevenson proposed, in 1849, to
introduce an arrangement by which the use of one of
these agents is avoided, and the employment of total
Fig. 1. reflection, which had been successfully employed by
Fresnel for fixed lights, was introduced with great advantage for revolving lights.
"This effect may be produced in the case of metallic reflectors by the combination
of an annular lens, L (fig. 2); a parabolic conoid, «, truncated at its parameter, or
between that and its vertex; and a portion of a spherical mirror, 6. The lens, wben at
its proper focal distance from the flame, subtends the same angle from it as the outer
lips of the paraboloid, so that no ray of
light coming from the front of the flame
can escape being intercepted either by the
paraboloid or the lens. The spherical reflec-
tor occupies the place of the pambolic con-
oid which has been cut off behind the
parameter. The flame is at once in the cen-
ter of the spherical mirror, and in the com-
mon focus of the lens and paraboloid. The
whole sphere of rays emanating from the
flame may be regarded as divided into two
hemispheres. Part of tl;e anterior hemi-
sphere of rays is intercepted by the lens, and
made parallel by its action, while the remain-
der is intercepted by the paraboloidal surface,
and made parallel by its action. The rays
forming the posterior hemisphere fall on the
Fig. a.
spherical mirror behind the flame, and are reflected forwards again through the focuM
in the same lines, but in opposite directions to those in which they came, whence pass-
ing onwards they are in part refracted by the lens, and the rest are made parallel by
the paraboloid. The back rays thu^ finally emerge horizontally in union with the
light from the anterior hemisphere. This instrument, therefore, fulfills the necessary
conditions, by collecting the entire fpJiere of diverging rays into one beam of parallel
rays mthout employing any unnecessary agents."
What has been just described is what Mr. Stevenson terms a catoptric hdlophote.
What follows is a description of his dioptric holophote, in which total reflection, or the
most perfect system of illumination, is adopted. The front half of the rays is operated
upon by totally reflecting glass prisms, similar in section to those applied by Fresnel for
fixed lights; but, instead of being curvilinear in the horizoi^l plane only, they are also
curvilinear in the vertical plane, and thus produce, in union with an annular lens, a
beam of parallel rays similar to what is effected by the parabolic mirror. The rays
proceeding backwards fall upon glass prisms, which produce two total reflections upon
each ray. and cause it to pass back through the flame, so as ultimately to fall in the
proper direction upon the dioptric holophote in front, so that the whole of the light
proceeding from the flame is thus ultimately parallelized by means of the smallest num-
ber and the best kinds of optical ajgents. it is a remarkable property of the spherical
mirror that no ray passes through it, so that an observer, standing l^ehind the instru-
ment, perceives no light, though there is nothing between him and the flame but a screen
of transparent gl-iss.
Where the light is produced by a great central stationary burner, the apparatus
assumes the form of a polygonal frame, consisting of sectors of lenses and holophotal
prisms, which revolves round the flame, and each face of which produces a l)eam of
parallel rays. Hence, when the frame revolves round the central name, the mariner is
alternately illuminated and left in darkness, according as the axis of each successive
face is pointed toward him or from him. In the revolving holophotol light one agent
is enabled to do the work of two agents in the revolving liffht of Fresnel, as total refiec*
tion, or that by which least light is lost, is substituted for metallic reflection. The
dioptric holophotal system, or that by which total reflection is used as a portum of the
revoking apparatus^ was first employed on a small scale in 1850 at the Horsburg light-
Digitized by VjjOUV LC
19
JAgiLU
bonae, and on the large scale in 1851 at Nortli Roonldslinv in Orkney. Since tliat dater
tills system has Itcen all but universally introduced into Europe and America.
Aiimut/i€U Condeiudng Light,— -'Thvi above is a description of the general principles on
which light-houses are illuminated. In placing a light in some situations, regard, how-
ever, must be liad to the physical peculiarities of the localities; the following plans of
Mr. Thomas Stevenson may be cited as examples. In tixed lights of the ordinary con-
struction, the light is distributed, as already explained, equally all round the horizon,
and is well adapted for a ruck or island surrounded by the sea. Dut where it is only
necessary to illuminate a narrow sound, it is obvious that the reouirements are very
different. On the side next the shore, no light is required at all; across the sound, a
feeble light is all that is necessary, because the distance at which it has to be seen is
small, owing to the narrowness of the channel; while up the sound and down the sound
the sea to be illuminated is to be of greater or lesser extent, and requires a corresponding
intensity. If the light were made sufficiently powerful to answer for the greater dis
tance, it would be much too powerful for the shorter distance across the sound. Such
an arrangement would occasion an unnecessiiry waste of o'il, while the light that was
cast on the landwartt side would be altogether useless. Fig. 8 represents (in plan) the
condensing light, by which tJie light proceeding from the flame is allocated in the different
azimuthM in pi'upcrtwn to the distances at which the light nquires to be seen by the mariner in
those (mmutfis. Let us suppose tliat the rays marked a require to be seen at the greatest
distance down the sound, and
those marked p to a somewhat .ii^i^k^tM^tip
smaller distance up the sound.
In order to strengthen those arcs,
the spare light proceeding land-
wards, which would otherwise
be lost, is intercepted by portions
of holophotes, B and C, sub-
tending sphericid angles propor-
tioned to the rehitive ranges and
angular spaces of the arcs a and
fi. The portions of light thus
intercepted are parallelized by
the holophotes, and fall upon
straigfU prisms a, a, and b, 6,
respectively, which again refract
them in the horizontal plane
only; and, after passing through
focal points (independent for
each prism), they emerge in
separate equal beams.and diverge
through the same angles as a
fknd /^ respectively. In this way,
the light proccHsdimr up and down
the sound is strengthened in the
required nitio by utilizing, in the
manner we have described, the
light which would otherwise
have been lost on the land. These instruments were first introduced at three sound
lights in tl)^ w. of Scotland, in 1857, where apparatus of a small size, combined with a
small burner, was found to produce, in the only directions in which the gix*at power
was required, l)eam8 of light equal to the largest class of apparatus and burner. The
saving thus effected in oil, elc., has been estimated at about £400 or £500 per annum
for these three stations.
Apparent Light, — At Stornoway bay, the position of a sunk rock has been sufficiently
indicated l^ means of a beam of poraflel rays thrown from the shore upon certain optical
apparatus nxed in the top of a beacon erected upon the rock itself. It was suggested
that the light-house should be built on the outlying submerged reef, but the cost would
have been very great, and Mr. Stevenson's suggestion of the apparent light was
adopted. By means of this plan the expense of erecting a light-house on the rock itself
has been saved, and all the purposes of the mariner served^ It has been called an
apparent light from its ctppearing to proceed from a flame on tJie rock, while the light in
reality proceeds from the shore, about 660 ft. ("
placed on the beacon.
reality proceeds from the shore, about 650 ft. distant, and is refracted by glass prisms
Floating lights are vessels fitted with lights moored at sea in the vicinity of reefs.
Prior to 1807 the lantern was hung at the yard-arm. The late Mr. Robert Stevenson
then introduced the present system of lanterns, having a copper tube in the center capa-
ble of receiving the vessel's mast, which passed through the tube, the lights being
placed all round. In this way proper optical appliances can be employed, and the Ian
tern can be lowered on the mast so as to pass through the roof of a hou.se on the deck,
where the lamps are filled or trimmed. In 1864 six floating lights were constructed for
the Hoogly under the directions of Messrs. Stevenson, in which the dioptric principle
Digitized by VjOUV IC
I.iji:ht.
20
was applied. Eiirht half-fixed light apparatus of glass with spherical miiTors behind
were placed in tiie laiitoru round'the mast, so as to show in every azimulU i-ays from
three of them vt once.
Differential Lem. — This is an anniikr lens, curved to diflfercnt radii on both sides,
so as to increase tlie divercjence in any given mtio. The snuitl arc of about 6*, which
is unequally iihiininated by the lens as presently constructed, may be made of equal
intensity throughout by tlic differential form, or by means of separate 6trai«>;ht prisms
placed at the sides.
Sovi-ces of L'ght. — ^The descriptions which have already been given have all had
reference to the best means of employing a given light. Many attempts have f rona lime
to lime been made to increase the power of ihe radiant itself.
Magneto-electric Light. — The electric light, which has of late l)een greatly developed
and improved, ami especially adapted to light-house pui*poses, was introduced under the
-auspices of the Trinity house of London.
Oaa. — The uncertainly and other objections attending the manufacture and use of
gas in remote an(i inaccessible places have, with some exceptions, as yet prevented its
adoption at light-house stations, but it has been successfully used at many harbor-lights.
Oil and Parafflne, — The oil which is chiefly employed in Great Britain is that which
foes by the name of colza, and the quantities annually consumed at the northern light-
ouses mny bj stated at 40 galls, for an argand 1 in. in diameter, and 800 iralls. for the
four-wick burner, which is used in dioptric lights of the tirst order, Capt. Doty's burner
for parafflne, which is the best which has as yet been suirgested, has been introduced into
the French and Ute Scotch lighthouses. Parafflne has i)een found to give a more intense
light than colza at half the cost.
Vinibility of LighUf.-^Tlie distance at which any light can be seen, of course depends
on the heir^ht of the tower, and varies with the state of the atmosphere. Tiie greatest
recorded dislancc at whicli an oil light has been visible is that of the holophoial light of
AUepey at Travancore, which has been seen from an elevated siiu:ili(m at a distance of
45 miles. The holophotal revolving light at Baocalieu, in Newfoundland, is seen cveiy
night in clear weather at cape Spear, a distance of 40 nautical miles.
Power of Lighi'house Apparatus. — The reflector (25 in. diani.) used in the northern
light-houses, with a burner of 1 in. diam., is considered equal to about 860 argand
flames. The cylindric refractor, used in fixed lights, with a four-wick burner, has
been estimated at 250; while the annular lens in revolving lights, with the same
burner, is equal to about 8,000 argand flames. See LiOHrrNG of Beacons and Buots
AT Ska.
LIGHT-HOUSE (ante). Light-houses were not constructpd until sonje advance-
ment was made in navigation, but beacon-tires were lighted for tlie guidance of the
early mariners. The most celebrated ancient light-house was the Pharos (q.v ) of Alex-
andria, built upon a rocky point of that name which had been an islet, but was con-
nected by Alexander the «:reat with Alexandria by a roadway c»lle<i the seven-mile mole,
or Iieptastadiam. The light house was comrtienced by Ptolemy Soter, and finished about
280B.C., and was regarded as one of the wonders of the world. It was about 400 ft.
high, and the light which was kept burning on its top could 1)e seen, according to
Josephus, at a distance of 40 miles.- It is thought to have been destroyed by an earth-
quake after'having stood ICOO years. It was constructed in the form of the frustram of
a square pyramid, having an immense base whose dimensions are not known. The
lower of Cordouan, at the mouth of the Garonne, in the bay of Biscay, is f^iothcr cele-
brated lighthouse, but of modern date and still standing. 'It was commenced in 1584
and finished in 1610 by Louis de Poix. It stands upon a rocky ledge, which is under
water except at low tide. The base is the frustrum of a cone. 135 ft. in diameter at the
bottom, 16 ft. high, and 125 ft. in diameter at the top; built solid of cut stone, with the
exception of a chamber io the center. 20 ft. square and 8 ft. hiirh, containing a water
cistern. A wall 12 ft. high and 11 ft. thick stands upon the margin of the upper surface
of the base. The tower is 50 ft. in diameter at its base, is 115 ft. hiirh, and is the
frustrum of a cone, surmounted by a lantera dome. I'he entire height from the rock is
16*3 ft., the whole height of the tower, including the dome, being 146 feet. The first
Fresnel lens ever manufactured was placed in this light-house in 1823. The Eddystpne
light-house in the English channel is described under Ihe title Eddtstone {ante). The
Bell rock light-house, off the e. coast of Scotland, is built upon a reef or rocks in the
German ocean, 11 m. from the coast, nearly opposite the Tay firth. The rock upon
which it stands is a red sandstone, from 12 to 15 ft. below spring ti<lc, with from 2 to 4
ft. exposure at low tide. The structure is also of sandstone, but the outer tiers for 30
ft. high are of granite. It was designed by the celebrated Scotch engineers, Robert
Stevenson and John Kennie. and constructed by the former. The erection of the second
Eddystone light-house had given Smeaton much study, and his experience was t«ken
advantage of by Stevenson in the structure at Bell rock. In form it resembles the
Eddystone. The diameter at the base is 42 ft., while at the top, beneath the cornice, it
is iS feet. The stone-work U 102^ ft. high, and the whole structure, inclttdinir the Inn-
trrn, 115 feet. Sec Brli. Rock, ante. The Skerryvore light-honsc. built upon the
Skerry vore rocks, which lie in the tracks of vessels going around the north of Ireland
Digitized by VjOUV IC
21 ughu
or Scotland from the Clyde and Mersey, wns constructed by Alan Stevenson, the son of
Robert. See !Skekryvi>ue. ante. TIili-l* are nianv very tine light houses in the United
Stales, the most noU'd of which was erected up«»u Minot*s Ictigc, off ihe town of Cohas-
set, Massachusetts b:iy. nhout 20 m. e.s.e. of Boston, uiid one of tlie most dangerous
places in the woi Id without a signal. The ditllcuhk'S in the coui^truclion of a light-house
upon this rock were iraiucua*. An iron structure was tir.st erected, being completed in
ia49, which stood till April, 1831, when it was demolished by a lirritic storm. The
iron piles. 10 iu. in diameter and sunk 5 ft. into the rock, were twisted off near the sur-
face. Iu lyo2 money was appropriated by congress for a new liglit-liouse. and v\ork was
commence<i in IBoo, but it was not till the laTter part of 1857 thai the first stone was
laid. Four stones were Ldd in thi>i year; sl.x courses were, however, laid in 18")8; and
in 1859 the stone-work was completecf. The whole was tinifi^hed in I860. It is a granite
tower in the form of the frustrum of a cone, having a base 80 ft. in diameter, and a
height of stone-work of 88 ft., the lower 40 ft. being solid. The courses are dove-
taik'd, and are fastened logetlrer with wrought-iron dowels. The defect in the iron
Mintil's ledge light house w as owing to tlie stinted outlay. Had three or four times as
much money been ( xpcnded on it, so that it could have l)een much broader at the base
as well as liigher. it would doubtless liave been standing to-day. The present stone
structure is a fair mcxlt 1 of engineering, and will probably resist the waves for centu-
ries. It possesses the advantage, which nil solid or almost solid stone structures must
have over iron framework, of a vastly greater amount of inertia, an important element
of resistance to the waves. Its construction is said to have offered a more difficult
problem than that of Bell rock or Skerryyore, one reason lH*ing that its foundation is
deeper beneath the surface. Tl'e liuht-house at Spectacle reef, in the northern part of
lake Huron, was built not only to resist waves, but ice-fields, often covering thousands
of acres and moving at the rate of 2 or 3 m. per hour. That the structure should be
able to withstand this force it was so designe<l as to cause the Ice to be broken and piled
into a protecting barrier. The tower is the frustrum of a cone, 32 ft. in diauieter at
the Ijase, and 18 ft. just beneath the cornice at a height of 80 feet. The whole height of
stone-work is 93 ft. al)ove the base, which is 11 ft. below the surface of the water. The
tower is solid as high as 84 ft., above which it contains 5 stories, each 14 ft. in diameter.
The work was commenced May 1, 1870, and the light was first used June 1. 1874. The
cost was f875.000. The first aift-iron liylit-honse ever erected was at Point Morant,
Jamaica, in 1842. The tower is built of 9 tiers of plates three-ouarters of an in. thick and
10 ft. high, held toirether liy bolts and flanges on the inside. The tower is filled in with
masonry and concrete to the height of 27 feet. It rests upon a foundation of granite
and risers to a hei.irlit of 96 feet. It is 18^ ft. in diameter at the base, and 11 ft. at the top.
A modern form of light-house is constructed on what is called the ''screw pile" system,
an invention of Alexander Mitehell, who, with his son, laid the foundation of the light-
house on Maplin sand, at the mouth of the Thames, England. Two similar structures
followed. Chapman head in 1849 and Gunfleet in 1850, also near the mouth of the
Thames. Other wrrew-pile lights were afterwards erected in different parts of the king-
dom. The great feature of the screw-pile is that the piles upon which it resU^ arc in the
form of screws an<l are driven in the sand or soil to a sutlicient depth in the manner
of a corkscrew. The first screw-pile light-house erected in the United States was l)y
by col. Harlnian Bach. U. S. E., at the mouth of Delaware bay, 8 m. from the ocean, in
1847-50, where it stands at the present time in pood condition, although in an exposed
place, lieinir often acted agaii-.st by immense cakes or fields of ice which coine down the
Delaware j^id move 10 and fro with the ebb antl flow of the tide. It is surrounded by
an ice-breaker composed of screw-piles driven independently of the tower. The screw-
pile light-honsc at Sand Key, Florida reefs, is supported on 16 piles, with an auxiliary
pile iiTlhe center to support the staircase, making in all 17. • They are 8 in. in diameter,
with a screw of 2 ft. in diameter at the lower cuds, which arc bored 12 ft. into the reef.
The framework of the tower consists of cast-iron tubular columns framed together, hav-
ing wrought-iron ties at each joint, and bmced diagonally on the faces of each tier.
The keeper's house is supported by cast-iron ginlei-s and joists 20 ft. above the founda-
tion. The structure is 12() ft. above the level of the water. The foundation is 60 ft. in
diameter. Over 50 such light-houses have been erected in various parts of the United
States.
LIGHT-HOUSE BO.\RD of the U. S., a body organized in accordance with an
act of congress, approved Aug. 81, 1852, and having the control and manairement of
all lights, buoys, beacon.s. etc., on the coasts of the United States. It consists of eight
persons, viz., t«o officers of high rniik in the navy, two oflicers of the corps of engi-
neers, two civilians of high scientific attainments, an officer of the navy, and an officer
of the corps of engineers — the? two latter serving as secretaiies. The board as thus con-
stituted is attached to the office of the secretary of the treasury, who is (X officio presi-
dent of the .«ame. A clnnrman, elected by the memlxTs from their own 'number, is
chosen ?o preside in the ahst^nce of the president ex-offlch. The board is required to
meet four times a year, and the scf rctary of thetreasuiy is empowered to call it together
whenever, in his judgment, the exiirencies of the service may require a meeting. It
actually meets almost every wetk in the year. The coast and the waters of the country
^ .7 ^ Digitized by VjiUUglC^
arc divided into districts, each of which is served by an officer of the army or the navy
in the capacity of light liouse inspector, and other officers are employed from time to
time, according to the exigencies of the service. The different subjects requiring attcn
lion are first referred to ^timding committees, whose duty it is to investigate and report
to the board what action, if any. is required. The two secretaries perform all routine
and general administrative duties under tlie ordere and regulations of the board.
LIOHTIKG OF Bbacons and Buoys at Sea. The plan hitherto generally in use
for illuminating a rock or reef where no liglit-house could be liuilt is uy means of an
"apparent light," as in the case of a reef at Stornoway (see Lighthouse). Of late,
trial has extensively and successfully been made of electricity for this purpose. At
various times, since the discovery of the electric light by sir H. Davy in 1813, sugges
tions have been made pointing out the advantages which might be derived from its use
upon light-houses. It has long been plain, indeed, tha.t for a purpose of this kind it
had pi operties which placed it far in advance of all other lighto — Ruch as its near
approach to sunlight in brightness, its great power of penetrating fogs, and its total
independence of atmospheric air, which enables it to be produced in a vacuum or under
"Water. Unfortunately, its production is attended with great trouble; it also requires
rare skill to keep it in perfect order, and, even where this is at hand, we cannot yet place
absolute reliance upon its steadiness. It has nevertheless l)een in use at Dungeness, in
the s. of England, since 1862; and has been introduoed with success at Souter point,
Tynemouth (1871). at South Foreland (1873), and at the Lizard light-house (1878). It is
used also at three French light-houses, at Odessa, and at Port Said at the entrance of the
Suez canal. At Souter point the rearward rays of the light are reflected downwards,
and used as a light in a different direction on a lower level. Whether or not the electric
light is to be ultimately adopted for properly constructed lighthouses, there can be little
doubt that for the illumination of beacons, where no light-keeper is on the spot, elec
tricity would be a most desirable agent to produce the light. As far as can beat present
seen, the ordinary electric light (q.v.) may be dismissed as unsuitable for beacons. It
will at least reauire to be greatlv simplified before it can be used for such a purpose.
In the article Induction op Electric Currents will be found a description of the
method of producing sparks by means of an induction coil. These sparks can be made
to follow each other so quickly as to appear like a flash surrounded by a luminous
haze. Taking advantage of this power of electricity, Mr. Thomas Stevenson proposed
in 1866 to apply it to the illumination of beacons, and in that year a series of interest-
ing experiments were made at Newhaven pier, with the aid of "instruments constructed
by Mr. Hart of Edinburgh. Although up to this time no further steps have been taken
to make practical application of this suggestion, the proposal merits attention for its
ingenious application of a scientific fact which had not as yet l>een successfully put to
such a use. In the experiments referred to, the electric current passed through a wire
800 ft. long. Suppose a beacon to be situated at some distance from the shore, as sliown
upon the annexea diagram. A galvanic battery consisting of, say, six Bunsen cells,
is placed at B in a house upon the shore. From this the electrical current is con-
Teyed along a submarine cable to the beacon, and returns by earth-plates at £, £, in
the usual manner to complete the circuit; its course being indicated on the diagram by
arrows. The induction cod is placed upon the beacon at C, and properly connected with
the conducting wire of the cable, so as to make the current generated by the battery
traveiTse its primary coil. A wii-e
from each end of its secondary
coil is then conveyed to the focus
of the optical apparatus, the ends
of the two wires beins^ here
brought within half an inch of
each other, and furnished with
indestructible points of platinum.
The induced or secondary current,
in ct ossing this narrow space, pro
duces the succession of sparks
which constitute the light, but, as
explained under the head Induc-
tion OP Electric Currents, it only does so at the moment the current is interrupted
or broken. It is consequently necessary to have some means of completing and break
ing the galvanic circuit in rapid alternations, so as to produce the flashes in quick sue
cession. The break for this purpose is placed at I, near the battery.
In the experiments now described a great deal was found to depend upon the pecu-
liar way the current was broken. None of the breaks in use giving a successful result,
Mr. Hart devised a new one of an ingenious construction, which produced a more con
stant and powerful light. The difference between it and other mercury or spring breaks
lies in the fact that with them the current is off and on for nearly equal spaces of time;
but this one is so contrived that the wire is three times longer in the mercury than it is
out of it; consequently, the current is three times longer on than it is off, and so allows
the soft iron core of the induction coil to be more fully magnetized. The result of this
04 Lighting.
is a eecoDdary current of comparn lively hi^h intensity, and of course the production of
more brilliant sparks between its two terniinals. We may explain tliat tlie luoment the
wire touches the uiercury tlje current passes, and the moment it is removed llie cuirent
stops. The wire alternately dips and rises by the action of an ordinary elect lo-niagnet.
By the use of more than one induction coil the li^ht could be niuterially increased, so
that there seemed a likelihood of being able to produce it [>owcrful enough to be seen
at the distance of a few miles. Another method of lighting buoys as well as beacons
without the aid of electricity has lately been shown to be practicable. Coal or other
inflammable gas can Ix; so compressed tiint a buoy may be made to receive at once and
store tip as much condensed gas as will suffice to keep a steady flame burning for a
month or more. Gas for this purpose can be economicully manufactured from some of
the waste products of shale-oil works. Mr. Stevenson has also suggested tlie employ-
ment of electricity to ring bells, so as to give warning to sailors in foggy weathtr.
LIORTimO (Fr. Sdair, Ger. Blitz), the name given to the sudden discliarge of elec-
tricity between one group of clouds and another, or between the clouds and the ground.
It is essentially the same, though on a much grander scale, as the spark obtained from
an electric machine. Clouds* charged with electricity are called thunder-clouds, and are
easily known by their peculiarly dark and dense appeanmce. The height of thunder-
clouds is very various; sometimes Ihey have been seen as high as 25,700 feet, and a
thunder-cloud is recorded whose height was only 89 feet above the ground. According
to Arago, tliere are three kinds of lightning, which he names lightning of tlie flrst, sec-
ond, and thinl classes. Lightning of the tirst class is familiarly known as forked light-
ning (FV. e^atr en ug-Eog). It appears as a ■bt'oken line of light, dense, thin, and well
defined at the edges. Occasionally, when darting between the clouds and tlie earth, it
breaks up near the latter into one or two forks, and is then called bifurcate or tri furcate.
The terminations of these branches are sometimes several thousand feet from each other.
On several occasions the length of forked lightning has been tried to be got at trigono-
metrically, and the result gave a length of several miles. Lightning of the second class
is what is commonly called slieet-ligUtning (Ger. Fldchenblitz), It lias no definite form,
but seems to be a great mass of light. It has not the intensity of lightning of the first
dass. Someiirac'S it is tinged decidedly red; at other times, blue or violet. When it
occurs behind a cloud, it lights up its outline only. Occasionally, it illumines the world
«f clouds, and appears to come forth from the heart of them. Sheet-lightning is very
much more frequent than forked-lightning. Lightning of the third kind is called ball'
lightning (Fr. globes de feu, Ger. KvgelMUz), This so-called lightning desciibes, perhaps,
more a meteor, which, on rare occasions, accompanies electric discharge, or lightning
proper, than a phenomenon in itself electrical. It is said to occur in this way: After a
violent explosion of lightning, a ball is seen to proceed from the region of the explo-
sion, and to make its way to the earth in a curved line like a l)omb. When it reaches
the ground it either splits up at once and disappears, or it rebounds like an elastic ball
several times before doing so. It is described as being very dangerous, readily setting
fire to the building on which it alights; and a lightning-conductor is no protection
against it. Ball -lightning lasts for several seconds, and, in this respect, differs very
widely from lightning of the first and second classes, which are, in the strictest sense,
momentary.
The thunder (Fr. tonnerrey Gkr. Donner) which accompanies lightning, as well as the
snap attending the electric spark, has not yet been satisfactorily accounted for. Both,
no doubt, arise from a commotion of the air brought about by the passage of electricity;
but it is difllcult to understand how it takes place. Suppose this difiSculty cleared,
there still remains the prolonged rolline of the thunder, ana its strange rising and fall-
ing to account for. The echoes sent between the clouds and the earth, or between
objects on the earth*s surface, may explain this to some extent, but not fully. A person
in the immedUte neighborhood of a flash of lightning hears only one sharp report,
which is peculiarly sharp when an object is struck by it. A person at a distance hears
the same report as a prolonged peal, and persons in different situations hear it each in a
different way. This may be so far explained. The path of the lightning may be
reckoned at one or two miles in length, and each point of the path is the origin of a
separate sound. Suppose, for the sake of simplicity, that the path is a straight line, a
person at the extremity of this lino must hear a prolonged report; for though the sound
originating at each point of the path is produced at the same instant, it is some time
before the sound coming from the more distant points of the line reaches the ear. A
person near the middle of the line hears the whole less prolonged, because he is more
equidistant from the different parts of it. Each listener in this way bears a different
peal, according to the position he stands in with reference to the line. On this suppo-
sition, however, thunder ou^ht to begin at its loudest, and gradually die away, because
the sound comes first from the nearest points, and then from points more and more dis-
tant Such, however, it is well known, is not the case. Distant thunder at the l)egin-
nin^ is just audible, and no more; then it gradually swells into a crashing sound, and
agam grows fainter, till it ceases. The rise and fall are not continuous. lor the whole
peal appears to be made up of several successive peals, which rise and fall as the whole.
Some have attempted to account for this modulation from the forked form of the light-
Digitized by VjOUV IC
IJffhtnlnii;. •'^
ning. which makes so many different centers of sound, nt different nngles with each
oUicM-, llie waves coming from which iuleifcre witli eacli oilier, alone l.uic moving in
opposite (lircc;lions tnid ohliteratiiig the sound, ut uuotiier ia \\m same way. and tiien
strc'Ugihcning tiie sound produced by eucli. Thunder hus never been heara more lliaa
14 m. from the tiiu^li. The report of uitiilery has been iicard at much gieuler ilisUiiices.
It is Kaid that tlie cunuonmiing at the battle of Waterloo wa:i heard at the tovvu of Creil,
iu the u. of France, about 115 m. from the field.
LIGHTNING (ante). The abbe Nolet is Faid to have been the fii-st to remark the
similurity of phenomena in discharges of lightning and of the electrical nmciiiue. but
there was no expeiimental deteriuination of the hientiiy of their nature until Beu jamin
Franklin made his celi brated investigutiou of the subject by the use of a kite at Fliila-
delphia in 1753. Tliree years previous to this, however, he made some ititerestine
remarks upon the subject in his Obsercations on Kecti'-icitj/, showing that his uiiiui liud
comprehendejl the causes even before he made his demonstrative experiments Ho says:
" Wlicre there is a great heat on the laud in a particular region the lower air is rarebed
and ri>es: the cooler, denser air above it descends; the clouds iu the air meet from uJi
sides and join over the heated place; and if some are elcciritied. others not, lii^htuiu^
and thunder succeed and showers fall. Ucnce» tlmtder gusts after heats, and ctiol uir
after gusts. As eleclricul clouds pass over a country, high hills, irt»e8, lowers, cliiniiieys,
etc., dniw the electric fire, and it is therefore dangerous to ttike shelter under a tree dur-
ing a thunder gust It is safer to be iu the open fields for another reason. Wticn the
clothesare wet, if a flash, in its way to the ground, should strike your head it may run in
the water over the surface of vour body, whereas if your clothes were ihy it would go
through the body." Again : " Now, if the fire of electricity and that of lightning be the
same, as I have endeavored to show in a former p^iper. and a tube of only 10 ft. lon^i^
will discharge its tire at 3 or 3 iu. distance, an electritieil cloud of perhaps 10.000 acres
may strike and discharge on the earth at a proportionally greater distance." ISpeakiDg
of the discharging power of points he sstys: "May not a knowledge of this power o/
points be of use to mankind iu preserving houses, churches, ships, et^... from the stroke
of lightning by directing us to fix, on the highest parts of those edifices, upright rods of
iron nnide skirp as a needle, and gilt to prevent rusting, and from the fool of the rods a
wire down the outside of the buihting into the ground, or down round one of the shrouds
of a ship, and down her sides till it reaches the water? Would not the pointed roda
probably draw the electric fire silently out of the cloud before it came near enough to
strike, aiul thereby secure us from tlie most sudden and terrible mischief?" He pro-
posed various experiments, and. acting under his instructions, Dahbaid had drawn
electric sparks fn>m an iron rod 40 ft. high at Marly In France, and had charged Leyden
jars with the appanitus, May 10, 1752. Franklin did not make his kite-experiment till
more than a month later, viz.. June 15. It was natural that these experiments should
be rei)eated all over the civilized world. Prof. Riclnnan of 8t. Petersburg was killed, in
the summer of 1758. by a bolt of lightning in the form of a blue ball as large as a man's
fist which leaped from the insulated conductor to his heiid, which was about a foot
distant. His companion was struck senseless and a d or wan torn from its place by the
stroke. In the experiment of M. Romas of Nerac. France (-^ee ante), which has been
said by some to antedate Franklin's, he used a kite of about 18sq.lt. surface, with in
copper wire wound around the string, and an insulating silk cord at the irround end.
near which an iron tube was placed as a secondary conductor. When the Kite was nt a
height of 550 ft. durinir a storm, flashes of fire darted to the earth attended by loud
explosions «nd all light bodies in the vicinity wtre alternately, positively and negatively,
electrified and propelled in various directions.
It has lieen shown by Cavallo, De Saussure, and others that the electrical condition
of the atmosphere, in comparison with that of the earth, i-* positive; also, by Lar
place. Lavoisier, Volta, an<i De Saussure that the cause of atmospheric electricity is
evaporation from the surface of the earth; but. according tf) theexperinn nts of Pouiliet.
evaporation does not produce opposite electrical conditions unless accompanied by
chemical decomposition or separation of vapor from sjUine solutions, or from oxidizing
surfaces or the leaves of growing plants. Currents of wind rushing over opposing
objects, occasioning <listurbance of electric cquilibiinm, are among the chief causes of
atmospheric electricity, the electricity pa-^sing with the wind to elevated n-gions; or, on
the two fluid hyiotlicsis, positive electricity being carried upwards, while the negative
passes to the earth. In regJird to the priMluction of the various kinds of lightning and
thunder, they may be explained accoiding to a variety of circumstances. To account
for the variations in tone and intensity of a thunder-dap as heard nt a certain point--
that is to say. to explain what conditions were present and what form or dimensions the
discharjie had— would be very difticult, perhaps impossible, from the fact that it is
impossible to appreciate the extent of the process and the ilirection of the dischniy:eor
discharges. The reverberation of sound may be the n^sult of one discharge, which is
echoed from peak to peak or from crag to crag and probid)iy fiom cloud to cloud,
although the power of c'ouds to reflect sounds has not been determined. There may be
a succession of discharges from different portions of different clouds to those of olhcrH,
one explosion being succeeded by another in consequence of changes of electrical con^
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2^ laffhinlns.
ditions hi various parts of the celestial nod terrestrial apparatus. The increased intensity
of a roll of tliuuder is probably to be uccouutcd fm* in this way. The tirst souuds may
be produced by su<•c.•t•s^ivc mine a* discharges. c;»usiiig t-U'Cirical conditions between iwo
large musses of clouds, or between a iurge niatss and ilie earth, which result in tlieexcliango
of large quantities of electric tluid, orllic descent of a powerful bolt toilie earth. Abhongh
many piieuomena of electricity are well known, and tlie electricity of ehendcal batteries
can be meiisured and rendered serviceable, still its real nature is not known. It i:^ not
positively determinetl whether it is an imponderable body, an imponderable force, or
merely u phenomenon resulting from the conditions of the nnitter with whit h it is con-
Decled. Uiilil its nature lie determined it cannot be said whether a ball of lightning is a
moving mubtt of electrical matter, or of other matter in a peculiar electrical state, 'i here
is something wonderfully interesting and inexplicable in S(mie of tluse moving ma.^^scs
of apparent fire. The ordinary laws of electrical attraction and repulsion will .^^caicely
serve to explain their various freaks. They often seem as if ))roiX'lkd from behind, in
the manner of an ordinary projectile; and the manner in which they pass into dwellings
and demolish walls may mdicate that they are driven against bodies, and not aiiracted
by them.
UOHTHIHO, AccTOENTS fbom. According to the rrgistrar-generaVs report of births,
deaths, anil marriages for the year 1871. it ajipears that during that year 28 iKMSons
were killed in Euj^land by lightning: none in Loudon, 5 in the southeastern division, 0
in the south midland, 1 in the eastern, 1 in the south-western, 2 in the west midland,
6 in the north midland, 4 in the north-western, 2 in Yorkshire, and 1 in the m rihern
division- AH except 5 were men, and chiefly laborers in the open air. In lt<75 17 per-
sons were killed; in 1877 only 10. Of i?4 deaths from this cause in a previous report,
11 look place in summer, 10 m spring. 2 in autumn, and 1 in winter. Out of 103 deaths
m 5 years (1852-56), there were 88 in July, and 22 in Aujj.
A person struck by lightning is more or less stunned and deprived of consciousness
for a time, often, no doubt, by mere fri;:ht, in which ca^e the (fleet is transient; but
sometimes in consequence of a shock given to the brain, in which latter ca^e there is a
certain amount of paralysis of motion and sensation. In a Qise lecorded by Boudin in
his Qeographie Medicate^ 1857, a gentleman who liad been struck by lightning reiuained
for an hour and a qmirter apparently devoid of any Judication of life; and the paralxsis,
which usually alTects the lower limbs, may last for many months. Mr. llolnus, in' his
article on "Accidents from Lightning," in hi^ ^ntem of Surgci-y, ^\Qfs the following
list of other affections caused by lightning: *' Burns, more or less extensive; eruptions
of erythema or of urticaria, which are said by one author to have reappeaied with each
succeeding thunder-storm; loss of hair over parts or the whole of the bo<ly; wounds;
bemorrhauc from the mouth, nose, or ears; loss of sight, smell, opeech, healing, and
taste; or, in rare cases, exaltation of these special senses; cataract, iuibecilily, al.ortion."
Another curious effect of lightning is that descril>ed luider the head of Lightnino-
pRiSTa In reference to the occasional loss of hair, l\. Boudin {op. eif.) relates that the
capt of a French frigsite, who was struck by lightning on board his ship, could not
shave himself on the following day, the r.izor not cutting but tearing out his hair. Fiora
that day the lieard (iisappeared, and the hair of the scalp, eyebrows, etc., gradually fell
off. leaving him entirely bald. The nails of the fingers ulso scaled aw^ay. iSir B. Hrodie
tells a curious story of two bullocks, pied white and red, which were struck in different
storms; iu both cases the white hairs were consumed, while the red ones escaped. As
a genenil rule, it seems that persons not killed on the spot usually ncover. The burna
present every degree of intensity; in some (probably exaggeiated) cases we hear of men
and animals being reduced to ashes, while in ordinary cases they vary from deep burns,
difficult in heiding. to mere vesications: they must be treated in the ordinary method.
It was believed until recently that the burns are est used by the ignition of the dot lies; it
appears, however, from various cases collected by Dr. Taylor (Afed, Jurinp., ]865, p.
73i), that burna. at all events- in some cases, are the direct result of the electricity. (Jue
case is so singular that we shall give a few details regarding it. Mr. Fisher of Dudley
was railed in to see a man who 16 hours previously had been struck by lightning while
milking a cow. The cow was killetl on the spot, and the man wt»s much injured, tbero
bein:; a severe burn extending from his right hip to his shoulder, and covering a large
portion of the front and side of the body. His mind was wanderirg; there were symp-
toms of infliinimatory fever, and he was confined to bed for 17 days, at the end of which
time the liealini; process was not complete. On examining bis diess. it was f(»un(l that
the right sleeve of his shirt was burned lo shreds, but there was no mateiial burnii'g of
any other part of his dress. Hence it is obvious I hat the dress may be burned \\ ithoul
the surface of the body being i^imultancously injured; and, further, that a set ions burn
may be produced ou the body although the clothes covering the part may have e8cai»ed
combustion.
The appearances after death vary extremely. The body sometimes retains the posi-
tion wiii'^h it occupied when struck, while in other cases it may be dashed to a < cusid-
erable distance. The? clothes are often burned or torn, and have a peculiar sin^red
imell; and metallic sultfitances about the person present sicns of fusion, while such as
are composed of steel become magnetic. There are generally marks of contusion or
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laceration, or, if tliey are absent, extreme eccbymosls (q.v.) at the spot where the current
entered or emerged. In addition to wounds and burns, fractures have also been
noticed. •
The treatment must be directed to the special symptoms, which are liable to great
variations. Sir B. Brodie's advice is as follows: "Expose the body to a moderate
warmth, so as to prevent the loss of animal heat to which it is always liable when tlic*
functions of the brain are suspended or impaired, and iuHate ilie lungs, so as to imitate
natural respiration as nearly as possible." . These means should be fully tried, as respira-
tory action has l>ecn restored after more than an hour's suspension. Mr. Holmes addi-
tionally recommends cold allusion, stimulating enemata, and stimulants by the mouth:
and recovery (he states) is apparently hastened by the administration of tonics, especially
quinine, and gentle action on the skin by means of baths.
IIOHTKIKO-COKBUCTOB (Fr. paratomierre, Gter. Blitzahleiter). The principle of the
lightning conductor is that electricity, of two conducting passages, selects the better;
and that when it has got a sufficient conducting passage, it is disarmed of all destruc-
tive energy. If a person holds his hand near the prime conductor of a powerful electric
machine in action, he receives long forlied stinging sparks, each of which causes a very
sensible convulsion in his frame. But if he holds In his hand a ball, connected with the
ground by a wire or chain, the above sensation is scarcely, if at all, felt as each spark
occurs, for the electricity, now having the ball and wire passage to the ground, prefers
it to the less conducting body. If, instead of a ball, a pointed rod were used, no sparks
would pass, and no sensation whatever would be felt. The point silently discharges
the prime conductor, and does not allow the electricity to accumulate in it so as to pro-
duce a spark; and the quantity pas-sing at a time, even supposing the rod disconnecled
with the ground, is not sufficient to affect the nerves. If for the prime conductor of
the machine we substitute the thunderclouds; for the body, a building; for the convul-
sive sensation, as the evidence of electric power, heating and other destructive effects;
for the ball, or rod, and wire, the lightning-conductor, we have the same conditions
exhibited on a larger natural scale. It is easier, however, to protect a building from the
attacks of lightning than the boiiy from the electric spark, as the rod in the one case is
a much better conductor, compared .with the building, than it is compared with the
body, and, in consequence, more easily diverts the electricity into it.
The lightning-conductor consists of three parts: the rod, or part overtopping the
building; the conductor, or part connecting the rod with the ground; and the part in
the ground. The rod is made of a pyramidlil or conical form (the latter being prefera
ble), from 8 to 80 ft. in height, secureh'' fixed to the roof or highest part of the building.
Gay-Lussac proposes that this rod should consist, for the greater part of its lengtn
below, of iron; that it should then be surmounted by a short sharp cone of brass; and
that it should finally end in a fine platinum needle, the whole being riveted or soldered
together, so as to render perfect the conducting connection of the parts. The difficulty
of constructing such a rod has led generally to the adoption of simple rods of iron or
copper, whose points are gilt, to keep them from becoming blunt by oxidation. It is of
the utmost importance that the upper extremity of the rod should end in a sharp point,
because the sharper the point the more is the electrical action of the conductor limited
to the point and diverted from the rest of the conductor. There is thus less danger of
the electricity sparking from the conductor at the side of the building into the building
itself. Were the quantity of the electricity of the clouds not so enormous, the pointed
rod would prevent a lightning-discharge altogether; but even as it is. the violence of the
lightning-discharge is considerably lessened by the silent discharging power of the point
previously taking place. According to Eisenlohr, a conical rod, 8 ft. in height, ought
to have a diameter at its base of 18.3 lines, and one of 80 ft. a diameter of 26.6 lines.
The part of the lightning conductor forming the connection between the rod and the
ground is generally a prismatic or cylindrical rod of iron (the latter being preferable),
or a strap of copper; sometimes a rope of iron or copper wire is used. Iron wire
improves as a conductor when electric currents pass through it; copper wire, in the
same circumstances, becomes brittle. An iron rope is much oetter, therefore, for con-
ducting than a copper one. Galvanized iron is, of all materials, the best for conductors.
The conducting-rod ought to be properly connected with the conical rod either by rivet-
ing or soldering or both. Here, as at every point of juncture, the utmost care must be
taken that there is no break in the conduction. The conducting-rod is led along the
roof and down the outside of the walls, and is kept in its position by holdfasts fixed in
the building. There must be no sharp turns in it, but each bend must be made as
round as possible. Considerable discussion has arisen as to the proper thickness for the
conducting-rod. If it were too small it would only conduct part of the electricity, and
leave the building to conduct the rest, and it might be melted by the electricity endeavor-
ing to force a passage through it as an insufficient conductor. The Paris commission,
which sat in 1828. gave the minimum section of an iron conductor as a square of 15
millimeters (about three-fifths of an inch) in side, and this they considered quite suffi-
cient in all circumstances. A rod of copper would need to be on*ly two-fifths of this,
OB copper conducts electricity about six times more readily than iron. This calculation
is very generally followed in practice. In leading the conductor along the building it
Digitized by VjiODV IC .
27
lAghtnimw^
Bhould be kept as much apart as possible from masses of conducting matter about the
building, such as iron beams, machinery, etc. These may form a broken chain of con-
ductors communicating villi the ground, a^d divert a portion of the electricity from
the lightiiin*^- conductor. If such took place, then at each interruption electricity would
pass in a visible and dangerous way, and tlie efl3cacy of the conductor would be lost
if the conductor cannot be properly insulated from these masses of metal, the necessary
eecurity is got by putting them in' connection with the conductor, so as to form a part
of it Water-runs, leaden roofs, and the like, must, for this reason, all be placea in
conducting connection with the conductor.
The portion of the lightning-conductor which is placed in the ground is no less
worthy of attention than the other two. Should the lower part of the conductor end in
dry earth, it is worse than useless, for when the lightning, atti acted by the prominence
and point of the upper rod, strikes it, it finds, in all likelihood, no passage thmugh the
unoonducling dry earth, and, in consequence, strikes off to a pail of the ground where
it may easily disperse itself and be lost. Wherever it is practicable, a lightning-con-
ductor should end in a well or large body of water. Water is a good conductor, and
having various ramifications in the soil, offers the best facility to the electricity to
become dispersed and harmless in the ground. The rod on reaching the ground should
be let down a foot and a half, or 2 ft, into the soil, and then turned away at right
angles to the wall from the bui]din|f in a horizontal drain filled with charcoal, 'for about
from 12 to 16 ft, and then turned into the well so far that ite teimination is little likely
to be left diy. Where a well cannot be made, a hole 6 in. wide (wider, if possible)
should be bored, from 9 to 16 ft, the rod placed in the middle of it and the intervening
space closely packed with freshly heated charcoal. The charcoal serves the double pur-
pose of keeping the iron from rusting, and of leading away the electricity from the rod
into the ground.
Lightning-conductors, when constructed with care, have been proved beyond a doubt
to be a sufficient protection from the ravines of lightning. The circle within which
a lightning-conductor is found to be efficacious is very hmited. Its radius is generally
assumed to be twice the height of the rod. On large building, it is Ihercfoie necessary
to have several rods, one on each prominent part of the building, all being connected so
as to form one conducting system. In ships, a rod is place<l on every mast, and their
connection with the sea is established bv strips of copper mlaid in the masts, and attached
below to the metal of or about the keel.
UOHTVDfO-PBIVTS are appearances sometimes found on the skin or clothing of
men or animals that are either struck by lightning, or are in the vicinity of the stroke,
and currently believed to be photographic representations of surrounding objects or
scenery. The existence of such prints appears, from a theoretical point of view, hij^lily
improbable, as the essential conditions of forming a photographic image are wanting;
still, several apparently well-authenticated instances have been recorded, which have led
scientific authorities to give at least partial credence to them. One or two instances may
serve to give a general idea of what are meant bv lightning-prints. At Caudclaria
(Cuba), in 1828, a young man was struck dead by lightning near a house, on one of the
windows of which was nailed a horse-shoe; and the image of the horse-shoe was said to
be distinctly printed upon the neck of the young man beneath the right ear. On Nov.
14, 1830, lightning struck the ch&teau of Benatonni^re, in La Vendee; at the time, a lady
happened to be seated on a chair in the saloon, and on the liackof her dress were printed
minutely the ornaments on the back of the chair. In Sept, 1857, a pensant-^rl.. while
herding'a cow in the department of Seine-et-Marne, was overtaken by a thunder-storm.
She took refuge under a tree; and the tree, the cow, and herself were struck with light-
ning. The cow was killed, but she recovered, and on loosening her dress for tlie sake
of respiring freely, she saw a picture of the cow upon her breast These anecdotes are
typical of a great mass of others. They tell of metallic objects printed on the skin; of
clotiies, while being worn, receiving impressions of neighboring objects; or of the skin
being pictured with surrounding scenery or objects, during thunder- storms. One object
very generall}r spoken of as being printed is a neighboring tree. This maj^ be accounted
for bv supposing that the lightning-discharge haslaken place on the skin in the form of
the electric brush (see Electricitt), which has the strongest possible resemblance to a
tree, and that this, being in some way or other imprinted on the skin, has led observers
to confound it with a neighboring tree. Of other prints, it would be difficult to give a
satisfactory account. However, observers have done something in imitation of them.
It has been shown, for instance, by German observers, that when a coin is placed on
glass, and a stream of sparks poured on it from a powerful electrical machine, on the
glass being breathed upon, after its removal, a distmct image of the coin is tmced out
by the dew of tlie breath. Mr. Tomlinson, by interposing a pane of glass between the
knob of a charged Leyden jar and that of the discharging-tongs. obtained a perfect
breath-figure oi the discharge on each side of the glass, which bore the most striking
resemblance to a tree. With all due allowance for the probable printing-power of light-
ning, the accounts given of it, in most cases, l)car the stamp of exaggeration: and such
of them as have been inquired into have been found to dwindle to a very small residuum
of fact in which there remained little that was wonderful.
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UffuUftte. ^^
LIGHTS, Use of, in Public Worship, a practice which prevailed in the Jewish
(Exodus XXV. 81-39) ami in most of the ancient relii^ons, and whicli is retained both in
the Koman and in ilie oriental ciiurches. The use of lights in the night-services, and in
Bubterituican churchi's, such as those of the early Christians in the cataconibB, is of
course easily intelligible; but the praciice, as be:n-ing also a symbolical allusion to the
"Light of ill e world " and to the "Light of faith"'wa8 not confined to occasions of
necessity, but appeai*s to have been from an early time an accompaniment of Christinn
\i'or8lii[>, especially in connection with the sacraments of baptism and the eticliarist.
The time ot the service in which lights are uschI has varied very much in different ngcs.
8t. Jenime speaks of it onl^' during the reading of tlie gospel; Ainalarius. from the
beginning of the mass till the end of the gospel; Isidore of Seville, from the gospel to
the end of the canon; and eventually it was extended to the entire time of tho mass.
In other services, also, lights have been used from an early period. Lighted tiipere
were placed in the hand of tiie newly-baptized, which St. Gregory Nazianzen interprets
a^emtiiemsof future glory. Indeed, in the Roman Catholic chuVch, the most profuse
use of lights is reserved for the services connected with that sacrament. The ustige of
blessing the paschal light is described elsewhere. See Holy Week. The material used
for liglits in churches is either oil or wax. the latter in penitential time and in services
for the dead being of a yellow color. In the Anglican church, candlesticks and, in
some instances, candles themselves are retained in many churches on the commnnloD
table, but they arc not lighted. The retention of them is greatly favored by the ** high
church" party, and much disjipproved by the *• low church or '•evangelical " party. In
the Presbyterian and Independent churches of Britain, America, etc., the syniboJicai
use of lignts and candlesticks is rejected as superstitious.
LIGNE, Ohahles Joseph, Prince de, 1785-1814; b. in Brussels, and descended
from a wealthy and powerful Belgian family; entered the Austrian army in 1752. where
he K'rved with disiinction through the seven years* war. In the rei»fn of Joseph II. he
held high mllitai*y and diplomatic positions, arid was a great favorite ni nil the European
courts. During the reign of Leopold he fell into disgrace, owing largely, no doubt, to
his son's participation* in the Belgian insurrection of 1700, after which event lie was
never again in the public service, but lived in retirement at Vienna, employing himself
in literary nursuits. Of his miscellaneous works in 84 volumes, which appeared in
1795-1811, Alalte Brun has given selections in 2 volumes. His memoirs and letters have
considenible historic value.
LICl NINE (derived from the Latin word lignum, wood) is the incrusting matter con-
tained within the cellular tissue, which gives hardness to wood. Like cellulose, of
which the cellular tissue is composed, it is insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, and dilute
acids, and its chief chemical characteristic is, that it is more readily soluble in alkaline
liquids than cellulose. Its exact composition is uncertain, but it is known to consist of
carbon, hydrogen. ai:d oxygen, and to differ in its composition from cellulose in con-
taining a greater perceuUigc of hydrogen than is necessary to form water with its oxy-
gen. When submitted to destructive distillation, it yields acetic acid; and that it is
the source of the pyroligneous acid (which is merely crude acetic acid) obtained bv the
destructive distillation of wood, is proved by the iact that the hardest woods (those,
namely, which contain the greatest proportion of llunine) yield the largest amount of
acid. Lignine is identical with the matihre incrustante of Payen and other French
botanists.
LIGNITE, fossil wood imperfectly mineralized, and retaining its original form and
structure much more completely than the truly mineral couls, and therefore not improp-
erly described as intermediate between peat and coal. Brawn coai svriin brand, and jet
are generally regarded as varieties of lignite. The fossil plants of lignite are always
terrestrial: palm.s and coniferous trees are amongst them. Remains of teiTcstrial mam-
malia are al<o found in it.
LIGNITE (anU), named from k'gnvm, wood, a kind of coal, resembling, probably
the condition of hani coid when in a state of transiticm or process of manufacture. It
has no definite chemical composition. Some beds present a decidedly ligneous stnicture
in the upper layers, and a true coal character below. When w ood is burled in water
or earth, it decomposes by the slow process of oxidation, or eremacansis, with the for-
mation of carbureted hydrogen, carbonic acid, carlwnic oxide, water, petroleum, etc.,
after a lime leaving a den.««er, darker substance. After a lonjr time it becomes black
and exhibits a pitchy, somewhat conchoidal fracture. It is then lignite. This kind of
coal i*« chiefly ffmnd in the cretaceous and tertiary formations, and in some localities
ff)rms immense beds, equal, perhaps, in extent to the beds of the carhoniferons period.
Lignite occupies an intenncdiale po.«;iiion iK'tween peat and hard and Idtnnnnous
coal, and in favorable conditions in the process of ages peat will become lignite, and
the latter will be convertcMl into bituminous coal or anthracite. It is probable that most
of the coal in China and India is more or less lignitic in its nature, as is the
case of that of western America. Ligniie is found also in Greenland and arctic
America, and also in Central and South America. In Europe -lignites ha^c been
mined for a long time, and are used not only for heating dwellings and other d*>mrFtic
purposes, bui for generating steam in locomotives and furnaces. Tho following:
Digitized by VjOUV IC
BB&lyses indicate the variable composition of lignite. One specimen from France
contained, in round numbers, the following^ proportion of con»(tituents: C»rl)on, 70;
hydrogen, 6; oxygen, 18: nitrogen, 1; ashes, 5. Another specimen, also from Fmncc,
coolaiued, carbon. 6^4; hydrogen, 4.6; oxygen, 17; nitrogen 1; iishes, 13.4, Another
specimeo from Swilzerlar.d contiiined, carbon, 70: hydrogen, 6: oxygen. 20.5; nitrogen,
1.3: aslies, 3.2. Another specimen from Siberia contained, carbon, 47 5; hydrogen, 45;
oxygen, 3*3; nitrogen, 1; ashes. 15. Another specimen from (Jermiiny containLii, car-
bon, 70; hydroceu. 3.2; oxygen. 7.6; nitrogen,!: aslies, 15.6. The last ^pici men shows
a considerubly Te^ proportion of oxygen than the others, but that of laruoii is scarcely
greater than in the other .specimens. It is to be presumed that its healing power does
not differ much from theirs. The principal deposits of lignite in the United Stales are
in New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, California, Oregon, Wyoming, and Alaska.
In New Mexico'the l)eds are all in the cretnceons formation, and ciiietly in tiie lower
portion. In Colorado and Wyomingthe beds occupy a space not less t linn 50,000 sq.m.,
the strata varying in thiclcnesa'^from 1 to 30 feet. Many of these lignites are now mined in
Colorado, and they resemble in quality the best brown coals of the old world. Some
lignites, as in Trinidad, and in Utah, near Salt Lake City, are capable of being coked and
vaed in smelting. The lignites of California are cretaceous, and many of them find
their way to San Francisco. On the coast of Oregon the lignites belong to the tertiary
Siriod, and have been mined for several years. An analysis of a specimen of coal from
ount Diablo, Cal., by H. 8. Munroc of the N. Y. school of mines, gave the following
results: Carbon, 59.724; hydrogen, 5.078; oxygen, 15.697; nitrogen, 1.008; sulphnr,
8.916: water. 8.940; ash, 5.637. A lignltic anthracite from Sonera gave, carbon, b4.103;
hydrogen, 0.852; oxygen. 2.137; nitrogen, 2.80; sulphur, 0.229; waUr, 5.191; ash,
7.204. This is evidently a superior coal, considered as a lignite, 'ihere are occasionally
seiims of lignite along the Atlantic coast in tertviry formations, mingled more or less
with clay. "
JJB'AoM BHODITTK, a kind of wood which occurs as an article of commerce, having
a pleasant smell resembling the smell of roses. Il is brought to Europe in strong, thick,
and rather heavy pieces, which arc cylindrical but knotty, and someiimes split. They
are externally covered with a cracked gray bjirk ; internally, they are yellowish, and
often reddish in the heart. They have an aromatic bitterish tuste. and, when rubbed,
emit an agreeable rose-like smell. This wood comes from the Canary islands, and is
produced by two shrubby and erect species of convohulw, with small leaves, G. seopa-
rim and C. floridtu. It is the wood both of the root and of the stem, but the latter is
rather inferior. An essential oil {ml of lignum rfuxiium), having a stronir smell, is
obtained from it by distillation, and is used for salves. embrocati(ms. etc., and also very
frequently for adulteration of oil of roses. — Besides this lignum rhodium of the Canary
islands, an American kind is also a common article of commerce; it is produced by the
ampru bakamtffra, a native of Jamaica, and yields an essential oil, very similar to the
former. The lignum rhodium of the Levant is now sciircely to be met with in com-
merce. It is the produce of liquidambar orientate. From this, however, the name has
been transferred to the other kinds.
LIG'innC-TI'TJE, the wood of ffuaiaevm officinale (nat. ord. syffopJiyUaceai), and
probably of some other species, natives of Jamaica and St. Domingo. The hardness and
exceeding toughness of this very usiiful wood was shown by prof. Voigt to depend
upon a very peculiar interlacing of the fibers. The heart-woml. which is the part used,
» very dense and heavy, of a dark, greenish-brown color, rarely more than 8 in. in
diameter; the stem itself seldom reaches 18 in. in diameter, and grows to the height of
about 80 feet. The wood is much valued for making the wheels of pulleys and other
small articles in which hardness and toughness are required; large quantities are con-
sumed in making the sheaves (see Pullet) of ships* blocks. Besides these uses, the
wood, when reduced to fine shavings or raspinj^, the bark, and also a greenish resin
which exudes from the stem, are mnoh used in medicine, being regaroed as having
powerful anti-sypbiiitic and anti-rheumatic properties. See Guaiacum.
LIGHT, a village in Belgium, in the province of Namur, about 10 m. n.e. of Charleroi,
famous on account of the l>attle fought here by the French, under Na))oleon, and the
Prussians under Bladier, June 16, 1816, the same da\' on which the French, under
marshal Ney, were engaged with the British, under Wellington, at Quat re-Bras. Na-
poleon had formed a plan for overpowering his antagonists in detail ere they could con-
centrate their forces; and contrary to the expectations both of Wellington and Bldcher,
began his operations by assailing the Prussians. Tlie battle took place in the afternoon.
The possession of the villages of Li<fDy and St. Amand was hotly contested; but the
Prussians were at last compelled to give way. The Prussians lost in this battle 12.000
men and 21 cannon; the French 7,000 men. A mistake prevented a corps of the French
army, under Erlon, from takins the part assigned to it in tlie battle, and led to Ney's
eacountering the Belgians and British at Quatre-Bras(q.v.), instead of uniting his forces
with those engaged against the Prusskns at Ligny.
Lltt'VlATB (Lat UgtUa, a little tonmie), a term used in botany to descril)c a corolla of
one petal split on one side, and spread out in the form of a tongue or strap, toothed at
the extipmity. This form of corolla is very common in the eompotitm, appearing in all
Digitized by VjOOV IC
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tlie florets of somo. as the dandelion, and only in the florets of the ray of otherSp as the
daisy und uster. The term, however, in of general application.
LIGITLE. Sec Grasses.
LIOTJOBI, AiiFONZO Mart A db, a saint of the Rom'an Catholic churchy and founder
of the order of Liguorlans or Redemptorists. He was b. of a Doblu family at Naples,
Sept. 27, 169(5, aim embraced the profession of the law, which, however, he suddenly
relinquished for the purpose of devoting himself entirely to a religious life. He received
priesrs orders in 1725; and in 1732, In cod junction with twelve companions, founded
the asi>ocinti(ni which is now called bv his name. See Liguorians. In 17(52 be was
appointed bishop of Sant' Agata del Goti, in the kingdom of Naples, and his iife, as a
bishop, is confessed by Protestant as well as Catholic historians to have been a model
of the pastoral character; but, shrinking from the responsibilities of such an oiBce, he
resigned his see in 1775, after which date he returned to his order, and continued to live
in the same simple austerity which had characterized his early life. Having survived
his retirement twelve years, he died at Nocera dei Pagani, Aug. 1, 1787, and was
solemnly Ciiuonized in the Roman Catholic church in 1889. Liguori is one of the mcst
voluminous and most popular of modern Catholic theologicid writers. His works,
which extend to 70 volumes bvo, embrace almost every department of theological learn-
ing— liivinity, casuistry, exegesis, history, canon law, hagiography, asceticism, and even
poetry. His correspondence also is voluminous, but is almost entirely on spiritual
Bubjeits. The principles of casuistry explained by Liguori have been received with
much favor in the modern Roman schools; and in that church his moral theology, which
is a modification of the so-called '* probabilistic system" of the age immediately before
his own, is largely used in the direction of consciences. See Probabilibm. It would
be out of place here to enter into a discussion of the exceptions which have been taken
to certain portions of it on the score oT morality, whether in reference to the virtue of
chastity or to that of justice nnd of veracity. These objections apply equally to most
of the casuists, and have often been the subject of controversy. JLiguori's Tluologia
Moralia (8 voKs. 8vo) has been reprinted numberless times, as also mo2>t of his ascetic
works. The most compUte edition of his works (in Italian and Latin) is that of Monza,
70 volumes. They have been tnmslated entire into French and German, and in great
part into English, Spanish, Polish, and other European languages.
LIGUO'KIAKS, called also Redemptorists, a congregation of missionary priests
founded hs Liguori in 1782, and approved by pope Benedict XIV. in 1750. Their
object is the religious instruction of the people and the reform of public morality, by
periodically visiting, preaching, and hearing confessions, with the consent and under
the direction of the parish clergy. Their instructions are ordered to be of the plainest
and most simple character, and their ministrations are entirely witlmut pomp or cere-
monial. The congregation was founded originally in Naples, but it afterwards extended
to Qermany and Switzerland. In the Austrian provinces they had several houses, and
were by some represented as but establishments of the suppressed Jesuits under another
name. Nothing, however, could be more different than the constitution and the objects
of the two orders. Since the restoration, and especially since the revolution of 1880, the
Liguorians have effected an entrance into France, and several houses of the congregadon
have been founded in England, Ireland, and America; but their place is in great measure
occupied by the more active congregation of the Lazarist or Vincentian fathers, whose
objects are substantially the same, and who are much more widely spread. See Paul.
Vincent db, and Vincentian Congrboation.
LIQURIA (LiGURiAN Republic, ariU\ in ancient geography, a part of n. Italy. As
defined in the time of Augustus it embraced the territory from the Ligurian sea across
the maritime Alps to the ro in the n., and from the Varus in the w. to the Macra in the
east. At a very early period the Ligures possessed a larger territory, extending far into
Gaul, on the western side of the Rhone. Their origin is unknown, but they were a
warlike and cnterpiising people. They were subjugated by the Romans about 125 b.c.,
Liguria forming the nucleus of the Roman province of Gaul.
LIOTTBIAH BEFTTBLIC, the name given to the republic of Genoa in 1797, when, in
consequence of the conquests of Bonaparte in Italy, it was obliged to exchange its aris-
tocratic for a democratic constitution. See Genoa. The name was chosen bNM^ause the
Genoese territory formed the principal part of ancient Liguria.
LILAC, Syringa, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order oUaeea, and con-
sisting of shrubs and small trees, with 4-cleft corolla, 2 stamens, and a 2Hce]Ied, 2- valvu-
lar capsule. The Common Lilac {8, vuigarU) is one of the most common ornamental
shrubs cultivated in Europe and North America. It is a native of the n. of Persia, and
was first brought to Vienna by Bu8l>ecq, the ambassador of Ferdinand I., to whom we
also owe the introduction of the tulip into European gardena From Vienna it soon
spread, so that it is now to be found half wild in the hMges of some parts of Enrope.
There are many varieties. The flowers grow in larse conical panicles; are of a bluish
" ULic'* color, purple or white, and have a very delicious odor. The leaves are s fav-
orite food of cantharides. The bitter extract of the unripe capsules has very marked
tonic and febrifugal properties. The wood is fine-grained, and is used for inlayfaig,
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tonuDg* and tfae making of small articles. A fragrant oil can bo obtained from it by
disiillation. The Chinese Lilac (3. ChinensU) bus larger flowers, but with less power-
ful odor, and the Persian Lilac (.S. Penica) bus narrower leaves. Both arc often
planted in gardens and pleasure-grounds. There are several other 'species.
LIL'BURNE, John, 1618-1657; a Protestant agitator of England. Imbibing opinions
in opposition to tlie English church, at the age of 18 he went to Holland to procure the
printing of a ptimphlet aguiust the bishops. This he aided to circulate secretly, was
exposed to the authorities, tried in the court of the star-chamber, condemned in Feb.,
1637, to receive 500 laches, to be pilloried and confined in prison, lined £500, and required
to give security for good behavior. His bold courage before tlie judges gave him the
wbriqaet of '•Freeborn John," Given his liberty in 1640 he placed himself at the
head of his sympathizers and demanded that lord Stratford should be arraigned. He
was again arrested and taken before the house of lords; but such was the pressure of
public opinion in his favor that the parliament (" long parliament") released him, and
subsequently declai-ed his punishment to have l)een illegal, barbarous, and tyrnnnicnl; and
recompensed him for his imprisonment and injuries by a payment to him of £8,000. He
joined the army of the parliament against Charles I., was taken prisoner, and would
have been hung, had not the parliament's genenil, the duke of Essex, thretitened to hang
royalist prisoners in retaliation. He soon became dissatisfied with the Presbyterian
leaders, and published charges and denunciations even against Cromwell. The latter
procured bis trial before a commission, by whom he was acquitted. Emboldened by
this, he beg^m a violent agitation against Cromwell, read in public a pamphlet entitled
EnglaruTs New Chains, and in consequence was committed to the Tower. Thence
he poured out political pamphlets which gave him great popularity with the people.
He was aguin brought to trial, but the pressure of popular opinion \n his favor deter-
mined his acquittal. But Cromwell soon after secured his condemnation and banishment
for a vicious attack on Kaslering. He then resided in Brussels and Amsterdam. After
the dissolution of the "long parliament," he returned to England without permission,
and Cromwell sought to imprisop him in the Tower; but it ended in his remaining in Eng-
land as a prisoner at large. Towards the close of his quarrelsome life he espoused the
doctrines of the Friends, or Quakers. Judge Jenkins said of him: ** Were John Lil-
borne the only man living on the earth, Litbume would dispute with John, and John
with Lilburne." An account of his trials, entitled Truth's Victory ater Tyrants, was
published in 1649.
LILIA'CSJB, a natural order of endogenous plants, containing about 1200 known
species. They are most numerous in the warmer parts of the temperate zones. They
are mostly herbaceous plants, with bulbous or tuberous, sometimes fibrous, roots; rarely
shrubs or trees. The shrubby and arborescent species are mostly tropical. The stem is
simple, or branching towards the top, leafless or leafy. The leaves are simple, generally
narrow, sometimes cylindrical, sometimes fistular. The flowers are generally large,
with 6-cleft or 6-toothed perianth; and grow singly or in spikes, racemes, umbels,
heads, or panicles. The stamens are six, opposite to the segments of the pcrinnth; the
pistil has a superior 8-celled. many-seeded ovary, and a single style. The fruit is suc-
culent or capsular; the seeds packed one upon another in two rows. This order contains
many of our finest garden, green-house, and hot-house flowers, as lilies, tulips, dog's-
tooth violet, lily of the valley, tuberose, crown imperial, and other fritillaries, hyacinths,
ghriosa tuperba; many species useful for food, as garlic, onion, leak, and other species
of aUium, asparagus, the quamash or biscuit root (canuusia eseulenta) of North America,
the ti (draatna (erminalis or cordyline ti) of the South seas, etc. ; many species valuable in
medicine, as squill, aloes, etc. ; and some valuable for the flber which their leaves yield,
as New Zealand flax, and the species of bowstrine hemp or sanseviera. — This natural
order has been the subject of a number of splendid works, among which may be par-
ticularly named Redoute's Le$ IMiaeies (8 vols. Paris, 1802-16).
LILLE (formerly LTsxis. 'Hhe island;" Flemish, Byud)^ an important manufacturing
t and fortress in the n. of France, chief town of the department of Nord, is situated on
the Deule, in a level, fertile district, 140 m. n.n.e. of Paris, and 62 m. s.e. of Calais. The
streets are wide, the squares imposing, and the houses, which are mostly in the modern
style, well built The principal buildings and institutions are the medical school, the
lyceum, the bourse, ana the palace of Richelx)urg. now the Hotel de-Ville, in which is
&e school of art. with a famous collection of dmwings by Raphael, Michael, and other
masters. Lille derives its name from that of the castle around which the town orlgi-
Dally arose, and which from its position in the midst of marshes was called Isla. It was
founded in 1007 by Baldwin, the fourth count of Flanders, and has suffered greatly
from frequent sieges. Of these, the most recent, and perhaps the most severe, took
place in 1708 and 1792. On the former occasion, during the war of the Spanish succes-
sion, the garrison capitulated to the allies, after a bombardment of 120 days; on the
latter, the Austrians, after a terriflc bombardment, were obliged to raise the siege.
Lille is an important military center. It is also the seat of extensive and thriving manu-
factures^ The goods principally manufactured are linen, hosiery, gloves, blankets, lace,
IMk thread, and tulle. The town contains many spiuning-mUls, bleach-flelds, sugar-
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Lfllebonne. qO
refineries, distilleries, tan-pits, dye-houses, etc. In the vicinity are numerous oil-milla,
porcelain -fact<irics, and ghi^s and pottery works. Pop. *7G, 137,560.
LILLEBONNE, a small t. of norlijern France on tlie river Bolbec, 40 kilometers e.
of Havre; pop. 4,B00; has manufactures of thread, cotton, and linen fabrics. William the
conqneror gave it importance by the construction there of a ehateiiu-foft. Old Koman
roads diverge from it to Kouen. Paris, Evreux, and Dreuz. It was a city of importance
under the liomaus, as attested by considerable ruins, among which are those of u llieater
340 ft. long.
LILLEUS. a small t. in the n. of France on the river Mare; pop. 6,600. Principal
industries, the manufacture of shoes for exportation, of linens, and of beer and distilled
liquor.-s.
LHiLIBURLERO, the refrain of an Irish ballad, which appeared before the revolu-
tion of 1688. and is said to have exercised a profound influence, going far to precipitate
that outbreak. The words '* lilliburlero ana bullen-a-lah" (Irish) are siud to have been
employed by the Irish Roman Catholics during the Protestant massacres of 1641. The
ballad in question, alleged to have been written by lord Wharton, took up these words
and employed them to tire the hearts of the king's soldiers.
LIL'LIPUT, the name of a fabulous kingdom described by Swift in GulUter^s IVavels,
of which the inhabitants are not greater in size than an ordinary man's finger. The
term Lilliputian has come into conmion use as a designation of anything very diminu-
tive.
LIL'LO, George, 1693-1739; an English dramatist of vigorous style and of a moral
tendency in advance of his time; the representative of the domestic manners and tastes
of the middle classes. His plays otJSilvia and George Barnuell both appeared in 1781.
The latter was extremely popular, and greatly delighted queen Caroline. It was imitated
bv Saurlu and plave«l in France under the title of Beverly. His oilier works are the
C.'irUUaa Hero; manna; and Elmeriek. These works were collected and published in
2 vols. 12mo. in 1773.
LILLY, John. Sec Lyly, ante.
LILLY, WiLiJAM. an English astrologer, b. at Diseworth, in Leicestershire, in 1603.
Whilst yet a young man, he was employed as book-keeper by a merchant in London,
who could not wriUs and on his emplo3'er's death married his widow, with whom he
obtained a fortune of £1000 sterling. He betook himself to the study of astrology, par-
ticularly the Ara Noioiia of Cornelius Agrippa, and soon acquired a' considerable fame
as a Ciister of nativities, and a predictor of future events. In 1634 he is said to have
obt:nned permission from the dean of Westminster to search for hidden treiisure in
Westminster abbey, but was driven from his midnight work by a storm, which he
ascribed to hellish powers. From 1644 till his death he annually issued his Mfrlinus
Anglicus Junior, containing vaticinations, to which no small importjince was attached
by many. In the civil war he attached himself to the parliamentary parly, and was
actually sent in 1648, with another astrologer, to the camp at Colchester, to encourage
the troops, which service he performed so' well that he received a pension for it, which,
however, he only retained two years. Nevertheless, he made a small fortune by his
"art" during the commonwealth, and was able to purchase an estate. After the restora
tion, he was for some time imprisoned, on the supposition that he was acquainted with
the secrets of the republicans; but being set free, he retired to the country. He was
again apprehended on suspicion of knowing something of the causes of the great fire of
Lonilon in 1666. He died June 9, 1681, at his estate at Hersham. Lilly wrote nearly a
score of works on his favorite subject. They arc of no value whatever, except to illustrate
the credulity or knavery of their author.
LILY, a genus of phints of the natural order liUaeea, containing a number of species
much prized for the size and beauty of their flowers. The perianth is liell .«(h»ped, and
its segments are often bent back at the extremity. The root is a scaly bulb, the stem
herbaceous and simple, often several feet high, bearing the flowers near its summit.—
The White Lilt (L. candidum), a native of the Levant, has been long cultivated in
gardens, and much sung by poets. It has la|;ge, erect, pure white flowers, as much
prized for their fragrance as for their l)eauty.— The orange lily {L. bulbiferum), a native
of the 9. of Europe, with large,' erect, omnge-colored flowers, is a well-known and vcrj'
showy ornament of the flower-garden.— The mfirtagon or Turk's cup lily {L. martagon),
a nntiveof the s. of Europe, and allied species with verticillate leaves and drooping
flowers, are also common in gardens. The tiger lily (L. tigrinum) is a native of China,
remarkable for the axillary buds on the stem; and some very fine species are natives of
North America, as L. stfperbum, which grows in marshes In the United States, has a
stem 6 to 8 ft. high, nndreflexed orange flowers, spotted with black; L. Oanadense, etc.
Several very fine species have been Introduced from Japan, as L. Japanteum, L spe-
eiosum. and L. laneifoUum. — The bulbs of L. pomponium. L. martagon, and L. Kamt-
sefiaoenae, arc mastc(t and eaten in Siberia. Tliat of L. candidum]oBcs its acridity by dry-
ing, roasting, or boiling; when cooked, it is viscid, pulpy, and sugary, and is eaten in
some parts of the east. — Lilies are generally propagated by offset bulbs. A single scale
of the bulb will, however, suffice to produce a new plant, or oven part of a scale, of
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QQ I«tI]ebOBB«b
wbicli skillful gardeners nrsW tliemselveft. — The name lily is ofteo popularly extended to
floMcrs of otiier geucra of llie same order, and even of allied onlei-s.
LILY, GiOAifTfc, Doryanihes excelm, of Austnilia. a plant of tbe natural order
amaryUddeiB, with flowcrhi*; 8teai 10 or 14, sometimes d6 ft. high, Ix^aritig at lopacluster
of largj crimson blossoms. The stem is leafy, but the hu'gebt leaves are uetir the root
This plant is found both on the mountains aud the sea-coast of New South Wales. It
is of splendid bcrauty. The fiber of its leaves has been found ezcellcut for ropes and
for textile fabrics.
LLLTBiE'UM. See Harsajua, ante,
LILYE, or LILLY, Wilmam, 1466-1523; a celebrated English grammarian ; gradu-
ated ut Oxford, and immediately afterwards traveled in the orient to perfect his knowl-
edge of the Greek language, he passed five yeara at the ancient city of Kliodes, then
resided in Rome, and returned to London in 1509. There he opened the first public
school for teaching the dead languages. He became, soon after, tlie first master of
St. Paura school aud in the intervals of his duties edited and published a work known
as IaBi^9 Oramnuir; to which dean Colet, the great Erasmus, and cnrdinal Wolsey
each contribtited a p:irt. It was a qimrto volume, published in London in 1518, and is
said to have passed through more editions than any similar work.
LTLT OF THE VALLEY, ContaUaria, a genua of plants of tlie natural order Uliaeem,
having terminal racemes of flowers: a white, bell-shaped, or tubular 6-cleft or 6-toothed
perianth; a ^'elled germen, with two ovules in each cell, and a succulent fruit. — The
species commonly known ns the lilv of the valley {C. majulut), the Maiblume or May-
flower of the Germans, ^rows in bushy places and woods in Europe, the nortli of Asia,
aud North America, and has a leafless scape, with a niceme of hmall flowers turned to
one »de. It is a universal favorite on account of its pleasing appearance, the frugnmce
of its flowers, and the early season at which they appear. It is therefore very often
cultivated in gardens, and forced to earlier flowering in liot-houtes. Varieties are in cul-
tivation with red, variegated, and doulile flowers. The berries, the root, and the flowers
have a nauseous, bitter, and somewhat acrid taste, and purgative and diuretic effects.
The smell of the flowers, when in large quantity and in a close apartment, is narcotic.
Dried and powdered they become a sternutatorv. The esteemed eau d*or of the French
is a water distilled from the flowers. — Allied to lily of the valley is 8olomon*s seal (q. v.).
LX'riA, the capital of the republic of Peru, stands on the Rimac, from who.se name its
own is corrupted, in lat. 1^* 8' «.. and long. T3" 5' west. It is 6 m. distant from its port,
on the Pacific, Cnllao, with which it is connected by a railway. Including its suburban
villages, ten in number, it contains (76) 100.078 inhabiiants. Lima is of Spanish origin,
and its generally magnificent public buildings entitle it to rank as the handsomest city
of South America. At one time the grand enirepdt for the west const of the continent,
it still carries on a large trade, importing cottons, woolens, silks, hardware, wines, and
brandy; and exporting silver, copper, bark, soap, vicuna wool, chinchilla skins, niter.
sugar,' etc. The tem|>emturo is agreeable, averaging 6S.1* in winter and 77.6* in sum-
mer; and the climate is comparatively salubrious, abundant dews making up for the
want of rain.
LOTA {ante). The approaches to the city are by six gates; and the principal ala-
meda, an avenue of great beauty on the read to Callao, is one of the most striking and
impressive thoroughfares on the continent. The general impression m>ide by the city
on nearing it is more in its favor than on a closer examination. At a distance, its spires
and domes glitter in the sun, and its architecture. Moorish in character, gives it a very
pioiuresque ajjpcarance. But, excepting the public buildings, the houses are low, and
irregularly built, though the streets are regular and attractive. The plnza mayor, or
great squnrc, has a handsome fountain in the center, and is the principal business
locality. Here arc the palace of the president of Peru, the cathcdnil. and the arch-
bishops palace; the old palace of Pizarro is on the south side, and on the west is the town-
hall. An immense amphitheater for bull-fighting is a feature of one of the alamedjis. The
longest side of the city, which is in the form of a triangle, extends along the bank of the
river Rimac. Through the middle of almost every street a stream of water is turned
cnch morning, designed to carry away whatever refuse collects from the houses; and
this process, combined with the service of the buzzards, comprises the public scavenger-
ing of the city. The monasteries and convents of Lima, of which tliere were at one
time a large number, have nearly all been suppressed. The convent of San Francisco,
however, is a large monastic establishment, covering nearly seven acres of ground : there
are also many parish churches and 23 chapels. The university of Lima was the first
educational estal)]ishmcnt of the kind in the new world. It has fallen into decay to
some extent, but contiuns a valuable library of about 20,000 volumes. Lima was founded
by Pizarro in 1586, and called Ciudad de los Reyes. It has been frequently visited by
eaithqunkt's, one of which, in 1746. destroyed many buildings. The city has recently
(Jan., 1881) been captured by the Chilian forces in the process of tho lamentable war
between Peru and Chili.
U. K.IX-« ^ _
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Um*. QA
Ume. O*
LIICA WOOD, A name of the dye-wood also called Pernambuco wood, Nicaragua
wood, aud peach wood, the heart-wood of OoBsalpinia echinaia. Bee Brazil Wood. It
is extensively used for dyeing red and peach-color.
LDCAX and LDCAOIDAE. Bee Slug.
LIMB, the border or edge of the disk of a heavenly body, particularly the sun and
moon. The name is applied to the graduated circle of an instrument for measurlDg
angles. A concentric urc used for subdividing the spaces or degrees on the limb, is
called a vernier. There are two limbs on a theodolite, one for measuring horizontal and
another for measuring vertical angles, called respectively the horizontal and the vertical
limb. The gra.lnateU staff of a leveling rod is often called a limb, the graduated line
on the vane being called the vernier.
LIXBEB U half the field-equipage of a cannon or howitzer. The one half consista
of the caiTiiige. itself, with the gun ; while the limber, a two-wheeled carriage, fitted with
boxes fur the field-ammunition of the piece, and having shafts to which the horses are
harnessed, forms the remainder. At the back-part, the limber has a strong hook, to
which, on the march, is attached the foot of the gun-caiTiage by a ring. This constitutes
at once a four-wheeled frame, which, while easier for transport than a gun on two
wheels only, has the advantage of keeping together the gun and its ammunition. In
marching, the gun points to the rear; but in coming to action, the artillerymen, by a
rapid evolution, wheel round, so that the gun points to the front. It is then unltm-
bered, or unhooked, and the liml)er conveyed far enough to the rear to be out of the
way of the men working the piece. To limber up agam and retreat or pursue is the
work but of a few moments.
LIMBO. See LtiCBUS, ante,
LIM'BORCH, Philippus van, 1683-1712; b. Amsterdam; was educated in theology*
and in 1657 made minister at Qonda, and ten years later professor of theology at the
Remonstrant college of Amsterdam. He was a careful student of the doctrines of
Arminius. and wrote Theologia Christiana, an elaborate and profound analysis of them,
published 1C80 and highly praised by Hallam. lie was in frequent correspondence
with John Locke.
LDI BUBO, an old province of Belgium, which, after having formed part of Belgium*
France, Holland, and Austria, was. m 1889, divided between Belgium and Holland.—
Belgian Limburg, or Lhibourg, in the n.e. of the kingdom, is separated from Holland
by the Meuse up to lat. 51® 9' n., and thence by a line running e.n.e. to the northern
boundary of the kingdom. The surface of the province is flat, and a large portion of it
is occupied by barren heath; but in the s. and center there is good arable laud. There
is excellent pasturage along the banks of the Meuse, and large herds of cattle and swine
are here reared. Ine manufactures include soap, salt, pottery, paper, tobacco, straw -
hats, beet-sugar, etc. The area of the province is 928 English sq.m., aud the pop. '76,
206,187. The capital of the province is Hasselt (q.v.).
LDCBITBG, a province of Holland, which was once also a duchv in the (Germanic con-
federation, forms the s.e. corner of the kingdom, being contiguous to the Belgian
province of the same name. Its surface is generally level, and the soil is poor, a great
part of it consisting of moors and marshes. However, in the valleys of the Meuse and
Its chief tributaries, excellent crops of grain, hemp, flax, oil-seeds, etc., are raised, and
cattle and sheep reared. There are many manufactories of gin, tobacco, soap, leather,
paper, and glass. The capital is Maestricht (q.v.). Area, 848 English sq.m.; pop. '75,
283,662.
LIMBUR€r-ON-THE-LAHN. A t. in the duchy of Nassau annexed to Prussia in
1866; seat of the Catholic bishopric of Fribourg; pop. about 6.000. It is one of the
most ancient cities of Gkrmany. The *' Chronicles of Limbourg," in one of its libraries,
is one of the oldest and most important historical manuscripts of Europe. The cathedral
of St Gkorge, built in the 18th c. on a crag overlooking the valley of the river, is remark-
able for its picturesqueness. Near this town the French gen. Jourdan was defeated
by the Austrians in 1796.
LnC'BTTS (Lat. Hmlnis, s border), the name assigned in Roman Catholic theology to
that place or condition of departed souls in which those are detained who have not
offended by anv personal act of their own, but, nevertheless, are not admitted to the
divine vision. They distinguish it into the UnUna patrum and tlie Umhus infantium. By
the former name they understand the place of those just who died before the coming of
the Redeemer, and of whom it is said (1 Peter iii. 19) that he preached to those spirits
that were in prison. By the latter is meant the place or state of the souls of infants who
die without baptism. See Hell. Regarding the nature of both theseplaces of deten-
tion, great variety of opinion prevails in Roman Catholic schools. See Wctser's KircJienr
Lexicon, art. " Hollenfahrt Chrisli."
LIXS is the oxide of the metal calcium (q.v.), and is known in chemistry as one of
the alkaline cartha. Its sj^mbol is CaO, its equivalent is 28, and \U specific graviiv is
8.18. In a state of purity it is a whit« caustic powder, with an alkaline reaction, and so
infusible as to resist even the heat of the ozhydrogen jet See DBUHMoaD Light. It
Digitized by VjOUV IC
«>«> Ume.
is obtained by heating pure carbonate of lime (as, for instance, Carrara marble or Ice^
Un<l spar) to full redness, when the carbonic acid is expelled and lime is left. Com-
mcrcial Iime» which is obtained by burning common limestone in a kilo, is usually very
far from pure. Tliis compound (CuO) is known as quicklime, or. from the ordiuary
method ot obtaining it, as learned Ume, to distinguish it from (he hydrate of Unie or ulakeS
iifM, wliicli is represented by the formula CaU,HO. On pouring water on quicklime,
iliere is an augmentation of bulk, and the two enter into combiuatiou ; and if the pro-
Dortion of water be not too great, a light, white, dry po>\der is foimed, and a great heat
is evolved. On exposing the hydrate to a red heat, the water is expelled, and quicklime
is left.
If qaicklime, instead of being treated with water, is simply exposed to the air, it
slowly attracts both aqueous vapor and carbonic acid, and becomes what is termed air-
daked, the resulting compound in this case being a powder which is a mixture (or pos-
sibly a combination) of carbonate and hydrate of lime.
Lime is about twice as soluble in cold as in boiling water, but even cold water only
takes up about ^iir of its weight of lime. This solution is known as lime-tcater, and is
much employea both as a medicine and as a test for carbonic acid, which instantly
readers it turbid, in consequence of the carbonate of lime that is formed being more
insoluble even than lime itself. It must, of course, be kept carefully guarded from the
atmosphere, the carlionic acid of which would rapidly afiect it. If, in the preparation
of slaked lime, considerably more water is used than is necessary to form the hydrate, a
white semi-fluid matter is produced, which is termed miUcofUme. On allowing it to
stand, there is a deposition of hydrate of lime, above which is lime-water.
The use of lime in the preparation of mortars and cements is described in the articles
on these •subjects. Lime is also largely employed as a manure (see below), and in the
purification of coal gas. in the preparation of hides for tanning, for various laboratory
processes (from its power of attracting water), etc. Its medicinal uses am noticed
below.
The following are the most important of the salts of lime. Sulpliate of lime (CaO, SOs)
occurs free from water in the mineml anJiydrite, but is mucli more abundant in combi-
nation with two equivalents of water in aelenite, and in the different varieties ot gypsum
and alabaster. Bee Qtpsuu.
Oarbonaie of lime (CaO,CO0 is abundantly present in both the inorganic and orgjinic
kingiioms. In the inorganic kingdom it occurs in a crystalline form in Iceland spar.
Ara.:^ontte, and marble — in which it is found in minute granular crystals — while in the
amorphoas condition it forms the different varieties of limestone, chalk, etc. It is
always present in the ashes of plants, but here it is, at all events, in part the result of
the combustion of citrates, acetates, malates, etc., of lime. It is the main constituent of
the shells of crustaceans and moUusks, and occurs in considerable quantity in the bones
of man and other vertebrates. Carbonate of lime, held in solution by free carbonic acid,
is also present in most spring and river waters, and in sea- water. Stalactites, stalagmites,
tufa, and travertin are ail composed of this salt, deposited from calcareous waters.
Certsiin forms of carbonate of lime — the Portland and other oolites, some of the mag-
nesian limestones, etc. — are of extreme value for building purposes, and the various
uses of the finer marbles (q.v.) are too well known to require comment.
There is a combination of lime with an organic acid, viz., oxalate of lime, which is
of great importance in pathology as a freqnent constituent of urinary calculi and sedi-
ments; for a description of it see Oxalic Acid.
The soluble salts of lime (or, more accurately speaking, of calcium) give no precipi-
tate with tunmonia. but yield a white precipitate (of carbonste of lime) with carbonate
of potash or of soda. These reactions are, however, common to the salts of barium,
strontium, and calcium. Solution of sulphate of lime produces no maiked effect when
added to a salt of calcium, but throws down a white sulphate with the other salts. The
most delicate test for lime is oxalate of ammonia, which, even in very dilute neutral or
alkaline solutions, throws down a white precipitate of oxalate of lime.
There are several compounds of -phosphoric acid and lime, of which the most impor-
tant is the batie phosphate ofUme, sometimes termed bone phosphate, from its being the
chief ingredient of bones. The baiiic phosphate is represented by the formula 8CaO,POft,
and not only occurs in bones, but also in the minerals apatite and phosphorite, and in
the rounded ooduk» termed coprolites. which are found in the Norfolk cntg. It forms
four-fifths of the ash of well-burned bone, the remaining one-fifth being carbonate of
lime. This ash is known as bone-earth, and is employed as a manure and in the prepa-
ration of phosphorus, etc.
The substance commcmly designated as chloride ofUme has been already described in
the article BLBACHmo Powder.
Lime ae Manure. — This mineral substance has been used for many centuries as a
means of increasing the fertility of land. All crops require a certain amount, as is found
by analyzing the ash which remains after combustion. It is sometimes supplied, with-
out previous preparation, in the form of marl and dtialk, but in most cases is first cal-
cined and reauced to a fine powder by slaking with water. The quantity of calcined
lime applied varies from three to eight tons to the acre. The smaller quantity may be
tofficient for light land containing little vegetable matter, while the larger may be
Digitized" by VjOUV IC
I'ime. Oft
Limerick. ^^
required for strong Lind. or for land holding much organic matter in an Inert state. The
large quantity of hine applied shows that its manuiial^ffect is due more to its producing
a certain ciiemical effect on tlie land than to its affording nutriment to the crops. Lime
promotes the decomposition of all kinds of vcgetahle matter in the boil, and, further, it
corrects any acidity in the oi^anic matter, and thus destroys those weeds which are
favored iiy sucli a condition oftlie soil. It assists in the decomposition of certain salts
Avhose bases form the food of plants, and in this way it may be said to digest or prepare
their food. On ceitaiu liinds of land, the liner grasses do not thrive untU the land has
been limed, and in these cuses its use becomes all-important. Lime is the only cui^, too,
that C2m l)e relied on for **liuger-and-toe " in turnips, and its use is, from this cause,
becoming more general.
JJjnt-Compouu(U in Materia Mediea, — Quicklime, in association with potash, either as
i)i<Qpoiw»a cum calce, or as Vtenna pttste, is occasionally used as a caustic. JJme-vHtter,
mixed with an equal quantity or an excess of milk, is one of our best remedies for the
vomiting dependent on iriitabilily cf the stomach. From half an ounce to two or three
ounces may be thus taken three or four times a day. Its use as a constituent of carron
oil in burns is noticed in tlie article Likimbnts. Cfuslk, or carbonate of Ume^ when freed
from the impurities with which it is often associated, is used as a dusting-powder in
moist excoriations, ulcers, etc. ; and in the form of cJmlk mixture and eomptncnd powder
of chalk, iBa|H)pular remidy in viirious forms of diarrhea. A mixture of an ounce of
precipitated carbonate of lime and a quarter of an ounce of finely powdered camphor, is
sold as campJwrated cretaceous tooth-^icder.
LIXE, Citrvs acida, a fruit similar to the lemon (q.v.), but much smaller, being only
about 1^ inches in diameter, and almost globular, with a thin rind, and an extregiely acid
juice. It is rc^rded by many botanists as a variety of the same species with the .citron
and lemon. The plant'does not attain the magnitude of a tree, but is a shrub of about
8 ft. in lieight, with a crooked trunk, and many spreading prickly bnmclies. It is a
native of India and China, but has long been cultivated in the West Indies, the s. of
Europe, etc. In the West Indies, it is planted both for the stike of its fruit and for
hedges. The fruit ia used for the same purposes as the lemon; but its acid is by many
reckoned more a^rreeable. Lime-juice is imported into Britain like lemon-juice for the
manufacture of citric acid, ahd it is itself used as a beverage. — The sweet lime (67. limetta
of Bisso), cultivated in the s. of Europe, appears to bs a mere variety, probably the result
of cultivation, with a sub-acid pulp.
LIKE, or Linden, Tilia, a genus of trees of tho natural order tHiacea, natives of
Europe, the n. of Asia, and North America. The species are very similar; graceful,
umbrageous trees; with deciduous, heart-shaped, serrated leaves, and cymes or panicles
of rather Finall vcllowisii flowers: each c^ine or panicle accompanied w^th a lar^,
oblong, 3'ellowish. membranous bractea, with netted veins, the lower part of which
adheres to tlie flower-stalk. The wood is light and soft, but tough, durable, and partic-
ularly suitable for carved work. It is much used l)y turners, and for making pill-hoxes.
The charcoal made of it is often used for tooth-powder, for medicinal purposes, for cray-
ons, and for the manufacture of pinpowder. The use of tho fibrous inner bnrk for
making ropes, mats, and other plaited work, is noticed in the article Bast. It is also
used as a healing appliciition to wounds and sores, being very mucilaginous, and nliound-
in^ in a l>land sap. The leaves aro in some countries used as food for cattle, but cows
fed on them produce luid butter. The fiowers have an agreeable odor, nnd abound in
honey, much sought after by bees. The celebrated Kownohoney, much valued for medi-
cinal use and for making liqueurs, is the produce of ^reat lime forests near Eowno, in
Lithuania. The infusion and distilled water of the dried flowers are gently sudorific and
antispasmodic. The former is in Fnmce a popular remedy for catarrhs. The seeds
abound in a fixed sweet oil. — The European Limb, or Linden {T. Eurnptfn), often
attains a large size, particularly in rich alluvial soils. 8omo Imtnnists distinguish a
small -leaved kind (71 parvifoUa or microphylia) and a large-leaved (21 grandifotia) ns dif-
ferent species; othei-s regiird them as mere varieties.. The Hooded or Cafuchtn Ltmk
is an interesting monstrous varietv. The lime tree is often planted for shade in towns:
and the principal street of Berlin is called Unter den Linden, from tho rows of lime trees
which line it. The lime is a very doubtful native of Britain, althongh indigenous on
the continent from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean. In Britain, the lime tree is gen-
erally propagated by layers. — The American Limb (T, Americana, or T. glabra), com-
monly called BABSWdoD in America, has larger leaves than the European species. It
abounds on the shores of lakes Erie and Ontario. Other species take its place in more
western nnd more southern regions.
LIM EBICK, an inland co. of the province of Munster. in Ireland, separated by the
Shannon on the n. from Clare, and bounded on the e. by Tipperary, on the s. by Cork,
and on the w. l»y Kerry. Its extreme length is 86 m., its broadlh 54 m. ; area, 1064
sq.m . or 680, 84i acres. Pop. 71. inclusive of tlie city of Limerick, 191,986; of whom
liT.S'^O were Roman Catholics. The county returns two memlHTs to pnrlinmcnt. The
surfnce of Limerick is an undulating plain, which forms part of the c<'ntnd carbonifer-
ous limestone plain of Ireland. A mountainous district on the w. lielongs to the great
coaUtract of Munster, but the coal is of an infeiior quality, and is chiefly used for the
Digitized by VjOOV VC
37 Lime.
< Lliu«rlek»
burning of lime. Within a sliort distance of the city of Limerick is a ouarry wliich
pn>duces a redd isli- brown marble of fine quality, as well ns a black niurblc of inferior
Tslue. More than one of the districts contains mm. copper, and It ad ores; but at pres-
ent no miniug operations are carried on. The soil in gt-ncral is very rcriile, especially
the district called the Golden Yale, which comprises upwards of lAO.OOO acies; us also
a portion of the left bank of the Shannon below Linunck. Of the entire i.cri iiiie of the
county. 526.876 acres are arable, and 121,101 unsuited to cultivation. In iiinual Iho
soil is equally fitted for tillage and for pasture. In 1876 172,i)4l acres weie under cropB
of various kinds, only 858 being reported fallow. In the same year the number of cjit-
tlewas200,a08; of sheep. 70.000: and of pigs. 66.180. The national schools in 1875
were attended by 37.444 pui)ils, of whom 36,682 were Roman Catholics.
The prineipjii towns of Limerick are the city of that name, Newcastle, and Rath-
kealc. Of the secondary rivers, the Deel and the Naigue are the most in poitant. '\ he
gnat highway of water-communication, however, is the Sluniron itself, tLe navigation
of which has been much improved, and in which the harbor ( f Foyi.es promi.^'es to form
the nucleus of an extended foreign trade. Limerick cimmunicates by railway with
Dublin, Wuterford, Cork, and Eunis. The popuLttion is cirutiy occupied in a.uricul-
tare, hardly any manufactures existing outside the cit}'. Limerick anciently formed
part of the temtory of Thomoud. the princi] ality of the O'Briens. Alter the English
mvasion, it fell, through mimv vicissitudes, in great part to the Desmond Fitzgeralds —
the confiscated est^ites of the last earl in Limerick coi.tair.rd no fewer thnn 96,165 acres.
On the forfeitures after 1641 and 1690, it was paiceled out to new proprietors. Lim-
erick is more than U2»ually rich in antiquities, both ecclesiastical nr.d civil, of the Celtic
as well :is of the Anglo-Norman period. There weie at one time nearly 40 religious
foun^tions of the O'Briens alone, and the ruins of about HO castles are still in exist-
ence. The ecclesiastical remains of Adare are exceedingly' iniensting, two of the
ancient churches having been restored, one as the Piotestaut, the other as the Catholic
parish church. Two other monastic ruins, in very good preservation, form a group of
ecclesiastical remains hardly surpassed, in number and picturcsqueuess, even in tho
most favored districts of England.
LDIEBICX, city, capital of the county just dcFcribcd, is situated on the river Shan-
non, 120 ui. W.S.W. from Dublin, with whi(h it is connected by the great Southern and
Western railway. Pop. in '51, 58.448; in '01. 44.026: in '71, 89.U58, of whom 18.022
were males, and 21.831 females. More than 90 per cent were Roman Catholics. Lim-
erick is a parliamentary and municipal borough, and returns two menibeis to parliament.
It occupies both sides of tie Shannon, toccther with a tiact called King's island, vvhich
Ucs on a bifurcation of the river; and is (Tivided into the English town, the oldest part
of the city (and connected with the extensive suburb called 1 h< mond Gate, on the Clare
side of the Shannon), and the Irish town, which, within the present century, has extended
on the s. bank of the river into what is row the best part of Limeric k, called the new
town, or Kewtown Pery, one of tlie handsomest towns in Ireland. Limerick is a j)laco
of great antiquity. From its position on the Shannon, it was long an object of oesire
to the Danes, who occupied it in the mi()dlc of the 9ih c, and held possession till
reduced to a tributary condition by Brian Boroimhe. in the end of the 10th century. It
was early occupied by the English, and in 1210 king John visited and fortified it. It
was afterwards assaulted and piutially burned in 1814 by Edward Bruce. Its later his-
tory is still more interesting. It was occupied by the Catholic party in 1641, but sur-
ienden»fl to Ireton in 1651. At the rcTolntion. it was the last siton.airold of king James.
Having been unsuccesstully bcsiegi'd hv William after the victory of the Boyne, it was
reffularly invented in ^''Cl'bygen. Ginkel, and after a vigorous"^ and biilliant defense
of several weeks, an ami 1st ice was propose<l, which led to the well-known ** treaty of
Limerick,'* the alleged violation of which has been the subject of frequent and acrimo-
nious contn>versy between political parties in Ireland. The so called "treaty stone"
still marks the spot, near Thomond bridgt*. at the cntranre of the suburb of Tlioinond
Gate, where this treaty was signed. The modern city of Limerick is more tasteful in
its general character, and possesses more of tho appliances of c< mmcrcial cnterpriFO
and social culture than most towns of Ireland. Its public buildings, esp< cially the new
Roman Catholic cathedral and church of the Redcmpiorist order, are imposing, and in
exct»llent taste. Its charitable and religious establishments are truly niuuificc nt for a
provincial town. It possesses several ^national sehj>ols, as well as many other educa-
tional institutions. Tho Shannon at Limerick is still a noble river, navigable for ships
of large burden. The docks and quays are on a very extensive and cr nimc dious scale;
and the export trade is conducted with consid'-nible'^enterprise. The Welle>hy bridge,
over the harbor, cost £85,000. The inland navigation is by means of a canal to Killaloe,
where it enters lough Derg, and thence by the upper Shiinnon to Athhrnc. and by tho
Grand canal, which issues from the Shannon at Shannon liarbor. to Dublin. Tho
manufactures of Limerick arc not very extensive, but some o'f them enjoy rot merely
an Irish, but an imperial reputation — such are the manufactures of lace, of gloves, and
of fish-hooks. There arc several iron-foundries, flour-mills, breweries, disiilleres. ard
tanneries, and of late ^-ears the shipbuilding trade has been extended. In 1875 576
vessels, of 138,456 tons, entered, and 354, of 88,811 tons cleared ^J^j^ii^g^Jl; VjOUVIC
Ijlmestone. OQ
Limits. ^^
LIM£8T0KE, the popular as well as technica. name for all rocks which are composed
in whole, or to a large extent, of carbonate of lime. Few minerals are so extensively
distributed in nature as this, and in some form or other, limestone roclvs occur in every
geological epocii. Carbonate of lime is nearly insoluble in pure water, but it is reu-
dercd easily soluble by the presence of carbonic acid gas, which occurs in a variable
quantity in all natural waters, for it is absorbed by water in its passage through the
air as well as through the earth. Carbonale of lime in solution is consequently found
in all rivers, lakes, and seas. In evaporation, water and carbonic acid gas are given off,
but the carbonate of lime remains uninfluenced, becoming gradually coucentmted. until
it has supersaturated the water, when a precipitation t^'lces place. In this way are
formed the stalactites which hang icicle-like from the roofs of limestone caverns, and
the stalagmites which rise as columns from their floors. Travertine (Tiber-stone), or
calcareous tufa, is similarly formed in running streams, lakes, and springs, by the
deposition of the carbonate of lime on the beds or sides, where it incrusts and binds
together shells, fragments of wood, leaves, stones, etc. So also birds' nests, wigs, and
other objects become coated with lime in the so-called petrifying wells, as tliat at
Knaresborough. From the same cause, pipes conveying water from boilers and mines
often become choked up, and the tea-kettle gets lined with "fur."
While water is thus the great store-house of carbonate of lime, very little of it, how-
ever, is fixed by precipitation, for in the ocean evaporation does not take place to such
an extent as to permit it to deposit, besides there is five times the quantity of free
carbonic acid gas in the water of the sea that is required to keep the carbonate of lime
in it in solution. Immense (quantities of lime are nevertheless being abstracted from
the sea to form the hard portions of the numerous animals which inhabit it. Crustacea,
mollusca, zoophytes, and foraminifera are ever busy separating the little particles of
carbonate of lime from the water, and solidifying them, and so supplying the materials
for forming solid rock. It has been found that alar^e portion of the bed of the Atlantic
between Europe and North America is covered with a light-colored ooze, comj^osed
chiefly of the perfect or broken skeletons of foi-aminifera, forming a substance, when
dried, which, in appearance and structure, closely resembles chalk. In tropical regions,
corals are building reefs of enormous magnitude, corresponding in structure to many
rocks in the carboniferous and other formations. The rocks thu* organically formed
do not always occur as they were originally deposited; denudation has sometimes
broken them up to redeposit them as a calcareous sediment. Great changes, too, may
have taken place through metamorphic action in the texture of the rock, some lime-
stones being hard, others soft, some compact, concretionary, or crystalline.
The chief varieties of limestone are: chalk (q.v.); oolite (q.v.); compact limestone^ a
hard, smooth, fine-grained rock, generally of a bluish-gray color; cryttdUine limestone, a
rock which, from metamorphic action, has become granular; fine-grained white varie-
ties, resembling loaf-sugar in texture, are called saccharine or statuary marble. Magne-
sian Umeatone or dolomite (q.v.) is a rock in which carbonate of magnesia is mixed with
carbonate of lime. Particular names are given to some limestones from the kind of
fossils that abound in them, as nummulite, hippurite, indiisial, and crinoidal lime-
stones; and to others from the formation to which they belong, as Devonian, carbonif-
erous, and mountain limestones.
LIMESTONE, a co. in n. Alabama, having the state line of Tennessee for its n.
boundary, the Tennessee river for its s., and for its s.w. the Elk river, flowing across
the n. w. portion to enter tlie Tennessee; is drained by various other affluents; 650 sq.m.;
pop. 'SO, ^1,600—21,523 of American birth, 9,962 colored. It is intersected centrally
from n. to s. by the Nashville and Decatur railroad, and crossed in the s.e. section by
the Memphis and Charleston railroad, Joining at the Tennessee river. It contains vast
auantities of limestone rock, from which the countjr is named. Its surface is hilly, par-
cularly in the n., and equally divided into prairie and woodland. Cash value of
farms in 70, $1,816,510, numbering 1363. Its products are live slock, every variety of
grain, tobacco, cotton, wool, sweet potatoes, honey, sorghum, and the products of the
dairy. Seat of justice, Athens.
LIMESTONE, a co. in e. Texas, intersected from n. to s. by the Houston and Texas
Central railroad; 950 sq.m.; pop. *80, 16,246— 15.959 of American birth, 3,171 colored.
It is drained by the heaif waters of the Navasoto river. Its surface is undulating, spread-
ing in sections into bfoad prairies, with little limber. It has immense quantities of lime-
stone rock, hence its name. Its soil is strong and fertile, producing oats, com, cotton,
wheat, sugar cane, wool, sweet potatoes, and live stock. Cash value of farms in 70.
(1,121,890, numbering 488. Seat of justice, Groesbeck.
LIM7I0BD. SeeDENMABK.
LIKITATIOK, in English law, is the limited time allowed to parties to commence
their suits or actions, or other proceedings, so as to shorten litiffation. In all civilized
countries, some period is prescribed by statute (called statutes of limitations, or prescrip-
tion) with this view, though few countries adopt the same limit, and Scotland differs
much from England and Ireland in this point. In England, suits to recover land must
generally be brought within 20 years, and to recover debts (including bills of
• Ki Umentone.
•*^ Limits.
exchange) and damages within six years. Actions for assault or battery mast be brought
within four years, and for slander within two years. In Scotland, prescriplioti is the
word generally used for limitation, and actions to recover land geneniliy must be
brought wilhin 40 years fur many ordinary debts witliin three year$, but for bills of
excbunge within six years. There are many other differences of detail. See Paterson's
Compendium of EttglM and Scotch Law,
LIMITATION, in law (ante). The "statute of limitations'* was passed in the 28d
jear of James I. (1623). and its provisions have been substantially incorporated into the
statutes of the American states. Actions in regard to real propci ty must be brought
within 20 years after the ri^ht of entry or of action accrues. If the person having such
right be under any disability at the time such right accrues, the statute will not run
till such disability be removed. An uninterrupted adverse possession for20 years under a
ckim of right will bar the real owner of his rights in the property. Such possession
must be known to the real owner, either actually or constructively, and must be with-
out his consent; and the claim must be well known, and of a definitely bounded and
2k»certiiinable estate. Properly speaking, a mortgager's possession is not adverse to that
of the mortgagee, as the relation between them is more m the nature of a tcnaucy ; and
such possesion is, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, supposed to be permissive.
But where either mortgager or mortgagee has been in possession for the sttUutory time,
without any interest being paid or account rendered, and without any acknowledg-
ment of or reference to the rights of the other, the right of the mortgager to redeem or
of the mortgagee to foreclose will generally, in the absence of fnuul, be barred. The
limitation to most personal actions is six years, so that an adverse possession of personal
property for six years creates a good title. In the case of slander for words actionable
without proof of special damage, the statutory limitation is two 3'ears. Tlio statute
in all cases begins to run from the time the action accrues; which is, iu contracts, upon
breach of the same; in trover, the time of the tortious conversion, etc. On a promis-
sory note, the statute begins to run at the expiration of the days of grace if grace be
allowed, or on sight, notice, demand, or so many days after, according to the terms of
the note. But on a note payable so many days from demand, etc., the demand, etc.,
must be made within six years. An action begins upon tho reception of the writ by
the sheriff or deputy, and if the service of the writ he deficient through such officers
fault, or any inevitable accident, an additional time of a year or thereabouts is generally
allowed by statute to the plaintiff to bring his action again. In libel, and assault anci,
as has been seen, in slander, the period of limitation is ^xed at two years. In many of
the United States this latter limit is fixed also for actions against executors and adminls-
tratoi-s, though in general equity exempts trust, from the operation of tho statute. A
new promise to pay a debt taKes it out of the statute, but such a promise will not
prevent the application of the statute to the interest on the principal of sudi debt.
LIMITED LIABILITY. See Joint-stock Companiss^ ante; and LiABfiiiTT.
LI1IIT8, Theoby op. The importance of the notion of a limit in mathematics can-
not be over-estimated, as many branches of the science, including the dififercntial
calculus and its adjuncts, consist of nothing else than tracing the consequences which
flow from this notion. The following are simple illustrations of the idea: The sum of
the series 1 + i + i+i'l' ^^^^ approaches nearer and nearer to 2 as the number of terms
is increased; thus,' the several sums are li, If, 1|, 1|{, etc., each sum always differing
from 2 by a fraction equal to the last of the terms which have been added ; ana since each
denominator is double of the preceding one, the further the series is extended, the less
the difference between its sum and 2 becomes; also this difference may be made smaller
than any assignable quantity — say, TinAnrv> — ^^y n[terely extending the series till the last
denominator becomes greater than 100,(X)0 (for this, we need only take 18 terms; 8 terms
more will give a difference less than T&vTtnnr> ^^^ ^ ^^)'* ^S^^^> ^^^ sum of the series
can neYer be greater than 2, for the difference, though steadily diminishing, still sub-
sists; under these circumstances, 2 is said to be the limit of the sum of the series. We
see, then, that the criteria of a limit are, that the series, when extended, shall approach
nearer and nearer to it in value, and so that the difference can be made as small as we please.
Again, the area of a circle is greater than that of an inscribed hexagon, and less than
that of a circumscribed hexagon; but if these polygons be converted into figures of 12
sides, the area of the interior one will be increased, and that of the exterior dimin-
ished, the area of the circle always continuing intermediate in position and value; and
as the number of sides is increased, each polygon approaches nearer and nearer to the
circle in size; and as, when the sides are equal, this difference can be made as small as
we please, the circle is said to be the limit of an equilateral polygon the number of
whose aides is increased indefinitely; or. in another form of words commonly used " the
polygon approaches the circle as its limit, when its sides increase without limit," or
sfliin, " when the number of sides is infinite, the polygon becomes a circle."
When we use the terms *' infinite" and "zero " in mathemati(!S, nothing more is meant
than that the quantity to which the term is applied is increasing without limit or diminish-
ing indefinite^; and if this were kept in mind there would be much leas confusion in the
ideas connected with these terms. From the same cause has arisen the discus-
sion concerning the possibility of what are called vanishing fractions (i.e.. fractions
Umina. a(\
Uucoln. *^
whose numerator and denominator become zero simnllaneously) having real values;
thus 7=7^. when a: = 1 ; but by division we find that the fraction is equal to a? 4- 1.
which = 2, when a; = 1^ Now, this discussion could never have arisen had the question
** — 1
been interpreted rigli I ly, as follows: ^ — — -r approaches to 3 as its limit, when x con-
tinually approaches 1 as its limit, a proposition which can be proved trueby Rubslituting
successively 8, 2, li. If, 1^^^, J Tin. etc., wlu*n the corrfspoiiding values of I lie frjiclion
are 4 8, 2^, 2^, 2A. 2jJ^. etc. The doctrine of limits is employed in the diff'trcntial
calculus (q. v.). The lK*st and most complete lllustraticins of it nre found in Nowion's
Pnndpia, atul in the chapters on maxima and minimn, curves, summation of series, and
integration, genemlly, in the ordinary works on the calculus.
LIH'MA, an interval which, on account of its exceeding Fmnllnoss, does not nppc^r
in the prac ice of modern music, but which, in the mathematical calculation of the pro-
portions of different intervals, is of the greatest importance. The limma makes its
appearance in three different magnitudes— viz., the great limma, which is ihe difiference
between (he Inrgu whole tone and the small semitone, being in the proportion of 27 to
25; the small limma. which is the diffi-rcnce U'tween the great whole tone and the great
semitone, being in the proportion of 185 to 188; and the Pythagorean limma, wliicli is
the difference hetwecu the great third of the ancients (which consisted of two whole
tones) and the perfect fourth, the proportion of which is as 256 to 248.
LIMNJE'A (Gr. llmne, a swamp), a genus of gastcropodous mol]nsl<8 of the order pul-
ftumata., giving iis rame to a family, UmnottdtB, allie<l xohdicidm (snails), liwacufce (slugs),
etc. The species of this family are numerous, and almund in fresh waters in all parts of
the worhl. They feed on vegetable substimces. They all have a thin, delicate.*. Ijorn-
colored shell, capable of containing the whole animal when retracted, but vaiying very
much in form in the diffeient genera: being produced into a somewhat clnngalccl f^pire
in the true i<'m/i«B (Pond-snatls). whilst in pianoi-innihc spire is coiled in the same plane^
and in aneylas (IhvKR Limpets) it is limpet-shaped, with a somewhat produc-ed and
recurved tip. Many of the Umnceadahxvm a habit of Doaling and gliding shell down-
wards at the surface of the water, as may readily be observed in a fresh-water aquarium,
in which they are of givaluse in prventing the excessive growth of confervoids, and
removing all decaying vegetable matter, lijey serve the same purpose in the economy
of nature in lakes, ponds," an<i rivei-s, nnd furnish food for fishes; They are heniiapliro-
dite. They deposit their eggs on stones or aquatic plants, enveloped in masses of a
glairy suhstance. The development of the young mollusk may eawly be watched in the
aquarium, the membrane of the egg being perfectly transparent.
LIICKO'BIA., a genus of ci-ustjicea of the order i8r>poda, containing only one known
specie.**, which, however, is important from the nuschief it does to piers, ilock-gates, and
other wooil-work immersed in the water of the sea. on the coasts ot Britain, and of some
parts of con tine ntjd Europe. It is only about a sixth of an inch in length, of an ash-
gray color, with black eyes, which ani composed of numerous ocellf, placed clo^e
together. The head is broad. The legs are short. The general appearance u senibles
that of a small wood-louse, and the creature rolls itself up in the same manner, if seized.
The contents'of the stomach consist of comminuted wrod, and food is the <ibjeet of the
perfonition of wood for which the linmoria is notable. Mr. Stevenson f<»uiid it very
troublesome during the operations connected Av it h the buildiig of the Boll rock liiiht-
house. The piers at Soutliampton have suffered gn»atly from it. The kyanizing of wood
and other expedients have been resorted to, to prevent its ravages.
LIMOGES, cnpitnl of the department of Haute-Vienne, in Firnce, nnd of the former
province of Limousin, picturestjuely situat<'d on a hill in the valley of the Vienna*, 67 m.
s.e. of Poictiers. It is an ancient city, and the seat of a bish(»p. It hns a cathedral, begun
in the 13th c. but still incomplete*: a number of .teientitlc and benevolent institutions
and public buildings; considerable manufactin-es of porcelain (eni]iloying 2,()(»0 hands),
of druggets, of a kind of pack-thread known asLimo<res, etc. It Mas the Augu^toiitum
of the Uomans, and afterwards received the name of Lemovica. wlunee the prefcnt
Limoges. Before the French revolution it had more than 4tJ convents. Pop. *70,
65,097.
LIM'.OXITE. See TTematite, ante.
LIMOUSIN, a small province of old France, now comprised in the departments of
the Hauie-Viennc and Correze, Limoges l>eing the principal town of the fornierniMl
Tulle of the latter. It U a hilly. elevute<l plateau, about 1700 ft. above the sea. traversed
by spurp or ridges branching from the mountains of Auvepj-ne. and furrowed by numer-
ous small streams having their sources in the hills, and fl<»wing to the bay of Kiscny.
The siirface is mainly gnmitic, ofien sterile. The elimsite Is moist and changCMble. The
poverty of the .soil luis always enforced continual migrations of its iuhabiiants, whoso
peculiar hmguage, allied to the Spanish, always marks their nativity.
LIMOUX (ancient fAmottum), a t. of France, in the department of Aude, in the center
of a fertile valley, on tho left bank of the Aude, 52 m. s.e. from Toulouse. There are
Digitized by VjOUV IC
^^ /Uaoola.
mamifftctarcs of fine brondcloths, yarn factories, tanneries. dye-irork«. etc. The neigh-
horbcjoci pnMtures a much esteemed white sparkling wine, known ns Uiniquette de
Limoujr, which rivals champagne in excelleuce. Diligences ply regularly to Toulouse,
CoFcassoiiuc, and Foix. Pop. '76, 6,037.
LIMPET, P.iielin, a genus of casteropodous raollusks, of the order eye^obranchiata,
the ty|)c of tlic family pateUidm. in all this family the siiell is nearly conical, nol spiral,
ftnil has a wide mouth, and the npex turned forwards. The animal has a large round or
oral muscular foot, by which it adheres firmly to rocks, the power of creating a vacuum
being aided b^ a viscous secretion. Limpets* live on rocky ooasts, lietween tide-marks,
and remain lirmly tlxed to one spot when the tide is out, as their gills cannot bear
exposure U) the air, but move about when the water covers them; many of them, how-
ever, it would SL*em, remaining long on the same spot, which in soft calcareous nicks is
found hollowed to tueir exact form. They feed on algse, which they eat by means of a
k>ng ribbon-like tongue, covered with numerous rows of iiard teeth ; tlie Common Limpet
(P. valgarU) of the British consts having no fewer than 100 rows of teeth on its tongue,
12 in each ro\v — 1920 teeth in alL The tongue, when not in use. lies folded deep in the
interior of tlie animal. The gills are aiTanged under the margin of the mantle, between
it and tlie foot, forming a circle of leaflets. The sexes are distinct. — The power of
adherence of limpets to the rock is very great, so that, unless surprised by sudden .seizure,
tliey are not easily removud without violence sufficient to break the shell. The species
are'numerous, and exhibit many varieties of form and color. The common limpet is
most abundant on the rocky coaists of Britain, and is much used for bait by tiehermen;
it U also used for food. Some of the limpets of warmer climates have very beautiful
shells. A siiccics found on the western coast of South America has a shell a foot wide^
which is oft'U used as a basin.
miPOFO. See Oobi.
iniA'€E£. Bee Flax.
LIN' ACRE, Thomas. 1460-1534; b. Canterbury; studied ntOxfonl; becnmo fellow
of All SouU' college in 4484; went to Florence atid studied Qreek and Latin with the
ablest te;ichers; removed to Rome and applied himself to natural philosophy ami medi-
cine, studying chiefly the works of Aristotle and Galen, and transhiting some of Galen's
tresitises. Returning to England he received the degree of d.d. and the ap;K>iMtment of
professor of physic from Oxford university; was "called to the court by Henry VII.
and made physician and tutor to prince Arthur; was subsequently physician to Henry
VII., Henrv VlIL, and princess Mary. He founded two lectures on physic in the reign
of Henry VlII. at Oxford, and one at Cambridge. In 1518, through his influence, the
college of physicians in London was founded, and he was its first president, holding the
office till his death. With Colet. Lily, Grocyn, and Lalymer he restored classical learn-
ing in England. Lute in life he studied divinity, and was in 1509 rector of Mersham and
pa»ljend of Wells; in 1518 was prebend and in 1519 precentor in the churc". of York.
His most celebrate<l works are his Latin tntnslations from Galen, among wiiich are De
Temperaments; De tuend/i Sanitate; Da Methodo Mederuli, His other works are a
tninsLition of Proclus de Spltmra; De Emeiidata Structura Latini SermonU LibH Sex.
He was buried in St. Paul's cathedral, where Dr. Cains erected a monument to his
memory. In his literary character he held a very high rank, and as a physician his skill
was unsurpassed.
LIHA'BES, a t of Spain, in tlie province of Jaen, 24 m. n.n.e. from Jaen. The neigh-
borhood was celebi-ated in ancient times for its mines of copper and lend, which arc still
very productive. A fine fountain which adorns the town is supposed to be Roman.
Pop. 15,000 to 18,000.
LINCOLN, a co. in s.e. Arkansas, having the Arkansas river, near its confluence
with tiie MissisMppi. for its n.e. Imundary, is traversed diagonally by the biiyou Barthol*
omew; GOOsq.m.; pop. *80. 9.255— 0.198 of AmericjUi birth. 5.044 colored. Its surface
b level: the rich, nutritious gross of its prairies, being shaded for long distances near the
water-courses by groves of ash ami cypress, affords good pastunige; and the soil produces
otton and corn. It is intersected by the Little Rock, Mississippi River and Texas rail-
way in the n.e. seclion. Seat of justice. Star City.
LINCOLN, a co. in s.e. Dakotah, having the Big Sioux river for its e. boundary, sep-
arating it from Iowa, and for its s.w. boi-dcr the Vermilion river; nliout 560 8q*m.; pop.
*80, 5,807—4,118 of American birth. It is thinly timbered; its plains producing buck-
whesit, barley, the ])roflucls of tlie dairy. oaU*. corn, and wheat. Some attention is paid
to the raising of live stock. Seal of justice, Canton.
LINCOLN, a co. in n.e. Georgia, having the Savannah river for its north-eastern
border. sep;iraiing it from the stiue of South Carolina, and Broad river, a tributary of the
Savantmh. for its northern Ixnindary; is also drained by Little river, itssoutliem and
southeastern lioundary Ibie; 300 sq.m.; pop. '80, 6,413-— 6,405 of American birth, 4,157
colored. Its surface is hilly, comprising large tracts of woodland; the quality of the
•oil varying in different sections, producing in the most favoralile Icxsalities wine, sweet
potatoes, wool, oats, wheat, cotton, and Indian corn, and offering flue pasturage for
Digitized by VjOC^LC
UaoolB. ^-^
Stock. It prodaced in 70. 1865 lbs. of honey. It contains vast qtinntities of granite;
gold is found, iron ore. and u kind of slate used for liones. It had in 7^^, 1 g<»l<l quarts
mine, employing 11 men, with a capital of $30,000 and annual product of $7,000. Seat
of justice, Lincoiuton.
LINCOLN, a co. in n. Kansas, watered by the Saline river, an affluent of the Kansas
river, is also drained by Wolf creek and affluents of the Soloman river; 720 sq.in. ; pop.
'80, 8,582. Its surface spreads out into limitlej^ fertile plains, in many portions coy-
ered with timber, in others sinking into stilt marshes or rising into low liilU. Mn^i^ncsia
is a component piu't of the limestone that forms the foundation of the soil, which pro-
duces corn, wheat, wool, dairy products, and affording fine paslui-age is well adapted
to the raising of stock. Seat of justice, Lincoln.
LINCOLN, a co. in s. Kentucky, watered by Dicks river, an affluent of the Ken-
tucky, and the head-waters of Green river, is intersected by the Knoxvillc line of the
Louisville and Nashville railroad, forming a junction at its county seal, in the n.o. sec-
tion, witb the Richmond and Stanford branch; also the Cincinnati Southern in the w.
and 8.; 400 sq.m.; pop. '80. 16, 079—14, 992 of American birth, 3,908 colored. Its surface
is hilly and lUinly timbered ; its soil, of a calcareous formation, producing the blue pjrass
of the prairie, flax, maple sugar, sorghum, sweet potatoes, tobacco, wool, corn, rye,
wheat, and the products of the dairy. It produced in '70, 10,780 lbs. of honey. Cattle,
sheep, and swine are raised. Cash value of farms in 70, $4,002,549, numbering 597,
including one of 1000 acres. It had in '70, 64 manufacturing establishments, wIlIi a
capital of $90,350, and an annual product of $258,677. Among its industries are the
manufacture of woolen goods, saddlery, and harness. It has distilleries, saw mills, and
steam giist mills. Seat of justice, Stanford.
LINCOLN, a parish in n.w. Louisiana, formed 1873; is drained by the head-waters
of the Dugdemona river, the Saline bayou, tlie bayou d'Arbonne, ana numerous afflu-
ents of the Washita river; about 550 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 11.075—11,048 of American birth,
4,900 colored. It is composed of portions of the counties of Bienville, Jackson, Union,
and Claiborne. Its surface is uneven, and its soil has all the elements of fertility. Seat
of justice, Vienna.
LINCOLN, a co. in s. Maine, having numerous inlets of the Atlantic ocean, which
lies on its s. boundary, has the Kennebec river, navigable 44 m. from its mouth, for its
8.W. border; 500 sq.m.; pop. '80, 24,809—24.830 of American birth, 46 colored. It ia
drained by the Sheepscot river, flowing through it from n. to s., emptviug into the ocean
not far from Bath. It has also Damariscotta lake, smaller lakes in the extreme n.,
Damariscotta river, the outlet of the lake, navigable by tlie largest ships, and the bays
of its southern border. Its surface rises into long, high hills that sink into deep valleys.
It is thinly timbered, and the soil under cultivation is very fertile, prod^icing every
variety of grain, wool, dairy products, honey, and maple sugar. Cattle, 8hc*ep, and
swine" are raised. Its commercial facilities arc unsurpa.ssed, its harbors being spacious,
safe, and accessible. Much attention is paid to fishing, steamboats being used, with
which large quantities of fish are taken with the seine, and pressed into oil in establish-
ments for that purpose. It has also curing and packing establishments. Among its
industries arc ship-building and repairing, the manufacture of machinery, bricks,
matches, lumber, sails, and wool; it has also wool-carding and cloth-dressing mills, and
steam saw and flour mills. Cash value of farms in '70, $4,488,419, numbering 3,197.
It had in '70. 309 manufacturing estiiblishmenis, employing 1382 hands, with a capital of
$587,280. and an annual product of $1,018,705. It is traversed near the coast by the
Knox and Lincoln railroad from Rockland to Bath. It has an active coast trade, and
ice is largely exported to southern ports. Seat of justice, Wiscassett.
LINCOLN, a co. in s.w. Minnesota, having the state line of Bakotah for its western
boundary, is intersected in the extreme n.e, by the Winona and St. Peter railroad: about
640 sq.m ; pop. '80, 2,945—1876 of American birth, 2,942 colored. It is watered by the
Yellow Medicine river, other tributaries of the Minnesota river, by lake Benton, 8 m.
long, in its southern section, and a few smaller lakes. Its surface is level in the n., and
rough and hilly in .the extreme south. It has a fertile soil. Seat of justice, Marshfield.
LINCOLN, a co. in s.w. Mississippi, drained by the head-waters of the Boguc Cliitto,
a confluent of Pearl river, is intersected centrally by the Chicago. St. Louis and New
Orleans railroad; 600 sq.m.; pop. '80, 13,547 — 13,407 of American birth. Its surface is
level and* is diversified by fertile plains and immense forests of magnolia, beech, and
useful timber. Its soil is adapted to the production of live stock, rice, oats, com.
tobacco, cotton, wool, sweet potatoes, wine, honey, sugar cane, and the products of the
dairy. It had in '70, 44 manufacturing establishments, employing 175 hands, with a
capital of $92,332, and an annual product of $152,787. Seat of justice, Brookhaven.
LINCOLN, a co. in e. Missouri, having the Mississippi for its eastern boundary,
separating it from Illinois, is drained by the Cuivre river; 600 sq.m. : pop '80. 17,443--
16,606 of American birth. 2,144 colored. It is watered by Eagle fork and Big creek.
Its surface is hilly and liberally supplied with building timber. Its soil, iiaving an
understratum of limestone, is very fertile in the valleys, l^ing adapted to the nusing of
live stock, tobacco, every varietv of grain, wool, sweetpotatoes, dairy product.s. sorglium,
Digitized by k30L> V l\C
43
maple snimr, nnd flaxseed. It prodnrcd in '70, 17,172 lbs. of honey. Cash value of
£inii9in *70, f5J83.786. numbering 2,129, including 4 of 1000 acres nnd over. Value
of live stock in '70, $1,887,573. Il bad in '70, 94 munufacturing establishments, with a
capital of $111,120, and an annual product of $270,285. Among its manufactories are
flour nnd saw mill:», tiinneries. leather currying establishments, plow factories, tobacco
factories, wool-curding and cloth dressing mills. Beat of justice, Troy.
LINCOLN, a co. in s. Nebraska, having the North Platte river for its northern
boundary, is traversed by the Kepublican river; about 2.592 sq.m ; pop. '80, 3,632 —
8,032 of Ajnerionn birth. 6 colored. Its surface is level and pouny timbered. The soil
of the fanions Platte valley is light nnd eminently proiiuctive. affording excellent facili-
ties for stock raising. It is intersected l)y tlie Union Pacific railroad. Among its man-
ufactories are breweries, cheese factories, and the railroad repair shops. S^t of justice,
North Platte.
LINCOLN, a co. in 8.e. New Mexico, organized 1869; having the state line of Texas
for its e. Ix)undary; tm versed by the Pecos, the Rio Bonito, and numerous small
streama: 13.000 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 1803—1686 of American birth. Cash value of farms in
*70, $180,770, numbering 368. none under 10 acres or over 600. Its surface is equally
divided into mountain and prairie, with few trees, the eastern portion being a part of
the great Staked Plain and the w. occupied by ranges of the White mountains and the
Gaudalupe. Its soil when irrigated is fertile, and produces wheat, Indian corn, barley,
and oats.' It is lai^ly taken up by Indian reservations^ but has much tillable land.
Seat of justice, Lincoln.
LINCOLN, a co. in w. North Carolina, having the Catawba river for its eastern
border, is intersected centrally by one of its branches called the Little Catawba; 250
sq.m.; pop. '80. 11,061—11,051 of American birth, 2.881 colored. Its surface is uneven
and equally divided into tillable lands, and hard-wood forests. It contains valuable
dtposits of iron ore. Gold is found in the eastern poition and on the banks of the
Little Catawba. Its soil is fertile and adapted to the raising of buckwheat, oats, corn,,
rye, wbeiit, tobacco, cotton, wool, sweet pofatoes, wine, honey, sorghum, flax, live
^ock, and the products of the dairy. It had in *70, two mining establishments of iron
ore, employing 40 hands, with a capital of $43,000, and an annual product of $8,800.
It had in '70, 65 manufacturing establishments, employing 294 hands, with a capital of
(184.625, and an annual product of $319,025. Its industries are represented by manu-
factories of paper, cotton goods, pig iron, etc. Beat of justice, Lincolnton.
LINCOLN, a co. in s. Tennessee, having the state line of Alabama for its southern
boundary, is traversed by the Elk river, and has the terminus of the Dccherd to Fay-
etteville line of the Nashville. Chattanooga, and St. Louis railway, at its co. sent: 720
sq.m. ; pop. '80. 26,960—20,900 of American birth. 6.316 colored. Its surface is uneven,
well wooded with locust, poplar, and tulip trees, and bard-wood useful for building pur-
poses. Its i<oil is fertile, producing maple sugar, sorghum, wool, sweet potatoes,
tobacco, cotton, every variety of grain, and the products of the dairy. It produced in
70. 1,233,960 busliels of corn, and 44,838 lbs. of honey. Cash value of farms in '70,
$6,521,190, numbering 3.393, including one of 1000 acres. It had in *70, 185 manuTac-
turing establishments^' employing 507 hands, with a capital of $223,236, and an annual
product of $772,9.'59, utilizing its valuable water-power. Among its industries are the
manufacture of cotton yarn, woolen goods, saddlery and harness, and leather, and it
has saw and flour mills.' 8eat of justice, Fayetteville.
LINCOLN, a co. in s.w. West Virginia, having^ the Coal river, an affluent of the
Kanawha river for its eastern boundary, is drained in its western portion by the Guyan-
dotte river, the Caney fork in the south-western, and other affluents of the Ohio and
Kanawha rivers; 400 sq.m.; pop. '80. 8,739—8,723 of American birth, 52 colored. Its
surface is mountainous, well provided with building timber and presents scenery of
great beauty. It is watered by the Mud river, running at the base of the mountains,
and parallel with them. The soil of the river bottoms is very rich, and is generally
founded on carboniferous rock. Iron is abundant. Its products are buckwheat, oats,
corn, rye, wheat, flax, maple sugar, tobacco, wool, honey, and sorghum. Cattle, sheep.
&nd swine are raised. Seat of justice, Hamlin.
LINCOLN, a co. in s. Ontario. Canada, having lake Ontario for its n. boundar}-;
intersected in tlie eastern section by the Welland canal ; bounded on the e. by the
Kiaflara river and the Erie and Niagara railroad, running parallel with the river for 28
m. from the town of Niagara to the International bridge, and is intersected by a branch
of the Great Western railroad, running along the border of the lake, nnd crossing tlie
canal to connect with the line to Ntagnra Falls; 321 sq.m.; pop. '71, 29,547. Its manu-
factories consist of foundries and machine shops, sewing-machine factories, soap and
candle works, tanneries, woolen mills, breweries, flour and saw and planing mills.
Ship building and repairing is among its industries, its ports having excellent ship-
yards. Seat of justice, St. Catherines.
LOfOpLH (called by the Romans Lindum; from which, with Colonia subjoined,
comes the modern name), a city of England, capital of the county of the same name, a
parliamentary and municipal borough and count3' of itself, is situated on the Witham.
f o J Digitized by VjrUUVlC
Uneoln.
44
140 m. n.n.w. of London by railway. Built on the slope of a liill, -which is crowned by
the cutbedral. the city is iniposing in effect, uud cuii be seen from a very coiisidenible
distiuice. It is very ancient, is irregularly laid out, and contains uiauy interesting
specinicus of early architecture. The cathedral, one of tlie finest in KD!j;laud, is the
principal building. It is surmuunted by three towers, two of which. 180 ft. in height,
were tormcrly conliuued by spires of 101 feet. The cenlnd lower, 08 ft. bqnare, is 300
ft. high. The Ulterior length of the cathedral is 482, the width 80 tcet. The famous
bell called Turn of Lincolu was cast in 1010, and was hung in one of the w. towers of
this editif.e. It was broken up, however, in 1834. and, totrether with six oihcr bells, was
recast to form the preseut large bell and two quarter bells. The present bell, which
hangs in the central tower, is 5 tons 8 cwt. in weigiit; and is 6 ft. lOJ in. in diameter at
the mouth. The style of the cathedral, though various, is chiefly early English. Lin-
coln also contains many ether interesting religious eiiiflces, among which are three
churches, dating from before the reformation, etc., numerous schools, and beuevoient
institutions. Several iron foundries and mnnufactories of jtortable stetun-engines and
agricultural machines, as well as large steam flour-mills, are in operation lierc, and there
is an active trade in flour. Brewing and machine-making, witu a trade in coru and
wool, are also carried on. Two members ate returned to the house of cumnious for the
city. Pop. '61, 20.9d9; 71, 26,706.
Lincoln, under the Romans, was a place of some importance, and under the Saxons
and the lianes it preserved a good position. It was the seat of an extensive and
important trade at the time of the Norman conquest; but its advanc^^ment since that
time has not bren equally rapid. It contains some very interesting antiquitits, as llie
Roman gate, the remains of the palace and stables of John of Gaunt, and the towu-halL
LINCOLN, the capital t, of Logan co.. Ill, near Salt creek, on the Chicago and
Alton railroad, where it crosses the Indianapolis, Bloomington and Western railroad;
also, on the Rkin branch of the Wabash railroad; 28 m. n.n e. of Spriuglield, and 157
m. s.s.w. of Chicigo. Pop. 6,000. It is the seat of Lincoln university (Cumberland
Presbyterian), and of the state institution for feeble-minded children. The place con-
tains 11 churches, 2 or 3 banks, a high school, a court-house, and nntnufactories of
farm implements; also 1 daily and 4 weekly newspapers. Coal is mined in the neigh-
borhood.
LINCOLN, a city, the capital of Nebraska and of the co. of Lancaster, situated at
the junction of several hranches of Salt creek; lat. about 40"* 50' n., long. 06' 45' west.
It is 63 in. a.w. of Omaha, and 168 m. n.w of Leavenworth, Kansas, and lies upon the
Nebraska or Midland Pacific, where it crosses the Burlington and Mis-souri river railroad,
and is besides the n.w. terminus of the Atchison and Nebraska railroad. It was made
the capital of the state in 1867; pop. about 10,000. It is surrounded by beautiful
undulatini^ prairies, and fine building sites alK)Uud in its neighborhood. It is regularly
laid out; tlie 17 avenues runninfi^ n. and s. bear numerical names, while the cross-streets
bear tiie names of the letters of the alphabet. The avenues are 120 ft. and the streets
100 ft. wide. Among the public buildings are the state-house (built of li.uht colored
limestone), the state a.s^lum for the insane (built of sandstone, and costing $136,000), the
penitentiary (built of limestone at a cost of |>312.000), the slate library, an opera-house,
a high-school, the Nebraska state university and agricultural college («)pcn in all depart-
ments to students of both sexes), and 10 churches. The eity has two national and
several other banks; two daily, one semi- weekly, and three weekly newspapers. In the
near vicinity are abundant saline springs, from which large supplies of salt are obtained.
LIKC0L9, Abr.\ham, sixteenth president of (he United Stales wna b. in Kentucky,
Feb. 12, 1800. His grandfather was an emigrant from Virginia; his father, a poor
farmer, who. in 1806, removed from Kentucky to Indiana. In the rude life of the
backwoods, Lincoln's entire schooling did not exceed one year, and he was employed in
the severest agricultural labor He lived with his family at Spencer co., Indiana, till
1830, when he removed to Illinois, wlnre. wiih another man, he perlormed Iho feat of
splitting 8.000 rails in a dav, which ;rave him the popular Mfbrigiiet of ** the rail-split-
ter." In 1834 he was elected to the Illinois legislature. At this period he lived by sur-
veying Imd, wore patched homespun clothes, and spent his leisure hours in studying
law. Hj was three limes re-elected to the legislature; was admitted to practice law in
1886; and removed to Springfield, the state capital In 1844 lie canvassed the state for
Mr. CI ly, then nominated for president. Mr. Clay was defeated, but the popidarity
ginned by Lincoln in the canvass secured his own election to congress in 1846, where be
voted against the extension of slavei^; and in 1854 was a recognized leader in the newly
formed republican party. In 1855 he canvassed the state as a candidate for Uidted States
senator auainst Mr. Douglas, but without success. In 1856 he was an active supporter of
Mr. Fremont in the presidential canvass wliich resulted in the election of Mr. Buchanan.
In 1860 he was nominated for the piesidency by the Chicago convcntit^n over Mr. Seward,
wlioexpecti'd the nomination Ihe non-extension of slavery to the territories, or new
states to l)e formed from them, was the most important principle of his party. There were
three other candidates — Mr. Douglas of Illinois, northern Democnti; jMr. Bn*ckenridge
of Kentucky, then vice-president, and afterwards a general of the confederate arniy,
southern democrat; and Mr. Bell of Tennessee, native American. \Vith this diviaioQ, Mr.
Digitized by VjiJUV IC
45
Uaeeln.
Lincoln received a mnjority of votes overnny of the other cnndidates, though n million
sbori of au absuluie lUiijunty ; ev<;ry scmtbera and one nortliern t*tato voted against him.
He was instulicU iu the presideuVs chair, Mtir. 4, 1861. His cleciiou by a seciiunal vote
and ou a sectionsd issue hostile to the south, was followed by the secession of 1 L southern
states, and a war for the restoration of the union. As a military measure, he proclaimed,
Jan. 1, 18(K{, the freedom of nil slaves in the i-eljel states; and was I'e-elected ti> the presi-
dency iu 1864. The war was brought to a close, April 3, 1865; and on the 15th of the
same month, Lincoln was cut off by the hand of an assassin. Bee the Lives by Lamon
(vol. i. 187C) and Leland (1879).
LINCOLN. Abkaham (ante), the 14th elected president of the United States, serving
the 19th terra of 4 yeai-s; b. iu Hardin co., Ky., Feb. 12, 1809; his father being Thomas
Lincoln, who married Nancy Hawks. The family was of English de^^cent, and early
among the settleia of Virginia. Whether the family was connected with the Liucolns
of Has8achu£>eits is not liuown. The birtliplace of the war-president was no paradise.
Kentucky was the rendezvous of tories, runaway conscripts, deserters, delitors, and
criniinaU of all kinds. Tbomas Lincoln was a restless, thriftless man. living by jobs of
carpentry and other work, until finally, deciding to try farming, he settled do^^n in a
wn-icheii cubin near a spring of good water, but in a barren region. In that humble
cabin Abraham was bom. The hay was fond of fishing and li anting, but at an early
age he began to gniw serious, and of himself to develop the moral training which became
fio conspicuous in after-life. With his sisUT he traveled to a humble school four miles
away. In 1816 Thomas Lincoln had a serious difficulty with a neighbor, the result of
which was his emigration to Ohio in the autumn of that year, transporting his house-
hold goods ou a rude flat-boat, and losing almost everything by the capsizing of the
craft. Siiving a few tools and the greater portion of his whisky, ho brought up in
Posey CO., Ind., sold his boat, and cho<e a location in the wilderness In Perry county.
With much difficulty he brought his family there, consisting of his wife Nancy, a
daughter 0 years old, and Abnihnm, aged seven. Here in Oct., 1818, Abraham's mother
died. The widower 18 months afterwards married a widow with whom he had been in
love before he married Nancy Hawks. The new wife was a good step-mother to litllo
Abraham and his sister (whose name was change<l from Nancy to Sandi), although she
brought a son and two daughters of her own. Blie fou'-d her step-children dirty and
poorly clad, for tliey had lx?en sadly neglected; but, l)eing a woman of energy, a speedy
snd thorough reformation followed her advent. Bhc took kindlv to Abraham, and her
love continued to the day of his death. 8he encouraged him in his studies, and all was
harmonious and happy in the mixed family. It was not to his real mother but to his
step-mother that Linctiiln, in after years, so often referred as "saintly" and an "angel,**
who first made him feel like a human being, whose goodness first tonched his childish
heart, and taught him that blows and taunts and degradation were not always to Ix: his
portion in this life. He had but little cliance for schooling, but that little was well
improved. He p^w in height amazingly, and before his 17tli hirthday was at his maxi-
mun^ of 0 ft. 4 m., wiry and strong, with enormous hands and feet, -greatly dispropor-
tionate lenirth of legs and arms, and over all a nither small head; his skin was yellow
and shriveled, and his complexion swarthy. He wore coarse home-made clothes, and
a coon-skin cap; his trousers, owing to his rapid growth, were nearly a foot too short.
But this awkwanl, oversown boy was always in good humor, and alwnj'S in g<)od
health. While at school he was noted as a good speller, but more particularly for his
abhorrence of cruelty— his earliest composition being a protest against putting coals of
fire on the backs of captured terrapins. His last attendance at school was in 1S26, when
he was 17 years old. He worked at o<ld jobs, and one of his employers says *• Abe was
awful Inzy; he would laugh and talk and crack jokes and tell stories all the time; he
didn't love work.*' He would lie under a tree or in the loft of the house, and at night
sit in the firelight to read, cipher, and scribble on tbe wooden fire-shovel. He read
everything readable within his reach, and copied passages or sentences that especially
attracted liim. His reading, however, included little more than Bobinaon CniMe, Pa-
grim* 9 Progress^ Weems*» Life of Washtngton, and a Jlistory of the United States. His step-
mother said that the Bible was one of his favorite books. His first knowledge of the
law. in which he afterwards tiecame eminent, was through reading the statutes of
Indiana, borrowed from a constable. He had a strong memory and a taste for {^peaking
in public. In 1825 he worked 9 months on a ferry over the Ohio river, receiving a saP
ary of $6 per month. His first venture in the great outside world was as assistant navi-
gator of a flat.1)oatdown the Ohio and the Mississippi to New Orleans, returning in June,
1JB8. In 18B0 the Lincolns emigrated to Illinois, Abraham l)eing the driver of a wagon
hauled by 4 yoke Of oxen. A few days after their arrival at their destination near
Decatur, "Lincoln became of age, and at once determined to make his own way in the
world. The story of his making rails is fixed at this period, but it is apocryphal, and
the **nilnois rail-splitter" was a misnomer. In this period Lincoln got a tolerable
knowledge of grammar from a borrowed book, studied by the llglu of burning shavings
in a cooper's shop. In 1882 came the Black Hawk Indian war, and Lincoln enli.«*ted in
a company at Sangamon. and was chosen captain; but there were no remarkable acts
doae by mm daring the campaign.
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Lincoln.
46
In 1833, the year of Jackson's second election as president, Lincoln made bis flret
appearuuoe in puliiics as a candidate for tbc state a.sseiubly on ilie iollowiui^ plailorni:
'*! presume you all know who 1 urn; lam humlile Abraliam Lincohi. i liiive been
soliciied by many friends to become a candidiite for the legisluiure. My politics are
short uud sweet, like the old woman's dance. 1 am in favor of u uaiio^^jd bank; I am
in favur of internal improvements, and a high protective tariff, 'ihe^iaie my senti-
ments and political principles. If elected I siiall be thankful; if not, it will im all the
same/' This was straight whig doctrine. Lincoln made a good canvass, but lie was
not elected. His next venture was as a partner in a dry goods and giccerv store at Kew
Salem, but the concern failed, the partner fled, and Lincoln was left to 8ittle up a losing
business, paying all he owed in 1849. Having no faculty for trade, Le now l^guii to
read in law, studied hard, and made rapid progress. Ihen he buddeuly studied survey-
ing, and tried his hand with compass and chain. In May, 1833, he wi.s a| pointid po.st-
master at New Salem— compensation, next to nothing. He was not able lo hire a loom,
and was said to have *' carried the post-office in his hat." The mails came once a ^cck,
and their burden was light. Ir 1834 Lincoln's persoual picperiy was alout to be sold
by the sheriff to satisfy a judgment; but a new Iriend, James bhort, bid in the property
and gave it over to him. In 1834 he was again a candidule for the legislatuie, unci w as
elected, running far ahead of his ticket. The party now had assumed the mime of
whi^, and he so(3n bectune a whig leader. His liist love episocle was painfully Fad.
While boarding with James Rutledge, in New Salem, he became ccamcretl of Auu, his
landlord's daughter, a well-educated girl of 17, who had at the time another lover, Avho
Eromised marriage, but did not keep his word. Lincoln nod Ann KutUdge were
etrothed in 1835, but the girl's health failed, and in August she died of brain fever.
Her loss made Lincoln almost insane, and he nived pit(>oiisly. ''I can revcr bear to
have snow, rain, and storm beat upon her gntve," and **in her grave my licnrt lies
buried," he cried out. It was at the time of Iter death that he took a liking lo tlie poem
by on English writer, the rev. Vicesimus Enox, commencing ''Oh, why should the
spirit of mortal be proud," lines that he was never weaiy of quoting; indeed, he
repeated them so often that man^ people supposed him to be the author.
On taking his place in the legislature, Lincoln first saw Stephen A. Douglas, with no
idea that he would be his competitor for the highest cffice in the nation. In 1886 Lin
coin was agsiin a candidate for the legislature on the following characteristic platform:
"I go for all sharing the privilege of the government who assist in beaiing its buideos.
Consequently I go for admitting all whites to the rights of suffrage who pay taxes or
bear arms, by no means excluding females." With tlie opposition candidate Lincoln
stumped the district, as was then the custom, and by his vigorous speet hcs secured a
whig victory, the first ever known in Sangamon county. Lincoln and Douglas were
both chosen; but Douglas served only one session, and the next ytar was nominated for
congress. In the presidential contest in 1886 Lincoln was for Hugh L. While of Ten-
nessee, but the "hiurd cider'* campaign of 1840 found him vociferous for Harrison and
Tyler. With the struggle of Jackson against the U. S. lank and the shifting
policy of Van Buren, Lincoln had no interest, attending diligently to his duties as a
legislator, and beginning that antislavery record upon which so much of his fame w ill
ever rest. The abolitionists were in the highest activity. George Thompscm had Just
gone back to England after stirring up the small but enthusiastic party in this country;
Garrison's Ltbertitor waa intensely annoying to the supporters of slavery; there was a
freat anti-abolitionist meeting in Boston; and president Jackson had. at the close of
835, invited the attention of congress to the circulation through the mails of what were
then called "inflammatory" documents. Henry Clay, Edward Everett, many of the
governors of the northern states, and a large majority of the house of representatives
strenuously opposed the agitation of the slavery question; all fetitions on (he subject
were laid on the table without reading or debate, and all possible means were taken to
prevent the discussion of the annoying subject. Illinois did not efcapNe, though none
of her citizens desired to establish or even uphold slavery. On the night of rfo v. 7,
1837. the rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy was mobl)ed and shot dead at Alton for persisting in
publishing an abolition newspaper. At this juncture, w^hen the legislature was about to
pass resolutions deprecating the antislavery agitation, Lincoln presented his protest, to
which he could get but one signer besides himself, in which he dedans slavery to be
founded on injustice and bad policy; but that abolition agitation tends to increase its
evils; tliat congress cannot interfere with slavery in the stales, but might in the District
of C-olumbia on the request of the people. This protest was meant to avoid extreme
views, and so no mention was made of slavery in the territories, that point being covered
by tlie Misi^ouri compromise, which was then in full force. Lincoln was never extreme,
and probably till the war began he saw no hour when he would have altered a word in
this protest When the state capital was removed to 6priDgfleld in 1889, Lincoln estab-
lished himself there. He had been licensed as an attorney two years before, and being
at the capital he could attend both to his duties as a member of the legislature and his
legal practice. His business grew rapidly, and he took into partnership John T. Stuart,
a prominent whisr, who had been a kind frisnd in former years. Lincoln preferring to
be the junior in the firm. Springfield was a poor village of about 1500 inhabitants; and
Lincoln was poor, indeed much in debt. It ia said that his friend Bill Butler fed and
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47
dothed bim for ecTeral years. In Jan., 1887. he delivered nn oration on ''The Perpetu-
ation of our Free Institutions," whose eloquence greatly added to his fame. In Dec., 1839,
Lincoln, ou behalf of the whigs. challenged ihe other side to a joiut debate, and Douglas
and thn^e other democrats were pitted against Lincoln, Logan, and two other wbigs.
Tiie intellectual sinigglc between Lincoln and Douglas is still known as "the great
debate;** and Lincoln was ackuowledge<l to hare had the best of the arszuments. In
I&IO Lincolu was uu elector un the Harri>on ticket, and made speeches in all parta of the
state. Bat one-sided speeches were not suited to his temper; he preferred joiut debates,
where he could employ his masterly skiK at rejiort. For twenty years (1838 to 1858) he
followeil Douglas, who was nearly always ready to accommodate him with a discussion.
They fought Uieir battles over and over," until one became president of the United States
and the iILssippointment of the other hnd l)een buried in ihc grave a few months after
Lincohrs iuatigu ration. About 1889 Lincoln made the acquaintance of Mary, the
daughter of lion. Uobert S. Todd, of Lexington, Ky. They were engaged to be mar-
ried; the day was set. and the supper made ready, but Lincoln failed to appear; he had
gone quite crazy, and remained so for a year. His friend Speed took him to Kentucky,
where be was kept until he had recovered his reason. In honorable fultillmeut of his
promise he married Miss Todii. Nov. 4^ 1842. Mrs. Lincoln was a politician and a satir-
ical writer of rare power. She wrote for the local papers and veiy soon involved her
husband in a duel with Mr. Shields, then state auditor. Shields challenged Lincoln and
they met io Missouri, but afifairs were explained and the fight did not come off. In 1844
Lincoln was again an elector on the Clay (whig) ticket, and labored bard, but in vain
for tliat great statesman. A handful of votes cast in New York for Birney. tlio alioli-
tion aindiilate. beiuff a subtructioii from the whig strength, ^ve the vote of that state
to Polk and defeated and politically killed Cky. In 1^ Lincoln was elected to con-
gress by 151 1 majority in a district which, two years before, gave him only 914. He look
his seat at the opening of the 80th congress, Kobert 0. \Vinthrop being speaker. In
that bt)usc be was the only whig member from Illinois, with such democrats to watch
bun as John Wentworth, William A. Richardson, John McClernand; and Stephen A.
Doughis in the senate. ** There were giants in thone days" in conxresa, such on the
whig side as John Quincy Adams, Horace Mann. Washington Hunt, Jacob C. Collamer,
Joseph R^ Ingersoll, John M. Botts. Caleb B. Smith, Alexander H. Stephens, Robert
Toombs. Samuel U. Vinton, and Robei-t C. Schenck; of democrats, Wilmot of Penn.,
UcLsme of Md.. McDowell of Va., Rhett of S. C. Cobb of Ga., Boyd of Ky., Thomp-
son of Misii., and George W. Jones and Andrew Johnson of Tenn. In'the senate were
Webster, Calhoun, Benton, Berrien, Clayton. Bell, Hunter, and W. R King. Lincoln
was put on the committee ou post-offices and posi-roads. He was opposed to the Mexi-
can war. but voted for supplies to carry it on. In 1848 be favored the nomination of
Taylor (whig) for president^ and made a strong politiod speech in the house for that
purpose, subsequently speaking in various parts r)f the country. In the second f>cssion
of the 30th congress he made no especial mark. His law partnership with Stuart ended,
April. 1841, when he united in pi-act ice with ex- judge Stephen T. Logan, and soon after-
wards formed a partnership with his best friend, William H. Hernaon. Dec. 8. 1889,
Lincoln was admitted to practice in the federal courta. on the same day with Stephen
A Dougliia Many curious anecdotes are told of the great story-teller, of his power,
his energy, hi^ oddities, and his generosity. He was for a time counsel for the Illinois
Central railroad compiuiy, by whom he was badly treated. In 1859 he went to Cincin-
nati to argue the McCormick reaper case and found Edwin M. Stanton one of his col-
leagues; but Stanton treated him with such discourtesy that it seems remarkable that
Lincoln ever made the haughty Edwin a member of his cabinet Lincoln wanted to be
commissioner of the ^nerai landofflce, but did not get the appointment. He was
offered the governorship of Or^on territory, but his wife declined to go there, and he
would not accept. For two years after leaving oongress he was not publicly prominent.
In 1850 he refused a nomination for congress; July 1, 1853, he was selected at a meeting
of citizens to deliver a eulogy on Henry Clay. The bill offered by Douffias, Jan. 4,
1854. to establish a tcrritoruu government in Nebraska reopened the anti^avery war,
tad Lincoln was forced to take decided ground against the extension of slavery into
the territories, which he did at the state fair at Sprinefleld in Oct. in a speech of
great power. Douglas was there, chafing like a tiger under the scathing remarks of his
rt opponent. He endeavored to reply, but was too much excited to ppenk coherently,
promised to conclude in the cvenmg. but did not appear. Other contests between
the two followed, but they finaliy agreed to give up joiut discussion. In Nov., in
spite of bis positive declination, Lincoln was again elected to the IcgisUture. At the
same time he wns very desirous to succeed Shields (dcmocmt) in the U. S. senate;
but Lyman Trumbull carried off the prize. During the Kansas excitement Lin.
coin's sympathies were all in favor of the free-state side, but he discountenanced the use
of force. In 1856 he said to the force party: " I agree with you in Providence; but I
believe in the providence of the most men, the largest purse, and the largest cannon.
Tou are in a minority — a sad mii^.-^ritv— and cannot hope to succeed, reasoning from all
homzui experience. You would rebel against the government, and redden your hands
in the blood of your countrymen. If you are in the minority, as you are, you cannot
ncceed. Your attempt to resist the law of Kansas by force is criminal and wicked, and
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IdneolBk
48
all your feeble attempts will be follies, and end in brining sorrow on your heads, and
rum ilie cau^ you Wduld fixjtly die to presei-ve/*
It was at tlie sttite convention at Bluotniugion in 1856 tliat tho rcpuliHcon pnrty in
Illinois was formed, and there Lincoln made what is considered by many the greatest
of all his speeches. Up to this time he laid argued the slavery question t»n tlie i^ouud
of policy, never reaching to the radical right of the matter. At Bloouiington lie was
bnptizcd to freedom; he was newly b<irn, and had all the feryor of a fre^h convert; his
heart was alive to the rii^ht; he felt justice; the flame, smothered for years, broke out;
his sympathies burst forth, and then and tliere he unburdened his penitential souL A
hearer said of the speech: " It was fresh, new, odd, original, filled with fervor and enthu-
siasm ; it was full ot tire, energy, and force, of great truths and the sense of right ; it was
Justice and equity set abluzc liy the force of the soul; it was hard, heavy, knotted,
gnarled, and heated." From that hour to the night of his murder slavery had uo more
persiiutent opponent tlian the man whom slavery assassinated. On Juno 17, 1856, iu the
nrst Republican national convention at Philudelphia, Lincoln's name was put forth for
vice-president, and was received with considerable favor; but Wm. L. Dayton was
selected, having 259 votes to 110 for Lincoln and 180 8C;ittenng. This year, for the third
time. Lincoln was on the electoral ticket, now as a republican, and spoke and worked for
Fi^mont*8 success. All this time the Kansas question was prominent, and in the close
of the long struggle it became to Lincoln the passport to the presidency through the per-
tinacity of Douglas in sticking to his idea of ** squatter (or popular) sovereignty." Tliis
split the democnuic party in 1860, and made Lincoln s success certain. In 1858 he made
a speech at the i-epublican state convention for the purpose of securing a nomination for
U. 8. senator. His friends were surprised, and nearly all nffroed that the speech
was injudicious and would ruin ids prospects. In this speech he foreshadowed Seward's
"irrepa^ssi bio conflict." Qncdf Lincoln's nearest friends says: **I think the speech
was intended to take the wind out of Sowarrrs sails" (for the nomimition for president).
The state was thoroughly canvassed by Douglas and Lincoln; tho democrats csirried
both branches of tho legislature; Douglas was re-elected U. 8. senator, and Lincoln was
bitterly disappointed. When asked how he felt, he said 'Mike the boy who stubbed his
toe; it hurt too bad to Inugh, and he was too big to cry."
In the winter of 1858-^ Lincoln appeared as a lecturer, starting with Adam and Eve
for subject, and coming down to the *' invention of negroes and tho present mode of
using them." Paits of the lecture were wittv or humorous, but on the whole it was
commonplace: fds friends were mortified, and he soon gave up the lecturing businesa
In April. 1859, the people of his own town began to tolk of Lincoln as a proper can*
didate for i^resident, but he discouraged tho idea. In Sept. he made speeches
in Ohio in tho tnick of Douglas; in Dec. he spolco at several places in Kansas.
He was more and more talked of for a pr(«identiai nomination, and finally author-
ized his fiiends to work for him. Feb. 25, 1860, on invitation, he appeared in
New York to deliver a speech. Ho spent that day (Saturday) in revising the speech;
on Sunday went to hear Mr. Deecher pi:each; on Monday wandered over the city,
and finally delivered his speech in Cooper Institute. The additsss was warmly praised
in most of the city journals, and was in fact highly successful. After this ue spoke
in many cities in New England. He was present, though not a delegate, at the
Illinois state convention. May 9, 1860, where he received the most flattering evidences
of his great nopularity. which was fully assured l)y the adoption without dissent of
a resolution aeelaring him the choice or the republicans of Illinois for president, and
instructing tho delegates to the Chicago convention to use all honorable means to
secure his nomination.
On May 16. 1860, the republican national convention met at Chicago. The city
was full of political workers, and no previous convention had half the numlier of " out-
side delegates." Two days were spent in organization and tlte adoption of a platform,
and balloting came on the third day. Up to tlie previous evening Seward's nomination
seemed certain; but the outside pressure for Lincoln was powerful, for his friends were
chiefly men of Illinois, and the convention was heM in their state. On the first ballot
the vote was: Seward, 1784; Lincoln, 102; Cameron, 50|; Chase, 49; Dayton, 14;
McLean. 10; CoUnmer, 10; and six scattering. On the second ballot: Scwanl. 184^: Lin-
coln, 181 ; Chaso, 4^; Bates 85; Dayton. 10; McLean, 8. On the third trial Lincoln got
the nomination, and in the afternoon Hannibal Haniiin of Maine was nominated for
vice-president. Lincoln was at Springfield, evidently very nervous. When he learned
the result of the second ballot he felt sure of success. Then came news of the triumph,
which he receive<l without special emotion, and after shaking hands with a few friends
said: ** Gentlemen, there is a little short woman at onr house who is probably more
interested in this di<«patcli than I am; if you will excuse me I will take it np and let her
sec it." On the fi»llowing day a committee of the convention made a formal tender of
the nomination, which Lincoln accepted in a very brief speech:
*' Imploring the assistance of divine providence, and with due reirard to the views
and feelings of all who were represented in the convention; to the rights of all the states
and territories, and the people of the nation; to the inviolability of the constitution and
the perpetual union, harmony, and prosperity of all, I am most happy to co-operate for
the praciicai sucoess of the principles declarecl by the oenventiox"
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49
Idncoln.
The democratic national conyentlon at Charleston split on the slavery question. The
Sooth totally repudiated Douglas and liis squatter sovereignty, while Douclas was
<^ually determined lo stick to it. Most of the Southern delegates withdrew and organ-
i«d a separate convention. Those who remained voted 57 times for a candidate, Doug-
las always having the highest number, but not the two-thirds required by democratic
precedent They adjourned to meet at Baltimore June 18.* The seceders adjourned to
meet at Richmond on the first Monday of June, but on that date further adjourned to meet
June 28 in Baltimore. The result finally was the nomination of three presidential can-
didates; Douglas by his convention, BrecWnridge of Kentucky by the seceders, or extreme
southerners, and Bell (formerly a whig) of Tennessee by the " constitutional union"
pQrt3% composed for the most part of " know-nothings" and old-time whigs. The can-
vass was warm on all sides; and Douglas, encouraged by the result of the spring elec-
tions, felt certain of victory. Election day was Nov. 6, when by far the larcest vote
ever cast in the union was given. Lincoln got 1,857.601; Douglas, 1,291,574; iBrecken-
ridge, aiO.082; and Bell, 646,124; Lincoln lacked 980,170 of a majority, but the electoral
vote told a different story, being 180 for Lincoln, 72 for Breckinridge, 80 for Bell, and
only 12 for Douglas.
Lincoln felt deeply the responsibility of his great trust, and still more keenly the
difSculty of administering the government for the sole benefit of an organization which
had no existence in one-half of the union. He was anxious to take prominent southern-
ers, such as Alexander H. Stephens, and Gilmore of North Carolina, into his cabinet;
but they refused all such advances. Secession was determined upon, and events tending
to that end followed rapidly. Nov. 10, only four days after the election, a bill was pro-
posed in the South Carolina legislature to equip 10,000 volunteers, a U. B. senator
from that state resigned, and a state convention was ordered to consider the question
of secession. During that month and the next, senators and officers of the army resigned ;
secession meetings and conventions were held ; the South accumulated arms and enlisted
troops; and Dec. 20 the South Carolina convention unanimously adopted an ordinance
seceding from the union. The year closed in gloom, and 1861 opened with no hope of
peace. On Feb. 4 a peace congress met in Philadelphia; on the same day delegates met
at Montgomery, Ala., to form a southern confederacy, and on the 18th the work was
done, and Jefferson Davis was inaugurated president. In the mean time Lincoln was
making his way towards Washington. After an affectionate parting with his mother
who said she was sure she would never see him again, he put his house in order, handed
over the law business to his partner, with a request that the old sign should remain for
four years at least, and on Feb. 1 the arrangements for the journey were completed. He
bade farewell to his life-long friends in a brief and touching address, and turned his face
toward the mighty responsibilities soon to be thrown upon him. Everywhere the people
were anxious to see ana hear him, and he made brief addresses at Indianapolis, Columbus,
Cleveland, Pittsburg, before the New York legislature, in New York (in response to
the mayor), in Trenton, Philadelphia, and Harrisburg. While at Pliiladelphia there
came rumors of a threatened attack upon his life; bridges were to be burned, tracks torn
up, torpedoes exploded, and all manner of weapons were to be drawn against one of the
most x>eaceful men in all the country. The great mass of this menace was sheer bra-
vado, yet his friends (not himself) deemed it proper to take extra care. On the morning
of Washington's birthday Lincoln raised the old flag over Independence hall in Phila-
delphia, and immediately proceeded to Harrisburg. Here he was taken in charge by
a few picked friends and the leading railroad officers, and early the next evening quietly
went fromf his hotel to a special train for Washington. He wore no disguise; but
changed his stiff hat for a soft one, and threw on a shawl to conceal his features if
necessary. At Philadelphia he was quietly transferred to the Baltimore railroad, reached
Baltimore at 8i a.m., passed unnoticed, and was safe in Washington at 6 o'clock. His
family followed in another train. His secret and safe arrival caused much comment,
and he himself quickly regretted that he had not traveled openly in sight of all the peo-
ple: he felt that he had laid himself open to the charge of cowardice. Almost the first
news he heard was the surrender of gen. Twisgs in l^xas, a great gain to the secession-
ists. Lincoln was inaugurated on Monday. >far. 4, and delivered an elaborate address,
full of the best qualities of his nature. 'Ex-president Buchanan accomp;^nied him to
the White House and invoked peace and happiness for his administration. The appear-
ance of the new president is thus described by Ward Lamon in his Life of Abraham
Lincoln : "He was 6 ft. 4 in. high, the length of his legs beins out of all proportion to
that of his body. When he sat on a chnir he seemed no taller than an average man,
measuring from the chair to the crown of his head; but his knees rose high in front.
He weighed about 180 lbs., but was thin through the breast, narrow across the shoul-
ders, and had the general appearance of a consumptive subject. Standing up. he
stooped slightly forward; sitting down, he usually crossed his long legs or threw them
over the arms of the chair. His head was long, and tall from the base of the brain and
the eyebrow; his forehead high and narrow, inclining backward as it rose. His ears
were large and stood out; eyebrows heavy, jutling forward over small sunken blue eyes;
nose long, large, and blunt ; chin projecting far and sharp, curved upward to meet a
thick lower lip, which hung downward; cheeks flabby, the loose skin falling in folds; a
mole on one cheek, and an uncommonly prominent Adam's apple in his throat. His hair
U. K. IX.— 4 Digitized by VjjUU^IC
Iitncoln.
60
was dark brown, stiflP, and unkempt; complexion dark, skin yellow, sbriveled, and leath-
ery. Every fciiture of the man— the hollow eyes, with the dark rings beneath, I be long,
sallow, cuujiverous face, intersected by lliosv peculiar <leep lines, his whole air. his walk,
his long an(l silent reveries, broken at intervals by sudden and startling exclamations, as
if to confouml an observer who might suspect the nature of his thoughts— showed that
he was a man of sorrows, sorrows not of to-day or yesterday, but long-treasured and
deep. Iwariui; with him continual sense of weariness and pjain. Yet this strangely sor-
rowful man clearly loved jokes, puns, and comical stories, and was himself worJd-
fainou.-? for his inimiuible narrative powers. Ue drank very little, and was in precept
and example a temperance man; and at table always ate sparingly. He was never a
member of a church; he is believed to have hail philosopUical doubts of the divinity of
Christ, and of the inspiration of tiie Scriptures as these are commonly stated in th3 sys-
tems of doctrine called evangelical. In early life he read Volney and Paine, and wrote
an cs<iiy in which he agreed with their conclusions. Of modern tliiukers be was
thouffht to a<rree nearest with Theodore Pairker.
Mr. Lincoln took the executive chair in a dark and stormy time. Vast preparations
for war had been made in the south, and, except with him and a few still liopeful men,
a contest was looked upon as inevitnble. In his inaugural address he said that he should
'*take care that the laws of the union be faithfully executed in all the states;" adding,
" I trust this will not be regJirded as a menace. There need be no bloodshed or violence,
and there shall be none unless it be forced upon the national authority. The power
confided to me will be used to hold, occupy, and possess the properly and places belong-
ing to tiie government, and to collect the dfuiies and imposts; but, beyond what may be
necessary for these objects, there will be no inva.sion, no using of force against or among
the people anywhere. Physically speaking, we cannot separate, we cannot remove our
respective sections from each o"lher, nor build an impassable wall between them. A
husband and wife may Ikj divorced, and go out of the presence and beyond the reach of
each oihcr; but the different parts of our country cannot do this. They cannot but.
remain face to face; and intercourse, either amicable or hostile, must continue between
them. Is it possible, then, to make the intercourse more advantageous or more satisfac-
tory after separation than before? The chief mngistratc derives all his authority; from
the people; and they have conferred none upon him to fix terms for the separation of
the stales. His duty is to adnn'nlster the present government as it came into his hands,
and to transmit it unimpaired by him to his successor. In your hands, my dis.satisfied
fellow-countrymen, and not in mme, is the momentous issue of civil war. You can have
no cjmfliet wifhoul being yourselves the aggressors. You have no oath registered in
heaven to destroy the government, while I shall have the most solemn one to preserve,
protect, and defend it." In fact he denied the right of any state or number of states to
go out of the union. The confederates considered this address to amount to a declara-
tion of wMir, and hastened their preparations. In the north the address united and con-
solidated the people in support of its views. Less than six weeks afterwards, j^en.
Beauregard, on behalf of the confederate government, demanded the surrender of Fort
Sumter in Charleston harbor, then garrisoned l>y a small force under maj. Robert Ander-
son. The .surrender being refused, the fort was attacked April 12, 1861, and thus actual
hostilities begun. That act united the people of the north; party lines were broken
down, nnd, w ith the exception of a few extreme proslavery men (afterwards known as
" copperhcuis"), the whole people echoed tiie words of Jackson when South Carolina
made her first attempt at secession— " The union must and shall be preserved." Maj.
Andercion aljandoned the fort on the 14 Ih. The next da}' president Lincoln called a
special session of congress to meet on the 4th of July; at the same time he called for
75,000 militia. The response was instantaneous. Massachusetts, with her sixth rerfinent,
was tirst in the field. This regiment was attacked while goin^ through Baltimore,
and a n<nni)er of its members were killed. On April 19 the president proclaimed the
blockade of all the ports of the seceding states. The south was even more inflamed
than the north; three days after the fall of Sumter the Virginia legislature voted to
join the confederacy, and a few days later North Carolina followed her example. The
confederates had raised 100,000 men, and made no secret of their design to capture the
national capital and invade the north. On May 80 anoihcr call for men was issued by
Lincoln, and both the army and the navy were speedily and largely reinforced. In a brief
message to congress the president rehearsed the acts of rebellion, and said: ** This issue
embraces more than the fate of these United States. It presents to the whole family of
man the question whether a constitutional republic or democracy — a government of the
people by the same people — can or cannot mainttiin its territorial integrity against its
own domestic foes." Some opposition was made in congress by members who thought
it unconstitutional to *' coerce a sovereign state," but the l<>yni sentiment overwhelmed
them. July 15 a democratic member (.ncClernand of 111.) offered a resolution pledging
the house to vote any nmount of money and any number of men necessary to suppa'ss
the rebellion and restore the authority of the government. There were only five opposing
votes in a house of nearly 3U0 meml)ers. On July 21 the union forces were very badly
defeated at Bull Kun, and driven in a panic back upon Washington. The newsgrive
the northern people a terrible shock, but it was only njomentary, "and its ultimate cnect
was to rouse to the highest pitch the patriotism and courage of the loyal states, and
Digitized by VjOUV IC
51
Unoola*
Tolunteers came bv thousands and thousands without waiting for a call. Up to the last
of Oct. gen. StTOit' retained his position as commander of llie arniv; but he wasgrow-
iog feeble, and wjis retired, gen. McCIeliau taking his place. The array was reor-
ranized. new troops were drilled, and the whole force was soon in good discipline.
But McClellan was loath to light; though entirely loyal, he inclined to act witl» Ihe^
moderate men on both sides, and whenever it seemed necessary to strike directly at
fllftvcry in order to 8Ui>tain the republic he waa not the man or tlie officer to do ft,
McClellan remaining inactive until near the end of Jan., 1862, the president, on the 27th
of that mouth, onler^ that on Feb. 22 a general movement by land and sea should be
made against the confederates. McClellan objected, and nothing was done until at a
ooancil of war, held Mar. 13, it waa decided to move against Richmond fix>m fortress
Monroe. Here asain McClellan waited and hesitated, complaining that he was not
properly supported at Washington, and after a number of battles, in which the unionists
vere generally lieaten, he was forced to abtuidon the campaign and retreat. The close
of the summer of 1862 was a dark period for loyal men, but no one suffered so keenly
or worked so faithfully as did president Lincoln. The confederates now to(»k the
aggressive; Lee invaded Maryland, but wa.s soon driven out after the firat union victory
at Antietam. To follow up this victory, McClellan was ordered to follow Leu and fight
him or drive him southward. Again McClellan del.iyed. and finally broke the lou^-
eDdurioe patience of Lincoln, who removed him from command. Burnside taking hta
place. Battles with Lee followed nt Frederick.sburg and Chancel lorvi lie, in both cases
unfortunate for the unionists. The people of the north beg^n to feel that it wus time to
strike the rebellion in a vital part, and the emancipation of the slaves in the soulh was
urged upon Lincoln, not only as a legitimate, but aa a vitally necessary war-measure.
Hcbesiiated; thought such an act would drive the border slave states, still nominally
loyal, into the confederacy. Again, what if the tmancipated negroes should be ttiken
into the confcdcnite army? He said to the men who were urging Uic emancipation idea
and adding that they felt sure it was the will of God: ** I hope it will not be irreverent
forme to say that, if it is probable that God would reveal hrs will to others on a point
Eo conoecteu with my duty, it might be supposed he would reveal it directly to me, for,
unless I am more deceived in myself than 1 often am. it is my earnest desire to know
the will of Providence in this matter; and if I can learn what it is, I will do it." In
reference to the position of the slave-holding &t:ites still in the union he said: ** There
are 50.000 bayonets in the union army from tJic bonier slave states. It would be a
serious matter if, in consequence of a proclamation such as you desire, they should go
over to ihe rebels." Lincoln carefully sought the opinion of the northern people ir\ the
matter, and soon found that he would be sustained in the action questioned. Thus
fortified he issued, on Mondiiy. Sept. 22, 1802. the most important ofiicial document,
the declaration of independence only excepted, known in Americim history; declaring
that on and after Jan. 1, 1863. all slaves in slates or parts of states then in rebellion
should be free. Two years afterwards Lincoln stud of the proclamation: ''As affairs
have turned it is the central act of my administration, an<l the great event of the 19th
centur}'." After the conflict at ChanccUorvillc the current of success seemed to fnvor
the union arms, leading on to the great e/ent of July 4, 1863— the capture of Vicksburg
by gen. Grant. At the same timo the three-days* luit tie between the unionists under
Meade and the confederates under Lee Avas going on near Gettysburg, resulting in a
decisive union victory. Lincoln soon saw in Gnmt the man for the occasion, nnd in
Mar., 1864, in compliance with the recommendation of congress, the captor of Vicks-
burg was appointed lieut.gcn. of the armies of the United States. This sealed the fate
of the rebellion. The rebels had fought long and bravely; but their resources failed,
their losses were enormous, and those who lived were worn out. Sherman, almost
unopposed, marched through an empty country to the sea; Grant, who knew no such
word as fail, had set himself to the capture of Richmond, and would "fight it out on
this line if it takes nil summer." We need not follow details when the catastrophe is so
near. On April 2, 1865, Lee wns forced out of Richmond (then the confederate capital),
and seven days afterwnrds wns compelle<l to surrender his whole army to Grant at
Appomattox. On the ITth. eight days later, gen. Joe Johnston surrendered to Sherman
and the great struggle was ended; in fact, it ended with the surrender of Lee. Grant
reached Washington on the IStli. met the president and secretary of war. and orders
were prepared to stop the rni-^ing of recruits. The war was over and every loyal heart
was n'ioicing. Lincoln's praise was on every tcmgue; the patient man who had
suflFered the pain of a thoustmd deaths during the war; who had been misunderstood,
maligned, and condemned, by friends as well ai enemies, now shone conspicuous in
popular affection. He had lilieratcd a nice; he had s;ived his country. On the evening
of April 11 the White House was illuminated, and Lincoln made a short address
expressing his acknowh^dgmenrs to the army, and his gratitnde to God, nnd then turn-
iQg his remarks to reoonstniction, the caj-dinal points of which he thought would be to
grant universal amnesty on condition that tlie stales lately in reliellion should frrant
universid suffrage. Lincoln and Gnmt were the idols of the hour. On the mornin«r of
the 14tb they were invited to visit Ford's theater in the evening. Grant left the city,
but the president, though not at all inclined, attended with his wife, and maj. Rnthl>one
aud Miss Harris. They went into a private box, and Lincoln was soon ab^rbed in,the
Xlnooln. ;rO
JUndtey. 0^
play {Out American dm^n). At about 11 ;30 o'clock the box was suddenly invaded by
John Wilkes Booth, an actor and a furious pro-slavery man. In an instant he put a
pistol to the back of Lincoln's head and fired; then leaped from the box to the stage,
crying, '* Sic acmper tyrannis! The south is avenged!' and fled through the stage
door, mounted a horse, and escaped. The president did not stir; the ball had gone
through his brain, and he had no further consciousDess. He died the next morning
about half-past seven. On the same evening an attempt was made to murder secretary
Seward, who was confined to his house in consequence of an accident. It would
be vain to attempt to describe the sorrow that spread over the nation, and even other
nations, on hearing of this awful tragedy. The assassin was captured and executed, and
some of his confederates shared the same fate. It is satisfactory to know that this act
•of infamy was the work of a gang of private men, and that the confederate government
imd leaders had no hand in it. Thus, when Lincoln
Had mounted fame's ladder so high,
From the rouid at the top he could step to the sky,
•
the great president passed to his rest. Twice elected to his high ofiSoe— the last time
(in Sov., 1864) over gen. McClellau by a popular majority of more than 400,00<V— he was
torn from it in the moment of triumph to be placed side by side with Washington, the
one the father, the other the savior of the union ; one the founder of a republic, the
other the liberator of a race.
LINCOLN, Benjamin, 1788-1810; b. Hingham, Mass. Until the age of 40 he was
a farmer, but had filled the positions of local magistrate, representative in the colonial
legislature, and col. of militia. In 1774-75 he took an active part in orgHuizing the
provincial militia for active resistance to the mother country, and was appointed maj.gen.
of the Massachusetts militia. At the siege of Boston Wa&ington put him in command
of an expedition to force the British fleet out of Boston harbor. He commanded the
Massachusetts militia at the battle of White Plains in the fall of 1776; reinforced Wj\sh-
inffton by a fresh levy of Massachusetts militia at Morristown, N. J., Feb., 1777; and by
Washington's request was made a maj.gen. in the continental arm^, Feb. 19 of that year.
He co-operated with gen. Schuyler in the summer campaign agamst Burgo3'ne in New
York, and again organized reinforcements of New England militia for the army. In
Sept. he joined gen. Gates as second in command, and was disabled by a wound Oct. 8
at the battle of Bemis Heights, near Saratoga. He resumed service in Aug., 1778,
and in Sept. was assigned to the command of the southern army. His command of this
division of the army was rather to strengthen the faltering allegiance of the Carolinas
and Georgia to. the cause of the states by a show of strength than for offensive operations.
D'Estaing, admiral of the French fleet, was to co-operate with him near the coast. He
arrived at Charleston Dec. 4, 1778, and maintained a defensive watch of the English
forces. His army met with reverses at Brier creek and Stone ferry in Mar. and June,
and, acting in conjunction with D'Estaing with a view to retake Savannah from the
British, the combined forces met with a sanguinary repulse Oct. 9; and the following
spring his army was besieged in Charleston and forced to capitulate May 12, 1780. He
returned to his home prisoner on parole. Exchanged in the spring of 1781, he joined
Washington before Yorktown, and was chosen by Washington to receive the sword of
lord Cornwallis on his surrender. He held the ofiflce of secretary of war .for three
3'ear8, and retired to his farm at Hingham in 1784. Gen. Lincoln after this held various
temporary positions of trust under the state of Massachusetts and the United States. In
1789 he was made collector of the port of Boston, which position he held till his death
at the age of 87. He was a man of simple earnest character; and the persevering zeal
and disinterestedness of his public service gave him ^eat popularity in his native slate
and in New England. His services in organizing and drawing opportunely into service
the militia of the several states were of great value, and so recognized by Washington.
LINCOLN, Enoch, 1788-1829; son of Levi Lincoln (1749-1820); b. in Worcester,
Mas.<5. ; studied at Harvard college; entered the legal profession in 1811, and settled at
Prycburg, Me., from which place he removed to the neighboring town of Paris in 1819.
He was a member of congress from 1818 to 1826, and governor of Maine in 1827-29.
During his residence at Frveburg he described the beautiful scenery of that forest- town
in a poem entitled The Village. He also delivered a poem at the centennial celebration
of the fight at Lovewell's pond. He left historical manuscripts of value, some of which
have been published in the first volume of the Maine Hiticrical CoUecHaiu.
LINCOLN, John Larkin, b. in Boston, 1817^rofesBor of Latin in Brown uni-
versity; editor of Selections from Livy (1847); the Worke of Horace (1851); and Cicero's
Ik Sefiectute.
LINCOLN, Levi, 1749-1820; b. at Hingham, Mass., and graduated at Harvard in
1772; became a lawyer and settled at Worcester in 1775; was judge of probate in 1776;
and served in the constitutional convention of 1780. In 1798 he was elected to congres>«i
us a political disciple of Jefferson, serving but for a single term. From 1801 to 1805 he
was attorn ey-general of the United States; in 1807-6, lieutenant-governor of Mas-
sachusetts; and acting-governor in 1809. He declined an appointment as judge of the
supreme court of the United States. Died at Worcester.^jgj^j^ed by VjUUV IC
&Q lilnMUu
. LINCOLN, Levi. li..d.. 1782-1868; son of Levi Lincoln (1740-1820); b. in Wor-
ester, and ^duated at Harvard in 1803; entered the legal profession in 1805; served
la the coDstituiional convention of 1820; often a member of the legislature, speaker of
tlie house in 1822, president of the senate in 1845; elected lieutenant-governor of Mas-
iBcfausetts in 1823^ and was governor from 1825 to 1884; was a member of congress from
1335 to 1841 ; a judge of the state supreme court in 1824; collector of the port of Boston
from 1841 to 1848; and first mayor of Worcester in 1848.
UHCOLH COLLEGE, Oxford, was founded iu 1427 by Richard Flemiug. bishop of
Lincoln, for a rector and 7 fellows, and afterwards greatly augmented by Thomas
Kotherham, bishop of Lincoln, archbishop of York, and lord high chancellor of Eng-
land, who added 5 fellowsliips, and gave a new body of stututes in 1479. in which tho
declioQ of fellows was limited to the dioceses of Lincoln, York, and Wells. Theso
Umiiaiions were abolished, however, by an act of parliament, 17 and 18 Vict. The
foundation at present consists of a rector, 10 fellows, and 14 scholars. Other scbolai:-
ships are added from time to time from the proceeds of two suspended fellowships; Id
were founded by Dr. Hutcliins, lord Crewe, bishop of Durham, and Dr. Radford, rec-
tors. The patronage consists of 9 benefices, iu the counties of Oxford, Lincoln, Essex,
Dorset, and Bucks, of the annual value of £5,414. This college has usually between 250
and 300 members on the books.
UHCOLVBHIBE, a maritime county of England, and, after iYorksh ire, the largest in
the coimtry, is bounded on the n. by Yorkshire, and on the e. by the North sea. Area,
i. 767,962 statute acres; pop. '71, 486,599. The coast, from the Uumber— which separates
the county from Yorkshire on the n. — to the Wash, is almost uniformly low and
marshy; so low, indeed, in one part — lietween the mouths of the Welland and the Ken
—that the shore here requires the defense of an embankment from the inroads of ihfi
0es. Lincolnshire has long been divided into three districts, or '* parts, "as they are
called— viz.. the parts of Lindsey, an insular district, forming the north-eastern portion
of Lincolnshire, and including the Wolds or chalk hills, which are about 47 m. in length
b^ 6 in. in average breadth; the parts of Kesteven, in the s. w. ; and the parts of Holland^
in the 8.e.. including the greater part of the fens. Chief rivers, the Trent, the Ancholme,
the Witham, and the Welland. The surface is comparatively^ level, with the exception
of the Wolds in the north-east. The soil, though very various, is on the whole very
fertile. It includes tracts of grazing-ground unsurpassed in richness, and the **warp'
lands" (see Warpino) along the side of the Trent produce splendid crops of wheat,
beans, oats, and rape without the aid of manure. No other county in England has
finer breeds of oxen, horses, and sheep. Horncastle and Lincoln horse-fairs are fre-
quented by French, German, Russian, and London dealers for the purpose of buying
superior hunters and carriage-horses. The climate, though subject to strong westerly
windij, is much the same as that of the other central counties of England. Six members
are returned to parliament.
iniCOLH'S INK, one of the four English inns of court, having exclusive power to
call persons to the bar. It is so called because it belonged to the earl of Lincoln in the
reign of Edward IL, and became an inn of court soon after his death in 1810. 8eo
bss OF Court.
LIVD, Jbnnv. See €k>LDflCHiiTDT, Madamb.
LINDAU, a t. of Bavaria, built on islands in the lake of Constance; pop. about
5,000; the center of a small commerce in hop.s, wine, fish, and cheese. Its manufac-
tures are mechanical and musical instruments, carriages, etc. In the 7lh c. it was a
well known Roman town, and a free imperial city until 1808.
LIN'DE. Samckl Bogumil, 1771-1847; of Swedish descent; b. at Thorn, Prussia;
studied at Leipsic; spent several years in Dresden and Vienna; and in 1803 was
appointed director of the Ijrceum of Warsaw, where he died. His Dictionary of the
Pofi^h lAingmige, in 6 vols., is highly esteemed.
LINDEN (tree). See Limm, anU.
LINDLEY, Dakiel, d.d., b. Penn. ; graduated at the Ohio university, of which his
iather was president; taught school to pay his way through the Union theological semi-
nary of Viiginia, where he graduated in 1829: was immediately licensed to preach by
the presbytery. For three years he preached in Charlotte, N. C, and saw several hun-
dred added to the church. When an appeal was made by the Americnn board for settled
pastors to become missionaries, he offered his services. He mRrried Lucy Alien of
Richmond. Va., and sailed in 1884 for the cape of Good Hope. From Cape Town they
Kmmeyed by wagons 500 m. to Griqua Town, thence the next year 500 m. farther to
Mosika, the country of Mosilikatse. After encountering great peril and suffering in
the war between the Dutch and Mosilikatse, reduced almost to starvation, they reached
PortXatal. whence shortly they were driven by war between the Dutch and'Dingaan,
?peat-uncle of OetTwayo. In June, 1839, he returned to Port Natal, where he labored
amoD^ the Zulus for about thirty-five years. Not only did he make known to them Jesus
^ iirist, but when the nativ? Christians wished to improve their mod<»s of life, though
"ot a mechanic, be could show them how to make brictk, to build houses, to construct a
few implements and pieces of furniture. In sickness he ministered to them; if a tiger or '
Digitized by VjL>LJy iC
XJadley. K4
LindMij. *^*
a lion threatened, his rifle never missed its aim; though he was neither phTsician noc
sportsman. The Zulus honored and loved him. The Dutch Bocrn, wliose wnuderines
he had shared when war drove hint from his home und work among the nntives, said.
*' If there lie a human name that war.ns the heiirt of a Natai Tecli B^r, it is the ever-to-
be-rememl)ered name of Daniel Lindley." lie died at Morristown. N. J., Sept. 8, 1880.
UHDLEY, John, a distinguished botanist, was b. Feb., 1799, at Cat ton, near Norwich,
where his fatlicr, who was the author of A Guide to OrcJiard mid Kitchen Gardene,
owned a large nursery garden. Botany seems to liave early attracted his attention, as,
in 1819. he published a translation of Richard's Analyse da Fruit, und in 1820 his
Monagraphia Boearum appeared. Amongst his most important worlij are his Introduc-
tion to tlie Natural System of Botany (1830); Introduction to the Structure and Physiology
of Plants {% vols. 1882); FUrra Mediea (1838); and Tlu Vegetable Kingdom (1846). which
is a standard worlc on the subject of classification, and is an expansion of liis Introduc-
tion to the Natural System, which Imd previously (in 1886) l)ccn remodeled under the
title of A Natural System of Botany. Lindley did a great deal to popularize the study
of liotany by the publication of his Ladies Botany, School Botany, ** botany" in the
Uhrary of Useful Knowledge, and the botanical articles as far as the letter R in the
Penny Cydopadia, In his Theory of Horticulture, which has passed through several
editions, and in the well-known periodical, Tfie Gardener's Chronicle (the horticultural
department of which he edited from its commencement in 1841), lie showed the great
practical value of a knowledge of vegetable physiology in the common operations of
the field and garden. In conjunction with Mr. button he pulilished The Fosnl Flora of
Great Britain, which consists of descriptions and figures of all the fossil plants found in
this country up to the time of the commencement of this publicati(m in 1838. Our
limited space prevents us from noticing his other works, or his numerous contributions
to scientific transactions. In 1829, at the opening of the London university, he was
appointed professor of botany, and he continued to discharge the duties of the chair till
1860, when ho resigned. From 1823 he acted as assistant secretary to the horticultural
society, and not only edited their Transactions and Proceedings, but took an active part
in the miuiagemcnt of their g:irdcns at Turnham Green. He was a fellow of numerous
learned societies at home and abroad. He died Nov., 1865.
LINDSAY, county-seat of Victoria co., Ontario, Canada, on the Scugog river, and
on the line of the Canada Midland railway, 56 m. n.c. of Toronto; pop. about 4,000.
Its commerce is principally in lumber, gram, and flour. Its manufactures are doors,
sash and blinds, iron-works, beer, and extracts of hemlock bark. It contains the county
buildings, and several fine churches and schools.
LIHDSAT, The Family op. Tliis Scottish historical house is of Norman extraction.
One of the race obtained lands in England from the Conqueror; another, sir Walter de
Lindsay, settling in Scotland under David I.^ acquired Ercildoun, and Luftness in East
Lothian. The descendant of the latter, William Lindsay of Ercildoun, high iusticiary
of Lothian in the latter half of the 13th c, acquired the lands of Crawford in Cl}'desdiUe,
which the family continued to hold till about the close of the 16th century. He married
princess Marjory, sisier of king William the li(m, and had three sous. The eldest
inherited Crawford; and the descendants of the second were the house of Laniberton,
who for a time eclipsed their elder brethren; but the line of both ended in heiresses; and
Crawford eventually came to the descendants of William of Luffness, third son of the
justiciary, who, in the 14th c, added largely to their estates by man'iage with a coheir-
ess of lord Abernethy. Sir James Lindsay of Crawford was one of the most notable of
the Scotch barons engaged in the battle of Otterburn.
Eakls of Crawford and Duke of Montrose. — Sir Alexander Lindsay, younger
brother of sir James of Crawford, the hero of Otterburn, acquired large estates in the
counties of Angus and Inverness by marriage with the heiress of Stirling of Glenesk and
Edzell; and his son David, who, on failure of the line of his uncle, I)ecamc chief of the
family, married the sister of Robert III., and was raised by that king, in 1898, to the
dignity of earl of Crawford. In the 15th c. the earls of Crawford were among the most
powerful of the Scotch nobility: they assumed a regal state, had tlieir lieralds, and were
attended by pages of noble birth. Their domains were widely extended over Scotland,
but their chief seat was Finhaven, in Angus. David, third earl, entered into an alliance,
offensive an<l defensive, with the eighth earl of Douglas and Macdonald of the Isles,
carl of Ross, and wielded for a time, during James II.*8 minority, an authority far
exceeding that of royalty. He was slain at Arbmalh in a private feud with the Ogilvies.
His son, nicknamed "Beardie," or the "tiger earl," renewed the league with Douglas.
On James having treacherously stabbed Douglas at an interview at Stirling, he rose in
rebellion; and the earl of Huntly, lieutgen. of the kingdom, who had aided the Ogll-
vies at Arbroath, took up arms against him. Earl Beardie was defeated at Brechin, and
forfeited; but he was afterwards restored to his lands and dignities, and to royal favor,
and entertained James at Finhaven, who flung down a loose stone from the cimtle battle-
meet in fuitillment cf a vow which he had taken to make the highest stone of the castle
the lowest. The family attained their climax of power and wealth under David, fifth
earl, a faithful friend of James III., and employed by him in his most important foreign
embassies, who was made duke of Montrose in'l488, a title which had never before been
Digitized by VjOUV IC
^^ BindMij.
bestowed in Scotland but on princes of the blood-royal. On the accession of James IV.,
an act rescissory was passed of all CTaDts and titles conferred by his predecessor during
tlie last eight months of his re'.gn; but soon afterwards, a new charter of the dukedom
of Montrose \^an granted on a recital of the duke's good services to the king and his pre-
deeesor. David, eighth earl of Crawford, nephew of the duke of Montrose, had the
misfortune to have a son known for his ciiiucs and enormities as ** the wicked master",
bis conduct led his aged father to consent to a transfer of the earldom to David Lindsay
of Edzell, the next heir. The ninth earl, wlio succeeded under this conveyance, moved
vith pity for the rightful heir, son of the "wicked muster," obiained a reconveyance
of the earldom to him after his own decease. From that time the fortunes of tlie family
bcgsiu to decline. The 12th earl was imprisoned by his rehitives as a spendthrift. The
16tbearl. a companion in arms of the great Montrose, having no issue, through ihe influ-
ecce of a i^wenul cadet of the family, lord Lindsay of the Byres, a new pate nt of the
earldom was obtained from Charles L, bringing in his bmnch of the house before the
descendants of the uncle of the 16th earl, who had been created lord Spynie, or the inter-
mediate cadets of Edzell and BalcaiTcs.
Lord Lindsay of the Byres, Viscount Garnock.— Sir William Lindsay, younger
brother of the first carl of Crawford, acquired extensive estates with his wife, a daugh-
tcr of sir William Mure of Abercom. lie was hereditary bailie and seneschal of the
regality of the archbishopric of St. Andrews, an oflBco which remained in his family till
tbe middle of last centuTY. His grandson was made lord Lindsay of the Byres, county
Haddington, in 1445. The lords Lindsay of the Byn^s were sturdy champions of popu-
lar rights and of the Presbyterian faith; their principal residence was Struthers castle in
Fife. The fonrlh lord endeavored in vain to dissuade James IV. from his fatal expe-
dition to England In 1518; in c<msequenee of which. James vowed that, on his return,
he would bane him on his own gate, a threat, of course, rendered futile by the fatal
result of Flodden. The fifth lt)rd was one of the four, noblemen to whom the charge of
the infant queen Mary was committed on the death of her father. The sixth lord, the
fiercest and most bigoted of the lords of the congregation, was deputed by the rest to
obtain Mary*8 compulsory resignation at Lochleven, an office whicn he is said to have
discharged in a severe and repulsive manner; and the seventh lord bearded James VI. in
the presence-chamber rcgjirding the changes he was effecting in ecclesiastical j^olily.
The tenth lord Lindsay of the Byres was in 1644 created earl of Lindsay; and in virtue
of Charles L's above-mentioned patent, he became 17th earl of Crawford, a dignity
enjoye<l by his descendants till their extinction. He held the offices of high tix^asurer of
Scotland, and an extraordinary lord of session; and though a warm partisan of the cove-
oant, he was a loyal and consistent adherent of the Stuarts. In lo48 he entered with
leal into tbe proposal to raise an army to effect the king's rescue; and in 1657, .while for-
warding Charles XL's plan of marching into England, he was arrested, canied to Lor
doD, and detained a prisoner in the Tower and Windsor castle. He was released by the
'Mong*' parliament in 1660, on the recall of the secluded membei*s, and was reinstated in
his offices and dignities at the restoration. We find him afterwards making a strong
effort to dissuade Charles from introducing episcopacy in Scotland. The treasurer's
frmndson by a younger son was created viscount Garnock in 1703. The fourth viscount
Oarnock succeeded as 21st earl of Crawford; his son. the 22d earl, was the last of the
direct line of the Byres; and at his decease in 1808, the Crawford earldom returned, in
terms of the patent of Charles L, to the line of Balcarres, while the Crawford Lindsay
estates went to heirs-female. A claim by an alleged descendant of this branch of the
bouse to both peenige and estates, was long a matter of public interest and notoriety; it
eventually colf:ipsed from the discovery that the principal documents founded on were
ingeniouwy contrived forgeries.
Sir David Lindsay of the Mount, lion king of arms, the courtly knight, poet, and
philosopher, and friend of the reformation in its earlier stages, was descended* from a
natural son of the first sir William Lindsay of the Byres.
Earl of Balcabres and Crawford. — The Lindsays of Balcarres, in Fife, were a
branch, and eventually the representatives of the Lindsays of Edzell, who, as already
seen, had temporarily possessed the earldom of Crawford on the attainder of the
"wicked master." llie first of them was lord Menmuir, a lord of session and secretary
of state to James VL, posses.scd of accomplishments and cultivation rare in his age. His
son David was created lord Lindsay of Balcarres in 1638. and his grandson, Alexander,
earl of Balcarres, in 1651, in reward of their steady support of the royal cause. The
sixth earl of Balcarres became dejure earl of Crawford on the death of the 22d earl, the
last of the Byres line; and that title has been recognized by the house of lords to belong
to bis son, James, seventh earl of Balcarres, and 28d earl of Crawford, father of the
present representative of the family. The earl of Crawford further preferred without
Buccess a claim to the dukedom of 'Montrose, conferred by James IIL Alexander Wil-
^am Crawford, since 1869 earl of Cniwford and Balcarres, is author of Sketches of ilie
HUXorycf Chrigtian Art (1847); Skepticitm (1861); On tlie Theory of the EngUsh Ilea-anieier;
(Ecumenteity in relation to the Church of England (1870); and (1849) Lives of the Lindmys,
» family memoir, combining to a rare extent genealogical research with biographical
interest, to which reference is made for further particulars regarding the Lind8a3's.—
See also Jenrise, Land of the Lindsays,
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I.iuen. ^"
LITTOSAY, William Schaw; b. in Ayrshire. Scotland, in 1816; went to sea as
cabin-boy at 15 years of age; was second mate in 1834, cliief mate in 1835, and com-
mander of a merchantman in 1836; became agent for the Castle-Eden coal company in
1841 ; took an active part in opening the port of Hartlepool and providing it with wharves
and docks; in 1845 went to London, where in a short time he was recognized as one of
the '* merchant princes " of the city; was a candidate for parliament in 1832, and defeated ;
but in 1854 elected for Tynemoutii and North Sljields, and re-elected without opposition
in 1857; two years later was elected for Sunderland. He distinguished himself in par-
liament by earnest, careful attention to commercial and shipping interests, and took
part in organizing the administrative reform association. Besides numerous pamphlets
on mercantile and political topics he has published Ow Namgation, MeixarUUe, and
Marine Laws Considered; OunMercfiant Shipping; and T lie History of Me^'cJianttSlUppiiig,
the latter a work in 2 volumes.
LINDSAY, or Lyndsay, Sir David, op thx Mount, one of the best and long the
most popular of the older Scottish poets, was the son of David Lindsay of Gannylton,
in East Lothian, whose grandfather was a son of sir William Lindsay of the Hyres.
The poet is said by Chalmers to have been born at the Mount about the year 1490l but
Laing in his recent edition of Lyndsav (1871) notes the absence of evidence on this point,
Chalmers having apparently assumea it as a consequence of his supposition that the
poefs father was ** David Lyndsay of the Mountlil," while Laing has shown tliat this
was the poet's grandfather. The name "Da Lindesay " occurs in the list of "incor-
porated students in St. Salvator's college, St. Andrews, for the year 1508 or 1509. It
may be that of the poet. We cannot tell when he entered the ro} al service, but in Oct.,
1511, he is found taking part in a play acted before the court of king James IV. In the
following spring he was appointed "keeper" or "usher "of the prince, who. when
little more than a twelvemonth' old, became king James V.; and his verses preserve
some pleasing traces of the care and affection with which he tended the king*s infant
years. His wife, Janet Douglas, had long the chaise of the royal apparel. In 1524 the
court fell under the power of the queen-mother ana the Douglases, and Lindsay lost his
place; but four years afterward, when the Douglaj^es were overthrown. Lindsay was
made lion king at arms, and at the same time received the honor of knighthood. In
this capacity he accompanied embassies to the courts of England. Fnmce, Spain, and
Denmark. He appears to have represented Cupar in the parliaments of 1542 and 1543;
and he was present at St. Andrews in 1547, when the followers of the n- formed faith
called Knox to take upon himself the office of a public preacher. He died childless
before the summer of 1555.
The fl^st collection of Lindsay's poems appeared at Copenhagen about 1553. They
were republished at Paris or Rouen in 1558; at London in 1566, 1575. and 1581; at Bel-
fast in 1714; in Scotland in 1568, 1571, 1574, 1588, 1592, 1597, 1604. 1610, 1614. 1634,
1648, 1696, 1709, 1720, and 1776. This mere enumeration of editions might be enough
to show the great popularity which Lindsiiy long enjoyed. For nearly two centuries,
indeed, he Wiis what Burns has since become — the poet or the Scottish people. His works
were in almost every house, his verses on almost every tongue. Like Burns, he owed
part of his popularity, no doubt, to his complete mastery of the popular speech. But,
like Burns, Lindsay would have been read in whatever language he chose to write.
His verses show few marks of the highest poetical power, but their merits oiherwise are
great. Their fancy is scarcely less genial than their humor, and they are full of good
sense, varied learning, and knowledge of the world. They are valuable now, if for noth-
ing else than their vivid pictures of manneis and feelings. In the poet's own day, they
served a nobler purpose, by preparing the way for the great revolution of the 16tli cen-
tury. It has been said that the verses of Lmdsay did more for the reformation in Scot-
land than all the sermons of Knox. Like Burns. Lindsay shot some of his sharpest
shafts at the clergy. The licentiousness that characterizes his verses must be attributed
in part to the age m which he lived. The earliest and most poetical of his writings is i?uf
Dreine; the most ambitious. Tlie Monardiie; the most remarkable in his own day, per-
haps, was IVie Satyre of the Thrie Efdaitis; but that which is now read with most
pleasure, both for the charm of its subject and for its freedom from the allegorical fashion
of the time, is Tke Ilistorie of Squyer MeldrunK An admirable edition of Lindsjiy's
works is that of Chalmers (Lond. 1806. 3 vols.); but in points of detail it is less accurate
tlian that of Laing (Edin. 1871, 2 vols.).
LINDSLEY, Philip, d.d., 1786-1855; b. at Morristown, N. J.; graduated at
Princeton in 1804, where he was tutor in 1807-9 and 1812. professor of languages in
1813. and vice-president in 1817, at which time he was ordained as a minister of the
Presbyterian church. Between 1820 and 1839 he was offered the presidency of 10 dif-
ferent colleges, and in 1824 accepted that of the university of Nashville, Tenn.. which
he held till 1850. when he resigned, after a very successful career. He subsequently held
the professorship of archaeology and church polity in the Presbyterian theological semi-
nary at New Albiiny, Ind. His complete works, comprising sermons and educational
and other discourses and es.says, together with a memoir by Leroy J. Halsey, were pub-
lished in 1865. Died at Nashville,
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^> i lAnen.
UR, an expression used in the army to distinguish ordinary cavalry and infantry
from the guards, artillery, and engineers. It obviously takes its origin from the fact
ttoi the troops in question constituted the usual *' line of battle."
LIl^E, in military or naval rank (ante). The line-officers of the navy and army in
the United States are divided into eleven grades, and their comparative rank on the
active or retired list is as follows:
The admiral of the navy ranks with a general of the army.
The vice-admiral " '* lieutenant-general of the army.
10 rear-admirals of the navy rank with major-generals '*
25 commodores *• '* brigadier-generals •*
50 captains " " colonels **
90 commanders " *' lieutenant-colonels "
80 lieutenant-commanders " " majors "
280 lieutenants *' " captoins "
100 masters " " first lieutenants "
100 ensigns " " second lieutenants. **
— midshipmen
All staff officers are appointed by the president with the sanction of the senate. He
also appoints for vessels in actual service all warrant officers, such as boatswains, gunners,
flail-makers, and carpenters, that may be required. All officers not entitled to hold war-
rants are called petty officers. All officers of the army above the grade of sergeant hold
their authority by commissions, and are therefore termed commissioned officers, to dis-
tioguish them from non-commissioned officers.
UVE, Mathematical, denotes a ma^itude having only one dimension. Euclid
defiuei it to be " that which has length without breadth."
LINE. Mathematical {ante), may be straight, curved, or mixed; a straight line is
defined by Euclid as ''one which lies evenly between two points." To this, it is
objected, the idea of straightness is presupposed in the definition; it is said, also, by
some mathematicians that the order of definitions is reversed by Euclid from the
order of comprehension; that the mind conceives first the solid and then successively
the surface, line, and point. The definition now generally given is that a straight line is
the thortest path between any two given points; a curved line is one not rtraight, i.e.
between an^ two geometrical points m its extent a shorter line may be drawn; the term
mixed line is used to denote a union of the two in extent, but is hardly a pure geometri-
cal concept. Straight lines may be produced both ways without limit; may-& drawn
through any two points in space, ana any two coincide throughout indefinite extension
if two points in the one coincide with two points in the other. If we admit the idea of
motion, we may define a line as the path of a moving point, a surface as the path of a
moving line, and a solid as that of a moving surface. Thus if a straight line revolves
about one extremity as an axis, it will describe with the other a circle of which it is
itself the radius; and a semicircle revolving about its diameter will produce a spherical
surface.
LmAL DEBCEKT, the descent in a right line, as from father to son, grandson, etc.
UHSK AKD LIHEK KAHUTACTXTBEB, fabrics manufactured wholly from flax or
lint (Lat. linum). The manufacture of linen has reached its greatest perfection in France
and the Netherlands, where the stimulus to produce fine yarns (see Spinning) for the
lacemakers has given rise to such care and attention in tlic cultivation and preparation
of flax that in point of fineness of fiber they have been unequaled. Consequently the
linens of France, Belgium, and Holland have long enjoyed a well-deserved reputation,
and in the article of lawn, which is the finest kind of linen cloth made, the French are
unrivaled. In the ordinary kinds of linen our own manufactures are rapidly improv>
ing. and will soon equal in quality the productions of continental competitors. Those
of Ireland, especially, are remarkable for their excellence, and this trade has lx*come a
very important one in that country; whilst in Scotland a large trade in the coarser and
inferior kinds has located itself. The export of linen manufactures and linen yarns from
the United Kinsrdom in 1876 was in value £7,070,149; and the amount produced for
homeconsumptlbn may be reckoned at £10.000.000.
The chief kinds of linen nmnufactures, besides yam and thread, which will be
described under Sftnntng, are . Lawn (Fr. linon), the finest of flax manufactures, for-
merly exclusively a French production, but very fine lawns are now made in Belfast,
Armagh, and Warringstown ; cambric (q.v.); damask (q.v.); diaper (q.v.). Of the finer
plain inhrXcB. sheetings nre the most important in this country. The chief places of
their manufacture are Belfast, Armagh, and Leeds. C(»mmon sheeting and toweling are
very extensively manufactured in Scotland, particularly at Dundee, Kirkcaldy, Forfar,
and Arbroath. Ducks, knekiibacks^ osnafmrgs, cf-ash, and tick (corrupted from ticken and
dekken, Dutch for cover) are very coarse and heavy materials, some fully bleached,
others unbleached or nearly so. They are chiefly made in L«cotlan(l, the great seat of
the naaoufactore being at tlie towns just mentioned, although much is made in the
amaller towns and villages, lUso at Leeds and Barnsley in England. Some few varieties
^ JO Digitized by VjUUVIC
IJnen. xo
Uttimento. ^^
of yelvet and yelveteen are ttlso made of flax at Manchester, and much linen-yam is
used us warp for other materials.
Liueu is one of the most uncient of all textile manufactures, at least it is one of the
earliest mentioned The cerecloth, in which the most ancieut mummies are wrapped,
proves its early and very extensive use among the £g}'ptians. It formed also parts of
the garments of the Hebrew as well as the Egyptian priests. Panopolis was the Belfast
of the ancients, as, according to Btrabo, it was there the manufacture of linen was chiefly
conducted. The wonderful durability of linen is evidenced by its existence on mum-
mies, and by the remarkable fact mentioned by the German write/, Seetzen, and referred
to by Blumenbach, that he hud found several napkins within the folds of the covering
on a mummy which he unwrapped, and that he had them washed several times without
injury, and used with great veneration ** this venerable linen, which had l>cen woven
more than 1700 years." From the time of these ancient Egyptians up to the present
period, the use of linen for clothing and other purposes has been continuous; and
although the introduction and vast development of the cotton manufacture checked its
consumption for a time, it has fully regained, and has indeed exceeded, its former pro-
portions as one of out great staples.
LINEN AND LINEN MANUFACTURES (anU). Linen was first manufactured in
England by Flemish weavers under the protection of Henry III., in 1258; it was not
until 80 years after, that a colony of Scots planted themselves m the n.e. part of Ireland,
and estaolished there the linen manufacture. In 1696 hemp, flax, linen- thread, and
yarn were permitted to be exported from Ireland duty free: it was not before 1860 that
the duty was taken off imported linen. — The introduction of the linen manufacture into
the United States took place in 1834, when a mill was set up at Fall River, Mass. As
late as 1870 there wei-e but 10 establishments for this manufacture in the United States,
their product being set down at $2,178,776. The importation into the United States in
the year ending June SO, 1879, of flax :md manufactures of flax, Jute and its manufac-
tures, and hemp, amounted to $33,157,769.
LIHO, Lota molta^ a flsh of the family gadida, abundant on most parts of the British
coasts, and elsewhere throughout the northern seas, and in value almoFt rivaling the
cod. In form it is much more elongated than the cod, and even more than ilie hake,
with which it agrees in having two dorsal fins and one anal fin, the anal and second
dorsal long; but the genus differs in the presence of barbels, of which the ling has only
one at the extremity of the lower jaw. The ling is generally 8 or 4 ft. lon^. sometimes
more, and has been known to weigh 70 pounds. The color is gray, inclining to olive;
the belly, silvery; the fins edged with white. The tail-fin is rounded. The gnpe is
large, and the mouth well furnished with teeth. The ling is a veiy voracious fish, feed-
ing chiefly on smaller fishes. It is also very prolific, and deposits its spawn in June, in
soft oozy ground near the mouths of rivers. It is found chiefl}' where the bottom of the
sea is rocky. Great numbers are caught in the same manner as cod, by hand-lines and
long lines, on the coasts of CornwaTl, the Hebrides, the Orkney and Shetland islands,
etc.; and are split from head to tail, cleaned, salted in brine, washed, dried m the sun,
and sent to the market in the form of stoek-flsh. They are largely exported to Spain and
other countries. The air-bladders or sounds are pickled like those of cod. The liver also
yields an oil similar to cod-liver oil. w*hich is used for the supply of lamps in Shetland
and elsewhere. — Other species of ling arc found in the southern seas. — The burbot (q.v )
is a fresh-water species of the same genus.
LING. See Hbath (anU).
LING, Pkter Henrik, 1776-1889: b. in Sweden; of an adventurous spirit, he
traveled as a youn,!^ man through Germany and France; was fencinc-master at the uni-
versity of Lund in 1805. in 1813 teacher of fencing at the military school of Carlesbcrg,
and in 1816 director of the cymnastic institute of Stockholm, where he died. He
hcstowed much thought and labor upon his profession, developing gymnastic exercises
as a form of medical treatment, leading finally to what is now extensively known as the
** Swedish movement cure." His poetical works, which appeared from time to lime,
were addressed to the patriotism of the Swedes, and well calculated to inspire in them a
deep love of country and a heroic determination to defend it at all hazards.
LIVOA (a Sanskrit word which literally means a sign or .<:ymbol) denotes, in the sec-
tarian worship of the Hindus, the phallvs, as emblem of the male or generative power of
nature. The Linga-worship prevails with the Sai'vas, or adorers of Si'va (see Hindu
Religion under India). Originally of an ideal and mystical nature, it has degenerated
into practices of the grossest description ; thus taking the siimc coui-sc as the similar wor-
ship of the Chaldeans, Greeks, and other nations of the east and west. The manner in
which the Linga is represented is generally inoffensive — the pistil of a flower, a pillar of
stone, or other erect and cylindrical objects being held as appropriate symbols of the
ffenerativc power of Si'va, Its counterpart is Toni, or the symbol of female nature as
iructiHed and productive. The Sl'va-Purfina names 12 Liugas which seem to have been
the chief objects of this worship in India.
LINGAN, James Maccubin, 1752-1812; b. in Maryland, and took an active part in
the war of the revolution, rising to the rank of brig-gen.; was one of the prisoners at
Digitized by VjOUV IC
gQ lilnmi.
foft Washington, and kept for a lon;t time in the piison-ahip; after the Trar, waa collector
of ibe port of Qeorgeinwn, Md. ; resided in Baltimore in 1813. where he wus killed, July
S8^ by a mob wliile bravely defending the printing-office of the FecUfrai RepyMkan.
USQAXDf JojBDX, D.D., a member of a humble Roman Catholic family, was b. at
fJDchester, Fab. 1, 1771; aod being destined for the priesthood of that *church, waa
xnt U) the Eogliah college of Douai, in Fmnce, where he remained till that college, in
common with most of the relio-ious establishments of France, was broken up by the
troubles of the revolution. The act called the Catholic relief act enabling Catholics to
open schools in England, the Douai community was transferred to Crookhail, and ulti-
matelj to Ushaw, in the county of Durham. Linspird continued attached to the college
in its several migrations, altliough not always resident. In 1798 he accepted the office
of tutor in the family of lord Stourton; but in the following year he returned to com-
plete his theolos^ical studies at Crookhail, where he entered into priest's orders, and in
vbich he continued as professor of philosophy, prefect of studies, and vice-president,
until 1810. when he was named president. In 1811, however, he accepted the humble
ciire of Hornby, near Lancaster, in which he continued to reside till his death, July 18,
1851. lingard's first important work was the Antiquity ofths Anglo-Saxon Chvreh (8vo,
1806), reprinted in 1810, and afterwards, in a much enlarged edition (3 vols. 1845). This
was bat tlie pioneer of what became eventually the labor of his life — a Hitiory of Bng-
tom{(6 vols. 4to), published at intervals, 181^35; and afterwards in 14 vols. 8vo, 182$-
SI. This work, before the death of the author, had passed through six editions, the last
of which (10 vols. 8vo) appeared in 1854-65. From it* first appearance, it attracted
much attention, as being founded on original authorities and tlie result of much new
research. It was criticised with considerable asperity in its polemical bearings; but the
tuthor. in his replies, displayed so much erudition, and so careful a consideration of tho
oririoal authorities, that the result was to add materially to his reputation as a scholar
aDdacritia It won for itself a place as a work of original research, and although it
bears unmistakable evidence of the religious opinions of the author, yet Uiero is also
erideoce of a sincere desire to investigate and to ascertain the truth of history. In
reoi^ition of his great services, many honors were offered to him; and he received a
pension of £300 from the crown in reward of his literary services. liis remains were
iQterred in his old college of St. Cuthbert, at Ushaw.
mOATEH', a t of the island of Luzon, Philippine islands (q.v.), on a bay of the
nme name. Pop. 28,008, who export rice and sugar.
LINQUA FRANCA, a kind of corrupt Italian, with a considerable admixture of
French words and idioms; spoken along the shores of the Mediterranean.
LIHGIJAGBOS'SA, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Catania, on the north-eastern slope
of Ml Etna, 172o ft. above the sea, 87 m. s.w. from Messina. The name is also fre-
quently spelt Linguaglossa. The pop. of the town at the census of 1871 was close on
{J,500.
LINGUISTICS. See Philologt, anto.
inrO'lTLA, a genus of brachiopodous mollusks, exhibiting the remarkable peculiarity
of a long fleshy pedicel supporting a bivalve shell, and passing between the beaks of the
valves. They live attached to rocks in the seas of warm climates, purticulariy of the
Indian archipelago and Polynesia. The genus is interesting, because, although few
recent species are known, fossil species are numerous, and are found in the fossillferous
beds of Britain and other countries, the seas of which now produce none of their
congenera
UHDIBHTfi (from the Latin word linXre^ to besmear) may be regarded, in so far as
their physical properties are concerned, as ointments having the consistence of oil,
while, chemically, most of them are soapf— that is to say, compounds of oils and alka-
lies. In consequence of their slighter consistence, they are rubbed into the skin more
readiiy than ointments. Among the most important of them are: Liniment (ffammtmia,
popularly known as hartshorn and oil, which is prepared by mixmgand shakmgtogetirer
wlution of ammonia and olive-oil, and is employed as an extcrmd stimulant and rube-
facient to relieve neuralgic and rheumatic panis, sore throat, etc.: Soap liniment, or
<9odeldoe, the constituents of which are soap, camphor, and spirits of rosemary, and
wbich i» used in sprains, bruises, rheumatism, etc. : LinimeiU of lime, or cnrron oil,
vhich is prepared by mixing and shaking together equal measures of olive or linseed oil
tod lime-water; it is an excellent application to burns and scalds, and from its genend
emplovment for this purpose at the Carron iron-works, has derived its i)opular name:
Campfior Uniment, consisting of camphor dissolved in olive-oil, which is used in sprains,
bruises, and glandular enlargements, and which must not be confounded y^'wh compound
^nj^ liniment y which contains a considernbie quantity of nnimouia, and is a power-
iDlstimuUnt and ruliefacient: Opium liniment, which consists of soap liniment and tine-
tare of opium, aud is much employed as an anodyne in neuralgia, rheumatism, etc. .
udthc timple liniment of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, which is composed of lour
parts of oLve-oil, and one part of white wax, aud is used to soften the skin and promote
ibe healing of chaps.
Digitized by VjOUV iC
Unk. (^0
Xlnnmu ^^
LINK, a unit of measure in land surveying, T^Vi in- in length.
LIKKOFIHO (old Norse Longakopungar, iater Liongaldaping), one of the oldest towni
in Sweden, capital of the Isen of the same name, is siiuated on the Stftnga, 'wiiich here flow
in 10 lake lloxen, 110 m. s.w. of Stockholm. It is regularly built, with fine market
places and public squares, but the houses are mostly of wood. LinkOping has ihre^
churches, of which the cathedral — a Qothic edifice of the 12th c, containing monument
of many illustrious personages — is one of the most beautiful in Sweden, it also posses
ses a library of 30,000 vols. Its trade is considerable. Pop. 76, 8,373. In old heathei
times, LinkOping was a place of sacrifice.
LINLEY. Thomas, 1725-95; b. Wells, Eng. ; was the pupil first of Chilcot, organis
of the Abbe)r at Bath, and finished his studies under Paradies, an eminent Venetiau
established himself in Bath, teaching music, and giving concerts, his two dau^ters Airs
Sheridan and Mrs« Tickell contributing greatly to the attraction b^ their superior slug
i..g; Removed to London, to conduct the oratorios, first in connection with Stanley, thei
with Dr. Arnold. Christopher Smith having retired from the management of tb<
London oratorios, Mr. Linley succeeded him m connection with Mr. Stanley, the blin<
composer, and on his death with Dr. Arnold. In 1775 he set the music to 8heridaii*i
opera Tkg Duenna, which had unparalleled success, having been performed 75 time
that season. He united in 1776 with Sheridan in purchasing an interest in tlie Dnirj
Lane theater, Liulcy having direction of the musical department, which he conduct e<
for 13 years. Among other pieces he produced Carnival of Venice; SeUma and Aza\
frrtm the French. His Six JSlegies, written early in life, were original, simple, and beau
tiful, and did much for his fame and fortune. His twelve ballads and a madrigtil hav<
great merit. The death of his son Thomas by drowning at the age of twenty >tw<
affected him so deeply that he never recovered from the shock. The son had mad*
great proficiency in music with the best mastera of Italy and Germany, ana lived in tiit
closest intimacy with Mozart.
LINLEY. William, 1767-1836; son of Thomas; educated at Harrow and St. PauV
schools. For several years he was in the service of the East India company at Madra
and Calcutta. He returned from India early with a competence, and devoted tlii
remainder of his life to literature and music. Of music he was passionately fond, an<
produced a number of glees which evinced much originality ana taste. ^He pabli8he<
also a set of songs, two sets of canzonets, and many detached pieces, and compiled
Dramatic Songs of ShaJcespeare, 2 folio volumes, a work of much research, in which an
several of his own elegant compositions. He wrote also tw^o novels, and two coini*
operas which were performed at Drury Lane. He wrote besides an elegy on the deal]
of his sister Mrs. Sheridan.
LmxITH'OOW, or West Lothian, a co. in Scotland, is bounded on the n. by tht
firth of Forth, having the counties of Mid-Lothian, Lanark, and Stirling on thee., s.
and west. Its length, n. to s., is20 m., and e. to w. 15 miles. Its area is 127 sq.m., o
81,114 acres. The surface of the ground is irregular, but the hills are inconsiderabl*
with the exception of one eminence 1500 ft. high. The climate is changeable, bu
healthy. The soil is very varied, and, except along the borders of the firth, there ii
little land of first quality. In some of the high grounds there is good pasture, also i
considerable breadth of unreclaimed moss. Excellent farming prevails here as in Edin
burghshire and Haddingtonshire. There are few streams of any note, the Almond an<
Avon being the principal. The minerals are of considerable value. The freestone usc<
in building the royal institution, national gallery, and other public buildings in Edin
burgh, was got at Binny. There are several collieries in full and profitable operation.
There are two royal burehs — Linlithgow, the county town, and Queensferry. Tin
other principal towns are Batligate and Borrowstounness. This county is intersected witl
railways, and the Iklinburgh and Glasgow Union canal traverses it for upwards of 1<
miles. In 1674 the valued rent was £5,078. In 1811 the real rent was £88,745; and it
1878-79 it was, excluding railways and canals, £197.623.
The following are the agricultural statistics for 1876: acres under a rotation of cropi
and grass, 58,878, of which there were 1362 acres of wheat, 5,146 acres of barley, 10,76]
acres of oats, 916 acres of beans, 2,210 acres of potatoes, and 4,683 acres of turnips. O]
live-slock, the numbers were — horses employea in sgricnlture, 2,140; cattle, 10,902
sheep. 19,906; swine, 1858. Salt is made in the county; and in the towns are tanneries,
breweries, distilleries, and chemical works. This countv contains several remains o1
Roman antiquities. Pop. '71, 40,965. Constituency in 1^76-77, returning one mcmbei
to parliament, 1198.
LINLITHGOW, a market-town, and royal and parliamentary burgh of Scotland, chicl
t. of the CO. of the same name, is situated on a small lake, 16 m. w. of Edinburgh. It h
one of the oldest towns in Scotland, and, though it has been much modernized, still cou
tains many antiquated houses, and some ruins rich in historicnl association. The pari.sl
church of St. Michael's (built partly in the 15th and partly in the 16th c), a portion ol
which is still in use, is a beautiful specimen of the latest Scottish Gothic, The palace
strikiniiiy situated on sui eminence which Juts into the lake (of 102 acres), dividing il
into two almost equal paris, is heavy, but imposing in appearance; was frequently the
Digitized by VjOUV IC
resdence of the Scottish moDarchs, and was the birthplace of Manr Queen of Scots, and
of h?r father, James V. The earliest record of its existence is of the time of David I.
(1151-^). and fragments of various ages are easily detected. Tlie latest work is of the
tisie of James YI. Linlithgow unites with several other burghs in sending a member to
jiaHament Pop. '71, 8,090.
LINN, a CO. of e. Iowa, intersected by the Cedar and Wapsipinicon rivers, and
drained in part by Buffalo and Prairie creeks; traversed by the Chicago and North-
western, the Dubuque and South-western, and the Burlington, Cedar Rapids and Min-
D«oi4 railroads; 720 sq.m.; pop. '80, 87,285. The surface is undulating, and diversified
¥i:b prairies and forests, the latter filled with hard timber. The soil is fertile and well
witered, and rests partly upon a limestone foundation. Wheat, corn, oats, hay, butter,
caule, and pork are staple products. The city of Cedar Rapids is in the county. Valu-
^on of real and personal property, $15,412,2^48. Capital, Marion.
LINN, a CO. in e. Kansas, bordering upon Missouri; intersected by the Psage river,
snd drained in part by Biff Sugar and Nbrth Sugar creeks; traversed by the Mississippi
Kver, Port Scott and Gulf railroad; 680 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 15,299. About 90 per cent of
ti» surface is prairie, while forests grow alon? the streams. The soil is fertile, produc-
in; excellent crops of wheat, coro, oats, and hay. Large numbers of cattle are raised,
aod batter is a staple production. Limestone and bituminous coal abound. Valuation
of re«l and personal property, $6,002,050. Capital, Mound City.
LINN, a CO. in n. Missouri, intersected by Locust and Yellow creeks, and drained
by Muscle river, and several affluents of Qrand river, which touches the s.w. corner of
the county; traversed by the Hannibal and St. Joseph railroad; 648 s(].m. ; pop. '80,
^,016, of whom 14,499 were of American birth. The surface is undulating, and much
•if it is covered with forests. The soil is fertile, and the chief staples are corn, oats,
wheat, cattle, and pork. Valuation of real and personal property, $6,500,000. Capital,
Lioneua.
LINN, a CO. in w. Oregon, bounded n. by the n. fork of the Santiam river, and
w. by the Willamette; drained by the Calapooya river and the s. fork of the Santiam:
inteiiected by the Oregon and California railroad; 2,850 sq.m.; pop. *80, 12.675, or
whom 8,474 were of American birth. The surface is diversified with mountains, prai-
ries, and extensive forests. Mount Jefferson, a high peak of the Cascade range, covered
Tirh perpetual snow, stands on the e. border of the county. The soil of the valleys and
prairies is reir productive. The chief productions are wheat, oats, butter, hay, lumber,
indwool. The quantity of wheat raised in 1875 was 998,626 bushels. Valuation of
real and personal property, 5,500,000. Capital, Albany.
LINN, John Blaib, d.d., 1777-1804; b. in Shippensburg. Penn., but removed in
cliildhood to New York; graduated at Columbia college in 1795, when but 17 years old,
ud was afterwards a stuaent in the law office of Alexander Hamilton. A ' ' serious
•irama," written by him and entitled BaurviUe CastU, or the Gallic Orphan, was brought
iHii at the John street theater, in 1797, but was not successful. Not long after this he
abADdoned the law and studied theology under the rev. Dr. Homeyn at Schenectady.
la June, 1799, he became assistant pastor of rev. Dr. Ewing's church in Philadelphia.
Id I^ he wrote a poem on the Death of Wa^Iungton, and in 1802 published The Powers
iGeniiu, a poem of about 600 lines, which was well received, soon reaching a second
edition, and being reprinted in England. In 1803 he entered into controversy with Dr.
Priestley, occasioned by the latter's comparison of Socrates with Jesus. He conducted
hU side of ^e debate so well that the university of Pennsylvania conferred upon him
liie title of d.d. Died in Philadelphia of consumption.
LINN, WiLi*iAM, D.D., 1752-1808; b. near Shippensburg, Penn. ; graduated at Prince-
ton in 1772; studied theology with the rev. Dr. Cooper of Middle Spring, Penn., and
licensed to preach in 1775. He served for a time as a chaplain in the revolutionary war,
ifterwards taught an acadamy at Somerset, Md., became pastor of a church in Eliza*
^tthtown, N. J., in 1786, and a few months later, one of the pastors of the collegiate
Oatch reformed church in New York, where he remained until 1805, when the state of
Ills health compelled him to retire. He was distinguished as an eloquent and successful
preicfaer. He published IHscourses on Soripiure mstory; TJie Signs of the limes, a series
of essays in favor of the French revolution; a Funeral Eulogy of Gen, Washington, and
^uy separate sermons. Died at Albany.
LINN^A, a genus of plants belonging to the order caprifoliacese or honeysuckle
familv. It contains only one species, L, boreaHs. It was found by Linnaeus in Lapland
in 17& and named after him by Gronovius. Calyx 5-pointed, oval-shaped, deciduous.
<orolla narrow, bell-shaped, flve-lobed Stamens four, two shorter, inserted towards the
W of the corolla. Pod, three-celled, but having only one seed, the other two cells
aaving abortive ovules. It is a slender creeping and trailing little evergreen, somewhat
l^iry. rounded oval leaves contracted at the base into short petioles, and thread-like
^prizht peduncles having two pedicels at the top, each bearing a delicate and fragrant
Qodding flower. Corolla purple and whitish, hairy inside. It inhabits the more north
wnpftrtaof Europe, Asia, and Amenca— found in moist, mossy woods and cold bogs;
Digitized by VjiOUV IC
Linnceaa. AO
LlnMMd. ^^
British America and northern United States; and grows somewhat rarely In New Jersc
and in tlie inountaiuous parts of Maryland.
LlNN^'Ua See Linn6, ante.
LINn£. ICarl von, often called Linkaus, one of the greatest of naturalists, was I
May 4. 1707, iit Rjishult, in Smaland (Sweden), where his father was a country parso
in very poor circumsttmccs. His parents intended him for his father's pn>fe^:siou, bi
he made little proticieucy in the necessaty classical studies, manifesting, however, froi
his very boyhood, I be greatest love for botany. His father, disiippointed. proposed t
apprentice htm to a shoemaker; but Dr. John Rothmnnu, a physician at WexiO,
friend of his father, undertoolc for a^'ear the expense of his education, and guided hli
in the study of botiiny and of physiolpgy. In 1727 the young naturalist went to siud
medicine at Lund, and in the year following he went to Upsala, but during his attenc
ance at the university he endured ^at poverty. Olaf Celsius received him at last int
his house, and availed himself of his assistance in preparing a work on the plants of th
Bible. He 'also won the favorable regard of Olaf Uudbeck, the professor of botany a
Upsala, hy a paper in which he exhibited the first outlines of the sexual system c
botany, with which his name must ever remain connected. Kudbeck appoiuted hln
curator of the botanic garden and botanical demonstrator. In his 24th year be wfote
Ilortuui Uplandicus. From Mav to November, 1732, lie traveled in Laplanil, at th
expense of the government. The fruits of tliis tour appeared in his Ftora Ijappomc^
(Amst. 1737). He afterwards spent some time at Falilun, studying mineralogy
and there he became acquainted with the iady whom he afterwards married, th
daughter of a physician named M-jr&ns, who supplied him with the means of going ti
Holland to take liis degree, which he obtained at Harder*vyck in 1735. In Holland hi
became the associate of some of the most eminent scientitic men of the time, and woi
for himself a high reputjitiou as a naturalisr, developing original views which nttractcc
no little attention, while he eagerly prosecuted his researches in all departments of nat
ural history. During his residence in Holland Linne composed and published, ii
rapid succession^ some of his gre:itest works, particularly his 8y9Uina N(Uurm (Lev d,
1735). Km Fandamenta Jhtanica (Leyd. 1736), his Genera Plantarum (Leyd. 1737), hij
Corollariam Oenerum PUtrUarum (Leyd. 1737), etc. He visited England and France,
and returned to Sweden, where, after some time, he was appointed royal botanist and
president of the Stockholm academy. In 1741 he was appointed professor of medicine
m Upsala, and in 1742 professor of botany there. The remainder of ills lifo waf
mostly spent at Up.«tala in the greatest activity of scientific study and authorship. He
produced revised editions of his earlier works,. and numerous new works, a F!or<i
Siiecicfi (174.")). Fauna Suecica (1746). Hortu^ UpsaUensis (1748), Maieria Mediea (1749-
52). his famous PhUosophia Botanica (1751), and the Speciei^ Plantarum (1753). in some
respects ihe greatest of all his works. He died Jan. 10, 1778, the last four year? of hifi
life having been spent in great mental and bodily infirmity. Linn6 was not only a
naturalist of most accurate observation, but of most philosophical mind, and upon this
depended in a great degree the almost unparalleled influence which lie exercised upon
the pro.ijress of every branch of natural history. Among the important services which
he rendered to science, not the least was the introduction of a more clear and precise
nomenclature. The groups which he indicated and named have, in I lie great majority
of instances, been retained amid all the progress of science, and are too natuniV ever to
be broken up; while, if the botanical system which he introduced is artificial. Linne
himself was perfectly aware of this, ana recommended it for mere temporary use till
tlic knowledge of plants should be so far advanced that it could give place to a natural
arrangement. See Botanv.
LINNELL, John. b. London, 1799. In 1805 he wns pupil of John Varley, father
of the present school of water-color painting. In 1807 he exhibited at the academy
••Fishermen, a Scene from Nature." The same year he received a medal at the Roval
academy for a drawing from the life, and in 1809, at the British institution, the prize of
50 guineas for the best landscape. He painted many views in Wales and elsewhere, and
in 1821 exhibited landsctipe and portrtuts. His paintings in earlier years were portraits,
but subsequently he devoted himself to landscape and figure painting. His chief works
are: ••The Morning Walk," ••The Windmill," " A Wood Scene." -Eve of the Deluge,"
••The Return of Ulysses." ••Christ and the Woman of Samaria," " The Disol)edicnt
Prophet," **The Timber Wagon," ••Barley Harvest." ** Under the Hawlhorn," "Cross-
ing the Brook." ••The Last Gleam before the Storm," *' Harvest Showers." ** A View
in Windsor Forest " Among his numerous portraita are " A Family Group---tbe Artist's
Children." those of several fellow-artists, sir Robert Peel, and Thomas Carlyle. Lin-
neirs portraits are in a unique style, deeply Btudied in character, simple and real, and
he ranks among the best landscape painters.
LINHXT, TAnota, a genus of small birds of the ihmWy fringiUidm, nearly resembling
the true finches, goldfinches, etc. The bill is short, stndght, conical, and pointed; the
wings long and somewhat pointe<l; the tail forked. The species are widely distributed
in the northern, temperate, and arctic regions, but much confusion has ansen concern-
ing them, from the difference between the plumage of the breeding season and that of
the greater part of the year. The Comhok LmNBT {L, eannabina), or Gbbateb Red>
Digitized by VjiJUV IC
AQ Unnaova*
^*^ UnMMd.
FOLK (qu. rn^Krfl), |g oommon in almost everjr part of the Brilisb islands and of Europe,
iod eiteods over Asia to Jnpan. In size it is about equal to the chatlincli. In its
wjflter plumage its prevailing color is brown, the quill and tail feuthei-s black ivith
vbite edges; iu the nuptial plumage the crown of the head and the breast are bright vc>r-
Bilion culor. and a general brightening of color takes place over the rest" of the
Blamage. This change of plumage causes it to be designated the brown, gray, or rose
iflBet,\cconUug to the season of the year and tlie sex. It is the UrUie of the Scotch.
Thesweetoess of its song makes it everywhere a favorite. It sings well in a cage, and
lodily breeds in confinement; but the brightness of the nuptial plumage iiever appears.
TJie linnet abounds cbietiy in somewhat open districts, and seems to prefer unculiivated
sod fune covered grounds. Its nest is very often in a furze-bush or bawthom-hedge;
is formed of small twigs and stems of grass, nicely lined with wool or hair; the eggs are
foarorfive in number, pale bluish white, speckled with purple and brown. Linnets
congregate in large flocks in winter, and in great part desert the uplands, and resort to
tbesett-coa^ — ^The Mealy Redpolb (L. eaneacentt) is also a widely distributed sper-ies,
ud 18 found in Korth America, as well as in Europe and Asia, chiefly in very northern
RfioDS. Il is rare in Britain. In size it is nearly equal to the common linnet. By
tcm it is r^;arded as a larger variety of the Lesser liKDPOLB or Common Kbdpols
{L Unarin), which is common in Britain, although in the south of England it is chiefly
kDowo as a winter visitant. The forehead, throat, and lore are black; in the spring
plumage, the crown of the head is deep crnn.<^>n; the general color is brown of various
sbad«. The species is common in all the northern parts of the world, enlivening with
ite pleasant twitter and sprightly habits even the desolate wastes of Spitzbergeu.— The
oalyotber British species is the Mountain Linnet, or Twite (L. montium), chiefly
fouad iu mountainous or very northern districts. It is smaller than the preceding, has
t yeliowisli tiill, and never assumes the red color which marks the; nuptial plumago of
ocher species.
UfOXElTM is. as its name is intended to denote, a peculiar preparation of linseed oil.
Id 1^9 Nicies and Hochelder independently discovered that chloride of sulphur will
wiidify oil. and render it usable in many new ways. In 1859 M. Perra communicated
^otbt academic des sciences the details of a mode of effecting this by mixing and raelt-
icgibe ingredients, and pouring the mixture out in a thin laver. By varying the pro*
portions the resulting substance assumes varying degrees or consistency. Thus. 100
iio$»'<i oil -f 25 chloride of sulphur produces a hard and tough substance; 100 oil-^ 15
dbridc, a supple substance like india-mbbcr; and 100 oil + ^ chloride, a thick pasty
Basa. This third kind dissolves well in oil of turpentine. Mr. Walton afterwanis
fouod thnt, by the application of heat, linseed oil will become hard without the additicm
of chloride of sulphur. He conceives that it is not a mere drying, but a real oxidizing.
linsEtd oil. first lioiled, is applied as a Icyer to a surface of wood or ghw»s, then dried;
tlieo anntlter layer; and so on till the required thickness is produced. The sheet is then
lemovt'd, and is found to be very much like india-nibl)er in ehiRticity; in fact, the pro-
dnction of a layer by this means is analogous to the smearing o*f clay-molds with
•3ouicliouc juice to produce india-rublwr. as practiced in South America. See Caout-
CHOcc. The drying is a little expedited by adding a small portion of oxide of lead.
Tlie solid oil is crushed, and worked thoroughly i etween healed rollers; and when
tre&tal either with shellac or with naphtha, it l)ecoine6 applicable in various mnnufactur-
is? forms. The tc»rm Unoieum pmperly applies to lh« hardened or oxidized oil itself,
bat it is chiefly used as a designation for one of the substances made from or with it, a
kind of floor-cloth. When the oxidized oil is rolled into sheets it l>ecomes a substitute
'oT iD(iia- rubber or gutta-percha. When dissolved as a varnish or mastic and applied to
cioih it is useful for water-proof textiles, felt ciirpets, carriage-aprons, wagon and cart
sheets, nurBinf^-aprons, water-beds, tank linings, table-rovers, etc., according to the
iBode of treatment. When used as a paint, it is useful for iron, for wood, and for
sliipe' bottoms. When ust'd as a cement it possesses some of the useful properties of
narineglue. When vulcanized or rendered quite hard by heat it may b»^ filed, planed,
tamed, carverl, and polished like wood, and used for knife and fork handles, mold-
ings, etc. When brought by certain treatment to the coiisistencvof dough or putty, it
pay be presaefl into embossed molds for ornamental articles. When used as a grind-
JDg-wbeel. touched with emery, it becomes a good cutter. Lastly, when mixed' with
ground cork, pressed on canvas by rollers, the amvas coated at the back with a layer of
ibesanaeoil in the state of paint, and the upper or principal surface painted and printed,
c bewmes the linoleum floor-cloth, for the production of which a factory has been
established at Staines. Dunn's patented fabric for similar purposes has no oil in it: it
ffia mixture of cork-shavings, cotton or wool filters, and caoutchouc spread upon a
couoQ or canvas back, and embossed with patterns; it is a kind of kamptulicon (q.v.).
LUSEED, the seed of flax, largely imported from the continent and India, for making
^^ed (ta Md nH'Cake; in order to which the seeds are first bruised or crushed, then
P^nind. and afterwards subjected to pref>8urc in a hydraulic or screw press, sometimes
*i'.hoat heat, and sometimes with the aid of a steam heat of about 200* Pahr. Unnefd
t^isusiully amlier-colored, but when perfectlv pure it is colorless. It has a peculiar
Kid rather disagreeable odor and taste. It is chiefly used for making varnish^, P^it\\5F,p
etc. That made without heat {cM-drawn Unseed inh\& purer, and less apt to becomi
rancid, ihan that in making which heat is applied. By cold expression, the seed yield
from 18 to 20 per cent, and with heat from 22 to 27 per cent of oil. Linseed oil, boiler
either alone or with litharge, white lead, or white vitriol, dries much more rapidly oi
exposure to the air than the unboiled oil ; and bailed or drying ail is particularly adapter
for many uses. — The oil-cake made in expressing linseed oil is very useful for feedin]
cattle, and, besides what is made in Britain, it is largely Imported from the continent
See Oll-gak£. Linseed itself is excellent food for Cattle'and for poultry. The seed coat
abound in mucilage, which forms a thick jelly wUh hot water, and is very useful fo
fattening cattle. — Z^nseed meal, much used for poultices, is generally made by grinding
fresh oil-cake, but it is better if made by grinding the seed itself.
LINSLEY, Joel Hakvey, d.d.. 1790-1868; b. in Cornwall, Vt.; graduated at Mid
dlebury college in 1811, and was tutor there three years; studied law, and practiced ii
Middlebury until 1822, when he was ordained as a Congregational minister; spen
some time in South Carolina as a missionary; was pastor of the South Congregations
church in Hartford, Conn., from 1824 to 1832, and of Park street church, Boston, fron
1882 to 1885, when he was elected president of Marietta (O.) college, a post which h
held for 10 years. In 1847 he became pastor of the Second Congregational church ii
Greenwich, Conn., and remained there until his death.
LIN 'STOGXy an iron-shod wooden staff used in gunnery, for holding the lighted mate)
in readiness to be applied to the touch-hole of the cannon. In old pictures, the linstoc)
is seen planted in the ground to the ri^ht rear of each piece, with a match smoking i]
each of the ends of the fork in which it terminates.
IIHT. See Flax.
LIHTEL, the horizontal bearer over doors, windows, and other openings in walls
usually either of stone or wood.
LII»lTON, Eliza Lynn, wife of W. J. Linton, b. at Keswick, Cumberland, Eni^.
1822. She is the author of a series of papers, Tlie Oirlofthe Period, which attracted widi
attention several years ago while they were passing through the Saturday B&oieu}. Sh*
has published several novels, among them Azeth, the £kfyptian; Amymone, a Bornance oj
Vie Days of Pericles; Realities, a romance of modern life ; Lizsde Lorton of Qreyrigg; Satt
ing the Wind; I7ie True History of Joskiut Davidson; Christian and Communist; PatricH
KembaU,
LINTON, William James, b. London, 1812; apprenticed to Mr. G. W. Bonner ii
1828; was partner in 1842 of Mr. Orrin Smith, the distinguished wood-engraver, an<
with him was engaged in the first works published in the illustrated London News. Ii
his younger days he was a zealous chartist, intimate with the Italian, French, and Polisl
refugees, in whose meetings he took an active part; was deputed bv the British work me i
to carry to the French provisional government their first congratulatory address; was ii
18C1 one of the founders of the newspaper, the Leader; became in 1855 the editor an(
manager of Pen and Per^l; and for several years was a regular contributor to the Nation
He contributed papers to the Westminster Review, Eaeaminer, and Spectator. As ai
en^aver on wood he holds the first rank. He prepared and illustrated The History a
Wood Engraving; 2 he Works of Deceased British Artists; several volumes of Tfte Englif*)
Republic. He published also Claribel and other Poems; Life of Thomas Paine, In 186'
he came to the United States, resided several years in New York, executed man]
superior works, and removed to New Haven, where he has a large engraving establish
ment
LIK-T8EH-8U, Chinese imperial commissioner, was b. in 1785 at Hing-hwa, in th^
province of Fuh-keen, and his Chinese biographers have not failed to find that his birtl
was attended with supernatural indications of future eminence. Till he reached liii
17th year, he assisted his father in his trade of making artificial flowers, and spent iiii
evenins:s in studvin^ to qualify himself for the village competitive examinations, a
which he succeeded m obtaining successively the degrees analogous to bachelor of arts
and master of arts. His ambitious mind, not satisfied with these triumphs, pointed i<
Pekin as the fitting sphere of his talents, but poverty barred the way. Happily^, how
ever, a wealthy friend, who was filled with admiration for Lin-tseh-su's merits and vir
tues, invited him to become his son-in-law, and he was now in a position to push hii
fortune at the capital. He became a doctor of laws and a member of the Hanlin college,
which latter honor qualified him for the highest official posts. When 80 years of ago^
he received his first official appointment as censor; and by displaying the same zeal and
industrv, combined with irreproachable probity, which he haa shown in private life, ht
gradually rose into the favor of the emperor and his ministers. He was sent to super
intend the repairing of the banks of the Yellow river; and on the termination of hi*!
mission, two years after, was highly complimented by his sovereign for his diliffencc
and energy, and, as an evidence of imperial favor, was appointed to the post of nnan-
cial commissioner for Eiang-nan, in vvhich province a famine was at that time decimal
ing the population. Lin-tseh-su exhausted all his private resources and emoluments ii]
providing food for the sufferers, and by careful management succeeded in restoring tlu^
prosperity of the province. He wa.s next appointed viceroy of the two provinces of
Digitized by VjOUVLC
65 JiZir^
Sheo se and Ean-su, where, as in Klang-nan be 80on gained the affections of tbe people
and the oommendations of the emperor. On his reception by tlie emperor after his
retan, new titles were showered upon liim, and he obtained the signal honor of entering
the imperial precincts on horseback. But now his brilliant progress was to be checkeoT
He had lone urged upon his sovereign the adoption of stringent measures towards the
importers, aealers, and consumers of opium, the bane and scourge of his native land:
ana on the commencement of difficulties with Great Britain^ he was appointed to deal
with tbe growing evil, and. If possible, put a stop to the obnoxious traffic. He arrived
atCantOD, invested with unlimited authority; but his unwise though well-fcaeant meaa-
ores excited a war with Britain, and brought down upon himself the vengeance of his
inoensed sovereign. He was banished to the region ot Elc, where he employed himself
in improving the agriculture of the country, by introducing more scientific methods of
cultivation. He was soon recalled, and restored to more than his former boners, and
did jrood service by crushing a rebellion inYun-nan. His health now began to fail, and he
obtained permission to retire to his native province; but f^hortly afterwards, while on
his way to attack the Tai-pings, he died, Jan., 1850. His death was the signal for
general mourning throughout China, and the emperor ordered a sacrificial prayer to be
composed, recording the illustrious deeds of the departed; a signal favor, only conferred
upon persons of extraordinary merit and virtue.
Lin tseh-su, besides thoroughly mastering the statistics and politics of China, devoted
much of his time to studying the geography and history of foreign countries, and to
private literary study. He is ranked as one of the chief among Chinese poets; and the
style, literary merit, and logical order of his public documents form a strange contrast
to tiie usual diffuse, rambling, and incoherent style of Chinese state-papers.
LIN-TSING, a l^rge and populous t. of China in the province of Shantung at the
junction of the imperial canal and the £u-ho river, 200 m. s. of Pekin. It has an
octiigonal pasoda of nine stories, built of porphyry, granite, and varnished bricks; and
aeTeral temples, in one of which is a colossal idol of gold. The town has a large trade
bf tbe canal.
LDTTS, the capital of the crown-land of upper Austria, is situated in a pleasant di8i>
trict on the right bank of the Daoulie, which is here crossed by a wooden bridger 888 it.
long. 100 m. w. ot Vienna. Pop. '69, 80,588. It is a strongly fortified, quiet town, and
a bishop's seat, with numerous churches, benevolent institutions, and government
offices. There are large imperial factories for carpets and other woolen goods; and
doths. cottons, cassi meres, fustians, leatiier, and cards are also made. The navigation
of the Danube occasions a lively trade. Steamboats ply daily up the river to Ratisbon,
ind down the river to Vienna. The women of Lintz are celebrated for tlieir beauty.
LINUM, the genus of plants of which common flax is the most important variety,
the others being cultivated not for their fiber, but for ornament. Among these is the
perennial flax of the western states, which grows to a height of 18 in., with tufts of
slender stems with delicate blue flowers. Other varieties are found in Algiers and
Texaa.
LINUS, a Christian at Rome, known as one of those who sent salutations by Paul to
Timuthy. Irenseus. in the latter half of the 2d c, says that " Peter and Paul, when
they founded and built up the church at Rome, committed the otEice of its episcopate to
Linos." Eusebius in the first half of the 4th c, followed by Theodorel in the 5th,
Baronius in the 16th. and Tillemont in the 17th, states that Liinus became bishop of
Rome after the death of Peter.
HOT, FtUaLeo, the largest and most majestic of ihefeUda and of carnivorous quad-
rapeds. It is, when mature, of a nearly uniform tawny or yellowish color, paler on the
nnder-parts; the young alone exhibiting markings like those common in the felidse; the
male has, usually, a great shnggy and flowing mane; and the tail, which is pretty long,
terminates in a tuft of hair. The whole frame is extremelv muscular, and the fore-parte,
in particular, are remarkably powerful; giving, with the large head, bright-flashing eye,
ud copious mane, a noble appeamnce to the animal, which, with its strength, has led
U) its tjeing called the "king of beasts." and to fancies of its noble and generous dis-
position, having no foundation in reality. A lion of the larg3st size measures about 8
ft from the nose to the tail, and the tail about 4 feet. The lioness is smaller, has no
mane, and i? of a lighter color on the under-parts. The strength of the lion is such that
he can carry off a heifer as a cat carries a rat.
The lion is chiefly an inhabitant of Africa, although it is found also in some of the
wilds of Asia, particularly in certain part««of Arabia. Persia, and India. It was anciently
much more common in Asia, and was found In some parts of Europe, particularly in
Macedonia and Thrace, according to Herodotus and other authors. It has disappeared
also from Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, in which it was once common. The lion is not,
m general, an inhabitant of deep forests, but rather of open plains, in which the shelter
of occasional bushes or thickets may be found. The breeding-place is always in some
nrnch secluded retreat, in which the young — two, three, or four in a litter — are watched
U K. IX.— 5
Digitized by VjOUV IC
a;|L 66
over with great assiduity by both parents, and, if necessary, are defended with great
courage — ^althougb, in other circumstances, the lion is more disposed to retire from man
than to assail him or contend with him. When met in an open country, the lion retires
at first slowly, as if ready for battle, but not desiroua of it; then more swiftly; and
finaUy by rapid bounds. If compelled to defend himself, the lion manifests great
courage. The lion often springs upon his prey by a sudden bound, accompanied with
a roar; and it is said that u he fails in seizing it, he does not usually pursue, but retires
as if ashamed ; it is certain, however, that the lion also often takes his prey by pursuing
it, and with great perseverence. The animal singled out for pursuit, as a zebra, may be
swifter of foot than the lion, but greater power of endurance enables him to make it his
yictim. Deer and antelopes are perhaps the most common food of lions. The lion, like
the rest of the feUdm, is pretty much a nocturnal animal; its eyes are adapted for the
night or twilight rather than for the day. It lurks generally in its lair during the dav.
and issues as mght comes on, when its tremendous roar begins to be heard in the wil-
derness. It has a horror of fires and torch-lights; of whidi travelers in Africa avail
themselves, when surrounded by prowling lions in the wilderness by night, and sleep in
safety. Lion-hunting is, of course, attended with danser — a wounded and exasperated
lion becoming a most formidable adversary— but besloes the necessity of it to farmers
in SouUi Africa and other countries where lions abound, it has been found attractive to
mere sportsmen from the excitement attending it. The rifle has proved too mighty for
the lion wherever it has been employed against him, and lions rapidly disappear l)efore
the advance of civilization. In India, they are now confined to a few wild districts;
and in South Africa, their nearest haunts are far from Cai>e Town and from all the long
and fully settled regions.
The lion is easily tamed, at least when taken youne; and when abundantly supplied
with food is very docile, learning to perform feats which excite the admiration of the
crowds that visit menageries. Exhibitions of this kind are not, however, unattended
with danger, as too many instances have proved. Lions were made to contribute to the
barbarous sports of the ancient Romans: a combat of lions was an attractive spectacle;
and vaat numbers were imported into Rome, chiefly from Africa, for the supply of the
ampbitiieater. Pompey exhibited 000 at once. — ^Lions have not unfrequently bred in the
menageries of Europe, and a hybrid between the lion and the tiger has occasionally been
produced.
The mane of the lion, and the tuft at the end of the tail, are not fully developed till
he is 6 or 7 years old. The tail terminates in a small prickle, the existence of which
was known to the ancients, and which was supposed by them to be a kind of goad to the
animal when lashing himself with his tail in rage. The prickle nas no connection with
the caudal vertebree, but is merely a little naU or homy cone, about two lines in lengtu,
adhering to the skin at the tip of the tail.
There are several varieties of the lion, slightly differing from each other in form and
color, but particularly in the development of the mane. The largest lions in the s. of
Africa are remarkable for the large size of the head and the great and black mane. The
Persian and other Asiatic lions are generally of a lighter color and inferior in size,
strength, and ferocity to the African lion. Guzerat and the s. of Persia produce a some-
what smaller variety, remarkable as being almost destitute of mane.
LIOH, in heraldry. The lion holds an important pUce among the animals borne in
coat-armor. As early as the 12th c, the king of beasts was assumed as an appropriate
emblem by the sovereigns of England, Scotland, Norway, Denmark, the native princes
of Wales, the counts of Flanders and Holland, and various other European potentates.
Lions occur in different positions. 1. The earliest attitude of the heraldic lion is ram-
pant, erect on his hind legs, and looking before him, the head being shown in profile,
as he appears in the arms of Scotland, and originally did in those of England. This was
the normal position of a lion; but as the royal animal came to be used by all who claimed
kindred with royalty, and to be granted to favorite followers by way oi augmentation, a
diversity of attitude was adopted for distinction's sake. 2. ^^ampani gardant, erect on
the hind legs, and affront^ or full-faced. 8. Bampant regardant, erect on the hind legs,
and looking backwards. 4. Passant, in a walkiue position, with the head seen in profile.
6. Passant gardant, walking, and with the head affront^. 6. Passant regardant, walk-
ing, and with the head lookmg behind. 7. Statant, with all the four legs on the ground.
8. Saliant, in the act of springing forward on his prey. 9. 8aant, rising to prepare for
action. 10. ^Se/an^ ajfhmZe, as in the crest of Scotland. 11. CSwi^aTi^, lying down, but with
his head erect, and his tail beneath him. 12. Dormant, asleep, with his head resting on
his fore-paws. 18. Ckmard or caue, with his tail hanging between his legs. The lion
Eassant gardant is often blazoned as the lion of England; and at a time when terms of
lazonry were comparatively few it was confounded with the leopard (q.v.), and hence
the lion passant and rampant gardant came to be called respectively the Uonrleoparde and
leopard-lumnS. Two lions may be depicted ramvant combatant^i.e,, face to face— or
rampant addossi, placed back to back. Among leonine monsters we have two-headed
lions, bicorporate and tricorporate lions, lion-dragons, and lion-poissons. Therms is also
the Bohemian lion, with two tails, and the more celebrated winged lion of St. Mark,
adopted by the republic of Venice. The island republic bore, azure, a lion winged or
67
ijfpipAt
HkDt, holding between his fore-x>aw8 a book open argent, in vrMch are the wordB Flam
aiMvrce Evanffditia meus. Two or more lions borne on one shield are sometimeB
(though never when on a royal coat) blazoned UohmU,
LIPANS, a warlike, uncivilized tribe of Indians, found in Texas and parts of
Mexico. A few of the tribe were reported to be living in 1872 upon the reservation of
the MsBcalero Apaches in New Mexico.
UP' All ISLAHIM, a group of volcanic islands in the Mediterranean, 12 in number,
are situated between lat. 88* 2ff and 88* 66' n., long. U* 16' and 16° 16' e., on the n.
coast of Bioily, and comprised in the department of Messina. The intense volcanic
gctioa induced the ancient classical poets to localize in these islands the abode of the
fieiy god Vulcan — ^hence their ancient name, Vuletni^, Insula. Their collective popu-
btioD is (1871) 12,020, 7,671 of whom are found in ih ^ island of Lipari, which, for extent
and produce, is much the most important of the group. Lipari is about 18 m. in cir-
cult. Its finest products are grapes, figs, olives, and corn, ft has a larse export trade
in pumice-stone, sulphur, niter, sal-ammoniac, soda, capers, fish, and Malmney wine,
which is largely manufactured both for home and foreign trade. The warm springs of
this island are much resorted to. The climate is delightful. Lipari, its chief town, is
a bishop's see, possesses two harbors, an episcopal palace, hospital, gymnasium, and a
castle built on a fine rock. Pop. '72, 6,047. Tne island is almost wliolly composed of
pumice-stone, and supplies all parts of the world with that article. Besides Lipari, the
principal isLands are Vulcano, Btromboli, Salini, Panaria, Felicudi, Alicudi, and Ustica;
btromboli and Vulcano are actively volcanic.
UTETZK, a t. in the s.w. of the government of Tambov, European Russia, on the
right bank of the Voronetz, a tributary of the Don, was founded in 1700 by Peter the
great, but only began to flourish at the commencement of the present century, when the
admirable qualities of its chalybeate springs became known. At present it has a large
annual influx of visitors during summer, for whose accommodation a bathing establish-
ment and a splendid garden have been formed. Lipetzk has woolen manufactures. Pop.
•67,14,239.
UFQQiRAM (Gr. leipo, to leave out, and grtunma, a letter) is a species of verse char-
acterized by the exclusion of a certain letter, either vowel or consonant. The earliest
anther of lipogrammatic verse was the Qreek poet Lasus (b. 688 B.C.); and it is recorded
of one T^rphiodorus, a Gresoo-Egyptian writer of the eiame period, that he composed an
Odyssey in 24 books, from each of which, in succession, one of the letters of the Qreek
alphabet was excluded. Fabius Claudius Gordianus Fulgentius, a Christian monk of
the 6th c, performed a similar feat in Latin. In modern times the Spaniards have
been most addicted to this laborious frivolity. Lope de Vega has written five novels,
from each of which one of the vowels is excluded ; but several French poets have also
practiced it. See Henry B. Wheatley's book on Anagrams (1862).
IIFFE, or, as it is generally called, Liffb-Dbtmold, a small principality of northern
Germany, surrounded on the w. and s. by Westphalia, and on the e. and n. by Hanover,
Brunswick, Waldeck, and a detached portion of Hesse-Cassel. Area, 486 sq.m. ; pop.
75, 112.442, nearly the whole of whom belong to the Reformed church and are very well
educated. The present constitution of Lippe dates from Mar. 16, 1863; capital, Det*
mold (q.v.); other towns, Lemeo and Horn. The famous Teutoburg-Wald {Salttis
Teuioburg^TMs), in which the legions of Varus were annihilated by Armmius ^see Gs&-
MAXicus Cjbaab,), runs through the southern part of the principality, which is on the
whole rather hilly, but has many fertile vaUevs. Th& largest nver is the Werre, a tribu-
tarv of the Weser. The principal occupation of the inhabitants is agriculture and the
rearing of cattle, sheep, and swme; much pains is likewise bestowed on the cultivation
and management of forests, as Lippe is perhaps the most richly wooded district in Ger-
many. Linen-weaving is the chief manufacturing industrjr of the country. Among the
mineral products are marble, iron, lime, and salt. The princes of Lippe are one of the
oldest sovereign families of Germany, and were in a flourishing condition as early as the
12th century. The first who took the name of Lippe was Bernhard von der Lippe, in
1129. The family split into three branches in 161^Lippe, Brake, and Schaumburg.
LIPPE-8CHAUMBURG. See Schaumbubg-Lippb, ante.
IIPPI, Fra Filifpo, a Florentine painter of great talent, the events of whose life
were of a very romantic kind. Bom about 1412, left an orphan at an early age, be spent
his youth as a novice in the convent of the Carmine at Florence, where his talent for
art was encouraged and developed. Sailing for pleasure one day, he was seized by cor-
airs and carried to Barbary; after some years* captivity he regained his liberty, and is
next found, in 1488, painting in Florence. Filippi) was much employed by Cosmo de*
Kedici, and executed many important works for hisxL While painting in the convent of
8ta. Margarita at Prato, a young lady, Lucrezia Buti, a boarder or novice, who had been
aflowed by the nuns to sit for one of ttie figures in his picture, eloped with him ; and
though strenuous efforts were made by her relations to recover her, he successfully
Insisted their attempts, supported, it is thought, by Cosmo; and she remainedj^%i^^
»!
68
hod a SOB by bim, who became an artist i>erhaps even more celebrated than Filippo
himself He died at &>oleU>, Oct. 8, 1469. being at the time engaged in painting tae
choir of the cathedral along with Fra Diamante, one of his pupils.
IiIPPI, PiLippiNo Fjooppo, commonly called FiLiPPmo Lippi, the son of Fra Filippo
and Lucrezia Buti, was b. at Florence in 1460. It is said tliat his father left him to the
care of Fra Diamante, his pupil. He afterwards studied under Sandro Botticelli, also a
pupil of his father's, and one of the most celebrated of his school. He soon acquired a
high reputation, and executed various works in Florence, Bologna, Genoa, Lucca, and
ai Rome, where, in 1492, he painted some frescos for the cardinal Caraffa, in the church
of Sta. Maria Sopra Minerva. But the liigh position he attained is proved principally by
his works in the Brancacci chapel in the church of the Carmine at Florence. The fres-
cos in this chapel have alwavs been held in the highest estimation; they have been
studied by the most celebratea painters, among others by Raphael and Michael Angelo;
and though long believed to be entirely the work of Masaccio, are now ascertained to
have been commenced by Masolino, continued by Masaccio, and finished by Filippino;
the works of the last bemg — '* The Restoring of a Youth to Life," part of which was
painted by Masaccio; " The Crucifixion of St. Peter;" " St. Peter and St. Paul before
the Proconsul." and "St. Peter liberate(l from Prison;" also, according to some, •'Bt.
Paul visiting St. Peter in Prison," in which the figure of St. Paul was adopted by
Raphael in his cartoon of " Paul preaching at Athens." Filippino died at Florence on
April 13, 1505.
LIPPINOOTT, Sara Janb (Clarke), b. at Pompey, N. Y., 1828; educated at
Rochester, N. Y.. and removed in 1843 to New Brighton, Penn. She began to write at
an early age under the 7wm de pliune of '* Grace Greenwood." In 1853 she was married
to Leander K. Lippincott. soon after wliich she traveled extensively in. England and
upon the continent. Among her works are Oreenioood Lewces; Hiatof-y of My Pets;
Poe/ns; Haps and Mishaps of a Tour in England; Merrie England; Stoiesfram Famous
Bfillads; Becords of Five tears; and. Life in Nexo Lands, She established in 1854 The
LitUe Pilgrim, a paper for children, which for several years had a wide circulation. She
has appeared extensively upon the platform as a lecturer and dramatic reader, and mnoi-
fested a deep interest in the movement for the enlargement of woman's opportunities for
education and remunerative work. She has also been a correspondent at Washington
and other places of a number of the leading journals of the country. It is understood
that she is deterred from literary labor at present by ill health.
LIPP'BTADT, a t of Prussian Westphalia, on the left bank- of the Lippe, 78 m. n.e.
from Cologne. Formerly belonging to Lippe, it became finally Prussian in 1851. It
has a very considerable grain trade, and some manufactures of starch, brandy, woolen
cloth, etc. Pop. '75, 8,1«0.
LIPSCOMB, Andrew A., d.d., ll.d., b. in Georgetown, D. C, Sept. 6, 1816. His
father's family removed to Virginia, and, in 1842, he went to Montgomery, Ala., where
he won great distinction as a minister of the Methodist Protestant church. In 1860 he
became chancellor of the university of G^orsia, where he continued until 1874. In 1875
he accepted a professorship in the Vanderbilt university, Nashville, Tenn.
LIPSIUS, Justus, 1547-1606; b. at Isquc, near Brussels; educated at Brussels,
Louvain, and the Jesuits' college at Cologne. The Jesuits, in view of his talents and
learniog. endeavored to draw him into their order, but were defeated by his removal,
through the influence of his mother, to the university of Louvain. There, to his favorite
studies of philology and philosophy, he added jurispnidence. His talent was precocious,
and at the age of 19 he published in 1567 his first work, Varia Lectiones of some of the
grincipal Roman authors. This he dedicated to cardinal de Granville, who appointed
im his Latin secretary. Accompanying the cardinal to Rome, he remained for two
years, associating with learned men, and studying the MSS. in the Vatican and other
libraries. In 1577, leaving Italy, he settled at Jena as professor of history and eloquence,
and tiecame a Protestant. In 1579 he became professor of historv at Lieyden, where he
was held in high repute. Resigning in 1591 he retired to Spa and afterwards to Mentz,
where, in the same year, he returned to the Roman Catholic church, and published two
treatises in defense of the worehip of saints and of their miraculous powers. While at
Spa and Liege he was offered preferments by princes and dignitaries of the church : but
he rejected the offers and returned to Louvain, where he was made professor of history
and eloquence, remaining there till his death. Of his numerous works the most
important are: De Gonstantia Manvductia ad Phihsophiam 8loicam; P/tysiologuB Stoicorum
Ubri tres; De MiHtia Romatia Ubri quinque. His commentary on Tacitus was the work in
which he chiefly distinguished himself. His works were collected under the title of
Opera Omnia. At his death he was historiographer to the king of Spain.
LIPSIUS, Justus Hermann, b. atLeipsic, May 9, 1884; in 1866 became rector of a
gymnasium in that city, and has published critical remarks on Sophocles and Lysias.
LIPSIUS, RicHAKD Adklbert, b. at Gera(Reuss}, Germany, Feb. 14, 1830; studied
at Leipsic, and became professor of theology there m 1859; in 1861 he was appointed
professor of theology at Vienna; in 1865 at Keil. He has published The Pauline Doctrine
of Justification; The First Epistle of Clement of Rotne; ^^'^Ot^t^^'^J^ the Sources cf
69 gg£^
A« Wrilingg cf Bpiphaniut; The OaUOogMeof Popee in EuseHut; Ohronotogp af ihe Bu^iopi
^Bom$ to the MtdiUe of the Fbur^ Century, and numerous articles in Qerm&n periodical^
LIPTO', a CO. of n, Hungary, drained by the Wang, aii affluent of the Danube*;
^ sq.m.; pop. in 70, 79,278, mostly Slavs. The inhabitants are enga^^ed cbip^^ in
agriculture and tbe raising of cattle ; but there are mines of gold, silver, copper, and
iron. Capital, 8zent-Mikl6d.
LIQUATION, or ELiquATioir, a method of reducing silver ores by means of a triple
alloy of copper, silver, and lead, which, beinj^ cast into dislt'Shaped masses, are placed
on edge in a furnace on an inclined plane of iron, containing a small channel, and raised
to a red beat; the lead, on melting out, by its attraction for silver, carries that metal with
it, lf»nng the copper as a reddish-black spongy mass.
UQOSUJL This name is giren to any alcoholic preparation which is flavored or per-
famedand sweetened to bo more agreeable to the taste; there is consequently a large
class of liqueurs, of which the following are the principal : anieeed cordial, prepared by
fiaroriog weak spirit with aniseed, coriander, and sweet fennel seed, and sweetening
with finely clarified B3Tup of refined sugar. Aheinlhe is sweetened spirit flavored with
the young tops of certain species of artemisia (q.v.). CUyoe cardial, much sold in the
London gin-shops, is flavored with cloves, bruised, and colored with burned sugar.
Kummel, or doppel-kOmmel, is the principal liqueur of Russia; it is made in the ordi-
oaiy way with sweetened spirit, flavored with cumin and caraway seeds, the latter
Qsuftily so strong as to conceal any other flavor. It is chiefly made at Riga, and there
are two qualities: that made in Riga is the sort in common use, and is not the finest; the
better sort is only manufactured in smaller quantities at Weissenstein, in Esthonia; the
chief difference is in the greater purit^r of the spirit used. Maraschino is distilled from
cherries brui&ed, but instead of the wild kind, a fine, delicately flavored variety, called
marasqnes, grown only in Dalmatia, is used. This cherry is largely cultivated around
Zara, the capital, where ihe liqueur is chiefly made. Great care is taken in the distillar
tioD to avoid injury to the delicate flavor, and the finest sugar is used to sweeten it.
Noffau, or creme de noyau, is a sweet cordial flavored with bruised bitter-almonds.
In Turkey, tbe fine-flavored kernels of the Mahaleb cherry are used, and in some places
tbe kernels of the peach or the apricot. Peppermint, a common liqueur, especially
amongst tbe lower classes of London, where ve'ry large quantities are sold; it UHualiy
consists of the ordinary sweetened gin, flavored with the essential oil of peppermint,
which is previously nibbed up with refined su^r. and formed into an oleosaccharum,
which enables it to mix with tlie very weak spirit.
Cwagoa and kirechtoaeter are described under their own names.
LIQIJID. a consonant pronounced by a closure of the vocal organs greater than is
required in llie utterance of the closer vowels, but less than is demanded by the mute
consonants. The liquid consonants are /, r, to, y, which are all subject to whispered
aspiration.
LK^inSAX'BAS, a genus of trees of the natural order aUingiaea, and the only genus of
the order, having fiowers in male and female catkins on the same tree, the fruit formed
of two-celled, many-seeded capsules, and the seeds winged. They are tall trees, remark-
able for their fragrant balsamic products. X. etyradjlua, the Ahkrican Liquidambab, or
Sweet Gum tree, is a beautiful tree with palmate leaves, a native of Mexico and the
United States. It grows well in Britain. Its wood is of a hard texture- and fine gruin,
and makes good furniture. From cracks or incisions in the l>ark, a transparent, yellow-
ish balsamic fluid exudes, called liquid liquidambar, oU of tiguidambar, Atnerican etorax,
tapalm baleam, and sometimes, but erroneously, white balsam of Peru. It gradually
becomes concrete and darker colored. Its properties are similar to those of storax.
That of commerce is mostly broujo^ht from Mexico and New Orleans. — L, orientale,
a smaller tree with palmate leaves, is a native of the Levant and of more eastern regions,
and yields abundantly a balsamic fluid, which has been supposed to be the liquid storax
unponed from the Levant, but on this point there is diversity of opinion.
LIQUIDATED DAMAGES. The amount of damages fixed beforehand by the
terms of an agreement as the definite sum to be paid by the party to such agreement who
violates such agreement. The courts, which construe strictly and will relieve against
penalties, will in general support a stipulation for liquidated damages for a breach of
contract, bat they will hold any particular stipulation to lie either a penalty or liquid-
ated damages, according as they determine the Intent of the parties aa evidenced bv the
^nor of the whole instrument. If that intent be still ambiguous, the stipulation will be
declared a penalty. But if it appear that there is no means to properly find, out the
<iUDage8 sustained, the stipulation will be held to be an agreement for liquidated dam-
Hea, even if it be called a penalty in the agreement itself.
LIQVIBIL See Heat, HTDHOflTATics, and Fubino ahd Fbxbziko Ponrrs.
UlA (Lat. Ubra; see Livhb), an Italian silver coin of greater or less value, according
to time and place. The Tuscan lira was equal to 80 French centimes; the Austrian lira
wnoanmr was about the same vhIuc. The present lira Itallana, or lira nuova, of the
Italiaa kingdom is equal to the French franc, and is divided into 100 centimes.
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IJ'BIA, a t of Spain, in the province of Yakncia, and 13 m. n.w. from Yalencuu
The plain in which it stands is luxuriant with vines and olives. On the summit of a
hill in the vicinity is the eoOegio de San Miguel, an ancient and venerable monastic pile.
Pop. 8.500.
LIBIOnEVDEOV. See Ttlip Tbeb.
LISAINE, Battle of, a famous engagement in the Franco-Prussian war, which
raged for three days on the small French river Lisaine. which rises at the southern
termination of the VoMea, flows w. of the fortress of Belfort, and enters the Savoureuse
at Montb^liard. The German gen. von Werder retreated before the French under Bour-
bai&i, and took a position along the Lisaine, in order to prevent the French from attack-
ing iheQerman troops before Belfort, or from making an invasion at that point into
Germany. Von Werder, with a force of 48,000 men, well supplied with heavy guns, held
a distance of about 10 m. on the left bank of the river, which commands the right bank.
The villages along the stream were barricaded. Bourbaki, with 120,000 men, made
desperate efforts to drive the Germans from their position, but the latter were so strongly
fortified that these efforts were without avail. It was one of the severest engagements
of the wiu:. The German loss in killed and wounded was 81 officers and 1847 men; the
French loss was 6,000.
LIB'BOV (Portug. LUboa; called by the ancient Lusitanians Oluipo or UUsippo^ and by
the Moors iMfUmna), the capital of Portugal, is situated in the province of Estremadura,
on the right bank of the Tagus, which is here about 6 m. wide, and about 18 m. from
the mouth of the river. Pop. 224,068. The city is built partly on the shores of the
Tagus, and partly on three larger and four smaller hilla Its appearance is wonderfully
picturesc^ue; and its resemblance, in point of situation and magnificence of prospect, to
Clonstantmople, at precisely the opposite extremity of Europe, has been frequently
remarked. Including its suburbs, it extends about 6 m. along the river. The harbor,
which is safe and spacious, is protected by strong forts, but the city itself is unwalied
and without any fortifications. The eastern and older part, which lies around the Cas-
tle-hill— an eminence crowned with an old Moorish castle, destroyed by earthquakes-
is composed of steep, narrow, crooked, badly-paved streets, with hi^h, gloomy, wretched-
looking houses; but the newer portions are well and regularly bum. The most beauti-
ful part is called the New Town — it stretches along the Tagus. and is crowded with
palaces. Among the places or squares, the principal are the Pm^ do Commercio, on
the Tagus, 505 ft. long, 520 broad, surrounded on three sides with splendid edifices; the
iVapo do Boeio, in the new town, forming the market-place, 1800 ft. long and 1400
broad; and the Passeio Publico, The whole of the new town, and the district round the
royal castle, is lighted with gas. Lisbon has 70 parish churches, 200 chapels, numerous
monasteries, hospices, and hospitals, 6 theaters, and 2 amphitheaters. The most con-
spicuous public buildings are the church of tlie Patriarch, the monastery of the Heart
of Jesus (with a cupola of white marble), the church of St. Roque (built of marble), the
Foundling hospital (receiving annually about 1600 children), St. James*s hospital (capa-
ble of receiving 1,600 sick persons), the royal palaces of Ajuda, J^ossa aenhara das
NeeesHdadeSf and Bemposta, the custom-houses, the arsenal, and the National theater,
on the site of the old inquisition. The city has numerous educational and scientific
institutions, and a national library containing 160,000 vols. Among notable objects, the
most important is the Alc&ntara acjueduct, Os Ai'cos or Agwu Uvrts, finished in 1748,
which supplies all the public fountains and wells of the city. It is 18 m. in length, and
in one place 260 ft. high, and remained uninjured at the great earthquake. It is the
greatest piece of bridge-architecture in the world. Lisbon has a royal arsenal, ship^
uilding docks, and powder-mills, besides private manufactories of silks, porcelain,
paper, and soap; also iron-foundries, and jewelry and trinket establishments. Its chief
exports are oranges, citrons, wool, oil, and leadfier. The shipping accommodation is
extensive and commodious, and the trade with Africa is an important and flourisiiing
one. The imports in 1875 were valued at £2.880.205; and the exports at £1,839.507.
About SO, 000 €kilegos (Qalicians) earn a subsistence here as porters, water-carriers, and
laborers.
Lisbon is said to have been founded by the Phenicians, a ndwas a nourishing city,
the capital of Lusitania, when first visited by the Romans. It was taken by the Moors
in 712, from whom it was recaptured by Alfonso I. in 1147. It became the seat of an
archbishopric in 1890, and of a patriarchate in 1716. Lisbon has been frequently visited
by earthquakes; that of 1755 destroyed a great part of the city and 60.000 inhabitants.
It was captured by the French in 1807, but given up to the Bntish in 1808, after which
it was protected by the lines of Torres Vedras.
LIS'BVSK, a market t. and pariiamentary borough, situated on the river Lagan, partly
in the county of Antrim, pnrtly in the county of Down, Ireland. It is distant from
Dublin 97 m. n.n.e., and 8i 8.s.w. from Belfast, with both which places it is connected
by the Dublin and Belfast Junction railway. The pop. in 1871 was 9,82t; of whom
4,708 were Protestant £pi.«copalians, 2,146 Roman Catholics, 1841 Presbyterians, 869
Methodists, and the rest of other denominations. Lisburn originated in the erection of
a castle, in 1610, by sir Fulk Conway, to whom the manor was assigned in the settle-
ment of James L ; but its importance dates from the settlement of a number of Hugue-
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sot familieB, who, after the revocation of the edict of Kantes, eslabUahed thenxaehres at
IjfllHirn, where they introduced the manufacture of linen and damask, after the method
and with the machinery then in use in the Low Countries. It is a dean and well-ordered
town, with a convenient market, and considerable manufactures of linens and damasks;
besides which, bleaching, dyeing, flax-dressing; flax-spinning, etc., are carried on. Its
ptrish church is the cathedral of Down and Connor, and is interesting as the buriij-
plaoe of Jeremy Taylor, who was bishop of that see, and died at Lisbum in 1607.
Lisbam retams one member to parliament.
IJBISUX (ancient Ifomomagut Lescatium), a t. of northern France, in the dep. of
Calvadoe, on the Touques, 27 m. e.B.e. of Caen, at the entrance of a beautiful valley.
The principal building is the church of St. Pierre (formerly a cathedral^ belonging to
the 13th c, and built on the site of an older edifice, in which Henry II. of Engumd
married Eleanor of Guienne. Lisieux is the center of an extensive manufacture of
coarse linens, woolens, flannels, horsecloths, ribbons, etc., which gives employment to
more than 8,000 workmen. Pop. 76, 18,896.
TiTHKEAUT), a municipal and parliamentary borough in Cornwall, is situated in a
well-cultivatea district, on the Looe, 16 m. w.n.w. of Plymouth. Two miles to the s. of
the town is a famous spring, said to have been presented to the inhabitants by St. Keyne,
and the virtue of whose waters is set forth in Southey's well-known ballad, The WeU of
8i, Kegjie, There are manufactures of serge and leather, and considerable traflSc in tlie
produce of the tin, copper, and lead mines of the neighborhood. Liakeard retums a
member to parliament. Pop. 71, 6,575.
LISLE, OuiLLAUiCB DB, 1675-1726; son of Claud de Lisle, geographer and historian;
b. in Paris. At an early age he devoted himself to historical and geographical studies,
and when but 9 years old constructed several charts of ancient histor^r. He completelv
reconstructed the system of geography current in Europe at the beginning of the 18th
c by the publication of maps in which he corrected errors inherited from the time of
Ptolemy. He also constructed a celestial and a terrestrial globe. He was admitted to
the academy of sciences in 1702, and afterwards appointed tutor in geograiphy to Louis
XV., who created for him in 1818 the title of "first geographer to the king," with a
pension of 1200 livre& He is said to have drawn no less than 184 maps. A corrected
edition of his map of the world appeared in 1704. He contributed several memoirs to
the OoBmUoiu of the academy of sciences.
L18LET, a s. co. of the province of Quebec, Canada, bounded s.e. by Maine
and n w. by the St. Lawrence; traversed by the Grand Trunk railroad; 798 sq.m. ; pop.
Tl, 13,517, of whom 18,875 were of French descent. Capital, St. Jean Port Joli.
LI8X0SE, an island of Argyleshire, 6 m from Oban, is situated in Loch Linnhe, and
is 10 m. in length, with an average breadth of 1^ miles. It contains the remains of
several interesting buildings, as Achinduin castle — formerly the residence of the bishops
of Arg^le — an old cathedral, and castle Rachal, a Scandinavian fort, now very ruinous.
The island is for the most part under cultivation. Pop. 71, 708.
LIS PENDENS, a pending suit. Pendency of a suit begins^ at law, as soon as an
attaciiment is made under the writ; at equity, with the service of the subposna on the
defendant. Every one who takes any step in regard to the property affected by the
pending suit is presumed at equity to have notice of such suit, and his rights will be
correspondingly affected; thus, a purchaser of such property, though never made party
to the suit, iSkea subject to the decree made in it; and a suit pending, brought by a
prior mortagee wliose mortgagee' has never been put on record, is held sufficient notice to
a following mortagee of the existence of the prior mortgage. Though these applications
of lU pendens occur only in courts of equity, the legal doctrine, that a vendee holds by
Uie same title as his vendor, and no better, amounts to much the same thing.
LIS8A, anciently /«a, an island in the Adriatic, off the Dalmatian coast, and belong-
ing to Dalmatia; 10 m. long, 5 broad; 48'' 10' n. lat., 88** 51' e. long.; 88 sq.m.; pop.
7,000. It was long known to the ancients, and is mentioned by Scylax as a Qreek.
colony. In Casar's time it was styled nobilmiinum earum regionum oppidvm, and Pliny
Bays the inhabitants were Roman citizens. It is often referred to by Polvbius in hu
account of the Illyrian war. When besieged by Teuta, the siege was raised on the
appearance of tlie Roman fleet, and the inhabitants placed themselves under the protec-
tion of Rome. It was afterwards a station for the Roman ^lleys in their wars with the
kings of Macedon. Its shores are steep and rocky, and it is accessible only at a few
bays. The soil is not fertile. The chief products are wine, oil, almonds, and anchovies.
The island is noted in modem times for two victories, that gained bv the British over
&e French in 1811, and that by the Austrians under gen. TegethofT over the Italians
under admiral Persauo. Its two harbors are strongly fortified. Lissa or San Giorgio is
the principal town and seaport on the n.e. shore, with a population of 2,800.
LI8SA. (Pol. Les9na), a t. of Prussia, in the province of Poeen, and the circle of
Praustadt, 44 m. saw. of Posen. Pop. '76, 11,069, of whom nearlV one half are Jews.
Lissa has a fine town-house, a castle, one Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches,
with manufactures of woolens, leather, and tobacco. This place became for a time the
chief Beat of the Bohemian brothers. . .,.,... .^
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USX. fieeFiLLBT.
LIST, Fmedrich, 1789-1846; b. Reutlii^n in WOrtembcrg; was for tiro or Chioa
years professor of political economy at the uuiversity of Tabingen; was elected member
of the diet of WUrtemberg, but was expelled in 1822 for bis censure of the acU of the
governmeDt, and condemDed to tea montlis* imprisonment He fled to Switserlaod and
Alsace, but returniug in 1824 was imprisoned in the fortress of Aspeig. Havioj^ received
a pardon he emigrated to America and settled in Pennsylvania. & 1827 he published
his OutUnes of a New System of PoUticdl Eeonomy which attracted much attention. He
became a large land-holder, and in connection with others settled the two towns of Port
Clinton and Tamaqua in Schuylkill county. On the latter he discovered a valuable
deposit of anthracite. At this time he was much interested in the establishment of rail-
roads. In 1830 he was appointed U. 8. consul at Hamburg, but soon came back
to Pennsylvania, and in 1882 returned to Europe, acting for a while in 1833 as American
consul at Leipsic. In 1887 he went to Paris, where he wrote several letters for the
Augsburg AUaemeine Zeitung, which were afterwards published In a volume under the
title of iMu NaUonaU System der FoUUschen Oekorumie. In 1848 he established at Augs-
burg the ZoUv&remsblatt, in which he advocated a national commercial system and a
nationail fleet. He visited Austria and Hungary in 1844, and England in 1846 for the
purpose of forming a commercial alliance between Germany and that country, in which
his efforts were not successful. Depressed by the failure of his plans, the loss of his
health and property, he shot himself in a fit of insanity. His works, with a biography,
were published in 3 volumes in 1850 at Stuttgart.
LI8T0N, John, 1776-1846; b. London; educated at Dr. Barrow's school; l)ecame
second master of St. Martin's school, founded by archbishop Tenison. For acting in
theatrical plays with the large boys he was expelled from the school, and went upon the
stage, excelling in low comedy. He acted at the Haymarket theater in 1806, and after-
wards at Coven t Garden, Drury Lane, and the Olvmpic. He was greatly praised by
Lamb, Hood, and others. He left the stage in l837, having acquired a considerable
fortune.
LI8T0H, Robert, a celebrated surgeon, was b. at Ecclesmachan, in the county of
Linlithgow, in 1794, and was the son of the rev. Henry Liston, the minister of the
parish. After studying anatomjr under Barclav in Edinburgh, and following the usual
course of medical study in that city, he proceeded to London in 1816, where be attended
the surgical practice of the Blizards at the London hospital, and of Abernethy at St
Bartholomew's. After becoming a member of the royal college of surgeons of London,
he returned to Edinburgh, and m 1818 was elected a fellow of the royal college of sur-
geons of that city.
Liston now commenced his career as a lecturer on anatomy and surgery, and soon
became remarkable for his boldness and skill as an operator. In conseouence of his
performing many successful operations on patients who had been dischargea as incurable
bv the surgeons of the Edinburgh infirmary, he was requested by the managers to refuse
his assistance to any person who had been a patient in that institution, and to abstain
from visiting the wards. He naturally declined to accede to these extraordinary propo-
sitions, and in consequence was expelled, and never entered again its wards, until in
1827 he was elected one of its surgeons. His surgical skill, and the rapidity with which
his operations were performed, soon acquired for him a European reputation; and in
1885 he accepted the invitation of the council of University college to fill the chair of
clinical surgery. He soon acquired a large London practice; in 1840 he was elected a
meml)er of the council of the college of surgeons; and in 1846 he became one of the
board of examiners. In the very climax of his fame, and apparently in the enjoyment
of vigorous health, he was struck down by disease, and died Dec. 7, 1847.
His most important works are his Elements of Surgery, which appeared in 1881, and
his PraeUeal Surgery, which appeared in 1887, and has gone through four editiona
His uncontrollable temper, and the coarseness of language in which he frequently
indulged, involved him in various quarrels with his professional brethren; yet, not-
withstanding these defects, he always succeeded in obtaining the regud and esteem of
his pupils.
II8ZT, Frakz, pianist, was b. at Raiding, in Hungary, Oct. 22, 1811. His father, a
functionarv employed on the estates of prince E^^terhazy, was himself possessed of some
musical skill, and carefully cultivated the wonderful talent which Liszt showed even in
his infancy. In his ninth year, the child played publicly at Presburg, and excited uni-
versal astonishment By the assistance of two Hungarian noblemen — counts Amadi and
Saparjr — Liszt was sent to Vienna, and placed under the instruction of Czemy and
Balieri. He studied assiduously for eighteen months, after which he gave concerts in
Vienna, Munich, and other places, with brilliant success. In 18SSS ho proceeded with
his father to France, Intendmg to complete his musical education at the conservatoire;
but he was refused admission on account of his being a foreigner; nevertheless, his
genius maile a way for itself. He played before the duke of Orleans, and very soon the
clever, daring boy became the favorite of all Paris. Artists, scholars, high personages,
ladies— all paid homage to his marvelous gift, and it v^qi9|||7bv^^i^^^^ father^s
T3
UteikA«ld«
ftiict snpemsion that young Llflzt wu not entirely fpoiled. Id the course of the next
three yean, he vinted "England thrice, and was warmly received. In t8d7 bis father
died at fioulo^e, and UuX became his own master at tlie age of sixteen. For some
yean after this, his life sufficiently proved (hat he had become independeDt too soon.
Alternations of dissipation and religious mvstScism induced his admirers to fear that hia
artistic cdurse would end in disastrous failure. Fortunately, he lieard the famous vio-
linist, Paganini, in 1881, and was seized with a sudden ambition to become tbe Paganini
of tiie i£uko; and one may say that on* the whole he has succeeded. Up till 1847 his
career was a perpetual series of triumphs in all the capitals of Europe. He then grew
tired of hia itinerant life, and became leader of the court concerts and operas at Weimar.
In 1865 he took sacred orders and became a monk, in the chapel of the Vatican, Rome;
and in 1871 returned to his native country, which granted him a pension of £600 a year.
In 1875 he was named director of the Hungarian academy of music. Liszt has also been
an industrious and original contributor to musical literature.
UTAHT (6r. lUaneia, a Bupi>1ication), a word the specific meaning of which has
Taried considerablv at different times, but which means in general a solemn act of sup-
plication adilressea with the object of averting the divine anger, and especially on occa-
sions of public calamity. Through all the vaneties of form which litanies have assumed,
one characteristic has always been maintained — viz. , that the prayer alternates between
the priest or other minister, wbo announces the object of each petition, and the congre-
gation, who reply in a common supplicatory form, the most usual of which was the
well-known "Kyrie eletsonl" (Lord, have mercy!) In one procession which Mabillon
describes, this prayer, alternating with "Christe eleison," was repeated 800 times; and
in the capitularies of Charlema^e, it is ordered that the "Eyrie eleison" shall he sung
by the men, the women answenng '* Christe eleison." From the 4th c. downwards, the
use of litanies was seneral. The ArUii^onary of St. Gregory the great contains severaL
In the Roman Catholic church three litanies are especially in use — the *' litany of the
saints" (which is the most ancient), the "litany of the name of Jesus," and the " liiany
of Our Lady of Loretto. " Of these, the first alone has a place in the public service-boou
of the church, on the rogation*days, in the ordination service, the service for the conse-
cration of churches, the consecration of cemeteries, and many other offices. Although
called by the name of litany of the saints, the opening and closing petitions, and indeed
the greater part of the litany, consist of prayers addressed directly to Ood; and the
prayers to we saints are not for their help, but for their intercession on behalf of tbe
worshipers. The litany of Jesus consists of a number of addresses to our Lord under
his various relations to men, in connection with the several details of his passion, and
of adjurations of him through the memory of what he has done and sunered for the
salvation of mankind. The date of this form of prayer is uncertain, but it is referred,
vith much probability, to the time of St. Bernardino of Siena, in the 15th century. The
litany of Loretto (see Loretto) resembles both the above-named litanies in its opening
addresses to (he holy Trinity, and in its closing petitions to the "Lamb of Goa, who
taketh away the sins of the world;" but the main body of the petitions are addressed to
the Virgin Mary under various titles, some taken from the Scriptures, some from the
language of the fathers, some from the mystic writers of the medieeval church. Neither
this litany nor that of Jesus has ever formed part of any of the ritual or liturgical offices
of the Catholic church, but there can be no doubt that both have in various ways received
the sanction of the highest authorities of the Roman church.
In tbe prayer-book of the English church the litany is retained, but although it par-
takes of ancient forms, it differs from that of the Roman church, and contains no invo-
cation of the Viigin or the saints. It is divided into four parts— in vocations, deprecnt ions,
intercessions, and supplications, in which are preserved the old form of alternate prayer
and response. It is no longer a distinct service, but, when used, forms part of the
morning prayer.
LITCHTIELD, a co. of Connecticut, forming its n.w. corner, and bounded n. by
Massachusetts and w. by the state of New York; intersected by the Housatonic, Farm-
ington, and Kaugatuck rivers, and by the Housatonic, Naugatuck, and Connecticut
Western railroads; about 900 sq.m. ; pop. in *80. 53.048. of whom 44.009 were of Ameri-
can birth. The surface is hilly, ana extensively covered with forests. The soil is for
the most part fertile; hay, butter, cheese, tobacco, cattle, oats, and corn being the staple
productions. The quantity of hay and butter produced in this county in 1870 exceeded
that of the same articles in any other county of the state. The production of staples in
1870 was: 6,823 bush, of wheat, 60,444 of rye. 286,900 of corn, 257,606 of oats, 27.561
of buckwheat, 819,497 of potatoes, 1,048,569 lbs. of tobacco, 51,769 of wool, 1,617.850
of butter, 1,807.896 of oheese. and 109,415 tons of hay. There were in the county at the
lame time 6,076 horses, 33,514 miteh cowa, 6.483 working oken, 17,477 otiier cattle,
17,834 sheep, and 7,383 swine. Water-power is almndant, and there is in the county a
great variety of manufactures, including auch articles as agricultural implement^ brass
aod braaa-wara, pins, carriages, cotton goods, cutlery and edge-tools^ hardware, hats
and caps, iroa and machinery, needles, paper, plated ware, silk goods, tin, copper and
8beet-ut>n ware, woolen and worsted goods, leather, flour, and lumber. Capital, Litch-
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LITCHFIELD, a t, the ccmnty seat of Litchfield co., In o.w. OonnecticiEl; pop. '80,
8'410. Aboat 1800 ft. above the level of the flea, it is noted for the invicorating parity
of its flummer climate, and has become a favorite reeort of sammer boarderB from New
York. It is on hjgh ground, between the Naugatuck and fiUiepaag rivers, near a beauti-
ful lake, the largest in the state. The noble elms of the cAA. streets and pictareeqae
surrounding scenery have loug made it celebrated. In 1784 a law school was established
here by judge Tapping Beene, and conducted bv judge James €k>uld from 18S8 to 1888,
which was at the time the most celebrated in the United States. Many of the moat eminent
jurists and statesmen of the country graduated ttiere. The first ladies' seminary in the
United States was established in Litchfield. The town had social refinement and culture;
and Dr. Lyman Beecher gave celebrity to its pulpit (Congregational). Water-power from
its lake has made it the seat of many manufacturing indusmes, including mills, for mak-
ing paper, oil, satinets, and smelters for reducing and refining nickel ores found in the
vicinity. The town is subdivided into five postal districts, viz. : Litchfield, Bantam
Falls. East Litchfield, Milton, and Northfield. It has a private lunatic asylum, and the
usual quota of public schools, churches, newspapers, ana business houses.
LITCHFIELD, a city of Montgomery co., 111., on the Indiantmolis and SL Louis
railroad, where it crosses the Wabash railroad, 45 m. s. of Springfield, and 60 m. n.e. of
St. Louis. It 13 situated on a fine rolling prairie, and is the most populous town in the
county. It has 7 churches, an Ursuline convent and academy, a high school, a Boman
Catholic hospital, 2 newspapers, 2 banks, 2 steam flouring mills, workshops of the
Indianapolis and St. Louis railroad, and several grain elevators. Pop. about 5,000.
LITCHI, or Lbb-Cheb, NepheUum Litchi, one of the most delicious fruits of China
and of the Malayan archipelago. The tree which produces it belongs to the natural
order lapiTidaeeof, and has pinnate leaves. It is extensively cultivated in the southern
provinces of China, and in the northern provinces of Cochin-China, but is said to be
unpatient of a climate either much more hot or much more cold. The fruit is of the
size of a small walnut, and grows in racemes. It is a red or green berry, with a thin,
tough, leathery, scaly rind, and a colorless semi- transparent pulp, in the center of which
is one large dark-brown seed. The pulp is slightly sweet, subacid, and very grateful
The Chinese preserve the fruit by drying, and in the dried state it is now frequently
imported into Britain, still preserving much richness of flavor. — The laiman and rambur
tan are fruits of the same genus.
LITER, the unit of the present French measures of capacity, both dry and liquid.
It is the volume of a cubic decimeter (see Mbtbr), and is equal to 0.2200967 Bntish
imperial gallon. It is subdivided decimally into the dectUter, eenUliter, and mUUUter
(respectively Ath, yj^th, and j^th of a liter). Ten liters are a decaliter; 100, a hecto-
liter; 1000, a hloUter, The hectoliter is the common measure for grain, and is equal to
0.8489009 British imperial quarter, or nearly 21 imperial bushels.
LITER See Metric System.
LITERARY PROPERTY (aside from copyright, trade-mark, and patent), the
ownership by an author of his writings, apart from any connection with their publi-
cation or promulgation. In this sense the Utle is in the material and form of its subject,
and not m any quality predicated on its market value; as, for instance, the abstract
property which the author has in his unpublished play, and which, in this sense, is
neither more nor less than that which inheres in the authorship of a letter. But it is to
be observed that this property is not mere ownership; as in the case of an article which
is a gift, a purchase, or a bequest. The title rests on the fact of creation, and is more
akin to the interest which a father has in the productive capacity or earning faculty of
his children than to anything else. To illustrate the specific distinction which character-
izes this species of property, it may be observed that the author who inscribes and pre-
sents a written copy of verses to his friend does not, by these acts, part with tbis
geculiar title. The recipient may give away the copy of verses, that being his; but if.
y any chance, incident, or collusion, those verses are made public, the one to whom
they were given becomes liable to prosecution therefor. The law holds this property to
be transferable, by bequest, or by regular order of succession, or absolute ^ft, clearlv
stated. It cannot be seized by creoitors for publication, and Its unauthorized publi-
cation will be restrained in equity. Literary property is held at common law, but in the
United States the copjrright act recognizes the right of property in any manuscript wha^
ever, including private letters.
LITERATURE, American. See Americak Literature.
LITHASOS. See Lead.
LITHGOW. William. 1588-1614; b. Scotland; a traveler, who began by traveling
on foot through central Europe, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Egypt, and Palestine, and pn-
sented a collection of relics to James 1. and the queen on his return to Eng^nd. His
next tour was through the states of northern Africa, and through Hungary and Poland
on his return. On his third Journey he bore letters from king James commending him
to all the royal heads of the countries which he might visit At Malaga he was arrested
on suspicion of being a spy, and subjected to shameful lortures. Hu Ado&fituret were
published in 1614.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
75
UXHIA. Bee Lithium.
UtHZC ACID. See Ukic Acn>.
LXTHIC AGB) DIATH'E8I8 is the term employed in medicine to designate the condition
in which there is an excess of lithic (or uric) acid, either free or in combination, or both,
in the urine. The urine of persons who have the lithic acid diathesis is usually ot a
dark golden color, like brown sherry, and is more acid, of higher specific gravity, and
less abundant than the urine in health. When the urine cools, there is usually a deposit
or sediment of lithates. The sediment is usually spoken of as one of lithate (or urate) of
ammonia, but in reality it consists mainly of lithate of soda mixed with lithates of
ammonia, xx)tash, and lime. Its color vanes according to the amount and nature of the
urine-pigment which tenaciously adheres to it, so that its tints vary from a whitish yel-
low to a brick-dust red, or even a deep purple. Persons seeing these deposits in their
urine when it has cooled are very apt to believe that they may aggregate and harden in
the bladder, and form a stone. Such fears may, however, be relieved by heating the
urine containing the sediment to the temperature of the interior of the body (about 100*),
when the fluid will resume its original clearness, and the sediment will disappear.
The color of the deposit is of considerable importance in determining its value as a
morbid symptom. Tawny or reddish sediments of this kind are frequently the result of
mere indigestion or a common cold; the yellowish -white ones deserve more attention, as
they are believed frequently to precede the excretion of suffar through the kidneys.
The pink or brick-dust sediments are almost always associated with febrile disturbance
or acute rheumatism; and if these sediments are habitual, without fever, there is most
probably disease of the liver or spleen. If the urine is very acid, a portion of the lithic
acid is separated from its base, and shows itself, as the fluid cools, in a free crystallized
state, resembling, to the naked eye, grains of cayenne pepper, but appearing under the
microscope as rhombic tablets. This free lithic acid is far less common than the lithates,
and does not dissolve on the application of heat.
The persons who suffer from this diathesis are chiefly adults beyond the middle age,
and of indolent and luxurious or intemperate habits. As the formation of lithic deposits
is due to over-acidity of the urine, alkalies are the medicines most commonly prescribed,
and the preparations of potash are far preferable to those of soda, because lithate of
potash is perfectly soluble, and will pass off dissolved in the urine, while lithate of soda
is a hard, insoluble salt.
Regimen is, however, of far more use than medicine in the lithic acid diathesis. The
patient should dine moderately and ver>r plainly, avoiding acid, saccharine, and starchy
matters and fermented liquors. The skin should be made to act freely by friction, and
by occasional warm or daily tepid baths. Warm clothing must be used ; plenty of
active exercise must be taken in the open air; and the healthy action of the bowels and
liver duly attended to. It must be recollected that the lithates are sometimes thrown
down, not from undue acidity of the urine, but simply from that fluid not containing
the due quantity of water to hold them in solution. In such cases a tumbler of cold
spring-water taken night and morning will at once cause the cessation of this morbid
symptom.
LXTHIUX (symb. Li; equiv. 7.0; sp. gr. 0.5986) is the metallic base of the alkali
Utkia, and derives its name from the Gre& word Utho», a stone. The metal is of a white
silvery appearance and is much harder than sodium or potassium, but softer than lead.
It admits of being welded at ordinary temperatures, and of being drawn out into wire»
which, however, is inferior in tenacity to leaden wire. It fuses at 856^. It is the lightest
of all known metals, its specific gravity being little more than half that of water; it
decomposes water at ordinary temperatures. It burns with a brilliant light in oxygen,
chlorine, and the vapors of iodine and bromine. It is easily reduced from its chloride
by means of a galvanic battery. Lithium forms two compounds with oxygen, viz.,
lithia (known al«> as lithion or lithon), which is the oxide of lithium, and a peroxide at
lithium whose formula has not been determined.
Liihia, in a pure and isolated state, cannot be obtained. Hydrate of lithia (LO,HO)
occurs as a white translucent mass, which closely resembles the hvdrates of potash ana
soda. The salts of lithia are of sparing occurrence in natur& The minerals petal ite,
triphane, lepidolite, and tourmaline contain lithia in combination with silicic acid, while
triphyline and amblygonite contain it as a phosphate; it is also present in small quanti-
ties in many mineral wateiis.
Carbonate of lithia (LO,COt) is precipitated when carbonate of ammonia is added to
a strong solution of chloride of lithium, and occurs as a white mass with a sliirht alkaline
reaction. At a dull red heat, it melts into a white enamel. It requires 100 parts of
water for its solution, but is more soluble in water charged with carbonic acid. The
solution of the salt has been stronsiy recommended in cases of gout and gravel, in con-
sequence of the solvent power which it exerts on uric acid. '&ie sulphate,, phosphate,
and nitrate of lithia are of no special importance. Chloride of lithium (LCl+4 flqO te
readily prepared by dissolving the hydrate of lithia in hydrochloric acid, and evaporat-
ing. It crystallizes in octohednK and is one of the most ddiquescent salts known. It
is of impoortanoe as being the souroe from whence lithium and carbonate of lithia vn
obtained.
Digitized by VjOtJy IC
itvlptiM.
76
Litiila was discovered in 1817 by Arfvedson. The metal lithiau was fimt oblidned
in 1822 by Brande, but nothing was known regarding its properties imUl tB50, vben
Bunsen and Matthiessen discovered the present method of obtaining it, iimi e^efuily
investigated its physical and chemical characters.
LJTHOD'OMUS, a ^enus of stone.boring raoUusks belonging to tae family of mus-
sels, the type of which is the MytUus liVwpagm of Linnsus.
UTHOO'EAPHT (Gr. WJios, a stone), the art of printing from stone, was invented by
Alojrs Senefelder, at Munich, about the end of the 18th century. It consists, first, in
writing and drawing on the stone with the pen and bmsh, with the graver, and with tlie
crayon or chalk; or in transferring to the stone writings and drawings made with the
pen or brush on transfer- pa per, or impressions from copper, steel, and pewter plates,
taken on a coated paper, and then in printing off from the stone the writings or draw-
ings ihus made upon it. The principles of the art are these: an unctuous composition
havim^ been made to adhere to a calcarco-argillaceous stone, those parts covered by it—
i.e., the writing or drawing— acquire the power of receiving printing-ink, whereas those
Earts not containing tlie writing or drawing are prevented from receiving ink from the
iking roller by the interposition of water; and lastly, an absorbent paper being laid on
the stone, and subjected to strong pressure, copies are obtained.
The best lUfvographic atones are found at Kelheim and Solenhofen, near Pappenheim,
on the Danube, in Bavaria; but they have been found also in Silesia, England, France,
Canada, and the West Indies. These stones are composed of lime, clay, and siliceous
eaith, and are of various hues, from a imle yellowish-white to a light buff, reddish,
pearl-gray, light-gray, blue, and greenish color. Those of uniform color are the best.
The yellow-buff ones, being soft, are adapted for lettering and transfer; the pearl -gray
ones, being harder, for chalk-drawings and engraving. They are found in beds, com-
mencing with layers of the thickness of paper, till they reach the dimensions of one
and several inches in thickness, when they are easily cut, being yet soft in the quarries,
to the sizes reouired for printing purposes. The stones are ground plane with sand, and,
when required for the pen, the brush, the paver, or transfer, they are polished with
pumice ana water-of-Ayr stone; and for chalk-drawings and graduated tints, an artificial
grain is given by ground glass or fine sand.
When any writing or drawing has been finished on stone, it then requires to be etched,
thus: a mixture of 2 parts of nitric acid, and from 40 to 60 parts of dissolved eum-
arable, is poured over the stone once or several times, according to the nature of the
work. The etching changes the surface of the stone, raising the work on it to a degree
scarcely perceptible to the naked eye. The writing or drawing, which has been effected
by greasy ink or chalk, remains protected from the action of the acid, and those pro-
tected parts retain the natural pro|>erty of the stone, which is the qualification of receiv-
ing printing-ink; and, when the printer wets the stone before applying the inking-roller,
the water enters only those parts of the stone which have been affected by the acid,
while the ink adheres only to those parts, however fine, on which the acid could not
operate, owing to the unctuous composition of the ink or chalk with which the drawing
or writing has been done, and which, being greasy, rejects the water. Thus it is called
4ihemic€U piinting.
The chemiecU ink, for writingn and drawings in line, is composed of 2 parts of white
wax, 2 shellac. 1 hard soap, i tallow, i carbonate of soda, and 1 of powdered lamp, or
better, Paris black. The chemical chalk (crayon) is made of 8 parts of white wax, 2
liard soap, 1 shellac, i •* drops of" mastic, 1 tallow, i old lard, i Venetian turpentine,
i Brunswick black, ^ carbonate of soda, and li of Paris black, properly melted and
burned together.
When the drawing or vyriting ioith ink on a polished stone is completed, the etching
is proceeded with, and a portion of the etching composition allowed to dry on the stone.
The- printer then adjusts his stone in the press, washes off the dried gum, removes the
whole drawing or writing with turpentine, wets tlie stone with a sponge or damping
eanvas, then applies his roller containing the printing-ink, and rolls it several times over
the stone till the lines appear again. When suflacient ink has been applied to tlie lines,
the paper is laid on the stone, drawn through the press, and the impression effected.
The damping and inking of the stone are renewed for every impression.
ChathdrofwingB are done on the grained stone with the chemical chalk with the stump
and scraper, and sharp lines with ink; so that, if boldly and systematically treated, by
giving the effect first, and detail afterwards, there will be produced richness and soft-
ness of appearance and freedom of manipulation, and a great many impressions will be
yielded.
Tinted drawings, chromchHikograpky, and colored map$req\An as many stones— grained
or polished, as the case may be-^as there are various tints or colors, one stone bemg
printed after the otber, and so fitted and blended together as to produce when complete,
the effect desired.
Great Britain is famed for writing$, plans, aind drawings^ done with transparent quillB,
•teel-pens, and small cameUfaair brashes, on ydUm trofufsr-paper, prepared as follows: 1
part best flake^white, 1 isinglass or gelatiae, with a little gamboge to give it color, are
dissolved in water over a slow fire, then sifted through double muslin and spread once,
Digitized by VjiOUV LC
' f IililioiitripttM*
m • mrjf icarm 9UUe, with a large, flat cameMuir bruah on tme Bid« of good-sized,
smooth, thin paper, which, when dry, requires to be passed frequently, over a heated
stooe, throu^ the press. The paper being drawn or written upon with lithographic
ink is, when finished, put for a few minuies between damp blotting-paper; a warmed
stone is put in the press, the sheet is placed with the coated side upon it, and then
passed several times through the press; the back of the paper, now adhering to thp
stone, is then sponged with water; the stone Is. turned and passed several times again
through the press in the opposite direction, after which the slieet is softened with water,
and rubbed with the fingers until it can be easily removed from the stone. Some gum
is then put upon it, and a linen rag dipped in printing-iuk, and with the aid of a little
water, passed in all directions over the lines till they appear black and clean. The stone
is then allowed to cool, inked up with the roller, then very slightly elohed, and after
being cleaned is ready for use.
Autkoffraphp is the name given to a writing or drawing done with the chemical ink on
one side of any plain — not eoatedr^pAVGr; for example, bankers' circularsr the transfer
IS done in the same manner as already described, wit)^ the difference that the sheet, when
laid on the stone, is passed only anee through the press.
Thinrferring of any writinffs, map$, dramng$ in line or mtmc, done on copper^ steel, and
pewier-platee, and retransferrinq of any line- work already on the Hone, form an important
part of Uthographjr, as an unlimited number of impressions can be produced at a very
moderate expense without wearing out the original plates or stones, and as parts of various
plates, stones, and letterpress can be transferred to, and printed from, the same stone*
The best transfer-paper for this purpose is the following: mix 8 parts of shoemakers'
paste (without alum) with 1 part of best ground plaster of Paris, a little dissolved patent
elue, and some tepid water; strain the mixture through double muslin in a common
Jar, and, when cooled, spread it with a large, flat camel-hair brush over half -sized
thickish paper. The ink for taking transfers is a composition of two table-spoonfuls of
printing varnish, li parts of tallow, 8 brown hard soap. 4 brown wax, 6 shellac, 5 black
pitch, and 2^ parts of powered lampblack. The various ingredients are melted for 26
minutes, and set fire to the mass for other 15 minutes; afterwards formed in sticks. When
the impressions have been made on this coated paper with this titinsfer-ink, the transfer
is accomplished on the stone as already described.
With regard to engraving and etcning on eione, photo-Uthography, the application of
tHeetrotyping to lithography, the working of the nUing-mac^iine for skies and ornaments,
the Utnographic steam-press, etc., we must refer the reader to special works on lithog-
raphy; and see under Photogba.pht.
It may not \» out of place to mention that in the field of lithography Germany occu-
pies the nrst place for cartful execution, France for rich and artistic effect, Britain for
transferring, tint-printing, and ehromo-printing,
Strixner, Hohe, Hanfstftogl, Rlotv. Loehle, Locillot, Aucr, Leon Noel, MouiUeron,
Engelmann, Sabatier, Calame, Lasalle, Haglie, Ghlmar, Hullmandcl, Day, Hanhart,
Bn)oks, Lemercier, may be mentioned, from among many others, who have helped to
perfect lithography.
UTHOL'OOT (Whos, a stone) is that division of geology which considers the consti-
tution and structure of rocks, apart from their relations in time or position to each other.
See Geology.
UTH'OKABGS, an earthy mineral, sometimes called mountain marrow (Gtr.Steinmark),
consisting chiefly of silica and alumina, with oxide of iron and various coloring sub-
stances. I'i is soft, greasy to the touch, and adheres strongly to the tongue. It is gen-
erally white, yellow, or red. often exhibiting veir beautiful colors. It is fpund in
Germany, Russia, etc., also in the tin-mines of Redruth in Cornwall.
LITHOKTXIF'TXOS (from the Greek words lithos, a stone, and tribo, I wear out) is
the term which is applied to those remedies which, whether taken by the mouth or
injected into the bladder, act as solvents for the stone.
Various medicines have at different times been recommended and employed as sol-
vents for the stone. Rather more than a century ago, limewater and soap, when swal-
lowed in sufacicnt quantities, had a hi^h reputation as solvents for urinary calculi.
These were the only active ingredients in Miss Stephens's Receipt for the Stone and Oravel,
which was reported on so favorably by a committee of professional men that parliament,
in 1789. purchased the secret for £5.000. The treatment doubtless afforded relief; but
there is no evidence that any calculus was actually dissolved, for in the bladder of each
of the four persons whose cure was certified in the report the stone was found after
death. At present no substance which, taken by the mouth, has the power of dissolving
calculi is known ; but as Dr. Prout remarks in his well-known treatise, On the Nature
and TrecUment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, remedies of this class are to be sought
" among harmless and unirritating compounds the elements of which are so associated
as to act at the same time, with respect to calculous ingredients, l)otli as alkalies and
acids." Solutions of the supercarbonated alkalies containing a great excess of carlionic
idd — as, for example, the natural mineral waters of Vichy — approach most nearly to
what is required. The relief which, in many instances, has followed the admir'""-^^- —
» rf » Digitized by * ^^
jUlllQp1l»i^id». ^g
by the mouth of substances supposed to be lithontriplics has been derived not from the
solution of the calculi, but from the diminution of pain and irritation in the bladder.
On ihe other hand, considerable success has been obtained by the direct Injection of
solvents Into the bladder, especially when the nature of the calculus Is suspected; Vk-enk
alkaline solutions have apparently caused the disappearance of uric-acid calctili, while
phosphatic calculi have unquestionably been dissolved by the injection of vvrj weak
acid solutions. It is reported that a weak galvanic current has been recently found
successful in the hands of an Italian surgeon.
LITHOFHA'OIDX (Gr. stone-eaters), a term sometimes applied to the mollusks which
bore holes for their own residence in rocks. See PB01.A8.
IITH'OPHAHE (Gr. phano$, clear, transparent), a peculiar style of ornamental porce-
lain chiefly adapted to lamps and other transparencies; it consists of pretty pictures
produced on thin sheets of white porcelain by stamping the porcelain, whilst stni soft,
with raised plaster-of -Paris casts of the pictures intended to be produced. By thu
means an intaglio impression is obtained; and when the sheet of porcelain baa been
hardened by fire, the impression gives a picture, owing to the transparency of the porce-
lain, whicl^ has the lighta and shadows correctly shown, if viewed by transmitted li^ht.
Lithophane pictures are common in Germany, where the art has been more favorably
received than in France, its native country. They are usually employed to form the
sides of ornamental lamps and lanterns, and are sometimes inserted in decorative
windows.
IITHOT'Omr (Gr. Uthos, a stone; Hkni, the act of cutting), the technical name for
the surgical operation popularly called cutting for the $Ume.
As most of the symptoms of stone in the bladder (which are noticed in the article
Calculub) may be simulated by other diseases of the bladder and adjacent parts, it is
necessary to have additional evidence regarding the true nature of the case before resort-
ing to so serious an operation as lithotomy. This evidence is afforded by tounding the
patient — a simple preliminary operation, which consists in introducing into the bL.dder,
through the natural urinary passage (the urethra), a metallic instrument, by means of
which the stone can be plainly felt and heard.
Lithotomy has been performed in various ways at different times. The earli(*6t form
of lithotomy is known as cutting on the gripe, or Celsits*s method. It received the former
name from the stone, after being fixed by the pressure of the fingers in the anus, Iwing
directly cut upon and extracted; and the latter, from its having been first describedL so
far as is now known, by Celsus, although it had probably been practiced from time
immemorial. At a later period this operation received from Marianus the name of the
apparaius minor (from a knife and hook being the only instruments used), to distinguish
it from his own method, which he called the apparatus major, from the numerous
instruments he employed. The Marian method was founded on the erroneous idea tliat
wounds of membranous parts would not heal, while their dilatation was comparatively
harmless. The object was to do as little as possible with the knife, and as much as
possible with dilating instruments; and the necessary result was laceration and such
other severe injury, tliat this became one of the most fatal operations in surgery.
Nevertheless, it was the operation mainly in vogue for nearly 2(X) years, till Frdre
Jaqi^es, in 1697. introduced what is essentially the method now in use.
The ^-ateral operation, so called from the lateral direction in which the incision is
made into ihe neck of the bladder, in order to avoid wounding the rectum, is that which,
with various minor modifications, is almost universally employed at the present day.
Frdre Jaques, a priest, seems to have learned the method from a provincial surgeon
named Pierre France, and to have practiced it with much success, and in 1697 he came
to Paris in order to make it publicly known. The advantage of this operation, by which
a free opening, sufficiently large for the extraction of a stone, can be made mto the
bladder without laceration of the parts or injury to the rectum, was immediately recog-
nized by the leading surgeons of the time, ana the Marian process was at once univer-
sallygiven up.
We can only very briefly indicate the leading steps of the operation. The patient
being laid on the table, and chloroform being administered, an instrument termed a
curved staff, with a deep ^oove, is passed into the bladder. An incision is then made
on the left side of the mesial line, about an inch and three-quarters in front of the anus,
and extending downwards to midway between the anus and the tuberosity of the left
ischium. The incision should be sufficiently deep for the operator, on introducing a
finger of the left hand, to feel the groove of the staff. The knife, directed by this
finger, is now fixed in the groove, and sliding along it towards the bladder, divides the
membranous portion of the urethra, the edge of the prostate, and the neck of the
bladder. The knife is now withdrawn, as also is the staff, and the surgeon introduces
the forceps over the finger of the left hand into the bladder, feels for the stone, and
draws it out.
It is unnecessary to enter into any of the details of the after-treatment. At first the
urine escapes through the wound, but in favorable cases it is voided by the natural pas-
■age in a week, and the wound heals in the course of a month.
From tiie shortness of the female urethra and the ext^ti|9^^^]4c|i|Ju^^ dilated.
^Q IJthopluMrldi*.
and, additiomlly, from the comparative rarity of calculous affections in women, the
operation of Kthotomy is ezclusivdy restricted to the male sex.
The danger of the operation seems to vary with the a^ of the patient Out of 186
cases oollected by Mr. Hutchinson of the Liondon hospital, 187 were under the age of
SO, and of these, 123, or nearly 00 per cent, recovered; while of the 49 who were over
20 years of age, 26, or more than 58 per cent, died.
UTHOT'BITT (Gr. stone-crusbing), the surgical operation of breaking up a stone in
the bladder into such small fragments that they may readily be expelled by the urethra.
Although the importance of such an operation has been recognized from the earliest
time, a French surgeon, Civiale, who commenced his researches in 1817, but did not
perform his first operation till the beginning of 1834, is entitled to be regarded as the
discoverer of lithotrity. The instrument by which the disinteffration of the stone is
effected is introduced in the same manner as a catheter or souna into the bladder, and,
after catchins the stone, either bores, hammers, or crushes it to pieces.
Crushing is now generally preferred, the stone being grasped by the blades of the
instrument, one bhufe acting on the other by means of a screw.
The process seems, at first sight, so safe, as compared with the operation of lithot-
omy, that it is necessary to distinguish those cases in which it may be resorted to and
thoae in which it la contra-indicated. It may be raorted to when the patient is an adult,
and the urethra full-sized and healthy, so as freely to admit the passage of the instru-
ment; when the prostate is not much enlarged, which is verv often the case in old men,
and when the bladder is not thickened or very Irritable: while it must be avoided in
children, in consequence of the smalhiess of the urethra; when there is great irritation
and thickening of the bladder; when there is mat enlargement of the prostate, which
hinders the manipulation of the instrument and the escape ot the broken fragments of stone ;
when the stone is of larse size, as, for example, of a greater diameter than 3 in. ; and
when there is reason to helieve that the concretion is a mulberry calculus, which, from
its extreme hardness, cannot readily be broken. Great care must be taken that no frag-
ment remains in the bladder, as such f n^ments are almost sure to form the nuclei of
fresh calculi.
LITHVA'VIA, a former grand-duchy, holding of the crown of Poland, which, before
the partitions of that country, was composed of three groups of territory: 1. Lithuania
proper, or Litiva, which formed the governments of Wilnaand Troki; 2. The duchy of
Bamc^tia; 8. Russian Lithuania, comprisins; Polesie, Black Russia or Novogrodek,
White Russia or Minsk, Meislav, Witeosk, Smolensk, Polotsk, and Polish Livonia.
This country contained about 185,000 English sq.m., and was partitioned between
Russia and Prtwsia, the latter receiving what is now denominated the government of
Gumbinnen, in e. Prussia. The Lithuanians, a race to whom belong the Letts of
Livonia, the Cours of Courland, and the ancient inhabitants of e. Prussia, are probably
a Slavonic people,- whose original characteristics have been much modified by time ana
the intermixture of other races. According to Latham, the Lithnaniau language
approaches nearer to the Sanskrit than any other member of the Aryan group.
Lithuania was at first suoject to Russia, bu* shook off the yoke about the end of the
12th c. and became an independent power. Their rulers, who bore the title of grand-
duke, conquered the neighboring Russian provinces, and even carried their ravages to
the very gates of Moscow. The grand-duke of Lithuania, Jagellon, was in 1886 elected
king oirolsaid, and issued an edict of union between the two countries, and in 1669 the
two were declared to be one country.
LITIZ, a borough of Lancaster co., Penn., on the Reading and CJolumbia railroad, 20
m. S.W. of Reading. It has 8 churches; Linden hall, a well-known Moravian school for
girls; a bank; a newspaper; and manufactures of beer, flour, coaches, machinery, cigars,
etc. The town is an ancient settlement of the Moravians, who are still the chief ele-
ment in its population and social life.
LiraXTS is a well-known coloring matter which is obtained from several lichens, but
chiefly from lecariara iarta/rea. The lichens are powdered and digested with ammoni-
acal fluids (urine, for example) till they underfi^o decomposition. Alum, potash, and
lime are then added, and the mixture is allowed to stand till the maximum degree of
color is observed. Sand and chalk are added, to give a due degree of solidity, and the
mass is then dried in cubes, and is ready for the market. The exact nature of the changes
which ensue is not altogether known ; it is, however, certain that the pigment is origi-
nally red, and that it only becomes blue on the addition of alkalies or of lime. This
blue color is again changed into a red on the addition of a free acid.
The use of litmus-paper and tincture of litmus for the purpose of detecting the
acidity of fluids, etc., is known to every student of chemistry. See Test-Paperb.
LITTA, PoMPBO, Count; 1781-1852; b. Italy; in early life an officer in the French
army, and participant in the battles of Ulm. Austerlitz, and Wagram. In the revolu-
tionary epoch of 1848 in Italy he was for a short time secretary of war of the provi-
sional government. His tame, however, rests on the authorship of a superb work on the
celebrated families of Italy— Fam^^ie eddyri d*ItaUa^yf\i\c\i is commended equally for
the fuUnesB and accuracy of its biographies, the beauty of its t^gr^ph^^^j^^e-
LlitolL Qf)
lattorale. ^V
ffance of its style. Its first publication was by subscription in 1819. At the time of
his deatli it embraced the history of 118 families. Others have been added aiooe by
Oderici and PasserinL
LITTELL, Eliakim; 1T97-1870; b. Burlington. N. J. ; in 1819 began to publish and
edit at Philadelphia the Naiitmal Recorder, afterwards the Saturday MaffaHne, In 1829
he established the Mwieum of Foreign LiUrature, and in 1844 founded LUtOPs Living
Age in Boston, a periodical which is still continued, and greatly valued forHeJadicious
selections from the current periodical literature of Europe. He drew up the Clay com-
promise tariff of 1838. Died in Brooklinc, Mass.
LITTLE, Gborob; 1754-1809; b. Marshfleld, Mass.; was commander of tlie armed
yessel, Tfte Boiton, belondns' to Massachusetts at the beginning of the Tevolutionary
war; was first lieut. on ne l*roteetor in 1779, when it was captured by a Britiah frigate,
and he was taken toEnelandas a prisoner; having made his escape, he subsequentiy took
command of the sloop Winthrop and cruised successfully till the end of the war; com-
manded the national frigate BoHon in 1798; was made capt. of the navy in 1799; retired
to his farm in Weymouth in 1801, and lived there until his death. He wrote The Ameri-
can Cruiser and Life on the Ocean,
LITTLE CHRISTIANS, a new sect formed in 1868 by members of the Bu8ao*Greek
church living at Atkarsk in the province of Saratoff , Russia. There were at first but 16
members. They claim that Chnst commanded them to form the new church. Before
doing it they were immersed, and fasted, and changed their names. They condemned
worship of saints and altar*pieces as idolatrous, and abandoned the use of bread and wine
in the Lord's supper. Dixon in his Free Russia says: " They have no priests, and bardlr
any form of prayer. They keep no images, use no wafers and make no sacred oil.
Instead of the consecrated bread, they bake a cake, which they afterwards worship, as
a special gift from God. This cake is like a penny bun in shape and size, but in the
minds of these LiUle ChriaUans it possesses a potent virtue and a mvstic charm." They
gave themselves the name they bear. They have been persecutecf by the government,
but have increased in numbers.
LITTLEDALE, Richard Frederick, b. Dublin, 1888; graduated In Trinity college,
Dublin, 1854; was ordained in the church of England, 1856; and after a few years of
parochial service in London, devoted himself to authorship on ecclesiastical questions,
making a special studv of liturgies and of the relations between the national church and
dissenting bodies. He is author of Platosophy of Revivals ; Officee of the IMy Sastem
Church; CatMic Ritual in th^ Church of England; and many other works.
LITTLE FALLS, a village of New York, on the Mohawk river, 91 m. n.w. of Albany,
on the line of the Erie canal, and New York Central railroad. The Mohawk here
passes through a romantic defile of 2 m. in length, with falls of id ft., givine water-
power to several papcr-mills, woolen factories, flou ring-mi I Is, etc. The village has
numerous churches, a bank, newspapers, and manufactures of starch, shoes, etc. Pop.
in. 70, 5.387.
LITTLE FALLS (anU\ a t. and village of Herkimer co., K. Y., on the Mohawk
river the Erie canal, and the New York Central railroad, 78 m. w.n.w. of Albany. Pop.
of the town, '80. 6,911. The river here passes through a narrow gorge, and has a fall
of more than 40 ft. in three-fourths of a mile, affording abundant water-power. The
Erie canal passes by a deep cut 2 m. long in solid rock, presenting a most picturesque
appearance, and the feeder crosses the river by an aqueduct with an arch of 70 ft. span.
Many of the dwellings in the village stand upon steep declivities, commanding views
of attractive scenery. The place contains 8 churches, a bank, 2 newspapers, an academi^,
and manufactories of cotton, paper, starch, axes, woolens, boots and shoes, etc. It is
also the center of a considerable trade in cheese.
LITTLE HUMBOLDT RIVER, in Humboldt co., Nev. ; a tributaiy of the Humboldt
river from the n.w., flowing from an elevation of 4,500 ft., through the fertile Paradise
valley, where large areas of excellent bench-land and bottom-land are subject to easy
irrigation from it. It is about 250 m. by sea n. from San Francisco.
LITTLEJOHN, Abram Nbwkirk, d.d., i.l.d., b. N. Y., 1824; graduated at Union
colle/^e in 1845; ordained deacon in the Protestant Episcopal church in 1848; admitted
to priest's orders in 1849; was rector of Christ church, Springfield, Mass., in 1860. of St.
Paul's church in New Haven 1851-60, and of the Holy Trinity church in Brooklyn
1860-09. He declined the offer of the presidency of Hobart college in 1858, and the
appointment as bishop of central New York in 18o8. In 1868 Long Island was made a
separate diocese, and Dr. Littlejohn was elected its bishop and consecrated in 1869. He
was appointed by the presiding bishop in 1874 to take charp) of the American Episcopal
church in Europe. His contributions to periodicals, especially the Church Review, have
been numerous. In 1854 he delivered a course of lectures on the PliHoeophyof Religion
in Philadelphia. He has published also sermons, charges, and addressee His diocesan
administration has shown high executive ability.
LITTLE KANAWHA RIVER, of western Virffinia; a tiibutary of the Ohio river,
emptying at Parkersburg, and having its source in Upshur county. It u in the coal-oil
Q1 UtUlL
^^ I.lttoi«l«.
dstrict, and for the transportntion of oil Bnd other commodities, slack-water navigation
htf been created up tbe river 38 m. to Burning Springs by means of three dams and
heki. It flows through a hilly country well suited to sheep growing, and is bordered by
lich bottom-lands. Logs for lumber were formerly the principal product of its region.
LriTLE RIVER, a co. of s.w. Arkansas, bordering upon Texas and tbe Indian terri-
toi7,iod lying between Little and Red rivers; 600 sq.m.; pop. '80, 6,404, of whom
8.343 are colored. It has a diverftified surface and a fertile soil. Cotton, corn, and pork
are staple products. Valuation of real and personal property, $1,289,241. Capital,
Blciifflood.
IITTIX BOCX, the capital of Arkansas, is^tuated on the s. bank 6f the Arkansas
rirer, 900 m. from its mouth, on the first bed of rocks bounding the alluvial valley of
(be MiasiasjppL It contains the state ca^tol, an arsenal, penitentiary, and the- usual
Dumber of churehea Founded in 1820. Pop. in '70, 12,880.
LITTLE ROCK (ante), capital and chief city of Arkansas; pop. '80, 18,185; so
Darned in antithesis to Big Rock, an elevation on the opposite side of the Arkansas river,
Dearly 500 ft in height; that on which the dty stands being not more than 40 or 50 ft.
aborethe shore. It is haodsomely laid out, with broad streets; the business blocks of
brick, and the residences surrounded by ornamental ^rdens and shade-! rees; reached by
the Little Rock and Fort Bcott, the Memphis and Little Rock, and the St. Louis, Iron
KouDtain and Southern railroads. The state-house and 8t. John*s college are prom-
inent pablic buildings; and there are a U. B. arsenal and land-office, state penitentiary,
iDd state institutions for deaf mutes and for the blind. Steamers on the Arkansas river
touch at Little Rock, and it is a considerable commercial center. The city is considered
remarkably healthful.
LITTLE SISTERS OF THE POOR, a Roman Catholic sisterhood originated by
H. Le Pailleur at St. Servan. France, in 1840. Their function is to care for the poor and
old. They have several houses in the United States.
LITTLETON, an agricultural and* manufacturing t. of Grafton co., K. II., on Am-
moooosuc river and the Boston, Concord and Montreal railroad. As it is but 28 m.
from Mt Washington, it is also a summer resort. It is well supplied with hotels, banks,
cliurcbes, and schools; and has a newspaper, a woolen mill, and several factories, the
mking of stereoscopic views being a specialty. Pop. 2,446.
LriTLETON, Adam, d.d., 1627-4Mr; b. at Hales-Owen. Shropshire, Eng.; educated
at Christ <:hurch, Oxford, where he took a higii rank in the classics; was successively
lector of Chelsea, chaplain to king Charles II., and in 1674 prebendaiy of Westminster.
Hevasadtstlngaished oriental scholar, and made a collection of rare books and man-
Qscripts so ItLVge that it brought him to bankruptcy. He wrote much on recondite sub-
jects and pumuhed a number of sermons; but his principal work was the IHetionary of
tk Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Englitih Languoffea, of which several editions were pub-
iished. He was a descendant of sir Thomas Littleton. Died at Chelsea.
IITTIETOir, or XYTTXETOHf Sir Thomas, a celebrated English jurist, was b. early
ia tbe 15th c. (the exact year is not known), studied— it is thought probab1e~at Cam-
bndge, after which he removed to the inner temple. Henry VI. appointed him steward
or judge of the court of the palace, and in 1465 king's sergeant, in which capacity he
traveled the northern circuit. In 1466 he wns made one of the judges of the court of
common pleas; and in 1475 he was created knight of the bnth. He died Aug. 23, 1481.
Litilelon's fame rests on his work on Tenures, which was originally written iu Norman-
French, and first published about the time of his death. It went through a multitude of
eiiiiion;;. The first translation into Enorlish was made in 1539, and in the course of tiie
next 100 years it went through no loss tlian 24 editions. The chaogus in the laws relative
to property have greatly diminished its value, and it is now little studied by lawyers; yet
it is considered a model from the clear and logical manner in which the subject is
iiandled.
LITTLE TURTLE, d. 1812; an Indian chief of the Miami nation, distinguished for
Lis intelligence, shrewdness, and courage; date of birth unknown. He commaodcd iu
the battles which resulted in the defeat of gen. Harmar on the Miami in 1790, and of
m. St Clair at St Mary's iu 1791; was present, though not in command, at the battle of
jbumee Rapids in 179C when the Indians were defeated by gen. Wayne; was one of the
Mgnera of the treaty of Greenville in 1795, which closed tlie war and secured to the
whites large tracts of land in Ohio. In 1797 he visited pres. Washington in Philadelphia,
ca ^hich occasion he had an interview with Volney, the French philosopher, and
received from Eosiusco a pair of pistols, elegantly mounted. Died at Fort Wayne.
LITTLE VALLEY, a t. in Cattaraugus co., N. Y. ; pop. 70, 1108; situated on the
Erie railroad, and near the Alleghany river. The leading business interest is farming
uid dairying, though there are also steam mills, stores, ivnd a generally active condition
ofaffairsw
LITTORA'LE, of Litoralk, a province of the Anstro-Hungarian monarchy, sit-
latcd on the n. shores of the Adriatic sea, and including the neighboring islands. It
comprises the counties of G5rz and Gradisca, the margraviate of Istria. ana ^J4ft4|^9|-
U. E. IX — 6 ^
of Trieste; 8,085 sq.m ; pop. 600,525. In former times the name was appfied to Vvv
strips of land on the n. shores of the Adriatic, the eastern one of which has figared i
Hungarian history. It was once a part of the Croatian military territory, was made
civil district of Hungary by Maria Theresa, formed a part of the French province c
lUyria under Napoleon, was recovered by Austria in 1814, reannexed to Hungary in 1821
occupied by Croatia in 1848, and attached to that province by Francis Joseph in 184f
The principal towns of the province are Buccari and Porto Re.
LITTB^, MAitDCiUEN Paul Emilb, a French journalist and philologist, member c
the academy, was b. in Paris, Feb. 1, 1801. He distinguished himself in his studies
uid obtained vtCrious honors at the grand competition. He began the study of medicine
and pursued it so far with distinction ; he did not, however, take the degree of doctor, nc
enter on practice, but gave himself up to researches in philology, mastering the piincipi
ancient and modem languages, and in the history of medicine. At the same Ume tha
Littr6 took an active part in editing various journals and literary coUectinoa, he prepare
an edition and translation of the works of Hippocrates ((Ehii>re8 ^Hippoerate, 1889-61
10 vols. 8vo), a publication wliich immediately opened for him the doors of the academ
of inscriptions (Feb., 1889).
Littre, who held democratic opinions, and had distinguished himself among the codb
batants of July, became afterwards connected with the National, and was one of th
principal editors of it till 1851. When M. Auguste Comte's new philosophical and socin
doctrine appeared under the name of positive philosophy, Littre, attracted 1^ the sciei]
tiflc character of the doctrine, took it up with great ardor, and in 1845 wrote a \\xch
and clever summary of it (De la PhUosopkU Positive), and afterwards defended it in pais
ghlets and in journal articles. He looked upon the revolution of 1848 as the advent o
is opinions; but soon undeceived, he retired from active politics in Oct., 1848, resign idj
even nis office of municipal councilor of the city of Paris. He had ere this declined thi
decoration of the legion of honor. Returning to a life of study Littr§ continued hi
researches in medicine, at the same time working ardentlv at the history of the Frencl
language. Already master of the old forms of (he French language, he published in thi
Bemie ae$ De^tx Mondes^Xjor^hich. he has contributed at different times several paper
equallv ingenious and learned — an article called, The Homeric Poetry and the Ancien
French Poetry {La Poem Homeriqus et VAndenne Poesie Franpaise, July 1, 1847), whicl
attracted greaX attention. In it he attempted the translation of the nrst book of th^
lUad in the style of the Trouvdres. The academy of inscriptions chose him, in plao
of Fauriel (1844), to be one of the commission charged with continuing JJH%tsbokre IMU
raire de France (The Literary History of France), and he is one of the authors of vols
xzi., zxii., zziii. In 1854 he was appointed editor of the Journal dee Sacante, and h(
has since contributed manv articles to that collection. Littr6'8 principal work is hi
Dietiannaire de la Langue iran^aiee, containing, in addition to the usual information ii
French dictionaries, examples of the several meanings of the words, with exact reference
to the classical works from which they are taken, besides the history of the usage of eacl
word in documents anterior to the 17th centurv. Not onlv are all questions of ^nimai
and lezicography (including etymology — ^a subject in which French dictionaries hav<
hitherto been singularly deficient) fully discussed, but historical allusions are explained
and numerous details given regarding the arts and sciences, rendering the work a kinc
of cyclopedia. In preparation for manv years, it began to appear in 1868, and was com
pleted in 1873. This splendid work, which .is the real theeaurus of the French language
so long a desideratum, did not prevent the French academy in 1868 from rejecting tn<
author, whom M. Dupanloup denounced publicly as holding immoral and impious doc
trines. Littr6 has also published an excellent French translation of Strauss's Ufe oj
Jesus (1839-40, 2d ed. 1855); and a translation of Pliny's Natural History. In 1882 b<
published a paper on cholera. As editor or coUaborateur, Littr^ was connected with thi
JHetionnaire de Medecine, the Gazette Medieale de Paris, and the surgical journal called
L' Experience. We may also notice from his pen — Histoire de la Langue Fran^ise (1862,
2 vols. 8vo); Paroles de PhilosopMe Posiiiw (1859) ; Auguste ConUe et la Philtmphie PosMti
(1863); and Auguste Comte et Stuart Mill (1866). He published in 1867 the (Euvres Com
pUtes dArmund Carrel. In 1870 he contributed to the BemLe Positimste an article Da
Origines organ iques de la Morale, which attracted great notice, and furnished with new
argument the Catholic theologians, who accused him of atheism. Three months before,
Littre had opposed the publication of M. Comte's later works as being unworthy of him,
Just before the siege of Paris, Littre*s friends compelled him to ouit the capital. In
Jan., 1871, M. Gambetta appointed Littre professor of historjr and geography at the
ecolc polytechnique. Next month he was chosen representative of uie Seme depart-
ment m the national assembly, where he sat with the party of the left. At Its sitting of
Dec. 30, 1871, the French academy at last admitted him to membership, choosing; him to
fill the place of M. Villemain. On this occasion, M. Dupanloup, bishop of Orleans,
thought fit to resign his connection with the academy. In 1875 he was made a doctor
of literature by Leyden universitv. and member of the Austrian academy. Mededne et
Mededns was published by Littre in 1872.
LIT'TROW, Joseph Johann von, 1781-1840; b. Bohemia. First a professor of
astronomy at Cracow; afterwards at the university of Kazan, in the city of the same
CO Uttr0*
OO Utiurgy*
Bflme, 490 m. e. of Mobcow. In the later years of his life he became professor of astron-
omy in the university of Vienna, and director of the observatory, in the management of
whicb he became eminent. His lectures were extremely popular. His published works
are: Die Wunder d6$ JSiwmeU, which has passed through several editions; Theoretuche
nnd praciuehe Atdromomie; and AiUu des gesUmten HimmeU, Died in Vienna.
UT1FB0Y (Gr. leUaurgia, a public service), in general, si^ifies a form of prajrer and •
ceremonial established by ecclesiastical authority, to be used in the public services of
the church, but is especially applied to that usea in the celebration and administration
of tbe eucharist The very earliest historical records of Christianity plainly show that
such forms were in use in the primitive times, but it seems highly probable that for a
coasiderable period they were not reduced to writing; and hence even those of the
extant liturgies which represent the earliest forms differ considerably from each other,
if not in the substance of the rite, at least in the arraneement even of those parts which
are common to them all. A theological discussion of the subleet of the liturgy, though,
of course, most important in a doctrinal point of view, and most interesting for the
study of Christian antiquities, would be out of place in a popular cyclopaeaia. The
liturgies form the great stronghold of the Catholic controversialists on the subject of the
real presence and of the eucharistic sacrifice; but we must confine ourselves to a brief
historical account of Uie various liturgies now eztant, and of their connection with the
Tarious ancient Christian communities, whether of the east or of the west. Liturgies
may, indeed, best be distributed into two classes, those of the east, and those of the
west.
1. Oriental IMurgiM, — The oriental liturgies are six in number, four of which are
derived from the ffreat churches in which they were used ; the fifth from the Armenian
church, which eany formed a distinct liturgy ; and the sixth from the great Syrian sect
of Kestorius, by which the liturgv was modified to suit its own peculiar tenets. These
liturgies are severally known as the liturgies of Jerusalem, of Antioch, of Alexandria,
and of Constantinople, the Armenian, liturjgy, and the Kestorian liturgy. The diversi-
ties of these liturgies, although very great in appearance, vet can hardly be said to be
substantial. Certain leading; parts tCre conunon to them all, and are found in all without
substantial variation; but they are arranged in a different order, and. except in the
form of the eucharistic consecration, the hymn Trisagion, and a few other details, the
form of words is often entirely dissimilar. The liturgy of Jerusalem, although ascribed
to St. James, is of uncertain origin and date; nor is it well ascertained whether its origi-
nal language was Syriac or Greek. The latter is the language in which it is now found,
and the present liturgy closely corresponds in the main with that v^ich formed the text
of St. Cyril of Jerusalem in his well-known mystagogical lectures. The liturgy of
Antioch exists in Syriac, but it is evidently only a free translation of the liturgy of
Jerusalem. The ancient liturgy of Alexandria is ascribed to St. Hark; but the existing
liturgy has received numberless additions at later dates, and has been modified \)j both
the great sects of this patriarchate to suit their peculiar doctrines. Several other litur-
gies are in use among the Copts, under the Qame of St. Basil, St Gregory, and St. Cyril;
and the Abyssinian Christians have no fewer than ten, which are distmct, at least in
name. The church of Constantinople has two different liturgies, both of great antiq-
uity, that of St. Basil and that of St. Chrysostom. These, however, are not indiscrimi-
nately used, each being emplo^red on social occasions or on certain defined festivals.
The liturgy of Constantinople is the original of the Slavonic liturgy, which is used in
the Russian and Russo-Greek church, and in its various branches. The Armenian lit-
MTfj dates from the introduction of Christianity into Armenia under Gregory the illu-
mmator. It is in most respects derived from that of St. Chrysostom. The Nestorians
have three liturgies— the liturgy of the apostles, the liturgy of Theodore of Mopsues-
tia, and the liturgy of Nestonus. These, however, are all combined into one, each
being assigned to a particular season, or used on special occasions. The language of
all is Syriac.
2. Western lAturgiee,— The liturgies of the west present much less variety, and indeed
are all derived either from the eastern liturgies or from a common source. The Catholic
liturgies may be reduced to four— the Roman, the Milanese or Ambrosian, the Gothic or
Mozarabic, and the Gallic liturgies. The oldest forms of the Roman liturgy are to be
found in three so-called sacramentaries — that of Leo, that of Gelasius, and that of
Gregory the great It is the last that has left its impress most clearly on the modern
Roman missal, which was brought to its present shape by a commission ordered by the
council of Trent, after a careful revision and collation of all the liturgical forms in use
in the west in the 16th century. The first revision look place under Pius V., and two
subsequent revisiofis were niade by Urban VIII. and Clement VIII. The Ambrosian
liturgy is used only in the diocese or Milan, and is popularly traced to St Ambrose. It
bears a close analogy to the Roman liturgy, but it has many peculiarities, some of which
are highly interesting, as illustrating the history of the details of Christian worship. Its
ceremonial, which .is observed with great solemnity in the cathedral of Milan, is in some
parts highly striking and characteristic. The Gothic or Mozarabic is of still more
limited use, being now confined to a single chapel at Toledo, founded and endowed for
the purpose by tbe celebrated cardinal Ximincs. It is the old liturgy of the Gothic
church of Spain ; and after the infusion of the Arabic element, which followed the
Mourisli invasion, it was calYeii by the name of Mozarabic, a word of dii^puted etymol-
ogy. This liturgy is certainly of oriental origin; but its history, and the time and cir-
cumstances of its introduction into Spain, have furnished matter for much speculation.
Some parts of the rite are exceedingly curious, especially those whicli accompany the
breaking of the host. The Galilean liturgy has no precise modern representative,
and is only known from ancient forms, more or less complete, which have been edited
by Mabillou, and recently by Mone. The older Gallicau forms bespeak an oriental ori-
gin, and are probably derived from the Greek Christian colony whicli settled at Mar-
.^eilles, Lyons, and the other churches of the south. The later forms approximate more
to liic Roman. Neither of these, however, is to be confounded with tlie more modem
missals in use in several of the French dioceses, which do not differ from the Roman
except in minor details, and most of which have now l)een displaced by the Roman
missal. Of Protestant communities, the Anglican church alone professes to follow the
ancient liturgical forms (see Common Prayer, Book of). See Rcnaudot's Orien-
taliuin Liturgiarum CoUectio, 1740, 2 vols. ; A^^semanni's ^Bibliothcea OrienUtlis; Palmer's
Antiquities of tlie English Liturgy; B interim's DenktcHrdigkeiten der Christ^Katlu/luchen
Kirehe.
XITTTEGT, Jewish, in the narrower sense of a ritual of fixed prayers, chiefly for pub-
lic worship. The Mosaic records contain an ordinance respecting the "confession of
sins" (Lev. v. 5; xvi. 21), without, however, prescribing a distinct form for the purpose.
Three formulas only are fixed — the benediction of the priests (Nnm. vi. 24r>26), the
praver of tlianksgiving on the occasion of the first offering (Deut. xxvi. 5-10), and that
which was to accompany the offering up of the third year's tithe, beginning: "Ihave
brought away the hallowed things out of my house" (ib. 13-15). Although prayers are
often mentioned before the exile, yet they do not seem, except in the cases mentioned,
to liave been introduced as yet as a regular element into the service of the temple. The
songs of the Levites (1 Chr. xvi. 4; xxiii. 8), and occasional prayera, such as are to be
found in the Psalms, or like that of Solomon at the inauguration of the temple, are all
we find recorded. Private devotions w^ere common (cf. 1 Kings, viii. 80, etc. ; Is. i. 15),
but cveiy one prayed when his heart prompted him in the words inspired by his joy or
sorrow. Not before the time of Daniel is a fixed institution of three daily praj-ers men-
tioned (Dan. vi. 11). The task of compiling a liturgy proper, and of fixing the times
and seasons of prayer, was probably first undertaken by the men of the great synago^e.
Two chief groups around which, as time wore on, nn enormous mai« of liturgical
poetry has cluMere^, are distinctly discernible— the one, the Shnnah ("Hear, Israel,"
etc.). being a collection of the three biblical pieces (Deut. vi. 4-9; xi. 13-21; Num. xv.
37-41), exi)res8ive of the unity of God and the memory of his government over Israel,
strung together without any extraneous addition ; the second, tlie TeftUah, or prayer, by
way of eminence (adopted into Islam as Salavat, Sur. ii. 40; cf. v. 15). consisting of a
certain numb( r of supplications with a hymnal introduction and conclusion, and fol-
lowed by the priestly blessing. The single portions of this prayer gradually Increased
to 18, and the prayer itself received the name Shtmonah Eme (eighteen). The first
additions to the Shemah formed the introductory thanksgiving for the renewed day, in
accordance with the ordinance that every supplication must Iw precetled by a prayer of
thanks, called t/^^rfr (Creator of light, etc), to which were joinea the three holiea {Ofan),
and the supplication for spiritual enlightening in the divine law {Ahaba). Between the
Sliemah and the Teflllah was inserted the Qevlah (liberation), or praise for the miracu-
lous deliverance from Egypt and the constant watchings of Providence. A Kaddifih
(sanctitication), and certain psalms, seem to have concluded the service of that period.
This was the order of the ahaharith, or morning prayer; and very similar to this was
the Maarlb, or evening prayer; while in the Minna, or afternoon praver, the Shemah
was omitted. On new moons. Sabbath and feast days, the general order was the same
as on week days; but since the festive joy was to overrule all individual sorrow and
supplication, the intermediate portion of the Tefillah was changed according to the
special significance and the memories of the day of the solemnity, and additional prayers
were introducbd for these extraordinary occasions, corresponding to the additional
sacrifice in the temple, and varying according to the special solemnity of the day {Mfin-
mf, J^'cilah, etc.). The first compilation of a liturgy is recorded of Amram Gaon (870-
80 A.D.); the first that has survived, is that of Saadja Gaon (d. 942 a.d.). These early
collections of prayers generally contained also compositions from the hand of the com-
piler, and minor additions, such as ethical tracts, almanacs, etc., and were called JSid-
durim (orders, rituals), embrMciug the whole calendar year, week-days and new moons,
fasts and festivals. Later, the term was restricted to the week-day ritual, that for the
festivals being called Machmr (c^'cle). Besides these, wc find the Selichoth, or peniten-
tial prayers; Kinoth, or elegies; Hoshanahs, or hosannahs (for the seventh day of the
feast of tabernacles); and BakanJiotk, or special supplications, chiefly for pi-ivate devo-
tion.
The public prayers were for a long time only said by the public reader (Gliasan,
Sheliach Zihbur), the people joining in silent responses and nmens. These readers by
degrees— chiefly from the 10th c— introduced occasional_ji^f[^^^ {Pivtim) of their own,
85 litarcyw
oTeraod above those lued of yore.' The materials were taken from Halacba (q t.) as
well as from Hagg8da(q.v.); rengious doctrine, history^ saga, aiigelology, and mysticism,
iDierspersed with biblical verses, are thus fouDd put together like a mosaic of the most
origiual and fautasiic, often gmiHi and brilliant, and often obscure and feeble kind; and
the pure Hebrew in many cases made room for a corrupt Chaldee. We can only point
out be re tlie two chief groups of religious poetry— viz., the Arabic on the one, and the
Fiench-GterDiau school on the other hand. Tiie most eminent representative of the
Fsjtanic age (endins c. 1100) is Eleazer Biribi Kalir. Among tlie must celebrated poets
in Ilia mauner are Meshulam b. Kalonymos of Luccss Solomon b. Jehuda of Babylon,
K Qeraon, Elia b. Menahem of Mans, Benjamin b. 8erach, Jacob Zom £lem, Dliezer b.
Samuel, Kalonymos b. Moses, Solomon Isaaki. Of exclusively Spanish poets of this
period the nioet brilliant are— Jehuda Halevi, Solomon ben Oabirol, Josef ibn Abitur,
Isaac ilm Giat, Abraham ibn Esra, Mose b. Nachman, etc. When; however, in the
beginning of the ISth c, secret doctrine and philosophy, casuistiy and dialectics,
became the paramount study, tbe cultivation of the Pint became neglected, and but few,
and fur the most part insignificant, are the writers of litui^cal pieces from this time
downwards.
According to the different countries, the order and even the contents of the cycle
differed, since not all liturgical pieces had been incorporated uniformlv. We have
thus— to name a few out of many — the rituals of Germany (Poland), of I*rance, Spam,
and Portugal (Sefkrdim), Italy (Rome), the Levant (Komagna), and even of some special
towns like Avignon, Carpentras, Montpellier. Tbe rituals of Barbary (Algiers, Tripoli,
Oran, Moroooo, etc.) are of Spanisli origin. The Judeeo-Chinese liturey, it may be
observed by tlie way. consists only of pieces from the Bible. Tbe Jewish liturgy has,
ia its various forms, very frequently been commented upon, and has been translated into
nearly every modern language.
We may add, in conclusion, that liturgy forms at this moment the center of a great
contest ¥#Uiin the pale of Judaism. The "reformers " of more or less advanced tend-
encies are intent upon shortening the pmyers, and principally upon abrogating the
greater part of the Pint, as an aititicial excrescence hurtful to true aevotion.
LITURQY {ant^, I. In the modem church of Home several books are Sn use, some
of them by the members generally, others restricted to particular ranks and orders.
1. Ike Breviarp contains the daily service of the church of Rome, consistine of the
matins and lauds, with variations for different davs and canonical hours. "R may be
employed in all places, but on the model of it other books have been formed for the
special use of thie Benedictine, Carthusian, Dominican, Franciscan, Jesuit, and other
orders. At first it contained only the Lord's prayer and portions of the Psalms, to
wbich Scripture lessons were afterwards added. In ages called, according to the point
of view from which Judgment is formed, ages of superstition or ages of faith, legendary
lives of the saints were inserted, which led to a frequent revision and correction of the
breviary, particularly by the councils of Trent and Cologne, by popes Gregory IX., Nicolas
HI., Pius v., Clement VIII., and Urban VIII., and cardinal Quignon, by whom it was
brought Bearer to the simplicity of primitive times. At present it consists of services for
seven hours, to correspond with David*s declaration, ' * Seven times a day do I praise thee.*' *
The obligation to read this book every day, at first imposed on all, was gradually
restricted to the beneficiary clergy, who, if the3r neglect the duty, incur the guilt of mortal
sin, and forfeit a part of their revenues proportion^ to their delinquencies. It is recited
in Latin in Roman Catholic churches everywhere, except among the Syrian Maronites, the
Armenians, and other oriental churches who, submitting to the pope's jurisdiction in
other respects, are allowed to use the service in their own language (see Eastekn.
OR ORncMTAL RiTE). 2. The Missal, used in celebrating the mass and ascribed by
Roman Catholic tradition to the apostle Peter. The canon of the mass, first reduced to
writing in the 6th c, was afterwards enlarged, especially by Gregory the ^at. It is
in general use throughout the Roman Catholic church. 3. T?ie Geremamale, having
special reference to the pope, is divided into three books, the first of which treats of the
election, consecration, benediction, and coronation of the pope; the canonization of
saints, creation of cardinals, tbe form and mode of holding a council; various public
ceremonies to be performed by the pope as a sovereign prince; and funeral solemnities
for cardinals and popes: the second book contains the divine offices which the pope
celebrates, and the days devoted to them: the third prescribes the reverence due to
popes, cardinals, bishops, and other persons intrusted with sacred duties; the order in
which tljey are to be seated in the papal chapel : the sacred vestments and ornaments of
popes and cardinals ; and the offering of incense at the altar. 4. The Pontiiicale describes
the functions of Roman Catholic bishops: the conferring of ecclesiastical orders; bene-
dictions on abbots, abbesses, and nuns; coronation of sovereigns; consecration of
churches, cemeteries, and sacred vessels; the expulsion and reconcilement of penitents;
the holding of synods; suspending, reconciling, dispensing, deposing, and degrading
priests, ana restoring them to orders; excommunication and absolution. 5. The liiiuale,
named ako the Pastorale, treats of the functions of priests or inferior clergy in their
public services and private pastoral duties.
n. At the reformatioD the existing liturgies were modified in doctrine and translated
into the common languages of the people for use in the reformed churches. 1. Among
these reformed liturgies those of Luther led the way. Different offices were prepared
by him between the years 1538 and 1584 These were afterwards collected into a volume.
In his " Order of Service" provision was made for morning and evening service; con-
sisting of reading the Scriptures, preaching or expounding, with psalms and responses*
and mass or communion for Sundays. Other leaders, also, in Lutheran churches, dre^w
up liturgies for themselves. These were afterwards changed as cireumstanoes required.
No one form has been made obligatory in all Lutheran churches, yet there is substantial
unity of life and spirit in them all. The rationalists of the last centunr neglected and
mutilated the old liturgies, and strove to introduce others in place of them. But witli
the return to orthodoxy a salutary reaction followed, which has been shown in the study
and use of the old forms and in the construction of the union lituigy, first published in
1822 under the auspices of ttie king of Prussia, and twice revised since then. The
object of this last book is to unite the worship of the Lutheran and reformed churches
in the Prussian dominions. 2. The liturgy of the renewed Moravian church is chiefly
the work of count Zinzendorf, who compiled it from the services of the Greek, Latin,
and reformed churches. It consists of a church litany for the usual Sunday mornia^
service; a litany for the morning of Easter-Sunday, containing a brief confession of
faith; offices for the baptism of aaults and of children; litanies for funerals; offices for
confirmation, the communion, and ordination; the Te Deum and various doxologies.
There is also a choral with musical responses, a prayer of betrothal, a form used in the
church-yards on Easter for expressing the hope of the resurrection conoemii^ the
brethren departed during the preceding year. The daily service, held in tlM evening, is
a simple prayer meeting in which, as in the Sunday service, the prayers and exhorta-
tions are extemporaneous. 3. In the liturgy of Calvin the service began with a general
confession, followed with a psalm, a second prayer, the sermon, prayer, the apostle's
creed, and the benediction. There was also a long prayer for times of war and of other
troubles. In the administration of the Lord's supper there was an introductory prayer,
followed with a practical exhortation, the distribution of the elements, psalms, appro-
priate passages of Scripture, and the closing prayer. There were also simple, but lon^
offices for baptism and marriage. The present liturgy of Geneva has been taken from
Calvin's, with some modifications. It contains no responses, but has several additional
prayers. It provided a service for each day of the week, for the principal festivals, and
several special occasious. The Calvinistic churehes of Holland, Neufchatel, and France
have liturgies similar to that of Geneva. That of the chureh of Scotland was drawn up
at Frankfort by John Knox and others on Calvin's model, and was first used by Knox
in the congregation of English exiles at Ckneva. Introduced by him into Scotland, its
use was enloined in 1564, and was continued after his death. Having a general order
like Calvin s, it also gave a clearer discretion to the minister to use prayers of his own
composition, either extemporaneous or written. It contained various offices and alter-
nate forms. A new book, somewhat modified, was provided in 1644. In the directory of
the Westminster assembly, the discretionanr power allowed to the minister is greatly
enlarged. The Lord's prayer is recommend.ed as the most perfect form of devotion.
Private and lay baptisms are forbidden. The communicants are to sit, instead of kneel-
ing, at the Lord's table.
TABLE OF TH£ DESCKNT OF THE PRINCIPAL LITURGIES NOW IN UBS.
CaatM** WoBiM ov Itunnvnam,
Apoilolk NvdOTU of • Litaifj. [8m Lord's Pnyvr sad Lord*t Sappor.]
Litatf7 of St. JftmM. Antioeh, LUorgirorSU Mttk, Utvrnr of St. Ptter, LItaisy of ^ J«Li, St. Paol,
I
I
Lttwrr of 8t> BMH. Syrlac Lttarnr ftmrntUtngfti Anbrwiui SMrMMBlwy Lltngyof L^wk
of8t.4am«. EfTP^
I
•rSpMkkLUniiy.
Umn^] efbloMMofMiKa. ofGolailMu' Utaigrof.LHnfjef
IMvrgy of St. Cknrt- [MoBophyiltc Pratrnt Litntvy Sacnunmitanr
ortou. LltBiilM.1 enHoeMofMOM. ofGola^M. Litiu«T«_ _.
BriUb. Toan.
PvMmlLitUKrofOriMtal SMnnrntary Aq|astSM'« rarlMd
•ad Rttu&n Chorek. of St. Gragorjr. Utarfjr of Britain.
I Salkbary, York, aad
PKMBt LltoiKj of ether ninala of
Cknich of Roino. Bagllik Gkaick.
tiltaiicxer
Aaf Uoan Gkorek.
LHnfyofSoettfahEpteeopidCkiiRh. UtSfy of AmOTleMi
LIU-KIU, or Lxu-TcHitr. See Loo-Choo, ante,
LIUTPSAin), or Luitprakd, an author to whom we owe much of our knowledge of
the history of the 10th c, was b. in Italy about the year ^22. He was educated at the
court of king Hugo, and entered into the service of hi<( ^"c<i^|^|d ^^^^^^l^^* ^^^ ^^^'
iflz into disgrace at court about 955, resided for some years at Frankfort-on-the Main,
flowed tlie emperor Otto I. to Italy in 961, and was made bishop of Cremona, and
afterwards sent on an embassy to Constantinople. He died about 970. His Antapodasis
treats of tlie period from 886 to 948. He wrote also De lUbus QtstU OOonis Magrd
Iv^peraioris, and De Legatione Consiantiiwpolitand, The best edition of his works is in
the Monutnenta Qermarua (1839, separately published in 1877). See KOpke, De VUa
Uutjn-a ndi ilS^),
LITASrA (ancient Lebadeia), a t. of Greece, about 60 m. n.w. of Athens. Pop.
5.000. From this place the northern part of the present kingdom of Greece used m
Turkish times to be called Livadia.
LITADI'A, an estate and palace- villa on the s. coast of the Crimea which belongs to
the empress of Russia, and is the favorite summer residence of the imperial family,
livadia, which stands near the site of an old town so called, is charming by reason of
its climate, its picturesque situation, and the magnificent parks and gardens which sur-
round it.
LITE OAK. See Oak, ante.
LIVE OAK, a s. co. of Texas^ intersected by the Rio Nueces; 1200 sq.m.; pop.
in '70, 8S2, of whom 28 were colored. The. soil for the most part is best adapted
to stock-raifiing, but there is considerable tillable land in the valleys. Rains in summer
are infrequent. In 1870 there were in the county over 5,000 horses, more than 600 milck
cows, 62,177 other cattle, 6,024 sheep, and 681 swine. Capital, Oakville.
LlVJSli, Thb, is the largest gland in the body; it weighs from 8 to 4 lbs., and meas-
ures about 12 in. from siae to side, and 6 or 7 in. from its anterior to its posterior
liorder. It is situated in the rijrht hypochondriac region, and reaches over to the left;
being thick and indented behind, where it crosses the convex bodies of the vertebras;
convex on its upper surface, where it lies in the concavity of the diaphragm; and con-
cave below, ^here it rests a^inst the stomach, colon, and ri^ht kidney. This lower
sorface presents a fissure dividing the organ into a right and a left lobe.
The fiver is retained in its position by five ligaments. Besides the right and left lobe,
there are three smaller lobes. The great bulk of the organ is, however, made up of the
right lobe, which is six times as large as the left.
The vessels of the liver are the hepatic artery, which comes off from the coeliac axis
(q.v.). and supplies the organ with nutrient blood; the portal vein, which conveys to the
liver the venous blood of the intestines, spleen, and stomach, and from which (after the
vessel has ramified like an artety) the bile is secreted;* the hepatic veins, which convey
ihe blood from the liver into the inferior vena cava; the hepatic duct, which carries off
the bile from the liver; and the lymphatica
The Hver, both on its surface and internally, is of a dark reddish tint, which is so
well known that the term Hwr-eolored is universally recognized. The substance of the
organ is composed of lobules held together by extremely fine areolar tissue, and ramifi-
cations of the minute branches of the various hepatic vessels. Each lobule is composed
of a mass of hepatic cells, of a plexus of biliary ducts, of a portal plexus (from the con-
tents of which the cells obtain the biliary matters that are found in their interior), of a
branch of the hepatic vein, and of minute arteriea The exact mode in which the bile
formed in the cells makes its way into the origin of the ducts, is not known with cer-
tainty. The numberless minute ducts gradually run into one another, i)ntil, as thev
emerge from the lower surface of the liver, they are reduced to two large trunks, which
soon unite to form the hepatic duct. Into the hepatic duct, the cystic duct from the
neck of the gidl-bladder (presently to be described) enters, and the two combine to form
the common duct {dueiu% eommuni» eholedochus), which opens into the duodenum (see
DiOEsrriON). This common excretory duct of tlie liver and gall-bladder is about 8 in. in
lenstb, and of the diameter of a goose-quill.
The chemical composition of the liver has been studied by Dr. Beale, who finds that
the organ in health contains 68.6 per cent of water, and 81.4 per cent of solid constitu-
eDt9-H>f which 8.8 are fat, 4.7 albumen, while tlie rest is made up of vessels, salts, and
extractive matters. (In the diseased condition known as fatty degeneration of the liver
—which, by the way, is artificially induced in the geese which contribute to the forma-
tion of Strasburg pie, or pate defoi$ graa^ihe fat is enormously increased; in one remark-
able case analyzed by Dr. Beale, it amounted to 65.2 per cent of the whole weight of the
orean.) Sugar, varying in amount from 1 to 2 per cent, is also found; and inosite, uric
acid, sarcine. xanthine, and leucine usually occur in traces.
The gall-bladder may be regarded as a divertieulum or off shoot froqi the hepatic duct.
It has somewhat the shape of a i>eftr, and lies in a depression on the under surface of the
liver. Its use seems to be to serve as a reservoir for the accumulation of the bile, when
its flow into the intestine is interrupted, as it is always found full after a lone fast, and
empty when digestion is goins on. That the gall-bladder is not an essential appendix
to the liver, is &own by the fact that it is absent in many genera of mammals. Thus,
* Recent hivwittgattons throw doubt on this view, and there are reasons fOr believing that the bile
iseecreted from the capillaries of the hepatic artery, while the portal blood contributes the material
from wUch the llver*sugar or glycogen is formed or secreted.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
it is preseDt in the ox, sheep, and goat, but absent in the horse and many other herb-
ivora.
It was formerly believed that the liver served merely for the separation of the biliaij
secretion from the blood; but there is now abundant evidence that the blood itself is
changed by its means, in such a way as to show that this gland possesses an €U9ifnilating
as well as a depurating action. Thus, the albuminous matter contained during digestion
in the blood of the veins which pass from the intestine to the portal vein (the meseDteric
veins), is very different from the albuminous matter contained in the hepatic TCiDfl; the
blood, before reaching the liver, containing a crude albuminous product, while the
hepatic veins contain only true blood-albumen. That the liver possesses an aBsioiilating
power on albuminous substances is also shown by the ex]>eriments of Claude Bernard,
who found that, if a solution of egg-albumen be injected into any part of the systemic
circulation, albumen speedily appears (like other soluble substances which are foreign to
the body) in the urine, and is eliminated as an extraneous matter; but if it be injected
into tlie portal vein, it does not appear in the urine, but becomes a normal constituent of
the blood (blood-albumen), through the agency of the liver. It is now also known that
if the liver does not secrete a true sugar, as Bernard supposed, it at all events secretes a
substance closely allied to, and readily convertible into sugar — viz., glycogen (q. v.) —
which must be regarded as a respiratory or heat-formid? food. Further, it appears from
Bernard's researches that fattv matters are elaboratea in the liver— the blood of the
hepatic veins which leave the liver containing considerably more fat than that of the
portal vein which enters it. Some of this fat is doubtless burned off in the lungs; but
if a deficient supply should be introduced by the lacteals, some of it would doabfcless be
applied to the formative processes. Lastly, during tlie last three days of incubation of
the chick, the liver is miuie bright-vellow by the absorption of the* yelk, which enters
the branches of the portal vein, and is then converted partly into bloodr^orpwtclM^ which
enter the circulation, and partly into bile, which is discliarged into the intestine. Hence,
there Lb distinct evidence, from several points of view, that the liver is an aMunilaUng
orgim. The depurating action of this organ is exhibited in the secretion of bile (q.v.),
by which the hydro-carbonaceous portion of the effete matters of the blood is removed,
just as the nitrogenous portion is eliminated by the kidneys. The use of the bile in the
digestive process is sufficiently explained in tlie article Dioestiok.
Our limited space does not allow of our noticing at any length the comparative anat-
omy of this important ghind, which first shows itself in the form of yellowish-brown
cells in the polypes, and gradually becomes more concentrated and developed in the
echinoderms, annelides, nudobranchiate gasteropods* insects, crustaceans, air-breathing
mollusks, cephalopods, fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Till we arrive at the verte-
bi-ated classes, it consists of tul)es or follicles containing cells, which stand to them in
the relation of an epithelium, and its structure is easily made out; but when, as in the
vertcbrata, it is mainly composed of a solid parenchyma, made up of lobules, each of
which is comi^osed of aggregations of cells surrounded by the alternate ramifications of
the ducts and other vessels, it presents an anatomical complexity which it is almost
impossible to unravel.
LIVER (ante). The physiological anatomy of the liver may be briefly stated as fol-
lows: The lobules mentioned in the preceding article are about ^ of an in. in diame-
ter and of an ovotd shape. They are surrounded by a plexus of blood-vessels, nerves,
and ramifications of the hepatic duct, comprising what are called the interlobular ves-
sels. These are all inclosed by a sheath which is a prolongation of the proper coat of the
liver (capsule of Glisson), but attached loosely by areolar tissue. This sheath follows the
vessels to the subdivisions within the interlobular spaoes (spaces between thelobulesX hut
does not extend to the capillary vessels toitMn the lobules. In a few animals, as the pig
and polar bear, the lobular structure can be seen with the naked eye, but in man and
most raammuls it cannot. The lobules are intimately connected with each otlier,
branches of the interlobular vessels being each distributed to several of the lobules.
Any one lobule, however, may be considered as representing the physiological anatomy
of the whole liver, and the study of its anatomy and functions will answer for the study
of the whole gland. The lobules receive blood at their surfaces from the capillary ter-
minations of the portal vein, these vessels having received the terminations of the hepatic
artery before passing into the lobules. It is very important to bear in mind this peculi-
arity of distribution, which is often overlooked. The branches of tlie hepatic vein,
the vessel wliich carries the blood from the liver to the ascending great vein (ascending
vena cava), by which it is returned to the heart and lungs, have their origin leUhin
the lobules. '^Their capillary extremities arise from* the capillary ramifications of the
portal vein, and, passing toward the center of the lobule, converge into three or four
radicles, which, uniting at- the center, form the intralobular veins, which is tlie com-
mencement of the hepatic vein. These intralobular veins, which are in the center of
each lobDle, are from ^^ to ^^ of an in. in diameter, and they follow the long axis
of the lobule, receiving vessels in their course till they empty into larger vessels situated
at the base of the lobules. These latter vessels have been called by Klernan suh-lobu-
lar veins. They collect the blood from all parts of the liver, and, increasing in size by
union with one another, they at last form the three hepatic veins which discharge the
89
I.lTer.
blood from the liver into the ascending vena cava ITow, these hepatic veins are a lon^
way from the iofluencc of the heart's action, lying as they do between llie porttil
dicDlaiioa and the veins going to the heart; but a provision \n\a been made to assist in
the propulsion of their coutents. and they are supplied witli a muscular coat, composed
of unstrtated muscular fibers. The miuute anatomy of the liver lias ooly recently been
satisfactorily investigated, and it is to the laboi-s of Beale, £. Wagner, Qarlach, fiudge,
Andrejevic, Koelliker, MacGillavry, Frey, Eberth, Heriug, and others that we owe
nearly all the knowledge we have upon tbe subject. The most essential elements of
the lobale, or of tbe liver, remain to be described. They are the hepatic cells, which
are the true secreting elements of the gland. They are minute, polygonal-shaped bodies
about Yjf^ <>i &Q i^i- iu ^^^^ longest and yitTi i^ ^^*^^^' shortest diameter, having one
nucleus, or sometimes two nuclei, with some granular matter. See Cells. It Inis gen-
erally been supposed that these hepatic cells were held within a net- work of the capilla-
ries of the ported and hepatic veins, but, according to the investigations of the above
named microscopists, this is not the case. They are surrounded by an independent net-
work of extremely minute vessels tv^v of an in. in diameter, of uniform size through-
ont, called the biliary capillaries, and in which tbe bile tirst makes its uppearance.
We must pause here to refer to the fact that the liver is an organ which has no ana-
logue 10 any of the other organs of tbe body. It has two distinct functions, and a cellu-
lar arrangement entirely unlike that seen m any other gland. It is excretory ou one
hand and secreting on another, and it is its secreting function which has l>eeu so long
overlor>ked, and the knowledge of which has also thrown so much light on the physiology
of what are called ductless glands, like the spleen (q.v.) and the lymphatic glands. The
liver, in one of its functions, is a ductless gland. It secretes (that is, not merely separates,
but forms) a substance which is not carried away by any excretory vessel, but which is
imm^iately returned to the blood, when it is washed away as soon as formed. The other
function of the liver is the production of bile, which, although a true excretion, aiiswei*a
a salutary purpose in the economy. Let us now return to the cousidenition of the lu-patic
cells and the lately discovered netrwork of vessels which surrounds them, adled th^* bil-
iary capillaries, it is with the utmost difficulty that they have been made out, a:ul it is
owing to this that so many hypotheses luive been formed in regard to the histology and
physiology of the liver, only to be successively abandoned. The meshes which are
formed by the passing round the hepatic cells of these minute capillaries are arran^r^^d in a
cubical manner, very much as if they had been woven around them. The question has
been whether these biliary capillaries possessed independent walls or whether theV wcri;
simply lacunar passages; but the manner in which tbey have been found to interlace with
the blood capillaries decides the question in favor of considering them as vessels having ^
walls, although their caliber is only t^^vv of an in., which would require the membrane ,
which forms the tube to be inconceivably thin, and perhaps destitute of any cellular
structure, as \s generally found in lining membranes of most organs. The precise rela-
tions of the hepatic cells and the biliary ducts have been more particularly determined
hy the investigations of Eberth and Ilering; and they find that they vary in diffen^nt
classes of vertebrata, being simpler the farther we descend in the scale of being. In
amphibia, for instance, the lobular form is altered, and the bile duct passes through a
tubular arrangement of hepatic cells. In reptiles the arrangement approaches more
towards that of mammals, but is still far behind in development; and it is only when
ascending to birds that a structure is reached capable of performing the excrementitious
functions of active, warm-blooded animals. The biliary and blood capillaries never
come into actual contact, but are always separated from each other by a distance some-
what less than the diameter of an hepatic cell, or about Y^x^f of an inch. The biliary
capillaries are undoubtedly the commencement of the finer nepatic ducts. In some dis-
eases they become so distended with bile as to become easily discernible with a good
microscope. The livers of animals dying of Texan-cattle disease were examined by the
late Dr. li, C. Stiles a few years ago, and the observations of the German anatomists were
completely verified. The finest bile ducts and capillaries in the livers of these animals
were found filled with bright yellow bile, and their relations to the liver cells were easily
distinguishable. Favoring the view that they are lined by an excessively thin mem-
brane^ Dr. Stiles found m his examinations what appeared to be detached fragments of
these capillaries. Between the lobules the bile ducts are still very minute, the smallest
being only ^J^ to ^^ of an in. in diameter, and composed or a very delicate mem-
brane lined with pavement epithelium. When they reach a size of yAf^ ^^ ^^ ^^' in
diameter, they are supplied with a fibrous coat, composed chiefly of inelastic, with a few
elastic fibers; but the larger ducts, as afore-mentioned, are supplied with non -striated
muscular fibers.
We came now to speak of another anatomical element in the structure of the liver.
As the bile ducts increase in size they contain numerous follicles and cluster-like glands
which are called racemose (the biliary acini of Robin), and they continue to occupy
the biliary passages as far as the duetit* communia choUdochus^ or the common bile duct
.which empties into the intestinal canal. Those which are found in the smallest ducts
are simple follicles from ^ to xJn of an in. hi length. The larger of these glands are
formed of groups of these follicles, and are from ^ to y^ of an in. in diameter. The
natrition of the liver is provided for by the hepatic artery, who.se distribution is exceed-
lilrer.
90
ingly interesiijig. It bas three sets of branches. As soon as it enters the sheath formed
by the capsule of Glisson, it sends off very fine branches, called uassa f>aMorufn, to the
ivalls of the portal vein, to those of the hepatic vein, to its own branches, and an
exceedingly rich and beautiful net -work of branches to the hepatic duct. When the
hepatic artery is well injected it almost Completely covers the duct with its ramifications.
The hepatic duct proper, or that single vessel so called lying outside of the liver, is
formed hy the union of two ducts, one from the ri^ht and one from the left lobe of the
liver. It is about an inch and a half long, and joms the duct from the gall-bladder,
called the cystic duct, to form the common duct, or ductus communis choledochus, which
is about three inches long and of the size of a goose-quill, and empties, in common with
the pancreatic duct, into the intestine, a little below the middle of the duodenum,
or about 5 in. below the stomach. The sail-bladder is an elongated, pear-shaped sack
about 4 in. in length and one in breadth, having a capacity of about one and a half fluid
ounces. The cystic duct, connecting it with the hepatic duct, is the smallest of the
three larger ducts, and is about one inch in length. In the gall-bladder there are also
numerous small racemose glands similar to those above mentioned as existing in
the biliary ducts generally. They consist each of from 4 to 8 follicles lodged in the
submucous tissues. They secrete mucus mixed with bile. The idea has been
entertained by some that these biliary racemose glands found in different parts of the
biliary ducts were the bile-producing glands, while the hepatic cells were the oi^ans for
secreting sugar, or, in other words, for the conversion of the glycogenic matter of the
liver into glucose, or erape-sugar; but this view has not been found tenable. The
nerves of the liver are derived from the pneumogastric, the phrenic, and from the solar
Elexus of the great sympathetic. They all penetrate the gland at the great transverse
ssure, and follow the blood-vessels in their course of distribution to the various parts of
the organ, but their terminal distributions are not yet well understood. The lymphatic
vessels of the liver are numerous and consist of two lavers. The outer or superficial
layer is situated immediately beneath the serous or peritoneal covering. The inner or
deeper layer forms a plexus surrounding the lobules, having entered the liver along with
the portal veins, hepatic arteries, and bile ducts, enveloped in sheaths of Olisson's
capsule. In their course they invest the branches of both aucts and blood-vessels with
a aelicate net-work of tubes, and on arriving at the surface of the lobules they enter
them and form another remarkable net -work of lymphatic passages, traversing the lobule
in every direction. Every blood capillary is enveloped in a lymphatic ^eath in very
much the same manner that the interlobular vessels are enveloped in the sheath of
Glisson's capsule. These lymphatic sheaths surrounding the other vessels are other-
wise called the perivascular lymphatic spaces, and are similar in structure to those
which are found in various other parts of the body. See Lymphatics.
The two distinct functions, that of the production of bile and the formation of sugar,
which are now generally recognized as being performed by the liver have led some
physiologists to suppose that tnis gland is composed of two distinct portions or anatomi-
cal elements, and nobin has adopted this theory and calls one portion of the liver a
biliary organ, and the other a glycogenic or sugar-forming organ. The lobules and
hepatic cells, with their different vessels, he regards as periorming the glycogenic func-
tion, and the little racemose glands which are attached to the biliary ducts along their
course as the bile-producing organs; and others have entertained ideas of the independ-
ence of the sugar-making and bile-producing portions of the organ. But from the fact
that bile is commonly found in the lobules, and that the biliary capillaries are connected
with the excretory biliary ducts, the conclusion seems to be unavoidable that the bile
is formed in the lobules, and, moreover, by the hepatic cells. It, therefore, becomes a
question as to what are the functions of the little racemose glands attached to the larger
bile ducts. They have much the form of mucous glands in other portions of the body,
and from the examinations of Sappey, who has found the bile to be viscid in proportion
to the number of these glands in the ducts containing it, they appear to be really mucous
glands. In the rabbit, an animal in which these glands are not found in this situation,
the bile is quite fluid, and free from it« ordinary viscidity. It has generally been
thought that the bile is secreted exclusively from the blood which has been brought
from the intestines by the portal vein, and that, indeed, the principal ofQce of the liver
was to separate- effete matter from this portion of the venous system; but many experi-
ments which have been made since Bernard discovered the glycogenic fuqction of the
liver go to show this idea erroneous. It has also been thought that the hepatic
artery may furnish material for the secretion of bile, while the portal vein fur-
nished that for the production of sugar; but these views again are quite overthrown by
many well-established facts and experiments. It has been found that, after the ligation
of the hepatic artery, bile has been secreted from blood furnished by the portal vein;
and again, according to the experiments of Ore, who has succeeded in gradually obliterat-
ing the portal vein without immediately producing death, it has been found that bile Is
secreted from blood furnished by the hepatic artery. In one instance in which a patient
died of dropsy the portal vein was obliterated, and yet the gall-bladder was full of bile.
Anomalous cases have been reported where the portal vein, instead of passing through •
the liver, emptied into the ascending vena cava, and where also there was found no
deflcicncy of bile. These facts point to the conclusion that the secretory elements of
Digitized by VjUUglC
91
JAwwc,
the liver have an elective power, and that this gland may elaborate its products either
from venous or arterial blood. The only conclusion, therefore, is that the liver pro-
daces bile from both the portal vein and the hepatic arterv, and that the secretion may-
be kei>t up if either one of these vessels be obliterated. The natural color of bile is vari-
able; in the pig it is bright yellow ; in the do^, dark brown; and in the ox, greenish yel-
low. In general, it may bie stated that it is dark green in carnivorous, and greenish
yellow in herbivorous animals. Its specific gravity u variouslv stated. Some author-
ities place it at 1026; others from 1020 to 1026; and again o'thers from 1026 to 1081.
These differences are considerable, but the numbers were probably the result of exact
observation, as the bile is found to differ under different circumstances. See table.
Fresh bile is nearly inodorous, but after being taken from the body of an animal it
fioon undergoes putrefactive changes. It has been generally thought to be invariably
alkaline, and this is true of that which is found in the hepatic duct» but it often has an
add reaction after it has passed into the gall-bladder.
COMPOSmON OF THE BILE, ACCOBDXNO TO ROBIK.
Water W6. 00 to 819.00
Taurocholate of soda 66.50 " 106.00
Glycocholate of soda traces.
Cliolesteiine 0.62 to 2.66
Biliyerdine 1400 " 80.00
Lecithene ^ } 9 9t\** m on
Margarine, oleine. and traces of soaps \ ^'^ ^*""
Choline ; traces.
Chloride of sodinm 2.77 to aSO
Phosphate of soda 1.60 ** 2.50
Phosphate of potassa 0.75" 1.60
Phosphate of lime 0.50 ** 1.86
Phosphate of magnesia 0.46 " 0.80
Balteofiron 0.16" 0.80
Salts of manganese traces" 0.18
Silicic acid 0.08 " 0.06
Mucosine traces.
Loss • 8.48 to 1.21
1000.00 1000.00
The bile contains two classes of constituents, one of which are true secretions, and
destined to re-enter the system and perform certain functions. They contain, with other
matters, some that are formed in the liver, and are no doubt elaborated from materials
furnished by the blood. These are the salts included in the above table under the
names of taurocholate and glycocholate of soda. Biliverdine, the coloring matter of the
bile, is probably a mixture of different coloring principles which undergo rapid chan^
on exposure to the air. It has some analogy to the colorinff matter of the blood, and it
is also, like the biliary salts, supposed to be formed in the liver. This coloring matter
has intense power, and in cases of obstruction of the biliary passages will give the skin
and oonjunctivs a decidedly vellow color. Like hem<M;lobine, it contains a portion of
iron« but the relative amount has never been ascertained. The other constituent of the
bile is truly excretory, being composed of effete matter brought by the blood-vessels
from the various paits of the system. This excretory constituent is eholesterine, a sub-
stance which has long been known as a constituent of the bile, whose chemical and
physical characteristics were well recognized, but whose physiological relations were
not understood. It was reserved for Dr. Austin Flint, 1r., of New York, to discover
these and make them known in the American Journal of Medical Sciences in 1862.
Cholesterine is a normal constituent of various of the tissues and fluids of the body. It is
found in the blood, liver (probably as contained in the bile), crystalline lens, spleen,
meconium, and in the nervous tissue in all parts of the body. It is also found in an adtered
condition, as stercorine, in the fecal matter, and as unchanged cholesterine in hibernating
animals. It is naturally a crystalline solid, but in the fluids ox the body it is held in solution.
For the form of tlie crystals, composition, and other characteristics, see Cholebtekine.
This body is found in the largest quantity in the substance of the brain and nerves, and
the blood coming from the brain contains a much larger percentage of it than is found
in that coming from any other organ. From this and various other experiments. Dr.
Flint has demonstrated that cholesterine isadisassimilative product of nervous function,
and that one of the offices of the liver is to separate it from the blood. He found amon^
other thin^ that it is produced in much greater quantity under active conditions, and
that it is also produced in all parts of the nervous system. Sometimes the liver fails to
separate it from the blood, when it collects, and produces a condition to which Dr.
Fhnt has given the name cholestcrcBmia, a species of blood-poisoning having an analogy
to uremia, or blood poisoning from accumulation of urea consequent upon diseflfie of the
kidneys. In regard to the glycogenic function of the liver, it may be stated that nearly
all physiologists admit that Bernard demonstrated it completely. althoughiriifJCraiPilg
Liver. OQ
Uverpool. ^-^
time many apparcutly well-made experiments seemed to throw great dovbt on the sub-
ject, some believing tlmt the sugar found by Bernard was a product of post-mortem
chnnges. It is a fact that it is difficult to find sugar in the liver which may not be said
to be'produced after death; consequently, demonstrative experiments are exceedingly
difllcult. On examining the blood which comes from the lungs in animals upon which
vivisection has been peirormed it is found to contain no sugar. Other experiments iiare
left no doubt of the fact that, to serve some purpose in tne animal economy, sugar is
destroyed in its passage through the lungs, the most generally received view being tliat
it is converted into lactic acid, which unites with the alkalies in the blood to foim
luctiUes, which again are converted into carbonates. It is thought that among the causes
of the disease diabetes is an abnormal performance of the function of respiration (q.v.).
The glycogenic matter of the liver, in composition, reactions, and particularly in its
readiness to be transformed into sugar, has considerable resemblance to starch, and Ls
called by some authors amyloid matter. On account of its insolubility in water it may
be extracted from the liver after all the sugar has beea washed out
LIVBB, Diseases of the. Cangeition of the liver is one of the most frequent of its
morbid conditions. It is most commonly caused by obstruction to the pa&a^e of the
blopd from the hepatic veins, arising fr-om thoracic disease impeding the circulaiion
through the right side of the heart. The congestion may be relieved at this stage, or
may, by its obstructive action, cause congestion of tlie portal branches, in which case
we have the liver much enlarged, the complexion dusky, the urine high colored, sedi-
mentary, and scanty, and oftien more or less dropsy of the abdomen or lower extremities.
The treatment must be left entirely to the physician.
InflammaUon of the liver has been already noticed in the article Hepatitis.
Another important affection of the liver is that which is known by the name of cir-
rhosis (Or. kirrhos, yellowish). It begins as an inflammatory affection, in which lyni]>h
(see Inflammation) is effused in the areolar tissue surrounding the branches of l\w. por-
tal vein. The smaller branches become obliterated by the pressure, and as the I\ nii>U
subsequently contracts, larger branches of the veins and ducts become strangulated, and
the surface of the organ assumes the uneven or bossed appearance known as hobnailed.
In this affection, the liver is at first somewhat enlarged, but as the contraction of the
effusion goes on, it at length becomes considerably smaller than the natural size. The
ordinary cause of this disease is spirit •drinking, and it is popularly known as the gin-
drinker s liver. The obstruction to the portal circulation occasions the effusion of serum
into the peritoneal cavity; and this effusion often goes on so rapidly as soon to force up
I the diaphragm and impede respiration. The lower extremities soon become anasarcous.
I but the arms and face are never affected. The portal obstruction often also gives rise to
hemorrhage from the bowels or stomach.
In a fully developed case of cirrhosis, the liver is so altered in structure that pallia-
tive treatment is all that can be attempted. This must be directed to the relief ot the
dropsy, and if medicines fail to remove or diminish it, temporary relief may be obtained
by tapping. The disease is at best a very hopeless one.
Amongst the other affections of this organ are the faUp Uoer. The liver in this case
is much enlarged, of a white color, and rounded at the edges; it is most commonly
found associated with phthisis. Closely allied to this is the lardaee&us or waa^ liver, in
which the deposited matter is not fat, but something between fat and albumen; it
chiefly occurs in scrofulous young persons. Tubercle, different forms of cancer, and
hydatids (q.v.) are not unfrequently found in this organ. In connection with the pres-
ent subject, the reader is referred to the article Jauitdice.
LIVERMORE, Abibl Abbot, b. Wilton, N. H.. in 1811; graduated at Harvard
college in 1838; in 1857 removed to Yonkers and became editor of the Ofiri8tian£nqvirer,
a Unitarian paper in New York; since 1868 president of a theolo^cal school at
Meadville, Penn. Besides contributions to magazines, Mr. Livermore is author of A
Commentary on the Four QmpeU; A Gormnentary on the Acta of the AposHen; Tfi^ Marriage
Offering, a prize essay on the Mexican war; and several other works.
LIVERMORE, George, 1809-65; b. Cambridge, Mass.; received his education at
the public schools; after being carefully trained for a mercantile lif ehe entered into busi-
ness in Boston as a wool- commission merchant, and was very successful. From early
life he devoted his leisure hours to historical and antiquarian researches, in regard to
w^hich he became a recognized authority. His collection of editions of the Bible in dif-
ferent languages is believed to have been the finest in America. He was honored by an
election to the Massachusetts historical society, the American antiquarian society, the
American academy of arts, and the Boston athenoeum. He frequently wrote upon
biblio^aphical and historical subjects for newspapers and reviews, his contributions
being invariably marked by a clear and vigorous style, and showing the results of exten
sive and accurate research. Among these contributions was a senes of papers on the
New England Primer, written for tne Cambridge Chronicle, and an article in the North
American lleriew on Public Libraries; but the most important of all his essays was An
Historical Research respecting il\e Opinions of the Founders <tf the Republie on Negroes ca
Sfaves, as Citizens, and as Soldiers, read before the Massachusetts historical society, Aug.
0^ Urer.
14. 19S2, and published not only In the Proceedings o2 that society, but in a separate vol-
ume of 215 pages During the war of the rebellion Mr. Llvurmorc was a firm and gen-
eroos supporter of the govern tnent, sparing neither time, strength, nor money in ef^rts
toaplraJd the union. Died in Cambridge.
LIYERMORE, Mary Ashton; b. Boston. 1831; daughter of Timothy Rice; edu-
atfd in the Baptist seminary for girls at Charlestown, Mass. ; married D. P. Livermore,
a UBiversalist clergyman, aud assisted him for some time in editing a Universalist paper
io Chicago; dlstiuguished herself during the war of the rebeliion by her labors for the
Mkhers, under tiie direction of tlie sanitary commission; of late years has stood in tlie
front rank of popular lecturers upon moml and social questions, and taken a very prom-
ioxfDt part in the total-abstinence cause, and in the movement to secure suffi-age for
«oman. She was for several years one of the associate editors of the ^>Hon Woman*s
Jifurftol,
LITEKPOiKi, situated on the n. bank of the Mersey, Lancashire, is, after London, the
hj^est t. in the United Kin|;dom, and, taken in connection with Birkenhead, on the
opposite side of Che Mersey, it ranks in maritime importance before the metropolis itself
—A circumstance due to its position on the w. coast of England, not only as a port for
the adjacent manufacturing districts, but for the traffic with America. It is situated at
<ine hour's distonce by railway from Manchester, live hours from London, six hours
from Edinburgh, and eight hours by steam from Dublin. The rise of Liverpool is
mnarkable. In the middle of the 14th c. it contained only 840 inhabitants and 168
riAiages; whilst in 1561 its population was only 690. It was not until 1647 that it was
niade a free port (having been subject down to that date to the Chester officers); whilst
it; distinct individuality as a parish was not declared until 1697. when its popuhition
oombered about 5,006 souls, and its shipping about 80 vessels. Between 1710 and 1760
ii^ population increased from 8.160 to 25,780. and its commercial navy from 84 vessels
TO ido vessels. In 1700 its first re^lar dock wa^ built, on the site where the custom-
hnose stands at the present day. From 1760 to 1800 the population advanced from
tTTOO to 77,700 inhabitants; the shipping from 1200 vessels to 5,000 vessels; and the
amount of dock dues collected, from £2.8(W to £28,800; nearly two-thirds of the increase
Uking place during the last 15 jcbts of the period. The rapid pro.i^rcss of the cotton
Tnde was the chief cause of this almost sudden improvement. Simultaneously with
the mechanical revolution brought about by Hargreaves, Arkwrlght, Crompton, and
oihers, there came an increased foreign trade, and an augmented inland business, owing
v* the ripening of the Bridge water canal in 1778. About the same period, too, a great
rtart was given to the ship<Dutlding trade of the port by several extensive orders received
f.-om the government, some 15 vessels of war being launched between 1777 and 1782 of
rery considerable tonnage, and ranging between 16 and 50 guns. By this time Liver-
pool had far outstripped Bristol in commercial importance, the trade of the latter port
tring in process oi rapid transference to the former. Tlie following statement will
fifiow how far Liverpool was benefited by the cotton trade:
Yean.
fiawOotton. '
Cotton
Mamifaotupafl.
Vesaela
DockDutlflB
Ckdleoted.
m
1791
:«0Q
Imported.
5,198,778
81,447.605
4S,878»878
Exported.
96,788
868,448
4,416,616
Exported.
866,000
l,87^000
6,040,000
No.
85,000
60,000
rr,ooo
No.
8,800
4^900
5,000
B
5,000
10.000
88,000
But this progress, important as it was, has been far exceeded by the subsequent
increase of business, ana at the present time, as regards exports, Liverpool stands at the
i«ead of British commercial ports, and is excelled by London alone in its imports. Its
rkpid growth will be seen from the following table:
Tean.
Fopnlation.
Vessela.
Toniuige.
Dock Dues.
t*i
Illi
6,060
18,687
81,096
20,181
460,710
1,588,486
4,9rr,8f»
6,181,746
£8&865
iS^
444.417
668,968
Ml
an
j^*
The following table will show the comparative importance of the export and import
tiade of Liverpool:
Wwt Derby and Birkenbead, the pop. in 1871 reached 660,510, against 667,0871nl8l£c
liTerpooL qa
lAwworiJL. «7^
DECI«AJEUEI> BEAL YALtJB OF BRITISH Ain> IRISH BZF0BT8 Aim DCFOBTS IR 1877.
EzportB. Import&
Liverpool £72,fi64,W8 £99.lfe.818
London 59.985,826 140,890,888
Hull 17,816,719 18,966,885
i Grimsby 7,509,439 4,076.796
Glasgow 8,829,253 10,718,587
I Allothers 81,877,185 121,126.763
£198,888,065 £394.419,682
This gigantic trade has given bein^ to the magnificent system of docks, extendine
along the margin of the river for a distance of about 5 m., containing 54 docks and
basins, covering an area of over 260 acres, and having nearly 19 m. of quay space. The
whole of tliese docks have, with the exception of the Salthouse, King's, part of the
George's, and part of the Queen's, been built since 1812. They were erected chiefly
under the superintendence of the late Jesse Hartley, esa., and are considered by all who
have seen them to be one of the greatest engineering triumphs of the present century.
Several of the docks are inclosed with large warehouses: the erection of those round the
Albert dock cost £858,000, and the dock itself £141,000. In addition to the usual pier
approaches, there are two large floatinff landing-stages, one of which is 1002 ft in length.
80 ft. in width, and 4.500 tons in weidat. In the general traffic of Liverpool, that carried
on by large steamers with United States, Canadian, South American> MediterraneaD.
Australian, and other ports, has deservedly attained celebrity, and draws large numbers
of passengers to the town.
The approaches to the town on the land sides are the Lancashire and Yorkshire,
East Lancashire, London and North-western, Great Northern, Midland and Man-
chester, Sheffield and Lincoln railways. There are four tunnels under the town in con-
nection with the London and North-western railway, and one in connection with the
Midland railway, taking different directions, varying from a mile and a half to two miles
and a half in length. The passenger stations in Lime street, Ranelagh street, and Tithe-
bam street are large and handsome buildings.
The architecture of the town has been wonderfullv improved within the past thirty
or forty years, and especially during the latter half of the period, and it now possesses
many fine thoroughfares, thronged with numerous splendicl edifices. There are several
large and elegant sauares in the e.. or fashionable part of the town, and a number of
thoroughfares, Unea with the private residences of the merchants and tradesmen ; while
the outskirts of the town are studded with the mansions of the conunercial aristocracy.
Of what may be termed the official buildings— the town-hall. St. George's hall, public
offices, custom-house, sailors' home, police-offices, workhouses, baths and wash-houses,
waterworks, and gas offices, are the most noteworthy; next follow the various literary
and educational edifices, such as the free library and museum, presented to the town by
sir William Brown, at a cost of £40,000; the Walker art gallery, presented by A. B.
Walker, esq., at a cost of £30.000; botanic gardens, observatorjr. the Liverpool college.
Liverpool institute, queen's college, medical institute, royal institution, the various
schools attached to the national and other churches, academy of fine arts, the exchange,
lyceum. and atheneum, news-rooms and libraries, and numerous associations devoted to
commercial, political, and religious affairs. That the inhabitants are not niggardly is
proved by the fact that there are about 100 charitable institutions in the borough devoted
to the alleviation of the various evils that flesh is heir to. Among the more prominent
are the royal infirmary, northern and southern hospitals, industrial schools, blue-cost
orphan schools; male, female, and infant orphan ssylums and church; school work-
shops, and church for the blind; deaf and dumb, and eye and ear institutions; homeo-
pathic and other dispensaries: lying-in and other hospitals. Visitors will find no lack
of hotel accommodation, with such immense establishments as the North-western,
Adelphi. Washington, Queen's, Alexandra. Royal, Angel, and a score or two of minoi
importance. The buildings dedicated to amusements are quite in keeping witli the
other characteristics of the town. Under this head there are the Philharmonic hall,
capable of accommodating 3,000 people; the Alexandra theater; the amphitheater,
calculated to hold 5,000; the two concert-rooms of St. Gteorge's hall, before alluded to,
the larger of which is acknowledged to be one of the finest rooms in the kingdom; St.
James's hall, the Queen's hall, the Theater-Royal, Prince of Wales's theater. Rotunda
theater, Adelphi theater, circus, etc. The relipous wants of the community are sup-
plied by about 187 churches and chapels, of which 78 belong to the established church.
21 to Roman Catholics, 21 to Presbyterians, 18 to Wesleyans, 16 to Independents, 16 to
Baptists, and 27 to miscellaneous non-conformists, including 8 Unitarian, 2 Jewi.«ih, 1
Overman, and 1 Greek. There are 8 cemeteries, one only of which is situated within
the town, namely, St. James's. Duke street, the remainder being laid out in the suburbs.
The buildings devoted to commercial pui-suits are also very fine and numerous, and
not the least interesting to the stranger. Amongst thes^g^jij^^ep^hange, the Albany,
QX UverpooL
*^^ JLiver worts.
Apsley, BrowQ^B, Richmond, Hargreaves, Liverpool and London insurance chambers.
Royal insurance, and Queen insurance buildings (all local companies), Manchester,
Knowsley, Walmer, Drury, Tower, India, and Brunswick buildings, and many others.
There are 12 banks in thetown, and several of them are possessed of very large and
handsome business premises. Amongst these may be named the branch of the bank of
England, and the Liverpool, Union, District, Commercial, National, and North and
South Wales banks. In the principal streets there are also several very extensive trade
establishments, devoted to every department of business, wholesale and retail Of
monuments, the chief are those of the queen, prince Albert, Nelson, Wellington, Hus-
kiBiM>n, and William lY., besides several in the town-hall, Bt. (George's hall, free library,
and parks. The parks are four in number, the Stanley, the Sefton, the Prince's, and
the Botanic.
The stated market days are Wednesday and Saturday, for general agricultural prod
nee, and Tuesday and Friday for com. The fairs for horses and cattle are held July
25 and Nov. 11. The com trade transacts its business in the com exchange,.
Brunswick street, and there is an extensive market for the cattle-dealers in Kensington.
For agricultural produce there is the northern hav market. For edibles of all kind»
there are St. John's market, 188 yards long, 48 yaras wide, and lighted bv 186 windows;
St. James's, QiU street, and St. Martin's markets; there is also a nsh market, and several
fancy bazaars* There are 6 daily and 7 weekly newspapers, besides the DaiSy Telegraph
and BiR cf Bntry, exclusively devoted to shipping matters, and three weekly literary
periodicals. Liverpool has several extensive ship-building vards, iron and brass foun-
dries, chain-cable and anchor smithies, engine-works, tar and turpentine distilleries, rice
and flour mills, tobacco, cigar and soap manufactories, breweries, sugar refineries,
roperies, glass-woiks, alkali-woiks, chronometer and watch manufactories. It retuma
8 members to parliament.
LIVERPOOL, a t in Nova 8cotia» on the river Mersey, 70 m. s. w. from Halifax ; pop.
8,103. It is a port of entry, has a fine harbor with lieht-house and revolving light, and
is an active commercial and manufacturing center, maKiuff castings, machines, boots and
shoes, and edge-tools, besides beine engaged in ship-building. The inhabitants are also
largely employed in lumbering ana fishing; and considerable quantities of the product
of these inaustries are exported to Europe and the West Indies.
LIVERPOOL, Charlbs jBNxnraoK, first earl of, 1727-1806; b. Oxfordshire, Eng.;
educated at the charter-house school, London, and the imiversity of Oxford. In early
life he published Venee en the Death of Frederiek, I\^nee of Walee; a Dissertation on Vie
EMfUshmeni ef a Ifationdl and ConstitiUional Force in England Independently of a
Standing Army; and a Dieeotirse on the Oonduet ef Qowmment respecting Neutral Nations.
In 1761 he became one of the under-secietaries of state, and the same year was elected to
parliament; in 1788 was appointed loint secretary of the treasury; in 1766, made lord of
the admiralty by the Grafton adnunistration; in 1772 appointed one of the vice-treas-
urers of Ireland; in 1776, minister of the mint; was secretary of war, 1778-82; in 1788
was appointed by Pitt a noember of the board of trade. In 1786 he published a CoUeetion
ofaUme Treaties of Psaee, AUianee, and Commerce between Chreat Britain and other Powers,
from the Treaty ofMuneter in 1648 to the Treaties signed at Paris in 1788. In 1786 he wos
nuide chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, created baron Hawkesbury, and appointed
president of the board of trade; in 1796 was made earl of Liverpool. After this he with-
drew mostly from public life.
LIVERPOOL, RoBBRT Baihcbb Jenkinson, second earl of, 1770-1828; educated at
the charter-house school and Christ^hurch college, Oxford ; traveled on the continent,
and was in Paris at the breaking out of the Frencn revolution and the destruction of the
bastile. Returning to England he was elected to parliament in 1790, but did not take
his seat till the f^lowing year as he had not yet attained his majoritv. In 1792 he
opposed Mr. Wilberforce^ motion for the abolition of the slave trade, in 1798 he was
appointed one of the commissioners of the India board of trade. In 1796, his father
being created earl of Liverpool, he took his Utle of lord Hawkesbury, and was mode
commissioner of Indian affairs. On the retirement of Mr. Pitt in 1801 and the appoint-
ment of the Addington ministry, he was appointed secretary of state for the foreign
department, and negotiated the treaty of Amiens. On the return of Pitt to power. Liv-
erpool was home secretary 1805-7, and, on the death of Pitt, was offered the premier-
ship, but declined. In 1808, on the death of his father, he became earl of LiverpooL
Upon the dissolution of the Fox and Grenville administration in 1807 he again refused
the premiership, but accepted the home department under Percival, on whose assassina-
tion in 1812 Liverpool became prime minister, with the title also of the first lord of the
treasury. His administration extended from 1812 to 1827. His opposition to parlia-
mentary reform, to Roman Catholic emancipation, to the abolition of the slave trade,
and the emancipation of the slaves in the West Indies, his severe measures to repress
internal disturbances, and his introduction of the bill of pains and penalties against
queen Caroline, rendered him very unpopular, especially in Scotland. He was attacked
with paralysis, and during the last three months of his life was helpless and imbecile.
LIVERWORTS. See Hepatic^, ante. Digitized by \jUU^ lC
Itlrery. Oft
LIV EBT, in English law, denotes the act of giving or taking possession. It is most
frequently used in the phrase ** livery of seisin,** corresponding to the Scotch infeftment
or sasiue.
LIV £BT .(from Lat. UberaUif), a word applied in its origin to the custom which pre-
vailed under the Merovingian and Carlovingian kings, of deliverin^^ splendid habits to
, the members of their households om great festivals. In the days of chivalry the wearing
of livery was not, as now, confined to domestic servants. The duke*s son, as page to
the prince, wore the prince's livery, the^earl's son bora the duke's colors and bacige, the
sou of the esquire wore the livery of the kaight, and the son of the gentleman that of the
esquire. Cavaliers wore the livery of their mistresses. There was also a large class of
armed retainers in livery attached to many of the more powerful nobles, who were
en^iged expressl^r to use the strong hand in their master's quarrels. By the colors and
badge of the re tamer was known &e tnaster under whom he served. The livery colors
of a family are taken from their armorial bearings, being generally tlie tincture of the
field and that of the principal charge, or the two tinctures of the field are taken instead,
where it has two. They are taken from the first quarter in case of a quartered shield.
These same colors are alternated in the wreath (q.v.) on which the crest stands. The
royal family of England have sometimes adopted colors varying from the tinctures of
tlie arms. The Plantagenets had scarlet and white; the house of York, murr^ and
blue; white and blue were adopted by the house of Lancaster; white and ereen by the
Tudors: yellow and red by the Stuarts, and by William III. ; and scarlet and blue by the
house of Hanover. An Indispensable part of the livery in former times was tlie bSodge
<q.v.) The church of Home has its liveries for apostles, confessors, martyrs, virgins, and
penitents.
The freemen of the 91 guilds or corporations which embrace the different trades of
London, are called liver^'men, because entitled to wear the livery of their respective
companies. In former times the wardens of the companies were in use yearly to deliver
to the lord mayor certain sums, 20 shillings of which was given to individuals who
petitioned for the money, to enable them to procure sufficient cloth for a suit, and the
companies prided themselves on the splendid appearance which their liveries made in the
civic train. The common Councilmen, sheriffs, aldermen, and some other superior
officers of the city are elected by the liverymen of London; and till the reform bill in
1832, they had the exclusive privilege of voting for members of parliament for the city.
LIVERY COMPANIES, or GmLDs. See Guilds; Livery; ante,
LIVERY OF SEISIN. See Feoffubmt, ante,
LI VI A DRUSILLA. B.c. 56-.\.d. 29; married eariy to Tiberius Claudius Nero, by
whom she had two sons— Tiberius and Drusus. While pregnant with tlie latter she met
Augrustus, whom she so fascinated by her beauty that he compelled her husband to sur-
render her to him, at the same time divorcing tiis own wife, Scribonia. The married
life of Augustus and Livla is said to have been in most respects happy ; but it was marred
at the close by the suspicionsof the husband that the wife, in spite of her apparent devo-
tion to his person and Interests, bad plotted the overthrow of the natural heirs of his
. throne. One by one the members of the large and brilliant family of Augustus had been
ruined, and the aged emperor found himself alone in the palace with Livia and her son
Tiberias, whom he was constrained to adopt and make his heir. The Roman people
execrated her, and her son Tiberius, after his ascent to the throne, showed her no favor
or respect. He even refused to visit her in her dying moments, or to take any part in
the funeral rites. She survived Augustus 15 years, dying at Roma
LIVINGSTON, a ca in n.e. Illinois; 1036 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 38,458. Traversed by
the Vermilion river, and by the Chicago and Alton; Toledo, Peoria, and Warsaw; and
Illinois Central rai broads. The soil is fertile, the surface generally level. Productions:
Indian corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, and hay; other staples are wool and butter. There
arc A number of nuinufactoriesof carriages, metal goods, saddlery and harness, etc. Co.
seat, Pontiaa
LIVINGSTON, a CO. in w. Kentucky, having the Ohio river on the n. and the Ten-
nessee on the s., and intersected by the Cumberland; 275 sq.m.; pop. '80, 0,1^. The
soil is fertile. Productions: wheat, Indian com, oats, tobacco, and potatoes. There are
a few flour and saw mills, but n<»<ither important manufactures. Co. seat, Smithland.
LIVINGSTON, a s.e. parish of Louisiana, having the Amite river on the s. and w.,
and the Tickfah intersecting it; 050 sq.m.; pop. '80, 6,258. The surface is level and the
soil fertile, producing cotton, Indian corn, rice, sweet- potatoes, and sugar-cane. Co.
seat, Springneld.
LIVINGSTON, a co, in s.e. Michigan, traversed by the Red Cednr, Huron, and
Shiawassee rivers, and hy the Detroit, Lansinz, and Lake Michigan railroad; 576 sq.m.;
pop. '80, 22,251. The soil is fertile, and proauces heavily of wheat, Indian com, oats,
and potatoes; wool, butter, hay, and hops arc also staple products. Co. seat, Howell.
LIVINGSTON, a CO. in n.w. Missouri, traversed by the Grand river and crossed by
the Hannibal and St. Joseph and a branch of the St. Louis, Kansas City, and Northern
railroads; 510 sq.m.; pop. '80, 20,205. The productions i^^.J^<|ia^j^^^ats, wheat.
97 I4iv«T*
• toteeoo. haj, potatoes, butter, and wool. Tbere are a number of mills and manufacto-
ries of flour, lumber, metal wares, sash, doors, and blijida, etc. Co. seat, Chillicothe.
LIVINGSTON, a co. in w. New York, intersected by the Genesee river and canal,
dnined by Honeoye and Canaseraga creeks, and traversed by the N. Y. Central and
Erienilnisds, and branches of the latter; <MK) sq.m.; pop. '80, 39,578. The surface is
mied, beinc hilly in parts, and is generally well wooded. The fertile and beautiful
GeDcsee Yalley lies in this county and is one of its chief features, the soil being highly
productive. The principal agricultural products are Indian corn, wheat, barley, hay,
iod oats; hotter and wool are also haportant staplas. The Avon saliLe-sulphurous
springs are in this country, and are much frequented by persons suflc ring from rheu-
matism and from cutaneous diseases, as to which the waters are believed to exercise a
specific remedial influence. This county has valuable quarries of sandstone. Go. seat,
(Jenesea
LIVINGSTON, Bbockhoc^, ll.d., 1767-1828; b. N. Y.; son of William; educated
at Princeton, and in 177^ entered the army on gen. 8chuy]er*8 staff. He was afterward
with Arnold, and was brevettcd maj. and col. In 1779 he became secretary to John
Jay. After the war he studied law, and in 1802 was appointed a judge of tiie N. Y.
supreme court. For the last 17 years of his life he occupied the eminent posUion of
judge of the U. S. supreme court, and died at Washington.
LimroSTOH, Edward, an American jurist and alateeman, was b. on May 26, 1784,
at Liviiipton (afterward Ciaremont), in the state of New York. He belonged to a family
wbicli, fior nearly a century, bad been of the greatest weight and distinction in the
colony. Liviuffston was the son of Robert Livingston, judge of the supreme court of
New York, and the youngest of a very numerous family. After leaving the college of
Princeton, he studied law under his brother Robert, 18 years his senior (see below),
and devoted special attention to Roman jurisprudence. On being called to the bar, he
soon obtainecf an extensive practice. He had spent his vouth among the founders of
American independence, all of whom he had known as visitors of his father, and he at
oQce attained a prominent position. He was elected a member of congress in 1704;
federal attorney and mayor of New York in 1801; and he would probably have been
known only as a prosperous lawyer had not a great misfortune at this period befallen
him. Livingston, as federal attorneyi was intrusted with the collection of debts to the
state recovered by legal proceedings. He had the greatest aversion to accounts, and
intrusted this part of uis duty to a clerk, a Frenchoiao, who appropriated the funds to
his own purposes. Wlien Livingston discovered what had happened, he at once ascer-
tained the balance due to the state, handed over his whole property to his creditors,
threw up his appointment, and resolved to quit New York. No entreaty on the part of
his fellow-citizens could induce him to remain. Louisiana had just been annexed to the
United 8tates, thanks to negotiations conducted b^'his brother at Paris, and he resolved
to settle in Uie new state. He joined the New Orleans bar in 1804, and at once obtained
lucrative practice. He had great difflculties to encounter. The business had to be con-
ducted partly in French ancTSpanlsh. The law administered was a strange compound
of municipal regulations, Spanish and French law, and the Roman Iftw of the civilians.
A proposal was made to introduce the common law of England, and this would have
been much to the pecuniary advantage of Livingston, but he opposed the scheme in an
eloquent and convincing speech to the Louisiana chambers, ana it was decided that the
law of the state should remain based upon the civil rather than the common law. In
the dispute with England in 1814 and 1815, Livingston became aid-de-camp and secre-
tary to gen. Jackson, and attracted much notice by the admirable bulletins he wrote
during the campaign. In 1820 he was appointed to draw up a code of civil procedure
for Louisiana. It was the simplest known up to that time, was found to work admirably,
and received the warmest approval from Bcntham and other jurists. Livingston was
then employed in reducing to system the civil laws of Louisiana. He had to aid him in
tlie task the French and other modern codes, the nomenclature of Scotch law, and a
familiar acquainUmce with all that is mostvaluab! in English iurisprudence, and the
work produced, the " Civil Code of Louisiana," is undoubtedly the most successful
adaptation of the civil Uw to the conditions of modern society. It was adopted in
Louisiana in 1828, and has since become the law of many other states. Livingston was
then emploved to prepare a new criminal code, and in a preliminary treatise he laid down
the principles on which he was to proceed. lie piopc^d the abolition of the punishment^
of death, and a penitentiary sj'stera, which at ouce drew general attention to his labors.
His book was reprinted in London, translated into French, and made a sensation all over
Europe, and the author received the congratulations of the most eminent publicists
and politicians of England, France, and Germany. His code of crimes and punishments
vas completed, but not adopted without modifications. Livingston was elected in 1829
member for Louisiana of the American senate, and in 1881 appointed secretary of state
for foreign affairs. Two years later he went to France as minister plenipotentiary to
support a demand of a million sterling made by the U. S. government for Indemnity on
account of French spoliations, and he succeeded in securing payment. He had married
a lady of New Orleans, of French family and education, had been long conversant with
the French language, in which he had l)e'cn accustomed to plead before the courts of
U. K. IX. 7 Digitized by VjiJOVlC
New Orieaus, and b« be«amo iDtimately acquainted wiCh the leading Jaristo and poll* '
ticiaud of Ttinoe, He was admitted an associate of the academy of moral and political
sciences, andreceiTcd tbq warmest tribute of respect as oneol tUe greatest pbiioMpU^cal
lawyers of i^is time. alUiough bis distinction at Ii,bme bad been chiefly woa aa a caref ui
and painstaking maifi of business. Livingston died oii If^y 98, lbl$0„ at bis own e&Ute
on tjie Hudson, ia conscience of drinkina cold wat^r wlien very i>ot.-*-8ee npticesol
bis life in French by M. Taillandier and by jK^ Hign^t, and j^ long bio^phy l^ JliU-. E
Hunt, wjith introductiou by S. Bancroft.
LIVINGSTON, HSKRY Beekmajt, ITSO-lSSl; b. at Livin^on manor, N. Y.; eon
of judge Robert R Raising, a military company in 1775, he Jomed Montgomery's expe-
dition to Canada. For gallant conduct at the capture of ChamUy, congress voted liim
a sword of honor. In 1776 he became aide-d^-camp to gen. Schuyler, and later in the
same year col. of the 4th battalion of New York volunteers, resigning in 1779. Bred to
tbelaw, he sucoessiyely filled the posts of attorney-gen., jodge, and cKi^^justict of ttie
supreme .court of New York. He was also presiaefit of the New York society of Cia-
cinnati; and; during the war of 1813 he received the appoiatarantof brig^eou Died at
Hhinebeck.
LIVINGSTON, John. See LnrmosTOK, Rohbrt R, ante.
LIVINGSTON, John Henry, d.d., 1746-1825; b. N. Y.; graduated at Yale college
in 1762^ studied theology at Utrecht, Holland; ordained at Amsterdam in 173^; received
the title of d.d. from Utrecht; returning to the United States^ became pastor of the
I)utch church in New York, and during the war preached in Albany, Kingston, and
Poughkeepsie; appointed professor of divinity by the general synod of America in a
semuuury opened under his direction at Bedford. L. I., in 1705. which being united id
X807 with queen's (now Rutger*s) college. New Brunswick, he became its president and
professor of theology. He spent the remainder of his life ia New Brunswick.
LIVINGSTON, Philip, 1716-78; b. Albany, N. Y.; grandson of John Livingston,
to whom grants of land on the Hudson river were made by George I. A graduate of
Yale college in 1737, he became a successful merchant In New York, a member of its
city council^ and a member from the city to the colonial assembly of New York from
1758 to 1769. He was elected to the continental congress, apd is best known as one of,
the signers of the declaration of independence. He was in service in that congress then
in session at York. Penn., at the time of his death. He was distinguished, like all the
family, for resolute patriotism in aiding the cause of the colonies m their struggle for
independence.
LIYIKCIBTOK. Robert R, brother of Edward, an eminent lawyer and politician, was
b. in New York m 1746. He was one of the five members of the commiilee charged with
drawing up the declaration of independence. WhcA the constitution of the slate of New|
York was settled, he was appointed chief judge, a dignity'he retained till 1801. He
was then sent to Paris as minister plenipotentiary to negotiate the cession of Louisiana
to the United States, a duty he discharged with rare ability. He enabled Fulton to
construct his first steamboat, and introduced in America the use of sulphate of lime as a
manure, and the merino sheep, and in many other ways distinguished himself as a national
benefactor. He died Mar. 26, 1818.
The Livingstons, whose lives have lust been recorded, belong to an American family
remarkable for hereditary talent and the large number of its members who have distin^
guished themselves in the United States as eminent men of letters, magistrates, lawyers,
and divines. They descend lineally from the fifth lord Livingston, wno was intrusted
with the guardianship of Mary queen of Scots, and from the Rev. John Livingston^
minister of Ancrum, in Teviotdale, the grandson of the nobleman, one of the mosj
distinguished of the Presbyterian divines. John Livingston was born at Kilsyth, on
June 21, 1603. preached with great success in Ireland, and was one of two commissioni
ers sent by the Scotch kirk to Breda, in Holland, to treat with Charles II. Refusing
to take the oath of allegiance, he was banished, and in 1663 went to Holland, when*,
as pastor of the Scotch kirk at Rotterdam, he spent the last years of his life. He wns
the author of several works, the best known of which Is his autobiography. His soil
Robert was bom at Ancrum in 1654, and while still a lad emigrated to America, and
settled in the Dutch village of Albany, in the region of the upper Hudson. He l)ou<;hl
from the Indians a vast tract of land on the banks of the river, embracing upwards
of 160,000 acres; and this property he had erected into the lordship and manor oj
Livingston.
LIVINGSTON, WniJAM, LL.D., 1723-90; b. Albany; brother of Philip (q. v.); ^ad
nated at Yale. 1741; governor of New Jersey, 1776-90. He waa elected to llie continen
tul congress of 1774, was a delegate to the constitutional convention of 1787, and th<
author of a number of legal and political treatises. His life was one of patriotic devp
tion as jurist, legislator, and magistrate.
LIYIH08T01IS, David, African traveler and missionary, was a native of Scotland
and was Itorn at Blantyre, in Lanarkshire, in the year 1817. At the age often he became
a *' pieoer" in a cotton-factory, and for many years was engaged in bard work as ai
operative. An evening-4School furnished him with the opportunity of acquiring som<
^^ livingatattla..
Icnavledge of Lfttin andGreok, and fimliy, after attendinff a coune of mediciM al
Olnsgow uQiYcroity, and tiie theological lectures of the late Dr. Wardlaw, professor of
tbeohigjr lo. the Si'Otcfa Ibdepeiideiiui. be olEered himaetf to the London niiflsiouaiy soci-
ety, by whom he was) ordained as a medical missiouary in 1840. In the summer of tliat
jiw he landeil at Fort J^atal ia s. Africa* Circumslimces made him. acquuiiited with
the ref . Kobert Moffat, himself a diHtiuguishtsd mist^ionary, and wUotie daughter he
sttbseqoeutly married. For 16 years Livingstone proved himself a faithful aud^ zealous
serraiu of the London missionary socie^. The two most important results a^ihieved by
him iu this period were the discovery of lake Ngami (Aug. 1, lM9)f and his crustting
the continent of a. Africai. from the Zarobe^i (or Leeambye) to the Congo, and thence
to Loundo, the capital of AngoU, which took him about 18 month^i (from Jan., 18o3, to
Juiie^ 1854). In Sept. of the same year he left Loando on his return across the couti-
oent, reached Linzaoti (in lat. 18'' 17' s.. and long. 23" 50' e.), the capital of the great
Makololo tribe, and from thence proceeded alooff the banks of the Leeambye to Quili-
maae on the Indian ocean, which he reached May 20, 1856. He then took slup for
Eagland. In 1857 Livingstone published his MMoiiary Trav$U and JienearcJies in iSouth
Africa, a work of great interest and value. Returning in 1858 as British coubul at Quill-
mane, he spent several years in further exploring the Zambesi, in ascending the Sliir6,
and discovering lake Shirwa and lake Nyassa — the Maravi of the old map*. A uurrar
tive of these oiacoveries was published during a visit he paid to EuglanJ in 1864-65.
Ia the mean time, lakes Taugany ika^ Victoria Kyanza, and Albert Myauza had been dis-
covered by Burton, Speke, and Baker, but the true source of the l^ile was stilJ a prob-
lem. With a view to its solution, Livingstone, in 1866, entered the interior, and nothing
was heard of him for two years. The communications received from him afterwaras
describe his discovery of the great water-system of the Chambeze in the elevated region
to the s. of Tanganyika. It Sows first w. and then turna northward, forming a succes-
sion of lakes, lying to the w. of the Tanganyika. To determme its course atier it
leaves these, whiether it joins the Kile or turns westward and forma the Cougii, was the
gmod taak which Livingstone seemed resolved to accomplish or perish. He was much
bafiaed by inundations, the hostility of the slave-dealers, and by the want of supplies,
-which were habitually delayed and plundered by those who conveyed them. When
nothing certain had been heaiid of him for some time, Mr. 8Uinley, of the New York
H€r<dd, boldly pushed his way from Zanzibar to Ujiji, where, in 1871. lie found the
traveler in great destitution. On parting with Mr. Stanley. Livingstone started on a fresh
exploration of the river-system oi the Chambeze or Lualaba, convinced that it would
turnout to be the head-waters of the Nile. In May, 1878, however, he died at ilala,
beyond lake Bemba. His body was brought home in April, 1874, and interred in West-
minster abbey. His Laei Jaumala were preserved, and published in Dec, 1874.
LIVINGSTONE, David, ll.d. {ante). When left by Mr. Stanley at Unyanyembc
in Mar., 1872, it was his intention to remain in Africa only about a year longer, and
then to return to England for permanent rendence. In the following Aug., having
received men and supplies from Zanzibar, he led an expedition toward the e. side or
lake Bangweolo and the supposed sources of the streams which' form the Lualaba.
From this time no news of his explorations was received from his own hand, and accu-
rate detfiils of this last Journey are entirely wanting. An expedition, under the auspices
of the royal geographical society, and commanded by lieut. Cameron, was sent to the
relief of the explorer early in 1878. Leaving Zanzibar on Mar. 18, this relief -party
be«^an its quest. Having reached Unyanyembe in Aug., lleut. Cameron fir*t heard of
Livingstone's death. On Oct. 16 the intelligence was confirmed by the arrival tliere of
a body of natives bearing the remains of the explorer, and bringing a letter from his
negro servant, Wainwright. It appeared that the explorer, after enduring jrreat hard-
ships, had been attackea with dysentery, from which he died after a fortnigi)t*s illness.
The party in charge of hw remains encountered great difflcuUies and endured much
suffering, but by the aid of lieut. Cameron they succeeded in reaching the coast. The
Last Journals of David Livinggtonef indnding his Wanderings and Diseorerifs in Ennlem
Mrieafrom 186fl to wthin afsto days of his Death, in 2 vols., edited by the Rev. Horace
Waller, appeared in London in 1874; and The Personal Lifeof Datid /Avinffstone, LL.I).,
D.O.L.; chiefly from his Unpublished Jowrruds and Correspondence in the Possession, of his
Family; by William Garden Blaikic, D.D., ll.d., was published in London in is79.
Both these works have l>een republished in New York, Dr. Livingstone was tlie recip-
ient of honors from most of the geographical societies of the world ; the academy of
sciences in Paris elected him a corresponding membcT, and in 1871 the British govern-
ment granted to his family a pension of £300. See Africa.
LIVINGSTONE RIVER See Congo, ante.
UVmOfiTOVIA mSSIOK, of which the chief wttlement is nt cape ]^Tnr1oar at the s.
end of lake Nyassa (q.v.). was based on a suggestion made by Dr. Li . inu^tone that this
lake was the best position for the <«tabli9hment of a mission with a view to ilie annihilar
tion of the Portuguese and Arab slave-trade on the c. of Africa. Acting on this sugsres-
tion, an expedition, costincj about £6.000, wns equipped in 1875 by the Scotch Presby-
terian cburchcB for establishing a mission here. Another stiition called Blantyre hsa
been planted in the 8hir€ highlands, within easy distance of the liUce. As yef '
Digitized by ^ir
^m^W
lA'Hwu
100
industries are iron manufacture, basket-making, and cloth manufacture from the bark
of trees and cotton. With the exception of the 70 m. of the Kurchison falls, there
exists unbroken water communication between the head of Nyassa and the Indian
ocean.
Liynrs, Trrus, the most illustrious of Roman historians, was b. at Patavium
(Padua), in 61 b.c. according to Gato, but according to Varro in 59 B.C.. the year of
the great Caesar *s first consulship. We know nothing of his early life, except that he
practiced as a rhetorician and wrote on rhetoric. There is internal evidence which
makes it probable that he did not commence his great history till *ie was drawing near
middle age. He lived to see his eightieth year; and having been b'>rn under the repub-
lic, died under Tiberius. Hid fame was. so thoroughly established and widely spread,
even during his lifetime, that a Spaniard traveled from Gades to Rome onlv to see him.
Quintiliai), in claiming for the Uomans equal merit in the department of nistory with
the Greeks, compares Livius to Herodotus, and there is no doubt taat his countrymen
regarded him as their greatest historical writer. The story that Asinius PoUio preti'nded
to discover a certain provincialism or patavinity in his style is probably false; but even
if it be true, modern criticism is unable to discover In what the peculiarity consisted;
for Livius's work is one of the greatest masterpieces of Latin or of h jman composition.
Oririnally the Roman history of Livius was comprised in 142 books, divided into tent
or decades; but only 80 books, with the greater part of 5 more, now exist. Instead of a
complete narrativcfrom the foundation of the city to the historian's )wn time, we have
detailed portions, the most valuable of which are the first decade, containing the early
history, and the third, containing the wars with Hannibal. Among the surviving frng-
ments of what is lost is a character of Cicero, preserved in the Stia9oria of Seneca, the
execution of which makes us deeply regret that time has not spared Llvins's account of
the transactions of his own period.
In classing Livius in his proper place among the great historians of the ancient and
modern world, we must not think of him as a critical or antiquarian writer — a writer
of scrupulously calm Judgment and diligent research. He is pre-eminently a man of
beautiful genius, with an unrivaled talent for narration, who takes up the history of
his countiy in the spirit of an artist, and makes a free use of the materials lying
handiest for the creation of a work full of grace, color, harmony, and a dignified
ease. Prof. Ramsay has remarked that be treats the old tribunes just as if they were
on a level with the demagogues of the worst period; and Niebuhr censures the errors
of the same kind into which his Pompeian and aristocratic prepossessions betrayed
liim. But this tendency, if it was ever harmful, is harmless now, and was closely
connected with that love of ancient Roman institutions and ancient Roman times
which at once inspired his genius and was a part of it. And the value of his his-
tory is incalculable, even in the mutilated state in which we have it, as a picture of
what the great Roman traditions were to the Romans in their most cultivated period.
The literarv talent most conspicuous in Livius is that of a narrator, and the English
reader perhaps derives the best idea — though it is but a faii^ one — of his quality
from the histories of Goldsmith or the Tales of a QrandfatTier of sir Walter Scott.
Ag does not rival Tacitus in portraiture or in tragic power, but no writer has ever
surpassed him in the art of telling a story; and the speeches which, according to the
antique fasliion, he puts into the mouths of his historic characters are singularly
ingenious, pointed, and dramatically real. There is also something in a high depee
winning and engaging about what we may call the moral atmosphere of Livius's
historv, which nobody can read without feeling that the historian had a kindljr ten-
der disposition— a large, candid, and generous soul. The editio princeps of Livius,
which did not contain all that we now have of the work, was published at Rome
about 1469, and MSS. of parts of Livius were existing in that century which have since
disappeared. The most celebrated editions arc those of Gronovius, Crevler, Draken-
borch, and Ruddiman; and, in recent times, esteemed recensions of the text have been
issued by Madvig, Alschefski, and Weissenborn.
LIY'IUB ANDBOHIGITB, the father of Roman dramatic and epic poetrv, was a Greek
by birth, probably a native of Tarentum, and flourished about the middle of the 8d c
B.O. He translated the Odyssey into Latin Saturuian verse, and wrote tragedies, come-
dies, and hymns after Greek models. Mere fragments are extant, of which a collection
may be found in Bothe's JPoetm seenid Laiini (vol. 5, Halberst, 1823) and Dantzer'a
LitU Andronid Fragmenta CoUecta ct lUuairaia (Berlin, 1885).
LIT VY, an ancient district t. of Great Russia, in the government of Orel, in lat. 52*
25' n., long. 87" 37' east. Pop. '67, 18,470, who carry on an extensive trade in com,
cattle, and honey.
LIYCKIA (Ger. lAefoUind), one of the three Baltic provinces of Russia, to which belong
also the islands of Oesel, Man. and Runo, contains an area of 18,088 sq.m., with a pop.
of (1870) 1,000,876. Thecouotry ismostly flat, and one-fourth of it is covered with wood.
The soil is only of moderate fertility; but nevertheless agriculture and cattle and sheep
breeding are brought to a high degree of perfection. Livtmia has many extensive fac-
tories and distilleries belonging to the government^ also some cloth manufactories, one
c9f which, situated near Pernau, is very extensive. The inhabitants of the counlsy ara
Digitized by VjiOOV IC
101 tet
of Finnish and Lettish descent; those in the towns are chiefly Gertnans, with a swiik-
liog of Russians, Poles, and Jews. Livonia, up to the 17th c, included the three Baltic
proTinces of Courland. Lironia. and Esthouia.
LITOSVO. See Lbohohn.
IITXX, the name of an ancient French coin, derired from the Roman Ulfra, or cu
<q.v.)- There were livres of different values, tlie most important heing the Uvre Tour-
iwii (of Tours), which was considered the standard, and the litre Parisut (of Paris),
•which was equal to flve-fourtlis of a livre Tournois. In 1795 the livre was superseded
by the franc (80 francs -= 81 livres Tournois). — Lrvus was also the ancient French unit
of weight, and was equal to 17.267 oz. avoirdupois; the kilogram (see Gram) has
taken its place.
LIVY. See Linus, ante.
UXXYIATIOK (Lat. Ux, ashes), a term employed in chemistry to denote the process
of washing or steeping certain substances in a fluid, for the purpose of dissolviug a por-
tion of their ingredients, and so separating them from the insoluble residue. Thus,
wood^Mh is lixiviated with water to dissolve out the carbonates of soda and potash iram
the insoluble parts. The solution thus obtained is called a Uxivium or lys.
LIXIF'BI, a t. of the island of Cephalonia, on the w. shore of the gulf of ArgostolL
It is a Greek bishop's sea Pop. 7,000.
LIZABD, Lacerta, a genus of saurian reptiles, the type of a numerous group, in which
monitors (q.v.), etc.. are included, and to which the megalosattrus and other large fossil
saurians are referred. The name lizard is indeed often extended to all the saurian rep-
tiles; but in its more restricted sense it is applied only to a family. laeerUdcB, none of
wiiich attain a large 8i2e, whilst most of them are small, active, brilliantly colored, and
bright-eyed creatures, loving warmth and sunshine, abounding chiefly m the warmer
parts of the old world. They have a long, extensile, forked toneue; the body is gen-
erally long, and terminates in a rather long tail ; the feet have each five toes, furnished
with claws; the upper parts are covered with small, imbricated scales; the scales of the
under parts are larger; a collar of broad scales surrounds the neck; the bones of the
skull aavance over the temples and orbits; the back part of the palate is armed with
two rows of teeth. They feed chiefly on insects. Britain produces only two well-as^rer-
tained species: the Sand Lizabd (L. offHU or L. etirpium\ alK)ut 7 in. long, variable
in color and marking, but generally sandy brown on the upper parts, blotched with
darker brown, and having a lateral series of black, rounded spots, each of which has a
yellowish-white dot or line in the center; and the Common Lizard, or Vivifakous Liz-
ard (zootoca vivipara), smaller, more slender, very variable in color, a dark-brown gener-
ally prevailing on the upper parts. The former species is comparatively rare; it inluibits
sandy heaths: the latter is abundant in dry moors and sand-banks. They differ remark-
ably in the former being oviparous, the latter viviparous, or, more strictly speaking,
ovoviviparous. Both are harmless creatures, as are all the rest of this family. Larger
species are found in the more southern parts of Europe. Some of the lizarcfs are quite
susceptible of being tamed. They are remarkable for the readiness with which the end
of the tail breaks off; the flinging of a glove or handkerchief on one when it is trying to
make its escape is often enougl> to cause the separation of this portion, which lies wrie-
ling whilst the animal hastens away. The lost portion is afterwuxls reproduced. Lizaras
become torpid in winter.
TiTZAUT), in heraldry, means either (1) the reptile usually so called or (2) a beast
eomewhat resembling the wild-cat, and said to be found in several countries of northern
Europe, represented with brown fur and large spots of a darker shade.
TilZATil) POnrT. See Cornwall.
LIZARD'S TAIL, the saururut cemuus (Lin.), of the natural order tauracea, a
perennial plant growing in marshes and along the edges of ponds and slow streams in
New York and westward and northward. Its stem is about 2 ft. high and rather weak;
leaves alternate, petiolate, heart-shaped, entire, pointed, convergingly ribbed, slightly
hairy, and pale green underneath. The flowers are in a slender, crowded, termiiml,
spike-like, gracefully< curved raceme, about 4 in. long, having no calyx or corolla, the
pistils. 6 or 7 in number, standing in the axis of a bract. Fruit rather fleshy, wrinkled,
and composed of three to four pistils united at the base. The entire plant has an aro-
matic but rather unpleasant odor and a somewhat acrid taste. The root has been used
for making poultices for abscesses and other painful swellings.
LLAMA, Auehenia lama, a most useful South American quadruped of the family
tameHdm. It is doubtful whether it ought to be regarded as a distinct species, or as a
mere domesticated variety of the huanaca (q.v.). It was in general use as a beast of
burden on the Peruvian Andes at the time of the Spanish conquest, and was the only
beast of burden used by the natives of America before the horse and ass were introduced
by Enropeans. It is still much used in this capacity on the Andes, the peculiar confor-
mation of its feet (see AvcflSKiA) enabling it to walk securely on slopes too rough and
8tem> for any otber animal. The working of many of the silver mines of the Andes
<ouid scarcely be carried on but for the assistance of llamas. The burden carried by the
llama should not exceed 126 iKkunds. When too beavUy loaded the animal lies down
and refiuies to nioye> nor ^'iU either coaxing or severity overcome its resolution. It is.
eenerully. very patient and docile. Its rate of traveling is about 12 or 15 m. a day. The
llama is about 3 ft. in height at the shoulder, has a longish neck, and carries its head
elevated. The females are smaller and less strong than the males, which alone are used
for carrying burdena The color is very various, generally brown with shades of yellow
or black, frequently speckled, rarely Quite white or black. The flesh is spongy, coarse,
and not of a very agreeable flavor. The hair or wool is inferior to that of the alpaca,
but is used for similar purposes; that of the female is finer than that of the male. The
llama has been introduced with the alpaca into Australia; but it is only for steep moun-
tuin regions that it seems to be adapted.
LLAITDAIT' (jUan Taff, the place of a church on the Taff)> & city of s. Wales, in the
CO. of Qiamorgan, is situated on the right bank of the Taff, 3 m, above Cardiff, in a dis-
trict remarkable for its beauty. It is the seat of a bishopric, the revenue of which is
£4,200. Pop. about 700.
LLAVDVB'KO, a very fashionable watering-place in the co. of Caernarvon, n. Wales,
is situated between the Great and Little Orme's Heads, 40 m. w.s. w. of Liverpool. The
air is described as " delicious," and there is every facility for sea-bathing, and extensive
healthy rambles. Pop. in 71, 2,762.
LLAHEL'LYia parliamentary borough, manufacturing town, and seaport of s. Wales,
in the co. of Caermurthen, and 16 m. s.e. of the t. of mat name. The mineral wenlth
of the vicinity, and the easy access to the sea, have raised the town to considerable com-
mercial importance. The Cambrian copper-works employ a great number of the inhabi-
tants; but there are also silver-, lead-, iron-, and tin-works, and a pottery. Coal is laigely
exported. In 1877, 2,935 vessels, of 207,251 tons, entered and cleared the port. Pop. of
parliamentary borough in 1871, 15,281.
LLAKOOL'LEH, a small t. of n. Wales, in the co. of Denbigh, picturesquely situated
on the right bank of the river Dee, 22 m. s.w. of Chester. It is visited by tourists on
account of the beauty of the famous vale of Llangollen, and for its antiquities, among
which is the fragment of the round inscribed pillar of EKsy.
IIAH'IBLOEB, a municipal and parliamentary borough of n. Wales, in the co. of
Montgomery, 19 m. w.s.w. of the t. of that name. Its church is one of the most
beautiful in Wales. Considerable manufactures of flannel and other woolen fabrics are
carried on. Llanidloes unites with several other boroughs in sending a member to par-
liament. Pop. 71, 8,428.
LLA'NO, a w. central co. in Texas; bounded by the Colorado, and intersected by the
Llano and its affluents; 900 sq.m.; pop. 70, 1879. It is arid and stony the inhabitants
being devoted chiefly to stock-ruisina:. The minerals abound, including gold, lead, iron,
silver, and antimony. Salt and building-stone also are found. Co. scat, Llano.
LLANO ESTACA'DO, a desolate plateau of n,w. Texas and s.e. New Mexico,
having an area of more than 40,000 sq.m., and an elevation of from 8.200 to 4,700 ft,
with a general slope northward. It has but a scanty supply of water, and is covered
with a sparse coating of grass in* the wet season. Its scanty shrubs have large roots,
which are used for fuel. Attempts made by gen. Pope in 1852 to obtain water by
means of artesian wells met with little success.
LLA'HOB are vast steppes or plains in the northern portion of Bouth America, partly
covered with tall luxuriant grass, and partly with drifting sand, and stocked with
innumerable herds of cattle. They resemble the more southern pampas (q.v.) and the
North American savannas (q.v.). The inhabitants, a vigorous race of shepherds, are
called Uaneros.
LLAN'QUIHUE. a district of the department of Valdivia in southern Chili, lietween
the river Buena on the north and the gulf of Ancud; 8,350 sq.m. ; pop. about 43.000. It
is mostly a fertile plain drained by the river Maullin, and largely peopled by Germans
engaged in agriculture and grazing. The climate resembles that of Ireland, though the
winters are less severe. It is the favorite part of Chili with emigrants from Europe,
because more nearly resembling the northern coast of Europe in soil, production, and
climate than other portions of Chili. Three volcanoes are among the Andes upon its
eastern side. Port Montt, on the gulf of Ancud, is the principal town.
LLEBE'KAi a t. in the Spanish province of Badaioz, and 68 m. s.e. of Badajos. The
inhabitants are mostly employed in agriculture. Pop. 6,000. Near Llerena lord Com-
bermere with his cavalry routed, on April 11. 1812, a French force of 2,500 oavalry and
10,000 infantry, the rearguard of Soult, under Drouet, retiring after the capture of
Badajoz.
LLEWELLTN AP GRIFFITH. Prince of Wales, d. 1282. He succeeded David,
1246; revolted from his allegiance to the Eni^lish in 1256, but made peace with Henxy
III. in 1268. Edward I. summoned him to attend parliament at Westnuai^ter both io
1274 and 1276, but he reused to appear. His wife, Eleanor de Montfoct, was captured
by the English in the channel in 1275, and his offers of a ransom for her were declined.
The English invaded his tenitory and were successfully repelle^^ li^i^^j^'^^^e strreii'
108
dered jdadMmiWMd WW tAlDtii toWtsUniaaler. He snimqim^^y i
tad, after being reeonciled to his l»rotber David, renewed the war with the ]
WM surprised ai|d killed by Mortimfir in 1282.
JXOBEHTI, Ji7AN ANTomo, a &MtiiBh hisloriflti, Wis b. ftt Rinpon del 66to, adsr
Oilaborra, 'Msr. 80, 1^60. He wuls taudated by his natemal uncle, and reoeired orders
in 1719. He took Ins- degree In eonoh law, and wtts • named sueceasivefy advocate of tikto
council of Castile in 1781, vicar-general of CalaUori^ (17^, and ftzwlly secretary of the
inquisition in 1780. Llorente was from an early period attached to the liberal iMtrty.
On die fall of Jovcllanos he was deprived of liis emplpymcdts, and remHined id dis-
grace till 1805, when he recovered favor as the reward of a literary service of a very
questionable character which he rendered to Godoy, by a historical essuy against the
liberties of the Basque provinces. On the intrusion of the Kapoleon dynasty Llorente
became a zealous partisan of the French, and an aciive instrument of the French policy,
to which he lent all his support at the press, as well as in office; and being obliged to
fly, on the restoration of Fezilinand, he fixed his residence in Paris, where he published
the work to which his celebrity is chieflv due — his Critical History of tJie Inqtimtion.
This work, which professes to be founded on authentic documents, although throwing
much light on a subject previously inaccessible, has, in the Judgment of impartial his-
torians, as Prescott, Ranke, and others, lost most of its value by its plainly partisan
character, and by the exaggerations in which it abounds. See Ikquisitioiy. Written
by Llorente in Spanish, it was translated into French, under the author's eye, by Alexis
Peliier (Par. 1817-18), and has been translated into most of the European languages.
Llorente published, during his residence in Paris, several other works, some literary, as
bis Critical ObterwUiom on Oil Blat; some polemical, as bis iVrfraiO^ Poltiifv^ des
Papes; and others, it is alleged, of a more qnesiionable ciiaraecerin a moral point of
view. His work on the popes led to his being compelled to quit Paris in 1822, and a
few days after he reached Madrid he died, Feb. 6, 1828. He was also the author of
Memoirs of the Spani^ Mevoihttion, 8 vols. 8vo, 1810, and an Blmajf on a Bek'ffious
CorutituUan, 1819. Most of his works were published both in Spanish and in French.
LLOYD, Thomas. 1649-04; b. at Dolobran, north Wales; educated nt Oxfoi-d, but
was converted to Quakerism, and, as a preacher of that sect, suffered much pei-secution;
in 1684 accompanied William Penn to America, and was acting-governor and president
of the council of Pennsylvania, 1684-86, and deputy governor, 1691-98.
LLOYD. William, j>.d., 1627-1717; bishop of Worcester; b. Tilehurst, Berkshire;
educated at Oriel college, Oxford; became fellow of Jesus college in 1646; ordained
deacon in 1648; was tutor in a gentleman's family: rector of Bradwell in 1654; ordained
priest in 1665, and made chaplain to Charles II. ; received the title of doctor of divinity
in 1667. Passing through several of the lower grades of church preferment he was
made dean of Baugor in 1672, bishop of Exeter in 1676. and of St. A^aph in 1680. He
took an active part in the troubles between the Komanists and Protestants in 1678. In
1688 he, with six other bishops, presented a protest to the king against the publication
of his declai*Htiou of indulg^^nce to Romanists and dissenters, and was with the others
soon after imprisoned in the Tower. When tried they were acquitted. He was a warm
supporter of the revolution, and was appointed almoner to William and Mary soon after
ibeir arrival in Enghmd. In 1693 he was transferred to the see of Coventry, and pro-
moted in 1699 to the bishopric of Worcester. He furnished valuable materials to
bishop Burnet's Histoid/ of Ilis Own TirrieSf and besides many pamphlets on the Boman
Catholic controversy, a few tracts on ecclesiastical subjects and several sermons, pub-
lished A Chronological Account of His Life of Pythagoras and of his famous Contemporart€s;
A Disseiiation on Daniets Seventy Weeks; and A %stem of Chronology.
LLOYD'S, a set of rooms on the first floor of the royal exchange, London, freouentwl
by merebants, shifMJwners, underwriters, etc., for the purpose of obtaining shippug
mtelligence, and transacting marine insuranoes. One latige room, with small rooms
attached to it, is set apart for the use of the undenMters, and there two enormous ledgers
lie constantly open, the one containing a list of vessels arrived, the other recording die-
asters at sea. In the same series of rooms there is a self-registering anemometer and
anemosrope for the use of the tinderwritc»r8; also a valmble collection of chaxt£ ior con-
sultation. See iNflUKAKCB. Mariwu. The extent of business transacted here may be
imagined when we consider tliat the value annually insured amounts to above £40,000,000.
None but members of Llovd's, who haye duly paid the fees, are alk>wed to tranaact busi-
ness tbtre elfher as insaranoe-bwAers or underwriters. The shipping intelMgence is
famished by agents appointed for the purpose, and there is scarrely a port of cnnscQuenoe
where one is not slatiDned. The agent receives no salary, his lal»r being amply coto-
pensated by tlie advantaires he derives from the connection. The intelligence contaimea
in the ledgers is also diffused over tlie country every afternoon by the publication of
Day^s List, There are two other room»^the reading room, which is merely an extensive
Dewa^room; and the cof/itain^ room, where auctions of ships are carried on, and where
csptahM and merobante ekn meet to^rether in a sociable manner. The society of Lloyds
is managed by m committee of twelve, selected from among the members, who also
appoint the agente and officials of the establishment. The expenses are defrayed hy fees
and annual iutacriptknis. Digitized by VjUUV ic
issr^ 104
1X0^9 Beffkiter tf BrUMk mnd Foreign 8hippifn§ is a volume publiflbed nmniil] j, sad
containing iDforraation respecting resBels, their age, materials, repairs, owners> captains,
etc. Tliis iuformation is supplied by salaried agents at the different ports. The office
of the RegigUr is quite dlstitict from Lloyd's of the excbange.
The name lMyyd'%^ which is now generically applied, arose from the drcumstanoe
that tlie head-quarters of the London underwriters waa originally Lloyd's coffee-house.
Bee Martin's iJSMory qf IA&yd\ 1876.
LLOTD'8, Austrian, an association for general, commercial, and industrial purposes,
was founded in Trieste by baron Bruck in 1888, to supply the want, experienced by the
maritime insurance companies of that port, of a central administration to attend to their
common interests. This association, like its London prototype, has agents in all the
principal foreign ports, whose duty it is to collect all information of a nature to affect
the commerce and navigation of Trieste, and to keep a list of all entrances and clearances
of ships at their respective ports. This information is published in the Giamale del
LUn/d Austriaco, This company has established regular communication between Trieste
and all the important seaports in the Adriatic and Levant, b^ means of a large fleet of
steamers, which also carry the Austrian mails. The society of Austrian Lloyd's includes
three sections: the first is composed Of insurance companies, the second of steamboat
companies, while the third or scientific department (established in 1849) has a printing-
press, an engraving-room, and an artistic establishment for the perfecting of engraving
on copper and steet This last section has issued a great number of literary and scientific
journate.
LLOYD'S BOVDfly the name given to a species of securities introduced by Mr. John
Horatio Lloyd, the eminent barrister, and much employed by railway and other com-
panies, whose power of borrowing money on mortgage or bond is derived from and
limited by acts of parliament. A Llovd's bond is an admission under seal of a debt being
due by the company issuing the bona to the person in whose favor it is executed, with
a covenant to pay the sum due at a time fixed, and to pay interest at a certain rate from
the time of issue until payment. The covenant is made by the company, iheir successors
and assigns, with the obligee, his executors and administrators; so that a Lloyd's bond
on the face of it is not assignable, and is not, properly speaking, a negotiable instrument.
The value of it consists in its converting a simple contract or ordinary debt into a spe-
cialty debt, by which the holder gains a preference over ordinary creditors; and in its
enabling the holder, armed with tliis preference, to raise money upon the faith of the
debt, either by assignins; his interest in it, or by depositing the bond as a security
for advances. A valid Lloyd's bond, as a security, appears to be inferior to a deben-
ture issued under statutory authority in no respect except that its validity can be put in
question.
As railway and other companies which have come into existence under parliamentary
authority have no powers except those which parliament has conferred upon them, their
power of borrowing is limited to the amounts and must be exercised in the manner
which parliament has prescribed. By the act 7 and 8 Vict. c. 85, s. 19, it is declared
illegal for them to grant any loan-notes, or other negotiable or assignable instrument, in
security of money advanced, except so far as they are authorized by statute. In general,
they have statutory authority to borrow only when a certain portion (usually the whole)
of their capital has been subscribed, and a certain portion of it has been paid up. And
the statute 8 and 9 Vict. c. 16 (the companies' clauses consolidation act) provides that
their power of borrowing must be exercised under the authority of a general meeting.
Previous to the introduction of Lloyd's bonds, these restrictions upon borrowing really
limited the liabilities of companies. They were severely felt by companies whose worM
were being made or being extended; which often were in need of money, which it was
impoasible or impolitic to raise by means of calls, and whose borrowing powers bad not
oome into operation, or could not conveniently be resorted to. Mr. Lloyd relieved such
companies from their difficulties, and to a certain extent defeated the intentions of par-
liament by taking advantage of the faqt that companies, if they were prevented from
borrowing, were not prohibited from getting into debt in any other way, and granting
acknowledgments of their indebtedness in any form except perhaps that of a negotiable
instrument. For work done, for goods delivered, for anything except money advanced,
the directors of a company might ^nt admissions of indebtedness; and Mr. Lloyd sup-
plied a form in which such admissions would become almost as binding on a company as
a statutory debenture, in which they could be sufliciently marketable, in which they could
be conveniently granted by directors on account of all the important objecu for the sake
of which they could desire to borrow to any extent, without the sanction of a general
meeting of the shareholders. The only drawback upon the usefulness (for their porpcee)
of Lloyd's bonds has been, that they have only been negotiable at high rates of discount;
but this has not prevented companies from using them, in many cases to a dangerous
extenu There ara instances in which lines have l:^en, for the moet part, made by means
of Lloyd's bonds; and tfaey lutve constantly been used simply as m colorable means of
eluding the statutory restrictions upon borrowing. On the other hand, they have been
of considerable service to companies in the first period of their existence: and that, on the
whole, they are thought to have been useful may perhaps 1^ in^^:iq|d^f^i|ljheir implied
105 S2?*-
under this act, every company requires to prepare half-yearly.
It results, from what has been stated, that a Lloyd's bond cannot be granted for
money lent, but can be gninted for any other antecedent debt. It cannot be granted for
money lent, though the money has actually been used in paying off debts for which
bonds miglit have been granted. The bond should state the origin of the debt on
account of which it is granted, but this is not essential. The courts will in no case
assume that a Lloyd's bond has been issued in breach of statutory provisions; but evi-
dence of an intention to defeat such provisious will invalidate a bond. If there have
been no actual debt (as ma^ happen when a company's accounts with a contractor are
unsettled), the instrument will not create one; and in that case, the obligee or holder
will not be able to recover, even though the obligee bond fide believed that a debt existed.
Directors are not personally responsible upon a Lloyd's bond improperlv issued. The
leading case upon this subject is that of Chambers «. the Manchester and Milford-Haven
railway company (5 Best and Smith's Rep., 588), decided by the court of qaeen's bench
in June, 1864. A review of the whole series of cases on this subject up to the date of
the decision will be found in the case of In, re Bagnalstown and Wexford railway com-
pany, 1870 (Irish Reports, 4 £q. 505). The form of this instrument (which must be duly
stamped) is as follows: **The A. and B. railway company do hereby acknowledge that
thev stand indebted to C. D. in the sum of £1000 for money due and owing from the
said company to the said C. D., in respect of work and labor done for the said company
by the said C. D. And the said company for themselves, their successors and assigns,
hereby covenant with the said C. D^ his executors and administrators, to pay to him, his
executors, administrators, and assigns, the said sum of £1000 upon the 1st day of May,
1869, and also interest thereon at the rate of 5 per cent per annum from the date hereof
until payment; such interest to be payable half-yearly, on the 1st day of January, and
the 1st day of July in eachye^ir. — Given under the common seal of the said company,
tlielst day of May, 18^6.— X Y., Secretary:'
LLUXATOB', or. Lluch-Mator, a t. of the island of Majorca, in an inland situation,
among mouniains, 15 m. s.e. from Polma. It has manufactures of linen and woolen
fabrics. Wine and brandy are also produced. Pop. 7,000.
LOACH, OobitU, a genus of fishes of the familv cyprintda, having an elongated body,
covered with small scales, and invested with a thick mucous secretion; a small head, a
small toothless mouth surrounded with 4 to 10 barbules; small gill-opening, and three
branehiostegous rays. One species, the Common Loach {C. barbatufa), called in Scot-
land the beardie, is common in rivers and brooks in Britain. It seldom exceeds 4 inches
in length; is yellowish-white, clouded, and spotted with brown; feeds on worms and
aquatic insects; and is highly esteemed for the table. It generally keeps vei7 close to
the bottom of tlie water. — ^The Lakb Loach (O.foss&ie) of the continent of Europe, is
sometimes a foot long, with longitudinal stripes of brown and yellow. It inhabits the
mud of stagnant waters, coming to the surface only in stormy weather. The flesh is
soft and has a muddy flavor.
LOABSTOHZ, or Maoketig Ibon Ore, a mineral consisting of a mixture of peroxide
of iron and protoxide of iron; sometimes occurring in grains, as %r<m sand, in trap rocks,
sometimes in beds in primitive rocks, as in Scandinavia, where it is a valuable ore of
iron. It is remarkable for its highly magnetic quality; and indeed magnetism was first
known as belonging to it. It is of a black color; and occurs in concretions, and crystal-
lized in octahedrons and rhomboidal dodecahedrons.
lOAX {Qer. Lehm, allied to Lat. limue, mud, and to lime, BUmeYtLierm much employed
by agriculturists and others to designate a soil consisting of a mixture of clay, sand, and
lime, with animal and vegetable matters in a state of intimate mixture. The clay varies
from 20 to 50 per cent; the proportion of lime is generally not more than 5 per cent.
Loamv soils are among the best and most fertile of soils. They are not stiif and tenacious
like clay soils, and they are much more fertile than sandy soils. Even in mere mechani-
cal properties, they are superior to both. The "clay" used for making bricks is often
really a loam in which the proportion of true clay is large. In Italy, France, and otlier
countries, walls are made of loam beaten down between planks placed at the requisite
width; and these walls become very solid, and ladt for centuries.
LOAN, in law (Loak of Money, aiite), siEcnifies either the delivery of money or
any personal chattel by one person to another for which an equivalent return is to he
made; or the bailment of a personal chattel to be returned in kind. In the case of the
ban fint mentioned, if the thing loaned be other than money, and its equivalent be not
returned to the lender, he may recover its value with interest, if so specified, and costs,
in a suit at law. But the spcdflc article Itself cannot be recovered at law, since th(» award
of damages offers the lender, as a rule, a sufficient remedy. Yet equity will sometimes
enforce specific performance of such a contract. But equity will not enforce, for
instance, a contract for the delivery of a stock of which shares are easily procurable.
The most ordinary contract of loan f6r which an equivalent is to be returned is a loan
•ftK: 106
for money. This loan makes the parties to it debtor^itid credKor, iDit«ad of Mlor anu
bailee. If there have been no express contract of loan, the law will imply oim, with
interest to be computed from the time tbe loan was made. The second class of loaas
belongs to the class of gratuitous bailments, the delivery of an article to the bailee, for
his use» without compensation, and on condition of its return to the bailor. As this
kind uf bailment is entirely to the advantage of the bailee, he is bound to use extraor-
dinary care, and is responsible for slight negligence, in the use of the bailment. He is
not responsible for the natural deterioration by ordinary wear and tear of the article
delivered, but with that exception must return tbe article to the bailor in as good con-
dition as when it was received. The diligence to which the bailee is held in the care of
the property depends upon its character and value, and tbe circumstances to which it is
exposed, if the bailee refuse to deliver the property when the bailment has expired,
after demand made, he may be sued in trover or replevin.
LOAN ASSOCIATION, BUILDING. See Co-opkratiok.
LOAN'DA, ST. PAUL DE. See Saint Paul db Loanda, anie,
LOAH'OO, a maritime kin^om of s.w. Africa, extends on the coast from cape
Lopez, in lat. 0"* 44' s., to the nver Congo or Zaire, ^hich separates it on the s. from tne
country of Congo. Forests cover a great portion of the country, which is mountainous
towara tbe B.e. On the coast the surface is level and fertile; the interior is not yet
•well known. Formerly, the chief trade was in slaves; ivory and wax now form the
chief exports. The inhabitants are skillful in the manufacture of baskets, variously dyed
mats, grass cloth, wooden spoons, figures, etc. At the town of Kabinda, near the n.
bank of the Congo (pop. from 10,000 to 18,000), boats and canoes, the former almost
equal to those of English make, are built. Trade is free to all nations. The king is
considered a divinity, and the government is an absolute despotism. Polygamy prevails,
and a man's wives are, at his death, handed down by inheritance, like the rest of his
goods. The religion is an idolatrous superstition. Loango, the chief town, is situated
180 m. n. of the mouth of the Congo river, near the coa^t. The pop., including the
villages in the vicinity, amounts to about ^.000.
liOAV OF XOITET is an implied contract, by which B, the borrower, agrees to pay
L, the lender. There are various modes by which B gives an acknowledgment for a
loan, as by giving a bond or a promissory note, or 1 O U (q. v.), the last of which requires
no stamp. But no writing is necessary to constitute the contract, which may be proved
by parole, and often is proved by the lender's oath, confirmed by circumstantial evi-
dence or letters of tbe borrower. The debt must in general be sued for in six veaxs in
Eoglaud and Ireland. In Scotland, a borrower is much more favored, for there are
only two ways of proving the loan If it exceeds £S 68. 8d., viz., bv some writing of the
borrower, or by staking the truth as to whether the money is really due on the borrow-
er's oath. Hence, if a hundred witnesses saw the loan advanced, but there was no
writing, or the borrower, when put to it, denied it on oath, he can escape liability
entirely.
LOAflA'OEJBi a natural order of exogenoos plants, natives of America, and chiefly
from the temperate and warmer parts of it. There are about seventy known species,
herbaceous plants, hispid with stmging hairs. They have opposite or alternate leaves,
without stipules, and axillary 1 -flowered peduncles. The calyx is 4 to 5 parted ; the petals
S, or, by an additional inuer row, 10; often hooded. The stamens are numerous, in several
rows, sometimes in bundles. The ovary is inferior, 1-celled; the fruit capsular or suc-
culent.— Some of the species are frequently to be seen in hot-houses and flower-gardens.
The genus U>asa sometimes receives the popular name of Chili Nettle.
LOBAU, an island about 5 ra. below Vienna, in the Danube; is noted for its connec-
tion with the battle of Aspern. between Napoleon I. and the Austrians under archduke
Cliaries, May 21-2, 1809. Napoleon connected it by bridges with both banks, and
crossed to the left bank on the 21st. On the night of the 22d, the defeated French
regained the island and held it until July 4. when the river was again crossed and the
battle of Wagram won on July 6. The title count Lobau was bestowed on gen. Mouton
for conduct in the first attempt.
LO'BAn, a t. of Saxony, 40 m. e. of Dresden. Near it are mineral springs and bathing
establishments. It has tanneries, mills, and bleaching-fields. In the ancient Eaihhaui,
the deputies of the six towns of Lusatia met from 1310 to 1814 " Lobau diamonds" are
crystals found here. Pop. 75. 6,226.
LOBAU. Gborgbs Mouton. Comtede, 1770-1888; b. France. A favorite and impetu-
ous soldier in the campaigns of Napoleon, and by him made count of Lobau, in com-
pliment for his valuable service in the Austrian campaign of 1809. He was taken by
the English at Waterloo; returned to France in 1818; and was in obscuritv until tbe
revolution of 1880, when on the resignation of Lafayette he was made commanding general
of the national guard of Paris. Hedistlnguiphed himself at this time by suppressing a
series of gatherings on the streets of Paris intended to organize a revolution in favor of tbe
Bonaparte dynasty, by deluging the mob with water from fire-engines. The success of
the experiment was the theme of innumerable caricatures. . ,.,,,, ,.^
*^ Digitized by VjOOV IC
107
LOBEIRA, or LOYEIRA, Yabco ds, -a Portugaese writer of the 1401 c.; d. 14M.
Sducated to the profession of arms» he was eminent only as the author or sappoaed
author of a romance that has survived the centuries^ and which appeared under the title
of Lm qucUro$ Ubrod del Cacallero Amadis de Gaula. It is known in the French trans-
hition as UAmadii de Gaul.
IX>BBL, or D£ L'OBEL, MArmiAB, 1688-1616; b. Lille. France; educated as a
phyaictan. He traveled through Europe, and was at one time physician to William of
Orai^e; afterwards given a position as botanist in England under James L He was a
doee student of vegetable pbysiol(>gy, making new classitications by means of evident
analogies of growth. The class of plants called LobeUa was named in compliment to him.
He was author of Stirpium Adversaria Nana, London, 1570; Plantarufn seu Stirpium Ilu'
toria, Antwerp, 1576; and leone* Stirpium^ Antwerp, 1581.
L0BSXIA, a genus of exogenous plants of the natural order lobeliacea. This order is
nearly allied to eampanuUtceoB, one of the most conspicuous differences being the irregu-
lar corolla. It contains almost 400 known species, natives of tropical and temperate
climates, abounding chiefly in damp woods in America and the n. of India. They are
generally herbaceous or half -shrubby, and have a milky juice, which is often very acrid,
and often contains much caoutchouc. A poisonous character belongs to the order, and
some are excessively acrid, as tupafuiUeiy a Chilian and Peruvian plant, of which the
very smell excites vomiting; yet the succulent fruit of one species, ceritropogon gitrina-
nienmtt^ is eatable. — The genus Lobelia is the only one of this order of which any species
are British. TheWATBB Lobbua {L.dortmanna) is frequent in lakes with gravelly bottom,
often farming a green carpet underneath the water with its densely matted, sub-cylin-
drical leaves. The flowers are blue, the flowering stems rising aliove the water. — To
this genus belong many favorite gardeit flowers, as the beautiful Cardinal Flowers
{L. eardinalu, L. fulgem, and L. epUndene) and the Blue Cardinal {L. sypkilUiea),
natives of the warmer parts of North America, perennials, which it is usual to protect
during winter in Britain. To this genus belongs also the Indian Tobacco of North
America (Z^. injUUa), an annual, with an erect stem, a foot h^h or more, with blue flow-
ers, which has been used as a medicine from time immemorialby the aborigines of Noith
Auierica, and was introduced into this country in 1820 by Dr. Kecoe. Both the flower-
ing'herb and the seeds are iniported. It is the former, compressed in oblong cukes,
which is chiefly employed. The chemical constituents of Lobelia are not accurately
known. A liquid alkaloid, lobelina, and a peculiar acid, to which the term lobeiie acid
has been applied, have been obtained from it.
In small doses, it acts as diaphoretic and expectorant; in full doses (as a scruple of
the powdered herb), it acts as a powerful nauseatinff emetic; while in excessive doses,
or in full doses, too often repeated, it is a powerml acro-narcotic poison. It is the
favorite remedy of a special class of empirics, and consequently deaths from its admin-
istration are by no means rare. Physicians seldom prescribe it now, except in cases of
asthma.
In a case of poisoning by this drug, the contents of the stomach should be withdrawn
as speedily as possible. If the stomach pump is not at hand, an emetic of sulplmte of
zinc or of mustard should be administered.
LOBIPE'DIBf, a family of birds of the order grdQa, nearly allied to ralUdm (rails,
crakes, gallinules, etc.), but differing m having the toes separately margined on both
sides with a scolloped membrane, thus forming an interesting connecting link with tha
weh-fooied birds, or order palmipedes. The geneml appearance of many of the lobipedidft
also approaches to that of the anatidm. Coots and phalaropes are examples of this
family. They are all aquatic, some of them frequenting fresh, and others salt water;
some often found far out at sea on banks of sea-weed.
LOBLOLLY BAY. Bee Gordonia, avie.
LdBLOUT-BOT. the name applied on board ship to the man who assists the medical
oflScers in tlie •* sicfc-bay," or hospital.
LOBO. Jeronimo, 1505*1678; b. Lisbon; Joined the <^er of Jesnf ts in 1609; was
made in 1621 professor in the Jesuits' eoUi)|!;e at Coimbra. but ordered to resdignand repair
as a missionary to India, embarked in 1622, and arrived in Goa the same year. In 1634
he left India and went to Abyssinia to Christianize ilmt country, whose ruler bad been
converted to the Roman Catholic faith by father Paea in 160ft. Disembarking on the
coast of Mombas and vainly attempting to enter Abyssinia bv land, be returned, and
the next year, renewing the attempt, he landed on the coast of the Red sea with Mendez,
the patriarch of Ethiopia, and eight missionaries, and reached Fremona, where was the
missionary Settlement. Here he remained for several years as superior of the missions
in the state of Tlgre, and was very successful. The death of the emperor Segued leaving
the Roman Catholics without a protector, Lobo and all the Portuguese, numbering 400.
with the patriard). bishop, and 18 Jesuits, were expelled by his successor from the
country. All fell into the hands of the Turks at Massowah, and Lobo was jsent to India
to procure a ransom for his imprisoned associates. He accomplished bis object, but
Was tinsuccessful in his endeavor to induce the Portuguese viceroy to send an army
against Abyssinia. He then embarked for Portugal, was shipv^^je^k^ ^BfJ^?^ ^
Katal atid captured bv pirates. Reaching Lisbon ho was sent to Madrid, as Portugal
was then under the King of Spain, and endeavored to enlist tlie government in his
8cheme to convert Abyssinia to the Roman church by force. But neither at Lisbon,
Madrid, nor Paris did his plan meet with favor. He then set out for Rome to lay his
favorite idea before the pope, but here also he received no encouragement. He returned
to India in 1640, and became rector and afterwards proviociai of the Jesuits at Qoa.
Returning to Lisbon in 1656 he engaged in literary pursuits, and in 1659 published the
narrative of his journey to Abyssinia, entitled ifi^^ria de Ethiopia, which was translated
into French by the abbe Legrand, who added a continuation of the Roman Catholic
missions in Abyssinia after Lobo's departure, and an account of the expedition of
Poncet, a French surgeon from Egypt. This is followed by some dissertations on the
history, religion, government, etc., of Abyssinia. The whole was translated into Eng-
lish by Dr. Johnson in 1785. Lobo was remarkable for enterprise and perseverance.
lO'BOS ISLAKD8, two small groups of rocky islands on the coast of Peru, famous
for the great quantity of guano which they produce. The southern point of the
northern group, Lobos de JHerra, is in s. lat. 6° 29'; the southern group, Lobo» de Affuera,
is 25 m. farther south. The northern group is about 12 m. from the mainland. The
principal inland of this ^oup is about 6 m. long and 2 m. broad. The southern group
consists chiefly of two islands separated by a narrow channel, the largest being about
2 m. long.
LOBSTEBi HoTnarus, a genus of crustaceans of the order decapoda, suborder maeroura
(see Ckayfish), differing from crayfish (astaeu9\ to which, in general form and char-
acters, they are very similar, in havmg tlie rostrum in front of the carapace not depressed
but straight, and armed with many teeth on each side, and the last ring of the thorax not
movable but soldered to the preceding one. Th6 Coicmon Lobster (H. mUgaris), found in
creat plenty on rocky coasts of Britain and most parts of Europe, is too well known to require
description. It sometimes attains such a size as to weigh 12 or 14 lbs. when loaded with
spawn, although a lobster of 1 lb. weight, or even less, is deemed very fit for the market.
It is needless to say how highly the lobster is esteemed for the table. It is in best season
from Oct. to the beginning of May. Its beautifully clouded and varied bluish-black
color changes to a nearly uniform red in boiling. It is found In greatest abundance
in clear water of no great depth, and displays great activity in retreating from danger,
using iis powerful tuil-fin for swimminsr, or almost springing through the water and
thrusting itself into holes of the rocks winch seem almost too small to admit its body.
The claws are powerful weapons of defense; one is always larger than the other, and
the pincers of one claw are knobbed on the inner edge, those of the other are serrated.
It is more dangerous to be seized by the serrated than by the knobbed claw. Lobsters
are sometimes caught by the hand, which requires dexterity; but they are more fre-
quently taken in traps of various kinds, sometimes made of osier twigs, sometimes a
kind of nets, sometimes pots, but always baited with animal garbage. The supply of
lobsters sent to market, chiefiy to London, from the coasts of all parts of Britain has of
late years greatly fallen off from over-fishing. Lobsters are very voracious; they are
also very pugnacious, and have frequent combats among themselves, in which limbs
are often lost; but the loss is soon repaired by the growth of a new limb, rather smaller
than the old one. Like crabs, they frequently chance their shelly covering, and for a
short time before their molting are very languid and inert. Their growth takes place
during the time when the shell is soft, and with extraordinary rapidity. — The American
Lobster (//. Amerieamul) has claws much larger in proportion than the common lobster.
— The Norway Lobster {nephrops NorvegiciLs) is frequently taken on the British coasts,
and appears in the markets. The eyes are kidney-shaped, and not roimd as in the
common lobster. The claws have bIbo a more slender and prismatic form, and the
color is a pale flesh-color. It is said by some to be the most delicate of all the crusta-
ceans; by others, to be inferior to the common lobster.— The Spiny Lobster, or Sea
Crayfish {palinurus vulgaris), is not uncommon on the rocky coasts of Britain, particu-
larly in the south. It is believed to be the karabos of the Greeks and the loeusta of the
Romans. It attains a length of about 18 inches. The shell is very hard, and the whole
body is rough with short spines. The antennee are very long, much longer than those
of the common lobster. There are no claws or pincers, the first pair of &et being very
similar to the othera The spiny lobster is brought to market in London and elsewhere,
but is inferior to the common lobster. — Other species of these genera are found in other
parts of the world.
LOBSTER {ante). A mere inspection will show that a lobster is composed of two
principal parts. These are commonly called the head and the tail. That which is
called the head is really the head and the thorax combined, and is technically called the
cephalothorax; while the part called the tail is the abdomen. Like all annulosa (artic-
ulata), the lobster is composed of a number of annular segments, or parts representing
cuch, with members — legs, jaws, claws, feelers, etc. — attaclied to them, the whole being
inclosed in a chituous shell. See Chitin, anU. These segments may be separated one
br one, with the members attached to them, and examined. Each segment is composed
ox a convex upper plate called the tergum. and closed beneath by a flatter plate called
Ihe sternum, while the side of the m^gment is called the bleuron. TI\9Sf;^ figments are
109
Ijo^U
ttiiBnlidiTided into parts which ara amalgamated, but it is suffldent for the purposes
^tkis article to give only a general description, lliere are dl segments in the Tvhole
bod/. 7 in the heui, 7 in the thorax, and 7 in the abdomen. The cephalothorax, or the
pirt called the head, is covered with a shield or carapace, sometimes called the cephalic
bockler, composed of an enormous development of tergal or dorsal pieces. The first
ttgrneot of the head is provided with long, movable eye-stalks or peduncles, bearing
apon tbeh ends the compound eyea The next six segments of the head, from before
bickwsrds, are furnished with: first, the antennules or fimaller antennee, each composed
of a basilar piece called a protopodite, and two somewhat elongated feelers or antenofle;
next, the hu-ger antenn», each composed of a protopodite, and a single, greatly elon-
gated feeler; next, the biting jaws or mandibles between which is the aperture of the
DOQih, bounded behind by a forked process called the labium, and in front by a broad
piate called the labrum or upper lip. The next two segments after this are provided
vUk appendages called, respectively, the first and second pairs of maxillae, each situ-
itfid upon a protopodite, with terminal joints, which in the first pair are rudimentaiy,
but in the second are provided with spoon-shaped joints, called scaphognathites, whose
d&xx is to cause a current of water to pass through the gill-chamber bv constantly bailinpc
water oat of it The next and last segment of the head (according to Huxley this belonga
to the thorax) bears one of the three pairs of modified limbs, called maxillipedes, or
fodt-jaw]?. These are legs with the ordinary structure of a protopodite, and three other
joJQta added, called exopodite, endopodite, and epipodite. These limbs are modified so
IS to aid the purposes or mastication. This description applies to the next two pairs of
segmeDts, and which belong to the thorax, according to the usual division. The third
pair of appendages of the thorax (the fourth according to Huxley) are the great claws,
orcfaels. The next two pairs of th(»«cio limbs are also provided with nippers or chelae,
'mt they are much smaller. The last two pairs are similar, except that they are termi-
nated by simple, pointed joints, and not chelae. These last two pairs, however, dilPer, in
Uiat the next last pair has attached to its protopodite a process which serves to keep the
gills apart Of the segments of the abdomen, seven in number, five-^all except the first
and laat— are provided with appendages called swimmerets. Each swimmeret consists
of a bsfial joint and two diverging joints. The basal joint is the protopodite, the outer
of tht diverging joints the exopodite, and the inner one the endopodite. In next to the
last segment (the last one which has appendages), the swimmerets are greatly expanded,
so aa to form powerful paddles. The last segment of the abdomen is called the telson;
i: bag no appendages, and for this reason some authorities do not regard it as a segment,
Irtit as an azygos appendage, or, in other words, an appendage without a fellow. The
Sist segment of the abdomen will be seen to be consiaerably modified from those bear-
.3g swimmerets. — An esophagus leads from the mouth into a globular-^nped stomach,
coutaioing a calcareous apparatus for grinding food. This kind of mill is called the
isd^ in the U)b$Ur. The intestine passes without convolutious in a nearly straight course
U)the aoal aperture, which is situated on the under-side just in front of the telson. The
obster has a well developed liver, consisting of two lobes, which enter the intestine by
separate ducts. The heart is a muscular sack situated in the back just beneath the cara^
place, and opens by valvular apertures into a surrounding venous sinus, called (improp-
erly) the pericardium. The gills are pyramidal, lance-shaped bodies, situatea imme-
diately beneath the heart and attached to the bases of the legs. Each consists of a
(mxrii stem supporting numerous laminse. and they arc unprovided with cilia. Water
is propelled through them by the movements of the legs ana by the spoon-shaped joint
'^f the second pair of maxillse above-mentioned, which is constantly in motion, bailing
oat water in front of the branchial chamber, thus allowing the entrance of fresh water
tlimagfa the posterior aperture. The nervous system is situated along the ventral sur-
face of the body, and consists of a series of eanglia united by commissural cords. Two
compound eyes, two pairs of antennas or feelers, and two ears in the form of sacks com-
rm the special organs of sense. The arrangement of the muscular system is in general
-ike that of lUI articulates.
LOB- WORM, a species of dorsibranchiate annelid belonging to the genus a/renieola, -
irder errand. It has the specific name a pmatorium from oeing used by fishermen
for bait It lives in deep canals, which it hollows out of the sand on the sea-shore, eat-
Dff its way and passing the sand through the alimentary canal to extract whatever
autrinient it may contain. It has a large head without eyes or jaws, and a short pro-
boscis, and 13 pairs of gills, placed on each side of the middle of the body. See Inyek-
TXBRATB ANIMALB.
LOCAL PREACHERS. An order of lay preachers in the Methodist churches, their
iame distinguishing them from the itinerant or traveling preachers. They are not, as
'■iic regular preachers are, members of annual conferences, nor are they, like them,
ujpointed by the bishops or stationing committees. They are licensed, and are sub-
jettKl to the direction of the pastor or presiding elder in whose charge they reside,
^mctimcs a local preacher, by special arrangement and by the authority of the presiding
tl^cr, is appointed a pastor for a specified period. For appointment as a local preacher
& perH>n must be recommended by the leader's meeting of the church to which ht
l^ioDgs, and must be elected by a Quarterly conference before which he has been exam-
^ "^ Digitized by VjUUVIC
110
iuoii as to doctrines nod dtseipliM. As proof at his sppolotmsnt he reosrresi^Jiasiifle
sigiiCMi by the prctddent of the cooiereiice* ^hich is for oae year only, and maMhe
reuc WL<1 tivery year af terwards* For ^ordination, a local preacher must h«v^ heM a Ideal
preacher's license for four conseculive years, must havs been examined in the <|Uariei1y
coufereoco on doctrines and discipline, must have received a ''testimonial "from the
qiiurterly conference siened by the president and secretary, and must pass an examina-
tion as to character and attainments beforS'tlie annual conference.
The office of local preacher -was instituted by W^ley< These preachers are laymen
who Kupport themselves by their secular business during the week, and preach on tbe
Lord's day, mostly in poor or new churches, receiving, with rave exoeptions, no fee or
reward for their services. Their number in tbe United States in all the Methodist bodies
is about 22,000. A national local preaohers' association has been formed, which meets
annually for counsel and the discussion of questions pertaining to their work. Branch
associations have been formed in various parts of the United States. In fioglnnda Local
Frea4uufnf Maffemne is published.
LOCARNO. See Lago Magoiorb.
LOCHABEB AU, an a^e with a curved handle and very broad blada It was the
ancient weapon of die highlanders, and was carried by the old, city guard of Edinburgh.
IiOCH^HIi a picturesque t, of Franco, in the department of Indr&«trLoire, on the
left bank of the ludre, 25 m. s.o. of Tours. Pop 7^ 8,689. The castle of Locdtts (now
a niin) acquired a fearful reputation during, the reign of Louis XL as the- scene of those
deedd of crucltv which were so horrible thAt they had to be done in utter darkness and
secrecy. At a later period, James V. of Scotland was married in this castle to Magdalen
of France; and stf 11. later, Francis L received here, in splendid state, the emperor Charles
y. on his way from Spain to Ghent
LOCHRANE, Osbornb A., b. Middletown, Armagh, Ireland, 1839. Before com-
pleting his education he had indulged in such violent denunciations of the British
government that his father, in order to place him beyond the reach of prosecution, sent
im to New York, where he arrived Dec. 21, 1846. He soon afterwards went to Georgia,
where his fluency as a public speaker attracted the attention of an eminent citizen, by
whose advice he studied law. Having been admitted to the bar in 1849 he opened an
ofllce in Savannah, but soon removed to Macon, where, from 1861 to 1865, he was judge
of the circuit court In the latter year he removed to Atlanta, and in 1870t was made
judge of that circuit. In 1871 he was appointed chief-justice of the state supreme court,
but resigned at the end of that year to resume practice at the bar.
LOCK of a gun is that apparatus bv which the powder is fired. Muskets, in their
earliest use, were fired by the hand applying a slow match to the touch-hole. Towards
the end of the 14th c, the first improvement appeared in the matchlock. This consisted
of a crooked iron lever, in the end of which the match was fixed. By a pin-gear of a
simple nature, pressure on the trigger brought the match accurately down on the powder
pan. of wiiich the lid had previously been thrown forward by the hand. This mode of
firing involved the carrying of several y^ards of slow match, usually wound round the
body and the piece; rain extinguished the match, and wind dispersed the powder in the
pan, so that the matchlock, clumsy withal, was but an uncertain apparatus.
Superior to tbe matchlock was the whed-lock, introduced at Nuremberg in 1517, in
which fire was produced by friction between a piece of flint or iron pyrites and a toothed
wheel. The mechanism which generated the sparks simultaneously uncovered the pan,
so that the dangers from wind and ruin were averted; but, before firing, the apparntus
required to be wound up like a clock, and therefore the charsres could not be frequent.
The wheel lock continued for a long period to be used in Germany, and partially in
France. In the Spanish dominions, however, its place was 8upplie(l by the simpler
contrivjince called the Snaphaunce, Snapphahn, or Asnaphnn Iock, of nearly contempo-
raneous invention, which, acting by means of a spring outside the lock-plate, produced
fire through the concussion of a fiint against the ribbed top of the powder-pan. Its posi-
tions of half and full cock were obtained by the insertion of a pin to stay the operation
of the main-spring. In the middle of the 17th c. iheJUni-iock was invented, combining
the action of the wheel-lock and the snaphaunce, while it was incontestably superior to
either. After combating much prejudice, it was universally adopted in the armies of
western Europe by tbe commencement of the 18th century. Muskets embracing it
obtained the name of " fusils, "a French adaptation of the Italian word facile, &fi\nL With
successive improvements, the fiint-iock continued in general use until the introiluction
of the percussion-lock almost in our own da]^; and among eastern and barbaric nations the
flint-lock is still extant. Its great superiority over the snaphaunce consisted in the
** tuml»ler "* (of which presentl}) and the **sccar," appliances still retained in the percus-
sion lock, wiiich enabled the positions of half and full cock to be taken up without the
intervention of pins, always uncertain in their action.
The principle of the percussion-lock is the production of fire by the falling of a
hammer upon detonating powder, the explosion of which penetrates to the charge m the
barrel of the mm. The first pr clical applicaticui of this principle to fire-arms is due to
the rev. Mr. Foreyth of Belhelvic. in Ahrrdeenshire. Various forms in which to ii^ite
the detonating powder have be en deviled, but that generally accepted until within the
Ill KIT"?-
Mfew yesn was A» copperHoap, fitting tightly on the nipple of the gnn, diarged with
a dotonating compound, &nd esploded by the hammer falKng upon it. The miiia-spriog
communicatee through tiie swivel with the tumbler, which tonaentrically with the
btmmer moivea on t£e tnmbler-oaiL After the hammer has detivered its strotie, its f ur*
tb«r progress in tlss dirsotiOQ rfiq«ii«d by the spring is barrsd by the nipple. On pulling
back the faamour to the posilian of iiakf-cock the tumbler tvrus with it, and the pointed
end of the soear (which moves on tkescear-nHit as center), Influenced by the scear-spring
falls into a* notch in the tumbler. On forehig back the hammer to full-cock, however,
the scear will move down to a shallower notch ; and on the lever end of the scear being
raiaed by the trigger, it brings down the liammer with a heoivy blow on the cap. To
keep the works irm^ in thfiir saveml places, a "bridle'' is screwed over them Which
includes the pin through the tumbler hi its width.
8ince the adoption of breech-loading arms, the action of the lock is so far varied that
the hammer usually falls on a movable pin, which is impelled against a detonating
cbaige phkced in the body of the cartridge itself. A spiral spring around the pin brings
it tnck to the position necessary for another blow. The advantage of this arrangement is
that one operatibn of loading is substituted for the double processof loading and capping.
LOGS! on a river or canal, is an arrangement of two parallel floodgates^ by which
communication is secured between two reaches of diHerent levels. When locks weiQ
first introduced, is not known within a hundred years, nor is it clear whether Holland
or Italy can claim the distinctifui of, having, first employed them. This much, however,
can be affirmed with certainty, that at the beginning of the 17th c. locks existed in both
countries, and it is probable that, the v were arrived at gradually by successive improve-
ments in the mode of rendering snallow rivers navigable. Obviousljr, the first step
would have been to dam the stream across at intervals, leaving gates in the dams for
the passage of vessels. This measure would have divided the river into reaches or steps,
each, as u,e source was ^preached, being higher above the sea than the one last passed.
But the passage up or down— and especially up— such a stream must be extremely
slow, as at each dam a vessel must wait until the gate has been opened, and the level
equalized in the reach it is in» and that on which it is proposed to enter. Where the
reaches were far apart, a large body of water would require to be raised or lowered,
and the process could not but be. tedious. The medissval engineers next tried to place
the dams as near together as possible, but expense limited this. The course then was
to build two dams, with floodgates, just far enough apart to allow a vessel to float
within. Under this arrangement, only the section between the dams had to be raised
or lowered. The cost of thus doubly damming a wide river, however, was very great,
and it was an easy transition of idea to remove the passage from the main stream al to-
gether and construct a lock with double gates which should open at one end above and
at the other below the dam or weir. The economy of money in building, and of time
and water in working, was obvious; and on this principle all locks are now made,
wherever there is trafflc of any importance. The arrangement consists of two pairs of
gates, opening up the stream, and offering, when shut, a salient angle to the stream or
upper pressure. The effect is that the weight above only tends to close the gates still
tighter. When a vessel is to be brought from one level to the other, it is floated into
the '' pound." as the space between the upper and lower gates is called. The gates are
then shut, and a sluice in the lower part of the upper gate raises the surface of the
pound, or the sluice in ihe lower gate depresses it in a few minutes to the level of the
upper or lower reach, as the case may oe. These sluices are worked by racks in
the gates, and the ponderous gates themselves are moved with the aid of long and heavy
levers. Of course, one pair of gates must always be shut,, or the two reaches would
speedily assimilate their levels.
On canals where water is scarce, a reservoir, equal in size to the lock, is formed at
its side. When the pound is to be emptied, the water is run into the reservoir until it
and the lock are at the same level, which will be half height The reservoir is then
closed, and the remaining water in the lock run off tjhrough the lower sluices in the
usual way. On refllling the lock, before opening the upper sluices, one-quarter the
quantity required can be obtained from the reservoir, thus effecting a saving of many
tons of water at each filling.
On rivers advantage is taken of islands for the formation of weirs (q.v.) and locks.
On the Thames the locks are from 2 to 8 m. apart, and the river is locked by upwards
of 50 locks from Teddington to Lechlade. On canals, to economize superintendence,
the locks are usually constructed in " ladders" of several close toficether, like a flight of
stepa Aa the pressure on lock-gates is very great, and varies with the height of water
above, the rise in one lock is rarely more than 8 or 9 ft., although in some instances 12
ft have been accomplished, and in a very few cases even more.
LOCK, a contrivance for securely fa<^tening the door of a building, the lid of a box,
etc. Amongst the earlv Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, locks were used, but their
construction evinced little skill, and they were usually made of hard wood; in fact, they
were little piore than wooden bolts, requiring only the hand to unfasten them. The
first advance upon this was a remarkable one, invented bv the ancient Egyptians; it
contained the principles of the modern tumblerlock; but although still in use amongst
Digitized by VjOUV IC
tMCif,
112
the modern Egyptians and Turks» it has never, in their hands, made any advance^ Tbia
lock consiists of a case, which is nailed to the door; through the case passes a large
wooden bolt, the end of which enters the staple, whilst the opposite end is left exposed.
In the iower part of the holt is a square groove, which has certain round or square holes.
When the bolt is pushed home into the staple, these holes come ezactlv under oorre-
•ponding little cavities in the case, in each of which is placed an upright wiioden pin
with a kuob, which prevents its falling too low: these little pLas consequently fall into
the holes in the bolt when it is pushed far enough, and the door is looked. In order to
unlock it, a bar of wood is passed into the groove in the bolt, aad on the bar there are
the same number of pins of wood placed upright as tliere are holes in the holt and
loose piuB in the chambers of the case; and these upright pins are placed to as to corre-
spoud exactly in size and position to the holes; therefore, when the (Hus reach the holes^
tiiey slip into them and push up the loose pins into their r^pective cavities, and the
boU is then easily pulled back by means of the bar or key. This is simple and ingeni-
ous, but it is very clumsy, and« as usually made in Turkey, is not secure. KevertuSees,
it has been in use longer than any other 'form of lock in existence.
During the middle ages, very complicated and ingenious locks of various kinds were
made, aud as much artistic taste was expended upon the ornamentation of their exter-
nal metal work as there was skill in the interior mechanism. Such locks, however,
were not adapted to general use, and they were only found on the caskets of the wealthy.
The ordinary ward and spring locks were the only ones commonly employed up to the
beginning of the present century, even for important purposes, and this kind of lock is
still in very common use. It consists of a bolt of metal, to which a spring is attached,
and it is moved backward or forward by means of a key, which by raising the bolt com-
presses the spring in the slot, through which it works, and so lets it pass on until out of
the range of the key's action, which turning on a pivot is regulated by the length of its
wards and the depth of a curve cut in the under side of the bolt. In order to prevent
any key of the same size opening all such locks, little ridges of iron are placed in circles
or parts of circles, and wards are cut in the keys so as to correspond with them; hence,
only the key which has openings or wards which will allow the ridges to pass through
them can be used. The bolt has at the end opposite to that which enters the staple a
small piece slit, bent outwards, and tempered hard; this forms the spring; below are
two notches, divided by a curved piece of the bolt; there is another notch, which if the
key entei-s and is tur/ied round it draws the bolt forward or backward in locking or
unlocking, and the spring makes the end of the bolt either drop into one of the notches
or rise up the cui-ve, according to the distance to which it is pulled. The ridges are so
placed as to allow the wards of the key to move freely, and to prevent the entrance of
another key of different arrangement.
The tvmMerloek is the type of another class, and is an advance upon the last; the
two principles are, however, m most cases combined. The principle of the tumbler-
lock will be readily understood by a lock nearly like the former, to which' a description
of the simplest form of tumbler has been added. The bolt has neither the string-
piece nor the notches and curves on the under side, but it has two notches on the upper
side, which are exactly as far apart as the distance moved by the bolt in locking or
unlocking. Behind the bolt is the tumbler, a small plate moving on a pivot, and having
projecting from its face a small square pin, which when the bolt Is locked or unlocked
falls exactly into one or the other of the small notches. There is in the key a notch
which corresponds to the outline of the tumbler. This acts upon the tumbler when
the key is turned, and raises it so as to lift the pin out of the notch in the bolt, and
allow the laiter to be moved freely forward until the other notch comes under the pin,
when the latter falls into and immediat jly stops its further progress, and the action of
the key must be reversed in order to relieve it again. This very simple applicatioa
of the tumbler is sufficient to explain the principle which may be and is varied to an
almost endless extent. Chubb*s justly celebrated lock carries it out most fully, the bolt'
itself being only a series of tumblers, with a notch on the key for each. Brarnah's lock,
patented in 1788, has enjoyed immense reputation, chiefly for cabinets, desks, and other
similar applications; it is very different in principle from those before-mentioned, con-
sisting of a number of movable slides or interior bolts working in an internal cylinder
of the lock, and regulated by the pressure upward or downward of the key acting on a
Epiral spring. For ordinary purposes it is very secure; but when the most perfect
security is required, the beautiful lock invented by Mr. Cotterill of Birmingham, and
the still more ingenious one of Mr. Hobbs of America, must be preferred. These beau-
tiful and complicated pieces of mechanism cannot be described within-the limits of this
article; but ample information upon them and others can be found in Mr. Denison's
Treatise on Locks, and in 27ie Rudimentary Treatise on the Oonstruetion ef Locks, by
Charles Tomlinson.
LOCK (arUe), An important class of locks are what are called permutation and dial
locks, and are used upon burglar-proof safes. One of the principal devices in them is
the employment of a number of wheels, placed near together, on an axis on which they
move independently. These wheels do not interfere with the motion of hach other
except when certain pins are brought in contact, the pins being movable at the will of
Digitized byVjiJUV IC
113 KS;.
the peraon adjusting the lock. In this way one having knowledge of the combination may
arrange the wheels so that certain slots in their peripheries will not coincide, and can-
not be made to coincide, by any one not in possession of the arrangement. The peraon
having such knowledf^e may, however, reaaily place the slots into line and pass a key
throQgh them, by which means alone the bolt of the lock is moved. An ingeniously
arranged dial is placed on the outside of the safe door, through which a bolt passes
attached in the lock to a wheel. This fixed wheel can be turned one way or another,
and, being provided with a pin, the first of the movable wheels may be turned so that its
slot will correspond to any number on the dial. This first movable wheel, being also pro-
vided with a pm upon its disk, is made to turn the second wheel to a certain position,
and so on to Uie last wheel, when, the slots being all brought into line, the key is intro-
ducecL There are a great many varieties of these locks, each possessing various advan-
tages. As burglars often compel the person having the knowledge of the combination
of a lock to reveal the secret, it is often the practice to employ for bank- vaults locks
with a clock-work attachment by means of which the bolt is liberated at a certain hour,
until which time, nobody, not even the person possessing a knowledge of the combina-
ation, can open the lock.
LOCK, or GowTEN, in Scotch law, is the perquisite paid by custom to the miller's
man for grinding corn. See Thirlage.
LOCK, Matthbw, 1685-77; b. Exeter, Eng. ; received instruction in the rudiments
of music from Wake, organist of Exeter cathedra, and completed his studies under
Edward Gibbons. When Charles II. made his entry into Lonoon after the restoration,
Lock was employed to write the music for the occasion, and was afterwards appointed
composer for the kin^. The first piece that bore his name was A LitUe Consort of Three
Parts, for viols and violins. He was the first musician of England who composed music
for the stage; and he wrote the instrumental music in the Tempest and Macbeth. In 1675
he composed the overture and airs to ShadweU's Psyefve, He wrote several sacred pieces
found in the Harmonia Sacra, and in Boyce's OoUeetion of Cathedral Mtisic, which show
him a master of harmony; but his fame rests chieflv on his music in Macbeth, which his
biographer says is ** a lasting monument of the author's creative power and judgment."
He wrote also some controversial musical treatises. A few years before his death he
became a Roman Catholic.
LOCKE, John, was b. at Wrington, near Bristol, on Aug. 29, 1682. His father was
steward to col. Popham, and served under him as capt. in the parliamentary army dur-
ing the civil war. Locke was sent for his education to Westminster school, where he
continued till 1651, when he was elected a student of Christ church, Oxford. There he
went through the usual studies, but seemed to prefer Bacon and Descartes to Aristotle.
His tendency was towards experimental philosophy, and he chose medicine for his pro-
fession. In 1664 he went to Berlin as secretary to the British envoy, but soon returned
to bis studies at Oxford. In 1666 he made the acquaintance of lord Ashley, afterwards
earl of Shaftesbury, and on his invitation went to live at his house. In 167S, when
Shaftesbury became lord chancellor, Locke was appointed secretary of presentations, a
post which he afterwards exchanged for that of secretary to the board of traiie. He was
employed to draw up a constitution for the American province of Carolina, but his arti-
cles on religion were deemed too liberal, and the clergy got a clause inserted, givine; the
favor of the state exclusively to the established church. In 1675 he took up his residence
at Montpellier for the benefit of his health. He had all his life an asthmatic tendency,
which at that time threatened to pass into consumption. At Montpellier, he formed the
acquaintance of the earl of Pembroke, to whom his JSssay is dedicated. In 1679 he
rejoined the earl of Shaftesbury in England ; but in 1682 the earl fled to Holland, to
avoid a prosecution for high treason. Locke bore him company, and so far shared with
him the hostility of the government of James as to have his name erased, bv royal man-
date, from the list of students of Christ church. Even in Holland he was demanded of
the states-general by the English envoy: but he contrived to conceal himself till the
English court ceased to trouble itself on his account. In 1687 his Mlssay on the Under-
standing, begun 17 years before, was finished; and an abridgment of it was published
in French (1688) by his friend, Le Clerc, in his BibUoth^eSj in which Locke had pub-
lished two years before his Method of a Gommonplaee Book. In 1689 appeared (also in
Holland) his first letter on Toleration. But in 1688, the year of the revolution, he came
back to England in the fleet that conveyed the princess of Orange. He soon obtained
from the new government the situation of commissioner of appeals, worth £2(X) a year.
He took a lively interest in the cause of toleration,^ and in maintaining the principles of
the revolution. In 1690 his Essay on the Understanding was published, and met with
a rapid and extensive celebrity; and also a second letter on Toleration, and his well
known Treatises on Government. In 1691 he was engaged upon the momentous ques-
tion of the restoration of the coinage, and published vanous tracts on the subject. In
1692 he brought out a third letter on Toleration, which, as well as the second, was a
reply to the attacks made on the first In 1698 was published his work on JEklueaiion.
In 1695 king William appointed him a commissioner of trade and plantations. In the
same year he publishea his treatise on Ths Beasonableness of Christianity, which was
written to promote William's favorite scheme of a comprehension of all the Christian
V. K. IX.— 8
l<ockb. 1 1 J.
X«o«omotlv«. -^ ^ *
sects in one national cliurch. He maintained a controversy m defense of this book; he
had another controversy in defense of the JSsMp on the UnderHandinff, against StiUing-
fleet, the bishop of Worcester. His feeble health now compelled him to resign his office
of commissioner of plantations, and to ouit London; and he spent the remainder of his
life at Gates, in Essex, at the seat of sir Francis Masham. His last years were vety much
occupied with the study of the Scriptures, on which he wrote several dissertations,
whicn, with his little work, entitled On the Conduct of the Uhdentanding, were pub-
lished after his death. He died Oct. 38, 1704.
Great as was Locke's services to his CQuntry, and to the cause of civil and religious
liberty, his fame rests on the E$say on the Understanding, which marks an epoch in the
history of philosofjhy. His purpose was to inquire into the powers of the human under-
standing, with a view to find out what things it was fitted to grapple with, and where it
must fail, so as to make the mind of man "more cautious in meddling with things
^exceeding its comprehension, and disposed to stop when it is at the utmost extent of its
'tether." This purpose led him to that thorough investigation of the constitution of the
human mind, resulting in the most numerous and important contributions ever made by
one man to our knowledge on this subject. He institutes a preliminary inquiry, in the
sub;ject of the first book, as to the existence of innate ideas, theoretical and practical, on
which the philosophical world has been so much divided. See Common Seitsb. Locke
argues against the existence of these supposed innate conceptions, or intuitions, of the
nund with a force and cogency that appear irresistible. Having thus repudiated the
instinctive sources of our knowledge or ideas, he is bound to show how we come by
them in the course of our experience. Our experience being twofold, external and
internal, we have two classes of ideas — ^those of sensation and those of reflection. He
has therefore to trace all the recognized conceptions of the mind to one or other of these
sources. Many of our notions are obviously derived from experience, as colors, sounds,
etc. ; but some have been disputed, more especially such as space, time, infinity, power,
substance, cause, mere good and evil; and Locke discusses these at length, bv way of
tracing them to the same origin. This is the subject of book second, entitled *'0f
Ideas.^ Book third is on language considered as an instrument of truth, and contains
much valuable material. The fourth book is on the nature, limits, and realitv of our
knowledge, including the nature of demonstrative truth, the existence of a God, the
provinces of faith and reason, and the nature of error.
LOCKE, David Ross, more widely known by his nom de plume of Petroleiim V.
Nasby; b. Vestal, Broome co., K. Y., 1888. He became a printer in the ofiice of the
Cortland Detnoorat, and subsequently publisher and editor of the Fiymouth Advertiser,
the Mdn^/ield Herald, the Bwyyrus Journal, the Mndlay Jeffertonian, and the Toledo Blade,
all in Ohio. In 1860 he begaai the publication of the Kasby letters in the Findlay Jeffer*
BOTvUm, and soon after continued them in the Toledo Blade. They were designed to thro^
ridicule on the fiimsy logic then in vogue to bolster or shield the institution of slavery.
The keenness and pungency of the satires were instantlv recognized wherever read
They soon gained wide circulation, and became a powerful auxiliary to the administra<
tion of Lincoln in aiding to paralyze the efforts of northern sympathizers with the south*
ern cause. In 1866, when president Johnson was seeking popular support for his policj
by traveling in the west with his cabinet, Locke, under the same lunn de plume, made tb(
■expression of ''swinging round the circle" as ridiculous and notorious as possible, bj
grotesquely journalizing the daily doines of the cortege. As an editor ]klr. Locke v
remarkable u>r terse ana vigorous thought and diction; and whether humorous or seri<
ous is always a trenchant writer. It is his misfortune, however, to have courted popui
larity among men of low tastes, and the tendency of his writings has been of late to f
lower grade of subjects. In 1875 he published The Morale ofAbou Ben Adhem; anc
in 1879 a coarse comic drama entitled the Widou> BedoU, simply an adaptation of th<
comic story of that name written by Mr. Frances M. Whitche in 1854, and of no credi
to Mr. LocKe in conception or adaptation, thougli it has proved popular with a certau
grade of theater-goers. Mr. Locke is still publisher and editor of the Toledo Blade.
LOOKED-JAW. See Tetanus.
lOCKHABT, JoHK Gibson, was b. at Cambusnethan, in Scotland, in 17M. His fathe
was a minister of the established cliurch of Scotland. Lockhart received the first stage
of his education at Glasgow, and afterwards proceeded to Oxford, where, in 1818, h
took first-class honors. In 1816 be became an advocate at the Scotch bar. He appears
however, to have wanted the qualifications necessary for success in this profession. an<
besides the bent of his mind was more toward literature than law. He and Wilsoi
were lone the chief supporters of Blackwoode Magazine. Here he began to exhibit tha
sharp ana bitter wit that was his most salient characteristic and made him the terror o
his enemies. It was this connection which led to his acquaintance with sir Walte
Scott. In 1819 appeared Peter^s Letters to his EtntfcUc. In 1820 he married Miss Scott
eldest daughter of sir Walter. In 1821 he published Valerius, and in 1822 Adam Blair
Both of these works, especially the latter, show him to have possessed, at least, a thoi
ough acquaintance with the rules of art in fiction-writing. In 1828 appeared his liegi
nald DaMon, a tale of English university life, and in 1824 his Ancient. Spanish Balladi
perhaps the most popular of all his writings. In the same year he published his la^
115
Jjoemakoitlv*
novel, m&kn^ cf JUdtthew Wold. From 1828 to 1858 he edited the Quaritrltt Benew.
From 1887 to 1889 appeared his L(f8 of Seott, a work of undoubted ment, but which has
giren rise to much bitter coatroyersy. In 1887 hia wife died, liaying been predeceased
by their eldest son, Hugh. His second son died at a later period. In 18^ Lockhart was
appointed auditor of the duchy of Cornwall, with a salary of £800 a year. In 1847 his
only remaininff child, a daughter, the sole surriTing descendant of sir Walter Scott,
married J. R. Hope, Esq. 8he died in 1858, leaving an only daughter, who inherited
the estate of Abbotsford. Lockhart died Not. 35, 1854.
LOCK HAVEN, a city in Pennsylvania, capital of Clinton co., on the s. bank of the
w. branch of the Susquehanna river, at the mouth of Bald Eagle creek, and ou the w.
branch canal and the rhiladelphia and Erie and the Bald Eagle division of the Pennsyl-
vania railroad; 70 m. n.n.w. of Harrisburg; pop. 70, 6.98o. It is the center of an
extensive lumber trade, contains 13 churches, 2 national banks, 3 weekly newspapers,
and graded public schools.
LOGK'POBT, a city of New York, U. S., on the Erie canal and the Rochester and
Niagara Falls railway, 55 m. w. of Rochester. The canal here falls 80 ft., with 5 com-
bine double locks, and its surplus water gives power to 5 flouring-mills, 7 saw-mills. 5
stave and shingle factories, machine-shops, ana foundries. There are 18 churches, 4
banks, 2 daily and 8 weekly newspapers, and tanneries, manufactories of* agricultural
implements, glass, etc. Pop. 75, 12,624.
LOCKPORT (ante) was incorporated as a city in 1865. The railroad crosses the
canal by a bridge 500 ft. long and 60 ft. above the water; the surplus water of the Erie
canal, after being raised 60 ft. by 5 double combined locks, is distributed through a
hydraulic canal three-fourths of a mile long to the various manufactories of the city,
fhis immense water-power is the dhief source of the city's prosperity, affording as it
does almost unexampled facilities for manufactures of every kind.
LOCKROY, Joseph Philiffb, a French dramatist, b. Turin, 1808. His true name
is Simon. He excelled as an actor of the C&medie Fran^aise, but left the sta^e and
devoted himself to writing for it with Scribe, Anicet-Bourgeois, and others. His most
nular plays are Pituie MnuU; Les IMb Epiden; Le ChemUer du Chiet; and Chotrlot et
tdUre d'JSJeole. He wrote in connection with Alexander Dumas a drama entitled Qm-
tdence. He wrote also the librettos for La Beine Tapaae, and other operas.
LOCK-VP H0UIE8, the name given to the houses of bailiffs of the sheriff, to which
debtors arrested for debt are first taken, until it is seen whether they will settle their
debt without being taken to the ordinary Jail. See Exbgution; iMPBiBoiniBNT.
LOCKYER, JoflBFH NoBMAK, b. Enff., 1886; received his education at private schools
in England and on the continent. In 1857 he was appointed to a position in the war-
oflSce, and in 1865 became editor of Army BegulaUtm$, He was appointed in 1870 secre-
tary of the royal commission on scientific instruction and the advancement of science,
fromwludi he was afterwards transferred to the science and art department of the same
organization. He is best known for his services in astronomy and physics : he discovered
a method of observing sun phenomena, in commemoration of which the French govern-
ment caused a medal to be struck in 1872. He has held the position of chief of several
government expeditions for astronomical observation. In 1874 he received the Rumford
medal from the royal society. He has published Contrib^itions to Solar Physics, 1873;
The Spectro^opeand its Applications, 1878; Star Gaeing, Past and Present, 1878; and other
works.
1.0' CLE, a frontier t. of Switzerland, canton of Neuchfitel, and 10 m. n.w. of the
town of that name. Pop. 70, 10,884, who are engaged chiefly in watch-making. Up-
wards of 80,000 watches are annually manufactured.
LOCO, in music, indicates that the notes are to be played exactly as they are
written.
LOCOMOTIVE, Compressed Air. The attention of engineers has for a few years
past been directed to the construction of locomotives using compressed air instead of
steam. Compressed air for driving stationary engines for rock-drilling in tunnels has
been in use for some time, but in these the compressed air was directly furnished by a
pump driven either by steam or water-power, the latter being preferred where conve-
nient. At the present time the application of compressed air to locomotives is thought
practical only for short lines and where steam is objectionable, but it is possible that in
the future long lines of railway may be furnished with pneumatic pipes, or with pump-
ing-stations, and receive their motor power in this manner. Compressed air street-motors
have been used in Glasgow, Paris, and New York; and two Scottish engineers, Robert
Hardie and John James, have been and still are engaged in this country upon the prob>
lem. It is said that the pneumatic engines devised by them, which have been running
at intervals on the Harlem portion of the Second avenue surface road, between 96th ana
18Qth streets, have proved so satisfactory that no doubts are entertained by the pneu-
matic tramway company that before many years this mode of propelling passenger cars
on comparativelv short distances will be generally adopted. It is believed that the prop
erties of atmospheric air have not been utilized to anything near their natural limits, j
The first problem in compressed-air locomotion is to compress and store air in a
resevoir of suitable dimensions to be carried on a street-motor or car. In order that such
car may be driven several miles and make numerous stops, a conmderable amount of
energy must be stored at the commencement of the trip, unless pneumatic pipes be laid
along the line. In any case a certain distance has to be run before the compressed air
reservoir can be replenished. The reservoir Of compressed air may, therefore, be com-
pared to tlie fuel of a steam-engine, although the air derives its energy from the fuel
which supplies the compressing steam-engme. This comparison may Bhow the impor-
tance of furnishing the motor with a conveniently disposed air-chamber filled with highly
compressed air, and also of maintaining an equable pressure upon the driving pistons,
while the compressed air is constantly diminishing in tension by its escape in perform.ing
its work. It is said by engineers who have given practical attention to the subject that
it will be desirable to use an initial pressure of about 500 lbs. to the sq.in., which is the
equivalent of about 83 atmospheres. A pressure of 300 lbs. to the sq.in., or 20
atmospheres, has been found practicable, and most motors have hitherto been run with
this pressure. Of course, the compression of the air converts a vast amount of latent
into sensible heat. See Heat, ante; Latent Beat. This energy is lost because there is
no way to prevent the sensible heat from being conducted away or dispersed. If the air
be introduced into the motor reservoirs in the heated and dry condition which it attains
in the pump cylinder, it would not be fit to perform its duty in the driving cylinders of
the motor. It would not, however, retain its expanded volume in the motor reservoir
without being kept heated. Before entering these reservoirs it must be cooled, and it is
not improbable that the heat with which it parts on cooling may be utilized in produc-
ing a part of the steam for the pumping engme. The methods of cooling are various;
those employed m compressing-engines for furnishing air directly to stationary air-
engines have the pump cylinder surrounded by a cold-water jacket, or have a circula-
tion of cold water in the cylinder head, or have sprays of cold water forced into the
pump cylinder. The air for a store cylinder from which motors take their compresst^d
air may, however, be more conveniently cooled by passing it through a tank of cold
water.
In using a pneumatic motor there are three different machines all receiving their
energy from the boiler steam. 1. The engine which drives the compressing machine;
2. The compressing machine itself; and 8. The engine which drives the locomotive. It
is estimated that the loss of power in all these amounts to about one-half of that con
tained in the steam boiler of the pumping engine. One of the earliest compressed air
locomotives was devised by M. Ribourt, the engineer at St. Gothard (see Tukkbl), for
hauling debris from the tunnel. M. Ribourt's method for equalizing tlie pressure uix)n
the driving pistons was the employment of a sliding cylinder inside of and concentric
with the cylinder in which the driving piston moves. This inside cylinder is controlled
by a spiral spring which is connected with the piston rod. Compressed air at the
initial pressure enters the cylinder between the piston heads. Within this space it
therefore has no effect, but it passes from this chamber through orifices into an outer
jacket, and thence again on the further side of one of the piston heads, that one opposite
the end to which the spring is applied. These orifices pass through both inside and out-
side cyiindei-s, and their capacity depends upon the relative positions of the two cylin-
ders. The adjustments of the different parts of the apparatus are so made that, when the
air passes through the jacket to the outer surface of the piston head upon which it acts
at its initial pressure the orifices in the cylinders do not exactly coincide, and their
capacity is therefore diminished. As, however, the tension of the air diminishes, the
spiral spring, acting against the pneumatic pressure, forces the inside cylinder farther
back, at the same time increasing the capacity of the openings in the two cylinders by
making them more nearly coincide. This increase of capacity of orifice is in the inverse
ratio to the pressure, and the action is reciprocal and continuous. Considerable modifi-
cations have been made in motors i*unning upon tramways in Glasgow, Paris, and Kew^
York. M. Mekarski has successfully propelled motors in France with compressed air
at 450 lbs. per sq.in., or 30 atmospheres. The ordinary hieh-pressure locomotive engine
is the form used, but the compressed air before reaching the cylinders is forced through
a tank of hot water at about 220"" F., by which means it becomes saturated with
steam. An equalizing throttle- valve is placed on the top of the hot- water reservoir, for
the purpose of regulating the pressure upon the pistons. Two of the locomotives were
exhibited at the Paris exposition of 1878, one a car motor, the other a separate motor.
The latter could draw a car containing 30 passengers from 10 to 11 m. on a level, and
could ascend a grade of 5 to 100. Further improvements, it is said, have been intro-
duced on motors which have been running on the Second avenue railroad in New York.
One of the improvements is the passing of the compressed air through water heated to
about 328''. It is claimed that the motors have worked successfully, and at a less cost
than when horses are used for the same amount of work. Some engineers, however, do
not accept these estimates, and it is declared that the experience at Glasgow, where both
compressed air and steam motors have been used, indicates that the pneumatic motor
requires more than four times the expenditure of steam to perform the same work that
the steam motors do; and a leading French engineer says that at Paris it is estimated
that the cost of motive power on streoi mil ways, calling J^Q^ieaRO^C^vi^JW^^^^ ^» ^^^
11^ I^ooomotlTe.
ctKopressed air, 64, and for steam power, 20, making compressed air a little more than
three times aa expensiye as steam. It must, however, be understood that but a short
dflK has elapsed since the first trials were made, and yet that considerable progress has
beeD made — perhaps n-eater than has ever attendee! the development of any similar
ioTeotiozL A pamphfet issued by the pneumatic tramway engine company of New York
cootaiDS a letter from gen. Herman Haupt, its consulting engineer, in which he says
'that although one-half the power of the stationary engine is lost in compressing air, yet
the economy of fuel can be made so great that a given amount of power in compressed
air is secured at one-half the cost of the direct application of steam to motors. The
Merence in specific heat of water and of air also is important as regards the advantage
b economy of air. See Hkat, arUe; Specific Beat. Gen. Haupt again says: *'By a
simple device of heating the air by passing it through a tank of water it is claimed as
the result of constant practice in Paris, confirmed by recent experiments on the Second
areoue railroad, that the capacity for work is doubled, or the gain 100 per cent, making
ibeecoDomy of power, as compared with the direct application of steam to street motors,
measured as it should be by the coal consumed, four to one in favor of compressed air."
Agiin: '' The motor cylinders are so arranged that in descending steep grades they act as
ftir pumps, and at the same time as brakes, by which means it is found, as stated by the
company's engineer, Mr. Hardie, that in running down grade on the Second avenue
railroad, pumping back against a pressure of 300 lbs. in the receiver, the pressure was
increased 7 lbs. in a distance of four-tenths of a mile."
LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. See Steam-carriage ; Steam-enqinb, ante.
LO'CRI, or LocRi EpiZBPHT'Rn, a t. of the Greek Locrians in Italy, on the s.e. coast
of the Brattiao peninsula. The name seems to indicate that it was a colony of a Locrian
iiettlement at cape Zephyrium (capo di Bruzzano), on the Ionian sea. The date of its
foundation is uncertain, some putting it b.c. 710, and others 688. The Locri Epizephyrii
are said to have been the first Greek people who had a written code of laws. This code,
dnvn up by Zalcucus about b.c. 664, was so excellent that in the time of Demosthenes
Locri is cited as an example of good government ; and to the institutions of Zaleucus
this city owed its prosperity and fame. In the battle at the river Sagras 10,000 Locrians
defeatea with great carnage 130,000 Crotoniats. After 205 B.C. Locri declined in impor-
taace, and after the 6th c. no author makes mention of it. Its site has been found about
J m. from the modern Gkrace, containing, among other remains, the fragments of a
Doric edifice supposed to have been the temple of Proserpine. Several aistinguished
poets and philosophers were natives of Locri.
LO'CRIS — LOCRIANS, an ancient Grecian race, in later times merged with the
Achaians, deriving their name from Locrus, a king of the Leleges, from whom they
descended. In historic times two distinct tribes were known. The eastern Locrians,
diTided into the Opuntii and Epicnemidii, dwelt opposite the island of Euboea on the e.
coast of Greece, and were said by Homer to be followers of Aiax son of Oileus to Troy.
The western Locrians were called Ozolae, and lived on the Corinthian gulf, w. of Phocis.
From the first tribe were probably descended: 2. Locri Epizephyrii, who not far from
TOO B.c. founded a city in Magna Grecia on cape Zephyrium, now capo di Bruzzano.
The Locrians were engaged in many wars with neighboring tribes, were held in subjec
lion by the younger Diouysius after his banishment from Syracuse, B.c. 356, and during
toe wars of Rome with Pyrrhus and Carthage the city was alternately occupied by the
cpptsing parties. The first code of written laws ever adopted by any people is said to
bkre been that of Zaleucus, a Locrian king. Locris is said to have been destroyed by
the Saracens as late as a.d. 600. In the existing century explorers have discovered
rains near the modem town of Ckrace, thought to be those of a celebrated Locrian
:emple to Proserpine.
I0CI78, in geometry, denotes the line or surface traversed by a point which is con-
strwned to move in accordance with certain determinate conditions. Thus, the locus of
u point which must always preserve the same uniform distance from a fixed point is the
^irface of a sphere; but if the motion be at the same time confined to a plane, the locus
in this case will be a circle: this is an illustration of the division into solid and j^nc loci
which prevailed among the ancients. The Greek geometers made their geometrical
tsalysis depend much upon the investigation of loci, but no specific records of their
progress in this branch of geometry now exist. What would appear to have been their
aethod was restored by Dr. Simson of Glasgow, whose work, De Lods PianU (1749), is
a model of elegance. In modem geometry, plane loci are treated under the name of
«nve8 (q.v.).
LOCVB DELICTI, the place where a crime was committed, is a phrase used in crimi-
Billaw.
LOCUS PCBHITSVTLB, the time to withdraw from a bargain— a phrase often used in
^tch law. The general mle is that until the contract is finally settled either party may
Rtiact; but if Tti intcrventui has intervened— -i.e., if some act has been done by the other
^itj on the faith of the agreement, and by which his position has been altered— the lo&a$
miienluB is barred. Much depends on the circumstances of each case as to the applica-
tion of the rale. Digitized by VjUUV IC
LAcatt.
118
WCUVmiocuita of some entomoloffists, tLndaerifdium of othen), the type of a family
(locustidcB or tLcrydida^ of the order ortfioptera and section saUatoria (pee Gbtllub). Lo-
custs differ from fi[ra8shoppei*8 and crickets in their short antennas and in the greater robust-
ness of their bodies and hmbs. The head is law, with two projecting oral compound
eyes, and three stemmatic eyes on its summit. The wings when folded meet at an angle
above the back; the abdomen is conical and compressed. Their hind-legs are laige,
and they possess a great power of leaping. They make a stridulant noise by the friction
of the rough hind-legs against the wing-covers. The wing-covers are leathery, narrower
than the wings, but equal to them in length; the wings are large, reticulated^ fold like a
fan, and are often beautifully colored— red, pink, brown, green, or blue. The power of
flight of locusts has been the subject of much dispute, some asserting that they can fly
to great distances, others that they have little power of flight and are merely carried
before a gale of wind. The truth seems to be between these extreme opinions: locusts
fly well, but they aio sometimes wafted by winds where their power of fli^t would
never have carried them. Their food consists of the leaves and green stalks of plants;
the mandibles and maxillae are strong, sharp, and toothed, and in eating they use their
fore-feet to bring their food to their mouths. They generally quite consume any stalk of
grass or other ^reen thing which they have selected and cut. The terrible ravages of
locusts are owing to the vast numbers in which they appear, filling the air like flakes of
snow; darkening the sky, so that object casts no shadow; seeming, in the distance,
like a thick smoke; advancing with a sound like the rushing of chariots or of waters,
or, in the words of the prophet Joel, " like the noise of a flame of flre that devoureth the
stubble;" whilst, as he also says, "the land is as the garden of Eden before them, and
behind them a desolate wilderness." They eat up every green thing, and after the grass
and leaves they devour in their hunger the bark of trees and shrubs. Ripe grain, how-
ever, may escape, as being too hard and dry. These multitudinous swarms of locusts
do not appear annually; it is only after the lapse of a number of years that they are
again so great and so destructive; and particular years are marked in the history of
some countries as years of their extraordinary abundance, and of consequent famine and
pestilence. When driven by a strong wind into the sea, they have sometimes been flung
back on the beach in such quantities as to produce a stench intolerable to a great
distance.
Locusts are found in almost all parts of the world except the coldest regions, but
they abound chiefly in tropical and subtropical countries, and most of all in Arabia and
Africa. The eastern and southern parts of Europe are occasionally visited by their
destructive hosts, and in the s. of France rewards are paid for the collection of locusts
and of their eggs. The eggs are found cemented together in little masses in the ground.
The insects themselves are taken by means of a stout cloth, the edge of which is made
to sweep over the surface of the ground, and the locusts thus thrown together are
quickly gathered into sacks. A similar mode of diminishing the nuisance is adopted in
North America; but before an invasion such ns districts of Asia and Africa are occasiou-
ally subjected to all human effort fails.
Locusts are eaten in many countries, roasted or fried in butter. They are also pre-
served in brine or dried in the sun. They thus appear in the markets of Arabia, Syria,
Egypt, Madagascar, etc., and are even exported as an article of commerce.
The most noted species is locuata migratoria (or aerydium migralorium) about 2^ Id.
in length, greenish, with brown wing- covers marked with black. It is this species
which is most frequently seen in Europe. It is a rare visitant of Britain. Other species
belong to other parts of the world. Some of them, forming the genus truscdUSy and
inhabiting the warmest countries, are remarkable for their elongated conical head.
The little chirping "grasshoppers" most common in Britain, differing from true
grasshoppers in their short antennae, belong to the genus teirix and family loeustida.
LOCUST {ante) and GRASSHOPPER (anU) are here considered together because
of the confusion in the popular mind in regard to them. Their similarity in form and
habits is considerable, and by some of the fest authorities they are placed in one division
under the name of grasshoppers, including two families, the acrididse and locustidse, the
acrididae forming the family of locusts, while the locust idae fonn the family of grass-
hoppers. There has long been a popular error in regard to the identity of the locust,
the idea having been very widely spread that a species of hemipterous insect, the
seventeen-year cicada, allied to the dog-day harvest-fly, is the true locust. As classified
by the U. 8. entomological commission, probably the best authority for the general
reader, the section of orthoptera called saUatoriu is divided into three families, acrididae,
locustidae, and gryllidae, the latter family including the crickets. The acrididae and
locastidae form a subsection or group called grasshoppers, for the insects comprising
both these families are really grasshoppers, and the locust is quite as much of a grass-
hopper as any of the members of the other family; indeed, he may be regarded as the
grasshopper par exeeOmee. The principal distinctions between the two families are given
m the article Locubt, ante. 8ee also Criokbt; GBAemoPFBR; Cicada, ants. Both the
old-world and new-world locusts belong to the family acrididae, but are in many cases
of different genera, which, however, are said to shade off into one another, so that it is
difficult to tell in which group to place some of the mem^^^^^^^^^^e old-woild
119 w-*.
locusts belong to the geDus pathf/tyliu, the more devastating species beins P. m^atcrivs,
bat io south-western Europe the more common genus is calovtenui, uie name of the
Rocky-mountain senus; but the species is not the same. The locust of Algeria belongs
to the genus acryaium, A. pmregrinvm. The old-world locusta are much Isjger than the
Rocky-mountain locust, and probably a more formidable animal More minute dassifi-
cations are made, not needful here; as, for instance, the family acridide, containing as
it does a very large number of species varying considerably in form and character, has
been afain divided into three subfamilies, fro^oopincBy aericUnm, and teUtginm, the acrididce
includiDg the migratory locusts. The Alps form a dividing barrier or partition to the
two difi^rent genera of European migratory locusts. There are many species of
acrydium senera spread over the world, but as the most of them do not have tne multi-
plying and migratory power of the few species which are among the world's historical
scooiges, they are not popularly known as locusts, but pass under the name of grasshopper :
mftoy of them may be seen in various localities, hopping along the fences, roadsides, mown
mesdowB. and pastures, and can be distinguished by their much shorter antennse and
more robust bodies. Most of the facts in this article in regard to locusts are taken from
the first annual ''Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission for the year 1877, relat-
in? to the Rocky mountain locust." This valuable work is the record of investigations
chiefly by profs. C. V. Rilev, A. S. Packard, and Cyrus Thomas. According to Ororius,
"in file year of the worla 8,800 certain regions of n. Africa were visited by mon-
strous swarms; the wind blew them into the sea, and the bodies washed ashore 'stank
more than the corpses of a hundred thousand men.' " According to St. Augustine,
another locust plague, causing famine and contagious diseases, occurred in Numidia,
resulting in the death of 800,000 men. Pliny states that locusts came over in great
swarms from Africa to Italy in his time. Great invasions of locusts have occurred in
Germany: one in 1838, lasting till 1386; another in 1475; others in 1527, 1543, 1636,
1686. 1698-96, 1712-15, 1719, 1787, 1781-34, 1746, 1750-52, 1754, 1759-61, 1808, 1835,
18dO. 1856-^9. In 1878-74 small numbers appeared in swarms about Qenshagen, near
Berlin; they laid their e^gs, and in the middle of June, 1875, the larvae appeared in mil-
lions, becoming fledged in July. EOppen has published an elaborate memoir on the
mi^tory locust of southern Russia, and comes to the conclusion th&i pcnihytylus tnigra-
tonui and P. eineroicons are onlv varieties of the same species, and that another genus,
ttipoda^ is the same also. The form which he met witli as most abundant in southern
Russia is the true paehytyUis migrcUorius. He describes minutely the development of the
insect, the eggs of which are deposited in little nests of 60 to 100 tosether, surrounded
by a membranous envelope. The eggs are laid in the autumn and hatched in the fol-
lowing spring. Kdppen says the larvae molt four times, the fourth molt producing the
winged insect. The eegs taken from the ground showed the eyes, antennae, segments,
unpegs of the larvae distinctly. A little while before hatching, the larva might be seen
moving within the egg. He notices the eahptenus ituUictis. tlie congener of the American
calopteniu apretiu, as occurring in southern Russia. Other locusts which are occasionally
devastating are paehytylus stndidu9, (wUpoda dewMtators stauronottu vastator, S. crueiaiu$,
and pezatettix alpina.
The genus to which the principal species of locusts of the United States belong is
(dJapienu*, and it comprises 29 species, as described by various authors, but it is thought
that several of these upon further examination will l)e found mere varieties of closely
allied species. Of these nearly all are local and not greatly destructive; for instance,
C.flondan$ has been found only in Florida; C. griae^M, only in Ohio; (3. repUtus and
C. teriptus only in the n.w. portion of Washington territorv. and others in other regions.
Only three species are so nearly allied as to require careful examination for their dis-
tinction from one another; viz.. the Rocky-mountain locust, calopUnus 9pretus; the
lesser locust, ealoptenw cUlanis, of the eastern states as well as western states and terri-
tories: and the red-legged locust, ealoptenus femur ntbrum. Some of the general charac-
teristics of the genus ealoptenus are as follows: head subglobular, front vertical or
nearly so; vertex narrow between the eyes, being a little less than the eye itself; sides
parallel, flat or slightly concave, and nearlv perpendicular; dorsal surface nearly flat;
the elytra and wings extend to or beyond the tip of the abdomen, the elvtra being nar-
row, with one exception ((7. UvitatxM), and the wings transparent in all the American
^ecies, with sometimes a bluish tinge. Abdomen usually subcylindrical, having no
distinct keel above; that of the male enlar^d at the tip and curved upwards, the last
segment being sometimes truncated, sometimes notched. Posterior thighs strong and
much enlarged near the base; the external surface more or less convex, and in the female
generally lopger. Most of the American species have the upper portion of the inner face
of the posterior thighs marked with three oblique dark banas, the one at the base less
distinct; antennae filiform and slender, much shorter than in the family loeiuiUdtB or so-
called true grasshopper. The following are approximate measurements of the insect
taken from an extensive table made by prof. Riley. Female : whole length to tip of elytra^
H to liin., the elytra projecting from 0.13 to 0.28 in. beyond the tip of the abdomen.
Length of male to tip of elytra, lA to li in. ; projection of elytra beyond abdomen, 0.!^
to 0.3 inch. The spiscies most closely allied to &. spretvs of Thomas is C. atkmii of
Riley, which is at once distinguished from C. femur rubrum by the notched last joint
of the abdomen of the male, an^ by greater relative length of wings, which ex ' '
I««a.t. 120
one-third their length beyond the tip of the abdomen in dried specimens, and also hy
the larger and more disiinct spots on the wings. From both species it differs by ita
smaller size, and also by the more livid color of the dark, and paler yellow of the light,
parts. Measurements of the male to tip of elytra, 0.84 to 0.98 to 0.95 to 0.98 to 1 inch.
C, femur rubrum is larger than C. atlania, but the elytra are shorter in proportion, some-
times in the female not reaching beyond the tip of the abdomen, the whole length to
tip of elytra being from 1.04 to 1.32 inch. The C femur rttbrum is generally called the
common red-legeed locust, and G. ^pretus is known by the several names hopper, army
grasshopper, red-legged locust. Mormon locust, western locust, hateful grasshopper,
and Rocky-mountain locust, which latter is the most appropriate name. The history
of the Rocky-mountain locust, the specially destructive species, is much like that of the
old-world locust. It breeds over vast areas and often migrates in immense swarms for
hundreds of miles beyond its usual habitat, but the American locust prefers rather cooler
latitudes than the old-world insect, a large portion, nearly one-thira, of its permanent
breeding grounds lying in British America about the head-waters of the tributaries of
lake Winnipeg. !Not much can be said about the movements of the Rocky-mountain
locust previous to 1864, and it is questionable by the commission whether it may not
have increased in some regions since the settlement and improvement of the country,
which has given them more subsistence. Neill's history of Minnesota mentions the
invasion of that district of country by vast swarms of grasshoppers in 1818-19. which
devastated the country and often covered the ground 3 or 4 in. deep, and in 1820 they
ravaged the western counties of Missouri. In 1842 locusts again appeared in Minnesota
and Wyoming, and in 1845 in Texas, and again in 1849. They have appeared in Utah
from 1851 to 1877, except in 1878-74, and a portion of this territory forms one of the per-
manent breeding-grounds. From one year to another they have visited various portions
of the territories and states. A notable locust year was 1866, when the insects swarmed
over Kansas, Nebraska, the western counties of Missouri and n.e. Texas, and in Iowa,
Minnesota, Colorado, and Utah. They often delayed the railroad-trains in these parts
by lubricating the rails when crushed. In 1870 locusts were not plentiful, but in 1870-
71 they began to increase, and in 1878 they again wrought serious ravages; but the most
disastrous locust ^ear which has been known in the country was 1874, vast destruc-
tive swarms invading settled portions of the Mississippi valley w. of the 94th meridian.
Colorado, Nebraska, Kansas, Wyoming, Dakotah, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, New
Mexico, Indian territory, and Texas were overrun by swarms from the n.w., from
Montana and British America. The loss in this region was estimated at $60,000,000.
In 1875 the young insects hatched in immense numl^rs over an area embraced by atK>ut
800 m. of latitude and 250 of longitude, embracing portions of Nebraska, Kansas, and
Missouri, the two western tiers of counties of Missouri and the four tiers of counties in
Kansas w. of Missouri suffered the most, about 750,000 people becoming destitute or
suffering. In Missouri alone prof. Rilev estimates the loss to have been $15,000,000.
In Mar., 1877, prospects were bad, but there was an unusual rain-fall in April, May,
and June, and much of the country along the Missouri river was flooded, and the weather
was cool over Colorado, northern Utah, Montana, and British America. The young
insects died in vast numbers when they hatched, and few of them lived to acquire
wings. South of 40^ of latitude, late in M^y and early in June, they flew toward the n.w.
to Dakotah and Montana, whence their progenitors came.
The permanent breeding-grounds of the Rocky-mountain locust were not defined
until the U. S. entomological commission made their investigation. Vague ideas were
entertained, and it was known that many of the swarms came from the n.w., but there
was no definite information. It was ascertained that the area in which the locust breeds
each year is-about 800,000 miles. They do not cover this area in breeding, but may breed any
year in any part of it. It is the permanent habitat, but the most favorite breeding-grounds
within the area are the river-bottoms and sunny slopes of uplands, or the grassy regions
among the mountains, rather than over the more elevated, dry, and bleak plains. In
central Montana the breeding-grounds are in the valleys of the Yellowstone, the upper
Missouri, Gallatin, Madison, and Jefferson rivers and the grassy plains along their tribu-
taries. These levels lie below 6,000 ft., mostly between 8,000 to 5,000 feet. The per-
manent area principally liese. of the main Rocky-mountain range, between meridians 102
and 114 w. of Greenwich and between lat. 40* and 50° north. Farther w., between lat. 42*
and 45** and long. 114"* and 118% there is a strip of 60 m. wide by 200 long at the head-
waters of the Snake river, a tributary of the Columbia, which is a permanent breeding,
ground. A subpermanent region, in which the insects breed more or less continuously,
extends to the e. of the permanent region from 200 to 400 m., between parallels 89** and
58** of latitude. A temporary region Extends to the valley of the n. Mississippi, passing
through the states of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, and the north-western counties of
Arkansas, and through Texas to the gulf of Mexico, thence n.w., passing through New
Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, thence n. through Oregon and Washington territories to the
main Rocky-mountain range in lat. 49**.
The locust is the only truly migratory insect, although swarms of butterflies have been
known to fly short distances m the Mississippi valley. The locusts of the old world have
been known to fly into central Europe from their permanent breeding-grounds in cen-
tral Asia. In North America thev often extend their flights over a distance of 1000 to
Digitized by VjOUV IC
121
2,000 m., or from Montana to Missouri, and even to Texas. The flight generally takes
place durinj^ tUe day, commencing early in the forenoon and ending for that day at
about five ox:lock in the afternoon. The rate of travel varies from 3 to 20 m. an hour,
depeodiog on the \vind. Bometimes those wbich commence to fly in Montana the mid-
dle of July may not reach Missouri till Aug. or the fore-part of September. The swarms
are designated, according to their origin and direction, inwutina swarm*, or those which
come in vast numbers from their permanent breeding-grounds; retwrning noarms, or
Uiose which, having hatched in an invaded district, return, as by instinct, to the per-
maoeDt breeding-grounds; and local JUgfU$, or those to-and-fro movements of insects
hatched in au invaded district.
The height in which the migrating swarms move has been the subject of observation,
and differs according to locality, vastness of numbers, and direction and height of air-
currents. The signal-service officer at Bismarck observed a swarm moving above the
cumulus clouds. One observer states that in 1868, when upon the snowy ranges e. of
Middle park, and on Long's peak, there were daily flights of full-grown grasshoppers
ad far as the eye could readi from the loftiest summits. Another, from Arry's peak,
in 1672, speak^ of them as filling the air like snow-flakes, far above the summit, 18,883
feet It has been observed that a sudden change of wind generally brings a flying
swarm to tbe ground. When the wind returns to the direction in which they were
soiug they will again rise and pursue their flight. Repeated observations have con-
nrrned this statement. A fall of temperature always brings a swarm to the ground, and
this is thought to be the chief reason of their alighting in the evening. Flights, how-
ever, have been known to take place at night, or to continue during the night when the
weather is warm. The opinion has been formed by some that the locust 'has but little
power of flight except when aided by the wind, while others think it capable of sus-
tained flight even against a gentle wind. The truth lies between these extreme views.
The migratory locust has considerable power of flight for so small an animal, but would
make comparatively little progress, ana not prove to be the devastator that he is except
for the wind. It has been observed that locusts are most numerous, whether by immi-
gration or otherwise, in warm, dry seasons. Cold and wet prevent hatching, and do
great injury to the young that are hatched.
Destructive Ftmer of Loeusts. — ^Prof. Riley remarks: ''No one who has not witnessed
the ravaging power of locusts can fully conceive of or appreciate it. Muscular, gre-
garious, with powerful jaws and ample digestive and reproductive systems; strong of
wing, and assisted by numerous air-sacs that buoy — all these traits conspire to make it
the terrible engine of destruction which history shows it to have been under conditioiiK
favorable to its excessive multiplication. Insignificant iDdividuallv, but mighty col-
lectively, locusts fall upon a country like a plague or a blight. The harvest is at hand;
the day breaks with a smiling sun, and all the earth seems glad. Suddenly the sun*8 face
IS darkened and clouds obscure the sky: the day closes, and ravenous locust swarms
have fallen upon the land. The morrow comes: the fertile land of promise and plenty
has become a desolate waste, and the sun shines sadly through an atmosphere alive with
myriads of glittering insects. Falling upon a corn-field, they convert in a few hours the
green and promising acres into a' desolate stretch of bare, spindling stalks and stubs.
Their flight may be likened to an immense snow-storm extending from the ^ound to a
height at which our visual organs perceive them only as minute, darting scintillations,
leaving the imagination to picture them in indefinite distances beyond. When on the
highest peaks of the Snowy range, 14,000 or 15,000 ft. above the sea, Mr. Byers has seen
them filling the air as much higher as they could be distinguished with a good field-
glass. It is a vast cloud of animated specks glittering against the sun. On the horizon
they often appear as a dust-tornado, riding upon the wind like an ominous hkil-storm,
eddying and whirling about like the wild dead leaves in an autumn storm, and finally
sweeping up and past you with a power that Is irresistihle. They move mainly with
the wind, and when there is no wind they whirl about in the air like swarming bees.
If a passing swarm suddenly meets with a change in the atmosphere, such as the
approach of a thunder-storm or a gale of wind, they come down predpitatelv, seeming
to fold their wings, and fall bv the force of gravity, thousands being killed by the fall,
as if upon stone or other hard surface. Col. H. McAllister, of Colorado Springs, Col.,
in 1875 saw a swarm suddenly come down in that place with a rain' ' The ground was
literally covered 2 or 8 in. deep. In rising the next day, by a common impulse they would
circle in mvriads about you, beating against everything animate and inanimate, driving
into open doors and windows, heaping about your feet and around your buildings, their
laws constantly at work biting and testine all things in seeking what they might devour.
In the midst of the incessant buzz and nrnse which such a fiiffht produces, >in the face of
unavoidable destruction everywhere going on, one is bewildered and awed at tbe col-
lective power of the ravaging host, which calls to mind so forcibly the plagues of Egypt.
The noise which their myriad jaws make when engaged in their work of destruction can
be realized by any one who has fought a prairie-fire or heard the flames passing before
a brisk wind.' " The eggs are laid in many kinds of soil, because choice cannot always
be made b^' such almost illimitable hosts. Dry meadows, pastures, bare sandy places,
and roadsides are overrun with the procreating swarms. The female when about to
lay her eggs forces a hole in the ground by means of the two pairs of ^(^fMT^Yff
TOO
1 WW
which open and shut at the tip of her abdomen, and which from their peculiar struc-
ture are admirably fitted for the purpose. With the valves closed she pushes the tips
into the ground, and by a series of muscular efforts and continued opening and shutting
of the valves she drills a hole until, in a few minutes, the whole abdomen is buried
The abdomen stretches to its utmost for this purpose, especially at the middle, and the
hole is generally a little curved and always more or less oblique. Now with the hind
legs hoisted straight above the back, and the shanks hugging more or less closely the
thighs, she commences ovipositing. When the hole is once drilled there exudes from
the tip of the bpdy a frothy mucous matter which fills up the bottom of the hole and
bathes the horny valves. This is the sebific fluid which is secreted by the sebific or
cement gland. An egg is laid and deposited in its place hy a piece of admirable appa-
ratus. Then follows a period of convulsions, during which more mucous material is
elaborated until the whole end of the body is bathed in it, when another egg passes
down and is placed in position. These alternate processes continue until the full com.
plement of eggs is in place, the number ranging from ^ to 86. The mucous matter
binds all the eggs in a mass, and when the last is laid the mother devotes some time to
filling up the somewhat narrowed neck of the burrow with a compact and cellular mass
i of the same material, which, though light and easily penetrated, is not easily permeable
by water and forms an excellent protection. The examination of one of these egg-
masses is full of interest. No more perfect arrangement is found in a bee-hive; the
eggs are arranged in perfect order, having a beautiful spiral appearance in one aspect
ana showing a quadrangular arrangement in another. The time for drilling the hole
and completing the process of making the egg-mass varies with the weather, in the
warmest days taking from 2 to 3 hours, but longer when the mornings and evening are
cool. The ground is often covered by the egg-laying females during the day. It has
been thought by some that when the young begin to migrate they are led by kings or
queens, and this idea has been formed from seeing a few members of a larger genus of
aericUum (A. Americana) with them, and also the coral-winged locust.
The Rocky-mountain locust takes about seven weeks from the time of hatching to
attain its full size. As the transformations in the orthoptera are incomplete, there is
very little difference in the general appearance of the body, except in size, between the
young and the adults. The most noticeable difference is tlie want of wings in the
, young, as well as the narrower prothorax. The complete development is accomplished
I through a series of five molts, during the first four of which the wing-pads become more
' and more apparent, and during the fifth the insect more rapidly gets its full wings and
ceases growing. The first three of the larval skins are shed on or near the ground,
under the grass or other cover, and their dry, cast-off shells are often mistaken for dead
i locusts. The last two molts are made while the insect fastens itself to some elevated
object. Mr. Riley says: '* When about to acquire wings the pupa crawls up some post,
weed, grass-stalk, or other object, and clutches it securely with the hind-feet, which are
drawn up under the body. In doing so the favorite position is with the head down-
wards, though this is by no means essential. Remaining motionless in this position for
several hours, with antennse drawn down over the face, and the whole aspect betoken-
ing helplessness, the thorax, especially between the wing-pads, is noticed to swell.
Presently the skin along this swollen portion splits right along the middle of the liend
and thorax, starting by a transverse, curved suture between the eyes and ending at the
base of the abdomen. As soon as the skin is split the soft and white fore-body and
head sweU and gradually extend more and more by a series of muscular contortions;
the new head slowly emerges from the old skin, which, with its empty eyes, is worked
back beneath, and the new feelers and legs are being drawn from their casings, and the
future win^ from their sheaths." This all occupies about 15 minutes, and the newly
formed Insect now turns round and clambers up the cast-off skin, and there rests w^hile
the wings expand and every part of the body hardens and gains strength. In 10 or
15 minutes from the time of extrication the wings are fully expanded, and hang down
like dampened rags. From this point on the broad hind-wings begin to fold up like
fans beneath the narrower front ones, and in another 10 minutes they have assumed
the normal attitude of rest. Without careful inspection one would be puzzled to know
how the now stiff legs had been drawn out of their old cases; but they were exceedingly
fiexible and capable of bending at every part over the flexed knee-joint of the case.
The whole operation, from the bursting of the skin to the full development of wings,
occupies from one-half to three-cjuarters of an hour.
The locust has many enemies, or animals that prey upon it. One of the most
remarkable is the arUfumyioi ang\i*tifron%, or egg-parasite, tlie most widespread of all the
egg-feeders. In 1876 this parasite destroyed about one-tenth of all the eggs laid in
Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska; many were seen also in Iowa, Minnesota, Colorado,
and Texas. The larva of this insect is a little less than a quarter of an inch lone, and
sometimes a dozen or more are found in the same locust -K^gg- pod, where they suck the
juices of the eggs. The winged insect is about the length of the larva, with a spread of
wing about twice as great The larvae of the common flesh-fly also feed upon locust-
eggs, and many species of ground-beetles also feed upon them, sometimes settling in
Kwarms in fields where locust-eggs have been laid, and often completely devouring them.
They also devour the full-grown locusts. The locust naite f^i9f;|M[^ttm Joctt^toruin,
123
Rikyi prejB upon the adult locust. In the spring the female of this parasite lays from
i/i.O to 400 minute eggs about 2 in. beneath the surface of the ground in the locust-fields.
jlioate oiaoge^olored mites hatch from these eggs, crawl upon the locusts, and fasten
Miu^Tes at the base of the wings. The digger-wasps {farada semirufa) also catch
k<asts, sting them, and bury them in their nests for the sustenance of their newly
lulcbed young. But the birdls are the great natural destroyers of tJie locusts, and flocks
d \hem have been known to clear a field in a few minutes. 8ee IJisBcnyoROUS Birds.
Various methods have been devised by the farmers to destroy locusts or prevent
'Jieir depredations. One method which has been successfully practiced to save a small
crop is to dn^ ropes over the surface of the grain, repeating the operation until the
iiNfCts are driven to other parta The encouragement of the fly-catching birds is one
cf tiie effective nteasures, and the commission advise the offering of rewaMs for hawks.
Tbis has been done with beDeficial results in Colorado and other states. The destruc-
lioa of the eggs may be accomplished on a great scale by harrowing, plowing, and
inigaiioD, the latter method sometimes being much the most economical. Young
k>cu>L<:, before they are winged, may be destroyed by burning the fields when this is
fta^ibie. The older locusts are destroyed in various ways by different kinds of appa-
ratus. Some crush them between rollers, some gather them in nets, bags, and other
receptacles mounted on wheels and pushed about by hand or driven by horse-power.
Hneof the most efficient pieces of apparatus is the coal-tar pan, known as "Robbius's
hopperdozer."
General Anatomy. — This has much in common with other insects, but the proportions
vaiT. A superficial inspection of the locust will show that its body is covered with a
aiti, articulated shell which protects the internal organs, the articulations having tlie
general form of rings, many of which are again subdivided into pieces. There are 17
(>i these rings or segments, disposed in three regions, four segments composing the hea<l,
Iree the thorax, and ten the abdomen. The legs consist of five well-marked joints, the
ui^i or feet having three joints, and the third joint having tAvo large claws, with a pud
l^etween them. Tne so-called true grasshoppers have tarsi with four joints, and also
drilling oreans at the base of the wings, which the locusts have not. The hind-legs,
especially me thigh and shank, are very large and well adapted to hopping. The
r^roum is broad and large. The head in the adult locust is chiefiy composed of a
siagle piece called the epicranium, and carries the compound eyes, the ocelli or simple
eyes, and the antennse. While there are in reality four primary segments in the head
(fill winged insects, corresponding to the four pairs of appendages in the head, the
posterior three segments, after early embryonic life in tiie locust, come to be represented
calrby their appendages and small portions to which the appendages are attached.
Tne epicranium represents the antennal segment, and most of the piece represents the
terirum, or upper portion of the semiient. The antenme, or feelers, are situated in front
'jf ibe eyes, and between them is me anterior ocellus, while the two posterior ocelli are
situated above the insertion of the antennce. In front of the epicranium is the clypeus,
a piece nearly twice as broad as long, and to this is attached a loose flap covering the
jaws when they are at rest This is the upper lip or labnim. There are three pairs of
mouth appendages: 1, the true jaws or mandibles, situated on each side of the mouth;
2 the mazillse, divided into three lobes, the inner armed with spines, the middle
uianned and spatula-shaped; while, 8, the outer lobe ia a tivegoiuted feeler, called the
maxillary palpus. The floor of the mouth is formed by the labium, which is composed
if two second mazill«, fused toother in the middle line. Within the mouth the tongue
i placed upon the labium, and is a large, membranous, hollow expansion of the latter
jrgan (Packard). The internal anatomy of the locust is really marvelous, althovigh not
^ry<^iDplox- "^o esophagus terminates at the center of the head, where the crop
ccmmences, and where there is a slieht constriction with oblique folds armed with
^ine-like teeUi. After leavine the head the folds in the crop become longitudinal, upon
which the teeth are arranged in rows, each row, composed of groups of from three to six
t^th. pointin^^ backward, so as to push the food into the stomach. It is in the crop
that the substance known as "molasses" is produced, and which is the partly digested
f'xxl. mingled with the secretion of the crop. The true or chyle stomach commences a
.ittle behind the insertion of the middle pair of legs. It is paler than the crop, which is
f a fiesh color. Between the crop and stomach, externally, there are six remarkable
C'Teans, called gastric cseca. They are of a sacculated, spindle shape, placed longitudi-
uulj side by side, surrotmding the posterior part of the crop and the anterior part of the
^rue stomach, and when dilated touching eadi other at the middle. The anterior ends
sre attached to the latter third of the crop, while the posterior and more pointed extrem-
aes float freely in the body cavity, and jpour into it the chyle of the stomach, insects
a»Ting no system of lacteal vessels. These cceca are. true dilatations of the chyle
STjfnach. Tne uriniferous tubes are situated at the junction of the posterior extremity
vhh that XHyrtion of the intestinal canal called the ileum. These tubes are arranged in
>0 groups of about 15 tubes each, which, when stretched out, are about as long as
*^ body, and are convoluted around the alimentary canal. There is an ileum, a colon,
ttd a rectom, the latter having six large rectal glands on the outside, held in place by
ax muscidftr bands. The nervous system of the locust consists of a series of nerve*
cesten eonnected by bands. These centers or ganglia nre: 1, supra-esophageal gan-^
glioQ, or brain, which furnishes the eyes and the ocelli with nerves; 2, infra-esophageal
ganglion; 8, three thoracic ganglia connected by double cords; and 4, five aboomiDal
ganglia connected by single medial cords. There is also a sjrmpathetic system, com
posed of three principal ganglia, and a not otherwise complex system of nerves. The
respiration is much like that in other insects. See Insects. In the female the ovaries,
immediately before ovipositing, occupy a considerable portion of the abdomen, and con-
sist of two masses of tubes, with air-sacks and trachess ramifving among them. There
are from 17 to 22 tubes in each ovary in C. fdmvr rubrum, and more in u, 9pretu9, some-
times as many as 50 in each, or 100 in both. Indeed, the mouth, crop, stomach, and
reproductive system of the migratory locust may be said to practically occupy the whole
of the body cavity, the whole physical energy being spent in devouring and multiplying.
As to the organs of sense they have two large, well-developed compound eyes, and three
ocelli or simple eyes, which, no doubt, very well serve the purpose of vision. The
antennse are probably organs of taste as well as of touch, but it is not known whether
the tongue has any fustatory sense. The ears are well developed, and there is no doubt
but that the sense or hearing is acute from the fact that drums and kettles are efiicient
means of disturbing these insects.
LOCtJBT TBEE, a name given in different parts of the world to different trees of the
natural order leguminosa. — The carob tree (eeritonia giUqua) is often so called in the
countries bordering on the Mediterranean, and its pods are the locust beans of our shops.
See Carob. A kind of effervescing beer, made from locust or carob pods, has been sold
in London. — The Locust Tree of America {robinia pseudaeada), also called the False
Acacia, or Thorn Acacia, and on the continent of Europe and in Britain, very gener-
ally the Acacia, is a valuable and extremely beautiful tree. See Robinia. The wood,
known as locust wood, is useful for all purposes in which great strength, and especiallv
toughness, is required ; this latter quality, which it possesses preeminently, makes it
very valuable for trenails used in shipbuilding, and large quantities are imported for
this purpose. It is also valuable for makingthe cogs of wheels. — The Honet Locust
(q.v.) Tree of America is a gledUsehia.-^The Locust Tree of the West Indies is
hymenoRa eourbaril, a gigantic tree, whose pods also supply a nutritious matter, a mealy
substance in which the pods are imbedded. It is sweet and pleasant, but apt to induce
diarrhea when recently gathered, which property, however, it loses when kept for a
short time. A decoction of it, allowed to ferment, makes a kind of beer. The bark of
the tree is anthelmintic; it yields a kind of resin called anime (q.v.), and it is valuable as a
timber-tree, the timber (also known as locust wood) being close-grained and tough, and in
request in England for trenails. It is very generally imported in the form of trenails.
LODE, a miner's term for veins (q.v.) in which minerals occur. They are crevices,
more or less vertical, produced by contraction, or the mechanical disturbance of the
rock, which have subsequently been filled with metallic ores.
LOBEVE (ancient Luteva in OaUia Narhonenm), a t. of southern Fi-ance, in the
department of Herault, situated on the Ergue, in a beautiful valley, 82 m. n.w. of
Montpellier. It is inclosed by walls, has a cathedral, with manufactures of woolen
cloths. Pop. 76, 10,108. Lodeve is the birthplace of cardinal Fleury.
LODGE, Thomas, 1656-1625; b. Lincolnshire, Eng.; studied at Oxford, but left
without taking a degree, and went to London; became an actor and began to write for
the stage about 1580, producing his Defend of Stage Plays, In 1684 he studied law at
Lincoln's inn, and soon after accompanied Clarke and Cavendish as a soldier on their
expeditions. Some time afterwards he studied medicine, and took a degree at Avignon.
Returning to London he practiced with success, and published in 1608 a TreatiM of (he
Plague. As a dramatist he occupies a high rank. His extant plays are: Tlie Wounds cf
(Ant War lioeiy set forth in the True Tragedies of Mwrius and ayua; A Looking-glass for
London and England, In 1810 a collection of his pastoral and l^c poetry was pub-
lished. His novel Bosalynde: Euphues Golden Legaete, found in his cell after his death
at Silexedra, gave Shakespeare the framework of the plot in his As Tou Like It. In its
prose deficriptions and narratives, as well as in the interspersed verses, the novel is often
finely poetical. A Margarite of America, written probably during his voyage with Cav-
endish, was published in 1596. He translated Josephus and Seneca. While a student
at Lincoln's inn he published Alarum against Usurers. He is said to have died of the
plague.
LODGED^ in heraldry. A beast of chase, as a stag, is said to be lodged when lying
down with its head erect; a beast of prey in the same position is said to be couchant.
LODGIHG-HOVET is an allowance, in the British army, granted to officers and
others, for whom suitable quarters cannot be provided in barra^s. Married sergeants
and private soldiers who are married "with permission," are entitled to lodging-money
at various rates up to Ss. a week, when separate rooms in barracks cannot be spared for
the accommodation of each couple. The total charge for lodging-money in the army
estimates amounts to about £100,000.
LODOIHCIB, or the use of part of another person's house, when occupied, constitute
the relation of landlord and tenant between the parties. Lodgings being generally
taken by the week, or month, or quarter, it is not necessary, 1^1^ ^i^_^|^^|^ould be
125
by writing, though it is expedient, especially where any particular stipulations are
made. Bat where a furnished house is let, and a written agreement or lease is used, it
is abwlntely necessary that there should be a stamp on such writing, which must be
canceled by the parties under a penalty of £5 besides stamp-duty; and house-agents
who let furnished houses above £25 for hire, must now take out an annual license, and
pay duty. In England,' the chief points of law which arise are as follows: One of the
risks which the lodger runs is that, if his landlord, L, is himself a tenant to A, some-
body else, then, if L*s rent is in arrear, the lodger's goods may be taken by A to pay
this, for the rule Is, that all goods found on the premises, to whomsoever belonging,
may be seized to pay arrears of rent, and it is^ immaterial whether the landlord A, who
distrains, knows they are not L's, but the lodger's goods. The only remedy in such
a case for the lodger is to deduct the amount oi loss from the next rent he pays to L
for lodgings. Hence, in order to learn whether the above risk is impending, a lodger
frequently inquires beforehand at the landlord of the house. A, and the tax collectors,
whether rent, etc., is in arrear. A lod^ng- house keeper, even where he keeps a board-
inff-honse, which nearly resembles an inn, is not liable for the safe custody of the
lodger's goods. He is merely liable for ordinary care; but he does not warrant at all
ha2ards that the goods will not be stolen, as an innkeeper (q.v.) does. Even if the
lodger's goods are stolen by a servant of the house, the lodging-house keeper is not
liable. The notice to quit depends on how the lodgings were taken. If they were taken
by the week, a week's notice is sufficient; if by the month, a month's; and if by the
quarter, a quarter's notice, unless some other agreement was made. Hence, if the
lodger quit without notice, he is liable for one week's, or month's, etc., rent, even
though the landlord put a notice in the window. The lodging-house keeper may distrain
the lodger's goods for unpaid rent. When a lodger refuses to quit the lodgings after a
notice has expired, he cannot be put out by force, but in many Cases a summary remedy
is given for recovering possession. In Scotland, the lodger's goods cannot be taken by
the landlord of the lodgmg-house keeper for rent. A lodger, whatever rent he pays, yet
not being rated to the poor, etc., is not entitled to vote for members of parliament; though
it is said that in Scotland a different practice prevails in some places (Burton's Law of
Scotland, 88). Common lodging-Tuyuues, where poor people lodge by the night, have recently
been subjected to state interference; and by statutes 14 and 15 Yict. c. ^, and 16 and 17
Vict. c. 41, the keepers of such lodgine-houses must register them. They are liable to
be inspected by an officer of the board of health for sanitary purposes, and the keepers
are bound, on notice, to report to the local authority every person who resorted to tneir
houses during the preceding day or night. The keepers are bound to thoroughly cleanse
all the rooms, stairs, etc., as often as by-laws shall direct, and to keep a proper supply
of water. If fever break out, notice must be given to the local authority. These duties
are enforced by means of penalties. These statutes were extended to Ireland by the
statutes 23 and 24 Vict. c. m,
LO'DIf a flourishing t. of north Italy, in the province of Milan, stands on the right
bank of the Adda, 19 m. s. of Milan, on a gentle slope in the midst of a highly fertile
district, and contains 20,000 inhabitants. It is protected by walls and a strong castle,
erected by the Visconti, but lately appropriated as a military hospital. Lodi is a
bishop's see and the seat of a college, and contains many flne buildings. Its chief
inanufactures are linens, silks, chemical products, and Majolica porcelain, for which it
is famous. Its great trade is in cheese, especially the famous species knpwn as Par-
mesan, which, instead of being manufactured at Parma, as one might infer from the
name, is exclusively made in the vicinity of Lodi, where 80,000 cows are kept for the
purpose. — Lodi Vecchio, or Old Lodi, is a ruined village about 5 m. w. of the modern
town; it was founded by the Boii, and colonized by the father of Pompey the great,
hence its name. Lata Pompeia, which was gradually corrupted into the modem name of
Lodi. Lodi is celebrated for the victory of the French, under Bonaparte, over the
Austrians, on May 10, 1796, when the long and narrow bridge was carried by the
French columns, notwithstanding a tremendous fire from the Austrian batteries.
LODOME'RIA, the Latin name of a principality annexed by Russia in the 11th
century. At the partition of Poland, 1772, Austria gave the name Qalicia and Lodo-
meria to her share of the spoils, though Russia retained the old province of Lodomeria.
LODZ (Russ. Lodu), a t. of Poland, in the government of Piotrkow, and 75 m. s.w.
from Warsaw. It is situated in a level fertile country, on a small feeder of the Ner, a
branch of the Vistula. After Warsaw itself, Lodz is the largest town in Poland, and is
remarkable for the activity with which different branches of industry are prosecuted,
particularly the manufacture of cloth and other woolen stuffs. There is also a consider^
able trade, which is likely to be much promoted by a branch railway opened in 1865,
connecting Lodz with the great Warsaw and Vienna line. The inhabitants of Lodz are
mostly Germans, or of German origin. Its population has of late increased with great
rapidity. At the beginning of the 19th c, the town had only a few hundred inhabitants;
In 185< the pop. had increased to 28,302; in 1860, to 81,564; and in 1867 it had risen to
34,328.
L01S88, a loamy deposit of pleistocene age, occurring in the valleys of the Rhine and
the Danube. It consists of a pulverulent loam of a yellowish-gray color, made up prin-
cipally of argillaceous matter, combined with a sixth iwrt of carbonate of lime, and a
sixth of quartzose micaceous sand. In the Rhine, it apparently once covered the whole
valley and its tributaries, reaching to a considerable height up the bounding mountains.
It has subseauently been g^eatlv abraded, a fnng^ only of the deposit being left on the
mountain-sides, and occasionally some outliers in the widest parts of the valley; the
materials have been carried down by thd river, and rearran^, as a newer loess or
alluvium, in Belgium and Holland. This continuous deposit of fine sediment suggested
the notion to the original observers of an enormous lake, whose barrier was at Uie nar-
row gorge of the Rhine at Bingen. But the loess occurs further down ; besides the con-
tain^ fossils are not lacustrine, but those of land-animals {elep^uis and r/anoeeros), and
lund-shells (hslie, pupa, and auccinea). It is now believed to be the moraine mud of the
Alpine glaciers, which was spread out gently in the valleys of the Rhine and Danube.
as the land gradually emerged frotn the sea. The loess is generally from 30 to 60 ft. in
thickness, though sometimes as much as 200 feet. Fossils are not generally distributed
in the strata, but they are sometimes locally abundant. They consist chiefly of land-
shells of species now inhabiting the same region.
LOFO'DEHi Loffo'den, or Lofo'ten, a chain of islands on the n. w. coast of Norway,
between lat. 67* and 69** 15' n., and stretching s.w. and n.e. for 175 miles. The largest
of the islands-are HindOe, AndOe, and LangOe, Ost Yaagen, West Vaagen, and Flagstadoe.
All of them are rugged and mountainous; indeed, some of the eminences in Vaagen
attain an altitude of 4,000 ft., and are covered with perpetual snow. The glens near the
coast possess a temperature mild enough to allow of the cultivation of oats, barlev, and
potatoes. The permanent pop. is estimated at 4,000. The islanders chiefly dcpeud
upon the fishery which was established some time previous to the lithe, and has always
attracted a large number of the inhabitants of the mainland. The average number of
boats is 4,000, manned by 20,000 fishermen; and the produce of the cod-fishery is esti-
mated at 9,000 tons of dried fish, 22,000 barrels of oil, and 6,000 barrels of roe. After
the cod-fishery has terminated (in April), the herring-fishing season comes on, and con-
tinues throughout the summer, forming also an important branch of national industry.
Several other kinds of fish are caught, and lobsters and oysters in abundance. The fish-
ing is attended with considerale danger, on account of the sudden and violent storms
from the w., and of the strong currents which set in between the islands. See Mael-
BTKOM. The inhabitants are a ndxed race, partly of Scandinavian, partly of Lappish
descent.
LOFTUS, William Kennett, 1820-58; b. England. From 1849 to 1852 he was a
resident of Turkey, and, devoting himself to archaeology, made extensive explorations
on the sites of the ancient cities on the Tigris and Eupmnites. He made renewed exam-
inations in the same field under the auspices of the Assjrrian society of London in 1853.
and a few years later published a volume of his TraveU and Besearehes in ChaMea and
Sfm'ana, with illustrations. His contribution of specimens of ancient Assyrian sculpture
to the British museum are highly valued.
LOO is the instrument by which a ship's rate of motion through the water is measured.
Its simplest form is a triangular piece of light wood, leaded so as to swim vertically; this
is connected with the log-line so that its fiat surface is at right angles to the ship's course.
When thrown out — attached to the log-line (see Knot)— the log meets with such resist-
ance that it theoretically remains stationary in the water, and the log-line passing freely
out shows the speed of the vessel. There are, however, many improved logs, which have
complicated apparatus, for marking the way made, changes of direction, etc. The log
and line are known to have been used as early as 1570 a.d., and were alluded to by
Bourne in 1577. Computing by the log is an uncertain operation, allowance having to
be made for numberless contingent circumstances. In ships of war, it is usual to heave
the log every hour; in merchantmen, every two hours. The log-board is a board on
which the hourly results of the log-heaving are recorded in chalk, with the wind's direc-
tion, and other particulars, for the guidance of the officer in charge. The contents of
the log-board are entered daily in the log-book, with all particulars essential to the historj'
of the voyage, as ships spoken, icebergs seen, land sighted, eta The log-book thus
becomes a rough journal ; and it is compulsory upon everjr master of a vessel to keep it
properly, and to have it ready for inspection by any ship of war of his own nation
whose captain may require its production.
LOGAN, a central co. of Dakotah; 1800 sq.m. ; formed since the census of 1870. It
includes a large portion of the Plateau du Coteau du Missouri, elevated prairie land, dry
and thinly settled, lying between 98° and 99° w. long., and 45*" and 48'' n. lat.
LOGAN, a central co. of Illinois, 574 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 25.041 ; watered by Salt. Kick-
apoo, and Sugar creeks. It is traversed by the Pekin division of the Wabash, and the
Chicago and Alton, and Oilman, Clinton and Springfield railroads. The soil is very fertile,
mostly prairie land; productions: wheat, oats, hay. catlle, and pork. In 1870 this
county produced 4,221,640 bushels of Indian com, being more than any other county in
the United States, except Sangamon co. in the same state. Timber is very scarce, but
there is an abundance of coal. Co. seat, Lincoln. Digitized by VjOUV IC
LOGAN, a co. in Kentucky, immediately n. of the Tennessee state line; 600 sq.m. ;
pop. '80, 24,856; traversed by the Memphis, Clarksville and Louisyille railroad. The
aanace ia varied, the soil fertile; productions: tobacco, wool, cotton, and grain. Go.
seat, RnsaellTiUe.
LOGAN, a w. central co. in Ohio; 415 sq.m. ; pop. *80, 26,628; undulating surface and
productive soil. Live stock, wool, and gram are the most important productions, and
there are manufactures of flour, furniture, lumber, etc. The Cincinnati and SandudiLy,
and the Cleveland, Cincinnati and Indianapolis railroads traverse this county. Co. seat.
Belief ontaine.
LOGAN, a co. in West Virginia, n.e. of the Kentucky line, from which it is sepa-
rated bv a fork of the Big Sandy river; 825 sq.m.; pop. '80, 7,829; watered by the
Guvandotte river. The surface is varied, chiefly hilly, and the soil is productive.
This county possesses great mineral wealth, yielding coal and iron, salt and petroleum.
Co. seat, Logan Court-House.
LOGAN, 1720-80; the name adopted b3r the Indian chief Tah-gah-jute, in honor of
his friend gov. Logan of Pennsylvania. Prior to 1770 he lived in Pennsylvania, where
his father, a chief the Cayu^, had lived before him. He was well known on the Penn-
sylvania and Virginia frontier, a brave chief, of noble presence, always friendly to the
whites,' and endeared to them by his many good qualities. In 1770 he removed to the
shores of the Ohio river with his family, and there fell iuto intemperate habits. In 1774
Logan's family we^ murdered by a marauding band of whites. This cruel and cowardly
act roused the chief to a determination for vengeance, and he devoted himself to stimu-
lating the tribes to rise against the white settlers. In this he was completely successful,
and a savage war bc^n, which lasted six years, with the most terrible cruelties, in the
performance of which Logan himself was pre-eminent. He is said to have token thirty
scalps with his own hands. The war closed with the defeat of the IndiaDs, but Logan
refused to join the other chiefs in begging for peace with the whites. Instead of any
sQch act of submission, he sent an address to lord Dunmore, governor of Virginia, first
, published by Thomas Jefferson in his 2fate$ on Virginia. Its authenticity has been ques-
tioned, but it has popularly been accepted as a gemiine instance of Indian eloquence.
Although often reprinted in school readers and otlier ephemeral works, it is sufQciently
characteristic and pertinent to deserve permanent preservation. " I appeal to saxy white
man to say if ever he entered Logan's cabin hungry, and he gave him not meat; if ever
he came cold and naked, and he clothed him not. During the course of the last long
and bloody war Logan remained idle in his cabin, an advocate for peace. Such was my
love for the whites that my countrymen pointed as they passed, and said, Logan is the
friend of the white man. I had even thought to have lived with you, but for the inju-
ries of one man. Col. Cresap, the last spring, in cold blood and unprovoked, murdered all
the relations of Logan, not even sparing my women and children. There runs not a
drop of my blood in the veins of any livmg creature. This called on me for revenge.
I have sought it; I have killed many; I have fully glutted my vengeance. For my
country I rejoice at the beams of peace. But do not harbor a thought that mine is the
ioy of fear; Logan never felt fear. He will not turn on his heel to save his life. ©Who
is there to mourn for Logan? Not one." It is doubted if the oflScer to whom Logan
refers was concerned in the mixssacre of his family. The chief now fell a complete vic-
tim to intemperance, became quarrelsome and dangerous, and was eventually killed by
a relative in self-defense.
LOGAN, CoRirasLius A., b. Baltimore, 1800; of Irish descent; after sailing as super-
cargo, became a iournallst, tlien an actor and dramatist. He had three daughters, Olive,
Eliza (Mrs. Geo. Wood, 1830-72), and Cecilia, all actresses of talent; of whom the first is
also a lively writer. A poem entitled The Mississippi was one of Mr. Logan's well-known
productions.
LOGAN, George, 1753-1821; b. Stenton, Penn.; educated in England, and after
three years' study at the medical school in Edinburgh made the tour of Europe. Returrv-
ing to America in 1779, he spent some time in applying science to agriculture, and sub-
sequently was a member of the legislature for several terms. At the commencement of
the French revolution he joined the party of Jefferson and the republicans against the
federalists. In 1798 he went to Europe as a private citizen to use his influence to pre- j
vent a threatened war between France and the United States, having received letters of •
introduction from Jefferson instead of passports from the secretary of state. Though
successful in inducing the French government to annul the embargo on American ship- ,
ping, and in preparing the way for a negotiation resulting in peace, he was denounced as [
the treasonable envoy of a faction by the federalists, who afterwards had an act passed *
by congress, called the Logan act, making it a high misdemeanor for a private citizen to
interfere in a controversy between the United States and a foreign country. He was a
member of the U. S. senate 1801-7, and in 1810 went as a volunteer to England for the
purpose of settling difficulties between Great Britain and the United States, but the mis-
sion was fruitless. He was a member of the philosophical society and of the board of
agriculture. He published Mtperiments on Oypsum, and on the Botation of Crops, In
religion he was a member of the society of Friends. Digitized by V^OUV IC
128
LOGAN, Jambs, 1674-1751; b. Lurgan, Ireland, of Scotch Quaker gtock; was well
educated, and entered into business as a merchant; in 1699 accompanied William Penn
to Pennsylvania, where he held various public offices, such as provincial secretary, chief-
justice, president of council, acting ^vernor, etc. He wrote msperimenta de Fiantarum
Oeneratione, a translation of Cicero's x)e Seneetute, and other wofkisin Latin and in English
prose and verse. Died at Stenton, near German town.
LOGAN, John, 1748-88; b. Midlothian, Scotland; educated atEdinburp^h university,
and settled as minister of Leith in 1773. His first literary work was a senes of lectures
on the philosophy of history, followed, in 1781, by a volume of hymns and odes. It is
claimed that the Ode to the Cuckoo^ by far the best of these, was stolen from the papers
of Michael Bruce, a deceased friend. The other poems, however, possess some merit.
They may be found in Anderson's collection. Of his tragedies, Runnamede (1783) is
alone worthy of note. A review of the charges against Warren Hastings caused the
prosecution of the author. Logan lost his position at Leith through his play- writing,
and charges of immorality, and died in London. In 1790 a collection of his sermons was
published. They have great vigor and earnestness.
LOGAN, John A., b. Jackson co., 111., 1826; received a limited common-scbool
education; at the outbreak of the war with Mexico enlisted as a private, but became
quartermaster of his regiment , with the rank of first lieut. ; after the close of the war
was elected clerk of the court of his native county; in 1852 graduated at the Louisville
university, and afterwards was admitted to the bar; was a member of the state legisla-
ture in 1852-^8 and 1856-57, and prosecuting attorney from 1868 to 1857; was elected to
congress in 1858 and again in 1860, resiening his seat in 1861 to enter the army. He
was made colonel of the 31st lUinois volunteers, and led the regiment in the battles of
Belmont and fort Donelson; was wounded in the latter engagement, and in Mar., 1862,
was appointed brig. gen. of volunteers, and a few months later, maj.gen.; in the
Yicksburg campaign was in command of a division of the 17th corps, distinguishing
himself at Port Gibson, Champion hills, and in the siegpe and surrender of Yicksburg.
In 1863 he was put in command of the 16th corps, which he led with valor until the
death of McPherson, when he took command for a time of the army of the Tennessee^
On being relieved by gen. O. O. Howard he returned to the command of his corps, which
he led until the fall of Atlanta, when he obtained leave of absence to engage in the
effort to re-elect Abraham Lincoln for president. He afterward rejoined his corps^
leading it in the march through the Carolinas, and until he succeeded gen. Howard in
command of the army of the Tennessee. Having resigned from the army in Aug., 1865,
he was in the following Nov. appointed minister to Mexico, but declinea. He was sub-
sequently elected to congress for two successive terms, and in 1871 to the senate of the
United States, of which he is still (1881) a member. He is an earnest advocate of the
principles of his party, and is a strong and ready speaker.
LOGAN, Sir William Edmond. ll.d., 1798-1875; b. Montreal, Canada; graduated
at the university of Edinburgh in 1817, and in 1818 became partner in a mercantile house
in London; 1829-38, manager of a mining enterprise at Swansea, Wales; in 1841 became
head of the geological survey of Canada; represented that country in the expositions of
1851 and 1862 at London, and in that of Paris in 1853; was made a knight of the legion
of honor in 1855, and a knight-bachelor by the queen in 1856. Died in Wales.
LOOASriA'CEJE, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting of trees, shrubs, and
herbaceous plants, with opposite entire leaves, and usually with stipules, which adhere
to the footstalks or form sheaths. The calyx is 4-5-partite; the corolla hypogynous,
regular or irregular, 4-5- or 10-cleft. The stamens arise from the corolla. The ovaiy
is generally 2-celled; there is one style. The fruit is a capsule, a drupe, or a berry. A.
few species of this order occur in Australia and in the temperate parts of North America;
the rest are all tropical or subtropical. There are about 162 known species. No natural
order of plants is more strongly characterized' by poisonous properties. It includes the
genus strychnos (q.v.), of which nux vomica (q.v.) is one of the products, and another
is the woorali (q.v.) poison. Sfrvehnine (q.v.) is a prevalent and peculiar characteristic
principle of the loganiaceae. Some of the order, however, are of use in medicine, as
certain species of spigelia (q.v.).
LOGANSPORT, a city in Indiana, capital of Cass co. : at the junction of the Wabash
and Eel rivers; pop. 70, 8,950; reached by the Detroit, Eel river, and Illinois; Logans-
port, Crawfordsville, and South-western; Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and St. Louis; and
Toledo, Wabash, and Western railroads. It is the center of a productive region, well
wooded, and rich also in building-stone. There is a Universalist college and public-
school buildings, 14 churches, banks, etc. The city is handsomely laid out and well
paved, with fine residences and stores. It has important manufacturing industries,
employing more than 1000 operatives.
LOOAUITHKIC or Logistic CUSVES are curves whose absciss® are proportional to
the logarithms of the corresponding ordinates; consequently, if the abscissae increase in
arithmetical progression, the ordinates will increase in geometrical progression. The
• dx
equation to these curves being x = a log. y (a being constant), y-^ — a, showing that
Digitized by ^OUV IC
129
ftenbUiDfent has tbe same value for all points of the curve, and is the modulus (q.v.)
of Uie system of logarithms represented by the particular curve. This curve has nnother
icflorbible property, viz., that the area contained between any two ordinates is equal
to the diif erence of the ordinates multiplied by the constant subiangent.
LOOABITHXIG or Logistic SPIBAL is a curve described by a point which moves
uniformly along a uniformly revolving straight line. This curve has several remarkable
pperties, some of which are analogous to those possessed by the logarithmic curve.
Its inroluto and e volute are the same with itself. Newton showed that if the force of
HBTitj had varied inversely as the cube of the distance, the planets would have shot off
from the sun in logarithmic spirals. The equation to the curve is r = ea^.
L06ASITHM8, a series of numbers having a certain relation to the series of natural
QoaiberB, by means of which many arithmetical operations are made comparatively easy.
Tbe nature of the relation will be understood by considering two simple series such as
tbe following, one proceeding from imity in geometrical progression, the other from 0
in arithmetical progression:
Geometrical series— 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 82, 64, 128, 256, 512, etc.
Arithmetical series— 0, 1, 2, 8. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, etc.
Here the ratio of the geometrical series is 2, and any term in the arithmetical series
(ipresscs how often 2 iias been multiplied into 1 to produce the corresponding term
of tbe geometrical series; thus, in proceeding from 1 to 82, there have been 5 steps or
ffloldplications by tbe ratio 2; in other words, the ratio of 82 to 1 is compounded five
umesof the ratio of 2 to 1. It was this conception of the relation thnt led to giving
ihe name of logarithms to the arithmetical series, the word LogaHtlim (Gr. logon arith-
mta) meaning " the number of the ratios." As to the use that may be made of such
series, it will be observed that the sum of any two logarithms (as we shall now call the
bwer series) is the logarithm of their product; e.g., 9 (= 8 + 6) is the logarithm of 512
{= 8 X 64). Similarly, the difference of any two logarithms is the logarithm of the quo-
lient of the numbers; a multiple of any logarithm is the logarithm of the corresponding
Tiumlter raised to the power of the multiple; e.g., 8 (= 4 X 2) is the logarithm pf 256
<= 16^; and a submultiple of a logarithm u the logarithm of the corresponding root of
is number. In this way, with complete tables of numbers and their corresponding loga-
ziUiins, addition is made to take the place of multiplication, subtraction of dividion,
auliiplication of involution, and division of evolution.
lo order to make the series above given of practical use, it would be necessary to
complete them by interpolating a set of means between the seventl terms, as will be
eipLiined below. We have chosen. 2. as the fundamental ratio or base, as being most
onreoicnt for illustration; but any other number (integral or f ractionnl) might be taken;
iGil every different base, or radix, gives a different system of logarithhis. The system
aowr in use has 10 for its base; in other words, 10 is the number whose logarithm is 1.
The idea of making use of series in this way would seem to have l^en known to
Archimedes and EucHd, without, however, resulting in any practical scheme; but by
'•ht end of the 16th c, trigonometrical operations had become so complicated that the
wiis of several mathematicians were at work to devise means of sliortening them. The
real invention of logarithms is now universally ascrilwd to John Napier (q.v.), baron of
Merchistoun, who in 1614 printed his Can^n Mirabilis Logarithmorum. ■ His tables only
dre logarithms of sines, cosines, and the other functions of angles; they also labor under
liie three defects of being sometimes -{- and sometimes —, of decreasing as the cnrre-
sp>Dnding natural numbers increase, and of having for their radix (the number of which
ihe logarithm is 1) the number which is the sum of 1 + 1 + -r-:,- + tito +» ^^
Tliese defects were, however, soon remedied: John SpNeidell, in 1619, amended the
tibles in such n m'mner that the logarithms became all positive, and increased along with
till ir corresponding natural numbers. He also, in the sixth edition of his work (1624),
constructeil a table of Napier's logarithms for the integer numbers, 1, 2, 8, etc., up to
10(K), with tU'^r differences and arithmetical complements, besides other improvements.
Speideirs tables are now known as hyperboUc logarithms. But the greatest improvement
vas made in 1615 by prof. Henry Briggs (q.v.), of London, who substituted for Napier's
inconvenient *' radix" tbe number 10, and succeeded before his death in calculating the
logarithms of 80,000 natural numbers to the new radix. Brij;gs's exertions were ably
seconded; and before 1628 the logarithms of all the natural numbers up to 100,000 had
Icen computed. Computers have since chiefly occupied themselves rather in repeatedly
::TiMng the tables already calculated than in extruding them.
ConHruetion of Tables. — The following is the simplest method of constructing a table
f'f I'Jirarithms on Brig^rs's system. The log. of 10 = !• ; the log. of 100 (which is twice
C'-mpounded of 10) = 2- ; the log. of 1000 = 3'. etc. ; and the logarithms of all powers
cf lOcan be found in the same manner. The intermediate logarithms are found by con-
tiaually computing geometric means between two numbers, one greater and the other
less than the number required. Thus, to find the log. of 5, take the geometric mean
between 1 and 10, or 8-163..., the corresponding arithmetic mean (the lo«r. of 1 being 0,
tad that of 10 being 1-) being -5; the geonietric mean between 8-162... and 10, or
^623..., corresponds to the Jtrithmetie mean between *5 and 1-, or *75; the geometric^
H. K. IX.— 9
130
mean between 8-162... and 5-6^..., or 4-216..., has it« logarithm = i(-75 + 5). or -686;
this operation is con tinned till the result 18 obtained to the necessary degree of accuraey.
In this example, the twenty-first result gives the geometric mean = S* 000,008, and the
corresponding arithmetic mean = -698,970, which is in ordinary calculations used as the
logarithm of 5. Since division of numbers corresponds to subtraction of logarithms,
and since 2 = y , the log. of 2 = log. 10 - log. 5 = 1 698970 = -301080. tRic loaa-
rithms of all prime numbers are found in the same way as that of 5; those of componte
numbers are obtained by the addition of the logarithms of their factors; thus, the log.
of 6 = log. 2 + log. 8 = -801080 + -477121 = .778151. This method, though simple in
principle, involves an enormous amount of calculation; and the following method,
which depends on the modern algebraic analysis, is much to be preferred. According
to this method, logarithms are considered as indices or powers of the radix; thus, 1^
= 1, 10»i«w = 2, 10*""» = 8, 10« = 100, etc.; and the laws of logarithms then become
the same as those of indices. Let r represent the radix, y the natural number, x its
logarithm; then ^ = r', or, putting 1 + ^ for r, y = (1 -|- a)'; and It is shown by the
binomial and exponential theorems (see the ordinary works on aleebr*) that v = 1 X
^ + -^ + j^+, etc., where 4 = r - 1 - K^ - 1)« + !<,.- 1)» -, etc., the former
equation expressing a number as the sum of different multiples of its logarithm and the
radix. If ~ be substituted for x, then y = r^ =1 + 14. JL ^.^^L^^., etc. =
JL 1.2 1.2.8
2-71828182..., which, as before mentioned, is Napier's ladiz, and is generally called 0;
1 •
then r^=r d, or r = e^, or A is the logarithm of r to the base or radix «. Then, refer-
ring to the above-mentioned value of A, we have log. ,r (i.e., log. of r to. the base t)
= r — 1 — Kr — 1)* -f le* — 1)' — f etc-f or, as before, putting 1 + a for r, log. ^1 -|- a)
= ^ ^ o" + 7 ~f ^^-l A series from which log. J^.-^a) cannot be found, anless a be
a* a*
fractional. However, if we put — a for a, log. ,(1 — a) = — a — ^ — -^ — , etc. ; and
subtracting this expression from the former, log. ,(1 + «) — ^og- JX — «) or log.
L J_ ^ = 2(a + ~ -J- jT +, etc.), and, for the sake of convenience, putting ' • for
7-^^. in which case a = s — r-7, we finally obtain log. ^"^ = 2 < ^ — r-^ -f-
1— a 2u + l ^ •» <2tt4-l '
8^STi?+«^5Ti?+' '**'• \- "' '*«• .(«+!) = •<«•.«+ 2 lasVi + S^STi?
+ fg/ftM I ix» +* eto- r • If 1 be put for u in this formula, the Napierian logarithm of 2
ia at once obtained to any degree of accuracy required ; if 2 be put for u, the Napierian
logarithm of 8 can be calculated, etc. Now, as logarithms of any system have always
the same ratio to one another as the corresponding logarithms of any other system, no
matter what its base, if a number can be found which, when multiplied into the loga-
rithm of a certain number to one base, gives the logarithm of the same number to another
base, this multiplier will, when multlpied into any logarithm to the first base,, produce
the corresponding logarithm to the other base. The multiplier is called the modulus
(q.v.), ana, for the conversion of Napierian into common or Briggs's logarithms, is
equal to -4842944... ; so that to find the common logcmthm of any number, first find the
Na/pierian logarithm, and mtiUiply it by -4842944...
As in Briggss system the logarithm of 10 is 1*, and that of 100 is 2% it fdlows that
all numbers between 10 and 100 have, for their logarithms, unity + a proper fraction;
in other words, the integer portion of the logarithms of all numbers of two figures is
unity; similarly, the integer portion of the loirarithms of numbers between 100 and lOOO
is 2, and, in general, the integer portion of the logarithm of any number expresses a num-
ber less by unity than the number of figures in that number. This integer is called the
charaetertstie, the decimal portion being designated as the mantissa.
As the logarithm of 1 =0, the logarithms of quantities less than unity would natu-
rally be negative; thus, the logarithm of i would be— -80108, but, for convenience in
working, the mantissa is kept always positive, and the negative sign only affects the
characteristic; the logarithm of i or 5 would thus be 1 69897, the characteristic in this
and similar cases expressing, when the fraction is reduced to a decimal, the number of
places the first figure is removed from the decimal point; thus, the logarithm of *0005 is
f69897
Directions for the use of logarithms in calculation will be found prefixed to any set of
tables. Tlie history of the discovery is given in the preface to Dr. Hutton's Tables.
The tables most distinguished for accuracy are those of Callet (who edited Gar-
dener's edition of Sheitoin^s Tables, making several additions and improvements), to
sevei) places of decimals (Pari^, 1821); Lalande, to five places (Pari&.lsaU; Button, to
131 £31^
seven places (1849), issued in a more convenient form, with improTcments, by Mcssfs.
W. &K. Chambers; the most accurate of all, however, are supposed to be those wbieh
Mr. Babbage produced with the aid of his ingenious calculating-machine.
LOQfllA, an Italian word signifyini^ an open arcade, inclosing a passage or cjpen
apartment. It is a favorite clusa of building in Italy and other warm countries. The
Lojsgia de' Lanzi at Florence is one of the finest examples extant; and the loggie
of the Vatican, which are arcaded passages round the interior of tlie cor tile of the
palace, ornamented with, beautiful paintings and arabesques by Raphael and his pupils,
are well-known specimens.
LOGIC. This name denotes the science connected with the forms and methods of
reasoniDg, and the establishment of truth by evidence. The science has come down to
us fnfm the Greeks, obtaining in great part the shape that wc find it in from Aristotle,
although he did not apply to It the name '* logic." This name, signifying originally
both thought and the expression of thought, must have been applied soon after t^e time
of Aristotle. The most ancient name was * ' dialectic, " mean i ng li terally ' ' con versation, "
"colloquy," or "dispute." (Hamilton's Logic, lect. 1.) *' But it appears that Aristotle
possessed no single term by which to designate the general science of which be was the
principal author and finisher. Analytie, and apodeietie with topic (equivalent to dddUctie,
andincludinj^ tophigtic), were so many special names by which he denoted the particular
parts or particular applications of logic."
The definition of logic has never been, till lately, a matter of serious controversy.
There was formerly a substantial unanimity, with some variations in the form of the
phraseology Employed. We find it called usuallv the art of reasoning, or the science
of reasoning, or both the one and the other. And by reasoning has be& always under-
stood ^brmot reasoning; that is, inferences staited in such general language that thev
apply to all kinds of matter alike, as when in arithmetic we say three times four is
twelve, without considering what the numbers are numbers of. A modification of this
view has been adopted bv sir W. Hamilton; he calls logic the " science of the laws of
thought as thought." The introduction of the larger word "thought "is considered
requisite, because ** reasonii^' is somewhat too limited, there being processes included
in logic, and necessary to the establishment of truth, which that word does not cover;
such, for example, are conception — the forming of general notions— and judgment, the
statement of propoBitions (see JuDeMBirr). But the word "thought " having an accep-
tation co-extenslve with all intelligence, including memory, imagination, etc., as well as
the operations concerned about truth, must be held to its narrower meaning, bv which
it simply includes the three great operations, constituting the distinct stages or divisions
of lozic, conception, judgment, ana reasoning.
Hr. John btuart Mill has propounded a radical innovation in the definition and
province of this subject. According to him, logic "is the science of the operations of
the understanding which are subwrvient to the estimation of evidence; both the
process itself of proceeding from known truths to unknown, and all other intellectual
operations in so far as auxiliary to this. It includes, therefore, the operation of naming;
for language is an instrument of thought, as well as a means of conununicating our
thoughts. It includes also, definition and classification."
This definition has the merit of setting distinctly forth the end of the science, which
is the essential point in everv pracUeal science, as logic is. That end is the e^Hmation of
evidejiee; in other words,, it is not the ascertainment of (mU truth, but of those portions of
truth that are authenticated b^ means of other truths, or bv infereTuse, The proper con-
duct of the operation of inferring one thing from another is the final end of the whole
science. And in laying down the true criteria of inference, a certain amount of study
has to be bestowed upon some of the operations of the human understanding, not to the
extent of converting logic into a system of mental philosophy, but simplv so far as will
conduce to the purpose in view. It is not, therefore, the " laws of thoudbt as thought,"
bat the laws of thought as bearing upon the arts of inference, that Mr. >Iill would
esteem the matter of the science.
But inference is admitted on all hands to be of two kinds — deductive or formal infer-
ence, and inductive or real inference. In the one, no more is inferred than is already
contained in the premises; for example, "All men are mortal, therefore the present
generation of Englishmen will die," is a formal inference; the conclusion is within, or
less than, the J)remi8e8. This is the kind of inference treated of in the deductive or
;^ynogistic logic, which was till lately the whole of the science. In the other kind of
inference, a conclusion is drawn wider than the premises, so that there is a real advance
upon our knowledge: from certain things directly ascertained we infer other things that
have not been ascertained by direct experiment, and which, but for such inference, we
'Should have had to determine in that manner. Thus, " This, that, and the other piece
of matter, in which actual observations have been made, gravitates," therefore, " all
ioert matter, existing everywhere, known and unknown, gravitates," is an inductive
inference. Of this last class of inferences, all the inductive sciences, including physics,
chemistry, physiology, mental philosophy, etc.. are made up. Accordingly, Mr. Mill
treats this as coming within the province of loi^ic, no less than the deductive, fonaal.
Digitized by VjjOUVLV:^
trf>erlcr. 109
fi^lloglstic, or necessary inference, which previous logicians had confined themselves to
exclusively.
Sir W. Hamilton, in his system, admits the consideration of induction under wliat
he terms ** modified logic," in contradistinction to ** pure logic," or formal inference;
and It has not been unusujd for writers on tlie science to devote a chapter to induction,
after expounding the laws of the syllogism. But Mr. Mill iias given to the inductive
part the predominance over the other, as being the more fundamental, as well as pnic-
tieally the more important of the two. Making logic coextensive with proof, he endeav-
ors to allow that the establishment of the preniufeSf from which the formal logician
takes his start, is, after all, the main iK)iut, and that the other is subsidiary and subordi-
nate, although still important to be attended to, and susceptible of being well or ill done.
He further shows that there are rules, or methods of procedure, which may be set forth
and followed in the inductive operation; that mankind often break those rules from
ignorance or inadvertence (as well as from other causes); and thai good may be done by
ex])llcitly calling attention to them, and making them a branch of education, as the old
logic has for a long time been. See Induction, Sylx.ogib>i.
LOGIC (ante). Regarding the science as concerned directly only with the form and
not the substance of reasoning, logic finds its starting point in human intuitions and
thoughts, M'hich, by the processes of conceiving, judging, and reasonin:;, produce,
respectively, concepts, Judgments, and arguments. These products, in turn, are ex-
pressed in language by terms, propositions, and syllogisms. It is with the division,
definition, olassificatiob, and contradistinction of these, and more especially with
the truth or fallacy of all conceivable syllogisms, tliut logic priucj|)ally deals.
Thus, concepts may be congruous or incongruous, may or may not be true,
or valid, or distinct; judgments may be as to quantity, universal ^all M is P) or
particular (some M is f ); as to quality, they may be affirmative (all M is P) or nega-
tive (no M is P), they may be categorical or conditional, true*or not, and so on. Each
judgment contains two concepts, which stand in Uie relation of subject and predicate
and are connected by some verb of being; and it may be noted that predicables, or
turms afflrmaUc of others, are grouped in five classes, as they denote genus, species, dif-
ference, property, and accident. Either of these concepts is said to be distributed when
it is taken a9 a whole, and undistributed when but part is taken. From the various
atti'ibutes and varieties of the judgments and their elementary concepts are evolved
rules as to opposition and distribution, such as: ''The truth of a universal implies the
truth of a negiuive," and "All universals distribute the predicate."
As concepts compose the judgments, so judgments or propositions compose the
syllogism. For example, in tliis simple but complete syllogism: ** All M is P; all 8 is
M; hence, all S is P," the first proposition is called the major premise, the second the
minor premise, and the third the conclusion* Now, it has alroady be"i seen that every
proi>ositiou may be aflilrmativeor negative and either universal or particular. We thus
have the four primary propositions: universal affirmative, all S is P (A); universal nega-
tive, no S is P (E); particular affirmative, some S is P (I); particular negative, some 8 is
not P (O), which in all works of logic are designated by the capiUils A E I O, as above
indicated. Combined In all possible ways to form syllogisms (three in each), we obtain
04: conceivable forms, of which only 11 are found to be scmnd when tested by the laws
of distribution, and othera which npply. These are called moods. Again, by changing
the position of the middle term, each mood may be made to take four forms, which aro
termed figures. But of the 44 resulting syllo.^sms, only 19 can be proven true under
the usual tests. To designate these, there has long been in use a set of otherwise mean-
ingless words, often aiTangod in mnemonic Latin verses, in which the vowels represent
the propositions and their order. These are as follows: '
Fig. I. BArZ>ArA, c'ElA.rEnt, dXi'l I, /ErlO/yi/^, prioris:
II. CE^ArE, cAmEstrEa, fEstlnO, bArOkO^ itecu7idm:
III. Tertiii dArApil, din Amis, dAtlsl,fElAptOn., BOkArdO.fErlgOn habet:
quarta iiisuper addit,
IV. BrAmAntlp, cAmEnsEs, dlmArls, fEiApO, fvEslsOn.
Ferio, for instance, stands fnv the syllogism E I O, as: " No M is P: some S is M; hence,
some S is not P." The syllogisms of the last three figures may all be reduced to the
form of the first for convenience in applying tests. One of the most interostinc discus-
sions connected with the science of logic arose from the proposition of sir William
Hamilton to substitute for these 19 universally accepted syllogisms, others arising from
the fact that any affirmative proposition may or may not have its subject, and any nega-
tive proposition its predicate, distributed. This would give eight propositions instead
of four, and entirely overthrow the old method. Most modern treatises expound
Hamilton's theory and notation, but the, system descended from Aristotle is more easily
understood and applied.
Syllogisms may be hypothetical, disjunctive (as: 8 is either P or Q; but S is V\ergo, 8
is not Q), or dilem'matic, a combination of the two. Sometimes one proposition does not
appear, forming the cnlhymeme; and again, several syllogisms maybe linked together.
Digitized by VjiiJUy IC
133 Lovouumlm.
the whole being termed the chain or sorites. Still another form is (he epichirema, -where
the n*a8on for each premise is given with it.
Fallacies are errore resulting from the improper use of words or mental processes in
argument. The^ are variously classified. AmoD{^ the most important are: x^neraliza-
tiou, or the attributing to a class individual limitations, as '*B isa clergyman and a
hypocrite — ergo^ all clergymen are hypocrites;" equivocation, where a word is used in
two senses; the non tera pro vera, where a premise is false; accident, where an acciden-
tal prcipcrty is made to appear as a substantial attribute. For others and n more com-
plete treatment of the subject, see Fallacy. An ancient Qrcek fallacy, which appears
perennially as a modern joke, is the case of a man who says, ** I lie. ' Does lie lie or
not? If be lie, he tells the truth; if he speak truly, he lies.
The study of formal logic in the monastic .rchools and universities of the middle
ages was carried to an extent more recondite than profitable, the result beine a not
unmerited contempt for the science as then limited by the scholastic method. A classi-
fication and discussion of syllogisms in which no attention is given to the origin of the
concepts which form the premises or to the process of induction, resembles rather a
series of mathematical permutations than fruitful intellectual investigation. In fact, in
our day, prof. Jevons has constructed what he calls a logical machine, which will per-
form many of the operations of syllogistic reasoning. In modern times the study has
been in a measure reinstated; but it has been through the enlargement of the ground
allotted it and the installment of induction as a most important factor. Thus widened
in its scope, there mav be derived from it laws of reasoning of the greatest value as
forming the basis of all investigation in physical, philosophical, and moral science.
Among numerous authors who may be consulted on this topic are, besides Hamilton
and Mill, archbishop Whately, Wallace, Jeremy Bentham (essays), Willram Stanley
Jevons; and of American wnters, profs. Bo wen of Harvard, Wilson of Cornell, and
Schuyler of Baldwin.
LOOOOXAX (Gr. logos, a word, and gramma, a letter) is simply a complicated or
multiplied form of the anagram (q.v.), where the puzzle-monger, instead of contenting
himself with the formation of a sin^e new word or sentence out of the old, by the trans-
position of the letters, racks his brain to discover all the words that may be extracted
from the whole or from any portion of the letters; and throws the whole into a series of
verses in which synonvmic expressions for these words must be used. The puzzle lies
in ascertaining what the concealed words are, and, through them, what is the primarv
word out of which they have all been extra^d. A specimen is given in Henry B.
Wheatley's book on Anagrains (1862), in which, out of the word "curtains," no less
than 93 smaller ones are framed.
LOOOOSAPHSBfl, the name by which the Greeks designated their historians previous
to Herodotus. The logographers described in prose the mythological subjects and tra-
ditions which had been treated of by the epic poets, supplementing them by traditions
derived from other quarters, so as to form, at least'in appearance, a connected history;
their works, however, seeming to be intended rather to amuse their readers than to impart
accurate historical knowledge. The term was also applied to those orators who composed
judicial speeches or pleadings, and sold them to those who required them.
LOGOMA'HIA, or Disbask of thb Facultt or Language. It frequently happens
that, while the idea is clear and distinct, all trace of its representative sound has disap-
peared; or another sign, or one conveying the converse of what is intended, is used.
Such a condition is often associated with organic disease of the nervous structure, as in
paralytics. In certain cases, there is an irresistible rapidity of utterance, or, apparently,
an involuntarv utterance of certain words or phrases foreign to the character of the
individual. In : uother class of cases, memory appears to be chiefly at fault; there may
be the oblivion or aU words; the forgetfulness of certain classes of words, such as sub-
stantives, while others are recollected and correctly applied; the forgetfulness of par-
ticuhir words, as of the individuaVs own name; or of parts of words, as occurs in gen-
eral paralysis, where the last or penultimate syllable escapes attention, and is generally
omitted; or there may be confusion as to orthography, and this has been observed when
limited to a single letter. Dr. Graves, Dublin, mentions a farmer who retained a
knowledge of all parts of speech except nouns and proper names; but even of these he
recollected the initial letter: he carried a pocket-dictionary, and when about to use such
words as *' Oow "or *• Dublin," turned to the letters *' C " and ** D," and then recalled
what he wished. Patients are found who impose upon themselves a mutism as to cer-
tain phrases, and limit their vocabulary to particular expressions. In others, there is
invariably a transposition of words; such as when, in place of saying, "the rose is
beautiful" a paralytic recasts the sentence, " beautiful rose is," and all other sentences
in a similar fashion. Fever, in Mezzofanti, is said to have swept away in an hour, his vast
acquisitions in 60 languages; in other cases, it has recalled dialects forgotten for half a
century; and mere excitement seems capable of inventing or inspiring a vast number of
sounds assuming the aspect, and even the relations of a language so closely as to sugggest
doubts as to whether they are creations such as those of Salmanazar, which deceived
the tinguiflts of the royal society* or those ebuUitionB of devotional feeling designated
Digitized by VjOUV IC
* ' unknown tongues. " In other forms of disease, the cries of animals or natural signs are
resorted to in place of words; or the ordinary language is sung or chanted, or used rhyth
mically; or a foreign language may be employ^ or imitated. The bearing of such-
aiterations upon the pliiiosophy of mind, and upon any theory as to the origin of lan-
guage, must be obvious; but they possess a still more intimate connection with tiie
amount of intelligence and responsibility predicable in every case of disease of the
nervous system. — Calmiel, De la ParcdyaU cormderee chez ies AlienSs; Phrenologicai
JourruU, No. 47; Coleridge, Biographia LiUraria, vol. i. p. 112.
LOGOS (Gr. from lego, " I speak ") denotes the act of speaking; that which is spokeo;
the natural process gone through for the purpose of the formation of speech; the reason-
ing powers themselves — ^all the attributes ana operations of the soul, in fact, as mani-
fcdted by the spoken word. It thus occurs in the classical writers under the manifold
significulions of word or words, conversation, onition, exposition, command, history,
prose, eloquence, philsophical propositipn, system, reason, thought, wisdom, and the
'like. Theologically, the word logc^, as occurring at the beginning of the gospel of St.
John, was eany taken to refer to the ''second person of the Trinity, i.e., Christ." Yet
what was the precise meaning of the apostle, who alone makes use of the term in a man-
ner which allows of a like interpretation, and onlv in the introductory part of his gospel;
whether he adopted the symbolizing usage in whicli it was employed by the various schools
of his day; which of their widely differing significations he had in view, or whether he
intended to convey a meaning quite peculiar to himself: — these are some of the innu-
merable questions to which the word has given rise in divinity, and which, though most
fiercely discussed ever since the first days of Christianity, are far from having found a
satisfactory solution up to this moment. The fact, however, is, that the notion of a
certain miinifestation or revelation out of the center of the (Godhead, as it were— which
manifestation, as a more or less personified part of the deity, stands between the realms
of the infinite and the finite, of spirit and matter — has from times immemorial been the
common property of the whole east, and is found expressed in the religions of the prim-
itive Egyptians, as well as in those of the Hindus and Parsees. This notion of an
embodiment of divinity, as '*word** or *' wisdom" found its way, chiefly from the time
of the Babylonian exile, into the heart of Judaism, which in vain endeavored to recon-
cile it with the fundamental idea of the divine unity. The apocryphal writers chiefly
pointed to the "wisdom" — of which Solomon (Pro v. viii. 22) says that it had dwelt
with God from the beginning, and Job (xxviii. 20), that it had assisted in the creation--
as t/ie emanation of God. which emanation was supposed to be bodily to a certain, how-
ever minute, degree. Thus, Sirach (xxiv. 1, 23) understands the '* spirit of God" (Gen.
i. 2) to be a kind of veil or mist, and speaks (i. 1, 9) of the " w^isdom that is of the Lord
emd is with the Lord, everlasting," ana that "it was created before all things, and knowa
unto him "(ib.).
This wisdom, or toord of creation, which, according to Sirach's view, formed and
developed the chaos, further manifested itself — visibly — by a direct and immediate
influence upon one select people, Israel, through which it wished further to influence all
mankind. A nearer acquaintance with this doctrine in all its bearings at once solves the
Qld riddle of certain Targumic interpretations, which have puzzled a host of investi-
gators. Thus, versions like that of Targum Jerushalmi to Gen. i. 1, " with wisdom, God
created heaven and earth," and the constant use of the term Memra (word) instead of
€h>d or Jehovah, become clear at once (see Tabgum , Ybrsionb). No less must many
passages in the Talmud and Midrash assume an entirely different aspect, if that prev-
alent mode of thought and speech is taken into consideration.
In the earlier Platonic schools, again, Logos, scil., of God, was the common term for
'* plan of Uie cosmos " or "divine reason," inherent in the deity. The later schools, how-
ever, more prone to symbol and allegory in philosophical matters, called Logos a ** hypos-
tasis of divmity," a substance, a divine corporeal essence, as it were, which became out-
wardly visible — a separate being, in fact, which, created out of the Creator, became
" the Son of the Creator."
But above all, we have, for the proper consideration of the usage in the days of the
apostles, to examine the Judseo- Alexandrian views on this point. Philo, who is their
best representative, makes the Logos the all-comprising essence of spiritual powers
(daimons, angels), which alone acts upon the universe. In this sense, the Logos stands
as the divine reason, the power of all powers, the spirit of Qod, and his representatiee,
between him and all else. Nay, he goes so far as to call it the archangel, who executes
the behests of God to man; tlie high-priest, who prays for man, and interferes on his
behalf, before the throne of the Almighty; and he fiually speaks of Lo^os as "the
' second Qod*' {DeSomn. i. 655), and the "providence" (fate, fortune) which watches
over the destinies of mankind and separate nations {Quod Deus, i. 298). These con-
ceptions, which, he says, came to him in a trance, he does not allow, however, to l>e in
the least derogatory to the strictest belief in the oneness, invisibility, and pure spiritual-
ness of God, such as it is taught in the Jewish creed. — ^This characterizes sufficiently the
general vagueness and haziness of philosophical and theological parlance and specu-
uition in the Alexandrine schools, which, obviously unconscious of the palpable con-
Digitized by VjOUV IC
185 i2&.
tndiodoos uttered in one iMreatli* mixed up pure thought and visione, Scripture with
eastern and western philosopby and theosopby, monotheism and polytheism, heaping
systems upon systems, and areams upon dreams.
If the apostle did not himself, to a certain degree, stand under the influence of some
of the popular ideas connected with the term unaer consideration, it would, at any rate,
seem most natural that he made use of it, as of one conveying a certain vague, yet com-
moDiy recci^nized transcendental notion of a divine emanation to the minds of his con-
temporaries. This opinion, however, is far from being unanimously adopted. Thus,
some investigators hold that John, irrespeclive of the parlance of his day, used the
woid logos for Leffotne7Uf»t i.e., he of whom it has been spoken, the promised one;
others identify it with ''doctrine;" while a third notion (held among others by Calvin
and Luther) would malce it equal to monologue, conversation.
For the person of Uie Logos as the m^iator (iEon, Demiurges, etc.)> and the re-
speciive relation between him and the other persons of the divine trias, we must refer
to the articles Cubibt, Gkobtigs, T&lnity.
LOGRO'S^O, one of the six modern provinces which form the ancient province of
Castilla la Vieja in Spain; 1945 sq.m. ; pop. 182,941. It extends alone the right bank of
the £bro, and includes portions of territory which formerly belonged to the provinces
of Burgos and Boria. It is a productive region, rich in wine and com, fruits and ve^-
tables. Minerals also abound, and there are valuable mineral springs. Near the city
of Logroflo, a few miles s. of the £bro, was fought, April 8^ 1867, a desperate battle
between Henry, count of Trastamara. elevated to tne throne of Castile b^ the people of
that country, and Bdward the black prince, who had formed an alliance with the
detestable Charles II., king of Navarre, suruamed "the wicked," to replace Pedro the
cruel on the thnme of Castile, from which he had been driven on account of his many
enonnities. This battli was decisive, and resulted in returning to Pedro his throne.
•
LOOBOirO (Let. Jviia Briga\ a t. of Spain, capital of the province of Logrofio, is
situated on the £bro, 60 m. e. of Burgos. It is surrounded by walls, has several
churches, convents, a theater, college, some manufactures, and a good trade In rural
produce. Pop. 11,267.
LOOWOOB, the dark red solid heart-wood of hamaioaylon eampeehianum, a tree of the
natural order leguminasa, sub-order cosmlpinea. This tree grows in Mexico and Central
America, and is perhaps a native of some of the West India islands; but is said to
have been introduced into Jamaica in the beginning of the 18th c, although it is now
naturalized there. It is the ovAy known species of its genus. It grows to a height of
20 to 50 ft. ; the leaves are pari-pinnate; the racemes many -flowered, and longer than the
leaves. The sapwood is yellowish, and being worthless, is hewed off with the bark.
The lieart-wood is heavier than water, close-grained, but rather coarse. It has a slight
smell resembling that of violets, a sweetish taste, is astringent, and contains a distin-
guishing crystalline principle, called lumnaUxcyline (q.Y.),
No aye-wood is imported in such large quantities as logwood; nearly 50,000 tons are
annually sent to Great Britain. It was nrst introduced in the reign of ({ueen Elisabeth,
but the color was found to wash out, and the dyers not knowing how to fix it, much
dissatisfaction was occasioned by the sale of cloths dyed with it. and an act of parlia-
ment was passed prohibiting its use. This act was repealed in 1661, since which time it
has been constantly in use, science having shown means for fixing. Logwood is imported
in larse billets or logs, usually about 4 ft. in length, 18 in. in diameter, and of veir
irregular shape ; the laiger they are the greater their value; the color is a dark blood-red,
becoming almost black after long exposure. Tlie infusion of the wood is also blood-red,
which color it yields readily to boiling water; it is changed to light red by acids, and to
dark purple by alkalies. In dyeing with logwood, an alum mordant gives various shades
of purple ana violet — with the solution of tin, it gives violet, red, and lilac; with the
sulphate or acetate of iron, it gives a black; but this is greatly improved in depth and
softness, if ^11-nuts are also used, which is generally the case. It is also one of the
ingredients in both black and red ink; but Brazil-wood is usually preferred for the
latter.
LOHER, Frakz vow; b. Paderborn, Germany, 1818; after studying at several (Ger-
man universities, traveled in Europe and visited Canada and the United States in 1846-
47, and in 18^ established the WutfdlUehe ZeitungvX Paderborn. For political agitation
he was imprisoned by the Prussian government, but was acquitted by the court. In
1853 he was professor at the university of GOttingen, and in 1855 in the university of
Munich, and secretary of the academy. His works are Des DeuUcTien VoUces JBedeu-
tung in der WeUgeicMckU; Quchichte und ZuMnde der DeutscTUn in Amenka; the epic
poem General Spork; Land und Leuie der aUen und netien Welt; Jaeobda mm Bayem;
Aus Natur und Qetckic^te wm Elsan-Lothringen.
LOIGNY, Battle of, Dec. 2. 1870, the Germans, under the grand-duke of Mecklen-
burg, winning a signal victory over the French, led by pen. Chanzy. The €krmans lost
m killed and wounded 3,000 men, the French nearly twice this number, besides 8,000
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prisoners and 7 guns. Loigny, the site of the battle, is a hamlet of France, in £aie^
Loir, 80 m. H.s.e. of Chartres.
LOIR, a small river of France, having its source s.w. of Paris, and running thence
in a generally s.w. course to its juuction with the Sarthe, a tributary of tiie Loire.
Length about 200 miles. Navigable by means of 80 locks a distance of about 70 miles.
LOntE (ancient lAger), the longest river in France, has its source in the Cevennes
mouutaius, near Gerbier-des- Jones, in the department of Ard^che, at an elevation of
4,550 ft., dows in a n.n.w. direction through the center of France as far asOrleaas,
where it bends round to the 8.w. as far as Tours, and thence follows, in general, a west>
ern course to its embouchure in the bay of Biscay. Entire length. 612 miles. It becomes
naviG;able a little above Roanne, at a distiince from the sea of 450 miles. At one time,
the diepth of the water at its mouth was 18 ft. at ebb-tide; now it is only from 6 to 9 feet
The lower course of the IjoI re is adorned by wooded islets. In the lower part of its
course, large dikes or Uvees have been built, to protect the ^surrounding country from
inundations, from which, however, thev sometimes suffer terribly. It receives about 40
affluents, of which the principal are the Loir, on the right; and the Ailier, the Cher,
the Indre. and the Vienne, on the left.
LOIBE, a department in the 8.e. of France, formerly part of the province of Lyon-
nais, comprises the arrondissements of Montbrison, Roanne. and St. Etienne. Area,
1,178,284 English acres; pop. *76, 590,618. The basin of the Loire, which flows through
this department, is a rather unfruitful valley, but the mountains are rich in iron and
lead, and the coal-fields of the department are the richest in France. Loire is also noted
for the rearing of silk-worms, and for the excehence of its silk manufactures. Tbe
weaving of hemp and linen is also largely carried on. Its mineral springs are in great
repute, especially those of .St. Alban. Snil-sous-Couzan, and St Qalmier. The chief
towns are St. Etienne, Roanne, Rivede-Qier, and Montbrison.
LOntE, Hautb, a central department of France, bounded on the s. by the departments
of Lozere and Arddchc. Area, 1,212,160 sq. acres; pop. 76, 313,721. The surface is
mountainous; covered bv the Cevennes, the Cantal mountains, and the Margaride chain,
whose slopes are clothed with forests, and whose peaks are during about half the year
covered with snow. Chief rivers, the Loire and the Ailier. The soil of the plains is
fertile, and the agricultural produce of the soil consisting of the usual crops with fruits
is abundant. The climate is very various, owing to the irregularity of the surface. Tlie
arrondissements are Le*Puy, Yssengeaux, and firioude; the capital, Le-Puy.
LOIB£-IKP£si£TJBE, a maritime department in the w. of France, formed out of the
southern portion of the old province of Brittany, and comprising the arrondisscmentd
of Nantes, Anccnis, Paimboeuf, Ch&teaubriaiit, and Savenay, lies on both sides of the
river Loire. Area, 1,697,979 English acres; pop. '76. 612,972. In the s. of the depart-
ment lies Grand Lieu, the largest lake in France. The interior is, on the whole, flat,
but the n.e. and s.e. are slightly hilly. The soil is fertile, producing wheat, rye. and
barley, and forming in some parts rich pasturage. There are also some tine forests.
Bait marshes are numerous in the west. The vineyards yield annually about 82,000,000
gallons of wine. Ship-building is carried on extensively at Kantes. The coast-fisheries
and general export trade of the department are extensive. Capital, Kantes; none of
the other towns are large.
LOIBET, a central department of France, formed out of the eastern portion of the
old province of Orleannois, and comprising the arrondissements of Orleans, Montargis,
Gien, and Pithiviers, lies on both sides of the river Loire. Area, 1,670,984 English
acres; pop. '76, 860,903. Tlie country is, for the most part, an elevated and fruitful
plain, abounding in com and wine — known as the plateau of Orleans; but the district
along both banks of the Loire, called the Sologne, is a barren, sandy tract. Loiret con-
tains several large forests. Cattle, sheep, and bees are extensively reared, and mineral
springs ai*e numerous.
LOIS-ET-CHEB, a department of France, l^ing on both sides of the river Loire, and
formed of part of the old province of Orleannois. comprises the arrondissements of Blois.
Vendfime, and Romorantin. Area, 1,568,677 sq. acres; pop. 76, 272,684. The depart-
ment is almost a uniform plain, broken only by vine-hills of trifling elevation. Tlie
northern part is more fertile than the south, three-fourths of which is occnpied by
marshes, heaths, and forests — the last of which, indeed, cover one-sixth of the entire
surface. The chief products are corn, fruits, hemp, wine, and vegetables of all sorts.
The rearing of sheep, poultry, and bees is carefully attended to, and there are also
manufactures of woolens, cottons, leather, glass, etc. Principal towns, Blois, Romo-
rantin, and Venddmc.
LO'JA, a t. of Spain, in the province of Gninada, is situated on the slope of a hill
near the left bank of the Xenil. 81 m. w. of Granada, and 41 n.n.e. of Malaga. Pop.
15,500. Loja is a thriving place, with 21 woolen factories, 8 paper-mills, and two hoB-
pitab, and was once of great military importance, being the key to Grenada. . The
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flummit of the dope on which the town is built is crowned with the rains of a Moorish
cuUe.
LOJl, a city of Ecuador in South America near the Andes, lat. 4** s. ; pop. 13,000.
It is the center of a great commerce in quiuine. The surrouudinj; country is elevated
60 far above the sea that grains of the lomperato zone are produced as well as the fruits
of the tropics. Manufactures of wool, cotton, and carpets are among the chief industries
of tlie city.
LCXESEV, a t. of Belgium, province of East Flanders, on the Dunne, 12 m. c.n.e.
of Ghent. It is a station on the Ghent and Antwei-p railway. Pop. in 76, 17,400.
Lokeren is a well-built town, with numerous schools, benevolent institutions, important
manufactures of linen, cotton, and woolen goods, and large bleach-tields.
LOKI, a demi-god in the Scandinavian mythology. He did not belong to the race of
the Aesir (see Ases), but to an older dynasty. Still, we find him from the very first on
terms of intimacy with Odin, and received among the Aesir. His appearance is beautiful,
and he is possessed of great knowledge and cunning. He often brings the n<«i^ gods into
diflBculties, from which, however, he again extricates them. Hence he is to be regarded
as the principle of strife and disturbance in the Scandinavian mytliology; the "spirit of
evil,'* as it were, mingling freely with, yet essentially opposed to, the other inhabitants of
the Norse heaven, very much liae the Satan of the book of Job. By his artful malice, he
caused the death of Bialder (q. v.), and was in consequence visited by the Aesir with most
terrible punishments. He is sometimes called Asa-Loki, to distinguish him from
Utgarda-Loki, a king of the giants, whose kingdom lies on the uttermost bounds of the
earth; but these two are occasionally confounded.* It is quite natural, considering the
character of Loki, that at a later period he should have become identified with the devil
of Christum ity, who is called in Norwa}'' to the present day, Laake,
LOKXAV (Abu Amah?), a fabulous persona^; the supposed author of a certain
number of Arabic fables. He is by some Arabic writers called a nephew of Job or
Abraham; by others a councilor of David or Solomon; others again identify him with
BaUam, whose name signifies, like tliat of Lokmfin, the Dewurer, Equal uncertainty
reigns respecting his native place and occupation. Thus, he is variously held to have
been an fithiopian slave, conspicuous for his ugliness, a king of Yemen, an Arabic
tailor, a carpenter, a shepherd, and the like. Most probably, the circumstances nnd
Bayiugs of several men living at di£ferent periods have been fathered upon LokmAn, of
whom Mohammed (Surah 81) says that to him " has been given thsw$dom" Then) is
also a great likeness to be recognized between himself and his fables and uEsop and
those current under the latter^s name. According to the Arabic writers, to Lokmdn, as
the ideal of wisdom, the kingdom of the world was offered, but was by him declined —
provided this was no offense against piety— because be felt much happier as he was;
and that when asked what was the secret of the goodness and wisdom of all his deeds,
he replied: **It is this: I always adhere to the truth; I always keep my word; and I
never mix myself up with other people's affairs.'*
The fables that go by Lokmdn's name are for the most part Indian apologues, which
were first rendered into Qreek, thence into Syriac, and finally into Arabic. They are.
in this last form, of a comparatively recent date, and thus unknown to all the classical
writers. The language is very corrupt, and it is highly to be regretted that the book,
for want of anything better, still holds its rank as an elementary book for Arabic stu-
dents. Its first redaction is, according to a note to a manuscript in the imperial
library in Paris (Suppl. No. 58). due to an Egyptian Christian, Barsuma, who prolmbly
lived towards the end of the 18th century. The first edition, wiUi a Latin translation
bv Erpemius, appeared at Leyden (1615). The book has been frequently translated into
European languages— into French, by Tanneguy, Schier, etc.; into Spanish, by Miguel
Garcia Ascensio, etc.; into Danish, by liask; into German, by Olearius, Schaller, eto.
Recent editions are by Bernstein (Gdtt. 1817), Caussin de Perceval (Paris, 1818), Frevtag
(Bonn. 1823), R5diger (Leip. 1830, etc.), Schier (Dres. 1881), Rasch (Copenh. 1^82),
Derenburg (fieri. 1850), etc.
A book, Amthdl (Parables), ascribed to Lokm&n, and supposed to contain more than
a thousand apologues, maxims, parables, sentences, etc., has never been discovered.
Lokman's supposed grave is shown at Ramlah, near Jerusalem.
LOLA MONTEZ (Maria Dolores Porris), Countess of Landsfelt, 1824r-81 ; allesred
by Mirecourt. author of Le9 Gontemporaines, to have been born in Montrose, Scotland,
though she claimed Seville, Spain, as her birthplace. When quite young she married
capt James of the East India service against the wish of her mother, and traveled with
him in India. She also accompanied him during an expedition against the Afghans.
About 1838 she obtained a separation from her husband, and traveled in Europe, leading
w erratic life in the different capitals, at one time singing barcaroles in tlie streets of
Warsaw, and again appearing as a danseuse in the theater of that city. She now adopted
the stage as a profession, appearing usually as a dancer, and, though possessing little skill
m that direction, achieved a certain degree of ponularitv by her graceful person and
charmmg vivacity of manner. In 1847 she visited Munich.'and there attracted the atten-
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KSSi^L 138
tion of king Xiouis of Bavaria. She was at this time very attractive, haDdsome, and with a
remarkable talent for political intrigue. The king gave her a residence in Municli and
an income estimated at $25,000 per annum, and made her the confidant of his political
schemes. She soon exercised a powerful influence, and, as is believed, for tbe interest
of Bavaria. But slie made many enemies, the Jesuits, as she averred, being active
-against her. A difficulty witb the students of the university of Munich at length pre-
cipitated her downfall, and the king was forced by his counselors to consent to her
arrest and deportation from the country. This act was followed by the abdication of
the king himself, who afterwards vainly sought to renew his association with Lola
Montez, who absolutely rejected his advances. During her stay in Munich, she was
named by the king countess of Landsfelt, with the consent of the crown prince. Lola
now visited England, and in 1849 was married to George Stafford Heald, esq., of the
2d life-guards, a gentleman of family and position, with an income of £6,000 per annum.
His family opposed the match, and on Aug. 6, 1849, through their instigatiou, she
was brought before a London police court on a charge of bigamy; her former husband,
capt. James, being still, living in India. Her defense (of a divorce) was not accepted,
the law pfbhibitiug either party from manying again during the life-time of the other.
Heald accordingly obtained a divorce, and Lola continued to lead her former wandering
life. She sailed for New York in the autumn of 1851, on board the same steamer with
Louis Kossuth, arriving on Dec. 5. She appeared at the Broadway theater in a piece
called Lola Montez in Bavaria, and as a danseuse in most of the large cities. In 1855
she took a company of players to Australia, and gave some of her characteristic perfor-
mances in the principal towns. In 1858 she delivered a lecture on Beautiful Women in
New York. The last few years of her life were passed in retirement
LOLIGO, or Squid. See Galamary, ante,
LOUmC. See Darnel and Rte-grabs.
LOL'LABBS, or Loll'hards, a semi-monastic society, the members of which devoted
themselves to the care of the sick and of the dead. It was first formed about the vear
1800 in Antwerp, where some pious persons associated themselves for the burwl of the
dead. They were called from their frugal life, and the poverty of their appearance,
Matemant; also, from their patron saint, brethren of 8t, Aleaus; and, on account of their
dwelling in cells, Fratres GelUtiB; whilst they acquired the name Lollards from their prac
tice of singing dirges at funerals — the Low-Oerman loUen, or hUien. signifying to sing;
softly or slowly. They soon spread through the Netherlands and Germany, and in the.
frequent pestilences of that period were useful and everywhere welcome. The clergy
ana the b^ging-friars, however, disliked and persecuted them, classing them with the
heretical Beghard$ (see BsGUiNEa), till Gregory XL took them under his protection in
1374. Female Lollard societies were formed in some places. The Lollards having been
reproached with heresy, their name was afterwards very commonly given to different
classes of religionists, sometimes to the truly pious, sometimes to the worst pretenders:
and in England it became a designation of tlie followers of Wycliffe (q.v.), and llnis
extended into Scotland, where the Lollards of Kyle (in Ayrshire) attracted attention, and
became the objects of persecution in the end of the 15th century.
LOLLARDS (ante\ a name at first, about the beginning of the 14th c, applied to the
Cellites, who, at Antwerp, devoted themselves to the care of persons ill with pestilential
diseases; and afterwards, durinj? the close of that centuiy and through the next, given
to the followers of Wycliffe. Various explanations of tlie name have been suargested.
one of which, favorea by many, is that derived from the Low-German word luUen, or
kUen^ which means to sing low or softly; it was applied to the Cellites because they.siing
low and plaintively at funerals. A later and more probable theory derives it from loL
tardus, the Latin form of the old English "loller," one who lolls or lounges about, a
vagabond. It was applied at first both to the besrging-friars and to the Wycliffltes; but
afterwards being restricted to the latter, it occasioned, by its resemblance to the Latin
**lolia," the punning accusation that they were tares among the wheat. Many of tlicm.
sent forth by Wycliffe to carry the gospel into the remote villages, were called "poor
priests" by the people, to large numbers of whom they preached in the fields, church
yards, and market-places.
After Wycliffe had taken the degree of d.d. at the university of Oxford, and had
commenced there his earnest appeals against papal errors, he aroused the hatred of the
bishops, and became prominent as an advocate and leader of reform. When he retin^d
from the university to the little parish of Lutterworth, the work went on with unabated
power. Those who bad been instructed by either bis preaching or writings were active
m diffusing his doctrines abroad. His followers were found among all classes of people;
some of the more distinguished being influenced somewhat perhaps by political motives,
but the greater part chiefly by the power of religious truth. The judicial examinations
of those who, in the next a^, were arrested for heresy show that they all cherislied,
substantially, the doctrinal views which Wycliffe had taught. The principal of these views
were: the supreme authority of the Scriptures as the rule of faith; the finished work of
Christ as the only Savior: and the denial of transubstantiation. auricular confession,
image worship, the papal hierarchy, and the priestly offices in the mass. At the Ume
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of Wjdifle's death the number of his foUowen was Increasing rapidly, as vas indicated
by tlie somewhat extravagant affirmatiou of Knighton that nearly every second man in
Eogiaod was a Lollard. In 1382 a couuciU convened by archbisbop Courtney, con-
demned 10 of Wy cliff e*8 articles us lieretical and 24 as erroneous. The archbishop pub-
Med an order forbidding any man, of any estate or condition whatsoever, to hold,
teach, preach, or defend the aforesaid heresies and errors, or any of tkem, or even allow
them to be preached or favored either publicly or privately. Bishops and priests were
exhorted to become inquisitOFS of heretical pravity, and were threatened with excom-
mucicati(»D if they neglected their duty in this respect The chancellor of the univer-
sity, chaiged with "being somewhat inclined to the errors aforesaid," was enjoined to
allow DO one under his jiiriiidiction to teach or defend them. At length, violent perse-
cuiioQ was commenced. Some of the accused recanted, and became Xitter persecutors
of tbelr former friends. Others fled out of the country. In other parts, also, of the
kingdom the Lollards were actively teaching tlieir doctrines. In Leicester and the
yiciiiity thev u)ade great progress; and as the people hid their teachers, the whole city
and all its churches were placed under interdict until all the Lollards of the town shoulci
forsake their heresy and obtain absolution. To arrest their advance and break up their
ineetiDgs, parliament resolved that if any persons, on conviction, refused to abjure their
errors, they should be delivered over to the secular arm to be burned. William Sautre,
"a good man and faithful priest, inflamed with zeal for true religion," was condemned
aod committed to the flames in an open part of London. The "cruel constitution" of
archbishop Arundel forbade any one to preach in English, either within the church or
without, except by permission of the bishcp. Schoolmasters and teachers were for-
bidden to teach anything contrary to what the church had declared. No book or
treatise of Wycliffe was to be read anywhere. No person was allowed to write or print
a translation of any text of Scripture into English or any other language. No one was
to dispute upon articles determined by the church. No scholar or inhabitant of Oxford
university was to propose or defend anything contrary to the determinations of the
charcli.
But all these measures proving insufficient to suppress the hated opinions, the active
persecution also went on, and many persons were burned. The accession of Henry
V. was signalized by his surrendering to the persecutors his friend sir John Oldcastle,
who was arrested, condemned, and excommunicated. At first he contrived to escape
from prison, but was rearrested, and in 1417 was burned at the stake. The parliament
further enacted " that whatsoever they were who should read the Scriptures in the
mother tongue, they should forfeit land, cattle, body, life, and goods from their heirs
forever; and so be condemned for heretics to God, enemies to the crown, and most
arrant traitors to the land." In case of relapse after pardon, they were to be hanged as
traitors against the king, and then burned as heretics against God. The last executions
took place in 1431.
In Scotland, also, especially in the western districts, the Lollards were numerous,
and suffered persecutions during different parts of the 15th century. Near the close of
it 30 pefsons were summoned before king James lY. and the great council. Happily
for tliem the king refused to sanction their condemnation, and they were released.
After the opening of the 16th c. the Lollards gradually became incorporated with the
reformed churches. .
LOLL BAZAAB, an inconsiderable t. of northern India, in the district of Gush Behar,
between the rivers Duriah and Tista, in n. lat. 26*' 4', and e. long. 89° 18'. It partly occu-
pies the site of the ruined city of Eomotapur, a '* most stupendous monument of rude
labor," the walls of which were 10 m. in drcumference in the inside of the inner ditch.
Massive ruins are still to be seen.
LOXBABD, Peteb (rather, Peter the Lombard), one of the most famous of the
acboolmen, was b. at a village near Novara, in Lombardy. He was a pupil of Abelard,
afterwards became a teacher of theology in Paris, and in 1159 was appointed bishop of
Paris. Bayle says that he was the first who obtained the title of doctor of theolo^ in
the university of Paris. He died at Paris in 1164. He was very generally styled
magisfer sententiarum, or the matiter of ientences, from his work Sententiarum Libri IV.,
an arranged collection of sentences from Augustine and other fathers, on points of
Christian doctrine, with objections and replies, also collected from authors of repute.
It was intended as a manual for the scholastic disputants of his age, and as may be
inferred from what has just been said, is a compilation rather than an original work. It
was the subject of many commentaries down to the time of the reformation. The works
of Peter Lombard were edited by Aleaume (Louvain, 1546).
LOXBABD ABCHIT£CTUB£ is the style which was invented and used by the Gothic
invaders and colonists of the n. of Italy, from about the age of Charlemagne till it was
superseded by the importation of tlie pointed style from France in the beginning of the
13tb century. The architecture of the Lombards was derived from the Komanesque
iq.v.), or debased Roman stvle which the^ found in the country — the general plan of the
churches, and the general form of the pillars, arches, etc., being almost identical with
that of the Roman basilicas (q.v.). But in detail there is no such resemblance; the
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Roman tradittms are entirely abandoned, and instead of the debased acanthus leaves
and fraCTieots of entablatures, so characteristic of the Romanesque style, the Lonibai^ds
adopted a freer imiUiMon of natural forms in their foliage, and covered their buildings
with representations of the fights and huntin^^-expeditions in which they delighted, Oa
their first arrival in Italy they used Italian workmen; but when their own people l>ecame
more numerous they also laid aside the sword for the trowel. Accordingly, wherever
in n. Italy the Lombards were numerous, their style prevailed; and where the Romans
predominated, the Romanesque prevailed. The n. of Italy belonged naturally, at the
time of Charlemagne, to the great German empire, and thus we find nearly the same
style of architecture in Lom hardy and in Germany as far n. as the Baltic. 'See Rhen-
ish .VRcmTECnniB. Few early examples of Lombard architecture exist. In the unruly
times when the style originated, the buildings were no doubt frequently destroyed by
fire; this seems to have led to tlie desire to erect fireproof structures, and thus the ear-
lier as well as almost all the later examples are vaulted with stone, whereas the Roman-
esque basilicas are generally roofed witli wood. This stone roof seems to have been the
great desideratum in the new style. The earliest example is a small chapel at Friiin.
built probably during the 8th c, and it is covered with an intersecting vault. Examples
of this date are rare in Itidy; but in Switzerland, where the style is almost identical,
several interesting specimens of early architecture remain, such as the churches of
Romnin-Motier, Granson, Payerne, etc., in which the transition from the Romanesque
to the round-arched Gothic is very clearly traceable. We there find the peculiar arch
ornament so characteristic of Llombardy and the Rhine, and we can trace the timid
steps by which the Goths advanced in the art of vaulting.
The vaulting is the leading feature of Lombard architecture, and from it sprinj^ the
other distinguisliing forms ot the style. Thus, the plain, round pillai*s, with a siniplc
base and capital, which served to support the side-walls and roof of a basilica, are
changed for a compound pier, made up of several shafts, each resting on its own base,
and each provided with a capital to carry the particular part of the vaulting assigned lo
it. This change is deserving of particular notice as the first germ of that principle
which was afterwards developed into the Gothic style (q.v.). Buttresses are also inlro.
duced for the first time, although with small projection.
The cathedral of No vara is one of the most striking examples of Lombard architec
ture. It belongs to the 11th century. It is derived from the old basil ican type, bavins
at the w. end an open atrium, with arcade around, from which the church is entered m
a central door. The interior is divided into central and side aisles, with vaulted roof
. and terminated with an apsidal choir. At the end of the atrium opposite the church, i\
j situated the baptistery. At Asti there is an interesting example of the early Lombard
I baptistery. The same general arrangement of plan afterwards became common in th^
German churches, the atrium being roofed over and included in the nave, and the bap
tistcry forming the western apse of the double-apsed churches. The elevation of Novan
is ornamented with those arcades and arched string-courses so common in Lombard aD<
Rlienish architecture.
San Michcle at Pavia and San Ambrojjio at Milan are also good early examples o
this style. In both, the grouping of the piers into vaulting shafts, wall-arch shafts, etc.
is complete, and that beautiful feature of the style, the arcade round the apse, is full]
developed. The atrium and w. front of San Ambrogio form one of the finest groups o
Lombard architecture.
Lombard architecture is important as forming a link between the Romanesque q
Italy and the Gothic of the Cisalpine countries. On the one hand, its origin cau b
traced back to the Roman basilicas; while on the other it embodied those principle
from the development of which sprang the great Gothic style of the middle ages.
IiOICBABDS, a German people of the Suevic family, not very numerous, but of dii
tinguished valor, who played an important part in the earl}'^ history of Europe. Th
name is derived from £o7igobardi, or Langobardi, a Latinized form in use since the 12t1
"C., and was formerly supposed to have been given with reference to the long beards g
this people ; but it is now derived rather from a word parta, or harie, which signifies
battle-axe. About the 4th c. they seem to have begun to leave their original seats (o:
the lower Elbe, where the Romans seem to have come first in contact wiui them abet
the be^nning of the Christian era), and to have fought their way southward and easi
ward till they came into close contact with the eastern Roman empire on the Danube
adopted an Arian form of Christianity, and after having been for some time tributary'' t
the Heruli. raised themselves upon the ruins of their power, and of that of the Gepida
shortly after the middle of the oth c. to the position of masters of Pannonia, and becam
one of the most wealthy and powerful nations in that part of the worid. Under the)
king Alboin (q.v.), they invaded and conquered the n. and center of Italy (5C8-69;
The more complete triumph of the Lombards was promoted by the accession of strengti
which they received from other tribes following them over the Alps— Bulgarians, Sarmi
tians, Pannonians, Norici, Alemanni, Suevi, (^pldae, and Saxons — ^for the numbers c
•the Lombards themselves were never very great.
The Lombards, after the example of the Romans themselves in the conquests c
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former times, were for the most part coDtented -with a third of the iaod or of ita fniitsi
One of tiieir kin^, Authari (584-90), assumed the title of Flavius, which hud beea
borne hy some of me later Roman emperors, and asserted the usual chums of a lloman
roler; ^hile the administration of tho Lombard kingdom was soon so superior to that
vbicli then prevailed in other parts of Italy that to many the change of masters was a '
positive relief from unjust and severe exactions. While the higher nobUity, however,
Id genenil retainexl some portion of their former wealth and greatness, the possessors of
smull pro^rties became fewer in number, and sunk into the class of mere cultivators,
to whom it was coniparatively indifferent whether the}' acknowledged a Roman or a
Lombard superior. The rights of the municipal corporations also, although acknowl-
edged, were gradually abridged, partly through the encroachments of the Lr)uibard dukes,
and partly through those of the higher clergy, till few relics of their ancient self-
government remained. These few, however, were the germs from which, at a subse-
quent period, the liberties of the Independent Italian cities were developed.
The Conversion of the Arian Lorn bawls to the orthodox faiih was brought about by
tiie policy of Qregory the great and the zeal of Theodolinda, wife of Authari, and subse-
quently of his successor, Agilulf (590-(515).
Theodolinda persuaded Agilulf to restore a portion of their property and dignities to
the Catholic clergy, and to have his own son baptized accordmg to the Catholic rites.
She also built the magnificent basilica of St. John the baptist at Monza, near Milan, in
which in subsequent times was kept the Lombard crown, called the iivn eroton (q.v,).
The Lombards were ere long fully united to the Roman Catholic cburcli. The contests
of the dukes prevented the firm consolidation of the king(h>m, or any very considerable
extension of its boundaries. The edict of the Lombard king. Rothari (63d-54), declar.
ing the laws of the Lombards, promulgated Nov. 22, 643, is memorable, as having
become the foundation of constitutional law in the Germanic kingdoms of the middle
ages. It was revised and extended by subsequent Lombard kings, but subeiated in force
for several centuries after the Lombard kingdom had passed away. The Lombards,
however, gradually became more and more assimilated to the iformer inhabitants of the
land of which they had made themselves lords; their rudeness was exchanged for refine-
ment, and the Latin language prevailed over the German, which they h^d brought with
ibcm from the other side of the Alps. But of the original Lombard language little is
known, nothing remaining to attest its certainly German character except a few words
and names, the very ballads In which the stories of Lombard heroes were recoided hav-
ing only come down to us in Latin versions.
Liutprand (713-44) raised the Lombard kingdom to its highest prosperity. He
quelled with strong hand the turinilence of the nobles, gave the fin^ioff lilow to the
<:xarchate of Ravenna, and sought to extend his dominion over all Italy. But the popes
DOW entered upon that Macchiavellian policy whidn they kmg Incessantly pursued, of
laboring to prevent a union of all Italy under one government, iA order to secure for
themselves the greater power in the midst of contending parties. This, with the dis-
putes which arose concerning tho succession to the Lombara throne, led to the downfall
of the Lombard kingdom within no long time after it had reached its utmost greatness.
The popes allied themselves with the Prankish kings, and Pepin, who had been anointed
by Stephen IL to the ^' patriciate," i. e., the governorship of Home, invaded Italy (754),
and compelled the Lombard king Aistulf (740-54), who cherished the same ambitious
designs as Liutprand, to refrain from further conquests, and even to give up some of the
cities which had already yielded to his arms, which Pepin (755) bestowed upon the
Roman cliurch and commonwealth. New ca^lses of hostility between the Frank and
Lombard inonarchs arose when CHiarlemagne sent back to her father his wife, the daugh-
ter of the Lombard king Desiderius (754-74), and Desiderius supported the claims of the
children of Carloman, Charlemagne's brother. In the autumn of 773, Charlemagne
invaded Italy; and in May of the following year, Pavia was conquered, and the Lom-
bard kingdom, after an existence of 206 years, was overthrown. In 776 an insurrection
of some of the Lombard dukes brought Cbarlemaene again into Italy, and the dukedoms
were broken down into counties, ana the Lombard system, as far as possible, supplanted
by that of the Franks. In 808 a treaty between Charlemagne, the western, and Niceph-
orus, the eastern emperor, confirmed the right of the former to the Lombard territory,
with Rome, the Exarchate, Ravenna, Istria, and part of Dalmatia; whilst the eastern
empire retained the islands of Venice and the maritime towns of Dalmatia, with Naples,
Sicily, and part of Calabria. Compare Turk's Dk Jjongobarden und thr Volktreeht (liosL
1885); and rlegler*8 Da$ Konigreieh der Longobardm in ItaUen (Leip. 1851).
»
LOVBABBT, the name given to that part of upper Italy which formed the " nucleus'
of tlie kingdom of the Lombards (q.v.). It consisted of the whole of Italy n. of the
peninsula, with the exceptions of Savoy and Venice, and after the fall of the Lombard
kingdom, in 774, was incorporated in the Cariovingian empire. In 843 it was created a
separate kingdom, but was not entirely severed from the Prankish monarchy till 888.
From this time it was ruled by its own kin^s till 961, when it was annexed to the Ger-
man empire. Out of the wrecks of the old independent kingdom now arose a number
of independent duchies, as Friuli, Mantua^ Susa, Piedmont, etc., and soon afterwaids
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London. ^^^
the republics of Venice, Genoa, Milan, and Pavia. These republics consisted of on<
sovereign town, surrounded by, in many cases, a large extent of dependent territorr
The Lombard cities declared themselves independent towards the commencement of thi
12th c, and in 1167 were joined by their less powerful neighbors in the " first Lomban
league,'* for the maintenance of their liberties, against Frederic Barbarossa. whom the;
severely defeated in 1176. In 1235 they were compelled to form the ** second Lomban
league' against Frederic 11., and with similar success. About this time, petty tyrant
arose in most of the cities, and the country was distracted by internal dissensions, whici
were carefully fostered by France and Cfcrmany. These two great powers and Spaii
strove for the possession of Lombardy. The last succeeded in obtaining it in 1540 am
held possession till about 1706, when, after another dispute, the duchies of Milan an
Mantua (the country bounded by the Ticino, Po, Mincio, and Switzerland), which alou
now retaincKl the name of Lombardy, came into the hands of Austria, and were desi|
natcd '* Austrian Lombardy." In 1796 it became part of the Cisalpine republic, but 1
1815 was restored to Austria^ and annexed politically to the newly acquired Venetia
territory under the name of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom. This union was dissolve
in 1859 by the Italian war; Lombardy was given up to the new kingdom of Italy, Aui
tria, however, retaining, for a time, her Venetian territory. There is now no officii
division called Lombardy, the country having been parceled out into the provinces c
Bersamo, Brescia, Oomo, Cremona, Milan, Pavia, ana Sondrio. Its total area was 8,26
En^ish sq.m., with a population in 1862 of 8,261,000.
The northern districts of Lombardy are alpine in character, but the rest of the count!
is of extraordinary fertility, induced chiefly by the universal practice of irrigation. Tl
country is celebrated for the products of its pasture-land and as much as 50,000,000 lb)
of cheese is annually produced in the dairies of Lombardy. Agriculture is here in
more advanced state than in any other part of Italy, wheat, rice, and maize being ih
principal crops; melons, gourds, oranges, figs, citrons, pomegranates, peaches, plunu
and other fruits of excellent quality are largely produced. The numerous mulberr
plantations form another prominent feature, and vines are extensively cultivated, thoug
the wine produced from them is of inferior quality. Various kinds of marble, some c
them of great beauty, form the chief item in the mineral products of Lombardy; a fei
iron mines exist in Como and Beigamo. The chief manufactures are silk, cotton, an
woolen goods, flax, paper, glass, and pottery; the annual value of the silk exceed
£8,000,000. Education is very generally diffused among the people, and they are we
supplied with newspapers and scientific and literary journals.
LOMBOK^an island in that crescent group in the Malsyan archipelago known as tH
Sunda islanda It lies between BaU on the w., and 8umbawa on the e. ; lat. from 8"* II
to 9** s., long, from 115° 44' to 116* 40' east. Area estimated at 1480 sq.m.; pop. i
200,000, who are all Mohammedans. The n. and s. coasts are each traversed by a cbai
of mountains, some of which are volcanic, bnt the interior is a fertile valley. Rice an
cotton are largely cultivated, 20,000 tons of the former being exported annually. Th
capital is Mataran; the principal seaport, Ampanam.
LOMBRIZ, an epizootic disease which attacks young sheep in Texas and Nei
Mexico. Great numbers of reddish hair-like worms infest the stomach and flesh of tli
animals, destroying them in droves. It generally attacks those which are not well care
for, or at least proves more fatal among them. The usual remedies which are said to I
attended with success are equal parts o^8alt, sulphur, and sulphate of iron (green co]
peras).
L0M|)NIE, Louis Leonard de, b. France, 1818; descended from eminent ancei
tors, one of whom was a victim of the massacre of 8t. Bartholomew's. His first literar
work was a series of biographical sketches, published under the title Qalerk des Canten
poraines Hlvstres par iin Ilomme de Bien. In 1845 he obtained the chair of literature i
the college of Frnnce. In 1871 he became a member of the French academy in the plac
vacated by the death of Merimee. His Biograp/iies des Ilomme de 1789/ Beaumarclm
et mn temps, etudes stir f/t Societe Fran^ise; La Comtesse de Boeh^ort et se$ Ainies; an
Mirdbeau — are among his principal works.
LOMONOZOFF, Mikhah. Wasttowitz, 1711-65; b. Russia; son of a poor flshei
man, who in the midst of poverty and want exhibited sudi hunger for knowlcdg
and instinct for poetry as to excite the friendship of a priest, who placed hina in
school of Moscow. Thence his talents procured him entrance to the university c
Kiev, and to the academy of St. Petersburg. His great learning in due time secure
him the position of professor of chemistry and director of the mineralogical cabinets c
the university of St. Petersbuip. He was sent by that institution to Gerraanj to acquir
a practical knowledge of minmg and mineralo^, and while there familiarized himsel
with the German poets. The range and variety of his studies and authorship ar
remarkable. It embraces annals of the Russian sovereigns, a history of Russia, work
on mineralogy and chemistry, a Russian grammar and rhetoric, original poems, and
great nnmbe'r of translations. He is called the father of modern Russian literature, am
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his grammar is said " to have drawn out the plan, and his poetry to have built up the
fabric of his native language." The life of Peter the great was the subject of his main
poem, a heroic epic in two cantos, said to be unsurpassed in the lang[uage. He became
one of the counselors of state, and died in middle life, crowned with the esteem and
admiration of his countrymen.
LOMHTTUX. See Lbouhb.
LO'KOHD, Loch, the largest of the Scottish lakes, lies between Dumbartonshire on
the w. and the counties of Stirling and Perth on the east. It is 24 m. long, is 7 m.
broad at the southern extremity, though the northern half is only about a m. in width,
and has an area of 45 sq. miles. Its ckpth varies from 60 to 600 ft., and its surface is
only about 22 ft. above the level of the sea. The waters of the loch are swelled by the
contribations of many streams, the chief of which is the Endrick, from the s.e. ; the sur-
plus waters are carried off by the Leven, an affluent of the Olvde. The lower portion of
the loch is surrounded by a hilly but well-cultivated and ffnelv wooded country, and
the character of the scenenr is in the highest degree rich and beautiful. Around the
Dorlhern portion of fbe loch are piled high, wild, and picturesque masses of mountaina
—Ben Lomond on the e., and the Arrochar hills on the west. The surface is dotted
over with nunaerous islands, which are finely diversified in their general appearance,
and contribute greatly to the exquisite beauty of the scene. Several steamers ply on
the lake.
LOMUS. in Hindu mythology— according to Vollmer— is the first created being
formed by Brahma. Deciding to devote himself to the contemplation of divine things,
in order to be undisturbed he ouried himself in the ground. This pleased the gods sa
much that they loaded fajm with favors, increased and confirmed his power and pietv,
and sasurod him a duration of life surpassing even that of Brahma. Lomus is said to be
20 m. loiur, and covered with hairs, of which he draws out one during the lapse of each
cycle of Brahma, and will die only after the last is drawn.
LOMZA, a government of Russia, formerly a part of the Polish government of
Qgostovo; 4,6Asq.m.; pop. 601,885. It is bounded'
the e. and by e. Prussia on the n. w. Capital, Lomza.
Aagostovo; 4,6A sq.m. ; pop. 601,885. It is bounded by the government of Grodno on
~ • the -- . - '
LOVXA, a district t. in the government of the same name, in Poland, on the left of
the Narev, a tributary of the Vistula, and 86 m. n.e. of Warsaw, played a prominent
part in the history of Poland, but has never recovered from its sufferings during the
Swedish wars. Lomza has a college, a gymnasium, an arsenal, and several paper-mills,.
and cloth and Unen factories in its neighborhood. Pop. '67, 10,840.
LONA'TO, a t. in n. Italy, province of Brescia; pop. 0,462. It is situated on a
height about 8 m. from the southern shore of lake €k)naa, surrounded by walls, defended
also by a citadel. It is in a fine silk district. The principal church is surmounted by
a apl^id dome. The tovm is of Roman origin, was devastated by war and pesti-
lence in the middle ages, and in modem times was the scene of two sreat battlea
between the French and Austrians in 1706 and 1786, the French being in both victorious.
LOnoV, the capital of the British empire, stands on both banks of the Thames,
about 60 m. from the sea. The dome of St. Paul's is m lat. 51** 80' 48' n., and in long.
5' 48' west. The river here varies from 900 to 1200 ft. in width.
London, under the names Londinium, Londinttm, and Avgiista, was one of the chief
stations of the Romans in Britain. Thev encircled a portion of what is now the c&y
with a wall, which was rebuilt and iextended in later ages. In Stow's time, the remains
of the Norman or Anglo-Norman wall were about 2 m. in extent, from the Thames at
the Tower to the Thames at Blackfriars. The great fire of 1666 and continual recon-
structions in later ages have nearly obliterated all traces of the old wall. The seven
gates which pierced u are entirely gone. Temple Bar being merely one of the outer bars
or suburban gates.
It is almost impossible to say what is the siee of London, because there is no boundary
wall, nor any definite number of surrounding villages and parishes included within it.
"London within the walls," the original city, comprises only 870 acres; ** London with-
out the walls" comprises 280 acres; then there are the city of Westminster and the
borough of South wark; the *' Tower Hamlets," comprising Bethnal Green, Whitechapel,
Stepney, Mile End, Poplar, Black wall, etc. ; the northern suburbs of Maiylebone, Port-
land Town, Camden and Kentish Towns, St. Pancras, Hampstead, Islington, Dalston,
Clapton, Hackney, etc. ; the western suburbs of Kensington, Chelsea, Pimlico, Tyburnia,
Notting Hill, Bayswater, Westbourne, Fulham, Paddington, etc. ; many parishes in the
center, but westward of the city; Bermondsey, Lambeth, Newington, Wandsworth.
Kennington, Stockwell, Brixton, Clapham, Camberwell, Peckham, Rotherhithe, etc., in
Surrey; and Deptford, Greenwich, Penge, Hatcham. Blackheath. Lewisham, Lee, etc.,
in Kent. The post-office London is larger than the parUatnentury London ,*• and the
P0^ London is larger than either. It i8 usuul, however, now to take, as the limit of
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I^ondon.
144
London, tlic area under the operation of the " metropolis local goTernmeDt act," whic
is also adopted by the regislrar-gcnernl for the census, and for the tables of mortalii)
it is nearly identical with the ai-ea under the control of the metropolitan board of worki
and with that under the control of the London school board (established by the educi
tion act of 1870). The area of the metropolis, as thus defined, is about 78,200 acret
equal to 122 so. miles. This area contained, in 1861, 859,421 inhabited bouses an
2,808,034 inhabitants; and in 1871, 417.848 houses and 3,251,804 inhabitants. On censi:
night, April, 1871, the exact population of the metropolis, under six different interpreU
lions of that term, was as follows:
City of London 74,782
Parliamentary London. 8,008,101
Kcgistrnr-generars London 8,251,804
Local-manaf^ment London 8,264.580
8chool-l)oard London 8,265,005
Police London 8,888,092
In ron\Hl numbers, the dimensions may be estimated at about 18 m. from e. to w., an
9^ from n. to south. For partiamentary purposes, London constitates ten borough«-
viz., city of London, Westminster, Southwark, Marylebone, Finsbury, Tower Hamleti
Ilackuey, Chelsea, Lambeth, and Greenwich; the first sending four members, and th
others two each. For poor-Iato purposes, London is divided into 40 unions, in som
cases sin^rlc parishes, in others groups of parishes. The ''metropolitan buildings act" o
1853 — which gives some kind OT official control over the ranging of houses in streets, ih
removal of projections and sheds, the management of rebuilding and repairs, the com
pulsory repair of houses in a dangerous condition, etc., divides the metropolis into 5*
districts, of which 4 arc in the city of London, 5 in the city of Westminster, 30 in othe
parts of the metropolis n. of th6 Thames, and 17 a. of the Thames. The city of London
as it cannot increase in size, is rapidly dccreatdnfjin population, owing to'tlie substitutioi
of large commercial establishments for dwelling-houscfi. Little over 70,000 persons tlee^
in the city at night, whereas nearly 700.000 enter and quit it every day.
The Tljames at London is crossed by the following bridgea: Lonoon bridge, South
eastern railway city brid^je. South wark bridge, Chatham and Dovep railway bridge
Blackfriars bri'dge, Waterloo bridge, Charing Cross railway and foot bridge, Westmin
ster bridge, Lambeth bridge, Yauxhall bridge, Pimlico railway bridge, Chelsea suspen
sion bridge, Cadognn or Albert bridge, Battersea bridge. West Loo don railway bridge
Putney bridge, and Hammersmith bridge. (Tlie bridges at Barnes, Kew, and Rich
mond can scarcely be said to bo within metropolitan limits.) Xear and between thcs<
bridges are about 20 steamboat piors for the accommodation of riv^r paasengcia. Th«
Thames tunnel, formerly a footway under the river, 1200 ft. long, about 2 m. below
London bridge, now constitutes part of the Eaut London railway. A little way belo>i
London bridge is the tovoer wbway, a sma)! tunnel for foot passengers. For the accom
modation of such shipping as cannot conveniently load and unload in the river, SL
Katharine* B dockn, London docks, Lim^ehofise docks. West India docks; East India docks, and
Victoria docks liave been formed on the northern shore; and the Commereial and GraM
Surrey docks on the sonthem. The part of the Timmes just below London bridge,
called the pool, is the great rendezvous for coal-ships; below that, as far as Blackwall,
is the port, occupied by ships of greater burden. Of canals, the Paddington, Kcgeut'si
and Grand Surrey are the chief.
In matters of government London is under very varied jurisdiction. The lord mayoi
and corporation exercise peculiar powers in the city in reference to tolls, dues, markets,
the administration of justice, police, drainage, lighting, paving, and a variety of othei
matters. The city is divided into 25 wards, each represented by an alderman; thfl
aldermen are chosen for life, and aie magistrates bv virtue of their office. The eommm
council conBiiiXB of 206 members, who, with the lord mayor and aldermen, form a kind
of parliament for the management of city affairs. The Mansion Jvouse and OuHdhaA
are the chief buildings for the transaction of corporate business. The metropolitan comr^
missioners of police and the metropolitan board of works have control over the wholly
metropolis except the city. Westminster and Southwark are each under local authori-
ties, but only in minor matters. The drainage is managed by two boards of worka, on^
for the city and one for the rest of the metropolis, and has been improved bv a vast and
costly system of sewerage, paid for by the householders. Nearly all the drainage and|
sewage enter the Thames at points 12 m. below London bridge instead of in tondoa
itself: tlie expense of these great works has reached nearly £5,^)0.000. The gas supply]
is in the hands of joint-stock companies; and so is the water supply: the water beingi
obtained from the Thames, and from the New rivtr, one of its affluents. Both systcmsj
are in some degree controlled by the boards, etc., above named. In /w&ctf jurisdictioa.
the city of London is entirely distinct from the rest of the metropolis. In 1863 an
attempt was made by the government to bring all under one jurisdiction; but the OPPJ:
sition of the citizens was so strong that the attempt failed. The city police, about 700
in number, are in 6 divisions, and have 7 stations; there are two police-offices or jufltice'|
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145
noma, one al the Mansion house and one at Guildhall. All the rest of the metropolis
is under the commissioners of metropolitan police, with head -quarters at Whitehall.
There are 21 divisions, all hut one (the Thames police) denoted by letters of the alphabet;
the fall force, officers and men, is about 8,600. There are 14 police courts, attended by
23 police magistiateSy for taking cognizance of offenses within the metropolis, but out-
side the eUif.
The 9trtet$ of London, extending, with lanes and courts, nearlT 80,000 m. in aggregate
length, depend mainly for their direction on the course of the Thames; the principal of
them being nearly e. and west. One line of route extends from Hammersmith to Mile
End and Bow, through Piccadilly, Strand, and Cheapside; another, beginning in the
Uxbrid^ road, paMes thzou^ Oxford street and Holbom, and joins the former at
Cheapside. Thti^ is still addldency of wide thoroughfares for the city traffic; but a
new street has lately been made from Blackfriars bridge to the Mansion house — in con-
nection with the northern or Vidcfia TlutmeB embanhmn^-'ih^ two together forming a
wide and handsome avenue from Westminster abbey to the heart of the city. London is
very deficient in wide convenient atreets running n. and SQuth. Most of the new streets
fonned within the last few years are far superior in all respects to those formed fifty or
a hundred years ago— except those at the outskirts, which are mostly poor and slight.
Begent street and the Quadrant fonn the finest street in London for general effect; out
the most palatial street is Pall Mall, owing to the number of ektb-kouaea situated there,
most of which are fine buildings Of the 50 or 60 principal club-houses in London, the
Armp and Navy, Quard^, ukweraitif, Ca/rUon, Etform, TratdeT$\ AtheruMum, United
Sernise, and United Unitemity are in this one street. A continuous range of fine shops
extends from Pall Mall to Cornhill.
Among the buildings in London belonging to the crown or to the nation, the follow-
ing are the principal: SL JometfM paiacey an irregular and inelegant cluster of buildines,
used for court purposes, but not as the queen's residence. Bueidnffham paiace. Sic
queen's London residence, a large but low quadrangular maas, with very inadequate
court accomuKxlation. Marlboi^ngh hauM, residence of the prince and princess of
WaleflL Kmeingtan palace, occupied partly by royalty, partly by recipients of court
faror. Bounce qf parUament, a vast structure, which has cost £8,000.000; perhaps the
fioestk and certain hr the laigest, Qothic building in the world applied to civil purposes;
the river-front is 000 ft. long. We$tmin§ier MaU, a noble old structure, of which the main
hall is 21K> ft. by 68, and 110 high. Som&net houee, a quadrangular structure with a river-
frontage of 600 ft. ; it is mostly occupied by government offices. The admiraUy, notice-
able chiefly for the screen in front of the court-yard. The hone guarde, the official
residence of the commander-in-chief, with an arched entrance to 8t. James's park. The
trtoKwry, the home ofioe, the prity council office, and the board cf trade occupy a cluster
of buildings in Whitehall The foreign and India ojleee form a noble new group near
Whitehall; and the colonial and other offices are bein^ built immediately adjacent. The
icar oj/ke, in Pall 'iHall, a large but plain Inrick bunding. The BriHah museum (q.v.).
The national gaUerp, devoted to a portion of the national picturesy in Trafalgar square.
The museum of economic geoloay, in Jerm^n street, a small but well-planned building.
Burlington house, appropriated by the nation to the roval academy and to several scien-
tific societies. The Sotih Kensington museum, a medley of buildings more remarkable
for convenience than for beauty, and filled with a miscellaneous but valuable collection.
The guardii barrackSi Chelsea. The custom house, with a long room 100 ft. by 66, is
finely situated on the river side. The general post-office, a noble mass in &t. Martin's-le-
Grand. has a central hall 80 ft. by 60, and 58 high, with a vast number of offices all
around it; and a large new block of buildings Just opposite* finished in 1878. The mint,
on Tower hill, is a cluster of buildings in which the gold and silver coinage is managed
(a new structure neai' the Thames embankment is in contemplation). The Tov)eT of
London is a confused mass of houses, towers, forta, batteries, ramparts, barracks, armo-
ries, store-houses^ and other buildings, included within a boundary of about 900 ft. by
800, at the extreme eastern verge of the city.
London is the seat of a bisliopric, which comprises about 820 benefices. The income
of the bishop is £10.000 a vear. Bt. Paul's is the cathedral for the diocese ; it is situated
at the e. end of Ludgate hill, extending to Cheapside, and was built by sir Chribtopher
Wren (1675-1710) at a cost of £748,000. It is built in the form of a cross, is 514 ft.
bng, by 286 wide; the cross, which surmounts the ball over the dome, is 866 ft. above
the marble pavement below. St. Paul's contains many monuments to illustrious persons.
(Phins are in progress for an extensive and costly restoration of the interior.) Westmin-
fter abbey, siao cruciform, is 680 ft. in extreme outer length, hj 208 in width; the west
towers are 225 ft hi^. Henry YII.'s chapel, at the e. end, is a beautiful example of
eoricbed Gothic. The abbey has no special connection with the see of London, but is
intimately connected with some of the court and parliamentary ceremonials. It was
originally a Benedictine monastery, and is said to have been founded by Sebert, king of
tbe East Saxons {circa 616); enlarged by kin^ Edgar and £dward the confessor; and
rebuilt, nearly as we now see it, by Henry III. and Edward I. Here the kings and
<iueens of England have beea crowned from Edward the confessor to queen Victoria;
and here many of them have been buried. The poefs comer, with its tombs and mon-
U. K, IX— 10 Digitized by VjjUU^LC
146
uments of eminent men, is a well-known spot of the abbey. St. Sa^fior^s, in Sonthwar
is the third in importance of the London cimrches. Tlie larsest Roman Catholic char
is in St. George's fields. The largest dissenting chapei is Mr. Spurgeon's Baptist tain
node, Newington Butts. There are in London nearly 1000 places of worships of whii
those belonging to the church of England are rather less than onc4ialf; tne religio
denominations are about 80.
Of sekooU of all kinds, there are in London about 2,000, including private, parochu
ragged, church and chapel, national, British, free, gi*ammar, and rate-payers' boa
schools. Many small and inefficient private schools have lately been closed as a eoni
quence of the opening of good public schools. The chief edAcatioiial esftablishmev
are* London univei^ty, King't eoUege, University college, Gordon eoliege, Beffent's Parke
lege. New college, Wedeyan college, Hackney college, training coUegee belonging to t
national, British and foreign, and home and colonial school societies, Wee^imntter echo
St, FauTe school, Charter-houee odiool, Ohriete HoepHalor the Blu&^oat school, the Gn
and Oreen-coat schools, MerehanUtaHors* school, Mercerti gramma/t school. City ef Lond
school, and two ladies' colleges. The new schools, which have been built by Ihe Londi
school board, are large and handsome.
There ara about 70 alma-houses in London. The societies, assodctions, and instit
taons of a more or less permanent character, maintained for other than money-makii
objects, are not less than 600 in number. Of the hospitals, the chief are ihiy\ i
Thomas's, tlie London, the Poplar, the Westminster, the Charing Gross, 8L €horge"8, 1
Mary's, Middlesex, King's College, University^ CoOsae, OrcA^ Northern, lhe^SinMJHXt,i\
Feser, the Consumption, the Lock, and the Royal jf^ree hospkals. 8t, Thomas's hoepiittL,
magnificent pile, has lately been rebuilt on the Albert or souihem Thames embankmet
opposite the houses of parliament 8t, Luke's, and Bethlehem (for insane persons), ai
the foundling hospital are special in their obJecU. Of the 600 insUtutions above aliudi
to, about 200 are hospitals, dispensaries, infirmaries, and asylums; while the remainii
400 are religious, visiting, or benevolent institutions.
There are law-courts, civil and criminal, of all degrees of dignity, and with varioi
extent of Jurisdiction, scattered over London. For some of the more important of thei
more worthy buildings are being erected near the Strand. There ai'e 7 seasions-houa
(Old Bailey, Guildhall, Tower Hamlet^ Southwark, Kensinirton, Clerkenweh, ai
Westminster). The prisons have undergone many changes within the last few ycai
partly owing to the decay of old buildings, and partly to changes in the law of impriso
ment. At present the buildings actually used as prisons are obout twelve In numhe
the chief being Newgate, Holioway, Pentonville, Cold Bath Fields, Milbank, Gierke
well, Brixton, Fulham, and Wandsworth. The chief buildings in London connects
with law and justice are the following: the Westminster haU courts of law and equit;
the Lincoln's inn courts of equity; the OuHdhatt courts; the central criminal court
the Old Bailev; ecclesiastieal and other special courts at Doctors* Commons, etc. (Ne
buildings designed to take the place of most of these are being erected on ground clean
for the purpose between the Strand and Lincoln's inn.) What are called the iniu
court are in some sense colleges for practitioners in the law; they comprise the inn
temple, the middle temple, Lincoln's inn, and Cfray's inn; and there are others call(
inns of chancery, comprising Thavies's, Fumivafs, Staple, BamanSPs, CUfforeTs, Ci
menCs, Lyon's, New, and Se^eanfs inns. Connected incldentallv witli legal matters
the record offiee, a large depository for official papers in Fetter fane. The legal praci
tioners in London, besides Judges, etc., comprise about 4,000 BoHcltors uid attorney
and 2,000 barristers.
In connection with the shipping of London, and the import and export trade, tl
docks above named contain more than 800 acres of water space, and a large amount <
warehouse, shed, and vault accommodation — besides warehouses in various parts of tl
city, awav from the docks. From 6,000 to 7,000 ships enter these docks nnnuall:
Nearly all the sal linjf- vessels which come to London laden with coal, instead of enterii
docks to unload their cargoes, lie in the stream of the river, and transfer their coal I
lighters, which convoy it to the yards of coal-merchants, situated either on the banks <
the river itself, or of the canals which run into it. One-fourth of the whole »hip tonna^
of England, and one-half of the large steamers belong to London. Of the ships th]
enter the port of London, about 60 per cent are engaged in the foreign and colenU
trade, 40 per cent in the coasting trade. About 100 vessels enter the port every da\
four-fifths British, the rest foreign. The value of all the merchandise exported frni
the port of London is nearly one-fourth of that of the exports for the whole Unite
Kingdom. The imports of wheat, flour, cotton, dye-stuffs, palm-oil. and some olb(
articles, are greater into Liverpool than into London; but London takes the lead in tli
imports of colonial produce, wines, and spirits. London receives about half of the tot<
customs revenue of the kingdom, owing to the fact that duty-paying commodities coi
stitute so large a proportion of its aggregate imports.
The principal markets of London are the colds market at Pentonville, Covent Oarde
(vegetable) market, BiUingsgafe (fish) market, and SmithJlM (meat and poultry) marke
The Columbia market, Bethnal Green, presented to the corporation of the city by baronefi
Burdett-Coutts, has not met the anticipated want. In Bermondsey is a oommercifi
Digitized by VjiOOV IC
147
Ai& and akin market. The esUiblishments for wholesale dealings are, of course, sta-'
pendous in charocter. Of coal alone, London now requires more than 6,000,000 tons
annually. The whole number of distinct trades or occupations in London is about 2,000.
There are about 80 trade guUde or city companies in London, many of which possess large
revenues; but they do not now exert much Influence on the actual course of trade and
manufactures; the chief among them, called the twelve great companies, are tlie mercers*,
groeera^, drapsn^t fi^mongen^, goldsmiths^, Mnnen^, merchanHailors\ haberdashers^,
Salter^, ironmongenf, vintners*, and dothiDorkers' companies, all of which have /laUs, in
which banquets are held. The gMemiths*, apatheearies^, and stationers^ companies atill
exercise some active control over those trades. The hanks in London, either private or
joint-stock, are about 100 in number, many of which have two or more banking-houses.
There are about as man3r ineurance offices, some for life only, some for flre only, some
for life and fire. The buildings for these banks and insurance offices are among the best
in London. Tlie bank of Bnguind, one of sir John Soane's most successful works, gives
employment to about 1000 clerks, etc. The rogd exchange is noticeable c^efly for sir R.
Westmacott's sculpture in the pediment. The eom exchange, the eoal exchange, and ihe
hop and medt esehanoe are convenient for their purposes. The stoek exchange, near the
bank, is nearly hidden from view. The great warehouses for foreign and colonial pro-
duce lie chiefly eastward of the city; whife the wholesale establishments for textile goods
occupy enormous buildings in ihe neighborhood of Cheapside and Bt. PauFs churchyard.
Most of the large manufacturing establishments lie either eastward or southward, the
center and the w. of the metropolis being engaged in selling rather than in making.
Large clusters of excellently arranged dwellings and lodging-houses for the working
classes have been erected in various parts of London.
The paseenger and goods trafflc in Xondon requires yast resources. There are 11 rail-
way companies, having the termini of their lines in London, besides minor lines, more
or less under the control of those companies. In addition to abotit 20 large passenger
stations, there are at least 150 smaller within the limits of the metropolis. There is one
railway n. and s. through the heart of London, and four extending nearly through
it e. and west. The vastness of the local trafflc may be illustrated by the fact that the
metropolitan and metropolitan district railways, working in concert, dispatch about 600
trains per day, and accommodate about 80 stations, alfwithin the limits of the metrop-
lis. ana all north of the Thames. There are in London about 140 booking-offices connected
with inns, having relation to passenger and carrier trafflc. For water-traffic there are
about 50 toharfs and guays on the Thames, besides a considerable number on the
regent's and other canals. There are about 1700 omnibuses and 6,000 cabs. It has
been ascertained that on an average day lOOOyehicles per hour pass through Cheapside;
and, on an avenu;e day of 24 hours, 170,000 persons and 20,000 vehicles have been
counted crossing London bridge. A great length of street tramway has been formed in
London and the suburbs.
Of the open places in the metropolis, the parks are the most Important J^fdepark,
8t, Jameses park, the Oreen park, Begenf spark, Vtetoria park, Kenstngton park,PtnAury
park, SoiUhtoark park, Kennington park, and Battersea park, all belong to the nation, and
are purposely kept out of the builders' hands; they are most valuable as "lungs" to
London. JMmrose MU and Hamipstcad heath may be included in the number. The Zo^
logiccU gardens, ffertieuUural gardens, and Botanic gardens are beautiful places, belonging
to private sodeties. The eemeteries, substitutes for the old churchyards, are at Hlghgate,
Finchley, Stoke Newington, Mile End, Kensal Green, Bethnal Green, Brompton, Nun-
head, Oolney Hatch, Camberwell, Norwood, etc. Of places of amusement, there are 8
opera-houses, about 80 theaters, 12 music-halls and concert-rooms of large dimensions
(includiQg Albert haO), a much larger number of smaller size, and very numerous exhibi-
tion-rooms of various kinds, of which the annuai intemational exhibitions building at
South Kensington was opened in 1871. Of public columns and statues in open places,
London contams a smaller number than is due to its size. The chief are the following:
The Albert memorial, Hyde park; the Monument, Fish street hill; Nelson column, Trafal-
gar square; Wellington statue, Hyde park comer; Achilles statue, Hyde park; Chtards*
memorial. Pall Mall; Crimean monument, Westminster; York aAumn, Waterloo steps;
Havetod^s and Napier's statues, Trafalgar square; OutTam*s statue and Cleopatra*s needle
on the Thames embankment, etc. Of drinking fountains, which are numerous, the finest
was presented to Victoria park bv baroness Burdett-Coutts. There are very cheap
puiiUc hcUhs and wash-houses m Lonoon.
London is now supplied with hotels in a manner adequate to its size and importance.
The best of those belonging to the railwaycompanies are the Gfreat Northern, the Mid-
land, the Victoria atid BusUm, the Qree^ Western, the Orosvenor, the Charing Cross, and
the Cannon Street Of the others, the only one grand in appearance is the Langftam.
LONDON {ante). Following is the table of population for the metropolis from the
tables of the registrar-general for 1871 :
Digitized by CjOOQ IC
Iiondon.
Ibofildoi&aerry.
148
Fast of Middudsex.
West DittricU.
Central JHatricta.
East Districts.
Pabt or fiuBiUBT AMD Kort.
South Districts.
KeDsington. 288,158
Chelsea 71,069
St. George, Han-
OTer square 165,086
Westminster..... 61,181
North Districts,
Marylebone 169,354
Hampatead 82,281
St. Pancras 221,466
Islington 213,778
Hackney ltM,»51
St. Qiles. . .. 68,656 Shoreditch
Strand 41 ,839 Bethnal Green . . .
Holbom.... 168,491 1 Whlt«chapel ....
London city 76,988 St. George In the
East
Mile End, Old
Town
Poplar
67,690
98,169
116,876
St. Saviour » oontli w»rV i ^75,049
St. Olave f Bottthwark -j ^^^
Lambeth 206,848
Wandsworth 125,060
Camberwell 111,806
Greenwich 100,600
Lewisham 51,567
78,880
127,164
120,104
76,578
48,052 Camberwell.
98,169 Woolwich .
InMiddleeez 2,286,568
** Surrey 74S,165
" Kent 225,587
Total population 8,254,200
LONDOK, chief city of the co. of Middlesex, Ontario, Canada, is situated at the junc-
tion of the two branches of the river Thames, about 114 m. w.s.w. from Toronto, with
which it is connected by the Great Western railway. The situation, whose fitness for a
town was recognized by gen. Simcoe as early as 1784, only began to be cleared and laid
out in 1825; but such has been the rapidity of the city's erowth that, in 1852, the popu-
lation had risen to 7,124; in 1857, to 16,000; and although it had fallen at the census of
1861 to 11,555, it has again (1871) risen to 15,826. With tbe suburbs, it is about 20,000.
When the city was called London, the river, which had formerly been known by an
Indian name, received that which it now bears; a Wesiminster and a Blackfriars bridge
were thrown over it; and the names gjven to the principal streets and localities, still
seem to indicate a desire to make the westernmost city of Canada a reproduction, as far
as possible, of the capital of England. The Thames will probably be made navigable
as far as Loudon, to give it a communication by water with the lakes, and it has alreadv
an outlet by railway to every part of the American continent. The center of a rich
agricultural district, London carries on a large trade in the produce of the country^
while there are also many foundries, tanneries, breweries; printing-offices, issuing thrte
diiily and several weekly newspapers; and, outside the city, large petroleum refineries.
Huron college, Hellmuth college, and Hellmuth ladies* college are educational institu-
tions recently established.
LOVDOK, Custom of, in English law, is peculiar in several respects^ and the laws
there difi'er in those respects from the rest of the country. Thus, in the city (and by the
city is meant only the city proper, or a small portion of the metropolia). a jaw of foreign
attachnQeut exists, which resembles the Scotch law of arrestment, by which a creditor
may attach or seize the ^oods or debts of his debtor, in the hands of third parties, to
abide tho result of an action to be brought. The city of London also had a custom until
recently which resembled the Scotch law of Legitim (q. v,) and Jus Edicta. (q.v.), by which
a person at death could not by will disinherit his children, or leave his wife destitute.
This custom was abolished by the stat. 19 and 20 Vict. c. 84 There is also a peculiar
custom by which the common council elect their own sheriffs, instead of the croA^u
electing them. There are also several other customs relating to local offenses of minor
importance.
LONDON CLAT, or Lowier Eocbne Strata (q.v.). ««« a series of bede occupTingthe
lower basin of the Thames from Hungerford to Harwich and Heme bny; and vJSo an
extensive triangular region in Hampshire and the neighboring counties, whose base
extends along the coast from Dorchester nearly to Brighton, while its apex reaches to
Halisbury. The beds are arranged in three sections: London clay proper and Bognor
beds, maximum thickness 480 ft. ; plastic and mottled clays and sands, maximum
thickness, 160 ft. ; Thanet sands maximum thickness 90 ft. : total, 780 feet.
The London clay proper Consists of tenacious dark-gray and brown clay, with layers
of septaria; which occur in sufficient quantity in the beds near Harwich and along the
coast of Harwich to be used for the manufacture of Roman cement. In Hampslnretbe
clays are bluish, and have running through them bands of sand, sometimes compacted
into hard stone, called Bognor rock. In both basins the clay rests on a thin bed of
variously colored sand and flint pebbles. The London clay is rich in fossils. Many
palm and other fruits have been described by Bowerbank from the island of Sheppey:
masses of wood, often bored by the teredo, are not unfrcquent. The mollusca beloog
to genera which now inhabit warmer seas than those of Britain, such as cones, volutes,
nautilus, etc. About fifty species of fish have been described by Agassiz from Sheppey,
among which are a sword-fish and a saw-fish. The remains of several birds and
pachydermatous animals tell of the neighborhood of land^iii^nd^^the numerous turtles.
1 J.Q I^ndonu
•«-^v Londondanrir*
with the crocodiles and gavialsy wliooe remains are attodated with them, no doubt
infested the banks of the great river which floated down the Sheppey fruits.
The plastic clays, or Woolwich and Reading series of Prestwich, are very variable
io character, consisting chiefly of days and argifiaceous sands, which are used, as theur
name implies, in the manufacture of pottery. They contain a mixture of marine and
fresh- water shells, showing that they have been deposited in estuaries. Th^v attain
their maximum Sickness of 90 ft. in the isle of Thanet, and thin ont westward, till at
Windsor they are only 4 ft. thick— beyond this they entirely disappear.
LOVBOH OOnSSEVCBB* The firsl diplomatic meeUng so designated was held in
1826 and the following years^ for the regulation of the affairs of Greece; the next one
was held in 1830, to arrange terms ol agreement or ot separation between Belgiym and
Holland. The terms of agreement proposed not being accepted by the disputants,
Holland nuide an appeal to arms; but the capture of Antwerp by the French, and the
blockade of their coast by the ikiclish and French fleets brought the Dutch to agree to
a treaty of definitive separation. May 31, 1838. A third conference was held in 1840, on
the Turko-Egyptian question, in which France refused to take pert. In 1851 a protocol
was signed in London by the representatives of all the ereat powers, declaring the indi-
visibility of the Danish monarchy (inclusive of Sleswick and Hoktein).
LOVBOmEBET, a maritime co. of the province of Ulster, in Ireland, 40 m. in
length by 34 in breadth, bounded n. by the Atlantic, e. by the county Antrim, and in
part by lough Neagh, s. by Tyrdne, and w. by Donegal. Its area is 816 sq.m., or
522.315 acres, of which 91,759 are mountain, bog, waste, water, towns, etc. The pop.
in 1871 was 173,906, of whom 77,358 were Catholicf?, 68,779 Presbyterians, 32,079 Epis-
copalians, and nearly 1000 Methodists. The surface of Londonderry is irregular. From
the eastern boundary it rises gradually toward the w. for a distance of about 10 m.,
where commences an elevated district, rising in several points to a considerable height;
Sawell, on the southern border, being 2,236 ft. high. On the western side the surface
falls gradually towards lough Foyle. The coast-line along the Atlantic is generally
bold and precipitous. The shore of lough Foyle is in must places an unvarying plain.
The county may be divided lonmtudinally into two great geological districts, separated
from each other by the river Koe. In the western, which is mountainous, the mica-
slate prevails, accompanied in some places by primitive limestone. In the eastern Uie
mica-slate is overlaid by a succession of varying beds, capped, as in the adjacent Antrim
district beyond the Bann, by a vast area of basalt, the dip of which, however, is the
reverse of that on the opposite side of the river, and increasing in thickness towards the
north, where in one place it reaches a depth of 900 feet. Many of tJie strata contain
iron, and the ironstone of the mountain Ciuled Slieve Gallion was formerly worked, but
the mining operations have been abandoned, from the failure of fuel. The soil is of a very
mixed character, the greater part, with the exception of the alluvial spots on the banks of
the several rivers, and of a considerable open district which stretches southward to
Tyrone, being ill suited for wheat, or indeed for any cereal crop. In the year 1876,
188,926 acres were under crops of all kinds. The number of cattle was 114,376 ; of sheep,
34,822; of pigs, 88,161. The total value of cattle, sheep, and pigs was £1,594,359. The
svstem of agriculture has been materially improved under the impulse given by the Lon-
don society upon the laige estates which it holds in the county. The prhneipal rivers
are the f^yle, the Faugban. the Roe, and the Bann. The first is navigable as far as
Londonderry for ships of 800 tons burden. The Bann, besides being a great source
of motive-power for the staple manufacture of Ulster, that of linen, is also celebrated
for its salmon-fisheries, which are of great value. The chief towns are Londonderry
city (q. v.), Coleraine, Newtown-Limavac^, and Mi^herafelt Londonderry was in ancient
times the seat of the great septs of O'Loughlin and O'Neill, and of their tributary sept of
0*Oahan, or O'Kane. At the immediate period of the invasion the English under
John de Courcy attempted a settlement, but were forced by the O^Neills to withdraw.
A small garrison within their colony was established near the Antrim border, at Cole-
raine, upon the river Bann; but from the 14th till the 16th c. theur tenure was little
more than nominal; and although a number of forts, witli a considerable garrison, were
erected upon the river Foyle in 1600. it was not till the flight of the celebrated Tyrone and
O'Donnefl that the English occuption of the district was consumnciated, their forfeited
lands being granted by the crown to the corporation of London, who still retain them,
the management being vested in a body, 26 m number, who are elected by the common
council, one half retiring each year. The incorporation, by charter, oi this body in
1619 led to the formation of the county, called, from this circumstance, Londonderry.
Portions of the county were assigned to the several city companies, the unassigned por»
tions being held by the society. The memory of the confiscation long rankled, and
perhaps stul lingers, in the minds of the dispossessed Irish and their descendants; but
in material prosperity the district underwent a rapid and marked improvement. The
agriculture is in a condition considerably in advance of the majority of Irish counties,
and the domestic manufacture of linen, in former times, added materially to the comfort
of the population. Of late years, however, this manufacture, in all its branches, has
been transferred for the most part to large establishments. There is considerable export
aad import trade at the ports of Derry and Portrush, which is the seaport of Coleraine.
Iioadoad^rry. 1 nH
Ii«mgi ^^^
The former baa beoome a port of call for the Canadian steamers, which tottdi on their
outward and homeward passage at the entrance of loagh Foyle. The number of
national schools in Londonderry in the year 1861 was 888, attended by dO,<HM pupils.
In 1876 there were 81,488 pupils. Londonderry returns two members to the imperial
parliament.
LaV'DOHBSBBTi Citt of, a seaport, and a corporate and parliamentary borough,
capital of the above county, situated on the river Foyle, and distant from Dublin 144
m. n.n.w. Pop. in 1871, 24,242. It returns one member to parliament. Londonderry
arose under the shadow of a monastery founded here in the ^h c. by 6t. Oolumba. it
was pillaged more than once by the Danes, and was occupied, but with many viclBsi-
tudes, by the English at the invasion. The town formed part of the escheated territoiy
granted to the London companies, and under their management, the city arose to some
importance, and was stronglv fortified. In the Irish war of the revolution Londonderry
threw itself earnestly into the cause of William of Orange, and closed it« gates against
James II. The siege of Londonderry is one of the most celebrated events in modern
Irish history, and lis memories are among the most stirring of the occasions of party
animosity. Since that date the city lias steadily grown in extent and prosperity. It is
beautifully situated on the left bank of the Foyle, upon a hill which overlooks the
river. The walls are still preserved, and form an agreeable prom^ade; they sur
round a part of the town one mile in circumference, but the buildings have extended
beyond tliem. A square from which tlie four main streets diverge is called the Dia-
mond. The left bank of the river is connected by an iron bridge, 1200 ft. in lengthy
with an extensive suburb called Waterside. The cathedral dates from 1888. A hand-
some Roman Catholic cathedral has been erected. The court-house also is a building
of some pretensions, and the historical events above alluded to are commemorated by a
triumphal arch erected in 1789, and a column in honor of the rev. George Walker, who
was governor of the city during the memorable defense, of which he was himself the
great organizer and inspirer. There are several important educational foundations, one
of which, Gwyn's school, has an income of £1870; Hagee college, founded in 1865, is
an important mstitution. The arrangements and appliances of the port are on a good
scale. Vessels of 500 tons can discharge at the quays, and there is a patent slip capable
of receiving vessels of 800 tons. Steamers ply to Xiverpool, Glasgow, and Belfast: there
is railway communication with Dublin and Belfast, as well as a considerable advance
towards direct communication with the western coast, and the lough Swilly line is car-
ried north to Buncrana. In 1875, 1429 vessels of 278,392 tons entered, and 905 of
204.240 tons cleared the port. The chief manufactures are flax-spinning, distilling,
brewing, rope-making, ana tanning. There is also an extensive salmon-fishery.
LONDONDERRY, Chahlbs William Stewart Vahb, Manmis of, 1778-1854, b.
England. Distinguished both as a soldier and diplomatist in the £ns:]ish service from
the beginning of the French revolution until the fall of Napoleon in 1815, and a memlier
of the congress of Vienna the latter year. His surname of Vane was added on his mar-
riage with a great heiress of that name. He is the author of a HutUiTy of the Pemruula
War in Bpain; editor of the correspondence of his brother, lord Castlereag^; and con-
structor of the harbor of Seaham, England, out of his wife's estate.
LOKBOHBSBBT, RoBBST Btrwakt, second marouis of, b. at Mount Stewart, Down
CO., Ireland, June 18, 1769, eldest son of Robert, first marquis, who represented the
county of Down many years in the Irish parliament. Educated at the grammar-school.
Armagh, and at St. John's college, Cambridge, he entered the Irish parliament in llSd,
although then under aee. In 1796 he became viscount Castlereagli; and in 1798 he wa8
made chief secretary for Ireland. It was the year of the insurrection and tlie French
invasion, and some allowance must be made for the terrible severities employed by the
Irish government. Tet the cruel part he acted or tolerated in Ireland, in the suppression
of the rebellion, and effecting ttie union, always weighed upon his reputation. In 1802
he was appointed president of the board of control, in the Addington administration. In
1805 he was promoted to the seals of the war and colonial department, but resigned, with
the whole of the cabinet, on Pitt's death in 1806. In the following year, he resumed
the office of war minister, when he organized the disastrous Walcheren expedition. Mr.
Canning, then foreign secretary, attacked lord Castlereagh on this account with much
acrimony and personality. The result was that both resigned, and a hostile meeting >
took place between them (Sept. 21, 1809). in which Canning was wounded. In 1813.
after the assassination of Mr. Perceval; lord Cnstlereagh became foreign secretary, a
post which he held during the period illustrated by tho militaiy achievements of the
duke of Wellington. By this time the general direction of British policy was unalter-
ably fixed by circumstances, and lord Castlereagh has at least the merit of having pur-
sued this fixed course with a steadiness, and even obstinacy, which nothing could abate.
He was the soul of the coalition against Bonaparte, and it was only by his untiring
exertions, and through his personal influence, that it was kept together. He represented
Inland at the congress of Vienna in 1S14, at the treaty of Paris in 1815, and at the
congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. While his foreign policy was favorable to the
principles and policy of the "holy alliance" abroad, he constantly recommended arbi-
trary and despotic measures at home. As the leader of the Liverpool government in
I SI LttBdondeny*
the lower bouse, he carried the suspeiwion of the habeas corpus act in 18i7, and the
'«u acts" or '* the gagging bills," astbev were called, of 1810— measures which will for-
ever sump his name with infamy. The retirement of Oanninj^ from the ministry
ratlier than be a party to the prosecution of queen Caroline (IBS}), threw the whole
weigiit of business on lord Castlereagh. By the death of his father in 1821 he became
marquis of Londonderry; but his mind became deranged, and he died by his own hand
ai his seat at Foot's Cray, Kent, Aug. 12, 1822. The populace witnessed the funcnl
' procession in silence; but when the coffin entered the walls of Westminster, a loud and
exulting shout rent the air, which penetrated Into the abbey, and broke upon the still-
ness of the funeral ceremony. This statesman, looked upon by one party as a paragon
of perfection, has been characterised by the other party as ' * Uie most intolerable mis-
chief that e^er was cast by an angry providence on a helpless people."
LONDON PIUD£, Sax^raga umbrosa, a perennial evergreen from southern Europe.
It was brought to Great Britain and cultivated as a garden plant, but soon spread over
the fields, especially in Ireland, where it is known as St. Patrick's cabbage. Flower
Kiems, 6 to 12 in. high, bearioff a loose panicle of small pink flowers markea with spots
of a deeper color. It is used lor making borders in gardens.
UOiMOOM UHIVXBailT. When Umversity college, London, was first estaUiahed (in
ld&5t\ it was known aa London, university, although a mere joint^tock undertaking. A
change took place in 1886, when it received a charter as UfUterdty €plUifff, At the same
time, by another charter, London university was established — not a building for teach-
iog, nor a bodv of teachers and scholars, but a body of persons empowered to examine
condklatea and, confer degcsea As this second charter waa onlv valid during ** royal
will and pleasure," it required to be renewed at the deathof William lY., and the
accession of Victoria; and a new charter was accordingly granted, Dec. 5, 1887. Addi*
tional powers were given, July 7, 1860; and a whoUy new charter was signed April 9,
1838, iiutituting many changes in the functions and arrangements of London university;
ugain a wholly new charter, Jan. 6, 1863, with supplement (Aug. 27, 1867), admitting
women to certain apecial examinations, trdtenitjf coUege, I/mdon, is still carried on in
Gower street, the original spot; but the umwrfity of London^ or London university,
after occupying different .apartments granted by government, is now established in a
ftpedalbuUding in Burlington gardens (since 1870). The body consists virtuullv of a chan-
cellor, vice-chancellor, 86 fellows, and an indefinite number of graduates. The chanetUr
hr is appointed for life, or during royal pleasure, by the crown. The ttci-chaneeOor is
unDually elected by the fellows from among their own body. The Z6feU&tM were named
by the crown in the charter of 1858, for life; but as vacancies occur, the crown and the
uoiversity fill them up in a mode that gives some control to each. The gradvaiet are
those who, at any time since 1886, have had degrecsJftacMor, master, or doet<n' of certain
faculties) conferred upon them by this university. The senate is composed of the chan-
cellor, vice-chancellor, and fellows, and has the power of making the whole of the by-
laws for tlie government of the university— within certain limits prescribed by the char-
ier, and with the approval of the sccretaiy of state.' The conroeation is composed of all
the graduates, except those who have taken the lower degrees within less than two years;
it meets occasionally, to vote and decide upon several minor matters; but the charter
seems to confine all real power to tlie senate.
When the new charter waa given, in 1858, there were 47 colleges and collegiate
schools in connection with London university— two in the colonies, and the rest in the
United Kingdom. The number was later increased ; the secretary of state and the senate
having the power of deciding what additional establishments sliall be included. But
since 1868, it is no longer required that candidates for examination should be certificated
scholars of any of these institutions: everything is thrown open, subject to pleasure of
senate. JSraminerH are appointed by the senate, which also defines the extent and mode
of examination. By the charter of the university, theology is entirely excluded. Yet
there is an optional scriptural examination under by-laws. The degrees obtainable are
those of bachelor and master of arts, bachelor Knd doetm' cfmedieiM, bachelor and doctor of
lavs, bachelor and doctor of science, bachelor and master of surgery, bach^hr and doctor qf
mvsfe, and doctor of literature. There are examinations for women, distinct from men's,
in literature and science combined; and these first general examinations may be followed
up, at will of candidate, by special examinations for certificates of higher proficiency in
parricnlar subjects.
The number of candidates for matriculation in 1876 was 1071, 486 of whom passed
forB.A. {finals, 141; 59 passed: for m.a., 17; 11 passed: for b.bc. {final), 41; 22 passed
for D.8C., 7; 6 passed: for ll.b. (final), 22; 18 passed: for m.b, ifinat}, 84; 28 passed
forM.1)., 17; 11 passed. General matriculation examination must be undergone a cer-
Uin time previously by candidates for any degree. — London uanverslty stands in no
special relation to King's college (q.v.) in Ix>ndon.
LONG. Eli. b. Woodford co., Ky., 1887; graduated at the Frankfort, Ky., roilitsiy
school in 1855, and in 1856 was appointed a second lieut. of cavalry in the army of
the United States; served for a time with his regiment in conflicts with Indians. In
May, 1^61, he was promoted to a captaincy, and in 1868 became col. of the 4th
Ohio cavalry- He waa actively engaged in the most important campaigns at the west,
'' ' ' J 9 o Mr Digitized by VjjUUVIC
mtich of the time commanding a brigade. In 1864 he was appointed brij^.f^jn., and In
1865 lie led bis division of cavalry in the capture of Selma, Ala., receivmg a severe
wound in the head. In 1867 he yras placed upon the retired list with the full rank of
maj.gen.
LOKQ, Geobge, M.A., a distinguished classical scholar, was b. at Poulton, in Lan-
casliire, in 1800, educated at Trinity college, Cambridge, where he obtained the Craven
scholarehip in 1821. Long became chancellor's medalist in 1822, and subsequently •
fellow of his college. In 1824 he accepted Uie professorship of ancient hmguages in tbie
university of Virgmia, United States; but returned to England in 1826, to become pro-
fessor of the Greek language and literature in the London university. This office he
resigned m 1831, when he conunenced to edit ihi& Journal of Editeaium, puhiished hj
the society for the diffusion of useful knowledge; but probably the greatest labor— the
magnum opus— of his life was his editing for eleven years (from 1882 to 1843) the Penny
Gyd&pcBdia, to which he was also one of the most valuable contributors. At the con-
clusion of the 27th volume, honorable mention is made by the society, and by the pub-
lisher, Mr. Charles Knight, of Long, " by whose leaning, unwearied diligence and watch-
fulness, unity of plan has been maintained during eleven years, and error, as far as pos-
sible, avoided.'* In the midst of these arduous duties. Long loiued the inner temple,
and was called to the bar in 1887. In 1846 he was chosen by the benchers of the middle
temple to deliver a three years' course of lectures on Jurisprudence and civil law. In
1840 he became professor of classical literature in the Proprietary coU^ at Brighton,
which appointment he held till 1871. Long is one of the best classtcal editors that Eng-
land has produced; he is also one of the first authorities on Roman hiw. His merits as
a translator are no less great, as evinced in his SeleoUom from Plutareh*$ Jaw; Thoughts
of Marcus Antonius, etc. Long has contributed extensively to Smith's Classical Diction-
aries; and, besides editing Cicero's Orations and CeBsar*8 OaUic War, has published an
Analifsis of Herodotus; France and Us EewhUions, etc. In 1878 he was granted a pension
of £100.
LOHG, Loch, a well-known loch in the w. of Scotland, extends northward from the
firth of Clyde for about 24 m., between the counties of Argyle and Dumbarton. It has
an average breadth of about a mile; and its banks, consisting, for the most part, of steep
acclivities, abound in striking and picturesque scenery. At its head is Arrochar.
LONG, Stephen Harbiman, 1784-1864; b. Hopkinton, N. H. After graduating at
Dartmouth in 1809, he became a teacher, but in 1814 was appointed 2a lieut. in the
U.S.A., corps of engineers; was brevetted maj. in 1816, lleut.col. in 1826, and in 1861
was made chief of topographical engineers, with rank of col. His explorations
began in 1816, when he m&e under great difficulties a survey of the Mississippi and its
branches, which at once brought him into public notice. Soon after he led an expedition
from the Mississippi to the Rocky mountains, one of the noblest peaks of which bears
his name. The results of these arduous undertakings are to be found in works on the
subiect by Edwin James and W. H.. Keating (1823 and 1824). The introduction of rail-
roaas furnished col. Long a grand opening for the exercise of his energy and ability.
He was concerned in the construction of many of the principal roads of the south and
west, and was especially successful in bridge-building. He was the first to suggest the
application of the rectangular trussed frame to brid&;es. He was also extensively
employed in the improvement of rivers and harbors. In 1863 col. Long retired from
the U.S. army, but still engaged in many enterprises. The long record of remarkably
varied and successful labor in every branch of his profession was closed by his death at
Alton, m
LONG ACRE, Jambs Babton, 1794-1869; b. Delaware co., Penn.; served an appren-
ticeship with the eminent engraver, Murray, of Philadelphia, and was afterward for
man^ years engaged in illustratinff American works. He was associated with James
Herring in the preparation of the Jfaiional P&rtrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans,
a work in 4 vols., published 1884-39. In 1844 he was appointed engraver of the U. S.
mint, and retained that post until his death. He was the designer of the modem gold
coinage of the United States, and superintended the work of remodeling the gold coin-
age of Chili
LOH'OAK, NephsUum, longan, one of the finest of fruits, of the same genus with the
litchi (q.v.), but reckoned superior to it. The tree which produces it is a native of
China and of other eastern countries, at least as far w. as the mountainous regions on
the eastern frontier of Bengal. It is much cultivated in China. The leaves are pinnate,
with few leaflets, the leaflets oblong, the flowers in lax panicles. The fruit is globose,
or nearly so. It is imported into Britain in a dried state. It has been produced in
Britain by the aid of artificial heat.
LOV0-BOAT, a strong and seaworthy boat, formerly the largest carried by a ship,
but now generally superseded by the launch (q.v.).
LONG BRANCH, a village in Monmouth co., K J., includes the village proper,
about a mile from the ocean, and the beach with its hotels and arrangements for bathing;
pop. 5,000. It is one of the leading watering-places in the United States, and is annu-
ally, in the season, the residence of as many as 80,000 visitors from all parts of the
Digitized by VjiOUV IC
coontiy. Among the principal hotels are the East and West Eud, United States, How-
land^s, the Metropolitan, and Leland's. Here also are the summer residences of a num-
ber of distinguished persons from New York, Philadelphia, and other cities. Commu-
nicatioD is had with New York by steamboat and direct railroad, the latter opened la
^75. The Yilhige is fully supplied with shops, in some instances branches of large estab-
lishments in New YorL There are 6 churches, some manufactories, and 1 weeldy
newspaper, which becomes a daily during the season. The beach is uneaualed in extent
and convenience in this country; and, during the months of July ana August, when
crowded with bathers in striking costumes, and Xhrongs of spectators in fashionable
attire, presents a scene of singular brilliancy.
LONGCHAMPS, a part of the Bois de Boulonie w. of Paris, for centuries the resort
of the pleasure-seekers of that city; still one ox the most brilliant promenades in the
world, and the site of the principal race-ground of France. It has an interesting history.
As early as the 18th c. the abbaye of Lon^diampe was founded by Isabel, sister of Saint
Lonifl. Monasteries, nunneries, and hospitals gathered round it as thev were founded
and endowed in successive reigns of the kings of France, until the place at one time
became the seat of fortv religious oroanizations. Before the time of Henry lY. they
had become the scene of corrupt practioes, so that he seems to have had no difficulty in
taking Catherine de Verdun, a nun of the age of d3, from the convent to be his mistress.
Vincent de Paul, writing to cardinal Mazarin in 1652, says that "this convent for dOO
years has been marching towards total depravity of manners to ruin. Its parlors are
open to all, even to young gentlemen without parents; the brothers and rectors do not
object. The lady r«l»gimm$ wear their garments immodestly and carry gold watches.
When war forces them to take refuge in the city they lend themselves to scandal, and
go alone and in secret where they are desired. " A century before out-door preaching
Sad attracted great crowds from Paris to Longchamps, where, under cover of religious
fervor, license found a cloak. In 1021 pope Leo X., by a bull, accorded to the religious
organizations of Longchamps the duty of commemorating the miracles of the princess
Isabel by services on tne last day of August of each year. This became a great f ^ day,
attracting multitudes from Paris. On Mt Valerian there dwelt many hermits and
other reH^ous persona. These also attracted crowds of people at all times who made
Longchamps their meetine-place, going to and fro. Centuries before the revolution of
1789 Longchamps was sudi a resort for the people of Paris that a French writer alludes
to it as ''a fluxion of these people." In the reign of Louis XV. three days of holv-week
were devoted by the rank and wealth of the court to pflgrimara to the abbaye of Long-
chamxM. A French writer of that time remarks of these oocaMons: *' Pleasures and devo-
tions first marched abreast, but pleasures soon stepped to the front.'* Religious sing^nr
became the rase, because it brought together the beau monde of Paris, and the beautiful
"redusee" of the convent. Crowds went from Paris to' hear the delightful singing
there, and the training of the church was a school for the opera. Longchamps became
the freouent theater of tumultuous crowds. Before the revolution archbishop Beau*
mont of Paris ordered the church closed on the days when those pleasures of the holy-
week had become a scandal to the church; bat the gay people from the city found
means to continue their reunions elsewhere adjacent to the convent walls.
Such was the character and the popularity of this place of resort when the ordinances
of the revolution in 1781^90 confiscated the lands of such religious organizations to the
state. The Lonn^amps properties were sold to speculators. The hammer of innova-
tion destroyed all its monuments of that convent era, of which it had become the most
conspicuous shame. There now remain no vestiges of all that history tells us of them.
But the same gay throngs that for four hundred years have surged out from Paris to these
fields now walk and ride to the race-grounds and park that have taken the place of the
buildings and garden of the abbey of Longchamps.
LONGET, Fbakcoib AcmLi4E, 1811-71 ;b. Bordeaux, France; studied medicine and
surgery in Paris; became member of the academy of medicine in 1844, and since, professor
of the faculty of medicine, member of PInstitut, and imperial surgeon of the legwn d^hon-
neur. As early as 1886 he became eminent for his investigations, and later, pre-eminent
for his studies of the spinal marrow and its functions, the action of electricity on the nerv-
ous system, the mixed nerves, the classification of brain nerves, the laws governing the
excitability of nerves, and their connection with the muscular fibers. He is credited with
very interesting explanations of the action of the lungs, the voice, the saliva, and the
effects upon the nervous system of the exhalation of sulphuric ether. His published
works embrace treatises, reports, and essays on all the above, and many other subjects
pertaining to medicine and physiology.
LONGEVITY, prolonged life in plants and animals. This article refers exclusively
to human longevi^. The subject has attracted attention in all ages, but especially since
the more recent and systematic study of biology. It may be viewed with reference to
individuals, to families, and to nations. There nave been many noted examples of great
prolongation of life in individuals, in some of which the history of their progenitors is
not given, but enough cases have been observed in which long-lived people have
descended from a long-lived stock to show that longevity is a hereditary transmission ;
Uieref ore, individual and family longevity are intimately con nected. Attention to hygienic
XoBgmritj« 15-4
laws to a greater degree than tluit which lias been .obserred by parents* wiU, aa a rule,
prolong the life of an individual beyond that of the parents, but it will probably not
materially alter the average number of years to which certain families attain. 80 also of
nations, a certain number of generiitions is a measure of the longest span of life of the
individual. The extreme limit seems to be five generations: that is to say, those who
•attain the greatest age in a nation or race of men may live to see the fifth generation of
their descendants. Among the Indo-European races this, as a rule, requires Uiat the life of
the individual shall be prolonged to about 120 years. In China, men of less that 100 years
of age often live to see their grandchildren to the fifth generation, and all races other
than the Caucasian come to maturity sooner than that race, one generation following
another more frequently; and it may be taken as a rule that the number of generations
and fractions of gent^ratjons of a people is the Boeasure of the span of life among them.
Some remarkable instances of longevity have been observed annrng African races, and
there are many well-uuthenticated cases where individuals have lived coDaiderably
beyond 100 years, but none of them reach the extreme age of the Caucasian. A person
who exceeds the age of three-score and ten years may be sakl to have arrived at a period
•of longevity. The average duration of life in Europe is from 26 to 8tf yeara, but it is
found to be greater among thoee who are in comfortable circnmstaDces than among the
poor. The cause of this is a question about which there is a difference of opinion. It
18 held by some that the mode of living among the well-to-do increases the physical
powers, thus tending to prolong existence. Others, again, although admittmg that good
living, when not luxurious, tends to prolong life, niaintain that the poorer classes are nat-
urally shorter-lived, and are poor because of. inherited qualities of mind and diepositioo
whidb tend to place them in subordinate circumstances. The truth probably is between these
two opinions. Many people, doubtless, are poor from 'natural improvidence and weak-
ness of body and of character, and tliey are amon^ the short-lived. Others are poor fron)
various circumstances; from want of desire f6r nches, or from a natural self-reliance, or
absence of fear for the future as. regards temporal things, and some of these latter often
furnish instances of greiU longevity. There ara certain classes of persons who, by for-
tuitous circumstances, such as happy intermarriage with those living lives calculated to
strengthen tbeu* constitutions, have produced a tendency to longevity, and who transmit
tiiistandej^cy. to their descendants, but they are notexclueivery found in anj one social
condition.
The chief physical characteristics of longevity may be enumerated as follows: 1.
Medium weieht and medium height, although tfaia is subject to many exceptions. The
limbs, especially the lower, ratJ^r less than half the length of the whole' stat-
ure, which is the standard in art, and was instituted by the Greek sculptors. 2. Har-
monious proportions (except as to the art standard of stature), rounded and firm joints
and limbs, regular features, and a calm expression of countenance, a full cheat and a
head and neck so placed as to give a graceful and easy bearing. 8. The chin and lower
jaw, when full ana well formed, are signs of longevity, but not without many excep-
tions, for prolonged life is often possessed b^' those who have retreating chins and rather
defective lower jaws. The indication, however, holds^ good, as a rule, and whatever
elements of longevity such persons have are probably inherited from ancestors who had
well formed lower jaws. 4. The mouth is a feature of considerable importaooe as an
indication of longevity. A firm, rather thin Up, at least one that is not pouting, or has
not a wide red border, is a sign of firmness of fiber and vigor, especially of enduraDce.
But there are many exceptions; and when a person has otlier strong characteristics
of longevity this sign should not have too much weight. An ineurved or inverted
rather than an everted upper lip, and having a firm expression. Is not an unfavor-
able sign, even though rather thick. 5. A rather prominent and well developed no^e,
in harmony with a capaoious respiratory apparatus nod a well-developed sensory
organization, is a feature entitled to . consideration ; but it also has many exceptions,
probably from inherited peculiarities on one side of the family, which, however, do
not materially dim i nisi) the tendency to longevity in the majority of such inheritors.
6. The ear, perhaps, furnishes the most important indications of longevity, and in its
form, development, and position there may be traced more hereditary characteristics,
as well as evidences of individual constitutional strength, than in any other feature. A
small, ill-shaped ear is very rarely carried by along-lived person, if ever; never, if its
center is placed much above the level of the wings of the nose. If such an ear is also
thin and lias a weak look, its possessor certainly has a defective constitution, with strong
consumptive tendencies. A yull. moderately fleshy ear, called a pulpy ear by artists, is a
sign of a vigorous constitution, and also of longevity if placed rather low down and at
a good distance from the eye, thus giving room for the various cerebral ganglia which
are situated at the base of tlie brain and have much to do with X\\e harmoni;&ing of
physiological flmctions. If tlie ear is rathet*' large, and with a well- developed lobe, held
firmly to the angle of the jaw, the indications of vigor and long life are increased.
Other indications, those of intellectuality, character, etc., are furnished by the forma-
tion and size of the ear, but they do not particularly concern the subject of this article.
In resrard to the complexion, long-lived people vary from light to dark, but the skin is
usually smooth and healthy.
Notwithstanding that an Inherited strong constitution is the foundation of a long
Digitized by VjiOUV IC
155
ifc, ezpcMnre to inclement wenther, <sr «ik ufthealtliful cUnuAe; or Turioiit hardshipeaiid
priTatioDB. with Tiolatioos of hygienic laws, may produce decay of the physical powers
and degeneracy in two or three generations the strong tendency to the recurrence of
the original type of constitution will, under favorable circuinstaooes, cause a regenera-
tioD of stock. It is also probable that continued breeding under favorable circam-
stances of stock not in the hixhest physical condition, will tend to its impfovement. To
what degree improvement of the human race might be carried, it is impossible to say
with confidence. We do not know our physicad history with sufficient exactness to
Tcoture far upon such speculations* but, if we take the opinions of a majority of the
adenUilc world of the present day, the race has been constantly improving->in fact, has
bees developing from some fonn much inferior. There are many, however, who
believe that the Bible account* though perhaps too fragmentary for a scientific basis, is
a revelation, and that we were created physically perfect. Accepting this view, to
what age did our earliest progenitors survive T This is a question that has not been
settled, even by theologians, and therefore will not be discussed here; but, if greater
than at present, it miffht perhaps be recovered by an observance of mental, moral, and
pbysiciu laws, as tending to the recovery of the normal type of constitution. It is pos-
sible that, under any view of the creation of man, human life might be made to increase
in length of days, ilthough history shows that its duration has varied but little in 4,000
years.
Moderation and regularity in eaUng, drinking, and sleeping are conducive to
longevity, and those who observe proper habits may accomplish immense labors with
no apparent injury to themselves. Scientific studies and philosophical contemplation,
if not pursued with too much ardor, do not tend to shorten life. Clergymen in said
CO be the longest-lived, as a class, of any in England. Poets^ as a rule, are not as long*
lived as philosopbers, although Sophoides is said to have lived 90 yearn. Goethe was
in his dith year when he died, and Wordsworth was 80; but these two poets were also
philosophers, and spent much time in calm thought Of the old philosophers, Zeno
died at 98. Demostlienes at 99, Isocrates at 98, while Hippocrates, the father of m^i-
cine, lived to upwards of 100. Many medical men^ have lived to an advanced age, but
it appears from statistics that physicians are, as a class, shorter^lived thian members of
other professions. Moses lived to the age of 130, and Joshua to that of 110^ and their
iires were lives of great activity. As an instance of hereditary longevity, may lie men-
tioned that of Abraham, wlio lived to 175, Isaac to 180, Jacob to 147, and Josepli to 110.
Some physiologists do not place reliance on records of longevity much beyond 100
years. Many instanqes, however, seem to be too well attested to admit ci much doubt
(hat individuals have lived to more than 140 years of age, and one of the cases given in
some of the records which follow, that of Henry Jenkins, who is said to have lived to
the a^'of 169, rests on evidence which many mtelligent men do not feel Justified in
rejecting. The cases of tiie throe Hungarians may be regarded as doubtful, but they
are accepted by the author of the article ** Age" in the Ammean CydopmMa, and they
are given here, at all events, as interesting records. It must be admitted that therei are
no valid reasons for denying that life may be prolonged to the extent tlMie claimed.
Much of the evidence regarding the age to which individuals attain would, in most
insUnces, be deemed insufllcient in a court of law. and, if absolute proof be required,
the collection of instances of great age would be small
Buffon says that every animal Ures six or seven times as long as the period of its
growth, and Flourens remarks that this is very near the trutlt, he placing the relative
terms of growth and perfected growth as 1 to 5. Both BulTon and Haller placed the
normal term of life between 90 and 100 years. They afterwards, by the collection of
instances, placed its extreme limit at a little less than two centuries, and Flouiiens
adopts the idea that extraordinary extension of the term of life may go on to one-half
more than the ordinary term. . The late sir Henry Holland believed that tbem was suffi-
cient proof of the frequent prolongation of human life to llO and 140 years; but a recent
writer, Mr. Thorns, maintains that any evidence that any human being ever attained
the age, not of 140. but of 110 years, will be found upon examination to be untrust-
worthy, and there are others who to a certain extent share this opinion.
In a work called The Code of HeaUh and Longwity, by sir John Sindair (0th ed.,
Lond.. 1844), and which contains much interesting matter, there is tlie following: ''In
a Dutch dictionary entitled Est Alg^meen Woandsrdok, there is an account of which the
following is a translation. Petratsch (Peter) Czartan was bom in 1687 at Eofrok; a village
4 m. from Temeswaer, in Hungary. When Uie Turks took Temeswaer from the
Christians, he kept bis fatiier's cattle. A few days before his death ho walked with the
assistance of a stick to Eofrok. He bad but little Fight, ahd bis beard was of a grtonish
white color, like moldy breads and but few of his teeih remained. His son, 97 yedrs of
age, was born of his father's third wjfe. Being a Greek in religion, the old man was
a strict observer of fiists, and never Used any food but milk and cakes. He had
descendants in the fifth generation, with whom he sometimes sported, cnrrying them
m Ills arms. He died in 1724w at the age of 184 years. Count Wal'lis had «
?>rtrait taken of this, old man when he fell in with him previous to his death.
he Dutch envoy, then at Vienna, transmitted this account to the states<gen-
end." There is ,a picture, of ,the old. man in sir .John*3 book, . probably i^^,l^p£.
of the portrait of him which count Wallis had taken. The same "book, abo tcnUina
portraits of an old niarri^sd pair, also natives of Hungary. The following^ is % transla-
tion of the inscription on the picture: '* John Rovin in the 172d year of hi» agc^ and
Soral), his wife, in the 164th year of her age. They have heen married 147 jearsy and
both born and died at 8tadova. in the directory of Casanseber, in Temeawaer; their chil.
dren, two son tf and two daughters, are yet alive. The youngest son is 116 years ol age,
and has two great grandsons, the one in the d5th and the other in the 27tb year of bis
age." Henry Jenkins, of Elberton, in Yorkshire, Eng., lived to the age of 160 years.
At the age of between 10 and 12 he was sent to North Allerton with a horse kkd of
arrows previous to the battle of Flodden. which was fought Sept. 9, 1518,. and as he
died Dec. 8, 1670, he must have been of the age reputed. " He had of (en been sworn
in chancery and in the courts to above 140 years of memory." Sir John further lemarks,
'* Little is known of his mode of life, excepting that towards the last century of it iiewas
a fisherman, and not only used to wade the streams, but actually swam rivers after he
was past the age of 100 years.'' Thomas Parr was born in tlic parish of Allierbury, in
Shropshire, in 1488, in the reign of Edward lY., and died in London in 1685. ''-He
lived in the reign of ten kings and queens, and was buried in Westminster abl)ey.'' He
is said to have been a man of very different stamina from the rest of mankind, for a
person who had seen him describes him thus: *' From bend to heel of his body he had,
all over, a quick-set, thick-set, nat'ral hairy cover" (Sinclair). Sir John's book also
contains portraits of the countess of Desmond, as well as of Jenkins and Parr. The
countess of Desmond lived to the age of 140 years. Sir John says ''she was a daughter
of the Fitzgeralds of Drummond, in the county of Waterford, and in the rei^n of
Edward lY. married James, 14th earl of Desmond." After his death, sir Walter
Raleigh says, she held her jointure from all the earls of Desmond during her life. It is
also said, on the authority of lord Bacon, that she twice renewed her teeth. In Bailey's
Beeords of Longem^ (Lond. 1747). there are, among others, the following records:
''Thomas Hill, of Flitton, Staffordshire, died in 1601, aged 1^8. He was head steward
to ^hree successive earls of Kent. On the floor of the chancel, near the altar, is an
efAgy in brass of tliis patriarch. The rev. Mr. Braithwaite, of Carlisle, died in 1754, aged
110 years. He had been in the cathedral 102 ;^ears, having commenced as a singing boy
in 1052, when eight years old." In a work entitled Human Longmiiy, by James Easton,
published at Salisbury, Eng., in 1799, there are reoorded the ages of 1712 persons who
were said to have lived upwards of ICK) years. Easton quotes a table from Huf eland, in
which that author says that of lOO human beings who are bom, 50 die before the 10th year,
20 between the lOth and 20th, 10 between the 20th and 80th, 6 between the 80th and
j 40th, 5 between the 40th and 50th, and 8 between the 50th and 60th, leaving only 6 to
I live above the 60th rear. He says, "Haller, who collected the greatest nuqil^r of
instances respecting tne age of man, found the relative duration of life to be in the fol-
lowing proportion: Of men who lived from 100 to 110 years, the instances have been
1000; from 110 to 120 there have been 60; from 120 to 180 there have been 29; from
180 to 140 there have been 15; from 140 to 150 there have been 6; and as high as 169,
there has been 1 instance. But as this volume probably contains a much more extensive
collection of long livers than any preceding work on the subject, I cannot den v myself
the satisfaction of corapiline from it the following table, similar to Haller's. Of males
and females who lived from 100 to 110 years, both inclusive, the instances have been 1310;
from 110 to 120 there have been 277; from 120 to 180 there have been 84; from 180 to
140 there have been 26; from 140 to 150 there have been 7; from 150 to 160 there lia^e
been 8; from 160 to 170 there have been 2; and from 170 to 185 there have been 3
instances = 1712." The following are among the names and ages mentioned by Easton :
St Patrick, 122; Attila, 124; Lywarch Hfin, 150; St. Coemgene, commonly called St.
Kelven, the founder, bishop, and abbot of Grandalock, or the seven churches in Wicklow,
Ireland, 120; Piastus, king of Poland, 120; Lewis Cornaro, 104; St. Anthony the great,
of Coma, in Egypt, 105; Jane Scrimshaw of the parish of Bow, 127; Alexander Ste-
phens of Banffshire, 106; Donald Cameron of Kinnichlabar in Rannach, Scotland, 130,
and who married at the age of 100; Mrs. Carter, of Waltham abbey, Essex, 101, who
could walk five or six miles a day with ease till within a few months of her death; Dr.
William Broughridge of Charles Street, Westminster, formerly one of the masters of the
Charter house school, 112; Mrs. Keithe, of Newnham, Gloucestershire, "who lived mod-
erately, and retained her senses till within fourteen dnys of her death, at 188 years, and
who left three daughters, the eldest aged 111, the second 110, and the youngest 109;
Peter McDonald lived to the age of 109 (his fatlier died at 116, and his grandfather
at 107 years); Thomas Winslow, aged 146, of the county of Tip^rary, Ireland, a
colonel in the armv and had held the rank of captain in the reign of Charles I.;
he also accompanied Oliver Cromwell into Ireland; Mr. Dobson, of Hatfield, a
fanner, who by much exercise and temperate living prolonged his life to the age
of 189 years: ninety-one children and grandchildren attended his funeral; Elanor Spicer,
of Accomac, Virginia, lived to the age of 121 and worked at sewing till within six
months of her death; Andrew Vidal, a native of Brazil, lived to the age of 124; he had
80 sons and 5 daughters, and in 1778 was living in the same house with his children and
grandchildren, who numbered 149; John Weeks, of New London, Conn., died at the a^e
of 114; married his tenth wife when he was 106 years old. she being only 16; it is said
Digitized by VjXJUv IC
1^' tA>ngeritj.
that hia hair and te«t3i were partially renewed.'* Eaatoo also inciudes the names taken
from Sinclair's book alcove mentioned. There died at Scottsville, Monroe county, N.Y.,
in the autumn of 1828, Mrs. Melissa Ganier, whose age is probably correctly given. She
was married in 1789 at the age of 14, and removed in 1801 to the place where she died.
She was, consequeully, about 104 years old. Her husband survived her, at the age of
107. They had 95 descendants. At Norristown, Penn., Dec. 28, 1878, Mrs. Elizabeth
Thomas died in her 102d year. At West Gloucester, Essex county, Mass., Oct. 26, 1878, .
Miss Mehitable Haskell died at the age of 89 years. She was the last of nine children =
who lived beyond fourscore veara, one sister attaining the age of 96. The father, grand-
father, great-grandfather and great-great-grandfather, all lived beyond 80 years. The
influences affecting the loueevity of nieu appear to have been so balanced that the aver-
age age of the human race has remained about the same for more than ^000 years. But
in this balancing process there is a depressing and life-shortening influence which neces-
sarily reduces the natural average. It must, therefore, be concluded that a removal of
all physically depressing and noxious influences would increase the longevity of the humaji
race. The degenerating influences appear to exist in the cities, chiefly in consequence
of the production of poisonous malaria and of infectious diseases, and if it were not for
the constant regeneration of the population of cities by accessions from the country the
age to which men usually live would be soon greatly shortened and there would be
de^neration of race unless considerable reforms were made in sanitary affairs. The
registrar-general of Great Britain in a recent report, in alluding to the sanitary condition
of that country', says, "Within the shores of these islands 28,000,000 of people dwell
who have not only supplied her (England's) armies and set her fleets in motion, but have
manufactured innumerable products and are employed in the investigation of scientific
truths and the creation of works of inestimable value to the human race. These people
do not live out half their days. A hundred and forty thousand of them die every year
unnatural deaths; two hundred and eighty thousand are constantly suffering from dis-
eases which may be prevented. Their strength is impaired in a thousand ways; their
affections and intellects are disturbed, deranged, and dimmed. Who will deliver the
nation from these terrible enemies? Who will confer on the inhabitants of the United
Kingdom the blessings of health and lonsr life?" We will conclude this article with a
condensed statement of the opinions of fir. Benjamin Rush (q.v.), surgeon -general of
the American army of the revolution, contained in his Medical Inquiries and Obser-
tatums, several editions of which were published at the commencement of this century.
He reviews the circumstanceia which favor longevity, the condition of body and mind
which attends It, and the peculiar difienses of old age, and their remedies. The most
important circumstance is descent from long-lived ancestors. He says, "Ihave not
found a single instance of a person who has nved to be 80 years old in whom this was
not the case. In some instances I have found the descent was only from one, but in
general it was from both parents. Dr. Franklin, who died in his 84th year, was descended
from long-lived parents. His father died at 89 and his mother at 87. His father had
seventeen children by two wives.*' Intemperance in eating, Dr. Rush found in his
experience, was even more prejudicial to longevity than intemperance in drinking, for
he met only one man 84 3'^ears of age who had been intemperate in eating, but four or
five who had been intemperate in the use of ardent spirits. He considers that literary
pursuits are favorable to long life. ' ' Business, politics, and religion, which are the objects
of attention of men of all classes, impart a vigor to the understanding which by being
conveyed to every part of the body tends to produce health and long life." In regard
to the'married state he met with only one person over 80 years of age who had never
been married. He makes particular mention of a woman, a native of Herefordshire in
England, who was in the lOOth year of her age, and who had born a child at 60. She
had suckled successive children at the same time. I>r. Hush remarked that immigrants
from Europe erften acquired fre^ vigor from change of climate and occupation, and
probably a prolongation of life. His observations did not indicate that acute or <Aronic
diseases slkortened life, and mentions the fact that ''Dr. Franklin had two successive
vomicas (cavities containing purulent matter) in his luues before he was 40 years old." It
is not improbable, however, that his lung difficulty did shorten his life. He met witli
one man 88 years old who had suffered all his life from syncope, but he met with but
one person beyond the &ge of 80 who had ever had a disease of the stomach. Mr. John
Strangeways Hutton, who died in Philadelphia, in the 109th year of his age, informed ,
Br. Rush mat he had never vomited in his life. *' He was bom," says Dr. Rush, "in
New York city in the year 1664. His grandfather lived to be 101, but was unable to
walk for 80 years before he died, from excessive corpulence. His mother died at 91.
He had a fixed dislike of ardent spirits of all kinds; his appetite was good, and he ate
plentifully during the last years of his life, but rarely drinking between meals. He
married twice, having eight children by his first, and seventeen by his second wife. He
was about 6 ft. 9 in. in stature, slender, and carried an erect head to the last years of
his life. He says, " I have not found the loss of teeth to affect the duration or life so
much as mi^t be expected. Edward Drinker, who lived to be 103 years old, lost his
teeth thirty years before he died, from drawing the hot smoke of tobacco into his mouth
through a short pipe." He makes the observation that "more women live to be old than
men, but nM>re men live to be wry old than ^'omen. In regard to the characteristics of
issgsr- 158
the body and mind of old people he mentioDB their great sensitfyeness to cold, and says,
"I met with an old woman who slept continually under three blankets and a covenet
during the hottest summer months. The servant of prince de Beaufremont^who came from
Mont Jura to Paris at the aee of 181 to pay his respects to the first national assembly of
France, shivered with cold in the middle of the dog-days when he was not near a good
fire. The late Dr. Chovet, of this citv (Philadelphia), who liyed to be 85, slept in a baize
night-gown under eight blankets ana a coverlet, in a stove room many years before he
died. " He remarks that death from old age is the effect of a gradual palsy, sbowing itself
tirst in the eyes and ears, then in other parts of the body, reaching the brain the last.
LOVOFEUOW, Hbnrt Wadbworth, an American poet, was b. at Portland, Mc.od
Feb. 27. 1B07. At the age of 14 he entered Bowdoin college, Brunswick, and gradu
ated there with high honors in 1825. For a short time he studied law in his father's
office; but a professorship of modern languages having been founded in theBowduiD
college, and offered him, he accepted it, and proceeded to Europe to (qualify himself for
the discharge of his new duties. He returned to America in 1829. His first substantive
work, Outre Mer, appeared in 1835; and in the same year he was appointed to the chair
of modern languages and literature at Harvard university. He again spent a year in
Europe, and made himself acquainted with the Danish and other northern literatures—
an acquaintance which he has turned to noble account. In 1889 he published Hyperion,
* a prose romance, and The Vcieen of the NiglU; BaUads and oiker Poems, in 1841 ; Poem
ofh Slavery, 1842; The Spaninh Student, 1848; his Poets and Poetry of Europe, 1845; Bd
fry of Bntiaes, 1846; BhangeUne, 1847; Kavana^h, 1849; The Seaside and the Mresids,
1850; The Golden Legend, 1851; Hiawatha, 1855; MiUs Standish, 1858; Tales cf a Way-
side Inn, 18d8; trans, of Dante, 1867; Aftermath, 1873; The Hanging t^ the Crane, 1874;
Pandora, 1875; Keramos, 1878, etc. In 1869 lie was mode D.C.L. of Oxford.
Of the American poets, Longfellow is the most popular in England, and, at the same
; time, he is the most national. If his countrymen have not a national epic, EvanaeUne
or Hiawatha is as yet the nearest approach to it. Some of his shorter lyrics are almost
perfect ip idea and expression. His poetry is deficient in force, but full of picturesque-
aess; and a certain quaintness of fancy is one of its most delightful attributes.
LONGFELLOW, Hbnrt Wadbworth {anie^ was the son of Stephen, an enuaeni
lawyer of Portland, Me. While a student in Bowdoin coHege he wrote some of the best
known of his earlierpoemsy among tbem the .^mnqfthe Moravian Nuns; the Spirit (f
Po^ry; Woods in Winter, and Sunrise on the PaXts. Ha held his professorship at Har-
vard 17 years, resigning in 1354, but continuing to reside at Cambridge, in the house
occupied by Washington when the revolutionary army was encamped in that neighbor-
hood. He spent the summer of 1842 at Boppard on the Rhine. In 1868-69 he revisited
Europe, and was everywhere the recipient of high honors, especially in England, where
his writings are exceedingly popular. Men of the highest literary and social distinction
sougiit his acquaintance and were charmed by his dignified, kindly, and unassuming
deportment. The general verdict upon his poetry is that, while it fails to represent the
deepest passions of human nature, it ia always kindled by the broadest sympathies, aod
marked by a delicate appreciation of all that is beautiful in nature and noble in human-
ity. Keenly sensitive to the imperfections and misdoings of men, he is never censori-
ous, but always gentle and persuasive, appealing to the sympathies and motives which
are common to people of every race, country, and clime. He exhibits the fruits of a
broad culture, not in strained allusions to things beyond the reach of common readers,
but in the clearness and simplicity with which he interprets to them the noblest thoughts
of the noblest men of every age and couatry. Among his latest works are Poems of
Piaaes, selected from a great number of authors and filling 81 small volumes; and
UlUma Thule, a volume of original poems.
LONGFELLOW, Samuel, b. Portland, Me., 1819; brother of Heniy Wadsworth;
fradttated at Harvard college in 1889, and at the divinity achool in 1846; from 1853 to
860 was pastor of the Seeond Unitarian church in Bi^ooklyn, resigning in order to go to
Europe. After his return to America he resided many years at Cambridge, Mass.,
preaching frequently in Unitarian pulpits, but for most of the time devoted chiefly to
literary pursuits. In 1878 he became pastor of the Unitarian church in Germantown,
Penn., where he remaina He belong to wliat is called the ''left wing " of the Unitarian
denomination, the section holding views most variant from the evangelical. In 1847, in
association with the rev. Samuel Johnson and the rev. Samuel Osgood, he compiled A
Book of Hymns, Jocularly called the " Sam Book,'' but very highly esteemed both upon
literary and religious grounds, and which waa afterwards revised and published with the
title of Hymns of the Spirit, In 1859 he published a book of Hymns and Tunes for Con-
gregational Use. He has written a number of hymns marked by devoutness of feeling
as well as a cultivated literary taste, and some of his fugitive poen^ are very highly
esteemed. His published sermons and essays are remarkable for elovation of tone, for
clearness of insight, and purity of style.
LOVO'FOBD, an inland co. of the province of Leinster, Ireland, lying between Leltrlm
and Cavan on the n., Westmeath on the e. and s., and Boscommon on the w. ; 29 m.
long from n. to s., and 32 m. from e. to west. Its area is 269,409 acres, of which 191,828
are arable; population in 1871, 64,601. The surface is for the mpst^pur^^ii^^Mt and flat.
vith tlie ezoeption of a slightly elevated central range, tbe greatest elevation of which ia
only 912 feet. Many small fakes pervade the county, and Uie river Shannon, or its
nursing lakes, connect Longford with the county and city of Limerick. Its navigation
is also connected with Dublin by the Royal canal, which traverses the county to
the town of Longford, and ternunates in the river Shannon at Clondra; and there
are two branches of the Midland Great Western railway which pass through the
county, from Mulliogar to Longford and Cavan. The south of the county forms
part of the central limestone district of Lreland. The north is a continuation of the
clay-slate which prevails in Cavan, the two districts being separated by a belt of yel-
low sandstone and conglomerate, which projects from the east of Lieitrim. Deep
beds of marl are found in many of the lK>ggy districts. Marble of good quality ih
also found, and ironstone, with coal, shale, and lead, of good (quality, but not in
remunerative quantity. The limestone district of the south is suited to tillage, and
produces excellent wheat. The north is chiefly devoted to pasture. The number of
seres under crop in 1876 was 72,86d. In the same year, tnere were 59,938 cattle,
33,221 sheep, and 2£,d54 pigs. The chief towns are Longiord (q. v.), Granard, and Bally-
mahon. Longford returns two members to parliament. The number of national 8choois>
in 1871, was 182, attended by 7,305 pupUs; In 1875 there were 14,060 pupils<18,232 being
Catholics). Longford anciently formed part of the kingdom of Meath, and as such was
included in Henry II. 's grant to Hugh de Lacy. It was erected into a county in 1564,
but in the rebellion of 1641 it was recovered for a brief period by the O'Farrells, and, on
the suppression of this rising, almost the entire county was distributed as confiscated
lands to a new zace of colonists. The antiquities are of much interest. The islands of
Lough Bee are espeoially rich in monastic remains.
LOV6F0BD, capital of the above county, 76 m. w.n.w. from Dublin try the Midland
Western railway, on a small river called the Camlin. It is a well-built town. The
Roman Catholic cathedral, recently erected, is a veiy spacioiis, and, indeed, a magnifi-
cent building, of the Ionic order. Pop. '71, 4,375, of whom 8,473 were Roman Cath-
olics, 645 Protestant Episcopalians, and the rest Protestants of other denominations.
The chiet commerce of Longford is in the agricultural produce of the district. No
mannfacture of any imnortance exists in the town. It is connected with Dublin and
with Sligo by the Mioland Western railway, as also with the former by the Royal
canal.
LON'GHI, GiusErPB, 1766-1831; b. at Monza, near Milan; studied at the school of
engraving there, became professor in 1798^ and subsequently for several years the head
of the institution. In 1801, by invitation of Bonanarte, he took part in the Cisalpine
council at Lyons, going afterwards to Paris. His cnief works are the "Vision of £r«-
kieU" after Raphael; Uie "Mstfdalen*' of Correggio; the ''Madonna del lago," after
Leonardo da Vinci; and "GaUtea,'' after Albana He engraved many fine heads,
among them those of Washington, Michael Angelo, and Napoleon. The plates known
as the " Facti di Napoleons il Grande " are among his masterpieces. His latest biography
was published by Baretta in 1837. Died at Milan.
LOVeiCOBUXS, a family of tetramerous coleoptera, containing a vast number of spe-
cies, among which are manv of the largest and most splendid beetlea They are remark-
able for the length of their slender antennsB, which are often longer tlian the bodv.
They ail feed on vegetable food, some on leaves, some on roots, and are mostly inhabit-
ants of forests; the females depositing their eggs, by means of a long, strong, homv
ovipositor, beneath the bark of trees, on the wood of which the larvse feed. The longi-
comes abound chiefly in warm conntries, and particularly in South America; the number
of British species, however, is considerable, but some of those so reckoned have probably
been imported from foreign countries in the larva state, in timber, to which they often
do great injury.
LOVOI'WB, DioirrBius CASsrus, a Platonic philosopher and famous rhetorician, was
b., according to some, at Emesa, in Syria, and according to others, at Athens, about 213
A.D. In his earlier years, he traveled a great deal in the company of his parents, and
made the acquaintance of many celebrated scholars and philosophers. He studied Greek
literature at Alexandria, where he was for a considerable time the pupil of Ammonius
and Origen, and subsequently settled as a teacher of rhetoric in Athens, where he soon
acquired a ereat reputation. His knowledge was immense: he was called a *• living
library" and a "walking museum," but his taste and critical acuteness were no less
wonderful. He was probably the best critic of all antiquity. In an age when Platonism
was giving place to the semi-oriental mysticism and dreams, of NeoplatonUm, Longinus
stancu out conspicuous as a genuine disciple of the great master. Clear, calm, rational,
yet loftjr, he despised the fantastic speculations of Plotinus, who consequently would
not admit that Longinus was a philosopher, but — since he stooped to criticise the diction
and style of Plato— pronounced him a mere philologist. In the latter years of his life,
he accepted the invitation of Zenobia to undertake the education of her children at Pal-
myra: but becoming also her prime political adviser, he was beheaded as a traitor, by
command of the emperor Aurelian, 278 a.b. Longinus was a heathen, but a generous
and tolerant heathen. Of his works, the onlv one extant (and even that one only in
part) is a treatise. Peri Hypmntt (On the Sublime). There are many editions of Longi-
ISSfK'
»^T 160
bus's treatise, of which those by Moru8 (Leip. 1760), Toupius (Ozf^ 1778, 2d ed. 1780, 8d
ed. 1806), Weiske (Leip. 1809), and Egger (Paris, 183'3), are among the best. See also
Buhnkeo's JHs^ertatio de Vita et Scripiia Longini,
LOKQIPEir'NES, in Cuvier^s ornithological system, that section of the order ^M/mtp^Zn
oharacterized by long wines and great power of flight. The wings are often very nar-
row. They are all sea-birds, and many of them venture to a ^at distance from shore.
Their hind-toe is small and free, or wanting. They cannot dive and pursue their prey
under water, but they swim well, and their movements in the air are very CTaceful.
Petrels, shearwaters, guiUfl, terns, noddies, skimmers, and albatrosses are examples.
LOKGIBOS'TBES, a tribe of birds of the order gralla, having generally a long, slender,
feeble bill, and inhabiting seashores And marshv places, where they seek worms and
other food in the mud or ooze. To this tribe belong snipes, woodcocks, curlews, god-
wits, saudpipere. etc.
LOKG- I8LAKD4 an island which forms three counties of the state of New York,
between lat. 40^ dSf to 4^ 6' n. and long. 72** to 74' ^ w., bounded n. by Long Island
sound, «. and s. by the Atlantic oceaa, and w. by the bay and harbor of New York.
It is 115 m: long, and 12 m. in average width, with an area of 1682 sq. miles. On
its s. shore is a bay 100 m. loDg, and fiom 2 to 6 m. wide, separated from the ocean
by a narrow beach of sand, with several inlets. On this sliore are several light-
Louses, and 30 life-boat stations. A line of hills rnns along the northern portion of the
island, but the center is a plain, sloping to the sea. Villages, watering-places, and fertile
farms line the coasts, but the interior is mostly waste land and forest. The principal
towns are Brooklyn (opposite New York), Flushing, Jamaica. The shores are lined
with watering-places for summer resort. This island was onoe inhabited by 18 Indian
tribes. Aug. 22, 1776, sir Henry Clinton landed on Long Island with 9,000 British troopf;,
defeated gen. Putnafi^ And compelled Washington to evacuate the island. Pop. 70.
540,648
LONG ISLAND {ante\ an island belonging to the state of New York, embracing the
three counties of BTmgs, Queens, and Suffolk. It lies between 40° 34' and 41* 10' n. hit.,
and between 71^ 51' and 74° 4' w. longitude. It is bounded s. and e. by the Atlantic
ocean, n. by Long Island sound, aad w. by the bay of New York and the East river. Its
length is about 125 m., its average width 14 m. ; area, 927,900 acres; pop. '80, 744,022.
The coast is indented with many bays and inlets, abounding with shell and other fish.
One of these is Peoonic bay, 80 m. long, which divides the eastern end of the island into
two parts or projections, the one on the n. side terminating at Oyster Pond point, that
on the s. terminating at Montauk point, 20 m. farther east. On the s. side of the island
is a bay nearly 100 m. long and from 2 to ^ m. broad, fomied by the Great South beach,
sstrip of white sand from one-fourth of a mile to a mile in width, with occasional open-
ings to the ocean. Near the western end of the island are Jamaica, Hempstead, Oyster,
and Huntington bays. Shelter, Gardiner's, Fisher's and Plumb islands, in the adjacent
waters, are attached politically to Long Island. The coasts, bordering as they do on
the track of an immense ocean commerce, are furnished not only with a lacge nunibcT
of lighthouses, but with life-saving stations, provided with every means of rendering aid
to vessels in distress. The surface, though pi^esenting considerable variety, is marked
by no great elevatMm. A ranse of hills extends, with frequent interruptions, from
the northern boundary of New Utrecht in Che w. almost to tti^ eastern extremity of the
island on then, side of Peconic bay. These hills are considerably nearer to the northern
than to the southern viargia of the islaod. North of them the surface is uneven and
rough, while on the s. it has a gradual inclination toward the sea, and is broken here
and there by wide «aady plains producing only coarse grass and stunted Bhrubs. Some
of these plains, by the application of manures, have of late years been brought under
cultivation. A considerable portion of the Island is in forest, from which wild game
has not yet been wholly exterminated. There arc numerous springs and small
streams, and many ponds, some of them quite large, while swamps and marshes
abound. The largest stream is the Peconic, which, after a course of 15 m., empties
into the bay of the same name. It furnishes numerous mill scats. Of salt marsh the
island is computed to contain more than 100 sq.m. With the exception of tlie sandy
plains above mentioned the soil is for the most part fertile, in some sections peculiarly
rich. Much of it is in a high state of cultivation, being devoted to the proa uction of
vegetables for the Brooklyn and New York markets. This is especially true of the
two westernmost counties. Kings and Queens. The climate, on account of the influence
of the sea, is milder and more equable than the same latitude in the interior, the mer-
cury seldom falling below zero or rising above 90*, the average temperature being
about 51°. The highest elevations on the island are Hempstead Harbor hill at Roslyn,
and West hill in Suffolk co., both which are 384 ft. above the sea. On the s. side,
Coney island, Rockaway, Quogue, Babylon, Fire island, Southampton, Easthampton,
and Montauk point are watering-places, several of which are much frequented in the
hot season. Coney island especially, which is but a few miles from New York and
Brooklyn, and easily accessible b}" boat or rail, has within a few years become a place
of resort for vast multitudes of people, for whose aocottmoKlfltwnlim^ have
161 ronflaiand.
fe?en erected. The Long Island railroad passes through nearly the entire length of
the island, from Hunter's Point at the western to Greenport near the eastern extremity,
flid connects by branches with various places at a greater or less distance from its
mm track; while there are numerous other and shorter roads, connecting many towns
with Brooklyn and New York. Among these are the North Shore, Southern, Flushing
aad Central, Flushing and North Side, Smithtown and Port Jefferson, New York and
fiockaway, Newtown and Flushing, Bay Ridge, Hempstead ^nd Jerusalem, Brooklyn
sod Jiimaica, Brooklyn and Coney Island, etc. Steamboats also ply regularly between
Xew fork and the principal towns on the n. side.
The principal cities and towns on the island are Brooklyn, Long Island City, Garden
City. Flatbush, New Lots, Flushing, Hempstead, Jamaica, Oyster Bay, North Hemp-
itfiid, Huntington, Brookhaven, Riverhead, Southampton, and Southold. Brooklyn, at
tin extreme weslern extremity of the island, is the third city of the United States in
povdlstioa. It is connected with different parts of New York by eight or ten ferries,
aod will soon be connected therewith by a magnificent wire suspension bridge, crossing at
fwh a heiglit Uiat only the largest vessels will have to lower their topmost-masts in pass-
iag under it. Garden City was founded by the late Alexander T. Stewart, a wealthy mer-
chant of New York, on land formerly known as Hempstead plains, which, since the lirst
diicoTery of the island had been regarded as almost worthless. Mr. Stewart purchased a
tract of 12,000 acres, on a portion of which Garden City has been built, while other
portions have been brought under successful cultivation. The city is as yet in an
iDch'«te state; though it contains many fine buildings and a considerable population.
One of the objects of the founder was to furnish economical and healthful homes for
families of small means, whose heads might be employed in New York. An immense
and costly cathedral, for the uses of the Protestant Episcopal church, is nearly com-
pleted.
Long island when first discovered was the abode of 18 tribes of Indians, of which
the only remnants are some 200 Shinnecooks, a mixed breed of Indians and negroes in
Souliiampton, and a few families of Montauks. The island was inclnded in the grant
made to the Plymouth colony by James I. in 1620. In 1625 the first settlement was
taade by some French Protestants under Dutch protection. In 1686 the Dutch made
^venl settiements at the western end, near New York, but the larger portion of the
:«UDtl^ and especially its eastern section, was settled by colonists from Connecticut and
a\\tT parts of New England. The island was called " Lange Islandt " by the Dutch; in
1683 the English changed it by law to the ** island of Nassau" — a name, however, which
BeTer came mto popular use. In 1636 Jaques Bontyn and Adrianse Bennet purchased
i^the Indians 980 acres of land within the present boundaries of the city of Brooklyn.
)Ir. fieooet erected here the first house ever built upon the island, and which was burned
by tke Indums in 1648. In the troubles which preceded the revolution the people of
Uog Island were intensely patriotic, but the reverses of the American arms which
;>bu»d the island in the power of the British during the war made it impossible for
idem to do much for the cause of independence. One of the earliest battles of the war
T»as fought in Brooklyn, Aug. 26-*28, 1776, when the Americans occupying the defen-
^TB uaoer gen. Putnam were overcome by a greatly superior British force and com-
;^'lled to retreat in boats across the East river under cover of a thick fog. The patriotic
Ktion of the InhalHtants, left thus under British control, endured many privations and
Bot a little persecution during the whole period of the war.
LONG ISLAND CITY, a citv in Queens co., N. Y., at the n.w. extremity of Long
tUnd; formed from a portion of the town of Newto'wn, and incorporated in 1870; pop.
'74 about 16.000. It extends 8 m. e. and w., and 5 m. n. and s., and has a water front
of 10 m. along Newtown creek, which separates it from Brooklyn, and thence n. along
East river to Bowery bay. It is divided into five wards and has 8 post-oflaces, viz. :
A-^toria, Ravenswood, ana Long Island City. The s.w. portion is called Hunter's Point,
tliij being the w. terminus of the Long Island, Flushing, and other railroads. The n.
portion is the most elevated, and in Astoria and Ravens wood are many fine residences
^sd beautiful drivea The streets and avenues are wide, and provision is made for three
piblic parks. Hunter's Point is connected with New York city by 2 ferries, Astoria by
^oe and by the Harlem boats. Several lines of horse-railroad connect the city with
Bnjoklyn.' Hunter's Point as a great depot for the storage and shipment of petroleum.
It coot&ins extensive lumber-yaras, several oil refineries, granite works, a marine rail
^•ly, and manufactures of chemicals, cabinet-ware, hammers, boilers, refrigerators,
*.eain engines, asbestos roofing, mattresses, etc. Astoria has manufactures of piano-
I'rtes, carpeta, carriages, jewelry, etc. The city has 14 churches, a fine court-house,
oceiient school-buildings, and 1 daily and 5 weekly newspapers. The courts of the
<^oQQty of Queens are held here, though the various county ofilces remain ^t Jamaica.
^ former capital.
lOMB TSLAJTB WUlVi^, a body of water between Long Island and New York and
^nnneclicut, 110 m. long, and from 2 to 20 m. wide, commencing narrow at New York
Hty. which it sepamtes from Brooklyn, and where it is called East river, Knd opening
a iU! eastern extremity into the Atlantic ocean, by a passage called " the Race.'^ It is
c^Tigated by an immense number of coasting- vessels and steamers, and is strongly forti- Z
U. K. IX.— 11
lionc: Island. 1 AO
Loiisntreet. -'•"-'
fied at Tbrog^s point, near New York. It receives the Connecticut, Housatonic^
Thames, and Mystic rivers on its northern shore.
LONG ISLAND SOUND {ante), an arm of the Atlantic ocean, lying between New
York and Connecticut on the n. and Long Island on the s. ; about 110 m. in length and
from 2 to 25 m. in breadth. Its depth is generally alK>ut 70 ft. , scarcely anywhere exceed-
ing 120 ft. It is connected with the ocean on the e. by a passive called the Race, and on
the w. by the East river, ^New York bay, and the Narrows, u has many harbors mod-
eratelv good, and one or two excellent The Connecticut shore is rocky and reefs
impede navigation for a distance from the land: the Long Island shore is less broken.
The principalrivers flowing into the sound are the Housatonic, Connecticut, and Thames.
The sound is the route of an extensive commerce between New York and the prindpai
cities and towns of New England, and is navigated bymany lines of steamers and sailiDg
vessels. The narrow and rock-bound strait called " Hell-^te," at the western extremity
of the sound, has made tliis route practically unavailable hitherto for vessels approadhing
New York from the ocean, but measures are in progress for widening the channel by
the removal of the rocks, and, when this work is fully accomplished, a new and highly
advantageous channel for ocean commerce will be opened.
LOVOITIIDX. See Latttudb.
LONG LAKE, one of the series of Adirondack lakes, situated in the ilc. part of
Hamilton co. ; 18 m. in length, and about 8 m. wide. It is remarkable for the beauty of
the surrounding scenery, having Buck mountain on the right and the Blueberry moun-
tains on the left, as one enters oy way of the Haquette river. From this point a fine
view is obtained of Mt. Seward, 4,848 ft. in height, from which the lake is distant 10
miles. The lake itself is at an elevation 1575 ft. above the level of the sea. Its position
and its length make it an important part of the interesting and extensive line of travel
through successive lakes and streams in the Adirondack region.
LONGLAND, Robert. See Lanolandb.
LONGLEY, Charles Thomas, d.d., 1794-1868; b. in Westmeathshire, England;
educated at Westminster school and Christ-church college, Oxford, where he ranked as
first-class scholar in classics. After his graduation he continued some time at the uDi-
versityas college tutor, censor, and public examiner. He became perpetual curate of
Cowley in 1828; rector of West Tytherly, 1827; head-master of Harrow school, 1829;
bishop of Ripon, 1886; of Durham, 1856; archbishop of York, 1860; and of Canterburv,
1862. In this last position, as primate of all England, he continued until his death.
The vear before he died he presided at the sessions of the Pan-Anglican synod, composed
of all the bishops of the church of England and of the churches in communion with it.
By some persons archbishop Longleyhas been described as deficient in firmness and
other positive elements of character required especially in his most exalted position,
which he held at a difficult time. In person he was amiable, dignified, courteous, and
devout Before his death he referred to words which had been used b^ bishop Hooker,
expressive of his sense of guilt and of his reliance on the blood of Christ to cleanse him
from sin, as containing the faith in which he wished to die.
LONGMAN, Thomas, 1690-1755; b. England; having served an apprenticeship to
John Osborne, a bookseller of London, was taken into partnership by him in 1725, in
Paternoster row, establishing a business which has since been continued by his succes-
sors, on the same site under various firm names — now Longmans, Green, Reader, &
Dyer. The style of the firm at one time was Mesars. Longman, Brown, Green, Hnrst,
Recs, Orme & Longmans. In 1728 he was concerned in publishing, by subscription,
the CyelopcBdia of Ephraim Chambers in 2 large folio volumes, a second edition appearing
in less than 10 years, and 5 editions in 18 years. It is, with one exception (the Lexicon
Techmcum of John Harris, 1706-10), the first English encvclopsedia or general dictionarv
of the arts and sciences, subdivided under suitable heads and alpha&tically arranged.
It subsequently formed the basis of Bees^s CydopcBdia, 4 vols., 1781-86. He was one of
six booksellers who undertook in 1747 to publish a dictionary of the English language
in 2 folio vols., and employed Samuel Johnson to perform the work for the sum of 1500
fuineas. out of which he paid his assistants. The dictionary was issued complete in
755, but has been so altered by editors as scarcely to be recognized, in its present guise,
as Johnson's.
LONGMAN, Thomas, 1781-97; b. England; nephew of Thpmas (1699-1755), was
received into the publishing company of his uncle in 1754, and was the pioneer among
exporters of books to America. In 1776 he began to publish a new edition of Chamber^^
GydojHxdia, completed in 1786, 4 vols, folio, edited by Abraham Rees, who became one
of the firm, and with whom he was associated in publishing Bee9'» OydapoBdia^ 1802-19,
in 45 vols.
LONGMAN, Thomas Norton, 1770-1842; b. England; for 50 years the head of the
gublishing firm of Longman & Co. of Paternoster row, London, son of Thomas (1731-
7), and grandnephew of the original publisher of that name. In 1792 he became a
partner with his father in publishing and selling books, adding greatly to the influencOj
and efficiency of the house as long as his connection with it lasted; admitting various
partners during his long career as business manager. In the early years of the 19th c.
1 i!0 lAmg IafaMd«
thej held the copyright of Lindley Murray's Englith Orammtvr, and brought out the finst
efforts of Coleridge, Southey, Wordsworth, and others of the lake poets. Prior to 1811
tbey were Thomas Moore's publishers, with the exception of his life of lord Byron.
Bcott's Lay of the Last Minstrel, and some of the Waverl^ novels were published br them ;
also the works of Macaulay, Herschel, etc. In 1826 they assisted in publishmg the
Edinburgh Beview, and issued 188 vols, of Lardner's Cabinet Oydopadia, 1829-46. He
left the business to his sons Thomas and William, under the style of Longmans, Green,
Reader & Dyer, who have sustained the distinguished character of the firm. — William
(d. 1877) was the author of The History of the Life and Times of Edward IIL; Lectures
on the mstory of Engiand, f^om the Earliest Times to the Death of King Edwaj-d IL ; and
in 1856 his Journal of Six Weekt^ Adtmnture in Smtaierland, Piedmont, and on the Italian
Lakes, was printed for private circulation. William also wrote a number of articles on
entomology, attaining some distinction in>that branch of study.
' LONGOBARDS. See Lombakds and Lombabdy, ante,
LONG PARLIAMENT, the name given to the parliament of England summoned by
Charles I. for the purpose of granting him supplies wherewith to carry on his war
against his rebellious subjects. It assembled Nov. 8, 1640, and remained in session 12
years, 5 months, and 17 davs, when it was dissolved by Oliver Cromwell, April 20, 1658.
This parliament impeached and executed the earl of Strafford, abolished the star cham-
ber, and provided against its own dissolution except by its own consent. Finally it
drove out of the house of commons those members who remained faithful to the king,
dismissed the house of lords, and established a high court of justice, before which the
king was brought to trial and sentenced to death, beine beheaaed on the scaffold Jan.
30, 1649. When Cromwell expelled the remains of the long parliament, he set up
another assembly, of nominated membera, but in the tumultuous state of public feeling,
neither this nor any other of his parliamentary experiments worked satisfactorily.
LONG8TREET, Augustus Baldwin, ll.d., 17W-1870; b. Aueusta, Ga.; gradu-
ated at Yale in 1818; studied law at the celebrated school in Litchfiela, Conn., and was
admitted to the bar in Richmond co., Ga., in 1816; began his legal practice in Greens
borough, Ga., and soon rose to eminence in his profession. In 1821 he was a member
of the legislature, and in 1822 made Judge of the court in the Ocmulgee circuit, but
soon resigned his Judicial honors, continued the practice of the law at Augusta, and
established there the Sentinel newspaper, which in 1888 was consolidated with the
Chronicle. In 1888 he abandoned the legal profession to become a clergyman, united
himself with the Methodist conference of Georgia, and was at once assigned to a pastorate
in Augusta. In 1889 he was elected president of Emory college, Oxford, Ga., holding
the position until 18^, when he was made president of Centenary college, La., but was
soon afterwards transferred to the university of Mississippi at Oxford. He was a mem-
ber of the, general conference held in the city of New York in 1844, and took a con-
spicuous part in the debates upon the case of bishop Andrew (involving the Question of
slavery), which ended in a rupture of the M. E. church into the northern and southern
bodies. He was an active |>oIitician of the state rights democratic school, and a sup-
porter of slavery. Among his writings may be mentioned Letters from Georgia to Massa-
chusetts; Letters to Clergymen of the Northern Methodist Church; and J. Hetiew of the Decision
of the Supreme Court of the United States in the Case of McCuUoch v. The State of Maryland.
His literary writings were of a humorous character, and among these were Ueorgia
Scenes and Master WUUam MUten, or the Youth of Brilliant Talents who was Ruined by
Bad Luck, Died at Oxford, Miss.
LONGSTREET, Jambs, b. 8. C, 1820; appointed to the military academy from Ala*
bama, and aft^r his graduation in 1842 stationed at various points on the Texan
frontier until the breaking out of the Mexican war, in which he served with distinction,
and was brevetted successively captain and major for gallantry at Churubusco and
Molino del Rey. After the war he continued to serve in Texas, becoming paymaster
with the rank of major in 1858. On the outbreak of the rebellion he threw up his com-
mission, and enter^ the confederate service. He corbiliftndcd the 4th brigade of
Beauregard's Ist corps, participating in the first battTd' of Bull Run. Promoted to a
mnjor-^reneralship in 1862, he distinguished himself in the campaigns under Lee against
Pope. McClellan. Burnside, and Meade. Aft«r the battle of Fredericksburg, Dec. 18,
1862, he was made a•]ieutenan^j^neral. He led the confederate right at Gettysburg,
and being sent by Lee to the relief of Bragg, carried the day at Chickamauga, Sept. 19,
20, 1862. In Nov. of the same year he drove Burnside into Knoxville, to which he laid
siege; but he was compelled to withdraw after the federal victory at Chattanooga, and
join Lee in Virginia. He took a distinguished part in the operations in the Wilderness,
till severely wounded, May 6, 1864, but recovered in time to resume command of his
corps during the siege of Petersburg. At the close of the war, whose results he was one
of the first southerners to accept, he devoted himself to tlie development of the southern
railroad system. Afterwards separating himself from the majority of his former associ-
ates, he accepted office under a repiiblicaH administration, becoming in 1869 surveyor of
tlie port of New Orleans. In 1875 he removed to Georgia, and in 1880 was sent to
Turkey as U. B. minister. Digitized by VjUUV IC
Loo^Choo. ^ ^*
L0NG8TREET, William, 1760-1814; b. N. J. Removing to Georgia, he con-
ceived, as soon as, or before Fulton, the idea of propelling boats by steam, and in 1790
applied to the governor of Georgia for means to carry out bis plan. *^His application was
refused, but some time afterwards lie succeeded in building a small boat, which went
up the Savannah river at a speed of 5 m. an hour. He was also the inventor of tlie
** breast-roller" improvement of the cotton-gin, working by horse^power. He built two
of these to run by steam at Augusta, hut Ihey were burned, as were the steam mills
\vhich he subsequently built at St. Mary's.
LOVO'TOK, a t. of StaSordsliire, England, !u the district of the Potteries. Longton
was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1865. It is about 2 m. s.e. from Stoke, on
u small stream, which falls into tbe Trent, and is on the line of the North Staffordshire
railway. Part of the town is known as Lane-end. TJie growth of the town has been
rapid, and is entirely due to the manufacture* of china and earthenware, in which the
inhabitants are chiefly employed. Pop. '61, 16,6IK); 71, 19,748.
LONGUEVILLE, Annb GiNEVi&VE de Bourbok-Oond£, Duchesse de, 1619-79; b.
in the donjon of Vincennes, where her father, Henry HI. of Bourbon, was a prisoner.
Her mother was Charlotte de Montmorency, sister of the great Oonde. Before ariiving
at w*omanhood her beauty and grace, and a singularly sympathetic attraction, made her
dSbut at the court a social event. She was at once a pupil and a star in tiie choice
society gathered around the marquise de Rambouillet. In 1642, at the age of 28, she
became wife of the due de Lougueville, an old f^oue, who deserved and received no love
from his young wife. She was strongly attached to Coligny, who was killed in a duel
by the due de Guise. In 1646, her husband being ambassador at Munster, the duchess
was already so renowned for her charms that her reception was like an ovation to a
monarch; but she speedily tired of the vulgar show, and returned to the more elegant
and refined circles of Pans. The due de Rochefoucauld, author of the Maximes, became
her ardent admirer and favorite. Up to this time she had exhibited on\>' tli« power to
charm the most eminent men by asingular blending of languor and sweetness of manner.
The internal troubles of France generated a strong animosity between the French par-
liament and cardinal Mazarln, regent of Louis XIV., and developed into a civil war, called
the war of the Fronde, The duchess participated in the popular hatred of Mazarin and
espoused the other side. From this time she appears in &role which exhibits energy, powers
of intrigue, and ability of a high order. La Rochefoucauld's ascendency over her heart
and her mind awakened her to political ambition. She became the soul and bond of
alliance between the various friends of the parliament, and supported the acts of the
citizens of Paris, who rose against Mazarin and by barricades forced his flight from the
city. With the duchesse de^Bouillon installed in the Hotel de Vilk, she aided to keep
Paris in the possession of the insurrectionists against the regent. During this time slie
gave birth to a child, aileffed to be a son of La Rochefoucauld. She was an active party
to the treaty of peace with Mazarin in 1649. Soon after, her husband was imprisoned
in Vincennes, and she flew to Normandy to effect a rising of the people against Mazarin,
but failed. She then sought safety for herself and fled to Holland, ana thence to the
great general, Turenne, at Stenau, and soon acquired an ascendency over him which
for a time made him untrue to his government, and in the end led to the submission of
the duchess to Mazarin and her return to Paris. For a short time she returned to the
literary and social frivolities of the Hotel Rambouillet; but her uncle Cond6 and prince
Conti, her brother, having again broken with the Mazarin government, she Joined them
at Bourges and Bordeaux, where the democratic character of the supporters of their
cause was like bitter water to her taste. Her party fell apart; her brother Conti and La
Rochefoucauld made their separate peace with the sovernmont; Cond6 fled to Spain ,-
and the duchess returned to Paris, pardoned through the efforts of her )iusband in her
behalf. She immediately after went into retirement from society and politics, but w^ns
soon required by her husband to join him in Normandy, where he was governor. Seek-
ing to avoid publicity, as she then was, Mazarin was still suspicions of her, and in a
conversation with the Spanish ambassador, who plead the cause of her brother Conde,
he said: " You Spaniards can talk at your ease; your women only trouble themselves
with affairs of love; but in France it is quite another thing, for wc have three who are
quite capable to govern or to overturn three kingdoms — the duchesse de Longueville. the
princess Palatine, and the duchesse de Chevreuse.'* The death of her husband in 1668
only induced her to greater seclusion, and, though she lived in Paris, her presence was
only felt in her occasional mediation to ameliorate the condition of the Protestants, and
to avert the hostility of the Catholic power towards them. Her son, bom in 1649. had
opened a brilliant career, and had even been called to the throne of Poland, when she
had news of his death in battle. June, 1672. She retired to the convent of the Car-
melites, but continued the friend of Uie Jansenists; and when their persecution was
renewed, it was under her roof that " the grand Arnoult" was successfully hid. For 25
years after this, Mme. de Lonffueville lived in tranquillity, rendering as obscure as
possible th^e beauty which never left her, and performing the gracious acts of kindness
which her life, in the midst of the reliffieuaes, ^ve opportunity to do. M. Victor Cousin
has written \he Memoire^ de Madame dfi LongueviUe, in 8 vols., with a care that gives it
one of the highest places in French biography. ^^^.^.^^^ ^^ ^UU^IC
*^*^ Loo-Choo.
LON'GUS, a Greek sophist of the 4th or 5th c. of the Chriatian era. author of a
novel, Daphnis and C/Uae, which was translated into English by G. Thorn Icj, London,
1857, and of which an edition appeared in Leipsic as late as 1835.
L0H6 VAGATIOV, a period of the y«ar in England when suits cannot be carried on.
but arc for some purposes suspended — viz., from Aug. 10 to Oct. 24 at common law, and
to Oct. 28 in chancery in every year. Hence it is called tlie lawyer's holiday.
LONGVI£W, a t. in Greeg co., Texas, on the Sabine river, at the junction of the
Texas and Pacific with the iDteraatioiia) and Great Noithern railroad; 66m. w. of
Shreveport, La. Pop. 2,000. It has 4 churches, 1 bankiDg-house, and a number of
schools, and is a shipping-point of some importance. Cotton is the staple product of
the region, and there are in the immediate vicinity over 40 saw-mills. Incorporated as
a village in 1871.
■ LONGWORTH. Nicholas, 1782-1868; b. N. J.; removed to Cincinnati, where he
was admitted to the bar, and practiced for a quarter of a ceotuiy, when he retired,
devoting himself to vine culture, in which he had become interested as early as 1828.
He suc^eded in producing excellent varieties of native wine. He had early invested
largely in Cincinnati real estate; the rise in the value of which caused a large part of
the great fortune, estimated at (15,000,000, which he left at his death.
LONGWY, a t. in the n. of the department of Moselle, France, near the left bank
of the Chiers, a tributaiy of the Meu.se; on a railway 40 m. n.'w. of Metz, and a mile
from the Belgian frontier; pop. 4,197. It consists of an upper and lower town. The
former is on a hill, where anciently stood a strong castle, which was destroyed and
replaced in the time of Louis XIV*. by a town. This is fortified, well built, has a town-
hall, churches, a hospital, a military prison, and several deep wells which supply it with
water. The lower town has manufactures of calico, delft-ware, porcelain, table-covers,
lace, and leather. Longwy was founded in the 7th century. It has sustained many
sieges. In 1792 it was taken by the Prussians under the duke of Brunswick; in 1815
by the allies under the nrince of Hesse-Homburg, after a vigorous resistance. Longwy
was called by Louis XI v. The Iron Qate of France,
LOVI'OO, a t of the Italian states, in the province of Vicenza, situated in a valley 12
m. B.W. of the city of that name. It is protected by three strong towers, the antiquity
of which is attested by the inscription they bear. The inhabitants, 6,786 in number,
are chiefly devoted to agriculture and commercial industry.
LONN'ROT, Elias* b. Fmland, 1802; at first followed his father's trade of a
tailor, and was for a time apprentice to a druggist, but subsequently studied medicine,
receiving the degree of m.d. in 1832. He practiced for a time, but in 1858 became pro-
fessor of Finnish at the university of Helsingfors. In 1836 he published a collection of
the popular songs of East Finland, under the name of KaUtala, and in 1842 a collection
of popular proverbs.
LONOKIi, a CO. in e. central Arkansas, formed in 1870 from portions of Prairie and
Pulaski counties, and bounded n. by Cypress bayou. It is traversed by the Bt. Louis,
Iron Mountain and Southern, and the Memphis and Little Rock railroads. The soil is
fertile; much of the surface is in forest. Pop. '80, 12,147. Capital, Lonok6.
LOKS-LE-SAuMIEB. a t. of eastern France, in the department of the Jura, at the con-
fluence of the Seille, Valli^re, and Solman, about 55 m. s.e. of Dijon. It is situated in
a beautiful valley, surrounded by vine-clad hills, and was founded as long ago as the
4th c, when its salt springs were discovered, from which 20,000 quintals of salt are
yearly extracted. Pop. 76, 11,265. Rouget de Lisle, the composer of the MarseilUme,
was bom here.
LOO-CHOOy or Lin-TcHiu, the native name of a group of islands called by the Chi-
nese Lieu-kieu, and by the Japanese Riu-kiu. These islands, about 90 in number, lie in
the Pacific ocean, about 400 m. off the coast of China, lat. 24' to 29° n., long. 127° to
129" east. The largest and most southern, called Great Lu-tcliu, or Okinawu, is about
65 m. lon^ and 13 broad. Its shores have a beautiful appearance ; fields and forests are
clothed with a living green, pine-woods crown the siiinmits of the hills, and gardens
and cornfields adorn their slopes. In loveliness and variety of landscape, as in the care-
ful attention paid to agriculture, especially in the southern part of Great Lu-tchu, which
looks like one vast enchanting garden, few places anywhere could surpass these islands.
The principal products of the group are rice, millet, sugar, cotton, tobacco, indigo, and
tea; of less importance, bananas, pine-apples, oranges, peaches, and plums. Domestic
animals are very numerous— ducks, geese, swine, goats, cattle, and horses. The chief
minerals are iron, coal, and sulphur, probably also copper and tin. Sugar, and a liquor
called saki, distilled from rice, are exported to Japan. The manufacturiog industry of
the inhabitants is as great as the agricultural. They make paper, cloths, coarse linens,
earthen and lacquered wares, bricks, tobacco-pipes, and baskets.
The people are partly Japanese and partly an aboriginal tribe closely allied to the
Japanese stock, although the literature and customs of the islanders are Chinese. The
population was in 1872 estimated to amount to 166,789. Their religion is chiefly a mix-
ture of the doctrines and practices of Confucius with those of ^uddl^^. vJ'^^H^f^lfP'
liopes. ADO
meot, as in China, appears to bo in the bands of an aristocracy of learned men, and the
king is said to be related to the imperial family of Japan. The islands (with an area of
2,d58 sq.m.) are tributanr to Japan. In 1861 a Christian mission was founded by Dr.
Bettelheim, a German physician, who has introduced Taccination.
LOOBIA'VA, a district of British India, one of the three districts mto which the
division of Ainbala, or Umballa, in the Punjab is divided. It lies in the 77tli degree
of e. long., extending in n. lat. from 80** 84' to 81* 3'; and. with an area of 1850 sq.m.,
it contained in 1868 a population of 588,245 souls— an average of nearly 438 persons to
the sq. mile.
LOOBIA'VA, the capital of a district of the same name in British India, takes its
name from the Lodi tribe of Afghans, and is situated 1,102 in. n.w. of Calcutta, in lat
80** 55' n., and long. 75* 54' east. It stands on a navigable nullah or stream, which joins
the Sutlej from the e., about 16 m. below the town. Pop. '68, 89,988. mostly weavers.'
The principal manufactures are cotton-cloth and Cashmere shawls, the latter, however,
being inferior in quality to those made in Cashmere itself. Loodiana is a military sta-
tion of some importance. Over the Sutlej a bridge was opened in Oct., 1870, to connect
the Delhi and Lahore railways.
LOOP, the after-part of a ship's bow, or that portion where the planks incurvate
towards the cut- water. The guns mounted in this portion of the vessel are styled * ' loof
pieces."
L00KIVO-OLA8S. See Mirror.
LOOK, the machine by which weaving is effected. The art of weaving is coeval
. with civilization, therefore the loom may be reckoned amongst the earliest of man's
inventions; yet notwithstanding its vast age very little improvement was effected in it
until the invention of Dr. Cartwrigbt in 1787, who, without ever having seen a loom in
his life before, constructed one to work by machine-power. In its simplest form, the
loom is worked bv hand, and notwithstanding the wonderful improvements which
have l)ecn effected in the power-loom since its invention, there are still many fabrics
manufactured by hand-looms in this and other countries.
In India, which most probably is the native country of the loom, and wliere silks of
almost unrivaled beauty are made, the natives continue to use this machine in its most
primitive form ; two trees growing near together form their standing frame, and a few
pieces of bamboo, together with some pieces of string, furnish all they want besides.
As the use of the loom will be fully explained in the article Wbavino, the construe
tion only will be given here; but it is necessary, in order to make this clear, to explain
the principle of weaving, in order to show the work the loom has to do. In its simplest
sense, weaving consists in passing one set of threads traverseiy through another set,
divided into two series, working alternately up and down, so as to receive the trans
verse threads in passing, and interlock them, forming thereby a united surface out of
the threads. The loom is made to assist the weaver in this operation, and is of no other
use than to hold the working parts in their proper position. The native of India sup-
plies this usually by selecting, as before stated, two near-growing tree-stems, usually
palms, in consequence of their straightness; these, with four stakes to support his warp,
and two or three pegs to fix his heald-ropes, complete his arrangements.
At each end of the frame, two rollers are placed, so that they will readily turn on
their axes; and from one to the other, the threads of the warp are attached, and kept
tight by weights. The warp-threads are wound round one roller, which is called the
beam or yarn-roU, only as much of each thread being left unwound as will reach to the
other roller, which is the eloth-beam, to which the enos are fastened, and upon which the
cloth is wound as it is woven.
The next step is to divide the warp-thread into two equal sets by raising up every
alternate one, and inserting between them a smooth rod of wood, to prevent them
entangling or returning to their former position. This separation takes place before the
final fixing of the ends of the threads to the eloth-beam, because, previous to that, each
thread must be passed through a small loop in a perpendicular thread called the heald,
which hangs down from a rod. There are always two sets of healds in the simplest
form of loom, often many more; and m the case of plain weaving, the threads of the warp
are divided alternately by the loops of each heald, so that if one heald is raised, it lifts
every alternate thread of the warp, and if the other is depressed, it pulls down the
opposite set of threads; the united action of the two healds opens a space between the
two sets of warp-threads. This space is called the shed, and through it is thrown the
shuttle which carries the thread of the weft; when the weft has passed through, the
• healds are reversed, and the lower warp-threads now become the upper ones. The
threads, after each intersection, are driven up tight by the reed, which is a narrow frame
with transverse wires set sufficiently far apart for a single thread of warp to pass
through each ; it hani^ to the frame called the batten. The movement of the batten is
produced by the hand of the weaver, whilst that of the healds is readily effected by the
treadles.
Many improvements have been made in this the simplest form of loom, but the chief
has been in replacing the weaver'? hand in the necessary op^p,^^ <CftTOf5?? ^^® ^^"*
167
tie by a mechanical arrangement. Without this, the po^eer-loam would not have suc-
ceeded. The shuttle is usually made of box or some other hard wood, and the blunt
points are covered with iron. Formerly, when used entirely by the hand, it was made
mach lighter and smaller than at present. Those now in use are about a foot in length,
and rather more than an inch square in the middle. The middle part is hollowed out
into a small box, open on the upper side. In this box the bobbin, on which the yam
or thread is wound, is placed, with its two ends on pivots, admitting of its being turned
by the slightest strain on the yarn; the end of the yarn passes through a hole in the side
of the shuttle, and as it is thrown backwards and forwards, the thread unwinds from the
inclosed bobbin, and easily runs througli the hole.
Id the improved looms for power, and even in those still worked by hand, in special
cases the arrangement for projecting the shuttle backward and forward is very simple.
On each «de of the loom, exactly in a line with the nAed, is a groove of about 18 in., in
which the shuttle lies free; and there is a very simple arrangement by which a piece of
leather and a strap are made to act like a sling on each side; and the grooves or shuttU-
mee$, as they are called, guide the movement with such precision that the shuttle is
sent flying tkrough the shed from side to side with unerring exactness. Great simplicity
and compactness has now been attained in the power-loom, three of which can stand in
the space occupied by one of the cumbrous machines formerly in use. There are few
machines in use which liave had more mechanical ingenuity displayed in their improve-
ment than the loom; but as it is not the object of this article to do more than give the gen-
eral principles upon which the machine works, the reader is referred for fuller informa-
tion to the thick volume of the Abstraei ofFaUnU for weaving published by the patent
commissioners.
LOOMI8, EiiiAs, LL.D., b. in Connecticut in 1811, educated at Tale college, graduat-
ing in 1830; was tutor there for three years, 1888-86; hpentthe next year in scientific
investigation in Paris, where he made a careful study of astronomy, mcteorologjr, and
higher mathematics; on his return was appointed professor of natural philosophy in the
Western Reserve college, Ohio; from 186 to 1800 held similar positions in Columbia
college and the University of T^ew York, and in the latter year returned to New Haven,
where he has since resided, holding the professorship of natural philosophy formerly
occupied by prof. Olmsted, in Tale, and pursuing his investigations in scientific and
mathematical branches. He has published — besides many papers in the American Jour-
nal cf Science, memoirs of his researches, in the Transactiom of the American PhUoio-
phiaU Society, and other miscellaneous writings— a very complete set of text-books on
mathematics, including treatises on arithmetic, algebra, elements of geometry and conic
sections, analytical geometry and calculus, plane and spherical trigonometry, and tables
of logarithms; also, a treatise on astronomy and one on meteorology. All of these are
in constant use in schools and colleges throughout the country, and. are marked by the
accuracy and precision which are characteristic of the author personally. He has also
published a book of family genealogy, The Defendants of Joseph Loomie (1870). Both
as an instructor and writer, prof. Loomis is remarkable for his clearness and directness
in expression, and his contributions to the cause of education have not been confined to
formulating truths already known, as he has made many important scientific discoveries
and advanced many new theories.
LOOMIS, GuBTAVUS, 178»-1873; b. at Thetford, Vt.; graduated from the U. 8. mili-
tary academy in 1811; entered the army as 2d lieut. of artillerists, and, after doing
garrison duty in the harbor of New York for two years, was ordered to the Niagara
frontier; assisted in the capture of fort Dodge, May 27, 1818. and was made prisoner at
f«rt Niagara in the following Dec. After the war with Qreat Britain he served in vari-
ous capacities in different par^s of the country, especially in Texas and Florida, and on
the western frontier against hostile Indians; was made col. of the 5th infantry in 1851;
duiing the first years of the rebellion he was employed in court-martial and recruiting
duty and as a mustering officer; retired from active service in 1868; made brig. gen. by
brevet in 1865. Died at Stratford, Conn.
LOOK. See Diybr.
LOOPHOLES, in fortification, are small apertures in the walls, through which sharp-
shooters may fire. The loophole should widen towards the outside, that the shooter
may have a sweep with his rifle; and it is of importance, on that account, so to fashion
the sides that a bullet may not penetrate, unless fired straight into the center. For this
purpose, the stones are generally laid stepwise, although other forms are frequently
resorted to.
LOFE DS YE0A. See Vega.
LO'PES, or LOPEZ, FernIo, b. Portugal about 1880; the oldest of the Portuguese
chroniclers; was appointed chief archivist of the kingdom by Dom Joao I., and devoted
his life to the collection of materials for the history of his country. He wrote a work,
Chronica del Bey Dom Joao /., describing the great struggle between Portugal and
Castile towards the close of the 14th c, which, as a picture of manners, has been com-
pared with that of Proissart for accurate and dramntic rcalitv. His other works are
Chronica do Senhor Bti Dom Pedro /.;• Chronica do Senhor bd Dom Fernando^ both
printed in vol. iv. of the CoUec^a/> de Livros Meditos de ITistaria Portiigueea. These
works are regarded by eminent scholars as of great literary and critical value.
LO'PEZ, Cari«os Antonio, 1790-1862; b. Paraguay. After studying civil and canon
law at the ecclesiastical seminary in Assuncion, he lived for a number of years in seclu-
sion to avoid the hostility of Dr. Fraucia, then dictator of Paraguay. Upon Francia's
death in 1840 he returned to the capital, and acted as secretary to the military Junta
which had become the de facto government of Paraguay. In 1841 he was elected consul,
with a colleague; from 18 i4 till his death he held the office of president, to which the
congress had elected him for a term of ten years from 1844, of three years from 1854,
and of seven years from 1857, with power in the latter case to name his successor by will.
During his administration he began the orgsinization of an army and navy, opened
Paraguay to foreign emigration and commerce, made commercial treaties with foreign
powers, built a nulroad, and sent many Paraguayans to Europe to be educated. Ills
arbitrariness and hostility to foreigners gave rise to many diplomatic difficulties between
Paraguay and foreign states; and England, France, the United States, and Brazil came
very near declaring war aj^nst him. But his administration, on the whole, was a
penod of internal tranquillity and material prosperity to Paraguay, and at his death he
was able to bequeath his power to his son, Francisco Solano Lopez.
LO'PEZ, Francisco Solano, 1827-70; b. Paraguay; educated abroad, and in 184$
appointed commander-in-chief of the Paraguayan army. In 1854 he was sent to Europe-
on a diplomatic mission, and negotiated treaties with England, France, and Sardinia.
In Europe he made the acquaintance of a Mrs. Lynch, the Irish wife of a French officer.
Lopez took her to Paraguay with him, and made her his mistress. She was a woman
of considerable talent and force of character, and exercised a great influence over Lopez,
He at once took the office of minister of war, and began to prepare secretly for a forcible
annexation to Paraguay of parts of Brazil, the Ar\,iiti!ie Republic, and Bolivia. In
1862 he succeeded his father in the presidency, and in 1864, under the pretense of pro-
tecting the " equilibrium'* of the Plat^ river, he called on Brazil to withdraw her troops
from Uruguay, where a civil war was in progress, in which Brazil had intervened.
Upon the refusal of Brazil, he took possession of the Brazilian province of Matto Orosso.
In 1865 he invaded the Brazilian province of Hio Grande do Sul, sending 8,000 troops
through the territory of the Argentine Bepublic for that purpose, and, upon that gov>
ernment protesting, he declared war against it. Congress now conferred upon him
extraordinary powers, and he invaded the Argentine Republic before the declaration of
war had reached Buenos Ayres. Brazil, Uruguay, and the Arcentine Republic entered
into an alliance against him. and in 1866 invaded Paraguay. The war continued four
years. Lopez reci*uiting his forces by a conscription of all persons between the ages of 12
and 70. In 1868 the Brazilian fleet bombarded Assuncion, and the same year Lopez
arrested and put to the tortiu-e many of the civil officers of the government and the
foreign diplomatic corps on a charge of conspirac3^ A number were executed, and the
lives of some of the members of the American mission were saved only by the tiniely
arrival of an American squadron. Finally, Mar. 1, 1870, Lopez, who had gradually been
driven into the n. of Paraguajr, was overtaken by the Brazilian cavalry at the Ajjuidaban
river, and, while trying to swim across, was killed. His last words were, " I die for my
country." His eldest son was also killed: his mistress, Mrs. Lynch, was spared, and
returned to England. The remnant of his forces immediately surrendered.
LO'PEZ, Narciso, 179^1851 ; b. Venezuela. After serving in the Spanish army,
in which he attained the rank of col., he removed to Cuba upon the evacuation of
Venezuela by the Spanish troops, and became a liberal leader. He was in Spain dur-
ing the first"^ Carlist insurrection ; and sided with the royalists, receiving office from the
crown. In 1849 he came to this country to organize an expedition against Cuba, where
he landed in 1851, but was soon taken prisoner and put to death.
LOPHIADJE. See Angler.
LOPHI'ODON, an extinct ^enus of ungulate mammals, belonging to the family
iapiridce, of which the genus tapirwi is the only surviving member. Their remains are
found in the eocene tertiary formation of central Europe. Some 15 sjp^cies of lopbiodon
are known. They much resembled the tapirs, but possessed distinctive dental charac-
o o 1 1 Q g o g
teristics, the formula being: i. , 5 — 5; e. , - — r ; ptn., - — - ; m., 5 — - = 40, — ^the tapir having
o — o 1 — 1 o — o 6 — o
i., 5 — s; C-, i — t; P^., 5 — 5; wi., - — ~ = 42, or two more molars than in lopbiodon. The
o — o 1—1 o — o o — o
limbs of the animal are still unknown. The genus has not been satisfactorily identi-
fled in America, but the species, which abounded in Europe durine the eocene, varied in
size from that of a rabbit to a rhinoceros. Other genera of tapiridae are hyracotiieriu'm,
pachynolophus, plioU)phus^ tophiotherium, and pvopaUeotJiertum, found in European
eocene. In North America the nearest allies of lopbiodon are hdates and ?iyraMiu8.
The latter genus has four premolars in the upper jaw, resembling the true tapirs. The
premolars resemble those of lopbiodon in being less complex tlian the molars. In the
North American miocene the tapiridae belong to the genus tapiratus. See Pebisso-
DACTYLA; TapIR; UnQULATA.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
169
Ijord,
IQFROBXAH'CHn, an order of osseous fishes, having the ultimate divieions of the
pills DOtpeciiuated, but arranged in small tufts in pairs along the branchial arches.
foere is ootluDg like tliis in any other fishes. The fishes of this order are few, mostly
of small size, angular form, and peculiar aspect. See Hippocampus and Pipe-Fish.
The gill-coYer is large, and the gill-opening is a small hole. The snout is elongated
lod Tubular.
lOQVAT, Ehrioboifya Japanica, an esteemed Chinese and Japanese fruit, of the
oatuml order nmtcemy sub-order ro$emy and of a genus closely allied to fna«pt2t^« (Medlar).
Iikij been introduced into Australia, and is now abundant there, and is sold in large
t|D&Dtiti€s, and at a cheap rate, in the markets of Sydney and other towns. The tree or
shrub which produces it attains a height of 20 or ^ ft, but in cultivation is seldom
allowed to exceed 12 feet It is a beautiful evergreen, with large oblong wrinkled
laTes, and white flowers in terminal woolly panicles, having a fragrance like that of
bawihorublossom ; the fruit is downy, oval, or pear-shaped, yellow, and about the size
of a large goosebeiTy. The seeds have an agreeable flavor, which they impart to tarts.
Tbe loquat lives in the open air in the s. of £ngland, and produces fruit; but a
varmer climate is required for fruit of flne quality. It is not unfrequent in hot-houses.
It my be grafted on any species of mefpUtis, — Tlie species of eriobotrya are all ever-
^D. The CuiLA {K iliiptica) is a native of Nepaul, and produces an eatable fruit
LORAIN', a n. co. of Ohio, bounded n. by lake Erie ; traversed by the Lake Shore and
Michigan Southern, the Lake Shore and Tuscarawas Valley, the Cleveland and Toledo^
iQd the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati railroads; pop. 80,808. It has a fertile
iml and the chief productions are live stock, grain, fruit wool, hay, butter, and cheese.
There are manufactures of cheese, lumber, clothing, carriages, furniture, harness^
meiallic ware, etc. Capital, Elyria.
LOXAITTHA'CEX. See Mibtletob.
lOKCA (ancient Eiiocroca), a t. of Spain, province of Murcia, 40 m. B.w. of the cit^
cf ihai Dune, on the right bank of the Sangonera, is picturesquely situated on an emi>
LCDce crowned by a fortified castle commanding a magnificent view. Next to Murcia,
Lorca, is the most flourishing town in the province, possessing substantial houses. B
ciiurches, 9 monasteries, many oil and flour mills, saltpeter and powder works, lead-
mices, and manufactures of cotton, etc. Pop. 81,000.
LOSD (Saxon hlaford, from Maf, loaf, and ord, r. beginning or cause— i.e., the origi-
nator or supplier of food), a title given in Great Britain to persons noble by birth or by
ereatioD. Peers of the realm are so styled, including such archbishops or bishops as
ire members of the house of lords, who are lords spiritual. By coui*tesy, the title lord
is giFeo to the eldest sons of dukes, marquises, and earls, prefixed to an inferior title of
the peerage, and to the younger sons of dukes and marquises, prefixed to their Christian
isame and surname. The following persons bear the title lord in virtue of their employ-
T^ents: the lord-lieutenant of Ireland and lords-lieutenant of counties (see Lebtjtknakt,
LobdX the lord chancellor (see Chakcei^lor), lord privy seal (see Privy Sbal), lords
of the treasury (see Treasury) and of the admiralty (see Admiral), the lord high
Kimiral, lord great chamberlain, and lord chamberlain (see Chamberlain, Lord), lord
hieh constable (see Conotable), lord high almoner (see Almoner), lord high stew-
ard (see Steward), lord steward of the household, lords in waiting, lords of the bed-
chamber (see Bedchamber, Lords of the), lords justices (see Justices, Lords), the
lord chief baron of exchequer (q.v.), the lord chief justice (see Justice, Lord Chief),
^e lord lyon (see Lyon Kino at Arms), the lord mayor of London, York, and Dublin
jee >Iayor8), and the lords provost of Edinburgh and Glasgow (see Provost). The
-rjmmiitee of the Scottish parliament by whom the laws to be proposed were prepared,
yere called lords of the articles. The favored beneficiaries, who, after the Scottish i
nrfomiation, obtained in temporal lordship the benefices formerlv held by bishops and
abbots, were called lords of erection. Persons to whom rights of regality were granted
:a Scotland (ace Regality), were termed lords of regality. The representative of the
-Tereign in the general assembly of the church of Scotland (see Assembly, General)
* called the lord high commissioner. The judges of the courts of session and lusticiary
a Scotland hare the title "lord" preflxed to their surname or some territorial designa-
;:oo assumed by them; and throughout the three kingdoms, judges are addressed " my
^'C*rd " when presiding in court.
LORD, Elsazar, ll.d.. 1788-1871; b. Franklin, Conn., and educated at Andover,
Miss.; removed in 1809 to New York, where in 1812 he entered the ministry of the
Presbyterian church. He was among the founders of the American education society
-*■•? assisting poor young men in their preparations for the Christian ministry, the New
Tork Sunday-school union, and various other benevolent associations; was correspond-
2? secretary of the New York Sunday-school union 1818-26, and president 1826-86. In
iMShe left the ministry to engage in banking; founded the Manhattan insurance com-
"inv, and served as its president 1831-84; was the first president of the Erie railroad
pnmpany; removed in 1836 to Piermont, N. Y. ; was a prominent friend of the New
T^JTk univereitv, and assisted in founding thooloeical seminaries at East Windsor, Conn.,
«»i Auburn, if. Y. His principal works are Pktieiples of Currency; Geology and Scrip-
Digitized by VjOUV iC
*ttr/iZ Cosmogony; and an edition of Lemprierc's Bioffraphieal Diethnary, with nmneroiiB
additions. Died at Piermont.
LORD, John, ll.d., b. at Portsmontli, N. H., 1810; graduated at Dartmouth college
in 1833; was for some time an agent of the American peace society, and subsequently a
preacher in New Marlboro*, Mass., and Utica, N. Y. A few years later be left the pul-
pit to devote himself to historical research and popular lecturing. Beginning his new
career in England and Scotland, he returned to the United States in 1846, since which
time he has been engaged with great success in lecturing upon historical subjects in the
principal cities and towns of this country. Destitute of the special gifts and graces of
an orator, he yet crowds his lectures with information and delivers them in a manner so
peculiar as to command the unflagging interest of his audiences.
LORD, Nathan, d.d., ll.d., 1793-1870; b. in South Berwick, Me.; graduated at
Bowdoin college 1809, and at Andover theological seminary 1815; was pastor of a Con-
gregational church at Amherst, N. H., 1816-28, and president of Dartmouth college,
1828-63. After the formation of the American antislavery society in 1838 he was for a
time an abolitionist and even elected as an officer of that societv, but later changed
his position, avowing his belief that "slavery is an institution of God according to nat-
ural religion," and ** a positive institution of revealed religion." Although his opinions
on this subject were very distasteful to the friends of me college in general, yet, on
account of his many estimable personal qualities, be was for a long time undisturbed in
his place at the head of the institution. Died at Hanover, N. H.
LOBD ADVOCATE OF 8G0TLAHB. See Adyocatb.
LOBD OF THE HAVOB, the owner of a manor having copyhold tenants. See
Manor.
LOBD OBDIKABY. See Court of Session.
LOBD*S DAY, in point of law, has been made the subject of several statutes. The
chief statute in England is the Lord's-day act, 29 Ch. II. c. 7, which enacted that no
tradesman, artificer, workman, or laborer should exercise the worldly labor, business, or
work of his ordinary calling upon the Lord's day (works of necessity and charity only
excepted^, nor any person should publicly cry. or expose to sale, wares, fruits, herbs, etc.;
but nothing in the act was to extend to prohibiting the dressing of meat in families or
inns, cook-shops, or victualing-houses, nor the selling of milk within certain hours. To
these exceptions, selling mackerel and baking bread were added subsequently. These
statutes have been construed strictly by the courts on the ground that they restrain the
liberty of the subject, for, without a statute, ordinary work would be as competent on
the Sunday as on any other day. Hence, unless a case comes within the jstrict letter of
the statute, there is no disability. Thus, a horse may be sold on Sunday by one who is
not a horse-dealer, for then it is not part of the seller's ordinary oedling. 8o a fanner
may hire a servant on that day; Indeed, the statute does not apply to farmers, attorneys,
surgeons, and those not incluaed in the above statutory description, and therefore those
Sarties can do their work on Sunday as on other days. Irrespective of any statute, it
as been the immemorial course of practice in courts of law not to do legal business on
Sunday, and not to recognize the service of writs, warrants, etc., of a civil nature, if
made on Sunday. Thus, no debtor can be arrested for debt on Sunday, and hence be
may walk at large that day. free from molestation of bailifts. But if any crime has been
committed, the party can be arrested on Sunday as well as other days. There is a special
provision by statute as to ale-houses, beer-houses, and refreshment-houses being open on
Sundays, the general effect of which is only to close these places during church hours.
If any game is pursued on Sunday, whether by poachers or not, a penalty is incurred.
There is also a statute of 1 Ch. I. prohibiting sports or pastimes of certain descriptions.
(Except as above-mentioned, there is no difference made as to the validity of acts done
on Sunday, though it is an erroneous popular impression that deeds or wills, bills of
exchange, etc., dated or executed on Sunday are invalid.
In Scotland, the law varies in some respects from that of England on this matter.
There also contracts made on Sunday are not null at common law, but numerous stat-
utes have passed prohibiting contracts, whether made in the course of one's ordinary
business or not, and whether made by workmen, artificers, etc., or not. But there is an
«xception of works of necessity and mercy. It is, however, doubtful how far these old
statutes are in desuetude or not, and judges have said that they only apply to public, not
private acts done on Sunday. In Scotland, the rule is acted on that the enforcement
of decrees and warrants, poindings, and other process or diligenc>e in civil matters, are
void ; but it is otherwise in criminal matters. It is sinffular that there is no distinct pen-
alty imposed in Scotland, as there is in England and Ireland, by the eame acts, on per-
sons sporting on Sunday. But Scotland outstrips England and Ireland in the strin-
gency with which public- houses are prohibited from being open on that day. See Pubijc-
UOUSES.
LORD'S DAY, The {ant4i\ the first day of the week, on which Christ rose from the
dead; synonymous in popular speech with Sunday or Sabbath. This name is generally
used in the English and American statutes intended to secure the civil observance of
the day. English legislation on this subject may be traced as far back as 1449, but it
Digitized by VjrOU* V IC
i • A Ixird's.
nsMt until 1678 that the law was passed which may be regarded as the foundation
ted model of all subsequent enactments of its class iu Great Britain and the United
Sates. Bj this law it was enacted *' that no tradesman, artificer, workman, laborer, or
sckf person whatsoever, shall do or exercise any worldly labor, business, or work of
ibea onllnary callings upon the Lord's day or any part thereof (works of necessity and
fiurity only except^);" and ** that no person or persons whatsoever shall publicly cry,
si(m forth, or exi>o6e to sale, any wares, merchandise, fruits, herbs, goods, or chattels
wbatsxver, upon the Lord's day or any pari thereof." In the American colonial days
;i» state assumed jurisdiction of religious as well as civil affairs; hence much of the
Suodaj legislation of that period has either been repealed or become dead from disuse.
Ills now generally conceded that with the Lord's oay, regarded simply in its religious
aspects, the state has no concern. It cannot require a citizen either to attend public
Torsbip or to observe any religious ceremony on that day. But it is held that the day
is iodi^nsable, needed by the community, upon purely secular grounds, and must,
therefore, be maintained bv government. A day of rest from ordinary labors and cares,
r€cuirin«^ not less frequently than once in each week, is held to be requisite to the gen-
m\ welfare of body, mind, and estate; therefore, it is insisted that the government has
the right and the duty to designate such a day and to enforce its observance. Moreover,
cbose who observe the da}' upon religious grounds, making it a day of public as well as
prirate devotion, are, it is conceded, entitled to protection from the noise and disturb-
mit which would result from the general pursuit of business on that as on other days
ofibe week. The laws upon this subject in the different states of the union, though
letliig substantially upon common ground, differ in details, and the decisions of courts
BpoD qaestions that have arisen under them are in some respects conflicting. The whole
abject has been greatly complicated of late years by the introduction into the country
of large bodies of immigrants from continental Europe, whose habits in respect of Sun-
4t observance are much less rigid than those of the great body of our native popula-
lio'o. It is probable that, on this account, the laws upon the subject may undergo some
further modifications, but there is no reason to fear that the state will cease to maintain
ue iDstitution of tiie Loi*d'8 day as a day of rest from business cares, or to protect from
(bturbance those who hold it sacred on the highest grounds of morality and religion,
r&enunifest tendency to increase greatly the lacilitiesof travel by railroad and steam-
boat on the Lord's day is causing alarm of late, and awakening earnest protest. It is
(dir-religion aaidc-^that this country cannot afford, either morally, physiologically, or
pecanlarily, to los» its one day of peace. Though the protest against the degrndation
of the day bases itself thus on secular considerations, and finds immense strength in
these, it will probably be found that the real force of all successful efforts for the main-
kasace of the day, on even civil grounds, must spring ultimately from a religious — a
distinctively Christian — ^source.
LOBBS, HOirn OF. See Parliament.
L0BD'8-8UP|*J£B, The, is one of the sacraments of the Christian religion (sec Sacra-
VEST). It is so called from its being instituted at supper by Jesus Cnrist, whom his
disciples styled the Lord or Master. It receives also the names of eucharist and com-
Eaaion (q.v.). With the exception of the Quakers, all sects of Christians, however
difeient their views as to its nature, afljee in celebrating it as one of the most sacred
ntt« of religion. The present article is written from the point of view of those who
tdfflit more or less the idea of a historical development of the doctrines connected with
tbcLord's-supper; the views of Roman Catholics, who hold that the doctrines of their
aarch on the subject were delivered by our Lord and his apostles, and have from the
im centuries been taught in substance in the church, will be found under other heads.
SkMaSS; T&ANSUBSTANTIATIOir.
The circumstances of sorrow amid which it was instituted, and its intimate relation
to the crowning work of Jesus, his death, had, at the very outset, made a deep impres-
%o upon the early church. Not only was the solemnity, in conformity with its
origiiul institution, repeated daily in conjunction with the so-called Agapa (q. v.) (love-
feiks), and retained as a separate rite when these feasts were set aside; but from the
^ first it was believed to possess a peculiar efficacy, and soon ideas of the wonderful
pi mystical became associated with it. The Lord's-supper was celebrated on every
important occasion of life — when entering on marriage, when commemorating departed
friends and martyrs, etc. ; to those that could not be present at the meeting of the con-
iregation, such as prisoners, sick persons, and children, the indispensable food of heaven
ns carried by the deacons, and in some churches — tliose of Africa, for instance — the
^municants took part of the materials of the feast home with them, that they might
welcome the gift of a new day with consecrated food. Heathens also and unwortliy
IKsons were excluded from this holy mystery. As early as the 2d c, Ignatius, Justin
Strtrr. and Ireneeus advance the opinion that the mere bread and wine became, in the
^harist, sonaething higher — the earthly, something heavenly — without, however, ceas-
5?io be bread and wine. Though these views were opposed by some eminent individual
'feiian teachers, such as Oriiren (died 264), who took a figurative conception of the
•raiment, and depreciated its efficacy; yet both among the people and in the ritual of
ti^ church, more particularly after the 4th c, the miraculous or supernatural view-MlC
Lord's. t^70
l4>reiices. ^ • ^
the Lord's-supper gained ground. After the 8d c, the office of presenting the brea
and wine came to be confined to the ministers or priests. This i)ractice arose from, au
in turn streDgthened the notion which was gaining ground, that in tills act of present!
tion by the priest, a sacrifice, similar to that once offered up in the death of Chrisi
though bloodless, was ever anew presented to God. This stiU deepened the feeling c
mysterious significance and importance with which the rite of the Lord's-supper wt
viewed, and led to that gradually ina-easing splendor of celebration which, undc
Gregory the great (500), took the form of the mass. See Mass. As in Christ two di
tinct natures, the divine and the human, were wonderfully combined, so in the eucharu
there was a corresponding union of the earthly and the heavenly.
For a long time there was no formal declaration of the mind of the church on tl
presence of Christ in the eucharist. At length, in the first half of the 9th c, a discussio
on the point was raised by the abbot of Corvei, Paschasius Radbertus, and Riitraiiiiiui
a learned monk of the same convent; they exchanged several violent controversial ^vri
ings, De Sanguine et Gorpore Domini, and the most distinguished men of the time too
part in the discussion. Paschasius maintained that the bi'ead and wine are, iu the a(
of consecration, transformed by the omnipotence of God into that very body of Cliri]
which was once born of Mary, nailed to the cross, and raised from the dead. Accoit
ing to this conception, nothing remains of the bread and wine but the outward fom
the taste, and the smeU; while Ratramnus would only allow that there is some chaiig
in the bread and wine themselves, but granted that an actual transformation of thci
power and efficacy takes place. The greater accordance of tlie first view with th
credulity of the age, its love of the wonderful and magical, as well as with the naiun
desire for the utmost possible nearness to Christ, in order to be unfailingly saved b
him, the interest of the priesthood to add luster to a rite which enhanced their ow
office, and the apparently logical character of the inference, that where the powci
according to universal admission, was changed, there must be a change also of tL
substance; the result of all these concurring influences was, that when the views c
Ratramnus were iu substance revived by Berenfi^arius, canon of Toturs, in opposition t
Lanfranc, bishop of Canterbury, and cardinal Humbert, the doctrine of transubstanlia
tion, as it came to be called, triumphed, and was officially approved by the council c
Rome in 1079. In the fourth Lateran council at Rome, 1215, under Innocent III., trai
substantiation was declared to be an article of faith ; and it has continued to be so bel
by the Roman Catholic church to the present day. The Greek Catholic church stiiu
tioned the same view of transubstantiation at the synod of Jerusalem in 1672.
, The reformation of the 16th c. again raised the question on the nature of the eucb^
rist. The Lutheran church rejected from the first the Catholic doctrine of transubstac
I tiatlon, as well as of the mass, i. e., the constant rencw^al of the sacrifice of Christ, ant
merely taught that, through the power of God, and in a way not to be explained, th
body and blood of Clirist are present in, with, and under the unchanged bread and wine
In opposition to this doctrine, it was laid down by Zwingli, that the Lord's-suppcr is
mere commemoration of the death of Christ, and a profession of belonging to his church
the bread and wine being only symbols: a view which is adopted in substance by ih
Socinians, Arminians, and German Catholics. Luther bitterly opposed the symbolic u
view^, csi)ecially towards the latter part of his career; Zwingli's doctrine was mor
repugnant to him than tl)e deeper and moi*e mystic Catholic doctrine. See Im pakatuin
Calvin sought to strike a middle course, which has been substantially followed h\
the reformed churches. According to Jiim, the body of Christ is not actually preseii
in the bread and wine, which he also holds to be mere symbols. But the "faiiliful
receiver is. at the moment of partaking, brought into union with Christ, througii \h
_.-.i.. — -if .1- i_-i_- a_i_i^ --- J _^ .1 -. ,_ 1_. p^^.g|. (efficacy) which i
iithon, in this controversy
_ , thought a union might be effected by adopt
ing the declaration that Christ in the eucharist is " truly and really '* present (not nierel;
in faith). I'he endeavors of Melanchthon and his party, by arbitrary alterations of tli*
Augsburg confession, and other means, to effect a public reconciliation, only served t(
rouse among the partisans of Luther a furious theological storm, and the result was th*
establishment of the peculiar views of Luther, and the final separation of the Lutherai
and reformed churches.
The whole controversy relates to the mode in which the body and blood of Christ ar<
present in the Lord's-supper ; for it was agreed on all hands that they are present in somi
way. The reformed theologians argued that preitenee is a relative term, opposed not t<
distance, but to absence; and that presence, in this case, does not mean local nearness
but presence in efficacy. Here they parted company both with the Roman Catholic
church and with the Lutherans. They were willing to caUl this presence "real" (*'»■
they want words," as Zwingli said), meaning true and efficacious, but they would no
admit corporal or essential presence. But while the reformed churches were at one ii
holding that, by receiving the body and blood of Christ, is meant, receiving their virtu<
and efncacy, there is some difference in their way of expressing what that efficacy is
Some said it was their efficacy as broken and shed — ^i.e., their sacrificial efficacy; others
in addition to this, speak of a mysterious supernatural efficacy flowing from the glorifiec
body of Christ ' Digitized by VjUUV IC
mliordVk
With regard to the reformed churches, it may be remarked that their confessions on
this point were mostly formed for the express purpose of compromise, to avoid a breach
with the Lutherans Hence the language of these confessions contains more of the mys-
tical element than the framers of them seem, in other parts of their writing, to favor.
And it is remarkable that the Anglican confessions, which were framed unaer different
circumstances, lean more to the symbolical view of Zwingli than those of any other of
tlie reformed churches. The thiriy-nine articles, after laying down that "to such as
with faith receive the same» it is a partaking of the body of Christ," repudiate the notion
of truDsubstantiatiou ; and add: "The body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten in ilie
supper only after an heavenly and spiritual manner. And the mean whereby the body
of Christ is received and eaten in the supper is faith."
The Presbyterian church of Scotland adopted substantially the views of Calvin. The
words of the Westminster confession arc: "That doctrine which maintains a change of
the substance of bread and wine into the substance of Christ's body and blood (com-
monly called trausubstantiation) by consecration of a priest, or ^y any other way, is
repugnant not to Scripture alone, but even to common sense and reason. . . . Worthy
receivers, outwardly partaking of the visible elements in this sacrament, do then
also inwardlv b}' faith, really and indeed, yet not carnally and corporally, but spiritually,
receive and feed upon Christ crucified, <ind all benefits of his death: the body and blood
of Christ being then not corporally or carnally in, with, or nnder the bread and wine:
vet as really, but spiritually, present to the faith of believers in that ordinance, as the
elements tliemselves are to their outward senses."
This variety of do^atical opinion as to the eucharist naturally gave rise to variety
in the ceremonials of its observance. The Catholic notion of a mysterious transforma-
tioD, produced the dread of allowing any of the bread and wine to drop, and led to the
Auhstitutlon of wafers {hostioB oblata) for the breaking of bread. The doctrine of the
real union," which declares that in the bread as well as in the wine, in each singly and
And by itself, Christ entire is present and tasted— a doctrine which was attested by wafers
viiiibly bleeding — caused the cup to be gradually withdrawn from the laity and non-
<»fficiating priests; this practice was first authoritatively sanctioned at the council of
<Jonstance, 1415. All the reformed churches restored the cup: in the Greek church it
Iiad never been given. From the same feeling of deep reverence for the eucharist, the
eommunion of chikiren gnidually came, after the 13th c, to be discontinued. The
<}reek church alone admits the practice. Grounded on the doctrine of transubstantia-
(ion, the Greek and Roman Catholic churches hold tiie " elevation of the host" (hostia,
victim or sacrifice) to be a symbol of the exaltation of Christ from the state of humilia-
tim; connected with this is the "adoration of the host," and the carrying it about in
Milemn procession. The use of leavened bread in the Gixiek church, and of unleavened
in ihe Roman Catholic and Lutheran, of water mixed with wine in the Roman Catholic
and Greek churches, and of unmixed wine in the Protestant churches, are trifline dif-
ferences, mostly owin^ their origin to accidental circumstances; yet once magniflea into
importance by symbolical explanations, they have given occasion to the hottest contro-
versies. The greater part of the reformea churches ame in breaking the bread and
letting the communicants take it with the hand (not with the mouth); and this practice
is owing to the original tendency of those churches to the symbolical conception of the
<'ucharist, in which the breaking qi the bread and the pouring out of the wine are essen-
tial elements.
Although the great divisions of the Christutn world have continued as churches to
:idhere to those doctrines about the Lord's-supper which were fixed and stereotyped in
iicts of council and articles and confessions about the time of the reformation, we are
not to suppose that the opinions of individuals within those churches continue equally
QQiform and fixed. Even Roman Catholic theologians, like fik>ssuet, have sometimes
indeavored to understand the doctrine of the church in a philosophical sense; and in
the Lutheran church, the greatest variety of opinion prevails. Some uphold unmodified
the dogmas of Luther; others accept them with exptonation; Hegel even undertook to
ground them on speculative reason. Others, as Schleiermacher, would have recourse to
tiie views of Calvin as a means of reconciliation with the reformed churches. Even all
supernatural " theologians do not adhere strictly to the formulas of the church; while
mtionalism in all its phases tends to the pure symbolism of Zwingli.
The Anglican church is divided on this, as on several kindred topics, into two parties:
with one, the symbolical view of tlie rite is predominant; the other party reprobate this
view as "low, and maintain an dbjectit>e "mystical presence" of the thing siffnified,
ulong with the siffn. Notwithstanding the "higher*' doctrine of the Scotch confession,
the tendency in Scotland seems to be more the other way; from the pulpit, the rite is
oftener spoken of in its commemorative character, and the signs as means of working
upon the mind and feelmgs subjectively than as the vehicle of any objective, mysticsdly
operating grace.
LORELEL See LotiJBX, ^nte,
LORENCEZ, Charles Ferdinand Latrille, Comte de, b. Prance, 1814; edu-
♦*t«d in the French military school of St. Cyr and attached to the army of Africa and
ihe Crimea, he distinguished himself at the capture of the Malakoff jip4(^af made gen-2
eral of brigade; was put in command of the French expeditionary corps in 1802 for th<
subjugation of Mexico, where he participated in several victories and defeats of th(
FrencQ armies. After the appointment of gen. Forey to the command of the French ic
Mexico he returned to France, and was a devoted adherent of Louis Napoleon.
LO'RENZ, Ottokar, b. Iglau, Moravia, 1882; educated in Vienna, and appomtec
professor of history in the university there in 1860. In 1857 he received a govern
mental appointment in the department of the secret archives, which he was compellec
to relinquish in 1805 on account of some indiscreet disclosures.
LORE'TO, SISTERS OF, or " Friends of Mary at the Foot of the Cross." a Romai
Catholic sisterhood founded in Kentucky by Charles Nerinckx, a priest (1761-1824)
The order is devoted to the cause of education and the care of destitute orphans, and hsa
many establishments in the western states.
LORETTE', a beautiful village 9 m. from Quebec, a place of much resort, oi
account of its waterfall. The works for the supply of Quebec with water are here, aD(
flour and paper are manufactured to some extent. Pop. about 1200, a portion of whon
are Huron Indians.
LOSET'TO (properly, Lobbto), a city of the province of Ancona, in the kii^om o
Italy, although of some architectural pretentions, and containing 5,800 inhabitants, i
chieflv noticeable as the site of the celebrated sanctuary of the blessed Virgin Mary
called the Santa Cam, or holv house. The Santa Casa is reported to be the house, or i
portion of the house, in whicn the Virein lived in Nazareth, which was the scene of th<
annunciation of the nativity, and of Uie residence of our Lord with bis mother an(
Joseph; and which, after the Hol^ Land had been finally abandoned to the infidel oi
the failure of the crusades, is believed to have been miraculously translated, first, ii
1291, to Fiume in Dalmatia, and thence, Dec. 10, 1294, to Recanati, whence it w&
finally transferred to its present site. Its name (Lat Domus Lauretana) is derived froo
Laureta, the lady to whom the site belonged. It would be out of place in a work liki
this to enter into any polemical discussion of this legend. Although numberless pilgrini
resort to the sanctuary, and although indulgences have been attached by Julius II.
Sixtus v., and Innocent XIL to the pilmmages, and to the prayers offered at theshriue
yet the truth of the leeend is no part of Catholic belief, and Catholics hold themselvei
free to exanune critically its truth, and to admit or to reject it according to the rules o
historical evidence. The church of the Santa Casa stands near the center of the town
in a piazza which possesses other architectural attractions, the chief of which are thi
governor's palace, built from the designs of Bramante, and a fine bronze statue of pop(
ixtus V. The great central door of the church is surmounted bv a splendid bronzi
statue of the Madonna; and in the interior are three magnificent bronze doon
filled with bas-reliefs, representing the principal events of scriptural and ecclesiastics
history. The celebrated holy house stands within. It is a small brick house iwith od>
door and one window, originally of rude material and construction, but now, from th
devotion of successive generations, a marvel of art and of costliness. It is entirely casei
with white marble, exquisitely sculptured, after Bramante's designs, by Sansovino
Bandinelli, Giovanni Bolognese, and other eminent artists. Tlie subjects of the \m
reliefs are all taken from the history of the Virgin Mary in relation to the mystery o
the incarnation, as the annunciation, the visitation, the nativity, with the exception o
three on the eastern side, which are mainly devoted to the legend of the holy hou.«
itself and of its translation. The rest of the interior of the church is rich with has
reliefs, mosaics, frescos, paintings, and carvings in bronze. Of this material the fines
work is the font, which is a masterpiece of art. The holy house having been at a1
times an object of devout veneration, its treasury of votive offerings is one of the riches
in the western world. It suffered severely in the French occupation of 1796, but it lin
since received numerous and most costly accessions. The frescos of the treasur;
chapel are among the finest to be found outside of Rome.
LORICA'TA, a name applied by Merren and Fitzinger to the crocodiles and thoa
other reptiles which are provided with plated armor, loricata instead of tquamata, tb
emydosaiirians of De Blainville. The term is usually applied to the crocodiles alone.
L*ORI£KT, a seaport of France, department of Morbihan, situated at the confiuenc
of the Scorff and Blavet, in lat. 47" 48' n.. and long. 3* 25' west. Pop. '72, 24,088. 1
is a well-built town, but rather dull-looking. The harbor, dockyard, and arsenal ar
among the best and largest in France, and the place ranks as a fortress of the third class
but its coraraerce received a blow at the revolution in 1789 from which it has neve
recovered. L'Orient has a communal college, a school of navigation, and anr)ther o
marine artillery. The inhabitants are engaged chiefly in ship-building and the alliet
occupations. The only important manufacture is that ot hats.
L'Orient owes its origin to the French East India company., which built an estat
lishment here in 1606, for the purpose of trading to the east (whence the name of th
town).
LORIKEET, a species of parrot very numerous in Australia and the eastern archi
pelago, having the tongue covered with bristly hairs, w^t]|^^J^clUl^M5^^^^^^ honey froD
1 ' 5 Lorias*
flowen. They are of very beautiful plumage, and being gregarious present a moat beau-
tiful spectacle, fljing in flocks oontaining sometimes over a thousand birds. Thej
beloDg to the genus irichogUmus,
LOBUBB (Fr. hrtnier, from Lat hrwn, a thong), a maker of bits, spurs, stirrup-
irons, metal mountings for saddles and bridles, and generally of all articles of horse-
furniture. In London, the lorimers, who had previouiuy formed part of another guild,
were incorporated by letters patent in 1712; in the Scottish burghs they have been
comprebended as a branch of the corporation of hammermen. Cutlers, locksmiths, and
brass-founders have been considered as in the exercise of branches of the lorimer art,
and therefore bound to enter with the corporation. The court of session in 1880 held it
to be a violation of the exclusive privileges of the lorimer craft to manufacture bits,
stimip-irons, and other oaetallic articles of horse-fumiture, with a view to silver-plating
them before selling.
LORIMER, GsoBGB Gland, b. 1887; lost his father while very young, and, his
mother marrying again, he was brought up by his stepfather, who was connected with
the theatrical profession in Edinburgh. He attended school in that city, and acted as
call-boy in the theater in the evening; but at leneth went to sea for a time. On his
return to Edinburgh he resumed his stage connection; and, after a time« went to New-
castle and Dublhi, and in the latter city acted as assistant stage-manager at the Queen's
theater. He was of a studious disposition, and employed his leisure m reading and in
cultivating a knowledge of the classics. In 1865 he removed to America, and played in
Louisville, Ky., with success. It was at this time, and at the a^e of 18 years, that he
became so impressed with reUgious convictions that he Joined the Baptist church and
left the stage permanently. He now entered upon a collegiate course at Qeorgetown,
Ey. where he received the degree of A.M. Some years later he took the degree of d.d.
at Bethel college. In 1859 he was ordained at Harrodsburg, Ey., and took charge of a
church in Paducah in that state in 18<M). Later, he was called to the Walnut street
church in Louisville, the one with which he had first united. In 1808 he removed to
Albany, N. Y., and in 1870-71 to Boston, Mass., where he occupied the pulpit of the
Shawmut Ayenue church, and drew crowded audiences. He took charge of the congre-
gation of Tremont Temple shortly after, and remained in that church six years, at the
same time acting as associate editor of the Watehman. In 1879 he took charge of the
First Baptist church in Chicago.
LORIKQ, Chables Gbxblet, ll.d., 1794-1867; b. Boston; jgraduated at Harvard
in 1812; studied law, and for many years was eminent as a practitioner in his native city.
From 1857 to 1867 he was actuary of the hospital life and trust company. He was
author of Keutrai BeHaUom qf the UnUed States and England, a Life of WiUiam Blurgis,
aud various public addresses. Died at Beverly.
LORING, FsEDBaucK W., 1846-71; b. at Nevnonville, Mass.; graduated at
Harvard in 1870, and soon won a high reputation as a writer by his contributions to
leading magazines and papers, and especially by a novel, Tw> College Fiisnde, which
was thought to exhibit rare powers and to give promise of high distinction. In the
capacity of literary correspondent he Joined the party of lieut. Wheeler, which was
sent to explore Arizona, and was murdered by the Indians in that territory Nov. 5»
1871.
LORING, Gbobos Bailbt, b. Ngrth Andover, Mass., 1817; graduated at Harvard
college in 1888, and at the Harvard medical sclibol in 1842, after which for several years
he was physician at the Chelsea (Mass.) marine hospital. Since 1850 he has devoted
himself extensively to the study of science in its applications to agriculture, and to the
pursuits ot public life. Residing in Salem, he has several times represented that city in
both branches of the legislature, and served for several years as president of the senate.
He was aJso for many years president of the Massachusetts agricultural society, and a
member of the republican national convention in 1868 and 1872. He enjoys a high repu-
tation as a public speaker, and has often been the chosen orator upon occasions of
popular interest. Some of his orations have had a wide circulation. In the state
senate he made an effective plea for scientific education in support of the plans of the
late prof. Aeassiz, and spoke eloquently in defense of Charles Sumner's action
in regard to the "regimental colors" used in the civil war. He was a member of con-
gress from the Essex district, 1877-81, and has been a large contributor to Flint's Agrieul'
tural Reports and Murray's work On the Horse.
LORING, WnjJAM W., o. N. C. about 1815; served as lieut. of mounted volunteers
in the Florida war of 1885-42; became capt. of mounted rifles 1846. and maj. 1847; com-
manded a regiment in the war with Mexico; was bre vetted lieut.col. for bravery at Con-
treras and Churubusco, and col. for his gallant services at Chnpultepec; lost an arm in
the capture of the city of Mexico; was commander of an expedition against the Indians
of New Mexico in 1857; resigned his colonelcy and entered the confederate army in
1861, where he was first a brig, and afterwards a maj. gen., serving in West Virginia, at
Vicksburg, Chattanooga, etc After the rebellion ended he went to Egypt and became
chief of staff of the khedive. Digitized by VjUU^ IC
Iiorinser. 1 ^A
Jjout. ^ * ^
LOR'INSER, Karl Ignaz, 17W-1853; b. Bohemia; educated at Prague and Berlin,
and for a time instructor in veterinary surgery in mcfdical colleges at Berlin and Stettin,
and subsequently medical councilor m various places. He published Wneyclopddie d*r
Thierheilkunde, 1820; UiUenuchungen uber den Rinderpe%t, 1881; and Z/wm JSekutzeder
OesundheU auf Schiller, 1836. The latter work made a great sensation, and led to tiie
revival of gymnastic exercises in the German schools.
XO'RIS, a genus of lemuridm, differing from the true lemurs in having a round head
and short muzzle, very large eyes, and no tail. The two species known are both
natives of the East Indies. The largest speoies, X. tardigradua, is not^so large as a cat;
(the other, L. gracilis, is much smaller. Thev are nocturnal animals, and spend the day
generally deeping attached to a branch, which thoy grasp firmly with all their four hands,
the body rolled up into a boil, and the head hidden among the tegs. Their fur is rich and
«oft. Their motions are slow, and they advance stealthily and noiselessly on the insects
4ind birds on which they prey. They feed, however, partly on fruits ana other vegetable
food; in confinement they readily eat rice and milk, and are very fond of eggs.
LOfiBAIKE', originally a portion of the Gkrman empire. Its history dates from 855,
when Lotharius II. obtained (see Cablovtngians) the lands between the Scheldt, Rhine,
Meuse, and Saone. called the kingdom of Lotharius {Lotharii regnum), or Lotharingia,
or Lorraine. The district now known as Rhenish Prussia was separated from Lorraine
in the 10th c, and the remainder was divided in 1044 into two duchies. Upper and Jjwer
Lorraine. The latter, after many vicissitudes, came into the possession of Austria, and
now forms one-half of the kingdom of Belgium, and the provinces of Brabant and Gel-
derland, in Holland. Upper Lorraine continued to be governed by its own dukes till
1736, when it was given to Stanislas, ex-kin^ of Poland, and on his death in 1766 was
united to France. It was afterwards subdivided into the departments of the Meuse,
Moselle, Meurthe, and Yosges. The inhabitants are of Qerman origin, but speak tiie
French languajj^e. with the exception of the district lying between Metz and the Yosgea,
which is called German Lorraine. This tract was ceded to Germany at the peace of 1871.
LORRAINE', Charlies de. Cardinal, 1525-74; b. France; became archbishop of
Rheims when only 18 ^ears of age, succeeding his uncle, Jean de Lorraine. Having offi-
ciated at the coronation of Henry II. in 1547, he was made cardinal. He was now
•employed on various diplomatic missions, which he conducted with success, gaining a
high reputation for skill and astuteness in delicate negotiation. He was, however, sus-
pected by the king, and but for the influence of Diana of Poictiers would have lost the
royal favor. This at length happened on his quarreling with Diana, but having offici-
ated at the coronation of Francis II. he became finance minister. In 1561 he officiated
for the third time at a coronation, that of Charles IX., and in 1569 was sent to Spain to
negotiate a marriage between that monarch and Elizabetli of Austria. He is said to have
endeavored to introduce the inquisition into France, and to have favored the massacre
of St. Bartholomew, though he was away from France at the time. He was warmly
interested in letters, founded the university of Rheims, and was a brilliant orator and
writer; but he was a bigot, ambitious, cmel, and vain.
LOKKAOTE, Claude. See Clatude LoRRAmE.
LORRAINE, Claude (Claude Lorraine, ante). The name of Claude Lorraine
glass is given to peculiarly tinted glass, sometimes used in opera-glasses and stereoscopes,
which is supposed to give to the objects viewed the coloring characteristic of the artist's
works. The term is used, however, by artists and, opticians as the name of an appliance
consisting of a plate of glass ground vel-y Bl%htly convex on the exterior and concave
on the inner side and coated with a surface of black composition highlv polished. This
is so placed as to reflect a landscape, which may be then drawn from the reduced image
in the glass, the convexity of surface assisting in the perspective and distance.
LORTZING, Albert Gubtav, 1808-51; b. Pnissia; went upon the stage when very
young, retaining his connection with it as actor, singer, or composer till his death. He
IS best known as the composer of Zar nnd Zimmeriruinn; Undine; and DerWUdschiite.
LO'RY, Lorivs a genus of birds of the parrot family (psittaddeB), natives chiefly of the
s.e. of Asia and the eastern archipelago. They have a dense soft plumage, exhibiting
the most rich and mellow colors; the tail is rounded or graduated, generally not long;
the bill is feebler than in* many of the parrots, and the upper mandible much arched.
They are very active and livel3^ even in confinement, and are also of very gentle and
affectionate disposition. Red, scarlet, crimson, and yellow are the prevailing colors of
their plumage; but the name lory is often extended to some Australian birds of the same
family, in which much more of a green color appears, and which have a stronger bill
and a much less gentle disposition. The true lones feed much on the softest and most
juicy fruita; the Australian birds so called are very troublesome as robbers of the fields
of ripening maize.
LOS ANGELES, a s. co. of California, 2,125 sq.m.; pop. '80, 88,379. The Pacific
ocean bounds if on the s, and s.w. ; its climate is semi-tropical; the productions are
fruits, nuts, and grapes, live-stock, wool, grain, and olives. There is a large production
of wine and brandy. In the n. region the surface is dry and sandy, but the valleys that
intersect the coast range are many of them fertile. Watered bv^iLoa Angeles river,
177
irrigatiofB is practiced in soma parts, and artesian wells are depended upon for drinking
water. There are bot springs pf)esessin$ meUiciual properties. Tlie bouUiem Pacific
rulruad, in progress, will make connection wiUi San Francisco* to wiiicii point steamexs
run from Santa Monica. Co. seat, Los Angeles.
LOS ANGELES, a city in s. California, on llie river of the same name, 80 m. from
Its mouth; pop. '80, 11.811; reached by the Southern P^ific railroad from Sau Fran-
cisco. It is connected with Santa Monica, on the coast, bv a railnmd 18 m. long: from
this point there is also communication with San Francisco by steamer. Originally
settled by the Spaniards in 1780. it was called by them Pueblo deLas Angelen, ** town of tiia
aD|els," from the extreme beauty of its situation and the charm of its climate. It was
boiU of adobe; but the old structures have been destroyed in most instances, and
replaced by larger and more imposing buildings. The Los Angiles valley is very
fertile, and the city is the center of the orange-growing industrv of California, while the
plain below is covered with fine vinevards; lemons and olives also arc largely cultivated.
The climate of Los Angeles is niila and delightful, and it is greatly frequented by
iDvalids, who prefer it even to San Diego, on account of its freedom from the coast
winds. It is the market for the interior of that part of California, and does a ihriviuff
business. It contains public schools, a college (St. Vincent's), a library, and sevenu
newspapers, English. Gfennan, and Spanish.
LOS HERREROS. Se Breton db lob Hsbreros, ante.
LOSKIEL, QsoROB IIbnrt, 1740-1814; b. Courlaud, Russhi; entered the mhiistry
of the Moravian church, and wiote a history of tlie missions of tJ^at church among the
Indians of North America from the accounts of the missionaries Qoitiieb Spimgen*
buig and David Zeisburger; was ordained a bishop at Hemhutt in 1802. and came at
once to the United States as superintendent of the Moravian churches and pastor at
Bethlehem, Penn., where he dieid.
LOSSLNO, Bbnson John, ll.d., 1818; b. New York. After serving an npprentico-
ship at the watch-making trade, lie became editor, in 1885. of the P&ughkeepaie Ttlegraph,
&nd in 1886 of the Pbuyhkeepme Casket, a literary magiizinc, with illustrations by him-
self. Iti 1888 be began business in New York as a wood-euCTaver, during the next ten
years editing and furnishing tlie illustrations for the Family Magmne and the Young Peo-
pLee MirTor. He iiad already begun the study of American history, to which be hencefor*
ward devoted himself. He traviTed extensively in the United States, visiting and making
sketches of places of historical interest, and contributing illustrated articles on historical
subjects V ) various periodicals. Among his numerous worlLS may be mentioned PietoinaX
PiddrBook €f the Uevolution, 1852; Pictorial Ilistory of th4 United States, 1854; Life of
Washinffton, 1860; The Hudson, 1866; Pictorial History of the OitU War, 1866-69; Pic-
torial FiM Book of Vie War of 1812; Our Mrst Century, 1876; Story of the V, 8, Natfyfor
Boys, 1880; and Cyclopadla of U S History, 1881. He is an admirably picturesque,
instructive, and interesting historical writer, and his worlu have for years been very
popular.
LOm'HI (Oer. Lvssin), an island in the gulf of Quamero, Adriatic sea. forming part
of the Austrian Elistenland, lies immediately 8.W. of Cherso (q.v.). Length. 21 m. ;
breadth, fmm 1 to 8 miles. The principal place on the island is Jjossini Piccolo, or
Little Lossini, wiih 7,100 inhabitants, a fine harl)or, and an active trade.
LOSS OF SPEECH. Sec Aphasia, ante.
LOST PBOFEBTY. In point of laW, the finder of lost property is entitled to keep it
until the owner is fonnd; but there are certain circumstances in which the keeping of
it will be construed by a jury to amount to larceny. The rule which scrms to be
laid down in recent cases in England which have been fully d}scus.%rl, is, that if the
finder find the property in such circumstances that he either knows the owner, or has
ready means of discovering him, then the taking of the property with intent to keep
it wfll be larceny. If, for example, a servant find a sovereign in her master's house,
and keep it, that would be larceny. So it was held to be larceny where the prompter on
the stage of a theater picked up a £50 note which had l^een dropped by one of the
actors. On the other hand, if there be no reasonable probability of ever discovering the
true owner, then there is no larceny. The all important point (>f time fcr the jury to
inquire into is, when the finder picked up the article; for if, on examination, he did not
then know who the owner was, nor had the means of ascertaining, he will not become
guilty merely because he afterwards, on hearing of the owner, nevertheless keeps it. It
has also been decided that the mere keeping of a lost article, in hopes of getting a
reward for giving it up, and though the owner be known, does not amount to larceny.
There is^also no obligation on tlie finder of lost property to incur expense in advertising
for the owner; indeec t. tlie owner would not l)e lN>und in England to repay such expense,
though it might be different or doubtful in Scotland; and it is to be borne in mind that
the real owner is not divested of his property by the loss, but can demand it from who-
soever is in possession of it. But there are some peculiarities on this subject as regards
lost bills of exchange and notes, which, though originally lost, yet, if transferred witliout
notice, become the property of the tmnsferee. Moreover, the loser of n bill or note
payable to bearer cannot sue the party liable, at least without giving an indemnity.
U. K. IX.— 12
liONt. 17ft
There is an exception to the rule, that the finder of lost property is entitled to it, wheiv
the propert}' consists of gold, silver, etc., hidden in the earth, in wbich case thetreaaare^
trove belongs not to the finder, but to the crown: and the finder is bound to give aotice
thereof to the crown, under a penalty.
LOST TSIBES. See Babylonish Captivity.
LOT (ancient OlHs), a river of southern France, one of the largest tributaries of the
Garonne, rises at Mt. Lozdre, in the Cevennes. It flows in a generuUy western direction
through the department of Loz^re, Aveyron, Lot, and Lot-ct-€kironne, Joining the
Garonne from the right at Aiguillon, after a course of 270 miles. It is navigable for
about 170 miles.
LOT, a department in the s. of France, formed out of the province of Ouienne, and
comprising the arrondissements of Cahors, Gourdon, and Figeac, is watered by the
Dordogne and the Lot, with its tributary, the 8ell6. Area, 2,005 sq.m. ; pop. 76, 276,512.
A range of hills, broad, but not very hi^h, and containing some iron, runs through the
center of the department from e. to w., in the form of a semicircle. The valleys yield
corn, hemp, tobacco, and fruits, and the hillsides are clothed with vines. Flaz-milis are
numerous. Capital, Cahors (q.v.).
LOT, properly that which falls to one as his portion, and then a die or anything
used in determining events by chance. The custom of deciding doubtful questions by
lot is of high antiquity and of great extent. Among the Hebrews, the land of Canaan
was divided by lot among the tribes, and the cities distributed ainong the priests and
Levites. The choice of men for an invading force, the apportionment of possessiong,
spoil or prisoners to captors or foreigners, the detection of a criminal as Achan, the
selection of the scapegoat on the day of atonement, and the appointment of persons to
ofiSce as in the choice of an apostle, — in all these cases the lot was used, but always with
solemn reference to the interposition of €kxi. We have no information as to the precise
manner of casting lots; several modes may have been practiced. Among the ancients,
with whom the use of the lot was very general, it was considered as a sort of appeal to
the Almighty, free from all influence of passion or bias. Ainong the heathen, the choice
of a champion in combat, the decision of fate in battle, the appointment of magistrates,
priests, or other functionaries, the division of conquered or colonized land, was done by
lot There was a mode of divination with pagans by means of arrows, two inscribed
and one without mark; and amongthe Germans the practice of deciding by mariLs on
twigs, as mentioned bv Tacitus. The Greeks and Romans were accustomed to divine
events by marking various lots with a prophetic verse. Also, on opening the works of
the poets, they considered the passage which they first saw as an oracle. The Bible has
been used in the same way, the use of words or passages chosen at random from Scrip-
ture being received as a token of the divine will. JSortes BibUca prevailed among Jews
and among Christians, though denounced by several councils. Ejection by lot prevailed
in the Christian church as late as the 7th century.
LOT, a biblical character, son of Haran, the brother of Abraham, and the grandson of
Terah. The events of his life will be found in Gen. xi.-xix. After the death of Tenth,
Abraham and Lot Journeyed from Haran to Canaan, and thence into Egypt; and again
returned to Bethel, where they accumulated great wealth, until, quarrels arising between
their servants, separation was agreed upon. Lot crossed the Jordan and dwelt near the
wicked city of bodom, which afterwards was destroyed on account of its fearful
depravity. Lot, warned of the Lord, fled to Zoar. From Zoar, Lot retreated to a cave
in the mountains, and became the father of Moab and Ben-ammi, from whom descended
the Moabites and Ammonites. This nephew of Abraham is set forth in Scripture as a
man of low moral tone— falling into evil through self-seeking.
LOTBINI'ERE, a co. in e. Quebec, having the St, Lawrence river for its n. boundary;
intersected in the e. portion by the Grand Trunk railway; 736 sq.m.; pop. 71. 20,606.
It is drained by the river Du Chene and the Beaurirage river, emptying into the 8t-
Lawrence. Its industries are represented by foundries, saw^ mills, grist mills, and card-
ing and fulling mills. Seat of justice, Lotbinierc.
LOT-ET'OABOHHE, a department in the s.w. of France, formed out of the province
of Guienne. and comprising the arrondissements of Agen, Villeneuve. Marmande, and
Nerac. is watered principally by the Garonne and the I^t Area. 2.060 sq.m.; pop. '76,
816.920. among whom are a considerable number of French Protestants. The departs
mcnt is level, except in the s., where spurs of the Pyrenees make their appeara^, and
extremely fertile in the basins of the large rivers; but the e. is chiefly composed of barren
wastes, and the s.w. of sandy and marshy tracts termed landes. The principal products
are corn, wine, excellent hemp, fruits (of which the prunes cTentea of Agen are particu-
larly celebrated), tobacco (considered the best manufactured in France), anise, and cori-
ander. Pine, cork, and chestnut woods are numerous; domestic animals, especiallr
poultry, are reared in great numbers for exportation. The chief metal is iron, and the
department has 10 iron-works, besides various manufactures more or less important
LOTH AIRE' I., King of Itnly, 796-885; son of Louis le d§bonnaire, and .suzerRin
over his two brothers, Pepin and Louis, with whom be shared the empire of the west.
He was crowned king of Italy by the bishop of Milan in 822, having been alreudy named
Digitized by VjO^JV IC
179
IJoUeryir
kiog of the Lombards two vean before. Having dethroned his father, his two brothera
opposed him and defeated him at Fontenay in 841. In 843 a treaty was made at Yerduiiy
hf wbicb a satisfactorv distribution of the empire was made, Lothaire receiving for liia
iire Italy and some French provinces beyond the Rhine and the Rhone and the title
cf emperor. One of the French districts was afterwards called Lotharingia, after
Lotitfure, the son of the emperor, who was its first king. From this designation arose
Li« oame Lorraine.
LOTHAIRE II., THE Saxon, King of Germany, 1075-1187; succeeded Henry V.,
after lulling had alternate feuds end reconciliations with that monarch and his prede-
cessor, Henry IV., during a period of 25 years. Having allied himself with pope Inno-
cent 11., be defeated the duke of Swabia in 1182, and Innocent crowned him emperor
of Rome, June 4, 1188. He afterwards made an expedition for the purpose of driving
Anack'tus, the antipope, out of Italy, and was completely successful, but was seized
with Mvere illness while on his return and died. The session of the diet of Madgeburg, *
1135. occurred during his reign, when the first regulations of the Qerman empire were
fonnalated.
L0THARIN6IA. See LoBRAnnB, ante,
LO TEULV8. See Scotland.
LOTHROP, Saxusl Eirkland, d.d., b. Utica, N. Y., 1804; graduated at Harvard
in 1835; ordained at Dover, N. H., in 18d9, where he remained until 1884, when he
became pastor of the Brattle Street church (Unitarian) in Boston. He wrote the ^fe
cf Samuel Kirkland, his grandfather, for Sparks's collection of biographies, and a Jm^
^ nfBratUe Street Church. Many of his occasional sermons and addresses have been
published.
LOTHROP, Thohas, b. probably in England; was a citizen of Salem, Mass., in
1634. and a representative of that city in the ''general court ** in 1847, '58, and '64. He
nbsequently settled in Beverly, where he founded a church and was prominent in civil
tffsirs. representing the town four years in the ''general court" On the breaking out
of king Philips*s war he led a company of militia, called " the flower of Essex," to
Deerficld. where they were surprised and nearly all killed by the Indians, Sept. 29,
1675. A marble monument was erected in 1888 at ' * Bloody Brook, *' where the massacre
took pbfce, in memoxy of oapt. Lothrop and his companions.
lonon, or Washes^ are remedies of a liquid, but not of an oily nature, which are
applied to circumscribed portions of the surface of the body. Amongst the lotions most
commonly employed are the muruUe of ammonia tMwA, which consists of a solution of
salimmoniac in water or in vinegar with or without the addition of spirit; it is much
G^ in contusions, where there is no wound of the skin, in chronic tumors, in enlarged
joiQts. etc. OMoride of toda loaah, consisting of solution of chlorinated soda diluted
with from ten to twenty times its volume of water, useful as a ga^le in ulceration of
'Jie mouth and throat, and as a wash for foul ulcers senerallv. The eMoride of Um$
cuA, consisting of one or two drams (or more) of chlonde of unie in a pint of water,
used for the same purposes as the preceding wash; and hiack wash, prepared by adding
calomel to lime-water (generally a dram or the former to a pint of the latter), most
atensively used in venereal sores, and of service in many forms of intractable ulcers.
LOTOPHAOI (Gr. lotus-eaters), a name applied by the ancients to a peaceful and
liofpiuible people inhabiting a district of Cyrenaica, on the n. coast of Africa, and
mach depending for their subsistence on the fruit of the lotus-tree, from which they also
iDade wine. According to Homer, they received Ulysses hospitably, when, in the course
of bis wanderings, he visited them along with his companions, on whom, however, the
nrcetness of the lotus-fruit exercised such an influence that they forgot all about their
liitiTe country, and had no desire to return home. This feeling of happy languor has
^«n expressed with marvelous felicity by Tennyson in his poem on the lotus-eaters.
LOTTEBY, a game of hazard, in which prizes are drawn by lot. Usually, a lottery
omptiies a specified quantity of tickets, each numbered, every ticket- holder having a
riztit to draw from a box a prize or blank, as the case may happen to be, and thus gain
jrkwe. Lotteries are, of course, got up for the sake of the profit which they may yield
to tbeir proprietors; for the aggregate sum expended in prizes always falls short'oi the
•.rugate purchase-money for tickets. Whatever be the actual form of the lottery, it is
^•ii<putably a gambling transaction, the risks and losses of which are now acknowledged
•olie demoralizing. Lotteries are said to have been first employed by the (Genoese gov-
niQent as a means of adding to the revenue of the country, and the bad exaniple was
^■OD followed by the governments of other nations. The first lottery in England
appears to have been in the year 1689, and the profits went to the repair of harbors and
' her public works. The same means was frequently afterwards resorted to for addi-
•^s to the revenue, or for particular objects, under control or by sanction of the gov-
'^ment. iho mode of conducting the lottery, and the conditions, being from time to
-nte varied. In the early years of the present century, the state lottery, as it was usually
lili-d, was one of the regular institutions of the country. Usually, the number of
■Hats in a lottery was 20,000, at a value of £10 each in prizes. At this valuation they
vtre offered to the competition of contractors, and oixlinarily assigned at an advance ox Z
liOttgJXorovirh. ISO
£5 or £6 per ticket. The centracting pdrty sold them to the public at a further adTtooe
of £4 lo £5 per ticket; and thus tiie value was about doubled. The coutractor devised
the sclieme of prizes and blanks — there being always a few prizes of large umount to
tempt purchasers. To accommodate persons with moderate means, certain tickets weie
dtvideu into halves, and others into quarters, eighths, or sixteenths. A common prict
for a sixteenth was £1 lis. 6d. In the event of the number which it bore being dnwrn,
m prize of £30,000, a sixteenth part of that sum was paid, and so on with other prizes.
Tiie dexterity of the contractors consisted in drawing up "schemes," which in all
Tcrieties of placards and hand-bills were issued in profusion through the means of
agents ail over the country. The drawing took place on a specified day or days in a
public hall in London, before certain commissioners, and was in this wise.* Tw<k
machines, called ''wheels,'' were appropriated, one for the numbers, and the other for
the prizes and blanks. On a number being drawn, its fate was determined by the billet
* which next afterwards came out. Two boys were the operators, one at each wheel.
On tUe grounds of injury to public morals, lotteries were altogetiier abolished by act of
parliament in 1826. Persons advertising or circulating tickets for foreign lotteries may
be sued for a penalty by the attorney-general, or lord-ad vocal e, or the cummissioucrs of
stamps. It required a si)ecial statute, therefore, to legalize art-unions, which are only
lotteries under a specious form; but owing to their supposed Rood effects in encoun^mg
art, they were exempted from penalties by the statute 9 and 10 Vict. c. 48, &nd a sim-
ilar voluntary association was excepted by the statute 21 and 22 Vict. c. 102. In Froace^
the abolition of lotteries took place in 1886, and in Hesse-Darmstadt in 1852. The other
German states, however, continued the use of them; and in 1841, Prussia derived from
them a revenue of moro than 900,000 thalers. Austria, of 8,600,000 florins. In the
kingdom of Itnly lotteries still exist. Few worse ways of supplying the exchequer of a
country have almost ever been imagined; and the only excuse ur^*d is, that the gam-
bling spirit exists, and will find some means of gratification, even if lotteries were abol-
ished. It was found, however, in France that the abolition of lotteries was immediately
followed by an increase of savings-bank deposits; and it has been everywhere observed
that the purchasers of lottery- tickets have Ix'cn to a great extent persons belonging, not
to the wealthiest classes of society, but to those in which economv and prudence are
roost necessary to the comfort of families and the general welfare of the state.
LOTTERY (ante). In this country lotteries were generally tolerated, though not with-
out earnest remonstrances from some quarters, until about 1830, when tho opposition to
them assumed a tangible form, and not long afterwards they were forbidden by law in sev-
eral states, and opposed by a strong public sentiment in others. Before this lime they were
chnrtered for a great variety of objects, such as the erection of colleges, acaaemiesy
asylums, hospitals, and even houses of worship. As a convenient way of raising money
for public and charitable objects, they were for a long time tolerated by men of influence,
who were not wholly blind to their demoralizing tendency. As early as 1099 an assem-
bly of ministers in Boston denounced them as a *' cheat," and their agents as ** pillagers
of the people;" but such testimonies, being generally regarded as loo gtraitlaced and
puritanic, excited but a feeble influence. For a whole century and more afterwards,
lotteriL's were in f:iir repute as a means of raising money for public and charitable
objects. Indeed, it was not until after 1830 that any organized movement for their
suppression was made. In Boston, in 1882, an association of young men oonneeled with
Dr. Lymnn Bcecltc.r*s church, after a careful investigation of the subject in all its bear-
ings, condemned them and called for their extcrminaticn on grounds of morality and
public policy. This action was extensively approved by the press, and did much to
create a sound public opinion in New England. In 1833 Job R. Tyson of Philadelphia
published A Brief Surrey of Ui^ Great Exteiit and Eril Tendencies qf the Lottery Syatem of
the United States, and in the same year a society was formed in Pennsylvania to promote
the abolition of the system, whicn was accomplished within a year or two in Pennsyl-
vania, Massachusetts, and Connecticut. Mary bind followed in 1836, and from this lime
the proCTCss of the reform was rapid. At the present time it may be f^aid that lotteries
are under legislative ban in eveiy slate of tlic union, though in a few slates the laws
on this subject, being partly prospective in their application, have not yet been carried
into full effect. In most, if not all the states, the siile of tickets for foreign lotteries is
prohibited, and to advertise them is a penal offense. A few years airo the so-called
"art unions " were permitted to dispose of pictures and statuary by lolteiy; but this is
now generally forbidden.
LOTTTS. The name hfos (Lat. lotvn) was given by the Greeks to a number of
different plants whose fruit was used for food. One of the most notable of these is the
tizypJnts lotus, a native of the n. of Africa and the s. of Europe, belonging to the natu-
ral order rhamne<p. See Jujttbe. It is a shnib of two or three feel high, and its fruit,
which is produced in gR»at abundnr.ce, is a drupe of the size of a wild plum, with an
almost globose kernel. This fruit is somewhat farinaceous, and has a pleasant, sweetish,
mucilaginous taste. It is called by the Arabs nabk or nabka; and has, from the earliest
times, fi«rved as an article of food to the inhabitants of the n. of Africa, where it is still
a principal part of the food of the ]ioor. Probably it was on this fruit that Homer's
laiophaffi iq.Y.y lived.— -The fruit of the dioepyrus lotus, ^r da^^ ^^^^ sometimai
JOa Loairht>on»ii«]b
oiled the lotin. See Date PLUM.*-The nnme loUi^was also giTea to several beautiful
jpsciesof water-lily (q.y.)>espiciul]y to tlie Blub Watbr-lilt {nymphaa €tiruiea)^n^
tiie Egtptiak Watbb-lily (N, ioUm), and to the nelumbo (q.¥.) {nelumdium tpeeumim),
which grow in stagnant and slowly running water in the s. of Asia and n. of Africa.
The nympitCBti lotus whs called by the Egyptians «7mtn or sM/im, and is called by the
Arabs 6a(A/i//i, the Coptic name with the masculine article. It grows in the Mle and
adjacent rivulets, and has a large white flower. The root is enten bv the people who
live near the lake Meuzaleh. The riyulets near Danilclta abound with this flower, which
rises two feet alx)ve the water. It was the rose of ancient £gypt, the favt rile flower of
the country, and is often seen made into wrenths or garlands, placed on the Toreheads of
females, or held in their hands, and smelled for ita fragrauce. It frequently appeals in
the hieroglyphs, where it represents the upper country or southern Egypt, and cnicicd
largely into works of art — the capitals of columns, prows of boats, he^ds of staves, and
other objects being fashioned in its shape. In the mythology, it was the special imblem
oi A'efer Atum, the son of Ptah and Bust; the god Harpocrates is .«>eated niton it; and
there was a mystical lotus of the sun. In the mythology of the Hindus and Chinese the
lotus plays a distinguished part. It is the nelumbo. The Hindu deities of the different
sects are of ten represented seated on a throne of its Fhapc, or on the cxfuindcd flower.
The color in southern India is white or red, the last color fabled to be derived from the
blood of Sivn, when Kamadeva, or Cupid, wounded him with the love-arrow. Lakshnit,
also, was called the ** lotus-born," from having ascended from the ocean on its flower. It
symliolizeil the world; the meru, or residence of the gods; and female beauty. Among
the Chinese, the lotus had a similar reputation and poetic meaning, being especially
coonected with Fuh. or Buddha, and symbolizing female beauty, the small feet of their
women being called kin leen, or *' golden lilies."
Wilkinson, Jdann. and Cast., lii. 187, 200, iv. 44. 68, v. 264, 260: Jomard, Deser. de
VEg^ t. 1, s. 5; Homer, 11 xii. 238, iv. 171, Od. ix. 92; Herodotus, ii. 96, iv. 177; Diod.
iSfc. I 84; Coleman, MytJiology of the Hindwt,
LOTZE, Rudolf Hermann, b. Saxony, 1817; educated at the ffymnasium of Zittau
sad tiie university of Leipsic, graduating In 1838 in medicine and philosophy, and in
the following year filling the chair of philosophy at Leipsic as an adiunct professor. In
1843 be was made extraordinary professor at the universitv of Leipsic, and two years
hiter ordinary professor at 60tting;en. He has written voluminously on metaphysics,
leauing toward the doctrines of Leipnitz and Herbart Among the more important of
his works are Metaphytik (Leipsic, 1841); Logik (1848); MikrokoemuB (8 vols., 1866-^);
and Oeaehiehte der Aeihetik in Deutaefdand (^lunich, 1868, et uq.) His rank among liv-
ing metaphysicians is high, though the estimates of him differ among different schools
of tJunkers.
LOUDOIT, a co. of e. Tennessee, traversed by the Tennesee river, and intersected by
the East Tennessee, Yir^nia and Georgia railroad; 800 sq.m. ; pop. '80. 9,148. It
extends through a beautiful and fertile valley, and produces largely of grain and live
stock. Co. seat, Loudon.
LOUDON, or Loudoun, co. in n.e. Virginia, bounded on the n.e. by the Potomac
river, which separates it from Maryland ; intersected by the Washington and Ohio rail-
road; 460 sq.m.; pop. '80, 28,684. The Blue ridge is on the n.w. border of this county,
and the Kittoctan mountain is in the center. Its productions are wheat, Indian com,
oats, potatoes, wool, butter, and hay. It has a number of manufactories and mills. Go.
seat, Leesburg.
LOUDON, Gideon Ernest, See Laudohn.
LOtrDOV. John CTlaudius, a distinguished botanist and horticulturist ; b. April 8,
1783, at Cambuslang, in Lanarkshire. He became a gardener, and in 1808 published
Olftertationt on Laying out Public Squares, and in 1805 a Treatise on Hot-houses; and
afterwards became the author of a number of works on botany, mostly of a somewhat
popular dinracter, which have contributed much to extend a knowledge of that science
and a taste for horticulture. Among these arc the Enq/clopadia of Gardening {1S22);
mdof Agriculture (1835); the Green-house Companion (1^); the Encycloposdia of Plants
(1829); and the Arboretum et Frutieetum Britannieum (8 vols. 1838), containing a verjr
full account of the trees and shrubs, indigenous or introduced, growing in the open air
in Britain. This last is his great work; but the expense attending the publication,
owing chiefly to the number of plates, involved him in pecuniary difficulties. He died
at Bavswater, Dec. 14, 1848. Loudon established four different magnzines, which he
edited simuhaneouslv with his Arboretum,— Wis widow is the author of a number of
pleasing popular works, chiefly on subjects connected with botany and gardening.
LOITOH'BOBOirOH, a manufacturing and mnrket-t. of England, in the co. of Leices-
ter, 12m. n.n.w. of the town of that name. The chief educational institution in the
town is the Burton foundation (dating from 1495), with an annual ircome from endow-
ment of £1743 16«. With this Foundation five distinct schools arc connected, each
pupil having to pay a small sum. Loughborough carries on extensive manufactures of
patent Angola hosiery, of other woolen and cotton goods, elastic webs, net-lace, and
Pop. '71, 11,688. Digitized by VjiUUV IC
LOITOHSEA', a market t of Ireland, in the co. of Gal way, about 20 m. e.9.e. of the
town of that name. It stands on the n. bank of Lougli Rea, a beautiful little lake 4 m.
in circumference. It contains a Roman Gatbolic chapel, with a Carmelite friary and
nunnery, and the remains of a Carmelite abbey founded in 1800. Manufactures of nar-
row linen and coarse diapers; brewing and tanning are carried on. Pop. '71, 3,072.
LOUIS OF Baden (Louis William I.), Margrave of Baden-Baden, 1655-1707; b.
Paris; was a soldier under Montecuculi against the French, and fought the Turks in
1683 with peat valor. In 1698 he recaptured Heidelberg, then in ibe hands of the
French, bemg then in supreme commana of ibe imperial arrav. He also fou«;bt with
success in Alsace. He attempted to succeed John Sobieski as king of Poland, but was
unable to accomplish his purpose. He was esteemed a general of rare ability, and not
less an engineer of talent. In the latter capacity he aesigued certain important mili-
tary worki on the Rhine.
LOUIS I., King of Bavaria. See Ludwig I., Earl August, ante.
LOUIS IV., THE Bavarian, Emperor of Germany, 1285-1847; b. Germany; son of
Louis tbc severe, duke of Bavaria; pursued his early studies under the direction of his
mother, Matilda, daughter of the emperor Rudolph L of Hapsburg. His father being
dead, ho became co-heir with his brother Kudolph, and co-regent of the realm. In 1314
he was elected the successor of Henry VII. of Luxembourg, who had died in lUily the
previous year, the raajoritv voting for him, but a laree minority declaring at Cologne
in favor of his cousin, Frederick the fair, called Frederick le hel, of Austria (son of the em-
peror Albert I. and grandson of Rudolph of Hapsburg), proclaiming him emperor Freder-
ick III. Louis was victorious in the battle of MQhIdorf, Sept. 28, 1322, brin&'ing to a close
a long and ruinous war, which had laid waste a large part of Germany, and taking Fred-
erick prisoner compelled him to renounce all claim to the succession. In 1323, liaviug
by his support of the Viscontis in Milan caused the estrangement of pope John XXII..
he was excommunicated Mar. 21, 1324, and commanded by the pope to appear before
him; but be appealed to a^eneral council, and the summons was declared null and void
by the diet of Ratisbon. In 1324 he married Margaret of Holland. In 1825 a ti-eniy
was formed by which Frederick was released from" imprisonment on condition that he
would return and deliver himself a^ain to Louis if he found himself unable to induce
his adherents to transfer their allegiance. The contrary being the result, the vanquished
returned into captivitjr in conformity with his oath, and was appointed governor of his
own Bavarian possessions. In 1327 Louis defied the pope of Rome, accusing him of
heresy, and was crowned king in Milan, receiving at Rome in l9SiS the sacred sanction
of the bishops of Venice and Aleria. Through his influence pope John was depoaed.
and Peter de Corbiere, called Nicholas V., was established antipope. This movemeni
resulting in general unpopularity, he returned to Germany to defend his possessions
there, which were continually threatened by John XXII. and his successors, Benedict
XII. and Clement VI., with their foreign allies, assisted by French intrigues. He added
to his strength in Germany the dominions of Holland. Zealand, Friesland, etc., which |iad
come to hina with his wife, Margaret of Holland. He was suddenly killed by a fall from
his horse while hunting at FUrstenfeld, near Munich.
LOUIS I. See Carlovingians.
LOUIS I., LE DfiBONNAiKE or THE Pious (ante), Roman emperor, king of the Franks.
778-840; b. at Casseneuil; son of Charlemagne by his third wife, Hildegarde. His elder
brother having died he succeeded his father in 814. He was quite successful for a time,
but in 817 he was persuaded to give his three sons, LotJiaire, Pepin, and Louis, a slinre
in his dominions, and from this arose complications that finally led to a dissolution of
the empire. Bernard, a nephew of Louis, who had inheritea Italy after his father,
receiving nothing under the 'new arrangement, revolted; but the emperor allured hira
to Chalons, made him a prisoner, put out his eyes, and gave Italy to his son Lothaire.
In his remorse for this crime the emperor sought consolation in the church, and thence-
forth was a mere tool in the hands of the priests. In 819 he married a second wife,
Judith of Bavaria, who in 823 bore him a son, known in history as "Charles the bald."
In 829, in the interest of this son, he proposed a new division of the empire; but to this
the elder sons objected, and the result was a war which lasted during the remainder of
the emperor's life. Twice the father was defeated, taken prisoner, and deposed by his
sons; but Lothaire, by his ambition to turn everything to his own account, incurred the
hostility of his brothers, who conspired to raise the father again to the throne. On the
death of Pepin in 838 Louis I. proposed to exclude his elder sons, Lothaire and Louis,
from their inheritance, and to ffive his dominions to Charles the bald. Against this
arrangement Louis revolted, ana was joined by the sons of Pepin. In the midst of the
war the emperor died at Ingelheim and was buried at Metz.
LOUIS II., LE BIsGUE, King of Prance (see Cabloyinoiaks, ante), b. in 846; a
son of Charles the bald; rejgned 877-79.
LOUIS III., King of France (see Carlotikgianb, anfe),.b. 868; eldest son of Louis
n. The kingdom being divided in 879 l)etween bis brother Carioman and himself, he
had allotted for his share that portion called Neustria. '^j^^zJ^9l'^l§ill?t^ invaded
183 tsair^
Fnaoe, he snooosgfullj resisted them and gained a hattle. At his death, at ahout the
age of 20 years, Carloman reigned alone over France.
LOUIS ly., d' Odtbxmkr, King of France (see CABiiOYUiGiANB, ante); reigned 927-
$4; a son of Cliarles the simple; was educated in Eugland at the court of king Athel-
ftene. his mother's brother. On the death of Raoul of Burgundy in 986 he was called
to the French throne by Hugh of Paris and William of Normandy, by whose intrigues
ka reign was constantly disturbed.
LOUIS v., LB Faineant, King of France (see Carloyinoians, ante), b. 966; son of
Lothatre and Emma; reigned 986-%'; the last king of the Carlovingian dynasty.
LOUIS VI., THE Fat; VII. ; VIII., the Lion; IX., Saint Louis (Louis IX.. anU),
Kings of France. See Capktian Dynasty, ante,
LOUIS IX., or Saint Louis, King of France, b. in Pois^, April 25, 1216, succeeded
his father, Louis VIII., in 1226. Bis mother, Blanche of Castile, a woman of great
taieot and sincere piety, was regent during his minority, and bestowed on him a strictly
religious education, which materially influenced his character and policy. When Louis
sttaiAod his majority he became inYolYed in a war with Henry III. of England, and
defeated the English at Taillebour^, at Saintes, and at Blaye in 1242. During a dan-
gerous iOn'iss he made« yow that if he recovered lie would go in person as a crusader,
and. aooordingly, having appointed his mother regjcnt, he sailed in Aug., 1248, with
^000 men to Cyprus, whence, in the. following spring, he proceeded to Egypt, think-
ing, by the conquest of that country, to open the way to Palestine. He tooK Damietta,
but was afterwards defeated and taken prisoner by the Mohammedans. A ransom of
100,000 marks of silver procured his release on May 7, 1250, with the relics (6,000 men)
of bis anny. He proceeded by sea to Acre, and remained in Palestine till the death of
his mother (Nov., 1252) compelled him to return to France. He now applied himself
earnestly to the affairs of his kingdom, united certain provinces to the crown on the
lapse of feudal rights or by treaty, and made many important changes, the general ten-
deticy of which was to increase the royal power. A code of laws was brought into use,
known as the EtabUaaemenU de St. Louis, Louis embarked on a new crusade July 1,
1270, and proceeded to Tuiris; but a pestilence breaking out In the French camp, carried
off the greater part of the army and the king himself. He died Aug. 25, 1270; and his
son, Philip III., was glad to make peace and return to France. Pope Boniface VIII.
canonized him in 1297. For an interesting picture of the religious side of Louis's char-
acter, consult Neander's Kirchengeschickte, Bohn, vol. vii., pp. 410-18.
L0UI8 XI., King of Franco, the eldest son of Charles VII., b. at Bourges, July 8.
1423, was from his boyhood eminently cruel, tyrannical, and perfidious. He made
unsuccessful attempts against his father s throne, was compelled to flee to Brabant, and
sought the protection of Philip the good, duke of Burgunay, with whom he remained
till his father's death in 1461, when he succeeded to the crown. The severe measures
which he immediately adopted against the great vassals led to a coalition against liim,
at the head of which were the great houses of Burgundy and Bretagne. Louis owed
his success more to his artful policy than to arms; and the war threatening to break out
anew, he invited Charles the bold, duke of Burgundy, to a friendly conference at
Peronne, in Oct., 1468. His agents, meanwhile, had stirred up the people of Liege to
Tcvolt against the duke, upon the news of which occurrence Charles made the king a
prisoner, and treated him roughly. On the death of the duke of Burgundy in 1477,
who left an only daughter, Louis claimed great part of his territories as male nefs lapsed
to the superior, and wished to marry the young duchess to his eldest son, a boy of seven
years. On her marriage with the archduke Maximilian, he flew to arms; but a peace
was concluded at Arras, Dec. 25, 1482, by which the daughter of Maximilian was
betrothed to the dauphin (afterwards Charles VIII.). and the counties of Burgundy and
Arfois were handed over to Prance. Louis was also successful — after the use of means
far from honorable — in annexing Provence to the crown as a lapsed fief. He greatly
increased the power of the French monarchy. The latter years of his reign were spent
in great misery, in excessive horror of death, which superstitious and ascetic practices
failed to allay. He died Aug. 30, 14^3. It was calculated that he put about 4,000 per-
sons to death in the course of his reign, mostly without form of trial. Yet he was a
patron of learning, and is said to have been the author of Lot cent Nouvdles nauu&llea,
a aortof imitation of the Decameron, and of the Hosier des Oueri'ts, a book of instruction
for his son. He also materially advanced the civilization of France bv encouraging
manufactures, commerce, and mining. He improved the public roads and canals,
esUiblished several printing-presses, and founded three universities.
LOUIS XIL, b. 1462, King of France, succeeding Charies VIII. ; son of duke Chnries
of Orleans, and a descendant of Valentina Visconli. He reigned 1498-1515. In 1500,
by virtue of his descent, ho hiid claim to Milan, conquered it, and took Ludovico Sforza
prisoner. By the aid of Ferdinand of Aragon he conquered Naples too, but the allies
quarreled over the partition of their conquest, and in 1508 Gonsalvo de Cordova expelled
the French from southern Italy. In 1508 pope Juliu» II. formed the league of Cambray
against the republic of Venice, lieing joined by FiM-dinand of Aragon, Louis XIL, and
tbe emperor of Germany; but Venice having conciliated the pope by concessions, the
184
league was dissolred, and a new od9, called tlie "holj leaeae.'* was formed between
the pope, the emperor, Venice, Ferdiuand of Arafou. and Henrj YIII. of EngUnd
against Franco, and in 1518 the French were expelled from Italy.
LOUIS Xnt., King of France, son of Henri IV. and Marie de' Medici, b. at Fon-
tainebleau, Sept. 27, 1601, succeeded to the throne on the death of bis father. May 14.
1610, his mother becoming regent. She entered into close nllkinee with Spain, and
betrothed the king to Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III. of Spain, upon whicli
the Huguenots, becoming appreheasivc of ihmger, took up amis; but peace was con>
eluded at St. Menehould on May 5, 1614; and ihe kin^, wlu> was now declared of age,
confirmed the edict of Nantes, and called an assembly of the states, which was soon
dismissed because it began to look too closely into linaucial affairs. See Maris de'
Mkdici. The suppression of Protestantism and liberty in Beam led to the religious
war in which tlie Protestants lost almost all their places of security, and which ended
in 1622. After the death of Dc Luynes, in 1624, Richelieu, afterwards cardinsl and
duke, became the chief minister of Louis. His powerful mind obtained complete con-
trol over that of the weak king, and his policy effected that increase of monarchical
power, »t the expense of Protestants, nobles, and parliaments, which reached its con-
summation in the reign of Louis XIY. The overthrow of the*Huguenot8 was completed
by the capture of Rochclle, Oct. 20, 1628, at the siege of which the king took part in
person. In 1631 his brother, the duke of Orleans, having left the court, assembled a
troop of Spaniards in the Netherlands, and entered France to compel the dismissal of
Richelieu, whom he hated, and whom the kinr also secretly disliked; but the duke was
completely defeated bv marshal Schomberg al Castelnnudary. Richelieu now led Louis
to take part in the thirty years' war, openly supporting Gustavus Adolphus and the
Dutch against the Spaniards and Austrians. The latter years of Louis' reign were sig-
nalized by Ihe getting possession of Alsace and of Roussillon, acquisitions which were
conflrmcd in tlie following reign. Louis died May 14, 1648. His queen, after 28 years
of married life, bore a son in 1688, who succeeded to the thix>ne as Louis XIV. f and
in 1640, a second son, Philip, duke of Orleans, ths ancestor of the present house of
•Orleans.
LOUIS XIV., King of France, b. at St. Gennain-en-Laye, Sept. 16, 1638, succeeded
his father, Louis XIII., in 1648. His mother, Anne of Austria, became rcffent, and
Mazarin (q.v.) her minbter. During Uie king's minoritv, the discontentea nobles,
encouraged by Spain, sought to shake off the authority of the crown, and the civil wars
of the Fronde (q v.) arose. Peace was concluded in 1659; and in the following year
Louis married the Infanta Maria Theresa, a princess possessing neither beauty nor other
attractive qualities. Little was expected from the voun^ kiug; his education had been
neglected, and his conduct was dissolute; but on Mazarm's death, in 1661. he suddenly
assumed the reins of government, and from that time forth carried into effect with raro
eneriry a political theory of pure despotism. His famous taying, '* L*etat e'estmoi" {I
am the stiite), expressed the principle to which everything was accommodated. He bad
a cool and clear head, with much dignity and amenity of manners, great activity, and
indomitable perseverance. The distress caused bv the religious wars had created
throughout France a longing for repose, whicli was favorable to his assumption of abso-
lute i>ower. He was ably supported by his ministers. Manufactures began to flourish
under the ro^'ul protection. The flne cloths of Louviers, Abbeville, and Sedan, the
tapestries of the Gobelins, the carpets of La Savonnerie, and the silks of Tours and
Lyons acquired a wide celebrity. The wonderful talents of Colbert (q.v.) restored pros-
perity to the ruined finances of the country, and provided the means for war; whilst
Louvois (q.v.) applied these means in niising and sending to the field armies more thor-
oughly equipped and disciplined than any other of that age.
On tlic death of Philip IV. of Spain, Louis, as his son -in law, set up a claim to part
of the Spanish Netherlands; and in 1667, accompanied by Turenne (q.v.), he crossed
the frontier with a powerful army, took many places, and made himself master of that
part of Flanders since known as French Flanders, and of the whole of Franche Comt4.
The triple cUliance—hQiyfeeii England, the States-general, and Sweden — arrested hh career
of conquest. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668) forced him to surrender Franche Comie.
He vowed revenge against the States-general, strengthened himself by German alliances,
and purchased with money the friendship of Charles II. of England. He seized Lorraine
in 1670; and in May, 1672, again entered the Netherlands with Cond6 and Turenne, con-
quered linlf the country in six weeks, and left the duke of Luxembourg to lav it waste. The
States-general formed an alliance with Spain and with the emperor, but Louis made himself
master of ten cities of the empire in Alsace; and in the spring of 1674 took the field with
three great armies, of which he commanded one in person, Oonde another, and Turenne
a third. Victory attended his arms; and notwithstanding the death of Turenne, and the
retirement of the prince of Conde from active service, he continued in subsequent years,
along with his brother, the duke of Orleans, to extend his conquests in the l?etherlands.
where, by his orders, and according to the ruthless policy of JLouvois, the country was
fearfully desolated. The peace of Nimeguen. in 1678, left him possession of many of
his conquests. He now established ehnmbres de rSunion in Metz, Breisacli, and Besan^on,
pretended courts of law, in which his own will was supreme, and which confiscated t#
185
hiD, as feudal snperidr in right of his conquests, territories which ha wished to acquire^
ed^ories lielonging to the elector Palatine, the elector of Treves, and others. He also,
OQ SepL 30. 1681, made a sudden and successful attack on Slrasburg, a free German city,
tbe pos«ssioti and fortification of which added greatly to his power^on the Rhine. The
acquisition thu:» made, a treaty in 1684 confirmed to him.
Louis had now reached tlie zenith of his career. All Europe feared him; his own
Ballon had been brought by tyranny, skillful management, and military glory, to regard
bim wiih Asiatic humility, admiring and obeying; all remnants of political independence
lad been swept away; no assembRes of the states or of the notables were held; the
Mvs had lost both the desire and the ability to asseit political power; tbe municipal
corporations no longer exercised any right of election, but received appointments of
offldils f nom the court; the provinces were governed by intendarUs, who were iminedi-
iieiy responsible to the ministers, and they to the king, who was his own prime minister.
Eren the courts of Justice yielded to the absolute sway of the monarch, who interfered
at piezisure with the ordinary course of law, by the appointment of commissions, or
wiilidrew offenders from the jurisdiction of the courts by letti'es de c<iehet (q.v.). of which
be issued about 9,000 in the course of his reign. He asserted a right to dispose at his
pleasure of all properties within the boundaries of his realm, and took credit to himself
for gracious moderation in exercising it sparingly. The court was the very heart
of the political and national life of France, and there the utmost splendor was main-
tained; and a system of etiquette was established, which was a sort of perpetual worship
of the king.
It was a serious thing for France and the world when Louis fell under the control of
hismistress* the marquise de Maintenon (q.v.), whom he married in a half-privace man-
ler in 1(^, and who was herself governed by the Jesuita One of the first effects of
this change was the adoption of severe measures against the Protestants. When it was
reported to Louis that his troops had converted all the heretics, he revoked the edict of
Xaotcs in 1685, and then ensued a bloody persecution ; whilst more than half a million
of the best and most industrious of the inhabitants of France fled, earring their skill
aod industry to other lands. Yet Louis was by no means willing to yield too much
power to the pope; and quarreling with him concerning the revenues of vacant
bishopries, he convened a council of French clergy, which declared the pnpnl power to
extend only to matters of faith, and even in these to be dependent upon the decrees of
coaociis.
Tbe elector of the Palatinate having died in May, 1685, and left his sister, the
duchess of Orleans, heiress of his movable property, Louis claimed for her also all the
allodial lands; and from this and other causes arose a new European war. A French ,
arm J invaded the Palatinate, Baden, WClrtemberg, and Treves in 1688. In 1689 the «
lower Palatinate and neighboring regions were laid waste by fire and sword. This
atrocious proceeding led to a new coalition against France. Success for a time attended
the French arms, particularly in Savoy and at the battle of Steinkerk. Reverses, how-
erer, ensued: tlie war was waged for years on a great scale, and with various success:
tad after the French, under Luxembourg, had gained, in 1698, the battle of Neerwinden,
it was found that the means of waging war were very much exhausted, and Louis con-
cluded the peace of Ryswick, Sept. 20, 1697. The navy destroyed, the finances griev-
ooslj embarrassed, the people suffering from want of food, and discontentment deep
aod creneral, Louis placed the count LrArgenson at the head of the police, and estab-
lished an unparalleled system of espionage for the maintennnce of his own despotism.
The power of Mme. de Maintenon and her clerical advisers became more and more
absolute at the court, where scandals of every kind increased.
When the death of Charles II. of Spain took place, Nov. 1. 1700, it was found that
LoQis had obtained his signature to a will by which he left all his dominions to one of
tile grandsons of his sister, who had been Louis's queen. Louis supported to the utmost
the claim of his CTandson (Philip V.), whilst the emperor Leopold supported that of hit
wn, afterwards the emperor Charles VI. But the power of France was now weakened,
and tbe war had to be maintained both on the side of the Netherlands and of Italy.
One bloody defeat followed another; Marlborough was victorious in the Low Countries,
aad prince Eugene in Italy; whilst the forces of Louis were divided and weakened by
the employment of large bodies of troops against the Cnmisards in the Cevennes, for the
extinction of the last relics of Protestantism. On April 11, 1718. peace was concluded
^ Utrecht, the French prince obtaining the Spanish throne, but France sacrificing valu-
able colonies. A terrible fermentation now prevailed in France, and the country was
ilmost completely ruined; but the monarch maintained to the last an unl)ending despot-
inn. He died, after a short illness, Sept. 1. 1715. He was succeeded by his great
ftaadson, Louis XY. His son, the dauphin, and his eldest grandson, the duke of
Bretagne, had both died in 1711. Louis had a number of natural children, and he had
)e|itimized those of whom Mme. de Montespan was the mother; but the parliament,
Thich made no objection to recording the edict when required by him, made as little
Ejection to annulling it when required by the next government. The *' wcHrks" of
LoQis XIV. (6 vola Paris, 1806), containing his instructions for his sons, and many
•Alters, afford important information as to his ciiaracter and the history of his reign.
"Hie rtiga of Louis XIV. is regarded as the Augustan age ol Frenck literature and art»^
186
and it can hardly be doubted tlint France has neTer since prodaced poets like Comeille
and Racine in tragedy, or Molidre in comedy; satirists like Boiicau, or divines like
Bossuet, Fenelon, Bourdaloue, and Massillon.
LOITIS XV., Kin^ of France, tlie great-grandson of Louis XIV., b. at Versailles,
Feb. 15, 1710. Kucceeded to the throne Sept. 1, 1715. The duke of Orleans, as first
erioce of the blood, was regent during the minority of the kiug, whose education was
itrusted to murslial Villeroi and cardinal Fleury. The country was brought to the
verge of ruin during the regency, by the foUy of the regent and the financial schemes of
the celebrated Scotchman, Law (q.v.). When Louis was 15 years of age he married
Maria Lesczynski, daughter of Stanislas, the dethroned king of PolandT Fleury was
for a long time at the head of affairs, and by parsimony succeeded in improving the con-
dition of the finauces. It was his policy also to avoid war, in which, however, Louis
was involved iu 1738, in suppott of his father- in-law*s claim to the throne of Poland;
the result bein^ that Louis obtained Lorraine for his father-io-law, and ultimately for
France. Notwithstanding the vigor with which this war was conducted, the character
of Louis now became completely developed as one of the utmost sensuality, selfishness,
and baseness. He surrounded himself with the vilest society, utterly forsook his queen,
and lived, as he continued to do to the end of his life, in extreme debaucherv, such as
has rendered bis name a proverb. In 1740 the war of the Austrian succession broke out,
in which the French army wais by no means very successful, and during which Fleury
died. The king was present, in 1745, at the great victory of Fonteuoy, and showed
plenty of courage. In the preceding year, during a dangerous illness, he had made
vows of reformini; his life, and dismissed his mi^l^e.sses: but on recovering health, he
presently relapsed into vice. The peace of Aix-la-Clmpelle, in 1748. was very much due
to the entreaties of Mme. de Pompadour, whase influence the empress Elizabeth of
Russia secured by bribes and flatteries. France gained nothing by this war; but her
people were ruined, and her navy destroyed.
The king now sank completely under the control of Mme. de Pompadour, who
was both concubine and procuress, and to whom he gave notes on the treasury for
enormous sums, amounting in all to hundreds of millions of livres. War broke out
again with Britain concerning the boundaries of Acadia (Nova Scotia), and was for
<flomc time prosecuted with considerable vigor. In 1756 an extraordinary alliance was
formed between France and Austria, contrary to the policy of ages, and chiefly through
the influence of Mme. de Pompadour; but as she disposed of the command of the
French armies at her nleasure, fiuccess did not attend their operations. The state of tlie
finances, the dispiritea condition of the army, and the outcry of the distressed people
were not sufl3cient to induce the king to make pence; but governed by his mistress, he
obstinately persevered in war, even after tlie terrible defeat of Minden in 1750; whilst
the British conquered almost all the French colonies both in the East and West Indies,
with cape Breton and Canada. A peace, most humiliating to France, was at last con-
cluded in 1768.
Louis, although indififerent to the ruin of his people, and to everything but his own
vile pleasures, was reluctantly compelled, to take part in the contest between Mme. de
Pompadour and the Jesuits, the result of which was the suppression of the order in
1764 See Jesuits. The parliaments, emboldened by their success in this contest, now
attempted to limit the power of the crown, by ref usmg to register edicts of taxation;
but the king acted with unusual vigor, maintaining his own absolute and supreme
authority, and treating the attempt of the parliaments to unite for one objectas rebellious.
The duke of Choiscul was now displacea from ofllce; a new mistress, Mme. Du Barr}*,
having now come into the place of Mme. de Pompadour; and a ministry was formed
under the duke d*Aiguillon, every member of which was an enemy of the parliaments;
-and an object of popular detestation. The councilors of the parliament of Paris were
removed from their offices, and banished with great indignity; and an interim parlia-
ment was apijointed (Jan., 1771), which duly obeyed the court. The princes of the blood
protested against this arbitrary act, which ueenly moved tlie popular indignation. The
king, when told of the ruin of the country, ana the misery and discontent of the people.
<ai\y remarked that the monarchy would last as long as his life; and continued immersed
in sensual pleasures and trifling amusements. lie boasted of being the best cook in
France, ana was much gratifiea when the courtiers ate eagerly of the dishes which he
had prepared. His gifts to Mme. Du Barry, notwithstanding the embarrassment of
the finances, in five years amounted to 180.000,000 of livres. At last, Louis, who had
for some time suffered from a disease contracted through vice, was seized with small-
pox, the infection of which was communicated by a young girl who had been brought
to him, and on May 10. 1774, he died, so far from being regretted that his funeral was a
Bort of popular festival, and was celebrated with pasquTis and merry ballads. His death-
bed was one of extreme misery. He was succeeded by his grandson, Louis XYL
IfOiriS XYI., ATTGCfSTE, king of France, b. Aug. S8, 1764. was the third son of the
dauphin, Louis, only son of Louis XV. He was styled duke de Berrv, until, by the
death of his father and his elder brothers, he became dauphin.' He liad a vigorous
frame, was fond of hunting and manly exercises, took great pleasure in mechanical
labors, and sliowed an «ptitude for geometry, but nonetiJi^cl^Htical science. In the
187
ItfOUlS.
Didst of the most coirupt of courto, he grew up temperate, honest* and moral. He was
Qitnie<} on May 10, 1770, to Marie Anloinetle, the youngest daughter of the empress
Haria Theresa.
When Louis ascended the throne, misery and discontent prevailed througliout
France. He had not the vigor and Judgment necessary for circumstances full of difil-
cnity. and was conscious of his own weakness. He made Maurepas, an old courtier,
kis prime minister; but among his ministers were Malesherbes, Tur^t, and other men
of koowQ patriotism; and his accession was signalized by the remission of some of the
odious taxes, the abolition of the last reliefs of serfdom, the abolition of the torture in
jadicial investigations, a reduction of the expenditure of the court, and the foundation
of iD^tituiions for the benefit of the working-classes. He was, for a time, extremely
popular; but deeper reforms were rendered impossible by the opposition of the privi-
le^ classes. lu June, 1777, when the state of the finances seemed nearly desperate,
liecker (q.v.) was called to the oflice of general director of them, and succeeded in
bringing ihem to a more tolerable condition, without any very radical change; but from
the interference of France in tlie American war of independence, he was obliged lo pro-
pose the taxation of the privileged classes, hitherto exempted. Their resistuitcc com-
peiied him to resign; and Joly de Fleury succeeded him; but the general discontentment
iaduced the king, in 1788, to appoint Galon ne (q.v.) comptroller-gcneral, who found
money for a time by borrowing, much to the satisfaction of the courtiers. Bui the
indignation of the people increasing, Calonne found it necessary to recommend the con-
Tening of an assembly of the notables. On May 1, 1787, the archbishop Loni^nie de
Brienne became finance minister. He obtained from the notables some concessions and
some new taxes. But the parliament of Paris refused to register the edict of taxation,
as oppressive to the people; and the extravagance of the court and the queen begjm to
be freely spoken of. The convening of the states-general now began to be demanded
from every comer of France. The king registered yie edicts in a lit de justice, and ban-
u<bed the councilors of parliament toTroyes; but ere long found it necessary to recall
ibf-m. and experienced from them even a stronger opposition than before. ()n May 8.
l"^, he dissolved all the parliaments, and estabfisliea a new kind of court (cmir plenihe)
ia«ead; but this act of despotism set the whole country in fiames. Matters b<*came still
worse, when on Aug. 16, appeared the famous edict, that the treasury should cease from
all cash payments except to the troops. Brienne was compelled to resign, and Neckcr*
again became minister. An asscmblv of the states of the kingdom was i-csolved upon;
ud by the advice of Necker, who wished a counterpoise to the influence of the nobility,
clerey, and court, the third estate was called in double number.
fte subsequent historjr of Louis is given at length under the head Frakcb. All
readers of history are familiar with the mclanchojy incidents of his life, from the open
ing of the assembly of the states (May 6, 17891* down to his tragic execution. At 10
o'clock in the morning of Jan. 81. 1703, he died by the guillotine, in the Place de la
Resolution. Great precautions were taken to prevent any rescue. As the executioner
bound him, Louis tore himself free, and exclaimed: "Frenchmen, I die innocent; I
;Har that my blood <tome not upon France." The rolling of drums drowned bis voice.
En* the guillotine fell, the abb^ Edgeworth, his confessor, cheered him with the words:
"Sou oiSt. Louis, ascend to heaven!"
LOUIS XVll., Charles, second son of Louis XVI. of France, b. at Versailles, Mar.
27. 1785, received the title of duke of Normandy, till, on the death of his brother in
l"^, be became dauphin. He was a promising boy. In the earlier days of the revolu-
tioo he was sometimes dressed in the uniform of the national guard, and decorated with
tlK tricolor, to gratify the populace. After the death of his father he continued in prison
-St first with bis mother, but afterwards apart from her — in the temple, under the charge
«fs coarse Jacobin shoemaker named Simon, who treated him with great cruelty, and
l»i bun into vicious excesses, so tliat he became a mere wreck both in mind and body,
ifter the overthrow of the terrorists he was — perhaps intentionally — forgotten, and died
Jooe 8, ITS^. A report ^read that he was poisoned, but a conunission of physicians
ciamiiied the body and declared the report unfounded.
LOTUS XTin., Stanislas Xavtkr, the next younger brother of Louis XVL, b. at
Versiillcs, Nov. 17. 1755, received the title of count de Provence. In 1771 he mnrried
Maria Josephine Louisa, daughter of Victor Amndcus III. of Sardinia. After tlie ncces-
^n of Louis XVI. to the throne he assumed the designation of monsievr, and became
to opponent of every salutary measure of the government. He fled from Piiris on the
'tine night with the kin^, and was more fortunate, for, taking the road hf Lille, he
wenched the Belgian frontier in safety. With his bix>ther, the count d'Artais, he now
p^ued declarations against therevolutionnrv cause in France, which had a very unfavor-
able effect on the situation of the -king. The two brothers for some time held a sort of
rnar^at Coblentz. Louis joined the body of 6.000 emigrants who accompanied rlie Pnis-
aans across the Rhine in July. 1792, and issued a manifpslo even more foolish and
fxtrava^nt thap that of the duke of Brunswick. After the death of his brother, Louis
Vi'l, he proclaimed his nephew king of Prance, as Louis XVIL, and in 1795 himself
^sained the title of kinff. The events of subsequent years compelled him frec^uently to
ditnge his place of abode, removing from one country of Europe to lan^lireri nil at last, v
I<outelaaa. ^^^
in 1807, lie fonnd a refuge in EngUnd, and pi irchaatd a residence, Hartwell, in Bucking-
hamshire, where his wire died in 1810, and where he remained till the fidi of Nupoleon
opened tlie way for him to the French throne. He landed at Cabiis on April 26, 1814,
iind entered Paris, nfter 24 years' exile, on MayS; and the nation received the consti-
tutional cliurter from his hands on June 4. See Fbance.
The conduct of the government, Iiowcver, was far from being constitutional or lib-
eral. Tlie nohles and priests exercised an influence over the weak kin^ which led to
severe treatment of the imperialists, the republicans, and tlie Protestants. I'lwju followed
Napoleon's return from £Iba, when the kinff and his family fled from Paris; renuiiued
at Ghent till nfter the battle of Waterloo, and returned to France under protection of
the duke of Wellington. He issued from Cambrai a proclamation in which he acknowl-
edged his former errors, and promised a general amnesty to all except traitont. Again,
however, lie followed in many things the counsels of the party which detested all the
fruits of the revolution. But the chamber of deputies, elected with many irn-guLirities,
was fanatically royalist, and the kin^. by advice of the duke de Richelieu, dissolved it;
whereupon arose royalist plots for his dethronement, and the abolition of the charter.
Bands of assjissins were collected by nobles and priests in the provincirs, who slew hun-
dreds of adherents of the revolution and of Protestants, and years elapsed ere peace and
good order were in any measure restored. Louis died Sept. 16, 1824.
LOUIS (properly Luiiwia) THE OEUCAV, the third son of Louis le dehonnairc.
was b. about 805, and by the treaty at Verdun, in 848, Louis obtained Germany, and
becam(i the founder of a distinct German monarchy. He died at Frankfort, Aug. 28,
870. His kingdom was divided amongst his three sons: Carlmann obtaining Bavaria,
Carinthia, and the tributary Slavonic countries; Louis obtaining Franconia, Thurinsria,
Saxony, and Friesland; Charles the fat obtaining Swabia, from the Main to the Alps.
See Carlovinqianb.
LOUIS THC Grsat, King of Hungary. See Hunoart, ante.
LOUIS II., Roman Emperor (see Carlotimqians, ante), 82^-75; the oldest son of
Lothaire I., and reigned 855-75. By the treaty ef Verdun, the empire, after the (Wih of
Louis le debonnaire. was divided between his three sons, Lothaire L, Louis the (^nnan,
mnd Charles the bald. Italy was assigned to Louis II., who took the title of emperor;
Charles took Provence ana Lyons; and Lothaire II. the region called Lotharin*^ia, or
Lorraine. Louis II. defeated the Saracens at Benevento in 848, and expelled them from
Bari. Ho established his authority over the great families of Italy, manv of whom con-
spired with the Byzantine empire. Charles having died without children in 863, his
brothers, Louis II. and Lothaire I'L, divided his dominions between them. Lothaire II.,
six years later, also died withoht issue, when Charles the bald and Louis the German
seized and divided his dominions. Louis II. d. at Brescia, leaving no male issue, where-
upon his two uncles seized his dominions, the province of Lorraine falling to Crermuny.
LOUIS III., THB Child, Roman Emperor (see Carlovinoiahs, ante), 893-911 :
raised to the throne cf Germany on the death of his father. Arnulf in 899 by duke Otto
of Siixe, margrave Luitpold of Austria, and archbishop Hatto of Mentz, it being their
desire to govern the country during his minority. Germany was in a wretched condi-
tion under their rule, and tue Hungarians seized this opportunity and devaatiited it as
far as Thuringia. In the death of Louis III., who reigned 908-11, the Carlovingian
dynasty was extinguished in Germany.
LOUIS, PiBRRB Charlks Albxandrb, 1787-1872; b. in the department of Mame,
France; graduated in medicine at Paris 1818, and afterwards entered the hSpital de la
ehariie, and pursued the study of pathological anatomy. In 1835 be published Reeherehet
Anatftmico-patfuflogiqMS ear la Phthi^ie; and in 1826 Reeherehse wr la Membrane Afngveuse
de VEstomac, of which a second edition was published in 1848. These works gaincKl him
admission to the academy of medicine. In 1828 he was one of the commission sent to
Gibraltar to investigate yellow fever. There also appeared in 1828 his Reeh&rches tur
la Fi^vre Typhoide, republished in 1841 ; Bxamende VExamendsBronttaw, in 1884; and in
1885 Redurches sur la Effets de la Saignee dane Quelquee Maladies Inflammatoiree, He
retired from practice in 1854, having won a great reputation as a medical scientist. He
was one of the most prominent in the profession to advocate the importance of statistics
in medical investigations. He died in Paris.
LOUISA, a s.e. co. of Iowa, 400 sq.m.; pop. *80, 18,146; traversed by the Burling-
ton, Cedar Rapids and Minnesota railroad, ana watered by the Iowa river. The surface is
level, and the soil fertile, broad bottom lands occurring at intervals. The most impor-
tant productions are cattle, grain, and wool. Co. seat, Wapello.
LOUISA, an e central co. of Virginia, 460 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 18,941. The surface is
irregular, the soil productive, tobacco and grain beinff the staples. There are no impor-
tant manufactures ex cent flour. The Chesapeake and Ohio railroad intersects this county.
Co. seat, Louisa Court-House.
LOUISA (LcHB AuousTB WiLxrauniVB Amalzb)» Queen of Prussia. Sec Luisb,
«»*•• , Digitized by VjUUV IC
1 QQ I^oqU.
^^^ lAfuiBimmm,
LOUISA ULRICA, 1720-83. Qucem of Sweden; sister of Frcclcric the prcnt; b.
inBerlia; married in 17i4 tiic croun-princc Adolphus Frederick of Sweden, nfierwards
iisg. She was a woman of rare intelligence. Through her infhience the great botanist
LiDusus was enabled to publish his system. Tlie academ) of belles-letlix's and history
tad the musiicni at Stockholm, as Avell as a library and art-museum at Drottinghulm,
rere founded through her influenoe. She was mother of Gustavus III. and Charles
Jill
L0UIS6URG, a t. in 8.e. Nova Scotia, on the Atlantic coast, at the mouth of a small
esiuary ; hi the terminus of a railroad SO m. in length from Sydney across the co. of Capo
Brclon. It bad formerly a finely built stone fortress, mounting 65 cannim and 16 mor-
tars, erected liy emigrants from the French settlements after the peace of Utrecht in 1713,
ud namctl iu honor of Louis XIV. The harbor was defended by a high wall and a ditch
89 fL wide, n buttery of SO guns on Goat iUund, and another, tlie ** royal battery," far-
ther down the harbor, mounting SO guns. Thoso fortifications, built in 80 years and
fosting $.>,i>50,000, were destroyed by the British in less than three mouths at an expense
of $50,000. In 1745 the legislature of Massachusetts Bay, on account of the danger men<
«ciDg its fisheries from the proximity of a fortified town belonging to the French and
ibu shelter given to the privateers of a country with which they were at war. by the
advice of gov. Shirley and a maiority of one vote in a secret session, sent a force of
3.2oOnien of the state militia, under command of William Pepperell, with 516 men of
CoDDccticut and "SO^ of New Hampshire, with a fleet of 100 5iew Enghind vessels and
4 squadron under the British commodore Warren, against the town, which landed in its
Ticinity April 80. The sie^e ended June 17, 1746, by tlie surrender of 1600 Frenchmen
Qoder Duchambon. The English also captured a large ship in the harbor coming with
TeiDforcements for the French; and on their triumphant entrance to the town tiie same
drums were beaten that, 80 years afterward, were boatcn at Bunker Hill. In 1748 the
pince came nsrain under French rule as one of the results of the peace of Aix-la-Cha-
peile. In 1757 6.000 regulars. 4,000 men from New England, and others from New York
and New JeiM-'y, were ordered to report at llalifas for the puipose of making an attack
oaLouisbuig, but were disheartened by the prospect of a well-garrisoned fort and 17
French ships of war moored in the harbor, and discreetly withdrew. In 1768 the town
was borabitrdcd by 14,000 British troops under gen. Amherst, with a fleet including 20
^bipsof the line, 18 frigates, and some smaller vessels, sailing from Halifax. The sur-
D'oder of the French gamson of 3,100 men, under the chevalier de Drucourt, and a fleet
of 8 ships, occurred July 26, 1768; and 5,637 soldiers and sailors were taken prisoners.
It had formerly a pop. of 8,000 in a well-built town on the s. side -of the harbor, and
ind a large trade in codfish, exporting annually 500,000 quintals, employing (while under
French dominion) for this and other oranches of tiade, and in the fisheries, 600 vessels.
Under English government its trade has diminished, and a convenient harbor, one-half
mile wide at the entrance, is used simply as a stopping*place for steamshlpst. It is occu-
pied by about 300 fishermen, and has a light-house on the e. side of the harbor.
lOJUB-WOSL (i.e.. golden Lo^ntf), a gold coin which was introduced into France im
1641. and continued to be coined till 1795. It was introduced in consequence of the
prevalent ctistom of clipping and otherwise defacing the then coins of the realm, from
vhich malpractices it was thought to be m some measure secured by its border. The
old coins were called in. The louis-d'or ranged in value from about 16s. 7d. to 18s, 9|d.
sterling. Some lonisd'oTs bear special names, chiefly derived from the figure exhibited
on the obverse side. — In some parts of Germany, the larger fold pieces, of Ave thalers or
thereby, are often popularly called louis-d'or, and the name is also occasionally applied
*«o the French napoleon or 20-fi*anc piece.
LOinfllA'VA, one of the United States of America, bounded on the s. by the guTf of
Mexico, and on the w. by the state of Texas. It is 290 m. from e. to w., and 200 from
A. to 8., haviQi^ an area of 41,346 sq.m., or 26,461,440 acres. The principal rivers are
'^e Hissiaaippi— -which has a course of 800 m. in this state, and whose delta traverses
'ts southern half— Bed river and the Washita, and their branches. Thepriiicrpal towns
sre New OrletiDS (the capital) and Baton Rouge, on the Mississippi. Tlie coast line, a
portion of the shore of the gulf of Mexico, is 1266 m. in length. The surface is flat,
rising nowhere more than 200 ft., and of alluvial formation. A larire portion of the
^te is below the high- water level of the rivers, and is protected by dikes, called tevees,
from inundations. The land is generally of great richness, producing sugar-cane, cotton,
noe, maize, tobacco, oranges, bananas, figs, peaches, etc. In the forests are several
fciuds of oak. hickory, locust, sassafras, mulberry, etc. In 1860 Louisiana produced
^,776 hogsheads of sugar and 18,489,772 gallons of molnsses; in 1870 these figures
ad fallen to 80.706r and 4,585,150; in 1877 the produce of sugar was 127,758 hogsheads.
I^Qisiana ranks fifth among the cotton-raising states. In 1879 the public debt was
111,724,800. funded. There are 6 colleges in Louisiana, near 1000 schools, numerous
piblic libraries, and in 1878, 89 periodicals. Louisiana was settled by the French
is 1699; in 1716 it was granted to John Law, who based upon his grant the
famous Mississippi company; ceded to Spain in 1763: re ceded to Napoleon t. in 1800;
pnrcbssed in 1808 by the United States for $15,000,000; and admitted as a state in 1812.
^TBded by the British troops in 1814 under gen. Packenham, New Cg-jj^fj^^y^iiup^g^^
Xfionlstwuu
190
fully defended by gem. Jackson. The population, mostly Creoles, was, in 1870, 710,894;
in 1875, 857,030.
LOUISIANA (ante). In 1541 De Soto visited and explored the region around New
Orleans, and, dying in the following year, was buried in the waters of the Mississippi.
In 1673 father Marquette and his Canadian followers descended the river to its mouth,
but founded no settlement. In 1682 La Salle descended the river and took possession
of the country in the name of Louis XIV., in whose honor he named it Louisiana. It
is believed, however, that no colony was founded before Iberville in 1699, wiih a num-
ber of colonists, settled in Biloxi, now in Alabama. Iberville, dying soon afterwards,
was succeeded by Bienville, who, after he and his colonists had ensured great privsp
tions, led them to the present site of New Orleans in 1706, where they made a stand
and unfurled the flag of France. The colony languished, but the colonists did not
abandon their post. In 1712 Louis XIV. gave to Anthony Crozat, a Paris merchant,
the exclusive privilege for 15 years of trading in all this vast region, of sending a ship
once a year to Africa for a cargo of slaves, and of working the mines, one-fourth of the
products of which Crozat agreed to pay over to the kine. In 1717 he relinquished the
colony as unprofitable, and the province fell into the hands of John Law, the great
speculator, who soon came to financial disaster, and was followed by Bienville, who
built up the town of New Orleans, which was made the capital of the colony in 1723.
The affairs of the new settlement remained under the direction of the French crown
until 1762, when the province was secretly transferred to Spain, which ruled it with a
rod of iron for 88 years, when in 1800 it was restored to France. Three years later it
was sold to the iJnited States for $15,000,000. At that time it embraced nearly all of
the present states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Dakotah territory,
most of Kansas and the Indian terrltory^part of Colorado, most of Wyoming, and the
whole of Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington territory. In lw)4 the southern
portion of this vast region was organized by congress as the territory of Orleans. In
1810 another part of the state, lying between the Mississippi and the Amity and Pearl
rivers, was annexed to Orleans; and in April, 1812, the territory as thus constituted was
admitted to the union as a state, with the name of Louisiana. Three months after this
the United States declared war against Great Britain. The war continued a little over
two years, the treaty of peace being sif^ned at Qhent, Dec. 24, 1814. Before news of
the peace could cross the ocean a JBritish force of 12,000 men, led by sir John Packen-
ham, landed on the coast of Louisiana and made an attack upon New Orleans, which
was successfully resisted by gen. Jackson with only 5,000 men, mostly militia from
Tennessee and Kentucky. The progress of the state after this was rapid.
The surface of Louisiana is mostly low and level, much of the southern part especi-
ally being not more than 10 ft. above the sea-level and liable to frequent inundations
from the rivers. The delta of the Mississippi is full of swamps, and the coast is lined
with salt marshes. The land along the Mississippi below New Orleans and 120 m.
above is below the surface of the river at high water, and protected from inundation by
artificial embankments called levees. A breach in a levee, called in the language of the
country a crevasse, sometimes occurs, inundating hundreds of thousands of acres
of valuable land and destroying the growing crop*. The northern and western
part of the state is somewhat broken by low hills, nowhere rising above 200 feet.
The river bottoms are exceedingly fertile, and the alluvial land is easily drained.
The latter is heavily timbered, and covered with a thick undergiowth of cane. The
prairies are better fitted for grazing than for culture. The hilly portion of the state
consists mainly of pine barrens, on which are found oak. elm, cypress, honey-locust,
and other timber. Among the forest trees of the state are the ash, walnut, hickory,
poplar, mulberry, magnolia, cotton-wood, maple, buckej'C, willow, paw paw, pecan,
dogwood, and persimmon. The wild cane sometimes grows to a height of 80 feet.
Among the fruit trees are the quince* plum, peach, ng, orange, lemon, and lime.
The orange grows only in the southern, the apple only in the northern, section.
The chief -agricultural staples are cotton, sugar, rice, and com. The rice and
sugar plantations are found only in the southern part of the state, below lat. 80", upon
the alluvial lands along the Mississippi. Nearly all the sugar made in the United States
is produced here. It is a somewhat uncertain crop. The mineral productious of the
state are unimportant. Rock salt of unknown depth is found at Petit Ansc upon an
area of more than 140 acres, and in Calcasieu parish are deposits cf gypsum and sulphur.
There are salt wells in Bienville. Natchitoches, and Winn parishes.
The climate of s.e. Louisiana is to some extent malarious; but the northern and
western sections are healthful, nnd much visited by consumptives, who are generally
benefited by a residence there. By careful attention to sanitary laws New Orleans has
become far more healthful than it formerly was. Owing to the prevalence of northern
winds, the winter months in Louisiana are more severe than in other regions of a corre-
sponding latitude. The summers are long and hot. The mean annual temperature at
New Orleans is about 67"; that of the warmest month, 82"; of the coldest, 46'. The
Mississippi, one of the largest rivers in the world, has a course 9f nearly 600 m. in the
state.
The Red river enterR the n.e. corner of the state from Arkansas and flows in a 8.«.
Digitized by VjiOUV IC
191
Ti^iitfftaniy
direction till it reaches the Mississippi some 40 m. below Natchez. Near its mouth it
receives the Washita, which also enters the state from Arkansas and flows almost due-
south. Its other affluents are the Dugdemona. the Sabine bayou, and the Bastineau
river and lake. The Sabine river forms in part the western boundary of the state. The
Pearl, the Tangipahoa, Tickfaw, and Amite are the principal streams e. of the Missis-
Rippi. There are besides several lar^e bavous and estuaries, which are but secondary
mouths of the Mississippi. The chief or these are the Atchafalaya, with its series of
lakes, the Vermillion, the bayou Teche, bayou de Large, and bayou la Foiirche. Lakes
PoDtchartrain, Borgne, Maurepas, Sabine, Calcasieu, Mermentenu, Grand, Marsh,
Charles, Grand Chenidre, Callou. etc., are all estuaries, their waters being salt from
comniunication with the gulf of Mexico, and connected with rivers or bayous. The
islands off the coast produce sea-island cotton of the finest quality.
The wild animals of the state are the black bear, wolf, panther, wild-cat, raccoon,
otter, polecat, opossum, squirrel, etc. ; the alligator inhabits the bayous. Among the
reptiles are the rattlesnake, horned-frog, lizard, viper, moccasin snake, etc. Among the
birds are the gray and bald ea£[le, the king vnlture, the turkey buzzard, hawk, owl, gull,
pelican, crane, heron, wild-turkey, wild-goose, pigeon, wild-duck, etc.
The number of acres of improved farm land in 1870 was 2,045,640; cash value of
farais. $68,215,420; estimated value of all farm products, $52,006,622. The value of
farm implements and machinery in 1870 was $7,159,338; wages paid during the year,
$11,042,789; value of orchard products, $142,129; of produce of market gardens. $176.-
969; wheat product, 9,906 bush. ; com, 7.596,628 bush. ; sweet potatoes, 1,028,700
bush; rice, 15.854,012 lbs.; wool. 140,428 lbs.; cotton, 850.832 bales: milk sold,
833.928 galls.; cane molasses, 4,585,150 galls.; cane sugar, 80,706 hogsheads. The
number of pounds of sugar raised in several successive years and the value thereof are
thus stated: 1875-76. 165.450.000 lbs., valued at $11,578,000; 1876-77, 194,964,000
lbs., valued at $15,646,000; 1877-78, 149.469,000 lbs., valued at $9,007,000. The
product of molasses in 1877-78 was 18,576.874 galls. The rice crop of 1877 was 140,-
785 bbU. ; that of 1877-78, 157,770 bbls. The orange crop is becoming important, but
there are no accurate statistics of its increase. The cotton product of 1872 was 434.000
bales; that of 1877, 645.000 bales. The sugar crop of 1877 was 208,841 hogsheads. The
manufactures of the state, aside from sugar, are not very extensive. In 1870 there were
2,557 establishments, including the sugar mills on the plantations; capital invested,
118.318.974; wages paid, $4,598,470; value of products, $24,161,905, of which sum
110,841,838 was credited to sugar alone. The other branches of manufacture were:
lumber, bakery products, iron-castings, tobacco and ci^rs, clothing, flouring mill prod-
ucts, railroad cars, machinery, cotton-seed oil, ship-building, and malt liquors. Since
1870, 2 cotton factories and 5 sugar refineries have been established. Tbo assessment of
property for taxation in 1878-79 was estimated at $177,000,000.
in domestic and foreign exports, Louisiana ranks next to New York. Its exports of
domestic products for the year ending June 80, 1874, were valued at $98,478,518. The
imports of 1874 were estimated at $14,548,056. The value of inward-bound coastwise
cargoes to New Orleans in 1872 was $160,000,000. The coastwise and foreign trade
together amount probably to not less than $400,000,000 annually. In 1874, 2,928 vessels
entered the ports of the state, having an aggregate tonnage of 1,640,676 tons, and being
manned by 51,864 persons. In the same year 8.042 vessels cleared from the same ports,
with an aggregate tonnage of 1,743,812 tons, and manned bv 49,956 men. The domestic
exports from New Orleans for the year ending June 80, 1879. were valued at $63,624,-
797; the imports for the same period amounted to $7,141,989. The increase in the
depth of water at the mouths of the Mississippi, by means of jetties, has had a visible
effect upon the commerce of New Orleans.
In 1873 there were in the state 8 national banks, with a capital of $4,150,000. Other
banks, organized understate laws, had capitals amounting to about the same sum. There
were also several savings banks and insurance companies. The pop. of the state in
1870 was 726,915, of whom 362,065 were white and 864.210 were colored. In 1874 the
nnmber of miles of completed railroad was 445, the chief lines being the Clinton and
Port Hudson; the Baton Rouge, QrossT^te and Opelousas; the New Orleans. Jackson
and Great Northern ; the North Louisiana and Texas; the Texas and Pacific. Short
canals connect the navigable waters around New Orleans.
The state institutions are the penitentiary at Baton Rouge, the insane asylum at
Jackson, the charity hospital at New Orleans, and the institutions for the deaf and
dumb and blind at Baton Rouge. The public debt of the state in 1878 amounted to
$11,785,293. There was a failure to pay the interest falling due upon this debt Jan. 1,
1879.
The public school fund includes: 1, the sum of $1,130,867, the avails of lands granted
by the United States for the support of free schools, on which tlie state pays an annual
interest of 4 per cent ; 2, proceeds of such taxation as the legislature may levy for the
purpose; 8, any lands or other property bequeathed to the state for schools; 4, all prop-
erty or funds, other than unimproved lands, bequeathed to the state and not designated
for other purposes; 5, avails of lands escheated to the state. The constitution provides
for the election of a superintendent of public education for a term of 4 years. Colored
children are not allowcKi to attend the same schools with white children. According to
Digitized by VjOUV iC
1a>hU Napoleon. ^^^
the report of the state snperintetident for 1873 there were in the stnte 273,^ persons of
school age; number of school districts, 483; of public schools, 864; Icachcrs, 1296, of
whom 6bo were males and 611 females; average salary of teachers per month, |42.50;
estimated value of school propert}', f;661,963; average daily alleudance in 84 parishes,
85,061. In 7 parishes no schools were rciwrled. The uuralier of private schools reported
was :^06. with 794 teachers and 21,434 pupils. The principal colle^^es of the slate are
the Louisiana stale university: the Now Orleans university (Methodist); St. Mary, Jef-
ferson (Uoman Catholic); Ceutcnarv (Methodist); Slmight univei-sil^y (nonsectiirian. but
imder Congregational auspices). The New Orleans and Straight universities are open to
all, wit^^out distinction of race or sex. The Louisiana state agricultural and mechanical
college was established in New Orleans in 1874. It is supported in part by the avails of
the land received from congress for that purpose under the act of 1802. The legislature
in 1880, in compliance with an express provision of the constitution, passed an act to
establish in New Orleans a universil;^ for persons of color, to be known as " Southern
university." The number of libraries reported in 1870 was 2,^82, containing 847,406
Toluriies. There were at the same time 7 daily, 1 triweekly, 8 semi-weekly, and 75
weekly newspapers, about 20 of them being printed wholly or partly in French. The
number of church organizations was 638, owning 599 edifices, valued at $4,048,143.
A new constitution, framed by a convention held for the purpose, was ratified by the
people Dec. 8, 1879, by a vote of 86.494 in tlie affirmative to 27,346 in the negative. The
governor is elected by the people for 4 years, and receives a salary of $4,000. The
general assembly is composed of a senate and house of representatives; the former
lo consist of not more than 36 nor less than 24, and the latter of not more than
98 nor less than 70 members, to be elected for 4 yeare, and to receive ^4 per day while
engaged in the performance of tlieir duties. The asi>embly meets biennially, and its
sessions are limited to 60 days. The supreme court is composed of one chief-Justice and
three assockte justices, appointed for 12 years by the governor, with the advice and con-
sent of the senate; their salaries are $5,000 each, and the court, with some special
exceptions, has only an apixjllate jurisdiction. The state is divided into 4 supreme
court districts. The courts of appeal, one for each of five circuits, are each composed of
two circuit judges, elected for 8 years by the two houses of the general assembly in joint
session; salaries. $4,000. These courts have no other than an appellate jurisdiction.
The district courts are each composed of a single judge elected by the people of the dis-
trict for 4 veare. and paid a salary of $3,000. These courts have a very wide jurisdic-
tion, but their decisions are subject to review by the higher courts. The districts must
be not more Uian 80 nor less than 20 in numlier, at the discretion of the legisLuure.
Special courts are provided for the ciljr of New Orleans. New Orleans U the seat of
government. Lotteries may be authorized by the legislature until 1895, bej'ond which
time they are absolutely prohibited. The legislature, however, in 1880. cxeicising the
discretion which the constitution allows, passed an act of prohibition. Women over 21
years of age are eligible to any office of control or management under the school laws.
Loui^ana was one of the first states to secede from the union, the ordinance of
secession having been adopted in convention Dec. 23, 1860, by a vote cf 117 to 113.
The same convention adopted the confederate constitution and passed amendments to
the state constitution conforming it thereto. The people had no opportunity to vote
upon the quef^tion. except in electing delegates to the conventions. The new state
government maintained a nominal existence until near the close of the rebellion, though
most of the state, after the capture of New Orleans by admiral Farragut in April, 1862.
was in possession of the union forces. The city was handed over to the army, and
governed successively by gens. Butler and Banks. The latter, in 1863, made an
excursion into the Attaknpas region, along the bayou Teche, and succeeded in establish-
ing there the authority of the United States. In the spring of 1864 he ascended the Red
river with a large force, but was compelled to retreat after several disastrous battles. In
April. 1864, a convention of a port ion of the people of the state adopt<:d anew constitution
and sought readmission to the union, but congress denied the request. A second convcn-
lion was held and another constitution adopted in 1868. This constitution was accented
by congress upon certain conditions, which wore subsequently complied with; ana on
Jul^ 13. 1868, the covernment was relinquished by the military and handed over to the
civil authorities. During the three years of military occupation which followed the rebel-
lion, there were great political and social disturbances; and after the readmission of
the state to the union there were for a lime conflicts of authority of a most unpleasant
and dangerous character. The electoral votes of Louisiana for president and vice-presi-
dent of the United States have been cast as follows: 1812, 8 for Madison and Gerry;
1816, 3 for Monroe and Tompkins; 1820, 3 for Monroe and Tompkins: 1824, 3 for
Jackson and 2 for Adams for president, and 5 for Calhoun for vice-president; 1828, 5
for Jackson and Calhoun: 1832. 5 for Jackson atid Van Buren; 1836. 5 for Van Buren
and R. M. Johnson; 1840, 5 for Harrison and Tyler; 1844, 5 for Polk and Dallas; 1848,
6 for Taylor and Fillmore: 1852. 6 for Pierce and King; 1856, 6 for Buchanan and
Breckinrulire; 1860 and 1864. no vote; 1868, 7 for Seymour and Blair; 1872, 8 not
counted: 1876, 8 for Hayes and Wheeler.
LOUISIANA, a citv of Missouri, in Pike co.. on the Mississippi river, 11^ m; above
St. Louis, and on the Chicago and Alton railroad, which crofi»B^the^ver at this point;
l^olfl MapolMA.
pop. 8,tfS9; has 10 churches d weekly neWspApere, 1 college, 1 public library, a fine
pnblic school, public gas works, a paid fire department, 2 foundri.ee, and several tobacco
maDufactories. It is liie seat of an extensive lumber business, and the center of a fine
froit-growing region.
LOtns VAPOIJEov, whose full name was Charles Louib Napol£on Bonapartb,
and his titula)r designation, NapoUon 111,^ Emperor of the Frencfi, was b. at Paris, in the
palace of tlie Tuileries, April 20, 1806. He was the third son of Louis Bonaparte, brother
of the first emperor. See Bonapabtb Family. His birth was celebrated with great
rejoicings throughout France, as that of an heir to the imperial throne, for by the law
of succession (dated 28th Floreal, year 13, and 5th Frimaire, year 13), the crown, in
default of direct descendants of the emperor himself —and ho at that time had none —
could be inherited only by the children of two of his brothers, Joseph and Louis. But
Juseph was also childless, and the sons of Louis, in consequence, became heirs apparent
After the restoration of the Bourbons, the ez-queen Hortense, mother of LouisKapoleon,
went into exile, carrying with her her two sons. Napoleon Louis and Louis Napoleon.
8ince 1810 she had been separated from her husband. Louis received his early education m
the castle of Arcnenberg. on the shores of lake Constance, where his mother resided.
He was furnished with the best tutors that could be got, and was far from proving a
slothful pupii. At the gymnasium of Augsburg, he displayed quite a passion for history
and the exact sciences. His love of athletic sports was equally conspicuous: he was one
of the best fencers, riders, and swimmers in the whole school. In Switzerland, his incli-
nation and aptitude for military strategy, especially in artillery and engineering, was
first developed. He even served for some time as a volunteer in the federal camp at
Thun, ami at a later period in his life wrote a Manuel d^AriiUerie (ZQrich, 1836). In
1830. when an insurrection broke out in the pontifical states. Louis Napoleon and his
brother took part in it. The latter died at Forli, and Louis Napoleon himself fell danger-
ously ill at Ancona, and was onlv saved by the tender devoteancss of his mother. The
Austrian occupation of Ancona forced them to quit the city secretly ; they proceeded to
France, but their incognito being betmyed. they were expelled by Louis Philippe, after
a few clays, and crossed over to England, whence they soon rctured to Switzerland.
Such, however, was the charm of ^^apoleon's name that the chiefs of Polish insurrec-
tion offered him, in 1881, the command of their legions, *'as the nephew of the greatest
captain of all ages," and also the crown of Poland. The capture of Warsaw by the Rus-
sians, however, put a stop to further proceedings in this matter, and Louis Kapoleon
once more turned to his silent and somber studies. The death (July 22, 1832) of the
duke of Reichstadt, sometimes called Napc^^n II., only son.of the first emperor, opened
the future to his ambitious hopes; and even his supporters admit that, from this date
forward, his whole life, speculative and practical, was devoted to the realization of
what now became his "fixed idea;" viz., that he was destined to be the sovereign of
France. Between 1882 and 1886 he published several works, which not only kept
bim prominently before the French public, but evoked a considerable amount of
political and intellectual svmpalhy. We may mention his Siveries Politiques; Prqjet
de ConstUuiion; Deux Mots a M. de V hateavbriand sur la Dvehesse de Berri (in verse); and
Goneideraiiona Politi^ues et MiUtairen sur la Suisse. In 1886, believing in the instability
of the throne of Louis Philippe, and in the general disaffection of tJie bourgeoisie, encour-
aged also by the proofs of vivid attachment to his person displayed by nearly the whole
of the democratic party, but, above all, confiding in the grandeur of those memories
which his name recalled, he, with a few associates, among whom was the comtc de
Persigny, since better known, made his famous attempt at a coup d'etat at Strasbourg.
It was, as the world knows, a ludicrous failure. Louis Napoleon was taken prisoner
under humiliating circumstanceo, and after some days conveyed to Paris; but the gov-
ernment of Louis Philippe was afraid to bring a Bonaparte to trial — as in such a case it
could not rely upon the impartiality of a French jury — and in consequence shipped hira
off to* America The illness of his mother soon caused him to return to Europe. He
found her dying; two months later, be received her last sighs (Oct. 8, 1887). Although
the affair of Strasbourg had naturally enough caused many people to doubt the talent
and particularly the judgment of Louis Napoleon, still Louis Philippe, who was, politi
cally speaking, an extremely timid monarch, dreaded some new conspiracy, and, in con
sequence, the French government demanded of Switzerland the expulsion of the obnoxi
ous prince from its territories, M. Mole actually enjoining the French ambassador to
request his passports in case of a refusal. Switzerland was violently agitated, and was
almost on the point of going to war for the distinguished refugee (who was, in fact, a
Swiss citizen), when the latter resolved to prevent a rupture by leaving his adopted
country. He now proceeded to England, and settled in London. With cevtnin mem-
bers of the British aristocracy, h? came to live on a footing of considerable intimacy,
and there can be no doubt that he was also an object of languid wonder and interest to
the community generally, but he impressed nobody with a belief in his future and his
genius; nay. Englishmen erred so far as to suppose that the ''silent man*' was merely
"dull." In 1838 he published m London his Jdees Napoieonienves, which, read in the
l^ht of subsequent events, arc very significant. Europe generally regarded them as
idle dreams, but in France the book went through numerous ed^^f^^ by^^§^ jf#^
LouUviUe. * ^'^
Napoleon was in Scotland, and took part in the celebrated Egllnton toumament. Kext
year (1840), taking advantage of the sentiment aroused by the bringing home of the
ashes of his uncle from St. Helena, he made another attempt on the throne of
France at Boulogne. It was as grotesque a failure as the one at Strasbourg, and
undoubtedly provoked a certain feeling of contempt for its author in the mind of
the general public. Captured on tlie shore, while endeavoring to make his escape
to the vessel that had brought him from England, Louis l^apoleon was agam
brought to trial, and condemned to perpetual imprisonment ii^ the fortress of Ham.
Here he composed several works: Aux Mdiiei de VEmpereur; Fragments Historiques;
Analyse de la Question de Suisse; Beponse dM.de Lamartinfi; and "Shstindion du
Pauperisine; wrote political articles for the democratic journals, and actually took part
in editing the Dictionnaire de la Conversation, a valuable French encyclopfledia.
After an imprisonment of more than ^wq years, he made his escape (May 25, 1846),
by the help of a Dr. Conneau, in the disguise of a workman, and gained the Bcldan
frontier, whence he returned to England. The revolution of Feb. (1848) caused him
to hurry back to France, where he professed himself devoted to the views of the
provisional government; the latter, however, requested him to leave the country.
This he promised to do; but being elected deputy for Paris and three other departments,
he took his seat in the constituent assembly, .June 13, 1848. A stormy debate followed,
and on the 15th he resigned his seat, and, either from policy, or patnotism, left France.
Recalled to France in the following September by a quintiiple election, he once more
appeared in the assembly, and at once, through the agency of his zealous associates,
commenced his candidature for the presidency. The masses were — rightly or wrongly
—thoroughly in his favor. Out of seven and a half million of votes, 5,562,834 were
recorded for prince Louis Napol§on; gen. Cavaignac, who was nearest to him, obtaining
only 1,469,166. This fact is declared oy the partisans of the emperor to be an absolute
proof of his popularity, for at this period he had neither power nor money to force or
bribe opinion.. On Dec. 20 he took the oath of allegiance to the republic. For a few
days concord seemed to be re-established between the different political parties in the
assembly; but the beginning of the year 1849 witnessed the commencement of a series
of struggles between the president and his friends on the one side, and the majority of
the assembly on the other — the latter being |)rofoundly penetrated with the conviction
that Louis Napoleon was not devoted to the interests of the republic, but to his own.
The French expedition to Italy and the siege of Rome were, above all, the causes of
violent discussion in the chambers. This anarchic condition of things, in which, how-
ever, the president tenaciously held his ground, was summarily put a stop to by the
famous or infamous (for opinions differ) coup d'etat, Dec. 2, 1851. The principal actors
in this midnight deed were the president himself, M. de Morny, M. de Maupas, and gen.
St. Arnaud. The circumstances that marked it were of necessitr odious and even
atrocious; and there cannot be the shadow of a doubt that it engendered in the mind of
Europe a distrust of tiie honesty of Louis Napoleon, which, perhaps, was never during
his life wholly removed. His success was certainly magnificent, but the cost was also
enormous. The feeble attempts at an armed resistance m Paris were put down by the
jnilitary, who were favorable to the president, and under the command of his accom-
plices. A rigorous system of repression was put in force both in Paris and in the
departments, and the deportation to Cayenne and Algeria became painfully familiar
to the European public. France, as a whole, however, whether wearied of the incom-
petent democrats, or (as Kinglake supposes^ ** cowed" by the terrible audacity of the
president, appeared to acquiesce in his act; idT when the vote was taken upon it on the
20th and 21st of the same month, he was re-elected president for ten years, with all the
powers he demanded, by more than 7,000,000 suffrages. His enemies affirm they were
obtained by terrorism, and of course the same value cannot be^ placed upon this as on
the previous expression of national confidence. Louis Napoleon was now emperor in
fact; nothing was wanting but the name. This was assumed exactly a year after the
coup d'etat, in accordance, as it appeared, with the actual wish of the people. Amopg the
events of his subsequent reign were the conspiracies against him (1853), the attempts at
assassination (by Pianori, 1855, and Orsini, 1858), the Anglo-French alliance and the
Crimean war (1854r-56), the Franco -Italian war (1859), and the Mexican campaign (1863).
In 1870 Louis Napol6on declared war against Prussia; and, after several terrible
defeats, he suiTendered himself a prisoner at Sedan in September. Till the conclusion
of peace he was confined at WilhelmshOhe. In Mar., 1871, he joined the empress at
Chiselhurst. Kent; and resided there till his death, on Jan. 9, 1873. — In 1853 the emperor
married Eugene Marie, countess of Montijo. Their son, Eugene Louis Jean Joseph,
prince imperial of France, was born Mar. 16, 1856. He was in the field with his father
m 1870, but after the fall of Sedan escaped to England, where he entered the Woolwich
military academy, and in 1875 completed with distinction a regular course of study.
Volunteering to serve with the English artillery in the Zulu campaign of 1879, he was
killed in June, when reconnoitring, by a party of Zulus in ambush.
LOUIS PHILIPPE, King of the French, b. at Paris. Oct. 6, 1773, was the eldest son
of Louis Philippe Joseph, duke of Orleans. He received at his birth the title of duke of
Valois, and afterward that of duke of Chartres. His education was intrusted to the care of
Digitized by VjiOL^V IC
^^^ I/oaUTilltf«
ik celebrated Mme. de Oenlis. He entered the national fliiard, and became a member of
the dab of friends of the constitution, afterwards that of the Jacobins. Along with his
Uther, he renounced his titles, and assumed the surname of Egalite. He showed both
courage and capacity in the war; but his situation became very dangerous after the uusuc-
tcxlm battle of Neerwinden, in which he commanded the center. lie was included in the
•. nkr for arrest issued against Dumouriez, and on April 4, 1798, escaped along with him
:3io the Austrian territory. He sought in Switzerland a place of security for his sister
AdeUide, wandered about amongst the mountains for four months, and accepted a situa-
tion as teasheroi geography and mathematics in a school at Heichenau, nearChur, assum-
ing Uie name of Chabaud-Liatour. He afterwards wandered for some time in the n. of
Ecrope, and then went to North America. In 1800 he took up his abode at Twickenham,
oesr London, with his two younger brothers, both of whom soon after died. In 1809 he
□arried Marie Amelie, daughter of Ferdinand I. of the Two Sicilies. On the fall of Napo-
ieoD, he hastened to Paris, where he was received with distrust by Louis XVIII. After the
seoood restonUion, he recovered his great estates, which the imperial government had
>«qaestrated. Disliked by the court, he was veiy popular in raris. He kept aloof,
however, from political intrigues; and the three blooay days of the revolution of 1880
v&e Dearly over ere he was brought forward, the banker Laffitte proposing in the
pronsional committee his appointment as lieut.gen. of the kingdom, from which he
r<nx;eeded to the acceptance of a constitutional throne, Aug. 9, 1880. He defended
jii eonduct towards the elder Bourbons by protestipg that he acted for the welfare of
Fruice. He cultivated peaceful relations with foreign powers, sought to strengthen his
ijTODe by gaining the support of the middle classes, and repressed all the extreme
iftfties by what became known as the juste-nUlieii (q.v,) policy. The extreme democrats
Liicd him, and frequent attempts were made on his- lire, by infernal macfUnet and other-
wise. The country prospered under his government, but a demand for reform in the
riectoral system became loud and general, and was unwisely opposed by the king and
':ie Guizot (q.T.) ministir: whilst the conduct of the former in the matter of the
Hisrriapes of the queen of Spain and her sister,, manifesting a disregard of every con-
tention hut the interests of his own family, excited a strong feeling of indignation
Mroughoat £urope. The French nation became much excited; ** reform banquets"
'>'zm to be held; the government attempted to prevent them by force; insurrectionary
norementa ensued in the streets of Paris on Feb. 22, 1848; and the *' citizen king^'
^aw with alarm that the national guard could not be expected to support him. On
Feb. 24, he abdicated in favor of his grandson, tlie count de Paris; but the chamber of
J'-puties refused to acknowledge the boy as king. Louis Philippe, deserted by his
"jurtiers, fled to the coast of Normandy along with his queen, concealed himself for
^•me days, and at length found opportunity of escaping in a British steamboat to Kew-
-sren under the name of Mr. Smith. The brief remainder of his life was spent in
England. He died at Claremont, Aug. 26, 1860.
LOiriBYILLE, a city of Kentucky, on the falls of the Ohio, 130 m. below Cincinnati.
It is handsomely built, with broad streets on a level plai n . Main street is 8 m. long.* The
7 is snpplied with water from the Ohio, and by artesian wells, one of which has a depth
•: 2.089 It., a three-inch bore, and supplies 880,000 gallons of water in 24 hours, which
r.'es to a height of 170 feet The court-house cost $1,000,000. There is a fine custom-
>jo9e, jail, a marine asylum, 10 orphan asylums, hospitals, houses of refuse, 05 churches,
S daily and 16 other papers, several pork-packing establishments (at which, in 1878-74,
23S,947 hc^s were slaughtered), large leather and tobacco factories, etc. Steamers pass
Ter the rapids of the Ohio at high water, but at other times pass through a canal and
cia. Pop. 1870. 100,758. It was named Louisville (1780) in honor of Louis XVI. of
Fnnce, whose troops were then assisting the Americans in the war of independence.
LOUISVILLE {ante), the chief city in Kentucky and co. seat of Jefferson co., is
filiated about midway of the length of the Ohio river; 400 m. from its mouth and 000
'ram its head at Pittsburg; pop. '80, 128.645. The falls or rapids of the Ohio have
i;''re a descent of 27 ft. in 2^ m., affording a fine water-power, not yet much utilized.
The Louisville and Portland canal, through which steamboats pass when it is low
Titer over the falls, is 2 m. lone; has 8 locks, 480 ft. long and 90 ft. wide; and has a
•nacity for steamboats of 8,000 tons. It was built by the people of Louisville, the
' . S. government contributing; and since 1874 has passed under the control of the
.Iter, being free to commerce excepting a small charge levied for a fund for repairs.
f'}nnerly an unhealthy situation, subjected to malarial and bilious fevers, an adequate
T-tem of drainage ana sewerage has remedied this; and it is now one of the healUiiest
: southern cities. It is laid out in broad streets, lined with shade trees in the portion
-Toted to private residences; the latter being built with lawns and wardens in front,
^king a most agreeable appearance. A number of important lines of railroad connect
Luisville with the northern and southern railroad systems, including the Louisville,
Xa^hville and Great Southern; Louisville, Paducah and Southwestern; Louisville, Cin-
Jtnati and Lexington; and the Jeffcrsonville and Indianapolis, New Albany and
'-'dicago, Ohio and Mississippi, Louisville and St. Louis, etc. A bridge of stone and
^ n croflses the river at the head of the falls, having 27 spans, and a total length of
4 218| ft.» and which cost (2,016,819.68. An important industry is the sugar curing of j
LouvAln. A;;0
hams, and pork-packing. This city is also one of tlie largest markets for leaf-tobacco
in tbe world, exporting enormous quantities to France. Germany, England, and the
Dominion of Canada. There is also a very large and growing manufaciure of cigara,
86 manufactories having made, in 1874, nearly 14,000.(X)0 cigars. Tbe manufacture of
whisky is also an enormous business in Louisville, while it is the point of distribution
for the excellent and popular whiskies made in the Kentucky distilleries. Other impor
tant manufactures are the Louisville cement, leatber, furniture, iron pipe, etc. The
city has an etHcienC paid fire department, with telegraph and signal system. An ade-
quate police force, comprebeusive street railway system, and excellent system of public
schools, with its otber manifest advantages, combine to place Louisville on a par with
the otber well-constructed and well-governed cities of tbe world.
LOTT'LE, a t. of Portugal, in tbe province of Algarve, 6 m. n. by w. from Faro, and
180 m. s.c. from Lisbon. It is pleasantly situated on a hill amid troves of cork trees
and pomegranates. The remains of a Moorish castlo form a conspicuous feature in the
scene. Louie is one of tbe most thriving places in Portugal, and has more than doubled
its population within the last 40 years. Bioskets of aloe-ihread are a |)rincipal article of
manufacture. Pop. about 18,000.
LOURDES. a t. of 8. France, department of Eaute»-Pyren§e8, on tbe right l^ank of
the Gave-de-Pau, 24 m. s.e. of Pau; pop. 4,577. It is at tbe base of an almost inaccofr-
sible rock about 500 ft. high, on which is a fortress formerly possessed by the counts of
Blgorre, but now used as a prison. The place was fortified by Julius Csesar. Remains
of Roman fortifications are found, and some curious grottoes in tbe vicinity. When the
English held it in the 14ih c, it was the center of their military operations, but
after the treaty of Bretigny in 1460 it .was evacuated by them. Manufactures of hand-
kerchiefs and flax, and a general trade in agricultural produce, are carried on. It is a
noted place of pilgrimage among Roman Catholics on account of the alleged appear-
ance of the Virgin Mary to two girls, Feb. 14. 1858. In 1872 about 20,000 persons
resorted to the grotto of the Virgin Mary. It is alleged that many miraculous cures
have been wrrmght in answer to prayers offered at this Khrine. In some, at least, of the
many instances alleged, the fact of wonderful healing seems to be authenticated : tbe
explanations of the fact vary greatly, according to the scientific or religious theories of
the critic. One of tbe common explanations has been that the quickening of hope and
imagination in certain susceptible natures has effected a cure by the operation of
purely natural causes. This evidently leaves room for those who believe in healing by
the power of prayer, to say that prayer is by a natural law the stimulant of hope; and
that it in no wise derogates from tbe power of prayer to say that its place among the
forces by which God governs tbe world is so sure that his answers to it flow along the
lines of natural law. But perhaps the distinction between natural and supernatural
may need to be revised.
LOUSE, Pedtculus, a genus of insects, the type of a very numerous family, which
forms tbe order paranta or anojjlura. The body is flattened, almost transparent; the
segments both of tbe thorax and abdomen very distinct; tbe mouth is small and tubular,
inclosing a sucker; there are no wings; the legs are short, and are terminated by a claw
adapted for taking hold of hairs or fathers. Tbe eyes are simple, one or two on each
side of the head. All the species are small, and live Darasitically on human beings,
terrestrial mammalia, and birds. They deposit their eggs on hairs or feathers, to which
they attach them by a glutinous substance; and they multiply with astonishing rapidity.
The young cast their skin several times before they reach their maturity, which in tbe
best known species is said to be about eighteen days after they are batched, but, from
the first, they are very similar to their parents. Aniraafs of different kinds arc infested
by different species of louse ppculiar to them; those which are found on birds exhibit-
ing characters considerably different from those of man and mammals. The same
species is rarely found on different species of animals, unless verj' nearly allied; but
some animals have more than one of these parasites. Three infest tlic human race
one confined to the head, tbe Common Loupe (P. eapitin); another, tbe Body Locse
(P. vestimenii s. eorpom), very similar to it, but of a larger size; a third, the Crab LorsK
\phthiHuH mibU), sometimes found in the eyebrows, but more frequently in the pubic
region, and chiefly in persons of licentious habits; having tbe body broader, and other
chanvcters considerably different from the other two. The common or bead louse is a
very common parasite. The symptoms which the bites of these insects produce are a
troublesome itching, and a more or less apparent eruption upon the scalp, the eruption
being usually accompanied by small incrustations of blood produced by scratching off
the epidermis. On examining tbe head, in addition to the insects, numerous eggs
called nitswTQ found, which are of a pyriform pbape, and adhere firmly to the haire.
In six days the young escape from tbe effg; at tbe age of eighteen davs these nre again
ready to lay cngs; and the female lays 50 eggs in all; so that tbe rapid augmentation of
these insects is easily accounted for. When only a few lice are present, they may be
removed by careful combing, or may be killed by the free application of oil or poma-
tum to ihe'head; but when they are abundant, the scalp should be sprinkled with the
Persian insect-powder {pyrfihrum caueassum), which, j^fla*#)l&#iWpl*^o"*®***®''
1MB kills tbem, or rubbed with white precipitate ointment, which is the most common
remedy in this country.
The body Ioubo cau^s most irritation on those parts of the skin which correspond
vitb tbe folds and seams of the clotliing about the neck and round the waist where the
dotbes are fastened to the body. The Erritation is of the same character as that caused
bf tbe preceding^ species, and the treatment is similar. It is said that tlie clothes may
fepaiilied by buryiagr tliem in hay for several weeks, but the safer plan is to destroy
tbem. The irritation caused by the crab louse is greater than that caused by the other
«ped«s. It may be destroyed by one or two applications of an essential oil (oil of rose-
nanrfor example), or of white precipitate ointment.
Whether tbe pedietilus tabeteeniium, or louse occurring in tbe ltnt4^ disease, is or is not
fi distinct species, is still an open question. Indeed, the fabulous element enters so
liigely into most of tbe recorded cases of this disease — as, for example, when Amatus
Lasitanus relates tb&t two slaves were incessantly employed in conveying to the sea in
bt^kets the lice inrblcb appeared on the body of their master — that the question is of
comparalively littlo importance.
An iaterestini^ question has been raised with re^rd to the lice infesting human
beiBgs, it l>ein^ alleged, by those who desire to establish the essential diversity of cer-
tain races, and particularly by Americans anxious to make out the widest possible dif-
ference between tbe European race and negroes, that the lice found on different races
m specifically different Tlie subject has been examined with great care by Mr. Murray
of Con land, and ^witli evident impartiality; the result being, asapix)ears from his paper
. io the TranmMcHans of ikt Boyal Sodeiy of Edinburghy 1860-61, that the differences among
these parasitea are like those among the races of men themselves, easily observed, but
tot eettainly specific.
LOUTH, a marltiRie co. of the province of Leinster, in Ireland, bounded n. by Armagh
ind by lUe lougli of Carlingford, e. by the English channel, s. by the Boyne and the co.
of Meath, aud ^w. by Meath and Monaghan. Pop. '71, 84,021. Its area is 815 sq.m., or
9(6.523 acres. In this county 106,071 acres are under tillage, 69,322 pasture, 4,882 in
plantations, 21,605 w^aste, bog, towns, etc., and 658 under water. There is an extensive
liliage of wheat, barley, oats, and green crops. Linen also is lar^jely manufactured. The
mrfaoc iii flat, witb the exception of the lofty range on the n., which stretches e. and w.,
lad terminates, at a height of 1985 ft., in Carlin^ord mountain, overlooking the bay of
liiat name. This Ttokgd consists of a granite nucleus, supporting limestone and clav-
ilai« on its flanks. The soil of the level districts is extremely fertile, and eminently
mited for wheat-crops. The chief rivers are the Boyne (its boundary on the s.), the
Paiie, the Olyde, and the Dundalk river. The chief towns are Drogheda, Dundalk, and
Aidee. Liouth anciently formed portion of the territory of Oriel or Or-gial, but was
occupied by De Courcy, and formed into a county by king John in 1210. It was early
ipportioned among the military adventurers who accompanied De Courcy and De Lacy;
but most of these original settlers have been displaced by 4ater confiscations and appor-
eionnients of territory, especially after 1641 ana 1690. It abounds with Celtic antiqui-
ties, some of which, in the neighborhood of Dundalk, are of great interest. The eccle-
iiastlcal antiquities are verv striking. There are two round towers, at Monaster-boyce
tod mt Dromiskin. At Melllfont are the remains of a beautiful abbey. In Drogheda
«veral rained abbeys are still visible, as also at Louth and Carlingford. But the most
laterestine of all the relics of antiquity in Louth are the celebrated sculptured crosses of
Mooaster-boyce, of which tbe larger is 18 ft. in height. The county of Louth returns
two members to the imperial parliament It is in the Belfast military district, except
Dro^eda, which is in the Dublin district.
LOUTM, a large market t. and municipnl borough of England, in the co. of Lincoln,
^ m e.n.e. of the city of that name, on the Ludd. It contains a recently erected man-
sion house, with a court-house and assemblvroom ; a beautiful parish church of the
Alter part of the 14th c, with a rich octangular spire 800 ft. in height; and a grammar-
•chool, w^ilh an endowed annual income of £620 a year. Iron fouudries. tanneries, oil-
cake mills, and carpet factories are in operation. By means of the canal, extending
-jetween Laouth and Tetney haven on the estuary of the Humber, considerable traffic in
i com and coal Is carried on. Pop. *71, 10,500.
1 UOJPfAIM (Qer. Ldwen, Flemish, Leufien), a city of Belgium, in the province of Bra-
'aat, on the Dyle, 16 m. e.n.e. of Brussels. It is of considerable extent, but great part
'4 the ground is occupied with fields and gardens. Pop. 76, 88,917. It was at one time
such larser. During the 14th c, when it was the capital of the duchy of Brabant, it
XQtainM 200,000 mhabitants, and 4,000 cloth manufactories. The citizens, however,
^sdeavorin^, in the latter part of the 14th c, to assert their independence, along with
'•^ae of other towns of Flanders, were defeated ; and many of the weavers from whose
adostiy the city had in a great measure derived its wealth and importance, took refuge
a Borland, and thus contributed not a little to the prosperity of that oountiy. Lou vain
^ never recovered from the blow which it then received. It is nut now a place of
much industry, but has very large breweries, some tobacco and lace manufactories, etc.,
isd a European fame for beli-founding. The university, founded in 1426 by duke John
^ Brabant, was, in the 16th c, regarded as the greatest in Europe, particularly excelling
Louvre. ^^^
in the department of Roman Catholic theology. It had more than 6,000 students. It
was suppressed for some time, in consequence of the French revolution, but restored by
the Dutch government in 1817. The state relinquished it again in 1834, but the Roman
Catholic clergy restored it at their own expense in 1835. It has a large library and a
botanic garden, and is the most numerously attended of Belgian universities.
L'OUVERTXJRE. See Toussaikt. FRAN9018 DomKiQUE, anfe.
LOUVET DE COUVRAY, Jean Baptibte, 1760-97; b. Paris; son of a paper mer-
chant ; of moderate education. Before the i-e volution of 1789 he achieved a reputation by
the publication of a licentious romance, the fashion of its time. He entered with ardor as
a satirical writer into the politics of the revolution. His lievue des ArmeeM blanche ei nair,
a satire on the nobles and clergy, has survived. That waa followed by a romance,
entitled EmiUe de Vennont, as remarkable for its purity as his first work for the contrary.
In 1790 he published a pamphlet entitled Pans Jwtifie in reply to strictures of the
French emigres on the excesses of the revolution. He then became a member of the
Jacobin club, where he was conspicuous as an orator, and edited the journal of the
Jacobins. He had the boldness to attack Robespierre in the club in 1792, and his name
was striken from the list of members by tliat despot. He joined the Girondists in the
convention, and his speeches at this stage of the revolution were remarkable for elo-
quence and daring defiance of the Jacobins. His apostrophe of accusation against
Robespierre in the convention is considered the masterpiece of that exciting session.
Mme. Roland classes it with the great efforts of Cicero. But the Robespierre party ^
triumphed; Louvet was doomed to the guillotine, escaped, and hid in the mountains —
tracked like a beast. After the fall of Robespierre he returned to the xonvention, was
made president of the subsequent assembly, and member of the committee of public
safety. The last year of his life was imbittered by the slanders of the party of reaction,
and his own principles were modified by the desire to promote the speedy repose of
France.
LOuviJsBS, a t. of France, department of Eure, on the navigable river Eure, 60 tn.
n.w. of Paris. It has a cathedral, and celebrated cloth-manufactures, the annual value
of which is between three and four million francs. Pop. *76, 10,097.
LOUYOIS, Fran<;;oi8 Michel Lbtellieb, Marquis de, the war-minister of Louis
XIY., was b. in Paris, Jan. 18, 1641. His father was chancellor and secretary of state
in the war department, and purchased for him the reversion of this office. Louvois dis-
played great administrative ability; but his desire of power was insatiable, and he vras
willing to involve the whole worm in the horrors of war, that he himself might be iadis-
pensable to the king. His war-policy was also ruthless. He caused the Palatinate to
be wasted by fire and sword in 1674. For some time he was, after the king himself, the
most powerful man in France. After the death of Colbert, financial affairs came uoder
his coutrol, and the system of extortion and borrowing which he pursued was among
the cAuses of the revolution. He partially lost favor with tlie king by counseling liini
against the marriage with Mme. de Maintenon; but afterwards instigated the perse-
cution of the Protestants, and involved France in the long war with the German empire,
168^97. In 1689, with the alleged view of securing the confines of the kingdotn,
he again caused the Palatinate to be desolated. Mme. de Maintenon directed tlie
attention of the king to these atrocities, who thereupon forbade the burning of Treves ;
but Louvois declared that, to save trouble to the king's conscience, he had already iseuecl
orders for reducing that city to ashes. The kin^, upon hearing this reply, seized tbe
tongs from the chimney, and would have struck. his minister with that ready weapon, it
Mme. de Maintenon had not stepped between. Such scenes were repeatea from time
to time, and the health of the vain and ambitious minister gave way. He died suddenly.
July 16, 1691. Louis is said to have rejoiced at his death. — An elaborate history oj
Louvois*s administration, from original documents in the archives of the depdt de la
Guerre, by Camille Rousset, appeared in 1861-63 (4 vols., Paris).
LOUYBS (Fr. Vpuvert, the opening), an ornamental opening of a turret shape, place<]
on the roof, to allow the smoke or foul air to escape from large apartments, sucli a:<
halls, kitchens, et<;. These were particularly required in ancient times, when the tkri
was placed in the center of the room, and there was no chimney to carry off the smolve,
, They are frequently used as ornaments where not required for use, and are then glazed
) and made into lanterns (q.v.). The sides of the louvre were lined with horizontal o^er
lapped boarding, with a space between the boards, which let out the smoke witbom
admitting the rain. Hence, this sort of boarding, frequently used for the windows o1
i bell-towers, etc., acquired the name of louvre-boarding.
LOUVRE, Palace of the, the extensive buildings in Paris inclosing a quadran^vi 1 a i
square at the e. end of the court of the palace of the Tuileries, and now connected ^veitl
the latter. They are on the n. bank of the Seine, in the center of the chy. Tlie $%
facade is on the quay of the Seine called qiiai du Louvre, the n. on the rue JBicoU, tbe e
on the rue du Louvre facing the old church of St. Oermain les AvwerrciSt and the ^w
facing the magnificent, recently built fa^es of the palace of the Tuileries. The siti
is supposed to have been originally a hunting rendezvous and king's castle. Histon
does not reach back of the time when it was used as a royal habitation. A " new to^wer^
1 QQ I.*OTBrt«l]«t
vns erected in tbe center of the court in 1204, and used as an arsenal and prison.
Francis I. took it down in 1627 because it was unsightly and darkened the courtrard;
Charles Y. had previously made some additions, amonff them a library room with 059
Tols., the germ of the present bibliothdoue nationale, wiUi its 8,800,000 Yolumes. When
Francis I. entertained Charles V. in ICoQ, he endeavored to disguise the bad condition
of the old palace inside and out by temporary walls, repairs, and furniture; but was so
dissatisfied with the result that he decided on its entire reconstruction on a new plan.
The old €k>thic edifices in the midst of fortified towers and prison walls were razed, and
the present design of the quadrangular inclosure was adopted. The old court inclosed
about 400 ft square, and the inclosing palaces have 4 outer facades, 688 ft. and 576 ft.
long, respectively. The w. side was built after designs by I^erre Lescot, moetlv in the
reign of Francis I. Henry II. commenced and Henry Iv. finished the long gallery w.
of the 8.W. corner of the original quadrangle, with its main facade on the &ine. This
is not properly a part of the Louvre, but a connecting link between the old and distinct
palatial groups of the Louvre and the Tuileries. Being first connected with the Louvre,
it has taken its name. It was completed in 1606. and is still one of the most ornate
buildings in France. The sculptures of Jean Gk)ugon in the friezes of the fa9ade upon
the Seine are the most exquisite examples of architectural sculpture in existence. Louis
XIII. about 1634 had the w. side of the quadrangle completea. Under Louis XIY. the
& side was first completed ; and then, by order of Colbert, architects were requested to
send in designs for the e. side. The most beautiful design proved to be that of a phy-
sician, an amateur architect, Claude Perrault. Fortunately, its beautyaecured its aaoi>-
tion, and that facade is now one of the classic models of the world. The e. fa9ade was
begun in 1665 and finished in 1670, and is known as the colonnade of the Louvre. It is
555 ft. long and 90 ft. high. But the edifice, of which it was only the facade, was not
finished at that time. Louis XIY. concentrated all his extravagante on Versailles, and
for many years this most noble portion of the Louvre was roofless, and going to destruc-
tion. Its basement story was used for stables, and its upper portions weie temporarily
covered to make rooms for artists and employees of the court. " It was a grand free
hotel, where each one made his bed in his own fashion, and looked out for himself.'* In
1754 the e. colonnade and the facade now fronting the rue BiwU were encumbered with
temporary constructions that almost shut them from view. Louis XY. was induced to
order their demolition, and to finish the designs that Perrault had conceived. But it
was not done when the revolution of 1789 opened. The entire place on the e. and n.
was still almost hidden behind the crowd of houses built agamst and in the midst
of the unfinished palace buildings. Hills of rubbish encumbered the court. This
remiuned the condition of this noble building until the last years of the first republic,
when the work of clearing away the parasites was begun, when Kai)oleon*s victories
in Italy gave him the spoils of its works of art in the b^nninff of the present century,
he ordered the restoration and completion of the buildings, and made them the reposi-
tories of the art works of France. The fa9ade facing the court to the w. was remooeled
and finished in his reign. He also contemplated the work, subsequently done by Napo-
leon IIL, of connecting the Tuileries with the Louvre by a continuous line of palaces
on the u. and s. sides. Fortunately, he executed but a small part of the project, and
that after designs so inferior to other parts that thev still stand between exquisite exam-
ples of architectural art on each side, which preceded and succeeded them, as marplots
in the midst of that aggregation of beautiful palaces. The government of Louis Xvlll.
and Charles X. continued the work of finishing the interior of the Louvre. In the reign of
Louis Philippe the plan of connectinff the Louvre with the Tuileries was agitated. M.
Thiers demanded 100,000,000 francs for this and a mass of other work which he desired
to have undertaken. Fourteen millions was the sum named for the completion of the
Louvre and the Tuileries. It was refused. Louis Philippe gave the project little sup-
port When he was deposed in 1848, the provisional or republican government at once
began the great work. Thiers and gen. Cavaignac secured the passage of a law which
authorized the work subsequently pushed to completion by Napoleon III. The plan,
bv M. Yisconti, was the same which, with slight modifications, has been made to redound
almost exclusively to the credit of the emperor; though fully conceived and entered on
before he was in the government. Yet it must be conceded that it is doubtful if such
magnificent additions could have gone forward to completion under a government more
popular and liable to more frequent changes in legislation. In connection with the grand
avenues which he projected and completed, this work of connecting the Tuileries and
the Louvre is the most splendid monument of expenditure in ornamental construction
of modem times. The cost has probably been not less than $15,000,000. It was fairlv
underway in 1854, and completed in 1859. The palaces of the Louvre and the Tui-
leries combined, with their inclosed courts, cover about 60 acres.
The museums and galleries of tbe Louvre, now the most extensive and the choicest
collection of art works in the world, have acquired nearly all their greatness within our
own centur3^ The nucleus was made by the taste and liberality of Francis I., who not
onlv appreciated, but gathered the artists and art works of all countries around him. But
their works were mostly assembled at the palace of Fontainebleau. Colbert, in the reign
of Louis XIY., made immense additions; all of which, remarks a writer of that time,
were imprisoned by the royal rouS in the palaces of Yersailles, but " ought to be ranged
200
in beautiful order in the g^reat halls of tbe Louvre, whore they might be exposed to the
admiration and joy of the French and the curiosity of strangers, and become a source
of study and emuiation to a French school of art. " It has taken two centuries to effect
the accorapHshmeBt of that wise advice. Before the time of Louis XVI. the nlleries
of tlie Louvre had become the principal museum of valuables, both of mechanicslaad art
^orks: and the seat of the royal acaoemies of sciences, belles-lettres, architecture, paint-
ing, and sculpture. In 1775 it was proposed to gather all the masterpieces of art belonging
to the kings in the long gallery, but it was at Versailles, insteacf, that they contiuued
to accumulate. The republic of 1791 bn>ke up this royal selfishness. The immense
art resources of France were brought out of the royal catacombs, collected, systematized,
and exposed to public view in the great halls of the Louvre. It was during the fermen-
tation and the horrors of the great revolution of 1791 that the present national museum
was ordnined, and a commission appointed by the lc|fi8lative assembly to collect all
works of greatest value and beauty from the royal galTeries and transport them to the
Lottvrc, to form the museum of the republic. At a moment when France was almost
crushed by a foreign coalition and in the heat of internal turbulence, Roland, then min-
ister of the interior (1792), was instructed to plan the organization of that vast museum.
The miueum Franfais^ afterward called musM central des arU, was opened in 1793. But
it was a heterogeneous mass until many years after. In 1798 it was enriched by the pil-
lages of Napol^n I. in Italy. 8ince that time each new government of France has been
ambitious to enlarge and perfect all departments of its museums. There never have
existed museums comparable in extent or perfecCnesa of arrangement to those of the
Louvre at the present time.
LOY'A0E, LigvMieum, a genus of plants of the natural order umbelliferm, allied to
angelica^ the fruit qlliptical, euch carpel with five sharp somewhat winged ribs, and
many vitUB in the interstices. Common Lovagb (L. officinaU, or L, fee&ftijwm)is a native
of the s. of Europe, with ternatc decompound leaves, and obovate-wedge-diaped leaflets.
It is sometimes cultivated in gardens, and notwithstanding its strong and peculiar odor,
18 used as a salad plant. Its roots and seeds are aromatic, acrid, and stimulant, and are
used to cure flatulcncv and to excite perspiration. A liquor called lowxge is made from
them. Very similar in appearance and qualities is the only British species, Scottish
LOYAOE {L, Scoticum), a native of the sea-coasts in the northern parts of Britain. It is
eaten, both raw and boiled, by the Bhetlandcrs. The flavor is aromatic, but acrid, and
very nauseous to many who are unaccustomed to it.
LOYAT', a river of Hussm, rises in the Witebsk marshes, and flows through the |rov-
emments of Pskov and Novgorod into lake II men. Its total length is 267 m., and it is
navigable for barges of 50 tons as far up as Eholm, more than 80 m. from its mouth.
LO¥AT, Simon Frasbr, Lord, was b. about the year 1676, and was the second son
of Thomas Fraser, fourth son of Hugh, ninth lord Lovat. His motlicr was Sybilla.
daughter of the chief of the Maclepda The Fi-asers, a family of Norman origin, had
obtained Highland territories, in the county of Inverness, in the 13th c, and had estab-
lished themselves as the patriarchal chiefs of the Celtic inhabitants within tlicse territo-
ries, rather than as landlords, in the feudal acceptation of the term. The first
settler — or, more probablv, the first who gaiued renown — was named Simon, and heuce
his descendants were called sons of Simon, or M'Shime. The descendant here com-
memorated had little hope of succeeding to the estates and honors, until the prospect
opened to him under a settlement by his cousin lord LovaL The succession was not
indisputable, but until a much later period in the Highlands, influence with the clau often
superseded direct hereditary descent Simon at an early period gained their hearta His
first adventure was an effort to get forcible possession of the young sister of the late
lord, who had more legal claims, as heiress to the Fraser estates. Btufled in this, he, for
a reason which has defied all attempts to discover, seized on the widow of the late lord,
a lady of the Athole family, and compelled her to marry him. As this was not only a
crime, but an offense to a powerful family, Simon could only protect himself from pun-
ishment by force, and thus he kept up a petty rebellion for some years. On the acces-
sion of queen Anne, when his opponents became all-powerful, ho fied to the continent.
He was at the bottom of the affair called the Quecnsberiy plot in 1703, in which he pro-
fessed to reveal the policy of the exiled court, and a plan for a rising in their favor among
the Highlanders. On the discovery that he had hoaxed. Queensberry and other states-
men, and was playing a deep game of his own, he escaped with difllculty to France. Of
the method of his existence there during twelve years, there are only mysterious rumors,
by one of which he was reputed to have ttiken orders as a Romish priest. He had been
outlawed for his outrages, and another enjoyed his estates by the letter of the law; but
he was still the darling of his clan, and on the breaking out of the insurrection of 1715,
they sent a sort of ambassador to bring him over. What followed is remarkable, as
showing that the Highlanders were led by the politics of their chiefs, not by their own
prepossessions. The holder of the estates having joined the insurrection. Simon found it
his interest to take the government side. His clan at once left ihe insurgents; and for
this good service he was invested with the estates, not only by the votes of his clan, but
by the law. His life, for the ensuing 80 years, was active with local intrigues calculated
to strengthen his infinence. In tbe insurrection of 1745, hejLr^<|^^t» ^^||^4^ game.
-'01 £;;gi5.
io^nf; forth his clan, under the command of his son, to fight for thepretender, and
dRpiy plotting for that cause, while he professed to be a loynl subject. He was a special
object of the vengeance of the govemmeut, and after a trial by his peers, was beheaded
ja April 9. 1747. He was remarkable as a Xy\^e of that class of Highland chiefs who pro-
foKd to be led bv poUcv as sovereigns, rather than by the laws of the country or its
jochl lystem, and who were aathamed of no turpitude, fraud, or ▼iolence» if it tended to
the a^irandizement of tbemselVes and their dans.
LOTS-AFnB. See Toicato.
LOYB-BUB, F^Uacula, a genus of birds of the parrot family (jMiftagtidg), a group
•f beautiful and verv small species, natives of the warm parts of America, of Africa,
ifld Australia. They receive their name from the affection which they manifest
.owards one another, whether in a wild state or in a cage. An Australian species, about
:he size of a sparrow, is now oommon as a cage-bird in Britain. They are lively birds,
ftcd fond of being caressed. They feed on the seeds, etc., on which canaries are fed,
md are very fond of chick-weed and other plants, with seeds ripe or nearly so. Ana-
tomically, this genus is remarkable in the parrot tribe for havmg nofureula (merry-
thought bone).
LOVl^FEASTS (Aoap^, ante), are now celebrated, 1. by the MoraTians* in strict
aocordaoce with the primitive custom and on various occasions, generally in connection
vitfa a solemn festival, or preparatory to the communion. Hymns are often used that
bare been composed and printed expressly for the occasion. In the course of the meet-
ing, a simple meal of biscuit and coffee, or tea, is served, of which the congregation par-
uke together. In some churches the minister makes an address at the close. 2. Wesley
lotroduced the observance among the Methodists, appointing one evening in each quar-
ter for the men, another for the women, and a third for both tosetber. ' The food is
nlj plain cake and water. Only members of the church attend, and admission is
•«cured by tickets. The same rule is nomioally established in the Methodist-Episcopal
. jurdi, but is not strictly enforeed, members ol the congregation also being admitted.
Tlie feast is celebrated at the quarterly conference, under the charge of the presiding
f^Ider, or, in his absence, of the pastor of the church. The service begins with reading
ibe Scriptures, singing, and prayer. During the distribution of bread and water, of
waichall partake, persons so disposed relate their Christian experience. A report con-
icmiog the prosi>erity of tlie church is made by the pastor, and the names are read of
iboae who have been received, excluded, or dismissed by certificate, of those who have
died, and of those who have irregularly withdrawn. 8. Love-feasts after the primitive
order are held in some, at least, of the JSaptist missionaiy churches. At Berlin, Prussia,
wberethey are held quarterly, they serve as an occasion for general social assembling in
Tiudi coffee and cake take the place of bread and water.
LOVEJOT, EwAH Parish, 1802-87; b. in Albion, Me.; graduated at Waterville
eoilege in 1896; went to 8t Louis, Mo., where he was engaged nrst as a teacher, then as
1 political editor; studied theology at Princeton, and in 1^ was ordained a Presbyte-
riiQ minister; letamed to Bt Louis and became editor of the Ob^erwr, a religious Jour-
sii. AntisUtYcry agitation was then rife throughout the free states, and Mr. Lovejoy,
Tbfle disclaiming any connection with the abolitionists, was yet imbued with the old-
tiine New Enffland hostility to slaveir and with an earnest seal for the freedom of the
pre^ Occasional paragraphs in the OlMerver, evincing a firm but moderate opposition
to slavery, gave great offense to the people of St. Louis. Censured and menaced for
tbisezerciae of the freedom of speech in a slave-holding community, he reminded his
oenson that the blood in his veins was kindred to thaX which flowed at Lexington and
Booker Hill, and declared that he could not consent to wear a chain. In the spring of
'3%, a aegio criminal was taken out of the St. Louis Jail by a mob, chained to a tree,
aod bomed to death. An attempt being made to indict the authors of tbe crime. Judge
Lawless, io his chaige to the grand iury, laid down the doctrine that when a mob is
burried by some "mvsterious, metapoysical, and almost electric frenzy," to commit a
M of violenoe and blood, the participators therein are absolved from guilt, and there*
f m not proper subjects of punishment. If the jury should find that such was the
f2ct in the case before them, then, said the judge, ** act not at all in the matter; the case
^nsoends your jurisdiction; it is b^ond the reach of human law." Mr. Lovejoy 's
^:iQments upon the charge of judge Lawless aroused deep indignation in St. Louis, in
^-a^Kqaence of which the office of the Observer mvm destroyed by a mob. He thereupon
ptermined to remove his paper to Alton, 111., but bis press on being landed there was
Voken into fragments by lawless men. The citizens of Alton reimbursed him for '
'^ loss, and another press was procured. In Aug., 1887, the office was invaded by a
^^b and the press and types destroyed. Another press was brought to the place, but
^ore it could be set up it was broken in pieces and the fragments thrown into the
MlssianppL A strong body of law-abiding citizens, who felt that it would not be right
V) submit to the dictation of a mob, rallied around Mr. Lovejoy and offered to procure
y him still another press. A convention, embracing men of the highest character from
<Hfferent parts of Illinois, met at Upper Alton and resolved that '*tbe cause of human
^sHtfl, the liberty of speech and of the press, imperatively demand that the press of the
-■^^^tenar be le^Btablished at Alton with its present editor. ' The pro-slavery party were i
i^ZSf- 202
equally detennined that the paper should be suppressed. At this critical juncture a
public meeting was called in Alton to consider whether the publication of the Ob&erver
there should be any longer permitted. At this meeting Mr. Lovejoy appeared and made
an address. *' I am impelled/' he said, " to the course I have taken because I fear God.
As I shall answer to him in tlie great day, I dare not abandon my sentiments, or cease
in all proper ways to propagate them. I am fully aware of all the sacrifice I make in
here pledging myself to continue the contest to the last. I am commanded to forsake
father ana mother, wife and children, for Jesus's sake; and as his professed disciple, I
stand pledged to do it. The time for fulfilling this pledge in my case, it seems to me.
has come. Sir, I dare not flee away from Alton. Should I attempt it, 1 should feel
that the angel of tlie Lord, with drawn sword, was pursuing me wherever I went. It
is because I fear God that I am not afraid of all those who oppose me in this city. The
contest has come here, and here it must be finished. Before God and you an I have
pledged myself to continue it, if need be, till death; and if I fall, my grave shall be made
m Alton." This address had a powerful effect even upon some of his ojjponents, and for
a time it was hoped that the mob could not be rallied for the commission of further
violence; but when it became known that another press had arrived, an intense excite-
ment followed. The mob was warned of the event by the blowing of horns. The
mayor superintended the transfer of the press to a warehouse, and aided in storing it
away. Friends of liberty and order volunteered to wal?ch and defend it. Mr. Lovejoy
could not consent that his friends should incur, for his sake, dangers not shared l^him-
self, and therefore he joined the party of defense. On the evening of Nov. 7, 1887, the
watchers armed themselves and entered the warehouse where the press was stored,
resolved to defend it, if necessary, with their lives. No attack having been made at
9 o'clock, most of the defenders retired to their homes, leaving but a dozen or so, among
whom was Mr. Lovejoy himself, on guard. Near midnight a mob of 80 or 40 men ist^ued
from the drinking-shops in the vicinity prepared for dee<& of violence and blood. They
threw stones at the warehouse, smashed the windows, and fired several shots; and then
they set up the cry, '* Burn them out." Preparations were making to fire tlie building,
when the mayor, who had pursued a wavering course from the beginning, came to the
spot, and consented to bear a message from the mob to Mr. Lovejoy and his friends, to
the effect that if they would surrender the press they should not themselves be injured.
These terms were rejected, and then went up the cry, '*Fire the building, and shoot
every abolitionist as he leaves." The roof being set on fire, five of the defenders rushed
out, fired upon the mob, and returned. Mr. Lovejoy and two others next stepped out.
and were fired upon by rioters concealed behind a pile of lumber. One of the shots wa£
fatal to Mr. Lovejoy, who lived only long enough to return to the counting-room, where,
after exclaiming, "I am shot," he fell down and expired. The event caused great
excitement throughout the country, some defending, others excusing, and many more
denouncing Mr. Lovejov. William EUery Ohanning was foremost among those who
held that he was entitlecT to the honors of a mart^T to the freedom of speech and of the
Sress; but there were men high in influence and public station who did not hesitate tc
eclare that he had ''died as the fool dieth." The grave of Mr. Lovejoy, which was
made upon a bluff overlooking the Mississippi, was unmarked for man^ years, but a
monument, with an appropriate inscription, now stands above it, reminding those who
visit it of the sacrifices which it has cost to maintain in this republic the freedom of the
press.
LOVEJOT, Owen, 1811-64; brother of Elijah P.; b. in Albion, Me.; educatefl a1
Bowdoin college, and removed to Alton, III., where, after witnessing the martyrdom oi
his brother, he knelt upon his grave and vowed eternal war against slavery. A man o1
powerful physique, intense feeling, and great magnetism as a speaker, he preached and
lectured against slavery with a passionate energy that carried the people with him. In
1838 he became pastor of a Congregational chinch in Princeton, III., where he distiu
guished himself by the boldness of his Attacks upon slavery from the pulpit. In 1856 li<
was elected to congress, where he took a leading part in the conflicts that preceded tli<
rebellion. Repeated attempts were made to intimidate and silence him. and he wai
denounced as one who, in assisting slaves to escape, violated the constitution which h<
had sworn to support. More than once he was in danger of assassination. His reply tc
these denunciations was to proclaim that he had aided and would aid every fugitiv<
slave that came to him for help. Died, Brooklyn.
LOVELACE, Richard, 1618-58; b. England, educated at Charterhouse school anc
Oxford. For prevsenting to the "long" parliament a petition from his native county, ii
favor of Charles I., he was imprisoned, and released only on giving bail in the sum o1
£40,000. In 1646 he commancled a regiment in the French army before Dunkirk, when
he was dangerously wounded; and it is said that Lucy Sacheverel, the "Lucasta** o1
his poems, upon a false report of his death married another person. On his return tc
Ei^land in 1648, he was again imprisoned and did not regain his libertv till after th<
king's deatli. lie had si)cnt his fortune in the king's service; and from being, a,i
Anthony-a Wood says, " the most beautiful person eve ever beheld," "became very pool
in body and purse." He had published, in 1649, Lueatta, Ode$, etc., containing mani
203 isan^-
spirited Ijrrics, and he was also the author of a comedy called Ihe Scholar, and a tragedy,
the Sotdner, which have not been preserved.
LOVELL, Jambs, 1787-1814; b. Boston; CTaduated at Harrard in 1766; was usher
of the Boston Latin school under his father, John. When the ])eople of Boston, April
% 1771. celebrated the first anniversary of the British massacre in that city, Mr. Lovell
was the chosen orator of the occasion. After the battle of Bunker Hill he was impris-
oned by een. Gage, but exchanged In 1776. Prom 1776-82 he was a member of the
continental congress; from 1784-88 receiver of taxes; in 1788-80 collector of the port
of Boston; from 1790-14 naval ofiScer. He was also for a time master of the North
grammar school in Boston. Died in Windham, Me.
LOVELL. Jameb. 1758-1850; graduated at Harvard in 1776; was adjutant in Jack-
son's Massachusetts regiment, 177^79, and of Lee's ** legion" in the southern campaign.
He took an honorable part in many of the battles of the revolution. Died at St. 3lat-
thews, 8 C.
LOTELL, John, 1710-88; b. Boston; graduated at Harvard in 1728; was appointed
usher of the Boston Latin school 1729, and master in 1734; held the latter position until
177o, when the school was suspended by the siege of Boston. He was familiarly called
" master Lovell '* during this lon^ period, and among his pupils were many of those who
became prominent in the revolution. He was an accomplished classical scholar, and,
though a rigid disciplinarian, highly popular as a teacher. At the dedication of Fancull
hall in 1748 he was the chosen orator. He was, however, a loyalist, and left Boston for
Halifax with the British troops in 1776. Died at Halifax. His portrait is in the gallery
of pictures at Harvard college.
LOTBB, 8A1C171SL, artist, novelist, sone-writer. and composer, was the son of a stock-
broker in Dublin, and was boiji in that city in 1797. At an early ago he showed a great
desire to become an artist, and with genius and jperseverance, succeeded so far that, in
1828. he was elected a member of the royal Hibernian society of arts. In 1888 he
exhibited at the royal academy a portrait of Fa^nini, which is said to have brought him
some repnta^on as a portrait-painter. As a miniature-painter, in Dublin, he took like-
nesses of the principal aristocracy and leaders of Irish society. But while thus engaged,
he discovered that he possessed a genius for authorship as well as for art, and was
encouraged to make some attempts in that direction by the favorable opinion of Thomas
Moore. In 1882 he pubhshed a collection of short pieces, entitled Leff&nd$ amd 8tcri$»
of Ireland, by Samuol Lover, B.H,A., with nx Ekhinge by the Author (12mo, Dublin),
which was faTorably received, and followed by a second series, publisbed in London in
1884. In 1^7 Mr. Lover settled in London, and having made authorship his profession,
contributed largely to the periodical literature of the day. He also wrote Btny (yUore,
a romance of Irish life, which immediately became popular. Its production on the
stage, with the excellent acting of Power in the principal character, made the author
stilT more known. His next publication was Handy Andy, commenced, but not com-
pleted, in Bentley'i MieeeUany; the entire work, with illustrations by the author, appear-
ing in 1842. In 1844 Mr. Lover iniblished Treamre Trove, thefintofa eeriee ef Aceounte
of Irieh Heire, etc,; toith twerUy-eix llku$ration$ on 8teel by the Autnor, This was origi-
nally publisbed in numbers, under the title of L, 8. D.,or Aeeounti of Irish Heire, etc.
As a writer of songs Mr. Lover holds a well-earned reputation; his Kory (yMore, Molly
Baton, Low-baeked Gar, MoUf Carew, and others, have long been established favorites
with the public. In 1889 Mr. Lover published a collection of his Saiigs and BaUade,
with the words oiAy\ but oonsiderably more than 100 of his songs have been separately
published with music, com*H)sed or adapted by the author himself. In 1844 Mr. Lover
projected an entartainment called *' Irish evenin|m," which^was verv popular both in
London and the provinces. Its success encouraged him to visit the .United States, where
his entertainment was also well received. He returned from America in 1848, when he
made his experiences there the material for a new entertainment, which he gave in Lon-
don. Mr. Lover was for some years in the receipt of a pension from the crown, in
recognition of his literary merits. Besides the works already mentioned, and his numer-
ous songs, Mr. Lover was fiuthor of Metrical Tales, and other Poems, published in 1860.
He was also the editor of a well-selected compilation of songs and ballads by various
authors, entitled The Lyrics of Ireland, pubhshed in 1858. He died July 6, 1868.
LOVEWELL, John, b. N. H. near the close of the 17th c; d. 1725; son of John,
an ensign in the army of Cromwell, who is said to have lived to the age of 120 years.
In 1724-25 he was engaged as a captain of volunteers In several successful military expe-
ditions against the Indians, but was killed in the latter year at the head of his company
m an eneagement with a bod^ of Indians led by the chief Paugus. " LovewelPs pond,'*
in New Hampshire, derived its name from the hero of that fight. The battle has been
commemorated in a poem by Enoch Lincoln, a member of conflpress from Maine, deliv-
ered at the celebration of Its centennial anniversary in 1825, and also in Ihe Expedition
of Captain Lodeteetl, by P. Kidder, published in 1865.
LO'YICZ, an ancient t. of Poland, on the Bzura, a tributarv of the Vistula, in the
government and 45 m. w.s.w. of Warsaw, is mentioned in history as early as 1186.
About 1855 it became a favorite reaideuce of the primates of Poland. It has taken a
Low«U« ^^^
prominent part 111 the political reTOlationa of the country. Pop. *67, 6,186. Six fairs:
are beld here unuually.
LOW. Abibl a., b. Salem, Mass., 1811; receiyed a common-school education, and
at an curly age turned his attention to commercial pursuits. Taking up his residence
in New York, he soon became a successful and prominent merchant. He has long been
a member, and at different times president, of tlie chamber of commerce. He is still
in business in New York, havine his residence now, as for many vears, in Brooklyn,
and is greatly esteemed as a puolic-spirited citizen, munificent in his contributions to
various objects of public prosperity and to institutions of charity.
LOW, Frbdbricx F., b. Frankfort, Me., 1828; went to California in 1849, and after
being engaged for a time in mining operations, became a merchant in San Francisco,
tlicn a banker at Mar^rsville; was a republican member of Congress 1861-68, collector of
the port of San Francisco 1868-64, governor of the state 1864-^, and minister to China
186^-72.
LOW ASCUIFKLAGO, or Pauhota Isulnds, a very extensive group of small coral
islands, lying to the eastward of the Society islands, and southwara from the Marquesas
islands. This group or archi|)elago extends from 15** to 25" s. lat. and from 184** to 148'
w. lonff. The navigation of this part of the ocean is, as may readily be supposed, danger-
ous. Some of the islands are in minor groups, others are quite solitary. The whole .
pop. is estimated at about 10,000.
LOW COUNTRIES. See Nbthbrlahdb^ anta.
LOWE, Sir HuDscm, was b. at Oalway, July 28, 1769. His childhood was spent in
the West Indies, where his father held a military appointment. Lowe returned to Eng-
land when in his twelfth ^ear. Having entered the army, he served for some time Id
Corsica, subsequently at Lisbon and in Minorca. On the renewal of the French wur,
after the peace of Amiens, he was appointed to the chief military command in the island
of Capri. He was here unsuccessful, being obliged to surrender to the Frencli, Oct. 16.
1808. He served for some time in the n. of Europe, and in Germany under BlQcher.
On Aug. 28, 1815, he was appointed governor ot St Helena, witn the rank of lieut.^u.
Previous to leaving England he married, in Van. , 1816, Susan, widow of col. William
Johnson. He arrived in St. Helena on April 14, 1816, Napoleon having been landed
there on Oct. 17, of the previous year. It is impossible to conceive a situation in which
the adequate disciiarge of a public duty more surely involved a heavy amount of private
care and public obloquy than that which had fallen to Lowe. Had he for a singie hour
relaxed the necessary vigilance, his own impeachment and aaother European war might
have been the consequence. On the other hand, the due exercise of tkis vigilance
entailed upon him every kind of annoyance which the peeviali and irritable captive had
it in his power to give. Even were it true that he exercised a needless severity in guard-
ing Napoleon, this might readily be excused when we consider how pften it must have
been utterly impossible for him to know what was unneoeseaiy and what was not, and of
how little consequence was the convenience of one man, who had already broken bis
parole, compared with the security of the whole world. On Uie death of Bonaparte
Lowe returned to England, where his eminent services met with a very ungniteful
return. In 1825 he was appointed militarv commander in Ceylon, from whence he
i^tumed to England in order to refute the charges brought against him by O'Meara ami
others. He di^ at London in very poor circumstances, in the 65th year of his age, Jan.
10, 1843.
LOWE, Right Hon. Robert, Engli^ politician, b. 1811, at the rectory of Bingham.
Notts, of which parish his father, the rev. Robert Lowe, was rector. He was educated
at Winchester, and University college, Oxford, where he was fhrst-class in classics, and
second-class in mathematics, 1888. He remained at Oxford, was elected fellow of Mag-
dalen in 1835, devoted himself to tuition, and obtained the reputation of being one of
the bestprivate tutors in the university. In 1836 he married, and gave up his fellow-
ship. He was called to the bar by the honorable society of Lincoln s Inn, in 1842, and
went to Australia to push his fortune. He soon attained 4 lucrative practice at the-
Svdney bar. He also took a leading part in the political stniegles of the colony. In
1848 he was notninated one of the legislative council. In 1848 ne was elected member
for Sydney. Some successful land speculations put him in possession of a moderate
competency; and he returned to England, in 1850, with the oesign of entering upon a
parliamentary career. Returned in 1852 for Kidderminster as an independent member
with conservative tendencies, he, in 1853, took office under lord Aberdeen, as secretary
to the board of control. He went out with lord Aberdeen's government, but in Aug.,
1855, he accepted from lord Palmerston the i)ost of vice-president of the board of trade.
At the general election in Mar., 1857, he was invited to offer himself for Manchester, but
he preferred to remain at Kidderminster. Here, however, he became unpopular with
the working-classes. He gained his seat, but not without an election riot, in which he
was severely injured. In 1859 he exchanged this turbulent constituency for the borough
of Calne, where the influence of the marquis of Lansdowne procured his return. He
sat for Calne till 1868, when, at th^ general election, he was i*e turned for the London
university, which he still (1879) represents. In June, 1859, he became virtual minister for
205 IZZ-^
•education In lord Palnierston's second administration : and be held this office nntil April,
1864, wlien the hoXise of commons, on the tnotioB of lord Salisbury, then lord R. Cecil,
•having condemned an alleged practice of the privy council office in tamperiMg with the
reports of the education inspectors, Lowe, unnecessarily, as it was tliought, resigned
•office. The introduction of the revised code of 1880, with its principle of " payment by
results,'* signalised liis administration of tile education department. Time has shown
that this was a valaal)le reform, but it brought upon him much obloquy, which his per-
sonal characteristics by no means tended to avert or mitigate. His emancipation from
the restraints of office exhibited Mr. Lowe in a new phase. No speaker, during the
session of 1865. was so logical, so original, and so daring. In 1866, on the introduction
of the whig reform bill, Lowe delivepcd the first of a series of powerful speeches, which
largely contributed to insure its rejection. He was, with other members of what was
called the party of **adullamite8," -offered a post in the Derby government, but he
•declined to leave the lil)eral party, though describing himself us an outcast from it.
When the Derby government, in 1867, attempted to deal with the reform question,
Lowe, in a series of speeches, vindicated his consistency as an opponent of all reduction
of the suffrage. Circumstances had, however, changed, and tlie successful opponent of
the comparatively moderate whig measure found himself almost alone in proteslinr
against the establishment of household suffrage. In 1868 Lowe's feud with the liberal
party was made up. or rather, was forgotten, in the strenuous aid he gave tlie liberal
leaders in carrying resolutions in the house of commons for the disestablishment of the
Irish church. Accordingly, in Dec. of that year, when a general election brought the
liberal imrty into power, with Mr. Gladstone as prime-minister, Mr. Lowe obtained in
the liberal ministry the office of chancellor of the exchequer. 'This post he filled till
Sept., 1878, when he exchanged it for that of home secretary. He went oiit of office
with the Gladstone government in Feb., 1874, when it became plain that the chances of
a general election had given the conservatives a majority. He was home secretary for
too short a period to test h's fitness for that trying office. As chancellor of the exchequer,
he was not deemed decidedly successful. The chief refoi-ms effected by him during his
tenure of office, were the substitution of license duties for the assessed taxes, a change
in the time of collecting the income-tax, and in the assessment of that tax on small
incomes, and a great reduction of the sugar duties. He did himself much harm with
his first budget by proposing a tax on matches — a proposal easily put in ludicrous lights
and which excited strong opposition. During his occupancy of this office, however,
the annual surpluses were large almost beyond example. This was due partly to eco-
nomical management, but much more to the prosperous state of the country. Lowe
exerted himself earnestly to keep down the public expenditure. It was considered,
however, that his regard 'for the public purse was pushed to the verge of parsimony,
and of injustice to individuals; and his curt and ungracious treatment of all claimants
of public money undoubtedly brought much odium upon himself and the government
to which he belonged. Some faults of administration came to light in the later days of
his administration, which were naturally made the most of. Lowe's oratory is deficient
in passion; but in acuteness, in felicity of illustration, and in cogency of argument, he
is almost unequaled among the public speakers of his day. His elocution is rapid, and
his manner nervous and embarrassed; but his great intellectual power always commands
the attention and admiration of the house of commons. Several collections of speeches
and letters b^ him on public questions have appeared. As an educational reformer, he
is an energetic opponent of the pre-eminence still allowed to the study of the classics.
Lowe was made an lionorary Lii.D. by Edinburgh university in 1867, and d.c.l. by
Oxford in 187a
LOWE, Sophie; 1815-66; a German singer who appeared in opera in Vienna In
1832, and made a great sensation, both by her superb voice and her showy beauty. She
married prince Frederick of Lichlenstein in 1848, and retired from the stage.
LOWELL, a city of Massachusetts, on the Merrimac river, 25 m. n.w. of Boston.
Here the Pawtucket falls, of 80 ft., afford water-power for the factories which have
given to this town the name of the " Manchester of America." The canal is owned by
a companjr, which erected extensive machine-shop, and has built the factories for 11
** corporations," manufacturing cotton goods, pnnts, woolens, carpets, etc., consuming
40,000,000 lbs. of cotton per annum. Lowell was incorporated in 1826. The operatives
were for years gathered from the rural districts 50 or 100 m. around, and lived in board-
ing-houses built and owned by the corporations, and kept under strict management.
Foreign emigration has brought a large resident manufacturiug population. Lowell has
several banks, daily and weekly newspapers, literary institutions, about 80 churches, and
extensive educational establishments. Pop. in '60, 86,827; in 70, 40,928.
LOWELL (anU), a city in n.e. Massachnsetts, the terminus of the Boston and Lowell,
the Nashua and Lowell, the Stony Brook, Lowell and Andover, and the Framingham
and Lowell railroads; 2,587 acres; pop. '80, 59,485. dt is one of the largest manufactur-
ing cities in the United States, its industries having been the foundation and subsequent
basis of its prosperity. Its natural advantages and facilities for the economical outlay of
capital are unsurpassed, and the use made of them is unexampled. The Meirtma^ W^^*
Liowell*
206
near the mouth of the Concord river, furnishes its water-power, and aifoida a cfaarmiDg
addition to the landscape as viewed from Belvidere, in the e. portion of the city, a
quarter occupied by the wealthiest residents. Alon^ the wide avenue leading from this
suburb a view may be obtained of the broad, winding river, the great compactly built
factories, like grim stone palaces, their windows refracting the sun^ rays with a metallic
luster or reveling the gaslight through myriads of starry panes, the busy toiling city
below, and the wliite mountains gleaming through miles of misty distance, with Mt
Wachusett and the Monadnock in grand relief. It received its city charter in 1886, and
is governed by a mayor, a board oi aldermen of 8 members, and a common council of
24. It originally pomprised the town of East Chelmsford, receiving subsequently parts
of Dracut and Tewksbury. It is well paved, well drained, and well lighted with gas.
It has a fine city hall, other public halls of convenient size, a city library of 17,000
volumes, a mechanics' library of 18,000, a court-house, 7 nationail banks with an aggre-
gate capital of $2,350,000, 6 savings banks, 2 hospitals, 2 insurance companies, a Roman
Catholic orphan asylum, an old ladies' home, a young women's home, a good fire depart-
ment with an electric fire alarm, a well organized police force, and a horse railroad. It
was named in honor of Francis C. Lowell of Boston. Its water- works, finished in 1873
and costing |1, 500, 000, supply it with pure water. The river at this point has a fall of
83 ft., and the water-power is owned by a company chartered in 1792, called the Pro-
prietors of the Lockn and Canals on Merrimac Biter, which purchased the canal privi-
lege in 1821, adding to it and constructing another canal in 1847, the first cotton mill
being erected in 1822. This company lease at the present time water-power equal to
10, oS) horse-power for purposes of manufacture. Its water-power on the Concord
river, leased by the Wamesit company is equal to 500 horse-power. The entire capital
involved in its manufactures, and controlled by 12 companies, is estimated at $16,000,000.
employing 16,000 operatives, of which 10,000 are females, producing 2,660,000 yds. of
cotton weekly, of woolen cloth 60,000, carpeting 87,500. J^umber of shawls weekly,
2,500: dozens hosiery weekly, 16,800; lbs. of cotton consunied, 780,000; of clean wool,
152,500; yds. dyed and printed annually, 64,951,200. It has 80 mills, and over 678.521
spindles, looms 15,189, governed by 9 corporations, making use of 50 steam engines, of
6,188 horse-power in addition to the water-power. Among the largest corporations is
the Merrimac manufacturing company having 5 mills and print works, running 158,464
spindles and 8,945 looms, employing 1800 females and 900 males. The consumption of
cotton is 148,000 lbs. per week, making 830,000 yds. per week, and dyeing and printing
900,000 yds. Forty engines, equal to 3,800 horse-power, are used, and 6 turbine wheels to
carry the water-power. Other corporations are the Lowell manufacturing company, the
Tremontand Suffolk mills, the Lawrence manufacturing company, and the Massachusetts
cotton mills; the smallest capital employed being $1,200,000, and the largest $2,500,000.
They produce prints, drillings, cotton sheetings and shirtings, carpets (made by the
Lowell manufacturing company), ingrain, Brussels, and Wilton, as beautiful and as dura-
ble as the best French and English make. They employ 1700 hands, 600 females in 1
spinning mill, 8 carpet mills, and 1 fine worsted mill; consuming 70,000 lbs. of wool
and making 48,000 yds. of carpet per week, the machinery bein^ run by a 450 horse-
power Corliss engine. The buildings and property connected with these mills cover 10
acres. Other manufactures are serges, cassiineres, and beavers. The Lawrence company
has 550 knitting machines, producing 12.000 doz. of cotton and merino hosiery weekly.
The Appleton company added a new mill in '74. Each companv owns the large boarding-
houses, which are exhibited to the tourist as models, being built for the exclusive use of
the operatives. They have also a hospital, where the sick operatives receive free attend-
ance, if unable to pay. There are manufactories of edge tools, files, screws, machinery,
boilers, fixed ammunition and cartridges, paper, hair felt, elastic ^oods, carriages, fur-
niture, pumps, hydraulic presses, bobbms, and chemicals. Among its iron works are the
Lowell machine shops, incorporated 1845, with a capital of $600,000, employing 1250
hands; the American bolt company, the Swaine turbine company, and R. Kitson's cotton
machinery manufactory. Patent medicines are manufactured bv Dr. J. C. Aver & Co.,
printing 10,000,000 almanacs annually. The Lowell bleachery, with a capital of $800,000,
employing 400 hands, dyeing 15,000.000 yds., and bleaching 10,000,000 lbs. annually.
The city has beautiful public squares, and in tlie midst of the city's tunnoll and traflfic
stands the monument to Ladd and Whitney, who were killed by a mob while marching
through Baltimore witli the 6th Mass. volunteer militia, April 19, 1861. The female
operatives of its mills formerly supported a periodical called the Lowell Offering, famous
us an exponent of the intelligence, thrift, and ambitious self-respect of the w^orking-girl
of Lowell.
LOWELL, Charles, d.d., 1782-1861; b. Boston; scm of John (1748-1802); studied
at Aadover and graduated at Harvard in 1800; studied law and tifterwards theology ;
spent some time abroad, studying for a while in Edinburgh; in 1806 was settled over the
West church (Congregational) in Boston. When the controversy between the orthodox
and the Unitarians arose, he refused to join either party, or to take a sectarian name,
and did what he could to prevent a division. He was distinguished rather for benevo-
lence and sweetness of heart than for learning. He published two volumes of sermons,
besides several occasional discourses. He was the father of James Russell Lowell, i)oet
and essayist, the present American minister at the British court. ^ * »* ,. . ..-
207
Iiowell*
LOWELL, Chaklbs Russell, 1885-64; b. Boston; son of Charles, d.d.; was a
papil of the Boston Latin school, aod graduated with the highest honors at Harvard in
1^ He visited Europe, spending considerable time there in study and travel, and
:;oa returning to the United States engaged in business. He left his position as super-
-teodent of iron-works in Maryland to enlist in the war for the suppression of the rebel-
:ojL He served in the peninsular campaign as capt. of the 6th U. S. cavalry, and in n.
Virginia and Ifaryland on the staff of gen. McClellan ; was appointed col. of the 2d
.MiSaschusetts cavidry, and stationed for a time near Washin^n. He was next assigned
.0 the command of a brigade, and rendered important service against Mosby's guerrilla
'4o<K and in the resistance and pursuit of the confederate army under gen. Early from
before Washington in 1864. He was with Sheridan in the Shenandoah vallev, where
lus services were conspicuous and brilliant. Having been wounded early in Ine battle
ci Cedar creek, he refused to retire from the field, and in the moment of final victory
rK:etTed a hurt which proved mortal. As a recognition of his valor he was made brig.
an. of volonteers. Died at Middletown, Ya. *
LOWELL, Fbancib Cabot, 1775-1817; b. Boston; son of John (174S-1802); gradu-
.tol at Harvard in 1798; was a leading merchant in Boston, and among the first in the
Uoited States to engage in the cotton manufacture. The city of Lowell was named in
!i:i honor. Died in Boston.
LOWILL^AiCBB RvBSBLL. an American poet, was b. in Boston in 1810. He was
tdacated at Harvard universitv. His Legend of Brittany appeared in 1844. In 1845 he
pabltshed s prose work entitled ConwrscUums on 9ome of the Old Poets. His Fhble for
'ri^ and The Bighw Batpers are racy with humor. In 1854 he succeeded Long^el-
:)w as professor of modem languages at Harvard ; from 1857 to 1862, was editor of the
Adantk Monthly, and from 1868 to 1872 of the North American Beiieto. He received
tise degree of ll.d. from the English university of Cambridge in 1874. In 1869 he pub-
Mtd Under the WiUaws, and other Poems, and The Cathedral, an epic; in 1870, a col*
jcciion of essays; and, in 1871. My Study Windows,
LOWELL, James Russell (ante), d.c.l., ll.d., graduated at Harvai;^ law school in
1^. SDd for a short time practiced at the bar in Boston. He visited Europe in 1872,
iieauiDing two years, and was honored by being made the recipient in person of the
if^TMs of D.C.L. at Oxford and ll.d. at Canibridge, England. After his return to
America, Dr. Lowell took a warm interest in public affairs, and in 1876 was a delegate
'- tbe repnblican national convention. In «lune, 1877, he was appointed by president
Hayes minister to ihe court of Spain, from which post he was transferred, in 1880, to
"1^ conrt of St. James; the appointment being received with signal expressions of
cranfication on the part of all classes of the British people, among whom Mr. Lowell's
'ritings are even more popular than amon? his own countrymen. He married in 1844,
Maru White, of Watertown, Mass. (1831-58), a gifted and accomplished woman.
Besides translating with elegance and exactness from the German, she was the author
f a number of poems of more than ordinary merit, a collection of which was privately
pnnted in Cambridge, Mass. (1855), after her death. In her memory Longfellow wrote
U» beautiful poem entitled Two Angels, published in Putnam* s Mon&Zy, April, 1854:
Twaa at thy door. O friend, and not at mine,
Tbe anffel with the amaranthine wreath.
Pausing, desoended, and« with voice divine.
Whispered a word that had a sound like death.
Then fell upon the house a sudden gloom.
A shadow on those features fair and thin.
And softly from that hush'd and darken'd room,
Two angels issued, where but one went in.
LOWELL, John, ll.d., 174a-1802; b. at Newbury, Mass. ; graduated at Harvard in
'790: was admitted to the bar in 1762, and in 1777 removed to Boston. He was a mem-
Vrof the continental congress in 1782-88; Judge of the court of appeals from 1783 to
T'^, of the TJ. 8. district court from 1789 to 1801, and of the U. 8. circuit court from
NJl till his death in 1802. The clause in the Massachusetts bill of rights which was
:iterpreted as making slavery in that state illegal was written by him.
LOWELL, John, ll.d., 1769-1840; son of John (1748-1802); b. at Newburyport,
Hi«'<.; graduated at Harvard in 1786; admitted to the bar in 1789; took up his residence
^ Boston, became eminent as a lawyer, and was an active, honored, and public-spirited
tizen, but refused to take office. He was the author of many papers and pamphlets
-?fm the current topics of his time.
LOWELL, John, 1799-1886; b. Boston; son of Francis Cabot; educated at Harvard
ifld Edinburgh; was a man of fine literary attainments and scholarly tastes; spent much
'3nein foreign travel, and died at Bombay, India, leaving by will a legacy or $250,000
■J found in Boston tbe "Lowell institute, which provides annunlly for free courses of
•^ures upon- important subjects. This lecttireship has supplied a platform for some
f Jhemost learned and vigorous thotight of the eastern section of the United Slates.
LOWELL, Maky. See IVtnam, Mary Lowell. t
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
\SZ^\l\ 208
LOWELL, RoBKitT Traill 8pe»ck, d.d., b. Mnss., 1816; educated at Harvard; in
1842 oitlained in tlie church of England; and settled at Bay Robert, Newfoundland;
Newark, N. J. ; and Duanesburc. N. Y. He was for a time principal of St. Mark's
school, Southborough, Matf., and in 1873 became professor of Latin m Union college.
He has published Fresh Hearts and other Poems; The New Priest of Conception Bay;
Anthony Brade; and A Story or Two from an old Dutch Town, lie ia a brother of
James Russell LoweU.
LO'VVENTHAL, Isux>b. 1827-64; b. Poaen. PnwBian Poland, of Jewish perente;
acquired the Hebrew language at an early a^e. exhibiting an extraordinary aptitude for
philological studies. At 17 years of a^e, without having been to college, he had more
than mastered the studies embraced m the college curriculum. He tlien accepted a
mercantile clerkship, intending apparently to devote himself to a business life. He was
a radical in politics and member of a liberal club, and a poem which he published in a
newspaper having excited the attention of the government, he was constrained to flee to
America. Reaching New York in the autumn of 1846, he was shortly afterward reduced
to the necessity of becoming a street peddler in order to earn his bread. In these circum
stances he found a friend in the Rev. S. M. Gayley, of Wilmington, Del., by whose means
he gained a position as teacher of German and French in Lafayette college, Easton. Penn.
While thus engaged he joined the senior class in the college and graduated in 1848.
After this he became teacher of languages in the collegiate school at Mt. Holly, N. J.
In 1851 he became a Christian, andm 1852 entered the theological semioary at Princeton,
where he took high rank in philology, and wrote several important articles for the
BibUcal Repertory, In 1855 he Ltecamc a tutor in the college at Princeton, but in 1866 he
accepted from the Presbyterian board of foreign missions an appointment aa missionary
to the Afghans of India. On his arrival in tluit country he set himself to the task of
learning Persian, Cashmiri, Hindustanee, Arabic, aud the Afghan languages, and trans-
lated into the latter the whole of the New Testament. He had nearly completed a
dictionary of that language when he was accidentally killed at Peshawar, a death which
was an incalculable loss to missions in the East Indies.
LOWENTHAL, John Jacob, b. Buda-Pesth, Hungary, 1810; in 1841 was recog
nized as one of the best chess-players in Europe, ana thenceforth was generally the
victor in matches with the most renowned masters of the game. In 1849 he was con-
strained, for political reasons, to leave Hungary, and came to the United States, where
he interested himself in his favorite game. In 1851 he went to Loudon to engage in a
chess tournament, and became a resident of that city, where he was employed m editing
the chess department of several public journals, tie also edited the Chest^ilayers* Maga-
sine^ 1865-67, and superintended the publication of several books on the same subject.
He was also for a time secretary of the St. George*sand president of the St James's club.
In 1867-69 he published Transactions of the British C/iess Association.
LOWER, Richard, b. Cornwall, 17th c; educated at Westminster school and Christ
church, Oxford ; studied medicine under Dr. Thomas Willis. In 1674, in connection
with Dr. Willis, he discovered the medicinal waters at Ashop, in Northamptonshire,
which on their recommendation, became much frequented. In 1666 he went to London,
practiced medicine, and became a fellow of the royal society and of the college of phy-
sicians. In 1669 he published his Tractatvs de Cords. After Dr. Willis's death in 1675,
he was at the head of the profession in London.
LOWER EMPIRE. See BvzANTmE Empire, ante.
LO'WESTOFT, a seaport and bathing-place in the county of Suffolk, is situated on a
height sloping gradually to the sea, 25 m. 8.e. of Norwich. There are here two light-
houses, one on the height orxiliff, the other to the s. of the town, in a lower locality. A
profitable fishery is carried on ; soles, mackerel, and herrings being caught in great
numbers. The harbor of Lowestoft is spacious. Ropes and twine are manufactured.
Pop. 71, 15,S46. Lowestoft is the most easterly town of England.
LOWICZ. See Lovicz, ante.
LOWNDES, a co. in s. Alabama, intersected in the e. section by the. Mobile and
Montgomery railroad, and the Western railroad of Alabama; 900 sq.m. ; pop. '80,
31,178—81,099 of American birth, 25,540 colored. It has the Alabama river for its n.
boundary, and is drained by a few small creeks. Its surface is slightly undulating and
well wooded. It has a fertile soil adapted to the raising of live-stock, barley, oats, corn,
cotton, sweet potatoes, and to the production of wool, honey, and sugar-cane". Cash value
of farms in 1870, |2,271,911, numbering 954 Scat of justice, Hayneville.
LOWNDES, a CO. in s. Georgia, having the*6tate line of Georgia for its s. boundair;
bounded on the n.e. by the Allapaha river, and on the s.e. by one of its branches; 550
sq.m. : pop. '80, 11,049—11,027 of American birth, 5,687 colored. It is bounded on the
8.W. by the Little river, and the Ocopilco rivcT; is watered by other small streams
emptying into the Suwanee river; and is intersected centrally by the Savar.nah, Florida
and Western railway. Its surface is generally level and samfy. It is covered to a great
extent by forests of building timber. Its soil in some localities is fertile, and adapt^ to
stock-raising and the production of cotton, wool, sweet j>o^t^,^^:^|^^ne, rice, oats.
209 ifiKsa
com, lye, and the products of the dairy. It produced in 1870, 8,000 lbs. of honey! Iti
water power is utilized to some extent. Seat of justice, Valdosta.
LOWNDES, a co. in e. Misslsaippi, having the state liHl of Alabama for Its e. boun-
dary, intersected by the Mobile and Ohio raih-oad veiy near the w. border, with a branch
from Arteaia to Columbus; 600 8q.m.; pop. '80, 28,248—28,088 of American birth. It
is drained by the Tombigbee river, navigable as far as Columbus, and the Oktibbeha
riyer flowing from the n. w. and crossing the state line to unite with the Alabama river.
Its surface £ generally level, and has an extensive growth of pine and oak timber, with
groves of cypress, elm, and hickory. Its soil is a fertile sandy loam, well adapted to
stock-raising and particularly productive on the level river banks. Products are oats,
com, cotton, wheats wool, and sweet potatoes. Cash value of farms in 1870, $2,079,978,
numbering 805. It had in 1870, 75 manufacturing establishments, employing 868 hands,
with a capital of $876,007, and an annual product of $412,097. Flour is manufactured,
also woolen goods, tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware. Seat of justice, Columbus.
LOWNDES, lUwLms, 172^-1800; b. West Indies; whence his parents removed to
Charieaton, S. C, where he rose to eminenoe at the bar, and in 1766 was made a judf(o
by the crown; in this capacity affirming, with tlie malority of his court, against the dis-
senting opinion of the chief -justice, the validity of unstamped public papers. In the
dispute between England and the colony, he was stronglv committed to the cause of the
latter, and while serving in the colonial assembly in 1768, he proposed the erection of
a statue to William Pitt,, as a mark of gratitude for his seivioes m behalf of the coloniea
In 1775 Lowndes was a member of the committee of public sslety, and the nest year of
the committee charged with drawing up a new constitution for the province, of whose
council he became a member. He was elected president of the province, and during his
term of office sir Henry Clinton laid siege to Charleston with 12,000 regular troops, and
in spite of the efforts of Lowndes, it was captured May 12, 1780. After the close of the
war he aeain entered the legiskiture, and in the debates upon the adoptiCin of the federal
constitution, he was among the bitterest opponents of thaX instrument, saying in one of
his speeches: '' I wish no other epitaph then this ' Here lies one who opposed the federal
constitntion, holding it to be fatal to the liberties of his country.' "
LOWNDES, WnJiiAM Joires, ll.d., 1782-1822; b. S. C. ; son of Rawlins. His pre-
liminary education was obtained in England, after which he gradaated' at- Charleston
college, and entered the bar. After semng four years in the state legislature, in 1810
he was elected to congress, to which he was returned by succeasiva re-elections till his
death. He was a republican in his politics aecordiBt; to the party division of his times,
and chainnan of the ways and means commitl;ee, 1818-22.
LOWKBEB, William Thomas, 1800-43; b. England, where he carried 6q the trade
of a bookseller. He was an enthusiastic bibliographer, and published two books of
standard authority in their department; The BS>aograpmr^9 Manual of EnglM litera-
ture, 4 vols., 1834; and The British LUyrwrian or Book OoUeetor*s Quide, 1839. But 11
parts of the latter had been completed whien the attthor snccumbed to inkuHty iMought
on by pecuniaiy difficulties.
LOWREE, Walter, 1784r-1868; b. Edinburgh, Scotland; removed wifli his parents
in 1791 to Huntingdon co., Fenn., but soon went to Butler co., which they made their per-
manent residence. He grew up on his father's farm^ and his early education was limited,
though his religious training was thorough. At the a^ of eighteen, he entered upon a
course of study with the ministry in view. He stu<fied Xatin, Greek, and Hebrew, with
great diligence and success. Providential circumstances compelled him to abandon his
purpose, and he entered upon other pursuits. Having won the confidence and esteem
of the community in whiicn he lived, he was in 1811, at the aee of 27, elected to the sen-
ate of Pennsylvania, and after servingthe state in this office for seven years, he was sent
to the senate of the United States. His term of service expiring m 1824, he was made
secretary of the senate, and held the office 12 years. This he might have held for life,
as others had done, and many members of the senate without distinction of party urged
him to retain the place. In the senate were Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Randolph, Benton,
and other illustrious men, when the measure known as the Missouri Chmpramise was
earnestlv discussed. Amon|( these was Lowrie, whose integrity won their confidence,
while his sf^icity and practical Judgment led them to seek his advice and rely upon his
opinions. One who was present at the time has said that he was regarded by the senl^
toro who knew him best as an authority upon all questions of political history and con-
stitutional law. His rellgioufli influence in congress was great. He with Frellnghuysen
and others founded the congressional prayer-meeting, and was one- of the found<irS'of
the congressional total-abstinence society. ' In 18^ he was elected corresponding secre-
tary of the Western foreign missionary society, and in 1887 of the board of foreign mis-
sions of the Presbyterian church, which office he held for 82 years. While ih the senate
he was a member of the committee on Indian affairs, and became deeply fnteresfed in
tne fate and evangelization of the tribes, whom when secretary he vlMted, and whose
interests he asealously and wisely labored to promote. Mr. Lowne's oldest son John, -Who
succeeded his father as secretary, and now occupies that position, was three years a mis>
denary in India. His third son Walter was a missionaiy for five years in CSiina, «nd
U. K. IX.— 14
WHS tUrown into the «Qa l^ pirates. ni§ fourth, Beubea was also in China, and after
six years' labor fell a sacrinee to constant work and. the enervating enect of the ofimate.
LOWTH, {U>BKRT>.P/i>:> an Bnglish prelate, son of the r«v. William Lgwth,. rector of
Buriton, in .flampshi^re, wai b. ]Nov. 27, 1710. He %as educated at "Winchester school,
whence, with a JQputati,i^n both as a scholar and poet, he passed to !NeW college, Oxford,
in 1730. Here he continued to distinguish himself, took his degree of M.a. in 17S7, and
only four years afte^, was appointed professor of poetry. In 1750 bishop Hoadler con-
I ferred on him the archdeaconry of Winchester, and in 1753 the rectory of East Wood-
hay> in Hanopshire. Dufing the same year, he published in Latin his excellent Lecturer
<Mi Beltrevi iwi*;y| (l>e Bacra JPtim IMrroiorum Pi'<flectwii6$ Academics), It was greatly
admiiisd both in,£ngland i^nd on the continent, where the celebrated Michaelis repub-
lished it with notea^nd en^iendations. These were incorporated by Lowth himself in a
second edition, 17o3. A njew edition was published by RosenmUllet (Leip. 1815). In
1754 Lowth received from the univei-sity of Oxford the degree of B.p.*, became prebend-
ary of Durham and rector of Sedgefield in 1755, a fellow of the royal societies of Lon-
don and GOttibgfMi in 47^, bicrhop of St. Diivids in 1766^ bt Oxford a few fldotililB after,
of London in ITTT, hnd died Nov. 8. 1787. Besides his lectures, Jus two prindfMl Works
are Life of WiUiaM t>f W^kt^fn (17G8) ttUd haiah, a IfHo TnmdaUan, wUh a PrMnimry
DisBeftation, and MiM, Otiikal PMldioffioal, and ExpUmaskyry (1776; aernan edition, by
Koppe, CH^tt. 1779; tiiit^ edition in Englirti, 184^)i a work rather too elegant «nd ornate
as a version, but of gr^t value els at means of correcting the numerous bluadera of the
** atrtiioritsea vers!«in/' Atad of exii (biting how Ihoroiighly iitemry and artiBtle is. that sec-
tion of Hebrew t)oetry *w*hich we call projiAieoy.
LOXA. See Loja, anU.
LOXODOK, ag^hs of eT^ha&ts of Whi<ih the present African etei^ant is the type,
and proposed by'^T'Cui^i^r, because he thooffht the diflerenees between the only livmg
species, Afrlcto and Asiatic, are more than mobe which ahonld mpaanS/b mere species of
one getaus. The naihe loxidon refers to the loaelige-^haped laaw^iss seen upon the grind-
ing surfaces of the mohir teeth, the Structure b^iBg intermediate Usfwel^n that found in
the molars of the Indian elephant and that fooAd In tiife molars of liiftleztiilct genus
9Ugodtm of Uie iiffper miocene formation of India.
LDXOODBOiaC UKBS (Gr. loieos, oblique, apd dr^mat^ course) are curves of double
curvature on the surface ot a sphere or spneroid. whicU have the property of cutting all
meHdians at the same ang^e. The counsel of a^ship which is sailing in an oblique direc-
tion always to one point of the eonptofts, is a Inxodrppiic line, or» m nautical phrase, a
rhumb line. These lines appeax ae strs^g^t Uoos on MefH^Uar's ProieoUon^Q Maf). A
ship sailing ohll^ueljf to the direction of the north pole (say, two points on) would wind
round it ip inflpUe circuits, always approaching nearer, but never reaching it. In this
property, as well as in others, the loxodiromic line is analogous to the common logarith-
mic fiQpiraL
LOTO'lil, IflNiAsmm HE (Iftioo Lokbs pb BBCixiHC)^ the youngest son of Bertram de
Loyola and Marina Salez de Baldi, was b. in the ^ear 1491 at his a^oestral castle of
Loyola, in the Basque provinces. A^ter the aotmt training of that i^e m letters he was
received as a, page in the court of Ferdinand; but the restraint and inactivitv 6f court-
life were dista3teful to his enthusiastic mind, and, under the auspices of his relative,
Don Antonio ManriqucSB, duke of H^juira, he embraced the profession of arms. The
details of his career as a soldier are of little importance in nis history, althou^ they
display in a very marked way both the excellency and the irrcffularities Of his ardent
temperament, thrown undirected among the temptations as well as the duties of a mili-
tary life. Of his bravery and chivalrous ^)irit many remarkable instances are recorded,
and one of these proved the turning-point of his career. In the defense of Pampeluna
he was severely wounded in botli legs, one being fractured by a cannon-ball, and the
other injured by a ^linter, and having been taken prisoner by uie French, was by them
conveyed to his paternal castle of Loyola, where he was doomed to a lone and painful
confinement. After a very painful operaljoh, the results of which had welT-nlgh proved
fatal, he eventually recovered; and with his returning strength he appears to have
resumed his old thoughts and his habitual levity, for, in order to remove a deformity
which had resulted from the first setting of his wounded limb, he consented to the pain-
ful remedy of having it re-brok^ in order to be reset. After ti^s operation his conva-
lescence was even more slow; and the 'stock of romances, by which he was wont to
relieve the tedium of confinement, having been exhausted, he was thrown upon the only
other available reading, that of the Lives <tf (he SainU, The tresult was what might be
expected in so ardent a temperameni—thf creation of a spiritual enthusiJasm equally
intense in degree^ although in kind very different from that by which he had hl^therto
been drawn to feats of cbivaUy. The spiritual glpries of Bt. Francis or St Dominic
BOW look, in his aspuBtions, the place which haa been before held by the knights of
mediaeval romtooe. With souls like his there is no middle course; he threw Imnself,
with all ti^e fire qf his temperament, upon the new as^^ations which th^se thoughts
eo^ndered. lienouDcing the pui;suit of arms, and with it all other worldly plans, he
jtoie himself from home |U)d friends, and resolved to prepare himself Jfpi;^t^fi^^ course
oil • • .X^W^4
*••■•* lA>yfton.
which lie contemplated by a pilgrimaM to Jerusalem. "With a view to his imnicdiutg
preparatioa for this holy task he retired in the garb of a beggar to the celebrated, uionas;
tery of ^ontaerrat, where, on the vigil of the feast of the annunciation, in 1528; ho
hung up his arms, as at once a votive offering significative of lus renunciation of th,i
works of the flesh, and an emblem of his entire devotion to the spiritual warfare to
which he was from that moment vowed. From Hohtserrat he set out barefooted on his
pilgrimage, the first ste^ of which was a voluntary engagement which he undertook ty
serve the poor and sick in the hospital of the neighboring .town of Manresa. There hi^
zeal and devotion attracted such notice that he withdrew to a solitary cavern in th^
vicinity, where he pursued alone his course of self-prescobed austerity, until he was cai^
ried back, utterly exhausted, to the hospital in which he had before served. To this
physical exhaustion succeeded a state of mental depression, amounting ^most to despair,
from which, however, he arose with spiritual powers renewed and invigorated by the
very struggle. From Manresa he repaired by Barcelona to Borne, whence, after receiv.-
ing the papal benediction from Adnan VL, he proceeded on foot, and as a mendicant,
to Venice, and there embarked for Cyprus and the Holy Land. He would gladly have
remsdned at Jerusalem, and devoted nimself to the propagation of the gospel, among the
infidels; Imt not being encouraged in this design by the local authorities, he returned to
Venice and Barcelona in 15^. Taught by his fb-st failure he now resolved to prepare
himself by study for the work of religious teaching, and with this view was not
ashamed to return, at the age of S3, to the sttidy of the verj-^ mdiments of grammar. He
followed up these elementary studies by a further course, first at the new university of
Alcala, ana af terw^lds at Mamanoa, in both wbioh places, how«ver, he hicurred the
oensuie oi the awthorkies by aarae unauthorized altompta at religions teachmg in public,
and eventitally be vraa indviced to repair to Paris for the complenon of the studies thus
repeatedly interrupted. Here again he continued persistently to struggle on without
any reaouroes but ttiose wbieh he diew from the charity of the faithful ; -and here again
he letnned to the tame humble elementary studies. It was while engaged in these
studies, and among the companions of them, that he fiivt formed the pMms fraternity
which resulted in that great Offgamzation which has exerolsed such influence upon the
religious, moral, and social conaltioik of themodern worid. From the dose of his resi-
dence in Paris, Lo^f ola's hlstoiy has been tdd in the history of his order. See Jusmre.
From the date of his election as the first general of his soeiety, he continued to reside in
Rome. To him are due not alone in the general spirit, but even in most of their details,
all its rules and iconstitutlons; from him also originated several works of i^eneral charity
and benevolence, the germs of great institutions still maintained in Kom^; but thecji^t
source of his influence upon the spiritual interests of the world is his well-known laxer-^
eitia J^pirituaUa, of which an account has been already givep. He died at Home, it may
well be believed, prematurely, being worn out by his long-continued austerities, July 31,
1556. His name was admitted to what is known in the church of Rome as the prelim-,
inary step of beatification, in the year 1609, and he was solemnly canonized nfi a saint
b^ Gregory XV. in 1622. His life has been written in almost every European language.
The biographies of Ribadaneira, of Maffei, of Bartoli, and Bouhours are the best known
and the most popular among Boman Catholics.
L0T80V, Chablbs (monastic name. Fatbbb Htaoixt«c), b. at Orleans, Mar. 10,
1837. fie studied at St^ BulfMce, and after beoomiDg priest taught philosophy and the-
ology at Avignon and Nantes. Subsequently entering the order of the Carmelites, he
beciune known as a powerful preacher, and 'gathered crowded and aithusiastic audi
ences of all ranks of society to the Madeleine and Kotre Dame in Paris. Almost as
remarkable as his eloquence was the boldness with which be denounced existing abusesi
in the church; and tlie archbishop Darbov defended him against the accusations of thei
Jesuits till, in 1869, the general oi his order imposed silence on him. Loyson replied,
by a letter in wluch he called for a thorough reform of the church, and was excommu-
nicated. Relieved from monastic vows by the pope, he became a secular priest under^
the name of the abbe Loyson. He protested vigorously against the infaOihilit^ dogmas
but although he attended the ** old Catholic'' congress at Munich, and on visit»to tlie
United States and England fraternized with Protestants, he always dedared his inten-;
tion to remain in the Catholic church, tryin^^ to obtain reforms, such as the liberty of
marrii^ for the dergy. In 1^72 he mairied an English wife. In 1878 he was chosen
cui% of a congregation of Hberal Catholics at Geneva, but soon left them, finding them
to be "neither liberal in politics nor Catholic in religion." He bas published a number
of sermons «nd lectnres, some of them in Hhiglish.
LOYSON, CBAKOM^fymU), I^Ibm HTAOnrsHB* b. FraiMD, 1S27, wasediieAledat Fsau*
aad lA the tliaohMrioal aobo^l of St 8iii|>ice until the age of 22, when he became aprieet.
After ten ysars^eJi^nsfllhood aad two of jiovitiAte in the Oarmettte convent in Lyons,
he joined that order. He preached in Bordeaux and other Fxmioh cities, attracting •
genend public attention by nis ela(;|uence and entlmalasm, and in the summer of 1665 at
the Madeleine and at Notre Dajme in Paris. Having become notorious for the enuncia-
tion of sentiaaents more lil)eral than the doctrines of the church permitted, he was
' obliged to explain his orthodoxy before the pope. He succeeded in clearing himself
temporarily, out again employed language which was considered subversWc of QkU^^h
igi ize y g
Losence. »; l •>
InbttaMion. *^-^'^
discipline, and he was threatened with the major ezcommtinication and forbidden to
preach in Notre Dame. In a letter which Loyson addressed to tlie general of the bare-
footed Cttrmelites at Borne he wrote: " It is my profound conviction tliat if France in
puiicular and the Latin races in general are given up to social, moral, and religious
anarchj, the principal cause is not Catholicism Itself, but the manner in which Cauoli-
cism has for a long time been understood and practiced." As this statement, which
^as made public, was an attack on the alleged abuses in the church, it produced a pro-
found sensation, and tended to connect the author with the antaTOuists of the papacy.
In the autumn of 1869, the year of his enunciation of the new conclusions which he had
reached, Loyson paid a visit to America, and was warmly welcomed by distinguished
Protestants and liberal Roman Catholics in the United States. In the following year he
was released from his monastic vows by the pope, and soon after nreached in Rome.
On Sept. 2, 1872, he was married in London to Mrs. Emily Jane Meriman, the widow
of an American eentleman. The abb4 Loyson was elected cur6 of Geneva, but resigned
in 1874. He delivered lectures in London in 1876, and a translation by his wife of some
of his letters, fragments, and discourses was published in London in 1874.
LOZSVOEy in heraldry, a charge generally enumerated among the sub-ordinaries, in
the shape of a rhombus placed with the acute angles at top and bottom. The horizon-
tal diameter must be at least equal to the sides, otherwise it is not a lozenge, but a fusil
(q.v.). The term lozengy is applied to a field divided by diagonal lines crossing one
another at re^lar intervals so as to form a diamond pattern, ue compartments oeing
of alternate tinctures.
L0ZEVOI8 are employed in medical practice in those cases in wlflch it ia desired that
the remedy should pass gradually into the stomach, in order to act as niuch and as long
as possible upon the pharynx and the laryngeal o])«ning; as, for example, in cases of
relaxed or inflamed states of the tonsils and uvula, in chronic cougiis, etc« According
to Dr. Paris (Phctrmaeoloffia, 9th ed. p. 555), lozenges should be composed of several
demulcent substances, sudli as farinaceous matter, sugar, gum, and isinglass, since such
a mixture retards as lon^ as possible their solution. Lozenges are flat and circular or
oval in form, and the chief difference between lozenges and the closely allied substances
known as d9vp$, is that in the latter the sugar is rendered fluid by means of heat, while
in the former the ingredients are combined without the aid of heat.
LOSQ^BS, a department In the s. of France, derives its name from mount Loz^rc. one
of the Summits or the Cevennes (q.v.), and is formed out of the province of Langoedoc.
It comprises the arrondissements of Mende, Florae, and Marvejols. Area, 1990 sq.in. ;
pop. '76, 188,319, among whom are many Protestants. The department is mountainous,
the central mass of the Cevennes, here called the Margeride mountains, occupying the
whole of the e. and s.e. portions. In the mountains the climr.te is severe and variable,
and little erain is produced ; but the slopes on the southern side of the Cevennes, look-
ing towards the valley of the Rhone, are clothed with the mulberrv, the olive, and the
vine. Wolves abound in the forests, which are extensive. Cattle, sheep, and mules
are reared and exported in considerable numbers; but the real prosperity Of the depart-
ment arises from Its mines, which yield iron, antimony, lead, copper, silver, and some
gold. Capital, Mende.
LUALABA RIVER Bee Oof«o, ««te.
LUBBOCK, Sir Johk, b. England, 1884; son of John William, who took [him into
partnership in his bank in London in 1856, and upon whose death, in 1865, sir John
succeeded to the baronetcy. He was a member of the international coinage commission,
the public school commission, and the advancement of science commission. In 1870
he was returned to parliament, and re-elected in 1874 and again in 1880. In parliament
he carried through a number of important measures, such as the falsification of accounts
bill, the bank holidays act, and the absconding debtors act. But he has most distin-
guished himself by his inquiries into the condition of ancient man, and his writing on
Eoolofficdl subjects. Sir John has published Prehistoric THmes; Origin of (HvUkaUon;
BritiMi WM fHawers; Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects; Scientifie Lectures; Monograph
ofifve Thysanura and Oouembola; and a volume of political and educational addresses.
He is a fellow of the royal, Linnsean, and many other learned societies.
LUBBOCK, Sir John William, 1803-65; b. England, educated at Cambridge, and
succeeded to the baronetcy in 1840. He devoted himself to astronomical research, and
contributed many papers to the proceedings of the royal astronomical soci'etjr and the
royal society, of which latter he was elected a fellow at die aee of 26. A series of his
papers in the PhUosophical Transactions was published in 1833, in book form, under the
name. On ihs Theory of the Motm, and other papers wore separately Issoed'as tracts, sadi
as an Eiemswtary Treatise on the Tides and CiaedfleaHon ef the Dijf^rmU Branches <f
Human Knouiodge, He also pursued investigations into the theory of mathematical
ftotation aad meteorology.
LV'BBOX, one of the three remaining free cities of Germany, is situated on the river
Trave, about 40 m. n.e. of Hamburg, and 14 from the Baltia It is built on a rising
ground, and Its appearance with its walls and ramparts still parti v standing, its great .
gates, its ptoud towers, its Gothic churches, and its antique gabled houses \b still almost
Digitized by VjOUV IC
213
lAl»rle»ttoa«
meduBYaL Its principal buildings are St Mary's chnrch (JXs MarimMroke), one of ttia
most beautiful. specimens of Gouie architecture in Ibe a. of Burope, finished in 1904^
with three Bavee^ the central one 119 ft. in length, and two to wen, 883 ft. high; the
town-house, contaimng the Hanseatic archives and a public libraiT' of 60,000 Yolumes,
buiU of red and bUckelazed tiles; the cathedral, built 1170-1841 ; the monaslerY ohuvoK
also » masterpiece of Gothic; the exchange, and the b^ks. LQbeok is rich m edue*^
tioo^ establishment of all kinds^ religious and secular— the number within the city
•nounting to 54, while iti the suburbs there are no less than 37, in all 91. The provisioo
for the poor is excellent^ on account of the large beouests that citizens have nuMle at
different periods for this purpose, the largest benevolent institution being the hospital
of the Holy Ghost The industrial activity of LObeck is consideraWe. Ship-building
and engineering are carried on; there are also many breweries and important cigar-
manufactories; yet in the old davs when the Hanseatic league was flourishing, th»
Merchant company or college could reckon 5^000 memberSj whUe in 1860 it had only 471.
The fisheries of LUbeck are important and prosperous. The chiei imports, are wine.
silks, cottons, earthenware, pigments, colonial products, |md timber from Sweden and
Finland ; the chief exports are grain, cattle, iron, and wool The harbor Ikp Id. or 17 m.
down tbie river, at Travemilnde, a bathuM^-place, although, the river has of late years
been so much deepened that the laigest ships can come up to Ldbeck. llie income of
the city and territory in 1870 was £ld0,0d0: the public debt. £1,100,200. In 1878, ^,80d
vessels, of 301,010 tons, entered the port of LUbeck, and 2^832, of 807,567 tons, cleared.
Pop. of town and suburbs, in 1875, 44,799; of the territory, 56,912.
Ldbeck has existed since the 11th c, and received important privileges from the
German emperors in the 12th c, which were confirmed by the Dauc>. into whose power
it fell in 1201. It was declared a free city of the empbe'^in 1224/ u.ut flietetfftfer main-
taimid its indepeadeace against the Danes, and iPAuea the other cpnynori;!^! tQw^oa. i;i (the
great Hanseatic league (q.v.). With the decline of the Hanseatic Icitgne, Ltlbeck^ lost
its historic importance, but continued a fiourishiuff and Independent commercial city,
till it was taken and plundered by the French, "^ctv, 6, 1806. Its trade suffered also
grievously from the Fiench continental system. In .1810 it was incorporated with the
French empire. It lecovezted its independence in 1813, and is now a member' of the
German empire. Its trade has also revived; and the rail wav connection with Hamburg,
and lines of steamers to ports of the Baltic, have contributea much to the Increase 6f its
pnmeritT. It possesses a territory 109 sq.m. In e^xtent
OcmBMtii$ion. — ^The coneHitiition, which wns anciently arialocratfc, has be^n democra-
tic skioe 1609. The government is intrasted to a seiifltte, which consisted, till 18sn, of
twenty members; bat i^noe that year, of only fourteen, who, in legwlative and also in
certain adnrinistratfTe fnnetions, reqnire the concurrence of the municipality or Council
of citiMQs,' a body comprfsing^lBO membeife. The suprente court of appeal for the free
cities was in LQbeck till 1879, when the fanperial eourts became sapreme; and Ltlheclr
law {LM$ch6$ BbM) is of acknowledged authority m many questions.
LUBKE, WiLHKLir, b, "Westphalia, 1826; professor of architecture at Berlin, of
arclueology at Zurich, and since 1866 of the history of art at Stuttgart Amon^ his
works are an Introduction to the M$tary of EcdetiatMcai Art in the MidcUe Agee; Meat^BViU
Art in WettphcUia; SitUny of Architecture; Studiee in the Hietory of Art; and An OuiUne
{fihe History of Archituihire^ which has been translated into English by Clarence Cook.
LUBLIN, a government of Russia, in Poland, comprising the circled of^LtiWin,
Chehn, Josefow, and Zamoski, formerly belonging tr> Qaiichi, and ceded by Austria fn
1810 to what was theh Ihe duchy of Warsaw. It Ties between 50* IT" and 61 *" 48^ n. lat. ,
and 21* 45' and 94** 7 e. long. ; ll,975fiq.m. ; pop. 788,426. On the n. ithas Podlachia,'
on the e. YoUiynia, Qalicla on the 's., and on the w. Sandomlr, fW>m which H' is sepa-
rated by the Vistula; the river Bug dividing it from Volhynia, and the Wiepns from
Podlachia. It is heavily wooded and has extettsive morasses; but there cite tracts of
good arable land and excellent pasturage, with a fine breed of cattle. The only metal
found is bog-Iron. Capital, Lublin.
LUBXIVp the capital of the Polish igovernment of the same n^me. onthpleft bank of
the Bistritz, a feeder of the Wieprz, a branch 6f the Vistula, is 96 m, s.e. of Warsaw.
Lublin dates from the 10th c, and among the objects of interest which it presents to
touri^ the church of Si. NichoUs (founded in v^ a.D.) and t^e ruins of a royal castle,
are worth notice. It was formerly fortified. The chief buildlhgs are the town-hall, tlie'
SobieskI palace, cathedral, Jews*^ synago^e, Piarist college, and several schools and
hospitals. iVbas several manufactories of woolen' and linen goods, in whi6h as w^l as
in corn and Hunffarian wine tt Carries on an extensive trade. , Pop. '67, 20.789. Three
large fairs, each lasting one montli. are held here annually. * /.
LUBBICATIOK,. the i4>ptiq«jl|iop, of a substance tp a surf ace. ^or the j^uxpose'ol maki
ing it smooth, This .subfstme, which is called a lubricant, may be» ^a^i^ a/Mqifi^i. ^
8enu4«q^icU.^r a soji^.. ..iPlumbfigo,^r b1ack4e<ifd,{ is 4D'niost coqvupniA^p as.a^idl
lubnciuit, jbut powdcied-soaihstone, or talc^ is used fior many purpoass^ as. for Instanoe^
^ sao(
by shoemiaken unon the inside of th» heels of boots and shoes to facilitate tbis pulling
on. When it is aesired to have a rope or cord slip over a bearing, as a pin, or a i)ulley
which refuses to turn, it is usual to smear it with lard. Grease is the conmion lubricant.
I.1UW. Q14
bat for machinery, or tiie bearing of azlea fe'nerallv, other substances may be added
whidb will materially rwlucc the f Hcttofh . Mn^ral oild, particulariy the thicKer portions
clT p^tM>leura, hnre valuftbte lubricating properties, andm^ be iis^ either alone or
iKLded to lard, tallow, or anitoatoils, according to tfcesiiie, weirfit, and velocity of the
reriolting shaft, OH^ are used for hirfi speed; pMlf lubrittmte for htfge and heavy
biNiribgs. . Tliere are a great variety of hmicants used for the utlto of common road
carriages, many M them patented. I^rhaps iSbe most favorite Wbricatrt for light, ttae
road carriages, which ark famished with tighi^ boxes, ht castor oil. VTIien the box is not
very tight, a mixture 6f lard and rye flour may be used wfth advantage. It has the
Property of hating, when mixed in the proportion of about 4 parts of mase to otie of
fkmr. Black-lead may be usted in combiuation witto lard and Hour, or it may alone be
mixed with l&rd or ofl. Some vehicfes are made with wooden axles, and for these com-
moB pine tar is an economical, lasting, preservative, and efficient lubricant Its appli-
cation ma^ be alternated wifh lard, or a mixture of lard and tallow, or lard, tallow, and
flbin-; but it is well to have some tar always present Wherever great d^cacy of motion
is required, as in watches and other Vime-pieces, tlie lubricant mttst be very fluid. The
lubrication may be performed bv manual application, or mechanical devices may be
employed. There are mafny kinds of lubrioators. They are in the fbrm of reservoirs,
which discharge their Qonftents, the lubricaiiets, as fast as tSiey are consumed by the
Involving shaft or plece^ of moving machinery. A simple and often a very eflicient
lubricator is an inverted Oil^can sospended, over the bearing or place whicn requires
Idbricacion. When a pasty lubricant Is usbd, it may be applied on a sponge or brush,
if the situation favor sndi apolicatlon. The ingenuity of the operator is often advan-
tageously exercised as well as-tnat of the inventor.
LUCA GIORDANO. Bee QiOiU>ANa» cmU, .
LUCAN^ GteoRGK Charlies Bzngiiam, Earl of, 1600; b. Engfatnd. After {Missing
through 'Westminster school, be entered the army, and took part as a volunteer with the
Russian forces in the Turkish campaign of 1886. He was a conservative member of
parliament for county Ma^O. 1896-90. and wa^r elected a representative peer for Ireland
m 1840. He setved tbyongn the Oiimean war, and participated in the battles of the
Alma, Balaklava, add hikermann;. He was made lieut.gen. m 1658, imd gen. W&S.
XiUCA'NIA, a district of a, Italy, or Magna Gfieeia> exte»diiMe from tbs IVjTheaian
sea on the w. to the gulf of Tarentutm on the e. ; bowided s. ^y SniUiuio« n. by Apulia
and Samnium, n.w. by CaBapaAia» With the exception of an extensive plaiB between
the Ai)ennines and the gulf of Tarentumi Lucaaia is nM>untwu)us. It was ana ol the
wildest parts ai Italy, aad seiU from it» mountain foresta wild swiaa for ihe ampbitbea-
tiers of Roma Its chief rivera were the SOaniB ^fiek), th« A^ria (^|rO> Bmdanus {Bra-
darw), ftiris {Sinno), Sybaria ((MIb)^ besides many o&er streasss* The principal dties
were Sybaria. Hecactea, Hetuiontum, and Tbariuim on the e. oNsst; PesstUiB and £lea
or Yelia on the coaftt of the Tyrrhene sea; Paj»dbo8ia and Polienti« in tlia iaterior. The
original inhabitants ol Lucaniia were the Chones and (Enotrians; who were gradually
subdued by the Samnites from the n.» B.c. 300. A league was formed against Lucania
by the cities of Magna Grecia about 393 B.C., and a great battle fought in 890, when the
Lucanians were victorious. In 272 they were subdued by the Romans. The ^rritoi^'
of Lucania forms chiefly the modern provinces of Basilicata and Prindpato.
LVOtfL'XTTiy M. AnnrJiini, the chief Roman poet ol the sUver i^, was b. al; Oorduba
(the modern O>rd09a\ ia Sfitain, 88 a.xk, and bmught to Borne in. his iafancy by his
father, who was a y9«nger brother of the VhUoaoptaer Seneca* Jfe reeeived aa edueation
of the best kiiaid> was aeohool-fellow of Persius, and a friend of the enapsFor Kero, and
entered oa life with the Btest briiliani prospects. He became <ui»8Un: and augur^ and
declaimed and recited in public with the highest applauBa. But his prosperi^ and bim-
aslf were equaUy.shon-lived. K» lost tiie Uvor of Kefo, who was jealous of his poetiy
and his fame^ imd wlio desired to koe|» down both. Under the sting of this awM^yanoe,
he joined the conspiracy against Nero's life in 65 a.d. It is painful to read in Tacitus,
that when wrre^d with others after the betrayal of the plot, he tiled to sav« hi&iile by
accusing his mother of complicity. But the emperor did not spare him for the sake of
this admtional crime; he Was compelled to destroy himself by having his veins opened,
and he died In this way. and with a certain ambitious composure, at 27 vears of ^.
Whatever the faults of t4ucann«*d character— and in the brief notiees we Lave of him,
both his vanity and levity are apparent-^he holds a conspiouous place among the poets
of Rome. The only work of his that has come down is the FnarMlia^jiXi epic, m 10
book#) on t^ olvii war between Caesar and Pompey. As wd epic, it is, as IKlebuhr some-
what quaintly says, an *' unfortunate*' nerformance, for it proceeds in the manner of
aunaUf and wants the comprehensiveness, unity, and learning of the greatest works of
It^ claM, I76¥ 1§ Its «ty1e, generally spe«dting, good, fst^it Is often tumd atid obscure,
and mkfkifed' wM those Ofel^ms of tasie which belbng to tieeins inspire by a i%etorieal
ige and sche^l of ^wtttlng. Btit when every deletion has been made, flie iVttnaMi
affords ainiple -proof thM LutNinus was a -man of i^l and p6w«rfal genius. There fs an
etc fov the st^nme^both in' the mota) and t>bysical w^orids, consmntl^ pf^sent in !t; ^lete
is all til* vigoi- of. poetic orartoty tn its declamntions; and there arc fewctties of 'epigndB
21'e W&i
Temembei^ literature of the worid. Lucanos was Tery popular hi lite middle ages; and
in modefh times, hSs poem has been a pat-tienlar favorite among the lovers of political
freedom-HsspeciaUy among that sehool of classical repubhcans now nearly extinct in
Enrope, after faavOig played a- most importaxit part in it. There is a well-known
Ihigl&h tmnslation of LUcanna by Kow^e, -#hieh m. Johnson thought one of the best
translations in the hm^ftge^
LWAMVB 4nm V9QAMU>M. SeQ 8ta« Bektub*
XtrtABU, Otril, a Greek theologian, was b. in'the island of Candia in 157d, studied
first at Venice, and afterwards at Padua, and subse(]fttently visited Germany, where he
formed l&timate zelatiooa witli the Pvotaatant dorters, and ainled.baok into Gbraeoe tfieir
apirix and their .<jk>niVM. Ofdainiod a priest, he pmu ia the oourse of years^ to the hisfh-
est dieni^ in this Gree^ church, bfttng elected p«triaK3h of CoiNBtantii»ople in 16$1. He
stiU cheriahed his Pr^Qtestant opdnioosk anaienqeaifored even lo ]»»iiH»lgate them in the
church over which he ruled; but hi9 CMMHluct^ excited violent opposition among the
cler^, and Lucads waa in QOOs«|Uf}noe baniahfd to Bho4es^ TbJPOugh the influenoe of
the £ngUsh ambassador, howeves^ h^ was «QQ& reiiistat6(i mhis eiffioe. Unlueluly, a
confession of faith he held spoit pBiatedk quto b«retiQWr<"i»&„ Ifrot^f^tantr^in ita chaiacter»
fell into th« handa of his adversaries and ha waa onflei moie inv!olv«d in diffieultiea In
1630 he was banishecl to the ieH^ of TeqtkdQSb* and though. reca^Ued aftor a few ninths, in
June^ 1^7, be waa seized in C6nstantino]4e, JbuDnbBd on board. a.xei«el a^dit waa never
properly aaeevtained vJV^ beosoie oC liom . AoGardiog to sQme>. he wias strangled in the
ship which bone him off; ficoordins to oU»ers» he fiwered this faite,.in a qaatjyQ on the
ahorw of the Black sea. Hia dootri«es ha?.a heen repeatedly oondomflMed by Gxeek
synods.
LIT'OAXVE, a dormer window (q.T.). The name lucar^# is generally applied to the
small dormers in church spires.
LUCAS, a s. central oo. of Iowa, traversed by the Ciharitoii' rivisraud Whitebreast
creek, and crossed by the Burlington and J^issouri railroad; ^2 sq.m.; jpop. '8|p, 14^530.
The surface lis varied and the soil fertile, producing Indian coi^n,' wheat, oats, and nay.
This county contains a portion of the coal-measures of Iowa. Co. seat, Chariton.
LUCAS» a CO. in n.w. Ql^io, on M» £rie ftud U¥9 border af Xiiihigan; 4raiiied by the
Ottawa river, and having tlie Manmee river on the &e. ; traver^ ^£J^ ^^^ 8hoie and
other railroads, oenteviog at. Toledo; 800 sq^m. : pop. '80, 07,338. vV^ith a level coantrY»
these me ei^tensive fior^ts of sM^rSowle, tulip-tree, qlm, hickory, white-oak, beech« ash,
etc. The soil is pc^ctive, Th^re are.impQri#nl^ma»ufactui«s» and tihe ieading pro-
ductioaa are c6tton, gwin, ai^l wool. Co. seat, ToledQ. * .
LUCAS, FaCDBRtCK, ISIWRJ; b. England. After graduating at the London univer-
sity he was called to tne bar. In 1^9 he left the societr pf Friends, in whose tenets he
had been brought up, joined the Roman Catholic church, and published his Itea$(m$for
B^xmUng a J&man Catholic. He establiriied the Tablet newspaper, as an organ of
Roman Catholic opinion; conducting it in London at first, bat afterwards in Dublin.
He was elected to parliniMnt for the oouilf^lleath in 1869» and waa regarded as the par-
liamentary leader of the Roman Catholic |»rty* Qe had constantly uigod, in his news-
paper, ia the JMdvi Mevimtt apd In hiS; pqljit^c^l ad4r^S#ef^ that i( w«s tha 4uty ol the
pnesls to participate m pfUitics. CoAsideraUe Qp}K)sitiQ9L belp^ iwnifeated toauoha
coucae of action, ha went to Qoma to. spQUoe^ if pps^iblie^ tli^ s^aftt^ of the pope for his
opiiMOoa; b«t he waa ohiigfd to leave ffom iU^healthi Ijdov^A dapiaipn ivaa nesAhed.
LUCAS. PAtrli, l$64r-17S7; b. at Rouen, TVance; gon Of a goldsmith ; as a dealer in
precious stones travelecF in Greece, Asm Mlnof , ^ria, and Egypt: entered the naval ser-
vice of the Venetians, participated in the liiege of Ke^ro^ntin 1688, and became capt.
of an armed vessel sent to tfrtifse against the Turks. He' returned to Prance in 1698,
and sold a fine collection of cudoSfties to tne royal cabinet. Again he visited Egypt
and ascedded the Nilie; vfettt to TripoH by sea, ahd joined a crravan in its' Journey
through Atmehia and Persia. After oeiug robbed at Bagdad, and t^l<en prisoner by a
Dutco prfvatecr, he reached Paris in 1693^ and In l?ft4 uubUshcd hfs adventures under ^
the title of Voyagti au Levant. ' After this he made another loumey to the Ea^t, where \
he collected itiscriptions and made plans of buildings in Palestine, Syria, Cyprus, Egypt, '
and the Barbary states, Of this Journey he gave an account In a vohitttW published in
1714 T^ ghvevimiaiit sent hhn ea new aatiquafian expediiitiiNia id 1714 aaai^lM In
179^ he went to SMh, yrkeke he was employed by Phil^y Y . in antmtfing hia eablirel of
anttqaitanL D. at |SadrM. .
LUCAS, Robert, 1781-1858; b. at Shepherdstown, Ya.; a descendant of William
Penif. *«IMl(?ftc -went to OMo, and fc the war. of 181»-15 ent^ertd the «^vM & Sbt.,
and ilM'jbijMMdtd bi^ first a Keht'cot. of iMf ^. B, tiMy,' and ilie^ a biigkep. of Otiio
mHHiiL W bMMM Wet Hie 6bnTen!d^ i^h^ n<^liil#d ' Jackson m pi^ent in
t8nt'HH#i0fefttfef^' df Ohio '1860^ add 'gbvemorof <ll% v&h¥t(^ of io¥a 1888-41.
D. at Iowa City, Iowa. ..■.••■ .f •• -oigiti^d-^y^UUgl^:
LUCAS, Samukl, 1818-^: b. BrktQl, EDg. ; graduated at Ooeen's college* Ozfoid,
in 1842. having won the Newdegate prize for a poem» and the cnanceUor'a firiie for aa
English essay. He was adpiitted to the bar of the Inner Temple in 1846. In 1858 be
entered the profession of journalism as editor of the Press, and, a year later, became
literary editor of the l^mes. Three volumes of his essays in that journal have been pub-
lished, vi^. : Krninent Men and Popitl^r Books, Bioffvaphyand Criticism, and Mormnas qf
the Recess. From 1859 to 1865 he edited Once a Week, and then founded the SMh(f
Magaai'ne. A volume, Gliartei-s of Vie Old English Colonies^ edited by him, appeared in
1850; and twelve years later he collected a teries of his essayB from t&e <|QartemF>ffeTiewa
into a volume entitled §ecularia, or SVfroeifs on the Main J^eavf qf History, . lApQUtica
he was a conservative. . D. at Eastbourne, Sussex.
LVO'OA, ' BvCBY o^, formerly a small independent state, now a pr<»Tince of central
Italy, was bounded on the n. by Modena, on the e. and b. bt Tusoany, and on this w. by
the gulfs of Genoa and Massa. Area, 512 sq.m. ; pop. 71, 280,070. The surface of the
country is very di-versHied; the lat^^est stream is tshe Serchio. Lo^ca Is (iomed for the
extreme fertility of its sci}, add Che superiority of its agrictklture,' which serves as a
model to the whole Italian peninsula. The principal products are grapes, olives, grain,
mulberries, chestnvrts, and' vegidtables. The matshv flats on the 6Must afford excellent
pastures lor cattle. The tbanufactisres are silks, off (esoebmed' the best ih Italy), glass^
paper, linens, cottons, etc. \ the principal* expott is Oil. The- Lucchesi are a fnigal,
shrewd race; numbers' leave home In search of employment, and ther form a large
proportion of the itinerant flgure-vebders, bogan-grinders, and sloCGO-woncen of Europe.
Lncca (ancien^y called ^lea) was made a Roman colony !n 177 kc. It was erected
into a duchy by the Lombards, and reobvered its liberty in 1055. w%en the chief town,
Lucca, became a free cily. In 1387 i't wtis a duchy, and 'Was ruled by the oMebrated
Castruccio Castracani. In 1870 it became an independent republic, was erected Into a
prii^cipaUtyiD 1805 by Nappleqn for his sifter Elisa Bacciocbi, and pase^'^ta Maria
Louisa of Spain in 1815. Her son, duke Carlo Luigi, ceded it to Tusqany in 1847, on
obtaining possession of Parma and Piacenza; and in 1860 it was annexed to^Sardinia. It
now fohns one of the Tuscan ptovitioes In the new kingdom of Italy.
ItrCCAi chief t,.o| the Italian, province of Lucca, is situated in a fineplain. bounded
by picturesque hills, and irrigated by the Sercliio, 12 m, n,e. of PisiaL ton. '72, 21,286»
Tlie commercial activity of its inhabitants obtained for it the name of "Lucca llndus-
triosa." Its great trade is in oliveK>il find silk, and it was the first place in Italy where
the production and manufacture of silk w«i^ successf all v Introduced; The town* is sur-
rounded by rampartis, which form a delightful promenade, atid command a Une view of
the whole valley of the Serchio: the streets are moslftT narrow and crooked, but well
paved; <^e private dwell in ee are Commodious, and the public edifldtes dumen>ns and
mteresting. The* cathedral contains several ihie paintings.' A splendid' aquieduct,
planned during tliw reign of the princess EUsa Bonaparte, a^ executed later; supplies
the town with w.ater, and is highlv deserving o! inspection.. • The environs of Lucca
abound in delightful villas. , In a chafming valley, 15 m. from t^^ tpwn, are situnted the
famous mineral baths of Lucca, whose le^n^rature varies frotix W* to 186* F. The
waters are exported to all parts of Italy. { ai \
LUCCA, Pauuke, b. Vienna, 1843: th^dtftf^hter of Jews in humble life, she entered
the choms of a theater %hen otofy 14 years fff age, but Syearcf later had developed so-
much musical ability that she was cast for the part of *' fSlvliti " "hi Shmani. She now
attracted the attention of Meyerbeer, the coihposer, and tbrdugh hid influence succeeded
in obtaining an engagement in Berlin, where she continued to be a favorite artist nntii
1872. During this period 'she sang also in London and *St. Pc^tersburg. and achieved a
continental reputation. She marri^ the baron von> Rhaden; ^tyut wiis' divorced f romUm.
She visited the United States in 1872, makixiff her flrst appeaxance at the academy of
music, New York, Siept. 80, in that /year. Here she becaxne a popular f^orite; her
remarkable dramatic power,, rich, full voice, and brilliant execution attracting favorable
criticism in every quainter. Beturning to Europe, she continued to sing in the principal
cities, her professional career being. marred only by l^er ec^eqtn cities of temper, which
in vcdved her in constant disputes and breaches of contraet w\i^ hjer managers, on account
of which, she was frequently mulpted in heavy damages. tAa an.actre^, she haa hardly
been surpassed on Hi/i opecatlc a^ge, e^xcept perhaps/ in the single instance of Giulia
Grisi. . But both in her acting and her vocalization she has been largely subject to the
influence of mopda inseparable trom hex volatile temperament »
: LVCl'VA^ ait'of Spain, province of C<ri^va, andr40<iiii s.:«of ahecit^of thai nataie„
ifi piemreaqady aitusted b^t^r^ mb hills. Pop. 17,000« TUe neighjboring tarrito^ is
famous for its apricots and its breed of horses. Lucena is histottoany interestiiigv as the-
scene .oi^ the (^ap^re (Ai)ril 21,^488) of Boabdil^ l^in^,ot Qjpnadiy . , ... ^. # • . ,
ttci^'iA (fiiiacmuX L^^ aCof sQ^tberfi Iia')y,.in,!jt^p][fovini^ p££!cram is sit-
uated on an eminence lO m,.w.;i,,w. of Fo£g^l^. 1^ ,cqntjaina^ji^yegf,ia»f "
a cathedral. aiid a splendid ,edi0oopal Pf^aoe. .A. %ge tijaq^. ii^'^^ee; anc
rie(d ion by theiinhamtantis. Pop. ia^qut,13,oQ()k ]H#m^f us f^^ippt^^ .
Digitized b'/^'OUU'M.'
"217
LVCBIBZ, MMeago^0ativa, a speciefl of inedlolc (q.v.). one of tbe mo«l.Taliiab1e <tf
the leguminous plants cultivated for the supply of green food to cattle. It is a nativeof
the s. of Burope, and has been cultivaited there from an unknown aptiquily. It is par-
tjaliy naturalized in some parts of Britain. It is not very larmly cultivated in Britaiii,
although in some places veiy successfully, chiefly in the s. of England; hiU' the cUmale
of Scotland is not too cold for it, and the different results obtained by farmers rriu> have
tried it seem to depend chieflv on differences of soil and mansigement. It is largely cul-
tivated in some parts of yortli &nd South America, and in Pfsm \iriU) great success botli
on the coast, in all the heat of a tropical climate, and on the mountains to a height of
more than 11,000 ft. above the sea; flourishing, however, only during the moister part
of the year in the former situation. It endures great droughts, Its roots penetrating very
deep into the ground; but loves a rich and calcareous soil, and never succeeds on damp
soils or tenacious clays. It is a perennial and affords good crops for a number of years.
It is sown in rows, at 12 or 14 in. apart, and may be mown several times in a year, grow-
ing very quickly after being mown. The quantity of produce is very great, and no other
forage plant is ready for use so early in spring. Lucerne has a raUier erect stem, leaves
with three obovate-oblong toothed leaflets; purpUsh-blue or sometimes yellow flowers in
many-flowered racemes, and pods Vwisted two or three limes round. It ought to be
mown before it comes into flower, as it then becomes more flbrous, and less succulent
and nutritious.
LircSEIDB. a oaoton in the. center of Switzerland, wtith an area of • atxmt 977 sq.m.,
and a pop. in 70 of 139,888^ siMywing a slifehl increase since '60. The soil is general^
froitful, and much grain and fruit ate prodiioedw £ii the mora mountainouB pairts, tlie
leaiinfr of cattle ia oanied on to a greater extent tlian anywhere else* in Switserland.
The ti^B;faeat-elevaUoit atlaiiMd by Idbe Alps in Ais danton/.is «.M0 leet. The principal
strean la the Beiies^ the principal Itiktt that of Lntome, The inhabitants are mostly of
German race and language, and all belong to the Roman. Catholic church, except about
4.0OO Protestants, to whom the free exercise of their valigion was flrst acconied in 1828.
The constitution of Lucerne is a representative democracy; 100 depities form the great
council, whose president bears the title of SchuUhem (ju^ge).
, capital of the ciABton of thte satoe name, is sitoaled on the Rettss, where it
iMiee fioni the ^.w. extremity of the lake df iMderne. Near the lake, rising from the
middle of theReoie, is ab old tower; wfrieh is said to have been' once a light-House
(;iMflni«),t wheaee^tflionameof the tofwn. The araenal is one- of tbft ihost iin^tant in
Switzefhittd, containing nianv old weapona used at tbe battle of Sempaeh. Lucerne has a
theater, a public libsary, with a collection of natural hielory, maauraotnres of silks, cot-
tons, flax» hemp, gloves^ etc. Pop.'70,.14;59A
LTTCE&VS, Lake of, called also the Lake of tKe F<mr Fore^ CanUms (Uri, Tntcr-
walden, Schwyz, and Lucerne), because its shores are formed by these, is one of the
most beautiful sheets of fresh water in Switzerland or Europe. Length from Lucerne
toTltlelen, about 22 m. ; average breadth, about li miles. Tbe chief places on its banks
are Lucerne, KQssnacht, and Alpnach a^ the n.w.^ and ^IQelen near its s.w. extremity.
It is navigated by several steamboats.
LUC£BK£, Akkb C6aAB^ Chevalier de la. / See LuzBRinQ.
LV'GIAV, a daasio satirist and humoriat of the flrat^ merit, was b. at Samosata, in
Syria, in the earlier part of i the 2d e*, though the exact year 48 matter of conjecture,
lie hineelf tcUs u^ in * piece oaUed TH Dr^am, Aat his« parents were poor, and cx>uki
not affocd him a kamed edncation. He was, in eonsecfiltace^ apprenticed to an ancle
who was a statnaiy^ in order that he mi^ learn that trade; but be ioon abandoned it^
and betook hdnoself to. the study of letters. For a loag time he led a eome^ hat vagrant
and unsettled life, visitiBg. the most of Qreece, Italy, and Gaul, in the lest of which
countries lie practiced with great snGQeaa as a teacher of rhetoric. He is thought to
have returned to hia native eoimtiy when about 40 years of age, after which time all hie
masterplecee were compMMed. The hist thisg we know about him is, that be was made
a procurator of part of ^TTpt by the embcMnorr Cttotmedus. He died probably about the
end of tbe 2d centwyl The3te,temeDlror SuidaAi.Uiat.Lueian.ivaa tc«n to.phioet bymad
(logs oga account of. his jmpi^ty^ flada no credence with jnodem soholass; >ueit2iBr.dQea
that of Tf laterranus, tbat^^he wag an spoatate Iretm Christiaadt^. The dialogiiei entitled
Pliihpa^'n^ loBg,att]abuted to L^ciAn< oertliinly showa an intunate.kDoiWlediDi of Chris-
tiani^^ biUifiocritiC/nowbcji^ypa it ti> >b^ a prodiiiolian «!> thaJi writer. rThe fact is,
LuciaA wa^ionflbf \hvjS ela^ of noen who/do.not^readi\y embcaeelMny iforatiPlimligionr^
men who0ei'9h^<^tical,(^es see too.ma»y ^k^atojoMe itioai^ foilthemjtoiaef|uim:a
pious or reverential spirit. In philosophy,. as well.aa hi rellgionl he.iOaHod .noiiman
master. Philosophers are, ind^ea, the constant subjects of his humorous ridicule and
pungent wit, aided by all Uh/jjresources. 6f a,riQbto i»;?ewUve. fiinpy. His writings have
been classified under seven heads: 1. ^be Hhetoncal ; 2. Tbe Critical; 8. The Biographi-
cal; 4. Romances; 5. Dialogues; Q.'llleeellaiieel«^; ^. MeiHii: tSi these, the most cele>
brated are his Dialogues;^ the j)rin6ipill of which are*' TfU SaJU cf Liw9 ; JHalogues of the
Mwmi^r^jf^ ,^ . MtO^m*^ .g/' Me. Jearft; and- J<rtr».Jftwjya<, €¥ Ab^ne^thi Otatfi,^^^!^
JUMttibr. '^^^
best OS hief tomHnce^, and a work of ll&bel^isiRn hutado)-, is'Iiis T.n^ JMtima/*fhe idiUo
prrfi^ipv of Lttcian appeared at Floi^nce iik 1496; th^ best of tlie later editions is that
commenced by Bemsttoliui^ ib 1780, and fibislied by K<^itz (Amst., 1749). Lucian has
^waji^ been a great favorite.With Molars, atid hiis been tt-anslated into most of the
European languagea; The best English Y^rsio^ (incomplete; bolrever) is that of Dr.
, Pmntdin (2 vols., Lond., 17W), and 4 vols,, Lonrf., 1781).
LUCIAN, 6aikt, a pre^bjner of Antiocb, s^id to have b^in b, at Bamosata. Left
; an orphan at the a^ of^l2, be rempved to Edossa, where he was baptl^, and became
! aprrpil of the eminent biblical sdholar, Hacariua. Eutering the noduiiitry , a^ Autioch,
[ he founded and conducted a theological 8Gh99L He became g;:eatly celfibratea as an
' ecclesiastic and biblical scholar. In the reign of Diocletian, by order of ^jumio, he
was arrested in Antioch, transported to Kicomedia, tortured ^ pxA put to death in prison.
He was buried at HelenopoTis, in Bithvnia. Ecclesiastic^ ^ritera o^ntipn hint as a
man of great learning and piety. Eusepius calla him "a person of unblepilsh^d charac-
ter;'* and Chrysostot^, on the annivt^rsary of his i^artyrdopa, pronounced a> panegyric
which is still extant. Jerome says that "Lucian was so laboripus ia t^e atudy of
the sacred writings that, in l^is own time, some copies of the Scriptures w,ere knowjn
by the name tii Ltician;" and that liis "reyiaipn of the Septuagint version of the Old
Testament was' generally used by the churches from Constantinople to Anti^:^" ^terome
speaks of him as also the author of several epistles and theological tracts. In the eccle-
siastical biafeory oi Sooratas ia an extant coafossioii of laithr dmwii a^ by LieUIIM tiicre
liaa been dispute respectiag his views of the Trinity, fsmm chaighig Hind with Jt^anisni,
And eveD maintaining ihaA he was tille fdtmder «f Arianiam, Anus' aoknowted^g him-
self aa his disoiplou Certain it is that he was excluded fK>m the cburoh for neiesy by
three sucoesfilive l^ops of Antiodi. But he wassfterwards rMtsred^ and'^was grestly
honored, for his learning and piety. After hia dealh he was carolled itt the ealendar of
the chuxcb as a saint and martyr.
LUCIANISTS, a religious sect, denying their name either froti^ |jucian, a presbyter
of Antioch, whose theolci;ical views were Arian, or from Lucian, a follower of Slarcion,
the author of numerous forgerias and whose theological views were heretical. He is
termed by Epipbaaiaa, Luciam ^ Mtr. U is (poni^otxausd that those irho . tuft tocfe the
name of Luciajiists were disciples of JUioian the Hareipnile, and thai a/terwavda it was
applied to those who adopted, the tenets of Lucian the. piesby tar 4»f AiUliKrii*
LUCID nrT£&¥4L. What interaniasioai is to certain fersts; a lUcM interval is to
certain foima of laeota^ disease. Those fenna vkl wkieh it oooors are eharaeterlzed by
exaltation or perveraioa, and net by impainiienS of the faculties or fe^ngs. There may
thus be a cessation or suspension of the fuay ia mania} there cannot te r0|Mdr oi* 6aligfa^
•enment of the obscurity in idiocy or senile dementia. It may consist ifi t^ v^ece sab-
stitution of clearness and calmness for violence and coniusion; In the occasional
recognition of his actual condition and external relations by the lunatic; or in the
re-establishment of intelligence and natural feeling so perfect and complete as to differ
from sanity solelv in the want of pem^aQence. The duration is likewise sometimes so
considerable ana regular as to divide the inental and moral life of the individual into
two halves. It has been believed that even in suph cases the interval Is a purt or link
of the disease, and that theve' itfvaria^ly ekiMS an unaer-^uiTent of unsoundness. It is
found to be cocti^eiaaiy dtflci^ to diistinsaish this state from paid and Ifrastwotthy
restoration to reanon, except bv rsfeifesute to dusation. Practioajly and leoaliy, tliese
conditions have bean held lo be identical. A will executed duiing a Ineid istcsvsl,
although tliat waa extramely traasitoiv^ aad although the testatrix unlaoaed te straps
by which her hands had been oondaed, in cndar to axeoute the dooumeot, haa been held
to be valid; all that appears to be reqiuued^ under such ciacumstaiicea, is to pranre that
the conduct of the individual bore vbe aspaot of lationality and health. It has been
observed that, immediately befose death, a smaU psoportioa of tlM inaaoe vtgain lucidity,
and, after yeai» ol extravagance aad abaaidky, die in. pMsessibn of ooapaimtive sense
4&nd serenity. This change is supposed io depend upon the failing powers of the ciicu-
latioa.— BucTQWS, Oa Jtisaiuty; SMtoid, On Jmt ^LwUatfa^ P-,d89.
LUCIF£«R, or PBOflPROBini^ tihe aaoM applied by the dasaica ix> the phittet Venus
when it is a morning star^ alas employed to designate the Id^g* of Babylon in a passage
of Isaiah (xiv. 19), which has been miseonstnied Into a i^feilemie to Satan. Folfewing
is the paaaaae tai question: ** How ar« thou fiiUen frosa heaven, O Luolfsr, son of the
fBomingl How art thou cot down to the giound, wfaleh didat weaken the nationsf'
Of the mistaken raaderiag of this passage, Kitio says: "TertuQian and GtegOiythe
.great understood this passage ol Isaiah Hi refotofice t6 the faD of Bi^ ; Iti cottsequence
<A which the name Luciifer has siace been applibd to B^itaa." '
hi tbatfpc^ maji that bai^^ oa pi^desWayoM.
Wheaha|a]|8, ^e fpVhi.U|^ (AMffSr, >
la tha BtOmannnthology Lucifer ,was the sou ol Astissus and Auvota, aailini^cbafged
wt^ tha«aieof thechariotaudlioravfe of tiia slia^ fuldlMbg this duty M oijbipaay #ltii tlis
Hours. Miltoa, witb Sbakespetce «nd o^x >nprileni, adopts the eitbr. of tbe Uthean in
his I\tradu^ Zo9t, giving to the faUeo arobfiQg«l the name Luoifer.. .The fact that the
LaUn and Greek roots of the words hicifet and phoephorua toranslate into the same
meaning of '*li^ht bringer/' has opused tlw applkatioiir ckf< ikatBria Ulcifar matches,
these articles being tipped with phosphorus.
LUCIFER, b. Sardinia; d, about aSjO: bisliap. of C^gliari^Ja^ Qa(iiini«f apd taown
ftrst in history as a z^bus opponent 6t Atrianiam. In dHhe wa# sant bj X^berina, I
bishop of Rome, with Suset^ius ox YexoeUI tp defend Ativaoasias at t^ie^oouncil of Milan, |
for which he was for a time imprisoned, and then bam^bAd ify, tbe Mm emperor Con- 1
stantins. At Eleutheropolis, in Syiia, he composed hk chief, wor]^ A4 C&n^tu,niwm '
Auffft^um pro Sancto Aihanasio. In consequence of his bold and vehement iiiYective
be was sent to Egypt. Released from exile on the death pf (j^onstaQtlui, he wa^ com-
missioned by the council of Alexandria to heal thp divisions in the church of Antioch.
which arose from the supposed Arianism of Itteletius, its bishop. But he widened tbe
sthism by ordaining FauHnus to the see, for which he was rebuked by his friends.
Chafing under the rebuke andMispleased with the decree of the coupoil of Alexandria
readmluing the adherents of Arianism, he retired in 8^ to his natiye island of Sardinia
and founded a ^ect called Iiuciferiaj^, whose distin^uiishing te»^t was that no Arian
should be received into the church. He died about 370. Besides the work mentioned, he
publislied Jf^stcla, ad Eu$ebium ; l)e non Counenienda cum IJcBr^tiouj Jk Bejfibua Apo$'
teUcu; De non J^rc^ndo in Daum JDeHnfuerUilms; jMomndum pro IJilio Dei; Epmi$la
ad Ftorentium MagUftrum Offlciorum' Epistola ad CaQuiUcot. These wotk|S, distingiii^ed
by an acrimonious spirit, are valuable ohiefly for the scriptural quQta^oua which they
contain.
XVmm VATms. 6eeMAfcB^&
LUCILItJS. Caivb, B.C. 148-108; b. Suessa Aimuic^ (SessaX n^w. part of Camr
pania, Itafy. £fe was of the equestrian order, and the maternal grand-unde oi Pompey
the great. In his ItHh year he served under Bcipio Af ricanua at the aiege of Numantia.
He is generally considered the inventor of satirical composition, at least of that form
adopted by Btoiace, Perseus, and Juiranl IHIs laUiiawew popular in the An^tan
age> and to Um Hocaca, JuveaaU a»di Beraaaa aeem t^'bfwe baaii' tatdebted for their best
tbouffUta •nd eitpreaaionat Hia stylo waa distioguis bed bor ({roat enetgy of expression, ,
but oeilclQint in deganoe and dearwa. Ha attaohed'vi9e wnth gvcflt aevwiOr. He was
on intimate terms wjjbh I«lius and Scipia Hia wotkB eonsiat of 10 aaSii^ aeomedy, i
epodes. and h^mnsi none of whioh aneauant e^oenpit 800 fn^gmanta of bis aatirea, the '
longest of which has only 18 veraesw These bayis boen ooUedad iMi publiahed by R I
and H. Stephens in their tk'agmstUa FoeUvruv^ VUen^ Loiinorvm, He.wf^to^also the {
Life of Seipio ^ Stder,
LTJCINA, in Bfoman mytMogy, the vumame of Juno as the goddois of light, and
especially as the deity who presided over the birth ol ehildren*-Cho bringing them to
hght: from lux^ /vcai^ "light." This is also the name ol« soddese in I^ptian my*
thology, supposed to hava exaicised special cbasfaoFer upper l^pt
LVaXHA, a gaaufi, and LvolKii>^ a fandly of lamallibrancMate moHusks, allied to
^eneridm (see' vsinn). The shell is orbieular> or nearly so, and beurs a very long
impression of tlie anterior mtisole. The animal has a long, generally cylindrical foot.
The apecicB are naumefoos, are found in almost all seas, and it all depths in which life
is known to eziat, borrowing in tkm sand or mud. There are a)so many fossil species
in the more raocnt foimationB.
LtJCKi, €kyn*Rn!i> CminrnAN FniKDracH, d.d., 1792-1855, b. Ifgeln, in the
duchy of Magdeburg; studied theolosy two yean at Halle under Knapp and Gesenius,
and af €H^ttiB|en under Ptanck. Here he became known frona his prize essay, De
Eedetia Apo$Miea, This work procured for hhn an important office in the theological
faculty, and brought him into close literary intercourse with Bunsen^ Ernest Schulze,
Branms, LadHnann. aud other scholars. In 1817 he published his Orundrisi der JSfeu-
fetttntmettOMett Hermenentik. In 1818 he was made extraorcfinary professor of theology
at Bonn, and devoted himself with etrthusiasm to the study of exegesis and church his-
tory. He contributed to the Thealoffiseke ZeUgehrift and ChrisiHchezeitschrift, and began
hia O^mmetUaiy oh the WiHtinem of John, Re wrote biographical notices of Planck,
Schlolemaoher, De Wefte, and many others, and during the conflict with Strauss he
wrote a tract emMled BtrAtrn itnd die ^itricAsr Kirche, Tn I88t he became professor of
tbeoldffy nc Q5tthigen. He excelled greatly as a commentator, and did much to check
tbe inflnenoe of rationalistic criticism.
VtftOJI
the same name,
v^ne or ImB cSIOUruS, \^(»f««/«« ajjikvi«/ \ir^*4>j ■» tnrnw^f^'i uk ^mnyww. V^WMt^^B^ XU9 VM/VM
manufactories ^re amon^ the largest in Prussia, Luckenwajlda is a station on the Bcnt-
lin and Anh^ilt rallWay.
LUdOTEK, K10QI.AUS, 17dM4, b. Bavaria; entered tbe IViMsian aenvicB^ and dia*
tmzuisbo^luinself in thia seven yeaca' war. He Joined the Fnmeh army, iHsh thoraDk
of Beut^gi^n. ,. in -1768. In 17^1 he was wade a marshal* and in 1709 took command ol tho
XndiB«lton.
S30
troops in the n. of France, aod captuved OMirtrai ifMdl he floo6 abandoned, and with-
drew to Lille. Taking command of another foroe he defeated the Austrians near
Valenciennes; but goon after was replaced by Cellermann^ and was reprimanded by the
convention. In 1798 his pension was taken aWay from him, and in January of the next
year he was guillotined.
LircXirOW, the capital of Oude, in British India, stands on the right or 8.w. bank
of the Gumti, by which it has a navigable communication upwards for many miles, and
downwards all the war to the Gan^s. It is in lat 1^** 52^ n., and long. 81° e., is 860 ft.
above the sea, and is 610 m. from Calcutta. The place is connected with the opposite
side of the river by three bridges, one of stone, another of boats, and a third of iron.
Though Lucknow does not appear to contain any very ancient buildings, it is yet under-
stood to be older than any one of the other great cities of India, claimmg to have been
founded by Lakshmana, brother of Rama. The middle portion, which may be said to
represent the original town, contains, with tlie exceptipn of a few brick-houses, little
but mud walls and straw roofs. On either side of thea^ central hovels are the hand-
somer sections of Lucknow, generally dating, however, no further back than 1775. The
population in 1871-72 was 284,779. As an Ulu^tration at once of manners and of gov-
ernment, all classes, down to the annexation of Oude in 1856, were wont to go fully
armed, the very shop-keepers beiVig equipped with swords and shields. In connection
with the mutiny of 1857, Lucknow stood foremost in point of interest^ surpassing every
spot in the energy and obstinacy of its defense against (he insurgents, and almost equal-
ing Delhi itself ra the grtindeur and brilliancy of the operations, which recovered it,
after a temporary abandonment, from the rebels.
pop-
extremity of the lAieon canal, which connects it witb the bay' of AiguiUon,
cable for vessels of 60 tons. It cphtaihs a diocesdn seminary, and gives title to a bishop.
It has manufactories of poTCtelain.
LUC^ON, or L«9Q»i . , See. Phiubpinh IsLaMDS; .Ante.
LUCR£'TIA, aRbman matron, danigh«er of ^lAicredtie arid wife bf Collatlnus, cele-
brated for her virtue atid beauty: Having been outraged by Sextus, son of Tarqninius
8uT)ert)us, kin^r of Borne, dhe mad^ her f alh«^ and ht!i3iand 'tmeht to avenge her wrong,
and then stabcied ' herself , B.c: 569. The bkitody pobia^rd and her deadrbody, being
exposed to the senate were theiBf|:na(t of a t«rv<olntfon;'Whith led to the expulsion of the
Tarquins from Rome and the esfkbdshmentof the r^ublic. .
LVCRE'TWB, TiTTTS CARtre.' Of the life of Lucretius we Wow almost nothing with
certainty, as he is mentioned merely in a cursory manner in cOntenaporary literature.
HieronymuB (84CM2a a.d.), in his' iranslation Of the chronfele df Eusebius (2fe-840 a.d.),
gives the date of his- birth as 95 B.C. (according to* others, 99) j but he does not specify
the source from which bis statement is deri'vied. It is alleged, further, that he died bV
his own hand, in the 44th yesor of ' his age, having been dr^en frantic by a love-potion
which had been administered to himi; that ht eomposedfais Works in the int^i^als of his
madness; and tliat these works were levised by Oioero. Donatkis (Life of Virgil), on the
contrary, affirms that hisdefttb occurred in 55 Bic.,.on the Tery dayon which Yirdl
assumed the tog^b virilit. The atoriesaf . the ^Iter. the madness, the suicide, and tne
revision of the works by Cicero, rest on very insufficieiit autiiority, and must be recdved
with extreme caution. The peculiar opinions advanced by liucretius'woaid render him
specially obm^xious to the early Cturistlans, and [it is possible that the latter may have
been too easily led io attrib'ate to hini a faith whiph, in itfi mysterious natureand melan-
choly termination, was deemed but a due reii^ard'fpr the bokl and impious character of
his teachings, Tbe^eat worjk on which the f^me of Lucretius rests is that entitled Jk
Eerum ^S/'aturor^tL philoepphlcal didactip poem in six books. It is dedicated to C. Kern-
miuB Gemellus, am was published aboiit 56 B.C. Luoret&us w^s a reverent follower of
the doctripes of Epicurus (q.y.), 4^d h'i^ poem is in large measure an exposition of the
physical, moral, and re%ipu^ tone t^ tof tuat pl^ilo&ppiiier. The f|«at aim of the poet
was to free bis feUa^-oouutryn\ep ijrom tUe tc^uunels of supeistition^ and to raise them
above tlic. passions and the weuktu^^es of ,9pr natural conaition. With his master, Epi-
curus, Lucretius adopted the atomiq theory qi I^ucippus, whioh Uvug}|t that certain ele*
mcotary particle^, QxisliiM^ from all eternity, awjkgoverned by ^gkI jaws, combined to
form the univer^of matter; ttiat..t)iP.€pListepcie aoi aictiye mterferoQce.of « supreme
overruling deity was not necessary to be supposed in order. tOi account ior. the dmarvelous
and abnormal m nature; and tha( , whatever appeared to be miracul^SrW^wip><i)»aUty,
not ISO, bfttwas^ merely .the'resiill'orcdrtAin fixed law8,.j?v'hioli operatea with unerring
pf eCision, and in ,a riattiyal^niroceMl' ilegafdea ipetely as i a' literary i composition, the
#oi^of *Lucrttitis rtawds tinri^h]eil nihont afjdac^fc pooras* The clearness' and fuU-
neffii wi^h%bi«i the taostiirfrfiiVe ihcts of phy^ibdl science, and" the .most aubOe, philo-
sophical speculations, are unfolded and explained: the life ati'd inieres^.j^hich are
thtto^nj.intddiseiiBsionBfA thkiisetvlf s > ropttl<<h^ th tffe-bSlk'</f ffiytAkinSj'fh^' beauty,
rickaeas^ flLttcitVArricty of tbeifmiilcirteA wbieb a*^ fnt^woven wit|if 'the ^hVject^matter of
thepo4ra« sombiaed withithc'^Miij^lsiic -versein 'Which lllc^wlidle is <?ldthed. render the
221
Uel^ntmNatura, as a work of art, ooe of the most perfect which antiquity has
bequeathed to ua For a fuUer estimate of Lucretius and his poetry, see prof. 8ellars*s
taaj in The Roman PoeU cf Hu RtpMie (Edin.^ 1863). The tdHiiQ prineepa of Lucretius
«i» published at Breecia about 1478; only three copies are known to exist Tlie best
fditk»8of Lucretius are by Wakefield (Load.. 1796, 8 vols. 4to, and Glas., 1818, 4 vols.
mi by Forbi^er (Leip., 1838, 12mq); by Lachmann (Berlin. 1850, 2 vols.); and by prof,
Muoro (3d edition, 1870). The De sirum Hai/ura has been translated into Enfflish verse
bv Thomas Creech (Lond., 1714,2 vols. 8vo); and by John Mason Good (Lona., 1805-7,
e'Tol8w4to); into English prose by the rev. J. S.Watson, m.a. (Lond., Bohn's classical
iibraiy, 1851, post 8vo); and by prof. Munro, at the end of his edition.
IVCUVLVS,L, LiCEKius, a very distinguished Roman eeneral, b.,it is conjectured,
&boat 110 B.a In the first Mithridatic war, he commanded the fleet as legate of Sulla.
Id 77 a. c. he filled the office of prffitor, and immediately after held the administration of
die profince of Africa. In 74 B.c. he vms ehoeen consul along with Marcus Aurelius
Cotta, and got Oilicia for hia province, whilst Cotta had Bithynia. Bolh consuls arrived
in Asia about the close of 74 B.C. Cotta was soon after utterly defeated by Mithridates,
vho bad burst into Bithynia at the head of 150,000 troops, forced to take refuge in
Chalcedon, and there was besieged by the victor. LucuUus, however, advanced to his
relief at the head of 85,000 men, compelled Mithridates to raise the siege, and almost
annihilated his army on its retreat. In 71 B.o. Pontus became subject to the Romans.
The measures which Lucullus now introduced in the government of the province of
A«ia, to secure the provincials against the fearful oppressions and extortions of farmers
of the taxes and usurers, cspecidly his fixing a uniform and moderate rate of interest
for all arrears, show that he "i^as a iust, wise, and humane administrator; but though
ihe cities of Asia were grateful for his clemency, the equestrian order in Rome (who hdd
ihe farming of the taxes) became implacablr hostile to him, and' his own troops grew
disaffected on account of the strictness oi his discipline. For some time, however,
ihines seemed to go on well enough. In the spring of 69 b.c. ho marched into Armenia
with^a small force of 12,000 foot and 8,000 horse, and gained a complete victory over
Tifranes, at the head of an army of 220,000 men. In the following year he gained
another great victory at the river Arsanlas over a new army led against him by Trgranes
3fld Mithridates; but the mutinous spirit of the legions— m Spite of these splendid tri-
umphs—daily increased. Lucullus now wanted to besiege Artaxata, the capital of
Armenia, but the soldiers refused to advance fiirther. After this he could do nothing;
mit a soldier would serve under him. At last, he was superseded by Pompey, and left
•\aa66B.c. The cabals of his .enemies so much prevailed against him that he was
'hree years itt Rome before he obtained his triumph. In conjunction with the aristo-
<nitical party, he attempted to check the increasing power of Pompey, and the attempt
'm^ the coalition known as' th^ first triumviritte. But he was ill fitted to act as leader
•igiiost such auficrupuloiifi men, and soon withdrew altogether from political affairs.
DoiiDg his public career he had acquired (but not unfairiy) prodivious wealth ; and he
'pent theiemainder of his life surrounded by artists, poets, and pfalloaophers, and exhlb-
iiiog in hs viUas at Tutcnlum and Neapolis. and' in his house and gardens at Rome, a
(imry and splendor which became proverbial. A sinrle supper— on particularly erand
(.ccasiona-'Woiild cost him 60,000 denarii (£1770). Towaraa the close of his li^. his
ftfoities began to decay, and his property was placed under the management of his
iirother. . ^k died about 57 b.c. Lueollus was a man of ffreet military talent, human-
ity, liberality, and love of Justice; hia great fault was his love of pleasure; not exactly
Tictous pleaanre, for he was an epicure rather tlian a profliffitte ; vet so purely sensual
tiiat it seema to have made people-*<rertauity his soldiers-^belTeve him to be grossly selfish
^nd unsympathetic.
LUD^N, HmjxBMcU, 1'78(M847; b. Gemumy; educated at GOttingeb, and from 1606-
til! his death pcofessor of* history at Jena. He wrote a Bisiary of Antiquity; History ef
the Middle il^^ and Hutoryqfths Q^rwam People, the latter covering the period down
LTTDEHSCHXID, a t. of Frusal^n Westphalja, 38 m. n.e. from Cologne, in a moun-
ainous district, not far from ttie right bank of the Yolme, a branch or the Rhine. It
'm cotton -mills, and manufactures of cutlery, buttons, files,, and^ other articles of hard-
^re. There are calamine mines in the neighl?orhoo{i , ^t has of lat^ inct;eascd rapidly
iii population and prosperity. Pop. '75, 8,5o7. ' ..-.^ «.,;.,. r-.
LUD£BS, AxBXAinMBii NiHOliATinnTOH, County 1.780-1874; b. Russia^, of German
'icscent. £nteied th^ {Uu^ian army in 1807y4nd served .througb the war! With France.
He participated in the Polish campaigfi^ was present at the eaptureuol:Wacsaw,. and
ecmmanded'a force in the Caucasus from 1848 to ljS45. He invaded Transylvania in
^S49, and in the Crimean war held a command which he was forced to resi^ on account
of ill-bealth. He assum^ command over Poland in IQOl^ andior his i^rvices in restor-
es order in Warsaw was created coimt. The sa^ac; .year an uasuccessful attempt was
loade to aaaaasinatehim. .,.;.,• i .
LUD INGTON, a cit^ in w. Mjchigian, oi^anized 1867; a tenta&titis df the Flmt) and
%e Mai^uelie raihray, connected with Milwaukee by two. lines. of^tjf^^^n^^^^^l^^^
2,0(K). It is aitukted'on lake Micfaifflin'at the mouth of the Marquette river, ^faich a few
miles above enters a oamow gidf , of ite own name, flowing throi^h it to the lake. It has
several mamifaatories of lumber and shinglcie, carriage factories, and machine shops;
tan-bark is one of its commodities. Its inhabitants depend largely on the fliAieries and
an inland farming district. It is 1^7 tn; w. <of 'East Saginaw, 54 m. u.w. of Mu^egon,
84 m. &om Milwaukee, and 195 m. w. of Labsing. It has 2 banks, 4 churches, a con-
venient harbor, 9 newspapers, Shotels, and a fine pubHc sohool-house.
LTTBXOWya municipal and parliamentarvborou^ of England, in the county of Salop,
at the confluence of the Cgrve and Teme, 25 m. as.e. of Slurewsbury. It is an old and
very interesting town; its parish church dates from the reign of Edward III.; its free
school, founded by Edward IV., has an annual income of £850. The castle, now a
magnificent ruin, was at one time one of tlie most important strongholds against the
Welsh. Here Arthur, eldest son of Henry VII., celebrated his marriage with Catharine
of Aragon, afterwards the wife of Henry VIII. ; and here, in 1684, Milton's mask of
Oormu was performed for tlie drst time. Ludlow returns one member to parliament.
Pop. "Tl of parliamentary borougii, 6,208; of munieipal borough, 5,097. it has been
represented in parliament since (he reign of Edward IV.
LUDLOW, Edmund, 1620-93; b. Maiden-Bradley, Wiltshire, Eng.; was educated
at Oxford; Joined the parliamentary army under Essex as a volunteer, and was at the
battle of Ef&ebill in 1642. After the death of his father he entered parliajueut for Wilt-
shire, and obtained command of a regiment of cavalry. He was an ardent republican,
denounced the misgovernment of the king, advocateu the establishment of a common-
wealthy and supported the bill for the abolition of the house of peers. He was one of
the judges of Charles I. His independence rendered him obnoxious to Cromwell, who
sent him after the death of Charles to Ireland in 1650 with a military command. When
Cromwell assumed the authority of protector, Ludlow vigorously protested against it,
being in favor of a republic. Beturnmff to England he refusedjunqualified submission
to Cromwell. Distrusted on account of this refusal, security was rec^uired that he would
not oppose the government, which being privately furnished by his brother Thomas,
Ludlow retired into Essex, where he resided till Cromwell died. He then returned, was
active in parliament, and endeavored to restore the commonwealth. On the restoration
of Charles H., feeling himself insecure, he fled the country in 1660, landed at Di^pe,
and then went to Switzeidand, taking up hia residence at Yevay. Wearied with exile,
he returned in 1689, when, being threatened with arrest for participating in the murder
of Charles L, he <^in fled to Vevay» where he died. Over tne doorway of his bouse he
had placed the inscription, Omikd sohumforti pairia. Here he wrote his Memoin in S
volunaes.
LUDLOW, FmsBueH, 1887--70; b. Pou^hkeepMe, K. Y.; entered upon the life of
-"rfi«fcw*r
visited in a work entitled TM Ho^t of the OmHuamt. He also wrote Th^ Opium SatU,
a book describing the iasidiaaa inroads of the drug on the constitiHtio&aild wtoraU of
those habituated to its use, and doigned to be a warning, against aequiiinif the habit
Ludlow was unfortimately himself a vicfeim to tJie "opium habits" a faet which seri-
ously invaded hia literary oapaeUo^* naturally of excellent quality. Heihad an eamberaDt
fancy, a briUiant flow of Ilmgoa^ and graphic descnntive powvn. The last few
months of his life were spent in SwitnerlaniC triiere he dieo, every effort being nMde by
loving attention to redeem his shattered constitution.
LUDLOW, RoegJB, b. Bn^^laod, and sattled^at DoivheBtet, Man.., in 1680. After
serving for 4 years as one of the aasislaiilB, behw diaappointBd in his 'anUtioD to be
governor, he settled with other Maaeacikuaetts en^imnta at Windaor, €emi., in 1686, and
for the next 19 years was chosen either deputv-govemor or a magistrate. In the mean-
time he had taken up his residence at Fairfiela, by whose inhabitants he waa aj>pointed.
in 1654, to conduct a proposed Indian campidgn; but this failing to receive the sanction
of the general court, Lualow left Connecticut for Virginia. The time of his birth and
death are unknown. During his residence in Connecticut he compiled for the colony
its first law code, which was pubtished in 16T2.
LUDLOW TOBXATIOH, the uppermost division of the sihirian strata (q.v ), consists
of an extensive aeries Of indnrstea ar^llaceouffbeds, with bands efdark^gi^y'ai^Haceoaa
limestone. The town o( Ludlow stands upon the higher strata of this ftmMrtion.
LUD0LPHU8, or LUDOLF, Job. 1624-1704; b. Erfurt, Thuringia; educated at
Leyden, studying speciallv law and the oriental languages. After leaving Ley den he
was successively tutor to die sons of the Swedish ambassador at Paris, i^nd to the chil-
dren of the duke Of Bnxe-Gotha rt the court of the duke. He spent the latter part of his
lifeatFrankfort-on-the-Main, Where he was made president of the academy of hist^)ry.
He was one of the most eminent oriental scholars of his Me. In 1649 he visited Rome
and mastered the Etbloplc laogua^ by the aid of an AbysBininn whom he met. In
1661 he published a dictionary and grammat of ' this language. • He^ learned' also the
■22S tsas:
AjDih«ri9 laosoi^, of wbiok he onbtished a dictionary and > j^nmaar. His otlrar most
impoitaDt ^oBka aro: Bi$Uma jSHkiapiaa; Ad ttiom JHftanmih JB^fiopi/oam O^mmen-
iariuB; BeUUio Nova de hodierno Hobbemma $tatu eeo India nuper ftttnte/ Apperkdw^Mn-
Unetis Di8t$rtaUonem dfi LocuttU,
Jiin>WI6 I.| KhXh AneusT, King of Bavai^a, tlie eldest soti of king Maximiliani
Joseph, h. Aug. % 178<(. In 1810 he married tfae pHnoess Theresa of 8ax6*Hildburg-
hausen. Ajb crowiM^rince, he book little part in pcimics, bat devoted himself to science
aod the fine arte, and lived vcrjr eoonomieally, in order that he might be able to spend
large sums in forming a mafnifieent collection of masterpkoes of sculpture, known as-
ihe glyptotbek. He succeeded to the throne on Oct. 13, 1825, and commenceid his I'eign
by granting some reforms. His reien was distinguished by the encouragement of the
fine arte, and the erection ol magninoeat public Iwildings; he also inamgumted the first
lailway that Germany posseBsed-Hhat from Nuremberg to Furth^and executed the line
canal called Litdurigikainalt which unites the Danube and the Main. But it was no less
characterized by the pcevaleace of uHramotttane iofluenoe, inrtolerancc toward all who
did not belong to the church of Rome> and contempt of oonstituloonal rights and forms,
whilst the king's conduct gave great occasion of scandal, particularly in his connection
with the dancer Lola Montez (created countess of Landsfeld). On account of the revo-
lutionary disturbancea in Feb. and Mar., 1846, Ludwig resigned the cty)wn in favor of
his eldest son, Maximilian. He died in 1668.
I/UUWlG n., King of Bavaria, b. Aug. 25, 1846; succeeded his father, Maximilian
U., Mar. 10, 1864. He is a bachelor and quite eccentric in his habits as a monarch,
showhig^ himself infireqnently to his subjects, and being devoted as much to art, especially
music, as to the cares of government. He took the side of Prussia in the late war with.
France, and favored the unity of Get-many under the imperial rule of William 1. His
intimacy with Richard Wagner, the musical composer, m tlie first years of his reign,
excited the opposition of the people to such an extent that the King was obliged
to send him away from the court. He follows his own caprices rather than the guidance
of any political party. He loves the solitude of his magnificent palaces, where he
devotes much time to mudic and theatricals.
LUPWIG, Karl ^^ispbigh Wilhelm, b. Germany, 1816; educated at Krlanaen
and If arburg, and made professor of comparative anatomy at the latter in 1849. lie
held the chau* of physiology at ZQrich^l84iM^ ; at YieDina, 1855-66; and in the latter
year was called to the same position in Leipsic. He had made a specialty of anatomical
phyaioloey, and haspubliahed, besides his contributions to scientific journals, Lshrbuch
d(tr Ph^mologie d^ ^Kfist^un, and Arbeiten aus der Phydotogischen AmstaU zu Leipzig.
LUDlVlG, Otto, 1813-65; b. Germany. Obliged by ill-heakh to give up music,,
which he had studied under Mendelssohn, he turned his attention to literature, and pro-
duced a number of tmge<fies and stories: Ikr ^Bh^forgter (18581 Die liakkahaer (1855),
Zwitii6h&n Mmfnel UTid iSrde (1856). Aden oder Sehweigen and Bhaketpetvre JStudien were^
pttbliahed afror his death.
JiUD'WVMKO^fif a t. of WQrtemberg, about 8 m. n. of 6tuttgart. It was founded
in 1706 by duke Kberhard Ludwig, in toleequeoee of a quarrel with the StatlgarCers,
aod is the second rqyal residence. Ludwjgsburg was laid out with painful rfgularity,.
and has ah artificial and lifeless look, tt is the principal depdt for soldiers in WQrtem-
berg. not less than 4,006 being stationed here, whence it has got the name of the Swa-
bian Potsdam, and has an arsenal, a cannon -foundrv, a military academy, aiKi a royal
castle, with splendid picture-gallery and gardens. Pop. 75, including military, 14,700.
LUi^'^v iGSflAl^EN, a t. in lUienish Bavaria, opposite Ma^oheim, on the Rhine;,
p. 12,008. tt is a fortified town, and was founded by Louis I. of Bavaria in 1848..
le river is crossed at this point by an iron bridge, and there is considerable conunerce.
LUIT, in nautical parlance, is to bidfig a ship's head to tlie wind, preparatory to-
tacking, or otherwise. The It^ot a vessel is the roundest part of her bow.
LUGARD, Sir i^wjiitp, K 1810; edutoted at the military coltege in Sandhurst
(England); ent^rad thp British anaj as an enstgn in 1888, and served many years with dis-
tmcUon in India. He was In the Afghan war of 1842, in the campaign on tiie Sutlej,.
m that of the Punjab, and in the Persian expedlHon of 1857, bein^ promoted succes-
sively to he assistant adjtgen., adj(.gen., chief of staff, maj<gen., heut.gen.,'«nd gen.
He was made pennlment under-secretary of war in 1861, and president of the aro^ pur*
diase COtnlnifis}on and member of the privy council in 1^71; k«c.b. in 1857, and g.c.b.
in 18^7.
LiJOA'l^b, a t. in the canton of Ticiop, dwitceriand, stands em the n.w. shorts of the
lake of the same n^me. ,It Lb entirely Iti^ian in character, with dinghy and^iri^ aroaded
streets ■ hut 1^ environs diispl^ all the richness pf Italian scenery. Lugano containa
several f^oHes for throwing ailk, and is ihe seat of a fiburishing transit trade between.
Switzerls[f)id aihd It^lj. '|*rom MonU SaiMdore, in the vicinity, ^ maAniflcent view may.
LJ!6^'(^X*^^&ow, if situated oP thes. of the canton oil T&etiM, Swila»riaiid, Ihiee
of its iffffia. ref^ohipg iuti^ thei ItatiffH teniUtfy. Its greateati leDgtfl is abovf IM) :m; :, but
Digitized by VwJiJL/VlV^
^,
taSTr '234
from its exceedingly irregular ahspe, it is noifhen more than li m. broad. The chir.
iicter of its sceneiy^ though perhaps as heoutiful, is more rugged than that of lakes
Como and Maggiore.«
LVOAHSK', a market t. in the government of Ekaterinoslav, European Kussia, siCu-
ated on the Lugan, a branch of the Donetz, 100 m. n.n.w. of Taganroe, is the seat of
the only iron-works in the s. of Russia. The ore was formerly brought from the Ur&i
mountains, but is now found in sujfficient quantity in the neighborhood. Lu^no has
also a cannon-foundry and coal-mines, and, during the Crimean war, suppliedthe Roa-
sian fleet with coal and ammunition. Pop. '67, 10,280.
LUGDUNUM. See Lyons, anU.
LVQQABiE of travelers, though, in a certain sense, attached to the person, and under
one's immediate care, and not paid for separately, is nevertheless protected br the con-
tract; and carriers of all kinds are bound to carry luggage safely, and if it is lost, must
pay damages for it. Owing to the established rule, that iuegage is not paid for sepa-
rately, it has often been attempted by travelers to abuse thtt privilege, and carry mer-
chandise as part of and mixed up with their luggage, in order to escape any separate
and extra payment. Most railway companies^ accordingly, by their by-laws fix a limit
as to weight for this luggage, and it is presumed Uiat lug^a^ consists only of wearing-
apparel or things for personal use, and not articles of trade intended for sale. Tliough
carriers or railway companies cannot get rjld of liability for this luggage by ^ving any
notice or making a by-law to that effect, yet it is competent for all carriers to specif
certain articles of merchandise, which, whether they are mixed up with luggage or not,
must be separately paid for, otherwise they w^iU not be responsible. Such are gold or
silver in a manufactured state, jewelry, watches, clocks, trinkets, stamps, maps, writ-
ings, title-deeds, paintings, pictures, glass, china, silk, furs, and lace, provided these
exceed in value £i0. Unless notice of such articles being included in the luggage is
given to the carriers or company, and an increased rate paid, they will not be respon-
sible for the loss. Except, therefore, these excepted articles, the carrier is bound to
receive, carry securely, and deliver the luggage of travelers, notwithstanding the trav-
eler has it in his personal charge. Thus, a railway porter, on the arrival of the train,
having carried a traveler's luggage to a cab and lost' it in the way, the railway company
was held responsible. A carrier has a lien on the luggage for the fare, if not paid, and
can keep it till such faw is paid; but ^s prepayment is now the universal practice, this
remedy is seldom resorted to.
L1TO0EB, a small vessel carrying two or three masts, with a lugsail (see below) on
each, and occasionally a topsail. The rigging is light and sin^iple, and tjie form .of the
sails enables a lugger to beat close up to the wind. * Ambbg English boats', tihe lug-rig
rarely extends beyond the larger class of fishing- vessels, though there are some very ele-
jfant lugger yachts in the different clubs. Tn the French service, however, it is a favor:
ite rig, and is used for vessels of sizes as large as British schoobers. y
LuGBAUi, a quadrilateral sail used in luggers and open boats. It is bent, by the upper
side, upon a stmight yard, which is slung on the mast in an oblique pofidtaon, one-third
to wind waird, two-tbirds on the leeward side of the mast.
LUGO, a province of Spain, in Galicia, on t^ie Atlantic coast, between long. 6* 62*
and 8"* 4' w.; 3,484 sq.m.; pop. 474,286. In the n. j)art it has a mountainous surface,
with mines of lead and iron; the southern part is level and fertile, and produces
fruits, wine, and wheat.
LV'OO (the Lucus Attgusti of the Romans), a t. in the n.w. of Spain, capita) of the
province of the same name, is situated on the left bank of the Mifio, 90 m. e.n.e> of San-
tiago. It is the seat of a bishop, has a cathedral of the 12th c, and several other
churches, and manufactures of silk and leather. It was celebrated in the time of the
Romans for its warm sulphur-baths. Pop. 9,000.
LV'CK), a t. of central Italy, in the province of Ravenna, 82 m. s.e. from Ferrara.
It is supposed to be the site of -the ancient Lu&us Dianm, Lugo is an important pro-
vincial town. There Is an annual f ah* which lasts from <he 1st to the 19th of Sept., and
is the ocoaaion of a great concomrse. Lueo has a very considerable trade in hemp, flax,
rice, wine, brandy, etc. Fop. abouit 8,500.
LV'OOB, a market t. of the Austrian empire, in the Banat, on the ^emes, a branch of
the Danube, 82 m. e.s.e. from Temeswat. It consists, strictly speaking, of two contigu-
ous towns, the inhabitants of the one, BinJTsiDH-LuoOB; being mostly of German race,
and those of the other, RouHANiacH-LuGog, or Wallachiboh-Luqob, being Rouma^
nian. Pop. of former, W, 8,800; of latter, -^rfiO^; '
LUa-WOBM, or Lob-w*orm (c^r^icota piscaioTwnC^, one of the dombraiiehiateannslida,
extremely abundant on the Bluish shores, and very valuable as bait to fishermen. It
inhabits the sand, on the surface of which, after the tide has retired, ixmumerable coOs
are always to be seen, the easts of this 'worm. It is larger than the earth-worm, some-
times a foot long, is destitute of eyes, has no distinct head, but is much ^cker at the
extremity where tlie mouth is sHuMed than at the bther. The mouth hae n<y Mf^, nor
teeth,: nofr tsntaote. Them ai^e two ro^ of Miftled a(toif^|f^ ^e^^^tgtiaa of ktoomo-
:" ■ f
225 fcSK
tion, by means of which the lug- worm works iu way through the saud. About the mid-
die, it has on each side six tufts of gills. When touched, it exudes a yellowish fluid;
and an exudation from its body slieliily agglutinates the partickss of sand, so as to form
a tube through which it passes and repasses. It is one of the annelids most i-cmarkable
for the red color of the blood, which imparts a fine crimson to the gill-tufts.
LUIQI, Amdri£A di, 1470-1512; b. Italy; known also as L'lngegng, and Andrea
d'AssiaL He was a pupil of Perugino, with whom he worked on the Oambio ut Perugia.
Little is known of his work, but a coat-of-arms in the Assisi town-hall is ascribed to him.
LuiBXy or LOVIHO DA LTTIKI, Bernardino, b. about 1400 at Luini, near the Lago
Maggiore, a celebrated painter of the Lombard school. Ue is generidly staled to have
been the principal pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, but it rather appears that he was edu-
cated uDOer Stefano Scotto; and thou<^h, from having attended ihc academy of the fine
arts founded at Milan by Ludovico il Moro, of which Leonardo was director, he may be
styled a pupil of that great artist, yet it is not proved that he received any direct instruc-
tion from him. Though Luini occasionally imitated the style and execution so closely
as to deceive experienced judges, his general manner had a delicacy and grace sufficiently
ori^ual and distinct from that of Lconnnlo. Still, the works of the former arc often
attributed to the latter, in order to increase their value. He executed numerous works
at Milan in oil and fresco! His frescos at Lu^no, Saronno, and Pavia arc justly
admired. The date of his death is not exactly known, but he was alive in 1580. — He
bad a brother, Aicbrogio, who imitated his style, and several sons who also were
painters.
LUISE, Augusts Wilhelminb Amalie, queen of Prussia, was b. Mar. 10, 1776. at
Hanover, where her father, the duke Earl cf Mccklenburg-Strclitz. was then comman-
dant Bhe was married to the crown-prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick William
IIL, on Dec. 24, 1793. After his accession to the throne, she became exceedingly pop-
ular, her great beauty being united with dignity and grace of manners, and with much
gentleness of character and active benevolence. This popularity increased in conse-
quence of herconduct during the period of national calamity which followed th9 battle
of JenOy when she displayed not onlv a pa^'iotic spirit, but no little energy and rcsolu-
tion. She was unexpectedly taken ill. and died on a visit to her father in btrelitz. July
19, 1810. Her memory is cherished in Prussia, and the order of Luiso in that kingdom
was founded in honor of her.
LUITPRAND, or Liutpramd, King of Lombardy. See Lombabdt, ante,
LUITPRAND, or Liutprand, 920-72; b. Italy; chancellor of Bcrcnger IL, in whose
service he went to Constantinople on a diplomatic mission. Having fallen Into disfavor
with Berenger. he took refuge with the emperor Otho I., who made him bishop of Cre-
mona. He was for a second time ambassador to Constantinople (968-71), and gives an
account of his embassy iu his Beilaiio de LegaHone ConntaniinopoUtana. Ho also wrote the
history of Otho*8 reign for the years 960-64, the IMoria OtJumis; and the Antapodods,
containing the history of Europe from the death of Charles the fat to about 950.
LITKS (Lveajf\ the author of one of the gospels and of the Acts of the Apostles, was
b., according to the accouuts of the church fathers, at Antiooh in Syria, and is said to
have been a phvsician. He was probably by descent a Hellenistic Jew. We learn from
Scripture that he was the associate of Paul in his second evangelistic expedition (53 a.d.);
but that is aU we know; whatever else is asserted concerning him is doubtful. That he
was a painter Is one of the thini;s for which tradition vouches; and in the church of St.
John Latcran nt Home a picture of our Savior is shown which is ascribed to Luke,
but is believed to be a work of the 13th century. The churches of Padua, Venice, and
Rome also possess many pretended relics of this evangelist. His festival is com ".lem-
orated by the Roman Catholic church on Oct. 18.— The gospd of St. Luke, addressed to
a certain Thcophilus, is generalij; believed to have been written before the destruction
of Jerusalem. Kenan, however, in his Vie de Jesua (1863), considers its composition sub-
sequent to that event. The time and place of its origin are unknown, ^c Schleier-
macher*s Die Scl.rfften dea Luke (Berlin, 1817). The apocryphal writings ascribed to
Luke are Acta Pauli; Baptinmue Leonis; and Liturgia XII. Apoatolorum,
LUKE, THB EvAKOELisT {ante), concerning whom all tliat is certainly known is
drawn from his own writings and those of the apostle Paul. That he was not a Jew by
birth is indicated by the fact that the apostle, in the epistle to the Colossians, speaks of
him separately from those who were of the circumcision. According to bis own state-
ment, he had not been numlxsred omong the first eye-witnesses and ministers of the
word. Paul calls him the l)cloved physician. His name does not occur in the Acts,
and his presence with Paul is shown by the change in his narrative to the first pei*8on
plural. By following the clue thus given we learn that he joined Paul at Troas, went
with him, on his first entrance into £urope. to Philippi, and was separated from him
when Paul and Silas were imprisoned: did not depart with him from the city, and was
not with 1dm afterwards until his third departure from Philip|>i, when he rejoined him,
continued with him till he reached Jerusalem, and went with him into the church there;
was apparently separated from him during the aix>sflc's imorisonment atCcesarea; sailed
with him on the voyage to Italy, and, after their shipwreck at Ma}Uf^^^n|j^it|ym^^
U. K IX.-.16 ^
Rome, where, during the apostle's first imprisonment, he continued his fellow-laborer, as
appears from the epistles to Philemon and the Oolossmns ; and remained to the last faithful
to liim, when others had forsaken him, as Paul declares in liis closing words to Timothj^
" only Luke is with me." Tmdition tells sonie other things concerning him which may
possibly be true, besides many which certainly are false.
LUKE, GOSpEL of {ante), has occupied the third place in the arrangement of the
gospels durins all the Christian centuries back to the close of the first. Tibe council of
Laodicea, and the historian Eusebius in the 4lh c, recognized it as one of the canonical
books of Scripture; Origen and Tertullian, in the thircC frequently quoted it; Ireuaeus.
180, acknowledged tt as Luke*s work; Uie Muratorian fragment, about 170» assigns it
the third place; Tatian, also in the 2dc.. constructed his Diafessaron, a harroonv of the
four gospels, the third of which was Luke's. Justin Martyr, in his defense of Christian-
ity, presented to the emperor in 189, quotes as in general use among the churches
memoirs of Christ which, it is morally certain, were the four gospels. See John,
Gospel of. Clement of Rome, about 100, mentions Luke*s gospel as one of the Chris-
tian books. These writers say that Luke wrote under the general superintendence of
Paul. While this opinion is sustained by the long-continued intimacy and confidence
existing between the evangelist and the apostle, Luke says in his preface thst, haviDf
diligently investigated all things from the very beginning, he wrote out an account oi
the facts which were already fully believed in the Christian church, and in which Theopb-
ilus, for whom he wrote, had been orally instructed. The facts had been spread
abroad, first, by' the preaching and conversation of those who, from the beginning, were
eye-witnesses and ministers of the word; and, secondly, by many written accounts
rendered necessary by the increasing number of converts to the Christian faith. LuIlc's
work fully justifies his declaration that he had searched out all things from the hegin*
ning, as it gives the genealoev of Jesus back to Adam, narrates the annunciation by the
angel to Zacharias and to Mary, and records various facts connected with the birth,
infanc3^ and childhood of Jesus whicJi had probably been furnished by Mary herself.
The contents of the gosnel are: the preface addressed to Theophilus; the pre-
announcement by the angel Gabriel of the Wrth of John to Zacharias, and of Jesus to
Mary; date of the birth of Jesus connected historically with the reign of Augustus;
information concerning his birth given by the angel to the shepherds of Betlifehem;
account concerning his childhood and youth; date of John's ministry connected histori-
cally with the reign of Tiberius and the Roman .eoTernors of Palestine; baptism of Jesus,
and genealogical table ascending to Adam; the temptations; return to Galilee and
ministry there; address at Nazareth; teaching and mighty works in Capernaum; the
calling of Peter, James, and John; the leper cleansed; great multitudes of the sick
restored, the paraljrtic forgiven and cured; call of Levi (Matthew) the publican, followed
by the feast at which a great number of publicans and sinners were guests; claim of
Jesus to be lord of the Sabbath, sustained by restoring the withered hand; the choice of
the 12 apostles; multitudes from all parts of the land healed; discourse corresponding
with the "sennon on the mount;" the centurion's servant healed; the widow's son
raised; Uie message from John the baptist in prison, the answer returned, and the testi-
mony concerning him ; the woman in the Pharisee's house ; parable of the sower, and of
Uie lighted candle; the storm on the lake; the man among the tombs, and the demons
among the swine; the woman healed by touching the hem of Jesus's varment; the
daughter of Jairus raised; the 12 apostles sent forth; Herod perplexed; the 5.000 fed;
Peter's avowal of faith; the transfiguration; the evil spirit cast out; the ambition of tlic
disciples condemned, their narrow views corrected, tneir intolerance reproved; the 70
sent forth and their Joyful return; the lawyer's question answered; the good Samaritan;
Martha's care and ]Vfary's choice; instructions concerning prayer; demons cast out; the
sign of Jonah given to the Jews; the lighted candle used in parable a second time;
denunciations against the Pharisees, lawyers, and scribes; warnings against their
hypocrisy, and against covetousness, illustrated by the parable of the nch man ; counsel
to dismiss anxious thought, to trust God's providential care, and give supreme attention
to his siTvioe; warning against measuring guilt by suffering; tne barren fig-tree; the
woman healed on the Sabbath; parable of the mustard seed, and the leaven; the strait
gate; lamentation over Jerusalem; the man healed on the Sabbath; seeking the chief
places at feasts; the great supper and the excuses made; counting the cost, salt losing
Its savor, parables of the lost sheep, of the lost money, of the prodigal son, of Uie unjust
steward, of the rich man and Lazarus; against offenses; forgiveness to be proportioned
to repentance; the power of genuine faith; the ten lepers cleansed ; the sudden coming
of the Son of man; the unjust iudge, the Pharisee and publican; infanta brought to
Jesus; the young ruler; the death of the Son of man foretold; the blind man at Jericho;
Zacchsus the publican ; the parable of the pounds; entrance into Jerusalem and lamenta-
tion over its doom: cleansing of the temple; question to the chief priests and others con-
cerning John's baptism; thenusbandmen and the vineyard; hypocritical question of the
Pharisees concemrug tribute, scoffing question of the Sadducecs concerning the resurrec-
tion, and silencing question of Jesus concerning the Messiah; the gif ta of the rich men
and of the poor widow; the destnictiori of the temple foretold, with the captivity of the
Jews, the treading down of Jerusalem, and the coming o|j|Jiei §!i^j»|^i^Wi\5^D8pinicy
of tbe chief priests and scribes against Jesus and their covenant with Judas; the pass-
over kept by Jesus and the twelve, witli the pre-anoouncement of tbe bt'trayal, of Peter's
denial, and the institution of the Lord's-supper; prayer and conflict at the mount of
Olives; betrajral, arrest, denial by Peter, condemnation by the council, examination by
Herod and Pilate, the latter proclaiming the innocence of Jesus, yet ordering bis death;
tbe cruciflxion and scenes connected with it; the body jriven to Joseph and buried by
bim in a new roclc-hewn sepulcber; appearance of angels to the women at the tomb,
announcing the resurrection of Jesus; visit of Peter to the spot; appearance of Jesus to
two disciples and afterwards to tlie company of them; expounding of the Scriptures
to them, with tbe direction that the gospel should be preached among all nations, begin-
ning at Jerusalem; ascension of Jesus to heaven from Bethany In tlie midst of the dis-
ciple^ and their subsequent thanksgiving and praise.
L%IiL, Ramon. See Lullt, Ratmokd, ante.
LULLT, Ratmokd, "the enlightened doctor," one of the most distinguished men
of tbe ISth c , was b. at Palma, in Majorca, in 1284. In his youth he led a dissolute
life, and served for some time as a common soldier; but a complete revulsion of feeling
taking place, he withdrew to solitude, and gave himself up to ecstatic meditations and
tbe study of the difDcult sciences. This sudden change of life produced in Lully a fervid
and enthusiastic state of mind, under the influence of which he formed tbe project of a
spiritual crusade for the conversion of the Mussulmans, an idea he never afterwards
abandoned. In pursuance of this project, he commenced an earnest study of theology,
philosophy, and the Arabic language; and, after some years, published his great work,
An GenercUu Hoe Magnay which has so severely tested the sagacity of commentators.
This work is the development of the method of teaching known subsequently as the
" Luliian method, "and afforded a kind of mechanical aid to the mind in the acquisition
and retention of knowledge, by a systematic arrangement of sublects and ideas. Like
all such methods, however, it gave little more than a superficial knowledge of any sub-
ject, though it was of use in leading men to perceive the necessity for an investigation
of truth, the means for which were not to be found in the scholastic dialectics. Xully
subsequently published another remarkabib work, Libri XII. Prineipufrum PhUaeoph.
contra AwrraUtae, and, full of the principles which he had developed in this book, he
went to Tunis, at the end of 11^1, or the beginning of 1292, to argue with his opponents,
face to face. He drew large crowds of attentive hearers, and held disputations with
learned Mohammedans, who, however, were as anxious to convert him as he to convert
them, and the result, as might have l>een expected, was that little impression was made
by either of the parties. Finally, however, Lully was thrown into prison, and con-
demoedl to banishment. After lecturing at Naples for several years, he proceeded to
Rome; thence to his native island of Majorca, where he labored for the conversion of the
Saraoena and Jews; thence to Cyprus and Armenia, zealously exerting himself to bring
back tbe different schismatic parties of the oriental church to orthodoxy. In 1806-7
he a^aiji sailed for Africa, entered the city of Bugia (then the capital of a Mohammedan
empire), and undertook to prove the truth of Christianity. A tumult arose, in' which
LuUy^ nearly lost his life. He was again thrown into prison, and treated with great
seven W^; yet so high an opinion was entertained of his abilities, that the chief
men <]X Uie place were anxious that he should embrace Mohammedanism, and promised
him if he did so the highest honors. But to Lully, whose intellect and feelings were
both enlisted in the eause of Christianity, this was impossible. After some time he was
again banished from the country, and landed (after being shipwrecked) near Pisa. He
subsequently went to Paris, and lectured against the principles of Averroes; he also
induced the pope to establish chairs for the Arabic, Chaidee, and Hebrew languages in
all cities where the papal court resided, and also at the universities of Paris, Oxfom, and
Salamanca. But his missionary zeal could only be satiated by martyrdom. In 1814 he
sailed once more for Africa, and proceeded to Bugia, where he threatened the people
with divine Judgments if they refused to abjure Mohammedanism. Tlie inhabitants
were furious, dragged him out of the city, and stoned him to death, June 80, 1815. The
Mayenoe (10 vols., 1721-42) edition of his works includes several books on alchemy,
of which there i^ not the slightest reason to suppose Lully was the author. Compare
Neander's Kinkengeeehichte, Bohn's translation, vol. vii. pp. 88-06.
LULLT', or LULLI, Jbak Baftiste, 1688-87; b. Florence. He was the son of a
miller, but havine displayed, while still a child, a remarkable natural gift for music, he
was spared from following his father's vocation, and educated by a monk in the use of
&e guitar. Chancing to fall under the notice iA the chevalier Guise, he was recom-
mended by that nobleman to Mile, de Montpensier, the niece of Louis XIY., who
engaged him as a page and sent for him to be brought to Paris. He was at this time 14
years of age, and was wittv and otherwise gifted; but it appears that he could boast of
no personal beauty, and he was accordingly degraded to the kitchen, and be^an his
official life as a marmUon, or scullion. He had by this time gained some acquamtance
with the use of the violin, and, bv devoting all his leisure to practice on that instrument,
be succeeded in acquiring considerable mastery over it, and was presently released from
bis bondage and placed among the 24 violinists attached to the service of the king. He
soon undertook composition, and so successfully that the king, having heard him per-
Luminosity. ^^O
form bis own pieces, made him the leader of a new band, called " les petita yiolons.'
Lully DOW roBc rapidly; and bein^ at first employed in compoFiug music for the ballet
'Which formed a principal entertainmeut at the court of Louis xlV., he was appuhitec
superiutendent of court music, aud finally placed at the head of the academie royale d(
musique, which ihe kiu^ founded in 1660. liia fortune whs now assured; aud being tb<
king's favorite, he speeuily amassed great wealtli, and was honored by being made oni
of the king's secretaries. Ills death re.'tulted from improper treatment by an unskillfu
Eractitioner, after a slight accident which occurred to liim while directing a rehearsal
lUlly composed 19 operas, besides Itallet music and miscellaneous pieces. Uc has beei
generally accorded the reputation of being the father of French dnuiiatic music; and cvei
such composers ns Handel and Purcell have not hesitated to acknowledge their obligutioni
to hioL He was on terms of intimacy with Molidre, composed music for some of hL
pieces, and even acted with success in his comedies. Uo married, in 1662, HUe^ ^nm
bert, and had 8 sons and 8 daughters. After his death, an inventory of his possession!
valued his silver-plate at 16,707 livres; his Jewels, etc., 18.000 livres; his ready money,
250,000 livres; his movables at the opera, 11,000 livres; and the house itself, 80,000 livres
Besides these, the rents of several houses, 4.600 livres a year. And, finally, his widow sole
his place of royal secretary for 71,000 livres. Up to 1778, Lully's operas continued tc
hold the public favor; but after that period, Gluck, Piccini, and Paesiello came intc
fashion, and ho was heard no more. One of his opems was Acin et Oalatee, and wiu
published with a portrait of the composer. The entire lU of his operas were published
in score.
LUMBAGO is a rheumatic affection of the muscles in the lumbar re^on, or in the
small of the back. It is often first recognized by the occurrence of a sliarp stabbing
pain in the loins upon attempting to rise from the recumbent or sitting podtion. It is
sometimes fo severe as to confine the patient to bed and in one position, from which lie
cannot move wltliout intense suffering; but in milder crises he can walk, although stiffly
and with pain, and usually with the body bent more or less forward. It may be dis-
tinguished from inflammation of the kidnej^s by the absence of the peculiar direction
of the pain towards the ^roin, as also by the absence of the nausea and vomiting which
usually accompany the disease of the kidney.
The causes of lumbago are the same as those of sub acute rheumatism generally.
The complaint may arise from partial exposure to cold, especially when the body is
heated, and violent straining will sometimes induce it. In persons with a strong con-
stitutional tendency to rheumatism, the slightest exciting cause will bring on an attack
of lumbago.
The treatment must vary with the intensity of the affection. In most cases, a warm
bath at bed-time, followed by ten grains of Dover's powder, will speedily remove it;
and as local remedies, a mixture of chloroform and soap-liniment, or the application d
the heated hammer (an instrument sold by Coxeter, surgical-instrument maker, London)]
will be found serviceable. The writer of this article lias frequently seen the disordel
completely disappear after one application of the hammer, which should be heated hi
a spirit-lamp to somewhat about 200", and then be rapidly brought in contact with pointy
of the skin over the painful parts at intervals of about half an inch. Each application
leaves a red spot, but blisters seldom occur, if the operation is properly performed.
LUMBER TRADE, including, in its widest sense (in American usage), the commerd
in timber for building houses, ships, etc., boards, planks, laths, scantling, sliin?!^
clapboards, railroad ties, telegraph poles, etc., is one of the most extensive and \^P^
tant industries of the United States, and, indeed, of the world. Norway, Russia, ao
Germany are largely engaged in this tnifflc, and France cuts a considenible amount t
flue timber. Tropical countries furnish dye-woods, veneering, etc. Prom the W«
Indies come mahogany, lance-wood, snake- wood, green-heart, etc.; and India. Austn
lia. and New Zealand "furnish large supplies of ship-timber. British North Ainerici
including Canada, New Brunswick, and Columbia, furnishes lumber to an imtneoi
extent. In the United States the most im]>ortant lunil)er districts are in Maine, Ned
York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Indiana, North an
South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, the southern portions of Alabama and Mississippi
Texas, northern California, western Oregon, and the region around Paget eounj
Indeed, nearly "all the states in the union produce lumber in considerable quantities. 11
most important centers of the trode are Bangor, Me.. Boston, Chicago and the lu(
ports generally, Albany, N. Y., Savannah, Brunswick, Ga., and Pensacola. Accorc
to the census of 1870, the numl)er of establishments producing lumber in come U
vras 26,945; number of men employed, 168,687: capital invested. $161,500,278; vr
paid, 946,281.838; total value of products, $252,889,029. Indeed, so extensive is
traffic that many portions of tlie country are l)eing denuded of trees with a rapi<
which excites alarm for the meteorological effects likely to ensue.
LViaNGSITY OF OBGAKIC BEINGS. Many organic beings, both vegetables alj
animals, possess the property of emitting light. i
In cryptogamic plants it has licen observed on tlie filaments of ichittoiUga <^^jL
daeea, one of the orcler of hepatic®; in rhizomarpha ntbUrranea, belonging to the or(l
239 asssst,.
of fn^gi (which is not nncommon on the walls of dark, damp mines, caverns, etc., and
ocscasionally emits a light sufficiently clear to admit of reading ordinary print); in cer-
tain species of agariewt (lielonging to the same order); and iji thdaphora caruUa (also a
fungus), to which decayed wood owes its phoi^phoric light.
An emission of light, chiefljr in flashes, has heen ohserved in the case of a few
phanerogamic plants, among which may be mentioned the garden nasturtium and mari-
gold, the orange lily, and the poppy. In these instances the light has been emitted by
the flowers; but cases are also recorded in which the leaves, juice, etc., of certain plants
have- evolved light. The emission of light from the common potato, when in a state of
decomposition, is sometimes very striking. Dr. Phipson, in his work On FhoufpUor-
eseenee, mentions a case in which the light thus emitted from a cellarful of these vegeta-
bles was so strong as to lead an officer on guard at Strasburs to believe that the barracks
were on fire. The phosphorescence in this case is probably due to the same cause as
that of decayed wood.
Before proceeding to notice the principal cases in which living animals have been
observed to emit light, we shall briefly refer to the emission of light by dead animal
matter. The bodies of many marine animals shine after death, but in none is the plie-
nomenon so vivid or continuous as in the well-known boring mollusk the pholas. The
luminosity of this animal after death was known to Pliny, who said that it shone in the
mouths of persons who ate it; and has been made the subject of special investigation
bv Reaumur, Beccaria, and others. Among other results, they found that a single
phoUu rendered seven ounces of milk so luminous that the faces of persons might be
distinguished by it; and that, by placing the dead animal in honey, its property of
emitting li^ht, when plunged into warm water, lasted more than a year.
It is universally known that certain kinds of dead fish, especially mackerels and her-
rings, shine in the dark. From a careful study of the booy of a dead stock-fish in a
luminous condition. Dr. Phipeon finds that the phenomenon is due to a grease which
shines upon the fish, and which (as it neither contains phosphorus nor minute fungi, by
which the light mi^ht have been caused) contains some peculiar organic matter, whicn
shines in the dark like phosphorus itself.
Several cases are on record in which ordinary butcher's meat has presented the phe-
DOmenon now under consideration, but their occurrence is so rare that we need not
specially notice theuL It may be observed that phosphorescent light is not unfrequently
observca on the dead human body b^ persons who visit dissecting-rooms by night.
The occasional evolution of light by living human beings will be presently referred to.
The living animals which possess the property of emitting liglit are extremely
numerous, decided cases of phosphorescence having been frequently observed, accoid-
ing to Dr. Phipson, *'in infusoria, rhizopoda, polypes, echinoderms, annelides, medusa*,
tanicata, moUusks, crustaceans, myriapodes, and insects." Following the arrangement
here laid down, wc shall mention a few of the organisms in which the phenomenon in
question is most remarkable. Among the rhizopoda the noetiluca miltaris, a minute
animal very common in the English channel, stands pre-eminent. Dr. Phipson relates
that he has found it "in such prodigious numbers in tlie damp sand at Ostend that, on
raising a handful of it, it appeared like so much molten lava." It is the chief cause of
the phosphorescence of the sea which is so often observed. Among the annelides, earth-
worms occasionally evolve a shining light like that of iron heated to a white heat.
Amouff the tunicata, a minute animal common in some of the tropical seas, the pyratoma
AUanUca resembles a minute cylinder of glowing phosphorus, and sometimes occurs in
such numbers that the ocean appears like an enormous layer of molten lava or shinms
phosphorua Among the mj-riapodes, certain centipedes— viz., Kotopendra dectriea and
8. phatpharea — ^present a brilliant phosphoric appearance. There is reason to believe
tlfat tho former will not shine in the dark unless it has been previously exposed to the
solar rays. Luminosity in insects occurs in certain genera of the coleoptera and hemip-
tera» and possibly in certain lepidoptera and orthoptera. Among the coleoptera must
be especially mentioned the genus lampyri^, to which the various species of glow-worms
(q.v.) belong, and the genus elaUr, to which the fireflies (q.v.) bt long. In the hemiptera
there is the genus fulgora^ or lantern-flies (q.v.), some species of which are highly
luminous.
The evolution of light from animals belonging to the vertebrates is extremely rare.
Bartholin, in his treatise De Luce Haminum et Brutorum (1647), gives an account of an
Italian lady, whom he designates as *'raulier splendens/' whose body shone with phos-
phoric radiations when gently nibbed with diy linen; and Dr. Kane, in his last voyage
to the polar regions, witnessed almost as remarkable a case of human phosphorescence.
A few cases are recorded by sir il. Marsh, prof. Donovan, and other undoubted authori-
ties, in which the human body, shortly before death, has presented a pale, luminous
appearance.
It is very difficult to give a satisfactory explanation of the above facts. The light
evolved from fungi is most probably connected with chemical action, while^ that
emitted in sparks and flashes from flowers is probably electrical. In some luminous
animals, a phosphorescent organ, specially adapted for the production of light, has
been already detected, and, as anatomical science progresses, the same will probably be
found in all organisms endowed with luminous or phosphorescent properties. For full
tSSSr- 230
details on the subject of this article, the reader is referred to Dr. Phipson's woilc, 0»
Photphorueence (London, 1862).
LUMPKIN, a co. in n. Georgia, drained by the head-waters of the Chattahooche
river, called the Cliestatee river, and the river Etowah; 400sq.m. ; pop. '80, 6,519—41,513
of American birth, 452 colored. Its surface, presenting features of creat natural beautv,
is varied by hills covered with forests of ash, liickoiy. oak, ana maple, which hills,
rising in the n.w. section, form a part of the Blue Kidge. Gold, granite, iron, lead,
silver, and copper represent its mineral wealth ; Silurian limestone and sandstone are
abundant. Its soil is favorable to stock-raising and the production of buckwheat,
barley, oals, and grain in general, wool, sweet potatoes, dairy products, and sorghum.
It produced in 70, 9,215 lbs. of honey. It had in '70, 8 gold quartz mills, employm^ 45
bauds, with a capital of |21,500, and aa annual product of |10,780. Seat of jusUce,
Dahlonega.
LUMPKIN, Joseph Henry, ll.d., 1799-1867; b. Ga.; brother of Wilson. After
graduating at the college of New Jersey, he was admitted to the bar, in which he soon
attained hi^h rank, but from which he was compelled by ill-health to retire in 1844.
In 1845 he became associate justice of the supreme court of Georgia, and soon after
was elected chief- justice, a position which he held by successive re-elections till bis
death. He was the founder of, and a professor in, the Lumpkin law school attached to
the state university at Athens.
LUMPKIN, WiLBOK. 1788-1870; b. Va.; removed to Georgia, entered the bar, and
served for several terms in the state legislature. He was a member of oongress, 1815-17
and 1827-81; governor of Georgia, 1831-85; and U. S. senator. 1837-41.
LmfFBUCKSB. or Lumffish {eyd9pteru»\ a genus of fishes of the family dueoboli
(q.v.), having the head and body deep, thick, ana short, the back with an elevated ridge,
the fins rather small, and the ventrals united by a membrane so as to form a sucking
disk.-— One species (G, lumpm) is common on the coasts of Britain, particularly in the
northern parts, and is still more {>lentiful in the seas of more northern regions. It has a
grotesque and clumsy form, but its colors are very fine, combining various shades of
blue, purple, and rich orange. It attains a pretty large size, and sometimes weighing
seven pounds. The lumpsucker preys on smaller fishes. Its sucker is so powerful that
a pail containing some gallons of water has been lifted when a lumpsucker contained in
it was taken bv the tail. Its flesh is insipid at some seasons, but very fine at otliers. and
is much used for food in northern regions. It is often brought to the Edinburgh market.
It is known in Scotland as the (Jock Ptiidle,
LUMSDEN, Matthew. 1777-1835; b. Scotland; went to India in 1794, and became
a magistrate in Calcutta. He was employed as a Persian translator by the East India
company, and in 1805 became professor of Persian and Arabic in the college of Fort
William, in Bengal. He was afterwards appointed to the superintendency of the
Mohammedan college at Calcutta. Besides a number of translations, he published a
Grammar of the Persian Langitage, 1810; Grammar of the Arabic Language, 1818; and
Selectione for the Pernan Class.
TiUNA, or Selb'kb, in mythology, the sister of Helios and goddess of the moon.
Some writers term her the daughter and others the wife of Helios, and mother of the
four seasons. By Jupiter she bad a daughter. Pandia; and Hersa (dew) was the off-
spring of the king of heaven and the goddess of the moon. She was woi^iped by the
Romans, though not esteemed as one of the important deities. She had, however, a
temple on the Palatine, which was illuminated nightly.
LUNA, Alvajso db, 1890-1453; b. Spain; was educated with the infant king, John
II.. with whom he made his escape from the custody of the infante of Aragon in 1418.
He led a successful revolution in behalf of the rights of the crown, and in 1423 was made
constable of Castile. He became the favorite mmister of the kin^, but his enemies suc-
ceeded in twice driving him from the court, first in 1426, and next in 1439. In 1445 he was
victorious in a \7ar against the infantes of Aragon, for which he was rewarded with the
grand-mastership of Santiago, which he held together with the dukedom of Truxillo
and the lordship of 00 towns and fortresses. He was at last overcome by an intrigue,
condemned to death, and executed at Yalladolid.
LUNA, Pbdro db,- 1334-1424; b. Spain ; received a cardinal's hat from Gregory XI. ;
atid on the death of the Avi^on pope, Clement YIL, in 1894, was elected pope by the
Avignon cardinals, on condition that he should resi^ at the request of tlie college of
cardinals, or whenever the pope at Home should resign, so that a new pope njght be
chosen, and the great schism ended. Luna took the name of Benedict XIII., and refused
to resign when requested; and the Roman pope, Boniface VIII.. likewise refused to
resign. At a council in Paris. 1398, it was decided to refuse obedience to Beoeiftict; he
was besieged in Avignon, but succeeded in making his escape. In 3408 ¥njaice, the
greater part of Spain, Portugal, Scotland, and Sicily had acknowledged him as the law-
ful pope; but in 1409 the council of Pisa deposed both Benedict and Gregory XII., who
had been in the meantime elected pope at Rome, and conferred the tiara upon Pietro
Filargo as Alexander Y., who died in 1410, and was succeeded by Baltaesare Ooflsa as
John XXIU. Spam and Scotland contlniiedti ackn(m\edge Benedict ^1^10 XXHI.
QQ1 X.ampkin.
and Gregory XII. abdicated, but Benedict refusea to do 8o eveo after the council of
Coodtance (which had been silting since 1414) had elected, in 1417, Ottone Colonna as
pope Martin V. Benedict withdrew to the fortress of Peniscola In Valencia, and con-
tinued in schiam till his death.
LtJXACT. By the law of England, as well as of all other countries, the presumption
m In favor of aman's sanity, even though he be born deaf, dumb, and bUna; and if tlie
fact w disputed, it always lies on the party alleging it to prove it. Sometimes a person
m a attte supposed to be that of a lunatic makes a contract, and is sued upon it; In such
a caae, he Biay set up as a defense tbat he was a lunatic, and the proof will consist of
bis condiiGt and actions at and previous to the time in question. Ix, however, the other
party did not know of the luuac)r. and took no advantage, the lunatic will not be
allowed to recover back mone;^s which -have been paid by him in pursuance of his con-
tract. Though the presumption is in favor of the sanity of a person, yet, wlien once
insanity has existed, the presumption is reversed, and then tbe law presumes no lucid
interval or restoration to sanity until it is proved; and it is extremely difficult to prove
a Ittcid interval, for the law requires very clear and conclusive proof of that fact, and
all Uie circumstances must be carefully scanned. It is difficult or impossible to define
in words what is insanity or lunacy, it being a negative state, and merely an inference
from the acta, conduct, and bodily condition of the person. An idiot is said to be a
person who was born with a radical infirmity of mind, and whose state is one of per-
petual infinnity, incapable of cure or restoration ; whereas a lunatic is one who is some-
times of good and sound mind, and sometimes not; he has lucid intervals, and is
assumed to be mere or less capable of restoration to sanity. A x>erson is said to be, in
legal phraseolo^, of unsound mind, who is not an Idiot, nor a lunatic, nor yet of a
merely weak mind, but, by reason of a morbid condition of intellect, is as incapable of
mani^^g his affairs as if he were a lunatic. Though it is difficult to define lunacy or
insanity, there are various tests which are more or less accepted in everyday life as
strong evidence. Idiocy is accompanied by a vacant look, etc., while insanity is
accompanied by some frenzy or extravagant delusion. The physiology of idiocy and
lunacy is a separate subject of investigation, and is part of medical Jurisprudence, to
which a few medical men confine their attention, and their assistance is often required
by courts of law when inquiring into this state of mind, though their theories are Jeal-
ously scrutinized. As a generalrule, an idiot or a lunatic is subject to civil incapacity.
He cannot enter into contracts or transact general business, and what he c^oes is a
nullity. Thus be cannot make or revoke a will, or enter into marriage, or act as an
execut(»' or administrator, or become a bankrupt, or be a witness in a court of Justice,
or vote at elections, and such like. But, as a general rule, a lunatic is liable in damages
for oommitting a wrong, such as a trespass, and he is liable for necessaries supplied to
him. and he may be arrested for debt, and his property may be taken in 'such cases, as
in the case of sane persons. With regard to criminal responsibility, the law was fully
considered in the case of McNaughton, who, in 1843, shot Mr. Drummond at Charing
Cross by mistake for sir Robert Feel, and the English Judges were called on by the
house of lords to state their opinion as to the richt mode of putting the questions to a
jury when the defense of insanity is raised. The judges said that a person laboring
under an insane delusion as to one subject is liable to punishment, if at the time of
committing the crime he knew he was acting contrary to law. In general cases, to
establish want of responsibility, it must be proved that the party accused was laboring
under such a defect of reason, from disease of mind, as not to know the nature and
quality of the act he was doing, or, if he did know it, that he did not know he was
aoin^ what was wrong. Where the party is laboring under an insane delusion as to
existing facts, and commits a crime in consequence thereof, it depends on the nature of
the delusion whether he is excused. Thus, if he insanely believes that A intended to
kill him, and he kills A, as he supposes, in self-defense, he would be exempt from
punishment. But if his delusion was that A had infiicted a serious Injury to his
character and fortune, and he killed A in revenj^e for such supposed Injury, then be
would be liable to punishment. When a person is acquitted of crime on the ground of
insanity, he is liable to be confined in prison during her majesty's pleasure.
So long as a person is not actually declared insane or an idiot, he has a right to man-
age bis own affiurs; and the only way. In England, in which he- can be deprived of such
right used to be by a writ de lunaUco inqtiirendo, issuing out of chancery, which author-
ized the impaneling of a jury to decide whether he was a lunatic or not. The
custody and care of lunatics were vested in the crown ; and the lord chancellor, as the
depositary of this Jurisdiction, issued the writ on petition. The practice has now been
considerably altered by various statutes, but, as a general rule, it is still the law, that,
unless a person has been officially declared a lunatic, either by the verdict of a jury, or
hj a certificate of a master in lunacy, he is still entitled to manage his own affairs. In
Aagland and Ireland, there is no intermediate state called Imbecility or weakness of
mind, with which the law interferes, as there is in Scotland (see Interdiction,
JifBBCiLiTT). and hence, if a weak person is imposed on, it is treated merely as a case
of fraud, tlie weakness forming an element of such fraud; but there is no machinery
for restraining the natural right, even of ^venk-minded persons^ it@bcd^ what they like
ES:^- 232
with their property. As regards idiots and lunatics, the mode in which they ten Judi-
cially declared to be so, is as follows: Tliere are certain persons called masters in lunacy,
whose business it is to conduct the inquiries which arc necessary, and preside over tuo
lury, and they also visit lunatics in certain cases. The commissioners of lunacy form a
board, which supervises generally tlie lunatic asylums and licensed houses for reception
of lunatics. The incapacity of a lunatic or idiot is conclusively established by tlie ver*
diet of a jury under an inquisition de lunatieo inquirendo, held liefore a master in lunacy;
or, if the case is too clear for a Jury, and where the party has not mental capacity to
declare his wish on the subject, by a certificate of a master in lunacy. The loi^ cuan-
cellor may direct the trial to take place before one of the common-law judges, and tha
evidence is to be confined to tbe lunatic's conduct during tbe previous two years only.
The costs of tbe trial are in the lord chancellor's discretion. If the party has property,
the lord chancellor then appoints, on petition, a committee of the estate or of the person
of tbe lunatic, and tbe visitors in lunacy must visit such lunatic at least once a vear,
unless the lunatic is in a private house unlicensed, in which case he must be visited
four times each year. The lunatic is thus kept under the immediate control of the
court of chancery, which manages his property through the agency of the committee
and of the visitora in lunacy. But as many lunatics have no property, or property of a
trifling nature, it has long been found necessary to provide asylums and registered
houses for tiie reception of lunatics, all whicb arc more or less under the control of
tbe commissioners in lunacy. Houses kept for the reception of lunatics are either pro-
vided by the counties, and called county asylums, or they are hospitals founded by
charitable donors, or they arc mere private houses, kept for purposes of profit by indi-
viduals. County asylums were first established in 1808 (see Lunatic Abtlum). The
justices of every county are bound to provide such an asylum, or to join with some
other parties in keeping one, the expense being defrayed out of tbe county rates, and a
committee of justices being appointed as visitors, to see tbat the statute is complied
with. The object of the county asylum is to receive the lunatic paupers of the county.
As a general rule, it is incumbent on the parish oflicers of each parish to report to the
neighboring justices any case of a lunatic pauper lieing in their parish. In some cases
of a harmless description, such paupers may be kept in the workhouse; but in other
cases, on the matter being reported to tbe justices, the latter order the paupers to be
brought before them for examination, and then send them to tbe county asylum ; the
parish to which the pauper Ixslongs— i.e., in which he is legally settled — being liable to
defray the maintenance; but if the parish which is legally bound to support the pauper
cannot be discovered, then the expense is to be charged to the county. If the pauper
cannot be examined by the justices, tbe medical officer and a clergyman may c»ign a
certificate, which is taken to be evidence of the lunacy. As to private houses, no per-
son is allowed to receive two or more lunatics, unless such house has been previously
licensed by the commissioners in lunacy, whicli license is only given after inspection,
and a report as to its sanitary arrangements and other items of management No per-
son can be legally received into sudi licensed house without a written order from tlie
person sending him, and the medical certificates of two physicians, surgeons, or apotlie-
caries. The keepers of such houses are liable to visitation by the commissioners, and to
render regular reports as to all particulars concerning the admission, death, removal,
discharge, or escape of patients. Tbe commissioners have power to visit at unexpected
times, and to receive reports from other visitors. The commissioners may discharge
persons who seem to be uetained without sufficient cause.
In Scotland, the law differs in several respects from the above. Idiots and lunatics
are often called fatuous and furious persons respectively; and there is ah intermediate
state called imbecility or weakness of mind, upon evidence of which the relations may
apply to the court oi session for judicial interdiction (q.v.), which has the effect of pro-
tecting the imbecile from squandering bis heritable property. The care and custody of
lunatics and idiots belong to the court of session, which may appoint a etirotor bonu or
judicial factor to take charge of the estate, and a curator or tutor dative to take charge
of the lunatic's person. A party is cognosced as a fatuous or furious person by a jury
presided over by tlie sheriff. The recent statutory provisions concerning Scotch luna-
tics are contained in the statutes 20 and 21 Vict. c. 71, 21 and 22 Vict. c. 89, and 25 and
26 Vict. c. 54. There is also a board called the commissioners in lunacy for Scotland,
who may grant licenses for private asyhims. They may also give special licenses to
occupiers of houses for the reception of lunatics, not exceeding four in number, subject
to niles and regulations. Counties and parishes may contract for accommodation of
their lunatic paupers. Minute provisions are contained in these statutes as to the
mode of treatment and visitation of lunatics, which, in leading points, resemble those
regulating the practice in England.
LUNACY (ante). Courts of justice concern themselves with the subject of insanity
only so far as ^ey find it necessary in determining the competency or the responsibility
of persons upon whose acts they are required to pass judgment. To the speculations of
the psychologist or his labored attempts to find a scientific solution of all the dilflcultic«
in which the subject is involved they pay little heed, but carefully limit themselves to
the one practical issue with which they have to deal. If an attempt be made to'invfltli-
23S 5;;S^
date 8 contract or a will on the ground of insanity, the question to be decided is whether
Uic maker was in the possession of his faculties to such a degree as to enable him clearly
to understand his obligations and duties, nnd to protect his own interests; and, even if it
be proved that he was in some respects insane, his acts will not, therefore, be regaixled
IS Toid ab initio, but only as voidable if tliey are shown to be irrational and wrong. If
iliHHitlc buY for himself or his family the necessaries of life, the act being proper and
ntional in itself and injurious to no one, his estate will be liable for the debt thus
iKorred: and if he make a will Just in itself and injurious to none, it will be respected
asd eoforoed. In the case of a criminal in whose i)ehalf the plea of insanity is set up,
tbe question is whether ho was in a condition to understand the nature of his act, and
had the power of doine or abstaining from doing it. Neither drunkenness nor heat of
blood will be accepted as an excuse, for the law assumes that a man is bound to keep
his appetites and passions under control. Nor can mental weakness exempt from
respocsibtlity for crime, unless it be proved that it was the offspring of disease, and that
the disease overpowered the reason and the will. Congenital imbecility, though similar
in some of its effects to insanity, is yet not to be confounded therewith, but to be treated
npoD its own ground. The law knows nothing of any form of insanity that does not
ipring frt>m bodily disease. No crime, however atrocious, is regarded in law as evidence
in itself of insanity, responsibility being assumed until mental unsoundness, the fruit of
Axxiae, is proved. No other department of human evidence has led to such intermiuabto
debate in courts of law as this. However the common mind may Judge as to the appU*
cation of these principles, and though in their application courts may sometimes have
becQ confused, for the most part our lurisprudence has in this respect proceeded upon
the safe ground of common sense. Scientinc experts have been allowed great latitude
inexpoanding their theories, but Judges have generally been careful, in considering the
Ribject, to keep their feet upon the solid earth, not wandering readily or far from cstab-
lUhed precedents. Tlie subject is regarded in law under three aspects— insanity, partial
iosanltr, and mental unsoundness. When the reasoning faculties are under constant
daress'and mental incompetency seems to be a permanent condition of the mind,
the law dads with the person as insane, and holds his acts to be voidable, though not
Becessarilr void, as thev may sometimes be ratioual and right. Partial insanity is said
to exist when a man is insane in some particulars while perfectly rational in others. In
ncii cases the law has simply to decide how far his acts are rational; and in whatever
decree they are so. it will treat them as it would those of a sane person. If a partially
ioftine person make a will or enter into a contract, it will be sustained if no evidence of
mental disorder appears upon the face or in the substance of the instcumcnt. Those
wlio deal with a person known to be partially insane do it, however, at their peril.
Meotil unsoundness is not necessarily the result of any appreciable disease, but may
viae from the natural decay of the mental powers in consequence of inherited weakness,
or from drunkenness or some other vice, rersons in this condition are not necessarily
danjierous to themselves or others, but in some spheres of labor may even be useful.
What degree of mental unsoundness in any particular case will Justify and require
guanlianship is a question for the courts to decide. See iMBECiLrrr, Lunacy.
LUNALILO', William Charles, sixth king of the Hawaiian islands, 1^35-74; b.
Honolulu. He was a descendant of Kamehameha I. Eamehameha Y., called Lot»
bfing unmarried and dying without naming a successor, prince Lunalilo, a chief of a
higii family, was chosen king Jan. 1, 1873. and crowned on the 9tb. He was educated
at the royal school established by the missionaries at Honolulu in 1889. He. with his
cousins, fcuneliameha IV. and v., received there a good education, showing special
tiste for literature and poetry. In 1880 he visited California with Lot and David, the
first preceding, the last succeeding him as king. Lunalilo, before his accession, was dis-
sipatetl, but reformed and made a good and popular ruler. After reigning one year and
twenty-five days he died without naming a successor, and David Kalakaua was appointed
king by the legislature.
LiniAB CAUSTIC is the term applied to the fused nitrate of silver when cast into
■nail cylinders. It is, when freshly prepared, of a whitish striated appearance; but on
exposure to the air the outer surface becomes decomposed and blackens.
The uses of lunar caustic in surgery as a caustic are numerous. It is a useful appli-
cation to punctured and especially to poisoned wounds. When applied to large indolent
okers it acts as a stimulant, and restores a more healthy action. It is used to remove
ud keep down spongy granulations (popularly known as proud flesh) in wounds and
nlcers, and to destroy warts. It has been applied with good effect to the pustules in
finall-pox, in order to cut short their progress and to prevent pitting. It is of great service
u a local application in inflammatory affections and ulcerations of the mucous mem-
bnae of the mouth and throat. In Assured or excoriated nipples its application gives
great relief. It should be insinuated into all the cracks, and the nipple afterwards
nahed with tepid milk and water. It is also extensively employed in diseases of the
cfe, of the genito-urinary organs, and in some forms of skin disease.
LUNAR CYCLE. See Metonig Cycle.
UrVAK THSOBT, a term employed to denote the d priori deduction^ of .the mQon,'s>
a«lloi»ffomtheprinciplc«ofgrovitation. See Moon. L3,g,t,zed^y V3rlJT:iglV
randy. ^^^
LU'lTATIC ASTIUX. The first hospitals for the insane of v^hkh historjor tradition
makes mention were the sacred temples in Egypt. In these, it is said, the disease waft
mitigated by a^eeable impressions received through the senses, and by a system resem-
bling and rivalmg the highest development of moral treatment now practiced. KoDsa-
teries appear to have been the representative of such retreats in the medisBval Christian
times; but restraint and rigid asceticism characterized the management. Out of con-
ventual establishments grew the bethlems, or bedlams, with which our inunediateances>
tors were familiar (see Bedlam). But, apart from such receptacles, the vast maiority of
the insane must have been neglected; in some countries, reverenced as specially God*
stricken; in others, tolerated, or tormented, or laughed at, as simpletons or buffoons;
in others, imprisoned as social pests, even executed as criminals. In a few spots, enjoy-
ing a reputation for sanctitv, or where miraculous cures of nervous diseases were sup-
posed to have been elTected, such as Gheel and St. Suaire, conmiunities were formed,
of which lunatics, sent with a view to restoration, formed a large part, and resided in
the houses of the peasants, and partook of their labor and enjoyments. Asylums, prop-
erly so called, date from the commencement of the present century; and for many yean
after their institution, although based upon sound and benevolent views, they resembled
jails both in construction and the mode in which they were conducted, rather than hos-
pitals. Until verv recently, a model erection of this kind was conceived necessarily to
consist of a vast olock of building, the center of which was appropriated to the resi-
dence of the officers, the kitchen and its dependencies, the chapel, etc., from which
there radiated long |^]leries, in which small rooms, or cells, were arranged upon one or
both sides of a corridor or balcony, having at one extremity public rooms, in which ths
agitated or non-industrial inmates, as the case might be, spent the day, while the more
tractable individuals were withdrawn to engage in some pursuit, either in workshops,
clustered round the central house, or in the grounds attached, which were surrounded
by high walls, or by a ha-ha. The population of such establishments, when they were
appropriated to paupers, ranged from 100 to 1400 patients. These were committed to a
staff composed of a medical officer, matron, and attendants, to whom were directly
intrusted .the management, discipline, and occupation of the insane, in accordance with
regulations or prescriptions issued by the physician. A ^adual but great revolution has
taken pl&cc in the views of psychologists as to the provisions and requirements for the
insane during seclusion. As a result of this change, asylums, especially for the wealthy
classes, are assimilated in their arrangements to ordinary dwelling-houses; while it is
proposed to place the indigent in cottages in the immediate vicinity of an inflnnary,
where acute cases, individuals dangerous to themselves or others, or in any way untrust-
worthy, could be confined and actively treated, as their condition might require. In
all such establishments, whether now entitled to be regarded as cottage asylums or not^
the semblance and much of the reality of coercion has been abolished; the influence of
religion, occupation, education, recreation; the judicious application of moral impres-
sions; and the dominion of rational kindness and discriminating discipline, have been
superadded to mere medical treatment, and substituted for brute lorce, terror, and
cruelty.— Esquirol. Des Maladies Mentales, t. ii.; Quislain, 8ur VAUenaiitm MerUaU;
Browne on Asylums, etc. ; Conolly on Construction of Asylums,
LUHAWATJ'EA^ a small state of India, under British protection, in the Rewa Caunta
division of Guzerat. It is situated on the confines of Quzerat, and is a continuation of
the mountain tract which forms the extreme n.e. of that province. The capital, from
which the state derives its name, is 160 m. n.w. from Indore, on the left bank of the
Mahi, or Myhee, a river which flows into the gulf of Cambay, and is in n. lat 28* 8',
e. long. 78** 87'. It is a fortified town, the fortifications and town together being about
8 m. in circumference; and is a place of considerable trade. Area of state, 160 sq.m.;
pop. 72, about 75,000.
LliVD (Londinum Gothorum), a city of Gothland, in the extreme s. of Sweden, and
in an extensive and fertile plain 80 m. 8.e. of Helsingborg. Its population, in 1874, was
11,680; but it was once much larger, when it was the chief seat of the Danish power in
the Scandinavian peninsula, and for a long period the capilnl of the Danish kingdom.
The principal building is the cathedral, the lower part of which is as old as the 11th
century. It has manufactures of cloth, tobacco, and leather. Lund is one of the old-
est towns in Scandinavia; in 020 it was taken and plundered by a band of vikings; it
was tlie see of a bishop from the time of the introduction of Christianity, and from
1104 its archbishop long exercised jurisdiction over all Denmark, Sweden, and Norway.
Lund has a university, founded in 1628, which has now 80 professors and 500 students, a
library of 100,000 volumes, and some thousands of manuscripts, an excellent zoological
museum, and a botanic garden.
LUNDY, Benjamin, 1780-1889; b. Hardwich, Suffolk co, N. J., of Quaker iMirant-
age; had no advantages of education, save those afforded by the common-schoos; was
imbued with a keen thirst for knowledge, and read eaeerlv such books as were within
hid reach. While serving an apprenticeship to the saddler^s trade in Wheeling, Va., his
heart was touched with sympathy and indignation at the sight of coffles of skves pass-
ing through that place on their way to a southern market, and he resolved to give bis
life to the work of abolishing slavery. Having completed his apprenticeship, he mar-
^^*^ lAndy.
ried, and aettled in St. Clairsville, Ohio, where he carried on the business of a saddler for
four years, accumulating a considerable sum of money. His pecuniary prospects were
highly flattering, but the remembrance of the slave was ever with him. AccordinelT,
lie persuaded five others to join him in organiziDg a " union humane society," which,
in a few montiis, enrolled nearly 600 members. A short time after this he began to
discuss the subject of slavery in the PhUanthroput, a weekly pap^ published in Mt.
Pleasant, Ohio. In the autumn of 1819, the agitation of the" Missouri question" being then
rife in the country, he took his whole stock in trade to St. Louis, resolved to sell it and
devote the proceeds to the promotion of the antislaveiy cause. He lost by this venture
nearly all that he bad accumulated; but this did not discourage him in his chosen course.
He devoted himself for a time to the work of exposing the evils of slaveiy in the news-
papers of Missouri and Illiuois, hopinj^ in this way to create a public sentiment averse
to the admission of Missouri to the union as a slave state; but he soon returned to Ohio,
settling at Mt. Pleasant, where, in Jan., 18^1, he began the publication of a monthly
journal entitled the Qmius of Universal ttmandpation. This paper was shortly after-
wards removed^ to Jonesborough^ Tenn,, where there was a considerable body of people
who shared his hostilitv to slavery and gave him a warm welcome. In 1824 it was
removed to Baltimore, Md., where it was published weekly. Mr. Lundy, while averse
to the scheme for colonizing the negroes in Africa, was yet imbued with tlie idea that
some place of refuge outside of the United States was necessary as a means of pro-
moting emancipation ; and, in 1825, he visited Hay ti, where he sought to make arrange-
ments with the government for the settlement of such emancipated slaves as might oe
sent thither. In 1828 he journeyed on foot through parts of the middle and eastern states to
lecture on slavery and procure subscribers to his paper. He found a few friends ready
to aid him, but the people in ^neral had grown apathetic on the subject since the
admission of Missouri to the union as a slave stale. In the winter of 1828-29 Mr. Lundy
vas brutally assaulted and nearly killed by Baltimore's great slave-dealer, Austin Woof-
folk, who bad taken offense at something which had been said of him and his nefari-
oQs business in the Oemus of Universal Emancipation. In the spring of 1829 he made
a second visit to Hayti, taking with him a small number of emancipated slaves, for
whom be sought an asylum. In the fall of the same year William Lloyd Garrison, by
invitation, joined him in Baltimore as co-editor of the Genius. The two men were alike
in their hostility to slavery, but Mr. Garrison was a pronounced advocate of immediate
emancipation, while Mr. Lundy, Hke most of the antislavery men of that day, was a
s^radiiaiist, fearing, if not believing, that a sudden emancipation would be dangerous to
the public welfare. Mr. Garrison, too, was for emancipation on the soil, while Mr.
Lundy was committed to schemes of colonization abroad. When about half the first
year of their partnership had expired, Mr. Garrison was convicted of a criminal libel,
fined, and thrust into prison for declaring that the domestic traffic in slaves was, in its
nature, as puratical as the foreign, and that a New England sea-captain, who had taken
a cargo of human flesh from Baltimore to New Orleans, was euilty of conduct which
should cover him with '* thick infamy." This occurrence lea to "a dissolution of the
partnership between Mr. Lundy and Mr. Garrison, the former continuing the publica-
tion of the Oenius, but making Washington the i>lace of its nominal issue, while it was
printed once a month in whatever place he found it convenient to stop for that purpose
in the course of his travels. In the winter of 1880-81 he visited the Wilberforce colony of
fugitive slaves in Canada, and soon afterwards went to Texas, for the purpose of securing a
.similar asylum under the Mexican flag. He went to Texas again in 1888, but was baffled
in his purpose on account of the scheme for wresting that country from Mexico, and
annexing it to the United States. In 1886 he commenced the publication, in Philadel-
phia, of an antisUvery paper, entitled the National Enquirer, absorbing therein the
Genius of Universal EirnanetpaUon. A year later he resigned the editorship of the new
paper, and in the winter of 1888-89 removed to Lowell, Xa Salle co., 111., intending to
resume there the publication of the Oenius, but on the 22d of the ensuing October he
died. He was a man of rare courage and self -sacrifice, a pioneer in the movement for
the abolition of American slavery. He traveled more than 5,000 miles on foot, and
apwards of 20.000 miles in other ways, visiting 19 states of the union, and addressing
hundreds of public meetings, to promote the object to which he had devoted his life.
LtJHDY ISLE, an island of Devonshire, England, in the mouth of the Bristol chan-
nel. It is about 3 m. in length from n. to s., and 1 m. in breadth, having an area of
180O acres. Its s. point is about 12 m. from Hartland point, on the coast of Devonshire,
and its n. end about 29 m. from St Gowan's head, in Wales. Its shores arc rocky and
precipitous, and approach to them is rendered dangerous by numerous detached or insu-
lar rocks. There is only one landing-place, which is on the s. side, and near it are dan-
gerous reefs and insulated rocks. The pop. in 1871 was 144. Near the southern end
of the island is a light-house, on a height 667 ft. above the sea. At an early date thla
island is said to have belonged to a familv named Morisco, one of whom having con-
ipited against the life of Henry III., fled hither, and became a pirate. Lundv Isle was
the scene of a remarkable occurrence in the reign of William and Mary. A party of
Frenchmen landed from a ship of war under Dutch colors, on pretense of desiring to
bury one of the crew in consecrated ground, the coffin l>eing really filled with arms. wiA
KpSfi- 236
whicli the party armed themselves in the church, having requested the islanders to leave
them iilone to their own funeral rites, and issuing forth, they desolated tlie island, ham-
stringing the horses and bullocks, flinging the sheep and eoats over the cliffs, and strip-
ping the inhabitants even of their cloilics. The cliffs of Lundy isle are the resort of
multitudes of gannets, or solan geese. Granite is the rock chiefly prevailing intheisiand,
but slate appears at its s. end.
LUNDY'S LANE, Battlb of, July 25, 1814. While the American army, 8,000
strong, were in camp at fort Chippewa, on the Niagara river, opposite Buffalo, under
command of gen. Brown, intelligence was received at noon that the British gen. Drum-
mond had crossed the Niagara at Quecnstown to attack fort Sclilosser, the American
depot of supplies. Qen. Brown immediately sent col. Winfield 8cott (afterward gen.)
with 1200 men to make a demonstration on Qucenstown. Near sunset, gen. Scott found
himself upproachine a strong force of the British, posted behind a belt of woods on an
eminence, supported by a batterv of nine guns, and commanded by een. Rial This
position was at the head of Lunay's lane, ijr ni. from Niagara Falls, ticott seeing the
Bti-ength of force opposed, sent back to gen. Brown for support, and*at once ordered
maj. Jessup with the 25th regiment to attack the English on the left flank, and himself
occupied their attention by a vigorous attack in front. Jessup*8 flank attack was suc-
cessful, and resulted in the capture of the En^^lish ^n. Rial. But on the front col.
Bcott met a galling resistance. Gen. Brown arrived with reinforcements in the evening,
and gen. Drummond had arrived and reinforced the enemy. An attack was ordered on
the front to capture the English battery. Under cover of the darkness two regiments
were pushed forward. The first was repulsed by timely discharges of grapeshot, but
col. Scott at the head of the second succeeded in capturing the battery, turned it against
the enemy, and enabled gen. Brown to hold the hill in force against three desperate
assaults of the English troops to regain possession. The struggle closed at midnight by
the withdrawal of the British troops. Considering the small forces engaged, it was a
sanguinary battle. Gen. Drummond, as well as gen. Brown and col. Scott, were
wounded, the latter severely. After the battle the command devolved on gen. Ripley,
who for lack of force was obliged to leave the trophies of the evening's victory, and to
retire to fort Chippewa. The American loss in killed and wounded was 743; the
British, 878.
province
^fonns
its northern boundary. Great part of the country is occupied by the Ltinebuig Heath.
See Hanover.
LUNEBiniO, a t. of Hanover, in the province of the same name, is situated on the
river Ilmenau, 24 m. s.e. of Harburg by railway. It is mentioned as early as th^ age of
Charlemagne, and was formerly an important Hanseatic town. It is surrounded with
high walls and towers^ and possesses many ancient buildings. The trade is considera-
ble. In the immediate vicinity of LQneburg is the salt-work of SQlze, discovered in the
10th c, and still very productive. Close by is a hill 200 fl. high, with rich scams of
lime and gypsum. Pop. 71, 16,284. It was at LQneburg that the first engagement took
place in the German war of liberation, April 2, 1818. About 16 m. to the s.w. of the
town, in the Lilneburg Heath, lies the GOhrde, a beautiful forest, with a royal hunting-
lodge.
LUHSL, a t. in the s. of Prance, department of Ilerault, 14 m. e.n.e. of Montpellier,
has a pop. ('72) of 6,973, and a considerable trade in Muscatel wine and raisins. Near
it is a cave, important for the fossil bones found in it.
LUNENBURG, a co. in s.e. Virginia, intersected in the extreme s.w. by the Rich-
mond and Danville railroad; bounded on the n.e. by the Nottoway river, and on the 8.
by the river Meherrin; 410 sq.m.; pop. '80, 11,585—11,484 of American birth, 6,924
colored. Its surface is uneven, and tolerably well wooded. A large proportion of the
soil is fertile, and furnishes good grazing facilities. Its leading productions are:
tobacco, wool, sweet potatoes, oats, corn, wheat, sorghum, and the products of the
diary. Cattle, sheep, and swine are raised. It produced in 70, 8,900 lbs. of lioney
Its water-power is utilized by flour and saw mills. Seat of justice, Lunenbuig Court-
House.
LUNENBURG, a co. in 8.e. Nova Scotia, having the Atlantic ocean for its c. and
8.e. boundary, drained by Sherbrooke lake in the n., and other small lakes and rivers,
including the La Have, emptying into Mahone bay, and thence into the ocean; 1115
sq.m. ; pop. 70, 23,834. Its soil is fertile, and its inhabitants are largely engaged in
deep sea fishing and in the West India trade. Foreign vessels, which frequently visit
its ports, flnd good anchorage and safe shelter in its harbors and bay. In the n.e. is
Chester basin, a small bay, containing, it is said, 365 beautiful little islands. Its indus-
tries are repre8ente<l by spacious yards for ship-building and repairs, tanneries, and saw,
mills, and it exports lumber and wood. In the e. section are alkaline springs. Seat of
Justice, Lunenburg.
LUNENBURG, a thriving seaport of Nova Scotia, the capital of Lunenburg co. ; pop.
1500. It was settled by Germans In 1758, and many of the present inhabitants are of
LU'HEBIJBG, formerly a principality in Lower Saxonv, now a district in the pro
of Hanover. Area, 4,298 sq.m. ; pop. 71, 884.310, mostly Protestants. The Elbe 1
237 £s;S^
^SerBian descent. Its principal exports are fish and lumber. It bos consideTable trade
vith tbe West Indies. It bas a deep, capacious, and vrell-ibeitered barbor. Gold Is
found in tbo neigbborbood.
LVVETTE', in fortification, is a small work beyond tbc ditcb of tbe rarelin, to snpplj
its deficiency of saliency, and formed at tbe re-entering angle made bv tbe ravelin and
bastion. Tiie lunette bas one face perpendicular to tbo ravelin, ana tbe otber nearly
perpendicular to tbe bastion. See Fortification.
LUVETILLS, a t. in tbe department of Meurtbo-et-Moselle, in France, at tbe conflu-
ence of tbe Meurtbe and tbe Vezouse, is a regularly built and unwalled town. Pop.
72^ 11,929. It was formerly a frequent residence of tbo dukes of Lorraine, and tbeir
palace is now used as a cavalry barrack. Lunevillo bas manufactures of cotton and
worsted goods, embroidery, and ea^-thenware. It is one of tbo largest cavalry stations
in Fiance. Tbe town bas a liistoric celebrity from tbo peace of Lun^viilc, concluded
bere on Feb. 0, 1801, between Germany and France, on tbc basis of tbe peace of Campo-
Fonnio (q.v.).
LUHCMw See Rkspibation, Oroai7s of.
LUHOWOBT, or Oak-Lungs, Stieta tmlmanaria, a licben witb a foliaceotis leatberjr
flpreadtng tlwllus, of an olive-green color, pale brown wben dry, pitted witb numerous
little cavities and netted, mucb lacerated; tbe sliields {apotheeta) marginal, reddish
brown witb a tbick border. It grows on trunks of trees in mountainous regions, in Britain
and otber European countries, sometimes almost* entirely covering them witb its sbaggy
tballus. It bas been used as a remedy for pulmonary diseases. It is nutritious, and,
wben properly prepared, affords a ligbt diet, capable of being used as a substitute for
Iceland moss; yet it is bitter enougb to be used as a substitute for bope. It yields a
good brown dye. — Tbe name lungwort is also given to a genus of pbnnerogamous plants
ipuVmonarUt), of tbe natural order boraginea. Tbe common lungwort (P. offldnalu) is a
rare and ratber doubtful native of Britain, although common in some parts of Europe.
It baa ovate leaves and purple flowers, and was formerly employed in diseases of the
lungs, but seems to have been recommended chiefly by a fancied resemblance to
tbe lungs in its spotted leaves. It is mucilaginous, and slightly emollient. It contains
niter in considerable abundance. It is used m the north of Europe as a pot-berb.
LUNT, Geokoe, 1808; b. Mass. ; educated at Harvard university, graduating in tbe
class of 1824, studied law, was admitted to tbe Essex co. bar, and commenced practice
in Newburyport, Mass., in 1881, where he had been at one time principal of the high
school He served several terms in the legislature of his state, bein^ elected to a seat in
both branches. In 1889 be published a small volume of poems, which was followed by
others in *48, '51, and *54, comprising T/ie Age of O&ld, and other Poems, and Lyrics,
Poems, Sonnets, and Miscellanies, In 1845 ho read a poem entitled Culture before the
Boston mercantile library association. In 1848 he removed to Boston, and in the fol-
lowing year was appointed U. 8. district attorney by president Taylor, holding tbe
position until 1853. when, under a change of administration, he resumed the private
practice of the law. lib 1857 be became editor-in-cbief of the Boston Daily Courier,
exerting a marked influence on tbe democratic politics of the period, and in the same
year he wrote Three Eras of New England, In 1858 lie published BadicorUsm in Religion,
Philosophy, and Social Life; in 1860, The Union, a poem; and in 1866, Origin of (hs
LaU War, Other works are : Eastford ; or, Household Sketches by Wesley Brooke, a novel;
and JiiUa, a poem. His writings arc distinguished for a flnished, brilliant style, the
vehicle of vigorous thought.
LUFEBOA'LIA, a festival among the ancient Romans, held on Feb. 15, in honor of
Lupercua, the god of fertility. When Rome be^an to seek a Grecian origin for its
religious ceremonies, Lupercus was identified with Lycflean Pan, and his worship was
said to have been introduced by Evander, the Arcadian. Modern scholars place no
value on such statements. Lupercus is believed by them to have been one of the oldest
pastoral deities of Italy, and everything that is known regarding him and his rites favors
this view. These rites were of the rudest and most primitive character, and indicate a
high antiquity. Goats and dogs were sacrificed ; afterwards the priests (called Luperci)
cut up the skins of the victims and twisted them into thongs, with which they ran
through the city striking every one who came in their way (which women used to do)
in hopes that the god of fertility would be propitious towards them. As the festival is
believed to have wen at first a shepherd one, this running about with thongs is under-
stood to have been intended as a symbolical purification of tbe land. The place where
the festival was held was called the Lupercal, and was situated on tbe Palatine bill. It
contained an image of Lupercus, covered with a goat's skin. Lupercalia were also held
in other cities of Italy.
LIT'PIVB, Lupinus, a genus of plants of the natural order legundnosm, sub-order papiU-
onaeea, mostly annuals, but some of them perennial herbaceous plants, some half
shrubby, and generally having digitate leaves, with rather long stalks. The flowers are
in racemes or spikes, the calyx two-lipped, the keel beaked, the fllaments all united at
the base. The species of lupine are numerous, and are chiefly natives of the countries
near the Mediternmean sea, and of the temperate parts of North and Bouth America.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
The Wbiib LuFnnt (L. albus\ a i^ecies with white flowers, has been cttltlTSted from
time immemorial in the south of Europe and in some parts of Asia for the sake of the
seeds, which are farinaceous, and are used as food, although when raw thev have a
strong, disagreeable, bitter taste, which is removed by steeping in water and boiling.
They were a favorite kind of pulse amongst the ancient Greeks and Romans, and still
are so in some parts of the south of Europe, although generally disliked by those who
have not been accustomed to them. They are used in many countries for feeding cattle,
particularly draught-oxen. — The Yellow Lupine {L. luteutt), so called from iu yelloii?
flowers, and the Egyptian White Lupine {L. termUy which has white flowers tipped
with blue, are also cultivated in the south of Europe, Egypt, etc., for their seeds, which
are similar in their qualities to those of the white lupine. — ^In many countries, lupines,
and particularlv the white lupine, are cultivated to yield green fooa for cattle, and also
to be plowed oown for manure. They grow well on poor and dry sandy soils, which
by this process of green-manuring are fitted for other crops. Many species of lupine
are cultivated in our flower-gardens, having beautiful white, yellow, pink, or blue
flowers. The flowers of some species are fragrant. No lupine is a native of Britain.
L. perennU adorns sandy places from Canada to Florida witn its flue blue flowera
LirTVLniE. See Hopa
LIfPlTS is a chronic disease of the skin, in which dull or livid tubercles are developed,
which have a tendency to destroy or seriously to afEect the adjacent tissues, with or
without ulceration, and commonly ending in indelible cicatrices. It was formerly
known as noU me tangere. The disease usually attacks the face, especially the als of the
nose and the lips, but is sometimes met with elsewhere. It is a terrible disease, but i»
happily of rare occurrence. It derives its name from the Latin word for a tco^, in con-
sequence of its destructive nature.
Lupus usually commences with the appearance of one or two circular or oval, dull-
red, somewhat translucent tubercles, about two lines in diameter. After a time, these
tubercles increase in number and size, and take on new charactera They may ulcerate,
constituting the variety known as lupus exedens, in which case the ulceration may pursue
a superficial or a deep course. Scabs are formed over the ulcers; and, as these scabs are
thrown off, the ulcer beneath is found to have increased in extent, tlU great destruction
of the soft parts and (in the case of the nose) of the cartilages is effected. Tlie ulcer of
lupus has thick red edges, and exudes a fetid, ichorous matter, in considerable quantity.
When tbev do not ulcerate, the tubercles are softer than in the previous variety, aud
form patches of considerable extent, the intervening skin and cellular tissue also swell-
ing and exhibiting here and there dull-red points, which are the summits of the imbedded
tubercles. Tlie lips become much enlarged, the nostrils closed with the swelling, tlie
eyelids everted, and the whole face hideous. This variety is known as lupus non exedeiu.
The progress of lupus is usually slow, and the sufferings of the patient less Uian might
be expected, in cons^uence of the sensibility of the parts being diminished from the
first. The complaint may continue for years, or even for life, but is seldom fatal. Its
causes are not well known, but it is thought that a scrofulous habit and intemperance
predispose to the disease. Both sexes are liable to it, but it seems most common m
women. It is not contagious.
The internal treatment consists in the administration of cod-liver oil and the prepara
tions of iodine, especially Donovan's solution, while locally strong escharotics should be
applied. The disease, is, however, so serious, that whenever there is a suspicion of its
nature, professional aid should be sought.
LUBOH'EB, a kind of dog. somewhat resembling a greyhound, and siappoaod to derive
its origin from some of the old rough-haired races of greyhound crossed with the shep-
herd's dog. It is lower, stouter, and less elegant than the greyhound, almost rivals it in
fleetness, and much excels it in scent. It is covered with roughi wiry hair, is usually of
a sandy^ red color, although sometimes black or gray, and has half-erect ears and a pen-
dant tail. It is the poacher's favorite dog, possessing all the qualities requisite for his
purposely in sagacity rivaling the moat fwUnired dogs, and learning to act on the least
nint or sign from its master. Of coarse, it ia detested by gamekeepers, and destroyed
on every opportunity.
LVB.OAH, a thriving t. of Ireland, in the county of Amagh, a station on the railway
from Belfast ta AruMigh, 20 m. s.w. from the former town. It is unusually neat and
clean in appearance, and carries on manufactures of damans and diapera. Pop. 71 .
10.883.
LURISTAK, a province of Persia, on the border of Khuzistan, between the.Kerkhab
and the Dizful, an aflSuent of the Karun ; is almost entirely occupied by mountains and
narrow valleys; 20,000 sq. miles. Near the outer ridges of the mountain region are
some plains of moderate extent, which are under cultivation ; the remainder of the region
serves as pasture-ground for the different tribes of Lure who inhabit it The Bakbtiyari.
one of these tribes, are ferocious and warlike. The only town is Khorr&m-abad, situ-
ated in a fertile district, 90 m. s. of Hamadan, on a feeder of the Kerkhah; itoontaioi
about a thousand huts, built on the s.w. face of a steep rock, on whose summit are a
fortress and a palace.
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i>OQ Lapnllne.
LVBIXI, or Lorelei, the name of a steep rock on the right bank of the I^ine, about
4S0ft hiffh, a little wav above St. Qoar, celebrated for its echo, which is said to repeat
soands fifteen times. Near it is a whirlpool, and still nearer, a rapid, called the bank,
formed by the river rushing over a number of sunken rocks — visible, however, at low
water. In consequence, the navigation of the Rhine by rafts and boats is rather dan-
gerons at this point, which circumstance, in connection with the echo, has undoubtedly
given rise to the legend of the beautiful but cruel siren who dwelt in a cave of the Lurlei,
and allured the passing voyagers to approach by the magic melody of her song, until she
wrecked and sank them in the whirlpool. The legend has been a great favorite with the
German poets, but none has treated it so exquisitely as Heine.
LTOA'TIA {LmtiUi), a region in Germany, now beloDffing in nart to Saxony and in
part to Pruasia. It was formerly divided into upper and lower ijusatia, which consti-
tuted two independent margraviates* including an area of about 4,400 sq.m., and a pop-
ulatioQ of about half a million, and bounded on the & by Bohemia, on the w. by Misnia
and tlie electorate of Saxony, on the n. by Brandenburg, and on the e. by Silesia. In
1319, Lusatia was given to Bohemia, but was obtained by Matthias Corvinus in 1478,
and was finally transferred to Saxony in 1685; but, by the congress of Vienna, thd
whole of lower Lusatia and the haif of upper Lusatia was ceded to Prussia. The portion
left to Saxony now foims the circle of Bautzen.
LUSHINGTON, Stephen, d.c.l.. 178^1878; b. England; educated at Oxford, and
called to the bar in 1806. The next year he was returned to parliament for Great Yar*
moutli. and represented that and oUier boroughs till 1841, when he was obliged to retire
in consequence of an act of parliament disqualifying the judge of the admiralty from
$ittiag in the commons. He was a follower of Fox and Grenville; and among the parlia-
mentary measures which he supported, were the abolition of the slave-trade, the recog-
nition of the South American republics, and the emancipation of the Jews. In 1820 he
was of counsel for queen Caroline, in conjunction with lord Denham and lord Brougham.
He was appointed a judge of the consistory court in 1828, and judge of the admiralty in
1{$9. and, in the latter year, he was sworn in of the priv^ council. He was the counsel
;in(] friend of lady Byron, and an authority on ecclesiastical law.
LUSITA'NIA, a district of ancient Hispania, which, as the country occupied by the
Lusitani was, according to Strabo, bounded s. by the Tagus, n. and w. by tlie ocean.
Its extent afterwarda was contracted by the growing importance of the Callaici, and
the river Durius (Dauro) became its n. boundary. Afterwards, many of the Lusitanians
being driven southward in their long struseles with the Romans, the name Lusitania
was given to the district s. of the Tagus. When Aueustus divided the p«ninsula iqto
the three provinces, Betica, Tarraconensis, and Lusitania, the last occumed the s.w.,
between the Anas (Qtuidiana) on the e., the sea on the a and w., and Durius on the
north. It comprised the greater part of the modern kingdom of Portugal, besides a
large portion of Leon and the Spanish Estremadura. The chief river in the district is
the Ta^^ flowing w. into the Atlantic Some of the principal towns are Metellinum
(MiBdeUM); Emerita Au|^ta (Merida), the Roman capital, on the Anas; Olisipo (Luban),
the capital before the time of the Romans, on the Tagus; Conimbriga (Comhraj, on the
Munda; Salman tica {Salamanca); Pax Julia (B^a); Ebora (Evara). The province was
formerly rich and fertile, and had valuable mines of gold and silver. The Lusitani
were a wild and warlike people, much addicted to plunder, especially those living in the
mountaina They were the bravest of all the Iberians, and heM ont the longest in
resistance to the Romans. In 153 B.C. they revolted, and for fourteen years fought
against the Romans, who. for a time, acknowledged their independence. Yiriathus.
their chief, a bold and skillful leader, defeated several Roman generals. At lensth the
consul C^epio,' unable to subdue him in tlie field, captmred him by the treachery (^ some
of hie intimate friends, and put him to death, when the Lusitanians were completely
subdued, 140 B.a
LUSTER, a term used in mineralogy to denote degrees and qualities of brightness.
There are six kinds usually recognizeoT viz. : metallic, vitreous, adamantine, resinous,
pearly, and silky. Tliere are usually four and sometimes five degrees recognized, viz. :
splendent, when a perfect image is reflected; shining, glistening; some use the term glim-
mering when the reflection seems to be limited to points on the surface. Minerals also
are said to have a dull luster.
LUSTRATION, in antiquity, puriflcation by sacrifices and various ceremonies. The
Greeks and Romans purified tne people, cities, fields, armies, etc., defiled by crime or
hnpuritT. This was aone in several ways, viz. : by fire, water, sulphur, and air, the last
by fanning or agitating the air around the thing purified. When Servius Tullius had
Quml>eiied the Iu>man people, he puiifled them as they were assembled in the Campus
Harttus; and afterwards a lustration of the whole people was performed every fifth year
before the censors went out of oflSce. On that occasion the people assembled In the
Campus Martins, when the sacrifices termed m&vetauriliaf conristing of a sow, sheep,
and ox, after being carried thrice around the people, were <^ered up, and a great quan-
tity of perfumes was burned. This ceremony was called Itutrum, It was instituted by
Serviua Tullius, 50( b.c., and performed for the last time in the rei^ of Yi^^P^m^vT^
liOstnim. 0J.0
Lather. ^*^
term Itutrum was given also to the period of five years between the lostia. The arm
was purified before a battle bf causing tlie soldiers to defile before the two quiverin
halves of a victim, while the priest offered certain prayers. The establishment of a nei
colony was preceded by a lustration with sacrifices, liome itself, and all towns witlii
its dominion, always underwent a lustration after being visited by some great calauiti
Tile lustrations of fields were performed after sowing was finished, and lief ore reapln
began. The lustration of flocks, designed to keep them from disease, was performe
every year at the festival of the Palilia, wiicn the shepherd sprinkled tliem with pui
vater, thrice surrounding the fold with Haviu, laurel, and brimstone set on fire, an
afterwards offering incense and sacrifices to Pales, the tutelary goddess of shepherdi
Private houses were purified with water, a fumigation of laurel, juniper, olive-tree, an
the like, and a pig offered as the victim. Infants were purified, girls on the third, boj
on the ninth, day after birth, then named and placed under the protection of the god <
the faimily. The lustration of a funeral pile was by having the spectators march roun
it before a fire was kindled. Whatever was used at a lustration was cast into a river, <
some other inaccessible place, as to tread upon it was considered ominous of some grei
disaster.
LU8TB17X (from lyere, to purify or expiate), the solemn offering made for czpiatio
and purification by one of the censors in name of the Roman people at the conclusion c
the census (q.v.). The animals offered in sacrifice were a boar (sutt), sheep {orvt), an
bull {taums), whence the offering was called suovetaurUia, Thev were led round tL
assembled people on the Campus Martins before being sacrificen. As the census wi
quinquennial, the word lustrum came to mean a period of five years.
LUTE (Ger. Lant, sound), an obsolete stringed musical instrument, which has bee
superseded by the harp and guitar. It consisted of a table of fir; a body or belly, con
posed of 9 (sometimes 10) convex ribs of fir or cedar; a neck, or finger-board, of har
wood, on which were 9 (or 10) frets, stops, or divisions, marked with catgut strings:
head, or cross, on which were placed the pegs or screws that tightened or relaxed tli
strings in tuning; and a bridge, to which the strings were attached at one end, the otbc
end being fastened to a piece of ivory, between the head and neck. The number c
strings, originally 6, of which five were doubled, so as to make 11, was gradual!
increased till they numbered 24. The performer used his left hand to press the stops
and struck the strings with his right. A peculiar description of notation, called tabU
ture, was employed in music written for the lute. The strings were represented by pai
allel lines, on which were placed letters of the alphabet, referring to the frets: thus, /
marked that the string was to be struck open (or without pressing any of the stops); B
that the first stop wns to be pressed ; 0, the second, ana so on :* while over the letter
were placed hooked marks, corresponding to the minim, crotchet, quaver, etc., to indi
cate time. So carelesply and inaccurately was lute-music generally written that it is m
easy matter to render it into the ordinary notation. The lute was rormerly in high favo
all over Europe as a chamber-instrument; and it was used in dramatic music to accoin
pnny the recitative. In the time of Handel, there was a lute in the Italian opera ii
London ; and there was a lutanist in the King's chapel down to the middle of last century
— For a minute account of the lute, and how to play it, see Macc*8 Mugick's Monumen
(Lond. 1676).
LUTS (Lat. lutum, clay), in chemistry, denotes a substance employed for effectual]:
closing tlie joints of apparatus, so as to prevent the escape of vapor or gases, or for coat
ing glass vessels so as to render them more capable of sustaining a high temperature, o
for repairing fractures. For ordinary purposes, lutes made of common plastic clay o
pipc-clay with an admixture of linseed-meal or almond-powder, or, for common stills
linseed-meal and water made into a paste, are quite suflScient; for more delicate expcri
ments, fat lute (q.v.), covered over with moistened bladder, is used. Lutes for coatin.<
glass vessels are generally composed of Stourbridge clay or Windsor loam, mixed witl
water; but the most simple method is to brush the glass retort over with a paste of pipe
clay and water, dry it quickly, and repeat the operation till a sufTicieiit thickness o\
coating is obtained. Other lutes in frequent use are WUUh's lute (a paste composed of i
solution of borax in boiling water, with slaked lime), various mixtures of borax aiu
clay, of lime and white of egg^ iron cemetU (see Cements), moistened bladder, papci
prepared with wax and turpentine, and caoutchouc. The use of tlie last-nnmea lut(
has, on account of its flexibility and consequent non-liability to accident, l)een rapidlj
extending.
LUTHEB, Martin, the greatest of the Protestant reformers of the 16th c, was b. a<
Eislebcn on Nov. 10, 1488. -His father was a miner in humble circumstances: h>*
mother, as Melanchthon records, was a woman of exemplary virtue {exempiar virtvtvm),
and peculiarly esteemed in her walk of life. Shortly after Martin's birth, his parents
removed to Mansfeld, where their circumstances erelong improved by industir and jxr-
severance. Their son was sent to school; and both at home and in school, mb tmining
was of a severe and hardening character. His father sometimes whipped him, he says.
" for a mere trifle till the blood came," and he was subjected to the scholastic rod fifteen
times in one day I Scholastic and parental severity waa the rule In these days; but
Digitized by VjOUV IC
Q 11 ItnKtrttfn.
^'^*' Lttthor.
▼faiteTer may have been the character of Luther's schoolmaster at Mansfeld, there N
BO ressoB to believe that his father was a man of exceptionally stem character. Wbii<*
lie whipped bis son soundly, he also tenderh^ cared for him, and was in the habit of
canying him to and fh>m school in his arms with gentle solicitude^ Luther's schooling
vis completed at Magdeburg and Eisenach, and at the latter place he attracted the
notice of a good lady of the name of Cotta, who provided him with a comfortable home
daring his stay there.
When he had reached his eighteenth year, he entered the university of Erfurt, with
tbe view of qualifying himself for the legal profession. He went through the usurI
studies in the classics and the schoolmen, and took his decree of doctor oi philosophy.
or master of arts, in 1505, when he was 21 years of age. Previous to this, however, a
profound change of feeling had begun in him. Ohanciag one day to examine the
Vulgate in theunivernty library, he saw with astonishment &at there were more gospels
ind epistles than in the lectionaries. He was arrested by the contents of his newly found
treasure. His heart was deeply touched, and he resolved to devote himself to a spiritual
life. He separated himself from his friends and fellow-students, and withdrew into the
Augustine convent at Erfurt
Her^ he spent the next three years of his life — ^years of peculiar interest and signifi-
cance; for it was during this time that he laid, in the study of the Bibleand of Auguimne,
the foundation of those doctrinal convictions which were afterwards to rouse and
strengthen him in his struggle against the papacy. He describes very vividly the
gpiiitual crisis through which ne passed, the buraen of sin which so long lay upon him,
"too heavy to be borne;" and the relief that he at length found in the clear apprehension
of the doctrine of the ** forgiveness of sins" through toe grace of Christ..
In the ye&r 1507 Luther was ordained a priest, and in the following year he removed
to Wittenberg, destined to derive its chief celebrity from his name. He became a
teacher in the new university, founded there by the elector Frederick of Saxony. At
first, he lectured on dialectics and physics, but his h^ut was already given to theology,
and in 1509 he became a bachelor of theology, and commenced lecturing on the holy
Scriptures. His lectures made a great impression, and the novelty of his views already
began to excite attention. " Tliis monk, " said the rector of tbe university, ' ' will puzzle
oor doctors, and bring in a new doctrine." Besides lecturing, he began to preach, and
his sermons reached a wider audience, and produced a still more powerful influence.
His words, as Melanchthon said, were '* bom not cm his lips, but in his soul," and they
moved profoundly the souls of all who heard them.
In 1510 or 1511 he was sent on a mission to Rome, and he has described very vividly
what he saw and heard there. His devout and unquestioning reverence, for he was yet,
ih his own subsequent view, " a most insane papist," appears in strange conflict with
his awakened thoughtfulness and the moral mdignation at the abuses of the papacy
b^inning to stir in him.
On Luther's return from Borne he was made a doctor of the holy Scriptures, and his
career as a reformer may be said to have commenced. The s^tem of indulgences had
reached a scandalous he'ight. The idea that it was in the power of the church to forgive
an had gradually grown into the notion, which was widely spread, that the pope could
issue pardons of his own free wiD. which, being dispensed to the faithful, exonerated
them from the consequences of their transgressions. The sale of these pardons had
become an organized part of the papal system. Money was lai^ly needed at Borne, to
feed the extravagances of the papal court; and its numerous emissaries sought every-
where to raise nmds bv the sale of "indulgences," as they were eAlled. for the sins of
frail humanity: the piincipal of these was John Tetzel, a Dominican friar, who had
establi^ed himself at JQterboch, on the borders of Saxony. Luther's indisiiation at the
shameless traflSc which this man carried on, flnally became irrepressible: *' God willing,"
he exclaimed, " I will beat a hole in his drum." He drew out 96 theses on the doctrine
of indulgences, which he nailed up on the gate of the church at Wittenberg, and which
he offered to maintain in the university against all impugners. The general purport of
these theses was to deny to the pope all right to forgive sins. " If the nnner was truly
contrite, he recelTed complete forgiveness. Tbe pope's absolution had no value in and
foriteelf."
This sudden and bold step of Luther was all that was necessary to awaken a wide-
spread excitement. The news of it spread rapidly far and wide. It seemed " as if
angels had carried it to the ears of all men.** Tetzel was forced to retreat from the
borders of Saxony to Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he drew out and published a set of
coanter-theses, and publicly committed those of Luther to the flames. The students at
Wittenberg retaliated by burning TetzeVs theses. The elector refused to interfere, and
the excitement increased as new combatants — Hochstratten, Prierias, and Eck-*^ntered
the field. Eck was an able man, and an old friend of Luther's, and the argument
between him and the refom&er was espeeially vehement.
At ftrst the pope, Leo X., took little heed of the disturbance; he is reported even to
have said when he heard of it that "Friar Martin was a man of genius, and that he did
aot wish to have him molested." Some of the cardinals, however, saw the real charac-
ter of the movement, which gradually assumed a seriousness evident even to the pope;
«nd Luther received a summons to appear at Rome and answer for his theses. Once
U. K IX.— 16
]iath«nuu 242
again in Home, it is unlikely he would ever have been allowed to return. His uniyersitj
and the elector interfered, and a legate was sent to Oennany to hear and determine the
case. Cardinal Cajetan was the legate, and he was but little fitted to deal with Luther.
He would enter into no argument ni^th him, but merely called upon him to retract
Luther refused, and fled from Augsburg, whither he had gone to meet the papal repre-
sentative. The task of negotiation was then undertaken by Miltitz, a German and
envoy of the pope to the Saxon court, and by his greater address a temporary peace
was obtained. This did not last long. The reformer was too deeply moved to keep
silent. "God hurries and drives me,'' he said; " I am not master of myself; I wish to
be quiet, and am hurried into the midst of tumults." Dr. Eck and he held a. memorable
disputation at Leipsic, in which the subject of argument was no long;er merely the
question of indulgences, but the general power of the pope. The disputation, of course,
came to no practical result; each controversialist claimed the victory, and Luther in the
meantime made progress in freedom of opinion, and attacked the papal system as a
whole more boldly. Erasmus and Hutten joined in the conflict, which waxed more
loud and threatening.
hx 1520 the reformer published his famous address to the "Christian nobles of
Germany." This was followed in the same year by a treatise On the Babylonith Cap-
tivity of ths Qhwrek, In these works, both of which circulated widely, and powerfully
influenced many minds, Luther took firmer and broader ground: he attacked not only
the abuses of the papacy and its pretensions to supremacy, but also the doctrinal system
of the church of Home. " These works," Ranke says, " contain the kernel of the whole
reformation." The papal bull was issued against hmi; the dread document was burned
before an assembled multitude of doctors, students, and citizens at the Elster Gate of
Wittenberg. Germany was convulsed with excitement. Eck (who had been the chief
agent in obtaining the bull) fled from place to place, glad to escape with his life, and
Luther was everywhere the hero of the hour.
Charles Y. had at this time succeeded to the empire, and he convened his first diet
of the sovereigns and states at Worms. The diet met in the beginning of 1621 ; an order
was issued for the destruction of Luther's books, and be himself was summoned to
appear before the diet. This was, above all, what he desired'-to confess the truth before
the assembled powers of Gtormanv. He resolved to obey the summons, come what
would. All Germany was moved by his heroism; his iourney resembled a triumph; the
threats of enemies and the anxieties of friends alike failed to move him. " I am resolved
to enter Worms," be said, " although as many devils should set at me as there are tiles
on the house-tops." His appearance and demeanor before the diet, and the firmness
with which he neld his ground, and refused to retract, all make a striking picture.
"Unless I be convinced,^ he said, "by Scripture and reason, I neither can nor dare
retract anythinff, for my consci^ice is a captive to (}od's word, and it is neither safe nor
right to go aeamst conscience. There I take qpiy' stand. I can do no otherwise. So
help me, God. Amen."
On his return from Worms he was seized, at the instigation of his friend, the elector
of Saxony, and safely lodged in the old castle of the Wartburs. The affair was made
to assume an aspect of violence, but in realilr it was deslgnea to secure him from the
destruction which his conduct at Worms would certainly have provoked. He remained
in this shelter for about a year, concealed in the guise of a kmght. His chief employ-
ment was his translation of the Scriptures into his native language. He composed
various treatises besides, and injured his health by sedentary habits and hard study.
His imagination became morbidly excited, and he thought he saw and heard the evil one
mocking him whilcr engaged in his literary tasks. On one occasion he hurled his ink-
stand at the intruder, and made him retreat The subject of the personality and pres-
ence of Satan was a familiar one with Luther, and he has many things about it in his
The disorders which sprang up in the progress of the reformation recalled Luther to
Wittenberg. He felt that his presence was necessary to restrain Carlstadt and others,
and, defying any dancers to which he might still be exposed, he returned to the old scene
of his labors, rebuked the unruly spirits who had acquired power in his absence, and
resumed with renewed enersy his interrupted work. He strove to arrest the excesses
of the Zwickau fanatics, ana counseled peace and order to the inflamed peasants, while
he warned the prinoes and nobles of the unchristian cruelty of nuny of their doings,
which had driven the people to exasperation and frenzy. At no period of his life ishe
greater than now in the stand which he made against lawlessness on the one hand and
tvranny on the other. He vindicated his claim to be a reformer in the highest sense by
the wise and manly part which he acted in this great social crisis in the history of
Germany.
His next act of importance was by no means so conunendable. Although he had
been at first united in a common cause with Erasmus, estrangement had gradually
sprung up between the scholar of Rotterdam and the enthusiastic reformer of Witten-
berg. This estrangement came to an open breach in the year 1626, when Erasmus pub-
lished his treatise Be lAbt/ro Arbitrio, Luther immediately followed with his counter-
d^eatise, J)$ Qervo Arbitrio, The controversy raged loudly between them; and in the
irehemence of his hostility to the doctrine of Erasmus, Luther was led into various asser-
Digitized by VjOUV IC
243
I«at]»enuu
tions of aTerjjquestionable kind, besides indulging in wild abuse of his opponent's
character. The quarrel -was an unhappy one on both sides; and it must be confessed'
there is especially a want of generosity in the manner in which Luther continued ta
cherish the dislike which sprung out of it.
In the course of the same year, Luther married Katharina von Bora, one of nine nuns,
who, under the influence of his teaching, had emancipated themselves from their relig-
ious vows. The step rejoiced his enemies, and even alarmed some of his friends like
Melanchthon. But it greatly contributed to his happiness, while it served to enrich and
strengthen his character. Ail the most interesting and touching glimpses we get of him
henceforth are in connection with his wife and children.
Two years after his marriage he fell into a dangerous sickness and depression of
spirits, from which he was only aroused b^ the dangers besetting Christendom from the
advance of the Turks. Two vears. later, in 1529, he engaged in his famous conference
at Marburg with Zwingli and other Swiss divines. In this conference he obstinately
maintained his peculiar views as to the sacrament of the Lord*s-supper (qiv. ; see also
biFAiTATiGN); and, as in the controversy with Erasmus, distinguished himself more by
the inflexible dogmatism of his opinions than by the candor and comprehensiveness of
his hi^guments, or the fairness and generosity of his temper. Aggressive and reforming
in the first stage of his life, and wlule he Was dealing with practical abuses, he was yet
in many respects essentially conservative in ^is intellectual character, and he shut his
mind pertinaciously after middle life to any advance in doctrinal opinion. The follow-
ing year finds him at Coburg, while the diet sat at Augsburg. It was deemed prudent
to intrust the interests of the Protestant cause to Melancbthon, who attended the diet,
but Luther removed to Coburg, to be conveniently at hand for consultation. The estab-
lishment of the Protestant creed at Augsburg marks the culmination of the German
reformation; and the life of Luther from henceforth possesses comparativel}r little inter-
est. He survived 16 years longer, but they are years marked by few incidents of
importance. He died m the end of Feb., 15w.
Luther's character presents an imposing combination of great qualities. Ihidowed
with broad human sympathies, massive energy, manly and affectionate simplicity, and
rich, if sometimes coarse humor, he is at the same time a spiritual genius. His intui-
tions of divine truth were bold, vivid, and penetrating, if not comprehensive; and he
possessed the art which God alone gives to uie finer and abler spirits th&\ he calls to do
special work in this world, of kindling other souls with the fire of his own convictions,
and awakening them to a higher consciousness of religion and duty. He was a leader
of men, therefore, and a reformer in the highest sense. His powers were fitted to his
appointed task: it was a task of Titanic magnitude, and he was a Titan in intellectual
robustness and moral strength and courage. It was only the divine energy which
swayed him, and of which he recognized himself the organ, that could have accomplished
what he did.
Reckoned as a mere theologian, there are others who take higher rank. There is a
lack of patient though tfulness and philosophical temper in his doctrinal discussions;
but the absence of these very (qualities gave wings to his bold, if sometimes crude, con-
ceptions, and enabled him to triumph in the struggle for life or death in which he was
engaged. To initiate the religious movement which was destined to renew the face of
Europe, and give a nobler and more endnrine life to the Saxon nations, required a
gigantic will, which, instead of being crushed by opposition or frightened by hatred,
should only gather strength from the fierceness of the conflict before it. To clear
the air thoroughly, as he himself said, thunder and lightning are necessary; and he
was wrell content tq represent these agencies in the great work of reformation in the
16th century. Upon the whole, it may be said that history {)re8ents few greater charac-
ters— ^f ew that excite at once more love and admiration, and in which we see tenderness,
humor, and a certain picturesque grace and poetic sensibility more happily combine
with a lofty and magnanimous, if sometimes rugged sublimity.
Lather's works are very voluminous, partly in Latin, and partly in German. Among
those of more general interest are his TaoU4Mk, his LeUen, and 8ermon9. De Wette has
given to the public a copioos and valuable edition of his Ledteru, which, along with his
Tadle-talk, are the chief authoritr for his life. Many special lives of him, however, have
been written, by Melaachthon, Michelet, Audin, and others.
LUTHERAN CHURCH in the United States (Lttthbraits, ante). The first
Lutherans came to America in 16^ in company with the first Dutch emigrants to
what is now New York. Ther were without ministerial guidance. In 1688 Swedish
Lutherans, with a minister, settled at Wilmington, Del. Their second pastor translated
Luther's smaller catechism into the language of the native tribes in the vicinity, com-
mencing missionaiy labor among them soon after 1648, about the same time with John
Eliot in Massachusetts. These Swedes afterwards united with the Protestant Episcopal
church, imder whose care the " old Swedes' church " in Wilmington still stands. There
is a similar one in Philadelphiajpopularly known by the same name, and in communion
with the same denomination. The first German Lutheran settlers in this conntir also
came to New York with the Dutch in 1644, and were at first without a minister. When
numerous enough to support a pastor, the Dutch would not ftHoi^ .f|L|m |Oj^f^iJi^
Lutherans,
liofcxa.
244
But under the English rule, having obtained religious liberty, they secured their first
minister, Jaoob Fabricius, in 1664, and a house of worship in 1671. This was rebnilt,
in 1708, at Broadway and Rector street. In 1710, 4,000 Germans, fleeing from ciyil and
religious oppression, settled in New York, Pennsylvania, and South Carolina. Another
colony went to Georgia in 17d4, and was much increased by a second company the fol
lowing year. John and Ciiarles Wesley, when they visited Oeoreia, found these
Lutherans floiurishing and useful. The German Lutherans of Philadewfaias having sent
earnest requests for help to their brethren in England and the fatherland, Franke, the
founder of the orphan house at Halle, persuaded Dr. Henry Mekhior Muhlenberg to
settle in America. His arrival in 1742 opened a new era in the progress of the Amencan
Lutheran church, of which, indeed, he was, in a great degree, the founder. When be
came, finding no organization, he set liimself to eiSect a union at least of Germaa
Lutherans. By ezerting his influence in Germany, he induced a number of his friends
to come to America, so that in 1746 he was able to form a synod, which afterwards met
annually with very beneficial results. In 1748 an orplian asylum was established at
Ebenezer, Ga. ; in 1765 a private theological seminary was commenced ; in 1787 the
legislatm-e of Pennsylvania founded Franklin college "for the special benefit of the
Germans of the commonwealth, as an acknowledgment of services rendered by them
to the state, and in consideration of their industry and public virtues;" and in 1791 the
same legislature save 5,000 acres of land to the free schools of the Lutheran church in
Philadelphia. In 1785 the New York synod was formed; in 1808, that of Korth
Carolina; in 1819, that of Ohio; and in 1820, that of Maryland and Virginia. In 1816 a
public theological seminary was established at Hartwick, N. Y. During the revolution
the Lutherans were zealous patriots^ and, in consequence, incurred the dislike of Uie
English. At the close of the war a large number of the G^erman soldiers whom the
British government had hired remained in this country and joined the Lutheran congre-
Sitions. The sprowing acquaintance of the younger generations with the EngTisfa
Qguage made them anxious to have part, at least, of the religious services conducted
in it. The older persons, however, resisted the df ort, some of them even believing that
the German might become the language of the country. The first Lutheran church in
which English was exclusively used was built in 1809, and it remained the only one for
manv years. In 18d0 the seneral synod was formed, representing 185 ministers and
83,000 church qiembers. The fresh arrival of Lutherans from Europe produced differ-
ences of opinion and disputes which resulted in several secessions from the main body.
After the war of the rebellion the southern gMierai svnod was formed. A division un
doctrinal grounds next occurred in the northern synods. While the Augsburg confession
was cordially accepted by the general synod as a most important liistorical document,
they did not regard a strict adherence to the letter of its teachinfli as essential to church
membership, the privileges of which they wished to extend to ail Lutherans. But the
stricter party were dissatisfied with this liberal view, and, in 1864, the admission of the
Frankean synod led to the withdrawal of the oldest organization — ^the synod of Pennsyl*
vanisr-iand, subsequently, to the formation of the general counciL
STATIflfnCS AS GIVBN IN THS CHURCH AUfAXAC FOB 1880:
Hinlsters.
Hembm
L Synodlcal oonCeranoe
1,160
840
700
100
1«
1>17
1,^
175
480
486,000
U. Greneral svnod. north
1S6,000
in. Getaeral council
907;M)0
IV. General synod, HOUth
]8,W0
V. 1n(lATw»n<lAnt nvnnflfl
48;000
Total 5ft Rvfi/wlii
8,015
6,«M
805,000
LU'THUULKS, a designation originally applied by theur adversaries to the reformers
of the 16th c, and which afterwards was distinctively appropriated amon^ Protestants
themselves to those who took purt with Martin Luther against the Swiss reformers,
particularly in the controversies regarding the Lord's-supper. It is so employed to this
day, as the designation of one of the two ^reat sections into wliich the Protestant church
was soon unhappily divided, the other being known as the EtfariMd (q.v.). To the end
of Luther's life, perfect harmony subsisted between him and his friend Melanchthon:
but already there were some who stood forth as more Lutheran than Luther, and bv
whom Metanchtiion was denounced as a OrypUhCahinigt and a traitor to evangelical
truth. After Luther's death, this party became more confident ; and, hokimg by Luther's
words, witliout having imbibed his spirit, changed his evan^lical doctrine into a dry
scholasticism and lifeless orthodoxy, while extreme heat and violence against their owo-
nents were substituted in the pulpit itself for the zealous preaching of the gospel. The
principal seat of their strength was in the university of Jena, which w/us foimded in 1557
for this very object, and maintained their cause against Wittenberg. The utmost
illiberality characterized this party; and in so far as governments came under their
influence, extreme intolerance was manifested, the measumj adjo^pt^^^^^those who
246 5S8ir^
differed from them being not unfrequently of a persecuting natnre. No controversy
vras ever cooducted with more bitterness than the iaeramentaricm wniroveny (q.v.)-
Towards the end of the 17th c. the Lutherans of Germany found a new object of
hostility in the JKeMa (q.v.)» against whom they stired up the pasaioBS of the multitude,
aid instated the jj^oYemments to severity. — In the 18th c. they came into conflict with
RaiianaUam (q. v.), which may be regaided as a consequence of the state of things exist-
ing in Germany during the previous period of unprofitable theological strife. — When,
after the wars of the French revolution were over, the Prussian government formed and
carried into execution a scheme for the union of the Lutheran and Reformed churches
into one nationsd church (see Prx788Ia), an active opposition arose on the part of those
who now began to be known as M lAUktraru. Bioparate congregations were formed,
and an attitude of open hostility to the government was assumea by some; while others,
more moderate, but aolding the Mune tbiBological opinions, continued to maintain these
opinions within the United Skaiw^ical church. Among the latter were some of the most
eminent divines in Germany, as Henffstenbeig, Olshausen, Guericke, and Thduck. The
separatists were for some tmte severely dealt with by the government, and, consequently,
many left their native country to found old Lutheran corarounitieB in Amenca and
Australia. Thia took place chiefly about the year 1887. After that Hvob greater toler-
atioD was practiced, and now the old Lutherans form a legally recognized ecclesiastical
body in Prussia. . For some time after the political excitement of 1848, those who held
the Lutheran doctrines within the national or United Evangelical church of Prussia,
exhibited considerable uneasiness and a strong desire for a position more consistent wiith
their ecclesiastical traditions; but more recently this feeling seems to have been qqh*
siderably allayed.
Lutheranism is the prevailing form of Protestantism in Saxony, Hanover, and the
firreaier part of northern Gennany, as well as in Wllrtemberg; it also prevails to a con-
siderable extent in other parts of Germany. It is the national relirion of Denmark,
Sweden, and Norway; ana there are Lutheran churches in Holland, France, Poland,
etc. Among the Lutheran symbolical books, the Augtburg C&i\fesmon (q.v.) holds the
principal place; but the supreme authority of the holy Scriptures is fully recognized.
The chief difference between the Lutherans and the Reformed is as to the retU preticnce
of Christ in the sacrament of the supper; the Lutherans holding the doctrine ofcanmbr
tantiation, although rejecting tranwMantiaMon (see Lord's-Sufper; Impakatiok; and
Transubstantiation); while some Qf their more extreme theologians have asserted not
only the presence of the human nature of Christ in the Lord's-supper, as Luther did, but
the absolute omnipresence of his human nature. Other points of difference relate to
the allowance in Christian worsliip of things indifferent (adiaphora); and many of those
things at first retained as merely tolerable b^ Lutlier and his feUow-reformers, have
become favorite and distinguishing characteristics of some of the Lutheran churches —
as images and pictures in places of worship, clerical vestments, the form of exorcism in
buptism, etc. Among the old Lutherans of Prussia, particularly the separatists, a strong
tendency to exaggeration in these distinctive peculiarities has manifested itself.
In many of the Lutheran churches, the doctrines of Luther, and of their symbolical
books, have long given place, in a great measure, to Arminianism, and to a system of
religion very inconsistent with Luther's doctrine of ;{ustification by faith. In some
quarters, particularly in Norway and Sweden, a reaction has of late years appeared;
and many of the Lutheran divines of Germany are strenuous supporters of the ''evan-
gelical " doctrines of the reformers.
In its constitution the Lutheran church is generally un^nseopal, without being
properly prefbutericm. In Denmark and Sweden there are bishops, and in Sweden an
archbishop (of Upsal), but their powers are very limited. Where Lutheranism is the
national religion, the soverei^ is recognized as the supreme bishop, and the church is
governed by consistories appointed by him, and composed both of clergymen and laymen.
The members of congregations possess almost no rights.
LUT'KE, Fbodor Petrovitch, b.-1707; was educated for the Russian naval ser-
vice. In 1817-19 an associate in a Russian expedition around the world, which made
discoveries on the shores of Nova Zembla. Prom 1828 to 1828 he was engaged in explora-
tions in Behring's straits, the sea of Kamtchatka, its connections, and its before unknown
islands. In 1830 he made a voyage of scientific observation to ascertain the oscillations
of the pendulum. He was made admiral in 1885, and was subsequently employed in
conspicuous service. In 1855 he procured the establishment of the Russian geographi-
cal sociel7, and in 1804 was president of the academy of sciences at St. Petersburg.
His principal published work is his F(mrVoyage» Across the Aretie ScaBH&t. Petersburg,
1834).
LU'TOV^.a maricet t and parish of England, co. Bedford, shuated M m. ]i.n.w. of
London, on the river Lea, whioh rises in the parish. It is connected with the London
and Northwestern and the Great Northern railways by branch^lines from Leighton Buz-
zard to Hatfield. Staple trade, straw hat manufacture. Pop. 71, 17,817. The parish
church, an ancient and noble structure, contains an elegant and perhaps unique b^itis-
oial font.
LUTRA. See Ottbr, ante. Digitized by \jUU^IC
LTJTTI, Prancksca, b. Riva di Trento, in the Italian Tyrol; is devoted to Uterature
and pliilanthropy , and ranked among the first of Italian poets. Her works are NoveUe t
lAriche (2 vols.); Alberto; and Un Praverbio,
LVT'TSUTGHAUflEV, a prosperous manufacturing t. of Rhenish Pniasla, 18 m. 8.e.
from DQsseldorf. Woolen, linen, and cotton manufactures are carried on; also manu
lactures of hardware and cutlery. Pop. '76, 9,498.
LUTZ, JoHANN VON, 1826; b. Bavaria; Bavarian minister of justice, 1867-^9, when
he took the office of minister of public education and worship, in which he distinguished
himself by his firm resistance to the ultramontanes.
LVT'ZEH, a small t. of (1871) 2,647 inhabitants, in the Prussian province of Saxony,
famous for two great battles fought in its vicinity. The first took place on ^th Nov..
1682. Oustavus Adolphus, who had moved in the direction of Bavaria, being recalled
from his designs of conquest there by the advance of Wallenstein on Saxony, united
his forces with those of duke Bernarcl of Saxe- Weimar, and attacked the imperialists at
Ltltzen. The fortune of the day was very various; but notwithstanding the death of
Gustavufl Adolphus, victory remained with the Swedes, and Wallenstein was compelled
to resign to them the field of battle. About 9,000 men were killed and severely wounded.
The bcMle of Lutzen, on May 2, 1818, was fought somewhat further to the s., at the
village of GroszgOrschen. It was the first great confiict of the united Russian and Prus-
sian army with the army of Napoleon in that decisive campaign. The allies gained at
first great successes, but the French were left in possession of the field at the close of the
'Jtftay; their superiority in numbers seciuring them the victoiy, although they lost about
12,000 men, and the allies only 10,000. By this battle, the French regained possession
of Saxony and the Elbe.
LT&TZOW, LuDwio Adolf Wilhklh, Baron von, 1782-1884; a Qerman officer of
the province of Brandenburg, made famous principally by the songs of KOmer, espe-
cially LuUow'b Wilde, Venoegene Jagd, On the retreat of the French from Moscow he
placed himself at the head of the students of the universities, who rose en maue under
the title of the Tu{fenbund, and, as the black cavalry, first distinguished themselves at
the battle of LUtzen. It was their vigorous following of the retreating French army
that receired the name of ''Lutzow's wild chase.*'
LUXEHBOITBG, Francois Hbnri db MomrMOBSNCfT, Duke of, marshal of France,
a famous gen. of Louis iCIV., b. at Paris, Jan. 8, 1628; was the posthumous son of
Fran9ois de Montmorency, count of Bouteville, who was beheaded on account of a
duel. His aunt, the mother of the great Cond6, brought him up as a companion of her
son, with whom he took part in the disturbances of the Fronde, signalizing himself in
the battles then fought. Bein^ afterwards received into favor by Louis XI v., he served
as a volunteer under Turenne m Flanders (1667), in Franche Comt6 as the lieut.gen. of
Oond6, and in the Netherlands, where the battles of Grool, Deventer, ZwoU, etc., greatly
increased his reputation. He had, however, the misfortune to embroil himself in a
quarrel with the all-powerful Louvois, the results of which were disastrous to his pros-
pects for a time. He assumed the title o4 Luxembourg on marrying the heiress of that
bouse. Some of his military exploits were very daring, and were executed with great
•kill; his retreat from Holland, in particular, bemg executed in such a masterly manner
that it placed him among the foremost generals of his age: but he largely participated
in the savage burning of towns, and desolating of conquered districts, which disgraced
the French arms at that period, though it is believed that in this he only carried out the
positive instructions which he received from Louvois (q.v.). In the campaign of 1677
he defeated the prince of Orange at Mont-Oassel, took 8t. Omer, and compelled the
prince to raise the siege of Charleroi. After the peace of Nimeguen, Louvois attempted
to aocomplish his destruction by means almost incredible. Having got possession of a
contract between Luxembourg and a wood-merchant, he caused it to be changed so that
it became a contract with the devil. Upon this, Luxembourg was summoned before the
^hambre ardenUf and obeyed the citation, although his friends advised him to leave
the country. He was thrown into the Bastile, and there confined in a dark dungeon.
After fourteen months, he was acquitted and released, but banished to one m his
domains, where he lived forgotten for ten years, at the end of which time, the king
Appointed him to the command of the army m Flanders. On July 1, 1690, he gained a
victory over the prince of Waldeck at Fleurus; on Aug. 4, 1692, and July 29, 1608, over
William III. of En^^aud, at Steenkirk and at Neerwinden. He took Charleroi, Oct.
12, 1693. He died Jan. 4, 1695. Luxembourg was crooked in shape and feeble in body,
but possessed an inexhaustible activity of spirit.
LUXEMBOURG PALACE, built at Paris m 1615 by order of Marie de' MMids. It
is in the style of the Pitti palace at Florence, and was sumptuously decorated by
Debroese, but afterwards altered by Chalgrin, the architect of the Arc de TEtoile.
Between 1621 and 1635 Rubens, who was commissioned to embellish the palace with
paintings, painted, with the assistance of his pupils, those large pictures repre-
jventing scenes from the queen's life w^hich are now in the Louvre. The long gal-
lery in which these pain tings .were originally hung still- contains frescoa Uy J.oroaeas,
^* • I«iixembiurg.
the pupil of Bubens. The palace continued to be a royal residence down to the revolu-
tion, shortly before which it was presented by Louis aVI. to his brother, the count of
Provence, afterwards Louis XVIIL The palace derives its name from the duke of
Pliney-Luxembourg, whose mansion formerly occupied the site, and, although various
other names have been proposed, none of them has ever been permanently adopted.
In 1795 the building was named the Palais du Directoire, and afterwards the Palais du
Consulat. During the first empire the palace was occupied bv the senate, and styled
Palais du Senat-G>nservateur. After the restoration and under Louis Philippe, the
diamber of peers met here. In March and April, 1848, the eommUaion des travaiUeurs,
under Louis Blanc, held its socialist meetings in the palace. From 1853 to 1870 it
was named Palais du Benat, that body having a«ain sat here during the second
empire. Sinbe 1871 it has been occupied by the ofoces of the pr6fet de la Seine. The
Palais du^Luxembourg, although its architecture is somewhat heavy, is one of the
handsomeiit and most symmetrical buildings of Paris. The principal facade, which
has been restored in conformity with the design of Debrosse, rises opposite the rue
de Tournon. It is nearly 800 ft. in width, and consists of a central dome-covered
pavilion and two wings, connected by galleries. It is adorned with Tuscan, Doric,
and composite columns placed above each other. The aaUe du trans was adorned in
1856 with a series of large pictures representing scenes from the liistory of the Napo-
leons. The room adjoining is a gallery of busts of former peers and senators. The
apartments of queen Sfarie de' M§cucis were restored in 1817. The chapel was restored
and richly decorated in 1842. The dome of the library is adorned with one of the
finest works of Eugene Delacroix, representing Elysium as portrayed by Dante. The
mtuSe du Luxembourg occupies a room on the ground-floor of the palace. It contains
a collection of works of living artists, consisting of paintings, sculptures, drawings,
engravings, and lithographs. The works of the most distinguished masters are gen-
erally transferred to Uie Louvre about ten years after their death. To the n.e. of the
palace, opposite the gate of the garden, rises the thSdire ds VOdmn, a heav^ and unat-
tractive edifice erected in 1818. The fa9ade on the n. side is adorned with a Doric
portioa On the three other sides are ealleries occupied by book and newspaper
stalls. The interior is well fitted up, and the chandelier is particularly handsome.
The foyer is embellished with busts and portraits of dramatists and actors connected
with the Odeon. The garden of the Luxembourg on the e. and s. sides of the palace con-
tains the "fontaine de, liedicis," by Debrosse, in the Doric style, with imitations of sta-
lactites ; ' ' Polyphemus surprising Acis and Gkilatea, *' by Ottin ; an * ' Archidamas about to
Throw the Disk," by Lemaire; and copies of the " Borghese Gladiator" and the ** Diana"
of Yers^les. The terraces surrounding the parterre are embellished with 20 modem stat-
ues in marble of celebrated French women. A fountain designed by Carpeaux was erected
in 1875 at the point where the g^arden formerly terminated. It is adorned with eight
horses, rising above the lower basin, and with a group of four figures bearing an armillaiy
sphere. The place is called ihsi carrefour de fobservatoire. The statue of Ney, to the
left of the canifour, stands on the spot where the marshal was shot in 1815, in execution
of the sentence pronounced by the chamber of peers on the previous evening. The
statue is in bronze by Rude, and was erected in 1858. On the sides of the pedestal are
inscribed the names of the battles 'at which the marshal was present. The obsercaiovre
u situated at the end of the avenue of that name. This celebrated institution was
founded in 1672. The meridian of Paris runs throup^h the center of the building, and
the latitude of the s. facade is held to be that of Pans. The copper dome, which is 42
ft. in diameter, is constructed so as to revolve round its vertical axis for the purpose of
adjusting the great equatorial which it contains. The observatory also has a new tele-
scope, which cost 200,000 francs.
Llfx'EKBUltO. an old Glerman co., and afterwards a duchy, which, about the 12th
c, came into possession of the counts of Limburg, who assumed the title of counts of
Laxembur:e. It was next acquired by Burgundy, and in this way came into the
hands of Austria. By the peace of Campo Formio (q.v.), it was ceded to France
in 1797. In 1814 it was elevated to the rank of a grand duchy of the German
confederation, and given to Holland in compensation for the loss of Nassau. In
1830, when Belgium formed itself into an independent kingdom, Luxemburg was
divided betweea it and Holland — the latter, however, retaining little more than the
fortress of Luxemburg, till 1889, when, by a treaty signed in London, a new division
was made more favorable to Holland.-^BBLGiAN Luxembubo, or Luxbmboubo, the
largest province of Belgium, forming the s.e. comer of the country, contains an area
of 1690 English sq.m., with a pop. (1878) of 206,069. It is traversed from s.w. to n.e.
by a branch of the Ardennes, which nowhere exceed 2,000 ft in height. The surface
is in general extremely rugged, much covered with woods and morasses. The soil is
poor. About a third of the arable land is devoted to pasture, great numbers of cattle,
sheep and horses beine reared for export. The horses are a strong, hardy breed, much
prized both for M^cultural and military purposes. The mineral wealth of the country
consists of iron, lead, copper, marble, freestone, slate, gypsum, etc. The chief manu*
factures are cloth, tulle, earthenware, leather, nails, and potash; and the principal
articles of export aie hemp, flax, oak-bark, timber, iron, leather, cheese^ i^e^^^e caip-
I'^^SSSr^' 248
ital of the proTince, Arlon, has a pop. of 4,^00.— Dutch Luxembubg, e. of the Belgian
province or Luxemburg, is connected with the Netherlands in the person of the sover-
eign, but has a constitution and administration of its own. The Icing of Holland, as
grand duke, appoints a deputy-governor. Dutch Luxemburg was a part of the Qer-
manic confederation from its formation in 1815 till its dissolution in 1866. In 1867 its
neutralitv was guaranteed by the great powers. Its present constitution dates from
1868. The cliamber of deputies consists of 40 members, chosen for 6 years by direct
vote in the electoral districts. Area, 990 English sq.m. ; pop. '71, 197,528, the most
of whom are engaged in agriculture. The chief products are wine, corn, hops, hemp,
and flax. In the eastern districts there are iron mines, and lime and slate quarries.
The majorit}' of the inhabitants are Walloons, the rest mainly Germans. The capital
is Luxemburg. By a law of 1868 the army consists of 18 officers, 500 under-omoers
and privates, besides 122 gendarmes.
LUXEXBITBG, the capital of Dutch Luxemburg, is situated on the Else c9 Alsette,
76 m. s. by e. from Liege, and possessed a pop., in '71, of 14,440. Its situation has often
been compared to that of Jerusalem, being, like the latter, surrounded by escarped rocks,
which, excepting the w. side, average 200 ft. in height. The Spaniards, Austrians,
French, and Dutch, who successively held possession of the town, so increased and
strengthened its fortifications that in the beginning of the 19th c. it was considered to be,
with the exception of Gibraltar, the strongest fortress in Europe. Another portion of
Luxemburg, called the **low town," is situated at the foot of the precipice, along the
banks of the river. It possesses a fine cathedral, various handsome buildings, and public
institutions. It has also manufactures of wax, distilleries, breweries, tanneries, and an
extensive general trade. It was formerly garrisoned by Prussian troops; but by the
treaty of London of 1867, these were withdrawn, and the fortifications demolished.
LUXOR, in upper I^gypt. See THBHB8,.ante.
LUYNE8, HoNORfi Th6odowc Paul Joseph d'Albsrt, Due de, 180^-67; son of
Mme. de Chevreuse, whose too plainly expressed contempt for some of the faults of
the court of Napoleon I. caused her dismissal on two different occasions. Her son first
turned to archseological studies by the discovery of the remains of the Greek citv of
Metepontum on one of his father's estates in Italy. On the accession of Louis Philippe
in 1848 he became a member of the constituent assembly, and in 1840 of the legislative
assembly. In 1851 he was one of the parties arrested by Louis Napoleon in Uie eovp
d'etat, though not a republican. In 18i64 he pursued archseological studies in Syria and
Palestine, which were the basis for the work of his grandson, entitled Voyage d^BjDj)lo-
ratian d la Mer Morte, d Pdfmyre, d Peira, et 9ur la rwe gattehe du Jaurdan,
LUZAC, Jean, 1746-1807; a Dutch philolorist, and one of the editors of the Leyden
Gaeette, a journal of large influence controlled by his family since 1738. He was a
friend and correspondent of Washington, John Adams, and Jefferson, and for a time
directed the education of John Quincy Adams. He was Qreek professor of the univer-
sity of Leyden at the close of the la.st century. His lectures on Greek history were
considered too republican, and caused him to be suspended from his position for a time.
In 1809 his lecture in defense of Socrates — Lectiones Attica — was published in Leyden.
LUZENBERG, Charles Alotsius, 1805-48; b. Verona, Itoly; entered college by
special permission when but 10 years of age; emigrated to the United States in 1819*:
attended lectures in the Jefferson medical college in Philadelphia; in 1839 removed to
New Orleans, where he was attached for a time to the charity hospital, and afterwards
established one of his own, in which he performed many difficult surgical operations.
He was in Europe 1832-34, and was elected a corresponding member of the Paris acad-
emy. He returned to Louisiana in 1834; founded the society of natural history in 1839,.
and the Louisiana medico-chirurgical society in 1843, and was the flrst president of both.
Died in Cincinnati.
LUZERN. See LucBBins, atOe,
LUZERNE, a n.e. co. of Pennsylvania, drained by the Lehigh river and Nesoopeck
creek, and intersected by a branch of the Busquehanna; trayeiBed by the Lehigh Valley,
Central of New Jersey, and Lackawanna and Bloomsburg railroads; 860 sq.m.; pop.
*80, 188,086. It is heavily wooded, and the scenery is varied and picturesque, compris-
ing, among other features, the charming Wyoming valley. The soil is fertile, the "pro-
ductions including hay, Indian corn, lumber, oats, wheat, butter, and cattle. This
county has a larger coal product than any other in the United States, the larger part
of (he mineral (anthracite) lying in the Wyoming and Lackawanna valleys. In 1870 the
coal exportation of the county was nearly 10,000,000 tons. Co. seat, Wilkesbarre.
LUZERNE, Chevalier ANKB-CfisAR de la, ll.d.. 1741-91; a French gen.,
and ambassador to the United States from 1779 to 1783. His services to the United
States won the gratitude of the nation during its struggle for independence. Luzerne
CO., in Pennsylvania, was named in his honor. In 1780 he lent his own private credit
to obtain a loan for the relief of the American army, and confess voted him the thanks
of the nation, which was reiterated by request of gen. Washington in 1789. He died
while ambassador at London.
1M2XM\ the largest of the Philippine islands (q.v.). Digitized by VjUUV IC
249 tyeeom.
LV'ZULA, a genus of plants of the natural order juneecs, differing from rushes in hav-
ing a 3-8eeded instead of a many-seeded capsule, and in having soft plane leaves, which
are generally covered with thinly scattered lougish hairs. Tiiey do not grow in wet
places, like rushes, but in woods, pastures, and elevated mountainous situations. The
English name. Wood-rush, has sometimes been given to the whole genus, but is only
appropriate to some, of which it is the popular name, as L. syltniHca and L. pUosa, com-
mon British species. Perhaps there is no more common British plant than the Field-
rush (Z. eampestris), a plant of very humble growth; the flowering spikes of which,
congregated into a close head, their dark color relieved by the whitish yellow of the
anthers, profusely adorn dry pastures in spring. It is of little agricultural value. The
species which grow imder the shade of trees are valuable, as preserving their verdure in
winter, adding to the beauty of the scene, and improving the cover for game.
LUZZATTO, MosB Chatim, 1707-47; b. Italy; a Jewish mystic, who devc^d him-
self to the study of Hebrew literature, especially the cabalistic writings. Having declared
himself the Messiah, he was exconununicated, and took refuge in Holland, out after-
wards removed to Palestine, where he died. He published a second book of the 2Sohar.
LUZZATTO, Sahxtbl David, 180(MI5; b. Italy; a distinruished Jewish scholar, and
professor of biblical exegesis in the rabbinical school at Padua from its foundation in
1889 till bis death. He published Didhgue$ on the Qabala, the Zohar, etc. ; a Hebrew
Q^rcfmmar; Hebrew NoUe en the Peniateueh; French NoUe en Imiah; an Italian traosla-
tioD of Job; and oi Isaiah, with a commentary in Hebrew.
LTCASmO'VIA (Gr. lyeoe, a wolf; oTUhropoi, a man), wolf-madness. There has
been, in various countries and times, a popular superstition and dread that men had been
transmuted into wolves by Satanic agency, and roamed through forests and desert places
actuated by the same appetites as the wild beast whose aspect or name they bore. The
panic thus inspired may have suggested the delusion now under consideration, where
the process of transformation was purely subjective, and the transforming power dis-
ease. Many instances occur, and may be encountered in every asylum, m which the
insane conceive themselves dogs {cynanthrepia) and other animals, and even inanimate
objects; but these are solitary cases, whereas this hallucination has appeared epidemi'
cafly. and lycanthropes have literally herded and hunted together in packs. In 1600
multitudes were attacked with the disease in the Jura, emulated the destructive habits of
the wolf, murdered and devoured children ; howled, walked, or attempted progression
upon all -fours, so that the palms of the hands became hard and homy; and admitted
that they congregated in the mountains for a sort of cannibal or devil's sabbath.
Imprisonment, burning, scarcely sufficed to check what grew into a source of public
danger. Six hundred persons w^ere executed on their own confession. Oases in which
the sufferer boasts of being a wolf, creeps like a quadruped, barks, leaps, bites, and
which In other respects are closely allied to these, still happen in sufficient frequency to
suggest the lesson that we are chiefly protected from the prevalence of such a moral
pestilence by education, the greater aiiiusion of knowledge and sound principle, and by
attention to the laws of healm. — Calmiel, De la FoUe; Arnold, On IneanUy.
L YCAON, legendary king of Arcadia, son of Pelasgus and Melibcea, or Cyllene. He
had many sons, some say flfty, others only twenty-two. According to the tradition of
the Arcadians, he first introduced the worship of Zeus as the supreme being, founding
Lycosena on the top of Mt. Lycaeus. It is Miid that he offered human beings on the
altars of Zeus. Jupiter, hearing of the impiety of Lycaon and his sons, came down to
examine the truth of the report. They placed before him part of the Ixxly of a child
dressed for dinner, when Zeus in horror and indignation struck with lightning the father
and sons, except Nyctimus. Another account is that for their impiety tliey were changed
into wolves. Some say that the flood of I^eucalion, which occurred soon after, was in
consequence of the crimes of Lycaon's sons.
LTCAOK, a genus of canf<2£B, in dentition and general osteological structure nearly
agreeing with dogs, but resembling hyenas in the form of the head and in having only
four toes on ea^ foot. The best ascertained species. L. renaticiis, the Wild Dog,
Hyena Dog. or Hunting Dog of the cape of Good Hope, is rather smaller than a
mastiff, and has a tall gaunt form. It is gregarious, and still infests even the neighbor-
hcKxi of Cape Town, committing great depredations on flocks of sheep. It is found over
great part of Africa, from the cape of Good Hope to the valley of the Nile.
LTCAO'XIA, in ancient geography, a country in Asia Minor, bounded on the e. by
Cappadocia, on the n. by Galatia, on the w. by Pisidia, and on the s. by Isauria and
Ci licia. Its capital was Iconium (q. v. ).
LTGB17X, (Gr. lAAkeian), original^ the name of a place in the immediate neighbor-
hood of Athens, consecrated to Apom Lyceiue, and noted for its shady wood and beauti-
ful gardens, but particularly for its gymnasium, in which Aristotle and the Peripatetics
taught, and from which the Romans borrowed the same name for similar institutiona
In more modem times, the name lyceum was given in honor of Aristotle to the higher
I^tin schools in which the Aristotelian philosophy formed a principal branch of educa
tion: and at the present day, the name is variously applied to educational and literary
institations. Digitized by VjUU^ l^
Lycurgrus. -'•^^
LYOH-0ATE (Ang.-Sax. Uc or liee, a body, corpse), or Corpse-Gate, a churchyard
gate covered with a roof. It is very common in many parts of England. The bodies
of ];>er8ons brought for burial are set down under the shelter of the roof while the ser-
vice is read. Lych-gates are very rare in Scotland. There is one at Peebles.
LTCH'ins, a genus of plants of the natural order caryophyllacea; having a tubular
. 5-toothed calyx; corolla twice as long as the calyx, with a spreading wheel-shaped limb,
crowned at the mouth of the tube, and generally divided atUie border; ten stamens, and
Ave stjrles. The species are herbaceous plants, generally perennial, natives of temperate
countries. Several are found in Britain. The Ragged Robin {L. fios-cuculi) is one of
the most frequent ornaments of meadows and moist pastures; the German Catchfli
(L. viscaria), very rare, and generally found growing on almost inaccessible precipices;
the Red Campion (Z. dCuma\ and the White Campion {L. tespertina), abound in fields,
hedges, and the borders of woods. The last two are dioecious, and, strangely enough,
the female of the first and the male of the second are very common, while the male of
the first and female of the second are rather rare. The flowers of L wapertina are
usually fragrant in the evening. The Scarlet Lychnis {L. Chdkedonica), a native of
Asia Minor, is a frequent and brilliant ornament of flower-borders. Borne of the
species have saponaceous properties.
LT'CIA, a country on the s. coa^t of Asia Minor, extendinfftowards Mt. Taurus, and
bounded on the w. by Caria, and on the n. by Phryeia and iMsidia. and on the e. by
Pamphylia. The most ancient inhabitants are said to have been two Semitic races called
the aolynd and Termiia, the former of whom were driven from the coast to Uie moun-
tains in the n. by adventurers from Crete, under the command of Sarpedon, a brother
of Minos, who first gave the country the name of Lycia. To what race Uie invaders
belonged, is not certain; they were, however, not of Hellenic origin. The Lyciaos are
prominent in the Homeric legend of the Trojan war. It shared the vicissitudes of the
other states of Asia Minor, becoming subject to the Persian and Syrian monarchies, and
then to Rome. During the time of its independence, .it consisted of 28 confederate
cities, of which the principal were Xanthus, Patara, Pinara, Olympus, Myra, and Tloe;
and at the head of the whole confederation was a president or governor called the
Lyciarch. Many monuments and ruined buildings (temples, tombs, theaters, etc.),
exquisite sculptures, coins, and other antiquities, testify to the attainments of the
Lycians in civilization and the arts, in which they rival the Greeks themselves. These
antiquities, however, had received little attention, till sir Charles Fellows, about the year
1840, pointed out their interesting character. Since that time they have been Very
assiduously exi)lored and studied. A beautiful collection of Lycian sculptures, made
by sir Charles, is now to be seen in the British museum. The most interesting of all the
uutiquities of Lycia are, however, the inscriptions in which a peculiar alphabet is used,
nearly allied to the Phrygian, and the language of which appears to be an Indo-Ger-
manic language, mingled with Semitic words. Grotefend, Sharpe, Daniell, and others
have spent much labor in deciphering these inscriptions.
LYCOMING, a co. in n. Pennsylvania, intersected centrally by Lycoming creek,
watered also by Loyalsock creek in the s. and Pine creek with its branches in the w., all
aflSuents of the w. branch of the Susquehanna river; 1250 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 57,482—52,-
725 of American birth, 970 colored. Its surface is mountainous, particularly in the s.
and w. sections, where it rises into a range of the Alleghany mountains, presenting
very attractive scenery. Its surface is largely covered with forests of hard wood, ana
timber is one of its chief commodities. Its soil in the valleys is fertile, and produces
every variety of grain, tobacco, wool, dairy products, honey, and maple sugar. Cash value
of farms in 70, |ll,212,366, numbering 2,640. Value of live stock in '70, $1,244,900. It
had in 70, 608 manufacturing establishments, with a capital of $7,875,938, and an annual
product of $9,081,406. Among its mineral products are black marble, limestone, iron,
and coal. It had in 70, one coal mine, employing 80 hands, with a capital of $185,000,
and an annual product of $4,000. Its manufactures are represented by machine shops,
lumber, flour, and paper mills, plow. factories, tanneries; also manufactories of pumps,
wagons, chairs, sashes, doors, and blinds, clothing, rectified coal oil, extract of hemlock
bark. Near its county seat, above a suspension bridge that spans the stream, is tbe
great Susquehanna boom, coasting $1,000,000, which will hold 800,000,000 ft. of lum-
ber. It is traversed by the Northern Central rwlway, the Muncy Creek railroad, the
Philad.elphia and Erie, the Catawissa and Williamsport railroad, and the West Branch
. canal, the latter principally used in the transportation of coal. Seat of justice, Williams-
jport.
I LYCON, a Greek philosopher; b.c. 800-226; b. in Laodicean Phrygia. He was a
philosopher of the school of Aristotle, was at the head of that sect ikC. 270, and
succeeded Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Stnito in the school which they had taught at
Athens. He Is described as a very successful instructor, discarding corporal punish-
ment, and inciting the pupil by appealing to his honor. His eloquence was so per-
suasive and melodious that his contemporaries prefixed the letter G to his name, making
it CHyeon, ^^hich denotes stoeetneiu. He conducted the school with great ability for «
years. From Cicero we learn that he wrote on tbe boundartes of gSod and evu, and a
" w^rk of his ontbc nature of aniiTuils is quoted by Apuleiim^ized by VjjOUV tC
^^1 I^ycuri^iM.
ircOFEB'BOV. See Puff-ball.
LYCOPHRON, a distinguished poet and CTammarian; b. Chalcis in the island of
EubCBa, B.C 880i We know but little of hiB private history. He lived at the court of
Ptolemy Philadelphus, where he was one of the seven poets, known by the name of
Pleiad. He wrote many tragedies, of which Suidas has preserved the titles of 19, but
the works are lost, except Xhssaridra or Alexandra of 1474 lines. This is, however,
hardty a drama, as Cassandra is the only speaker. She gives an account of nearly all i
the leading events in Greek history. It is written in iambic in a style very obscure, |
and has no poetical merit. Tlie best edition is by Bachman. He is said to have written '
also some satires and comedies. i
LYCOFOBIA'CES, a natural order of acrogenous or cryptogamous plants, somewhat I
resembling mosses, but of higher organisation, and bj many botanists included among
ferns as a sub-order. They have creeping stems and imbricated leaves. The axis con-
isists entirely, or in great part, of annular vessels; the leaves are narrow and 1 nerved.
The thecee, or spore-cases, are axillary, sessile, 1 to 8 celled, opening by valves, or not at
all, and often of two kinds, the one containing minute powdei^ matter, the other
sporules of much larger size, which are capable of germinating. Tne powdery particles
have by some been regarded as antheridia (see Akthbriditm), but the question of their
nature is still involved in uncertainty. The lycopodiacese are most abundant in hot
humid situations, especially in tropical islands, although some are found in very
cold cliuoates. About 200 species are known. The only British genus is lyeopodium, of
which 6 species are natives of Britain. The most abunoant, both in Britain and on the
continent of Europe, is the common Club-moss (L. datfattim), which creeps upon the
ground in heatliy pastures, with branching stems, often many feet long. A decoction
of this plant is employed by the Poles to cure that frightful disease the pUoapolomea. The
yellow dust or meal which issues from its spore-cases, and from those of L, Sdago, is col-
lected and used for producing the lightning of theaters, being very inflammable, and kin-
dling with a sudden blaze when thrown upon a candle, the combustion taking place so
rapidly that nothing else is liable to be kindled by it. It is called lyoopode and vegetable
bnmst&ne, and by the Germans, lightning-meal and imteh-meal (BUtz-mMtaid Mexen-mehl).
It is used for rolling up pills, which, when coated with it, may be put into water with-
out being moistened. It is sprinkled upon the excoriations of infants, and upon parts
affected with erysipelas, herpetic ulceration, etc. It is even used, although rarely, as a
medicine in diseases of the urinary organs. The powder of other species is also regarded
m Brazil and other countries as posse^s'iig power over the unnarv and generative
organs. The stems and leaves of L. clavatum are emetic, those of L, aelago cathartic; a i
South American species, X. eathartieum, is violently purgative, and is administered in |
cases of elephantiasis. L. Sdago is employed by the swedes to destroy lice on swine and *
other animals. L, alpinum is used in Iceland for dyeing woolen cloth yellow, the cloth
being simply boiled with a quantity of the plant and a few leaves of the bog whortle-
berry. Z. eomplanatum is used for the same purpose in Lapland, along with birch-
leaves. Many of the lycopodiacese are very beautiful plants, and are much cultivated in
hot-houses, green-houses, and fern-cases, in which they grow very luxuriantly.
LYCinS'0ir8,a celebrated Spartan lawgiver, whose history and legislation are involved
in so much obscurity, that many modem critics have suspected them to be mythical.
The account usually given is as follows: Lycurgus, who nourished about 880 B.C. (or.
according to others, about 1100 b.c.), was descended from the old Doric family of the
ProclidiE. His brother. Polydectes, king of Sparta, died, leaving his widow with child.
This ambitious woman proposed to Lycurgus that he should marry her, in event of
which she promised to destroy the fruit oi her womb. Lycurgus was shocked, but
feigned consent in order to save his brother's offspring. As soon as the child, who was
named Charilaus, was born, he proclaimed him king, and became his guardian. At
this time, Sparta is represented as being in a state of great disorder and demoralization
—the dUfferent sections of the community quarreling among themselves for political
supremacy. Lycurgus after some years left his native country, and traveled through
many foreigjn knds— Crete, Asia minor, India, Ejprpt, Libya^ and Iberia — examining
and comparing the political constitutions of the different countries, and finally returned
to Sparta, full of knowledge fitting him to become one of the greatest legistators in the
world. During his absence, things had got much worse in Spefta, and he had no sooner
arrived than the entire community requested him to draw up a ooQsiitution for them.
To this he consented, and having induced them to solemnly swear that they would make
no cbange in his laws till he came back, he again left Sparta, and was never mor« heard of.
By this mysterious self -expatriation, he hoped to maxe the Spartan constitution eternal. '
The people noW saw that he was a god ; a temple was erected in his honor, and annual sacri- '
fices were ever afterwards offered to him. No critical scholar considers such a biography
historical ; the most that can be assumed as probable is, that a oertain Lycurgus may
hare once existed, who at some critical juncture in Spartan affairs mky have been
■elected, probably on account of his wisdom and reputation, to draw up a code of hiws
for the better government of the state. To represent the entire le^^lation of Sparta as
invented (so to speak) by Lycurgus, and imposed upon the i>eople as a novelty, is simply
increcliUle;- the only theory worth a moment's consideration is that which supposes
J^rg^ 252
him to have collected, modified, improved, and enlaiged the previously ezistiog insti-
tutioDS of Sparta (q. v.).
LYCUjRGUS, B.C. 400-323; b. Athens;, was one of the renowned orators of Greece.
In his early years he studied philosophy under Plato, and the political constitution of
his country under Isocrates. In 343 B.C. he took an active part in political affairs, and
was one of the ambassadors with Demosthenes appointed to counteract the intrigues of
Philip in different parts of Greece. He was appointed to preside over the public
revenue for four years, and so much confidence had the people in his integritv that he
was contuaued in the office for 12 or 15 years. Lycurgus was one of the 10 orators
demanded by Alexander after the destruction of Thebes, but the Athenians refused to
give him up. Hq was buried in the Academia. Fifteen years after his death, upon Uie
ascendency of the democratic party, a decree was passed by the Athenians that public
honors should be paid him; a brazen statue of him was erected in the Ceramicus, and
the representative of his family was allowed the privilege of dining In the Prytaneum.
The monument recited his uncorrupted fidelity. Many persons confiding in his honesty
intrusted to his custody large sums of money. B<)ckh considers him the only statesman
of antiquity who had a real knowledge of the management of finance. He greatly
increased the revenue, erected many public buildings, completed the docks, the armory,
and the theater of Bacchus. After the defeat of the Greeks at Cheronea, 838 b.c., he
caused the prosecution and condemnation of Leocrates, an Athenian general, for aban-
doning Athens after the battle, and settling in another Grecian state. In the time of
Plutarch and Photius 15 of his orations were extant; but the only one preserved is that
against Leocrates.
LYDDA, a t. of Palestine, in the tribe of Ephraim, 9. m. e. of Joppa, on the road
between that place and Jerusalem, It is called in the Old Testament and the Apocry-
pha, Lod, and was built by the Benjamites. In the New Testament it. is noticed as the
place where Peter healed uEneas. Some years later it was burnt by 'Cestius Gallus in
his march against Jerusalem. Rebuilt, it was at the head of one of the toparchies of
the later Judea. It is described by Josephus as being at that time equal to a city, and
the rabbins speak of it as a seat of Jewish learning. It was afterwards destroyed by
Vespasian, but rebuilt by Hadrian and called Diospolis, under which name it occurs on
the coins of Severus and Caracalla. It was a well-known and much frequented place
in the time of Eusebius; 320-30. It was early the seat of a bishopric. In 415 a council
of 14 bishops was held here, before which Pelagius was accused of heresy, but acquitted.
The last bishop of Lydda was Apollonius. Tlie celebrated St. George is said to have
been born at Lydda, and suffered mart^Tdom at Nicomedia under Diocletian and Maxi-
milian at the end of the 3d c. ; it was reported that his remains were transferred
to Lydda, and that a church was erected in his honor by the emperor Justinian. This
church having been dcstrcyed by the Moslems, was rebuilt by the crusaders, who estab-
lished a bishopric of Lydda and Ramleh. The crusaders invested St. George with the
dignity of their patron, and he thus became the patron saint of England and other
states and kingdoms. The church was destroyed by Saladin in 1101, the ruins of which
are in the eastern part of the town. The western part of the church has been built
into a large mosque. As the city of St. George it is held in great honor by the Mos-
lems. From the time of Saladin but little notice is taken of it oy travelers. It is in a
fruitful plain, 8 m. e. of Jaffa, under the name of Ludd, or Lidd, and, for a Moham-
medan town, has some activity in business.
LYDGATE, John, 1375-1460; b. England; educated at Oxford and ordained in
1397. He traveled on the continent and studied Italian and French literature, particu-
larly the works of Dante, Boccaccio, and Alain Chartier. On his return to England he
opened a school in his monastery. He was not only a Idles-lettres scholar, butlfamiliar
with theology, philosophy, and astronomy. His poetical writings are voluminous, and
we may mention The Hutory of Troy, The Story of Thebes, and The Fall <^Pri?iee8, the
latter a translation from a French version of Boccaccio's De Casilms Vironem lUustrium.
The Histat'y of Troy or Troye-Book is a paraphrase of Guide de Colonna's Historia Tro-
jana. A collection of his minor poems edited by J. O. Halliwell, was published by tlie
Percy society in 1840.
LTD'IA, anciently a country of Asia Minor, bounded on the w. by Ionia, on the s. by
Caria, on tlie e. by rhrygia, and on the n. by Mysia. It is said to have been originally
inhabited by a pe<^le called Msooninns (whether of Semitic or Indo-Pelasnc origin is
much disputed by modern ethnographers), who were subdued or expelled by the
Lydians (about 7dO b.c.), a Carian race. The country was mountainous in the s. and w.
—the principal raoge being that of Tmolus. It was celebrated for its fruitful soil and
for its minei-al wealth, particularly for the gold of the river Pactolus aOd of the neigh-
boring mines, but was infamous for the corruption of morals which prevailed amongst
its inhabitants, and especially in Sardis (q.vO, ita capital. Lydla attained its highest
prosperity uhder the (lynasty (»f tlie Mermnadtt {eiroa 700-546 B.C.). The first of this
dynsBty was the half-mytliical Gyges (q.v.)~^l]e last was the famous Cr(B6U8(q.y.), cele-
bi*ated for his prodigious wealth. The subsequent history of Lydia is unimportant.
Its antiquities have not yet been sufiaciently explored. Compare Niebuhr'a Ltch»re$ on
AruMfU History, Hamilton's Researches, and Menkens Lf^^^^^ ^^^^ff^^^^thncgrmphiea.
353 ,^,
LTDXAV XODS, one of the ancient Greek authentic modes in music, which was
retained as one of the old church modes, the notes being F, G, A, B, C, D, S, F, the
same as in our modem diatonic scale. Since the reformation the melodies in the Lrdian
mode have entirely disappeared, and the Lydian mode is used only occasionally in
modulation from other modes.
LTBIAV BTOV£,a variety of flinty slate, but less hard than common flinty slate, and
not of a slaty structure. It occurs in Britain and in many other countries, but wim flrst
brought from Lydia. It is generally grayish black« or quite black anA velYet>like. It
is polished and employed as a touchstone for trying the purity of gold and silver by
comparison of colors.
LTZ, a term sometimes used to denote all solutions of salts, but more generally
appropriated to solutions of the fixed alkalies, potash and soda, in water. The solutions
of caustic potash and soda are called caustic lyes; those of their carbonates, mild lyes.
The fluid which remains after a substance has been separated from its solution by crysi
tallization is called the mother lye,
LmJsy Sir Chakles, an eminent geologist of the 19th c, was the eldest son of
Charles Lyell, esq., of Kinnordy, Forfarshire. He was born in 1797, and after receiving
his early education at Mldhurst, in Sussex, was entered at Exeter college, Oxford, where
he graduated as b.a. in 1819. Here he attended the lectures of Buckland, and thus
acquired a taste for the science he afterwards did so much to promote. After leaving
the university he studied law, and in due time was called to the bar; but his circum-
stances not rendering a profession necessary for a livelihood, he soon abandoned the law
and devoted himself to the prosecution of geology. To extend his knowledge in this
department of science he made geological tours in 1824, and again in 1828-30, over vari-
ous parts of Europe, and publLmed the results of his investi^tions in the Transactions
tf the Geological Society and elsewhere. The first volume of his great work, The Princi-
ple* of Geology, appeared in 1830, the second in 1832, and the thira in 1833. A third edi-
tion of the whole work appeared in 1884, a fifth in 1887, and the tenth was published
in 1868. This work was divided into two pai*ts, which have been rabsequently pub-
lished as two distinct works — ^viz., The Prifueipiee of Geology; or the Modem Changes of
the Earth and its Inhahitants, as iUustratwe of Gootogy, which has now reached its ninth
edition ; and The Elements of Geoloay; or the Ancient (Ganges of the Earth and its Inhab-
itants, ae iOustrated by its Geohgieai MbnttTnentSy of which the sixth edition was published
in 1865. The Geciogieal Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, icith Eemarks an Theories of
the Origin of Species by Variation, took a lar^ proportion of the |>ublic very much by
surprise in 1863— creating as it did the sensation of the season in the literature of science.
The fourth edition of this remarkable work, enlaived and greatly imi>roved, appeared ■
in 1873. Lyell also published A Pirst and Second VieU to North America, Canada, Nova
Scotia, etc., with Geeifgioal ObserwOions, m 4 vols., besides a number of important geo-
logical papers in the Proceedings and Transactions of the Geological Society, the B^iorts
of the British Association, etc. Lyell was one of the early members of the geological
society, and on the opening of King's college in 1832 he was appointed professor of
geolosy, an office which he soon resigned. In 1886 and again in 1850 he was elected
preaident 'of the geological society, and in 1864 president of the British association.
He was kni^ited*in 1848, and created a bux>iiet in 1864. Lyell received the degree of
D.C.X.. from Oxford, and that of I/L.d. from Cambridge. He died in 1875l
LYGO'DIUM, a genus of climbing ferns; fronds twining or climbing, bearing
stalked and variously-lobed divisions in pavs, with free veins; fructiflcation upon sepa-
rate divisions, narrower than those which are stef ile, and bearing upon the back two
rows of scale-like inclusise, each of which generally cdvers only a single spore^ase,
which has a ring at the apex and opens by a longitudinal slit There are several species
which are nadves ol warm oountries. Only one spNScies is found in North America
from Massachusetts to Kentucky, sontJi of which it is rave, and much more abundant
in Kentucky than eastward. The fronds are from one to four ft high, and spring from
slender running root-stocks, climbing upon other plants. It is a veTj delicate and grace-
ful fern, and is much used for ornamental purposes, both fresh ana dried. It grows in
shaded or moist grassy places. A favorite locality is East Windsor hill, Conn., also the
vicinity of Hartford, and of Springfield, Mass.
LTLY, JoHK, an English dramatist b. in Kent about 1554; studied at Magdalen col-
lege, Oxford, and took his degree of h.a. in 1575. Of his career nothing is known
except that he lived in London, and supported himself by his pen. He died early in the
17Ui century.' Lyiy wrote nine plays, mest of which are on classical subjects — as
Sappho and Phamh, Endymion, Midas, Gd&ithea, and the Maid's Metamorphosis— the
lyrics of which frequently display a sweet and graceful fancy; but the two works which
have chiefly pmietuaied his name are EAiphues, or the Anatomiy of Wit, and E?iphues and
his England. They are written in prose, and arc marked by great affectation, bombast,
and p^lantry in the language and imagery; yet Lyly is said to have intended them for
models of elegant English, and avch the court of Elizabeth at least undoubtedly
thottf^ them. According to Lyly's editor, Blotint, '* that beauty at court which could
not parley euphuism, that is to say, who was unable to converse in that pure and
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reformed Enirlish which he had formed his work to be the standard of, wfts asUtUe
regarded as fihe which now there speaks not French."
LYMAN, a co. in s. Dakotah, having the Missouri river for its e. border, is watered
by the White river and its brandies, emptying into the Missouri; 700 sq.m.; pop. 'bO
(combined with a part of Aurora, Buffalo, and Presho counties), 232. It is largely taken
up by Indian reservations, but much of it is rich bottom lands, with excellent grasdn?
pastures on the bluffs, and a large proportion of good prairie land. It is well timbered
for that section of the country.
LYMAN, Chesteb Smith, b. Manchester, Conn., 1814. Becoming interested as a
boy in astronomy and the kindred sciences, he studied them without a master, con-
structing for himself optical and astronomical apparatus, making almanacs for 189D and
1831, and computing eclipses 15 years in advance. He graduated at Yale in 1887, and,
after teaching two years, studied theology at the Union seminary (New York) and the
Yale divinity school; was pastor of a Congregational church in New Britain, Conn.,
18^3-45; on account of falling health in 1845 went to the Sandwich Islands, where be
taught the royal school, having as pupils four young men who afterwards successively
occupied the Hawaiian throne. He went to California in 1847, whence he sent to the
eastern states some of the earliest authentic accounts of the discovery of gold. In 1850
he settled in New Haven, enj^aging in scientific pursuits. He was one of the revisers
of Webster's DicUonary (edition or 1864), taking charge especially of scientific words.
In 1859 he became professor of industrial mechanics and physics in Yale college, taking
an active part in or^nizing the Sheffield scientific school, in which he was the astro-
nomical teacher. lie has been a contributor to ih& American Journal of Science, i\\Q
New Englander, and other periodicals, and is the author of various useful inventions,
among which are a wave apparatus and a pendulum apparatus for acoustic curves. He
is a member of various scientific bodies; among them, the British association for the
advancement of science.
LYMAN, Hbnrt, 1810-^; b, Mass.; graduated Amherst college, 1829; Andover
theological seminary, 1882; studied medicine at Boston and at Brunswick, Me.; sailed
with the rev. Samuel Munson from Boston, 1888, as a missionary of the American
board, with instructions to explore the Indian archipelago. They landed at Batavia in
September; in April, 1884, they visited Padang, the Battoo {^oup, Fulo Niyas, and Suma-
tra. Here they undertook to reach the Battas of the interior. They were dissuaded on
account of rumors of war, dangers from wild beasts, and other hardships of the journey;
but proceeded on foot with a few native attendants. Five days brought them to the
village of Sacca, which was at war with a neighboring village. Before they could explain
their errand they were surrounded by 200 armed men, and notwithstanding that they
gave up the arms which they had taken for defense against wild beasts, Mr. Lyman was
shot and Mr. itunson pierced with a spear. When the people of the neighboring vil-
lages learned by the reports of natives on the road that the strangers were good men
who sought to b^ieflt the Batta people, they combined to avenge their death, and sur-
prised and destroyed the village of Sacca, killing many of the inhabitants. The report
that the bodies of these missionaries were eaten ia thought to be incorrect. Mr. Lyman
published Oonddiion of FemdlM in Pagan OoujUrieB. Among the Battas whose couDtrv
the martyrs attempted to explore, the Rhenish missionary society established a missicu
m 1861, which now has eleven stations and 1600 baptized converta.
LYMAN^, PonnsAB, 1716-75; b. Conn. ; educated at Yale, and admitted to the bar.
Appointed commander-in-chief of the Connecticut forces in the French war he founded
fort Lyman, now fort Edward, New York; at the battle of lake Gkorge took commaDd
of the colonial forces after sir William Johnson was wounded; was present at the cap-
ture of Crown Pohit and Montreal; and in 1762 was at the head of the colonial troops in
the expedition against Havana. From 1768 to 1774 he was in Enghmd, endearoring to
get a grant of land along the Mississippi from the government. A tract in the vicinity
of Natchez was granted to the company for which he was agent, in the latter year; and
he took over a company of immigrants, but died soon after arriving in west Florida.
LYMAN^, Theodore, 1792-1849; b. Boston; graduated at Harvard in 1810; visited
Europe in 1814, and published in the same year a small volume, Three Weekt in Paris.
After studyins; law he made a second visit to Europe, returning from which he pub-
lished in 1820 The PoUUeal State cfBaly. In 1820 he was Boston^s chosen orator for the
Fourth of July. In 1828 he wrote an Account of the Hartford Convention, defending its
proceedings and the motives of the men who called it. In 1826 he published The
Jhplomacy of the United States ioith Foreign Nations, He was an active politicUm, and
served in both branches of the l^slature. From 1882 to the close of 1885 he was mayor
of Boston, and in August of the latter year presided at the great pro-slavery meeting in
Faneuil hall, the proceedings of which so inflamed the disorderly spirit of the tune that
a mob of *' gentlemen of property and standing, "a few weeks later, broke up a meet-
ing of anti-slavery women, and was with dififtculty prevented from taking the life of
William Lloyd Garrison. The mayor, instead of seeking to disperse the mob, ordered
the ladies, who had peacefully assembled for anti-slavery discusdon and prayer, to give
lip their meeting ana retue to their homes; biit when Ik foimd that Mr. Garrison was in
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±e hands of the mob and likely to be killed, he made an earnest and successful effort
for bis rescue, and committed him to Jail to save his life.
LY3LA^, Theodore Benedict, d.d., b. Mass., 1815; educated at Hamilton college
snd the general theological (Prot. £pis.) seminary of New York, and ordained in the
Epiicopal church« He was rector of churches in Hagerstown, Md.,- Pittsbnre, Penn.,
uf ihe American churches at Rome and Florence, and of Trinity church, San l^ancisco.
I& 1873 he was elected assistant bishop of North Carolina.
LTXE 6SA88, Elymus, a genus of grasses, the species of which are natives of the*
icmperate and colder regions of the northern hemisphere. The spikelets grow in pairs
from the joints of the rachis, and each has 2 to 4 fertile florets, ana two awnless glumes,
liT'ih on the same side. — The Sea Lyme Grass (E. arenarius) is frequent on the sandy
chores of Britain and other parts of Europe. It is a coarse, grayish grass, often three or
f'wr feet high, with spinv-pointcd leaves and upright close spikes; a perennial with
creeping roots, very useful in binding the sand. On this account, it is much sown on
he shores of Holland, and also to some extent on those of Britain. In Iceland and
other countries, it Is used for thatch. The seed, which is large, is collected in Iceland,
and ^nnd into meal, which is made either into porridge or into soft tliin cakes, and is
esteemed a ^at delicacy. — A closely allied species or a variety, called Giant Lyme
Grass (E. gtgantetts), is often sown in Holland, being preferred for its more vigorous
:rowth.-— Various expedients are adopted to secure the growth of lyme grass seeds in
Ttiy loose sands, as the laying down of pieces of turf, a gradual advancement from the
mrgin of the sand, etc.
ITKE XE'618^ a seaport^ municipal and parliamentary borough and watering-place
•jf England, in Dorsetshire, is' situated at the mouth of a rivulet called the Lym, 26 m.
w. of Dorchester. It received its first charter in the middle of the 18th c, and was a
port of considerable importance during the reign of Edward III., for whom it provided
three ships to assist in the siege of Calais in 1846. Its pier, called the OM, is semicir-
cokr in form. It returns one member to parliament. In 1872, 79 ves.sels of 4.593 tons,
Id the foreign, coloniai, and coasting trade, entered and cleared the port. Pop. 71, 2,888.
IT1QJI0TOV, a sea-port, market-town, and municipal and parliamentary borough of
Eogtand, in the county of Hants, at the mouth of a river of the same name, and on a
creek communicating with the Solent, 18 m. s.s.w. of Southampton. Salt has long been
icioufactured; some of the salt works being of great antiquity, and possibly of British
cdgin. Lymington is also of some importance as a wateri^ig-place. It commands fine
prospects of the isle of Wight and the English channel, and its vicinity abounds in
ciianning scenery. Lymington returns two members to parliament. Pop. '71 of par-
Hunentary borough, 5,866.
mPH (Gr. Iiympha, water) is the term applied by physiologists to the fluid con-
tuaed in the lymphatics (q.v.). It is a colorless or faintly yellowish red fluid, of a rather
dltiah taste, and with an alkaline reaction. It coagulates shortly after its removal from
the living body, and forms a jelly-like, semi-solid mass, which continues for some time
to contract, so that at last the clot is very small, in proportion to the expressed serum.
Od microscopic examination, the lymph is seen to contain corpuscles which do not in
^7 respect differ from the colorless blood-cells, molecular granules, fat globules, and
occasionally blood corpuscles. The chemical constitnents of tymph seem to be precisely
tli£ same as those of blood, excepting the substance peculiar to the red corpuscles.
From experiments on animals, itnas been inferred that upwards of 29 lbs. of fluid
lymph and chyle) pass daily into the blood of an adult man.
llie lymph seems to owe its origin to two distinct sources, viz., to the ultimate
^cl^ of the lymphatic system, which contribute the homogeneous fluid portion, and
tbe lymphaUc glands, which contribute tlie corpuscles, granules, etc., seen under the
microscope.
The uses of the fluid are twofold: in the first place, to convey from the tissues to the
blood effete matters, to be afterwards excreted by the skin, lungs, and kidneys; and
secondly, to supply new materials for the formation of blood.
ITXPHATIOS, the vessels containing the lymph (q.v.), are also called ab9arbenU,
from the proper^ which these vessels possess of absorbing foreign matters into the
7stem, and carrying them into the circulation. The lymphatic system includes not only
liiftljmphatic vessels and the glands through which they pass, but also the lacteal s (q.v.),
videh are nothing more than the Ivmphatics of the small intestine, and only differ from
wher lymphatics m conveying chyle (q.v.) instead of lymph during the latter part of the
%stive process.
The lyinphatics are minute, delicate, and transparent vessels, of tolerable uniformity
iaaze, and remarkable for their knotted appearance, which is due to the presence of
Eumerous valves, for their frequent dichotomous divisions, and for their division into
^eral branches before entering a ffland. They collect the products of digestion and
^ products of worn-out tissues, and convey them into the venous circulation near the
^<ait They are found in nearly every texture and organ of the body, exoeoting the
^obstaace of the brain and spinal cord, the eyeball, cartilage, tendon, ana certain
*.al strictures, and possibly also the substance of bone. P,g.^.^^^ ^^ k^uu^ lC
!?:&. 256
The lymphatics are arranged in a superficial and a deep set. The superficial yessels
on the surface of the body lie immediately beneath the skm, and join the deep lymph-
atics in certain points through perforations of the deep fascia; while in the interior of the
body they lie in the sub-mucous and sub-serous areolar tissue. They arise in the form
of a net- work, from which they pass to lymphatic glands or to a larger trunk. The deep
lymphatics are larger than the superficial, and accompany the deep blood-vessels; their
mode of ori^n is not known with certainty. The structure of the lymphatics is similar
.to that of vems and arteries.
The lymphatic or absorbent glands are small, solid, glandular bodies, varying from
the size of a hemp-seed to that of an almond, and situated in the course of the lymphatic
vessels. They are found in the neck (where they often become enlarged and mflamied,
especially in scrofulous subjects), in the axilla, or arm-pit, in the groin (where, when
inflamed, they give rise to the condition known a^ bubo), and in the ham; while deep
ones are found abundantly in the abdomen and the chest.
The lymph of the left side of trunk, of both lees, of the left arm, and the whole of
the chyle, is conveyed into the blood by the thoracic duct (q.v.); while the lymph of the
right side of the head, neck, and trunk, and of the right arm, enters the circulation at
the lunction of the axillary and internal jugular vems on the right side, by a short
trunk, guarded at its opening by valves.
LYNCH, Henry Blossb, 179^-1873; b. Ireland; entered the navy in 1823, and
served in the east for most of the time till his retirement in 1854. He was familiar with
Persian and Arabic, and in the early part of his career acted as interpreter, and carried
on negotiations with native tribes. He was next in command to col. Chesney, in the
Euphrates expedition of 1884, and subsequently held command in the Indian navy.
LYNCH, Patbick Nilson, d.d., b. Cheraw, 8. C, 1817; studied theology in
tlie Roman Catholic seminarv at Charleston in 1834, and in the college of the propa-
ganda at Rome; was ordained priest in 1840; returned to Charleston, and was appointed
rector of the seminary and professor of theology. After serving as rector of St. Mary*s
parish and of the cathedral, he became vicar-general in 1850; was appointed by the
pope in 1857 bishop of Charleston. During his administration he built the fine cathe-
dral of St. Michael's and other churches, founded an Ursuline convent and an orphan
asylum, and established many schools. Some of these "having been destroyed in the war,
he has traveled extensively in the north since 1865 collecting funds for their restoration.
He has published some theolof^ical and scientific essays. In 1869 he was a member of
the Vatican council, and sustained the dogma of papal infallibility.
LYNCH, Thomas, Jr.. 177»-1849; b. S. C; educated in England, where he studied
law. Returning to. South Carolina in 1772, he became identified with the resistance of the
colonies to Great Britain; was elected to the continental congress in 1776, to fill a
vacancy occasioned by the death of his father, and was one of the signers of the decla-
ration of independence.
LYNCH, William F., 1801-65; b. Va.; an oflacer in the naval service of the
United States. In 1848 he conducted a valuable ofl9cial survey of the Jordan river and
the Dead sea. He became commander in 1848, captain in 1856, and deserted to the con-
federacy in 1861, in which service he was given the rank of commodore.
LTNCE'BTTBG, a city of Virginia, on the James river, 120 m. w.8.w. of Richmond,
remarkable for picturesque situation and scenery. It has 10 churches, a college, 40
tobacco factories, 2 iron foundries, etc. Pop. 70, 6,825.
LYNCH'BTJRG {ante), situated on the s. bank of the James river, and on the James
river and Kanawha canal. It is 90 m. from Richmond, and is the point of junction of
the Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio, and Washington City. Virginia Midland and Great
Southern railroads; ptop. W, 15,059. The situation of the city is picturesque and roman-
tic in the extreme. Here a steep acclivity rises gradually from the banks of the river.
breakingMnto numerous hills as it completes its elevation, whose terraced walks, orna-
mented with trees and skirting handsome dwellings, present a most pleaatnffavpeinrance.
In the background, at a distance of 20 m., but fully in view, rise the Blue lUageand the
Peaks of Otter, standmg in bold relief against the sky. This city derives ita chief
importance from being the center of an enormous tobacco manufacture, and on account
of its comprehensive railroad facilities. Vast fields of coa3 and iron-ore are in the imme-
diate neighborhood, and not far are the celebrated Botetourt iron-works. Lynchburg
dates back to 1786. It was used as a base of supplies by the confederates during the
rebellion. Its public buildings are numerous and well built; it possesses a thorough
public school system, with gr^ed and high schools; and has 18 churches and chapes.
LTirCH LAW, the name given in the United States of America to the trial and punish-
ment of offenders in popular assemblies without reference to the ordinarvlaws and insti-
tutions of the country. This barbarous mode of administering Justice nas always more
or less previdted in every country in times of great popular excitement, and has been
necessarily resorted to in countries newly settled,- whete the newer of the civil govern-
ment is not yet sufficiently established. The name is d^l^f^bJ^fJ&^J^ ^"^ * ^^'
267 iS2SL.
giniaQ fanner; but a more interesting explanation is found in the story of James Lynch,
mayor of Galwajr about 1495, who, in -the spirit of Brutus, with his own hands hanged
his son from a window for murder.
LYNCH LAW {ante) is said to have derived its name from one James Lynch, a
farmer in Piedmont co., Ya. As there was no regularly established court of law in the
vicinity, the inhabitants were in the habit of bringing disputed questions, or the trial of
criminals, before Lynch, who save summary judgment according to his opinion of the
facts, without any too strict adherence to the letter of the law. From the fi-equency
with which he performed the duties of a judge, he came to be known as ** judee*' Lynch,
and his name was given to the custom of violent, unauthorized trial ana execution
which has sprung up in the new and turbulent communities of the west and south in
this country. It has gradually disappeared from most of those communities as their
population has increased, and now lingers in only the least advanced of them. In a
new country, in which justice cannot be administered, it seems sometimes a necessary
evil. Though the name is commonly considered to have had its origin as described, its
real origin is entirely problematical. It is also ascribed to other persons of the name of
Lynch; one, the founder of the town of Lynchburg, Va. ; the other, a person sent to
this country from England, in the 17th c, under a commission to suppress piracy, and
who is credited with having faithfully carried out his instructions to execute, without
the formality of a trial, any pirate whom he could capture. According to another
Isocount, lynch law owes its name to James Fitzstephens Lynch, who was mayor of Gal-
way in 1493. He carried on an extensive trade with Spain, where he sent his son, with
a large sum of money, to buy wine. Young Lynch spent the money, but bought a cargo
on credit from a Spanish merchant, whose nephew came to Ireland on the ship with
young Lynch to collect the money. Lynch, to cover his own crime, threw him over-
board. The murder was revealea by a sailor to the mayor of Qalway, who tried and
condemned his son ; and when his family attempted to prevent the sentence from being
carried into effect, himself acted as his son's executioner. Lynch law was anciently
known in England by the name of Lydford law. Lydford, in Devonshire, was a walled
town, with a castle, wherein the courts of the duchy of Cornwall were held. Persons
accused of violating the laws of the duchy were imprisoned in so foul a jail, before
being brought to trial, that Lydford law became a proverbial expression for summary
punishment without trial. The same thing was variously called, in Scotland, CowpcV
law, Jedburgh justice, etc.
LTNDHUBST, Lord (John SinoIiBTON Coplet), English lawyer and statesman, was
the son of J. S. Copley, R.A., painter of the "Death of Chatham," and other esteemed
works. The Copleys were an Irish family, the painter's grandfather having emigrated
from the co. of Limerick, and settled at Boston, United States, where Lyndhurst was
b. May 21, 1772. While he was yet an infant, his father removed to England for the
practice, of his art. Lyndhurst was educated at Trinity college, Cambridge, where he
was second wrangler and Smith's prizeman in 1794, and a fellow in 1797. Called to the
bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1804, he chose the midland circuit, and soon obtained briefs. In
politics he was at first a liberal, and long expressed sentiments hostile to the ministry of
the day. He ably defended Watiton and Thistlewood on their trial for high treason in
1817, and obtained their acquittal. Some surprise was therefore expressed when, in
1818, he entered parliament for a government borough. In 1819 he became solicitor-
general in the Liverpool administration, and in 1828 was promoted to the rank of attor-
ney-general. It was much to his credit that, unlike his predecessors, he instituted no
^x-offieio informations against the press. In 1826 he became master of the rolls. When
Mr. Canning was charged to form a ministry in 1827, he offered the great seal to Lynd-
hurst (then sir John Copley), who was raised to the upper house, and remained lord
chancellor from 1827 to 1830. In 1881 he became lord chief baron of the exchequer,
which office he exchanged for the woolsack during the brief administration of sir R.
Peel in 1834. In 1835 he led the opposition to the Melbourne ministry in^e upper
house, in speeches of freat power and brilliancy. Lyndhurst's orations aA annual
reviews of the session aid much to reanimate the conservative party, and pave the way
for their return to power in 1841. He then became lord chancellor for the third time,
and held the great seal until the defeat of the Peel government in 1846. After that time
he took little part in home politics; but his voice has often been heard on matters of
foreign policy, and in denunciation of tjrranny in Italy and elsewhere. He died in Lon-
don, Oct. 12, 1863. Lyndhurst's high attainments as a lawyer have never been ques-
tioned, and his judgments— of which that in the great case of Small v. Attwood may be
particularly cited — have never been excelled for clearness, method, and legal acumen.
In the house of peers he had few equals among his contemporaries. So near his end as
1860, when he was 88 years of age, he maintained, with great force and ability, the right
of their lordships to reject the paper-duties bill — an act which the lower house resented.
afi» a breach of its privileges.
LYNDON, a t. in Caledonia co., Vt., on the Connecticut and Passumpsic railroad, 40
m. e. of Montpelier, and about the same distance s. from the Canada line; pop. 2,179; has
o churches, a college under Baptist control, a large and flourishing academy and graded
U. K IX. -17
i^ : 268
school, & national b&nk, a weekly newspaper, the offices and repair-shops of the Con-
necticut and Passumpsic railroaa, several carriage factories, mills, stores, shops, etc.
LYKSf a city of Massachusetts, 9 m. n.e. of Boston, in which nearly the whole
population is engajged in the manufacture of boots and shoes, leather, lasts, and
works connected with this manufacture, which emplovs about 10,000 hands. Much of
this manufacture has been for the southern states. The value of the boots, etc., annu-
ally shipped is 13 to 14 million dollars. Lynn has 30 churches, 58 public day-schools, 5
banks, 4 newspapers. Pop. 70, 38,233.
LYNK {ante), a city in Massachusetts, settled 1639, incorporated 1850; extending for
3 m. along the Atlantic shore, having a small harbor lying w. of the peninsula of
Nahant, in the n. portion of Massachusetts bay; about 10 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 88,284. It is
directly connected with Boston by the Boston. Revere Beach and Lynn narrow-gauge
railroad, and by a horse railroad. The Eastern railroad passes through it, connectingit with
Salem, 5 m. away. It is the terminus of the Saugus to Everett branch of the £!a8tem
railroad, and is 2 m. from the watering-place of Nahant. It contains a free public
library of about 19,000 vols., and 3 handsome and commodious halls, besides a fine brown-
stone city hall, costing $311,722. The capital of its 8 national banks, collectively, is
$1,000,000. It has 2 nre insurance companies. Many fine brick buildings for the pur-
poses of manufacture and trade have been erected, but the residences are mostly of wood.
A lar^e number of beautiful villas are occupied b^ residents of the neighboring cities,
who find the beach a great attraction. The n. section is thinly settled, and thick forests
appear in the suburbs. Its shipments to the s. and w. of boots, shoes, and brogans, as
estimated for one year, amounted to 10,000,000 pairs, worth $18,000,000. The beginning
of its prosperity was in 1750. The present capital employed is estimated at $1,000,000,
occupying 200 establishments, and using the McKay sole-sewing machine. The leather
interest employs $500,000 capital,' some of the factories tanning and finishing 5,000 skins
a week. The Saugus river flows along the w. boundary, emptying into the narbor, and
its e. boundary is formed by a succession of lakes or ponds called Flax, Cedar, etc. In
the center of the city is a hiU called Hi^b Rock. 185 ft. in height, belonging to a range
of hills that forms its n. background. The rest of the city is built on flats but a few feet
from the water level. It has a beautiful common and a number of little public parks.,
and 2 cemeteries, called Pine Grove and St. Mary's, laid out in a picturesque manner,
and ornamented with rare flowers, which are tended with care. Two ponds. Breed's and
Birch, supply the waterworks, built at a cost of $800,000, requiring 2,000,000 galls, per
day. The apparatus used is of the best for the purpose, and the reservoir-pressure is 177
ft. It has a soldiers' monument of bronze and granite, costing $90,000, dedicated in
1873. It has a considerable coasting trade, and is engaged in fishing. Its city govern-
ment is composed of a mayor, board of aldermen with 8 members, ana a common council
of 22. It has a well-organized fire department, with an electric alarm, and its school
buildings are on the best modem plan as to ventilation, modes of egress, etc. It has 8
evening schools. It holds the remains of the original iron-works of America hi the shape
of an ancient forge, and it is the place where the first fire-engine was made. It originally
comprised the town of Swampscot. organized in 1852, and Kahant, organised in 185B. In
1861, at the call of the state for troops, it returned the significant response, " We have
more men than guns; what shall we do?"
LYKBf Ltkn Regis, or Eino*b Ltnn. a seaport, municipal, and parliamentary bor-
ough of England, in the county of Norfolk, is situated about 8 m. from the mouth of
the Great Ouse, and 41 m. w.n.w. from Norwich. It was formerly fortified, and the old
moat still forms the eastern boundary of the town, and portions of the walls remain.
The grammar school, with an annual income from endowment of £75, has six exhibi-
tions for Cambridge. Ropes are manufactured here, and ship-building is carried on.
Great numbers of shrimps are caught, and sent to London. The imports are com, oil-
seed cake, cork, sulphur, wino; coal, and timber. In 1872, 914 vessels in the foreign,
colonial, and coasting trades, of 92,961 tons, entered and cleared the port. It returns 2
members t(y)arlianient. Pop. 71, 17,266.
lYKX, a genus of felida, having a less elongated form than many others of that
family, the body elevated at the haunches, long fur, a short tail, and the ears tipped with
tufts or pencils of hairs. They are less courageona than other felids of similar size, and
prey on small quadrupeds ana birds. In pursuit of birds, they ciimb trees. Thev are
generally of a sullen and suspicious temper, and not easily tamed. To this genus belongs
the caracal (q.v.), which is probably the lynx of the ancients. The species are pretty
numerous, and widely distributed, but the distinctions of species and varieties are some-
what uncertain. The Europbak Ltnx (Z. virgaius^ is common in many parts of
Europe and Asia, chiefly in mountainous and wooded districts. Its color is variable,
but generally of a dark reddish gray, spotted with reddish brown, the belly whitish. It
is about 3 ft. long. It is proverbial for acuteness of sight. It is hunted in winter for its
fur, which is always in demand in the market; but many of the lynx skins imported
from the n. of Asia probably belong to other species*, those of North America, and prob-
ably also many of those of the n. of Europe and of Asia; are the skins of the Canada
Lyhx {L. Canadensis or L. boreaUs), which is generally of a hoary-gray color, a broad
space along the back blackish brown. It is rather larger than the European lynx, and
259 SjSS:
more daiSBf n feynn. — Tbe Bay Ltkx (L. rvfus) is found in more southern parts of
Vorth America, botli in mountaimmsand swampy districts, and often makes great liavoc
among pouLtiy. It is commonly called in America the wildcat.
LTOK, Acaln4n.w. Iowa, having the state line of Minnesota for its n.e. boundary,
the territorial line of Dakotah for its n.w., the Sioux river, an affluent of the Missouri,
for its w. border, forming a part of the Dakotah line; 650 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 1968 — ^1661 of
American biith. It is drained by Bock river, sometimes called Inyan Reakah (river of
the rock), and the East fork. Its -surface is formed of undulating prairies nearly desti-
tute of timl^r; cKtensive willow hedges have been planted in certain sections. Sioux
quarizite is found in tlie w. portion. Its soil is fertile and well adapted to stock-raising,
and the prodactioQ of oats, corn, wkeat, and potatoes. Its inhabitants are principal^ ,
engaged in agrieultupe. Seat of justice. Rock Rapids.
LYON, a CO. in e. Kansas, intersected by the Missouri, Kansas and Texas railroad,
and the Atchison. Topeka and Santa Fe railroad, forming a junction at Emporia; 860
sg.m.; pop-'Se, 17,827—15,416 of American birth, 1029 colored. It is drained bv the
lieosho river, Osage river in the extreme n.e., and Cottonwood creek. Its surface is
undulating, and adapted to stock-raising and the production of every variety of grain,
tobacco, wool, sweet potatoes, daiiy products, and sorghum. It produced in '70, 2,252
lbs. of honey. Along the water-courses are small groves of oak, hickory, Cottonwood,
and walnut, but the larger proportion is open prairie land with under-strata of limestone,
beds of bituminous coal, and ever)r element of fertility. Cash value of farms in *70,
$2,551,968, numbering 792. It had in *70, 11 manufacturing establishments, oonsistinf
of flouringmilk, saw-mills, brick kilns, foundries, broom factories, furniture, soap and
cheese factories, and woolen mills. Seat of justice, Emporia.
LYON, a CO. In w. Kentucky, having for its s.w. boundary the navigable Tennessee
river, and for its n.w. the river Cumberland, which also is an important commercial
channel flowing through it centrally, and through one of its affluents forming the n. bor-
der; 820 sQ.m.; pop. 80, 6,768— 6, 728, of American birth, 1488 colored. It is interaected
by the Paducah and Elizabethtown railroad. Its surface is generally level and well
timbered; containing rich beds of coal and iron ore. Its soil, fertile along the water-
courses, is adapted to the raising of stock, for which this region is famous. It has good
pastures throughout the year, and produces oats, corn, rye, wheat, and the products of
the dairy, tobacco, woo), sweet potatoes, wine, and sorghum. It produced in 70, 4,498 lbs.
<of honey. It has manufactories of hubs and spokes, rolling mills in which boiler iron is
manufactured, lime kilns, etc. It had in *70, 11 manufactories, employing 217 hands,
^'ith a capiUil of $418,000, and an annual product of $560,860. Seat of justice, Eddy-
viUe.
LYON, a CO. in s.w. Minnesota, having the Yellow Medicine river, a branch of the
Minnesota, in the extreme d., near the boundary line; also the head waters of two other
lisaiicbes, the Redwood and Big Cottonwood; 720 sq.m.; pop. '80, 6,267—4,558 of
AjBerican birth, 2 colored. Its surface is rolling, and spreads out into fertile prairies,
dhwrsified by numerous small lakes. It is intersected centrally by the Winona and St.
P^ier railroad, crossing all the rivers. It has manufactories of brick and lumber. Seat
•f Jastioe. Marshall.
LYON, a CO. in w. Nevada, intersected centrally by the Carson river, is bounded on
the B. w. by the Washoe mountain range, and drained by a lake in the s. portion ; 480
sc^jbl; pop.'80, 2,409 — 1191 of American birth, 396 colored. Its surface is mountainous,
with very few trees. It contains a part of Carson valley and Walker river valley, hav-
ing aiierv fertile soil and affording good pasturage. It produces oats, com, and potatoes,
and yields immense quantities of silver. Its leading industries are lumber-sawing and
the milling and smelting of ores. Gold, borax, salt, and copper are abundant. Its
manufacturing establishments are mostly iron foundries and machine shops, of which
in '70 it had 24, employing 887 hands, with a capital of $587,500, and an annual prod-
uct of $1,880,165. Seat of justice, Dayton.
LYON, Cai^bb, LL.D., 1822-75; b. at Lyonsdale, N. Y., a place founded bvhit
father; graduated at Norwich (Vt.) university in 1841 ; traveled in Europe; was appointed
§f president Polk consul at Shanghai, China. After returning home he visited Mexico,
razil. Chili, Peru, and other countriBs; was in California in 18M, serving as secretary
of the constitutional convention, and designing the coat-of-arms of that state; made a
second visit to £urope, going also to 'Egypt and Palestine; identified himself with the ^
" Koszta affair" at dmyma; was elected to the New York assembly and afterwards to r
the senate; was a member of congress in 1858-55; and governor of Idaho territory in ^
1864-66.
LYON, Okobos Fbancib, 1796-1882; b. Chichester, £ng.; entered the navv at the
age of 18; Joined the smiadron of lord Exmouth for the attack on Algiers m 1816;
accompanied the traveler, Joseph Ritchie, in his expedition to n. Africa in 1818. After
many privations and perils in exploring Soudan, the course of the Niger, etc., he
returned to England in 1820, and published his Narrative &f TrawU in Northern Africa.
L[| IflBl, in command of the Heday he accompanied capt. Parry in his voyage of discov-
ery to Hudson's bay. Returning hi 1828 he published in Lon^g)^^ i^^^^^of ^Jhe
I,.-. 260
expedition. lo 1834 be made an unsuccessful Yoyage with tbe Qriper to Bepulse bay in
the Arctic regions, of which he ^ve an account in 1825. In 1826 he traveleo in Mexico,
spendiug some time in surveymg its mines. Besides the works mentioned he pub-
lished, The Sketch Book of Capt. F. Q, Lyon during EighUen Months' Raidenee in
Mexico, No, 1, and Journal of a Besidence and Tour in the BejpubUc of Mexico in 1828.
\ LYON, Mary, 1797-1849; b. Mass.; in early life conscientious and noted for the
i ease with which she comprehended and memorized her lessons. At the age of 20.
' besides keeping up with her classes in their regular lessons, she daily committed and
[ accurately recited so much of Adams's Latin grammar as it was usual for scholars to
learn within three days. From 20 to 26 years of age we find her, now teaching to add
' to her scanty patrimony, now expending all she possessed in some one line of enort for
mental improvement. In 1822 she united with the Congregational church in Buck-
land, Mjiss. Her schools in Ashfield and Buckland were noted for their religious influ-
ence and superior mental training. In 1824 she joined Miss Grant as assistant priDcipal
in her school in Derry, N. H. To her she ascribes the suggestion of some of those prin-
ciples and methods which were so wisely and successfully tested in their schools in
Deffyand Ipswich, and also at South Hadley, and which w^ere adopted later in Rugby,
Eng., and in other institutions. They aimed to induce the pupils to govern themselves
instead of being constrained by penalties, to act as under the eye of the heavenly
Father, to aspire for the happiness which springs from doing good to others, even at a
temporary sacrifice. For these ends the Bible was made one of the regular text-books
of the scliool. In 1880 Miss Lyon became interested in the idea, then new in this coun-
try, at least among Protestants, of a permanent seminar}^ for girls "with buildings,
library, and apparatus, owned as colleges are, where successive generations of young
ladies might be trained." She made great effort to secure this, but the object was not
appreciated. She changed her plan. She now proposed to found an institution which
should offer a thorough education on such terras as would be available for young women
of moderate means. To preserve habits of home industry, to inspire a spirit of true
independence and wise economy, it was her plan that the domestic tasks of the house-
hold should be so divided and arranged that each could perform a daily share with-
out taking more time from study than was necessary to give healthful exercise. No
- sooner was this design announced than general attention to it was aroused. Many
opposed; many also approved. Miss Lyon's patient and diligent elucidation of her
design overcame objection. The money needed was givcu with enthusiasm.
' South Hadley, near Mt. Holyoke, was chosen as the site of the seminary. In
' 1887, buildings and necessary accommodations for 80 pupils being nearly completed,
_, the school opened with more than that number. It was afterwards enlarged to
receive 300 pupils. The remaining twelve vears of Miss Lyon*s life were devoted
to this school. More than 60 of her pupils have engaged in missionary work among
the women of heathen lands, and hundreds- more have reflected Miss Lyon's exam-
ple and influence, which they found in the schools. In all her schools together she
taught 3,000 pupils. She wrote Tendencies of tfte /Principles Ehnbraced and the ^sfem
Adopted in the Mount Holyoke Frniale 8emina/ry; also, The MismoTiary Offering. Tiu
Power of Christian Benecolence lUustraied in the Life and Labors ef Mary Lyon was com-
piled by Edward Hitchcock, d.d., ll.d., and published in 1851. An abridgment
of this work was issued by the American tract society in 1858. Mary Lyon was the
ipioueer of the highest culture of American womanhood. Not beautiful in appearance,
there was little that told of the enerey, persistence, 6a^cit)r, and withal great teDdemess
and constant cheerfulness, combined with rare administrative talent, that austained and
oarried through her great work. She planted the seed of which Yaasar, Weiiesley,
Smith, and sister colleges are the fruits.
LYON, Matthew, 1746-1822; b. Wicklow co., Ireland; emigrated to New York in
1755; unable to pay for his passage he was committed by the captain, according to the
custom of the time, to a farmer in Connecticut, with whom he served severd years;
subsequently removed to Vermont; became, 1775, lieut. in a company of " Green Moun-
tain Boys;" was cashiered the latter part of the year for deserting his post; was in 1777
temporary paymaster of the nortiiern army ; subsequently commissary-general and col.
of militia; founded the town of Fairfield, Yt., in 1788; built saw-mills and grist-mills,
established a forge, made paper from basawood, eatabiished and edited a paper called
The Seowrge of Aristocracy and Repository of Important PoUtieal Truth, the types and
paper of which were made bv himself. He was ten yean a member of the legislature,
And in 1786 judge of Rutland co. court; became a zealous politician, and was dected to
/Congress by the anti-federal party, 1797-1801; was convicted in 1798 of libel on president
Adams, imprisoned four months in the Yergennes jail and fined $1000, which was
z>aid bjT his friends. An attempt to expel him f ix>m congress as a convicted felon failed.
vThile in congress he had a violent personal encounter with Roswell Griswold of Con-
necticut. After the expiration of his term as representative he removed in 1801 to
Kentucky; was elected to the legislature, and to congress in 1808-11; buUt gunboats on
speculation for the war of 1812, and became bankrupt; was appointed by pnaident
Monroe in 1820 U.S. factor for the Cherokee Indians in Arkansas, and elected territorial
ilelegate to congress a short time before his death.
Digitized by VjO^JV IC
261 ^^
LTON, VxTRAJsrsL, 1819-^ ; b. Conn. ; a student at West Point, graduated in 1841.
He continued in the army, and was employed in active service during the Mexican aiul
Florida wars, and afterwards served in Kansas and on the frontier. Being in commumi
of the U.S. arsenal at St Louis in 1861, at the outbreak of the rebellion, he dispersed
the secessionists collected by the governor, Jackson, and soon after attacked and defeated
a rebel force at Boonesville, June 17, 1861. He was now made a brig.gen., and on
Aug. 2 won another victory over a detachment of confederate troops at Dry Spring,
near Springfield, Mo., and a week later fought the battle of Wilson's Creek, where he
was shot and instantly killed. He won the first successes of the war, and his loss was
greatly deplored by the army and by the northern people. He still further signalized
his patriotism by bequeathing nearly his entire possessions, about $80,000, to the govern-
ment, to be employed in forwardmg the objects of the war. A collection of articles
written for a Kanaas newspaper in 1800 was published after his death under the title,
Tha Lout Pmieal Wriii7ig» of Qen. NoAanid Lyon.
LYOH OOUBT, one of the inferior courts of Scotland, having jurisdiction in questions
r^arding coat-armor and precedency, and also in certain matters connected with the
execative part of the law. It is presided over by the Lyon king-of-arms (q.v.J or lord
Lyon. Attached to the Lvon court are a certain number of heralds (q.v.) ana pursui-
vants (q.v.) appointed by him, whose principal duty is now the execution of royal proc-
lamatioDB in Bain burgh, though the heralds were, in old times, to some extent associated
with Lyon in the exercise of his jurisdiction. Lyon appoints the messengers^t-arms
(officers who execute the process of the court of session), superintends them in the execu-
tion of their duty; and in the exercise of his judicial function, takes cognizance of com-
plaints against them, and fines, suspends, or deprives them for malversation. It was
formeriy the pracUoe for Lyon to appoint a deputy, who assisted him more or less in his
judicial duties; but act SO Vict. c. 17 has made it incompetent for him to do so in
future. Among the officials of his court are the Lyon-clerk and keeper of records,
formerly appointed by him, but in future to be appointed by the crown; the procurator-
fiscal, or public prosecutor; a herald painter; and a messenger-at-arms, who acts as
maoer. The jurisdiction of the Lyon court is defined by two acts of the Scottish mr-
liament, 15«2, c. 127, and 1672, c. 21, and further regulated by 80 Vict. c. 17. The
Scotch acts authorize the lord Lyon to inspect the ensigns armorial of all noblemen and
gentlemen in Scotland, and obUge all persons who, by royal concession or otherwise,
bad previously a right to arms, to matriculate or register them in the Lyon's books.
He is empowered to inquire into the relationship of younger branches of families having
right to arms, and to " assign suitable differences to them, without which the arms can-
not lawfully be borne." The .later act establishes the now existing register of the Lyon
court as the "true and unrepealable rule of all arms and bearings in Scotland," and
authorizes the lord Lyon to 'give arms to virtuous and well-deserving persons," not
hitherto entitled to bear them. Tlie unlawful bearing of arms subjects the delinquent
to a fine, and confiscation of all the movable goods and gear on which the said arms are
engraven or otherwise represented. Both acts are in fuH force: the differencing of
caoets and granting of new coats are matters of daily practice in the Lyon office. On
cause sliown, Lyon also empowers applicants to alter or add to the coat to w^hich they
are idready entitled, and sanctions the adoption of quarterings to indicate representation.
He grants arms in conformity to stipulations in entails or other deeds of settlement,
imposing on the heirs succeeding the condition of assuming a certain name and arms.
When a change of surname is connected with a change of arms, it is the practice to
grant an official recognition of the new^ surname alon^ with the patent of arms, the cer-
tificate of which recognition serves the same purpose m the case of a Scotchman as the
royal license does in the case of an Englishman, and is required by the war office and
admiralty from officers in the army and navy. In his judicial capacity, Lvon investi-
gates and decides in claims to particular coats of arms or armorial distinctions, his
decision being subject to review in the court of session.
Ri^ht to bear arms is acquired either by descent or by grant. 1. In the former case,
only the representative or head of the family can use the undifferenced coat; but a cadet,
on presenting a petition to the lord Lyon, and establishing his relationship, has, by a
matriculation, the family coat assigned to him, with such a difference as, according to
the rales of heraldry, appropriately sets forth his relationship to the head of the family
and to other cadets already matriculated. The mere fact of one's bearing the same sur-
name with a family entitled to arms, confers no sort of right to wear these arms, differ-
enced or undifferenced. 2. "Where no hereditary right exists or can be proved, an
ori^nal grant of arms may be bestowed by the lord Lyon. As in the case of a matric-
ulation, a petition is presented to the Lyon court, which, in this case, need be accom-
panied with no evidence of pedigree; and in granting new coats, it is the duty of the
Lyon to conform to the rules of good heraldry, and be observant of the rights of other
parties. With these reservations, the wishes of the applicant are consulted as to the
arms which he is to bear. The fees are now reg^ulated by 30 Vict. c. 17, and amount to
about £14 for a matriculation, where relationship is proved, and for an original grant.
£42. Aji additional charge is made for supporters (q.v.), which are only eiven. uAhpse
persons who are entitled to them by the heraldic pnutice of Scotland. By^^-J^j^gi^
ir^' 262
In strictness, the using of a crest on one's plate or tetiX without aotliority, is a trans-
gression of the above-mentioned acts; but practically, prosecutions have generally heea
confined to cases of open and public assumption of a shield of arms. The offender ii
cited before the Lyon court by precept at the instance of the procurator-fiscal; the
statutory fine and confiscation have occasionally been enforced, but they ha^ ofVaust,
particularly of late, been avoided by a timely submission. In this commercial countiy,
there are not a few persons whose social status would entitle them to the use of arms,
. but who, not having inherited a coat, instead of acquiring the privilege in a legal way,
have a sham coat invented for them by some coach-painter or ** finder* of arms.
The register of genealogies is a department of the Lyon of&ce unconnected witk
i] heraldry, where evidence is taken of the pedigree of applicants, irrespectively of noble
or humble lineage, and recorded for preservation.
LTOir BUrO-OF-ABMS, or Lord Lton, the title borne since the first half of the 15th
c. by the chief heraldic officer for Scotland. He is the presiding judge in the Lyon
cou£t (q.v.), and appoints the heralds, pursuivants, and messengers-at-arms. Unlike the
English kings-of-arms, he has always exercised jurisdiction independently of the consta-
ble and marshal, holding office directly from the sovereign by commission under the
great seal. In Scotland he takes precedence "of all knights and gentlemen not being'
officers of stated or senators of the college of justice." In EngUind he ranks after gar-
ter, and before the provincial kiugs-of-arms. Since the revival of the order of the
thistle, he has been king-of-arms of that order. So sacred haa his person been hel^i
that, in 1515, lord Drummond was declared ^ilty of treason, attainted, and imprisoned*
in Blackness castle, for striking Lyon. Prior to the revolution, Lyon was solemnly
crowned at Holyrood on entering on office by the sovereign or his commissioner, h»
crown being of the form of the royal crown of Scotland, but enameled instead of being
set with jewels. The crown is now only worn at coronations; and that actually supplied
on occasion of the last four appointments has been similar to the crowns of the English
king-of-arms. Lyon's badge or medal, suspended by a triple row of gold chains, or on
common occasions by a broad green ribbon, exhibits the arms of Scotland, and on the
reverse, St. Andrew on his cross; and his baton is of gold enameled green, powdered
with the badges of the kingdom, and with gold ferrules at each end. Besides the velvet
tabard of a kmg-of-arms, he has an embroidered crimson velvet robe; and as king-of-amw
of the thistle, a blue satin mantle, lined with white, with a St. Andrew's cross on the
left shoulder.
LYOVHAlB, a former province of France, was bounded on the w. by Auvergne, and
on the s. by Languedoc. Its territory coincides nearly with the present departments of
Rhone, Ix)ire, Haute-Loire, and Puy-de-D6me.
LYONS, the second t. of Prance in respect of population, and the first with leoird to
manufactures, is the capital of the department of the Rhone, and stands at the oonfluence
of the river of that name with the Saone, 316 m. by railway 8.8.e. of Paris, 218 n.n.w.
of Marseilles, and 100 w.s.w. of Geneva. It is situated partly on a low-lying peninsula
between the two rivers, and partly on hills surrounding them, in a beautiful district
covered with gardens, vineyards, and villas. It is the seat of an archbishop^ and is the
chef'Ueu of the seventh military division. Many of the public buildings are interesting
at once for their architecture, extent, and antiquity. Of these, the cathedral and church
of St. Nizier, the h6tel-de-ville (town-hall), the finest edifice of the kind in the empire^
the hospital, the public library with 150,000 volumes, and the palais des beaux arts,
are perhaps the most notable among numerous and important institutions. There are
also a university academy, an imperial veterinary school — the first founded in the
country, and still the best— schools for agriculture, medicine, and' the fine arts, etc. The
printing trade is extensive in Lyons, and it has long been known for the vigor of its Jour-
nals, such as the Gouirier de Lyon. The two rivers are crossed by 19 bridges; 12 over
the Sadne, and 7 over the Rhone. The quays, 28 in number, are said to be the most
remarkable in Europe. The principal are St. Clair, St. Antoine, and Orleans. Tliere
are severid large and iraportiint suburbs— La Guilloti^re, Les Brotteaux. La Croix-
Rousse, etc. ; several fine squares, of which the place BeUecour is one of the largest in
Europe. The fortifications extend in a circle of 13 m. round the city. Prom its situa-
\ tion on two great rivers, and on the Paris and Marseilles and other railways, Lyons has
- become the great warehouse of the s. of France and of Switzerland. The principa
manufactures of Lyons are silk stuffs of all kinds, which have longbeen held in the
highest esteem. An immense number of establishments, working 70,000 looms, giving
' employment directly or indirectly to 140,000 hands, are engaged in silk manufactures.
Nets, cotton goods, blankets, hats, goki and silver lace, chemical products, cirugs.
liquors, earthenware, are ^so important articles of manufacture. The trade of Lyons
is chiefly in its own manufactures and in the products of the vicinity; the arms and silk
ribbons of St. Etienne, and the wines of C6te-R6tie, Hermitage, and St Pferay. Pop.
76, 822,612.
LYONS, the ancient Lngdunum, was founded in the year 48 B.c. by Munatius Plancus.
Under Augustus it became the capital of the province QaXUa Lvgdunerms, posseaswi a
senate, a college of magistrates, and an atheneum, and became the center of the four
263 ^
great roads that Ira^vrsed Gkul. In 58 a.d., it was destroyed in one night by fire; but
was built up again by Nero, and erabellislied by Trajan. In the 5th c, it was one of the
principal towns of the kingdom of Burgundy; and in the 11th and 12th centuries, it had
risen to great prosperity. To escape the domination of the lords and archbishops, the
inhabitao^ placed themselves under the protection of Philippe-le-bel, who united the
town to France in 1307. After the revolution (1789), Lyons, which had at first supported
the movement with great enthusiasm, eventually became terrified at the acts of the cen-
tral power, and withdrew from the revolutionary party. The result of this was, that
the convention sent against Lyons an army of 60,000 men, and after a disastrous siege,
the city was taken, and almost totallj^ destroyed. It rose again, however, under the first
Napoleon; pnd though, since then, it has frequently suffered much from inundations
(1840 and 1856), and m>m the riots of operatives (1831 and 1884), it is now in a high state
of prosperity.
LYONS, a city of Iowa, in the co. of Clinton, on the Mississippi river and the
Midland and Dubuque railroad, and only 9 m. distant from the Northwestern, the
'VT'estern Union, and a branch of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroads; pop.
4,088. It is connected by a steam ferry with Fulton. 111., and is traversed by a horse
railrcMid. It has a paper-mill, saw-mills, sash factories, flouring-mills, machine-shops,
carriage-shops, etc. ; also 2 newspapers, 8 churches, a library, a seminary, and graded
public schools. It is surrounded by a fine farming country.
LYONS, a t. in Wayne co., N. ¥., on the N. Y. Centi-al railroad and the Erie canal,
nearly midway between Syracuse and Rochester; pop. 70, 5,116. The manufacture of
oil of peppermint is an important industry, there bemg 20 peppermint distilleries, pro-
ducing annually 100,000 lbs. of the oil. There are other manufactures; tobacco, grain,
cider, and apples are among the productions.
LYONS, Edmund, Lord Lyons, 1790-1858; b. at Burton, Hampshire, England; a
descendant of governor John Winthrof) of Massachusetts; entered the British navy in
childhood, and became a midshipman in 1803; served in the East Indies, becoming a
commander in 1812, and a post-captain in 1814. In 1828 he was en^a^d in the blockade
service at Navarino, Greece, then held bv the Turks, and conveyed lung Otho to Athens
when the new kingdom was established.; was knighted, and remained there as minister
14 years. In 1849 he became minister at Bern, and in 1851 at Stockholm. At the out-
hr^ak of the Crimean war he was appointed second in command of the Black sea squad-
ron and commander-in-chief in 1854, and so distinguished himself by brilliant service
that he was made a peer in 1856 under the title of baron Lyons of Christ church. Died
at Arundel castle, Sussex.
LYONS, RiCHABD BicxBRTON PlocBLL, D.C.L., Lord Lyons, b. England, 1817;
educated at Winchester and Oxford, and entered the diplomatic service in 1^ as unpaid
attach^ at Athens. He was transferred to Dresden in 1852; to Florence, where he acted
as secretary of legation, in 1858; and was made envoy to Tuscany in 1858. The same
year he was sent as envoy extraordinary to the United States, and on his recall, at his own
request, in 1865, he was made ambassador to Turkey, and in 1867 transferred to Paris,
where he remains. In his successive important appointments he has proved himself an
accomplished and skillful diplomatist.
LYONS, GULF of, in the Mediterranean, extending from the n.e. coast of Spain, on
the w., to Toulon on the e., and receiving the Rhone, H^ult, Aude, and other rivers.
It is subject to furious jrtorms, and is said to have received its name, after the lion, on
account of this circumstance. A portion of Catalonia, in Spain, and the departments in
France of PyrSnees^Orientales, Aude, Herault, Gard, Bouches-du-Rhone, and Yar, lie
on the coast of this gulf.
LYRA, Nicholas db, 1270-1840; b. Lyre, Normandy, France; studied in the Fran-
ciscan college at Vemeuil, and at the university of Paris; became a doctor of divinity
and eminent as a lecturer upon biblical interpretation. His thorough acquaintance with
Hebrew led to the erroneous supposition that he was a Jew. He belonged to the Fran-
ciacan order, in which he held the most eminent positions, and his commentaries upon
the Scriptures were in high repute among the reformers. His chief work, PottUlm Pier'
petum in Vniterta BibUa, in 5 vols, folio, is the only exegetical work of any value pro-
duced in the middle ages anterior to the revival of letters. The schoolmen of that day
seldom understood Greek, never Hebrew, and therefore were poorly equipped as biblical
commentators. He also wrote a work On the Coming of the Mesnah, in reply to Jewish
critks. Died in Paris.
LTIS, the oldest stringed instrument of the Egyptians and Greeks. There are many
different kinds and sizes of the lyre, each having its own peculiar name, such as the lyre
da Braccio, lyre da Gambe, lyre guitare, etc.
LTBE-BntB, or Ltrb-tail, Menura, a genus of birds, of which the best-known spe-
cies (M. superba) is a native of New South Wales, where it is generally called the Lyre
Pheasaivt. The proper place of this genus has been much disputed by ornithologists,
some placing it among the inseseoreSf near to thrushes and wrens, others among gallina-
ceous birds, with megapodes. The large feet and habit of scraping ally the lyre-bird
with the latter; the form of the bill, the bristles at the base of the bill, and above all, its
5K&
p,^ 264
musical powers, connect it with the former, to which it was unhesitatingly referred hy
Cuvier. It is a bird about the size of a pheasant, frequenting the bniffl, or spiirsely-
wooded country, in the unsettled parts of New South Wales, but retreat iiig from the
more inhabited districts. It is extremely shy and difficult to approach. It is l.y fur the
largest of all song-birds. It possesses the power of imitating the song of other birds.
The tail of the male is very remarkable and splendid, the twelve feathers ^iug very-
long, and having very fine and widely separated barbs;. whilst, besides these, there are
two long middle feathers, each of which has a vane only on one side, and two exteiior
feathers, curved like the sides of an ancient lyre. The lyre-bird makes a domed nest.—
A second species (if. AWet'ti), also Australian, has recently been discovered, and has been
named in honor of the late prince Albert. The lyre-shaped feathers of the tail are com-
paratively short.
L7BIC (from the Qr. lyra, a lyre), the name ^ven to a certain species of poetry,,
because it was originally accompanied by the music of that instrument. Lyric poetry
(see Epic Poetry) concerns itself with the thoughts and emotions of the composer's owd
mind, and outward things are regarded chiefly as they affect him in any way. Hence it
is characterized as subjective, in contradistinction to epic poetry, which iBotjectiw. Purely
lyrical pieces are, from their nature, shorter than epics. Thev fall into several divisions,
the most typical of which is the 6ong, which is again subdivided into sacred ^ymns) and
secular (love-songs, war-songs, comic songs, etc.).
LTB, or Leys, a tributary of the Scheldt, rises in France near the littjle town of Lys-
bouTff, in the department of Pas-de-Calais, and flows in a n.e. direction, joinine the
Scheldt at Ghent in Belgium after a course of 100 miles. The Lys once formed the
boundary between France and Germany.
LTSANBEB, a famous Spartan warrior and naval commander, of extraoMinary energy
and military skill, but not less remarkable for the cunning, revenge, and ambition by
which he was characterized. He spent part of his youth at the court of Cyrus the
younger, and in 407 B.C. was appointed to the command of the Spartan fleet, from which
time he constantly prosecuted the design of overthrowing the Athenian power, in order
to exalt that of Sparta. He defeated the Athenian fleet at the promontory of Notion;
and being again intrusted with the management of the fleet, after the defeat of his suc-
cessor, Callicratidas (405 B.C.), he was again victorious. He swept the southern part of
the ^gean, and made descents upon both the Grecian and the Asiatic coasts. He then
sailed north to the Hellespont, and anchored at Lampsacus. An immense Athenian fleet
soon made its appearance at ^gospotami, on the opposite side of the straits, amounting
to 180 ships. Of these 171 were captured by Lysander a few days after. The blow to
Athens was tremendous Everywhere her colonial garrisons had to surrender, and
Spartan influence predominated. Finally, in 404 b.c., he took Athens itself. His pop-
ularity now became so great, especially in the cities of Asia Minor, that the Spartan
ephors dreaded the consequences, especially as they knew how ambitious he was. £very
means was taken to thwart his designs, until flnally it would appear that he had resolved
to attempt the overthrow of the Spartan constitution ; but tliis scheme was prevented by
his death at the battle of Haliartus in the Boeotian war (895 b.c.).
LYSIAS, a Syrian nobleman, whom'king Antiochus Epiphanes, setting out for Per-
sia, appointed ^ardian of his son and regent of the kingdom, in which capacity he
waged a formidable war with the Jews. His great army was defeated by Judas Macca-
bsus near Emmaus, 166 B.C. In the following year he was repulsed near Betbsura, but
captured the fortress in 168 b.c., and besieged Jerusalem, but was compelled to withdraw
by an insurrection at Antioch, shortly after which he was put to deatn by the populace
of the latter city, who had rebelled in favor of Demetrius botes.
LYS'IAS, b. Athens, b.c. 458. He was one of the ten Athenian orators, and the con-
temporary of the most distinguished men of Athens — Thucydides, Xenophon, Bnripides,
and Sophocles. His father was a man of wealth, was intimate with Pericles and Soc-
rates, and his house was the scene of the celebrated dialogue of Plato's BepubHc At
the age of 15 Lysias went to Thurium, in the s. of Italy, with an Athenian colony,
accompanied by the historians Herodotus and Thucydides, remaining there 82 years,
and studying the art of eloquence under the two Syracusans, Tisias and Nisias. After
the failure of the Athenian expedition in Sicily, be was obliged to leave Italy. Returning
to Athens in 411, he carried on with his brother Polemarchus a large manufactory of
shields, in which they employed 120 slaves. Athens fell into the hands of Lysander,
and 80 tyrants were appointed to administer the affairs of the city. The wealth of the
two brothers excited the cupidity of the tyrants; their house was attacked by an armed
force while they were entertaining some friends at supper, their property seized, Pole-
marchus put to death, and Lysias, by bribing some of the soldiers, escaped to Megara.
In his oration against Eratosthenes, one of the 80 tyrants, he has given a graphic sketch
of his escape. At Megara he assisted Thrasybulus to free his country from the tyrants,
supplying him with a Targe sum of money from his own resources, and hiring 800 men
at his own expense. The tyrants having been expelled, Lysias returned to Athens in
403, where he began his career as an orator. Of the 475 orations ascribed to him, only
235 are regarded as genuine, and only 84 are extant. n^^jfli^ij^ys^ofiJlDUjW**^^''' ^"
M5 iy«lppu»^
his critique of his works and style, says: " H« was particularly distinguished for sim-
plicity and precision, as well as for the fidelity with which he depicts the manners of
theaga" "In narrating events or circumstances/' he considers Xysias "superior to
all the orators/' Quintillian compares him to " a clear and pure rivulet rather than to
a majestic river/' Cicero regards him as "the model of a perfect orator/' The best
editions di the orations of Lysias are those of J. Taylor (London, 1739), and of Rciske
(Leipaic, 1722). Some of his orations have been translated into English by Dr. Gillies.
LYSIMACHIA, or Loosestrife, a eenus of plants of the natural order primtilacce,,
or primrose family, said to be named in honor of king Lysimachus (perhaps from Xvdt^,
a release from, and udxv* strife). Calyx, 5-parted (rarely 6 to 7); corolla, wheel-shaped,
d-parted (or 6 to 7), sometimes of as many separate petals; stamens of like number; pod.
elobose, 5 to 10 valved. They are leafy stemmed perennials, generally with yellow
Sowers, axillary, or in a terminal raceme. . Species grow in nearly all parts of the world,
several in the United States, some being cultivated in gardens, as the Moneywokt
(L. nummtiiaria), which was introduced from Europe. In this the leaves are roundish,
small, with short petioles; peduncles axillary, one-flowered; ovate, acute sepals. It \h
a beautiful plant for hanging-baskets anrl for covering rocks, and also for carpeting
beneath shrubs, forming, as it does, a thick mat. In some places it has escaped from
the gardens into damp ground. It blooms from Julv to September. There are eight
species enumerated by Gray as occurring in the United States: 1. L. ihynflora, or
tufted loosestrife; stem from 1 to 2 ft. high, lower leaves reduced to scales, the rest
lanceolate, the axils of one or two pairs of the middle ones bearing a short-peduncled
spike-like cluster of yellow flowers; found in cold, wet swamps from Pennsylvania
northwards; blooms in June and July. 2. Z. strieta: leaves opposite or nearlv alternate,,
lanceolate, acute at each end; flowers in a long raceme from 5 to 12 in., and leafy at tlie
base; in variety producta, leafy for half the length; in low grounds, blooming from
June to August. 8. L. quadrijoUa: leaves whorled, in fours or fives, ovate-lanceolate;
flowers on long capillary peduncles from the axils of the leaves; a common plant in the
middle states, growing in moist or sandy soil, blooming in June. 4. L, dUata: stem
from 2 to 8 ft. high, leaves lanceolate-ovate, tapering to an acute point, on long and
fringed leaf -stalks; common in low grounds and thickets; blooms in July. 5. X. radi-
can9: stem slender, soon reclined, and often taking root from the Joints; leaves ovate-
lanceolate, borne on slender leaf -stalks ; grows on swampy river banks in West Virginia
and southward. 6. L, larieeolata: stem erect, 10 to 20 in. high; leaves lanceolate, oblong,.
and also linear, narrowing into the short petiole ; growing on low grounds, westward
and southward ; blooming from June to August. 7. L. longffolia: stem erect, 4 angled,
from 1 to 8 ft. high, often branched below ; stem leaves sessile, linear, 2 to 4 in. lon^:,
smooth and shining, margins often revolute, veins obscure; corolla about | of an inch in
diameter, lobes pointed; grows in moist soil in western Kew York, Pennsylvania, to Wis-
consin and Illinois; blooming from July to September. 8. L. nummiUaria, noticed above.
LYSIM'ACHUS, b. Pella, Macedonia, about 860 B.C.; a gen. of Alexander the great.
He was a pupil of the philosopher Callisthenes, and was in his youth distinguished for
bravery and physioU strength. He was attacked by a lion in the forests of Syria, which
he killed without assistance, from which probably originated the story tola by Justin
and Seneca of his being exposed to a furious lion and killing it by thrusting his cloak
into Its month. On the division of the empire at Alexander's death, 828, he received
Thrace and the countries on the coast of the Euxine. He took possession of Thrace
after conquering Seuthes, its king, and a powerful army. In b.c. 814 he joined the
league formed against Antigonus by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Cassander. In 806 he
assumed the title of king. In 802 he was sent into Asia Minor to attack Antigonus.
subduing on his way Phrygia, Lydia, and other places, taking possession of manv
strong fortresses in which Antigonus had collected immense treasure. On the approach
of Antigonus he withdrew into Bithynia, where he was joined by Seleucus, and they,
in 801, advanced against Antigonus and his son Demetrius. In the following year
these two gens., aided by the forces of Ptolemy and Cassander, met Antij;onus at Ipsus,.
where a fierce battle was fought; Antigonus was killed, and his dominions shared by
the victors, Lysimachus obtaining the n.w. part of Asia Minor. In 292 he attacked
Getce, n. of the Danube, but was defeated, made prisoner, and released on giving his
daughter in marriage to the king of the Gk;t«. In 288 he combined with Ptolemy,
Seleucus, and Pyrrhus jigainst Demetrius, who had invaded Thrace during his absence .
and captivity, drove him from Macedonia, became king thereof himself, and compelled
Pyrrhus. who laid claims to the kingdom, to retire to his native dominions. The latter
part of the life of Lysimachus was imbittered by domestic dissensions and intestine *
troubles. Having put to death his son Agathocles at the instigation of his wife, Arsinoe,
the daughter of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, who feared that on the death of Lysimachus
she and her children would be put to oeath by Agathocles, his subjects rose in rebellion,
and Seleucus, at the entreaty of the widow of Agathocles, attacked Lysimachus, who
was killed on the plain of Corns.
LY8TPPUS, a celebrated Greek statuary; b. Sicyon, in the Peloponnesus; lived
about 824 B.C. He was at first a workman in bmss. then applied himself to the art of
paintine. and afterwards devoted himself to scnlpiure. He is si^jfttelftylil^ljte^Plttlf-
S?Sr 266
taught, and excelled in the study of nature rather than in copying the manner of any
master. His peculiarity was that of makingthe head smaller and the body more slender
and easy than his predecessors had done. His statues were admired for the beautiful
manner of executing the hair. His contemporaries appreciated his talents; the different
cities were eager to obtain his works; and Alexander, while he conferred on Apelles the
sole right to paint his form, allowed no one but Lysippus to execute it in bronze. He
is said by Pliuy to have produced 1500 works of art. Among the most celebrated was
41 statue called '' Apoxyomenos," representing a man scraping himself in a bath with a
strigil, the removal of which, by order of Tiberius, from the baths of Agrippa to the
palace of the emperor so excited the people that he was compelled to replace it. He
made many statues of Alexander, representing him at different periods of his life, and
in various positions; also, the equestrian statues of 25 Macedonians who fell at the pas-
sage of the Granicus, which Metellus transported to Rome. He executed a fine bronze
statue of Cupid, with a bow; several statues of Jupiter, one of which, 60 ft. high, is at
Tarentum; one of Hercules, which was removed to Rome; the Sun, drawn in a chariot
by four horses; "Opportunity" (Kairos), represented as a youth with wings on his
ankles on the point of flying from the earth. The sons of Lysippus, Dahippus, Bodas,
and Euthycratea were his pupils; also, the renowned Chares, who executed the Colosdus
at Rhodes.
LYSONS, Samubl, 1768-1819; b. Rodmarton, England; educated for the bar, but
relinquished the law for antiquarian pursuits; was made keeper of the records of the
tower of London in 1803, and one of the directors of the society of antiquarians in
1812. He published, in 1797, Roman Bemains Diseooered at Woodehenter arid Minchen-
Juimpton; in 1801, his Figures of Momic Pa/MinenU; in 1802, his Bemaitis of Roman
AnUqu%tie$ at Batfi; in 1^)4, Gloucester AntiqiiiUes. He wrote also for the Archmologia;
and assisted his brother Daniel in the preparation of the Magna Britannia in 1806-^.
LYSTRA, a city of Lycaonia in Asia Minor. It is worthy of note in sacred history as
the place where Paul first had divine honors offered him and soon after was stoned;
and also as being the native pkice of his companion and fellow-missionary, Timothy.
It was in the eastern part of the great plain of Lycaonia. Its site is uncertain, but
some have identified it with the ruins of Bin-Bir-&ilisseh, at the base of a volcanic
conical mountain named the Karadagh.
LYTHEA'JIEJB, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting of herbaceous plants,
with a few shrubs ; the branches f requentlyfour-cornered. The leaves are generally oppo-
site, entire, and sessile. Tlje flowers are solitary or clustered, re^lar or irregular, and
cither axillary, racemose, or spiked ; the calyx tubular, the petals inserted into the calyx,
very deciduous, sometimes wanting. The stamens are inserted into the tube of the calyx
below the petals, sometimes equal to them in number, sometimes two or three times as
many. The ovary is superior, generally 2 to 6 celled. The fruit is a membranous capsule
with numerous seeds. There are about 800 known species, natives of tropical and temper-
ate, or even of cold climates. Some of them are occasionaUyapplied to medicinal uses,
upon account of a stringent, narcotic, or febrifugal properties. Among those thus
employed is the Purple Loobbstrife [lythrnm saUcaria), a common British plant, grow
ing in moist places and about the margins of ponds and streams, with beautiful leafy spikes
of purple flowers; a decoction of either the- root or the dried leaves of which is some-
times advantageously used in diarrhea. The henna (q.v.) of Egypt ia produced by
Jjawsonia inermis, a plant of this order. The leaves of another {pemphis €teidtUa) are
«aid to be a common pot-herb on the coasts of the tropical parts of Asia. The leaves of
^inmania tesieatoria, an East Indian aquatic plant, are very acrid, and are sometimes
iised as blisters.
LYTHRUM (Gr. XvBpov, blood, from the crimson or purple color of the flowers), a
genus of herbaceous plants, called also LoofiESTRiFE in common with lysimachia (q.v.).
although belonging to another order, lyihracea. Calyx cylindrical, striate, 5 to 7
toothed; petals, 5 to 7; stamens as many as the petals, or twice the number, inserted
low down on the calyx ; pod oblong, two-celled. The herb is slender, with opposite
-or scattered, mostly sessile leaves, and purple flowers. The L. saUearia, or spiked
loosestrife, is a native of Europe* but is found in some of the older states in this coun-
try in wet meadows, particularly in New England and e. New York, where it is fre-
quently cultivated; leaves lanceolate, heart-shaped at the base, sometimes whorled in
Xhrees; stamens 12, twice the number of petals, 6 longer and 6 shorter. It is a fine, tall,
father downy plant, with large flowers, from crimson to purple; perennial. By grow
ing in dry places the plant becomes more downy and hoary, and considerably dwarfed.
The herb has a mucilaginous, astringent taste. The blackish brown, branching, and
fibrous root is also astringent, mucilage and tannin being its principal constituents. It
has a place in pharmacopoeias as a medicine, and is much used in Europe in diarrhea,
•dysentery, and passive hemorrhages. It is usually given in decoction made bv boiling
an ounce of the root in a pint of water, the dose being from one to two fluid ounces.
The principal species indigenous to the United States are L, hyssopifoUa, a low annual,
from 6 to 10 in. high; leaves oblong-linear, obtuse, longer than the inconspicuous
flowers; petals, pale purple, 5 to 6 in number; stamens the same; found in marshes on the
•coast of New England and New Jersey. L. eUatum: tall^and wand-like; perennial;
267 iJSS^
leaves from oblong-ovate to lanceolate; color deep purple, growing in Michigan, Wis-
coDfiin, and southward. L. linedre: stem slender and tall, from 8 to 4 ft., bushy at the
top; leaves linear, short, chiefly opposite; petals whitish; grows in brackish marshes in
New Jersey and southward.
LYTTELTON, Edwabd, d.c.l.. Baron, 1689-1645; b. at Mounslow, Shropshire,
England; graduated at Oxford in 1609; appointed chief -justice of North Wales in 1621 ;
elected to parliament in 1626; recorder of London in 1631; made solicitor-general and
knight in 1684; chief -justice of common pleas in 1640; lord keeper of the great seal in
1641 ; and a peer in the same year. In 1642 he escaped with the great seal to Charles
L at York; was required by parliament in 1648 to restore it on pain of losing his place;
appointed first commissioner of the treasury in 1644. Died at Oxford.
LYTTELTON, Thomas, Lord, b. Devonshire, England, in the 15th c. ; studied at
Cambridge and at tlie inner temple, where he was a lecturer on law; was appointed by
Henry VI. steward of the court of the palace, and in 1455 the king's sergeant. He
traveled through the northern circuit as judge of assize. The exceUeuce of his
character and his fame as a lawyer procured for him the favor both of the Lan-
castrians and Yorkists during their long struggle, and Edward lY. in 1462 offered
him a general pardon, confirming to him also the ofiices of king's sergeant and
judge of assize. In 1466 he appointed him one of the judges of common pleas, and
made him a knight of the order of the bath. He was buried in Worcester cathedral,
where a marble tomb, surmounted by a statue, was erected to his memory. His great
work on Tenures, written in Norman French, composed while he was judge of com-
mon pleas, was printed after the author's death, and published in English in 1539. Sir
Edwfutl Coke wrote a commentary on it, now known by the title of Vokeupan Lyttelian
LYTTLETOV; George, Lord, son of sir Thomas Lyttleton of Hagley, in Worcester-
shire, was b. in 1706-9, and educated at Eton and Christ-church, Oxford. He entered
parliament in 1780, held several high political offices, was raised to the peerage in 1759,
and died in 1778. Lyttleton had once a considerable reputation as an author. His best
known works are ObsertMitions on the Gonrernan and ApoeUeship of St. Pcml (1747), Dia-
logues of the Dead (1760), and History of Hervry II. (1764).— He had a son, Thomas, Lord
Ltttletok, who died young, and who was as conspicuous for profligacy as his father
for virtue.
LYTTOH, Lord, better known as Sir Edwakd Gboboe Earle Lytton Bulwer,
Bart., the youngest son of gen. Bulwer of Woodallins and Haydon Hall, Norfolk, was b. j
in 1805, and received his education at Cambridge, where he graduated b.a. in 1826, and ]
if.A. in 1885. He was distingished as a writer and as a politician, and his achievements j
in these diverse fields may be noticed separately.
His first publication was a poem on Sculpture, which gained the chancellor's prize
for English versification at Cambridge in 1826. In 1826 he published a collection of
miscellaneous verse, entitled Weeds and Wild Flowers, and in the year following a tale
in verse with the title (yNeiU, (n-.the Eebel. In 1827 his first novel, Fiilkland, was pub-
lished anonymously. Next year he published Belha/m, which astonished the critics by
its cynicism and its icy glitter of epigram. The Disowned, Devereux, and Paul Clifford
followed in rapid succession. In 1831 he broke into more passionate and tragical regions
in Ehigene Aram, and after that ceased for a period to convulse the libranes. About
this time he succeeded Campbell as editor of The New Monthly Magazine, and contrib-
uted to its pages a series of papers which were afterwards collected under the title of
The Student. In 1888 he produced his England and t^te English. In 1884 he returned
to fiction, and published in an illustrated form The Ptigrims of the Eldne. This was fol-
lowed by The fjost Days of PdmpeH, a work of a hif;her class than any of his former pro-
ductions. Biemi followed in the same splendid vein, and received the same admiration.
His next work was a play in five acts, 27ie Duchsss of La Valli^e, which was put
on the stage in 1886, and failed. Ernest Maltra^Bers came the jrear after, which, as con-
taining his views on art and life, has ever been a favorite with his more thoughtful
readers. In the same year he published Athens; its Rise and Fall, full of research and
splendid rhetoric. LeHa and Ualderon appeared in 1888. His next efforts were in the
difiScult walk of the drama, in which he had formerly failed. He produced The Lady
of Lgons and lUeheUeu, both of which remain among the most popular of modern Eng-
lish plays.
Lytton's next important work was Zan^oni, which was published in 1842, and in the
same year appeared his poem entitled Eva. Other poems were issued — The New JXmon
in ISA, and King Arthur in 1848, the former coDtaining couplets turned with the grace
and art of Pope. His next novels were T/u Last of the Barons, Harold, and Lucretia;
and thereafter he adopted a new walk of fiction, and achieved his greatest triumphs.
The Caxtans, a domestic novel, gave the world the crowning proof of Lytton's versa
tiUty. This work was followed by My Novel, one of liis finest productions. After that
be published What wHl he do with it? and a clever poem entitled St. Stephen*s. In 1861
A Strange Story appeared in AU the Tear Bound; and in 1868 he contributed to Black-
wfod a series of essays under the title of Caxtoniana, which were republished in two
vols the same year. The Lost Ihle of Miletus -was published in 1866; and a translation
of Horace* s Ocfe* three years lator. n« al<o WaJitole, a comedy. Ij^^igc^^Sl^l addresses of
268
bis as lord rector of Edinburgh and 01as«)w (he was elected to this high office twice
m Glasgow) univirsities, respectively, have been published. Lytton contributed
-. , , Coming JJokjc, pub
hshed anonymously in 1871 ; Kenelm ChiUmgly, 1878; and Ike Parinans, which appeared
ongmally in Blackwood's Magazine in 1878. These publications show that, to the end
the natural force of his genius had not abated. A collection of his Speeches appeared
in 1874. *^^
At the age of 36 Lytton entered parliament as member for St. Ives, and atUchcd
hmiself to the reform party. In 1832 he was returned as member for Lincoln, and held
that seat till 1841. In 1886 he received his baronetcy from the Melbourne administra-
tion ostensibly for brilliant services rendered to hb party as a pamphleteer. In 1844 he
succeeded, on the death of his mother, to the Knebworth estates, and sought to return
to parliament; in 1847 he contested Lincoln unsuccessfully; and m 1852 he was returned
as member for the county of Herts, and attached himself to the party headed by lord
Derby. During the Derby administration (1858-59) he was colonial secretary: He
did not shine as a debater, but several of his parliamentary speeches were eloquent and
telling. He died in 1873.
LYTTON, Edward Robert Bulwur-Lytton, Lord, See BTTLWER-LrrroK
Edward Robert, Earl.
MTHE thirteenth letter of the English alphabet, is the labial letter of the chiss of
A liquids. See Letters. Its Hebrew name is Mem, i.e., '* water," and its ohg
^ inal form was probably a waving line representing water. M is liable to many
changes, and often disappears altogether. The Greek mohtbdos corresponds to Lat
plumbum; an old form of Lat.. boniis, benus^ or bdue, was maniM, w^hich probablv
accounts for the comparative m>eUoT. See B. Final m, in Latin, was pronounced with
such a weak, undecided sound that it was proposed to write it with half the letter,
hence also, before the spelling of the language had become fixed, it had in many casea
been altogether dropped, as in lego for legom. See Iuflkction. The nasal sound in
final m in French seems to be a relic of the Roman pronunciation.
M OR N, in Catechisms. M is a contraction of N N (names); N is for name- the
respondent io required to give his Tuimes, if he has more than one, or his name, if only
one. In the marriage service, M stands for mas (the man), or maritus (the bridegroom);
and N. for nupta (the bride). Some think that M stands for Mary, the patron saint for
females, and N for Nidiolas, the patron saint for men.
XAA8 (Lat. Mosa, Fr. Meuse), a large affluent of the Rliine, rises m France, in the
department of Haute-Marne, near the village of Meuse, flows in. a northerly direction
through France, Belgium, and Liml)urg, and then eastward through Holland to the
German ocean From its junction with the Waal, a branch of the Khine, to the mouth
of the Yssel, it is called the Mervede. At Dordrecht, it divides mto two branches,
inclosing the island of Ysselmonde — of these, the northern is called the Nieuwe Maas
(New Maas), the southern the Oude Maas (Old Maas). These branches unite on the east-
ern side of the island of Rozenburg, after which the river falls into the North sea, in long.
4** 6' east. Its entire course is 500 m. in length, for 860 m. of which (from Verdun, io
the department of Vosges, France, to the mouth of the river) it is navigable. The area
drained by the Maas is estimated at 19,000 so. miles. Its principal affluents are the
Sambre and the Dieze, on the left; and the Ourthe, the Roer, and the Niers, on the
ri^ht. Of the important towns on the banks of the Maas, the principal are Namur,
Li6ge, Maastricht, Gorkum, Dort, and Rotterdam.
XAAS'TBICET. or Maestricht (called by the Romans Tre^um ad Momm, to dis-
tinffuish it from Trajectum ad Rhenum, now Utrecht), is a very old and important forti
fled town, capital of the province of Limburg, kingdom of the Netherlands. Pop. 74,
28.650. Maastricht is on the left bank of the river Maas, which separates it from the
town of Wijk. the connection beine; maintained bv a stone bridee, 5(X) ft. in length,
rcisting on nine arches, and defended by small fortified islands. The town was founded
in the 5th c, the seat of the bishop being transferred thither after Attila had plundered
; Tongres, in 451. It is 16 m. n. of Li6ge, 18 w. of Aix-la-Ohapelle (Aken), and pleaseotlr
' situated in a hilly district. The streets are broad, and the houses regularly and well
built, giving an air of beauty and respectability to the town. There are many paintings
and a select public library in Uie town -house, a large square stone buildinf , ornamented
with a tower, and standmg on the gre&t market. Maastricht has one Lutheran, one
Dutch Reformed, one French Reformed, and four Roman Catholic churches; also a
Jewisli synagogue; three hospitals, two orphan-houses, an athennum, and other public
buildings. The plains are shaded with trees and refreshed by fountains. There is rail
way communication with all parts of the Netherlands, ^^^P^M'vSrMB^' *"*' ^^^^^
289 aSy;
conntriet of the contiDent. Ifaftstricht has a rery considerable trade^with Bois-le-duc
aod olher places. Leather, woolen stuffs, stockings, blankets, flannels, starch, madder,
pins, etc., are manufactured; soap-boiling, gin-distilling, brewing, sugar-rdflning, and
iroufounding add to the prosperity of the town.
Maastricht has often felt the scourge of war, and the eyils incident to a frontier
fortified town. It is surrounded by broad and deep canals, which contribute to its
defensiFe strength. It is commanded by the hill of St. Pierre, formerly called Mmi
Bunnorum, a soft, calcareous mountain, which has been very extensively mined, form-
ing a cavernous laby^rinth of several leagues in length. Among other fossils, have been
found in these workings two heads of the gigantic moeasaurus.
KAB, in northern mythology, the queen of the fairies; though some authorities have
it that queen, in this use, should be quean, signifying female, as adapted from the Saxon
at^n. In opposition to this is the Welsh meaning of the word. •• a boy," but the fre-
quent use of it by poets in its significance of fairy-queen has caused it to be popularly
accepted in that sense. The speciality of Mab, as attributed in English poetry, is to act
S8 the ** fairies* midwife," who delivers the brain of dreams. Thus when Romeo says.
" I dreamed a dream to-night," Mercutio replies, *• O then, I see queen Mab hath been
with you." Mab appears m the poems of Ben Jonson, Herrick, and Drayton: Shake-
speare's description of her, placed in the mouth of Mercutio, is well known :
She is the fairies' midwife, and she comes
In Bhape no bigger than an agate-stone
On the fore-flnger of an alderman.
Drawn with a team of little atomies
Athwart men's noses as they lie asleep, etc.
j —Romeo and Juliet, Act I., Sc. TV.
MA6ILLE, or Jakdin Mabille, a place in Paris famous for briUiant public balls
held nightly, which are frequented by the gay, rollicking youth of all countries, and by
travelers drawn thither by curiosity, in numbers almost equal to those of Parisian visi-
tors. Fantastic revelry, marvelous dancing, intoxicating music are the attractions in
the midst of a panorama made gorgeous by the blaze of 8,000 gas jets shaded into all
colors to light the ball-room, the passages, the alcoves, and the groves of this fairy gar-
<ka of men, women, and flowers. The garden, established in 1840, is on the s. side of the
Champs Elys^e. That part of the garden which is under roof, and that which has only
the boughs of trees and the sky above it are so blended tliat one hardly notices whether
he is under one or the other. Formerly youth who went for their own pleasure were
the main performers in the grotesque extravagances of the dancing. Of late years, how-
ever, professional daruaTUes are employed to astonish visitors, by whom they can be dis-
tinguished from other revelers only by the extraordinary fantasies of their performances.
One of their characteristic feats is to lift a toe suddenly to the head of a dancer or aston-
iilied visitor who presses too near the dancing circle, to dash a hat from his head with-
out touching his face or an^ting their own swift course in the dance. The visitors to
the Mabille are from every part of the world. Middle-aged, portly Englishmen, Ameri-
cans, Turks, Arabs* Russians, and* even their ladies are seen in the throng around the
clancers, and go prepared to be trifled with. France furnishes the larger part of the men
who enter frankly into the hilarity of the dancing scenes and all of .the peculiarlv sup-
ple, fascinating, and soiled women. Though physical exuberance of joy and fuss is
allowed the widest license in the dance, vulgarity of language is very rare, and when
exhibited results in quick expulsion of the offender. It is thought that the resort is
i not so largely attended or in so good repute as formerly with English and American
travelers of the cultivated classes; and it would seem that a proper taste — not to speak of
decency — might operate against its peculiar style of attraction.
M ABTTiTiOir, Jean, a learned Benedictine, b. Nov. 28, 1682, at St. Pierremont, in
Champagne. He studied at the college de Reims; assisted D. Luc d'Achery in his
labors upon his vast historic recueU, entitled Spieelegiwn; undertook an edition of the
works of St. Bernard; and in 1668, published the first volume of the Acta Banctorum
Oriinu 8. BeMdicU, of which the last part appeared in 1702. His classical work De Be
Diphmatied appeared at Paris in 1681. Colbert offered him a pension of 2,000 livres, but
he declined it. In 1683 Colbert sent him to Germany, to collect documents relative to
the historv of France, and he was afterwards sent to Italy for a similar purpose. He
<lied in Paris, Dec. 27, 1707. His Vetera AiuUecta (4 vols. Par. 1675-85), and Musaum
Italieum, sea GoUectio Veterum Scriptorum ex BtbUothecM ItaUde eruta (2 vols. Par.
1687-^, contain part of the fruits of his laborious and erudite researches.
MABLY, Oabribi^ BoNivoT DE. 170J>-85, b. France; educated for the priesthood
among the Jesuits of Lvons, and no vitiated in the seminary of St. Sulpice, Paris. He
rengned the priestly calling, and attracting the attention of eardinal De Tensin by the
solidity of his conversation on state affairs, was attached to the bureau of the minister
of foreign afltaiTs, and beoame a power among the ministers. After acquiring high
position he broke with his patron the cardinal, l^cause the former resolved to pronounce
nroteslant mairiiWes null. Living in retirement he became author of works calling
ntteation to the noble thoughts of Greek and Roman authors, and to their wisdom in.
^venaioent. He looked backward and not forward for his ide^^i^Hg^^^l^^l^iPf^
270
ceWe progressiye developmeiit in modern civilization. In 1784, in a publication entitled
OiftervoHans sur U gowoememerU et le$ lata des EtaU Unii dAmarigue, he predicted the
early downf&ll of tlie United States, if they continued in tlie mercantile road. In his
old age he saw nothing that gave him encouragement that the world was not going to
the bad, and obtained the surname of '* Prophet of Eyil." His early writings, after his
retirement, are remarkable for the clearness with which they depict the danger of char*
acter which comes to nations with increase of wealth and luxuries, and show Uiat commerce
and the arts serve but to corrupt peoples without adding to their real happiness. Sparta
with the Jesuit college grafted on it, was his ideal community. Mably's writings were
the source of many of the most radical and one-sided hobbies of French socialists and
agrarians; and while he intended them to fortify respect for the more ancient forms of
social life, they became the seed of tlie wildest democratic vagaries. He demanded the
abolition of individual property, of the laws of inheritance, the suppression of com-
merce, of education, of amusements. Agriculture and the gymnasium as in Sparta, a
stiite religion tolerating no other— these were the ends of his philosophy. '' It is better"
he writes, " that there should be but a million happy men upon all the earth, than the
* innumerable multitude of muerables and slaves who live a half -life in the midst of mis-
fortunes." Such crude and half-sided philosophy formed the school in which Marat,
St. Just, and Babeuf found apolog}' for their fanaticism.
M ABUSE, Jan db (Gossabbt), 1499-1662; a Flemish painter who executed pictures
of the three children of Henry VII. of England, also " Adam and Eve," ** Christ and the
Rich Young Man." which are in the Kensington gallery. After visiting Italy in 1682-^, be
returned to Germany where his works are numerous and valued to this day. " Neptune
and Amphytrion," in the museum of Berlin is one of his best. The Louvre has a great
number of his pictures of religious subjects.
MAC, or XS a Gaelic prefix occurring frequently in Scottish names, means *' son," and
is probably allied to the Gothic magv^s, a son, a boy, the feminine of which is magaOu
(Ger. mcbgd, a maid). The root is probably the Sanskrit moA. to grow (see G). In
Welsh, magu means to breed. The Welsh form of Mac is Map, shortened into 'ap or 'p,
as Ap Richard, whence Prichard.
XAGADAX, John Lottdon, was b. in Scotland in 1756, and passed his youth in the
United States. On his return, he was appointed manager of a district of roads in Ayr-
shire, and originated and successfully practiced the svstem of road-making now known
by his name. In 1819, he was summoned to Englana, and was appointed by parhament
to superintend the roads in the Bristol district, which were in a most deplorable con-
dition. In 1827 he was appointed general surveyor of the metropolitan roads; and in
reward of hLs exertions to render them efficient, received a grant of £10, (KM) from
government. His system rapidly became general throughout England, and was also
introduced into France with ^reat success. Macadam died at Moifat, in Dumfriesshire,
in 1886. The principles of his system, which is known as Maeadammng, are as follow:
" For the foundation of a road, it is not necessarv to lay a substratum of large stones,
pavement, etc., as it is a matter of indifference whether the substratum be hard or soft;
and if any preference is due, it is to the latter. The metal for roads must consist of
brcken ttanes (granite, flint, or whinstone is by far the best); these must in no case
exceed 6 oz. each in weight, and stones of from 1 to 2 oz. are to be preferred. The
large stones in the road are to be loosened, and removed to the side, where they are to
be broken into pieces of the regulation weight; and the road is then to be smoothed
with a rake, so that the earth may settle down into the holes from which the laree stones
were removed. The broken metal is then to be carefully spread over it; and as this
operation is of great importance to the future quality of the road, the metal is not to be
laid on in shovelfuls to the requisite depth, but to he acaUered in shovelful after shovel-
ful, till a depth of from 6 to 10 in., according to the qualit}r of the road, has been
obtained. The road is to have a fail from the middle to the sides of about 1 ft. in 60,
and ditches are to be dug on the field-side of the fences to a depth of a few inches below
Uie level of the road." This svstem, which at one time threatened to supersede every
other, is calculated to form a hard and impermeable crust on the surface, thus protect-
ing the soft earth below from the action of water, and so preventing it from working up
through the metal in the form of mud. Strange to say, It has succeeded admirably in
cases where a road had to be constructed over a bog or morass, but in some other circum-
stances, it has been found deficient. See Roads.
McAllister, fort, a strong earthwork, erected bf the confederates during the
war of the rebellion on Genesis point, on the right bank of the Great Ogeecbee river, 6
m. from Ossabaw sound, and 12 m. s. of Savannah, Ga. It successfully resisted the
fleet of monitors under commodore Worden in 1868, but was taken by assault by the 3d
division of the 15th corps under gen. Hazen, Dec. 18, 1864, with a loss of 90 men. This
was the closing feat of Shennan*s *' march to the sea," and led to the surrender of Savan-
nah a few days later.
McALPINE, WiLUAH J. ; b. New York, 1812; after completing his cl«Mi«a educa-
tion, he began engineerine in 1827, under John B. Jervis, with whom he remained 12
yean, during whiSi time he was employed npon the De^^w^a^g^^f^canal and
m
ralboad, iuid upon otber public works, under the direction of his diief. He was the
gucoeasor of Mr. Jervis as engineer of the eastern division of the Erie canal enlargement
until 1846, when he was chosen to construct the dry -dock at the Brooklyn navy-yard.
In 18S2 he was elected state engineer of New York. In 1854-^ he was railroad com-
missioner of the state, in which capacity be made a valuable report upon the principles
sod pmctice of railroad construction and management. Afterwards, for two years, he
was engineeer and acting president of the Erie railroad, later still, engineer of the
Galena and C^ica^o, and of the Ohio and Mississippi railroads. He constructed the
water-works of Chicago and Albany, and planned those for Brooklyn and New Bedford.
In 1870 he presented plans, which were accepted by the 'Austrian government, for the
improvement of the cataracts of the Danube. f
MACAO', a Portuguese settlement on the coast of China, in lat. 212^ 11' n., and long,
113* 83' e., on the western part of the estuary of the Canton or Pearl river, Hong-Kong
being about 40 m. distant, on the opposite side of the same estuary. The settlement,,
which is about 8 m, in circuit, is on a small peninsula, projecting from the south-east-
ern extremity of the large island of Hiang-shan. Its position is very agreeable, nearly
surrounded with water, and open on every side to the sea-breezes, with a good variety
of hill and plain. The town is slightly defended by some forts. Daily steam commu-
nication is maintained with Hong-Kong. The principal public buildings are the cathe-
dral and churches. It is one of the most salubrious ports iii China, with full exposure
to the s.w. monsoon, and recent sanitan- improvements hnve added greatly to its health-
iaess. The maximum temperature is about 90', the iniuimum about 48'*. The popula-
tion is about 80,000, 10,000 of whom are Portuguese and other foreigners. The Portu-
guese obtained permission from the Chinese authorities in 1557 to settle in Macao on*
account of the assistance thc^ gave in hunting down a pirate-chief whose headquarters
were in this idand. The Chinese, however, held, until recently, a lien upon the place,,
requiring of the Portugese 500 taels ground-rent, retaining also jurisdiction over their
own people. The privileges obtained by England through the treaty of Nankin were-
snbsequently extended to the Portuguese, who, by successive aggressions, have become-
wholly independent of the Chinese. The anchorage at Macao is defective. The Typa
anchorage lies about 8 m. off the southern end of the peninsula; but large vessels cannot
approach nearer the shore than 6 miles. After the rise of Hong-Konc, the commerce of
Macao almost entirely disappeared. Some years ago a suspicious trade in coolies sprung
up; but in 1873 the British government forbade ships currying on this traffic to enter
any of the treaty-ports, and on Dec. 20 of that year the Portuguese government abolished
the trado. Here Camoens, in exile, composed his Ltuiad.
MACAPiL a t in Brazil, on the Amazon, 180 m. from its mouth; pop. -7.500. It is^
a fortified town, the harbor and river being defended by a fort overlooking them. The*
town is well built and regularly laid out: public buildings are a town-hall, church,,
schooi-honae, prison, and hospital. There is a good export trade in cacao, tropical fruits,,
millet, rice, cotton, and tine woods.
MACAQUE', quadrumana belonging to the family simidft, and to that section denom-
inated by Bowen catarrhine, or the old-world monkeys. They constitute the genus maea-
CU9 of which there are several species. There has been some confusion in the classifica-
tion of these animals. The name first appears in Marcgrave*s Natural Hutorj^ tfBraaU,
as the name of a monkey of Congo and the coasts of Quinea. The application of the .
title to an Asiatic species of an entirely different genus was an error of Buffon*s— per-
haps unavoidable when made by him. Lacep^de latinized the word macaque (or
macaco), the native title, and applied it to the genus. There are also different state-
ments made as regards the habitat of the apes to which the term is now applied, for it
is often stated that the macaques are natives of Africa as well as of Asia and Gibraltar;,
whereas Mivart, in his little book Man and Apes, distinctly states that " the macaci, or
macaques, are not found in Africa, but they extend farther north than any other of the
monkeys. " Two species, he says, are found, in Japan and at Gibraltar, called respectively
If. spedtmu, and M. inuus. An Indian macaque, called the rhesus, inhabits many parta
of Hindnstan in great numbers. (See Rhbsub Monkbt, ante.) The wanderoo. or 3f,
riUnu$ of the Indian archipelago, is another macaque (see Wandbboo, ante). The M.
inuus, the Gibraltar monkey, is regarded by some as a distinct genus from the Japan
ape, and is called inu^is tylvanuM, or the Bwbary ape (q.v.). The following species of
maeaeu9 are given in the British museum catalogue: M. radiahu, the zati, or capped
macaque, sometimes called the toque; M. tinicus, the munga, or bonnet macaque; M,
nemettrintis, the bruh; M. tynomoigui, the macaque; IT. rhiius, the rhesus; M. oinops,
the oinopa; M. ipedotut, the Japan ape; AT. junctu, the magot, and M. iiiger. The
macaoues have cheek pouches and large ischial callosities; the length of tail also varies
in different species, being rudimentary in some and long in others. Many of the mon-
keys seen in menageries are macaques. When young they are docile and active, but as
they grow old they become morose and exhibit some of the ferocity of their cousins the
haboons. See Quadbumana.
MACABO'n (originally lumps of paste and cheese squeezed up into balls; froni It.
tare, to bruise or crush), a peculiar manufacture of wheat, which for a long time
I peculiar to Italy, and, in fact, almost to Genoa; it is now, hoy^^^ji^^j^xm^
Italy, and at Marseilles and other places In the south of France. Stricd^ speaking, the
uume macaroni applies only to wheaten paste in the form of pipes, varying in diameter
from an ordinary quill up to those now made of the diameter of an inch; bat there is
DO real difference between it and the fine thread-like vermicelli, and the infinite variety
of <iurious and elegant little fbrms which, under the name of ItaUan ptutes, are used for
soups.
Only certain kinds of wheat are applicable to this manufacture, and these are the
hard sorts, which contun a lar^e percentage of gluten. At present, the Italian manu-
facturers prefer the wheats of Odessa and Taganrog; but they also employ those of their
own country grown in Sicily' and in Apulia. The wheat is first ground into a coarse
meal, from which the bran is removed — in that state it is called semola (see also Semo-
lina); during the grinding, it is necessary to employ both heat and humidity, to insure
a good semola. IHie semola is worked up into a dough with water; and for macaroai
«na vermicelli it is forced through eauges, with or without mandrels, as in wire and
pipedrawing; or for pastes, it is roiled out into very thin sheets, from which are
stamped out the various forms of stars, rings, etc.
The manufacture of this material is of great importance to Italy, where it forms
a large article of home consumption, and is exported to all parts of the world. In
Genoa alone nearly 170,000 quintals of w^beat are annually consumed in this manu-
facture. The finest qualities of macaroni are those which are whitest in color, and
do not burst or break up in boiling; it should swell considerably, and become quit«
soft; but if it does not retain its form when boiled, it has not been made of the
best wheat. Some makers flavor and color it with saffron and turmeric, to suit cer-
tain tastes, but this is limited to very few. The use of macaroni and its varieties
is rapidly increasing in Great Britain, where it is employed in soups, in puddings,
and for making the favorite dish of macaroni and cheese.
KAGABOiriG VEBSE is properly a kind of humorous poetry, in which, along Tvith
Latin, words of other languages are introduced with Latin inflections and construe
tion; but the name is sometimes applied to verses which are merely a mixture of
Latin and the unadulterated vernacular of the author, of which a very clever eynxi
men are the lines of Porson on the threatened invasion of England by Bonaparte,
■entitled Lir^o drawn for the MHUia (see Wheatley's Anagrams, etc.). Teofilo Folengo,
called Merlino Coccajo, a learned and witty Benedictine, who was born at Mantua
in 1484, and died in 1544, has been erroneously regarded as the inventor of maca-
ronic poetry; but he was the first to employ the term, selected with reference to the
mixture of ingredients in the dish called macaroni. His Maecaranea (Tusculanuni.
1521, and many editions) is a long satiric poem, in which Latin and Italian are mingled.
Fortunately, macaronic poetnr has not been very extensively cultivated, although speci
mens of it may be found in the literature of almost all European countries. The idea
of it was probably first suggested by the barbarous monkish Latin. There is a history
of macaronic poetry, and a collection of the principal works of this kind by Genthe
<Halle, 1839). Compare also Octave Delepierre's Macaronsana, Paris, 1852), and his Ik
la LUterature Macaroniqus et de (melgiies Baretes Bibliogra/phiques de ee Oenre (vol. ii.,
JfiaceUames of PkOobiblon Society, Paris, 1856).
XAGABOOH (from the same root as macaroni), a favorite kind of biscuit, made with
the meal of sweet almonds, instead of wheaten or other flour. The most esteemed
formula for making macaroons is either prepared almond-meal dry, or, what is still
better, almonds just blanched and beaten into a paste, one pound, thoroughly incorpo
rated with a pound and a half of refined sugar in powder, an ounce of the yellow part
of fresh lemon-peel grated fine, and the whites of six eggs. When thoroughly mixed.
-Che paste is made into the shape of small oval biscuits, and placed on sheets of wafer
paper, and baked; afterwards, the superflous wafer-paper is trimmed off, and the maca-
roons are ready for use.
KAOAB SOA, or Markaska, a t. of the Austrian empire, in Dalmatia, on a small bay
of the Adriatic, near the mouth of the Narenta, and d4 m. 8.e. from Spidatro. The
plague carried off half the inhabitante in 1815 and 1816, and the place has not yet
completely recovered its prosperity. It carries on some trade, but the greater number
of the inhabitants are employed in agriculture and fishing. Pop. 7,886.
McARTHUR, Dukoan, 1772-1889, b. N. Y. ; his family removed to Pennsylvania in
1780, and in 1790 he served as a volunteer in Harmar's campaign against the Indi-
ans, and in later campaigns on the frontier. In 1805 he was ele<^ed a member of
the legislature of Ohio, where he had settled and become a great landed proprietor.
He entered the war of 1812 us colonel of an Ohio volunteer regiment, was promoted
to a brig. -generalship in 1818, and the next year succeeded gen. Hwison as com-
mander of tlie army of the west. He was a member of the Ohio l^slature 1815-21,
and a member of congress 1828-29. From 1880 to 1882 he was governor of Ohio.
McARTHUR, John. 1766-1834, b. England; a captain in the British army. While
in the service in Australia in 1790, he secured a tract of land in the neighborhood of
Sydney, and turned his attention to the development of the wool industry, making
importations of sheep from Africa and Europe. His efforts attractf0j|^e^i|^tion of
the howegoYBnaoBixt^ which ouuie him a grant of ICLQQO acios of laiHl2.M(AJ«^WMrtlM
flnt to cultivata the ordiaary vegetable crope on mj. laiigpe scale in Auatralia.
MACAKT'KET,' Geojiqb. Bart, 1787-1806; b. liasanourGp pear Belfast, Ireland;*
graduated at Trinity college, Dublin/ 17S7; studied law in Londoh; th^n made the tour
of Europe, and on his return in 1764 was appointed envoy extraordinary to' the empreds
of Rnaaia, to'condude a commercial treatv with that country, which after some diiOI-
culty he accomplished. Ketnming in 1767 and sitting for a time in the British pariia-
meDt, he became in 1769 chief Secretary for Ireland. RetiriDg from this office in 1772
he was created knight of the bath. Appointed governor of the island of Grenada in
1775, he was taken prisoner on the capture of that island by the Trench in 177V, bnt was
soon released by Louis XVI., and allowed to return to England. In-1776 he was. raised
to the Irish peera^^ by the title of baron Macartney. In I'im he was appointed governor
of Madras^ but resigned in 1786 on account of ill-health, and for the same reason declined ■
the ^pointment of governor-general of India. Boon after his return home he was
wounded in a duel with ma j. gen. Stuart* an officer whom he had found it necessary to
remove from the service when in India. In 1788 he took his seat for the first time in
the Irish house of peers, and in 17d2 was made an Irish viscount* and sent ambassador
extraordinary to Pekin, the first British envoy sent to China. In 1794 he was made earl
Macartney in the Irish peerage, and returned from China the same year. In 179$ he
was sent on a confidential mission to Italy, In 1796 he was made a British peer by the
title of baron Macartney, and appointed g6vernor of the newly captured terntory at the
cape of (jk>od Hope. ' In 1798 he resigned on account of declining health, and for the
same cause declined the offer of a seat in the cabinet of the Addin^n ministry in 1801.
An account of his public life, with a selection from his unpublished writings, was pub-
lished by his private secretary, sir John Barrow, in 2 vols. Sir George Staunton, bis
secretary to China, wrote an account of his Chinese embassy in 2 volumes.
KACAXTVXT VOOX, BuploecmmignUtta, a splendid gallinaceous bird, also called the
FiBB-BACKBD PrrAbakt, a native of Sumatra and other islands of the same part of the
world. It was first described in the account of lord Macartney's embassy to China. Th6
entire length of the adult male is about two feet The sides of the head are covered
with a bhush-purple skin. The crown of the head has an uprieht crest of feathers with
naked diaft, and a number of slender spreading barbs at the tip. The tail, when
depressed, is forked; when erect, it is slightly folded, as in the common fowl. The
general color is a deep black, with blue metallic reflections; the middle of the back, bril-
ant orange; the tail, bluish green, orange, and white. The female is smaller, and
almost entirely of a rich brown color. The head is not crested, as in the male, but the
hind feathers are lengthened.— The genus euploeomus is allied both to gaUus (fowl) and
phamanus (pheasant), and perhaps still more nearly to lophophortu (impeyan). Two or
three splendid East Indian species are referred to it.
MAC ABB AH, the most southern portion of Celebes (q.v.), lies in lat. 4** 85' to 6** 5(y s.,
and long. 119" 25' to 120** 30' e. ; it is traversed by a lofty chain of mountains. Macassar
was formerly the peateet naval power among the Mal^ states, but is now divided into
the Dutch possessions and Macassar proper, which is of little importance, and governed
by a native king, who pajB tribute to the Netherlanders. The natives are among the
most civilised taid enterprising, but also the most greedy, of the Malay race. They carry
on a considerable trade in tortoise-shell and edible nests, ^ow abundance of rice» and
raise great numbers of horses, cattle, aheep, and goats; fishing is also extensively carried
on. The Macassars are chiefly Mohammedans; the mosoues are built of palm-wood.
They are warlike, spirited, and impatient of a blow — their laws allowing them to avenge
it by the death of the offender, if within three days.
Macabsam, the chief town, is the residence of the Dutch governor and offidials. It
is situated on the strait of Macassar, which separates Celebes from Borneo, in 5" 10' s.
lat., and 119** 20' e. long. ; and is built upon a high point of land, watered by two rivers
and smaller streams, surrounded by a stone- wall, and further defended by palisades and
fort Rotterdam. Pop. about 20,0(K). The harbor is safe and convenient, but difficult to
enter. Climate healthv, and all kinds of provisions plentiful. The exports consist of
the various mroducts of Celebes, which are brought from the settlements to Macassar for
shipment. The chief of these are rice, sandal- wood, ebony, tortoise-shell, gold, spices,
coffee, sugar, wax, cocoa-nuts, tobacco, opium, saU, edible nests, eta The imports
from China are principally silk fabrics and porcelain; from the Netherlands^ cotton and
linen goods, fire-arms, opium, spirits, etc. A very large proportian of the export and
import trade is caniedon between Macassar and the free port of Siiknwore, about a third
part bung with Java. Tiie annual imports amount to about £400,00(), and the exports
to the same value sterling. No import or export duties are charged.
The Portuguese first formed a settlement in Macassar, but were supplanted by the
Dutch, who, uter many contests with the natives, gradually attained to supreme {>ower. .
In 1811 Macassar fell into the hands ctf the British, who, in 1814, defeated the king of
Boni, and compelled him to give up the regalia of Macassar, h^ 1816 it was restored to
the Dutcht and continues to enjoy a lair ah/ire of the mercantile prosperity of theNethor-
luda'poiseasions in the eastern aiGhipehigo. __ e,gitizedby\^^UXiC
U. K. IX.— 18 . ^ d
274
lUOASBAB OIL— 80 called from the district of Macafisar, m the island of Oelebea.
whence it is exported— is a species of >r«^^ble butter.'of an a^en-g^y color, and rancid
odor.— This name has also been given in Britain to a patent preparation used for promote
ing the growtli of the hair and preventing its decay. It i$ composed of olive oil, or oil
of almonds, colored with Alkanet root, and mixed with perfumes.
MACAS'SAB, STRAIT of, a bodv of water which sepantes the isLumU of Borneo
and Celebes, and unites the Java sea with the sea of Celebes. It varies in width between
76 tind 140 m., and is about 400 m. long. Its navigation is difflouh, owing to shoals and
rocks, and particularly in the months of January and February,, when a strong current
sets through it from north to south.
MACAUCO. 8ee Lkhub, anU.
MACAU'LAT, Catharikb (Sawbbixhse), 1788^1; b. England; married in 1760 Dr.
Oeorge Macaulav, a London physician; and after his death a clergyman named Graham.
She published The History of Bmgland, from ihs Aeeession of Jame$ L to thai of the Bruns-
wick Line, 8 vols., 176^-88; Remarks on HMe*e Budimente of Ght>emment and 800^,
1767; A Modest Plea for the Property of Copyright, 1774; and other works. She was a
pronounced republican and a friend of Washington, whom she visited in America
in 1785.
XACATTLAT, Thomas BABmoroN, Lord, son of Zachary Macaulay, a We^t India
merchant and eminent philanthropist, and grandson of the rev. John Macaufay, a Presby-
terian minister in the w. of Scotland, was d. at Rothley Temple, Leicestershire, Oct. 25,
1800. He entered Trinity college, Cambridge, at the aee of 18, where he acquired a
brilliant reputation both as a 'scholar and debater. He twice won the chancellor's
medal — first in 1819, for a poem on Pompeii, and again in 1820, for another on Etening^
both of whicli were published. In 1821 he obtained the second Craven scholarship, took
the degree of b.a. in 1822, was shortly after elected a fellow of Trinity, and then began
to devote himself zealously to literature. The periodical to whidi he first contributed
was KrUghCs Quarterly Magazim; for this he wrote several of his ballads, e.g.. The
Spanish Armada, Moncontour, aad Ihe Battle oflvry, besides essays and critiques. In
1825 he took the degree of k.a., and in the same year made his appearance in the col-
umns of (he Edinburgh Beviev> by his famous essay on MiJton, the learning, eloquence,
penetration, brilliancy of fancy, and generous enthusiasm of which quite fascinated the
educated portion of the public. For nearly 20 years he was the popular, perhaps al^o
the most distinguished, contributor to the Mue and Yellow. In 1826 he was called to
the bar at Lincoln's Inn, but it does not apoear that he practiced. The tide of political
agitation was beginning to rise high, and Hacaulay was borne alonff with the current.
There can be no doubt that MacauJay was an immense accession to the whig party ; for
he believed in whiggism with a profound sincerity that has never been uuestioned; and
he was able to present the grounds of his belief in a manner so powerful and attractive
that his very opponents were charmed, and almost convinced. In 1830 he entered par-
liament for the pocket-borough of Calne (which was placed at his service by the marquis
of Lansdowne) lust in time to take part in the memorable struggle for reform, in favor
of which he made several weighty and effective speeches. When the first reformed parlia-
ment assembled in 1883 Macaulay sat as member for Leeds, and at once took a promi-
nent position in the house. He was now made secretarv of the board of control for India ;
and in the following^ year went out to India ae a member Of the supreme council. Here
he remained till 18&. His chief labor was the preparation of a new Indian penal code.
A conspicuous feature of this code was the humane consideration it displayed for the
natives (which drew down upon its author the hostility of the Anglo-Indians). On his
return to England he resumed his political career, and was elected m.p. for the city of
Edinburgh in 1889. In 1840 he was appointed war-secretary. While holding ofl9ce he
composed, appropriately enough, those magnificent martial ballads, the Lay9 of Ancient
Borne (1842); and in the following year published a collected series of his Asays in 3
vols. In 1846 he was made paymaster-general. Macaulay had always been one of the
most courageous and unflinching advocates of religious freedom: accordingly he had
defended the Roman Catholic relief bill ; his first speech in the house of commons was
in support of the bill to repeal the civil disabilities of the Jews, and now he supported
the Ma^^nooth grant. At this period, unfortunately for Macaulay, Edinburgh was the
arena of great ecclesiastical fermentation; and because he advocated a measure intended
to moderate the natural discontent of Roman Catholics, he was onsted from bis seat at
the general election in 1847. Five years later (1852) Edinbur^ did what it could in the
way of reparation by re-electing Macaulay without a single moTement made by him on
his own behalf. In 1848 appeared the first two volumes of his Bis^ry of Engiand prom
the Accession, ofJam^e II., the popularity of which must have made even saooeasful
novelists envious; next year he was chosen lord-rector of the university of Glasgow, on
which occasion he received the freedom of the city. When the third and fourth volumes
of his History were published in 1855, they occasioned a furore of excitement among
publishers and readers, "to which," it is said, ''the annals of Pa^moster row hardly
fyirnish any parallel." In 1857 the French academy of moral and political scieneeii made
him a foreign associate; and in the course of the same year he was raised to the peerage
of Great Britain under the title of baron Macaulay of Rotl^^^^ J^^ll^t^ l^wcver
875 ffiSBSK
ted hag Imm Mioft Md on D«c 98, 1869, he expired lomewbet suddenly et hie
widiner, HoUy Lodn, Gejnpcten HiU, Kensiugtoo, Loodqn. Be weg buried in West-
aiMlcr abbey. Vol. Y. oi bu Awfoiy^.a fniCTient, was pabliflbed in 1861; and a com*
pleM editkw of hie work% by bis aister, lady TreveJyan appeared in 1886. 3%$ Lifr and
IMen ^ Lord Ma4aulay, by bia nepbew, George Otto Trevelyan» M.F., an able and
fucioatinc biographj', was published in 1876.
Macautty was indisputably a man of splendid talent. His scholarship— in the strictly
dswcsl sense of the term— was admirable; his miscellaneous literary acquisitions were
■^■"'^'^ng prodigioQS; his knowledge of modern Suvopean, and especially of English,
hutoiy ffom the age of Henry YIU. down to his own, was unsurpassed— we might^with
nfety smr, unequaled; in addition, he had a ssgacity and swiftness of understandina
tbat enabled him to comprehend and rapidly methodize his vast array of facts; ana
vbU is perhaps more wonderful than all, his style is not in the least affected by the
immensity of his attainments. He " wears all his load of learning lightly as a flower."
In ease, purity, grace, force, and point, he rivals those who have made felicity of stvle
their cbief study. He has been accused of partialitv, of exaggeration, and of ffratimng
his psssion for epigram at tbe expense of truth; his Maebfybas been termea a " huge
whig pamphlet;" and strong exception has been taken to piurticular passages, where ms
Tiews appear to some to be biased hy persona! antipathies, such as his aescription of
Scotland, the Hirtlands, the massacre of Glencoe, Marlborough, Penn, etc. ; but the
eiKDtial tmth and accuracy of his narrative, ss a whole, has never been disproved.
MACAU'LET, CATHAStite £., 1787-1841 ; b. Ireland. A wealthy man named Callar
htn. who had adopted her, left her at his death a considerable fortune, with which she
founded in 1827, at Dublin, a home for poor women out of work; tills was finallv called
the ** histitute of our btesaed lady of mercy," and was devoted to the care of tbe sick.
Mis MacAuley became superior of the order of the sisters of mercy to which (he Dublin
ifistitution gare rise, and tnat order has since spread through Europe and America.
MACAW, Maerocercus, a genus of the parrot family (pHttaeidce), distinguished by a
Tery long wedge-shaped tail, long and pointed wings, large strong feet, the sides of the
head na&ed, the bill short and very strong, the upper mandible greatly arched, and hav-
ifl^a long diarp tip, the lower mandible much shorter, and of massive thickness. The
species are among the largest and most splendid of the parrot race; they are all natives
of trocical America. Thev do not readily learn to articulate, their attainments seldom
exceeaing one or two words, but are easily domesticated, and become much attached to
those wiUL whom they are well acquaintea. Their natural notes are hoarse and piercing
screams. They are more or less gregarious, and the appearance of a flock of macaws in
bright sunshine is wonderfully brilliant. They breed twice a year, and la^ their eggs—
senerally two— in tbe hollows of decayed trees. They feed chiefly on fruits and seeds;
inA often commit great depredations on fields of maize. One of the flock is set to watch
on some elevated situation, and on the approach of danjger, dves the alarm by a cry.
Iq domestication, macaws readily eat bread, su^r, etc.— The Great Scarlet macaw
iJT araeanga) is sometimes more than 8 ft. in length, including the long tail.—
The Orbat ubsek Macaw (Jf. mUitans) and the. Blue avd Yeldow Macaw (JH.
drarauna) are rather smaller. These are among the best known species. The otiier
?pecie8 are numerous.- Allied to the macaws, but approaching to the parakeets, are the
species forming the genus jmttae<iraf alt of them also natives of the new world. The
cheeks are feathered, and the bill less arched than in the true macaws. — Allied to them
Hio are the araras, of which one, the Carolina Arara, or Carolina Parrot {arara
CarcHnermt), extends much further north in America than any other of the parrot
family. It is about 14 in. long, ggj with green and gold, is gre&;arious, and commits
j^reat depredations in orchards and maize-fields. It cannot be taught to articulate words,
but readily becomes very familiar.
KACAW-TBJBS, Great. AcroconUa aderocarpa, a palm of the same tribe with the
cocoa-nut, a native of the West Indies, and of the warm parts of America. It is called
waeojfa in Guiana, and maeahuba in Brazil. It is from ^ to 80 ft. high, with pinnated
ieaves, from 10 to 15 ft Ions. The fruit yields an oil, of a yellow color, of the consist-
eoce of butter, with a sweetish taste, and an odor of violets, used, in the native regions
of the tree, as an emollient in painful affections of the joints, and extensively imported
into Britain, where it is sometimes sold as palm ail, io be used in the manufacture of
toilet-soaps.
HAGBXTH (or Macbeathad MacFinlboh, as he is called in contemporary chroni-
cles), a king of Scotland, immortalized by the genius of Shakespeare. From his father
Fmlegh, tbe son of Ruadhri, he inherited the rule of the provinoe of Morav; and he
oecame allied with Uie roval line by his marriage with Gruoch MacBoedhe, the grand-
(laughter of king Kennetn MacDuit. In the year 1039 he headed an attack upon king
PuAcan MacCnnsji, at a place called Bothgouanan (the "Smith's Bothy''), where the
King was mortally wounded, but survived to be carried to Elgin, in Moray. Macbeth
Qow ascended the throne, and his reign of 17 years is commemorated in the chronicles
Ma time of plenty. He made grants to the Culdees of Loch Leven, and in the year
1050 went in pilgrims^ to Bome. Malcolm MacDuacan, or Ccanmore, the eldest son
of king Duncan MacC^nan, had fled to England on his father's dei^^ |^ i^&fJWr
^A^tthf. ^^®
mcT of 1054, his kinsman, Siward, earl of Nbrtbumberlamd, UA on ^gltflh amy into
Scotland against Macbeth. That king was defeated "with great slaughter, bat eeeaped
from the Held, and still kept the throne. Four years afterwards, he was again defeated
by Malcolm MacDuncan; and jQieeing northwards across the moantaifi-range sltioe called
the Qrampians, he' was slam at Lumpfaanan, in Aberdeenshire, on Dee. S, 1050. His
followers were able toplace ]^is nephew, or step-son, Lulaoh, on the throne; and his
defeat and death at Essie, in Strathbogie, oa April 8, 1057, opened the suooession to
Malcolm, who three weeks afterwards, was crowned at 6oone. This is all that is cer.
tainly known of the history of Ma<ibeth. The fables whfeh gmdnatly accumulated
round his name were systematized in the beginning of 'the^l6l1i c. oy the hiatoriaa Hector
Boece, from whose pages they were transferred to the chronicle of HoUinshed, where
they met the eye of Shakespeare. Nearly half a century before his great play was
written, Buchanan had remarked how well the legend of Macbeth was fltled for Uie
stage.
McCABE, Jambb D., Jb.» b. Richmond, Va., about 1840; received his education
at the Virginia military institute; began very early to write for the nress, and during
the rebellion employed his pen in the service of the confederacy. Be has published
a Lift qf lAeut^-Gen. T. J, Jaekum, a Memoir of Gen, A, S. JahnsUm, and The Idfe and
Gampaigns oj Gen. R E. Zee. He has also written many poems and short stories.
XAC'CABEXS, a word of uncertain meaning and origin. The founder of the Macca-
bean dynasty, Matitbjahu (Asamonaios, Chashmonaj), a priest <not„ as generally sup-
posed, a high^priest, nor even of the family of high-priests), was the first who made a
stand against the persecutions of the Jewish nation and creed by Antiochus Epiphanes.
At the be^ning of the troubles, he had retired, together with his five sons, Jochanan
(Gadde8--JB:add&h), ^mon (Tassi— Mathes), Jehudah (Makkabi), Eleazar (Avaran*-5yr.
Chavin), Jonathan (Apphus), to Modiin.a small place between Jerusalem and Joppa, to
mourn in solitude over Hhe desolation of the holy city and the desecration of the temple.
But the Syrians pursued him thither. He being a person of importance, Apelles, a
Syrian captam, endeavored to induce him, by tempting promises, to relinquish his faith,
and to embrace the Greek religion. He answered by slaying with his own hand the
first renegade Jew who approached the altar of idolatry. This gave the sign to a sud-
den outbreak. His sons, together with a handful of faithful men, rose against the
national foe, destroyed all traces of heathen worship, already established in Modiln and
its neighborhood, and fled into the wilderness of Judah. Their number soon increased;
and not long after, they were able to make descents into the adjacent villages and cities,
where they circumcised the children, and restored everywhere the ancient religion of
Jehovah. At the death of Mattathiah (166 B.G.), which took place a few years after the
outbreak, Judah Makkabi (166-161 B.C.) took the command of the patriots, and repulsed
the enemy, notwithstanding his superior force, at Mizpah (6,000 a^nst 70,000), Bethsor
(10,000 against 65,000), and other places, reconquered Jerusalem, purified the temple
(feast of reconsecration — Chanuka), and reinaugurated the holy service (164 B.C.).
Having further concluded an alliance with the Romans, he fell iu a battle against
Bacchides (161 b.g.). His brother Jonathan, who succeeded him in the leadership,
renewed the Homan alliance, and takinc: advantage of certain disputes about the Syrian
throne, rendered vacant by the death of Antiochus, acquired the dignity of high-priest.
But Tryphon, the guardian of the young prince Antiocnus Theos, fearing his infiuence,
invited him to Ptolemais, and had him there treacherously executed. Simon, the second
brother, was elected by the Jewish commonwealth to assume the reins of the national
government, and was formally recognized both by Demetrius, Tryphon's antagonist,
and by the Romans as "chief and ruler of the Jews." He completely re-established the
independence of the nation, and the year after his succession (141 B.C.) was made the
starting-point of a new era. The almost absolute power in his hands he used with wise
moderation; justice and righteousness flourished in his days, and "Judah prospered as
of old." But not lon^ (7 years) after his accession to the supremacy, he was foullv mm>
dered(186 B.c.)hy his own son-in-law, Ptolemy, who vainly hoped to succeed him.
For the subsequent history of this family, see Jews; HtbCanus; and "Bbbod. The
feast of the Maccabees — i.e., both of the sons of Mattathiah, and«of the seven martyr
children (2 Mace. 7) — is found in the Roman martyrology tmder the date of Aug. L
KAG'GABEES, BOOKS OV, certain apocryphal writings of the Old Testament, treating
chiefly of the history of the Maccabees (q.v.J. They are usually divided into four parts,
or books; the first of which— the most important — comprising the period 17o-185
B.C., relates the events which took place in Juoea, Antiochus IV. flpiphanes's misdeeds
against the temple, the city, and the nation (ch. i., ii.); the rising of Mattathiah and his
sons against the oppressor, the heroic deeds of Juuah Maccabeus (iii.-ix.), of Jona-
than (ix.-xii.), and Simon, until the election of Johannes Hyrcanus to the dignity of
high-priest Tlie account, which bears the aspect of strict truthfulness, proceeds
.chronologically after the Seleucidian eta. According to Origen and Jerome, this book
was originally written in Hebrew. The author, probably a Palestinian, composed it
IMtttly from traditions, partly from official docunients, after the death of Simon, during
the ;h!gh-prie8thood of Johannes Hyrcanus, and It was shortly afterwards translated
into <^reek, Syriac, and Latin. The second book containS:^t^e?V^jB^I^I!^l^ ^^ ^'
277 itSSi^.
aitmkn toilie SgTpdfm Jews, invitiiiff them to celebrate the feeet of the leinauguraiioii
of the temple (ChanukahX <i, ii«); and 2. An extract, with introduction and epilogue,
from the five books of the Maccabees, by Jason of Cyrene. This second portion begins
vith the spoliation of the temple by Hedodonis, nnder Beleucus Phllopator, and «nds
with the death of Nicanor; thns embracing the period 179-161 b.c. The two letters
ire sparions, and of a late date; and the extract from Jason's work*— to a great extent,
only an embelliahed repetitk>n of the first book of the Maccabees, of a partly moralizing,
putlj legendary nature— contains many chronological and historical errors, and bears
altogether the stamp of being written for merely religious and didactic pur^ioses. The
date both of the original anc(the extract are very uncertain, but the latter does not seem
to have been made before the middle of the 1st centuty b.c.
These two books (9iflv Ohashmonaiinym the only ones received in the Vulgate, and
declared canonical by the councila of Florence aaa Trent, and .trandated . by Luther.
The third and fourth, however, appear to have been altogether unknown to the western
church. The former of these treats of an ante-Maccabean incident: the miraculous sal-
T&don of the Jews in Egypt whom Ptolemaeus Phiiopator (221-304 B.c.) tried to force
into idolatry. The style and general contents of this book point to an Alexandrine
Hellenist as the author or compiler (about 200 B.C.); some investigators (Ewald, Grimm),
however, are of opink)n that the whole is a poetical invention, intended as a typical
description of the cifcumslanoes of the Jews under OaligulB. The fourth book,wrOhgly
npposed to be identical with Josephus's dupremaey cf Reoion, contains, chiefly, the
martyrdom of Eleazarand the seven brothers, and is jmrobably also the work of an Alexan-
drine Jew living in Egypt^periiaps at the time of Herod the gveat*^aiid belonging, te
the Stoic school. DeclamacioaB, dialogues, monologoes, and the like, are of mquent
occurrence, and impart to the book the character of a most artifloial and stndned com-
position. There is also a so-called fifth book of Maooabees to be found in the Polvglot,
but onlv the Arabic and 83nriac versions, not the Greek original— the unique MS. of
which IS supposed to have perished^-are extant 8ee Apoobtpha, Bmii^ •
HcCAIX, Oeorgb Abchibald, 1802-08; b. Penn.; graduated at West Point in 1829;
entered the army and was made first lieut. In 1829, capt. in 1886, and maj, In 1847^
He served with distinction in the Florida and Mexican wars, was made inspector *gen. in
1S30. and resigned In 1858. In 1891 he commanded a volunteer force called the Penn-
^Iranla '* reserve corps," receiving a maj.gen.'s commission from tliat state. His corps
was attached to the army of the Potomac, and he led it through part of the peninsula
campaign of 1862, till the battle of Fiazier's Farm, where he was taken prisoner. He
was ez(!hanged in August, but his Lealth prevented his returning to the army, from
which he resigned in Mar., 1868.
KACCALU'BA, an interesting mud volcano or air volcaho of Sicily, siti^ated not far
from the road between Girgentl and Aragona. It is known to have been in a state of
frequent activity for the last 15 centuries. It consists of a large truncated cone of bar-
ren argillaceous earth, elevated about 200 ft. above the surrounding plain, with wide
cracks in all directions, and numeroni little hillocks with craters, which at times emit a
hollow rumbling noise, and throw up a fine cold mud mixed with water, a little petro*
ieum and sulphureous gas. Reports like the discharge of artillery are occasionally heard;
sli^t local earthquakes are felt, and mud and stones are thrown up to a height of 80 ft.
or more.
McCARTEE, JRobbrt, d,d., 1791-1865; b. N. Y.; graduated at Columbia col-
lege, 1808; having studied law and practiced it for several vears, he entered the theo-
logical Beminary of the Associate Reformed church and in 1816 was licensed to preach;
in 1817 installed pastor of the Old Scots' church, Philadelphia, which was greatly
strengthened under his ministry; in 1822 became pastor of the Irish Presbyterian church,
New York, which, under his charge, increased from 80 members to more than 1000,
becoming one of the prominent churches in the denomination; in 1886, because of
impaired health, he took a less laborious charge at Port Carbon, Penn., where he formed
alyceum of natural history and was a zealous promoter of education among the miners;
in 1840 removed to Goshen, N. Y. ; in 1849 to Newburg; 1856-63, pastor ofthe Twenty-
fifth Street Aasociate church. New York city; after which, in declming health, he spent
the remainder of his useful life at Yonkers, K. Y.
McCarthy, Jtnrm, b. Onrk, Irehind, 1880; entered upon the career of a loumaiist
It the age <tf 16 years by Joining the staif of the Cork Examiner, which paper he left in
1858 to connect himself with the Liverpool Northern Times, He entered the reporters*
gillery of the house of commons in 1860 as a reporter for the Morning Star, of which
journal he became foreign editor the next year, and editor <in-chief in 1864, in which
position he remained four years. In 1868 he made a tour In the United States, where he
remained three years, occiupying the meet of his time in travel, and visiting 35 states.
Mr. McCarthy published his first novel, Paul Memk, anonymously in 1866; this was
foDowed by TU WaterdA NMkbare, 1867; My Bnemy*$ DaughUr, 1860; Lady JudUh,
1871; A Fair SoMm, 1878; Unky Boohford, 1874; Dear Lady Diedain, 1875; Mi$$ Mis-
ntkrope, 18T7; Danha Qweatte, 1819; and The OomH of a Seaeon, 1881. He also wrote
mimerons papers for the QaUuBy (Kew York), some of which were compiled and pub
Ihhed in a volume under the title Modem Leaders; and A Hietory <^ Our Own Time$
SSSSL.. 278
being ft chronicle of ttrtJ t»Veftts <$f tbfe Tftlgri of queen Viciori*, 1877-80. In 1879 he wm
«l«ot€d to parliftdxent from Lon^ord, Ireland-, u8 a " home ruler/'
HoCAUL, John,, d.p., i.l.d., b. Dublin* 1810^ educated at Trinity cpUege, Dublin,
obtaining the highest hanor«» and appointed dasucal tutor and. ezjuniner; appointed in
1838 principal of the Upper Canada colle^; in 18i3 became vice-president of Kin^'i
college, ana professor of the ckssics, logic, and rhetoric; president oi the universit^r
of Toronto: in 1863 president of iTniversi^ colleffe^ and vice-chancellor of the nni-
venity of Toronto. He has published essays on classical subjects, lectures on Homer
and Virgil» and edited some of the clsiSsics, al^ a Canadian monthly, the Maple Leaf,
His irUaniwSaman Ingcriptums and Chmiian BpUaph$ of th^ Fird Six Centmiei are
valuable worker. He composed, lilso, some anthems and other pieces of music.
IfoCAW, JakbsBbown, 177^1846; b.Va.; studied medioine at the ualverst^ of
Edinburgh, and retamhig to Virginia became the principal suTgeon In the MaKa
McCAW, Jakes Brown, b. Richmond, Va., 1828; ^[raduated at the university of
New York in 1844; edited this Virginia Medical and Surgtcal Journal 13 years; was first
lecturer^ then pirofessor in the Virginia medical college. During the rebellion he organ-
ized the Chimborazo hospital at Richmond, in which over 70,000 patients were treated.
McCHEYNJ^, ROHBBT Miuirat, 1813^48; b. Edinbunh; entering the high school st
the ace of eight, he held big^ rank in his classes; educatedfit the university of Edinbuigli
in 1^7-^1, gaining prises in various departments of studies; in 1831 commenced tiie
study of theology with Dr. Ctialwars and Dr. Welsh; was licensed to preach in 18^,
and began his ministry at Larberty a parish of Q.O0O people.. He was then an intense
student of the Bible, reading it in Hebcew and Greek. In 1838 he was prdained and
innteiled pastor of St Peter's chuioh, Dundee.. After several years, hia health failing,
he resigned, and went to Palestine, witJk three others, on a "mission of inquiry to the
Jews." Returmnffwith improved health* he resumed his pastorate of St. Peter's till
184d, when, hia health again failing, ha made a tour through the n. of England,
preaching in the open air and in churches of different denominations. Returnmg to
Dundee, ne had an assistant, and in 184&. made another tour as an evangelist He was
pre-eminent as a pastor, preacher, and Christian. His earnest and faithiul labors were
instrumental in the conversion of great numbers in the memorable revival of 1888. He
possessed fine literary taste, and left several hymns of great beauty. In 1837 a collec-
tion of his works was published in two volumes, and several volumes of his remains,
letters, and ftagments have been issued. The Na/rraUveof a Mimon of Inquiry to ^
Jeuis from the Church of Scotland, in connection with the rev. A. A. Bonar, m two
volumes, was published in 1839. His life also has been written by Mr. Bonar.
XACCHIAVEZiIL Niccolo di BaiufASDO dei, born of an ancient but decayed family
at Florence, in 1469, and a pupil of the celebrated scholar, Marcello Vlrgilio, was
employed in public affairs from a very early age, and may be regarded as the literary
representative of the political life of the importan^erlod to which he belongs. From a
subordinate post in the office of the chancellor of Florence, which hehdd atttiat critical
period of the republic which succeeded the expulsion of the Medici inl493, he rose, in
1498, to the place of secretary of the "ten, which, in the Florentine constitution of
that day, may be regarded as the ministry of foreign affairs. Macchiavelli s duties were
almost entirely diplomatic: he was employed in a great variety of missions, the instruc-
tions and correspondence connected with which may almost be said to contain the secret
political history of Italy during his time. The culminating point of Macchiavelll*s
reputation as a diplomatist was his mission to the great master of treachery and dissimu-
lation, Ceesar Borgia, duke of Valentino, in 1503, of which an account is preserved in
52 letters written during the course of the negotiation, not surpassed in dmmatic interest
by any series of state-papers which has ever been produced. In the complicated exter-
nal relations which Italy had now assumed, and which have remained with few changes
to the present day, Macchiavelli is found in communication with all the great foreign
powers, as he had hitherto been with, the Italian principalities. In 1507 he was
sent to the emperor Maximilian; and in 1510 he undertook a mission to IfVance (the
third time he had visited that Country in a diplomatic capacity), which had a most
important bearing on the relation of France with Italy, and the results of which will be
best understood by comparing the league of Cambrai with the subsequent alliance for
the expulsion of the Freneh out of Italy. On the restoration of the Medici in 1619,
Macchiavelli was involved in the downfall of his patron, the Gonfaloniere Soderini. He
was arrested on a charge of consplnM^ in 1518. On being put to the torture, he dis-
claimed all knowledge of the alleged conspiracy; but although pardoned, in virtue of
the amnesty ordered by Leo X., be was obliged for several years to withdnnr from public
life, during which period he devoted himself to literature. It was not till the death of
Lorenzo de^ Medici, in 1519, that Macchiavelli began to recover favor. He was commis-
sioned-In that year, by Leo X., to draw up his report on a reform of the state of Florence;
and in 15dl, and the following years, he resumed his old ofllcial occupation, being
employed in various diplomatic services to several of the states .of Itidy. On his return
to Florence in May, 1527, he was taken ill, and having trusted to his own treatment of
himself, the malady nssumed a very formidable character, and in the end proved fatal.
<m^iiiiett|1837,lM*:MMaodiittPdiibMl4ionpl6ted 6oine<Ufl6i«M»ol
opinion Iim exUtoa as to liis ]iri|cioii» beilitf , snd as to bis seatiiiMiits duriD^ bis buH
boors; bat U sssaw oertain tbat bis deatb was marbsd br seatiments of relifioii, sad
aeoJidiwioifed by tiie 'ordinary ministralaoiis of bis cbaidi. His last years, bowerer^
were comparatiirely nsglecled. He was buried in tlie faadiy ^FmUH in tlis churcb of
Santa Ofoce; bat it was only in 1787, and tlien tbsough tbe mimifioeaes d a fbfieignsr,
tbe earl Cowper, tbat a moamaent was raised to Ids memory.
HaccbSaTBlli's writings are very anmenms, filling StoIs. 4to<FlorMce, 178B)i or 10
Tols. dvo. Besides bis letten and state^papers, wliicdb, as we bare seen, sre of tlie bigb-
est interest* liis bistorical writings also comprise FkntUine Mtiorut^- extending from
1216 to 1402, witb a fragmentary continuation to 1409; Di$cour$e8 an ikt FinL Decatk of
IttuM LunM$; a L^e of CaMtucdo Ccutraeani (unfinlsbed); a JSROory qf tAs Jffain of
LveecL Bis literary works comprise comedies an imitation of tbe Golden Am of
Apuleius, an essay on tbe Italian language, and ssTeral minor compositions.. He also
wrote Seien Booka on the Art of War, wbicE bas been much admired by iha learned in
military science. But tbe great source oT bis reputation, for good or for evil, is the
celebrated book, De Pnne^patibue, or, as it bas since been called, Del Principe, some
account of which is indispensable, in order to a ]u8t appreciation of the author. The
main question discussed in this world-famed book is: "How principalities may be gov-
erned and maintained.'* In resolving this question, various cases are supposed, for each
of wbicb, appropriate rules, princip^, and suggestions are laid down, and all are illus-
trated both by contempora^ examples and by a wealth of bistorical leamiog which it
is difficult to overrate. The 7th chapter, in wbicb he details, and with evident admira-
tioii, tbe system of Ctesar Borg^, and the 18th, in which ne discusses "tbe duty of
princes as to the obligation of keeping faith," are perhaps those which ,have most con-
tributed to draw upon the author tbe odious reputation of wliicb his very name has
become tbe symbol; but, in truth, these chapters are only more precise and more formal
than tbe rest» from their heaping together statements which are elsewhere Insinuated or
supposed; the broad scheme of Uie book beinfi" everywhere tbe same, viz., that, for the
establishment and maintenance of authority, afi means may be resorted to; and that the
worst and most treacherous acts of the ruler, however unlawful in themselves, are Justi-
fied by tbe wickedness and treacherv of the ^vemed. 8uch being the moral of the
book, a question has arisen as to the intention of the writer, and a favorite theory for a
time prevuled that The Prince was but a satire upon absolutism, and was designed to
serve tbe cause of liberty, of which Macchiavelli was an ardent /riend, bv making
arbitrarv power odious and contemptible. This theory, however, besides being
utterly irreconcilable witb tbe tone of the work, Is completely disproved by a letter of
Macchiavelli to bis friend Yettori, 1518, which was onlv discovered in 1810, and which
shows tbat The Prince was written by Hacchlavelli in all seriousness, in order to- recom-
mend himself to the Hedici (for whose private perusal it was designed, and not for pub-
lication) as a master in the art of government. In his ardor for tbe liberation of Italy
from tbe rule of foreigners, Macchiavelli had become convinced that strong native
fi;ove7nments. even tbou^ absolute, must be endured; and, having accepted that of the
Medici for Florehce, he was content to use all means for its secun^ and consolidation.
The Prince vrta published after Macchiavelli's death, at Rome, in lfiS2; and if any doubt
should be entertained as to the seriousness of the author, it need only be compared with
the commentary which is furnished by every page of bis Legagioni, or the reports of bis
diplomatic missions, which are also contained in his collected works. Of the many
cntidams and rejoinders to which The Prince has given occasion, the most remarkable
is that of Frederick the great, AntimacchicbveUi, on Examen du Prince de MacchiateUi,
1740. It may be added tmtt The Prince was condemned by pope Clement VIII.
KcCLELLAN, Gbobgs^ 1706-1847; b. Conn. ; educated at Yale, and graduated in
medicine from the University of Pennsvlvania in 1810. He was one of the founders of,
and a professor in, the Jefferson medical college, Philadelphia, 1828-80 ; and in the Gettys-
burg medical college from 1880-48. He published The Prineijplei and Practice of Bur-
gery^ and his rank as a surgeon was high.
MoCUnLOr, O&OBOS Bbihtok. Mag..gen. n.B.A., was b. at Fbiladelphbi in Dec.,
1826. In bis 16tli year be was sent to the United Stotes military academy at West
Point, where be graduated witb high honors in 1846v and joined the army as second
lieat. of engineers, to take an active part in tbe Mexican war, where be disthiguisbed
himself unaer gen. Soott, in the battles of Contieras, Cburubuaco, Mcdino del Rey, and
Cbapultepec, and was promoted to a captaincy. At tbe end of tbe war be was
appointed to a professonhip at West Point, and wrote a manual on tbe art of war. He
built fort Delaware, commenced a topographical survey for tbe Paeiflc railway, and was
one of three American otfioers sent to observe tbe campaign in tbe Crimea. On bis
return to America, be resigned bis commission in tbe army, and became technical duec-
tor of tbe HUnols Central railway. At the comroeneement of tbe war of secession, 1861,
he was appointed maj.gen. of die Ohio milUis, but, by tbe advice of gen. Soott, be was
tendered br pcesident Lincoln the position of maj.gen. of the army. After a sueosssful
campaign In western Virginia, be was made commander-in-chief, and reorganised the
army of tbe Potomac, defeated at Bull Run, July dl, 1861. In the summer of 1868 he
980
iivvMked Vinrinla^-by tha pMifaMiiU of Japiwrhror^'aiid adTSDMedoMff t6JUcllBiond,bat
w«s defeated iii' a. series of battles in: July, .asd compelM' te< netieafe^ and &iaUv to eTsc-
Qste Ifae peninsula. After tb6 defeat of gen. Pope, in the aeoondi baltle of Bull Rnn,
Aur. 20, 1802, which wbb followed br &ooDledeiiite invasion of Maarylaad, hereoi^gan-
ized the army at Washington, marched rapidly noHh, met the foroes of gen. Lee at
Antietam, and compelled him to recpoes the Potomaa He followed the confederates
into Virginia, but being opposed to the policy of tiie extreme war-party, he was super-
seded by gtn. Bumside. • La 1804 he was the democratic candidatid for the pcesideocy.
He was then in IDnrope till 1§68, and in 1877 was elected governor of New Jersey. He
has published several military papers.
McCLELLAN, Gsokoe BRnqTOK (ante); son of Qeorge, who was a distinguished
physician, graduate of Yale college, and founder of Jefnerson college. His remoter
ancestors were Scotch. At West Point he gained a reputation for close application and
intelligent study, rather than for brilliancy or showy talents. It was a surprise when
this quiet, thoughtful, but not retnarkable student graduated second in general rank in
the largest class that had ever left the academy, ana first in the class of en^neeriDg. In
the spring of 1855 he was appoluted to a captaincy in the first cavalry regiment, under
col. Sumner. 'As one of the commission sent to the Crimea, he combined in making
the official report, which was published by the U. S, government, and which recom-
mended improvements in the organization and discipline of the American army. Soon
after entering the service of the Illinois Central railroad, he became vice-president of
the road. In May, 1860, he married the daughter of gen. K. B. Marcy. In August of
that year he resigned his position in the Illinois Central, to assume the presidency of the
Ohio and Mississippi railroad, which post he held, residing in Cincinnati, until the out-
break of the rebellion. His commission of maj.gen. of volunteers bore date J^'pril 28,
1861, and he was at once appointed to organize me regiments forming in the state of
Ohio. Called to the command , of the armies of the United States after the disastrous
aflfair of tha first Bull Run, gen. McClellan soon discovered the potent influence which
politics were destined to exercise over the progress of the conflict. Chafing under the
first serious repulse of the war, the people clamored for immediate action, while to many
politician^ this was not desirable. Cross-purposes resulted in placing the young com-
mander at a disadvantage ; and from the period pf his being placed ill supreme com-
mand, to that when he >yas ordered to resign in favor <>f gen. Pope, he may be said
never to have been relieved from the trammels of politics. The great sliccess which he
fiiined at Antietam reviyed the drooping hopes of the couhtry, and it is on record that
is final supersedure by gen. Bumside was against the judgment of that officer, who
was presenUy defeated at Fredericksburg, to be succeeded in turn by. gen. Hooker,
who immediately went into winter cantonmetits. Prom Antietam to Gettysburg, the
history of the army of the Potomac was a history of defeat and disaster. In the presi-
dential campaign of 1864, gen. McClellan received a popular vote of 1,800,"000, Mr. Lin
coin receiving S,200,000. After his return from Europe in 1868, he mad^ his home at
Orange mountain. New Jersey, and Nov. 6, 1877, was elected governor of that state, fill-
ing the chair until 1881. On hjs rfetirement from that position he assumed the bfflce of
president of a new underground railroad company organized in the city of New York.
Gen. McClellan is the author of a volume of the series of government reoorts of the sur-
vey for the Pacific railroad; The Aitnies cf Europe, 1861; Eeport on the Organkatum
and Cawpaiqns of the Army of the Potomac; and a number of important articles contrib-
uted to the N^orth American Umev>, and other peHodlcals, incltiaing the valuable series
of papers published in 1877 on the Russo-Turkish War. As a scientific and practical
engineer he stands in the first rank; while even his opponents concede his abilities as a
military critic and organizer, his conscientiousness ana unassuming wortli.
McCLERNAND, John A., b. Ky., 1812; passed his early youth at Shawneetown,
BL, on the Ohio river,, 182 m. 8.e. of Springfield, where his motlier had removed on the
death of his father in 1816. Here his time was divided between the labor of the farm
and the study of the law until 1882, when he was admitted to the bar. In 1888, having
served as a private in the war against Black Hawk, chief of the Sac and Fox tribes,
which' ended Aug. 2 of that year inthi defeat of the Indiaas near the Wisconsin river.
he tcsumed the practice of his profession; and engaged in mevcantile. pursuits. In 18S&
he became the editor and publisher of The Demoerati In 1886 he repr^aenied his dis-
trict in the state legislature, and again in 1840 and 1843. From 1848 to 1851 he was
member of coogrcSs frcwi Illin/ois. In 1851 he removed to Jacksonville, and in 1S59
was elected congressman from the Springfield district. At the breaking out of the rebel-
lion, havine been appointed brig.gen. May 17, 1801, he raised by liis peisonal influence>
with that G? cols. Lc^an and Fonke, the.McCl8raaiid brigade, which he. commanded at
the bottler of Belmont, on the Mississippi river, oppoaite Columbus, Ky.> Nov, 7 of the
same year, where, being greatly outnumbered, his losoe suffisred defeat. In Feb., 1862.
he gaikntly led his command, oit the right o£. the' union lines, at the bombardment of
fort Donelson, aad was promoted in the following March to the command: of » division,
which he led April 6 and 7 ait the battle of Bhiloh, or Pittebur£ Jjanding, aoainst gens.
A. S. Johnston and Beauregard, resulting in the death of gen. Johnston and the letieat
of the cdnfedenrtea. Qni Jan. 4, 1863, he superseded gei^]lg'^^.^Sh»muan in the com
mand'cjf t&e'f6r^'Ar«ftt6riidgVtcki>ur|f'01i6'M!fC^ i^MibMg fM^ bdnfmstid of
his otrri corjife, tlie ISth), otitil ^l!6ved by genl Grant, irlio waa plaecd at the head of
bH the fbrces opetAtXng against Vtcksbiifg. On Jan/11 » his dfvfsion b^nr eombhied
with the naTal fbrces under admiral Porter, he commanded the exi)editiott thiit Unalty
carried by storm the earrisoned village of Arkansas Post, taking a numl)ier (ft prisoners
and Impaenoe qnantiafaa of oommi)98ary storea H^ also ^ifitiogiUi^hed hllll^eU oi» the
Big Black liyer. Mi^ IZ^ U863. and on the morain^ after the baUle oC Cbamnion hiUbi^
May If^, 1868^ sometUBes callddBakor's pre^k. Tfcas despeuate struggle lasted £Lve hours,
in wlhkdi tiie ooofederatea^vfiupe forced back tp tjbbs BigBlaok riv^, losing heavily in
men and artillerr, his owa eorpsr^ith that of gen, McPherson's, suffering terribly in
killed and weionaed. The oonfedeeates, having intrejiched tbeavBe^ves on both banlu of
Uh liver,- w«r6 sucocssful^ assaulted^ 17 pieces of their artillery nv^re captured, and the
iMiUMu»l of ^ea. Pembertoa's amy was compelled to retresit to their stronghold of
Yicfcsbiiiff, On Nov, 80, 1864» he leaigBed his oocamjasioQ as maj.gen. of t^e 18th army
corpa» and retired to private life.
MAC^SJUmeUk, an important mannfacturiBg t. of Cheshire« SiDgland, is situated
<m the river BoUin, on the western base of a range of low hills, 15 m. s.&e. of Man-
chester. It conlaiaaa fine old church, St. Michaers, founded in, 1278} and a grammar
school, endowed in 1602^ and having an aanoal revenue of £1500. Within the present
oentuiy Maodeafield has advanced rapidly as a seat of manufaoturos. 8ilks, embracing
the finest varieties« are the principal fabrics made; cotton goods and small- wares are
maaufactosed* and tb^re are <j^e-works and breweries. In the vicinity, icoal, slate, and
stone are obtained. Macclesfield returns two members to the house, of commons. Pop.
71, 35,570, showing a slight decrease since 1861.
McCLIKTOCK, dik- Fbancis Leopolp, d.c.l., lud., b. Ireland, 1819; entered the
navv in 1831, and in 1888, having passed his examinations^ he went to South America
in the steamship Gorgon. For his services in brinsing off the Qorgon, which ran ashore
near Montevideo, he was made a lieut. in 1845. He was attached t^ the Pacific squad-
ron, 1815-47, and in 1848 was a member of the Arctic expedition iindcr sir James U.
Ross for the relief of sir Johp Franklin. In 1850 he was first Ueut. of the Bemtance in the
Arctic expedition under capt. Austin; and in Ajpril, 1851, began a sledge, journey along
the northern shore of Parry sound, traveling 76u m, in 80 d^yei On his return to Eng-
land be<^was made a commander, and in 1852 commanded Xht Inti'e/nd. in the Arctic
exnedition' under sir Edward Belcher. He succeeded in rescuing MbClure near Mel-
ville island, but was afterwards obliged to abandon his vessel; and only one of the five
ships which had composed Belcher's expedition succeeded in reaching England, "ta 1857
McCIintock, who in the meantime had beenpromoted to a captaincy, started in search
of sir John Franklin, in command of the FbXy a screw-steamer of 177 tons, fitted out
by lady Franklin. On the noith-westem coast M BLing William liand he found records
of the dea^h of ; sir John Franklin, and of the abandonment k4 the Webu» and Twror,
On his return in 1859 he was knighted, and received tfie degree of doctor of laws from
the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin. In 1&5 he was made commodore
of the Jamaica station, and in 1872 vice-admiral He published, \x\ 1869, Voyage qf the
Fax in the Arctic Seas,
McCLINTOOS;^ JoHN^ d.d., uud.. iai4-70; b. Philadelphia; graduated at the uni-
versity of Pennsylvania in 1835; ordained a minister of theHethodist Episcopal church,
and M>pointed professor of mathematics in Dickinson college in 1837; in 1840 trans*
ferrea to the professorafaip of Greek and Latin; translated; with Dr. Blumenthal, in 1847,
Neandfiifs I^ettf Chri$t^ and,, wi^i piiol. Crooks .prepared a seiieg of Qieek and Latin
text-books; m 1848 waaetected by the general oonferenoe editor of the Methodiit Quor-
teiHy Btvioifi, retaining the position for eight years. In 1856 he was appointed, with
bishop Simpson, a delegate to the Wesieyan Methodist conference of En^nd, and to
the evangelical alliance held at Berlin. In 1857 he became pastor of St. Paul's Metho-
dist churcn in New York, and iii 1860 was preacher in the American chapel in Paris.
When in £arq[>e, durinff the war of the rebellion, he advocated with ability the union
cause, in conversation, bj^ tl^e pen, and. on the platform; and, hia home in Paris was a
rallying center for patriotic Americans. During his absence he was eorresponding editor
of Uie MdihodiBt, lietaming to America in 1864, he was again, for a fboit time, placed
in char^ of St. Paul's church in New York. His health failing, he resigned in 1865,
and resided in Qermantown, Penui In 1866 he removed to New Brunswick, supply-
ing for a time St. James's church, and was made chairman of the central centenary
committee of the Methodist Episcopal church. Through his influence, Daniel Drew, a
member of Bt PauFs church in New York, contributed a large sum to the centenary
fund, which was i^ppropriated for the founding of an institution at Madison, N. J..
called the Drew theological seminary. Dr, McCIintock was its president till his death.
Dr. McCIintock attained a Jhi^h rank as a scholar,, teacher, writer, and preacher, and
for many years was ^^ leader, in the Methodist church. . Besides the works mentioned,
and niimerous artldes in periodicals, he published Analysis ofWiiison*s TfieologtcaUnsip-
tuten; i$%0A:A^ of Eminent Methodist Ministers; TJie Temporal Potoer of the Pove; a trans-
lation *)f Bnngenter'fl HUit^cfthe Counts of J^t, In the last » velars of Ids -life he
labored hi preparing ^ttVgt^ipeaiet dfS&fHeia, 'The(^dgie(gl,'and IBeetesiastieca Werafnr^,
IBSSSSSSi. 282
in connecUoii wkh the ny. Dr. Jumb Strong. . Al t|»e time of Dr. HcCDinftock'ii deatli
three volumee had been published,. the. work being continued by Dr. Strong. Biz vol-
umea have since been issued. A Toiume of Dr. McCIintock's sermona* entitled L6mu
Warde, and Leetwre$ an 2 kdological Mnc^dapoBdia and MBihodotogy, have been published
aince his death.
McCLOSKET, John, i>.d., Cardinal, b. Brooklyn, 1819; educaAed at fit Mary^
college, Maryland, and ordained to the priesthood in 1894. After spending two yean ia
Rome, he returned to New York, and became pastor of 8t. Joseph's ^uroh. In 181%
he was appointed coedjtitor of bishop Htighes, and in 1917 was oonseerated bishop of
the new diocese of Albany, wheie he remained till 1864, when he socceeded Dr. Hughes
as archbishop of New York. In 1875 Pius IX. made him a cardinal wicb the ti^ of
Santa Maria sopra Mineroa, and he reoeiyed his cardinars hal in Rome from Leo XHL
in 1878. He has shown himself a highly yigorous and successful adminlaOrator hi all his
responsible positions, and is both persbnally esteemed and popular as a cardiaal-prinoe
in his own communion and outside its bounda
McCLUKG, Jofior AuEZAKDBR, i>.D., 1804-89; b. Waahinfftott, Ey.; sludisd at
Princeton Uieological seminary; was licensed to preach fn the Presbyterian church in
1828; abandoned the ministnr on account of doubts as to the authenticity of some books
of the Bible, and commenced the study of law; admitted to the bar in 1865, and prac-
ticed with success tin 1849, when he again entered the ministry; was ofdaiaed in 1861,
and was pastor of the First Presbyteffan church, Indianapolis, 1851-57; declined Um
presidency of Hanorer college; was pastor at Maysyille, Ky., in 1867. He was a man of
brilliant intellect and solid learning.
McCLUR£..Ai«BXANpB9 Wilson, d.d., 18(18-65; b. Boston; educated at Yale and
Amherst collies and Andover theological seminary; settled pastor of the Congregational
church at Maiden. Mass., 1880-41; resided at St Augustine, FUl, 1841-44; editor of the
Christian Obdervatory, 1844-47; pastor again at Maiden, 1848-52; pastor of the First
Reformed church, Jersey City, 1852-55, and then became cor.sec, of the Am. and For.
Christian union. His health having failed, l^e was sent in 1856 ai( chaphun of the
Christian union to Rome, Italy. In 1858 he retired from public life, and was a great
aufferer from disease until his death. The American chapel in Paris was erected with
funds obtained bv Dr. McClure. His contributions were numerous for the ChmUan
Obsertaiory, Uie iffto Brurmoiek Meview, and Idt&rary and Theological Bevino, He pub-
lished also Lives of the Ohitf Fathers of New England; the Bi-CenUnnial Book ef Maiden;
The Translator^ Bevitdl, besides several controversial religious treatises. He was a man
of wit and learning and a skillful polemic, defending the oUl in theology and in ecclesias-
tical procedure.
McCLURE, 8hr Robbrt John lb Hbbubibr. See Maclubb^ entte.
McCLURG, Jambs, 1747-1825; b. Va. ; educated at William ishd Mary college and
at the university of Edinbuigh, where he took his medical dwee in 1770. In London,
where he continued his studies, he published an Essa^f anthemiman Bile, which attracted
much attention. On his return to Virginia he practiced his profession first at Williams-
burg, and afterwards at Richmond, and stood at the head of the profession in the
«tHte. He was a member of the convention that framed the U. 8. consthuiioa.
McCOOK, a CO. in s.e. Bakotab, formed since the census of 1870; watered by the
Termilion river; 482 sq.na. The soil is fertile and the surface mostly prairie land.
McCOOE, AiiBXAira>BB McDowbll, b. Columbuina co., Ohio, 1881; graduated at
West Point, and entered the army in 1852 as brevet second lieut. of infantry. He was
employed for a time in garrison duty, afterwards in Indian warfare, and m 1868 was
appointed instructor in infantry tactics at West Point On the outbreak of the rebellion
he was appointed col. of the 1st Ohio volunteers, which he led in the first battieof Ball
Run. In 1861 he was made brig.gen. of volunteers and assigned to a oomnmnd in the
army of the Cumberland. He commanded a division in the battle of 8hil<^ and the
aiege of Corinth; led the Ist army corps in the battle of Perry vllle, the 90th army corps
at Stone river and Chickamauga, and the troops for the defense of Washington against
Early in 1864. He was brevetted maj.gen. of the regular army, but havinu: resigned bis
commission in 1866, was promoted in 1867 to be lieut. col. of infantry. His fatiber and
seven of his brothers served in the war, and the father and three of his Bona weie
killed. Four of the eight brothers attained the rank of general.
McCOOK, Edwabd M.,b. Steubenville, Ohio, 1884; received only a common-school
education; acconopanied governor Medary to Minnesota as his private secretaiy in 189S;
in 1859 went to Pike's I^ak, and in 1^ was a member of the Kansas legislature;
enlisted in the war for the union, and led various successful cavalry raids iti the Atlanta
And other catppaigns, attaining 'the rank of brig.gen. in 1864, and brevet maj.gen. in
1865. He was minister to the Sandwich islands from 1866 to 1869, and afterwards f<Nr
aix or seven years governor of Colorado.
MACOORD, Louisa S. (Cheves). daughter of Langdon Cheye8..b. Columbia, 8.C.,
1810; was married in 1840 to David J. Maccord; in 1848 traoalated Bastiat's Sppkiemstf
28»
ik$ /M»i«*'w JMk$; fn Ihe nne. jrear pubttfehed.a rolumfc oi fMenw, Jfy IMdmi/ and
in 18S1 Otrimi Ofm6€ku»,*^tngtAy. dhe.wr^te ejteMiYely for iM-BM't Ani^and tbe
SnOMmrnJAUretfy Mmmkftf, aiuidiwiiig the rabellioii.reBdcted TalmiUe tttvioo in the
Mccormick, CtBt» Hall, b. Va., 180S»; removed to Cindnxiati In I^» ajid to
Chicago in 1847. In 1816 his father invented a machine intended to supersede the aickle
and scytlie in the harvest field ; and the aoo. having had hia thou^ta thu4 early directed
In 1809 with a portion of hia wealth he contributed largely to the ^taUishment at
Chicago of the Presbyterian theological seminary of tbe north-west; and has since
endowed a professor's chair in Wasnington and Lee college, Lexington, Va.. besides
presenting to the institution a telescope, ordered from Alvan Clark on the stipulated
condition that the object glasa should be equal in size and finish to that of the similar
inatninaeat f nmialiea by the same maker for the naval observatory at WMbington,
D. C. Mr. McCoraMek is a zealous upholder of the strict form of Caivinistic doctrine.
Mccormick, UnaiAKD, C, Jr., b. N. T., I88d; having received a classical and
practical education, in 1850 he turned his attention to commercial pursuits in WaU
street, Kew York. On his return fh)m a tour throuj^ Europe and Asia Minor, he pub-
lished a YuU to Ihe Gamp bdbre SelHUtopd (1855); St. JPatUto 8t, Sophia, etc. IVom
1867 to '61 he was trustee of the New York, public schools, became a journalist in 1809,
and editor of the Toung M€n*$ Magcudne. During the war of the rebeDion he represented
several Kew York Journals as special (brresponaent. In 1^^ he was appointed chief
clerk of the department of agriculture, in 1868 secretary of Arizona, in 1M6 governor
of that territory, and waaelected delegate to oongreas from Arizona fbt 6 years^ 1816-75.
At presents although leeidiag la New ToriL city, he is active ia forwonUng tha mfolag
hiterests of Arizona, and Is pMsideat of the Freeland mine fai Coloni&!. On Deo.
17, 1877, lie was iq;>pointed U. £L commissioner-general to ihe Paris eiposition, where
bis iadicious conduct of affairs did full justice to ihe U. 8. ezhilHt% and reflected credit
on his administrative qualities. On Kar. 8, 1877, he had been made assistant secietaiy
of the U. 8. treasury, became one of the national republican committee on July 2 of the
same year, and retired from the treasury department Sept. 15^ 1877, oa aocouni of fail-
mg health.
M 0CO8H, JAMMb D.D., Ui*D., b. in Ayvshfare, Boottond, 1611 ; edae6ted at tlM unlveni-
tiea of OlaMDw and Bdinburch ; while at the latle? be wrote aa essay on the philosophy of
the Stoics tot which, od motion of sir William Hanulton, the honorary degree of a.h.
was oonfeired on him; la 1886 was ordained a minister of the obarch of Scotland at
Arbroath; in 1886 became peetor at Brecl^, where he was active in the movement
which, in 1848^ resulted in the oiganization of the Free church; where also he published
in 1860 hia book on the JtfMocfo tfiks DMm OssersmMiit PAmwoI and Moral, which
bud the foundation of hia fame as a philosophical writer. In 1861 was chosen professor
of logic and metaphyaios in Qoeen'a colleae, Belfast, where he was distinffuished as a
lecturer; wrote In 1856» Jointly with proL Qeorge Dkkie, icd., IMsoT .Fbrmt and
Special EnOi h^OreaHim; published, in 1866» /a<tMtt#n« ^ ^ Jfind MteMw^ iiMS^
^a^ being a Defetm <f Fundamental Truth; in 1862, The Sypermatutal in EdmUm to
ihe Natural; and in 1866, Am ^SxavUnation cfMUCe PhUoeopSff. In 1868» having been
elected president of tbe coUe^ of New Jersey, he becamearesloehtof Prinoeton, where
he has, by his successful administration and wide reputation* contributed greatly to the
remarkable prosperity which the institution now enjoys (see NbwJjebsbt, Coli.bob of^.
He has published ihe Law oflHeeureite Ihought and a Treatiee an Lopie (1869); Chne-
HanHif andj^feifi9itmt a series of lectures delivered on the My foundation at the Union
flieological seminary in New York (1871); The ScotUth PhUoSoph^, Biographical, Mcptm-
(cry, andOritieal,Jramffutehe$ontoBMnilttM^{l&tA); A Beplf^ia Pn^feeeor I^ndalT* Bel-
fast Addre$$ (1876); besides frequent contributions te the Princeton BmiMsand other
periodicals In this country and Great Britain. With a keen discriminative intellect be
combines a broad mental scope; he has abundant philosophical learning, and holds
stoutly to the ancient doctrinal system of his church in a spirit not averse to liberty and
modem light. This liberality makes him an efficient critic of speculations that are put
forth as f acts»
KcCOSKBY, BaxnUf Aluek* o.b., d.c.l., b. Oartisle, Pems^ 1804; was a cadet at
WesftFoiotfor one year; gradoatedat Dickinson ooltee, and became a socceasfnl lawyer,
hot left thai prafeauoQ to beoeme a minister of the
f the Bpleoopal chmrch. Ba was a rector
6rsi in Readins, Penn., then in Fhiladelphia, and eonseorated bishop of Mwhigan in
1896. In 1878 he waa deposed npon oheigea affecting his moral chavaaler.
Mccracken, a *co. in w. Kentucky, bounded by tbe Tennessee and Ohio rivers,
and traversed by the Chirk rWerabd the Pftducah and Memphis railroid; 386 sq.m.;
pop. '86, 16|260. It has a level surface and fertile soil, the productions beine Irish and
sweet potatoes, butter, tobacco, Indian com, and wheat. Tliere are manufactures of
agricultural hnplements, carriagea and wagons, tobacco, etc. Digitized by VjUU^LC
884
HoGQEOBA, Jam; tVH^, b. N. J.; after the dcalir of ta«r fatter/ft Booteli Pm.
byterian clergyuMkA, ^e lired aear fort Edw&rd ^th ber brother, who, on tbe
serif al of Burgoynein 17T7; wisbing to take ber -to Bome more proCteled plaoe, sent for
her to the house of a Mrs. McNeil at Fort Edward. His sister wm «i|g^ged to David
J<m^, a tory and an officer in a loyalist ;egime9t« In t^e ^Qpe of meeting lxim» ^hom
she believed to be with Burgoy ne'e army, she put oil her departure for some time, til),
on the day it was to take place, the McKeil house was surrounded by Indians, and its
inmiat^ taken to Burgoyne's camp. Mrs, HcNeU arrived there in safety, but a fresh
party of Indians soon brought in the scalp of Miss McCrea. The manner of her death,
which was the subject of a sharp correspondence between Burgoyne and Gates, is not
known. The Indians pretended that she was killed hy a stray shot from iba AmerlcaQB;
and according to anoUter story she was tomahawked m a dispute anM)ng the IndiaDs as
to whom she belonged, A later legend affirmed that. the Indians had b^ employed by
Jones to brii^g her to the British camp, and that they had murdered her in a quairel as
to tlie rewtCrd promised^
K^OBIB) Df . Thokas, a Scottish ditine and kistcrian, was b. ^ Doiifle; In Berwiekshire,
Ko7., 1772^; studied at the university of Edinburgh, and wa« ordained, ih It^, pastor
of an anti-Burgher congregation in that city. Here he died. Aug. 5| 18^. Ill'Crie's works
are in the highest degree valuable to the student of Scotticii ecclesiastical history. They
exhibit a vast amount of miaiite yet important research, and though they are essentially
apologetic, the author is never consciously unfair, and does not nusstate facts. He has,
however, a way of palliating even the indefensible acts of the reformers, and a zeal for
IVesbyterianism that caused the impartial Hallam to describe his spirit as Prabyterian
HUdebrandism. M'Crie*s best known works are The Life of John Krutz (Kdin. 1812;
new ed. 1855-57) and Tfu Life of Andrew MelviUe (1819).
licCULLOCH, aeo. in.w. Texas, having the Oolorado river as its n. boundary; 016
8q.nk«; pop. 'dOi, 158^ Stock-raising is followed by die inhabitanta more than agricol-
tute, tlu)U£^ the boAtom-lands along the Oolorado ak>e fertUle.
MoOULLOOH, B&K, 1814r-68, b. Tenn.: took part in^the struggle for Texan inde-
pendence, and distinguished himself in the lllexican "V^ar. In 1858 he was made a**U. 8.
marflfhal, and in 1887 e^mmissioner 6f Utah.' He was 'a brig. gen. in the confederate ser-
vice during tKe cMl war, and commanded in several engagements in Miseoiui. He was
' killed at tile* battle of Pea Hidge:
K^GirLLOCH, Horatio, a Scottish landscape-painter, was b. in Glasgow in 1806, and
named after lord NeJson. : : His ^rst intention wai to fit hlmself^for being a riiattufacturer,
but finally he devoted lumseif entirely to art. He exhibited for the ^rst time hi 1889.
In 18d6 he was elected an associate of Ihe Scottish academr, stnd next yestr he fixed his
reaidenoe at Hamilton, and made enthuslestie studies of 'the oaks in Ctecteow Forest
Two years afterwards^ when he 'was elected a member of the Royal flcottish academy,
he removed to iidinbnrgh, where ho lived till hia death in 1867. ' M'Oulloeh beaded the
roU of tiie'contempomry Scottish landseape^painters. 'HepAinted the Highlands with
unrivaled truths breadth,' and imagination. Among kis principal ^pictures are ** Highland
Loch," **Loch^an-Bilan," "View in Gadzow Poiest," •'Di«am of tiie Forest," ••Misty
Oorriea/' "Deer Forest; Isle ofSkye,^' '^Looh Actainy/* "Mist Risinr off the Moun-
tains," " Kil<^urn Castle, Loch Awe," and m BothweH Caatle, on the Clyde."
MoOULLOCH, HtTOH, b. 3(le., 1811; studied at Bowdoin Oollege, but on account
of ill keidthf did not graduate; in 1888 he removed to Fort Wayne. Ind., and entered
upon the practice of law. In 1855 he was made president of the Indkna state bank,
where he had been emplbyed since 1885, which position he held for eight years, gaining
a more than local reputation as a skilled financier. In 1868 secretary Chase, of the
treasury, called him to Washington to take charge of the newly created bureau of the
currency, and appointed him comptroller of that depai'tnient. In Mar., 1866, McCul-
loch succeeded Fessefiden as secretary of the treasurv at the request of president Lin-
coln, and held that position until Mar., 1869. The derangement of the finances occa-
sioned by the rebellion and by the very large issue of legal-tender notes and national
bonds gave rise to many difficult questions to be decided by tl^e head of the treasury
department. Mr. McCulloch was an earnest advocate of specie resu^iption at the earliest
possible moment, and a firm friend of the national-banK system as uniform and safe.
For the greater part of his term of Office he was in opposition to congress on the subject
of retiring the legal-tender notes, arguing that the " best way to resume is to resume."
The fear of cotttracUoQ' was very 'gi^t, and it was thoCight that business interests
would avffer fiom haste in tiie matterj Though ^McCvrlloCh has since acknowledged
that inseme dleltailit ai Ids scheme lie was mistaken^, the ^general principles he advooated
have been l^dved o6rrect hj sabeeguent events. In li869 be retiitsd from the treasury,
became a member of' tJbto mm of Jay Coake; MeOulloohA; Gi>.; London, and has shtos
baan engaged in banking in tliat eity. ' /
MAOeiTLLOOH, JoHV, a geologist and pA^rsicla^, b. in Guernsey, of a Scottish family,
Oet 6^ 1778. He studied and took the degree of dodtor 6t niedfeinein Edinburgh, and
was Appointed assistant-siirgeon to ao artillery regiment. In 1811 he Was ethpioyed by
the government in geographical and seieatiflc reeearehes in Scotland. Itt 1890 he was
2«3 issssssuu:
in the latter yean of his life vaa proleaste of chemidtvy and. geology iu Ui« &8t In^ift.
oompany'B military scbool aft Adoiacombe^ Bb died at PeowMO, Qomwall, Ang. 2U
1885, ia oomcquenee of aa amputaftioa rendered deeeesaiy by aa aocideAt* . Hia auM(
important woriu are a IkitnpiU<m '€f iht ll^iMts tJMamU ofScoUwid (8 ▼ols«4. JU>nd. aod^
Sdinb.l819>; AQ^UogUal Ob«^^^M»^Aete.wi^.i)#^ O^^ood. tS^l);
A %rtm ijf Chot^ni ^nth a Tfmry ^ ii» Ear^ (Iumd. 1681); Malirim-'M. Emiy on
the F^Qduetimi mnd Jhnfagat^ (Loud. 1827); andiin AN«y o»'(A» jS^«.
tmU and InternOlenl Dm&tu (d yoU., Lond. 1838X
ircnLLOCR, JoHK Kambat, b. at Isle of Whithorn, Wigtonshire, in 1789, a distin.
Sished political vriter, and the foremost an^ong our political economists, first became
own in connection with the 8c&t9man newspaper and the Edinburgh Review. He came
forward as a contributor to the former soon after its establishmeiit in 1817; and for a
considerable time was its editor.' He made his d^ut in the latter in 1818, by contribat-
ing to it an article on Bicardo's Principles ^Political Economy, and continued fbr about
30 years to writ^ pretty regularly for the Jisview, having contributed almost all the eco-
Domical articles that appeared izi it during that period, with a few on other siibjects.
M'CuUocb, however, is best known by his numerous works pubUshed in the course of
Ills life» wbioh are remarkabla for tJbe scientific spirit in which they ur^ yn^f^Um^f ^eir
DFacticalgood sense, and the clearness and directness. of their style. £y these he has
done more to establish and popularize the doctrines of political economy than jperhaps
any other writer. His principal publications comprise: A jOiseourse on the Bae, frogreu^
FeemHeur (MffecU, and Mportance of PoHUeal JSeonom^; xhe Princwlea qf J\fliiie(il Eicon-
omif^ with some Ingumee reepeetinff their Application, etc; The Liieratitre <^ PeUtical
Sooiwmy, ^c; TreaUeee and Een^ on Money y Exchange, Jhtereet, the LettiTw of Land,
AbeenUiitm, etc,; A Treatise on the Succession to Prip^riy fxicant by Death, including
Inpirri^ into the Ir^htenee oflMnkogeniture, EntaOs, etc.; A Treatise on the (Mcumeta/ncee
1BMC& determine the Bate of Wagesand the Condition of the Laboring Classes; ADietionanrjf,
Praetieal, Theoretical, and Hi^orieal, of Commerce and Commercial Jffavigation; BtxUisU-
eal AeeowU of the British Empire; Geographical Dictionary; A Treatise on . Taxation and
i^ Funding System, etc. Most of these works have gone through several editions. A
third edition of the work on taxation, which appeared in 1868, was the last work of the
suthor, and was nearly le-written. H'OuUooli ako published Yarlous oocaaional tracts
and notices, some of which had a vary wide ciroulation. His edition of the WeaUh of
Natiams^ -with an introductory diacourse and notea, and his collected edition of tbe workis
of Rioaido, deserve to be ranked among ibe most important servioeB which he rendered
to his favorite science. Towards the close of his life he edited two volumes of scarce
economical tracts for the political economy dab, and four volumes of the same class of
tracts for lord Oventone. In 1828 M'Culloch waa chosen professor of political economy
in University college, London; but having resigned that chair, he was subsequently
(1888) appointed comptroller of her majestur's station^ office, a situation which ie held
till hia aeafb, and in which he is understood to have effected various important reforms^
M'Culloch waa a foreign asaociate of the institute of France; and he enjoyed a pension
of £200 a year, conferred upon him by the late sir Robert Feel. He diedKoT.> 1864.
McOURDT, Oraxlbs Jobrsoit, ll.i>., b. Conn., 1797; educated at Tale, and called
to the bar, where he took a liigh position. He was several times chosen to the legisla-
tnre, of which he was speaker for three years. In the years 1845 and 1846 he was lieu-
teoant^govemor of the stata He was appointed by Mr. Fillmore minlBter to Austria in
1851 ; and from 1866 to 1867 he was an associate Justice, first of the superior, and after-
wards of the supreme court of Gonnecticnt.
McDonald, a co. in s.w. Missouri, having Arkansas on the s., and Indian terri-
tory on the w. ; 476 sq.m. ',.pop. '80, 7,816. It is a fertile region, the surface undulating;
productions, wheat, Indian corn, oats, Irish and sweet potatoes, cotton, tobacco, and
Dutter. Co, seat, Pineville.
MoDONALD, Chablbs J., 1703-1860; b. a C; settled In Georgia, where he was
admitted to the b&r. He was a judge of the state circuit court in 1825, a membei' of the
state senate in 1887, and governor 1881M8. From 1867 till his death he was an asso-
ciate justice of the state supreme court.
XAODOHAU), EnsHKis JACqxTBS Jobbpr ALEXAimss, dtike of Taranto, marshal
and peer of France, was b. Nov. 17, 1765, at Sancerre, in the department of Cher. He
waa descended from a Scotch family which followed James tl. to France. Macdonald
embraced the cause of the revolution, entered the army as a lieut,, and rapidly rose to
high military rank. In 1798 he was intrusted with the government of the Roman
states, but was compelled to evacuate them by the superior force of the enemy. In 1799
he defeated tbe Austrktna at Modena, and was defeated en the Trebfaia by a snpflrior
Austrian and Russian force under Suwarrow. Aa commandant of Yefsailles, he len*
dered very teportsnt senrice to Bonaparte in the revolution of 18th Brumaire; and
in 1800 and 1801 he chased the Austrians from Bwitaserland and the Tyrol; hnt aftet
lioQOTBbly fiUing aome important political pests, he lost the favor of Bonaparte ,hj liia
honeBt support of the causa of Moieau. In 1809 lie waa miimnmnwi by the em^eraE to
286
UM» the oommaad of the rigbt wing of the amy of Italy undor L ,
•nd took Lubach. He greatly dMbguiehed liimself at the battle of Wagram, and on
the field of battle becaoM reconciled to Napoleon, who, for his aennoeB on thai dav,
crealed him marshal and duke. He held a oommand In Bpain in 1810, afterwardain the
RuBBian campaign; in 1818 he defeated the Prtuaiaarf at Muaebnrg, and cootrftotod to
the eucoeas of the battles of Lutaen and BautscB, bat was sabaequently defeated by
BlQcber at the Eatabaoh. After the battle of Leipzig he was emplojM in covering the
retreat of the French army, and saved hdmself only by swiflui»iBg the Elster. In the
subsequent struggles on French ground between the Mame and Seine, Kacdonald msde
desperate efforts; but when he saw that further resistance was hopeless, he advised the
emperor to abdicate. The Bourbons made him a peer, and gave him the command of a
mibtary division; and on Kapoleon*s return fromlSlba, it fell to his lot to oppose bis
pro|[re8S to Paris. All his troops went over to Napoleon, but he himself accompanied
Loi^is XVIII. in his flight; and although he returned to France, he refused to serve dur-
ii^ the hundred days. After the second restoration he was continually loaded with
honors of every kind, but consistently maintained, in the chamber of peers, the princi-
ples of constitutional liberty. He died at his seat of Oourcelles, near Guise, Sept. d4,
1840.
HACDONALD, Flora, a Scottish heroine, 1790-90; b. in the island of BonthUist,
one of the Hebrides. When the pretender, Charles Edward Stuart, after the bsttle of
Gulloden, in 1746, iled and wa$ pursued by the king^s troops, he was rescued bv the
exertions of Viora, and conducted by her disguised as her female servtint to the isle of
Skye. They were assisted by ladv Macdonald, who committed them to the care of Mac-
donald of JEingsburgh. A reward of £80,000 was offered for the prince. When the set
of Flora became known she was arrested, and, after being kept five months on various
vessels of war, she was sent to London, but soon dischamd under the indemnitv act of
1747. In 1750 she returned to Scotland, and was married to Allan Macdonald or Kinfs-
burgh. They emigrated to America in 1774, and settled in Payetteville, N. C. In the
revolutionary war Macdonald took the part of the British, and served In the army.
Flora returned to Europe idone, but was soon joined by her husbimd. Heffoor sons
entered the British army.
MACDONALD, Gboros, b Huntley, Scotland, 1824; educated at Kinfr's ooU^se and
Aberdeen university, and studied for the ministry at the Independent coUege in High-
bury, London. He was for some yeairs a Congrwatioiial minister, but, quitting the mm-
istiy, he removed to London and devoted himself to authovah^, in which he has attained
a high pKMition as a novelist and poet. In 1872^78 he visited the United States, chiefly on
a lecturing tour, but preaching in a few pulpits. His first book. Within and Witiulut, a
dramatic x)oem, appeared in lS»6. and among his later publioations are: JdasHi EUffinbTod,
1869; AnnaU of a Quiet NMibaiiiaod, 1806; Jiob&rt FkUconer, 1868; Wilfrid Ouniemede,
1871; MaUkOm, 1874; The Sf(trgtu9ofLMgis, 1877; Sir 0ibMB, 1879; and Jfory IfenAm,
1881. He has written also on theological subjects, and his no>vels have much theology
and practical religion. His thought is original and vigorous, while he is master of a
clear and elegant style.
MACDONALD, Sir John Albxandbr, d.g.l., b. Oaaada, 1815; was cajded to the
bar in 1885, and was returned to parliament in 1844 as conservalive member for Kizin-
ton, which city he has continued to represent In 1847 he became a member of the
executive council and reoeiver-ffeneral, and later in the same year commissioner of crown
lands. He was in opposition l§50--54s and in the latter vear entered a coalitiom cabinet
as attomev-general, holding office till 1863, when the ministry, upon the defeat of their
militia bill, resigned. In 1864 he entered the cabinet of sir E. P. Tache as attorney-
general. A coalition was now formed between the leaders of the government and the
opposition on the bill to unite all British America under a federal government. Id
1865 sir John became minister of militia; in 1868, minister of Justice and attomey-gen-
eral; and in 1869 premier in the Dominion cabinet, goioff out of office in 1873. He
formed another cabinet in 1878, taking himself the post of minister of the interior.
McDonnell, sir Biohabd Graybs, ll.]>., b. Ireland, 1815; educated at Trinity
coUege, Dublin, and called to the Irish and afterwards to the English bar. He was
made chief-Justice of the Gambia district, Africa, in 1848, and governor of the British
settlements on the Gambia in 1847. In the latter capacity he conquered a number of
hostile native tribes, and explored ajconsiderable portion of Africa from the Gambia to
the Senegal. In 1852 he became governor of St. Vincent* and in 1855 govcmor-in-chief
of South Australia. He was appointed lieut.gov. of Nova Scotia in 1864, and was gov-
ernor of Hong-Kong, 1865-72.
MoDONOUGH, a w. co, in Dlinoia; 576 sq.m.; pop. '80, 37,085. The surface pre*
seats an undukiAing appearaaee, and is chiefly fertile pvairie land. It is drained by
Crooked oreek, and intersected hv the Chicago, Buriingtoo and Quincy, fmd the Toledo,
Peoria and Warsaw railroads. The proohictions are wheat, rye, Indian com, oaS% wool,
bottev, and potatoes. There are a large number of flour and saw mills, and maanfiac*
lories of iswriages and saddlery and harness. Co. Jicat. J§p||^ ,^,^^y^^
L'8i
Mel
McDONOUQH, Thokab, t7B8-182S; b. Del.; became a midshipimm to 180D, and
three yean later was on the frigate PhUaddphia in Preble's expedition against IVipoli;
be wu also attached to the schooner Enterprim under Decatur, and was one of the
ptrty which recaptured tlie Philadelphia from the Tripolitans in lo04. He was made a
fiettt hi 1807. and a master^oniihandant in 1818. On lake C^iansplaiB, in 1614 he
defMted the Snrlish fleet under commodovs Downle. At the tiase oi his death ha oom-
nuuided the Medtterranean fieet.
IftcDOUOAL, Davip D.. b. Ohio, 1809; entered. the navy, 1828; made lleut. in
1841. %ad comnuinder in 1857. While in command of the Wjfoming In 1868, he fought
off the coast of Japan (with six Japanese batteries firing on him) three ships of the
Japanese navj, and succeeded in diifeating them. He was made conunodore in 1869,
and was retired in 1871.
McDOUOALL, Auexardsb, 1T81-^: b. Sootlsnd; a printer, and in 1770 senteooed
to imprisonment for libeling the provincial govvrMnent of New York, where hia fattier
bad settled in 1756. He served through the reyoiutionarv war with distioctiott, became
amaj.gen., and took an active part in the battles of Germantown and White Plains.
From 1778 to 1780 he was in command of the forta along the Hudson, and in 1781 was
elected to congress.
XcDOUGALL. James A., 1817-07; b. K. Y.; began the practice of law in Blittois
in 1837, and was sUte attorney-general in 1843 and 1844; settled in Ban Franciseo in
1849, and the next year was elected attorney-general of California. He was a demo-
cratic member of congress. 1858-55, and U. 8. senator, 1861-4i7; in the latter body acting
as cbainnan of the Pacific railroad committee, and belonging to that section of tfai
democratic party known as "war demoerata."
McDowell, a co. in w. North Carolina, bounded on the w. by the Black moun-
tains; 550 sq.m.; pop. '80, 9,836. The valleys are fertile, and produce wheat, lye,
Indian com, oats« Irtob and sweet potatoes, wool, and butter. Co. seat, Marlon.
McDowell, the extreme & co. of West Tirginia, on the border line of Yirginia*
watered by a fork of the Sandy river; 900 sq.UL; pop. *80, 8,074. It is mountainous in
tiie 8. and e. parts. The productions are: Indian corn, oats, Irish and sweet potatoes,
tobacco, butter, and wooL Co. scat, PenysviUe.
McDowell, ErmuLDC, 1771-1880; b. in Bodtbridge oa, Ya.; attended medical
lectures in Bdmburgh in 1798-84; settled in Danville, Ky., in 1795, and became the
leading practical surgeon in several stales. He performed the first operation recorded
in tiiis country in ovarian surgery at Danville, in Doc, 1809. A report of this and of
other cases, from the pen of the operator himself, appeared in the Eclectic Bepertory and
Analytic Review in 181fi. He was skillful in every bnmch of the surgical art, having
rat no less than 82 times for stone in the bladder without losing a single case*
Mcdowell, Ikwin, b. Colombus, Ohio, 1818; was educated partly at a French
military school, and afterwards at the military academy of West Point, where he gradu-
ated in 1838, remaining there until 1845, in the service of the goverament. He served
in the war with liezioo, and was brevetled a capt. for good conduct at the batlla of
Buena Vista. After the close of the war lie acted as assistant adjt.gen., being assigned
tu duty in various departments until 1858, when he occupied a year's leave of absence
in Tiutinff Europe. In 1861 he was in Washington, and at the outbreak of the rebellion
was employed in organizing the volunteer troops. He was commissioned brig.gen.
U. S. army. May 14, 1861, and on May 27 was appointed to the command of the armv
of the Potomac, of which army he was the head during the disastrous defeat at Bull
Run, July 21. On being superseded in this oomnumd, he was placed in charge of the
defenses of Washington, but Mar. 14, 1862, was oommisaioned a ma].gen. of volunteers,
and given a oorps comnuind in the army of the Potomac. He served in northern
Virginia, and at the second defeat of Bull Run. During the last year of the war he was
employed on court-martial duty, and ia command of the department of the Pacific. In
1865 be received his brevet of main^n. in the U. 8. amy, and the following year was
mustered out of the volunteer service. He has since been comnussioned maj.^pn. U. S.
umy, and lias commanded the departments of the east, the south, and the Pactflc, being
atill (1881) in the latter command.
McDUFFIE, an e. co. in Georgia, having the Little river for its n. bonndary, and
intersected by the Ckoigia railroad ; 850 sa.m. ; pop. 'SO, 9,449. The sarfaoe is nuried,
Senerally heavily timbered, and the soil is fertile. Co. seat, Thomson.
McDUFFIE, Georqb, 178^-1851; b. Qa.; graduated at South Carolina college,
entered the bar in 1814, and was chosen a member of the South Carolina legislature In
1818. In a duel arialng out of a politioal dispute he received a wound, from the effects of
vhich he never fully recovered. From 1821 to 1884 he was a member of congress, where
he opposed internal improvements and the protective tariff, and in his capacity as chah>
man of the ways and means committee, defended the U. S. bank. In his earlier public
career he had been an advocate of a centralized government; but in congress, foHowiHg
the general sentiment of his state, he advocated states rights, and was one of the ableaS
^fenders of the right of nullification during the controversy between the f^end gov-
ernmeQl andSoi^li Oioolio^, wbu^ had it9 immediate c^M^e ip^.theboeffUf^ qf.tho latter
to a hiffh protective tariff, and wa^ carried on from 1830 to lSo2, ' ti;i 1685, having
resiened itis aeat in congresSi he was elected governpr of South Carolina; and he was a
U. 5, senator iropi ito to 1846, when ill-health compelled him to resign.
ICACB, the axil (<i.T.) of the nutmeg (q.v.). la the fruit it is situated within the
fleflby part, and envelops the nut. It la a lacerated memhrane, blood-red. and some-
what fleshv when fresh. It is prepared for the market by drying for somo days in the
sun, and nattening. Xt has a peculiar^ strong, agreeable smell and taste, and contains a
clear, yellow, Volatile oil, and a red, buttery, ftxed oil. The volatile oil is obtained
from it by distillation. The buttery oil, obtained by expression, mixed with the vola-
tile oil and other substances, is kno^vn && nutmeg balsam. Mace is used as a spice, and
has much of the flavor of the nutmeg. It is of a bright orange-yellow color, and has a
peculiar wax-like texture. It is imported chiefly from Penang and Singapore, where it
18 reoeiTed from the Bpioe isiands. BmaU quanttties are sent also torn the West Indies,
wliere its cultivation receives some attention. Tliere used to be about 120,000 lbs.
annually imported into Britain, of Which 90,000 lbs. were reexported; but the import
seems to be <m thtt deeline, leas tiian 80,000 lbs. having been received in a year. The
aril of apecies of m^riitiea, different from Uio true nutmeg, had coarse and very inferior,
sometimes appears in commerce as mace.
XACS, a strong short wooden staff, with a spiked metal ball for a head. It was a
favorite weapon with knights, with the cava)ry immediately succeeding them, and at all
times with flghting priests, whom a canon of the church lorbade to wield the sword.
No armor could resist a well-delivered blow from the mace. The mace is now borne
before magistrates as an ensign of authority.
MACi), Jban, b. Paris. 1815; of a working family, but given a solid aducatio^. At
20 he was a teacher of history in the college Stanislas. When the revolution of 1848
brought the republic, he supported the new government with enthusiasm, as one of the
editors of La M^publique. On Napoleon's coup d'etat, in 1851, he was obliged to leave
Paris, and became teacher of natural sciences and literature in a seminarv for girls in
Alsace. Here he conceived the happv plan of popularizing scientific studies for chil-
dren, and began by the publication of the HUtary of a Mournful cf Bread, or letters to a
little girl, explaining, with the interest of a story, the laws of physiologypertaining to
digestion. This plan was continued in a series of books published in France which
have had a great popularity. In 18^ he joined Hetzel in the conduct of tho Magasin
^Education et da BSerSation, In 1866 he had organised a teachers' league of 80,000
members, which promoted popular education not only through schools, but also through
the formation of communal libraries, and by ita pressure in favor of free and obligatory
education. We translate a few of the titles of Mace's admirable books for children:
Storiei of iht LUOe ChdUau; iheat&r cf the Little Ckdteau; History of Two Appie Mer-
chants; Servanti of thsS(omach^--a sequel U> the Bi^ory of a Mouthfid of Br TheEye;
Letterjtfa Bsasant of Alsace to a Senator; The 8epairati^/i of the School and the Chwreh;
and tiaW Instruction. The last two works are intended to lay out the work of the
teachers'^ league (ligue de VenmgnmenC) of which Mac6 is president
XAOEBO'HIA, anciently, the name of a country lyinff n. of Thessaly. It was origi-
nal! v of small extent, embradng only the district called Emathia, but gradually extended
until, in the time of Philip, father of Alexander, it reached, on the n., the 6cardian
mountains, a portion of the Heemus (mod. Balkan) range; on the w., the frontiers of
Epirus and Illvria; on the e., the river Nestos (mod. Earasu); and on the s., Thessaly.
The country is on the whole mountainous, especially in the s. and w., but there are
several large plains of great fertility. The principal rivers were called the Strymon, the
Axius, and the Haliacmon. Macedonia was famous among the ancients for ita gold and
silver mines, and its productiveness in oil and wine. It contained a number of flourish-
ing cities, of which the names are well known in ancient history, particularly Pella, the
capita], Pydna, Tbessalonica, Potidtta, OlynUios, Philippi, and Amphipolis. The
Macedonians are believed by some to have been originally an Illyrian raee, but this is
not probable. Their language, though different from, was yet allied to that of Greece.
The singular fact, however, that it employed words not used by tbe Greeka, but pre-
served in Latin, would lead us 1o infer that the ethnological connection betweait«^reece
proper and Macedon belonged to an extremely remote period. The Macedonians were
certainly not pure Hellenes, nor did the ancients so consider them; but we may renrd
them as ruder membefls of the- Grecian nation, whose earlf development bad been hin-
dered by unknown obstacles. The histovy of Macedonia is involved in much obscurity
till about 400 b. 0., when the Persians aubdued it, so that the Macedonian king, Alex-
ander L, was compelled to take part with Xerxes in his invasion of Greece. On the
retreat of the Persians after the bat^tle of Platsea in 479 B.C., Macedonia again recovered
its independence. Under the wise and vigorous reign of Archelaus, who died 899 B.C.,
it great^ increased in prosperity and power; but after his death, a period of civil wan
anB contests for the.tlircne ensued, which end^ in tbe accession of Philip 11. (859 B.C.),
wiio not only seated himself firmly on the throne, bi^t knew how to develop the resources
of bis kln^(£>my and so to direct the warlike spirit of his subjects as greatly to extend
hia dominions. Hia son, Alexander lit, aurnamed Alexander the great (q.v.), brought
Digitized 'by OOUV IC
289
half the then known world under hi^ empire; bnt after bis death the Macedonian
empire was broken up, and at the end of a period of S3 years of incessant wars, formed
into four principal kingdoms under his greatest generals. Macedonia itself fell to the
lot of Antipater, after whose death ensued another period of cML wars and contests for
the throne, of which the Greeks endeavored to take adrantage for the recovery of their
EDcieot independence. But the Athenians having called in the assistance of the Romans
against Philip V. of Macedonia, by whom thdr city was besieged, the Macedonians
were defeated by the Romans in the great battle of Cynocephals (107 B.C.), and both
Greece and Maoedouia became subject to the Roman power. Perseus, the successor of
Philip, was finally defeated at Pyana (168 B.a), and adorned the triumph of ^miliua
Paulus. An attempt of the Maoedonian nobles to shake oil the oppressive yoke of the
Romans having been also defeated, and the nobles driven into exile, Macedonia became
(148 B.C.) a Roman province, in which Thessaly and part of lUyria were included. After
the time of Constantino, the country was ravaged by Slavic tribes; by the 7th c, the
old semi-Greek Macedonians were extinct; and in the later ages of the Byzantine
empire, their place was supplied by colonies from Asia, Inany of them of Turkish
descent.— See Finlay's Msdiical Onece,
KACEDOnAire, a parlv which arose toward the close of the Arian controversy, and
took their name from Macedonius, who became patriarch* of Constantinople in 841.
Their distinctive doctrine was the denial of the divinitv of the Holy Ghost. In the
early stage of the Arian question, the subject of the Holy Ghost attracted no special
notice, being equivalently involved in the great subject of dispute regarding the Son.
But when it came to be discussed, the same division of opinions was elicited regarding
the Holy Ghoet which had already arisen about the second person of the Trinity.
Macedonius taught that the Holy Ghost was '* subordinate to the jFVtther and to the Son,
alike to them in substance, and a creature. "--Socrates, Ecd. Hut. ii. 46. He had him-
self been a member of the semi- Arian party, and as such had been deposed by the Arians
ia 360. His party was a considerable one, no fewer than 86 bishops havine appeared
attaiihed to it at the council of Constantinople in 881. His doctrine, nevertlieless, was
condemned in that council, in which also was added to the Nicene creed the special
clause by which the divinity of the Holy Ghost is defined. The Macedonians subsisted
as a disQoct party so late as the time of Theodoaius.— They are also called Pnsumaio-
meki, or "Adversaries of the Spirit." .
MACEDO'KIUS, Patriarch of Constantinople (a.d. 841). See Macedohiaks, ante,
MACEDO'NIUS was nominated bishop of Constantinople by the emperor Anasla-
au8 L, about 496 a.d. Because he had subscribed the henoticon, or "decree of union,"
which the emperor Sicno had issued in 488, the monks of the capital renounced fellow-
ship with him and persistently rejected his advances towards reconciliation. Yet, in
accordance with his general mildnesa, he abstain^ from treating them severely. About
511, having, by his recognition of the council of Cbalcedon, incurred the displeasure of
the emperor, he was deposed and banished by him on a charge of heresy and crime.
The church in all parts of the empire pronounced this sentence unjust, and Yitalian the
Gotb, in 614, rose up in arms a^nst it, but without success. Two yean afterwards
Haoedonius was released from exile by death.
MACErO, or Macay'o, a city in theprovince of Alsgftas, in Brazil; pop. 8,000. It
has 3 churches and as many schools. Tne inhabitants are agriculturists, and there is a
considerable manufacture of rum. At its port, Jagnari, there is some shlp-bullding,
and sugar and cotton are exported.
McENTEE, Jbrvis. b. Rondout, K. Y., 1828; devoted himself to the study of land-
scape painting with F. K Church; and, in 1868, opened a studio in New York, where
he soon obtained a high position among American artists. His principal success was
gained in depicting mountain scenery, and bv his skill in the treatment of foliage. His
style is refined, his brush being handled with delicacy, though vigorously, and he ia
specially notable for luminous effects. In recent years he has undertaken figure-paint-
ing, and has given evidences of ability in this direction, apparenUy equal to that which
hi» been concieded to him as a landscape artist
MACERA'TA, a province in e. Italy, in the marches on the Adriatic ooast; 10G7
•q. m.; pop. 286,994. The Apennines intersect it, and much of the country is moun-
taiDous ana incapable of cultivation. The valleys and level districts are fertile, and in
them large quantities of com and wine are raised. Capital, Macerata.
XACESA'TA, a walled t. of central Italy, and cnpitnl of the province of the same
name (formerly a deleeation). Pop. 20,000. It is finely situated m the midst of hills,
on a lofty eminence, ^ m. &w. of Ancona, and commands picturesque views of the sea
and the Apennines. The streets are straight and well paved, and there are some fine
public edifices, including a cnthedral with some good paintings, six other minor churches,
and numerous conventual establishments. The pnlszzo comunnle, or town-hall, is a
heautiful building of the 13th century. Macerata has a university of hleh repute, and
is n center of intellectual and social Italian Ufe. The province contaDia a pop. 71,
236,719. Digitized by VjUUV IC
U. K. IX.— 19 •
XAfilSS *iUlB offloeiB attending the supreme courts in Scotland, appointed b7:iie
crown. ' Tiieir duty is to keep silence in the court, and execute the orders of the courts,
if addressed to them. They hold office for life, and are paid by salary.
MACFARLAKE, Robebt, 1784-1804; b. Scotland; educated at Edinbuigfa and
was for a time editor of the Marnihig Chroruele, He published an edition of Oman \n
the Gaelic, with a Latin translation, and it is said that he was concerned with Macpber-
son in the production of the Ossianic poems.
XAOFABBEV, Gboroe ALBXAin>BR, in7B.D., an English musical composer and
essayist of high reputation, son of George Macfarren, a dramatic author and musician.
He was bom in London, Mar. 2, 1818, and his education was conducted at the royal
academy of music, at which institution he became a professor in 1884. As an operatic
composer. Mr. Macfarren is the most characteristic representative of the national Eng-
lish school — his aim beine to revive the old English music in modem opera. His earliest
dramatic work, Ths DenWB Opera, was produced in 1888; Don Quixote followed in 1846;
and King GhaHes IL in 1849, which first brought out Miss Louisa Pyne in English opera.
A cantata, The SUeper Awakened, was brought out at the national concerts in 1850,
l^enare in 1852, May-day in 1856, and Christmas in 1860. The opera of Bobin Hood fol-
lowed in the same year, which attained a popularity far beyond its predecessors, and
was performed during a whole season to overflowing houses. The opera di camera of
Jessy Lea followed in 1868; She Stoops to Conquer and Helvellyn in 1864. The oratorio
of John the Baptist appeared in 1878. Mr. Macfarren's works comprise numerous other
small dramatic pieces, as well as chamber music, vocal and instrumental, and several
symphonies and overtures. He has also contributed largely to the literature of music.
His Rudiments of Harmony were published in 1860; Six Lectures on Harmony, in 1867.
In 1875 he became principal of the royal academy of music, and professor oi music at
Cambridge university, receiving the degree of doctor of music.
McFERRIN, John Bbbrt, d.d., b. Rutherford, Tenn., 1807; admitted as a
preacher in the Methodist Episcopal church in 1825, and was a missionary for two years
among the Cherokee Indians. In 1840 he be^ to edit tbe Southieeetern CAnstUHi
Adeoeate at Nashville, which he continued for IB years; was in 1858 appointed book-
agent of the Methodist Episcopal church; in 1866 was made corresponding secretary of
the board of missions. He is the author of Histoiy of Methodism in Tennessee, 8 vols., and
assisted in the preparation of Bedford s History of the Organieation of the Methodist £^piseo-
pal Church, South.
MacQA'HAN, Januabius AiiOYsros, 1844-78; b. Ohio; of Irish- American parent-
age. He commenced the practice of composition when quite young, and enterea lour-
nalism as a correspondent. In 1868 he visited Europe, and at the outbreaik of the
Franco-German war was attached to the staff of the Neto York Herald, and accompanied
the army of Bourbaki, whose defeat and retreat into Switaserland he described in bis
letters. He was in Paris during the Commune and wrote vigorous and graphic descrip-
tion of the scenes and incidents of the time. On one occasion he was arrested, and was
preserved from death at the hands of the infuriated communists only by the interven-
tion of the American minister. During the summer of 1871 he traveled through Europe,
and in the autumn was ordered by the Herald to Russia, where he remained during the
following year. The Russian expedition to Khiva in 1878 was attended hy Mac€mhan
in the capacity of correspondent of the Herald, despite the positive directions to the con-
trary of gen. Eaufmann, commanding the expedition. -The pertinacity, shrewdnesc^
and good-nature with which the Amencan persisted in carrying his point insured his
success; and, though at times hunted by Cossacks under orders to restrain him, he was
able to fulfill his engagement, and convey Intel lijKence to the lournal employing him that
reached the public in no other way. The information which he gained during the
progress of this expedition was afterwards published by MacGahan in book-form under
the title Campaigning on the Oxus and the FaU of Khioa, The latter part of the year
1878 w«s spent by MacGahan at his home in Ohio and in Cuba; and in the spring of
1874 lie was in London, whence he was ordered by the Herald to proceed to Spain to
report the Carlist outbreak of that year. He loined the army of Don Carlos, and accom-
panied it for ten months, continuing a volummous and graphic correspondence with his
journal during the pro^ss of the campaign. While in 8pain he fell into the hands of
* the republk»ns, was mistaken for a Carlist, and again owed his life to tbe intervention
of the representative of his government. In 1875 he accompanied the Pandora expe-
dition toward the north pole, organized by the editor of the Herald and capt. Allen
Young, and on his return published an account of his experiences with the title Under
the Northern Uahls, He now resigned from the employ of the Herald, and entered that
of the London Vaily News; and in June, 1876, took his departure to join the Turkish
army in the capacity of war-correspondent of that journal. But the progress of tliis duty
soon brought to MacGahan's ears rumors of the commission of horrible barbarities by
the Turkish guerrillas (Bashi.Bazouks) in Bulgaria, and he repaired to that country to
witness for himself and to the world the truth or falsity of these statements. The hor-
rible evidences of the malignant cruelty which had characterized Turkish warfare in
Bulgaria roused in the American feelings of the most intense indignation, and he
riecapitulated the history of his experiences in the columns, o^^e^i^ri^^ in language
291
KacctUHmiF.
whidi awakeoed the piofoundest 83rmpathy on the part of the British puhlic, and,
indeed, wherever tlie terrible story found readers. Concerning the extraordinary series
of letters wliich at this period drew the attention of the civilized world to the columns
of the IktUy Nnos, the following, from the pen of Archibald Forbes, who was long
associated with MacGahan, will l^ read with interest: *' MacGahan's work in exposing
the Bulgarian atrocities of 1876 produced very remarkable results. As mere literary
work there is nothing that I know of to excel it in vividness, in pathos, in a burning
earnestness, in a glow that thrills from the heart to the heart. Bis letters fired Mr.
GHadstone into a convulsive paroxysm of revolt against the barbarities they described.
They stirred England to its very depths, and men traveling in railway carriages were to
be noticed with flushed faces and moistened eyes as tkey read them. Lord Beaconsfleld,
then premier of England, tried to whistle down the wind the veracity of the exposures
they made. The master of sneers jibed at the '* coffee-house babble ^ that was making
the nations to throb with indignant passion. A British official, Mr. Walter Baring, was
sent into Bulsraria on the track of the two Americans, MacGahan and Schuvler, with
intent to bresS: down their testimony by cold official investigations. But, lol Baring was
an honest man with a heart; and he who had b^n sent out to curse MacGahan blessed
him instead altogether, for he more than confirmed his figures and pictures of murder,
bnitality. and atrocity. It is not too much to say that this Ohio boy, who three years ago
was laid in his all too-premature grave on the shore of the Hellespont, changecl the face
of eastern Europe." ft is stated that, on leaving the unhappy Bulgarians, MacGahan
said to them: ^* Before a year is past you will see me here with the army of the czar."
This assurance was verified by the event. Early in 1877 he went to St. Petersburg, and
accompanied the Koesian column throughout the succeeding war, indefatigable m the
pursuit of his professional duties and enthusiastic in the cause which he had taken so
much to heart. He was preparing to attend the international congress at Berlin when
he was struck down by fever, and died in Constantinople after a few days' illness, June
9, 1878. MacGahan was a type of a class of Journalists whose names can be numbered
on the fingers of one hand: Russell, Sala, Stanley, Forbes, MacGahan. After them
oome a long list of names, chiefiy American, including Albert D. Richardson, John Rus-
sell Young, Eugene Schuyler, W hitelaw Reid, etc., through whose additional labors the
art of the newspaper correspondent has become recognized and respected.
McGEE, Thomas D'Arct, 1835-68; b. Ireland; emipated to America when 17
years of age, and settled in Boston, Mass., where he contributed to the Pilot, of which
he became editor. He returned to Ireland in 1845 and remained until 1848, writing for
the Dublin Nation and interesting himself in the repeal movement. He again crossed
the ocean, and for the next 9 years was the editor of the New York Nation, afterwards
the American (kit. In 1857 he changed his residence to Canada, and established Tho
New Era in Montreal, being also elected a member of parliament, a position to which he
was constantly re-elected until his death. He was also twice a member of the ministry,
and for one term president of the executive council. He was a prominent advocate of
the moyement for the union of the provinces, and drafted the plan on which that was
afterwards effected. He opposed the Fenian movement, a fact which is supposed to
have caused his death. He was assassinated April 7, 1868, by one Whealen, at the door
of his hotel, after a night session of parliament. He was an able journalist, a brilliant
public si^eaker, and the author of a number of important works. Among these are:
History qf the Irish SettUrs in North America, fi'om the earliest period to 1850; History of
Attempts to establish the Protestant BeformaUon in Ireland; Sk^tee of CCkmneU and hi$
Friends; Popular History of IrelaTid; and a volume of poems.
MacGEOGHE'GAN, James, 1608-1760; b. Ireland; pursued his studies at Rheims,
and taking holy orders became chaplain of the Irish brigade attached to the French
army. At the instance of a number of distinguished Irishmen in the French servicOt he
wrote in French a History of Ireland, which was translated into English in 1885.
McGILL, John, d.d.. 180^79; b. Philadelphia; emigrated in childhood to Bards-
town, Ey.; graduated at St. Joseph's collese; practiced law in New Orleans and in
Kentucky; studied theology at Baltimore and Rome; took priest's orders in 1880 in the
Roman church at Bardstown; preached in Lexington, Ky;, and in 1850 was conse-
crated bishop of Richmond, Ya. He took a prominent part in the Vatican connciL He
is said to have been an able preacher and a distinguishea controversial writer.
McGILLIVRAT, Alexander, 1740-98; b. Ala.; son of a Scotch trader named
HcGillivray, and a half-breed daughter of a French officer. He received a good educa-
tion at Charleston, and was for a time in mercantile business at Savannah, but soon
came back to the Creek Indians, whom he led, on the royalist side during the revolution-
ary war. At its close he negotiated an alliance between the Creeks and Seminoles, and
Spain; and he became an agent of the latter. In 1790 he was a party to a treaty want-
ing a considerable territory to the United States, and was made a brig. gen. and U. S.
agent.
McGILLIVRAY, William, ld.d., 1796-1862; b. Scotland; graduated at King's
college, Aberdeen, where, and at Edinbui^, he studied medicine. He never took a
medical degree, but devoted himself to his favorite study of natural ^^^J^X* j^^^^
Mjj^nijea-d,. 292
was appointed keeper of the Edinburgh uaiveisit^, and in 1881 curator of the muBcum
of the royal college of gurgeoos at Edinburgh. In 1841 he was appointed professor of
natural history in Martschal college, Aberdeen. His most important works are: A Ext-
tary ofBntiah Birdi, 5 vols., 1887-52; A Manual cf BriUah Ornithology, 2 Tok., 184041;
and Ths Flowering Plants of Great Britain and Ireland,
IIACOILLTOVODT BEEK8, the highest mountains in Ireland, forming a group in tht
w. of the county Kerry, and rising from the western shores of tlie lakes of Killamey, to
the beauty of wuich their lofty heath-coYered summits add an element of grandeur. Ths
reeks cover an area of about 28 sq.m. ; and Carran-tual, the loftiest peak, is 8,404 ft ia
height.
McQREADY, Jambs ; supposed to have been b. in Pennsylvania about 1760; after
being educated at Jefterson cmle^, entered the ministiy of the Presbyterian church;
labored for a time in North Carolina; in 1796 removed to s.w. Kentucky, where he was
prominently connected with a remarkable revival of religion, which continued for sev-
eral years, leading to the ordination of men to the ministry who had not received a reg-
ular theological training. These ordinations led to controversies which culminated in
1810 in the organization of the Cumberland Presbyterian church, a denomination of
much sti'ength and influence in Kentucky, Tennessee, and some other states.
McGregor, a village of Iowa, capital of Clayton co., on the Chicago, Dubuqus
and Minnesota railroad; pop. 2,074. it has ezcellent schools^ 6 churches^ 2 weekly
newspapers, and manufactures of carriages, wagons, etc.
McGregor, John, 1707-1867; b. Scotland; after engaging in boaineas in Can-
ada, returned to England and was sent by the government on commercial mission to
several states on the continent. In 1840 he was made a secretary to the board of trade,
which office he gave up in 1847, to accept a seat in parliament as a member for Glasgow.
In parliament as previously be was a supporter of free trade. He was the author of,
among other books, Commereial and Financial LegidaHon of Europe and America, 1841;
Commercial Statistics afaU Nations, 1844-50; Wid. Bitstory if the British Bmpits from ihs
Accession of James II., 1852.
MACGREGOR, John, b. at Gravesend. England, 1825; graduated at Trinity col-
lege, Cambridge, and entered at the Middle Temple in 1847. In 1849-^ be made a
tour of Europe, Egypt, and Palestine, and on his return was called to the bar. He after-
wards visitea every European country, as well as Algeria, Tunis, the United States, and
Canada; was a wnter for Punch and other periodical; in 1865 nutde a canoe voyaie, of
which he afterwards gave an account in a book entitled A Thousand liHes in the Bob Boy
Canoe on Biters and Lakes cf Europe, Other voyages of the same kind followed, of
which we have record in The Bob Boy on the B<Mc, Th4 Voyage Alone in the Tatsl Bob
Boy, and The Bob Boy on the Jordan, all of which have been widely read.
McGUFFEY, Wn.LiAM Holmes, d.d., ll.d., 1800-78; b. Penn.; removed in youth
to Ohio: graduated at Washington college 1825; was a professor In Miami univer-
sity 1886-89: president of Ohio university 1889-45; and professor of moral philosophy
in the university of Virginia from 1845 until his death. He was also the compiler of a
series of readers and other school books, of which immense numbers were sokl.
McGUIRE, Hugh Holmes, 1801-75; b. Whichester, Ya. ; graduated in medicmeat
the university of Pennsylvania, 1821. Was professor of sur^jery in the Winchester
medical college from its organization to its destruction durmg the civil war. He
operated fifteen times for stone in the bladder without losing a case. He was yioe-
president of the American medical association in 1849.
McGUIRE. Hunter Holmes, b. Winchester, Va., 1886; son of Hugh Holmes; was
ihade m.d. in 1855, and professor of anatomy in the Winchester medical college in 1868.
Entering the confederate army as a private he soon became director of the 2d army
corps of northern Virginia and medical sturgeon to gen. '* Stonewall" Jackson. Wsi
made professor of surgery in Virginia medical college at Richmond. He has operated
for stone in the bladder 47 times^ since the civil war. and contributed articles to medical
ioumals, and has performed the operation of ligating the abdominal aorta, the patient
living 12 hours afterwards. See Lioatubb.
MAOHifillODnS, a genus of extinct camivoms animals of the feline or cat family,
presenting the most specialized example of the carnivorous type known. The upper
canines have a most extraordinary development, being Ions, saber-shaped, with floelj
serrated margins. The upper jaw has no true molars, and m
lars are reduced to 2 on each side. The dental formula is
8-3 »*" 1-1 » ^'•♦-2-2' 0-0"
These formidable flesh-eaters are called " saber-toothed tigers/' but some of the special
resembled the lion, and are spoken of as lions by some authorities : and were fully tbt
size of the largest of the present /e^ts leo. Thoy had a wide distribution in space sod
time, their fossils being found in Great Britain, in various parts of the continent of
Europe, in India and other parts of Asia, and in North and South America, ranging tai
293 JSasr***^'
lime firom the miocene fonnation to the middle of the quaternary, or human age. The
bones of macharodti9 prmefnts, from the Bad Lands of Dakotah indicate an animal some-
what smaller than the American panther; with smaller cranium and orbit, and also
described as differing in dental formula from that giren above, haTine 8 upper
incisors, and 8 upper premolars on each side instead of 2, making in all 80 teeth
instead of 26. There is another laiger species from the same locality, but with less
perfect remains. M. ctiUrideru, from the tertiary of the Val d'Amo is of large size,
baring upper canines Si in. along the anterior curve, while If. neoffmiu; from quaternary
caverns of Brazil was still lar^r, having upper canines projecting 8 in. beyOnd thefr
sockets. The bones of these aumals are often found aloog with those of several species
of qoadrumana, and of mammoth deer, bears, horses, eleiwants, and also various others
of their own family, as hyenas, tigers, and extinct lions; in fact, they flourished in the
age of mammals, and must have made sad havoc among the more defenseless animals.
MACILfiRUS. a strong fortress of Perea. Josephus says it was originally a tower
built by Alexander Jannfens as a check to the Arab marauders. It was on a lofty
point, surrounded by deep valleys, and of immense strength both by nature and art
After the fall of Jerusalem it was occupied by the Jewish banditti. The Jews say it
was visible from Jerusalem. Its site was identified in 1806 by Beetzen with the exten-
sive ruins now called Mkrauw on a rocky spur Jutting out from Jebel Attams towards
the n. , and overhanging the valley of Zerka Main. Josephus says it was the place where
John the Baptist was imprisoned by Herod and beheaded by his order.
McHALE, John, d.d., b. Tubbernavine, Mayo, Ireland, 1791 : studied at Maynooth
colle^, ordained priest in 1814, and appointed professor of theology; in 1825 was
appointed assistant bisliop of Kiilala; titular bishop in 1884, and archbishop of Tuam
the same year. He wrote two series of letters on Roman Catholic emancipation;
in 1827 published a treatise on the Smdeiices and Dodnnes of the Catholic Uhureh,
which was translated into French and German; built a cathedral at Ballina; built or
repaired 100 churches in his diocese; established numerous convents and parish schools;
preached in Rome in 1831 several sermons which were translated into Italian ; in 1848
he went to Rome and obtained from the pope the condemnation of the Queen's college
in Ireland; in 1869 he procured from a council of Irish bishops a vote of censure of mixed
education. He was a rigid Romanist, earnestly opposed Protestant missionary societies
among his flock, and promoted the formation of Roman Catholic schools and colleges.
He published Irish translations of 6 books of the Iliad and of the Psntateueh, and 60 of
Moore's Irish melodies in the same meter as the original, with the ancient airs.
McHEN'RY, a CO. in n. Dakotah, drained by the Mouse and Cheyenne rivers: 1650
iq.m. ; the population of this and four other contiguous counties is given in the census
of 1880 at 247. The surface comprises undulating, prairie land, varied by laige sand
hills and buttes.
McHENRY. a CO. in n.e. Illinois, on the borders of Wisconsin, drained bv the Fox
and Des Plaines rivers, and intersected by the Chicago and Northwestern raifroad; 470
sq.m. ; pop. '80, 24,914. This is a limestone region, having a flat surface, and generally
fertile soil The leading productions are Indian com, wheat, oats, barley, hay, potatoes,
flaxseed, wool, butter, and cheese. Co. seat, Dorr.
McHENRT, Jamss. 1758-1816; b. Md. ; was an aid-de-camp to Lafayette in the revo-
lutionnry war, member of congress 1788-86, a member of the convention which framed
the federal constitution, and secretary of war from 1796 to 1800, Port McHenry, off
Baltimore, is named after him.
MACHIAS, a t. in Maine, near the mouth of the Machios river; pop. '80, 2,208. It
was settled in 1763, and incorporated in 1784. Tlie inhabitants are somewhat engaged
in the flsheries, and there are a few manufacturing establishments.
MACHIAYEL'LI, Kicoolo. See Maochiayblli, ante.
KAOEfOOLATIOlIB, the apertures between the corbels supporting a projecting para-
pet The machicolations are for the purpose of allowing projectiles to be hurled at an
enemy when he approaches near the wall, as in scaling, undermining, etc. Such defenses
are very common in castellated architecture, especially over gateways, towers, etc.
KACRI]IS-S]r0BAYIK0 has within recent years been introduced for the purpose of
superseding, in whole or in part, the manual operations of the engraver. The first step
In this direction was the invention of the ruling-machine by Wilson Lowry for the pur-
pose of engraving plain backgrounds* skies, or any other portions where the work was
purely mechanical. The saving of labor effected by this instrument was very great, and
as its work was performed in a most satisfactory manner, it soon came into very general
use. But what is properly denominated machine engraving is executed wholly by
machinery. This department consequentlv excludes all artistic work, and is generally
restricted to the engraving of patterns, bank-notes, etc. For the engraving of bank-notes
several machines have been invented, but their mechanism cannot here be described,
as, besides being very complex, it is, for obvious reasons, kept secret as far as pos-
rible. The Americans have particularly distinguished themselves in this branch of
tngraving, and, in fact, it is to one of that nation, Mr. Perkins, that the introduction
Machin«* OQ 1
MachineiT. -^^^
ol the bank-note engraying-machme is duo. Perhaps the most perfect machine for
engra/viog is that invented by Wagner of Berlin, and called by him the ** unirersal rose
engine, or guilloche machine," which consists of a number of machines capable either
of separate or of combined action, the number of distinct instruments being co-exteosiTQ
with the number of species of lines composing the pattern. The number and arrange-
ment of the different instruments can be so varied that a practically unlimited number
of patterns may be obtained, and the correctness and delicacy of these patterns is such
as can hardly be surpassed.
KACHIRE Ain> XACHIVEBT. See MscHAinrOAL Powebs,
XACHIHEBY, Political Econoht of. It has never been questioned that machhiery
has added greatly to the productive power and the possessions of mankind, and has thus
tended to place the poor more nearly on a par with the rich, by enabling them to obtain,
at a cheap rate, articles of comf<>rt and luxury of so good a quality as not to be capable
of improvement by increase of expenditure. A mischievous fallacy has» however, often
taken poesesston of the uninstructed, to the effect that machinery has a tendency to
dispense with band-labor, and so to benefit the consumer at the expense of the workmen.
To dear away this fallacy, it is only necessary to remember that machinery itself must
be made with hands; that the capital of a country will not be diminished by the employ-
ment of machinery; and that such capital must continue to be employed in paying
wages, as of old. It is true that there is a shifting of the parties to whom the wages are
paid. When the power-loom was invented, much of the capital tliat went to hand-
weaving was spent on iron and wood for the construction of power-looms. It is a
specialty of machinery that it Lb apt to train the hands to do but one thing, and that
thing is liable to fluctuations. The remedy for this is in the working-man not supposing,
as he too often does, that he has a right to be employed all his days in one special form
of work, but in learning a variety of occupations, or rather learning the faculty pos-
sessed by intelligent people of turning the hand to a newfunction when that is necessary.
It is of the more importance to keep this in view that some kinds of manufacture accu-
mulate in certain- districts where they can be best executed, and in these there arises a
sort of monopoly in the manufacture for the time being, but this monopoly is liable to
be broken and affected by nuiny accidents. Thus, the war with America has lately in
this way powerfully affected the cotton manufacture, and driven a large body of people
either to nnd another occupation or to become paupers.
MACHINERY, Political Economy of (ante). The various questions that have
from time to time arisen concerning the relation of machine labor to human labor have
been entertained generally on a basis of pure speculation, owing to the absence of
statistics whereupon to base positive reasoning. Of coarse, in the consideration of such
a subject, the advocates of the largest use of machinery have the advantage. The bless-
ings of the application of power to the reduction of human labor are prominent and
undeniable. The multiplication of manufactures through the use of so powerful a force
is a fact which cannot be gainsaid. The reduction of the possibilities of art to an auto-
matic basis, thus relieving the individual mind from tension and the individual morality
from responmbility, offers attractions. In the face of the abeence of statistical evidence
to the contrary, the absolute and positive deductions to be made from observation alone
are all in favor of the most widespread employment of steam-power and machinery.
It has, therefore, been comparatively easy for the advocates of the largest possible
expression of mechanical force in manufacture, to formulate statements as ailment,
strongly sustaining their view of the question, and against which no well-founded objec-
tion could be made. Such statements have gradually assumed the character of the
following propositions: 1st, that so-called "labor-saving" machinery enables the laborer
to save his muscle and improve his mind ; 2d, that it lowers the price of luxuries, and
makes them measurably attainable by the laboring classes; 8d, that while displacing
certain kinds of labor, it creates a necessity for certain other kinds, thus brinffing about
merely a change of relation and not of existence; 4th, it enables the prosecuting of vast
enterprises, involving only the concentration of capital; 6th, it increases the capacity for
foreign trade; 6th, it favors the laborer by procuring for him higher wages with greater
purchasing power than were possessed by his forefathers. In support of these propo-
sitions, those who make them offer evidence which is patent to all as a noatter of universal
observation. As simple statements, taken by themselves, they are undeniable. Their
acceptance involves, also, by a process of inexorable logic, the acceptance of the largest
possible increase of mechanical power and machinery as beneficent agents in the con-
stant improvement of the condition of the race.
But exactljr here arises the action of a principle which has been fairly enunciated by
Bagehot, in his Physia and PdUtics, to the effect that the tendency of reaction in natural
law, which becomes ];>otent when this is carried to an extreme, is, first, to bring about an
equilibrium of conditions— which is dangerous; and, next, to produce a preponderaucs
in the exercise of force in one direction or another — which is hurtful. The simplest form
of expression of this principle is found in the conditions of life and activity as applied
to every class of existence, in the threefold movement of growth, maturity, and decay.
Its more complicated expression is the result of an abnormal and artificial activity; and
this, it has been claimed, is incidental to the over-use of machinery: and the recognition
OCkK Kaohln«.
^^^ MMhlMfy.
of this principle, ft is claimed, establishes the possibilitj of snch an over-use, and f ur-
Bisbes the first logical argument against the propositions adyanoed by the advocates of
tile largest possible employment of machinenr. The application of the laws of mechanics
to the cotistructioii of machinery dates back in positive histoVy to about the 8d c. b.c.
There are also hints at the existence of mechanism of various kinds at a much earlier
period among oriental nations. It is worth remarking that the discoveries and inven-
tions prior to the middle of the last century were all in the direction of aiding mankind
in their labors, and that it was not until the first application of machinery to manufac-
tnrea — in the period between 1690 and 1760— that this condition was changed, and that
of taking labor contemplated. It is, however, a fact, that in 1618 a patent (number 6)
was granted in England to David Ramsey and Thomas Wildgosse, which Included in
its specifications engines for plowing without horses or oxen, and for raising water to
great heights; and a plan for making boats run "as swifte in calmes and more saff in
stormes then boats full sayled in Qreate Wynes." But of this and other inventions of
the 16th and 17th centuries, there was no recorded result of ** labor-saving." Half a cen-
tury ago, Thomas Carlyle discerned a -condition whose continued existence has since
given occasion for much discussion of the political economy of machinery. Then he
wrote: " Cotton cloth is already twopence a yard lower, and yet bare backs were never
more numerous among us. Let inventive men cease to spend their existence incessantly
coDtriving how cotton can be made cheaper; and try to invent, a little, how cotton at its
present cheapness could be somewhat justlier divided among us." Following him,
Thomas Love Peacock, an English author of distinction, wrote as follows: '* Ports
reK>unding with life, in other words, with noise and drunkenness, the mingled din of
avarice, intemperance, and prostitution! Profound researches, scientific inventions, to
what endt To teach the art of living on a little? To disseminate liberty, independence,
health? No! to multiply factitious desire, to stimulate depraved appetites, to invent
unnatural wants, to heap up incense on the shrine of luxurv, and accumulate expedients
of selfish and ruinous profusion. Complicated machinery: behold its blessings! Twenty
years ago, at the door of every cottage, sat the good woman with her spinning-wheel.
The children, if not more profitably employed than in gathering health and sticks, at
least laid in a stock of health and strength to sustain the labor of maturer years. Where
is the spinning-wheel now, and everv simple and insulated occupation of the indus-
trious cottage? Wherever this boasted machinery is established, the children of the poor
are death-doomed from their cradles."
Next Emerson sounded a warning note : " A sleep creeps over the mat functions of
man. Enthusiasm goes out. In its stead, a low prudence seeks to hold society stanch ;
but its arms are too short: eordage and machinery newr wpply the place of life,**
And then John Ruskin, whose whole lifetime has been devoted to the exposure of
error, the annihilation of sham, and the rooting-up of that which was untruthful, wrote
m this wise: " If you find in the city you live in, that everything which human hands
and arms are able, and human mind willing to do— of pulling, pushing, carrying, mak-
ing, or cleaning^is done by machinery, you will come to understand what I have never
yet been able to beat, with any quantity of verbal hammering, into my readers' heads, that
as long as living breath-engines ana their living souls and muscles stand idle in the
streets, to dig ccml out of pits to drive dead steam engines is an absurdity, waste, and
wickedness.**^
It is thus obvious that to certain minds, and these of the deepest and clearest, the
accepted and apparently obvious position of machinery^ in its relation to human labor
has appeared to be at least doubtful. And this conclusion is not confined to the minds
of statesmen and political economists. The instinct of the laboring-class scented a dan-
gerous enemy from the period of the first application of power to macliinery. The his-
tory of manufacturing m Qreat Britain, France, and Germany, from the date of the
first intervention of this force, is pointed by constantly recurring periods of antagonism
between the laborer and the machine. Between the political economist and the hand-
worker there is a wide distance, which was bridged over in this instance by authors in
every department of literature, and orators upon every sublcct. Adam Smith published
his iTiqtiiry into the Nature and Cktuses of the Wealth of Nations in 1766, at which date
the use of machinery with the application of water-power was prevalent in England.
In the work above-named, he says: *'The liberal reward of labor, as it is the natural
effect, so it is the natural symptom of increasing national wealth. The scanty mainte-
nance of the laboring poorj^ on the other hand, is the natural symptom that things are at
a stand, and their standing condition that they are goinf fast backward."
This being the fact, the relative condition of wages in connection with the employ-
ment and non-employment of machinery becomes an important factor in the question ;
so also does the relation of the product of maphine-labor to capital; and no less the char-
acter of the product of machinela1x>r, as to whether it be of a better (|^uality than that
which can be prodnced by hand-labor. And the further question arises, whether the
acknowledged increase of power to export manufactured articles, the result of the
extended use of machinery, be economically beneficial to a country. All these points
are to be considered — with others— in the endeavor to reach a Just conclusion as to the
main question. It is interesting to note that each of them has been considered— sepa-
rately—by men eminent in different departments of learning. Byj^^^^^^^hif^ns
formed under such ciicumstanoes, it is pracUoible to gain an expieaaion of oplnieft
which cannot fail to be of value.
A few years since, when tlie balance of trade had first turned in favor of the United
States, and shipments to foreis^n ports, already enormous, were increasing in a ratio quite
unexampled, Mr. Edward AtKinson, an acknowledged authority, expressed himself as
follows: "The alleged abundance of money consists of loanable capital in cotton, com,
coal, and the like, seeking use. It finds its first expression in the attempt to open for*
eign markets, and (he strange picture of an excemve thipmerU toforagn lands, wiU thou-
sands in this country are insuffidently supplied. The normal condition has to be reached,
in which process the exports in ratio to numbers now excessive may again decline, aod
the exports and imports become nearly equal — a condition far more consistent with true
v>e!fare"
The situation as here pictured, and which is certainly the direct result of the appli-
cation of comprehensive mechanical power, will be seen to be analogous to that indicated
in the passage heretofore quoted from Thomas Carlyle. Again, the multiplication of
the possibilities of machinery is claimed, and justly, to have cheapened the cost of
manufactured goods, and it is contended that this result is beneficent. An editorial
writer in tlie Kevr York Tribune, Aug. 7, 1878, attacked this question after the follow-
ing fashion: '* Go down the streets where cheap shops abound in any American city,
and you will see these girls by the hundred fiaunting alone the sidewalk, with their
sleazy dresses made up m the ladt fashion, their voices loud and defiant, their whole
manner drunken with silliness and vanity. It is time we spoke the trutii about Uus
class, for it is from among them that the lowest of all classes is recruited every year.
The maioritv of fallen women in this or any American city are not those who have
sold their birthright for love, or who have been tempted to their undoing, but these
vain, ignorant girls to whom dress and adventure are the wine of life."
Even the manufacture and use of the sewing-machine have not been without their
opponents, prominent among these being ThurTow Weed, who alleges that these have
resulted " in throwing tens of thousands of poor women out of emplojonent, and affect-
ing the morals of the countij alarmingly." A writer in the New Icork Times, a few
years since, made the followin|; extraordinary statement: "The use of machinery not
only is a fixed fact, but that use is constantly increasing; every person concerned with it^
from the inventor who shapes the machine, to the user of it, acts for his own immediate
benefit, and never troubles himself about the community; on the other hand, labor is
superabundant, and the question of social order and progress is really the question of the real
effect of machinery on labor J*
This, a^in, was more than paralleled by an utterance of ex-secretary Boutwell, to
the following effect: "Thus faculty, which is a systematic expression of intellectual
power, is recompensed, while mere persons are becoming less important in the economy af
And the following, translated from an article entitled La Orise, published in a French
paper, the Olobe lUustrS, in Philadelphia, in 1877, is still more significant: *' An English
manufacturer has said and written: ' The insubordination of our working people has
caused us to dream of the possibility of doing without them. We have made and
encouraged all imaginable efllorts of intelligence to fill the places of men hyr more docile
instruments, and we are almost at the end. Mechanics has delivered capital from the
oppression of labor. In fact, where we still employ a man, it is only provisionally;
waiting the hour when there fliiall be invented for us the means of performing his duty
without him."
Of course the bearing of all of this on the question of the value of machinery as a cause
of positive displacement is obvious. The editor of the French paper quoted above thus
expresses his view of the probable result of a condition such as that suggested: " What
kind of a system is this which suggests delight to the manufacturer in the hope that
society can presently dispense with men. Fool! If your workmen cost you something,
are they not also vour buyers? What will you do with your products, when, disahled
by you, these worKingmen no longer consume them?"
The ultimate object of an investigation like the one here undertaken ib to discern,
if possible, whether the net result of the constant increase in the use of machinery be
or be not beneficial to the nice. The antagonists to this increase, which, as they'con>
tend, has arrived long since at a point where it has become hurtful, respond to the prop-
ositions in favor of it, already given, as follows: 1st. That experience shows that there
is no time gained to the laborer by the intervention of machinery; while on the contrary
its employment is such a strain upon the physical and moral nature of those en^sed in
running it, ex necessitcUe rei, that so far from being enabled to " improve his mind," the
machine- worker depraves both body and mind in the mere struggle for existence. It is
claimed by those wno make this assertion tliat " the large manufacturing centers are
vortices of vice; and that the lives of those who are appendages to mechanism are not
only of less duration than the lives of hand-workers, but that such are forced by the
nature of their employment to sustain themselves by the free use of stimulanta The
drunkenness, immorality, and general degradation of the slaves of the 'labor-saving'
machine, as it is employed in manufactures, is patent in every manufacturing town
Digitized by VjOUV IC
297
from Ifaadiester sad Sheffield to Lowell and Pittsburg. ** 9d. Thej alkoe thaX whUa
machioeiy *' lowers the price of luxuries," wliat were formerly necessittes haye oow
become luxuries to thousands by the operation of the same means, and it is manifest
Uiat the reduction of the cost of luxuries through the means of machinery to a price
•toiMl within the reach of the poor, must breed extravagance through added tempta-
tioD. To that pleasant thing which is quite beyond our reach, we do not aspire; while
for that which seems almost within our grasp, we have an insatiable longing. Sd,
As to tlie dispkoement of human labor through the employment of macliinery
being apparent, and not real, they point to the constantly mcreasing prevalence
of '* tramping" as a business; to the low rate of wages; to the increased employment of
prisons and alms-houses; and to the facts as to the capacity for displacement of the
mechanical power in use, mathematically presented; find which must be real and not
merely apparent in its application, since the means for restoring the balance must
needs work so much more slowly. The number of persons in the United States engaged
in manufactures by the use of machinery increased between 1850 and 1860, by 817 per
cent, and between 1860 and 1870 by 56 per cent, an increase of 93 per cent in twenty
years; of course representing, in combination with the quantity of mechanical power
applied by each added individual, an amount of displacement quite incalculable. Mean*
while, the application of machinery to agricultural woiiL caused a falling off of the per-
centage of increase in the number of hands employed, as between the same two decades,
of 30 p^ cent. An illustration of the working oi the application of machinery to farm
labor in the matter of displacement occurs in the case of the Dalrymple farm in Uakotah,
where, the harvest of 1880— cutting 25,000 acres of wheat, employing 20 steam
threshing-machines, each with a man and a team, gotten out at Um rate of 80 car-loads a
dav—returned a profit of $250,000, the yield being 35 bushels to the acre. A little
reflection on these figures, as to the number of laborers that could be supported from
this farm alone, were it worked by hand-labor, will leave a vivid impression as to the
displacement in this direction. It is a fact that farming on this scale has not been
found profitable in the loi^ run. According to ex-secretary Boutwell, " the tools upon
a farm of any given capacity cost at least four times as much as the tools then in use
would have cost in 1840." The subject of displacement is entertained by the same
authority, in general terms, as follows: "The steam power of England represents,
stands for, is equal to, the muscular force of a hundred million full-grown men." It is
further contended for this side of the ar|;ument^ that the tendency of the use of
machinery is to the displacement of intelligent and skilled hand-labor, and that its
employment involves a comparatively unintelligent and monotonous application to a
Srely mechanical vocation. As was said in an editorial article upon this subject in a
ding New York journal, speaking for machinery, and on the labor-saving nature of
its work, *' I wUI do this for vou and save your m'uscles; do you wait on me, make
me. and cany what I produce. But the press has not infrequently reached conclusions
adverse to thte doctrines held by the advocates of the largest possible use of machinery.
An editorial article in the Kew York Herald thus expressed such an opinion : " Ninety
percent of our people can, with the machinery .we Americans use, produce all tliat
ihe whole people can consume. That means that 36,00O,0QQ can produce all that
40.000,000 can use, and that, unless we re-establish our foreign commerce, 4.000,000
at least must remain idle, and are condemned to be^ary or starvation." This
was written when the balance of trade was against the United States: a reference to the
citation from Mr. Atkinson heretofore given will show that an extension of foreign
commerce did not remedy the evil. But the chief significance of the Herald statement
rests in its presentation of the percentage of displacement. Thurlow Weed is respon-
sible for the assertion that the increase in the use of machinery in the prosecution of
farm-work " has thrown hundreds of thousands of men out of their ordinary employ-
ment." The N. Y. BoemnfFost of April 20, 1878, said. "The average daily wages
earned by 2,042,200 working-men, as shown by the last census or 100 cities of
America, was only 07 cents, and each had an average of only 180 days* employ-
ment a year." In 1850 the average annual wages of operatives in all manufactures,
including mining and fishine, in the Unitea States was $247, the net average
product per capita $230, and the ratio of wages to gross product 22i per cent. Li
1860 these relations had changed to the following: average wages $288; avernge
product $308; ratio of wages to gross product 20i per cent. In 1870 the decline
of wages in these relations still continued, the average wages being $883, the average
product, $392; ratio of wages to gross product lOioercent. Now, while theavenige
wages in these industries combined was in 1870 $383 per annum, in manufactures
slone it was $288, and in mining. alone $482; while the ratio of wages to gross product
in the latter industry was 48.75 per cent. Apd this clearly shows that as the laboring-
man avoids connection with machinery his wages increase: the pay of hands engaged
in copper-mining in the United States in 1870 was 67 per cent greater than that
of operatives in the manufacturing industries. Carroll D. Wright, chief of the Massa-
chusetts bureau of statistics, presented in his annual report for 1875 the figures resulting
from an examination into the condition of 397 families of working-men in tiiat state.
By tiiese it is diown that the wages (earnings) of these working-men varied between $221
Digitized by VjOUV IC
for a day laborer, and $980 for an iron-roller per annum. Of these the higheel eandngi
Were those of blacksmiths, brick-layers, teamsters, carriage-smiths, etc., those who
ivorked without the aid of machinery.
It is interesting to note by the foregoing statistics that with the increased use of
machinery between 1860 anci 1870 there was a steady relative decrease in the reccints of
manufacturing operatives in relation to the net product per capita. Yet, as will bs
shown hereafter, while the operator lost, the capitalist did not gain. The same differ.
«nce between the amount of wages of manufacturing operatives and those engaged i&
mining is found existing in Great Britain as in the United States. There mining wages
average $^5 per head, while those in manufacturing industries vary between $175 and
$300. A further example of this relation is found in the fact that 167,000 persons
employed in manufacturing machinery in English factories receive only an averaee of
$4 per capita per week, while men engaged in ship-building set $1 per day. Aeain, in
1870 there were 5,404 hands employed in copper-mining In the United States, of whom
8,247* worked under ground; the average wages of these hands was $5 per capita.
With regard to this whole matter of wages, however, it is only fair to take into consiuera-
tion the purchasing power of money at different times. The authoritative statcmeDt of
the superintendent of the census (1870) concerning this subject should certainly be
received with respect. Bearing in mind that the estimates of wages given in this paper
reach no later than 1870, attention is requested to the following: ** After much thought^
and extensive inquiry on the subject, the superintendent is disposed to regard' 56 per
cent as a just statement of the increase in pnce for all classes of mechanical and manu-
factured productions between 186C and 1870.^' And while prices increased 66 per cent
during the decade given, wages increased only 38 per cent ($288 in 1860; $388 m
1870). It may be mentioned, also, that while the wealth of the country, the capital
invested in manufacture?, and the gross annual yield of that capital, have all doubled in
periods of eleven years, the wages of the operative have increased only 62 per cent in
twenty years.
These figures, it is contended by those whose argument we are now presenting, tend
to show that the over-use of machinery in manufactures reduces wages. Of course, gene-
ral high wages cannot occur during a period of displacement. Mr.. David A. Wells has
stated that ** the labor of 226 persons (with the aid of the improved machinery in use) n
as effective in 1876, in meeting the demands of the country for clotii and food products,
as was the labor of 691 persons in effecting similar results m 1838; and as a consequence
of this change in the power of production, the labor of 466 other persons has within
this time and within the special industries under investigation, been rendered unneces-
sary; and they have been compelled to enter into relations with new wants and new
capabilities of purchase in order to find employment." But, on examining other
spheres of employment, we are met by the same state of things, with the ratio apinst
the laboring-man, if anything, enhanced. Thus, we learn from Mr. Wells, that, m the
stove manufacture, "8 men can now, with the aid of machinery, produce as many
stoves as 6 men unaided could have done in I860;" also, that in the manufacture of
straw goods, through the sewing-machine, 800 hands do more than 1000 could have
done a few years ago.. Again, Mr. Wells says: ''In the manufacture of boots and
shoes, 8 men working with machinery can do at present what, prior to 1860, required
the labor of 6 men to effect, while the ijutividtuU or per capita eoneumpUan of boots and
shoes in the United States has probably been more umform during the same penod than is
t?ie ease with any other commodity.*' This last statement is important in showing that
there is no abnormal or even healthy increa^ in the demand for boots and shoes, to
compensate for the displacement effected by machinery; this, too, being one of the
largest and most important of our manufacturing industries. Mr. Wells further states
(quoting the census of 1870) that, '* while the gain in the population in the United States
from 1^ to 1870 was less than 28 per cent, the gain in the product of our so-called
manufacturing industries during the same period, measured in kind, was 52 per cent,
or nearly 30 per cent in excess of the gain in population."
Consulting further, on the subject of "displacement," Mr. Carroll D. Wright's
admirable report (1877) on the statistics of Massachusetts, we are told that, by the mere.
improwments in machinery since 1845, the productive power of the shoemaker has been
trebled, while in 10 years the productive power of the woolen manufacturer has been
nearly douUled. According to Mr. Wright the total of steam and water power employed
in Massachusetts in driving machinery is equivalent to the hand labor of 1,912,488 per-
sons—the actual hand-labor in use being 266,330 persons in 1875. Here we have an
admitted displacement of more than 1,600.000 persons; each hand-laborer having his
powers multiplied by 6, through the agency of steam and water (and machinery). But,
says Mr. Wright, " the industries of Massachusetts, without the aid of her motivf
power, would require a population of 7,400,000, or nearly 4i times as great as it is
now, to furnish the hand-labor necessary to carry them on." The ratio, however,
according to this authority, differs In the following industries as given: In paper-
making, each operative (plus machinery) represents the hand-labor of 18 persons. Ii
the textile manufactures, the relation is 1 to 0. Each lumber-maker represents thi
power of 50 men. The statement as to the woolen manufacture would be incredibls
coming from any less authoritative source; 283 operatives in 187^ added ^^ number
299
4mphif6d in tiUt indtuitlrv in 1865, produeed very nsa^lg dmhU ihs fuantUy ^ doth €f ike
firmer n«mfttfrb-^ rdau&n of 1 to 10 p&nofu as regards displasement. In 1810 the entirA
manufuctQre of carpets \n the United States amounted to onlr 10,000 yardfi. In 1870
there were 689 carpet manufactories in the United States, employing 18,000 persons, at
an average wage of $361 ner annum, and producing earpets to tlie value of $22,000,000
annually. The rate of displacement In carpet manufacture through the use of the
power-loom is as 1 to 8 in 2-ply ingrain carpets, and 1 to • in tapestry and Jacquard Brua-
«elB-— this ratio being in i^gard to the number of yards produced, in comparison with
^rate of production by the hand-loom. That is to say, 18,000 persons with power
now manuracture what It would require 117,000 to make with the hand-loom.
Says Benson J. Lossing— a dose and accurate compiler, and careful observer as well:
"Extravagance in dress has become mora marked since the civil war than at any
time in the history of our country. It is not so much eztravasance in taste as extrava-
gance in cost. A fashionable woman now expects 4 or 5 new oonnets each year, cost-
ing $25 to $50 each; and some on which rich and rare laces are used may cosf $200.
Forty to one hundred and fifty dollars are now charged, sometimes, for the making
and trimming of a single dress, in addition to the cost of the body material. Only
by the use of the wonderful sewing-machine, that does the work of scores of nimble
lingers in the same time, could the needle>work on the dresses of women now, even
tlie plainest that are in fashion, be performed."' The number of sewing-machines
manufactured in the United States in 1874 was 528,508: in the four years preceding the
centennial exhibition, the sales of this article averaged half a million a year. Tlie
entire sales of the American sewinK-machine during the last 25 vears are estimated
to have numbered as many as ten miuion machines. The number or patents granted in
the United States on sewine-macfaines and parts of machines since 18^ exceeds
1000^ while Uiere are more than 40 separate parts of the article, each of which has
been the subject of a patent. The use of the sewing-machine, when compared with
hand-sewing, is probably in the relation of 1 to 6; a displacement of the work of 5 per-
sons for every machine used, ^e relation of machinery in the manufacture of
watches to hand-labor is as 1 to 8|. Mr. Edward Atkinson mentions that a factory that
uses 8,400 bales of cotton in a year, employs 800 to 500 working-men in the field ;
whereas in the mill it only employs 100 men, women, and children.
In 1856, M. Leplay, writing on the subject of labor in France, characterized the
conditicm of things in a certain district by stating that the position of its manufactures
— " mined by machinery, had driven the working-people of the district to subsist on
public charity. In witnessing the marvels of industry produced at the cost of so much
suffering," the author demands ** Whether progress thus reaUsed be notaoHtdUy decay f"
The following pertinent remarks on this subject occur in an address of hon. Hugh
McCulloch, July 4, 1878, at Woodstock, Conn. : "Idleness, especially enforced idleness,
brews mischief and is dangerous to the state. Honest employment promotes virtue;
idleness vice. Manual labor is reputable, although in no country is it properly
respected. Laboring-men, as a class, are honest men It is work that so many
idle men — ^idle not throueh their own fault, but idle by the substitution of machinery
for handft— are be^ng for, that families are starving for It is not strange,
therefore, that the laboring-man looks upon labor-saving machinery and implements as
his enemies; and it Is by no means certain that they are not. Looking at the labor
question as humanitarians regard it, it is, indeed, questionable if labor-saving machinery
is not working against the security of society and the welfare of the race. Political
economists do not take this view of it. They care nothing for instrumentalities. They
look only to results,' snd* to r^sult^ in a particular direction — the increase of the national
wealth — as if the greatness 6i a nation consisted of its wealth alone, and not in the
character and conditioii of ltd people.*'
We recur to the propiwifioris bf the friends of machinery. 4th. "It enables the
prosecuting of vast enterprises, involving' only the concentration of capital." This, as a
simple statement of fact, is not disputed.' The construction and consolidation of rail-
roaas; the foundation of vast manufacttlring industries; the supplying of enormouslv
increasing i>opulations (to acdrtbin ettent) with the necessaries of life; and the provid-
ing of a smaller and more fortunate number with its luxuries, — these are demonstrable
incidents wiiich may be fairly included among the uses of machinery. But other ques-
tions occur; and wnen the investigator is met by the assertion that only 2 per cent of
the business houses of the United States avoid bankruptcy; when it is known that nearly
all the older railroads in the country have been at one time or another in the hands of
receivers; when factories are periodically shut down, operatives on strike, and blast
fnmaces out,— it becomes, in the minds of a certain class of investigators, a question
whether this consolidation and concentration of capital be not in itself a force reacting
to the injury and loss of the very caiHtal thus forced to unnatural uses. The employment
of mac^nery in farm labor has greatly grown during the decade between 1870 ana 1880.
Comparison in this respect, made prior to 1870, shows some remarlcable facts. In 1880
the amount of product (less material) from the capital invested in the manufacturing
industries of the country, including mining and fishing, was $854,256,584. being 15^
per cent less than the capital itself— $1,000,855,715. In 1870 the amount of capital
employed had more than doubled (bdng $2,848,003,198), wiiilc tlie number of hands
employed had increased 66 per cent Yet the ratio of prodact to capital in this latter
year had fallen 4 per cent, the product, $1,891,576»740, oeing 19^ ifdr cent leas than the
capital. This is certainly a remarkable change in relation, when it is considered that
the number of establishineots, also, had increased 80 per cent — a direct and tremendaut
inerwue in machinery. Again, the amount of capital invested in machinery and build-
ings for manufactures being, as above stated, $2,848,068,196 in 1870: that invested io
farming implements and machinery was $886,878^429. The product on the investment
in manufactures (less the material used) was $1,891,675,749: tliat of agriculture was
$2,447,588,658. The average product of each farm laborer was $860. The average
product of each operative in the manufactures, backed by a capital invested in machinery
six times as great as that similarly emi>loyed in farming, was $848. Deducting wages
and interest on capital in each of uese instances:
Manufacturing, share of wages $877
" "interest *. 78-450
Fanning, share of wages 800
*' "interest 8—808
—we have a return to the manufacturer of $898 per operative, and to the farmer of $548.
But whereas in tne one case there is no important diminution of this net product, in
the other we have the enormous expenditures for repairing and sustaining the vast
organism of machinery involved, and the very large sums annually expended in
improved machinery in order to sustain the competition which is a part of the very
essence of mechanism. By this time the net return of the capitalist who has invested
his money in manufacturing is reduced by a still further percentage below that of the
farmer, who also has employed machinery, but has not so abused its use. But giving
no consideration to these elements, there is still a difference in the net product per capita
employed, aa between the farmer and the manufacturer, of more than one-third in fawr
of the farmer.
Still another comparison to display the relation of profits with and without the over-
use of machinery. The number of mining luuids employed in tlie United States in 1870
was 154,828, their product $152,598,994^ or $988 per capita. Making the same deduction
of wages and interest on capital made in relation to agriculture and manufacturing, we
■ have as a result a net annual return per capita of $471, an in<H«ase on that of the manu-
I facturer of 10 per cent, although the miner receives an awra/ge of $468 wagee to the $877 of
the manufacturing operative.
Now, as precluding the claim that it is owr-uee of machinery which produces these
curious results, it is only necessary to refer to the U. S. census for 1860 and 1870 to
establish the following facts. (It is very likely to be generally assumed by the uniniti-
ated that there was no such tremendous addition between 1860 and 1870 to the quantity
of machinery previously existing in the country — as the tenor of this paper would eeem
to indicate. Tlie facts and figures of the construction of machinery during the decade
wider consideration very clearly demonstrate the inaccuracy of any such assumption.)
In 1860 the amount of capital invested in the manufacture
of machinery was $85,959,068
In 1870 it was 101,183,597
The number of hands employed in 1860 was 41,172
In 1870 83,514
The wages paid in 1860 16,165,416 t
In 1870 47,866,882
Cost of material in 1860 21,405,678
In 1870 60,428,648
Number of establishments In 1860 1,388
In 1870 2,897
Gross product in 1860 51,887,266
In 1870 138,519,246
Thus it appears that the capital employed, the wages paid, and the material used in
manufacturing machinery, had grown in 1870 to three times the amount of these in 1860;
while the gross product on this investment had increased two and seven-tenths times
d urine: the same decade. We had 170 per cent mare machinery in the country in 1870 than
we had in 1860.
But now uprise some marvelous phenomena, by which it might be fairly reasoned
that the lesson of 1870 should have closed every machine-shop in the land— «n theinterett
of capital. There was a falling off in the gross product in tliis business, of 80 per cent;
and in the average net product per capita of each of the hands employed, from $986.60
to $277.14 per annum. Meanwhile the average of wages had increased from $892.88 in
1860 to $578.16 in 1870. 8o that the operative returned to the capitalist in 1860 87
per cent less than his wages, and in 1870 less than half his wages. Here may
properly be quoted the following statement recently made by Mr. Edward Atkinson:
"It is in a quick distribution and ample consumption of products, rather than in the
amount of accumulated capital, that the welfare of a c^fn^^^^j^^^^^jiiThe fact that
301
there maj eiist and Beemingty thrtve large boflfnees openilioiit ItatoMng the enqaoy-
meot of great numbers of ImmaD beings, hundreds of thousands of horaewwer i^ steam
or water, and tremendous capital, proves nothing, either in faror of hiring the humao
race, concentrating the natural forces, or limiting the movement of the circolatinir me-
dium. Any laree undertaking, once established, will run itself on its own momentum for
a long period oi time, without the slightest apparent regard for economic Uiwa or scien*
tific methods, and yet mav fail at last In such cases the capitalist, instead of liTing and
saving from the profits of his business, exists merely on the usance of the large sums of
money which pass through bis hands-^all this ending with failureSy dishonesty, and ,
general financial disaster.
'* 6th. It increases the capacity for foreign trade :" this statement is generally answered
as already given in quotations from Garlyle and Edward Atkinson, and with the counter^
statement that the increase of foreign trade which is fostered at the expense of home
consumption cannot be healthy. The fact that American prints are sold on the market
at Manchester, £ng., for 6(1. per yard, while the same goods are gathering dust on the
shelves and counters of stores in the place of their production, u>r lack of purchasteg
IK)wer in the American people to exhaust the supply, can hardly be esteemed an illustnir
tion of good political economy. " 6th. It favors the laborer by procuring for him higher
wages wiUi ^^ter purchasing power." While even this statement may be accepted aa
it atanda, it la with a proviso that annihilates its value as an adjunct to the argument
And this because of the chiim which is set forth and diligentiv sustained by the antago-
nists of too much machinery, viz., that the result of machme labor, the quality' and
character of its product, are so inferior that a great increase of expnditure is required
in the direction of manufactured goods, to supply the same necessities which would be
fully satisfied by the product of hand labor at a greatly lessened cost; thus rendering
nugatory all possible advantage of increased wages ;in certain directions), with increased
purchasing power. When to this is added the tact of displacement tlirou^ the concen-
tration of wages in a few hands, it is claimed that the proposition is practiodly confuted.
Says Charles Eastlake in his Hinit en Botuehold Tatte: " But it is to be feared that
instead of progressing we have, for some ages, at least, gone hopelessly backward in the
sits of manufacture. And this is true, not only with respect to the character of design,
but often in regard to the actual quality of the material employed. It is generally
admitted by every housewife who has attained a matronly age, that linen, silk, and other
articles of textile fabric, though less expensive than formerly, are far inferior to what
was made in the days of our grandfathers. Metal-workers tell us that it is almost impos-
sible to procure for the purpose of theur tmde, brass such as appears to have been in use
a oentuiy ago. Joinery is neither as sound nor as artistic as it was^in the early Qeorgian
era. A cheap and easy method of workmanship, an endeavor to make a show of finish
with the least possible labor, and, above all, an unhealthy spirit of competition in regard
to price, such as was unknown to previous generations, have combined to deteriorate the
value of our ordinaiy mechanical work. Mr. G. Phillips Bevan, in his admirable
Industrial CUusea and Industrial SUUisUu, article, "Paper,'* says: "The making of
paper by hand is but seldom practiced now in this country (England), except by a few
makers who have a specialty for best writing and drawing paper, the hand-made in these
cases being considered superior to the machine-made" (p. 198). Mr. Q. W. Smalley,
the London correspondent of the New York Tribune, in a letter to that Journal dated
" London, Feb. 25, 1878," on book binding at the Paris exposition, writes: "Machinery
is largely employed, and the use of machinery is fatal. Commercially, perhaps, it is
indispensable, but it is none the less destructive to artistic excellence in bindiog, as in
most other things in which art has any share." Again. Mr. Bevan: "For many years
the textile industry was carried on in the rural districts only. The power used was
water. Water on Uie hill-sides was irregular in its flow; work was therefore irregular.
When the stream was full, work was brisk (we should have called it excessive); when it
was dry, the factory hands were employed on the lands, in hay-making, or other like
operations. Thus the operatives were farm laborers as well as factory workers, and as
manufacturing was not the complicated affair it is now, they were free from many of
the evils which afterwards arose from the introduction of steam, and the immense enter*
prise and energy of our manufacturers." Speaking of the cotton-dust in the mills, he
says: "The operatives showed the effect of this dust in their pale, emaciated faces, and
in the bronchial Irritation from which they constantly suffered, causing couah, ansemia,
debility, diarrhea, and other formidable symptoms of pulmonary mischief, including
expectoration, in which the cotton fiber was plainly visible by the microscope." " The
physical strength suffers much in factories from confined heated atmospnere, loaded
vith fine cotton fibers, flinty sand, and cutaneous exhalations; the number of gas-lights,
each light destroying oxygen equal to one man; transitions from the mills and their
irregular temperature to their own dwellings; diet and drinks adapted to a heated
eroplojrBient, and stimulants to soothe an excited, nervous tension ; vision always on the
novo; peroeptton and volition, from the nature of their work, alwaya in action. . . .
Kg doubt factory physique is not good, bat it is made wone by factory associates ol
vice and iniquity.*' Mr. Bevan adds that a series of questiona addressed in 2878 to the
oertifviDg suigeoaa proved beyond doubt the fact of the degeneiacy of the factoijr
popuiuioa ^,g.^.^^^ ^y Vjuu^lc
The coQcluaion of the opponoDts of what they deem to be the abnormal empk>jiBeat
of mechaDiem in manufactures may be set forth in the following authoritative statemeat:
The superintendent of the census estimates the loss to the gross product of the wealth of
the countnr to be $004.89 per capita of those not counted as producing (see p. 876 IfirUk
(knsu9, Yof. 8). This sum mcludes wages, and therefore the producing power per capita.
The displacement of 8,000,000 of laboring-men by the over-use of machinery would
therefore mean a loss to the annual product of the country of more than $1,800,000,000.
When there is added to this sum Uie cost of supporting these 8,000,000 of idle men
— say at 26 cents per day per head — we have a tnfle over $2,000,000,000 per
annum as the amount to be placed to the debit of the couutrjr, being, in fact, as mudi
as the entire capital invested in the manufacturing Industrie.) of the United States.
Against this it is set forth that no evidence has ever shown that there were 3,000,000
unemployed laboring-men at any one time in the United States. Admitting this, the
computation as to the amount of existing idleness is open to any one, whenever it may
seem desirable to make it Those rejecting the figures afforded by the leading American
iournals, hereinbefore quoted, can easily obtain such dataas nuiy be procurable and estab-
lish results that will satisfv them. The application to these, whatever they may be, of
the per capita loss in such a case as estimated by the superintendent of the census of
1870, will be found to be of value. It is evident that this important subject covers an
immense field, and embraces a complexity of elements, physical, intellectual, social, and
moral. To its solution all these departments must contribute.
MACHRAY, RoBBRT, d.d., ll.d., b. England, 1880; graduated at Sidney-Sussex
college, Cambridge, 1855; became dean and fellow of his college; vicar of Madingley,
near Cambridge, which he resigned in 1805 to enter upon the bishopric of Rupert's
Land, to which he had been appointed.
MclLYAINE, Chablbs Pkttit, d.d., ll.d., D.aii., 1708-1878; h K J. ; son of Joseph,
who was U. S. senator from New Jersey; graduated at Princeton, 1816; ordained in
the Protestant Episcopal church, 1820, and officiated at Gkorgetown, D. C. ; cliaplain to
the military academy at West Point and professor of ethics and history, 1825-27; rector
of St. Anne's church, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1827--82, and, in 1881, professor of the evidences
of revealed religion in the university of the city of New York; in 1882 consecrated
bishop of the diocese of Ohio, in connection with which he was also president of Ken-
yon college at Gambier, 1882-40, and afterwards of the theological seminary there.
Among his published writings are Lectures en the Ehidencee ef Chnttianity, 1882, and in
many subsequent editions; Oatfard Dwinity; The Hdy Cathodh Ohwreh; The Trvih ani
the Life; ValedioUfrp Offering; Family and Pwrith 8ermon»; and contributions to many
religious periodicals. His name is held in honor, without as well as within his own
denomination, for Christian fervor as a preacher and writer, and for his combined
gentleness and strength of spirit
Mc'ILVAINE, Joshua Hall, d.d., b. Del., 1815; of Irish Presbyterian descent;
graduated at the college of New Jersey, 1837; studied theology at Princeton theo-
logical seminary until 1840; pastor at Little Frills, N. Y., 1841-48; of the Westminster
church, Utica, N. Y., 1844-48, during which time published The Tree of the KnowkdM
qf Good and Boil; of the First Presbyterian church, Rochester, N. Y., 1848-60, towards
tne close of which years, delivered a course of lectures in the Smithsonian Institution at
Washington, D. C, on "comparative philology in relation to ethnology;'* professor of
belles-lettres in the college of New Jersey, 1800-70. in the last of which years published
a work on elocution; since 1870 has been pastor of the High Street Presbyterian church,
Newark, N. J. While performing the stated duties of these various positions. Dr.
Mcllvaine has also been a frequent contributor to the Princeton Beview and the Biih
UoVieca Sacra, He is a brilliant and original thinker, having a forcible and graceful
style, and is enriched with a wide range of learning.
Mc'INTOSH, a 00. in a e. Georgia, on the Atlantic ocean, and having the Altamaha
river on the S.W. ; traversed by the Atlantic and Gulf railroad, and water^ by the Sapelo
river and Jones's and Doctor's creeks; 560 sq.m.; pop. '80, 6,241. It has a generally
level surface and fertile soil; the productions are rice, Indian com, sweet potatoes, and
cane molasses; there is a large lumber interest Co. seat, Darien.
MclNTOSH, JoHK, 1745-1826; b. Ga. ; an officer in the war of the revolution with
the rank of col., and a maj.gen. of the Georgia militia in the last war with England,
1814-15. After the revolutionary war was over he settled in Flonda, then in possession
of the Spaniards, was seized by thsm on the supposition that he had designs against the
Spanish government, and imprisoned a year in Moro castle at Havana. On bis return
he conducted a reprisal against a Spanish fort on the St. John's, opposite Jacksonrille.
MclNTOSH, JoHH B., b. Fla., 1838; a cavalry officer in the U. S. army in 1861,
and actively engaged In the service in the campaigns in Virginia, Maryland, and Fena-
•ylvania ftrom 1862 to 1865. He was promoted to brig.gen., July 21, 1864, and brevet
tnaj.gen. in 186A. At the battle of Opequan he lost a leg. In 1866 he was made lieut.
col. of the 46th infaatiy. He retired from the service July 80, 1670, with the rank of
^*'**"** Digitized by VjUUV IC
308
McHTTOfiH, Laoslan; 1737-1806; b. Scotland r a Bon of John More McIntOBh,
who came to Georgia with Oglethorpe in 1786. Iiachlan entered the mercantile house
of Heniy Laurens at Charleston, but was afterwards a land suryeyor. At the beginning
of the reyolutionary war he was col. of a Georgia regiment, and in 1776 was made a
brig.gen. In 1778 he led an exx)edition against the western Indians, was {Hresent at the
si^e of Savannah the next year, and was taken prisoner at the capture of Ohaiieston in
1780. After the war he was a member of congress.
Mcintosh, Habia J., b. Ga., 1803; removed to New York in 1885, and in 1841
pubiiahed her first work, ^nd AUiDe, Of her numerous works we may mention: The
Lofty and the Lowly, 1858; Meta Gray, 1858; and Two PCciurea, 1868.
Mc^INTOSH, William, 1775-1895; b. Ga. ; a half-breed, who led the Creek Indiana
who adhered to the United States in the war of 1812. On account of his share in the
treaty of Indian Springs, made in 1825, which ^nted to the United States larce por-
tions of the Indian lands, he incurred the hostility of manv members of the Creek tribe,
to which his mother had belonged, and was murdered by some of them at his own
house.
Mc'INTOSH, William, 1796-1858; b. Ga.; an Indian of the Cherokee tribe, who
became a Methodist preacher and missionary In Arkansas and the Indian reservation.
HACKAR'NESS. John Fisldbr, d.d., b. 1820; studied at Mereton college. Eng
land; fellow of Exeter college, Oxford; vicar of Tardebigge, Worcestershire. 1845-^;
rector of Honfton, Devonshire, 1855-58; prebendary of Exeter, 1858; proctor in convo-
cation for the clergy of the diocese of Exeter, 1865; advocated the disestablif^iunent of
the Irish church; was made bishop of Oxford, 1860. His brother, George Richard
Mackarness, d.d., having been vicar of Ham, Staffordshire, became bishop of Argyll
and the Isles, 1874.
MAGEAT, Chables, an Enfflish author, b. in Perth in 1812; educated in London
and Brussels. From the age of 22 to 82 he was engaged on the London Morning Chran-
ide; then for three years editor of the Glasgow Argus, He lectured in the United States
in 1858; established the London Reciew in 1860; was correspondent of the London Tifnen
from the United States during the great rebellion. He has subsequently resided in
London. Mr. Mackay's prose style is remarkably terse and clear, abounding in poetical
forms of expression. Ue published volumes of poems in 1884 and 1840; Memoirs of Pop-
uiar Delueione, 3 vols., 1841; the Saiamandrine, a poem, 1842; Legends of the lelande and
Other Fbems, 1845; The Scenery and Poetry of the English Lakes, and Voices from the
Oroted, 1846; Voices from the Mountains, 1847; Town Lyrics and The BatUe, poems,
1848; and a considerable number in volumes published since. Lost Beauties and Per-
ishing Graces of the English Language, 1874, is one of his latest works.
McKAY. DoHALD, bb Shelbume, Nova Scotia. 1809; learned the trade of ship-builder
in New York; went into the business in Newburyport, Mass. ; and in 1845 established a
shipyard at East Boston that became famous for the splendid improvements introduced in
oie models of clipper ships of great size, built for the Calif omia and Australia trade. In
1853 he produced the ship Great Eepublic of 4,500 tons burden, which, for a time, was
the lai^geat in the world.
McKEAN, an.w. co. of Pennsylvania, on the border of New York, traversed by
the Philadelphia and Erie, and Buffalo, Bradford and Pittsburg railroads; 1000 sq.m. ;
pop. '70, 8,835. It is a mountainous region, containing coal and iron, and heavily
timbered. The inhabitants are occupied in lumbering and dairying. Co. seat, Smeth*
port
MACKEAN, Thomas, ll.d., 1784-1817; b. Penn.; called to the bar in 1757, and a
member of the state assembly, 1762-79. In 1765 he was a member of the committee
appointed by the congress of 'the colonies held at New York to draw up an address to
the house of commons. From 1774 to 1783 he was a member of the continental congress,
and in 1781 its president. From 1777 to 17M he was chief-justice of the Pennsylvania
supreme court, resiniing his place to liecome governor of the state, which office he
retained till 1808. Re was the author of the state constitution of Delaware.
McKEES'PORT, a borough of Alleghany co., Penn., on the Pittsburg. Washington
and Baltimore railroad, 14 m. from Pittsbui^, at the junction of the Youghiogheny
river with the Monongahela; pop. 2,528. It is the center of an extensive coal-mining
region; has 7 churches, good schools, 2 banks, 1 newspaper, 2 foundries, and manu-
factories of locomotives, railroad cars, lap-welded iron tubes, window-glass, lumber, etc.
McEEEYER, laAAC, 178a-1856; b. Penn. ; entered the navy in 1809, and in 1814
was in command of an American gunboat which was captured, after a severe struggle, by
a British force in barges and boats upon lake Borgne, Louicdana. The American fleet
consisted of 6 gunboats with 182 men, and the English force numbered more than a
thousand. HcSeever afterward rose to be commander and capt. and he was in com*
mand of the Brazilian squadron, 1851-54.
MacKELXAB, THO]fA8» b. N. Y.. 1812; early a proof-reader for the Harpers, and
iobeeqiiBally foreman and proprietor of a large stereotype foundry in Philadelphia.
MiMskeiizitt. *^^*
He is tbe author of 8 volumes of Ten^: Dt&ppingt ffmti ihB BaeiH; J^m*% WartnigU
Hantble; and lAnufor the Gentle and Lming,
McKEN'DREE, Willtam, d.d., 1757-1885; b. King William co., Va.; was adjutant
and commissary in Washingtun's army for several years, and was present at the surren-
der of Curnwallis at Yorktown in 1781; in 1788 joined tbe itinerant Methodist ministiy;
accomoanied Asbury in his tour of South Carolina; in 1001 was sent by tbe bishops to
preside over the Kentucky district, and to have the general supervision of the western
conference, embracing Obio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and part of Illinois. He
traveled extensively and preacbed with great eloquence and power. In 1808 he was
made bishop. In 1809 he visited with Asbury a laige part of tbe west and Canada. He
preacbed nearly 50 years, 12 years he was presiding eld^, and 27 years a bishop. Hs
was a man of vigorous mind, great modesty, and devoted piety, and was honored by
every class of society.
MACKENZIE, Sir ALEXAin>ER, 17iS5-1820; b. Scotlnnd; emigrated to Canada, and
was employed by the Northwestern fur company. In 1780 he set out on an exploring
expedition from lake Athabasca, and followed to its mouth the river which has since
been named after him. In 1792 he started on another expedition; this time towards the
Pacific, to which he cam^ in 1793. An account of both these expeditions is to be found
in his Voytiges, etc., 1801. He was knighted in 1802.
MACKENZIE, Albxandbb Slidbll, 1808-48; b. New York. His family name
was 8Udell; he entered tbe U. 8. naw in 1815; became lieut. in 1825, commander in
1841; served in the West Indian, Bruzflian, Pacific, and Mediterranean squadrons. He
changed bis name to Mackenzie in 1837 in honor of a maternal uncle. Capt. Mackenzie
became celebrated in 1842 by an event on board bis ship that for a time produced great
excitement in the United States. While in command of the brig Somen, which had
been manned chiefly by naval apprentices from tbe U. S. naval academy and school-ships,
on its return voyage from the coast of Africa a serious mutiny was discovered amonff
them. Its ringleader vms a son of John C. Spencer, tbe secretary of war. After a trial
he and two others were hung^from the yard arm. Young Spencer had been a dangerous
character from his boyhood, but was so well connectecT that the action of capt. Mac-
kenzie was severely criticised as hasty and cowardly. But a court of inquir}^ fully
sustained his action, and revealed a skillfol plot of the youths to turn the brig into a
piratical craft as soon as they should achieve their object Ca{>t Mackenzie was
ordnance oflflcer in the Mexican war, and participated in the storming of Tobasco in
. June, 1847. He possessed decided literary ability as the following works will show: A
Tear in Spain, 1829-86; Popular Essays on Natal Subfects, 1888; The American in Eng-
land, 1835; Spain Revmted, 1836; lAfe {f John Paul Jones, 1841; Life of OUv&r Hasard
Perry, 1841; and Life of Stephen Decatur, 1846.
MACKENZIE, Charlbs Fbbdbrick, d.d., 1826-^, b; Scotland; took his fiist
degree at the university of Cambridge in 1848, and became a clergyman in the church
of England ; after some service as a parish minister, obtained a fellowship at Cambridge
and lectured there; 1854-59 was archdeacon at Natal, South Africa, under bishop
Colenso; having returned to England to promote the extension of missions in Africa, ho
was appointed bishop of Central Africa,, and was consecrated at Cape Town, Jan. 1,
1861; went to the Zaml)Csi river with a cdoapany of missionaries and began his work at
Magomero, but soon fell a victim to the clioiate, so fatal to Europeans.
XACK£VznS. Sir George, an eminent Scottish lawyer and politician, son of Simmi
Mackenzie, brotber of the carl of Seafortb, was b. at Dundee in 1686, studied Greek and
philosophy at St. Andrews and Aberdeen, and civil law at Bourges, in France, then—
as be himself calls it— *'tbe Athens of Scottish lawyers." In 1661 he acted as counsel
for the marquis of Argyle, then tried by a commission of parliament for high treason.
About the same tin>e he was made a justice-depute, and among bis other duties we find
him, in 1661, appointed to repair "once in tbe week at least to Musselburgh and Dal-
keith, and to try and judge such persona as are there or thereabout delated of witch-
craft." He was soon after knighted, entered the Scottish parliament in 1669 as member
for Ross-shire, and in 1677 was named king's advocate. Up to this point his career had
been marked by a decidedly patriotic spirit, and he was even one of tbe most popular
men in the country. In tlie midst of his professional labors, bo prosecuted literature
with great assiduity. In 1663 appeared his Beliffio Sloici, or a ShortlHscourse upon several
Divine andMoral Sul^ects; in 1665 his Moral Essay upon Solitude; and in 1667 his Moral
GaUantry, He also composed some poetry. His style is admirable for tbe time in which
he lived; he was among the flrst Scotchmen who wrote the English language purely.
Mackenzie cultivated the friendship of the great English writers of his day. and his own
taste appears to have been excellent. Dryden, in his Discourse on the Origin and Proffrets
qf Satire, alludes to him as "that noble wit of Scotland." Unhappily, in the popular
mind he is better known as criminal prosecutor in the memorable days of the covenant,
in which capacity he earned for himself ihe ugly name of the "bluidy Mackenzie;" nor,
we fear, can it be disproved — in spite of his liberal antecedents — ^tbat he became a willing
instrument of despotism. He has, however, written a defense of l^mself, entitled A
Vindication of ih$ Qiftemment of Charles IL In ItTS M4>§f|^d^^«SPf9f9^^ ^ ^^^"^
^^^ Maoteasle.
ana C^atomB iff BcoUand in MMtm OntmntA; in 1684 Ixis 2h«fliriiC£99M <2f eld J>ri«« ufBoc^
land; nod sbortly after, fae took the leading part in founding the Advocates' librarj. He
then retired to Oxford, and died in London, May 2, 1691.
HACIXHZIB, HsiTRT, a British novelist; was b. in Edinburgh in 1745; received his
edacation at the university of bis native city, and practiced as an advocate there. In
1804 be was appointed comptroller of taxes for BcotUnd. He died Jan. 14, 1881, at the
advanced age of 86. His kan of FbeUng, 1771, Jdan ^f the WMd, 1783, and Julia ds
BoabtfftU won him rather a high place among the authors of his time. There is in all
of these works something of the minuteness of Richardson, with a peculiar soft and sen*
timental tone, partly derived from Sterne, hnt without much evidence of high genius.
Id 1778 Mackcnxle began to edit a periodical called the Mirror (modeled after the SpM-
taior), which lasted for 17 months, and was followed by the tounffgr, in 1785, which
lasted for two years. His contributions to these display a greater manliness Of style
than his fictions, and a considerable measure of wit and humor. He had the credit of
being the first to direct public attention, by an article in the Lounger, to the merits of
tJie poems of Burns. He afterwards entered into the controversy concerning the poems
of Ossian, the authenticity of which he denied, and also wrote political pamphlets in
support of Pitt*s administration.
MACKENZIE, Robert Sreltoh, ll.i>., d.c.l., b. Ireland, 1800; educated at Fer-
mov, where he taught school after having studied medicine at Cork. In 18d0 he edited
aa Ent^lish country paper. The next year be went to London, where he was engaged in
literury and joumnlistic work for 23 years. He had already contributed to a number of
Americtoiiperiodicals, and bad been, since 1834, the regular London correspondent of
the New York 8lar. He came to New York in 1852, and wrote for various papers there
till 1837. when be became the literary editor of the Philadelpbia Press, so conUnuIng till
1870. when he assumed a similar position on the Pblladelphia Ehening News, H> has
published among other works, Lays of PaJUitine, 1820; an edition of the Noctes Ambro-
mruB, 1834; BOs of Blarney, 1853; Life of Charles Dideens, 1870; and Sir Walter SeoU,
1871.
MACKENZIE, Boiii4iJ> a, b. New York, 1840; graduated at West Point in 1862,
and appointed second lieut of engineers; was engineer of the 0th corps in the second
battle of Bull Run, where he was wounded, and of Sumner's division at Fredericksburg;
CDSBged at Chancellorsville in laving bridges in advance of the army; followed the con-
feaenite forces through Maryland into Pennsylvania, took part in the battle of Qettys-
barg, and in following Lee after bis retreat; was in the battles of the Wilderness; wounded
before Petersburg in June, 1864; commanded a reflnmentduringEarly'sattack on Wash-
ington, and a brigade in the battles of Opequan, Fisher's Hill, and Cedar Creek, where
he was i^pajn wounded ; was appointed briflr.gcn. of volunteers, and resumed command
before Petei-aburg in Nov., 1864; commandfed a division of cavalry at Five Forks, where
be rendered important service^ being bre vetted maj.gen. for gallantry. At the cloae of
the war he returned to duty with his corps, with the rank of capt.. and in 1867 was
appointed col. of infantry; but in 1870 was again transferred to the cavalry service, and
assigned to duty on the Mexican frontier.
MACKENZIE, Wi|<i.tam Lton, 1706-1861; b. in Scotland; emimled to Canada in
18?0, and was empUiyed first on tbe works of the Lachlne canal, in 1824 he became
editor of the CMonial Advocate, a Journal published at Niagara in opposition to the gov-
erning party. He was elected in 1828 to tbe provincial parliament, but was refusea his
scat on the ground of disloyalty to tbe crown. He was re-elected four successive times,
UDtil tbe government refused to issue anotlier writ of election. In 1832 he appealed to
the home government in England for redress of grievances, carrying with him tbe peti-
tions of the Canadian reform party. He was first mayor of Toronto in 1886. In 1837,
be beaded an armed force in Toronto and demanded of governor Head that a convention
should 1)6 called to discuss Canadian grievances and reforms, which was not acceded to.
He resolved to open tbe revolution bv seizing arms with a view to arrest the governor
and bis oibinet, and to declare Canada a republic. But bis force was insufflcieot. Tbe
government troops drove him from Montgomery hill, near tbe cit^. Bee. 7, 1887, and
after some skirmishing forced him to retire to Navy Island, in the Niagara river. From
this safe retreat, within tbe limits of tbe United States, he issued a proclamation for
Tolunteers, offering lands— to tbe value of $100 to $300 — in Canada, when the revolution
should l>e successful. Some American sympatbizei*s joined him. and a larger number
of Irish. The Canadian government outlawed him, and the U. 8. government took
steps to stop bis violation of American soil for war on Canada. He was arrested by cen.
Scott's order and sentenced to 12 months' confinement in the Rochester Jail. When
again at liberty be became a contributor to the New York Trthune, and his vigorous pen
was always interesting if not instructive. In 1840 the Canadian government published
:. genenil amnesty. Mackenzie at once returned to Canada, was elected to parliament,
where he made a useful member, and on his retirement from that body, until his deatli,
published a weekly Journal entitled Maekemiits Message.
U. K. IX.— 20 Digitized by VjrUU^lC
XAGKEH'ZIE SIVXR, an important riyer of the Dominion of Canada, diacoirerad and
first iiuvigiiieU by Alcxauder Mackenzie — from whom it derives its name — in 1789, has
its origin under the name of AUiabanea riuer (q.v.), in Mt. Brown, and after a n.n.e.
course of 687 m. falls into lake Athabasca. Emerging^rom tbis L-ikeas the Slaw river,
it receives the Peace river, iind after another course of 210 m. JCalls into Great Blare lake
(q.v.). It now assumes the name of Mackenzie river, and conveys tlie waters of the
Great Shive hike to the Arctic ocean at Mackenzie bay, after a final course of 876 m.,
making a total of 1778 miles. In many places it is more tlian a mile in width, and it is
navigable for steauiboaU throughout the greater part of its course from, Great 81ave
lake. There is only one obstruction, and that not a material one, occurring near fort
Hope, in lat. about 66^ north. Its chief affluent is the Liard, which rises on tlie w. side
of the Hocky mountains, and after a course of 380 m., forces its way through a pass, and
after flowing first e. and then n., joins the Mackenzie river after a total course of 600
miles. The mouth of the river is closed from October to June by ice. See Athabasca
and Grbat Slavs Lakb and Riyail
XACX'EBEI, Scomber, a genus of fishes of the family neomberida (q.v.); having a
spindlt'-bhaped body; the tail becoming very slender, and slightly ridged or keeled on
each side. Some of the species have, and some have not, air-bladders. — One species, the
Common Mackerel (S scomber), is ])lentiful on the coasts of Britain, and of Europe,
from the Mediterranean to the furthest n., also on those of Greenland, and on the
American side of the North Atlantic ocean. It is a very beautiful fish, of brilliant green
and blue, the males having nearly straight dark transverse bands, the females haviu^the
bands elegantly undulated. The tail is crescent-shaped. The mackerel is said sometimes
to attain a length of ^ in., but is usually about 14 to 16 in. long, and about 2 lbs. in
weight. It is liighly esteemed for the tabic, and the mackerel fisheries of the a. of Eng-
land and of the southern parts of Europe are very important. Mackerel is readily caught
by bait, and particularly by any kind of bait moving swiftly through the water — ^a bag
slice cut from one of its own kmd, or even a slip of red leather, or a piece of scarlet
cloth. BosUs engaged in mackerel fisiiing are therefore often under sail^ and a smart or
••mackerel" breeze is preferred. But the greatest quantities of mackerel are taken by
nets; seine-nets wrought by two boats, and inclosing shoals of fish, or drift-nets—^ ft.
deep by 120 ft. long— well corked at the top. and without lead at the bottom. Mackerel,
'after being taken, must be sent very quickly to market, as they very soon cease to l)e
quite fresh. Fast-sailing Ijoats are employed for this purpose, which purchase from the
tishing-bonts. and often employ the aia of steam. In France and some other parts of
Europe, mackerel are often salted. — It was formerly supposed that great migrations of
mackerel took place; but it is now believed, as in regard to herring, that they merely
leave tlie deep water and approach tlie coast for the purpose of spawning. The time
when they appear varies in different latitudes: in the s. of England, the mackerel season
is in tlie end of spring and beginning of summer; in Orkney, it is in the end of aummer.
— Another species, the Spanish Mackerel {8. eolia»), which attains the weight of 4 or 5
lbs., and is more ol)scurely banded, is sometimes causrht on the southern ooasts of
Britain, but is little esteemed. It has an air-bladder, which the common mackerel has
not. — The Scad (q.v.) is sometimes called Hobbb-Mackbrbl. — The Mackbbbl-midob, a
very small fish, is a species of rockling (q.v.), of the family gadtdm,
MAOBLEY, Albrrt Gallatin. 1807: b. Charleston, S. C, where be was ediscated
for the practice of medicine, but reliaquished it for literature, especially pertaining to
freemasonry. In 18d0 he established a masonic monthly magazine in Charleston, aad
in 1858 a quarterly in the same interest. His works devoted to this order are : Lexicon of
Freemasonry; J7ia M^pHc Tie; Princwles of Maeonic Law; Tlie Bof>k of ths Chapter;
Text-book tf Maeonic Jarisprudenee; uryptie Mdton/ry and Masonic RUuaiiat; 2 he Sym-
bols of Freemasonry and H/anval of the I/fdge; and Book of Constitutions of the Grand
Lodge of Ancient Freemasons of So^ith Carolina. An enlarged edition of the Lexicon
appeared in 187.i under the title of the Encydopadia of Freemasonry,
MACK'IE. John Milton, 1813; b. Wareham, Mass.; a graduate of Brown uni-
versity, and author of Life of Godfrey William von lAebnitt; Life of Samuel Gorton;
Casns'de EnpalUi ; Life of Schamyl, the Circassian ifhief; Life of Tat- Ping- Wang, CMrfof
the Chinese Insurrectum; From Cape Cod to Dixie; and numerous contributions to the
North American Review,
McEIM. Jambs Miller. 1810-74; b. Carlisle, Penn. ; graduated at Dickinson col-
lesre. and entered the ministry of the Presbyterian church. Soon after the orgimization
of the American antislavery movement, he left the pulpit to devote himself to the cause
of emancipation, which he .served with marked ability and soundness of Judgment until
near the clone of th» war of the rebellion. As lecturer, organizer, corresponding secre-
tary of the Penni^ylvania antislavery society, and editor at times of the Pennsylvania
Freeman^ his lalM>re were of great value. N&ir the close of the war of the rcbf^llion,
when the emancipation of the slaves had been proclaimed by president Lincoln, he
resigned his office in the antislavery society to devote himself to the work of the Freed-
men's aid commission. His earnest devotion, united with his soundness of judgment,
clear moral insight, and wide experience, qualified him for eminent service in the work
® *^ ^ Digitized by VjUGVLC
307
•f the new sodety. He was one of the fmutden of Ths IMton newspaper. Died
{d Llewellyn Park, Orange, N. J.
MACKINAW, a CO. in Michigan, on the s. part of the n. peninsula; 1100 sq.m.;
pop. *\30^ 2,902. It comprehends a number of islands, besides the mainland, the entire
legion being rough and ancultivated, and heavily wooded. The principal industry is
lofflbering. Co. scat, Mackinaw.
XACX nrAW, or Michilimack'inag, a Tilla^ on an island of the same name, in the
D.W. part of Uke Huron, belonging to Michigan, 320 m. w.n.w. of Detroit, is an old French
trading post, now a fashionable summer resort. Fort Mackinaw, on a bluff 160 ft. high,
commands th«» village and harbor. It has extensive fisheries, and is a stopping-place for
steamers plying between the lower and upper lakes. Pop. about 1000.
MACKINAW {ante), capital of Mackinaw co., Michigan ; present pop. about 1500.
The island is 8 m. in its ]ongi>st diameter, and is n.e. of the f trait of the same name.
Many of the inhabitants are of French descent, as the place was early occupied by the
French, and a missionary station established in 1699. The inhabitants were massacred
by the Indians under Puutiac, the Otiawa chief, at the time of his attack on Detroit,
1763. The harbor is deep and safe, though small. The fish industry is very large and
the village is a pleasant resort for summer tourists.
McKINSTRY, Jamkb P., 1809-78; b. N. T. ; entered the navy in 1886, wns made
lieut. in 1887, commander in 1855, and capt. in 1862. He was in command of the
tlie Monongahela at Port Hudson In 1868, and received severe injuries. He was
appointed a commodore in 1866.
XACKIHT08H, Sir Jambs. a philosopher and politician, wns the son of capt. John
Mackintosh of Kellachie, in Inverness-shire, and wosb. at Aldourie in that county, Oct.
24, 1705. He studied tit Eing*s college, Aberdeen, where his most intimate companion
was Robert Hull, afterwards the celebrated Baptist preacher. From Eing*s college he
proceeded to Edinburgh in 1784, for the purpose of studying medicine; and after obtain-
ing his diploma, settled in Lotulon. and for some time supported himself by wrifine: for
the newspapers. The first work that brouc^ht him into notice was his Vtndtekg Oaltiea,
(1791), in reply to Burke's JRefleetion9 on me French Revolution. In sober philoFopIiic
tliought, sound feeling, and common sense it greatly surpassed the splendid philippic
ngainst which it was diiected, and was enthusiastically lauded by the liberal party;
Burke himself thou^rht highly of it. Fox, Sheridan, and other leading whigs sought
the author*s acquainUmce; and when the "association of the friends of the people*'
was formed he was appointed secretary. About this time, he began to turn his atten-
tion to the legal profession, and was called to the bar in 1796, and attained high emi-
nence as ft forensic lawyer. In 1799 he delivered a course of lectures on the law of
nature and of nation.s, before the benchers of Lincoln's inn, which were attended by
audiences of the most brilliant description. His defense of Peltier (Feb. 21, 1808),
charged with a libel on Bonaparte, was superb. It was translated into French by
Mme. do Stael, and scattered broadcast over Europe. In 1804 he was appointed
recorder of Bombay, for which place he sailed in the beginning of the year, arrived
there in Mnv, was appointed Juaee of the admiralty court in 1806, and remained till
1811. His Indian career was higlilv creditable to his capacity and honorable to his char-
acter. After his return to £n<]:land he entered parliament as whig member for Nnim
(1818), accepted the professorship of law in the college of Haileybury in 1818, nnd in
Ifi®} became a meml)er of the beard of control under the Grey ministrv, and spoke In
favor of the reform bill. This was his last great political effort. He died not long after,
on May 22. 1832. Every one now will regret that sir James Mackintosh ever turned
aside to a political life. He was essentially a literary moralist and philosopher, and
might have won a far higher and more enduring reputation than he has if he had reso-
lutely prosecuted the calling for which nature intended him. His Dmertaiion on the
Proffreee of Ethicnl P/tiloaopKy, written for the Enepelopadia Britannka, although very
incomplete, and lacking that precision and profundity that can only l)e acquired bv rig-
orous and extensive research, shows the admirable powers of the author, his breadth of
view, tolerance, impartiality, love of truth and virtue, and his gift of calm ami meas-
ured eloquence. For Lardner's CyclojHKdia he wrote a brief but excellent survey of the
history of England. An historical fragment (intended to form portion of a large work)
entitled History of the Bevolution in England in 1688, appeared after his death, and was
pronounced by Macnulay to be the best history of the reign of James II. A roliec^tion
of his miscellaneous works, including his contributions to the Mdinburgh Rt-cttir, was
published at London, in 8 vols. 8eo Memoire of his life by his son, 2 vols. (Loud. 1885).
MACKLIK, Chari^es, 1690-1797; b. Ireland; changed bis name from McLaughlin
to the one under which he is generally known. After a rather reckless ond wandering
yonth, during which period he was for a time identified with a dramatic company in
the capacity of harlequin, he appeared at the Lincoln's Inn theater, London, in a small
part, and from that time seems to have continued in the theatrical profession. In 1786
he was embroiled with a brother actor, and becoming the accidental cause of his death,
was tried for manslaughter and convicted. Six years later, however, he was at Drury
Digitized by Vlji
SSfi^ 308
Me£e]
Lane Uieater, where he made a sucoeesf ul appearance in the oharader of Sbylocfc; ocoa*
sioning Alexander Pope to write concerning his performance*
This is the Jew
That Shakespeare drew.
In 1758 he left the stage, and kept a tavern, varyUig. this occupation by lecturing on
oratory in Covent garden, in which vocation he was not successful. He returned to the
stage in 1758, and continued to act until he had reached his century, when his strength
failed him, and he made hjs final retirement. His powers of facml expression were so
comprehensive, and his featui-es so marked that Quin said of him, *' If God writes a
legible hand, that fellow's a villain." He wrote 10 plays, of which but two liave
remained to us. Love a la Modfi, and The Man oftJie World: the latter of these pieces
was revived, and produced at Wallack's theater^ New York, a few years since.
XACKinOHT, Dr. Jambs, an eminent divine of the church of Scotland, was b. at
Ii-vine. in Ayrshire, Sept. 17. 1721; studied at Glasgow university, and afterwards at
Leyden> in Holland; and in 1758 was ordained minister of the parish of Maybole. In
1769 he was translated to Jedburgh, and thence to Edinburgh in 1773, where he died,
Jan. 18, 1800. Mackniglit was a superior scholar, a liberal, wise, and prudent ecclesi-
astic, and one of the most respectable writers that the church of Scotland has produced.
His principal works are: Ilarmany of the Four OospeU (1750); The TnM of the Ooepei
History (1768); and A New Trantlaiion of the ApostoUeai EpieUes, with Commentary and
iVbte«.(1795).
MACK VON LBIBEMCH. Kakl, Baron de. 1753-1888; an Austrian noted for his
skill in the seven years' war against the Turks. He directed the allied armies against
the forces of the first French republic and was npted for the excellence of hia plans
more than for their successful execution. He was utterly beaten in Italy bjr the French
in 1798 and made prisoner; escaped and was in command of Austrian armies in Tyrol,
Dalmatia, and Italy in 1804. In Oct., 1805, while in command of troops in Ulm he
was compelled to surrender his entire force to the French under Napoleon. An Aus-
trian court-martial condemned him to death; the government commuted the sentence to
imprisonment for life, and in 1819 pardoned bim out. He died near Vienna.
McLANE, Allen, 1746-1829; entered the American army as a volunteer in 1775.
and served through the revolutionary war. He was a lieut. under Csesar Rodnev of
Delaware, where he had settled Just before the revolution. He distinguished himself at
Long Island and White Plains, participated in the campaign in New Jersey, and was
Promoted to a captaincy in 1777. Ho next commanded the American outposts about
biladelphia, and was present at the battle of Monmouth. June 38, 1778. The next
year he was a maj. In gen. Henry Lee's "legion," assisted in surprising the garrison of
Fanlus Hook, and was with Wayne at the capture of Stony Point, the same month. He
was with the American army before Yorktown, till Cornwallis surrendered; but the
close of the war found him comparatively poor, as he had sacrificed to the cause of the
colonies a valuable estate near Philadelphia. After the close of the war he held a num-
ber of important civil offices; he was chosen a member, and afterwards speaker, of the
Delaware legislature; a Justice of the court of common pleas, and from 1808 till his
death, collector of Wilmington.
McLANE, Louis. 1786-1857; b. Del. ; at first entered the navy, but was afterwards
called to the bar. He was a member of congress 1817-27. and was then chosen senator.
From 1839 to 1831 he was minister to England, and on his return took a place in Jack-
son's cahinet as secretary of the treasury; but in 1838, having refused to give his consent
to the removal of the government deposits from the U. S. bank, he was transferred by
Jackson to the department of state. He retired from public life in 1834. and was made
president of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad in 1887. In 1845 he was sent to London to
take charge of the Oregon negotiations, and resigned on their conclusion.
McLANE, Robert Milligan. b. Del., 1815; educated at Washington college and
St. Mary's college, and at West Point He was in the army from 1ۤ7 to 1848. when
he resijrned and was admitted to the bar. Ho was a member of the Maryland legisla-
ture 184547. and in the latter year was elected to congress, where he served two terms.
President Pierce appointed him minister to China in 1853. and he remained there two
years. He was U.S. minister to Mexico from Mar., 1859» to Nov., 1860, and has sinco
practiced law in Baltimore.
XACLAUBIH, Colin, an eminent mathematician, was b. in 1608 in Kilmodao, in
Argyleshire, Scotland. He was educated at Glasgow university, where he took the
degree of m.a. in 1713; and after four years of close study obtained, in 1717, after a
severe competitive trial, the professorship of matliematics in Marischal collegi^ Aber-
deen. In 1719 he visited London, and was received as member of the royal society, at
the same time making the acquaintance of many eminent men, Newton among the rest
Here he published his Oeometria Organiea (1720), an elaborate treatise on the "descrip-
tion *' of curves. He afterwards visited France in the capacity of tutor to a son of lord
Polwarth. and while there wrote a dissertation on tlie impact of bodies, which gained tha
prize of the academy of sciences in 1724. The following year he was appointed assist-
'' Digitized by VjCJUglC
809
Meij&nnmn*
ant to James Gr^ory, professor of mathematics in the uniTersity of Edinbargh, and
(oon after sncceeded him in the chair. He died in 1746. His writings, distinguished
ifor their originality, profundity, clearness, and elegance of style, f&ve a strong impetus
to the study of mathematical science in Scotland. His works, besides those above-men-
tioned, are: A TreatUe cf Fluxhrn (Edinburgh, 1742), a work written in defense of New-
ton's discoTeries against the attack of Berkeley, and the first in which tbe principles of
fluzioss were logictklly amaged; A Treatm onAlgdiva (1748), left incomplete by the
author; An Aeoount of Sir Imae Ifhoton^a PMUmphUal Dimoveriu (Lond. 1748), also
incomplete and paethnmous, which contains explanations of all Newton's discoveries, the
optical ones excepted; and a number of papers which were published in tbe Edinbuivh
FfnOMophkal TfanmcUon$. His most important scientific investiffalions related to the
" form of tbe earth/' the '* tides,'' and the action of the wind on the sails of ships and
wind mills. His memoir on the tides was, in 1740, presented in competition for the
miie dfored by the academy of sciences; but three other competitors, Euler, Daniel
Bemouilli, and father Cavalleri, iiaving appeared, the academy divided the prize among
them.
MAOLAT', Archibald, d.d., 177S-1860; b. mt Eilleam, Scotland; becamea minister
of the national kirk in 1802. He came to New York in 1605, and was pastor of a
Presbylerian church in Rose street, but in 1808 ho became a Baptist and founded a
churd in Mulberry street (sinee removed to Second avenue and called tbe Tabernacle),
of which he was the pastor until 1887, when he became the agent of the American and
foreigp Bible society, which he served ontil 1850, and tiien became preaident of the
American Bible union.
XAOLB, a term emplov'ed in mfneralogy to dedgnatewhat ar6 also called fMnefjrjtoti,
which are <irystals united according to some precise law, yet not having ibeir faces and
axes parallel, so as to render the* one a mere continuation of the other. In some macles
tbe axes are parallel ; id some they are inclined at an angle. Crystallixation'in mai^ea is
very characteristic of some minerals.
XACLE is the name of a mineial, also called Chiastolite, a silicate of alumina, con-
taining a little magnesia and oxide of iron. Macle has been much used for making
beads for rosaries, etc.
McLSAN, a co. in central Illinois, watered by affltients of tbe Illinois river; inter-
sected by the Illinois Cential, Toledo, Peoria and Warsaw, Chicago and Alton, and
iDdiaoapolis, Bloomington and Western railroads; 118d sq.m.; pop. '80, 60,115. The
surface n generally prairie hmd, and the soil fortile; tbe productions are Indian com,
wheat, rye, oats, bsrley, potatoes, wool, hay, and butter. There are a krge number of
manufactories, including carriages, agricultural implements, cars, machinery, iron
castings, saddlery and harness, etc. Co. seat, Bkx>miugton.
McL£AN, a CO. in n w. Kcntncky, watered by the Chreen river, and intersected by
the Owenaboro and Nashville railroad ; 830 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 9.iN)8. It has a varied sur-
face and fertile soil, and produces freely tobacco, wheat, Indian corn, wool, and butter.
This county is heavily timbered. Ca seat, Calhoun.
Maclean, Jork. D.D., b. at Portsey, Banffshire. Scotland, in 1828; studied at the
univerai^ of Aberdeen ; appointed curate at London, Ontario, in 1858; archdeacon of
Manitoba, and professor of divinity ia Bt. J<An's college in 1886, and bishop of the dio-
cese of Baskatcliewan in 1878.
MacLEAJT. Jofiir, LL.D.. 1786-1861 T b. N. J. ; settled in Virginia in 1709. He at first
worked on a farm, but in 1808 began to studv law in Cincinnati, and was called to the
bar. He was a member of Congress from 1818 to 1816, and then was made an associate
justice of the Ohio stipreme court, which ofl9oe he retained until 1822, when he accepted
from president Monroe the place of land commissioner; and the next year he became
postmaftter-general. He brought the p|ost-offlce department to a high degree of effi-
ciency for those thnes, and in recognition of his services congress raised his annual
salary from 94,000 td 96,000. In 1^ Jackson, who had prevlou5t1y offered him a place
in his cabinet, appointed him an associate justice of the U. S. supreme court. His most
famous judicial opinion was delivered in the Dred Scott case, when, dissenting from the
chief-justice (Taney) and a majority of the court, he held that slavery exists bv force
and not as of right, and that its regulation is a matter of local law. From his well-
known opposition to the extension of slavery, he was a candidate for the presidential
nomination of the free-soil party in the convention at Buffalo in 1848, and for tbe
Republican nomination in 1856 and 1860. His only publications, besides his occasional
addresses, are a number of volumes of law reports.
MACLEAN, LEnriA Elizabeth (Landon). See LAinx)K, LsTrnA Elezabbth.
•nU.
McLENNAN, a CO. in central Texas, watered by the Brazos river; intersected by the
Houston and Texas Central railroad; 960 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 26,938. It has an undulating
surface, comprising rich bottom lands and rolling prairies, the soil being remarkably
fertile. The productions are Indian com, wheat, oats, sweet potatoes, ^^Ptt^lkr ^^'
KcLeod. ill A
McLEOD. a co. ia s. central Minnesota, drained b^ tlie s. fork of (t}ie Crow river,
and intersected by tlie Hastings and Daliotah railroad; 504 sq.ro. ; pop. '80. 12.34E. It
Las an undulating surface and fertile soil; productions: Indian com, oats, wheat, burlej,
potnioes. wool, butter, nnd hay. Small lakes, prairies, and timber land afford diversity
to the character of the surface; valuable timber abounds, including oak, elm, and ash.
Co. seat, Gleucoe.
McLEOD, Alexaitdbb, d.d.. 1774-1888; b. in the island of Mull. Scotland: cmi-
• grated to the United States in 1792; graduated at Union college in 1798; was ordained
and installed pastor of the First Reformed Presbyterian charcli in New York in 1801,
where he remained until his death. Ho was assistant editor with Dr. John Mascm of the
OhridiaH Magneine, His chief works are: Negro SUivery U70ii$UflabU; Brdmaaiieal
CaUchUm; Leeturet upon the Principal Propheeiet of the Book cf Beoeiation; View tf th$
Late War; The Life and Power of True OodUneeex The Ameritan Christian Expomcrr;
Meeeiah Oodeming the Natione. tie was prominent in the oiganizatlon of the American
colonization society in 1816, and wrote its constitution*
MACLEOD, Hbnrt Dcnkiko, b. Scotland, 1821 ; educated at Eton and Cambridge,
and admitted to the English l>ar in 1849. He Attained considernble distinction as an
authority on economic and financial sublects, to which a number of his books art
devoted, as: Theorif and Practice of P[dittcal Economy; Elements of PoliUeal Economy;
and A Dictionary of Political Economy. He has also been active as a law reformer and
codifler; many of the changes and iraprorements in the poor laws of Scotlnnd were
originated by him; and l)etween the years 1868 and 1870 he was employed, at the request
of the British government, in digestmg and codifying the law of bills of exchange.
MAGLEOB, NoBiCAN, D D., a divine of the cburck of Scotland, eminent for bis pulpit
oratory, his writings, and his liberal Christianity, was b. at Campbeltown, in Argjle-
shire, in 1812. He was educated at the university of Glasgow, and entering the church,
became suocesBivcly minister of Loudon in Ayrshire, Dalkeith, near Edinburgh, and the
important barony church, Glasgow. He gained the degree of d.d. in 1868, waa appointed
one of the queen's chaplains in Scotland, and in 1869 was moderator of the general
assembly of the church. In 1850 he visited Canada, and in 1867. Imlia, on missions
connected with the business of the church of Scotland. From 1850 to 1860 he
edited the Edinburgh Christian Magazine, and from 1860 onwards was the con.
ductor of Oood Words, to which he contributed numerous tales, essays, verses, etc,
many being republished. Among the most important and popular of his works are:
BeminiMcences of a Highland Parish: The Old lACutcnani and his Son; Eastward; The
Gold Thread; The Starling; The Earnest Student; The Hotne Education; Sermons, etc
Dr. Macleod died at Glasgow June 16, 1872. See Memoir, by his brother, the rev.
Donald Macleod (1876).
McLEOD, Xayier Donald, 1821-65; b. New York; son of Alexander; graduated
at Columbia college, and admitted to orders in tlie Protestant Episcopal ohnnrli in 1845.
After preaching for a short time in a country parish, he traveled and studied in Europe.
While al>road he liecame a Roman Catholic,- and on his return engaged in literary pur-
suits. His publications are: Pynnshurst: his Wanderings and Ways of Thinking; Life of
Sir WalUr Scott; 7'he moodstone; Life of Mary, Queen of Scots; The Elder's Mouse, or the
Ihree Converts; Chdteau Leseure, or the Last Marquis; j.Ju Weeder and The Saga of Vik-
ing Torquil, two poems which have much ment. In 1857 he became professor of
belles-lettres at Mount St. Mary's college, near Cincinnati, and was ordained as a priest.
MA0LI8E, Daniel, r.a., an eminent painter of Scotch extraction, was b. at Cork,
Ireland, Jan. 25, 1811; entered the royal academy. London, in 1828, and acquired a high
remitation as a stuiient. In 1838 he exhibited his first picture at the British institution,
" Xlokanna unveiling his Features to Zelica;" and in the same year, ** All-Hallow Eve,"
and '* A Love Adventure of Francis I. with Diana of Poictiers," at the royal academy.
Since then, among his principal works may be mentioned: ** Robin Hood and Richard
CoBur-de-Lion." and "Merry Christmas in the Baron's Hall" (1888); *'Thc Banquel
Scene in Macbeth," and '* Scene from Twelfth Nicht" (1840); " Play Scene in Hamlet"
(1842): "Ordeal by Touch" (1846): and his design of *' Shakespeare's Seven A^es" (1848);
*• The Gross of Green Spectacles" (1850); " Caxton's Printing-office" (1851). The fres-
cos— each 45 ft. long and 12 ft. higli — in the royal gallery of the house of lords, depict-
ing "The Meeting of Wellington and Blllcher on the Evening of the Battle of
Waterloo," and "The Death of Nelson at Trafalgar." are admitted to be the finest mural
paintings hitherto executed in Britain. The only pictures worthy of note exhibited by
Maclise after the completion of these great works were: ** Othello." **De$d(MPona.'* and
••Ophelia" (1867); '* The Sleepof Duncan," and *• Madeline after Prayer" (1868); 'King
Cophetua and the Begirar Maid" (1869); "The Earls of Desmond and Ormond,*' posthu-
mously exhibited in 1870, the year in which he died.
MA.CLUBE, Sir Robert John leMeburier, the discoverer of the north-west passage,
was b. at Wexford in Jan., 1807. and was sent for his education first to Eton, and after-
wards to Sandhurst. Intended for the military profession, but having no great love for
it, he secretly left Sandhurst, and through the good offices of a friend, was entered as a
midshipman on board the Victory. He volunteered for ther3A^^j(^^^]^^(p^pa in II. M.S.
811 SSiSS:
nrrvr, eapt. Back, in 1880» returniDg to England in 1887. In Not., 1887, be receiTed
liis commission as a lieat. ; and on June 18, 1843, was appointed to ttie commund of the
Somnep reeeivine-sliip at tl&e Havana, where he reknained until the early part of 1846.
In 1848 he johieu sir James Ross's expedition in search of Franklin; and upon its return
in 1849 he was promoted to the rank of commander. This expedition had barclj
returned to Engbind when it was resolved by the admiralty to dispatch the vessels com-
posing it-^viz., the Bnterprise and the Investigator — on a fresh search for tlie Franklin
party by way of Behring's strait. Accordingly, capt. Richard Collinson, c,b., waa
appointed as senior officer to the EnterprUe. and commander M&clure to the InveaUgator,
On Jan. 20, 1850, the vessels set sail, with instructions to make the best of their way to
cape Virgins, in order to arrive at Behring's strait in July. The Investigator could not
keep up with the Enterprise, wliich wtis towed through the strait of Magellan by a
steamer some time before tlie Investigator got there. After rounding cupe Horn, the
Investigator met witl^ her consort lyine at anchor in Fortescue bay; but soon again tliey
separated, and met no more during the voyage. Capt. Maclure now proceeded alone,
in the Investigator, towards tlie ice-regions. On Aug. 2, after passing tli rough Behring's
strait, iie spied, in lat. 72"* n., ice riglit ahead. On the 8tU his men first met with Esqui-
mauz, close to point Pitt, where a party was sent ashore to erect a cairn, and place a
notice of the Investigator liaviug passed. These Esquimaux encouraged tliem in the
belief that, as tliey proceeded eastward, they would find an open channel. As they pro-
ceeded, however, along the coast of America, the ice became troublesome and even
threatening. There were also numerous shoals, which made the navigation intricate and
dangerous. On Aug. 31 the Investigator reached cape Bathurst, from which she con-
tinued to advance for several days in a north-easterly direction. On Sept 11 unmis-
takable signs of winter presented themselves. On the 17th the Investigator reached her
most advanced position in lat. 73*" 10' n., and long. 117'' 10' w., about 80 m. from the
waters of that series of straits called Melville, Barrow, and Lancaster, communicating
with Baffin's bay. The ice now almost hemmed the vessel in on every side; and capt.
Maclure determined to winter in his present position. The Investigator became finally
fixed in the ice in lat. 72" 50' n., and long. 117'* 55' west. On Oct. 22, capt. Maclure
determined to reach the sea, if possible, by a sled^ journey. He accord in.:^ly set cut
with a party of men and officers; and, after sustaining much fatigue and privation, was
at last rewarded on the 26lh bv a si^ht of the north-west passage. *'The position of
mount Observation, from which the important discovery had been made, was ascertained
to be in lat. (observed) 73' 80' 39 " n., long. IH" 39' w., and by lumvr lU* 14' west."
After this discovery the party returned to the Investioator; but that vessel was not des-
tined herself to sail homewards through the passage discovered by her commander. All
that winter and spring she remained frozen up in the ice. In July slie began to move
a^in. but the nearest she could get to the passage was 73"* 48' 43" n. lat.. and long. 115*
32' 80", 25 m. from the waters of Barrow strait. This was on Aug. 15, 1851. On the
following day commander Maclure resolved to abandon this course, go round the s. end
of Banks*8 land, and endeavor, by passing to the westward of it, to reach Melville island by
that route. For 300 m. and more, the investigator sailed in this direction without being
once checked by ice. On Aug. 19, however, a sudden change came; the ice pressed
against both sides of the vessel, and immense masses threatened to topple over and sink
her with their weiglit. By Sept. 1 tlie Investigator l)ecame completely ice-bound about
50 Yards from the shore. On the 10th, however, there was another change; the ice
broke from the coast, carrying the Investigator with it, and she slowly sailed along for
several days, until eventually she settled in a bay, where commander Maclure resolved
to winter. To- this bay he gave the name of bay of Mercy, in gratitude for the escape
of the ship and crew from numerous dangers, as also Lnecause the neighboring land
abounded in reindeer, hares, and other animals, which gave them good supply of food.
In this bay they passed their second Christmas, and the time wore on until April, 1852,
when commander Maclure visited Melville island with a sledge-party, in the hope of
finding some of capt. Austin's ships, or at least a depot of provisions, but was disap-
pointed. He retunied to the vessel, where all was still well; but in May the scurvy
broke out among his crew, and increased during the summer. Aug. came and still
there was no open channel, and in the following month it became clear that they must
pass a third winter in the ice. It now l)ecame necessary to decide what they should do
for the future, as provisions were failing; and, accordingly, commander Maclure
announced to his men that, in the following April, he would send away 80 of the crew
to make their way homewards in two parties— one by way of North America up the
Mackenzie river; the other by way of cape Spencer, ^echey island ; while he himself,
with the remainder of the officers and crew, would stay by the ship, spend a fourth
winter, and then, if not relieved, endeavor to retreat upon Lsncaster sound. The men
cheerfully acquiesced; and when April came the sledges were got ready for the retreat-
ing parties. On the 6th of that month commander Maclure and his first lieut. were
walking near the ship conversing, when they perceived a fisure rapidly approaching
them from the rougli ice at the entrance of the bay. When within a hundred yards of
them he shoufed and gesticulated, but without enabling them to guess who it could be.
At length he came up to tliera, and, to their Joy and astonishment, announced himself
thus: '* I am lieut. Pim, late of the Hsrald, and now in the BtfM^t^ed^Rk^ellett is in
her at Dealv island/* Pirn had come from Melville island, in oon8e<|aenoe of one
of capt Eelfett's parties having discovered an inscription left by commander Maclure
on Parrv's famous sandstone rock in Winter liarbor. Commander Maclure now resolved,
althougu reluctantly, to abandon his ship altogether and return with capt. Kellett to
England. He reached England Sept. 28, 1854. His first reward was to receive his
commission of post-capt., dated back to the day of his discovery of the north-west pas-
sage. Shortlv afterwards he received from her majesty the honor of knighthood. A
reward of £10,00<» was also granted to the officers and crew of the InvesHgatar, as a token
of national approbation of the men who had discovered a north-west passage from the
Pacific to the Atlantic ocean. In Mar., 1856, sir Robert Maclure was appointed to the
command of H.M. steam-corvette Esk, servix^g in the East Indies and Chma, but which
returned to England in 1861. He died Oct. 17, 1878.
MACLURE', WUiLiAU, 1768-1840; b. ScotUmd; came to this country in 178S, but
returned to London, and engaged in mercantile business, from which he retired with a
fortune. He made the United States his home after 1796, and went abroad in 1803 as a
U. B. commissioner to settle the French spoliation claims. Durine this visit to the con-
tinent he pursued a course of geological study, making large collections of specimens.
He had already determined to make a general geological survey of the United States,
and on his return traveled extensively in furtherance of that object The first account
of his researches is found in his Observatwns on the Geology of ike UfvUed 8UUe$, which
he read before the American philosophical society in 1809. He 'published a second
paper in 1817, with a geological map of the United States. About this date he settled
m Philadelphia, and was elected president of its academy of natural sciences, an ofBce
which he retained till his death. In the Journal, which he had founded as the organ of
the academy, he published a description of the geology of the Antilles, which he visited
in 1816. Three years later he went to Spain, where lie bought a large tract of land from
the government, then in the hands of the revolutionists, and endeavored to found a sort
of agricultural school; but on the downfall of the provisional government the title to his
land failed, and the experiment was abandoned. He afterwanis entered upon a scheme
of the same kind at Kew Harmony, Ind., which also was unsuccessful. In l{Rd7 and
again in 18S8, he went to Mexico, and there he died. His library and most of his col-
lection of maps and charts, with the sum of $20,000 to erect a building for their recep-
tion, were bequeathed to the Philadelphia academy of natural sciences; and many of his
specimens were given to the American geological society of New Haven, Conn.
MACKAHOK, Marie Edmb Patricb Maurice de. Marshal of France, of Irish
descent, was b. at Sully, July 13, 1808. Enteriug the army, he led a distinguished career
in Algeria, and commanded the division that stormed the Malakoft at Sebastopol in 1855.
He took a conspicuous part in the Italian campaign of 1859, received a m^rshaVs baton,
and was created duke of Magenta in commemoration of the battle of that name. He
was nominated governor-general of Algeria in 1864. In the Franco-German war of
1870-71, he had command of the first array corps, was defeated at WOrth, and captnred,
wounded, at Sedan. In 1871. after the close of the war, he was made commander-in-
chief of the French army, and in 1878 he was elected president of the republic, his
powers being confirmed to him for a period of seven years. His sympathies were con-
servative, and at times seemed to be reactionary; suspicions of a coup cCetat were more
than once excited, especially in 1877. His refusal to sanction the dismissal of several
generals known to be hostile to the now firmly established republican regime, led to his
resignation in Jan., 1879.
MacMAHON, Marie Edms Patrice Maurice db, Duke of Magenta, Marshal
of France (ante), and President of the republic of France; b. SuUy, Saane-et-Loire,
June 12, 1808; son of a marechal de camp under Louis XYIII. in 1814, who was
made a peer in 1827. He was of an Irish family, who took refuge in Buigogne on
the fall of the Stuarts. He ernduated at the college of St. Cyr in 1825, and entered the
army; was in the campaign of Algiers in 1880; at the siege of Antwerp in 1881; returned
to Africa, and acted as aid-de-camp to several generals; was wounded severely in 1837;
resumed active service in 1840; and, in consequence of brilliant and arduous service in
.Algeria, was rapidly advanced from that time till 1849, when he had become a gen. of
division and commander of tlie legion of honor. In 1855 Napoleon IIL recalled him
from Africa, and gave him a command in the n. of France, in August he was sent to
the Crimea to command a division under Bosquet He arrived at Sebastopol on the eve
of an assault, and had the command of the most exposed and aggressive division of
the army, which stormed the great citadel. Sept. 22, 1855. On returning to France he
was made senator. In a body distingui^ed principally for its servilitv to Napoleon,
MacMahon was remarked for the good sense and sturdy Independence of his votes. In
1857 he was placed in command of a part of the army of A^eria, and in 1858 made
supreme in command. In 1859, on the breaking out of the war with Austria, Mac-
Mahon was put in command of the 2d corps. June 2 his forces pushed back the advance
of thcfAustriaus, and two days afterwards he was the chief oirector of the battle of
Magenta, in which he turned into a victory a defeat impending through Napoleon's
inctnciency. At the battle of Solferino, a few days later, he again signalized his gen-
eralship by victor}'. In Nov., 1861, he was sent to Berlin to represent France at the
Digitized by VjOUvTC
813 ^SSSSSu^
crewnhig of William HI., king of Prussia. In Oct., 1862, he was commander of the
8d army corps at Nancj; and in Sept., 1864, was named governor-gen. of Algeria. In
1809 tlie plan of regal military goT^mment for Algeria was abandoned, and gen. Mac-
Mahon tendered his resignation. The war with Germany soon afterward opened. He
was placed at the head of tlie 1st army corps, July, 1870. With 82,000 men and head-
quarters at Strasbourg, he seems to have separated iiis command strangely from t)ic main
army, and in the battles of Wissenberg and Reichshoifen suffered a crushing defeat by
the Prussians. He conducted the retreat of 18,000 of his demoralized army to Chftlons.
There, placed at the head of a newly organized force of 120,000, he was ordered, Aug.
8S, to march to the relief of Bazaine. Thiers had remonstrated against the order, and
MacMahoxi's advice had not been asked. The army marched into the gulf of Qermana
prepared for it. without power either to help or to be helped by !Bazaine. On Sept. 1 the
Germao environment was complete, and resulted in another crushing defeat of the French
and a severe wound to MacMahon.
After the treaty of peace in Mar., 1871, Thiers called him to the command of the
army of Versailles, to recover Paris from the commune. After an energetic siege Mac-
Hahoo entered the city May dl, and on the 28th, after seven days of sanguinary fighting
with the desperate forces of the commune and their conflagrations, he was master of the
city. In September, in submitting to an examination concerning the cause of tlie dis-
asters of the French army in the beginning of the war with the Germans, he generously
took upon himself the blame of the first defeats. Wheri Thiers announced that he
favored the establishment of a conservative republic, MacMahon was urged to assume
dictatorial powers. He refused, and gave his hearty support to the Thiers government.
But the clerical and royalist parties combined to place Thiers in such a mmority that,
after his definitive resignation in Mav, 1878, as chief executive, they united to elect
MacMahon provisional president of France. Tlie object was to Insure the peace of
France, while each royalist faction was preparing to bring in its king. MacMahon
accepted the functions of president of tne republic, with the remark that the vote
*' lNX>ujrht no modification of the laws or of existing institutions." His message to the
tssembiy breathed a simple desire to conform his acts to its will as their sentinel, ser-
vant, ami executor. His military habits and predilections made his administration seem
to tend to monarchical reaction. But the subsequent years proved that, whatever may
liave been his private predilections, he intended to conform conscientiously to his inau-
gural promise to obey and to enforce the laws. Nov. 19, 1878, his term of office was
extended to 1880. His powers were almost imperial. He alone, during his term, had
the right to propose a revision of the laws. Jun. 18, 1876. he addressea a letter to tlie
French people on the eve of tlie first general election under the constitution of 1875.
In this address he announced his policy as "conservative and liberal" — a policy of
repose for France, whose "institutions ought not to be revised before they arc honestly
tried;" all whose parties, therefore, were urged to rally around his eovernment. Thia
frank appeal was met by an unexpected return of a largely increased number of repub-
licans to the a.MsembIy. There was a growing fear in France that the personal govern-
ment of MacMahon, however honest he might be, was too like the imperial rigime^ and
tended to some new form of despotism. The pronounced republicans had a dear
majority over their combined opponents. MacMahon, in deference to public opinion,
cbaogen his cabinet in part to represent the views of the republican majority, and the
new assembly, at its convention, gave a hearty support to the executive, and emphasized
the desire of France to preserve order at home and peace abroad. On the second ses-
sion of tl»c assembly, Dec, 1876, the government found itself in a minority, and some
friction took place between the president's desires and those of the majority, which
resulted in a compromise, by which Jules Simon, a sterling republican, was made vice-
president of the council of ministers, and Martel minister of justice and religion. The
president had opposed and secured the defeat of a motion of Victor Hugo for the par-
don of the banlsfied communists; but during the year following he panioned a large
number of them by virtue of his powers under the constitution. In April, 1877, the
bishop of Nevers wrote to the president, calling upon him to draw the sword against
Italy for *mie prisoner of the Vatican," to which he sent an answer that the bishop had
exceeded the functions of his office. May 16 a crisis in the government was precipitated
by a letter from the president to his chief minister, Jules Simon, suggesting that hia
policy was not satisfactory. The latter immediately tendered his resignation, which
was at once accepted. This action was supposed to mark a determination to break with
the republicans, and to support one of the parties of the right. At the opening of the
chamber the following day. Gambetta made a motion: "that the confidence of the
majority can be accorded only to a cabinent free in its action, and resolved to govern
according to republican principles, which alone can guarantee order and prosperity at
home and peace abroad.^ This was adopted by a vote of 855 to 154. A new cabinet
wns announced May 18, and the president addressed a mecsage to the chnml)ers in
explanation of his policy, in which he called attention to his scrupulous adherence to
the constitution of 1875" and to his selection of two successive ministers, Dufaure and
Bimon. for the supposed harmony of their views with the majority of the assembly ; but
that neither of them had been able to carry their measures by a majority; and that after
these two aUempts, eqcnlly devoid of success, he ''could not take a step further in the
WaelUhoiu ^l^
•ume path without appeaUnc to, or demapding support from, anotber ■eetion c
the rtipublicaa party— iLat wuicli tliinka the republic cannot lie firmly e^tabliahe
Avitbout having, as a complement and conflcqueace, the ra^licul roodincation of a
our great institutions— judicial, financial, and military administrations. This pn
gramme is well known. Those who profess it arc agreed on all it contains," etc. . .
**Neitlier mv conscience nor my patriotism permits me to share, even afar off and i
regards the future, in the triumpli of these ideas. I do not think it opportune, eiih<
to-day or to-morrow or at any period, that they should prevail. ... I will ucitlu
try its application myself, nor facilitate its trial by my successors. As long as I am tt
depositary of power, I shall make use of it to the whole extent of its legal limits l
oppose what I renird as the ruin of my country. But I am convinced that the couutt
thinks as I do. ft was not the triumph of these theories which it wished at the la
elections." With much more of the same tenor, outspoken and decisive as to his di
' trust of the rcpilblic as outlined by Qambetta and the left, he decreed, by virtue of h
power under the constitution, the adjournment of the chambers for one month. Wiilji
four days after the new minbtiy assumed office, prefects were chan^red in 62 depur
ments, 225 out of 227 sub-prefectures received new offices, and all the influence and pow(
of the government was developed to create a pressure of public opinion in its supper
TIic dny the message was read iu the chambers, the deputies of the left, with Thiers i
their head, prepared an address to the country, expressing the hope that ** the nutio
will show, by its coolness, patience, and resolution, that an incorrigble minority canD<
wrest from it its own government." Thus, the issue was fairly made up between il
republicans and the bold and frank statement of the president that he wislied lo I
supported in the singleness of his power. May 28, de Bro^lie, now chief miniate
issued a circular, explaining that the president, in exercising hm constitutional prerogi
tive, intervened to arrest the progress of radical theories, etc., etc., and authorlzio
officers under the government to l^ vigilant to repress apologies for the commune ao
abuse of the president, and for the protection of morality, rebgion. and property. TL
president's new cabinet savored strongly of au intention to mold politics in France so i
to promote the return of the young !Napoleon to the imperial throne. Legitimists uei
excluded from it. June 11, their leader questioned the president as to the meaning c
this action and as to a report, gaining credence, that he meditated a prolongation c
his own power. They were assurea tiiat, "As to the legitimist candidatea' (to tfa
chaml)er of deputies), "they belong to the conservative groups, and any legitimist cai
didate resdly having any chance of success will be openly and loyally supported hy tli
adminlsLRition. With respect to schemes of prolonging my tenure of office during tli
prorogation, you may rest assured that I entertain none. 1 have received my right t
remain in office until 1880 from the assembly, and I shall remain, unless a contingcDC
I shidl immediately pohat out to you shall arise. ... I shall lend myself to n
coup de main whatever. Let mo also tell you that I shall lend myself to no'venturc c
imperial, of monarchic restoration. ... I shall participate in nothing favorable 1
the restoration, cither of the prince imperial or of the comte do Chamboid or of ih
comte de Paris. I am until 1880 invested with definite power bv the constitution,
shall excrcii^e that power, according to circumstances, to its full extent. ... 1
will, perhaps, be necessaiy to demand a dissolution. If you accord it me. I shall use
as well as possible. If you refuse it, I sliould then have two forces out of three againi
xne, and should withdraw."
When both chambers reassembled, June 16. the due de Broglie ascended the tribun
of the senate and read a message from the president asking their assent lo the dissoli
tion of the chamber of deputies. The message alluded to the manifesto signed by moi
than 800 deputies, protesting against the use made of his constitutional prerc^tive 1
proro.s:uing the assembly, and to their appeals to their constituencies to oppose hj
measures, nnd deprecated the agitation which they were producing. It foretoKened
prompt dissolution of the assembly, and an appeal to thecountiy in a general electio
for new delegates. "Warned in time, guarding against all misunderstanding an*
ambiguity. Franco, I am sure, will do justice to my intention, and will choose for lie
representatives those who will promise to second me." To the chamber of deputies th
pre:>ideut addressed a message, of which the following is a part, which was read froi
the tribune by Fortou, minister of the interior: **The president of the republi
remains convinced, after two sincere but fniitless trials, that no ministry can hope t
muster a durable majority in this assembly without asking to be backed by the part
which professes radical doctrines, and without thereby promoting the progress of then
Full of respect for the institutions which govern us, and resolved to maintain tliei
intact, he thinks himself entitled to employ all the prerogatives which they gave him t
resist another step being taken in a path which seems to him to lead to the ruiu m
degradation of the country. He has chosen ministers who share his i<iea in this respecl
anil assume iu the eyes of France the responsibility of it." The debute whicli followe
between Fortou, Qanibetta. and Decazes was stormy, and the right undertook to stifl
it with their turmoil. The vote on the dissolution passed the senate by 160 to 190
The chamber of deputies was therefore dissolved, and by the same decree fresli election
for the new chamber were ordered within three months. The 868 deputies who joine<
in a protest against the first prorogation of the chamber, united Ao^m^^lhemselves s
315
one bod J for re-election. Nothing in politics can exceed the frankness of both parties
in stating their. positions and the clearness with which the issne was pluced before the
country. 'J'fac canvass which followed was ttie most vigorously contested that had ever
taken place in France. The republicans of hH shades united on single candidates. The
prebi<lent Mas not so successful in securing unity of action, though the government
pressure was used with an open energy that made its servants feel that they must leave
nothing undone The minister of the Interior^ Fortou, in his circular to them, said:
"Functionaries of every kind are knit to the government which has appointed them by
ties which they are bound not to forget. We cannot permit any of them to be hostile
to us. Any who will use against the government the authority M'hich they hold from
it, need expect neither toleration nor indulgence." The death of M. Thiers, Sept. 3»
was momentarily a blow to the republicans, but was turned to a source of strengih bj
the mueful feelings of all France in reviewing his life, and by the knowledge that his
hanil had sketched the plan of the campaign iigainst the measures of president MacMahon.*
On Sept. 19 the latter issued a manifesto to the French people, in which he drew the
line against the " radicals/' and called upon Frenchmen to sustain him personally in
defense of the constitution and conservatism. The address was answered by one from
Thiers, which, though prepared before his death, was suitHbIc to the occasion. Ho
pictured^as with a hand stretch! ug from the toml> — how nil the words recently used to
create fear of the republicans had been used by every ruler who had by turns used and
abused the confidence of the people of France. The means taken by the government
of l^IacMahon to carry tho election as the day approached were more tyninnical. Gam-
betta's expression timt after the election '* the president would have to submit or resign/'
brought him a penalty of three months' imprisonment and 4,000 francs fine.
Tlie election, Oct. 14, resulted in a republican victory, by the return of 816 to 109 of
the government candidates. Tlie new chambers met ^ov. 7, and elected Jules Grevy
president. Tlie government was at once called to account for its abus'c of the system of
ofiBcial candidatures, and de Broglie was ready for the question. On the 20th the president
changed his ministry again, to eliminate those whom tlie popular verdict had made with-
out power in the chamber, and nominated men of moderate views who had not become
obnoxious to the country. The following statement, made by gen. Grimaudet de Roch-
bouet, the newly appointed minister of war and "president of the council, was an illy
conceived defiance of the republican sentiment President McMahon has
intrusted tlie minli^try to men outside the political struggle. They will faithfully observe
the law, and afford the marshal the support which he requires to facilitate commercial
intercourse and the preparations for the exposition. We shall respect and require
respect for the republican laws by which we are ruled. The constitution will pass intact
from us to our successors whenprmdent MacMoJion judges opportune to replace tM b^ parlia-
mefUary ministers" Jules Ferry moved "that the chamlier consider that the ministry, by
its composition, is a denial of the national rights of parliamentary law, and declined to
enter into relations with it;" which was carried by 823 to 208. MncMahon's new effort to
maintain his personal government under tlie constitution was thus sijzn ally unsuccessful;
and Dec. 14, 1877, he yielded to the republicans, and gave Dufaure full power to form a
cabinet from the left Peace was thus restored ; and the assembly, after passing essen-
tial appropriate bills, adjourned a week after the new ministry came into power.
£ighty-two prefects were changed to represent the new republican controL On the
reasscmbhns: of the chambers Jan. 8, 1878, de Rumilly, president of the senate, alluded
to the president's message of December, as showing tliat he was not a tool of the minia-
ters of the 16th of May.
In succeeding elections the republicans gained largely, and MacMahon seemed to
conform so loyally to the verdict of the countr^v against his former policy that Gambetta
supported a motion of confidence in the executive council, which passed the chamber b^
a vote of 436 to 34 So strong was the reaction in the president's favor that, about this
time, the republicans suggested him as an available candidate for a second term. Kao-
Hahon had the honor of opening and closing the great exposition of Paris of 1878. By
the perfect order of the citv, its marvelous cleanliness, and the harmony in the working
of all the dci>aitmcnts of the government, France showed that the republic had at last
settled into a permanent beneficence. On the assembling of the chambers, Jan., 1879,
a difference occurred between the preMdent and his prime minister, Dufaure, con-
cerning a decree for the removal of government subordinate ofiScials not in sympathy
with the republic. He yielded to his ministers on the civil lists prepared by them for
removal, but when it came to the ofiScers of the army designated to be superseded he
refused, and declared he would rather resign. The council of ministers remained firm,
and insisted on the removals. At 1 p.m.. Jan. 80, the marshal sent in to the council his
formal resignation as president of the republic. The ministers in council then offered
their resignations, conditioned that he could form another ministry that would satisfy
the chambers wi thout executing tlieir decrees of Jan. 20. The president replied in effect
that he did not believe that possible. In the afternoon of the same day the ministers
presented to the chambers tlie letter of resignation of the president. It contained these
words: "The cabinet, in the belief of responding to the majority in the two chamliers,
now propones to me, as regards the great commands, general measures which I deem
contmiy to the interests of tihe army, and consequently to those of the country. I
Digitized by VjOUV iC
Kaeomb.
316
cannot subscribe to them. In view of this refusal the cabinet reeigns. Any other cabi-
net taken from the majority of the chambers would impose the same conditions on me.
I accordingly n^ign the presidency of the republic. In leaving office I have
the consolation of bdieving that, during the lifty-three years I have devoted to Uie service
of my country as a soldier and as a citizen, I have never been guided by other senti-
menu than those of honor and duty, and by perfect devotion to my country." At 4.30
P.M. the two chambers assembled for ioint-action to elect a president. Jules Qrevy
received 503 out of 713 votes, and was declared elected. Thus, within three hours and
a half, the change in the executive head of the government had been made in accord-
ance with constitutional forme, and marshal MacMahon retired to private life honored
by all parties. In March following, when the question of the impeachment of tb«
de Broglie ministry wae under discussion in the chambers, marshal MacMahon wrote to
presfdent Grevy a letter, assuming the responsibility of the acts of his ministers of May
16, 1877, and cluiming that, if they were (o be impeached, he must be placed with them.
The impeachment pn>ject was negatived. The ez-presideni is still living (1881), and
regarded as an honest and able mtvu, whose military education and life unfitted him, to a
certain degree, to understand a republican form of government, and that order and 8ia-
bility among a people do not altogether depend on force or require a military riginu to
insure them.
McMICHAEL, Mortok, 1807-79; b. in Burlingtoa co., N. J. ; benn at an early age
to write for the press, and in 1844 became editor-in^hief of the Philadelphia Abrtft
Am^iean, * daily Journal of wide infinence. He was an able writer and an olooaent
speaker, and as a politician wielded a laige influence. He Was mayor of Philadelphia
from 1865 to 1868, and died in that city.
MacMILLAN, HtJOH, LL.D., b. fScotland, 1888: educated at Breadalbane academy
and Edinburgh university. He was minister of the free church in Kirkmichael, Perth-
shire, in 1859, and live years Inter was tr«nsferred to the free St. Peter's church in
GlasTOW, where he remains. He has published Bible Teachings in Nature (1866), a work
which met with sreat success, and has been translated into several continental
languages; Fk-tt Sbrm% of Vegetation; The True Vine; T/is Ministry of Nature; Ths
Garden and the City; Sunolints in the WHdemess; The 8abbath of the Fields, which has
been tmnslated into Danish and Norwegian ; and Ovr IxnrTf Three Baisingi from (k
^ Dead, He has also been a prolific contributor to periodical literature. He is an ll.d.
! of the university of 8t. Andrews.
McMINN, a CO. in s.e. Tennessee; 480 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 15,064. It is drained by the
Hiawassee river and Chestna creek, and traversed uy the Tennessee, Yirginia and Geor-
gia railroad. Corn and whisky are the staples. Capital, Athens.
McMULLEN, a CO. in 8.w. Texas, traversed by the Nueces and Frio rivers; 1^
sq.m.; pop. '80. 701. The breeding of stock is almost the only industry. The only
town is McMuUen.
McMURROGH, Dxbhot« King of Leinster, Ireland. He became kin^ in 1140, but
was expelled by his subjects in 1168. Henry II. of England refused to aki him, but
Richard de Clare, earl of Pembroke (sumamed Strongbow), restored him to power in
1170. The earl married the daughter of the king, and when the latter died, in the same
year, the former succeeded him as king and as a vassal of England; laying thus the
foundation of the English claim of supremacy in Ireland.
McNAB, Sir Alan Napier. 1798-1862; entered the royal navy as a midshipman in
1818, and took part in the British expedition against Sackett's Harbor and other American
towns. He left the navy, and became an ensign in the army, commanding the advance
at the battle of Plattsburg. At the close of the war 1812-15 he remained io Canada,
studied law, and was admitted to practice at the Cacadian bar. He was elected to the
legislature, became speaker of the legislative assembly, and prime minister in the gov-
ernment of the earl of Elgin, and that of sir Edmund Head, which followed. He was
prominent in sustaining the government asrainst the insurrection of 1887-88, being
appointed col. of militia. WWle in command at Niagara he ordered the seizure of the
steamer Caroline, which was conveyinir stipplles to the rebels, from the American side,
set fire to her, and sent her over NingHra Falls. This darinff act was approved bv the
British government, and McNab was rewarddfi for it by bemg knighted. In 1841 he
was speaker of the legislature; in 1858 was made a baronet; and in lm> became a mem-
ber of the legislative council.
McNAIRY, a co. in s.w. Tennessee, watered by aflBuents of the Big Hatchie river,
and reached by the Mobile and Ohio, and Memphis and Charleston railroads; 620 sq.ni. :
pop. '80, 17,271. The productions are Indian com, wheat, oats, wool, cotton, and swut
potatoes. A large proportion of this county is covered with a dense growth of usIj.
chestnut, hickory, oak, and other timber. Co. seat, Purdy.
MacNEIL. Hector, 1746-1818; b. Scotland; educated hj his parents at home, and
at a commercial school in Glasgow. After spending Some time in the mercantile hoaJ$6
of one of his relatives at Bristol he sailed for the West Indies, where he remained for
six years. Some two years after his return to England, having lost ihe little property
left him by his father, he secured the place of assistant secretary on the flag-ship P''
Q i 7 M cMloha«l«
^ ^ « lUcomb.
tdninl Geary; and afterwards held tho same positimi oa the fla^-sbii) of air Kicliard
fiiekerboD, with wliom he sailed to the East Indies, While in India he visited the sculp-
tBreiit£lephaiita, which he described in ArcJimologia for 1787. He spent five years in
{jidM^aod ou his return to Scotland settled near StuluijS^, and composed his poem called
TktLuUai^^rth, He next went to Kingston, JanAuiqa, to accept an office in the cus*
KHB-lKKue t^ierc, but ill-health compelled him to return, and on the homeward voyage
heirrot« a canto of his poem TJt^ Marp. For the next six yearo, still suffering from
jH-b^itb, lie lived in retirement near Bannockbum, aud composed ScotlaJid'i Skaith,
bii best work, published in 1795. At the end of this period he again sailed for Jamaica, i
where be recovered his health; and about the same time he received a legacy sufficient
toeasUe him to live at ease for the rest of his life. He had written The Scottish Muse,
tsort of poetical autobiography^ while in Jamaica; and at Edinburgh, which he made
bis home henceforth, ho published in 1812 The Pastoral or Lyric Muse of Scotland; in
ma two satires under the name of Town Fashions ; in 1811 Bygone Times and Late iJoms •
ikh^; and in 181d The Scoitisfi Adventurers, an historical novel
HcNElL, John, 1784-1860; b. N. H. ; capt. and afterwards maj. in the 11th regiment
U. a Inf&Qtry hi' the war of 1812. The battle of Chippewa, Julv 5, 1814, was mainly
ddded io favor of the Americans by the bayonet ohurge made by HcNeirs regiment.
io Those command on that day, after the death of its col, he succeeded. For his gal*
hairy Id that action, and at Lundy*s Lane, July 26, where he was severely wounded, ho
T3S brevetted lieut.col. and col. He continued in the service till 1880. was brevetted
^.gen. in 1824, and made col. of the first i?egiment of infantry in 1826. In 1829 he
ill made auiveyor of the port of Boston, and retained that office till his death.
McNETLB. Hugh. d.d.. 1705-1879; b. at Ballycaetle, Antrim, Ireland; educated at
Triaitj college, Dublin, where he received tho degrees of x.a. and d.d. in after years.
Bestodied for the hiw, but in 1820 took orders, and aftev holding several preferments,
fumadeeaDon of Chester, and in 1866 dean of Ripon. He was a popular preaoher, of
powerful diction and elegant delivery. Amofig his published works are lectures on the
^hTcKcfEnnJand, Proj^udes of iks Jews, and sermons on the Second Advent, and many
Other topics.
KcNEILL, Bir Joav, d.c.l., b. Scotland, 1795; assistant ambassador to the Per-
sia court m 1881, secretary of the Persian embassy in 1884. and envoy extraordinary
3) (he Persian court in 1886. On his return to Great Britain in 1844 he was made chair-
liaa of the committer appointed to take charge of the operation of the Scotch poor-law
t&\ and in 1851 he inada a report Id tlie government upon the condition of the western
Bpands and islanda Four ^reais kter, under the Palmemton administration, he was
paiat the head of the board of inquiry appointed to Investig^to the proceedings of the
ooaifflissary department during the Crimean war; and for his services in that capacity,
kiss sworn in of the privy council. He published in 1854 Progress and Pmtion tf
hmiiiikeEaH0W^,
McNeill, Wii^lUm Oibbb, 1800-5S, b. N.O.; graduated at West Point, and enter-
ag the army, was attached at first to the artillery, and afterwards to the topographical
agioecra He resigned from the army in 1887, and took up the profession of a civil
agioeer, m which he was eminently successful. He was chief engineer of a number of
niiroads. and of the dry dock in the navy-vard at Brooklyn. He assisted in making
'>&e surrey for the BalUmore and Ohio railroad, and was prcaident ox the Chesapeake
u^ Ohio canal company.
JUcNEVEN, William James, 1768-1841, b. Ireland; studied medicine at Vienna,
Bd practiced at Dublin. He was a member of the " United Irishmen/' and for his
P^cipatioa in the dsaigns of that organisation was arrested in 1798, and imprisoned.
Kleased in 1803 he traveled through Switzerland, writing a description of his travels
iahlsiZan^b through Switzerland, Soon afterwards he took a commission in the Irish
i^gade attached to the French service. Finding that his expectations of a French
snuion of Ireland were baseless, he threw up his commission, and went to New York,
'i«re be resumed the practice of his profession. He was one of the editors of the New
^oAifefiwrf and Philosophical Journal; from 1808 to 1830 a professor in the college of
Mciaos and surgeons, and at the medical school connected with Rutgers college in
Hev Jersey. He published MxposiHon of the Atomic Theory, and Pieces of Irish History. {
MacNISH^ Bobbrt, 1803-87; b. Glasgow, where he passed his life in practice as a
P^cian. He contributed to Blackwood! s ana Frazer's Magazines, aud became very pop-
^. He published The Metempsyclwsis, 1826; Tlie Anatomy of I>runkenness, 1827; T/ie
™^p*y of Sleep, and other worka
HACOMB^ a CO. in e. Michigan on hike St. Clnir, traversed by Clinton river and the
«nnd Trunk raikoad; 375 sq.m.; pop. *70, 27,616; co. scat, Mt. Vincent, The prod-
^are aU the cereals* wool, butter, and hay. There are some manufactures.
MACOMB', a t. and vill., tho capital of McDonough co.. III., on the Chicago and
Wfj railroad, 200 m. from Chicago; pop. of vill.* 2,748; of t 4.313. The McDoa-
3agh normal college is here, and the place has good schools, a fine cQurt-house> 8 news-
?SW8, 2 banks, a foundiy, and sevenil wagon and carriage numufactoriea* . . vjuuy iC
IfaMplMnoA. ^^^
MACOMB', ALBXAKmEB. 1783-1841 « b. Mich., entered the Cftralry cervfce of tlM
United States in 1799, and rose to be lientcol. of engineers and adi.gen. Wben tb«
aecoud war with England broke out be was transferred to the artillery at his own
request, and in 1818, at the bead of the 3d artillery, was at fort Niagara and the sorren-
der of fort George. In January of the next year he was made a bHg-gen. commanding
the n. frontier along lake Cbamplaln. In September of the same year he suGOPSsfuDy
defended Plultsburg, which was besieged by sir Oeoree Prcvoat, who had invaded New
York with a force of 12.000 men. Upon tlie same day that Piattsburg was attacked,
the British tleet on lake Champlain was defeated by commodore McDonough, and tbe
British army retreated to Canada fortbwitli. For his conduct at Plattsbnrgh Miicomb
was made a maj.geo, and congress voted him its thanks and a gold medal, in reoogni-
tion of Ills services. After the war he was commissioned a col. of engineers in lite
regular army, of which he became commander-inchief in 1885. He was the autbor of
*A Treatiise on Martial Law.
MACOMB', William H., 1820-72. b. Michigan; entered theU. 8. navy In 1884. and
was nppointed lieut. in 1847. He was on the PtytnouOi wben tbe Chinese forts were
bombarded in 1856, and was made a commander in 1882. He was on duty at various
points on the Mississippi river through the year 1863, and in 1864 at the bead of a
squadron of gunboats tf>ok possession after a sharp struj^le of Plymouth, N. C; and
was ofilcially tbnnked by the navy department for his conduct on that occasiun. lie
was appointed commodore in 1870.
MACON, an e. co. of Alabama, watered by branches of the Tallapoosa river, inter-
sected by tiie Montgomery and West Point railroad; 700 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 17.873. Tbe
surface is varied and the soil fertile; productions are Indian corn, rye^ cotton, rice,
sweet potatoes, and oats. Co. seat, Tuskegee.
MACON, a CO. in s.w. central Georgia: drained by Flint river, and many creeks;
traversed by the South-western railroad; 870 sq.m.; pop. '80, 11,675. The prmcipal
products are com and cotton ; chief town, Oglethorpe.
MACON, a CO. in central Illinois, traversed by the Illinois Cenfral, and Toledo,
Waliasb and Western railroads, and by a fork of tbe Sansnimon river; 549 sq.m.; pop.
%0, 80.672. The surface Is level, and the soil fertile. The productions are tobucco,
Iv'ool, cotton. Indian corn, wheat, Irish and sweet potatoes, and butter. There arc a
large number of manufactories, chiefly of agricultural implements and cairhigcs. Co.
seat, Decatur.
MACON, a CO. in n.e. Missouri, traversed by Ctuiriton and the e. fork of Salt
rivers, and by the Hannibal and 6t. Joseph, and Northern Missouri railroads; 830
sq.m.; pop. '810, 26.223; co. seat. Macon city. There arc mines of iron, lead, and coal,
the latter very plentiful. Grain and tobacco are the chief producta. The soil is well
watered and fertile.
MACON, a CO. in s.w. North Carolina, on the boundary line of Georgia, drained by
the bead-waters of the Tennessee river, having tlie Blue ridge range of mountains on
the s e.; 600 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 8,064. 'The sunace is generally elevated, and tbe soil is
fertile, producing wheat, Indian com, oats, Irish and sweet potatoes, tobacco, vrool,
butter, and bay, Co. scat. Franklin.
MACON, a CO. in n. Tennessee, bounded by Kentucky on the n.; watered by
branches of the Cumberland and Big Barren nvers; 260 sq.m.; pop. '80, 9.274. It
has a varied surface, and fertile soil in most parts; and produces largely of tobacco,
besides Indian corn, wheat, oats, Irish and sweet potatoes, cotton, eta Co. seat,
Lafayette.
MAGOK, a city of Ckorgin. U. S., nt the head of the navigation, and on both sides of
the river Ocniulgee. Pop. '70, 10,810.
MACON {anfe\ chief t. of Bibb co. in s. central Georgia; in size the fourth city of
the state; pop. '80, 12,748. It is pleasantly situated on both sides of the Ormulgec river,
85 m. s.c. of Atlanta and 80 m. s.w. of Milledgeville, on tbe Georgia Central r-iilroad.
It has a number of iron and other manufacWies, 8 iKjwspapers, 7 churches, and 6 bnnks.
It is tbe seat of tbe Wesleynn college for women, and Mercer university. It is especiallv
noted for tbe taste with which its streets and parks are laid out. and tbe great abuna-
auce of its shade trees. Several artificial mounds are found In the vicinity.
MACON, chief t in Macon co.. Mo., 175 m. from St. Louis, nt Junction of the
Hnnnibal and St. Joseph, and St. Louis. Kansas City and Northern railroads; pop. 70,
8.678. It has 2 banks. 4 weekly papers, a factory, several schools and churches, and
does a good country trade.
MACON (ancient 3/a<i«»), a t. of Prance, capital of the department of SaOne-etLoire,
on the rifiht bank of tbe SaOne, 88 m. n. of Lyons. Macon carries on an extenrdve trade
in wines known as Macon, as well a<) in corn, cattle, etc., and there are various mann-
faetures. Pop. '76, 16.579. Macon has some Roman antiquities.
MACON, Nathaniel. 1767-1837. b. N. C ; educated nt the colleire' of New
Jersey, where he was an underernduate wben the revclutionnry war broke out
Leaving Princeton in 1777 he enlisted as a private 8oldi^.^|||^^ ^^^jii^^efr^company. but
Q 1 Q . M aeomb.
'^^^ MaoplMriOiu
iftert short term of serrioe refeurned to his home in North Csmlina, where he "begun to
rnd law. Bat he aooo Hbuddoned his le|^l studies, and declining all offers of a commis-
lioa re-nlisted as a priTste in the regtinent of his brother, col. John Macon. Ho
rcotioed io the army as a common soldier withont pay till the treaty of peace in
\1^\ sad at the close of the war oonld not be prevailed upon to accept any compenRa-
liooor pensiou for his serrioe. While the war Mas still goiuff on he had been elected,
tlioa^h but S8 years of age, a member of the senate or his native stute; and lie
reumed his seat for Ave successive years. He served on some of the principal
oonmiuees of that liody, and he was conspicuous in his advocacy of mensui'cs tt) mnm-
uioihe credit of the stiite, and to redeem and withdraw from circulation the paper cur-
KKf. About this time he removed to a plantation on the Koatioke river, and devoted
tDtgricttlUiie all of his time left free by the care of public ufTuirs. When the iidoption
of tbe acw U. S. constitution came before the people of North (Carolina, Macon
opposed its ratification, as conferring too ereat powers upon the general government. He
Tii a member of congress 1701-1815, and its speaker 1801-00. He was twice offered,
br Jefferson, the office of postmaster-general, but refused it. He was chosen to tlte
l'. S. senate in 1816; was its president pro tern. 1825-27; and resigned his seat in 18*J8.
While iu congress he was in favor of the embargo, and was a qualified supporter of the
lar with En^^lund; but he would not vote for appropriation to mcn*ase the uavy lieyoud
& puiut suffiaent to protect our line of coast, nor sanction the construction of additional
fuiU. Throughout his congressional career he stcadilv opposed the policy of internal
improTcmeuts. In 1824 he voted against the bill to make Lafayette a grant out of the
public lunds in consideration of his services iu the revolution. Tlio same year he
received ibe electoral vote of Viiginia for the office of vice-president. In lb85 he was
president of the North Carolina constitutional convention, where he opposed state aid
lobicm.-il improvements, a properly qunlilication for the suffrage, ana the extension
o! Ik rigbi of suff nige to free negroes. The last public office which he accepted was
:1m of u presidenllal elector iu 18»6.
MaCONNAIS. the name of an ancient department of France, in the kingdom of
6'''urgt)gne, or Burgundy, and corresponding with what is now the arrondissement of
}ikm. It was conquered by Julius Ceesar irom the iBdui, and fell into the hands of
liie Burgundians in the 5th century. It afterwards became a part of the empire of
CuriemHgoe; St. Louis (IX.) purchased it in thel8tli c, and united it to tlie domains of the
cTorn; but in the middle of tnc next century it fell into the hands of the duke de Berry :
ilisa ibccmwn obtained possession of it again; it was siven to Philip the good, duke of
Bdifundy. by Charles VII. ; and in 1477 again reverted to the crown. Capital, Mdcon.
MACOU PIK, a co. in central Illinois; 864 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 87,705; traversed by the
Clibro Hud Alton, and Indianapolis and 8t. Louis railroads. The soil is fertile and
diversified; there is some coal-mining, but the staple products are wool, grain, and cattle.
KACOT'A or Macahuba Palm, a South American and West Indian palm, called also
cucahuba palm and great macaw tree. It yields an oil used iu making sonp, to which it
impArta a pleasant perfume. It is also used as an embrocation in rheumatism and other
piiiifQl affections. It may be combined with hartshorn, when it forms a white liniment.
MacPEBRSON, a co. of central Dakotah, 1260 sq.m.; recently formed. It is
7at«Tni by the Maple and Elm rivers, branches of the Dakota. The surface is gener*
ilrelerated. and in the w. part is the plateau du coteau of the Missouri.
Mcpherson, a co. of central Kansas, watered by the Smoky Hill and Little Arkan-
ssrircrs; 1080 sq.m.; pop. *80, 17.148. It comprises prairie lands, with a fertile soil,
prodncin? wheat, Indian com, potatoes, and hay, and well adapted for stock-raising.
Co. scat. Lindhorg.
McPIlERSON, Edward, ll.d., b. Gettysburg, Penn.,1880; graduated at PennsylvanU
wilegeiu 1U48; entered the profession of journalism alHarrisburg, Penn.. and was elected
50 pfmgrcss in 1858. serving a single term. He was clerk of the U. S. house of repre-
Kiatives from 1868 to 1869; secretary of the union national committee from 1860 to
1^: president of the republican national convention at Cincinnati in 1876; and is at
pmrot editor-in-chief of the Philadelphia 2*ren, He has the repute of the foremost
Ainehcan nolitical statist, having published a PdUUcal HuUn-y oft/ie United States t^nd a
^<^iiic(U mnvdl, and edited several numbers of J7ie Tribune Almanac,
XACPHEBBOS, James, a person who has obtained a remarkable notoriety in )itera>
•ore. wasb. in 1738, at Ruthven, in Inverness-shire. After finishing his studies at Eing*s
^licge, Aberdeen, he became a schoolmaster in his native village, published a poem
tttjjled Tht Highlander in 1758, contributed about the same time verses to the Scots Maga-
"tw-and in the folloviinc year, having met with the rev. Dr. Alexander Carl vie, minister
jjlnyeivsk, and John liome. the author of Diniglan, he showed them some fragments of
(rtelicvcrRc. of which he alsc gave them ••translations." These ••translations" (16 in
'^rnbery appeared in 1760, and were so much relished, that the faculty of advocates in
^inbunrh raised a subscription to enable Macpherson to make a tour through the
Higlilands for the purpose of colleotinff more of the same. Macpherson was very zeal-
'19 a&d successful in the •• disco very *^of literary trenf^ures. Where lie made his discov-
'^w. Iwwcver, no man knows. He found ancient MSB. in regions wh^^jgi^ ^n^^^^e? i(>
had suspected their existence, and where no one since has been foitnmite enongh to
obtazu Uiera. The result wss the appearance at London, in 1702, of the soiled
** Poems of Ossian/' under the title of Mngai^ an EpU JPoem^ Uk Sim Bookt; mad In 1708.
of Temora, an Epic Poetn, in Eight Books, A storm of controyersy soon arose in regard
to their genuineness, which has hardly yet subsided, but on the whole, we may asfely
say the verdict is unfavorable to Macpherson. See Ossian, Pqbiis op. These poems
were, however, the makine of him in a worldly point of view. Ue was appoiuted sur-
veyor-general of the Fioridas (in 1764) with a salary for life, and agent to the nabob of
Arcot— a very lucrative office — in 1779; entered parliament in the following year as
member for Cameiford, sat for ten years, and then retired to an estate whicu he had
purchased in Inverness-shire, where he died Feb. 17. 1796. His body was brought back
to England, and was actually interred (at his own request and expense) in WesUninster
abbey. Macpherson wrote in the latter half of his life a variety of historical compila-
tions, pamphlets, etc., and translated Homer's Iliad into prose.
Mcpherson, James Birdsetb, 182^-64; b. Ohio; graduated at West Point in
1858, and was appointed to the engineers. For a year after his graduation he gave
instruction in engineering at the academy, and was next engaged as assistant engineer
upon the defenses of the harbor of New York, and the improvement of Hudson river.
In 1857 he superintended the building of fort Delaware, and of the fortifications in the
harbor of San Francisco. In 1861, having been made first lieut. three years previous,
he was assigned to duty at Boston, where he raised a force of engineers: and in Aug. of
the same year he was promoted to a captaincy of engineers. The following Nov. he
was made assistant engineer of the department of the Missouri, with the rank oflieuUcol.
Made clilef engineer on the staff of gen. Grant, he took part in the capture of fort Don-
clson, Feb. 19, 1863, and in the battle of Shiloh, April 6, 7. In May he was appointed
brij.gen. of volunteers, and col. in the regular army. He was with HuUeck at the
*' siege of Corinth;" and when, after its capture by the federal forces, the confederates
with a force of nearly 40,000 men, under Van Dorn and Price, attempted to retake it
in Oct, 1863, McPherson succeeded in penetrating their lines and reinforcing Rose-
crans, who had fortified Corinth with additional defenses, and was holding it with 20,000
men. For his services at Corinth, McPherson was promoted maj.gen. of volunteers, Oct.
8, 1863. In December he was put at tlie head of the 17th corps^ and ho had a most dis-
tinguished share in Grant's Mississippi campaign, which tennmated in the surrender of
Yicksbui^. He led the advance up the left bank of tlie Big .Black river, defeating the
confederates at Raymond, May 13, 1868. The 17th corps was at the front of every
movement in the campaign; it drove the confederates from their position at Port Gib-
son, after an all day's fight; it was engaged in almost continual skirmishes from the
bayou Pierre to the Big Black river; it won the battle at Raymond without any aid
from the rest of tlie army; and two days afterwards, with the help of Slieiman's corps,
which had joined Grant early in the month, it won another battle at Jackson. McPhcr-
son's corps was likewise conspicuous in the repulse of Pemberton at Champion hills.
May 16, in the unsuccessful assault by the federal army before Yicksburg, May 33; nnd
throughout the siege. After the capture of Vicksbur?, McPherson was appointed a
brig.gen. in the regular army, and commander of the aistrict of Yicksburg. In Feb.,
1864, he was next in command to Sherman in the ]atter*s expedition to Meridian; sod
Mar. 12 was made commander of tlie army and department of the Tennessee. In that com-
mand, he kept up the reputation he had won in Mississippi, and rendered the most val-
uable services during Shennan's campaign in Georgui. The nnnv of the Tennessee
engaged the confederates at Dallas, May 28, 1864; and June 27, McPherson and Thomas
niMcle an unsuccessful assault upon Johnston's position at Eenesaw mountain. Early in
July, Johnston abandoned Kenesaw. and retreated in the direction of Atlanta, closely
followed by the federal forces. The confederates now took the offensive, and made
almost daily attacks upon the union army; and in one of these, July 23, 1864. McPlier-
son was killed. Gen. Grant, in a letter recommending him for promotion, in 1868,
praises him as ** one of the ablest engineers and most skulful generals."
MACQUA'BIE, a river of e. Australia, rises about 80 m. w. of Sydney, in the co. of
Westmoreland, nnd has a n.w. course of 280 miles. Its waters arc lost in marshes,
whence issue tributaries of the Darling, of which river the Macquario may be said to be
one of the head waters.
MACQUSB, PiEKRB Joseph, b. at Paris in 1718, of a family originallv Scotch, has
accjuircd a reputation as a chemist and physician. He died Feb. 15, 17B4. Macqncr's
principal works are Elements de Ohimie theorique (Par, 1741); Elements ds Chmie pritiqus
(Par. 1751); and a DieHonnaire de Chimie (Par, 1776). See Gases.
^lACRAUCIIENIA, a genus of extinct ungulate animals allied to the tapirs, found
in the tertiary deposits of Buenos Ayres and Patagonia. Sec Perissodacttls.
KACS£AI>Y, William Charubs, an English tragedian, whose father wasa manager of
a provincial company, was b. in London Mar. 8, 17d8, oduoated at Rugby, and made
his flrst appearance as Romeo at Birmingham in 1810. For four }*ears he wasconaectcd
with hisfathcr*s company, and for two years thereafter lie sustained lead faig parts in tlie
provinces. In Sept., 1816, he made his first appearance before a l^n^^^^^i^^sao^ and
QOI McPherson.
^^^ McSparran.
gained the applause of Eean, who was one of his auditors. His progra» in the higher
walks of the drama was slow, principally, it' is understood, from professional jealousies.
In 1819 he made a hit in the character of Richard III., and he afterwards adventured on
other of Shakespeare's characters with success. In 1826 he made a tour in the United
States, and he visited Paris in 1828. He became lessee of Covent Garden theater in
1887, and relinquished it two years thereafter. He afterwards undertook the mana^-
ment of Dniry Lane, but gave it up after encountering considerable pecuniary loss. He
visited America for a second time in 1848-44; and again in 1848-49, when he barely
escaped with his life from a riot which took place in the theater at New York, caused by^
the jealousy of Mr. Forrest, an American actor. On his return home he was engaged at the
Haymarket, and his theatrical career was brought to a conclusion on Feb. 8, 1851. He took
his benefit at Drury Lane on the 26th of the same month. Shortly afterwards, a public
dinner was given to the great actor, which was attended by 600 guests, and presided over
by sir E. L.%ulwer. Macready died April, 1873. Macready'8 Bemini8eence$ and Selections
frova his ]}ianes and Letters appeared in 1875.
Macready was a flue and impressive actor, but he was more indebted for his success to
art than to nature. He succeeded best in the ^ver characters of the drama. He inherited
more of the stateliness of Kemble than the tire of Kean.*
McREE, William, 1788-1832, b. Wilmington, N. C; graduated at West Point in
1805; entered the army as second lieut. of engineers, and rose by regular promotion to
the rank of lieut.col. in 1818. Prior to 1812 he was employed in the survey and con-
struction of fortifications on the Atlantic coast. In the war of that period with Great
Britain he served first as chief of artillery in gen. Hampton's northern army, and later
as chief engineer of the army of gen. Brown, winning distinction in the capture and
defense of fort Erie, and in the battles of Chippewa and Niagara, for which he was
successively brevetted lieut. col. and col. After the war was over he visited Europe-
with maj. Thayer, under direction of the government, for professional observation and
the purchase of professional works. After his return, in 1816, he was made a member
of the board of engineera to which was assigned the duty of preparing a system of
defenses for the Atlantic coast. He was engaged in this service until 1819, when the
French engineer, gen. Barnard, was appointed *' assistant engineer of the United States."
Sharing with other oflaccrs of his corps the feeling that it was unjust to overlook the
merits and claims of American officers and appoint a foreigner over them, he resigned.
He afterwards rendered valuable service as surveyor-general of Illinois, Missouri, and
Arkansas. Died in St. Louis.
MACRI'NUS, M. OPELiua, 164-218 a. d., a native of Mauritania; became pretorian
prefect under Caracalla, whom he assassinated on the expedition against Parthia in 217
A.D. He was at once chosen emperor by the army, and the senate confirmed the choice.
He fought the Parthians, neither side gaining a decisive victoi7; made terms with them
and returned to Antioch. His severe discipline aroused the anger of his soldiers, who
were also united by the relatives of Caracalla, and after a reign of 14 months he and his
son were put to death at Chalcedon and Heliogabalus ascended the throne.
MAGSO'BIirS, Ambrosius AuRELirs THEODOSirs, a Latin ^ammarian of the 5th
century. He appears to have been by birth a Greek, but literally nothing whatever is
known of his life. Two of his works remain, entitled Commentanus ex Cicerone in Som-
miim Sdpionis, and SaiumaUorum Convittorwn Libri Septcm. The former is the best
known, and was much read during the middle ages; the latter is in the form of a dia-
logue, and contains many valuable historical, mythological, anticjuarian, and critical
observations. Of a third work, De Differentiis et SoeietaUbus Grad Latinique Verbi, we
possess onl}' extracts made by one Joannes — thought by Pi thou to be Joannes Scotus — in
the 9th century. It has been warmly discussed — as ir it were of consequence to man-
kind— whether Macrobius was a Christian or a pagan. The evidence for his being the
former is that he speaks of God as ommum fabricator (the maker of all things), which
must be reckoned as extremely slender; and of the latter his great admiration for the
piety and wisdom of one Prsetextatus. a heathen priest, and his reverence for Greek
divinities. The ediHo prineeps of Macrobius appeared at Venice in 1472; of later
editions, the best is that of Gronovius (Leyden, 1670), reprinted by Zeunius at Leipzig
in 1774.
MACKOPID^, a family of marsupial animals including the kangaroos and kan-
garoo rats. See Kargaboo and Mabsupialta ante.
KAGSOOM', a post and market town of the county of Cork, Ireland, situated on the river
Sullane, 21 m. w. from Cork, with which it is connected by railway. The pop. in *71
was 3,193. The town consists merely of a single street, nearly a mile long, and con-
tains some good houses and shops, but the great majority of the dwellings are mean and
poverty-stricken.
McSPARRAN. Jame8» d.d., 1695-1 757, b. in the n. of Ireland, and came to Narra-
gansett, R. I., in 1721, as a missionary of the Episcopal society for the propagation of
the gospel in foreign parts; was an intimate friend of bishop Berkeley at Newport;
visited England in 1736; was an eloquent and popular preacher; wrote America Dissected,
a historical and geographic&l treatise, which Updike has republished in his History oj
V K IX 21 Digitized by VjiJOyiC
Mactra. QOO
MadagMcar. *>^^
the JSfpiseopcU Church in Narraganaett, B, I. He was engaged at the time of his death
upon an extended history of the colonies.
MA.CTEA, a genus of lamellibranchiate mollusks, having a somewhat triangular
shell, broader than long, the valves equal; the animal with the siphons united to ihe
extremity, and a large compressed foot. They are sometimes called trough shells. The
species are numerous, and widely distributed; they burrow in the sand and mud of sea-
shores, and of the bottom of the sea. The foot enables them also to move with activity^
after the manner of cockles. Some of the species have shells of considerable beauty,
others are coarse. Several small species are very abundant on the British ^ores, so
that in some places thev are gathered for feeding pi^, but not by those who have much
regard to the quality of the bacon. The fossil species are few. The genus mactra is
the type of a family, mactrida,
McTYEIRE', HoLLAKD Nimmoi^s, b. S. C, 1824; graduated at Bandolph-Macon
college, Virginia, in 1844, in which year he entered the ministry. He became pastor of
a church (Methodist Episcopal) in Mobile, and in 1847 married Amelia Townsend, cousin
of the widow of the late Cornehus Vanderbilt, whose family were members of his pastoral
charge. During the years between 1848 and 1868 he was appointed to churches in New
Orleans, and distinguished himself by being amon^ the few pastors who remained with
their x)eople during the yellow fever epidemics which devastated that city. In 1851 he
was made the first editor of the New Orleans Christian Advocate. In 1858 he was called
to Nashville, Tenn., to take editorial charge of the central organ of the Methodist Epis-
copal church, south, there published. At the general conference he was elected and
consecrated bishop, and fixed his residence in Nashville. When Cornelius Vanderbilt
founded the university named after him, situated at Nashville, he named bishop
McTyeire as the first president of the board of trust controlling the affairs of the insti-
tution, and intrusted to him the fullest powers and discretion as to its establishment and
control. The deed of gift contained the only instance on record of vesting the veto
power in the president of aboard of trustees. This was done by commodore Vanderbilt
in the instance of bishop McTyeire, at once to signify his prciound confidence in him
personally, and perhaps not less to indicate his raith in a "one-man power." To the
president of tlie new university fell the chief responsibility concerning all its details of
construction, or^nization, and adaptation to its comprehensive uses. Its success has
been the best evidence of the sound judgment displayed by the foimder in his selection.
MA'GITUB is the term given by Willan and Bateman, and some other dennatologists,
to one of the orders of skin-diseases. The affections included in the term macules can.
however, hardly be regarded as diseases; they are merely discolorations of the skin,
resulting from some change in the production of the coloring matter. The following
varieties are recognized.
1. Lentigo. — This term is applied to those small yellowish or brownish-yellow irregu-
larly rounded spots which are denominated freckles, and which are most abundant on
the parts chiefly exposed to the light, as the face, hands, etc. In some cases, these spots
are congenital, while in other cases they seem to be produced by exposure to the sun's
rays; and in both cases they chiefly occur to persons of fair complexion with light sandy
hair. When patches of a larger size than that of ordinary freckles are produced by
exposure to the sun, the affection receives the name of ephms. Congenital spots cannot
be removed by any applications; but those which depend on exposure may be treated
with soothing lotions or liniments, as an emulsion of sweet almonds, or a mixture of
lime-water with almond oil.
2. Pigmentary Ncemu. — This is a congenital dark discoloration of the skin, with little
or no elevation of the surface, and often covered with hair. It usually occurs in small
spots, but sometimes appears in large patches. It is perfectly harmless, and should not
be interfered with.
8. Albinism or Leucopaihy. — This affection has been already noticed in the article
Albinos. When congenital it may be considered irremediable, but cases of partial
albinism, occurring after birth, may sometimes be relieved by local stimulants.
MacVEAGH, Watnb, b. Penn., 1888; educated at Yale college, where he gradu-
ated with a high rank in the class of 1858. He studied law in the ofiBce of James
J. Lewis, at Westchester. Penn., and began practice in that town. As a boy he had
already exhibited much force as a debater, and by his oratorical powers and keen aigu-
ment he soon gained a high place among the members of the state bar, and was intrusted
with several cases before the XJ, S. supreme court. At the outbreak of the civil war
he volunteered, and was commissioned maj. of a cavalry regiment, but was soon
forced to resign bjr ill-health. He resumed his practice and took a prominent part in
politics, being chairman of the republican state committee in 1868. Shortly after he
was appointed minister to Turkey bjr president Grant. Mr. MacVeagh soon became
noted for the independence of his political views, and was an influential member of the
young men's reform club of Philadelphia. On Mar. 6, 1881, president James A. Gar-
field sent in his name to the senate as attorney-general of the new cabinet, and the nomi-
nation was confirmed upon the same day.
Digitized by VjiOtiV \SC
09 Q Mactra.
OLO Madasasoar.
McVICKAR, John, d.d., 1787-1868; b. N. Y.; educated at Columbia college, and
DrdAined to the ministry of the Protestant Episcopal church. He was rector of St.
iMnes'B church in Hyde Fark from 1811 to 1817, when he was elected professor of moral
philosophy, rhetoric, and belles-lettres in Columbia college, where he remained till 1864,
irben he was made professor emeritus. He published, among other works, OutUnes of
Niticd Economy, 1831; Early Tears of Bishop Eobart, 1884; Professional Years of Bishop
U^rf, 1886.
McWHORTER, Auexakdbr, d.d., 1734-1807; b. New Castle co., Del; graduated
at the college of New Jersey in 1757; studied theology under William Tennent; was
installed pastor of the Presbyterian church at Newark, N. J. ; went on a mission to
North Carolina in 1764; became chaplain in Knox's artillery brigade in 1778; in 1779
became pastor at Charlotte, N. C, and president of Queen's museum coUe^, then called
Liberty taal]; returned to Newark in 1781; aided in preparing the constitution of the
American Presbyterian church in 1788; was 36 years a trustee of the college of New
Jersey: labored to collect funds in New England to rebuild his church that had been
bamt in 1802; published a centennial sermon in Newark in 1800, and 2 Yolumes of ser-
mons in 1808.
McWHORTER, Albxahdeb, b. New York, 1822; graduated at Yale college in
lS42andatthe divinity school in 1845; was prof easor of English literature and meta-
physics at the university of Troy from 1866 to 1860; author of TaJt^h Christ, or the
Hemrial Name. Toward the last of his life his mind was disordered.
lAOAOAfl'CAX, an island situated to the 8.e. of the African continent, and extending
over an area larger than the British isles. It is in lat. ll"" 57' to 25** 88' s., and long.
about 48' to dV; length, 1080 m., greatest breadth, 350 m.; area estimated at 225,000
^. miles. Although well known to Europeans since the beginning of the 16th c, Mad-
agascar has even now been imperfectly explored. The coasts were surveyed bjr capt.
Owen between 1828 and 1825, and the outhne of the island correctly laid down in our
maps; but there has hitherto been a great lack of knowledge as to the geography of the
interior. Most of the information we possessed was owing to a distin^ished French
erplorer,M. Alfred Grandidier, who, in 1869 and 1870, crossed the island m several direc-
:i<jQs. Now, however. Dr. Mullens and Mr. Pillans have brought home some beautiful
specimens of cartography, from which a new ma{> of Madagascar has been prepared.
M. Grandidier states that Madagascar comprises two distinct parts — the northern,
Thich is mountainous, and the south-western, which is comparatively flat. Five great
mountain chains traverse the island, all in a u.n.e. and s.8. w. direction. The three chains
ftrthest to the w. are prolonged southward, and belong to the secondaiy formation.
Tky have a very sterile soil. The two eastern chains are prolonged northwards, and
form a great mountain tract of granitic rocks. They form a rugged region on the
tastern dope of the island From the observations of Dr. Mullens, It is now dis-
corered that the central provinces of Madagascar have been the scene of volcanic
F-henomena on an immense scale. The Ankdrat mountains, forming an extinct
Tolcanic center, cover an area of 600 sq. miles. In a region 25 m. from this range.
Dr. HulleQs and his companion visited and mapped more than 40 craters. Fifty m.
'-0 the & are three groups of volcanoes. This volcanic belt is continued towards the n.,
sod is evidently connected with that volcanic system of which Comoro is now the active
^ent Madagascar has been celebrated for its luxuriant vegetation; but it appears that
it is sterile and desolate in the central and south-western parts. In the n. and e. the
climate is moist. Magnificent forests clothe the hills. Elsewhere this belt of vegetation
'Onns a narrow skirt along the shore.
. The climate is temperate and healthy in the highlands of the interior, but low fever
renders tbe hot sea-coast undesirable as a residence for Europeans. The flora and fauna
of Madagascar, although resembling those of Africa, and more remotely of India, are so
Peculiar as to form a ]%ion apart. They comprise many species, and even many genera
nowhere else to be found. The number and variety of the lemuricUs is a prominent
cbancteristic.
There has been much discussion about the branch of the human family to which the
^ulagaah belong. M. Grandidier believes that three distinct races are to be recognized
ia tbe island— namely, the original inhabitants, allied to the negroes; the free inhabit-
>QU on the w. coast, resembling the white races; and a third race belonging to the
|u]ay stock. Dr. Mullens believes that the Malagash or Malagasy are a single race of
^y origin, and divides them into three tribes— the Betsimaaarakas, the Sakalavas, and
uie Hovas. He estimates the total pop. at 2,500.000. The Mala^ash language, spoken all
•m tbe island, contains such a number of Malay words that it has been classed with the
'SBguages spoken in the Malay peninsula.
The exports of Madagascar are homed cattle, and a small quantity of rice, shipped
pnndpallj to Mauritius and Bourbon. The island is rich in iron, but the present means
^i Torkine it are very deficient At present, the only mode of traveling is m palanquins,
f^e on the sbonlders of men; and the paths by which this simple method of journey-
^Qg is performed are often so bad as to cause much delay. Madagascar is now divided
politically mto two nearly equal parts: 1st, that n, of 22** s. lat. and e. of 46° e. long., >
^uch is dependent on the Hovas; and 2d, tbe remainder of the island. The first p^ ^
Madame. qoA
Madder. O^^
Is b^ far the richeat and moat fertile, and is peopled bj seTen-eightbs of tbe whole po|
elation. The J^Yench retain possession of the island of Ste. Marie, on the n.e., an
Nossi Be on the n.w. coasts. The capital of Madagascar is Tananarivo, with a pop. c
80,000.
The early history of Madagascar is involved in obscurity. It is supposed to ha\
been known to the ancients, by whom it was generally considered as an appendage i
the mainland. When it was mvaded and peopled by the Malays, from whoro tli
Hovas descend, is unknown. It was referred to in thelSth c, by Marco Polo as Ma(
gastar or Madaigascar. In 1643 the French took possession of the Il<f Ste. Marie, an
thus formed a connection with Madagascar which they have ever since retained. It wi
not till 1810, when Radama I., king of the Hovas, extended his influence over tb
greater part of Madagascar, that Madagascar became important to the commercial ooui
tries of Europe. The English entered into a treaty with him in 1816, and in consideri
tion of his promise of assistance to suppress the slave-trade with Mozambique, Englis
drill-sergeants were sent to him to discipline the native troops. Missionaries ha
previously established themselves, and by their aid a few English mechanics found tli
means of introducing useful arts among the inhabitants. With the ostensible object i
carrying out his agreement. Radama was furnished with fire-arms for his troops, wbic
2ie quickly, however, made use of in the reduction of such tribes as yet remained i
opposition to his supremacy. Upon the death of Radama, in 1828, he w^as succcedc
by Ranavalo I., a woman whose reign was marked by every cruelty possible to be pra
ticed against the native Christians. She closed tbe missionary schools, and banishc
JSuropeans from the island. In consequence of the outrages to which her orders ga^
rise in 1845, English and French troops made an attack on Tamatave, the usual tradin
port on the east coast, but without any satisfactory result. In 1862 the queen died, luq
lier son was proclaimed king under the title of Radama II. He concluded a treat
granting concessions of territorjr to M. Lambert, a French merchant acting in the nait
of France. A conspiracy was formed against the king, and he was . strangled in 1861
His wife, Rosaherina, then ascended the throne. The change was favorable to Englii
us opposed to French interests in the island. In 1865 treaties were concluded with Eni
land and America, while that which M. Lambert had negotiated was declared nul
On the death of Rosaherina, disputes again broke out as to a successor, between \X
native or Hova and the European parties. With the aid of the prime minister. Rain
taiarivoy, a female relation of the late queen, was raised to the throne, under the nan
of Ranavalo II. She showed great favor to tlie Protestant mibsionaries, had hers^
instructed in the Christian religion, and on Feb. 21, 1860, she, the prime minister, who]
she had married, and a large number of the nobility, were baptized. Towards the cloi
• of the year, a body of mounted officers, by order of the government, set fire to the Kal
malaza, the chief idol, and the temple in which it stood. The destruction of other ido
followed. The effect was most favorable to the Protestant missionaries. — See Hisi&i
of Madagascar (Lond. 1838); TJiree Visits to Madagascar (Lond. 1858); and Madagasci
!RemsUed, 1867, by the rev. W. Ellis; Voyage a Madagascar, by Ida Pfeiffer (Paris, 1862
Histoire physique naiureOe, etpoUtique de Madagascar, by Grandidier (vol. L Par. 187i
Z'lle de Madagascar, by E. Blanchard; and Twelve Months in Mctdagaacar, by Joseji
Mullens, D.D. (1875).
MADAME (plural, Mesdames), the French word or title of respect and honor fon
erly applied exclusively to ladies of hi^ rank, but now employed in addressiofi' all ma
ried lacues. It is derived from the two French words ma, my, and dame, lady. In near
eveiy country in Europe and in the United States, it has come into use to distinguii
married from unmarried ladies; and it is certainly a letter word tlian the old Englil
title of mistress, which we abbreviate to Mrs. and mispronounce missis. The Fien<
consider it a mark of respect to address ladies whose condition, whether married <
unmarried, is not known, by the title of madame. Though the r^ular plural
mesdames, there are many phrases in French which permit the use oxmadafMS an
mocfomtf in the plural: as "The Mrs. Smiths were numerous there," would be tran
lated— Z«» madame Smith y etaient nombreuses. " There are many ladies without a gei
tieman," would be expressed by — 11 ya bien de madames sans messteur. The word lac
alone would be expressed in French simply by datne, and not madame, except wh<
personally addressed, either orally or in writing, when the prefix ma is invariab
added.
MAB-AFPLE, a name sometimes given to the apple of Sodom (solanum Sodatnsun
sometimes to the fruit of the egg-plant (q.v.), and sometimes to the large galls (q.i
known as Mecca or Bussorah gdus, and which are also called apples of Sodom.
MADAR'. See Mudar, ante.
MADAWAS'KA. a co. in n.w. New Brunswick; 1500 sq.m. ; traversed by branch
of the St. John, which separates it from Maine on the s.w. ; was formerly part of Y^
toria CO. The surface is hilly but fertile.
MABSALO'HI, a city of southern Italy, in the province of Caserta, 14 m. n-n.e. <
Kaples. Pop. 17,798. It stands in a finely irrigated and fertile district, and enioys
most salubrious climate. It is an industrious and thriving place, with several nf
palaces and churches. It Ip now connected by railway with Kaples and Gaeta..
325
MADDEN, Sir Fbxdsbick, 1801-73; b. Portsmoath, Eng.; entered the service of
the British museum in 1826 as a cataloguer; two years later was made assistant-keeper
of the department of manuscripts, and in 1837 became keeper of the department. He
was made a knight of the Hanoverian order by king William lY. in 1832, and in 1884
was gazetted one of the gentlemen of the privy chamber. He continued to hold his
post in the British museum until 1866, when he retired; the remainder of his life was
devoted to antiquarian and literary study. He edited for the Bozburehe club the met-
rical romance of Hawlok the Dane; he also edited Layamov!% BrtU, or Cnromde of Britain:
IHtminaied Ornaments Selected from MS8. and Early Printed Bookefrom the 6m to the lin
ftntwriee; and other works.
MADDEN, RiCHABi> BoBEBT, b. Dublin, 1798; studied medicine, and was a fellow
of the royal college of surgeons. His life has been passed in various official positions in
ihe civil service, the latter part of it as secretary to the loan fund board in Dublin
castle. He is best known as a fertile and versatile writer of biography, fiction, travels,
history, etc. His principal works are The Infirmities of Oenius; Shrines and Sepulchres
of ike Old and NewWorld; The Life and Martyrdom ofSawnarola; The Turkish Empire
m its Relatione with Christianity and CiviUzation; and The United Irishmen of 11%%,
KASDEB, Bulria, a genus of plants of the natural order rubiaeeiBy very nearly allied
to the genus gcUium or bed-straw (q.v.), and differing from it chiefly in having a juicy
fruit resembling two small berries growing together. The species are found in the
tropical and warmer temperate parts, both of the old and new worlds, and are import-
ant for the coloring matter of their roots. The most important is the Common Maddek
or Dyeb'b Madder (R. tinctorum), a native, probably, of the s. of Europe as well as of
Asia; and now very extensively cultivated in most European countries, and also in the
East Indies, China, etc. It is a perennial, with weak stems and whorls of 4-6 elliptic
or lanceolate glossy leaves, the stem and leaves rough with sharp prickles; small green-
ish-yellow flowers, and black fi'uit. Munjeet (q.v.), or Indian Madder (B. mui\juta or
coriifoUa), ranks next to it in importance. The roots of B. peregrina and B. lucida are
also used in some parts of the Levant. B. peregHna is found in the s.w. of England,
and is called Wild Madder. It is very similar to B. tinctorum. The roots of JR. relbun
and B. Chilensis are used in Chili and Feru.
There is no material of greater importance to dyers than madder (R. tinctorum), not
onljr from the great beauty of the colors obtainable from it, but also from the ease with
which it can be worked, and the great variety of its applications. Although the madder
plant thrives best in warm climates, it may be, and is successfully cultivated in northern
districts. The Dutch province of Zeelana has long been celebrated for the large crops of
madder produced there; and until about 40 years since, our dyers rarely used any other
than Dutch madder, which was always sent ground and packed iu large casks; but with
ihe improvements in dyeing, it was discovered that the roots grown in wanner localities
possessed not only much superior qualities, but could be made to produce other and
more beautiful shades of color. Besides a genial temperature, madder requires a rich,
deep soil and careful cultivation. It is usually propagated by cuttings or by shoots
from the stocks of old plants; these are set about a foot apart, and in rows, 8 ft. from
each other; the planting takes place in spring; and sometimes the roots are lifted at the
usual harvest- time for madder (Oct. or Nov.). In France and Qermany the markets
are supplied with one-year-old (called by the Qermans rothe), 18 months old, and three
years oia, which is the best, and called by the Ckrmans krapp, or madder par exceUenee.
t*he roots are carefully raised with forks, to prevent breaking them as much as possible;
and after the soil is thoroughly shaken off, they are dried in stoves, and afterwards
thrashed with a flail to remove the loose skins and any remaining soil still adhering;
ihey are then cut, or broken in pieces, and packed for sale, or they are sent to the mills
Id be ground. In Turkey and Italy, where the solar heat is great, the stove is dispensed
with, the roots being dried in the sun. The more the roots are freed from the epider-
mis, the better the quality of the madder; hence, before it is ground in France, many
manufacturers employ mechanical means, chiefly sieves worked by machinery, whicli
rub off and separate the soft, dark-brown skin which covers the roots; this process is
called robage. One-year-old roots cannot be profltably dressed in this way, and are
tbenefore ground with the epidermis. Much of the inferior Dutch madder is also ground
without dressing, and such is called muU in trade. The grinding is effected in mills
with vertical stones, and the meal is passed through sieves of different degrees of fine-
ness, which gives rise to various qualities in the market. These qualities are numerous,
and have special marks to distinguish them, well known to merchants, but are of no
^neral interest. The madder from Turkey and from India never comes to us ground;
the roots are merely broken up into pieces an inch or two in length, and packed in
halea Yery small quantities of madder occasionally reach us from Russia; it is the prod-
ace of the government of Baku, on the Caspian sea, and is said by our dyers to be the
finest in the world.
As might be expected of a substance of such vast commercial and manufacturing
value, madder has undergone the most elaborate chenucal researches. Its dyeing
quality hM been known for at least 2,000 years, and its medicinal q^ualities are also men-
tioned by Pliny and Dioscorides, The former writer, refening to its value as a d^cinsr
HudhaTa<^ar3ra. "-'^
naterial, says: "It is a plant little known except to the sordid and ayaricious, and
;his because of the large profits obtained from it, owing to its employment in dyeinp:
wool and leather. The madder of Havenna was, according to Dioscorides, the most
3steemed. Its cultivation in Italy has 'never been discontinued; and under the preseat
snlightened government it has received such an impetus that the exports of the Tieapoli-
tan provinces alone, in one year, exceeded in value a quarter of a million sterling. It
was about the beginning of the present century that the coloring matter of madder
began to attract v^ry especial attention. It had. long before been noticed that cattle
. which used the green parts of the plant as fodder had a red color communicated to their
bones, which was only removed by discontinuing this kind of food for a considerabte
time. This showed the coloring matter to be capable of isolation; dyers also began to
suspect that the color produced was a combination of two^one red, and the other a
purplish brown. But Roubiquet, a French chemist, about 1820, demonstrated that
madder contains two distinct colors, capable of being isolated and used separately ; lie
called t)iem alizarine and purpurine; the former, he asserted, gave the bright red, and
the latter the purple red colors. Practically, Roubiquefs statement may be held to be
correct; but the recent and more elaborate researches of Dr. Schunck, of Manchester,
have shown the composition of madder to be very complicated indeed. At the meeting
of the British association in 1861 he showed the following chemical principles, all
obtained from thiB remarkable root: 1. Rubianine; 2. Rubianic acid; 3. Rubianite of
potash; 4. Purpurine; 5. Chlorrubian; 6. Pthalic acid; 7. Alizarine; 8. Rubiadine; 9.
Chlorrubiadine; 10. Rubiafine; 11. Rubiacine; 12. Rubian; 18. Verantine; 14. Perchlor-
rubian; 15. Rubiagine; 16. Grape-sugar; and 17. Succine. Within the last three
years, artificial alizarine has been produced, and is now extensively used by dyers. It is
one of the numerous series of aniline colors.
Dyers employ madder for giving the celebrated Turkey-red to cotton goods, and for
this purpose employ means for developing the alizarine; and for purples, lilacs, and
pinks, which are obtained by means of the purpurine. Manchester, Glasgow, Paisley,
Alexandria, and other places on the banks of the Clyde, are the chief seats of this
industry; the imports or madder into Britain in 1875 amounted to 126,152 cwt., amount-
ing in value to the sum of £410,998.
KAOBES-LiJCS, a painter's color, made from madder, by boiling it in a solution of
alum, then filtering the liquid, and adding sufficient carbonate of soda to cause precipi-
tation of the alizarine or red coloring matter of the madder, which alone has been
dissolved by the boiling solution of alum. This lake is used either as an oil or water
color.
MADEI'BA, an island in the n. Atlantic ocean, off the n.w. coast of Africa, from the
nearest point of which it is 890 m. distant, in lat. 32" 48' n., long. 17" west. It lies 280
m. n. of Teneriffe, in the Canaries, and 620 m. s.w. of Lisbon. Madeira and the other
islands of the group form a province of Portugal, with an area of 846 sq.m.. and pop.
'72, 115,000 — includmg the adjoin ina: small island of Porto Santo — of whom 186 are Eng-
lish resident. It has been compared, in appearance, to the island* of Arran, in the Firth
of CJyde, but is wilder and grander. Its coasts are steep and precipitous, rising from
200 to 2,000 ft. above sea-level, comprising few bays or landing-places, and deeply cut
at intervals by narrow gorges, which give to the circumference the appearance of having
been crimped. From the shore, the land rises gradually to its highest • point, the Pico
Kuivo, 6,050 ft. ; there are several other peaks upwards of 4,000 ft. high. It is remark-
able for its deep valleys, the most noted being that of **Curral," which from brink to
bottom has a depth of 2,060 feet. Madeira is of volcanic origin, and slight earthquakes
sometimes, though rarely, occur. The lower portions of the island abound in tropical
plants, as the date-palm, banana, custard-apple, mango, sweet-potato, Indian coni.
coffee, sugar-cane, pomegranate, and fig. The fruits and grains of Europe are culti-
vated to an elevation of 2,600 ft. above the sea-level, and the vine and sugar-cane on tbe
lower grounds; above these are found timber (including the chestnut, whose fruit is used
extensively by the inhabitants as food), pine {pimis ma/ritima) used as fuel, fern, grass,
and heath, and the scant herbage of alpine regions. Madeira produces 80 or 90 plants
] Peculiar to itself, but the fiora in its general characteristics resembles that of the
*^'0UQ tries around the Mediterranean sea. The grape disease has, within recent yeai-s.
been almost universal, and wine has not been made in such quantity as formerly!
Miuleira ha^ no indigenous mammalia, but the ordinary domestic animals, together with
rabbits, rats, and mice, have been introduced by the Portuguese. The climate is
remarkable for its constancy. There are otily 10" (lifference between the temperatures
of summer and winter, the thermometer in Punchal (the capital of the ishind) showing
iiii average of 74** in summer, and of 64* in winter. At the coldest season, the tempera-
ture rarely is less than 60**, while In summer it seldom rises above 78'*; but sometimes a
waft of the iMte, or e. wind, rises it to 9(r. The temperate and constant warmth of
its climate has made it a favorite resort for invalids affected by pulmonary disease.
Besides the English church, there are other places of worship, incfuaing a Presbyterian
church in connection with the Free church of Scotland. The eihi'cational institutions
comprise the Portuguese college and Lancasterian and government schools. Funchal
<q.v.) id the port of the island. In 1877, 619 vessels, chiefly British, of 487,893 tons.
3o^
^ * MMdhmTmehmrjm.
entered and cleared the port. The imports in 1877, consisting chiefly of cotton, woolen,
and linen mauufactureu goods, iron, flour, earthenware, Indian corn, rice, oil, and
timber, amounted to £276,337; the exports for the same vear, consisting of wine, sugar,
citron, embroidery, and wicker-work, coal, salt-beef, and hides, amounted to £282,656.
The vintage of 1877 was scanty, only yielding about 6,000 pipes of wine. The sugar-
cane cro{> Yielded about 667 tons of sugar, and 240,000 gallons of spirits. The trade is
chiefly with Great Britain.
The inhabitants of Madeira are of mixed Portuguese, Moorish, and negro descent;
they are of vigorous frame, lively and indtistrious, but totally uneducated. Madeira
was formerly covered with forests, whence its name — the Portuguese word madeira
signifying timber. The group to which this island belongs, sometimes called the
northern Canaries, was discovered in 1416, and was shortly afterwards colonized by the
Portuguese. (Compare White's Madeira, its Climate and Scenery,)
WAPETRA, or Madbra, or Catara, an important river of Brazil, South America, and
an aflluent of the Amazon, has its origin in the confluence of severed rivers, the chief of
which are the Beni, Mamore, Madalena, and Stanez, in lat. about lO"" south. It has a
n.e. course of 700 m., for the last 600 m. of which it is navigable, the remaining 200
being obstructed by numerous cataracts; and it falls into the Amazon in lat. B"" 25' s.,
long. 59** 45' west Including the Mamore, the entire length is about 1500 miles.
MADEIRA NUT, the fruit of the Juglans regia, a large timber tree. It is an edible
nut. popularly known as the English walnut. A drying <nl, of much value in the manu-
facture of varnishes, is made from its kernel.
MADEIRA WINE is produced on the Portuguese island of Madeira in the Atlantic
ocean. The introduction of vines dates from 1421, and wine was until within recent years
exported in large quantities. The valley of the Cama de Lobos became known for its
excellent Malmsey wine, besides which the dry Maderia, the sercial, and the tinto were
much sought i^ter. The grapes are almost all white, and ripen in the shade of trellises,
where they are allowed to become half dry before being ^thered. It is said that they
all come from stocks which were brought from Candia m 1445. The principal wine
growers are Englishmen, as Madeira wine has always been consumed in large quantities
m England, lliere is an enormous proportion of wine, manufactured in Europe, sold
as genuine Madeira, which, together with the destruction of the vines by the oidium,
reduced the production from 22,000 pipes in 1818 to 8,000 in 1844; in consequence of
which many of the inhabitants have emigrated to the West Indies and Guiana. From
1847 to 1855 the vintages decreased as follows: 1847-60, 16,000 pipes; 1851, 12,000; 1852,
lOOO; 1853, 754; 1854, 187;»1855, 29. In 1857, however, the sulphur remedy was tried
with great success, and a decided improvement was noticed in the wine production of
1861. At tiie present time there are favorable signs that the vintage of Madeira may,
with judicious cultivation, reach its former prosperity.
KABHATA is an apellation of the Hindu god Vishnu (q.v.), one by which he is very
frequently designated in Hindu mythology and in Sanskrit poetry.
MABHATACHAEYA (i.e., Mddhava, the Achftrya, or spiritual teacher) is one of the
sreatest Hindu scholars and divines that graced the mediaeval literature of India. He is
famed for his numerous and important works relating to the Vedic, philosophical, le^l,
and grammatical writings of the ancient Hindus, and also for his political connection
with the history of some renowned kings of the Deccan. His learning and wisdom were
so eminent, that he was supposed to have received them from the goddess Bhuvaneswarl,
the consort of Siva, who, gratified by his incessant devotions, became manifest to him
in a human shape, conferred on him the gift of extraordinary knowledge, and changed
his name to Yiayftranya (the forest of learning), a title by which he is sometimes desig-
nated in Hindu writings. All the traditions about MftdhavAchftrya, however differing
from one another, agree in ascribing the origin of Vijayanagara to Mddhava. His
birthplace is said to have been Pampa, a village situated on the bank of the river Tunga-
bhadrd; and as all the accounts of his life admit his having been the prime minister of
Sangama, the son of Kampa, whose reign at Vijayanagara commenced about 1886, and
to have filled the same post under king Bukka I., who succeeded Harihara I. about 1861,
and as he died at the age of ninety, the date of his birth coincides probably with the
beginning of the 14th century. Among his works, the principal are his great oommen-
tanes on the Rig-, Yajur-, and SAma-veda<8ee Vbda); an exposition of the MlmftnsA
philosophy; a summary account of fifteen religious and philceophical systems of Indian
speculation; some treatises on the VedAnta pliiloeophy ; another on salvation; a history
of Sankara's (q.v.) polemics against multifarious misbelievers and heretics; a commen-
tary on Pards'ara's code of law; a work on determining time, especially in reference to
the observation of religious acts; and a grammatical commentary on Sanskrit radicals
and their derivatives. The chief performance of 3IAdhava is doubtless the series of his
great commentaries on the Vedas, for without them no conscientious scholar could
attempt to penetrate the sense of those ancient Hindu works. In these commentaries,
]^I&dhava labors to account for the grammatical properties of Vedic words and forms,
records their traditional sense, and explains the drift of tLe Vedic hymns^ legends, and
rites, lliat in an undertaking almost unparalleled, in the literary history of any nation,
Kadlson. ^^O
for its magnitude and difficulty, Mftdliava should have committed sundry inaccuracies
— the remedy against wliich, however, is really always afforded by himself — can sur-
prise no one; but when modern Sanskrit philology affords the spectacle of writers
haughtily exaggerating these shortcomings, and combining with their would-be criti-
cisms the pretense of establishing the true sense of the Vedas without the assistance of
M&dhava, a mere comparison of the commentary of the latter with what the European
public is called upon to accept as its substitute, adds a new testimony to the vast supe-
rioiity of the Hindu scholar over his European antagonists. See Veda. Some of Mftd-
hava's works seem to have been lost.
KAOHU'CA. See Bassia.
XA'BIA, Madia, a ^enus of plants of the natural order compositm, suborder eofTfm-
bif&rcB, having seeds without pappus, the outer ones situated between the leaves of the
involucre, the flowers yellow, the exterior ones rather shortly ligulate, those of the disk
tubular. The plants of this genus are annual, of upright habit, rough with glandular
hairs, and very viscid ; they are important on account of the utility of the seeds as a
source of vegeXable oil. M, satica, a native of Chili, is there called madi or melona^ and
is generally cultivated as an oil plant. It is 3 to 5 ft. high, has ovato-lanceolate, entire
leaves; tiie flowers terminal, and crowded upon the leafy branches. It has been known
in Europe since the beginning of the 19th c, but first began to be cultivated in fields
as an oil plant in 1B39. The results of experiments in its cultivation have not, however,
in most cases been so favorable as was expected ; yet it deserves attention, as it is only
annual, does not suffer .from frost, does not demand a very good soil, and produces an
excellent oil. Madia oil is richer than poppy oil, almost entirely inodorous, of a bland,
agreeable taste, and very suitable for oiling machines, as it does not freeze even at a cold
of 10" F. The oil-cake is a good food for cattle. The straw and chaff have poisonous
properties. It is, however, a great disadvantajge that the flowers ripen gradually in suc-
cession, so that the first are already fallen on when the last are not yet ripe. The
cultivation of if. satiui has not yet been attempted on a considerable scale in Britain.
— Another species, M. elegans, is cultivated in flower-gardens.
MADISON, a co. in n. Alabama, having the state line of Tennessee for its n.
boundary, and the Tennessee river for its s.. is drained by the Flint river, emplyin?
into the Tennessee; 800 sq.m.; pop. *80, 37,625—87,483 of American birth, 19,083
colored. Its surface is undulating, rising in the n. into high hills, and in the s. stretch-
ing into wide fertile prairies. U has a large proportion of tillable land, as well as
extensive forests. Its soil, with a limestone foundation, is^ fertile, and produces live
stock, every kind of grain, tobacco, cotton, wool, sorghum, and sweet-potatoes. In*
'70, it produced 6,384 lbs. of bonev. Cash value of fanns in '70, $d,194,B84, numbering
2,758. It had in '70, 98 manufacturing establishments, including foundries, manu-
factories of sashes and blinds, carriages and wagons, cotton goods, flour and saw
mills, employing 449 hands, with a capital of $167,410, and an annual product of $501,-
096. It is intersected by the Memphis and Charleston railroad. Seat of justice, Hunts-
ville.
MADISON, a co. in n.w. Arkansas, having a range of the Ozark mountains for its s.
boundary, is drained by the War Eagle, Eing^s river, and the Main Fork, all branches
of the White river; 750 sq.m.; pop. '80, 11,455—11,489 of American birth, 124 colored.
Its surface is mountainous. Groves of oak, chestnut, pine, and fir grow on the hill
sides, in which are found deposits of iron ore, marble, and limestone. The products of
its soil are adapted to the raising of live stock ; oats, corn, rye, wheat, tobacco, wool,
sweet.potatoes, honey, sorghum, and flax are cultivated. Seat of justice, Huntsville.
MADISON, a co. in n. Florida, having the state line of Georgia for its n. boundary,
lake Micosuki for its extreme n.w., and the Withlaooochie river, a branch of the Suwa-
nee, for its e. border; 750 sq.m.; pop. '80, 14,798—14,778 of American birth, 9,190
colored. It is also drained by the Ocilla river, forming its s.w. boundary and emntying
into Appalachee bav. Its surface is uneven and broken,. and largely covered with
forests of good building timber, which is an article of export. Its soil, near the water
courses, is fertile and suited to the production of live stock, oats, com, cotton, wool,
sweet-potatoes, and 8ugar>cane. It had in '70, 16 manufacturing establishments, mostly
lumber and grist mil£, and machine shops, employing 96 hands, with a capital of
$75,900, and an annual product of $102,825. It is intersected centrally by the Jack-
sonville, Pensacola and Mobile railroad. Seat of justice, Madison.
MADISON, a 00. in n.e. Georgia, baying branches of the Broad river of Georgia for
its s. and e. boundary; 400 sq.m.; pop. '80, 7,978—7,978 of American birth, 2.586
colored. Its surface is hilly and two-thirds covered with a dense growth of timber.
Granite, eold, and iron are its mineral products. In some localities there are mineral
springs oi great medicinal value; and its soil, partly fertile, is adapted to the raising of
cattle, sheep and swine, oats, com, wheat, cotton, wool, and sweet-potatoea. Seat ol
justice, DanielsviUe.
MADISON, a co. in s.w. Illinois, having the Mississippi river for ito w. boundary.
separating it from Missouri; the Missouri river emptying into the Mississippi in itfi
vicinity; 750 sq.m.; pop. '80, 50.141—88,518 of Amfricau birth. It is drained by
QOQ Madhuo«^
^^^ MiidUoB.
Oahokia creek, and numerous small creeks and rivulets. Its surface is generally leveU
with urell wooded elevations in the w. part, on which elm, walnut, linden, and maple
trees are found, as well as oak, hickory, and ash. Its soil is fertile, and rests on strata of
tarboniferous limestone aod bituminous coal, which appears in largest Quantities at
Alton. Coal, lime, and building stone are exported. It is traversed by the Indianapolis
and St Louis railroad, and the St. Louis, Vandal ia and Terre Haute. The Jackson
division of the Chicago and Alton railroad forms a junction with the main line in the
n.w. section, and its county seat is the s.w. terminus of the Chicago and Alton railroad
on Uie Indianapolis and St. Louis, and the St. Louis, Kock Island and Chicago railroad.
It produces every variety of grain, tobacco, wool, sweet-potatoes, sorghum, and the-
products of the dairy. Its manufacturing product in 70 was $4,794,490. There are
flour and lumber mills, carriage factories,, plow factories, bell factories, cigar factories,
breweries, foundries, woolen-mills, distilleries, manufactories of church organs, and
brick-yards. Lime is manufactured; also cement, agricultural implements, plug tobacco,
tin, copper, and sheet-iron ware. It had in '70, 15 coal mines. Seat of Justice^
EdwardsTille.
MADISON, a co. in e. Indiana, drained by Fall creek, Pipe creek, and the head
waters of the East and West Forks of White river; 475 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 27,531—36,877
of American birth. It is traversed by the Cleveland. Columbus, Cincinnati and Indian-
apolis railroad; the Colqpibus, Chicago and Indiana Central; the Lafayette, Muncie and
Bloomington; the Pittsburg, Cincinnati and St. Louis; and tl^e Cincinnati, Wabash and
Michigan, with junctions at Alexandria, Elwood, and Anderson. Its county seat is
the terminus of the Anderson, Lebanon and St. Louis railroad. Its surface is generally
level, and partially covered with a dense growth of building timber. Its soil is calca-
reous and very fertile, producing buckwheat, barley, oats, rye, wheat, tobacco, wool»
wine, fruit, sorghum, and maple sugar. It produced in '70, 1,028,150 bushels of corn,
and 12,110 lbs. of honey. Its extensive water power is utilized by flour, lumber mills,
etc., and among its manufactures are carriages, staves and headings, chairs, engines,
furniture, sashes and blinds, agricultural implements, saddlery and luirness, and wool«n
goods. It had in 70, 127 manufacturing establishments, employing 446 hands, with a
capital of $377,807, and an annual product of $829,250. Cash value of farms in 70,
$9,399,441, numbering 2,288. Value of live stock in 70, |1,229,996. Limestone is
(juarried. Seat of justice, Anderson.
MADISON, a co. in central Iowa, drained by Middle river, and other branches of the
river Des Moines, and by the head waters of the Grand river; 576 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 17,225
—16,^0 of American birth, 11 colored. Its surface is rolling, with a large proportion of
fertile prairie, much tillable bottom land, and excellent grazing country, containing^
beds of bituminous coal. Its products are fruit, and all kinds of grain, tobacco, wool,
dairy products, hops, flax, maple sugar, sorghum, and honey. Among its manufactories-
are woolen-mills, grist-mills, and plow factories. The Chicago, Rock Island and
Pacific railroad forms a portion of its n.w. boundary, and the Indianoia and Winterset
branch of that road terminates at its county seat. Seat of justice, Winterset.
MADISON, a co. in e. Kentucky, having the Kentucky river for its n. boundary;
drained by Silver creek and other streams; 450 sq.m.; pop. '80, 22,051—21,986 of
American birth, 7,390 colored. Its surface is uneven and thmly timbered. Its calca-
reous soil is suited to the raising of cattle, sheep, and swine, every kind of grain, tobacco,
wool, sweet-potatoes, sorghum, and maple sugar. It produced in 70, 5,836 galls, of
wine, and 4,715 lbs. of honey. Cash value of farms in '70, $8,981,082, numbering 1,592.
Value of live stock in 70, $1,948,277. It had in '70, 103 manufacturing establishments,
employing 802 hands, with a capital of $286,875, and an annual product of $707,169;
consiflUng of flour and saw mills, woolen-mills, manufactories of stone ware, of car-
riages and wagons, of saddlery and harness, plow factories, and distilleries. Seat of
jufitio8, Richmond.
MADISON, a parish in n.e. Louisiana, having the Mississippi river for its e. bound-
ary separating it from the state of Mississippi, and the navigable Tensas river, a con-
fluent of the Tatter, for its w. boundary; also drained by the Macon bayou; 600 sq.m.;
pop. '80, 18,908—13,754 of American birth, 12,657 colored. Its surface is mostly level
and low, with large forests of cypress and the kinds of trees generally found in the gulf
states. The alluvial soil along the water courses is very fertile, and produces com. *
cotton, and sweet-potatoes. Cash value of farms in 70, f 1,757,406, numbering 1,543.
Value of live stock in '70, $855,598. It is intersected centrally by the Yicksburg,.
ShiBTeport and Texas railroad. Seat of justice. Delta.
MADISON, a oo. in central Mississippi, having the Big Black river for its s.w., w.,.
and n.w. boundary, and the Pearl river for its e., s.e., and n.e. boundary; intersected
centrally bythe Chicaco, St. Louis and New Orleans railroad; 660 sq.m.; pop. '80,.
25,866 — ^25,678 of American birth. Its surface ^iseomposed of fertile prairies extending*
on all sides into rich plains, dotted here and there with gtoveB of timber, growing on th&
fine bottom la»d of the river banks. Its county seat is a thriving cotton mart. Its soil
is adapted to the raising of mttle and sheep, ana produces, tobacco, cotton, wool, sweet-^
potatoes, the products of the dairy, oate, corn,, and whtmU It prudoced in 70^5,786
Madison. 330
lbs. of honey. Cash value of farms in 70, $2,907,857, numbering 701 Value of IWe
stock in '70, $840,606. Seat of justice, Canton.
MADISON, a co. in s.e. Missouri, drained by Castor creek and the head waters of
the St. Francis river; intersected in the n.e. portion by the St. Louis, Iron Mountain
^nd Southern railroad; 440 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 8,860 — 8,506 of American birth, 308 colored.
Its surface is hillv and well timbered, with a foundation of limestone, and containuig
beds of iron and lead ore, nickel, copper, gold, platinum, and silver. Its soil is adapted
to the production of live stock, fruit, every variety of grain, tobacco, wool, sweet-pota-
loes, clairy products, honey, maple sugar, and sorghum. It had in '70 an annual
manufacturing product of $77,785. It has steam flounng mills, breweries, lumber mills,
railroad repair-shops, and smelting furnaces. Its lead mines in the extreme n.e. section
have been worked for more than 100 years, and in the vicinity cobalt, malachite, and
other minerals are found. Seat of justice, Fredericktown.
MADISON, a CO. in s.w. Montana, having a range of the Rocky mountains for its s.
boundary separating it from Idaho; drained m the e. portion by the Madison river run-
ning n., m the w. by the Beaver Head, Wisdom, and Passamari creeks which unite to fonn
the Jejfferson fork of the Missouri; about 5,100 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 8,916—2,890 of Ameri-
can birth. 294 colored. It is a line agricultural and rich mining district, and an excel-
lent grazing country. The mountains, deep divides, and cailons present scenery of great
beauty and grandeur. It is in close proximity to the national -park and the valley of
the Yellowstone river. Groves of evergreen trees erow on the foot-hills and along the
river bottoms. The agricultural products of its valleys are barley, oats, rye, wheat, and
live stock. Its principal industries are hydraulic, placer, and quartz mining; and in
'70, it had 15 hydraulic gold mines, 10 placer mines, 'and 8 quartz mines. Whole num-
ber of hands employed 219, aggregate capital $672,800, with an annual product of $216,-
416. Valuable silver mines are found near the Madison river, and are still attracting
prospecting parties. Granite and silurian limestone underlie this region, and basalt,
feldspar, gneiss, galena, and serpentine are found; also, in the vicinity of the county seat,
ho^ springs with valuable medicinal properties. In the extreme s.e. is Sawtelle's peak,
nn extinct volcano composed of porphyiy, basalt, etc. With the exception of the Utah
Northern railroad, extending some distance n. of Red Hock in the s. portion, the trans-
portation is by wagon and coach over roads along the mountain side built at great
expense; and the vast amount of freight following'the progress of the railroad proves
the rapid settlement of the country. Seat of justice, Virginia City.
MADISON, a co. in w. North Carolina, having the Iron or Great Smoky mountains
for its n. boundary separating it from Tennessee, is watered by the French Broad river,-
450 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 12,810—12,798 of American birth, 457 colored. Its surface is hilly
and principally covered with a thick growth of timber. It contains mineral deposits of
great value. Its soil is adapted to the raising of live stock, tobacco, buckwheat, oats,
corn, lye, wheat, wool, sugar-cane, flax, sweet potatoes, and the products of the dairy.
It produced in '70. 20,209 lbs. of honey. Its scenery presents many attractive features,
notably where the French Broad river flows through a gorge of the Smoky mountains,
near the celebrated Warm springs of North Carolina, and the slopes of Bald mountain
rise in the extreme n.e., 5,552 ft. above the level of the sea. Seat of justice, Marshall.
MADISON, a co. in n.e. Nebraska, drained by the Elkhom river and its north
branch in the n. section, and by Taylor creek in the s.; 576 sq.m.; pop. *80, 5,589—
4,136 of American birth, 6 colored. Its surface is rolling and thinly timbered. Its soil
is adapted to stock raising and the production of grain, wool, dairy products, and
f;orghum. Its water-power is utilized to some extent, and It has a U. S. land agency.
Seat of justice, Madison.
MADISON, a co. in 8.w. Ohio, drained by Paint creek, Deer creek, Darby creek,
«nd other^ tributaries of the Scioto river; 440 sq.m. ; pop. *80, 20,129—18,841 of American
" " el ai ■
birth, 1078 colored. Its -surface is generally level and thinly timbered. Its soil is
suited to the raising of tobacco, wool, wine, aaiir products, fruit, sorghum, flax, hops,
and all kinds of groin. It produced in '70, 11,680 lbs. of honey. Cash value of farms
in '70, $10,718,942. numbering 1263. Value of live stock in '70, $1,644,404. It is
traversed by th& Cincinnati, Sandusky and Cleveland, the Pittsburg, Cincinnati and
St. Louis railroads, the Little Miami railroad, and the Springfield Southern. Flour and
•carriages and wagons are manufactured. It had in '70, 117 establishments, employing
^28 hands, with a capital of $175,816 and an annual product of $406,806. Seat of
justice, London.
MADISON, a co. in central New York, having Oneida lake, 20 m. long and 6 m.
wide, for its n. boundary: drained by Oneida creek, the Chenango river, the Unadilla
river on its s.e. border, the Cbittenango river on the s.w., and the Canastota emptying
into Oneida lake; also by Cazenovia lake, 8 m. long, in the w. section; 650 sq.m.; pop.
'80, 44,872. Its surface is low and uneven, well wooded, in some portions swampy, in
others sinking into deep, narrow valleys. Sugar-maple, ash, ana oak trees glow in
profusion. Its soil has an underiyinff formation of Niagara limestone and Onondaga
limestone, and stone which is quarried for building purposes. Gvpaum and water-lime
are found, and saline sulphur springs. Hope are exported, the yield in '70 being
331
8.382,926 lbs. Its productions include every vsriety of grain, tobacco, maple-sugar,
woo], Irish potatoes, and an enormous dairy product. It produced in '70, 8,889 lbs. of
honey. Cash value of farms in '70, $26,568,018, numbenng 4,140. It had in '70, 786
manufacturing establishments, employing 2,488 hands, with a capital of $2,149,286, and
an annual product of $4,798,871. Its leading industries are the manufacture of carriages,
wagons, flour, brick, cheese, leather, agricultural Implements, lumber, cooperage, steam
engines, optical and astronomical instruments, pocket cutlenr, boxes, furniture, water-
lime, lime, cotton, silk, and woolen goods, ship-building and repairing. It luta distil-
leries, foundries, and knitting-mills. It is intersected bv the iMew York Central and
Hudson Kiver railroad and the Utica, Clinton and Binffhamton, with their branches,
the Gazenovia, Canastota and De Ruyter railroad; thelErie canal and the Chenan^
canal, connecting Utica with Binghamton, following the course of the Chenango river in
ihe s.e. section. 8eat of justice, Morrisville.
MADISON, a co. in w. Tennessee, intersected centrally by the Chicago, St. Louis
and New Orleans, and the Mobile and Ohio railroads, forming a junction at Jackson;
watered by the Middle fork of Forked Deer river, forming its n. boundary; 600 sq.m. ;
pop. W, 30.874—80,682 of American birth, 15,465 colored. It is drained by the South
fork, flowing diagonally through it, and its generally level surface is well wooded with
^oves of the tulip tree, beech, and ash, and forests of oak, hickory, and walnut. Its
soil is fertile, producing oats, corn, rye, wheat, cotton, wool, sweet potatoes, dairy prod-
ucts, and honej'. Cash value of farms in '70, $3,958,675, numbenng 1547. Value of
live stock, $956,719. Cotton is exported. Among its manufacturing establishments are
tanneries, iron foundries, and railroad repair shops, flour and lumber mills, numbering
in '70, 107, employing 892 hands, with a capital of $187,265, and an annual product of
#870,022. Seat of justice, Jackson.
MADISON, a co. in s.e. Texas, having the Trinitv river for its e. boundary, and the
Navasota river for its w. , is draiued by numerous rivulets emptying into them ; 550 sq.m. ;
pop. '80, 5,395 — 5,851 of American birth, 1703 colored. Its surface is undulating and
well wooded with oak, pine, and other building timber. Its soil is fertile; products are
live stock, corn, tobacco, cotton, wool, sweet potatoes, wine, honey, and sorghum.
Seat of justice, Madison ville.
MADISON, a co. in n. Virginia, having the Blue Kidge mountains for its n.w.
boundary, is bounded on the s., s.e., and 8.w. by the Rapidan river, and drained by
Oriskany creek and Robertson's and Hazel rivers; 280 sq.m.; pop. '80, 10,563—10,551
of American birth, 4,557 colored. Its surface is mountainous, and presents features of
great natural beauty, attracting many tourists, A large proportion of the land is covered
with forests of hard wood. Its soil is fertile in some sections, and produces live stock,
hope, tobacco, wool, sweet potatoes, dairy products, honey, sorghum, oats, corn, rye,
and wheat. Cash value of farms in '70, $1,753,087, numbering 489. It had it '70, 42
manufacturing establishments, employing 85 hands, with a capital of $85,950 and an
annual product of $108,960; represented by cheese factories, tanneries, etc. Seat of
justice, Madison Court- House.
MAOISOK, a city of Indiana, on the Ohio river, founded in 1808, lies 100 m. w.s.w.
of Cincinnati. It is finely situated on an elevated, plateau, with a background of hills;
has a court-house, 2 markets, 8 banks, 15 churches, cotton, woolen, and iron factories,
several flouring-mills, large pork-packing establishments, and a flourishing trade. Pop.
'70, 10,709.
MADISON (anU\ a city in s.e. Indiana, the terminus of one branch of the J^erson-
ville, Madison and Indianapolis railroad: pop. '70, 10,709. It is delightfully located 45
m. n. of Louisville, 86 m. s.e. of Indianapolis, and 45 m. s.e. of Columbus. The hills
at the n. are 400 ft. high, overlooking the valley 8 m. In length. It is regularly and sub-
stantially built, lighted with gas, and abundantly supplied with water by an aqueduct.
Its brick-yards furnish a large proportion of the building material. It has several public
halls, a public library of 4,000 vols., excellent public schools, 2 national banks and a
state bank, with an aggregate capital of $6CO,O00. It supports 1 daihr, 1 semi-weekly,
and 2 weekly newspapers, and is accommodated by a daily line of steamers plying
Ijotween its port ana Cincinnati and Louisville. Ite" leading industries are represented
by manufactories of engines and boilers, furniture, breweries, ship-yards, brass and iron
foundries, and planing mills.
1CAOI80V, the capital of Wisconsin, United States of America, founded in 1886, is
beautifully situated on an isthmus between two lakes, 80 m. w. of lake Michigan, and
the same distance e. of the Mississippi river. It contains the state capitol, university
(founded in 1849), lunatic asylum, historical society. 4 banks, 2 daily, 1 tri-weekly,
and 5 weekly papers, 2 of the latter being in the German language. It is the center of
a fertile and siuubrious country, and has a large trade. Pop. 70, 9,176.
MADISON (ante), f^ city y the capital of Wisconsin, the junction of the Chioago and
North-weateni railroad, and the Watertown to Madison, and the Madison to Portage
branches of the Chicago. Milwaukee and St. Paul railroad. It is ihe e. terminus of the
railvi^ to Prairie Du Chien, an important local shipping point: this railroad beinff the
connecting-link between the Wisconsin and Iowa divisions of the Chicago and North-
332
western railway. Lying in the Four Lake country, the land on which it is huilt, betweec
lake Mendota and lake Mouona, 182 m. n.w. of Chicago, and 80 ni. w. of Milwaukee,
rises to an elevation of 788 ft. above the level of the sea, and 210 ft. above lake Michi-
^D, and is about f of a m. in breadth* and 8 m. in length; pop. '80, 10,325. Surround'
ing this plain are heights from which it is distinctly visible miles awa^'. Lake Mendota
on the n.w. border, with a depth of water estimated at 70 ft., is 9 m. in length and 6 m.
in width, has a smooth, hard beach, and is navigated by excursion steamboats, from
whose decks the most delightful views may be obtained. Lake >[onona on the s.e., 5i m.
long and 2 m. wide, is connected by narrow straits with lakes Waubesa and Kegonsu,
each about 3 m. long, and by straits farther s. flowing from these into the Fourth lake,
forming a chain of beautiful lakes for a distance of 16 miles. The state-house is a stoue
edifice, with recent improvements costing $550,000, in heisht 200 ft., standing on a pla-
teau 70 ft. above the water-level, surrounded by a beautiful park of 14 acres, shaded
by forest trees left standing when the town was laid out, the foundation of the capitol
being laid the following year. The county court-house and jail occupy the s. corner of
the park. Westward from this point is College hill about 1 m. distant, 125 ft. above tlie
lake, tiie site of the university of Wisconsin, open to both sexes. The city has 14
churches, a commercial college, a stereotype foundry, flour and woolen mills, wagou
and carriage factories, manufactories of agricultural implements, reapers, mowing-
machines, etc. It has a number of fine buildings for purposes of trade, and many ele-
gant private residences in the suburbs. It is a popular summer resort, and its air is
recommended as a palliative in diseases of the lungs. The state institution for medical
treatment of the insane, 569 ft. in length, occupies an estate of 393 acres of forest, farm,
and ornamental garden on the shores of lake Mendota, about 4 m. from the center of the?
city. The U. S. court-house and post-office here cost $400,000. It has excellent public
schools, and several public libraries, among them the state library, of 7,500 vols. ; that
of the Wisconsin historical society, in a wing of the capitol, 58,000 vols., and a valuable
collection of curiosities; those of the university of Wisconsin and its societies, 6,830
vols.; that belonging to the Madison institute, 3,500 vols.; and the state agricultural
society library of lOOO volumes. About 1 m. from the capitol is the soldiers' orphans'
home, on the shore of lake Monona.
MADISON, a village in n. Georgia, a shipping point for cotton, 104 m. w. of Augusta,
68 m. s.e. of Atlanta, and 175 m. w. of Savannah; pop. 70, 1889—770 colored. It is
pleasantly situated on the Central railroad of Georgia, is the largest town between
Atlanta and Augusta, and is rapidly increasing in population and business. It is tlie
seat of justice of Morgan co., and has an active trade in cotton, the surrounding countrj-
being one of the most productive sections of the state. It is the seat of Georgia femuK
college, established in 1850, an institution controlled by the Baptist denomination.
MADISON, a t. in Morris co., N. J., 17 m. w. of Newark, on the Morris and Essex
division of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western railroad. Its location is healthful
and picturesque. It contains a classical institute, a Roman Catholic convent, 5 churches
— the oldest of which is the Presbyterian, organized about the middle of the last century
— and Drew theological seminary, established 1867, named after its founder, the late
Daniel Drew of New York, and occupying what was formerly the Gibbon estate, con-
taining about 100 acres, highly ornamented with walks and drives, shrubbery, and forest
grove. The buildings are Mead hall— formerly the mansion-house of the estate — con-
taining the chapel, reading-room, library, lecture rooms, and offices of the professors;
Asbury hall, containing 72 rooms for students; Embury hall, containing a dining-room;
Society Mlill, apartments for the matron, and 20 rooms for students; andS residences for
the president and professors. The faculty are the president, who is also professor of
historical theology, and 5 other professors. In addition to the systematic instruction
thus furnished, special lectures on collateral topics are given by a large corps of repre-
sentative men annually appointed. The number of students in 1880 was 104. The
library contains 10,000 vols., carefully selected with special reference to the wants of
students for the ministry; and in addition to these the libraries of the prof essors, amount-
ing in the aggregate to about an equal number of volumes, are accessiole to the students,
under proper restrictions. The large endowment originally designed for the institution by
the founder having been, in part, lost by his subsequent pecuniary misfortunes, success-
ful efforts are in progress to make up the full amount by more general benefactions.
The location of the seminary makes it the central theological schcK^l of the Methodist-
Episcopal church, whose zeal, wisdom, and wealth may be relied on to secufe for it the
highest degree of permanent efficiency in the great work for which it has been estab-
lished.
XABIMH, Jambs, American statesman, and fourth president of the United States,
was b. at King George,ya., Mar. 16, 1751. His father, James Madison, of Orange, was
of English ancestry. He graduated at Princeton, N. J., in 1771, and studied law. In
1776 he was a member of the Virginia convention, and though too jnodeat for an orator,
his life from this time was devoted to politics, and he became one of the most eminent
accomplished, and respected of American statesmen. He was elected to the federal
congress in 1779; in 1784 to the legislature of Virginia, in which he supported the meas-
vres of Mr. Jefferson in the revision of the laws, and p]a(9pg^lj^^xlii49ii^4enomination!>
^33 ir«di«».
on an equality of freedom without state support. As a member of the convention of
1787, which framed the federal constitution, Mr. Madison acted with Jay and Hamil-
ton, and with them wrote the Federalist, He did as much as any man, perhaps, to secure
the adoption of the constitution, but opposed the financial policy of Hamilton, and
became a leader of the republican or Jeffersonian party. He declined the mission to
France, and the office of secretary of state, but in 1793 became the leader of the republi-
can party in congress, and wrote the Kentucky resolutions of 1798, which contain the
basis of the state-rights doctrines. Virginia, in the adoption of the constitution,
declared her right to withdraw from the confederation, and at this early period estab-
lished two state arsenals and made other preparations to resist the encroachments of
a centralizing power. In 1801, Mr. Jefferson having been elected President, Mr. Madi-
son was made secretary of state, which post he held during the eight years of his
administration. In 1809 he was elected president. The European wars of that period,
with their blockades and orders in council, were destructive of American commerce.
The claim of the English government to impress seamen from American vessels was
violently resisted. Mr. Madison vainlv endeavored to avoid a war with England, which
was declared in 1812, and continued for two years, at a cost of 80,000 lives and
$100,000,000. He was one of the four presidents elected for a second term, during
which he approved the establishment of a national bank as a financial necessity — a
measure he had opposed and vetoed. In 1817 he retired to his seat at Montpelier,
Va., where he continued to serve his country as a rector of the university of Vir-
ginia, and a promoter of agriculture and public improvements. Without being a
brilliant man, he was a statesman of eminent ability and purity of character. He died
at Montpelier, Jan. 23, 1836.
MADISON, James {ante). The public life and works of James Madison fill a long
period of American history, and are marked by a precocity of statesmanship, and calm.
logical, judicial wisdom. At 21 years, a graduate of 'Princeton college, among a
class of students who subsequently filled many of the highest judicial, political, and
TOilitary offices, he appears from the beginning to have taken that intellectual leadership
which he subsequently maintained. The exciting period of the opening of the revolu-
tion stimulated all young men of noble ambition to the study of the relationship of
governors to the governed and of human rip^hts in general; so that political discussions
were on the fundamental laws of society in the broad fields of abstract justice, rather
than in the ruts of partisan warfare and individual interests. The violence of arbitrary
power which England exercised towards the colonies at this time, and the debates in
the British parliament in which Chatham, Camden, Burke, and Pox assumed the
defense of constitutional against arbitrary power, in opposition to lord North, Mansfield,
and others, were calculated to place before the students of that day high ideals of polit-
ical warfare. The vigorous pen of the masked Junius was a model of style for the more
•fiery patriots. That of Addison seems to have attracted young Madison, or, rather, his
inind was by nature on the philosophic plane, so that it naturally cxpres.sed itself id
a similar style. The following letter written from college to his father, July 23, 1770,
indicates, however, that his mind was fired by the lack oi patriotic resistance to British
rule of which the merchants of New York had just given Woof : •* We have no public
news," he writes, '*but of the base conduct of the New York merchants in breaking
through their spirited resolution not to import," etc. . . ** Their letter to the merchants
of Philadelphia requesting their concurrence was lately burned by the students in the
college yard, all of them appearing in their black gowns, and the bell tolling. There
are about 115 in college and school, all of them in American cloth." On his return
home from college he read law and miscellaneous literature, and at the same time
taught his younger brothers and sisters. A lull took place in the controversy between
the colonies and the mother country in consequence of the repeal of the stamp act and
port duties, the tax on tea being the only one left; the repeal of which, said lord North,
'* is not to be thought of till America is prostrate at our feet." An extract of a letter
written in 1772 to his college friend Bradford, afterwards attorney-general under the
presidency of Washington, shows the grave maturity of his mind : •* Pray do not suffer
those impertinent fops that abound in every city to divert you from your business and
philosophical amusements. You may please them more by admitting them to the
pleasure of your company, but you will make them respect and admire you more by
showing your indignation at their follies, and by keeping them at a distance. I am
luckily out of the way of such troubles; but I learn you are surrounded with them, for
they breed in towns and populous places as naturallv as flies do in the shambles, because
they get food enough for their vanity and impertinence." About this time Madison
sttidied, exhausting the theological works of his time, and the Jewish and Christian
Scriptures, and so erudite was he already considered that the founder of the university
of Virginia called upon him to furnish a list of theological works for its library. When
the question arose in Virginia, in 1774, whether the state church (the church of Eng-
land) should be maintained, his breadth of view became manifest. The Episcopalians of
Virginia and the Puritans of New England were quite ready to practice against others
the same exclusion for religious opinions which had caused the mignition of the latter.
In Virginia the Episcopal had been a state church, and laws were in force to nunish
9Iadi«oB.
334
non-conformity. The Baptists were at that time the subjects of the penalties and were
then being Imprisoned in the county where Madison lived, for ''disturbing the public
peace by their preaching." In a letter to Bradford, Jan. 24, 1774, Madison shows the
mtensity of his indignation at this renewal of religious persecution in words contrasting
with his usual moderation: " That diabolical, hell-conceived principle of persecution,"^
he writes, "ra^s among some; and to their eternal infan^, the clergy can furnish
their quota of imps for such purposes." Again, writing to Bradford in April he savs:
" The sentiments of our people of fortune and fashion on this subject are vastly differ-
ent from what you have been used to. That liberal, catholic, and equitable way of
thinking, as to the rights of conscience, which is one of the characteristics of a free peo-
ple and so strongly marks the people of your province (Pennsylvania), is but little known
among the zealous adherents to our hierarchy."
The year 1774 was an exciting one in the colonies. New forms of oppression by the
English government raised determined resistance from Boston to Charleston. Madison
entered into the stru^le in no half-way spirit, but seemed fully to appreciate from the
beginning the necessity of speedy military organization to oppose the mother country.
As early as Jan. 20, 1775, he writes a friend: " We are very busy at present in raising
men, and procuring tbe necessaries to defend ourselves and our friends in case of a sud-
den invasion." In an address of thanks to Patrick Henry, written by Madison as the
expression of a public meeting held in his own county May 9, 1775, we find this
expression: " The blow struck in the Massachusetts government is a hostile attack on
this and every other colony, and a sufficient warrant to use violence and reprisal in all
cases in which it may be expedient for our security and welfare." Mr. Madison entered
public life in May, 1776, as a delegate to the Virginia convention which instructed her
delegates in the continental congress to propose the declaration of independence. Thourii
the youngest man in that body, he was by special request made a member of the commit-
tee of ten to draft a new constitution for the state. In the committee Mr. Madison dis-
tinguished himself by opposing the use of the following phrase of an article on religion,
designed to secure freeobm of worship: " toleration in the exercise of religion, . . .
unpunished and unrestrained by the n:iaglstrate, unless under color of religion any man
disturb the peace, the happiness, or the safety of society," as a dangerous form of guar-
anty of religious freedom. Toleration, he maintained, belonged to a system where there
was an established church, and where it was a thing granted not of right, but of grace.
He feared the power, in the hands of a dominant religion, to construe what '*may dis-
turb the peace, the happiness, or the safety of society." and ventured to propose a
substitute, which was finally adopted. It marks an era in legislative history; and is
believed to be the first provision ever embodied in any constitution or law for the
security of absolute equality before the law to all religious opinions. We give it entire:
" That religion, or the duty that we owe to our creator, and the manner of discharging
it, being under the direction of reason and conviction only, not of violence or com-
Sulsion, all men are equally entitled to the full and free exercise of it, according to the
ictates of conscience; and, therefore, that no man or class of men ought, on account of
religion, to be invested with peculiar emoluments or privileges, nor subjected to any
penalties or disabilities, unless, under color of religion, the preservation of equal liberty,
and the existence of the state be manifestly endangered."
At the first session of the Virginia legislature under tlie new constitution, be^nning
in Oct., 1776, Madison and Jefferson first met, and began an intimate friendship that
lasted unclouded for half a century. Jefferson long afterwards thus describes him :
** Mr. Madison came into the house in 1776, a new member and young; which circum-
stances, concurring with his extreme modesty, prevented his venturing himself in
debate before his removal to the council of state in Nov., 1777. From thence he went
to congress, consisting of few members. Trained in these successive schools, he
acquired a habit of sefi-possession, which placed at i-eady command the rich resources
of his luminous and discriminating mind and of his extensive information, and ren-
dered him the first of every assembly afterwards of which he became a member. Never
wandering from his subject in vain declamation, but pursuing it closely, in language
pure, classical, and copious, soothing always his adversaries by civilities and softness
of expression, he rose to the eminent station which he held in the great national con-
vention of 1^87. With these consummate powers was united a pure and spotless virtue
which no calumny has ever attempted to sully."
In 1777 Madison lost his election by his conscientious abstention from the practice
of " treating" on election day. But in November the assembly elected him a member of
the council of state, a body of eight members, advisers of the governor, and participating
with him in the exercise of executive powers. Chosen to this hiffh position without
bis own knowledge, the compliment was not more appreciated by him than timely to
the state, and a position of more importance during the crisis of war than one in legis-
lative councils. The fact that Madison was the only member of the council versed in
foreign languages made his services of additional value to the governor, Patrick Henry;
as the number of foreigners in the employ of the state at that time was numerous.
It is told by him that the democratic sentiments of ^ov. Henry, as well as his own,
were a little tiied by the custom of French officers to address the governor as his loyal
hichness monsieur Patrick Henry. On one occasion h^yhi^^^ ^i^^^ a French
335
officer why power was pven to the presldijig officer of the delegates to pneerve ordtor
according to rules established for that purpose, the officer exclaimed, ''Ah! I imder-
staod you at last; he is a prince of the blood!" In 1779, Jefferson -having succeeded
Heniy as governor of Virginia, Madison was re-elected to the council, but on Dec. 14
the Virginia assembly chose him to represent the state in the congress of the confedera-
tion, where he took his seat Mar. 30, 1780. It was the most gloomy period of the revo-
lution. The country was without means or credit to feed the army ; the continental
money was nearly valueless, and there was nothing yet to take its place; the military
situation most discouraging. The arrival of Lafayette, with news of the French fleet
and army on its way, momentarily vivified the hope of the nation. But new reverses
and the treachery of Arnold almost extinguished them. Mr. Madison had the sagacity
to perceive that a better system of money was the radical need. Washington had advised
requiffltions on the several states for provisions and stores for his army to be furnished
direct, in order to stop continental emissions of paper money for their purchase; but the
states proceeded to purchase the required articles with their own paper money, thua
aggravatinfl; the evil which he was hoping to lessen. Madison proposed that con^sa '
shoidd address a formal recommendation to the states to discontinue these emissions.
His proposition met with a cool reception, not because the recommendation was not
approved, but because congress could with ill grace ur^ the .states to abandon a means-
which itself bad continuously employed. About this time efforts were being made by
France and the United States to induce Spain to Join the alliance against England. Spain
required the abandonment of the right of navigation of the Mississippi to the sea as a
condition precedent Madison was made chairman of a committee to draw up the argu>
ment on behalf of the United States to be used as the basis of negotiations l^ Mr. Jay,
our minister at Madrid, and Mr. Franklin our minister to France. The argument was
unanimously adopted by congress. It is a curious fact that two of the oldest and most
sagacious of American statesmen should thus receive their instructions from the most
youthful and modest member of the congress. Madison's argument is a masterpiece of
ability and discretion, but congress receded from its position. Spain's alliance was
sought by the offer of the concession; but through the wisdom of Jay, fully seconding
the views of Madison, no formal treaty to that effect was made.
After the capitulation of Yorktown in Oct, 1781, Madison was still strenuous that
the government should not relax its preparations for the vigorous prosecution of the war;
and secured action by congress to that end. At the same time he urged an amendment
to the articles of the confederation, which should expresslv grant to congress authority
to employ the force of the union against the states in such manner as to force them to
fulfill their engagements to it. In a letter to Jefferson, April 16, 1781, he thus alludes to*
the subject: " The necessity of arming congress with owrmM * powers arises from the
shameful deficiencies of some of the states," etc. The letter entire is an admirable state-
ment \>f the evils of a confederacy that has not the unity of power of a nation. It was
not until the beginning of 1781 that the states were asked to vest in congress the power
to levy duties on imports. On May 14, 178d, Madison in a letter to Randolph of Vir-
ginia gave intelligence of the arrival at New York of a b^urer of peace-propositions from
England. After reviewing the probable intent of the acts of the British parliament, he
concludes: ** Congress will, I am persuaded, give a proper verbal answer to any over-
tures with which he may insult them; but the best answer will come from the states, in
such supplies of men and money as will expel our enemies from the United States."
After the recognition of the independence of the United States in 1782, Madison took
a conspicuous piu-t in every important legislation of congress; urged a system of national
revenue; was principal author of the plan adopted April 18, 178S; and author of the
address to the states urging its adoption, which, " for lucid exposition, pregnant concise-
ness and precision, dignity, eloquence, and force, will ever stand among the model state
papers of America." It was in the preparation of this act of congress, and of the address
which followed, that the opposition of Alexander Hamilton developed that great antago-
nism of principles and policy which, a few years later, became the basis of the opposing
political organizations of the United States. Madison was the principal promoter of the
cession of the north-western territories by Virginia to the United States on March 1.
1784. Vermont was, in 1784, to be admitted as an independent state. No provision
had been made in the articles of confederation for the admission of new states. All
lands outside the colonies, within the limits of the United States, wefe supposed to belong
to one or another of the colonies. But the cession of Virginia's vast claims to the
nation, and the denial of the Vermonters that their territory belonged either to the New
York or the New Hampshire grants, opened new questions. Madison opposed the
admission at this time and postponed it until the new constitution of 1787 was established.
During this session congress entered on the difficult task of paying debts and harmon-
izing conflicting interests of states. The great state of Virginia was not able to pay its
representatives in congress, and Madison was obliged to depend on his father in part
for his support, and to have recourse to meet even the simple style of living that he
always maintained, to ' ' the favor, " as he himself expresses it, * ' of H!aym Salomon, a Jew
broker." He returned to his father's residence Dec, 1783; and being ineligible to aeon-
^ ItaUcs are in Madison's letter.
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^inued seat in congress by Vimnia's con&tltutioii he became an assidaoas student of kw.
''My wish is" he wrote to a friend, "to provide a decent and independent Bubsistenee
without encountering the difficulties I foresee in that line. Another of my wishes is
to depend as little as possible on the labor of slaves." In April, 1784, he
was elected to the Virginia house of delegates. The leading idea of his
service there he stated to be to harmonize the state legislation with the
necessary assumption of powers required by the federal congress for its efficiency as a
government of the United States. He was made chairman of the committee on commerce,
of the committee to revise the constitution, and the •* committee of religion." In all
these he had occasion to imprint on the laws his peculiarly advanced statesmanship. In
August. 1784, he met in Baltimore Lafayette, who was then on a visit of congratulation
to his American friends, and they joined company in a journey to Ft. Schuyler, where
a treaty with the Indians was to be made. Soon after the close of the second session of
the Virginia assemblv, Madison had another occasion to mark his influence in securing
the disseverance of cliurch and state, by exhaustive arguments in opposition to a press-
ure of petitions for "an assessment for the support of religion," which opposition he
embodied in a remonstrance, and so aroused public opinion to its importance that when
the bill was taken up the succeeding session it was overwhelmingly negatived. In 1785
Madison resumed his studies at home for a short time; made a visit to New York and
the eastern states; to gen. Washington at Mt. Vernon; and returned to duty in the
house of delegates in October, where he soon afterwards made a memorable speech to
prove that the congress of the confederation should have sole jurisdiction over foreign
and domestic commerce in the levying of import or export duties. At this session
Madison bore the brunt of the laborious work of codifying the laws of Virginia. On
returning to his home he added natural history to the list of studies which he entered
upon with ardor, and at the same time pursued farther than before his studies in the
philosophical speculations at that time the fashion among great minds, particularly in
France. During 1786 he was an active participant in a politico-commercial convention
assembled at Annapolis; opposed the project of Mr. Jay to surrender the navigation of
the Mississippi to Spain; and re-entered the Virginia legislature in October. Its first
work, of which he was one of the authors, was the passage of an act recommending the
assembling of a convention of all the states for the formation of a new constitution for
the United States. In this convention his thorough preparations for statesmanship
became conspicuous. He completed and published papers, long in preparation, on
Ancient and Modern Confederacies; Vices of the JPMieal System of t?ie United States, etc. ;
designed to light the way of the convention. He was sent as one of the delegates to
that convention, associated with George Washington, Patrick Henry, Edmund Ran-
•dolph, John Blair, George Mason, and Gkorge Wythe. In a letter to gen. Washington,
April 16, 1787, he outlines his views at length of the future constitution: "Goiisider-
ing that an individual independence of the states is totally irreconcilable with their
aggregate sovereignty, and that a consolidation of the whole would be as inexpedient bs
it is unattainable, I have sought for some middle ground, which may at once support a
due supremacy of the national authority, and not exclude the local authorities wherever
they may be subordinately useful. ... An article should be inserted, expressly
Siaranteeing the tranquiUitv of the states against internal as well as external dangers.
i like manner, the right of coercion should be expressly declared." It is doubtful if
there ever convened an abler body of statesmen than met m the convention to frame the
constitution of the United States, which opened in Philadelphia. May 14, 1787. Mr.
Madison, if not the most conspicuous, was, by the volume of his labors, and his success
in fixing his own views of government in the constitution, certainly the leading mem-
ber, and it is in this sense that, young as he was compared with most of his associates,
he acquired the title of "father of the constitution."
From the labors of the constitutional convention Madison repaired immediately to the
federal confederate congress then sitting in New York, where he found strenuous opposition
to the new instrument by Richard Henry Lee of Vir^nia and Nathan Dane of Massachu-
setts. Triumphing over these, his party in the congress secured a unanimous vote of that
body to submit the constitution to the action of the several states. The various forms
of opposition to it were met at the outset by a series of essays suggested by Alexander
Hamilton and John Jay, in which Madison was invited to Join, published over the sig-
nature of * * Publius, " first in a New York paper, but afterward as a distinct issue under the
title of The Federalist. It grew under the hands of these sentlemen into one of the
ablest compendiums of politiCHl thought ever published ; finally comprising 85 essays, of
which 51 were by Hamilton, 29 by M»]lison, and 5 by Jay. Judge Story in his treatise on
the constitution styles it *• an incomparable commentary." After eight states had voted
their approval of the new constitution it only remained for the ninth to affirm it to
secure its adoption. Virginia became the battle ground. A large part of her most emi-
nent citizens took side against its adoption. Madison, at the urgent request of Wash-
ington, became a candidate for a seat in the Virginia convention called to take action
upon it. The eloquence of Patrick Henry, and his tact in popular persuasion, was met
in that convention by gov. Randolph in part, but more thoroughly and comprehensively
by Madison; who, by his lucid reasoning, apt citations from his stores of historical
knowledge, and masterly review of the errors of the3,oppQsi^o|^^|^raed the tide of
337
of^ioD in the convetition. In the laneuace of Bushrod Washington, who had listened
tor the debate, to gen. Washington, "Mr. Madison followed, and with such force of rea-
sonin^, and a display of such irresistible truths, tiiat opposition seemed to have quitted
the field." Tet the forensic battle rased for many weeks; Madison making in one day
thirteen speeches in rephr to Henry, Mason. Harrison, Monroe, and other brilliant lead-
ers of the opposition, voices of wisdom prevailed against voices of eloquence; and on
June 24, 1788, Virginia ratified the constitution by the slender majority of 89 to 79.
Chief justice Marshall being once asked who of all the public speakers he had heard he
considered the most eloquent — and he had heard all the illustrious of his time — ^replied :
"Bloquence has been defined to be the art of persuasion. If it includes persuasion by
convincing, Mr. Madison was the most eloquent man I ever heard."
New York had not yet given its consent to the new constitution, and under the
leadership of gov. Clinton continued to refuse it except under impracticable conditions,
one of which was the reservcUum of a right to toithdraw from the union if the amend-
ments proposed by her should not be adopted within a limited period. Madison in a
letter to Alexander Hamilton at this time writes his unqualified repugnance to all prop*
ositions of the kind, and regarded such a conditional ratification as worse than a
rejection. At the request of sen. Washington he became a candidate for the new
national senate under the constitution ; but Kichard Henry Lee of the opposition was
supported by gov. Henry, and elected; after which Madison was elected from his own
district to the house of representatives in congress, in spite of the formation of a dis-
trict, by the lenslature under the control of gov. Henry, for the express purpose of
insuring his defeat.
On April 8.. 1789, after the assembling of congress in New York and the inaugural
address of Washington, Madison presented the first act under the new constitution, for
the collection of revenues. This was followed by an act to levy tonnage duties on ves-
sels of nations not having reciprocal commercial treaties with the United States, and
especially designed to meet the hostile legislation of England, which had haughtily
refused to enter into such treaty, and had excluded the vessels of this country from all
trade with her West Indian colonies, admitting them to British ports only on special
conditions; while up to this time British vessels had a monopoly of the foreign trade of
America. He carried his measure, but against the determined opposition of the city of
New York, which, beinc the capital, exercised an undue innuence in the national
legislation; and was, as Madison expresses it, "steepeil in Anelicisni." Early in the
same session he brought in declaratory amendments of the constitution, in the nature of
a bill of rights, to quiet apprehensions in the public mind which had given eround for
much of the opposition to the constitution. On the re-assembling of congress in Jan., 1790,
Madison's most conspicuous action was on the report of Hamilton, fint secretary of the
treasury, recommending the funding of the national debt. The secretary's report started
lively speculation in the old state bonds and continental curren^; the former being
increased in value by their proposed assumption by the United states, aiui the latter
resuscitated from no value to a certain low percentage of their face value. Madison
advocated the payment of the domestic debt as equally obli^tory as the foreign debt,
but since it was impossible to pay the face value of the continental money in gold and
sliver, and the rate of valuation for payment had been agreed to, he could not consent
that the speculators, who had bought these evidences of debt, should receive the whole,
and the holders who had parted with them when they were supposed to be valuelesa
should have little or nothing. He puts the case in these words: "As" to pay in full
" would far exceed the value received by the public it will not be expected by the cred-
itors themselves. To reject the cl^ms wholly is equally inadmissible. To make the
other class (original holders) the sole victims W)is an idea at which human nature
recoiled. A composition then is the only expedient that remains. Let it be a liberal
one in favor of the present holders; let them have the highest price which has prevailed
in the market; and let the residue belong to the original sufferers." As this position
aroused, from those who held these papers, a storm of opposition in favor of tne com-
mercial rigor of exact fulfillment, without reference to whose hands those papers were
in, he replied: "He must renounce every sentiment he had hitherto cherished, before
his complaisance could admit that America ought to erect the monuments of her grati-
tude, not to those who saved her liberties, but to those who had enriched themselves in
her funds."
Madison opposed the assumption of the states' debts by the general government, and
three times secured the defeat of the proposition ; but it was at last carried by a com-
promise with those who desired the capital located on the Potomac. During this ses-
sion of confess the federalists and republicans became distinct parties, Alexander
Hamilton bein? the leading spirit of the former, and James Madison the foremost par-
liamentarian of the latter.
At the close of this session it devolved upon Mr. Madison to announce to the house
the death of Franklin, which was done in words of simplicity as felicitous as the char-
acter they commemorated. The result of the first session of the 1st congress in New
York was to rive the representatives of the southern states a feeling of uneasiness as to
the power of I^ew England and New York to control all legislation, in which Mr. Madi-
«Mi participated. In the beginning of the second session a bill J^f;^||i^ incorporation of
U. K. IX.— 88
338
% national bank passed the senate. Madison opposed it in the house, argued its unoon-
3titutionality, and united the southern states against it; but it was carriS b^ the north-
ern members. President Washington was in painful doubt whether to sign the bil1»
His attorney-general ^ve an elaborate opinion that it was unconstitutional. Jefferson
was of the same opinion. Hamilton wrote an elaborate reply to prove its constitution-
alitv. Washington requested Madison to reduce to writing the objections to the bill, with
a view, it was supposed, to embody them in a veto; and Madison carefully prepared
such a paper; but the president, at the last moment, signed the bill out of deference t»
the majorities which had passed it. Madison soon after opposed a congressional prac-
tice of calling on the heads of departments for their opinion ; opposed again the assump-
tion of the debts of the states; protested against the demoralizing effects of the banking
and funding system of the secretary of the treasury; took spirited ground against the
visitation of American ships by the British, and announced that the settled policy of
law should be that '* free ships make free goods." Washington, when his first term was
near its close, requested Madison to prepare for him a valedictory address, which he
did prepare; remonstrating with the former at the same time against his determination
not to run for a second term. Washington did consent to a second election, and Madi-
son's manuscript was preserved by him and included entire in his noble farewell addresa
to the American people. In the third session of congress Madison made a vigorous
criticism on the acts of Hamilton as secretary of the treasury in diverting public moneys,
pledged to pay a debt to France, for the use of the national bank, to the discredit of
the honor of the country; and, to a series of political articles written by Hamilton over
the signature of "Pacificus," broaching doctrines as to the powers of the executive
under the constitution, which Madison thought dangerous, he replied by a masterly
series of five essays over the title of " Helvidius;" to which Hamilton made no reply.
These were written from his father's farm after the close of the 2d conffresa. In the
second session of the 3d congress Madison renewed his resolution for additional dutiea
on the manufactures and shipping of those countries having no commercial treaties with
the United States, being especially aimed to counteract the injurious effect of British
discrimination a^nst American commerce, embracing a specific retaliation for specific
measures of hostile foreign legislation. This was not passed, but postponed till the next
session, when new outrages on American commerce on the part of England called for
the appointment of special commissioners to England. Towards the close of the session
Madison reviewed the acts of congress in a pamphlet entitled PcfUtieal Obsei*vation», now
of great value.
In the recess of congress, on Sept. 15. 1794, Madison married Mrs. Dorothea Payne
Todd, whose beauty, gnicious tact, and kindness of heart and lively socifd qaaUtiea
made her circle of admirers and her influence as extensive within her sphere, for the
remainder of their lives, as her husband's; and as wife of the president, a few years later,
she became the model of all the graces of life that adorn high stations.
The so-called whisky rebellion in Pennsylvania furnished Hamilton, secretary of
the treasury, with an opportunity to invoke military force in its treatment, in a manner
that indicated the tendency to the use of despotic force which was the characteristic of his
statesmanship. Democratic societies had sprung up in the country somewhat in the intem-
perate style of the Jacobins of Paris. The federalists sought to obtain resolutions of
condemnation by congress of these societies. Madison, while making no defense of
their spirit, made such lucid expositions of the danger of such a resolution' that it was
finally negatived. The increase of the standing army was vigorously pressed by tlie
federalists; Madison opposed it but the federalists prevailed. In Aug.. 1795, he protested
against a treaty with England, which yielded the right of search of American vessels,
and which he speaks of as adding " to 'the ruinous bargain with that nation a disquali-
fication to make a good one with any other." In the last session of the 4th congress
he bore a conspicuous part in a three weeks' discussion on the constitutional limits of
the treaty-making and legislative powers. President Washington assumed a position
with referenoe to this subject that Madison felt called upon to oppose, and in doing so
carried more than two-thirds of the house of representatives in his support, and made
the precedent for a participation by the legislative department in carrying treaties into
effect which has since become a principle of our government. His service in the house
of representatives ceased with the administration of Washington.
In the beginning of John Adams's tidministration, the passage of the alien and sedi-
tion laws by the dominant federal majority gave rise to vigorous protests from the state
legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia. The latter are known in history as the resolu-
tions of 1798-99, and were drawn by Madison, thoucrh he was not a member of the state
legislature. They now stand amonc: the highest authorities on constitutioqal const nic-
tion. Animadversions upon these drew from Madison the following winter a report in
which he fortifies the positions taken in the resolutions by a state paper of signal vigor
of style and exhaustive analysis of the reason and philosophy of the resolutions. Though
few of the states followed the bold stand of Virginia at this time, the act of conerresg
which called out the resolutions speedily fell into disrepute, and the lej^l position
usumed by Madison became, a few years later, the settled law of public opinion.
On the inauguration of Jefferson as president in 1801, Madison was made secretary
of state, and retained this ministerial position durin/i: the whole eisrht years of Jefferson 8
Digitized by VjOOV IC
339
Madison*
admlniBtratioii. The harmony of his principles with those of the president produced a
unity and ability of administration rarely continued for so long a period. It is, how-
ever, a curious illustration of the accident of events that during the whole time when
gratitude, honor, and policy all required the most cordial relations to be maintained with
France, and the most spirited opposition to the continued domineering policy of Eng-
land, tiie federal policy had permitted a craven treaty to be made with the latter, and
an offensive form of neutrality to be needlessly pushed in the face of our revolutionary
ally; while now that the friends of that ally were in power, the tyrannous domination of
Napoleon in the government of France had taken from our national sympathy its real
object — to honor hberty and republicanism. At the close of Jeffersim's term, Madison
was the leading candidate of the republican party for his successor, and received in the
electoral college 122 out of 175 votes. He was inaugurated president, Mar. 4, 1809.
lie made Roger Smith of Maryland secretary of state until April 2, 1811, when he was
succeeded by James Monroe of Virginia; Albert Qallatin of Pennsylvania secretary of the
treasury till Feb. 9. 1814, when he was succeeded by (}eo^e W. Campbell of Tennessee;
for secretary of war, William Eustis of Massachusetts till Jan. 18, 1818, when James Mon-
roe acted as secretary of war, <id interim, till the appointment of W. H. Crawford,
Mar. 8, 1615; for secretary of the navy, Paul Hamilton of South Carolina, till Jan. 12,
1813; succeeded by William Jones of Pennsylvania, till Dec. 17, 1814, and then by B. W.
Crowninshield of Massachusetts; for postmaster-general, Gideon Granger of New York,
succeeded by R. J. Mei^ of Ohio; for attorney-flpneral, successively, Csesar A. Rodney
of Delaware^ William Pinckney of Maryland, ana Itichard Rush of Pennsylvania. The
continued arrogance of British claims and acts of interference with ^Ljnerican com-
merce, the seizure and impressment of sailors from American merchant ships, had
brought the United States to the verge of war with Great Britain when Madison's
administration began. An embargo on British commerce was ordered, followed by a
non-intercourse act of congress, prohibiting commerce with France or England until the
British orders in council relating to seizure of neutral vessels and impressment* of sear
men should be repealed ; and the decrees of the French emperor concerning the rights of
neutrals should be rescinded. Embroilments between the British minister and the
American secretary of state followed. Madison requested the recall of the obnoxious
minister. The English government recalled him but sent no other in his place. In Aug-
ust the French emperor revoked the obnoxious commercial decree, ana in November
Madison issued a proclamation for the renewal of trade with France, and of non-inter^
oourae irith England. But Napoleon's irritating maritime practices continued; and the
pvospect was imminent that the national dignity would require a state of war with both
England and France. Madison made every effort to preserve peace, and prepared for
war. Congress appropriated $1,000,000 for naval and military preparations. On June
1. 1812, he transmitted a special message to congress, reviewing the aggressions of Great
Britain, and left it to the Judgment of congress to declare war. It was done, and Uie
president signed the declaration of war, June 18, 1812, and issued a proclamation to the
people. June 28 following, Great Britain, before the news of the declaration had
reached her government, repealed the most obnoxious of her orders in council. Mon^
roe, secretary of state, before the British action could be known, submitted to the
American minister in London terms of a proposition for an armistice to be suggested to
the government. The London government refused the required concessions, and the
American minister returned home. Admiral Warren, of the British navy, was sent out
to negotiate with the American government ; but yielding no promise to stop the impress-
ment of American seamen, the war be^m. In Feb., 1818, a British fleet was in Chesa-
peake bay, and the whole coast of the United States was declared in a state of blockade.
Madison had been elected the autumn before for his second term as president, by a vote
of 128 in the electoral college to 89 for De Witt Clinton. His inauguration. Mar. 4, 1818,
found the war fairly opened. The same month Alexander I. of Russia offered his med iation
for peace, which was accepted by the United States and ref u.sed by Great Britain in Sep-
tember; but in November she signified a willingness to treat. In Jan., 1814, Henry
Clay and Mr. Russell were sent to England for that purpose, but no progress was made,
and in August the British troops captured and burned the public buildings of Washington,
including the president's house The damages inflicted on British commerce by our
privateers, and the battle of New Orleans, brought about a treaty of peace, which was
signed by the United States commissioners at Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. But it contained
no concession of the British claim to impress seamen; which, however, though not
yielded in theory, was abandoned in fact. The country had made brilliant successes in
naval battles with English ships, and had acquitted itself not without honor in its land
engagements; but the war developed a low order of patriotism on the part of the com-
mercial or maritime interests of the country, which not only impaired its vigor, but
pressed for peace with mercenary haste. The last three years of Madison's administra-
tion were marked by no important events, unless his concession to the establishment of
a national bank, which he had always opposed, and once vetoed, may be considered
one. Its subsequent dishonorable history was a proof of the soundness of his previous
objections. Mr. Madison retired from public life with the close of the presidential term.
Mar. 4, 1817, to his farm at Montpelier, Va., where he lived his remaining years happy
in domestic affection, social enjoyments, farming, and literary J^|g.^^^^ 4^^® P^r*
JUadrMk
340
fonned his last public service, as a member of the Virginia constitutional convention,
'Where his frail and venerable figure and broken voice received the homage of the most
Srofound attention and respect. His wife survived him, living to the age of 82, and
ied in Washington, July 12, 1849.
MADISON, James, d.d., 1749-1812; b. near Port Republic, Va. ; a second cousin of
president Madison; graduated at William and Mary college in 1708; was admitted to the
l>ar, but reiinquishedf the law for the ministry; was chosen professor of mathematics in
William and Mary college in 1778, and president in 1777. in 1776 and 1777 he visited
England, and devoted his time to the study of the higher branches of science. In 1784
' he became professor of natural and moral philosophy; in 1790 was consecrated the first
bishop of Virginia by the archbishop of Canterbury in Lambeth palace, and also per-
formed the duties of president and professor until his death. Besides some addresses,
he published Eulogy on Washington; a large Jfop of Virginia; some papers in Barton's
JoumcU^ and in the TranBoctiona of the American society.
MADISON UNIVERSITY, at Hamilton, Madison co., N. Y.; a Baptist institution,
was founded as a seminary in 1820; reorganized into an academy, college, and theo
logical seminary in 1682, and chartered under its present name in 1846. It has an
endowment of $480,000 (mostly raised since 1864), an annual income of $38,284, and unpro-
ductive property amounting to $150,000. It has a library of 11,000 volumes, a fine
museum, a cabinet of minerals, and a laboratoiy and apparatus. The site, elevated about
60 ft. above the waters of the Chenango and the plain below, having pure springs of
water in the rear, and in front the village of Hamilton, presents a landsckpe of great
loveliness, and for the student, ahome of health and beauty. Besides a president's house,
professors' houses, gymnasium, and university boarding hall, there are three edifices of
stone, used strictly for college purposes. The hall of alumni and friends, 107x73 ft.,
has ten lecture rooms, a librar\% a college chapel, and a larce audience room, 107x78 ft.,
for coHege commencements. West college, 100X60 ft., and East college, 100X56 ft., are
mainly occupied by students' rooms and dormitories; but East college has two halls for
literary societies and two academical drill-rooms. West college has, also, an auditorium,
a museum of foreign curiosities, a museum of natural history, and a set of rooms for
chemistry, geology, and physics. The university awards $500 a year as prizes, and pays
^ x>f itself $4,500 annually to students on scholarships, and over $5,000 more, through the
education society, for the benefit of tlie needy. Number of ir^^tructors in 1880, 22;
students in college, 88— in theological seminary, 38. E. Dodge, d.d., ll.d., president
MADLER, JoHAi^K HEmRiOH, 1794-1874; b. Prussia; nt first an instructor in the
Berlin normal schools. He published a map of the moon, 1884r-d6; and the latter year
"^ he was appointed to a position in the Berlin observatory. The next year his AUgenmm
MenograpMe appeared, in two volumes. In 1840 he was made director of the observa-
tory at Dorpat, where he published, in 1846, Die CentraUonne, in which he propounded
the Uieory that the star Alcyone in the Pleiades is, or in its position represents, the cen-
ter of the stellar universe. He also published a popular astronomy and a history of
fistronomy. His researches in regard to variable and double stars are of great value,
.and he ranks as one of the eminent astronomers of tlie century.
VABOC, son of Owen Gwynnedd, a Welsh prince, is believed by his countrymen to
liave discovered America about 800 years before Columbus. Compelled, it is said, by
-civil strife to abandon his native land, he sailed westward in 1170 with a small fleet,
nnd after a voyage of several weeks, reached a country whose productions and inhab-
it nnfs were quite unlike those of Europe. Here he lived for a long time; then returning
-" ) Wiiles, he gave an account of the new land that he had discovered, equipped another
llfrl. set sail again, and was never more heard of. The story of Madoc will be found in
t\\p. llisUyrie of Cambria, now called Wales, a part of the fa.mo\t8 Tland of BryUUne, torUten
in t?is Brytian Language above 200 years past by Caradoc; translated into Engliih by E.
IjU>yd^ gent.; corrected, augmented, avd continued by David Potoell (London, 1584). See
also Owen's British Remains (1777). There is considerable reason for suspecting the gen-
Mincness of this Welsh tradition ; and even if true, the Northmen have a prior claim to
the discovery of America, for it is beyond doubt that Greenland and the New England
states were visited, if not colonized, by Icelanders or Norwegians at a much earlier
period. Southey has chosen the story of Madoc as the subject of one of his so-called
^ HJLDONKA, an Italian word signifying my lady, and specially applied to the Virgin
^ 3IaiT. It has now l)ecome common in other languages, particularly in reference to
*worKS of art. The earliest Christian art, however, did not attempt any representation of
the mother of Christ; such representations first make their appearance after the 5th c
•when the Virgin was declared to be the " Mother of God." The face of the mother is
generally full, oval, and of a mild expression; a veil adorns the hair. At first, the linea-
ments 01 the Virgin's countenance were copied from the older oictures of Christ, accord-
ing to the tradition which declared 'that the Savior resembled his mother. A chrono-
logical arrangement of the pictures of the Virgin would exhibit in a remarkable manner
the development of the Roman Catholic doctrine on this subject. The Madonna has been
^ principal subject of the pencils of the great masters. 'XMiJU;%^4^|jl^^^^B88 ^^^ ^^^^
341 SKSSr
schieved by Raphael, in whose pictures of the Madonna there prevails now the loving
mother, now the ideal of feminine beauty, until in that of St. Sixtus he reaches the
most glorious representation of the " Queen of Heaven." Among symbolic representa^
tions may be mentioned Mary with the white mantle, i.e., the mantle of love under which
she receives the faithful; and the Virgin with the half -moon or with the globe under her
feet^ according to the meaning put upon the twelfth chapter of Revelation. The Virgin
was never represented without the child until comparatively recent times. For further
information, the reader should consult Mrs. Jameson's deughtful work, Legends of ^
Mad^na (Lond. 1852).
MADOCEAWANDO, about 1645-1700, an Indian chief of the Etchemin tribe of the
Penobecot In the French and English wars he at first favored the Englisli; but a
French baron having married his daughter, he took the other side and for years devas-
tated the New England borders.
MADOQITAj AfUUope ioUiana, or Neotroffus saltianus, a species of antelope, abun-
dant in Abyssinia; one of the smallest, if not the very smallest of horned animals, being
scarcely the size of a hare. Its less are long and slender; its tail very short; its horns
short and conical, the males alone liaving horns; the general color is gray, the fore-parts
reddish.
MADOU, Jean Baftibtb, 1796; b. in Brussels; early distinguished for his talent in
depicting picturesoue phases of life. In 1855 he sent to the exposition of Paris two pic-
tures entitled a " Trouble fdte " and the " Fdte-au-Chftteau '* for which he obtained the
second medal and the cross of honor. He became professor of the royal school of Brus*
sels and member of the academy of Antwerp. In 1821 he published a superior litho-
graphic work entitled Voyage PiUeresqae dans le Pay» Bas, which attracted much atten-
tion. This was followed by works on the ancient and modern costumes of the Low
Countries, and scenes in the lives of the Flemish and Holland painters. His latest work
was Phynonomie de la Sodete en Europe, de Louis XI d nos Jours, with 120 plates, 1885>y
which has a high value.
MADOZ', Pascual, 1806-70; b. Spain ; was educated at Saragossa, but was expelled
from the university as a schismatic, and resided for some time in France. He returned to
Spain, and edited the DieeioTymo Geogrdflco Universal, and a Goleecion de Causas GHebres.
He became prominent in politics, was appointed a judge, and was made military eov-
emor of the valley of Aran. In his new office he conducted operations against the Carl-
ists, and was elected a member of the cortes. He opposed Espartero, and eventually
took the lead of the party known as progresista in the cortes. He became minister of
finance in 1855, but retired after holding the office a few months, and in the following
year opposed the O'Donnell ministry ana was obli^d to flee. He was active in the rev-
olution of 1868, was governor of the province of Madrid, and a member of the constitu-
ent cortes. He died while accompanying the Spanish deputation to Rome, to offer the
crown of Spain to Amadeus. He left an important work of which he was both editor
and publisher, printing it in the office which he had established. This work is the Die-
eionario Oeogrdfioo Estadistieoy Historieo de Espatia; 16 vols. 4to, Madrid, 1848-50.
KABSA8', one of the several local governments of British India, still commonly
called the "presidency of Madras,'' occupies the southern part of the Indian peninsula.
The 21 districts immediately under the governor of Madras had in 1871 a pop. of
31,672,618, and an area of 188,818 English sq.m. ; and the tributary states of Travancore,
Pudukota, and Cochin, with an area of 9,471 sq.m., have a pop. of 8,226,427. Mysore is
for military purposes attached to Madras. On the Malabar coast, wliere more rain falls
than on the eastern side of the peninsula, the mean temperature is 78° ; on the Coroman-
del coast the average is 84**, and the barometer occasionally stands at above 100*. Rice,
cotton, indigo, coffee, sugar, maize, millet, are extensively cultivated, and the minerals
are iron, manganese, copper, magnesia, antimony, lead, and silver. The revenue for
1876 was £8,360,488; tlie expenditure, £5,991,449.
MADRAS (called by the natives Chennapatanmn, ** the city of Chennappa," an Indian
prince), a maritime city of British India, capital of the government of the same name, is
situated on the Coromandel coast, the western shore of the bay of Bengal, in lat. 13' 5'
north. No commercial center of equal size and importance is so unfortunate in its site.
The roadstead is open to every wind except that from the w., and in the case of a sud- .
den ^le, vessels are obliged to run for the open sea. Tlie city is not built on a naviga-
ble river; the soil of the vicinity is but moderately productive; and during the hot
months the thermometer, even in a well-appointed room, rises to 96°. In calm weatlier
the surf breaks 300 ft. from the shore, and its wave is 3 ft. in height ; during a storm, it
breaks 1000 ft. from shore, with a wave 14 ft. high, and at such a time any attempt to
land, even in the boats of the natives built for this purpose, is most dangerous. The
seasons are distinctively marked by the monsoons, the n.e. lasting from October to Feb-
ruary and the 8.w. from May to October. The force of the latter, however, is so much
broken by the Ghats that its influence is hardly felt. During the hot months, the cli-
mate of Madi'as is pleasantly modified by a sea-breeze, called by the residents " the dcw
tor," which sets in at noon and lasts till night. The city, with its suburbs, which aro
nine in number, extends along the coast for 9 miles, and haa an average breadth of 3^^^
ISa. 842
miles. On the coast, and midway between the n. and -a. extremities oi the dXj, is
fort St. George, strongly fortified, and garrisoned usually by a regiment of European
troops aiui two companies of artillery; tiiere are also, however, three regiments of native
infantry generally stationed here. Within the fort are comprised the council-house and
a number of civil and military offices. The district of Black Town, n. from the fort,
lies low, in some places being only 6 in. above sea-level at spring-tides. It is defended,
like the fort, from the encroachments of the sea by a strong stone bulwark. In Black
Town are the seven wells, the water of which, filtered through a bed of fine sand, is
exceedingly pure and wholesome. The principal buildings and institutions are govern-
ment house, a handsome edifice, though much inferior to the similar establishments in
Calcutta, and even in Bombay; the light-house, to the n. of the fort, 128 ft. above sea-
level, and having a light, saici to be one of the most brilliant in the world ; the Scotch
church of St. Andrew, founded in 1818, a stately and beautiful edifice; the university,
with European professors, and numerous teachers, both European and native, and con-
tainm^ a valuable museum and a library'; St. George's cathedral, from which a magnifi-
cent view of the city and its vicinity may be obtained, and containing several monu-
ments by Chantrey (including one of bishop Heber), and some figures by Flaxman.
There are also military male and female orphan asylums, a medical school, a branch of
the royal Asiatic society, the Madras polytechnic institution, tJie government observatory,
a mint, the churches of numerous Christian denominations, and the Madras club, to
which members of the Bengal and Bombay clubs arc admitted as honorary members.
Madras stucco, or chunam. is largely employed in the decoration of public buildings.
When laid upon walls, pillars, etc., dried and polished, it has the appearance of Uie
finest Parian marble. The first British settlement on this coast was at Armagon, 80 m.
n. of Madras; but the seat of the present fort being granted by a native prince in 1639,
a removal took place, and the nucleus of the present city was at once formed. Madras
is now the residence of the government of the presidency, including the governor, the
members of council, etc., and of the judges of the supreme court. The tables of
Europeans in this city are supplied with beef, mutton, and many other home luxuries.
Pop. '71, 397,552 of whom about 20^000 are Europeans, and the great body of the
remainder Hindus. The chief articles of export are rice, cotton, hides, skins, and espe-
cially coffee. The value of the exports from the Madras ports in 1876 was £4,548,830.
The imports for the same year amounted in value to £2,088,330. Madras has tele-
graphic communication with England, and therefore America; and, in 1871, cables con-
necting it with Hong-Kong werelaid. Madras has railway communication with Bombay,
Calcutta, and consequently with the main system of Indian lines.
MABSAB STSTEM. See Mutual Instruction.
HAD'BEPOBE, Mndrepora, a genus of zoophytes (antJiozoa), the type of a family,
madrcporidm, ifi which the polyps have twelve short tentacles, and the polypidom is
stony. The name, however, is often more extended in signification, and popularly is
nf>t clearly distinguished from Coral. The polypidom is sometimes arl)orescent and
branched, sometimes spread out in a leaf -like form. The cells in the true madrepores
are isolated and lamellated. spread over the surface of the polypidom like little stars.
The variety of forms among the madrepores is very great, and many of them are very
beautiful. They are all found in the seas of warm parts of the world. The custrcms are
generally in large convex masses, the surface hollowed with crowded stars. They
mcrease with great rapidity, as do some of the other madrepores, and are often found in
liuge masses, composing some of the most recently formed rocks.
MADRID', a province of central Spain, in New Castile, bounded by the provinces of
Toledo, Segovia, Avila, Cuenca, and Guadalajara; watered by the Tagus river; 2,997
sq.m. ; pop. *70, 487,482. It is a mountainous region, with a mean elevation above the
sea level of 8,500 ft., a severe climate, and little vegetation. In the s. and w. parts,
where the soil is fertile, there is a largo yield of hemp, barley, oats, wheat, and rye: and
there is a slight production of olive oil and wine. Capital, Madrid.
MABSID', the capital city of Spain, in the province of the same name in New Castile
(see Castile), is situated near the center of the country, on the left bank of the Manzan-
ares, a small stream whose waters join those of the .Tamara, an affluent of the Tagus. It
is built on a hilly, barren, and ill- watered plateau, 2,060 ft. above sea-level, offenng on
the one hand, no protection against the bitter n. winds from the snowy peaks of the
Guadurrama mountains, and on the other, open to the Solano, the south-eastern wind,
which, aided by a glaring sun, often raises the temperature to 90* and even to 106" in
the shade. In winter, the temperature sometimes falls to 18". Summer, however, is
the most trying period. During this season, the sunny and shady sides of the same street
may differ 20" in temperature. Not without justice has the climate of Madrid been pro-
verbially described as ires meses de iiivienw y nnete del infierno (three months of winter
and nine months of hell). The rate of mortality is 1 in 30 to 34. The city is circular in
shape, and is surrounded by low walls pierced by 16 gates. It contains 32 churches, 14
barracks, 13 hospitals, 18 public libranes, 4 foundling hospitals, 13 royal academies,
numerous elementary schools, a university, 7 leading and numerous minor theaters, an
ftmple supply of newspapers, many literar}- and artistic institutions, above a down nun-
neries—44 monasteries were suppressed in 1886. The number of palaces is (jreat. The
348
jyriiicipal arcSiitectaral feature is the royal palace {palado reaX), a splendid edifice, built
^granite, atid of a sr one resembling white marble. It is a square 470 ft. in length on each
side, and 100 ft. in height, and incloses a court 340 ft. square. There are two libraries,
the public and the private royal libraries: the former, containing 230,000 vols., is well
kept and tended; the latter, with 100,000 vols., is rapidly falling to decajr. The royal
«rmory is one of the finest in the world ; the Toledo blades, the artistic armor, and
fields from Auesburg and Milan, are superb. The armory contains relics of the great-
est Spanish epochs, and furnishes in itseli a realization of Spanish history. The Muaeo,
said to be one of the finest picture-galleries in the world, besides specimens of many
other famous painters, contains 10 of Claude, 23 of Van Dyck, 16 of Guido. 46 of Mu-
Tillo. 21 of N. Poussin, 10 of Raphael, 62 of Rubens, 52 of Teniers, 48 of Titian, 27 of
Tintoretto, 62 of Velasquez, 24 of Paul Veronese, and 10 of Wouvermans. Of all these
pictures, the most wonderful are those by Velasquez, whose finest work is here, and
who, indeed, can here only be studied to advantage. The general aspect of Madrid is
that of a new city, with fine houses, streets,* and squares, in the squares are numerous
fltatue^'-^s that of Philip IV. (in the plaza de Oriente), a splendid equestrian work, 19
ft. in height, and weighing 180 cwt. ; the statue of Cervantes, etc. In and around the
city, also, are numerous public walks. The 'manufactures of the city are unimportant.
Tlie artisans and tradesmen are supported by the court, the nobility, the oflBcials, and
the innumerable body of place-hunters. Pop. *70, 882,024; of the province, 484,541.
The first historical mention of Madrid occurs under Ramiro II., king of Leon, who
took this city in 982. In 1088, when Madrid, or, as it was then called, Majerit, was
captured by Alfonso VI. of Castile, it was merelv a Moorish fortified outpost of Toledo.
It rose into some importance in the beginning of the 16th c, when Charles I. (afterwards
the emperor Charles V.) removed his court hither. In 1560 is was declared the only court
by Philip II. A number of memorable treaties have been concluded in Madnd, and
bear its name, particularly that between Charles V. and Francis I. of France in 1526;
that between Spain and Venice in 1617; and that between Portugal and Spain in 1800.
In the Spanish war of succession, it favored the French party; and in tlie war of free-
dom against France, it gave the signal for a general rising by an insurrection aeainst
Jiurat on May 2, 1808, in which iSK) of the citizens of Madrid lost their lives. From
1809 till 1812 it was held by the French ; but in the latter year, the duke of Wellington
entered it and replaced it in the hands of its legitimate rulers. Madrid, always opposed
to the dlarlists during the recent civil strife of Spain, adopted the cause of king Alfonso
in 1874.
MABSIOAI, a word of uncertain etymology, denotes a short lyrical poem, adapted to
the quaint and terse expression of some pleasant thought, generally on the subject of
love. The proper madrigal consists of three verses or strophes, generally bound together
by rhymes; but this form is not always adhered to. and the name is sometimes applied
to little love-poems of any form. Among the Italians, the best writers of madrigals are
Petrarch and Tasso; among the French, Montreuil, Lainez. and Moncrif; among the
Ck>rmans, Ziegler(the earliest). Voss, Manso, Goethe, and A. W. Schlegel; and among
the English', the poets of the Elizabethan and Caroline ages, several of whom, such as
Lodge, Withers, Carew, and Suckling, have written verses, sometimes called madrigals,
fiotnetimes songs, the grace' and elegance of which have never been matched. — ^The name
madrigal is also applied to pieces of vocal music of a corresponding character. The
musical madrigal, which originally was a simple song sung in a rich artistic style, but
afterwards with an instrumental accompaniment (generally the organ), is believed to have
originated with the Flemings, and dates from the middle of the 16th century. It went
out of fashion about tiie beginning of the 18th c, but the later glee may be regarded as
a similar ^composition. The English madrigalists are especially famous. Neitner Italv
nor the Netherlands has produced greater names than Morley, Wilbye, Bennett, Ward,
Orlando Gibbons, Dowland, and Ford.
MADimtAf a maritime district in the s. of British India, in the presidency of Madras,
is bounded on the e. by the strait which separates Hindustan from the island of Ceylon.
It has an area of 9,502 sq.m.. and a population in 1871 of 2,266,615. Eastward from the
shore runs a narrow ridge of sand ana rocks, mostly dr^, and which almost connects
Ceylon with the continent. Cotton is the chief commercial crop; and sugar-cane, betel-
nut, and tobacco are also grown. The principal town is Madura, on the river Vygat,
with several noteworthy public buildings.
MADU'RA, the capital of the district of Madura, in the province of Madras; 270 m.
aw. from the city of Madras; pop. 86,000. It was anciently the seat of the Pandian
kingdom, which was founded 500 B.C. Ambassadors from the king of pHudya visited
Rome in the time of Augustus. Early in the Christian era a college was founded here
for the cultivation of Tamil literature, and was distinguished throughout India for the
learning of its professors. They took great pains to keep the language free from San-
skrit words, which were then beginning to be brought from the north, and to this day no
Tamil is there considered pure that has any mixture of the northern tongues. The last
«OTereign. queen Menakshi Amman, was dethroned by Chunder Saib, 1736; from 1740
to 1760 the city was repeatedly besieged, and was often in the hands of rebels. TDl
ncently it had a double wall with 72 towers surrounded by a ditch from 60 to 70 ft
MAdiinu Q44.
wide. Some of the native edifices give evidence of ancient splendor, but most of the
dwellings are very inferior. The temple of Meenarchi or Fish mother is in the center
of the city, and is the fourth of the seven strongholds of idolatry in India. It is said to
have been partially destroyed in the flood of Menu, and to have been rebuilt bv Sekhan
Pandian in the 2d or 3d c, to have been nearly destroyed during the second Moham-
medan conquest in the 14th c, and renewed by Yiswanatha Naick. Its present splen-
dor is due to Tirumal Naick, the last rajah, who reigned 1622-62L The outer wall of the
temple is a parallelogram of 800 by 700 ft., within which are 60 buildings devoted to
the various purposes of the temple worship, and the iise of those who conduct it. The
wall is of granite with a parapet of brick, and is 87 ft. high. The main entianoes are
by four gateways 30 ft. high, through towers 50 or 00 ft. wide at the base which rise in
II stories to the height of 160 feet. One choultrie or rest-house within the inclosure built
by Tirumal Naick is 812 ft. by 125, the roof supported by 162 columns, many of them
wrought from a single stone. Fifty-four of these columns are 80 ft. high, of 2 stones
fitted face to face so as to look like one solid block 4i ft. thick, carved on all sides with
life-size figures in full or in bas-relief. The granite roof of one room is supported by
1,000 columns, and the columns in the whole temple number 10,000. There are also
remains of a palace of considerable magnificence built by Tirumal Naick. Madura has
been the metropolis of Hinduism for southern India. Early in the 17th c. a Roman
Catholic mission was establish^ here, and continued for about 150 years. In 1887 the
mission was re-established, and has prospered. Up to 1885 no Protestant missionary
had ever resided in the city. In that year a mission was established by the Rev. Daniel
Poor and others of the American board, and much has been accomplished for the
enlightenment of the people. From this center Christian work has extended to several
other cities and many villages; between 80 and 40 native churches have been formed,
more than 150 native congregations gathered, and about 7,000 converts recorded; a large
number of children are under instruction in over 100 schools, and there are faithful
educated native pastors, catechists, and teachers.
VABU'SA (Sanskrit, sweet), an island, separated by a narrow strait from the n.e.
of Java, in 6** 52' to 7° IT s. lat., and 112^ 89' to 118"* 9' e., lone., about 90 m. long and 24
broad. It consists of three kingdoms — ^Madura, west; Pamakasan, middle; and Suma-
nap, east. The princes are vassals of the Dutch, but Pamakasan onl^r is directly under
their rule; and the prince, who is colonel, has a small active army trained by European
officers, and maintained at the cost of the jS'etherlands.
On Dec. 31, 1878, the pop. was 781,821, of whom 719,288 were natives, 478 Euro-
peans, 5.547 Chinese, and 8,883 Arabs, etc. Births, 26,396; deaths, 18,998. The natives
are active, honest, brave, and industrious, but quick-tempered and revengeful. They
are mostly Mohammedan. They quarry stone, burn lime, make saquerus palm sugar,
vegetable oils, mats, and baskets; weave coarse fabrics, make salt; carve wood, fish, and
cultivate rice, maize, tobacco, indigo, etc. The rivers are small, and the hills never
attain to a great height; Padjadan, the highest, being 1864 ft. above the sea. In some
districts petroleum springs out of the ground, and is burned in lamps. A low chain of
limestone hills crosses the island. The exports are sugar, tobacco, indigo, cocoa-nut oil»
edible nests, stone, trepang, buffaloes, horses, and horned cattle.
MADURA DISTRICT (ante), bounded n. by the district of Trichinopoly and Coim-
batoor, e. by Tanjore and Palk's strait, s. by the gulf of Manaar, w. by Travancore.
The principal river is Vygah, which after a course of 180 m. falls into Palk's strait.
The district has an elevated range of mountains, the highest peak bein^ 7,000 ft. above
the level of the sea. The district of Madura has four general divisions, which are
subdivided into talooks or counties. In the entire district there are 1015 villages, and
a population of 1,806,725. The climate of the hills is mild in summer, but cold in Jan-
uary; that of the plain is dry and hot; the tlicrmonieter sometimes reaching 115". It
partakes of the vicissitudes of the two monsoons. I'he district came into the possession
of the English in 1801.
MADVIG, JoHANN Nikolai, b. at Svanike, in the island of Bomholm, 1804; was
educated at the university of Copenhagen, and obtained there the professorship of the
LatiD language and literature when he was onlv 25 years of age. Although his life has
been chiefly devoted to philological studies, ana to the careful editing of classical works,
he has held important official positions in Denmark, where he was minister of public
worship in 1848, director of public instruction in 1852, and a member of the oiet in
1854. He has published a Glance at the Constitutions of Antiq\iity; ^ Latin Grammar for
Schools; Adversaria Oritiea ad Scriptores Graces et Latinos; The Oreatum, Development,
and Life of Language; and other works.
XJEAHDEB (now Meinder), the ancient name of a river of Asia Minor, rising near
Celsense, in Phrygia, and flowing in a s.w. direction into the Icarian sea at Miletus. It
is noted for its numerous windings — whence the English word meander, applied to any
stream, signifies to fiow in a winding course.
KJBCOSIIAS, C. CiLNiTJS, a Roman statesman, celebrated for his patronage of letters,
was b. in the early part of the first century before Christ. His family was of Etruscan
^-''»in, and of royal descent (Hor. C<irm. i. 1), perhaps from Porscna. He received an
04.fi MadttM.
***" ]llMshowe..
exoelfeDt education, -was familiar with Greek: and Roman literature, and occasionally did
a litUe in the way of anthorship himself. His first appearance in public life dates after
Uie assaniQation of Julius CsBsar (44 b.c.), when he figures as the friend and adviser of
OotaTian. He had, it is clear,. a talent for private diplomacy, and was employed mainly
in that capacity. He '* arranged " a marria^ between Octavian and Scribonia, made u^
(temporanlv) the differences between Octavian and Antony, and brought about the peace
of Brandisium. In 86 9.C. he was in Sicily, helping Octavian, as usual. Five years.
later, when the latter was fighting the great and decisive sea-battle of Actium with his.
rival Antony and the Egyptian princess Cleopatra, Mncenas proved himself a vigilant
governor of Rome by crushing a conspiracy of the younger Lepidus, and thereby pre-
venting a second civil war. Yv hen Octavian became emperor under the title of Augustus
(a step which he is said to have taken by the advice of Macenas, who was profoundly
ifflprased with the necessity of a "strong government" to repress the anarchic elemenU^
of the period), the latter was appointed fuiministrator of all Italy. The nature and
exteot of his ofllcial power are not very precisely understood, but they were undoubtedly
great, though the influence and authority of HaBcenas are to be estimated rather froiu
bia intimacy with the emperor than his mere position as a public servant. This intimacy
—friendship it might, perhaps, be called — continued uninterrupted for many years; but
some time before 16 b.c. it was ruptured from causes which cannot now be ascertained.
No enmity, however, ensued. Msdcenas was a thoroughly sincere imperialist. He had
a belief in the value of an established government; and when he found that he no longer
retained the confidence of his sovereign, he did not lapse into a conspirator; but, as a
modem minister might do, retired into the obscurity of private life. Literature and the
society of literary men now occupied all his time. He was immensely rich, and kept an
open table for men of parts at his fine house on the Esquiline hill. Maecenas's inter-
course with Horace especially was of the most cordial nature, and equally honorable to-
both. So far as personal moralitv went, MaecenaJs was a thorough paean — not a bad mai>
in the usual sense of the word, but copiously addicted to sei&ual delights. His adul-
teries—if not worse — were the talk of the city ; he dressed effeminately, had a passioa
for theatrical entertainments, paid great attention to cookery, gardening, etc. ; and, ii>
short, in his theory of life, was an epicurean of "the baser sort." It Soes not, there-
fore, surprise us to find that he was a valetudinarian and a hypochondriac, and that he
died childless, 8 b.c. He left the bulk of his property to Augustus.
KA£'LAX, Lakb, one of the largest and most beautiful lakes in Sweden, about 81 m.
in length; its average breadth about 18, and its area about 525 sq. miles. It contains
upwards of 1200 islands. Its e. end is close by Stockholm, where its waters are poured
into the Baltic sea, the difference of level being scarcely six feet. The banks are very
much varied with wood, lawn, and cliffs, and are adorned with many castles, country-
Beats, and villaa They are very fertile, and well cultivated, and upon them are, besides
Stockholni, the towns of EnkDping, Westeras, K5ping, Arboga, Strengnfts, Thorshftlla,
lUriefried, and Sigtuna^
MAELSTROM. See Mal8tr5m, an(<;.
MAERLANT, Jakob, 1285-1300; a Dutch poet, regarded as the father of poetry in
the Low Countries. His HeimdijhJteid der Heimel0kJieden was published in Dort in lo88 ;
Wapcn Martin in Antwerp in 1496 and in Dort in 1834. In 1270 he completed a versi-
fied version of the Bible, lUjmbibel, published in 1858-60. In 1283 he wrote Smeghel Hui-
i^inaa, and among his works is one entitled Der Naturen Blaeme, published m Brussels
in 1857.
1EAES80WE', an artificial mound with an interior chamber, of unknown antiquity,,
situated on the main-land of Orkney, about 9 m. in a westerly direction from Kirkwall,,
and little more than a mile from the famed standing stones of Stennis. Maeshowe i»
described as follows by Dr. "William Chambers in a work {My Holidays) privately circu-
lated ID 1867: "It is situated in an open, heathy spot; outwardly there is little to be
seen—only a circular grassy tumulus, or barrow, as it is called by antiquaries, measuring
39 ft. high, and about 92 ft. in diameter at the base, at which a low door presents itself.
Made aware of our errand, a ffirl from the neighboring farm-house arrives with the key
of the door, a couple of candies, and a box of lucifer matches. We have also bits of
candles with us; and with the whole lighted, we enter the aperture, crouching as we
advance along a passage varying from a width of 2 ft. 4 in. at the entrance, to 3 ft. 4 in.
it the opening into the interior chamber. The height, low at first, expands to 4 ft. 8'
inches. The passage is formed by slabs of stone, above, below, and along the sides. On
i^amg into the central chamber, our candles at first feebly enable us to comprehend its .
dhnensions. These we at length discover. We are in a vault built of slalw of stone,
pleasuring 15 ft. square, except at the corners, where there are buttresses. The height
M 18 feet On each of the sides, except that with the entrance, at a height of 3 ft. from
tke floor, there is a square opening to a cell or recess, tlie lareest of which is 7 ft. in
^gth by 4 ft. 6 in. in breadth. The roof of the vault had origmally been constructed
^th slabs advancing successively layer above layer to the center; but as a result of recent
i^epans, when the structure was cleared out and restored to something like its former
condition, the roof is now partly composed of arched masonry, with un aperture for ven-
'il^n. As can be easily supposed, this.Btrange subterranean chamber ^ Isold and
MacmslBe.
346
«]ainmy. The slabs of stone are wet with damp, and nothing induces a protracted staj
but ilie wish to examine certain Rnnic inscriptions and enibleniatic or fanciful figures
•carved on a few of the stones. These carvings were discovered only at the opening aod
repairing the chamber, an operation undertaken at the instance of Mr. James Farrer,
If .p. , a learned and enthusiastic antiquary. In a privately circulated work on Kaeshowe,
by Mr. Farrer, and also in a work by Mr. J. M. MitcheU, the carvings have been
explained partly through the assistance of Norwegian scholars. All refer to Vikings
and other bcaiidinavian heroes, or to transactions in the middle ages. According to Mr.
Farrer's interpretation, it signifies: 'Molf Kolbainson carved these runes to Qhaut'—
Ohaut being possibly a comnuie who fell in battle. Mr. Mitchell's ti-anslation runs thus:
' Thoife Kobainsson cut these runes (on) this cave.' Such is a pretty fair specimen of
the interpretations of the different inscriptions; scarcely two persons agreeing in the sig-
nification, [We have reason to believe that the diversity here referred to arises from the
fact that imperfect transcriptions of the Runes had been submitted to the foreign scholars
who uctcd as interpreters. We are sorry to learn that damp is likely soou to deface
these interesting inscriptions.] Several purport to refer to hidden treasure, a circum-
stance which throws a degi^e of ridicule over the whole, for no one carves inscriptions
on stones, telling the world where money is secretly deposited. Of the emblematic or
fanciful figures, nothing can be made. One is a figure of a horse with an animal like
an otter in its mouth, a second is a winged dragon, and a third is a worm knot
These figures may represent the names of ships, or may be whimsicalities signifying
nothing.
"There is nothing in these runes to explain the origin or use of the structure. We
Are left to conjecture that it was erected as a sepulchral vault in extremely re^iote times;
and being opened by Scandinavian rovers, in the hope of discovering hidden treasure,
they used it as a resort or hiding-place, and carved the inscriptions which still remain
to attest their visits. Obviously the building and the passage communicating with it
were erected on the open plam, and then covere<l with the earth which forms the
tumulus. There is at some distance an environing mound and ditch, still pretty entire.
The whole structure bears a resemblance to the vaulted tiunuli in other parts of the
British islands. In one at Newgrange, on the banks of the Boyne, near Drogheda, the
walls are composed of tall blocks set on end; whereas, at Maeshowe, the slabs are built
one above another (without mortar), as in an ordinary wall. This general resemblance
points to a common origin." Capt. Burton's Ultima Thule (187.")) asserts a resemblance
or connection between the runes' of Maeshowe and a Syrian cipher called El Mushajjar.
For a minute account of Maeshowe, see a paper by Mr. John Stuart, secretary of the
Scottish society of antiquaries, 1867.
MAES, or MA AS, Nicol.\8, 1632-98; a Dutch painter, pupil of Rembrandt;
Acquired a fortune by his skill as a portrait painter at Amsteraam, and his works
command a high price to this day. In other lines of painting he also achieved fame,
and there is a painting in the Louvre at Paris representing a wife reproaching her
husband that exhibits his characteristics as a painter.
HAESTO'SA, a term in music, meaning with majesty or dignity. It is frequently fol-
lowed by CON (p-anta.
MAESTRI, PiETRO, 1816-71; b. in Milan. He took a promment part in the
revolutionary movements in Italy in 1848, and became one of the heads of the provisional
government; afterwards exiled and resident in France till 1859, when he joined the
movement of Garibaldi for the unity of Italy. He founded and edited the Stadstira
OeneraU at Milan in 1861. In 1863 he published La Francia Contemporan^a . He was
■connected with the Italian department of the Paris exposition of 1867 and published
UTtalia Ecmiomtea, which he continued to edit. He died m Florence, and his native city
of Milan iionored him with a cenotaph.
MAESTRICHT. See Maastricht, ante.
MAES'TSIGHT BED8. In Britain, the chalk with flints is covered with tertiaiy
strata, but at Maastricht in Holland there occurs a thickness of 100 ft. of soft yellowisli
limestone, aboundingin the remains of corals and bryozoa, sometimes, indeed, entirely
made up of them. The fossils are peculiar, and quite distinct from tertiary species.
Yet a considerable interval must have elapsecl between the deposition of the Maestricht
heds and the underlying chalk, for that has been abraded before the deposition of the
newer beds. The most remarkable fossil found in tliese strata is the gigantic marine
reptile mososaurus (q.v.).
VAFFEI, Francesco Scipionb, Marchese, an eminent Italian author, was b. at
Verona, June 1, 1675, and studied in the Jesuit college at Parma. He spent part of his
youth in military service, under his brother Alessandro, who greatly distinguished
himself in the Spanish war of succession, and who finally rose to the rank of a field-
marshal; but his love of literature prevailed over the desire of military renown, and be
devoted himself to literary pursuits. He was for some time one of the editors of a
critical journal, intended to promote among the Italians an acquaintance with foreign
literature. His tragedy of Merope (Modena, 1718) was received with great approbation,
And went through 70 editions in Maffei's lifetime. His comedy of La Oermoma soon
followed, and was also successful. Maffei was a zealous promoter of the study of the
Greek language and literatufe in Italy, and bestowed much labor on the examination of
ancient manuscripts. His Verona lUustrata (Ver. 1731-32; new ed. 8 vols. Ver. 1792-08)
is a work of much value and learning. He died Feb. 11, 1755. A collective edition
of his works was published at Venice in 1790, in 21 vols.
MAFFITT, JoBOf Nbwland, dd., 1794-1850; b. Dublin; joined the Wesleyan
Methodists; came to the United States in 1819, and was received into the New
England Methodist Episcopal conference. He was pastor for 12 years of several
important cliurches. In 1881 he removed to New York, and traveled in various parts of
the countrv, lecturing and preaching. In 1883 in connection with the Rev. L« Garrett
he founded in NashvSle, Tenn., the Western MetJufditt, a weekly journal. He preached
extensively as a revivalist, his brilliant eloquence attracting immense congregations. In
1837 he was elected professor of elocution and belles-lettres in the Lu Grange college,
Alabama. This position he held until chosen chaplain to congress in 1841. In 1845 he
^tablisbed at Auburn, N.Y., and edited CalDary Token, a literary and religious monthly.
He was exceedingly dramatic and emotional in his style both of language and delivery.
KAFKA, a small t. of Portugal, in the province of Estremadura, 18 m. n.w. of
Lisbon. Pop. 3,500. It is remarkable only for its palace and convent, which form an
eDormoii.sly large and most striking edifice. It is 780 ft. in length and 690 ft. in width,
eaiitains in all 866 rooms, with 5,200 windows, and about as many doors: 10,000 men, it
has been said, could be reviewed on its roof. It was built by king John V. (1717-31),
and is splendidly fitted up and decorated. The library contains 80,000 vols., and is 300
fl in length: its pavement consists of white and red marble; and the book-cases are
made of the most costly woods.
KAGADOX'O, or Mukdis'hA, a commercial t. on the eastern coast of Africa, on the
Somali coast, in lat. 2' 2' north. It wjis built by the Arabs in 924, for the purposes of
trade, and was a flourishing place when the Portuguese first visited it. It now belongs
totbeimaum of Muscat, whose flag flouts above the town. Pojv, inclusive of slaves,
about 5,000. It exports dhurra, beans, peas, cattle, cotton, spices, etc.
MAQALHA'ENS, Domingos Jose G0N9ALVE8 de. 1810; b. in Kio Janeiro, of an
<)!il Portuguese family ; educated a physician. In 1636 he was attached to the Brazilian
tmhassy to Paris. Returning to Rio in 1838 he became professor of philosophy, and then
successively member of the chamber of deputies, and ambassador at Naples, Turin, and
Berlin. He remained for many years in the latter position. He first published lyric
poems in 1832 and subsequently has published from time to time works that
have exhibited a constantly improving genius, and tendency to philosophical specula-
tion. His Mt/8teno8 is one of the most esteemed of his works. Antonio Jose and Olgiato
are two tragedies dealing with facts in the history of Brazil, and have been used on the
''tage. His most popular work in Brazil is entitled A Gonfedera^ao dos Tayn*)yos, pub-
lished in Rio Janeiro in 1857. It is a vivid picture of the defense of the Indians against
the Portuguese, describes tlie founding of the city of Rio Janeiro, and is considered the
Dational lyric of Brazil.
MAGALHA'ENS, or MAGELLA'ITOS, Fernando. See Magellan, ante.
MAGALHA'ENS, Fray Gabriel de, 1609-77; b. at Pedrogao, "Portugal: united
with the order of Jesuits at 16 years of age; sent as a missionary to India in 1634. In
IWObesetout for Japan, but having stopped at Macao he concluded to explore the
interior of China. Having studied the Chinese language at Macao, he went to the
western province of Szechuen, where he met with great success as a Christian teacher.
Arebelhon in the province while he was there exposed him to great peril, but nothing
worse happened to him than to be wounded on one occasion by an arrow. He accom-
panied the victorious imperial army to the capital in 1648, where he gained the favor of
the emperor and was permitted to build a church. But on the accession of a new
emperor he was subjected to persecution, twice put to torture, and condemned to death,
from which he escaped by the intervention of the regency. Three years later he was
sgain arrested and ordered to leave the country; but an earthquake at the time caused a
panic which diverted attention from him, and he remained in the country until his
<letth at Pfekin, when he was honorably buried by the emperor's order. He Vas of the
nine family as the great navigator, and bis work in the French language, entitled NouwUe
^fiaUon de la Ghine, contenant la Description des PartietUarit^ les jjIum BemarquabUs
* ce (hand Empire, is very highly esteemed by scholars.
XAffAZmS (a word derived from the Arabic fnak?i2an), literally means any place
where stores are kept; but as a military expression magazine always means a powder-
««yaww, although arms may at times be kept in it. A magazine may be a depot where
▼Est quantities 01 gunpowder are held in reserve, an entrepdt for the supply of several
wTanced works, a battery magazine for the wants of a fortress during a siege, or merely
JQ erpense magazine for the daily requirements of the special battery in which it may
* situated. iJic last is usually temporary, and hollowed out in the back of the ram-
part; but the other forms require most careful structure. They must be bomb-proof,
w<i therefore necessitate very thick walls; they must be quite free from damp; and
^T should admit sufficient daylight to render the use of lanterns within generally
Mnideb^irs. ^^^
unnecessuy. Kagazines are commonly built of brick, the solid masoni^ being arched
over witliin, and a thickness of earth sometimes added above the brick-work to insure
impermeability to shells. The entrance is protected by shot-proof traverses, lest an
opening should be forced by ricochet shots. Within, a magazine is divided into bins or
compartments, and one of these should always be kept empty in order that the Imrrels
of powder may frequently be moved from one place to another, a process necessary to
keep it in good condition. A batter]^ magazine commonly contains GOO rounds for the
guns dependent on it. Depot magazines should, when possible, be limited to 1000 bar-
rels of powder.
In a ship the magazine is strongly built in the hold ; it is divided by a transparent
screen from the UfffS-room, in which are kept properly provided lanterns, the introduc-
tion of fire in any form into the magazine itself being absolutely forbidden. The explo-
sion of the magazine is, of course, equivalent to the destruction of the ship, and there-
fore means are devised by which, on the least appearance of fire in its vicinity, the
maflnzine may be immediately flooded.
The term magazine has been applied to a well-known class of periodical publications,
usually issued monthly, and containing miscellaneous pieces in prose and verse, to
which at one time was appended a chronicle of public events. The oldest of this class
of works is the Oentleman's Magazine, begun by Edward Cave in 1781.
MAGAZINE GUNS. See Brebch-Loadino Guns.
KAODA'LA. a t. of Abyssinia, about 120 m. s.e. of Gondar, on the left bank of the
Bachilo, a feeaer of the Blue Nile, at an elevation of about 9,000 ft. above the level of
the sea, and within a few miles of the mountains of the Falla country, the peaks of
which are covered with snow for nine mouths of the year. Magdala was a small town,
having a pop. of only 8,000 or 4,000, but it recently acquired note as the place of resi-
dence of the negus or king of Abyssinia, and as the place of captivity of the British
prisoners, for whose rescue an expedition was at last sent out, in 1867, by the British
government. Its rock fortress, approachable only by a narrow path up a st«ep ascent of
800 ft., and through a double line of defense, was regarded by the Abyssinians as
impregnable; but it was forced, after a short but brave defense on the part of the few
attendants who up to the last remained faithful to Theodore, on April 18, 1868. The
town was found to be of the meanest description, the church and royal palace being in
' nowise exceptions to the prevailing dirtiness. The wealth of Magdala was insignificant.
Before the departure of the English troops the town was burned and its defenses thor-
oughly destroyed.
MAGDALA, in Galatia, probably the birth-place of Mary Magdalene, i.e., Maiy of
Magdala. The name signifies tower or castle, it was on the lake Gennesaret, on the
western shore. After the destruction of Jerusalem it was a seat of Jewish learning;, and
the rabbins of Magdala are often mentioned in the Talmud. A small Moslem village,
now found on the shore of the lake, 8 m. w. of Tiberias, is supposed to represent the
Magdala of Scripture.
KAODALEITA, the principal river of the United States of Colombia, South America,
has its origin in a mountain lake at the s. extremity of the eastern Cordilleras. After a
northern course of 900 m. it falls into the Caribbean sea, in lat. 11° n., long. 75** west.
Of its course, the upper portion is rapid, and interrupted by many cataracts; the lower
portion is through a great plain. It is navigable to Honda, 540 m. from its mouth;
chief affluent, the Cauca. The area drained by the Magdalena is estimated at 110,000
sq. miles.
MAGDALE'NA, a state of Colombia, on the Caribbean sea, having Venezuela on
the e., Santander on the s., and Bolivar on the w. ; 36.950 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 85,255. The
surface is varied with mountains and valleys in all parts; the country is watered by the
river Magdalena and its branches. The climate is severe, the temperature being gen-
erally oppressively warm. Yellow fever occurs at the sea-ports. The productions are
tropical fruits, rice, cotton, coffee, sugar, tobacco, and cacao. Gold is found in the
interior.
VAODALEir COLLEGE, Oxford; in full, the college of St. Mary Magdalene. Will-
iam Patten, commonly called Waynfiete, from the pl^e of his birth, successiyely head
master of Winchester, head master and provost of Eton college, bishop of WiDCtiester,
and at the same time lord high chancellor, founded the hall of St. Mary Magdalene in
1448. In 1457 he obtained a license from the king to found a college, into which he
transferred the president and scholars of the hall. Magdalen is in many respects the
most remarkable college in Oxford, and Wood declares it to be " the most noble and
rich structure in the learned world, that is to say, that if you have regard to its endow-
ment, it excelleth, all thin^ considered, any society in Europe." There were on the
original foundation a president, 40 fellows, 30 scholars called demies, 4 chaplains, and
16 choristers. The fellowships and demyships were confined to certain specified dio-
ceses and counties. By ordinances passed under the powers of 17 and 18 Vict. c. 81»
the constitution of the college has been considerably changed. Certain statutable
restrictions on fellowships and demyships are abolished. The demyships are of the
yalue of £96 per annum, and 10 are to be added to tha statutaWamH^tov^ Twenty
CKhibitions of the same value were at the same time founded. Four professorships — of
moRftl philosophy, chemistry, mmeralogy, and physical geomphj — of the value of
£80O per annum, are to take the place of three lectureships— of divinity, moral philoso-
phy, and natural pliilosophy, which were founded by Waynflete. In order to carry
oat tliese changes, ten of the fellowships are suspended. By the same ordinance it is
direcsted that the fellowships are not to exceed £300 per annum, exclusive of rooms.
This college is one of great beauty, and, as is well known, Is rich in historical associa
tions. It has 41 benefices in its gift
KAO'DALEVB, Mabt, or Mast of Maodala, so named from a town on the sea of
Galilee, a woman " out of whom Jesus cast seven devils," and w^ho believed in him and
followed him. She was one of the women who stood by his cross, and one of those who
vent with sweet spices to the sepulcher. To her he first appeared after his resurrection.
In consequence of an unfounded notion identifying her with the woman mentioned in
Luke vii. 86-60, who anointed our Lord's feet with ointment, and wiped them with
the hairs of her head, Mary Magdalene has been long and generally regarded as a woman
whose early life had been very profligate, although of this there is no hint whatever in
the narratives of the evangelists; ana the Ma^dalenes so frequent amongst works of art
represent her according to this prevalent opinion. The very name Magdalene has come
to be applied to women who have fallen from chastity, and institutions for the reception
of repentant prostitutes are known as Magdalene asyluim. See P^itektiakibs.
MAOBALSHE COLLEGE, Cambridge, was founded in 1519 by Thomas, baron Audley
of Walden, who left for this purpose the impropriate parsoui^ of St. Catherine Cree
church, London, and also a considerable part of the city, anciently called Coven t gar-
des, Christ church. It ha« eight open fellowships on the foundation. Four of the
fellowships are named after persons who have made benefactions to the college — Spend-
luffe, Wray, Drury, and Millington. Magdalene college has 12 scholarships — 8 of £60,
S of £40, and 6 of £20 each — all of which are likewise named after their founders;
besides 13 exhibitions, 5 of which are for scholars from Shrewsbury school, 4 for
scholars from Wisbeach school, and 4 for scholars from Leeds, Halifax, and Heversham
schools. There is also an annual benefaction, called the Pepysian, worth £50, in the
ait of the master, and generally bestowed by him upon poor and deserving students.
Magdalene college, in 1879, counted 62 undergraduates, 129 members of the senate, and
228 members on the boajfds.
XAGDALEE HALL, Oxford. This hall was founded at the same time as Magdalen
college. Up to 1602 it was a sort of school for students, previous to admission to the
•college, and was governed by one of the college fellows. It then became an indepen-
dent hall, and in 1822 was removed to the seat of the former Hertford college. This
hall presents to one benefice, and possesses 8 scholarships and 4 exhibitions, all tenable
, for 3 years.
KA0DALEV IBLAED8| a small ero^p near the center of the gulf of St. Lawrence, 54
m. n.w. of Cape Breton island, and about the same distance n. from Prince Edward's
isisBd. They consist chiefly of Coffin, Amherst, and Grindstone islands, with about
2,000 inhabitants, who are supported by the productive cod, herring, and seal fisheries
of the neighboring waters.
KAOBSBUBG, chief t. of Prussian Saxony, is situated in 52' 8' n. lat., and 11" 40'
j e. long., has a pop. 76, of 122,789 (including its suburbs and its citadel), and is one of
I the most strongly fortified and most important commercial towns of Prussia, and the
focus of four of the principal lines of railway in Germany. It lies on the left bank of the
Elbe, and is surrounded by extensive suburbs, known as Neustadt and Sudenburg, but
with the exception of one long and wide thoroughfare, the Breite Weg (Broadway), it
consists mostly of narrow and crooked streets. Magdeburg is the seat of the govern-
mental courts of appeal and administration, and of a superintendent-general of the evan-
gelical church. It has two gymnasia, a normal school, institutions for the deaf and
dumb, ^nd blind; schools of arts, trades, practical mining, medicine, surgeiy, and mid-
wifery; and is well provided with institutions for the promotion of charitable purposes.
Its most remarkable buildings are the cathedral, built between 1208 and 1363, and con-
taining the graves of the emperor Otho, the founder of the city, and of his first wife,
the Enjiish princess Editha, and the sarcophagus of archbishop Ernest, sculptured in 1497
by P. "^scher of Nuremberg; the town hall, in front of which stands the memorial of
Otho the great, erected after his death, in 978, by the magistracy of Magdeburg, in
grateful remembrance of the favors which he had conferred upon the city; the govern-
ment house, the barracks, and the theater. The industrial products of Magdeburg
embrace silk, cotton, and woolen eoods, gloves, ribbons, and leather, and it has manu-
factories of tobacco, chicory, lead, sugar, and vinegar, and extensive breweries and
distilleries. The transit and commission trade is very considerable ; there are annual
wool and other markets; and trade is facilitated by rail, and by steam and canal naviga-
tion. In 967 Magdeburg was raised to the dignity of being selected by pope John XIlI.
as the see of the primate of Germany, while it had already acquired the rights of a free
<ity under Charlemagne. During the middle ages, the archbishops and the magistracy
were frequently at war; and Magdeburg early adopted the reform doctrines, and thus
brought upon itself the combined wrath of the emperor and the archbishops: Its
greatest troubles are, however, connected with the thirty 7^^^* "war» when, after
sustaining a siege for 28 weeks against the imperialists, under Tilly, the city was taken,
sacked, and nearly burned to the eround; the cathedral and about 150 houses being all
that remained after the three days sack to which it had been exposed. Thirty thousand
of the inhabitants were slain, and numbers threw themselves into the Elbe, to escape tbe
furv of the invaders. In 1C48 the archbishopric was converted into a secular duchy,
and conferred upon the house of Brandenburg in compensation for the loss of Pome-
rania. In 1806 it was taken by the French and annexed by them to the kingdom of
Westphalia; but Anally restored to Prussia in consequence of the downfall of ^Napoleon
in 1814
MAODEBUSO CEKTUXIES, the name o^ven to the first comprehensive work of Prot>
estant divines on the history of the Christian church. It was so called because it was
divided into centuries, each of which occupied a volume, and because it began to be
executed at Magdeburg (q.v). The originator of the work was Matthias Flacius (1552),
and the purpose he had iu view was to demonstrate the identity of the Protestant
doctrines with those held by the primitive church, and the departures of the lioman
Catholic church from the same. Job. Wi^nd, Matt. Judex, Basilius Faber, Andr.
Corvinus, and Thom. Holzhuter were Flacius's principal fellow-laborers; and several
Protestant princes and noblemen defrayed the heavy expense incurred in the preparation
of the work. The writers, who are called centurtatara, brought their work dowu only to
the year 1900. It was published at Basel (18 vols. 1559>74); Baumgarten and Semler
began a new edition (6 vols. Nuremberg, 1758-65). The Magdeburg Centuries displays
great learning, accuracy, and sound judgment. The Roman Catholic historian Baronius
^.v.) wrote his AnneUss Bcdenattici as a reply to it.
MAODXBITBO HEKISPHEBE8 are two hollow hemispheres, generally made of copper
or bi-ass, with their edges accurately fitted to each other, and one of them furnished with
a stop-cock. When the edges are rubbed over with grease, pressed tightly together, and
Uie globe thus formed exhausted of air through the cock, the hemi^heres, which fell
asunder before exhaustion, are now pressed together with immense force; e.g., if they
are one foot in diameter, they will, after exhaustion, be pressed together with a force of
nearly a ton. This experiment was first performed by Otto von Griericke (q.v.) in 1650
at the imperial diet at Katisbon, to the astonishment of the emperor Ferdinand III. and
his princes and nobles.
MAGEE, William, d.d., 1766-1831; b. Ireland; mduated at the university of
Dublin, 1785; obtained a fellowship three years after, and gave instniction while prepar-
ing for the ministry; took orders in the church of England 1790; some years after was
chosen, in the university of Dublin, assistant professor of oriental languages; became
senior- fellow and professor of mathematics 1806; retired from the university 1812, to
the parishes of Kappagh and Killylea^h; was made dean of Cork 1814. where
he excelled as a sacred orator: was aopomted bishop of Raphoe 1810, and archblBhop
of Dublin 1822. He was a zealous Protestant and Trinitarian. Of his writiiigs, the
Dineourses on the Atonement and Saeriflce, first published in 1811, and afterwaids in many
editions, have been most widely known and highly esteemed.
MAGEE, William Connor, d.d., b. Ireland, 1821; educated at Trinity college,
Dublin; became a curate in Dublin, and, in 1848, of St. Saviour's, Bath; incumbent of
Octagon chapel, Bath. 1850; was active in organizing the church defense society;
minister of Quebec chapel, London, 1860; rector of Inniskillen 1861; dean of Cork
1864; and, soon after, aean of the chapel royal, Dublin; and bishop of Peterborough
1806. Eloquent and popular as a speaker, he has preached on public occasions in
different parts of Great Britain, and in the debates in the house of lords was especially
active in opposing the disestablishment of the Irish church.
MAGELLAN, or (properly) MAOALHAEVS, Fernando db, a famous voyager, was bom
in Oporto, of good family, towards the latter half of the 15th century. He served with
distinction under Albuquerque in the East Indies; but, thinking his services ill rewarded
by the Portuguese court, he went, in 1517, to Spain with his countryman Buy Falero,
a geographer and astronomer. They laid before Charles V. a scheme for reaching the
Moluccas by the w., which was well received by him; and Magellan sailed on Sept. 20.
1519, with 5 ships and 286 men, from San Lucar, and proceeding to the mouth of
the La Plata, and alon^ the shores of Patagonia, he discovered and sailed through
the strait which bears his name ; discovered the southern Pacific ocean, to which he gave
that name upon account of the Ane weather which he experienced there; reached the
Philip{)ine isles, and fell in a fight with the chief of the isle of Matan, April 26. 1521.
His ship was safely carried home to Spain, and thus completed, Sept. 6, 15^, the first
voyage ever made round the world. The complete narrative of Magellan's voyage was
edited by Amoretti. See also The First Voyage round the World 6p Magellan, by lord
Stanley (1875).
KAOSLXAK, or KAOALHAEVS, Strait of, separates South America on tbe s. from
Terra del Fuego. It is 800 m. in length ; its breadth varies from 5 to 80 m. ; and tbe
351 ^SS^
naTigation is difficult It was discovered in 1520 by Magalhaens, the Portuguese naviga-
tor, and took its name from him.
MAGELLAN, STRAIT of {ante). Since steamships have been used for long voy-
ages the strait of Magellan has acquired a new importance. On account of its fogs^
piecmitous shores, numerous hidden rocks, and sudden squalls, it had come to b&
sTOidEed by sailing vessels, which found the circuit of Ciipe Horn far less perilous. Cure-
fol observations, made by the steamers of many nations in its passage, have been
reoorded to an extent that makes it at the present time comparatively safe for steamers.
Entenng from the east through Desolation bay, its shores are low, reddish, and sandy.
Further in, the strait varies in width from f of a mile to 15 miles, and as the center is
reached the shores become precipitous, conveying the impression that they had once
joined, and had been parted by some great convulsion of nature. Their height varies
from a few feet to many hundred , with high mountains rising behind them on the
ft. side, and round- topped hills on the s. or Terra del Fuego side. The most direct
passage through to the Pacific is at cape Pillar, a point nearly s.w. of the entrance on
the Atlantic, where lofty rocks on each side of a passage less than a mile wide form a
jrateway to the open Pacific. Sandy point, on the u. shore, lies about midway of the
krait, and is the only settlement of whites. The Chilian government here has a penal
colony. Port Famine, the scene of a sad tragedy of starvation nearly 300 years ago, liea
u> the west. North of the cape Pillar channel the strait opeus by innumerable passages
through an archipelago of barren rocky islands to the Pacific. But the channel now
generally taken is an inland one from the strait on the s. by a passage known as Smyth's
channel, about 850 m. long, to the stormy gulf of Penas on the n., where it connects
with the open sea. The most picturesque and alpine part of the scenery of the strait ia
Bear the w. end, where lofty snow-covered ranges, cloven peaks, great glaciers, and
valleys fiUed with somber forests, as seen from passing steamers, form a changing pano-
rama of unique beauty. Mrs. Agassiz has described it vividly in the Atlantic Monthly
of Ian., 1873. The scientific expedition of which Agassiz was the leader spent several
months in the strait in 1871, and its reports are the fullest ever made, not only of their
gfSDeml features, but also of their Bcientinc bearing. Mrs. Agassiz speaks of banks of wild
fnehsiaa found in bloom there in March, which mdicates that, however low the average
temperature, the extreme, by the sea-side, is not low. Chili now claims the country con-
tsgnous to the straits, though Paraguay disputes the claim. The natives of Patagonia on
& n. aide and of Terra del Fuego on the s. are widely different; the former being noted
for their great stature and go(xi forms, and the latter for small size, bad forms, and
degraded condition. Seals are found in abundance in the strait, but not the species
bearing the most valuable fur. Besides recent works and reports on the strait already
aQuded to, the Voyage round the World by Charles Darwin, reprinted, New York, 1878;
Adventures in Patagonia, by rev. T. Coan, 1880; and Les Naees Magellanique, by Duboc,
Fbria, 1853, are among the most instructive.
MAGBHDIE, Fran<;;oi8, an eminent French physiologist and physician, was b. at
Bordeaux in 1783, and d. in Paris in 1855. Through the influence of his father, who
practiced as a physician in Paris, he became a pupil of Boyer, the celebrated anatomist.
At the age of 20, after an examination by Concours, he was appointed prosector in the
faculty of medicine, and soon afterwards a demonstrator. He was subsequently
tppointed physician to the H6tel-Dicu. In 1819 he was elected a member of the acad-
emv of sciences, and in 1831 succeeded Recamier in the chair of anatomy in the college
of SVance.
Magendie's chief physiological works are: Precis EUmentaire rf«P7i.y«V?fog^ (1816), which
went through several editions, and was enlarged into the Elemens de Physiologic, which
was translated into Enfflish, and was for many years the best work on physiology in this
language; Le^m «/r les Phenom^nes Physiques de laVie (1836-42); Le^ns »ur le Sang
(IsSl); Jjefons snr les Fonctions et les Maladies du Systeme I^erreux (2 vols. 1839); and
Reeh^ches PhUosophiqu^ et Chm<iues sur le Liquids Cephalo-rachidien ou Cerebrospinal
{1M2). He w^as likewise the founder, and for ten years the editor of the Journal de la
Phyv'clogie Erperimentdle, in which are recorded many of the experiments on living
anhnala which gained for him, too deservedly, the character Of an unscrupulous vivi-
sector.
He was the first to prove experimentally that the veins are organs of absorption; he
gave a more accurate account of the process of vomiting than had been previously given ;
if pointed out that non-nitrogenous foods are non-nulntious, and that an animal cannot
live solely on any one kind of food, however nitrogenous it may be; he investigated the
physiological action and therapeutic uses of hydrocyanic acid and stryclininc; he p>er'
'onned an important series of experiments on the cause of death when air is admitted
into the larger veins; he made numerous experiments to determine the functions of vari-
ons nerves and of different parts of the brain; and lastly, he shares with sir Charles
Bell the honor of having discovered the separate functions of the two roots of the spinal
nerves.
XA02VTA, an Italian town, in the province of Milan, on the high-road and railway
from Xovara to the city Milan, from which it is distant 12 miles. Pop. 5,100. Its dis-
trict yields excellent wine and an abundance of mulberries. In the camj
??^wyp
Hagenta was the scene of a decisive victorjr won by the French and Sardinians over the
Austrians. It has given its name to one of the colors derived from coal-tar. See Dte-
Stuffs.
KA'GEBOf , the most northerly of the larger European islands, belongs to Norwsy,
and lies close to the coast of Finmark, in the Arctic ocean. It terminates on the n. m
North cape, 970 ft. in height, and situated in lat. 7V 10' n., long. 26** 50' east. Mageroe
is 22 m. in length and 16 m. in breadth, is irregular in shape, and deeply indents by
bays. It supports a few Norwegian and Lappish families.
KAOOIO'SE, Laoo. one of the lareest lakes in Italy, the lactu Verbantu of Ore Ro-
mans, is situated for the most part in Italy, but also partly in the Swiss canton of Ticino.
It is about 86 m. in length, ana its greatest breadth is about 8 miles. It lies 660 f L above
the level of the sea, and in some places is 2,600 ft. deep. The river Ticino flows through
it. In a south-western expansion of the lake are the Borromean isles ((]|.v.). On the d.
And w. it is surrounded by gmnitic mountains; on the s. and e. by vineyard-covered
hills. See also Lago Magqiore.
KAG€K>T, the popular name of the larvee of many kinds of dipterous insects, particu-
larly those of the great family miiseida (flies), although it is often also given to those of
<B9trid<B (bot-flies, etc.). It is more commonly given to those larvae whi(£ feed on animal
than to those which feed on vegetable substances, and particularly to those — of which
there are very many species — which feed on putrescent animal matter. Ocfrpie-toorrM
are the larvae of mrcophaga mortuorum, a fly which is always ready—at least in Europe
— to lay its eggs in human bodies when deposited in open vaults. Maggots of the fleui-
fly (q.v.) are used to feed pheasants and as flsh-bait, and to procure them in abundance,
dead bodies of animals are often exposed to putrefaction in the open air.
MAGHADA, one of the kingdoms of India when Alexander the great invaded the
country, B.C. 400. It comprised the greater part of southern and central India, and
lasted till about a.d. 460. Its capital wasPalibothra on the Ganges, and is supposed to have
occupied the site of the present Patna. Seleucus, one of Alexandei-'s generals, to whom
Bactria was ^ven, which included the provinces on the Indus, attenipted conquests
beyond that river, and was involved in war with Chandragupta, king of Maghada, called
by the Greeks Sandracottus, 312-280. His grandson Asoka, B.C. 260, extended his empire
and the Buddhist religion over the larger part of India.
MA'OI. The origin of this term has recently been brought to light by Assyrian
scholars. In Accadian, the language of the early Scythian or Turanian inhabitants of
Babylonia and Media, imga signifles "august," "reverend, ".and was the title of their
learned and priestly caste. These Accadians had made great advances in astronomy,
or rather astrology, and were much addicted to divination and similar mysterious arts.
The Semitic nations, afterwards dominant in Babylonia and Assyria, adopted not only
the learning and many of the religious observances of the early mhabitants, but also u
number of the special forms, ana among others the name for the learned caste, modify-
ing it to suit their own artictilation ; and out of the 8(;mitic form the Greeks made inagm.
Under the Persian empire the magi rose to the very highest importance. They were
not only the "keepers of the sacred things, the learned of the people, the philosopliers
and servants hf God," but also diviners and mantics,. augurs and astrologers. They
called up the dead, either by awful formulas which were m their exclusive possession,
or b}' means of cups, water, etc. They were held in the highest reverence, and no
transaction of importance took place without or against their advice. Hence their
almost unbounded influence in private as well as in public life, and, quite apart from
the education of the young princes being in their hands, they also formed the constant
companions of Uie ruling monarch. Of their religious system itself, the articles
GuEBRES and Parbebs will give a fuller account. Zoroaster (q.v.), Zerdusht, reorgan-
ized, in the course of his great religious reform, also the body of the magi, cliiefly by
reinforcing the ancient laws about their manner and mode of life, which was to be one
of the simplest and severest, befitting their sacred station, but which had become one
of luxury and indolence, and by reinstituting the original distinction of the three classes
of /lerbetU (disciples), mobeda (masters), and dsstur mobeds (complete masters). The
food, especially of the lower cla&o, was to consist only of nour and veketables; they
wore white garments, slept on the ground, and were altogether subjected to the most
rigorous discipline. The initiation consisted of the most awful and mysterious cere-
monies. Purifications of several months* duration had to precede it, and it was lonz
before the stage of the disciple's "being led into the realms of the dead" was prooeedea
with.
Gradually, however, their iufluence, which once had been powerful enough to raise
them to the throne itself (Sassanides), began to wane, and ir formerly a number of
80,000 delegates of magi had to decide on the affairs of state and religion, this council
in later times dwindled down to the number of seven; and from being the highest
caste, the priests of Qod, and the "pure of mind, heart, and hand," they fell to the rank
of wandering jugders, fortune-tellers, and quacks, and gave the name to the art of
sleight-of-hand and performance of conjuring tricks.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
358
XftOIO (aeo article Magi) is a general name for wonderful effects produeed \n some
mysterioiis way. Medicine in its eurly form in intimately allied to rnu^ic. li wouki
aotiD Ims diaoovered by accident titat certain plants produced powerful effects, 1)0ili good
an4 ImU upon the bodies of men and animals; ana tlie reverence arising from their real
virtues would lead to a-'cribing to them all manner of imaginary ones. Tlie laws (»f
nature being little known, one thing was not more incredible than auotlier; and (ffccts
were assigned to causes in the most arbitrarj^ and accldeulal way. Ttie Rosicrucian
physicians tiieatcd a case of wounding by applying the salve to the wcap«)n instead of to
the wouiiil itself; and this may be taken as the type of magical as coutnistcd with
mtional medicine. In modern times drugs are mostly dniwn from the mineral and
vegetable kingiloms; but while tho healing art was in the mystic stage, animal sub-
stances were most cstee nod. If the Jtuce of a plant could nffect the living body, how
mucli more must the life-blood of auotlier animal! And the rarer the kind of blood, so
much the nirer the virtue. The blood of an innocent child, or of a virgin, was l)elieved
to cure the leprosy; that of an executed criminal, the falling sickness. The hearts of
animals, nn being the scat of life, were held to lie pr)tent drugs. The fat of a hog had
been fouml by. experience to benefit a sore; what virtue, then, must there be iu human
fat, with the solemn mysteries of the gmve about iti
III c;irly stages of socieiy women are the doctors; while the incn fight and hunt,
the women gather lierb^ anddecoct salves for their wounds; and ihe ait would naturally
become a sort of professi.>u in ihe hands of the older women who hnd a reputation for
supjri:>r skill of that kind. Mostly a blind groping — a mystery to themselves as well as
others — ^their operations were looked upon with awe. xhe'^wisc woman** with her
kettle, cooking her mysterious broth, adding ingredient after ingredient (for tlie more,
the rarer, the horribler they were, woidil not the compound be the more efflcacious?).
inspired not only hop3 but fear; for the art miglit be, and doubtlens was, used to hurt
as well as to heal. Uoiu m matrons were often accused and convicted of poisoning by
their decoctions; and during sciisons of pestilence these female druggists were perse-
cuted with indiscrimiimtu fury, as were witches afterwards iu Europe. So much was
tlie notion of poisoning uppermost in the Itiinan mini ri'specting them that tentjica,
Uteraily **h poison- maker,'* was thj general name for a preiMirer of magic medicines^
an enc'jautress or sorceress— the coiTv*spDnJiug character to our witch. See WiTcn-
cu-iFr.
The operation of magical medicines was not, as is the case with those of the modem
pharmricopoBia, con lined to physicid effects on living bodies to which they were applied;
ossfjciated with incimtatlins an 1 other ceremonies, as they always were, tlK^v could h^
made to produce almost any desired effect — raise or lay stonns; fertilize a fiild. or blast
it; kill or cure a mm, absent as well as present; and give the power of predicting future
events. How a belief in imaginary virtues of things may grow out of the experience of
their real virtues is indicated iiy Dr. Livingstone, when speaking of the belief in rain-
making among the tribes in the heart of soutliem Africa. The African priest and the
medicims-man is one and the same, and his chief function is to make the clouds give out
rain. The preparations for this purpose are various — charcoal made of burned bnts;
internal parts of animals, as lions* hearts and hairy calculi from the iiowete of old cows;
serpents* skins and vertebrae; and every kind of tulier, iiull). root, and plant to be found
in the country. '* Although you disbjliove their efficacy in charming the clouds to pour
out their refreshing treasures, yet, conscious that civility is useful everywhere, 3*ou
kin lly state that you think tliey are mistaken a** to their power; the rain-doctor seU^cts
*a particular bulb >us root, pounds it, and administers a cold infusion to a sheep, which
in Ave minutes afterwards expirjs in ccmvulsions. P:irt of the ssirae bulb is converted
into Ainokc. and ascends towards the sky; rain follows i:i a day or two. .The infcrenee
is obvious." The religion of this ptirt of Africa may Ikj charncterized ub medicine-
worship. In a villa'.^e of the Bdonda, Dr. Livingstr^ne saw two ])ots with charms or
medicines kept in a little slicd, like idols in a niche. For an idol they sometimes take
a piece of wood, and carve a human head on it, or simply a crookcfl stick, when there
is no professed carver to Ikj had; but there is nothlmr divine pl>out it until it is dotted
over with a mi.Kturo of nuniicins and red oc^ier. Packets of medicine are worn :m charms
about the peraon. to wnrd off evils of all kinds. The female chief Manenko was hung
all over with such charms; an I when she had to cmss a river, her traveling-doctor waved
medicines over her. and she took some in her hand, to save her from dnnvning.
During the mi Idle aures, and down almost to the 18th c, mngic was greatly studied
in Europe, and could boast of di.nin^uished names, who attempted to treat it as a <:r:iiid
and mysterious science, by means of which the secrets of nature could Ihj discovered,
and a certain godlilvc power acquired over the ** spirits'* (or, as we should now 8:iy. ihe
•• forceo") of the elements. The principal students and professors of magic during the
E?riod referred to were pope 8ylve>iter II., AllKM'tus Magnus. Roger liacon, linymond
ully. Pico dclla Mirandtila, Paracelsus, Cornelius Agrippa, Trithemius, Van Helniont,
and Jerome Can Ian. See Horst*« Von der Alten vnd Neuen Mnffie, Uittptmnff, Idee^
Umfanffnml OenrJitcfite (Mentz. 1820); and Ennemoser's Qetchichie der MnffU '(3d ed.
Leip. 1844; translated into English iiy W. llowitt, 2 vols. Lond. 18->4). For an interest-
ing account of the discipline and ceremonies of the ** art," consult ihQ DogtM ei BUvM
U. K. IX— 28 Digitized by VjUU^LC
Magnut
354
tie la UauU Magie (Paris, 1860), by Levi; nod Ei$Mre de la Magie, by Christfam (Puis,
1870).
t:k)me of the different forms which Uie belief id mtigic basassunicd will be«epntiiuier
AMDI.KT, Auguries akd Auspicbs* Divihation, Incahtation, and WncKOBAVT^ and
the uiiied subjecu of Alchsmy and Abtbologt.
MAGIC LAVTEBK, nn optical instrument by means of which magnified imnges of
small pictures arc thrown upon a ^vali or screen. The instrunient consists of a laiitera
containing a powerful argand lamp; in the side of the lantern is inserted a horizonial
tube, on a level with the tlame, and the light is made topuss through the lube by reflec-
tion from a concave mirror placed on the opposite side of the lantern. The tube is fur-
nished with two lenses, one at each end; the inner one is a hemispherical iUiiminating
lens of short focus, to condense a strong light on the picture, which is inserted into the
tube, between the lenses, through a transveri^e slit. The other end of the tube is fitted
with a double convex lens, which receives the rays after passing through the picture,
and throws them upon the s<*reen or wall. The pictures are formed with transparent
varnish on ^lass slides, and must be inserted into the tube in an inverted position, m
order that the images may appear erect. If the screen on which the ima<fe ie thrown be
at too creat a distance, the image will become indisttnct from the lessened intensity of
the light, and dUtorted by the increasing spherical and chromatic abernition, though this
latter defect nniy be obviated by the use of a screen of the same curvature as the outside
8urfa(*c (»f the lens. This instrument is generally used as a toy, but is also occasionally
employed to produce eidarffed representations of astronomical diagrams, so that they
may lie well seen by an audience. Phantasmagoria, dissolving views, etc., arc produced
by a particular manipulation of iJio same instrument.
MAGIC BdlTASES, a species of puzzle which occupied the attention of many celebrated
inatliematicians front the earliest times down to the 18tli century. The magic square is
a square divided by lines parallel to the sides into a number of smaller equal squares or
cells, in which are inserted numbers which fonn the terms of one or more progressions
(generally arithmetical), in sudi nn order tbat each lino of numbers, whether added
horizontally, vertically, or diagonally, shall amount to the same sum. This arrange-
Hient is effected in three different ways, according to the nnmlK?r of cells in the side of
each square, and can be most easily effected when this numl»er is odd, or erenlp eoen
(divisH>le by 4), but t)ecomes a problem of considenible dlfflculty when the number of
cells is oddly even (divisible by 3, and not by 4). The following are examples of the first
two methods:
13
8
2
16
13
0
7
9
8
10
11
6
1
15
14
4
0
8
S5
16
11
8
81
10
18
10
»
80
13
6
4
16
14
7
S
88
16
8
1
81
17
The armngcmcnt for the oddly even sqtiares Is the same as that for the evenly even
ones, with the exception of a few transpositions. The only exception is when.the iiumlwr
of squares or cells is four. Dr. Franklin invent(*d a similar puzzle to this, called the
•* magic circle." See HuUorCs BecreaUona in Mdthematieal Science, vol. i.
MAGILP'i or Meggbllui', a composition used by artists in oil-colors as a vehicle for
their ** glazes." It is made of linseed oil and mastic varnish, aud is thinned with tur-
pentine as required for the painting.
MA'GILTTB, a very curious genus of gasteropodons mollusks, of the order tii^H-
branch'ata, inhabiting the Red sea and the Indian ocean. They have, at first, shells of
the ordinary form of spiral univalves, and establish themselves in Ht tie hollows of mndnv
pores, where they remain, enlarging the shell into a lon'^ tube as the madrepore grows,
and thus preventing themselves from Iwing shut in. 1 he tulx; is sometimes 3 ft. lonij.
and the animal deserts entirely the spiral part of the shell, and lives in the mouth of the
tulKs, which it closes against dan.i^er by an operculum, the upper part being wholly or
partially filled up with solid matter.
MAGIND AN AO. or Mindanao. Sec Phtlifpinb Islands. ^nK
MAGINN', William, ll.d., 1798-1849; b. in Cork, Ireland, d. tt Wnlfon on
Thames, near London. In youth he had such precocity of talent that he was odmittod
to Trinity college at the ago of ten. He became a valued contributor to JHark*roo(f»
Magazine; a Paris correspondent in 1824; editor of the London Standard in 1623; of
855 ^ssetn.
fma^B Mt^adne in J880: of the Lanea$hin HenUd in 1880, and the MagaeiM cf Muedr
Uaiet'm IsA: and was an occasional coDtributor to the Quarterly Bevieto, Btntley's Mi*-
tAt9. and Punch. His style was noted foe its brilliaucy and wit. A collection' Of,
biivorkswaa pabliahed in the United States, 1855-57» in 5 vols., edited by Dr. R 8/
HtckeDzie.
KAfillTlATE. See Justicb of the Pbagb.
MAfltTABECM, Ahtonioda Marco, an Italian scholar of extraordinary nttainments,
ad court liiirarian, b. at Florence in 16iB8, of a respectable Init indigent family. From
bsrtrliett years be disphiycd aninonlinate passiou for the acquisition of book-knowK
d^'. Hating speedily mastered the Gitiek. Latin, and Hebrew languages, lie literally
raiunibeii himself among books, of which disorderly piles encumbered every portion of
kis dwelling and lay in a heterogeneous litter around his feet. In his daily habits
ifaglialiechi grew regardless of the requirements of social and sanitary' life; and such
V3i bis avidity of study tbat he finally denied liimself even the requisite intervals of
nipose. llismemorj^ was prodigious, and not only enabled Iiim minutely to retain the
ctmicnts of his multitudinous books, but ali^o (o supply, on occasicm, the most exact
leferviioe to uil^ particuhir page or paragraph, the place of each book being indicated
with piecisioii in the midst oi their apparent inextricable masses. Mngllabechi was
ip^.inie(l as the literary prodisy of his times. He was appointed court-Hbra'rhin by the
gr-nd dukes of Florence; and^thc many tributes of respect tendered by royal and dis-
tioguishetl personages to his wonderful erudition, fostered In an inordinate degree his
loTc of fame and praise, which ren<lered him iutoierant of lltcrar}' merit in others, and
UiViiived linn in 8(;veral bitter literary scjunbbles. He died at FloR-nceon July 12, 1714, in
ilicSbil }'e:ir of his age, leaving no written record of his immense encyclopcedic knowl*
eilge. His valuable library of 30,000 vols, he bequeathed to his native city of Florence.
with funds for its future care and extension; it is now a free library, and bears the name
of iii coUccior.
KAOVA CHABTA, the grcnt charier which was granted by king John of England to
thptunns, and has lieen viewed by after-ages as ihe basis of English liberties. The
(«pprmionfl and exactions of a tyrannical and dastardly eoverclffn called into existence
imsfeitenicy of the barons or temints-in -chief of the crown, v ho took up aims for the
n^rm of their grievances. Their demand was for the restoration of the laws of Henry
Miivs which might probably be characterized as an engrafting of Koiman fcumilism
90 the "ancient custom of jEngland," or previously existing ^axon and Danish free
)o«titutioD3, in which ** ancient custom" weit; comprehended the laws of Edward the
coofi'smr. A conference between tlio soverci^ and the iMirons was held at Runnymede,
mx Windsor, a place where treaties regarding the peace of the kingdom bad often
ticfore lK«n made. King an<l barons encamped opposite each other; and after several
(iays' delmte John signed and sealed the charter with great solemnity on June 15, 1216.
The greiit charter reared up a barrier against the almse of the royal prerogative by a
sjriesnf provisions for the protection of the rights and obligations of the feudal pro-
liriitor. It redressed a variety of grievances connected with feudal tenures, some of
tliem now so long obsolete as to bo with difficulty intelligible. There are minute pro-
viidnns rcg.irding the relief of heirf«, wardship. matTiage of heirs and of their widowa
Kn«cnta«^ or idd is to lie imposed without the authonty of the common council of the
kinvdom^ except on the three gi*ent feudal occasions of the king's captivity, the knight-
ing of ills eldest son, nnd the marriage of his eldest dnugliter. The lilierties of the city
f'f f^n.lon and other towns, boroughs, and ports are dec-lared inviolable. Freedom of
rnnmorcc is gnnrantecd to foreign merchants. Justice Is no longer to Im? sold, denied,
or delayed. The court of common pleas, instead of, as formerly, following the kingta
perwm'in all his progresses, is to be permanently fixed at Westminster; assizc>sare lo ho
oeW ill the several counties, nnd annual circuits are established. Regulations arc made for
ihc cfficioncy of the inferior courts of justice. The protection of life, liberty, and
pniperty from arbitrary spoliation is the most important feature of the charter. "No
frcinan shall be taken or iinpri.^ned, or he disseizeil of his freihold. or liberties, or free
customs, or 1w otherwise damaged, nor will we pass upon him, nor send upon him, but
by lawful Judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land "—a provision which rccog-
aind a popular tritmnal as a check on the official judges, nml may be looked on as the
foiifldttion of the writ of habeas corpus. No one is to l»e condemned on rumors or sus-
picitms hut only on the evidence of witnesses. Protection is nffoided ngiiliist excessive
•nwrcemcnts, illegal distresses, and various processes for debts and services due to the
«n*wn. The fines imposed are in nil eases to be proportioned to the inngnitude of the
offense and even the villein or rustic is not to be deprived of his nrees-sary chntlcls.
Tl:(!c are provisions regarding the forfeiture of lands for felony. The testamenlury
powpr of t!ie subject is recognized over part of his personal estnte. and the i t>t is to
bediTidcil iietween his widow and children. The independence of the church is ulso
nT)viiled for.
Tliesc nrc the most important features of that charter which occut^'es so conspicuous
»|»laccin history, and which establishes the supremacy of the law of England over the
»iU«»f the monarch. A charter wns at the same lime granted to mitigate the oppix'ssions
of llic forest laws (q. v.). The terms dictated by the Uirons to John included Ihc-^^r^
Hayuenl
:ue«laiii.
856
render of London to their charge, and the Tower. to the cti8t<»dy of Iheprlmatetni August
15 following, or till tlic execution of the sevenil articles of the gffal cliurier. Tweuty-
fiye Imron^, as conservators of the public liberties, were invested with extraoniliuTy
authority, wiiich empowered them to make war against tlie soverdgn ni ca>e of
his viobition of the charter. Several solemn ratitications were required i.y tlie baroos
both from John and from Henry HI.; and a copy of the great diarter was oeni tp evvty
cathedral, and ordered to be read publicly twice a year. The copy preserved in Lincoln
cathedral is regiirded as the nioht accurate and complete; and a facsimile <.f it was
engraved bv order of the hite lioard of commi88ioner.s nn tlie pultlic records. Ibe great
charter ancl charter of the forest:* arc printed with English translations, and prefixed lo
the odiiiou of the statutes of the realm published by the record commibsiou.
XAONA GS£CIA (Gr. IR MegaU IleUan), the name given in ancient times to that
part of southern Italy which was thickly planted with Greek colonies. When it tirst
olitained this appellation is unknown. l)ut it must have been at an early periiul, Polyb-
ius says it was so called in the time of Pythagoras. ISome writers include under the term
the Greek cities in Sicily; others restrict it to those situated on the gulf of Tarentum, but
in general it is used to (ienote all the Greek cities in the south of Ital) , c;ii.cluuveof those
in Sicily. The oldest settlement is believed to have been Ctmise— thmigh it \i doubtful
whether it and its colonies. Dic8e>irchla and Neapolis, were really emlirace<l under tbo
desiffiiatiim Magna Gnecia; while the period assigned to its fouudatinn—viz., soon after
the Trojan war— is obviously fanciful. If we fix about the 8th or 9tli c. Iieforu Christ,
we will pp.rhaps not be far wrong. Of the other Greek settlements in Italy — most, if
not all of which were later than those in Sicily — the earliest was Sybaris (founded by
the Achieans. 720 b.c.); next, Croton (by the Achsans, 710 B.C.); tlien Tareutum (by
tlie Spartans, 70^ B.C.); Locri (by the Locrians. 708 b.c.. according toot Ik tb, 80or40ycttr8
later). Rbegium (by the Chalci lians; date of origin u.>t known, but lielievetl by some to '
be older than even Sybaris). Metanontutn (by the AchiBans, 700-680 B.C.). and Velta (by
the Phocsans. 540 b.c.). The»e citiea became, in their &uru, tlie parents of many othen
Of the earlier history of Magna Gnecla we know almost nothing. Tlic setiletiioats
appear to luvve riden rapidly to |)ower and wealtii. ymrtXy by the brisk commerce which
they carrie<l on with the roother-country, and partly also, it is cimjectunad, by aa aiiud-
gam:tf ion with the Pela<<gie (and therefore kindred) natives of llie interior. Tiiiii, wcoro
told by Polvbius, actually happened at Locri, and most probably elsewhere also. AUmt
the year 530 b.c. Pythagoras the philosopher arrived at Crotona, and armn acquired an
influence in Magna'GraTcia whk:h woa quite wonderful, though it did not lost long.
The quaiTels between the different cities were often bitter and bloody: and finally,
tB7:^-27l B.C., the Komann conquered the whole of Lower Italy. — Long bvfore tiiis
fleveral of the cities; had disiipoeared. Sybiris, for example, was destroyed by the Croto-
nians as early as 510 b.c.. and now the rest more or less rapidly sunk into' decay, and
were, in the time of Cicero, witii a few exceptions, reduced to utter ruin.
MAGNAN, Bbbnako Pferrb, 1791-1835: b. Paris; son of a notary; entered tbo
«rmy in 1803. and .served under Napoleon till the defeat at Waterloo; lieutcol. ia tlio
campaign in Spain 1823-27; was in the expedition to Algiers in 1880. Censured for hick
of energy in dealing witli an insurrection in Marseilles in 1831, lie entered the servico
of Belgium as ^en. of brigjide; in 1839 returned to France; was implicjilcil in the first
attempt of Lonis Napoleon to make a rising of the people in his favor at B(mto«:ne; in
1848 tendered his services to Louis Philippe after his dethronement, btit was energetic
in bringing the army of the xUp.i to Paris in June of that year to repress a formidablo
insurrection under the republic!, and another at Lyons in 1849. He allied iiimaelf with
Louis Napoleon when president of Franco, antl was his cfflcicnt instrument in over-
throwing the republic by the treacherous coup deUt of Dec. 2. 18.'>3, which mode Napo-
leon emperor. Tlie emperor made him a grand marshal of France.
M.\GNE. PrKRiiE, 1806-78, I). Prance: wns employed wbrn a young man by the
J^refectof Donlo-xne: and afterwards i^rsucd the study of jnrisprmlence at Toulouse.
teturjiiiig to P<'jri.u;ueu\, his native place, he entered upon the pnicticeof bis profcwion.
His talents did not escape the notice of the p:overnincnt, which made liim, in 18W, a
councilor to the prefecture of the Dordogne. He was electeil to ilie chamber of <leputic8
in 1843, and soon came to Iw considered nn authority in its financial discn»ionf(. in
which he took pnrt ns a member of the committee on the biidtret. He t)ec*jm6inn under-
secretary in the war department in 1847. but resijmed upon the otit break of the revola-
tion in 1848, and retire<l to P^rigiieux. whence, tlie following year, he wan recalled to
take the place of ujider-secretary in the ministry of finance, lie was transferrc(l to tbo
department of public works in ISfJO. He withdrew from the cabinet in con.scqucncc of
the dissension amonjr its memlxirs in rcprnrd to the confiscation of the estjites of tlio
Orljans family. He was chosen .senator in 1852, and in July of that year re-enten'd the
cabinet, in his old position as minister nf public works. In 1853 he was appointed mia-
Ister of commerce and agriculture, and In 1855 minister of finance. His knowlwlgc of
and talent for finance were remarkable, and though he occasionally resigned or wis
transferre<l to some other depnrtment, on account of his inability to agree with his col-
leagues, or to carry out some favorite flaancitd scheme, he was always sure to be recalled.
357
Ho WM out of office from 1868 to 1867, when he was re-instnte<1 as the only man who
could successfully place the j^reat luiin, whose uc^tiatiou Fmuce was theu conteiupkt-
inf. Wlien £iiiile Ollivier was iuvited by tiie iiiipeior, Dec. 27, 1869, lo form u new
miuistry, Hague went out of olUcv; and bis phiee was taken by M. Buifet. lie rciunied
to the irmsury when the due de Bro>»lie took office, April 24, lb78, and went out whh
tlie de Broglie muiistry. May 16, 1874. At the time de Broglic formed his cabinet,
Magne was serving in the national assembly, to which lie had been returned from the
department of the Dordogno. His hist puulic office was that of u senator for the Dor-
dogne. to which office he was elected in 1876.
MAONENTIUS, Flavius PopiLitra, Roman emperor of the west. He was of bar-
barian eklraction, but soon rose to the rank of count under the emperor Constan tine the
great. Euteriug the service of Const nns. son of Constantine tbe great, emperor of
Uie west, he was put in command of the troops that defended the Ixliine, and plotted
the overthrow of that prince. With llie aid of Marcellinus, count of the sacred lar-
eeases, his plot was successful. Marcellinus having invited the officers of the army, sta-
Uonecl near the city of Autun, to a banquet in honor of tlie birthday of Ids son. at a late
hour introduced Magnentius arrayed in robes of royally. The cry * * Long live Augustus "
was raised by several conspirators, Constans wns assassinated, aud Maguentius took pos-
session of the pahice at Autun. In a short time Gkiul, Italy, and most of the western
provinces, acknowledged tlie usurper as emperor. Coustautius, the brotlier of Constans,
and emperor of the east, hastened to avenge tbe death of his brother, and totally defeated
Magnentius before the town of Mnrsa on the Drave, 851. He Hed to Italy, *thence to
Gaul, where Constantius followed him, aud agaui in 858 defeated him in the Cottian
Alps. On the eve of being captured by his enemies, and deserted by the countries that
had acknowledged him, he committed suicide at Luddimum, Aug., A.D. 858. Con-
stantiua thus became master of the whole empire.
KA0MSIKA. See MAONSaiUM.
MAGNESIA, a district of Thessaly, Greece, the narrow and mountainous portion
between the river Peneusand the Pagasean bav to the n. and s. and between the cbam
of Ossa and the sea on the w. and east. The Magnesians submitted to Xerxes, but after-
wards were subdued by the kings of Macedon. who succeeded Alexander, and were
declared free by the Bonuins after the battle of Cynoscepholss. Their government was
then republican.
HAONESIA, the name of two ancient cities of Asia Minor.' The first was in the
Bcrtiiem part of Lydia, near the Hermus. at the foot of Mt. Sipylns. and was called
Magnema near ikfylu9, to distinguish it from the other. Its founder and early histonr
are not known, but it waa first brought into notice by the victory of the Romans over
Antiochus the great, in 187 B c. It was one of the 12 cities destroyed by the earthquake
in the tinM of Tiberiw, which he soon rebuilt. It is now Manissa. Tlie second was in
Carta on the river Letheens in tbe valley of the Msander, and called Mapn^tmn ok the
Mmnder, to diatingolsli it from that near Mt. Sipylus. It was 15 m. from Ephesti^ It
had a famous temple of Dhma. the remains of which Hamilton discovered in exploring
the mine of the ciiy.
XAOITBSIAV LUfESTOHS. See Doloxite.
MA0VJHUUM (vmb. Mg. oq. 12— new system, 24— sp. gr. 1.74) is generally ranked
with those metnU whose oxides form the alkaline earths (baryta, strontio, lime), but in
many respects it more closely resembles zinc. It is n malleablo, ductile metal, of the
color and brillhincy of silver. It fuses nt about the melting-point of tin (aliout 442*). and
at an extreme heat it may Ikj distillid like zinc. When ignitwl in dry air or in oxvgen
pa. it bums with extraonlinary brilliancy, and is c»xldlzed into magnesia. In dry nir
It undenroes little change, and is much k>ss oxidizable than the other metals of the same
ponp. It docs not decompose cold water; but If the water be heated to nl)out 90". there
tea slight evolution of hydrogi»n; and if the temperature is raised to 212^ hydrogen is
given off rapidly and abundantly. When thrown into strong hydrochloric acid, it
mflamcsand becomes converted into chloride of magnesium, while hydrogen is piven off.
It is obtained from its chloHdecitlicrhy the action of scKlium or potassium, or by simple
electrolytic decomposition; but the onlinnry proces.<ies arc difiicult, and yield the metal
only in minute quantities. A patent has. however, been taken out by Mr. Sonstadt for
improvements in its manufacture, by which it can be pmducefl by the pound:
Magnuiii (MgO) is the only oxide of maffnesium. Ir is a white bulkv powder, devoid
of taste or smell, and having a pp gr. of 3.65: it is infuidhle, and almost insoluble in
water; and wnen placed on moistiMied test |iaper. is seen to have an alkaline reaction.
When mi.xed with water, it gradn.illv forms a hydrate (MffO, HO), without, as in the
caseof Hmc, any sensible elevation cf heat, and this hydrate slowly absorlis carbonic
acid from Ih'^ atmosphere. Magnesia does not occur native, and is usnally otitained by
the prolongeil application of heat to the carl)onnte. Hydrate of magnesia occurs natu^.
lailfin a crystalline form in the mineral l>ruciie.
Mttffnee'a ttiba, the common white magnesia of commerce. Is a mlxtnre of the hydrate
of magiieahi and of hydrated carbonate. It is obtahned by the precipitation of a hot
IKUcnesinm. 358
solution of sulphate of mBgnesia bv a hot solution of carbonate of potasii or aodt, and
by then collecting and drying the deposit.
Of the magnesian mUs, some are soluble and some insoluble in water. Tlie soluble
salts have a pt'CuUnr and very bitter t}i<«te. and hence the German name, bitteprrde ^iWeT*
enrtli). for magnesia. All tlie salts which are insoluble in water, except (lie sillcatft, dis*
solve in hydrochloric and nitric acids. • '
Carbonate of vutgnesia occurs native in the mineral moffnesUe, and in associaTloit with
carbonate of lime in dolomite, from which it may be manufactured iu a very pnm stMe
by Mr. Puttinsou's process, which consists esseivtHilly in the following siepa: Iflnciy
ground dolomite is exposed for some time to a red heat, by \vhicb the curlMinaie of msg-
.nesia is decomposed; the powder is then introduced into a vcr}' strong ve^-sel,* where it
is mixed with water, and carbonic acid gas forced in under heavy pressure till it ceases
to be absorbed; thecurlK)nate of magnesia becomes dissolved as bicnrbonnte, vihllc the
carbonate of lime remains unchangeu ; on boiling the clear liquid, carlx>nate of magnesia
is deposited, and carbonic acid expelled.
Sulphite ofnuign&da, or Epsom salts (MgO.SOg-fTAq), is the most important of the
magnefiian salts. It i.s obtained from sea- water, or from magnesiun limestone (<lolomite),
or from the mother-liquor of nlum-^^orks, by processes into which we have notsnace to
enter, and is a conunon ingredient in mineral waters (see Efsom Salt). It is soluble hi
three times its weight of water at 60**, and in less water at a higher temperature, the
solution having a bitter, disagreeable taste.
Mtrate of magnegia (MgO,^Oft-H^Aq) occurs in certain mineral waters, but is of no
special importance.
A phosphate of magnesia, having the formula HO,2MffO,POi-|-14Aq, is obtained hy
the mixture of solutions of sulphate of magncifia and of ordinary phosphate of soda.
It occurs either in an amorphous stale or in six-sided prisms, according as the solutioiis
are more or less concentrated. This salt is a constituent of the >eeds of whi ut and tlie
other cereals, of bones, and of various morbid concretions. The pfiottp^ate if atnmonia
.and mognesia, known also as aminomaco-inagnesian phosphate and as triple phosphate
(NH40.2MgO,PO»+12A(jj, is a more important salt than the preceding. It occurs either
in minute crystalline gnuns or in beautiful transparent four-sided pt isms of consider-
able size, and with a very characteristic appearance. The formation of the salt, which
is only slightly soluble in pure water, and is quite insoluble in water cfiniaining free
' ammonia or its hydrochlorate. not only furnishes a very delicate test for the presence of
magnesia, but enables us to determine its quantity.
This phosphate of ammonia and magnesia is readily formed by mixing a folnUon of
amagnesian siUt with hydrochlorate of ammonia, phosphate of Sidn. and a little free
ammonia. It is an occasional constituent of urinary calculi, and cTystnllises in licHUti.
ful prisms from urine and other animal fluids, when they begin to putrefy. It is also
freqiiently present in the excrements in cases of diarrhea.
The silicates of magnesia are numerous. A large number of mincrala am formed
eitber wholly or partly of them, among which may be mentioned <»livineor chrysolite,
talc, steatite or soapstone, moerBchaum, serpentine, augite. hornblende, etc.
The haloid salts of magnesium—- the chloride, iodide, and bromide— are of no special
interest, except thst the chloride of magnesium is, next to chloride of sodium, tlie most
abundant of the salts existing in sen-water.
The compounds of magnesium employed in medicine are magnesia, its carbonate, and
its sulphate.
Magnesia is presented in small doses (from 10 grains to a scruple), as on anlacid. m
cases of undue acidity of the stomach, heart-burn, and abnormal ucidity of the nriae;
in larger doses (from a scruple to a dram), it produces distinct purgiUive effects. It
is useful, especially when combined with rhubarb and n little gm^rer (in the fnim of
compound rhultarb powder or Gregory's mixture), as a purgative for children, in acid
oonditions of the alimentary canal.
Carbonate of magnesia (magnesia allia) nets in the same manner as magneria. except
that it is less active, since more than half of it consists of water and carbonic acid.
Dinneford's solution of magnesia, and other fluid preparations of the same nature, are
made by dissolving this salt in water charged with carbonic acid. A dram of carlionato
of magncjtia. the juice of one lemon, and a wine glassful of water constitute an agree-
able laxative, a citrate of magnesia hoing thus formed.
Sulphate of magnolia is a purgjitive in very general use. It is much employed in
febrile affections, and when the portal system is congested; but it may Iwused in nhnoet
any case in which a mild but efficient laxative is required. Its dose Varies from IB to 4
or 6 drams. In combination with the infusion of senna, it forms the ordinary Kack
dravghu See Magnesium and the Maonebium Liout.
XAOHX'SnrX and the XAGHSSnTX LIGHT. Although the discovery of the inetal
magnesium was made by sii H. Davy in 1808, it was looked upon as Htfle more Ihna a
chemical curiosity for about half a centurj'. In 1880 a French chemist. Bussy, olilaiaed
globulca of the metal by fusing globules of potassium, in a glass tulie, Mith anliyf^ous
chloride of magnesium. Bussy's labors were followed by somewhat improved melliocl?.
adopted by Bnnsen, and subsequently by Matthiessen, who.|f^g^E)^^|^^f^ing some
369
gmiqa of tli0 metal liito wire. The first great odvaoce on Bnssy's labors was in 1856,
when DeTilla and Caron effected the reduction of the pure chloride of mUguesiun) by
inixing it with fused chloride of sodium in clay crucibles, using fluoride of calcium as
a IIqk; and throwing in fragments of sodium; they thtu obtained magnesium on a
lanrer «oale than any of their predecessors. The most important ptirt of liicir invusti^
gations was the disooTery of the volatility of the metal. All tliese were, however, mere
Mdiomory experiments. In 1859 Bunsen of Heidelberg, and Roscoe (now of Manches-
ter), published a memoir on the great importance of magnesium for photographic pur*
BQSQB, owing to the high refrangibility and the great actmic power of the light emitted
hy burning magnesium- wire. The study of this memoir led Mr. Sonstadt to consider
whether, tlie magnesian salts being so abundant, the metiil migUt not be obtained, on a
cofnpamtlvely l£ge scale, at a moderate price. After a prolonged series of expensive
experiments he succeeded, in 186d, in producing specimens of the metal varying from
the oixeof a pin's head to tiiatof a lien's egg. Although it burned freely enough, it
was still wanting in ductilitv and malleabilitv. in consequence of tlie presence of certain
ioipuritiea: iHit by M^iy, 1808, these difficulties were overcome by a process of purilica^
lion hf distillation: and by the close of that year he considered it safe to begin muuu-
factnnng. The magnesium metal company was consequently organized, and operations
<x>miiienGed at Manchester, where magnesium is now made on a considerable scale, as
well as by an American magnesium company at Boston. ' One great advantage of Sou*
atadt'ii method is its simplicitv; it can be accomplished by the hands of ordiDary work*
aaen ignorant of all chemical knowledge. The process of manufacture maybe thu9
'described: 1. An anhydrous chloride of magnesium is prepared by satumting lumps of
rock-magnesiii (carbonate of magnesia) with hydrochloric acid, and then eva|)omtiug tlte
aolutioB to dryness. 2. One part of metallic sodium cut in small pieces is placed in an
iron crucible, and covered with five parts of the chloride. The crucible is covered, and
heated to redness, when the chlorine leaves the magnesium and unites with the sodiuna,
■ for which it has a stron^r affinity. When the crucible has cooled, and its contents are
removed snmoMe, and broken, the magnesium-^in that state known as crude magne-
sium— is seen in nuseets of varioas sizes, varying from granules to masses as large as a
hen's egg, 8. The distillation of the crude metal is effected in a crucible through which
a tube ascends to within an inch of the li± The tube opens at the bottom into an iron
box, placed beneath the bars of the furnace, where, on the completion of the opera-
tioB. magnesium is found in the form of a heap of drippings, which may be melted
and caat into ingots or any desired form. The difficulty of obtaining a metal with so
little ductility in the form of wire— the only form that was originallv used for yielding
light— had still to be overcome; and after various partially successful attempts to press
smalt quantities into wire by Mattiiiessen and others, Mr. Mtitlier of Salfonl devisc<l a
piece of machinery by which the metal is pressed into wire of various thickness. Mr.
Mather also was the nrst who obtained the metal in ribbons, in which form, from the
lancer exposed surface, combustion takes place more completely. The apparatus for
making the wire and ribbon is very ingenious. *' The chief feature of it is a small
hollow cylinder, adapted to receive a ram at one end, and covered at the other by an iron
screea perforated with two or more holes opposite the chamber. This press, as the
cylinder Is called, is subjectecl to tlie action of gas from a blow-pipe, and the heat
employed is only sufficient to soften the metal in the press. The pieces of magnesium
axe thrust into the chamber, the ram is placed in the mouth of the press, and a pressure
of between two and three tons— obtained by hydraulic apparatus or by 8tt>am — forces
the ram against the softened metal, and the latter oozes in continuous strings of wire
through the perforations already named. To make ribbon, the wire thus obtained is
.pa88e<l between two hollow heated rollers, and Is received in a flattened state upon a
• reel." — Richardson A Wattt^s Chemical leehnology. To Mr. Mather is also duo the credit
of having constructed the first magnesium lamp, in which the end of the wire or rib-
bon is presented to the flame of a spirit-lamp. A concave reflector sent the light for-
ward, and protected the eyes of the operator.
The first time that a photograph was taken by this light was at Manchester in the
spring of 1864 by Mr. Brothers and Dr. Roscoe. *^That the magnesium light, in a more
or less modifiefi form, must prove of extreme value to photography cannot be called in
qiMsUon. Besides overcoming the obstacle of unsuitable.wcather for the employment
of sunlight, it may be applied both for the exploration and the photography of various
dim structures, underground re^rions, etc., such as the inferior of the pyramids, of cata-
combs, natural caverns, etc., which could not otherwise be exnmined or photographed.
Prof. Pinzzi Smyth, the Scottish astronomer-royal, dating from thee^ist tomb, great pyra-
mid, Feb. 2. 18615. writes as follows: '* With any number of wax candles which we have
yet taken into either the king's chamber or the grand gallery, the impression left on the
mind is merely seeing the candles and whatever is very close to them, so thnt jmu have
«mall idea whether you are in a palace or a cottage; but burn a triple strand of maime-
aium wire, and in a moment you see the whole apartment, and appreciate the gran<^eur
of its size and the beauty of its proportions," M. Madar is said to have taken a (tcrles
of photographs of the catacombs of Paris; various artists are busy practicing on monu-
ments in obscure rece<«scs of continental churches; and in different parts of England
caves of prehistoric interest either have been, or are about to be, photographed by this
Digitized by VjOUV IC
light. For portraiture, it is fonnd to be less sucoessf nl than was at flrsl ezperlcd. oirliig
to ihe intense light within a few feet of the sitter's eyes causing a contraction o( i\Z
fac:al muscles.
Ol>]ectors to the application of such lights for the lighting of hiiige Imildings and
thoroiigli fares mttintaiu that, while light derived from oil or coid-gas, in whiiU CMrixHi
consitiiutes tlie ignitilile solid, possesses a power of ditfusibility which renders objects
not directly oppoHcd lo tlie course of the rays more or loss distinctly visihie, tlie el^irk^
linu', and magnesium lights possess less of this diffusiveness; their rays being appaf-
enily projected with a force and velocity which interfere with the power of uiffustou.
An object piiiced in the direct course of tlie rays is splendidly illuminated, and the rays
are projected to an immense distance; but the shiulows ciiKt by intervening objects are
intensely black, and tlie rays sifem to pass thniugh the atmosphere without pioduciug
much effect, except upon those puits on which they directly faiL
We may now state some of the advantages whicli arise fn>m the use of the magn^
slum light. Its color approaclies very much nearer to daylight than that of the light
from oils, candles, or coal-^is. As compared with the sun, its luminous intensity is
jlw, but its chemical intensiiy is ^, and this high actinic power makes it speciallv valik>
able for photographic purposes. Although it does not nearly equal the electric ll;:lit as
an illuminating agent.- like it the magnesium light gives off no noxious vapors. But as
it bums, white clouds of the vapor of magnesia are formed wiiich would be more or lew
troublesome in private nxims. This objection is 8:iid to l)e to some extent removed,
without diminishing the brilliancy of the light, by alloying with zinc; and at any rote,
it would scarcely at all interfere with its use in large public buildings. tStill less would
ft do so when the light is burned in the open air.
There is, however, not much hope of the magnesinm light successfully competing
With the electric light for the illumination of large buildingM, streets, or even of ocean
steamers. Jtecent trhils with the electric light at the British museum and other places
bave now pn>ved conclusively that wherever a great deal of light is required, gas is
beaten out of the field (m the score of economy. As respects the maintenance of an
equal amtmnt of light, gas is 20 times more costly, a difference which will speedily cover
the original expense of the iieccssaiy electrical apparatus. The magnesium l>ght, on
the otiier hand, is much mora costly than gas; and although the ores which could be
used as a source of magnesium are very abundant, yet any probable cheapening of the
process of extracting the metal from these is not likely to make the light a very
economical one. 8till. for any purpose where, for a comparatively brief time, a very
intense light is required, magnesium wire or ribbon has about it almost the simplicity
bf a wax taper; nor are the lamps at all complex by which the metal may be burned for
hour* continuously.
Two kin<l3 of magnesium lamps are made. In one of these kinds, wire or thin
ribbon of the metal is coiled ab<mt a reel or bobbin. From this reel the riblion is drawn
by means of two small rollers and projected through a tube to the focus of a metallic
reflector, where it passes tlironvfh the flame of a spirit-lamp to insure its continuous
combusiion. These rollers are kept in motion either by an operator turning a small
wheel, or in the more expensive forms by clock-work. In the otlier kind of himp the
magnesium is used in the form of dust, which is mixed with flne dry sand in the propor-
tion of one of the former to two of the latter. This mixture is place 1 in a funnel-nhaped
reservoir, and conducted, by means of a narrow tube provided with a stop-cock, to the
flame of a spirit-lamp which serves to ignite and maintain the flame of the powdered
magnesium. If nitrate of strontia l»e substituted for sand, a splendid red light is pro-
duced, and in this way, liy using otlier chemicals, various colors can be ol)taine().
It was about tlte year 1864 that magnesium wan flrst made on a commercial Kule,
and it is found that the demand for it. although not decreasing, is scarcely at all extend-
ing. It is almost wholly used for burning in photographic lamps, for dash lights, and
for fire-works. It has been attempted to make magnesium useful for other purposes.
Various alloys have been made witli it and other metals, such as lead. tin. zinc,
cadmium, and silver; but they are all brittle and liable to change. It is very douhifnl,
therefore, if any of these alloys will become useful in the arts, and the metai itself is
scrarcely likely to lie available in the construction of olnects of ornament or utility,
since, when exposed to damp, it soon becomes coated with a film of hydrate of mag-
nesium.
ICAGHETIC CUBES. It was held by physicians of old that the magnet exercfsod nn
imiK)rttuit intiuencc on the human body, or on the bodies of certain persons: this being
shown in tliA alleviation of headache, toothache, cramp, etc. It has, however, been
proved that the magnet as such has no influence on animal organisms, and that accord-
mgly all cures professedly resting on such action have lieen due to delusion or deceit
But it is quite other wiae with magneto-electricity and giUvanism. See Eusctbiciti,
'Medical.
MAGNETIC IRON ORE. See Loadbtonb, ante,
1CA6NETI8K (said to be derived from the city Magnesia, where the loadstone wu
first discovered), is the power which the magnet has to attract iron. Under miMkO-
MBTiBM it is stated that every substance is more or less affected by^ ^magnet, bat «^
861
MAicnetle.
Iron f^ par espoBUeneemn^etlc, the term Is chiefly used with refer-^ncc to it. Mngnet»
trc of two kinds, nattfnU and arUfieiiU. Naturat nmgnets cuiisist of the ore of iron called
maetietic. familiarly known »8 loadstone. Arriticial magnets are, for the most part,
atnuj^riit or bent hiirs of tempered steel, which have been magnetized by the action of
other magnets, or of tlic galvanic current.
Bttnray of t/ie Magnet. — ^The power of the magnet to attract iron is i»y no mcanft
equal Ibrougltout its length. If a small iron ball bo suspencled by a thread, and a mag-
iiei(tfg. 1) be panned aiuug in front of it from one cud to the^other, it is powerful^
y
Fto.1.
Pro. 9.
attracted at the ends, hnt not at all in the middle, the magnetic force incren^^ing with Ihe-
distauce from the middle of the bar. The (Mids of Lbe magnet v^liere the attractive
power is greatest are called its poles. By causing a magnetic needle moving horizontally
to vibrate in front of the different parts of a magnet placed vertiodly. and counting
the number of vibnitioDS, the rate of increase of the magnetic intensity may lie exactly
found. Fig. 3. gives a graphic view of this increase. N 8 is the magnet; the linca
n N. aa. etc., represent the magnetic intensities at the points N, a, etc., of the mae-
net; aind the curve of umsrnetic intensity, N a M a' n', is the line formed by the extreml<
tic.<i of all the upright lities. It will be seen from the figure that the force of both
halves. Inking M as the dividing point, is disposed in exactly the same way, that for
seme «li^tance on either side of the middle or neutnd point there is an absence of force,
and that its inteii.*^ity increases with creat rapidity towurds the ends. The centers of
J gravity of the areas Si N n and M S n are the poles of the magnet, which must there-
ore lie situated near Imt not at tlie extremities.
A magnet has. then, two poles or centers of magnetic force, each having an equal
power of attnieting iron. This is the only property, however, which they possess i a
common, for when the poles of one ma;;net are made to act on those of aaothsr, a strik-
ing (lissimilarily i'* brought to light. To sliow this, let us sus-
pend n magnet. N 8, fig. 3. by u Imnd of paper, M, hanging
from a Cix-oDn llircad (a thread without torsion). When the
magnet is left to itself* it lakes up a fixed position, one end
keeping north, and the other south. 1'he noi th pole cannot bo
maac tu stand a<) a south pole, and tiee verm; for whep the
mairnet is (listurl)ed, lN)th notes return to their original posi-
tions. Hcrr. then, is a striking dissimilarity in the poles, bi
metins of which we nix* enabled to distinguish them as noru
pole and Sffttth pole. When thus suspended, let us now try the
effect of another magnet upon it. and we shall find that the
pole of the suspend d ina^^net that is attracted by one of the
poles of the second magnet Is repelle<l by the other, and vf'ee
term; and where the one pole atira<-ts, the other repels. If. now, the second magnet
be hnng like the first, it will be found that the pole which attracted the north pole of
tlie first magnet is a south pole, and that the pole which repelled it is a north p<ile. We
thus lenrn that each imtgnet ha» tao pol&f, the one a norths tne other a south pole, alike in
their power of attracting mft iron, but mffering in their action on the poke of another mag-
net^ Uhe polen repelling, ami vnlike po^es attracting, each other.
It rai^ht be thought that, by divuling a magnet at its center, the two polos could be
insulated, the one half containmgall the north polar magnetism, and the other the south.
Wlieo this is done, however, lioth halves U'come separate magnets, with two poles in
each — the original north and south poles f^tanding in the same relation to the other two
poles cidled into existence by the separatiim. We can therefore never hate one kind of
magnetiimt without hamng it cumtdated in the eame magnet with the same amount of the
oppottite nuignetium. It is this double manifestation of force which constitutes the polar-
ity of the magnet.
The fact of the freely suspended magnet taking up a fixed position has led to the
theory that the eiirth itself in a huge magnet, having its north and south magnetic poles
in tlie neighliorhood of the poles of the axis of rotation, and that the magnetic needle or
suspended magnet turns to them as it does to those of a neighboring magnet. All the
manifestations of terrestrlial magnetism give decided confirmation of this theory. It
is on this view that the French call the north pole of the magnet the south pole {p6le
JMASnetUm*
aes
aM9tra\ and tbe south the north pole {pole boreal)', for If the earth be taken as the fltand*
ard, its uorih miignetic pole must attract the south ])oIe of other magnets, and ti(A
veraa. In Enghunl and Germany the north pole of a magnet is tiie one which» whed
freely suspeudeil, poiuts to thu north, and no reference is made to its reUitioD to tho
magnetism of the earth.
Form of MagneU. — Artificial magnets are elthrr bar magnets or horse-shoe magnets.
When i)Owcrful magnets are to l)e made, several thin bars are placed side by iiide» witl^
their poles lying in tlie same wav. They end in a piece of iron, to which iliey are
bound by a brass screw or frame. Three or four of these may be put up into the bundle,
«nd the^e again into bundles of three and four. Such a collection of magnels u called 9
magnetic majazine or battery. A magnet of this kind \^ more powerful than a solid one
•of the ^nie weight and size, because thin bars can be more strongly and regu-
larly magnetized than Ihick ones. Fig. 4 is a horse-shoe magnet nikigazine. The central
lamina brotrudcs slightly beyond the other, and it Is to it that the armature is attached,
the wh()io action of the magnet being concentrated on the projection. A good form of
magnet Is 41 pandlelopipL'd of magnetic iron ore, with pieces of soft iron. lx>UQd to its
poles by u Ui'ass frame encircling the whole. The lower ends of the soft iron Uaro act
aa the poL*9, and support the armature. The majfnetic needle is a small magnet nicely
balanced on a fine pomt. See Compass.
MoQMtic IndaeUrm, — When a short bar of soft iron is suspended from one end of a
magnet it becomes for the time powerfully magnetic. It assumes a north and south
pole, like a regular magnet, as may be seen by using a small magnetic needle; and if its
lower eml b'j uip|)ei into iron filings, it attracts them as a magnet would do. When i(
IS taken away from the magnet the filings fall off. and all trace of nuignetism dlsap*
bears. It need not be in actual contact to show magnet:c properties; when it is simply
.brought near, the »\me thing Is seen, though to a less extent. If the inducing niaguet
be strong enough, the induced magnet, when in contact, can induce a bar like itself,
i>l:Uied at its e.^lremity, to became a magnet; and this second induced magnet may trans-
mit the magnetism to a third, and so on, the action beint;. however, weaker each time.
If a stetfl l)ur be used for this experbuent, a singular difference is
observed in its action; it is only after some time that it Insi^us to
exhibit ma.<;netic properties, and, when exhibited, they are feebler thaa
in the soft iron bar. When the steel bar is removed.' it does not part
insUintlv with its magnetism, as the soft iron bar, but retains it per-
manently. Steel, therefore, has a force which, in the first insttmce,
resists the assumption of magnetism; and, when assumed, resists its
withdrawal. This is cadled tlie coerclUve force. The harder tbe temper
of the steel, the more is the coercitive force developed in it it is
this force also, in the loadstone, which enables it to retain its magnet-
ism.
Magneti2ation.^By single touch (Pr. eimpU touehe, Ger. einfacher
etrie/i): The steel bar to be mas^netized is laid on a table, and the pole
of a powerful magnet is rubbed a few times along its length, always in
the same direction. If the magnetlzin*? polo be north, the end of the bar
it first touches each time becomes also north, and the one where it is
*^-** lifted south. The same thing may be done by putting, say. the north
magnetizing pole fir.«it on the middle of the bar. then giving it a few pa8<«e^ from rho
middle to the end, returning alwa3'8 in an arch from the end to the middle. After
^ing the same to the other half with tlie south pole, the magnetization is complete.
The first end rubbed liecomes the south, and the other the nouli pole of the new mag-
net, /?y divided touch (Pr. touche ftSparSe, Ger. getrennter nirich): The Imr to Ik3 magnet-
ized is placed on a piece of wood with its ends abutting on the extremities of two pinver-
ful magnets. Two rubbing magnets are placed with their poles together on the mitldle.
inclined at an angle rather less than 30° with it. They are then simultaneously moved
away from each other to tha ends, and brought back in an arch again to the middle.
After this is repeated a few times, the bar is fully magnetized. This method comnumi-
•cates a very regular magnetism, and is employed for magnetic needles, or where
accuracy is needed. The magnetization by double touch is of less practiod importance,
and need not here be describe. It communicates a |)Owerful but sometin\es irregular
magnetism, giving rise to consecutive poles— that is, to more poles than two m the
ma^et.
For horse-shoe magnets. Hoffer's method is generally followed. The inducing mag-
net is placed vertically on the masrnet to be formed, and moved from the ends to the
bend, or in the opposite way. and brought round airain. in an arch, to the starting-point
A soft iron armature is placed at the poles of the induced magnet. That the operation
mav succeed well, it is necessary for l)oth macnets to Ixa of the SJimc width. The same
method may also be followed for magnetizing bars. The bars with the armatures are
placed so as to form a rectangle; and the horseshoe magnet is made to glide alopg both
In the way just describe*!.
Mofjnetimtinn by the Jl&jrtA.— The inductive action of terrestrial magnetism is a strik-
ing proof of the truth of the theory already referred to, that the earth itself Is a mag-
net. When a steel rod is held in a position parallel tp ^ ^i^^ni^Mdlc (q.v.), it
868
*« course of time penhmently megoetlo. This remit Is rendied sooner
'ubbed with a piece of soft iron. A bar of soft iron hchi in the same
,j\ werfiiHy but only tempomrity aftected, and when reversed, tb« poles
the bar. but remain as before. If when so held it receive at iu» end
^ hammer, tlie magnetism is rendered permanent, and now the
^^ the bar is revoned* Tlie torsion caused by tlie blows of the
' ^ Mnicate to the bar a coercitive force. We nniy tmderstaind
^ '>rk-shops are generally magnetic. Whenever large ninssee
V Vngtli of time ihvy are sure to eive evidence ot magiieti-
^ «V iction of the earth's poles acting through ages that the
, ^ ' ^^ ■*. attributed.
\ ^ ^ ynets, — Magnets, when freshly magnetiased. are some*
o \ J afterwards become. In that ciise ihey gnidunlly fall off
.^ V a point at which their rtrength remains constant Tiiis is
.lion. If a magnet lias not liecn raised to this point, it will lose
.zation. We may ascertain whether a magnet is at saturation by
. -^ a a more powerful magnet, and seeing whether It retains more mag-
ore. Tiie saturation point clepends on the coercitive force of the magnet,
.lie power of the magnet with wliicli it Is rubbed. When a magnet is above
.d, it is soon reduced to it by ^^peatedly drawing away the armature from it.
.K n-aching tUis point, magtiets will keep the same strength for years together if not
•dbjectc'd to rough usage. It is favorable for the preservation of magnets that they bo
provided with an armature or keeper. For further information, see article Akm aturb.
Tlic ik)wer of a horse-shoe magnet is usually tested by the weight its armature can b&a
viib<*ut breaking uwav from the magMBt Hftcker gives the following formula for thit
veiglii: W=a \'m*; yf'U the charge expressed in pounds; a, a constant to be ascertained
for a iwrticular quality of steel; and m is the weight in pounds of the magnet. He
found, ill the magnets that he constructed, a to be 12.6. According to this value, a mag-
net NTcigbiug 2 oz. sustains a weight of* 8 Itm. 2 o2L, or 25 times its own weight; whereas
a magnet of 100 lbs. susttiiiis on^ 271 lbs., or rather less than 8 times its own weight.
)ka&\\ magnets, therefore, are stronger for their siie than large ones. The reason of
i\)h may be thus explained : Two magnets of the same sisse and ])ower, acting separately,
tuppurt twice the weight that one of them does; but if the two be Joined, so as to form
one mnipet they do not sustain the double, for the two magnets being In close proxim-'
iiy, act mductively on each other, and so lessen the conjoint power. Similarly, several
magnelsmade up into a batterv have not a force proportionate to their number. Large
inagaets in the same way may be considered as made up of several htminie, interfering
mutually with each other, and rendering the action of the whole very much less than
tlic ram of the powers of each. The best method of ascertaining the strength of bar
muoiets is to cause a mapietic needle to oscillate at a given distance from one of their
pnk>s, the nzia of the needle and the polo of the magnet being in the mn^etic meridian.
Tlieseriseiltatinns oligerve the law of pendulum motion, so that the force tending to
bring the needle to rest is proportionate to the square of the number of oscillations in
a stated time*.
Action €f MagnrtM on eaeh other. — Coulomb discovered, by the oscillation of the mag-
netic needle in the presence of magnets in the way Just described, that ffhen magneti are 90
piaeed tknt two adfoining pole$ may act on each other without the interference of the oppoeito
pelff. that Is. when the magnets are large compered with the distance lx*tween their
renters, their aUractive or repuMoe force taries inDerselff a» the square of the distance,
Gau^ proved from this theoretically, and exhibited experimentally, that when the dis-
tance lietween the centers of two magnets is large compared with the size of tlie maf^-
nets, that is, tehen the action of both poise eomee into play, their action on each oUier vartcB
inten^lff ae the cube of the distance.
Effect ffHeat on Magnets. — When a magnet is heated to redness it loses permanently
every tnice of magnetism; iron, also, at a red heat, ceases to be attractc>d by the magnet
At temperatures below rod heat the magnet parts with some of- its powen the loss
iDcrrnsmg with the temperature. The temperatures at which other substances affected*
by the magnet lose their miignetism differ from tliat of iron. Cobalt remains magnetic
at the highest temperatures, and nickel loses this property at 002** F.
Ampere'e Theory of Magnetiem.-^Thls theory forms the link between magnetism and
Kslvanic electricity, and gives a simple explanation of the phenomena of electro-mag-
netism and masmeto-electricity. We shtul therefore preface the short discussion of
the<e two suliiects by a reference to it. Ampere consldere that every particle of a mag-
net ha.<i closed currents circulating about it in the same direction. A section of a mag-
net according to this theory is shown in fig. 5. All tlie separate currents in the vations
panicles may, however, be considersd to be equiyalent to one strong current circulating
TDund tlie whole (fig. 6). We are to Uiok upon a magnet, then, as a system, so to speak,
sf rings or rectangles, placed side by side, so as to form a cylinder or prism, in each of
vhicii a current in the same direction is circulating. Before magnetization the currents
nin in dlSiTent directions, so that their effect as a system is lost, and the effect of
induction is to bring them to run in the same direction. The perfection of magnetiza-
tioD is to render the various currents parallel to each other. Soft if^^g|i| consequencs*
lUfav^^mm^
864
ef iu offering no rcfifatance to such a disposilion, beoomes more powerfully magoelkf
Uiidcr iuduciion iliaii steel, where such reHistaince exists. Experitiient very •trongly
contirnis the truth uf this tiieory. Helices of copper wire, in whicli a current is maUe
to circulaie, luuiiifest all the properties of u muguet. buck are shown, iu skeleton, in
figs 7 aind 15. Each couvolutiou of the spiral may be taken as a substitute for one of
tiku rings above spokeu of. In helix tig. 7, the current, utter entering, goes fiom right
to left (contniry to ibc hands of a watcn), and it is hence califd lefi-hauiled; ku fig» H it
g<K8 witli the hands of a watch, and is right-handed. The extremities of Lolh helices
act on the magnetic nee<lle like the noles of a magnet while the current pu8»cs. The
poles are shown by the letters N mia S. and this can. be easily deduced from Ampere's
rule (see Galyakism), for, suppose the little tigure of a man to be placed in any patft of
if mm
BtTV
^
Fig. e.
6o6oo&ooo'(ro'd^
jng.z
^^msmsismsi%
Itg:a
tbe helix flg. 7, fo that, while he looks towards the axis of the holix, the otmrnt enters
by his feet, and li>aves by his head, the north pole will be at his left hand, ns sliown in
tbe tigure. In the left-handed Jielix (fig. 8). the poles are rewrfsed according lo the wime
rule. If eitlier of these helices be bung so as to be capable of horizontal motion, which,
by a simple construction, can easily be done, as soon as the curnMit is cstabliflied. the
north and south poles piace themselves exactly as those* of the magnetic needle would do;
•r, if thev were hung 8o as to be able to move vertically in the magnetic meridian, they
would take up the pot«ition of the dipping-needle (q v.).
These movements can lie still further explained by reference to tbe mutual action of
electric currents on each other. It is found that ir?ien lira evnenU are free to more, they
endtator lo place ihewFeltee faiaUel to each odher^ and to
mote in the tame direction, and that eurrenttt running in
the mme direction attract, and thone rvnnivff in oppo-
Mte direetions repel. The apparalu$i fig. 9 i» intended to
prove this. The rectiingle cdef is movable round the
pins a and b, resting on two mercuiy cups. The
arrangement is puch tnat while the rectangle «<f«/ is
movaUe about its axis, a cunent can continue Meadily
to flow in it. Further description is unnecePFary, the
diagram explaining itself. If a wire in which a cur-
rent passes downwards be placed vertically near ctf, cd
is attracted by it; but if the curn'nt pass upwanis, it
is repelkd, and ef attracted. Place, now, the wire
below and pandlel to de. If the current passes in the
direction d to e. no change takes place, as the otinic-
ticn cannot show itself; but if the current moves from
e to d. the whole turns round till it stands w here« wns,
and both currents run the same w:iy. If the win* be
placed jit right angles to de. the rictargle turns round
Fig. 9. and comes to rest, when both currents are parallel, and
in the same direction.
Accordimr to Ampere's theory, the earth, being a magnet, has currents circulating
about It, which, acconling to his rule must be from east to west, the north pole of tlie earth
being.in our way of speaking, a south pole. A magnet, then, will not come to rest till the
currents moving Ik'Iow It place themselves parallel to
and in the direction of tlie eartlfs currents. This is
shown in fig. 10. where a section of a magnet is repre-
sented in its position of rest with reference to the
earth-current. The upper ctirrent Iwing further awa^
from the earth-current, is less affected by it. and it is
Uie lower current that detet mines tlie position. A -=
magnetic needle, therefore, turns towards the north to
lUhiw the currents movinn; below it to place themselves
parallel to the earth*s cunx^nt. This also is shown by the rectangle in fig. 9, wltich cornel
to rest when d and e He east and west.
EUtctro^mapnetism includes all phenomena in which an electric current prodiicei
magnetism. The mo.'^t important reJ^ult of this power of the current is tbe electro-
magnet. This consists (fig. 11) generally of a rouml bar of soft iron l»ent into the horse-
shoe form, with an insulated wire coiled round its extremities. When a current passei
lAtf
Fig.ia
M5
Udoitgli tbe coil, tlie soft Iron har beoomeB Instnntly mtgnetic, and attmcts the armaUne
with H siiam cIiHl When the eiirreni is stopped, ibis pnwer disappears as suddeuly ai
Kcanie. Klectriv^inAgMets firr otitrivtii pormaiient magnets ia streiigtii. bmall elot^lro-
magneti* Imve been lutwle Uy Joule wlilch support ){.500iiines their uwo weight, a feat
imni»isi2Tnb]y superior to nnytliiiig perfonneii by steci mngiieCs. Wiien tbe cunreut is of
modemte streag^li. and tbe iron core more than u third of au inch in dtmtieier. tk^ magMt"
dm ind't4»I m in proportion to the strength of the current and of the number uf iurne in the
eoit. When tlie bur is thinner than one-third of an inoli, a maximum is soon reached
beyond-whlch additional turns of tlie wire give no additional magnetism; and even wlien
the eore U thick, these turns must not be heaped on each oUii-r, so as to plaue them
beyond influencing thecfire. It follows from tlie above principle, tliat, in the hor>!te-8iioe
magnet, wiiere llie inductive action in the armature must be taicen into iMtdmnt, the
weight lohieh the magnet e*ieteUne in in proportion to the equares of the etrengtlie of the car-
tentM^ an't to the eqtuiree of the number of turn* of the wire. Tbi^t maximum is in different
magnets proportional to the areiv of section, or to Che square of Uie diameter of liie core.
The electro-uuignet, from the ease with which H is maoa to iHinme or hty aside its mag
flg.tl;
Wlg,n.
netism, or to reverse its poles, \tn of the utmost TaTne In electricnl and mechani^l contrlT-
ances. The action of the ef;ctro magnet is quite in Iceepiuff with Ampere's tlieorv, as
the current of the coil, acting on tbe various currents of the individual molepules, places
them imralfel to itself, in which condition the soft iron bar acts powerfully ns a magnet.
The direction of the current and the nature of tbe coil being known, tbe poles are easilj
determined by Ampere's rule.
Eteetro-magnetie MacJiines. — Tliese take advantage of the facility with which tbe poles
of an electro-magnet may be reversed, by whicli attractions and repulsions may be so
arrani^d with anotlier magnet as to produce a con<«tant rotation. The foritis in whieli
they occur are exceedingly various, but the description of the apparatus in flg. 12 will
lufflce to illU3ti*ate their principle of working. N S isa fixed permanent ma£:net(it coitid
be equally well an electro -magnet); the elvctro-mngnet, n/t, is fixed to the axis ee. and thb
fcods of tlie coil are soldered to the ring c, encirclinc: a projection on the axis. The rinc
has two slits In it dividing it into twj halves, and filled with a non-conducting matcriaC
80 that the halves are insulated from each otiier. Pressing on this broken ring, on oppo-
•ftc sides, are two springs, a and b, which proceed from the two binding-screws in;o which
the wires, Hh ^^^ "*» from the battery are fixed. In the position shown in the figure, tlie
torrent Is supposed to pass along a, to the Imlf of the ring in connection with "the end
/, of the coil, to go Mirougli the coil, to pa<« by ^ to the other half ol tlie ring, and to
pass along b, in ics iftnrn to tlie battery. The magnetism induced by the current m the
electro^magnet, makes e a south, and n a north pole, by virtue of which N attracts s, and
8 attracts n. By this double attraction, n # is bronsfht into a line with N 8. where it would
remain, did not just then the springs pass to the other halves of the rim?, and reverse the
cunreut, making e a north, and n n south pole. Repulsion l^etween thelilce poles instantly
ensues, and fM is driven onwards through a quarter-revolution, and then attraction as before
between unlike poles takes it through another quarter, to place it once more axially. ▲
pcrpL'tual rotation is in this way kept up. The manner in which a constant rotary motion
may be obtained by electro-magnetism being understoo*!. it is easy to conceive liow it
may be adapted to the dbicharge of regular work. Powerful machines of tliis kind have
been made with a view to supplant the stenm-cn^ine; but such attempts, both in respect
of economy and constancy, have proved utter ftirhires.
MagneUhdectiHeity includes all phenomena where magnetism elves rise to electridtj.
Under Induction of Electric Currents (q.v.)> it is stated that when a coil in which a
aia|[^etinn.
as6
ovrrent circnktet is quickly placed within another coil UDConnected with it, a oontmj
iwiiioed current in the ciuter coU marks its entrance, snd when it is wiiUdrawn. a clk^t
induced current attends its withdrawuL While tike primary coil remains atatiooaty in
the secondary coil^ thuugli llie current continues to flow steadily in tlie primary, uo cur-
rent is induced in tlie secondary coii. It is also sliown that if. wliile tlie primary coW
is stationary, the strength of its current be increased or diminished, each increase and
diuiiuutiun induces opposite currents in the secondary coil. Ciiange, in fact, whetlier in
the position or current strength of the primiir^ cuil, inducea currents in the secondaxy
coil, and the intensity of the induced current is in proportion to the amount uud sua-
denni'ss of the changeu In singular contlrmution of Ampere*^ theory, a pennaueut bur
magnet may tie sulMtituted for the primary coil in these ex|tenment8, and tbo same
results obtamed with greater intensity. When a bar magnet is introduced into tl;e iecoud-
ary coil, a current is indicated, and when it is withumwn, a current in a cunirary
directl«m is ol)eerve<l. and these currents lake place in the direciions required by
Ampere's tlieory. A change of positiou of the magnet is marked by a current, as iu tbe
fpimer case. If we had tlM means of iucreasing ur lessen! ug the aiugaelitiin .of the bar,
currents would be induced the same as those obtained by sin^ngtbening or weakeuiug
the current in the primary coil. It is this inductive |H)Wer of iron at tlie moment tbat a
change takes place in its magnetism, that forms the basis of magneto-electric macbiues.
The nu&nner in which this is taken advaatuge of will be easily understood by reference
flg.UL
Wlg.U.
to tiff. 8. N 8 is a permanent horse-ahoe magnet, and let us suppose it to be fixed; C D
is a bar of soft iron, with coils A and B woun<l round its extremities, and may belook^^d
upon as the armature of the magnet. O D Is capable of rotation round the axia E F. 60
long as C D remains in the position Indicated in the figure, no currents are induced in
the surrounding coils, for no change takes place in the mnnietism induced ia it by the
action of N 8. The moment that the poles of C D leave KS, the magnetism of tlie soft
iron diminishes as its distunoe from N 8 increases: and when it stan<lR at right angles to
its former position, the magnetism has disappeared. Durintr the flrst quarter-revoliitinou
'therefore, the magnetism of^ the soft iron diminishes, and this is attenoed in the coil (for
both coils net. in fact, as one) by an electric current, which becomes manifest when the
•ends d. «, of tlie coil are joined by a condurtor. Dnring the necond quarter revolution,
the magnetism of the armature increases till it reaches a maximum, when its poles are
in a line with those of N 8. A current also marks ihis increase, and proceeds in the same
direction as lief ore: for tbou<;h the mngnetism increases insteid of diminishes, which of
itself would reverse the imluoed current, the polos of the revolving armature, in cooj«-
quenceof their chnnire of position with the poles of the permanent magnet, have also
: been reversed, and tills douUe reversal leaves the current to move as liefore. For the
second half-revolntion tlie current also proci>edsin one direction, but in the opposite way,
corresponding to tlie reversed position of the armature. Thus, in one rewiution of a 9qfl
. iron at*miUare in front of the filee of a permanent maanet, two eun'entM are induced in the
eoiU eThdireUnff it, in oppmte direetMns, each lotting hcSfa revolutian, etartingfrom the lute
jatninjg the poles.
Aft fffneto -electric Machine. — Tlie general construction of a siniple magneto^lecirio
machine is shown in fig. 14 N 8 is a fixed permanent magnet. B B is a soft iron plate,
to which are attached two cylinders of soft iron, round which the coils C and D are
867
#clilM. C B B D is thus the revolving atmatiire, eorretpooding to C D in fig. 18. A Mt
isn Mrass rod rigidly connected %vitb tbe armature, and also serving as tlie rotating axte.
F is« cyHndrieal projection on A A, aiui is pressed upon by two fork-like springs, H and
K. whieli arc also the poles of tbe macbiue. Tbe ends, m, n, of tbe coils are soldered
Xtf two fiMHal rings on K. insulated from eacB other. Wben tbe armature revolves, A A
akid P move with it. F, ii, and K are so constructed as to act as a commutator, revers*
iAg tlie current at eacb semi-revolution. By this arrangement, tbe opposite currents
ptoeeeding from tlie coil nt each setni revolution ure tmnsniitted to H and R in tbe ftime
dhtK!tir>R, so that these, whidi constitute tlie poles of tbe battery, so to speak, remain
always of the same name. Wben tbe armature is made to revolve witb ^utHcient rapid iiy,
a veiy energetic and steady current is generatetl. Of late years immeuFc progress bas
been matle in tbe construction of such macbines. In 1860 Wilde of Manchester pur-
ririMfd tlic seietttiflc world by a macbine of unprecedented |>ower; and more n*cenOy,
Oranime of Fiiris has constructed another still more a^tonisliing. These are driven by
steam-engines, and completely echpra both in power and constancy tbe largest galvanic
liattety hitherto put together. Bee Magneto elsctbic Mtntma See also ARMATimn
Dbclikation Nebdlk, l>iAMAGNBTiflOi, DiPPiKo NsEDLB, and Rotation, Magnbt-
ISM OP.
MAGNETISM, ANIMAL. 8ee Anikal Uaonetish, ant&.
MAeVET'O-SLEOTBIO XACHin (More recent forms of),
era basi arisen in the construction of mag-
neto-electric macbines. The compactness,
rimplicity of construction, and marvelous
pc>wer wbich the new macbines poFsess,
give them quite a novel imporhmce in
prncticiil electricity. Tbe names cbiefly
a-Hsociated witb tbe new improvements are
Wilde of Manchi'Ster, Siemens and Wheat-
stone, and Gnimmc of Paris. Mr. H.
Wilde, in 18M, patented a magneto-elec-
tric macbine, foundetl on the principle tbat
a current or a magnet indefinitely toeak can
be m*td£ to indvee a current or a magnet of
inilefinile gtrength. A general description
will at low how t bis Is proved and applied.
Wilde's original machine is sbown in
front elevation, fig. 1. It consists of two
machines verv similar to eacb other, the
oppcr one M M '. and tbe lower E E'. Tbe
upper and smaller macbine consists of 16
permanent magnets, placed one behind the
other. Tbe front one oidy is seen. Tbe
polcH of these are fixed at g,g (fig. 2). to
what is termed tbe magnet cylmder. This
consists of a holtow^tnbc, made up of
heavy masses of cast-iron, r. r, at each side,
separated from eacb other by brass rod:*,
b, h, the whole lieing knit firmly to-
gether, aliove and below, by brass bolts at
r, r*. The cast-iron side pieces thus form
the poles of tbe magnetic Iwitlery. The
armature, which revolvi-s within 'the tnlie
of the magnet cylinder, is a long piece of soft
Iron, a a. and in section resembles an " H.*'
In tlie hollows of the " H" the 'vire is tnmed
longitudinal ly. This armature is sliown
separately in fig 8. part of the wooden
tops which cover in the wire being removed
lo show how the wire is turnra. This
form of armature was first constructed by
Siemens. The ends of tbe armature wire
aresolderpd to two instibited iron rings,
n, n' <flg. 3), against wbich tbe springs. «,«
(fie. 1), "press, "which convey tbe current
from the revolving arnmtiire: m is the
Clley of the driving-belt. If the cross-
r oif the " H" stand upright (it lies horizon-
Of late years, quite a new
,*ai>
Fig.1.
taHy In the figure), and tbe arniatuits l)e turned round, while wires leading from
thebindlng-screws. r, r' (fig 1), are connected witb a galvanometer, it will be found tbat
Ate current induced by tbe motion is in ilte same direction till thecross is aginn upright,
butinTcrted. If the motion l»c continued beyond tbat point, a current in the opi)oelte
dhrection will ensue, lasting till tbe cross-bar is In Its first position. The right half oi
368
Die^grinaturo give^ off always one kind o| electricity, and the left th^ otb«r. The fiffU
uiid lefl spriDgs. «,«, iira tliiis ulwayx like 1)0168,
for iUvy cl^HL^c from n to ii (tig. 3) wlicu tiko
current in ilieiarmtitui-e cliaiigcs. Wc couim uuw
to describe tlie uiugular peculiarity ami. uierit ol
Wilde's niac^iiie. The current got from the
niiigueto-electric machine ib not direcUy made
use of, but is eippJoved to generate an electro>
magnet sonie hundreds of times more powerful
thuu the pnugnelic liatiery originally employed.
l»y means of which a corresponding increase of
cleclricity may be ol)tained. This electro-uiag-
uet, E E' (tig. 1), forms the lower ptirt of the
iigure, and by far the iwosa bulky portion of tbo
entire nnichine. It is of tlie horse-siioc form, £
tmd £' forming the two limbs of it. The core of
J, jj each of these, sliowa l»y ilic dotted Ihies, is
^* ' formed by a phile of rolle<l iron, 36 in. in height,
20 in. in length, and 1 in. iu tliickncss. Each is surrounded by a coil of insulated cop-
per wire (No. 10), 1330 ft long, wound round lengtUwise in 7 laijrers. The current lias
li^v^s in passinsr from the insulated Imiding-screw r to the simiJi^r screw r', to uiakea
circuit of 3,300 feet. Each limb of the eleclro-mugnet is thus a flat reel of covered wira
wrapped round a sheet of iron, the rounded amU alone of which are seen in the figure.
The upright iron plates arc Joined above by a bridge. P, built up also of iron-plute, aud
are fixed below the whole way along wiih the iron bars o, « to tlio
sides of a magnet-cylinder of precisely the same construction as liie
one already descrilM^d. The iron frame-work of llie electro-magnet is
Shown l»y the dotted lines. The depth of the biidge is the siimc as
the breadth of the bars v\ V. which arc of tlie same size as the bars
«, «. The various surfaces of juncture in the frame-work are planed,
iiP*- !■ BO as to msura perfect metallic conu^ct. The upper aud lower
^^^^^^^ machine are In action precisely alike, only the upper magnet is a per-
^^kKKKK/M ii^>inent magnet, and the lower one an electro- unignct. We have tho
same magnet-cylinder, I, I, the same armature. A, and springs, S, S',
an<l the same poles. Z, Z' ; the size is. however, different ; the caliber
of the magnet-cylinder is 7 incites. The diameter of the lower arma-
ture gives the name to the machine — viz., a 7-inch machine. Figs. 3
and 3 are on the scale of the lower machine (fie. 1). The length of
wire on the lower armature is 3o0 feet. It is 35 m. in length, and is
made to rotate 1300 times a ndnute. The cross frame-work attached
at ^ /7 to the magnet-cylinder, in which the front Journal, /, of the
armature rotates &tQ), is shown in the lower machine (fig. 1). When
the machine is in action, both armatures arc driven simultaneously
by belts from the same countershaft. For the electric light, the cur-
rents conveyed to tha springs, B and S', need not be sent in the same
direction. In that case, the separation Ix^twecn 9i^and n' is vertical;
and each spring presses nginnst only one ring during the whole revolu-
tion, receiving and transmitting each revolution two opposite cur-
rents. Oil for tho Journal anil commutator is supplied from the
cup C. '
A Wilde's machine H ton in weight, measuring al)out 5 ft. ia
length and height, and 20 in. wide, driven by a steam-engine pro-
duces a most i)rdliaut electric light, and exhibits the most astonishing
heating powers.
Wheatstonc and Siemens pave a new interpretation to Wilde's
principle. Their Important discovery is of tlie following nature:
Suppose the upper fnachine in fig. 1 removed, and that we have noth-
ing but the electromagnet arid armature left. If the wires proceed-
ing from the bindipg screws of tiie armature be joined up with the
electro-magnet, wc might fancy that, there being no permanent
magnetism, no result would follow on the armature being moved.
Such, however, is not the case. If the armature l>e moved at any
Telocity, it will soon be" brought to a halt by the mutual action ensu-
ing, in the electro-magnet there is always some magnetism left.
This induces a feeble current in the coil, but this is sufficient to make
the maj^net stronger ^nd able to induce a stronger current, and this re-
ciprocal acti(m continues until it grows to an enormous intensity. So
great, indeed, would it become, that if wcjiad sufiScient medianical
energy at our.dispostd to pers^t in the motion, the coils of armature
jpj_ jj and electro-magnet wouhl be melted, and the machine destroyed.
■ This startling disi^overy may. however, l)e thought of little value, as
a machine that consumes its own electricity is of no cxt^ra^^iuc^^|i9ii|(^ines now
\
3«9 M^^
work on this reciprocal principle, and a deecriplion of tiiem will best show how it is
turned to account. Ladd was the first to constnict a machine on Wheatetone and
Sfemens'a principle. In the armature there are two unequal coils, the larger for fur-
nishing the exlerual current, the smaller for exciting the electro-magnet. These two
coils revolTe together, the one at light angles to the other, in the same ma^net^
cylinder. In large maohioes he uses two magnet^sylinders, one at each end ofthe
electro-magnet; or rather, he uses two electro-magnets, and the two armatures com-
plete the magnetic circuit. Ferguson of Edinburgh alters Ladd's arrangement in
using only one piece of iron for the armature of the machine with two grooves
cut ui it, a larger one for the coil givine the external current, and a smaller one for
the exciting current. This offers the adVantage that the beating of the solid iron of
tbe armature by repeated magnetism is lessen^ by being transformed into an electric
current. The electro-magnet is thus fed by a current obtained not by an additional
expenditure of energy, but by the utilization of force that would be otherwise converted
into useless or even hurtful neat
The great drawback of all the forms of the machine lust described is the enormous
velocity at which they rotate— some 2,000 or more revolutions in the minute. At this
speed a machine soon wears itself out. Another disadvantage is the heating of the
armatures in Wilde and Ladd's machine. Ferguson's has never been tried on a large scale.
It is found necessary to keep the armatures cool by a flow of cold water. This heat, how-
ever removed, is manifestly a mere squandering of the energy of motion, and a loss to the
current given off. A third objection is the loss that always takes place when the side-
springs change from the one rmg to the other, sparks more or less bright accompanying
the change. For the electric light, however, the alternate currents are used, and this
source of loss is not experienced. These defects are removed in the latest form of the
electro-magnetic machine by Gramme of Paris. In it, instead of a solid armature of
iron, a ring is employed on which a great number of bobbins of wire are set Fig. 4 is
intended to explam the rudimentary prin-
ciple of it The ends of the wires or two z'*'*'^'*^
contiguous bobbins are soldered to strips
of meial called sectors. These are shown
ss radii in the figure. In the machine
itself they are first brought down radially,
then turned at right angles so as to be
parallel to the axis of the machine. They
are very numerous (though few in the
figure), and being separated from each
other by sheets of silk, form a compact
whole. Metallic brushes, B, B, rub on
the end face of the sectors, and form the
poles of the revolving armature. The
principle of action may be thus under-
stood: Suppose we first ascertain what
takes place in the coil of one bobbin as it
revolves in the presence of the magnetic
poles, P, N. If we start from the equa-
torial line, E E', and go by successive
impulses, we find that, when the bobbin *^* *•
is joined with a galvanometer, the icurrent induced is always 'm one direction until we
come a^in to the equatorial line; but when we pass this, the current is reversed on the
other side. This is much the same as what is found in the Siemens armature. But
there is this difference here: The armature wire with the sectors is continuous from
end to end. On each side of the e€[uatorial line we have two equal and opposite elec-
tric forces or batteries, and these, if left alone, would neutralize each other. But if, in
the equatorial line, we introduce brushes to act as poles, we have, as it were, two gal-
vanic batteries Joined up, as it is called, in quantity, with both positive poles together
and also both negative. The brushes embrace several sectors at once, so there is no
spark when they leave any particular sector, contact being established with the others.
The conditions of the machine never alter, and hence the current is perfectly steady,
and the sectors being always of the same sign at the points where the brushes rub, the
current is always in the same direction. Siemens and Wheatstone's principle is
employed in Gramme machines. There are two fixed electro-magnets, and two arma*
tures on the same spindle; one electro-magnet and one armature being set apart for
exciting both electro-magnets, and the other armature and electro-magnet for sending
out the external current Astonishing as were the effects produced by Wilde's machine,
those obtained from Gramme's seem quite to ecjipse them. In comparing two magneto-
electric machines, we must take into account the kind of wire used for the revolving
armature. For tension purposes, a thin and lon^ wire gives the best results; for quan-
tity or heating purposes, a short and thick wire does best To ctompare a tension with
a quantity armi^re, the same test even in the same machine woulcUffive most contra*
wtory results. But comparing, so far as possible, machines intended for the same
purpose. Gramme seems to have the advantage of all others. In the first place, the
U. K. IX.-24
dpeed of revolution seldom exceeds 800 Teroliitions per liiinute; 800 is stfficient tor
most purposes. A Gramme machine driyen by the hand "will melt 10 in. of an iron
wire ig of an inch in diameter, a feat not accomplished by any other arrangemeot.
The electric light got by a 8-horse-power engine working a machine a ton in weight i»
equal to upwards of 8,000 sperm candles. A signal-light of this kind has beeu cou-
structed for the house of lords, under the superintendence of the eminent engineer Conrad
W. Cooke, who has rendered no small service in perfecting the machine. The carbocii
consumed last for four hours, and when burned out are instantaneously replaced. A
Gramme machine adapted for electro-plating, and worked by a l-horse-power engine,
deposits nearly 27 oz. of silver per hour, an achievement far transcending the similar
performance of other machines. Among the heating wonders of the Gramme machine
we are told of a file half an inch in diameter being burnt up in 5 minutes, of 16 ft. of
No. 18 platinum wire being brought to a glowing heat, and of 8 ft. of iron wire .051
inch in diameter being fused.
KAQtJKlF'lOAJf a musical composition in the evening service of the Roman Catholic
church, and also of the Lutheran and English churches. The words are taken from
Luke i. 46-^, containing the " song of the Virgin Mary," which, in the Vulgate, begins
with Magnificat, In the Roman Catholic church, the Magnificat is a grand hymn,
powerful in melody and harmony, mixed with pompous fugues, and with full instru-
mentation. In modern time there have been few attempts in the Roman Catholic ser-
vice to supersede the older music of the Magnificat (by Palestrina); but in the servia^
of the church of England, where the music is of a less elevated character, new com-
positions are frequently written for the Magnificat, by composers strictly of the English
school.
MAGNIFYING-GLA88. See Microscope, ante.
MAGNIN, Charles, 1793-1862; b. Paris; received a superior education, and at the
age of 20 became an assistant in the imi)erial library, and in 1882 a director. He wrote
for the Paris press, theatrical criticism, essays, and sketches, and attracted the favorable
notice of leading French writers. He also delivered lectures at the Sorbonne on the
origin of the modern staee, and gained a sufficient reputation as a man of learning to
obtain a seat in the academy of inscriptions and belles-lettres. His published works
include Cauieries et Meditations Hittoriques et Litteraires; Les Ongines du Tfiedtre Mod-
erne; Le Thedtre des Hromtha; and Histoire des Marionettes,
KAONOLIA, a genus of beautiful trees of the natural order magnoUaeece, having a
calyx of 8 sepals, a corolla of 6 to 12 petals, and carpels in spikes arranged in cones.
and opening at the dorsal suture. They are natives chiefly of North America, the
Himalaya mountains, China, and Japan. The flowers are large and solitary; the leaver
large. The wood is in general soft, spongy, and of little value. M. grandifiora, some-
times called the Bio Laurel, has white flowers sometimes a foot in diameter. It is a
lofty and magnificent evergreen tree, conspicuous at a great distance, found in the lower
districts from North Carolina to the gulf of Mexico. It succeeds well as an orna-
mental tree in the s. of England, but in 'Scotland requires a wall and some protection in
winter. M tripetaXa is found on the Alleghany mountains, and extends as far n. a.s
lat. 48"*. From tlie radiated manner in which its leaves are disposed at the extremities
of the branches, it has received the name of Umbrella Tree. It has very laree while
flowers. It is one of the species most commonly cultivated in Britain, but in Scotland
it requires a wall. M. aextminata inhabits the same districts, and is a lofty tree with
greenish -yellow flowers. It endures the climate of Britain well, but its flowers are not
so much admired as those of some of its congeners. M. glauea, a native of Pennsyl-
vania, Virginia, and Carolina, is known by the names of White Bay, Beaverwood, and
Swamp Sassafras. It is a tree or shrub of 15 to 20 ft in height, with very beautiful
and fragrant white flowers. The Yulan, or Chinese magnolia {M. yulan or eantpicua),
has been much cultivated in China for more than 1200 years, on account of its beautiful
and frairrant white flowers, which it produces in great profusion. It is one of the finest
ornamental trees we possess, and succeeds well in the s. of England, and against a wnli
in Scotland. It is a deciduous tree, and the flowers expand before the development of
the leaves. M. exeeUa, one of the finest species known, is a predominant tree in some
parts of the Himalaya mountains, at an elevation of 7,000 or 8,000 ft., the mountains
when it is in blossom appearing as sprinkled with snow. M, CampbeUu, another native
of tlie same region, produces great rose-colored flowers, and is described by Dr. Hooker
as the most superb of the genus. Allied to the genus magnoUa is MieAelia, some of the
species of which are amongst the most valuable timber trees of Nepaul, and very orna-
mental. The bark of some of them is used medicinally, and the fragrant flowers of a
species called champac are the delieht of the people of Hindustan. Manglietia is
another closely allied genus, to which oelong valuable timber trees of Neptul and of the
Indian islands. The natural order iMgnoUaeea is closely allied to ranunculaeea,
'diifertni; chiefly in the arborescent habit, and in the large stipules which envelop the
young leaves befere they ^n. but soon fall off. The leaves are simple. Aromatic
prop^ies are prevalent. To this order belong the tiMp ttm^ star anise, and witUet's
Wis. Digitized by VjOUV IC
871
Man>ie«
MAGNUS, HsnmiCH GmrrAv, 180^70; b. Berlin; educated at the university of
Berlin, where he devoted himself to the study of natarai science. He also studied
chemistry with Berselius at Stockholm. At the age of 26 he had already made important
discoveries in chemistry, and in 189^ was made eztraoidinary, and in 1646, ordinary
professor of physics and technology in the Berlin university. He made important
experiments on the transmission of heat through gases, which wore published in 1860.
KAOinresXir, Fnm, a distinguished scholar and archceologist, was b. in 1781 at
Subholt, in Iceland, where his family, both on his mother's and father's side, had for
many ffenerations been distinguished for learning and integrity. In 1797 Maenussen
entereathe university of Copenhagen with a view of studying for the law; and although
he so far full6)led tlie origmal intention of his education as to practice this profession
for some years in Iceland, his strong bent towards archttological pursuits led him, in
1812. to return to Coi)enhagen, where he devoted himself with much zeal to his favorite
studies, under the direction of his distinguished countrymen, Thorkelin and Tliorlaciua.
In 1815 he obtained a chair of literature in tlie university; and in 1819, at the solicitation
of the academy of fine arts, he gave a course of lectures on ancient northern literature
and mythology. From this, or even an earlier period, to the dose of liis life, Magnussen
devoted himself to the elucidation of these subjects witli a success that was generally
commensurate with the great ability and acute learning which he brought to bear upon
it. although in some few instances his zeal led him to adopt too hasty conclusions.
Among his earliest and most noteworthy works are his papers on the aboriginal liome
and earliest migrations of the Caucasian races (1818); his contributions to northern
archsDolo.sry (1820); the indices, glossaries, and lexicon which he complied for the eluci-
dation of the 2d and 3d of the Arne-Magnussen editions of the Eddas (1818 and 1828);
his comprehensive translation of the £Ider £dda (AldreEdda, otermt og forJdaret, Kopen.
1824); and his exposition of the same work (Edda IcBreh og dens OpfindelsSy Eop. 1824).
Among his later works, his Bunamo og Runerne (Kop. 1641) has given rise to much
angry discussion ; and although many of his interpretations of assumed runes have been
proved to be utterly untenable, the learning and acumen which he brought to bear on
the subject of runes generally, have thrown great light on this branch of arcbaeology,
both in regard to North American and ancient northern remains. In conjunction with
Rafn, Magnussen elucidated the history and antiquities of Greenland in an able work
{Oroniand^s Histariske Mindesmerker, Kap. 188S-42); and he subsequently prosecuted a
similar course of Inquiry in regard to Russia in Antiquites Rtisses (Cop. lo60-52). In
addition to these works, Magnussen annotated nearly all the most important remains of
old northern literature, as the ffeimskringta, Hakonarmal, Ldxd^da-Saga, etc.; and
besides numerous monographs on ar(5n8aological and historic subjects of interest, made
many valuable contributions te current Icelandic literature. During his latter years,
Magnussen sat in the Danish land^hing as deputy for Iceland and the Faroe isles, m
which capacity he eave evidence of considerable political knowledge ana patriotic zeal.
At his death, in 1847,- he held the office of Crcheimarchivar in the royal chamber of
archives.
KAGO, a common Carthaginian name; no less than 14 different persons bearing it
occur in history; of whom tlie most distinguished is Mago, the son of Hamilcar Barca,
and a younger brother of Hannibal (q.v.) and HasdrubaL
MAGOFTIN, an e. co. of Kentucky, dramed by the Licking river, and bounded on
the e. by mountain ranges. The surface varies in character, being fertile in parts; 600
sq.m. ; pop. '80, 6.943. The productions are not abundant; wheat, Indian corn, wool,
potatoes, oats, and butter, are the most important. Co. seat, Salyersville.
MAQOON', Elish^ L.. d.d., b. N. H 1810; at first a bricklayer, but in 1840ordained
to tlie ministry of a Baptist church, and settled at Richmond, Ya. After a tour in
Europe, and pastorates at New York and Albany, he removed in 1860 to Philadelphia,
where he remains. He has published Orators <rf th$ Afnerican, lievoitUtonf 1848; Living
Orators of America, 1849; BepubUean GhrisUamty^ 1849; and Westioard Empire, 1856.
He has shown broad literary taste and culture.
KAjOPIE, or PiB (Pica), a genus of birds of the family Oormda (q.v.), differing from
the true crows chiefly in the long and graduated tail. They are also of smallvr size and
brighter ooiors^ the most prevalent color being blue with bars of black and white. The
only British species is die Cohicoh Maopib (P. eaudata), the Kitta of the Greeks, and
Pica of the Romans; a common bud in Britkin, and almost all parts of Europe, aod too.
well known to require particular description ; its bri^t l>ut not finely mingled colors —
black, wbite^ and blue— maidng it always coaspicnoua, and its dissonant, harsh cry
eqtially attracting attentioa. The magpie is generally to be seen in pairs throoghout the
year. It bnilds its nest in high trees; the outside being formed of thorny sticks strongly
mterwoven, the inside plastered with earth and lined with fibers and dry grass; the top
a dome, and one aperture left on the aide for the pavent bird. The magpie is shy and
vigilant in an extreme degree, notable for cunning, both in eluding enenoiea, and in seek-
ing its ovni food, as to which it mar be said that nol^inff comes amisft to it, grain befaig
not vBMieeeptai^le, bat tm or carriOn preferable. In Britain, it is perseooted by game-
keepexs; in Norway, it is encounged hi the neighborhood of human Imbitattions, and
Itavrm
lEAEan<
nder.
372
consequently often makes its nesi under the eaves of churches and other buildiaga. The
magpie is easily tamed, becomes impudently familiar, and learns to articulate a fev
woras. Both in a wild and tame state, it has a propensity to seize and carry off hr^ht
or glittering articles. It abounds in moet parts of Europe and the north of Asia, and in
the northern parts of America, but is rare in the parts of America near the Allantic—
The other species are mostly natives of the eastern parts of Asia.
MAQRUDER, John Bankhbad, 1810-71 ; b. Va. ; graduated at the military academy
lb 1880, and was appointed second lieut. in the infantry. He was promoted first lieut.
in 188tf, and capt. in 1846. He served with distinction through the Mexican war. at the
head of the light battery attached to the division of gen. Pillow. He was brevetted maj.
after Cerro Gordo, and lieut. col. after Chapultepec, where he was wounded. He resigned
from the army April 2, 1861, to enter the confederate service, in wiuch he was made
successively col., brig.^n., and mal.gen. He was at first attached to the army of Yir-
ginia^ commanding at Yorktown till its evacuation in May, 1862, when he joined the
campaign on the Ohickahominy. In October of the same year he went to Texas to take
command of the department of the west, embracing, besides Texas, Arizona and New
Mexico. He remained in active service in Texas throughout the war, conducting a
number of militarv operations, of which the most brilliant resulted in the abandonment
of Qalveston by the federal forces. After the war he lived for a time in Mexico, but
afterwards settled in Texas.
MAGUIRE, John Francis, 1816-72, b. Ireland; a lawyer and Journalist. He sat in
parliament as member for Dungarvon from 1852 to 1865, and for Cork from 1865 till his
death. He was mayor of Cork for several years, and owned and edited there the Cork
Examiner, He was the author of The Industrial Movement in Ireland in 1852; Borne
and its Ruler; The Irish in America; Life of FatherMathew, and The Next Generation.
KAGKTAB. See Hungary.
KAHABHABATA (from the Sanskrit nuihat—chajiged to mahd — great, and Ehdrnta)
is the name of one of the two ^eat epic poems of ancient India. For the other, see the
article Ramayan'a. As its mam story relates to the contest between two rival families,
both descendants of a king, Bharata, the word Mah&bh&rata probably implies '* the great
history of the descendants of Bharata;" for another explanation of the word, which
connects it with hhdra, weight, was obviously invented merely to convey an idea of the
enormous extent of this poem. According to this explanation, it would mean the "very
weighty (poem)," because, "when weighed, it was found to be heavier than all the four
Ye(Sts together with their mystical writings." However devoid of grammatical value
this ^piuar account of the word Mah&bhftrata may be, it does not exaggerate the bulk
of this epos, whidi, in its present condition, consists of upwards of 100, (^ verses, each
containing 82 syllables; while, if a tradtition, reported in the introduction to the work
itself, comd be trusted, it was formerly known in other recensions of a still greater
extent. In its actual shape, it is divided into 18 parvans or books, the Baritansa
(q.v.) being considered as a supplementary part of it. That this huge composition was
not the work of one single individual, but a production of successive ages, clearly
results from the multifariousness of its contents, from the difference of atyle wbico
characterizes its various parts, and even from the contradictions which disturb its har-
mony. Hindu tradition ascribes it to Vydsa; but asVydsa means " the distributer or
arranger;" and as the same individual is also the reputed compiler of the Yedas, PuHtnas,
and several other works, it is obvious that no historical value can be assigned to this
generic name. The contents of the Mah&bhftrata m^ be distinguished into the leading
story and the episodical matter connected with it. The former is probably founded on
real events in the oldest history of India, though in the epic narrative it will be difficult
to disentangle the reality from the fiction. The stoiy comprises the contest of the cele^
brated families called the Eauravas and Pdndavas, ending in the victory of the latter,
and in the establishment of their rule over the northern part of India. Euru, a descend-
ant of Bharata, had two sons, Dhritar&shtra and Pftndu. The sons of the former, com-
monly called the Kaurawu, were a hundred in number, the eldest of them being Duryo-
dhana; those of Pftndu — the JHtutouoa— were five, Tudhiahthira, Bhlma, Aijuna, and
the twins Nakula and Sahadeva. Pftndu having resigned his throne, Dhritartshtra,
though blind, assumed the government^ and ultimately divided his kingdom between
his sona and the sons of Pftndu. The former, however, coveting the tenitoiy allotted
to the PAndu princes, endeavored to gjet po&session of it. A game of dice was the means
by which they bound over their cousins to reltnquiah their kingdom, promising, how-
ever, to restore it to them if they passed twelve years in the forests, and a thirteenth vear
in such disguises as to escape detection. This promise was faithfuUy Inpt by the I^-
davas; but the term of thetr banishment having expired, the Euru princes refused to
redeem their word. A war ensued, ending in the complete destruction of the Eanravas.
These are the meager outlines of the leading story of the MahAbhirata, where, as may be
inferred, Duryodhana and his brothers are pictured as the type of all conceivable wick-
edness, and the PAndu princes as paragons of virtue and heroism. That the latter are
the incarnations of sundry deities — that the gods take an active port in the devekipment
of the plec, in short, that Hindu mythology is always '^^i^f^^f^^J^%^^ stinittg
3TB&t8 of semi-historical Hindu antiquitieB, requires no further remark to any one but
iiigfatly acquainted with Hindu poetry. It is necessary, however, to observe that out
:>t tlie 100,000 verses which constitute the great epos, barely a fourth part is taken up
by this narrative; all the rest is episodical. The matter thus, as it were, incidentally
linked with the main story, may be distributed under three principal heads, passing over
such minor additions as fables, genealogical lists, geograpuical enumerations, and the
like. One categorv of such episodes comprises narratives relating to the ancient or
mythical hy story oi India, as, for instance, the episodes of Nala and bakuntalft; a second
is more strictly my^ological, comprising cosmoRonv and thcogonr; a third is didactic or
dogomtic — it refers to law, religion, morals, and philosophy, as in the case of the cele-
brated Bhagavadgttft, and the principal portions of the 12th and ISth books. By means of
this episodical matter, which at various periods, and often without regard to consistency,
was superadded to the original structure of the work, the Mahftbhitrata gradually became
a collection of all that was needed to be known by an educated Hindu; in fact, it became
the encyclopesdia of India. *' There is no narrative <m earth," the Mahftbfaftrata says of
itself, ** that is not founded on this epos The twice*born, thou^ knowing the four
Vedas and their supplementary sciences, has no wisdom unless he knows tliia great epos.
.... It is the great manual of all that is moral, useful, and agreeable." Yet it should be
noticed that the Brahmanic authors of the great epos intended it especially as an encyclo-
paedia for the Kshattriya or military caste; for it is chiefly the histoiy, the interests, the
rcligion, and the duties of the second caste which are taught in it, always, of course,
with a view of establishing the superiority of the Brahmanic caste. Sectarian religion
is for this reason not emphasized in the Mahftbhftrata, though the later sectarian works
(dee PukAka) have* largely drawn, for their purposes, on the mythological material
stflorded them by the great epic work. The text of the Mahftbhftrata has been published
in Calcutta in four quarto volumes (1884-^), to which is added a fifth volume, contain-
ing a table of contents. Two other editions are in the course of publicatilm at Bombay.
The best researches on the Mahftbhftcata are those of Lassen, in his ZeU^ekrift fur die
Kunde des Morgenlande^ (1887, fF.), and in his Indisehe AlUrtkwnskunde, A sort o{ analy-
sis of the leading story of the Mahfibhftrata (not of the episodesHs given in £ichhoff*s
Poeme Hennque des Indiens (Paris, 1860), and by Prof. Monier Williams {Indian Epic
Poetry, London, 1868). See also Talboys Wheeler's HUUyry of India (1867).
HAHADEYA (*'the great god") is one of the usual names by which the Hindu god
Siva is called. (His consort, Durgft. is similarly styled Makddefoi, ("the great god-
dess.") In Buddhistic history. Mahfideva, who lived 200 years after the death of the
Buddha S'dkyamiini, or 848, is a renowned teacher who caused a schism in the Bud-
dhistic church. His adversaries accuse him of every possible crime, but aa he is ranked
among the Arbats, his eminence cannot be matter of doubt. The school founded by
him is called PArtmaUa. See W. Wassiljew, Der Buddhitmus, etc. (St. Petersburg,
1860).
XAhAxAs'TAFA, one of the most renowned disciples of the Buddha S'akyamuni.
He arranged metaphysically the portion of the sacred writings of the Buddhists called
Abhidharma; and tnxdition ascribes to him also the origin of ihii Sthavira division of
the Vaibhdiihika school of Buddhistic philosophy. Many legends are connected with
his life.— See E. Burnouf, Introduction d VHistoire du JBuddnUmc Indien (Paris, 1844),
and his posthumous work, Le Lotus de la Bonne Loi (Paris, 1852).
MAHAN', Aba, d.d., b. in Vernon, N.Y., in 1799; graduated at Hamilton college in
1824, and at Andover theological seminary in 1827; in 1829 became pastor of a Presby-
terian church in Pittsford, N.Y., and of a church of the same denomination in Cin-
cinnati in 1881; became president and professor of philosoiihy at Oberlin in 1885; was
president of Cleveland university from 1850-56; pastor of a Congregational church in
Jackson, Mich., from 1866-58, and of another at Adrian from 1858-61 ; and president of
Adrian college from 1861-71. His principal works are, The Scripture Doctrine of Chris-
tian Perfection; the Science of InteUeUual Philosophy; the Doctrine of theWtU; the Science
of Moral Philosophy; the Saenee of Logic; and Modem Mysteries Exj^ined and Refuted—
the latter directed against spiritualism. He has written also a work of some size in
the department of military criticism.
MAHAN, Dbnnis Hart, ll.d., 1802-71; b N.Y.; educated at West Point, and
appointed to the army in the engineer corps. In 1825 he was made assistant professor
of mathematics at the academy; and in 1882, after four years of study abroad, pro-
fessor of military engineering, and remained at West Point m that capacity till his death,
which occurred by suicide in a fit of temporary insanity. He stood high in his professiion,
and he wrote a number of text books on civil and military engineering, which came into
general use in schools and colleges in the United States. His Treatise on Field ForU-
fuxUions appeared in 1886, and was supplemented in 1865, by Military Mining and Siege
Operations, the two constituting parts I. and II. respectively, of An Elementary Course
ofMiHtary Engineering, He also published An Elementary Course of OivU Engineering
in 1887, which he rewrote and revised in 1868; Advanced Guard, Outpost, and Detachment
Ser9ice€f Troops, 1847; Elementary Treatise on Industrial Drawing. 1858; Descriptive
Geometry, 1864: and an edition of Moseley's Mechanical Principles of Engineering and
Mahogany. *^ * *
Arehiiectun, 1856. Brown university, Dartmouth college, and William and Mary oqL<
kge conferred upon l)im the degree of ll^d.
MAHAN, MiLO, D.D., 181d-70; b. Suffolk, Nansemond co., Va. ; was educated at
St. Paul's college, Flushing, L.I. ; took orders in the Protestant Episcopal church in 1845;
became rector of Grace church, Jersey City, in 1848; and in 1850 assistant minister of St
Mark's church, Philadelphia ; was elected professor of church history in the Episcopal gen-
eral theological seminaiy in New York in 1861, which position he held for 13 years. In
1864 he became rector of St. Paul's church, Baltimore. His published works are The
Ejce7*cise of Faith; History of the Church the First Thre^ Centuries; Beply to CoUnso;
Palmoni, a Free Inquiry; Comedy of Canonization. The Rev. J. Hopkins collected and
published his works, with a memoir, in 3 vols.
MAHAKVini'DT (more accurately, Mahaiya^di), a river of India, rises on the s.w.
border of the presidency of Bengal, in lat. 20"* 20' n., lonff. 82"* east. After an eastward
course of 520 m., 300 m. of which are navieable, having divided into several branches at
the town of Outtack, which forms the head of its deItl^ it flows e. and B.e. through the
district of that name, and falls by several mouths into the bay of Bengal.
MAHANOY' CITY, a t. in Schuylkill co., Penn.; 80 m. from Philadelphia; pop.
5,553; situated in the vallev of the same name and in the neighborhood of extensiye
coal fields, in the mining of which and trades connected with it the people of the city
are mainly occupied.
1IAHAa£v0EIXA is the name of one of the two great divisions of the Buddhistic
church which arose 200 years after the death of the Buddha S'&kyalnuni, or about 848,
caused, as it seems, byuie schism of Mahftdeva (q.v.). For the other division, see
Sthatira. Out of the Mahds&nghika school arose, in the course of the next centuries,
numerous sects. For the tenets common to all, and for those peculiar to each of these
sects, the special student of the Buddhist religion will at present most advaotaffeously
consult the work of prof. W. Wassiljew, Der BitddMsmtu, seine Dogmen, Oesehiehu und
lAteratur (St. Petersburg, 1860).
MAHAS'KA, a co. in s.e. Iowa, watered by the Des Moines and forks of the Skunk
rivers, and traversed by the Central and Des Moines Valley railroads; 576 sqtn.; pop.
'80, 25,201. The surface is chiefly prairie land, with wooded intervals. The soil is
fertile, producing largely of wheat, Indian corn, oats, hay, and potatoes. Considerable
^ool is grown; the number of cattle, sheep, and swine is large, and there are some
quite important manufactories. Co. seat, Oskaloosa.
XAEAYAHSA is the title of two celebrated works written in Pftii, and relating to the
history of Lankit, or Ceylon (qv.), from its earliest period down to the reign of
Mah&sena, who died 302 after Christ. The older work was probably composed by the
monks of the convent Uttaravihdra at Anurddhftpura, the capital of Ceylon. Its date is
uncertain; but it has apparently preceded the reign of Dh&tusena (459-477), as Uiat
monarch ordered it to be read in public, a circumstance wliich seems to prove the
celebrity it enjoyed already at his time. — The later work of the same name is an
improved edition and continuation of the former. Its author, Mdhdndma, was the son
of an aunt of the king Dhfttusena, and he brings down the history of Ceylon, like his
predecessor, to the death of Mah&sena. A first volume of the text of the latter work,
*' in Roman characters, with a translation subjoined, and an introductory essay on PfiU
Buddhistic literature," was published by the Hou. Geoive Tumour (Ceylon, 183*^ See
also Lassen, Indische AUerthumskunde, vol, ii. p. 15, ff. O^nn, 1862).
XAHAVntA (literally, " the great hero"), also called Vtra and Vardkcmdna, is the
24th or last Jina^ or deified saint, of the Jainas (q.v.), described as of a golden com-
plexion, and having a lion for his sjrmbol. His legendary history is given in the Kalpa-
Sutra (q.v.) and the Mahat/ira-Charitra, two works held in great authority by the Jainas.
Accoraing to these works, MahSvlra's first birth occurred at a period infinitely remote; it
was as nayasftra, head man of a village, that he first appeared in the country of Yijaya. sub-
ject to S'atrumardana. He was next bom as Marichi, the grandson of the first Jaina saint
Mis/iobha; he then came to the world of Brahm&, was reborn as a worldly-minded Brfih-
man'a, and after several other births — each being separated from the other by an interval
passed in one of the Jaina heavens, and each period of life extending to many hundreds of
thousands of yearsT-he quitted the state of a deity to obtain immortality as a saint, wad
was incarnate towards the close of the fourth age (now past), when 75 years and 8^
months of it remained. After he was 30 years of age he renounced worldly pursuits, and
departed, amidst the applauses of gods and men, to practice austerities. Finally, he
became an Arhat or Jina; and at the age of 72 years, the period of his liberation having
arrived, ** he resigned his breath," and his body was burned by Indra and other deities,
who divided amongst them such parts as were not destroyed by the flames, as the teeth
and bones, which they preserved as relics; the ashes of the pile were distributed amongst
the assistants: the gods erected a splendid monument on the spot, and then relumed to
their respective heavens. At what period these events occurred is not stated, but
ludging from some of the circumstances narrated, the last Jina expired about 500 years
before the Christian era. Other authorities make the date of thiaev|m^a^l>M^ a centuxy
375
MahopftnjTt
and a half earlier. The works above referred to state, witU coniHderabJle detail, Uie
conversions worked by'Mahftvlra. Among the pupils were IndrabhuU (also called Gau-
tama, and for this reason, but erroneoaslv, considered as the same with the founder of
the Buddhist religion), AgnMuH, Vdyvbhiii^eill three sons of YasubhAti, a Br&hman'a
of the Gotama tribe, and others. These converts to Jaina principle? are mostly made
in the same manner: each oomes to the saint prepared to overwhelm him with shame,
when he salntes them mildly, and, as the Jainas hold, solves their metaphysical or
religious doubts. Thus Indrabhliti doubts whether there be a living principle or not;
Yfiyubh&tl doubts if life be not body; Man'd'ita has not made up his mind on the sub-
jects of bondage and liberation; Aehalabhrfttr^i is i^ptical as to the distinction between
vice and virtue; and so on. Mahftvlra removes all their difficulties, and by teaching
them the Jaina truth, converts them to the doctrine of his sect For a summary account
•of the life of this saint, see H. T. Ck>lebrooke's MiaesUane(na Enay, vol. ii. p. 218, if. ;
H. H, Wilson's works, vol. 1. p. 291, ff.
HAKOI', a t. of the island of Bombay, and 7 m. n. of the city of Bombay, to which
it is joined by railway. It is situated on the s. side of the channel separating the island
from Salsette, and at the x>oint where they are connected by a road running partly on
arches of masonry, partly on a causeway. The passage is commanded by a fort. The
town is ill-built, ana inhabited chiefly by Christians of Portuguese descent, who have
here a church and some other relics of their former prosperity. The inhabitants are
•chiefly employed in fishing, the place being famous for its oysters. Fop. 9,000.
MAHMOOD (orMAHMOD) OF QfflZNI (ABUL-KASDC-YEMnncD-DATJLAH), Sultau
of Persia. See Ghizkgvides, arUe.
MAHKUD n., Sultan of Turkey, and younger son of sultan Abdul-Hamid, was b.
July 20, 1786, and on the deposition of his brother, Mustafa lY., by BaXraktar, pasha of
Ruschuk, was raised to the throne, July 28, 1808. Balraktar became his grand vizier,
and vigorously aided him in his attempts to reform the constitution of the Turidsh
4irmy. But the Janisaries, emboldened by their successful opposition to the same
attempt on the part of Selim III., rose in rebellion, and the muraer of the vizier put a
stop for the present to the canyine out of any military reforms. Mahmud was also
attacked by the rebels, but he secured his life and throne hj the destruction of all the
other members of the royal house of Osman. The war with Russia now commenced
vigorously; but after a conflict of three vears' duration, which completely prostrated
the strength of Turkey, peace was concluded at Bucharest (q.v.). The daring and
energetic Hahmud now applied himself to the subjugation of the semi-independent
pashas of the outlying provinces, and to the promotion of radical reforms in all depart-
ments of the eovemment. The rebellion of the Wahabis was crushed through the instru-
mentality of Ibrahim Paslia in 1818, and All Pasha (q.v.), ''the lion of Janina," was
overthrown in 1822. Greece revolted in 1821, and its independence was secured by
the battle of Navarino in 1827, but it was not recognized as a separate kingdom by
Turkey till April, 18S0. During the progress of the Greek revolution, Mahmud had
been steadily though secretly maturing his plans of military reform, and in June, 1826,
the success of his schemes was crowned by the destruction of the Janizaries (q.v.). The
consequent confusion into which Turkey was thrown was immediatelv taken advantage
consequi
of by Ki
;ussia for obtaininff fresh concessions. Mahmud, however, despite these inter*
ruptions, proceeded with iron resolutions in those plans of reform which he judged
essential to the stability of the empire; and the disastrous termination of the succeeding
war with Russia (1828-29), far from interfering with his projects, only stimulated him
to renewed exertion. The successful revolt of the Greeks, and the late triumph of the
Russians* together with the disaffection manifested by the Ohristian population of
Turkey, excited in the ambitious mind of Mehemed Ali, pasha of Egypt, the desire for
independence. See Mehemed All The war which ensued was from first to last in
favor of the £^ptians; but the intervention of Russia compelled both parties to agree
to a treaty (18^ which was satisfactory to neither. Mahmud was now forced to grant
fresh concessions to his ''good friend and ally" the czar, by the treaty of XJnkiar-
Skelessi (q.v.), July 8, 1883, and by another treaty in the following year. He was again
at liberty to pursue his reforms in the civil administration, the principal improvements
beine the modification and readjustment of the more oppressive taxes, the formation of
a militia on the principle adoj^ted by E^land, the establishment of schools of anatomy
and painting, increased privileges to Frankish merchants, and the abolition of the
export duty on grain, measures of sound policy, which tended largely to consolidate
the new-born prosperity of Turkey. In 1838 he concluded with Great Britain a com-
mercial treaty, which l>oth strengthened the connection between the two nations and
advanced their mercantile interests. In 1889 he renewed the war with Mehemed Ali,
but died before its conclusion, July 1, 1889, after an eventful reign of 81 years.
MAHOOAKT, the wood of the trunk of the twietenia mahagoni, a tree of 80 to 100 ft
high, belon^ng to the natural order cedrelaeea, a native of the West Indies and of South
America. It has pinnate leaves with 3 to 5 pairs of leaflets, and panicles of small
whitish or yellow flowers, the stamens united into a tube which is toothed at the sum-
mit, and set round on the inside with 8 to 10 anthers. The capsule is 5-celled, about the
size of a man's fist, hard, woody, and oval, and the seeds are winged at the ap^.|^(
attainB an immeDse sisse, seoond to few otbeis, and its timber is generally aound through*
out in the largest trees. The slow progress which it is observed' to make, clearly indi-
cates that the trees which are cut for use most have attained a great age: 200 years ba&
been assumed as an approximation. It is most abundant on the coaAt of Honduras and
around Oampeachy. bay, whence the greater portion of that used in Europe is exported.
St. Domingo and Cuba also yield a considerable quantity, which is of a finer quality
than that obtained from the mainland, which is frequently called bay wood, to distin-
guish it from the Cuba mahogany, usually oaUed Spanish. The occupation of cuttioff
this timber and removing it to the coast for shipment is exceedin^y laborious, and
employs a large number of men and oxen. The wood varies much in value, accordlDg
to the color and beauty of curl; single logs have occasionally realized as much as £100^
for cutting into veneers, in which state it is very generally used, its great weight
and value unfitting it for being alwavs employed solid. It was first iDtn[>duced iDto
England by accident in 1597, having been used to repair one of sir Walt^ Raleigh's
ships at Tiinidad; but although the wood so employed was much admired, it did not
become an article of commerce until rather more than a century later, when another
accidental circumstance brou^ght it into demand, and it became an article of luxury, and
has since maintained the highest position as a cabinet-maker's wood. The annual
imports into Britain are over 50,000 tons, exceeding half a million sterling in value.
The bark has a faint aromatic smell, and a very astringent bitter taste, and in the coun-
tries where the tree grows is used as a medicine. In England it has been recommended
and used under the name mahogany bark, or amao'anth bark, as a substitute for Peruvian
bark.— East India Mahogany is the timber of the rohuna tree {poymida, febrifuge^ and
African Mahogany of the khaya genegalensis, both of the order c^relaeea,
MAHOMET. See Mohahmed, ante.
MAHON, Viscount. See Stanhope, Eabl, ante,
MAHONE, William, b. in Southampton, Ya., about 1827, and graduated at the
Virginia military institute in 1847; adopted the profession of a civn engineer; con-
structed the Norfolk and Petersburg railroad; assisted in the capture by the rebels of
the Norfolk navy yard, April 21, 1861 ; raised and commanded a regiment of Virginia
soldiers in the confederate army; was in most of the battles of the peninsular campaign,
and in command at Bermuda Hundred at the time of Lee's surrender. He was pro-
moted to the rank of maj.gen. in 1864. After the war he was engaged in the manage-
ment of several lines of railroad in Virginia. In 1880 he was elected to the senate of
the United States as the successor of Robert E. Withers. The question of the extin-
guishment of the public debt, which was complicated by the relations of Virginia ahd
West Virginia, had been at issue during evenr year smce 1873, when terms for its
equitable adjustment had been agreed upon. These terms, however, not proving satis-
factory to a large proportion of the population of the state of Virginia, were not carried
out, and two strong parties were formed under tlie names, respectively, of "debt-
payers" and "readiusters,'' of the latter of which gen. Mabone became the leader and
the most active spirit. The ''readjusters," while recognizing the just liability of Vir-
ginia for her just debts, denied the right of her taxation for that portion of the debt
which should attach to West Virginia, opposed over- taxation, declared in favor of the
protection of the public free schools, and advocated reform and economy.
KAHCHIA. See Barberry.
MAHO'NING, a co. in n.e. Ohio, watered by the Mahoning and Little Beaver rivers,
and intersected by the Atlantic and Great Western, and Pittsburg, Port Wayne, and
Chicago railroads; 422 sq.m. ; pop. *80, 42,867. The surface is undulating, and the soil
very fertile. The productions are: wheat, Indian com, potatoes, oats, bay, wool, butter,
flax, and flax-seed. There are a number of iron foundries and furnaces, rolling mills,
flour mills, saw mills, and tanneries. Co. seat, Canfleld.
MAHO'NY, Francis, 1805-66; b. Ireland; educated at the Jesuit college in Paris,
and at Rome, where he entered the priesthood of the Koman Catholic church. He
tried, but in vain, to find employment in his profession ; and he then went to London,
and devoted himself to literature and journalism. He contributed to Fraser^e Magazine
for 1886, under the pseudonym of " Oliver Yorke," a series of pJ2.ers which were after-
wards published in book form as The Beliques of Father Prout. They are conceived in
the spirit of Wilson's Nodes Arnbrosianas, and show considerable learning and humor,
and a talent for comic verse and parody. He was the first Roman correspondent of the
i\r% Ne^Bs, and his letters from Kome to that journal were published in 1849 under the
name of Facte and Figures from Italy. He lived at Paris for many years as correspond-
ent of the London Oloibe, but in 1864 he entered a monastery, where the last two years
of his life were passed.
MAHOPAC, LAKE, one of a group of 22 lakes in Putnam co., N. Y., 1800 ft. above
the level of the sea, 9 m. in circumference, a favorite resort for summer excursionists.
It is in the midst of picturesque scenery, and offers advantages of good boating and
fishing. •
HATTEtAT'TAS, a people of Hindu race, inhabiting central India, s. of the Ganges,
from Gwalior to Goa, and supposed by many to be the descendants of a Persian or North
•^ Digitized by VjUUVIC
377
Indiftii people, who l)ad been driven southwards by the Mongols. Thej Bxe first men*
tioned in hiatory about tlie middle of the 17th c, when they possessed a narrow strip of
territory on the w. side of the peninsula, extending from 16° to 21** n. latitude. Th«
faundef of the liahratta power was Sevaji, a freebooter or adventurer, whose father
was an ofllcer in the service of the last kine of Bejapiir. By policy or by force be
eventually succeeded in compelling the several independent chiefs tb acknowledge him
as their leader, and with the larse army then at his command overran and subdued a
large porUon of the emperor of Delhi's territory. His son and (1680) successor, Sambaji,
after vigorousiy foUowingout his father's policy, was taken prisoner by Aurungzebe m
1980, and put to death. The incapacity of the subsetjoent rulers who reigned under th»
title of ramrajah ("great king"), tempted the two chief officers of state, the j90wAm», or
prime minister, and the paymaster-gen., to divide the empire between them. This waa
effected about 1749, the former fixing his residence at Poona, and retaining a nominal
supremacy over the whole nation of the Mahrattas; while the latter made ^agpfir hit
capita], and founded the empire of the Berar Mahrattas. This paction, of course,
required the sanction of the more important among the minor chiefs and ofiicers of
Htate, who gave their consent on condition of receiving a share of the spoil. The ulti-
mate result was the partition of the Mahratta kingdom into a great number of states,
more or less powerful and independent; chief among which were, besides the two above
mentioned, Gwalior, ruled by the Rao Scindia; Indore, by the Rao Holkar; and Baroda,
by the Guicowar. It was to be expected that the usual intestine wars would supervene,
and ultimately the East India company was compelled to interfere. The invasion or
the Delhi empire by Nadir Shah afforded these wild and warlike motmtaineers an
opportunity, of which they eagerly availed themselves, to wrest additional territory from
the feeble grasp of the Mogul emperor. From this time they discharged the office of
arbiters in the quarrels between the emperor, his vizier, and his rebellious subjects; but
the frightful defeat (Jan., 1761), they sustained at the hands of Ahmed Shah Abdalli,
the ruler of Afghanistan, on the field of Paniput, where they lost 50,000 men, and all
their chiefs except Holkar, weakened their power for a time. They still, however, con-
tinued to be the hired mercenaries of the iJelhi emperor, till the growing influence of
the British compelled them to look to their own sarety. After many long and bloody
contests with the British and their allies, in which sometimes the whole, but more fre-^
quently a portion of the Mahrattas Joined, they were one \3j one, ^ith the exception of
Scindiah, reduced to a state of dependence. This last-mentioned chief, having raised a
powerful army, officered by Frenchmen, and disciplined after the European method,
continued the contest for a number of vears, till his power was finally broken in 1848.
The dignity of Peishwa was abolished in 1818, and his territories were occupied by the^
British, with the exception of a portion wiiich was made over to another Mahratta chief,,
the Rajah of Sattara, their faithful ally; Ni^fir and Sattara subsequently reverted to
the British government, but the other chiefs still possess extensive dommions, under
British protection.
The Mahrattas are a vigorous and active race, and though diminutive and ill-formed
are distinguished for their courage. They are of a cruel and perfidious disposition, and
have exercised a most disastrous influence upon the inhabitants of the countries they
hare conquered. Though devout worshipers of Brahma, no distinctions of caste exist
among them.
MAI, Akoblo, Cardinal, a distinguished editor and scholar, was bom in the village
of Scbilpario, in Lombardy, Mar. 7, 1782. He was educated and lived till 1808 la
estabUshments belonging to the Jesuits; but obtained an appointment, first as associate,
and ultimately as doctor, in the celebrated Ambrosian library at Milan. His career aa
an author dates from this appointment. In 1813 he published a translation and com-
mentary of Isocrates, De Permutatione ; but his reputation is due much more to his^ pub-
lications of the palimpsests or re-written manuscripts, the first specimens of which he
issued at Milan (see Palimpsest). His earliest publications in that line were fragments
of Cicero* 8 Orations; of the VidvXaria, a lost play of Plautus; of Letters of Fronto, Mar-
cus Aurelius*s preceptor; the Chronieon of Eusebius, and other less important works,
which, however, were entirely eclipsed by his well-known edition and restoration of the
De BepubUca of Cicero, published in 1820. Meanwhile, Mai had been invited to Rome
by PiuJB YII., and named to the charge of the Vatican library, together with other
honoraUe and emolumentary appointments; He at once turned his attention to th&
unedited MSB. of the Vatican, and after a short examination of this noble col lection «
undertook, aa the mission of his life, the task of publishing those among them whiclk
had been overlooked by earlier editors, or had escaped their notice. This task he
■teadily pursued; and although he was appointed, in 1888, to the onerous office of
secretwry of the propaganda, and. in 1838, to the cardinalate itself, his Roman publica-
tions form a collection of an extent and importance almost unexampled in modern
times. His first series was in 10 4to vols., entitled Soripiorum Veterum Nova CoUeotio, &
Vatieams Oodidbus edUa (Rome, 1825). It consists, like the great collections of Mabillon,.
Montfaucon, D'Acheiy, and others, of miscellaneous unpublished works, partly sacred^
partly profane, and indifferently in the Greek aiid the Latin languages, comprisin<r an
entire v<rfume of palimpsest fragments of the Qreek historians, PolyJ)ji\^^^^j^d$^^l>i|:i«^,
MalmonidM. ^ < °
Dionysinsr and others. The succeeding collections, yis., Ohutiei AuOoft^ ex OfdMui
Vdtieanis (10 vols. 8yo, 1888), SpiciUgium Bomanum (10 vols. 8vo/ 1880-44), and ^om
BeOrum BtbHotheca (6 vols. 4to, 1858), are all on the same plan^ and all equally replete
With new and interesting materials. For many years, too, he was engaged in prej^ng
«n edition of the celebrated Codeot Vaticanut, which he had printed, but the publication
of which was poetpohed, awaiting the preparation of his intended preliminary disserta-
tions. He dira, howerer, rather unexpectedly, at Albano, Sept 8, 1864; and as no
trace of the expected preliminary matter was found amon^ his papers, the edition was
published (1867) entirely without critical matter. It has, m consequence, disappomted
expectation. Ilis library, which he directed to be sold for the use of the ];>oor of lus
native village, was purchased by the pope for the Vatican library.
XAIBEV, Thb, a name given to a machine for beheading criminals, which was In use
in Scotland from about the middle of the 16th c. to nearly the end of the 17th century.
It is said to have been introduced into Scotland by the regent Morton, who had seen it
at Halifax, in Yorkshire, and was himself the first to suffer by it, whence the proverb,
".He that invented the maiden first handselled it." Morton, for anything that is icnown
to the contrary, may have introduced the maiden; but he certainly was not its first
victim. Fifteen years before he was put to death by it (1581 a.d.) it was employed to
behead Thomas ^ott of Cambusmichael, one of the murderers of Rizzio (1566 a.d). It
would seem at first to have been called indiflerentljr **the maiden" and "the widow"—
both names, it may be conjectured, having their ori^n in some such pleasantry as was
glanced at by one of the maiden's last victims, the earl of Argyle ^1681 a.d.}, when he
protested that it was " the sweetest maiden he had ever kissed." A frightful mstniment
of punishment used in Germany in the middle ages was called "the virgin." But it
haa no resemblance to the maiden, which was exactly like the French guillotine (q.v.),
except that it had no turnin^-plank on which to bind the criminal. The maiden which
was used in the Scottish capital is now in the museum of Uie antiquaries of Scotland at
Edinburgh. A figure of it is given in the article Guillotike.
XAXDXVHAIB {Adiaatum CapiO/uS' Veneris), a small, delicate, and graceful fern, with
bipionate fronds, alternate obovate and wedge^haped membranaceous pinnules on
capillary stallcs, and marginal sori hidden beneath oblone indtuia; growing on moist
rocks and old walls, especially near the sea; rare in Britain, but very abundant in the
aouth of Europe, where it covers the inside of wells and the basins of fountains (as at
Vaucluse) with a tapestry of the most delicate green. Another species of the same
genus, A. pedatum, a native of North America, with pedate leaves, has a sweet, fragrsnt
root-stock, of which Capittaire (q.v.) is made. It is supposed that the name maidenbair
oririnated in the use of a mucilage made from this fern by women for sdflening their
haS. This name is sometimes applied also to some species^f spleenwort (il^plmtuim),
as A, adiatUum nigrum and A, tricfumuinea.
XAIBEKHSAD, a municipal borough and market-town of England, in the county of
Berks, is situated amid beautiful scenery, on the right bank of the Thames, 26 m. w. of
London. It carries on some trade in meal, malt, and timber, and has a large brewery.
Pop. 71, 6,178.
MAIDS 07 HOHOB. See Ladibs of thib Queen's Household.
XAIB'STONE (old form, Ifedwegston), the county town of Kent, England, on the
right bank of the Medway, 48 m. from London by the south-eastern railway. It is a
municipal and parliamentary borough, and return 2 members to parliament It stands
in a noted corn-district; its grain-market Is the most important in the county; and in
the vicinity are the famous hop-grounds known as *'tbe middle growth of Kent."
The ijarish church, built towara the close of the 14th c, in the perpendicular style,
contains many interesting tombs. The remains of the college or hospital of All-Saints,
which grew out of a hospital founded in 1260 at the entrance of the town for the benefit
of pilgrims traveling to Canterbury, are highly picturesque. Maidstone has numerous
educational and other institutions. An extensive oil, and several paper mills, sacking
and twine manufactories, and several breweries, are in operation. Pop. of parliamen-
tary borough '71, 26,287.
XAI'OBE, JSdana a/quXia, a fish of the acanthopterous family MMsnults, comnoon in the
Mediterranean sea, but a rare visitant of the British shores. It attains a laige sise,
being seldom taken less than 8 ft., whilst it is sometimes 6 ft. long. In general appear-
ance it much resembles a large bass, but the head is shorter and more rounded, and the
tongue and roof of the mouth are destitute of teeth. The maigre is in very high esteem
for the table, and the head is a favorite delicacy of epicures. The strength of the nuugre
is such that a stroke of its tail will throw. down a man; and when it is taken, the fisher-
men therefore quicklv stun it by a blow on the head. It is one of those fishes wbioh
«mit a peculiar sound, which has been described as a kind of purring or buzzing, and
has been heard from a depth of 120 feet. Fishermen have been guid^ by this sound to
let down their nets so as to inclose a number of maigres. The maigre appears to be the
untiynna of the Romans, and was highly esteemed by them. The stones of its ears were
formerly set in gold, and worn on the neck, imaginary vir^es l«Uiffa8cri|^ Jo them.
379 SS2:2;
ides.
particularly in the cure of colic; but it was requisite that th^ should be obUioed as a
gif t» and not by purchase.
KAIL (Fr. frunUe, It. tnaglta; from the Lat macula, a spot, hole, or mesh of a net)
signifies a metal net- work, and is ordinarily applied to such net-work when used as body
defensive armor. Well-made mail formed an admirable defense against all weapons
except firearms, and its pliability and comparatlre lightness gave It Avor over the more
cumbrous plate-armor.
MAIL. See Post-Officb.
ITATTi'RT) CHEEKS, SeUrogenidm or trigUda, a tamWy of acanthopterous fishes, dis-
tinguishingly characterized by an enlargement of certain bones of the head and gill-
covers to form a bony armor for the cheeks. They ezhlMt {^reat variety of forms;
some of them are remarkable for their elegance and for their delicate or splendid hues,
other for their extreme us^iness. Gurnards (q.v.) are among the best known and most
valuable of tfeds family. To it belong also bull-heads (q.v.) and seorpcBna (q. v.). Stickle-
backs (q.v.) are sometimes referred to it. The species are widely distributed in the seas
of aU parts of the world; a few inhabit lakes ana rivers.
KAIKATCHIK, a trading t. on the northern boundary of Mongolia, opposite Eiahta
(q.v.).
MATlfnrg is the shooting, stabbing, or otherwise seriously injuring of a person, and
therefore, when treated as a criminal offense, properly belongs to the heads of assault,
attempt to murder, and offenses a^inst the person generally. Maiming eattle is classed
under the head of malicious injuries to property.
KAIXOVIDES, or rather Mosss ben Maimon (RaMBaM=:Kabbi Moses bbn Mai-
MON) B. Joseph b. Isaac b. Joseph b. Obadjah, etc. ; Arab. Aben Amrah (Amku)
Mu8A Ibn Abdallah Ibn Maimok Al-Kortobi, was b. at Cordova, Mar. 30, 1185.
Little is known of his early life, which fell in the troublous period of the Moravide
ruters. His first instruction he received at the hand of his father, himself a learned
man. and author of several important works in Arabic and Hebrew. Under the guid-
ance of the most distinguished Arabic masters of the time, Maimonides then devoted
himself to the study of Qreek (Aristotelian) philosophy, the science of medicine, and
theologv. When, in 1148, Abd-al-Mumen, tne successor of Abdallah, in the newly
established "reign of the AI-Mohads (Unitarians), took Cordova, and, shortly afterwards,
subjected all Andalusia, both Jews and Christians residing there were forced either to
profess Islam or to emigrate. Maimonides's fanuly, however, together with many others
to whom emigration was well-nigh impossible, outwardly embraced the Mohammedan
faith, or rather for the time being renounced the public profession of Judaism, all the
while remaining faithful to it in secret, and keeping up a dose communication with
their co-religiomsts abroad, an arrangement in which the government readily acquiesced,
since it fully answered their purpose. For more than lo years Maimonides thus lived
together with his whole family under the assumed character of Mohammedans; but
when the death of the reigning sovereign brought no change in the system of religious
intolerance, they resolved to emigrate. In 1165 they embarked, went to Acco, and, by
way of Jerusalem, to Cairo, where Maimonides's father died. Maimonides settled in
Fostdt (Old Cairo), where for some time he gained his livelihood by the jjewel-trade,
until his great medical knowledge procured him the high office of physician to Salah
Eddin, the reigning sultan of Egypt. Maimonides's importance for the religion and
science of Judaism, and his influence upon their development, is sogigantic, that he has
rightly been placed second to Moses, the great law-giver, himself. He first of all brought
order into those almost boundless receptacles of tradition, and the discussions and
decisions to which they had given rise, which, without the remotest attempt at svstem
or method, lie scattered up and down the works of Haggada and Halacha — Midrash,
Mishnah, T^muds. Imbued with the spirit of lucid Greek speculation, and the pre-
cision of logical thought of the Arabic Peripatetics Maimonides, aided by an enormous
knowledge, became the founder of rational Scriptural exegesis. The Bible, and all its
written as well as implied precepts, he endeavored to explain by the light of reason,
with whidi, as the highest divine gift in man, notliing really divine could, according to
his theory, stand in real contradiction. The miracles themselves, though not always
traceable *to their immediate cause, yet cannot be wrought in opposition to the physical
and everlasting laws in nature. AVliere literal interpretation seems to jar upon the feel-'
ings of reverential awe towards the Highest Being, there an allegorical explanation is to
be adopted unhesitatingly. Respecting Maimonides's philosophical svstem, we can
barely hint in this place at its close simuaritv with that of Averroes; both drawing from
the same classical sources, and arriving independently, and with individual modifica-
tions, to nearly the same views on the great problems of the universe. Holding reason
in man — if properly developed and tutored by divine revelation — to be the great touch-
stone for the right or wrong of individual deeds, Maimonides fully allows the freedom
of will, and while he urges the necessity, nay, the merit of listening, to a certain degree,
to the promptings of nature, he rigorousljr condemns a life of idle asceticism, and dreamy,
albeit pious contemplation. No less is it, according to him, righj, j^j^^ p^-^igswQfth j^
Main. ttQA
XaiM. ^^^
pay the (itmost attention to the healthy and vi^rous development of the body and the
care of its preservation by the closest application to hygienic rules. Providence, Mai-
mouides holds, reigns in a certain — broad — manner over humanity, and holds the sway
over the destinies of nations; but he utterly denies its working in the single event that
may befall the individual, who, subject above all to the great physical laws, must learo
to understand and ob^y them, and to shape his mode of life and action in aooordanoe
with existing conditions and circumstances — the study of natural science and medicine
being therefore a thing almost of necessity to everybody. The soul, and the seal
only, is immortal, and the reward of virtue consists in its — strictly un bodily— bliss in
a world to come; while the punishment of vice is the ** loss of the soul."
Maimonides*s first work of paramount import (several of his earlier minor writings
treat of subjects of general science), beffun in his twenty-third jrear, and finished ten
years later, is his Arabic commentary of the Mishnah [translated in Hebrew by Judah
Alcharisi, Tibbon (father and son), Salben Jacob, Net, Almftli, Jak. Akkasi, and others],
which forms an extensive historical introduction to TradUion, or the Oral Law : tracing its
development, its divisions, the plan of the Mishnah, and its complements, etc. ; and tUis
introduction has now, for more than five hundred years, been deemed so essential a pari
of the Talmud itself, that no edition of the latter is considered complete without iu
This was followed by the Srfer Harnmizwoth, or Book of the Precepts, iu Arabic (trans-
lated into Hebrew by Abr. Ibn Chasdai, and, from the author's second edition, by
Moses Tibbon), whicii contains an enumeration of the 618 traditional laws of the Halacha,
together with 14 canons on the principle of numbering them, cliiefly directed against
the authors of certain liturgical pieces called Auharotk (Warnings); besides 18 articles of
belief, and a psychological fragment. This book is to be considered chiefly as an intro>
duction to the gigantic work which followed in 1180, under the title of MitJtne Thorah
(Second Law), or Tad GJiasakah (Strong Hand), a Hebrew compendium in 982 chapters,
embracing the entire Halacha, even those of lis parts no longer in practical use, such as
precepts regarding the soil of Judaea and the like, and which, with the most asioundine
minuteness, lucidity, and precision, places the results of the legal disquisitions gatberea
from the Talmudical labyrinths systematically arran<;ed before the reader. The summit
of his renown, however, Malmonides reached in liis grand Arabic work, DMilath Al
HcUrin (Heb. Moreh Nebuchim, "Guide of the Erring*^, a philosophical exegesis (trans-
lated into Hebrew by Samual Tibbon, edited for the first time in the original by Munk.
1856, etc.), which, while on the one hand it has contributed more tlyin any .other work
to the progress of i:ational development in Judaism, has on the other hand also become
the arena for a long and bitter fight between orthodoxy and science — carrying out, as it
did, to its last consequences the broad principle, that ** the Bible must be explnlued
metaphorically by established fundamental truths in accordance with rational con-
clusions." So bitter, indeed, was the contest which broke out between the subsequent
spiritualistic Maimonidian and the *' literal Talmudistic" schools, that the fierce invec-
tives were speedily followed by anathemas and counter-anathemas issued by both camps;
and finally, about the middle of the 18th c, the decision was transferred into the hands
of the Christian authorities, who commenced by burning Maimonides*s books, continued
by bringing to the stake all Hebrew books on whicli they could lay their hands, and
followea this decision up by a wholesale slaughter of thousands upon thousands of Jews,
men, women, and children, irrespective of their philosophical views. Under these cir-
cumstances, the antagonistic parties, chiefly through the iufiuence of David Kimchi and
others, came to a reconciliation, and withdrew their mutual anathemas; and, as time
wore on, Maimonides's name became the pride and glory of the nation, who bestowed
upon him terms like the "Great Eagle," the "Light of Two Worids," etc. Nor was
his immense celebrity confined to the narrow pale of his own creed ; as early as the Idth
c. already, portions of his works, chiefiy the Moreh (Doctor Perplexomm), became, in
Latin versions, the text-books of European universities.
Maimonides himself only witnessed the beginning of the confiict, tne proportions
and violence of which he certainly never anticipated. At his death, which took place
Dec. 13, 1204, the grief at the loss of the " Light of the A^e'* was universal in the east as
well as in the west. And he has ever since been recognized universally as one of the
noblest and grandest men of all times: gifted with the most powerful and brilliant quali-
ties of mind, possessed of the most varied and astounding knowledge, and imbued with
deep piety and true religion, borne aloft by undaunted energy and glowing zeid. His
body was brought to Tiberias, and his tomb became a place of pilgrimage, even to his
earlv foes.
6f Maimonides's smaller works, we may enumerate, in conclusion, a translation of
Avicenna's Canon; an extract from Galen ; several medical, mathematical, logical, and
other treatises, spoken of with the highest praise by Arabic writers; legal decisions,
theological disquisitions, etc. Portions of his great work, Mor^, have lately been
translated into modern European languages, chiefly into German (Scheyer) and French
(Munk).
XADf (from the Latin magnns, great), the name applied on shipboard to the principal
mast, and to all the parts belonging or adjacent to it — as, maintopmast, main-yard,
main-stay, main-shrouds, main- hatch way, main-chains, etci^itizedby VjOUV IC
QQ1 Mala.
Ool .Mateft.
XJJV, a river of Gennaay, the largest affluent the Rhine reoeiTet from ttw rirht,
U formed by the union of two branches, the White and Red Main, 4 m. below
Eolmbach, m Bavaria. The more important of thene, the White Main, rises in the
FichtelgelHrge, d»800 ft. above sea-level. The Main has a winding westwafd course
809 m. in ten^h, to the Rhine, into which it falls at Msinz. It is navigable for
the IttBl 220 miles. The princiDal towns on its banks are Schweinfurt, WQraburg,
Asehaffenbttrg, Offenbaeh, and Frankfort; and iu oltief affluents are, on the nxht, the
Saalec and on the left, the Regnitz. The Main is one of the most picturesque of German
riverv; it flows through a beautiful country, where the hill-slopes are frequently covered
with vineyards, and surmounted by castlea. Its waters communicate with those of the
Danube by means of the Ludwigs-Kanal. See Bavabxa.
XAIHE, the raost ea.stern of the five New England states in America, extends from
lat. 43' 57* to 47" 32* n., and from long. 66'' 53' to 71" 6' w., being 308 m. from n. to s.,
and 212 from e. to w., with an area of 85,000 sq.m., or 22,400,000 acres. Maine is
bounded n. by Quebec, e. by New Brunswick, s. by the Atlantic ocean, and w. bv New
HAmpshlre and Canada, it has, on the s., a coast-line of 278 m. in a line, but so
indented with baj's as to make 2,486 miles. The largest of these bays are the Penobscot,
Mnchias, Saco, Passamaquoddy, etc. Into these empty the rivers Penobscot Kennebec,
Saco, Androscoggin, etc. Numerous islands stud the coast: the largest, Mount Desert,
remarkable for its scenery, contains 60,000 acres. In the northern portions of the state
are numerous lakes; the largest, Moosehead, being 85 m. long, and the source of the
Kennebec river. The country is hilly, with a range of mountains stretching n.e. from
the White mountains of New Hampshire; Mount Katahdin, near the center of the state,
is 5,^3 ft. high. On the coast are fine granite ouarries; interior, metamorphic rocks
and minerals, limestone and argillaceous slates. The climate ranges from 20** or SO"*
below to 100* above zero. The forests are rich in pine, spruce, hemlock, maple, etc. ;
and the chief agricultural products are potatoes, maize, oats, hav, barley, ana apples.
The rivers and coast abound in fish. One of the chief exports is lumber, and one-third
of all the ships of America are built on the rivers and harbors of this state. The falls
of the rivers furnish immense water-power for saw-mills and factories. Maine has over
1000 m. of railway, 64, banks, 4,565 public schools, 5 colleges, a theological hall, and 2
medical schools. The government consists of a governor, senate, and house of repre-
sentatives, elected by universal suffrage. Maine was settled in 1621, and was a part of
Massachusetts until 1820. In its early history it is said that every 20th settler was killed
by the Indians. A controversy respecting the north-eastern boundary of Maine, which
Uireatened to produce war with England, was settled by a compromise of claims in 1842.
The chief towns are Portland, Augusta (the capital}, Bangor, Bath, Hallowell, etc.
Pop. in *60, 628,276; m 70, 6^6,915.
MAINE (ante). The Northmen discovered the coast, as is now generally conceded,
as early as 990, visiting it occasioually until the middle of the 14th c, but founded no
settlement upon it. From 1850 to 1^, the time of Cabot's second expedition, there is
no evidence that the coast was seen by any European. In 1624 it was visited by a French
expedition, under Yerrazano; m 1526 by the Spaniards, under €h>mes, and. in 1527, by
the English, under Rut; but none of these made any settlement In 1556 a Roman
Catholic priest, Andr6 Thevet, entered Penobscot bay, remaining five days, and holding
numerous conferences with the natives, but without any immediate result. The first
attempt to settle upon the territory was that of the French, under Du Mont, who in
1604 planted a colony on Neutral island in the river St. Croix, which was abMidoned the
following year. In 1605 capt Weymouth ex^ored a part of the coast, and was followed
in 1607 by the expedition sent out by sir John Popham and sir Ferdinando Gtorffes, which,
under a charter from king James* made a settlement at the mouth of the Kennebec.
This colony, however, returned to England in the followtng year. In 1618 the French
Jeanits established a mission on Mt. Desert island, but were soon driven oif by the
iEnelish. In 1616 Richard Vines, an agent of sir F. Qorges, went with a small company
to Saco, to remain during the winter and explore the surrounding region ; while a com-
fnny of fishermen, under capt. John &nith, took possession of Monh^;an island, ranged
the whole coast to Cape Cod, and prepared a map of the country, to which he gave the
name of New England. In 1680 James I. divided the territory conveyed by the charter
of 1606, granting to the Plymouth company the portion lying between the 40th and 48th
degrees of n. lat., and to the Yiivinia company the whole region & of the 48th degree.
In 1683 Gorges and capt John Mason obtained from the Plymouth colony a grant of
the territory lying between the Merrimac and the Kennebec nvers, and In 1628 planted
ft colony at the mouth of the Piscataqua, which was the first permanent settlement of
tlie mam land in Maine. Qorees and Mason divided these possessions between them, the
former taking the poition e. of the Piscataqua^ and the latter that w. of the same river.
In t0H Qofges established a colony at York, and in 1685 Pemaquid was ocoupied under
gnats from the Plymouth company. After 1690 settlements were made at Saco, Bidde-
ford. Cape Elizabeth, Portlana, and Scarborough, which flourished until 1675. when
they, in eomnon with those between the Kennebec and the Penobscot, were destioyed
by the Indiana. The whole country e. of the Penobscot was elaimed by the French, and
little impnoiTement was made there until after the revolutionary war. In 1686 the
il»lll«.
382
portion of tfao Plymoath company's territory lying between the Piscataqua and the
Kennebec was assisned to Gorges, who, after 1689, established a government over it
under the name of Maine, which continued till 1677, when the territory was sold to Mas-
sadiusetts for the sum of £1260. King Pliilip's Indian war began in Maine shortly before
this time, and was attended With all the horrors of a conflict with an unciviliied and
deeply angered people. During the next eighty-flve years the white settlers were in
constant terror of Indian raids. In 1647 Gorges died, and in 1664 the territory between
the Eennebeo and the Penobscot was granted by Charles IL to his brother James (then
duke of YoriE, afterward James II.), who established a government at Pemaquid, where
he erected a strong fort. This country, however, was surrendered to Massachusetts in
1686, and her title thereto and to all the territory e. to the St. Croix and Nova Scotia
was confirmed by the provincial charter of 1691. Between 1687 and 1689, Andres, the
royal governor of the New England colonies, visited Maine, and practiced great extor-
tion upon the inhabitants. By the treaty of 1788, at the conclusion of the revolutionary
war, Massachusetts obtained possession of the territory and exercised jurisdiction over
it as " the district of Maine" (often known as "the province of Maine '*) until 1820, when
it was admitted to the union as an independent state. Its population at that time was
298,269. The growth of the state was steady from that lime forward, the census of 1870
showing a population of 626,915, of whom 813,103 were males, and 818,812 were
females; number of families, 131,017; of dwellings, 121,953; of persons over 10 years of
age who could not read, 18,486, and of those who could not write, 19,052. The number
of persons engaged in all occupations was 208,225, of whom 82,011 were engnged in
agriculture, and in professional and personal services, 86,092, including 890 clergymen,
558 lawyers, 818 physicians and surgeons, and 4.183 teachers.
The surface of the state is much diversified, the sea coast being in large part flat, and
at some points marshy. The chief exceptions to this are Mt. Agamenticus, 670 ft. high,
near the s.w. coast; the Camden hills, 1500 ft. high, on the Penobscot, and the numerous
peaks of Mt. Desert island and its vicinity, some of which rise to a height of over 2,000
feet. Back from the coast the country is hilly or mountainous. The great Appalachian
chain, of which the White mountains of New Hampshire are a part, originates in the
British province of New Brunswick, enters Maine at Mars hill in lat. 46* 30', crosses the
state in a s.w. direction, and joins the White mountain range at the New Hampshire
line. The highest elevation of this range, in Maine is Mt. Katahdin, near the geo-
graphical center of the state, which is 6,885 ft in height. The other principal elevations
areMt. Abraham, Mt. Blue, Sugar Loaf, Chase's mountain, Mt. Mattatuck, Mt. Pu^le, and
Mts. Saddleback and Bigelow. The Ebene and Spencer mountains, trending south-
ward, and the highlands on the n., are spurs of this range. The n. portion of the state
is drained by the Walloostook and the Aroostook, which empty into the St. John. The
St. Croix forms a portion of the boundary between M^iue and New Brunswick and
empties into Pas6amaquo<ldy bay. The largest river of Maine is the Penobscot, which,
with ita branches and connecting lakes, drains the center of the state, flows into Penob-
scot bay, and is navigable for large vessels to Bangor, more than 50 m. from its mouth.
West of the Penobscot id the Kennebec, navigable to Bath, and furnishing unlimited
water power; and further w. still are the Androscoggin, the Saco, and the Piscataqua.
which latter separates Maine from New Hampshire. One of the most striking natural
features of the state is presented in the great number of lakes, both small and large,
whose surplus waters go to swell the Tohime of tlie principal streams. These hikes,
together with the rivers, are estimated to cover an area of 3,200 sq. miles. The lai^gest
is Moosehead, 85 m. long and from 4 to 12 in breadth. Among the others are the
Sebago, Umbagog, Chesuncook, Baskahegan, Eagle, Portage. Long, Madewaska, Pame-
dumcook, Millinoket, Sebec and SchoodTc. The soil in the valleys is generally fertile.
but comparatively sterile in the mountains. .The winters are long and severe, hut of
uniform temperature, the snow lying upon the ffrouQ^i irom three to five months of the
year. The thermometer ranges in the conrse of the year from 80" below to 100* above
zero. The most unpleasant feature of the climate are the n.e. winds of the spring and
early summer, usually accompanied by chilly fogs.
The state, especially in Aroostook, Piscataquis, and Washington counties, is well
supplied with minerals. Iron, lead, tin, copper, zinc, and manganese are found in con-
siderable quantities, while the manufacture of alum, copperas, and sulphur might easily
be made profltable. Marble, slate, and limestone are abundant, while granite of the
finest quality is obtained in blocks weighing more than 100 tons each. The metallic
ores have not been much worked. The principal state quarries are in Piscataq^us
county.
The great forests which long covered the central and northern portions of the state
are fast falling before the lumberman's axe, with the effect, as some believe, of a v^
serious diminution of the rain-fall. The principal forest trees are the pine, spruce, hem-
lock, maple, birch, beech, and ash, and in some parts of the state the butternut, poplar,
elm, and sassafras. Apples, pears, and plums are raised with success; but the summer
is too short tor the growth of peaches.
The forests are inhabited by the moose, bear, deer, wolf, cat«moi»t, wolverine,
beaver, sable* weasel, squirrel, etc., while among the birds may be mentioned ea^ei,
wild geese and ducks, owls, hawks, partridges, pigeons, crows, quails, and hutnmiDg-
383 M«la«.
birds. Trout, salmon, and pickerel are abundant in the lakes and rivers; irhile the
waters off the coast abound with cod, mackerel, herring, balibut, etc.
The number of farms in 1870 was 59,804, containing 2,917,798 acres of improTed
and 2,920,2^ acres of unimproTcd laud. The casli value of these farms was
il02,961,951; of farming implements and machinery, $4,809, US; wages annually paid,
12,908.292; total value of farm productions and improvements, $88,470,044; value of
orchard products, $874, S69; of produce of market ganlens, $860,897; of forest products^
11,581,741 ; of home manufactures, $450,988; of animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter,
$4,989,071; of all live stock, $23,857,129. The amount of wheat raised in 1870 waa
278,798 bushels; of com, 1,089, 888 bushels; of oats, 2,851,354 bush.; ofrye, 84,115 bush.:
of barier, 658,810 bush. ; of buckwheat, 466,685 bush. • of potatoes, 7,771,868 bush. ; or
wool, 1,774,168 lbs. ; of hops. 296,850 lbs. ; of btitter, 11,686,482 lbs. ; of cheese, 1,152,590
lbs.; of maple sugar, 160,805 lbs.; of honey, 155,640 lbs.; of milk sold, 1,874.091 gal-
lons. Number or horses, 71,514; of milch cows, 189,259; of other cattle, 142,802; of
aheep, 484,666; of swine, 45,760.
The production of lumber is the leading industry. In 1870 the forests were esti-
mated to cover nearly one-half the entire surface of the state; but so extensive is the
lumber trade, that this area of forest is constantly diminishing. Bangor, on the Penob-
scot, is the chief lumber mart. The amount surveyed there in 1870 was estimated at
200,000,000 feet. The counties which are the chief centers of the traffic are Penobscot,
Washington, Hancock, and Piscataquis. In the first two of these counties the capital
employed amounted to $3,500,000. The number of sawmills was 1,099, employing
8,500 men and $6,614,875 of capital, and dispensing in wages $2,449,182, while the prod-
ucts amounted to $11,895,747. The other chief industries are ship-building, boots and
shoes, fisheries, icergathering, tanning and currying, vegetable canning, brick, cotton
goods, flouring and gristmill products, lime, machinery, mining, aud quarrying, paper
manufacture, and woolen goods. In 1878 the whole number of manufacturing estab-
lishments was 6,072; number of persons employed, 55,614. of whom a little less than
one-third were women and children; capital invested, $48,808,448; wages paid,
$16,584,164; annual value of products, $96,209,186 The products of the Maine fisher-
ies in 1870 amounted to $979,610. In 1878, 861 vessels of 46,196 tons were engaged ia
the cod and mackerel fisheries, affording employment for 2,000 men. Lobsters and
clams are taken in immense quantities along the coast. The canning of vegetables, lob-
sters and clams is extensively carried on, the whole value of such products in 1875 being
estimated at $1,842,000. The product of cotton goods in the same year amounted
to $12,151,750.
The numerous harbors of Maine offer the best facilities for commerce. Several
of these harbors are among the best on the whole Atlantic coa»t; that of Portland
especially is easy of access, deep, large, and well protected, and is often unobstructed
by ice when harbors farther west and south are frozen over. The ports of entry are
Hoiilton, Eastport. Machias, Ellsworth, Castine, Bangor, Belfast, Waldoborough, Wis-
casset, Bath, Portland, Falmouth, Saco, Kennebunk, and York. The imports from
foreign countries in 1873-74 amounted to $8,628,425; amount of exports in the same
year, $5,872,102. The chief articles of import were coal, fish, sugar, iron, molasses,
and wool; while those of export were cotton goods, canned vegetables, etc., boots
and shoes, lumber, bacon, hams, and lard. The whole number of vessels entering from
foreign countries in the same year was 750, of 868,196 tons burthen; number of
cleamnces, 1,489, of 512,287 tons; number of registered, enrolled and licensed vessels,
8,221, of 585,842 tons. In the coasting and fishery trade were entered at the same time
2,291 vessels of 1,124,127 tons, and cleared 1,526 of 847,178 tons. In tSTS there were
built in the state 276 vessels of 89,817 tons.
In 1875 Maine had 945 m. of railroad, controlled by 19 different corporations. The
most important of these roads are the Atlantic and St. Lawrence, European and North
American. Maine Central. Portland and Kennebec, and the Portland, Saco, and Ports-
mouth. Lines of steamers ply regularly between the laigest cities of the state and
Boston; also between Portland and New York, St. John, N. B., and Halifax; and in
the winter between Portland, Liverpool, and Glasgow.
In 1874 Maine had 64 national banks, with a capital of $9,840,000, and an outstand-
ing circulation of $7,946,576. The number of savings banks was 58, with $31,051,963 of
deposits. There were at the same time 120 insurance companies doing business in the
state. The public indebtedness of the sbate in 1875, after deducting the sinking fund
held for its payment, was $5,574,878. The cash value of real and personal property in
the state in 1874 was estimated at $254,000,000.
The public instituttons are the insane hospital at Augusta, the state prison at Thomas-
ton, the reform school near Portland, the industrial school for girls in Hallowell, the
orphan asylum in Bangor, the military and naval orphans' asylum at Bath, and the
Maine general hospital at Portland. There are no state institutions for the care of the
deaf and dumb or the blind, but the state arranges for their care in the inetitutions of
other states.
The permanent school fnnd, derived from the sale of wild lands belonging to the
state amounts to about $870,000. The revenue for the support of public schools is
derived in part from this fund and in part from taxation. The cost of maintaining
^
•iBtenon. 384
Ihe schools in 1874 was |1, 387. 778, the Bom being apportioned among the seyeral
towns according to the number of persons therein of school age. According to the
latest reports, the number of persons in the state of school age was 225,219; registered
in summer schools, 122,458, with an average attendance of 98,744; in winter schools,
ld2,8^, with an average attendance of 108,478; number of school districts, 4,043;
Value of school property, $3,079,811; male teachers in summer, 161; in winter, 1,928;
female teachers in summer, 4,866; in winter, 2,867; average wages of male teachers,
per month, $86.17; of females, per weeic, $4.05. The legislature, several years since,
established a system of free high -schools, the state defraying one-half the cost of instruc-
tion upon certain conditions. The system has worked well. The number of pupils
enrolled in these schools in 1874 was 14,820; the amount paid by the state for their
•support, about $40,000. There are two normal schools, the western at Farmin^ton, the
.eastern at Castine; tuition being free to those who agree to become teachers within the
«tate. In 1878 the state appropriated $17,500 for the auppoit of these schools. Maine
lias four colleges — Bo wdoin college at Brunswick, founded in 1801; Colby university
At Waterville (Baptist), founded in 1820; Bates college at Lewiston (Freewill Baptist),
founded in 1868; and the state college of agriculture and the mechanic arts at Orooo,
founded in 1868, and receiving the avails of the public lands appropriated by congress
for the purpose. The Congregationalists have a theological seminary, founded in 1820,
at Bangor. There are also in the state several flourishing seminaries under the patron-
age of different religious sects. The number of libraries in the state in 1870 was 3,334,
-containing 984,510 volumes; of these, 1872, containing over 450,000 volumes, were pri-
vate. The most important public libraries are the state library in Augusta, and those
of Bowdoin college, the rortland institute, the Bangor theological seminary, the
mechanics' association of Bangor, Colby university, and Bates colle^^e, respectively.
The number of newspapers and periodicals was 65, of which 7 were daily, 1 tri-
'Weekly, 47 weekly, 1 semi-monthly, 8 monthly, and 1 quarterly. In 1874 the daily
papers had increased to 9, the weeklies to 56. The religious organizations in 1870 num-
bered 1826, having 1102 edifices, and property valued at $5,196,858. The principal
denominations were the Baptist, Congregational, Methodist, Freewill Baptist, Protest-
ant Episcopal, Jewish, Christian, Roman Catholic, Second Advent, Unitarian, and
Universalists. The legislature, composed of a senate of 81 members and a house of
representatives of 151 members, elected on the 2d Monday of September, annually, meets
At Augusta, the capital, on the first Wednesday in January. The governor (salary $2,500)
Is elected annually, and has the advice of a council of 7 members elected by the legisla-
ture on joint ballot. The supreme court, composed of 8 judges, is appointed by the
governor and council for a term of 7 years, each Judge receiving a salary of $8,000.
The county of Cumberland, embracing the city of Portland, has a superior court of one
Judge, appointed in the same way. Probate judges are elected by the people of each
county for terms of 4 years. Judges of inferior courts are appointed by the governor
and council for terms of 7 years. The laws of Maine against the manufacture of and
the trafiic in intoxicating liquors are very strict, and supported by severe penalties.
Liquors for medicinal, mechanical, and manufacturing purposes are sold in the several
towns and cities by state agents appointed for the purpose. Husbands are not liable
for debts contracted by their wives in their own name, but the latter may be sued for
them. A wife may hold real and personal estate separately from her husband, and may
convey or devise the same by will.
The electoral votes of Maine for president and vice-president of the United States
have been as follows: 1820, 9 for Monroe and Tompkins; 1824, 9 for Adams and Cal-
houn ; 1828, 1 for Jackson and 8 for Adams for president, and 1 for Calhoun and 8 for
Bush for vice-president; 1832, 10 for Jackson and Van Buren; 1836, 10 for Van Buren
and R. M. Johnson; 1840, 10 for Harrison and Tyler; 1844, 9 for Polk and Dallas;
1848, 9 for Cass and Butler; 1862, 8 for Pierce and King; 1856, 8 for Fremont and Day-
ton; 1860, 8 for Lincoln and Hamlin; 1864, 7 for Lincoln and Johnson; 1868, 7 for
Grant and Colfax; 1872, 7 for Grant and Wilson; 1876, 7 for Hayes and Wheeler; 1880,
7 for Garfield and Arthur.
MAIKX, one of the ancient provinces of France, immediately s. of Normandy, cor-
responds to the modern departments of Sarthe and Mayenne. Its chief town was Le
Mans, now the capital of the department of Sarthe.
' MAINE, Sir Henbt Jambb Sumnbr, iiL.D., b. England, 1822; educated at Pembroke
college, Cambridge, and afterwards a tutor in Trinity college. In 1847 he was appoint-
ed reglus professor of civil law in the university, but resigned in 1854 to become reader
on Jurisprudence at the middle temple. From 1862 to 1869 he resided in India as law
member of the supreme government. This office he filled with hiffh distinction, intro-
ducing many important legislative reforms. On his return to Engfand he was elected
professor of Jurisprudence .at Oxford, and the next year he was made a member of the
t)OUncii of the secretary of state for India, and was knitted. In 1875 he published as
A pamphlet a lecture delivered at Cambridge on Ths Effects of Observation <tf India m
Modem Bfuropean Thought, In 1877 he was elected master of Trinity hall, and in 1878
resigned his professorship. Sir Henry published in the CkmMdffe Eeeaye in 1856, Bmaih
iMUi and Legal Education ; but his other works are devoted to subjects uponK^hich be is
3^3 M^UMie^.
of the highest authority, the brigin and development of institutions, the condition of
primitive society, and the growth of law ana legal conceptions. His Ancient Law
appeared in I80I ; his VtUage Oommunitus in 1871 ; Lectures on the Early Mstory ^
Initiiutions in 1875; and Modern Theories of Succession to Property in 1878.
MAINE D£ BIRAN, Fram^ois Pibrrb Gk)NTHiBR, 1766-1824; b. France; was
attached to the body guard of Louis XVL, and in the latter part of 1789 was involyed
in some of the disturbances in Paris, but was not ooncerned in the revolution which
followed* Under the first empire he was appointed to a sub-prefecture, and was a
member of the legislature. He opposed the policy of Napoleon during the latter part
of his reign, and became a legitimist with the advent of the restoration. He was made
a deputy and a councilor of state^ retaining his seat in the legislature from 1818. He
wrote much in a philosophical vein, contesting the opinions of Condillac, and develop-
ing a system of his own which achieved a considerable reputation. M. Cousin edited
an edition of his worlu which was published in Paris, 1841, in 4 vols. ; and an account
of his life and opinions appeared in 1867, written by Naville.
1KAIV£-£T-L0IBE, an inland department of France, forming a portion of the lower
basin of the Loire, is bounded on the w. by the department of Eoire-Inf^rieurc, and on
the e. by that of Indre-et-Loire. Area, 2,745 English sq. miles. Of which about 1,087,634
acres are arable, 197,748 in meadow, and 95,435 in vineyards. Pop. *72, 618,477. The
surface is gently undulating. The soil is fertile, producing' the usual crops, white and
green, and a variety of excellent fruits. Wines, red and white, the latter comprising
several highly esteemed varieties, are extensively cultivated; 11,000,000 gallons are made
annually. Iron and coal mines are worked; and there are numerous mills and factories
for the production of cotton, woolen, and linen goods. The department is divided into
the five arrondissements of Angers, Baug§, Segre, Cholet (formerly Beaupr^u), and
Saumur. Capital, Angers.
MAINE LIQUOR LAW. See Tempkbakcb, ante.
MAI'SOTSfl, the inhabitants of the mountainous district of Maina, a peninsula
between the bays of Kolokythia and Koron, forming part of the province of Laconia, in
<}reece. They have been regarded as the descencEants of the ancient Spartans, whose
land they now occupy; but more probably they are of Slavonic origin. Tliey number
about 60,000, and are a wild and brave race, but superstitious, and luldicted to robbery.
While the Turks held possession of Qreeoe, the Mamotes were almost completely inde-
pendent; and when not engaged in a common struggle against the Turks, theh* chiefs
were at war with each other. The Mainotes, under their principal chief or bey, took
a prominent part in the war for the liberation of Greece; but after the death of Mavro-
mikalis, their last bey, their independence was destroyed.
MAinUZE, in English law, was a term denoting a security by which the bailer or
mainpernor took the party bailed under his own personal charge or friendly custody,
giving security to produce him at the time appointed. The practice is now obsolete,
and superseded by nail (q.v.).
XAIH'TEViJf CE is a law term commonly used to denote an illegal succoring of a
person, as by lending money to a straneer in carrying on law suits. Contracts are
sometimes held to be illegal on this ground.
MAINTENANCE {ante), in law, an intermeddling by a person in a suit hi which
he is not concerned, as by giving money to another to carnr on such suit, by hiring
eounsel for him, or assisting him in any unauthorized way. But persons between whom
a certain relationship, or a certain relation created by law, exists, may give aasifltanoe to
each other in suits in which they have respectively no interest. Thus, a hustMtnd may
assist hifl wife, or a landlotfd his tenant. A lawyer may give professional assistance to
a party in such suit, but he is not justified in giving pecuniary aid. The old com-
mon law rule in regard to the prohibition of maintenance has been greatly rehixed; and
aid of the party to a suit is not now generally illegal For mstance, an agreement
between a lawyer and hia client to share the sum recovered in a particular suit is good,
as a rule, in this oountiy, though strictly prohibited by the older law. See Chamfkrtt.
XAnrTEirAVCE, Cap op, sometimes called eap of dignity, a cap of crimson velvet
fined with ermine, with two points turned to the back, originally only worn by dukes,
but afterwards assigned to various families of distinction. Those families who are
entitled to a cap of maintenance place their crests on it instead of on a wreath. Accord-
ing to Sir John Peame, "the wearing of the cap had a beginning from the duke or
general of an army, who, having gotten victory, caused the chief est of the subdued
enemies whom he led to follow him in his triump^, bearing his hat or cap after him in
token of subjection and captivity. Most of the reigning dukes of Germany, and various
families belonging to the peerage both of England and of Scotland, bear their crests on
a cap of maintenance.
XAUrTEVOV, FRAK90iaE d'Aubiqk^, Marquise De, was the daughter of Constant
d'Aubigne and of Jeanne de Cardillac, and granddaughter of Theodore Agrippa
d*Aubigne, well-known for his writings, his attachment to Protestantism, and his ener-
getic character. Francoise was born Nov. 27, 1635, in the prison at Niort, where her
U. K. IX-25
jbacund.
886
father was then imprisoned. On obtaining his release, he went (1689) with his wife and
daughter to Martinique in the West Indies, where he died in 1645. After her father's
death, Fran9oi8e returned, with her mother, to France; and her mother also dying, her
father's sisters took her under their care, and educated her in a convent, where her con-
version to the Roman Catholic religion was accomplished at the age of about 14 years-
after an obstinate resistance, in which the brave little child, to use her own words,
fcUeguadt lespritrea la Bible d la main. It is singular to reflect what a zealot she after*
wards became. When she was 16, she became acquainted with the poet Scarron (q.v.),
who, struck by her beauty, intelligence, and helpless condition, offered her his hand^
or, if she should prefer it, a sum of monev sufficient for her entrance into a nunnery.
Although Scarron was lame and deformed, she chose to marrj him, and now lived m
the midst of the refined and intellectual society which frequented the house of the poet.
On his death, in 1660, she was reduced to great poverty, and proposed to go as a gover-
ness to Portugal, when Madame de Montespan (q.v.) obtained her a pension from tiie
king. Four years afterwards, she was intrusted with the education of the two sons
whom Madame de Montespan had borne to Louis XIV., and in this capacitv displayed
a patient tenderness and sleepless care that no mother could have auxpassed; and now
becoming acquainted with the king, soon fascinated him, so that he bestowed on her
100,000 hvres, with which she bought the estate of Maintenon; and at last she succeeded
in supplanting Madame de Montespan. It is difficult to describe her relation to the king.
She was not, it is believed, his mistress in the ordinary sense of the term, but from tliat
time to the end of his life, she exercised an extraoimnarv ascendency over him. She
had a passion for being thought **a mother of the church;* but while she confessed the
strength of her desire to Romanize the Huguenots, she earnestly denied that she approved
of the detestable dragonTiades, In 1684, about 18 montiis after the death of the queen,
Louis privately married her. She was much disliked by the people, but the courtiers
sought her favor, and her creatures were made ministers and generals. In the midst of
splendor, and in the possession of great power, she was confessedly very unhappy. She
carefully brought up the children of Madame dc Montespan; and it was at her instiga-
tion that Louis attempted to legitimize them. When be died in 1716, she retired to the
former abbey of St. Cyr, which, at her wish, had been changed 80 years before, into a
convent for young ladies. Here she died, April 15, 1719. Slie received to the end of
her life, the honors of a king's widow. Her pretended memoirs are spurious, but her
LeW'es (9 vols. Amst. 1756, etc.) are genuine. By far the best edition is that published
by M. Lavall6c (1854 et seq.), entitled (Eunres de Mms, de Maintenon pubUSee pour lor
premise fois cPapr^ lee Manueerits et Oopiee autheniiqu€»f anee un Chm/menUUre et des
KAINZ (Mayence, ancient Moguntiaeum\ the most strongly fortified city in the Ger-
man empire, is situated in SO'' n. lat., and 8° 10' e. long., iuone of the most fertile of the
wine-bearing districts of Germany, having for its site a gentle slope on the left bank of
the Rliine, near the junction of the Main. The pop. was in 1871, 53,918, including the
garrison: in '75, 57,847. A floating bridge, resting on 49 pontoons, connects Mainz with
the Riienish village of Castel; as also a handsome railway bridge of iron, Anislied in
1864. The fortifications, which extend a length of nearly 10 m., consist of 14 principal
and numerous lesser bastions, in addition to the four forts of Castel, Mars, Montebello,
and Petersaue. In accordance with a decree of the congress of Vienna, Mainz was sur-
rendered to the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmttaflt in 1814, on condition that it was to
constitute a German federal stronghold, and be garrisoned in common by Austrian.
Prussian, and Hessian troops. In 1866, it became a Prussian fortress, and Prussia
obtained all tlie rights that had hitherto belonged to the German confederation. By the
treaty concluded at Versailles Nov. 15, ISTO, the fortress of Mainz was declared an
imperial fortress. Mainz which is one of the most ancient cities of Germany, retains
many evidences of medisDval taste, and consists principally of narrow crooked streets;
but of late years a new town has sprung up on the site of ihe ancient Roman city, and
numerous sanitaFy improvements have been eflfected under the joint diiection of the
grand>ducal and ciric authorities. Mainz has one Protestant and 10 Catholic chuTChes.
among the latter of which tlie most noteworthy are tibat of St. {gnaoius, with its beauti-
fully painted roof, and the cathedral, a memorable building, which was Iragun in 978,
and after having been six times destroyed by fire, or throu^ war, was restored by
Napoleon. It has one great tower, 400 ft in height, aiui 6 lesser towers, 14 altars, and
20 minor chaples. Mainz possesses numerous Roman remains^ the most remarkable of
which are Uie Mchelstein — ^a mass of stones supposed to be a memorial erected in honor
of Drusus — ^and the ruins of a vast aqueduct at Zalbach. Mainz has a gymjiasium, a
seminary for priests, a normal school, a picture-gallery, museums, and a public library
containing about 100,000 volumes. Amon^ the industrial products of Mainz, which
include arUfteial pearls, isinglass, tobacco, vmegar, soap, carnages, musical instruments,
furniture, and articles in leather, the first and the last have acquired special reputation.
Mainz from its position, necessarily enioys a very important transit-trade, both by rail-
way and river steam-navigation; and since the abrogation of many onerous restrictions,
it has become one of the great internal ports for the com and wine trade. The history
of Mainz connects it with Rome from the year 13 B.c., w^ejifi^l^^u^^^uilt on its site the
887 MalUand.
castle of Maguntiaeum; but it owes its real importance to Chariema^e. It lias acquired
celebrity as the birthplace of Gutenberg (q.v.). In the 18th c. Mainz was head of the
confederacy of Rhine cities: in 1468 the city was added to the domains of the archbishops
of Mainz, who as such had precedence amongst the spiritual prince-electors of the
empire. Mainz was scTeral times in the possession of France, notably in 1801 — 1814.
MAIPURES, or Matpubss, the generic name of a number of Indian tribes of
South America who lire mostly on the Orinoco and Negro rivers. The best known
tribe is the Mozoa, who were conquered by the ancient Peruvians and were further
advanced in civilization than the othero^ most of whom were oannibala. Many of the
Moxos were converted to Ghri^ianity at an early date. A grammar and vocabulary of
their language was written by father Pedro Marban in 1701.
MAI80NNEUVB, Juuss Gbrmain Francois, b. Nantes, France, 1810. A distin-
guished physician and author of medical works; commenced practice in Paris in 1880;
m 1885 opened a school for operative practice; and in 1840 became one of the surgeons
of the hospitals and member of the society of surgeons. He has since been surgeon of
the hospitals of Cochin ds la Pitie, and in 1876 surgeon of the HoUlrlHmL. He ranks at
the head of the brilliant school of modern surgery in France. His operations, inventions
and improvements in surgical instruments have been remarkable. Though his courses
in the hospitals are the most nrized instructions in surgery, he lias the disadvanta^ of
being deficient in the use oi language orally, though remarkably clear and concise in
writing. His worlds are numerous, and of the highest authority of their date.
MAI80NNEUVE, PAxrii db Choiceiiet, Sieur de, b. in Champagne, France, early
in the 17th c; d. in Paris, 1676. In 1641 he led a colony of religionists to Canada and
left them in Quebec; was himself made ffovernor of Montreal, and founded that city in
1642, though the point had been named by Jacques Cartier seven years before. His
administration was mariied bv energy and ability, and the good-will of the Indians. He
resigned in 1669 and retumea to France.
MAI8TBE, Joseph de, Comte, was b. 1758, in Chamb^ry, of a noble French family,
which had settled in Savoy. While Savoy was occupied in 1792 by the French, Mais-
tre, who was a member of the senate, withdrew from the country; and when the king
of Sardinia, in 1799, was compeUed to retreat to the island of Sardinia, Maistre accom*
panied his court, and in 1808 was sent as amba£»ador to St Petersburg. In this post he
remained until 1817, when he was recalled to occupy a place in the home government,
and continued to reside in Turin till his death, Feb. 35,1831. Maistre was an ardent
advocate of legitimacy, and in his later career became one of the most eminent writers
of the new (or liberal) conservative school in politics and religion, of which Chateau-
briand may be regarded as the head. He had obtained some reputation as a writer at a
very earty period. His first work of note, OonndSrations mr la France, appeared in .
1796. ms later works were written either at St. Petersburg or after his retort to Turin.
They are: Btsai sur k Prindpc OSneratetir des OonstUutuyra P&UHques (St. Petersburg,
1810); 2>ttPa3W5ffiVons,1821); DeVEgUse GaOkane (Jhais, 1821-22); SwreesdeSt. PMers^
botirg (2 vols. 1822); and a posthumou£f work, Basamen de la PhUotioj^ie de Baoon (Paris,
MAISTRE, Xaviek, Comte de, 1764-1862; b. in Chamb^ry, Savoy. When Savoy
was conquered by tl\e French during the first revolution, Maistre entered the Kussian
service and remained in it. During a visit to Italy in 1794 he was occupied with work
in water-color and India ink drawings, and began in a desultory way the composition,
entitled Voyage uutaur de ma OhamSre, which has taken a place among the classics of
French light iiteni4are. In 1811 his work entitled Le LSpreuxde la OiU de VAosta exhib-
ited his genius and his sympathy with real misoy. Hisimien de Oaueaee and Praecaoie,
&u laJmne Siberienine, wer» translated and published in Philadelphia in 1826. The
Exped&um tuxAutm watwwr de ma Ohofmbre, published 1826^ was his last work. An edi-
tion of his works in three volumes appearoa in Paris in 1822. He d. at St Petersburg.
KAITLAITB, a t. of New SQUth Wales, in the co. of Northumberland, on the Hunter
river, 95 m. n. of Sydney, and 20 m. n:W. of Newcastle, to which it is joined by rail-
way. It Is divided by the river into Bast and West Maitland. Pop. of Maitland, *61,
7,588; '71, 18,642. In either division are handsome banks, churches, and other public
building^. In West Maitland (much the more populous part of Maitland) are several
coach-'lruildhig factories, tobacco manufactories, and three mills (including a paper-mill).
<3k>od coai abounds in the neighborhood. The district has been called the ^' Qranary of
New South Wales.**
MAITLAn, the name of a Scottish family, celebrated both in the l:^rary and polit-
ical history of their country. The first who acquired distinction was fflr Richabd
MAiTliAKD of Lethington, son of William Maitland of Letbington and Thirlstane, who
fell at FloddeUf and of Martha, daughter of Qeorge, Lord Seaton. He was born In 1496,
studied at St. Andrews and in France, and on his return to Scotland was successively
employed by James Y., the regent Arran, and Mary of Lorraine. About 1551-52,
he received the honor of knighthood, became a lord of the court of session in 1561
(before which, however, he had the misfortune to lose his sight), and lord privy seal in
1562. He died Mar. 20, 1586, at the age of 90. Maitland was one of the best men of his
uSSr^ 388
^ime. In an ftge of ^olence, f anstickm, and perfidy, he was honorablf coMpicMnw linr
his moderation, integrity, and anxiety for the establishment of law and order. Ue
merits consideration not only as an eminent and upri^t lawyer, but as a poet, a poeti-
.«al antiquary, and an historian. AH his own verses were written after his 60th year,
and show what things he had most deeply at heart. For the most part they consist of
jamentations for the distracted state of his native country, the feuds of the nobles, the
discontents of the common people, complainta **aganis tli^ lang proces in the courts of
iustice," and the depredations " of the border robbers." A complete edition of Mait-
land's original poems was first published in 1880 {h 4to roL) by tlie Maitland club, a
society of literary antiquaries, taking its' naiae from Sir Riehard. His oollectiea of
early Scottish poetry was a work undertaken, if not completed, betoe his bMbdness.
attacked him. It consists of two MS. volSw ; the first containhii^ t7&, aad the second 9^
pieces; they are now preserved in the Fepytian library, Magdalen college, Oxford,
ttaitland's principal historical performance is the Hutori6 aaid OiK^mele €f the Bom and
JSurenatne of 8^0un, etc.
Maitland, William, better known as ** secretary Lethiirgton,.'' was tbe eldest son of
sir Richard Maitland of Lethington, and was bom abont 15!^. Like his father, he was
educated both at St. Andrews and on the continent, and qttickly displayed great aptitude
for a political career. He became a convert to the reformed doctrines alwut 1656, bat
could not have been a very violent partisan, since in 155^ he was appointed secretary of
state by Mary of Guise. In the following year, however, he openlr joined the lords of
the congregation, and was one of the Bcotch commissioners who met the duke of
Norfolk at Berwick, to arrange the conditions on which ^een Elizabeth would give
them assistance. In 1661, after the arrival of queen Mary from France, he was made
an extraordinary lord of session. He strongly objected to the ratifficatioB of Knox's
Book of Disoip&ne, and in 1563 conducted the prosecution raised acainst Knox for
treason: from this time he appears to have split with the reformers. In 1664 he held a
long debate with Knox on the claims of the Reformed church to be independent of the
state. In 1566 he took part in the conspiracy against Rizzio, after whose assassination
he was proscribed, and obliged to seek shelter for some months in obscurity. He was,
it is believed, cognizant of Both well's scheme for the murder of I>amley ; yet, when he
aaw the hopeless nature of Bothwell's designs, he immediately Joined the confederacy
of the lords. While Mary was still a prisoner at Loch Leven, he is said to have written
to her, offering his services, yet he was present at the coronation of king James YI.,
1567; and although he secretly aided in the escape of the queen, he fought against her
. on the field of Langside. In 1568 he accompanied the regent Morav to the conferences
held at York regarding the Scottish queen; but even here he tried to further her interests,
and is said to have been the first to propose to the duke of Norfolk a union between
him and Mary. The Scottish lords now felt that he was a dangerous enemy to the
icommonwealth, and in 1569 he was arrested at Stirling, but was liberated shortly after
by an artifice of Kirkaldy of Grange. After the murder of the re^nt Moray, he and
^irkaldy became the soul of the queen's party, in consequence of which he was declared
a rebel* deprived of his offices and lands by the regent Morton, and besieged, alone with
Kirkaldy, in Edinburgh castle. After a long resistance, the castle surrenderee!, and
Maitland was imprisoned in Leith, where he died, "some," savs Melville, "supposing
^e took a drink and died, as the auld Romans were wont to do. Buchanan has drawn
his character with a severe pen in his Scottish tract entitled The Chamdeon,
Maitland, John, Dukb op LAUDBBDAiiB, grandson of John, first lord Thiilstane,
brother of the famous secretary Lethington, and son of John, first earl of Lauderdale,
ftud of Isabel, daughter of Alexander Beaton, earl of Dunfermline and chancellor of
Scotland, was b. at the ancient family seat of Lethington, May 24, 1616. He received
an excellent education, being skilled, according to mahop Burnet, in Latin, Greek,
Hebrew, history, and divinity, was carefully trained in Presbyterian principles, and
entered public life as a keen and even a fanatical Covenanter. In 1643 he attended the
Westminster assembly of divines as an elder of the church of Scotland, and was a party
to the surrender of Charles I. to the English army at Newcastle. Shortly after, how-
ever, he changed his politics altogether, and became a decided royalist When Charles
IL came to Scotland from HolUnd, Lauderdale accompanied him; but being taken
I>risooer at the battle of Worcester in 1651, was kept a prisoner for nine years. Set at
iberty by gen. Monk, in 1660, he hastened to the ttaffue, and was warmly received by
Charles. After the removal of Middleton in 166^, and of Rothes in 1667, Lauderdale
' -was practically the sole ruler of Scotland, and for some time displayed a qpint of
moderation, and an apparent regard for the religious feelings of his countrymen; but he
soon became a bitter persecutor, sent multitudes of the Covenanters ** to glorify God at
the Grassmarket," and repelled in blasphemous language the remonstriinOes which many
distinguished persons ventured to make. In 1672 Charles showed his appreciation of
Lauderdale's conduct by creating him marquis of March and duke of Lauderdale; two
years afterwards he was raised to the English ueerage as viscount Petersham and earl
-of Guilford, and received a seat in the English privy counsel. He was one of the
famous "cabal;" but having, by his domineering artogance, excited the di^st and
liatred of his colleagues, as well as of the nation, he fell i3g^Oe^Jf^S&i5^ ^^"PP^ ^^
^8^ S^^"
all his offloes aad peDCions in 1683, and died Aug. 24 of the same year. Lauderdale,
according to Burae^ *' was ia his piindpka mucli against popery and arbitFaiy govern'-'
ment»" and Mi infamy oonsists ia his shameless sacrifice of his convictions to his^
interests. He was a rude, Uustering, passionate man, with what the duke of Buckidff^
ham called a '* hlunderiog understanding." Burnet has also given us a picture of his-
appearance. " He was very big, his hair red, hanging oddly about him. His tongue
was too big for his mouth, which made him bedew all that he talked to; and his whole'
manner was very unfit for a oourt"
MAITLAND, BAMtrBL Roffey, d.d., 1792-1866; b. London; studied at Trinity
college, Cambridge, without graduation, as he was not a member of the church of
England; studied law, and admitted to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1816; studied
theology and was ordained in 1821 ; held perpetual curacy of Christ church, Gloucester.
1823-29. Resigning this he devoted himself to literature. In 1887 he was appointed
librarian to Dr. Howley, archbishop of Canterbury, and keeper of the Lambeth MSS.,
retaining the office until the death of the archbishop in 1848. He edited for several
years the British Magazine, in which he wrote valuable articles, chiefly on prophecy,
church history, criticism, etc. His principal works are : An Inquiry into Vie 0-raunds an
ichich the Prophetic Period of Daniel and 8t. John hae been supposed to cojuust of 1260 yea/rs; .
Letters on the Voluntary 8f/stem; The Dark Ages, a Series of Essays intended to illustrate
the state ofBeUgion and Literature in the OtA, 10^, 11 ^A, and 12th centuries; Essays on the
BefomuUion in England; Eruvin, or Miscellaneous Essays on Bul^ects connected with the
Nature, History, and Degtinyof Man' An Essay on the Mystical Interpretation of Scrip-
ture; Strictures on MUner^s Church History; Facts and Documents Ulustraiive of the Doc-
trines and Bites of the ancient AUdgenses and Waldetises; Sacred Art; Realism in Modern
Art; Superstition and Science; lutcstrations and L^quiries relating to Mesmerism. He
wrote also numerous pamphlets, letters, and reviews. He showed "great erudition,
peat power of reasoning, precision, and perspicuity of statement, and a style of mascu*
Uoe strength, simplicity, wit, and polish, '^
ICAITftSTA was, aeoording to the Buddhists, a disciple of the Buddha S^jramuni
and a Bodhisattwa, or a man of preeminent virtue and sanctity. He is classed in their
mythology amongst the gods called tushitas, or '^the happy," and has generally the
epithet qfita, or " unoonquered." The Buddhists believe that he will become mcamate
as their future Buddha. In Thibetan he is called Janapa. A faithful representation of
this Buddha, surrounded by the (Thibetan) goddesses Dolnut, the Mantas or Buddhas of
medicine^ two ancient priests, and various saints, will be found in the atlas of Emil
Schlagintweit's Buddhism in Thibet (London and Leipsic, 1868X where an interesting
sketch is given (p. 207, ff.) of the characteristic types of Buddha images, and of the
measurements of Buddha statues made by his brothers in India and Thibet.
XAUSB, Zea, a genus of grasses, having monmcious flowers; the male flowers form-
ing a loose panicle at the top of the culm ; the female flowers in axillary spikes, inclosed
in large toush spathes, from which onlv the extremely lone styles— in the common spe-
cies 6 to 8 in. long— hang out like turn of feathers or silken tassels. The grains are
lar^, roundish, compressed, naked, and arranged in parallel rows along the upright
axis of the spike. The Common Maize, or Indian Corn (Z. mays), is generally
believed to be a native of the warmer parts of America, where it was cultivated by the
aborigines before the discovery of America by Columbus. But a representation of tlie
plant found in an ancient Chinese book in the royal library in Pans, and the alleged
discovery of some grains of it in the cellars of ancient houses in Athens, have led some
to suppose that it is a native also of the east, and has from a very early period been cul«
tivated there, and even that it is the "corn" of Scripture; although on this supposition
it is not easy to account for the subsequent neglect of it until after the discovery of
America, since which the spread of its cultivation in the old world has taken place with
a rapidity such as might be expected from its great productiveness and other valuable
qualities. Columbus himself brought it to Spain about the year 1520. It is now in gen-
eral cultivation in the s. of Europe, and supplies a principcd part of the food of the
inhabitants of many countries of Asia and Africa. It is by far the most productive of
all the cereals; in the most favorable situations yielding an increase of 800 for one,
whilst an increase of 350 or 400 for one is common where irrigation is prac-
ticed, and even without this the return is lar^. Maize succeeds well in tropical
and sub-tropical climates; and, being a short-lived annual, is cultivated also where
the heat of summer is intense and of sufficient duration, whatever mav be the cold
of winter. Thus, its cultivation extends to the northern parts of the tTrfited States,
and is pretty common in Germany; althongli the want of sufllcient summer heat rciidcrs
it a verjr uncertain crop even in the southern parts of Britain. Some of the varieties of
maize require abont five months from the time of sowing for the ripening of their grains;
whilst othera, which, of course, are preferred in countries having a comparatively short
summer, ripen in six weeks, or even less, but they are much less productive. The vari-
eties are very numerous, of taller or humbler growth, from 8 to 10, or even 14ft; Mth
yellow«- white, brownish-red, or purple, ghiss-like, somewhat translucent grains, whirh
varv very much in size. The culm is stout and erect; the leaves from 1 foot to S «
ft. long, and 2 or 8 in« broad; the ears or cjbs generally 3 or 8 in number, situ
^S^SS:^ 890
ated below the middle of the stem; in the large varieties, often above a foot long,
and thicker than a man's wrist, in the smallest varieties, 4 or 5 in. in length. "Msaie
succeeds best in light, rich, deep, and rather moist soils; and dlsHkW ahadv sitiiationg.
It is verv generally planted in little hillocks raised at intervals, and to each of which 5
or 6 seeds are allotted. North American settlers generally make it their first crop on
newlv cleared and very partially tilled ground. The grains of maize make a verv palat-
able kind of groats, and afford an excellent meal for baking purposes. The meal is not,
however, adapted for making bread without a mixture of wheat flour, or rye, owing to
its deficiency in gluten; althou^ in oily or fatty matter maize is richer than any other
grain, and is very nutritious. Maize meal mixed with rye meal forms the ccHnmon
brown bread of New England. Maize very coarsely ground and boiled forms the hom-
iny of the southern states of North America. The porridge made of maize meal is called
mush in North America; and the entire grains are used under the name of httUed corn or
tamp. The unripe grains, slightly roasted, burst and turn inside out, assuming a very
peculiar appearance; in this state, they are known as pop-corn; and in Uiis state are a
favorite article of food in America, and have recently become common in shops in
Britain, The cobs of maize, ripe or unripe, are gathered with the hand. The unripe
cobs are often pickled; they are also often boiled for the table. A kind of beer called
called chica (q.v.) is made from maize, also a spirituous liquor, and vinegar. The starch
of maize is a good substitute for arrow-root, and is now well known m Britain under
various names, as Oswego flour, etc. The pith of the culm, before the flowers are pro-
duced, abounds in a sweet juice, which, extracted and boiled to a syrup, has of late
been largely employed in the United States to furnish sugar; it is also fermented and
distilled, and yields a good spirituous liquor. The small young stalks of thickly sown
crops are cut over by the Mexicans, as an article for the dessert. In countries where
maize does not ripen well, it is sometimes sown to afford food for poultry, or to be
mown as green fodder for cattle. Where it is cultivated for its grain, the dried leaves
are used as winter fodder. The tops, cut off after flowering are stored for tiie same use.
The stalks are used for thatch and for fuel, and for making baskets. The fibers of the
culm and leaves afford a durable kind of yarn ; and the bracts or spathes which surround
the ear are elastic, and can be applied to the stuffing of chaire, saddles, ete., and to the
manufacture of good durable mattresses, which have become a profitable article of trade
in Paris and Strasburg. The spathes are also much used for packing oiangea and lem-
ons; and in South America for making cigarettes. Good paper has been manufactured
from them. There are few plants of which the uses are more various than maiae, and few
which are of greater ImportaDtoe to man. For separation of the grains of maize from the
ears, a particular kind of thrashing-machine is used. Another species of maize, called
CniLi Maizb, or Valparaiso Corn {Z. euragua), is distinguished by ita serrated leaves.
It is a smaller plant, a native of Chili, and htts won a superstitious regard, because its
grains when roasted split in the form of a cross. *
MAJESTY, a title of honor now usually bestowed on sovereigns. Among the Homana
maJeHias yvas nsed to signify the power a^id dignity of the people; and the senatorial,
consular, or dictatorial majesty was spoken of, in consequence of these functionaries deriv-
ing their power from the people. After the overthrow of the republic, majestas became
exclusivelv the attribute of the emperors, dignitas being thenceforth that of the magis-
trates. The maoestas of the emperors of Rome was supposed to descend to those of
Germany as their successors; but the adoption of the attribute brother European sover-
eij^s is of comparatively late date. Its use began in England m the latter part of the
reign of Henry VIII., up to which time *'your grace" or "your highness" had been the
appropriate mode of addressing the sovereign. Henry II. was the first king of France
who was similarly styled, and Louis XL and his successors became entitled, m virtue of
a papal bull, to call themselves by the title of "most Christian majesty." Ferdinand and
Isabella of Spain similarly obtained for themselves and their successors the title of "most
Catholic majesty;" and Stephen, duke of Hungary, and Maria Theresa, of "apostolic
majesty." The emperor of Austria is now styled his imperial royal maiesty ; in German.
" K.K. (abbreviated for kaiserliche k5nigliche) majestftt." Emperors, Kings, and queens
are now generally addressed as " your majesty," not including the sultan of Turkey,
whose proper style is "your highness." The sovereign of the United Kingdom is per-
sonally addressed as "your majesty;" and letters are addressed to "the king's or
"queeny* " most excellent majesty.
In heraldry, an eagle crowned and holding a scepter, is blazoned as an "eagle in his
majesty."
KAJOLICA, a name at first given by the Italians to a certain kind of earthen-ware,
because the first specimens that they saw came from Majorca; but as subsequently a
large manufacture of the same kind of earthen-ware was carried on at Faenza, the name
majolica was dropped, and " faience" substituted. The term majolica is now used to
designate vessels made of colored clay, and coated with a white opaque varnish, so as to
resemble ^'faience;" it is of much less value, and is very common in Italy.
MAJOBi a term in music, applicable to those intervals which are susceptible of being
lowered a semitone without becoming false. See Istkrval. Major is ^iefly used as
applied to the mode, key, or scale, which is said to be in the nrnjcn* whan Jha third
891
itove the kej-n^le is a n«{or thifdr-lliaft l8» when itis distent fram the key-note four
nemitones; thus, C C4t D !)«£
vVvV
18 8 4
HAJOB, in the army, is the second field-ofOcer m a battalion of infantry or regiment
of cavalry. He ranks next to the lieut.col., and commands in his absence; is mounted;
and is responsible, with the adjutant, that the men are properly drilled and equipped.
The pay of a major ranges from £1 4fi. 6d. a day in the household cavalry, to Ids. a day
in the infantry of the line. There are no majors in the royal marines; and it was only
in 1872 that, m the royal artillery and royal engineers, the first-captains were converted
into majors to put their promotion more on a par with the line. In the artillei^, the
major commands a battery. Used adjectlvely, the word fiu(;or, in the army, signifies a
superior class in a certain rank, as sergeants-minor, who are su|)erior sereeants; except
in the ciise of general officers, in which its signlncalion is arbitrarily limited to maj.gen.,
the third of the four classes of generals.
MAJOR, Georo, D.D., 160^74; b. Nuremberg, Germany; studied theology under
Luther and Melanchthon; was successively rector at Magdeburg in 1529; superintendent
at Eisleben in 1506; professor of theology and court-preacher at Wittenberg in 1582;
represented the Protestants in colloquy at Regensbarg m 1646. When the Smalcald war
broke oat he left Wittenberg, and was appointed superintendent and court-preacher at
Merseburg, but at the close of the war, the next year, he returned to Wittenberg. In
1552 he was made superintendent of Mansfeld churches. In 1551 he actively supported
the doctrine of the Leipsic interim, that good works were necessary to salvation, in oppo-
sition to the strict Lutherans who denied that proposition. Amsdorf assailed him, decLar-
ing that good works were or might be detrimental to salvation. He was joined by tlie
clergy ofthe district, and the count of Mansfeld being of the orthodox party. Major
removed to Wittenberg. The doctrines advocated by Major were finally branded as
heretical in the Corpui Doctrina Prutenieum, and were rejected by the compilers of the
Fx>rmula Coneordux, Towards the close of his life he became involved in the Crypto-
C-alvinistic controversy (q.v.). A portion of his works, comprising homilies and com-
mentaries on the Gk)spels and Paulme epistles, was published in 1569 in 8 folio volumes.
MAJOR, Richard Henrt, b. in Lcodon, 1818; was made keeper of the maps and
charts in the printed book department of the British museum, 1844; served as honorary
secretary of the Hakhiyt society from 1849 to 1858, editing therefore the Select Letten
of Okrigtopker Cdhindm*; the Buiorie €f TrcnaHe into Virginia Britannica, and Note» upon
Munia^ from, the Latin of Herberstein, and writii^ introductions toMendoza's Hittofy of
China and the earl of Illlesmere's Tartar OonffHrorn of China, At a later period he
edited for the same society InHa in the FtfUeiUh Oewktiy and Eariff VayageB (^ Tefera
AuitroUis, In 1861 he brought to light documents in the British museum showing the
discovery of Australia by a Portuguese navigator in 1661, for which he was knighted by
the king of Portugal. In 1868 he published the Zj/fe of Prince Henry of Portugal^ Bur-
named the Navigator — ^a work of great value. In later years he has been honorary sec-
retary of the Royal geographical society and a frequent contributor to its Journal,
MAJOHANI, Gastajvo. See Caffarblu, anU,
VAJOB'CA (Spanish, JfoZtomi), the largest of the Balearic isles (q.v.), lies 107 m. s.e.
of the mouth of the Ebro, the nearest point of the Spanish coast, and 171 m. n. of
Algiers. Its greatest length (from e. to w.) is 64 m., and its breadth (from n. to s.) 48 m.,
with an area of about 13w English sq.miles. The n.e. half of the island is mountainous; .
the other parts are finely diversified with hills, valleys, and plains. The climate is healthful,
the sea-breeze preserving a nearly equable temperature over the whole island. The
inhabitants, who much resemble the Catalans in their appearance and manners, number
above 200,(X)0, are hospitable and industrious, and mostly employ themselves in agricul-
ture. The chief products of the island are marble, slate, plaster, the common cereals
and legumes. Oranges, silk, lemons, oil, wine of excellent quality, olives and aromatic
herbs. The chief town is Palma (q.v.), the capital. The Spanish government makes
use of Majorca as a place of banishment for political offenders.
KAJOSITT is the age at which a person in this country acquires a status of a person
MM'iuris— <Le., is able to manage his or her own affairs. This age, in the United Kingdom
is 21. Under that age, persons in England and Ireland are called infants, and are more
or 1q9s subject to guardians, who manage for them their property. In Scotland, young
persons are called minors between 12 (if females) or 14 (if males) and 21. It is chiefly
with respect to the management of property that the distinction of majority is fixed
upon, as it is assumed that persons under that age have not discretion and firmness to
enter single-handed into contracts. It is also a common period fixed upon in wills at
which to make provisions payable. As far as liability for crime is concerned, majority
makes no difference, for lul persons are capable of crime, when they have discretion
enough to know that particular acts are criminal. A minor can, in Scotland, make a
a will of movable estate, but cannot do so in EngUmd.
ifAyAT.T.Air, a seaport on the s. coast of Arabia, 800 m. e.n.e. of the port of Aden.
It has a well-protected harbor, and is much frequented by ▼essg^^l^j ^^l^j^^jrosf^^f
393
laying in stores. It exports gum, Mdes, and senna, and is an extensive slave-Biailut
Pop. about 4,500.
MAE ART, Hai78, b. Salzburg, 1840; studied art in Munich, following the school of
Pilotv; first became noted as an hlBtorical painter about 1868. He is a member of the
Munich a<^ademy, and a professor of art in Vienna, where he has established his studio.
His first great work was his '* Catharine Comaro," which was exhibited in the Austrian
collection in Memorial hall, during the Centennial exhibition. It was sold for $12,500,
and is now in the possession of the Berlin national gallery. His next most important
work was the ''Entrance of the Young Emperor Charles V. into Antwerp/' which was
exhibited in 1878, and attracted general attention. He also painted "The Gifts of Sea
and Earth," two paintings of still-fife, which were in the Centennial exhibition. Malcart^s
work is characterized by a mastery in the use of color, warmth in the combinations
effected, and startling contrasts; stron^y reminding one of the Venetian school of Gior-
gione and Tintoretto. The BortfdUo concluded some severely critical remarks on his
"Catharine Comaro" as follows: "There are few painters of the present day who have
enough daring to handle such vast material, to dispose fearlessly and with proper relation
so large a number of figures; and there are still fewer who possess the skill in execution
which renders Herr Ms&art's picture a surprising and, in some sense, admirable perfonn-
ance." Another critic, writing for the same publication, says: "Herr Makart, by birth
Austrian, but trained under Aloty, is imbued with the romance and yolaptuoaaDess of
Yenezia. He is, in fact, the Yeronese of Yienna.*'
MAEI. See Lekub, ante.
KAXIA9', one of the Moluccas (q.v.).
XAXO*, a market-town of Hungary, on the right bank of the Maros, 16 m. e.s.e.
of Szegediu. Pop. 70, 27,449, many of whom are Jews. The town contains numerous
mills, and is famous for its breed of oxen, which are of unusually large size.
MAKKIZI, Taki Addin Abu Ahmad Mohammad, an eminent Arabic historian and
geographer, was b. in 1860 a.d., in Makriz, near Baalbec. He early devoted himself to
the study of history, jurisprudence, tradition, astrology, etc.. at Cairo, where also he
afterwards held the offices of mohtasib, or inspector of weights and measures, and
of khatib and imam at different mosques. The most important of his numerous works
are a TopographietU HUtary ofBgypt, a HUtory cf the Mamlvk SuUaru, and two treatises
on Moslem (Kufic) coins, weights, and measures, which have been edited and translated
by Tychsen (into Latin), and by Silveatro de Sacy (into French), Makrizi also com-
menced a work On the important P»r§(maffe% who had wiied Egypt, intended to fill 80
vols. ; but only a small portion of these (one autograph volume is m.the imperial library
at Paris) was really accomplished. He died at U^ age of 82 years, in 1442 a.d.
XALABAB', a maratime district of British India, m the presidency of Madras, is
bounded on the e. by the district of Coimbatore, while on the w. its shores are wash^
by the Arabian sea; and it extends in lat. from 10** 15' to 12° 18' north. Area, 6,002
sq.m.; pop. (July, 71) 2,261,250. The surface is occupied in the e. by the Keilgherries,
and tlie western Ghauts cover a great portion of the district. The name of this district
is applied to the whole south-western coast of southern India.
MALABAR {ante\ a country lyine on the western coast of India, and extending
irom cape Comorin to the river Chandragiri in 12' 30' n. lat. The British province of
Malabar is a portion of this tract between 10*" and 13° n. lat., bounded n. by the province
of Canara; s. by the territories of the rajah of Cochin; w. by the ocean, and e. bv the
chain of the western Ghauts. Between these and the sea Malabar lies, extending 200 m.
along the coast, with an average breadth of 40 miles. The country may be divided into
two parts, the first of which lies on the sea-coast about 3 m. wide, and consists of a poor
sandy soil, covefedwith cocoanut trees. Near the termination of the low htfls, which are
offsets of the Ghauts, the soil is better, and is planted with rice. The sandy coast is
remarkably intersected by inlets of the sea, which often run for great lengths parallel to
the coast, receiving the various mountain streams, and communicating with the ocean
by different narrow shallow openings. In other places the fresh water descending from
the mountains into the low lands within the downs upon the sea-coast in the rainy season,
totally overflows them as thev have no outlet, and when the water is evaporated, these
lands are cultivated and yiela rich crops of rice. The second and most extensive por-
tion of Malabar is in the vicinity of the Ghauts, and consists of low hills with narrow
valleys between, which are rendered very fertile by the fine particles of mold washed
down from the hills. The hills are low, their summits are level, dry and bare, present-
ing lar^ surfaces of naked rock, with remarkably steep sides. These sides having the
best soil are formed into terraces, and highly cultivated. The uplands are barren, and
not much cultivated, and the inhabitants reside chiefly in the valleys and extensive
ravines, upon the banks of the rivers and inlets. There are no large rivers, but innu-
merable small streams water the country. The climate though hot is generally healthful
The thermometer generally rises to about 90" in the shade, and seldom falls below 70^
The hot season is from February to May, and the wet from May to October. The low
Digitized by VjiOUV IC
998
country of Malabar and the ^ole region urnier the -western Ghants ti^ exceeatfelt Hot
Id February, and the vapors and exhalations are so thick that objects can with difficulty be
distin^isbed at a distance of 5 miles. At the commencement of the western monsoon
the rains fall Tery heavily both in the low oountry and on the mountains. Tliese rains^
wash away the soil, leaving nothing but loose stones and sand on the hills. Forest trees-
abound, sometimes intermixed with com-fleidsand plantations of fruit trees. The teak
isprodnced in great abundance. Sandalwood not produced in Malabar, grows e« of
the western Ghauts, and is exported from the ports of Malabar. Coooanut trees abound.
Black pepper is grown extensively, and is the chief export by Europeans who purchase-
about five-eighths of what is raised, and send it either directly to Europe, or to Bombay
and China. ^The remainder is exported by native traders to the bay of Bengal, Burat.
Scinde, and other places in n.w. India, and a portion is sent to the Arabian ports of
Muscat, Mocha» and the British port of Aden. Ginger, betel-nuts, cardamoms, turmeric,,
and arrow-root are grown. Cardamoms grow on the face of the mountains in forest-
lands. Within a few years the English have cultivated coffee on plantations situated
on the slopes of mountains 3,000 ft. above sea-level. They obtain land either of the
government or of natives, and not much capital being required, and the wages of native
laborers being small, the profits are large. Rice is raised, but not enough for homc-
coDsumption. Ginger is large Iv cultivated and exported to Europe. The animals arc
the elephant and bison in the forests, and some tigers, leopards, deer, bears, hogs, por>
cupines, monkeys, and squirrels. There is an animal of the ox species, called the
gayal, found in the recesses of the mountains, 10 ft. high, with beautiful horns. There
are but few horses. There is a small bullock used for tilling the ground and drawing
vehicles, bat not much in the transportation of goods, that being done by porters.
Poultry has been introduced by Europeans, and common fowl now are abundant.
Slavery existed in Malabar until a legislative act was passed in 1843 abolishing it
throughout the British possessions. Malabar being intersected by many rivers, and
inclosed by high mountains has been less disturbed than other parts of India by
Mohammedan invasion, until in 1763 it was invaded and conquered bv Uyder All. On
this account the manners and customs of the Hindus here have been less changed than
in other parts of India. The population consists of Hindus, Mohammedans, Christiann,.
and some Jews. The Hindus constitute the great proportion. They are divided into»
the following castes: The Brahmins called Namburies are the highest, and another moi'C
numerous class of Brahmins called Puttars. The Kairs are the next, and then the Teers
or Tiars who cultivate the land, and are freemen. Lastly the Patiars or Poliars, who
were formerly slaves. The most remarkable caste is the Nairs who claim to be born '
soldiers, though they are of various ranks and professions. They are of 11 ranks, and .
form the militia of Malabar under the Brahmins and rajahs. They are very arrogant *
and formerly a Nair did not hesitate to strike down a cultivator or a fisherman who
defiled him by touching his person, or a Patiar who did not turn aside when meeting
him. The ancient Hindu state of property prevailing in Malabar, most of the land
cultivated or uncultivated belongs to individuals, who have an absolute control of it.
The Brahmans, Nairs, and Tiars are well proportioned, handsome, and of olive com-
plexion. The Mohammedans, called Moplays, are about one-fourth of the population,,
and are descendants of Hindu mothers and Arab fathers who settled in Malal^r in tho
7th or 8th century. The aboriginal natives generally live in separate houses, surrounded
with gardens; but the villages are the work of foreigners, the houses being built of mud,
neatly smoothed, and whitewashed or painted. The chief towns are Calicut, Tellichery,
Cananore, and Ponany. Bevpoor, 7 m. s. of Calicut, where Gama landed in 1498, is
connected by a railway with Madras. The Portuguese then settled in Malabar, and the
Dutch in 16o3. The original name for Malabar in Sanskrit was Kevala. It is supposed
that Malabar was very early conquered by a king from beyond the Ghauts, and that the
Nairs were established there by the conc^ueror or brought in bv the Brahmans as a militarv
body to support the government; that m time they obtainedf settlements, and the chiefs
became rajahs who governed the countir like independent princes, until the invasion of
Hyder Ali in 1768. He conquered and plundered the country, and expelled all the rajahft
except those who submitted to him. In 1783 he appointed a deputy who made further
progress in subduing and settling the country. In 1788 his son Tippoo proposed to tho
Hindus to accept the faith of the prophet, and began to levy large contributions on them,
compelling many Brahmans, KBirs,*and others to be circumcised. This produced a»'
rebellion which his vigor soon suppressed. Wlien the war broke out between Tippoo*
and the English in 17^, the rebellious rajahs and Nairs, who had fled from his persecu-
tion to the jungles, joined the British army, and Tippoo was driven from the country.. ;
In 1808 Malabar was incorporated in the Madras presidency. Christianity early made*,
considerable progress in this part of India. The Nestorians establi^ed churches there-
in the 5th or Sth century. When the Portuguese landed in 1500 they found not only a
Christian king, but a lai^ body of professing Christians, and upwards of 100 churches.
Buchanan at his visit in 1807 found 44 churches. The Romanists from Goa established
themselves here in the beginninsr of the 16th century. The whole number of Christians
on the Malabar coast, including the Nestorians or Syrians at the present time, is com-
puted at 200.060. There are also about 80,000 Jews. The population in 1850 waa
1,614,909. The country is tranquil and prosperous. Digitized by VjUUV IC
XALAB'ATHBUK, a name giyen by tlie anoient Greeks and Romans to aromatic
leayes, which were in high repute amon^ them, both as a nuidicine and a perfume, bdcI
with which they sometimes flavored wme. These leaves were brought from India,
whence thejr were often called Indian leaves; and from the value in which they were held.
sometimes simply leattee. Just as the term bark is now used to designate tlie mediciDal
bark of the cinchonas. Many fabulous accounts were current of their origin. Tlicy
are now pretty certainly known to be the same with the leaves sold in every Indian
bazaar under the name of f^-jxtt, the produce of two nearly allied species of cinnamon
(cinnamomum iamala and c. aUnfloram), growing in the dense forests of the Hinuilayan
valleys; and the name Malabathrum is regardea as a corruption of tamaiaputra, tamala
leaf. They are aromatic, fragrant, and gently stimulant.
KALAC'CA, a British maritime settlement on the 8.w. coast of the Malay peninsula,
extends in lat. from 2** to 8* n., and long, from 103' to 108* east It is 40 m. in length,
and, including the district of Naning, about 25 m. broad. Area, about 1000 sq.m. ; pop.
*71, 77,755. Near the coast, which is washed by the strait of Malacca, the sunace is flat
and swampy, producing rice. Inland, there are low hills, Mt. Ophir rising to 8.920 feet.
Although little agriculture is carried on, and the greater portion of the country is still in
the condition of jungle, the soil is fertile in rice, sago, pepper, fruits, vegetables, rattans,
and timber. In the district of Naning are tin mines of some value. The climate is
remarkably salubrious; the land and sea breezes are regular; and the thermometer
ranges from 72"* to 85". The town and seaport of Malacca, capital of the district of the
same name, is situated in lat. 20** 11' n., lon^. 102** 16' e., at the mouth of a small river
which flows into the strait of Malacca. It is handsome and well built, and presents a
flne appearance from the sea. Its most interesting building is the church of our Lady
del Monte, the scene of the labore and supposed miracles of St. f^ncis Xavier, "the
apostle of the east.'' Pop. variously estimated at from 6,000 to 15,000.
Malacca was taken by the Portuguese under Albuquerque in 1600; became a Dutch
possession in 1042; fell in 1795 into the hands of the British to whom it was finally
ceded in 1824. In 1867 Malacca, together with Singapore and the Prince of Wales
island, were transferred from the control of the Indian government to that of the colo-
nial secretary.
KALACCA, STBAIT of, separates the Malay peninsula on the n.e. from the island of
Sumatra on the s.w. Length, 520 m. ; breadth varying from 25 m. at the s.e. to 200 m.
at the n.w. extremity. In this strait are the British settlements of Singapore, Malacca,
and Peuang.
MAL'ACHI (probably an abbreviated form of mcUachyaJ^, meaning *' messenger of
Jehovah ;** the Seventy and the Vulgate have malaclUas), the name given to the last
canonical book of the Old Testament. Regarding its author, nothing whatever is known.
It has even been doubted wheUier Malachi is a proper name or onl)r an appellative; the
Seventy, the Chaldee, Jerome, and nuuiy modern scholars — Vitringa, nengstenberg,
Umbreit, etc. — favor the latter view. The period when the writer of Malachi composed
his prophecies is conjectured to have been during the governorship of Nehemiah, or
about 420 B.c. The book exhibits that strict regard for the proper observance of the
ceremonial law, and that hatred of foreign marriages, etc., which marked the religious
Jews after the return from exile, but has little of the old prophetic flre, freedom, and
dramatic force
MALACHI, PROPHECY of {anU\ has a pUioe in the canon of Scripture which has
never been disputed and is explicitly conflrmed by at least six quotations in the New
Testament. I. As to the time when it was written. That Malachi was contemporary
with the latter part of Nehemiali's administration is argued from the similar state of
things mentioned in the propiiecy and the history. 1. Malachi speaks of the governor
of the Jews by the same name as that given to Nehemiah by tlie Persian king. 2.
Malachi reproves the priests for having neglected, despised, and profaned the worship
of God; and Nehemiah relates that, on his return a second time from Persia to Jerusalem,
he found that a grandson of the hi^h-priest had mairied a daughter of Sanbaliat, the
notorious adversary of the Jews' religion; that the high-pnest had established Tobiah
the Anunonite in the 'precincts of the temple; that the priests and the Levitcs were
defiled, their sacred covenant despised, and the Sabbath profaned. 8. Malachi charges
the wh<^e nation of the Jews with having robbed* God by withholding the tithes and
other appointed offerings; and Nehemiah relates that during his absence the portions of
the Levites had not been given them, and that conaequenUy they and the singers
appointed to conduct the services had gone home to their fields. 4. Malachi denotmces
juagments on the nation for dealing treacherously with the wives of their youth and
marrving strange wives; and Nehemiah relates that the Jews had married wives of
Ashdod, of Ammon, and of Moab, and that their children spake half in the speech of
Afihdod, having lost the knowledge of their fathers' language. II. These indications of
the time when the prophecv w^as written explain also its contents, which ai'C: 1. A
declaration of God's love to Israel as proved by their history; 2. An address to the priests
rebuking them for tlieir heartless, mercenafy^ and corrupt services, threateninj^ them
with juagments if they persisted in their sins, and describing the character of a true
priest in bright contrast with their own; 8. A. rebuke of the people for their mar-
Digitized by VjiJUy IC
qo^ Miaii1>l41unui».
^^^^ MftUcopUrrsU..
riages with the heathen and their r^eotion of the lawful wives of their youth, who
were left to weep at the altars of G^, the institutor of marriage at the beginning as
a perpetual covenant; 4. An announcement of the sudden coming of the Lord, whom
they claimed to seek, but who in an unexpected coming would sit in Judgment against
all transgressors, supplying by his own omniscience swift testimony against them; 5. A
call to repentance, with the promise of abundant blessings to all who obey; 6. A testi-
mony that there were some who feared Qod, and an assurance to them that they would
always be precious in his sifht; 7. A renewed announcement both of the appointed
judgment and of the promis^ Savior, before whose great and dreadful day one in the
spirit and power of Elijah the prophet would come calling fathers and children to repent*
ance as the only way of avoiding the hastening doom.
XAXACHITS, a mineral, essentially a carbonate of copper, of a green color, often
fonnd as an incrustation or stalactitic along with other ores of copper; often in large
m<LQftAjy and often also crystallize^ in rather oblique four-sided prisms, beveled on the
extremities, or >vith the beveling plaues truncated so as to form six-sided prisms. It is
often of a fibrous structure. It is valuable as an ore of copper, although seldom smelted
alone, not only because it is found along with other ores, but because the metal is apt to
be carried off with the carbonic acid. It is sometimes passed oflf in jewelry as turquois,
although easily distinguished by its color and much inferior hardness. It is used for
many ornamental purposes; slalJsof it— chiefly from the mines of Siberiar— are made into
tables, mantel-pieces, etc., of exquisite beauty. In 1885 a mass of solid malachite was
found in the Ural mountains of more than 17 ft. in length, and weighing about 25 tons.
XALACHY, Ihab, Archbishop of Armagh, in Ireland, and a saint of the Roman
Catholic church, is remarkable not only for his connection with a veiy important period
of Irish church history, but also from the circumstance of his biography havlDg been
written by his distinguished contemporary, St. Bernard. Malachy was bom, in the end
of the 11th c, of a noble family, and having been educated by a hermit, named Imar,
received orders at an early age from the hands of Celsus, archbishop of Armagh. His
reputation for learning and sanctity was unexampled in that age, and Celsns had early
designed Malachy as his sucoessor m the see of Armagh; but Mai achy protested against
it, in consequence of an abuse similar to that of lay impropriaition (q.v.), by which
the temporalities of the see were held by laymen, called coarbs. In the end, how-
ever, he was elected, with the full rights of his see, and soon afterwards, in his capacity
of primate, took measures for the reform of the many abuses which prevailed in all the
churches of Ireland. He went to Home during the pontificate of Innocent IL, and
having in vain sought permission to resign his see, and retire to Clairvaux, returned
to Ire&nd invested with extraordinary powers as le^Eite of the pope. In this capacity,
he made a visitation of Ireland, ana many of the controversies as to the ancient
religious usages of the Irish church, which would be out of place in this publication,
turn upon this period. Malachy again repaired to France in 1147, in order to meet
the pope, Eugene III., during his visit to that country; but before his arrival, the
pope had returned to Rome, and Malachy, during a visit to his friend, St. Bernard,
at Clairvaux, was seized with an illness which ended in his death In the year 1148,
A curious ''prophecy concerning the future Roman pontiffs, '* is extant under the
name of Malachy. It designates, by a few brief phrases, the leading characteristics
of each successive reign, and in some instances these descriptive characteristics have
proved so curiously appropriate as to lead to some discussion. The characteristic of
Pio Nono, Crux de Gnice (cross after cross), was the subject of much speculation. That
the prophecy really dates from the time of Maladiy, no scholar now supposes; it was
unknown not only to St. Bernard, but to all others, until the 16th century. It is first
noticed in the end of that century, but it may be a sufficient indication of its worth to
state that neither Baronius nor any of his continiiators deemed it deserving of attention.
MAXACOL'O0Y (Gr. mal^xkos, soft), a name now not nnfrequently employed to designate
that branch of natural history which has moUxtiks (called malakia by Aristotle) for its
F.ibiect. Linnaeus, and the naturalists who preceded him, devoted some attention to this
siiidy; but until the time of Cuvierthe shells of the shell-bearing moHusks received a
rl'sproportionate share of attention, and the animals themselves were little regarded.
C jnchology (q.v.) has now, however, sunk to a verj' subordinate place, as a mere part of
m ilacology, and this branch of science has been prosecuted during the present century
h ' many eminent naturalists with great zeal and success. The names of Oken, Sovigny,
D*j Blainville, Van Beneden, MUne-Edwards, and Owen perhaps deserve to be particu-
l! rly mentioned
MALACOPTEBT'Gn, Malacx)p'teri (Gr. maXakos, soft; andpferp, awing), or Mala-
c )PTEBOUS Fishes, on^* of the two primary divisions of osseous fishes in the system of
C.I vier, distinguished b^' soft or spineless fins, the rays of which are jointed. Spiny rays
a.:' occasionalyr f oimd m the first dorsal and the pectoral fins. Cuvier subdivided the
miilacopterygu into orders according to the position or absence of the ventral fins; malor-
copterygU ahdomiiuUes having the ventral fins beneath the belly, as the salmon and her-
ring; malacoptery'ffii aub-hracMaU having the ventral fins beneath the shoulder, as the cod
and haddock; and malacopUry' gUapoden wanting ventral fins, as eels. MQller, however —
followed in this b}' Owen and others — has separated from the nxalaq^i^iflg'j^^^^^^gl^^
MAlArlm. ^^^
flfihes to which he has given thid name of AvACJkXTBn{anaianthini; Or. spinelesa), differ-
ing from acanthopterouB liahee merely in the abeeucc of spinous rays in the flns. Among
the anacanths are the important families gadidas (cod, etc.) and pUuronecUda (flat-fish).
MALACOSTRACA (Grr. mcUakos soft, ostraken, Hhell), Aristotle's name for crusla-
ceans. The malacostraca are now classified as a sub-class of Crustacea, which compri>«vs
two divisions, edriophthaltnata, and podap/UJicUmaia. In the first division the eyes are
sessile, and the body not generally protected by a campace. It comprises two orders,
amphiopoda and iaopoda. The eyes are generally compound, but are sometimes simple,
ana placed on the sides of the head, which is nearly always distinct from the body. The
typical number of feet is seven pairs. The amphiopoda Include the whale-louse (q.v.)
and the sand-hopper (q.v.). A section of this omer, IcBtnidopoda, has been regarded as a
distinct order, but the pretension has been withdrawn. In isopoda the respiratory organs
are not thoracic as they are in amphiopoda, but are attached to the inferior surface of
the abdomen. There are two eyes formed of a collection of simple eyes, or are some-
times really compound. The young isopod is developed within a larval membrane with-
out appenaages, which after a time bursts and sets fnse the young, which resemble the
adult m most respects, but have only six pairs of limbs instep of seven. Like the
amphiopoda, some are aquatic, and some terrestrial. Milne-Edwards divides the
isopoda into three sections, 1, nat<ttoTy, 2, sedentary, and 8, eutiorial. In the first sec-
tion some of the animals are parasitic, and some are not. In the second section tliey
are all parasitic, generally within the gill chambers or upon the ventral surfaces of
decapod crustaceans, as shrimps and others. The third section, the cursorial, includes
the wood-louse (q.v. ) and limnoria (q.v.). The second division of malacostraca, podapfi-
thalnuUa, have compound eyes, supported upon movable stalks, and a body completely
protected by a carapace. There are two orders, stomapoda (q.v.) and decapoda (q.v.).
see also Invbrtebratb Animals, Lobstsr, Crab, and Shrimp.
KALAOA, a modem maritime province of Spain, formed out of the ancient kingdom
of Granada (q.v.), is bounded on the s. by the Mediterranean, on the e. by the province
of Granada, and on the w. by that of Cadiz. Area, 2,786 sq.m. ; pop. 7(), 505,010.
KAIA0A, a city and sea-port of Spain, capital of the modem province of the same
name, is situated on the shore of the Mediterranean, 70 miles n.e. of Gibraltar. Siiel-
tered on the n. and e. by mountains, and with a climate of which dryness and constaot
sunshine ai-e the characteristics, this place is superior as a resort for invalids to any other
either of France or Italy. Winter, in the English sense, is here almost unknown.
Mala^ is purely a place of commerce, and with the exception of some fine Moorish
remains, it contains little that can be called artistic. The sea is here recedins^, and the
Moorish dock-yard and quay are now in the town, while the beautiful Alameda, or
Sublic walk, was covered with water last century. Malaga is famous for its sweet
[uscatel wines, grown on the heights in the vicinity, and the richest of which are called
ku lagrimae. The whole produce of the Malaga vineyards is estimated at from 85,000
to 40,000 pipes, of which about 37,000 pipes may be exported. The exports consist
chiefly of wines, oil, figs, almonds, grapes, sugar, and raisins; and the imports of salt
fish, iron manufactures, and colonial produce. Sugar is extensively manufactured for
export, the production in 1872 beine 21,900,000 pounds. Besides its legitimate trade and
its manufactures of cloth, ropes, leather, soap, etc., Malaca carries on an extensive
smuggling trafilc with Gibraltar and Marseilles. Pop 110,000. Malaga, known to the
Romans as Malacca, is a very ancient place. It was founded by the Phenicians, and has
enjoyed a commercial existence and a measure of prosperity for 8,000 years.
XALAOXTXTTA P1FPE&. See GRAma of Paradise.
MALAKANS, a religious sect in the Busso-Greek church. The name in Russian is
Molocani, i.e., milkpcaters, who contrary to the rule of the eastern church take milk on
fast-days. The term Malakan is a term of reproach. They prefer to be called Ootpd-
men, A Prussian prisoner of war settled about the middle of the last century in a village
of southern Russia, and spent his time visiting from house to house, and explaining tiie
scriptures to the people. After his death they acknowledged him as the founder of
their new belief. The Malakans receive the Bible as the word of God. They believe in
the doctrine of the Trinity, the fall of Adam, the resurrection of Christ, receive the ten
commandments, and forbid idolatry and the worship of saints. They consider the
taking of an oath sinful, and enjoin a strict observance of the Lord's day. They firmly
believe in the millennium. A member of their body, Terenti Beloreff, a fanatic,
announced in 1838 that Christ would come in two and a half years. Many Malakans
abandoned their callings, and awaited the event with fasting and prayer. Bcloreff
believed that he himself, like Elijah, would ascend to heaven on a certain day in a
chariot of fire. Thousands of Malakans came from all parts of Russia to witness the
miracle. He appeared seated in a chariot, ordered the multitude to prostrate themselves,
and then, extenaing his arms as an eagle does its wings, he sprung into the air, fell on
the heads of the gazing crowds, was seized and dragged to prison as an Impostor. He
died soon after, insanely declaring himself the projMiet of God. But many of the Mahi-
kans still believe in his divine mission. Many of his followers afterwards emigrated to
G^rgia, in western Asia, and settled in sight of mount Araistjli^^xp^'ctm;^ the millennium.
This sect spend whole days and nights in prajer, and hatre>«tt ihii^in oommon. They
deny the sanctity and necessity of fasts, especially for men who have to work. They
oppose popes and monks. Under the late emperor Nicholas they were severely perse-
cuted. 16,000 men and women being seised by the police, arranged in gangs, and oriYen
with rods and thongs across the steppes and mountains into the Cancasus. A great
many tied across the Pnith into Tur£ey, where the sultan gave them a village called
Tutoha for their residence. Dixon in his Fres Ruma has deM^bed this sect.
liALAKHOFF, or Malakoff. See Sj^bastopoi^ ante,
MALAMOCGO. See Yekicb, ante.
MALAN\ Cbsar Henri Abraham, d.d., 1787-1864; b. Switzerland; educated at
the (Geneva academy, and ordained to the ministry in 1810. He was at once appointed
preacher to the cathedral, and a regent of the acaaemy. The Calvinistic faith in Geneva
bad for some years been growing more and more rationalistic, and the presbytery of
Geneva had issued an edition of we New Testament in which all passages m remtion to
the divinity of Christ were so changed as to bear a Socinian interpretation. Malan
denounced the alterations, and took high evangelical ground; and the umerences between
him and the ecclesiastical authorities were so great tluit he left the established church in
1818. For a time he preached at his own house, but after 1820 he preached in an inde-
pendent church of his own called La Chapelle du Temoignage. He was also active in
many other directions. He founded a theological sch(x>l at Geneva, and introduced
Sunoay schools into Switzerland. His followers were nicknamed MdiiiERa, which see.
Malan published, among other books. Left Momien SojiUiU InvmbUe, 1828; Les Chants
de Sion, 1826; Le Temmgnage de Dieu, 1838; and IJEglUe Bomaine, published in English
at New York in 1844. tic was a man whose zeal for truth, fervor of spirit, and active
beneficence have left a lasting impress on his own land and through central Europe.
MALAN', Solomon C^bsar, d.d., b. England, 1812: a son of Dr. Cfear. He was
educated at Oxford, and in 1888 went to Calcutta as professor of the classics in Bishop's
college. While in India he was ordained deacon, and acted as secretary of the Asiatic
society of Bengal. Soon after his return to England he was ordained priest, and made
vicar of Broad Windsor in 1845, where he remained till 1871, when he became prebendary
of Sarum. He has published many books, of which we may mention; A Plain Eacpon-
tUyn of the Apo$1le$' Greed, 1847; A Systematic List cf British Birds, 1848; Who is Ood in
Chma f 1855; Ths Gospel According to J3t, John, translated from the eleven oldest versions,
1862; A Plea for the AtUlwrieed Version, 1869; ihe Liturgy of ths Orthodox Armenian
Church, 1870; and Original I>ocumeni» of the Coptic Church.
XAlAPTSXinBtini (Gr. malakos, soft; pteron, a fln; and oura, the tail> is the name
fiven to a genus of fishes of the family siluridm (q.v.), in which in place of a true dorsal
n there is a soft fatty fin near the tail, and to this peculiarity the name is due. Two
species are known, viz., M, electricus and Jf. heninensis. See Elkctricitt, Animal.
MALAREN, or MI14AR, a large and beautiful lake of Sweden. It stretches west-
ward from the Baltic, and lies between the laens of Westevas, Upsala, KycOping, and
Stockholm. A peculiarit}r of this lake is that it consists of several small lakes connected
by short channels, which inclose islands to the number of 1800. Although its length is
To nu, and the average breadth 12, hardly a clear sheet of water a mile square through
the whole extent can be found. It senos out nmny branches to the n. and s., which
extend a good distance inland. One of them extending northward is 25 m. long. All of
tiiese arms and branches are navigable for boats. It is nearly on a level with the Baltic,
and numerous steamers plyto and from Stockholm, which is at the eastern extremity, on
boUi sides of the lake, llie advanti^es of the navigation on lake Mftlar have been
increoflod by the SOdertelge and StrAmsholms canals. The former ia 2 m. lopg, and
opens a communication with the Baltic; 4he latter extends from the western end of the
kke 50 m. into the interior, and leads to the region of the mines in the lake of Barken,
which is 827 ft. above the sea-leveL The soenery of the banks is exceedingly beautiful,
and there are many villas and country-seate belonging to the residents of StockholnL
MALARIA (M1A8KA, anU\ bad atr. There are vaiieties of malaria, the most com-
mon or the longest known, or written about, being miasmatic malaria, or marsh miasm,
which is regarded as producing the Tarloos forms of intermittent and remittent fevers,
and, as many believe, yellow fever (see the articles under these titles). Since the more
systematic and mioroscopical investigntbn of various diseases, it has been shown that
many other diseases, some of which are contagiouB, are produced by poisoned, infected,
or bad air— 4n ottier words, by malaria. Ahr impregnated or polhilied by sewer gas is
the malaria productive of putrid sore throat tfr putrid fever (diphtheria) (q.v.), and per-
haps the origin of scariet fever. A form of f ev«r ealled typho*malinial appears to be
caused by a mixture of putrid malaria and marsh miasm, althongh most authorities do
not regard it as a distinct disease, hot a mlxtme. It is tbengbt by some that the term
malaria should be restricted to marrti miasm, saying that air which is infected with the
seeds of anv diseaM, as, for Inritanee, small-pox, might be called malaria, as well as that
which produces diphtheria or putrid fever; but it is fairiy conservative and proper to
ngiadasmabtflAallsu: wfaiok Wiafeeled by theprodnotsof osganicdeo^ and
putrefaction, whether vegetable or animal, and which in their origin may be bo traced^
although after being generated they may be contagious.
MALATESTA, the name of an Italian family settled in the Romagna. The family
is said to have beai founded by a count Oarpegna de' Billi, whose violence got him the
name of mala testa, i. e. ** bad head." Their principal branch was the nilinfl; family of
Rimini, of which Malatesta, count of Verrucchio, had possessed himself in 1285. He was
an active Guelph partisan, as was his son and successor Malestino, who annexed Cesena
in 1314. One of his brothers, Giovanni, was the husband of that Francesca, daughter of
Guido da Polenta, and mistress of Giovanni's brother Paolo, whose* pathetic story is
found in Dante's Inferno. Malatestino's brother Pandolfo I. succeeded him, and con-
tinued the traditional policy of his family, in supporting the pope against the Ghibellincs.
Malateslino's son Ferrantino succeeded Pandolio in 1826, but was driven out of Rimini
by the pope in 1885; and Pandolfo*s sons Malatesta and Galeotto were made joint lords
of Rimini. They largely increased the power of the family, bringing under their rule
part of Cervia, Fano, part of Fermo, Fossombrone, and Pesaro. Malatesta died in 1864,
but Galeotto reigned till 1885, and was succeeded by his sons. Carlo and Pandolfo III.
Cario was a zealous supporter of pope Gregory XII., during the great schism, an oppo-
nent of the emperor Si^smund, ana one of the ablest commandenB of his time. Both he
and Pandolfo III. held commands in the armies of the Visconti, dukes of Milan; and
next to the Visconti the Malatesta family was at that time the most powerful in Italy.
It was connected by marriage with the houses of Urbino and Montifeltro, and it had pos-
session at one time of Bergamo and Brescia. Pandolfo III. died in 1421, and Carlo in 1427,
without issue. Perhaps the most celebrated of the Malatesti is Sigismondo Pandolfo,
who died in 1468. He was a patron of artists and authors, the founder of a library at
Rimini, and a skillful general who fought for himself, for Venice, Naples, Bienna, I^lor-
ence, and An^on, ana who made war upon the pope and was excommunicated in 1480.
He was a son-in-law of Francesco Sforza. The last Maletesta who was lord of Rimini,
was Pandolfo IV., driven out by Clement VII. in 1526, when Rimini was added to the
dominions of the pope, of whom it had ori^ally been held as a fief. The family was of
German origin, and a member of it is mentioned in the early chronicles as being imperial
vicar of Rimini under Otho III.
KALATAPPU. SeeEuoBKiA.
KALAY, Indian, or Eastern ABGHXPXLAOO, the largest and most important system
of island groups in the world, stretching from 95** to 140' e. long., and 19* n. to IV s.
lat., is bounded n. by the China sea, e. by the Pacific, s. and w. by Australia and the
Indian ocean. The principal group are the Sunda islands, inckioing Sumatra, Java,
Bali, Sumbawa, Flores, the Sandalwood island, Rotti, Timor, etc. ; the Philippines, in
the n. ; Celebes and the Saleyer islands, n. of Flores; the Moluccas, Key, Ami, Timor-
Laut, and other groups, e. d Celebes. The chief islands for trade are Java, Sumatra,
the Moluccas, and Borneo. The western or Dutch division of Papim, or New Guinea, is
reckoned a part of the Malay Archipelago. The Philippine^ belong to Spain; Great
Britain possesses Singapore, Penang, Malacca, and Labuin. Native rajahs rule over
several of the islands, but the Dutch East Indies include the large<<t portion. The heat
is tempered by sea-breezes, and water is abundant. Sugar, coffee, indigo, rice, and tea
are largely produced in Java and Sumatra. Ben:ioin, giim-elafttic, resin, pepper, rattans,
cotton, drugs, ivory, dye-stuffs, edible nests, wax, tobSico, opium, and b6cne-de-mer are
also exported. Fme timber trees, including iron-wood, el)ony, etc., are abundant, and
the vegetation is most luxuriant. Birds of paradise, and a line species of parrot, are
found m Papua, the Arm, and Key islands.
MALAY PENINSULA, or Malacca. The name Malacca having by erroneous
usage come to be applied to the British settlement on the «.w. portion of me peninsnla
rather than to the peninsula entire as it should be, we will deseiibe it under the head by
which it is also known, as the Malay peninsula. It is the most southerly part of the
continent of Asia, extending from lat. 1^ to Id"" n., and betwe^ tong. 96'' and 104'' e. of
Greenwich. It is 775 m. in length n. and s., with an axfcevaee width of aboilt 100 m..
and an area of 75,000 so. miles. The gulf of Siam and the China sea< wash its eastern
shore, and the straits of Malacca and tbe Indian oeean it» Wettem. .
A range of gmnite monntaina extends northerly the wiuke 'length of tlie peninsula:
its highest summits beiM^ in the aoutherly j^arC, betwieen hit 6° rand 7?. n., which are
6,000 ft. above the sea. Innuniemble riven now e^ and wv from the ii)4Wft<^iy>f», forming
bars at their mouths that render them of little value for ntvrigation'or harbors. The oountrv
between the mountains and the sea has oonaidearable table-umd, of fair fertility, and well
timbered. But the timber is not of apeciea possessing gmtest oommereial value. Ebony,
sapan, eagle- wood, and the canes of commerce known as Malaoca, ace. the prindpu.
Dense jungles, the broken character of the sonfaee^ and occasional swampa, make the
country difficult to explora The Perak on the w., and Pateig» 4ire the laigest rivers.
There is a small lake between the latter and ^e EneUah -^ettlSvieBt of M^*^^"*^ The
products of the forests, besides those thnbers already named, are caoutchouc* gutta-
peicha, €ooo»-nuts« gums, spkea, and raainai Ite proe^^^ Oie aog an notw loteooo.
899
flogaor-caiie, coffee, cotton, Iwnaiias, twos, pine-apples, dniians, and die mangosteen-^the
two latter large fruits. Tin mines have been woiked in the mountains, but the mining
is not prosecuted with increasing production; ^old has been found in limited quantities.
The mean annual temperature near the sea is about 80*". There is no winter or rainy
season, but rains fidl frequ«itly throughout the year, so that the climate is uniformlj
hot and moist, and subject to frequent fogs and heavy dews. The annual rainfall i»
about 100 inches. Where the land is swept by sea breezes the climate is healthful. The
districts peculiariy subject to malarial disease of a virulent t^pe are local, and are apt ta
be contiguous ta fresh-water streams or marshes. The animals of the peninsula are
numefoua. There are eight species of the cat family, the lio'gest the ti^r and the leopaixl,
both of laiige size, numerous, and duigerous. The Indian elephant is here indigenous,
and two species of rhinoceros. The buffalo is a native, and is domestioated for riding
and for dmught. Besides the domestic ox there aro two species of wild ox peculiar to
the peninsula; a wild and a domestic goat ; three species of deer ; one small bear ; ten species
of monkey; and the ant-eater. The bats are the most peculiar of all the animals of the
peninsula; one of them, the kalung, or vampire, being larger than a crow, flies high in
CTeat flocks, and is destructive of fruit Sheep, hogs, and some varieties of foreign
fowls have been introduced and acclimated. Of birds there are some of great beauty.
The marak, or wild peacock, the double-spurred peacock, and several species of pheasant
are the most remariuible for their plumage. Partridg^, snipe, sun-birds, woodpeckers,
wild cock, pigeons of numerous species and great variety of size, a brilliant variety of
parrots, ana Stes and hawks abound. Of reptiles there are f ort^^ species of snakes, several
of them poisonous, particularly the cobra; and the alligator, iguana, and lizards: Fish
are aboncunt and among the finest flavored in the world. They constitute the main food
of the people by the seiSide. Shell-fish are rare, though shells not containing animals
valued for f ooa are large, beautiful, and numerous.
The population of the peninsula is estimated at 500,000, but this is little better than a
gaesB. It is pretty near the geographical center of population of the Malay race, who
occupy all its ahwes, though in the n. part, and especially away from the coast, the
Siamese are numerous, and some negroes are found in the interior. The northern part
of the peninsula is under the dominion of the king of Biam; the southern has mostly
fallen under the sway of the British, whose colony of Malacca (see MAiiAOOA) on the s. w.
coast, and Singapore near the s. point, are the local centers of its power. The Dutch
ceded the settlement of Malacca and Singapore to the English in 1804, in exchange for
concessions in Sumatra and elsewhere. The Malays have been too long renowned for
their daring as navigators, and their aggressive piracy, not to have won the considera-
tion of all nations which have come to gfeatness through the same manifestations of
barbarian vigor. Their cruelty and treachery are probably not greater than the cruelty
and treachery of European peoples in the centuries succeeding the dark ages; and
remembering that the vast ana intricate coasts of the islands and countries occupied by
the Malays invited all their enterprise to be expended in maritime excursions, and that
a forbidding wilderness of jungles and wild beasts repelled enterprise inland, it may not
be unfair to place them in the same category of bold rovers as the pirato Norsemen and
Danes of oar own English ancestry. As to the excessive treacfaeiy wbidi has always
been attributed to them it is hardly probable that so widespread an opinion is without
good basis of fact. Tet those who have of late years had good means of studying their
characteristics report fbat, under kind treatment and fair dealing, they are ** tninsformed
into an entirely different charaota:. displaying gratitude, affection, fidelity, and higher,
sentiments of honor than are found among any other class of natives in India." ^he
vigor and energy of the Malajs as seamen and pirates have for centuries made them the
terror of the more peaooful East Indians and Mongolians, as well as of the Europeans-
engaged in commerce with the east. A portion of the inhabitants of the coasts lived at
sea rather than upon the land. Their boats, from 20 to 80 ft. in length, were arranged
for cooking near the prow, their fishing and other conveniences in the middle, and the
sleeping-room in the stem. Thua, with fish for their principal food and the fruits of
the shores to be had for the seekinj^, roving became their daily life, and piracy the
natural enterprise of the waarlike«**«s it is of tiie warlike eveTywhet:e — by land or sea
The more civiHned of the natives aare Mohammedans; tiie others are pagans of many
shades. The farmer claim to be descended from Malays of Smnotra who migrated into
or invaded the peninsula in the Ilth or 12th c, and drove the former inhautants into
the mountaius. Mohammedanism took root here in the ISth c. , and Malacca was the
capital for rulers who hadremfaraoed Mohammedanism from the year 1276. In the 15th
c. the peninsQia was an appanase of the king of Siam. In 1511 the Portucuese, under
Albuquerque, overtlirew die MaSiayan sultan, and asserted PortugneBe dominion.
MALATft (properiy, Maiatub, a Malay word, the derivation of which has not yet
been satisfactoril;^ ascertained) is the name given, in a restricted sense, to the inhabitants
of the Malay peninsula, but in its wider acceptation, to a great branch of the human
family, dwelling not on\j in the peninsula mentioned, but in the idands, large and
small, of the Indian archipelago, m Madagascar, and in the numerous islands of the
Pteific. In the fivefold division of mankmd laid down by Blumenbach, the Malays
are treated of as a distinct naoe, while in the thxaefold division of Latham they are
regarded as a branch of the:MoDgolid8e. Pricliafd ha« aubdivided the variona itepn-
«entatives of the Malay family into three branches, via. (1), the Indo-Haiayan, compre-
hending the Malays proper of Malacca, and the inhabitaQts of Sumatra, Java, Celebes,
the Momccafi, and the Philippines, with whom, perhaps, may be associated the aatives
<^f the Caroline islands and the Ladrones; (3) the Polynesians; and (3) the MadecasMs, or
people of Madagascar. Accepting this subdivision, we shall, in the pcesent artickt, con-
fine ourselves to the Malays proper — the natives of Madagascar having been airndy
noticed under that heading; and reserving the Polynesians generally and the Maoris in
.particular for disthict articles.
In physical appearance, the Malays are a brown-complexioned race, rather darker
than the Chinese, but not so swarthy as the Hindus. They have long, black, shining,
but coarse hair; little or no beard; a large mouth; eyes large and dark; nose ^eneralfy
vshort and flat; lips rather thicker than those of Europeans; and cheek-bones high. In
stature the Indo-Malays are for the most part below the middle height, while ti^ Poly-
nesians generally exceed it. The Indo-Malays have also slight, well-formed limbs, and
^u-e particularly small about the wrists and ankles. "The profile," according to Dr.
Pickering, *' is usually more vertical than in the white race, but this may be owing in
part to the mode of carriage, for the skull does not show a superior facial angle." 8ucb
IS the general appearance of the Malays proper, or inhabitants of the peninsula and
Indian islands. But these also have their subdivisions. There are the civilized Malays,
who have a written language, and have made some progress in the arts of life; then
there are the sea-people, orang-laut^ literally, •• men of the sea," a kind of sea-gypsies or
robbers; and there are the <n*€mgbam,ua, or orang utan, *' wild men," or *' savages," dwell-
ing in the woods or forests, and supposed to be the aborigines of the peninsula and
islands. *' These three classes of Malays," says Crawfurd, ** existed nearly three centu-
ries and a half ago, when the Portugese first arrived in the waters of the archipelago,
lust as they do at the present day. That people describes them as having existed also
lor two centuries and a half before that event, as, without doubt, they dia in times far
•earlier." Still, while so widely differing in habits, all these speak essentially the same
language. The Malays are essentially islanders, and have much of the daring and enter-
prise for which nations familiar with the sea are famous. Their original seat is by
themselves stated to have been Menangkabo, in the island of Sumatra, rather Uian the
peninsula itself. Even the Malays of Borneo claim to have had a Menangkabo origin.
Palembang, however, also in Sumatra, has been mentioned as the original seat of Malar
civilization ; and others, again, point to Java as the source from which both Menangkabo
and Palembang received their first settlers. *'The Javanese," says Crawfurd, "would
seem to have l^n even the founders of Malacca. Monuments, which prove the presence
of this people in the country of the Malays, have even been discovered. Thus, sir Stam-
ford Raffles, when he visited Menangkabo, found there inscriptions on stone in the
Jtncient character of Java, such as are frequent in that island; and he was supported in
his conclusion that they were so by the learned natives of Java who accompanied him
in his journey. The settlement of the Javanese in several parts of Sumatra is indeed
sufficiently attested. In Palembang they have been immemorially the ruling people;
■and althou^ the Malay language be the popular one, the Javanese, in its peculiar writ-
ten character, is still that of the court." The Malay language is simple and easy in its
construction, harmonious in its prommciation, and easily acquired by Europeans. It is
the Hngua franca of the eastern archii)elago. Of its numeroua dialects, the Javanese is
the most refined, a superiority which it owes to the influence upon it of Sanskrit litera-
ture. Many Arabic words have also been incorporated with it, by means of which the
Javanese are able to supply the deficiency of scientific tenns in their own tongue. In
religion the civilized Malavs are Mohammedans, having embraced that faith in the IStfa
or 14th century. The tribes in the interior and the "men of the sea" have either no
religion at all, or such as can be regarded only in the light of most debased super-
stition. The moral character of the Indo-Malays generally does not stand high; they
;are passionate, treacherous, and revengeful. Alwough good sailors, and able to amass
wealth by legitimate commerce, they prefer piracy, and numerous have been the vic-
tims among European traders to Malay treachery and daring. Indeed, so little faith
liave Europeans in their professions or engagements, that they will never engage more
than two or three of them in a ship's crew, for fear of unpleasant, if not disastrous, con-
aequencea.
I MALAYS {ante) (Mai. k0o, Javan. orangmakufu, traveling men, emimnts), a branch of
the Mongoloid race which gives name to a large linguistic family, the Maliyo-Polynesian.
Stretching from Ea^r island to Madagascar, and from New Zealand to the Northern
Sandwich islands, it covers about 13,000 by 6,000 miles. From the island of Hainan as
« center, a curve may be described which will fall inside Borneo and cot across the
Malay peninsula. If another circle be roughly drawn from Saieon as a center, includ-
ing Formosa^ the Philippines, Celebes, cutting Sandalwood iuand, and taking in the
Sunda groups, including Java and Sunuitra, the haU-moon so formed shows the couotiy
of the true Malay race, and thence the allied dialects spread out like a fan toward
Hawaii and New Zealand. This eastern area is <:iut across by the Papuans, or Austra-
lians and.Melanesians, from New Zeiland to tite Ladconea, and. from New Clninea to
I --
401 H^^
\bt easleni Fijla. To Ihe west of the Malay archipelago, southern Ceylon, the Maladira,
tud the Seychelles show the probable line of settlement toward Madagascar. It seems
at present undetermined how much or how little Malay blood be present in the brown
isUoders, Polynesians. Wallace, probably best informed of all, considers the Papuans
tnd Polynesians as one in race. Peschel thinks the Australians Papuans of a debased
type, and the Sandwich islanders half-blood Malays. Certainly the men of the Ladrones
ire half-breeds, and there is a distinct miziure of races all along the curve of contact,
90 Uiat brown men, as in Papua, are mixed wiih true Papuans, and black Fijis speak
t Polynesian dialect. The whole subject can be rightly understood only by a study of
Uie very carious distribution of the fauna, and of the complicated ocean currents. Wal-
lace, in separating these races, tlius describes the Malaiy by contrast: *' The Malay is of
sbort stature, brown-skinned, straight haired, beardless, and smooth-bodied. The
hpuan is taller, black>skinned, frizzly-haired, bearded, and hairv-bodied. The former
is broad-faced, has a small nose and tlat eyebrows; the latter is long-fuced. has a large
and prominent nose, and projecting eyebrows. The Malay is bashful, cold, undemon-
strative, and quiet; the Papuan is bold, impetuous, excitable, and noisy. The former
is grave and seldom laughs; the latter is joyous and laughter-loving; the one conceals
the emotions, the other displays them. It would seem that the Malays are a nation of
eaugrants, who have penetrated as far south-east as New Guinea, yet there seem no traces
of aa indigenous population. The small and barbarous black race, said to occur at
various points within the Malay limit, may easily be explained as etiolated and roving
Papaans. like the Australians, while the Alfuros and other supposed differing tribes
tre probably only brown types of half-breeds. The black races of India differ both in
language and physiouc, notably in the hair. There are indications that the ori^nal
home of the Mongoloid races, which stretch from Styrla to east Qreenland and from
cape Horn to north Norway, may have been in some of the large islands of the Sunda
ETDop. The few Malay traditions locate a former seat of power at Menang Kaibo in
bamatra. How far Brahmanism penetrated, if at all, is doubtful, but Buddhism was
ioirodaced probably about the 5th c, and, about the end of the 18th, Islam. Nearly at
that time they settled in the Malay peninsula, and started a stronc government in Malac-
ca, which was finally broken up oy the Portuguese iu the loth century. To some
12.000,000 the relative religious proportions are now about as: Evangelical Christians,
7; Roman Catholics, 88; Mohammedans, 800; Buddhists, 60; Pagans, 45. Their lan-
gu.ige is the lingua franca of east Asia, and they penetrate everywhere as traders and
piniea. Travelers differ as to their character, some representing them as gentlo and
polite, others as treacherous and quarrelsome; both views may not bo far from the
^tb, the ruling races in the settlements being lazy and enervated, while many of the
vild tribes are so uncivilized as to have been token for different race& The Battaks are,
stillpartly cannibals,
tile linguistic relations are thus tabulated:
UONQOLOID BAGBL
Malat-Folvxblui Fault.
?0LTinGSIA19S»
* kDhrMoBt
KSJtlVSSlANSk
a. North, BjawatL
5. North-east^ Harquessa
c. East, TahitL
d. Middle, Rarotooga.
«• ^«*» IToi^
/. South-west^ Maori
valat-javanesb;
Wcsteniy
1. Taoala, Islands,
9l Mulatu-Jawi,
Archipelago,
Fiji and some doown nelc^borlng dtalecta
a. North-east, LadnmeSi
b. North, Fonaosa.
c. South, Philippines
d. West, MalagasBL
a. North, Blalay.
6. South-west) Jayanese,
c. South, Sunda.
d. Many patois of the islands and of
samge tribes, oraag laoot» oraag
bajav, etc.
The Malay tongue Qidhasajawi^ mmr^awikau, to talk Malay) is probably a dialect of
north Sumatra, of which Jawa is the old name. The old literary alphabet is the Kawi,
prolably formed from Pali, through either a Birmani or Siamese medium, about the 6th
c, is neither crumpled like the one nor rounded like the other, but is easily recognized
by ils square and nearly identical letters. They are h, n, ch, r, k, d, t, s, w, 1, p, d
Wk, dh, y, ny, m, g, b, t thick, n^, rl. Ir. Vowel sounds: a, oe as in &u/, i, u as in boot,
easio cane, o, au as in now, Origmally there were less than a dozen, with few or no
uptntes or fricatives, but with the nasals. It is now written in a peculiar Arabic
Neakbi. with 29 consonants and 8 vowel sounds. Other alphat)ets of the family are in
po|i, Manhkfisar, Celebes, a new one self-evolved by the Battaks, and one in the Phil-
ippines which resembles most a true Indian. Malay literature is ricli, but little original
There is a romantic and mythological poem, founded as usual on the Mahabharata; >
Plaji and recitations like the Siamese; love songs and popular son^s, simple and most "^
U. K. IX.— 26
interesting of all; and tales from the Arabic and Sanskrit, including aiiiinal4Bytlui, io
whicli the jackal (Sans, siigala) plays the chief rdle. The Malay is not an isolated luh
guage, yet it lias not now the usual flexibility of an agglutinating one, nor most the
rsader ever expect in such a tongue the idea of either time or regimen; the verbs appear
under aspects, as in Russian, and the nouns in relation, as in Hebrew. Roots, sup-
posedly one syllabled, are enlarged by affixes, strong consonants being precessed and the
three nasals inserted or substituted whenever possible. Vowel change plays a great
rdle, evol ving, with pi-ecession, sometimes a dozen words. Interior contraction is the rala
Doubling is carried to its limit; either of the whole word with or without modification;
with initial change; with a play upon similar syllables like Basque, or with insertion of
a preposition. Pi'epositions are partly prefixed, partly suffixed, and it is not always
easy to say whether they influence most, or exactly in what way, a noun or a verb, as
in so-called Semitic participles. Much the same may be said of pronouns. On the
whole, the language is easy, soft-sounding, with a nasal clang, and a great capacity for
crude metaphor in plays upon words and expressions of complicated relations. Author*
ilies: W. v. Humboldt, Ueber d. Kawi-gpr. (1840, 3 vols.); Fr. Mueller, Ueb. d, Uttp. d.
Bchnfl d. mat, VoeUcer, Bui. W, Akad (1865); Waitz, AiUhropol, d. NcOurrxfeUur (1869. 6
vols.); TliA Races cf Man, Oscar Peschal (1876, 1 vol.); Tl^e Malay AreMpel,, A. R. Wal-
lace (1869, 2 vols.); The Oeog. DUtrib. of Animals, A R. WaUace(187«. 2 vols.); The
Bdsnce of Langvuge, A. Horclacque (1877, 1 vol.).
MALBONE', Edward G. ; 1777-1807; b. Newport, R I. ; at the age of 17 resided in
Providence as a portrait-painter; removed in 1796 to Boston and pursued his profession
with success; accompamed Washington AUston to Charleston in 1800, and sailed for
Europe in 1801 ; met in London, Benjamin West, president of the. royal society, who
urged him to make that city his permanent residence; but he returned to Charleston.
For several years he traveled extensively in the United States, and painted minintures
in the chief cities; visited the West Indies in 1806 for his health. His best picture is
"The Hours;" the present, past, and future, being represented by three female figures.
MALCOLM, Ihc name of four kings of Scotland. Malcolm MacDonald succeeded to
the throne on the abdication of Constantine MacAodh in 944 a.d. The most important
event of his reign was the cession of Cumbria, in 946, by the English monarch Edmund
I. Malcolm was slain while engaged in quelling a revolt in the north of Scotland, in
958 A.D.
Malcolm MncEenncth, grandson of the preceding, ascended the throne in 1008. His
life was passed chiefly in repellinfl^ the incursions of the Danes. He died in 1088. A
collection of laws, the Leges McMsdmi MaeKenneth, has been attributed to him, but is
obviously a work of a later age.
Malcolm MacDuncan, surnamed Cak-morb (Celtic, Cean-mare, " Great Head "), was
bom about the year 1024. and ascended the throne on the death of Macbeth IftEbcFinlegfa,
in Dec., 1056, or of Lulach MacGilcomgain, in April, 1067. For the first nine yeare
of his reign, Malcolm was at libertv to devote his energies to the consolidation of his
kingdom, England being then ruled by the peaceful Edward the confessor. After
William of Normandv had settled himself on the English throne, many noble Saxons
sought refuge at the Bcottish court, and among them Edear Atheling, nearest of kin to
the confessor, with his mother Agatha, and his sisters Margaret and Christina. Mar-
garet, who was younff, beautiful, and pious, captivated the heart of the Scottish king,
and a marriage quickly followed. Hnr biographer, Turgot (also her chaplain and con-
fessor), tells us how earnestly and affectionately she labored to civilize the people and to
" enlighten" her husband. Malcolm, although a man of vigorous intellect, could not
read her missals and books of devotion, but he used to kiss them in token of reverence,
and he oaused them to be richly bound, and ornamented with gold and Jewels. The
retinue of the king began to show something of a royal magnificence, and his plate was.
according to Turgot, *'at least gilt or silvered over." But Malcolm's new relatione,
unfortunatelv, embroiled him with the Normans. In 1070 he crossed the border, harriea
Northumberland and Yorkshire, but was soon obliged to retreat. Willuim the conqeror
retaliated in 1072, and wasted Scotland as far as the Tay. At Abernetby, Malcolm was
compelled to acknowledge him as his liege lord but (as the Scottish historians hold) only
for such parts of his dominions as had belonged to England— viz., Cumbria and .the
Lothians. War broke out again between England and Scotland on the accessioD of
William Kufus, probably at the instigation of the fugitive Anglo-Saxons and the dis-
contented Normans, who had been pourinc into the countnr during the iron reign of
William, and had obtained large grants or land from the Sottish monarch. NothJog
of note, however, happened, and peace was again concluded; but the seizure of Carlisle
by the English king not long after provoked a fresh rupture, and, in 1098, Malcolm
again crossed the border, analaid siege to Alnwick; but while so engaged, be was sud-
denly attacked, defeated, and slain, Nov. 13, 1098. His wife died immediately on hear
ing the fatiU news.
Malcolm, surnamed "The Maiden," grandson of David I., succeeded that monarch.
May 24, 1168, when only in his 12th year. He had no sooner mounted the throne than a
Celtic insurrection, headed by Somerled, lord of the Isles, broke out Some year?
after, another insurrection broke out among "the wild Scots of Galloway," under their
403 2isS2;r«.
chief FarSUfl* to crush which Malcolm had to employ a large force. In 1161 he had to
chastise a revolt of the men of Moray, and to put down a second rebellion of Somerled.
He did at Jedburgh, of a lingering disease, Dec. 9, 1166, at the early age of S4.
XAI€0£M, Sir John, g.c.b., a British statesman and historian, was b. at Bumfoot,
piiBli of Westerkirk, Dumfriesshire, May 2, 1769, and at the age of 14 went to India as '
letdetin the Madras iirmy. About 1790 he commenced to devote his leisure hours to
ihestudr of the oriental languages^ especially Persian. He distinguished himself at the
siege of Seringnpatam in 1792, and was appointed to the staff as Persian interpreter.
InlSOObe WHS sent as ambassador to Persia, to form an alliance with that country against
fiooaparte, in which he succeeded. In 18()2, 1807, and 1809 he was again sent as minis-
terpienipotentiary to the Persian court; and shortly before his final return, received
from the shah the order of the " Sun and Lion," and the titles of " Kahn" and '* Sepahdar
d tiie Empire.*' In 1803 he had been appointed president of Mysore; and during the
tro following years his administrative talents had been of most important service to
the government in reducing to order and tranquillity the newly conquered Mahratta
states. In 1812 he returned to England, received the honor of knighthood, and. after a
lapse of five years, returned to India as the governor-general's political agent in the
Diccan, and with the rank of brig gen. in the Indian army; in the latter capacity he
greatly distinguished himself in the wars against the Pindaiiis and Holkar. In 1827 he
was appointed governor of Bombay, but finally left India in 1880. He died of paralysis
stWiudsor, May, 1888. Malcolm's writings are highly esteemed as authorities; they
ire: A Uuiarv qf Ftrna (London. 1815, 2 vols, 4to; 2d ed. 1828); Memoir of Central
Ms (2 vols. London, 1828); Political History of India from 1784 to 1828 (2 vols. 8vo.
1336); and Lffe of Lord Clite (London, 1886), a posthumous work. The life and cor-
respoodence of Malcolm were published by John W. Eaye, in 2 vols. 8vo (London.
1856). -^ . '
llALCOM, HowABD, D.D. LL.D., 1790-1879; b. Philadelphia; graduated atDicken.
£0D college in 1817; studied theology at Princeton seminary; was ordained, and settled
IS pastor of a Baptist church at Hudson, N. Y. In 1625-^ he traveled extensively in
bdialf of the American Sunday-school Union in whose organization betook a prominent
lart; io 1827 he was pastor of the Federal Street Baptist church, Boston ; in 1885 he was
nt to visit the Baptist missions in India, Burmah. Siam, China, and Africa; in 1889-49
VIS president of the college at (Georgetown, Ey., and of the university of Lewisburg,
PeoD., in 1851-59, acting also as pro^ssor of mathematics and moral philosophy in both
izstitutions. On account of throat disease he left the university ana retired to Phila-
fieiphia. In 1841 he received the degree of d.d. from the university of Vermont and
Udiod college, N. T., at the same time, and of ll.d. from the Lewisburg institution
after his resignation. He was one of the founders of the American tract society, and a
Ticepresident from the beginning. He published a Dictionary of the Bible, which was
often republished in tliis counti^ and in England; Trateh in Southreaetem Asia; Index
^ BdigwuM lAterature; Nature and Bxtent of the Atonement; The Christian Rule of Mar-
rkge; Msmovr 4^ Mrs. Maleom; edited also The Imitation <f Christ; Robert Hairs Help
i» Son's Travelers; Law*s Serums Call; Butler's Analogy ojEeHgion, with introduction,
sotes, etc He has published* also several addresses, and contributed many papers to
periodicals.
MALCZEW'SKI, Aktoni, 1792-1826; b. Poland; educatedby a French private tutor
it his home in Dubno, and subsequently a student at Krzemieniec, where he showed a
decided aptitude for mathematics. In 1811 he entered the Polish army in the hope of
pining a position which would enable him to marry a cousin with whom he had fallen
m love— tne family estate, impoverished by his fattier, a gen. in the Polish and af ter-
nrds in the Russian army, being insufficient to justify him in marrying. She married,
Iwwever, a richer man, in 1812, and Malczewski's character seems to have derived from
tiiL< disappointment a misanthropy, which is manifest in all his poetry. When Russia
t^k ponession of Poland he received an appointment on the suite of Alexander II.,
but in 1816, in consequence of a duel, left the anny and spent the next five vears in
tnrel in Switzerland, Italy, and France. In 1821 he settled on a farm in the Ukrains.
^ during his residence there devoted himself to the study of his native language, which
be had long neglected for the French. He had spent what property he had during his
^vels, his farming experiment proved a failure, and he was dependent on the charity
of bis landlord for the lodgings in Warsaw where he died. His poem Maria, in two
cantos, was published at Warsaw shortly before his death. It had been written at his
'snn in the Ukraine. Received with entire neglect at first, then attacked on the score
of its deficiencies in language and versification, it finally took a place in popular favor
«cond only to some of the works of Midciewicz.
XAL'BAH, a t. of British India, in Bengal, the chief t. of a district of the same name,
» situuted on the left bank of the Mahununda, about 190 m. n. of Calcutta. In the
mj season it is nearly insulated. It is a wretched place, consisting of ruined houses,
forming narrow, irregular streets. Pop. '71, 6,262.
HAL'SBeSK, a small manufacturing t. of Belgium, East Flanders, 17 m. n.w. of
6i«Bi. Population upwards of 6,000, who are employed in the manufacture of tobacco,
ttd b brewing and cotton-printing. ' Digitized by VjUUV iC
MAldeii. A(\A
KaUdoas. *^*
MALDEN, a t. of Middlesex co., Mass.. 4 m. n. of Boston, on the Boston andHaiiia
railroad; pop. 7,367; the Maiden river furnishes water-power for several factories
Tliere are 2 weekly newspapers, 2 banks, aud botels, scliools, etc. It is one of the
suburbs of Boston, and has attracted from that city a fine class of busiQeflB mea, who
find it a pleasant home.
XAL'DIYE I8LAHB8, a chain of low coral islands in the Indian ocean, about 400 m.
W.8.W. of Ceylon. They extend 500 m. in length by 45 m. in average breadth, and con-
sist of 17 groups or atolls, each atoll surrounded bv a corul reef. The entire number,
including the islets, is estimated at about 50,000. Mali, the largest of the chain, aud the
residence of the native prince, who is called "the sultan of the twelve thousand ibles,'*
is 7 m. in circumference, and contains a population of 2,000. The population of the
whole chain is estimated at 150,000. Each island is circular in form, with a lagoon in
its center, and has an elevation above the sea in no case of more than 20 ft. at high-water
mark. The larger and inhabited islands are clad with palm, fig, citron, and bread-fruit
trees. Grain is also abundantly produced. Wildfowl breed in prodigious numbers;
fish, rice (imported from Hindustan), and cocoa-nuts constitute the f<K>d of the inhab-
itants, who are strict Mohammedans. The "sultan" sends an annual tribute to the
governor of Ceylon.
XAIBOK, a market t., river port, and municipal and parliamentary borough of Eng-
land in the county of Essex, a mile below the confluence of the Chelmer and the Black-
water, and 9 m. e. of Chelmsford. Besides the manufacture of crystallized salt, brick-
making, brewing, and iron -founding, the usual branches of industry connected with %
port are carried on. In 1872. 1139 vessels (67,161 tons) entered, and 805 (36,144 tons)
cleared the port. Since 1867 Maldon returns only one member of parliament. Pop. 71,
5,586.
MALEB&AHCHE, Nicolas, a French philosopher, b. Aug. 6, 1638, at Paris, where
his father was president of the chamber of accounts. Ho was deformed and sickly, and
from his childhood fond of solitude. At the age of 22 he entered into the congregation
of the oratory, and devoted himself to the study of Bible histonr and of the fathers of
the church till Descartes's treatise, De Hormne, falling into his hands, attracted him to
philosophy. His famous work, I)e la Recherche de la Venie (3 vols. Paris, 1674, and
other editions), displaying great depth and original itjr of thought, combined with per-
spicuity and elegance, had for its object the psychological investigation of the causes of
tlie errors to which the human mind is liable, and of the nature of truth and the wav of
reaching it. He maintains that we see all things in Qod (his famous VUion en Dieu)\
that all beings and thoughts exist in God (Dieu est le lieu dee esprite, eomme Veepaee est U
lieu dee carps); and that God is the first cause of all changes which take place in bodies
and souls, which are therefore merely passive therein. • His system is a kind of mystic
idealism. It was immediately opposed by Ant. Arnauld, Bossuet, and many others, and
was subjected to a thorough and critical examination by Locke and Licbnitz. Besides
the work above mentioned, Malebranche wrote a lYatte de Morale, a TYtutS de la (km-
munieatiem. de Mouvement, and Conversations Metaphysiques Chretiennes, in the last of
which he endeavored to exhibit the harmony of his philosophic views with Christianitv.
He died at Paris (as English critics are fond of saying) of a dispute with the subtle
Berkeley, Oct. 13, 1715.
KALE FEBH. See Febn, Malb.
MALE8HEEBE8, Chb^tien Gnn.LATJMB db Lamoigkon de, a distinguished French
statesman, was b, at Paris, Dec. 6, 1721, and educated at the Jesuits' college; he became
counselor to the parliament of Paris in 1744, and succeeded his father as president of the
court of Aids in 1750, where his clear judgment, strict integrity, and humane disposition
enabled him to be of great service to his country. A quiet but determined opponent of
government rapacity and tyranny, he watched the ministry with a Jealous eye, and was
mdefatigable in his efforts to prevent the people from being plundered. About the same
time (1750) he was appointed censor of the press. This was a most unsuitable ofilce for
him, but he appears to have accepted it lest it should fall into the hands of some mere
bigot or court hireling; and so tolerant was he that French authors pronounce the period
of his censorship " the golden age of letters." To Malesherbes we owe, among other
things, the publication of the famous Encyclopedie. In 1771 his bold remonstrances
against the abuses of law which Louis XV. was perpetrating, led to his banishment to
one of his estates. At the accession of Louis XYI. (1774), who esteemed Maleeherbes, he
was recalled, and entered Paris in triumph. In 1776 he resigned, on the dismissal of
Turgot, all ofiScial employment, and, from this period on to the revolution, spent his
time in travel or in the improvement of his estates. The first storms of that wild period
passed by and left him imscathed; but when he heard that the unfortunate king, who
had always neglected to profit by his advice, was about to be tried by the conven-
tion, he magnanimously left his retreat and offered to defend his old master. The con-
vention granted permission, but from that day Malesherbes was himself a doomed man.
He was arrested in the beginning of December, 1798, and guillotined April 28. 1794,
along with his daughter and her husband, M. de Chateaubriand, brother of the fimout
author of that name. Malesherbes was a member of the French academy, an able writer
A(\r\ BfAlden.
*^^ MaUeions.
on political, toil, and financial questions, and one of the most yirtnous and high-minded
1 of the 18th century.
MALET, Claudb Fbanqois db. Bee Mai«lbt, ante,
MALHERBE, Franqois db, 1555-1628; h. Caen, Fiance; son of an untitled magis-
tnte. His education was be^un at Caen, continued in Paris, and completed by travel
Qoder the tuition of a Calvinist, Richard Dinoth, who accompanied him to Heidelberg
find Basle. But religious instruction irritated him. He broke with his father, who was
a Calvinist, and found favor with Henry, due d'Angoulfime, to whom he became private
Kcretary at Aix. He was already noted for his critical taste in poetry, though not for
his own productions, and acquired a fame for the piquant ill-nature of his wit. Natu-
rally it brought him ill fortune, and for many years after the death of his patron he suf-
fered for means to live. His poem Larmes de JSt. Pierre, published in Paris in 1587, was
his first noted work. Near 1000 the attention of Henry IV. was attracted to the poet,
who soon after was called to the court, and from that time ranked as the first poet of
France. Avarice, wit, in epigpram and verse, and terse forms of expression, were his
characteristics.
IfATiTBRAN, Mabia Fet.icita., one of the most celebrated mezzo-soprano singers of
recent times, b. at Paris, Mar. 24, 1808, was the daughter of Manuel Garcia, a Spanish
anger and teacher of singing. When she was still very young her reputation extended
o?er Europe. Her father attempted to establish the Italian opera in New York, but
vithooC success; and, on account of his circumstances, she married M. Malibran, a
Frenchman, who was supposed to be one of the richest merchants of that city, but who
toon became bankrupt, on which she went again upon the stage, and was received with
great enthu^asm in France, England, Germany, and Italy. 8be expended, with remark-
tble benevolence, the great sums which she won. Her first marriage having been dis-
solved, she married M. Beriot, a famous violinist, in 1886; but in September of that year
she died at Manchester, whither she had gone to take part in a musical festival. Mali-
bran was a woman of noble heart and high intellect, and her conversation possessed an
exquisite fascination. She has left a number of musical compositions, some of whidi
are deservedly popular. A memoir of her was published in England shortly after her
death, by the Countess of Merlin.
MALIC ACn> (CsH40e.2HO), so called from malum, the Latin word for an apple,
occurs abundantly in most acidulous fruits, particularly in unripe apples, goosebcrnes,
and currants, in which it is found as an acid or super-salt of potash or lime, which gradu-
d]^ changes into a neutral salt as the fruit ripens. It crystallizes in groups of radiating
aocular prisms, but, as the crystals are very deliquescent, it is usually obtained as a
fyrapy, semi-transparent mass, with a very sour smell, and readily soluble in water and
Tlie chemical changes which this acid undergoes under the influence of various re-
agents are very singular, and serve to illustrate many points in vegetable physiology in
rdferenoe to the maturation of fruits, etc. Thus, nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid;
hydrated potash, into oxalic and acetic acids; ferments, into succinic, butyric, acetic,
tad carbonic acids and water. When heated to about 850** it loses the elements of water
and beoDmea converted into the two isomeric acids, malseic acid and fumaric acid (q.v.).
Malic acid forms two series of salts with bases, namely, neutral and acid salts. The
most characteristic of these salts are the neutral malates of lead and of lime.
MALICE. While malice, in its ordinary sense, means an evil disposition or state
(tf mind of one person towards another, in law it denotes the intent or purpose which
precedes and causes an unjustifiable, illegal act. Malice, in law, is not couflncd to a
particular intent of an act to the injury of a particular person, but to a eencral intent
of injury preceding the unlawful act; thus, if one shoot A., intending to slioot B., he is
nevertheless guilty of murder with malice prepense. Malice, in law, is divided, for con-
venience of proof, into express and implied. Express malice is where the defendant's
intent to commit the crime is directly proved; implied malice is where the intent to
commit the crime is presumed by the law from the facts, and where a defendant is shown
to have intended an act, he is presumed to have intended all the consequences of that
act. In Uie law of torts, malice means the unjustifiable commission of an act injurious
to another.
MALJCIOUS PROSECUTION, a prosecution, either criminal or civil, by regular
proceaa of law, unwarranted by the proved facts» and instituted without probable cause.
As the person against whom such prosecution has been brought has been arrested or
imprisoiied if it were by criminal suit, and has been put to expense if it were by civil
aait. lie baa a right to sue, and, if he can establish the groundlessness of the prosecution,
ti> recover from the person who instituted iu The person who brings an action for
naliciotiB prosecution must show that the former action was groundless and is at an end;
tfatt it was conducted in regular course of law before a court of competent jurisdiction;
•nd thai it was malicious and without probable cause. Probable cause exists when
there were such circumstances as would proF|erly justify a man of sound discretion and
leafloo in believing that the defendant committei the act for which the prosecution was
begon. In the absence of probable cause, malice will be inferred; hut if it be con-
^* *^ Digitized by VjUU^IC
HallSw. 'ivO
ciusively shown that the prosecutor acted in eood faith, evidence of actual malice most
be ffiven. But, on the otner hand, if probabfo cause be shown, proof of actual malice
will not maintain an action. The guilt or innocence of the person prosecuted doet not
affect the question of probable cause, which depends upon the evidence of the exiBteuce,
in the prosecutor's mind, of a belief, founded upon reasonable grounds, of the guilt of
the accused person. What constitutes probable cause is a mixed question of law and
fact; that is, if there be no dispute as to the facts, the court decides whether tliose fact^
constitute probable cause; but if the facts are disputed, the jury are to find the facts,
under instruction from the court as to what facts are sufficient to make out probable
cause.
MALIGNANT DISEASES, a name applied to those affections of the animal system
characterized by a disposition to the formation of products which have the power of
propagation at the expense of the normal tissues, or which so poison the blood that it
Boon becomes unfit to maintain life. Some of these diseases are tumors (q.v.), and
come within the province of the surgeon, while others are the subjects of the physician.
The principal malignant tumors are cancer (q.v.), and sarcoma (q.v.). Tiie term maii|^-
nant applied to diseases not surgical is sometimes rather indefinite, although in some
cases the application is entirely appropriate. Scarlet fever, when of a very severe form,
with sloughing of the affected tissues of the throat, and with blood-poisoning to thi^
extent of producing death in 48 hours, is truly called malignant; but when less severe,
although very dangerous, it is often called semi-malignant, and most cases arc character
ized by more or less tendency to malignancy. So in diphtheria, the severe cases, and
which are more properly called putrid fever, or malignant sore throat, are essentially
malignant. Asiatic cholera (q.v) is a malignant disease, and one of its names is malig
nant cholera. Malignant pustule (q.v) is also a malignant affection, but according to
John Hunter's definition it would, perhaps, come under the head of tumor. One
form of intermittent fever (q.v.) is truly malignant, as in some cases it is incurable,
poisoning the blood and affecting the nervous system in a really malignant manner.
There are forms of small-pox which are called mali^ant, but the term in this disease is
of rather indefinite application, the disease not being essentially malignant, and only
taking on that character because of the exeesave amount of morbid matter, whereas the
poison of diphtheria and of malignant or pernicious intermittent fever appears to pos-
sess intrinsic malignancy independent of quantity.
MALIG'KAHT P178T17LE is a contagious and very fatal disease, common in France,
where it bears the name of charbon, but of comparatively rare occurrence in England.
It begins as a small, dark-red, painful spot, on which there soon appears a pustule or
vesicle, seated on a hard, inflamed base. When this is opened, a black sloush becomes
apparent. This sloughing spreads rapidly, involving the cellular tissue, and sometimes
even the adjacent muscles.
The disease appears to be caused by infection from homed cattle, which are some-
times affected by a similar disease, but it also arises by inoculation of diseased fluids.
It is believed that flies which have alighted on the ulcers of diseased animals may occa
sionally convey the infection. The constitutional symptoms are much tlic same as those
of putnd typhus fever; while the treatment consists in destroying the diseased surface
b^ powerful caustics, in keeping up the strenj^h bv wine, brandy, beef-tea, bark with
nitric acid, etc. ; and in giving opiates in suflScient doses to relieve the pain during the
day and to procure sleep at night.
MALIGKAHT TJSUOBA. See Oancek and Tumor.
XAIIHES'. or Mechlin, one of the chief cities of the Belgian province of Antwerp,
15 m. s.s.e. of the city of that name, on the navigable river Dyle. The pop. was, in
1876, 39,0S9. It has fine squares, noble buildings, and wide, regular streets, but is
devoid of all signs of life and industry, having lost its former greatness, and fallen far
behind all other Belgian cities in commercial enterprise and industrial activity. As the
see of the cardinal-primate of Belgium, it still retains a certain degree of ecclesiastical
importance, and possesses numerous churches, the most noteworthy of which is the
cathedral of St. Komuald, a vast building, covering nearly two acres of cronnd, and
adorned in the interior with many fine pictures and choice carvings. It was built
between the 12th and 15th c, but one tower, 345 ft. in height, remains unfinished. The
other objects most worthy of notice are the churches of St. John and of Our Lady, which
contain works by Rubens; the town-hall, dating from the 15th c, and known as the
Beyard; the market hall, an ancient building, with towere, ei:ected in 1340, and now used
as a guard-house; the splendid modern archiepiscopal palace; and the monument to
Margaret of Austria, erected in 1849. Malines has two clerical seminaries, an academy
of painting, a gymnasium, and a botanical garden. It still retains some of the impor-
tant lace manufactories, for which it has been long noted, and manufactures caps and
woolen goods, besides having considerable breweries. Malines constitutes an important
central point of Junction for the entire Belgian system of railways.
XALIKO'EBIKO, a term derived from a similar French word, signifies the feigning of
disease, in order to avoid duty. This offense is punished very severely in the British
ormy. For further particulars, see Feigning of Disease.
Digitized by VjOUVLC
407 s:^!"*-
HALL, or Pall-Mall (pr. Pell-Mell), a name given to places in London and other
EngUsli towns where there were once alleys for playing tennis. See Ball.
MALLARD. See Duck, ante.
XALLXABIL'ITY is the property which certain metals possess of being reducible to
thin leaves, either by hammering (hence the corresponding German word, hdmmerbar'
keU} or by lamination between rollers. The order in which the malleable metals exhibit
this property is as follows: gold, silver, copper, platinum, palladium, iron, aluminium,
tin, zinc, lead, cadmium, nickel, cobalt. Gold far surpasses all the other metals in mal-
leability, being capable of reduction into films not exceeding the 200,000th of an inch in
thickness; and silver and copper may be reduced to leaves of great tenuity. Although
gold fuid silver also present the property of ductility (q.v.) in the highest degree, there is
noconslant relation between the two properties; for example, iron, although it may be
reduced to extremely thin wire, is not nearly so malleable as gold, silver, or copper.
XALLSA'COLS, a family of lamellibranchiate moUusks, regarded by many as a sub-
family of amctiUda (see Pearl Otster), and of which the typical genus rruUleus is
remarkable — in an adult state — for the elongation of the ears of thd shelT, the other part
of which at the same time assumes a curiously elongated, wavy, or crumpled form. The
sben thus acquires the name of Hammbr Shell. The species are natives of the East
and West Indies and of the South seas.
KALLST, Claude FRAKqoiSDB, b. June 28, 17H at Ddle in FraDche-Comt6, became
an eager supporter of the revolution, rose to the rank of a brig.gen. in 1799, was intrusted
with we government of Pavia in 1805, but was removed from his office because of his
extreme republicanism. He returned to Paris, and was engaged in a number of republi-
can plots. Being, in June, 1812, thrown into confinement along with some royalists, he
formed with them a scheme for overthrowing the empire during Napoleon's campaign
m Russia. He made his escape from prison on the night of Oct. 23-24, along with tue
abb^ Lafon, and entering the barracks, informed the soldiers that the tyrant had
perished in Russia. He proceeded to liberate generals Guidal and Lahorle from prison •
and having previously gained the support of a battalion of the Parisian guards, he called
them to arms, and went to the residence of HuUin, the commandant of the city, whilst
Lafon went with a platoon to the prefecture. He told Hullin of the death of the
emperor, and the establishment of a provisional government, and on his manifesting
doubt, drew a pistol and fired it in his race, woundmg but not killing him; whereupon
the adjutant, Laborde, rushing in, Hullin and he together overpowered Mallet, and took
him priBoner. When interrogated, he declared that he would have made all France and
all Bmx>pe his debtors if his enterprise had been successful, and maintained the same reso-
lute ooouMBs to the last. He was shot, along with his principal fellow-conspirators, Oct.
MALLET, Pattl Henri, 1780-1807; b. Switzerland. In 1752 be became professor of
Trench literature in the university of Copenhagen, and gave his attention to the origin,
antiquities, and mythology of the ancient peoples of the north, publishing the results of
his study in the Introduetian d rHuioire du Danemark, published in Copenhagen,
1755-56. Returning to Geneva in 1760 to fill the chair of history in the academy, ho
became a member of the council of two hundred in 1764; visited Italy and England in
1766-417, and was charged by the queen of England to write the history of the house of
Brunswick; in 1793 was oblised to leave Switzerland on account of his aristocratic
affiliations; returned in 1801. His works, in addition to that noted above, are: Meniaire
mr la Literature du Nord, 1759-60; Monuments de la MytJwlogie etdela Poesie dee CeUe;
De la Fbrme du Ooiivemement Suedais; and several works on Swiss history, books of
travel, and a Swiss dictionary.
XAXLOW, Mdlva, a genus of plants of the natural order malvacea, having a S-fid
calyx, with an outer calyx of three leaves; stamens cohering in a tube; numerotis styles
eohering at the base; and numerous one-seeded carpels fixed in a whorl around an axis,
and forming a separable orbicular fruit. The species are herbaceous plants, or more
rarely shrubs. — The Common Mallow (Jf. sylvesirie) is plentiful over most of Europe,
and m Britain on waysides and heaps of rubbish. It is a perennial, with rather large
bluish-red flowers on erect stalks. The Dwarf Mallow (if. rotundifolia), also a com-
mon native of Britain, has smaller whitish or reddish-white flowers. These two plants
have a mucilaginous and somewhat bitter taste, and the leaves arc used as an emollient
and demulcent medicine; a decoction of them being employed in cases of irritation of
the pulmonary and of the urinary organs; and poultices made of them arc very fre-
(juezitly employed to allay external in&mmation. Other species have similar proper-
ties.—The Musk Mallow {M, moeehata), not unfrequent in England, but rare in
Scotland, has a faint musk-like smell. — The fiber of Jf. criepa is used in Syria for
textile purposes, and the fibers of many species are probably fit for similar use, and for
the manufacture ef paper. The voung leaves of some are occasionally used as boiled
vc^tables. — A species of mallow [laxcUera arborea) grows on the Bass Rock, and adjacent
mainland of Haddingtonshire.
MALLOW, a market t. and parliamentary borough of Ireland, in the county of
Cork, is beautifully situated on the left bank of the Blackwater, 19 m. n.n.w. of the
Digitized by VjOUV IC
county town. On the opposite side of the river, which is here crossed by a M^gD of
three arches, is the suburb of Ballydahin. The town is resorted to in summer on
account of its mineral waters, and contains a neat spa-house. Tanning, brewing, and
the manufacture of salt are carried on. Near Mallow are large flour-mills. Popi 71,
4,185. Mallow returns one member to the house of commons.
MALMAISON, La, a village 7 m. w, of Paris, with many historical souvenirs. The
name is derived from the fact that it was a favorite resort of robbers in the 9th c, whose
depredations in the neighborhood gave their place of sortie the name mala mauieo. In
the 13th c. it was but a part of a farm; in the 14th it was attached to the property of the
abbaye 8t. Denis. Occupied successively by families of little note during succeedmgcen-
turies, it happened to l>e purchased in 1798 by the widow Josephine Beauharnais, who paid
about $82,000 for the property. The charms of her society there attracted not only the gen-
eral Bonaparte, but much of the most elegant society of Ficnce in 170&-99. The place was
tastefully improved, and became the meeting place for poets, authors, politicians, and the
military celebrities of the day. Some of the most beautiful and fascinating women of
France aided Josephine to make it one of the centers of a society which sous^ht to repro-
duce the courtly manners of old France, with the advent of the new miUtary era of
Napoleon, who here wooed the future empress. It was laigely through her fine tact in
makine powerful friends at Malmaison that Napoleon was enabled to make the coup tTeUU
in 1799 which made him first consul. After her man-iage Josephine continued to embel-
lish the park with wardens, summer-houses, grottoes, waterfalls, lawns and parterres and
farm and shephera cottages; and the chateau was greatly improved in many ways and
made interesting by a librarv and the choicest works of art and materials for pleasure,
until it finally became a little palace. After Josephine became empress Malmaison was
little occupied, until the divorce in 1800, when she retired to it, and kept up a little court
Alexander of Russia visited her there just before her death in May, 1814. After Napo-
leon's return from Elba he went to visit the scene of his first love, and two months
later, after the defeat of Waterloo, he passed five days there with Hortense de Beauhamais,
ex-queen of Holland. The property then reverted to her son, Eugene de Beauhamaia
In 1826 it was purchased by a Swedish banker, Haguerroan; in 1842 by queen Maria
Christina of Spain for 600,000 francs; and in 1861 by Louis Napoleon fw 1,600,000
francs, and by him improved and restored to much of its ancient beauty.
Amon^ the paintings most interesting at Malmaison is a portrait of Joeephine by her
daughter Hortense; and one of Bonaparte at Malmaison by D'Isaby.
MAUGBS'BUBT, a market t. and parliamentary borough of England, in the oo. of
Wilts, 20 m. n.n.w. of Devizes, and 96 m. w. of London. Pop. (1871) of parliamentary
borough, 6,879. It returns one member to the house of commons.
Malmesbury is a very ancient and interesting town. Here, according to William of
Malmesbury, a monastery was founded before the year 670. The abbey afterwards
became a cloth-factory. The remains of the abbey-church, partly early Norman,
and partly decorated English, may still be seen. There are several other relics of
antiquity in the place.
MALMES'BUHY, James HARRIS, first eari of, 174(m820; b. Eneland; son of James
Harris, the author of Hermes. He was educated at Winchester, Oxford, and Leyden, and,
after traveling on the continent, was appointed, at the age of twenty -one, secretary of
the Spanish embassy through the influence of lord Shclbume. He was acting as
charge d'affairea at Madrid, at the time of the dispute between England and Spain io
regard to the Falkland islands, and he displayed such skill in the negotiations in tliis
a&ir, that, in 1771, he was appointed minister-resident at Berlin, where he remained
for four years. In 1777 he was made ambassador to Russia, and in 1780 he received
the order of the bath. The state of his health compelled him to leave St. Petersburg in
1784, and he soon accepted from the Pitt ministry the post of minister to the Hague,
to which it had been the intention of Fox, to whose party he belonged, to send him.
There, in 1788, he succeeded in negotiating a treaty of alliance between Holland and
Prussia; and in acknowledgment of his services was made baron Malmesbury the
same year. Returning to England he enteredparliament, of which, in spite of his long
absences, he had been a memi)er since 1770. He was a whig till 1793, when he became a
supporter of the administration, and Pitt sent him once more to negotiate a treaty
between England, Pnissia, and Holland, a mission which he successfully dischaiged.
In 1794 he negotiated the marriage between the prince of Wales and Caroline, dau|$ter
of the duke of Brunswick. In 1796 he went to Paris and in 1797 to Lisle on fruitless
negotiations for peace with the French republic: and these were his last missions, as be
deemed himself incapacitated by a growing deafneas from taking further part in public
affairs. In 1800 he was made earl of Malmesbury and viscount Fitzharria
MALMESBURY, Jamsb Howabd HARRIS, third earl of; b. EngU^nd, 1807; gmnd
son of Uie first earl. He was educated at Eton and Oxford; was returned to parlhimeDt
as a conservative in 1841, but succeeded his father in the peerage the same year. He was
secretary for foreign affairs in lord Derby's first administration, and was eflScientin bring-
ing about the recognition of Louis Napoleon by the French empire. Lord Malmesbniy
occupied the same position in the second cabinet of lord Derby, when he endeqyoiipd to
prevent the war between France and Italy, and Austria. When Lord«Derby.fonnea hit
Digitized by VjiOOV^lV::
tkM ^"ovemment in 18M he decHned to be foreign minister on account of his health, but
became lord keeper of the privy seal, renuuning in office till 1868. From 1874 to 1870 he
waa^nun privy seal. He edited The Diaries and OarrespondeTiee of bis grandfather, 1844 .
and l%e I^irtt Lord Maimetimry and hit Friends, 2 vols. 1870.
WATilffEgBPBY, WILLIAM of. an early English lilstoiian, was b. near the close of the
lithe., probably in Somersetshire, educated in the monastery whence he derived his name,
aad of which he became librarian. He died some time after 1142, but the exact date is
not known. Malmesbury's principal works, which are written in Latin, are De Qeatit
Begum, a history of the kings of England from the Saxon invasion to the 26th year of
Henry L : Historia NoveUm, extendixig from the 26th year of Henry I. to the escape of the
empresB Maud from Oxford; and He Gestis Ponttficum, containing an account of the
bishoiw and principal monasteries of England from the conversion of Ethelbert of Kent
by St. Augustine to 1138. The first of these was translated into English by the rev. John
8harpe (Lond. 1815). and has been reprinted in Bohn's antiquarian library, under the
editorship of Dr. Giles (1847). Of his other works, Gale has printed his AnHquiiieB of
OlaeUmlntfy, and Wharton his Life of 8t, WxtUtan, in his AngUa Sacra, Malmesbury
gives proof in his writings of great diligence, good sense, modesty, and a genuine love of
truth. His style is much above that of his contemporaries.
MAL'MO, or MalmOhuus, a Swedish province or loen on the Baltic; 1852 Bq.m. ; pop.
73, 322,175. Its capital city, bearing the same name; is 16 m. s.e. of Copenhagen, and
has over 25,000 population, situated on the sound. The principal export of the province is
grain; horses and cattle are bred in large numbers, and the city is well supplied with
schools of a high grade, and Is very prosperous.
HALIlb, the principal town of the ''Isen," or district, of MalmOhuus, in Sweden, is
atuated on the sound, nearly opposite Copenhagen, and had, in 1874, a population of
80,676. MalmO is a busy eea-port, maintaining an active steam and sailing communica-
tion with Copenhagen and all the great Baltic and Ckrman ocean ports, and has manufac*
tnres of stockings, tobacco, soap, sugar, woolen goods, etc. It is the seat of a govern-
ment department, and is a lively, pleasantly situated town. The ancient fortifications,
most of which are now converted into public walks, date from the time of Eric of Pome-
rania, who, in 1434, erected strong lines of defense on the seaside of the town, ond built
the castle, which still remains. . Malm5 was an important place of landing and embarka-
tion afl early as 1250, and through the middle ages it was extensively visited by German
and other traders. In 1523 it was the scene of the signing of a treaty of peace between
the Danes and Gustavus Yosa.
IfALM'SEY (Malvasian wine: Fr. vin de Malccisie), a name originally bestowed on the
led and white wines of Napoli di Malvasia, in the Morea, and afterwards on similar wiues
produced in Cyprus, Candia, and other islands of the archipelago. Malmsey wines are of
a luscious sweetness, and have a most peculiar bouquet. The Malmsey wines of com-
merce are mostly the produce of Teneriffe, the Maaeiras, the Azores, the Lipari isles^
Sardinia, Sicily, and Provence. Malmsey is made from grapes grown on rocky ground,
fully exposed to the sun, and left to hang on the vines for a month longer than those used
to make dry wines, by which time they are partially withered
M ALONE', the capital of Franklin co., N. Y.. on the Salmon river ond the Ogdens-
burg and Lake Champlain railroad, midway between Ogdensburg and Rouse's Point.
Pop., 7,186. It is the center of a prosperous agricultural district and of a large trade.
It has well-established churches, excellent schools, two banks, and two newspapers.
KALOKX, Edmond, one of the most respectable editors of Shakespeare, was b. in
Dublin, Oct 4, 1741, and educated at the university of th&t city, where he won a high
reputation as a scholar, and took the degree of b.a. In 1767 he was called to the Irish
bar; but soon after, becoming possessed of a considerable fortune, he went to London, and
devoted himself to literal^ pursuits. His first appearance as an author was in 1780, when
he puUished 2 vols, supplementary to Steevens's edition of Shakespeare (1778). His next
achievement — though in this he was only one of several — was exposing tlie splendid
forgeries of Chatterton. He also contributed some notes to Steevens's third edition of
Sh&espeare, published in 1785, in which he occasionally controverted the opinions of
the editor. ThiB led to a serious quarrel between the two. in which Steevens was wholly
to blame. Malone's own edition of the great dramatist (1790) was warmly received. The
essayB on the History of the Stage, and on the Qenuinenees of the Three Fiaye of Henry VL,
have been praised in ao especial manner. In this work, Malone displays extreme good
sense, much acuteness, extensive research, and a becoming respect for the text or the
earlier editions. In 1796 he again signalized himself as a uterary detective by exposing
the Shakesperean forgeries of the Irelands. In 1797 he published a posthumus edition
of the works of his friend sir Joshua Reynolds. His death took place May 25, 1812. He
left behind him a large quantity of materials for another edition of Shakespeare, which
appeared in 1821, in 21 vols., under the editorship of Mr. James Boswell. See I/fe of
Sdmond Mahne, with Seleetione from hig Manuscript Anecdotes, by sir James Prior
(Lond. 1860)
]tlk£PI0HI, BLkBCBiiLO, an eminent Italian anatomist, was bom near Bologna in 1628,
and dted*at Borne in 16^ He.held, at different periods of his life, the T>i^fMijahTinj>f
medicine in Bologna, Pisa, and Messina. In 1691 be was Bummoned to Rome, and
appointed cliief pbvsiclau and cliamberlain to pope Innocent XII.
He is now chiefly known for his discoveries in the anatomy of the skin« of the kid-
ney, and of the spleen; and although the so-caUed reie McUpigfui of the skin is no lon^
regarded as a special structure, the Malpighian bodies or eorpwcles of the kidney and the
spleen still retain the name of their discoverer. He is also remarkable as being ibc flnt
who examined the circulation with the microscope, and thus discovered the blood cor-
puscles. Amongst his most important works may be mentioned De Ibrmaiiom PuUi M
Ovo; De Csrebro: De Lingud; De Extemo Tactu» Organo; De StructuTd Vieeerum; De
Pulmonibua; and De Stmcturd Glandularum Conghbatarum. His Opera Postkuma were
edited by Petrus Regis of Montpellicr; the^ contain a history of his discoveries and
controversies, together with numerous autobiographical details.
XALPI0HIA'CSJB, a natuml order of exogenous plants; trees, or shrubs, many of
them climbing shrubs or lianas. The^ often exhibit .an anomalous formation of the
Item, great part of the woody matter being deposited in lobed Eoneless ribs. The leaves
are simple, generally with glands on the stalks or underside. The calyx ia 6>partite,
generally with very large glands; the corolla of 5 petals convolute in bud; the stamens
generally 10, often monadelphous, a fleshy connective projecting beyond the anthen.
There are about 600 known species, natives of tropical countries, and chiefly of South
America, many of them having -gaudy flowers. A few produce timber of a bright
yellow color. The bark of some species of the genus Bynonima is astringent and
medicinal, and at one time attracted considerable attention as a remedy for pulmonary
consumption. It is known as aleornoque bark. The fruit of some, as the Babbadoes
Cherry (q.v.), is pleasant.
XALFLAQUET, a village (pop. 400) in the department of Nord, France, 20 m. e. of
Valenciennes, and close to the Belgian frontier, is celebrated for the bloody defeat of
Uie French, under marshal Yillnrs, by the British and Dutch, commanded by the duke
of Marlborough and prince Eugene, Sept. 11. 1700. The forces engaged consisted of.
more than 200,000 men, the allies having a slight superiority in numbers; and the lo^
on each side amounted to about 20,000 men, the French losing also many standards and
cannon. Marshal Vi liars was severely wounded early in the engagement, and the com-
mand devolved upon the old marshal de Bouflers, under .whom the French, after great
slaughter, retreated in good order. The result of the conflict was the capture of Moaa
XAL'STBOMy or Mosk5E8TROM (" whirling stream'*), the most famous whirlpool in
the world, is situated on the Norwegian coast, between MoskOe and Mosken&s, two of
the Loffoden (q.v.) isles. The tremendous current that rushes between the Great West
fjord and the outer ocean through the channels between the Loffoden isles creates
many other dangerous currents, such as the GalstrOm, NapstrOm, etc. ; but these are not
to be compared with the famous MalstrOm. The current runs for 6 hours from n. to
8., and then 6 liours from s. to n., producing immense whirls. The depth of the water
has been ascertained to be about 20 fathoms, while immediately to the w. of the straits
the soundings are from 100 to 200 fathoms. The whirlpool is greatest at high or low
water; and when the wind blows directly against the current, it becomes extremely
dangerous, the whole sea for several miles around being so violently agitated that do
boat can live in it for a moment. In ordinarv circumstances it may be traversed even
across the center without apprehension. The stories of ships, whales, eta, being
swallowed up in the vortex are simply fables; at the same time there can be nodoubi
tliat a ship, once fairly under the influence of the current, would certainly either founder
or be dashed upon the rocks, and whales have often been found stranded on the Flag-
atadt coast from the same cause.
MALT Ain> XALinrO. See Bebr.
MALTA, an island and British possession in the Mediterranean, 17 m. lon^ by about
9 broad, with an area of about 115 sq.m. : it is of carbonaceous limestone, of the tertiary
ac[ueous formation, and occupies a very central position in the Mediterranean sea, being
distant some 64 m. from the Sicilian coasts and about 200 from cape Bon on the African
coast. From its position, and also from the enormous strength of the fortifications,
Miilta is a possession of immense value to any commercial nation which possesses a narjr
strong enougli to prevent it being blockaded. It happens, consequently, that Malta is
one of the most important, after India, of the British dependencies, for it is not In any
sense a colony. Possessing one of the most splendid harbors in the worid, with siieh
an even depth that the largest vessels may anchor alongside the very shore, the isTaod
forms at once an admirable station for a fleet to command the Mediterranean — a military
focus, where a force protecting the route to Egypt and India can be concentrated— and
tv useful entrepdt for receiving the manufactures of Britain, which the small craft of
the Mediterranean carry to every point on the shore of that inland sea and its tributaries.
By whomsoever possessed, Malta has alwavs been held in high estimation. Between It
and €k)Zzo, orQozo (q.v.), lies the small island of Comino; and off this last the still
.smaller islet. Cominotto, rears its rocky crest, while elsewhere round the shores of
Jialttt and Gozo, a few rocks stud the sea, sustaining each a few flshermen. atid afford-
ing herbage for goats on their mos» grown sumnuts; among theae afe FUfla, with a
Digitized by VjOOV IC
411
▼enerable church; Pietro Nero, or Black Rock; Scoglio Marfo, Bnlmonetta, and the
Bugita tal general, or fungus rock, where grows the famed fungus meHteneu (see Cmo-
moriijmX Malta and Qozo, with their adjacent islets, form together a compact little
leahn, celebrated in history, possessing a luagniflcent capital in valetta, and, from the
fad tJUat, owing to peculiar circumstances, vast contributions came to Malta from all
CaUiolic Europe, adorned with public buildings, institutions, and works out of all pro-
portion to its actual intrinsic importance.
In physical conformation, Malta is comparatively low, its highest point not exceed-
ing 590 ft. above the sea-level. The surface is diversified bv a succession of hill and
dale, the land bein^ intersected by parallel valleys, running from s.w. to n.e., the most
considerable of which is the vale called Melleha. Across the island stretch the Ben-
jemma hills or crags, and many spurs branch from them, which ^ive a picturesquenees
to the scenery. From the spongy nature of the limestone of winch the island is com-
posed, much of the rain falling in the wet season soaks in, and being evaporated through
the thin alluvial covering by the heats of summer, keeps the ground moist, and gives it
a fertility which could not otherwise be expected from so scanty and comparatively
poor a soil. 80 thin, indeed, was the original surface-soil, that considerable quantities
of earth were imported into Malta from Sicily. The productiveness of the soil must
also be attributed to the quantity of carbonate of lime held in a minutely divided state
above the entire face of the rock.
Malta shows no signs of volcanic formation ; but the action of the sea among its
cliffs has hollowed out grottoes and caverns in almost every direction, and some of con-
siderable extent. The inhabitants are industrious, and sood agriculturists, and every
foot of the soil is diligently cultivated. On the whole, about the quantity of superior
kinds of grain consumed is raised on the islands, and of inferior sorts a considerable
amount is exported. Wine, resembling that of Spain, is produced; the sugar-cane is
cultivated. The vegetable products comprise; all that flourish in Italy, as aloes, oranges^
and olives, with many plants of a more tropical growth. Malta was famed of old for
roses. Salt and soda are manufactured; there are quarries of marble, alabaster, and
building-stonea Mules and asses are remarkable in Malta for their strength and beauty, '
but horned cattle are small. Maltese goats are fine animals. The birds of Malta are
renowned for their splendid plumage; and its bees produce an aromatic honey, excelled
in no other locality.
Medina, the former capital of the island, now known as CIttA Vecchia, or Notabilo.
is a handsome old town, lying inland ; it contains the ancient palace of the gnxnd
masters of the order of St. John, the cathedral, a college, and is still the seat of the
bishopric. Pop. 7,000. Its rival and successor is Valetta (q.v.^. The numerous easalti
or villages scattered throughout Malta and Gozo are nearly built, and generally present
an asi)ect of industry and fru^l happiness.
It is thought bv some that Malta was the Byperian or Ogygia of Homer, but there is
little doubt uiat the Phenlcians colonized the istend at a very early date, probably in the
16lh c. B.C. Before they were dispossessed by the Greeks in 786 B.C., they had developed
considerable commerce. The Greeks called the island Melitas, and were driven out by
the Carthaginians about 500 b.c. As early as the first Punic war, it was plundered by
the Romans, but did not come finally into their possession until ^3 b.c. They valued it
highly, on account of its use as a commercial entrepdt ; and also for its cotton and linen
cloths, fabrics then, aa now, manufactured of wonderful fineness by the Maltese. The
island remained under its old laws, governed by a propr»tor, subject to the praetor of
SicDy. On the n. coast is the port of St. Paul, and here tradition fixes the wreck of the
ship carrying that apostle to Rome. On the division of the empire, Malta followed the
fortunes of £e eastern division. During the 5th a it fell successively under the Vandals
and Goths, whose barbarism nearly annihilated its commerce. In 538 Belisarius recov-
ered Malta to the Byzantine empire, in nominal union with which it remained for more
than three centuries; but its prosperity had deoarted, and its civilization almost vanialied
amid constant local feuds. In 870 the Arabs aestrmred the Greek power in Malta, and
fortified the harbor as a station for their corsaira Count Roger, of Sicily, drove out 4he
Arabs in 1090, and established a popular council for the government of the island, com-
posed of nobles, clergy, and elected representatives of the people. This council, in a
more or less modified form, subsisted for 700 years. Under a marriage-contract, Malta
passed to the German emperor, who constituted it a marquisate, but it had ceased to be
a plaoe of trade, and was merely a garrison of more expense than value. Charles of
Anjou, after overrunning Sicily, msAe himself master of Malta, which clung to tlu;
Fr^di even after they had been expelled from Sicily; but after a time the houses of
Aragon and Castile successively held the island. Subsequently, the emi^ror Charles Y .
took possession of Malta, and, in 1580, granted it, with Gozo and Tripoli, in perpetual
sovereignty to the knights of the order of St, John of Jerusalem, from whom the Turks
had recently captured their great stronghold at Rhodes. The knights raised by degrees
the stupendous fortifications which render Malta so powerful, and, moreover, spent
their lai^ income in beautif ving the island in every way. Meanwhile, they rendered
incessant services to Christendom in the chastisement of the ferocious Barbary pirates.
To UBvenge these acta, the Turks brought immense forces a^inst Malta in 1557, and
again in 1565. The latter siege was carried on by the sultan Solyinnn himself, with the
flower of the Ottoman army; but the ^nd master La Valette opposed a heroic resist-
ance, and he was forced to r&embark with the loss of more than 25,000 of his best troops.
I'he defenders lost 200 knights and 7,000 Maltese soldiers; and their gallantry i^as ti»
theme of admiration throughout the world. After this siege the knights built \ aletta.
In 1571 they, with the Maltese, behaved most courageously at the battle of Lepanto, whert
the Turks lost 80,000 men. Though waging perpetual war with the Moslem, the knighU
continued in possession of Malta until 1798, when overcome by Bonaparte's treachery,
and disorganized by internal quan-els, the order surrendered their noble fortresses to the
French. After pillage and infamous treatment by the republican forces, the Maltese rest;
in a few months ^gainst their oppressors, and after a siege of two years, British auxilia
ries arriving, the French garrison of Valetta capitulated to the English gen. Picot The
treaty of Amiens stipulated that Malta should be restored to the knights of St. John; but
the Maltese loudly protested against such an arrangement, and preferred the peaceful
government of Great Britain. The British government consequently refused to make
the transfer, appreciating also, doubtless, the vast value of their new possession, and
Napoleon made the refusal one of his grounds for the resumption of hostilities. The con-
gress of Vienna recognized Malta as a British dependency, the condition in which it ha^
since remained.
In 1874 Malta and Gozo, with the adjacent islands, together contained 145,599 inhab
itants (including the British residents and foreigners, but excluding the military, wbo
numbered 6.611). The population was increasing rapidly, but the annual rate of increase
had declined from 1858. The upper classes ^peak Italian, but the real language of the
people is a patois compounded from many sources, as must be expected from so check-
ered a history. Arabic, however, so far predominates that the Maltese find little difScult)-
in communicating with the Barbary peasants. It is alleged by some that the Maltese Ian
fuage — if its Italian and German elements were eliminated — ^wculd remain almost pure
'unic, and would accurately represent the speech of Carthage at the time of its destruc
tlon. The religion of the people is strictly Koman Catholic, and, considering that the
British flag waves over the island, but a scanty toleration is granted to otlier formic
of faith. There are good provisions for educfition; a college at valetta, where degrees
are conferred in divinity, law, and physic; 65 public schools, with 8,324 pupils, besides
114 private places for education. There is also an excellent public library, free to all.
The commandant of the garrison is governor, and is aidea in the civil government
by a council of 16 members, of whom 8 are officials, and 8 are freely elected. The rev
enue amounted, in 1874, to £175,073, while the amount of the expenditure was £161,784.
Customs and excise, with a few assessed taxes, provide the former; the latter is absorbed
in the charges of the civil government, and in a contribution of £6,200 towards the mili-
tary expenditure. On the other hand, Great Britain maintains a considerable force in
the islands, mainlv for imperial purposes, at a cost of about £870.000 a year. Besides a
large body of British artilleiy, the garrison includes the royal Malta fencible artiller}% s
fine native regiment of 689 ofiScers and men. There is an extensive arsenal, and a veir
important dockyard, Malta being the headquarteis of the British fleet in tlic Mediterra-
nean. Taken altogether, Malta is a possession the British highly value; it is nearly, if
not quite, as strong as Gibraltar, and far more useful.
The public debt amounted, in 1875, to £268,248, at a very low rate of interest, la
1875 the vessels which entered and cleared the port, exclusive of the coasting-trade and
steamers, had a total tonnage of 4,882,000 tons. Of this total about 4,000,000 tons an
set down as representing British vessels. In the same w?ar, the total value of the
imports amounted to £10,325,000; while the exports were estimated at a total of
£9,500,000— corn en route from Russia for the United Kingdom figuring very laigely ia
the transactions.
KALTA, Eniohts of. See John, St., of Jerusalem, Kkights of.
KALTEBBTO, EoimAD (properly, Malthe BRUtm), an eminent geographer, b. Aug.
12, 1775, at Thisted, in Jutland, studied in Copenhagen, and at the outbreak of the French
revolution, embraced with great ardor the liberal cause, so that being prosecuted upon
account of political publications, he was twice obliged to flee from Denmark, and finally,
in 1800, was condemned to perpetual banishment from his native country. He sought
refuge in Paris, where be maintained himself by teaching and literary labors. In 1808
he began the Annalee des Voyages, de la Oiographie et de rHwfoire (24 vols.), which be
concluded in 1814. In 1818 he began, along witli Cyries, the NouveUee Annales, etc.
He devoted his pen to the support of' Napoleon during his reign; and in 1815 became
connected with an ultra-royalist journal, and a defender of the theory of legitimacy
adopted by the congress of Vienna. His principal work is his IVeeis de la Oeographxe
UnivereeUe (8 vols. Par. 1824-28, with an atlas). He took part also in the Dietumnaire
Gioffraphique Uniterselle (8 vols. Par. 1821), and was secretary to the geographical society
of Paris. He died Dec. 14, 1826.— His son. Victor Adolpb Maltebrum fb. 1816), is one
of the most eminent living ^ographers of France, and has succeeded his father as secre
tary of the geographical society of Paris.
MALTESE' 0B08B, a cross of eight points, of the form worn as a decoration by the
hospitalers (q.v.) and other orders of knighthood. Digitized by VjUUV IC
413
XALTB8B DM, a small kind of spaniel, with roundish muzzle, and long, silky, gen*
ciatlT white hair, it is altogether useless, and fit only for a lapdog; but is a Tery andent
teeed, being figured on Roman monuments, and noticed by Strabo.
MALTHA, a Greek name meaning soft wax, originally applied to a mineral fat from
Kirwnn, having a resemblance to wax, probably composed of paraffinc; but now applied
to certain kinds of bitumen, mineral tar. or asphalt. It differs but little from the semi-
solid yarieties of asphalt, although it is described as frothing more on boiling. Some
specimens are said to contain a small portion of oxygen, and also nitrogen, but these are
probably the traces of impurities, as well as the cause of the frothing. No satisfactory
analysis has been made. Sec Asphalt; Bitumkn; Dbad Sea; ante.
KALTHUS, Thomas Robert, the founder of those opinions concerning the relation of
population to the means of sustenance which have been named after him " Malthusian,'*
was b. in the county of Surrey, in the year 1766. Ho was well connected, and graduated
with honors in 17&, at Jesus college, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow. He
became soon after clergyman of a small parish in his native county, and divided his time
between his cure and the university libraries. In 1799 he left Britain to see foreign
countries, along with the eminent traveler, Daniel Clarke. The great European war waa
ihea raging, and the most interesting portions of the continent of Europe were closed to
our countrymen. Malthus, however, with an evidently keen anxiety to observe mankind
under a variety of conditions, wandered through Sweden, Norway, Finland, and pari
of Russia, makmg notes of what he observed. Next year he took advantage of the short
peace of Amiens to visit France and other portions of central Europe. Theae efforts to
become acquainted with mankind are signincant since. Although Ilalthus has the repu-
tation of teing a bold theorist, the charm of his writings consists in his practical knowl-
edge of how men have existed and acted in various parts of the world and under diverse
conditions; and his knowledge of actual human nature — his sagacity and accuracy, in
short, in the details which he brought to bear on his great theory — were in a consider-
able measure the source of the great influence exercised by him over public opinion, and
had the secondary effect of making his books readable even to those who made war on
his conclusions. It was in 1798 that he first published his Easap on the PrindpUs of Pop-
ulation ae it affects the Future Improvement of Society; but in subse()uent editions he
80 greatly enlarged and enriched the work, that it could hardly be identified with the first
impression. The predominant idea of the book was evidently suggested by Hume's essay
on the populousness of ancient nations, in which vague statements as to the vast multi-
tudes of human beings s.ubsi8ting in any place, or wandering from place to place, are
brought to the test of the means of subsistence at their disposal. ^Yhere there is an
accurate census, the number of people living on the portion of the globe covered by it is^
of course, known to within a trifle of the truth. Such arrangements for accuracy have^
however, been extremely rare in the history of the world. Where they are absent^
egregious exaggerations have been made in estimates of the numbers of mankind; and in
the absence of absolute facts, the best means of reducing these wild estimates to some-
thing reasonable was the skeptical philosopher's plan of comparing the estimate of the
numbers with the probable amount of foNod at their disposal. The aj^lication of thia
check by Malthus was something like the application of. chemistry to organic matter.
He set himself to finding out how the relation of population to the means of sustenance
could affect the future of the world. The result waa appalling. The human race waa
found to increase at something like geometrical progression ; while the fertility of land,
by bringing in waste, and improving the methods of agriculture, only increased in some*
thing liEe an arithmetical proportion. Hence,* if population were permitted to increase
at its natural rate, it would soon overtake the means of subsistence. The theory had only
one defect as applicable to the present condition of the world, that it overlooked the
element of free trade. It involved a general pauperism to Britain if her people had no
resource but tJie produce of her soil, but it maae no allowance for the capacity of Britain
to draw upon the fertility of the world at large. Malthus wrote other books, which n>t
little notice in their day, and have been forgotten. He was appointed professor of poUti^
cal economy at the college of Haileybury in 1805. He filled nis chair with great repute
untU his death, Dec. 29, 1836.
KAL'TOK, a parliamentary borough and market t. in the North Biding of Tork-
shune, on an elevation on the right baiSc of the Derwent, 18 m. n.e. of York. The parlia-
mentary borough includes the parishes of Old Malton and Norton, to the former of
which a grammar-school, founded in 1547, and having an annual endowment of £100 a
year, is attached. There are also the remains of a priory, founded in 1150. Consider-
able trade is carried on. Pop. '71 of borough, which, since' '67, returns but one
member to parliament, 8,168.
Malton, called by the Homans Oamutodunum, abbreviated by the Saxons into MMur^
was an important Boman military station, to which six ancient roads lead. After having
h&sa burned down, the town was rebuilt in the reign of Stephen, since which time it hae
been generally called New Malton.
MALT BSrasB) or Malt Waotb, is of two kinds: (1.) the coTfUngs or small shoota
and radiclea of the gvnninated grain, which are separated before the malt is used by th«
brewer, often callen faoft dmt and kUn dmt; and (2.) the exhausted malt, after it has besa
414
used by the brewer, called draff. Both are of use for the feeding of caltle. bultlie IKntliliid
is the most nutritious, beingrich in nitrogenous substances which the brewer extnuMirfraa
the malt used by him.; dnin, howeyer, is ad vimtageously employed, along with tuif^pt,
for the feeding of duiry cattle. Malt dust is also used as manure, chiefly as a top-dnssing,
and is very fertilizing and rapid in its effect.
XJLLTJ'BITS, a genus of Australian birds, giving its name to a large subdivision of the
family ttylviadm, in which arc contained many Asiatic and African species, and some tliat
are natives of the s. of Europe. They have generally a long tail; in some, very long, as
in the Emeu Wren of Australia, in which it is more than twice the length of the body,
the shafts of its featliers loosely frineed on each side. The emeu wren (atipUurtu
malackurtu) is a very pretty little burd, living chiefly amons long grass. One of the most
noted maiuri is M. eyaneus, the Blue Wren or Sufbbb Wabblbb of Australia, which
is gorgeously attired m black, blue, white, and brown. It haunts scrubby brushwood.
MALU8, Etiennb Louis, 1775-1812, b. Paris; educated at the school of military
engineers, but falling under the suspicion of the revolutionary government, was dis-
missed. Willie servmg as a private soldier at Dunkirk, he attracted the attention of
L^pdre, director of the fortifications there, who procured him an appointment to the
&ol6 Potytechraque. Here he pursued the study of mathematics, ana especially of the
mathematical theory of optics. Appointed to the engineers, he entered the army of the
Bambre and Meuse, and witnessed the passage of the Rhine, and the engagements at
Altenkirch and Ukratz. He was attached to the Egyptian expedition, and after the cap-
ture of Jaffa, was engaged in the restoration of its fortifications, and the construction of
military hospitals. Be fortified Damietta, was present at the siege of Cairo, and after
the surrender to the English, came back to France in 1801. He now took charge of the
fortifications at Antweip and Strasburg, at the same time carrying on his scientific
researches. His Traite^Optique, published in 1810, treats of the refraction and reflection
of light, and contains expenments in regard to the reflection of light in transparent media.
In 1808 the French institute offered a prize for the best paper on double refraction in
cryst^. Mains competed for this prize, and in the course oi his experiments discovered
the phenomenon known as the polarization of light. He advanced the theory that par-
ticles of light have poles, and tliat on entering a doublv-refracting crystal, some of the
particles forming one of the rays may be so arrangea as to be transmitted through it,
while the particles which should have formed the other ray may be so arranged as to
Srevent the transmission in certain directions. The discovery of these phenomena intro-
uced a new division of physical optics. Mains published an account of them in the
Memairs of the institute, which at once elected him to its membership; and the English
royal society gave him the Rumford medal, though France and England were then at war.
In 1810 he published his TheorU de la Double Reaction de la Lumikre dam In Subttancei
CfriataUueet, and the next year he wrote a couple of papers on some phenomena of polar-
ized light. He was appointed examiner in physics at the £cole Polytechniqus, and was
about to be appointed director of its studies when he died.
KALVA'COUB, a natural order of exogenous plants, of which about 1000 spedes are
known, chiefly tropical, and most abundant in America, although the most important
species belong to the old world. They are herbaceous plants, s&ubs, and occasionally
in tropical countries trees; with alternate entire or lobed leaves; Uie pubescence, if any,
starry; the flowers showjr, generally on axillary stalks; the calyx generally of Ave sepids
or five segments, often with an epicalyx; ^the petals generally five, hypogynous, twisted
in bud; tne stamens numerous, united tfjr their filaments; the ovary consisting of a
number of carpels around a common axis, the styles generally five, the ovules few or
many; the fruit dry or fleshy. The plants of this order have a great general similarity
both in their appearance ana in their properties and products. All of them contain a
mucilaginous substance in great quantity, which is particularly abundant in the roots
of the perennial herbaceous species. This mucilaginous quality makes some very use-
ful as emollients and demulcents in medicine. The young foliage of some is used as a
boiled vegetable. The seeds of all contain a oonslderable quantity of bland fixed oil.
The inner bark of the stem often yields a useful fiber, for which species of hibueus and
mda are particularly valued; and to this order belong the cotton plants, so valuable, for
the fiber which envelops their seeds. Many of them are freouent ornaments of flower-
eardens. See Ck>TTON, Hibiscus, Hollyhock, Mallow, Marsh-mallow, Sida, and
UKBMA.
KALYEBV, Great, a t. and watering-place in Worcestershire, Eng., picturesquely
situated on the eastern side of the Malvern hills, 8 m. s.w. of Worcester. The puri^
and abundance of the spring-water, and the facilities for healthful exercise afforded by
Uie hills, have rendered Malvern a grreat resort for invalids following the hydropathic
treatment, for which there are several large establishments. Pop. '71, 5,(U^.
MALVERN HILL. Battlb of, the last of the engagements known as the " seven
days* battles," June 26-July 1, 1862, the others being those of Mechanicsville, Cold
Harbor, Savage's station, and Fxazier's farm. After ttie battle of Fnsler's ftura.
McCleltnn posted the union army on Malvern hill, an elevated plateau about 1 m. from
the James river, and 11 m. from Richmond. This hill isj,|^9^ a mile and a half in
teagthand three-quarters of a mile broad, flanked by thick woods, and faced with gul-
IiBa» ythkh rendered it exceedingly difficult of approach. The ground was thus excep-
tioiiaUj strong by nature, and it was now defended by McClellan's army of about 90,000
men; a battery of 7 heavy siege guns was placed on the crest of the hill, and the
remainder of the union artiller}" was admirably posted in such wise that tiie concentrated
fire of 90 guns could be directed at any point desired. Lee's army, which had persist-
ently followed McOlellan on his retreat to the James, attacking whenever It seemed
practicable, had met with a serious repulse, June 80, but on the morning of July 1, with
flboQi 60,000 men, undertook to storm Malvern hill in the face of all the obstacles pre-
seated. The confederate attack was made by Jackson and D. H. Hill, and supported
by Mamider, and, as might have been anticipated, resulted in their repulse, with a losa
<rf 900 killed and 8,500 wounded. The union loss was 876 killed and 1800 wounded.
McClellan did not take advantage of this success, but retired at once to Harrison's land-
ing. The confederates continura to hold their lines for several days, when they retired
t»Kichmond. See CmcKAROMnrr.
MALVOISINE, or MAWMOISINE, Wnj^iAM db, a Scottish ecclesiastic; was edu-
cated (and as some think, born) in France. Going to Scotland, he was made one of the
eteridrepis, and archdeacon of St. Andrews. In 1199 he was constituted chancellor of
Scotland; in 1200, bishop of Glasgow; in 1202, of St. Andrews; in 1208 he dedicated
the new cemetery at Dry burgh abbey; in 1211 he and Walter, bishop of Glasgow, by
appointment of the pope, convened ut Perth a great council of the clergv and people,
to prcas upon the nation the pope's will and command that an expedition be undertaken
to Palestine. In 1214 he attended the coronation of king Alexander IT., and is said to
have placed the crown on his head. The following year he went with the bishops of
Glasgow and Moray, and Henri, abbot of Eilso, to tue fourth Lateran council, remaining
abroad until 1218. He brought from the continent various orders of monks and mendi-
cants before unknown in Scotland, and established convents of black friars at several
places. He wrote lives of the saints Ninian and Eentigem. He was exceedingly zealous
for the church. He insisted earnestly also on his own rights, for at one time he deprived
the abbey of Dunfermline of the presentation to two churches, because the monks had
failed to provide him wine for supper. Fordun eavs the monks had provided wine, but
that tlie bishop's attendants had arunk it all up. He continued bishop of St. Andrews
till hifl death.
XAL'WA, a former kingdom of India, lying for the most part n. of the Nerbudda,
and a.w. of the valley of the Ganges, is an uneven plateau varying from 1600 to 2,600 ft.
above aea level. It is now divided into % number of protected states.
MAME, Altred Henbt Armand, b. Tours, France, 1811. Inheriting the publishing
house of bis father, of which he has become ::ole conductor; he has increased It to a vast
establiflhment, employing 700 workmen in its factories, and nearly as many more outside,
printing and binding upwards of 20,000 volumes per day. Religious books formerly
compoeed a large part of its work, but works on law have been added. The BiMiotfieque
de la JeunesM Vritienns, an aggregate of little volumes for distribution in Sunday and
secular schools, and primary sSiool-books make the greater part of the pubUcation of the
house of Mame. Of late years, however, they have published elegantly illustrated works
in other fields; as, LesJardtns; La Saints Btble, illustrated by Dore; and Lei Chefs tTOutfre
da la Langue Fran^atse. In 1773 he received one of the pnzes of 10,000 francs accorded
to the manufacturing establishments where there was found the greatest social harmony
and well-being among the workmen, which was given for his establishment at Tours.
HAM'ELON ^r. from Lat. mamma, breast), a mound in the shape of a woman's
breast These araflcial mounds of fortifications were conmion in the siege of Sebastopol.
MAMELU'CO, the name given in parts of South America to a child of a negro father
and an Indian mother.
MAX'ZLUXES, Mahloitxs, or Mbmlookb, an Arabic word signif y mg eiaw9, the name
given in Egypt to the slaves of the beys, brought from the Caucasus, and who formed their
aimed force. When Genghis Khan desolatea great part of Asia in the 18th c, and carried
away a multitude of the inhabitants for slaves, the sultan of Egypt bought 12,000 of them,
partly Mingrelians and Tcherkesses, but mostly Turks, and formed tJoem iato a body of
tioope. But they soon found their own power so great that, in 1254 they made one of
their own number sultan of Egypt, founding the dynasty of the Bahaxites, which gave
place to another Mameluke dynasty, that of the Borjites, hi 1882, The Causasian element
piQ^minated hi the first dynasty, the Tartar element in the second. In general, they
focmed able and energetic rulers, and Egypt under their sway arrived at a degree of pros-
peori^ and power to which she had been a stranger from the days of Seeostris. Selim I.,
who overthrew the Mameluke khigdom in 1517, was compelled to permit theoonthnuanoe
of the 24 Mameluke beys as goyemors of the provinces. This arrangement subsisted till
the middle of the 18th a, when the number and wealth of the Mamelukes gave them such
a prnxmderanoe of power in Egypt that the pasha named by the porte was reduced to a
mam nomhMl ruler. The number of them scattered tliroughout all Egypt was between
10»000 and 13^000 men. Their number was kept up chiefly by slaves &ou£ht from the
Caucasus, from among whom the beys and other oAlcers of state were exclusively chosen.
Mammalta.
416
Their last brilliant achlevementd were on the occasion of the French inyadon of I^]rpt» and
during the time immediately following the retirement of the French. At this time Mnrad
Bey stood at their head. But in 1811 they were foully massacred by Mohammed All
(q.v.), afterwards viceroy of Egypt.
KAXEB8, a small t. of France, in the department of Sarthe, 25 m. n.n.o. of La Kaos.
Coarse linens, calico, beer, and leather are manufactured. Pop. '7^, 5,003.
KAHIA9I, Count Tekenzio, an Italian philosopher, statesman, and writer, b. in
1801, at Pesaro. Having taken a prominent part in tiic futile revolutionary outlMreak
which accompanied the accession of Gregory XVI., Mamiani was compelled to seek
safety in flight, and repaii'ed to Paris, from whence he promoted with enersy the vevo-
tutionaiy tendencies of his country. In 1846, on the accession of Pius IX., lie declined
the i)roffered papal amnesty, as long as its acceptance involved a disavowal of his former
political principles; but on its bein^ unconditionally granted, he availed himself of it,
and even formed part of the papal ministry on the promulgation of the constilution.
The inconsistent policy of the pope having compelled him to resign his post, he with-
drew to Turin, where he founaed, with Gioberti, a society for promoting the union of
Italians. On the flight of Pius IX. from Home to Gaeta, he re-entered tbe political arena,
and was for a short period foreign minister in the revolutionary cabinet of Galetti. On
the fall of Rome lie retired to Genoa; in 1856 he was returned member of the Sardinian
parliament, and in 1860 entered Cavour's ministry as minister of instruction. He was
appointed ambassador to Greece in 1861, to Switzerland in 1865. His cliicf works are:
Del Rinnoramento delta FOos^fia antiea ItaUana (1886); Pdeti deW etd Media (1842); DelT
OrMogia e del Metado; Principi dsUa FUosofa dd Diritto, and a number of treatises on
various subjects. In 1870 he became editor of a new quarterly review, FLlcmfia deOa
ScuoU Italiane,
HAHKA'LIA (Lat mammae the breast), the highest class of the animal sub-kingdom
vertehrata (q.v.). This class includes man and all the animals which resemble him in
the most important points of their organization; and it is naturally placed at the head
of the animal kingdom because (independently of man being a member of it) it contains
the animals which manifest the highest degree of intelligence, and which i)OS8e88 the
most complex organization.
The most distmctive character of the mammalia is their mode of development and of
nourishment during the earliest period of life. They are all brought into the world alivo
(viviparous), not merely, as in certain (ovo- viviparous) reptiles and flshes, by the reten-
tion and hatching of the b^ within the oviduct, but by the formation of a new connec-
tion between the embryo and its mother, while the former lies within the maternal
cavities, so that provision is made for Its development before birth, not, as in birds, etc.,
by the large yelk (see Dbvblopment op the Embryo), but by a constant supply of nutri-
ment direct from the maternal blood. In mammals, the ovum on quitting thiie ovary is
of extremely minute size, and the materials of the yelk only serve to support the embryo
during its very earliest period. After undergoing certain changes in the passage through
the Fallopian tube or oviduct, which it is unnecessary here to notice, the ovum reaches
the uterus or womb, and connects itself by a set of root-like tufts of vessels with tbe
maternal vessels. These tufts absorb from the mother's blood the ingredients neoessaiy
for the support of the embryo, while they convey back to it the effete particles of the
embryonic tissues. Through this organ, which simultaneously increases m size with the
embryo, and is named the placenta, the yoimg animal, except in the lowest orders of the
class — viz., the marsupialia (q.v.) and the monotremata (q.v.)— derives its nutriment dur-
ing the whole period of gestation (q.v.); while in the two orders Just named no vascular
connection of the ovum with the uterus of the mother is formed, the ovum beine simply
retained for a time within the uterus, and the requisite nourishment for the devdopmeot
of the young animal being obtained by absorption through the membranes of the ovum.
This remarkable difference in the development of the mammalian embryo has given rise
to a division of this class into two great sections or sub-classes — ^the placentM and the
implacental (or aplaoenicU) mammals. In both sub-classes we find the same provision for
nourishing the animal during the period immediatelv succeeding its birth— viz., the milk
(q.v.), a fluid secreted by peculiar glands, called the mammary glands, which become
^atly developed In the female during the periods of gestation and lactation; and as thk
IS found in no other class, it is the character by which the entire group is most positively
defined, and from which it derives its name.
The mammaiy giand exists in both sexes, but except in very rare cases, h is only in
the female that they secrete milk. Their number is never less than two, and when mors,
is generally nearly proportional to that of the young produced at each birth. In the
monkey, the elephant, the goat, tbe mare, etc., there are two; in the cow, stag, and lion,
four; in the cat, eight; in the rabbit, ten; in the pig. generally twelve; and in tbe rat ten
or twelve. These glands are often blended together, as in the cow ; and theh* numher
is then indicated externally by that of the fiipples or teats. Their position also varies; m
the monkeys and bats, and in the herbivorous oetaoea, they are situi^cd on the tbenx, as
in man; in most of the caitiivorous animals they are situated on the abdomen as well as
on the thorax; while in the tnaxe, cow, sheep, etc, they are placed still fortbttr back,
the hip-joint Digitized by VjUUV IC
417
The Mn in the greater number of mammalia is covered with hair, a form of tegumen-
laery appendage peculiarly characteristic $>f this class.. In the cetaoea, however^ we have
an almost entire absence of hair; one of its uses — ^that of keepinc the heat within the
body^being here provided for by the thickening, of the skin and the deposition of the
blubber beneath it. In the edentata, the hairy covering is almost entirely replaced by
homy scsales, as in the scaly ant-eater, or by bony plates, as in. the armadillo. In the quilis .
of the parcupine and the spiny bristles of the hedgehog, we have other modifications of
hair which aepart less from its ordinary character than those iust mentioned. Moreover,
the dawB^ nails, and hoofs of all mammals^ the horn or lioms on the nose of the
imnoesroa, and the boms of the hollow-horsed rununants (such as the ox» sheep, etc.), are
aU oompoMd of a subetance which is only a modification of hair.
The ikMon, as a general rule, governs the general fomi of the body. In iUi g^eral
conformation, it shows a close analogy with that of man, which is described in the article
S1UEI.BT0K; the cUfferenoes which are remarked among Uie varioos animals of this class
mainly dependii^ (1) upon the absence of posterior limbs in the marine mammals^ sudi
as the dngong, the porpoise, and the whale; (2) upon the diminished number of digits
(see Hand and Foot), and upon the absence of the clavicle in the greater number of those
species whose anterior lirabs serve only for motion; (8) upon variations in the pumber of
vertebras; and (4) upon the inequalities in the relative sizes of the same bones (Milne-
Ddwards).
Although the same bones enter into the fomation of every mammalian akuU^ great
differences present tb^nselves in different skulls, acocHding as the face is more or less
prcdonged, or, on the othet hand, the brain-case or cmnium is more or leas devdoped.
In (proportion as a mammal is removed in classification from man, we find that the
cranhun is diminished; that the face is prolonged by eztensioiL of ttie Jaws and nasal
cavities; that the orbtts are directed outwards, imd are less distinct from the temporal
fosBffi: and that the occipital foramen (through which the spinal cord passes) ana the
condyles (by which the head articulates with the first vertebra of the spinal column) are
placed towards the posterior part of the skull, instead of occupying the middle of its
inferior surface, as in man. Among the most characteristic points in the mammalinn
skull generally may be mentioned (1) that the lower jaw articulates directly with the
skull, there bemg no intervening tvmpanic bone, such as occurs in the other vertebrate;
and (^ that the occipital bone of the skull articulates with the first vertebra by two con-
dyles, «iie«n either side of the occipital foramen, instead of by a single condyle, as in the
oiher vertebrates^
The wrtebrtU a^umn, except in relation to its length, closely resembles that in man,
where there are 7 cervical, 12 dorsal, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 5 caudal vertebrae. The
'tervical ^ertebrm are almost univeraally 7 in number, however Icmg or short the neck may
be, the only known exceptions being two cetaceans {maneiu$ and ryUna), which have 6,
and the tlufee-toed sloth, which has 9. The number of dormi vertebrm ranges from 11 to
23, which latter number occurs in the two-toed sloth. The Ittmbar vertebra range from
2 to 9, the most common number being 6. The mcrai iwiebrm, which coalesce to form
the sacrum and to support the pelvic arch, vary from 2 (in the monotremata and mar-
supialia) to 6 (in the mole), the most common number being 4. In the cetaoea, the rudi-
mentary pelvis is loosely connected with a single vertebra, and there cannot be said to be
ii sacrum. The caudal vertebra, which in mac and the higher apes coalesce to form the
4ioeeyaR, are usually very numerous, 20 or 80 being a common number, and 40 occurring
in the long-tailed ant-eater. The form and number of eaiuUU vertebra vary in accocdasice
with the purposes to which the tail is applied; and the special uses of this oigan are
numerous. For example, in the kangaroo it serves as a thira le^ when the animal stands
erect; in tihe American monkeys, and in some of the opossums, it is a prehensible organ;
and in fhe cetacea and in the beaver it is a powerful instrament of propulsion in water.
The rtlfg correspond in number to the dorsal vertetoae, and, as a general rule (excepting
in the monotremata), they are connected superiorly not only with the bodies of two ver-
tebrae, but with the transverse process of one of them, and hence present corresponding
articular surfaces. The etemum is ^nerally divided into three portions; the middle one,
in place of being represented by a smgle piece, as in man, usually consisting of as many
pieces as there are true ribs. It is very short in the cetacea, and is very long in the car-
nivora and edehtatta, extending in some cases nearly to the pelvis. In certain cases, in
which it is necessary that the anterior members should be endowed with unusual strength,
as in the bats, nu^es, and armadillos, there is a projecting keel upon this bone (as in birds)
for the attachment of powerful pectoral muscles.
The cavity of the thtyraa, which is. bounded superiorly by the dorsal vertebrae, later-
^y by the ribs, and inferioriy by the sternum, is completely separated from the abdomi-
nal cavity in mammals (but in no other vertebrates) by the muscular septum known as
the diaphragm^ or midriff.
The ecapuiar areh in mammals is comparatively imperfect, its ooracoid element (see
CoRAOOiD Boirsft) not beinff sufllciently developed, except in the monotremata, to reach
the sternum, or to meet its fellow in the mesian line. Where the scapula has any bony
eonneetion wit^ the sternum, it is through the clavicle or collar-bone, which is frequently
absent The peMe eireh is always composed of the ilium, ischium, and pubis on either
U. K IX.— 27
Digitized by
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418
side, and ttaeae bones generally coalesce together^ as in man, at an eariy period of life;
but in the monotremata they remain separate. In the implacental mamouils (the mono-
tremata and- marsupialia), the pelyis presents this striking pectiliari^, viz., thax from
the symphysis (or mesial line of union) two additional bones, termed the marftupial
bones, project forwards and outwards, one of whose functions is to support the mar-
supiitm, or pouch, which is characteristic of the female marmipials. In the bat, the
peMs is greatly elongated, and the bones do not unite in the mesial line to form u
symphysis, so that tiie lower part remains open, as in birds; while in the cetacea, which
have no posterior limbs to be supported by the pelvis, that organ is esctremely rodimen
tary or even entirely absent. As a general rule, the pelvis of mammals is neYer-eo broad
as m the human subject, and its lateral waUs are always relatively smaller, flatter, and
longer.
The anterior etat&mittm are always present, although their modes of tsonfctmatioD
are very varied, acootding to the purposes for which they are designed; and tlie jmtmar
extremtiies, which are also always present, except in the cetacea, closely reseoiUe thcr
anterior; the difference being greater in man than in any other case, in consequence of
the special adaptation of the peiTic extremities for the support of his body in nm erect
position. The ordinary modifications of theas oi^gans are described in the articles Hanx>
and Foot. — See Owen On the Nature of Limbs.
The teeth of mammals constitute so <Aaracteri8tic a feature in their organization, and
are of so much service in their classification, as to require a special- notice. The only
animals of this class in which teetlr ara altogether absent are the true ant^aters and the
monotremata. The number of teeth is generally much more restricted than in reptiies
or fishes. In most mammala it is the dame as in man— -viz., 82; but the typical number^
according to Owen, is 44. The largest number of teeth occurs in the armadillos (in one
species of which are 98 simple molars), and in the dolphins, which have from 100 to 19D
teeth. When the teeth are in these excessive numbers^ they are small, nearly equal,
and usually of a simple conical form, but excepting in these cases, most mammals hare
particular teeth for special purposes; thus, the front teeth, from being commonly
adapted to effect the first coarse division of the food, are called cutters, or indeore; and
the back teeth, which complete its comminution, grinders, or moiars; wiule the brge-
conical-pointed teeth (of which there is never more than one in each half ]»wX vbieb
are speciall^r adapted for holding the food while the animal tears it asunder,, are* called
holders, laniaries, or more commonly eaninen, from being well developed in the dog.
The incisors and canines may be absent, but except in tlie cases previouslv mentioned,
the molars are always present. The mode in which the teeth are implanted in the jaw
is characteristic of the class. Excepting in those teeth which grow fix»m persistent palps
(as the front teeth of the rodents, for example), the dental cavity is closed in at its
extremity, and the tooth is prolonged into a fang, which is implanted in a socket lined
by periosteum, to which the exterior of the fang is firmly adherent; tiiere being never a
continuous ossification or anchylosis of the tooth to the jaw. Again, the fane of the
molars is usually divided into two, three, or even four divergent processes, and there is
no known fish or reptile in which even a bifid fang occurs. TeeUi are confined in this
class tb the maxillary, pre-maxillary, and lower maxillary bones, and form only a single row
in each; and, in general, teeth are situated in all these bones. In all existing mammais.
except man, there is a vacant space between the incieor and canine teeth. No mammal
has more than two sets of teeth; most, however, have two; the first, which are called
temporary, deciduous, or milk teeth, being displaced, and succeeded by the permanent
teeth. For a description of the structure and principal forms of these organs, we must
refer to the article Tkbth, and to prof. Owen's magnificent Odoniograpii^,
The (UgeeUve a/pparatus (of which the teeth may be considered a portion) acquires its
greatest completeness and elaboration in this group. The leading differences which it
presents, and which depend mainly on the nature of the food, have been already noticed
in the article Digestion.
The organs of cireulttiionemd respiration require no special remark, as, in ail essential
C' its, they closely resemble the corresponding organs in man. Bee Cebculation and
PIRATION.
The kidneys of mammals generally agree with those of man in their internal stnic-
ture. See Kidkbtb. In some animals (especially those that live in water), they are
much lobulated. In the ox, there are 20 free roumied lobules; in the bear, 40 or w; in
the seal, 70 or 100; while in the true cetacea, the separate lobules are so nimerous as to
^Ive a racemiform appearance to the kidney. All mammals are provided with a urinary
bladder, in which the excretion may accumulate so as only to require being discharged
at intervals. This organ is largest in the herbivora, and very small in the cetacea
The nervous sj/stem is remarkable for the large size of the brain, and especially of i\»
hemispheres, in comparison with the rest of the nervous system. The suifaoe of the cerebral
hemispheres exhibits a more or less convoluted appearance, the number of theconvohi-
tions beine to a great degree in correspondence with the amount of intelligence of the
animal. The hemispheres are united at their lower parts (except in the implaoentid msm*
mala) by a fibrous band or commissure, termed the cosfms eaiimim, which does not occur
in the other vertebrates. In the lowest mammals, the cerebellum is situated quite liehind
the hemispheres, so as to be visible from above; as we get higher in^^^a^iJt is more
419
or IflMCOvered, IniooBAeqaenceof the prolongHtion of tbebenfi^hefeKbackwaTds; until
ia the^ji^est apes aod in man it is almost completely concealed,
ThiB ^rffant <if tike eentes are constructed on precisely the some plan as in man. The
moat important TariaJlans are noticed in the articles Eab, En:, etc.
The mtucalarsfwtemgeaerdXly accords iirith that of man, bat presents many Temailcable
deviationa, acoordmg t» the form of the skeleton, the use of the seveial organs in the act
of locomotion, the nalaral posture of the anhnal, etc
From the structunU characteristics and peculiarities of mammals, we turn to that class
of animals in ^ir relations to man.
The uMs to which imammals are subservient are almost innumemble, and will readily
suggest Ihemselyes.
fiTammab. are Terr generally distributed over the surface of Ae riobe. The mammalia
of cert^ r^ons evince vety decided peculiarities of structure anddistribution, as is well
exempfified oy the case of the two lowest or implaeental orders — the monotremata and
warmpittUa, both of wkaeh (with the sole exeeption of the opossum, one of the manttfi-
€lia, in America) are confined to the Australkn province. Many other facts of equal
interest Jb the distribotion of mammals will be reaoily ascertained in Mr. A. R Wallaoe's
QeogrdpMxU Digtnbatwn (1876).
Tlie Babdivision of the mammals into these orden closely approximates to that of
Cuyier, aamay be seen by m lefo^noe to the following table of his sub-classes and orders
«f the manmalia:
HomOy
PUUffrrklna,
Cheiroptera,
'BUANA,
QUADBDMAIIA,
tVQXnaOLLtJL,
rwiththreettMlsof
CARNAaxA (the
CABNAflSIKBB
of Cvvier,
Mabmovulil,
Ape.
Miumoset.
VUhcMHeaiifMa,
WUlwut indflon.
UHQUIaATA,
MUnLATA,
JSdehftata,
SPjCflnroSBIfATA,
SOMDUIRU,
Jtueetivora,
JHdtmhu»j
Phiikmgiata,
MacropuB,
^Fhatcolomif§^
Claviculata,
Non-clavictUatOi
BradypuB^
DaenffUM,
Myrmecophaga,
MonotrematOf
Proboeeidea,
Ordhutria,
Soiidunguia^
Bat
Hedgehoff.
Shrew.
Mole.
Bear.
iSS:
:
Kangaroo.
Wombai^
Rat
Hare.
Sloth.
AimadiUa
Ant-eater.
1 Echidna^
r <lmltborhynohii&
Horn.
j Herfrivora^
I Ordinaria,
Whale.
This dartlflcmtion is given in the present article because, although imperfect In many
respects (for example, in placing the sloth above the horse, the Imt above the dog, and
the hedgehog above the elephant), it has been retained in a large number of popular
works. In consequence of these o][)vious imperfections, subsequent attempts at new
classlQcationa h»ve been made by several of the most eminent zoologists, some of whom,
as AVaterhouse and Owen, have taken the brain, and others, as Milne-Edwards, Gervais,
and Tpgt, the placenta, as the basis of classification. Our limited space forbids us from
discussing tlie merits of these systems. The grounds on which prof. Owen bases his
cerebral classification may be found in his essay On the Clamfieation and Oeographieal
DigtrtbuUon of the Mammalia, 1859; while the arguments in favor of the placental class!-
flcation may be found in prof. Huxley's lectures on classification, published in the Medicai
Timee itat the year 1868.
Foml Ifammiaia.— The remains of mammalia are generally found in a fragmentary
eondltipn ; but there is a valuable compensation to the student of these higher organisms,
for in them the parts are so differentiated that the smallest fragment— a tooth or a bone
—often tells more to the comparative anatomist than the complete skeleton of some of
the lower classes.
No relics of mammalia have been detected in the palseozoic rocks, the earliest we are
acquainted with belong to secondary strata. These are the remains of miorolesUs from
the Keuper^ unless the jaws of the dramatherium from an American coal-bed, which is
probably of triassic age, be older. ITie nUeroleates, of which the teeth only have been
found in (Germany and In Somerset, is considered by Owen to have been allied to the
small marsupial and Insectivorous myrmeeMus of Australia. The next remains of this
class have been found in the Btonesfleld ttlate, a member of the oolite. They consist of
teeth and lower jaws, which have been referred to four genera, three of which are thought
to have been marsupial insectivora, while the other {HereogrujOhuB) was a placental mam-
mal, probably a hoofed, and consequently a herbivorous animal, alliea to the eocene
Mammary. 420
hyraeoilierium. Mr. Heckles has recently found the remains of twelve or thirteen species
Imlougiug to eight or nine genera of mammalia — ^placental and marsupial— *in the Porbeck
l)eds, the newest of the oolites. The great series of the chalk formations has liilherto
yielded no mammalian fossils. We are certainly acquainted with only a small fraction
of the mammals of the secondary measures. When more continued and careful research
is made, greater results must follow. Mr. Beckles recently uncovered 22 ^ards square
of the very thin dirt-bed of the Purbeck, from which previously the remams of only a
^iugle species had been obtained, and this very limited space yielded up to him the
remains of no less than twelve or thirteen new species.
As we rise through the tertiary deposits, tlie number of mammalia greatly increase.
Nearly 50 species were described by Cuvier from the eocene strata of the Ruria basin;
and since his time, numerous additions have been made by Owen and others. They are
chiefly i>achyderms, belonging to the genera palaotherium, anopUfiherium, hyraeotkaiam,
<^tc. ; but with them are associated the remains of an opossmn and of severtd camivorouB
animals. Not only do the number of species increase m the miocene beds, but they rep-
resent a larger number of orders. Tliere hove been discovered two monkeys, numerous
proboscidian pachyderms, as the dinotlierium, masiodoTi, and elephant^ two or three eeta-
<:eans, an enormous aut-cater, aud several carnivora. The fossils of the pleiocene and
pleistocene beds are still more numerous, and represent a race of animals not uj^e the
living fauna, but generally of a gigantic size. The elephants, elks, and bears of Burope
w^ere the contemporaries of immense sloths and armadillos in South America, and of
huge kangaroos and birds in Australasia. Associated with the bones of some of these
extinct si>ecies have been found flint implements, and even the bones of man, but under
circumstances tbat have caused great difference of opinion among observers as to their
true age. See Man.
MAM JI ART OLAHDi Anatomt OF. See Breast.
MAMMABT GLAND, Diseases op. The following are some of the most important
of ihcw? affections.
Acute inflammation of the brecuft, wliich is characterized by great swelling, tenderness,
pain, aud fever. There is a knotty feeling in the inflamed part, and matter soon forms;
but the abscess is often slow in pomting. The affection may occur at any period of lac-
tation, and sometimes arises from very trifling causes — as a loaded state oi.tbe bowels,
too stimulating a diet. etc. The bowels should at once be cleared out by sharp pui^-
tlves; leeches and fomentations should be applied; the arm on the affected side should
rest in a sling: and an opening should be. made where matter can be felt The milk
should also be regularly drawn off, if it can be done without extreme pain.
Sf)re iitpjyf^K are a frequent cause of the preceding disease. Among the remedies for
excoriations, cracks. Assures, and ulcerations of the nipple which cause great pain in
Hijckling, are the application of strong astringent lotions (tannin lotion, tor example),
foufhinsr the sore point with solid nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), and especially the
application of collodion. In bad cases, a metallic shield must be placed on the mpple.
to ])rote('t it fmm the clothes and from the child's mouth. The regular application of n
liniment of rectilled spirits and olive oil in equal parts will sometimes prevent this affec-
tion
The mam maty gland is also liable to hydatid disease (see Hydatid), to the morbid
^rrowth known Tu^ chronic tumor, serocyBtic disease, or glandular tumor, etc,, and to
iaucer (q.v.).
JCAMMEE APPLE, Mammea Americana, a hiehly esteemed fruit of the West India
(where it is sometimes called the toild apricot) and tropical America. It is produced by
a beautiful tree of the natural order guttifera, 60 to 70 ft. high. The fruit is roundish,
from the size of a hen's e^j^ to that of a small melon, with a thick leathe^ rind, and a
\ory delicate inner rind acSiering closely to the pulp, which must be carefully removed
Am account of its bitter taste. The pulp is ^rm and bright yellow, with peculiar sweet
and verv nen^eable tasie. and a pleasant aromatic odor. A similar fruit is produced by
viaiitiutu Afrivfuui, an African species.
[MOLA, a t. of south Italy, in the province of Reggio, 7i m. from Cleraoe. It
stands in a beautiful ami fertile district on the Locano. Pop. 72, 7,804.
Mi\3IM0K, a Chaldee word denoting riches, and so used often in the Cbaldee Tar-
;gumsand in the Syrisc version. This meaning is given by Tertullian, Jerome, and
IVugustine; and so Christ emplo3'8 it in Luke xvi. 9, 11, but Christ uses it also as a per-
sonification of the god of riches, as, *' Ye cannot serve €k)d and mammon." The deriva-
tion of the word is doubtful.
MAM'MOTH, the Hussian name for the fossil elephant, whose remains are so oommon
5 I the recent deposits of northern Europe. For a description of it, see the article Fossa
JOr.KPHANT. The name is sometimes erroneously given to the mastodon.
MAMMOTH GAVE, the largest known cavern in the world, is in Edmonson co., Et.,
near Green river, 130 m. s.k.w. of Lexington, on the road to Nashvill& It oonsistsoia
^5ries of caverns, and has been explored to a distance of 10 miles. lA this cavm there
Digitized by VjOUV IC
421 ?K?"*^-'
Maviw (iPoaBed by a boat, and various cyeleas animals are found, among others t!«o
"bUsd fish" {eoMpitptU ipelmtLg). Stalactites hang from the limestone rocks, and t\.".
earth Is rich in niter. The equable temperature and nitrous atmosphere of thectivcr..
having been recommended as a remedy for diseaws of the lungs, a hotel was built in ou.*
of itae hum chauibers of the oave, for the accommodation of consumptive and nsthmni :• •
patients; out the use of it has been long discontinued. There are many circumstftiKHr.
to prove thai the Mammoth cave is part of the course of a subterranean river wWuh
existed in a former condition of thb sarfaoe.
MAMMOTH CAVE (ante), though the largest, is but one of a very large series of
cftvea, lying beneath extensive districts of both Tennessee and Kentuckv. It was die
eovered ia 1800, and has always been private property. The principal stream, EcIki
rirer» ia> neaf ly three-quartera en a mile m length and has underground communicHiioii
with Qreen river; the Styx is about 460 ft. long and is remarkable for a natural bridgi^
of gieat beauty. Passages and avenues connect chambers or halls, placed at differoiit
levels; thus showing the slow progress of the stream in its course through the eartli.
Accurate measurement of the passages has never been permitted. The extreme length im
Mid lo be .from 8 to 10 m., while the total length of passages cannot be le«s than 15(>
miles. Several of the largest chambers, called domes, extend through the entire height
of the levelflL Of these the most notable are the Stella, Manunoth. and Oorin'8 domes,
each about 260 ft. high, and Lucy's dome, over MO ft. high and 60 ft. in diameter.
Cleveland avenue extends for more than 2 m. and presents a most wonderful vaiieiy ot'
crystala And incrustations, *' some massive and splendid; others delicate as the lil^."
All of the halls offer to view numbers of stalagmites and stalactites, which in their
varied and fantastic shapes — sometimes exhitnting weird or grotesque resembhince to
natural or architectural objects — form, in conjunction with the streams and fountains, thu
]nctaiesque scenery of the cavern. Startling effects are produced by the use of lights and
'firework^, the Star chamber showing on its ceiling myriads of the glistening points from
which it takes its name.
Geologists asc^^ a million years as the approximate term for the production of thi::
series of caves. There is at present no growth, but, on the contrary, a slow but continiiai
decrease in size by the natural causes of decay and accretion. The process of formation
seems to have been as follows: in their course through the soil the streams absorb u largt^
amount of carbonic acid gas; this possesses the chemical power of taking up considerable
quantities of carbonate of lime, thus by varied action forming large cavities, and depasit-
ing the carbonate, in part, on ceiling or floor or in the stalagmite and stalactite forms, and,
in partv carrying it off into the river. In this way the caverns are in succession produced
and cdoeed up.
The variations in both the insect and fish life of the Mammoth cave from the onlinaiy
type are scientifically of the highest interest as bearing upon and, it is claimed, favoring
liie doctrines of evolution and natural selection. That variation has taken place to
accommodate animal life to exigencies of environment cannot be doubted, when we
examine the blind and the totally eyeless species of fish and crawfish here found. It \h
not improbable that, if more thoroughly explored, fossil testimony of great value might
be discovered
MAMOV, Abit'l Abbas Abdalla Al, Caliph of Bagdad, of the Abbaside dvnasty, and
son of Haroun al-Raschid, was b. in Bagdad, 786, and Drought up along with nis brothers
under the care of the most iUustrious men of the time. In 800 a. D. he was invested with
the government of Khorassan; and after dispossessing his elder brother, Al Amin, who
had ascended the throne on the death of their father, became caliph, Oct. 4, 813. His
reign was disturbed bv internal dissensions, and rebellions of the outlying province.^.
AMca and Yemen declared themselves independent, the subjection of Egypt, Syria, and
Mesopotamia was mereljr nominal, but the rest was well and benefioently governed.
Civilisation advanced with rapid strides; ruined towns and deva^ated tracts were
restored; and distributions from the royal treasury made to those who had suffered from
earthauakes, drought, or any other unavoidable cause. In 827, Mamun abjured the
orthodox religion, and jjoiped the heterodox sect called Motasalis, compelling a number of
his subjects to foUow his example. Towards the close of his reiCT, a war broke put witii
the Greek emperor Theophilus, and soon afterwards Mamun died, Aug. 9,, 834.' Mamuu
was the most learned and liberal of the Abbaside caliphs, and is said to have expended
300,iN)0 dinars (£187,500) on the translation of the works of the ancient Qreek philosophers
into Arabic these works having been preseoted to him bv the Byzantine emperor. He
highly encoumged mathematics and astronomy, founded observatories at Bagdad and
Kaaian (near I^mascus), caused a degree of latitude to be measured, and the i obliquity
ol the e^Diic to be estimated. His new city of Bagdad became the abode of men of
science and letters, who flocked to it from all quarters; and Mamun himself personally
•operiiUaiided their kbors. Mamun has left three works, two of which are on religious
wdecta. ^
ItAV. Under this heading, it Lb proposed to consider various topics relating to (he
physiology and natural histoiy of man, which have not been treated of in independent
'' ^ ^ Digitized by VjUUVIC
jurtidfls, «ach as the derelopment of the physical qualities cT mtm^ tfte disffintive
^hanet^istics otman, and the ai[iti<|uity of Uie human fMe. Ike-quesoatt tf Ite uom
or ▼aiieties of man has been already discussed in the article ^arHUduM^; ana totvatm-
mation regardiaff the mental and social nature of man, the nader la MfiftiM to^lhe
jurticles Ethics, Instinct, Intbllextf, Minb, etc.
In tracing the develo|»ment of the physical qualities, we shaU follow ibfi arrangtment
pursued by Quetelet in his celebrated treatise Sur VHifmrne, •,..!"..
It is a very remarkable fact, the true causes of which we do mat know, that mora-hm
are bom annually than girls. Taking his data ttOBOi the prineipal ihuopelbi stattos, H.
; Bickes (quoted by Quetelet), who has collected more than 70^000,000 of obeervalioiis.
I ^ds that in Europe generally 106 males ar6 bem to 100 feitiAles. Ilk Great BritaiDt the
ratio is not quite so high, being 101.70 to 100. To some extent,, the age of tiki panats
influences the sex of the children, and Mr. Sadler was led to the' cbnalUBtcta, thai ^ the
ratio in which the sexes are bom is legulated h^ the difBareaee of age of tlie pannts, in
such a manner that the sex of the father or tie ihother will prepoSderate hesfsmd the
average of the total number of birtfas, aceording to the party whkh has the eixoen of age."
The probable value or duration of life immediately- after Ubrth is, in gencnral; about 25
years in Belgium (Quetelet), 82.2 in France, 83 yean in ISn^nd (Rickman), and 47.2 in
Oeaeva (Lombard). Towards the age of Ave years, the dianees-of protonged life for
both sexes is greatest, ranging from 48- to 50 years. It islmpoeaible to staite with Seientific
precision what is the natural length of a man's life, when all abnonnat disturMig causes
are removed; but so few persons exceed the- age of 100 years that a centuiy may be
taken as the limit of man's existence.
The development of the height, weight, and strength^ at different agea, has been
studied by Quetelet, J. D. Forbes, Danaon, and otheiSw From a lat)ee numb«r «l obser-
vations made by Quetelet in fielgitun, he deduces the following eonunsions:
1. From birth there is an inequality both in weight and height between children of
the two sexes: the average weight of a boy at birth being 8.20, and that of a giri 2.91
kilograms (1 kilogram=2.2 lbs.); the height of a boy being .496, and that of a girl .488
meters (1 meter =8. 28 ft.). 2. The weight of a child diminishes sliffhtly towards the
third day after birth, and does not begin to increase sensibly until aner the ftrat week.
8. At equal a^, the boy is generally heavier than the girl. It is only at abont the age
I of 12 that the individuals of both sexes are of the same weight. Between 1 and 11 yesFR
] the difference in weight ranges from a kilogram to a kilogram and a half; between
16 and 20, it is nearly 6 kilograms; and after this period, 8 to 9 kilograms. 4. When
man and woman have attained their full development, tliey weigh afanost 20 UmcN
as much as at birth; while their height is about 8i times greater than it was at that period.
^. la old age, man and woman lose about 6 or 7 kilograms in weight, and 7 centi-
meters in heiglit. 6. Man does not acquire his complete growth till after he h&s com-
pleted his 2dth year; he attains his maximum weight at 40, and b^ns to waste
eensibly after his 60th year. 7. Woman attains her maximum weight at the age of 50.
During her reproductive period, the increase of her we^ht is very alight. 8. The weight
of individuals who have been measured, and who were rully developed and well formed,
varies within extremes which are nearly as 1 to 2; while the height varies within limits
which at most are as 1 to H, as may be seen from the following observed vfdues:
Maximum. Minimum. Average.
Weight of man 98.5 kilog. 49.1 kilog. 63,7 kilog. I
J^-' " woman 93.8 " 39.8 *' 55.2 '*
.< J Height of man 1.890 meters, 1.476 meters, 1.684 meten
'""^' woman 1.740 " 1.408 " 1.579 "
Quetelet instituted a series of experiments on the strength of persons of both sexes at
varioua ages. He determined l>oth the lumbar power (the weight that could be carried
on the back) and the power of the hands by means of Regnier's dynamometer.
From his tabulated results, it appears that the lumbar power of females differs less
from that of males during child hooa than subsequently. During childhood, the himbar
power of boys is about one^third more than that of girls; towards the age of puberty,
one-half; while in adult life it is more than twice as great. The average strength of »
" well-developed man is 89 kilograms, or nearlv 19 kllegrams more than his weight
in his dress, so that such a man might hold on for a short time by a rope with a weight
4>f 19 kilograms attached to his body. From experiments on the power of the hands,
dt appears that the manual power of the male sex is greater than that of the female at
All ages. Before puberty, the ratio is 3 to 2, and it afterwards becomes 9 to 5. It also
appears that the hands acting together produce a greater effect than the mm of the
iCffects they produce when acting singly; and that the right hand is about one-rfxth
stronger than the left.
Pruicipal Forties made a series of experiments on English. Scotch, and Iriirti slndents,
which, in most respecte, are strongly confirmatory of Quetelet's results, but whiph evfnrc
the superior development of the natives of this. country, eapecially in stmgtlcvThe
following numbers are selected from Forbes's tables:
Digitized by VjOUV VC
423
inaOHT IN POUNDflt ZNCLUDINO CLOTHBA.
M^
Engltah.
Sootoh. Iiteh.
¥^9AaA)
16
127
135.5 138
117:5
30
144
146.5 148
148.0
34
150
153.0 155
149.5
HBiaaT IS INCHS8, nSChVBTSQ 8HOK&
16
66.6
66.8
64.3
30
68.7
63.1 69.8
67.«
>34
6a9
69.3 70.3
errBENOTH vx pouinML
68J»
16
886
814
386
30
885
893 416
«10
34
403
431 481
887
If we proceed to compare the human figure with that of the animals which in their
fonn approidmate most closely to man (viz., the anthropoid apes), the chief point that
strikes us is the great relative size of the haman bram-case and brain, and the compara-
tively small size and vertical direction of the face; the great length and muscularity of
the lower eztremitiea, and their adaptation to the erect position; the adaptation of the
ittod to the great variety of actions of which it is capable, due mainly to the fact, that
the tliumb can be opposed to the extremities of all the fingers, whether singly or in
combination; the greater breadth of the pelvis, etc.
Those, however, who are inclined to support Mr. Darwin's hypothesis, maintain,
that whatever system of organs be studied, the comparison of their modifications in the
ape series leads to one and the same result—that the structural differences which sepa-
rule mail from the gorilla and Uie chimpanzee are not so great as those which separate
the ^lla from the lower apes. This by no means Implies that the structural dif-
ferences between man and the highest apes are small and inaigniflcant; it is admitted,
00 the contrary, "that they are great and significant; that every bone of the gorilla
bears marl^s by which it might be distinguished from the corresponding bone of a man;
asd that, in the present creation, at any rate, no intermediate link bridges over the gap
between honw and ^rogriady^M.— Huxley.
The last point we shall notice is: When did man first appear upon the surface of the
globe! All that can be definitely stated upon this sub|)ect is, that the geological
researches of Boucher de Perthes, Falconer, Prestwich, sir Charles Lyell, and many
othere, show that while it is impossible to fix the date of man's appearance, or even to
approximate to it, there is apparent evidence of his existence far bevond that which is
assigned by our popular chronology. The flint implements which have been dis-
eoTered in the lower gravels of Abbeville and elsewhere, have been already noticed in a
special article, and their occurrence in association with the fossil bones of extinct
mammals, and tike other evidence of their antiquity deduced from their geological
position, have been there described.
The Brixham caverns afford similar and corroborative evidence of the antiquity of
man. They were discovered accidentally in 1858 by the roof of one of them falling in.
Below a thfck stalagmite crust, which formed their floor, and which contained some of
the hones of the cave-bear, was a mass of loam of an ocherous red color, in some parts
13 ft. In thickness, in which were found remains of the mammoth, an extinct rhinoce-
ros, the cave-bear, etc.. and from various parts of these deposits flint-knives were
obtained. Under the bone-deposit was a bed of gravel, which in some parts was more
than 20 ft thick. It contained no fossils, but even in its lowest parts were found speci-
mens of ffiat knives. The fabricators of these knives must have lived long antecedently
to the time when the work of their hands was covered with stalagmite; and contempo-
raneoos with the stalagmite must have been the cave-bear, whose t)6ne8 were imbedded
in it. The ossiferous caves of South Wales (Glower), Sicily, etc., yield similar results.
^ KBNfs Catekn.)
There k reason to believe that in the island of Sardinia the land has risen 100 ft. since
miB tababtttti its shores, possessing at that time the art of fishing by nets and of mak-
iflf a eoane pottery. The western extremity of the islaiMi of Crete has been raised about
^ ft dace the coostraction of its ande&t ports, whicb are now high and dry alrove the sea.
Supposinz the monemeiit to have been>ttiilform and eqnal in tiie two triands, the mussel-
b^ of Gagliari (« Sardinia) must have emeiigiBd from- the sua inore than 20,0(»0 years
*^; but before that time, man fl^ed tee walevs over them, if count de la Marmora is
nght la conjecturing that a flat bal( of baked earthen-ware, wilh a holb through its axis
<which was fomiid Imbedded among tbeni), was vsed for weighting a flshing^net.
OurhMt illustration shall be taken ^m the New World. Agassifc estimates that the
N&Oiera half of the peninsula of Florida, wfaieh is built tip of coral rei^B; took 185,000
yean to form; an^heoce he would eatimafte the age* of the human Jawe«ad testh aAd
hones of the feet fovnd in one «f the' coral banks to be 10^00<^ years old. • '
For ffvftheriiifonaation on tiiis intereating and diffieultsubje^^.w^^^^^vf^^t^
Maaehe.
4tU
reader to. sir Charles Lyell'swork Oni?u Antiquity of Man. It is right to add tha
Ihiany still dispute the concluBions drawa from these facts; see The EumoM Species, b
Quatrefages (1879).
MAN(anti). See BiOLoaY; Specibs.
KAHAAB', Gulf of. lies between the w. side of the island of Ceylon and Hindnstan
and is divided from Palk's passage on the n. by the islands of Ramisseram and ManaAr
and by a low>reef called Agam's bridge. Aths n.e. extremity it is 80 m. in width; wliil
at its sou til -western limit it raaches a width of nearly 200 mifes.
HLKSkCAyFranciBcea uniflora or Hopeana, a plant of the' natural order sefvphulariaeea
a native of Brazil. The whole plant, and especially the t'oot, is found to be of giea
value in exciting the lymphatic system. It Is nauseously bitter, pui^gatlve. emeiic
emmenagogue, and alexipharmlc; in overdoses, an acrid poison. It is much used i:
Brazil as a remedy for syphilis.
KAKAOOB', a t. in the island of Majorca (q.v.). in a fertile plain, 80 m. e. of Palma
It manufactures brandy, wine, and oil. Pop. 10,000l
XAHA'GUA, a t of Central America, the capital of Nicaragua, in a healthy and fcrtil
district on the south shore of lake Managua or Leon. It owes its position chiefly to tli
rivalries of the cities of Granada and Leon, but partly also to its central situation.
MAN'AKIN, one of the names of a bird belonging to the order in&u&oret^ called al»
chatterer (q. v.).
MANASSAS, Battles of. See Bull Run.
KAHAB'SEH, (from Heb. Nasha, to forget, signifies, " one who causes to for^t"), th
name of the eldest son of Joseph. At the Exodus, the tribe of Manassch is said to hav
counted 32,200 warriors, and on entering Canaan, 52,700. It received land on both Fide
of the Jordan. The eastern half embraced the rich oasture-lands of Argob and Bahhan
as far as the slopes of Hermon; the western extended from the Jordan to the Meditern
nean, and lay between Ephraim and Issachar. Manasseh was also the name of one o
the kings of Judah (the fourti'enth), who succeeded his father Hezekiah, 699 b.c., at th
age of 12, and reigned, according to the narrative, for #5 ^cars. He rushed headlong iul
aU manner of idolatry, and seduced the people to follow his example. The sacred writer
cannot otherwise express their sense of the enormitv of his guilt than by saying that th
very heathen never went so far in their practice of abominations as Judah did in tlios
days. Ilis subsequent history is differently related in Chronu*ks&nd in the BookofKingi
The apocryphal composition called the Prayer of Mannsses is received as canonical b
the Greek church.
MANASSEH bbn-Josefh ben-Israsl, 1604^7, b. Lisbon; educated at Amsterdan
where his father had removed to escape persecution. At the age of 18 he took the plac
of his former instructor, rabbi Isaac Uzziel, in the Amsterdam svnagoguei In 1632 Ii
set up a Hebrew printing-press at Amsterdam, and in 1632 publisned the first volume (
his (fondliador, the Latin edition of which bears the title of Conciliator, sivede Contenienti
loeorum S. ScHptura, etc. It is a learned harmouv of the Pentateuch. Its author was i
once recognized as the first Hebrew scholar in England, and among bis conespondeoi
were Vossius, H. Qrotius, and Huet. In 1639, deprived of his property by the Spanis
inquisition, he removed to Basle, and beean business as a merchant fie came to £n|
land in the time of the protectorate with the view of securing from Cromwell the conce
sion of additional rights to the Jews. He met with a favorable reception, and succeeds
in accomplishing some of the objecta of his mission, after which he returned to Am^tc
dam. Ete was a friend of Grotius, and other famous scholars, and his own literary activif
was great Besides the Conoiliadar, he published editions of the Talmud, and Uie Hehre
Bible; A Defense of the Jews in Englana, which appeared at London, during his Englii
visit, a work on the resurrection of the dead; and various other treatises. There is s
English translation of the CondUadoTt by E. H. Lindo; and an English life of Hanassel
by Dr. Thomas Pococke.
KAHATEE', or Lamantin, Manatue, a genus of herbivorous cetaoea or tnaiMitMi
(q:y.). readily diatibguished by Uie rdundcd tail-fin, aAd further ohanactodMd by tl
presence of smalt flat nula at me edge of the sivimmiiig paws, and by. the atructure i
the grinders, which have eKiiure crowns with two tranavene ridgea. Tiie species, whi<
are all inhabttanta of tropical eoasta, feed not only on al|p», Imt on the plants whi<
grow along the shore, and at« vendered aooesaible to them by the tide, vhioh, after it hi
retired, often exhibit plain proofa of their browsing. They Hve chiefly in ahallow baj
and creeks, and in the estuaries of rivera, and often aaeend rivers to MP"^^ distan
from the aea. The beat known species {M» .iintfrieatetM) is found in the West Indies ai
on the western ooasta of tropical America. Jt aometimea httaina a lencth of 80 ft., at
a weight of 8 or 4 tons. The sldn iayeiy thick and stroing, and ia almost destitute <
hair. The fingers can be readily felt in the swimming pawa, and, connected together^
they «re,.poe8e8a oonsiderable pover df notioii, whence the nam* manatee (from Lt
manue^ a hand). The menatee Is uanally found in iierda, which combine for mutii
mtecti^n when attacked, placing the yonng in the center. When one is strockwith
hariKMn, the others try to tear out the weapon. The fenudes show gi^At affection H
their Young. No animal is more gentle and inoftenaive than the manatee. It has been
tamed and rendered familiar enough to come for food when called. Vast numbers were
formerly found in places wheit it is nOTT c6m'paratively rare, as its capture is easv, and
its flesh — ^which has been variously likened ' to beef and pork — ^is held in consiaerable
esteem. A common name for the manatee is sea-cow. — Another species is found on the
coast of Florida, and a third on the w. coast of Africa.
MlANAT£E^ a co. of s.w. Florida on the|pulf o^ Mexico, having the Caloosahatchee
river on the s., and lake Okeechobee on the s.e.; watered by the Manatee river and small
streams; 4,070 sq.m. ; pop. *80, 3,655. The surface is generally level, and the soil not
very productive; it grows, however. Indian corn, sweet potetoes. rice, and a little sugar
and cotton. Co. scat, Manatee.
MANATIB£, a family of cetacea, including all the herbivorous section of the order.
Besides the distinguishing characteristics meutioued in the article Cstaciu, they differ
from the ordinary cetacea in having swimming paws rather than pectoral fins. It hiis
been supposed that some of the stones of mermaids may have originated in the females
of some of the manltidse being seen with the head and breasts raised out of the water.
There are three genera of manitida*. described in the articles Dugong, Makatek, and
Stellerike. '
MANAYUKK', a part of the city of Philadelphia, on the e. bankd the Schuylkill
river, and on the Reading railroad; connected with the heart of the citv hy steam and
horse cars.rboats on the ^diuylkill, and a well-made highway. The canal oi the Schuyl-
kill navigation company, extending 2 m. along the river, affords extensive water-power,
which is employed m the manufacture of cotton and woolen ffoods and paper. There
are 30 manufacturing establishments, with a capital of $6,(W0,000, employing nearly
5,060 persons, and producing goods annually valued at $10,000,000. The place has 8
churches, 2 weekly newspapers, 1 bank, 5 insurance companies, excellent schools, water
and gan works, and a good market-house.
KANBY, Geohg^ WiLt.iAM, favorably known for his exertions in saving the lives of
persons in danger of shipwreck, was b. in 1765 at Ililgay, near Downham market in
Suffolk. Af ter^studying for the army, he served seven years in the militia. Receiving
the appointment of barrack-master at Yarmouth in 1808, he had frequent opportunities
of witnessing the ravages produced by storms on the coast of Norfolk and Suffolk. A
dreadful series of shipwrecks ou a particular day in 1807, when H. M. gun-brig Snipe wa?*
wrecked within 60 yards of the shore, and 67 lives lost, and when 147 dead bodies were
found on about 80 m. of coast, drew his attention forcibly to the subject, and led him to
experiments which resulted in the invention of the apparatus known by his name (see Life
MoRTAiw AND Rockets). On Feb. 12, 1808. ho succeeded in saving the lives of the crew of
the br\g Elizabeth, which was stranded at 150 yards from the shore; he sent a rope over to
them by means of a shot, and this rope was tlie means of pulling a boat from the shore to
the brig. A career of usefulness was thus commenced, which he followed for the
remafning 46 years of his life. In 1810 a committee of the house of commons voted
£S,000 to Manby, as a token of recognition of his services. Being appointed to report on
the dangers ef the Norfolk and Suffolk coasts, he recommencfed the establishment of
mortar^tationri It certain intervals. This recommendation was adopted by the bouse of
commooftand the government; and by the year 1815 there were nearly 60 such stations.
Capt. Manby received a further grant from parliament in 1828 of £0,000; to -which
were added honorary distinctions from many foreign governments. It was estimated
that, by the time of his death, nearly 1000 persons had been rescued from stranded ships
by nieans of his ^paratus. He wrote two works on his favorite subject: An Bkgaif on
the Ptes&rwUion of Shipwrecked Permns, mth a descriptive aeeotmtof theAppartUtu, etc.
(1812); and Pradical ObeervaXiam on tfie Pi'esermtiofi of Mdriner$ from Stranded VesaeU,
and the Prevention of Shipwreck (1827). In what manner his system has since been
superseded by one of a more effective kind, is described under Lav Mobtabs Ajn>
Rockktb: Capt Hanby died Nov. 18, 1854.
HAHCB, or Maunch (Fr. manche), a frequent charge in Bngllsh heratdry, meant to
repieMnt a sleeve with Imig pendant ends, of the form worn by ladies in the reign of
Heofy I. Or^ al manch gules, has been for a long time the arms of the Hastings family,,
one of whom was steward of the household to Henry I.
ICAV^SHA^ or IjA Mahciia, a district of Spain, in the province of Ciudad Real, and .
thetkiulKe^nmost part of the kingdom of New^ Castile. See CASTHiK.
ICAVjKEaS, « maritime department in the n, w. of France, formed from the most weat- ^
ern district of the old province of Normandy, derives its name from LaManche(the *
En^sh channel), which washes its consts. greatest length, 98 m. ; average breadth, 27
m, ; Urea, 1,426,289 acres. Pop. 76. 589.910. Of the entire area, 940,047 aoresare culti-
viited, an^ about 285.000 acres are in meadow, x'he surface of the department is irreg-
ular-hills of no great elevation traverse it from n. to south. The Vire, the Douve, and
the fielune are the chief rivers. The climate is mild and temperate, but somewhat
humid. Fla^ hemp^ and fruit are extensively cultivated. Immense quantities <^i
apples are rrpwn, from which 44,000,000 gallons of cider are made annually. Hprsea
of ttetru&lCorman breed are reared In the pastures, and excellent ctittle of large size
iae«l.
426
are bred in the valleys. The department is divided into the six anondissements of €t
L6, Coutances, Valognes, Cherbourg, Avranches, and Mortain. Capital, St M.
MANCHESTJER. a t. in Hartford co.. Conn.; 8 m. e. of Hartford, on the HaTtford,
Providence and FishkiU railroad; pop. 4,238. The place is extensively engaged m
manufacturiug, there being over a dozen paper mills, and others of woolen, cott^Q, npe-
dies, and so on. The largest of all is the silk factory of Cheney Bros., which w^tem 7
or 8 acres and employs more than JOOO operatives. There is a newspaper, library, town-
hall, and many schools, churches, and stores.
MANCHESTElR, a t. in Essex co.. Mass., on the n. shore of Massaqhusetts bay.
:and on the Qloucester branch of the Eastern railroad, 8 m. n.e. of Salem. JPop., Vm.
It lias 8 churches, a public library, and manufactures of leather and furniture. The
purity of the air and the fine o^an views make it an attractive summer resort for many
f esidents of Boston, New York, and other cities.
1IAHCHE8TEB, a city of New Hampshire, on the e. bank of the Herrimac river, at
the falls of Amoskeag, 18 m. s. of Concord. 59 m. n.w. of Boston. The town is laid
out in broad streets, shaded with elms, with 5 public squares. The falls of' 54 ft. in a
mile afford water-power to 6 manufacturing companies, with factories of cotton, paper,
locomotives, hardware, etc. There are also extensive print-works and starch-mills.
There are 16 churches, 45 public schools, 9 banks, and 2 daily and 3 weekly newspapers.
Pop. '88, 50; m 20,107; ^0, 23,588.
MANCHESTER (anfe), a city in Hillsborough co., N. H., is reached by 4 railroads,
the Concord, the Concord and Portsmoutli, Manchester and Lawrence, and Manchester
tmd North Weare. Its original name was Derryfield, under which it was incorporated
in 1751. Its present name was taken in 1810, and the city charter dates from 1846.
Cotton and woolen manufactories produce an enormous quantity of goods annuallv;
water-power being furnished by the Merrimac river through canals leading from the
Amoskeag falls to the mills, 4 of which have more than 300,000 spindles. There are
also extensive locomotive, leather, boot and shoe, and tool shops. Among the principal
public buildings are the court-house, state reform school, libr^, Roman Catiiolic con-
vent, and others. There are 7 newspapers, of which 2 are dailies; 9 banks, and a very
large number of schools and churches. The town was originally settled in 1722 by
Scotch-Irish Presbyterians. The amount of capital invested in manufactures cannot be
less than $10,000,000, and in this respect it is surpassed by only 3 or 4 cities in the United'
States. There is a great variety of manufactures besides those of cotton and woolen
goods, such as boots and shoes, stockings, paper, cutler}r, locomotives, steam-fire-engines.
The 4 great corporations are the Amoskeag manufacturing co., the Manchester mills, the
Stark mills, and the I^angdon mills. The city has an excellent supply of water from
Massabeesick lake, near by.
MANCHESTER, the capital of Bennington co., Yt., on the Harlem Extension rail-
road, 30 m. s. of Kutland. and 60 m. n. of Troy, ]N. Y.; pop. 1897. Its fine mountain
scenery, the purity of its atmosphere, and its picturesque walks and drives, mske it attract-
ive as a resort during the summer. It has 2 churches, a classical school for both sexes,
^ newspaper, and is the seat of the Burr and Barton seminary.
MANCHESTER^ a vilUge of Chesterfield co., Va., on the s. bank of the James
river, opposite Richmond, and the seat of important manufactures; pop. 2.609.
MAVGHESnB (Sax. Mamee%tre\ a city, municipal and parliamentary borough of'
Lancashire, and the great center of the cotton manufacture of the n.w. of Enpand,
stands on the Irwell, 82 m. e.n.e. of Liverpool, and 188 m. n.n.w. of London by railway.
On the w. side of the Irwell is the borough of Salford, communicating with that of Man-
•cltester by means of 10 bridges, and considered as virtually a portion of the city.
By the census of 1871 the inhabitants of the parliamentary borough of Manchester
were'88B,848, and the increase from 1851 was 67,255. In the adjoining boroueh of Sal-
ford the pop. 4n 1871 was 124,805, the increase from 1851 having been 89.662. The
area of the boroush of Manchester is 9.9 sq.m. ; of Salford, 7.9 sq.miles. Both boroujehs
were enfranchised by the reform bill of 1882, Manchester retumioe 2 members, mH Sal-
f Old one member, to parliament. The reform bill of 1867 gave Jlanoheeter 8, and Sal-
ford 2 members. Manchester was incorporated in 1838, and Salford ia 1844. Manchester
was made a bishopric in 1847, and received the title of city in 1858. Water lor the sup-
ply -of Manchester ia cpllected on the Lancashire side of Blackstone Edge, at Woedheao,
and conducted from a series of reservoirs through iron pipes, nearfy 20 m.. to the
borough. The water-works, in which are invested about £3.750,000, and the gastworks,
invoMng about £430,000, belong to the corporation. The manorial and market ri^ts
were also acquired by the corporation in 1845 for the sum of £200,000. There are 4
public markets in Mjanchester, and 2 in Salford, besides the cattle market Smithfield
market in Manchester is more than 4 acres in extent, and is entirely covered in. The
market-tolls and rents of Manchester alone amount to £35,000 per annum. Tlie sale of
gas makes a profit of some £44,000 per annum, which is devoted to improveai^ts in
the borough. In 1845-46 a public subscription founded 3 parks of about 80 acres each.
4ind the corporation has since acquired a fourth park of about 60 acres. Manch|BSl<rr was
4i]to the first borough to take advantage of the free libraries* act, which allocs anappto-
Digitized by VjOUV IC
427
pmtion of a penny in the poand on the local assessment for parks, libraries, luid
museutnf; and here also was established the first free lending libmrjr in Eaglaad. Fire
trancb lending libraries and a museum have since been established in Manchester,- and
<oii6 reference library, one branch lendine library, and an ezeellettt museum- fn Sal-
ibrd; 8o that, inciuaing the old college fibrary rounded by sir Biim|rtif«V Chcetham,
IIMB, the pople of Manchester and Salford have the free use ef uflwaMs i»f 180,000
yohimea of ancient and modem literature, besides new8|)apers and periodicals.
The two boroughs haye about 100 churches belonging to the establishment. The
cathedral, commonly called the old church, built 1422, is a very fine Oothic structure, and
has latterly undergone a very extensive process of restoration in its original style. There
are 17 Roman Oawolic and 180 dissenting chapels, some of which, esDeciallv Bt. John's
Cslholic cathedral, the church of the Holy Name, and Cavendish luclependeDt chapel,
are yery beautiful specimens of modem Oothic architecture. There are 8 Jewish syna
gOgues, 4 Qerman churches, and 1 Greek churdi. The principal pubhc bmldings for
secular purposes are the town- hall, built at the cost of three-fourths of a million sterling,
in Gothic; the royal inflrmaiy, (he royal exchange, the royal institution, all in the Grecian
style; the free-trade hall, in composite; and the assize courts, in decorated Gothic. There
is a home for 150 convalescents in the suburbs, founded by Robert Barnes, a former
mayor of Manchester. Many of the warehouses of the merchants are (Xkiatial in appear
ance, and the business transacted is quite in accordance with the magnitude of the build-
ings. The floor of tlie royal exchange contains about 5,170 square yards, and is yet
thronged on market-day. Manchester has four private and five loint-stdck banks, beeidee
branches of the bank of Ensland and the national provincial bank. The celebrated
Bridgewater canal connects Manchester with Liverpool, and access is also obtained for
heavy barg»ii by the rivers Irwell and Mersey. There is communication by railway in
every direction. When the widening of Deansgate, Victoria street, and St. Mary*a Gate
took plac^, it caused the demolition of considerable property, and the site was sold by
the corporation for £268,960, or £56 per square yard. In Albert square a prince Alliert
memorial has been erected. A bronze statue of Richard Cobden stands in St. Ann's
sQfuare; and there is one of Cromwell (unveiled in 1875) at the foot of Victoria street.
Manchester publiBhes 15 journals and newspapers, 5 of which are issued daily.
The efaiei trade is cotton spinning and manufacturing, including calico-printing and
Ueacfaing and dyeing; but there are also considerable manufactures of silk and mixed
goods, of small* wares, of machinery and tools, of paper and chemicals; and Manchester
is also a depot for all kinds of textfle fabrics, and does a very lai^ export trade. I'here ;
are ordinarily employed in the cotton mills about 60,000 persons, who earn about |
£80,000 per week in wages. There are at least 7,000 skilled mechanics constantly |
engajed in the production of steaiA-engines, spinning*mules, looms, and other machinery. ;
cfaleny for the production of the varions textile fabrics, whose wages average about 328.
each per week, and who need some 1500 laborers to assist them.
The educational endowments of Manchester are small compared with its population.
There is a hospital school for 100 boys, founded by Sir Humphrey Cheetham, and incor-
porated by Charles II. ; there is also a grammar-school, with about 250 free, and 850
paying pupils, founded 1510, by Hugh Oldham, bishop of Exeter. According to a
«choof l>oanl return in 1878, the number of dav-scholars in Manchester was 88,500 in
actual attendance; and in evening schools and literary institutions there are from 4,000
to 5,000 pupils. In 1646 John Owens, a Manchester merchant, left £100,000 to found a
college for secular instruction; and in connection with that institution, there are now
more than 800 day and evening students. The college is well conducted, and is steadily
rising in popularity. In 1878 a new building was erected at a cost of about £90,000, and
the royal school of medicine was incorporated with it, whilst the natural history society
and the geological societies handed over their collections into its keeping. A mechanics'
ln.stitution was commenced in 1824, and is still carrie<l on successfully. It has day and
evening classes, a good library and reading-room, and all the necessary appliances for
secondary education. Similar institutions on a smaller scale exist in Saifora, and in the
out-townsliips of Longsight, Rusbolme, Harpurhey, Cheetham Hill, and Pendleton. In
Manchester originated the agitation for free trade (see Aiiti-corn-law Lbaqub). Man-
chester was also the first place to secure the privilege of inland bonding for articles
chargeable with customs auties, and now produces a large revenue from that source.
cSimden, who died in 1628, says: "Where the Irk runs into the Irwell, on the left-
hand bank. 'and scarce three miles.fromi the Mersey, stands that ancient town called in
AnUminus (according to different copies), Mancunium and Manutkim. Perhaps, as an
inland town, it has tne best trade of any in these northern parts. The fustian manu-
facture, called Manchester cottons, stiTl continues there; this, With agi^eat variety of other
manufactures, (railed Manchester tpares, renders not only the town itself, bilt the parish
about it rich, populous, and industrious." The parish of Manchester tovers a large
area, reaching to Stockport, Oldham, and Ashton under-Lyne,"aiid in thte 6ariy part of
ihe 16th c. was reckoned to have 20,000 commtmicants'.
lUJSCB3mXL\ Eippomane mancineUa, a tropical American tree of the natural ofder
smMi^iatem, celebratea for the poisonous properties of Ihe 'ilcrid' milky jifice wilh
wMch every part of it abounds. A drop of this juice, whieh* is' o§,j!^^zW3f^?^^i^^*
428
Uumsltke fire if it falls upon the skin, and tlie sore which it produces is very difficult
to laeai. The Iiidians of tropical America use it for poisoning their arrows. The fruit
is iu form, color, and scent not unlike a small apple — the name is from the Spanisii
mandniUa, a small aople — and contains a nut ahout tlie size of a chestnut. The iluid
which the fruit conttons is mild«r tluiu that of other parXs of the tree, but its acridity i^
so great as immediately to repel any who, tempted by its appearance and citrou-lik*'
fragrance, may ignorantly attempt to eat it. The leaves are alternate, ovate, serrate,
ana shining. It is said that, owing to the volatile nature of the poisonous juice, per-
sons have even died from sleeping under the shade of the manchineel tree. Much seenij!
to depend on the state of the atmosphere, and there is good evidence that rain or dew
falling from the branches of the manchineel does produ(!e injurious effects. The fruit
of manchineel dried and pulverized, is diuretic; the seeds are excessively so. The wu<xl
is of flue quality, and well suited for cabinet-making. AVholc forests of manchineel al
one time existed in Martinique, which have been burned down. It grows chiefly iu tlit
vicinity of the sea. Oameraria latffolia, another West Indian tree, of the natural ordy.i
apocitnac6m, is called Bastabd Mancqinsbl, from its resemblance to manchineel ia it^
poisonous properties.
MANCHOORIA. See Maktchttria, ante,
MANGI'NI, a Roman family, beginning blstorically in the 14th c with the name oi
Pietro Omni-Santi, surnamed Mancini dei Luci. Cardinal Francesco Maria Manciui.
who married a lister of cardinal Mazarin in 1634, is the next distinguished membor.
His daughters, noted for their beauty and their intrigues, are si>oken of by Michdlet as
**a battaSon of Mazarin 's nieces,"— Laurk, 1635-57, was a favorite of Louis XIV. wlier
prince.— OiLYMPK, 1639-1708, of the *' black soul and bhick face." a mischievous beaui> ,
was his mistress, who was married to an Italian and bore 8 children, was charged willi
poisonina; her husband, and became a wanderer out of France, and when in Spain %\'h^
suspected of poisoning Louise, the wife of king Charles II. Prince Eiigene of Savoy
was one of her Ave sons. — ^Marib. 1640-1715, another mistress of Louis AiV., who caim
near marrying her. She married prince Collonna in 1661, bore several children, quar
reled with and left her husband, return^ to Paris in want, was placed in a convent bv
Louis XIV., and subsequently led an adventurous life. — Horteksk, 1646-90, a beauty,
courted by Charles II. of England, by marshal Turenne, and Charles de Lorraine, wa.^
married to Armand de la Porte, marquis de la Meilleraye, who soon after assumed tht
title of duke of Mazarin on the death of the cardinal. She, too, was supposed to liavt
lieen too free not on\y w4th Louis XIV., but with her former lovers; left her husband,
entered the court of Ciiarles £inanuel of Savoy; an(>on his death was expelled by hi^
widow. She then visited Glermany, and then Charles II. of England, who was 'soot
again one of her suitors, fixed an annuity upon her, and allowed her a home in tlu
palace of St. James. — Marib Akns, 1649-1714. went to Paris in 1655, was married tc
Maurice Godefroi de la Tour, due de Bouillon, in 1662; soon left and afterwards rejoincf'
•her husband; became the patroness of La Fontaine, and made her home a literary center
where Molidre, Comeille, and other celebrities met. She» too, became suspected of the
use of poisons, and fled Paris in 1680, lived 8 years in England, 2 in Venice and Romi'
•and returned to Paris in 1690, where her society was courted to the last. She seems ti
have been the least disreputable, or vile, of a beautiful family which, if living in th<
present day, would be deniasens of other places than the palaces of the rulers of greal
nations.
MANCI'NT, PAsquALE Stakislaus, b. Naples about 1815. He became a profesBor o
law quite young at the university of Naples; deputy to the Neapolitan xMiriiament ii
1848, and editor of a famous protest of the liberal party against the acts of Ferdiiiant
n. Self-exiled to escape the hospitable dnnseons of Ferdinand he fled to Turin, when
he achieved a brilliant success at the bar, and was made law professor of the university
of that city. He made a specialty of teaching the principle of nationalities as diet in
guished from dynasties. He was member of the Piedmontese chamber of depiiti«>
when Garibaldi^s movements cdt the knot of Nea^litan slavery; and he became mints
ter of justice and ecclesiastical affairs in the provisional government. He promul^tec
an order to break up the mendicant and ''contemplative" orders; but public opinioi
was not ripe for it, and it was not executed. He was deputy to the first Italian parlia
ment in 1861, and became one of the leaders of the center, eoruorteria; one of the mns
brilliant orators of the parliament, and an active promoter of Italian unity and progress
MANCO CAPAC L, by Peruvian tradition, was the first of the Incas, and foundec
the royal race several centuries before the invasion of the Spaniards. He is repre8ent<*(
in legends as a child of the sun, wlio with his wife. Mama Oello, instructed the nativei
of Peru in science, art, and architecture, and predicted the overthrow of the twelfth o]
his dynasty by a white race from distant lands.
MANCO CAPAC II., the last Peruvian Inca who made any serious opposition to th<
fipaaish power. . He waa the son of Huayna Capac by the daughter ox a Qonqiierec
o&leftaitt of Quito. His half-brothers Huascar and Atahuallpa engaged In civil wai
«poD tibudLr falber'a death, and the latter defeated and executed his rival. Atahuallpa,
trusting the faith of the Spaniards, was himself falsely accuscnl and cxecilted in 1533.
429 ffiSSSBSSfr-
After the death of Toparca, whose claims to the throne were supported by Pizarro,
Maaco claimed the title, and for a time allowed himself to be used a;s Pizajro's tool
Bui his character was naturally bold and independent; he soon escaped from his degra-
datiou, and in 1586 laid siege to Guzco, a great part of which he burned. Tbis was the
last triumph of Uie Peruvian race. Manco took refuge in the Cordilleras, and for years
carried on an irregular warfare to the ^eat annoyance of his enemies. Pizarix>*s cruelty
iu scourging publicly to death a favorite wife of the Inca in retaliation for the slaying of
a Spaniah messenger, rendered all thought of reconciliation impossible. In 1544 Manco
waa killed by a party of AJmagros soldiers who had taken refuge in his camp.
XAjm. See Eleusikjs.
MABDALAY, Maitdelat, or Pattawapura, the present capital of the kingdom of
Burmah, lies 3 m. from the Irrawaddy river, a little n. of the former capital Amarapura
<q.v.), and 350 m. n. of Rangoon. In 1856 its site was occupied by cultivated fields;
but having been chosen by the king as the position for a new capital, was in the follow-
ing year ready to receive the court. The city is laid out in three parallelograms, of
which the inner two are walled. Within the inmost are the palace, and offices of gov-
ernment; in the second inclosure are the houses of the civil and military officers, and
the qaarter of the soldiers; while the outer city is inhabited by merchants, mechanics,
etc. Pop. about 90,000.
MANDALAY (an^\ situated on a bend of the Irrawaddy river, about 17 m. above
tlie ancient capital uf Amarapoora, became the capital of Burmah by command of the
king in 1858. It is 400 m. n. of Rangoon, the great sea-port of all Burmah, and is
reached b^ way of the river on steam boata The climate is pestilential, and but for the
^wine, which act as scavengers, the filth to be found in all oireclions would render the
city uninhabitable. Pigs crowd the highways, feeding from the refuse that is scattered
everywhere, and these animals are under protection, and have even been the subiect of
provision on Uie part of benevolent individuals, who remembered them in their wills for
the good of the city. The place is further infested with pariah dogs, vicious and noisy.
The dwellings in Mandalay are constructed of bamboo, and of a dark red wood found
throughout Burmah, the latter being usually ornamented with beautiful carvings. Such
liouBea have three or four roofs, which give tliem an extremely picturesque appear-
ance. A monastery near the city contains in its court-yard a numlir of statues repre-
senting the Buddhist Gautama, the founder of that religion, in various attitudes. A
sluggish stream, the Schway-ta-Choung, with several carved wooden bridges, is near by,
on the left bank of which stands the building of the former British residency, now aban-
doned. The citadel is built in a perfect square, of which each front is a mile in length.
It is protected by a high crenelated wall, adorned at intervals by pretty seven-roofed
kiosks; and by a broad moat filled with clear water, on whose surface float masses of
• blooming lotus-flowers, with here and there a carved war-boat, whose prow presents the
figure or a dragon. A heavy gate and drawbridge .it each side of the wall give access
to the citadel, and are guarded by Burmese soldiers. Within are the hall of justice, the
royal palace, and the abode of the sacred white elephant. The present klnff of Burmah,
Theebaw, resides in the pjilace. He is the son of the late king Mindoon Men, and the
youngest of three brothers. Qreat efforts were made towards the education of this
prince, and he was trained in a Burmese convent. But on the death of his father, he
seized the government, causing all the friends and near relatives of the other princes to
be murdered, while they only escaped by seeking the protection of the British residency
in dfsgiiise. They were afterwards smuggled to the British frontier, and were shipped
to Calcutta, whence they have twice returned to Burmah, and raised rebellions, which,
howefver, proved ineffectual. Since his accession to the throne, king Theebaw has
tecome notorious for his bloodthirsty cruelties, until it has become a common incident
to see Bunnese publicly crucified in the streets of MandaUy under his orders. His reign
lias been one of the most vicious and despicable known to recent oriental history.
XASBA'XVB is a prerogative writ which issues from the court of queen's bench, and
in some cases a similar writ Issues also from the other superior courts of law, whereby
the court commands some public body, or inferior court, or justices of the peace, to do
something which it Is their legal duty to do, and the neglect of which there is no other
way of redressing.
MANDA'MUS {anU) is issued in tliis country by the highest court which has juris
diction at law. The writ enjoins upon a court of inferior jurisdiction, a person or a
corporation, the performance of a particular act as their duty. This is the usual remedy
4o enforce the ijerformance by a. corporation of acts within tiie legitimate sphere of it«
duties^ though it will not be granted to enforce ordinary rights of contract, for which
-there is already a sufficient remedy in the law courts. It lies to compel the production
by a4X>rporfttion of its records and papers, when their evidence is material to a suit
brought bv a corporator; and to reinstall an ejected officer of a corporation in his office
afteir his title thereto has been maintained at quo warranto. It is not granted as of right,
but is Issuable at the discretion pf the court, and ought to be used, according to lord
Mansfield, *'upon all occasions where the law has established no specific remedy, and
480
where in Justice and ^ood goyernment there ought to be one:** in other words, a court
will not take jurisdiction by this writ unless there be no definite remedy at law.
MAN'DANS. the name of a tribe of Indians who have always inhabited the lancU
aXonf the upper Missouri, having been forced by the exieenoies of Indian warfare from
a point about 1500 m. from the mouth of that nver to their present habitat, near fort
Berthold, Dakotah territory. They are of the Dakotah family, and have always been at
enmity with the Sioux, who still pursue them with persistent ferocity. Id 1870 a reser
vation of about 9,000,000 acres, partly in Dakotah and partly in Montanar was set apart
by the government for the Rickarees, Minnetarees, and Dakotahs, and on this the rem
uant of the tribe continues to reside, numbering in 1875 about 500 souls. The Mandan^
are generally peaceful, live by agriculture and hunting, and are notable for the. interest
ing and peculiar character of their rites and ceremonies, the burial of their dead, and
their mode of initiating warriors. No missionary work of any Importatice has been per-
formed among them, apd but slight attempts have been made for their education.
MANDA'RA, or Wandala, a kingdom in w. central Africa, s. of Bomou (or Bor-
noo), to which it is now tributary, situated in a fertile valley abounding in fig and other
fruit and flowering trees, well watered by many 8))riDgs, and protected from assault bv
a range of the mountains of the Moon. It is inhabited by a race of negroes mack
further advanced in civilization than any of the neighboring tribes, who enga^ quite
extensively in iron and cloth manufacture and possess bodies of drilled and uniformed
cavalry. The country was formerly included in Earowa, s.w. of Mandara, but became
independent mainly through the adoption of the Mohammedan faith. In 1888 a war
was waged with Bomou and the country was entirely subjusated. Mora, its former capi-
tal, being razed to the ground. Doloo, pop. 30,000, is now its chief city.
XAVDABIK', a general term applied to Chinese officers of every grade bv foreignen^.
It is derived from the Portuguese manda/r, to command; the Chinese equivalent isSvan^
There are nine ranks, each distinguished by a different-colored ball or button placed on
the apex of the cap, by a peculiar emblazonry on the breast, and a different clasp of Uie
girdle. The balls are ruby, coral, sapphire, a blue opaque stone, crvstal, opa<)ue white
shell, worked gold, plain gold, and silver. TheoreticaJly, these sraaes are indicative of
relative merit, but as office and titles are sold to a great extent, the competitive examin-
ations, which are the only legitimate road to distinction, have lost much of their value.
A mandarin is not allowed to hold office in his native province, the intention beine to
prevent intrigue, and to draw to Pekin the ambition and talent of the country, where
temporary employment is given in subordinate offices, prior to appointments to the prov
inces. He is not allowed to mxLTrw in the jurisdiction under his control, nor own land in
it, nor have a near relative holding office under him; and he is seldom continued in
office in the station or province for more than three yeai's — a system of espionage which
serves further to strengthen the imperial government. It is incumbent on every Drovin
cial officer to report on the character and qualifications of all under him, which fie peri-
odically transmits to the board of civil office; the points of character are arranged under
six different heads, viz., those who are not diligent, the Inefficient, the superficial, tlie
untalented, superannuated, and diseased. According to the opinions given in tliis report,
officers are elevated or degraded so many steps in the scale of merit, like boys in a class.
They are required also to accuse themselves when remiss or guilty of crime, and to
request punisliment.
MANDARIN', a village of Duval co., Fla., on the e. bank of the St. John's river, 15
m. above Jacksonville. It is a place of winter resort, and celebrated for its fine orange
crops.
MANDARIN' DUCK, a species of domestic duck brought from China and Japan.
It has a brilliant plumage, a beautiful green crest, and a tuft of feathers on the back in
the shape of a fan. Theee ducks have the reputation of conjugal fidelity and of never
mating but once.
XAH'DATE is a contract by which one employs another to manage somethiqg gratu
itously for him. The one is called a mandant, and the other a mandatory; the term
being derived from the Roman law of mandcUum, In England, in consequence of the
doctrine that a simple contract cannot be enforced unless there is some consideration
for it, or a quid pro quo, it is held that if the mandatory undertakes to do the work, but
omits to do so, no action will lie against him, though it is otherwise if he once enter
upon the work, in which case he is bound for the consequences of anything injurious or
negligent. If the duty or work is undertaken, the mandatory is bound to use reasona-
ble skill and diligence. In Scotland, where a consideration is not necessary to Bake a
valid contract by word of mouth or writing, the mandatory is liable to an action if he
has contracted or i^reed to act. In Scotland, the word mandatorr is used te denote a
person who, in a lingation by a foreigner or person reading out of Scottand, nndertakea
to give security for costs, in ihe event of tlie mandant losing the suit, otherwiae Uie suit
is not allowed to go on in Scotland.
XAHBAVI, the chief seaport of the principality of Cutch, Hindustan, on the n.
shore of the gulf of Cutch, in hit. 22* 61' n., long. 09* W east Though there is no
regular landing-place, boats of any size can land at (he sandy beach, and large vessels
431
And secure anchorage in the oi&ng at a difttenoe of about three miles from fihore. Ite
wella are numerous, and full of water. Pop. officially estimated in 1872 at 35,988.
MAHDSYILLl, Sir John, an old English traveler, b. at St. Albans about the year
1800. Prompted by curioeity or love of adventure, he left his native country about 18^,
visited the Holy hukd, served under the sultan of Egypt and the great Ichan of Cathay
(China); and after 88 years' wandering through Europe, Asia, and Africa, returned ia
England, where he wrote an account of his travels in Latin, French, and English. He
diea al Li^, Nov. 17, 1372. Mandeville's work is not of greai value for historic geofl;'
raphy, as he not merely states what came under his own observation, but what be lieard;
and be was credulous enough to admit what are now regarded as the most absurd and
monstrotts fables; but to do him justice, he Gil^c Herodotus) customarily prefaces these
by the phrases^ "thei seyne, or men seyn, but I have not sene it.** Besides, several of
his statements, once regarded as improbable, have since been verified. The common
notion of his being pre-eminently a "lying** traveler, is therefore in all likelihood not
well founded. Letand the antiquary even says, that he had the reputation of being a
very conscientious man. His book is written in a very interestinff manner, was long*
eroeedingly popular, and was translated into many languages. A MS. of AfondoviUe'a
travels, as da as the time of the author, exists in the Cottonian library. The first edition
printed in England is that by Wynkin de Worde (Westminster, 1489); the Uist, with
mtrodoction, etc., by J. O. Halliwell, was pnbUshed in London in 1898 (reprinted 1866).
MAJfOUIOLATA, MAin>T'BTTLATiBD or Masticattno Ivsbcts. a mat group etr divi-
don of insects (q.v.), having the mouth of the stracture described in the article eoleoptera,
and containing me orders coleop4era, orthopt^ra, jiewvptera, and hfpnen^pim^. The Aotu-
tellate mouth— formed for suction — is regarded as a modification, in all its separate parts,,
of the mandibulate mouth.
MAVBIVG0X8 are, strictly speaking, the inhabitants of the most south-westerly ter-
ritories belonging to the great w. African race of the Wangarawa (sing. Wangara), and
inhabiting a ajstnct extending in lat. from 8** to 12** n., and between the west coasts and
the head waters of the Senegal and Niger. The name, however, as generally used, ia
applied to the whole nation of the Wangarawa, comprising a pop. estimated by Dr.
Barth at from 6,00(),000 to 8,000,000. The original seat of the Mandineoes is said to be
Handing, a small mountain country on the eastern sources of the Senegal, whence, partly
by conquest and partly by emigration, they have spread tliemselves over a most extensive
tract of country, and now consist of a variety of tribes. The Mandingoes are black in
color, tall and well shaped, with regular features, and are, generally speaking, a fine race,
capable of a high degree of civilization and organization, great travelers, fond of trading,
and renuirkable for their industry and energy. Of the neighboring nations, they were ^
the first who embraced Islamism. The greater portion of them are now Moslems, and
are zealous propagators of their religion.
ICAinNILIVS, a musical instrument of the lute species. The body of the mandoline
is siiaped like a shell, formed of a number of narrow pieces of different kinds of wood,
beot into the shape, and glued together. On the open portion of the body is fixed the
Bounding-board, with a finger-board and neck like.a guitar. The Neapolitan mandoline
which ia the most perfectt.has four double strings,, which are turned, beginning with
the lowest, Q, D, A, E. The Milanese mandoline has five double strings, tuned G, C,
A. D, E. The sound of the mandoline is produced by a plectrum in the right hand,
while the left hand produces the notes on the finger-board. The mandoline is chieflv'
ased for aocompaniinent; in the beauty and quality of its sound it is different from aft
other strin^d instruments.
XAHBSAXE, M&ndroffora, a genus of plants of the natural order $olanacea, nearly
allied to belladonna (q. v.). Two species are described by some botanists, the Autumnal
Mandbakb (M, mOwmntUis), wfaieh flowers in ancumn, and has lanceolate leaves and ovate
berries; and the Yisi^nai* Mandiiakb [M. twrmsMi), which flowers in spring, and has
oblong ovate leaves and globose berries. Both are natives of the south of Europe and of
the east, and are united by many into one q>eeies (if. qfieinarum). The root is large and
carrot-like, and from it the leaves spring with no apparent stem, and among them the
stalked whitish flowers. The calyx and corolla are 6-cleft, there are 5 stamens, and
the fruit is a one-celled berry, about the size of a sparrow's egg. The whole plant has
a veiy fetid narcotic smell; wit the fresh berries, when cut or bruised, have a pleasant
odor tike that of wine or apples, and two or three may be eaten without inconvenience.
All parts of the plant, howerer, have poisonous properties like those of belladonna, but
more narcotic, for whkh reason a dose of the root was fonnerly sometimes given to
patients about to endure surgical operations. The ancients were well acquainted with
the narcotic and stupefying properties* of mandrake, and It was a common saying, of a
sleepy or indolent man, that be had eaten mandraks. The root often divides into two,
and presents a rude resemblance to the hnman figure; and human flffures were formerly
•fteft oat out of it, to which many magical virtues were ascribed. Sometimes the roots
of the bryony were employed instead of those of the mandrake, and sold under the
aame of mandrake rcoi. From the most aaaeient. times, aphrodisiac virtues have been
ascribed loathe mandrake, whioh was tlwrefoie auppoaad to cure barmnnesa See Gen.
XXX. 14*10. The same reputation has been attached in America to the berries of the
•nearly allied genera, himeranihus and jaborosa. Many fables connected with the man-
drake are recorded by ancient and medisTal writers.
XANBSIL. See Baboon.
HAHDIT', an extensive deserted city of India, in the state of Dhar, in Malwa, in lat
22" 20' n., long. 75° 27' east. The circumference of the ramparts is said to be 37 miles.
The greatest and least injured of tlie ruined buildings is the jama masjit, or great
mosque, the area of which is raised several yards above the sround, and is reach^ by
a handsome flight of stairs. The mausoleum of Hoshun^ Gbori, kin^ of Malwa, is a
massive building of white marble. According to Malcolm, Mandu was founded
318 A.D.
MAHDIT'BIA (formerly Castd-Ntwva), a t. in the Italian provence of Lecce, 20 m.
-e. of Taranto. Pop. 72, 7,948. It has two celebmted wells, one of which has Ijeen
minutely described by PJiuy, and is remarkable for the unalterabie level of its waters.
Near to it stood the ancient town of Manduria, of which some important relics are still
«ztant.
MANEB'SA. See Makibsa. cnUe.
XAKIs. See Lares.
MA'N£S. SeeHAjn; MAMiCHiBA»8; 4mU.
XAH'STHO, a celebrated Egyptian historian, native of Sebennytua^ and of the saoer-
dotal order, flourished in the reign of Ptolemy. According to some, he was priest of
Diospolis or Heliopolis; otliera contend that he was high-priest of Alexandria. His
name has been interpreted "beloved of Thoth;" in the «^ of Lagos and Ptolemy
Philadelphus, Mai en Ut, or Ma net, "beloved of Neith;" but both interpretations are
doubtful. Scarcely anything is known of the history of Manetho himself, and he is
more renowned for his Egyotian history than on any other account. On the occasion
of Ptolemy I. dreaming of the god Scrapis at Sinope, Hanetho was consulted by the
monarch, and in conjunction with Timotheus of Athens, the interpreter of the Eletisin-
ian mysteries, declared the statue of Serapis, brought by orders of the king from Sinope,
to be that of the god Serapis or Pluto, and the god had a temple and his worship insa-
gurated at Alexandria. The fame of Manetho was much increased by his writing in
the. Greek language, and so being enabled to communicate from Egyptian sources a
more correct knowledge of the history of his native country than his Greek predecessors.
Of this history, only extracts given b^ Josephus in his work against Apion, and sn
epitome by Eusebius and other ecclesiastical writersy remain. It appears to have been
•drawn «p in a compendious annalistic style of narrative, resembling the accounts given
by Heroaotus. The work of Manetho was divided int<^ three books, the first beginning
with the mythic reigns of gods and kings, and ending wHh the 11th dynasty of mortal':;
the second book continued .the history from the 12th to the 19th dynasty; and the third
from the 20th to the 80th dynasty, wben Egypt fell under the dominloa of Alexamler
the great. The reigns of the gods are given as amounting to 24,900 years, and tbe
epoch of Menes, the founder of the monarchy, commenced 8,556 years be&re Alexander
(882 B.C.). The difllculties attending the reconcilation of this chronology with tbe syn-
chronistic history of the Hebrews, Greeks, and other nations, have given nse to numerous
speculations and chronological svstems since the revival of learning, by Scaliger, Freret,
Marsham, Usher, Bunsen, Ddckh, Lepsius, Poole, and others. The confusion in which
the lists of kings have been transmitted, the ciphers of the lengths of each reign not agree-
ing with the summations of the durations of the dv'nasties, and these, again, differing from
the total period assigned to the existence of the Egyptian monarchy, has given rise to two
or three schools of chronology. The so-called long chrono^gy, which enppofles, with
Scaliger and BOckh, that the sO dynasties followed consecutively one after the other,
has elevated the epoch of Menes to 5,702 b.g. The short chronology, or that which
endeavors to square the dates of Manetho with the Hebrew chronology, or 4004 B.C. for
the year of the world, on the contrary, assumes that several of the c^masties were con-
temporary, and that some intervale, such as that of the rule of the shepherd-kings, have
been either exag^rated or misunderstood. The acoession of newer and better mforma-
tion from the onginal sources of Egyptian monuments, papvri, and other documents,
has considerably enhanced the general value of the history of Manetho, which, prior to
their discovery, had fallen into discredit. But the restoration of the history of Mane-
tho. notwithstanding all these resources, and the positive epoch of the monarchy, are
still to be sought, although certain dynasties, in the 2d and 8d books of his work, can he
reconciled with monumental evidence. Besides the true work of Manetho above cited,
which he appears to have written in the reign of PtoLemy L, or II., sDotber work, called
8othu, or the DogsUvr, in allusion to the cycle of the heUacal rising of that star of 1461
vears, and dedicated to Sebostos or Augustus, the title of the Boman emperors, and not
found in use before that period, has been handed down. This work seems to have
been added by the epitomizers; and another work called the Old Chraniek, in which the
history was arrangea according to cycles, was compiled by them. Besides tbe history,
Manetho wrote ISn PhynkSn^fitome (Bpitome of Phyidcs), treating on tibe oii^ of gods
and the world, and the laws of momli^; and another wiork on ue prepiMnMtKn of the
Digitized by VjOUV IC
j^qo Mftvdrll.
^^^ MtuiganM*.
sacred i^fpfii, a kind of frankincense or aromatic food. The astronomical work called
AptfUUmata is a spurious production of the 5th c. a.d.
Suidas, voce Manetbo; Josephus Contr. Apion, i. 8, 9; Bunsen, JEgypUns SteOe, Bd
IL : Vruin, Manethon. Bekg. (8vo. Leyd. 1847); BOckh, Manetho (8vo. BerUn, 1845;.
XAVXVTXE,a Ftench word, signifying ''handy- work/' is somewhat yaguely used
in English military and naval language to denote collateral movements, not openly
apinrent. of bodies of men or squadrons of ships, by which an enemy is coerced, or by
wliich it is sought to compel him to take some course adverse to his interests.
I, king of Naples and Sicily, a rare example of heroic fortitude and disin-
terestedness, was a natural son of the emperor Frederick 11. by Blanca, the daughter of
count Bonifacius Lanzia, and was b. about 1231. Oq his father*8 death, in 1250, he'
received the principality of Tarentum, and in the absence of his half-brother, Konrad
IV., acted as regent in Italy. Notwithstanding Eonnid's dislike to hhn, Manfred, with
unexampled fidoity, bravely defended his sovereign's interests against the machinations
of pope Innocent IV. ; and after Konrad*8 death, which the pope accused him of having
caused, he was acknowledged as regent of Apulia, in name of his nephew Konradin
(q.v.). The pope, however, renewed his pretensions to Apulia, and compelled Manfred'
to flee for shelter to tiie Saraoens, by whose aid be defeated the pspal troops at Foggia.^
on Dec. 2, 1254, and again obtained possession of Apulia, to whicn he soon afterwards^
added Calabria. The new pope, Alexander IV., caused a crusade to be preached against
him« bat Manfred, steadily pursuing his victorious career, became, in 1257, master of the
whole kingdom of Naples and Sicily. On the rumor of Konradin's death be was crowned
king at I^Iermo, Au^. 11, 1258. and immediately afterwards was excommunicated by
the pope, along with his adherents, among whom were the first prelates of the kingdom :
but Manfred invaded the papal dominions, levied heavy contributions from them, and
made himself master of the whole of Tuscany. His power now seemed secure, and his
government was at once mild and vigorous; he founded many schools, built towns and
harbors, and labored in many ways for the improvement of his kingdom. But this
tranquillity was not of long duration. Pope Urban IV. renewed the excommunicatiou
against him and his friends, and bestowed his dominions as a papal flef on Charles of
Anjou, the brother of Louis IX. of France. Manfred, though at first successful in thef
war which ensued, was at last treacherously defeated, and slain in a bloody battle at
Benevento, Feb. 26, 1266. His widow and children were savagely treated by the French,
the daughter being confined for 18 and the sons for 81 years. His body was found some
days after and interred as that of an excommunicated person; but the people, and even
tbe French soldiers, heaped up stones for a monument, which received the name of the
Rock of Roses.
MAMVBBDOmA, a city of Italy, in the province of Foma, 26 m. n.e. of the city of
Foggia. founded by Manfred (q.v.), king of Naples and SiGUy, from the ruins of ancient
Sipontum; pop. "^, 7,574. It is strongly walled, and an imposing castle protects its^
port. Id tbe vicinity of Manfredonia ar& remarkable salt lakes— the Ikmtano Saho and
the Lago di 5(i{p»— the beds of which, during the sununer heats, are thickly incrusted
with salt.
MAVTXXDOnA, OuLV or (Binu$ Uriai\ an inlet of the Adriatic, which washes the
Neapolit4in provinces of Bari and Capitanata, 16 m. in length and 80 in breadth.
XAVOALOBX', a sea-port in the district of Canara, in the presidency of Madras, lat.*
12' K' n. In former times the harbor was good and the town prosperous, but within
the present century it lias become, to a great extent, silted up. Pop. (including seven-
villages in the vicinity) '71, 29.712. The cantonment on the north side of tbe town is
healthy, being elevated, well drnined, and open to the breezes from the sea.
XAV'OAVZSE (8ymb. Mn, equiv. 27.6; new system, 55 — spec. grav. 8) is one of the
heavy mefals of which iron may be taken as the representative. It is of a grayish-
white color, presents a metallic brilliancy, is capable of a high degree of polish, Is so
hard as to scratch glass and steel, is non-magnetic, and is only fused at a white heat.
As it oxidizes rapidly on exposure to the atmo^ere, it should t)e preserved under
naphtha.
It occurs in small quantity, in association with iron, in meteoric stones; with thU
exception it is not found native. The metal may be obtained by the reduction of its
lesquioxide by carbon at an extreme heat.
Manoanese forms no less than six different oxides — vis., protoxide (MiiO), sesqui-
oxide (dnsOt), the red oxide (MntO*), the binoxide or peroxide (MnOt), manganic acid
fUnOa), and permanganic add (MdiOt). The protoxide occurs as an olive-green powder,
snd is obtained by igniting carboniite of manganese in a current of hj'drogen. Its salts
sre colorless, or of a pale rose color, and have a stnm^ tendency to form double salts
with the salts of ammonia. The carlionate forms the mineral known as manganese spar.
The sulphate is obtained by heatiufr the ])eroxide with sulphuric acid till there is faint
ignition, dissolving the residue in water, and ciystalliziug. It is employed largely in
adico-printha^. The silicate occurs in various minerals.
The 9uquioxide is found crystallized in an anhydrous form in braunite, and hydrated
in manganUe, It is obtained artificially as a black powder by exposing the peroxide to
U. K. IX.-28
MHttgtK ASIA
Mangold, *^*
a prolonged bent. When ignited It loses oxygen, and is converted into red oxide. Its
salts are isomorphous with tliose of alumina and sesquioxide of iron. See Ibohokphisii.
It iin|)art8 a violet color to ^luss, and gives the amethyst its clmnicteristlc tint. Its
sulpliatc IS a powerful oxidizing agent.
The red oxide corresponds to the black oxide of iron. It occurs native in havtmann-
ite, and may he obtained artificially by igniting the sesquioxide or peroxide in the open
air. It is a compound of the two preceding oxides.
The biitoxide, or peroxide, is the bUicl^ manganese of commerce and the pyrdutite of
mineralogists, and is b^ far the most abundant of the manganese ores. It occurs in a
byd rated form in wirmcite and wad. Its commercial value depnends upon the propor-
tion of chlorine which a given weight of it will liberate when it is heated with hydro*
chloric acid, the quantity of chlorine being proportional to the excess of oxvgen which
this oxide contains over tliat contained in the same weight of protoxide. The reactioa
* is explained by the equation —
Binox. Mang. Hyd. Acid. Gblor. of Mang. Water. Chlorine.
MgO, + 2Ha = MgCl + 2H0 + CI
When mixed with chloride of sodium and sulphuric acid it causes an evolution of
chlorine, the other resulting products- lieing sulphate of soda and sulphate of protoxide
of manganese, as shown in the equation —
NaCl+MnO.+2SO,=:NaO,SOi+MnO.SO,+Cl.
Wlien mixed with acids it is a valuable oxidizing agent. It is much nsed for the prepa-
ration of oxycen (q. v.), either by simply heating it, when it yields 12 per cent of gas,
or by heating it witn sulplmric acid, when it yields 18 per cent. Besides its many uses
in tlie lal)oratory, it is employed in the manuiacturinff of glaFS, porcelain, etc.
Manganio cuiid is not known in a free state. Manganate of potash is foTmc<l by
fusing together hydrated potash and binoxide of raangiinese. The black mass wbicli
results from this operation is soluble in water,, to which it communicates a green Cdlor,
due to the presence of the man^nate. From this water the salt is ol)tained fW vacuo in
beautiful green crystals. On allowing the solution to stand exposed to tlie air it rapidly
becomes blue, violet, purple, and flnalTy red, by the gradual conversion of the manganaie
into the permanganate of potash ; and on account of these changes of color the black mass
has received the name of mineral chameleon.
Permanganic acid is only known in solution or in a state of combination. Its solution
is of a splendid red color, but appears of a dark violet tint when seen by transmitted
light. It IS obtained by treating a solution of permanganate of baryta with sulphuric acid,
when sulphate of baryta falls and the permanganic acid remains'dissolved in the water.
Perman.i^anate of potash, which crystallizes in reddish puiple prisms, is the most impor-
tant of its salts. It is largely employed in analytical chemistry, and is tlie basis of
Condy*8 disinfectant fluid.
Maiigane.«ie is a constituent of many mineral waters, and is found in nnall quantity
in the ash of most vegetable and animal substances. It is almost always aaauciaied witk
iron.
Varlons preparations of manganese have been employed in medidne. The salphate
of the protoxide, in doses of one or two drams, produces purgtitive efiects, and is sup-
iX)sed to increase the excretion of bile; and, in small doses, both thiseali and llic car-
bonate have b^n given with the intention of improving tlie condition of the blood ia
cases of anaemia. Man^mic acid and permanganate of potash are of great use whca
applied in lotions (as in Condy's huid dilated) to foul and fetid ulcers. In connect iou
with the medicinal applications of man^nese, it may be mentioned that manganic acid
te the agent eiuployea in Dr. Angus Smith's celebrated test for the impurity of the air:
MAHOE, in horses, dogs, and cattle, and scab in sheep, are diseases very similar to
itch ill the human subject, resulting from the attacks of^ minute mite^, or aeari^ which
burrow in the skin, especially if it be dirty or scurfy, cause much irritation. Iieat. and
itching, and the eruption of minute pimples, with* dryness, scurfineas, baldness, and
blesiching of the skin. The treatment consists in destroying the aeari and iiisurin<r the
cleanliness and health of the skin, both of which objects are effected by wa<«hinir the
parts thoroughly every second day with soft soap and water, and dressing daily with
sulphur or mild mercurial ointments, or with a solution containing four grains either of
corrosive 8Ul)limate or arsenic to the ounce of water. Cast<>r>oil seeds, bruiscl snd
steeped for twelve hdurs in buttermilk, are very successfully used b^ the native Indian
farners. Where the heat and itching are great, as is often the case in dogs, a few drops
of tincture of belladonna may be uwd to the usual dressing, or applied along with a
little glycerine. Where the general health is indifferent, as in chronic cases, the patient
should lie liberallv fed, kept clean and comfortable, have an occasional alterative d<>f«
of any simple saline medicine, such as niter or common salt, and a course of such tonics
as iron or arsenic. Cleanliness and occasional washing and brushing maintain the skin
in a healthy state, and thus prevent its liecoming a suitable nidus for the aeari^
MAKQEL WURZEL. See Bbbt; Mamoold WtrnzsL, ante.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
485 l£SJ?uL
UANGLB. a naehine for sinoothing linen and cotton goods, such as table-cloths,
sheets, eic, after washing. It lias been much iiuproved since the first rude invention,
but doee not superscxie the sad-iron for the finer kinds of work.
MANGLES, Jambs, 1785-1861; b. England; entered the British navy in 1800, and
■was made a commander in 1815. The next year he went down the hile, and made
excavations at tlie temples in Ipsambool. Uo returned to England in 1820, by way of
Byria. A collection of letters, written by him and his traveling companion, commander
Charles Leonard Irbv, was printed for private circulation in lS)d, and given to the pub-
lic in 1844, as TraveU in Egifpt and Nubia, Syria, and tbs Holy Land.
XAVOO, Ifangifera, a genus of trees of the natural order anacardiaeea, haying flowers
viiU four or five petals, five stamens, of which the greater part are generally 8ierile, one
ovary seated on a fleshy disk, the fruit a flesliy drupe. Tlie Common Mango (.IT.
Jiidien) is a native of India. It is a spreading tree of rapid growth; 80 to 40 ft. in lieiglit,
the stem only rising 8 to 10 ft. before it divides into l)Tauches; tlie folia'.re so dense as
to be inipeuetral>le to the burning rays of the sun, affording a most grateful shade; the
If'avcs lanceolate, entire, alternate, stalked, smooth, shining, lenthery, and. al)OUt 7 or 8
iurlies long, with a sweet resinous smell. The flowers arc small, reddish -white or yel-
lowish, in large erect terminal panicles; the fruit is kidney-shaped, smooth, Taryinr
conndcrabiy in size and color, and containing a large flattened stone, which is covered
oil the outside with fibrous filaments, loncent and most abumiant in the inferior varieties,
Si)nic of which consist chiefly of fiber and juice, whilst the finer ones have a compara-
tively solid pulp. The fruii of some of the varieties in cultivation is as large ns a man's
fist. The mango is much prized for the dessert; it is luscious and sweet, with slight
ftuidity. It was introduced into Jamaica in 1783, and is now yexy generally cultivated
in tropical and subtropical countries. The unripe fruit is made mto tans and pickles.
Uan«ro kernels are nutritious, and have been cooked for food in times of scarcity. The
troe is raised from seeds; the finer varieties are popagated by layering and inarching,
and trees obtained in this way often bear much fruit without attaining a large size.
There arc several other species of mango, natives of different parts of the east, but the
fruit.i of all of them aro very inferior.
KAH^O FUH, Pofynemvi paradisetu, a fish which inhabits the bay of Bengal, and
n^a*ndi the Ganges and other rivers to a considerable distance. It is accounted one of
the most delicious fishes of India, bnt is particularly esteemed when salted and pro-
pand in a peculiar manner, when it Itears the name of burtah, Tlie name mango fish is
pvcQ to this fish from its beautiful vcUow color, Tes;*mbling that of a ripe mango.
Anoihcr Indian name is tupnee. It is of a perch-like form, and belongs to a gentis K>r-
lui-rly referri'd to the perch family (pereida), but now the type of a distinct family (poly-
netnidcf). having the ventnd fins behind the pcctoraU, although partially attached to the
Iwues of tlie shoulder, and the lower rays of the pc<:torals extended into threads, which
in the man^ fishes arc twice the length of the body. The mango fish Is seldom more
ilian 8 or 0 in. in length. The genus pdyneiuus contains a numlier of species of tropical
&>bes. the air-bladders of some of which are of importance as isinglass; those of P. indi-
cate a fish sometimes 20 Ib& wei!;ht, and other species, forming a considerable article of
expert from Bingsipore, under the name of flah-inatoi,
KAH'OOLD-WintZSL (Qer. beet-root), or Mangold (Ger. beet), a name in general use
in Britain ami Americsi, to designate the varieties of the common beet (q.v.) cultivated in
Helds for the feeding of cattle. By mistake the name was at first written mangel-wurzei, and
this erroneous form is still sometimes used. The field-beets differ from the garden-l)eets
chiefly in being larger in all their parts, snd coarser. They have large roota, widch in
8ome'of the varieties are red, in some greenish or whitish, in some carrot-shaped, and
Iq t^omc ne riy gh>bulnr. Tiie cultivation of mangold-wurzel as a field-crop was intro-
difeed into Eogland in 1780, but it is only of late that it has much extended. At first,
flo little was its value known, that the leaves alone were u^ed as food for cattle. Its
importance. howevcT, was soon appreciated, and it rapidly gained favor. It is much
more patient of a high temperature than the turnip, liable to fewer diseaws, and vastly,
moreprotluctiv^ under lilieral treatment. In the island of Jersey, and in highly manured
j^rounds in the vicinity of London, as much as from 70 to 80 tons to the acre have been
r.ii8''d. Throughout the south of England it is generally admitted that it is as easy to
grow 30 tona of mangold-wurzel to the acre as 2 > tons of Swedish turnips. The lower
tcmpeniture of Scotland, however, does not admit of the crop iK-ing raised to the wime
advantase. The vield is much smaller than in the south, and the plants are more liable to
run to flower. This seems to be owing to the cold contractinc: the vessels, and in some
measure aclinir in the s:ime manner as a diniini hod supply of fcxxl in favoring ♦he for-
niaticm of need. The increa.<«ed precariousnesw of the turnip-crop of late yean*, however,
h'ls iiiduri'd many to make trial of the cultivAtion of mangold-wurzel, and with consid-
erable mucti»»s. The mode of culture does not vary materially from that followed in
Scotland in raiding turiins. The land in which tb*^ crop is to 'le planted n'ceives a deep
fnrrow in autumn; :ind if it ia quite fr-e from perennial we<*ds. it is often previously
wi'll mnniin>d. T>r|]la or ridsres. from 20 to 3') in. wide, an* formed in spring by the
donMed-m'ild"d plow; ami if m-uiuiv has n >r h'-cn applied in autumn, from 20 fo 80
loads urc spread along the furrows. In addition fr(»ni 3 to 4 ow^^.^|^«^^^^l^
436
cwts. of ammonia salt, are sown broadcast over the drills; indeed i this ofop can rarelj
be over-maDured. The manures are then covered bv the plow, and the ridges are after-
wards run over with a light roller, to smooth them down. Two or three seeds aie then
dibbled in on the tops of the ridges, from 1 ft. to H ft. apart. It requires about 7 lbs. of
seed to the acre; and as the grains are inclosed in a hard and rough coat, Uiey may be
moistened in water for two days previous to their being planted, for tlie purpose of
promoting a quick and regular braird. The long red, the round red, and the round
green-topped yellow are all favorite varieties in England. As soon as the plants are
about 8 in. above ground, they are singled out by the hand, and their cultivation is
afterwards the same in all respects a^ in the case of Swedish turnips. The crop is usually
ready to be taken up by the end of October; indued, it should not be delayed beyond thu
period, for, being a native of the warm coasts of the Mediterranean, it is injured by
severe frost. The leaves are wrenched off by the hand, and the earth is merely roughir
taken away from the roots, as they do not keep well through the winter if cut or bruised.
The roots are stored in pits or clumps, covered with straw and a little earth, as a protec-
tion in severe weather. It is some time after storing before the roots can be used with
advantage; for in autumn and the early part of winter, its Juices being unripened, have
a laxative effect on animals. Swedish turnips are at this season preferred for feeding;
but the harshness of the mangold-wurzel wears off by spring, and it then becomes an
excellent food for stock of all kinds, and if well kept, retains its juiciness till the mid-
dle of summer.
XAK'OON, or Man'oombl. See Bausta.
XAK'OOSTAK, Oarcinia mangotiana, one of the most delicious of all fruits, pro-
duced by a tree of the natural order gutt^erm or cUmaeect, a native of the Holnoca
islands. The tree is in general only al)out 20 ft. high, but of beautiful appearance, hav-
ing an erect tapering stem and a regular form, somewhat like that of a fir; the leaves
7 or 8 in. Ion?, oval, entire, leathery, and shining; the flowers are large, with corolla
of 4 deep red petals. The fruit, in size and shape, resembles an orange; it is dark
brown, spotted with yellow or gray, has a thick rind, and is divided internally by thin
partitions into cells. The pulp is soft and juic^, of a rose color, refrigerant and slight] j
laxative, with a mixture of sweetness and acidity, and having an extremely delicate
flavor. It may he eaten very freely with perfect safety, and is esteemed very benellciai
in fevers. The mangostan is cultivated in Java and in the s.e. of Asia; it lias recently
become common in Ceylon, and has been suocesBfully introduced into some other tropi-
cal countries.
MAN(K>U8TB, or MoKaou& Bee IcHNxnTMON, ante,
XAVOBOVZ, Kfiizophora, a genus of plants of the natural order rhkaphjoraeea. This
order consists of trees and shrubs, all tropical and natives of coasts, particularly about
the mouths of rivers, where they grow in the mud, and form a close thicket down to
and within the marge of the sea, even to low-water mark. Most of the species send
down roots from their branches, and thus rapidly extend over large spaces, forming
secure retreats for multitudes of aquatic birds, whilst crabs are also to be found in them
in vast numbers, and shell-flsh are attached to the branches. The order is distin-
guished by simple, opposite leaves, with convolute deciduous stipules between the leaf-
stalks; the ovary 2 to 4 celled, each containing two or more ovules; the fruit not open-
ing when ripe, crowned with the calyx, l-celied, l-seeded. . The seeds have the pemi-
liarity of germinating whilst still attached to the parent branch, a lon^ thick radicle
proceeding frdm the seed, piercing its covering, and extending rapidly downwards, till
the fruit falls off. when it is soon imbedded in the mud, into which its form, clnb-like,
the heavy end downwards, secures that it shall penetrate in a right position. The
whole number of species known is only about dO; the wood of some is bard and dur-
able. The fruit of the common mangrove (rfimmhora mangle) ia sweet, eatable; aad its
juice, when fermented, yields a light wine. The bark of the common mangrove is
sometimes imported into Britain for the use of tanners, but it is only of second-rate
quality.
MAXGUI-f, Willie Person. 1792-1861 ; b. Orange oo., N. C. ; graduated at the North
Carnliua university in 1815; was a successful lawyer and whig politician: elected a jodge
of the superior court in 1819 and 1826; was a member of congress 1828-26, and U. 8.
senator 1881-87 and 1841-58. He was president of the senate during the administnitioo
of John Tyler. In 1837 he received 11 electoral votes for president of the United Btates,
MANHATTAN ISLAND. See New York.
MANHEIM. See MAimHEiM, ante.
KAKI, Manes, MANTCHisns (entitled Z&ndik, Sadducee), the founder of the heretical
sect of the Mnnichceans (q v.), who lived in the 8d c, a.d. Little is known with regard
to his early history, and the accounts transmitted through two distinct sources— the
western or Greek, and the eastern— are legendary and contradictory on almost every
important point. According to certain — very dubious — acts of a disputation held
l)etwecn Mnnes and Arcbelnus. bishop of Cascar (?), he was flrst called Curbicus, and was
■boujrht as a slave, at the age of seven years, by tlie wife of one Ctesiphon, in Babylonia,
who gave him a good education, and at her death made him sole ^uL^^i^ong the books
437 asc-
she left Um, he Is said to have found the writings of Scythianus, which had been given
to her by one of the latter's disciples named Terebinth us, or Budda, Mani emigrated
into Persia, where he remained up to his sixtieth year, and changed his former name, so
as to obliterate all tmces of his origin and former state. Here he also became acquainted
with the New Testament and other Christian works; and gradually conceived the idea
of amalgamating the Magian with the Christian religion, and of addmg what he knew of
Buddhism to the new faith. For the better carrying out of this plan, ne announced that
he was the paraclete promised by Christ. King Sapor I. of Persia, in wh^se days he
first proclaimed bis mission, at first looked not unfavorably upon his proceedings; but
when he had failed to heal the prince, his son, he was cast into prison, wheuce he man-
aged to escape, but, pursued and captured, he was publicly executca. According to
oUier accounts, however, Mani was the scion of a noble Magian family, and a man of
extraordinary mental powers, and artistic and scientific abilities — an eminent painter,
mathematician, etc. — embraced Christianity in early manhood, and became presbyter at
a church in Ehvaz or AhvaJ, in the Persian province of Hazitis, eave himself out to be
the paraclete, and styled himself in ecclesiastical documents '* Mani, called to be an
apostle of Jesus Christ through the election of God the Father." Persecuted by kinar
Sapor L, he sought refuge in foreign countries, went to India, China, and Turkistan, ana
there lived in a cave for 12 months, during which he is said to have been in heaven. He
reappeared with a wonderful book of drawings and pictures, called Erdshenk or Ertenki-
Mani. After the death of Sapor (273 a.d.), he returned to Persia, where Hormuz, Uie
new king, who was well inclined towards him, received him with creat honors, and in
order to protect him more effectually against the persecutions of the Miu;!. gave him the
stronghold of Deshereh, in Susiana, as a residence. After the death of this king, how-
ever/Behmm, his successor, entrapped Mani into a public disputation with the Magi, for
which purpose he had to leave his castle; and he was seized upon, flayed alive, and hung
before Djondishapur, 277 A.D. For his doctrine, etc., see Manichaams.
HASJA is the form of mental derangement most familiar to ordinary observers. The
excitement and violence by which it is sometimes characterized have become, erroneously
and unfortunately, the type and standard by which the disease and those subject to it
have been recognized and treated. These qualities occasionally involved danger to those
around, and were always calculated to inspire fear; so that for centuries they were coun-
teracted by repression, coercion, and harshness. It is worthy of remark that contem-
poraneously with the establishment of confidence, and with the Introduction of a humane
system of treatment, the fury and formidable pugnacity of the insane to a great degree dis-
appeared. This effect, must, however, in part be referred to that chan{;e of type in the
nature of the maladv itself which is supposed to depend upon a modification in the human
constitution, as well as upon external circumstances, and which has been observable in all
affections of an inflammatory character since the beginning of the present century. The
discontinuance of restraint, and the cessation of the necessity for such a measure in
asylums, whether regarded as protective or remedial,* may be accepted as a proof of the
reality and extent ofthis change, upon whatever it may depend. It is, moreover, prob-
able that, by the accuracy of modem diagnosis, cases of wild frenzy, depending upon fever
or inflammation of the brain, have been distinguished from those of true mania, and its
true features thus better determined. These are loss of appetite, general uneasiness and
irritation, watchfulness, headache, restlessness, intense stimulation of the passions and
propensities, rapid ideation, incoherence and loquacity, violence or unbridled agitation
and extravagance; and, as the disease advances, emaciation, hollowness of the cheeks and
eyes, discoloration of the skin, brilliancy and fixity of eyes. However similar these
symptoms may be to what are seen in the fevered and the phrenetic, great caution must
be exercised in concluding that the circulation is involved directly, or at all, for of 222
cases examined by Jacobi. 23 only presented any indications of fever, and in these this
condition was attributable to hectic and other causes unconnected with mania. Esquirol
rarely mentions the pulse as affording any guidance in this kind of alienation. The true
interpretation of these symptoms appears to be that they are connected with debility and
exhaustion; that although, remotely, they may originate in any organ or condition, they
proximately depend upon impaired nutrition and irritation of the nervous system, calling
for support, stimulation, calm, and repose, alike moral and physical. The classification
of the various aspects under which mania occurs has been so far regulated by the bodily
affection with which it is complicated or associated. Epileptic mania, the most furious
and formidable, and puerperal mania, perhaps the most intractable species, consist in the
superaddltiAi of the indications formeny detailed to certain states of the nervous system,
and to that of parturition. Whatever the combination or complication, however, the
essential psychical characteristic of mania is that all mental powers are involved, and are
thrown into a state of exaltation and perversion. When the initiatory extravagance and
excitement have subsided, when the affection has become chronic, delusions, previously
existing, become prominent, and impart a predominating complexion to the condition. It
is prolMble tiiat, wherever delusions or hallucinations are detected, although they may
leem solitary deviations from health, there is a broader and deeper substratum of disease, of
which they are trivial manifestations; and where mania has ushered in such affections.
the original disease may be held to remain while they remain, and to be reacted upon, and,
Manl*. IQQ
Manln. *^o
under certain circumstances, roused into activity througli their instrumentality. In tbew
views may be found an explanation of those partial mental derangements wliich appear to
co-exist with health. — BucKnill and Tuke, Fiyeholoffical Medicine — Sketches in Bedlam.
MANIA. Bee Insanity.
MANIOA, a small state of 8.e. Africa, in the territory of Monomotapa, but tributarj
to the Portuguese. It is a mountaiifous region, and produces gold and copper, which,
with ivory, form the chief articles of export, and are exchanged with the Portuguese for
silk, linen, and iron. Many parts are fertile, affording pasturage for large herds of cattle.
XAHICHJB'AVS, a religious sect, founded by Man! (q.v.), which, although it utterlj
disclaimed being denomiuated Christian, yet was reckoned among the heretical bodiea
of the church. It was intended to bleud the chief dogmas of Pai-sism, or rather Magism,
as reformed by 2^roaster, with a certaiu number of Buddhistic views, under the out-
ward garb of biblical, more especially New Testament history, which, explained allegori-
cally and 8ymlM)licall^, was made to represent an entire new religious ^y stem, and one
entirely at variance with Christianity and its fundamental teachings. The Manicbsans
assumed, above all, two chief principles, whence had sprung all visible and invisible
creation, and which — totally antagonistic in their natures — were respectively styled
the Light, tiic Good, or God, and the Darkness, the Bad, Matter, or Archou. fiiey
each inhabited a region akin to their natures, and excluding each other to such a
degree that the region of darkness and its leader never knew of the existence of that of
the light. Twelve eeons— corresponding to the twelve signs of the zodiac and the twelve
stages of the world — had sprung (emanated) from the primeval light; while *' darkness,"
filled with the eternal fire, which burned but shone not, was peopled by ** demons,"
who were constantly fighting among themselves. In one of these contests, pressing
towards the outer cage, as it were, of their region, they became aware of the neighbor-
ing region, and forthwith united, attacked it, and succeeded in carrying the ray of light
that was sent against them at the head of the hosts of light, and which was the embodi-
ment of the ideal or primeval man (Christ), captive. A stronger eeon, however (tlie Holy
Ghost), hurried to the rescue, and redeemed the greater and better part of tlie CHptive
light (Jesus imptitibilis). The smaller and fdnter portion, however (Jesus passibilifl),
remained in the hands of the powers of darkness, and out of this they formed, after the
ideal of Tue Man of Light, mortal man. But even the small fraction of light left in him
(broken in two soul:^) would have prevailed against tiiem, had they not found meaosto
further divide and subdivide it by the propagation of this man (Eve — sin). Not yet
satisfied, they still more dimmed it'^by burying it under dark " forms of belief and faith,
such as paganism and Judaism.*' Once more, however, the original light came to enve
the light buried in man, in the person of Christ, descending from the sun, with which
he is one. The demons succeeded, however, in cutting his career of salvation short by
seducing man to crucify him. His sufferings and death were naturally only fictitious,
since he could not in reality dio; he only allowed himself to become an example of
endurance and passive pain for his own. the souls of light. Since, however, even his
immediate adherents, the apostles, were not stron.D^ enough to suffer as he had bid them,
he promised them a paraclete, who should complete his own work. This paniclete was
Mani. who surrouncfed himself, like Christ, with twelve apostles, and sent them into
the world to teach and to preach his doctrine of salvation. The end of the '* world"
will be fire, in which the region of darkness will be consumed and utterly annihilated.
To attain to the region of eternal liirht. it is necessary that passi(m. or rather the body,
should be utterly subdued; hence rigorous al)stinence from all sensual plea.<iure9. ascet-
icism, in fact, to the utmost degree, is to be exercised. The believers are divided into
two classes, the elect and the auditors. The elect have to adhere to the Signatulnm,
Oris, Manu9, and Sinus, that is, they have to take the oath of abstinence from evil and
profane speech (including ''religious terms such as Christians use respecting the God-
head and religion"), furtlier, from flesh, eprgs, milk, fish, wine, and all intoxicating
drinks (cf. Manu, Irittit. vv. 51, 52, 53: "He who makes the flesh of an animal his
food . . . not a mortal exists more sinful ... he who ... desires to enlarge his
own flesh with the flesh of another creature." etc.); further, from the possession of riches,
or, indeed, any property whatsoever; from hurting any being — animal or vegetable; fmm
heeding their own family, or showing any pity to him who is not of the Manichienn creed;
and finally, from breakmg their chastity by marriage or otherw ise. The auditors were
companitfvely free to partake of the good things of this world, but they had to provide
for the subsistence of the elect, and their highest aim also was the attainment of th^
state of their superior brethren. In this Manichaean worship, the viwble reppesenta^
tives of the light (sun and moon) were revered, but only as representatives of tlie ideal,
of the- good or supreme God. Neither altar nor sacrifice was to be found in their places
of religious assemblies, nor did they erect sumptuous temples. Fasts, prayers. (»cca-
sional readings'in the supposed writings of Mani, chiefly a certain FundamtntalJ^pistle,,
were all their outer worship. The Old Testament they rejected unconditionally: of th«
New Testament thev retained certain portions, revised and redacted by the paraclete.
(August, c. Faust., book xviii. ; cf, book ix.). Sunday, as the day on which the visible
universe was to be consumed, the day consecrated to the sun, was kept as a great fes-
tival; and the most solemn day in their year was the anniversary of the death of Muut
489 jBsl::
Baptism and the Lord's supper wcfre celebrated as mysteries of the elect Of this mode
of celebration, however, we Know next to notliiog; even Augustine, who for alK>ut ninu
years belonged to the sect, and who is our chief authority on this subject, confesses his
Ignorance of it As to the g^eneral morality of the Manichteans, we are equally left
to conjecture; but their doctrine certainly appears to have had a tendency, chiefly in
the case of the uneducated, to lead to a sensual fanaticism hurtful to a pure mode of
iife.
Tlie outward history of the sect is one of almost continuous persecution. Diocletian,
as early as 396 a.d., i«ued rigorous laws against them, which were reiterated l)y Val-
entinian, Theodosius I., and successive monarchs. Notwithstanding this, they gained
numerous adherents; and very many mediiBval sects, as the PrisciSiaos, EaUiarenes,
Josephinians, etc., were suspected to be secretly Manichmans. Italy, the south of Fnince,
Spain, and even Germany, were the successive seats of this sect, wliich did not disappear
entirely until the time of the reformation.
MAHZFES'TO, a public declaration issued by a sovereign prince or by a government
on some slate emergency, expressive of intentions, opinions, or motives. Immediately
before entering on a war, a manifesto is issued containing a statement of the reasons
which have been held to justify the sovereign or government in taking up arms. In
i of a revolt, a manifesto is sometimes issued to recall subjects to their allegiance.
MANIGAULT, Gabrisi*, 17(Mr-81; b. B. C, of Huguenot parentage; became a mer-
chant, acquired n-eat wealth, and in the l)eginning of the war of independence loan'ed to
the state of 8ou£ Carolina the sum of |d20,000. In 1779, when Prevoet attacked Charles-
ton, Manigault at 75 years of age, with a grandson but 15 years old at his side, was
among the volunteers who defended the city.
MANIL'A HEMP. See Abaca, ante.
KAVIL'A, the capital of the Philippine islands (q.v.), and residence of the Spanish
viceroy, or governor of the Philippine archipelago, is situated in the island of Luzon, on
the banks or the river Pasig, ana at the embouchure of that river in the bay of Manila.
It is divided b;^ its river into Manila proper and Binondo. Manila proper, or the eU$f
of Manila, consisting of 17 spacious streets, crossing at right angles, contains the cathe-
dral; the palaeio, built in 1690; the archiepiscopal palcK^e, the hall of audience, 11
churches and 8 convents, besides public offices, barracks and other military establish-
ments. Beyond the ramparts, on the east side, is the calzada, or public promenade,
crowded in the evening by carriages and equestrians. Instead of jslazed wmdow^s, the
Louses are fumislied with sliding frames, ntted with plates of semi-transparent oyster-
diells. Binondo is larger and more animated ihan Manila; but the streets are less
regular, and many still unpaved. Numerous canals intersect this suburb, which is the
residence of the wealth v merchants. The bay and harbor of Manila are magniiioent, and
the Fasig is navigable for 10 miles. The trade is chiefly with the United States, Great
Britain, China, and Australia. Manila is by law the only emporium of foreign trade with
the Spanish East Indies. Its principal exports are sugar, abaca (Manila hemp), cigars,
leaf tobacco, coffee, rice, and fine woods. The imports consist chiefly of woven goods
^m Manchester and Glasgow, with lead, iron-ware and beer; silks, nankins, vermilion,
and curiooitics are imported from China. The cheeroots of Manila are famous; thev are
generally preferred to those of Havana everywhere east of the cape of Good Hope.
Their manufacture is under the charae of an administration whose headquarters are at
Manila; 20.000 persons are employed in this branch of manufacture. The climate of
Manila is on the whole healthy, and the average temperature throughout the ^ear is
nearly 82**. Convulsions of the earth have fn.'quently made frightful ravages in this
city. In 18IM, many churches, private houses, etc., were destroyed, and the ships in the
harbor were wrecked, but the number of victims was never ascertained. In 1828 and
1857, severe shocks were felt; but on June 8, 1868, one of the most dreadful eartliquakes
almost ruined the city. Tlie cathedral and all the churches, with one exception, were
overthrown: the palace of the viceroy and the British consulate were destroyed; and a
number of lives, of which 2.000 seems but a moderate estimate, were lost. On Oct. 80,
1875, a violent hurricane killed 250 persons, and destroyed 8,800 houses. Manila is one
of the four ports of the Philippine archipelago which are open to foreign vesK'ls. In
1874 the value of the exports from Manila was $15,889,817 (about £8,178,000): and that
of imports from Great Britam was £878,485. Pop., including suburbs (1865), 280,448.
MANILIUS, Marctp, lived, according to Bentlev, who has edited his works, at
about the time of Augustus; but both his name and. identitjr are in great doubt, as
well as his birthplace, which Bentley claims to have been in Asia; others in Rome. He
is known only as the author of a poem called AHronamiea, of which fUve lK)oks are
extant treating of the fixed stars. Probably otliers on the planetary system have been
lost or never completed. As an astronomer Manilius seems to have been somewhat in
advance of his age, but as poc-try his book has snmll value.
KAmr, DanieIi, an illustrious Italian patriot and political leader, elected, during
the revolution of 1848, president of the Venetian republic. Bom in 1804 at Venice,
Manin graduated at the university of Padua, was admitted doctor of laws at 19, and sub-
sequently practiced at the bar, of which his father, Pietro Manin, was an eminent mein-
M^io«. 440
L'KIOC. Makdioc, or Casbata, Manihot utUiUsima, formerly known as joAvp/b
wt, and t^jampha manihot, a larg^, half -shrubby plant of the natural order euphar-
ber. From 1881 he became a recognised leader of liberal opinion in Venice; in 184T
his reputation as a political economist was established during the sittings of the sdenti^
congress at Venice; and shortly after he was thrown into prison for a spirited public
address of which he was the author.
Previous to the outbreak of 1848, Manin was for the second time incarcerated; but
on the promulnition of the news that Paris, Naples, and Tuscany were in ji-evoluUon,
he was released in triumph by the populace, and was at once invested with supreme
power. The organization of a civic guard, and tiie expulsion of the AuBtrians trom the
ursenal, were Manin's first public measures; the mob that clamored for the lives of their
former oppressors, shrunk back abashed at his dignified rebuke.
From the period of his election to the presidency of tlie Venetian republic, Hanio's
enei^ies were devoted to the organization of the inhabitants for self-defense.
During the annexation of Lombardy to Piedmont, Manin laid down his authority;
but on the defeat of the Sardinian army at Novara, Mar. 28, 1849, he resumed it, and
was the animating spirit of the entire population of Venice during the heroic defense of
the city for four months against the beslej^ing Austrian army. On Aug. S4, Venice
capitulated; but Manin, with 40 of the principal citizens, being excluded from all stipu-
lations, quitted the city. He retired to Paris, where he taught his native knguage,
declining innumerable offers of aid. From thence he pi'oclaimed his desire tUat the
republican system should give place in Italy to the Sardinian monarchy, or any execu-
tive form tending to get rid of Austrian rule. He died of hearUlisease in Paris m Sept,
1857.
In this really great man appeared a rare union of qualities the most exalted^ enthu-
siasm being guided by great practical sagacity ; extreme personal humility coexisting with
a lofty sense of authority, and great ficulty for command ; and the energy and fire of
action being equaled by the calm and stoical endurance of defeat and mortal disease.
XAl
manihot,
biacea, a native of tfopiqal America, and much cultivated there. It is now also exten-
sively cultivated in Africa, and has been introduced into other tropical countries.
Manioc, or mancUoea, is the Brazilian name; eaaaava, the West Indian; and in Pern and
some other parts of South America, the name is juca or yueea. The plant grows in &
bushy form, with stems usually 6 to 8 ft. high, but sometimes much more. The stems
are white, brittle, and have a very hu*ge pith; the branches are crooked. The leaves are
near the extremities of the branches, lam, deeply 7-parted. The roots are very large.
tumip-Iike, sometimes weighing 80 lbs., fiom three to eight growing in a cluster, usually
from a foot to two feet long. In common with other parts of the plant, they contain an
milky juice, so poisonous as to cause death in a few minutes; but as thisJs owing to the
acrid presence of hydrocyanic acid, which is quickly dissipated by heat, the juice, ins|>iB-
sated by boilioe, forms the excellent sauce called Casareep (^.v.); and fermented with
molasses, it yields an intoxicating beverage called auyoou; whilst the root, grated, dried
on hot metal plates, and roughly powdered, becomes an article of food, very largely used
in South America, and there very generally known ssfariTiah (Portug. meal). It is made
into thin cakes, like the oat-meal cakes of Scotland, which are form^, however, not by
mixing it with water, but by the action of heat softening and agglutinating the parti-
cles of starch. These cakes are sometimes called casmtxi or camada bread. It is also
imported into Britain, to be used in manufactories as starch. The true stardi of manioc,
separated In the ordinary manner from the fiber, is also imported in considerable quan-
tity into Britain, under the name of BramHan arrow root ; and from it tapioca is made, by
heating it on hot plates, and stirring with an iron rod; the starch-grains burst, some of the
starcli 13 converted into dextrine, and the whole agglomerates into small irregular masses.
Another species or variety of manioc is also cultivated, the roots of which contain a per-
fectly bland juice, and aro eaten raw, roasted or boiled. This, the SwRkr Cassava or
SwEST Juca (.If. aipi of some botanists, said to be a native of Africa as well as of Amer-
ica), is described as having the leaves 5-parted, and the root of longer shape than the
common or bitter cassava, and much smaller, only about six ounces in weight; but other
descriptions represent the sweet cassava as having roots quite equal in size to the hitter.
The manioc is easily propagated by cuttings of the stem, and is of rapid growth, attain-
ing maturity in six months. The produce is at least six times that of wheat
KA'KIS, a genus of mammalia, of the order ^e7tto/<r',* containing several species,
natives of Africa and the warm parts of Asia, and in their hftbits and many of their
characters closely resembling the ant-eaters (q. v.) of South America; but having, amon?
otlier differences, the body and the tail covered with an armor of large sharp-edged aoa
pointed scales. The species are pretty numerous. One, remarkable for the length of
Us tail, the phaita§en of the ancients (if. tetradacipla\ inhabits western Africa. It is
about 6 ft. long, of which the tail occupies 8 feet. — Another, the Short-taii^ed Makis
(Jf. peniadactyla), is common in many parts of the East Indies.
KAK, ISLE OV, is situated in the Irish sea. in u. lat. 64" 3' to 54'' 25', and w. long.
4° 18' to 4" 47' ; the shortest distance between the island and the adjacent countries being
from point of Ayre to Burrow head in Scotland, 16 miles. The length of the island is
88i m., breadth Vl^m,^ and area about 145^825 acres, of which mm'e than ^000 are cul-
^1 Manloo.
tlvated. At the south-western extremity is an islet called the Calf of Man, containing
800 acres, a large portion of iirhich is under cultivation. A chain of mountains exten£
from n.e. to &w., the highest of which is Snaefell, 2,024 ft. above the mean sea-level:
from its summit, the view is very imposiuff ; the picturesque glens and undulating coun-
try in the foreground; the rich plains of the n. and s. of the island in mid-distance; and
beyond, the Irish sea, bounded by the high lands of the surrounding countries, on which
even the com-flelds may be descried. Several streams take their rise in these moun-
tains, in some of which trout abound, though in many the fish have been destroyed' by
the washings from the lead mines. The coast^scenery from Maughold head on the e.,
passing a. to Peel on the w., is bold and picturesque, especially in the neighborhood of
the GaTf, where Spanish head, the southern extremity of the island, presents a sea-front
of extreme grandeur.
The greater part of the island oonsista of clay-slate under various modifications.
Tbrouffh the clay-schist, |;ranite has burst in two localities, in the vicinity of which
mineral veins have been discovered, and are extensively worked. Nearly 4,000 tons of
lead are extracted annually, as well as considerable quantities of copper, zinc, and iron ;
the lead ore is very rich in quality, as much as 106 oz. of silver having been occasionally
extracted from the ton.
The island ia divided into 6 sheadingt; these into parishes, of which there are 17;
these, again, into Wmm; and, lastly, into quofterianck. The towns are Castletown (q. v.),
Douglas, the modem capital (q.v.), Peel (q.v.), and Ramsey (q.v.).
Within the past few years [rreat improvements have been made in the island. At
Douglas, a beautiful promenade has been erected; also a handsome landing-pier, at a
cost of £48,000. Very extensive breakwater and other harbor works have been erected
at Douglas. The total expense has been over £200,000. An outer pier and breakwater,
constructed of concrete cement blocks, at a cost of about £160,000, was opened in 1879.
At l^amsey, a public promenade and inclosure on the foreshore have been carried out;
and harbor works have been erected both here and at Port Erin, in the latter case at a
cost of £77,500. Port Erin harbor is more especially designated for the herring fleet,
and for the steamers from Ireland, which are expected yet to form a great trade for the
island, as a uort of call between England and Ireland. A sum of close on £10,000 has
been expenoed in casing the existing breakwater at Peel. To cover the extensive out-
lay on harbor works the consent of the imperial treasury was asked and obtained in
1866 for tlie readjustment of duties on articles imported into the island, such as spirits,
wines, tobacco, teas, sugar, etc.
The Isle of Man possesses mudi to interest the antiquary. Castle Rushen (see Castle-
town) probably the most perfect building of its date extant, was founded by Guthi-ed,
son of king Orry, in 047. The ruins of Rushen abbey, dated from 1154, are picturesquely
situated at Ballasalla. There are numerous so-called Druidical remains and Runic
monuments throughout the island.
Tlie population of the island, in 1871, was 58,763; in 1861, 52,460; the small rate of
increase being attributable to emigration. The language of the natives is a dialect of the
Celtic, and is closely allied to the Gaelic and the Erse or Irish. As a spoken language,
it is almost entirely disused.
The climate is remarkable for the limited rancre of temperature, both annual and
diurnal; westerly and south-westerly winds greatly predominate; easterly and north-
easterly winds occurring chiefly in the autumn quarter. Myrtles, fuchsias, and other
tender exotics flourish throughout the year.
The flsheries afford employment to nearly 4,000 men and boys. More than 700 boats
of various tannage are employed in the herring and cod fisheries, the average annual
produce being above £60,000. In addition to these, a large number of Engllsh'and Irish
boats arrive at the island during the Ashing season. Besicfes the herrings consumed fresh,
there are about 40.000 4x101618 cured. The trade is chiefly coastwise ; the exports are lim-
ited to the products of the island.
Agriculture has of late years made considerable progress. Large numbers of fat cat-
tle are shipped to the English markets, as well as about 20,000 quarters of wheat annu-
ally. The manufactures^are inconsiderable; but to make up for this, about 100,000 vis-
itors come to the island each season.
The revenae derived from the island amounts to about £50,000 per annum ; of which
the greater part is received from customs duties, and the whole of which, except £10.000
a year payable to the imperial treasury, is used for insular purposes, such as public
improvements, education, police, cost of government, etc.
The principal line of communication with the United Kingdom is between Douglas
and Liverpool, by means of a fine fleet of swift steamers. There is a submarine tele-
graphic cable between Maughold head and St. Bees head. In July, 1878, a line of rail-
way was opened between Douglas and Peel; In 1874 to Castletown and the soutii ; and in
1879 to Ramsey — all on the narrow-gauge system.
Previous to the 6th c, the historv of the Isle of Man is involved in obscurity; from
that period, it was niled by a line of Welsh kings, until near the end of the 9th c, when
the Norwepan, Harald Haarfager, invaded ana took possession of the island. Accord-
ing to tradition, in the beginning of the 10th c, Orry, a Dane, effected a landing, and
was favonbly received by the inhabitants, who adopted him as theii^king: he is said-to
ManiiWA. AAO
Manitoba. ^^-^
have been the founder of tlie present Manx constitution. A line of Scandinavian kings
succeeded, until Magnus, king of Norway, ceded his right in tbe island and the Hebn-
des to Alexander III. of Scotland, 1::*66 a.d.; this transference of claim l)eing the direct
re>ult of the disastrous failure of the expedition of Hacon of Norway iigainst the Scots
in 1263. On the death of Alexander, the Manx placed* themselves under the protection
of lid ward I. of England by a formal instrument dated 1290 a.d.; on the strengtii of
this document, the kings of England granted the island to various royal favorites from
tin'ie to time, until the year 1406, when it was granted to sir John 8tanle]^ in perpetuity,
to be held of the crown of England, by rendering to the king, his heirs, and suoi*es-
fiors. a cast of falcons at their coronation. The Stanley family continued to rule tbe
island under the title of kings of Man, until James, the 7th earl of Derby, adopted tbe
humbler title of lord, on his accession to the government. In 1651 the island was sur-
reudei-ed to a parliamentary force by receiver-general Christian, who had raised an armed
body against the government, which was then in the hands of the countess of Derby:
the parliament having thus obtained possession of the island, granted it to Thomas
lord Fairfax. On the restoration, the Derby family were again put in possession. On
the death of James, 10th earl of Derby, without issue, in 1785, James, 2d duke of
Aihol, descended from Amelia Sophia, youngest daughter of James, the 7th earl of
Derby, became lord of Man. The Isle of Man having been for a long period the seat
of an extensive smuggling-trade, to the detriment of the imperial revenue, the sover-
eignty of it was purdiased bv the British government, in 1766, for £70.000 and an
annuity of £2,000 a year, the duke still rctaiumg certain manorial rights, church patron-
age, etc. After negotiation and sales from time to time, the last remaining mterest
of the Athol family in the island was transferred to the British crown by John, the 4th
duke, in Jan., 182U; the amount paid for the island having amounted iu the aggregate
to £493,000.
The Isle of Man forms a separate bishopric under the title of Sodor and Man. The
bishopric of the Sudoreys. or Southern isles, M-as for a time annexed to Man. hence tbe
title of So<lor, which is still retained, the name having been applied to the islet of Holm
Feel, on which the cathedral church of the diocese stands. This bishopric is said to have
been founded by St. Patrick in 447. The Manx church has its own canona, and an inde
pendent convocation. The see is, for certain purposes, attached to the province of
York. There are in the island about 80 places of worship in connection with the estab-
lished church of Man. The hvin^ are, with few exceptions, in the df t of tbe crown.
The principal denominations of dissenters are represented in the island.
The Isle of Man has a constitution and government of its own, to a certain extent
independent of the imperial parliament. It has its own laws, law-officers, and courts of
law. The legislative body is styled the court of Tynwald, consisting of the lieut.gov.
and council — the latter being composed of the bishop, attorney -general, two deemsters (or
judges), clerk of the rolls, water bailiff, archdeacon, and vicar-general — and the house of
24 kej's, or representatives. A bill is separately considered by both branches, and on
being passed by them, is transmitt^'d for the royal assent; it does not, however, become
law until it is promulgated in the English and Manx languages on the Tynwald Hill.
The house of keys was formerly self -elective; but in 1866 an act was passed establishing
an election by the people every seven years, the electoral qualification being, in the
country, £12 yearly value occupation, or £8 proprietary ; and £8 proprietary or tenancy
in the towns.
The ancient arms of Man were a ship with her sails furled ; in 1270 the present arma
were substituted, viz., gules, three legs of men in armor, conjoined in fesse at the upper
part of the thighs, flexed in triangle, garnished and spurred, or, with the motto on ^r-
ter surrounding, Qyocungttejeeeria slMt.
See The lide of Man, its History, etc., by the rev. J. G. Gumming, m.a., k.o.b. ; Eis-
tory of the hie of Man, by Joseph Train, F.S.A. Scot. ; Brown's Popular Quids; and the
works published by the Manx society.
XAHIS'SA (anc. Magnesia ad Sipylvm), a t. of Asia Minor, on the s. bank of the Sara-
bat (IJermuit), 28 m. n.e. of Smyrna. It abounds in handsome public buildings. Silk
and cotton manufactures are carried on. Population variously stated at 85,000 and
60,000. The ancient Lvdian Magnesia is famous for the victory of the Romans under
Scipio over Antiochus III. of Syria. There was another Magnesia in ancient times,
not far from this one, generally called Magnesia ad Maandrum.
MANISTEE, a co. of Michigan, having lake Michigan on the w., drained by the Man-
istee river; 550 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 12,588. It is a level region, heavily timbered with pine,
and with a fertile soil. The productions are wheat, hay, Indian com, oats, potatoes, and
butter. Co. seat, Manistee.
MANISTEE, a city in w. Michigan, incorporated 1869; situated at the mouth of the
Manistee river on the shore of lake Michigan; pop. 70, 4,894. It is 45 m. s.w. of
Traverse City, 72 m. n. of Muskegon, and 135 m. n.w. of Lansing. It has a pro6i)erou8
community engaged in farming, and also in the manufacture of lumber, which is
exported at the rate of 200.000,000 ft. annually. On the e. is lake Manistee, through
which the river finds its outlet, the length of the river from this lake to lake Micbi^n
being li m., and navigable by vessels of light draught. l^gtMll^^^H^Rj^f^M^V'™'^
443 Maultoba.
on lake Manistee manufacturing great quantities of shingles, laths, pickets, etc. It lina
machine-shops, grist-mills, ana a tannery. It contains 6 churches, excellent public
schools (one bululing for educational purposes costing $18,000), a couit house, and a
town-hall. Seat of justice, Manistee.
XAVITOBA, Red River, or Selkirk, Sbttlbheitt, was a colony in British North
America (of which tlie chief part is now known as Manitoba), Ivins; along the Hed river
of the north. In 1811 the earl of Selkirk, a member of the nudsion's Bay company,
attracted by the fertility of the soil on the banks of the Red river, obtained from the
company a grant of a large tract of land on both banks of the river, extending some
dislHDce witiiin tlie present frontier of the United States. Kext year he brought out a
number of settlers from the highlands of Scotland. Therifi[ht>of the Hudson's Bay
company to grant this land was, however, disputed by the Northwest couipauy; and
when the settlers commenced to build, they wer^ driven off by the servants of the North-
west company. Hostilities continued between the servants of the two eompitnles for
seveml years, and in 1819 there was a pitched battle between them. Tlie earl of Selkirk
arriving jtoon after found his settlers scattered; but by his energetic measures, and by
help of^lOO di««banded soldiers from Europe whom he had bronght with bim, he secured
for his old and new protegees a peaceful settlement. They established themselves near
fort Qarry. and in 1817 the earl obttiined from the Indians a transfer of their rigiit to the
land two miles back from the Red river on both sides. Still the settlers had some diffl-
culties to overcome, especially from visitations of grasshoppers. These were gradually
surmounted; but the population, including now a large number of half-breeds, remained
verv isolated, having little communication with the outside world.
In the year 1869 the Hudson's Bay company surrendered all their clnims to the north-
west tenitory to the British government, wh!ch in the following year transferrcd that ter-
ritory to Canada. Tiie Canadian government now oipinized that portion of the Red river
district between long. W and 99** w. and lat. 49** and 60^ 80' n. as the Proyincb op Mani-
toba. Its area is about 14,000 sq. miles. The Red river valley is a level plain or prairie,
with n soil unsurpassed in fertility by any m the world. It consists of from two to four
feet of rich black mold, resting on a marly clay which elsewhere would itself be reck-
oned good soil. In places the ground has been cropped for fifty years without any
apparent diminution of its fertility. The surface was generally treeless and ready for
the plow, though a few miles to the eastward the country was wooded. The rich natu-
ral grasses of Manitoba afford a very favorable pasture for cattle. At the lime of the
transfer, the population was about 12,000. Since then there has been a steady influx of
immigrants from the eastern provinces, from Britain, from the United States, from
Iceland, and elsewhere. In 1879 the population of the province was calculated at 75.000.
Trade has increased; saw-mills and flour-mills have been established. The scat of gov-
ernment is at fort Garry, no^w called Winnipeg, a town of near 10,000 inhabitants in
1879. The university of Manitoba, at Winnipeg, embraced the college of St. Boniface
(Roman Catholic), bt. John (Episcopal), and Manitoba (Presbyterian). Provisiou has
already been made for common schools throughout the province.
The province is represented in the senate of the dominion by two members, and in
the house of commons by four. The government of Manitoba consists of a lieutenant-
governor, appointed by the dominion government; an executive council of five meml)er8;
and the legislative assembly of twenty-four members, the province being marked off into
tliat number of divisions. While the proposed transfer to the British crown of the Hud-
son's Bay company was pending, this portion of their dominions was the scene of consid-
erable ccmtention and violence. The French-speaking population, led by Louis Riel,
organized a force, imprisoned their English and Scotch opponents, seized fort Garry,
established a provisional government, robbed the strong-box, and dictated terms to the
governor of the Hudson's Bay company, to which he had to submit. A military force
arrived in the province July, 1870, and Riel, fearing capture, escaped, an event which
put an end to the insurrection.
MANITOBA {ants). A considerable portion of this province is prairie-land, diversi-
fied by patches of elm, ash. oak, poplar, and maple. The soil is a rich black mold,
f producing from 20 to 25 bushels or wheat to the acre, the grain ripening in 110 days,
t produces also oats, barley, corn, hops, flax, hemp, potatoes, and all kinds of ganlcn
vegetables. The savannas of the Red river afford excellent ptuiturage. The winter
climate, though severe, is declared to be milder than that of the Red river valley, fartlier
south. The short summers are verjr warm. The climate, on the whole, is healthful.
The Red river is valuable for navigation, except when it overflows its banks and inun-
dates the surrounding countr^r. The Canadian Pacific railway has its course through
the province. A large proportion of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics, that religion
having been established at an earl^ day by missionaries to the Indians. A Roman Cath-
olic archbishop resides at St. Boniface, and the see-house of the Anglican lord-bisliop of
Rupert's Land is at fort Garry. The board of education is composed of equal numbers of
Roman Catholics and Protestants. There is a considerable Scotch Presbyterian element
in the population. St. John's college (Anglican), and St. Boniface college (Roman
Catholic), were founded in 1872, The executive government consists of a lieutenant-
governor and a council of five. The legislature is composed of a legislative council of
Manitoba. AAA
Manna. ***
seven members, appointed for life, and of a legislative assembly of 24 elective members.
The public business is carried on in both lue English and French languages. The
common law of England is in force in the province.
MANITOBA, Lakb a body of water in the n. w. territories of Canada, instersected by
the 5l8t parallel and 99th meridian. It is about 60 m. 8.w. of lake Winnipeg, whicn
receives ils waters through the Saskatchawan or Dauphin river, which, near the middde
of its course, expands into St. Martin's lake. Manitolm lake is about 120 m. long, and
about 25 m. wide; area, about 190Q sq. miles. It is 40 ft. higher than lake Winnipeg,
and navigable for vessels drawing 10 ft. of water, It abounas in fish. At its northern
end it receives the waters of several smaller lakes, and at the s. those of the White Mud
river. The name, in the Indian dialect, signifies "supernatural strait," the Indians attrib-
uting what they regarded as the peculiar agitation of the water in some places to the
presence of a spirit.
MAN'ITOU, a name used among most Indian tribes to denote any object of super-
natural fear or worship. It somewhat resembles in this the Greek daimot^ which meant
either a good or evil spirit. The great spirit, or giUik^ ManUou, does not correspond with
our idea of a personal God. Any article, as a charm, connected with Indian supentitioDs
is also designated by the same term, just as Africans use the 'word fetich for idola, amu-
lets, or rites.
MANTTOU, a CO. in Michigan, comprisinp Islands in lake Michigan, 100 sq. m. ; pop.
'80, 1834. The islands included, and which he off the coast of the lower peninsula, are
the Big Beaver, Great and Little Manitou, Little Beaver, Garden, Hog, South and North
Fox. These islands have a rugged surface, and are not very fertile. Co. seat, St. James.
KAHIXOVLIH ISLAVBS — comprising Grand Manitoulin, or Sacred isle; Little Man-
itoulin, or Oockburn isle, belonging to Britian ; and Druounond isle, belonging to the
state of Mlchigan^-are situated in lake Huron, from whose northern shore they are
separated by a channel varying from 7 to 18 m. in breadth. Grand Manitoulin is 90 m.
long by 5 to 80 broad; Little Manitoulin is circular in shape, and has a diameter of
7 m. ; Drummond isle is 24 m. lone by from 2 to 12 broad. All are irregular and
striking in their natural features, and the Grand and Little Manitoulin are covered with
large and dense forests of pine. Pop. 71, 2,011, of whom 1562 ^ere Indians.
MANITOWOC, a co. in e. Wisconsin, on lake Michigan, drained by the Sheboy-
rn, Manitowoc, and East and West Twin rivers; 612 sq.m. ; pop. *80, 87,506. The soil
productive, yielding largely of wheat, lye, oats, barley, potatoes, hay, peas, and
beans. Other productions are wool, butter, and pine lumber, the latter being the most
important article of exi)ort. There are a large number of flour, saw, and woolen mills,
besides tanneries, breweries, and currying establishments. Co. seat, Manitowoc.
MANITOWOC, chief city in Manitowoc co.. in e. Wisconsin, at mouth of the river
of the same name and on the Milwaukee, Lake Shore and Western railroad. Its pop. is
5,168, largely German; has a bank, 4 newspapers, tan-yards, factories, and some lake
commerce.
MANKA'TO, chief city in Blue Earth co., Minnesota; is 86 m. from St. Paul, on
the St. Paul and Sioux City railroad; pop. 70, 8,482. It is also the terminus of the
Central road, and is on the Missouri river; has 8 banks, 4 newspapers, a library, state
normal school, 8 or 10 manufactories, and a good general trade.
MANLEY, John, 1784r-93; b. at Torbav. England; bred a sailor in the maritime
service. He soon became a resident of Marblehead, Mass. At the opening of the revo-
lution he was placed by Washington in command of the schooner Lee, in which he did
good service, seizing sevend vessels, one of which was of great value. In 1776 he
received a regular commission from congress. His first capture in the Haneodc, his
new command, was the man-of-war Fox, Owing to cowardly conduct by his consort,
capt. McNeil of the Hector, capt. Manley was taken by the British man-of-war Rainbow,
on July 8, 1777. He was triea for his conduct In this affair and honorably acquitted.
The last naval combat of the war was between the Hague, capt. Manley, and four
Britisli men-of-war, the former having been driven on a sand-bank at Guadeloupe.
Here for three days Manley defended himself against the tremendous odds and finally
effected his escape. After the war his home was at Boston, where he died.
MANLIUS. The Roman family whose members bore this name had many famous
representatives, of whom may be noted. 1. Marcus MAKLms CAPiTOLimJs, who was
consul in 892 B.C., and two years later gained his surname by rescuing the capitol from
the attacks of the Gauls. From this time forward he courted the favor of the lower
classes, and in 881 was arraigned before the centuries and sentenced to be thrown from
the Tarpeian rock. The name of Marcus w^as never after borne by any of the Manlian
gens, who considered liim a traitor to his family and class. 2. Lucius MANi.n7S Impe-
BiOBUB, dictator B.C. 361. 8. Trrus Manltus Torquatus, son of Lucius, military trib-
une B.C. 359. twice dictator and three times consul. His surname was derived from
his liaving despoiled a gigaritic Gaul of a golden chain {(arques) after having slain him in
ainiclc combat. In his last consulship he waged a success^^i^^ail^^^j^ Latins and
A AX MMkltolm.
^^^ Manna.
^used to Jye put to death his own son, who had disobeyed his orders by engaging in
UBffle combat with the enemy. 4. Trrus Makliub Tokquatttb was consul in 285 B.C.,
ina in 2IZi, In that year he defeated the Gauls and crossed the Po, and soon afterwards
was vietorioiis over the CarthaginhiDS. He was again elected consul in SlO&a. but
declined the honor. 6. CKsnis MANLnia Yulso» consul b.c. 189. aftrr havine been
pnetor in 195 and curule sedile in 197 b.c. He was Tictorious over the Gauls of Galicia
and in Asia, but, on account of a serious defeat when returning through Thrace, with
difficulty obtained the honor of a triumph.
MANLY, Bajou d.p., 1798-1868; b. near Pittsborongh, Chatham co., N. C; grad-
aated at the ISouth Caroliua college iu 1801 ; preached in the Edgefield district for three
years; pastor of the Baptist church in Charleston 1806-87; prebident of the UDiyersity
of Alabama 1887-55. Kesiffning on account of failing health, he took charge of another
church in Charleston, which he subsequently left and became a travel! iig misf^ionary in
Alabama. He took an active pan in the organization of the southern Bnptist conven-
tion in 1845, and in the establishment of the theological seminary at Greenville, B. C, in
1858. He published a TV'ealm on Moral Bdenee, which has been a text-book in southern
eollegea.
MANN, A, DtJBiiET, b. Va., 1805; was a commissioner of the United States to
negotiate commercial treaties with Hanover, Oldenburg, and Mecklenburg in 1845, and
with all the minor German states In 1847; special commissioner to the insurgent gov-
ernment of Hungary in 1849; minister to Switzeriand in 1850; private secretary to
president Pierce in 1853, but resigned in a few months to devote himself to the develop-
ment of the material resources of the southern states. In 1861 he was sent on a special
mission to induce the European governments to recognize the confederacy, ana was
afterwards associated for the same purpose with Messrs. Mason and SlidelL
XAVH, Horace, ll.d., American statesman and educationist, was b. at Franklin^
Mass., May 4, 1796; graduated at Brown university. Providence, and commeoced the
study of law. Elected to the ledshUure of Massachusetts in 1827, his first speech waa
in favor of religious liberty, and his second a plea for railways. He was an anvodite of
temperance, and a founder of- the state lunatic asylum. Removing to Boston, he was
elected, 1836, to the state senate, of which he became president. After editing the
revised statutes of the state, he was for 11 years secretary of the board of education.
He gave up business and politics and devoted his whole time to the cause of education,
introduced normal schools and paid committees, and, in 1848. made a visit to educa-
tional eetablishments in Europe. His report was reprinted both in England and Amer-
ica. For 11 years he worked 15 hours a day, held teachers' conventions, gave lectures,
and conducted a large correspondence. In 1848 he was elected to congress as the suc-
cessor of ex-pt«sident John Quincy Adams, whose example he followed in energetic
opposition to the extension of slavery. At the end of his term he accepted the presi-
dency of Antioch coUeee at Tellow Springs, Ohio, established for the education of both
sexes, where he labored with zeal and success until his death, Aug. 2, 1869. His prin-
cipal works are bis educational reports, and Slavery, Letters, and Speeches.
MAHUA, a species of sugar which exudes from incisions made in the stems of the .
manna ash (see Abb), a native of the mountainous parts of southern Europe. Sicily is
the chief locality of the manna, and there, in July or August, the collectors make a
deep cut through the bark to the wood near the base of the tree with a curved-bladed
knife, repeating such incisions daily iu different places. alwa}'s, however, on one side
only, ana gradually rising until the branches are rtathed, and then some of the largest
are also cut. The following year the other side of the tree is operated upon, and this
alternation gives the bark time to heal. If the weather is warm and favorable the manna
begins to ooze out of the cuts slowly, and to harden in lumps or flakes, which are from
time to time removed by the collectors. Manna is a light porous substance, of a yellow-
ish color, not unlike hardened honey, but harder and (Trier. There are various qualities
known in commerce, according to the time of collection, the f^oodness of the season, and
other causes. It is chiefly nsed in medicine, havin;: a gentle purgative effect, which
rt^nders it valuable for administration to very young children. It consists principally of
a crystallizable sugar called mannite, and an uncrytallisable sugar, which possesses the
sweet and pureative properties. There are several other manna-yielding plants besides
the ash, especially the manna-bearing eucalyptus of Austnilia (euealypiw manniftra),,
which is non-purgative, and is a favorite sweetmeat with the children of that country.
Small quantities are found on the common larch {larir Europcevf), in some districts ,-
this kind is known under the name of n^inna of Briau9(>n. Manna is also obtained in
minute quantities from various mushrocms, and Yrom the fronds of some sea- weeds.
The manna of the Israelites, which they ate during their wanderings in the wilder-
ness, appears probably, as shown by Ehrenberg in his Symbola Phyuea (Fasc. i. 1823), to
have been the saccharine substance called Mount Sinai manna^ which is produced in
that region by a shrub, tamanx manntfera, a species of tamarisk (q. v.X from the branches
of which it falls to the ground. It does not, however, contain any man nit e. but consists
wholly of mucilaginous sugar. The exudation which concretes into this niauna is caused
by the punctures made in the bark by insects of the ^nus eoeeus (C. mannipanut), which
sometimes cover the branchea. It is a kind of reddish syrup, and is eaten by the Arabs
Manna. ±dJ\
Manulng. *^*"
and by the monks of Mount Sinai like honey with their bread. It has been veiY
generurily supposed that the manna of the Jews was produced by a species of camels
thorn (q.v.).
KANHA. CB0T7P, or Makka Groatb, a kind of semolina, prepared in Rusfia, usually
from the bard wlients of Odessa and Taganrog. In the process of gi-inding for flour,
um-ixW rounded fragments of tiiese bard grains are obtained from the grooves of the
grinding stones, and these constitute the ordinary manna groats, which forms one of the
mr)St esteemed materials for puddiugs. It is uodistinguishable from the semolina of
Italy. Another kind is made by husking the small ^in of the aquatic grass, gi^eeria
flaiifins, which is carefully collected for the purpose; it is expensive, and is only used as
a luxury. Small quantities of the commoner kind are occasionally imported for use in
this country, but it is by no means sufficiently well known.
XANHAOBA88, Ol^ceria fluitans, or PoafiuUans, a grass plentiful in marshes, ditches,
and by the sides of stagnant pools in Britain, and most piuts of Europe; found also in
Asia, North America, and New Holland. It is also known aa JUfU fe^oue, flotiUna ttwet
meadow grws, etc. It varies in height from one foot to three ft., and has a hmg. slender,
nearly erect panicle, the branches of which are at fiist erect and uppi-essed to the racUis;
the splkelcts awnless, slender, cylindrical, an inch long or nearly so, with 7 to 20 florets;
the glumes small, unequal, and obtuse; tlie outer palese with seven prominent rilM and a
membranous margin ; a scale of one thick fleshy piece. The stems are dccunil)ent at the
base, and rooting at the joints; the leaves long and rather broad, the lower ones often
floatins;. Manna grass is perennial, and useful in irri^ted meadows and in very wet
grounas, affording lar^e quantities of food for cattle. In many parts of Germany aud
Poland, the seeds — which fall very readily out of the spikelets— are collected by spread-
ing a cloth under the panicles and shaking them with a stick; they are used in soups aud
gruels, ai*e very palatable and nutritious, and are known in shops as PoUtth tmnna,
manna seedf, and manna eroup (q.v.). They are a favorite food of geese, and areiilso
eagerly devoured by carp and other kinds of flsh. — Akin to this grass is the reed meadow
grass, water meadow grass or reedy sweet water grass {glfit&ria or poa aq*tatiea), a still
krger grass, with very abundant herbage, the most productive, indeed, of all British fod-
der grasses, growing in ponds, ditches, marshes, and the sides of rivers, often where they
are tidal. Hay made of it is greatly preferred to that of other bog grasses. Its rapid
growth often ehokes up water channels, so that they must be cleared of it.
XANKXBS, The Family of. This noble family are of Nortbumbriiin extraction,
their ancestor, sir Robeit de Manners, having been lord of the manor of Etliale, or £ial,
in that county in the 13th century. His descendant, also sir Robert de Manners, temp.
Edward III., was governor of the important border fortress of Norham castle, which ha
defended with ability against the Scots, and was subsequently comuiissioned to treaty
on part of the king, with David Bruce, concerning the ratiflcation of peace. In the
reign of Henry VI., we And another sir Robert de Manners acting as sherlflF of North*
umberland, and repn?senling that county in narliament; a post at that time, as air B.
Burke remarks, of groat power and profit. His wife, a daughter of the noble house of
Roos. or De Roos, brought to him that ancient barony, and with it the castle of Belvoir,
Leicester<)hirc; the grandson of this marriage was raised to the earldom of Rutland hy
Henry YHI. ; and the tenth earl was raised to the dukedom in 1003. The elde.(<t son of
the third duke was the celebrated marquis of Granby (q.v.), who attained a very high
reputation as a fleld-offlcer whilst acting as commander-in-chief of the British forces
serving under prince Ferdinand in Germany, but who did not live to inherit the duke-
dom. The marquis's youngest brother having married the heiress of Sutton, lord Lexing-
ton, assumed the additional name of Sutton, and l)ecame the father, inter aUo$, of two
sons, one of whom was for manv years archbishop of Canterbury, and the other held the
high post of lord chancellor of Ireland early in the present century, whilst the arch-
bishop's son presided as speaker over the councils of the house of commons. The
present heir- presumptive to the dukedom of Rutland is lord John Jame$ Robert Mannen,
son of the late and brother of the present duke.
MANNERS, John. See Granbt, ante,
HAKIT H£IV, formerly the capital of the Rhenish palatinate, now the most important
fnuling town in Baden, and, after Cologne and Coblentz, the most important on the
Rhine, is situated in a fertile plain, on the right bank of the Rhine, at the Junction of
tiie Nccknr, alK)ut 18 m. below the city of Spires. The site of the town is low. and a
high dike protects It from inundations. A bridge of boats crosses the Rhine, which is
her- 1300 ft. in breadth, and a chain bridge the Neckar. The town is remarkable for Its
cleanliness and regularity, the whole of it being laid out in quadrangular blocks. Its
fortifications were destroyed after the peace of Luneville, and gardens now occupy their
place. The palace, built 1720-29 by the elector palatine Karl Philipp, is one of the
largest huildinsrs of the kind in Germany. The city contains a lyceum with a literary,
a botanic garden, an observatory, etc. Tobacco, shawls, linen, and playing-cards are
manufactured, and there are several tanneries and bleach-works. A thrivin*: trade
is carried on chiefly by boats on the Neckar and Rhine. About 0,600 vessels, of
Digitized by VjOUV IC
S70,000 tons, enter and clear the port annually. Mannheim is connected by railway
with the chief towns of Qermany. Pop. 71, 89,614.
MannUeim was a mere village till the beginning of tlie 17th c, when a castle was
built by tlie elector palatine Frederick IV., arouud which a town grew up, cliiedy
peopled by exiles for religion from the Netherlands. It was several times taken and
retaken during the wars of the 17th c, totally destroyed by the French iu the end
of tliiu century, rebuilt, and strongly fortified.
MANNING, Hehrt £dwabd. Cardinal, b. July 15, 1808, at Totteridge in Hertfor.l-
shire, England; was educated at Harrow school and Baliiol college, Oxford, wbere Im
took orders in the church of England. In 18d4 he was presented to the living of Ltiv-
ington and Qraftham in Sussex co., and in 1840 was appointed archdeacon at Chi-
cbester, the cathedral town. Up to this time he was a consistent high-church Aug:lican,
though, like many Oxford divines, inclined toPuaeyism; but iu 1^1 the decision of
the courts in the noted Graham case, which seemed lo Manning and others to claim for
tlie crown aatliority over a purely doctrinal question on thesubiect of baptism, lelt liim,
he ibougbt, no alternative but to abandon his preferment and become a member of tiie
Roman Catholic church. It was thought bv many that this would prove the begiiiuiuj;
of a serious |novement toward Rome on the pan of a large section of the Anglican
church. For three years he studied the dogmas and rites of Ida new faith at Rome, ami
in 1857 was ordained by cardinal Wiseman and became priest of tlie parish of St. Helen
and iSt. Marys. In 18Ci5 he was nominated archbishop of Westminster, and other eccle.
siasticad honors were conferred upon him. He has always been particularly energetic in
the matter of public education; in 1874 was opened the Kensington university (Komau
Oitliolic), iu the founding of which he had been for several years coucerued. * Perhaps
more thnn any other dignitary of his church, he has been active iu providing primary
education for the miisses. The cardinal's hat was conferred upon archbishop Manning
by Pius IX in Mar., 1875. In the Vatican couucil of 1869-70 he look a prominent part,
sustaining the extreme advocates of infallibility; and his controversy on the subject with
bishop Dupanloup was one of the prominent features of that time. Petri FnviLB^m
(I87i> is uu exposition of the doctrine and an account of the proceedings. On the Hanie
B'lbjoct he has also published answers (1875) to Mr. GUidstone s expostulation, giving his
views of the bearing of the Vatican decrees on civil allegiance. Besides these works he
has published sermons and numerous pamphlets on ecclesiastical subjects and on the
condition of Ireland, in the government of wuich be has longadvocatid reform. Among
these are: Unity of the Church (1842), Ttmporal Mimon of tlie Udy (Jhotit (1866). Tempund
Power <*f tJie Piipe (1866). England and Chriefendom (1867). The cardinal is a man of
great keenness of intellect, firmness of purpose, and fervor of spirit.
MANNING. Jacob Merrill, d.d., b. Greenwood, N. Y., 1824; graduated at
Amherst college in 1850, and at Andover theoloeical seminary in 1858. In 1854 he was
settled as pastor of a Congregational church in Medford, Mass., but resigned in 1857 to
become assr>ciate pastor of the Old South church in Boston, where he still (1881) remains,
being now the sole pastor. He has l)ccn a contributor to the BibUotheca Sacra; was the
onitor'of Boston, July 4, 1865; and has published Truths and the 7 ruth and Hdps to a
Life of Prayer. His discourses and writings show a strong and clear intellect, with a
finislied literary taste.
MANNING, Jakes, d.d. 1788-91; b, Elizabeth town, N. J.; frraduated at Princeton
colle^ in 1762; becaraepastor of a Baptist church in Morristown, N. J., in 1708. and soon
afterwanis in Warren, R I. In 1768 he proposed to some prominent Baptist gentlemen
of Newport the formation of a ''seminary of polite literature, subject to the government
of tlw Baptists," and piepared a plan for the institution. Tlie neccessary money was
rai^. and a eharter obtained in 1764. In 1765 Mr. Mannina:, but 27 years of age, was
appointed *' president and professor of languages and other l)ranches of learning, with*
full power to act in these capacities, at Warren or elsewhere.'* The college, first called
Klio<Ic Island college, was opened at Warren in 1766, and in 1770 removed to Providence.
In connection with the presidency, he was pastor of the First Baptist church. During
the re volution, when the college was occupied as a military liarnick and afterwanis as a
hospital. Manning continued his duties as pastor and used his influence in behalf of hia
eonntiy. In 1783 he resumed his duties as president, and in 1786 was elected to congress,',
still retaining his connection with the college. While in ' ongress he took an active ^rt
in the adoption of the national constitution. He resigned the presidency in 1790. I>r.
Manning may be regarded as the founder of tlie college, though the plan was suggested
by an association of ministers in Philadelphia. He was distinguishea as a pulpit orator,
posseasin!^, affording to his bioi^pher, **'a most attractive and impressive exterior, a
voice of extraordinary compass and harmony, and mimners expressing remarkable
dlenity and grace." The name of the college was changed to Brown university, in
1804 in honor of Nicholas Brown its liberal lienefactor.
XAHVniO THB KAVT. Until a recent date sailors only engaged themRctves for the
term a certain vessel should he in commisMon, which there was a tacit understanding'
would be alx)ut five years. When the captain hoisted his pendant, the men came down
and v6lunteen»d. or the crimps in some manner made it their Interest to produce them.
When the captain was a popular officer or noted for his daring, hi||if;ff^^'^f ^Sfi^uf^-
ffiSSSf: 448
pleted; while, when his reputation was that of a martinet, or of a commander mider
whom prize-money would probably be scarce, a ship would often lie for weeks, or even
months in harbor, while the authorities sought in vain to provide her complement of
men. In the Napoleonic and former wars, when seamen were ureently needed and
knew their value, tlie press-gang was resorted to, and vacancies filled by compulsion.
See iMPRSeBMENT.
At present seamen are encouraged by contingent advantages to enlist for a specified
number of years, at the end of which they become entitled to permanent pentloiL On
the paying off of their ship, these men are granted liberal leave, after which they Join a
depot, and are tbence drafted to some other vessel in which their services are reqaired.
As a reserve for times of emeigency, there are the royal naval coast volunteers (see Oojlst
YoLCMTBERs), and the royal naval reserve (q.v.), both very important auxiharies,
of which the value became instantly apparent when hostilities with the United States
were anticipated in 1861.
The Dutch, Danish, and Swedish navies are mainly manned by volnnteers, as is Ibat
of the United States. The navies of France, Russia, and Italy are manned by conscripts
levied in the maritime provinces of the respective countries. The German ships of war
depend on the law of compulsory service for their complement.
XAlirarO THE TABB8, in a practical sense, consists In sending sufllclcnt men aloft
and on to the yards to furl or unfurl the sails: in a complimentary sense, the yards are
said to be manned when a row of sailors, with their hands touching, arc ranged along
them, standing on the yard itself, and holding to a rope which runs across abr>ut breast-
high between the lifts. When the men are an in clean white uniforms the act of muD-
ning the yards has a singularly lively and picturesque effect. It is resorted to when any
great personage passes by the ship or comes on board, or in commemoration of some
{^eat event; but as the operation is attended with considerable and unnecessary danger,
It is, under present regulations, performed far more rarely than used to be the case.
MAVHin. SeeMAHHJL
XAHVITB, or MuBHRooif Sugar (CisHmOu), is a peculiar saccharine matter which
forms the principal coostituent of manna (q.v.); it is also found in several kinds d
fungi, in asparagus, celery, onions etc. It is most readily obtained by digesting manna
in hot alcohol. On cooling the filtered solution, the mannite is deposited in crystals,
which are very soluble in water, and possess a sweet taste. It is not susceptible of
alcoholic fermentation, an^ may be readily distin^ished from cane and grape sugar by
simple tests. Heated with hydrate of potash, it gives a mixture of acetate, formate, and
valerianate of potash, hydrogen being evolved.
XA1IFV8, according to Tacitus, the name given by the Germans to the son of the
earth-born god Tvisco. From his three sons they derived their three great tribes, the
Ingavonei, the Itkawnes, and the Herminona, Mannus belongs, not to the Teutonic
people alone, but to the ffreat mythus of the origin of the human race, common to the
whole Aryan family, ana, like the Hindu Manu or ManuM, stands forth as the progenitor
of the inhabitants of earth endowed with reason. The name is derived from the Aryan
root man, to think. (}ompare Wackernagel in Haupt's ZeUaehrift fur DeuUehei AcUr-
thum (Bd. 6).
KAHOBL, Don Franobsoo, the most eminent of modem Portuguese lyric poets, was
born at Lisbon in 1784. and devoting himself to the pursuits of literature, acquired a
high reputation. The hostility of the inquisition compelled him, however, to abandon
his native country. He took up his residence at Paris, where be died, 95tb Feb.,
1810. There are more editions than one of his Odras OomtpkUu. His odea are highly
esteemed.
MAN OF SIN, an ex^ssion used by the apoetle Paul in 2. Thess. 11. 8, and wlifdi
Is variously interpreted. The Roman Catholics assert that the Man of Sin is Antichrist
The Puritans applied the term to the pope of Rome; the fifth- monarchy men to Cromwell
and some modern theologians consider it as indentical with that "wicked one" referred
to in V. 8 by the apostle, who is to appear immediately before the second advent of
Christ, whom he will destroy with the " spirit of his mouth" and the "brightness of
his coming."
XAV'OF-WAA, an expression, of unknown origin, for an armed vessel carrying
cannon, and belonging to some constituted and acknowledged government. As such she
possesses the privileges of war: her deck is, by a legal fiction, taken to be a portion of
uie soil of the nation whose flag she hoists; in time of war riie is iustifled in attacking,
sinking, 'burning, or destroying the ships and goods of the foe, and by the law of nations,
she may stop and search the merchant-vessels of neutral powers which she suspects of
carrying aia to her enemy. See CoNTRABiiND. In case of being overpowered, the
crew of a man-of-war are entitled to the ordinary mercy granted to vanquished combat*
ants, lawfully fighting. Any vessel making war, but not belonginfi: to an acknowledged
government, is either a privateer (see Letter of MARquB) or a puate (see Pnucr).
XAV^IFWAB BUD. Bee Frigate Bird. ^g,.^^, ,^ v^uu^ic
449 SKSSt
XAirOK'XTXB (Gr. manos, thin, rare) is properly an instrument for measuring the
Tarity of the air or of other gases; but the name is most frequently applied to instru-
ments for indicating the elastic force of gases, which is always inversely proportional
to their rarity. The several kinds of barometers (q.v.) are really manometers, and so is
the steam-gauge of a steam-engine (q.v.).
MANOM'ETBR {ante). The various forms of manometer may be classified under
three heads: 1, the open-air manometer, on the principle of the barometer; 2, the con-
^ned^ir manometer, on the principle of Mariotte*s instrument (q- v.); and 8, the metallic-
spring manometer. A simple open-air manometer consists of a glass tube, open at both
ends, placed upright in a strong bottle of glass or iron, the bottom of which contains
mercury. The tube passes through a tight packing box in the neck. In the upper part
of the bottle there is an orifice which admits compressed air, acted upon by steam or
vapor, whose tension it is desired to measure. Biit tliis form cannot l^ used for high
preasurea. The multiple-branch manometer is a modification of the simple open instru-
ment, and is constructed by bending a long tube, open at both ends, in a series of V-
shaped flexures of from 20 to 40 in. m height, the number of flexures depending upon
the pressure the instrument is liable to be subjected to. Columns of mercury, of equal
hei^t, being piaced in the lower halves of the V-shaped legs, will indicate the pressure
excited at one end of the tube, bv the sum of the excess of lieight of the mercurial col-
umns in alternate legs, or by multiplying the excess of height in one leg by tlie number
of legs containing such excess. The system is fastened to a board or metallic plate,
which at one side, near the last branch, is furnished with a graduated scale. The com-
pressed-air manometer is simply a strong Y-shaped tube closed at one end, while at the
other is attached the pipe communicating with the gas or vapor whose tension it is
desired to measure. A portion of the flexure of the V contains mercury, and the space
between it and the closed end is flUed with common air. Now, according to Boyle s or
Mariotte's law, a pressure exerted on the column of mercury sufficient to force the air
into half the space it occupies at the normal atmospheric pressure, must become doubled,
or 15 Iba to the square inch must be added. Ag^n, to compress the air into half the
remaining space, 80 lbs., or double the pressure required for the reduction to the flrst
half, must be added, making in all a pressure of four atmospheres for the reduction to
one-fonrth the original volume. It is evident, therefore, that a graduated scale, to
exhibit the degrees of pressure, must have its spaces decrease from below upwards. The
graduation is accomplished by means of an open-air multiple manometer. The metallic-
spring manometer consists of an index traversing a graduated arc, and having applied
to a spring connected with it — which may be in the forraf of a spiral— a piston actuated
by the force of the gas or vapor in the boiler or steam-chamber.
KAVOB, in English law, is a freehold estate held by the lord of the manor, who is
entitled by immemorial custom to maintain a tenure between himself and the copyhold
tenants, whereby a kind of feudal relation is kept up between them. As, however, sub-
infeudation in England was prohibited by the statute of quia emptore», in the reign of
Edward I., and no manor could be created since that date, it follows that all existing
manors must trace tlieir origin from before that time. Copyhold estates arc thus a relic
of ancient feudalism, and form an exception to the general- rule in England, where free-
holds form the highest kind of estate known to the law. See Copthold. Manors
closely resemble the feudal estate held in Scotland by all proprietors of land, who have
to this day unlimited powers of subinfeudation, which they constantly act upon, and
thus keep up a chain of vassals. See Feu.
KAinaarT (more properly, Mai^red), BomM of, agreements which used to be entered
into in the Highlands of Scotland between the greater and lesser magnates, where pro-
tection on the one hand was stipulated in return for allegiance on the other. Such bonds
were common up to two or three centuries ago, the royal authority being comparatively
powerless to repress internal warfare among the fastnesses of the n. and west.
MAHBE'BA, a t. of Spain, in the province, and 80 m. n.w. of the city, of Barcelona.
It is situated in a fertile and well-irrigated district, on the left bank of the Cardonet.
Manresa has manufactures of cotton and silk falnics, broadcloths, etc. In 1811 it was
set on Are by marshal Macdonald, when more than 800 houses, with churcheB and man-
ufactories, were burned down. Pop. 15,264.
1IAV8, Lb, a city of France, formerly capital of the province of Maine, now of the
department of Sarthe, on the ri^ht bank of the river of that name, 182 m. 8.w. of Paris
by railway. The chief edifice is the cathedral, oontaiaing the tomb of Beren^aria of
Sicily, the queen of Richard Cceur de Lion. There is a public library of 60,000 vols.,
and several artistic and scientific institutions. The town manufactures wax-candles,
woolens, lace, soap, and hosiery, and is famous for its poultry, of which it sends a large
supply to the metropolis. It gives its name to a battle in the Franco-Prussian war of
1970-71, in which the French were defeated with the loss of 20,000 prisoners. Pop. 76,
45,709. Le Mans (anc. Cenamani) was, in the age of Charlemagne, one of the chief
cities of the Frankish empire.
IfAlffgAUl) BOOF, a foim of roof invented by Francis Mansart, a distinguished French
architect of the 17th century. It is constructed with a break in the slope of the roof so
U. K IX.— 29
ICaniiarcywar. J. ^ O
Mansfield. **^^
thnt ench side has two planes, the lower being stee[)er than the upper. The framework
ouglit to be arranged so that its parts arc in equilibrium. This kind of roof has (he
advantage over the common form of giving more space in the roof for living room.
MANBAROWAR, or MANSAHROR, Lake, is situated on the n. side of the Him-
alaya mountiiins, which divide liindusUin from Thibet and Tartary, and is the source
of tlie river Sutlej. It is 11 m. in breadth from n. to s., and 15 m. in length, and is sup.
posed to have been formed in the crater of a volcano. It derives importance from liie
fact of its being an object of veneration on the part of both the Hiudus and the Tartars.
The former esteem it as the most sacred of all their various places of pilgrimage, and
incur all kinds of hard%»hips in the course of their endeavor to visit it from long dis-
tances. 1'he Tartars regard it no less highly, and convey a portion of theaifhes of tlieir
friends to its shores to be thrown into it. It is situated on an elevated plain covered
With long grass, to the n. of which is a conical hill dedicated to Mahadeva.
MANS ART', or MANSARD, Francois. 1698-1662; b. France, of Italian origin. A
thorough education, lively imagination, and horror of tinselry in architecture, led him,
says his French biographer, from the over-decorated style of hie time, to adopt a severity
and heaviness of style tliat was even less pleasing. He was the artist of many crediiabie
though not remarkable works, and is credited with the first adoption of the double-slope
roof, in general use a hundred years a^o, under the name of giimbrel roof, and Hg>un
came into fashion under the name of Mansard roofs since 1850; but with such bold nnd
decorative modifications from the original form as hardly to be assigned to the original
lource.
MANS ART', or MANSARD, Juices Hardouin. 1645-1708; b. in Paris, son of an
obscure painter, who had married a sister of Francois Mansart. The uncle perceiving the
talent of the nephew and his great industry, did all in his power to advance him, and with
such success that the nephew, having assumed his uncle*s name, soon became tlie meet
famous of the two; and beinja; also a skillful courtier secured Louis XIV. for patron, aud
entered upon the construction of some of his most splendid works. The chateau de
Clagny was his first work. The next was a chftteau for Mme. de Montespan at Ver-
sailles. The extravagance and rage for palace building which possessed the king was
turned to the greatest advantage by Mansart, both as an artist and a man ot busuiess.
He accumulated an immense fortune, and was covered with dignities and honors. His
pride, vanity, and envy soon made him the object of opposition and detraction, but be
made good his place in the favor of the kinff. His enemies accused him of u^iug the
influence of the king's mistresses, and of making plain faults in his plans so that, the
king seeing them instantlv, he could turn the fact to compliment him on tlic remarkable
quickness of his eye and justice of his taste with an air that made the king the dupe of
his cunning. He was the architect of many noted chftteaux before engaging in 1660
upon the palace of Veivailles, which, monstrous *^s was its expense, has never been con
sidered proportionately beautiful. The grand Trianon was his work; but liis mo>t per-
fect design is the dome of the church of the Invalides in Paris, which, though inferior
to very many domes In size, surpasses all in the exquisite proportions of its exterior
lines. The place VendSme and the place des Victoires in Paris are also by Mansart.
XA1I8E, in Scotch "law, is the designation of a dwelling-house of the minister of the
established church, and in popular use the term is often applied generally to the dwell-
ing-house of any minister of a dissenting congregation, though no legal right exists in
the latter case. In the established church every minister of a rural parish is entitled to
a manse, which the heritors or landed proprietors are bound to build and uphold; and
he is also entitled, as part of the manse, to a stable, cow-house, and gjjrden. The
manse must, by statute, be near to the church. The usual sum allowed of late
years to build a manse is £1000. It has often been made a question, how far
the heritors can be compelled to rebuild a manse which, by time or other circuro.
stances, has become inadequate. It is now held to be the law, that at least the presby-
ter}' has power to order sufficient alterations and additions, and they can order a visita-
tion, and take estimates from skillful tradesmen, and decree what is necessary to be
done. It is only the ministers of rural parishes that are entitled to a manse, and not
ministers of a royal burgh where there is no landward district.
HAH8EL, The Rev. Henrt Longubville, b,d., Waynflete professor of moral and
metaphysical philosophy in Oxford ; was b. at Oosgrove, Northanmtonshire, in It^, bis
father being rector of the parish. He was educiited at Merchant Taylors* pcbool, and at
St. John's college, Oxford; and graduated in 1848. In 1855 he was appointed reader in
moral and metaphysical philosophy in Magdalen college; and in 1859 liecnme Wa^n-
flete professor, in 1867 he receivecl the appointments of regius profeitsor of eoclesiiis-
tical history, and canon of Christ cliurcli, Oxford. His published works are: Aldrich's
Logic, with notes (1849)^: Prolegomena lyjgiea (1851); article Metaphytdce in 8lli e<lition
of the EneyelowBdia Bntanniea (1S67), afterwards published sepanuely; Pampton Ijfc-
turee—ike Limits of Rdigimie Thmght (ia"58); lite PhUowphy of the Conditlfmed (1866),
in reply to Mill's Remetoof Hamilfon's PhiloHophy, He was co-editor, with prof. Veitch,
of sir William Hamilton's lectures. — Mr. Mansel is considered as belonging Jo the school
of sir W. Hamilton. He was well versed iu the erudition of peta^^y^^ philuso-
^^^ Mansfield.
pb^, and wrote in a clear and elegant style. His Bampton Lectures occasioned mudi
coDtroverey, both theological and philosophical. See Conditionbd. He died July 80»
1871.
MAN6FELD, Ernot, 1585-1626; the illegitimate son of count Peter Ernst; edu-
catei) by his gocl-fatiier, archduke Ernst of Austria. In return for valuable military
services' under Rudolph U. the stigma of his birth was removed by decree of the
(>fflperor. The title and estates of his father were« however, refused, and in revenge he
jtnueiitlie enemies of Austria in the thirtv years' war, and became a stanch Protestant
champion. Under the eleetor Frederick he fought desperately in Boliemia and on the
Kliitie. His efforts failed, but thev brought him neat renown; and in 1625, aided by
EnsfiiNb subsidies, be again attacked Austria. WalTeustein met and overcame his force
it UesAttu, April, 1626. It was on the retreat which ensued after this defeat that he died.
MAXSFELD, Peter Ernst, Count, 1617-1604; b. at the castle of Mansfeld in
PruiiMan Saxony; for many years an officer of Charles V. and Philip II. of Spain.
From 1552 to 1557 he was a French prisoner. After his release he was made governor
of Luxi'inburg, and afterwards governor-general of the Netherlands. In 1504 he was
piviD the title of prince and returned to Luxemburg, where he resided until his death.
KilSFIELB, a market t. of England, in the co. of Nottingham, and 14 m. n. of the
u>«ii of ihut imnie, is surrounded by the remains of the ancient forest of Sherwood. It
suDds in the center of a larce manufacturing and mining district, and contains, among
i>iber ioittitiitions. a royal n'ee grammar school, with an annual income from endow-
ueot of £2>iO. Silk, cotton, ana doubling mills are in operation, and the corn and cat-
lie markets are laigely attended. Pop. 71, 11,824.
MANSFIELD, a t. in the s.w. part of Tolland co.. Conn., on Willimantic river and
New London Nortliem railroad The main industry is the manufacture of sewing silk;
po|}. 2,401. It is the site of a soldiers' home.
MAKSFIELD. a city in Richland co., Ohio; pop. 8,026. It is the Junction of four
nilnaiis, of which the Atlantic and Great Western and the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne and
( lii( ago are the most important. It has 7 hotels, 4 banks, 4 newspapers, an opera-house,
pul»li<: I'biary, water-works, and many churches and schools. The manufacture of
i-rlrultuial t<iols is a specialty, and the trade of the place is very heavy with the sur-
routidiLg country, which is a productive farming region.
MANSFIELD, Edwakd D., ll.D., 1801-80: b. New Haven, Conn.; graduated at
Wot Point in 1»19, but declined to enter the army; and graduated at Princeton in 1822;
.'tnoieri law at the (then) Litchfield (Conn.) law school. After being admitted to the bar he
rtmoTed to Cincinnati, and in 1886 became professor of constitutional law in the coUe^
there. SbortlT afterwards, however, he abandoned the legal profession tp engage m
j''tinui1i<m. editing snccessively the Cincinnati ChronieU^ Atlas, Gazette, and Sauroad
Hffrd. He was commissioner of E^tatistics for the state of Ohio from 1857 to 1867, and
a member of the soeiiti Franfaise etatisHqve umeereeUe, He was for several years a
writer for the New York 7¥m4» under the signature of *' Veteran Observer." He pub-
M(d UtHitp of Mathematiee; JMUieai O-rammar; Treatise on ConsUtfUional Laie; Legal
Biifhh if Women; Life of Qen» Bcoti; Bisior^ of the Mexican War;. American Education;
etc. Died in Cincinnati.
MANSFIELD, Jarbd, 1759-1880; b. New Haven; graduated at Tale college in 1777;
fwime distinguished as a teacher and for his scientific acquisitions; was appointed in
l^i to a captaincy in the engineer corps of the army and assigned to duty at West
Point as acting professor of mathematics. In 1808 he was appointed surveyor-general
f>fthi' north-west territory and removed to Ohio, where he was employed in makmg tlie
mmdtan lines on which is based the system of the public land siurey. To accomplish
tlii< work he imported astronomical instruments from London, and established in his
wn house near Cincinnati the first observatory in the United States. In 1812 he
mnnKHl to New Haven, and before the end of that year was appointed professor of
Qntarni and experimental philosophy at West Point. In 1828, after serving a teim of 16
yean, he resigned and returned to New Haven, where he diea.
MANSFIELD, JoasPH E. F., 1808-62; b. New Haven, Conn.; graduated at Wc»t
P^nt in 1822, and entered the army as second lieut. of engineers. He was engaged in
engineering duties on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts until 1846; in the war with Mexico
bewafi chief ensrineer of gen. Zachary Tavlor's army, distinguishing himself in the
defpTiae of fort Brown and in the battles of Monterey and Buena Vista, and being raised
to the wnk of col. by brevet. After the war. he was for five years a member of the
bnan) of (Migineers for f(irtific:itions on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts; in 1858 he was
app«»inted iri«]wctnr-gen. of the army with Uie rank of col . which post he lield until the
fekinir t»ut of ilie rebellion, when he was placed in command of the department of
WrKliin-jton, nnd at once commenced the work of fortifying tiie oapiiaL In Oct.,
18fil. lie was transferred to camp Hamilton. Va.. and in the month following to New-
Piirt X(\v<c. He took part in the capture of Norfolk May 10, 1863. and ct mmanded at
Suffolk from June to SepU*ml»er <if that v(*nr. wlu-n he was assigned to the < onimand of ^
» division m the army of the Potomac, at the head of which, in the battle of Antietam,2
Mansfield. AKO
Mantes. ^^^
he was mortally wounded, dying Sept. 18, 1862. Before assuming his last command he
was promoted to be maj.gen. of Tolunteers.
MANSFIELD, Mount, in Cambridge, Vt., the highest elevation of the Green moun-
tain range, being 4,848 ft. above the sea. It presents a grand appearance from all sides,
and the view from the summit is one of the finest in New England. It comnuuids a
prospect of the AdirondaclLs on the w., the Green mountains on the s.. parts of the Wliite
mountain range on the e., and the mountains surrounding Montreal on ihe nortli. In
some states of tbe atmosphere lake Cbamplain also is visible. A va^on road leads to
the summit on the eastern side, and there are accommodations for visitors at the top.
MANSFIELD, William Murray, Earl of, iord-chief- justice of the king's bench, was
the fourth son of Andrew, viscount Stormont, and was born at Perth. Mar. %, 1704.
He studied at Christ-church, Oxford, took the degree of m.a. in 1780, and was called to
the bar in 1731. He soon acquired an extensive practice— mainly, it would seem, on
account of his facility and force as a speaker, for neither then nor at any subsequent
period of his eareer was he reckoned a very erudite lawyer — and was often employed on
appeal cases before the house of lords. In 1748 he was appointed by the ministry
solicitor-general, entered the house of commons as member for Boroughbridge, and at
once took a hi^h position. In 1746 he acted, ex officio, as counsel against the rebel lords,
Lovat, Balmermo, and Kilmarnock; was appointed king's attorney in 1754; and at this
time stood so high that, had not the keenness of his ambition been mitigated by a well-
founded distrust of his fitness for leading the house, he might have aspired to the high-
est political honors. He became chief -justice of the king's bench in 1756, and entered
the House of Lords under the title of baron Mansfield of Mansfield in the county of Not-
tingham. Still, his political role has little interest for posterity. As his opinions were
not those of the popular side, he was exposed to much abuse and party hatred. Junius,
among others, bitterlv attacked him; and during the Gordon riots of 1780, his house,
with all his valuable books and manuscripts, was burned. He declined, with much di?
nity. indemnification by parliament. In 1776 Murray was made earl of Mansfield. He
worked hard as a judge till 1788, when age and ill-health forced him to resign. He died
Mar. 20, 1793, in the 89th year of his age.
MANSFIELD VALLEY, a village of Alleghany co., Penn., 6 m. from Pittshure,
on Cliartiers creek, and the Panhandle and Chartiers Valley railroad; pop. about 8,000.
It has 5 churches, an academy, a newspaper, 8 savings banks, a smelting furnace, a glass
factory, and an abundant supply of coal.
KAHBLAUOHTEB is, in Scotland, the offense of causing the death of a person hj
some carelessness or neglect. In England the offense is usually called culpable homi-
cide.
MANSLAUGHTER (ante), the unlawful killing of another without malice, express
or implied. Manslaughter is either voluntary, i.e., where there was an intent to oommit
the injury; or involuntary, where there was no such intent. It differs from murder u
its absence of malice, and, as it is supposed to be committed in hot blood, no person can
be an accessory before the fact. Among cases of homicide which constitute a man-
slaughter may be mentioned killinea person by gross negligence, though in the discharge
of a lawful act; killing a person wno has given great provocation; and killing an officer
acting without or beyond his authority, though this may also be excusable homicide.
The killing of an officer acting within his legal authority is murder. The provocation
above-mentioned must be immediate, not remote; and though proof of provocation suf-
ficiently repels the presumption of malice which the law attaches to every case of homi-
cide, it is not sufficient to lower an offense from murder to manslaughter, if express
malice be made out. In most of the United States manslaughter isdivi<fed into different
degrees, punished with longer or shorter terms of imprisonment.
MANSTEIN, Von, a Prussian gen. who distinguished himself in the Franco-Prussian
war of 1870. At the head of the 9th corps, in the army of prince Frederick Charles, be
participated in the battle of Vionville. At Gravelotte, Au^. 18, 1870. he commanded the
German center, and served throughout the campaign, retiring in 187B.
MANT, Richard, d.d., b. Southampton, Eng., 1776; educated at Winchester col-
lege, and Trinity colle^, Oxford, taking his bachelor's degree in 1797; was elected
fellow of Oriel college m 1798: was curate and vicar of several parislies in and near
London 1804-15; received degree of d.d. from the university of Oxford; was made
bishop of Killaloe and Kilfenora. Ireland, in 18^, and in 1828 transferred to tbe sec of
Down and Connor. He was the author of a valuable Commentary on ths Bible in con-
nection with Dr. D*Oyle)r. This had an immense sale in England, and was republished
in New York, with additions by bishop Hobart Besides many sermons and tracts, and
several poetical pieces, he published Biogra/phieal Notices of ^ Apoitles; SeHpHtnUNar-
ratiweB cf Ohrist's Life; History of the Chureli of Ireland from the BtformaHon to (Mi
Umon of the Churches of England and Ireland in 1801 ; Anotewt J^fmns from the Soman
Breruvry with original Hymns.
MAHTCHU'UIA, a territory in eastern Asia, under the dominion of the Chinese
«mpire, extending between lat. 42** and SS"* n., and bounded, according to its present
limits, by the Amur on the n.; by the Usuri and the Sungacl^^ni||ifj^, separating it
A CO Mansfield*
40O MftntM.
from the Rossian maritime territory of Orocbi; hy the Shan-AIin range on the s.,
leparating it from Korea; and by a portion of the Khingan mountains, the river Sira-
Muren, and the distiict of the upper Sungari, which separate it on the w. from the
desert of Gobi. Previously to the incursions of the Russians on the n. the area of this
territory was about 082,000 sq.m. ; it is now about 378,000 sq.m.; nearly one-half having
pa^ mto the possession of the Russians, who concluded a treaty with the Chinese,
No7. li 1860, finally making over to themselves all the territory e. of the Usuri and n.
iBde. of the Amur. Pop. variously estimated at from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000. Man-
tcharia is divided into three provinces, Shing-King — formerly Leaotonff, which alone
contams upwards of 2,100,000 inhabitants, and the chief town of which, Mukden, is the
leat of government for the three provinces— Girin or Kirin, and Tsi-tsi-har. The country
jimouutainous, densely wooded m the &, but consisting chiefly of prairies and grass-
liad in the north. It ]b well watered and fruitful in the valleys. The rivers are the
Amor (the northern boundary), the Usuri (the eastern boundary), and the 8ungari, which
waters the two provinces of Girin and Tsi-tsi-har. The Suugari is about 1200 m. in
leoeth; its banks, which form the most densely-peopled region of Mantchuria, are low
indfertile, and its general course is n.e. to its junction with the Amur. About 200 m.
from its source, it passes the flourishing trading citv of Girin, in lat. 43' 40' n., with a
Dop. ysriouslv estimated at from 150,000 to 160,000, and inhabited by Mantchus and
Chinese, but by the latter in far greater numbers. The city of Mukden, on the Sira-
Mureo. is large and beautiful, surrounded by walls, and containing 200,000 inhabitants.
In 1881 it was the seat of the government of the empire of Mantchu. Millet, barliey,
tobicoo, and oats are largely produced, and herds of cattle are fed on the prairies.
Cliioeae form the great bulk of the population ; the Mantchus are for the most part sol-
diers, aod are dra^ied out of the country into China. For the history of Mantchuria,
■e CHINS8B Empire.
The Mantchus are the present rulers of China, who gradually subjugated the country;
the first emperor of the new dynasty, Shunche, succeeding to the last of the Mings m
1644. They are not a nomadic race like the Mongols, but are given to agriculture or
huoting, accordiiUB^ to the part of their country they inhabit. They are of a lighter
complexion and sUghtly heavier build than the Chinese, have the same confornuition of
tbe eyelids, but rather more beard, and their countenances present greater intellectual
opacity. Literary pursuits are more esteemed by them than by Mongolians, and they
ue less under the priesthood. The Mantchus, in short, noay be regarded as the most
improvable race in Central Asia, if not on the continent. ~ Williams, Middle Kingdom.
KANTEGN'A, Andbba, 1481-1517; studied art under Francesco Squarcione, a
luDous master of Padua. Here Mantegna produced his first work in the churches of
Sania Bofia and San Chriaiofano, Rapidly acquiring skill and fame, he removed to
Hantoa, where his acknowledged masterpiece, " The Triumph of Csesar," was painted.
Tbis is now at Hampton court, England. From Mantua he was called to EU>me by
loQoceDt Vm., and received from him the kindest treatment and remunerative employ-
loent, but soon returned to Mantua. Here, by his proflciencv and genius both in the
higher class of enjj^ving and as a religious and historical painter, he obtained a high
nnk m his profession as well as large estate.
XABTILL, Gideon Aloeknon, an eminent British paleontologist and geologist,
vas b. at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1790; studied medicine, ana for some time practiced in
his native town. Subsequently he removed to Brighton, and thence to London, where
he died, Nov. 10, 1852. Manteirsprincipal works are: FbmU of the South Doiens (1822);
' The Fhmls of TOgaU Forest; Wonders of Oeology (1838), perhaps the most popular
geological work ever written by an Englishman; and Medale of OreaHon, or First Les-
ion* in Otology (1844). He was a very voluminous writer, no less than 67 works and
memoirs of his being mentioned in Agassiz and Strickland's BibUotheea Zoologia et Oeo-
^. His claims to a permanent place in the history of science rest chiefly on his
laborious investigations into the fossils of the Wealden beds. To him we owe the dis-
covery and description of four out of five of the great dinosaurian reptiles— viz., the
V^aiufdon^ the hylaosaurtts, Uie pelorosaurus, and the regnosaurus.
UVTEL-FIECE, the lintel over the opening of a fire-place supporting the masonry
ibove. It was in ancient times frequently ornamented with moldings and carving.
The name is now applied to the marble or wooden jambs, lintel, and shelf so universally
wed.
XA9TS8 (anc. Medunta\ a t. of France, in tbe department of Seine-et-Oise, beauti-
'oily situated on the left bank of the Seine, 29 m. w.n.w. from Paris, on the railway
between Paris and Rouen. Mantes is a place of great antiquity, and of much historic
interest. It was a town of the Celts, from which the Druids were expelled by Julius
^^9mx. WUliam the conqueror took it by assault in 1087, put the inhabitants to the
vword, razed the fortifications, and burned three-foruths of the houses; but here he
reoeiTed the injury, through the starting of his horse, which caused his death in a few
days. Mantes has has a considerable trade in wheat, large tanneries, and saltpeter
Bianiifactories. Pop. 76, 5,649. On the opposite side of the river, connected with
Kanies l^ bridges and an island, is the villa^ of Limay, with a pop. of 1804._j UUVLC
Manteaifel. AFxA
Mantua. *^*
MANTEUPFEL, Edwin Hans Karl. Baron von, b. Magdeburg, 1809; entered a
military career by joining tlie dragoon guards, April 29, 1827; and became betoud lieut.
the following year. He displayed an industrious character alliwi with considerable
capacity, and interested his superior officers to tliat degree that he was sent for two veais
(1884-86) to the general military academy. In two years following he acted as regfmen
tal adjutant, being named adjutant to the 2d brigade of cavalry guarc&, Oct. 18, 1889. From
1840-48 he was in the immediate service of prince Albrecht, but in the latter yew was
transferred to that of the king, with the rank or adjutant of the wing, being made a major
in 1852, and lieut. col. in 1858. He was now placed in command of the 5th uhlan regiment;
and in 1854 of the 8d cavalry bngade. His advancement continued to be rapid, and in
1858 he was made maj. gen., in 18j1 adjutant-^n., and in the autumn of the latter yeiir
lieut.gen. In 1864 gen. Manteuffel was engaged in the Sieswick-Holstein war, was present
at the ixittle of Missunde, and commanded in the engagements and movements wbicli
resulted in the occupation of Jutland. After the close of this wai he was employed in
effecting a solution of the difficulty between Austria and Prussia, and arranged for the con-
vention of Gastein, by which this was brought about. He was now made governor of the
duchy of Sleswick, with command of the Prussian troops in Holstein and the marines sta-
tioned at Kiel. In 1866 the war between Prussia and Austria broke out, and Manteuffel
was ordered into active service. At midsummer he was commanding in chief the army of
the Maine, and fought at Hemstadt, Vettingen, Rossbrunn. and Wtlrzburg; receiving from
llie king for his services the order of merit. At the close of the war he was sent to St.
Petersbui^g on a diplomatic mission, and on his return was made general -in command
of the troops in Sleswick-Holstein, being advanced to the rank of general of cavalry,
and a month later made commandant of the 9th army corps. In 18^ he was placed in
command of the 1st army corps, and was engaged in the Franco-German war. His corps
was under fire at Coui-ceiles and Noisseville, directed the evacuation of Metz and the dis-
posal of the prisoners, and then reentered active service in a campaign against gen.
Bourbakl. Later he operated against the south and south-east armies of the trench, and
performed most brilliant and effective service. In 1872 gen. Manteuffel was invented
with the insignia of the order of the Black Eagle, and was afterward nmde field-marshal
gen., and aia-de-camp gen. to the emperor.
MANTEUFFEL. Otto Theodor, Baron von. b. Prussia, 1805; studied juriFprudence
at Halle, and in 1827 became a minor magistrate at Berlin. When count Brandenburg
undertook tne suppression of the revolutionary movement of 1848, Manteuffel was made
minister of the Ulterior. In ibis office he displayed a high order of executive abiliU', and
gained the confidence of the middle classes. In 1850 he took office as minister of H)rci^
affairs. Two years later he ^as appointed president of the council of ministers, and m
1856 he was sent to Paris as one of the plenipotentiaries to negotiate a peace. He retired
from the ministry in 1868.
KA.K'Tn)£. See Mantis.
KAK'TIGEB, or Mant^bet, a monster with the body of a tiger, the head of an old
man, and long spiral horns. It is one of the imaginary creatures known in heraldic
blazon, and is variously represented, sometimes with the horns of an ox and feet of a
dragon. The supporters oi the carl of Huntingdon are mant^gres without iioms.
MAHTIHE'A, anciently a city of Arcadia, in the Peloponnesus, on the borders of
Argolis. It was situated on the river Ophis, in the midst of abroad plain, and was famous
as being the scene of several battles, of which the most important was that foueht between
the Spartans and the Thebans under EpaYninondas (362 b.c.>, in which the former were
defeated. Its site is now called PalceopoU. Some ruins still remain, the principal of
which are those of a theater whose diameter was 240 feet. See col. Leake's Tratelt in
Uie Morea (Lond. 1830).
KAKTIS, a LinnsBan genus of orthopterous insects, which included not only those now
constituting the family mantida, but also the pkasmida (leaf-insects, specter-insects,
walking-stick insects, etc.). All of them are of very remarkable forms. The mantidflp have
a narrow, compressed, and elongated abdomen, and a long thorax, which consists almost
entirely of the first segment. The head is triangular, with large ejres, three small slem-
roalin eyes, and rather long bristle-like antennae. The wings fold in a fan-like nmnner,
and the winir-covers are long, narrow, and tliin. The second and third pair of legs are
long and slender, and are used only for locomotion; the firat pair are chiefly uted as
weapons of combat and instruments of prehension, and have the eora unusuiillv long and
large; the femur also long and large, compressed, and capable of closing on tte cara, so
that the sharp edges cut like a pair of scissors. The mantidse feed on other insects, and
remain long fixed in one position, moving theirfore-legs in the air to catch prey, which has
led to a superstitious regard for them as praying iraectn, and to many foolish notions and
legends concerning them. One species (Af. rdigiom) is plentiful in the south of France
and in Italy, and others are frequent in warmer parts of the world The mantidte
not only lie in wait for prey, but move about in ouest of it, moving slowly, and
advancing stealthily on the victim. Many of them are large insects. Some of the South
American ones are 4 in. in length. They are all of very pugnacious disposition, the
combat generally terminating in the decapitation of one ijL^^^ ^*^^$^l^^^' ^^^ ^^ divld*
AKri Mantettft»U
**'«^ BAanfcun.
ing of its body in some part by the legs of the other; and the victor enjoys his triumph
in eating the vanquishea. In China and some oUier piirts of the east, these insects are
kept in cages, and set to fight with each other for the amusement of the bebolders.
Some of the mantidse (genus empum) have the forehead produced into a horn.
KAJITLS, a long flowing robe, worn in the middle ages over the armor, and fastened
by a fibula in front, or ut Uie right shoulder. The mantle is an importrnt part of the
official insignia of the various orders of knighthood. LtdCn 8 of ranll wore similar man-
tles, in many instances decorated with henudic charges, in which case the mantle bore
either the impaled arms of the lady and her husband, or her huslumd's arms only. A
number of examples may be seen m monumental efiigies.
MAHTLET, a sort of temporary fortification intended to protect the men working
guns in embrasures, casemate, or port-holes from the bullets of sharp-shooters. The
mantlet is usual It made to be iioisted up while the gunner takes aim, and then lowered
to cover the whole opening except a circular aperture for the muzzle of the cannon.
With every increase in the range and precision of small-arms, mantlets become more
essential for the safety of gunners. Mantlets are made of thick fir, of solid ouk planks,
or of iron plates, the last being preferable, as the lightest. At Sebastopol, the Russians
effectively blocked their embrasures by thick mantlets of plaited rope suspended freely.
A mantlet of planks or iron plates, about 5 ft. high, and occasionally mounted on small
wheels, is also used to protect sappers working at tiie end of a sap, although a rolling
gabion is preferred for this purpose by many engineers.
KAJITLIHO, or Lambke<^uin. a heraldic ornament depicted as hanging down from
the helmet, and behind the escutcheon. It is considered to represent either the cointise,
an ornamental scarf which passed round the body, and over the shoulder; or the military
mantle, or robe of estate. When intended for the cointise, it is cut into irregular strips
and curls of the most capricious forms, whose contortions are supposed to indicate that
it has been torn into that ragged condition iu tbe field of battle. When the mantling is
treated as a robe of estate, the bearings of the shield are sometimes embroidered on it.
A mantling adjusted so as to form a background for the shield and its accessories, con>
stitutcs an achtevement of arms. It is not till the latter end of the 14th c. that the mau-
tUng appears as a heraldic ornament on seals. In British heraldry, tbe mantling of the
sovereign is of gold lined with ermine; that of peers, of crimson velvet lined with
ermine. .Knights and gentlemen have generally crimson velvet lined with white satin;
but sometimes the livery colors (see Livery) are adopted instead, as is generally the
practice in continental heraldry.
KAITTUA (Ital. MarUata), an ancient city of Lombardy, and formerly capital of a
duchy of same name, but now belonging to the kingdom of Italy, is situated in lat.
45* VM' n., long. 10° 48' 1' e. Its pop. (1871) of 26,587 comprises a number of Jews,
whose commercial influence and social privileges are more extensive in this city than in
any other of Italy. Mantua occupies two islands formed by branches of the Mmcio, tbe
waters of which surround the city, with the additional defense of swamps or marshy
lakes. It is the most strongly fortified town in Italy, but. owing to its situation, is
extremely unhealthy — a fact evinced by the pallid faces of the inhabitants. There are
five gatewavs leading into the city, one of which. La Porta dei JHulini, deserves examina-
tion. The fortifications of Mantua, including its vast citadel, present such a combination
of defensive resources, that its regular investment could only be effected by a numerous
army; and its reduction even then would be impracticable, except by famine. It forms
one of the four fortresses of the Quadrilateral, which, by the treaty of Villafranca,
remained in the hands of Austria. The streets of Mantua are spacious and regular, but
indifferently paved; the squares are numerous and fine. Some of the public buildings
are splendid, both from the massive grandeur of their proportions and the novel beauty
of their architecture. The inadequate population of Mantua, added to the somber char-
acter of its feudal structures, imparts to the city an air of gloomy decadence, except in
the central commercial quarters, and the populous anin^ated Ghetto or Jewish quarter,
still subject to inclosure. The ancient ducal palace, or Oastello di Corte, a vast irregular
pile of building, was the state residence and fortress of the Gonzagas, by whom it was
erected, and now serves as a state prison and for ptiblic ofBces. The adjoining sumptuous
edifice, which now comprises the Palageo ImperiaU, the Palazzo Veechio, and the Corte
Imperiale, or Provincial Tribunal, was originally planned and begun by Buonacolsi, the
feudal lord of Mantua, in 1302; it contains 500 rooms, including n magniflcenf suite of
state apartments, whose choicest embellishment consists of the paintings and desijins of
the great Mantuan artist, Giulio Romano. The cathedral of San Pietro, also designed
by Q. Romano, contains some fine frescos. The churches of San Martino and Sant*
Eeidio are of great antiquity— the former dating fimn 528. and the latter from 568.
The province of Mantua had a high reputation in the time of the Romans. After sharing
tbe fate of the rest of northern Italy, it was seized by the Gonzagas about the commence-
ment of the 14th century. The last duke of the house of Gonzaga died childless at
Padua in 1708, when Mantua fell into the hands of Austria. Austria save it up with
her other Italian possessions in 1866.— Mantua is capital of a province of the same name,
with an area of 855 sq.ra. ; pop. '72. 288,942.
Digitized by VjOL^V IC
XlMiailM»turM*
456
XAinr (from the Sanskrit man, to think; literally, the thinkine being) is the lepoteS
author of the most renowned law-book of the ancient Hindus; andlikewise of an andeat
Kalpa work on Vedic rites. It is matter, however, of considerable doubt whether both
works belong to the same individual, and whether the name Manu, especially in the case
of the author of the law-book, was intended to designate an historical personage; for, in
several passages of the Vedas (q.v.), as well as the MahSbhftrata (q.v.), Manu is men-
tioned as the progenitor of the human race; and in the first chapter of the law-book
ascribed to him, he declares himself to have been produced by Virlti, an offspring of the
Supreme Bein^, and to have created all this universe. Hindu mythology knows, more-
over, a succession of Manus, each of whom created, in his own period, the world anew
after it had perished at the end of a mundane age. The word Manu — kindred with our
**inan" — belongs therefore, properly speaking, to ancient Hindu mythology, and it was
connected with the renowned lawbook in order to impart to the tatter the sanctity on
which its authority rests. This work is not merely a law-book in the European sense
of the word: it is likewise a system of cosmogony; it propounds metaphysical doctrines,
teaches the art of government, and, amongst other things^ treats of the state of the soul
after death. The chief topics of its twelve books are the following: 1. Creation ; 2. Edu-
cation and the duties of a pupil, or the first order; 3. Marriage and the duties of a
householder, or the second order; 4. Means of subsistence, and private morals; 6. Diet,
purification, and the duties of women; 6. The duties of an anchorite and an ascetic, or
the duties of the third and fourth orders; 7. Government, and the duties of a long and
the military caste; 8. Judicature and law, private and criminal; 9. Ck>ntinuation of the
former, ana the duties of the conuncrcial and servile castes; 10. Mixed castes and the
duties of the castes in time of distress; 11. Penance and expiation; 12. Transmigration
and final beatitude. The text of this work has been published in several editions both
in India and Europe. An excellent English translation of it we owe to sir W. Jones
^ ed., by Haughton, London, 1825), and a very good French translation to A. Loiseleur
j>eslongchamps (Paris, 1888).
MAVTTAL, in military language, is an exercise with the musket or rifle, through which
recruits are drilled, to give them a free use of their limbs, and of the weapon regarded
merely as a pike. It comprises the first course of instruction after the rifle hiu been
placea in the learner's hands.
MAKUXL I, OOXVEHITB, Emperor of Ck>nstantinople, and fourth son of the emperor
Calo- Joannes, was bom about 1120, and succeeded his father in 1148. He became ai
once involved in an uninterrupted series of wars both with the eastern and western
nations, and greatly distinguished himself by his courage and heroism. In 1144 Ray-
mund, prince of Antioch, who had thrown off the Byzantine yoke, was compelled to
submit again to vassalage; and in the following vear the Turks, who had invaded
Isauria, were paralyzed by repeated and decisive deieats. In 1147 the crusaders, under
Louis yn. of France and Conrad III. of Germany, marched through ManueFs domin-
ions without hindrance on his part, as he was at this time preparing for his notable
contest with Roger, king of Sicily, for the possession of Greece. At first this contest
was highly favorable to Manuel; but after the death of Roger the fortune of war
changed, and peace was concluded in 1155. The rest of his life was spent in wars with
the Hungarians and Turks. He died Sept 24, 1180.
MANUEL IL, PALiEOL'OGUS, Byzantine emperor, 1348-1425, succeeded his^
father, John VI. He bad been an associate in the empire in 1872. At the death of his
father in 1891, being held as a hostage by sultan Bajazet, he escaped from Nicsea to Con-
stantinople, his own capital, to secure the throne for himself, without informing the
sultan. Bajazet, enraged at his breach of faith, marched against him, ravased the
country adjoining Constantinople, and invested the city by sea and land. Manuel
applied to the western princes, who sent him an army of 100,000 men under Sidsmund,
king of Hungary, and John, count of Nevers. Ine allies, at first successful, were
defeated with great slaughter by Bajazet at Nicopolis in 1896, with the loss of 10,000
men. Bajazet then returned to the siege with greater vigor than before. Seeing the
determination of the citizens to hold out, he made a private agreement with John»
Manuel's nephew, to place him on the throne of Constantmople, and John waa to deliver
up the city to the Turks, and remove the imperial seat to Peloponnesus. He sent also
deputies to the inhabitants, proposing to withdraw his army provided they expelled
Manuel and placed John upon the throne. . Manuel voluntarily resigned, received John
into the city, conducted him to the palace, and then set sail for Venice to ask aid
from the western princes against the Turks. Large supplies were promised. The
citizens of Constantinople refusing to comply with such a base treaty, the siege was
renewed, and its fall imminent when Bajazet was called away to resist Tamerlane. He
raised the siege and went a^inst Tamerlane with a large army, but was defeated at
Angora, 1401, and taken prisoner. After the defeat and death of Bajazet in 1403.
Manuel reigned in peace. He was succeeded by his son John VH., Palseologus.
MANUFACTURES (from Latin manu$, a hand, and faeio, I make). Bearing the
significance which it gained with its derivation, this word describes the first structures,
Erocessea, and compositions desired by the mind of man, and executed by his haod
bor, with more accuracy than it does the accomplishment of the machinery of the
Digitized by VjOUV IC
45Y
ManufiROtiirea.
preseat daj, to which it is more generally, applied. The first articles of manufacture
must have been such as could be successfully employed for procuring the necessaries of
life; and, in fact, the first of such articles that have wen discovered, representing the ear-
liest a|;^ of man's existence upon earth of which &ny traces remain, liave been rude mills
for grinding grain; knives and other 'offensive weapons for destroying fame; fish-hooks;
pointed implements, which evidently filled the place of needles; and stone hammers,
axes^ chiaels, and other tools, used for building purposes (see Lake Dwellings; Labor).
The proceasea to enforce nature and render its powers applicable to the preservation of
human life were therefore, and in this order, the acquisition of food ; the clothing of
the body to protect it from the elements; and the erection of dwellings, partly for the
same purpose, and partly for safety against wild and dangerous animals, and human
foes hardier leas dangerous in their sava^ condition. And It is to be observed that
tike ingenuitv and ton of man have ever smce been devoted to these purposes; added to
which have been the necessities arising from improved or extended mental conditions,
and the spread of wants in a direction other than material. Manufactures have there-
fore included food-processes, the manipulation of fabrics, and building-construction ; to
which have been added, in the course of time, the art of war, the arts of design, and
applied science, as agencies to fulfill the duties imposed by an ever changing and ever-
advancing civilization. It is one of the fortunate incidents of human history that with
few exceptions the processes of labor applied to the manufactures may be traced even
m our day as these existed at the very beginninfi;. It is possible to follow any art to its
inception, and to trace its history to the nrst rude efforts of primeval man, with a con-
siderable degree of accuracy, aliording, when the results of such an investigation are
brought into Juxtaposition, a comprehensive view of the entire field of human art.
Such investirations liave been made, and their collected results exist in the industrial
museums of Europe and America. Remarkable also is the occurrence of the earliest
methods in use in the arts, in actual practice among savage and semi-civilized races in
different parts of the world in our own time. The natives of Central and South America,
Africa, and certain parts of Asia still employ the same processes in agriculture that
were in use thousands of years ago; mills of the same character as those used by the
Egyptians many centuries before the Christian era are still in active employment in
northern Africa; and pottery of the same design and fashioned after the same methods
and with the same tools as amone the earliest races, are still made by their descendants
in different parts of the world. And while we may thus view at one glance, in opera-
tion, methous and tools divided in actual history by many centuries, we are also enabled
to follow the progress of the arts and manufactures, their improvement or their deca-
dence, through existing specimens of workmanship. From the beginning in the aggre-
gate— whatever may have been the case with certain nations or races — man seems to
have been impressed by a restless spirit, and to have been continually provoked to an
active ingenuity in labor. The very first instances of handiwork that have come to our
knowledge through the labors of explorers have illustrated the impulse towards improve-
ment. From the stone age to the neolithic, and from that to the age of iron— as we
generally record our evidences of these periods — the progress not only in excellence of
workmanship, but in beauty, is remarkable. And while it is easy to understand the
mental processes that induced endeavor after a higher ouality of article when the
improvement represented a practical good to be achieved, it is necessary for us to recon-
cile our ideas of prehistoric man with the fact that he was influenced by a leaning towards
the eesthetic, and that even so early he showed signs of struggling toward an improved
art-taste. The fact is important that in all the history of manufactures the beautiful has
been allied with the practical, with a persistence which seems to have the character of a
law. — ^The next important tendency to be observed in viewing the history of manufac-
tures is that of applying the forces of nature to the reduction of human labor. As it is
to this tendency that we owe the inventions which so extended the scope of the arts, its
importance will hardly be underrated. Yet it is to be observed that in the be^nning
the forces of nature, expressed and operative through such rude mechanical devices as
were at first invented, were called into operation only when the power of man had proved
unequal to the task in hand. Man labored to the extent of his capacity, and only then
supplemented his own efforts bj the employment of the mechanical powers. There is
nothing therefore inexplicable m the fact that while we kuQw the ancients possessed a
knowledge of the more hidden forces, and the means to apply them, they did not make
use of these in instances where they might, but seem to have preferred the exercise of
human force and ingenuity. A noble ambition ap{)ears to have infiuenced man in tho&c
early days; impelling him to push to the utmost his individual capacity; and to plnco
upon recoid, by means of his work, the comprehensive nature of man's ability, his power
to meet emergencies, his control, within himself, of a microcosm representing all the
pottible oonstractive capacity of the entire world of mechanism. The arts of Greece
and Rome, of Babylon and flineveh, Carthage and Phenicia, as these have been pre-
served to xm, suflSctently illustrate this phase of our subject. But the concentration out
of which jjpnew marvelous excellence presently ceased to exist; the fall of Nineveh,
Carthage, Greece, and Rome, the inroads of barbarians, and the distribution of power
over i& face of Europe, blotted out for the time all progress in the arts; and the "dark
ages" settled down upon civilization fhronirh a irloomy period of centuries, to the utter
Digitized by VjOUV IC
Manolketanis. ^^^
check of improvement, and to tbe destruction of the arts and manufactures, except so
far as these contributed to positive necessities and lo sensual desires. Out of this period
of inaction and stagnation of creative ability, civilization burst forth in the Idtb c,
beginning tlie *' middle ages" and the renaisstnice, a time when man reached the highest
pitch of skill in hand- work, and when manufactures attained an excellence in h^ty,
capacity for service, and durability, which they have never since surpassed even If they
have approached. The history of the arts and crafts of Europe in the middle ages shows
a surprising advance in all directions. The progress in merit in the fine arts lias been
fully recognized, and this was reflected in the condition of the crafts and the improve-
mcut in manufactures. Directly we see it in tbe wood-carvings of Brabant, Flauderg,
and Italy; in the wonderful art displayed in the manufacture of fictile ware; in the form
i^iveii to bronze, iron, and brass; and in the intricate and beautiful carving of ivor^.
The most magnificent armor, displaying workmanship of exquisite beauty, is of (bis
period. And so the most commonplace objects — the ordinary utensils of the household,
the very architecture of the houses themselves— reflected the splendid genius of the mas-
ters of art. And above all, we are bound to consider the honesty of the workmanship
peculiar to those days. The linen and wool fabrics of Holland and Flanders have never
since been improved upon. The heavy and costly damasks and satins and silks and
velvets, which played so large a part in the costumes of the period, were honest stuffs,
whose lasting as well as artistic qualities cannot be gainsaid. The furniture of tbe
period was solid and flrmly put together, besides bein^ ornamented and decorated with
correct taste and refined sentiment. In the reign of kmg John in England, the wealthier
classes used iron chandeliers and candelabra* and each of these was finished and sliaped
by hand with the hammer and with the truest art-taste. The story of the Delia Bobbiaa,
and their labors in search of a special glaze for china, is equaled only by the later story
of Bernard Palissy, whose struggles after the same secret, lost again, have furnished the
material for many a book. In those days the blacksmith, and the cordwainer or sboe-
maker; was as proud of his skill, and as earnest in the fulflUraent of what he deeHiedbis
obligation to his craft, as was the most esteemed artist of Florence or Venice under the
watronage of the Medici. Faust, who became a printer, was a goldsmith in Mentz;
Hans Sachs was a cobbler; Beuvenuto Cellini was a gold and silver smith; Andrea del
Sario, the painter, was a goldsmith's apprentice; and Ghiberti, who executed the two
cates of the baptistery in Florence, which Michael Angelo said were ** worthy of Pms-
dise," was the son of a goldsmith. Thus, at that time, art and manufacture went hand
in hand; the union of the beautiful and the useful being considered not only desu^ble,
but incumbent on the artificer as a part of his trade.
The conditions of hibor in Europe, and therefore those of the manufactures, changed
materially duiin^ the period between the 16th and the 18th centuries. The combinations
of workingmen mto giiilds, and the wealth and power to which these attained, brought
about the mtroduction of the force of capital, by the concentration of great wealth in a
few hands; and the application of this force to manufactures on an enormous scale was
brought about by the application of power to machinery, and the establishment of the
factory system. From this moment, not only the system of manufacturing, but the
character of the workmanship, and of artisans, the nature and amount of the demand
for manufactures, the methods of supply, and the modes of transportation, alter^
throughout the civilized world. The history of manufactures fell under the influence
of the invention and application of niachinery, to which the arts of design nece5;sarily
played a secondary part. From 1771, when the first mill with water-power, and Ark-
wright's machinery, was set up in England, to 1835, the number of operatives employed
in the factories of the United Kingdom had grown to 354,684, of which num1>er 195,'606
were females. In 1856 the number of operatives was 682,497, of whom 4M)9.300 were
females. 25,982 being under 18 years of age. The number of factories, between 1888
and 1856, increased 28 per cent; the amount of power increased 63 percent: and the
number of hands employed, 80 per cent. In 1786, in every $200,000,000 in value of the
product of manufacture in France, 00 per cent of the cost was for labor, and 40 per cent
for raw mateiial. In 1876 this condition was exactly reversed, 40 per cent only of the
cost being for labor, and 60 per cent for raw material. In 1876 tbe total industrial
product of France was valued at $2,400,000,000. These tew figures are offered merely
for their suggestive value; the statistics of the different articles of manufacture, and in
different countries, will be found under their proper titles; see Cotton, Linkm, Hats,
etc.
Beverley, in his Mstory of Virginia, writing in 1706, refers thus to the dependence
of the American colonists upon other nations to supply their wants: "They have ibeir
clothing of all sorts from England, as linen, woolen, and silk, hats and leather; yet flax
and hemp grow nowhere in the world better than here. Their sheep yield good fncrease
and bear good fleeces, but they shear them only to cool them. The mulberry-tree, whose
leaf is the proper food of the silk-worm. ^ows there like a weed, and silk-womis have
been observed to thrive extremely, and without hazard. The very furs that their hats
are made of, perhaps, go flrst from thence. The most of their hides lie and rot, or are
made use of only for covering dry goods in a leaky house. Indeed, some few hides,
Avith much ado, are tanned and made into servants' shoes; but at so careless a rate that
the farmers do not care to buy them if they can get others; and sometimes, perhaps, a
Digitized by VjiJUV IC
459
KanaflMtMrvs*
better manager than ordinary will vonclisafe to make a pair of breeches of deerskin.
Tbey are such abomioable ill-husbands, that though their country be overrun with wood,
they have all their wooden-^are from England; their cabinets, chairs, tables, stools,
€he:»ts, bf>xc.->, cart- wheels, and all other thing^s — even so much as their bowls and birchen
brooms— to the eternal reproach of their laziness." From which emphatic narrative by
an eye-witness it will be inferred that the standard of manufactures in the country under
cousideralion, a century and three-quarters ago, did not offer promise of the results
reached at the present time. The tirst attempt at ship-building in the colonies was in
the conatruction of the 0nr€9t in 1614 at Manhattan river. She was 16 tons burden, 38
ft. keel, 44^ ft. long, and Hi ft. wide. In her, in 1616, capt. Wilkinson discovered the
8chu> ikill river, and explored nearly the entire coast from Nova Scotia to the capes of
Virginia. The saw-mill is said to have been introduced into Massachusetts in 1683,
some years before it was used in England. And as late as 1767 a saw-mill was destroyed
in the latter country by a mob,' because it was supposed to be destructive to the work of
the sawyers. In 1641 the general court of Massachusetts passed an act to the eCect that
there ''should be no monopolies but of such new inventions as were profitable to the
country, and that for a short time only." Saw-mills were introduced by the Dutch in
New York as early as 1633, and seem to have been used there also for grinding-mills.
The erection of these mills brought about an improvement in house-building, which had
previously amounted only to the construction of huts or wigwams. The first brick-kiln
in New England was set up in Salem, Mass., in 1629. In New York bricks were
imported irom Holland, until governor Stnj^esant introduced the industry. There were
certainly tanners, cart-makers, glovers, furriers, and shoemakers in the colonies about
the middle of the 17th c, despite the assertion of Beverley, whose observation, however,
waa probably confined to Virginia.
In the manufacture of fabrics the early colonists used the distaff and spindle, soon
superseded by tlie spinning-wheel. The British in those days, seeking to force the colo-
nists to buy everything in the home market, threw every possible obstacle in the way of
domestic manufactures. Early in the I8th c. spinning-schools were started in Boston,
and special taxes were imposed for their support. During the revolutionary war the
colonists depended on their own exertions for clothing andother necessities, and Har-
greave's and Arkwright's inventions were not permitted to be introduced across the
Atlantic, so jealous were the British of the trade in their manufactures. Despite all
their efforts, however, a cotton-factory was established at Beverly, Mass., in 1787; of
Arkwright's machines, the first used in the United States was in a mill at Pawtucket, R.
I., in 17^. The first cotton-mill ever built in the world, which combined all the requi-
sites for making finished cloth from raw cotton, is said to have been erected in Walthani,
Mass., in 1813. Our colonial ancestors usually obtained their furniture from England,
the most of it, of the best class, being made of mahogany and oak. At first the articles
made in the colonies were of the rudest character, and constructed of native woods.
Later on, a South American and West India island trade sprang up, and mahogany and
rose-wood were imported, and worked up into bedsteads, sideboards, and cupboards.
The tirst nails made in the colonies were manufactured by hand, and it was customary
among the country people to erect forges in the chimney-corners, and in the long winter
evenings to make quantities of nails — even the children taking a share in the labor of
tbjs industry. About 1790 a machine for cutting and heading nails was invented by
Jacob Perkms of Newburyport, Mass., which is said to have had a capacity of 10,000
nails per day. Another machine, invented by a citizen of Bridgewater, Mass., made, in
1815, 150,000,000 tacks. The introduction of the manufacture of glass into the American
colonies was contemi)oraneous with the settlement of the country; the first glass manu-
factory being set up in the woods about a mile from Jamestown, Va., in 1607. In 1631
a fund was subscribed to establish a factory of glass beads, to be used as currency in
trading with the Indians for furs. The first glass manufactory in Massachusetts W2is
established at (German town, near Braintree, for glass bottles alone. In 1639 a glass-house
was set up in Salem. In 1752 the general court of Massachusetts passed an act granting
the sole privilege of making glass in the province to Isaac C. Wesley. A glass-house
existed in Philaidelphia in lo6B. Pottery was brought out from England and Holland
by the first settlers, but the early colonists used wooden dishes and pewter plaltere. Some
pottery was made by the Plymouth, Jamestown, and Manhattan colonists. In 1819 the
manufacture of fine porcelain was commenced in New York, and in 1827 it was made in
Pennsylvania. The manufacture of hats was considered of importance by the colonists,
and in 1662 the colonial government of Virginia offered a premium of 10 lbs. of tobacco
for every hat made in the province. Protection was early applied to the rayv material of
this industry, and in 1675 its exportation was prohibited. Before 1800 this manufacture
was conducted in nearly every state in the union, and by the census of 1810 returns were
made of the manufacture of hats to the amount of $4,^3,744.
Silk-worm culture was proposed by James I. on the settlement of Virginia, and that
monarch sent supplies of silk-worms' eggs to the colony from his private stores. In fact,
more or less silk was raised in all the colonies. In 1788 the president of Yale college
wore at commencement a silk gown made from materials raised and woven in Connec-
ticut A piece manufactured from silk raised near Charleston, 8. C, in 1755, was made
into three dresses, one of which was presented to the princess dowager of Wales, another
Manofiictiures.
460
to lord Chesterfield, and a third to Mrs. Harvey of South Carolina, in the posseesioB of
whose family it slill remains. In 1837 the manufacture of silk in the United ^te»
received a powerful impulse from a report of the congressional committee on manufac-
tures in favor of tliis industry. It was stated that one specimen of the morus muUieavUt,
or mulberry, would sustain a sufficient number of silk-worms to raise 120 lbs. of silk,
worth $640. Attention was directed to this industry in nearly all the states, and a con-
dition of excitement occurred which became intensified by the promise of large fortunes.
In the following year this excitement culminated in a degree perhaps never eaualed by
any similar movement, except the great *' tuber" or bulb excitement in Holland and
England. Single mulberry-trees sold at $10, nurseries were established and did a thriv-
ing business, and thousands of persons invested in the new speculation. Two yea»
later a revulsion of interest occurred. Most of the nurseries were abandoned or destroyed,
and morus muUicaiUis trees, healthy and well-branched, were offered at three cents each
without finding buyers. See Silk.
The manufacture of ladies' shoes began early in colonial times, and the town of Lynn,
Mass., has been distinguished for this branch of industry almost from the time of its
settlement. The first shoemakers in Lynn were established in 1685, and the first shoes
made by them were of woolen cloth or neat leather only. Until 18()0 shoes were made
with wooden heels, covered with leather, but after that tune leather heels were substi-
tuted. The first invention of importance in this manufacture was the pegging machine;
the next was the last-machine invented by Elias Howe. Another important invention
was the McKay sewing machine, for stitching the uppers and soles together. In 1870
Lynn produced 187,580 cases of boots and shoes, of 60 pairs each, being 11,250,000 pairs,
valued at $17,000,000. An important manufacture, and one which is now more tbana
century old in the United States, is that of combs. These were at first imported from
England bv the colonists, but in 1759 an iron comb manufactory was in existence at
West Newbury, Mass., where the business is still extensively conducted. In the same
year there was a comb manufactory in Pennsylvania, and in 1793 one in Boston, and two
or three in Leominster, Mass. The first machine for making combs was jxateuted by
Isaac Tryon in 1798. In 1809 three manufactories were established in Connecticut Ai
first the teeth were cut singly bv a fine steel saw; but in 1814 a patent was granted for a
machine which cut all the teeth at one operation. The invention of vulcanized India-
rubber effected a revolution in the comb manufacture. An important manufacture ']»
that of the cards used in the manufacture of cotton and woolen cloths. During the
colonial period these jcards were manufactured by hand-labor; and in that form tbeir
making continued to be a valuable branch of industry until the latter part of the IStb
century. In 1777 Oliver Evans invented a machine for making cards, which is said to
have produced them at the rate of 800 a minute. In 1784 another machine was invented
which cut and bent the teeth, and had a capacity of 86,000 an hour. Cannon and cao-
non-balls were cast in Massachusetts as earlv as 1664. In 1748 a foundry at Bridgewater^
Mass., made from 3 to 42 pounder guns; and durine the revolution, cannon, cannon-balls,
and shells were made in Massachusetts. Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Penn-
svlvania, and Maryland. Up to 1857 about 800,000 cannon had been cast in the United
States. The manufacture of wall-paper did not begin in the United States until 1765.
and in 1789 a production of 16,000 pieces per month in Philadelphia was considered a
fair quantity. The first patterns with glazed grounds were made in 1824, but soon aft«r
the best French designs began to be imitated. The manufacture of iron was naturally
one of the earliest industries practiced in the colonies. In 1620 there were iron-works at
Falling Creek, in the Jamestown. Va., settlement, but the following year the place was
attacked by Indians, and the inhabitants massacred, which stopped the manufacture of
iron in that locality, and it was not resumed there until 1712. The first iron manufac-
tory in Massachusetts was set up in Lynn about 1663, the village about the works being
named Hammersmith, after the place of the same name in England, whence many of the
workmen employed there had emierated. The first article of iron said to have been cast
in the American colonies was maae at these works, being a small iron pot capable of
holding about a quart. In 1750 there were in existence in the colonies 8 iron-mills and
one furnace. The description of a furnace erected in 1794 in the town of Carver, Mass.,
mentions that 10 forges were there employed in making bar iron from scraps to the
amount of 200 tons annually. Another of the early colonial industries was the manu-
facture of cordage, and as early as 1681 It was made in Boston, and in Charlestown,
Mass., in 1662; hi 1698 there were several rope-walks in Philadelphia; and in 1794 Vir-
ginia and Ma^land had each more rope-walks than anjr two of the northern and eastern
states. In 1£N>4 a spinning and twistmg mill for making cordage was patented in the
United States. The first paper-mill in America of which we have any account was
erected at Roxborough, near Gtermantown, in Pennsylvania, about 1698. This was 50
years after printing had been introduced into the colonies, but only 5 or 6 years after a
proclamation had oeen issued by the English government for the establishment of the
first manufactory of white paper in England. The paper-mill in question was built by
an ancestor of David I^ttenhouse— whose family in Holland had longbeen encaged in
ttke manufacture of paper— and William Bradford, the first printer in JPhiladelpnia. In
1728 Bradford, when government printer in New York, owned a paper-mill in Elizabeth-
Digitized by VjOUV IC
461
towB. N. J., which was probably the second one erected in the colonies. Benjamin
Franklin was» at yarious times^ interested in the erection of 18 paper-mills. In 1787
there were 63 mills in operation in all the states. It is said that the first manufacture
known to American history was that of salt, which was nndertaken by the colonists at
Jamestown. Va., in 1620. The first mill set up in New England was a wind-mill, near
Watertown, Mass., which was taken down in 1688 and erected on Copp's hill in Boston.
In New York the first mill was a horse-mill, which was built in 1626 on the site now
occupied by Trinity church in that city. Agricultural implements were not made in
America until a comparatiyely recent period. One of the nrst persons to make a plow
was Thomas Jefferson, who attemptea to solye the mathemattod problem of the true
surface of the mold-board, and in 1793 had several plows made after his patterns, which
he used on bis estates in Virginia. The first American, after Mr. Jefferson, who made
plows for common use was a farmer living in New Jersey, by the name of Charles New-
bold, who invented the first cast-iron plpw made in America. The manufacture of beer
was undertaken in the very earliest history of the colonies. One John Appleton set up
the first malt-house in Massachusetts in 1640. In 1683 Wouter Van TwiUer caused the
erection of a breweiy in New York city. The distillation of brandy commenced in the
colonies in 1640. Wine was made in Virginia from the native grape by French colo-
nists, who came over for the purpose, before 1622. In New England governor Winthrop
planted a vineyard as early as 1680, and Governor's island, in Boston harbor, was granted
for this purpose in 1684.
The first cloths ever made in the colonies were the result of a bounty offered by the
general court of Massachusetts in 1640. In the following year this bounty was given to
several persons who made attempts at this manufacture; probably, at first, a coarse
description of linen. The first systematic effort at the manufacture of woolens was by
a company of Yorkshire men m 1644 at Bowley, Mass. At this period cotton was
obtained from Barbadoes, while hemp and flax were native. Cotton seeds were first
planted in the colonics in 1621 ; the plant was introduced into the Carolinas in 1666. It
was grown only as a garden-plant, however, until after the revolutionary war. The first
exportation of raw cottoD occurred in 1754. In 1775 a corporation was formed in Phila-
delphia called the "United company of Philadelphia for promoting manufactures, **'0f
which Dr Rush was president. Its oblect was "to establish American manufactures of
woolens, hnens, and cottons, with a vww to the exclusion and supersedure of British
goods." The company possessed a spinning-Jenny, newly imported from England, and
employed in their factory 400 women. Two years later this company contracted with
oongress to supply clothing for the army.— A report made to the British house of com-
mons in 1781, bv the board of trade, on colonial industries, stated that in the American
colonies the settlers had "fallen into the manufacture of woolen cloths and linen cloths,
bat for the use of their own families only; that the very high price of labor rendered it
impracticable for them to manufacture such articles at less than 20 per cent dearer than
that exported from England ; that the greater part of the clothing worn in the province
of Massischusetts Bay was imported from Oreat Britain, and sometimes from Ireland;
that there were a few hat-makere only in the maritime towns; that there were no manu-
factures in New York worth mentioning, or in New Jersey; that the chief trade of
Penncylyania lay in the importation of provisions, no manufactures being established,
and their clothing and utensils for their bouses all imported from England; that in Mas-
sachusetts Bay some manufactures were carried on, as brown hollancffor women's wear,
which lessens the importation of cloaks and some other sorts of East India goods. " This
report, in view of what has been heretofore stated, will be seen to exhibit a desire to
underrate the manufaoturinff industry of the colonies; which was, however, already
eacroachin^ seriously upon the demand on the home market.
This bnef statement concerning the early history of American manufactures is
chiefly of interest in disj^aviDg, by contrast, the vast movement which took place in the
century following the revolutionary war. In the United States, as elsewhere throughout
the world, the organization of local, national, and international exhibitions has forwarded
this movement with a rapidity and a result of excellence otherwise unattainable.
The gross statistics of manufacturing in the United States were iriven in the U. S.
— n for 1870 as follows:
3,846,143
1,089,868
Establishments 262,148
Steam-engines— Horse-power 1,216!711
Water-wheels— * * 1,130,481
Hands employed^Males above 16 1,615,508
—Females above 15 828.770
Capital $2,118,208,760
Wages 775,584,848
Material 2,48a427,24»
Products 4,282,885,443
The increase in the different elements of this manufacturing industry as betweea
18IKMM) and 1860-70 was as follows:
Digitized by VjOtJy IC
Peroentage of incNMe ^BTOflBtage cifnamm
18GO-4K). HO-TO.
Establislimente 14perct. SOpercL
Hands employed 87 " 88 "
Cnpital Doubled. Doubled.
Wagefl 60 per ct. Moro tliaa doubled
Material More than doubled. " "
Products 85perct. ^ limes greater.
The approaching publication of the U. S. census returns for 1880 will aiford mateiial
in tabulut(Ki form bv which it will become practicable to deduce important conchisiona,
and possibly to establish the existence of positive laws controlling the movement of the
manufacturing industry as a whole, and in its relation to the most vital economic inter-
ests—not of the laboring classes alone, but of the race.
MANUMISSION, the form by which, in ancient Rome, slaves or other persons not
mi juris, were set free. TTiere were three ways in which the release might lie accom-
plished, viz., by vindicta, census, or will. Tlie oldest of these forms was the mudicta,
whicli was as follows: The owner of a slave brought him before a magisinite and made
a statement of the grounds upon which he proposed to make him free. Tiien the lictor
laid a rod on the head of the slave and declareil him free, the master pronouncing the
words *'Iwi8h this man to be free," and at the same time turuiug him about and
letting him ffo. Then the magistrate proclaimed his freedom. Freedom by census was
cfFccied by Cue slave giving in his name, by direction of his master, at the lustral census.
"By will a slave coula be freed conditionally or unconditionally, or made free and an
heir to the testator. The laws at different periods placed restrictions upon the right of
the master to manumit his slaves, such as limitiui (he number he might set free, and
preventing him from defrauding his creditors. The manumiltor stooil to the niaou-
mitted in the relation of a patron to a freedman, and if the former were a citizen the
latter became a member of his gens, and assumed his family as well as personal name, to
which he added such surname as pleased him, but commonly that by which he had been
known as a slave.
XAK17BE. This is a term applied to a great variety of aubatances, mineral as well as
organic, wliich have been used for the purpose of increasing the produce of those plants
that man selects for cultivation. Lime, and Uie ashes of vegetables, have been applied
lOthe land to increase its fertility from time immemorial; so also have all kinds of
organic substances, whether vegetable or animal. The rationale of Buch applications
to growiuc plants was but little understood till chemistry revealed to us the nature of
the materials which entered into the composition of all plants. At the present day,
much definite knowleilge has been acquiirea of the true nature and action of the various
substances that are found to increase the growth of our cnltivatod crops. It was long
supposed that the food of such a varied class of plants as the ^lobe prfsents muat neces-
sarily be very different, almost as much so as the difference in their forms and proper-
ties of their products. Chemistry, however, has shown that the food of all plants is
very much alike, though soma classes must be supplied with certain substances in
mater abundance than others. The ^rreat mass of all vegetables is resolved into cnr-
bonic acid, water, and ammonia, on being subjected to hf*at or burned in a fire. It is
these same substances which constitute the chief food of all plants. The ll^it of the
Sim enables plants to decompose and assimilate carbonic acid and ammonia, and to
manufacture out of them the various products they contain. All organic substances
yield these by slow decomposition, as well as by combustion. It is for this reason that
such substances increase the fertility of land when added to it Wafer is so common an
article, that nature provides all that plants require. Carbonic acid. too. is contained in
considerable proportion in the atmosphere, and is readily taken from it by the leaves;
still, it is of great use when applied to the soil as veieetable matter, an<j( the decom-
position rendered accessible to the roots of plants. Ammonia exists in exoeedlnglv
sparing quantities in the atmosphere, as well as in rain and river water, so that artltlcial
applications to the soil are generally needed to produce full crops. The nitrogen which
enters into the composition of plants is genenilly supposed to be capable of Mng only
assimilated eitlier in the form of ammonia or nitric acid; it is for this reason that the
salts of ammonia and nitric «cid are all very powerful fertilizers. They generally
{)rr)dnre a dark-green color in the leaves, such as is associated with healthy growth and
uxunance.
But besides carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, plants f^ed upon certain mineral or
enrtJiy substances, which seem to Impart the power of condensing and digesting the
other organic elements. On plants being burned, they leave lime, potash, soda, mng-
nesin. silica, sulphates, and phosphates, as ash. These substances are all found to exist
in certain kinds of plants In proportions whieh are confined within rather nnrrow limits.
The earthy substances, it must be remembered, enter into combinations in definite pro-
portions with the other constituents, and are thus linked together in the vegetable
organisms as part and parcel of their structure.
Lime acts as a manuring substance directly by supplying one of the constituents of
plants; so also does magnesia. But lime is often adaed i^G|^^p agent to assist in digest-
ing and pnpmng the oiganic materials existing in the soil. See Lime. Magnesia is
seuiom applied sin^ijr to the soil ; it is usually associated with limestone, and is generally
contained in the soil in quantities sufficient for the wants of planta
Potash is a substance most essential for all our cultivate plants; its market-price,
however. Is so high, that fanners seldom apply it directly to the soiL They employ cer-
tain crops, such as clover and turnips, to gather it up for tkcm in the soil. These are
consumed on the farm by cattle and sheep, and as little potash enters into animal tissues
as a permanent constituent, it is mostly returned to the dunghill in the ezcrementitious
matters. Farm-yard dung thus possesses a value of its own. by supplying this con-
stituent, which cannot be bought economically in the maiket Soda can be easily
obtained in the form of common salt, but as this substance is usually associated witli
potasti, the one is found in the dung-heap as well as the other. Ckimmon salt is applied
to corn-crops that are growing too rapidly. The salt has the effect of stiffening the
stravr, and rendering it less liable to lodge. Salt is also used with great success in grow-
ing miingold-wurzel, as this is a plant which was originally taken from the sea-shore.
Sulphates. — Every plant contains a quantity of sulphur, which is derived from the
sulphates that are found in the soil. Sulphate of magnesm has often been applied witii
marked effect for turnips and potatoes, but its use does not commonly pay the expense
of the application. A much cheaper source of sulphur is found in sulphate of lime or
gypsum (q.v.).
I^I*wpAuit9. — These are largely used in agriculture. Phosphoric acid being very
sparingly diffused in most soils, many plants have apparently great difficulty in obtain-
ing ss mucli of this material as is necessary to rapid growth, and hence the im)H>rtance
of an arliUcial supply, which is administered in the form of phosphate of lime. The
chief Biiurces of this important element are bones (q.v.), apatite (q.v.), and ;ruano (q.v.).
The reason of its importance, and the principle which should guide its application, are
expLiiiied in the article Bonbs as Maiturb.
mtrogenowi Manurm. — Plants are supplied witli nitrogen in the form of nitrates, or
of salts of ammonia. Kitrates and the calts of ammonia promote growth in all cultt-
Taied plants when tlieeartliv substances that enter into their composition are present.
Nitni^enous manures are often beneficially applied without other subhtances to grain,
because the grain-phmts have greater facilities than the turnip for taking up phosphates
and Other ccns^tiiuents from the soil. So also, to a still greater extent, do we Fee the
opera! ion of this principle in the case of grass. Having a permanent staff of roots in t he
£oiK the plants are retidy to gather up the necessary supply of mineral food when
abundant nitrogenous food is presented to them, and thus nitrogenous manures of all
kinds have very inaiked effects on grass. What det( rmines the amount that can lie
profitably applied to the different cultivated plants, is simply the capability that each
species posf^es^es of expanding under such treatment.
1 uim-yard Manure. — This is the most valuable manure that the farmer uses. It con-
tains all the elements of plants, and without its use in ordinary circumstances the fertility
of the land would rapidly deteriorate. The richer the food upon which stock is fed to
much the richer the manure produced. Stock fed upon straw and water leave a very
inferior maniure, that requires to be largely supplemented by other materials. Turnips
add largely to the value of manuie, and oil-cakes of all kinds, from containing nitrogen
and the earthy matters of the seedsof oil-bearing plants, produce a rich manure. Farm-
yard manure, under ordinaiy circumstances, is much more valuable for some kinds of
crops than for others. The potato, for example, cannot be raised with much success
unless it be supplied with this or other bulky manure havme the greater number of ingre-
dients pit sent. This does not appear to arise from its absolutely requuin^ more of any
one substance than many other plants that can do far better without artificial supply. It
seems to be owing rather to a deficiency of power to gather ito food when dispersed
through the soil. A lai^ allowance of farm-yard manure is therefore applied to the
potato when it is grown in great quantities. The bean, also, is dependent on farm-yard
manure mere than the pea. Large breadths of turnips are often raised without farm-yard
manure, as, when supplied with phosphate and nitnM[en, they seem to have greater facili-
ties for taking up what is diffusea through the soil. The weaker and poorer the soil the
more important does farm-yard manure become for all plants. Farm-yard manure also
tends to render soils more adapted for carrying clovers, and many farmers always apply
this to lands which are to be sown out in grasses.
Liquid Manure.-^ThxR is a favorite manure in many districts. Scotch and English
farmers, in general, endeavor to have all the liqiud excrements of the stock absorbed by
the straw, and carried out in the solid form. On many farms, however, far more is pro-
duced than can be absorbed by the straw. Various modes have been rdopted to apply it
when thift is the case. It is commonly done by a large barrel drawn by a horse; the
liquid is distributed by various metliods as the horse walks over the ground. The liquid
manure is commonly applied to grasses, more especially to clovers or rye-grass, conunon
or Italian. As the liquid accumulates it may be applied to the young grasses as 80on as
the com crop is removed. The plants, being vigorous in autumn, absorb it, and form
roots and jufces that are available as soon as tlie growing season arrives. It may be
applied during intervals of mild weather during the whole winter. It is, no doubt, most
economical to apply it at the season of growth, as the roots take ^ig^geyt*^\5igi35^y'
MMIIIMHpt. ^6^*
and there is comparatively little waste from being washed out of the soil. In some large
estublishments the whole urine is collected during the winter in large tanks, and applied
in spring. This has been done on a large scale by means of undeiground pipes laid over
the flel£, the liquid being distributed by means of a pump and hose. Steam or water
power has been in some cases applied to this operation; in others it is effected by gravita-
tion, when the situation of steading and reservoir suits. In wet weather the liquid manure
can be put on pretty strong, but in dry weather large quantities of water arc added for
the purpose of diluting it and not allowing it to injure the plants. Liquid manure is
exc^ingly rich in all the elements of plants, and is valuable for all crops: but there are
often considerable practical difficulties connected with its use and distribution.
MANUSCRIPT, from the Latin manu scripiufn, written by hand, the original writ"
ing of a book, tract, or pamphlet prepared for the press. The ancient manuscripts were
inscribed on papyrus, or parchment, and were preserved in sheets or rolled. The Egyp-
tians rolled their papyrus manuscripts with regard only to the length of the subject treated;
brief monographs bemg preserved flat, while treatises of greater len^h were formed into
rolls whose extent was only governed by the comprehensiveness of the subject and the
fluency of the writer. Manuscripts on parchment or vellum were at first niade in rolls,
but about the 8d c. these beean to take the form of flat pages, precisely as in our bdoks,
and usually quarto in size. Mexican manuscripts when not rolled were folded as we do
a map, and had covers of wood for their protection. — The multiplication of manuscripu
among the Greeks and Romans, in the alisence of any art of mechanical reproduction,
became of necessity a matter for system and regularity so far as th is was possible. At first,
the art of transcribing belonged almost wholly to such among the slaves as became adept
in writing. As the system of slavery among those nations was one of minute subdivision
into classes, to each of which was allotted a specific kind of duty, this became compara-
tively easy, certain slaves who displayed facility being specially educated to be copyists.
Of course, the value of a slave was increased by bis becoming efficient in the practice of
this art, and this fact becoming obvious the art was adopted in Rome by persons who
became professional transcribers, not being slaves. Ana as early as the 5th c. this had
become a business in which, in some cases, a number of persons were associated toother,
and these were bound by agreement, and by rules ana reffulations^formall^ adopted.
The Egyptian papyri were, as a rule, written in black and red, with occasional orna-
mentation by the use of other colors, and even of gold. Sometimes to these were added
pictorial illustrations of remarkable taste and delicacy of execution. Fourth and 5th c.
manuscripts have generally the body of the writing in black ink, the initial letters being
in red, with some display of ornamentation in form: sometimes several of the beginning
words, or even two or three lines, are in red ink. The Arabic, Persian, and Syriac
manuscripts are often illuminated, freouently much ^old is used, and arabesque designs
are common among these: the Koran does not permit the drawing or other representa-
tion of the human figure, and this character of ornamentation does not therefore occar
among oriental manuscripts. The fashion of introducing pictorial art Into the making
of manuscripts was one which began at a very early period. There is a manuscript
extant in which figures of human beings are used for illustration, which dates back to
the early part of the 4th century. Yarro, who lived in Rome in the 1st c. b.c., was the
friend of Csesar, and was directed by him to form a pilblic library, ia said by Pliny to bsTe
written a work of biography which he illustrated with many hundred portraits. A copy
of Diasearidea in the imperial library at Vienna is illustrated with pictures of plants;
and a 4th c. VirgU in the library of the Vatican is filled with decorative miniatures. A
manuscript, which has been partly destroyed by fire, exists in the British mnsenm
library, which is still more remarkable in the way of illustration. It contained origin-
ally portions of both the Old and New Testament, and was ornamented with 000 minia-
tures, each of them 4 in. square, some of which remain in the partly destroyed frag-
ment, the dato of which is supposed to be about the 6th century. A copy of Homer's
lUad in the Ambrosian library in Milan, very ancient, is adorned with mmiatures.
Amon^ the colors employed in writing in those early times were purple, green, blue, and
vermilion, with gold and silver. The university of Upsala in Sweden has a splendid
specimen known as the Argmtevs Codex (see Ulfilas), which is written in letters of
silver with initials of gold on violet-colored vellum. It was not until after the 4th c.
that the initial letters were made larger than those in the body of the text; after that
they increased in size until the^ were several inches in height, and sometimes even occu<
pied an entire page. The Irish manuscripts of the 7th to the 10th c. displayed the
most extraordinary forms of initials, being grotesque in character; objects from natural
history were united bjr complicated patterns of interlaced work, the whole effect being
unlike anything else m manuscript anywhere, and apparently original with the Irish
illuminators, to whose work we shall return further on. The early Frank manuscripts
show the influence of oriental styles, the illuminated initials being adorned with
arabesques, combined with foliage patterns. The earliest Greek and Latin manuscripts
were written without points or divisions, in square capital letters. Uncial writine was
in use at the same time, and superseded the other style in about the 6th c. ; it differed
from the latter in being a combination of capitals and small letters, and led up to the
ewnvoe or flowing writing, which became customary by the 10th c^ttitr. ^l^jreriations
^65 UmmuB^Hp^
wiere employed very early in the biBtory of manusmpto, and by the 12th a bad become
so general that manuscripts of that penod are exceedingly difficult to read. Among such
abmeyiatioiis, and tending to complicate still more the task of reading, are the arbitrary
signs inventeid by Tiro, Cioero's freedman, for bis system of short-band. Punctuation
was not known until the 10th c, when the comma first came into use, to be followed by
exclamation and interrogation points, and the parenthesis five centuries later: about the
l^th c. we first meet witii the Arabic numerals in manuscripts. — First among the ancient
manuscripts still in existence are the rolls of papyrus founa in the tombs of E^pt, and
which are frequently exhumed in a perfectly preserved condition — after having been
buried for thousands of year»— owing to the diy climate and the entire want of humidity
in the aand^ soil. Among these are both Egyptian and Qreek manuscripts, the former
being in hieroglyphic, hieratic, or demotic characters, and nearly always of a religious
nature, and having special reference to the dead. One of these papyri, existing in the
national libraiy in Paris, is supposed to be of a period nearly four thousand years before
Christ: it is a moral treatise^ written by an Egyptian prince. There are also found many
business documents, bills of sale, accounts, and letters, which are written in the demotic
character. Of the Qreek manuscripts on papyrus one of the oldest known to \)e in exist-
ence is of the 8d c. B.C., a portion of one of the books of the lUad; another, found at
Herculaneum, is part of a musical work by a writer of the 1st c. B.C., and is of that
S^riod. A petition to one of the Ptolendes, of the 2d c. b.c., exists in Paris. In the
ritish museum there are rolls of parchment more than 8,000 years old, though the date
of the invention of this material has been ascribed to the 2d c. b.c. The o&est parch-
ment manuscript of a date since the be^nning of the Christian era, is supposed to be the
palimpseBt (q.v.) of Cicero's Ik Bepubltea, attributed to the 2d c, and now in the Vati-
can library at Rome. There are also in that library a copy of Thrence of the 4th or 5th
c, and a aaUu$t of about the same period. The celebratea Medioean Virgil, nearly per-
fect, la in Florence, in the Lauren tian library; it is also of the 4th or 5th centuiy.— The
oldest manuscript of the Bible known to be in existence is the Oodex Sinaiiicui, found by
Tischendorf in a convent on Mt. Sinai, and pbiced in the uooLperial library of St. Peters-
buiv; it is believed to be of the 4th century. The Codeas Vatieanu&, a Qreek manuscript
of the Bible, is of about the same period with the last, though tlda is not so well authenti-
cated. The Codex AUxandrinus, in the British museum, is of the middk of the 5th c. ;
and the Oodex Beim, in the library of the university of Cambridge, Eng., of the 6th cen-
tury.— Returning to the subject of ornamentation in this connection, and reverting to
the labors of the Irish illuminators, we may properly quote from an English authority
in regard to the Importance and value of this clus of manuscripts: " To tiie remotest of
these nations the praise is due of having invented and developra an independent school
of ornamentation, and one destined to become a formidable rival to the traditionary
splendors of eastern art. In Ireland, as far back as the 5th c, a style of art had been
practiced, which in the succeedinff centuries attained a perfection almost ineredlUe. In
neariy complete isolation from the rest of the civiliz«i world, having few opportuni-
ties of seeing and admiring the works of the great Qreek artists, their^ethod of orna-
mentation exhibits no artistic power in the higher sense of the word, but is remarkable
for a fine harmony of color, and a precision of technical execution little short of miracu-
lous. The principal features of the style are an intricate and tortuou^ interlacing of
narrow threads or ribands, generally in symmetrical patterns, sometimes filling up a
letter, sometimes extending over a whole page; now the introduction of a number of
circular ornaments, now filled by marvelously delicate spiral lines proceeding from the
center, now by bolder wheel-like patterns of endless variety of design; to these may be
added the use of numbers of birds and animals coiled up in endless and seemingly inex-
tricable confusion, sometimes varied by the introduction of the human figure, and pat-
terns formed of diagonal and straight lines, generally in squares or compartments, the
idea of which some writers assert to have sprung from the remembrance of tesselated
pavements." A capj of the gospels, called the Book of KelU, of the 7th c, is a manu-
script of this style in the library of Trinity collie, Dublin. This peculiar method of
design was early introduced into England by Irish missionaries, and a splendid specimen
of its adaptation is preserved in the celelxrated DurJiam Book, in the British museum,
which was executed at Lindisfarne at the commencement of the 8th century. In this
may be traced at once a stronger influence of the Byzantine types; and though it is a
most superb s|>ecimen of writing and decoration it does not exhibit the same originality
or fertility, of imagination as the works of the Irish school. From England Sie new
style passed quickly to the continent, and was soon adopted and largeh* used by the
illuminators, and it is curious to notice in the manuscripts of the succeeding centuries,
prolific in works of splendor and elegance, the admixture of the Celtic ornament with
the remains of classic design. A change of style was introduced by the illuminators of
England of the 10th century. This consisted m the introduction of foliage. At first it
was of an entirely nidimentary character, and exhibited none of the botanical skill or
study of nature so closely observed in later times. It was, in fact, a reflection of the
architectural styles then becoming dominant, the ornaments and moldings of the great
arcbiiectinral works of the time faiiuff now adapted to the procesnes of book ornamenta-
tion. A magnificent specimen of this new style still exists in the BenedicUonal of St.
Ethelwold, in the possession of the family of the duke of Devons^kf^.^^ T^fif^uHf^pt
U. K IX.-^ ^ d
ManvHcrlptfl. ^AA
Blanntfaii. ^^O
WAS executed nt Winchester (the great school of the arts In England) at the close of tiie
lOdt century. In ihe succeeding century the st^Ie became more developed, the forms
of (he leiives more freely drawn and less archaic, but in the 12th c. conventionalism
become tlic rule; urnamentation had grown to be luxuriant and fantastic; and the work
produced was perhaps tlie most magnificent of any age. By tite next centuiy the ten>
dency was towards naturalism, and men's minds were turned to a study of living
forms, witli tlie result of a wonderful advance in the character of the work. The initifu
leiteru of manuscripts of this period became glorious in burnished gold, scarlet, and blue.
In the miniatures of manuscripts gold backgrounds were constantly employed, mors
esix'cially in those of French artists. In the 14th c. the gold and plain beckgiounds
gave way to rich patterns of diaper and checker work, and tlie heavy mass of bumislted
gold was divided into minute patterns or was entirely superseded by variegated color. In
the 15tli c. l>om4 decoration became common; and the introduction of a background of
pure landscape in (he miniatures is a feature of this period. — ^Throughout tliC ^^liole of
the dark and middle ages tiie value attached to the poHsession of manusciipi». and tlie
activity sh.own in muUiplving them, are very remarkable. Long previous to the 12tfa c
the motit active zeal was displayed in search after ancient texts, even of profane aulhois^
**In the middle of the 9th c. Lupus, abbot of Ferrl^res, earnestly ivquesled from the
pope and (he bishops of England and Ireland the lotm of nianuscrip(s of ancient writers,
that copies might be made of (hem; and in 1040 count Geoff roy of Anjou gave to the
abbe^' uf Notre Dame of Saintes the tithe of tlie hides of the deer killed in his forests to
furnish a fund to bind the books of the monastery" (Silvestre). The tame writer iik*d-
tionci also the veneration paid in the 15th c. to the Florentine Fandeet^ of the Lauren tian
library, a magnificent volume written in the 7th c, and esteemed the most valuable of
the manuscripts of the Roman law. This manuscript was taken from Pisa by the Flor-
entines in 1406, and after its deposition at Florence *' was regarded with almost religious
veucradon, being shown only to the highest personages, with great ceremony, in the
presence of (he chief mturlstrate, accompanied by monks, barehe.ided, and bearing ligliUd
tafx^rs." The price of manuscripts in the middle ages offers some interesting poin(8 for
reflection. Tiiere is one account of a contract made in 1846 for writing a volume con-
taining psalter, hymnal, and collectary, ornamented with illuminated letters in gold,
azure, and vermilion, for which the charge was 16 shillings. A 14th c. Bible captured at
the liattle of Poictiers, sold for 100 marks, at that ume a sum representing about
$1500. There is a manuscript in the British museum, which was pawned by its pos»&« sor
five luccessive times between 1488 and 1510, a fact showing how readily money could be
raised at that period on this species of property: in 1488 it was pawned for 28 shillings*
and in 1510 for dO shillings. Sometimes sums of money were deposited by borrowcn of
manuscripts as security for thdr safe return.
KAini80RIPT8, Illumtkatiok of, the art of painting manuscripts with mintatiirr«
and ornaments, an art of the most remote antiquity. The £g>'ptian papyri of tlie ritual-
istic class, as old as the 18th dynasty, arc ornamented with vignettes or mhiiutun^s,
attached to the chapters, either designed in black outiines, or painted in primary colors
in Umpera. Except these papyri, no other manuscripts of antiquity were, stilctly
speaking, illunvnated; such Greek ami Roman ones of the 1st c. as have reached the
present day l>ein{^ written only. Pliny, indeed, mentions from Varro tliat authors had
their portraits painted on their works, and mentions a biographical work, with numerous
portrahs introrluced, but all such have distippeared in the wreck of age^: the oUlef^t
illuminate<l MSS. wiiich hi:ve survived lieing the Dio9eoride» of Vienna, and the Virgil of
the Vatican, both of tlie 4th c, and ornamented with vignettes or pictures in a Byzantine
style of art. St. Jerome, indeed, in the same century, complains of the ahuM; of the
practice, as shown by filling up books with capital letters *f pt^posterous size; but ihu
manuscripts of this and the subsequent century are ornamented with rubric*^ only, tis
evidencec) hj the Oodex Aierandrinuit i\nd other\xiiinu9cn\>{9. Prolmbiy tlie art of illii<
mination was derived from rubrics, as the emperors hi the 5ih c eonr.mei:<'inir with L<*o
(470 >.D.), signed in this color, like the Cliinese; and this '* vermilion reply," adopted by
Charles the bold In the 9th, continued down to the ICth centuiy. The aft of illumini.t-
ing manuscripts with gold and silver leitc^rs is supposed to have lM<en derived from
Egypt, but it is remarkable that no papyrus has any gold or silver in tn>duced into it. The
artJRts who painted in gold, called ehryw/gruphi, are mentione<l as early as (he 2d centur}*.
One of the oldest manuscrip(s of this style Is the Codex Arrfenteun of Ulphilas (SCO a.d.);
and the charter of king Edgar (066 a.d.), six centuries later, shows the u.-e of tl.cse
letters. Gold letters seem to have lieen used in the east during the Vix\\ and ICtli cen-
turies. At an. early period, the use of illuminated or decorated initial letters commenced,
which is to be distniguished from the illuminated or paintcil pages pl.-^ced at the head of
Byzantine manuscripts. Originally, they were not larger than the text, or more eolon-d ;
but the Syriac manuscripts of the vth c. have them with a pattern or b«»rder; and they
goon increasing in size and splendor from the 8th to the 11th e., when large initial let-
ters, sometimes decorated with little pictures or miniatures, came into fasii ion in ihe
Greek and Latin manuscTipt«. The subjects of the figures mixed up with the Arabesque
ornaments often referred to the texts; warriors and warlike groups of figiirps lieing intro-
duced when the text referred to war; symbolical repre8e^|^{y^^^4^^V/^^c>^ ^®
rbApterB following treated on that region. These initial letters soon increased to a great
:\v, iMriog from 2 to 24 in. Ions; they were most used in the 8th and 9th centuries, but
coBtinueU till the 12th c, and de^uerated in the 16th to the last decadence of art — the
iiroiesque. The art, which flourished in the eastern and western empires, passed over
I) In*liiii(l, nn<l there gave rise to u separate school or kind of illumination. This style,
wbicb cou>lst8 io a regular series of interlaced ribbon ornaments, often terminating in
the IimuIh of gryphons and other animals, seems to have been derived from the later
psttems of Byzuiiiiue art, seen on mosaics, mural j^aintings, and other objects. Some,
iiKicftl. have thought that they are of oriental origin. The so-called Durham book, in
liie British museum, of the 8th c, is a splendid example of the school which was estab-
;;s!i(>tl in Holy island by St. Aidan, and in Kent by St. Dunstan. before the end of the
i;.'h«eittury. A remarkable MS. of the 0th c. is the book of Eells (q.v.), at Dublin.
TlK srr pioriuiD of the monastery at Hyde, near Winchester, was celebrated at this period
ioriti>inamtn:ition8; and the celebrated St. Dunstan of Glastonbury applied in early
yoQth bis talents to this art. The minute size and number of interlacement.*) of the Book
! KeU*. at Dublin, is ouite wonderful; while the BenedietioTial of Ohatsworth, executed
•Y one Qocleiiinnn of Hyde for BXhelwold, bishop of Winchester (1100 a.d.), exhibits a
ii'ild ntylii of art and ornament. Separate schools prevailed in the 11th c, the Qreek or
ByMDi'ine minuscriptsof the period exhibiting a fine style of ornament derived from the
Byzantine school; while the Latin manuscripts of the period are distinguished by the use
ffaliirht blue and green in titles and pictures. While, however, the ornaments of the
By&inttne and Latin schools were of a more purely arcliitectaral character, and the
Aiiiin Hibeminn, Saxnn, and even Franco-Gallic manoscripts of Charlemagne and his
s u:<c's.<<ors exhibit a union of Roman and Gaulish treatment; a new kind of work arose
ia \\\\i lOih c. in England, called the Opus Anglicum, resembling more in character the
ciiiiuciits of Gothic architecture, a remarkable specimen of which is seen in the gospels
mAi' for Kuut or Cailiite. During the 12th c, there arose & new style, distinguished
ly tiu; |m>fusiiMi of its ornamentation, intricate mode of illumination, and abundant use
oJf^T'I'i and nilver. The taste was false, but the art had become more special, blank
s^icicefl U'iiig left for the limners to fill in. In the IStli c, the art still more deteriorated
i:i westt-ni Europe— loMff-tailed illuminated initial letters were introduced; the back-
^oiiriii wjis often of gohi, on which the ornaments and subjects were colored in a style
nseiiihiiiig oil-painting, from 1190 to 1230; manuals were then prepared to instruct the
lirnii?r. and the art w^is formalized. The Gothic style of ornament of this age had
yipursfilcfl ilie Roman or Byzantine of previous centuries. In the 14th c, the art
?re.Hly mi proved: the border or ornament running all round the page was Introduced, and
:iieo*u:i r.ent«i were interpolated and enriched with miniature pictures, even by celebrated
ini^u, 214 Niccolo Pisano, Cimabue, Giotto, in Italy. Few volumes, however, were
iliuinioaieJ till after the reign of Edward I., when the art took a further development;
rnotcsque figures were intriMuced, and are alluded to by writers of the period. In the
ISiiic. cimtinuous bordifrs and fine miniature pictures were in use, and toward the end
of t!i3rentnry. celebrated works of this nature were produced by Giulio Clovlo in Italy, and
LwM van Li>yden in Flanders, the Van Eycks, and Memling or Hemlink; medallions of
< iqiiiMCe style and finish were inserted in the border. Of this age, the most beautiful
^nown specimen is the Book cf Houra of Anne of Brittany, wife of Louis XII., with
x)r icrs of natural plants on a gold ground. The Italian art of the same age was sym-
nidrical rather than picturesque and naturalistic, but on solid backgrounds; the orna-
te iUji, although resembling those of preceding centuries, are distinguished by the
iiiiro liiciion of miniatures. In the 10th c, in the refgn of Louis XIV., the art became
"Xtinct. cndiiis; with a style of painting called eamaieu gris, a kind of monochrome, in
•Miich the lights are white or gold, and shaded so as to emulate bas-reliefs. Amonff
orii'mul nations, the Pcrsiians. Hindus, and Chinese have illnminated manuscripts of
gruat U«iuiy, none of which, liowever, can compete with those of the western nations
•u antiqniiy. For beauty of design, some of the Arab manuscripts are charming, but
tbdrauit(}uity does not reach lieyond the 18th c^intury. The Chinese Buddhists have
a^m illiiniinated classics, or reli.srious books of their sect, one of which, the Diamond Book
>isii is called, in the British niuseum, has a text splendidly printed in silver and gold
iHicrsdii a blue ground; and the vignettes charmingly painted in, tempera, on macerated
leaves of the flciut Indiea,
liiiMiphrey, 11. Noel, Art of lUnmination (12mo, Lond. 1849); Shaw's lUuminaied
LeUer$ {iol 1825J); Bradley, J. W., Manual of lUumttiation {l2mo, Lond. 1860).
XAHliTiuB, Aldub {sildo, a diminutive of Theobaldo, his baptismal name), a great
pnaicr mid Improver of the art of printing. His name, in its Italian form, is spelled in
ilircc (IlffcTLMit ways by himself or hisilescendants, viz., Manuzio. Manuzzi, and Manucci;
^hilc from his patron, Alberto Pio lord of Carpi, In* took also the name of Pio, and
Jiflir tlif yenr 1503. always dei-ignalcs him«t'lf AUlo Pio Manutio Romano. He is often
I'liH Aldus (he Eder. lie \va.s lM)rn at Bas>iano, near Velletri, in the states of the church,
■ti1449. and I'stablisiied a prinlinir-prcss at Venice in 149.1 (thoujxh the first book bearing
n(1i;e ha:i 1484), from which many woiks were issued (see AldiIne Editions). He died
1515.
Digitized by VjOL^V iC
Maoris. *"^
MANUTIUS, or MANUZIO, Aldus, or Aldo, the Younger, 1547-97; b. Yenice; son
of Paulus Manutlus. He was remarkably precocious, publishing a collection of speci-
mens from Latin and Italian literature when only 11 years of age; and a work on Latin
orthography when 14. He was not, however, so successful in after-Hfe as his boyhood
promised. He succeeded to the printing business of the family, but was less qualified
than his predecessors in the management to conduct it to advantage. He retired from
the business in 1584, resigning it into the bands of one his employees; and during the
remainder of his life was professor of belles-lettres in Bologna, Pisa, and Rome. He
possessed considerable learning, and edited some of the classics for publication.
MANUTIUB, or MANUZIO, Paulub, or Paolo, the Younger, 1512-74; b. Venioe;
youngest son of Aldus Manutlus; and, like his father, a printer and editor. He had
the charge of the business of the family after the death of his uncle; and havine sur-
rounded himself with the available learning of the period and region, he devoted him-
self to the production of the Latin classics in valuable revised editioosw On the founda-
tion of the Venetian academy in 1558 he received the aj^ointment of professor of
eloquence and director of the academical press. In 1561 be went to Rome to superin-
tend the printing of the works of the fathers. His impressions bear favorable compari-
son with those of his fatb^; and besides being a man of meohanical knowledge, skill,
and taste as to the prosecution of hie art, he was a scholar of much erudition, and a
critic of acumen. He translated into Latin the MilippioB of Demosthenes; and pub-
lished commentaries on the Fhmiltar LetUns of Oicero; and the OraHoiu; as well as
scholia on the oratorical and philoaophioal treatises of the same author. See Aldikb
Editiosb, ante.
MANZANA'RES, a t. in Spain, in New Castile, province of Ciudad Real. 98 m. s.
of Madrid, situated in a vast plain 1882 ft. above the sea level ; x>op. 10,275. The high-
road of Andalusia, which passes through it, forms its main street. Hie houses are well
built, with open courts, which are covered in summer with awnings. It contains good
schools, a hospital, and a pjarish church of modern Gothic architecture. The couotiy
around is flat, requiring irrigation to render the soil productive. The clisiate is healthy
and delightful; productions are wheat, rye, anise, saffron, potatoes, wine, and oil.
There are manufactures of linen, woolen cloths, soap, and brandy; and the town has a
reputation for the manufacture of carriages, and for iron work.
MAKZANILL'O, a t. on the s.e. coast of the island of Cuba. It has a good harbor
and carries on a considerable export trade in sugtfr, tobacco, and timber. Pop. 5,643.
KAVZOn, Alessavdbo, one of the most admired of modem Italian noTelists, was
bom at Milan in 1784, of noble parents, his father being count Manzoni, and his mother
the sifted daughter of the great savan marquis Beccaria. From a youth, the Uteran'
predilections of Manzoni gave good promise of his after mental development. In 160d,
at the age of 21, his essay on poetry, entitled Veni SdoUi, was inspirea by the death of
Carlo Imbonati, an intimate family friend; and in 1810 his sacred lyrics met with ceneral
admiration. Several tragedies, written with much spirit and originality, attracted notice
not only in Italy, but in France and Germany; and foremost amid the warm admirers
and favorable critics of Manzoni stood Gk)ethe. The work, however, by which Manzoni
attained to European fame is his historical novel, / Promesei Sp^^^-^ Milanese storr of
the 17th c, translated into German, English, French, and other tongues — (8 vols. Milaii,
1827), by which a new era mav be said to have been created in the m;titious literature of
his country. The tale abounds in interesting sketches of national and local Italian cus-
toms and modes of life, portrayed with unflaggine spirit and humor, while various mve
historical events are narrated with force and grandeur of style, especially the episoae of
the plague in Milan. Manzoni's ode to Napoleon (1828) is noble m thought ana diction.
The poet's later years were spent in strict and devout seclusion, the free tendencv of his
early opinions having been succeeded by a strinoent conformitv to the doctrines of Rome.
A complete edition of Manzoni's works, in 5 vols., was published by Tommaseo in Flor-
ence (182a-1829). He died in 1878.
XAOB, the royal official who, in the early periods of Scottish histoiy, was placed
over crown or fiscal lands, and at an after-time l^came the thane. A simiuir official, the
maer, existed in Wales.
1IA0BI8 (pronounced mou'ris, a word meanins; indigerwui) is the name given to them-
selves by the inhabitants of New Zealand, and that bv which they are now usually
designated by ethnologists. The Maoris, in common with the natives generally of Poly-
nesia, belong to the Malay race or family of mankind. Though calling themselves indig-
enous, the Maoris have a tradition that their ancestors migrated to Uie present seat of
the nation from the island of Hawaiki about 600 years ago. They came in 7 canoes,
which had outriggers, to prevent foundering, and were called amatiatia, being very
different from those subsequent W used by them, which were much simpler in construc-
tion, and named wakka. The first of these canoes that touched at New Zealand was
named Arawa, and this brought over the first settlers from whom the Maoris are
descended. If any faith is to be attached to this tradition, Hawaiki was, probably, the
same as Hawaii, the principal of the Sandwich islands, distant about ^000 m. n.e.
of New Zealand. Some, however, suppose that it may have been Savaii, one of the
Aaq MaaotliM.
^^^ HiM>rU.
Samoao or Kavigators' islands, a g^up not half that distance away. The tradition says
nothing of any indigenous population found in New Zealand before the arrival of these
immigrants. Many writers, however, incline to the belief that it was previously inhabited
by a darker race, somewhat akin to the Papuas of New Guinea, s<Mnetimes called
N^itos and Pelagian negroes. Supposing that the two races, in process of time, inter-
mingled, this nuffht account, in some measure, for the differences apparent between the
Maoris and.the Tahitians, Samoans, Sandwich islanders, and other natives of the Pacific.
But whether of pure or mixed race, all testimony combines in representing the Maoris
as a nation standing very high in the scale of humanity. The skin of the Maoris is in
general of an olive-brown color, but there are some in whom the shade is much lighter,
while in others it is darker. In stature they almost equal Englishmen, and have a
powerful muscular development. They have well-shaped, intellectual heads, and their
leatmres, when not tattooed, mi^ht ahnost be taken for European. Few of them have
beards or whiskers, it being an immemorial custom with them to pluck out the hair on
the face with pip! shells. On the head, the majority have Ion? black hair, with a slight
wave in it; but with some it is of a reddish tinge, and some Maoris again have the hair
slightly frizEled. Their eyes are large, their lips thick, and their teew, unlike those of
most sava^ nations, are latge and irregular. The women are of less stature than the men
in proportion, and are in other respects inferior to them, perhaps from their marrying too
voung, and having to perform too much of the drudgery of fife. Some of the women,
however, are represented as being delicately moldra, with long e^re-lashes, pleasing
features, and a plaintive, pathetic voice, which makes them highly interesting. Both
eexee used to practice tattooing, a custom which has been almost abandoned since the
conversion of the Maoris to Christianity. It was a painful operation, performed with a
hammer and saw-like chisel. The punctures were stained with vegetable dyes, and the
patterns, which extended over the face, hips, thighs, etc., represented ornamental scrolls
' other
. , , ^ ' process,
ancient songs were sung, to encourage, divert the attention, and increase the patience of
the sufferers. This tattooing was supposed to make the Maori youth more terrible in
the eyes of his enemies, and more acceptable in those of his mistress. Another
remarkable custom among the Maoris was that of the taboo, by which the priest could
make certain persons and things sacred and inviolate. This was partly a religious and
partly a political ordinance, and was .so much respected that even in war-time hostile
tribes left unharmed all persons and 'things thus protected by the Uiboo of the opposite
side. Cannibalism, a much more heinous and abominable custom, practiced so lately as
within the last 45 years, was universally prevalent among the Maoris before their con-
version to Christianity. The last instance of it occurred in the year 1848. "Now,
however," says Dr. Scherzer (Voyage of the Notara), *'any allusion to this revolting
practice is very painful to the New Siealander, as reminding him of his former low
position in the scale of nations. Every time that we endeavored to make any inquiry
of the natives respecting this custom, they withdrew with an ashamed look. In like
manner, dogs' flesh has ceased to be an article of food, ever siDce the introduction of
pork by capt. Cook. Formerly, the native or Maori dog, which at present is very scarce,
was eaten on certain occasions, while its blood plaved a somewhat conspicuous part in
Maori pharmacy." Infanticide, which also prevailed largely among them in their days
of heathenism, is now universally abolished, and the same is the case with slavery and
polygamy. The Maoris generally many very young, and instances are known of
fenuSes among them becoming mothers even at the tender age of 11 vears. Their
marriages, however, are not very productive, 8 in a family being considered a good
average, and manv of these dying in their first year. It is difficult to account for this,
seeing that the Maoris of the pi-esent day are not addicted to intemperance, like other
half -civilized tribes. The wars of the Maoris were formerly carried on with spears and
clubs of various kinds, manufactured from stone and wood. Their most remarkable
weapon was a spear of nephrite, which descended among the principal chiefs from
father to son, and was regarded as a kind of scepter, and even a sacred object. It was
called merimeri, '* the fire of the gods," and was sometimes used for scalping prisoners.
There are other weapons of nephrite in use among the Maoris; they are much sought
after, and very costly. The use of fire-arms is now, however, very general among the
Maoris, and that they are adroit marksmen has been made but too apparent in their
contests with English troops. The language of the Maoris, like the Polynesian
languages generally, belongs to the Malay family. Its alphabet comprises only 14
letters, viz.. A, E, H, I, K, M, N, O, P, ft, T. U, W, and Ng. Seven tolerably dis-
tinct dialocts are spoken among them. The language is represented as rich and sono-
rous, well adapted for poetic^ expression, especially of the lyric kind. The Maoris
have an abundance of metrical proverbs, legends, and traditions, of which a collection
has been made by sir George Grey. They are also passionately attached to music and
song. More than five-sixths of the Maoris are now converted to Christianity. Of
these, such as live within the English settlements are becoming gradually assimilated to
our own colonists, for the most part wearing the European dress, etc., while those
further removed are content with the blanket, which has come to supersede the native
Maormor.
Map.
470
cloth. They generally practice agriculture, but will not work very hard. They are
good sailors and fishermen, and, indeed, more than a hundred coasting-vessels of a
good size are now the property of natives. The Maoris, however, as a nttlion,
although ready to imitate our manners and customs, are not quite content with our
colonial rule, and have frequently raised the standard of revolt against Britain under
their native chieftains. In 1861 hostilities commenced between the Maoris and the
British, which terminated in favor of the latter the following year. In 1868 war brolte
out again, the Maoris having conspired to expel the British troops. In 1868 thev
massacred many of the settlers, and resisted, to desperation, the troops sent to quell
them— a feat accomplished the following year. Pop. '68, only 88,540.
KAORXOB, the old equivalent of the earl in Scotland, an official similar to a magr
(q.v.), but placed over a province instead of a thanage, ao earldom or county instead qf
a barony, exercising the office of royal deputy or steward over the territory of which be
had at a still earlier period been the indepeuaent lord, and probably retaining to himself
the third part of the royal revenues and prerogatives. Prior to the iulroductioa of
feudalism, Scotland seems in theory to have been subdivided into roaormordoms, each
made up of the maormor's portion and the king's, in later language, the earldoiu ami the
regality, over both of which Uie maormor exercised his office, though the former was,
in a special sense, his own. Praclicnily, however, in certain of liiese districts the king
retained both maormordom and regalitv in his own hands, and the maors lield their
thanages directly of the sovereign, witliout tiie intervention of a maormor. As ilie
feudal system extended, the maormors were converted into earls, who were coutiued
within the limits of their own districts, the earl of Fife alone retaining the privilege of
exacting his rights over the whole province.
KAP (Lat. mappa, a towel). A map is a delineation, on a plane, of some portion of
the surface of a sphere, celestial or terrestrial, on which the objects intended to be shown
are traced, whether stars or towns, mountains, etc. Terrestrial maps are termed geo-
graphical, when they refer to the land; and hydrographical maps, or charts, when thoy
delineate the shores of the sea. A perfect representation of a country, with all its parts
in true proportions and relative positions, may be made on a globe; but, since the sur-
face of tiie earth is spherical, it is not possible so to delineate any lar^ portion of it on
a plane as to retain these properties. Hence geographers resort to different methods of
representation called projections (q.v.), which are of two kinds — either real perspectives
from different points of view, or approximative developments. The five p|rincipal pro-
jections are — the orthographic, the stereograph ic, the globular, the conical, aud ibe
cylindrical, or Mercator's.
In tiie first of these, the flat surface on which the map is drawn is supposed to pass
through the center of the earth, and according to the distance of the eye, the projeciioa
is either of the flret, second, or third kind. In the orUiographic, the eye is assumed lo
be at an infinite distance from the center of the earth, so that all ruys of light proceed-
ing from every point in its surface are parallel and perpendicular.
From the nature of this projection, it is evident that while the central parts of the
hemisphere are almost accurately reprcsi'uled,
towards the circumference the countries arc
crowded together and diminished in size. On
this account it is of little use for geographical,
though of considerable value for astronomical
purposes. In the stereographic, the eye or
point of projection is assumed to be placed on
the surface of the sphere opposite the one to
be delineated. If the globe were transparent,
the eye would then see the oppofJite concave
surface. Contrary to the orthographic, this
method contracts the center of the map, and
enlarges it towards the circumference. Owing
to the unequal area of the divisions, and the
difficulty of finding the true latitude and lon-
gitude of places, this projection is not much
employed. In order to rectify the opposite
effects of the two preceding, the globular pro-
jection, a modification of the two, is generally
adopted. If we suppose the eye to be re-
_ ^ ^, , . ..... ^ . ., - moved from the surface to a distance equal to
Fia. l.-€Hobtil«, gv^iUstont Projectfon of a ^^^ ^.^^ ^f 450 ^^ ^^^^ circumscribinff circle,
the prelection is called globular. In other
words, if the diameter of the sphere be 200 parts, it must be produced 70 of these parts
in order to give the point of projection.
All meridians and parallels in this projection are in reality elliptical curves, but as
they approach so nearly to being circular arcs, they are verjr rarely shown otherwise.
The construction of the globular or equidistant projection is as follows (fig. 1): De-
scribe ucircle NE8W, to represent a meridian, and draw two diameters, KGStuid WC£,
4T1
Maoranmr*
Map.
perpeodicular to each other, the one for a central meridian, the otlier for tlie equHior.
Then N and 8 will represent the north and south poles. Divide etich of the quiulrunts
mto 9 equal parts, and each of the radii ON, CE, aud O also into 9 equal pai u. Pro-
duce N8 hoth ways, and find on it the centers of circles which will pass ihrougli the
three points 80 a; 80, 70 y 70, etc., and these arcs described on both sides of the cqiiKtor
will be the parallels of latitude. In like manner, find on W£ produced, the centers of
circles which must pass through a, 6, e, and the poles. Having selected the tirst muridiun.
number the others successively to the east and west of it. A map in this way may be
constructed on the rational horizon of any place.
The impossibility of ffettinff a perfect representation of special parts of the sphere by
any of the previous methods, led to the desire for others less defective. Of all soliil
bodies whose surfaces can he accurately developed or rolled out upon a plane without
alteration, the cone and cylinder approach nearest to the character of the sphere. A
portion of the sphere between two parallels not far distant from each other, corre^ponds
very exactl^r with a like conical zone; whence it is that conical developments make the
best projections for special geographical maps, and even with some modifications for
large portions of the globe.
A conical projeotiou of Europe (fig. S) is constructed thus: Draw a base line A6 of
indefinite lenfftb; bisect it in E, and at that point erect a perpendicular ED. to form the
central meridian of the map. Take a space for 6* of latitude, aud siuce Euroin; lies
between the 85th and 76th parallels of latitude, mark off eiglu of these spaces along ED
for the points through which the parallels must pass. The center from which to de-
scribe the parallels will be the point in ED where the top of a cone, cutting the globe at
the 45th and 65th parallels, would meet the axis of the sphere. This {loinl will be found
to be beyond the north pole at 0. Since on the parallels of 46" and 05*, where the coae
Tm. 3.— Conical ProjectioB of Burope.
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cuts the sphere, the degrees of lonritude are exactly equal to those on the globe, if on
these parallels distances be marked off equivalent to 5 degrees of loniritude. in propor-
tion to the degrees of latitude in those parallels, and thniugh these points straight lines
he drawn from 0, they will represent tne meridians for every 5 degrees.
Since all meridians on the globe are great circles passing through the poles, the north
and south points at any place correspond with the poles of the earth. The cast and
west points, however, are indicated bv a line at right angles to the meridian, ami do
not, except at the equator, correspjond with those of the earth. In all the projections
hitherto cJescribed, the direction either of the north and south, or of the east and west
points, is represented by a curved line, so that on such a map the course of a vessel
would almost always be laid down in a curve, which could only be described by contin-
ually laying off from the meridian a line at an angle ctjual to that made with tlio merid-
ian by the point of the compass at which the ship was sailing. If the vessel were to
steer in a direct n.e. course by one of the previous projections, she would, if land did
not intervene, describe a spiral round, and ultimately arrive at the north pok^: there-
fore, the mariner requires a chart which will enable him to steer his course by compass
in straight lines only. This valuable instrument Is supplied by Mercator's chart, in
which all the meridians are straight lines perpendicular to the equator, and all tlie par-
allels straight lines onra^ to the equator.
It is constructed as follows (fig. 3): A line AB is drawn of the required len^rth for the
equator. This line is divided into 86. 24, or 18 equal parts, for meridians at 10% 15', or
to** apart, and the meridians arc then drawn through these perpendicular to AB. From a
table of meridional i^rto (a table of the number of minutes of a d^pnee of longitude
at the equator comprised between that and every parallel of latitude up to 89"), take the
distances of the parallels and of the tropics and arctic circles from the equator, and
mark them ofF to the north and south of it. Join these points, and the projection is
made.
This projection, of course, does not and is not intended to give a natural representa-
tion of the earth, its effect being to exaggerate the polar regions immensely. The dis-
tortion in the form of countries and relative direction of places, is rectified by the de<
grees of latitude being made to increase proportionably to those of longitude. This is
the only map which gives an unbroken view of the whole surface of the earth.
The term map is speciallpr applied to representations of land, or land and water to-
gether; while that of chart is limited to the coast and water suiface only, showing cur-
rents, rocks, anchorage, light-houses, harbors, soundings, and other objects of impor-
tance to seamen.
A geographical mai> proper is a general map of the world, or of a large extent of
countty. A topoflpaphical map differs from it in being limited in area, and much more
detailed. The oranance survey of Britain is a good example of a topographical map.
Besides purely geographical and topomphical maps, others are constructed for special
purposes, which may be physical, political, or civil, military, statistical, historical, etc.
In order to construct a map, and to determine accurately the positions of places on it,
a knowledge of two elements is essential — ^viz., latitude or distance from the equator,
and longitude or distance east or west of the meridian adopted.
Every map, whatever its dimensions, is in some definite relation to the actual size of
the globe. This relation is indicated by a scale — a graduated line showing, by its divi-
sions, the number of miles corresponding to any space measured on the map. The
scales of geographical maps range from a1x>ut 800 m. to an inch (for map« of quarters of
the globe) to 10 m. to an inch; those of topographical maps range from 1 in. to ^ in. to a
mile, the largest topographical maps we have, admitting of the most minute details.
The ordnance survey of Great Britain is on the scale of rshv ^^ nature, or 1 in. of
paper to 1 m. of surface.
A recent improvement introduced into our best maps is that of printing the water-
courses in blue ink, making the orography and skeleton of ever^ country stand out in
clear relief , thus avoiding the confusion resulting from all the hues being black, as m
older maps.
MAPE8, Jambs J., iiL.D., 1806-66; b. New York, where he was for a time a mer-
chant and sugar-refiner, then professor of chemistry and natural philosophy in the
national academy of design. He was the inventor of various useful processes m indus-
trial chemistry. In later years he entered into the business of a scientific agriculturist
% near Newitfk, N. J., and was very successful His knowledge of chemistry made him
an expert in fertilizers, in which he was an extensive dealer. He was for a time editor
of the Working Fanner, and published many papers and addresses on cheuustry and
agriculture. He also published the American Mepoeitory of Arte, etc., in 4 vols., the
fraetical Farmer, and other works. He spent considerable time in investigating the
phenomena of spiritualism, with what conclusion is unknown. Died at Newark.
KAPES, or KAP, Waltbsi, a famous mediaeval writer of Latin verse, called bylord
Lyttleton '*the Anacreon of the 12th c," was b. somewhere on the frontiers of Wales
^probably Herefordshire) before 1150. He studied at Paris, and on his return to England
round entrance to the courts beciune a favorite with Henry II. » and was made archdeacon
of Oxford in 1196, after which he does not a^n appear in history. He is thought to
have died about 1210. Mapes's best known piece is the drinking-song, beginning
Meum est proposf tam hi tabema morl,
which has been charmingly rendered into English by Leigh Hunt. It is part of a
longer poem entitled Gonfeem Ooliat. Considerable doubt, however, is now felt as to
the proper authorship of the poems commonly attributed to Mapes; and Mr. Wright, who
has edited them for the Camden society (1841), brings forward several reasons for con-
cluding that the author must be a different person from Mapes. The most weighty of
these reasons is, that Giraldus Cambrensis, the intimate friend of the archdeacon, severely
censures the poems that went under the name of Golias, of which the famous drinking
song was one. while in the same breath he warmly praises Mapes. It is certain, how-
ever, explain it as we may, that soon after the time of the archdeacon they were regarded
as his, and his name is inscribed on them in M8S. of the 14th and 15th centuries. Mapes
also wrote several prose works in Latin and Anglo-Norman.
MAPmi, a desert in n. Mexi<3o, extending s. from the Rio Grande 41 degrees of lati-
tude, and being about 2^"" in width, or about 525 sq. miles. The name is taken from a
mining town of about 5,000 pop. on the border of the desert. There is very little vege-
tation, but the presence of gold, silver, iron, and coal is claimed. Parts of Chihuahua,
Durango, and Coahuila are included in the tract.
KAPIiX, Acer, a genus of exogenous trees of the natural order aceraeem. This order
contains more than sixty species, natives of the temperate parts of the northern hemi-
sphere, and particularly numerous in North America andj^te9i3^*CJ«l^feiyP&^y ^^^
A HO M»pM.
4 • ^ Maraboiu
opposite leaves without stipules, usually lobed or palmate. The flowers are in axillary
ooiymbs or racemes, small, but abouading la honey, and yery attractive to bees. The
calyx is generally divided into five segments; the petals, when present, equal in number
to the segments of the calyx, ^row from the margin of a fleshy, liypogynous disk. The
fruit is formed of two small winged nuts, each with one or two seeds. With few excep-
lioDs, the genus cieer includes the whole order.— The Common Maplb (A. campettre), a
small tree, is a native of Britain, and of many parts of Europe and Asia. The leaves
are small, and usually five-lobed ; the wood is compact, flne-grained, takes a high polish,
and is much used by turners and for carved work. Several nearly allied species are
foand in the s. of Europe. — The Stiupbd Bark Maple (A. Btriatnm) of North America,
where it often forms ^eat part of the undergrowth in woods, is remarkable for longi-
tadinal black and white stripes on its bark; and its wood, which is very white, is used
for inlaying in cabinet-work. — The Oreatbr Maplb or Sycamore {A, pgguda-pkUantui),
commonly called pUtne-tne in Scotland, is a native of various parts of Europe, but a
doubt^il native of Britain, in which, however, it has long been common. It attains a.
height of 70 to 90 ft., has a spreading umbrageous head, and laree, palmate, coarsely
serrated leaves on long stalks. It is of quick growth, and succeeds well near the sea,
and in other exposed situations. The wood is white, compact, and firm; not hard, but
capable of a fine polish; and is used by wheelwrights, turners, etc. It is not apt to warp.
Stair-rails are often made of it, and pattem-blockB for manufactories, as well as bowls,
bread-plates, etc. Sugar is sometimes made from the sap of this tree, as from that of
several other maples; but the species which yields it most abundantly is the Sugar
MAPiiE (A, saeeharinum) of North America, a species which much resembles the syca-
more, and abounds in the northern parts of the United States and in the British posses-
sions, where large quantities of sugar are made from it, although only for domestic use.
The trunk of the sugar maple is generally more slender than that of the sycamore. To
obtain sugar, holes are bored in the trunk when the sap is ascending, early in spring,
before the winter frost has passed awav, in an obliquely ascending direction, at no great
distance from the ground, at first onlv to the depth of half an inch, but afterwards
deepened to 2 in. ; and the sap thus collected is evaporated in boilers over a brisk fire,
to the consistencv of syrup, strained and poured into molds, in which it crystallizes into
a coarse gray or brown colored sugar. It is sometimes afterwards refined. Pour gal-
lons of sap yield about 1 lb. of sugar. A single tree fields from 2 to 6 lbs. in a season.
During tlie sugar-making season, sheds are erected in the woods for the boiling and
other processes of the manufacture. The sap cannot be kept long after being collected.
Good vinegar is made from it, and a kind of molasses much superior to that from the
sugar-cane, and much used in America with buckwheat cakes, etc. The wood of the
sugar maple has a satiny appearance, and is used for cabinet-makiiiff; it is sometimes
finely marked with uncfulations of fiber, and is then known as biras^e maple, and is
used for veneers. The cultivation of the sugar maple in Europe, for the sake of its
sugar, has of late been much advocated. It is not so hardy in the climate of Britain
as the sycamore, and seems to require a dry and sheltered situation.— The Norway
Maple (A, pUUaiwides) is a native of the n. of Europe, although not of Britain, and is
iilso found in North America. It much resembles the sycamore, and its wood is used
for the same purposes. It is pretty common in plantations in Britain. — A Himalayan
species (A. villa^um), a noble tree, found with pines and birches of great elevations, has
recently been introduced into Britain.
MAQUBT, Augusts, b. in Paris, 1813; educated at the college Charlemagne, where
he was for a time teacher. HaviD£[ written the drama entitled Bathilde, he was intro-
duced to Alexandre Dumas to have it examined. The latter was struck with his talent,
and proposed their working together. It is said that a considerable part of the romances
which Dumas published previous to 1845 were largely from Maquet's pen. In 1851 he
began publishing romances under his own name, which are highly appreciated in France.
He has been president of the commission of dramatic authors and composers. His
work in aid of Dumas embraced fifteen of his most famous novels. Under his own
name since, are the romances Histoire de la Bastille; Prisom de V Europe; Belle Gabrir
f^le; and many others. For the theater he has prepared La Fronde, an opera; Le
Ohdteau de Gautier; Le Comte de Lavernie; La Belle OabrieUe; and many others, in
addition to the joint works of himself and Dumas, most of which he dramatized.
XAQiri, ArittoteUa ma&ui, the only known species of a genus of plants sometimes
referred to the natural order tUiacem, and which has also been made the type of a pro
posed order. It is an evergreen or sub-evergreen shrub, of considerable size, a native of
Chili. The flowers are small, green, and yellow, in axillary racemes of no great beauty.
The frnit is a three-celled beny. abont the size of a pea, black, acid, and eatable; the
ChiliaBS make a wine from it. The wood is used for making musical instruments, and
the touch bark for their string. The maqui sometimes ripens fruit against a wall in
England, and is frequently cultivated as an ornamental shrub.
■ABA'BOV fSATHEU. See Adtdtakt.
MARABOU' STORK, the African name of the adjutant stork, pouched adjutant, or
argala of India. The sausage-like pouch which hanffs from its necK is capable of being
inflated, giving the bird a strange appearance. It is gregarious in its wild state, fre-
JIamlratii. A^TA
Uiamthon. * • *
qiieiithig tlie moiitlia of rivers, and livin*? upon animals too large for other storks to
awallow. It is L'tmUy domesticated, but its exceeding voracity impels it on every <»cca-
fiio:i to purloin cliickt'ns. turkey's, le/rs of mutton, cuts, puppies, cic, swallowing them
wlM>le. Land tortoises 10 in. long have been found in its maws. See Adjutaht. ante.
KABABUTSi a Dame given to the descendants of the Maravides (Arab, frontier inhnb-
it:ints), :i certain Amble tribe, which, in 1075, founded a dynasty in the nortli- western
parts of Africi), and held Morocco and Spain for a considerable period. The AUnobads
liaviug put an end to tlieir temporal dominion, their descendants exercise to this day a
kind of spiritual superioritv over the Moslem negroes in Barbary, the coast of Guinea,
etc. They form a kind of priestly order, officiating at mosques and chapels, explain-
ing I lie Koran, providing the faithful with amulets, propliesying, and working miniclcf:.
Tliey r.re looketi up to with great awe and revt-rence bv tiie common populace, who also
allow them a certain vague license over their goods and chattels — their wives not
excluded. The great marabut ranks next to the king, and the disnity of a marabut is
gc*ner:illy hereditary. One of the most eminent marabuts of our day was tlie late Abd-
el-Kadcr (q.v.).
XASACAT'BO, a fortified city of the South American republic of Venezuela, is situ-
ated on a sandy plain on the w. shore of the strait which connects the lake of Mara-
caybo with the gulf of the same name. Lat. 10* 45' n., long. 71** 40' west. It is the
chief t<»wn of the state of Zulia (foimerly called Maracaybo), comprising the territory
surrounding the lake of Maracaybo, and containing 33,075 sq.m., and a pop. of about
90,000. It is a handsome town, with a hot but healthy climate, and has a harl)or deep
enough to contain the lar^st vessels, but inaccessible to them, owing to the shifting
bar al its mouth. The chief articles of export are cocoa, coffee, hides and skins, fustic,
dividivi, the balsam of copaiba, and cotton. In 1871-73, 23,000,000 lbs. of coffee wer«
exported. Pop. '73, 21,954,
KABACAYBO, Lake and Gulf. The lake of Maracaybo, in the n. of Yeneznela, is
about 100 m. in length and 70 m. in breadth. It is of considerable depth, but the bar
at its mouth prohibits the entrance of large vessels. It is connected with the gulf of
the same name by a strait upwards of 20 m. in length, and from 5 to 10 m. in breadth.
The gulf is a wide inlet of the Caribbean sea, 150 m. from e. to w., and about 75 m.
from n. to south.
KA'BAGHA, an old t. of Persia, in the province of Azerbijan, 60 m. s. of Tabriz, oq
a tributary of lake Urumiah. It is surrounded by walla, and was long the capital of
the province. It contains two bridges of Uie 11th c, and the remains of the observa-
tory of the celebrated mediseval astronomer, Nasir Eddin. Pop. 15,000.
KABAJO', an island on the n.e. coast of Brazil, belongini? to the province of Pnra,
and situated between the estuaries of the rivers Amazon and Para, is 180 m. in lengih
by 1:25 m. in breadth. In the n.e. it is somewhat elevated, without trees, and covered
by herds of cattle. The western portion is low, and watered by numerous streams.
Pop. estimated at 20,000.
KABAKHAH', or Maranhao, a rich and important maritime province of the empire
of Brazil, is bounded on the n. by the Atlantic ocean. Area, 141,939 sq.m.; pop. 72,
880,000. The surface is uneven, but there is no range of mountains. It is quaurilateral
in shape, and is watered by numerous rivers, which, falling into the Atlantic, traverse
its whole length in a direction parallel with its sides. Its climate is fine, and its s(jil
produces vast quantities of rice, for the production of which it is peculiarly fitted. Cot-
ton, sugar-cane, and fruits are also extensively grown. Its surface is still to a great
extent covered with forests; iron and lead ores and antimony have been discovered; and
sheep, cattle, and horses ai-e extensivclr reared. — The chief city is Maranham, or San
Luiz de Maranham, the fourth in rank and impoilance, and the best-built city in the
Brazilian empire. It is situated on an island of the same name, iu lat. 2** 80' s., long.
44** 18" w., is remarkably clean, gay, hospitable, and prosperous, and has a pop. of
86,000. Maranham is the seat of a bishop, contains a cathedral, 10 churches, several
monasteries and convents, a lyceum, and other educational institutions.
KABAN'O, a t. of the province of Naples, situated on a gentle slope 4 m. from Naples.
Pop. 7.302.
MARARON. See Amazon, ante.
MARAKS. a t. of France, department of Charente-Inferieure, near the union of the
S^vre-Niortaise and the Vendee. 18 m. n.e. of La Rochelle; pop, 3.217. It is well
built, has a gOod bridge over the Sdvre, which is navigable here for vessels of 100 tons.
B^ a canal recently constructed, ships of 8('0 tons can come to the town. . The trade is
principally in corn, wine, brandv, hemp, flax, timber, and salt. The surrounding
country having been recovered irom the sea, abounds in salt marshes^ and is inter-
sected oy canals.
XAKAKTA'O&B, or CAMNACBiB. a natural order of endoseoous pteti, rety nearly
allied to seitaminea (q.v). and differing chiefly in having all me stamens petal-fike, ana
the one fertile stamen lateral. They are destitute of the aromatic property so general ia
the seitaminecB, There are about 160 known species, all)|^|^j|c^l<i^f«4>»^qpicaL Tliey
A*7K Mfmbnts.
*•*' MarttthM.
are nit horbaceoiis perennials. Not many of tbem are ]tLTge or notable for the beautj of
their flowers. The tuberous root-stocks of many abound iu starch.
XABASCHIHO. See Liqueub.
MARASH\ a pashalic of Asiatic Turkey, is bounded n. by that of Sivas, e. by Diau-
bekis. s. by Aleppo, w. by Karamania. The greatest length is 180 m. and breadth 105
m. : ] o:>. 248,000. It belongs to the basin of the Euphrates and the Jyhoon. Tbe
former river is the e. boundary, while the latter rises near its center and flows through
it 8.W. The district is motintidnous and wooded except in the valleys of these livers.
It is crossed from w. to e. by tbe Taurus ridge and by tbe Anti-taurus and the Durdun
Tat^h. The climate is mild, and the country is well adapted to pasturage. The capital
is Marash on the Jyhoon, 60 m. n.e. from the sea.
HASAS'HTJS is a term wliich was somewhat vaguely used by the older medical writers
to dcsigaato tliosc casci of general emaciation or atrophy for which they did not sec any
special cauoO. The word h now seldom used except occasionalhr as a synonym for tabe$
mesen'^rica, or tubercular disease of the mesenteric glands. See Mssentsry, Mbben-
TKBic Disease.
HABAT, Jean Paul, one of the most infamous characters of the Frencli revolution,
b. 1744, of Protestant parents, at Baudry, in Neufch&tel. He spent some of his early
^'cars in Britain; published several treatises in London; acted as a teacher of languages
m Eilinburgh; and underwent punishment for stealing some valuable medals from the
museum iu Oxford. Aftcrwaros returning to Paris, he practiced an inferior branch of
the medical profession until the revolution brought him into prominence as a dema-
goo^ue. Ills features and appearance were groteraue^ his locik wild, and his speeches
extravagant, the ludicrous musgUng with tbe terrible. His influence over tbe lowest
cinssea, however, soon became great He iuued a journal, which be at flrst called the
PaUieide Piirmen, but afterwards the Afni du Peuple, which is historically connected
with some of the*most fearful events of that period, No falsehood was too monstrous to
be published in it, no atrocity too great to be recommended. It was in a great measure
tlie influence of Marat which led to tbe cruelties and massacres of Sept., 1792, in the
midst of which he was elected a member of the oonvention, but on his appearance there
he was received with almost universal expressions of abhorrence. No one wouid sit
beside him, and when he attempted to speak a tumult always arose; His journal, now
the Journal de la Bepublique, became more ferocious and sanguinary than ever. He
demanded the sacrifice of 270,000 heads, and defended this in the convention, saying
that if these were not granted, he would demand more. During tbe king's trial, he \\ as
urgent for his imraediiUe execution, and in his journal called upon the people to slay
200.000 of the adherents of the old regime, and to reduce the convention to one fourth.
In April, 1793. Marat obtained the enactment of the fearful law against suspected persotis,
in virtue of which 400,000 were imprisoned. Robespierre, Danton, and Marat were now
the triumvirate which ruled France. But on July 13, 1793, Marat was stabbed in his
own house by Charlotte Corday (q.v.). This event was followed by some of the worst
atn)cities of the reign of terror; streams of blood flowing, as was said, to the manes of
Marat, whose likeness, with gaping wounds, painted by David, was exhibited on an
altar in the court of the Louvre, and then hung up in the convention; whilst it was
decreed that his housekeeper, whom he had married "one fine day, in tbe presence of
tbe snn," should be maintained at the expense of the state. A decree of Nov. 4, 1798,
gave to Marat's remains the honors of the Pantheon; but thev were cast out of It again
on Nov. 8, 1795, and his picture was removed from its place in tbe convention.
KASATS'A, an Italian town of the province of Basil icata. situated on the slope of a
mountain, in the midst of a lovely and salubrious country. Pop. 6,480.
KASATHOK, anciently, a villa^ on the e. coast of Attica, about 20 m. n.e. of Athena,
now called Mamthoiia, or, according to Leake, the present Vrana. It was situated in a
plain of the same name, about 6 m. in length and 3 in breadth, with a background of
mountains in the w., and a marsh both on the n. and s.; eastward, it reaches the sea.
Byron's lines in the IdBS of Greece correctly describe it:
The mountaiiiR look on Marathon—
And lUntthon looks on the aea.
It is gloriously memorable as the scene of the grand defeat of the Persian hordes of
Darius by the Greeks under Miltiades (490 ko.).
MAR'ATHON (anteX was named from the hero Marathos, and known in Homer's
time. Here legend relates that Eurystheus was overcome by tbe Heraclldie and lolaus,
and here took place the contest of Theseus and the bull. When Pisistratus was driven
from Athens to Eubosa, Marathon was the flrst place occupied by him on bis return.
On tbe day of the great battle the Persian forces were under the command of Datis and
Artaphemes, while Miltiades had eleven generals under his orders. Ancient writers
differ widely in their estimate of the numbers of the invading forces. Plato declares
that there were 900,000 in all; Trogus Pompeius. 000,000, but Cornelius Nepos says that
of tbe effective force, there were 100,000 root soldiers, and 10,000 cavalry. This last
estimate is probably near the truth, as it agrees closely with the statement of Herodotus
that the whole force was transported in 900 triremes, each carrying 900 men. All wri-
ters agree that the Greeks numbered about 10,000; so it is safe to say that they were
outnumbered at least ten to one. They were materially assisted, however, by their
slaves, who are not included in the 10,000. The result of the battle was due to the rigid
discipline of the Greeks, in comparison with whom the Persians were but an unruly
mob, and to the military eenius of Miltiades. Of the 10 generals, 5 were opposed to
giving battle, and the deciding vote of the polemarch was given at Miltiades's urgent
|)ersuasion. Each general in succession held the chief command for one day, and it
was so arranged that the battle should take place on the day when Miltiades was in
command. The Persians lost about 6,400 men; while of the Athenians only 192 fell.
Among them, however, was the polemarch Callimachus, Stresbius, one of the generals,
and several men of high rank. Remains of the weapons used in the contest are still u>
be found on the field. Two mounds or tumuli were erected in the center of the plain,
one commemorating the valor of the Athenians who perished, and setting forth their
names and rank on carved pillars, and the other raised for the Platieans and slaves.
The remains of these tombs, and of the marble trophies erected, may still be seen.
MAKATHON, a co. in n. Wisconsin, area, 5,620 sq.m.; pop. '80, 17,121; foreien,
6.451. It is drained by the Wisconsin river, and its tributaries, the Big Eau Claire, Big
Eau Pleine, Little Eau Pleine, Clover, and others. The surface is level, and much of
it is covered with a heavv growth of timber — ash, beech, birch, elm, maple, and pine.
The principal crops are wheat and oats. The maniifacture of pine lumber is extensively
carried on. The Wisconsin Central, and Wisconsin Valley railroads pass through it.
Co. seat, Wausau.
MARATTA, orMARATTI, Cablo, 1625-1713, a R<Hnan from the Marches of Anoona;
an enthusiastic disciple of the Raphael school; an admiraUe copyist, and one of the
most conscientious and skillful of painters in restorations. It is to his unwearied indusn'y
that modem times are indebted for the degree of preservation that the grand frescos of
the Vatican and the masterpieces of ^pfaael in the Farnese palace and elsewhere ha?e
exhibited. Thev had already, in his time, so altered as to threaten soon to be ruined.
Maratta opposed, the tendency to immense frescos, and dissuaded his pupils from works
of unusual size. His forte lay in paintings where the Viigin Mary was the principal
subject, and of this class nearly every gauerv in Europe has his works. But he was
Muthor also of other pieces of great merit, ms daughter Maria, married to Zappa, was
both poet and painter.
KARAuniiiCl (a word common, under orthographic variations, to most of the Euro-
pean languages, and, probably, of identical root with the verb *'tomar") is irregular
flunder or violence offered to the inhabitants of a country by the individuals of an army,
n all armies where discipline is maintained, marauding is, at least professedly, punished
by death; the provost-marshal having power to inflict that penalty summarily on all
offenders taken in the act.
XAEAYE'DI, an old Spanish coin, either of vellon, worth about two-sevenths of a
farthing; or of silver, worth five- sevenths of a farthing.
MARBEAU, Jban Baptists FBAJS(pn ; b. at Brives, in Oorr^ze, France 1796.
After practicing and writing upon law for some years, he became interested in the.
unfortunate condition of certain classes around him; and in 1844, while engaged in mak-
ing a report on the asvlums in his neighborhood, he became grwtXv interested in the
uncared-for children of mothers who are obliged to go out to work as soon as their
children cease to nurse. He felt that there was a gap in benevolent asylums for diildreo.
and could not rest till he had done sf)methinK to fill it. He openea the first orMe, or
infant asylum, in France, and wrote a work entuled Iks CrhcJieg, which has been trans-
lated into several languages. The profits of its publication he gave to the uifant asylums
of his own neigfabornood. From the beginning made by him the system has extended
through France, the civilized countries of Europe, and to tiie United States. In 1871
there were 81 asylums for infant children in France alone. Marbeau's philanthropic
works, besides De» Orkhes, are: PolitiqueB des In^its, ou Euai mr des Mayem^amHiorer
le Sort deA TravaiUeurs (Paris, 1834); Etude sur VEoonomie soeinl (1844); Du Pauperimne en
France et dee Moyene d'y porter EemMe, ou Prineipee d^Ecoivmie charUaUe (1847) ; De Flndi-
gence et dee Secours (1850).
MARBECK, John, d. about 1685, was organist of Windsor in the reign of Henry
VIII. and his successor. An association having been formed in 1544 in support of the
Lutheran doctrines, Marbeck joined it. Among the members were a priest, a singing
man of St. George's chapel, and a tradesman. They were arrested on a charge of heresv.
Their papers were seizea, and in Marbeck's handwriting were found notes on the Bible
and a concordance in English. The special charge against him, it is said, was that be
had copied an epistle of Calvin against the mass. They were all condemned to the stake,
but Marbeck, on account of his musical talents, and through the interposition of Gardi-
ner, bishop of Winchester, was pardoned, and restored to his place as organist He lived
to see the triumph of his principles, and to publish his work, Tfie Boke^ Common I^mer^
noted. A new edition was published by Rolxirt Jones, of Ely cathedral, entitled Mar-
heckle Book of Common Prayer, for voicee in unieon, A^an^^^^^m^^^(^^lj^ wHk an ad
mMamthon.
Msrble.
Hb&um organ bcus aecompanymeni. He finished also his Oonoordanee. A Te Deum of
his, and a mass for five voices, are found in Smith's Mtmca Antigua, now in the British
museum. In 1574 was published The Lyte9 of Hdlv Sainctes, Prophets, Patriarchs, and
others; and afterwards. The HoUe Historie of King Dam'd, drawn into BngHsh meetre; A
Ripping Up qf the Pop^s Fctrdel.
WAEBLE, in its strict and proper sense, is a rock crystallized in a saccharoidal manner,
having the fracture of loaf-sugar, and composed of carbonate of lime, either almost pure
when the color is white or combined with ozide of irou or other impurities which give
various colors to it. But many other kinds of stone are popularly included under this i
title. Indeed, any limestone rock sufficiently compact to admit of a polish is called
marble. It is only in this vague sense that the indurated amorphous rocKs used in this >
country can receive this name. Such are the black, red, ^y, and variegated lunestones
of the old red Basdstone period, found m Devonshire, which are very beautiful from the
numbers of exquisitely preserved corals which abound in them; the marbles of the car-
boniferous series from Flintshire, Derbyshire, and Yorkshire, so full of encrinites; the
shell marbles from the oolite rocks at Ranee, Stamford, and Yovil; and the dark Purbeck
and Petworth marbles, beautifully '* figured " with shells, from the wealden strata, which
were so much used by the architects of the middle a^.
Saccharine or statuary marble is a white, fine-grained rock, resembling loaf-sug^ in
color and texture, working freely in every direction, not liable to splinter, and taking a
fine ix>lish. Of the marbles used by the ancients the most famous are: Parian marble^ a
finely granular and very durable stone, with a waxy appearance when polished. Some
of the finest Grecian sculptures were formed of this marble, among others the famous
Venus de Medici. The marble of Pentelicus was at one time prefened by the Greeks to
Parian, because it was whiter and finer grained. The Parthenon was entirely buUt of
it, and many famous f^tatues still remain which were executed in this marble, but they
are always more r)r }(>sh weathered, never retaining the beautiful finish of tiie Parian
statues. The quarries at Carrara were known to the ancieDts, but they have been more
extensively wrought for modem sculptors, who use this marble chiefly. It is a fine-
grained, pure white marble, but is so often traversed by gray veins that it is difficult to
get large blocks free from them. Of colored marbles, the best known are the rosso
antico, a deep blood-red, sprinkled with minute white dots; verde antieo, a clouded
green produced bv a mixture of white marble and green serpentine; giaUo antico, a deep
yellow, with black or yellow rings; and nero antico, a deep black marbia
The ciy^jtalline structure of marbles may be the original condition in which the rock
was formked as a chemical deposition, in the same manner as some stalactites axe crystal-
line, but there can be no doubt that they principally owe their structure to metamorphic
action which has taken place subsequent to their deposition. This action having, at the
same time, destroyed all trace of fossils, marbles were considered formerly as belonging
to the primitive or metamorphic series of rocks; but, while thev generally are members
of one of the paleozoic formations, it is now known that some of the statuary marbles of
Greece and Italy are secondary, and others even tertiary limestones.
MARBLE (ante). Unstratified statuary marble is white in consequence of the action
to which it has been subjected durine some stage of its metamorphisuL It is well
known that blue limestone when burned becomes white, and this discharge of color will
take plaoe even before the carbonic acid gas is expelled. Marbles may be nearly pure
carbonate of lime, or they mav contain a mrgeproportion of carbonate of magnesia, in
fact, may be matamorphic dolomites (q.v.). The finest statuary marble is worth from
$111 to $dO per cubic foot. The Grecian and Italian marbles have been described in the
preceding article. In the United States, good statuary marble has for several years
been quarried at West Rutland, Yt, where a layer from 8 to 4 ft. thick is interstratifled
with 40 or ISO ft. of clouded marbla The finest of statuary marble is found at Pittsford,
Yt.. where there is a bed 20 ft. thick, from which blocks have been taken capable of
taking a venr fine flmsh, in some respects perhaps superior to Carrara, although not
working with q^uite equal facility. Some specimens have a faintish fiesh tint, scarcely
perceptible, which gives a very fine efi^ect to busts, which, as is well known, are always
improved b^ age, when made of marble too glaringly white. The greater portion of
the marble in all quarries is more or less clouded, and most of the ancient temples are
built of this kind. The Yermont marbles are of the age of the Trenton limestone, form-
ing a part of the eoUan Umeetone of prof. Hitchcock, which in that locality is about 2,000
ft. thick. At West Rutland the quarry is from 40 to 60 ft. thick, at Sutherland Falls
from 70 to 80, and at Pittsford 600 ft. thick. This marble belt extends n. and s. of
Rutland co., through Yermont and Massachusetts, but it loses in quality in both direc-
tions. Towards the n. it is finer and harder, but less sound, and towards the s. it
l)ecome8 coarser. Another belt of white marble extends along the flanks of the AUe-
gfaanies, through a part of Massachusetts, through New York and Maryland, and into
Virginia beyond the Potomac river. This marble is a dolomite, and coarsely crystal-
line. It is quarried at various places in Westchester co., N. Y., and at Baltimore. At
Canaan, Conn., and at Lee, Mass., and other places in New England, good building
marble is quarried. Marble from Lee was used for the extension of the capitol vX
Washington. There are many varieties of colored marbles, ?s°l^zeJ^S?tJC?l9^¥l::^'
KarceUoi. ^ < ^
variegated. There are plain black, red, blue, gray, and yellow marblea. A Jet black
murble was used by the aucients. A kind found in Italian ruins is called Nero nntico,
and is now used fur a ground-work for mosaics. Black marbles occur at Derbyshire,
England, Kilkenny, Ireland, and at Shorebam, Vt. At Glenn's Falls, N. T., there is a
black limestone, which is used alternately with white marble fur tiles, which goes under
the name of black marble. The colored marbles were largely used by the Romans nnd
Eiru.^ams for interior decoration. A gray marble much used by the Romans in nrchi-
te«turo was citlled cipoUno, and had much the appearjince of jrray ffranite. The columns
of the temple of Jupiter Serapis were constmcted of this stone.' There are many locnli-
tics of varieg}ite<l marbles in the United States. A mottled hlnc, chocolate, and white,
known as Tennet-see marble, is regarded with favor for mantels, tables, etc. Another
of i^'d, brown, and white is quarried at Burlington, Vt., but it is nvthcr difficult to work
on account of the silica it contains.
The opening of a marble quarry is usually expensive and attended with risk, ns it is
imp^)s^!ible to determine the quaHty of the stoue In-fore many feet thickness of rock
is removed. From 10 to 80 ft. usually has to be taken off befoit; perfectly Found disin-
tegrated marble is reached. After a sufficient area of suifr.ce has been prepared by the
removal of the imperfect stone, channeling machines, which may be cither pcreuKion
or diamond drills, are set to work, and rectangularly crossed channels are cut lo a
desired depth, sav from 5 to 7 feet. One of the block.", called Die key block, ia tlicn
broken off at the Tbase by wedging and lifted out with a crnne. This gives ready access
to the othei-s. which are then drilled as circumstances may require, broken off by
wedging, and removed to a saw mill, where they are squared or sawed into slabs.
MARBLE, Manton. b. Worcester, Mass., 1836; graduated at tlie RcH'hester ui.lvcr-
sity in 18o5, and made ixU entrance into journalism in Boston, where he ^va8 connected
with the Journal xiu^ TravelUr, He removed to New York in 1858, and was employed
during tlie next two years on the editorial Maff of the Ecening Po9t, In 18C0 he united
with others in founding the WorUi^ of which he eventually became sole proprietor.
Under his mamigement this paper gained great influence as an organ of the deniocr&tic
mrty, ami a vifforous exponent of the principles of free trade. Early in 1876 he retired
from the World, and was closely connected with the poUtic<al movements consequent to
the presidential election of that year, which was in dispute between SamuelJ. Tildca
and Rutherford B. Hayes.
MABBLEHEAB', a sea-port t. of Massachusetts, on Mas^chusefts bay, 16 m. n.e. of
Boston. Its population was formerly devoted to the fisheries, but is now also largely
engaged In manufacturing, chiefly lK)ota and shoes. The town was fettled l»y cmigrnnts
from the Channel islands. At the dose of the revolutionary war there were 00«» widows;
and at the end of the war of 1812, 000 citizens of Marblehead were prisoners of war m
England. Pop. 70, 7,708.
MARBLEHEAD {ante) is built upon an elevated and rocky peninsula, 4 m. in lergth,
and 3 in. in width, projecting into Massachusetts bay. It was once a part of Siilcm.
which it joins on the west. It is connected with Boston. Portland, etc.. by a brarith of
the Eastern railroad. It has a deep and very convenient harl)or, but the sbippiiig
intereht, formerly iarse, has declined of late. It lias two national banks, a tarings
Imnk. exrellent schocMs, a newspaper, and well cstabllalKd and prospeufHis churclii-s.
Many of the quaint pecnliarities of the first settlers £n>m the Channel isLiiKls may aill
be obsiTved in their descendants. The place presents many leaturea of iulercKt. It htit
always bet*n distinguished for patriotism, furnishing 1000 men to (he revolutionary nrniy.
In the war for the suppression of the rebellion it furnished 1440 men. A wide-spread
fire destroyed a large part of its business section in 1877.
M.ARBLES, PLATING, are little balls of marble or some other hard sulistance, nwd
as playthings by children. They are manufactured in great quant. ties in Baxony for
export to India, China, and the United States. A hard caicarcous ttone is uw'*! in
Saxony. After this material has been broken into square blocks, about 160 of these
blocks are thrown toirether into a mill. This mill is generally const rucled of a Mationnry
flat jslab of stone, which has numerous concentric furro-ws upon its face. A bhick of oak
of the srime diameter, part of which R»sts upon the pmall stones, is made to rev<ilvc over
thi<, while w:it'»r flows upon the stone slab. The whole process requires but a quarter
nf an lionr. and a single mill can manufacture 20,000 marbles a week. Tlie mills at
OheiNteln. on the Nalie, in Germany, manufacture marbles and agates especially for (ho
Anicricsin market.
MARBOTt?, BARB6. See Bahb^-M abbots, anU.
UAB'BTJEO, an interesting old German t., in the Pni8.<jian province of Hesse^Kassnn,
on lH»th brinks of the river Lahn 50 m. n. of Frankfort-on-the-Main, nnd 49 m. s.w. of
('asse'I. I's situation is strikinL^ly l)eautiful. It isphiccd chiefly on a hill, round which
are built quaint oh 1 -fashioned houses, interspersed with buildings of a later date, and
sepnr.Jtcd by terrace-gardens. The hill is crowned by the stately burg or castle, while
at its lui'^e extends the lovely vnllcv of the Lahn. Of the ecclesiastical edifices, the prin-
cipal is the tine Gothic church of St. Eliztibelh, bci^un 1255 completed 1288, having two
towers 803 ft. iu height. It was erected in honor of SL Elizabeth (q.v.), daughter of
Digitized by VjOUV IC .
^«^ MarcelliM.
Aodfois IL of Hungnry, and wife of Ludwig. landgrnf of Hesse and Thuringia. From
her, the ancestress of the Cassel uiid Dannstiidt uranclies of tiie house of Hesse, is
deacendetl the present princess (Alexandra) of Wales. The castle of Marburg was built
in lOdK In one of its Inills, the conferences between the Wittenberg and Swiss reform-
ers rcjpirding the Lord's-supper look place. The nniversiiy of Marburg was founded in
15*37 by Philip the magnanimous, laudgraf of Hesse, and soon Ixjcame one of the most
flourabini^ in ProtesUuit Kurope. Among its earliest students were the celebrated Pat*
rick ilamilton. and William Tyndale. the translator of ibe Hnglisii Bible. The univer-
sitv hsis four faculties — theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and al-ts; and comprises about
forty professor^i, twenty lecturers, and from 800 to 400 students. It oon tains a library of
190.tMK) volumes. Extensive potteries and tanneries are in operation. Pop. 75, 9,658.
MARC ANTONIO. See Raimondi, ante.
XAECA'TO, in music, means in a strongly accentuated or marked manner.
MAHCE.V.U, FRAN901S SIbvbrin dbs Grayibrs, 1769-96; a soldier and officer of the
first French revolution, who joined the army as a i^rivutc at the age of 16. In 1789 he
particiiwted actively in the capture of the Bastille; in 1793 was in the army of the
Aniennes commanded by Lafayette. When the hitter was forte<l to fly to avoid the
giiiiloliite of the Jacobins, Mairceau persuaded the Mibonlinaie officers to remain, in a
harangue closing with these wonls — "Our country, and not our genends» is to l)o
diftiodcMl.'* He continued to act faithfully in accordance with this sentiment. In 17U3,
ai the age of 34. lie >v:is mucle g.*n. of division; and in all the campaigns — uutler VVester-
wjn in the Vendees, imdcr KL'tier and Jourdan — he mainiaineil a character tor chivalric
coiinge and devotion to the republic that made his early death a grief t4> all France.
M.VIWJELLrNUS. Saint, b Rome, 3J c. : d. 304; elected pope, 295. But little is known
of bid life or administnition. Tlierc is an account, said to Ijc labulous, of a synod held a(
$ia^tsw^ in 3«i3 or 304, during the Diocletian per8ecuti<m: and Marcellinus is said to
liave confessed before this synod that, at the instance of Diocletian, he had offered incense
to Vc8!a and Isis. The synod i«? said to have deposed Marcellinus, who. with maiiy mem-
ben of the synod, was put to death by Diocletian. The story is denied by Augustine auJ
Tlicoiloret. and U now not credited by cither the Roman C^uiholic^ or Xhn Protestant con-
tra ^e^^ialisls. Dc-. DOUiugor, in his work F\ii>l6s lietpeciing Rtpe* in tha Afiddle Affes,
asiLinpts to sliow thai the story of the deposition of Marcellinui is u fabrication of later
times. The Rt>man church commemorates Marcellinus April 34.
MVRCEL'LO. BsNKDSTTO, 16S6-1739; b. Italy; son of Ag7.srmoMarceUo.n Venetian
senator. He studied music under Gosparini and LoL'i, and prodiu^cd his first valuiiblo
coinpoution in 1716, a serenita in hooor of the birth of the ehlest 8(»n of the emperor
Charles VI. The work to which he o.v«'s his fame appeared in 8 vols., 1734-29, under
ihi lumc of Euro P.jeticoArnionic^) Fvufnui 90f)ra i 50 prlmuSUm^ P.)29in di G. A.
QnuHaiU, mnHU*a tie B. MarceUo, Patrliio Veaezto, The cuarocleristics of hb musical
style are meltxly and simplicity, and a sound good taste.
KABCEL'LliS, the name of two p«>pes, of whom the latter deserves special notice, a? *
haviu;, wiiua.C4irtliual Marcello Corvini, taken a very prominent part in the discussions
of the eonncil of Trent, over which he was appointed to preside a.s leg;ae of Julius III.
lie id also remarkable from the nnnor but curious circumstance of his not complying with
tlie ancient custom by which the pope, on his election, lays aside his baptismal name,
and .-.isumcs a new one. Marcello Uervinl retained on his elevation the name which he
lia<i priivijudy bo.uj. lie wa3 elected Mar. 9, 1535, and survived his elevation but 23
days
KABCELLTTS, M. Claudius, a famous Roman gen., of one of the most eminent ple-
beian families. He was conoid for the first time in 222 B.C., and obtained n decifHvc vic-
tory over the Insubrians in Cisalpine Quil. slaying with his own hand tlieir kinir. Brito-
ranrtus or Viridomanis. whose spoils he dedicated to Jupiter. an<l was honon*d with a
triumph. This was the third and List occasion in Roman history iin whicli «/w7a opima
were offered to the god^. In the second Punic war, Marcellus fought as praetor, in 216
B.C.. a<;ain t Hannibd at Nola, hi Campania; and the victory which he i^ined was the
more inip;)rtant, as it showed that Hannibal was not invincible, and that the liomans had
not been irrepanibly overthrown at Cannae. In the course of two years he thrice repulsed
the Carthaginian gen. at this placp. Beins consul agdn in 214 B.C., he was intru.<:ted
wi:h the command of the war In Sicily. He took Leontini, massacring in cold blood
2,000 Roman dcsoiters whom he found there, and then advanced against Jjyracusc*. which
he triad to storm. All his efforts were rendered unavailing by the skill of Archimedes
(ay.), ,and he was compelled to regtilarly blockade the city. Famine, pestilence, and
tiltimately treachery on the part of the Spanish auxiliaries of the Syracusans. enabled
Mjircellns to mai^e lilmself mtister of the place (213 «.c ). after which the remainder of
Sicily was soon brouirht imder the dnminion of the Rom ms. He was the first Roman
gen^ who adopted the practice (afterwards po common) of despoiling conquered cities of
their works of art. In 210 B c. he was again ronsid, and was again opposed to Hannibal,
with whom he foas^ht an indecisive baitle at Nunnstrr), in Ln<*:inia. and by whom he was
defeatai at Cannsinm. in Apnli»i. in 209 B.c . but on the day following retrieved the
defeat. In 206 b.c. he was for the fifth time elected to tiie consulate, and ass
Digitized by ^
Blarcion. *^^
more the oommaad of the Roman army against Hannibal. When out reoonnoitenAgODe
day he fell into an ambuscade, and was slain. The Carthaginian gen. treated his remains
with honor. It ought to be noticed that the accounts of Marcellus's life given by Lfvy,
Plutarch, and others, are believed to be very much colored and distorted— as Polybius,
one of the best and most trustworthy authorities on the Punic war, denies that he ever
defeated Hannibal at all!
KABCH, the first month of the Roman year, and the third according to our nresent
calendar, consists of 81 days. It was considered as the first month of the year m Eng-
land until the change of style in 1753, and the legal year was reckoned from Mar. 25.
Tlie Anglo-Saxons called it Hlpd monath, stormy month, and Hraed mancUh, ru^eed
month. There is an old proverb, still used by the EDglish and Scotch rustics, u'bich
represents March as borrowing three days from April; and io Ths Oompla^ cfSwiand
they are thus described;
The first it shall be wind and weet;
Tbe next it shall be snaw and sleet;
The third it shall be sic a freeze
Shall gar the birds stick to the trees.
But it is disputed whether these " borrowed days" are the last three of March or the lint
three of April.
MABCH, a musical composition, chiefly for military bands, with wind instrumenta,
intended to accompany the marching of troops. There are slow and quick marches, aUo
marches peculiar to different countries.
MABGE, a market t. of Cambridgeshu*e, England, 29 m. n. from Cambridge, on both
sides of the Old Ken, which is here navigable for boats, and on the East Anglian railway-.
There is a junction of five railways at ^urch. . There Is a large square market-place in
the center of the town, and a splendid court-house, in which the meetings of the Middle
level drainage commissioners are held. Pop. 71, 5,854. In the neighborhood is March
wet fen, a drained fen with an area of 3,600 acres, from which the water is pumped oil
by steam-engines.
MARCH, or Mora'wa, a river in Austria, rising in Moravia, flowing 8.e., and then
S.W., separating Hungary from Moravia, during a part of its course, and entering the
Danube 8 m. w. of Prasburg. It is navigable for 50 m. from the Danube.
MARCH, Alden, ll.d., 1795-1869; b. Mass.; studied medicine at Boston and at
Brown university, where he received a degree in 1820. He practiced surgerv for man^
years at Albany, N. Y. He was one of the founders of the city hospital and the medi-
cal college at Albany, professor of surgery in the Utter, and president of the American
medical association.
MARCH, Auras, d. about 1462; a Yalencian poet, the date of whose birth is
unknown; a disciple but not an imitator of Petrarch, and among the first poets of the
^15th century. His productions are remarkable for force and delicacy, as well as for
'loftiness of poetic conception. The early editions of his works, published in the 16th
c, are now very rare; but a more complete edition, based upon them, was •published at
Barcelona in 1864
MARCH, Charles W., 1815-64; b. Portsmouth, N. H.; graduated at Harvard col-
lege in 1887; practiced law in Portsmouth, and was a member of the legislature. Sub-
sequently he removed to New York, and became a writer for the Tribune and the Timet,
and a correspondent of the Boston Courier. He was also for a time vice-consul at Cairo.
He publisheid Daniel Webster and his Contemporaries, or Beminiaeenees qf Congress;
Sketches and Adventures in Madeira, Portugal, and the Andalusias of Spain.
MARCH, Fraitcis Andrew, ll.d., b. Mass., 1825; graduated at Amherst collegu
in 1845, where he was tutor 1847-4^; was admitted to the bar in New York in 1850;
taught school at Predericksburff, Va. . 1852-56; appointed tutor in Lafayette college
1855; adjunct professor 1856, ana in 1858 professor of the English language and com-
parative philology; received the de^ee of ll.d. from the college of New Jersey in 1870,
and from Amherst in 1871 ; elected m 1878 president of the American philological asso-
ciation. His contributions to the tranf^actions of that society and of the national educa-
tional association on philological subjects have been numerous. He has written also for
the Jahrbuch fUr Romaniselie und Englische Uterat^r in Berlin. To the Princeton Sefstf^
he has contributed articles on jurisprudence and psychology. He has published A MeOkod
of Philological Study of the English Language; Parser and Analyzer for Beginners; Anglo-
Saxon Qrammar; An Introduction to Anglo-Saxoii; Grammar, Beader, etc. He has also
edited a series of text-books of the Greek and Latin Christian writers, of which Latin
Hymns and Bhmbius have been issued. His rank among American philologists is very
high.
MARCHAND, John B., b. Penn., 1808; entered the U. S. navy in 1828; was made
lieut. in 1840, commander in 1855, capt. in 1862, and commodore in 1866. He took
gart in the Seminole and Mexican wurs, and in the war for the union, distlnguishhig
imself in the latter at the battle of Mobile bay, Aug. 5, 1864^ where lie commanded the
Lackawanna, He retired in 1870.
Digitized by VjOtiV IC
481
MAMWAW'TIA, a genus of hepaiica (q.y.)> the type of a sub-order distinguished by
the spore-cas^s bursting irres[ularly. and the spores being mixed with ekters. by some
botanists elevated into a distmct order. Several species are natives of Britain, some of
which are very common in moist shady situations, covering rocks, earth, etc., with their
spreading green licheu-Iike fronds.
MAXOHEVAf a t. of Spain, in (he province of Sevillo, and 88 m. o.s.e. of the city of
that name, in a district ricn in corn and olives. In the vicinity are sulphur baths, to
which many invalids resort Pop. 11,600.
XA3USHB8, the boundaries between England and Scotland, also between England
and Wales. See Mark.
KAXCHB8, in Scotch law, mean the boundaries of property. By an ancient Scotch
statute, one proprietor can compel an adjoining proprietor to join him in erectine a
mutual fence, or to bear half the expense thereof. No such power exists in Englancf or
in Ireland.
MARCHES, The, a central division of the Italian kingdom, compriiring tlie prov-
inccs of Ancona, AscoH-Piceno, Mascerata, Pesaro, and Urbino; 8.751 sq.m.; pop.
915,419. The district is bounded on the c. by the Adriatic sea, and on the w. and n.w.
by the Apennines. It is traversed by the rivers Potenza, Fofflia, and one or two smHtler
streams. The name is derived from the Italian maree. The most important city is
Ancona^ a sea-port on the Adriatic, 183 m. n.e. of Rome, and of very ancient oriffitft;
pop. 43.741, Great part of the country is mountainous, but not unfertile. The cbief
articles of export are fruit, oil, nuts, grain, and wool. Pesaro, tbe capital of Pesaro and
Urbino, n. of Ancona, pop. 20,000. is supposed to be of Petasgian origin, and had a
bishop as early as 2-')l a.d. It is a sea-port town, and has a very considerable commercial
trade. The cuthedmls of lx)th Pesaro and Macerata are of great interest, and tlie whole
district is noted for its public buildings, mosaics, and works of art. An account of the
separate provinces will be found under the appropriate heads.
MARCHE'SI, PoMFEO, 1790-1858; b. Italy; a sculptor, the pupil of Canoya,and
afterwards professor in the academy of fine arts.^ His masterpiece is "The Celebration of
Good Friday," a marble group in the church of S. Carlo in Milan, and his other most
noteworthy works are statues of the emperor Francis of Beccaria, and Bellini, and the
Goethe statue in the public library of Frankfort.
MABOBIH 0, one of the first necessities to distinguish a body of disciplined troops
from a mere crowd of men, is a regular cadenced step, taken by eveiy individual at the
same time and with the same foot The necessity of this for harmonious action is
obviona. The ancient Roman legions had military music to beat time for their march.
In the feudal ages, when infantry fell into disrepute, cadenced marching was unattended
to, and seems only to have been thoroughly revived by marshal Saxe. The best music
for a march is found to be some simple tune, such as can readily be performed by drums
and fifes. The music, besides preserving the time, acts as a preventative of fatigue.
In the British service there are the slow march of 76 paces, each of 80 in., in a minute
— Kmly used on parade; the quick march, of 110 paces, m which all evolutions are per-
formed; and the double-quick, of 150 running paces, with the knees raised high. This
last cannot be sustained for any great distance, and is employed in a charge, or in sud-
denly occupying a hill or some commanding position, and in a few sbort internal move-
ments of regiments.
CouviermarcJiing is an evolution by wliich a body of men diange front, and at the
same time retain the same men in tbe front rank. The movement being represented
b^ "right face, quick march, left wheel, forward, halt, front, dress.'* On the ssme prin-
ciple, a whole army will sometimes chanee front. If after the countermarch the order
"rear-face" be given, the same front will be preserved, with the rear-rank in front, and
what was previously the right now serving as the left A rear-rank may also become
a front-rank by merely countermarching round the end of the latter, which remains
stationary.
XABGIAHI'BIy a t of the Italian province of Caserta (Terra di Lavoro), situated 18 m.
n. of Naples, in a low unhealthy plain, in the midst of several lakes. Pop. *72, 9,400.
HABdOV, the founder of the Mardonites, an extremely ascetic Gnostic sect, was the
aon of a bishop of Sinone in Pontus. In his earlier vears he was a sailor or ahip-master.
Bdng excommunicated *l^ his father, on account of his heretical opinions, he went to
Rome about 140 a.d. He made several anxious efforts to obtain a reconciliation with
the Cfttholic church, for he does not appear to have loved schism; but his restless, pry-
ing, theorising intdlect constantly l&i him into opinions and practices too hostile to
those of his fellow-Christians to permit of their beins passed over in silence. After his
final excommunication, he associated himself with tbe S3rrinn Gnostic Cordon, and founded
a system, in some respects, quite antagonistic to Christianity. The gospel of Christ,
according to him; consisted in free love of the good; the Mosaic system, with its motives
of rewards and punishments, was mere legality; and there is as irreconcilable an opposi-
tion between the respective authors of the "Law" and the "Gospel,'* i.e., the Creator,
on the one hand, and the God of the Christians, on the other, as there is between these
two works. His system is but imperfectly known; and it is suppqi^l^^have assumed
U. K. IX.-81
M»rcomj|iinl. 4.^9
Hare. tk}^
either three or four aborig:inal beings— Qood, Evil, Creator, and Matto*. BeeOHWncflL
liespecting the outward form of wonihip practiced among his followers, little is known savo
that it had great similarity — as had their whole religious system — to that of the Manidueaus
(q. v.). Marcion entirely rejected the Old Testament; and of the New Testament all hut a
few epistles and the gospel of St. Luke, which had also to undergo certain changes from
his hand. The first four chapters were omitted, a!nd the fifth he began with tm voids:
"In the 15th year of t|ie reign of Tiberius Csesar, God came to Capernaum, a city of
Galilee, and spoke on the Sabbath." The MarcioniVes subsisted as a distinct party till
the 6th a, ana were diffused through Syria, Egypt^ Palestine, etc. Tertullian andolhera
wrote against them.
MARCOMA.N'NI. an ancient Gterman people who, in the time of Gnsar, lived ahmg
the banks of the Rhine, but afterwards, as appears from Tacitus and Strabo, settled in
Bohemia, from which the^ expelled the Boii. Their king, Marolioduus, entered into an
alliance with the tribes living around them to defend Germany against the Ronuins.
The combined forces of the alliance numbere<l 70,000 men. and the emperor Tiberius
signed a trcatv with them in 6 a.d. ; but the Marconiannic alliance was beaten 11 yearg
later by tlie Ctienisci and their allies, and iu 19 the Gothic Catualda drove Maroboduus
from the throne, and himself usurped the sovereignty. But he was soon overthrown,
and the native dynasty established, under whose rule the Marcomaoni extended their ter-
ritory up to the Danube, till their encroachments idarmed the Romans, who attacked them
in the time of Domitian. This war, which subsided for a time in the reigns of Trajan
and Hadriap, broke out again under Marcus Aurelius, and was carried on with bitterness
from 160 to 180, when it was ended by the peace of Commodus. The Marcomanni con-
tinued to make raids into the provinces of Noricum and Rhsetia, and in 270 invaded Italy
as far as Anoona. From this time they are little heard of; and their identity finally dis-
appears among the followers of Attila.
MARCO POLO. See Polo, ante,
MAitCOU, Jui/ES. b. in Sallns, France, 1824; educated in Pftrls. He wM compan-
ion and pupil of Germain, Tliurmain. and^Agassiz in their studies in the Alps in 1844-46,
and in the latter year published his Recherches OSologique »ur le Jura SaHnai*. In 1847 he
had charge of the classification paleontolog^ical of the museum. In 1849 he visited the
United States and made ffi>ological explorations with Agassiz and others. In 1858-^ lie
was employed by the United States government in geological surveys in tbe IMky
mountains and California. In 1855 he became professor of geology at Zmidi. Iu 1860
he returned to the United States to study fossiliferous formations. His works ara nume^
ous. Those on the geology of the Jura mountains were Ids first and last; white of trea-
tises on the geology of the "United States and Canada, and especially of the geologto pecu-
liarities of the Rocky mountains and California, his axe among the h^^Mst Fnnch
authorities.
MARCUS THB Hbrbsiabch, a Gnostic philosopher of the 2d century. Keandcr
tliinks he was bom in Palestine; Jerome, tliat he was an Egyptian . Irenseus and otiicrs
of the fathei'S say that he was very licentious. Neander m his Church history has the
following account of him: " Marcus set forth his system in a poem, in which he intro-
duced the divine iESons discoursing iu llturdcal forms, and with goreeous s3rmboU of
worship. After the fashion of tlie Jewish cabala, he di6Covere<i special mvsteries in the
numbers and positions of letters. The idea of a logos tou ontos, of a * wora ' manifesting
the hidden divine essence in the creation, was spread out by him into the most subtle
details; the entire creation being in his view a continuous utterance of the ineffable."
MARCUS AURELIUS. See Antoninub, ante.
MARCY. MotJNT, one of the Adirondack mountains, in Eeene, Essex co., N. Y.,
6,467 ft. high. It was known to the Indians as TahawwB, the '*cioud*divider.'*
MARCY, Erastus E., b. at Greenwich, Mass., Dec. 9, 1815; graduated at Amherst
in 1837, and at the Jefferson medical college in Philadclpliu in 1840. He began the
pmcticc of medicine as an allopathist, but after a few years adopted the hmneopiilhic
doctrines, and settled in New York, whei« lie met with great success. He wrote extea*
sively on medieal and chemical subjects, edited for many years the I7omeoiwiki$ Jenr-
nal; published l^he Theory and Praetke of Mtdieine, and Homeopathy ««. AW/pnthy,
which were translated into foreign langmgea and republialied in Europe, lie also edited
Hahnemann's Lentr WrUings.
MARCY, Randolph B., b. Mass., about 1811; graduated at West Point in 1888.
and wtis appointed lieut. 2d infantry in 1887; served in the war with Mexico, and was
promoted to a captaincv; upon the conclusion of that war. was successively enira|red in
explorations 'in the Reef river country, in operations against the Seminoles, and in tlie
Utah expedition of 1857-^; was appointed paymaster, with the rank of major, in 1850*
and inspector-gen., with the mnk of col , in 1861; was chief of staff to gen. McClelian
(his son-in-lrtw) in West Virginia, on the peninsula, and in Maryland ; and was made
biig.cen. of volunteers Sept. 23, 1861. He has publishefl KrptoraH&n of the Bid River;
Tm Prairie traveler/ and PersoruU BecoUectians, His residence is on Orange moun-
tain, K. J. Digitized by VjUUV IC
483 mSSI*"*'*'^^
MAR(T7,WitxiAM Lbarhbd, 1786-1857; b. Southbridge, Mass. In 1806, «fter gmd-
nflttngfrom Brown university, be taugbl school for a sbort time, Imt soon entered upoi^
tbe pntciiceof law at Troy, N, Y. At tlie opening of ibc war of 1812 lie entered iba
TolmifMsr service as a lieiit., and Oct. 22. 1812. led the ntUick upon 8t. Kc|ris, a Camidiun
post, stormed the lloclc-liouse, and captured the tirst ting ami prisoners taken on land
mthe war. At tlje close of tbe war be returned to Troy, wbere lie was for ^oine time
editor of tbe Budget, nu anti-federalist daily paper. After filling several minor offlcesy
be w:i8 made an associate-Justice of tlie New York supnme court in It^; in 1881 be
wtsciecunl senator of tbe Uuiteil States liy tlie democratic party, but n.^8igiiod tbe office
upoD Ix'ing cbosen governor of New York in 1832 Tbis poi>itiou be bold for tbree
temtf, Iml in 1888 was defeated by Willuim II. Seward. He was appointed a commis-
Moneroa Mexican claims in the same year, and served in tbnt capacity until 1842. In
lliM3 lie became the secretary of war in Polk's cabinet. Uis ability in this position was
severi'ly testeti by the Mexican war, and it was generally acknowledged that in tbe con-
duct of that conflict be displayed much energy and diplomatic adroitness. Tbe last
him] mf»t important public station in which be served was that of secretary of state in
Pierces administration, 1858-^7. Among tbe foreign compliaitions or treaties which
denmodcd bis action in tbis c:ipacity were the Oregon question, the ac(^nisition of Ari-
loua and settling of tbe Mexican bouudury, tbe Canadian reciprocity treaty, com-
mwioru Perry's negotiations with Japan, the British fishery dispute, and the Ostend
cjiifcrence. In nearly all of these and other questions Marcy successfully defended tlie
isterestt of his country; and in all be displayed tbe qualities of a trained statesman
aad aa-ompiisbed diplomat. Tbe most notalile of bis dipk>matic cori*e6pondence was
theserk'sof letters in tbe case of Martin Kossta, a Hungarian, who, after declaring in
New York bis intention of becoming an Ammcan citizen, was detained by tbe Austrian
rower at Smyrna, and released by capt. iDgralmm (q.v.) of the U. S. navy. Mr. '
Marcv's deatb occun«d but a few months after tbo expiration of bis term of office, at
Ikilsion 8p«, K. Y.
MARDI 6RAS (literally fat Tuesdny), the French designation for what is known
fisBltmve Tuesday in tbe calendar of tlie Enghsli church, tlie festival held upon the
Tnesday preceding Ash Wednesday, the first day of Lent; witli the exception of
Mi-C'nr0me or mid-Lent Thursday, the last of the prolonged festivities known as the
caroivaL It is most extensively celebrated in Rome and Paris. In the latter it has
been tbe custom for many centuries to lead in pix>cession a fat or prize ox (bosufgrM^
vbeoce Mardiffrtu), followed in a triumphnl car by a child called tbo butcliers' king.
Tbe eel ire day and night is spent in the wildest revelry, sometimes degenerating into
uDiTstniincd license. In the united States the only celebration of Mardi gras worthy of
noie is tiiat of New Orleans, where the first display was given in 1857, and since *^tbe
nd of tiie war the oijservanoe has been carried out with great nomp and splendor. For
tlie preceding week the gayety has been universal, and on Marai gras the wliole city is
iiinied over to the rule of king Kex, who entera the gates on the previous day. On
Tuesday the mimic monarch passes through tbe streets, escorted liy bis body-guard,
the "iiiyslic krewe of Comus," knights of Momus. and various military and visiting
oi^Dizii'tions. To him are confided the gates of the city; minor police regulations are
suspended, and until the dawn of Ash "Wednesday the air is filled with music ; in every street
are liense throusrs of merry-makers, and the glare of illuminations. In the evening
recurs the great street paKenut of the mystic krewe of Comus, in which are displayed
e:<iborate tableaux, placed on moving platforms and brilliantly illuminated. These rep-
Hi!fDt noted scena? of history, poetry, or fiction, and are constructed at great expense
and with artistic elegance. All the arrangements of the parades and accompanying balls
are under the control of societies composed of the most noted professional and business
men of the city. The observance is gaining ground also in Memphis, Tenn.
XABDnf', a considerable t. of Asiatic Turkey, Is strikingly situated, at an eleva-
tion of 2,3«K) ft., on the southern slopes of the IViardin hills (anciently Mt. Masiiis),' 57
m, &e. of Diarbekir. It contains numerous mosques, bnzaars, and baths, and the ruins
of an old castle. Tbe ornaments in arahesque on the gates of the citadel are said to be
finer than those of the Alhambra. Pop. about 15,000, of whom the half are Moslem
Knrds, and the other half Chaldeans, Maronites, and Jacobites (q.v.), and who carry
on mnnnfactures of linen and cotton fabrics, and of leather. During the decline of
the CAliphHte of Bagdad, Mardin rose to considerable importance, and was for a long
time tlie caipital of a principality under a branch of the Ayubites (descendants of Salab-
«Wln). btit its short-lived glory was soon after quenched by the advancing tide of the
UonsoU. It was subsequently taken by Timur.
XABSE', Loch, in the w. of Ross-shire, Scotland, is 18 m. in length, with a breadth
▼arying from 1 1o 8 m., and a depth, in some places, of 60 fathoms. Owing to its great
depth, it never frvczea over its whole extent. It is surrounded l»y mountain-scenery
'fhich. for wildness and grandeur, is not excelled in Scotland. Its waters are CJirried
olf to the sea by the river Ewe, 2 m. in len^h. Tbe loch contains numerous islets, one
of which cont^uns tbe remains of an ancient chapel, with a grave-ynrd.
MARE ISLAND, in Solano co.. Cal., off the bay of S. Pablo. It has a 1
JMd, an arsenal, and a floating dock. o^^zed by ^
KABEIC'ICA (corrupted from Marittlma, situated on the sea), a yast marsby it^n of
w. Ittily, extending ulong the sea-coast of Tuscany, from the mouth of the Oeciaa ta
Orbitello, nud embraciug an area of 997 sq. miles. The Pontine marshes aiidthe Oun-
pagna of Uoine are similar districts. Formerly, these niaremme were fruitful and pop-
ulous plains; but neglect of tlie water-courses of the district allowed the formation vf
marshes; and now they have become generator of tertiary fevers, and present an a&pect
of dreary desolation in the summer ninths, wlien the inhabitants flee from their mias-
muta, prejudicial alilie to man and beast. Leopold II., the late grand duke of Tuscany,
directed especial attention to the drainage ana amelioration of the Tuscan maremme,
and considerable success attended their being largely planted, trees bein^ a correciiveof
their malarious effects. From 1838 to 1848 the cost of the drainage of the maremna
was £581,000. The arable laud in the vicinity of the maremma is exuberantly fertile:
but the harvests are gathered by hired laborers in the most infected diBtricts, and in their
emacbited and livid features may be seen the fatal action of malaria. During winter the
maremma is inhabitable, and yields good pasture.
MAREN'CO, Carlo, 1800-48; b. Piedmont; studied law at Turin, where he gradu-
ated in 1818. He soon turned his attention to literature, and won a considerable repu-
tation In 1828 by a drama called Bondelmonie. Uis posthumous works were published
at Florence in 1856, as Tragedie Inedite. His most popular wotk, perhaps, is La Fami-
fflia Bbscari,
MARENGO, a co. of w. Alabama, traversed by the Arkansas Midland railroad, and
drained by the Tombigbce and Black Warrior rivers, the first forming tlie w. lx>Qadary;
975 sq.m.; pop. 70, 26,151— 20,058 colored. The soil is extremely fertile, the sUples
being cotton, Indian corn, and sweet-potatoes; of cotton, 28,614 bales were raised ia
1870: and of Indian com, nearly 600,000 bushels. Butter is also a staple, and the
county is well stocked with horses, cattle, and swine. Chief town, Linden.
KABEH'GO, a village of northern Italy, in the province of Alessandria, situated ofsr
the Bormida, in the midst of extensive forests. Marengo was ttie scene of a memonble
battle, in which a French army, commanded by Bonaparte, and numbering eomewbat
more than 20,000, defeated and routed 82,000 Austriana, under gen. Melaa, on June li
1800.
MARENHOLZ-BULOW (Bertha ton Bttlow), Baroness, for many years an advo-
cate and expounder of the principles of the kindergartner system of education for youirg
children. Blie was intimately acquainted with Frederick Froebel, the founder of the
system, obtained a thorough knowledge of it from him, and introduced the schools in
nearly all the countries of Europe, and In England. In Berlin she sustained a normal
school for three years, where teachers of kindergartens were educated, and has since
been lecturer in the Dresden college of the same kind. She has printed several
pamphlets and lectures on the subject, such as The Kindergarten and The Child and it»
Being.
KABEO'TIS, or KABEIA, Lakb, the modem Birket-el-MarvCM, a salt lake or marsh
in the n. of Egypt, extends southward from the city of Alexandria, and is sepa-
rated from the Sfediterranean, on its n.w. side, by a narrow isthmus of sand. In ancient
times its length was about 42 m., its breadth about 22. Its shores were planted with
olives and vines, and the papyrus, which grew upon its banks and on its eight islets,
was famous for its fine quality. In more recent times, the canals which fed lake Mareo*
tis were neglected, and its depth and area were much reduced. In the 18th c. the bed
had become, in great part, a sandy waste; but in 1801, during the war between the Eng-
lish and French, the sea was let in by the former, and it is now again a marshy lake.
The passage by which the sea found entrance was subecquently closed up by Mehemcd
Ali. The present dimensions of the lake are about 27 m. long by 25 m. broad.
MARESCH, J. A.. 1709-94; a Bohemian by birth; but the greater part of his life was
spent in the Russian service. He was a musician and made great improvements in the
construction of the Russian horn, an unbent brass ^ tube of conical shape. In 1755 he
gave an exhibition before the imperial court, when' a band of 87 men, furnished with
horns varyine from 7 f( et to 1 foot in length, produced concerted pieces, each being
carefully drilled to sound his own instrument at precisely the proper insbint. For the
skill and dexterity disp]aye<1 in this rather ludicrous performance Maresch was rich)/
rewarded by the empress ElizabPth.
M ARET. HEiiKT Louts Charles, b. Franco, 1804. As a priest of the seminary of
Snipice, Paris, he distinguished himself in 1869 by joining a group of French bishopi
and theologians who pronounced squarely against the do^ma of the infallibility of the
pope, then'just proclaimed officially from Rome. He wrote i>M Ctmdle ginSrak a book
which showed the absurdity of the claim from a standpoint within the church. This
brought down upon him the anathemas of the pope's party and its organs, thougli the
archbishops of Paris, Orleans, and Besan^on were quite of the same opinion as Mnrct
But in 1871 Marct made a complete surrender, and declared to the pope that he '* regretted
everything which he had said in that work." He has lieen a large contributor to Knmaa
Catholic reviews since 1886. His works on the relations of religion and philosophy ars
numerous. Digitized by VjUUVLC
485
ItARBT, Ht}Gins8 Bbbkabd. See Babbako, ante.
MARET, £tibnnb Jules, b. at Beaune, France, 1880; educated as a physician. In
1860 be went to Paris; in 1860 opened a school of experimenUU physiology and gave a
free course of instruction the following year on the circulation oT the blood and the
diagnosis of the diseases of the heart andMts vessels. In 1864 he founded a laboratory
of physiology in the rue de VAncUnne Oomedie in Paris; in 1867 succeeded Flourens as
assistant professor of natural history in the college of France; and subseqeuntly has
filled many positions of honor in Paris and elsewhere. The study of animal heat, of
muscular and nervous action in connection with the movements of tlie heart, electrical
phenomena, and tiie study of the effects of various poisons have been bis specialties.
His works are mostly contributions to medioal magazines and reviews, and he has pub-
lished the following volumes: Beiherches sur la CireukUion du Banff d Ntdt $ain et dane lee
Maladiee, 1859, 4to; PhysMogieMediealedelaGirculatwn du Sang. 1868, 8vo; Etudee Pkpe-
ieUfffiqueemrleeCaractengrapMquedeeBaUementdu Oobuk etdeelfauvemenieBeepiratairee,
1865, 8vo; Du Mouvement danelee FoncUone de la Vie, 1867, 8vo; etc.
HARFOm, Cablos, b. Italy, 1820; entered the Spanish civil service, and became a
favorite of queen Isabella. He was an intimate friend of Narvaez, who originally intro-
duced him to favor, and when Narvaez took office in 1866, Marfori became governor of
Madrid and chief of the royal household. He was an object of hatred to the people, but
remained in high favor with the queen, who refused to dismiss him, and, since the revo-
lutioQ by which she lost the crown, he has continued to be the chief of her household.
KABOABBT, sometimes called the "Northern Semiramis," queen of the triple Scan-
dinavian kingdom of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, was the second daughter of Val-
demar III., king of Denmark, and wife of Hakon YIII., king of Norway. Margaret was
bora In 1333. and on the death of her father, without direct male heirs, in 1875, the
Danish nobles, passing over the son of Yaldemar's eldest daughter, Ingebors of Meek*
lenlMUg, offered the crown to Marsaret and her husband in trust for their Infant son
(Mjif, By the death of Hakon in 1380. Margaret becama sole guardian of the young
priaee, who died at the age of 17 in 1387; and such was the discretion with which she
had conducted the government during her sole regency, that the estates of both king-
doms concurred in electing her as their Joint sovereign ruler. Having received the
crown at their hands, she convoked a land&ing, in which she announced that, with the
concurrence of her subjects, she would nominate her grand-nephew, Eric of Pomernnia,
as her successor; and although, owing to Eric's infancy at tlie time, and his subsequent
incapacity, the real power rested in the hands of Margaret, she contented herself from
that time with the title of *' Margaret, by the grace of God, daughter of Valdemar, kin^
of Denmark." At the moment that Margaret was cementing the union of Norwav and
Denmark, the condition of affairs in Sw^en opened the way for a further extension of
her power; for the Swedish king, Albert of Mecklenburg, had so thorouglily alienated
the affections of his subjects, tnat the nobles, declaring the throne vacant, offered to
acknowledge Margaret as their ruler. The queen lost no time in sending an army into
Sweden to support her pretensions, and defeated the king's German troops at Leaby,
where Albert and his son Eric fell into her hands. Albert remained in prison seven
years, during which time Margaret succeeded in wholly subjugatine^Sweden ; and in
1397 she made her triumphal entry into Stockholm, with her nephew Eric, who shortly
afterwards was, in his 16th year, crowned king of the three Scandinavian kingdoms.
On this occasion, Margaret brought forward tne memorable act of union, which she
had drawn up with her own hand, and to which were appended the signatures of seven-
teen of the principal men In the three kingdoms. Bv this remarkable act, known as the
union of Calmar. from the place at which it was signed and first promulgated, it was
stipulated that the three kingdoms should remain forever at peace under one king,
retaining their own laws and customs; and that, at the death of the sovereign, if he left
several sons, one of their number should be chosen by the combined estates of the three
realms, who were also to elect a new king in the event of liie deceased monarch having
died childiesB. This Utopian scheme utterly broke down at the death of Margaret, which
took place in 1413.
MARGARET (Marib MAROtmRiTB Th^r^bb Jbaiote dk Sayoib), queen of Italy,
b. 1851 ; daughter of Ferdinand, prince of Savoy; was married April ^, 1868. to Hum-
bert, hereditary prince of Savoy, prince royal, and prince of Piedmont The latter suc-
ceeded his fattier, Victor Emmanuel I., as king of Italy, Jan. 0, 1878, and Margaret
aaeended the throne with him as aueen of Italy. She is amiable, cultivated, and the
idol of her people. With a cuHurea taste and exquisite tact, she has a rare sweetness of
disposition, and is almost idolized by the Italian people.
MARGARET of ANGOULEME. See Margubritb db Vaix)ib, ante.
HAS0ABBT OF AVJOTT. wife of Henry Y I. of England, and daughter of Ren6 of
AnJou, the titular king of Sicily, and of Isabella of Lorraine, was b. at Pont-ft-Mousson,
in Lorraine, Mar., 1425. She was married to Henry YI. of England in 1445; and her
husband being a person of very weak character, she exercised an almost unlimited
authority over him, and was the virtual sovereign of the realm; but a secret contract
at her marriage, by which Maine and AnJou were relinquished to the French, excited
Maiipiret. AQit
IXkifVilerlte. **»^
^reat dissntisfaction in England. Tljie strife between the Sn^lsh and Fnmcb, yrMtt kek
lo tlic tormer the whole of tlieir possessions iu France except Calais, was clmrgeduixHi
Hargiutit. In 1450 occurred the insurrection of Jack Cade, and soon after iIn; countiy
was plunged iu Uie horrors of tliat bloody civil war known as the Wars cf t/ie Hosea <q.t.).
After a struggle of nearly 20 years, Margaret was defeated and taken prisoner at Tewkesl
bury, and iinprisoued in the Tower, where she remained five years, till Lcmj* XL
redeemed her lor 50,000 crowns. She then retired lo France, and died at the chftteau of
Dampierre, near Saumur, in Anjou, Aug. 25, 1482.
MARGARET op AUSTRIA, 1440-1530; b. in Brussels; daughter of Mnxunilinn I,
emperor of Austria, and of Mary of Burgundy; remarkable for her domestic misfortunes.
auU her wisdom as ruler and iu diplomacy. While an infant she was by the treaty or
Arras affianced to the dauphin of France, afterwards Charles VIII., but the contnici waa
not tilled. In 1495, by a treaty with Ferdinand and Isiibella of Spain, she wus n.irula
engaged to prince John of the Asturias, heir to the Spanish throne. On htr way to
Spain to marry him, iu tiie midst of a storm at sea, supposing they would be wrudud,
she had the amiable pleasantry to write her own epitaph in these words:
Ci-git Maiig^ot, la geote demoiselle,
Qu eut deux maris, et si morut pucelle.
But she married prince John nevertheless in 1497. He died the same ycnr and she
returned in 1499 to the Netherlands. In 1501 she married Philibert, duke of Savoy, wlio
died without issue in 1504, after a happy married life with her. On the dcjith of lier
brother Philip in 1506 her father the emperor made her regent of the Nelherl^mls, and
gave her charge of the education of her nephew, the future Charles V. of Ckrmany, and
is sister Mary. She assumed the government, exhibited administrative talent of a high
order; assisted as plenipotentiary in the conference of Cambnii in 1508, and conclude*!
tlie treaty with cardinal Am boise; brought the king of England to league n^inat France
in 1515; and negotiated witli Louise of Savoy the peace of 1529, called the Pcujd des Bama,
These were but the more showy events of her government. Her real title to most hon-
orable mention in history is derived from the wisdom of the peaceful measures of her
government, which brought the .agriculture, the commerce, and the arts of the Nether-
lands to a high degree of prosperity. Margaret was the author of numerous unpnbHshed
poetical effiisions. Her Correspondence aveo son Pere was p|ublished in Paris in 1889 in
two 8vo volumes. '*
MARGARET op AUSTRIA, Duchess of Parma. Regent of the Netherlands; 1532-88;
b. in Brussels; daughter of Charles V. without marriage by Margtierite van Gest of the
Netherlands. In 1585 slie married Alexander, duke of Florence, who died in 1537; and in
1538 uiarried Octave Farnese, who became (luke of Parma and of Plai^^ancc. She Nvas
appointed by Philip II. in 1559 to govern the Netherlands, and followed (he system
oi her gretU predecessor of the same name in softening the aspeiities of conflicting par-
ties in the government, and moderating the execution of the terrible religloas edicts of
Philip II. The latter refusing t) modify his persecutions under the inquisition, an
insurrection broke out in 1566. While she manifested great energy in repressing it, she
did all in her power to pi*event the cruelties of Spanish religious intolerance towards
those who took part in it. But no sooner was order re-established than Philip II. sent
the duke of Alva with full power to complete the work in the spirit of the inquisition,
and placed in Jiis hands the powers with which she had been invested. She ieft the
country to become the butchering-ground of religious persecution, and rejoined her
husband in Itnly, where she passed the remainder of her life. She wjis of masculloe
tein[^rament, loved the chase, was a natural politician, gifted with a supple sagacity that
suited itscK to the occasion, and with views of statesmanship several centuries iu advauoe
of those of Spanish rulers.
KABOABET, Saint, Queen of Malcolm Canmore (q.v.).
MABaA'BIC ACID (0.4H„0|. HO) is one of the solid fatty acids. At an ordiDniy
temperature it is solid, white, and crystalline; it Is perfectly insoluble in wafer, dis-
solves in lioiling nicohol. from which it separates in glistening groups of very delicate
needles, and is readily sqluble in ether. It unites with bases, forming margsirstes, and
in combination with glycerine (q.v.) forms the glyceride or fat known as margarine.
This acid occurs cither in a free state or in combination with nikalies in mo^ of tlie
animal fluids, with the exception of the urine, and as a glyceride it is widely diffused in
the r.nimal and vegetable fats. Heintz maintains that this acid is merely a mixture of
about ten parts of palmitic add (q.v.) with one part of stearic acid (q.v.). Margauine
const it utes the solid ingredient in human fat, biuter, goose grease, olive oil, elc.
KAB0ABI'TA, or Nxteva Sfarta, an island in the Caribbean sea. tielonging to
Venezuela. Area. 440 sq.m. ; pop. 21,000. Discovered by Columbus in 1488, JAarg^rita
was long famous for its pearl-flsheries.
MAR'GARITE, or Pearl Mica, called also corundellite, clingmnnitc, and pearl-
glimmer, one of the hydrous silicates, belonging to the chlorite section. It crystivlifes
in the trimetric system, usually in intersecting or aggregated laminae; sometimes massive
with scaly fracture. Analysis by J. Lawrence Smith of a specimen from the island of
Naxos gave: silica, 80.02; alumma, 49.52; peroxide of hro^ \^\, ^^B^ij^^^'ii'"'^^^
Ol46:t)C<teilL^fU)d soda^ 1.86; water, 5.^ per cent The miiiaTal occurs in chlorite rocks
tft Sterling in the Tyrol; associated with emery in Asia Minor and in the Grecian
CPChipeliigo, as discovered by Dr. Smith; with corundum at Village Grevu, Delaware
00;, Henn. ; at Uuionvillo, Chester go., Penn.; with corundum in Buncombe oo., N. C;
and at Katberiuenburg in the Ural mountains. A variety culled diphdutie contains pro-
toiide ol manganese, &<»ociated with iron.
MARQARITONE D'AREZZO, 131&-89; b. Arezzo, Italy. He executed many pic-
tures both in fresco and distemper. Of the former, on wood and on copper, the mt>Bt cele-
bmtcd specimens were in the church of San Clemente, and a woric executed for lh« nuns
of Santa Margarita. But that which Vasari calls one of his masterpieces, '* on which
be placed his name," was a '* San Francesco," painted for the convent of the friars de'
Zoccoti at Sargiano, which still exists, with his own inscription, Margrit, 40 AreUo fdnge-
hat. He \b said to have excelled more as a sculptor than as a painter. His masterpiece
of art was a reclining statue in marble of pope Gregory X. in the cathedral of Arezzo,
which is still in good preservation. .
XAXGATS, a municipal borough, seaport, and famous watering-plaoe of England, in
the isle of Thanet, Kent, about 70 m. e.s.e of London. All the usual resources of a
TPatering-pIace — theater, baths, libraries, assembly room, etc. — are found here; end a fine
pier, which is the principal promenade. The shore, covered with a fine and firm sand,
IS well adapted for sea-bathing. FLshiDg is carried on to a considerable extent. A deaf
and dumb asylum was opened in 1875. A fluctuating population of between 50,000 and
100.000 is {>oured into the town during the season. Pop. 71, 11,995.
KASOAY, FeUs Ugrina, a species of cat or tiger-cat; a native of the forests of Brazil
and Guiuua; about the same size with the wildcat of Europe; of a pale fawu color, with
black bands on the fore-parts, and leopard-like spots on the hind-parts, nnd on the rather
long Uiick bushy tail. It has been erroneously represented as untamable, being, in. fact,
capable of a complete domestication, and of being made very useful in rat-kilMng.
XABfiUirAL 0BEDIT8, the name given to business operations, in which bankers lend
the credit of their names, as it were, to their customers, and thus enable them to cany
out inxportant commercial transactions which otherwise could not be gone into, or only
at ezceaaive cost. A merchant in this countiy, for instance, desires to import tea or
silk, but hia name is not so well known on the Chinese exchanges, that bills drawn upon
luLi by a merciiant in China can be sold there at a rcai^onable rate of exchange. The tea
or silk cannot be bought without the money being on the spot to buy it witli, and if he
sen<ls out specie for that purpose he involves himself in heavy charges for freight and
insurance, and loses the interest of his money while on the vovage. Before it arrives,
the prices of tea. and silk may liave been so altered in the market that he would not be
inclined to buy, and his money would thus be placed where it is not wanted. But while
drafts by the merciiant in China on the merchant in this country would not sell, or onlv
at a heavy sacrifice, the drafts by the merchant in China on abaDker in this country will
sell at the best price. The merchant in this country therefore deposits with his banker,
cash or secui i:ies equal to the amount to which he desires to use the banker's name, and
receives from him marginal crediU for the amount. These are bill-forms drawn upon
the banker, but neither dated nor signed, with a margin containing an ol^ligation by him
to accept the bills when presented. The bills are dated, drawn, and indorsed by tho
merchant in China before being sold, so that the obligation runs from the <late on which
the monev was actually paid, and the tea or silk is most likely in the mercliant*s ware-
house lK*iore tlie bUl is payable. For the transaction, the banker charges the merchant
a commission to remunerate himself for the risk involved.
Many other transactions between merchants abroad and in this country can only be car-
ried through by the acceptances of a London banker being tendered in payment, but the
transactions are intrinsically the same as when marginal credits are used. The banker in
thecountry can arrange with his customer to obtain the London banker's credit for him.
B9nkerB--usually in London— also accept bills to a great amount for the exchange opera-
tions of foreign banks. A banker in, say Canton, buys from his customers bills drawn
upon merchants in this country for a given amount, and sends them to his correspondent
in LMidon. who holds them for him and grants a credit in his favor on the security of
tliem. The Canton banker operates upon this credit by drawing upon the London
banker, and sells his drafts at the most favorable exchange. With the mon^ received
he purchases other bills, and remits them also, to l)e again drawn against. When these
operations are made with caution and sound judgment, they are beneficial to all con-
cerned; but when engaged in without sufiScient knowledge or recklessly, they involve
most disastrous consequences.
MARGRAVE. See Marquis, ante,
MABOUXBITE BE YAIOIS, in her youth known as Marguerite d'AngoulSme sister
of Francis I. of France, and daughter of Charles of Orleans, comto d'Angoul6me, was
b. at AngoulSme, April It, 1492. She received a brilliant, and even a profound edu-
cation, but was characterized by the most charming vivacity. In 1509 she was married
to Charles duke of Alen9on, who died in 1525. In 1527 she was married to Henry
d'Albret king of Navarre, to whom she bore a daughter, Jeano^^^'^l^i^^^^f^f
the great Frendi monarch, Henri IV. She encouraged agricolture, the arts, and \mtf
ing, and to a certain extent embraced the cause of the reformation. Later, sbe fouadit
necessary to be prudent, and even to return to the practice^ of the Roman Oathotic
church. But she never Ceased to act with a courageous generosity towards the ref<Hrm-
ers, who always found an asylum and welcome in Navarre. She wrote a little religious
work Ifiroir de Vdme peeksresse, which was condemned by the Sorbonne, as favoring
Protestant doctrines. She also wrote poems and tales, and a Heptameron da Ifoyvella
(Par. 1550). modeled on the Decameron of Boccaccio. Marguerite died Dec. 21, 1548.
MARHEINEKE, Prilipp Konrao, 1780-1846, b. Qermany, educated at G6ttiiign,
and in 1806 appointed professor extraordinary of theolo^ at GOttineen. In 1800 he w«
made ordinary professor of theology at Heidelberg; and m 1811 cailea to the same positian
at Berlin, and choeen paator of the church of the Trinity there, where he became a cOiUtiffm
of Schleiennacher. His studies lay principally in the direction of Christian symbolum
and dogmatics. To the former he devoted his ChrutUche ^/mboUk (1810-14), and his
ImtUaSone^ SymboUca (1880); to the latter, his Grundlehren dm' ChriMdun DogmAUk
(1810). The first edition of the latter work is based upoa Schellmg's philosophy; the
second was revised in accordance with the phUosophy of Hegel, of whom Msjheinefcie
was a follower, though he belonffed to that sniall school of Hegelians who maintained that
Hegel's philosophy was in accora with Christianity. His method of treatment is historical
rather than dogmatic. His position was entirely independent, and he cannot be fairly
classed as a Lutheran, a supernaturalist, or a rationalist. To the mystics he was stnmghr
opposed. The positive form of his theology may be found in m& EiUwutf der Pnik
tuehsn Thsoiogk (1887). He wrote many books besides thoee named, and was one of the
editors of Hegel's collected works.
MABIA OHltlSTUIA, queen of Spain, b. April 27, 1806, was a daughter of Frauds I.
kinff of the two Sicilies. In 1820 she became the fourth wife of Ferdinand YIL of
Spam; who in 1880 restored the hiw by which, in default of male issue, the risfat of
inheritance was given to fenuUes, and in October of that year the queen gave birth to a
daughter, Isabella II., ex-queen of Spain. The Spanisn liberals gladly embneed the
cause of the queen, rejoicing to see the dreaded Don Carlos, Ferdinand's brother, foither
removed from probable succession to the throne. Ferdinand died Sept. 20, 1883, aad
by his testament his widow was appointed guardian of her children — ^the ^ouag qaeeii
Isabella and the infanta Maria Louisa, now duchess de Montpensier— and also reffont,
till the young queen should attain the age of 18 years. A civil war broke out, the adhe^
ents of Don Carlos seeking to place him on the throne. The event of this war, which
continued till 1840, was long aoubtful, and Spain was fearfully desolated by contendine
armies; but the oueen-mother seemed indifferent to everything except the company of
don Fernando Muiloz, one of the royal body-guard, whom she maae her chamberlaiD,
and with whom she was united, in uccember, 1888, in a morganatic marriage, which,
however, was kept secret, whilst her connection with him was no secret. She had 10
children by him. A conspiracy, which broke out on the night of Aug. 18, 1886, exposed
MuCoz to great danger, and led the queen-mother to conc^e a constitution to Spain.
Her practice as regent was to adopt the course aj^reeable to the minister of the day, and
thusher government was despotic under one mmistry and liberal under another. 8he
contrived, however, upon many occasions to embarrass the proceedings of her more
liberal or constitutional minhiters; but when she sanctioned by her signature the law
respecting the Ayuntamientos (q.v.), a popular commotion ensued, and she gave to the
new prime minister Espartero (q.v.), Oct. 10. 1840. a renunciation of the regency, and
retired to Fi;^nce, but continued to interfere from her retirement in the affairs of Spain.
After the fall of Espartero she returned to Madrid in 1848, and in October, 1844, her
marriage with Mu&oz, who was now made duke of Rianzares, was solemnized. Her
participations in the schemes of Louis Philippe as to the marriage of her daagfaters, hi
1846, and the continual exercise of all her innuence in a manner unfavorable to eonatita-
tional liberty, made her the object of great dislike to the whole liberal party in Spain.
At len^, in July, 1854, a revolution expelled her from the country, and she anin took
refuge m France, but returned to Spain in 1864, only to retire again in 1868u She died
August, 1878.
XASIA I0TTI8A, the second wife of the emperor Napoleon I., b. March 12, 1701, was
the daughter of the emperor Francis I. of Austria. She was married to Napoleon, after
his divorce of Josephine, April 2, 1810. The marriage seemed to give stability to the
Bonaparte dynasty, and in some measure to afford a prospect of peace to Europe. On
Mar. 20, 1811, she bore a son. who was called king of Rome. At the beginning of the
campaign of 1813 Napoleon appointed her regent In his absence, but under many limita-
tions. On the abdication of Napoleon, she went to Orleans, and thence, in compatur
with prince Esterhazy, to Rambouillet. She was not permitted to follow her husbana
but went with her son to SchOnbrunn, where she remained till, in 1816, she reoeivea
the duchies of Parma, Placenza, and Guastatla^ on the government of which she thea
entered. She. contracted a morganatic marriage with count von Neipperg. She died at
Vienna. Dec. 18, 1847.
KABIAHA, JtTAN, a distinmiished Spanish historisn and scholar, was b. at Talaven
in 1587, and in 1554 entered the then rising order of tliis Je^its. ffileariy,MudiaB, both
489 S:?::'-^
tnltogaftges and theology, were so brilliant that he was appointed to teach in the schools
of liis order, first at Rome (where the celebrated Bellarmiue was one of his scholars) in
1581, Afterwards in Sicily in 1565, and finally in Paris in 1569. After a residence there
of 8eT«n years his health became so much impaired that he was compelled to return to
1^ native country, and settled at Toledo, where he resided till his death, ut an extreme
Old age, in 1624. His retirement, l^owcver, was not inconsistent with the most energetic
and sustained literary activity. From an early period he devoted himself to a history
of Spain, of which he published 20 liooks in 1592, and 10 additional books, carrying the
narratiTe down to 1510, in 1605. The origiual of this history was Latin, the elegance and
parity of which have secured for Mariana a place amon^ the most distinguished of
modmi Latinists. Its great historical merit is also admitted, although with some draw-
backs, even by Bayle. Mariana himself published a Spanish tninslation, which still
remains one of the classics of the language. Among his other productions are a volume
pttbtisbed at Cologne in 1609, consisting of seven treatises on various subjects; scholia
on the Bible, which, although written at the age of 88, display a degree of vigor as of
learning which might provoke the admiration of modern biblical students; an edition of
the works of Isidore ox Seville, with notes and dissertations; and several similar works.
Bat the moat celebrated of the works of Mariana is his well-known treatise, IM Bege et
RegiM InMUtutione^ which appeared in 1599, and in which is raised the important que»-
tion whether it be lawful to overthrow a tyrant Mariana decides that it is— even
where the tyrant is not a usurper but a lawful king. See Jesuits. The principles of
the book, in other particulars, are in the main the same as those of all modern constitu-
tional writers. The tyrannicide doctrines of this writer drew much odium upon the entire
order of Jesuits; but it is onlv just to observe that while, upon the one hand, precisely
the same doctrines were tauffht in almost the same words b^ several of the Protestant
contemporaries of Mariana (see Hallam's Literary Hisiary, iii. 180-140); on the other»
Mariana's book itself was (prmally condemned by the general Acquaviva, and the doc-
trine forbidden to be taught by members of the order.
MAETATUA^ or Mariana, an episcopal city of Brazil, in the province of Minas-
Gecaes, about 12 m. e. of Ouro Preto. in the neighborhood are gold, silver, and lead
ninea. Pop. 8,000.
MARIANNE ISLES. See Ladrones, ante,
MARIAS, Las Trbs, three islands in the n. Pacific ocean, on the w. coast of
Mexico, Iielonging to the state of Jalisco. They extend from n.w. to ae. The largest
!s 15 m. in length and 8 in breadth ; the next is 24 m. and the smallest 8 m. in circuit.
They are all barren and uninhabited, but abound in wood, water, salt, and came, and
were formerly visited by English and American whalers. Diego de Meudoza, who
visited them m 1582. named them Isles de la Magdalena.
MAUTA TEEBE8A, Empress of Germany, the daughter of the emperor Karl YL, was
b. at Vienna, Ma^ 13, 1717. By the pragmatic sanction (q.v.) her father appointed her
heir to his hereditary thrones. In 1736 she married Francis Stephen, grand duke of
Tuscany, to whom she gave an equal share in the government when she became queen
of Hungary and of Bohemia, and archduchess of Austria, on the death of her father,
Oct. 21, 1740. She found the monarchy exhausted, the finances embarrassed, the
people discontented, and the anny weak; whilst Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Naples, and
oardinia, stirred up by France, put forward claims to portions of her dominions, chiefly
founded on the extinction of the male line of the house of Hapsburg. Frederick II. of
Prussia soon made himself master of Silesia; Spain, and Naples laid hands on the Aus>
trian dominions in Italy; and the Frencli, Bavarians, and Saxons conquered some of
the hereditary Austrian territories The young queen was in the utmost danger of
lasing all her possessions, but was saved by the chivalrous fidelity of the Hunffarinns,
the assistance of Britain, and most of all by her own resolute spirit. Her enemies also
quarreled amongst themselves; and the war of the Austrian succession, after lasting
more than seven years, terminated in her favor by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.
She lost only Silesia and Glatz, and the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Quastalla,
whilst, on the other hand, her husband was elected emperor. During the time of peace
she made great financial reforms; agrioulture. manufactures, and commerce flourished,
the national revenues greatly increased, and the burdens were diminished. The empress
availed herself of the increase of the revenue for the increase of her military power.
She held the reins of government herself, but was much guided by her liusband and
her ministers. She found at Inst in Kaunitz (q.v.) a minister possessed of the wisdom
and energy rcqiiisite for the conduct of affairs, and in him she placed almost unlimited
confidence. The seven yearn* war (q.v.) between Austria and Prussia again reduced
Austria to a state of great exhaustion; but when it was concluded, the empress renewed
her efforts to promote the national prosperity, and made many important reforms,
ameliorating the condition of the peasantry, and mitigating the penal code. Her son
Joseph was elected king of the Romans in 1764; and on the death of her husband, in
1765. she associated him with herself in the government of her hereditary states, but in
reality committed to him the charge only of military affairs. Slie joined with Russia
and Prussia in the partition of a third part of Poland (1772). after the death of Augustus
III./alSkoiigh she at flrst objected to the pi-opry^rd spoliation, and thought it necessaty
Marj
SErl
riaxell. Am)
i<}iil>«i*g. -x«'\/
to satisfy lier ronscicDce by obtaiaing the approval of the pope. Gnlicia and Iitdo-
meriii were added to her dominions at this ti:nc. She also compelled the porte to gi?e
up Bukowina to her (1777). The brief Bavarhm \\ ur of succe>siou ended in her avqui-
sition of the Innthal, but led to the formation of the farsteubund or league of German
princes, which set bounds to the Ausirian power in Germany. Maria Theresa diisd Jfoy.
29, 1780. Throughout her iei«^n she displayed a resolute and masculine character,
and niised Austria from deep uepres^i(m to a height of power such as it had never
previously attaiised. Although a zealous Roman Catholic, she maintidned the righu of
her own crown against the court of Rome, and endeavored to correct some of the worst
abuses in the church. She prohibited the presence of priests at the making of wills,
abolished the right of asylum in churches and convents, suppressed the inqui^tion in
Milan, and in 1773 the order of Jesuits. She also forbade that any person, male or
female, should take monastic vows before the age of 25 years. She did nothing, how-
ever, to ameliorate the condition of the Protestants in her dominions. She had three
sons and six daughters. Her eldest son, Joseph II., succeeded her.
MABIAZELL', the most famous place of pilgrimage in Austria, on the n. border of
the crownland of Styria, 24 m. n. of Bruck. it consists of a number of inns, or lodring-
bouses. and contains 1200 inhabitants. It is visited by 250,000 pilgrims annually. Here
there is an image of the Virgin believd to posEcss tlie power of working minicle«.
During the great annual procession from Vienna, the p-eater numl)er of the pil|rrln»of
both sexes spend the night in the woods in drinking, sinking, and genera) riot
Formerly, the processions from Gratz and Vienna took place at the same time, bnt owing
to the fighting, as well as debauchery, that cliai^icterized the ocoasion, the piDcessions
were ordained to. take place at different times.
• MARICOTA, a co. in c. central Arizona, bounded by New Mexico on the e.; tra¥-
erscd by Salt river and bounded s. by the Gila; 14.500 sq.m.; pop. in '76 estimatni st
8.500. In the valley's, wheat, barley, and Indian corn are raided; the e. portion Is ruj
und mountainous, and here are found oonpideralle gold, silver, copper, and
Apache Indians ream over the country. Chief town, Phoenix.
MARICO'PAS. See Coco-MARicoPAa
MARIE AMfililE DE BOURBON, Queen of the French, wife of king Lguis Philippe.
1782-1866; b. in Sicilv; daughter of Frederick IV., king of the Two Sicilies; reared and
educated in Sicily, Naples, and Venice. Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, while ban-
ished fron[i Frahce. met her, and they were married Nov. 25, I8O9. She bore him s
large family of children, most of whom have l)een eminent for talents and high charac-
ter. On the accession of Louis XVIII. they returned to Paris, and resided in France
or in England until the French revolution of 1880, when Lafayette and Lafitte selected
her husband as the best available leader of the liberal monarchic party, and made
him king. She exhibited a repugnance to the elevation, fearing to have her husband
considered a trespasser on the nghts, which she seemed to respect, of the elder branch of
the Bourbons. As queen she was a model of abstention from political intrigues, of cveiy
domestic virtue, and of the highest influence over her husband to good ends. Her home
virtues, sympathetic nature, and public charities, made her dear to the French people,
and prolonged the duration of a reign the duplicity and selfishness of which was in
marked contrast to the disinterested beneficence of her own life and influence. When
Louis 'Philippe was dethroned in 1848, she bore the fall with dignity and calmness quite
in contrast with the humed fear of her royal consort. She joined him nt Clarcmont,
England, where, under the name of the comptessc de Ncuillv, she passed the remainder
•of her life, and closed the eyes of her husband in 1850, after 40 years of noble companion-
ship and mutual fldelity. In her last years she sought to bring about a reconciliation
with the elder branch of the Bourbon family. Five sons and three daughters were the
fniit of her marriage. The eldest son, the duke of Orleans, died in 1842; the eldest
daughter, a promising sculptress, died in 1889; the other sons have the titles' of dukede
Nemours, prince de Joinville, duke d'Aumale, duke de Montpensier. The prineea
Louise liecame queen of Belgium, and the princess Clementine married the prince of
Saze-Colxmrg. M. Trognon has published a Vie de Marie Amelia, Heine dee Fran^ttui, 1871.
MAEIE AKTOIKETTi; DE LOBBAHfE, JoseI'Htke Jbakke, wife of Louis XVI. of
France, was the youngest daughter of Francis I., emperor of Germany. Hrr motlier
was the famous jWaria Theresa (q.v.). Marie Antoinette was l)om at Vienna. Nov. 2,
1765; nt the aire of 14 was betrothed to the dauphin; and in the following venrwas
married at Versailles. Her reception by her husban(l and the king. Louis XA''., was
flattering enough; but her Austrian frankness and simplicity, her naivete, unceremonious
pleasantry, and detestation of ridd etiquette, scandalized Versailles. Scon after tlis
accession of Louis XVI. (May, 1774), libels were circulated by her enemies, accusuig her
of constant intrigues, not one of which has ever been pr*»ved. Her faults as a qoeen
(and. in that age. rapidly growing earnest, angry, and Imblttcred, tliey weye fatal one«)
were a certain levity of disposition, a girlish mve of pleasure, banquets, fine dn*8S. an
aristocratic indifference to genend opinion, and a lamentable incapacity to €ec the actual
misery of France. The affair of the diftmond nerklii^ (q.v ) in 1785 hopelessly com-
promised her good name in the eve of tlie public, although in point of fact Kane
DigfedbyVJfUUyiC
^Vl Marten beiv.
Amoloette was quite ionocetit of any ffrare offenfie. Her political rdlo was not more
fortuuute. Lomeuie de Brienne and CaTonae were miuisters of her choice, and she shared
tbe oppfobrium calltni down upon them for their reckless squandering of the uuiioual
fliMCucuB. 8he strongly opposed toe assembly of the notables, and in the following year,
of the atates-geueral ; and, indeed, she had good reason to dread their convocaciou, for
one of the very first tilings the notables did was to declare the queen ihe cause of the
denungement of the finances. From the first hour of tliu revolution she was an object
of fanatical hatred to the mob of Paris. Her life was attempted at Versailles by a band
of as-4ii9sins on the morning of Oct. 6, 1788, and she narrowly escaped. After this she
msde fKome spasmodic efforts to gain the good-will of the populace by visiting the great
man tifac tones of the capital, such as tlie GolicUns, and by seeming to take an interest in
the labors of the workmen, but the time was gone bv for such transparent nhatnming to
siieOeed. The relentless populace oaly hated her the more. At last she resolved on
fliglit. Her husband long refused to abandon his country, and she would not go without
bun. A dim sense of kingly dut> and honor was not wanting to Louis, but after the
mob stopped hifl coach (April 18, 1791), and would not let him go to St. Clond, he con-
sented. The flight took place on the night of the 20th June. Unfortunately, tho
royal fugitives were recognized, and captured at Varennes. From this lime her attitude
became heroic: but the French people could not rid themselves of the suspicion that t*ho
w:is secrelly plotting with the allies for the invasion of the country. Alter the useless
effort to defend the Tuileries (Au^. 10, 1792), she was confined in the Temple, sepamted'
from her family and friends, and subjected to most sickening humiliations. On Aug.
1, 1793. she was removed to the Condergerie, by order of the convention, condemned l^
the revolutionary tribunal (Oct. 15), and guillotined next day. See Meinoires sur U tie
prioSe de Marie AjUoinetie, by Mme. Campnn (1838); Feuillet de Convhas, ■ Louis XVL^
Marie Antoinette et Mdme. Jmeabeth (1864-78); D'Arneth, Ourreepondance eecrite entre
Marie TAerhe et le Onnte Merey d'Argenteav, avee dee lettree de Marie ThMae et Marie
AnttpinftU {2i\ ed., 1875); and Yonge, Lffe of Marie AMoifiette (1876).
MABtE DE* XXBICI, wife of Henri IV. of France, was the daughter of Francis 1,
S-and-duke of Tuscany, and was born at Florence, April 26, 1578. She was married to
enri, Dec. 16, 1600, and in the following September gave birth to a aon, afterwards
Lou i${ XIII. The union, however, did not prove happy. Mario was an obstibatc,
passionate, waspish, and withal dull-headed female, and her quarrels with Henri soon
became the talk of Paris, She was — as such women are apt to be — wholly under the
influence of favorites. A certain couple, who professed to be man and wife, Leonora
Guligal and (/'oncini. esercised a most disastrous influence over her mind, and. of course,
cncoura«^ed her dislike to lier husband. The assassination of Henri (Hay 14, 1610) did
not mudi grieve her, and she was even suspected of complicity in the act, but nothin«;
was ever a^«certained that could incriminate her. For the next seven years she governed
as regent, but proved as worthless a ruler as she had been a wife. After the death of
Coucini a sort of revolution took place. Louis XIII. assumed royal power. Mairie waa
confined to her own house, and her son refused to see her. Her partisans tried to bring
about a civil war. but their attempts proved futile; and bjr the aavice of Richelieu, then
bishop of Luyon, she made her submission to her son m 1619, and took her place at
courL Marie hoped to win over Richelieu to her party, but she did not in the least com-
prehend that mighty genius; however, she soon enough found out that he hnd no mind
to be ruled by her, whereupon she resolved, if possible, to undermine his influence with
the king. H^r intrigues for this purpose failed; she was imprisoned in Comptdgne.
whence fihe escaped, and fled to Brussels in 1631. Her last years were spent in utter
destitution, and she is said to have died in a hayloft at Cologne, July 8, 1642.
MAUTE OALAKTE, an island in the West Indies, one of the Lesser Antilles, belongs
to France, and lies 17 m. s.e. of Guadeloupe. Area, about 60 sq.m., covered for the
moet part with wood, and surrounded by steep rocky shores. The cultivated soil pro-
duces sugar. coflTce, and cotton. Cattle and horses are almndant, the latter of a highly
esteemed breed. Its chief town. Grand bonrg, or Marigot, on the s w. coast, has a popula-
tion of 2,000. The population of the island is 13.000. Marie Oalante is so-called from
the name of the ship commanded by Columbus when he discovered the island in 1493.
XAItrEHBAD, one of the most frequented of the Bohemian spas, 83 m. n.w. of Pilsen,
at an elevation of almost 2,000 ft. above the level of the sea. The springs of Marienbail
have long been used liy the people of the vicinity, but it is only since the commencement
of the present century that it has become a place of resort for peraons from distant pnrtH
of the world. The springs arc numerous, varying in temperature from 48"* 10 54" Fahr.
They are saline, containing sulphate of soda and various alkaline iuCTedicnts, but differ-
ing amsiderably in their composition and qualities. They are used both internally and
in the form of baths. Great quantities of the waters of some of the springs iire exported
to distant places. Marienbad is surrounded by wooded heights, has a population of
1<}00, and Ls visited every season by upwards of 9.000 patients.
MABDEiniBBO, a t. of Saxony, in the circle of Zwickau, 88 m. s.w. of Dresden. Xt
has manufactures of linen, lace, and steam-engines, and the neighboring mines give
«mployment to a great number of the inhabitant*;. Marienberg has mineral baths, and aa
establishment for the cold-water cure. Pop. '75. 5,956. Digitized by VjUUV IC
M»rl«iibnjf||f. 492
MASIIiirBVBO, &n old t. of Prassia, in the province of Prusda, on the Nogat; 2Sm.
8.e. of Danzig. It wus long the seat of the grand masters of the Teutonic onler (q.y.) of
knigliis, who removed from Venice hither in the year 1800. The first fortress of the
knights, however, was founded here in 1S74. Marienburg remained in the hands of the
knights till 1467. when it was taken by the Poles. The castle, or palace, in wbich 17
gniiid masters had resided, a noble edifice in a species of Gothic peculiar to the vicinity
of the Baltic, was restored in 1820. Pop. *75, 8,638.
MAXI'EKWEBDEB, one of the most prosperous and beautiful towns of the piovioce of
Prussia, in the kingdom of Prussia, is picturesquely situated on an elevation, about 2 m.
e. of the Vistula, and 47 m. s.s.e. of Danzig. It was founded in 1388 by the Teutonic
order of knights, and its old castle was the residence of a commander of that order. The
town derives its prosperity chieflj^ from being a residence of niunerous government offi-
cials. Manufactures of various kinds are carried on, and fruit is extensively cultivated
Pop. 75. 7,«27.
MA'RIES. a co. in s. central Missouri; drained by the Gkisconade river and itsafflo-
«nts; 660 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 7,828. The surface is broken and hilly, and only in the valleys
is there much fertility. Indian corn is the chief product, 168,479 bushels bein^ raised;
79,248 of wheat. The baser metals are found, but not in great abundance. Chief town,
Vienna.
MARIETTA, the chief t in Washington co., Ohio, on the e. bank of the Muskin-
gum, at its union with the Ohio river; and the terminus of the Marietta and Cincinnati,
and Marietta, Pittsburg, and Cleveland railroads; 160 m. from Columbus. 176 m. from
Cleveland, and 800 m. from Cincinnati by way of the rivers; pop. '70. 5.218. The lows
was settleil by New England emigrants in 1788. and is the oldest town in Ohio. The town
is neatly laid out and handsomely embellished, and is the seat of Marietta college, which
was chartered in 1885 and graduated its first class in 1888. Marietta is the center of an
extensive business in petroleum, and is not distant from large deposits of coal and iron.
There are 8 newspapers, 4 banks, a library, cUy hall, art gallery, and a very large num-
ber of refineries, factories, foundries, shops, and stores. The schools have long Ijeen
noted for tlieir superior qualities. A description of ancient mounds and worics on the
site of the city will be found in Andent MonumenU of the Misaimppi VaUey, by Squier
and Davis. These have been in great measure destroyed by the building of the city,
but traces of them still remain. The name Marietta was bestowed in honor of the
French queen, Mane Antoinette.
. MARIETTA COLLEGE, at Marietta. Washmffton co., O., was founded in 1885.
The grounds occupy a pleasant square, and the college has four buildings. In 1878 it
had 11 instructors and 80 students, G. W. Andrews, d.d., ll.d., president.
MARIETTE. Auguste &douabi>. b. at Boulogne-sur-Mer, 1831; became professor
of grammar and design, and while engaged in these duties was drawn to the study of
archseology. Attracting attention by an article publislied in 1847 on the history of his
native town, he was made assistant in the Eg^'ptian museum of the Louvre, where he
became so intelligent a disciple of the lore of Champollion in Egyptian hieroglyphics
that he was sent to Egypt to gather Coptic manuscripts. While there he searched for rbe
true site of Memphis, and by his familiarity with ancient authors, not only found the
remains, but identified the temples, monuments, and tombs, by their descriptions. His
discoveries were gratefully acknowledged by the French government, and increased
means for investigation were placed in liis hands by the duke de Luynes. His princi-
gal excavations Kir Memphis were made 4 ra. from the spot where the nrchseoloj^ists
ad previously searched, and resulted in uncovering an avenue of sphinxes, the temple
of Serapis mentioned by Strabo, one of the most splendid structures of granite and ala-
baster of the ancient time, in which were found the sarcophagi of the bulls of Apis from
the 10th dynasty to the time of the Romans. The labors of 1500 men under his hand
brought to light 2,000 sphinxes and between 4.000 and 5,000 statues, and inscripliona
and curiosities without number. Some of the statues were evidently of Grecian art. The
explorations have served to confirm the fact of the greatness of the city of Memphis, its
wealth and luxury. His excavations around the great sphinx of Gizeh brousrht to
light many new facts and curiosities, which have been addea to the collections of Egyp-
tian curiosities in the Louvre. On his return to Paris in 1854 he was made conservator
of the Egyptian museum. In 1858 he was again in Egypt following up his former
searches with a larse force of workmen, removing the sancu that covered the temples of
Elfou, Knrnak. Medlnet-Abou, etc. The viceroy of Egypt then made him conservator
of the monuments of Egypt, with title of bey, and charged him with the formation of a
collection of his precious discoveries at Boulak. In 1878 the institute of Franoe
awarded him the biennial prize of 20.000 francs. He is considered the most eminent of
French Ekfyptologyes, The following are some of his works: Mh^ d^Apis, 1856, 8v(^
a light on the religion of the Egyptians; Clioix de Monuments et de deseins, dSeouterti ou
easecuiS pendnnt le d&jHayement da SSrapeum de MempkU, 1856. 4to; the SSrapSum d$
MempkU, in folio, with plates, 1857-64: Apergu de VhitUnre ^Egypt, 1864, 8vo; JHoMt^
tabie d^Abydoe, with plates, 1865. 8vo: FoueUes exeeutSe en Egypt, en Ntdfie, et au Soudan,
d^apr^ lee ardres du viceroi, folio, with maps and plat^.|^||^^*^^^^«dei j'riiiajpau'
498 ffiSS?"^
mmmwmiiU du mu$S» de BotOak, 1870, 8to; Lm Pomtub ^gypfUnt du fnu$Se de Baulak^
folio, 1871; and Album da rnvMc daBoulak, folio, illustratou by 40 superb photographio
plates, representiDg 600 objects of £^yptian art, published in IbTS. Upon Lis death tho
Khedive took charge of the embalming of his body, and its deposit in an ancient sarco*
phagus.
MARIGLIAKO, a t. of s. Italy, province of Caserta, not far from Nola. It has a
castle and several churches, one of which has a good collection of piotorea Pop. '70.
«.18a.
MARIQNA'NO. See Melbgnano, ante.
XAXI OOLB, a name given to certain plants of the natural order eompotUm, sub-order
4»ryinbtfenB, chiefly of the senera calendula and iagetes. The genus eeUendnJa has the '
acbenia remarkably curved, variously toothed, and very rough on the back. The species
are annual and perennial herbaceous plants and shrubs, of which some of the former
are found in the countries lx>rdering on the Mediterranean, the latter chiefly in s. Af rica»
Pot Mabioold (0, ofleinalie) is an annual, a native of France and the more southern
parts of Europe, with an erect stem, 1 to 2 ft. high, tlie lower leaves obovate on long
stalks, and hirge. deep yellow flowers. It has long lieen very common in British gar-
dens, and there are varieties with double flower& The whole plant has a slight aromaUe
odor, and a bitter taste. It was formerly in great repute as a carminative, and was
regarded also as an aperient and sudorific. The florets were the parts used, and they
were dried in autumn, to be preserved for use. They are often employed to ndulterato
saffron, and sometimes for coloring cheese. They were formerly a frequent Ingredient
In soups, and are still so used in some parts of England. — The genus tagetee consists of
annual and perennial herbaceous plants, natives of the warmer parts of America,
although r. erecta, one of those most frequently cultivated in Britain, bears the
name of African *Marioolp; and tagttee paUda, another annual well known in our
flower-borders, is called French Marigold. Both species are Mexican. They havo
been long in cultivation, and with a little assistance of a hot-bed in spring, succeed well
even in Scotland, and are much admired for the brilliancy of tbeir flowers. — Corn
Marigold is a r^/^ysan/AdmumCq. v.). —Marsh Marigold (q. v.) has no botanical affinity
with the true marigolds.
MARIK', a CO. in w. California, bounded w. by the Pacific, s. and e. by San Pablo
bay, San Francisco bay, and the Golden Gate, the last separating it from tbe city of San
Francisco; 600 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 11,825. It is traversed by the North Pacific Coast rail-
road. The surface is marked by many hills, the highest of which, Table mountain, is
2,000 ft. high. It is the largest butter-producing county in the state, the amount in 1870
being over 2,000,000 pounds. Chief city, San RifaeL
MARI'NA, Malintzin, or Malinchb, b. Mexico, probably in tbe last years of the
15th cemury. She was of a noble family in the province of Guazacoaloos, but when a
child was sold in slavery to the Maya Indums. Soon after Cortez invaded Mexico
she became his interpreter and his mistress. Their son, don Martino Cortez, attained to
considerable importance in Mexico. She was afterwards married to Juan de Jaramillo,
and was living as late as 1650.
XABISBD, a term applied In heraldry to an animal whose lower part Is terminated
like tbe tail of a fish.
MAXm SHGm. See Steah-Enoinb.
MASm FOBTIFICATIOir differs from land fortification in that the approaches of
the enemy whidi are to be resisted take place on the level of the sea, so that he can come
near without having to overcome the dangerous slope of the glacis. The combat Is
simply one between two powerful batteries, and the question to be decided is whether
the ship or the fort will nrst be placed hor» de eambat; tbe ship having ordinarily the
largest number of guns, while the fort has more solid battlements, and its fewer guns
of great caliber can be fired with a steadiness unattainable on so shifting a base as the
ocean. Under these circumstances, the less relief a sea-fortress has the better, as by so
much the less is it likely to be hit from the shipping. Its walls are usually built per-
pendicular, or nearly so. The magazines and quarters for the men are bomb-prcoi, as
also are the casemates, from which the guns are usually fired, although sometimes, as
in the roartello-tower, the gun is worked on the top of the structure.
Sea-fortifications may be of various importance, the simplest being the battery con-
sisting of a mere parapet formed in a cliff or on a hill, and mounted with guns to com-
mand the sea; these are generally built in such concealed situations that it is hoped the
hostile ships will not perceive them until they actually open fire. They are numerous
all around the British coast. Next greater in importance is the martello-tower (q.v.).
More powerful still are the beach-forts, such as those which on either shore defend the
entrance to Portsmouth harbor: these are constructed of the most solid masonry, faced
with massive iron plates, and armed with guns of the heaviest caliber, sweeping the
very surface of the sea, so as to strike an approaching ship between wind and water.
The guns are usually In bomb-proof casemates, and the fort is often defended on the
land side if the coast be level; if, however, higher cround be behind, this would be
useless, and then the sea-front alone is defensible. Most terrible)^|(i^||l^,^^^|^ili^'
KATlohitry ^^^
ever, are the completely isolated forts, wrth perpendicular faces and two or three tleti
of heavy guns, buch are ibe tremeodous btitteries which render Cronstadt almost inap-
proa(;hable. ahd by which SpUliend und PJymoutli sound are now fortified. These forts
are geueraHy large, with all the requisites for u garrison to inaintahi itself; against tliem
woo(len ships stand no chance, and in the American civil war fort Suuiier. at Charles-
ton, Hhowed itself no mean antagonist for ironsides. In such forts iron is ciii|ilo^ud aa
the facing, in piates of such vast tliicitness and weight that it is supposed no ship can
ever possess any comparable resisting power; and, as tliey are armed witli guns the
smallest of which will probably be SOO-pounders, it is expected that they will Iw able to
destroy any fleet that could be sent against them.
At the present day the value of sea-fortitications is disputed, as iron-platcd vessels
may pass them with impunity unless the artillery in the furt be so heavy as to destroy
the armor of the ships. In the long run, however, it is apparent tliat the tort can com-
mand tlie greater power, for its armor may be of any thickness, while that of the sliip
must be limited by her floating powers, and, on the other hand, the limit to the size of
artillery mUst be sooner reachc^d iu a ship than in a solid and stationary fortress.
XABIHX'O, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, and 11 m. s. of the town of
Palermo, near a small river which flows into the guif of Palermo. Pop. 8,840.
MAHIKER^S COMPASS. Sec Compass, ante,
ItABDriSS are soldiers that serve on board ships of war. The men are drilled in all
respects as soldiers (light infantry), and therefore on shore are simply ordinary lund-
forccs. On board ship ihcjf are trained to seamen's duiies, but still prci^crving tlieir
military organization. Their ordinary functions are as sharpshooters in time of action,
and at other times to furnish sentries for guarding the stores, gangways, etc. They ure
useful as exercising a good control over the less rigidly disciplined sailoi-g, and, liuvin^
alw^'s tlrearms and bayonets ready, they have often been instrumentiil in suppressing
the first outbreaks of mutiny. The royal marines are divided into three divisions uf
light infantiy and one of ariillery. Promotion goes by seniority throughout the anil-
lery and infantry respectively. In rank marine officers correspond with army ofUai's
of similar gr^ules according to seniority; as a corps tlie marines take place betwceu tlio
49th and 50th regiments of infantry of the line. Every ship, on being commissioned,
lias her complement of marines drafted into her. The uniform is red, with blue facings
and white belts. Ou their colors the men proudly bear the word ** Gibraltar,** iu tlio
famous defense of which fortress they bore an heroic part.
Marines were first established, as a nursery from whence to obtain seamen to man tlio
fleet, by order in council of Oct. 16, 1664. Their utility becoming conspicuous, other
regiments of marine forces were raised, so that by 1741 there were 10,000 men, and in
1759 as many as 18,000. During the great French war the number rose aliove 80.000,
bnt a great reductiou took place after peace was concluded. By the navy estlufttes of
1875-W, 14,000 marines were providea, inctuding 3,900 artillery, at a cost for the year
of £940,417. Their government rests solely with the admiralty.
MAHINES (awfo). The introduction Of marines into the American army took plnce
by act of congress passed Nov. 10, 1775, by which two battalions of tliis arm were
directed to be organized. Agaiti, by act of duty 11, 1798, "establishing and organising
a marine corps,'' this body became an established element in the naval force of the
United States, liable to do duty either on board vessels of war at sea, or iir' forts or
otherwise upon shore, as might be directed by the president. The commandant of the
corps has the rank and pay of cot. It has no regimental organization, however,
but " niay be formed into as many companies or detachments as the president m.-iy
direct." When emploved on naval service the marines are subject to the laws and regu-
lations which govern the navy; but if engaged on shore duty they are amenable to the
authority of the articles of war. Tlie number of marines was fixed by the act of July,
1861, at 8,074 enlisted men. but this is practically lessened by the amount of the annual
appropriations for the naval department. The United States marine corps consisted in
1880 of 86 oflicers and 1500 enlisted men.
KABIHS-STOSS DfiALEKB, in point of law. are subjected to certain restrictions ns
rc|pirds the business they carry on, in order to keep some check on their relations with
thieves and other vendors of stolen property. They are bound, under a penalty of £20,
to have their name and Uie words ''dealer m marine stores" distinccly painted. 'in letters
not less than 6 in. in length, over their warehouae or shop; to keep books stating the
name of the person from whom they bought or received the respective articles in their
possession; not to purchase marine stores from any person apparently under 16 ycnrs
of ago; not to cut up any cable or article exceeding five fathoms in length without a
permit from justices of 'the peace. By the act 24 and 25 Vict. Ci 101, deak»PB in old
metals have also been subjected to similar restrictions. Whenever a denier in old nHTtal
has been once convicted of being in possession of stolen property, justices of the peace
may order liim to be registered at the chief police-office of his district, abd he shnll keep
a book containing entries of the goods lie has and of the person from whom obtained), etc
XABm, GfovANiVT Batiota, an Italian poet, b. at Naples in 1669. After a [xriod
of fruitless study, Marini abandoned jurisprudence for tho .||^^^ ^qo^^^ pursuit of
J.Q^ MarinMi. ..
*^^ Mariolatry.
poetfTr ft decishm which lo incensed his father as to lead to his expulenon from home.
AH uirotigli life, MariDi seems to have courted troubles by his unbndled licentiousness,
and many of his bestcomposilions are polluted with a shameless obscenity, unavallingly
deplored by the poet ut the Ap])roach of death, >vhen he expressed the desire that they
shoftld'be suppressed and dcstroved. Marini quitted Naples for Rome, and finally fol-
lowed in the suhe of cardinal Aldobrandini to Turin, where be was at first received with
flatteriDff notice from the reigning prince, Charles Emmanuel; but on the publication of
some iMting satirical verses, he was thmwn into prison. Ou bis release, be repaired to
EVance, where Marie de* Medici received him with marked favor, and conferred on him
a liberal pension. In bis poem II Tempio be C(*lebrates this queen's noble qualities. His
b^st work, the Adone, was written during bis residence in France, and on its publication,
he revidtted his native country (1622), <ond died at Nnph s, aged 56, in 1625, in the midst
of high public festivities in bis honor. He is the founder of the Marinist Ecbool of
poetry, of which the essential features iire florid hyperbole and false overstrained Imagexy.
MARI'NO. See San Mariko, ai»U.
■ABI'VO (anc. BotUlcs), a market-t of central Italy, province of Rome^ and 12 m. s.e.
of the cit> of Home, near lake Albano. Miuiuo is situateil on a high hill above a plain,
and is surrounded by strong walls and towers, which were eiectM by the Golonna in
1480. and add much to its picturesque beauty* According to the vr liter of Murray*^
Handbook^ the long street called the Corso, the piazza of the Duonio, and the fountain
would do credit to many towns of more importance. At the foot of the hill of Marino,
lyine Ixrt ween it and the ridge of Albti Longa, is a deep glen lieautifuUy woodii*d, called
the l\trco di CoUmna. This valley is highly iii cresting its the site of the Aqua FereiUina^
memorable as the spot on which ihe Latin tribeK held thi'ir general assemblies, from the
destruction of Albt^ to the consuhhip of P. Dec! us Mus. 888 ii.c. Marino is also
interesting in the history of the middle agi'S aa the stronghold of the Orsiui family, who
first uppestr in the 13th c. in conuectiun with their cit^tle of Marino. In the 15th c. it
became the property of the Cohmna family, who have retained it almost withoafe inter-
ruption to the present time. Pop. 0,500.
XABIO, OiusBFPB. Marquis de Cnndin. was b. at Turin in 1810. of an niistocratic
family, and evinced from his boyhood high musical abilities. In 1880 be received bis
commission as officer in the cbasseum l^ardcs; lail having involved himself in some
youthful escapade, waa otxlered from Genoa to a tem|>oniry retreat at Cnglbiri. From
thence he threw up his commission, and finally escaped to Paris, on bis resignation not
being' accepted. The yonnsf Sardinian deserter speedily won hiswny into the most
exclnaive circles of fashionable Piiris, both by tlie ^nuinc. manly stamp of his nature,
and the charm of his exquisite voice. Ilftvmg cofitnicted delrts. however, Ire accepted
the appointment of first tenor of the opera, with a sfthiiy of 1500 fr.mcs'pcr month;
at tlie Biime time he changed his nnme from marquis of Candia to Mario. After a
term of two veiiTs' study at the cottservatolre, Mario mnde bis d€but, on I>ec.. 2, 1838,
in Booeri le i)Mle, and achieved the fir<t of a Iniig scriCft of operniic triumphs. At
the th^tre Italien, he took rank with Rubini, Lablache, Mnlibnm, Sontag, and Orisi;
and by none of these creat artists wn.s he exc(*lied in purity, sweetness, meihod, and
taste. From 1845 to 1850 be fulfilled an engajrement in Russia, and on his return
appeared in London, where hfs success was immense. ]rfario*s operatic career was a
succesj^ion of brilliant and remunerative engagements. In bis private capacity, ho
was esteemed for his large-handed lilierality. afid for his noble assistance to struirgling
artists. His repertoire embraced all the great works of Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, and
Vcnli. Mario took farewett'of the London stage in 1871.
MABIOL'ATBT (Gr. Maria, and latreia, adonitlon). a name given by polemical writers
to tho worship paid b^ Roman Catholics to the Virgin Mary. This name is intended to
imply that the Catholic worship of the Virgin is the supreme worship of latrda or adora^
ticm, whieh CathoHcs earnestly dipclaim. altbongli. from her relation to mirLo^, they
hekt her worship, which they style kjfpevdvHa^ to be higher than that of all other adnts.
See IKTOC.4TION OF'SAmrB. Many examples of prayers addressed to Msry, of acta of
worship done in her honor, and of expremions emplo3'ed rog^irding her are alleged by
controversraliflts, for the purpose of showing thnti the worship of Mary in the Roman
church is in effect "adoration." Such are (see Farrar's EcdmagHcal DicUonary, p. 872)
the •' Litany of the Sacred Heart of Maiy ;" tlie adapbition of the Athannshin cree<l as a
profession of faith regarding her; addresses to her as the ** hope of the desponding, and
refuge of the destitute*,*' professions that ** her son has given her such power that what*
ever she wills is immediately done;" kneelings and prostrations l)eforo her image; pil-
grimages in her honor. To these and similar allegaiions, Roman Catholics reply that
many^of the objected prayers and devotional practices are enlirely unaiithorizeff by the
church, and that some of them are undoubtedly liable to misinterpretation; but they fur-
ther insist that all such prayers, however worded, are to lie umlerstood, and are, in fact,
understood by all Roman Catholics, even ordinarily acquainted with the principles of
their faith, solely as petitions for the intercession of Mary, and as expressions of reli-
ance, not on her own power, but on the efficacy of her prayers to her son. It would be
out of place fn this work to enter into such controversies, and we shall content ourselves
with a brief account of the origin and nature of the worship of the Virgin Mary in the
Xarioii.
496
cliurcb, and of its present condition, as it is professed by those religious bodies aoung
wliicli tlie practice now prevails.
Altliougli no trace is found in the New Testament of any actual worship of the Vir-
gin Mary, yet Roman Catholic interpreters regard tiie language of the angel Gabriel, who
saluted her as "full of grace," or highly "favored," and as blessed ''amoDg women/'
and her own prediction in the canticle of the magnificat, that *'all nations sliould csU
her blessed" (Luke i. 48), as a foreshadowing of the practice of their church; and thej
rely equally on the language employed by the eurlj^ fathers, as, for insttince, Ireneua,
regarding the Virgin, although Protestant8 consider it as having referenoe to the incar-
nation. But it seems quite certain that, during the first ages, the invocation of tlie Virgin
and the other saints must have held a subordinate place in Christian worship; tlie reason
for which, according to Roman Catholics, was probably the fear which was entertained
of rein t roil ucing among the recent converts from paganism the polytheistic notions of
their former creed. But from the time of the triumph of Christianity in the 4th c. the
traces of it become more apparent. St. Gregory ffazianzen, in his paneg3'ric of tbe
virgin martyr Justina, tells, tJiat in her of peril she *' implored Mnry the Virgin to come
to the aid of a virgin in her danger "(0pp. tome i.*pp. 278, 279). St. Ephraim, tbo
Syrian, in the same age, uses language which is lield by Roman Catholics to be cauallj
favorable to their view ; and the fact that about this time there arose a sect, the Colly-
ridians, who were condemned for the actual adoration of the Vir^n, seems to them to
prove that some worship of her must hdve existed in the church, out of which this
excessive worahip of the CoUyiidians grew. But it was only after the heresy of Nes-
torius that tlie worship of Mary seems to have obtained its full development. His denial
to her of the character of mother of Qod, and the solemn affirmation of that character
by the ecumenical council of Ephesus (480 a.d.), had the effect at once of quickening the
devotion of the people, and drawing forth a more marked manifestion on tUe part of the
church of the belief which had been called into question. The 6th and 6th centuries,
both in the east and in the west, exhibit clear evidence of the practice; and the writers
of each succeeding age till tbe reformation speak with gradually increasing enthusiasm
of the privileges of the Virgin Mary, and of the efficacy of her functions as a mediator
with her son. St. Bemaid, and, still more, St Bonaventura, carried this devotional
enthusiasm to its greatest height; and the popular feeling found a stronger and still
more strone manifestation in the public worehip of the church. From a very esrlr
period, we find several festivals of the "blessed Virgin;" but in the centuries to which
we refer, the number received larspe additions. The institution of the ** Rosary of tbe
Virgin Mary," the appointment of a special office in her honor, and more than all, the
fame of many of the sanctuaries which were held to be en)ecially sacred to her wor
ship, cave a prominence to the devotion which Protestants find it difficult to reconcile
with tne honor which they hold due to God alone.
The chief festivals of the Virgin, common to the western and eastern churches, are
the conception, the nativity, the purification, the annunciation, the visitation, and the
assumption. All these festivals arc retained in the English calendar. The Roman
church has several special festivals, with appropriate offices— all, however, of minor
solemnity.
MARIOK, a co. in n.w. Alabama, having the state line of Mississippi for its n.w.
boundary; bounded on the n.e. by the Big Bear river; 900 sq.m.; pop. '80. 9.864-
0.862 of American birth, 523 colored. It is drained by the Buttahatchie and Sipttj
creeks, branches of the Tennessee and Tombigbee rivers. Its surface is undulating, nong
into hills in some sections containing beds of bituminous coal, a large proportion hemg
covered with forests, Its agricultural products are tobacco, cotton, wool sweet -poto-
toes, butter, honey in large quantities, sorghum, oats, corn, rye, and wheat Cattle,
sheep, and swine are raised. Seat of justice, Pikeville.
MARION, a co. in n. Arkansas, having Ihe state line of Missouri lor Its n. boandary,
the White river for its s.e.. and the Buffalo Fork, one of the chief affluents of Uie Whits
river, for a part of its s. border; 600 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 7,907—7,896 American birth. 48
colored. It is drained by Crooked creek, flowing centrally through it into White river,
and has a surface formed of the ridges of the Ozark mountains, partially covered
with groves of chestnut, ash. hickory, etc. Its soil is adapted to the raising of fruit,
live stock, every kind of grain, tobacco, cotton, sweet-potatoes, and sorghum. Honey
is produced in large Quantities, and the products of the dairy. Its mineral nroducti
are lead ore, variegatca marble, and Silurian limestone. Seat of justice, Yellville.
MARION, a co. in n. Florida, intersected by the Ocklawaha river, flowing into lake
Griffin in the next county; has for its n.e. boundary lake Qjorge and the St. John*8 river,
and has Orange lake in the extreme n., and smaller lakes, including Biyant and Ware in
the e. section; 2,000 sq.m ; pop. *80, 18,046—12,961 of American birth, 8,805 colored.
The Withhicoochee river forms part of its s.w. boundary. Extensive forests of good
building timber grow along the river banks and surround the lakes; in other sections
the level surface spreads out into fertile plains. Its agricultural products are tropical
fruits, rice, oats, cotton, and corn, and its soil is specially adapted to the caltivalion of
sugar-cane and oranges. Carriages are manufactured. Seat of Justice. Ocahi.
" o --o -Digitized ffyVjiOuyiC
497
MAIQOS, a CO. in w. Georgia, drained by tho head waters of the Flint river and
Einchafoonee creek; 450 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 8,508— 8.505 of American birth, 4,807 colored.
The SoQthwestem railroad crosses the extreme n.w. comer. Its surface, generalljr level,
is covered to a great extent with hardwood timber, and the growth of swampy districts.
Ita soil produces fruit, oats, com, tobacco, cotton, lye, wool, sweet potatoes, butter,
honey, and su^r-cane. Much attention is paid to the raising of live-stock. Seat of
justice, Buena vista.
MARION, a s. central co. of Illinois, intersected by the Illinois Central and Ohio and
Mississipi^ railroads; 576 sq.m.; pop. '80, 28,601. It is a prairie country, the produc-
lions being grain, cattle, and wool. Co. seat, Salem.
MARION, a central co. of Indiana, the converging point of 19 completed railroad
lines (see Indianapolis); 420 sqjn. ; pop. '80. 102,780. It possesses a level surface,
except in the northern part. The soil is fertile, producing grain and hay in large
quantities. Other productions are cattle and wool. Co. seat, Indianapolis.
MARION, a s. central co. of Iowa, watered by the Des Moines river, and intersected
by the Bes Moines Valley railroad. It has a varieid surface and fertile soil. The produc-
tions are coal, iron, catUe, grain, and wooL Co. seat, Enoxville.
MARION, a CO. in s.e. central Kansas; 060 sq.m.; pop. '80, 13,457— American,
8,603. The increase in population is most remarkable, the census of '70 giving but 768;
the estimate of '75, 5,907; and of '78, 8,806. The county is drained by Cottonwood
creek, which furnishes water-power. The surface is a rolling plain, and produces com,
wheat, and hay in great abunoance. Stock-raising is a leading industry. Traversed by
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railroad. Chief town, Marion Center.
MARION, a central co. of Kentucky, watered by branches of Salt river, and inter*
sected bv a branch of the Louisville and Nashville railroad; 885 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 14,691.
The surface is varied in character, the soil is fertile, and grain, tobacco, and wooltu:e
prodiioed in kirge quantities, while live stock is largely raised. Co. seat, Lebanon.
MARION, a co. in s.w. Mississippi, having the state line of Louisiana for its 8.w.
border, is intersected by the Pearl river in the w. section; about 1500 sq.m.; pop. '80,
6,901-*6,899 of American birth, 9,450 colored. It is drained by Black and Red creeks,
affluents of Leaf river. Its surface is generally level, partially tillable, and largely cov-
ered with timber. Its soil is sandy, and not remarkably productive; but there is a fair
farmii^ district near the Pearl river, where the products are tobacco, cotton, wool, sweet
potatoes, butter, honey, sugar-cane, rice, oats, com, and live stock. Seat of Justice,
Columbia.
MARION, a co. in n.e. Missouri; 460 sq.m.; pop. '80, 24,887—22,828 of American
bhrth. The Mississippi river bounds it on the e., and it is also drained by the North and
South rivers, and the n. and s. forks of the Fa^ius. It is traversed by the Hannibal and
8t. Joseph railroad. The surface is in part prairie and in part forest Principal prod-
ucts: wheat, oats, hay, and Indian com. Chief town, Palmyra.
MARION, a n. centra] co. of Ohio, intersected bv the Atlantic and Great Western
and Bee-line railroads; 860 sq.m. ; pop. 80, 20,564. It is a level and fertile region, pro-
ducing, cattle, grain, and wool, and manufacturing large quantities of lumber. Co. seat»
Marion.
MARION, a co. in w. Oregon, bounded e. by the Cascade range, and w. by the Wil-
lamette river, by which, with its tributaries, it is drained; pop. '80, 14,576. It is traversed
by the Northem Califomia railroad. The principal products are the cereals, and in 1870
there were raised 282,091 bushels of wheat, and 164,087 of oats. Sheep-breeding is
carried on to some extent. The e. part of the county is hilly and mountainous, but
contains considerable quantities of the precious metals, and of iron and coal. The chief
town, Salem, is also the capital of the state.
MARION, a co. in e. South Carolina, having the Little Pedee river for its e. boundary,
Lynch's river for its s. and s.w. ; intersected in the w. section bv the Great Pedee, and hav-
ing the state line of North Carolina for its n.e. boundary; 1050 sq.m.; pop. '80, 84.107
--84,042 of American birth, 18,228 colored. The Wilmington, Columbia and Augusta
railroad crosses it centrally. Its surface is generally level and equally divided between
forest and cultivated land. Its soil is a sandy loam, very fertile in some localities, pro-
ducing fruit, tobacco, cotton, oats, corn, sweet potatoes, wool, wine, butter, sugar-cane,
and large quantities of honey, rye, and wheat; other product^ are tuipentine and tar.
Cattle, sheep, and swine are rais^. Seat of justice, Marion Court-House.
MARION, a co. in e. Tennessee, having the state line of Alabama for its s. boundary,
is drained by the Tennessee river running at the foot of a range of the Cumberland
mountains in the s.e. section, and the Sequatchie river emptying into it in the same
region; 700 sq.m.; pop. *80, 10,911—10.712 of American birth. 1369 colored. It is tra-
versed in the s. section by the Bridgeport, Alabama, to Victoria, Tennessee, division of
the Naahville, Chattanooga and St. lx>uis railway; by the Sequatchie branch centrally
to Victoria; and the Sewanee railroad crossing its n.w. corner. A large proportion of
the surface, which along the rivers rises into steep hi^h bluffs or buttes, is covered with
forestB or occasional groves, and the soil is productive. Cora, tobacco, cotton, fruit,
U. K. IX.— 82
Marlon. J.Qft
wool, sweet potatoes, wine, and great quatitities of honey are produced; other products
are sDrglium, maple sugar, every kind of ^rain, and live stock lu large numbers. Bitu-
minous coal, iron ore, and fire-clay are mined, and its principal industries are connected
with their mining and manufacture. In the n. w. are medicinal springs impregnated with
iron. Seat of justice, Jasper.
MARION, a co. in n.e. Texas, having the state line of Louisiana for its e. boundary,
is dniined by tbe navigable Caddo lake 20 m. in lengtli, comprising a third of tlie e.
section, and Big Cypress bayou, flowing through it from n.w. to the s.e. section; about
800 sq.m.; pop. '80. 10,985—10,745 of American birth. 7,229 colored. It is traversed
centrally by the Jefferson division of the Texas and Pacific railroad, forming a juucUon
with the East Line and Red River railroad at Jefferson. Its surface is uneven atid well
wooded with every kind of timber. Iron ore is among its mineml products, and min-
eral springs appear in some localities. Its soil has every element of fertility, es[)ecially
tlie bottom lands, producing sweet potatoes, com, live stock in general; great numbers
of beef cattle aud large quantities of cotton are raised, which are among its exports.
Its niauufuciories include iron foundries and tanneries. Seat of justice, Jefferson.
MARION, a co. in n. West Yirffinia, intersected from s.w. to n.e. by the Monongar
hela river, and from n.w. tos.e. by the Baltimore and Ohio railroad; 330 sq.m. ; pop. '80.
17,198—17,052 of American birth, 155 colored. The Monongahela river is navigable to
Fairmont, and the co. is also drained by Trygart's Valley river. Its surface is uneven,
and largely cov/sred with forests. Its soil is very fertile, and its agricultuial products
are fruit, buckwheat, Indian corn, wool, flax, maple sugar, sorghum, oats, wheat, honey,
live stuck, and dairy products. Among its mineral products are bituminous coal, irun
ore, and glass sand. Its manufactories arc tanneries and lumber mills; also, thrasbiug-
machiues, flour, cigars, furniture, and machinery are manufactured, and coal is mincIL
Se^it of justice, Fairmont.
MARION, the chief t. of Ferry co., in w. central Alabama; pop. 2,646. It is 28 m.
from Selma, on the Selma, Marion and Memphis railroad, and is the seat of Uie Howard
^ptist college, founded in 1887; and also of the Marion and Judson seminaries for
girls. There are two weekly papers, a bank, six churches, a few machine-ahops; and
Uxe place has a good trade in cotton and corn with the surrounding country.
MARION, a t. in Ohio, near the center of Marion co., 85 m. n.e. of Davton. 40m.
n. of Columbus. It is on the Atlantic and Great Western, Columbus and Toledo, and
CleveUmd, Columbus, Cincinnati and Indianapolis railroads. It has a court-h( use. 3
newspapers, banks, and 9 churches. There are grain-elevators, machine and carriage
shops, and manufactories of chairs, sashes and blinds, chains, and rakes. Pop. of whole
township, '70, 8,486.
MARION, Francis, 173^95; b. near*Georgetown, S. C. He received a scanty edu-
cation, and after a trial of seafaring life, in which he was wrecked and with difficulty
rescued, engaged in farming. When the war with the Cherokee Indians arose, 175tf.
he immediately enlisted, and as a cavalry lieut. did good service in the campaigns of
1759-61. At the outbreak of the revolution, Marion was chosrn a dele^te to the South
Carolina congress, but soon organist a company of volunteers in his neighborhood,
and placed it under the command of col. William Moultrie. His first active service was
in Charleston harbor, and later in the defense of fort Moultrie, June 28, 1776; and his
gallant conduct there was rewarded hj promotion to the rank of lieutcol. He was
present at the siege of Charleston, 1780, having meanwhile been actively engaged in
various parts of Georgia and South Carolina. He was not in tlie city at the time of iu
surrender to gen. Clinton, owing to a severe accident which kept him from duty. After
that disaster, Marion, then a col., raised several companies of volunteers amonsr tbe
country lads, or ** cowboys" as the tories called them, and witli this force marched to
the relief of gen. Gates, at that time in North Carolina. Though poorly armed, wretch-
edly dressed, and at first exposed to much ridicule on that account, Marion's brigade
proved of the greatest value, through their intimate knowledge of localities and tbe
native shrewdness which earned forlheir loader the sobriquet of ** Swamp Fox." From
the Pedee to the Santee river, and from the sea-coast back to the central counties, tbe
imperfectly drilled, but sturdy and enthusiastic brigade seemed to cover all points at
once, and caused no little embarassment to the British forces. Among the most noted
of the en.srngements in which Marion took part, may be named fort Mosle, fort Wilson.
Granby, Parker's ferry, and Eutaw. At the close of the war gen, Marion resumed his
former occupation, and remained on his plantation till his death.
XABIOKETTES, little jointed puppets of wood or cardboard, representing men and
women, and moved by means of cords or springs by a concealed agent. They are
exhibited in what are called marionette theaters, the exhibitor varying his voice, so thnt
a sort of dramatic performance is accomplished. This entertainment was known to the
Greeks, and from I hem passed to the Romans. In modern timcF, it has chiefly prevailed
in France and Italy, and has there reached a very respectable degree of artistic perfec-
tion
MARION HARLAND (pseud.). See Terhunk. Maby ViRaiNiA. J^ IC
499
■ASIOrn, Edmx, a distinguished French nataral philosopher, was h. in Bdr-
gnndy during the first half of the 17th c, and was the prior of St. Martin-sous-Beaune,
when the academy of sciences admitted him within its pale in 1066. His life is devoid
of particular interest, having been almost wholly spent in his cabinet, among his books
aud instruments. He died in 1684. Mariotte's forte consisted in an extraordinary power
of drawing conclusions from experiment. He repeated Pascal's experiments on gravita-
tion, and detected some peculiarities which had escaped tliat ingenious philosopher;
couHrmed Galileo's theory of motion; enriclied hydraulics with a multitude of discov-
eries; and finally made a thorough investigation into the subject of the conduction of
water, and calculated the strength necesstyry for pipes under different circumstances.
His collected works were published at Leyden in 1717, and at the Hague (2 vols. 4to) in
1740. His TraUe du Mouvemeni des JBatix was published by La Hire (Paris, 1786. 12moX
XAJtlOTn, Law of, an empirical law deduced by Boyle (q.v.) and Mariotte (q.v.)
from two iudepeodent series of experiments, though, strangely enough, reached by both
at about the same time. It is generally expressed as follows: The temperature remaining
tJie i^me, the volume of a given mass of gas is in inverse ratio to the pressure which it sustains.
This law may be held to be substantially correct within a considerable range of pres-
sure. But the labors of Regnault have made it evident that atmospheric air and most
other giises, especially under very high pressures, are really more compressed than if
they followed tlie law. This deviation is most marked in Uie case of gases capable of
being liquefied, as they approach the point of liquefaction.
MAIUOTTE'8 IKSTKUMENT, a J-shaped tube for demonstrating^tbc law of Mari-
otte or Boyle, that the volume of a gas is inversely as the pressure upon it. The closed
end of the J is onlj[ a few inches in length, while the open end is over 80 inches. Mer-
cury being poured in till it is 80 in. higher in the long than in the short leg, it will be
fuuud that the air in the latter will occupy one-half its former space. If the column of.
mercury is 15 in. higher in the long leg, or half an atmosphere, making the pressure
altogether | of an atmosphere, the volume of air in the closed or short end will have f
of ii^ former volume. 8e6 Mabiotte, Law of, ante.
MAIilPO'SA, a CO. in e. central California; 1440 sq.m.; pop. '80, 4,389—1880 being
foreign. It is drained by the Merced and Mariposa branches of the San Joaquin river;
on the n. and e. it is bounded by spurs of the Sierra Nevada. In the n.e. part are
the dir-famed Yosemite falls and some of the grandest and most picturesque scenery of
the world. More to the s. are three collections of mammoth trees, containing more than
425 specimens, of which 134 are over 15 ft. in diameter. Many of them are from 275 to
375 ft. in height and from 25 to 34 ft. in diameter. It is supposed that the age of some of
these trees is at least 2,500 years. The entire country is rich in gold mines and has been
the scene of very extensive mining operations. The western part is level and fertile; ia
1870 there were produced over 12,000 bushes of wheat and barley; wool and hay are
also staples, and sheep breeding is carried on with great success. Chief town, Man-
p0S2l
MARIS'CAL, Ionacio. b. Mexico, 1829; caUed to the bar in 1849, and the next year
made solicitor-general of Oaxaca. He was appointed judge of the Oaxaca court in 1859,
and of the circuit court in 1860. He was secretary of legation at Washington from
1863 to 1^66, and charge d'affaires from 1867 to 1868. In the latter year, Juarez
mtulf* him minister of justice; in 1869 he came to the United States as envoy extra-
ordinary; and 1871-72 he was Mexican secretary of state. In 1872 he was once more
appoiiiU'd minister to this country, where he remained till the Diaz revolution in 1877.
HABIT ZA (the anc. IJebrus), a river of European Turkey, rises in the Balkans, and
flows e.s.e. through the province of eastern Roumelia to Adrianople, where it bends s.,
and falls into the i£gean by the gulf of £nos. It is upwards of 300 m. in length, and
IS navigable to Adrianople, about 100 m. from its mouth.
KABIV'POL, or Martahpol, a seaport in the government of Ekaterinoslav, Russia,
is SI tun ted near the place where the Kalmius falls into the sea of Azov, 60 m. w. of
Tag:inrog. It was founded in 1779 by Greek emigranis from the Crimea, and the port
was opened to foreign vessels in 1886, when 20 ships entered it; but afterwards their
numlier increased to more than 800. The articles of export are wheat, linseed, wool.
and hides from the adjacent provinces, the value being about £500.000. The imports
are insignificant, ships most commonly arriving in ballast. Pop. '67, 7,760, who speak
a corrupt jargon derived from the Turkish and Greek languages,
XABIirS, C, a Roman general, wa3 born of an obscure family, at the village of
CerentsB. near Arpinum, 167 B.C. In the Numantine war (184 B.C.) he served with
great distinction under the younger Scipio Africanus, who treated him with high con-
sideration, and even indicated that he thoucht him a fit successor to himpelf. In 119
B.C. be was elected tribune of the plebs, and si-nalized himself by his vigorous opposi-
tion to the nobles, by whom he wa<* intensely hated. In 114 b.c. he went to Spain as
prt>T>r«ptor. and cleared the country of \he ri>blH»rs who infested it. He now married
Jii'in. the aunt of Julius C«s«r. He noconipanied Q. Cascilius Metellus to Africa in
109 B.C.. was elected cnn«ul 2 years after, and intrusted with the conduct of the Jugur
than war, which he brought to a successful close in the beginning of 106 B.c.J^s^fem
SKSr^ 600
this period dates the jealousy between him and L. Sulla, then his qufestor, which was
ultimately productire or so many horrors. Meanwhile, an immense horde of Cimbri,
Teutones, and other northern barbarians, had burst into Gaul, and repeatedly defeated
the Roman forces with great slaughter. Marius was again called to the consulate for
the year 104 b.c., and for the third, fourth, and fifth time in the following years, 108-
101 B.C., for it was felt that he alone could save the republic. The war against tlie
Teutones in Transalpine Gaul occupied him for more than 2 years; but he finally anoi-
hilated them in a battle of 2 days^ duration at Aqus Sextise, now Aix, in Provence,
where 200,000^according to others, 100,000— Teutones were slain. After this be
assumed the chief command in the n. of Ita|y against the Cimbri (q.v.), whom he also
overthrow, near Vecells to the w. of Milan, with a like destruction (101 B.G.). The
people of Rome knew no bounds to their joy. Marius was declared the savior of the
state, the third founder of Rome, and his name was mentioned along with those of the
gods at banquets. He was made consul for the sixth lime in 100 b.c. It has often
been remarked that, had he died at this period, he would have left behind him one of
the greatest reputations in Roman history. When Sulla, as consul, was intrusted with
the conduct of the Mithridatic war, Marius, who had long manifested an insane jealousy
of his patrician rival, attempted to deprive him of the command, and a civil war began
(88 B.C.). Marius was soon forced to flee, and after enduring the most frightful hard-
ships, and making numerous hairbreadth escapes, he reached Africa, where he remained
until a rising of his friends took place under Clnna. He then hurried back to Italy,
and, along with Cinna, marched against Rome, which was bbliged to yield. Marius
was delirious in*liis revenge upon the aristocracy; a band of 4,000 slaves carried on the
work of murder for 5 days and nights. Marius and Cinna were elected consuls together
for the year 86 B.C., but the former died after he had held the office 17 days.
MARIVAUX, PiBBRE Cablet db Chamblain db, 1688-1763; b. Paris. He wrote
•many comedies, mostly for the Italian theater, but they are not now performed. The
best are Lejeu de V Amour et du Hasard, and Les Fausses Confidences. He wrote also the
romances Laviede Mariane, and Le Paysan Parvenu, He was elected a member of the
French academy in 1743.
XAB'JOBAK, Origanum, a genus of plants of the natural order labiaUB, having a
10-ribbed, 5-tootlied calyx, loose spikes, and broad bracts. The species are annual.
perennial, and shrubby plants, natives chiefly of the east, and of the countries bordering
on the Mediterranean. They abound in a yellow essential oil — oil of ma/tyoram or oil of
origanum — which is obtained from some of the species bv distillation. The Commok
Marjoram (0. vulgare) is the only species found in Britain, and is not unfrequent in
dry hilly and bush^ places. It is a perennial plant, has a stem 1 foot high, ovate leaves,
and roundish, panicled, crowded heads of purple flowers, with large bracts. It is used,
as are also other species, as a seasoning in cookery, and an infusion of it is a stimulant,
tonic, and remedy for nervousness. The powder is an errhine. The essential oil is
used as a palliative of toothache, and is mixed with olive oil, to make a stimulating lini-
ment, which is used as a remedy for baldness and in rheumatic complaints, and in casefi
of sprains and bruises. — The Swebt Marjoram of our gardens (0. majoi'ana) is an
annual plant, a native of Greece and the east, with ovate grayish-green leaves, covered
on both sides with a thin down, about 3 roundish hea^s of flowers growing close
together, wrinkled bracts, and small white flowers. Its uses are similar to those of the
common marjoram.
MASK, the standard weight of the money system of various countries of Europe.
In Germany, during the Carlo vingian period, a pound- weight (the Roman pound of 19
oz. , which had been adopted as the standard of weight by the Frankish kings) of pure
silver was coined into 240 pennies {denarii), so that a pound of money, or 240 silver
pennies, actually weighed a pound. But in the course of time the coin'having become
debased, a new standard was found necessary, and as 240 of the pennies then commonly
contained al)out half a Cologne pound of pure silver, it was agreed to accept this as the
standard. The Cologne pound was divided into 32 oz., and the half-pound of 16 oz. had
been known by the name of a mark as early at least as 1042; and thus the mark of 16
Cologne oz. of pure silver, equivalent to 7*oz. 14 dwt. 14 gr. English, and now coined
into 14 thalers, has come to be the fundamental standard of reference. In France the
mark was divided into 8 ounoes=:64 drams=ld2 deniers or pennyweights=4608 grains.
The mark of Holland is the same as that of France. The pounS or livre poidi de marc
used in all retail dealings in France prior to the revolution, was equivalent to 2 marks
or 16 oz.. or rather more than half a kilogram of modern French weight. The name
mark was also given to a coin once current in England, in value 13s. 4d. The value of
the Scotch mark was 13^. sterling. The mark formerly in use in Hamburg was worth
Is. 2id. sterling; the mark banco, in which accounts were kept, Is. 5}d. In the new
uniform currency of the German empire, the unit of reckoning is the mark, approxi-
mately equal to Is.
MASK, a German geographical term, signified primarily the mark of a country's
limits (the march); and hence was applied as a designation of the border countries or
districts of the German empire, conquered from neighboring nations. Thus, we read
<of the marks of Austria, of Northern Saxony or Brandenburg, Lausatia, Moravia.
501 ^"^
Miurk.
Bteiennark, etc. Tho governors intrusted with the char^ of these border districts, or
marks, were called mark-grafs^ corresponding to the Enghsh and Scottish wa/rdens ofUu
marehsa. See Mabqui&
the Evaneelist is probably the same who, in the Acts of the Apostles, is
called John Mark. lie came origiuallv from Jerusalem, was a nephew of Barnabas,
and accompanied the aposile Paul and him to Antioch, Cyprus, and Perga in Pam-
phylia, returned to Jerusalem, and went afterwards to Cyprus, and thence to Rome
(see Acta xiil; Col. iy. 10; 2 Tim. iv. 11). Ecclesiastical tradition speaks of a mis-
sionary expedition of Mark to Egypt and the west of Africa, of his suffering mar-
tyrdom about the year 62 or 66 (the Coptic church still consider him their founder and
niBt bishop), and of the transmission of his corpse to Venice, which city has chosen him
for its patron saint. The festival (April 25) which the Roman Catholic church holds in his
honor is no older than the close of the 7th century. The canonical gospel which passes
under his name is believed by some scholars to iiave sprung 'from a primitive collection
of aoUces of the life and acts of Christ, drawn up by Mark, and to have been worked
up into its present form by a later writer, who had before him the gospels of Matthew and
Luke. Others, on the contrary, are of opinion that in Mark's work we have the primi-
tive gospel from which the rest have orignated. Compare Wilke, Der Urevangelut
(Dread, and Leip. 1888), and Baur, Dcts MarcuMvangeUum (TQb. 1851). See Gospels.
MARK THE EvANOEi^BT (ante), called '* John whose surname was Mark/' and simply
"John " in the earlier pc^s of the Acts, but in a subsequent passage and in the epistles
" Mark" only; was, perhaps, a native of Jerusalem, as his mother lived there in the first
days «f tiie church; probably became a disciple under Peter's ministry, as Peter calls
him bis "son;" was a companion of Paul and Barnabas as far asPersa in Pam-
phylia^ where he left them and returned to Jerusalem. When they were about to start
the second time Barnabas was resolute in his purpose to take Mark with them, but Paul
thoogbt that it was not proper to have with them one who had once before left them in
the midst of the work. This difiPerence of opinion on a matter so vital produced a sharp
contention between the zealous co-laborers and friends which resulted in a division of
their work« Barnabas taking Mark with him to Cyprus, and Paul, with Silas as his com-
panion, ^oing by land through B^ria and Cilicia and thence to the west Nearly all the
information concerning Mark which the Scriptures after this supj^ly is found in Paul's
epistles in which the apostle's references to the evangelist are highly honorable to both.
Paul mtkj have thought, on subsequent reflection, that he had been hasty in his judgment,
or, as is more probable, Mark's steadfastness of character may have been increased by
experience and especially by the remarkable dispute and separation to which his earlier
conduct had given rise. One thing is certain, that Paul's notices of him are all nobly
commendatory. To Philemon he ranks him with Luke among his fellow-laborers, words
which from Paul mean much ; to the Colossians he sends the salutation of Marcus's sis-
ter's son to Barnabas, adding the significant parenthesis — "touching whom ye received
commandments, if he come unto you, receive him;" and to Timothy among the last
recorded words before his martyraom, after telling him to use diligence in coming
quickly unto him, he says, "Take Mark and brinff him with yourself, for he is very
profitable to me in the ministry." While the New Testament thus describes Mark as,
during different portions of his life, a companion of Paul, Peter speaks of him &s, proba-
bly at an intermediate time, present with him when he wrote his first epistle. By the
earliest Christian writers after the apostolic age he is described as the companion of Peter
rather than of Paul.
MARK, GOSPEL OF {ante\ was received in the earliest times by the Christian churches
as canonical, and as the work of Mark, under the guidance of the apostle Peter. The
first written declaration to the effect, now extant, is recorded by Eusebius as quoted by
Papias from John the presbyter, who probably was contemporary with John the apostle.
" Mark having become Peter's interpreter wrote accurately all that he remembered, but
did not record the words and deeds of Christ in order; for he wiis neither a hearer nor
a follower of our Lord, but afterwards, as I said, became a follower of Peter, who used
to adapt his instruction to the requirements of his he»u*ers, but not as making a con-
nected arrangement of our Lord's discourses; Mark, therefore, committed no error in
writing down particulars as he remembered them, for he made one thing his object— to
omit nothing of what he heard and to make no erroneous statement." Without com-
mitting ourselves to all the details of this statement, two facts we may consider as estab-
lished oy it: first, that Mark's gospel was in general use among the churclics at the close
of the 1st c. ; and second, that in writing it he wus in a greater or less degree under
Peter's guidance, so that the second gospel mav be regarded as having received his
sanction to the same extent, at least, that the thira was approved by Paul. While neariv
all the facts which it records are given also in one or more of the other gospels, Mark s
shorter gospel abounds in word-painting and precise descriptions which imply that at .
some stage of the narrative an eye-witness had furnished the writer with particulars
"Which otherwise he could not have known. In one instance, while Matthew says Jesus
" stretched forth his hand towards his disciples." Mark's description is, "Looking around
on the circle of those who were seated about liim." Where Matthew says. " He turned
and Bud unto Peter," Mark's account is, " When he had turned about and looked onJiis
Mark. KA9
Marlboroagh. *^v^
disciples, he rebuked Peter." In the account which three evangelists give of the rich
voung man who came to Jesus, only Mark adds, " Jesus looking earnest^ on him loved
nim. In narrating the healing of the withered hand on the Sabbath day, while Luke savs.
"Looking around on them all/' Mark savs,- " Looking around on them with anger, liemg
gi'ieved for the hardness of their hearts. Matthew describes the demoniacs of Gadara
as "exceeding fierce, so that no man could pass by the way : " Luke says of one of tliem
that *' often times the spirit had caught him, and he was kept bound with chains and in
fett^^, and he brake the bands and was driven by the demon mto the wilderness." Mark's
account is the most picturesque of all, " No man could bind him, no, not with chains;
because that he had been often bound with fetters and chains, and the chains had been
plucked asunder by him, and the fetters broken in pieces; neither was any man strong
enough to restrain him; and always, night and day, he was in the mountains, and in the
tombs, crying and cutting himself with stones." Matthew and John were e^e-wltnei^ses,
and had personal knowledge in other ways, of what they narrate; Luke's nurmtive la
some parts gives information that he had probably obtained from Mary and from his-
torical records; and when Mark relates so many particulars which imply the presence
of an eye-witness from the beginning, the testimony of the carlv church is confirmed
that that e^'e witness was Peter. In two instances, the probability rises almost to cer-
tainty: while Matthew gives Peter's confession in full, **Thou art the Christ, the son
of the living God," followed bv the benediction which it drew from Jesus, ** Blessed
art thou, Simon Baiiona, for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, bat my Father,
who is in heaven,' and by the remarkable promises as well as stem rebuke to «'hich
we can here only refer, Mark gives the confession only in the briefest form, '* Thou art
the Christ," and, omitting all intimation of benediction and promises, records the rebuke
in its full force. Again, while the other gospels all speak in general terms of the
cock-crowing in connection with Peter's denial. Mark specifleB the crowing t^ice,
both in the Savior's prediction and in the progress of the denial itself. lo both these
instances we seem warranted in saying that it was Peter, who dictated in the narratiTe
these striking discriminations against himself.
Synopais of Contents, — Omitting all notice of the birth and minority of Jesus and
recording briefly the ministry of John the Baptist, Mark introduces Jesus at his baptism,
followea by the descent of the Holy Spirit upon him, with the voice from heaves, and
by the temptation in the wilderness. He then bejpis the account of his public ministry
at the imprisonment of John; narrates the call 01 Simon and Andrew and of James and
John; the mighty works wrought in Capernaum, followed by the circuit in Qalilee: the
forgiveness of the paralytic, attested by his restoration to health; the calling of Levi,
followed by the entertainment at his house where many publicans and sinners were
guests; the disciples in the corn-fields and the authority claimed by Jesus over the Sab-
bath day; the withered hand restored on the Sabbath; the multitudes drawn to Jesus
from all paits of Palestine, Iduhiea, and Syria; the choice of the 12 apostles; the effort
of the mother and brethren of Jesus to restrain him; the parable of the sower; the
emblems of the lighted candle, of the seed sown, and of the grain of mustard seed : the
stilling of the storm on the lake; the legion of demons that, cast out of the man, entered
into the swine; the woman healed, and the daughter of Jairus raised up; the preccbinf
at Nazareth, and unbelief of the people there; the twelve instructed, empowered, and
sent forth, two by two; the perolexity of Herod, explained 1w a full narrative of liin
having put John the Baptist to death; the return and report of the twelve; the feeding
of 5,000 men with five loaves, followed by the walking on the sea, and by the multitude
of the sick brought together from all the region around and healed; the traditions of the
elders condemned as making void the commandments of Ood, and counter-instructions
concerning true religion given ; the Syrophenician mother, at first apparently rejected
in order to manifest her faith, rewarded by finding her daughter restored; the deaf
stammerer cured; the 4,000 fed with seven loaves; warning against hypocrisy under the
emblem of leaven; a blind man led out of the town and healed; Peter's confession of
faith, followed by his presumption and stern rebuke; the disciples warned concerning
future trials; the transfiguration and instructions connected with it; the dumb, deaf, and
desperate demon cast out; the death of the Son of man foretold; the ambition of the
disciples reproved, and humility taught under the emblem of a clmdr John's narrow
views corrected; offenses warned against under the emblems of a hand and foot to be
cut off and of an eye to be plucked out; the unlawfulness of divorce declared; little chil-
dred blessed; the rich inquirer concerning eternal life; the disciples amazed and afraid;
the ambitious request of James and John; Bartimaeus restored to sight; the entrance into
Jerusalem; the fig-tree dried up, and instnictions afterwards drawn from it; the temple
cleansed, and the subsequent demand for authority silenced; the hypocritical question
of the Pharisees and Herodians, the scoffing question of the Sadducees. the earnest ques-
tion of the scribe, and the silencing question of Jesus; warning against the scribes; the
offerings of rich men and of the poor widow compared; the destruction of the temple
foretold, with the attending tribulations and the sudden coming of the Son of man; the
conspiring of the chief priests and scribes; the broken box of ointment, and the predic-
tion concerning it; the covenant of Judas with the chief priests; the passover kept, the
supper instituted, the betrayal and Peter's denial foretold; the conflict in Gethsemane;
the betrayal, apprehension, denial by Peter, condemnation by the council, and accusa-
503 Af^lborouclu
tSm IMfore Pilate; Barabbas released, and Jesus sconrged and crucified; sceneB at the
cross and at the tomb; resurrection, attested bv appearances to the disciples; commission
and promise to the apostles; the ascension of Jesus, followed by the successful preaching
of the apostles everywhere in his name. The last 13 verses of the xvi. chapter are uot
found in two of the oldest and best manuscripts, and their genuineness has, therefore,
been questioned; but their genuineness is claimed as fully proved by the quotations
&Qim them by Iremeus and other writers of the 3d c, whose testimony is much older
Hum any manuscript extant
MARK ANTONY. See Antonius, ante.
KABXST OYSBT, a term in English law. used to denote an open market. If stolen
goods are sold in open market without fraud on the part of the buyer, the real owner
cannot reclaim them from such purchaser till he has prosecuted the thief. — In Scotland,
the real owner can reclaim the goods at any time, whether in the meantime sold in open
market or not.
KABXETS. See Faib&
^ MARK HAM, Clements Robert, b. England, 1830; educated at Westminster, and
appointed a naval cadet in 1844. He was made lieut. in 1850, but left the
navy the next year. He had been attached to the expedition in search of sir John
Franklin in 1850-61, and from 1853 to 1854 he traveled in Peru and among the Andes.
He was appointed a clerk to the board of control in 1855; introduced the cinchona plant
into India in 18^; went to Ceylon and India in 1865, and in 1867 took charge of
the geographical department of the India office. He went with the English expedi-
tion against Abyssinia as geographer in 1867, and was present at the capture of
Ma^Ta. He has published Fraaklin's FooUUps, 1853; Cvmco and Lima, 1856; TraveU
in Ttru and India, 1862; A Quiehua Orammar and I>ietionary, 1868; Spanish Irriga-
Uon, 1867; A History of ^ Abyssinian Expedition, 1869; A Life of the G^reat Lord Fairfax,
1870; OOanta, a Quiehua Drama, 1871; Memoir on the Indian Surveys, 1871; general
sketch of the History of Persia, 1873; The Threshold of the Unknown Region, 1874; A
MenuHT of the (huntess Chinehor, 1875. He is secretary of the royal geographical
society and editor of the Geographical Magazine,
MARKHAM, Gbrvasb, 1570-1655; b. Gotham, Nottinghamshire, England; was a
capt. in the army of Charles I., and an author of great versatility, having employed
his pen upon poetry, the drama, military tactics, angling, archery, etc. The most
important of his works are The Poem of Poems; Sir Richard de &rinmUe(tk tragedy);
Ihe English Husbandman; and The l^hoU Art of AngUng,
MARKHAM, W1I4LIAM, a relative of William Penn; deputy-governor of Pennsyl-
vania and Delaware in 1681-83; secretary of the province in 1684; deputy-governor of
Delaware, 1691-98; deputy -governor of Pennsylvania under gov. Fletcher, 1693-95; and
unJer William Penn. 1695-99.
MABXIirCKinJT, the fruit of semeewrpus anaeardium, a tree of the natural order
anaeartUaeees, a native of the mountains of India. It is a large tree, with oblong leaves,
and terminal panicles of flowers. The fruit is a heart-shaped nut. seated on a large
swollcb receptacle. The receptacle, when ripe, is roasted and eaten, and resembles a
roasted apple; although, when raw, it is astringent and acrid. The nut is black, and
between the two coats of its shell there is a black acrid juice, much in use for marking
ootton-cloths, a mixture of quick-lime and water being applied, to prevent it from
running, and to brighten the color. It is also used as an external application in rheu-
matism.
KABXIBCH. See Sainte-Makxe-aux-Mines.
KABL (Ger. Mergel), a mixture, naturallv existing, of play and carbonate of lime.
Marls are found in very different geological formations, but everywhere seem to owe
their origin to deposition by water. The name is sometimes applied to friable clays, or
mixtures of clay and sand, in which there is almost no trace of lime; but the presence
of a notable proportion of carbonate of lime is essential to marls, properly so called.
This proportion varies from 6 to 20 per cent. Marly soils are in general of great natural
fertility. Marl is very advantgeously used as a manure, acting both chemically and
mechanically; but different kinds of marl are of very different value in this respect.
The use of marl as a manure has been known from ancient times. An English statute
•of 1225 (10 Henry III.) gave every man a right to sink a marl-pit on his own jjround,
.and there is other evidence that the application of marl to land was common in England
in the 13th century. Old marl-pits are very common in some parts of England.
'The quicker action and greater efficiency of lime have led to its use in many cases
instead of marl, although some kinds of marl are extremely useful in some soils. The
bulkinessof mar! confines its use to the neighborhood in which it is found. — Marl is
sometimes indurated into a rock, and a slaty variety, containing much bitumen (bitu-
minous marl-slate\ is found in Germany and other countries.
MARL'BOROUGH, a co. in n.e. South Carolina; 500 sq.m.; pop. '80. 20,598. The
surface is generallj^ level, and there are extensive forests. The chief productions are
wheat, corn, oats, rice, and cotton. Co. seat, Bennettsville. ^^ .^.^^^^ VjUUVLC
MARLBOROUGH, a t in Middlesex oo., Mass., 82 m. w. of Boeton; pop. '80, lOtliK.
The Boston, Clinton and. Fitchburg; and a branch of the Fitchburg raibroads um
through it. The principal business is the manufacture of boots and shoes, whichia
extensive. There are 7 churches, 2 newspapers, a national and a savings bank, 3 hotelfl^
a public library, a soldiers' monument, and a handsome town-h^l.
XASLBOBOVOH, an old and interesting t. of England, Wiltshire, is a municipal ind
parliamentary borough, pleasantly situated in the valley of the Kennet, 75 m. w.s.w. of
London. It consists principally of one street of picturesque houses. The chief edJfloe
is the "college," a handsome building occuping the site of the old castle. As early ss
the days of Coeur-de-Lion there was a castle at Marlborough ; and a parliament, whose
enactments were called the " statutes of Marlbrid^,'* was held here in the reign of
Henry III. The college was incorporated in 1845; the pupils are about 900 in number.
Marlborough was formerly an important posting-station between London and Bath and
Bristol. It still carries on a trade in coal, corn, and malt. Pop. '71, of parliamentaijr
borough, which returns one member to parliament, 5,084.
XABLBOBOUOH, John Ohubchill, Duke of, the greatest ^neral and statesman of his
time, was b. June 24, 1650, at Ashe, in Devonshire, of an old family impoverished by the
civil wars. Without having received much education he became a pafe in the service of
the duke of York, who gave him a commission as an ensign of guards in his 16th year.
He was present at the reOef of Tangiers, and a number of en^gements with the Moors,
and after his return to England rose to the rank of capt. m a regiment which was
sent to the Netherlands to the support of the French. In the campaign from 1672 to
1677 his brilliant courage and ability gained him the praise of the celebrated Turenne.
On the conclusion of the war by the peace of Nimeguen, Churchill, now a col.,
returned to England. His advancement had been obtained not merely on account of
his own merit, but through the influence of his sister Arabella, mistress of the duke of
York. His prosperity was afterwards still further secured by his marriage with Sarah
Jennings, a lady as remarkable for her talents and imperious disposition as for her
beauty. When James 11. ascended the throne, Churchill was made baron of Sundridge,
and was raised to the military rank of general. He took an active purl in suppressing
Monmouth*s rebellion, but on the land.ing of the prince of Orange he passed over to the
si(ie of the invader very unscrupulously. He was rewarded by bemg made earl erf
Marlborough. He aided in reducing Ireland to subjection, and, having received from
William III. the command of the troops employed against France in the Netherlands,
displayed great ability as a gen. in the campai^s of 1689, 1690, and 1691. But m 1602
he fell into disfavor with the king and was dismissed from all his ofllces, and shortly
after he was even thrown into the Tower for a few days on the charge of maintainio£
treasonable correspondence with.the exiled king. On the commencement of the war ox
the Spanish succession he was intrusted with tlie command of the British army in the
Netherlands. The death of William, and the accession of Anne to the throne in March,
1702, made Marlborough virtually regent, although without the title. His wife governed
the queen, and he himself directed the minister Godolphin, whose son had married his
daughter. A constant succession of victories strengthened his political power. In the
campaign of 1702 he drove the French out of Spanish Guelders, in reward for which
service the queen raised him to the rank of duke>and in 1703 he campaigned again in the
Low Countries. In 1704 he went to thegsupport of the eniperor in Germanv. and joined
prince Eugene of Savov; in July, 1704, he stormed the French and Bavarian lines at
DonauwOrth; and on Aug. 18 overthrew a stronger French and Bavarian army in the
memorable and decisive battle of Blenheim. The parliament bestowed on hira the
estate of Woodstock, and the queen caused Blenheim palace to be built for him, though
it had to be finished at his own expense. In 1705 Marlborough was made a prince of
the empire. During the year 1705 Marlborough was chiefly occupied with diplomatic
negotiations, but in 1706 he resumed that career of victory by which Louis XIV. wag
so completely humbled. In May of that year the battle of Ramillies was fought, which
compelled the French to evacuate the whole of Spanish Flanders, In the summer of
1708 an attempt made by the French, under Vendome, to recover Flanders, brought on
an engagement at Oudenarde, July 11, which resulted in the total defeat of the French.
On Sept. 11, 1709, he fought the bloody and unprofitable battle of lilalplaquet; in 1710,
Ills final campaign, he took town after town from the French. Meanwhile, however,
important events took place at the British court: the queen shook off the tyranny of
the duchess of Marlborough, which had become intolerable to her; Godolphin and Snn-
derlaiid ceased to be ministers, and the earl of Oxford and the tones came into power.
MarU>orough was accused of having embezzled the public money, and on Jan. 1, 171S^
he w^ deprived of his offices, but the charge against him was not prosecuted. On the
accession of George I. he was treated with distmction and made capt.gen. and master
of the ordnance. But on May 28, 1716. he had a stroke of apoplexy. This, though it
slightly impaired his speech, did not prevent him from continuing to sit in parliament
and attending to his other duties till six months before his death, which happened on
June 16, 1722. He left an immense fortime. Marlborough was unquestionably guil^
of political dissimulation, was inordinately fond of mon^' a^(| ^Q^^J)^ been^pani-
K(\K Marlboroaglu
^^^ M»rmler.
mottloaa. But his character had many elements of sin^lar excellence. He was
generous in action, sentle in temper, a devoted husband, and. a pious Christian.
His wife, Sarah Jennings, was b. on May 29, 1660, and when about Id years of age
CMse Into the service of the duchess of York, and became the chosen and most intimate
friend of the princess Anne, over whom, after her accession to the throne, she exercised
the influence due to a superior and extremely active mind. Her power was almost
bonndlesB; the whig ministry depended upon her support, and she disposed of places
and offices at her pleasure, and is even said to have accumulated money by the sale of
them. Her rule became, however, at last intolerable to the queen, in whose favor her
own cousin, lady Masham, whom she herself had brought to court, supplanted her. bhe
retired from the court in January, 1711. She long survived her husband, livin? in
oom|»lete retirement, and died on Oct. 29, 1744, leaving a fortune of £8,(K)0,000 sterling.
The only son of the duke and duchess of Marlboroueh died young, and the title has
been inherited by the descendants of one of their daughters.
XAELUnB-BPIKE, a ponderous iron pin, with a large head and taper point, used on
shipboard lor separutinif (he strands of rope preparatory to splicing or knotting; also
employed as a lever in tightening rigging, etc.
KABLOW, Obkat. See Grbat Maklow.
XAXLOWE, Chbistopher, familiarly Kit, an English dramatic writer, was b., it i»
supposed, in 1565. But little is known of the events of his life. H^ studied at Corpus
Christi college, Cambridge, and took the degree of master of arts in 1587. After leaving
the university, he came up to London, and wrote for the stage. His chief works are
Dr, KaustuM, Edttard II. , Tamburlaine the Great, and two cantos of Hero and Leander, &
narrative poem which was afterwards completed by Chapman. He appears to have led
a reckless life; and on June 1, 1593, he perished in a tavern brawl, it is supposed by the
hand of a jealous rival.
Of all the dramatic writers before Shakespeare, he was the greatest genius; indeed, his
Edward IL may be considered a foreshadow of Shakespeare's historical dramas. His
"mighty line *' has been the subject of much critical laudation. His imaginative force
and splendor are at their best in FavMtu%; his delicacy and sweetness in Hero and
Leander. An edition of his works, with a life and a literary-historical introduction, wafr
pubiiahed by Dyce in 1850.
MABHALADE (Port, marmelada, from marmelo, a quince; which, again, is from Mid.
Lat. wcUcmeUum, Gr. mdimehn, honey-apple or sweet apple) is a semi-liquid preserve,
made by boiling the pulp of thick-rinded fruits, such as oranges, pine-apples, quinces,
etc., with portions of the rind. The most common kind of marmalade is made from the
bitter or Seville oranges, the common or sweet sorts being considered inferior for this
purpose, though also occasionally used. The mode of preparing it is generally as fol-
lows: the rind is boiled by itself, and the white woolly coating on the interior bein^ then
removed, the rind is cut up into thin strips, and boiled along with the expressed juice of
the pulp and a (quantity of sugar equal in weight to the other ingredients. After the
mixture has attamed the proper consistence, it is treated in a similar manner to iam»
jelly, and other preserves. A species of marmalade is commonly made in France from
apric4}ts, peaches, plums, pears, etc.
MATHfAITOE, an old t. of France, in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, on the right
bank of the Garonne, 50 m. above Bordeaux. An important general trade is carried on
with Bordeaux, with which Marmande is in daily communication by steamboat. Pop.
'76, 6.0')7, who manufacture hats, woolen stuffs, brandy, etc.
MAR'MAROS, the name of a co. in n.e. Hungair, bounded on the n. by Gallicia, e.
by OfiHicia and Bukowina. and s. by Transylvania. It is the third county in size in Hun-
gary: 3,998 sq.m.; pop. *70, 220,506. The population is made up of Wallachs, Jews,
Magyars. Germans, and Ruthenians, the latter being fully half the whole number. The
prevailing church is the united Greek. It is a mountainous region, being crossed and
intersected by the Carpathian chain, many of whose peaks reach a great height. It is a
rich mineral country, containing iron, lead, coal, and gold; there are also great salt
mines* alabaster, marble, crystals, and diamonds. Mineral springs are frequent, the land '
is heavily timbered, chiefly with oak ; and there are vast numbers of horses and sheep.
The river Theiss waters tills county, and its valley is fertile, and produces grain, fruits,
and wine; elsewhere maize is the only important food product.
MARMIER, Xavier, b. in Pontarlier. France, 1809. After journeys through Europe
he translated Krummacher's stories from the German into French, ana their success ena-
bled him to make further travels and to become director of the Bemie Oennaniqite. In 1885
he was attached to the scientific voyage of the Bedierche to the Arctic sea. During the
Yoyfige heacqutr^a knowlcdsre of the Danish, Swedish, and Finnish languages; and
on bis return in- 1889 was made professor of foreign literature at Rennes, and two
yeam later was given a sinecure under the minister of public instruction. In 1842 he
visited Russia; traversed the Indies, passing from the Danube to the Nile; in Syria in
1845; Algeria in 1846; North America in 1848; South America, 1849, etc.; everywhere
stuffing the languages, idioms, and literature of the country. His works are numerous,.
Maronites. •^^V
aad valued as a fund of informatioa for students of the languages and mannereot a)l the
people among whom he has been — for he has written continuously as he traveled.
HAEXOKT, AuGUSTE Fk^d^ric Louib Viessb db, duke of Ragusa and marshal of
France, was b. July 20, 1774, at Chfttillon-siu*-Seine, entered the army at an early age,
served as a brig. gen. in Egypt, returned with Bonaparte to Franoe, supported hhnin the
revolution of the 18th Brumaire, and afterwards continued in active military service.
Having defended the Ragusan territory against the Russians and Montenegiins, he was
made duke of Ragusa. He joined the great army in 180d, the day before the battle of
Wagram, was intrusted with the pursuit of the enemy, won the battle of Znavm, and was
wade a marshal. He was thereauer for eighteen months governor of the Illyrian prov-
inces; and in 1811 succeeded Massena in the chief command in Portugal, wliere he
assumed the offensive, caused the siege of Badaioz to be raised, and kept Wellington in
check for fifteen months. A wound compelled him to retire to France. In 1818 he
commanded a corps dCarmae, and fought at Latzen, Bautzen, and Dresden. He main,
tained the contest with great spirit in France in the bej^nning of 1814; and it was not
until further resistance was hopeless that he concluded a truce with Barclay de Tolly,
-on which Napoleon found himself compelled to abdicate. The Bourbons loaded Mar-
mont with honors. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, he was obli^d to flee. After
the second restoration, he spent much of his time in agricultural pursuits, till the revolu-
tion of 1830, when, at the head of a body of troops, he endeavored to reduce Paris to
submission, and finally retreating with 6,000 Swiss, and a few battalions that had con-
tiuued faithful to Charles X., conducted him across the frontier. From that time he
resided chiefly in Vienna. In 1853 he engaged in an effort for the fusion of the French
legitimists and Orleanists, but died at Venice on Mar. 2 of that year. He was the last
survivor of the marshals of the first French empire.
HABXOKTEL, Jean Francois, an elegant French writer, b. of an obscure family at
Bort, in the Limousin, July 11, 1723. He studied for the church, but turned aside to
literature, and after obtaining some reputation in Toulouse as a poet, he went to Paris
on an invitation from Voltaire in 1746. Here he wrote tragedies and operas without any
^reat success, but was fortunate enough to get a secretaryship at Versailles, through the
influence of Mme. Pompadour, in 1758. Afterwards, he received a more lucrative
appointment, the Mercare being intrusted to his charge. His Contes Moraux (2 vols.
Par. 1761), part of which originally appeared in the Mercure, have been translated into
many languages, but are in some measure liable to the charge of monotony. He wrote
other works, the most celebrated of wiiich is his BeliMire, a political romance, containing
a chapter on toleration, which excited the most furious hostility on the part of the doc
tors of the Sorbonne. The book was condemned as "heretical and blasphemous." The
clergy declaimed against it from the pulpits; the city was in a ferment; even the wu?e
Turgot was borne away by the current. Pamphlets, epigrams, caricatures appeared in
great numbers. There was a dead set-to between the philosophers and wits on the one
hand, and the theologians on the other; but the latter were defeated, and Marmontei was
named historiographer of France. In 1787 appeared his Elements de LUterature, consist-
ing of his contributions to the Encyclopedia, in which he had charge of the departments
of poetry and general litarature. It is really his best book, and the one on which his
reputation most securely rests. After the revolution, he retired to the village of Ablo-
ville. near Evreux, where he died, Dec. 31, 1799. An edition of his (Eupree Ckmpf^
was published by himself in 17 vols. ; another 18 vols. (Par. 1818); a third, 7 vols. (Par.
1819-20).
HAB'XORA, The Sea of» the Propontis of the ancients, a small sea between European
and Asiatic Turkey, communicatingwith the Mgean sea by the strait of the Dardanelles
(anciently Hellespont), and with the Black sea by the strait of Constantinople (anciently
Bosporus). It is of an oval form, and about 135 m. in length by 45 in breadth, but bas
besides a large gulf, the gulf of Isnikmid or Ismid, which extenas about 30 m. eastwards
into Asia. The depth is great. There is a current from the Bosporus through it and the
Hellespont to the Archipelago; but its navigation is by no means difficult. It contains
many islands, of which the largest is Marmora or Marmara, famous for its quarries of
marble and alabaster. The scenery around the sea of Marmora is soft and beautiful.
XAB'XOSET, a name often given to a number of small and beautiful species of Amer-
ican monkeys of the genera hapale and^'a^AtM, also called OuiaiTri, and sometimes alec
to species of the genus midas of naturalists. They are all distinguished from the other
American monkeys by the smaller number of their grinders, resembling in this the mon-
keys of the old world, also by the sharpness and crookedness of their nails. They depart
from the true uuadrumanous character in having the thumb not opposabla Ihe tail is
very long, and thickly covered with hair, but not prehensile. They exhibit a very
affectionate disposition ; but unhappily all of them prove very delicate when removed
from a warm climate. The name Marmoset is sometimes restricted to the species also
called the Striated Monkey, or Striated Ouistiti {Jiapdlejaechus, or jaeekus wlgaris),
a native of Guiana and Brazil, a species often brought to Europe, and a favorite pet
whenever it can be obtained. It is about seven or eight inches long, exclusive of the
tail, which measures a foot. Its fur is long and soft, of a fine dark gray or reddisb-yel-
low color, banded with black; a long tuft of white hairs on each side of the black held.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
r\(\7 BlarmoBt.
*^^* MMOBltofl.
KASXOT, Ardomgt, a genuib of rodente, usually riuiked amon^ the muridm, but
regarded as fon»iog«a conneciing link between that family and toiurida; resembling
squirrels in their dentition, although in their form and habits they more resemble rats
and iniee. They have two incisors and two prenwlars in each jaw, four molars on each
3ide above, and three below. The Common Mabmot, or Alpirb Marmot {A. alpinus),
is a natJTe of the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the more northern mountains of
Europe, up to the limits of perpetual snow. It is not a native of Britain. It is about
the size of a rabbit, grayish yellow, brown towards the head. It feeds on roots, leaves,
insects, etc. It is gregarious, and often lives in large societies. It digs large burrows
with several chambers and two entrances, generally on the slopes of the mountains,
where the marmots mav be seen sporting and basking in the sunshine during the tine
weather of summer. They spend the winter in their burrows, in one chamber uf which
is a store of dried grass; but the greater part of the winter is passed in torpidity. The
alpine marmot is easily tamed. The Quebbc Mabmot {A, empetra), found in Canada
and the more northern parts of America, in woody districts, is a burrowing but not a
gregarious animal.
XASHS, a river of France, the M<str6na of the ancients, the most considerable tribu-
tar>' of the Seine, on the right. It rises in the plateau of Langres, flows through the
departments of Haute-Marne, Marne, Aisne, and Seine-et-Marue, in a course at first to
the n.w., and then to the w., with many windings; passes Chaumont, Joinville, St.
Dizier, Vitry, Chftlons, Epernay, Chftteau-Thierry. and Meaux; and joins the Seine at
ChareiitDn. about four miles above Paris. Its len^h is about 205 ni. ; and it is navigable
for 140 miles. It is rather a rapid stream, and In most places with a wide bed. The
commerce carried on upon this river has been extended b^^ means of canals, of which the
most iniix)rtant is one completed in 1851, connecting it with the Rhine.
XABITE, an inland department in the n.e. of France, formed out of the old province
of Champagne, is traversed by the river Marne, and extends southward from the frontier
department of Ardennes. Area, 2,021,488 English acres, of which 1,519,820 acres are
cultivable, and 45,704 are in vineyards. Pof). 76, 407,780. The soil is very fertile in
tlie s., but chalky and arid in the north. It is in the dry and chalky soil of the n. of this
department where the best varieties of the famous champagne wine (q.v.) are grown. la
1875. 15,818,345 bottles of champagne were exported. Of wines of nil kinds, about
15,40«',000 gallons are produced annually. The rearing of a Spanish breed of sheep is a
chief industry, and woolen manufactures are largely carried on. The department is
divided into the 5 arrondisements of Chftlons-sur-Marne, Epernay, Reims, Sainte-Men6-
hould, Vitry-le-Fran9ois. Capital, Chfilons-sur-Mame.
IfABJTS, Haute, an inland department in the n.e. of France, 8.e. of the department
of Marne. Area, 1,545,460 acres; pop. '76, 252,448. The surface is gencrallv hilly, and
is mountainous in the s. and east. More than one-half of it is cultivable, and about one-
third is in forests. The principal rivers are the Marne, with its tributaries, and the
Meuae. About 18,000.000 gallons of wine of an ordinary quality are produced. Tlie
department is rich in iron ore; there are numerous furnaces, and the production of iron
is the principal branch of industry. Tliere are three arrondissements, of Chaumont,
Langree, and Vassy; capital, Chaumont-en-Bassigny.
MARNIX, Philip Van. See Aldegonbb, Saintb.
MAXOCCO. See Mobocco.
MABOCHETTI, Cablo, Baron, chevalier of the legion of honor, an Italian sculptor
of merit, b. at Turin in 1805. Having completed his primaty studies at the lyceum
Napoleon, he entered Bosio's study. On the completion of a tour through Itjily he took
up his abode in France in 1827. and carried off a medal the same year for his beautiful
statne of "A.Young Girl sporting with a Dog." In 1831 he exhibited the "Fallen
Angel." On the outbreak of the Paris revolution of 1848, Marochetti repaired to Lon-
don, where he continued to reside, having met with splendid encouragement both from
the public and a host of royal and noble patrons. Among his best works are an eques-
trian statue of Emmanuel Philibert, executed gratuitously for the city of Turin; the
tomb of Bellini, in P^re la Chaise; the grand altar in the Madeleine at Paris; statues of
the emperor, the duke of Orleans, and queen Victoria; the colossal figure of Richard
cceur-de-lion, exhibited at the portal of the Crystal palace. One of his last works was
a statue of lord Clyde in Waterloo place, London. He died in 1867.
KAB'OVITXS, a Christian tribe of Syria, of very ancient origin, regarding which con-
siderable controversy has arisen. The most probable account represents them as
descendants of a remnant of the Monothelite sect (see Monothelism) who, fleeing from
the repressive measures of the emperor Anastasius II., in the early part of the 8th c,
settled on the slopes of the Lebanon, their chief seats being around the monastery of
Maron, a saint of the 5th c, whose life is found in Theodoret's Bdigious Histories (iii. p.
1222). The emigrants are said to have elected as their chief and patriarch a monk of the
same name, with the title of patriarch of Antioch, and, throughout the political vicissi-
tudes of the succeeding centuries, to have maintained themselves in a certain independ-
ence among the Moslem conouerors. In the 12th c, on the establishment of the Latin
kingdom of Jerusalem, the Ifaronites abandoned their distinctive monothelite opinions.
Maroons. rxfiO.
Ifarqaefcte. ^^^
and reoogDized the authority of the Roman church. Again, in the council of Florence,
1446, they entered into a formal act of union with Rome. In 1684 a college vas founded
in Rome for the education of the Maronite clergy; and in 1786 tbev formally subscribed
the decrees of the council of Trent. Nevertheless, although united with Rome, they are
permitted to retain their distinctive national rites and usa^s. They administer com-
munion in both kinds; they use the ancient Syriac langua^ m their liturgy; tbeir clergy,
if married before ordination, are pnermitted to retain tbeir wives; and tiiey have many
festivals and saints not recognized in the Roman calendar. The Maronites at present
are about 160,000 in number, distributed into 160 parishes. Their putriarch is still styled
patriarch of Antioch, and resides in the convent of Canobin on the Lebanon. He
acknowledges the supremacy of tbe pope, and is bound to lay before him every tenth
year a report of the state of his patriarchate. Under him are 17 bishops, to whom are
subject the officiating clergy of the 16{^ districts alluded to above. The revenues of all
orders of ecclesiastics, however, are very narrow, and the inferior clergy live in great
measure by the labor of their hands. Very many convents for both sexes are spread
over the country, containing, in the whole, from 20,000 to 26,000 members, who all wear
a distinctive costume, but follow the rule of St. Anthony. The chief seat of the Maron
ites is the district called Eesrawan. on the western declivity of Mount Lebanon: but
they are to be found' scattered over the whole territory of the Lebanon, and in all tbe
towns and larger villaj^es towards the n. in the direction of Aleppo, and southwards aa
far as Nazareth. Their political constitution is a kind of military republic, regulated for
the most part by ancient usages and by unwritten, but well-recognized laws. Like tbe
Arabs of Syria, they have a political hierarchy, partly hereditary, partly elective. Tbe
chief administration is vested in four superior sheiks, who possess a sort of patriarchal
authority, and under these are subordinate chiefs, with whom, as in the feudal system.
the people hold a military tenure. They retain even still a custom similar to that of tbe
Sardinian vendetta, by which the kindred of the slain are bound to avenge his death.
The relations of the Maronites with the Druses have been already detailed. See DBrBE&
By an arrangement adopted since the recent sanguinary conflicts, both populations alike
are subject to one governor, who is appointed by the porte as governor oi the Lebanon.
XABOOITS, a name given in Jamaica and Dutch Guiana to runaway negro slavea
The term was first applied to those slaves who were deserted by their masters, tbe
Spaniards, when the British conquered Jamaica (1666), and who took refuse in tbe
uplands, where for 140 years thev maintained a constant warfare with tbe Bntish colo-
nists; but in 1796 they were subdued, and a portion of them removed to Nova Scotia,
and afterwards to Sierra Leone. The remnant fraternized with their manumitted breth-
ren in 1834-86. The Maroons of Dutch Guiana form a number of small indepeodent
communities.
MAKOS' RIVER, in the Austro-Hunffarian empire, takes its rise in the CarpathiaD
mountains of Transylvania, near Mt. Magos; flowing 8.w. through Transylvania it
enters Hungary, where it forms the u. boundary of the Banat or military frontiers. It
empties into the Theiss; length 860 miles. On the left side ita principal branches are the
Kyarad, Kokel, Sebes, and Strehl ; on the right, the Aranyos. In its upper portion it
flows through a country rich in almost all the metals and minerals; its lower course is
through fertile plains. It is navigable as far as Karlsburg, which is the principal city
upon Its banks.
XAB08-VA8ABHEXT, a market t. of Austria, in Transylvania, in a fruitful dis-
trict, on tbe Maros, 66 m. n.n.e. of Hermanstadt. It contains a strong castle, a beautiful
Gothic church (Reformed), and a public library of 60,000 vols. Tobacco, wine, and fruit
are extensively grown. Pop. '69, 12,678.
MAROT, CiJsMKNT, 1496-1644; b. in Oahors, France; studied law, found it repugnant,
attracted the attention of Marguerite de Yalois, and was nuide valet de c^ambre to !^Dcii>
I. His father was court poet of Anne of Bretagne, and had also been valet de chambre
of the same king. Marot s wit, poetic faculty and charming manners secured the favor
of the monarch, to whom he had dedicated a poem, the Temple of Cupid, At the battle
of Pavia, in Italy, he was taken prisoner with Francis I. Returning to France not Iodk
after, he was imprisoned for supposed sympathy with the reformers in religion, suggestea
by his poem LEnfer. Released by his friend, the bishop of Chartres, his pen became
more lively and caustic than before, as will be seen by the following verse from UEpUre
aux Dwmee de Perns :
L*oi8ivet6 des moineB et caffots,
Je la diraes, mats Je crainsTes faeota;
Et des abus dont 1 6gUse est f ouree,
J*eu parlerais, mais garde la bourte.
He was again imprisoned (1690), but obtained the favor of the king by a poem and wai
AAain released. Dreading further imprisonment, he sought refuge, in ISSo, at tbe court
ox the queen of Navarre. In 1686 we flnd him at Ferrare, I&ly, at the court of tbe
duchesse R6n6e, where he formed a friendship with Calvin. Pope Paul lU. ordered the
duchess not to harbor those pestilent men. They left together and went to Venice.
But he was no suitable comi>anion for Calvin ; Marot was simply a free-thinker. Their
bond of friendship was hatred of the corniptions of the churc^ C^rmj^ building a
609
Mwr«a«M«.
faith, hedged round about with the same dogmatiBm that he was oombating. Marot
would BOOH have laB^pooned that as caustically as he had the Roman church had Calvin
not been a f ellow-suSerer from persecution. Marot reappeared at court between 1588
and 1545, but was considered a dangerous heretic; yet he obtained employment in trans-
lating the Psalms of David from the Hebrew into French rhythm. The church con-
demned it, the Iting interdicted itspubhcation; but it circulated nevertheless, and became
one of the favorite studies of the Jansenists and Calvinists. The psalms were set to
music by Goudimel, and sune in the meetings of the Protestants. Marot feh himself in
danger in Paris, and joined Calvin in Geneva. But he found the austerities of the latter
and his followers as repugnant to him as the weaknesses of the monks. Accused of
playing backgammon and other frivolities, he found it more pleasant to leave the city
than to reside in it, and sought refuge in Turin, where he died poor at the age of 50.
La Harpe says of him: "The name of Marot marks the first epodi really notable in the
history of our poetry." Another critic considers him remarkable chien^as being the
first to mold french to a really polished and melodious verse. His works form a singular
variety of tracts, songs, ballads, letters, cock-and-bull stories, madrigals, epigrams,
epitaphs. He was the Tom Moore of his day— precise in the expression of his thought,
and at once witty and graceful. The Raman de la Rose, Frhre LvJbin, Fr^re Thibeaud,
A Madame cTAlenffon, And the translatioas of the Psalms, are a few of his numerous
works. His letters, JEpitres, are considered his finest work.
XABOZIA, a Roman lady of noble birth, but of infamous reputation in the scandalouf
chronicles of her age, daughter of the equally notorious Theodora, was b. in the close
of the 9th century. On the dissolution of all the moral ties of Dublic and private life
which the war of factions occasioned in Rome in the 10th c, Marozia, by her beauty
and her intrigues, contrived to exercise great influence. She was married three times,
and, if we may credit the narrative of Luitprand, bad skill and address enough to pro*
cure the deposition and death of the pope, John X., and the elevation of her son — the
fruity it is alleged, of adulterous intercourse — to the pontificate, under the name of Johii
XI. This, however, rests on the testimony of Luitprand, who wrote some time after
the period, and whose authority is considered more than doubtful not merely by Mura-
tori, but even by so critical and unbiased a writer as Dr. Pertz. Marozia's latter years
brought on her the punishment of her crimes. She died in prison at Rome in 988.
ICABQUE, Lbttsbs of. See Lbttbbs of Mabqub.
XABQirS SAB ISLES are, properly speaking, the southern group of the Mendalia
arohipelago, in Polynesia, the northern group bearing the name of the Washington
ialanas; but the name is also applied to the whole archipelago. The Marquesas isles, in
lat 7"* aO' to 10 ""SO' s., lonff. 188^10 140** 20^ w., were discovered by Mendafta de Neyra, a
Spanish navigator, in 1596; the Washington isles were discovered in 1791, by Ingraham,
an American. Area of the group as under the French protiectonite, 000 Eiuplish sq.m. ;
S»p. 10,000. The Marouesas isles were named after the viceroy of Peru, Mlarquesas de
endoza. In 1842 the Marquesas isles submitted to the French, and they are now gov-
emed by independent chiefs, under the protectorate of France.
MABQITBTBT (Fr. mar^eierie), the art of inlaying wood with|WOod of other oolorsy
or with various other materials, as metal, ivory, shell, etc.
HARQUETRT (ante). See Buhl-work; Inlatino; Mobaic; ants,
MARQUETTE, a co. in n. Michigan, intersected in the e. and n.e. by the Marquette,
Houghton and Ontonagon railroad, and the Chicago and Northwestern railway; about
3,425 sq.m.; pop. '80, 25,898^11,868 of American birth, 154 colored. In the n.e. it
f<vms part of the shore of lake Superior, and it is drained by numerous rivers and creeks,
the Escanaba and Michigamme being the most important, and has lake Michigamme in
the north. Pine forests cover a large extent of the surface, which is generally level.
Its agricultural products are potatoes, butter, maple-sugar, and oats. Live stock i4
raised to some extent. Its mineral products arc gianite, iron orc (red oxide), lead, and
limestone. Iron is found in great abundance, especially in Iron mountain, a ridge rising
in the n.e. section to the hei^t of 900 f r. above the level of lake Superior. Under the
most favorable circumstances the yield is about 200,000 tons from this mine annually.
Mining is the chief industry. Its manufactories consist of furnaces for the manufacture
of pig-iron, mining powder, charcoal, and nitro-glycerine. There arc lumber and lath
works and machine shops. Seat of Justice, Marquette.
MARQUETTE, a co. of s. central Wisconsin; 490 sq.m.; pop. '80, 8,907. Surface
level and traversed by Fox river; soil fertile; corn, wtieat, and wool arc the staple
products. Capital, Montello.
MARQUETTE, a city in Michigan, a shipping point for the coal-mines of Marquette
CO. and depot of supplies, by the s. shorc of lake Superior; on a bluff 25 ft. in height;
pop. "70, 5,242. It has an excellent harbor with convenient piers reaching far into the
lake. It la 500 m. from Detroit by water, and 480 m. by rail from Chicago. It is 95 m,
8.6. of Houston, and is the e. terminus of the Marquette, Houghton and Ontonagon
railroad, besides having communication with the large cities by steamer. It is lighted
with gas, has several machine-shops, foundries, rolling-miUs, and blast furnaces, ft baa
a Dne operarhoyse; 8 banks, with an aggregate capital of $700,0g^^i^^^f^^^^alj
Iarqa«tte<
lArniiC**
610
g:
6 charches, 8 public balls, a park of forest trees, good schools with expensiTe edifloes, a
newspaper, a well organized Are department, and a public librarj. Its water supply
is brought from the lake by the Iiolly system. Roofing-slate and brown stone are
quarried.
MARQUETTE, Jacques, 1687-75, b. France; came to Canada as a Jesuit missionary
in 1666, and after speodiug a year and a lialf in the valley of the Three Rivers learDing
the Indian languages of several of the Algonquin tribes, was assigned to the Mohawk
mission ; but before going his direction was changed, and he was sent to lake Superior,
where lie founded the mission of the SauU Sainte Marie in 1668. In 1669 he was sent
tu La Pointe, among the Ottawas and Hurons. The Sioux broke up the mission and
dispersed the Hurons, whom he followed to Mackinaw and the mission St. Ignatius,
on tlie north shore, where he built a chapel in 1671. The following year, writing with
reat show of pietjr and holy zeal to father Dablon, the head of the order in Montreal,
e congratulated himself with what he had accomplished, and expressed himself ** ready
to seek^new nations toward the South sea who are still unknown to us, and to teach
them of our great God," etc. He had heard in many ways from the Indians of the
existence of a great river to the westward, whose course was south, and which thoy
called by its present nume, Mississippi. It was imagined by the missionaries to empty
into the South sea or Pacific. Marquette was someihing of a surveyor and ambitious
of explorations. As early as 1669, while at La Pointe, he had this voyage of discovery
In his mind. The sagacious governor Frontenac was made familiar with the rumors of
the great- river, and while the unfortunate La Salle hail been turned from his projected
expedition in the same direction, Louis Joliet was commissioned by the governor to
undertake the tour of discovery, and Jacques Marquette was instructed by the Jesuits
to accompany him. The shores of lakes Huron, Superior, and Michigan had already
been explored and rudely mapped. May 17, 1673, they started from Mackinaw lu two
canoes, with five French voyaffeurs, and proceeded to Green bay of lake Michigan,
where the mission of St. Francois Xavier had been established in 1669. They reached
the mouth of Fox river, ascended it to the rapids, which they passed by porttige, and tliea
to its source, where they found a village of Miami Indians. There procuring two freish
Indian guides, they carried their canoes over to the waters of the Mencousiu or' Wiscon-
sin river. Down this thev fioated by day, till on Jime 17 they entered the Mississippi.
l^iey descended it for 800 m. without seeing a human being, when they peix'eived a
trail on tbe'e. side of the river, and discovered a village of Illinois Indians, by whom
they were well treated. When they reached the junction of the Missouri, Marquette
described it as a river whose rapids were violent, and in whose muddv stream the float-
ing timlK»r trunks and branches of trees swept by with a force that inspired fear. He
proceeded down to the mouth of the Ohio. Still further down tb^ discovered iron on
the river bank, and were now greatly tormented by mosquitoes. They met Indiaoft oo
this part of the river who hau guns, hatchets, knives, hoes, and glass liottles for their
guopiowder; and were informed that they were within ten days' journey of the sea: that
they purchased goods that came from people of the east; and that those people dressed
like themselves, and had images and beads. They found numerous and more civilized
Indians as they proceeded, and when arrived at the mouth of the Arkansas, were received
with much comfort and state in the Indian villages. Having arrived at lat. 34% they
feared to go further lest they should fall into the hands of the Spaniards, and on July 17
started to ascend the river. On reaching the Illinois they ascended it, instead of going
farther up to the mouth of the Wisc<msin. From the head of this stream they aR' sup
posed to have made the portage to lake Michigan at or near Chicago; and were greatly
impressed with the beauty and fertility of tlie country. After an absence of 4 months,
and a voyage in canoes of 2,550 m., they were back at Green Imy the latter part of Sep-
tember, where Marquette remained, and Joliet proceeded to report to the governor at
Montreal. On Oct. 25, 1674, Marquette with a pnrty, in ten canoes, set out to form a
mission settlement in Illinois. From the head of Green bay. at Sturgeon cove, they car-
ried their canoes through the forest to the sliore of lake Michisran, thence skirleli the
western shore of the lake to the Ohicngo river, where, enfeebled by sickness, he .stopped,
built a log hut, and spent the winter. On Mar. 80, 1675, their hiit was inundated ny a
freshet in the river, and they gathered their necessaries to pursue the journey to ilie
Illinois, which they made by the portage to the Des Plaines river, an<l finally arrived at
the Indian town of K&^kaskia, where he says **he was n^ceived like an angel from
heaven." After £a.ster he returned to lake Michigan, on which he embarked with two
conipanions and explored in their canoe the eastern shore of lake Michigan. They had
proceeded as far as a small stream, south of the one which now bean his name, when
his strength failed, and he died peacefully, and was buried. The party c<intinued their
iotirney to Michilimackinac, or Mackinaw. In 1676 his bones were dug up by a party of
Ottaw^as, who washed, dried, and lH)xed them carefully in birch bark, ami forming a
procession of 80 canoes, bore them with funereal chants to the mission of St. Ignace,
north of Mackinaw, where the relics were received with solemn ceremonies, and buried
beneath the floor of the chapel of the mission.
MARC^UEZ. Lbonardo. b. Mexico. 1B18: promlMPiit during tlie war lietween Mexico
and the Lnited States, 1845-^, and in 1847 u as active in the defense of the valley of
Digitized by VjU^L^V IC
^11 Marquette*
^^^ BfM-riaee.
MeMloo. In 1849 the sucoessfal revolatioDar^r moyement of Saota Anna was supported
by MHrques, who beaded a rising in Gaanajuato. In reward for this serTiee, Santa
Anna, on receiving tbe presidenc)^, promoted him to high Gomnwnd. Alvarez and
Comonfurt found a bitter and persistent antagonist in Marquez, who conducted against
them a fierce guerilla warfaiv during 1856-^7, and who, duriiis the next three years,
sustained Miramon and Zuloaga in their conflict with Juarez. This conflict he contin-
ued to wage independently utter Hiranion had retire<l from the field, and until tlie
OGcurreuce of tlie French intervention in 1861. He supported Maximilian in his pnigress
througti Mexico, and on tbe latter assuming tbe crown of the new empire, Marquez was
appointed minister of the new government to Constant iuoplc. Fiom this mission lie
reiurned in 1866, and witnessed the downfall of tbe empire, partaking of the last strug-
gles of Maximilian, and commanding the defense of tbe city of Mexico against tbe opera-
tions of Porflrio Diaz. On tbe surrender of the capital he fled to Havana, and has since
made that city his residence. The career of Marquez, though brave and adventurous,
waa stained by unnecessary cruelty. In 1859 he gained the bloody victory of Tacubnya,
and aigualized bis success by tbe execution, not only of prisoners of war, but of non-
combatants, an i:ct which gave him tbe significant name of ** tbe tiger of Tacubaya.'*
Other instances of a similar sanguinary temper occur in the execution, by his orders, of
the prime minbter Ocampo, an4l genei-als Valle and Degollado, who were bis prisoners.
In view of these facts, tbe established government of Mexico, after tbedownfallof Maxi-
milian, set a price upon the bead of Marquez; and on the occasion of tbe general amnesty
granied in 1870, lie wus expressly excluded by name. It is due to him to state that he
has made published statements denying the charges of cruelty which had been brought
against hiu;..
t'QUIS, or Marquess, the degree of nobility which in the peerage of England
ranks next to duke. Marquises were originally commanders on the borders or frontiers
of countries, or on the sea-coast, which they were bound to protect. In England the
title of mar<]ui8 was used in this sense as early as the rei^ of Henry III., when there
were marquises or lords-marchers of tbe borders of Scotland and Wales; and the foreign
equivalent of m/iri^'a/ was common on the continent. Tbe first English marquis in the
modern si nse was Robert de Ycre, earl of Oxford, who was created marquis of Dublin
by Kicbard II., to the no small offense of tbe earls who bad to yield him precedence.
1 be oldest existing marquisate is that of Wincbester, created by Edward VI. in 1661. The
title viSB first introduced into Scotland in 1599, when the marquises of Huntly and Ham-
ilton were created.
The coronet of a marquis, as worn in the United Kingdom, is a circle of gold, with
four strawberry leaves for oak leaves), and as many pearls alternating with them, and
pieced on pyramidal points of the same height with the leaves. Tbe mantle is scarlet,
with three and a balf doubling of ermine. A marquis is styled ** tbe most honorable;"
his wife is a marchioness; his eldest son takes by courtesy the next lower title in the
peerage, except where that is identical with tbe title of the marquisate, in which case he
mu8t take the next lower still, as in the case of tbe marquis and earl of Salisbury, wnose
eldest f*on bears the courtesy-title of viscount Oanborne. The younger sons of a mar-
quis are styled " lord," and daughters " lady," with the addition of Christian name and
surname.
I0E, the union of a man and woman in tbe legal relation of husband and
wife. This in one form or another is the oldest institution of society and the source of
its most ancient laws. Society, indeed, could not long exist without some rules being
hnposed by necessity for the appropriation of men and women to one another, securing
them in the enjoyment of one another's society, and defining their obli^tions to their
children. According to the law or practice of the greater part of tbe civilized world, one
man marries one womitn at a time. The Mormon heresy on this subject is now being
suppressed by force. But this familiar system of monogamy is a comparatively recent
development of marriage. A great diversity of opinion exists as to the particular form
of primitive marriage. It is conceivable that there may have been manv forms. Poly-
eynia and polyandria — one man with many wives, one wife with many nusbands; these
have certainly existed. By the most recent writer on the subject (Morgan, Systems of
(hnsanfff/t'myy and Affinity, 1871 ; and Ancient Society, 1877) it is asserted that intercourse
was originally promiscuous. This negation of marriage is vehemently di8i)uted. Morgan
also affirms a primitive custom of intermarriage between brothers and sisters; the con-
sanguine family of the Malay civilization; and a custom of intermarriage of several
sisters with eacfi other's husbands, and of several brothers with each other's wives. This
custom is said to result in the formation of a gcTis, governed in its marriage relations by
the principle of exogamy — viz., selection of wives outside tbe gens. After this comes the
mamage of single pairs with or without exclusive habitation. The patriarchal family
was largely monogamous; and true monogamy does not appear before the rise of private
property, lineal succession, and slavery. (See on this subject, McLennan, Primitive
Martioffe, 3d ed.; Tylor, Early History of ManMnd; Lubbock's Origin of Gimliiaiion;
Bachofen, Dns Mntterrerht.) The primitive ceremonies of marriage are of immense
number, and some of striking beauty. Those which have left the most distinct survivals
m modem custom are sale and capture. As regards Christian ]^^p§^ iu4Q^^^e«'
MarrUga. «^^-
brand declared marriage to be a sacrament of the church ; and at the reformation iXMm
declared it to be an institution of God. The school of Grotius described it as a contract
oi partnership. Throughout Christendom marriage is generally accompanied by a
religious ceremony. In the eye of the law, even where the intervention of a priest is oa
public grounds declared essential, marriage is a contract, but differs from other contracts
because its incidents are fixed by public law, and because it affects the gMu$ of the con-
tractinir parties. The varieties of marriage as a modern legal institution are well sum-
marized m Bersson's introduction to Concordance entre les OSies Oittilt (Paris, 1866). Wo
can describe omy the modes of constituting marriage in use in £nghuid, Sootlaiid, and
Ireland. For rights connected with the dissolution of marriage, see Divobgb. For ths
effects of marriage on property, see Husband and Wife.
England.— To insure deliberation and to preserve indisputable evidence of so impor*
taut a fact, the English law makes certain forms essential to marriage. A breach of ths
contmct to marry gives rise to an action of damages (though this remed^r is being grad-
ually condemuea by public opinion); but marriage itself will not be set aside and treated
as null merely becRuse either party procured it by fraudulent representations. Marriage
cannot be rescinded by either party or both at pleasure, though that effect is brought
about in another way by certain kinds of misconduct, whether studied or not, of either
Sarty. See Divobgb, Judicial Separation. Another circumstance in which marriage
iffers from other contracts is, that it cannot be entered into in a moment, but certain pre-
liminary notices must be given, and forms gone through. From the year 1753 (the date of
lord Hardwicke's act, 26 Geo. II. c. 33) to 1836 (the date of lord KusseU's act, 6 and 7
Will. IV. c. 85, which first authorized marriages in registered buildings and before a reg-
istrar), the power of solemnizing lawful marriages, when the parties were neither Quakera
nor Jews, was conferred by the legislature on the clergy of the established church ooljr.
Since the latter date persons have Uie option of two forms of contracting marriage: it
may be with or without a religious ceremony; and if with a religious ceremony, it may
be either in the established church or in a dissenting chapeL If the marriage is to take
place in an established church, there must be pubhcation of bans of marriage for three
preceding successive Sundays, eitlier after the second lesson or during the communion
office; but a marriage license obtained from the ordinary of the district, or a special
license from the archbishop, will dispense with bans; fifteen days' previous residence in
the parish by one of the parties being necessary. A registrar's certificate, obtl^ned on 7
days' residence and 21 days' notice, will also dispense with bans, but an established
church clergjrman is not bound to marry on this. The marriage must take place m the
church, the marriage service of the church of England being read over, anu this must
be done in canonical hours — i.e., between 8 and 12 a.m., in presence of two witnesses.
If the marriage is celebrated in a dissenting chapel (and for that purpose such chapel
must be duly licensed and registered under lord Russell's act), a certificate or license
must be got after notice from the registrar; and there must be present the registrar of
the district as one of the witnesses, except in Quaker and Jewish marriages. If the mar-
riage is not with any religious ceremonv, it must take place in the office of the superin-
tendent-registrar, and in presence of witnesses; both parties in the presence of witnesses
there exchanging a declaration that they take each other for man and wife. The canon-
ical hours must be attended to in all cases. The omission of any of these requisites with
the knowled^ of the parties, makes a marriage void. It is felony to celebrate a mar-
riage in a private house, unless by special license from the archbishop. And in all cases
the fact of the marriage must be entered in a church, and aJso in a civil, register; the
latter being ultimately filed and kept in Somerset house, London, where a copy of the
certificate of re^stration can be had for a small sum. The guilt of perjury is incurred
by making or signing a false declaration on giving notice to the officer. When one of
the parties to a marriage celebrated under the act 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 85, resides in Scot-
land or Ireland, a certificate by the session-clerk in Scotland of due proclamation of
bans there, or a certificate from an Irish registrar, is equivalent to a certificate by an
English district registrar. In the case of the marriage of an infant — ^i.e., a person under
21 years of age — evidence of the consent of parents or guardians has to be produced to
the registrar or other officer. If one of the parties applying for license or bans fraudu-
lently represent that such consent has been obtained, he or she forfeits all benefit arising
from the property of the infant; which will be ordered by the court of chanceir to be
settled on the innocent party, or, if both parties concurred in the fraud, on the children
of the marriage. The absence of consent of parents or guardians, however, does not
make a marriage nuU. It may sometimes happen that persons go through the form of
marriage, and yet are not married ; as where one of the parties is already married, the
spouse being alive. In such case it is quite immaterial whether the party so remanying
is really ignorant that his or her spouse is alive, provided such Is the fact; for though,
after seven years, if nothing has been heard of one of two married parties, the other
will escape the penalties of bigamy on marrying again, yet it depends entirely on
whether the first spouse is really dead at the time, whether the second marriage is valid.
Other instances where the marriage is void, thoush the ceremony is complete, are where
the ^rsons are related to each other within the forbidden degrees of consanguinity and
affinity * where either of them is under age, or of unsound mmd, or phyaicafly disquali-
fied. In the last case the nullity must be declared in the divorce court, ab reguds
51^ Marrtes^
iiieitil)6r8 of the royal family (except the issue of princesses married into foreign faxni-
lies), they must either get the sovereign's consent, or save 12 months' notice to the privy
-council, subject to objection from both houses of parliament, in terms of 12 Geo. III. c.
11. Marriage betwixt a divorced party and the adulterer is lawful in England. But no
cleiigyman m the established church can be compelled to marry any person whose pre-
vious marriage has been dissolved on the ground of adultery.
Hie marriages of Quakers and Jews were excepted from the acts prior to 6 and 7
Will. lY. c. 86, and are now subject to a peculiar legislation. They need not be in a
registered building, and the registering officer of the Quakers, or the secretary of the
synagogue, is authorized to be present instead of the registrar. (For mixed Quaker mar-
riages, see 28 and 24 Vict., 18 and 86 Vict. c. 10.)
The marriages of European British subjects in India are regulated by the imperial
act 14 and 16 Vict c. 40, and the Indian marriage act of 1866. As regards the colonies,
the chief imperial statute is 28 and 20 Vict. c. 64, which, however, leaves the matter of
registration to local acts. Generally, marriages celebrated in foreign countries accord-
ing to the lex loei are recognized as valid if Uie parties are capable of marriage. Mar*
riages abroad within the lines of the British armv are sanctioned by 4 Geo. IV. c. 91;
and marriages may take place before British consuls under 12 and 18 Vict. c. 68, and 81
and 32 Vict. c. 61.
Ooneaderable changes have been made in the details of the marriage law of Ireland
by the acts of 1870 and 1871, viz., 88 and 84 Vict. c. 110, and 84 and 86 Vict. c. 40. The
^rst of these acts was required partly as a readjustment after the disestablishment of the
Anglican church in Ireland; but it also provides a form of license to be issued by Epis-
eopalian bishops or their nominees, and by the heads of the non-Episcopalian Protestant
<M>mmunions; and it contains important provisions relating to tlie legalization of mar-
riages of different religious persuasions. Such marriages must be pmormed by a cler-
gyman in a building set apart for the celebration of divine service, with open doors,
between 8 A.M. and § p.m., and in the presence of two or more credible witnesses. A
certificate from the local reffistrar is also required under pain of nullity. The act of
1871 gives the form of certincate required for a marriage by special license; it enables
Roman Catholic bishops to issue Uoenses for mixed marriages, and it extends to such
marriages the power of licensing previously given to other church officials.
SooSuand, — In Scotland, the principle of the civil law, eontenmiB non eanoubihu facit
mairimffmuin, has been adopted ; and this consent can be proved either by a reffulur cere-
mony in fade ecdetia publicly recorded, or in three other modes known to the law. The
chief impediments to this consent are nonage, insanity, impotency, relationship within
the prohibited degrees, subsisting marriage, adultery in the case of the adulterers, and,
since lord Brougham's act (10 and 20 Vict. c. 96), non-residence in Scotland. There are
many notorious cases of sham marriages, where a form has been gone through to prevent
scandal or by way of loke, but no serious intention to marry was present. Also, if force
has been used; or where an error as to the wonuin's chaistity has been caused by her
misrepresentation or concealment; or a mistake of personal identity occurs; or where a
fraudulent conspiracv has been formed, the marriage is null. In Scotland, as elsewhere,
dov^n to the council of Trent, a sacerdotal benediction was essential to marriage; and
the Scotch clandestine or inorderly marriage was one celebrated with an improper reli-
gious ceremony, and quite different from the irregiilar marriage (without religious cere-
mony) punishable under 19 and 20 Vict. c. 96. By 10 Anne. c. 7, Episcopalian minis-
ters, and by 4 and 6 Will. IV. c. 28, all other priests or ministers not of the established
•church were permitted to celebrate marriage. This had previously been the privilege of
the established church. Proclamation of bans takes place in the parish church, whether
civil or quoad taera, in which at least one of the parties has resided for six weeks.
Irregular marriages are constituted by consent, and proved by a written or verbal decla-
ration of interchange of consent per tierba de pTYMenH; or bv a promise to marry, on the
faith of which intercourse has followed (these facts, according to one opinion, requiring
to be proved by a decree of declarator); or by cohabitation and habit and repute. The
consent which makes an irregular marriage may, of course, be given before the regis-
trar, or may be proved by a conviction before the Justices of the peace, under 17 and 18
Vict. c. 80, the registration act. An order appointing registration can be obtained on
proof before the sheriff, under lord Brougham's act, 19 and 20 Vict. c. 96.
Much discontent was felt in Scotland with the corrupt practice in proclaiming bans.
The proclamation was generally not made on three successive Sundays, as required by
law, but thrice on one Sunday; and for this illegality the session-clerks were in the habit
of charging higher fees than would otherwise have been exigible according to custom.
Indeed, the fees charged varied largely over the country, and in some places were so
exorbitant that, in the opinion of many authorities, they were a direct occasion to con-
cubmage and irregular marriage. The dissenters too, rightly or wrongly, felt aggrieved
by the necessity of having recourse to the parish church. To remedy this state of things,
the marriage notice (Scotland) act, 1878, was passed, ''to encourage the celebration of
regular marriages." According to thiaact, where two persons residing in Scotland wish
to marry regulariy, but without bans, each of them gives notice, in a form provided by
the act, to the registrar of the parish or district in which he or she has lived for fifteen
days immediately before; and this notice is entered by the registrar in "the maniage
U. K IX.-88
BlArriasre. x i a
Maurrovr. ^ ^^
notice book/' which anybody can inspect for one shilling; and for seven eonaecntiTd
days after receiving the notice, the registrar is btjund to keep posted up iu a lonspkuooB
ancl accessible place on the door or outer wall of liis uttice, a public notice of (he nmr-
rluge, iu anotlier forui provided by the act. Where both persons live in the same parish
or district, one notice is enough. After the seven da^'s, ii no objeciitm to the marriage
appears on the face of the nonce, and if no objection is stated l)y a third \ycT\y in a writ-
ing subscribed by hiJi and supported by a declaration taken before the registrar, the
latter must grant to the person giving notice a certificate of due publication: and this
certificate is sutticient authority for a minister, clergyman, or priest to celcbrutc a regu-
lar marriage, just as if it were a certificate of pn)chiniation of bans. The certitiiate
must be used within three months of its date; and no minister of the church of ScolUiiul
is obliged to celebrate a man*iage not preceded by proclamation of bans. One puny to
tiie marriage may produce a registrar's certificate, and the other a certificate of bunfli
The act imposes severe pc*naliies on those who celebrate a marriage with a rcligicius
ceremony but without a certificate of the one kind or the other: on legKrars gmnting
certificates not authorized by the act; and on jiersons guilty of willful falsehood in a
notice, a declaration, or an objection. The registrars keep f» supply of form.* for use
under the act. As regards the treatment of objections made to ihe regiarar; whcro
these relate merely to some formality or statutory requirement, the rcgielrar muit nuLkc
inquiry, and report to the sheriff, who may direct the notice to be either amended or
canceled; but where the objection relates to a legal incapacity to marry or a k^
impediment to marria^. the registrar, is forbidden to i£8ue a certificate until he sees the
judgment of a court ot law disposing of the objection.
irelnhd. — As regards marrmges celebrated in what was once the established church
of Ireland, not mudi difference existed between England and Ireland, except that bans,
being under the canons and rubrics of the church, were more easily proclaimed, £ml ilie
use of licenses (which were much cheaper) was more common. Roman CatiioUc mar-
riages were under the common Jaw, and if celebnated by a priest were valid without
btms, license, notice, residence, or confenl. Mr. MonselVs cct, 20 and 27 Vict. c. 90,
directs them to be registered. Presbyterian marriages were regulated by the Irii^h roiir-
riage act, 7 and 8 Vict. c. 81, passed in consequence of the famous case of QMetn and
A^tWt, invalidating all celebration of mixed marriages by Protestant non-confoimis^iB.
This act and the act of 26 and 27 Vict. c. 27, relating to the registration of places of pul)*
lie worship for the solemnization of marriage, are extended by the act 86 Vicl. c. Ki to
meet the case of communities "who are not Roman Catholic, and who do not dctcribc
themselves as Protestant." Other non -conformist marrisges were by registrar's certificate
or license. For a long time, mixed mai riages by the Catholic clergy were foi bidden by
19 Geo. II. c. 18.
MARRIAGE {ante^. The common statement that marriage is a contract i^ open to
many objections. It is argued that the stipulations are in futuro, and that there eon
be no conditions or limitations attached, and that, while the law of contract surpotes all
parties to stand on an equal footing,' the law of marriage, like that of other tiUituf, pre-
supposes that they are not equal, and has even been called the "law of unequals."
Unnoubte<l]y the best statement is that the term marriage is used in law, as. indeed, in
common language, in two entirely distinct senses: first, to denote the contract iiseif;
and. secondly, to designate the resulting condition orstatyt. The relations of the paitics
to one another in this status, their mutual rights, duties, and restraints, and, more
especially, the powers of the wife as to tenure and disposition of property, are irtnicd
under the hetms of Husband and Wife; and Divorce, ante. Ihe question now in
hand is. What constitutes a legal marriage in the Unitc*d States? In the first place, it
may be stated, generally, that the law on this subject Is, in this countr3*, far more Hlicral
in reflation to ceremonies and formalities than in any other civilized land, with the nngle
exception of Scotland. The statutes of the various suites, it is true, differ greatly, and
in some instances the discrepancies amount to positive contradiction; but the general
tendency is in the direct ir.n indicated. In defense of this tendency it may Lc faid iliat
public i)oIicy favors marriage, that liberal conf^tniction often protects an innocent but
ignorant party from the consequences of imposition, and that it tc*nds to discourage vice.
On the other hand, it might be urged that to accept very slight evidence as proof of a
valid marriaire is to encourage thoughtless and improvident union, to open a door
for the legal nanction of vicious entanglements, and that the most sacred engagement of
life carmot lie surrounded by too mnny safeguards.
To constitute a valid marriage there must first be legal cnpacity; which, in most
states, is held to exist in the case of males nt the age of 14, and oi females at 12. There
must next be free consent and mutuni agreement. But not even in Scotlanil does con-
sent alone complete the contract. The wording of the law is: ** consensus ei conctfbitus"
in other words, there must l)e cohabitation. Yet the essence of the contract is consent;
and many nilin.2s indicate that in the United States subs(*quent cohnbitalion is not a
requisite. The consent must be in f>erbn praseuti, in words of the present and not the
future. Here arises a remarkable discitspancy in the method by which tlie courts in dif-
ferent states have arrived at the same result — the enforcement of loosely constructed
marriages. Some few, following the law of Scotland, have declared that an agreement
515 jassr
in f^Bhtf^ followed by cohabitation was sufficient, while most maintain the opposite
doctrine. Thus, in a case where the parties agreed to live as if man and wife, and to allow
tlieir fellow-boarders to 8ui>p<>8e tliem so» nud that after the occurrence of certain events
they should in fact be married, it has been Iieid in one state that this was a good contract,
while in another state *Jie opposite was lield in a very similar state of facts. But besides
consent, the statutes of all the states impose regulations as to license, religious ceremony,
consent of parents if under a certain age, and others, many and various. Are these
requirements of such a nature as to render a contract entered into witliout cohiplianoe
with tlieir provisions void or voidable? In the earlier cases great reluctance was shown
to aclnut that such a contract could stand. In Mifford w. W</iTutet\ 7 Metcalf, 48, it was
held by tlte courts of Massachusetts that a marriage without statutory compliance was
absolutely void. So Paraous. in his work on contracts, sa\s that he linows oi no case in
which a mere agreement to marry, with no formality and no compliance with any law or
usaspe regulating marriage, is actually permitted to give both parties and their children
all the ritrhts, and lay them under all the obligations and liabilities, civil and criminal,
of a legal marriage. But he reluctantl>[ admits that recent tlecisions tend very strongly
that way. And in not very recent cases it has l)een held, both in Pennsyl vanhi and in JScw
Hampsiiire. that a marriage contract in words of tlie present is valid without forms or
witnesses; while the Illinois supreme court has gone so far as to say tliat, where there
lias been cohabitation, the presumption of marria.ge exists until overthrown by direct evi.
denco — u very doubtful (foctrine. See also Fenton m. Heed, 4 Johnson, 54. In New
York the rulings have been very strong in support of recognizing such marriages, and it
may lie reg!irded as now well-established law that the non-compliance with statutory
provinions does not render a ^/ui-jHr/tf contract void, and can bu dealt witli only by intlict-
ing the prescritied penalties of fine or imprisonment on the negligent parties; though in
certain eases it may render the marriage widable. It i mot necessary that both pi^rties
should know that the agreement to Ixi legid man and wife is g.)od in law. The actual
asTt-'cmeiit — which of course must he to assume the legid relations of tnan and wife, not
simp!y to live together — is enough; and if, while one of the parties is acting in good
f litlu tliR other lielieves that he can legally renounce the conlmct, he is not to benefit by
hU treacherous conduct As to whether such a contract as has l)een described has actu-
ally l)een cfimpleted, the question is purely one of evidence; and it is admitted on all
B}<fesiii thi4 country that circumstantial evidence, such as cohabitation, general repute,
re(:< |)ti«iii as man and wife by the family and by neighbors and friends, may bo admitted,
i,nd liieir weight passed upon by the jury.
It i:3 in general true that the lex 206i applies to marriage contracts; that is. if a mar-
riage is good where it is contmcted, it is gr)od anywhere; and it has even lK*en held that
wliere, in Massachusetts, a white man and negro woman went to Rhode Island for the
ceremony, in order to avoid a prohibitory statute of the first state, tlieir marriase could
not be lreate<l as void in Massachusetts. But suppose the laws of Utah allow polygamy,
is it t4> be recognized as valhl elsewhere? or, if the people of one state regani as mcestu-
ous what is allowed in another, are the people of the first to have no protection from the
presence of what they ccmsider a disgraceful example? Probably the courts in such cases
would hold tiiat Itue hci may be overruled by public policy, but the decisions on the point
are not yet clear. A pecuhar class of cases of recent date, in this country, arises from
the laws of Southern states in re^rd to the condition and marriage of colored persons, and
especially their inter marriage with whites. It is held in Fnuiher vs. The Stale, 8 Texas
Oiiurt of Appeals, 263, that such intermarriage is illegid ; in North Carolina a marriage
of the kind made in another state, but without intent to avoid the law, was ruled ^ood; and
by similar reattoning it lias been decided that, in a case wliere the intent to avoid the law
was obvious, the ctmtnict was void. But the main point of interest as to tljcse cases is
whether such laws are constitutional, or whether they confiict with the 15th amenament.
On this point, we believe, there is as yet no decidon by the supreme court.
Here, as in England, the common-law principles as to contracts in restraint of mar-
riage and marriage-brokerage contracts are in full force. Thus, a bond by a widow
not to marry lu^ain is absolutely void; and, in general, the law regards with extreme
disfavor any undertakings or contracts as regards marriage which might have l}een the
result of coercion or fraud.
MASBXEB WOXAH. Sec Husband and Wife.
XABBOW is a substance of low specific gravity, filling the cells and cavities of the
bones of mammals. There are two varieties, which are known as fratery marroto and
oilgf marroto. In some of the short bones, as the bodies of the vertebne and the ster-
num, the marrow has a reddish color, and is found en analysis to contain 75 per cent of
water, the remainder consisting of albuminous and fibrinous matter with salts and a
trace of oil. In the long bones of a healthy adult mammal, the marrow occura as a
yellow, oily fluid, contained in vesciclcs like those of common fat, which sire imb(>dded
in the interapnces of the medullary membmne. which is a highly vascular membrane
lining the interior of the bon?s. Tliis marrow consists of 96 per cent of oil, and 4 of
water, connective tissue, and vessels.
The oily nuiiter of the marrow is compos mI of the same matorials as common fat,
with the olciue (or fluid portion) in greater abundance. Bein«^ of l^^izlP^vific gravity,it
ia well suited to fill the cavities of the bones, and forms an advanta^ous substitnte for
the bony matter which preceded it in the young animal. Its special uses are not very
clearly known, but the fact that it loses much of its oil, when the general natritive
powers fail, or when certain forms of disease attack the bone, shows that it plays some
definite part in the economy.
MAlUtOW OOVTBOYSBSY, one of the moat strenuous and memorable struggles in
the religious history of Scotland, took ita name from a book entitlfNi the Mamno qf
Modem BivinUy, written by a Puritan soldier in the time of the commonwealth. The
highly "evangelical " character of this work, and especially its doctrine of the free grace
of €^d in the redemption of sinners, had made it a great favorite with the few zealous
and pious ministers then to be found in the church of Scotland, and in 1718 an ^tion
was published by the rev. James Hoc of Camock, followed, in 1719, by an ezplanatoiT
pamphlet. The ffeneral assembly of the same year appointed a commission to look after
lx>oks and pamphlets promoting such opinions as are contained in the Marrow, and to
summon before them the authors and recommenders of such publications. The com-
mittee, after an examination, drew up a report, which was pveseated to the next assem-
bly, that of 1720, and the result was the fonoal condemnation of the doctrines of the
Marrow, a prohibition to teach or preach them for the future, and an exhortation (stroug,
but vain) to the people of Scotluid not to read them. This act of the assembly was
immediately brought by the celebrated Thomas Boston (q.v.) before the presbytery of
Selkirk, who laid it before the synod of Merse and Teviotdale. The "evangelical"
ministers in the church, few in number, but supported by a very considerable amount of
popular sympathy (for the Mcnrow bv this time ranked next to the Bible in the regards
of the religious portion of the ScottiBh peasantry), resolved to present a representation to
. the next general assembly (1731), complaining of the late act, and vindicating the * ' truths"
which it condemned. Twelve ministers aifned the representation — ^James Hog, Thomas
Boston, John Bonnar, James Kid, Gabriel Wilson, fSbeneaer Erskine, Ralph Erskine,
James Wardlaw, James Bathgate, Henry Davidson, William Hunter, and John Will-
iamson. These are the famous "Marrow -men" — also known as the " twelve brethren"
and the " representers" — whose names were long held in great veneration by the lovers
of "evangelical" religion. A comnuasion of the assembly of 1721 waa appointed to
deal with the twelve, and a series of questious was put to them, to which answers were
drawn up by Ebenezer Erskine and Gabriel Wilson. These replies did not prove quite
satisfactory, and the "Marrow-men" were called before the bar of the aaaembly (1722),
and solemnly rebuked. Nevertheless, as the assembly was not suppcMted in the posi-
tion it had assumed by the reJigious sentiment of the nation, no further steps were taken
in the matter, and thus the victory virtually lay with the evangelical recusants. It was,
however, substantially the same controversy — though it did not go by the name— which,
11 years later, resulted in the deposition of Ebenezer Erskine, and the origination of the
" secession" body. See Boston, Thomas, and Ebskins, Ebbbbzbb.
MARRUCINT. an ancient people in central Italy, on a narrow tract of land along
the ri^ht bank of the river Atemus. Their territory extended from the Apennines to
the Adriatic; between the Yestini on the n. and the Frentani on the s. ; and between
the Peligni and the Adriatic on the e. and west. They were an independent nation, said
to be descended from the Sabines, and ^nerallv were in alliance with their neighbors,
the Marsi and Peligni. They entered into alliance with the Romans in 804 b.c., but
rebelled at the beginning of the social war. Their only place of importance was Teste,
now Chieti, on the right bank of the Atemus, now thePescara.
XAEBUIC. See Ammofhila.
XAEBTAT, Fredbrick, an English sailor and novelist, was the son of a West India
merchant, and was b. in London, July 10, 1792. On leaving school he entered the
navy as a midshipman under lord Cochrane. In 1812 he attained his lieutenancy, and
was made commander in 1815. While afloat he saw much active service, eetablished a
high charnctf>v for bravery, and was made a o. b. in June, 1825. About 1880 be wrote
his first novel, entitled Frank Mildmay, and this was followed in rapid succession by
those graphic and humorous pictures of sea-life which have taken a permanent place
in every, English circulating library. He died at Langham, in Norfolk, Aug. 3, 1848l
He was married, and left six children. Marryat's wor&s are too numerous to be enu-
merated here; the most popular are perliaps Midshipman Easy; Peter Simple; Jacob
Faithful; and Japhet in Seareh of a Father. His fictions are full of adventure, and are
characterized by a certain rude breadth of humor. Since Smollett's time, no novels
have provoked so much laughter as his.
1IAB8, a contraction of Mavebs or Mavors; in the Oscan or Sabine language,
Mamkrs, the name of an ancient Italian divinity, identified by the Grscizing Romans
with the Thracian-Hellenic Ares. It will, however, be better to treat the two concep-
tions separately.
The Roman Mars, who as a war-god is sumamed Chradimin (= grandis divas, the ^reat
d), also bore the surname of Sihanus, and appears to have been originally an agncul-
ural deity; and propitiatory offerings were presented to him as the guardian of fields
and flocks; but as the fleroe shepherds who founded t^e fflf^pQtl^QieiF^ even more
god),
tural
e:l ^7 Marro-w.
0^> MarMUft.
addicted to martial than to pastoral punBuits, one can easily understand how Mar% 8U-
eanitf should have, in the course of time, become the '* god of war." Mars, who was a
perfect personification of the stem, relentless, and even cruel valor of the old Romans,
was held in the highest honor. He ranked next to Jupiter; like him he bore the vener-
able epithet of Father Qlars-piter); he was one of the three tutelary divinities of the
city, to each of whom Numa appointed a flamen ; nay, he was said to be the father of
Romulus himself (by Rhea Silvia, the priestess of Vesta), and was thus believed to be the
real progenitor of the Roman people. He had a sanctuary on the Quirinal ; and the hill
received its name from his surname, QumntM, the most probable meaning of which is
(he spearyrmed. It was under this designation that he was invoked as the protector of
the Quiriies (citizens)— in other words, of the state. The principal animals sacred to him
were the wolf and* Uie horse. He had many temples at Rome, the most celebrated of
which was that outside the Pifrta Capena, on the Appian road. The Campus Ma/rtius,
where the Romans practiced athletic and military exercises, was named after him ; so
was the month of March {Mdrtius)y the first month of the Roman year. The Ludi
MarHdUs (games held in his honor) were celebrated every year in the circus Aug. 1.
Arbs, the Qreek god of war, was the eon of Zeus and Hera, and the favorite of
Aphrodite, who bore him several children. He is represented in Greek poetry as a most
sanguinary divinity, delighting in war for its own sake, and in the destruction of men.
Before him into battle goes his sister Bris (Strife); along with him are his sons and com-
panions, Deimo9 (Horror) and Pfwboi (Fear). He does not always adhere to the same
side, like the great Athena, but inspires now the one, now the other. He is not always
victorious. Diomede wounded him, and in his fall, says Homer, ''he roared like nine
or ten thousand warriors together." Such a representation would have been deemed
blasphemous by the ancient Roman mind, imbued as it was with a solemn Hebrew-like
reverence for its gods. The worship of Ares was never very prevalent in Greece; it is
believed to have been imported from Thrace. There, and in Scythia, were its great
seats, and there Ares was believed to h&ve his chief home. He had, however, temples
or shrines at Athens, Sparta, Olympia, and other places. On statues and reliefs, he is
represented as a person of great muscular power, and either naked or clothed with the
chlamys.
f one of the planets. See Solab Stbteh.
MARS, Anne FRAN901BB Htppoiltte BoinsBT, 1T79-1847; b. France; called Made-
moiselle ; one of the most Illustrious French actresses, daughter of an exceU^it actor named
Monv^ and an actress Mile. Mars-Boutet, both of Paris. At the age of 14 she appeared at
the com§die JVan9aise in personations of ingenuous childhood, under the care of Mile.
Oontat, the prima donna of the theater. These simple parts continued for many years to
be her rdle, and it was not till she had reached her 24th year that her first grand success
was obtained in VAhbe de VEpee in the part of the deaf and dumb girl. From that time
forward, through a period of nearly 40 years, she acted through the whole range of dra-
matic art with a fullness of talent that never failed to present with delicacy, power, and
good taste each new character in which she appeared. Beginning her career as a child
in the stormy davs of the revolution, a mother at 16 achieving her first great triumphs in
the early days of the first empire, rendering more admirably than her predecessors the
heroines of the classic drama of the neat poets of France before the revolution, and finally
taking up one after another the works of succeeding generations of dramatists and poetn,
Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, Scribe, Dumas, and breathing into their heroines the glow
of her own talents. She prolonged her apparent youth, beauty, and power almost to her
dying daj. The habit of playing in^nuous characters in her youth, and manv years of
practice m simple rdles before assummg leading parts, seem to have ripened those deli-
cate and superb coquetries which beauty and genius combined find latitude to exhibit
on the stage. Beautiful in face, imposing in form, suave in manner, tasteful in dress,
-with a voice melodiously modulated at will to suit everv emotion, she was in appearance
the ideal actress. Her liaison with the emperor Napoleon seems to have made a real
impression on her heart, for on the accession of Louis XVIII. she refused to use the cus-
tomary ejaculation of tive le rai, and had some trouble with the theatrical manager about
it; but the king covered the misunderstanding by settling upon her 80,0(X) livres. She
was not married, and her private life was that of the corrupt society of her time.
Although a generous giver, she left at her death an estate of 800.000 francs.
MABSA'LA, a large fortified seaport on the w. coast of Sicily, 16 m. 6.s.w. of Trapani.
Pop. of conmiune 72, d4,202. It stands in a fruitful and well -cultivated district, and
is a reffulariy built and pleasant town, with a college, a cathedral, a gymnasium, and
several conventual establishments. It occupies the site of Lilybseum, the ancient capital
of Uie Carthaginian settlements in Sicily, and was selected by Garibaldi as the landing-
point of his volunteers in his famous Sicilian campaign, 1860. It obtained its present
name from the Arabs, who, when they held Sicily, esteemed this part so highly that they
called it Marea AUa, "Port of God." Its harbor is encumbered with sand, but its cele-
brated wines form an export trade of great importance, chiefly since 1802, when they
vere adopted by lord Nelson for the use of the British fleet. Thirty thousand pipes of
Ma^raala wine, which resembles sherry, are annually manufactured, two- thirds being
exported. Marsala has also a large export trade in grain, oil, salj^^p,^ ^P^^UUy IC
MARSCH'NER, Heinrich, 1795-1861; b. Germany; a self-educated compoeer. Hfa
opera, Dsr K'jfflidmerbertj, appeared in 1816; Heiuricn IV. vnd AubignS, in 1819; iMr
Vainpyr, his l)est work, in 18;^. In the meuniime he had become direclor of the opera &t
Dresden, a post which he gave up in 1830, wlieii he was appointed chapel-master to the
king of Hanover. There he composed Das IScIiloia am Aetna and Hata HeUing^ and set
to music Mosentiial's OolcUmUk of Ulm,
MARSDEN. Samubl, 1764-1888; b. England; educated at the free grammar-school
at Hull. He began Iffe as a tradesman at Leeds. He joined the Metliodists, imo belonged
to them for some time; but, desiring to obtain a collegiate educition. he entered the
English church; studied at St. Joseph's college, Cambridge; tmd before taking his d«n^
was offered the chaplaincy to New South Wales. He was ordained In 1798, and in 1794
sailed as chaplain to the new jtenal colony at Paramatta, near Sydney, Australia. Seven
years previously, the first convict ship had been sent out. yet up to this time religious
instruction was unknown. For soldiers, settlers, convicts, and all, Marsden v/:i8 the
only Christian teacher. Receiving a grant of land and 13 convicts to till it as part pay-
ment for his services, he made it ihe model farm in New South Wales, and devoted the
profits from it to the support of schools and missions. A mutinous spirit showing itself
among tlie convicts. Marsden staled for England, mainly for the purpose of obtaining per-
mission for the friends of the convicts to accompany them to the penal colony. Tbis
was refused, but his proposal that the convicts should be taught trades was well received.
Having had some intercourse with the Maoris of New Zealand, and found them to be
superior to the Australian native, he endeavored, while in England, to obtain funds for
the formation of a mission among them, and missionaries to accompany him. He
endeavored to obtain help from the church miseionary society. No clergyman could
be found to undertake the mission, but two laymen, William Hall and John King, con-
sented to go as pioneers, and accompanied M!arsden to Australia, Aug., 1809. They
were soon followed by Thomas Kendall. Marsden having vainly endeavored to gel aid
in fitting out a missionary ship to transfer these lay missionaries to their field of labor,
purchased a small vessel at his own expense, which was named the Active, He sailed
with them, and was kindly welcomed by the natives. He employed these teachers in
laying the foundations of a Christian civilization. He frequently visited them, and ia
his fourth visit took with him the rev. Henry Williams, who afterwards became bishop
of a Maori district. He procured reinforcements for the mission from the English and
Wesleyan churches, induced Uie natives to adopt a fixed form of government, provided
for the preparation of a grammar and dictionary of the Maori language, and lived to sec
the people Christianized. In his 7'M year of age he made his seventh and last visit, and
was greeted everywhere as t he friend of the Maori. He found Sunday generally observed,
polygamy and cannibalism fast diminishing, and the people in many respects greatly
miproved.
MARSDEN, William, d.c.l., son of a merchant; 1754-1830; b. Dublin. In 1771
he was ap|)ointed to the civil service of the Enst India company at Bencoolen, Sumatra;
became secretary to the government, and acquired a thorou!^h knowledge of the Malay
language; returned to England in 1779 with a pension, and devoted himself to literature,
and publiished a History ofSutnatra. In 1795 he was made second secretarj*, and after-
wards first secretary, to the admiralty. In 18a/ resigning, he retired to private life and
study. In 1812 he published his Grammnr and Dicttomiry of the Afatfty ijangunge.^xA
in 1817 a iranslation oi Marco Pblo. In 1881 he voluntarily resijrned his pension. Iq
1884 he presented to the British museum his rich collection of oriented coins, and liia
library of books and oriental MSS. to King*s college. He published also Nnmittmntn
Or*ff /i/aW/# (eastern coins); Catalogue of Dietionarieit, Vf^abularies, Grammars, artd Alpha-
bets; and some papers on the language, manners, and antiquities of the east in the Phih-
tophieal Transactions and the Archa/ohgia.
HABSEILLAISE, the name by which the grand son^ of the first French revolution is
known. The circumstances which led to it« composition are as follows. In the begin-
ning of 1793, when a column of volunteers was about to leave Strasbourg, the mayor of
the city, who gave a banquet on the occasion, asked an officer of artillery named Rouget
dc Lisle, to cimiposc a song in their honor. His request was complied with, and the
result ws»s the MarMcUaise — both verse and music being tlie work of a single night! De
Lisle entitled the piece Chant de Guerre de VArmSe du Rhin. Next day it was sVing with
that rapturous enthusiasm that only Frenchmen can exhibit, and instead of 600 volun-
teei-s, 1000 marched out of Strasbourg. Soon from the whole army of the north
resoimded the thrilling and fiery words aux nrmes, aux nrmes; nevertheless the song was
still unknown at Paris, and was first intnxhiced there by Barbamux when he summoned
the vouth of Marseilles to the capital in July, 1793. It was received with transports by
the Parisians, who— ignorant of its real authorship— named it Hymns des MarseiUais,
which name it has ever since borne.
1CAB8EILLS8, the first sea[)ort of France and of the Mediterranean, in the depart-
ment of Bouches-dU'Rhone, is situated on the gulf of Lyons. 410 m. in a direct line s.s.e.
of Paris, and in lat. 43* IT n., lon^. 5" 22' east. Marseilles is a military place of the fourth
class, and is defended by a citadel and other works; the roads ai-e protected by the for-
tified isles of If (crowned by a castle, once a state-prison), Pomegue, and RatonneaiL
^^^ Marsh.
lU harbor is formed by nn inlet of the sea mnning^ eastward Into the heart of the city,
and from its extent (nunrlj 70 ncres), and its great natural and artificial advantages, it is
•caipable (if accotnmodiiting 1200 vessels. The new harbor consists of a series of docks
«r boittiiu (da la JoUette, de VEfUrepdt, Napoleon, Imperial), upwards of a mite long, with
«n area of about 100 acres. Alongside the bnssins de TEntreiiCt and Napoleon are the
bonded warehouses, erected at an outlay of a million sterling, and the finest of the kind
iu Jilurope. From tlie margin of the old harbor the ground rises on all sides, forming a
kind of amphitheater; and l)evond the city proper the encircling hills, covered with vine-
yarcls and olive-gardens, are dotted with white country-houses. Immediately uortli of
tlic harbor is the old town, with its narrow streets lined with higli closely piled houses;
but through it a wide avenue, with branches, lias recently b3en driven. South of the
old harbor is the church of St. Victor, the most ancient of MarseiUes; and farther to
Hit: south rises the rocky hill of Notre Vame de la 6^arde, with its churcli, held in the
highest veneration by the sailors of the Mediterranean. At the foot of tlie hill is the
wfde promenade, Oours Bonaparte. Other fine promenades are Le Cours and Le Prado.
The principal public buildings are the hdtel de ville, the museum, the public librarv with
its 78,000 vols., and the exchange. The ctifee and shops of Marseilles rival those of Paris
in splendor. Marseilles is the first commercial emporium of France. It has many soap-
works, iron manufactories, sugar refineries, etc. The large vessels and steamers annually
entering Its harbor number upwards of 8,600, and measure above 2,600.000 tons. Mar-
seilles is directly connected by rail with Lyons, Toulouse, and Nice ; and is the packet
station for Italy and the east. It is in point of population the third town of France,
having had, in 1870, 284,690 inhabitants. (Total pop. of commune, including military,
318, tjw.) The formerly barren country round Marseilles has been of late greatly fer-
tilized by means of the canal which supplies MarseiUes with water from the Durance.
During a portion of the year the climate of Marseilles is delightful, but in summer and
autumn the heat is often intense. Cold, dry, and cutting winds from the n.e. render the
climate at times exceedingly trying. In the environs of the town are about 6,000 baetidee,
or country villas.
Marseilles was founded by a Greek colony from Phocsea, in Asia Minor, about 600
years b.c. Its ancient name was MdsnaUa, written by the Romans MoMilia. It was an
important mem lier of the ancient Greek community, planted numerous colonies along
the north Mediterranean shores, and introduced the ^rms of Greek civilization into
Gaul. The Massaliots were long in intimate alliance with the Romans; but the city was
at last taken by Julius Ceesar. In the 8th c. it was destroyed by the Arabs, and the mari-
time republics of Italy inherited the commerce of the Mediterranean which formerly
had l)een centered in Marseilles. It was united, with the whole of Provence, to France
in the reign of Charles VIII. In 1720, when it had again risen to great importance, it
was rava^ by a fearful epidemic, and 40,000 of its inhabitants swept away. Since 1830
the commerce and industry of the city have increased vastly. The conquest of Algeria
has brought increasing prosperity to Marseilles, and its North African trade is now an
important part of its commerce.
MARSH. Anne Caldwell, 1708-1874; b. at Lindley Wood, Staffordshire. England.
Sbe was the author of more than 20 novels and tales, of which Emilia W^ndliam, Mt,
Sorel, and Mordaunt Home are usually thought the best. Most of her works were writ-
ten anonymously, and it is not certain how many are rightly attributed to her. Her best
work is free from sensationalism, and of delicate conception, but lacks power; several
of the stories have been republished in this country. During the latter j)art of her life
she assumed the name of ^larsh-Caldwell, and succeeded to the estate of Lindley Wood.
XAB8H, George Perkins. ll.d., an American philolosrist, was born at Woodstock,
Vt, Mar. 17, 1801; graduated at Dartmouth college. New Hampshire, 1820; studied Inw
at Burlington, Vt. ; was elected to the supreme executive council of the state in 1885,
and to congress in 1842 and 1849. He was for several years afterwards United States
minister resident at Constantinople, and in 1852 was charged with a special mission to
Greece. He traveled in the north of Europe, and became an adept in tlie Scandinavian
lanoruages. Between 1857 and 1859 he served as railroad commissioner for Vermont.
In 1861 he was appointed U. S. minister in Italy. His most important works are a
Grammar of the Icelandic Lanpuftge; The Camel, Jtie Organisation and Usen; Ijceturett on
Hie EngUkii Language; The Origin and Hintory of t^ie English Language; Man and
Nature,
MARSH, Dexter, 1806-58; b. Mass.; although possessed of little education, and
occupying the humble position of a day-laJ)orer. was a keen observer, and interested in
nsitunu history. While eng:i.5red in his work lie often came across many fossil foot-
prints on the large stone slabs which he quarried for paving-stones. Of these he made
an extensive coliectit)n from many parts of the Connecticut valley, New Hampshire, and
New Jersey. Many of his specimens were sold during his life, and are now distributed
anionc: various cf)llege8 and museums; but among those retained by him. and sold for
over $2.5!'0 after his death, were more than 500 slabs covered with footprints and marks
of rain, and alK)ut 200 fossil fishes.
MARSH. Herbert, d.d., 17o7-1889: b. London. Having received his education
and a fellowship at St. John's college, Cambridge, graduating with great distinction, ke
Digitized by V-JiOOV iC
removed to Germany in 1788, and resided several years at GOttinffen and Leipsic, vherfr
he published, in German, several articles in defense of the policy of England in the
continental wars. For this service he was rewarded with a pension on the recommenda-
tion of Mr. Pitt. In 1806 he received the title of d.d. byroval mandate. On the
French invasion of Germany he returned to England, and in 18d7 was appointed lady
Margaret's professor of divinity at Cambridge. He abandoned the custom of lecturing
in Latin, and lectured onl]^ in English. In 1816 he was made bishop of Landaff, and in
1819 of Peterborough. Bishop ^&rsh was learned in theology, politics, Greek, Latin,
Gkrman, and oriental literature. He was the first who brought into England the bibli.
cal criticism of Germany. His principal works are a translation into English of
Michaelis's Introduction to the New Testament; Authenticity of the Five Books Sf Motet
considered; The NoitUmal Beliffion the Jfbundation of National Education; Lectures on ^$
Oritidsm and Interpretation of the Bible; Lectures on the Authenticity and Credibility of the
New Testament and on the Authority of the Old Tentament. Bishop Marsh was a strong
opponent of both Oalvinists and Roman Catholics.
MARSH, James, d.d., 1794-1844; b. Hartford, Vt. ; graduated at Dartmouth m 1817,
and entered the Andover theoloncal seminary, but suspended his studies there after the
first year to return to Dartmouth as tutor. Returning to the seminary in 1820, he grad-
uatea in 1822. His studies at Andover extended beyond the ordinary limits, and
included not only the modem languages, but the then new field of German erudition, and
the works of Plato. He was also an appreciative reader of Wordsworth and Coleridge,
and an article contributed by him in his senior year to the North American Bevieto on
ancient and modern poetry attracted wide attention. He also began at the same time a
translation from the German of Bellerman's work on the geography of the Scriptures.
His intense application to study injured his health, on which account, before his gradua-
tion, he visited the southern states. Though strongly disinclined to become a preacher,
he was ordained as a Congregational minister in 1B24. From 1824 to 1826 he was pro-
fessor of languages in Hampden Sidney college, Va., giving a portion of his time, how-
ever, to the adjacent theological school. Here he began his translation of Herder's
Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, the first parts of which appeared in the Chnetian Bepository at
Princeton. In 1826 he was appointed president of the university of Vermont, and it
was at his suggestion that some important changes were made in the courses of study in
that institution. Finding the duties of president irksome, he resiffned the post, and
accepted instead the professorship of moral and intellectual philosophy, which he held
to the close of his life. In 1829 he contributed to the Christian J^ctator a review of
Stuart's Commentary on Hebrews, which contained the germ of his most characteristic
writings. At this period he became acquainted with the writings of Coleridge, in which
he found much to confirm and strengthen his own convictions. His introduction to the
first American edition of the Aids to Beflection won him a high reputation at home and
abroad. It was reproduced in London, and in 1858 prefixed to a complete American
edition of Coleridge's works. In 1880 he published a volume of selections from the old
English divines, mcluding Howe's Blessedness of the Bighteous, and Bates's Four Latt
Things. In 1888 he competed his translation of Herder's Spirit of Hebrew Pioetry, He
contemplated several important works, including a sjrstem of lo^c and a treatise on
psychology, which he did not live to complete. His Bemains, with a Memoir by prof.
Joseph Torrey, appeared in 1848. He died in Colchester, Vt.
MARSH, Othnibl Charles, b. Lockport, N. Y., 1831; educated at Phillips acad-
emy, Andover, Mass., and at Yale college, where he graduated in 1860; and then took a
two years' course of study in the Sheffield scientific school. He was then engaged in the
same line of study at the German universities of Heidelberg, Breslau, and Berlin. On
his return to this country he was, in 1866, appointed professor of ]>aleontology at Yale,
and still holds this position as well as the curatorship of the geological and kindred sci-
entific collections. He is also one of the trustees of the fund of $150,000 given by the
late George Peabody to the college **to found and maintain a museum of natural history,
and especially in the departments of zoology, geology, and mineralogy," and was most
actively concerned in the planning and erection of the massive and fire-proof Peabody
museum, which is to form but one wing of the completed building when the funds for
building and maintenance have sufflcientlv accumulated. From 1868 to the present time
he has been constantly engaged in the discovery and classification of fossils of extinct
animals of the Rocky mountain region, leading many expeditions in person, and directing
the operations of others. In these explorations his parties have penetrated into the \^ila-
est solitudes under considerable personal hardships and dangers, and have obtained
extensive collections of immense scientific value, including fossil animals hitherto
unknown, to the number of several hundred. Among the new orders discovered are the
dinoceraia, a six-horned animal of the eocene period ; the pterodactyls, or fiying lizards; the
ichlyornithes, a cretaceous bird furnished with teeth; and a great variety of bats, monkeys,
and marsupials. In many papers published at intervals up to the present time (1881) he
has descril^d these and many other species, and is constantly adding to the collection by
discovery and purchase. Within a few years the description by prof. Marsh of certain
fossil bones found by him and, though belonging to the equine race, differing from the
modem horse in several particulars, and markealy in the construction of the foot and
Digitized by VjOUVIC
fCOl Marsh.
^^^. Manhallnflr»
number of toes, has added to the evidences of the doctrine of natural selection and of
the evolution of species, exhibiting, as is claimed, the gradual divergence by a speciea
from the primary form, and the result therefrom of what have hitherto been regarded as-
orders of entirely distinct creation. Prof. Huxley has repeatedly claimed that these dis-
coveries of Marsh completely supply the proof alleged to be wauling by the opponents of
the doctrine of the ''survival of the fittest."
Prof. Marsh has written many articles on scientific subjects which have appeared la
almost all the scientific journals. He is a fellow of the royal geographical society and a
member of many other associations at home and abroad.
¥AHSHAL (Fr. marechcU, Teut. mare, house, and 9oeale or sc/uUk, servant), a term, in
its origin, meaning a groom or manner of the horse, though eventually the king's
marahai became one of the principal officers of state in England. The roytu farrier rose
io dignity with the increasing importance of the eJiewUerie, till he became, conjointly
vith the constable (q.v.), the judge in the curia martialet, or courts of chivalry. An
earldom is attached to the dignity, and the office of earl-marshal is now hereditary in the
family of the duke of Norfolk. When the king headed his army in feudal times, the
usembled troops were inspected by the constable and marshal, who fixed the spot for the
encampment oi each noble, and examined the number, arms, and condition of his retain-
ers. With these duties was naturally combined the regulation of all matters connected
wiil^morial bearings, standards, and ensigns. The constable's functions were virtually
abolished in the time of Henry VIII., and the marshal became thenceforth the sole judge
in questions of honor and arms. The earl-marshal is president of the English college of
anus, and appoints the kings-at-arms, heralds, and pursuivants. The marshal's functions-
were formerly exercised in time of peace in the aula regis or king's great court, and on
the division of the mUa regis, he appointed deputies in the new courts; hence arose the
offices of marshal of the king's (queen's) bench and of exchequer, whose principal duty
Ls to take charge of persons committed to' their custody by the court Besides the earl-
marshal there is a knight-marshal, or marshal of the king's (queen's) household. The
marshal of the king's bench held two different courts, which have been altogether dis-
contmued since 1849. The marshal or provost-marshal of the admiraltv is an officer
Those duty It is to act ministerially under the orders of the court of admiralty in securing^
prizes, executing warrants, arrestme criminals, and attending their execution.
The dignity of marshal existed formerly in Scotland, where a different orthography
T3S adopted, and the office of marischal was hereditary in the family of Keith. Sir
Robert Keith, the marischal. was one of the most distinguished warriors in the army of
Rol)ertthe Bruce; and his descendant, the marischal, in 1456, had the dignity of earl
otoferred on him with no other title but that of earl-marlschal. There is little doubt
liiat the Ivon king-at-arms was, like the English kiugs-at-arms, originally subject to the
marischaf, but his dependence ceased at a very early period, and the heraldic functions
(ii«t*harged by the earl-marshal in England devolved m Scotland on the lord lyon, who
held office directly from the crown. Scotland had no knight-marischal till 1688, when
ChariesL, at his coronation, created the office. In 1716 George, tenth earl-marischal,
Tis attainted in consequence of his share in the rebellion of the previous year, and the
'-•ffice lias since been in abeyance. In Prance the highest military officer is called a
niarshal, a dignity which originated early in the 13th century. There was at first only
"ne mareehal de tVance, and there were but two till the time of Francis I. Their number
afUnrards became unlimited. Originally the niarshal was the esquire of the king, and
commanded the vanguard in war; in later times the command became supreme, and the
rank of the highest military importance. From the title of this class of general officers
the Germans have borrowed their feld-marschall, and we our field-marshal, a dignity
bestowed on commanders distinguished either by elevated rank or superior talents.
MARSHAL {ante), in the United States, is used in three significations: 1. To denote
the ministerial officer of the United States courts, there being one appointed to each
JQdicial district. The duties of this officer resemble those of a sheriff in the state courts;
he opens and closes the sessions of the district and circuit courts, serves warrants, and
^ith his deputies enforces the execution of the internal revenue and other U. 8. statutes.
2 To denote a leader or director of ceremonies, festivities, or processions. 3. In many
states of the south and west the marshal is the head of the municipal police force, and is
to be distinguished from the officers of the county called sheriffs, and from the officers of
ilie lustlce courts called constables. In a few northern cities, formerly, the name was
applied with doubtful propriety to special police officers.
XAK'BHALIKO of ABM8 is the combinino^ of different coats-of-arms in one escutch-
eon, for the purpase of indicating family alliance or office. In the earlier heraldry.
it wai4 not the practice to exhibit more than one coat in a shield, but the arms of husband
and wife were sometimes placed aecoUee, or side by side, in separate escutcheons; or the
principal shield was surrounded by smaller ones, containing the arms of maternal ances-
tors; and we not unfrequentlv find maternal descent or marriage indicated by the addi-
tion of some bearing from the wife's or mother's shield. Then followed dimidiation,
^here the shield was parted per pale, and the two coats placed side bv side, half of each
being shown. By the more modern custom of impaling, the whole of each coat is exhib-
ited, a reminiscence of the older practice being retained in the omission of bordures,.^
■bnhalL
532
orles, and treasures on the side bounded by the line of impalement. The most common
case of impalement is where the coats of husband and wile are conjoined, the husband's
arms occupying the dexter side of the shield, or place of honor, and the wife's, the sin-
ister side. Bishops, deans, heads of colleges, and kings-of-arms, impale their iirms of
office with their family coat, giving the dexter side to the former.
A man who marries an heiress (in heraldic sense) is eutitled to place her arms on a
small shield called an eaeutdieon of pretense, in the center of his achievement, instead of
impaling.
(Quartering, or the exhibiting different eoaU on a shield divided at once perpendicu-
larly and honzontiilly, is the most common mode of marshaling arms, a practice which,
liowcvcr, was unknown till the middle of the 14Ui century. The divisions of the shield
are calltd quartere, and are numbered horizontally, beginning at the dexter chief. Tbe
most common object of quartering is to indicate descent. The coats quartered in an
escutcheon must all have been brought in by successive heiresses, who have intermarried
into the family. In the case of a single quartering, the paternal arms are placed in the tax
and fourth quarters, and the maternal in the second and third. The third and fourth
quarters may, in after-generations, be occupied by the arms of a second and third heir.
ess. Sometimes an already quartered coat isplaced In one of the four quarters of the
escutcheon, then termed a grand quarter. We occasionally find a shield divided by per-
pendicular and horizontal hues into six, nine, or even more parts, each occupied bv au}at
brought in by an heiress; and in case of an odd number of coats, the last dividon is
filled by a repetition of the first. In the course of generations, a shield may thus be
inconveniently crowded by the accumulation of coats, including the several coals to
which each heiress may, in a similar way, have become entitled, and in Qermany, some-
times twenty or thirty coats are found marshaled in one escutcheon; but in British her-
aldry, famiUes entitled to a number of quarterings, generally select some of the most
important. Quarterings, at least in Scotland, are not allowed to be added to the paternal
coat witliout the sanction of the heraldic auth6rities.
Sovereigns quarter the ensigns of their several states, giving precedence to the most
ancient, unless it be inferior to the ethers in importance. In the royal escutcheon of the
United Kingdom, England is placed in the first and fourth quarters, Scotland in the
second, and Ireland in the third; the relative positions of Scotland and England, bemg,
however, reversed on the official seals of Scotland. Spain bears the arms oi Leon in the
first and fourth quarters, and Castile in the second and third. An elected king generally
places his arms surtout on un escutcheon of prctcnsa.
IVIARSHALL, a co. in n.c. Alabama, watered by branches of the Tennessee river and
by the Black Warrior; 450 sq.m. ; pop. *80, 14,585. It has a ruffged surface, broken by
mountain ridges, a part of the Appalachian chain. The soil is generally fertile, pro-
ductions being wheat, Indmn com, sweet potatoes, tobacco, butter, and cotton. Go. seat,
Warrenton.
MARSHALL, a co. in n. Xllinnls. intersected centrally by the Illinois river, narigi-
ble to Lacnn. and entering lake Peoria in the extreme s.w. ; al^o, by the Pedrin and
Bureau Valley division of the Chicas^o. Rock Island and Pacific niilroad; the ChicAeo
to Illinois river bninch of the Chicago and Alton, forming a junction with the Dwigfat
to Washingion and Lacon branch. The Illinois Central forms its e. border, wiili a
junction at Wenona; 860 sq.m.; pop. '80. 15.086—12,010 of American birth. 87 colonel
It is dniinc'd by Sandy creek, alon:^ whose banks and tlioso of the Illinois river the poil
is very fertile, ind the surface is for the most part level prairie. Its products are: grain,
tobocco, wool, sweet potatoes, wine, dairy products, sorirhum, honey, and com. Ai
Henry, In tlie n. section, is a combination bridge, lock, and dam of the Illinois Improve-
ment. It has manufactures of carriages, woolen goods, pumps, lUi^ricultural implemenis,
cooperage, tin. copper, and sheet-iron ware; among its manufactories are foundri?s.
machine shops, and distilleries. Bituminous coal is found and easily mined. Scat of
justice, lacon.
MARSHATiL, a co. in n. Indiana, intersected bv the Pittsburg, Port Wayne nnd
Chicat^. and the Indianapolis, Peni and Cliica9^> niilroads, forminsr a junction at Ply-
mouth; also hv the Baltimore and Ohio railroad; 450 sq.m. ; pop. *80, 28,416—22.111 of
American birth. 9 colored. It is drained in the s.e. by the head waters of the Tippe-
canoe river, the Yd ow river, and other branches of the Kankakee. Its surface is e:en-
erally level, and diversified by groves of sugar mnplo and openings of hard-wood tree?.
Its soil is fertile and adapted to the raising of live stock, and the cultivation of fruit ami
vesretables, every kind of grain, wool, dairy products, honey, maple sugar, sorghum,
and hops. It has manufactories of furniture, flour, lumlKT. hulis, wa^rons, carriages, and
wooden sroods; also breweries. Iron ore is found. Seat of justice. Plymouth.
MARSHALL, a co. In n. Iowa, intersected by the Central railway of Iowa, and tlio
Cedar Rapids and >Ii.s.sourl river division of the Chicago and Northwestern railway, form-
ing a junction at Marshalltown ; 576 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 23,752—20.680 of American birth, 123
colored. It i.s draine<l by tlie head waters of the Iowa river and other small atream.i. Its
surface is mostly undulating prairie, with a moderate gn>wth of timber, in which oak
and ash predommate. It has a fertile soil, particularly in the valley of the Iowa, pnxluc-
tag immense quantities of wheat, every variety of grain, JpH^yye stock in great numbers.
G23
Manhall.
wine, tobftoco. hops, wool, sweet potatoes, dairy products, lioney In large quantities, and
sorghum, lis iiiiueral deposits are coal, llmehtoue, and marble. Its feuding industries
are the quarrying of mart>le, and the manufacture of soup, wagons, tiour, oil. s-iddlery,
and harness, li has machine sho|js, steam saw-mills for sawmg stone, iron foundries*
and breweries. Seat of justice, Marshalllowu.
M.VKSIIALL, a co. in n. Kansas; 900 sq.m.; pop. '80, 16J85— 18.000 of American
birth. It borders on Nebraska, and is traversed by liie Big Blue and Little Blue rivers,
and hy the St. Joseph and Denver City and the Central Brunch Union Pacific railroads.
The surface is in great part a very fertile pruirie, on which all the cereals are raised in
large quantities. Chief city, Marysville.
MARSHALL, a co. in w. Kentucky, having the Tennessee river for its e. end n.
boundary near its confluence with the Ohio, and drained by Clark's rivor and other
tributaries; 400 sq.m.; pop. '80, 9,647—9,619 of American birlli, 440 colored. It is
intersected in the extreme n. by the Paducah and Elizabethtown railroad. Its surface
is uneven and two-tliirds covered with timl)er. Its soil is adapted to the raising of live
slock, fruit, every variety of grain, wool, sweet potatoes, wine, sorghum, maple sugar,
and hops. Among its munufactures are wagons, tobacco, and flour. Seat of justice,
Benton.
MARSHALL, a co. in n. Mississippi, on the border of Tennessee, watered by tho
Coldwater, Tippah, and Talhihatchio nvers; 750 sq.m.; pop. '80, 29,888. It is inter-
sected by the Mississippi Central railroad. The suiiace is varied; generally undulating,
and the soil fertile. Pioductious are Indian corn, sweet potatoes, wheat, butter, and
cotton. Co. seat. Holly Springs.
MARSHALL, a co. in central Tennessee, watered by the Duck river; 850 sq.m.;
pop. '80. 19,:iMH); the surface is generally level and the soil fertile. Productions aro
luuitier. wool, grain, cattle, and livestock. Co. seat, Lewisburg.
MARSHALL, a co. in the s. part of that potlion of West Virginia known as tho
••Panhandle," having the Ohio river on the w. and Pennsylvania on the e.; intersected
by the Baltimore und Ohio railroad; 280 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 18.840. A level country alor.g
the shore of the river, farther back it isunduhiting, the soil in all instances being fertile
and under generally hi^h cultivation. Tho productions are live stock, gmin, and wool;
sjul this county is rich in coal measures, not as yet extensively worked. Co. scat,
MoundsviLc.
MAJ^SHALL, the chief city of Callioun co., Midi., and part of the townsliip of the
same name; pop. *70, 4,628. It is on the Kalamazoo river, and reached by the Michigan
Centnil railroad; 108 m. w. of Detroit and 86 e. of Kahimazoo. The city was incorpor-
ated in 1859. Among ihe public buildings arc a court-house, high school, and very line
union M*bool, three banks, many churches, a paper mill, etc. The place is largely
engaged in manufacturing flour, for which there are several great mills.
MARSHALL, Humphrey. 1812-72; b. Kv.; graduated at West Point in 1882. and
resijnied fn>m the army the following year. He studied law and practiced in Louisville.
On the outbreak of the Mexican war he joined the command of gen. Taylor, and at tho
battle of Buena Vista he behaved with great gallantry, leading a memorable chai^ge of
the Kentucky volunteer cavalry. At the close of the war he retired to a farm in Ken-
tucky, but in 1849 was elected to congress; and in 1852 represented the United States in
China. From 1855 to 1859 he was again in confess, and in 1860 espoused the confed-
erate cause, and received a generars commission in that army. He was defeated by gen.
Garfield at Prestonbury, Jan. 7, 1862; but afterwards fought under the commandf of
gen. Kirby Smith. He was a member of the confederate congress during the latter part
of tlie war. having resigned his commission. The latter part of his life was passed in
Louisville in the conduct of a lucrative law practice.
MARSHALL, John, ll.d., 1755-1835; b.Va. ; educated at Westmoreland school and
by a private tutor. He began the study of law in 1778. but before he was called to tbc bar
the revolution broke out, and he soon joined the Citlpeper tninwr^iwtf/i. a Virginia com-
pany, ami participated in the battle of Great Bridge,where he led a flanking party. Tho
next year he was tnuisferred to the 11th Virginia regiment as a lieut.. and in 1777 he
wn5« made a capt. He was with the American army in the New Jersey campaign,
and wa« present at Brandywlne, Germantown, and Monmonlh. He resigned from tho
army in 1781. and began to practice; law, whose study he had resumed at William nnd -
Mary colles^e in the winter of 1779 when he was waitinir in Virginia to take command
of a new force, which was ni'vcr rais^ed. He was admitted to practice in 1780. His
sncecHs tit the bar was immediate nnd marked. In 1782 he was returned to the house of
dvlcgaiea from Fauquier co., and the same year became a member of the execulive
council. In 1787 he was a member of the legislature from Henrico co., Jo which he had
removed. The next year he sat in the Virginia convention called to ratify or n'ject tho
conMitution framed at Philadelphia. He and James Madison were the ton'most sup-
porters of the new instrument, wliich they succeeded in canying through the conven-
tion. In 1789, 1790, 1791. Marshall served again in the delegates, this time as menilier
for Richmond. He acted with the federalist party, to which the majoriiy of Virginians
were opposed; but he succeeded in retaining the confldence of his political opponents.
Manhall. P{OA
MaiMbinan. kj^'±
In 1792 he resumed his law practice, but in 1705 was a^ain elected to the delegates
Jay's treaty had been most bitterly attacked in Virginia, out was defended by Marshall
with such ability that the constitutional points, on which the bouse of delegates had
wished to condemn it, were given up; and the delegates passed a simple resolution of
disapproval. Marshall, who, for the sake of his practice, which was now grown very
large, had refused from Washington the posts of attorney-eeD. and minister to France,
consented, after considerable demurrer, to go to Paris in 1797 as envoy extraordinary
with een. Pinckney and El bridge Gerry. The object of their mission was to induce the
French directory to remove the restrictions which it had laid upon American commerce.
The negotiations proved fruitless, but the ambassadors were warmly received on their
return to America in 1798. A public address was presented to Marshall, and members
of both houses of congress united in giving him a public dinner. In 1799, at the urgent
solicitation of Washington, he permitted the use of his name as federalist candidate for
congress, and was elected by a narrow majority. While the canvass was goiug ou, he
had been offered, and had refused, a seat upon the U. 8. supreme court. In congress
he became the leader of the federal party, which was fast losing popuhir confidence.
He did not support, without reserve, the alien and sedition laws, against which Virginia
had resolved to protect herself by force, if necessary. In all other measures he sup-
ported the administration. His most notable speech was in the case of Jonathan Bob-
bins, who had murdered a man on a British frip^te and escaped to this country. Presi.
dent Adams, in accordance with a provision m Jay's treaty, ^tc Robbins up to the
British government, which claimed him as its subject. Mr. Livingston, for the republi
cans, introduced into congress a resolution censuring the president for his action. Mar-
shall defended Adams in a powerful speech, showing that the surrender of Robbins wa^
an act distinctly within the political power of the executive. In May, 1800, he was
appointed by president Adams secretary of war, but before accepting he was matk*
secretary of state. His instructions to Hufus King, our minister to England, in regard
to several important controversies then pending between this country and England, form
one of the ablest of American state papers. In 1801 he was nominated and unanimously
confl lined chief-iustice of the United States. His decisions in the supreme court raided
it to a point of public respect and professional reputation which certainly have noi
since been surpassed. Chief -Justice Marshall's decisions, particularly in the departments
of constitutional and commercial law, are of the highest authority. Many judges, more
f:imiliar with the books, have sat upon the supreme bench; but none with such an acutp
and penetrating judicial intellect, or so dispassionate in the hearing of causes. " He
was," said one of his admirers, '* conscience made flesh, reason incarnate." Between
the years 1804 and 1807 appeared his LCfe cf WashiTigton, in 5 volumes, founded upon
study of original documents then unprinted, and defending the political career of Wash-
ington and the measures of his administration from the attacks which both— and, it
must he added, Washington's private life— had suffered from the republicans. The Ixwk
received much adverse^criticism from the Enelish reviewers, on account of the alleged
impurity of its English and its undue size. It was abbreviated and published in 2 vol-
umes in 1832. Justice Story published, in 1830, a selection from Marshall's decisions and
other papers under the name of The WriUngs of John MarahaU upon the Fsderal 0)/i-
siitiUion. ** His judgments," says justice Story, " for power of thought, beauty of illus-
tration, variety of learning, and elegant demonstration are justly numbered among the
highest reaches of the human mind.' In person and manner Marshall was not graoeful.
but his amiable and genial character made him a pleasant companion and gained warm
friends.
MARSHALL, Thomas Francis, 1801-64; b. Frankfort, Ky.; nephew of the great
chief -justice John. At an early age he began practice in the legid profession, and in 1831
opened an office at Louisville. Here he became noted as an eloquent speaker in political
campaigns, and was made judge of the Louisville circuit of the superior court. From
1841 to 1843 he served in congress, where he distinguished himself by his eloquence and
ready wit. He was a man of brilliant abilities and attractive personal qualities: but,
unfortunately, the highest development of his powers was rendered impossible by habiu*
of dissipation. A collection of his speeches and essays has been published by W. L.
Barre.
MARSHALL, William Calder, b. Edinburch, 1813; studied sculpture at the royal
academy, under the instruction of Chantrev and Bailey, where he won a gold medal
and traveling scholarship, and from 1836 to 1838 continued his studies in Rome. From
the time of his return to London, 1839, he contributed to almost every annual art exhi
bition some graceful piece of statuary. His work may be classed in three divisions:
idealistic statuary, historical sculpture, and decoration. Among his numerous produc-
tions in the first class may be mentioned: "The Creation of Adam" (1842); "Christ
Blessing Little Children" (1844); " Paul and VirMia" (1845); " Sabrina" (1846),jperhap6
the most popular of all his figures; "The First Whisper of Love;" and "The Dancing
Girl Reposing, " which last work gained tlie art-union prize of £500. In historical figures
he has modeled the bronze statue of sir Robert Peel at Manchester, one of Dr. Jenner;
and in the Westminster palacp, busts of Chaucer, lord Clarendon, and lord Somers. In
decoration, he has been extensively engaged in the ornamentatiojuoflli^new houses of
e;OX Maivh*ll.
^^^ Mimhinaii.
parliament and the Wellington chapel in St. Paul's cathedral. He was also the designer
of the Wellington monument. The style of all his productions is marked by simplicity
and refinement, and the conception of his statuettes is especially delicate and poetical.
MARSHALLTOWN, capital of Marshall co., Iowa; at the intersection of the Chicago
and Northwestern with the Central railroad of Iowa; pop. '70, 4,384. It is the center of a
prosperous agricultural region, has 7 churches, 3 banks, 3 public schools, a public library,
B newspapers, 2 flouring-mills, 2 breweries, 3 grain devators, and a foundry.
MARSHAL8EA PRISON, in Southwark, London, was built m the 12th century.
It was for a long time a king^s bench prison, but finally used for confining poor debtors.
It was broken open by the Gordon rioters in 1780. It was abolished, with the ancient
Marshalsea courts, in 1849, and has since been torn down.
MARSH-GAS, or Mbthanb, also called light carbureted hydrogen and firedamp.
It is generated in muddy bottoms of pools in which water-plants grow. When the mud
is stirred bubbles of gas rise to the surface, and are easily collected in an inverted bottle.
This ^ is a mixture of methane and carbonic acid; the latter is readily removed by
agitation with limewater or caustic potash or soda. It is also often disengaged in coal
mines, sometimes issuing in streams from fissures, having been pent up in the coal. It is
one of the products of the distillation of coal in making illuminating gas. Its formula is
CH4, and it contains 12 parts of carbon and 4 parts of nydrogen, by weight. It« specific
gravity is 0.659, having a little more than half the density of common air. Containing,
a? it does, a large proportion of hydrogen, it forms, when mixed with oxygen, a highly
explosive compound. Mixed with common air it is also very explosive, as the ternble
accidents in coal mines have unhappily demonstrated. It was a long time before marsh
fas could be obtained pure by artificial means. That contained in coal gv^ and made
y i)assing alcohol through a red-hot tube is exceedingly difficult of separation. Dumas,
however, has discovered a method by which it can be readily procured in large quanti-
ties, perfectly pure. A mixture is made of 40 parts of crystallized acetate of soda, 40
mrts of caustic soda, and 60 parts of quicklime in powder, strongly heated in a retort.
The gas is given off in threat abundance and may be collected over water. The reaction
is as follows: NaCgHaOj-l-NaHO^CH^-l-NaaCOa. It will be perceived that lime does
not enter as an element in this calculation. It is introduced only to prevent the soda
from attacking the glass of the retort.
MAR8H-HAWE. See Habhisr, anU.
MARSH-HEN. See Rail, ante,
XABSH-KALLOW, Althcsa, a fl[enus of plants of the natural order tnafooeAS, differing
from the true mallows chiefly in me 6 to 9 cleft outer calyx. The species, which are not
numerous, are annual and perennial plants, with show^ flowers, natives of Europe and
Asia. Only one, the Commok Marsh-Mallow {A, offldnalis), is an undoubted native of
Britain, and is common only in the south, growing in meadows and marshes, especially
near the sea. It has a stem 2 to 8 ft. high, entire or 8-Iobed leaves, both leaves and stem
densely clothed with soft, starry down, and large, pale, rose-coloxed flowers on short
3 to 4 flowered axillary stalks. Lozenges made from it {pdtes de guimcbuve) are in use. The
whole plant is wholesome, and in seasons of scarcity, the inhabitants of some eastern
countr^ often have recourse to it as a principal article of food. It is said to be palat-
able when boiled, and afterwards fried with onions and butter. The hollyhock (q.v.) is
commonly referred to this genus.
MAR8HMAN, Joshua, d.d., an English missionary; 1787-1887; b. at Westbury-
Leigh, Wiltshire. While young he showed a great passion for reading. His parents
being poor, he was obliged to struggle for an eduction. In 1794 he became master of a
school in Bristol, and at the same tune a student of Bristc^ academy, where he studied
Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac. Deciding to devote his life to the missionary work,
he was sent in 1799 by the Baptist missionary society to India to join Carey and his col-
leagues. The East India company being opposed to missions in their territories, they
established their mission at Serampore, a town on the Hoogley, 16 m. above Calcutta,
containing a mixed population of Danes, Dutch, En^ish, and natives. Finding soon
after his arrival the support ^ranted by the society insufficient for the wants of the colony,
he, with the aid of his wife, opened two boardine-schools for European children, and
shortly after a school for natives, which was soon filled, and the income from this enter-
prise, supplemented by that of Carey as instructor in the government college at Fort
William, enabled them soon to make their mission independent of home support. But
their course did not meet the approval of the committee of the society, who censured
without sufficient information, pinched the mission, and dictated their management.
Some American subscribers remonstrated "against any part of their contributions for
training j'oung men to the ministry being emmoyed in teaching science." This disagree-
ment continued for some time, threatening the success of the enterprise. In 1822 Dr.
Marshman sent his son John to England to endeavor to restore amicable relations, which
misMon being unsuccessful, he himself in 1826 returned in order to confer with the
society. But he f^ed in his obiect, and the matter ended in a separation of the Seram-
pore mission from the society. He returned in 1829 to Serampore. He had experienced
a ffreat affliction in the death from cholera of Mr. Ward, with whom he and Dr. Carer
*=* Digitized by VjUUVLC
Marsh. XOA
MiMrMupialta. '^-'^
had labored for 28 venrs. Tlie treatment of tbe parent society deeply distresBed hini.
He became very melunclioly, wandering tiliout unable even to write a letter. In 183i
Dr. Oftrey died, leaving bim alone. In 183(5 bis daugbter, wbo had married the lamoua
Christian soldier, gen. Henry Hnvelock, Imrely escaped with her life from her bungalow,
which bad en ugbt lire, losing one of her three children in tbe flames. Soon »f ter Dr.
Jlarslimaii died from complete nervous prostration. A few days before his dcaih
arrangements were made in London for tbe reunion of the Serampore mission with the
parent society, and the retention of Dr. Marsbman as superiutcndetit. In addhinu tohb
special missionary duties, Dr. Marshnian gave himself with great zeal to the study of tbe
lieugalee, Sanskrit, and Chinese languages, which he mastered. He translated into
Ciiinese the book of Genesis, the four Qospels, the epistles of Paul to the Konuins and
Corinthians. He published also a Dmetiation on tfts CAartteters and Sounda of the Chineu
Jjtiiiguuge; The Wurks of Confacian^ containing the Onginal lext, with a Trandnfion;
Clacia Sinica; Elemenia of Chifiese Grammar, with a rreUminary J}ieeertation on Uie
Chit meters and Colloquial Sfedium of the Chinese. He assisted Dr. Care}* in prepnring a
Sanskrit grammar and a Bengalee and English dictionary. Kammohuu Koy having as-
Railed tbe miracles of Christ in a work entitled The Precepts of Jesus i/*e 0)iideto Peace,
Dr. >Iarsbman replied in a series of articles in the Ftiend of Indin (a |H'riodicai ifsucd by
the Serampore missionaries), subsequently republished in a volume under the title of A
Defense of the Deity and Atonement of Jesus Christ, lianimobun Koy replied to tbi&
UAESH-HAB'IQOLD, CaUha, a genus of plants of the natural order ranvncxilacets,
having about 5 petal-like sepals, no petals, and the fruit consistmg of several fprcadiog,
compressed, many-seeded follicles. C. palustris is a very common British plant,
with kidney-shaped, shining leaves, and lar^ yellow flowers, a principal ornament of wet
meadows and the sides of streams in spring. It partakes of the acridity common in
the order; but the flower-buds, preserved in vinegar and salt, arc said to be a good sub-
stitute for capers.
MARSH-ROSEMARY, the siatiee limonium^ variety Otrofiniann, natural order plum-
bnginacea, a perennial plant, growing in salt marshes along the sea-shore of southern and
western Europe. The variety CaroUniana is an American plant, growing in similar
localities on the American coast. Extending northward along the coast of British Amer-
ica, it passes into 8. bah'meusin. Marsh-rosemary has a tuft of spatulatc-oblong, bristly
pointed, one-ribbed leaves, developing in August, a much-branched, panlclcd sciipe, from
1 to 3 ft. hi^h, bearing numerous small.' lavender-colored flowers; fruit, a one-fecded
utricle, contamed in the base of the calyx. The root is used in medicine. Edward
Parrisb found it to contain about 13 per cent of tannin, a trace of volatile oil, a little
caoutchouc-like matter, gum, and other vegetable principles. Chlorides of sodium and
magnesium, and sulphates, are among the inorganic constituent':. Marsh-rosemary was
long ago a celebrated remedy f cr hemorrhages, and in recent times has been used for gar-
gles in ulcerated sore throats.
1ICAB8H*S TEST. See Ausenioub Acid.
MARSI, an ancient tribe of central Italy, inhabiting the district around the lake
Fucinus (Lngo di Celano), Their origin, like that of other Italuin tribes, is involved in
obscurity and fiction. They were probably of Sabine origin. They are worthy of notice
chiefly on account of their warlike spirit. The Marsians Were at one time aities of the
Romans, but, in 808 B.C., they revolted and Joined the Samnites. After being subdned
they again, 301 b.c, shook oft the alliance of Rome, but were beaten in the field, and lost
several of their fortressea From this time thev continued the firm allies of Rome, con-
tributing by their valor to her triumphs until the Italians were aroused in 91 b.c. to demand
n redress of their wrongs and a share in tbe privileges of Roman citizen& A war ensued,
generally known as the social war, but frequently called the Marsic war, because the
Marsi were prominent among the malcontents. Their leader was Silus Pompsediu&
Though often defeated, their perseverance gained the object for which the^* had taken up
arms in 87 b c. The Marsians, inhabiting a mrtuntainous district, were simple and tem-
perate in their habits, but hardy, brave, and unj^ielding. So marked was their valor that
there was a proverbial saying reconled by Appuin, ''that Rome had achieved no triumph
over the Marsi. or wiUiout the MarsL" The amient Marsi were represented as enchanters,
able to tame serpents and to heal their bites; and it is worUiy oi note that the jugglers
who now amuse the people by handling serpents are natives of the region in the vicinity
of Dtgo di Celano. Their only important town was Marruvivm (San Benedetto), the
ruins of which arc visible on the east shore of the lake
MAB'SICO KUO'VO. a t. in the Italian province of Potenzi, 18 m. s. of the town of
PotenzA, built on a height, and exposed to violent winds. Pop. *73, 0,135.
KABSILEA'CEJB, or Rhtzocarpbls, a natural order of acotyledonoua plants, nearly
alli^l to fycopitdinr,eeB, but differing in the want of a stem, and in the usually stalked
leaves. The species are all inhabitants of ditches and poohi, chiefly in tempernte
regkMifl, and two of them occur in various parts of Great Britain. No species was known
to be of any impoitance till the discovery of the nardoo (q.v.) of Australia.
Digitized by V^OUV IC
627
Manuptallai
MARSIPOBBAKCHU, the aecond of the six orders of fishes instituted by Huxley,
including the lampreys and the hi^-lishes. They are the deriuopterous fishes of Owen.
Bse Hao; Lamfrbt; ante,
XABOTAK', or Marsoyaiv. a village of Asia Minor, in the pashalic of Sivas, and 120
m. n.w. of the town of that name, in a wide undulating plain. Marsivan is a post sta-
tion of the first class, has many mosques and fountains, and some manufactures of cot-
ton stufb. Its Greek name is Merziphone.
MARS-LA -TOUR, a village and cx>mmune of France, 15 m. from Metz, on the route
between Metz and Verdun; pop. 653. It is a manufacturing place of woolens, haixl
ware, oils, and dye-stuff^^. Lumlier and grain also are products. In the 15th c. it had a
fortified chateau. On Aug. 16. 1870, it was the scene of the bloody battle of Qravelottc
between the French and the Germaiis.
MARSTON, Oilman, b. in Oxford, N. H., about 1815: graduated at Dartmouth col-
lege in 1837. and at the Cambridge law-school in 1840; settled at Exeter, N. U., in 1841;
was a member of congress, 18^-63 and 1865-67. He served with distinction in tUo
war for the union, first as col. of the 2d New Hampshire, and afterwards as u brig.gen.
of volunteers.
MAliSTON, JonN, 1575-1634; b. England; educated at Corpus Christi college,
Oxford, according to Anthony Wood, though this, like many other pMnts iu tli3 |)oet'8
life, is doubtful. He is satirized under the name of Demetrius in Ben Jonsou's P^sUater,
1601. The hostility between the two poets saems to have been at an end in 1605, when
Marston dedicated to Jonson his play of The MiUconieni. Tlie same year lie join;U with
Jonson and George Cliapman in tbe autliorship of hk$ittwird Hoe, James I. imprisoned
the three authors on siccount of somu satire which the play contained a'zianst the Scotch.
3c)0!i after their releiise the ill feoliQ^ batween Jonson ami Mirnton broke out again, fur
the Ijitter, in the preface to Sophonuba, 1600, taunts Jonson with his plagiarism^) fn»m
Latin writers, and Jonf^on, in a conversjition with Drummond of Hawthornden refers to
an enmity of lon;^- standing between himself and Marston. The other works of Miu^ton
are: T'he MetamorphoaU of PifjmaUoa, 1598; Antonio and MelUda, a trJigady. 16J:3; Anto-
nio's Recenge, a tragedy, 1602; The Dutch Gourie^n, a comedy. 1605; Furaitettteter. a
comedy. 1606; W/uit You, WOl, a comidy, 1607; The Insatiate Conntev, a tragedy, 1613;
and T/is Scourge of ViU'inie, a satire of great power. His miscellaneous poetical wor^
were collected and published by Mr. Bowie in 1764.
MARSTOX, Westland, ll d.. b. England, 1830; studied law. but left it for llterar
tur3. He was at one time an editor of Ihe NtUiondt Maganne, and an occasional con-
tributor to the Atfienaum. He has published Gerald and ot/ier Poerne (1843) ; a novel called
A Liidj^ in her own Right (1863); and a collection of stories called Family Credit and otJier
Tidee (1861). His principal literary at^tivity, however, has been in the direction of dra^
malic Htemlure, and of his numerous plays we may mention Tlhe Patridan'n DaugfUer, a
tragedy (1841); Tlie Heart and the IKbrW (1847); Ann BWke (1853); The Favorite of For-
tuw., a comedy produced at the Haymarket theater In 1866: A Hero of Romance (1867);
and Ufe for Lfe, a play in blank verse, produced at the lyceum theater in 1863, and
who3c principal character was played by the late Adelaide Neilson.
MARSTON MOOR, a plain" in Yorkshire, England, where, July 2, 1644, the
royalist force, under prince ftup^rt, was beaten by the parliamenUiry forces. English and
Scotch, under Fairfax and the earl of Leven. Tlie approach of Rupert forced Fairfax
to abandon the siege of York, and he took up his position on Marston Moor, with about
25.000 men. Rupurt, with about the same number, came up with him on the afternoon
of July 3. It was not till about 7 o'clock that the battle, which had up to this time been
little more than a desultory cannonade, began in earnest. Rui^ert, at the front of the
royalist right, made a fierce charge upon the parliamentary left, wliich broke and fled in
disorder. The parliamentary center had likewise Ixjen broken by the infantry royalist
center, and liad suffered heavily. The battle seemed irretrievably lost to the parlia-
meutary leaders, who left the field. But while the royalists were di8perse<l in search of
plunderer in pursuit of the enemy, Cromweirs famous " Iront^ides'* brigade, with the
Scotch regiments, commanded by David Leslie, and some others, rallied, charged the
royalists vigorously, and remained masters of the field, capturing 1500 prisoners and all
the royalist artillery. The killed and wounded on each side numbered about 2,000. This
victory resulted in the occupation of York and the control of the whole north of England
by the parliamentaiy force.
MARSTRAND. Wilhelm, 1810-78; b. Copenhagen; studied art there, at Munich,
and at Rome. He attained high rank by \\\% genre paintings, and bectime a professor and
director of tlie Copenhagen academy. Ilis most meritorious works are, perhaps, ** Return
of a Society from a Popular Festival/' and "Erasmus Montanus."
XAESUPIA'LIA, or Makbufia'ta, an extensive order or group of mammals, differing
caaentially from all others in their organization, and eBpecially in their generative system.
The aninuds of thi:» abernint group originally received the name of animaUa ervmenata,
or purae-beimng animals; and the names now ennrployed have a similar signification,
bdng derived from marsupium, a pouch or bag. This marsupium, or pouch, which is
■toated on the abdomen of the female, contains the teats, and serves for the protection
Digitized by VjOUV IC
Marsuplali». nOfi
of the immature young; and is unquestionably the most miai^ed characteristic of these
animals. As the diflerent genera of this order live upon various kinds of food-— some
being herbiyorous, others insectivorous, and others, again, purely caxnivoious— we fiud
various modifications of their or^ns of progression, prehension, and digestion; but as
the most important of these modifications are noticea in the articles on the principal
genera, we shall confine ourselves to the characters common to the group.
The leading peculiarity^ presented by the skeleton is the presence of the marsupial
bones (see Mammalia), which are attached to the pubis, and are imbedded in the abdom-
inal muscles. Another constant but less striking peculiarity Is a greater or less inversion
of the angle of the. lower jaw. The organs of digestion, including the teeth, vary
extremely, accorcUng to the nature of the food ; a complex stomach ana a osecum of con-
siderable size being present in some, while others (the carnivorous genera) have a simple
stomach and no csecum. The brain is constructed on a simpler type than in the placental
mammals. The size of the hemispheres is so small that they leave exposed the olfactoiy
ganglion, the cerebellum, and more t)r less of the optic lobes, and they are but partially
connected together by the ** fornix" and "anterior commissure," the great cerebral com-
missure known as the "corpus calloaum" being absent. In accordance with this condi-
tion of the brain, these animals are all characterized by a low degree of intelligence, and
are said (when in captivity) not to manifest any tien of recognition of their feeders. It
is, however, in the organs of generation and mode of reproduction that t^iese animals
especially differ from all the ordinary mammals. Professor Owen, who has done more
to elucidate this subject, and indeed the anatomy and physiology of marsupiata gen-
erally, than any other anatomist, observes that in all the genera of this order the uterus
is double, and the introductory passage more or less (aometimes wholly} separated into
two hiteral canals. Both the aigestive and generative tubes terminate within a common
cloaca (q.v.)> and there are various other points in which these animals manifest their
affinity to the oviparous vertebrates. The marsupial bones serve important purposes in
connection with their generative economy. '* In the female," he observes, '" they assist
in producing a compression of the mammaiy gland neoeesarv for the alimentation of a
peculiarly feeble o£»pring, and they defend the abdominal viscera from the pressure of
the young as these increase in size aurinff their marsupial existence, and still more when
they return to the pouch for temporary snelter," while in the males they are subservient
to the reproductive process. The marsupials belong to the aplaeenUu division of the
mammalia (q.v.). The period of their gestation is short (96 days in the Virginian opo^
sum, and 89 days in the kangaroo), and the young are produced in so immature a state
that the earlier observers believed that they were produced like buds from the nipples to
which they saw them attached. The appearance presented bv a young kan^roo of one
of the largest species, within 12 hours of its being depositea in the pouch, is described
by professor Owen (from personal observation in the zoological gp^ens) as follows: "It
resembled an earthworm m the color and semi-transparency of its integument, adhered
firmly to the point of the nipple, breathed strongly but slowly, and moved its fore-legs
when disturbed. The body was bent upon the aMomeo, its short tail tucked in between
the hind-legs, which were one-third shorter than the fore-legs. The whole length from
the nose to the end of the tail, when stretched out, did not exceed one inch and two
lines." The mother apparently employs her mouth in placing the jroung at the nipple,
where it remains suspended, involuntarily absorbing milk for a considerable time (prob-
ably about two months on an average), after which it sucks spontaneously for some
months. Although able from the first, by the muscular power of its lips, to adhere
firmly to the nipple, it does not possess the stren^h to obtain the milk by the ordinanr
process of sucking. In the process it is assisted by the adaptation of a muscle to the
mammary gland, which, by contracting, injects the milk from the nipple into the mouth
of the adherent fetus; and to prevent the entrance of milk into the air-passage, the
larynx is prolonged upwards to the aperture of the posterior nares, where it is closely
embraced by the muscles of the soft palate. The air-passage is thus entirely separated
from the tluroat, and the milk passes on either side of the larynx into the esophagus.
Professor Owen has proposed that these animals should lie divided into five tribes or
primaiy groups, viz. , mrcophaga, entomaphaga, carpophaga, poepha^a, and rhizophaga,
according to the nature of their food. With the exception of one American and one
Malayan genus, all known existing marsupials belong to Australia, Tasmania, and Kew
Guinea. — ^For further details regarding this order, the reader is referred to Waterhouae's
Natural History of the Mammalia, vol. i., and to Owen's article *'Marsupialia"in the
GydopoBdia of Anatomy and Phytiology.
MAR8UPIALIA (arUe), one of the two orders of non-placental mammals, includ-
ing the opossum and kangaroo. The other order, monotremata (q.v.), includes the omu
ihorhynenus, duck-mole or duck-bill (q.v.). The marsupialia, with the exception of the
SmvLB didelphyn (opossums), are exclusiyely natives of Australia, Van Diemen's Land, New
uinea, and neighboring islands. They are divided into two primary sections, diproto-
<2tm<ta and polyprotodoniia, Diprotodontia contains three sub-sections: 1. Rhmphaga.
containing the wombat, a stout, heavy animal d or 8 ft. long, havinsr curved, cQcging
claws upon the fore-feet, and a dentition resembling that of the beroivoroua rodents.
There are two incisors in each jaw, growing from permanent pulps. There are no
Digitized by VjOUV IC
529 aSK?
canioes, and the incisors and premolars are aepaiated by a considerable space. Dental
formala: »., j— -r; c, q— r;pw., t— -j; m., j— =24. It is nocturnal in habits, feeding
upon roots and grass in Australia and Tasmania. 3. Foephaga. This section contains
the kangaroo (q v.) {maerapodidat) and the kansuroo-rat {hypwprymnuij. The kangaroo-
rats differ from the true kangaroo in their smaller size and w^l-developed upper canines,
and also in having scaly tails, like the opossums. The dental formula of the kangaroo in :
3 3 0 0 1 1 4 4
*., z—z \ c., g— ^- pm , -— ; m., -J — ^1=28. 8. Ca/rpapha>ga, The typical animals of this
section are the phalangers. so called from the fact that the second and third digits of the
hind-feet are united almost to their extremities (see Phalanqer and Flting-Phalangek.
anU), Intermediate between the phalangers and the kangaroos is the kangaroo-bear of
Q Q -1 1
the colonists, ortbeAa0a2a(q y.) or pha8eaU»reta8, whose dental formula is. i,, :: — r ; c , rr — r ;
1—1 4r-A ^ 1-1 0-0
^^^~l'"*'*r~i
The second primary section, polyprotodontia, contains two sub-sections. 1 BnUh
maphaga, which contains the bandicoot (q.v.), the opossum (q.v.), and the banded ant-
€ater. The dental formula of the bandicoot is: t., ^—^;c., 7^; pw., s— 5;t/i., 7— :i=48.
0—0 1 — 1 o— ^ 4—4
5 5 I I 3 8 4—4
The dental formula in the opossum is: » , ^ — -:; c, TZIf » P^'' 5 — 5* ***•» 1 — ^J==50. The
banded ant-eater, mymieeobin* famatus, is a small, rather pretty animal of south-western
Australia, differing from the other didelphidoR in not having a prehensile tail. The fore-
feet have five toes, while the hind-feet have but four each. It has a number of light and
dark bands across its back. These animals are remarkable for the number of their molar
teeth, having more than any other marsupial and exceeded only by sonic of the arma-
dillos. Their dental formula is: *., -— r; c. -^; pm.. - — r- m., ~--z=54 2. Swr-
6 — o 1 — 1 o — o. 0 — o
maphaga. This sub-section includes a number of ammals which, unlike most of the order,
are carnivorous and very rapacious. The best known are iJiylacinua cynocephahLs, or
the Tasmanian w^olf (see TxnrLACiNE, ante), the dasyurtis urtinus, or ursine opossum,
also called *' devil," "wildcat," and "hyena" by the settlers (see Dastijkb, ante), and
also the da»yuru» maerurus, or long-tailed dasyure, sometimes erroneously called the
spotted marten, a name given to it in Phillips's Voyage, It somewhat resembles the
weasel and marten in form, but is more clumsy, although exceedingly vigorous, active,
and ferocioua Thev were very troublesome to the first setUers, as was also the ursine
opossum, or " devil, committing various depredations.
The marsupials are regarded as the earliest developed mammals whose fossils have
been discovered, although there is some uncertainty. The oldest known European mam-
mal is the mierolestes antigvus of the upper triassic formation, only the teeth of which
have been found, and it is believed to have been a marsupial and related to the banded
ant-eater. The two jaw-bones of an allied animal were found in the trias of North
America by Prof. Emmons several years ago, and in the opinion of Prof. Owen they
belonged to an insectivorous marsupial also allied to the banded ant-eater. In the stone-
fleld »ate of the lower oolitic formation a great share of the mammalian remains belong
to the small marsupials. In the upper oolite the remains are chiefly marsupial, of the
iMze of a hedgehog and smaller. Fossil marsupialia, allied to the opossum, have l)een
found in Europe in eocene and miocene, and also in the upper Jurassic of North America.
MAR'SUPITES, or Toutoise ENCRnoTES, a genus of extinct crinoids, established by
Miller, and found only in the cretaceous formation. The calyx is of large size and the
<£nter of its base consists of a single plate, which may be regarded as the uppermost seg-
ment of a stem, although the animal is not pedunculated or attached. The pelvis, there-
fore, resembles a plated pouch surrounded by two cycles of radials. See Crikoidejs,
'4uUe.
MAR'SYAS, in legend, a Phrygian satyr who entered into a musical competition
with Apollo, under an agreement that the defeated contestant should be at the mercy of
ihe winner. The Muses were selected as Judges, and awarded the superiority to Apollo,
who acoompanied his lyre with the voice, while Marsyas played upon the pipe which
had been thrown away by Athene. Apollo flayed Marsyas alive, and the tears of the
rural divinities for the satyr were said to have formed the river named after him. which
flows into ibe Msander. The subject was a favorite one with the ancient sculptors.
XABTASAH', the name of a small t. in the province of Pegu, in British Burmah, on
the banks of the river of the same name, and near its mouth in the gulf of Martaban, in
lat. 16" 82' n., long. 97^ 85' e., was the first that fell into the hands of the British in the
Burmese war in 1852
KABTSI, Ohakles. See CHARiiSS Martel.
XABTEUO TOWXU are round towers for coast defense, about 40 ft high, built
most solidly, and situated on the beach. They occur in several places round the coast
U'^ jy o. Digitized by VjjUUVIC
Marten. ^toA
Martial. *^*>^
of the United Kingdom; but priocipaOy opposite to the French coast, along the sonthern
shore of Kent and Sussex, where, for many miles, they are within easy range of each
other. They were mostly erected during the French war as a defense against invasion.
Each had walls of 5^ ft. thickness, and was supposed to be bomb-proof. The base
formed the magazine; above were two rooms for the garrison, and over the upper oif
these the flat roof, with a 4i-f t. brick parapet all round. On this roof a swivel heavy gun
was to be placed to command shipping, while howitzers on each side were to form a
flanking defense in connection with the neighboring towers. Although the cost of ihese
little forts was very great, they are generally considered to have been a failure; their
armaments have mostly been removed, and their garrisons of 6 to 12 pensioner-soldiers
replaced by coast^^ard men, or in some coses by old master-gunners.
The name is said to be taken from Italian towers built near the sea, during the period
when piracy was common in the Mediterranean, for the purpose of keeping watch and
living warning if a pirate-ship was seen approaching. This warning was given by strik-
ing on a bell with a hammer (Ital. martelto), and hence these towers were called iorri da
marteUo.
XABTEK , Martes, a genus of digitigrade carnivorous quadrupeds of the family mn^
telidcB, differing from weasels in having an additional false molar on each side above
and below, a small tubercle on the inner side of the lower carnivorous choek-teeth» and
the tongue not rough — characters which are re^rded as indicating a somewhat Ie»
extreme carnivorous propensity. The body is elongated and supple, as in weasels, the
legs short, and the toes separate, with sharp, long claws. The ears are larger than in
weasels, and the tail is bushy. The martens exhibit great agility and gracefulness in
their movements, and are very expert in climbing trees, among which they generally live.
Two species are natives of Britain — the Common Martbn, Beech Marten, or Stonk
Martin (if. foiiia), and the Pine Marten {M. abietum), inhabiting chiefly the more
rocky and wooded parts of the islaml; the former in the s., and the latter in the north.
Both were once much more common than they now are, being sought after on account
of their fur, and killed on everv opportunity, because of their excessive depredations
among game and in poultry-yards. The head and body are about 18 in. long, the tall
nearly 10 inches. Both species are of a dark tawny color, the common marten baring
a white throat, and the pine marten a yellow throat. Many naturalists regard them as
varieties of one species, of which also they reclion the sable (q.v.) to be another variety.
The fur of the martens is of two sorts: an inner fur, short, soft, and copious, and long
outer hair, from which the whole fur derives its color. The common marten is mncb
less valuable for its fur than the pine marten, whilst the pine marten is much less
valuable than the sable; but skins of the common marten are imported in great Dnm-
bers from the n. of Europe, and they are often dyed, and sold as an inferior kiixi
of sable. Pine marten skins are imported from the n. of Europe, Siberia, and North
America. — The martens generally have their retreats in the hollow trunks of trees, or
usurp the nest of a magpie or other bird, but sometimes among rocks. They are
capable of a certain amount of domestication.
MARTEN8BN, Hans Lassen, d.d., b. at Flcnsborg, Denmark, Aug. 19, 1808;
studied theology at the university of Copenhagen; and in 1840 became professor at the
university, first in philosophy, and afterwards in theology. In the same year appeared
his first book, Mtuster JSckart, which was an essay on the mysticism of the middle ages»
It was received with much enthusiasm both in Denmark and Germany. In 1841
appeared his Outline of a System of Ethics, followed, in 1849, by Christian Dogmaticf.
In the latter the author, as a disciple of Hegel, undertakes to reconcile faith and reason,
revelation and science — a tjisk which he performed with such acuteness and ingennily
as to excite the admiration of Christian readers in many countries. In 1845 he was
appointed preacher to the Danish court, and in 1853 elevated to the bishoprick of Sealand.
the highest dignity of the Danish church. In this position, by his eminent scholarship.
his catholic spirit, and his tireless activity, he has exerted a powerful and beneficent
influence. In 1872 he published a System of Christian Ethics.
MARTEN, SPOTTED,, or Long-tailed Dasyure. See Marsupialia.
XABTHA'S viAJfiTABD, an island on the s. coast of Massachusetts, 21 m. long, 6 m.
in average width. Edgartown, settled in 1642 by emigrants from Southampton. Eng-
land, is the largest town. The island has lately been noted for annual camp-meetiDg9
attended by 20,000 persons. Pop. 70, 8,688.
MARTHA'S VINEYARD {antel an island 20 m. in length and 3 to 9 m. wide, off
the s.e. coast of Massachusetts, is a part of Duke's co., and is separated from Barnstable
CO. by Vineyard sound, 8^ to 7 m. in width; pop. 70, 8,678. It was discovered by Bar-
tholomew Gosnold in 1602; and at that time was heavily wooded, and contained deer
and other game, berries and fruits in profusion, a fresh-water lake, springs, and many
wild vines. Gosnold at first gave the name, doubtless in memory of soma fHend, to
a barren islet (No Man's Land) lying s.w. of the laiger island to which he. afterwards
transferred the name. At the period of its discoveir, Martha's Vineyard was found to be
valuable on account of its growth of sassafras, which was highly esteemed in Eorope
as a medicine, and of which cargoes were carried away from the ^sltmd^ imd Jhe main-
OOi Martial.
«
land. In 1647 Thomas Kayhew, who had become governor of this island in 1641, liy
Kut from the earl of Stirling, settled where Edgartown now stands, and where the
jhew family remained in control until 1710. Members of this family couductad
missionary enterprises on the island, among the natives, with great zeal and earnest-
ness, and with such success that Oiristian villages abounded. The new converts proved
their devotion by guarding the island during the progress of king Philip's war; but
later on they gradually died out. In 1835 the island of Martha's Vineyard was first
used for the purposes of a camp-meeting, 9 tents being pitched on the site of the pres-
ent camp-ground. This institution continued to thrive until it had grown to its present
importance and comprehensive scope. Of late years, the annual gathering for religious
purposes has numbered as many as 25,000 persons, the meeting occurring in August, in
a large grove of shade-trees. Here a settlement of tasteful cottages has grown up, the
site being laid out in streets, lighted at night, and at such a time presenting a scene
of fairy splendor. It has become a place of fashionable resort, families from Boston
and other cities occupying the cottages during the season. East of the camp-grounds
a ledge of bluffs extends alon^ the edge of the shore, overlooking the sea from a height
of about 30 feet. Here the village of Oak Bluffs was laid out m 1868, and has sin^e
become a fashionable watering-place, visited in the season even from so far s. as New
York and Philadelphia. Oak Bluffs is connected with Edgartown by a narrow-gauge rail-
road. Twenty m. distant, at the w. end of the island, is Gayhead, an abrupt and bold
coast-line eminence, which is said to be of volcanic origin. 8ix m. e. of Oak Bluffs is
Edgartown (q. v.), the principal town on the island; and beyond this is Katama bav,
which is a place of resort for social entertainment, and has attractions in its beautiful
scenery. The island is accessible by steamer from New Bedford and Wood's HoU.
KABTIAL (Marcus YALBRnra Mabtialib), the first of epigrammatists, was b. at
Bilbilis, in Spain, 48 a.d. In 66 he came to Rome, where he resided till 100, when he
returned to lus native town. There he married a lady called Marcella, on whose property
he lived till his death (about 104). When at Rome he soon became famous as a wit ana
poet, received the patronage of the emperors Titus and Domitian, and obtained from
them the privileges of those who were fathers of three children, and, in addition, the
rank of tribune and the rights of the equestrian order. He lived, seemingly, in affluence
in a mansion in the city, and in Nomentum, a suburban villa, to both of which he makes
frequent reference, from Rome his reputation rapidly extended to the provinces; and
even in Britain his EpigrammcUa, which, divided mto 14 books, now form his extant
works, were familiarly read. These books, which were arranged by himself for publica^
tion» were written in the following order: the first 11 (including the LUter de SpectaetUis)
were-oompoeed at Rome, with the exception of the third, which was written during a
tour in Ckdlia Togata; the 12th was written at Bilbilis, and the 13th and 14th at Rome,
under Domitian. The last two, entitled Xema and Apophoreta, describe, in distichs, the
various kinds of souvenirs presented by the Romans to each other on holidays. To the
other books we are also indebted for much of our knowledge of the manners and customs
which prevailed under the emperors Nero, Galba, Otho,* Vespasian, Titus, Domitian,
Nerva, and Trajan, under whose collective reigns he spent 85 years of Ids life. His
works have also a great literary value, as embodjring the first specimens of what we now
understand by epigram — not a mere insmption, but a poem of two or more lines, con-
taining the terms of an antithesis, which goes off with a repercussion at the close. The
wonderful inventiveness and facilitv displayed bv Martial in this species of composition
have always received the highest admiration, only qualified by his disgusting grossness,
which, bhuneworthy in him, was even more so in the age by which it was demanded and
relished. The best edition of Martial is that of Schneidewin. He has never found an
adequate translator.
KABTIAL LAW is a collective name for those laws to which the individuals compos-
ing the military and naval forces of a country are subject, but which do not apply to
civilians. As, however, the soldier remains a citizen, he is governed by the common
law in an matters not coming under the cognizance of the martial law, the degree to
which the latter is applicable to his actions varving in different countries, and in tim^s
of peace and war. In France and Austria a soldier's offenses against the civil code are
dealt with by a court-martial; while among British troops — unless serving against an
enemy— the civil tribunals deal with non-mintair offenses.
The maintenance of discipline and other obvious causes necessitate, for a body of
armed men, a code of laws and regulations much more strict and severe in their penal-
ties, as well as more prompt in their execution, than suffices for ordinary society.
Accordinglv there have always been martial laws, more or less clearly defined, where
there have been armies. For the nature of the rules under which the discipline of tl^e
British army is kept up, see Abticlbs of War and Mumrr Act.
There is vet another phase of martial law, and that is the degree of severity which
* may be apphed to an enemy. All authorities agree that the life of an enemy taken in
anns is foneit to his cantor; but modem ideas preclude his being put to death, unless
in open i^sifltaiice; and toe massacre of prisoners in cold blood, once thought lightly ai,
is now esteemed a barbarity, which nothmg but the most urgent circumstances, such hs
their uprising, or their attempted rescue by their countrymen, could justify. The
daughter of the captive Mamelukes at Jaffa has left an indelible stain on Napokon'g
^fnemoiT. As regards civil population and property, mudi amelioration has taken pkte
•with advancing civilization. Formerly the devastation of the countiy, and the destruc-
*|lion, accompanied even by torture, of the inhabitants, was deemed a legitimate feature
•of war. Now, the rule is to spare private property, to respect personal liberty, unlos
'4he inhabitants directly or indirectly aid the enemy, and only to lay waste so nucL
^ ground its military necessities may require. Such at least is the principle professed;
Tint few commanders are able to prevent their troops from deeds of violence. A province
-'Occupied by a hostile army is usually considered "under martial law." This means
,'(hat civil law is defunct, and all government under military regimen; but it isimpogsi-
** ble to define the bounds of this martial law ; nor is an^ more correct dictum on the
subject likely to Ite arrived at than that celebrated saying of the duke of Welliogton
when he described it as "the will of the commander-in-chief."
MARTIAL LAW {ante) must be distinguished from both military law and militarj
government. The last denotes the rule oi a conquered or insurrectionary district by
• piilita!^ authority, while military law is that branch of the law which regards militaiy
disciphne and the government of persons employed in the military service. Martial
'|hw, says Kent, supersedes and suspends the civil law, but military law is superadded
and Bubordinate to the civil law. As good a definition as any of martial law, which is
in its nature somewhat indefinite, is that given by prof. Joel A. Parker, in the N€Tth
American JReview, Oct., 1861. "It is," he savs, *' that military^ rule and authority which
exists in time of wtir, and is conferred by the laws of war, in relation to persons and
things under and within the scope of active militanr operations, in carrying on the war:
and which extinguishes or suspends civil rights and the remedies found:ed on them, for
Uie time being, so far as it may appear to be necessary, in order to the full accomplish-
ment of the purposes of war. It will be seen that martial law is in the highest degree
arbitrary ana capable of abuse. It may be decreed at will by competent military author
Itv, and the only rule as to the propriety of its being established is the teat of necessity.
llie duke of Wellington, from his place in the English house of lords, deprecated its
employment, except under the most urgent pressure, and then only with great modifi-
oations.
In a celebrated Ceylon case the late lord chief -justice Cockbum was very reluctant
" ■ Id admit that civil law could be superseded by court-martial, except where, as in India,
the military government was absolute; but in the same case Blr.ckbum, J., laid down
the dictum universally accepted in the United States, that martial law is derived from
4itatutory provisions and founded on paramount necessity. Thus the question as to its
naitire is closely connected with the manner of its exerc ise, and this again with the
. tetfponmbStUy for such exercise. As to its extent, we may refer to a decision of the U. 8.
jsuprcme court in the case of NeaX Dow v. BradUh Joknwn, October term, 1879. It was
*Md: that an officer of the United States, while in service in an enemy^s country, was
not liable to an action in civil courts for acts done in pursuance of a superior's orders;
and when any portion of an enemy's country was in the military possession of the
United States, the municipal laws were to lie continued in force and ndminiBtered
4hrough the ordinary channels for the protection and benefit of the inhabitants and
others not in military service, but not for the protection or control of army officers or
^soldiers. In the supreme court of Missouri it has been held that the act of congnss
making the order or authority of the president a food defense for acts done or left
.vrndone during the rebellion, is unconstitutional (64 Mo., 564). Where an inferior con-
federate officer, under the orders of his superior, destroyed large quantities of spirits to
4 preserve the discipline of his command, the courts of Mississippi held that such order
"m^A no defense in an action for damages brought after the close of the war.
The whole subject of the relations of the civil and military authorities in time of
~var, and especially the constitutionality of acts passed distinctly as war measures, is of
great interest, and, while much maybe ret judicata, there are many points not yet clearly
determined.
SABTIGHT, or Martinach (the Octodurw of the Romans), a small t. of Switser-
land, in the canton of Valais, is situated on the Drance, an affluent of the Rhone, about
%i m. 8.s.e. from the e. end of the lake of (Geneva. The two noted routes, one to the
T^le of Ohamouni by the T6te Noire or the Col de Balme, and another to the great 8t
Bernard, branch off here. Martigny is on the Simplon road into Italy. It is a great resort
for tourists, and has a population of about 1200.
MABTIGUn, a small t. of France, in the department of Bouches du Rhone, is situ-
ated on three islands, united by bridges, in the entrance to the Etan^ de Berre, 16 m.
n.w. of Mflrseilles. From the peculiarity of its position, it has been called the Provencal
Yenioe. Pop. 76, 4,959, engaged in the tunny and pilchard fisheries.
MABTIH. See Swallow.
MARTIN, a co. in s.w. Indiana, intersected by the Ohio and Misnasippi raihray;
drained by the East fork, or Driftwood fork, of the White river, entering it in the n.e,
Bnd forming part of its s.w. boundary; about 840 eq.m. ; pop. '80, 1S,475— 18»^M0 of
American birth, 16 colored. Its surface is hilly, with a laige fKirtion of tillable laad
a laive portion of titti
Digitized by VjUU VIC
533 SKjH^
sfill coTered with forests. Its soil is fertile, and adapted to the raising of live Stock;
aiid the production of fruit, buckwheat, oats, com, rye, wheat, tobacco, wool, the prod-^*
ucta ot the dairy, honey, sorghum, maple-sugar, and flax. Its mineral products arft.
sandstone and coal; and there are suli)hur springs in the n. portion. Among iis manii^
facUwiea are flour-mills, and lumber-mills, spoke factories, blast-furnaces, and distilleries.
Seat of justice, ShoalSw
MARTIN, a oo. in e. Kentucky, formed out of portions of Lawrence and PikB^
counties, has the Tug fork of the Big Sandy river for its e. boundary, separating it from^.
West Virginia; about 220 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 8,067—^,068 of American birth, 82 oolorecb
A range of mountains forms its s.w. border, and its seneral surface is hilly,with a thicks
growth of hardwood timber on the hill-sides. Its sou, near the river and its tributaries^
is fertile, and corn and live-stock are raised. Coal is found and is easily mined, and salt*
is raanufiustured. Seat of Justice, Warfleld.
MARTIN, an e. co. of North Carolina, touching on Albemarle sound, and having
the Roanoke river for its n. boundary; 520 S4][.m.; pop. *80. 13,140; traversed by the
Seaboard and Raleigh railroad. The surface is level and in some portions swampy;
the country is heavily wooded. The soil is fertile, producing com ana cotton. Co. seat>
Willlamston.
MARTIN, a CO. in s. Minnesota, havinj^ the state line of Iowa for its s. boundary,
drained by the Chanyuska river emptying into the Blue Earth river in the next county,
with a few small lakes in the n., and Chadk lake in the & portion; 720 sq.m.; pop. '80, *
5,241^—4,246 of American birth. Its surface is somewhat undulating, but spreaas out
into broad prairies for the most part. Its soil is fertile, and adapted to the raising of
slieep. the production of Irish potatoes, dairy products, sorghum, honey, and every
variety of grain. Its water-power is utilized by flour and saw mills. Seat of justice,
Fairmount.
MABTni, the name of Ave popes, of whom the fourth and fifth deserve a brief
notice.— Martin IV. (Nicholas de la Brie), a Frenchman, was elected in 1281. His name
is best known in connection with the memorable tragedy of the "Sicilian Vespers. "^
Having been from the time of his election a devoted adherent of Charles of Anj u, he
supported that monarch with all his influence, and even bv the spiritual censures which *
he had at his command, in his effort to maintain French domination in Sicily; and it is
to his ase of the censures of the church in that cause that many Catholic historians
ascritK) the decline and ultimate extinction of the authority in temporals which the papacy
had exercised under the distinguished pontiffs who preceded him. He died at Perugia
in 1285. — Martin V. must be noticed as the pontiff in whose election was finally extin-
guished the great western schism (q.v.). He was originally named Otho Colonna,
of the great Roman family of that name. On the deposition of John XXJII., and the
two rival popes Gregory All. and Benedict XIII., in the council of Constance, cardinal,
('olonna was elected. He presided in all the subsequent sessions of the council, and the
fathers having separated without discussing the questions of reform, at tiiat period..
eamestlycalled for in the church, Martin undertook to call a new council for the pur-
pose. The council was summoned accordinely, after several years, to meet at Siena,
and ultimately asseml)led at Basel in 1431. Martin died in the same year.
MARTIN (ante) I., Saint, d. 656; son of Pabricius, succeeded Theodore I. in the *
|)apa] chair, a.d. 640; opposed the will of the emperor Constans II. by assembling the •
first Lateran council at Rome in October, 649, in wliich the emperor's decrees were
denounced, the pope presiding over 104 bishops from Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa^
Five sessions were held, and the judgment of the council was pronounced in 20 canons,
anathematizing all those who do not admit the existence In Jesus Christ of two wills
and two operations; this being the question as to which the emperor Constans had pro-
nounced for the opposite side. The opposition to his will on the part of Martin enraged
the emperor, who ordered the imprisonment of the pope. He was accordingly taken to
the island of Nnxos in June, 653, and retained there an exile until Sept. 17 of th^ fol-
lowing year. He-^as now taken to Constantinople, where he was detained in prison six
months. As he still refused to recant his opinions, he was exiled to the Thnician* Cher-
sonese, where he suffered great indignities and deprivation until his death. His bod/
was afterwards removed to Rome, and the church of Rome commemorated his name.
Eighteen encyclical letters are attributed to him, and are published in Labbe's Concilia \
and the BiMwthee/i'Patrum.— II. , or Marinus L, d. 884; a native of Montefiascone,|in tt»e
papal states. He was three times papal legate to Constantinople; elected pope Dec!^ 23,'
882, surviving his election only 14 months.— III., or MARmus II., born in Rome, sue *
ceeded Stephen VIII. in W2, and held the papacy 4 years, until his death, which occurred-
in 946. He was a patron of learning, and was held in high repute as one whose exam- *
pie was Christian and noble. *
VABTDI, Bishop of Tours, and a saint of the Roman Catholic church, was b. in Pan-
nonia about the year 316. He was educated at Pavia. and &t the desire of liis father^'
who was a military tribune, entered the array, first under Constantine, and afterwards *
under Julian the apostate. The virtues of his life as a soldier are the theme of more
than one Interesting legend. On obtaining his discharge from military service, Mjirtlw*
became a disciple of Hilary, bishop of Poictiers (q. v.). He returned to his natiTe Vtot^
Aonia, and converted his mother to Christianity, but he himself endured much persecu-
tion from the Arian party, who were at that time dominant; and in consequence of the
firmness of his profession of orthodox^r, he is the first who. without suffering death for
the truth, has been honored in the Latin church as a confessor of the faith. On hia
return to Gaul, about 860, he founded a convent of monks near Poictiers, where he him-
self led a life of great austerity and seclusion; but in 871 he was drawn by force from
his retreat, and ordamed bishop of Tours. The fame of his sanctity, and his repute as
a worker of miracles, attracted crowds of visitants from all parts of Gaul; aJid in order
j to avoid the distraction of their importunity, he established a monastery near Tours, in
' which he himself resided. His life by his contemporary, Sulpicius Beverua, is a very
curious specimen of the Christian literature of the age, and in the profusion of miracu-
lous legeiids with which it abounds, mi^t take its place among the lives of the medie-
val or modem Roman church. The oniv extant literary relic of Martin is a short Con-
ffisgion of Faith on the Holy Trinity, which is published by Galland, vol. vii. 550. In the
Roman Catholic church, the festival of his birth is celebrated on Nov. 11. In Scotland
this day still marks the winter-term, which is called MarUnmas (the mass of St. Martin)^
Formerly people used to begin St. Martin's day with feastiug and drinking, hence the
French expressions martiner said f aire ia Si. Martin, *' to feast."
MARTIN, Albxandbr, ix.d., 1740-1807; b. N. J., of- Irish parentage; graduated at
the college of New Jersey in 1756; removed in 1772 to Guilfonl co., N. C. ; heoune a
member of the colonial assembly; was appointed in 1776 col. of a regiment, and fought
at Brandywine and Germantown; was state senator for several terms between 1779 and
1785; speaker of the senate in 1787-88, and acting governor in 1781-82; was elected
governor in 1782; re-elected in 1789; was a member oi the U. B. conatitutional conven-
tion; U. S. senator, 1798-99.
MARTIN, Benjamin Nicholas, d.d,, b. at Mount Holly, N. J.. Oct 20, 1816; grad-
uated at Yale college in 1887, and at the divinity school in 1840; settled as pastor of a
Congregational church in Hadlcy, Mass., 1848-47, and as pastor of the Fourth Pres-
byterian church in Albany in 1848-49. In 1^2 he became professor of rhetoric and
intellectual philosophy in the university of the city of New York, which place he still
retains.
I MARTIN, Bon Louis Henri, b. at St. Quentin, Feb. 20, 1810; son of a nmgistrate
of that city. At the age of 20 he was recognized as a youth of unusual elevation of
mind and independeuce of spirit, tempered with a mild and modest manner. Educated
for the practice of law he found time for his tendency to literary expression in other
channels and on many diverse subjects. In partnership with another youth he pub-
lished a novel entitled Tour du Loup in 2 volumes, and contributed quite a number of
Ji(tle poems to the journals. These were followed by manyH)ther romances. While
working with Paul Lacroix, it was suggested that they should compile a history of
France, to be made up of extracts from different authors. One volume was published,
when Lacroix abandoned it, but Martin resolved to goon. It became an enormous labor.
The first volume of Martin's work appeared in 1887, and 18 volumes followed down to
1854. In 1844 the academy of inscription gave him a prize of 9,000 francs; in 1851 he
feceived the first prize. In 1850 the work as far as completed was published in a new
form in 16 octavo volumes. With the history of France by Thierry, it occupies the
highest place. Martin is a distinguished member of the republican party in France. In
1848 he was appointed by Carnot provisional minister of public instruction, but the re-
actionary methods of the government induced him to resign. On the fall of Napoleon
he was made mayor of one of the arrondijaseruents of Paris, and endeavored, without suc-
cess, to dissuade the communists from their a.^sumption of the government. He was
elected from two districts to the national assembly, which he entered early in 1871, and
tdbk his seat with the extreme left. In July, 1871, he was elected a meml>er of the
academy of moral and politicAl science, and in October councilor-general of his native
department de VAimu. Besides the history of France the following are among his works r
mnnit et Midi, 1882, reprinted in 1855 under the title of TanerHe de Rohan; VAbbaye-
aU'Boit, <fn la Esmnie de Ghambre; HiHoire de Soisnotvn, 1837; De la France, die son genie
£t dews destine, IMl; Daniel Mavin, 1855; U Untie lialienet la France, \9^\', JeanBey-
' naud, 1868; Polognr et Moscovie, 1868; Vercin^feforix, 1865; La Rume iP Europe, 1866;
ffistoire de France populaire, 18^7; Etudes d^areheoloffie CeUUjue.
MARTIN, David. 1689-1721 ; a French Protestant clergvman, exiled to HoUand by
the edict of Nantes, where he became professor of philosophy and theolc^ in Utrecht.
Qe was author of the History of the Old and the. New Testament printed in French and
Dutch at Amsterdam in 1700. It was copiously embellished with fine engravings, and
'4a known as MorUei^s Bible.
MARTIN, Felix, b. at Auray, France, in 1804. In 1842 he was sent as a French
Jesuit priest to Canada to revive the missions there; founded St. Mary's colle^ in Mon-
treal ; collected material for the history of Canada, and has published and edited many
works throwing light on the old Canaaian Jesuit missions; among which are the follow*
tog: -MahiuH dtC I^lerin de' NoireDame de bm Secour, Montreal, 1(m8; Belatkmdes Jemk, «
5S6
XMrtllU
«& eidai^ edition of O'Callagban's work; JTtMm du Ckmada, rSaHfiM insdUea^ Pwis,
18(1; IM MmUealm en Canada, 1867. He assisted Garayon in a series of volumes on the
Jttuit missions.
MARTIN. Francis Xayibr, ll.d., 1764-1846; "b. Frapce; settled in Martinique,
where he engaged in business, but failed. In 1786 he removed to North Carolina, and
Wf French lessons. He then learned the printer's trade, edited a newspaper, and pub-
Hsbed a number of works, among them a series of treatises on the duties of public
officers, the fruit of his studies for the bar, to which he had already been admitted. He
compiled the colonial statutes of North Carolina, and made digests of the state statutes.
To him, also, are due the first published volumes of North Carolina state law reports.
He served as a judge of the territory of Mississippi for a year, when he was appointed
to a similar position in the territory of Orleans. He had already translated, while in
>forth Carolina, the work of Pothier on ObUgatums, and his familiarity with the civil law
enabled him to be of great service to the jurispi-udence of the new state of Louisiana,
whose first attorney-general he was. Two years later, in 1816, he was appointed a jus-
tice of the Louisiana state court, and remained in that office till his death. An almost
total blindness, from which he suffered during the last ten years of his life, did not inter-
iere with the discharge of his judicial duties. He reported the decisions of the Orleans
superior court from 1819 to 1830, and of the Louisiana supreme court from 1818 to 1880.
He published a history of North Carolina in 1829 and of Louisiana in 1827. Harvard
and NaahviUe universities conferred upon him the degree of lkd.
MARTIN, Sir James Ranald, 1800-74; b. at Eilmuir, Skye; entered the medical
staff of the Bengal army in 1818. He was appointed sanitary commissioner in England
in 1841, knightra in 1860, and made examining physician of the secretary of state for
India, inspector-general of hospitals, etc His work On the Influence of Tropieal Climates,
pubtiahed in 1855. is regarded as an authority.
XABTIN, Joihh, an English painter, was b. in the neighborhood of Hexham, North-
umberland, July 19, 1789, went to London in 1806, and made his first appearance as an
exhibitor at the royal academy in 1812. His picture was entitled "Sadak in Search of
the Waters of Oblivion,*' and attracted much notice. It was followed within two years
by the "Expulsion from Paradise," "Clyt6e,"and "Joshua conmianding the Sun to
stand Still." This last, though popularly successful, was the cause of a quarrel with the
academy, which cut him on from any of its honors. Till near the close of his life, he
painted pictures in a style which was considered "sublime," by the sort of people who
•Morning" and "Evening^* (1844); " The Last Man" (1850). Martin died Feb. 9, 1854.
MARTIN, JosiAH. 1787-86; b. Va. ; entered the British army as ensi^ ui 17^6, and
was afterwards promoted to the rank of lieutcol. In 1771 be was appomted governor
of North Carolina, and at the breaking out of the revolutionary war took refuge on board
a British man^f-war; was with the British fleet before Charleston in 1776, and with Com-
walUs at the battle of Camden in 1780. After this he withdrew to Long Island, and
thence to England, and died in London.
MARTIN, LuTHBK, LL.D., 1744r-1826; b. New Brunswick, N. J.; graduated at
Princeton in 1766; was a prominent lavsryer in Virginia and Maiyland; a member of con-
gress m 1784-85; attorney-general of Maryland in 1788 and 18l8. As a member of the
convention which framed the constitution of the United States, he earnestly opposed the
adoption of that instrument. In 1814 he was appointed iudge of oyer and terminer in
Baltimore. He vras a zealous friend of Aaron Burr, defending him on his trial for
treason. Med in New York.
MARTIN, Robert Montgomery, b. England about 1805; distinguished as a geog-
rapher and statistician; author of T?ie Cohnieeof the British Umpire; The British Ccith
nial tAbroflry; The HisUyry, Antiquities, Topog^-aphy, and Statistics of Eastern India; Ire-
land Before and After the Union; China, Pdlitical, Cammei-eial, and Social; The Hudson's
Ban Territories; The Indian Empire; and Progress and Present State of British India
<18(I2). He veas for several years editor of the Colonial Magazine; he also superintended
the publication of The lUuetrated Atlas and Modem Hietory cfthe World,
XAKTnr, ThbodoRb, was b. in Edinburgh in 1816, was educated at the high school,
and studied law at the university of that city. In 1846 he became a parliamentarv solici-
tor in London. His first literary imdertaking was editing Sir Thomas Urquhart s trans-
lation o€ Rabelais's Oargantua and Pantagruel (1888). In 1845 appeared the Bon Oaultier
BaOadt, the joint production of Martin and prof. Aytoun; his translation of Poems and
Bettadsif Ooethe <1858); Danish Dramas (1857); Odes of Horace (1860); Poems, original
and tianalated (1»2); Dante's Vita Nuova (1863); Faust (1865); Life gf Professor Aytoun
aWT); Life of K R H, the Prince Consort, vols. i. u. iii. (1874r-77). Martin in 1851 mar-
ried Mifls Helen Faudt, the well-known actress; in 1875 was made a companion of the
bath, and an huu. of Edmburgh university. . . .. Digitized by VjUUV IC
MaMlMM. ^^^
' KABTI'VA, a fine t. of the Italian piovince of Leooe, situated on a hill 18 m. n.n.e. of
Toranto. Pop. 72, 18,1(XI. It has a fine palace in the style of the great Boouui paWx*
PanfilL
MARTIN, AIMfe. Bee AnctMABTiN.
MABTHrSAIT, HABRiET,*an Enirlish authoress, was b. at Norwich, June 18, 180d*
iler education was conducted for the most part at home; from an early age she wss b
lover of books, and was wont to amuse her solitary hours by committing her thongbu
to paper. The deafness which she suffered from her youth no doubt strengthened her
habits of study, and had much to do with the working out of her career. Bhe appeared
in print (in a religious periodical, tlie Montldy B/Bpoktory) before she was out of her
teens, and when, in 1839, she and her sisters lost their small fortunes by the failure of
the house in which their money was placed, she continued to write as slie had written
before, though now under the new necessity of earning a liyelihood. The subjects upon
which her pen was exercised are of the most varied kmd, including some — such as poli-
tics— which have rarely been before attempted bv women. Her first volume, entitled
IhwUoM for Young People, appeared in 1823; and was followed in 1824 by ChriaimM
Day, a tale, and by The Friend, a sequel, the year after. In 1826 she published Frvndr
pU and Practice, and The Eioiers; and for two years thereafter she was busily engaged
writing stories and a series of tracts on social matters, adapted mainly for the perusal of
the working-classes. In 1880 she produced her Traditions ofPaledine. During the
same year, the association of Unitarian Dissenters awarded her prizes for essays on the
following subjects ihe Faith as Unfolded by many Prophets, Providence as Mamfesled
Through Israel, and ihe Essential Faith of Ae Universal Church, Her next importaDt
literary venture was unique, and in one of the softer sex almost audacious. The lUuitra-
tions of Politieal Economy, a series of tales, which met with great and deserved success,
and was followed by others illustrative of Taxation, and Poor-Law and Paupers, In
1884 she crossed the Atlantic, and published her Society in America in 1837. In 1839
she publbhed Deerbrook, and in 1840, The Hour and Uie Man. She afterwards produced
a series of tales for the young, the best known of which are FeaU on the Fiord, and Tht
Croftoii Boys. During the period 1839-44, when she was more or less an invalid, she
wrote Life in ihe Sick-room. Iler recovery she attributed to mesmerism, an avowal
which was the cause of a fierce discussion in the scientific world, and exposed herself to
much insult and ridicule. On her recovery she published Forest and Game-Law Tales.
In 1846 she visited Palestine, and collected materials for Eastern Life, Present and Pad.
which she published on her return. Afterwards she completed Mr. Knight's History of
EnglaiuL DuHng tlie TlUrty Years' Peace. In 1851, in conjunction with Mr. H. G. Alkio-
son, she published a series of Letters on the Latos of Man's Social Nature and Development,
and in 1869, Biographical Sketches (collected from the Daily Neirn). The long catalogue
of her literary labors (she wrote more than 100 books) includes her translation of Comte'»
Positivq Philosophy ; Household EduciUion; Health, Husbandry, and Handicraft; etc.
Martineau was a constimt contributor to the larger reviews, and the daily and weelviv
press. She died June 27, 4876; and her Autobiography, written and printed many yaiv^
before, was published with an additional editorial volume in 1877.
MlBTDfEATT, James, brother of the preceding, was b. at Norwich, April 31, 1805.
He was educated for the ministry in connection with the Unitarian body of Christians,
and was pastor of congregations in Dublin and Liverpool. He was for many years s
professor in Manchester new coUcto, and removed to London when that institution was
transferred thither in 1858, becoming one of the pastors of the chapel in Little Portland
street. He l)ecame principal of the college in 1868, and retired from the pastorate of the
chapel in 1874 He was one of the founders of the National Review, and has been a
frequent contributor to its paflres. This periodical may be taken as generally represent
ing his theological views. Martineau is one of the most earnest and loftv of living
refigious writers. He is deeply read in German theology and philosoj^y, ana Is remark-
able for strong grasp of thought and power t>f subtle analysis. He is a master of English
st^le, and in elucidating the most abstract thought he has seldom been surpassed. Hb
principal works are the Rationale of Religious Inquiry (IJ^: Endeavors After the Chris-
tian Life (1848); Miscellanies (1852); Studies of Christiamfy (imiy. Essays, Pkihsopkkal
and Theological (1869); and Hours of Thought on Scripture Thifigs^lSTT).
MARTINEAU, James (ante), is of French lineage. His father was in humble cir-
cumstances— a manufacturer of bombazines. From the beginning of his ministry his
sermons attracted attention by their deep earnestness and strong grasp upon the gravest
problems of human life. While he was preaching in Liverpool in 1889, he took part
with J. H. Thom and Henry Giles in a controversy with thirteen clergymen of the
churoh of England upon themes involving the points of difference between Unitarians
and evangelical Christians. The lectures on both sides were published in 2 vols., entitled
Uhitarianism Confuted, and Unitarianism Defended. The themes discussed by Mr. Mar-
tineau in these volumes were: *' The Bible;" ** The Deity of Christ;" " Vicarious Bedenip
tlon ;" • ' The Christian View of Moral Evil ;" and ' * Christianity without Priest and without
Ritual." He ranks by universal consent amonff the piofounaest thinkers and metaphysi-
cians of the age, and probably is not surpassed by any living writer for the charming sim-
plicity, and forceful clearness of his style. He has d one niii5^h|gg* ^ ifjci^i^W far more for
587 "^•"
CSirisdanity itself by his efforts to recoikcile the diiiiiis of faith and reason in religioij.
He has distingaished himself, especially in the last few years, as the champion of spir-
itual faith against the various schools of atheism and materialism, winning thus the
adnuration and ^-atitude of Christians of every name. His BeUgian and Modem Mate-
rialism waa published In New York in 1874. Since that time he has written quite
eztenaively for current reviews and magazines, though ill-health compelled him several
yeare ago to retire from the pulpit.
MARTINDALE, John H., b. Sandy Hill, N. Y., 1816; graduated at West Point,
and served for a time in the army,, but resigned in 1^ to become a railroad engineer.
In 1838 he settled in Batavia, N. x., practicing law there until 1851, when he removed
to Rochester. He enlisted in the war for the union in 1861, was appointed a brig. gen.
of volunteers, and led a brigade in Porter's corps in the peninsular campaign of 1862.
He was military governor of the District of Columbia from Nov., 1862, until May, 1864,
when he joiueci the 18th corps of the army of the James, and was in the battles of Cold
Harbor and the siege of Petersburg. He resigned on account of ill-health, Sept. 18, 1864,
and was elected attorney-general of the state of New York in 1866.
MARTIN DE MOUSSY, Jean Antoink Victob, 1810-70; b. at Moussy-la-Vieux,
Prance; studied medicine in Paris, and practiced in the military hospitals. In 1841 he
went to Montevideo, S. A., where he was engaged in the practice of medicine for 12
years, keeping all that time a meteorological register. During the siege of Montevideo,
which continued 9 years, he was director of the medical service to the French and Italian
legions. After the downfall of Rosas, the Argentine dictator, in 1852, Dr. Martin de
Moassy was employed by the government of president Urquiza to prepare a geograpfa
ical description of the republic. In the execution of this task he s^ent 4 years in con-
stant travel, visiting Paraguay, the Gran Chaco, portions of Chili and Bolivia, and all
the Argentine provinces in succession. The results of his labors are embodied in his
work in 8 vols., entitled. Description, geograpkique et Btatistique, de la (Jonfederatum Argen-
tins. This work, witli the atlns aci oinpanyinff it, is of the highest authority. Dr. Mar-
tin de Moussy was also one of the writers of the Encyelope^ des Connaiseanees tUiles,
and of the DieUonnaire Politique. Died in Paris.
MARTINET, Achille Loms, b. Paris, 1806; studied engraving at Rome, whei-e
he won the second grand prize in 1826, and the first in 1880. He has engraved from tiie
works of the great Italian painters, and the most celebrated living artists as well. His
L*arliest notable success was an engraving, exhibited in 1885, of l^mbrandt's portrait of
himself; and among his later works may Ik* mentioned engravings of Murillo's * ' Nativity, '*
1869; and Heun's ** Martyrdom of St. Juliette," 1878.
MARTINEZ DE LA ROSA, Francisco. 1781^1862; b. Spain; studied law at the
university of Granada, and was appointed lecturer on ethics at the university of S.
Miguel when less than 20 years old. Tlie French had just invaded Spain, and h(^
ontercd enthusiastically into the national movement. He was employed by the junta of
Granada, his native town, to get arms and supplies for the Spanish cause from the
English at Gibraltar, and he afterwards went to England on the same errand. There,
in 1811, his first poem. Zaragoza, was published. He wrote also, while in London, a
sketch of the Spanish war of independence for Blanco White's paper, El Espailol, then
\}e\nR publishea. On his return to Spain he produced, at Caoiz, a tragedy called La
Vinaa de Padilla, which was successful, and was followed by a comedy £o que puede yn
Empleo, satirizing political life. In 1818 he was relumed to the cortes from Gmnada, antl
at once took a high position as an orator. He was a supporter of the constitution of
1812, which king Ferainand, on his return to Spain in 1814, overthrew, when Martinez
was sentenced to imprisonment for 10 years. Released by an insurrection in 1820, he
was for a short time secretary of state, but his opinions had! somewhat moderated during
bis absence, and he lost favor with the populace, to avoid whose violence he resigned.
The next eleven vears of his life were passed in Paris, with an occasional trip toltaly
and Germany. Between 1827 and 1837 he published at Paris a collection of his Obraft
Literariae in 5 vols. These contain, besides the Vinda de PadvUa, 4 other plays: Za
Kifla en Caea y la Madre en la Mattcarn; Edvpo, a classical tragedy; Aben Enimeya^
founded on the Moorish insurrection under Philip II.; and La Conjuraeion de Venecia,
written in the manner of the French romanticists. In the collection are also included a
Pifttica, or treatise on the art of poetry, and a number of essays on Spanish literature.
In 1880 he was permitted to return to Spain, and began to write a historical novel, Doila '
Isabel de SoUs, the last volume of which was not published till 1846. Meanwhile lie
became the head of a liberal ministry, and was the author of the royal statute of 1884, *-
which created a constitutional government like the English, and took away the ancient ,
privileges of the provinces. Tlie abolition of these privileges caused a revolt by
Hie Basque provinces, which attached themselves to Don Carlos; civil war broke out,
Martinez de la Rosa and the moderates became more and more unpopular, an attempt
was made upon his life in 1835, and the ne.xt year he n>signed. He distmguished himself'
in opposition in the cortes, and he once more took ofBce; but the constitution of 1812*
^as restored, the royal statute annulled, and on the fall of queen Christina in 1840 he^
ugain went to Paris, and resumed the composition of JSspirifu dd Sigh, a work on poli-
tical science, which h:\d been begun in 1835, and whose tenth and last volunJfi was puU-
Martinique. 533
lisbed in 1891. Upon the fall of Espartero he entered -the Narvaez cabket, and was
afterwards ambassador to Purls and to Rome. Returning to Spain he was elected pres-
ident of the chamber of the peers; and he was perpetual secretary of the Spani^
4K»demy.
XABTDIIQTJS' or Martinico, called by the natives Maozai^a, one of the Lesser An>
tilles, is 40 m. long, about 12 m. broad, and has an area of about 880 sq.m., and 75,
160,831 inhabitants, of whom about 90.000 are black. The island was discovered by
the Spaniards in 1493, colonist b^ the French in 1635, and now belongs to tliat nation.
It is of an oval form, with much mdented coasts, and is everywhere mountainous ; the
highest peak, mount Pelee being considerably more than 4,000 ft. above sea-level. There
are six extinct volcanoes on the island, one of them with an enormous crater. The cultivated
portion of Martinique (about one-ihird of the whole) lies chiefly along the coast. The
climate is moist, but, except during lAie rainy season, is not unhealthy, and the soQ is
very productive. Of the land in cultivation, about three-fifths are occupied with sugar
cane. Slavery was abolished iu 1S48. The island is liable to dreadful hurricanes. A
floating dock was opened in 1867, at Fort-la-France, the capital (formerly Fort Royal);
a telegraph line thence to St. Pierre (q.v.) was at work in 1866; and since then a railway
has been set on foot. The exports exceed a million sterling in annual value.
MARTIN MAR-PRELATE, Controversy of. Certain tracts; appeared in Enffland
about 1580. described by Hard wick in his church history "as a series of scurrilous libels
in which the queen, bishops, and the rest of the conforming clergy were assailed with
«very kind of contumely. They are supposed to have been written by some Puritan
radicals in the height of the controversy between the church and the Puritans. One
writer thinks " thcrc'is reason to believe that the whole was a contrivance of the Jesuitj:;*'
but of this there is no evidence. Two Puritan divines, Udal and Penry, were tried, and
charged with the authorship, but they refused to make any disclosures, and the real
authorship of the lampoons was never known. Neale, in his history of the Puritans, gives
their titles and contents.
MABTUIXAS, in Scotland, is one of the four quarter-days for paying rentr-viz.,
Nov. 11.
MARTINSBURG, at. in n.e. West Virginia, in the neighborhood of the Blue Ridge
a region of great fertility; pop. '80, 6,884. It is at the junction of the Martinsbuig and
Potomac division of the Cumberland Valley railroad and the Baltimore and Ohio, and
is the center of an important and hacreasing trade. It is 78 m. e. of Cumberland, and
100 m. w. of Baltimore. It is lighted with gas, and has water- works erected at a cost of
$90,000, a lar^ court-house, 8 newspapers, 11 churches, 8 banks (one national), with a
capital, collectively, of $200,000. It has a fine market, a variety of stores, and a number
of railroad repair shops, employing 600 hands. Its industries are the manufacture of
furniture and carriages; it has also" distilleries, planing and flour mills. There are 6
excellent public schools, and 2 seminaries for girls.
MABTIirS, Carl Friedrich Philipp von, one of the most distinguished of modem
travelers and naturalists, b. at Erlangen, 1794. He studied medicine at Erlangcn, and
had published two botanical works, when he was induced to proceed to Brazil as a
member of a scientific expedition sent out by the Austrian and Bavarian governments, and
by his researclies in that country acquired a reputation inferior perhaps to that of no
scientific traveler except Humboldt. He was specially intrusted wuth the botanical
•department, but his researches extended to ethnography, statistics, geography, and
natural science in general; and his works, published: after his return, exhibit a poet's
love of nature and great powers of description. These works are: Beise naeh Bra*ilien
(8 vols. Munich, 1824-31): Nom Oenera et Spe^en Ptantarum (8 vols. Munich, 1824-
32); and Iconea Plantarum Cryptogamicarum (Munich. 1828-34). He also published
a most valuable monograph of palms, Oenera et Species Palmarvm (3 vols. Munich, 1823
-45). He is the author of a number of other botanical w^orks, some of which are
monographs of orders and genera; also of works relative to tropical America, as THi
Pflanzen und 7 Mere des tropischen Ameriht (Munich, 1831); Das Natiirdl, die Kraiikheiten,
<ias Arzfihum vnddie BeUmittel derUrbewohner Brasiliens (Munich, 1848); Sysiema Materia
Medica Ve^etabilis Brasiliensis (Leip. 1843). He also contributed largely to the Ff&ra Bran-
liensis; and wrote Beitrage zur Eihnographie ti. Spraehenkutkde Amerikas zumals BraziUen
(1 867). etc. He was professor of botany and director of the botanic garden at Munich. He
died in 1868.
KABTLET, in heraldry, a bird resembling a swallow, with long wings, very short
beak and thighs, and no visible legs, given as a mark of cadency to the fourth son. It is
also otherwise used as a charge. The martlet was originally meant for the martin, and
in the earliest heraldry, it is not deprived of its feet.
XAB'TOS, a t. of Andalusia, Spain, 16 m. s.w. of the city of Jaen, on a sloep hill
crowned by an old castle. It is resorted to for its mineral waters. Pop. stated at 11,000.
MARTYN, Henky, 1781-1812; b. Truro, co. of Cornwall, England; of humble origm,
his father being a laborer in the mines of Gwenap. At the age of seven he was placed
at the grammar school of Truro with Dr. Carden, where he made great proficiency in
the classics. Remaining h^re till the age of fourteen, he offered Unu^tf^Majcandidate
689 SS'y'S^"
for a Taeant sohofaunhip at Oormis Christi college, Oxf<»^, but, Imnf anBuceeBaf ul, lie
retamed to Dr. (burden's school, and after two yeai-s* study entered, in 1797, St John's
collie, Cambridge: obtained in 1801 the highest academicu honor of " senior wrangler"
and the prize for the greatest proficiency in mathematics; in 1803 was chosen fellow of
hia college, besides gaming the first prize for the best Latin prose composition. The
sudden death of his father and the earnest preaching with the faithful counsel of Mr.
SimeoD, the university preacher, led to his conversion and dedication to the ministry.
A remark of Mr. Simeon on tlie good resulting from the services of Dr. Carey in India,
and a perusal of the I^fe of David Brainerd^ led to his deciding to be a missionary.
Bright prospects of honorable disUncttoa at Cambridge, intense enthusiasm in literair
puTsaits, an exquisite relish for the refined enjovments of social life, affected not his
purpose. After receiving ordination in 1808, he was curate of the rev. C. Simeon;
in 1804 he was public examiner in St. John^s in the classics and Locke's treatise on the
understand' ns^; m 1805 he sailed for India as chaplain in the East India company's
service, and reached Calcutta in Ma^,1806; in September received his appointment to Dina-
pore, and soon conducted worship among the natives in their own vernacular, and
estabiiabed schools for their instruction. He en^ged while here in the study of Sanskrit,
in revising the sheets of his Hindustani version of the New Testament, and superin-
tending the Persian translation made by Sabat. He had religious discussions daily with
his moonshee and pundit. In 1807 he completed the translation of the Book of Common
Prayer into Hindustani. In March of the same year he finished a Commentary on tks
ParaMea, In 1800 his ministry among the heathen began and he was stationed at
Cawnpore. He suffered exceraingly in the journey from Dinapore from the intense
heat. And soon after his arrival he preached to a thousand soldiers in a hollow square,
in the open air, with the heat so great that even before sunrise many dropped do wn from its
effect. He continued his work among the hundreds of heathen mendicants who crowded
around him. Having perfected himself in the Peraian language, he decided to extend
his labors to that country, and took up his residence at Shiraz, where he revised, with
the aid of learned natives, his Persian and Arabic translation of the Kew Testament,
and held discussions with the mollahs and sufis, many of whom were greatly impressed.
''Henry Marty n," said a Persian mollah, "was never beaten in argument; he was a
good man, a man of God. " In view of the effect of his frequent discussions, and of his
being engaged in a translation of the New Testament into Persian, the preceptor of all the
mollaha "wrote an Arabic defense of Mohammedanism. To this Marty n replied in
Persian. At Shiraz he held a public discussion with a professor of Mohammeoan law, ,
and another more important with Mirza Ibraheem in a court of the palace of one of the J
Persian princes, where was collected a large body of mollahs. Having finished his
translation of the New Testament, he commenced a version of the Psalms from the |
Hebrew. Having ordered two copies of the New Testament to be prepared, one for the
king of Persia, the other for the prince Abbas Mirza, his son, he left Shiraz for Talaiz
to make the presentation, but was seized with fever on the way and so prostrated that
he found it necessary to seek a change of climate. Compell^ thus so relinquish his
purpose, sir Gore Ouseley, the British ambassador, promised to present the New Testi-
ment at court, which he did, and the king publicly expressed his approbation of the
work. The ambassador also carried the MS. to St. Petersburg, where, under his
superintendence, it was printed and put into circulation. Martyn now decided to return
to £ngland, and Sept., 1812, set out for Constantinople, reaching Tocat in Asia Minor,
where his utter prostration compelled him to stop. Either falling a victim to the plague
then raging or sinking under the disease which had so greatly reduced hira, he died Oct.
16, 1812, in the 32d year of his age. A monument was erected at Tocat in 1856. He
wiis the author of Sermons, Controversial TractSy Journals and Letters.
MARTYNIA, a genus of plants belonging to the order bignoniacem (q.v.). They are
low, branching annuals with thick stems; leaves simple, rounded; flowers in racemes,
large, bell-shaped, and somewhat 2-lipped ; fertile stamens, 4, sometimes only 2. The
fruit is a pod with a long incurved beak; when ripe the pod splits into 2-hooked horns,
opening i|t the apex, between the horns. Seeds numerous, black, with a thick, wrinkled
coat. The plant has a rather unpleasant odor. There are seven or eiffht species, which
are natives of warm countries, except M. proboseidea, which is a native of the United
States, ffrowmg on the banks of the Mississippi, in southern Illinois, and south-westward.
It is called the unicorn plant, and is cultivated in eardens for its fruit, which, when the
pods are young, are used for making pickles. Theleaves of this species are heart-shaped,
oblique, entire, the upper alternate; corolla dull white or purplish, or spotted with
yellow and purple: enaocarp of the fruit crested on one side, long beaked. M.fragrans,
from New Mexico, has violet purple flowers, having a rather pleasant odor, somewhat
like that of vanilla.
XABTTB (Qr. martyr, a witness), the name given in ecclesiastical history to those
who, b^ their fearless profession of Christian truth, and especially by their fortitude in
submitting to death itself rather than abandon their faith, bore the "witness" of their
blood to Its superhuman origin. Of the same use of the word, there are some examples
also in the New Testament, as in Acts xxii. 20, Apoc. ii. 13, and.xvii. 6. But this
meaning, as its technical and e8tablished< sigiufication, is derived ,^|p^njly. (
agdcaX writen. During the persecutions (q.v.) of the Christians in the first thne cen-
turies, contemiforary writers, as well pagan as Christian, record that man}; ChritftiaDs.
preferring death to apostasy, became martyrs or witnesses in blood to the faith, often ia
circumstances of the utmost heroism. The courage and constancy of the sufferers wou
the highest admiration from the brethren. It was held a special privilege to receive Cic
martyrs benediction, to kiss his chains, to yisit him in prison, or to converse with liiiu;
and, as it was held that their great and superabundant merit might, in the eyes of Um.*
church, compensate for the laxity and weakness of less perfect brethren, a practioe arose
by which the martyrs gave to those sinners who were undergoing a course of public
penance, letters of commenduti()u to their bishop, in order that their course of penance
might be shortened or suspended altogether. See biDULGSNCB. The day of mart}T
dom, moreover, as being held to be the day of the martyrs' entering into eternal life, was
called the " natal*' or ** birth" day, and as such was celebrated with peculiar honor, aud
with special religious services. Their bodies, clothes, books, and the other objects which
they had possessed were honored as relics (q.v.), and their tombs were visited for Uic
purpose of asking their intercession. See Invocation. The number of martyrs who
suffered death during the first ages of Christianity has been a subject of great con
troversy. The ecclesiastical writers, with the natural pride of partisanship, have, it can
hardly be doubted, leaned to the .side of exaggeration. Some of their statements are
palpably excessive; and Gibbon, in bis well-known 16th chapter, throws great doubt
even on the most moderate of the computations of the church historians. But it U
clearly though briefly shown by Guizot in his notes on this celebrated chapter (see Mii-
man's OlbborCs Decline and FaU, i. 598), that Gibbon's criticisms are founded on unfair
and partial data, and that even the veiy authorities on which he relies demonstrate the
fallaciousness of his conclusions. Those who are interested in the subject will find ii
discussed witli much learning and considerable moderation in Ruinart's Acta Primiimt
et Sincera Martyrum, Considerable difference of opinion also has existed as to what.
in the exploration of the ancient Christian tombs in the lioman catacombs, are to be ecu .
sidered as signs of martyrdom. The chief signs, in the opinion of older critics, wen^
(1), the letters B. M. ; (2), the figure of a palm-tree; and (8), a vial with the remains of a
red liquor l)eiieved to be blood. Each of these has in turn been the subject of dispute,
but the last is commonly regarded as the conclusive sign of martyrdom. The first
recorded martyr of Christianity, called the "proto-martyr," was the deacon Stephen,
whose death is recorded Acts vi. and vii. The proto-martjrr of Britain was Alban, of
Yerulam, who suffered under Diocletian in 286 or 808.
MARTYR, Peter, Italian historian. See Akghiera.
MARTYR, Peter, Protestant reformer. See Vermioli. Pietro Martirk.
HABTTBOL'OOT, a calendar of martyrs and other saints, arran^d in the order of
months and days, and intended partly to be read in the public services of the church.
partly for the guidance of the devotion of the faithful toward the saints and martjis.
The use of the martyrology is common both to the Latin and to the Greek church, iu
the latter of which it is called Mendogion (from men, a month), or " month-calendar." The
earliest extant Greek martyroloev, or menology, dates from the 9th century. It was
published in 1727 by cardinal itrbini. The oldest Latin martyrology is that attributed
to St. Jerome, published in the 11th volume of the collected edition of his works b)
Vallars; but the genuineness at least of some portions of it is more than doubtful. In
the mediaeval period, martyrologies were issued in England by Venerable Bede: iu
France by Plorus, Ado, and Usuard; and in Germany by St. Gall, Nolter, and Ralianus
Maurus. The so called ** Roman Martyrology" is designed for the entire church, and wa^
published by authority of Gregory XIII., with a critical commentary by the celebrated
cardinal Baronius in 1586. A still more critical edition was issued by the learned JeduH.
Herebcrt Hosweidt
1CABT7T is, in Hindu mythology, the god of vrind; his wife is Anjanft, and his son
Hanumdn (q.v.). Blilma, the second of the Pftndu princes (see MahXbhIrata), is like
wise considered as an offspring of this god.
KABVSLL, Andrew, an English writer and politician, was b. Nov. 15, 1620, at
Hull, in Yorkshire, where his father was master of the grammar-school and lecturer of
Trinity church. He studied at Trinity college, Cambridge, and afterwards spent several
years in various parts of the continent, " to very good purpose,*' according to Miltoo.
He returned to England about 1653, and was employed by Oliver Cromwell as tutor to h
Mr. Dutton; in 16^7 he became assistant-secreta^ to Milton; and in 1660 was chosen by
his native town to represent it in parliament Jirtarveirs parliamentary carew was bodi
singular and honorable. Without fortune or influence, possessing no oommandiny
talent as a spealcer, nor, indeed, brilliant intellectual qualities of any kind, he maintained
a character for inte^ty so genuine and high that his constituency felt itself honored by
his conduct, and allowed him to the end of his life ** a handsome pension." Otherwise,
it would have occasionally fared ill with this incorruptible patriot, for he was often
reduced to great pecuniary straits. Charles II. made many but fruitless efforts to win
him over to the court-party. The story of the interview between Marrell and the lord
treasurer Danby, who had found out the patriot's lodgings (with difflcultv), *' up two
541 222?'
pair of stairs id one of the little Courts in the Strand, '* is belieVed to be esaentiany
trae, and indicates a certain noble republican simplicity of nature which cannot lie
too highly admired. MarveU died Aug. 16, 1678, not witliout suspicion of Doison.
His writings, partly in verse and partly in proee, are satirical, sharp, nonest ana pithy
.4like his tallc), but they relate to matters .of temporary interest, and are now well-nign
foirgotten. An edition of them was published, along with a life of the author, by capt.
'Edward Thompson, London, 1776.
XABYEL 07 FBBV. Bee Jalaf.
MARVIN, Enoch M.. d.d., b. Warren co.. Mo., June 12, 1828; in 1841 became a
minister of the Methodist Episcopal church and a member of the Missouri conference.
He was elected a bishop of the M. E. church, south, at the general conference held In
New Orleans in 1866. He enjoys a hl^h reputation as a preacher, and has published a
treatise on The Work of Christ, His ofiicial residence is at St. Louis.
MARWAR. See Joudpokk, ante.
MARX, Karl, b. Prussia, 1818; educated at Bonn and Berlin; in 1842 went to
Cologne, where he edited the Bheiniiehe ZeUung for a year, when it was suppressed. He
now established himself in Paris and undertook, with Arnold Rugc, the publication of
an edition of Hegel's FMLowpky of Jurisprudence, revised, and other literary labors.
Having employed the press to attack Prussia, the Prussian government asked his expul-
sion from France, which was granted, and he settled in Brussels in 1846. He had now
become interested in the International, the new socio-political organization, and devoted
himself with ardor to the promulgation of advanced views concerning the rights of labor
and of the laboring-class. After the revolution of 1848 he again went to Paris, his Pen-
tenoe of banishment being now rendered inoperative; but soon afterwards established in
Cologne the Neue RheinMche ZeUung, in the interest of social and political liberty. He
was by this time a pronounced agitator, constantly embroiled with the authorities on
account of the progressive character of his ideas and the boldness of his utterances. In
1849 he committed himself in the instance of the Baden insurrection, and was expelled
from Qermany, retiring once more to France and thence to London, where he has resided
•ever since. In 1864 he became a member of the International ; and having been chosen
to prepare the constitution and other initial documents of the organization, these were
adopted at the congtess of Geneva in 1866. In framing these important documents.
Marx came in competition with Mazzini and Bakunin, both of whom prepared pro-
mmmes for this occasion. The statement by Marx of the foundation and motive of the
Internationa], is precise, delinite, and conclusive, without being so radical and revolu-
' tionary as the ideas of some of its members, including Marx himself; who, on the occur-
rence of the atrocities of the commune in Paris, did not hesitate to issue a pamphlet
indorsing the action of the communists. The rules of the International, as framed by
Marx and adopted by the congress of (Jcneva, were as follows: " Considering that the
emancipation of the working classes must be conquered by the working classes them-
' selves ; that the struggle for the emancipation of the working classes means not a struggle for
•class privileges and^monopolies, but for equal rights and duties, and the abolition of all
class rule; that the economical subjection of the man of labor to the monopolizer of the
means of labor, that is, the sources of life, lies at the bottom of servitude in all its forms,
of all social miser>% mental degradation and political dependence; that the economical
•emancipation of the working dasses is therefore the great end to which every political
movement ought to be subordinate as a means; that all efforts aiming at that great end
have hitherto failed, from the want of solidarity between the manifold divisions of labor
in each country, and from the absence of afraternal bond of union between the working
<:la88es of different countries; that the emancipation of labor is neither a local nor a
national, but a social problem, embracing all countries in which modem society exists,
And depending for its solution on the concurrence, practical and theoretical, of tne most
^vanoed countries; that the present revival of the working classes in the most industrious
<xni]itries of Europe, while it raises a new hope, gives solemn warning against a relapse
into the old errors, and calls for the immediate combination of the stUl disconnected
fflov^nents: for these reasons, the first international workinnnen's congress declares
that this international association, and all societies and individuals adhering to it, will
racknowledge truth, justice, and morality as the basis of their conduct toward each other
and towanf all men, wiUiout regard to color, creed, or nationality. This congress con-
filders it the duty of a man to claim the rights of a man and a citizen, not only for him-
self, but for every man who does his duty. No rights without duties, no duties witliout
rights. And in this spirit they have drawn up the following rules of the international
association: 1. This association is established to afford a central medium of cominunica-
tion and co-operation between workingmen's societies existing in different countries and
Aiming at the same end, viz. : the protection, advancement, and complete emancipation
of the working classes. 2. The name of the society shall be " The International Working
Men's Association." 8. The general council shall consist of workingmen belon^ng to
the diffeieni countries represented in the international association. It shall from its own
members elect the officers necessary for the transaction of bunness, such as a president,
A InsMufer, a general secretary, oorresponding secretaries for tiie different countries, eXv.
The €CfiigreSB appoints annually the seat of the general council, elects a numlier i^in^n;.
542
liers, with power to add to their numbers, and appoints time and place for the meeting of
the next congress. The delegates assemble at the appointed time and place without any
special invitation. The general council may, in case of need, change the place, bnt has no
power to postpone the time of meeting. 4. On its annual meetings, the general coDgresa
shall receive a public account of the annual transactions of the general council. In cases
of urgency it may convoke the general congress before the regtdar yearly term. 6. The
general council shall form an international agency between the different co-operating asso-
ciations, so that the working men in one country be constantly informed of the movemenlig
of their class in every other country; that an inquiry into the social state of the different
countries of Europe be made Kimultaneously, and under a common direction; that the
questions of general interest mooted in one society be ventilated by all; and that when
immediate practical .steps should be needed, as, for instance, in case of international quar-
rels, the action of the associated societies be simultaneous and uniform. Whenever it
seems opportune, the general council shall take the initiative of proposals to be laid before
the different national or local societies. To facilitate the communications, the general
council shall publish periodical reports. 6. Since the success of the workinj^ men's moie-
ment in each country cannot be secured but by the power of union and combination, while,
on the other hand, the usefulness of the international general couacil must greatly depend
on the circumstance whether it has to deal with a few national centers of working men'ft
associations, or with a greater number of small and disconnected local societies, the mem-
bers of the international asHociation shall use their utmost efforts to combine the discon-
nected working men's societies of their respective countries into national bodies represented
by central national organs. It is self-understood, however, that the application of this rule
will depend upon the peculiar laws of each country, and that, apart from legal obstacles,
no independent local society shall be precluded from directly corresponding with the
general council. 7. The various branches and sections shall, at their places of
abode and as far as their influence may extend, take the initiative not only in all mattent
tending to the general progressive improvement of public life, but also in the foundation
of prcSuctivc associations and other institutions useful to the working class. 8. Each
member of the international association, on removing his domicile from one country to
another, will receive the fraternal support of the associated working men. 9. Everybody
who acknowledges and defends the principles of the international -working men's associa-
tion is eligible to become a member. Every branch is responsible for the integrity of the
members it admits. 10. Everv section or branch has the right to appoint its own corre-
sponding secretary. 11. While united in a perpetual bond of fraternal co-operation, the
working men's societies ioining the international association will preserve their existent
organizations intact. 12. Everything not provided for in the present rules will be sup-
plied by special regulations, subject to the revision of every congress."
MAEY, The Blessed Virgin (Heb. Miriam, Gr. Maria or Mwriam), called in the
New Testament "the mother of Jesus" (Matt. ii. 11, Acts i. 14), as the mother of our
Lord according to the hesh, is held in hi^h honor by all Christians; and her intercession
is invoked with a higher religious worship and a firmer confidence than that of all the
other saints, not only in the Roman church, but in all the Christian churches of the east
— the Greek, the Svrian, the Coptic, the Abyssinian, and the Armenian. Of her per-
sonal history, but few particulars are recorded in Scripture. Some details are filled np
from the works of the early fathers, especially their commentaries or deductions from
the scriptural narrative; some from the apocryphal writings of the first centuries, and
some from medisDval or modem le^ndaries. The twofold genealogy of our Lord (Matt
i. 1-16, and Luke iii. 2&-38) contains the only statement regarding the family of Mary
which the sacred writers have left The genealogy of our Lord in St. Matthew is trsoe!l
through Joseph ; and as it is plainlv assum^ that Mary was of the same family with
her husband Joseph, the evidence of the descent of the latter from David is equivalency
an evidence of the orimn of Mary from the same royal house. But the genealogy of
Christ as traced in St. Luke is commonly held to be the proper genealogy of his mother
in the flesh, Mary. Hence it is inferred that the Hell of this genealogv (Luke iii. 23)
was the father of Mary; and it may be added, in confirmation of this inference, that
Mary is called in the Talmud the " daughter of Hell," aud that Epiphanius {Hor. Izxviii.
n. 17) says her parents were Anna and "Joachim," a name interchanged in Scripture
(an 2 Chron. xxxvi. 4) with Eliachim, of which name Eli or Heli is an abridgment. The
incidents in her personal history recorded in Scripture are few in number, and almost
entirely refer to her relations with our Lord. They will be found in Matt i., li., xH. ;
Luke i., ii.; John ii., xix. ; and Acts i., where the last notice of her is of her "persever
ing in prayer" with the disciples and the holy women at Jerusalem after our Lord's
ascension (Acts i. 14). Beyond the few leading facts which will be found under these
references, the Scripture is silent as to the life of Mary during the presence of our Lord
on earth ; nor of her later life is there any record in the canonical Scriptnies. The
apocryphal gospels, entitled "The Gospel of the Nativity of Mary, "and the "Prote
vangetion ofthe Birth of Christ," contain some additional, but, of course, unantlientic
particuhirs as to the lineage, birth, and early years of Mary; among which is the mira-
culous story of her betrothal with Joseph, immortalized by the pencil of Raphael,
according to which narrative Joseph was selected fh>m among aU^^|^i]|^ been pro-
548
ibtfr*
posed as suiters for the hand of Mary by the supernatural sign of a dove issuine from
bis rod and aligliting upon his head. 8ee Prolevangelion, cap. viii. As to her history
after the ascension of her son, the traditions differ widely. A letter ascribed to the
ooQnoil of Ephesus speaks of her as having lived with John at that city, where she died
and was buried. Another epistle, nearly contemporaneous, tells that she died and was
buried at Jerusalem, at the foot of the mount of Olives. Connected with this tradition
is the incident which has so often formed a subject of sacred art, of the apostles comiug
to her tomb on tlie tbird dav after her interment, and finding the tomb empty, but exhal-
ing an *'ezccid.ng sweet fragrance.'' On this tradition is founded the belief of her
having been assumed into heaven, which is celebrated in the festival of the assumption.
The date of her death is commonly fixed at the year of our Lord 63, or, accordmg to
another account, the year 48. Another tradition makes her survive tlie crucifixion only
11 years.
Many theological questions regarding the Virgin Mary have been raised among
Christians of the various churches, which would be quite out of place here. One of
these, which possesses present interest, has been treated under a separate head. See
iMMACUiiATE OoKCSFTiON. The perpetual virginity of Mary is not explicitly attested in
Scripture, and there are even certain phrases which at first sight seem to impiv that
children were bom of her after the birth of Jesus, as that of his being called (Matt. i.
25, Luke ii 7) her ** first-born son," and that of James and others being more than once
called '* brothers of the Lord." On the latter argument, no critic acquainted with the
wide scriptural use of the word •* brother" would ever rely. The former, which was
urged anciently bv Helvidius and others, but was rejected by the unanimous voice of
tradition, is founded on a phrase susceptible of equal latituae of interpretation. The
perpetual virginity of Mary is held as a firm article of belief in the Roman and eastern
churches. Protestants hold nothing positively on the subject. The controversies
regarding the Virgin Mary have reference to tne lawfulness of the worship which is
rendered to her in some Christian communities. See AL^iolatbt.
MAKY, Mother of Jesus (ante), was of the lineage of David and probably a daugh-
ter of Heli, who stands in Luke's genealogical record first after Joseph, it is stated
concerning her in the New Testament: That the home of her youth was in Nazareth;
that she became the espoused wife of Joseph, a descendant of David, but before their
mairriaee was told by the angel Gabriel, sent from heaven to Nazareth, that, by the powor
of the Holy Ghost, she was to become the mother of the Son of God, whom she should
name Jesus, and who, raised to the throne of his father David, would reign thereon for-
ever; that, after Joseph also had been divinely informed of the truth concerning her. she
was received bv him as his wife, and as such retained her virginity until the birth of t
Jesus, her first-born son, which took place at Bethlehem under the circumstances related
by Luke; that, by divine direction, she and Joseph fied into Egypt with Jesus in order
to defeat Herod's designs airainst him; that after Herod's death she returned with her
husband and child to Nazareth: and, except during her annual visits to Jerusalem at the
feast — in one at least of whJc!h. when Jesus was 12 years old, he went with her — remained
with him in their home there until his public life and nunistry began. After that timu
she is brought forward four times only in the New Testament: 1. At the marriage in
Caoa of Galilee, where she said to Jesus, '''Hiey have no wine." 2. At Capernaum,
when Jesus was teaching a great multitude who were seated attentively around him.
Mary, with his brethren, unable to force her way to him, sent messengers, who cried out
to him that his mother and his brethren were standing outside wishing to see and talk
with him: Jesus did not ^o out to her or send her any answer; but, without ceasing his
instructions, said ** Who is my mother and who are my brethren?" and, stretching forth
his hand towards his disciples, thus answered his own question, " My mother and my
brethren are those who are hearing and doing the word of God " — and with wider appli-
cation still to all places and all times—'* Whosoever is willing to do the will of my Father
in heaven, he is my brother and sister and mother." 8. John records that Mary tin*.
mother of Jesus, with three or four of her friends, having been standing firmly by the
cross, probably from the beginning of the crucifixion, Jesus, just l)efore his deatli, sec
ing her there and the beloved disciple standing by her, said to her. "Woman, behold thy
son," and to him, *' Behold thy mother." After this, knowing that then all things had
been accomplished, he spake his la.st words and uttered his final cry. Thus, amidst all
its brevity, the Scripture narrative makes it clear that she who had heard the first infant
cry of Jesus heard also his closing cries of anguish; and from that very hour she was
comforted in what became to her a beloved home. It is related, also, that she saw tlie
tomb in which his body was laid. 4. After the ascension of Jesus to heaven Luke
records the presence of Mary with the apostles, the company of the women, and the breth-
ren of Jesus in the upper room at Jerusalem ^bere she anrf they continued strenuously in
pmrer until, on the day of Pentecost, the Holy Spirit was poured upon them from on
high. This is the last scriptural notice of her, and it supplies the last thing certainly
kiK>wn concerning her earthly life. As the inspired narrative introduces her by record-
ing the heavenly benediction pronounced upon her, and her own magnificent song of
humble, grateful praise; so it leaves her praying, in common with the rest of the disci -
ples^ for the promised blessing from on high. All beyond the abp§bJJ^MRJ^!MPfc>i
her by multitudes of writere in various a^es of the church is mere legend. A tenddr
interest and the respect due to her mystenous and sublime relation to the Christ of God,
natural concerning her in the minds of all devout Christians, may have been in some
'degree prevented by the claims for her worship which have beien advanced by lai^ge por-
tions of the church.
ICABY I.| Queen of En^Uind, daughter of Henry V III. by his first wife, Catharine of
Aragon, was b. at Greenwich on Feb. 18, 1517. obe was in her early years a great
favorite with her father, who had her carefully educated after the masculine fashion of
her time. Erasmus praises particularly the style of her Latin letters. At the age of
seven she was betrothed to the emperor Charles Y. ; but when Henry sought a divorce
from queen Catharine, the Spanish monarch broke off the engagement. Her father then
tried to marry her to Francis I. of fiance, but his design did not succeed. FVancis.
however, asked for his second son, the duke of Orleans, but Henry in turn refused.
After the birth of Elizabeth, Henry's affections were diverted to that princess; and when
James Y. of Scotland sought the hand of Mary, it was refused, on the ground that the
issue of such union mlKht imperil the right of Anne Boleyn's children to the crown.
This was virtually ondemning Mary to celibacy, and doubtless had the effect of making
her still more attached to the Catholic party, to which, on account of her training, ber
natural tendencies, and the wrongs of her mother, she was already closely allied. Several
other matrimonial negotiations, with the prince of Portu^, the duke of Cleves, and the
duke of Bavaria, also came to nothing. About this time she was in great danger of
lofiinff her life, on account of her strong attachment to her mother's interests. Toward
the close of Henry's reign, better prospects opened out for her; in 1544 she was restored
to her place in the line of succession, of which she had been deprived, and she lived ou
very ^ood terms with Catharine Parr, the last of her father's numerous wives. During
the reign of her half-brother, Edward YI., she lived in retirement, but bad three more
offers of marriage — from the duke of Brunswick, the markgraf of Brandenburg, and the
infante of Portugal — ^none of which was accepted. On the death of Edward in 1568 she
was proclaimed quee^ ; and after a brief and imbecile struggle on the part of those who
advocated the claims of lady Jane Qrey, was crowned in October of the same year br
Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. A fierce spirit in favor of the napacy poo'n
began to show itself, although it does not appear that Mary herself was at mat dispo-sed
to be severe; she even occasionally interfered to mitigate the cruelties of Gardiner aiid
Bonner; but after her marriage witli Philip of Spsin (Julv 26, 1654), to whose father she
had been betrothed many years before, a worse spirit took possession of her, or at least
worse coimsels prevailed ; and those bloody persecutions beean which have given her an
odious name in history. Her domestic life was wretched; Philip, whom she loved with
a morbid pas^ou, proved a sour, selfish, and heartless husband. She bad no children,
and exasperation and loneliness working upon a temper naturally obstinate and sullen,
without doubt rendered her more compliant to the sanguinary policy of the reactionary
bishops. Fortunately for England, her reign was brief. She died — after much suffer-
ing from dropsy and nervous debility — Nov. 17, 1668. She has been made the subject
of a tragedy by Alfred Teunyson.
MARY II., Queen of Great Britain, l«62-©4; b. England; daughter of Jameh
11. and Anne Hyde, who was daughter of the earl of Clarendon. At the age of fifteen
flhe was married to William, prince of Orange, and went with him to England in 1(»9.
During the same year parliament declared the crown of England vacant by the abdication
of James, and conferred it upon William (III.) and Mary. She is said to nave been meek
and gentle in her disposition, not interfering in the administration of the government,
except in the absence of her husband. She died of the small-pox, and left no children.
MARY, BROTHERS of, a Roman Catholic society founded at Bordeaux hi 1817 by
G. J. Cheminade. a priest, for the purpose of instruction ; confirmed by the pope in 1839:
introduced into the United States in 1849, where in 1875 tliere wore 23 houses.
MABYLAITD, one of the original 13 American states, lies immediately s. of Pennsyl;
vania, and is bounded on the e. by Delaware and the Atlantic ocean, between lat 87" 58'
to 39' 44' n., and long. 75 4' to 79' 38' west Area, 11,124 sq.m.. or 7,119,860 acres;
pop. '70. 780,094; income for the year 1877. |2,109,193. The line of Atiantic coaM is but
88 m., but including Chesapeake bay, is 411 miles, Tliis bay, 16 m. wide' at its mouth,
expands to a breadth of 30 m., with numerous islands, and reaches nearly across the state.
The country rises gradually from the coast to the tops of the Allegbanies, with great
varieties of formation, including deposits of coal, iron, copper, chromate of iron, silicates
and hydrates of magnesia, marl, etc. The climate is temperate, and the soil fertile, pro-
ducing wheat, Indian corn, cotton, tobacco, apples, plums, peaches, grapes.^ Its chief
towns are Baltimore, Annapolis, Fredericktown, Cumberland. Vast quantities of fruit
and of oysters are exported from Maryland. Tlie annual produce of coal is valued at
about $2,000,000. Maryland has upwards of 860 dl of railway. In 1870 there were 1779
schools in the state — 1487 public, 72 classical, professional, and technical including 3
universities and 19 colleges), and 220 boarding and other schools. There were also 1816
public libraries, 88 newspapers, and 1389 churches. Maryland was settled by a colooy
of Roman Catholic gentiy from England, under a grant to the second lord Baltimore,
1632, when it received its present name in honor of the Engiiah queen, Henrietta Maria.
545 1^
In 1649 it was made, as has been well said, "a land of sanctuary,** by the toleration of
all religious denominations; but the Puritans, expelled from Virginia, made great trouble
id the colony. Organized as a state in 1776, Maryland took a prominent part in the
resolution. In the war of 1861, its sympathies were with the south, and the first blood
of the war was shed 'in Baltimore, sevenEd Massachusetts volunteers having been killed
on their way to Washington! During the war it was invaded from Virgina, and made
the scene of bloody conflicts.
MARYLAND (ante). The first settlement within the state was that of capt. Willinm
Clay borne and his party, on Kent island, in Chesapeake bay, in 1631. Qeorge Calvert.
the 'first lord Baltimore, explored the Virginia settlements and Chesapeake bay in 1628.
and was delighted with the country ; but being a Roman Catholic, and finding the church
of England party had full sway, he is supposed to have returned to his possessions in
Newfoundland. In 1632, having returned to England, he obtained from the king a
renewal of his Newfoundland charter, enlarged to include the territory now forming the
states of Maryland and Delaware. He died before the papers were executed, and they
were issued by Charles I. to his son Cecelius Calvert, second lord Baltimore, June 20,
1632. The charter conferred upon him and his heirs forever, absolute ownership of the
territory, and also civil and ecclesiastical powers of a feudal sort. The name of Maryland
was given to the colony in compliment to the queen, Henrietta Maria. Lord Baltimore
did not emigrate to America, but made his brother, Leonard Calvert, manager of the
expedition, which consisted of 200 persons. They sailed from Cowes, isle of Wight,
Nov 22, 1683, in two small vessels, the Ark and the Dove, and, after touching at several
of the West India islands, landed at point Comfort, Va., Feb. 24, 1634, Prom this
point they sailed, Mar. 3, up the Chesapeake and into the Potomac, landing at an island
which they called St. Clements, where, on the 25th, they "offered for the first time in
this region of the world the sacrifice of the mass," and erected a large wooden cross an
"a trophy to Christ the Savior,'* chanting before it on bended knees the litany of the
cross. Proceeding n. about nine leagues, they entered a river which they called St.
George's, and landed on its right bank, where, on Mar. 27, 1634, with appropriate relig-
ious and military ceremonies, they consecrated the spot on which they proposed to build
a city, to which they gave the name of St. Mary's, of which scarcely a trace remains.
The colonists were nearly all Roman Catholics and gentlemen of wealth and respectii-
bility, and the intention of lord Baltimore was to &und a Catholic province upon a
fea<Jal basis, with a hereditary nobility, primogeniture, etc. This scheme was defeated
by the operation of a clause in the charter which prescribed that laws could be made only
with the '* advice, assent, and approbation of the freemen of said province, or of the greater
part of them, or of their delegates or deputies." There was a dispute between the assem
bly and lord Baltimore as to which of them had the right to initiate legislation, but it
was settled in 1638 by the concession of the latter that the power should be exercised by
the former, and in the next year the first statutes of Maryland were enacted. Claybdme
and his colony on Kent islimd refused to acknowleilge allegiance to the new government,
and he and his adherents were expelled. In 1642 a company of Puritans, excluded from
Virginia for non-conformity, settled at Providence, now Annapolis, and put themselves
in opposition to the ^vernment. Clayborne also returned from England and regained
XK>sses8ion of Kent island. The governor attempted in vain to dispossess him, and he
and his partisans, united with the Puritans, became masters of the province, and in 1645
compelled the governor to flee into Virginia. In 1647 the governor returned with a mil-
itary force and recovered possession of the province. By act of the assembly iu 1689 the
Roman Catholic religion was made the creed of the state. Ten years later, in 1649, an
act was pMsed declaring that " no person or persons whatsoever, professing to believe in
Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth be any way troubled, molested, or discountenanced
for and in respect of his or her relij^on, nor in the free exercise thereof, nor in any way
•compelled to the belief or exercise of any other religion against his or her consent. '
The Puritans continuing still to be turbulent, their settlement by way of conciliation was, in
1650, erected into a separate county named Anne Arundel, and as other Puritans still
larrived from England, Charles county was shortly afterward organized for their benefit.
Their numbers increased to such an extent that in the next assembly they had a majority.
In 1652, the royal government of England having been superseded by the commonwealth,
commissioners from the mother country visited Maryland, with whom were associated
Clayborne, the troublesome opponent of the government founded under lord Baltimore.
4Lnd Bennett, the Puritan leader of Anne Arundel county. The authority of the English
•commonwealth was completely established in the colony, and Kent island was given up
to Clayborne, while he also acquired Palmer island at the mouth of the Susquehanna.
<^v. Stone was first removed, then reinstated. In 1654 lord Baltimore attempted to
regain possession of the province and re-establish the proprietary government, but with-
out success. The Puritans established a commission for the government of the colony,
placing capt. Fuller at its head. A severe confiict ensued. Providence (now Annapolis)
was attacked Mar. 25, 1655, bv the proprietaiy party; bnt the assault was repulsed, the
whole invading force being either killed or taken prisoners. Gov. Stone amone the latter.
Many of the prisoners were condemned to death, and several were executedT In 1668,
V,K IX.— 85 Digitized by VjUUVIC
546
however, the proprietary government was restored. Charles Calvert, son of lord Balti-
more, was governor from 1662 to 1676, when the latter died and the former succeeded to
his rights, and appointed Thomas Notely as governor. After the overthrow of the com-
monwealth in 1688, sir Lionel Copley was sent out as governor, and the capital was
removed from St. Mary's to'Providence, which was thereafter known as Annapolis, In
1714 Charles Calvert, the lord proprietary, died, and was succeeded by his son, Benedict
Leonard Calvert, who in turn died in the following year, and was succeeded by his son
Charles, a Protestant. Hart, tlie last of the royal governors, was retained in office.
Baltimore was laid out in 1730, Frederick city was founded in 1745, and (Georgetown,
now in the District of Columbia, was laid out in 1751. In spite of the efforu of the
British government to repress manufactiu^s in the colonies, eight copper furnaces and
nine forges were in operation in Maryland in 1749, and wine to some extent was pro-
duced. The great staple export was tobacco, which was made a legal tender in 1732 at
one penny a pound. Marvland took an active part in the war which resulted in the
extinction of the French aomination upon this continent. The colony was also among^
the first to oppose the aggressions of the British government which led to the war of the
revolution. As early as 1774 the proprietary government was superseded by tlie author-
ity of the people. A bill of rights and a constitution were adopted in Nov., 1776. The
first republican legislature assembled at Annapolis Feb. 5, 1777, and Thomas Johnsoa
was the first republican governor. Maryland took a most efficient and honorable part
in the revolutionary war. In 1783 congress met at Annapolis, and it was there oa
Dec. 23, at the close of the war, tliat Washin^n resigned his commission as general-in-
chief. The federal constitution was adopted m the Maryland convention April 28, 1788
by a vote of 63 to 11.
The part of the state called the Eastern Shore, lying between Chesapeake and Dela-
ware bays and the Atlantic, is for the most part level, and in some places swampy.
Toward the n. extremitv the peninsula is somewhat rocky and broken. The West^^m
Shore, lying between Chesapeake bay and the Potomac, is in the s^ortion level and
sandy, and in some palaces marshy ; but, n. of the point just above Washington on the
Potomac, it is first hilly and afterwards mountainous. The main ranees of the Allc- ■
ghanies pass through the narrow portion of the state extending westward between Penn-
sylvania and Virginia. The highest mountains are not more than 2,500 ft. high. The
most beautiful scenery in the state is in a part of the Cumberland valley, in Washington
CO. , near the Pennsylvania line. The state has on the Atlantic only 33 m. of coast and
not a sinsle good harbor; but Chesapeake bay, extending nearly through the state from.
8. ton., nirnishes a coast-line of nearly 500 miles. The bay is navigable through its
whole extent, and has some good harbors. Baltimore, the principal city of the state.
Ues upon an arm of the Chesapeake called Patapsco bay. The Potomac, the principiil
river, is navigable for about 125 m. on the w. border. The other rivers of the state are:
Dn the Western Shore, the. Wicomico, Patuxent, South Severn, Patapsco, Bush, and
Susquehanna; on the Eastern Shore, the Pocomoke, Manokin, Nanticoke, Choptank, St.
MichaePs, Wye, Chester, Sassafras, Elk. Many of these rivers might propjerly be called
estuaries of Chesapeake bay. Chincoteague, Sinepuxent, and Bt. Martin's bays are
sounds lying between the Eastern Shore and the island reefs and barriers which receive
the Atlantic surf. Pocomoke sound, Tangier sound, and Eastern bay are a part of the
Chesapeake, in which arc numerous islands, among them Kent, Bloodworth'd, Holland's.
Smith's, Tangier, Half moon, and Assateague.
Copper, hematitic iron, galena, and manganese, are found in the central portion of
the state, while bituminous coal is abundant in the n.w., and bog-iron in the east.
Marble, of several varieties, and limestone and sandstone for buildinc, are abundant m
the central portion of the state, while traces of gold, nickel, and cobalt have been found
in some places.
The wild animals are those usually found on the Atlantic coast. Bears are common
in the w., and even the deer has not been exterminated. The fox, raccoon, and opossum
are frequently met with. Wild djicks, in great varietv, pigeons, partridges, snipe, and
quail are found in immense numbers in the e. part of the state. Fish, of excellent qual-
ity, are abundant, and the oysters of Chesapeake bay are large and finely fiavored.
The principal forest trees of the lowlands are the gum, cypress, cedar, juniper, dog-
wood, magnolia, holly, elm, cherr}% locust, persimmon, beech, sycamore, sassafras, pop-
lar, and red maple, while in the mountainous districts are found several species of oak^
maple, walnut, hickory, ash, chestnut, birch, pine, and spruce.
The soil of the e. part of the state is a sandy loam, easily made productive hy fertil-
ization. Peaches and market-garden products grow here in great perfection. In the
valleys of the central and northern portions of the state the soil is exceedingly fertile,
producing large crops of tobacco, wheat, and corn. The climate is equable, subject
neither to the severe cold of the north nor to the extreme heat of the south. The low
and marshy lands on tlie Chesapeake and the lower Potomac are to some extent mias-
matic, but the rest of the state is generally healthful. The mean annual temperature
varies from 54** to 64"". The mercury rarely falls below zero, while the summers are
little if any warmer than in Pennsylvania.
The number of farms in 1870 was 27,000; number of acres of improved farm land,.
2.914,007; cash value of farms, $170,369,684; of farming implements and machmery.
Digitized by VjiO^^V LC
647
Maryland.
$5,968,676; amount of wa^^es paid in the year, |8. 560.367; value of all farm produc-
tions, $85,843,927; value of orchard products, $1,319,405; of produce of market gar-
dens, $1,039,782; of forest products, $613,209; of home manufactures, $63,608; of ani-
mals slaughtered or sold for slaughter, $4,621,418; of livp stock, $18,433,698; wheat
produced. 5,774,503 bush. ; rye, 307,089 bush; corn, 11,701,817 bush.; oats. 3,221,643
bush.; Irish potatoes, 1,632,205 bush. ; sweet potatoes, 218,706 bush. ; tobacco, 15.785,339
lbs.; wool, 435,213 lbs.; butter, 5,014,729 lbs.; cheese, 6,732 lbs.; hops, 2,800 lbs.; flax,
30,760 lbs.; maple sugar, 70,464 lbs.; honey, 118,988 lbs.; wine. 11,583 gallons; milk
sold. 1,520,101 gals.; sorgham molasses, 28', 563 gals.; hay, 223,119 tons; number of
horses, 89,696; mules and asses, 9,830; milch cows, 94,794; working oxen, 22,491; other
cattle, 98,074; sheep, 129,697; swine, 257,893: horses not on farms, 12,520; cattle not on
farms, 16,040. The wheat crop of 1873 has been estimated at 6,262,000 bush., and yal-
ued at over $8,000,000; the rye crop at 309,000 bush., valued at $247,200; corn, 10,451,-
000 bush., valued at $7,106,680; Irish potatoes, 1,386,000 bush., valutd at $935,000; oats,
2,798,000 bush., valued at $1,231,120; tobacco, 19,300,000 lbs., valued at $1,486,100;
number of horses, 104,500; of mules and asses, 10,700; of milch cows, 96,900; cattle,
125.600; of sheep, 138,200; of swine, 256,200.
In 1870 Maryland had 5,812 manufacturing establishments, employing 44,860 persons,
and having capital amounting to $86,488,729; wages paid, $12,682,817; value of annual
products, $76,598,613. The chief lines of manufacturing industry were: refining suear
and molasses, clothing, cotton goods, flouring-mill products, boots and shoes. Iron, tin,
copper, and sheet-iron ware, tobacco and cigars, canned fruits and vegetables, canned
oysters and fish, bread and bakery products, leather, furniture, lumber, malt and dis-
tilled liquors, bricks, printing and publishing, and copper smelting. The value of the
oysters and fish canned in Baltimore in 1874 was estimated at more than $6,000,000.
The valuation of the property of the state for 1879 was $466,470,995. Adding to
this the stock and assets of corporations, estimated at $42,472.^, to total assessment for
taxation amounted to $509,218,891. The average amount of tobacco received and
diipped for the seven years ending Sept., 1878, was 52,758 hhds. per annum, or an
a^^te of 869,806 hhds. The cost of the labor of handling and inspecting was
$K{2,532. The estimated production of the Clearfield coal region for 1879 was about
1,600.006 tons, an increase over the previous year of 880,000 tons. The Cumberland
region shipped 1,702,998 tons.
In 1875 there were in Maryland and the District of Columbia 1825 m. of railroad, cost^
ingwith their equipment $57,818,219. The principal roads are: the Baltimoreand Ohio,
one of the four great trunk roads across the continent; the Annapolis and Elk Ri(\ge:
the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore; the Philadelphia and Baltimore Central;
the Northern Central; the Frederick and Pennsylvania; the Cumberland and Pennsyl-
vania; the Western Maryland, and the Southern Maryland.
The foreign commerce of the state is confined almost entirely to Baltimore. The
imports for the year ending June 80, 1874, were valued at $^,802,811, the foreign
exports at $179,5^; domestic exports, $27,514,721. There were entered in Baltimore
in 1870, from foreign countries, 855 American vessels, aggregating 124,584 tons burden,
and employing 8,9& men and boys, and 845 foreign vessels, of 147,706 tons burden, and
employmg 5,^ men and boys. Clearances in the same year for foreign ports, 256
American vessels, of 91.652 aggregate tons and manned by 8,006 men and boys; and 848
foreign vessels, of 154,917 tons burden, and employing 4,980 men and bovs. The coast-,
wise trade embraces oysters, which are taken in immense quantities in Chesapeake bay.'
Not leas than 15,000,000 bush., mostly canned or in iars, are shipped annually, repre-
senting a value of from $15,000,000 to $20,000,000. Flour, grain, tobacco, coffee, refined
^gar, molasses, cotton, coal, wool, hides, leather, provisions, guano, naval stores, iron,
whisky, fish and canned fruits are also among the articles which enter largely into the
coastwise and internal traffic. In the year ending June 80, 1874, 1948 steamers engaged
in this branch of commerce, and aggregating 1,588,958 tons, entered the ports of the
the state. Number of sailing vessels in the same trade. 414. The clearances of vessels
in the same trade during the same year were: steamers, 2,046. sailing vessels, 348. The
total of entrances and clearances was 4,781 vessels, of 8,808,708 tons burden, and manned
by HlTOmen. The value of the exports from Baltimore in 1877 was $89,815,286. The
shipments of petroleum in 1876 amounted to 40,812,598 gals.
The number of national banks in 1874 was 88, with an aggregate capital of nearly
$14,000,000: and an outstanding circulation of over $9,000,000. In 1885 there were als(>
13 state banks, with a capital of nearly $4,000,000; also 5 savings banks, with deposits
of over $17,000,000, and 22 private banks. In 1878 there were 18 fire insurance com-
panies, all in Baltimore, their premiums in the state amounting to $489,577.29, and their
iowea to over $68,000. There was also in Baltimore one marine insurance company,
premiums f^,000, losses $10,000. There were also in the state 15 mutual insurance
• ompanies, premiums nearly $128,000, losses $91,000. Number of fire and marine
innnrance companies of other states doing business in Maiyland, 101 — premiums nearly
$850,000, losses over $480,000. There were 2 Maryland life insurance companies — pre-
miums $104,000, payments to policy-holders nearly $85,000; 26 life insurance companies
€f other states, premiums over $1,000,000, payments $1,088,000. The aggrenite capital
of an the Joint-stock insurance companies of the state was $2,728,855; assets, $5,446,996;
liabilities, $3,816,843. The 15 mutual fire Insurance companies had assets amoonting to
nearly $4,000,000, while their liabilities were over $166,000.
The debt of the state, on which interest has to be provided, is a little short of $8,000,-
000. The receipts of the state treasury for the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 1879, were
$2,126,326; in treasury before, $204,165; total, $2,820,491; disbursements, $1,774^283;
; balance iu treasury, $556,208.
The population of Maryland has Increased steadily from the first. In 1790 it was
• 819,728; iu 1850, 588,034; in 1870, 780,894, of whom 175,391 were colored; in 1880,
934,632. The number of church organizations in 1870 was 1420, of church edifices 1389;
■ amount of church property, $12,038,650. The principal denominations were Baptists
(including Mennonites, Tunkers, etc.), Episcopalians, Methodists, Roman Catholics,
Presbyterians, Lutherans, Friends, German Reformed, and United Brethren in Christ.
The latest school statistics are those of the year ending July 31, 1878. Number of
schools, 1989; pupijp, 156,274; average attendance, 81,839; number of teachers, 3,071.
In Baltimore the schools were opened 10 months of the year; in other counties, a little over
8 months. Total expenditures of the year for school purposes, $1,593,259. There are
sepamte schools for colored children. The state normal school at Baltimore wsis opened
in 1865, and in 1870 had an income from productive funds of $9,500, and alibniry of
1250 volumes. The Howard normal school for colored pupils has an annual income of
$2,000, and a library of 1750 volumes. Normal instruction is also given in St. John's
college, Annapolis. The provisions for higher education in Maryland are qomiiaratively
ample. The McDonogh bequest, from which the sum of $800,000 had been realized up
to 1870, Is the foundation of a farm school for boys, now in successful operation. The
Peabody institute in Baltimore, endowed by the late Mr. George* Peabody with $1,200,000.
besides buildings, is intended to found a great library, support an extensive ^stem
of lectures, and a conservatory of music. The Johns Hopkins university', founded in
1874 by the late Johns Hopkins of Baltimore, and endowed by him with the siun of
• $3,500,000, has already taken rank among the best universities of the country. The
state affricultural college in .*rince George^ co. was founded upon the avails of the pub-
lic lands given for the purpose to the state by the United States. It has a farm of 300
acres. It embraces a collegiate course of four and a scientific course of three yean*.
Provision is also made for students desiring to remain but a hinglc year. The oUier col-
leges of the state are Frederick college, at Frederick, Loyola college at Baltimore; Rock
Hill college and St. Charles college at Ellicott city; St. John's cxiUege at Aunapcrfis:
Washington college at Chestertown; Western Maryland collejrc ai Westminster. Kum-
ber of insti*uctors in these institutions, 113; of students, 629. There are also several
[ floilrishing seminaries for the instruction of young ladies, aula number of profassional
- schools. The United States naval academy at Annapolis has a library of 16,6^ volumes.
There are two medical schools; one of them a department of Washington university,
the other of the university of Maryland. The Maryland college of pUamuK^ was
founded in 1841; the Baltimore college of dentistry, the oldest of the kind in the worR
was founded in 1840. The Maryland dental college was founded in 1873. In 1870.
there were in the state 3,353 libraries, containing 1,713,483 volumes; of these, 2,037,
containing 1,142,538 volumes, were privata There were 88 newspapers and periodicals
— 8 daily, 1 tri-weekly, 2 semi-weeklv, 69 weekly, and 8 monthly.
The state institutions ajre the penitentiary, the asylum for the blind (white), and that
for the colored blind and deaf at Baltimore; the hospital for the insane, at Spring Qnaw,
Baltimore co.; the institution for the deaf and dumb, at Frederick; and house of refuge
fox juvenile delinquents, near Baltimore.
The governor of the state is elected for four years. His veto can be overcome only
by a three-fifths vote of both houses of the legislature. He has a salary of $4«£MXK The
governor, comptroller, and treasurer constitute the board of public worka The Icms-
lature, which meets biennially, consists of a senate and house of represeetativea. tjie
senators, 26 in number, one from each county, and one from each of the thiee legislitive
districts of Baltimore, are elected for four years, one-half retiring bienDially.. The
delegates, 85 in number, are elected for two years by districts defined by the legis-
lature after each census. Members of the legislature are paid $5 per de¥ during the
sessions, besides mileage. The court of appeals, composed of the chief judges of the
first seven circuits and a jud^e specially elected in Baltimore, has appellate jurisdiction
only. The state is divided into 8 judicial circuits, the city of Baltunoie oonatitiiting
the eighth. In each circuit,- except the eighth, a chief judge and two associate judges
are elected; and in each county a circuit court is held, having origintd jurisdiction,
both civil and criminal, and appellate jurisdiction of the judgments of juetioes of the
peace. The city of Baltimore has five courts, viz.: the superior court, the court of
common pleas, the city court, the circuit court, and the criminal courts A chief judge
and four associate judges, constituting the supreme beach of Baltimore^ deai^iate one
or more of their nuniber to hold these several courts, and any three or mors to hold
general terms with limited appellate powers. Judges are elected by the people of tiieir
respective circuit for a term of 15 years, but cannot serve after they are 70 years.of age.
The legislature is prohibited from lending the credit of the state to aoy iodividoal,
association, or corporation. Amendments to the constitution must ^ proposed^
three-fifths of each house of the legiskture and ratified b\v the p|^de^^^
549 rfijr^
20 yeikrs the people must vote upon the question of holding a convention to revise the
constitution. A married woman may acquire, hold, and manage property independently'
of her husband, and dispose'of the same as if single. Her husband must join her, hov-
even in the execution of any deed.
The position of Maryland in the war of the rebellion was peculiar. As a slavehold-
ing state, her sympathies were naturally to a great extent with the south; but her
proximity to the north served to modify her feelings in this respect and to keep her
from joining the confederacy. A considerable portion of the people were in favor of
secession, but a very large majority were strongly opposed. Great efforts were made to
keep the state in a neutral position, but without success. A considerable number of men,
enlisted in the confederate armj', but of those who remained at home a majority were loyal
to the union. Attempts were made in Baltimore in the first days of the war to prevent
the passage of union troops through that cit^'^ to Washington and the south, and several
Massachusetts soldiers were killed in consequence; but the enemies of the union were
effectually subdued by the power of the national government, aidi^d by the better por-
tion of the citizens of the state. In spite of the circumstances above mentioned, Mary-
Uind contributed 49,780 men to the union armies. The battle of Antietam and several
others of less importance were fought on Maryland soil.
The electoral votes of Maryland for president and vice-president have been as fol-
lows:— 1789. 6 for Wiishiny:tou and R. H. Harrison of Maryland — 2 vacancies; 1792, 8
for Wasliington and Adunis; 1796, 7 for Adams and 4 for Jefferson for president; and 4
for Piuckney, 8 for Burr, 2 for John Henr}-, and 2 vacancies, for vice-president. 1800,
5 each for Jefferson and Burr for president; and 5 each for Adams and Piuckncjr for
vice-president; 1804, 9 for Jefferson and 2 for Pinckney for president; nnd 9 for Chnton
and 2 for King for vice-president; 1812, 6 for Madison and 5 for Geo. Clinton for presi-
dent; and 6 for Gerry and 5 for Jared In^»rsoll for vice-president; 1816, 8 for Monroe
and 8 vacancies for president; and 8 for Tonipkins and 8 vacancies for vice-president;
1820, 11 for Monroe for president; and 10 for Tompkins and 1 for Robert C. Harper for
vice-president; 1824, 7 for Jackson, 3 for J. Q. Aaams, and 1 for W. H. Crawford for
president; and 10 for Calhoun and 1 for Jack.son for vice-president; 1828, 5 for Jackson
and 6 for J. Q. Adams for pi-esidcnt; and 5 for Calhoun and 6 for Rush for vice-
president; 1882, 8 for Jackson, 5 for Clay, and 2 vacancies, for president; and 5 for
Sargeant, 8 for Van Buren, and 2 vacancies for vice-president; 1886, 10 for Harrison
and R M. Johnson; 1840, 10 for Harrison and Tyler; 1844, 8 for Clay and Prelinghuy-
sen; 1848, 8 for Taylor and Fillmore; 1852, 8 for Pierce and King; 1856, 8 for Fillmore
and Donelson; 1860, 8 for Breckinridge and Lane; 1864, 7 for Lincoln and Johnson; 1868,
7 for Seymour and Blair; 1872, 8 for Thomas A. Hendricks and B. Gratz Brown; 1876,
8 for Tilden and Hendricks; 1880, 8 for Hancock and English.
MARY OP THE INCARNATION (Marik Gt^yard). 1599-1672, b. France; married
at the a^ of 17, a cilk manufacturer named Martin, who died two years afterwards.
She carried on the silk factory till her son reached the age of 12, when, Jan. 25, 1681,
she became an Ursuline nun. In 1689 she settled in Canada, and founded an Ursuline
convent in Quebec. She studied and became familiar with some of the Indian lao-
cuagea, and gave instruction to French and Indian scholars. In the political affairs of
New Prance her judgment was highly esteemed, and she nought to impress upon the
home irovemment the necesRity of controlling the mouth of the Hudson. aH a means of
protection againnt Dutch and English assaults. Her life has been wTitten by her son,
bom Claude Martin, who became a Benedictine monk; and bv Father Charlevoix, and
there is a modem biography of her by the abb6 Casgrain, which appeared at Quebec,
hi 1864.
MARY MAGD.VLE'NE. See Magdalene. Mary, ante,
■ABYPOST, a seaport of "Cumberland. England, at the mouth of the Ellen, 28 m.
ft.w. of (Carlisle by railway. Its orisrin dates from 1750. Shipbuilding and its kindred
employments are' carried on extensively, and there are in operation iron-foundries, saw-
mills, flour-mills, tanneries, breweries, etc. A very large quantity of coal and coke is
shipped, especiTilly to Ireland. Maryport has abundant railway connection, and pos-
sesses a floatinjr dock and two patent slips. It is a place of resort for sea-bathing. In
1876. fSO vessels, measuring 68,767 tons, entered the port, and 2,002, measuring 230,977
tons, cleared. Pop. '71, 7,448. j
MARY, SOCIETY of, an association of Roman Catholic priests, established at I
Lvons, France, in 1815. by J. C. M. (^olin: sanctioned by the pope in 1831, 1886, and
ISTS; introduced into the United States in 1862. The principal objects of the associa-
tion are religious instruction and domestic and foreign missions.
HABY 8TT7ABT, QUEEK 07 8C0T8. This beautiful and accomplished, but most
unhappv princess was the daughter of king James V. of Scotland by his second wife,
Haiy of Lorraine, daughter of Claude, duke of Guise, and widow of *Louis of Orlfians,
duke of Longueville. She wtw b. at Linlithgow, on Dec. 8. 1542. Her misfortunes
may be said to have liegun with her birth. Its tidings reached her father on his death -
bea at Falkland, but brought him no consolation. ** The devil go with it!" he mut-
tered, as his thoughts wandered back to the marriage with Bnice's daughter, which
560
brought the crown of Scotland to the Stuart»— *'it came from a "woman, and U irifl
end in a woman I" Mary became a queen before she was a week old. Before she was
a twelvemonth old, the regent Arran had promised her in marriage to prinoe Sdwud
of England, and the Scottisn parliament had declared the promise null. War with £ng.
land followed, and at Pinkie Clench the Scots met a defeat only less disastrous than
; Flodden. But their aversion to an English match was unconquerable; thev hastened to
' place the youn^ queen beyond the reach of English arms, in the island of Inchmabome,
* in the lake of Monteith, and to offer her in marriage to the eldest son of Henry IL of
France, and Catharine de' Medici. The offer was accepted; and in July, 1548^ a
I French fleet carried Mary from Dumbarton, on the Clyde, to Roscoif, in BrUtaoy,
I whence she was at onoe conveyed to St. Germain-en-Laye, and there affianced to the
dauphin.
Her next ten years were passed at the French court, where she was carefully ednca.
ted along with the king's family, receiving instructions in the art of making verses from
the famous Bonsard. At a somewhat later period, she had the great Scottish scholar
Buchanan for her Latin master. On April 24, 1558, her marriage with the dauphin,
who was about two years younger than herself, was celebrated, with every circumstance
of pomp and splenaor, in tlie church of Notre-Dame, at Paris. It was agreed, on the
part of Scotlanti, that her husband should have the title of king of Scots; but this wae
not enough for the grasping ambition of France, and Marv was betrayed into the signa-
ture of a secret deed, by which, if she died childless, both her Scottish realm and her
right of succession to the English crown (she w^as the great-granddaughter of king
Henry YII.) were conveved to France. On July 10, 1559, the death of the French kine
called her husband to the tlu-one bv the title of Francis II. The government paasea
into the hands of the queen's kinsfolks, the duke of Guise and the cardinal of Loname;
but their rule was short-lived. The feeble and sickly king died on Dec. 5, 15(50, when
the reins of pow^er were erasped by the queen-mother, Catharine de' Medici, as regent for
her son, Charles IX. Mary must have oeen prepared, under almost an v circumstance^
to quit a court which was now swayed by one whom, during her briei reign, she had
taunted with being "a merchant's daughter." But there were other reasons for her
departure from Fiance. Her presence was urgently needed in Scotland, which the death
of her mother, a few months before, had left without a government, at a moment when
^ it was convulsed by the throes of the Reformation. Her kinsmen of Lorraine had ambi-
tious projects for her marriage; great schemes were based on her nearness of suooessiov
to the English crown; and both these, it was thought, might be more sucoessfnlly fol
lowed out when she was seated on her native throne.
She sailed from Calais on the 15th, and arrived at Leith on Aug. 19, 1561, havhig
escaped the English ships-of-war which Elizabeth despatched to intercept her. She
wept as the shores of France faded from her sight, and her tears flowed anew when she
beheld the rudeness and poverty of Soot land. Her government began auspidously.
The Reformation claimed to have received the sanction of the Scottish parliament, and
if Mary did not formally acknowledge the claim, she was at least content to leave aiSain
as she 'found them, stipulating only for lilierty to use her own religion— a liberty which
Knox and a few of the more extreme Reformers denounced as a sin ag&inst the law of
God. She is said to have rejected the violent counsels of the Roman Catholics; it is
certain that she surrounded herself with Protestant advisers, her chief minister bemg her
illegitimate brother, James Stuart, an able if ambitious statesman, whom she soon after-
wards created earl of Murray. Under his guidance, in the autumn of 1562, she. made a
progress to the n., which, whatever was its design, ended in the defeat and death of the
earl of Huntly, the powerful chief of the Roman Catholic party m Scotland.
Meanwhile, the courts of Europe were busy with schemes for Mary's marriage. The
king of Sweden, the kins of Denmark, the king of France, the archduke Oiaria of
Austria, Don Carlos of Spain, the duke of Ferrara, the duke of Nemours, the duke of
Anjou, the Scottish earl of Arran. and the English earl of Leicester were proposed as
candidates for her hand. Her own preference was for Don Carlos, the heir of what was
then the greatest monarchv in Christendom; and it was not until lUl hopes of obtaining
him were quenched, that *^ she thought serioush of any other. Her choice fdl, some-
what suddenly, on her cousin, Henrv Stuart, Lord Damley, «?» of the earl of Lennox.
1 by his marriage with a granddaughter of king Henry II. of BngiMid. He was thus
- among the nearest heirs to the English crown, and his claims to ^e succession were
believed to have the support of the gr<';it body of English Roman Catholics, ^t except
this, and his good-looks, he had no other recommendation. He was weak, needy, inso-
lent, and vicious; his reliirion, such as it was, was Roman Catholic; his house had few
friends and manv enemies in Scotland: and he was two or three years younger than
Mary. Her best 'friends, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, warned her a^nst nim,
but in vain. The marriage was celebrated at Holyrood on July 29, 1565. It was tnc
signal for an insurrection by Murray and the Hamiltons, who hoped to be joined by the
whole Protestant party. But theirMiopo was disappointed; and the aueen, taking the
field in person, at once quelled the revolt, and chased the rebels beyona the Tweed.
Her triumph w^as scarcely over when her eyes began to open to the great mistake of
her marriage. Her husband's worlhlessness and folly became only too aoparent; she
was disgusted by his debauchery, and alarmed by his arrogai^^ ^^ amoitioiL She
661
bftd giTen bim the tittle of king, but be now demanded that the crown should be secured
to Mm for life, and that if the queen died without issue it should descend to his heirs.
Mary hesitated to comply with a demand which would have set aside the settled order
of succes^n; and what she refused to grant by favor, the king prepared to extort by
force.
Mary's chief minister, since Murray's rebellion, had been David Rizzio, a mean-look-
ing Italian of great ability and many accomplishments; but generally hatied bevond the
pdace walls as a base-bom foreigner, a court favorite, and a Roman Catholic. The
king and Rizzio had been sworn friends, sharing the same table, and even sleeping in
the same bed; but the king was now persuaded that it was Rizzio who was the real
obstacle to his designs upon the crown. In this belief he entered into a formal compact
with Murray, Ruthven, Morton, and other chiefs of the Protestant party, undertakmg,
on his part, to prevent their attainder, or procure their pardon, and to support and
advance the Protestant religion; while they, on the other part, bound themselves to
procure the settlement of the crown upon him and his heirs, and to take and slay, if
need were, even in the queen's palace and presence, every one who opposed it. The
result of this conspiracy was the murder of Rizzio on Mar. 9, 1566, the king leading the
way into the queen's cabinet, and holding her in his grasp while the murderers dragged
the poor Italian into an ante-chamber, and, mangling his body with more than 50 wounds,
completed what they believed, and Knox pronounced to be, '*a just act and most
worthy of all praise." When Mary learned what had been done she broke out in
reproaches against the king as to blame for all. " I shall be your wife no longer," she
told htm, " and shall never like well till I cause you have as sorrowful a heart as I have
at this present." As had been agreed beforehand among the conspirators, Mary was
kept prisoner in Holyrood; while the king, of his own authority, dismissed the parlia-
ment which was about to forfeit Murray and his associates in the late insurrection. The
plot was thus far successful ; but Mary no sooner perceived its objects than she set her-
self at work to defeat them. Dissembling her indignation at her husband's treachery and
the savage outrage in which he was the nn^-leader, she succeeded by her blandishments
in detacMng him from the conspirators, and in persuading him not only to escape with
her from their power by a midnight flight to Dunbar, but to issue a proclamation in
which he denied all complicity in their designs. The conspiracy was now at an end;
RuthTen and Morton fled to England, while Murray, by renouncing their cause, hastened
to make his x>eace with the queen; and the kinfi^, hated by both sides, because he had
betrayed both sides, 'became an object of minglea abhorrence and contempt.
It was an aggravation of the murder of Rizzio that it was committed, if not in the
queen's presence, at least within a few yards of her person, only three months before
&e gave birth (on June 19, 1566) to the prince who became king James YI. As that
event drew near the queen's affection for ner husband seemed to revive; but the change
was only momentary; and before the boy's baptism, in December, her estrangement
from the king was greater than ever. Divorce was openly discussed in her presence,
and darker designs were not obscurely hinted at among her friends. The king, on his
part, spoke of leaving the copitry; but before his preparations were completed he
fell ill of the small-pox at Glasgow. This was about Jan. 9, 1567. On the 25th Mary
went to see him, and traveling by eas}r stages brought him to Edinburgh on the 31st
He was lodged in a small mansion beside &e kirk of the field, nearly on the spot where
the s.e. corner of the university now stands. There Mary visited him daily, and slept
for two nights in a room below his bed-chamber. She passed the evening of Sunday,
Feb, 9, by his bedside, talking cheerfully and affectionately with him, alttiough she is
«aid to have dropped one remark which gave him uneasy forebodings— that it was much
about that time twelvemonth that Rizzio was murdered. She left him between 10 and
11 o'clock to take part in a masque at Holyrood, at the marriage of a favorite valet.
The festivities had not long ceased in the palace when, about two hours after midnight,
the bouse in which the king slept was blown up by gunpowder; and his lifeless body
was found in the neighboring garden.
The chief actor in this tragedy was undoubtedly; James .Hepburn, earl Bothwell, a
needy, reckless, vainglorious, profligate noble, who, since Murray's revolt, and still more
since Itizzio's murder, had enjoyed a large share of the queen's favor. But there were
suspicions that the queen herself was not wholly ignorant of the plot, and these sus-
picions could not but be strengthened by what followed. On April 12 Bothwell was
brought to a mock-trial and acquitted ; on the 24tli he intercepted the queen on her way
from Linlithgow to Edinburgh, and carried her, with scarcely a show of resistance, to
Dunbar. On May 7 he was divorced from the young and comely wife whom he had
married little more than a twelvemonth before; on the 12th Mary publicly pardoned his
seizure of her person, and created him duke of Orkiiej; and on the 15th— only three
montha after her husband's murder— she married the man whom every one regarded as
his murderer.
This fatal step at once arrayed her nobles in arms against her. She was able to lead
an army against them, but it melted away without striking a blow on the field of Car-
berry (June 15), when nothing was left to her but to abandoA Bothwell and surrender
iierself to the confederated lords. They led her to Edinburgh, where the insults of the
rabble and grief at parting with Bothwell threw her into sudi a frenzy that she refused
MMinieUo. ^^,^
all nourishment, and raehine to the window of the room in which she was kept pxisoner
called for help, and showed herself to the people half -naked, with her hair hanging
about her ears.
From Edinburgh, she was hurried to Loch Leven, where, July 24, she was prevailed
upon to sign an act of abdication in favor of her son, who, five days afterwards, was
crowned at Stirling. Escaping from her island prison May 2, 1568, she found heraelf in
a few days at the head of an army of 6,000 men. On the 12th, it was met and defeated
by the regent Murray at Laugside, near Glasgow. Four days afterwards, in spite of the
entreaties of her best friends, Mary crossed the Solway, and threw herself on Uie protec>
tion of queen Elizabeth, only to find herself a prisoner for life. From Carlisle, her fiist
place of captivity, she was taken, in July, to Bolton ; from Bolton, she was carried, in
February, 1569, to Tutbury; from Tutburv, she passed in succession to Wingfield, to
Coventry, to Chatsworth, to Sheffield, to Buxton, and to Chartley. She was removed,
last of all, to Fothennghay, in September, 1586, there to be tried on a charge of com-
plicity in a plot against the Ufe of Elizabeth. Sentence of death was pronounc^ against
her Oct. 25; but it was not until Feb. 1, 1587. that Elizabeth took courage to sign tbe
warrant of execution. It was carried into effect on the 8th, when Mary laid her bead
upon the block with the dignity of a queen and the constancy and resignation of a
martyr. Five months afterwards, her body was buried with great pomp at Peterborough,
whence, in 1612, it was removed to king Henry VII. 's chapel at Westminster, where ii
still lies in a sumptuous tomb erected by king James VI.
The character of Mary was long one of the most fiercely-vexed questions of history,
and is still in debate, although the great preponderance of authority seems now to be on
the side of those who believe in her criminal love for Bothwell and her guilty knowledge
of his conspiracy against her husband's life. Her beauty and accomplishments have
never been disputed. " She was confes8e<t by every one —says Mr. Joseph Robertson,
one of the latest writers on her life — ''she was confessed by every one to be the most
charming princess of her time. Her large shaip features mi^ht perhaps have been
thought handsome rather than beautiful, but for the winning vivacity and high joyous
spirit which beamed through them. It has been questioned whether her eyes were hazel
or dark gray, but there is no question as to their starlike brightness. Her complexion,
although fresh and clear, would seem to have been without the brilliance so common
among our island beauties. Her hair appears to have changed with her years from a
ruddy yellow to auburn, and from auburn to dark brown or blacky turain|z gray long
before its time. Her bust was full and finely shaped, and she carried her I&rge stately
figure with majesty and grace. She showed to advantage on horseback, and still more
in tbe dance. The charm of her soft, sweet voice is described as irresistible; and she
sang well, accompanying herself on the harp, the virginals, and still oftener on the lute,
which set off the beauty of her long, delicate, white hand. The c4)n8ciousness bow thai
hand was admired mav have made it more diligent in knitting and in embroidery, in
both of which she excelled. Her manner was sprightly, affable, kindly, frank perbai»
to excess, if judged by the somewhat austere rule already beginning to prevail among
her Scottish subjects. She spoke three or four languages, was well and variously
informed, talked admirably, and wrote both in prose and'^in verse, always with ease, and
sometimes with grace or vigor. In the ring of which she was the center, were statesmen
like Murray and Lethin^n, .soldiers like Eyrkcaldy of Grange, men of letters like
Buchanan, Lesley, sir Richard Maitland, and air James Melville. The first poet of France
published verses deploring his absence from her brilliant court; Damville, the flower of
French chivalry, repiued at the fate which called him away from it so scon ; Brant6me
and the younge^ Scaliger delighted to speak, in old age, of the days which they passed
beneath Its roof."
Mary's prose-writings have been collected by the enthusiastic devotion of prince Alex-
ander Labanoff, in hisi Heeiml des Lettres de Marie 8tua/rt, Setting aside the tweJve son-
nets which she is said to have written to Bothwell, and which survive only in a French
version of an English translation, no more than six pieces of her poetry, containing in
all less than 800 lines, are^ow known. They have no remarkable merit. The best is
the poem of eleven stanzas on the death of her first husband, Francis IL, printed by-
Bran tdme. The longest is a Meditation of a hundred lines, written in 1572. and pub-
lished two years afterwards by her ever faithful follower, bishop Lesley of Roes. All
are in French, except one sonnet, which is in Italian. The sweetly simple lines begin-
ning, "Adieu, plaisant pays de France/' so often ascribed to her, are the work of A. 6.
Meusnier de Querlon, a French journalist, who died in 1780. A volume of French verse
on the Institution of a Prince, which she wrote for the use of her son, has been lost since
1627, along with a Latin speech in vindication of learned women, which, when no more
than thirteen, she delivered in the hall of the Louvre, in presence of the French court
To enumerate all that has been wntten on Mary would fill a volume. Among the
chief works are S. Jebb's De Vita et Rebus Oestis Juariee Scotorum Begina (Loud. 1726, 3
vols, fol.); J. Anderson's Collections Relating to the History of Mary, Queen of Scotland
(Load. 1727-28, 4 vols. 4to); bishop Keith's History of tlie Affairs of Church and State in
Scotland (EaViu. 1734, fol.; 1844-1850, 3 vols. 8vo); W. Good&Ws Jb>xamination of the Let-
ters said to be written by Mwry, Queen of Scots, to James, Earl of BothtceU (Ekiin, 1754. 2
vols. 8vo); Principal Robertson's HisUnT/ of Scotland: W , Tyilefs^^mUrjhinto the Evi-
«568 £SG32St
I c^aintA Wiry, Queen of Scots (Edin. 1759, 8¥o; Lond. 1790/d vols. 8to); M. Laing's
Butary of Scotland; G. Chalmers's L\fe of Mary, Queen ^ ScoU (1818, 2 vols. ; 1822, a
vols.); P. F. Ty tier's EUtory of Scotland; Prince Labanoflrs Eeeueil dee Lettree de Maris
Stuart (1844); David Laing's edition of John Knox's History of ihs Brformaium (1846-48);
Mias Agnes Strickland's Lives of the Queens of Scotland (£din. 1850-^9, 8 vols. 8vo); A.
de Montaiglon's Latin TJienies of Mary Stuart (Lond. 1855, 8vo); Prince Labanoff's Jfotice
sur la CoUeetion des Portraits de Marie Stuart (1856); M. Mignet's HUtoire de Marie Stuart .
(1853), M Teulet's Lettres de Marie Stuart (1859); M. Oheruel's Marie Stuart et Catherine
de Medicis (1858); Robertson's Catalogues of tlie Jewels, Dresses, Furniture, Books, and
Paintings of Mary, Queen of Scots (1863); Hosack's Mary, Queen of Scots, and her
Accusers (1870-74); History of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, translated from the MS8. of
prof. Petit, by C. de Flandre (1874); Marie Stuart: son Proch et son Execution, d*aprh le
Journal inedit de Bourgoing, by Chantelauze (1876).
ITie best representations of Mary are the contemporary portraits by the French
painter, Francis Clouet, more commonly called Jehannet or Janet, and the statue, by an
unknown sculptor, on her tomb at Westminster. All portraits which cannot be recon-
ciled with these types may safely be rejected as spurious.
KABTSYILLE, a city of California, U. S., on the north bank of the Yuba river, 100
m. n n.e. of Benicia, and 50 m. n. of Sacramento, having steam-boat communication with
San Francisco. It is a great resort of gold-miners, and has a variable population, given
in the census of 1870 at 4788.
MARTSVILLE (ante), a city in n. California,, incorporated 1861; at the confluence of
the Yuba river and the navigable Feather river, opposite Yuba city with which it is con-
nected by a bridge. It is at the junction of the Roseville to Redding division of the Cen-
tral Pacific, and the Oroville to Marysville branch, and is the largest and most important
city in the state n. of Sacramento; pop. '70, 4,788. It is 116 m. mm San Francisco, and
70 m. by water from Sacramento, ana being at the head of navigation, surrounded by
fertile agricultural and rich mining districts, is the center of an important trade. It doe&
an extensive commission business, and is engaged largely in manufactures. It is built,
mostly of brick, on a level plain, and is regularly laid out with wide streets. It is sup-
plied with water, lighted with gas, has 4 banks, 8 churches, a convent, graded public
:^hools and 8 private institutions of learning, a m^isonic hall, a public library, 5 hotels,
and manufactories of carriages, woolen mills, steam flour mills, breweries, and iron
foundries
MARYVILLE, a t. in e. Tennessee, the present s. terminus of the Knoxville and
Augusta railroad; pop. *70, 811. It is the seat of Marj^ville college, a Presbjrterian insti-
tution, onranized 1819, chartered 1842; open to both sexes, with a distinctive course of 4
years for ladies, and in '74, a library of 2,000 vols. The college buildings, 8 in number^
costing 160,000, are pleasantly located on an estate of 65 acres. The Society of Friends-
have a school here called the Freedman's college. In the town are 7 churcnes, 1 news-
paper, flour and saw mills, a tannery, and a manufactory of woolen goods.
MASACCIO, 1401-48; b. San Giovanni Val d'Arno, Florence, in the early part of
the 15th century. His real name was Tommaso Guidi, but on account of his incapacity
for the duties of life he was nicknamed at an early age Tommasacdio, shortened
to Masaceio, or Helpless Tom. He rec<'ive<i his first lessons in art from Masolino da
Panicale. He was employed under him in painting the frescos in the Brancacci chapel
at Florence. He studied the sculptures of Ghiberti and Donatello, and learned perspec-
tive from Brundleschi. About 1430 he visited Rome, where he executed several
important works. In 1484, on the return of Cosmo de Medici from exile, he went back
to Florence, and was engaced to complete the paintings of the Brancacci, left unfin-
ished by the 'death of liis master, Marsolino. When in Rome he painted in the
church of St. Clemente a series of frescos from the life of St. Catharine. ** By the easy
posture of his figures, the simplicity and dignity of his draperies, and his natural and
harmonious coloring," he surpassed' all his contemporaries, and introduced a new era in
the annals of painting. He had great readiness of invention and unusual truth and ele-
gance of design, and was remarkably well-skilled in perspective. The frescos in the^
church of the Carmine at Florence were his masterpieces, and were carefully studied by
Raphael and other great painters of the 15th and 16th centuries. In his epitaph, writtciir
by Annibal Cavo, it is said that Michael Angelo, who, as the teacher of other painters, .whs .
Uie pupil of Masaccio. His portrait by himself is in the national gallery. He was
envied by his competitors, and some tliink that he was poisoned.
MA8AHIELL0 (properly, Tommaso Antello). a fisherman of Amalfi, was the lead(T '
of the revolt which took place in Naples in July, 1647, against tlie Spanish viceroy, the
duke of Arcos. The people had been exasperated by oppression, and great excitement
had been produced by a new tax laid upon fruit, ^asaniello himself was indignant at the
rude treatment which his wife had received when she was detected in the attempt to smug-
gle a little flour. He entered into a conspiracy witli some others w^ho cherished feelings
similar to his own ; and an opportunity being afforded them by a tumult at tlie customs'
houses on July 7, 1647, when the new tax on fruit was to be levied, thoj- stirred up
the multitude to a revolt. Their triumph wa*« complete; palacesjpj^g|)[^?l|li9«^|i^i|^s.
ISSSr- 664
ivere destroy ed» a bloody popular justice was executed, and the ▼iceroy was tenifled into
the greatest concessions, and entered into a regular treaty with Masameilo in the diurdi
of the Carmelites on July 18. But success and the flatteries of the viceroy turned the
fisherman's head ; he gave himself up to drunkenness and every excess, and his capri-
cious despotism immediately became terrible to* his own associates, who assasunated
him on July 16. See Angelo Saavedra, duke of E'vas, Insurrection de NapoUenlM.
<2vols.,Madr. 1849).
MASAT'A, one of the oldest towns of Nicaragua, Central America, close to a lake
of the same name, 40 m. n.n.w. of Nicaragua city, and 8 m. from the n. shore of
the lake o' Nicaragua, near the volcano oi Masaya-^a broad, low mountain, about
^,500 ft. high, with one large and several minor craters. The last great eruption
of this mountain was in 1670, when the lava spread in a northern direction to &
distance, of more than 20 miles. This gr v.t lava-fleld is said to resemble an ocean of ink
suddenly congealed in a storm. In lB6^ the mountain showed signs of renewed activ-
ity. The town is the center of a very fertile district, and has a pop. of 46,000, chiefly
Indians, who are said to be thrifty and industrious.
KA8CASA', a very old t. of Algeria, in the province of Oran, and 50 m. a.e. of the
town of that name, on the slope of the Atlas mountains. Mascara was built by tlie
Turks upon the site of a Roman colony. I>uring the first years of the French occupsr
tion, it was a favorite residence of Abd-el-Kader, but was taken by the French in 1^.
Pop. about 9,000, of whom more than a half are natives.
MASCARENE'. Jean Paul, 1684-1760; b. at Castres, France, of a Huguenot fam-
ily; educated at Gheneva, and naturalized in England in 1706. Entering the armyu
lieut., he accompanied the British troops to Nova Scotia in 1711, and remained
there nearly 50 years. He was a member of the council in 1720, and acted with the
^vernors of Massachusetts and New Hampshire in ne^tiating the treaty of 1725 with
the eastern Indians; was acting governor of Nova BcoUa from 1740 to 1749; took part
in the defense of the province agunst the French in 1744, and became maj.gen. in 1768.
Died in Boston.
MASCASEVS' I8LE8, or Mascarbkhas, the collective name nven to Islands of
Bourbon (q.v.), and of Isle-de-France or Mauritius (q.v.). The island of Bodrigaei,
360 m. further e., is sometimes reckoned as one of theoL
KAS'CLX (from macula, the mesh of a net), in heraldry, a lozenee-shaped figare per-
forated and showing a narrow border. The term masccMy is applied to a field divided
by diagonial lines into lozenge-shaped compartments of alternate tinctures, each having
its center voided of the opposite tmcture. Lozengy-mascally is a field composed of loz-
enges and mascle^ alternately. In the earlier heraldry, mascallv was used for what was
afterwards called lozensy. Crosses and other ordinaries may be formed of mascles, in
which case tliey should begin with half a mascle.
MASCOU'TINS, an Indian tribe of the Algonquin family, very well known in the
17th c, and appearing constantly in the history of the early French settlers. Their
habitat was the country about the northern lakes, and they were found on the Wis-
consin and Fox rivers about 1660, and later on in the vicinity of the Ohio, in what is
now Indiana. They appear to have been on friendly terms with the Kickapoos, Foxes,
and Miamis, but quarreled with the Ottawas. In 1765 they attacked a party under the
English col. Croghan on the Wabash river, and in 1777 endeavored to perform an act of
treachery affectme col. Clarke, an American officer operating in their country. As
oarly as 1712 they had united with the Kickapoos and Foxes against the French. Indeed,
this tribe appears to have antagonized the whites from the time of the first settlement,
inciting other tribes to join them in their warfare. By the Huron s the Mascoutins were
called, in their own language, Asistaeronon, the "fire-nation;" but the name Msuscoutiii
is said to mean prairie. Since the last century the Mascoutins have died out as a 8e|)a-
rate organization, and are not now known to the U. S. government as a tribe. It is,
however, probable that they are still represented on some of the reservations.
MAS-EHA, a t. of Negroland, Africa, capital of the country of Bagirmi, in lat. 11" 85
n., long. 16* e., about 100 m. s.e. of lake Tchad. It covers an area''7 m. in chcumfer-
cnce, and was formerly much larger. Its present reduced condition has been induced
bv disastrous civil and foreign wars. Only about half the area of the town is inhabited.
The palace of the sultan, who is reported to have from 800 to 400 wives, consists of
Irregular clusters of clay buildings, and huts surrounded by a wall built of baked bricks.
The town is walled, and has 9 gates. It has on the whole a dilapidated appearance.—
Barth's Travels in Central Africa,
MASERES, or MAZERES, Francis, an English mathematician, commonly called
l)aron Mas^res; 1781-1824; b. London. His father was a physician, driven from France
by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. The son was educated at Clare-Hall, Cam-
bridge, taking the highest rank in the classics and mathematics. Having obtained a
fellowship in the college, he removed to the Temple; was in due time admitted to the
bar; was appointed attorney-general for Canada, and resided in Quebec till 1773.
Returning to England he was appointed to the office of curaitor baron of the exchequer,
which office he held till his death. He was also at difff^|a|^^^]|e|^^^^;^reoonler of
555
London uid senior judge of the sherifTs court. He publkhed Elements of Plane THgo-
nometry; Principles of the Doctrine of Life Annuities; Scriptores Loga/rithmiei, a collection,
in 6 vols, quarto, of writings on the subject of logarithms, the works of Kepler, Napier,
Snell, etc., being interspersed with original tracts on kindred subjects; Scriptores Optiei,
a reprint of the optical writings of James Gregory Descartes, Shooten, Huygens, Halley,
and Barrow. He reprinted also a large number of tracts on English history. The
expense of Hales's treatise on Fluxions was defrayed by him.
MASH AM, Abigail, Lady, 1670-1784; b. London; daughter of a merchant named
Francis Hill and Miss Jennings, an aunt of the duchess oi Marlborough. Her father
lost his fortune by speculation, and Abigail became waiting-woman to Lady Rivers.
Soon after by the influence of the duchess of Marlborough, she was appointed a lady of
the bedchamber to princess Anne. She became the confidant of the princess, and,
after the latter became queen, did all she could to destroy the Marlborough influence at
<ioutL In 1707, Abieail was married, by consent of the queen, to Samuel 3iasliam, a
gentleman of the beachamber to prince George of Denmark. This marriage brought
about an open rupture with the Marlboroughs. The intrigues of Mrs. Masnam finally
resulted in the overthrow of the whigs, the elevation of mirley to power, and the dis-
mlflsal of the duke of Marlborough. The high-church principles of Mrs. Masham
recommended her from the first to Anne, who had been compelled to accept a whig
government, but whose political sympathies lay with the tories. Mrs. Masham was
engaged in plots. to bring back the Stuarts; and she seems always to have used her posi-
tion for her pecuniary advantage. ' Her husband was raised to the peerage in 1711.
Lady Mitaham adhered to Bolin^broke in the quarrel between him and Oxford. After
the aeath of queen Anne in 1714 she lived in i*etirement.
MAMHXIKA, a t of Bomu, central Africa, in h^t. 18*" 8' n., long. 10** 2' e., about 240
m. w. of lake Tchad. It lies on the gentle southern slope of an eminence, the top of
which ia crowned with a rocky crest, and is surrounded with a clay wall. According
to Barth, it is a considerable place for this country, having a pop. of certainly not less
than 10,000, but without the least sign of industry.
MA8INI8SA, or Massikissa, King of the Massylians; B.C. 289-148; a famous African
prince, floa of Gala. He was educated at Carthage, and in 218 b.c. induced his father to
form a league with the Carthaginians. In the same year he sailed for Spain at the head
of a tiKwp oi Numldian cavalry, and displayed «'eat zeal and valor in the war against the
Romans. But the defeat of the Carthaginians at Silpia in 206 b.c., and the eenerosity with
which his nephew, Massiva, was treated by Scipio Africanus, led him to become a faith-
ful allv of the Romans. The crown of his country, which, after the death of his father <
Gala, had passed in rapid succession to his uncle QSsacles, and his cousin Capusa. was {
seized at this time in the name of an infant brother of the latter by Mezetulus. On hear-
ing of this usurpation, Masinissa crossed to Africa, defeated Mezetulus in a pitched battle,
and forced him to flee into the kingdom of Syphax. The Carthaginians, however, irri-
tated at his open avowal for the Romans, mcited Syphax to make war upon him.
Defeated and stripped of his sovereign t>r, he was compelled to seek refuge near the
Syrtis minor, where he bravely defended himself until the arrival of Scipib in 304 b.o.
He identified his cause with that of the Romans, and his knowledge of the habits of the
enemy contributed greatly to the two victories gained over Hasdrubal and Syphax. He
then, after a march of 16 days, captured Cirta. the capital of Syphax. In the decisive
battle of Zama which followed the arrival of Hannibal in Africa (202 b.c.), he made a
brilliant charge at the head of his Numldian horse, drove the cavalry of Hannibal from
the field, and was, therefore, the first to turn the tide of battle against the Carthaginians.
For this service he received the greater part of the kingdom of Syphax in the following
year. He now profited by the leisure which peace afforded him, devoting his attention
to the organization of his government and to the civilization of his semi-barbarous sub-
jects. But his lust of conquest was never satiated, and in his ninetieth year he marched
mto the territories of Carthage. Although several of his chiefs had deserted him, he
adroitly circumvented the enemy, and forced them to capitulate.
1IA8K (Med. Latin, masea; Fr. masque), a disguise or covering of the face, the use
of which, perhaps, originated in the harvest festivities of the Grecian peasantry of the
most ancient times, and appears subsequently to have been associated with the repre-
sentation of Satvrs, Silenus, and Bacchus in the orgies of Bacchus. Greek tragedy
having originated in close connection with the worship of Bacchus, masks were employed
in it from the first; but it is uncertain when they were introduced in comedy. The
masks used by actors were of very various form and character. They were often pro-
vided with metallic mouthi)ieces, for the purpose of increasing the power of the voice,
this being rendered requisite by the immense size of the ancient tneaters; their whole
use being indeed adapted to such vast buildings, and to a style of dramatic representa-
tion in which the ideal prevailed, and the reality of individual impersonation was far
less thought of than in modern times. Much information on the subject of ancient masks
may be round in the work of Pacichelli. De Maseheris, CapiUamentis et Chirothecis
(Naples, 1698); in. the magnificent work of Pietro ContucciFicoroni, De Lartis Scenids et
Figuris Comieis (Rome, 1754), and in Berger's De Personis ^ulgv Larvts seu Masckeris
(ITrankf. 1728). Digitized by VjUUglC
The use of masks in the modern theater orinnated in the Italian eommedia deW arte,
which may itself be traced back to the ancient Roman mimes and pantomimes, and bas
always been confined to that class of entertainments in which the very names of tbe
characters, Pantaloon, Harlequin, etc., have been borrowed from Italy.
KASKy Masked, a military expression used in several senses. A madood battery i^
one so constructed, with a grassy glaciB, etc., as to be hidden from the view of the enemy,
until, to his surprise, it suddenly opens flre upon him— on his flank, peiiiaps. The fire
of a battery is marked when some other work, or a bodv of friendly troops, intervenes in
the line of fire, %nd precludes the use of the guns. A fortress or an army is masked
when a superior force of the enemy holds it in check, while some hostile evolution is
being carried out.
MASK, The Man with the Iron. See Iron Mask, ante,
MASKELYKE, Neyil, an English astronomer and physicist, was b. in London,
Oct. 6, 1732. He was educated at Westminster school, whence he was removed to
Catherine hall, and subsequently to Trinity college, Cambridge, where he obtained b
fellowship in 1756. In 1758 he was electee! a fellow of the royal society, and resolved
to devote himself to astronomy. In 1763 lie made a voyage to Barbad'oes. to test the
newly invented Harrison chronometers, and, after his return, was (1765) appointed
astronomer-royal. During the 46 years that he held this situation, he acquired universal
respect by his diligence and the accuracy of his investigations, made several improve-
ments in the arrangements and employment of the instruments, and was the first to mark
the time to tenths of a second. In 1744-46 he made his expedition to Schehallion, for
the purpose of detemiininij the density of the earth. See Sarth. Maskelyne wasthr
means of originating the Nautical Almanac (q.v.), and also obtained leave to have his
observations printed at the expense of government. He published very few vorks
out of his oflicial capacity, but of the othei-s. no fewer than 85 appeared, many of which
have been found of immense service (especially his AttronomicaX Obgej-vations) to 8ubf%-
quent astronomers. Maskelyne died Feb. 9, loll.
MASKINONGE', a s.w. co. of Quebec, Dominion of Canada, having lake Bt. Ptteron
the 8.e; 3,231 sq.m.; pop. '71, 16,079. It is watered by the Gatineau, Du Liivre.
Maskinonge, -and Du Loup rivers. The population is nearly all of Freach extraction or
origin. Capital, Riviere du Loup.
UA8X8, in architecture, are carved as decorations on keystones and other prominent
positions.
MASON, a CO. of central Illinois, having the Illinois river on the n. and the Sanga-
mon on the s. ; 580 sq. m. ; pop. *80, 16,244. It presents a surface of low prairie land, vm
fertile. Intersected b^ division of the Chicago and Alton, the Sprin^eld and Nortli
western, and the Peoria, Pekin and Jacksonville railroads. It produces very largtly
of Indian com, wheat, oats, butter, hay, and potatoes. Co. seat, Havana.
MASON, a CO. in n.e. Kentucky, having the Ohio river on the n.; drained by the n.
fork of the Lickinff river, and Limestone and Lee's creeks; 236 sq.m.; pop. '80, 20,469.
The surface • to wara the n. is hilly, elsewhere more level, the soil being generally fertih.
Productions are wheat, oats, rye, barley, Indian corn, tobacco, wool, butter, and bay.
There are some thriving manufactuiing industries prosecuted, including agricultunii
implements, woolen and cotton goods, ciirriages, and wagons. Co. seat, Maysville.
MASON, a CO. in w. Michigan, on lake Michigan; 460 sq.m.; pop. '70, 8,26<i;
watered by the Great and Little Sable, the Marquette, and the Notipeska^ rivere. It i>
characteriaced by a generally level surface, and very fertile soil. Productions are Indim)
com, wheat, oats, potatoes, and hay. Co. seat, Pere Marquette.
MASON, a CO. in w. central Texas, drained bj' branches of the Colorado, the Llano,
and the San Saba: 910 sq.m. : pop. *80, 2,665. Tbe surface is mostly fertile land, but a
considerable portion of it is heavily wooded. Stock raising is the principal indastn.
Productions are Indian corn, hay. sweet potatoes, wool, and butter. Co. seat. Mason.
MASON, a CO. in w. part of Washington territory, bounded on the e. by Paget
sound; 1600 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 689. It is crossed by the Olympus and Coast mountain>.
which are separated by broad valleys of very fertile lanS. The principal industry ii;
lumbering, the farm products— oats, hay, and potatoes,— being unimportant The sound
makes up into the land at many |x>iuts. forming inlets which are excellent harbors. Vo.
scat, Oakland.
MASON, a CO. in the w. part of West Virginia, having the Ohio river on the n and
. w., and intersected by the Great Kanawha river and its affluents; 800 8(^m.; pop. '80,
^ 22,293. The surface varies in character, the soil being generally fertile. There are iron
ore, coal, and salt springs. The productions are Indian com, wheat, oats, potutocf,
tobacco, wool, and hay. Co. seat. Point Pleasant.
MASON. Armistead Thomson, 1787-1819; b. Va.; son of Stevens. He graduated
at William and Mary college, and became a farmer. He served through the war of
1812 as col. of a cavalry regiment, distinguishing himself at the defense of Norfolk;
and he was afterward niade a brig. sen. in tne Virginia militia. He was elected to the
Yii^nia house of representatives and to the U. S. flenatg»gfj^^;«i|jk}f4W€^i^n^ J" ^^^
557 5SK5i.
to become a candidate for the lower house of congress, hoping by means of his
unbounded personal popularity to defeat the federalist candidate, Mercer. The election
was bitterly contested; but Mercer was returned by a narrow majority. The cam-
paign gave rise to a number of heated controversies and several duels ; ana Mason him-
self was killed in a duel by his own cousin, col. John Mason McCarty.
MASON, Charles, 1730-87; b. England, and long employed as an assistant at the
Oreenwich observatory; was sent with Jeremiah Dixon to the cape of Good Hope in
1761 to observe the transit of Venus. In 1763 the same gentlemen were employed bv
tb« proprietors of Maryland and Pennsylvania to survey the boundair line between their
respvctive possessions; a task upon which they were engaged until Dec. 26, 1767. The
boundary fixed by them has since been known as '* Mason and Dixon's line" (q.v.).
They also, at the request of the Royal society, fixed " the precise measure of a decree of
latitude in America, for which service the society granted them £200. The particidarB
of this -work are recorded in vol. IviiL of the society^ TranKuHora. In the same volume
may be found Astronamieal Observations made at the Forks of the Brandywine for the pur-
pose of "determining the going of -a clock sent thither by the Royal society in order to
find the difference of gravity between the observatoiy at Greenwich and the spot where
the cloek was set up in Pennsylvania." Mr. Mason recorded in his private journal a
minute account of his proceedings in America, his haps and mishaps, as well as of his
scientiflc observations on a great variety of subjects, with interesting notices of the
Indians of various tribes whom he met on his route or who rendered assistance to him
and his companions. He describes with enthusiasm the beauty and grandeur of Ameri-
can scenery, and gives a tolerably accurate account of the valley of the Mississippi, as
received by him from an aged Indian chief. Mason and Dixoii returned to England in
the autumn of 1768. In the following year Mason went to C'avan, Ireland, to observe
tlw transit of Venus, his report of which appeared in the Philosophical Transactions for
1770. He was also employed by the bureau of longitudes to verify the lunar tables of
Tobias Mayer, in which, he made some corrections. At an unknown dale he returned
to America, and died in Philadelphia in 1787. His private journal, field notes, etc.,
were found amons: a pile of waste paper in the cellar of the government-house at Halifax,
:&irova Scotia, in lS60, and an account of their contents was published by Porter C. Blii^
in the BistoriccU Magazine for July, 1861.
MASON, Ebekezek Portkr, 1819-40; b. Washington, Conn.; graduated at Yale in
1839. He was distinguished for his early proficiency in mathematical and astronomical
studies, and shortly fSter his graduation was appointed a member of the commission for
defining the boundary between Maine and Canada. Not long after this he published
Obnervati&ns on KebulcB, a paper which was highly commended by Sir John Ilerschel.
D- at Richmond, Va., a few days after attaining the age of 21 years. His Life and
Writings were published by prof. Denison Olmsted.
llffASON, Ebskike, D.D., 180{W1; the youngest child of Dr. John Mitchell Mason;
b. New York; graduated at Dickinson college, Carlisle, Penn., of which his father was
then president; studied theology at Princeton seminary; was pastor of the Presbyterian
<»hurch at Schenectady, N. Y., 1827-30; and of the Bleecker street church. New York city,
1830-51. He was stated clerk of the general assembly of the P^sbyterian church, N.S.,
1888-4i ; and acting professor of church history in the Union theological seminary. New
York city. He ranked very high as an argumentative preacher, and drew many eminent
men, bom citizens and strang^ers, to listen to his eloquent appeals. A selection from his
sermons, with a short memorial notice by his friend Dr. ^miliam Adams, was published
«oon atfer his death in a volume entitled A Pastor's Legacy.
MlifiON, Francis, d.d,, 178^1874; b. York, Eng,; left the parish school to work at
the trade of his father who was a shoemaker. While thus employed he happened to find
4i work; on geography and astronomy, which led him to attend an evening-school where
lie leaned algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. In 1818 he came to the United States
and worked at hi» trade at variofi«9 places at the West. In 1824 he went to Boston, and
woilMd at Randolph and Canton, Mass. At Canton he married, joined the Baptist
4diiuch, and studied languages with his pastor. In 1827 he studied at Newton theologi-
es! seaiftnary, and in 1880 was sent as a missionary to Burmah. His labors were chiefiy
junong the Karens, among whom he had great success. In two dialects of their language*
he translated the Bible aira other religious books, and conducted a seminary for the train-
ing of preaehers and teaehen. He published in 1852 a work on the natural productions
of Bumah, pronounced by Dr. Hooker ''the most valuable addition to the history of the
fauna and flora of British Bunnah.'* A second edition was published under the title of
BurmiA: 0$ BfopU and Natural Productions. He published also a grammar, chrestoma-
thy, amtivooalmlaiy of the Pali, besides translations from the Burman, Pali, and Sanskrit:
Jj^sof)Sp-17u^BifUt the Karen Apostle; A Memoir of Mrs. Helen M, Mason; a Memoir or
Ban Quai0, a Karen Oommrt; The Story of a Working-man's Life, mth Sketches of TraveL
MASON, George, a member of the English parliament in the reign of Charles I.
He ofipoAed the arbitrary policy of the king towards the colonies, but disapproved of
••HiraiW'iiieMttree against bim. He was an ofltoer in the amy of Cbartof II., and when
668
defeated at Worcester in 1661, he escaped in disguise to Virginia, losing allhispoA-
sessions in England.
MASON, Gboroe, 1726-92; b. at Doeg's Neck, Fairfax co.. Va.; a descendanl of
•ol. Georse Mason who was a member of the English parliament in the reign of Charles
I. ; settled in Truro parish; built Gunstan hall on the Potomac, and became the intimate
friend of Washington, for whom he drafted the '* non-importation resolutions," which
were offered by Washington, and adopted by the Virginia assembly in 1769. One of
these was that the Virginia planters should purchase no slaves imported after Nov. 1. of
that year. At a meeting of the people of Fairfax, July 18, 1774. he offered 24 resolutions
•on questions at issue between Great Britian and the colonies, which were sanctioned by
the Virginia convention in August, and reaffirmed by the continental congress in
October of the same year. In 1775 he was a member of the Virginia convention. In
May, 1776, he drafted the declaration* of rights and the plan of government, which
were adopted by a unanimous vote. He was a meml)er of the continental convention in
1777, and of the. constitutional convention in 1787, taking decided ground against all
measures tending to i>erpetuate slavery. He disapproved of the proposed instrument
and refused to sign it, declaring that it would *' result in a monarchy or a tyrannical
aristocracy." He was a meml)er of the convention called to consider the federal consti-
tution, and with Patrick Henry, opposed it, insisting on 20 alterations. Some of these
were afterwards adopted b^ congress and the states. He was elected the first United
States senator from Virginia, but declined. His statae stands with those of Washing-
ton, Jefferson, Henry, and other distinguished Virginians in front of the state capitol
at Richmond.
MASON, James Murbay, 1798-1871, b. Va. ; a grandson of George. He began the
practice of law at Winchester, in 1820; and six years later took his seat in the Yir^ia
legislature, to which he was twice re-elected. In 1887 he was elected to congress, but at
the end of his term, he refused a re-nominatlon, and resumed the practice of his pro-
fession. . In ^1847 he was appointed to fill a vacancy in the U. S. senate, to which he
was elected in 1840, and again in 1855. He occupied a conspicuous position in the
senate, where he was for a number of years, chairman of the committee on foreign
affairs. Among the important measures with which he was connected, may be men-
tioned the fugitive slave law of 1850, which was drawn up by him. He was an ardent
secessionist, and was expelled from the senate in 1861. He was soon appointed a com-
missioner for the confederate states to England and France, and on Nov. 8, 1861, with
his fellow commissioner John Slidell, was taken off the BritiBh mail steamer, Trent,
by captain Cliarles Wilkes. He was imprisoned in fort Warren, Boston, till Jan. 2.
1862, when he was surrendered to the English government. During the remamder of
the war, he lived for the most part in Paris, still representing the confederate govern-
ment. At the close of the war, he came to Canada, and after spending three years there,
went to Virginia.
MASON, Jkrehiah, ll.d., 1768-1848, b. Oonn., son of Jeremiah Mason, a col. in
the revolutionary war. He graduated at Yale, in 1788, and was called to the bar in 1791.
He began the practice of his profession at Westmoreland, N. H., near Walpole, whither
lie removed in 1704. Three vears later, he removed to Portsmouth, which was bis
home for the next 85 years. He was soon recognized as the head of his profession, in a
state whose bar was then, and perhaps since, unequaled in this country, and which could
number among its members Ezekiel and Daniel Webster, and Jeremiah Smith. He
held the office of attorney general for the state in 1802, and was elected to the U. S
senate., in 1813. He became one of the foremost debaters in that body, his speech
delivered in 1814, on the embargo, being especialljr powerful. But he was, before even-
thing else, a great lawyer, and he soon tired of politics, and in 1817, resigned his seat in the
senate, and resumed the practice of his profession. He afterwards served, for a number
of terms in the New Hampshire legislature, where his service had little connection with
politics, but was given largely to revising and codifying the state laws. It was he who
framed for the legislature its report on the Virginia resolutions with regard to the repeal
of the Missouri compromise, and the state enjoyed in many other directions the benefit
of his legal learning and sagacity. But he felt the need of a larger field for the display
of his talents, and in 1882, removed to Boston, where the Websters had lon^ preoedert
him. He was cmploved in Boston upon many great cases, and maintained till his ace
compelled him to retfre, the high reputation which he had won elsewhere. His was one
of the most acute legal minds in America. He was a greater lawyer than Webster, how-
ever inferior to him^in other respects; and Webster, who had abundant occasion to con-
ceive a respect for Mason's abilities, while they were both engaged in the trial of causes
at the New Hampshire bar, does not exaggerate in giving his estimate of Masra: **0f
my own professional discipline and attainments, whatever they may be, I owe much to
that close attention to the discharge of my duties, which I was compelled to pay for 9
successive years, from dav to day, by Mr. Mason's efforts and arguments at Uie same
bar." *'The characteristics of his mind," he adds, **as I think, were realgreatnew,
strength, and sagacity. He was great through sound sense and sound judgment"
MASON, John, d. 1685; b. at Lynn Regis, Norfolk, England, and served m 1610 in
tt&e navy; in 1616 went to Newfoundland as governor ^gi|^^^J[;i04.^ ^^ P"^
669 •
liahed a description of the country, to which he added a map in 1626. He explored the
Kew £ngland coasts in 1617; in 1622 obtaiued a grant of a region called Mariana, now
the n.e. part of Massachusetts; in the same year, in connection with sir Ferdinand Gorges,
procured a patent for the province of Maine; and in 1623 sent a colony to the Piscataqua
river. In 1624-29 he was treasurer and paymaster of tlie English armies in the Spanish
war. In 1629 he obtained a patent for the New Hampshire colony, and with Gorges took
wie also for Laconia, a region including lake Champlain. lie held various honorable
meitionB in England, in 1685 being a judge in Hampshire and vice-admiral of New
England. His rights in New Hampshire were sold in 1691 to governor Samuel Allen.
Did in London in Dec. , 1685.
MASON. John, 1600-72, b. England ; served under sir Thomas Fairfax in the Neth-
erlands; emigrated in 1680 to Dorchester, Mass. ; removed in 1685 to Connecticut, and
aided in founding Windsor. A party of whites having been massacred by the Pequot
Indians at Wethersfield in 1637, he was appointed by the general court to attack the
Pequots at the mouth of the Pequot river. With a force of 90 English and 70 friendly
Mohrf^^ns under Uncas, he landed. May 28, in Narragansett bay, near point Judith.
Aided by 200 Narragansetts under Miantonomah he marched to the two principal forta
of the Pequots near the Mystic river. Though nearly deserted by his frightened allies,
he attacked the nearest fort, May 26, 1687, but, unable to dislodge the Indians, he set fire
to their wigwams, the whites and their allies surrounding the forts to prevent escape.
Between 600 and 700 Pequots perished, seven were captured, and seven escaped; two of
ifae English were killed and twenty wounded. He then pursued the remnant of the
Pequots toward New York, lulled and captured many, distributing those that remained
amon^ the Mohegans and Narragansetts. The peace now secured with the Indians con-
tinued for 40 years. After the Pequot war Mason removed to Saybrook, at the request
of the inhabitants, for the defense of the colony, and in 1659 removed to Norwich. He
was a maj. of the colonial forces for 80 years, deputy-governor of Coanecticut 1660-70,
and a magistrate 1642-68. He prepared, at the request of the general court of Connec-
ticut, an account of the Pequot war, which was reprinted by Increase Mather in 1677.
MASON, John Mitchell, d.d., 1770-1829; b. New York; graduated at Columbia
college, 1789, and continued his studies at the university of Edinburgh; after his father's
death in 1792 succeeded him as pastor of the Associate Reformed church (Presbyterian);,
in 1804 became professor of theology in a seminaiy gf which he was one of the founders.
In 1811 the trustees of Columbia college, in order to enjoy the benefit of his eminent
talents, created for him the ofiSce of provost, which he filled until 1816, taking charge of
the senior class, and giving new life to the lecture-room; from 1821 to 1824 he was presi-
dent of Dickinson college at Carlisle, Penn. , and during that time connected himself with
Ae Presbyterian churdi. As a pulpit orator he had great power and fervor; his elo- •
quence is one of the traditions of the city of New York. When Robert Hall heard him
deliver his celebrated {discourse on " Messiah's Throne," he is said to have exclaimed, *' I
can never preach agiain." His aspect was on a scale of grandeur correspondiog to the-
majesty of the mind within. Tall, robust, straight, with a head modeled after neither
Grecian nor Boman standards, yet combining the dienity of the one and the grace of the
other; with an eye that shot fire, especially when under the excitement cl earnest preach-
ing, yet tender and tearful when the pathetic chord was touched; with a forehead broad
and high, and a mouth expressive of decision, Dr. Mason stood before his audience a
prince of pulpit orators.
MASON, John Y., ix.d., 1799-1869; b. Va.; educated at the university of North
Carolina, and admitted to the bar. After serving for a number of terms in the Virginia
af^sembly, he ent^ed congress in 1831, and remained till 1837, when he was appointed
judge of the U. S. district court for Virginia. He continued to hold that office till 1844,
whenpresident Tyler made hun secretary of the navy. He entered the cabinet of presi^
dent Volk as attorney-general, but was transferred in 1846 to the department of state. In
1854 president Pierce made him minister to France, where he remained till his death.
MASON, Lowell, 1792-1872; b. Mass. ; commenced his musical career in SavannalL
where he was appointed choir leader in 1812. In 1821 he published a volume entitled
Haadd and Haydn CoUection of Church Mutic, which attracted considerable attention.
He removed to Boston in 1827, and devoted himself to the instruction of classes in vocal
music; introducing musical instruction into the public schools of Massachusetts; and
f^curing the establishment of the Boston academy of music. He made numerous com-
Eilations of glee-books, text-books, collections for family and Sunday^ use, etc. In 1837
>r. Mason visited Europe, to make himself thoroughly familiar with the continental
methods of musical instruction. In 1855 he was made doctor of music by the university
of New York, the first degree of that character conferred in America. His cbief claim
to distinction rests on his efforts to make vocal music popular among the masses and on
his hymn tunes, several of which are in constant use by all denominations in the United
States, and have in some instances been given by the severer musical criticism of the
present day a rank scarcely less high than that accorded them by continuous popular
faTor.
MASON, RiCHAAD B., d. 1850; b. Va. ; a grandson of George. He entered the army
as a Uea^ in 1817, was promoted to a captaincy in 1819» and served through the Black
SKSS-ry. 560
Hawk war in the dnwoons. He was made a col. In 1846 and was at the liead of fhe
American troops in Cuifornia, of which he was for a time military and acting civil gov
emor. In recognition of his services in the Mexican war, he was brevettca brig.gen.,
May 80, 1848. ^
MASON. Stevens Thoichon. 1760-1803; b. Va.; a son of Thomson. Hewasedu
<:ttted at William and Mary coUece, but entered the American army, in which, while
hardly 20 years of age, he held the rank of col. ; and he was a gen. at its close. He
served for a number of years in the Virginia house of delegates, and was a conspicnoiis
member of the constitutional convention of 1788. From 1794 till his death, he wasa
member of the U. S. senate.
MASON. Stevens TnoMsoN. 1811-48; b. Va. ; grandson of Stevens Thomson. He
received his education in Kentucky, where his father, gen. John T. Mason, had settled.
In 1881 he was appointed sc(Tetary of the territory of Michigan, which had just been
organized ; and when its governor, Lewis Cass, entered Jackson's cabinet as secretary of
war. Mason became acting governor of tiie territoiy. He continued to serve in lhi<
capacity during the dispute m reganl to the proper boundary between Ohio and Michi
ffan ; and the flnal peaceful settlcj^ent of the contniversy was, in no small degree, ren-
dered possible by his tact and moderation. As soon as Michigan was erected into a
.^tate in 1885, Mjison was unanimously chosen governor; and he was honored with a
re-election, retiring in 1839. The last three years of liis life were spent in New York,
where he had begun to practice law.
MASON, Thomson, 1780-85; b. Va. ; a brother of George. He read hiw in the tern
pie, London, after which he returned to Virginia, and made his home in Loudon county.
He took a conspicuous part in the revolutionary movement in Virginia, and in 1774 pub^
lished a series of papers, advocating resistance to the claims of England. In 1778 he was
appointed to a seat upon the state supreme court, then just established, and soon after
he served upon the commission to codify and revise the state laws. In 1779 and again
in 1783. be was chosen a member of the state legislature.
MASON, William, an English divine and poet; 1725-97; educated at Cambridge,
nnd admitted fellow of Pembroke college in 1747; became rector of Aston in Yorksliire,
and chaplain to the king- subsemiently was for 33 years precentor and canon redden
tiary of the cathedral of York. He publislied a monody to the memory of Pope; /*m, an
elegy; the dramatic poems of Elfrida and Oaractacus. In 1756 he published a small
collection of odes as an imitation of Gray. In 1768 he produced some fine tlegies.
He is considered in point of monility as the purest of poets, and one of the \/arme5t
friends of civil liberty. In 1772 was published the first book of a descriptive noeai
entitled The English Garden; and the remainder in 1781. In 1775 he published the
poems of Gray, with a memoir of his life and writings prefixed; in 1788 an elegant trans
latiou of Dufresnov*s Liitin poem on the art of printing, and An puftmcal and Oriiitd
ibsay on English Church Music. In addition to his poetical reputation, he was skilled in
painting and music. A tablet to his memory is placed in the poets' comer in W^stmiD
ster ay&y. A compleu* edition of his poems was published in York in 1771.
MASON, William, b. Mass., 1829, son of Dr. Lowell Mason. He studied music in
Europe with Hauplmann, Moscheles, and Liszt, and returned to America in 1854, after
having appeared as a piano performer at Prague, Frankfort, Weimar, and London. El?
first concert in this countrv was given at Boston, which was followed by several veiy
successful concert tours. He then settled, in New York, devoting himsefr to teaching
and composing. From 1855 to 1868 he played the piano in connection with the well-
known string quartet composed of Thcoaore Thomas, Joseph Mosenthal, George Matska.
and Carl Bergmann. In 1872 he received from Tale college the degree of doctor of
music. He has held several prominent positions as organist, and many of his comp<x>i-
tions have been republished in Enrope.
KA80K AHD DIX0K*8 LIKE, a line running along the parallel of lat 89** 48' 26.3', and
separating Pennsylvania from Maryland, drawn by two distinguished English astrono
mers and mathematicians, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon. For about 80 years after
1681, there were constant dissensions between the lords Baltimore and the Penn family,
the rival proprietors in Pennsylvania and Maryland, in regard to the position of the
boundary-line between their colonial possessions.^ An agreement was come to in 1760, in
accordance with which a party of surveyors commenced to make out the real boundary.
The proprietors in London, not understanding the length of time requhred for such an
undertakhdg, and growing impatient, sent out Mason and Dixon to complete the surveys.
' who commenced the work in Dec, 1768. They concluded their task towards the end of
1767, having marked out a line of 244 m. in length, passing through forests, over moua-
tain ridges, etc. At the end of every fifth mile a stone was planted, on which was
engraved on one side the arms of lord Baltimore, on the other those of the Penna The
intermediate miles were marked by smaller stones with an M on one side and a P on the
other. All the .<$tones came from England. The surveys were revised in 1849, and
found substantially correct.
This line must be distinguished from that of 86* 80', which separated the fne and
slave states of the origiDal confederation. The latter is ^h^ J^ ,^^^f;iMM Mm, wkieb
Ml
fa I89D Was fixed as Ihe niodt'faoitbem ttmtt of sticlk sltttre states' as '0hcnild tte' admitted
into the union.
MASON AND DIXON^ tINE {ante) oririnated in the difBcuIties which occulred
fn tracing the boundary line of a tract of landgranted to William Penn in 16df . This'
land lay w. of the Delaware and n. of Maryland, and a part of its southern boundary
was denned to be *' a circle drawn at 12 m. distant from Newcastle northwards and
westwards into Uie beginning of the 40* of northern latitude.*' Later, Penn received
another grant, and, his agent being unable to a^ree with the authorities in America as to
the just boundary, he came to this country himself in 1682 to establish his claim and
talie possession of his land. He was opposed by lord Baltimore, the matter was referred
to the committee of trade nnd plantations, a change in the reigning monarch of England
took place, and it was not until 1760 that the final deed was issued to the heirs of Penn,
closing the controversy. But even then the question of surveying the disputed territory
with a view of defining tlie boundary-line opened new disagreement; and it was to
arrange this tliat Charles Mason and James Dixon, ''mathematicians and surveyors,'*
were mutiially agreed upon by the contestants, Thomas and Richard Penn, on the one
part, and lord mltimore, the great-grandson of Gecilius, the first patentee, on the other,
"to mark, run out, settle, fix. and determine all such parts of the circle, marks, lines,
and boundaries as were mentioned in the severnl articles or oonuniasions, and were not
completed." The two surveyors commenced their work in 1784, and did not finish it
until 1767; the delay being partly owing to Indian troubles, involving negotiations with
the Six Nations in their settlement. The line, as finally drawn, has been popularly
supposed to have been the dividing line between the free and the slave states; but this
is an error, as slavery existed throughout Delaware, which is both e. and n. of the line,
until abolished by the 14th amendment to the constitution. To this line is owing the
peculiar tract of land known as the ** pan-handle," where a part of Virginia i-uns up
between Pennsylvania and the Ohio river. — Very little is known of the two ** surveyors
of London," as they were styled. Mason was an assistant of Dr. Bradley at the royal
observatory at Greenwich; both were members of the American philosophical society;
both were sent bythe roval society to the cape of Oood Hope to observe the transit of
Venus in 1769. iMxon died in Durham, England, in 1777; and Mason died in iVnusyl-
yanla in 1787.
KASOir BEX, a name given to those species of bee which build their nests of agduti-
nated earth or grains of sand. See Bbb. Megaehile muraria is a British species, black,
the wings tinted with violet The nest is attached to walls or stones in sunny places;.
The Interior contains about a dozen cells, in each of which is deposited an egg, with :i
piece of paste for the food of the larva. These bees sometimes repair old nests, and
have fiei-ce combats for the possession of them.
KASOVEl), in heraldry* a term used to describe the lines formed by the junction of
the stones in building.
MA'IOnT, the art of construction in stone. The earliest existing examples are
amon^ the most magnificent specimens of the art. No nation has excelled the Ancient
Egyptians in stonework, whether we ccnsider the size of the materials, or the uneqnaled
exactness with which they are fitted together. The Egyptians did not use mort«r in
their important structures, such as the pyramids, the jomts being all carefully polished
and fitted. Cyclopean masonry, of which remains exist In many parts of Greece and
Italy, also exhibits stones of great size and with carefully-adjusted joints. The walls of
Mycenffi are among the earliest examples. These are built with huge irregular blocks,
the spaces between being filled up with smaller stones. The Etruscan specimens are
more carefully executed ; the stones are not squared, but they are all carefully fitted
together. In some cases, the beds or horizontal joints are made level, and the upright
joints left unsquared. No mortar is used in eyclopean masonry.
The masonry of the Greeks and Romans very closely resembled that of the present
day: RubUe-work {opus incertum), in which the stones are not regularly coursed; coursed-
foork, where the joints are all level, and the stones of equal height; ashlctr, resembling the
latter, but built with larger stones all carefully dressed on the joints. Many of the
Roman buildings in the eastern empire were constructed with blocks of enormous size,
as at Baall)ec, where some of the stoues are 60 ft. in length. Ashlar-work is frequently
used for the exterior surface of walls, the inside being '* backed up" with rubble- work.
This kind of work is sufficient for ordinary purposes; but where great strength in
required, the whole thickness must be built with solid blocks. Ashlar- work is generally
bedded in fine mortar, with one inch of oil-putty on the outer edge.
The eariy mediaeval masonry was of very bad construction, being, in fact, little better
than common rubble, with an occasional use of herring-bone work. The Normans
improved upon this kind of work, but their masonry was also so bad that most of the
towers built by them either fell or had to be taken down. The fall of the tower of
Chichester cathedral, a few years ago, was occasioned by defective Norman masonry.
The art gradually improved with the advance of Gothic architecture, and ashlar was
reintroduced for all important works. The ashlar-work so constantly used in renais-
sance buildings, has lately given place to a more picturesque style of masonarv called
hommer-dressed and squared work— 4he money saved upon this cheaper work being
U. K. DL— 86
„n.-i M«
applied with good affect in improtln^ the appettanoe of the doon„ window^ Mdotjh«r
prominent features of the buildings.
There is one very simple rule, too little attended to in modern masonnr^-visL, tlu^ aU
stones, at least when stratified, should be laid on their natural bed, for vf set on edg^
they are sure to scale off and decay under the influence of the weather.
Bpecial materials sometimes produce spcial kinds of work; thus, in Korfolk and
Suffolk, where large flints abound, the walls are often faced with these, split so m to
form a clean face and good joints, and arranged in bands or panels between stonework
or brickwork. In Aberdeenshire, where granite is the usual building material, a^Iai-
work is almost universal, large blocks being more easily obtained and dressed than
smaller ones. Again, where rag-stone only can be got, it is frequently neatly used in a
similar manner to the flint above described.
HA80KB, FBXE. The mason brotherhoods of the middle ages were organised inoor-
porations, not substantially different in their nature from the oUier guilds, governed by
rules of their own, and recruited from a body of apprentices who hadundergone a period
of probationary servitude. Fable and ima^nation have traced back the origin of free-
masonry to the old Roman empire, the Pharaohs, the temple of Solomon, or even the
times of the tower of Babel and of the ark of Noah. The masonic craft in reaiitj
sprang into beinff about the same time, and from the same set of causes, as other iDcor-
poratea crafts; but a variety of circumstances combined to give it an importance and
influence beyond the rest. Men skilled in the hewing and setting of stones were natur-
ally prized m an eminently church>buildine age. Tiieir vocation necessarily involved
traveling from place to place in search oi employment. Wherever a great church or
cathedral was built, the local masons had to be reinforced by a large accession of crafts-
men from other parts; and the masons from neighboring towns and districts flocked to
the spot, and took part in the work, living in a camp of huts reared beside the buildiog
on which they were engaged, A master presided over the whole, and every tenth mu
was a warden having surveillance of the rest. A mason, therefore, after going through
his apprenticeship and probations, could not settle down, like another craftsman, amoo^
his neighbors and acquaintances, but must travel from place to place to find emploj-
ment; nence it became desirable or necessary to devise means by which a person once a
member of the fraternity might be universally accepted as such, without requiring,
wherever he went, to give fresh evidence of his skill, or having to undergo a renewed
examination on his qualifications. In order to accomplish this end, and to enable a
mason traveling to his work to cl^m the hospitality of his brother-masons on his way, a
system of symbols was devised, in which every mason was initiated, and which he was
l)ound to keep secret. This symbolism, invented for the convenience of intercourse between
members of the same craft, is the sole shadow of foundation for the popular notion that
the masonic brethren were in possession of secrets of vital importance, Uie knowledge of
which had been from generation to generation confined to their own order. It has been
supposed that the possession of the masonic secrets enabled the masons to design the grest
cathedrals of the 18th and 14th centuries, whereas it is now certain that during the purest
ages of Gothic architecture, both in France and in England, the architects were not
members of the masonic fraternity at all, but either laymen of skill and taste, uninitiated
in the mysteries of mason-craft, or of tener bishop and abbots, The masons who worked
from the architect's design were, at the same time, not the 'mere human macyncB that
modem workmen too ^nerallyare, but men who, in carrying out an idea imparted to
them, could stamp an mdividuality of their own on every stone. Architecture was then
a progressive art, and the architect of every great church or cathedral had made himself
acqusunted with the works of his predecessors, and profited by experience, adopting
their beauties, and shunning their defects. The nature of the advance which architec-
ture was then making, has been compared by Mr. Ferffusson to the advance with which
we are familiar in the present day in ship-building and other useful arts. '* Neither to
the masons nor to their employers, nor to the abbe Suger, Maurioe de Sully, Robert de
Susarches, nor Fulbert de Chartres, is the whole merit to be ascribed, but to all daases of
the French community carrying on steadily a combined movement towards a well-defined
end.*' In Gtermany, however, the masons of the 14th c, who had atttuned a wonderful
skill in carving ana in constructing arches, overstepping their original functions, took to
a great extent the office of architect into their own hands; and it is undeniable that the
churches designed by German masons, though rich in the most exquisite workmanship,
are not comparable, in the higher elements of beauty, to the works of noa-maaonie
architects.
The epithet ** free" was applied to the craft of masons in consequence of then: being
exemptea by several papal bulls from the laws which regulated common laborers, ana
exonerated from various burdens thrown on the working-cbsses at large both in Bngland
and on the continent. Like all the other guilds, the masons were bound by their rules
to the performance of specific religious duties; but a craft one of whose prindiwl functions
was church-building, was natunuly under the more especial protection of the dergy.
Yet a considerable time before the reformation, we find the Jealousy of the church
excited from time to time by the masonic brethren, partly in consequence of their assum-
ing other functions besides those of mere builders. In England, an act, passed in the
mmority of Henry VI., at the instigation of Henry of Beaufort, carduud <» Winchestei^
ft63 Mmmm.
y^Mbited the ttUksonfl from holding tlidfr wonted chftpten Bnd assemUieft But this act
was never enforced; and Heniy Yl., on coming of age, himself countenanced the
maaoni, and was a member of the fraternity. Heniy VII. became their grand master
in England.
The history of freemasonry has been overlaid with fiction and absurdity, partly from
an exaggerated estimate of its importance in the dcTelopment of architecture, and partly
from a wish to connect medisBTal masonry with the institution that passes under the same
name fn the present day. Modem (or so called "speculative") freemasonry is an inno-
eent mystification unconnected either with the building craft or with architecture. It is
of British origin, and dates from the 17th century. According to the peculiar phrase-
•logy of the nmsonic brethren, it is founded in the " practice of moral and social virtue;**
its distinguishing characteristic is charity, in its most extended sense; and brotheiiy
k>ve, rdief , and tnith are inculcated by its precepts. Its real founders were Slias Ash-
mole and some of his literary friends, who amused themselves by devising a set of sym-
bols, borrowed in part from the knights templar, between whom and the old masons an
intimate relation Ui said to have subsisted, and in part from the Rosicrucians (a. v.).
These symbols, which have since been adopted as the distinguishing badge of the
brotherhood of '*free and accepted masons," include the sun, the moon, the compasses,
square, and triangle. A number of so-called degrees or mdes of masonry with fantastic
namea were established and conferred on the members.* Charles II. and William III.
wera masons; and the appearance of a connection with operative masonry was kept up
by the appointment of sir Christopher Wren to the office of grand master. The
'* lodges" of Scotland profess to trace their origin to the foreign masons who came to
Scotland hi 1160 to build Kilwinning abbey; those of England go still further back, to
an assemblage of masons held by 8t. Alban, the proto-martyr, at York in 9d6; and the
mother-lodges of York and Kilwinning were, with insignificant exceptions, the parents
of all the several lodges erected in different parts of Great Britain. Toward the close
of last century, it was in some quarters made a charge against freemasonry, that under
its symbolism was concealed a dangerous conspiracy against all |^vemment and religion.
The accusation was probably groundless enough as regards British f reemasoniy,* and so
little effect was produced by it, that, in an act passed in 1799 for the suppression of
secret societies, an exception was made in favor of freemasons. On the continent, polit-
ical intriguers may sometimes have availed themselves of the secrecy afforded by^ree-
masonry to further their schemes. In 1717 a grand lodge was formed in London, with
power to grant charters to other lodges. Under its sanction, the first edition of the con-
stitutions of the fraternity was published. The grand lodge was for a length of time on
an unfriendly footing with the lodge of York, in consequence of having introduced
various innovations not approved of by the older lodge, and of havine granted charters
within ttte district which York claimed as its oWn. In 1743 the duie of Cumberland
was elected grand master of the grand lodge; and on his death, Qeorge lY., then prince
of Wales, succeeded to the office, which he continued to hold till he was appointed
regent, when, it being considered unsuitable that he should longer exercise any persooal
superintendence, he took the title of grand patron. In 1818 an understanding and a
union was bvought about between the two rival lodges by their respective grand masters,
the dukes of Kent and Sussex. The fraternity has since been managed by the "united
gnnd lodge of ancient free and accepted masons of England," consisting of the grand
master, with his deputy, grand wardens, and other officers, the provincial grand mas-
ters, and the masters and wardens of all regular lodges, with a certain number of stew-
aids annuallv elected, who meet four times a year for the dispatch of business, besides
whi^ there is an annual masonic festival, at which every mason is entitled to attend.
The grand lodce of England has at present above a thousand lodges under its protection,
and has H.RH. the prince of Wales as its grand master.
In Scotland the masons, when they were a real companv of artificers, were, like
ether handicrafts, governed bv wardens of districts appointed by the king. In 1596 a
re-OTganization of the mason lodges was effected under William Schaw, principal war-
den and chief master of masons, who in the foUowinf year confirmed the three ''held
lodges'* in their ancient order of priority— Edinburgh first, Kilwinning second, and Stir^
ling third. In 1786 the operative element in mason lodges having become absorbed in
speculative masonry, the grand lodge of Scotland was instituted by the representatives
of 84 lodees, by whom aJso William St. Clair of Roslin was elected mnd master, on
account m Ids ancestors' alleged ancient connection with the mason craft, as patrons and
protectors. Priority was assigned to the lodges according to the antiquity of theur writ-
ten reeords. The lodge of Ecunbuivh (Mary's chapel) was placed first, and Kilwinning
second. The lodge of Kilwmning <Sd not formally object to this till 1744, when it with-
drew from the grand lodge and resumed its independence. On relinquishing this
position in 1807, it was re-admitted into the grand lodge by the title of Mother twin-
ning, with precedence over the other lodges, and the provincial grand mastership of
Ayndiire rendered hereditary in its master. For the foregoing mformation, we are
^ Tlie three principal grades are apprentice, fellow-craft, and nuwter-maaon: there being peculiar
oeremonies at the niaking of each : and it is only on attaining to the degree oz master-mason that a
brodier enloT's the full benefits and prirUpges of the craft. Digitized by VjOOV LC
664
indebted to Lyon'a ^^'iemaaanrv in Seo^nd^ published by Messn. Blackwood 4 Sodb
(1878>-~a work of acknowledged historical value on the subject of which it treats.
fieaidea granting charters of afflliation» the chief use of the grand lodge» whether of
England or Scotland, consists in its acknowledged authority to enforce uniformity of
ceremonial and other observances, and to settle all disputes that may arise within the
, lodges under its charge. The officers of the grand lodge are to a large extent delegitM
from the respective lodges; the delegation being in the form of proxy masters and war-
. dens. As a source of revenue, for each member noade bv a lodse, a fee most be
remitted to the grand lodge, whereupon a diploma of brotherhood will be issued.
Modern freemasonry spread from Britain to the continent, to America, and to India.
Jt was introduced into France in 1725, Russia in 1781, and Qermany in 1740. grand
*lodgt^ now exist in France, Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden and Norway,
Prussia, Saxony, Hamburg, Switzerland, Italy, Portugal, Greece, Canada, Kova Scotia,
and New Brunswick, in Central and South America, and in British Columbia. Lodges
in connection 'with £uix>pean grand bodies exist in India> Africa, China, PolynsBia.
Tiu*key, Palestine, West indies, Australia, and New Zealand. There are about foru
S-and lodges in the XInited States. Freemasonry is prohibited in Austria, Poland,
ussia, and Spain, and by the pope.
The deep symbolical meaning supposed to be couched under the jai^n of the
masonic fraternity is probably as apocryphal as the dangers of masonry to ipvemmeDt
and order. A set of pass-words and a peculiar grip of Qic hand enable the initiated to
recognize eacli other, and give ai zest to their convivial meeting; and if the instituUoD
possesses any practical utility, it \» iu its enabling a mason, in a place where he is a
stranger, to make himself Imown to his brother-masons, and claim theit protection sad
assistance.
MASONS^ FREE (ante). The claims of freemasonry to origin lu a period of
remote antiquity have recently received a certain amount of support. In the process of
making the necessary preparations for the removal of the Egyptian obelisk at Alexandria
to its new site at New York, in 1880, certain discoveries were made which wore alleged
to have a distinct masonic reference. These discoveries included a numbor of ot^jMt^
masonic tn character, and the fact that the foundations and position of the monolith had
been established according to rules which form a part of the traditions of the order, k
regard to this whole matter of antiquity, there is nothing in the trr.ditions of the order w
exceptionally remarkable as to make any special demand on om* ci'edulity. Men have
. been constituted after the same fashion from the beginning of time; and, given the
same motive and the same or a similar environment and like opportunities, thev Hiay be
assumed to act in the same way. The organization of the craft-guild in northern sad
eentral Europe as early as the 7th century is a sut&cient illustration of the tendency to
association among men, and particularly among the laboring or *' craft" classes, to prove
this. We know that among the Greeks, and Romans al»o, such association ocourred
in various directions, and there is no sound reason for disbelief in tlie possible oombiBa-
tion of the architects and master-builders of Rome iu the time of Numa Pompilius, as i^
claimed by the masons. Whether we are to accept the traditions which point to Solo>
mon's temple, and refer to the times of the ancient Egyptians for the period of the
foundation of the order, is a matter not of vital importance; though the same reasoomg
that answere in the case of Rome is equally sound in that of Egypt. Certainly when
€>ne contemplates the pyramids, Memphis, Thebes, Denderah, and the other ruins of
marvelous structures built by the Egyptian masons and architects, there is nothing
absurd in the supposition that then, as now, associated effoit might have been con-
cerned; and that the associations concerned might liave organized on some such bans
as is involved in the traditional history of freemasonry. Tlie Roman colleges of
builders are said to have l)een created by Numa Pompilius in 715 b.c. In 5d A.n. the
corporations of constructors were esttiblished in Great Britain. In a.d. 290 Carensiue.
commander of the Roman fleet, is said to have renewed the ancient constitation and
privileges of the Roman colleges, with a view to gaining the favor of the builders, who
were a very powerful association : the architect Albanus, sent to Great Britain as an
inspector of the constructors, or masons, is credited with having beea the first Christian
: martyr in Britain, he having been beheaded for preaching the doctrine of CSirist. Eii
rank of inspector became later on that of errand master. At this period, which was in the
latter part of the 8d c, the city of York contained the most important lodges or colleges
of buildera in Britain. In the jth and 5th centuries corporations of artists and operatives,
so called, were instituted in Great Britain, and manuscript copies of their statutes are
fsaid to be still in existence in certain of the French libraries. In 614 pope Boniface
IV. conferred by diploma upon the masonic corporations the exclusive privilege of
erecting all religious buildings and monuments, and made them free from all taxation.
The civil wars of this period paralyzed the development of the masonic corporations,
and they took refuge in the monasteries, which thus became the schools of architecture
— sending forth such architects as St. Aloysius, bishop of Noyen; St. Ferol, of
Limoges; Dalmac, bishop of Rhodes; and Agricola, of Chalons (659-7()0). In some of
the Anglo-Saxon documents which still exist in the libraries of England the masonic
fratermties are styled ** freemasons." In 925 a.d. Athelstan ii^'^y^^^^i^^ masonic
IbAges cf Chieat Britdn ; liie order wfts re-organized ; and the city of York was established
as the seat of the grand mastership: 34 years later the archbishop of Canterbury,
St. Dunstan, was named grand master oi the fraternity. In 1040 £dward the 'Con-
fessor assumed the protectorate of the order; and in 1100 king Henry IV. accepted
Ui» gfaod-masteKship. In 1140 the freemasons from upper Normaadv were called to
th(& aid of the builders of the cathedral of Chartres, ana were publicly blessed by the
arckhfeboi^ of Rouen; they made a triumphal entry into the city of Chartres. In 1260 the
grand haSgo of Cologne was instituted; and in li»75 a masonic congress was convoked
to hfisten the building of the cathedral of Strasburg. The monopoly mmted by pope
Boniface IV. was confirmed by diplomas issued by pope Nicholas lu. in aj). 1271'^
and these were again confirmed by pope Benedict til. in 1884. In 1860 Gkrmany had
five gtsind lodges, Cologne, Strasburg, Bern, Vienna, and Magdeburg, upon which were
dependent the local lo<]^e8 of France, Belgium, Hesse, Swabia, Thuringia, Switzerland,
Franconia, Bavaria, Austria, Hungaxy, and Styria. In the 15th c. the assemblies of
freemasons in En|[land were suppressed by act of parliament, but a few years later
Henry YL was initiated into the fraternity, his example being followed by nearly all the
gentlemen of his court. In 1452 a new constitution was compiled at Strasburg, and in
1459, '64, and '69 masonic coneresses were held in Ratisbon and Spire. A grand
lodge of master masons was held in London in 1502, presided over by the king, Henry
Vir.» who laid the corner-stone of the chapel of Westminster which bears his name. A
congress of masons was held at Basle in 1568, and at Strasburg in 1564; and in 1607
king James I. of England proclaimed himself protector of the freemasons. In 1668 a
geiMUml assembly of English masons took piaoe at York*, a'nd was presided over by king
Charles IL In 1666, at the time of the great fire in London, there were but seven lodges
of mascma in the city; and in 17(18 these had declined to four, though Sir Christopher
Wien, the aged grand master, exhibited great zeal in •endeavoring to foster the progress,
and inerease of 'the order. In France, in 1689, Francis I. suspended all the corporations
of wiHrkmeo, and freemasonry became extincuisbed in that country, not to be revived
until 1731. It is claimed by the masons that this act of Francis I. resulted in tlie
abandonment of the practice of Gothic architecture, and the substitution for it of the
tfnai$9anM styk:, of which school were the architects Delorme and BuUant, who buih
the Tuiieries in 1577; Lescot and Goryon, the architect of the Louvre, bnilt in 1571 ;
BloKd^ and BuUet, who constructed the gates of St Denis and St. Martin, of Paris,
belween 1674 and 1666; Mansart, who built the palace of Versailles and the Invalides in
1700 and 1726; and J. Soufflot, who erected the Pantheon: none of these architects were '
freemasons. It was in the year 1703 that the English masons forming the lodee of St.
Paul, having completed the erection of the cathedral, passed the resolution whicn opened
the doors of the order to others than practical masons and builders. This resolution
reads as follows: ''Resolved, that the privilege of masonry shall no longer be confined
to operative masons, but be free to men of all professions, provided that they are regu-
larly approved and initiated into the fraternity." "This important decision entirely
chanml the nature of the society, and transformed it into the body as we find it to-day.
In 1TL7 the grand lodge of London was constituted, and put into execution the resolu-
tion of 1708: see Masons, Fkee, ante. In 1864 the three grand lodges of Great Britain
controlled 109 provincial erand lodges, with 1597 operative lodges under their jurisdic-
tion, which extended their connections to evc^y part of the globe. Freemasonry was
introduced into Denmark, in 1788; France. 1721; in Sweden, in 1786; Russia, in 1731;
Belgium, 1721: Holland, 1725; Germany, 1737; Switzerland, 1787; Italy, 1729; Portugal,
1736; Spaiii. 1727. It is claimed that a lodge was established in Halifax. Nova Scotia,
as early as 1750, the first in the British dominions in America; but this statement is not
fully credited. Of the five provinces which comprise the dominion of Canada, Prince
Edward Island alone has ita lodges subject to the grand lodges of Great Britain. The
first lodge in the New England cblonies was opened in Boston in 1788. After the war
of independence, i^nd lodges were organized in all the states. The statistics of the
order in America sliowed the following membership in the different states in 1880,
including also the British provinces, or Dominion of Canada, and New Mexico:
Indiana M,666
Indian Territory... 843
Iowa 18,486
Kansas 6,687
Kentucky 18,088
Ccdorodo 1,568 Louisiana ft,4fi6j New Jersey 1S,081
Connecticut 14.ftfi8 Maine 19,252 New Mexico 16fi
Dakota 281 Manitoba ««4lNew York 75,918
DMawara 1.295 Maryland 5,849, North Carolina 11,471
Dist. Qt Columbia.. 2.701 Massachusetts 25.926iNova Scotia 8.424
Florida 1,842 Michigan 25,624.0hio 28,836
Georgia 12,491 Minnesota 7.06l'Oregon 2,614
Idaho &'» Mis&issippi 9,»i9i Pennsylvania 86,948
nilnoiB 88,610 Missouri 24,296, Prince Ed. Island.. 566
XASOK WA8F. Odynerus murarim^ a species of wasp, which makes its 'nest by bor-
ing a cylindrical hole in hard sand, or even in the plaster of walls, on which an exuda-
tion from the mouth seems to act so &s to soften it sufficiently. At the orifice an outer
tube is constructed, sometimes two or three inches in length, of pellets formed in the
Alabama 7.926
Arkansas 8,
Britifdk Columbia.. 812
CaUfomia. 12,281
Canada 17,418
Montana 664
Nebraska 8,ir
Nevada 1,608
New Brunswick.... 2,81^
New Hampshire... 7,688
Quebec 2,878
Rhode Island 4,827
South CaroUna. . . . 6,581
Tennessee 17,068
Texas 17,840
Utah 870
Vermont 7.978
VlrKlnla 9,980
Washinirton 902
West Viii^toia 8,386
Wisconsin 10,708
Wyoming 800
Total .682,666
eicayatioiL In the interior an egg Ib deposited with a number of little caterpOkn mdi
'for food of the larva when hatched.
MABO'RA, or Mabsoreth. Bee Massora, ante.
MA80VIA, or Mazovia, a district of Poland, bounded n. by Flock, e. bj PedteoU^
8. by Sandomir, w. by Kalisch and Poeen; 7,646 sq. miles. During the eany wiod of
the independence of Poland it was a duchy on both sides of the Vistula wiridi flows
through it In 1815 it formed a palatinate in the Rusnan kingdom of Pofaaidwltk
Warsaw as its capital It is now under Warsaw, which forms a distinct goyenmnt
XA8QI7E, a species of dramatic performance much in vogue in England towards ths
close of the 16th and the beginningof the 17th century. It was in fact, the favorite fona
of private theatricals at the time. The masque appears to have originated in the practice
of introducing in any solenm or festive procession men wearing masks, who represented
either imaginary or allegorical personages. At first it was simply an "acted pageant^"
as in the well-known progresses of queen Elizabeth ; but gradually it exi)anded into a regu-
lar dramatic entertainment, and in the hands of men like fuetcher and Ben Jonson
attained a high degree of literary beauty. Jonson's masques were represented at court
and were greatlv relished. The taste for this kind of amusement, however, died away
in the reign of Charles I. ; nevertheless, to the time of that monarch belongs the finest
}ue, and one of the most splendid poems ever written — the Comus of Muton (1684).
on*s Lffe of MUton (voL i. page 542, et. aeq.).
MASQTFXKABB, or Mabksd Ball, a festive meeting in which the host and gmrts
assume fictitious characters, and disguise themselves more or less for the occasion, the
name being derived from the use of the mask. The public mumtMrieB of former tkosB,
Easter plays, festivals of fools, etc., which were frequent in most parts of Sarope, Imt
somewhat various in different countries, probably sugsested the idea of the maeqaerade,
which, however, was not open to all, according to the well-understood rules of theie
ancient amusements, but was limited to some select class, or to those who paid-aeerteio
sum for admission. Catharine de' Medici introduced the regular masauerade at the
Prench court It found its way to England in the reign of Henry VIIi., but did not
reach any of the courts of .Germany till the end of the 17th century. The hot cMbimi
is a verv mocUfied and much less objectionable form of the masquerade. I>uriDjr the
carnival, public masquerades are held in all the theaters and dancing-saloons of rati,
and on Uiese occasions scenes of the most disgraceful profligacy are said to be 4
in spite of Uie strict supervision of the police.
I (Lat. Mi89a\ the name given in the Roman Catholic church to the eucharistic
eervice which in that church, as well as in the Qreek and other oriental churches, is held
to be the sacrifice of the new law, a real though unbloody ofteriug, in which Christ is^the
victim, in substance the same with the sacrifice of the cross, and instituted as a com-
memoration of that sacrifice, and as a means of applying its merits, through all ages,, for
the sanctiflcation of men. The doctrine of the mass, as understood by Roman Catholics,
presupposes the eucharist, although the latter doctrine does not necessarilv involve the
notion of a sacrifice, and may even be held by those who deny the sacrificial character of
the eucharistic rite. The arguments for ana against this belief, on which the masB is
founded, do not fall within our province, which limits us to a brief histoiy and eicplanft^
tion of the rite as it is found among Catholics and the members of other communions ia
which it is observed. Without entering into discussions as to the primitive cliaracter of
the eucharistic rite, it will be enough to observe that the verv earliest records of Christian
history, whether in the Acts of the Apostles, the canonical Epistles, oi^ the writings of
the most ancient of the fathers, plainly evince the existence from the beginning of a rite.
which it is impossible not to regard as in its general character identical with uiat which
still constitutes in most Christian communities the chiefest and most solemn part of their
public worship. This rite is believed bv Roman Catholics to have been partly a sacrifice,
partly a communion and participation thereof by the faithful ; and of the names by which
it is called in the works of the early fathers, some — as for example, agape, and hagia
minaxie, refer to the latter, while others — as thtuda, praephorij hiereum — inoicate the for-
mer sij^fication. The etymology of the name now in use is somewhat obscure, but it b
commonly referred to the proclamation made by the deacon a$ the close of the service—
'' lie; mista et^" ("Gro; the assembly ia dismissed "). By primitive use the communion of
the faithful appears always, unless in exceptional cases, to have formed part of the
xiucharistic service; but afterwards it came to pass that the officiating priest only com-
municated, whence arose, especially in the Western church, the practice of "private
masses," which has l)een in later times a ground of complaint with dissentients from
Rome, even those who in other respects approach closely to the Roman doctrine. In the
ancient writers a diBti notion is made between the " mass of the catechumens*' and the
''mass of the faithful'*; the former including all the preparatory prayers, the latter all
that directly regards the consecration of the elements and the communion, at which the
''discipline of we secret" forbade the presence of the catechumens. With the cessation
of this discipline, the distinction of names has ceased, but the distinction of parts is still
preserved, the mass of the catechumens comprising all the first part of the mass as far as
"".file prefaced' The mass is now, in general, denominated acoorung to the solemnity of
the accompanying ceremonial, a " low mass/' a ** chanted mass," or&'* high mass.*' In .
Che fint a single priest simply rwds the service, attended by one or more acolytes or
cleiks. The second form differs only in this, that the service is chanted instead of being
read hy the priest. In the high mass, the service is chanted in part by the pries';, in part
1^ the deacon and sub-deacon, by whom, as well as hj several ministers of inferior rank,
like priest is assisted. In all these, however, the service, as regards the form of prayer,
IB t&e same. It consists of (1) an introductory prayer composed of the 4l8t Psalm,
♦og^Vr with the *' general confession*'; (2), the introlt, which is followed by the thrice-
lepaaied petition, '*Lord, have mercy," "Christ, have mercy," and the hvnm, ''Glory
to God on High"; (8), the collect, or public and Joint prayers of priest ana people, fol-
lowed by a lesscm either from the Epistles or some nook of the Old Testament, and
by the gradual (q.v.);. (4), the gospel, which is commonly followed by the Nioene creed;
(5X the offertory (q.v.), after the reading of which comes the preparatory offering of the
bread and wine, and the washing of the priest^s hands in token of pnnty of heart, and
the "secret," a prayer read in a low voice by the priest; (6), the preface, concluding with
the triaiu;ion or *' Uirice holy" — at which point, by the primitive use, the catechumens
and penitents retired from the church; (7), the ''canon," which is always the same,
and which contains all the prayers connected with the consecration, the elevation, the
breaking, and the communion of the hopt and of the chalice, as also the commemora-
tions both of the living and of the dead; (8). the "communion," which is a short scrip-
tural prayer, usually appropriate to the particular festival; (9), the "post-communion,"
which, like the collect, was a joint prayer of priest and people, and is read or sung aloud;
(10), the dismissal with the benedictioa, and nnally, the first chapter of St. John's gospel.
Great paic of the above prayers are fixed, and form what is called the " ordo". or "ordi-
nary!* of the mass. The rest, which is called the ' ' proper of the mass, " differs for differ-
ent oocasions; some masses being "of the season," as of lent, advent, paauon-tide,
'' quaner-tune," etc.» others, ot "mysteries,'* as of the nativity, the circiuncision, the
BBMirrcction; others again, of saints, as of an apostle, a -martyr, or a confessor; others
^gaiD, " votive,*" as "of the passion," "of the dead," "for peace," etc. In all these vari-
ous dasses, as well as in the mdividua] masses under each, the "proper" portions of the
mass differ according to the occasion, and in some of them certain portions of the " ordi-
Qazv,"as the "Glory to God on High," the "gradual," or the "Nicene creed" are
omitted. On one day in the year, Good-Friday, is celebrated what is called the "mass
of the presanctified, in which no consecration takes place, but in which the priest com-
nauucates of the host which was coDsecratea op Uie preceding day. This usage is found
also in the Greek church, not alone on Good-FiK^y, but on every day during the lent,
except Saturday and Sunday. In the celebration of mass the priest wears peculiar vest-
ments, five in number-^two of linen, caUed '^ amice'* and "alb"; and three of silk or
pirecious stufb, caUed "maniple." "stole," and "chasuble," the alb being girt with a
cincture of flaxen or silken corcL The coior of these vestments varies with the occasion,
five colors oeing employed on different occasions — white, red, green, purple or violet,
and black, and they are often richly embroidered with silk or thread of the precious
metAB, and occasionally with precious stones. The priest is required to celebrate the
mass fasting, anc, unless bv special dispensation, is only pennittedt to offer it once in the
day, except on Christmas day, when three masses may be celebrated.
In the Greek and oriental churches the euchanstic service, called in Greek theia
ieiUitrffia (the divine liturgy), differs in the order of its parts, in the wording of most of
its prayers, and in its accompanying ceremonial from the mass of the Latin church (see
LiTtTRGT); but the only differences which have any importance as bearing upon doctrine
are their use of leavened bread instead of tinleavened; their more frequent celebration
of the " mass of the presanctifiea," to which reference has already been made; the Latin
use of private masses, in which the priest alone communicates; and, in general, the
much more frequent celebration of the mass in the Latin church. The sacred vest-
ments, too, of the Greek and eastern rites differ notably from those of the Latin ; and in
some of the former— as, for example, the Armenian— a veil is drawn before the altar
during that part of the service in which the consecration takes place, which is only
withdrawn at the time of the communion. The service sometimes used on shiplxmni,
and improperly called misga neca (dry mass), consists simply of the reading of the
prayers of the mass, but without any consecration of the elements. It was resorted to
with a view to avoiding the dan^r of spilling the sacred elements, owing to the unsteady
motion of the ship. It is sometimes also called mwa Thautica (ship mas^.
MAS'SA, a t. in the province of Carrara-Massa, central Italy; pop. '74, 18,081. tt is
on the Frigida, and commands a fine prospect of the sea on the w., and of picturesque
and fruitful hills on the n.e. The climate is almost unrivaled in Italy for mildness and
salabri^. The oldest part of the town is on a hill; the newest part, with its fine build-
ings ana spacious streets and squares, on the plain below. Among the bujidinss is a
national palace, a noble structure, built by the princes of the house of Cybo. Tne his-
tory of the town is traced back to the 9th century. It was then and for a long time
sameet to the republic of Lucca, but in the 15th c. the Cybo family became its feudal
^^^^^ Digitized by VjUUV VC
■^^k
M9ettM*
m
. l^SSAC, a CO in s. Illinois; has the Ohio river for its s. bouodaiy, soparatiog it
from Kentucky; 280 sq.ni.; pop. '80, 10,443—9.900 ot American birth, 17(te colored.
Forests of oak, elm, maple, ash, hickory, and the tulip tree diversify its surface, and
the cypress grows luxuriantly in its swamps. An under-stratum of carboniferous lime-
stone is the foundation of the soil, which, m land not subject to overflow, is fertile, and
produced a large yield annuallv of tobacco, sweet-potatoes, butter, honey, and sorghum,
and all varieties of grain and fruit. Cattle, sheep, and swine are raised, and the vine is
cultivated to some extent. Its mineral products are coal and lead. Among its indas-
tries are the manufacture of wagon materials, tobacco, and snuff. It has flouring mills,
potteries, and ship-yards on the Ohio river. Seat of justice, Metropolis. ^
1CA88AGEU8ETTS, one of the 18 original states of the American unipn, and oldest
of the New England states, lies between lat. 41 "^ 16'^42*' 68' n., and long. 09"* M'>-73*
32' w., being l&m. from e. to w., and from 47 to 110 from n. to s., with an area of
7,800 sq.m. ; it lies s. of Vermont and New Hampshire, and borders on the Atlantic.
There are 14 counties, and the chief towns are Boston, the capital, Lowell, Lawrence,
Salem, New Bedford, Fall River, Lynn, Springfield, Cambridge, and Worcester. On
the south-eafitem coast are the islands of Nantucket and Martha's Yinevard. The prin-
cipal rivers are the Connecticut, Merrimac, and Housatonic, which afford water-power
to many manufacturing cities and villages. The country is hilly, and much of the soil
sterile, but in the river-valleys it is fertile. The most important mineral products are
granite and syenite, sand for glass, and iron. The chief agricultural products are Indian
com, apples and pears, grass and hay; but the manufactures are very large and various.
In 1870 there were 194 cotton-mills, producing goods to the value of $59,679,158, and
18d woolen-mills, producing goods worth $39,^,242, besides numerous carpet-mills,
iron-foundries, rolling-mills, nail factories, and machine shops. The. manufacture of
boots and shoes for the same year was $88,899,688. There are 00 railway companies,
and in 1878 above 3,000 m. of railway were open. The fisheries of MissachuBetts have
lone been one of its leading industries. There are over 200 national banks, about 180
savmgs-banks, numerous asylums, etc. Massachusetts has about 6,000 schools, a uni-
versity, and 7 colleges; and in 1878 there were 345 newspapers and periodicals. The
state income for 1877-78 was $7,244,900; the debt in 1878 was $88,020,000. Massachn-
setts was discovered by the Cabots in 1407. In 1614 it was visited by capt. John Smith.
In 1620 the Mayflofser, 180 tons, sailed from Southampton with 102 Puritan settlers, and
landed at Plymouth, Mass., Dec. 22. Half died from cold and hardship the first year.
In 1637 the colony suffered from Indian massaoies; and in king Philip^s war, 16*^, IS
towns and 600 houses were burned. The war of the revolution of 1778 bej^an in Masra-
chusetts with the baUles of Lexington and Bunker HHI. Pop. 10, 472,040; '00, 1,281,065;
*70, 1,460,851; '75, 1,651,652.
MASSACHUSETTS (ante). There is reason to believe that portiong of south-eastern
Massachusetts, including the islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, were dis
covered by the Norsemen not far from 1000 A.D., and that various settlements were
made in the next 300 years, none of which, however, gained permanence. In 1497 John
and Sebastian Cabot again discovered the Massachusetts coast, and the English claimed
it on that account. In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold and 22 English colonists made a
settlement on the Elizabeth islands, between Buzzard's bay and vineyard sound, now
constituting the township of Gosnold in Dukes co. ; but it was in a short time aban-
doned. There were other expeditions to the coast in subsequent years, but the V\j-
mouth colony was the first that proved successful. On Sept. 6, 1620 (O. S.), this
colony, composed of about 100 English, who had sought exemption from religious perw-
cution in Holland, bavins embarked from Delft Haven, set sail from Plymouth, Eng-
land, in the Mayflower, of 180 tons, to find a home in America. On Nov. 9 they reached
cape Cod, and anchored in the roadstead off Provincetown. An exploring party was
sent in search of a suitable place to found a settlement, and tlie colonists landed at Fly-
mouth, Dec. 22 (N. S.). Before landing they drew up and subscribed a compact or frame
of government for the new settlement, and elected John Carver governor for one year. In
four months nearly one-half the colonists died from exposure to the cold and the lack of
wholesome food. Shortly after landing they entered into a treaty of peace with the
Indian chief Massasoit and his tribe, which remained unbroken for a long time. Through
the influence of capt. Miles Standish the disputes with other tribes were soon settld.
In the spring of 1621 the Mayflower returned to England, and soon afterwards governor
Carver died and was succeeded bv William Bradford, with Isaac Allerton as assistant
During the next two years the colonists endured many privations, but in 1623 they were
relieved by a bountiful harvest. The plan of property in common, which thev adopted
at first, was now abandoned. In 1622 a Mr. Weston, of Jjondon, who had been con-
nected with the Plymouth colonists, obtained a patent and founded a new settlenicnt
in Wessagussett, now Weymouth. The Pljonouth colony failed to obtain a patent, and
was forced to carry on its government independently of the royal sanction. This they did,
however, with perfect success, upon a plan not unworthy of the democracy of a later
time, since the right of the people to govern themselves was fully recognized. In 162&
an expedition, organized by an English company, and commanded bv John Eodioott,
landed at Salem. The company had obtained a grant of the territorj' lying between the
Digitized by VjOUV IC
569
Miiwiiil itiJ
Athntlc and Fadilc, and eztendlBf to a point 8 m. s. of th6 rivar Ctttfiea and 3 m. n.
ofUiemer Merrimac. After perristent efforts a royal patent was obtained for '*th&
oompany of the Masnachuaetts bay," and the aasodatea w«e constituted a body politic,
with a governor, deputy, and 18 assistants, to be annually ^ected, and a general assem-
bly of the freemen, with legislative powers, to meet four times in a year, or oftener if
oeeessary. In 1629 the colony was reinforced, alid the governm^t and patent of the
company were transferred from London to New Englaiui. The old officers resiCTied,
giving place to otliers chosen from amon^ those who were about to emigrate, John Win-
thiop being elected governor. From this time the colony gsew rapioly, receiving an
accession at one time of about 1000 persons, who came over in 17 vessels. Charlestown,
Bo«ton, Watertown, Dorchester, Roxbur^, Mystic, Salem, Saugus (Lynn), and other
places were at this period selected as sites for settlements. The colony for a time
endured great hardships, losing many of its members by death, while others returned in
discouragement to England. But new emigrants came to take the places of the-
departed, and still the colony grew. A spirit of religious intoleranoe, which was char-
acteristic of all parties in taose times, and which was partly the product of the bitter
persecutions from which the colonists had fled, manifested itself in the banishment of
Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson, and a general perseeution of the Quakers. Some
disputes between the magistrates and people as to their raspeottve powers, caused no
little commotion. At first the colonists were allowed to manage their flairs Mrithout
the interference of the home government; but at length they were suspected by tlu?
crowD of a design to make themselves independent, ana an attempt was inade to annul
their charter, a commission for their government being formed with acchbishop Laud at
its head. An order was issued to the colony to sunender its charter, but the settlenf
found a way to avoid a compliance, and measures were adopted to f6rtify Boston,
Charlestown, and Dorchester against a possible assault The colonists found their best
protectbn, however, in the political agitations of the mother country, which 4io absortied
thesUention of the government that it had no time to prosecute its schemes in America.
The restoration of the Stuarts created fresh troubles for the colony, but at length.
io 1662, the king confirmed the charter and made a conditional promise of anmesty for
past political offenses. He insisted, however, upon his right to interfere in the affairs
of tlae colony, demanded the repeal of all laws derogatory to his auth<Mity^jrequired the
complete toleration of the church of England, the taking of an oath of alienanoe, and
lie administration of iustice in his name. To these demands some of the oofonists were
disposed to yield for the sake of peace, while others steadily resisted them. Commission-
ers were sent over from England to investigate the affairs of the colony, but, being unable
tonccompliah anything, they were finally recalled. In 1648 the colonies of Massachusetts'
B:iy. Plymouth. Connecticut, and New Haven entered into an alliance for mutual pro-
i«ction. which lasted 20 years and was superseded by a still closer confederation. Io
1$7>5 king Philip's war broke out, lasting more than a year, and subjecting the colonistn
to great loss of life and property. No less than 12 or 18 towns were destroyed by the
lodians, 600 houses were burned, one in 20 of the men of the colony were killed on the
fidd, and a debt of $600.000 — an enormous sum for that day-^was incurred. The
troubles with the king continued; Massachusetts lost her jurisdiction over New Hamp-
sbinf. aud retained possession of Maine only by purchase. In 1684 the difficulties with
the crown being still unsettled, the charter was declared forfeited. Joseph Dudley was
appdnted president of Massachusetts, the general court was dissolved, and a royal com-
mssion superseded the government under the charter. In 1686 Dudley was superseded
by sir Edmund Andros, whose arbitrary proceedings have left a blot upon his name.
la 1689 the men of Boston, aided by others from tlie country, rose in arms against him,
put him and others in prison, reinstated the former magistrates, and restored the general
(t)art to its authority. Plymouth joined in the revolt, imprisoning the agent of Andros.
and reinstating the former governor. A new charter, unitmg the Massachusetts and
Pljmouth colonies, was granted in 1602. Under this charter the governor, lieutenant-
eoveraor, and secretary were appointed by the king. Sir William Phips was the first
?overnor, and it was at about tins period that the witchcraft delusion which had long
held sway in*Europe, broke out in the colony, blotting its history with a record of supei^
etition and blood. It is to the honor of Massachusetts, however, that it so soon awoke
from this inherited delusion: ioug after the evil had been exposed and forsaken here, the
courts of European countries were still sentencing "witclies" to death. There were
fresh troubles with the Indians, which did not terminate till 1725.
Massachusetts was deeply involved in the struggles between England and France for
ascendency in the new world, which did not finally cease until the union of Canada to
Eogland and of Louisiana to Spain in 1768. Then followed the controversies with Eng- '
laod, which led step by sU'p to the war of the revolution, which ended in Uie recognition
of the United States as an independent nation. In these controversies Massachusetts
bore a leading part, an she did in the war it«elf, and in laying the foundations of the new
republic. The British gov(}mment imposed the most onerous taxes upon the colonists.
Mid sought to collect them by force, in the face of the most earnest remonstrances. The
colonists at length refused to'submlt to exactions wliicli they regarded as subversive of the
fnodsmental principles of English liberty. The5r insisted that they could not be justly
tiVxeii while they were excluded fi\>m representation in parliament! «nd upon this issu'ot ^
IfB— ■IllllHtl
570
they were willing, if neeenary, to go to war. The conuDerce of the colons, i
was hampered by the meet arbitnury and irritating restrictiona. The spirit of libeiU^
which the colonists had brought with them from their old home, had been deyeloped in
itbeir self -governing church and state until, in the hearts of their children, it had grown
too strong to be subdued, and found expression in every form of indignant remoa-
stranoe— till at last blows were substitute for words. The other colonies were appealed
to — and not in vain<— for sympathy and support. The first blood in this contest was
shed in the Boston massacre, a street riot in 1770; next came the destruction of the tea
in Boston harbor in 1778, the opposition to the port bill in 1774, the representation ol
the colony in the general conjs^ress, the seizure or the arsenal at Charlestown, etc., and
finally in April, 1775, the bloody contest at Lexington and Concord, which was the
victual opening of war.
The surface of the state is mostly uneven, and in some places rough and mountain-
ous. Two separate ranees of the Greeii mountains, the Tagbkanic and the Hoosic,
«nter the western part of the state from then., and, with their outlying hills, present some
of the most picturesque scenery to be found in New England. Tl^ Ta^ikanic is the
highest and most westerly of these imnges, its principal elevations being Saddle moun-
tam, or areylock. 8,605 ft, and Mt. Everett, 2,024 ft. in height. The Hoosic range, in ite
highest part, does not rise above 1000 feet Near the western bank of Ck>nnecticut river
are several isolated peaks, Mt Tom and Sugarloaf beinff the most prominent, while oa
the eastern side of the river, near South Haoley, stands Mt Holyoke, in solitajy beauty,
coDunandin^ an extensive and lovely prospect Another isolated mcuntam is the
Wachusett, m Princeton, near the center of the state, which has an devadon of 2,018
feet That portion of the Connectieut valley which lies within the boundaries of the state
is remarkable for beauty of sceneiy and fertilitjr of soil. The eastern portion of the
state is less broken; some of it, including cape Cod, is level and sandy. The Connecti-
cut river runs through the state from n. to s. for more than 50 miles. About one-third of
the state lies westward x>f this river. The Housatonic, still further w., rises in the
Oreen mountains on the n. Ixxtler, and flows s. through Connecticut to Long Island
eound. The Hoosic, one of the tributaries of the Hudson, rises in the n.w. corner of
the state, but soon passes beyond its limits. The principal western tributaries of the
€k>nuecticut are the Westfield and Deerfield rivers^ which are of considerable siae; while
the tributaries of the same streams from the e. are Miller's and Ciucopee rivem. The
Merrimac, which rises in New Hampshire, flows 85 m. to its mouth through Uie B.e.
corner of the state, receiving on the way the Nashua and Concord rivers, and fnmiahiiig
immense water-power for the great manufacturing towns, Lowell, Lawrence, Haver-
hill, etc The rivers at the e. portion of the state are the Charles, on whose banks are
Newton, Cambridge, and other larae towns, and at whose mouth lies the city of BostoD;
the Blackstone, with almost imlimited water-power, and whose charming valley is lined
with a cordon of manufacturing villages; ana the Taunton, with its numerous bianchea
There are in the state many lakes and ponds, some of which are of unrivaled beauty,
but none of them large enough to be useful for navigation. The coast is indented with
numerous bays, large and small, and dotted with islands, some of whi(^ are of consid-
erable size. The principal bays or sounds are Buzzard's, with many inlets and harbon^
Vineyard, Edsartown, Nantucket, Cape Cod, Wellfleet, Duxbury, Massachusetts, Lynn,
Nahant, Marbiehead, Salem, Beverly, Gloucester, and Annisquam. The harbor of Kew
Bedford, on Buzzard's bay, is, next to that of Bioston, the best in the state. The prin-
cipal islands are Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, and the Elizabeth group of 10 of[ cape
Cod.
The minerals of the state have not thus far been a source of much profit. In Bristol
and Plymouth counties are deposits of anthracite^ but of a verv poor quality. In some
places m the Connecticut valley are veins of lead, copper, ana zinc, but not in quanti-
ties to Justify working. Beds of iron ore in the Housatonic valley have been worked
for many years, and the disintegrated quartz beds yield glass-sand of the finest quality.
In 1874 deposits of silver, lead, and gold were discovered in Essex county, near New-
1]uryport, the working of which has not thus far proved profitable. In some portions of
the Connecticut valley are found extensive fossil footprints of birds and other animals,
some of which must have been of gigantic size. The valleys of the principal streaioa
are productive, but the other portions of the state can be made so only by enrichment.
Wild animals have been nearly exterminated. Bears, wolves, panthers, wildcats,
iind deer, formerly plentiful, are now almost never seen. Squirrels, rabbits, and game-
birds are numerous. Owls, hawks, gulls, wild-ducks, and a great variety of song-birdn
are common. Reptiles exist in considerable variety, but few of them are venomous.
The edible fish on the coast are abundant, embracing cod, halibut, mackerel, haddock,
bass, and many other species.
The climate on the coast is variable, with prevailing e. winds, especially in the
spring and early summer. In the interior it is more equable, and in the mountainous
regions the winters are very cold. The mean annual temperature is about 48*.
Of the whole area of the state less than one-half is improved. In 1870 the number of
farms was 26,600, embracing 1,786,221 acres of improved land, 706,714 acres of wood-
land, and 287,848 acres of other land unimproved. The cash value of farms was |116,-
482,784; of farming implements and machinery, $5,000,879: wampddduri^ yaai;
571
Irtiiimiii
PijWJM; total eethnated Talue of all farm piDducts, t88,l$^,878; of orthard produeta^
$089,854; of produce of market-gardens, $1,080,831; of forest products, il, 616, 818; or
home manufactures, |79,878; of animals slaughtered or sold f or slaugbter, $4^894,668; of
all live stock on farms, 117,0^,898. The chief productions were: Wheat, 84,648 bush.,
about one-half of which was spring and the other half winter; rye, 889,887 bush. ; com,
l,897,a07 bush.; oats, 797,664 bush.; barley, 188,071 bush.; buckwheat, 68,049 bush.;
peas and beans, 84.690 bush.; potatoes, 8,086,868 bush. ; hay, 597,456 tons; tobacoo,
7.818.885 lbs.; wool. 806,659 lbs.; butter, 6,569,161 lbs.; cheese, 8,845,878 lbs. ; hops,
69,91dlbs.; maple sugar, 899.800 lbs. ; honey, 86,899 lbs. ; milk sold, 15,884,067 gallons.
Horses on farms, 41,089; horses not on forms, 45,837; milch cows, 114,771; working
oxen, !M,480; other cattle on fanns, 78,851 ; neat cattle not on farms, 53,368; sheep,
78,560; swine, 49,178.
In proportion to the population the mechanical indnstries of Massachusetts exceed
those of any other state. The latest statistics now accessible (Jan., 1881) are those of
the state census of 1875. Whole number of manufacturing establishments, 10,915;
totid value of buildings, $80,997,508; value of average stock on hand, $89,061,506;
vahie of machinery, $78,484,914; total capital invested, ^7,074,808; number of persons
oocopied in manufacturing and mechanical employments, 816,469, of whom 388,353,
were oAales and 88,307 were females. Of the males, 338,469, and of the females, 77,-
288, were above 15 years of age. The average yearly wages of both sexes and all ages
was $475.76. Total amount ofwages for the year, $136,711,588. The leading industries
of the state, aside from agriculture and commerce, with the amount of their products
respectively, as reported by the census of 1870. were as follows: Agricultural imple-
ments, $1,088,580; bleaching and^eing, $33,850,439; boots and shoes, $88,899,588; car-
pentering and building, $13,439,789; clothing, $31,734,080; cotton goods, $56,357,580;
cotton tliread, twine, and yam, $8,009,548; cutlery, $6,315,835; dmgs and chemicals,
$1,617,904; fisheries (exclusive of whale), $1,800,899; fk>uring and grist-mill products, $9,-
730,874; furniture, $11,869,148; glass, including cut and window, $3,553,000; hardware,
$3,515,429; hats and caps, $8,416,191; hosiery, $8,318,481; India robber and ekistie
goods, $8,183,318; iron, forged and rolled, $6,699,907; iron nails and spikes, $5,986,144;
wrought iron pipe, $1,407,000; iron castings, includinfl: stoves and hollow ware,
$7,046,708; tanned leather, $9,964,497; leather curried, $19,311,880; morocco, tanned
and curried, $8,158,030; lumber, pUmed and sawed, $6,651,670; machinery of all kinds,
$16,490,743; marble and stone work, $3,178,450; molasses and sugar refined, $7,666,485;
musical in^ruments, $8,906,179; oil (fish and linseed), $8,681,7S8; paper of all kinds,
$13,687,481; printing cotton and woolen goods. $17,835,150; printmg and publishing
of all kinds, $8,890,976; ship-building and repairing, $3,070,301; shovels and spades,
$1,620,536; ktone, $1,394,148; straw goods, $4,869,514; tin, copper, and iron ware,
$2,785,674; upholstery, $3,434,457; watches, $1,381,160; wure, $3,864,672; woolen
goods, $89,489,343; worsted goods, $8,380,541; mining and quarrying, $1,498,533; fish-
eries, $6,315,335.
The foreign and domestic commeree of Massachusetts is varied and extensive. The
imports in 1874 amounted to $50,787,380; foreign exports, $3,380,773; domestic exports,
$26,455,515. Vessels entered during the year at the several ports, 8,066, aggregating
788,541 tons; cleared, 3,983, aggregating 708,048 tons; registered, 3,568, aggregating
458,878 tons. The number of vessels entered in the coastwise trade was 3,655, of
2.167.886 tons; cleared, 3,700, of 3,191,839 tons. Vessels engaged in the general
fisheries, entered at Newburyport, 105, of 8,677 tons; cleared, 116, of 8,933 tons.
The most important centers of the fishing trade are Gloucester and New Bedford,
the former unsurpassed for the magnituoe of its cod and mackerel fisheries, the
latter the leading market for the products of the whale. The product of the Amer-
ican whale fisheries for the year ending June 80, 1874 (nearly all from Massachusetts!
amounted to $3,391,896, including sperm oil valued at $1,350,987; other whale oil,
$775,919; and whalebone, $364,990. The number of vessels in the state engaged in the
whale fisheries was 170; in the cod and mackerel fisheries, 1036, of 49,578 tons.
According to the census of 1870, more than half the products of the fisheries of Um
United States (exclusive of the whale fisheries) were the fruits of Massachusetts enter-
prise and industry. The capital invested in the business was $4,387,871 ; number of
persons employed, 8.998; value of products, $6,315,835. The number of vessels built
in the state in 1874 was 77, of 81,499 tons, including 5 steamers of 689 tons.
The rivers of Massachusetts are not navigable to any considerable extent, but a net-
work of railways, extending to almost every part of the state, offers unbounded facilities
for trade and travel. Trank lines lead from Boston in every directaon, and branches
extend to or near a vast number of the smaller towns, so that by lar the oreatest number of
mhabitants outside of that city may, if they wish, leave their homes m the morning, go
there and transact business, and return the same evening. The oldest of the roads (that
between Boston and Lowell, 35 m.) was opened for use m 1885. In 1874 the number of
miles of railway in operation in the state was 1783. More than one-fotnrth of the main
lines are laid with steel rails. There are over 60 corporations, but, owing to the com-
binations between different lines, 81 boards of direction control all the roads. The aver-
age cost of these roads pr mile was nearly $57,000; the eost of equipment about $7,709
per mite. One of the lines, extendmg through the state in a ii.w. d^ti^Ei ^^^i^^$^^i
paases thitravli' HoOsac moootiihi by meanfr of ft tunnel 4f nv. in length, co8tiii|r ov«r
|14,000p00(K for which the siate lent its credit. The aggregate capital stock of th6 6S
compames in 1876 waft $118,170,901; amount of their Indebtedness, 152.914,826; groafi
income, |80,008,518; net income. $9,844,088. All the roads are under the superrision
of a board of railroad commissioiiers appointed by the state, and wielding laige powers.
The board settles disputed questions between the different roads and between the ro$iA»
and the public, it is compelled to hear and investigate all complaints against the roads,
and find out and recommend a remedy, and its supervisor}' powers extend to tbeeaveof
accounts, the examination of tracks, bridges, etc., and the investigation of aocidenta
In 10 years the cost. of this supervision was one-twentieth part of one per cent of the
gross receipts of the roads.
The number of national banks in the state in 1874 was 220. with a capital of |93,089,-
860. circulation outstanding, $59,051,019. In 1876 there were 176 savings-banks, with
deposits amounting to $044,596,614; number of depositors, over 700,000. Tben; were
also 4 loan and trust companies, with $1,700,000 of capital, and $6,924,270 of deposite.
The number- of fire and marine insurance companies was 124, with $52,197,870 of cap-
ital, and net assets aggregating $6,924,270. The number of life insurance companies in
1874 was 6, 4 of them mutual. The assets of the 6 companies amounted to $25,218,611,
their total liabilitiea to $22,291,740, their tdtal income to $6,749,854; amount insured by
existing policies, $132,951,879, of which $680,000 was reinsured.
The population of Massachusetts 1790 was 878,787; 1810, 472,040; 1880. 610.408;
1850. 994,514. 1860, 1.281,066, 1670, 1,457,351, of whom 708,779 were males, 753.572
females, and 13,947 colored; while 579,844 were engaged in a^culture, 181,291 in pro
fessional and personal services, 83.078 in trade and transportation, and 292,665 in maou
facturing and mechanical employments. Pop. '80, 1,788,012.
Massachusetts has always taken high rank in educational affairs. The school statis-
tics of 1876-77 are* Number of public schools, 5,556; number. of children between 6 and
15, 296,875 number in the schools, 807,882, number of male teachers, 1176; of female
teachers, 7,544; teachers who have attended normal schools, 1898; average term of the
schools, 8 months and 15 days; average monthly wages of male teachers, $82.22; of
female teachers, $84.20; amount raised by taxation for the support of schools.
$4,881,675; income of funds appropriated at the option of the towns for the same object.
$59,229; amount of local school funds, $1,898,891; mcome of local school funds, $119.
968; income of state school fund, $76,330; amount expended in building and renairing
school houses, 956,488; number of high-schools, 216; number of incorporated academies,
44; average number of academy scholars, 8,9^; number of private schools and acad-
emies, 385; evening schools, 92; total annual cost of public education, $5,582,519. There
are 5 normal schools, one each at Framingham, Westfleld, Bridgewater, Salem, and
Worcester, and a normal art school in Boston. Total annual appropriation of the state
for normal instruction, $76,000. The state school fund amounts to $2,067,581 ; the Todd
normal school fund to $12,100; the agricultural college fund to $360,067. The institu
tions for collegiate and scientific instruction are numerous and of a hlffh order of excel
lenoe. The oldest of these is Harvard college at Cambridge, founded m the infancy of
the colony in 1686. The others, in the order of their or^nixation, are* Williams col-
lege (Congregational), Williamstown ; Amherst college ((\)ngregational), Amherst; col-
lege of the Holy Cross <liomtm Catholic), Worcester; Tufts college (Universalist), Med-
ford; Boston college; Boston university (Methodist Episcopal); Mount Holyoke seminarv
for girls f Congregational), South Hadlev; Sophia Smith college for women, Northamp-
ton ; Wellcsley college for women, Needham. The theological institutions are * Andover
theological seminary, Andover, Congregational; Newton theological institution, Newton.
Baptist; Harvard divinity school. Unitarian; New Church theological school, Waltham;
Boston university school of theology, unsectarian (under Methodist auspices); Episcopal
theological school. Cambridge; Tufts college divinity school, Universalist. There an*
2 law schools, that of Harvard college and that of the Boston university. The schools
of medicine are 6 in number, viz. 'Boston university school. Harvard medical school,
New England female medical college, Boston dental college. Harvard dental school.
Massachusetts collie of pharmacy. The schools of science are 4 in number, viz. : Msa
sachusetta agricultural college at Amherst, Massachusetts institute of technology in
Boston, Lawrence scientific school at Cambridge, Worcester county free institute of
industrial science. The number of professors and instructors in all these institutions in
1874 was 421, of students, 8.881 ; value of grounds and buildings, $4,062,760; amount of
endowments, $8,814,173; income from productive funds, $469,675; aggregate number of
volumes in libraries, 887.132.
The institutions for special classes are as follows: Clark institution for deaf mutes,
Northampton; Boston school for deaf mutes; Perkins institution and Massachusetu
asylum for the blind, Boston; Massachusetu school for idiotic and feeble-minded youth,
Boston, institution for education of feeble-minded youth, Barre; Hillside school. Fny-
ville The state provides for the deaf and dumb also at the American asylum for the
deaf and dumb. Hartford, Conn. The reformatory, industrial and truant schools are as
follows State reform school, Westboro: state industrial school, Lancaster; Massachusetts
mfaut asylum, BiXMkline; state primary school, Monson; Boston house of reformation.
Lowell housf; of rcformatSon ? Plummer farm school. Salem ; industrial school. J^Awrence.
Digitized byVJOOx'^
I8«3
tnttnt acbool, OMnbridge; truant school^ Wbveesler* tomporuy aavHitiL for ^iflcbaigod
l«niale prisooem, Dedham. There are instituiioDa for the m$ta» at woroester <2), Taun-
loi^ Nortliainpton, SomerriUe, South Bo9ton« Ipswich, and Danvere, and almshouses at
Tewlwbury and Bdridgewater. There are three Btate^risons, one at Charlestown, one at
Concord, and one for women (under the oare of women) at Sherborn; also one state
worJUioufle, and 16 houses of correction. The whole number of commitments to all the
nrisoaaOuicluding county Jails) in 1874 was 20,752, of whom 16,656 were males, and 4,006
females.
Aoeording to the census of 1870 the number of libraries in the state, of all classes,
was 8,160, el which 1,544 were public. The public libraries contained 2,010,600, and
the private 1,007,804 volumes. There is reason to believe that these figures, too small at
the time, might safely be doubled in amount now.
In 18^75 the number of newspapers and periodicals in the state was 841, including 26
dailies, 222 weeklies, and 58 monthlies, with an aggregate circulation of 141, 77^^ 882 copies
annually. According to the census of 1870 there were in the state 1848 religious coogre
satioDS, 1764 church edifices, and $24,488,285 of church profKjrty. The principal
denominations, in order of members, are as follows: — Congregational, Methodist, Bap
list, Roman Catholic, Unitarian, Epis<iopal, Universalist, Christian, Friend, Spiritualist,
Freewill Baptist, Swedenborgian, Presbyterian. The number of church-members was
5.020.
The state debt, Jan. 1, 1879, was $88,020,464; debts of cities and towns in 1878,
$68,864,685. The cash value of real estate in 1874 was $1,289,308,768; of personal
personal property, $542,292,402; total taxes, state, county, city, town, and highway.
$28,700,605: number of dwellings in the state, 249,738.
Tlut constitution is in substance that of 1780, with amendments adopted at different
periods si nee. The governor, with the other principal executive ofilcers, is elected annually
by tho people, and has a salary of ^6,000. A council composed of 8 members elected
annuallj by districts, gives him advice upon matters of official, duty. The legislative
power 18 vested in a general court, composed of a senate of 40 members and a house of
representatives of 240 members, elected respective Iv by senatorial and representative
districts. The councilors are paid $5 for each day s attendance, and $2 for every 10
miles' travel Senators and representatives are paid at the same rate, and $1 for every
5 mUes' travel from their homes. The election occurs annuall^r, on the Tuesday follow-
ing the first Monday in November, and the ^neral court or legislature meets on the first
TV ednesday in January. The supreme Judicial court consists of a chief- justice (salary,
$5,500). and five associate justices (salary, $5,000 each). The superior court consists of
a chief -justice (salary, $4,500), and nine associate justices <salary,. $4,000 each). The
judges of both these courts are appointed by the governor, with the advice and conflent
of the council, and hold ofiice during good behavior. Slavery in Massachusetts was
judiciously abolished at an early day, by the operation of a clause in the bill of rights of
1780.
In 1786 occurred the revolt known as •• Shays's rebellion,*' in the western part of the
state. It was occa.«?ioned by the poverty of the people after the revolutionary war. which
made them impatient under taxation, and was soon suppressed, though not without some
loss of life.
A survev has been made for a ship canal across Cape Cod, and the work of making
it has already been commenced. When completed it will greatly shorten the distance by
aea between Boston and New York, and enable masters of vessels to avoid some of the
worst perils of the voyage as at present conducted.
The electoral votes of Massachusetts for president and vice-president of the United
States have l>eeii cast as follows: — 1789, 10 for Washington and Aaams; 1792, 16 for Wash-
ington and AdamK; 1796, 16 for John Adams for president, and 18 for Pinckney; 2 for
8. JobnKton, and 1 for Oliver Ellsworth for vice-president; 1800, 16 for Adams and
Pineknev; 1804, 19 for Jefferson and George Clinton; 1808, 19 for C. C. Pinckney and
Rufns I^ing; 1812, 22 for Qeorge Clinton for President, and 20 for Jared Ingersoll and 2
for Elbridge Gerry for vice-president; 1816, 22 for Rufus King and John £. Howard:
1890, 15 for Monroe for president, and 8 for R. Stockton and 7 for D. D. Tompkins for
▼ice-president; 1824, 15 for Adams and Calhoun; 1828, 15 for Adams and Rush; 1882,
14 for Clay and Sargeant; 1886, 14 for Webster and Francis Granger; 1840, 14 for Har
riiK>n and Tyler; 1844, 12 for Clay and Frelingliuysen ; 1848, 12 for Taylor and Fillmore:
1852. 13 for Scott and Graliam; ia%. 18 for Fremont and Dayton; 1860, 13 for Lincoln
and Hamlin; 1864, 12 for Lincoln and Johnson; 1868, 12 for Grant and Colfax; 1872,
18 for Grant and Wilson; 1876, 13 for Hayes and Wheeler; 1880, 18 for Garfield and
Arthur.
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, at Amherst, Mass., was opened
for students in 1867. Its endowment was derived from the public lands appropriated
for the purpose by act of congress in 1862, and the faith of the state is pledged for its
maintenance and support. The endowment is estimated at $860,000, and the annual
income is $16,000. The college poHsesses a farm of 400 acres, on which the various
buildings, embracing extensive dormitories, laboratory, chapel, professors' houses,
museum, conservatones, etc. , are centrally located The Wl estate is valued at $200^000.
Ifti
674
ind the penonftl ptoperly <rf the fann at $#,060. The lalxmtoiy it exteulYeaiidtiilr
equipped, and the natiinfl hiatorf coUeetion ia Tery flue The Mhiaiy ecNutaiDa S^W
Tolumea. Number of profeaaon in 1880, 6; of atudenta, 100; of ahmmi, M U k
apedficaUy an agricultural college, and not connected with any other inti^ntna i^g
eourse of study extends over a period of four vearat and the graduates reodve the dure^
of B 6. It has special courses to aooommodate those who desire to ponue MacBtlfte
studies related to agriculture, but are unable to spare time from the fann to take a full
course The number of such, to whom certiflcaites have been given on leaving, is 100.
Every student is- required to practice military tactics and driD three hova per week,
and 18 taught the science and art of war hy a government office^ wlio is a giadnate of
West Point All students are required to labor six houia weekly on the fana, at Ike
bam, in the orchards, vineyaods, numeries, or oonservatofies, for inatxuctiDn m tkcw
depiutments, and wages are paid to tnoee who de«ire to labor in order to earn the aeao^
for procuring an education There is a post-graduate course for students who desire to
become candidates for the degree of ph d.
XA88ACHT78ETT8 BAY, an indentation on the ea^em coast of Kaseachusetts, betveea
cape Cod and cape Ann, 70 m. long and 25 m. wide, but including in its irregular ferm
Plymouth bay, Cape Cod bay, and several others, with numerous small islands.
MASSACHUSETTS INDIANS. The Plymouth colonists, op their settlement m
Massachusetts bay, found that part of the country populated by tribes of the Algoiiqulo
family, one of the three great abonginal races of red-men that inhabited the basin of the
St. Lawrence, and a tract of countrv as far south as that portion settled by the Pilgrims.
These tribes were five in number, the Massachusetts and Nausets, on Massachusetts bay
and cape Cod; the Nipmucks, or Nipnets, who dwelt in the central part of the colony
which is now the state of Massachusetts; the Pennacooks, who extended north into New
Hampshire; and the Pokanokets, or Wampanoags, who occupied the south-eastern part,
and whose chi^ was the celebrated Massasoit. The new settlers speedily entered mto
friendly relations with* these tribes, and as early as 1644 the Mayhews of Martha's Vine-
yard (q.v.), and in 1646 John Eliot had undertaken missionary labors among them. See
Eliot, John. These efforts bore fruit, and in 1674 there were 600 converted Indians in
Plymouth colony, 1500 in Martha's Vineyard, and 1100 in the Massachusetts bay colonv.
But though thus successful in conversion, the settlers had not been equally so in their
general relations with the Indians, and in 1675 an irritated condition which had been
gradually growing among the latter, culminated in the outbreak which has become known
as king Philip's war This trouble originated with Philip Metacomet, son and successor
of Massasoit, under whom the Pokanokets or Wampanoags rose, and were joined by the
Nipmucks, Narra^msetts, and Pennacooks, unti; a general Indian war had rava^ all
the settlements. In this situation not even the new religious faith which had been
instilled into the natives acted as a preventive, and the converted Indiana joined with the
rest in a general onslaught upon the whites. The struggle lasted a year, and only ended
with the death of Phihp, Aug. 12, 1676. The Pennacooks retired northward, and the
other tribes submitted; but it is on record that numbers of those who were captured were
exported to the VTest Indies as slaves. From this time the Massachusetts Indians fid-
lowed the general course of their race, dying out, or retiring before the white man, or
assimilating with the latter or with the negroes. In 1861 a census showed the Indian aod
half-breed population of the state to be 1610, of whom 306 were on Martha's Vinevard,
at Christiantown and Gayhead; 438 at Mashpee and elsewhere on cape Cod; ana the
remainder scattered. The United States census of 1870 made return of only 150 Indltm
in the state of Massachusetts, so had the process of reduction, or of assimilation, progressed
in nine years.
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, m Boston, was founded
in 1861 and went into operation in 1864. Its endowment consists of one-third part of the
income derived by the state from lands appropriated for such purposes by congress hi
the act of 1862. It provides a series of scientific and literaiy studies, so arranged as to
offer a liberal and practical education in preparation for active pursuits, aa well as a
thorough training for most of the scientific professions. The courses of a distinctivcljr
professional character are: 1. Civil and topographical engineering; 2. Mechanical engi
neering; 8. Mining engineering, or geology and mining;' 4 Building and arcliitecture; 5
Chemistry. Five other courses have hnien establish^ as follows: 6. Metallurgy; 7.
Natural history; 8. Physics; 9. Science and literature; 10. An elective course. Each of
these courses extends through four years, and for proficiency in any one of them the
degree of bachelor of science is conferred. Special laboratories are provided for the
instruction of women, the design being to afford them facilities for the study of chemical
analysis, indu.stna1 chemistry, mineralogy, and biology. Instruction will be given U>
women on other subjects, also so far as suitable arrangements can be made for Uiem.
The particular course of study, which a candidate for the degree of doctor of science
wishes to pursue, must be submitted to the faculty in writing, and must meet their
approval. A knowledge of the Latin langua^ is not required for admission, but strongly
recommended for the better understanding of the terminology of the soienoes. The school
of mechanic arts affords instruction in carpentry and loinery, wood-turning, pattern-
making, foundry work, iron-forging, vise- work, and madhine tool work. Candidates for
Digitized by VjiOL^V IC
6t6 Mniijifciiiim,
ikdtgiMia pkyiiQttike pncticil eounei in iiilcn»aopj, photography, lantern piiojee-
tiooB. and i&eteoroloay. The inatituie haa 16 i»of eaaora, 8 inatructora^ 8 asaiataata^ aad
248 graduatea PreeideDt, Wm. B. Rogere, ll.d.
KAMA BQOA'Lf , or Dt Cabra'ka, so called to diatinguish it from the many town»
af the aame name, is a small city of northern Italy, 58 m. s.w. of Modena, and formerly^
capital of duchy of Massa-CarranL Pop. 5,000. It is a bishop's see, has a i>ubUc library,,
a hterarr institute, a cathedral, and a ducal palace. Massa stands in a beautiful situation,.
sheltered by a backmund of mountaina, and surrounded by a district productive in
oranges, citrons, and vast oliye-groves. In the middle ages the duchy of Massa was held
by a aocoeaaion of feudal lords, and passed to the house of £ste, dukes of Modena,
toward the close of the 18th century. Bonaparte invested his sister, the princeas-
BlbHi.w1th the principality of Massa and Carrara; but in 1829 it was reunited to Modena,
and in 1800 became a province of the kingdom of Italy. Pop. 71. 161,994.
XAttAFIUL, a t. of the Italian province of Otranto, Urn. n.w. of Taranto, situated
in a plain in the midst of hills more productive than salubrious. Pop. 9,100. Its site ia
partly that of the ancient Meuapia^ from which the whole district takes its name.
KA1U'0BTJB, a nomadic people who inhabited the broad steppes on the n.e. of
the Caspian sea, to the northward of the river Arazes or Jaxartes. Herodotus says that
they had a community of wives; that they aacrificed and devoured their ased people;
that they worshiped the sun, and offered horses to him ; that they lived on the milk and
ieab of their herds, and on fish; and fought on horseback and on foot with lance, bow,
and doable*edged axe. Cyrus is said to have lost his life in flrhting against them, 580»
blc. Kiebuhr and BOckh are of opinion that they belonged to the Mongolian, but Hum-
boldt and others, to the Indo-Germanic or Aryan family.
MATSA IVBBS'ITBE, a pleasant Italian t., 17 m. s. of Naples by sea. Pop. 8.600.
MofMii Lubrense stands amidst the loveliest scenery of Italy, and is built on a cliff pro-
jecting into the sea, and commanding a fine tiew of the bay of Naples. It dates from
the early Greek period, and contains many remains of Roman antiquities. It is famed
for the beauty of its women.
MASSA MARITTIMA, a t. in Italy, on the n.w. coast in the province of Grosseto,
near the barren and unhealthy district of the Maremma; pop. 13,052. It has been a
subject of dispute between the cities of Siena and Pisa, each hatring claims on the town,
which is the seat of a bishopric formerly having its seat at Populonia, and is composed
of several contiguous villages. The coast in its vicinity is traversed by a railroad.
MASSARUNI, or MAZARimi, RIVER, in British Guiana, takes its rise in the moun-
tains i)f Venezuela, lat. 4' 30' n., long. 60* w., and flows in an extremely irregular course i
in a general n.e. direction until it joins the Guyuni (or Cujruni), through which it empties '
into the estuary of the Essequibo river. The riVer has been explored for several hundred
m. and is maried by a number of small islands at its mo^th, and by wild scenery and.
bold granite cliffs in its upper course.
MASSASOIT. sachem of the Wampanoag or Pokanoket Indians. His territory at
•ne time extended over nearly all the southern part of Massachusetts from cape Cod to '
Narragansett bay, and his tribe numbered 80,000, but at the time of the landing of the-
Pilgrims they had been reduced by disease to about 800. In ^621, Mar. 22, he visited
Pl3niiouth three months after it was foimded, with 60 armed and painted warriors, fof
the purpose of making a friendly lea^e with the white men. Governor Carver was so
much pleased with the frank and friendly bearing of Massasoit, that on behalf of the-
colony he concluded a treatv of peace and mutual protection with the Wampanoags.
lliis was sacredlv kept for 50 years. Massasoit alwavs remained friendly to the colonic.
He resided in Poxanoket, or what is now the town of Bristol, R. I., where commissioners
from the adjacent settlements often visited him. When Roger Williams was banished
from Massachusetts, he was entertained on his way to Providence by Massasoit for
several weeks. Although the English committed repeated usurpations upon his lands-
and liberties, he was their friend as long as he lived, imbued his people with the love ot
peace, and gave notice to the Pilgrims when they were in danger from other tribes. He
had several sons, grandsons, and brotiiera Before his death, which is supposed to have
been in 1662, he had been induced to cede away at different times, nearly all his lands
to the English. His two eldest sons, Wamsutta and Pometicom, or Metacomet, had
English names, of which the following account is given: ** After Massasoit was dead
his two sons, called Wamsutta and Metacomet came to the court at Plymouth, pretend-
ing high respect for the English, and ther^ore desired that English names might be
given them; whereupon the court there named Wamsutta, the elder brother, Alexander,
and Metacomet, the vounger brother, PhiUp.'^ Massasoit was succeeded by his eldest
son Alexander, who dying a few months after, Philip became by the order of succession
head chief of the Wampanoags. These two sons, after their father's death, were
regarded with much jealousy by the English, and were suspected of plotting against
them; and Philip afterwards was distinguished by his wars with the English.
MA8B£, Gabriel, b. France, 1807; studied law and was called to the bar of Pariar
in 1888. He met with great success in his practice, but is beat known as the author of
a number of legal treatises and as editor of the ReeueU de» ArrSU, His J '
Digitized by ^
;^T?giv^
«576
J)r&it€fi^iMr9t<U daM jm RapportB aweU Dr&U tUnOm9$t le DrioU OM wtM prtnted
from 1844 to 1848 and republished hi 1808. In 1874 he became a member of the
academy of moral and political sciences.
MASSfeNA, a t. of St. Lawrence co., N. Y., pop. '70, 2,709: sitnatfed on the Grass
and Racket rivers, and bounded on the n.w. by the Bl. Lawrence. The township com-
? rises Massena Center, Massena Springs and the village of Massena. The three streams
irnish abundant water power, and the chief industry is the milling of flour. The
Eortion called Massena Springs is quite popuUr as a watering place and has four or fire
otels.
XA88XKA, Amdkb, Duke of Rivoll, prince of Essling, and a niar»hal of Fram^, was
born at Nice, May 6, 1758. In his youth, he served as a ship-boy in a small vessel, and
afterwai'ds 14 years in the Sardinian army, but left it because his plebeian birth precluded
him from promotion. Early in the French revolution, he joined a battalion of volun
teers, and soon rose to high military rank. In Dec., 1798, he was made a general of
division. He greatly distitiguished himself in the campaigns in upper -Italy. After
Jourdan's defeat at Stockach on Mar. 25, 1799, the chief command of the army in Switzer-
land devolved on him in circumstances of great difficulty, but he kept his ground againsl
the archduke Charles, and finally, by Ids victory over the Russians at Zibich, Sept. 25.
1799, freed France from the danger of invasion. After the battle of Marengo, Bonaparte
j^ve him the command of the army of Italy. In 1804 he was made a marshal of the
«mpire. In 1805 he again commanded in lUUy; and subsequently he signaliaed himself
in the terrible contest for the village of Aspern (u.v.). In 18J0 he was intrusted with the
chief command in Spain, and compelled the British and their allies to fall back to
Lisbon ; but being unable to make any impression on Wellington's strong position at
Torres Vedraf), he resigned his command. He offered his services, however, again,
when Napoleon was preparing for the Russian campaign, but was only intrusted with
the command in Provence, and in this position he remained till the restoration, when he
gave in his adhesion to the Bourbons, and was made a peer. On Napoleon's retTiro
from Elba, he invited Massena to follow him, but received no respoase. After the
second restoration, Massena retired into private life. He died April 4, 1817. Massena
was one of the ablest of Na{)o]eou*s generals, but he was as extortionate as a Romat]
pretor. His master called him a robber, and is said to have offered him a present of
1,000,000 francs if he would give up peculation.
MASSEY, Gkrau), b. in ITerefoixishire, 1828, of poor and illiterate parents who
could give him no education. 1 le was set to labor in a silk-mill when 8 years old, and
afterwards at straw plaiting. At 15 he found employment in London as errand boy, and
got hold of a few books, among tlieru P^nm*s Progresti, and Eobi/imn Gruwe. At 17 k
was in love, and beean to write vcrst- .s. But his themes embraced also the sufferings of the
poor, and showed deep thoughtful ness and feeling concerning the inequalities of human
•condition. The French revolution of 1848 awakened in his mind the desire to contribute
something to the amelioration of his own class through political efforts, and in compauv
with fellow-workmen he started a weekly reform paper under the title of the /^rit oj
Freedom. The rev. Charles Kinsley and other prominent philanthropic political agita
tors of that time gave their council and aid, and called public attention to the poetic fac
iilties of Massey. He afterwards became a lecturer on Spiritualism in |)ngland, and in
1873 in ^he United States. The English government granted him a pension, and lord
Brownlow presented him with a cottage in his native county, where he resides. His pub-
lished works embrace The BaUadof Babe Chnstndel and other Poems, 1853; CraigcrvoL
GastU, laW: liobert Bums and other Lyrics, 1859; Voices of Freedom and Lyrics of Lm,
1859; Uavel/jek*if March, and other Pc^ems, 1861; 8hakespe<ire's SontttU, never before Inter
preUd, 1866; and ^ Tale of Eternity, and other Poems, 1870.
MAS'SICO, a mountain in the province of Terra di Lavaro, Naples, Italy, famous in
ancient and modern times for the wines produced from its vineyaros. On its southern
slope is a town of the same name. It was here that Appius Claudius gauied his victory
over the Samnites.
XAS'SICOT, a mineral, occurring in shapeless masses of a yellow color, briUle, with
earthy fracture. Chemically, it is protoxide of lead. It is usea as a pigment.
M A8SIE. Nathaniel, 1768-1818; b. in Goochland co., Va. ; at 17 years of age entered
the revolutionary army; became a surveyor, and settled in Kentucky in 1783; removed to
Manchester, Ohio, in 1790, and laid out the town of ChilHcothe upon lands owned bv him
self; took part in the Indian wars of the northwest, gaining the rank of general of Ohio
militia; was a meml)er of tlie convention which framed the first constitution of Ohio in
1802; was often a member of the legislature, and served one term as speaker of the senate:
was declared to have been elected governor in 1807, but resigned before entering upon
office.
MASSILIA. See Marseilles, ante.
MASSILLON, a city in n.e. Ohio, on the e. bank of the Tusctuiiwjw river, and on
the Ohio canal, connecting it with lake Erie • pop. 74, 7,000. It is a junction of the Pitts-
buiv. Fort Wayne and Chicaffo; the Cleveland, Tuscarawas Vallev and WheeUni;; and
the Massilton and Cleveland division of the Cleveland, Mjmg|^Yv^^^R«lawarerail-
.677
roads. It is the center of the famous coal fields of Toscarawas valley, and has a proiiper-
ous community, engaged in farming and important industries and mining.- In the
vicmity are 3 quarries of white sandsrone, which is largely exported.- It is a shipping
point for large quantities of grain, wool, butter, and beef. Its industries arerepresented
by blast furnaces for pig-iron, rolling- mills, flour-mills, sash factories, machine shops,
iron-bridge factories, paper-mills, the Kussell mills for the manufacture of agricultural
iinpleiuents, the Massillon excelsior works, and tlie Massillon harvest«r works for flie
manufacture of machinery, sold extensively nt the west. It has 8 newspapers, and a
libiarv for the use of members of the young men's Christian association. The first sur-
veys for the township were made in 1«26. It presents a fine appearance, being regularly
built, and containing many fine residences and substantial public edifices, and is lighted
by gns. It has excellent educational advantages, including a school stipported by char-
itable people; 11 churches, 8 banks, 2 of which are national, and an opera house erected
at a cost of $100,000.
XAB8ILL0H, Jban Baptiste, one of the most distinguished of modem pulpit orators,
was b. at Hi^res, in France, June 24, 1008. His father, a notary, designed the boy for his
own profession; and it was only after repeated and pei-sistent efforts that lilassillon
obtained his father's permission to enter the congregation of the oratoiy in 1081. It was
while be was engaged in teaching theology in one of the houses of the congregation in
the diocese of Meaux that he made his fli-st essay in the pulpit at Vieunc. His funend
oration on M. Villars, the archbishop ot Vienne, was eminently successful, and led to his
being called by the superiors of the oratory to Paris, where he first hod the opportunity
of hearing Bourdaloue, whose style and manner, without being exactly taken by Massillon as
a mode], had great influence in forming the taste of the yountf aspirant. Like Bourdaloue,
he avol<Ied the declamatory manner and theatrical action then popular in the French
pulpit; but the earnest impressiveness of his look and voice more than suppliud the vigor
and energy which other speakers sought from these adventitious aids. His courae of
carlesiastical conferences, delivered in the seminarv of St. Magloire; established his lep-
utiUion. The criticism of Louis XIV., after his advent course at Versailles, that "when Ue
hvATd other great preachers he felt satisfied with them, but when he heard Massillon he felt
dissatisfied with himself," well expresses the characteristics of the eloquence of tlus great
onitor.who, more than any of his contemporaries, was able to lay b»u*ethe secret springs
of human action, and to use the feelings and the passions of his audience as arms agaiusl
themselves. He was again appointed to preach the Lent at Versailles in 1704; but although
the king was again equally warm in his admiration of the preacher, Massillon was never
afierwards invited to preach in the presence of this monarch; yet his funeral oration on
the prince de Conii, in 1709, was one of the greatest triumphs of his oratory. Soon after
the death of Louis XIV., Massillon, in 1717, was named bishop of Clermont, and in the same
yejir was appointed to preach before the young king Louis XV., for which occasion he
romposed his celebrated petit carSme — a series of ten sermons. It was not till 1719 that
he was consecrated bishop of Clermont, in tvhlch year also he was elected a member of
the academy; and in 1723 he preached the funeral oration of the duchess of Orleans, his
last public aiscourse in Paris. From this time he lived almost entirely for his diocese,
where his charity, gentleness, and amiable disposition gained him the affections of all.
He died of apoplexy in 1748 at the age of 79 years. His works, consisting mainly of
«!rmons and other similar compositions, were "collected in 12 vols., by his nephew, and
pulilished in 1745-46; later editions are these of Beauc6 (4 vols, 1817), Mequignou (15
vols 1818), and Chalandre (3 vols. 1847).
3IASSrNGBERD, Francis Charlkb, 1800-72, b. in Lincolnshire, England, and
educated at MagdiUcn college, Oxford. After graduating with high honors he entere<l
the church and became rector of South Ormsby m his nntive county (1825). In the Lin-
coln cathedral he was made a prebendary in 1847, and in 1802 chancellor. In addition to
many papers and discussions on ecclesiastical subjects he was the author of Church
Reform (1837), UUtory of the EnglM liefoi^matioii. Law of Chtirdi and State, and Lectures
OH the Prayer Book (1864).
XAflfiDTOEB, Philip, an English dramatist, wash, in 1584 at or near Wilton, it is sup-
posed, the f^eat of the earls of Pembroke, of which family his father was a retainer. Of
his lioyish days, and of the place of his education, nothing is known. From his plays
-we are, however, certified that he was a classical scholar. " He entered St. Alban's hall as
a commoner in 1602, and quitted the university snddenly,and without obtaining a degree,
on the occasion^ it is surmised, of his father's death. After leaving Oxford his career
r-annot be clearly traced. He came to London, and wrote for the stage, sometimes on his
<»wn account, frequently — as was the fashion of the time — in conjunction with others.
He produced many plays, the dates of which are ol>scure.- He seems to have lived in
f^traitcned circumstances, and to have l)een of a melancholy turn of mind. On the morn-
ing of Mar. 16, 1640, he was found dea<l in his bed. He was buried in the church-yard
of St. Saviour's by the hands of the actors. In the parish register stands the pathetic
eutry: **March 20, 1639-1640. buried Philip Massinger. a stranger."
'fakenas wholes, Massinger's plays do not strike one much; their merits consist in
detached passages. He was of a grave and serious mood, and his reflective passages rise into
a rich elaborate music. His finest writing is contained in The Virgin Martyr, but hia
U. K. 1X^37 Digitized by VjUU^IC
67«
bestptftysaro 7%$ CUg MaSemKtA the ^010 Wi^f ^ Ay Old 2>0&<»— the last of which bas
even yet some slight hold on the sti^. The best edtaon of his works is that by GiSord
(Lond. 1805, reprinted lbl5).
HASSINISSA. See Mabiiossa.
MASSON, David, b. Aberdeen, Scotbind. 1833; educated at Marischal oolle^
Aberdeen, and the university of Edinburgh, became editor of a Scoltii»h provincial
5apcr at the age of nineteen: went to Louil(»n in 1844, remained a year^ cimtribuimg to
^'Oiter'f Magazine and other periodicals. For two or three years be was in Edinbmigh*
writing for periodicals. In 1847 be return*^ to London where he remaiued 18 years, ^
and while there was chosen professor of the English language and literature at th« Uni-
versity college, London. He retired from this poet in Oct, 1866, having been
appointed professor of rhetoric and English literature in tlie university of Ediuborgli.
lie coritfibiued numerous articles to the Quarterly, Briti»ti QuarUrlp, and the Aortk
British lieview, to the EiicychpcBdia Britannica, and the EnglitUi Cpclopadia, -nd in 1859-
68, was the editor of AtacmiUari's MagaziM, To this he contributed numerous articles.
His best-known papers are on CaHyle's Latter-Day Piimplilein; Dickens and Thackeray;
Babdais; Literature and the Labor Quegtioa; Pre-Bap/iaelism in Art arid Literature;
T/teories of P(tetry; Shtikeepeareand Goethe; Hugh MiUer; De Ouinoeyand Pros* writing.
He has published Bseays, Biographical and Critical, chiefly on English Poets; IJfe of John
Milton; BrUish Novelists and their Styles; Recent Britisfi PhUfpsohfty, a Retiew with Criti-
eisin, ineluding eoms Remarks on Mr, MilTs Ansuoer to Sir IK Hamilton; Chatterton: a
Story of the year ITTO; Essays on Wordswffrth, Shelley, Keats, In 1878 be published a
biography of tlie poet Drummond, entitled, Drummond of HrtittJiornden : the Story of his
lAfe and WrUings; The Three BetfiU-^Luther^s, Milton's, and Goethes. HiB life of Milton
is of high authority.
XASSO'SAH, variously derived from massar (to hand down to posterity— tradition),
and asmr (to bind, to fix within strict limits), denotes chiefly a certain collection of criti-
cal notes on the text of the Old Testament, its divisions, accents, vowels, grammatical
forms, letters, etc. ; all the more necessary for the more accurate preservation of tlie
sacred documents, as, according to the early mode of Shemitlo writiniB:, only the conso-
nants, and these without any stop or break, were put down; a proceeding which, in the
course of time, must naturally have produced a vast number of variants, or rather dif-
ferent ways of reading and interpreting the same letters, by dividing them into difTercnt
words with different vowels and accents. The origin of the Itfassorah, which, by lixing
an immntablc reading upon eacli verse, word, and letter, put an end to the exercise of
unbounded indiviJiiaf fancy — which, for homiletical purposes alone, was henceforth frw
to toke its own views — is sfiroiided in deep mystery. The first traces of it are found in
certain Halachistic works treating of the synagogue rolls of the Pentateuch, and the
mode of writing them. Some of the earliest works on the subject have survived in their
titles only, such as The Book of H^ Crowns, Tfie Book of the Sounds, etc., attributed to the
Sofcrim, or masters of the Mishna (q.v.). There can hardly lie a doubt that the Masso-
rah, like the Ilalacha and Haggaaa, was the work, not of one age or centurv. but of
many ages and centuries, as, indeed, we find in ancient authorities mention made of dif-
ferent systems of accentuation used in Tiberias, Babylon (Assyria), and Palestine. It
was in Tiberias also that the Massorah was first committed to writing, between the 6th
and 0tli centuries a.d. Monographs, memorial vtrses, finally glosses on the mai^insof
the text, seem to have been the earliest forms of the written Massorah, which gradually
expanded into one of the most elaborate and minute systems, laid down in the "Great
Massorah" (about the 11th c), whence an extract wafl made known under the name of
the "Small Massorah." A further distinction is made between Massorah ^«rtTMft>and
flnalis, the former containing all the marginal notes; the latter, larger annotations, which,
for want of space, had to be placed at the end of the paragraph. The final arrangement of
the Mas^^orah. which was first printed in Bomberg's Rabbinical Bible (Ven. 1525), is dne
to Jacob ben Chajim of Tunis, and to Felix Pratensis. Tlie language of the Massorah
is Chaldce, and iwsides the difficulty of this idiom, the obscure abbreviations, contrac-
tions, symbolical signs, etc., with which the work abounds render its study exceedingly
hard. Nor are all its dicta of the same sterling value: they are not only sometimi^
\itlerly superfluous but. downright erroneous. Of its "countings,'* we may adduce thrt
it enumerates in the Penti\tcuch 18 greater and 48 smaller portions, 15JJ4 verses, 63,- 67
words, 70,100 lettere, etc. ~a calculation which is, however, to a certain degree at vari-
ance with the Talmud. An explanation of the Massorah is found in Elijah LevitaV
(q.v.) Masoreth Hammesoreth (transl. into German by Semlcr, Halle, 1772), and Buxtorfs
TiberiiuH (IftSO), a work abotmding with exceedingly curious information on the text of
the Old Testament.
XASTiOWAH, or Masoua. an islet and t. on the w. coast of the Red Sea, in lat. 35'
38' n., and lohg. 39' 21' e., close to the boundary between Nubia and Ab5'S8inia. At
present ir. is politically connected with Nubia rather than with Abyssinia, iKMiig in \ho
possession of the viceroy of Eifj'pt, and ruled by a governor appointed by him. Tlio
island is of coral, the soil partly formed from the rock, partly from sand and broken
sliells. It is only about a mile and a quarter in circumference, and is distant frnm the
main-land only about 200 yards. It is almost wholly occupied by the town, and contains
Digitized by VjiOUV IC '
67^
a pop. of about 8.000, mostly Arabs. The Abyssinian coast is very destitute of harbors,
ami Massowah is of grent importance as a seat of commerce. It carriea on a larvu trado
by sea with Bombay and M'ith tl)e Anibiac coast, particularly with Jiddah aad Yembo;
and a large trade also by caravans with Cairo on the one band, and with Gondar and the
whole interior of Abyssinia on the otiier. Caravans start at aU seasons for Cairo and
for Gondar; but mont numerously in January, at the end of the rains, and in June,
before the swelling of the waters. Wheat, rice, maize, durra. salt, tobacco, gunpowder,
sugar, colton and silk goods, scarlet cloth, glues- wures, arms^ and hardwares aru among
the principal imports from Uie more distant parta of the world. From Abyissiuia and th(
coasts of the Bed Sea, Massowah receives and exports ivory, rhinoceros horns, wax,
ostrich* feathers, tortoise-shell, myrrh, senna, pearls, etc. KaVeowali has all the worst
cbaracteristics of an oriental town. lis streets are mere lanes, and excessively dirty.
Massowah was originally chosen as the place of debarkation of the British expedition to
Abyssinia (1867), and tlie starting-point of its operations; but it was soon found unsuita
ble, and Annesley bay, about 15 m. further to the south— the deepest inlet on the
Abyseinian coast — was chosen lor that purpose instead.
XAST, an upright or nearly upright spar, resting on the keelson (q.v.) of a ship, and
rising through the decks to a considerable height, for the purpose of sustaining the yards
on which the sails are spread to the wind. It is usually in joints or lengths, one above
the other, the lowest and strongest beins the mast proper, distinguished by its position as
tlie fore, main, or mizzen mast. Above this come successively the top-moM, the top-^aUa/iU
vtast, the royiU-nuut, and—though very rarely used— the sky^mraper. The full height of
all the masts together, in a first-rate ship of war, was about 960 feet As when a strong
wind is blowing, tlie pressure upon the canvas carried by a mast amounts to many tons,
the mast itself must be of great strength. In some modem vessels hollow iron masts are
used, with great success, as being much lighter than those of wood; but the minority are
of Norway fir of the best quality. In small vessels the mast is made of one ti*ee; but it
is considered stronger when ** a made mast," that is, when constructed of several pieces
riveted together, and strengthened by iron hoops. The mast is sustained, when fixed,
by tlie shrouds, as supports on each side, by the stay (q.v.) in front, and the back-stays
beliind. See Mastsw
XASTEB, in the royal navy, was nn officer mnking with, but Junior to, lieuts.,
and charged with the details of sailing the vessel, under the general orders of the cnpt.
In recent years the title has l)ccn champed to *' navigjitlng lieut. :" tlie change of
name carrying, in several particulars, an improved status. It is his duty to take clmrfire
of such of the ship's stores as are not under the pa}'- master; in short, he is the naviftitbr
and storekeeper for the vessel ; as such, holding a most responsible and onerous position.
For his assistants, he has the junior officers in his own department — the navigntin? sub-
lieuts., navigjiting midshipmen, and navigating cadets — and the ship's qunrtcrmas-
ters. The full pny of a navigating lieut., exclusive of store and other allowances,
ranges from 12s. to 22e. a day; of a navipiting sublieut., from 58. to 7s. 6d.; and of a
navlgnting midshipman, from 8s. to 4s. a day: while as alpha and oracsra, the staff •<?ap-
tain has 228. a day; and the navigating cadet, Is. a day (which is, of course, meant
merely for pocket-money).
In the merchant navy, the master of a vessel, usually by courtesy denominated the
captain, is the officer conimandmg her. His duties comprise the maintenance of disci-
pline, the sailing of the ship, the charge of her cargo, snd maay other morcmitile func-
tions. His responsibilities to the ship's owners arc of course settled by distinct agree-
ment, applicable to the special case. Towards the public, however, many acts of par-
liament determine his responsibility. Tlie master is bound to come to a written agree-
ment with each of his mea, before sailing, as to the wages to be paid. He is bound to
bring home and subsist (to the number of 4 for every 10 tons), seafaring persons— Brit-
ish subjects — who may have been cast away, captured by the* enemy, or by other
unavoidable accident left upon a foreign shore; for these he is gnmted head-money by
the admiralty. The master is compelled to keep a proper log-l)ook, and must produce it,
with his ship's papers, on the requisition of the commander of a .ship-of-war of his own
nation. Masters of vessels of a certain size are required to obtain ccrtiflcntes of qualifi-
cation from the l)oard of tnidc. C.'crtiflcated masters are eligible for the Royal Navat.
Reserve (q.v.), with the rank of lieutenant
XASTEB (Ger. wmier, Lat mngigter. from magi$\ one who rules, governs, has ser-
vants under him. As a complimentary appellation of respect, it is prefixed to the Chris-
tian name and surname, or surname* simply, contracted into Mr. in writing, and pro-
nounced ** Mister." Theeklest son of a baron in the peerage of Scotland is generally
known by the title of the " mivster of ," {prefixed to his father's title of peerage.
XASTEB-AT-ABMS is a petty officer on board a ship-of-war. charged with the care
and instruction in the use of small arms, except as regards the marines. He is also
employed in maintaining discipline, order, and cleanliness among the crew. His assist-
ants in his duties are the '* ship's corporals/'
XASTEB OF ABT8 (abbnrviatcd M.A., and sometimes, parliculnrly in Scotland,
A.M.,) is a degree conferred by univcj*sities or colleges. In the universities of England,
MM^fW
580
tbis title foUowd that of l)achek>r (q.v.). It is the highest ia the faculty of aits, but sub-
ordinate to that of bachelor of diviaity. A master becomes a regent shortly after obtain-
ing his degree, and thereby obtains the privilege of voting In congregation or convocatioD
at Oxford, and in the senate at Cambiidge; and in the Scotch universities, of becoming
a member of the general council. See Dkqrek.
XA8TEB OF THE BTJCKHOtJVBS, an officer in the master of the hoT«e*s department
of the royal household, who has the control of all matters relating to the royal hunts. A
salary of £1500 is attached to the office, which is regarded as one of considerable political
: imi^ortance. The master of the buckhounds goes out of office on a change of minSstiy.
XASTEB OF THB CSBEXOiriES, an office instituted at the court of England in 1603.
for the more honorable rec^tion of ambaaaadors and persons of distinction. The ^me
term was afterwards extended beyond the court, by being applied first to Beau Nasb.
the famous '* master of the ceremonies," or president of the amusements at Bath, and then
to other persons exercising the same function in ordinary assemblies.
XASTEB OP COUBT is the title ^ven In England to the' chief officers under the
judges, tlieir duty being to attend the sittings of the courts duriijig term, and make min
ules of their proceedings. They ah^o tax all the bills of costs of the parties arising out of
the suits and matters before the courts. They are appointed by the chief judge of tbc
court, and hold their offices for life during good-behavior. Masters in chancery 'were
sunilar officers in the court of chancery, but were abolished, and the duties are now per
formed partly by the judge, and partly by the registrars.
XA8TEB OF THE 0BXAT WABDBOBE^ an officer at the court of England, who bad.
in former limes, the stiperintendcnoe of the royal wardrobe. The office existed from a
very early period down to 1782. and was considered a position of great honor. Its duliis
are now transferred to the lord chamberlain.
XA8TBB OF THE E0B8B) the third great officer of the court, wlio has the superint<^n
dence of the royal stables, and of all horses and breeds of horses belonging to the qwen.
He exercises authority over all the equerries and pages, grooms, coachmen, saddlers, antl
farriers, and h&s the appointment and control of all artificers working for the quwnV
stables. He is answerable for the disbursement of all revenues appropriiiled to defmy
the expenses of his department; but his accounts are audited and examined by the boaxl
of green cloth. He has the privilege of making use of the royal horses, pages, and kt-
vants, and rides next to her majesty on all state occasions. The office is one of grct.t
antiquity, and is considered to be a position of great honor. The master of the horse is
appointed during pleasure, by letters-patent; but his tenure of office depends oa tlie exist-
ence of the political party in power. The salary is £2,500 a year.
XA8TEB OF THE HOITBXHOLII, an officer iu the lord steward's depai*tment of the
royal household; whose speciiic duties consist in supermtending the selection, qualifica-
tion, and conduct of the household servants. He is under the treasurer, and examine* a
portion of the accounts. The appointment is during pleasure, and is not dependent on
political party. The salary is above £1100 per annum.
MASTER IN CHANCERY, an officer of a chancery court, appointed to assist the
chancellor. His duties, in general, are prescribed by statute. It is a common pi-acilco
to refer causes to a master for hearing, particularly causes involving intricate accounts,
and requiring computations. A master is often appointed to examine wKnesses, to take
depositions, to inquire into and report the facts of a case, to make settlements under
deeds, to discharge special acts under tlie direction and in behalf of the court, etc. Mrs
tere in chancery were formerly clerks in chancery, 12 in number, with the* master of tht-
rolls at their head. They were at first called preceptt/rea, and were not called masters,
till the time of Edward III. The office has been abolished in England, where the duties
formerly Ixjionging tp masters arc discharged by judges or registrars. In most of the
United States the office still exists, with the duties already described annexed to it. sub-
ject to statutory modification in the various states. In some states, officers with the
same functions as masters in chancery, are called commissioners.
XASTEB OF THE BOIXS, the president of the chancery division of the high court of
justice in Ens^land, and iu i*ank next to the lord chief -justice of England, and the lord
chancellor. He was an ancient officer of the court, and was formerly the chief of the
masters in chancery. He is the only superior judge in En^and who can now be elected
to represent a constituency in the house of commons. The master of the rolls had
originally the custody of the rolls or records; in the course of time this charge became
merely nominal, the custody having vested in officers not in his appointment or control;
an anomaly which was remedied by 1 and 2 Vict. c. 94, which restored the custody to
him with extensive powers. The salary is £6.000 a year.
XA8TBB AND SSBYAHT. The relation of master and servant la oonstitnted in Great
Britain entirely by contract: for there being no status of slavery recognised in law, one
person can only serve another with his or her own free consent. Being a mea* contract,
it may, like other contmcts. be broken at will, subject only to the usual consequence
that the party in the wrong is liable to pay damages for the breach. In England and
Ireland the engagement or hiring of a servant may be either verbal or in writing; but if
Digitized by VjO^JV IC
581
the cn^gement ig for more than ono year, it most be in writing. If for an indefinite
time, no writtng is neoossary. When a servant continues in tlie service after tlie tiifit
year, a renewal of the contract is presumed on the same terms. Sometimes it is difiicuU
to say whether an engagement of an indefinite kind is by tlie year, or by the month or
week: in such cases a material fact is how tlie wageawere to be paid, for if they ai'e paid
weekly, the presumption will be that the hiring was by the week, unless there are other
circumstances to show that a yearly hiriog was meant. The dilforence between a yearly
COD tract and a we^ly one is that if the Hervant is discharged without cause during the
year, he is entitled to wages up to the end of the yesr; and on the other hand, if he leave
without csiuse during the service, he is entitled to no wages at all.
A servant undertakes to have competent skill for the duties of the s^Tice. and is bound
to use due diligence, and to conduct hiiunelf respectfully. He is bound to obey all law-
ful orders of his master during the engagement, if they are within the scope of the par*
ticular service lor which ho was engaged. Thus, a ooadunan is not lH>und to do the
duties of a cook, and tiee 9er$a, £very servant is bound to take due care. of his master's
pro{ierty. and he is liable to an action at the suit of his master for gross negligence, and
niso for fraud and misfeasance. A master is not entitled to chastise a servaut. wluitevec
till' age of the servant may be, thoiigh, in the case of an apprentice under age, a modt
crate chastisement is justifiable. The grounds on which a servant may be lawfully
discharged are willful disobedieoce, gross immorality, habitual negligence, ami incompe-
teuce. If any person entice away a servant, and tliereiiy cause loss to the master, the
Intter may sue such person for the iniury. If the servant is a female, and is seduced,
and thereby is unable to continue her service, the master may also bring an action
a.'!:.iin3t the seducer for any loss of service caused thereby; and on the same principle a
nvusler may bring an action agjunst a third party who causes personal injury to thy ser-
vant. In the case of tlie bankruptcy of tlie master, a prefercfice is given to the servant*s
wiiges if clue and unpaid, but this extends only to two months' wages, and the servant
is ah ordinary creditor for the balance beyond that sum. The death of the master is a
discharge of the c<miract; and in many cases the servant is not entitled to recover wages
for the time actually served, though there is an exception as to domestic sorvauts. If a
servant is rightfully discharged he is not entitled to wages for the broken time since the
previous psriodical payment of wages; and so in the ctisc of the servant's death during
the currency of the term, the servant's executors cannot recover payment for the broken
time; but it is otherwise in the case of domestic servants. When a servant falls ^ick the
master is not bound to provide medical attendance whether the servant lives under his
roof or not; but as In such cases a doctor is often sent for by the master without any
express understanding between the parties, the master is frequently made liable on the
ground that the doctor was sent for by and gtive credit to the master. As a general rule,
the servant takes the risk of all the ordinary accidents attending the particular service;
and if he suffer from an accident met with in the course of the service, the master is not
liable for the consequences, unless there w:\s some personal negligence on his part.
Thus, it often happens that servants are engaged in a manufactory or buildlnir where
machinery is usea and accidents frequently occur. Another case often occurs where
two or three servants of the same master are engaged together, and one Servant is injured
hy the negligence of another. In such a case the rule is that the if'ijured servant can
sue the master, except where the servants at the time were engaged in a common oper-
ation, for in the latter case the servants are or ought to be. a check on each other. In
Gises where a servant injures a third jjarty, the rule is that the master is liable, provided
the servant at the time Was acting in the ordinary course of liis duty, and wuhln the
scope of the master's orders, expressed or implied. Hence, if a coachman carelessly run
down a person on the highway, or do injury to another, the master is liable; but if the
c )achmau was driving the miister's carriage without or contniry to the orders of the
master, the servant alone is liable. So the master Is not in any way ivsponsiMe for the
crimes or criminal offenses committed by his servant: yet sometimes he is involved in
fines. The above are the general rules as regards servants generally; but in England
ihiire is a distinction In many instances observcvl between domestic servants and other
servants. The lejiding distinction Is that if nothing is said as to the length of service,
it is presumed that the service can be terminated at any time, on giving a month's notice
on either side, or !n case of the discharge of a domestic servant without notice, then on
payment of a month's wages. It is often popularly thought that a domestic servant can-
not be turned out of tlie master's house at a moment's notice, even on paying a month's,
wages, but this can always be done with or without cause. In ca<^ of disdiarge wiUi-'
out cstiise, the servant is entitled to a month's wages, but not board wages: she also gets
wages only up to the master's death. He is not compelled to give a character to the
servsuit; it is entirely optional; but if he does so, then it must be a true one, otherwise
an action will lie for defamation. But if a master without roaiice, and acting bona fide,
gives an untrue character, he is not liable, for the communicalion Is held to be privi-
lemi. If a master knowingly give a false eharacter to a servant who is engaged by a
tuTd jmrtj on the faith of it, and robs such third party, the latter can sue the former
master for the damages. Persona personating masters, and giving false cliaracters, and
servants using such false characters, are lisble to be summarily convicted, snd fined £20.
In general, a servaot, if he vef use to enter the service, or le^ve i^^^^^^i^f^ is
mSS& 582
merely liable to an action of damages for breach of contract, which la no remedy at all, as
few servants are worth the expense of a suit. As this conduct, however, might often came
great hardship to masters, especially where they are employed in trade or manufaetures,
statutes have been passed which give a power to justices ot the peace to compel the ser-
vant to remain in the service until he ffive the legai notice to leave. This was formerly
done by punishing the servant who left the service without lust cause by imprisoainent.
This law, complained of by workmen as one-sided, was mouifled by the employers and
. workmen act (1875), which gives county courts enlarged powen in regard to payment
of money, rescission of contract, and taking of security as between employers and work-
men ; and by the conspiracy act (1875), which, while deciding that in trade disputes no
combination shall be indictable if the act contemplated done by one puraon would not be
so, makes special criminal provision in case of persons employed by gas and water com-
panies.
In Scotland the law as to master and servant differs from the above in several particu-
lars, of which the following are the most important. With regard to domestic servants,
in towns, if nothing is said, then the hiring is for half a year, and cannot be put an
end to without 40 days* warning before the end of the half year; and if the servant is
dismissed without Just cause, he or she can claim not only wages but board-wages till
the end of the term. In case of the master's death the servant can claim wages tor tke
whole of the current term, but is bound in that case to serve the executors, or look out
for another situation. In case of the master's bankniptcy tiio servant is a privileged
debtor for the wages of the current temi. In most other respects the biw as to servants
is the same as in Englatul. The statutes enabling justices of the peace to impriaon
defaulting workmen and artificers have been modined.
XASTSB AKD SEBVAHT. [From SupjOement] The act 30 and 31 Vict. c. 141,
called the master and servant act, 1867, having caused pr<^found dissatisfaction among
workmen, a royal commission was appointed to investigate and ri'port. The first two
sections were found to be objectionable because they conferred a power to inflict simple
imprisonment as the penalty for breaking a purely civil contnict. The 14lh sectiou
was found to be equally open to objection, as It autliorizcd imprisonment for three
months, with hard labor, in cases of an exaggerated character. Upon the above report
are based the existing acts — the employers and workmen's act (38 and 39 Vict. c. 90) nnd
the conspiracy and protection of property net (id. c. 86) — which repeal that of 1887,
and came mto force on Sept, 1, 1875. The first act, which is divided into five parts,
empowers county courts, in respect of disputes between employers and workmen, to
make orders of payment of money ; to set off one claim against another, whether liqui-
dated or unliquiiiated; to rescind any contract, and to accept in room of damages
security for so much of the contnict as remains uni^erformed. A court of summair
Jurisdiction may exercise all the powers as above when the sum in dispute is under £10.
)i8putes between, master and apprentice may also here l)C tried as to indentures or con-
tracts. The term ** workman" in this act does not include a domestic or menial servant,
but any person engaged in manual labor, under or above 21 years of age, who has
entered into or works under a contract for his employer. It does not apply to seamen
or apprentices to the sea service. The second or conspiracy act, in relation to trade dis-
putes, declares that in an agreement or combination of two or more persons they cannot
be indicted for conspiracy to do that which if done by any one singly would not be
punishable as a crime. This does not exempt from punishment any conspiracy punish-
able by act of parliament, nor alter the law as to riot or unlawful assembly. But crime
under this section is defined as an offense punishable either on indictment or summarily,
by imprisonment, either absolutely, or as an alternative for some other punishment.
The imprisonment is limited to three months. Workmen breaking a contract in con-
nection with the supply of gjis or water are liable to conviction either summarily or on
indictment, nnd the offense is punishable by a fine of £20. or imprisonment for three
months, with or without hard labor. Willful breach of contract or of hiring, with the
probable consequences of danger to human life, incurs a penalty of £20, or impriaoment
lor three months with or without hard labor. Should a master who is legally liable to
provide food, clothing, etc., for a servant or apprentice neglect to do sc>, he incurs a
penalty not exceeding; £20. The offender may object to bo tried and may be indicted.
The parties, and their husbands and wives, are competent witnesses. In Scotland pro-
ceedings may be on indictment either in justiciary or sheriff court
MASTER AND SERVANT (nrUe). In the United States the common-law niles
goveniing this relation have been modified by statutory enactment in a very slight
degree only. The law of contracts almost always croverns without being restnunedT)y
legislation arising from class distinctions or rank. The principles of common law apply
in this country more completely than in Enghmd, where there are many specia] ilntutes
on the subject. The temui master and servant are used in more than one sense, and may
indicate a relation of service in fact, or such a relation existing only by conatruction of
the law. As applied to domestic service and apprenticeship there ia little of importance
to be said. The latter relation is now not verv common in this ooontry. and the l^al
principles applicable have long since been well settled. When the words are used ia a
broader sense the relation indicated is often very like that ot principal and agent, and
Digitized by VjOUV IC
583
•the goncTal laws of afleacv appljT. The law ef tliia ooantry recogniiea no distittctlon
belweeu the hiriDg or TialxiHty of domestic or agricultural servants and others. lu the
contract tliere mast be mutual engagements, but they need not necessarily be co-exten-
sive. Thus the servant may agree to serve for a year without binding the hirer to retain
him lor the whole of thatpeiiod. *Tbe contract of service comes under the statute of
f rauilA, and should, therefore, bo in writing if for more than one year. If the contract be
" en tiro," that is,^ for, the whole of a definite period, the servant cannot recover unless he
serves for the whole time. The master may diismiss for refractory or Itiraoral conduct,
and can sue liis servant for damages incurred by refusal to perform his duties. On the
other hand, if after contract made the master refuse to furnish work, the servant
may sue for the whole amount of his wages if he present himself at the proper time in
readiness to perform. Thus an opera singer may sue a manager for full coiitnict salary,
though the singer may never have been allowed to sing a note. The liability of tlio
master to his servants for damages incurred from one another while in his i-mployment
can be based only on neglect by him to furnish proper tools or the willful hiring of
incompetent persons. But it has been held, in Dam vs. Detroit B,B, Co., 20 Mich., 106,
that though a servant was injured by the negligence of a very incompetent fellow-ser-
vant, yet he could not recover because, being aware of the incompetence, he voluntarily
took the risk. See also 8 Gushing, 270, and 20 Barber (N.Y.), 449. But if the service is of
its very nature dangerous, and the servant undertakes it knowingly, he can have no remedy
for injuries. More important are the distinctions as regards tlie liability of the master
to third persons for the acts of his servant. The principle which governs is based upon
the control or non-control of the latter by the former. The general rule is tlmt the mss-
tcr is liable for all tortuous nets done by a servant when in his service and acting within
the scope of his proper employment. A general contractor, however, is not under the
control of his employer; and,.thepefoTe, the hitter is not liable for his acts. But in the
case of corporations and particularly in railroad copcs the courts of the several states
have, from motives of public policy, seen lit to consider the corporation as in fact itself
present in the persons of its servants. Again, it was foimerly held that a master could
not be liable for the willfully wrongful act of his employee, when not nciing under
direct authority; but in 88 Miss., 242, a railroad was held responsible for the willful and
wanton act of un engineer; and the tendency of modem cases is strongly towards enlarg-
ing the limits of the doctrine of re^yondeat tti/periar as applied to gi*eat corporations
which afsunie extraordinary powers and hold human life and immense property interests
in their bands. But notice of want of authority in servants by the superior officers of a
railroad will relieve them of liability for the acts of such servants. In 14 Howard, 408,
it was held that it made no difference that an inferior disobeyed oi-ders of a superior,
provided thai he was acting strictly within the scope of his own employment, and the
company was held liable. The relations of employer and employed in the railwa}' system
have Ijeen productive of the most important discussions and decisions as regards the law
of master and servant which have arisen in this country. See lUdfield on liaUtcays,
MASTER SINGERS. See Mhwesuigbbs, ante,
VASTEBWOBT, Peucedanum ostruthivm., a perennial plant of the natural order
uwbeUifcrct, having a stem from 1 ft. to 2 ft. high, broad bi-tcrnate leaves, large flat
umbels of whitish flowere, and flat, orbicular, broadly margined fruit. It is a native of
the n. of Europe and the n. of America, and is found in moist pastures in some parts of
Britain, but apparently naturalized rather than indigenous, its root having fonncrly
been much cultivated as a pot-herb, and held in great repute as a stomachic, sudorific,
diuretic, etc. ; its virtues being reckoned so many and great that it was called ditinum
remedium. It still retains a place in the medical practice of some countries of Europe,
although, probably, it is nothing more than an aromatic stimulant. The root has a
pungent taste, causes a flow of saliva, and a sensation of warmth in the mouth, and
often affords relief in toothache.
XASTIC, a species of gum-resin yielded by the mastic or lentisk tree (pistaeiaUntikff 9,
natural oi-der terebinthacea). It oozes from cuts made in tlie bark, and hardens on : the
stem in small round tear-like lumps of a straw-color, or if not collected in time, it falls
oo the ground; in the latter state it acquires some impurities, and is consequently less
valuable. Tlie chief use of this gum-resin is in making the almost colorless varnisth for
▼arnishing prints, mape, drawings, etc. It is also used by dentists for stopping hollow
teeth, and was formerly used in medicine. It is imported in small quantities, chiefly
from the Morocco coast, but some is occasionally broutrht from the s. of Europe. The
name of mastic is also given to oleaginous cements, composed of about 7 ]>arts of litharge
and 98 of burned clay, reduced to fine powder, made into a paste with linseed oil.
lULSTITF, a kind of dog, of which one varietv has been known from ancient times
M peculiarly English, and another is foiiiid<4o* Thibet. No kind of domestic dog has
more a^^earattee of being' a distinct species than this, and it shows little inclination to
mix with other races. alSwugh the English nmstiff has been in part crossed with the
staghound^nd-lriood-hoiind. The EROLiaH Mastiff is laige and powerful, with a large
heiul, broad muzzle, lairge, thick, pendulous lips, hanging ears of moderate si2e« smooth
hair, and a full but not bushy taiL It is generally frodi 25 to 29^ iiL hlf^at ^1^ ^oulder,
JStf^^"^- 584
but a still g*reater sise is someUmes attained. The niiRStiff is very courageous, and docs
not tiee even from the lion, for which three or four of tliese <log8 are said to be a match.
Tiie Giuils trained British mastiffs and employed them in tlieir wars. Tlie mastiff is now
chiefly valued as a watcli-dog, for wliich no dog excels it; and whilst it ftuthfully pro-
tects tlie property intrusted to it, it has the addilional merit of rcfrjiining from the
infliction of per8<nial injury on the invader. It becomes much attaclje<l to its master,
nithougli not very demonstratively t^ectionatc; it is excelled by many kinds of dog in
sagacity. The English mastiff is usuiilty of eome shade of buff color, with dark muzzle
and care. Tlie ancient English l)ree(i was brindled yellow and bh)ck. The MastetIi'
OP Thibet is still larger than the Engiisli-; the liwtti is riiore elevated at the back: the
skin irom ihje eyebniW) fontis ft fold which descends on the hanging lip; the hair is very
rough. And the tail bushy; the color mostly a deep black.
XASTOBOV, a genus of fossil proboscidian pachyderms, nearly allied to the elephant,
but with simpler grinding teeth, adapted for bmising coarser vegetable substances, or
perhaps fitted for an animal of more onmivorous character than its modern representa-
tive. The teeth were roughly mammlllated, hence the name, meaning teat-UH)lh.
Eleven or twelve species have been described from the mlocene, pleioceue, and pleisto-
cene stratA in Europe, Asia, and America.
MASTODON" (ante). The mastodoas are distinguished from the elephants princi-
pally by flieir dentition. As in the elephants, the upper incisors grew from permanent
pulps and constituted the tusks. In most cases, moreover, the mastodons have lower
mcisora, and these often formed short tusks, which, howovur, usually disappeared in
the adult. But the more important distinction is found in the mohu' teeth, which are
more numerous in the mastodon, and have nipple-shaped tubercles. These tubercles are in
rows, the number of which varies in different species. For this reason Dr. Falconer divided
the mastodons into two principal sections, trilop?u?don and tetralophodoii. In trUophodon
are mastodon f/igan(eus, of the post-pliocene of Nortli America; M. tapiroidessind M. anffiu-
tldois of the miocene, in which there are three rows of tuberclea In tatralophodon aru
M. latidem and M. longivostrU of the miocene, and M. aroenieam of the pliocene, in
which the molars have four rows of tubercles. In M. sioalensis from tlie upper miocene
of India the molar teeth have five rows, and the last six rows of tubercles. Fur this
Dr. Falconer proposed the name of pentalophodoa. The distribution in time of tho
mastodon differs in the two hemispheres.- In Asia and Europe the genus commenced in
the miocene and became extinct in the pliocene. In America no fossils of them have
iKjen found previous to the pliocene, but they continued to the end of the post-pliocene
period. The nuistodon giganteus of North America ranged from Canada to Texas. .The
most complete skeleton perhaps which has been found was discovered in 1845 at New-
burg, Orange co., N. Y., in a swamp usually covered with water, and described by Dr.
J. C. Warren, of lioston, in which city the skeleton now stands. In this sp)ecinien the
cranium is flatter tlian in the elephiint, naiTo w between the temporal fossae, llie face liecom-
ing much wider below the nasal opening. The temporal fossae afe very large, indicating
great power in the muscles of the j^tws. The cervical vertebrse- have short spinous proc-
esses, except the last, which is 6^ inches. The spinous process of the third dor&d
vertebra is 28i in. long, the others gradually becoming less,, the last being 4 inches.
The first lumbar vertebra measures, across the transverse processes, 17 in., the boiy
measurinpj 5 inches. The sacrum consists of five bones and is 21) in. in length on tue
lower surface. The caudal bones probably numbered about 22, and were very strong at
the commencement of the tail. There are 20 ribs. 13 true, and 7 false or floating. The
firet one is 28 in., and the ninth, the longest, 541 in. long; the last Is 21 inches. The
shoulder-blade is more nearly equilateral than in the elepliant, and the glenoid cavity,
for the reception of the head of tlie humerus, is 11 by 5 inches. The humerus is 39
in. in length and the same in its largest circumference. The circumference of the elbow
joint is 44 inches. The rtidius is 29 in. long and '6^ in. wide at the lower end; the ulna
larger and 34 in. long. The fore foot is nearly 2 ft. broad. The thisb-bone, about the
length of the humerus; is 17 in. in circamferenoe at the middle and'30 in. at the lower
end; the knee-pan is nearly globular; tibia 28 in. long, 80 in. in ciix;umference at the
upper end where it articulates with the ti»igh-bone, and 131 in* Ht the middle. The
skeleton is 11 ft. in height aud 17 ft. long from end of face to commencement of tail,
which is 6 ft. 8 in. long. Tlie circumference of the skeleton around the ribs is 16 ft. 5
in., and the tusks are 11 ft. long. 8 ft. 8 in. inojeoting beyond- the sooketa About 80
species of mastodon are descrihed by Dr. Warren, in hisvrork The Maiitothn Oiganf^vs
of North America^ 2d ed. 4to. Boston, 1856. A species similar to xYkb giganUvseix^te^
during the same time in South America, also s'pecies belonging to the European- type.
MASTODONSAU'RUS. See LABYRiNTHODoir, ante,
XA8T8» Iron and Steel. As far back as 1888, the city of Dublin Bteam-packel^oom-
pany iuid a steamer with hollow iron masts, the mosts acting also as ventilating funnels for
the cabins. Fn)m that time, iron has been frequently employed for lower mnsts. in
sailing-ships as well aa in steamers. Theplan has usually been to make them of plates
bent to the proper curvalure, jointed by internal strips, and. strengthened by an Internal
cross flange of plates securecl by angle-irons; but sometimes tlie plates are lapped. The
plates vary from } to | in. in thiduusss. Mr. GranthanB (/ron^p^uiM^/)^) states that
Digitized by VjiOUV IC
585
M»t.
iron nuuts are 'lighter and strongor than timber masts; and when cotnpsffed with the
built-up masts of large vessels, sre rather less expensive. For vessels of Uie same tonnage,
the difference of weight Is nearly two to three in favor of iron«
Iron is used for yards as well as masts. An iron yard was made in 1847 for the
Australian clipper-ship Schomberg, 112 feet long, and varying in diameter from 14 to 28
in. ; it weighed 7^ tons. It was calculated tliat a timber yard of the same size would
weigh \%\ tons. Iron masts have since that time been employed iu many ships in the
roy3 navy, made of .three vertical ranges of plrtfes bent to the required curvature, with
liHtt joints, and riveted to three T^irons which cover the joints on tlie inside. ^
Capt. Cowper Coles (drowned in the OipUUti, a martyr, to Jiij* own inventiveness,
1870), the iuventor ol tliie turret system for ships of ^ war, introduced tripod iron masts.
The real mast is strengthened and upheld by two others, the three forming a tripod. Tlie
central tube, or real mast, is carriea up to form the topmast; while tlie Hide tubes are
carried up only to the height of the lower yard. The main tube rests upon the keelson ;
while the side tubes, which are on either side of it and behind it, rest upon parts of tlie
bottom-framing; but all three are fastened to the deck as tbey pass through. The lower
mast only forms the tripod, and is self-sup)x>rting. without shrouds, etc. ; the topmast
is secured with stays, backstays, and out-riggers. Capt. Coles enumerated many advant-
ages which he believed this construction to possess.
Since the use of steel in shipbuilding has become recognized, the employment of the
sanra metal for m^sts has engaged attention: steel plutes, we know, can now be made
almost as easily as plates of iron; and it becomes a question of incretised etiiciency against
increased cost as to which metal sliall be adopted, titeel being a stronger metal than iron,
masts of equal strength would weigh kss if constructed of the former thtm of the latter
metal. The bithert<> not altogether unfounded distrust felt towards 3teel in the present
state of its manufacture, has prevented its a<loption from making such rapid progress as
it was once thought it would. Actual use in war and in stormy weather will be nec-
essary, however to determine all the relative advantages of iron and steel for masts.
The subject of the stability of iron masts is treated with much fullness by Mr. Lamport,
in Q paper read before the Institute of Naval Architects in 1868.
MASUBI, or AL MASUDI (Abitl Hasajst Ali Bex Husein Ben Ali). b. Baghdad,
9th c descended from the great family of the Abdallah-ben-Masud, one of whose members
had attended Mohammed, on his flight to Medina. Masudi early devoted himself to
profound studies, to which he added "by prolonged travels in 9pain,'Russin, and through-
out the east. In the year 803, of the hegira, he was in China, where Arabic colonies
alread V existed : thence he passed through Arabia and Persia to the Caspian sea. Tliirty
years later, we And him in Syria, and the second edition of his Golden Meadoxcn^ his last
work, was written in Egjrpt. He is supposed to have died at Cairo, in the 345th year of the
he^ira, a.d., 956. He was a most voluminous writer upon a groat variety ol subjects,
and no Aral>ifln author enjoys.a higher reputation with his countrymen, fie was a geo-
grapher, a philosopher, a student of religions, to whom Confucianism and Christiaiiitv
were as familiar as Mohammedanism, and a historian acquainted with tlic ancient anil
modern history of the east and west. His Histoid qf Uie Ttmei^a history of all nations.
has never been printed. A manuscript of it in twenty quarto volumes Is in the library
of the mosque of St, Sophia. His Book of tJie Middle, devoted larjjely to geograpiiical
inquiry, is known in Europe, only by quotations from it in Arabic writers. As his
other works were too voluminous to become popular, he compiled a series of extracts
from tlie J3w/!o?^ and Book of the Middle, and published them, with some additions, under
the title of Meadows of Oola v^nd Mines of Oems. This work contains a general view of the
political, religious, and social history of the most important Asiatic and European coun-
tries; and it includes a treatise on their geognipliy. A partial translation of the Meadoms,
appeared at Lond(m, in 1841. from the pen of Dr. Alovslus Sprenger, and as El Ma*n^*s
Historical Eneyclopdedia; and there is a French translation called Les Prairies d'Or, by
Derenburg. Among Masudi's often quoted works, but existing in manuscript only, are
Th^ BookofConsid^'aHon, which treats of the order of succession to the Khalifati ; the treat-
ise On Sincerity, which gives an account of the various Mohammedan sects, and a treat-
ise on The Principles of BeUgiim, Dr. John Nicholson published in 1840 An Account of
the Eftiablii/nnentof the Ihtemiie j[>jfnaMy in Affica, from a manuscript ascribed to Masudi.
XABUXIPATAk', also called KfSTNA or Krtbhita, a maritime district of British
India, in the government of Madras. Area, 8,086 sq. m. ; pop. '71, 1,452,374. Along the
aUore to a distance of 40 or 60 m. inland, the surface is exceedingly low. lower in .some
phice& than tlie shore itself, and the lieds of tlio Kistnah and t lie Godavery. the chief rivers.
The commercial crops are chay-root. indigo, tobacco, and cotton. Chief town, Masu-
L.IFATAM, on a wide bay, in lat. 16° 12' n. Pop. 72, 36,188, who carry on cotton manu-
factures to some extent.
MAT — MATTING, a product of tlie manuflocture of diverse materials, multiform in
shape and varied in design, for purposes differing with the climate and habits of th«
people where they are made. Flaes, rushes, straw, cocoa-nut, and other palmtiber,
grass, rattan, the strands of rope, and the inner Itark of trees are used. Some are of
primitive pattern and rough workmansliip, for the promotion of neatness in the honoe
as a door-mat, to recline on for lack of a bed, for sails instead of canvas, and for doors
and windows. In Tocent, more refined deTdopment of the art sach rude fabrics haye
fierved only for protection in moving houseliold and other goods, or preserving tre«a and
plants from tlie severity of tlie weatlier. Tlie manual pi-ocess of plaiting fibrous material
mto mats is uuderatodd to bo the rudimentary intertexture which has resulted— after
passing through many gradations growing out of the luxurious habits of the Turks and
jPersiaus, and the need of the Mussulman for a portable mat to kneel upon-^in the for-
mation of textile fabrics out of threads and yarn, the almost fabulous product of the
looms of Persia and India. Rush mats were used in palaces during the reigns of aueen
Mary anci queen Elizabeth, even after the importation of carpets from the cast, and lord
Bacon, in describing a reception at which he was present, refers to a chair with "a
table and carpels before it," meaning small carpets or rugs, which were then imported
and considered very choice, straw *and rushes being good enough for common wear.
The first departure from this primitive numner of weavinff was the insertion with the
fingers of little tufts of woolen yam between the threads of the warp. The same paiu*
fully slow process is employed at the present day in the manufacture of the famous
Gol»elin tapestries. In the South Sea islands the grass-mats made by the natives arc
noted for fine qualit^r and brilliancy of coloring. In Japan a peculiar kind of iiish is
found, soft and elastic. In Cliina floor-mats are made of a kind of grass cultivated in
the south, and table-mats are made of rattans and rushes; the familiiu* Canton matting
and Japanese mats being also made of rushes. In Spain and Portugal they are made
from reeds and rushes, and la Russia the manufacture is a branch of common indu&tn-.
It is used for packing all their exports, and is made of the bark of tlie lime or lindeu
tree, sometimes called "bast," which calls the whole people into the woods in the early
summer to collect the bark, especialiv in the dominion of Viatka and a<ljoiuing district!*.
The bast trees of n. Europe (the linden or basswood of the United States), used also in
. the culture of bees, supply an inner Imrk, which, made into strands and wotQn and
twisted into the required form, are called bast mats or Russia matting. The mats are
usually from 1^ to 2 yards square, and are of great importance in the manufacture and
exports of Russia, the exportntfon in one year amount m^ to 14,000,000 mats. In Amer-
ica ba.<;t from the linden is sold for tying plants in graftmg. In Russia tiie liast is pre-
pared by steeping the bark in water for a lew days, taking it from young and tender
trees. After the steeping process its layers readily con)e apart, and are used for differ
ent purposes according to their texture. In Spiiin and Portugal esparto gniss. a species
of rush found in the s of Spain, is used principally for the manufacture of cordage, but
is said to make beautiful mats. Sugar and grain imported from the Mauritius cornea
packed in mnts made of leaves. India matting is woven from papvrva cof^jfmb(mii,
according to Simmonds, b^ others said to be papyrun Pangorei, a kind of sedge resem-
bling grass, but with a solid stem.
KAT'ADOB (Spanisli, "slayer"). See Bull-fight.
MATAGORDA, a co. in s.e. Texas, having the gulf of Mexico for its s. and s.e. boun-
dary, the Matagorda l>ny in the extreme s., and Live Oak bay In the s.e. ; drained by the
navigable Colorado river, flowinc through it centrally and emptying into Matagorda bay;
1800 sq.m.; pop '80, 8,940— 8,7^5 of American birth, 2,520 colored. It is lioundedon
the e. and s.e. by San Bernard creek. Its surface is generally level, and has a good
supply of timber, oak, and cedar; the pecan, backberry, and other tropical trees grow on
the river banks, the alluvial soil of which as well as the rich sandy soil of the level
prairies, furnishes nutritious grass, and produces com, tobacco, cotton, wool, sweet
poUitoes, butter, and sugar cane. Seat of Justice, Matagorda.
XATA(H2B DA» a sea-port and bav on the gulf of Mexico, at the mouth of the Col-
oralio river. Texas, United States of America, 80 m. w.s.w. of Galveston, an important
outlet of a country rich in cotton, sugar, rice, etc. The town was destroyed by a storm
in 1834, but has been rebuilt, and contains a population of about 2,000.
MATAGORDA ISLAND, a long, sandy island in Calhoun co., Texas, separathig
Espiritu bay from the gulf of Mexico; lat. 28" 20' 49' n., long. 96" 28' 80* west. On its
northern end, near Pass Cavallo, is an iron light-house with a flashing light.
XATAHO'BAS, a river-port of Mexico, in the department of Tamaulipas, Is situated
on the s. bank of the Rio Grande, 40 m. from the mouth of that river in the gulf of
Mexico. Pop. 20.000. The chief exports are specie, hides, wool, and horses; the chief
imports, manufactured goods from Great Britain and the United States.
MATAMOROS, Mariano, 1770-1814; of Mexican birth; very little is known of
his early life or education. He is first heard of as a priest at a small vilhige called Jan-
teloco, in the district of Cuernuraca, but in 1811, anmsed by the constant atrocities and
insults of the Spanish troops, he Joined the army of insurgents under command of the
patriot, Morclos. Bv him he was given the rank of col., and took a most important
part in tlie battles of Ouantla (1812), Oaxaea* aad most notably at the victory of San
Augustin del Palmar (1818), which was due almost entirely to his military genius. Had
his nominal superiore relied implicitly on Matamoros's judgment as a gen., tlie issue of
the revolution might have been reversed; but rashly attempting the attack on Valladolid,
the Mexican leader's forces were routed and ** the right hand of Molero/' as Matamoros
was popularly named, captured and shot at the city of Valladolid, Feb. IB, 1814. His
Digitized by VjOUV IC
name has been bestowed on the larro citj of Matamoros, on the banks of Rio Grande*
and upon many smaller towns and districts of the country. By the historians of the
time he is regarded as, of all the revolutionary leaders of the period, the one best fitted,
from a military point of view, to command success.
XATAirZAS, a fortified t. and sea-port on the n. const of tlic island of Cuba. 55 m.
e. of Havana, with which it is connected by railwav. It is situated in an exceediughr
ricu and fertile district, has an excellent, well-sheftered harbor, and a pop. of 86,000.
After Havana, it is the most important trading place on the island.
MATAPAN, Cape. See Caps Matapan, ante,
MATABO^ a fiouriahinir city and seaport of Spain, in the province of Barcelona, 17i
m. D.e. by railway from the city of that name. There are here cotton-spinning mills,
flevenil of which are driven by steam, sailcloth factories, tanneries, several iron-
foundries. Pop. 17,500. At the harbor, there are docks, at which bhip-bullding is car-
ried on.
MATCHES, pieces of various infiammablc materials prepared for the piupose of
obtaining fire readily. One of the first forms of this useful article was the brimstone
match, made by cutting very thin strips of highly resinous or very dry pine-wood, about
6 in. long, with pointed ends dipped in melted sulphur; thus prepared, the sulphur
points instantly ignited when applied to a spark obtiained by striking fire into tinder
from a flint and steel. This was in almost universal use up to the end of the first
quarter of the present century, when several ingenious inventions followed each other in
rapid succession, and displaced it so completdy tliat it would be now very difiicult to
purchase a bunch of brimstone matches. The mrst of these inventions was the "instan-
taneous-light box," which consisted of a small tin box containing a bottle, in which was
placed some sulphuric acid with sufficient fibrous asbestus to soak it up and prevent ite
spilling out of the bottle, and a supply of properly prepared matches. These consisted
of small splints of wood about 2 in. long, one ena of which was coated with a chemical
mixture, prepared by mixing chlorate of potash, 8 parts; powdered loaf sugar 3 parts,
powdered gum-arabic, 1 part; the whole colored with a little vermilion, and made into a
thin paste with water. The splints were first dipped into melted sulphur, and afterwards
into the prepared pa^rte. They were readily intiamed by dipping the prepared ends into
the sulphuric acid. There were several disadvantages in this invention, especially those
arising from the use of so destructive a material as sulphuric acid, which also bad another
drawback: its great power of absorbing moisture soon rendered it inert by the absorption
of moisture from the atmosphere. The lucif er match succeeded the at)ove, and differed
materially: the bottle of sulphuric acid and all its inconveniences were dispensed with;
the match was either of small strips of pasteboard or wood, and the inflammable mixture
was a compound of chlorate of potash and sulphuret of antimony, with enough of powdered
^um to render it adhesive when mixed with water, and applied over the end of the match,
dipped as before in melted brimstone. These matches were ignited by the friction
caused by drawing them through a piece of bent sand-paper. So very popular did these
become, that although they have since passed away like their predecessors, they have left
their name behind, which U popularly applied to other kinds since invented. Next to
the lucifer in importance was the congreve, which is the one generally used at present.
The body of the match is usually of wood, but some, called vestas, are of very thin wax-
taper. The composition consists of phosphorus and niter, or phosphoinis, sulphur, and
clilorate of potash, mixed with melted gum or glue, and colored with vermilion, red-lead,
umber, soot, or other coloring material. The proportions are almost as varied as the
manufacturers are numerous. The congreve match requires only a slight friction to
ignite it, for which purpose the bottom or some other part of the box is made rough by
attaching a piece of sand-paper, or covering it, after wetting it with glue, with sand.
Amadou, or Glerman tinder, is largely made into congreve matches or fusees, as they
aire often called, for the use of smokers to light their pipes or cigars. One of the latest
and best introductions is that of Bryant and May, which is properly called the ' ' special
safety match." With every variety of lucifer and con^eve, tliere are certjiin dangers
attending the iise, for in both a slight friction will ignite them, and as, from the very
nature of their application, ihey are apt to be carelessly thrown about, they are conse-
quently exposed to the risk of accidental friction, and have doubtless been the cause of
numerous and serious conflagrations. The congreves are exposed to further risks of
accidental ignition arising from the emplojTnent of pha«?phorus, which, from its very
inflammable nature, will ignite spontaneously if the temperature is a little higher tlian
ordinary. The match of Messrs. Bryant ana May, although a new introduction, was
invented in Sweden, under the name of the Swedish safety match, by a Swede named
Lundstrom, a large manufacturer of matches at JOnkdping, in 1855 Or 1856, and patented
m this coimtry by the firm above mentioned. The only essential difference from the
congreves is in leaving out the phosphorus from the composition applied to the match,
and instead, mixing it with the sand on the friction-surface, thus separating this highly
inflammable material from its intimate and dangerous connection with the sulphur and
chlorate of potash. This simple invention seems to have removed all the objections from
the use of this class of matches. They light '* only on their own box."
Many ingenious inventions have oeen introduced for making the /v^oodcn ^Imts.
Hatohlock. XOQ
MMerlHUnm. ^^^
The square ones, which have always proved to bs tho best, arc cat very simply by twa
sets of knives acting transversely to each other. The round ones, which always* have
the fault of weakness, are cut by a perforated steel plate invented in 1842 by Mr. Par
tridge. The perforations are the same Fize as the splints; and their edges are sufficiently
sharp, when pressed on the tmnsverse section of the wood, to cut down tlirough it The
various ornamental forms of the German match-makers, who excel in this manufaetuh?,
are produced by planes, the irons of which are so constructed as to plow up splints of the
form required. These are usually made of a soft kind of pine wood — that of <ibi($^iecU-
nata is preferred in Austria and (Jermany — of which vast quantities are yielded by the
forests of upper Austria. Until the introduction of amorphous phosphorns (sec ftios-
PHORUs), the trade of match-making was fearfully unhealthy; the emanation of phos-
phoric acid, when common phosphorus was usea, eave rise to necrosis, or mortifica-
tion of the bones, and fatal effects often followed. Too many manufacturers are still
using the common kind for cheapneas, but others avoid the injury to their work-people
by employing the amorphous kind. This, and other dangerous manufactures, demand
legislative interference.
The trade in matches has assumed enonnous dimensions, especially m Gh^nnany,
where vast quantities are exported. One firm, having its principal establishment at
Schttttenhofen in Bohemia, employs 2,700 persons in this manufacture: more than one
firm in JEngland produces 10,000.000 congreve matches per day; and a Birmingham firm
manufactures daily 8 miles of thin wax -taper, and converts it into congreve matches.
Indeed, so wonderfully has match-making developed itself that in this country more
thousands are now engaged in it than there were hundieda of pereons who found empk>y*
ment in making the brimstone matches formerly.
MATCHLOCK. See Lock.
KATE (allied to ineei, measured, suitable, conformable, equal, companionable) is m
assistant, a deputy, or a second in any work ; in this sense it is a common word in nau-
tical affaii's. In the navy its .use is now confined to petty officers, such as boatswains
mate, gunner's mate, etc. ; but formerly several officers bore the title, as master's mate,
now second master, surgeon^s mate, now assistant-surgeon. Until within a few years the
distinctive term niate stu'vived, and was applied to a grade between lieutenant and mid-
shipman: tlie title is now changed to subUeutenant (q.v.).
In the merchant-service the mates are important officers, holding functions not greatly
inferior to those of lieutenants in the royal navy. The first mate ranks next to the mns.
ter or captain, commands in his absence, and is immediately responsible for the state of
the vessel; the second and third (and fourth in large well-found vessels) have various
analogous duties, the junior mate generally having the superintendence of the stowage
of the cargo.
KATE, or pAKAOtJAT Tea, a substitute for tea, extensively used in South Amcdca,
and almost universally through Brazil. It consists of the leaves and green shoots of cer-
tain species of holly (q.v.) more especially Ilex Paragtmyerms, dried and roughly ground;
the leafy jiortion being reduced to a coarse powder, and the twigs being in a more or less
broken stfite, sometimes, however, as much as an inch in length. The term mat^, which
has by usage attached to this material, belonged originally to the vessels in which it was
infused for drinking; these were usually made of gourds or calabashes, often trained
into curious forms during their growth. Into the hollow vessels thus formed a small
quantitjr of the material, more properly called y^^ de muii, is put, and boiling water Is
added; it is then handed round to those who are to partake of it; and each being pro-
vided with a small tube about 8 in. in length, with a small bulb at one end, made "cither
of basket-work of wonderful fineness, or of perforated metal, to act as a strainer, and
prevent the fine particles from being drawn up into the mouth, dips in this instrument,
which is called a bombiUa, and sucks up a small portion of the infusion, and passes the
mate-bowl on to the next person. It is usual to drink it exceedingly hot, so much so as
to be extremely unpleasant to Europeans. Its effect is much the eame as tea, stimulat-
ing and restorative ; and it derives this property from the presence of a large proportion
of the .same principle which is found in tea and coffee — viz., theine. The collection
and preparation of mat6 is a large industrial occupation in Paraguay and Brazil; and
the learned and accurate botanist Mr. John Miers has proved that not only lle.r Pitragnay-
en»is, but also /. euritibensi^, I. gigant€<i, L oDaUfoh'a, I. Hvmboldtiana, and /. niffropftnf-
tata, besides several varieties of these species, are in geheral use. It is very remark-
able that when caffeic acid, to which coffee owes its agreeable flavor, independently of
the theine, is treated with sulphuric acid and binoxide of manganese, it forms kinone;
and by treating the mate with the same agents, kinone has also been obtained.
Upwards of 5,000,000 lbs of mat6 are annually exported from Paraguay to other
parts of South America; but it is not yet an article of export to other quarters of the
world.
Ilex ParagvayenMt is a large shnib or small tree; with smooth, wedge-shaped,
remotely serrated leaves, and umbels of small flowers in the axils of the leaves. The
leaves of many species of holly possess properties very different from those of the mat6
trees. Some are emetic.
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MATELICA,*a t. in the province of Macemta,or, as it is sometimes cnl\ed,IfaceraUi-e-
Camerino, one of the former papal states and a part of the district iLuown as the Marches.
It is a walled town of from 8,000 to 3, .500 inhabitants, situated on the San Augelo river and
not far from 25 m. s. w. of the town of Macerata. The place contains several convents and
churches. The inhahitauts are chiefly engaged in agriculture, the raising of fruit, and,
to a small extent, in woolen manufactures.
V ATEBAf a c. of the Italian province Potenza, situated between lovely valleys. 87 m.
w. n. w. of Taranto. Pop. 14,225. It has an episcopal palace, a calhearal, and a col
legu. but its lower classes are reputed the mont. uncivilized of southern Italy; they dwell
chictly in ancient caverns» excavated in the side of the deep valley surrounding the town,
and are much afflicted with cretiDisin. Matera has manufactures of leather and anns, and
a trade in nitre and agricultural produce.
MATERIAL CAUSE, in metaphysics, is the first in order of the four kinds of causes
which Aristotle points out, and which later philosophers generally adopt. As thus defined
it is the physical basis for tlie existence of a thing; or, in other words, the matter of which
the thing is made. The material cause of a thing is, consequently, to some extent the
thing itself; for example, it has been said that the materitU cause of a marble statue is
niarble, yet of any particular block of marble, parts must he cut away in order that
the finished statue may appear.
MATEEIALIflM. This the name for a certain mode of viewing the nature of mind,
namely, to regard it either as mere matter, or as a product of the material oi'gnnization.
The opposite view is called spiritualism, and means that the mind, although united with
the bo<ly, is not essentially dependent on bodily organs, but may have an existence apart
from these. There has been much controversy on this question; and although in later
times the immateriality of the mind has been the favorite view, and been treated by many
as a supposition essential to the doctrine of man's immoi-tality: yet, in the eariiest a^es
of the Christian church, the materialistic view was considered the most in unison with
re"* elation, and was upheld against the excessive spiritualizing tendencies of the platonic
schools. Tertullian contended that the scriptures prove, in opposition to Plato, that the
soul has a bcgiuning, and is corporeal. He ascribes to it a peculiar character or consti-
tution, and even boundary, length, breadth, height, and figure. (This last view is incom-
pa(iV)le with the definition of mind. See Mind.) To him, incorporeity was another
name for nonentity {nihU ett iveorjxn'nle, nm ^w<?rf7»<7n «kO J «nd he extended the same
principle to the Deity, who, he conceived, must have a body. He could not comprehend
either the action of outward things on the mind, or the power of the mind to originate
movements in outward things, unless it were corporeal.
The state of our knowJedge at the present time shows us more and more the intimacy
of tile alliance between our mental functions and our bodily organization. It would
appear that feeling, will, and thought arc in all cases accompanied with physical changes;
DO valiil exception to this rule has ever been established. Mind as known to us, there-
fore, must be considered as reposing upon a series of material organs, altliough it be
totally unlike, and in fundamental contrast to, any of those properties or functions that
we usually term material — extension, inertia, < olor, etc. We never can resolve mind into
mFtter; Uiat would be a confounding of the greatest contrast that exists in the entire com-
past* of our knowledge (see -itfiND); but we are driven to admit, from the whole tenor of
modem investigation, that the two are inseparably united within tlie sphere of the animal
kingdom. '* Chir consciousness in this life is an embodied conwiionsncss. Human under-
standing and belief are related, in a variety of wiiys, to the original and successive states
or the Ixxiily orpinism from birth to death. Observation and experiment prove the
important practical fact that the conscious life on earth of everv individual is dependent
on his orffanism and its history" (professor Fraser's Batianal Philo6ophy). See Lange's
able GesSUchU de* McUerialitmus (£ng. transl. 1877).
MATERIALISM {anU). One diflaculty in treating this subject is that of giving a
definition of the term satisfactory to all parties. Webster defines a materialist as "one
who denies the existence of spiritual substances, and maintains that the soul of man is the
result of a particular orjranization of matter in the body." Knight's English cyclopoedia
define?* materialism as "a name applied to any philosophical system which denies the
exiMteucc of a spiritual or immatenal principle in man, called the mind or soul, distinct
fnmi matter; or in other words, denies the immateriality of the foul." The EncyrMffXPtfia
Bnlannica says ** materialism is the name piven to that speculative theory which
resolves all existence into a modification of matter." The latter definition is practically
the most comprehensive and correct, although some materialists might with justice
object to it without modification, for tliere are those who are practically materialists, if
they do not call themselves such, who do not rieny the existence of God, at the same
time that they maintain that matter contains within itself— either endowed, or originally
possessing — properties by which it is capable of transfoi*ming itself into the various
forms of life, and moreover that this power is not essentially the active presence of
Deity. The belief of the union or the unity of God and matter is pantheism (q.v.). It
is common to denote the opposite doctrine to materialism by the term idealism: but this
fails to make sufficient distinction, and is not as appropriate as the word spiritualism in
KkterlallnD.
590
its proper senae, as used to deeignate a belief in a spiritual being who created the uni-
verse and controls its phenomena by laws or by continuous force, and who has moreover
endowed certain of the higher animals with certain degrees of intelligence, giving to
man especially intellectual powers which are generally believed, to result from the
possession of nn immaterial and immortal spirit separate from the divine, which, uiH>n
Uic dissolution of the body, is to continue its existence in anotlier world, and, moreover,
as those who accept divine revelation believe, is to be rewarded or punished. The terms
materialism and materialisi have often been misapplied, and it is sometimes difficult to
form an opinion as to whether the views of some of the ancient, as well as modern phi-
losophers are essentitill v muterialistic or not. Democrittis is usually classed as a material-
ist ; but such a disposal of his philosophy cannot accord with a rational treatment of the
subject of materiausm as it meets us to-day, for one of his propositions U as follows:
*'Tlie soul consists of fine, smooth, round atoms, like those of tine. These atoms are
the most mobile, and by their motion, which permeates the whole body, the phenomena
of life are produced. Democritiis also believed that thi» matter was distributed ihroiigh-
out the universe, producing the phenomena of heat, li^ht and life. Epicurus, who may
be considered in some respects as a follower or disciple of Democritus, taught that the
soul WHS a tine substance, distributed through the whole mass of the body, and most
resembles the air, with an infusion of warmth. This soul was not, however, immortal,
but ceased to live on the dissolution of the body; but it was something superior to the
matter of the body. This, therefore, was at least a modified form of materialism, and
not that which invests the matter of the body itself with vital and intellectual power. It
was not so spiritual a doctrine as that held by 8ocrates and Plato, the soul, according to
them, being indestructible and devoid of all grossness. The author of the article
•'Materialism" in Knight's English cydopssdia says: **The systems to which tlie name
materialism is applied may be roughly distributed under a threefold division, f^rst, it
is applied to a system Oil^e that of Hartley) which admits tho existence of a soul, but
which, attempting to explain mental phenomena physically, 6r by movements arising
out of the bodily organization, seems to imply materialism. Secondly, it is applied to
the system of Hobbes and Priestly, and of the French school of writers of which Dc la
Mettiie may l)e taken as a specimen, which distinctly deny the existence of a soul as a
separate principle in man, but which do not deny either a God or a future state. Tn the
systems of these writers is evolved the pure antf proper idea of materialism divested of
all unnecessixry consequences. Thirdly and lastly, the name is applied to systems like
that of tbe ancient Epicureans, which deny both a future state of rewards and punish-
ments, and a divine creator, systems for which atheism would be the better mime, inns-
much as materialism fails to denote their more important and distinctive Ingredient!^.''
Upon further mention of Priestly this writer says: ** He docs not deny the immortality
of man and a future state of rewards and punishments. On the contrary, he distinctly
affirms these on the authoritv of Scripture. It is needleps to add that DV. Priestly does
not deny the existence of a tiod." It is therefore perceived that there aro vtu*ious ideas
as to what constitutes materinlism.
It would be un profitably occupying the space assigned to this article to undertake
even to give a summary of tlie history and development of the various theories con-
nected with the doctrine of materialism. Its history is found scattered through various
writings, much of it embodied in the biographies of the various philosophers who have
from time to tinie in all a^es propounded theories; in philosophical histories of different
epochs and nations; in philosophical and religious disquisitions and sermons; in various
works on metaphysics and philosophy, and in systematic histories. No attempt will
therefore be made even to assign many of those who have written upon the subject their
just and proper position. It would l)e impossiblo to give a fajr representation of their
views in a few pages, when long dissertations have failed. As far, therefore, as reganls
the history of the subject the reader is referred to the various biographical notices of per-
sons which may be found in this work, such as Democritus, Pytlmgoras, Socrates, Plato.
Aristotle, Lucretius, Enipedocles, Epicunis, Bacon, Locke, Ilbbbcs, Berkeley, Gassendi.
Descartes, I^ibuitz, Kant, Spinoza. Hegel, Holbach, and Priestly, and to the accessible
works of these philosophers, as well as to those of morje modern"^ authors, on both sides
of the subject, metaphysicians and scientists, such as sir William Hamilton, Paley, Jona-
than Edwards, Mark tlopkins, Charles Hodge, Edward Hitchcock. Maudsley,'ilerbcrt
Spencer, Huxley, Tyndall, James D. Dana, John W. Draper. William B. Carpenter,
Joseph Lc Coute {Uetigion a?id Science), Bastian, Lionel Bcale, Hermann Lotze, lieckel.
Charles Darwin, and Du Bois Reymond, and to Lewes's Histoi^y of Philomphy, and Lange's
JliJitova of Mafcrialtsm.
What are the evidences in favor of materialism, what are the evidences against it, and
what is the naturc of these evidences? On the one hand, physical examination fails to
find, or at least to demonstrate, any physical power in the living organism which cannot
be accounted for by correlation of phj-sical forces, and it is contended that the perform-
ances of various functions follow each other consecutively, according: to external cir-
cumstances. As far as the doctrine of evolution may be made use of to favor that of
materialisiu, it is contended that geology and zoology furnish evidence of the gradual
progression in development from lower to higher forms of life. There are connectiug-
linkj, it is asserted, which show thr.t one form of animal organization has been trans-
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XaleriaUun.
formed into another. In some of the lower crustaceans particularly, the transformations
are held to l)c quite evident. lu the coelenterata (jelly fishes, etc.) VHrious metumorphoses
and alternations of generations occur {nee Qekkration8» Alternation of) which ure
held as evidence of Lhe power of evolution possessed b^ protoplasmic matter. Geology
is claimed to have given a verdict in favor of progressive development in the discovery
of fossils of the horse family in tertiary formations from. the eocene up lo the quaternary
period (see Horsb^ Fossil). The experiments of several scientists with vegetable infusions
for a long time seemed to show that animal organisms could be developed in dead organic
matter containing no living germs, but recently it has been shown that when proper pre-
cautions are talLen to exclude all atmosphj?ric germs and also to destroy all living matter
contained in the infusions, no development of ufe takes place. A recent writer remarks;
*' Numerous questions have arisen from time to time through the contiicts of materialism
with op^sing doctrines, and it will be found that these questions have l)een brought to
definite issues, in our day, for final settlement,'* This is either hoping for too much or
for a questionable result. It is more probable that human investigation will never bring
the question to a settlement, but that it will ever elude the grasp of the investigator, and
it is probably a wise provision that it is so. It is a conflict out of which flows the most
beneficial effects upon human character and understanding; for it is a law of nature that
all our faculties, physical as well as menUd, are strengthened and more perfectly devel-
oped in combating with opposing forces. !No macuine, intellectual or physicul, can
accompli^ work without opposing force or rewttance. Moreover, if we possessed com-
l)lete evidence that we totally penshed when our bodies under\vent dissolution, or that
our spirits were immortal, coupled with a foresight of our destlnv, no beneficial result
could follow, but we would, with the natures we now possess, perhaps be rendered mis-
erable. One of the principal evidences which have been brought forward against the
doctrine of materialism is the almost universal aspiration after u future life. Dr. John
William Dmper, in his History o/ the OonfUet between BeUgioti and Science, says: *• Nature
has thus imq^ted in the organization of every man means which impress! veU" suggest
to Uim the immortality of the soul and a future life." But this is a belief and will
probably always continue a beFief. Leibnitz attempted to prove the immortality of
the soul by his doctrine of monads, but probably no writer has furnished more ideas to
fortify the doctrines of materialism than he; the essence of his doctrine was indeed
materialistic. The atom produces its own sensations from ifsclf, and it develops
itself in accordance with its own internal laws of life. Every monad is a world to
itself, and no one is like another, but the ideas of all the monads consist in an eter-
nal system, in a complete harmony, which was ordained from the beginning of time,
and which constantly persists through the continuous vicissitudes in all the monads.
Every monad represents to itself, confusedly or clearly, the whole universe, the whole
sum of all that happens, and the sum of all the monads in the universe. liie monads
of inorganic nature have only ideas which completely neutralize themselves, as those of
a man in a drcaiflless sleep. The monads of the organic world are higher, the lower
animals bemti: formed of dreaming monads. In the higher, they have sensation and
memory, and in man they have thought. Lange observes: ' ' The monads with their pre- •
established haimonv reveal to us the true nature of things as little as the atoms and the
laws of nature, 'fliey afford, however, a pure and self-contained conception of the
world, like materialism, and do not contain more inconsistencies than this system. But
what especially secured the popularity of the Leibnitzian system is the ductile looseness
of its notions, and the circumstance that its radical consequences were much better
marked than those of materialism. In this respect nothing is more useful than a
thoroughgoing abstraction. The tyro who shudders at the thought that the ancestors of
the human race might once have been compared with the apes of to-day, comfortably
swallows down tlic monad theory, which declares the human soul to be essentidly like
all the beings of the universe, down to the m(9st despised mote, which all mirror the uni-
verse in themselves, are all small divinities to themselves, and bear within them the
same content of idea.^, only in various arrangement and development. We do not imme-
diately observe that the ape monads are also included in the series, that they are as
immortal as the human monads, and that tliey may yet, perchcmce, in the course of
development, attain to a beautifully ordered content of ideas, . . It is very much .
lhe sam 2 with the much -extolled and much^bused optimism of Leibnitz's system. Viewed
in the light of reason, and tested by its real presuppositions' and consequences, this
optinriism is nothing but the application of a mechanical principle to the foundation of
the facts of the world. God, in choosing the I>est of possible worlds, does nothing tliat
would not Ix; quite mechanically produced if we suppose the essences of things to act
upon each other. In all this, God proceeds like a mathematician in solving a problem,
and he must so proceed, because his perfect intelligence is bound to the principle of
sufi^clent reason — in the result it all comes to the siune thing as if w^e Tvere to deduce the
development of the universe /rom the mechnnical presuppositions of a Laplace and a
Darwin," (Lange, Uutifyi'y of Malenalutm, Boston: Houghton, Osirood & Co., 1880, pp.
180, 131. 133.) The question ever recure, how can matter produce thought? The asser-
tion \.yy Leibnitz that it is the inlierent principle of the monad, it is contended, is only
nn assertion, a product of the imagination, and the doctrine that a certain combination
of atoms produces it, is likcTvise held to be just as much the result of imagination. That
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693
it requires organization to produce manifestations of thou^lit, whicli we, as pbyaicall^
constituted iMjings, can comprehend or perceive, is u necessity of the case, and a condi-
tion which limits liuman knowledge. We cannot make a pliysical demonstration of a
purely spiritual subject. If tlie mind acts or exists without the intervention of matter
we are necessarily unconscious of it, and are obliged to search for other evidences than
material phenomena, and for the advocate of the production of thought by the correla-
tion of atomic energy to demand that tlie spiritualist shall accept only physical evi-
dences is equivalent to the dictating tlie limits of controversy. Four th'busiind years of
experience and 2,000 years of controversy have not settled the question. Perhaps if an
instance could be cited in which rapidity of thought had fur outstripped all the possi-
bilities of physical methods, it would furnish strong evidence of the immateriality of the
human mind, unless, indeed, we adopt Leibnitz's doctrine of monads. Have there been
such instances? Is it possible that there ever was a case in which the nervous mechan-
ism, or a part of it, admitted a perfectly unobstructed performance of an intellectual
function by the immaterial principle or mind? Can we account in Any other manner
for the remarkable mathematical calculating powers of Zerah Colbum (q.v.), who could
answer accurately, almost in an instant, such questions as the following, and others
much more difficult: How many seconds are there in 11, 15, or 16 veaps? What is the
square of 999,999? etc. This is an instance of the almost perfect adaptability of nervous
organization to its uses. It is so much in excess of ordinaiy — ^what we term, perhaps
improperly — noi-mal mental activity, that it becomes a question whether we are not
con)pelled to regard it as the result of the comparatively imobstructed operations of a
spiritual intelligence. The fact that this remarkable talent left him at about the age of
21 would be explained by a spiritualist in one way, and by a materialist in another. An
unsolvable question is always capable of receiving opposite explanations. The proba-
bilities may very greatly preponderate to one side, but they are not sufficient to con-
vince, and the most sincere minds may be so constituted as to form opposite conclusions.
When the experiments in spontaneous generation above alluded to were shown to he
faulty, it was Believed by many that the doctrine of evolution, as well as that of more
decided materialism, had received a severe blow, but an evolutionist was amon^ the
foremost in demonstrating the failure of spontaneous generation, and the majority of
evolutionists are probably opposed to the doctrine of spontaneous generntion. The
results of such experiments do not, however, affect permanently either the doctrine of
evolution or of materialism or spontaneous generation. If spontaneous generation ever
takes place, it may require conditions which are incompatible with the sealing of boiled
infusions in flasks, or tlieir protection from the descent of atmospheric germs by the
bending down of open capillary beaks of the flasks. But if it could be satisfactorily
proved that spontaneous generation never occurs, it would not aid the establishment of
the doctrine of spiritualism. The trath is that the nature of the question does not admit
of physical or experimental proof, and, indeed, does not seem to be affected by geologi-
cal evidence.
The argument for the existence of an intelligent spint independent of the body, and
not subjected to the variations of its physical functions, must, from the necessity of the
case, be carried on by the reasoning powers, with perhaps some reliance upon physio-
logical facts as means of explanation : but the most important part of the argument,
leaving out the question of a revelation, rests upon the evidences of design^ If it is
admitted that the works of nature furnish such evidence, then there is a Being whose
attributes must be such as to make it probable that the mind of man has not been
endowed with intellectual powers and aspirations which are destined to end in nothing-
ness. To maintain that inorganic matter could have ari-anged itself in the various living
forms with all the adaptations of means to ends, both as regards use and beauty, because
the Creator does not manifest himself in person, because we are not peimitted to per-
ceive him with our senses, is, as Paley hfts logically said, miite as inconsistent as to
deny that a watch is the product of mechanical design merely because the process of
its construction had not been the subject of personal obsenation. The processes of
nature do, indeed, take place in ways that are perfectly mysterious and unknown to us.
Certain invariable effects are called laws, but the secret springs by which those laws are
executed are entirely beyond our ken. We call a certain force the attraction of gravita-
tion, biit what, in reality^ that attraction is, is no more known to us than if we had not
learned to measure or to trace the paths of the planets. We cannot cast aside the evidence
furnished by inexorable logic, and that logic tells us that if circumstantial evidence is of
value, all matter is moved by supernatural power. Leibnitz and others thought they had
discovered that power as residing in the matter itself, but others, and among them per-
haps the most acute and broadly observing experimental philosopher the world has ever
known, Faraday, have placed it in points and lines of force, for the purpose of giving a
scientific expression to certain facts^ at the same time acknowledging their utter InabiJity
to come any nearer a solntion. Faraday, in a lecture on mental education, in 1854, u.«ed
the following words: ** High as man is placed above the creatures around him, there is a
higher and far more exalted position within his view; and the ways are infinite in which
he occupies his thoughts al)out the fears, or hopes, or expectations of a future life. I
believe that the truth of the future cannot be brought to his knowledge by any exertion
of his mental powers, however exalted they may be; Uiat it is made known to him by
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MatexiaUsm.
otiier teacliing than his own, and is received through simple belief of the testimony given,"
Here is tlie testimony of one of the most rigid of scienti^c investigators that the highest
evidence of spiritual existence is internal; and why, we may ask, may not such evidence,
coming as it does from hundreds of thousands of all classes of persons, tlie most highly
cultured as well as otliers, be received as well as speculations about the properties of
protoplasm or of monads? If unanimity of testimony is of value, certainly there is more
of it among the thousands who believe than among the disputants in the scientific arena.
But we dismiss all these points with the remark that althougli. as Faraday says, in a sub-
sequent sentence to the above, that man by reasoning cannot find out God. he is com-
pfUed to use his reasoning powers in the study of nature in such a wajr as to lead him to
ndopt the best methods of forming a belief as to his relations to time, as well as his
present surroundings. The world is full of what to the human understanding are inex-
plicable facts. Certain persons perform the most irrational acts, not only tiiose wiiich
appear to the ordinary understanding to be irrational, but which, according to all the
laws of mental philosophy, are known to be imitional; and vet we can give no satisfac-
tory explanation of tliem. To say that the organism is deranged proves nothing for
either side of the question, for the mind, it may be said by one, requires an instrument
nut deranged to manifest itself, while the other contends that rational thought can only be
produred by an organism which retains to a certain degree the harmony of its parts, or, im
other words, which possesses certain physical relations. In either case, whether the brain
is the instninient or the producer of thought, it requires to be in order, and it will be
seen that an attempt to oemonstrate either the presence or the absence of spiritual power
will fall short of actual proof, and that the best we can do is to form a well-founded
belief. The great fact that design is stamped upon all the works of nature, must always
be borne in mind. We can conceive of no designing power independent of Him whom
we call Providence or God, and when we acknowledge his existence we are forced to
admit that liis creatures must have been the subject of his care, and that he has not left
them to grope in blindness throughout all the a^es of then: past existence without a light
more than that which can be furnished by physico^scientific investigations. What, then,
it may be asked, is the value of physical research? Its proper fruits or objects, if we
reason from analogy and observe the beneficent provisions of surrounding nature, are
iutellectual enjoyment and the cultivation of a faith, that highest attainment of the
nnderstandin^, which rests with confidence upon the eternal justice of the unseen gov-
ernment of the universe, and which shall finally show to mankind that their highest
aspirations are not idle dreams produced by selfish or morbid longmgs which have no
foundation in the constituted order of nature.
We see in nature the most perfect adaptation of means to ends. The mechanism of
the haman body perhaps offers the most perfect examples of this. The mechanism of
the human hand has furnished a subject for one of the most profound and elegant of the
Bridge water treatises, by sir Charles Bell, and the contrivances found in the structure of
the eve are still more illustrative of design. The evidence, however, offered in some of
the lower forms of animals, are, as being simpler, more conclusive to the non-
scientific observer. We walk along the sea-beach and pick up a mollusk which has
recently been washed ashore or dug out of the sand. We remove the shell from
the animal, and perceive that its hinge is cased over and interlaced with an elas-
tic, gluey substance, which not only serves to assist in holding the shells in
place, but by their elasticity to open them. In some cases the materialist, or the
evolutionist might suppose that the living molecules in a certain part of the mollusk
might, in accordance with certain physico-vital proyjerties, arrange themselves for the
purpose of accomplishing what might be termed an impending function, or a function
becoming immediately necessaiy for the pui^poses of evolution or further development;
but we open another species of bivalve mollusk, and instead of the mere addition or
coaling of a little elastic glue, we find at the hinge in either shell a chamber, hollowed
(jui as by a mechanical instrument, and occupying the space so formed by the two little
cups, an independent and detached clastic pad whose action is that of a spring in oppos
i:lon to the muscles which close the shells. Nobody can make the examination without
l)cing almost startled at what, without irreverence, might be called the legible autograph
of the Creator's hand. It is impossible to conceive how any process of grathuil evolu-
tion, or of abrupt self formation, if such a phenomenon can be imagined, could bring
about such a result. Now, It is not within the possibilities of science to demonstrate
whether this mechanism has been brought about by the voluntary act of the Creator or
by evolution. We are, therefore, loft to adopt the most reasonable, the most probable,
conclusion; and it is here, perhaps, that people will always differ. Some will contend
that evolution is the only natural process of creation, while the mass of mankind will
probably always think ijiat the wonderful works of nature are too vast, too mighty, to
lie the production of anything less than omnipotent desijrn.
Philosophers have been censured by believers in Bible revelation for sometimes call-
in;; the human body a human machine; but if the soul is independent and 8Ui>erior lo the
iMKiy, then the body must l)e a machine. Looking upon the subject in this light we can
♦ xplain the influence of education, and also why ihe mind cannot manifest itself till Us
instruments, the parts of the nervous mechanism, ai'e properly prepared. A perfectly
intelbgent soul might inhabit the body and yet not be able to manifest itself. Further
U. K. IX.— 88 Digitized by V^UU^IC
UaterUUmn.
593
it requires organization to produce manifestations of thought, ^hjcji ^^ ^ P^^^^*^^
constituted l)Sings, can comprehend or perceive, is a necessily of „^^,^' ^tfon ^^
tion wliich limits iiuman knowledge. We cannot make a V^'y^'^^^^^"^^^^^
purely spiritual subject. If tlie mind acts or ex sts wiiliout he l"*f,^J^*°i;?^^^^
we are necessarily unconscious of it, and are obliged to ^J^^-^^^ ^^^^^^^ Tv the^rre?^
material plienomena, and for the advocate of the Production of thouglitb^^^^^
lion of atomic energy to demand that the spintuahst shall accept ^I'^y^^^'^^
dences is equivalent to the dictating the limits of controversy. ^^,«j;[. ^^^^S^^^^^^^^ ^„
experience and 2.000 years of controversy have not settled the q^esnmK f^'^;;^^^^
instance could \ye cited in which rapidity of thought had far o;^|f ^J PI^^ "!,! ^ ^^^^
bililies of physical methods, it would furnish strong evidenc;e of ^^e,^'"'""^^^"*^^^^^^^
human mind, unless, indeed, we adopt Leibnitz's doctrine of monads^ „^™ m^cK
such instances? Is it possible that there ever was a ctisc ni which the "/^^^"^.^f ^^^^
ism, or a part of it. acfmitted a perfectly unobstructed performance o^/° '°*^^^^
function by the immaterial principle or mind? Can we account manj othe^^^^
for the remarkable mathematical calculating powers of Zerah Colburn {q.v.), who ^oui«
answer accurately, almost in an instant, such questions as ^^^^ foll^J^ln^^na mue
much more difficult: How many seconds are there m 11, l^'Or 16 reare? wn^^^^
square of 999.999? etc. This is an instance of the almost perfect af aP^^bibty of nf^v^"^
organization to its uses. It is so much in excess of ordmaiy-what we term P^»^«PJ
improperly-normal mental activity, that it becomes a question Yif^^npirtlonlof »
compelled to regard it as the result of the comparatively ^o^^^iT^^^^^ ,^P^™/, f air^^of
spiritual intelligence. The fact that this remarkable talent left him at ^bou t^hc age oj
21 would be explained by a spiritualist in one way, and by a materialist in ^"ot'iei. ^_
unsolvable question is always capable of receiving opposite explanation^ me pn
bihties may very greatly preponderate to one side, but they are "^t sufficien^^^^^^
vince, and the most sincere minds may be so constituted as to form fPP^«^^i^%^~
When the experiments in spontaneous gcnenition above alluded ^^ were snow n l
faulty, it was nelieved by many that the doctrine of evolution, as well as that oiiii
decidi^l materialism, ha^ received a severe blow, but an evolutionist was amon^ ^^«^
foremost in demonstrating the fanlure of spontaneous generation, "^^J'^^ ™^^^^^
evolutionists are probably opposed to the doctrine of ^l^"*?"^?"f,,^?,f ^^^^^ of
results of such exiJeriments do not, however, affect Permanently either ^^e «ocirm ^^^
evolution or of materialism or spontaneous generation. ^^ ^P«" f,f ^^"'JXff ^^^ ^>^^^
takes place, it may require conditions which are »neompatible with the^^ ^^^
infusions in flasks, or their protection frem the dcsct:nt of a mosphe^^
l)ending down of open capillary beaks of the flasks. But "J* eoui" ^^jU^^^^^.tiX ol
proved that spontaneous generation never occurs, it ^o"*^ "^;^^^"^, "Ijon does ^ot adni\t
the doctrine of spiritualism. The ti-uth is tliat the nature ^f^^f^X affected W geologi-
of physical or experimental proof, and, indeed, docs not seem to he affecie v^y g^
oal evidence. . ^ . ■, ^^^ni of tl^ci. ViodT, «d^
The argument for the existence of an intelligent spint independent ox ^^^^o^ ^^^^
not subjected to the variations of its physical functions, "^ust. fiom w^ U^n P^>'»^°-
case, be carried on by the reasoning powers, with per"«ps J<^™e re" ^^^ argunlenr
logical facts as -* 1.,««*;^«. i i.« mnst imoortant part 1>^_,^ a'^b^ ., ;.
leaving out the
admitted that t ..^ • ^ m n*— ^j««
attributes must be such as to make it probable that the mma oi ^ ^^^ ^ ^^ nothing
endowed with intellectual powers and aspirations which are destineu ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ living
. 1 yrtnil our ken.
tirvn, hnl wluM, iii reiilify^ t
funiisfied by inevoriiljlj h.
vnhw, 111! nmtfir I;"* ifiovtv!
dis^ovfTiMl rh?i( pnwt^r aj
hnp^ the fiio-^l iumtv nnd
knnwTi, Fiiradav, hiin^
s ok ' 1 1 1 i f J r I- X pri xn) n n ft ) i
to cnnif nny wnn'r n
the follow iiiir UfmJs:
higher umi fur nion' ex,
be ocfUjw^s hy tinmg]
holivyv that I he tnilh o
of ijjs men till po^vrrs,
of Huf
' >^''^ Lnw u,.v 1.....^ , r^^'^*^ '-'-'^^..pu
^* *.i -w»..r, ^|,i> ,,f*^ ^-'^^ ** "f <..„u-ii.J
Is^^Google
Xateria. xq±
M»ther. «^^^
than this it has so far 1>ecn, and will probably always contiuuc to be, TmavailiDg to
attempt to reason upon this subject with the exi>ectatiou of producing any positive
evidence of the existence of a spiritual nature. This is the point at which Ixilief or dis-
belief is adopted, and upon the foundation of either of these conclusions man's reason
may continue to build systems, which, indeed, from the influence they exert upou tbc
individual and upon society, may furnish evidences of their correctness or falsity. To
be able to liave a clearer view of tlie unseen world than that which science or logic-
offers, the veil which conceals the tinith iniiu us must be lifted, or we must beUevc it
.has been lifted, that a revelation has been made, and that the human race has not bceu
obliged to live for thousands of years with no light except that furnished by human
reason — that reason, notwithstanding its wonderful powers, which we often have cause
to distrust, since the most powerful intellects have come to such opposite conclusioD^,
starting from the same premises. To what extent is it reasonable and just to place our-
selves under the guidance of faith? In the discussion of human affaii-s we perceive thai
it is one of the noblest of qualities, and that without it society would Ixi a thousand
times worse than the severest pessimist asserts. Therefore faith is one of the fund^-
niental principles of our nature, and by no means to be excluded from the elements of
evidence which we are to examine in forming an opinion as to whether this is a spiritual
as well as a material world, and all the reasoning which might be attempted could never
Erevent the mass of mankind from resting on a foundation which ministers to tlieir
opes, their sentiments, their affections; but, on tiie other hand, all the persuasive elo-
quence of the most exalted zeal of thousands of the believers in the spirituality of man's
nature will be poworless in ^ the presence of the. restless efforts ot many earnest and
sincere minds, who cannot lind it in their natures to relinquish the search after a truth
which their opponents tell them can be found only by the aid of faith.
MATE BIA MEDICA is that department of the science of medicine which treats of the
materiiils employed for the alleviation and cure of disease. Some writers, as Pereira.
divide the subject into the inorganic and the organic, while others, as Christison, adopt
an alphabetical arrangement. In the description of an inorganic compound, as. for
example, iodide of potassium or calomel, the writer on materia medica notices (1). it^
physical properties; (2)« its various modes of preparation; (8), its chemical composluou
and relations, inoiuding the testa for its purity, and the means of detecting its probable
adulterations: (4), its ]£y8tological action on man and animals in large and sniail dose^;
(5), its therapeutic actions and uses, and the average doses in which it should be prescribed;
and (6), the offlcinal preparations containing the substance in question, and their uses and
doses: while in the notice of an article belonging to the organic department, the natunil
history of the source from whence it is obtained, and the mode of collecting orextractinji
it. must also bo given.
MATHEMATICAL IKSTBTTMEKTS include nil those instruments omploycd in th-
dptcrraination of (he len^h of lines or the size of angles. Pairs of compasses' survey ine
chains, etc., are examples of the former class; wh^ile the compass, sextant, theodolite. Jinrl
the numerous list of asth^nontical instruments generally denominhtcd telescopes, including
the equatorial transit instrument, mural circip. etc. .form the latter class. The mon*
important of these instruments will be treated of under separate heads.
MATHEMATICIANS (Lai. matJiemaiicl), the name given by the Romans to the professor*
of astrology, from the fact that, in all cases, those who prJicticed astrology also to some
extent cultivated mathematical science. The Romans, unlike the Greeks, appeared not
to comprehend the attractions possessed by mathematical studies, and being consequently
unable to distinguish between the ctudent of pure science and the fanatic enthusiast who
attempted to derive a knowledge of future events on Ihis earpi from the position of the
stars, joined iheia together in a common condemnation, unJier the name of ''mathe
malici."
MATHEMATICS (Gr. matJiema, learning), the science which has for its subject-matter
the properties of magnitude and number. It is usually divided into pure ixnd mixed; the
first including all deductions from the abstract, self-evident relations of magnitude and
number; the second, the results arrived at by applying the principles so established to
certain" relations found by observation to exist among the phenomena of nature. The
branches of pure mathematics which were first developed were, natuall^, Arithmetie, or
the science of number, and Geometry, or the science of quantity (in extension). The latter
of these was the only branch of mathematics cultivated by the Greeks, their cumbroo.*
notation opposing a barrier to an^ effective progress in the fomier science. Algebra
(q.v.), or the science of numbers in its mos» general form, is of much later growth, and
wan at first merely a kind of universal aritbmetic, general Byml)ols taking the place of
numhers; but its extraordinary development within the last two centuries has establi^h(d
for it a right to be considered as a distinct science, the wience of operations. Combinations
of these three have given rise to liigonametry (q.v.) and Analytical Geometn'. The
Differential and Integral Calculus (q.v.) makes use of the operations or processes of geome-
try, algebra, and analysis indifferently; the calculus qfjtnUe differences is in part included
under algebra, and may be considered as an extension of that science; and the eahulv^ *[f
Vfiriatioris is based upon the differential calculus. The term "mixed mathematics" i«
calculated to lead to error; ''applied mathematics" is a n^o^g,ji|^p|;^i^Q|^name; This
0«70 Mother.
portion of raatheinatics includes all thoec sciences in which a few simple axioms are
mathematically shown to be sufficient for the deduction of the meet important natural
phenomena. This definition includes those sciences which treat of pressure, motion,
light, heat, sound, electricity and magnetism — usually called Physies — ^and excludes
ctieraisiry. geology, political economy, and the other branches of science, which, how-
ever, receive more or less aid from mathematics. For a notice of the separate sciences,
see Astronomy, Optics, Mechanics, Htdrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Heat, Acous-
tics, Electricity, Magnetism, etc.
MATHEX, Cotton, an American colonial divine, son of Increase, was bom at Boston,
Feb. 12, 1663. He entered Harvard College when 12 years old, and his precocity and
piety excited great expectations. He entered upon a course of fasting and vigils,
cured a habit ot stammering by speaking with "dilated deliberation," studied theology,
became the colleague of his father in the ministry, and wrote in favor of tlie political
ascendency of the clergjr. The phenomenon termed ' • Salem witchciaf t " having appeared
in the colony, Jie invesiigated it, and wrote, in 1685, his Memorable Providences relating
to Witeheraft and Possofsions. He found that devils or possessed persons were familiar
with dead ard foreign languages, etc., and eagerly advocated the adoption of desperate
remedies for the diabolieai disease. It is well-known that Mather was responsible for
the shedding of much innocent blood; and he himself admitted that ** he had gone too
far." In 1692, he (ublished Woiidera cf the Inmtible World, to which a reply appeared at
London in 1700 by Rol)ert Calet — the effect of which was to dissipate tne somber and
superstitious influence of the New England divine. With a remarkable industry, he
wrote 382 works. His Enmyn to do Good have been highly commended by Franklin; and
when we think of his misdeeds, which were serious, it ought also to be remembered that
he helped to introduce into the States inoculation for the small-pox. He died Feb. 18,
1728. His life was written by his son, Samuel Mather (1729).
MATHER, Cotton, d D. {ante\ having receiyed his elementary education under his
fatner*s care, and at the free school in Boston, was able on entering Harvard college, at
the age of 12, to read not only Virgil and other Latin classics, but Homer and Isocrates
in Greek. On taking his first degree at the ace of 16 the president addressed him in a
Latin speech, praising his past conduct and attainments, and predicting a glorious
future. The descendant of a long line of ministers, he himself desired to enter the min-
istry, but an impediment of speecli prevented, and he began to study medicine. Having
overcome the inflnnity he studied theology, and in 1680 became assistant to his father in
the Nortlr church, Boston, and in 1684 was ordained as co-pastor. While zealous and
faithful as a preacher, lie found time to write for the press, and published numerous
sermons and books on practical piety, at the same time accumulating materials for various
intended treat ises. He began also the study of some modern languages, among them the
Iroquois Indian. He believed that ministers should concern themselves in politics, and,
desirous of maintaining the ascendancy of the clergy in civil affairs which had long pre-
vailed, but which he saw declining, he prepared in 1689 the declaration of the people
justifying the imprisonment of governor Andros. Sharing in the superstitious of the
a^. he firmly believed in witchcraft, and suspecting that there were in Boston devotees
of Satan, he applied himself earnestly to detect them. An Irish woman having been
denounced as a witch, and Mather having no doubt that she was under the. influence of
an evil spirit, phe was tried, condemned, and executed. His Iwok on witchcraft, pub-
lished with the recommendation of all the ministers of Boston and Charlestown, was
entitle<l MemoraUe Prondenees relating to Witehcrafl and Possemons; with Diecoreries and
AppendU. It was eagerlr read in the colony, and was republished in England with a pre-
face l)y Richard Baxter; Wing pronounced perfectly convincing. With magistrates and
people Mather urged the necessity of eradicating the sin. In 1692 the cldldren of Mr.
rarris, a minister of Salem, becoming strangely afflicted, accused an Indian servant of
having; bewitched them by her incantations. She was cast into prison, and confessed that
she was guilty. The girls began to accuse others of being witches. The magistrates applied
to Mather for advice, and he urged the adoption of the most stringent measures. The
excitement wa? intense. By May, in Salem, 100 persons were in jail. The deputy-governor
and 5 magistrates went from Boston to conduct the preliminary examinations, and on the
arrival of the new charter a special court was appointed to try the accused. Several,
though protesting innocence, were declared guilty and hung. Thoee who confessed their
guilt and were penitent, had their lives spared. By September 20 persons had been put
to death ; 8 more were under sentence of death ; 55 had confessed their guilt and escapNsd ;
above a hundred more were lying in jail, and twice that number were at larce, suspected.
The last execution was that of a Mr. Burrouglis, formerly a minister at Wells, whicli
made a deep impression on the country. A cry of horror was raised. A reaction began
which Mather could not arrest. He drew up, with the concurrence of the governor, the
president of Harvard university, and the ministers, an elaborate justification of what had
been done, expressing " nious thankfulness to €k)d for justice being so far executed among
us," in a work entitl^ Tfw Wondencfthelneiiible World: Observations upon tJie Nature^ the
Number, and the Operations of the JDevHs. But it had no effect. In the trials that fol-
lowed all the accused were aoqtdtted. While some of the judges in the religious assem
bUestKrayed for pardon if they had shed innoceht blood, Mather showed no^jsicnsof
'^ ^ * "^ Digitized by VjUtWlC
Mather. KQft
penitence or regret. In his Magnolia Chritti, published 9 years afterwards, he indeed
admits that perhaps there l^d been "a going too far in that affair." His influence now
declined. Though admitted to be pre-eminent among his countrymen for ffeuius and
learning, he was twice passed over in the election of president of Harvard coUe^. But
he continued to labor with zeal. He was a voluminous writer. His Magnam Ckriati
Americana was a collection of facts for an ecclesiastical history of New England
Among his other works are Easays to do Good; OhrMan Philosopher; and Directions to a
Oamlidate for the Ministty. The work on which he labored from his 31st year to his
r death is entitled lUuHtrationsaf tJie Sacred Scriptures^ and the manuscript is now in the
* li|}rarv of the Massachusetts Historical Society. He was the first, with Dr. BoyUton, to
introduce into this country inoculation for small-pox. In 1713 he was elected, on
account of his Guriosa Atnericana, a fellow of the royal society of London, the first
American who had received that distinction.
MATHEB, Increase, an American colonial divine, son of Richard Mather, an £ug-
lish nonconformist minister, who emigrated to Massachusetts in 1635, was b. at Dorches-
ter, Mass., Jan. 31, 1639. He was educated at Harvard college, Massachusetts, aud
Trinity college, Dublin, and settled for 62 years as pastor of the riorth church, Boston.
In 1684 he was also chosen president of Harvard college, for which he obtained the riglii
to confer the degrees of b.d. and d.d. An industrious student, he spent 16 hours a day
in his study, and published 92 separate works, most of which are now very scai-ce. One
of these, entitled Bemarkable Providences, was republished in the library of old autliors
(London, 1866). His influence was so great in the colony that he was sent to England
in 1688 to secure a new charter, and had the appointment of all the ofilcers under it.
Mather died at Boston, Aug. 23, 1723.
MATHER, Richard, d.d., 1596-1697; b. Lowton, Lancashire, Eng. ; studied at
Oxford in 1618; became parish minister of Toxteth, Lancashire, where he remained 15
years; was suspended in 1634 for non-conformity to the established church; was restored
through the influence of friends, but again suspended; removed to New England in 163o;
was minister at Dorchester, JM^iss., 1686-69. Of his six sous, four were distinguished
ministers and authors. He was the author of some theological treatises, chiefly on churcli
government, and at the request of the Cambridge synod in 1648 he drew up a form of
discipline, which was adopted. His Journal, Life athd DeaUi, was published for the
Dorchester antiquarian and historical society. He was an earnest preacher, and a man
of learning. He assisted Eliot in the New England version of the Psalms. He published
a discourse on the Ohurch Covenant; a treatise on Justification, and an elaborate defeDse
of the churches of New England.
MATHER, Samuel, 1626-71 ; b. Toxteth, Eng. ; graduated at Harvard college in
1643; preached at Boston, Oxford, and Dublin. At Trinity college, Dublin, he became
senior fellow. He is the author of Old Testament Types Explained and Interpreted.
3fIATHER, Samuel, d.d., 1706-85; son of Cotton Mather; graduated at Harvard col-
lege in 1723; was ordained in 1732, and was pastor of several Congregational churches in
Boston. He wrote a Life of Cotton Mather in 1729, and also some sermons, pamphlets,
and short poems.
MATHEW, Rev. Theobald, commonly known as Fateer Mathew, was descended
from an illegitimate branch of the Llandaff family, and was bom at Thomastown in
Tipperary, Ireland, Oct. 10, 1790. On the death of his father, while Mathew was still
▼erv youn^, the kindness of the Llandaff family enabled the boy to enter the CathoUc
college of Kilkenny, whence he was transferred, as a candidate for the lioman Catholic
priesthood, to the college of Maynooth in 1807. He left that college, however, in tbf
next year. He relinqui^ed the secular priestliood for that of the religious order of the
Capuchins, in whioh he took priest's orders in 1814, and was sent to the church of his
order in the city of Cork. His singularly charitable and benevolent disposition. W
gentleness and asEability, his i^mple and effective eloquence, and the zeal and assiduitr
with which he diecharged all the duties of liis ministry, won for him the universal love
•and respect alike of ridi and of poor. To him was due the introduction of the religions,
brotherhood of St Vincent of Paul. He founded schools for children of both sexes,
and contributed in a very marked degree to the correction of many abuses and indecen-
cies connected with the burial of the dead, by establishing a new cemetery on the model
of that of Pire la Chtuse, although, of course, of a for less pretentious character. But
tlie great work of father Mathew s life is the marvelous reformation which he effected m
the habits of his fellow-countrymen, and which ba^ won for him the title of Apostle of
Tehperanob. In 1888 he established an association on the principle of total abstinence,
at first confined to the city of Cork, but afterwards numbering 150,000 members in the
city alone, and extending to the county and the adjacent districts of Limerick and
Kerry. The marvelous success which attended this first local effort led to the sugges-
tion that father Mathew himself should repair to the several great centers of population,
especially in the south. Thence he gradually extended the field of his labors to Dublin,
to then., and even to Liverpool, Manchester, London, Gla^w, and the other chief
scats of the Irish population, even in the new world itself, ms success had something
almost of the marvelous in its character. The form of engagement partook of the religiou^.
Digitized by VjiJUV IC
597 SSSSw*
and was accompanied by the preseatation of a raedal, to which the utraoBt reverence was
attached by the recipient; and an opinion prevailed among the poor that the mission of
the "apostle of temperance" was marked by many miraculous manifestations of the
assistance of heaven. It is difficult to form an exact esthnate of the number of his
association, but it included a large proportion of the adult population of Ireland, with-
out distinction of rank, creed, or sex; and so complete was the revolution in the habits
of the Irish people that very many distilleries and breweries ceased from working.
Among the simerers Anom this great moral revolution the members of father Mathews
own family, who were largely en^ged in the distilling trade, were some of the earliest
and most severely visited; and it is painful to have to add that the latter years of this
great benefactor of his country were embittered by pecuniary embarrassments arising
out of the engiigements into which he entered in the coarse of his philanthropic labors.
Although very liurge sums of money passed through his hands, in payment for the
medals which were distributed to the members of the association, yet the exceeding
munificence of his charities, and the enormous expenses connected with his various
missions, and perhaps his ov/n Improvident and unworldly habits, involved him in pain-
ful dlificulties. A pension of £300 was granted to him by the crown ip acknowledg-
ment of his eminent public services, and a private subscription was also entered into for
the purpose of releasing him from embarrassment. He died in 1856, but the fruit of his
labors is still visible in Ireland. Very many, it is true, of those who were enrolled in his
association ceased after some years to observe the pledge of total abstinence; but very
many iilso continued faithful; and while but few of those who abandoned the society
relapsed into the extreme of drunkenness, the general tone of the public mind in Ireland
as regards the use of intoxicating drinks may be truly said to have undergone a com-
plete revolution, which endures to the present day.
KATH2W8, Charles^ an English comedian, was bom on June 28, 1776, and was
educated in London. His father was a bookseller, and intended his son to follow the
same profession; but his early inclination for the stage overcame parental counsel, and
he made his first appearance as an amateur—curiously enough, in the part of Richard
III. — at the Richmond theater in 1793, and as a professional comedian in the Theater
Royal, Dublin, the following year. He first appeared in London at the Haymarket,
and subsequently he transferred his services to Drury Lane. In 1818 he gave his ** At
Home" in London, and achieved an immense success. He visited America twice. In the
autumn of 1828 he became joint proprietor of the Adelphi theater. He died at Ply-
mouth on June 28, 1835, and was tmried io that town.
Mathews was a wonderful master of personification and mimicry; and while imitating
every one, he never lost a friend, or hurt the feelings of the most sensitive. His taste
was as instinctive as his wit. His wonderful variety of facial expression and his
gentlemanly sarcasm are still fondly remembered by old playgoers. His son Charles
also achieved a brilliant reputation in the same department of histrionic art Bom Dec.
26, 1803, he died June 24, 1878.
MATHEWS, Charles Jaueb, 1803-78; son of Charles Mathews, the comedian;
educated as an architect and gave promise of success in that profession, but his natural
taste was for the stage, and" as a light comedian he soon achieved a high place. He
married in 1888 the noted actress and singer, raadame Vestris, and in connection with
her carried on succesively the Olvmpic and Lyceum theaters. London. He visited the
United States in 1889, 1858, ana 1869, and on the second occasion married his second
wife, Mrs. Davenport, known on the stage as Lizzie Weston. He played also in Paris
and Australia, and everywhere made manv warm admirers, not only of his professional
talent but also of his personal qualities. He was the author of several plays, perhaps
the best of which was My Wife's MoUier, He also produced several entertainments after
the manner of bis father's ''At Home." '
MATHEWS, Cornelius, b. N. Y., 1817; educated at the university of the city of
New York, and in 1837 called to the bar. Before and after his admission he contributed
in verse and prose to various periodicals, such as the Knickerbocker Magazine, the New
York Review, and the American Monthly Magasine. He has also contributed to the
Literary Worlds and he was for a time an editor of Aretiirus, a now forgotten monthly
magazine. Of his voluminous works we may mention Behemoth, a romance, 1889; The
Politicians, a comedy, 1840; Witchcfrajt, a tragedy, which was produced on the stage in
1846, and subsequently republished in London; and False A'etenses, a comedy, 1856.
He has worked for many years in behalf of an international copyright, has published
a number of addresses on that subject, and organized a copyright club, for whom he
drew up an Address of the Copyright Club to the American People, •
Mathews, Georoe, 1774-1 836; b. near Staunton, Va., and admitted to the Georgia
bar in 1799; in 1805 was appointed judge of the superior court of the territory of MLssis-
slppi, and in 1806 transferred in the same capacity to New Orleans. Aft«r the organi-
zation of Louisiana as a state he was appointed presiding judge of the supreme court,
and filled the post to the time of his death. His decisions form an important part of the
judicial history of the state. . ,,,,.,, ,^
*^ ^ Digitized by VjOUVIC
Matter. Oyo
MATHIAS, Thomas Jabibs, 1750-1885; b. England; educated at Trinity coU^,
Cambridge, of wiiicli he became a fellow. He was appointed treasurer of the household
to queen Charlotte, from which office he retired with a pension in 1818. The later pait
of his life was passed at Naples, and during his long residence in Italy he became
thoroughly acquainted with its language and literature. He wrote Italian verges with
considerable fluency, but his principal service to Italian literature was his edition of
Tiraboschi's standard work, The Higtory of ItaUan Poetry, His first English production,
which appeared in 1781, was an imitation from the Norse, called Bunie (Meg. This was
followed, two years later, by an JStsay on the Eoidsnee relating to tlte Poems attributed to
Tfioinas Rowley, His best work is The Pursuits of Literature, which was published
anonymously between 1794 and 1797. The chief interest of the Pursuits Ues in its
satirical critical notes, which made a sensation at the time.
MATHIAS COBVIHUS, King of Hungary, was the second son of John Hunyady (q.T.),
and was b. in 1443. Having been released from the hands of the treacherous Frederick
III. of Germany by Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, he returned to Hungary, and -was
elected king in 1458. His accession was hailed with the utmost enthusiasm over the
whole country. But the Hungarian crown at this time was no chaplet of roses; two
sovereigns, alike formidable, tiie one, Mohammed II., from his military talents and
immense resources, the other, Frederick IH., from his intriguing policy, were busily con-
spiring against the boy-king. To meet these dangers, Matbias rapidly carried out his
measures of defense, the most important of which was the formation of a regular force
of cavalry, to form which one man was enrolled out of every 20 families. This was the
origin of the term ** hussar," which means in Hungarian *'tlie price or due of twenty."
Mathias fell on the Turks, who liad ravaged the country as far as Temesvar, inflicted
upon them a bloody defeat, pursued them as far as Bosnia, took the stronghold Jaieza,
where he liberated 10,000 Christian prisoners, and thence returned to Weiseuberg, where
he was crowned with the sacred crown of St. Stephen in 1464. He next suppressed the
disorder of Wallachia and Moldavia; but feeling that his plans were counteracted by
the intrigues of Frederick III. to gain possession of Hungary, Mathias besought the
assistance of pope Pius II., but to no purpase. After a second successful campaign
against the Turks, he turned his attention to the encouragement of arts and letters, and
adorned his capital with the works of renowned sculptors, in addition to a library of
60,000 volumes. He sent a large staflf of literary men to Italy for the purpose of obtain-
ing copies of valuable manuscripts,* and adorned his court by the presence of the most
eniiueut men of Italy and Germany. He was himself an author of no mean ability, and
he possessed a delicate appreciation of the fine arts. At the same time the affairs of
•roverament were not neglected. The finances were brought into a flourishing con-
(lirion, industry and commerce were promoted by wise legislation, and justice \y&s
strictly administered to peasant and noble alike. But the promptings of his ambition,
and the pressure exercised by the Catholic party, cast an indelible blot on Maihias'8
otherwise spotless escutcheon; he wantonly attacked Podiebrad, his father-in-law, Ike
Hussite king of Bohemia, and after a blooSy contest of seven years* duration between
these kings, the greatest generals of the age, the Hungarian power prevailed, and
Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia were wrested from Bohemia. Immediately after the con-
clusion of this war Mathias went to meet his old enemies, the Turks, and. inflicted upon
them, at KenyermezO (1479), such a defeat as kept them quiet for the next 46 years.
After defeating an invading army of Poles, he had at length a fair opportunity for
settling his differences with Frederick, and taking revenge on the insidious plotter who
had imbittered his whole life. The Austrian fortresses fell before him in rapid succes^
sion. After an obstinate defense, Vienna shared the same fate (1485), and the emperor
was reduced to beg his bread from village to village. Mathias now took up his rcsideace
in Vienna, but while on the pinnacle of "glory he was struck down by a fit of apoplexy,
and died at Vienna in 1490. To the patriotism and bravery of his father, Mathias added
a taste for letters, and the highest abilities as an administrator and politician; even hi^
seci\?t enemy, Castelli, testifies " that for subtlety and daring he had no equal among the
princes of the age.
KATHUBA, Countess of Tuscany, well known in history through her close p>olitical
connection with pope Gregory VII., was a daughter of Boniface, count of Tuscany, and
was born in 10«. She is said to have married (Godfrey (sumamed II Ool>bo, or the
** Hunchback"), duke of Lorraine, in 1069, by procuration; but if so, her husband did
not make his appearance in Italy until 4 years after the wedding-ceremony, and the
two, if they were ever united, soon afterwards separated. (Jodfrey went back to his
duchy, and became a supporter of the emperor Henry IV., while Mathilda made herself
conspicuous by the zeal with which she espoused the cause of Gregory VII. She became
his inseparable associate, was ever ready to assist him in all he undertook, and to share
everj' danger from which she could not protect him. In 1077 or 1079 she made a gift of
all her goods and possessions to the church. In 1081 she alone stood by the pope,
when Henry poured his troops into Italy, burning to avenge his humiliation at Canossa;
she supported him with money when he was besieged in Kome ; and after his death at
* Even at the present day the remains of the celebrated Collectio Coroina are eagerly sought after
Digitized by VjO^JV IC
RQQ aiathiafl.
^^^ Mtttt«r.
Salerno, boldly carried on the war against the emperor. She died at the Benedictine
monastery of Folirono in lllo. Mathilda's death gave rise to new feuds between the
emperor and pope Pasclial III., on account of her gift to tlic church, which finally
resulted m the former wresting from the latter a portion of Mathilda's possessions,
but even what remained constituted nearly the whole of the subsequent "Patrimony of
Peter."
MA'TICO, ArtantJie elongata, a shrub of the natural order piptracece, a native of Peru,
, remarkable for the styptic property of its leaves, which are used for stanching wounds,
and are also useful as an aromatic stimulant in mucous discharges.
XATnr DOO, a large kind of dog, now Almost peculiarly French ; but supposed to
have been introduced into France from the n. of Europe. It is allied to the Danish
dog. It has rough hair; a rather fiat forehead; a rather pointed muzzle: the eai-s erect,
hut bent down at the lips. It is generally of a whitish color, clouded with brown. It is
tierce, but not very courageous. Buffon, without reason, imagined it to be the original
of many kinds of dog.
XATIirs. See Canonical Hours.
XATBIGA'BIA. See Chamomile.
KAT'SUMAI, a t. and port of Japan, and the largest center of commerce and popula-
tion in the island of Yesso. It is on the s. coasts about 60 m. w. of llakodacli, and
contains, it is said, 60,000 inhabitants. It extends along the margin of an op.m buy,
facing which is an island with a beacon, sheltering a liarbor capable of receiving the
largest ships.
MAT8Y8,*or MESSYS, Qttentin, 1460-1580; b. m Louvam; bred a blacksmith,
early enamored with a painter's daughter, and led to become a painter. His subjects are
principally religious, marked by a hard treatment m outline, but great force of expres-
sion. His '* Descent from the Cross," in the Antwerp museum, was praised bv sir Joshua
Reynolds for heads scarcely exceeded by those of ItaphaeL "The Misers,''^ which has
been made familiar bv engi'avings, is one of his noted works, which are to be found in
nearly every great gallery in Europe.
MAT'TAWA. the proposed e. terminus of the Canadian Pacific railway, at the junc-
tion of the Ottawa and Mattawtt rivers, in Ninissing district, Ontario, 189 m. above
Ottawa. The Hudson's Bay company had a trading-fort at this point.
MATTE AWAN', a village in the t. of Fishkill. Dutchess co., N. Y., situated on the
Dutchess and Columbia railroad and on Fishkill creek, H m. from the Hudson, at Fish-
kili Landing; pop. about 2,000 It has manufactures of felt goods, hats, tiles, lawn-
mowers, wood- working machinery, etc. ; also four churches, a new^spaper, and good
schools.
MATTEB. From a physical point of view, matter is anything that can affect the
senses, or that can exert, or be acted on by, force. The existence of matter, in the
sense of siibniiince, has been doubted by many philosophers, including some of the gieat-
cst of experimenters. Indeed, as ,we can know matter only by the forces it exerLs, it is
obvious that the supposition of mere geometric points, capable of exerting force (tech-
nically culled centers of force), will as satisfactorily account for all observed phenomena
as any other idea of the ultimate nature of matter. Here, however, we are dealing
wiA a question confessedly beyond the reach of experiment, and belonging ta the
domain with which metaphysics professes to deal. See Perception.
Although experiment cannot lead to a knowledge of the ultimate nature of matter,
it may lead to important discoveries as to the arrangement of the molecules of different
bodies, and tUeir similarity or dissimilarity. Some of the questions to which we may
expect an answer, though not a speedy one, have already been mentioned in the aiticle
FoBCB, Conservation of; but in order to render intelligible the short account which we
intend to give of some very interesting ideas recently propounded by Graham (q.v.), it
will be necessary to repeat some of them.
The old idea. of the transmutation of metals (see Alcitemt) implicitly contains the
assumption that all kinds of matter are ultimately one. Far from being a startling
assumption, this is the simplest and most easily conceived notion we can entertain on
the subject; and it offers a remarkably simple explanation of that extraordinary prop-
erty of matter which Newton proved by careful experiments, that the weight of a body
depends only on the quantity, not on the quality ot* the matter that composes it. One
idea, then, of matter is, that the atoms (or smallest parts, whatever these may be) of all
bodies are identical, but that the molecules (each of which is a single atom, or a defi-
nitely arranged group of atoms) differ from one body to another. Thus (to take an
instance mere/y for explanation, not as at all likely to be correct), if hydrogen be sup-
posed to consist of the simple atoms of matter; oxygen, each molecule of which is 8
times as heavy as oije of hydrogen, may nave each molecule formed of 8 elementary
atoms, arranged in a group such as the cerners of a die; carbon, 6 limes as heavy per
molecule, might be composed of 6 simple atoms grouped as at the corners of an octo-
bedron; and so on. It is obvious that here each atom must be supposed capable of
exerting force on every other. This leads us naturally to speculations as to the medium
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
Matter. 4»AA
Maimew. ^^^
through which this force, if it be exerted at a distance, is propagated (see Force, Cok-
BBRVATiON of); and then we have iutroduced matter uf a more refined character than
our supposed elementary atoms. This difficulty has suggested to various philosophers
the idea that there is no actio in diatam, tliat all pressure, tor instance, in a gas is due to
incessant impacts of its particles upon each other and upon the contiduing vessel. But
from various experimental results, we know that ihi» species of motion is capable of
being tninsf erred from one body to another, of being increased oi diminished by change
of temperature, and is, in fact, luat itself, one form of kinetic energy. This, if there
be no ultimate difference between kinds of matter, could never be the cause of their
apparent difference. Hence, in Graham's view, though all ultimate atoms are identical
in substance, they have special motions of their own, by which one is distinguished
from another, these motions not being capable of transfer from one atom or group of
atoms to another. It is difficult to conceive energy in such a form as not to be trans-
ferable, so that we refer the reader to Graham's own papers for the further development
of his theory — remarking, in conclusion, that no theory of the natui^e of matter can be
considered as at all complete till it account for the mutual action of separate atoms; for
this the existence of a continuous material medium in space would seem to be necessary;
and this, in its turn, would, if accepted, enable us to dispense with the idea of atoms.
In connection with this, we may mention that sir William Thomson has shown that more
heterogeneity (which we know exists in matter), together with gravitation, is sufficient
to explain ail the apparently discordant laws of molecular action; matter being sup-
posed, in tills theory, to be continuous but of varying density from point to point.
MATTEH {ante). See Atom; Atomic Theory, anto,
MATTKii, Jao^ues, 17V^i 1864* b. in Alsace, educated at Straabi^. GOttmgen,
and Paris; prof, of history and director of the college of 8trasburg in 1820; in 1882,
Guizot made him inspector general of studies, and of libranes m France, and counselor
of the university, lie was a lecturer on ecclesiastical history, a Proiesuuit, and the
author of a great number of standard works, among which are. UUtoire univerMt de
V£f/UM cretteune, 1839; De V influence des moeurs sur leu lots ct de Vinjtuence des loU nur k»
mocun, 1843; Uiatoire di'^ doctrinea moralat et politique^ de^i trois dernitn sieclts, 1837, de
Vetat moral, politique, ct literaire de I'AUemagne, 1847; PhUomphy de la religion, 1857.
His treatise on the influence of manners upon law, etc., drew from the academy a special
prize of 10,000 francs.
MATTERHORX (Fr. Mont Cervin^ Italian, Monte Silvio), tlie grandest moimtain
mass of the Alps, located near Zermatt in Switzerland between the Canton Valais, and
the Val d'Aosta in Italy. Its hci'^ht is 14,805 ft., but that fact alone gives little idea of
the sublimity of its abrupt rise above the great ranc3 of which it is the sentinel peak.
The va.^t glaciers around it have their upper sources m snows at the foot of this mighty
crag, which rises on its northerly face ii: n sheer precipice nearly 4,000 ft. above them.
Seen from the pass of St. Theodule or Mont Cervin it takes the form of a cragcr cone,
apparently inaccessible. From the Italian side one sees its neck or comb connecting it
with the rest of the ranare; and this side forms Ihe only suggestion of an approach to its
summit. Previous to 1^58 it was deemed impossible of ascent. The professional Glides
of the Alps held it in awe. But English enthusiasts in mountain climbing had long
looked upon its defiant steeps with longing eyes. During the summers of 1858-59 two
well-ori^nized parties attempted it and coula get no further flian about 2,200 ft. below
its summit. In July, 1860, three young Englishmen of the name of Parker, without a
guide, succeeded in mountinj? to the height of 12,000 feet. Prof. Tyndall in 1860-61,
seems to have been possessed with a fever of desire to tread its summit; and made a
series of determined attempts, in one of which he had a marvelous escape from death in
an avalanche. In fpite of his courage and skillful use of means he was baffled, after
reaching a point 500 ft. higher than had been reached before. In July, 1862, he made a
third attempt and reached the height of 18,970 ft. ; but accident and the elements were
against him, and again he was dLnappointed. It was reser^'cd for a London engraver.
iLugust Edward* Whymper, who had recently gained his first experience of moimtam
climbing in the French Alps, to make the first ascent to the summit • after two cmrefullv
planned but unsuccessful efforts in the summers of 1868-64, he. with a party of fnen<£
suoroodod, July 15, 1865, in reaching the summit. But it ended in a fearnil tragedy.
Lord Francis Douglass, the Rev. Charles Hudson, Mr. Iladow, and four guides made
up the party; starting from Zermatt on the 14th. While descending In fine spirits a
mis-step by one of the party caused tlie fall of a gnfde, and the breaking of their con
neciing rope; when the three gentlemen named, and one of the best guides were hm'led
down the vertical face of the mountain upwards of 3,000 feet. Three days later the
summit was reached from the Italian side by Jean Antoine Carrel, a professional Swiss
guide, with others. Mr. Crawford Grove and party reached it in 1867. Mr. Elliot and
two j;uide*; in 1868 ascended it from the north side. Prof. Tyndall ascended it about the
same time from the souih side, passed over its crest, and d.escended on the north. Its
ascent is now made less perilous oy a hut built at a height of 12,526 ft., and by the
familiarity of guides with the most dan.^erous points, and the means to surmount them.
Tyndall's Hours of Exerriiie in the Alpff gives a vivid description of his attempts to a.<»cend
the Matierhorn m 1860-61. Whymper's Scrambler Amongit i7ie Alps published in 1871 is.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
fiOl Matter.
^^^ Matthew.
however, the most remarkable book of mountain climbing ever published; and bcHidcs
being devoted largely to the attempts to scale the Matterhom, is profusely illustrated
with drawings sketched and engraved by himself.
MATTEUCCI, Caklo, 1811-68; b. at Porli, Romagna, Italy; of a middle-class
family; educated in the imiversity of Bologne, and doctor of mathematics in 1829.
From 1831 he devoted himself to the stud^ of electricity and chemistry, became a friend
and co-laborer of Ara^o, and through the influence of Humboldt was made professor of
physics in the university of Pisa. He became the inventor of means of applying electric
currents to the human body, and one of the most advanced investigators of the physio-
logical effects of electricity. Among his worlcs are: Hgmi sur fe» pJienomhtes electro-
phyxwlogique de» animaux, 1840; Traite des plienom^nes electjv-phynologique de» animavx,
1W4 His essays in the " Philosophical Transactions" of London and in the scientific
reviews of Paris, Qeneva, and Italy were of high value. As a politician also his career
was distinguished As commissary under Charles Albert he souglit first to avert, and
then to ameliorate, the Austrian rule in Italy after the suppression of the revolution of
1848- was senator of the Tuscan assembly in 1848; commissioner to Paris on the annexa-
tion of Piedmont in 1859; member of the Italian senate in 1880; and bearer of the com-
mission of the congress of Italy to make Victor Emmanuel king of Italy. In 1862 he had
the revision of the public system of education for Italy, under the Rattazzi administration;
and in 1864 published a valuable work on national mstruction entitled Lettres aur Vif^
Urudion puUique.
MATTHEW, Saint, an apostle and evangelist, was a publican or tax-gatherer at the
sea of Galilee. It is assumed by divines generally that he is the same person that Mark
and Luke refer to under tlie name of •*Levi;" but several weighty names are against
this view, as. for example, Origeu, Grotius, Michael is, and Ewald. After the asc^ension
of Christ, Matthew is found at "Jerusalem ; he then disappears from Scripture. Nothing
whatever Is known of his career. — ^Matthew's gospel is believed to be the first in point
of time. Irenipus places its composition in the 3'ear 61 a.d. ; some of the later fathers,
as early as 41 a.d. The obvious design of the work is to prove the Messiahship of
Jesus; hence the frequency of the expression used la regai-d to the acts of the Saviur,
"that it might be fultillecf which was spoken by the prophet." Much controversy hus
been carried on regarding the language in which St. Matthew wrote his gospel. The
opinion of the ancient church generally (founded on a passage in Papias, bishop of
Hierapolis in the 2d c.) was that Matthew wrote it in Hebrew, or rather in that mixture
of Hebrew, Chnldee, and Syriac spoken in Paibstine in Christ's time, and known as
Aramaic. Erasmus doubted this, and held that Matthew only wrote the one w^e udw
possess. His view was supported by Calvin .Beza, and others of the reformers; and
more recently, in some form or other, by the great majoritv of scholars, both orthodox
and heterodox. Still more recently the opinion of Bengei, that Matthew wrote first a
Hebrew gospel and then translated it Into Greek, has been advocated by several able
writers. The passage in Papias is bv no means clear, and some of the greatest gram
marians and bibliclsts, such as Laclmiann, Ewald, Meyer, Reuss, and Credner, under-
stand it to mean th::t Matthew only drew up a series of notices of Christ's life and
sermons, which were afterwards arranged in some sort of order by another writer. Even
yet, however, the order is but dimly perceptible, and little or no attention is paid to
chronological sequence. On this view the present gospel is Matthew's in substance only,
and not m form. The style is comparatively tame, and even the conception of Christ,
which is predominant, is earthly rather than divine. Hence the fathers called it the
Somatic, or ** bodily" gospel, as distinguished from the more spiritual gospels of Luke
and John.
MATTHEW, THE Evangelist, is regarded by most of the ancient Christian writers,
and by the best modem commentators, as identical witD the publican whom Mark and
Luke name Levi. If their view be con-ect, Matthew^— signifying in Hebrew " the gift
of Jehovah" — was perhaps a surname analogous to Peter as added to Simon, and to
Boanerges as applieci to James and John. He was early called to be a disciple, and was
afterwards numbered among the twelve apostles. He was a publican, probably one of
(he subordinate class who were charged with collecting the taxes in a limited district.
Having *eft afl to follow Jesus, he also made him a feast in hL<« house, at which a great
multitude ot publicans were present as invited guests. After the record of his choice as
one of the apostles, given by three evangelists — of w^hom only Matthew speaks of him-
self as the publican—no mention is made of him in the gospels, except generally as they
all speak frequently of " the twelve," and, after the departure of Judas, of " the eleven; '
and in the Acts, having been mentioned once by name, he is included afterwards an.ong
"the eleven," and probably also among "the apostles." A tradition, as old as the 1st
c, says that he continued in Jerusalem about 15 years after the ascension. With this
accords the statement of Eusebius, made long afterwards, that he preached to his own
nation before he went to foreign countries. Among the countries mentioned by other
writers are Ethiopia, Persia. Macedonia, Media, and Parthia. Sevend of the earlier
writers agree in numbering him among the few apostles who did not suffer martyrdom,
though a later tradition affirms that he, too, sealed his testimony with his blood.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
Matthew. AAQ
Matthias. ^^-^
MATTHEW OF WKSTMixeTEB, an early English chronicler, who flourished in the
reign of Edward II., but of whom nothing whatever is known except that he was a monk
of the Benedictine abbey of Westminster. His history or chronicle is written in Latin,
and is entitled Flares l/istorlaomm., per MattJuftam Weftinonaaterleiiscnh collecti, pra'cipue de
licbm DnUaniiicM, ab Exordia Mundi, %t%que ad annum 1307 (Flowers of history gathered
by Matthew of Westminster, chiefly concerning the affaii-s of Britain, from the liegin-
nmg of the World down to the year 1307). That part which treats of English history
from the conquest to the close of Edward I.*8 reign is considered valuable, on account
of the manifest diligence, accuracy, and honesty of the writer. The work was lirst
printed at London in 1507, and again (with additions) at Frankfort in 1601. Bohn has
published a translation into English (2 vols., 1853).
MATTHEW, GOSPEL of, placed first in all arrangements of the four cospels, and
also probably one of the first written, was from the Ijegmniug acknowledged an<l widely
diffused a<» one of the canonical books of the New Testament. From Papias, wlio
closely followed the apostles, there is continuous chain of trustworthy witnesses that
Alatthew the apostle wrote a gospel, and the abundant quotations in the fathers, down
to Irenaeus and Justin Mart}T, prove that the gospel then received as his was the same
as that which we have. These early witnesses agree also in saying that Matthew wrote
his gospel with primary reference to the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and their state-
ment is confirmed by internal evidence. One great object of the author plainly was to
exhibit Jesus of Nazareth as the Messiah whom the types of the Old Testament prefigured
and its prophets foretold. This the opening sentence of his gospel shows, declaring
Jesus Christ to be the son of David and of Abraham, and this the advancing chapters,
recordina^ events as ** realized prophecy," keep conatjmtly in mind. Still no evangehst
exhibits more clearly also the ultimately univei*sal diffusion of the gospel message through
the world. Even the beginning of the ministry of Jesus, as Matthew records it, gave
light not only to Jews, but also to Gsdilce of the Gentiles; and, at the close, the first
gospel gives, equally with the second and third, the universal command, ** Go ye and
make disciples of all nations." The general testimony of the early w^riters is that
Matthew wrote his gospel in Aramaic; that is, in the dialect of the Hebrew which was
then spoken in Palestine. Yet, while ail the fathers of the church assert the Hebrew
origin of the gospel, as Olshausen remarks, " They, without exception, make use of the
existing Greek text as canonical Scripture, and that without doubt or question, or any-
thing that would lead to the belief that they re^irded it as of less authority than the
original Hebrew, or possessed it in any other form than that which we now have."
And if the Hebrew gospel had ever been clothed with supreme authority as the oulj
one written by Matthew, a Greek translation could not have been substituted for it
without opposition, or without leaving soine traces of the process by which it had been
done. But nothiu^^ of the sort occurred. The Greek text itself also, according to the judg-
ment of careful critics, presents no marks of being a translation, but many of bchig an
original work. The correspondence of the Greek text with the Greek of Mark and of
Luke points also to a Greek original. All the ancient vereions also, even the Peshito
Syraic — the very language w^hich corresponds with the Animaic — were taken from the
present Greek text. The summing up of the testimony, therefore, favors two oridnals.
both from Matthew, both used at first as occasion required, and the Greek, diffused
abroad much more widely, finally remaining alone in circulation and use. That a full
account of the life of Jesus should be needed at first among the Jews, in both Hebrew
and Greek, is illustrated by Pilate's action in writing above the cross, in three languages,
the single declaration, '* This is Jesus, the king of the Jews, and by thS apostle John's
record that one reason why many of the Jews read the title was that it was written in
Hebrew, Greek, and Latin.
The contents of the gospel may be divided into eleven sections: I. — The ministry of
Jesus: Chapters i.-iv. containing his gencalog}\ coming down from Abraham, and his
birth at Bethlehem; the visit of the wise men, the flight into Egypt and the return; the
ministry of John, the baptism of Jesus, follow^ed by the descent of the Spirit and the
voice from heaven; the temptation of Jesus, the beginning of his ministry, the calling of
his first four disciples, and his first circuit in Galilee, accompanied with an outburst of
power over all kinds of discfuse. II. — The new law given in the sermon on the mount,
v.-vii.: The beatitudes; his disciples compared to the salt of the earth and the light of
the world; the law and the prophets to be fulfilled; new expositions of various" com
mandments; directions for alms-giving, for prayer — of which a model is given in *' the
Lord's Prayer'* — and for fasting; counsels against laying up earthly treasures, and against
anxious thought; command not to judge others or to mark their faults; counsel not to
cast pearls before swine; promise that praj'cr shall be answered; the *' golden nile"
given; exhortation to enter the strait gate "^ and narrow^ waj-; warning against false
prophets and false professors; the emblem of houses built on the rock and on the sand.
III. — Record of events exhibiting Jesus as a doer of miijhty works, viii., ix. : The lewr
cleansed; the centurion's servant healed; Peter's mother-in-law cured; multitudes of sick
persons healed and many deinons cast out; the storm on the lake calmed; the legion of
demons cast out of the man and allowed to enter the swine ; the man sick of the palsy
forgiven and healed; Matthew called and publicans and sinners received; the woman
Digitized by i^jOOQl^i:
/^Q Matthew.
that touched his gannent heated, and the rukr'a daughter raised; the two blhid men
restored and the dumb demon cast out; the second circuit of Galilee and the general
cure of sickness and disease. IV. — The choice of the twelve apostles, x. : Their names
gjiven and the varied instructions to them recorded. V. — Daubts expressed and oppo-
sition exhibited, xL.xiL: Theinqu/
the testimony of Jesus concerning ]
to the Father- invitation to the vea _ . ,
hand healecl the Pharisees silenced, and their council agamslhim; his withdrawal, fol-
lowed bv tne healiug of great multitudes; a demon, blind and dumb, cast out; the oppo-
sition of the Pharisees and their consequent condemnatioii. VI.— Parables relating to
the kingdom of heaven, xiii, : 1-52: Of the sower; the tares among the wheat; the
mustard seed; the leaven; the treasure hid in the tield; the pearl of great price; and the
net cast into the sea. VIL— £ffecl8 of the ministry of Jesus on various classes of people,
xiii. : 53 — xvi. : 12: On the inhabitants of Nazai'eth; on Herod, explained by his ti-eat-
meut of John the Baptist; on the men of Gennesaret; the multitudes whom he feeds; the
Pharisees and Scribes; tlie woman of Canaan. VIIL — I^velatiou concerning his divine
nature and his sufferings, with instructions to the disciples, xvi. : la— xviii. : Simon
Peters confession of faith in him; his sulferings foretold; his transfiguration, followed
by the casting out of a demon from a child; the temple-tax paid; instructions concerninoj
humility, illustrated by a child, and concerning forgiveness, enforced Iw the parable of
the debtors. IX. — ^Events during the journey from Galilee to Jerusalem, xix.-xxlii. :
Law concerning divorce; benediction on little children; answer to the inquiry coucernr
ing the attainment of eternal life, and rewards promised to the disciples; parables con-
cerning the laborers in the vineyard; his suffering again foretold; the ambitious request
of Janaes and John; two blind men restored to sight; the entrance into Jerusalem; tne
cleansing of the temple; the hosannas of the children; the fig-tree withered; the chief
priests and elders silenced; the parabies of the two sons and the vineyard, of the hus-
luindmen and the vineyard, and ot the maiTiage of the king's son; the hypocritical ques-
tion of the Pharisees, the scoffing question of the Sadducees, the earnest question of the
lawyer, and the silencing question of Jesus; woes prcnotmced on the Phariseea and on
Jerusalem. X. — Last aiscourses, xxiv., xxv. • The destruction of the temple foretold
to be attended and followed by wars, tribulations, false Christs aud ])ro])hets, and, at
some unknown time, by the cominff of the Son of Man: the suddenness of his coming
compared to the flood and enforced by the parables of the servant and his lord, of the
virgins and their lamps, of the talents, and of the shepherd dividmg the sheep from
the goats. XI. — The crucifixion, burial, resurrection, and fimd commission to the
disciples.
MATTHEW PARIS, or Matthew of Paris. See Paris, Matthew, ante.
MATTHEWS, a co. in e. central Virginia; pop., '80. 7.501—3,424 colored. The form
of the CO. is thsU of a peninsula, the Chesapeake bay lying on the e., Mobjnck bsiy lyn the
8., and Piankatank river on the u. and n.west. The soil is naturally sandy and the
staples are Indian corn and pork. There is some manufacturing and fishing. Chief
town, Matthews Court House.
MATTHEWS, George, 1739-1812; b. in Augusta co., Va.; served with great dis-
tinction in the revolutionary war; received nine wounds in the battle of Gcrraantown
and was taken prisoner. In 1785 he removed to Oglethorpe co.. Ga., and was governor
of that state 1793-96; member of congress 1789-91; en^ged in military operations in
Florida in 1811, with the rank of brig.gcu. of militia.
MATTHEWS, John, 1744-1802; b. S. C. ; distinguished for patriotism during the rev--
olutionary war; speaker at one time of the South Carolina house of representatives; nssoci-
ate justice of the supreme court in 1776 ; member of congreps in 1778-82 ; governor of South
Carolina in 1783-83; and in 1784 a judge of the court of equity. Died at Charleston.
MATTHIAS, Saint, one of the 70 disciples, cho.sen an apostle by lot to fill the place
vacated by the treachery and suicide of Judas. Of his origin, family, history, the scene
of his labors, the date and place of his death, nothing is known, nor is there any tradi-
tion on which reliance can be placed.
M.AlTTHIAS. Emperor of Germany, 1557-1619; son of Maximilian II.. and grandson
of CliarlesV. His eldei*t brother. Rudolf II., had succeeded to the throne upon the
death of their father. Rudolf resented the influence exerted by >Iatthias in the affairs
of tlie German empire, and the latter, to strengthen himself in another quarter, became
the champion of the Netherlands, in whose affairs he exercised a great authority till
1580, when he was compelled to give way to the ascendancy of the prince of Orange.
Upon the death, in 1595, of his brother Ernest, archduke of Austria, he governed the
archduchy, where the principal feature of his aclministration was his persecution of the
Protestants. In 1606 he restored order in Hungary, which had formed a coalition with
Turkey and Transylvania against the Hapsburgs. Two years later, with the aid of a
league which he had formed between Hungary, Silesia, and Moravia, he forced upon
Rudolf the cession of Austria, Hunfpary, and Moravia, and at tlie same time, was guar-
anteed the succc.<^ion to the Bohemian crown. Matthias afterwards allied himself with
the Bohemians who were then in revolt, and compelled Rudolf to cede him Silesia and
Digitized by VjOUV IC
Ifattchllne. ^^*
Lusatia, in addition to Bohemia. Rudolf died without issue in 1612, and Matthias was
at once chosen his successor. The Turks had invaded Hungary, and Matthias, who was
able to offer (hem no substantial resistance, was compelled to sue for peace. In the
later days of his Austrian administration, he had made overtures to the Protestants,
whom he had formeily persecuted; and he had encouraged the Jesuits. He soon found
himself m conflict with both. A Protestant league had been established in 1608, of
which the count palatine Frederic IV. was chief; and a counter Roman Catholic league
had been organized in 1609. Matthias attempted to bring the latter, which was then
under Bavarian management, under Austrian influence; and failing in this, framed a
decree against both the Roman Catholic and Protestant leagues. The decree failed of
its effect, neither league paying any attention to it. The administration of Matthias had
proved a failure, and he cnade of his ill health an excuse for withdrawing from public
affairs. In 1617 he made the archdulse Ferdinand, afterward the emperor Ferdinand IL,
king of Bohemia; and the next year, substituted him for himself, on the throne of
Hungary. The Bohemians revolted against Ferdinand, enraged by the severity of his
religious persecutions; the insurrection at Prague, in 1618, gave the signal for the out-
break of the thirty years' war, and the last days of Mattliias were embittered, not only
by his own failure, but by the reverses which the Bohemians inflicted upon Ferdinana.
MATTHIAS I., The Great. See Matthias Corvinus, ante,
MATTHIAS, b. Washington oo., N. Y., in 1790; a religious fanatic and impostor.
His real name was Robert Matthews. He kept a country store, and having failed in
1816, removed to New York. In 1827 he resided in Albany, and became much excited
by the preaching of the Rev. Drs. Kirk and Finney. He was very earnest in the tem-
perance cause, claimed to have received a divine revelation, and commenced street
preaching, endeavoring to convert the city of Albany. His preociiing being udsqc-
cessful, he predicted the destruction of the city, and went secretly to New York where
he deluded several respectable people. Being accused of poisoning one of his wealUjy
discfples in whose family he lived, he was tried and acquitted. After the exposure <5f
his impostures lie left and is said to have died in Arkansas. W. L. Stone of New York
published Matthias and his Imposture.
MATTHIAS, or Matthiesen, John. See Akabaptists. ante.
MATTHISSON, Frederic von, 1761 4881; b. Germany; educated at the school in
Klosterl)ergen, and studied theology at Halle. He had been educated by his rrandf ather.
a Protestant minister, with a view to entering the church, but his fondness for literature
led him to give up his design of taking orders, and he took private pupils at Heidelberg
and Mannheim. After passing two yeai-s near lake Geneva, where he enjoyed the
society of the philosopher Bonstetten, ne became private tutor to the son of a mercbaui
in Lyons. He returned to Germany in 1792, and two years later was appointed reader
to the princess of Anhalt. He accompanied her in her travels through Switzerland, the
Tvrol, and Italy, and upon her death in 1812 was taken into favor by the king of
"VV^llrtemlwrg. Attached to the suite of the duke of Wtlrtemberg. he revisited Italy in
1819, and resided for some time at Florence. He is one of the most popular oi the
German lyric poets, and as a prose writer holds a respectable rank. His complete works
including his earlier Schriften und Erinn&nnwen were published at Zurich, 1825-29. His
verse is smooth and melodious, dwelling with predilection on pictures of rural life, and
animated by a gentle fancv. One of the best oi his lyrical pieces, his Adelaide, was set
to music b}*^ Beethoven. Besides his original work, he made a selection from the lyrical
^German p<)ets, which was published at Zurich in 20 vols., 1808-7. His posthumous
' works were collected and published in 1832.
MATTISON, IIiram, d.d., adistinguisheddivineof the Methodist Episcopal church;
1811-68; b. Norway, Herkimer co. N. Y. The first years of his early manhood were
spent in teaching, but at the age of twenty-three his mmd turned to the ministry, and in
1886 he entered the Black River conference; was stationed at Watertown and Kome; in
1850 and 1852 was made secretary of the conference; removed in 1852 for his health to
New York: was pastor of John street church, and afterwards of Trinity M. E.
church in 34th street, which he organized. He labored with great earnestness to persuade
the general conference m 1860 to take action against all slaveholding in the church; but
failing in this he witharew from the Methodist Episcopal church. Nov. 1, 1861, and
became pastor in St. John's Independent Methodist church. He returned in 1865 to the
denomination that he had left, and was appointed to Trinity M. E. church in Jersey City,
where lie died. The last year of his life he was cor. secretary of the American and Foreign
Christian union. Dr. Mattison was an eloquent preacher. *He wrote with great rapidity,
and his works were numerous. The following are some of the most prominent of his
miblished works: A Seripturdl Defense of tSe Doetrine of the Irinity; Tracts for the
Times; Elementary Astronomy , accompanied with Ma/ps; in 1850 an improved edition of
B^irritVs Oeofjrnphy of the Heavens; High School Astronomy ; Spirit-rapfnng unveiled; The
We^Uyan Docirine of PeifeeAion; ISaered Melodies; MiniMter^s Pocket Manual ; Impending
Crisii<; Itnnwrtality of the Soul and Resurrection of the Body; Select Lessons from the Holy
Scriptures; Defense of Ainericnn Methodism; Popular Amusements. He left an unfinished
treatise on Depravity in its Relation, to Entire Sanctifloatian; and the outlines of other
Digitized by VjOUV IC
theological woria. His contributions to the periodical press were numerous and valua-
ble. He was the author of several poems of merit.
K&T'TO or MATO OEOS'SO {den^ fores(\ a province of Brazil, bordering on Bolivia.
Area 530,000 Kq.m. ; population estimated at 100,000, mostlv Indians. Chief rivers,
the Madeira, Juriiema, and Paraguay, with their numerous alilueuts. Its soil is fertile,
b'.it there is almost no cultivation. Dense forests cover immense tracts of the country.
Grold and diamonds abound, and indeed the mineral riches of tlie province nave hitherlo
formed the chief barrier to its progress. Diamonds, gold, hides, balsams, ipecacuanha,
flod other drugs, are the exports. Manufactured goods are imported.
MATTOON, Ebekezer, 1755-1843; b. Amherst, Mass., and graduated at Dartmouth
in 1776; joined the revolutionary army, served as lleut. of artillery in the battle of
BemLs Heights in 1777, and was promoted to the rank of major. After the war he se^
tied in his native town as a farmer; was often elected to the legislature, and for 20 years
served as sheriff of Hampshire co. ; member of congress in 1801-3; maj.gen. of state
militia from 1797 to 1816, and adj.gen. in the latter year; col. of the ancient and
honorable artillery company of Boston in 1817, and member of the Massachusetts consti-
tutional convention of 1820. During nearly 25 of the last years of his life he was blind.
MATURIK, Charles Robert, 1782-1824; b. Dublin, Ireland ; educated at Trinity
college. He took orders in the Anglican church, became curate of St. Peters, and as a
preacher is said to have been eloquent and impressive, but is chiefly known as a roman-
cist ami dramatic writer. His most noted novels are FhUiU Beixnge, (1807); Milesian
Chief; Women, or Pour et Coutre; and MehnoVi, tJie Wanderer. All and especially the
last named are of that lurid and sensational style, blending the supernatural and the hor-
rible, to which the works of Mrs. Radcliffe and Monk Lewis had accuntomed the public
in the early part of the century. That Maturin was possessed of genius cannot be
denied ; but it was for the most part misdirected, and, of the elements now considered
re(^uisite among flist-class writers of fiction, vigor and a vivid imagination were the only
traits to be found in his work. As a dramatist his only successful production was Ber-
tram, a wild and uneven tragedy marked by most of the characteristics of the novels.
This was produced in 1816 under the patronage of Scott and Byron, and met with bril-
liant success, the author clearing £1000. In his later years, like too many of his con-
temporaries, ^laturin was in continual financial embarrassment.
MAUBEUOE, a fortified t. in the n. of France upon the river Sambre; pop. about
14,000. It has manufactures of iron bars, hardware, marble, beer, and linen thread ; and
commerce in slates, oils, marble, and iron. The town was founded in the year 6o0. It
h:i8 been by turns under the rule of Spain, Germany, England, and France; was captured
and burned in 1477 by Louis XL; in 1543 by the son of Francis I., in the war with
Charles V., and again burned; in 1553 by Henry II., and a»\in burned. In 1637 it was
subject to the governor of the Low Countries; in 1680 Louis XIV. caused it to be
refortified; in 1815 it fell into the Hands of the allies, and was held by Russia till 1818.
MAUCH CHUNK, a borough > Pennsylvania, capital of Carbon co.; situated on the
Lehigh river, at the point where it passes through the Mahoning mountain; pop. of
towDship, '70, 5,210; of borough, 3,841. It is on the Lehigh Valley railroad, the New
Jersey Central i-ailroad, and the Lehigh canal; is distant from Philaaelphia 89 m. ; from
New York, 121 miles. This point forms the eastern extremity of the southern anthra-
cite coal re^on of Pennsylvania, while its situation and surroundings are picturesque
and romantic in the extreme, and cause it to be very generally visited as a summer resort
by tourists in search of striking natural scenery. Nine m. west of the village arc the*
Summit Hill coal mines, which are celebrated as among tl^e most productive in the state.
The coal was formerly carried thence by means of a gravity railroad, called the *' Switch-
back," to Mauch Chunk, the cars returning by a similar road to the mines; this road is
now used for tourists and excursions, and the coal is transported through a tunnel. The
Ix^rough is extensively built up with fine residences, and contains several public institu-
tions, churches, and schools. Mount Pisgah, and mount Jefferson, ascended by the road
already mentioned, are points for the attention of excursionists, from which can he gained
a magnificent view of the Lehigh valley and the surrounding scenery. Summit Hill offers
a special attraction in a burning mine which has been on fire since 1832. Glen Onoko
is another and more fascinating place of resort, two miles from the village.
KAUOHLBIS, a t. in the co. of Ayr, Scotland, is pleasantly situated, anid is sur-
rounded by a picturesque country. Mauchline has long been noted for the making of a.
beautiful description of snuff-boxes, cigar-cases, and other articles of tlmt kind of manu-
facture. The buildings of the town are neat, and possess a pleasing variety. Standing,
;is Mauchline does, on the river Ayr, the bridges in the neiffhborhood attract attention,
one of which, at Barskimming. is a structure of considerable elegance, consisting of a
single arch 100 ft. wide and 90 ft. high. In the vicinity is Mauchline castle, formerly
possessed by the Loudon family, who had a right to the "title viseount Mauchline; there
is also the green on which a stone commemorates the death of five Covenanters in 1685.
Robert Burns spent nine years of his life at the farm of Mossgiel, about half a mile to
the n. of Mauchline. The cottage of "Pooaie Nancy,*' theater of the *' Jolly Beg
Digitized by VjOOV IVT
Maadsler. fKC\f\
Maapertlns. ^^'"
gars," and Mauchline Kirk, tlie scene of the '* Holy Pair," are in the town. The popu-
lation in 1871 was 1574.
MAUDSLEY, Henry; b. England, 1885; educated at University college, London,
where lie took a course of medical study. He received the degree of m.d. from the
university of London, in 1857, and soon after became physician to the Manchester royal
lunatic hospital, where he remained till 1862. He was elected a fellow of the royal col-
lege of physicians and surgeons in 1869, to which he became Gulstonian lecturer in 1870.
Dr. Mau(isley is editor of the Jounuil of Mental Science, and has made a specialty of the
study of lunacy, and mental diseases. He has published Tfie Phpsiology and I^athologif
of Mind; Body and Mind; Responsibility in Mental Diftease. He is now professor of
medical juilsprudence in University college, London, and consulting ph3*sician to the
West London hospital.
MAUDUIT, Israel, 1708-87; b. Exeter, England; educated for a dissenting minis-
ter, but never entered the profession; went into mercantile business willi a brother and
accumulated a fortune, and in 1768 was appointed to represent the interests of the prov-
ince of Massachusetts, of which his brother Jasper was the nominal agent. He was
made collector of Southampton in 1765: espoused the cause of the colonies in the dis-
cussions preceding the revolution, writing several pjamphlets upon the subject; at a later
day defended with his pen the cause of American independence, calling lord Howe and
sir William Howe to severe account.
MAUDUIT' DUPLE8SI8, Thomas Aktoinb, Chevalier de, 175a-91; b. France.
He joined Rochambeau's fleet sent to help the United States in tlie war for independence.
In 1787 he was made commandant of Port-au-Prince. On the receipt of the decree of the
French national assembly freeing the slaves, he refused to execute their orders, leagued
with the governor against the authority of the French republic, dissolved the colonial
assembly, formed a "royal corps" nick-named the pompom blanc4, and succeeded by
the arbitrary violence of his measures in, opposition to the home government, in produc-
ing a counter revolution in which he was killed.
KAUI. See Sandwich Islands.
MAU'LE, a province of Chili lying between Itata and Maule rivers, and lx>unded by
the districts of Talca, Senares, Nuble, and by the sea; 2,918 sq.m.; pop. 118,474. The
soil is rolling but fertile; the staples are grain, wine, tobacco, and cattle. Wine and
tobacco nre exported to some extent. Qhiei towns are Cauquenes and GonetUucion. the
first bcin^ the capital and the latter a place of extensive trade, mainly with Yalparaistj.
The province has one railroad reaching from Chilian to Curico.
MAU'LE RIVER, rises in the Andes. mountains, not far from the peak of Descabf*
zado, and after flowing for over 150 m. in a westerly direction through Cliili. craptit*s
into the Pacific about 100 m. n.e. of Concepcion and near Constitucion. It is navigi
bl« for only a few^ miles. It has several branches of which the chief is the Guanutil.
HAULKAIN*. See Moitlmein.
MAUMEE BAY, at the w. end of lake Erio. and at the mouth of the Maumce river;
a shallow body of water about 8 m. in diameter each way, inclosed by North point on
the n., and Cedar point on the south. A light house on Turtle island between tbe^
points lights the entrance to the bay. The channel to the mouth of the Muumci* w
from 12 to 14 ft. in depth, was formerly very tortuous; but the government appropria-
tions have greatly improved it of late years. Range lights have been placed on both
shores to facilitate naviffation. The shores are generally marshy, and affonisomeof
the finest places for hunting waterfowl in the country. The Toledo sporting association
cjontrol the marshes of Cedar point for the purpose of duck hunting. On one of tlie
northern bayous of the bay is a sulphur spring of great volume, forming a beautiful basin
in the marsh, approacheil by skiffs only.
MAUMEE RIVER formed by the confluence, at Fort Wayne, Indiana, of the
Anglaize and St. Mary's river, and flowing thence 100 m. e.n e. to its mouth in the
Mauuiee bay at the w. end of lake Erie. For 12 m. above its mouth it is an estuary of
the lake; its waters rising and falling as the winds shift from e. to west. Its breadth in
this part is from one thini of a m. to a m. : its channel from 12 to 30 ft. in depth.
Toledo, its commercial mart, is 4 m. from its mouth; and up to this point the channel
is usually 14 ft. deep; above Toledo 10 feet. The rapids of the Maumee meet the j^lack
water ofthe lake 12 ra. above the mouth, are 18 m. long* with an average fall of about
4 ft. to the mile. The river from the foot of the rapids to Fort Wayne is from 400 to
100 yards wide; above the rapids its slack water is used as a part of the way for the
Waba>h and Miami, and Erie canals, and furnishes water for the locks down to their
terminus at Toledo. The shores are low near the lake, and increase in height to the foot
of the rapids, wliere they are 60 ft. high. Above Toledo, and below the rapids, the
river is studded with low islands which, with its banks, once beautifully wooded, made
a valley of great beauty. The scenery along the rapids is also beautiful. The volume
of watrr in the river varies from spring to niid-summer like that of a mountain stream;
thouirh throughout its whole course, it flows through a flat alluvial oonntry. In sommer
the rapids are frequently almost dry; yet the spring freshets are tremendous. The last
Digitized by VjOUV IC
AA7 Mandtley.
^^ i MaupeituU.
one in Feb., 1881, in conjunction "witli fields of unbroljcn ice below Toledo, and e.
winds driving tiie water of the lake into the open funnel formed by the narrowing widtli
of the lake, bay, and river, caused a greater rise than ever before known; inundatinnj
till the river front of the city. The reason for this unequal volume of its water is found
iu the capacity of the alluvial soil to absorb the summer rain falls more and more as the
area of cultivation widens; while in winter the frozen ground prevents such absorption
and empties a large part of the precipitation into its bed.
]VIAUNA K£A, the highest mountain in Polynesia. It occupies the n. and n. central
portions of Hawaii, and its height was estimated by the U. S. exploring expedition to be
13,953 feet. It is an extinct volcano. During most of the year snow lies on its peaks,
wiiich are composed of gravel and reddish scoria. Its sides are covered with forests,
where wild cattle range and are hunted for their horns, hides, and tallow.
MAUNA LOA, a volcanic mountain which occupies much of the central and southern
portion of Hawaii. From the sea it appears domelike in shape, of no great elevation, and
with very gradual slopes, partly covered with forests and sometimes crowned with snow.
The top of the mountain is one expanse of lava, in some parts smooth and solid, in others
cellular and scraggy. No ashes, rocks or sand are seen. Its terminal crater, called Mo Rua-
weo-weo, is near 15,000 ft in length and 8,000 in breadth, the nearly perpendicular walls
of its interior being in 1804 1000 ft. deep. In its quiet period the bottom is traversed by
ridges from 10 to 50 ft. high, by deep chasms, beds of smooth lava, and fissures througu
which steam and smoke escape. The crater of Kilauea, the largest known in the world,
is on the s.e. side of the mountain. It is 3i m. long, 2^ wide, 1044 ft. deep. At the
depth of 650 ft. a ledge of black, hard lava from 600 to 2,000 ft. in width has accumu-
lated around the sides of the cauldron, within which billows of liquid fire toss and rage.
Even when comparatively inactive, red hot lava is occasionally thrown up to the height
of 60 or 70 feet. In times of eruption a crater will sometimes fill with melted lava and
overflow; or the internal fires will make for themselves now vent by forming fresh
crsiters; or they will form lava foimtains, throwing tip continuous jets of molten
material, and receiving them again in their raMng depths. A sunken crater 88 ft. deep
by 200 in diameter (called by lieut. Wilkes JudtVs lake, from the fact that Dr. Judd,
who accompanied him, was overtaken while in the crater by a sudden eruplion and
narrowly escaped death) discharged in 1841 by estimate 200,000,000 cubic ft. of lava. An
eruption in 1855 lasted 13 months, and discharged lava over 800 sq.m. of territory. In
Jan, 1859, three new craters opened in the side of the mountain, one of which, 1000
ft. in diameter, threw up a column of white hot fluid lava from 200 to 800 fl. high, con-
tinuing to play for four or five days, and illuminating the sea for 150 miles. This
crater discharged itself tlirough a subterraneous passage, and a half mile distant came to
die surface arid leaping a precipice of 50 ft. spread by numerous streams over the 8lo|K'
of the mountain, and reached the sea 40m. from the crater in five days still at a light led
heat. The meeting of the lava and the waves produced a scene terrific beyond imogi-
nation. The lava continued to fiow from January to November.
MAUNDRELL, Henut, an English traveler; 1650-1710; b. England ; visited Pales-
tine in 1697; was for several vears clmplain to the English factory at Aleppo, Syna. He
published in 1698, Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, a valuable work often reprinted,
translated into French.
XAUHDT-THUBSBAT, the Thursday of Holy Week (q.v.). The name is derived
'from manddfiimy the first word of the service chanted at the washing the feet of
pilgrims on that day, which is taken from John xiii. 34. The washing of the pilgrims*
feet is of ven' ancient usage, being referred to by St. Augustine; and, both in ancient
and modem times, it was accompanied by a distribution of "doles," which were handed
to the pilgrims in small baskets, thence called *' maunds." In the royal usage of the maund
in England, the number of doles distributed was reckoned by the years of the monarch.
They are usually given by the lord high almoner; but James II. performed the cere-
mony in person. The distribution of doles was retained till the year 1838, since which
period the "Maundy " men and women receive a money-payment from the clerk of the
almonry office, Instead of the dole. In most medieval countries, the maund was held in
all the great houses; and in England, in the household book of the earl of Northumber-
land, which begins in 1512, there are entries of "al maaer of things yerly yevin by my
lorde of his Maundy and my laidis and his lordshippis childeren."
XATTFEBTUIS, Ptehke Loms Mokeau dk, a French mathematician, was b. at St.
Malo in 1698. He early d i splayed a love of mathematics, and after serving in the army for
live years, withdrew from it to pursue his favorite studies. His able advocacy of Newton's
physical theory, in opposition to that of Descartes, ^ined him general favor in Britain,
rnd he was admitted to the royal society of London m 1727. In 1736 he was placed at
the head of the academicians whom Louis XV. sent to Lapland, to obtain the exact
measurement of a degree of longitude, whilst the same thing was also being done in
Peru by Condamine. This operation he described in his work. De la Figure de la Tein*e,
tl^UrmmAe par les Observafhrta de MM. Clairaut, Camus, etc. (Par. 1788). In 1740 he
went to Berlin, on the invitation of Frederick II., to be president of the academy there;
Imt having accompanied the Pinissiau army to the field, was taken prisoner at MoUwitz
bv the Austrian hussars, and sent to Vienna in 1741. He returned to Berlin shortly
afterwards, and resumed his former office; but his morbid amour-propre and tvranaical
disposition excited general dislike. Among others, Maupertuis atiacked Voltaire; but
the latter applied the lash of satire so vigorously, that Slaupertuis was perforce com-
Eelled to return to Frauce in 1766. In 1758» he went to Basel, for the sake of his
ealth, and to enjoy the society of the Bernouillis, but died soon after, July 27, 1759.
Maupertuis was a mathematician of ordinary ability, but a very inferior philosopher,
and owed his celebrity more to the idiosyncrasies of his manners and disposition than to
his merit.
MAUREPAS, Jean Frederic Phelypeaux, Comte de, 1701-81 ; a minister of state
in the reigns of Louis XV. and XVI. of France. The office was hereditary in his family,
and embraced the affairs of the royal household, the government of Paris, and of the
Marine. It fell to Maurepas at the age of 14, but was administered during his minority
by the marquis de Vrilllere. Maurepas be«ime, in fact, minister of Marine in 1733, and
secretary of state in 1738. Neither great, learned, neither eminently good, or bad, he
was yet a remarkable minister by virtue of an adroitness of character, and a tact id
managing men, and fitting his action to the events whicli h^ could not control, that
makes his long term of service interesting to the French historian and biographer. When
the unfortunate Louis XVI. came to the throne, Maurepas was called from retirement to
his councils. Through his influence, largely, the government made the alliance with the
United States and declared war with England. He secured the entrance of Turgot and
Neckar to the royal ministry, and afterwards when he found them in his way secured
tiieir dismissal. A French bhcjgrapher sums him up as ** the most quick-witted, charming,
and seductive of ministers." Facetious writings to which Maurepas is said to have con-
tributed, have been published under the title ot d'Etrennes de Ui St. Jean, d'Elrennet de
la St. Marti fly et de ItecneU de cen memexne. Curious memoirs by Soiavii, purporting to
be of Maurepas, were published in four volumes, 1790-92.
MAURER, George Ludwiq von, 1790-1872, b. Bavaria; educated at Heidelherj;;.
where he studied jurisprudence, to which he afterwards devoted himself, in Paris. In
1826, after holding some minor offices, he was appointed a professor at Munich. From
1832 to 1834. he had a scat in the council of regency at Athens, where he formed a code.
In 1847, having l)een previously appointed to the council of state, he was minister of
foreign affairs and justice. The most valuable, perhaps, of his various works on hlstor)'
and jurisprudence are, Dan QiHechmhe Volk, 1830; and QeschiclUe der Slddleoerfassung in
DeuUdiUmd, 1871.
MAURER, Konrad, b. Germany, 1898; a son of (Jeore Ludwig. He was appointed
professor of jurisprudence at Heidelberg, in 1847. but has devoted himself specially to the
cultivation of the Norse lan^iage and literature, and the jurisprudence and history of the
Scandinavian peoples. Besides editing some of the Icelandic sagas, he has published
The Onfjtn and Chnstitution of tlie Icelandic State, Munich. 1852; and Ihe Conversion o[
the Nonoegian race to Ohri$tianitj/, 2 vols., 1855-^.
KAUBICE, Primcb of Oranqe and Count of Nabsau. one of the most skillful and
distin£ruished generals of his age. was the son of William I., prince of Orange, and was
b. at Dillenburg, Nov. 14, 1567. After his father's assassination in 1584. the provinces
of Holland and Zealand, and afterward Utrecht, elected him their stadtholder. A great
portion of the Netherlands w^ere still in the hands of the Spaniards; but under theadmir
able leaderehip of Maurice, the Dutch rapidly wrested cities and fortresses from their,
enemies. In 1591, Zutphen, Deventer, Nimeguen, and other places fell into tlieirhancU:
in 1593, Gertruydenbcrg; and in 1594, GrOningen. In 1597, with the help of some Eng
lish auxiliaries, he defeated the Spaniards at Tumhout in Brabant, and in 1600 won a
splendid victory at Nieuport. Finally, in 1609, Spain was compelled to acknowledge the
Lnited Provinces as a free republic. The ambition of Maurice, however, was exciie<l to
the desire of sovereignty ; but in this, notwithstanding the love and respect with which
he was regarded by the people, he finally failed. See Barneyeldt. He died at the
Hague, April 23, 1625.
MAUEICE, (Duke and afterwards Elector) of Saxont, eldest son of duke Henry of
the Albertine line (see Saxont). and nephew of duke Georse (q. v.) the bearded, the
most bitter opponent of the refwmation, was b. at Freiberg. March 21, 1521; espoused,
in 1541, Agnes, daughter of the landgraf Philip of Hesse; and later in the same year,
succeeded uis father in the duchy of Saxony and its dependencies. He was hardly well
- established in his dominions, till a dispute arase between him and his cousin, the elector
John Frederic, regarding their respective rights over the bishopric of Meissen, which was
the common projxirty of the Ernestine and Albertine lines; but by the influence of Luthtr
and of the landgraf Philip, a temporary reconciliation was effected Maurice took part
in the campaign of 1542 against the Turks in Hungary, and gave such signal proof of
military talent, that the emperor on his return eagerly pressed him to accept a command in
the armies on the western frontier of Germany. Maurice Avas nothing loath to continue his
military career, but insisted on obtainiujg the protectorate of the bishoprics of 3ragde-
1)1 uv; and Halberstadt, in recompense oi his services; a stipulation to which Chfu-les
would not consent. Maurice accordingly returned to his duchy, and though still on the
Digitized by VjOUV IC
609
M»urioe.
most friendly terms with tlie emperor, took part in the deliherations of the Protestant
league of Sohmalkald (q. v.), bemg himself a professed Protestant, and tlie son-m-law of
one of the chiefs of Ihe league, lie refused, however, though agreeing with the objects
of the league, to become a member; and the judicious gift to him by the emperor of the
much-coveted protectorate above mentioned, aud subsequently (June 19, 1546), a solemn
ileed of the emperor at liatLsbon, by which the Ernestine portion of Saxony and the
electoral title were transferred from John Frederic to Maurice, secured the lalter's euer '
getic support. When Charles, at the commencement of the war, was cooped up in
Nf)uthcrn Germany bv the army of tlie league, Maurice, by invading the Saxon electo i
rate, compelled the Protestants to retire northwards, thus relieving the emperor, and
enabling him to subdue Swabia and the upper liliine districts. But by this maneuver
he drew an overwhelming attack upon himself, and was driven by the incensed John
Frederic from the electorate, deprived of his own dominions, and reduced to extremity.
At this critical moment, the etupcror c^me to his aid; and Maurice and the duke of
Alva (see Aj^ba), at the battle of Muhlberg, annihilated the elector's army and took him-
self prisoner. Maurice was now, in accordance with the previous agreement, ruler of
the whole of Saxony, with the electoral dignitjr; and having obtained from the emperor
all the Ratification of hife ambitious desires which could be hoped for from that quarter,
their friendly relations became more dependent upon the course of events. The reten-
tion in confinement of Philip of Hesse, whom Maurice had prevailed upon to submit to
the emperor, was the first cause of estrangement; the incessant attempts of the emperor
to increase, by modifications of the imperial system, his own preponderance in Germany,
supplied another; and though the new elector zealously supported the interim (q. v.) of
Augsburg in 1547, he gradually came to see that his close alliance with the emperor was
alienating from him the aifection5« of his Protestant subjects.
He accordingly at once abandoned the cause of the emperor with as tJttle scruple as
he had formerly sacrificed the i'litercHtsof his relatives and co-religionists; and, in com-
mon with the princes of Kulmbach and Hesse, secretly sent (Mavi^ 1551) agents to Paris
and London to negotwte an alliance against Charles V., while he leisurely carried on the
siege of the rebellious city of Magdeburg, in order to have a pretext for keeping an army
afoot. Meanwhile, Charles, nt Inn.^bruck, was employing himself in building up vast
Hchemes of ambition, little dreaming of the mine which the man whom he most of all
confided in was preparing to spring under his feet; till the manifesto, or rather ultima-
tum of the Protestant princes, in which they demanded the release of Philip of Hesse,
and the total abolition of tho arbitrary authority of the imperial government-, and the
capture by them of Augslmrg, while' their allies, the French, tooTt Metz; rudely drew
away the veil from his eyeK Wirhoiit money, without troops, without allies, nothing"
but a secret flight from Ifinsbruck appeared open to him ^ but he had only got as far as
FQssen (a town on the Lech, on the Imrders of Bavaria and the Tyrol), when the news
that Maurice was marching in this dii-ection forced him to hasten again to Innsbruck.
<.)n April 18, by the mediation of Ferdinand, king of Romans, a treaty was concluded
at Linz granting the demands of ihe Protestants; hut as it was not to fcike effect till May
!26. Maurice employed himself in attacking fMay 18) the camp of Reittl, in which soldiers
were being assenililed for the emperor, defeated and wholly dispersed the imperialists.
and advanced on Innsbruck with the view of taking Charles captive, when his progress
was stopped by a mutiny in his army; and the emperor escaped. His advance on Inns-
bruck 80 alarmed the members of the council of Trent that they fled from the town.
and the sittings were thenceforth suspended for some years. Finally, at a convocation
of the electors and princes of the empire at Passau, the terms of a treaty of peace were
discussed. Maurice directing the cause of the Protestants, and Ferdinand attending to
the imperial interests; and it was ultimately agreed that Protestants were free to exer-
cise their mode of worship; that the iraixjrial chaml)er, from which Lutherans were not
U) be excluded, should reiwler justice irrespective of i^ligjon; and that the Aulic council
should be composed exclusively of German ministers. These conditions, which in polit
ical matters secured " Germany for the Germans," and in religious affairs permanently
cKtablished the principles of toleration, were emlwdied in the agreement called the Peac^"
of Pamiu (Aug. 22, 1552). The bitter dislike conceived by the emperor towards Maurice
on account of these transactions, prompted him to entertain the idea of deposing him
from the electorate, and reponing John Frederic; of which scheme, Maurice being
apprised, he, with his usual subtlety and address, patched up a reconciliation with the
emperor, and went to take part in the campaifjn of 1553 against the Turks, who were
•gradually gaining ground in Hungary. Returning soon, he found that one of his fonner
allies, Albert, markgraf of Kulmbach, had refused to accede to the treaty of Pasaau. amf
i'ontinued the war on his own account, making raids on the ecclesiastical princes of the
Rhine and Franconia. Maurice speedily discovered that the markgrafs apparent obsti-
nacy w^as the fruit of a secret understanding with the emperor, who was anxious to
secure the services of a general and army capal)le of wreaking his vengeance on the per-
fidious Saxon prince. So, alwut midsummer of 1553, Maurice, putting himself at the
liead of 20,000 men. marched to protect his bishopric of Magdeburg against tlie eccle-
siastical sx)oliator, and falling in with him at Sievcrsliaufien, completely defeated him
(July 9), hut received in the conflict a bullet wound which proved fatal, July 11, 1558.
Tlius fell, at the early age of 82, a prince who had altx?ady established his reputation as
U. K. IX— 39 Digitized by VjUU^LC
Maarloe. o i a
Maaritlas. ^^^
one of the ablest generals and diplomatists of bis time. So thoughtful and reticent, so
entei-piising and energetic, so correct in judgment and unfailing in action, and at the
same time so wholly devoid of moral sentiment, he is one of the most prominent inslimces
of power without principle which the world's history has ever presented. His calculat-
ing, plotting mind was concealed under a jovial exterior and a genuine fondness for the
favorite pastimes of the age. Yet this unprincipled dissimulator's states were the best
governed of the empire; the great vassal was equal with the meanest peasant in the
courts of justice; great advances were made in education; and though the least religious
man of tlie time (in fact, honest only in this point, that he did not pretend to a piety
which he did not feel), the rights of the various religious sects were strictly maintamed.
He died at an epoch which Wiis big with the fate of Germany; for his settled programme
of action was. after defeating the markgraf, to march upon the Low Countries, unite with
the French, with whom he had formed a firm alliance against the emperor, and then
attack the latter. C-harles V. would have had apparently little chance of offering a suc-
cessful resistance to suoii an overwhelming attack. See the biocjraphies by Camerarius,
Langenn, and Voigt (1876). His daughter, Anne, became the wife of William of Orange,
the Uberator of the Netherlands.
MAURICE, Count of Saxony (Marshal Saxe). See Saxb, Hebmank Maukice,
ante,
MATJBICE, Kev. John Frederick Denison, d.d., a distinguished divine of the
church of England, and one of the most influential thinkers of his age, was the son of a
Unitarian minister, and was born in 1805. His reputation at the university for scholar-
ship stood high, but being at this time a dissenter, and otherwise not in a position to sign
the thirty-nine articles, he left Cambridge without taking a degree, and commencetl a
literary career in Loudon. To this period belongs his novel entitled Eustace Conwit/.
He also wrote for the AtlieruBumt which had then been recently started by James Bilk
Buckingham. After the lapse of two years, a change came over his religious sentiments
and opinions; his spirit was profoundly stirred and influenced by the speculations of
Coleridge, and he now resolved to become a clergyman of the church of England. He
did not, however, nHurn to Cambridge, but proceeded to Oxford, where he took the
degree of m.a., and was ordained a priest about 1828. From that time the aim of his
whole life was the interpretation of Christianity m accordance with the most pure and
spiritual conceptions of our nature; nor have his labors been without result. At the time
of his death there was probably no clergvman in the United Kingdom more deeply revcr
enced and loved than he was by a larce body of the thoughtful and cultivated i)ortion of
the religious huty. He also succeeded in gathering round him, ttithin the church, a large
number of adherents, especially among the younger clergy, who constitute what is com-
monly called the 'Broad Church" party, though its members repudiate an v sectional
tendcnc}', and do not associate for the purpose of carrying out any sectional schemes,
like the ** Evangelicals" and Tractariana. Maurice's theological opinions, especially on
the question of the atonement, are not considered ** sound" by the "orthodox" portion
of the clergy; and the publication of a volume of Theological Esftays, in which, among
other heresies, he took the charitable view of future punishments, lost him the professor
ship of theology in King's college, London. For many years Maurice was chaplain of
Lincoln's Inn, but in 1860 he was appointed incumbent of the district church of Vcre
street, Mary-le-bone. He was always a warm and enlightened friend of the working
classes, and founded tlie first working-man's college in London. Maurice became pro-
fessor of moral philosophy at Cambridge in 1866, and died April 1, 1872. He wrote
largely. All his works arc Avritten in the most exquisite English, and display a beauty
and tenderness of Christian sentiment that are nearly faultless, but united with a subtlety
of thought that frequently passes into mysticism. His principal productions are his
Mental and Moral Ph'dompky; JReHgions of the World; Prophets and Kings of the Old Tes-
tament; Patriarclis and Lawgivers of the CM Testament; The Kingdom of Christ; The
Doctrine of Snei-ifice; Theologieal Essays; Lectures on the Ecclesiaatieal Uistoiy of the First
and Second Centuries; Oospelof St. John; and Social Morality.
MAUBICE, Thomas, 1758-1834; b. Hertford, Eng. After the death of his father he
became a pupil of Dr. Parr, in an academy at Stanmore; entered St. John's college.
Oxford, in his 19th year, but thenextyear removed to University college; produced while
there a metrical version of JBdipus Tyrannns and several original poems, and under his
tutor, lord Stowel 1 . he cultivated his taste for historical research. After graduating he was
ordained, and appointed curate of Woodford in Essex, resigning in 1785 for a pastorate
at Epping. In 1791 his Indian Antigtcities began to appear, and was completed in 1797
in 7 volumes. His Ilisfo)^/ of Hindustan, which he had begun to publish in 1795, was fin-
ished in 3 volumes in 1799. In 1798 he was appointed by earl Spencer vicar of "Worm-
leighton in Warwickshire. In 1799 he was appointed assistant librarian in the British
museum, and in 1800 received the pension left vacant by the death of the poet Cowper.
His Modem JlisPrry of India was published in 1802 and 1804. In 1804 he was presented
by the lord chancclUir to the vicarage of Cudham in Kent. Among his last works were
Memoirs Comprehending the History of the Progress of Indian Literature; and Anecdotes of
Literary Gharactern in Bntain during a period of ^ years.
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ait SfaniitliM*
^AI Maurice.
ICAITBICHTB, one of Ibc grcalesl of the BjTiantiiie emperors, was descended of an
ancient Konian family, and was b. at Arabtssiis, in Cappadocia, about 539 A.D., and
executed Nov. 27, 002. During the reigns of Justin II. and Tiberius, Mauricius served in
the army, and in 578 was appointed by the latter emperor lo the command of the army
against the Persians, in which office he gained tlie universal esteem of his soldiers, not-
w^ithstandlng the severity of his discipline, and surpassed the emperor's hopes by hum-
bling to the earth the most dangerous enenjv of tlie eastern empire. In 582 he obtained
the rare honor of a triumph at C'ouslantinople, and in August of the same year succeeded
Tilierius on the throne. Immediately after his accession, the Persians invaded the
Hyzantiue territories; an arm}' was sent to repel them, and the war between the empires
soon became general; a fierce contest of eiglit years' duration, which, chiefly owing to
the internal convulsions that distracted Persia, resulted in favor of the Byzantines.
The king of Persiti, Khusru II., driven from his throne, lied to Uierapolis, whence he
sent to Mauricius a letter beseeching shelter and aid. The emperor's generous nature
was not proof against such an appeal : an army was immediately assembled, to which
the loyal Persians flocked from all quarters; and in 591, Khusru was restored to his
throne, giving up lo Mauricius, in evidence of his gratitude, the fortresses of Dara and
Martyropolis, the bulwarks of Mesopotamia. Some time after these events, a war broke
out with the Avars; and after two ^^ears of bloody conflict, with little gain to either side,
the Byzantines suffered a severe defeat, and 12,000 veterans were taken prisoners.
Mauricius refused to ransom them, and they were consequently put to deatli. Mau-
ricius's conduct luis bven satisfactorily accounted for (see Gibbon's Decline and MUl), but it
Hxciled a deep and lasting resentment amongst the people and the army; and in 602,
wlicn the emperor ordered his troops lo take up their winter-quarters on the north (or
Avarian>.8ide of the Danube, they broke out into open revolt, elected Phocas for their
o!iit'f, and marching upon C<»nstantinople, raised him to the throne. Mauricius, with all
his family and many of his friends, was put to death. Ho was a general of rare ability,
and little" inferior as a ruler.
KAIFBITAHIA, or Mauretania, the ancient name of the most north-western part of
Africa, corresponding in its limits to the present sultanate of Morocco and the western
]x)riion of Al^jiers. It derived Its name from its inhabitants, the Mauri or Maurusiu
^^ee Moons. It reached ou the south to the desert, and was separated from Numidia on
the cast by the river Malucha or ^lolochath, now the Muluya.
■A.1JBI'TIA, a genus of pnlms, having male flowers and female or hermaphrodite
flowers on distinct tribes, innjerfect si>athes, and fan-shaped leaves. They are all natives
of the hottest parts of Auicnca, Some of them, like the buriti (q.v.) palm (M. tinifera),
iiave lofty columnar smooth stems; others are slender, and armed with strong conical
spines. The Miriti palm (JW. JUxuosa) grows to the height of 100 feet; it has very largo
leaves on long stalks. The stem and leaf -stalks are used for various purposes. A
Ijevcrage is made from the fruit, as from that of the buriti palm and several other
species.
MAUBI'TIUfl, or Isle of Fkancr, an island of the Indian Occtm, belonging to Great
Britain, lies in hit. 19'T>8' to 20' 33' s.. and long. e. from Greenwich 57'' 17' to 57' 46'.
It contains about 708 sq.m. ; pop. (1871), including the small dependencies of Seychelles,
Kodrigues, etc., and exclusive of the military, 318.584, giving the very high average of
450 to the sq. mile. Of the total population, 210,636 were, in 1870, estimated to Xw.
Indian coolies. The surface is of varied formation, a great portion being volcanic;
while its coast is fringed by oxten.<)ive coral reefs, pierced in several places by the estu-
aries of small streams. Its mountains, although of no great height, are marked by the
usual irregularities observed in volcanic formations. Of these, the most celebrated is the
Peter Botte, situated in the I'ear of the town of Port Louis, and forming a remarkable
rone, sustaining on its apex a gigantic piece of rock, which has the appearance of being
poised upon its summit with the nicest precision. * In the island are the remains of
^vcral small craters, and the traoes of lava are numerous. The principal towns are
Port Louis, the capital, and Grande Port, or Mahebourg, the southern port, the latter
difficult of access for shipping, and much encumbei*ed with coral reefs. Port Louis
comprises a spacious harbor, and is provided with an inner basin, denominated the
Fantai'on, wherein vessels can take refuge during tlie hurricanes, which occasionally
<iccur here with exceeding vicilence. There is also a slip upon which large vessels can
Ik? raised for the purpose of examination and repair.
Mauritius produces annually a large amount of sugar, which it exports to England,
France, and Australiju The nature of the soil, however, in many parts prevents a more
ini wrsal development of the culture of this article of commerce. In some districts, con-
Mderable tracts of cane- mowing land are encumbered with large bowlders; in many
lilares these have been collected into rough walls, between which the canes are planteu,
while in others their siawj precludes their removal. Tlie method employed in the cultiva-
tion of the cane is similiar to that adopted in the West Indies; but the bulk of the sugar
is ultimately shipped In bags composed of the leaf of thcVacoua palm. The climate of
tills island is remarkably fine. There arc four seasons, as in England; but the tempera-
ture in the months of November, December, and January is very high. Througnout
the year, the thermometer ranges fn>m 76'' to W in the shade, in some of the moro
Mauve. vl-5
elevated districts, however, the climate resembles that of the hills of India, Kod the
thermometer usually stands 7" or 8° lower than in Port Louis. The southern portion of
the island, called La Savanne, is exeeedinffly beautiful, and diversified with roouutaia
and ravine, clothed with luxuriant wood. The mountains themselves are bold and fan-
tastic, and present every possible form of outline. Few communities present so varied
an admixture as tliat of Alauritius. The descendants of tlie original French inhabitant »
represent a considerable portion of the influential classes; government officials and
nicrchunls, or planters of English birth or extraction, make up the remainder. In Poji
tjiouis HKi}' be seen representatives of almost every eastern nation. Many Chinese fini
their way here, and tliere is now scarcely a hamlet tliat has not its Chinese storekeeper
Tiic Creoles, or native colored population, who derive their color from tiie African aud
MaLigjish slaves, form a very considerable portion of the inhabitants. Emigration ol
coolies from British India, for the supply of the sugar plantations, stiil coniinueA
There are two lines of railway, accompanied by telegraph lines. Some mueh-ueeded
i^anilary measures have been carried out. Roads have been made, bridges built, and a
light-house has been erected off Grande Port. At St. Louis are spacious docks. Hospi-
tals have been founded, and the establishment of savings-banks has provixi l)enetiml.
In March, 1868, the island experienced a most calamitous hurricane; and during thrw or
four yeai-s previous to 1870, a fearful epidemic raged. The revenue for 1874 amounted
to £720,130, the expenditure to £727, OM. In 1873, vessels having an aggregate buniea
of 517,892 tons entered and cleared the ports. Tlie imports for 1874 (chiefly live-stock,
rice, guano, grain, wine, machinery) were valued at £2,584,120; the exports (mainly
sugar, with some rum and copper), at £3,020,353.
"Mauritius was discovered in the year 1505, by the Portuguese commander, Don
Pedro Mascaregnhas, and was subquently visited by the Dutch under Van Neck in 15dl<,
who gave the island its present name in honor of loiuce Maurice. The Dutch formed a
settlement here in 1644, but subsequently abandoned it. A new and more successful
attempt to form a permanent establishment was made by the French in 1721, already in
in possession of the adjacent island of Bourbon, who re-named it •* lllc-de France '
Mauritius remained in French hands until near the close of the year 1810, when it wa^^
taken by the British in an expedition under gen. Abercromby, and has since remained a
British possession.
KATTBOCOBDA'TOS, also Mavrocardato, a Fanariote family, distinguished for
ability and political influence, and descended from merchants of Chios of the GenoeH*
fjimily of Scarlati. — Alexander M. was professor of medicine and philosophy in P.\dua.
nnd became dragoman or interpreter to the porte in 1681, in which capacitj' he did much
to promote the interests of his countrymen. In 1699, he displayed great diplomatif
talents as plenipotentiary of the porte in the negotiations for peaoe at Carlovicz.— His
son, Nicolas, was the first Greek who was hospodar of Moldavia and Wallachia.—
('ONSTANTINE. l>rother of Nicolas, who became hospodar of Wallachia in 1735, abolishc<l
slavery in that country, and introduced the cultnre of maize. — His grandson, Alex-
ander, Prince M., b. at Constantinople in 1787. took an active part in tlie Greek contest
for independence, prepared the deckration of independence and the plan of a pro-
visional government, was elected president of the executive body; and being appointed
commanaer-in-chief, undertook, in 1822, an expedition to Epinis, which ended in the
unsuccessful battle of Peta; but he delivered the Peloponnesus by his bold and resolute
defense of Missolonghi (1823). Notwithstanding the opposition of the party of Colo-
c'otronis and Dimitrios Ypsilanti, he was able afterwara to render important senices to
his country — as, for instance, by the heroic defense of Navarinq and Sphacteria; but
became very much involved in political strife. He was a steadfast admirer of Englisli
policy and institutions, and a fierce opponent of the pro-Russian government of Capo
D'Ist'rias. After the accession of king Otho, be was at different times a cabinet minister
and ambassador at different courts. The leading feature of his policy — ^viz,, his endeavor
to promote British influence — made him at times very unpopular among bis country-
men. Yet, at the outbreak of the Crimean war, it w^as found necessary to place him
once more at the head of the government — a dignity, however, which he soon resigned:
but he continued to interest himself in the cause of education, and as late as 1861 held
the office of minister of public instruction. He died August, 1865.
MAURY, a co. in central Tennessee; pop. '80. 39,945—18,169 colored: 580 sq.m.; it
is drained by the Duck river and its branches and intersected by a branch line of the
Louisville and Nashville railroad. The soil is highly diversified and the natural and
'manufactured products very large. In 1870 nearly 1.500,000 bushels of Indian corn were
raisod and large quantities of wheat, tobacco, butter, hay, and cotton. There are tan-
neries, flour mills, and several factories connected with the manufacture of cloth. Chief
town, Columbia.
MAURY, jEAr Stffreik, Cardinal 1746-1817; b. atValreas,Venaissin; son of a shoe-
maker; educated tor the priesthood at Avignon; went to Paris at the age of 20 as abbe
prerrptenr, but devoted himself to preaching, and by his panegj'rics on St. Louis in 1772and
on Sr. Augustine in 1775, he took the highest rank as a pulpit orator. Appointed preacher
to the court he obtained the abbey of Frenade and the priory of Lihons. and also a seat
m the academy. In 1785 he pronounced an eloquent panegyric on St. Vincent de Paul.
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In 1789 he was chosen depu^ of the clei^ to the states-general, where he was prominent
ia defense of the church and royalty; and with great vieor, skill, and eloquence opposed
the rev^olutionary measures until the flight of Louis XVI. At the dissolution of the con-
stituent assembly he left France in 1791 and at the invitation of Pius VI. took up his
residence in Home where he was received with great honor. In 1794 he was made arch-
bishop of Nicffia in parUbus nuncio to the diet at Frankfort for the election of emperor
Vraucis II., cardinal and bishop of Monteflascone and Corneto. On the invasion of Italy
by the French in 1798 he fled in disguise to Venice, and thence went to St. Petersburgh.
iieturning in 1799 he was appointed by the count of Provence, afterwards Louis XVIII.,
ais junliassador to the holy see. Becoming reconciled to Napoleon he returned to France
ill 1806. In 1810 he was appointed archbishop of Paris, and when ordered by the pope
Pius VII., who was taken captive by Napoleon, to relinquish the administration of his
•liocese, he disobeyed and was after the restoration imprisoned for a short time at Rome.
After 111 is he retired to private life. lie published a valuable treatise, entitled Esmi &ur
VtU^queriee de la Chaire in 2 volumes.
HAUBY^ Matthew Fontaine, ll.d., an American naval officer, astronomer, and
IiydroicrapHer, was b. in Virginia, Jan. 14, 1806. In 1825 he was appointed midshipman
in the U. S. navy, and during a voyage round the world in the Vtncennes frigate, com-
meucei] a treatise on navigation, which is adopted as a text-book in the navy. In 1836
lie was made lieutenant; but being lamed by an accident, and unfitted for service afloat,
he was appr)inted to Uie hydrographical office at Washington. Here he carried out a
system of observations which enabled him to write his Phynical Oeography of tJie Seas, and
to pn>duce in 1844 his works on the gulf stream, ocean currents, and great circle-sailing.
He projected the maritime conference at Brussels (1858); and with the co-operalion of the
British government, and the assistance of naval officers and the learned, completed his
sailing charts, to the great advantage of the commerce of the world. In 1865 he was
promoted to the rank of commander, and published Letters on tlte Amazon and Atlantic
^Slopes of South Anieiiea. At the outbreak of the civil waV in 1861, ^faury took a com-
mand in the confederate navy, and aftei-wards came as commissioner to Europe. After
the war, he returned to the United States. He died Feb. 1, 1873.
MAUSER GUN, the name of the rifle invented by a gunsmith named Mauser of
KanusUdt, WQrtemberg, in 1871, and used b^ the Prussians in the war with France.
While embracing the advantages of the Bavarian Werder gim, it is of longer range and
more rapidly lotided and discl^rged than the needle-gun. It is of light weight and very
t^imple in construction. It is now in general use in the army of the German empire.
KATTBOLE'UU, a sepulchral monument of large size, containing a chamber in which
urns or cofllns are deposited. The name is derived from the tomb erected at Halicar-
uassus to Mausolus, king of Caria, by his disconsolate widow, Artemesia, 358, B.C. It
was one of the most magnificent monuments of the kind, and was esteemed one of the
seven wonders of the world. It was dcscrilwd by Pliny and other ancient writers, as latc^
as the 12 c, and must have been overthrown, probably by an earthquake, during the
following two centuries, for all trace of it had disappeared, except some marble steps,
when the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, in 1404, took possession of the site of Hali-
camassus, then occupied by a small village called Cleesy. While excavating among the
ruins for building materials, the knights discovered a large chamber decorated with mar-
ble pilasters, and with richly inlaid panels. The sarcophagus of the foimder was also
discovered in another great hall.
Excavations have been recently made by Mr. Newton, assisted by the British govern-
ment, and he has succeeded in bringing to light nmny of the beautiful sculptures of the
mausoleum. Amongs't others, the fragments of the statue of king3Iausolus (now pieced
together in the British museum), and a portion of the quadriga which crowned the monu-
ment. Many fragments of lions, dogs, etc., and a beautiful sculpture of a horse, have
Iieen found. Portions of friezes, of fine design and workmanship, the subjects of which
invariably are Greeks in conflict with Amazons, have also been dug up.
The plan of the basement has been traced) the area being 126 ft. by 100 ft. and from
the fragments of columns, Ionic capitals, etc., which have been foimd, the description
i)f Pliny has been verified. The mausoleum consisted of a basement 65 ft. high, on
which stood an Ionic colonnade 23^ ft. high, surmounted by a pyramid, rising in steps to
a similar height, and on the apex of which stood a colossal group, about 14 ft. in height,
f*f Mausolus and his wife in the quadriga; these statues are supposed to be the work of
ilie celebrated Scopas. The above dimensions are from Mr. Newton's restoration, but
they are disputed by Mr. Fergusson, and others. All agree that the total height of 140
ft. given by Pliny is probably accurate.
MAUVAI8E8 TERRE8, or Bad Lands, the name of several different tracte of
desolate, treeless, waste and broken land in Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, and other ter-
ritories of the United States, but applicjible especially to a section along the White river, an
affluent of the Missouri. These sections are of the tertiary formation, and abound in relics
of extinct species of rhinoceros, hyaena, and other mammals. Some parts of these lands
yield a coarse, scanty pasturage after heavy rains, but for the most part they are utterly
barren.
MAUYS, See Dtb-Stuffs.
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Mjucimin. ^^^
MAVERICK, a CO in 8. w. Texas, bonnded on the s. by Mexico; 1900 sq.m. ; pep. '80.
2,967; drained by Elm creek and the brunches of the Rio Grande which forms its 8.w.
boundary. The surface is for the most part level and adapted for cattle-breeding which
is carried on to some extent. There is very little agricultural production. Chief town.
Eagle Pass.
MAVROC-ORDA'TOS. See Maurocobdatob, aiUe.
KAW-8EED, a name by which poppy-seed (Pttpattr somnifirum) is sold as food for
cage-birils. It is given to them especially wheu they are molting.
MAX. Gabriel, a Gkrman artist, a resident of Munich. His subjects are ideftli-
zations from the poets, spiritual in the highest degree, and in execution simple, noble,
and effective. "Gretschen on the mountain side on Walpui^s Night," '*Tlie Lions
Bride," **The Christian Martyr" — a young girl left to the tigers in the aruna of the
Coliseum — are among his great works, which have become widely known tlirough reoiui
engravings and photographs. Max is in the prime of his powers, reserved among stran-
gers, but quite social among intimates. He ranks as one of the most eminent living
artists of Germany.
MAXOY, Jonathan, d.d., 1788-1820; b. Mass.; entered Brown university at the
age of 15, and graduated in 1787; was tutor 1787-91, during which time he studied
theology, and in 1790 was licensed to preach ; installed pastor of the First Btiptist church.
Providence, 1791, and also was elected a trustee and professor of divinity in Brown uni-
versity. In 1792, at the age of 24, he became its president. In 1802' he was elecltd
presitient of Union college, N. Y. ; and in 1804 resigning, he accepted the president^ of
Soutli Carolina college at Columbia, retaining it until his death. He vvaa au eloqiieot
preacher, and learnea in philology and moral philosophy. Some of his sermons, includ-
mg one on Tlie Exintence of God demoriatrated from the Works of C)'eaiion, and his Lit&
rary Remains, mth a Memoir, were published, editeti by Romeo Elton, d.d.
MAXENTIU8. See Constantine L. the Great, ante.
MAXFIELD, Thomas, 1720-85; b. England; converted to the faith of John Wesley
by the preaching of the ^at Methodist divine at Bristol; waa his substitute In tie
Foundry church, London, in prayer and expounding the Scriptures^ but was not per-
mitted to preach. Nevertheless, led by his evident popularity he attempted to preach,
and succeeded so well that Wesley, who was strongly in favor of the strict discipline of
the church, listened to the counsel of his mother to hear him before denouncing him.
and then granted him leave to preach. He was the first itinerant lay-preacher m the
Methodist denomination. In 1744 he attended the first conference at the Foundry
church, having been ordained in Ireland by the bishop of Londonderry, who was
friendly to Wesley. He was introiluced by Wesley into London society, where he con-
tracted a marriage with a lady in a position far superior to his own. In 174S he attended
the third conference at Bristol, ana was persecuted in company with other followers of
Wesley, being at one time kidnaped and pressed into the king's service. In 1754 he
became estranged from Wesley on account of some disjigrcement in church matters, and
associated himself with Bell, an ex-lifeguardsmau turned local preiicher, who, possess-
ing great personal magnetism and wild enthusiasm, had a powerful iutluencc over him.
He joined Bell in advocating doctrines so strongly opposed to the rejisonable interpre-
tation of the Scriptures, that a decided breach was made between his followers and "W es-
ley, and he withdrew from the Foundry church and founded a society of 170 members
who had seceded with him. He continued with this people for 20 years, and when
helpless from a stroke of paralysis, Wesley remembered and visited him, and afterward
preached to his people in the chapel which he had occupied.
MAXIMIANUS I. See Diocletian, ante,
. MAXIMIANUS IL See Galerius, arUe
KAXDCILIAK I., one of the most distinguished of the German emperors, the son sod
successor of Frederick III., was b, at Neustadt, near Vienna, March 22. 1459. In his
19th year he married Maria, the only child and heiress of Charles the bold, duke of Bur-
gundy, and was soon involved in war with Louis XL of France, who attempted to seize
some of her possessions. Maximilian, although successful in the field, was compelled,
by the intrigues of Louis in the Netherlands, and disaffection stirred up there, to betroth
his daughter Margaret, a child of four years old, to the dauphin, afterwards Charles
VllL, and to give Artois, Flanders, and the duchy of Burgimdy as her dowry. In 1486
he was elected king of the Romans. Insurrections in the Netherlands, encouraged and
supported byFrance, occupied much of his time, and again involved him in war with
Louis XI. He afterwards repelled the Hungarians, who had seized great p«rt of the
Austrian territories on the Danube; and the T\irka, who in 1492 invaded Cannthia, Car-
niola, and Steiermark.. He again took up arms agsiinst France, because Charles VHL
sent back his daughter, and married Anne of Bretagne, in order to acquire that great
province. A peace was, however, soon concluded at Senlis in 1493, Maximilian receiv-
mg back the provinces which he had given with his daughter. On the deaUi of his
father in 1493, he became empercr, and he subsequently married Bianca Sforza, daugh-
ter of the duke of Milan. He applied himself with wisdom and vigor to the inteinal
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admtnistration of the empire, took measures for the preservation of peace in Germany,
uud encouraged the cultivation of the arts and sciences. But he was suon again involved
in wars against the Swiss, the Venetians, and France. He sought to put a stop to
French conquests in Italy, and was at first successful; but aftei' various changes of for-
tune, and years of war, mineled with many political complications, lie was compelled to
;j:ive up Milan to France, and Verona to the Venetians. Kor was Maximilian more sue-
(H'ssful against the Swiss, who in 1499 completely separated themselves from the German
'■mpire. The hereditary dominions of his house, however, were increased during his
reign by several peaceful additions; and the marriage of bis sou Philip with the Infanta
Juaua, and of bis dau^bter Margaret with the Infant Juan of Spain, led to the subset
qnent union of Spain with Austria; whilst the marriage of two of bis grandchildren with
the son and daughter of Ladislaus, king of Hungaiy and Bohemia, brougbt both these
kingdoms to the Austrian monafchy. Maximilian died at Wels, in Upper Austria, Jan.
13, 1519. He was of a chivalrous character. He wrote various works on war, garden-
ing, hunting, and architecture, some poems, and an autobiography full of marvefi.
JCAZDCILIAir II., Joseph, Kin^ of Bavaria, son of Ludvig I., was b. Nov. 28, 1811.
He married in 1842 the piinceas Miiria Hedwig, cousin to the present kin^ of Prussia.
Until 1848 he took no part in political affairs, but devoted himself to agricultural and
other improvements, and to the pursuits of literature and science. In that year of the
revolutionary excitement, he was suddenly called to the throne, on his father's abdica-
tion, and adopted a policy accordant with the liberal tendencies of the time. Reac-
tionary measures were afterwards to some extent adopted; but Maximilians reign was
chiefly signalizeil by the encouragement of science. He was regarded with no favor by
the ultramontane party, but without respect to their opposition, he brought to Munich
men of liljeral opinions, eminent in literature and science. He died Mar., 1864.
XAXIMILIAH, Emperor of Mexico, otherwise Ferdinand Maximilian Josbpii.
Archduke of Austria, wtis b. on July 6, 1832. He was the son of the archduke Francis
C/harles, and the younger brother of Francis Joseph I. Maximilian, who received a
careful education, was very popular as governor of the Lombard- Venetian kingdom. In
1862 the French were induced to interfere in the affairs of Mexico and in 1868
Civlled together an assembly of notables. This body decided in favor of monarchy;
and a deputation was appointed to offer the crown of Mexico to Maximilian. After
deliberation he solemnly accepted it; and in June, 1864, he entered Mexico. He yras
of course warmly welcomed by the clergy and the army; but he soon found that
they expected him to sanction abuses which he felt bound to condemn ; though he gained
the support of the liberals. For a time all went well; but he vainly tried to reconcile
Mexican parties, who had no other object in view than power and place. A proclama-
tion be was induced to make in Oct., 1865, threatening to punish with death under the
laws of war all who offered resistance to the government (asked for merely to suppress
brigandage), wa^ so employed both by the imperialist and French commanders, that
under it many estimable liberal officers were cruelly shot as robbers. Juarez and his
followers again raised the standard of independence. At the same time, Louis Napoleon
liad to contemplate the witbdniwal of his troops. In vain the empress, a daughter of
Leopold I. of Belgium, went to Europe to enlist support for her husband; her reason
^ve way under the continued grief and excitement brought on by disappointment.
The French were most anxious that Maximilian should leave with their troops ;« but he
felt bound as a man of honor to remain, and share the fate of his followers. At the
liead of 10,000 men, be made a binve defense of Queretaro against a liberal army under
Escobedo. On the night of May 14. 1867, gen. Lopez betrayed him. The liberal min-
ister of war ordered Maximilian and gens. Miramon and Mejia to be tried by court-mar-
tial; and it was in vain the European ministers protested against this breach of the laws
of civilized warfare. The trial was of course a mere farce, and the charges chiefly
rested on the proclamation above referred to and the executions which followed it. On
July 19, the three prisoners were shot. After some delay, the body of Maximilian
was given up to his relatives, and was conveyed to Europe in an Austrian frigate. After
the death of Maximilian, his writings were published under the title of Aus Meinem
Leben; ReiseMszen, Aphoriamen, QecUchte, etc. (7 vols. 1867).
MAXIMIN, Caius Julius Verus Maximinus, a Roman emperor; b. in the latter
part of the 2nd century. He was originally a Tbracian shepherd. Attracting the atten-
tion of the emperor Septimius Severus by his immense size and wonderful feats of
strength and agility, he was admitted to the army; was rapidly advanced for his bravery,
put in command of a new legion raised in Pannonia, and obtained great influence over
the soldiers. At the head of this legion he followed Alexander in his campaign against
the Germans. When the army was encamped on the banks of the Rhine, he conspired
against Alexander, and caused him to be put to death in his tent, with his mother Mam-
miea, a.d. 235, Being proclaimed (emperor, he named his son Maximus CsBsar, and made
him colleague in the empire. He continued the war against the Germans, and devastated
a large part of the country beyond the Rhine. But his cruelty and rapacity aroused the
indi^iation of the people. For alleged conspiracy against him he put to death Magnus,
a senator, with 4,000 other persons, and for the* imperial treasury confiscated the munici-
pal property. He also opposed Christianity, and persecuted the bishops who had been
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favored by Alexander. The provinces of Africa revolted and proclaimed (rordlaniu;
who was soon after acknowledged by the senate and people. Rome, fearing the ven-
geance of Mnximin, the senate proclaimed emperors Clodius Papienus Maximus and
Decimus CsbUus Balbinus, and with them was associated by order or the people a nephew
of the younger Gordianus. Maximln having crossed the Isonzo, laid siege to Aquileia
in Italy, but met with strong resistance from the gjirrison and people. The soldiers
mutinied and killed both him and his son in 288. Haximin was a fierce soldier, and his
son a Iiandsome but arrogant youth.
MAXIMS, LEGAL, a term used by members of the legal profession and writers on
iurisprudence to denote those brief and pithy utterances, which by general consent have
been accepted as embodying in proverbial form the accumulatcd»wisdom of the past, the
well-determined gen(Mal principles which are the foundation of both law and equity. As
these general principles are founded on the natural law of justice, safety, and public
policy, they are not liable to chauge by statute or local enactment; and however the
legislative power may see fit to apply them in particular instances, the basis of the law is
the same in all countries. Hence it follows that the utterances of ancient Roman magis-
trates and authors of legal treatises remain to this day of as much force and truth" as
when first promulgated. As the code of Justinian forms the basis of the civil law, still
in force over most countries of Europe, and as the works of all tbe earlier writers of our
English common law were couched in the Latin language, it is not surprising that by far
the largest number of these maxims are in Latin, which tongue, moreover, is adapted to
give such maxims their needful condensation and precision. Li very few instances can
the maxims be traced to their original sources; many are derived from the Roman law;
many are from continental jurists of the middle ages; while a very large number were
enunciated i)y early English judges and writers, and still others are of quite modem
origin. The form in which they are expressed is often varied and in many cases an
abbreviated form is employed by most lawyers in place of the full utterance. Like other
expressions of the common law, the maxims derive their force and authority in the first
place through the truth and iustice of the principles which they enunciate, and, secondly,
through the universality of their acceptance and application by courts in the past. They
are not, therefore, of absolutely equal and binding authority, or rather it is impossible to
draw a line strictly dividing accepted maxims from mere expressions of opinion. liVhile
it has been said that maxims resembled both mathematical axioms and proverbs, it is true
that they differ from both materially in their nature, being more the outcome of induc-
tive reasoning than are axioms, and more carefully framed and specifically applicable
than proverbs. The number of those universally accepted as law is very large indeed.
Works devoted entirely to the consideration of the meaning and application of tliis fomi
of law have been published by several authors. Perhaps it womd be safe to put the
number of those m«txims which are properly so-called, not mere dicta, and which are in
common use, as not less than two hundred. If the definition be made broader in both
lespects, we must add to this many hundi-eds. Bouvier in his Law I>icti(mary gives a
vciy complete list, which cannot fall far short of two thousand distinct maxims. The
reader will ntost easily understand the nature and style of this class of pithy legal say-
ings by examining a few which are selected from the great mass, mainly with regard to
their brevity and frequent use. Such are : caveat emptar~-\e,i tbe buyer be on his guard—
a most ^important principle of the law of contracts, but not to be construed too strictly;
Qui facet per ahum, facU per se — he who acts by another, acts himself— in which may he
seen the main principle of the law of i^ency ; ^quitas seguitur lecein — equity follows the
law; Ex nihUo nifiUfit—irom nothing comes nothing; Fraus est eelare fraudem — to con-
ceal a fraud is itself a fraud; A P impossible nul n'est teiiv — no one is bound to do what is
impossible, the language being what is called "law French"; Utnjus, ibi remedium^
where there is a right thece is a remedy ; Ignarantia legis neminem excusat — ignorance of
the law excuses no one; also expressed by Ig^torantia facti exetisat, ignorantia legia fwn
&MM«a^-ignorance of fact, but not of law is an excuse; Prior tempore, potiar jyre—^T^X
in time, fii-st in right; Id eerttim esi, qvod cerium reddi pAest — that is certain which may
be rendered so. Among those commonly given in English may be mentioned: Acts
indicate the intention; When tlie equities are equal the law shall prevail; When the
foundations fail, all fails; Once a fraud, always a fraud.
As may be readily perceived, the difficulty in practically employing these and the
many similar maxims, is twofold; firet, in correctly amplifying and expounding the
extended meaning sought to be convej^ed in the condensed" form; and, secondly, in
properly applying it to the adjudication of the particular facts of the aise in question:
and it is the work more especially of the writer of treatises on the various branches of
law and equity to perform the first duty; while to the active practitioners and to the
judges emergencies are constantly presented, calling for the exercise of the latter func-
tion.
XAXnCtTM, in mathematics, the greatest value of a variable quantity or magnitude,
In opposition to minimum, the least. More strictly, a maximum is such a value as is
greater than those immediately preceding and following it in a series; and a minimum is
a value which is less than those immediately preceding and following it, so that a func-
tion may have many maxima and minima unequal among themselv^ as in the case of a
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A1 ^ Mazlmi.
^A« MikJtwaU.
curve aJtemately approaching and receding from an axis. Traces of the doctrine of
maxima and minima are to be found in the works of ApoIIonius on conic sections. The
thorough investigation of them requires the aid of the differential calculus, and even of
ihe calculus of variations. The brothers Bemouilli, Newton, Maclaurin, Euler, ami
Lagrange, hcve greatly distinguished themselves in this department of mathematics.
The Hindus have displayed ^reat ingenuity in solving, by ordinary algebra, problems of
maxima and minima, for which, in Europe, the calculus was considered to be necessary.
MAXWELL, Hugh, 1787-1873; b. Scotland, and brought to the United States in
diildhood; graduated at Columbia college in 1801, and entered the profession of the law
in New Yoi*k, where he became prominent as a learned and skillful advocate. He was
assistant judge-udvocate general of the U.S. army in 1814, and district attorney for New
York county in 1819, and again in 182^29. He took a distinffuished part in the " con-
spiracy trials" of 1823, and was collector of the port of New York 1849-53. He was a
prominent whig politician.
KAXWELL, James Clerk-, one of the greatest of modern natural philosophers, was
the only son of John Clerk-Maxwell of Middlebie, a cadet of the old Scottish family of
Clerk of Penicuick. He was b. in 1831 and died in November, 1879. He was educated
in boyhood at the Edinburgh academy. His first published scientific paper was read foi
him by prof. Forbes to the Royal society of Edinburgh before he was fifteen, and when
he had received no instruction in mathematics beyond a few books of Euclid, and the
merest elements of alijebra. He spent three yeara at the university of Edinburgh, work-
ing with physical and chemical apparatus, and devouring all sorts of scientific works in
the library. During this period he wrote two valuable papers, On Vie Theory of Rollwf/
Carver, and On the EquUihrium of Elastic SoU'ds, Thus he brought to Cambridge, in the
autumn of 1850, a mass of knowledge which was really immense for so young a man,
but in a state of disorder appalling to his private tutor. But by shssr strength of intel-
lect, though with the very minimum of knowledge how to use it to advantage under the
conditions of the examination, he obtained in 1854 the position of second wrangler, and
was equal with the senior wrangler in the higher ordeal of the Smith's prize.
In 1856 he became professor of natural philosophy in Marischal college, Aberdeen ; in
I860 professor of physics and astronomy in King's college, London. He was succes-
sively scholar and fellow of Trinity; and was elected an hononiry fellow of Trinity
when he finally became, in 1871, professor of experimental physics in the university of
Cambridge. There can be no doubt that the post to which he was ultimately called was
one for which he was in every way pre-eminently qualified; and the Cavendish laboratory,
erected and furnished under his supervision, remains as remarkable a monument to his
wide-ranging practical knowledge and theoretical skill as it is to the well-directed munifi-
cence of its noble founder. In clearness of mental vision, in power of penetration, and
in the possession of that patient determination to which Newton ascribed all his success.
Maxwell is to be ranked with Faradaj'. He was too rapid a thinker to be a good lecturer,
except for the very highest class of students. The great work of his life is undoubtedly
his treatise on Elfctricity and Magnetism (2 vols. 1878). He had previously, from 1856
onward, published various papers on these subjects, following very closely the experi-
mental procedure of Faraday. His great object was to construct a theory of electricity
in which "action at a distance" should have no place; and his success was truly wonder-
ful. There can be little doubt that he has succeeded in laying the basis of a physical
theory of electric and magnetic phenomena, quite as secure!}' founded as in the undula-
lory theory of light: and the luminiferous ether, which is required for the one series of
phenomena, is shown to be capable of accounting for the others also. One grand test is
found in the fact that, if his hypothesis be correct, the velocity of light ought to be equal
to the ratio of the cloctrokinetic unit to the electrostatic unit. We are not yet sure of
either quantity to within two or three per cent; but the most -probable values of each
agree so well as almost to put the hypothesis beyond doubt. In Nature, vol. vii. p. 478,
the reader \vill find an account of the more remarkable discoveries in this extraordinary
book, which suffices of itself to put Maxwell in the ver}^ front rank of scientific men.
Another subject to which he devoted much attention, and in which his numerous dis-
coveries were acknowledged by the award of the Rumford medal, w^as the perception of
color, the three primary color sensations, and the cause of color-blindness. He was the
first to make color-sensation the subject of actual measurement.
He obtained the Adams prize from the university of Cambridge for his splendid dis-
cussion of the dynamical conditions of stability of the ring-system of Saturn, in which he
Siiow^ed that the only hypothesis consistent with the continued existence of these rings is
that they consist of discrete particles of matter, each independently a satellite.
He was perhaps best known to the public by his investigations on the kinetic theory
of .^ases, wilh tlieir singular results as to the nature of gaseous friction, the laws of dii-
fusion. the length of the av{?rage free path of a particle, and the dimensions of the- parti-
cles of various gases. His Bradford ** Discourse on Molecules" is a classic in science.
Besides a great number of papers on various subjects, mathematical, optical, dynami-
cal, he published an extraordinary text-book of the Tlieory of Heat (yf hichhsA already
gone through several editions) and an exceedingly suggestive little treatise on Matter arid
Motion. In 1879 he edited, with copious and very valuable original notes, The Electrical
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^r"- 618
Researches of the Bon. Henry Cavendish, a work which shows that that remarkahle man
had (a hundred years ago) made out for himself much of what was till very lately looked
upon as one of the chief triumphs of the present century.
Maxwell obtained the Keith prize of the royal society of Edinburgh for a valuable
investigation of stresses and strains in girders and frames; he took a prominent part in the
construction of tlie British association unit of electrical resistance, and in the writing of
its admirable reports on the subject; and he discovered that viscous fluids, while yielding
to stress, possess double refraction. He was excessively ingenious in illustration,
especially by means of diagrams; and possessed a singular power of epigrammatic vend-
flcation, as the reader of Mature and BlacktDood cannot fail to remember. Some of his
last and very best scientific work adorns and enriches the new edition of the EncydoptBdia
Britannica. In these davs of materialism it is not superfluous to record that he was, in
the full sense of the word, a Christian; and that he asserted that he had examined every
form of atheism which he had met, with the result of finding that all ultimately require!!
the recognition of a personal God.
MAXWELL, William, 1735-98; b. probably in Ireland; entered the army in America
In 1758, and took part in the French war and the war of the revolution; was col. of a
New Jersey battalion in the Canadian campaign of 1776; commanded the New Jersey
brigade in the battles of Brandy wine and Qermantown; was ens^aged in the pursuit of
Clinton in New Jersey, and took a prominent part in the battle of Monmouth; was engaged
in Sullivan's expedition against the Indians in 1779, and in the battle of Springfield in
1780, shortly after which he resigned. He enjoyed the esteem and con^ence of Wash
iugton.
MAXWELL, William Hamilton, 1794-1860; b. in Ireland; and when 19 years of
age graduated at Trinity college, Dublin. After traveling some years he took orders in
tlie English church, and was in 1820 made rector of Ballagh, county Conuaught As
there was not at that time a single Protestant in the parish. Maxwell found leisure to
engage in literary pursuits. He wrote in all about 20 volumes, most of which were stories
of military life; among them may be mentioned. O'Hara, Stories of Waterloo, The Bark
Lady ofl>onna. The Bivouac and RambUng BecoUeetions qf a Soldier of Fortune. He wrote
also a life of the duke of Wellington, and contributed many papers in the Dublin Uni-
versily Magazine and BenU^y's MiseeUany. *• Christopher North" spoke of Maxwell in
the Noctes as a true sportsman, and successful in ** many picturesque descriptions of the
wildest scenery in Connaught, many amusing and interestmg tales and legends, and much
good painting of Irish character."
MAXWELL, Sir William Stirling, ll.d., b. near Glasgow, Scotland, in 1818;
bore the name of Stirling until 1866, when by the death of sir J()hn Maxwell, his mater-
nal uncle, he succeeded to a baronetcy and assumed the name of Maxwell. He gradu-
ated at Cambridge in 1889, after which he visited Spain and France, devoting several
years to studies of the history, literature, and art of Spain at the close of the mediseval
period. Among his works are Annals of tiie Artists of Spain; Cloister Life ofCfuirks T'.,
and Velasquez and his Works, He was elected to parliament for Perthshire in 1852, and
represented that borough most of the time for a period of more than 20 years. He wa<
rector of the university of St. Andrews in 1863, and of that of Edinburgh in 1872, and
in 1875 was elected chancellor of the university of Glasgow.
KAT [Lat. Mdius, contracted from Magius, is from a root mag, or (Sans.) mah, to
grow; so that May is just the season of growth], the fifth month of the year in our
present calendar, consists of 31 days. The common notion that it was named Maius
by the Homans in honor of Mala, the mother of Mercury, is quite erroneous, for the
name was in use among them long before they knew anything either of Mercury or hb«
mother. The outbreak into new life and beauty which marks nature at tlus time
instinctively excites feelings of gladness and delight; hence it is not wonderful that the
event should have at all times been celebrated. The first emotion is a desire to seize
some part of that profusion of flower or blossom which spreads around us, to set it up
in decorative fiishion, pay it a sort of homage, and to let the pleasure it excites find
expression in dance and song. Among the Romans the feeling of the time found vent
in ihe\r floraUa, or floral games, which began on the 28th of April, and lasted a few daya
The 1st of May — May-day — was the chief festival both in ancient and more modem
times. Among the old Celtic peoples a festival called heUein (q. v.) was also held on this
day, but it does not seem to have been connected with flowers. In England, as we
learn from Chaucer and other writers, it was customary, during the middle ages, for all,
both high and low — even the court itself — to go out on the first May morning at an early
hour " to fetch the flowers fresh." Hawthorn (q.v.) branches were also gathered; these
were brought home about sunrise, with accompaniments of horn and tabor, and all
possible signs of joy and merriment. The people then proceeded to decorate the doors
and windows of their houses with the spoils. By a natural transition of ideas, the^gave
the hawthorn bloom the name of the "May;" they called the ceremony the bringing
home the May;" they spoke of the expedition to the woods as "going a-Maying." The
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
619 «!^r^
fairest maid of the village was crowned with flowers as the "queen of the May;" phiced
ii) a little bower or arimr, where she sat in state, receiving the homage and ndmnation
«»r tlie youthful revelers, who danced and sang around her. This custom of haviug a
M:iy queen looks lilse a relic of the old lioman celebration of the day when the goddess
Flora was specially worshiped. How thoroughly recognized the custom had become in
England may be illustrated by the fact that in the reign of Irlenry VIII. tlie heads of
the corporation of London went out into the high grounds of Kent to gather the May —
liie king nu.l his queen, Catharine of Aragon. coming from their palace of Greenwich,
and ineetini: these respected dignitaries on Shooter's hill. But perhaps the most con-
j»picuou8 feature of these festive proceedings was the erection in every town and village
t»f a fixed pole — called the May-pole — as high as the mast of a vessel of 100 tons, on which,
each May morning, they suspended wreaths of flowers, and round which the people danced
in rings pretty nearly the whole day. A severe blow was given to these n)f rry customs
by the Purit^ms. who caused May-poles to be iiprooted. and a stop put to all tlieir jolli-
ties. They were, however, revived after the restoration, and helu their ground for a
long time;' but they have now almost diirapp^ared. In France and Germany too, May-
poles were common, and in some places are stlil to be seen, and festive sports are even
yet observed. — See Ciiaml)ers's Book of Days, pp. 509-582, vol. i.
MAY, Caromnd. 1). England, 1820; daughter of the rev. Edward H. May, formerly
pastor of the Dutcii ILfornied cliurch in New York city. She published a volume of
original Poeina in 18ij4, and IlyniuH on the CoUccta in 1872. More important than her
original work is the anthology which she published in 1848, under the title of 77/6' Amer
ican Female PoeU; to which are appended her own biographical and critical remarks.
The work is written on much the same plan since followed by prof. J. S. Ilart, and
employed by Griswold in his compilation of a similar nature. Most of the names it
contains have grown obscure, but the collection is still of some value to students of
American literature.
MAY, Samuel Jo^EPn, 1797-1871; b. Boston; graduated at Harvard in 1817; studied
for the ministry wi:h Henry Colman at Hingham. and with Henry Ware, Andrews
Norton, and prof. Fri-sbie, at Cambrida:e; was ordained in the Chauncy Place church in
Boston in 1822, and ^hovtly afterwaids settled as pastor of the Unitarian church in
Brookl}Ti, Conn. Wh n, in 1830, William Llo\'d Garrison came to Boston to agitate the
slavery question, Mr. >h\y was there, and prominent among those who seconded his
efforts, lie joined th'.' lii>}t sooiety to promote the cause of immediate emancipation, and
lived to witness tho utter overthrow of slavery. When Prudence Crandall, a Quaker,
was persecuted for opei.ing her schoot for young ladies at Canterbury% Conn., to pupils of
African lineage, he l)<.c;ime her friend^nd adviser, and stood up bravely between her and
her persecutors; and though he did not save the school from being finally broken up by
violence, he did succeed in baffling the attempts to accomplish that result under the
forms of law. and in arousing in that part of Connecticut a public .sentiment against slav-
ery that has never been overcome, and that for many vears has determined the political
status of the state itself. The late Arthur Tapijan, of New York, furnished him with the
funds neces.sary to prosecute a vigorous campaign for the defense of Prudence Crandall,
and to establish a press for the enlightenment of the people. In 1834 Mr. May resigned
his pastorate in Brooklyn to accept the position of general agent of the Massachusetts
antislavery society. He was a public lecturer against slavery in the years 1835-36, when
mobs were epidemic, and his life was often in great peril. His gentleness was as con-
spicuous as his courage, and he was never once betrayed into any harshness of spirit or
language. Oct. 26, 1836, he was settled aa pastor of the Unitarian church in South
Scituate, Mass., where he remained until 1842, when, at the earnest solicitation of the late
Horace Mann, then secretary of the state board of education, he took charge for three
years of the normal school at Lexington. In 1845 he removed to Syracuse, N. Y., to
l)ecome pastor of a Unitarian society, and there remained until his death. In that city
be identified himself with the cause of education and with every institution of public
charity, and was greatly beloved by the whole people. His house in Syracuse was a con
Btant refuge for fugitive slaves, and he took an active part in the famous rescue of the slave
•* Jerry" from his legal captors at Syracuse in lail. For this offense against the fugitive
slave law he and 17 others were indicted in the U. S. district court at Auburn. A hun-
dred of the best known citizens of Syracuse accompanied the prisoners to Auburn, and
when they were required to give bail for their appearance for trial, William H. Seward
was the first to atfix his name to the bond, and he also invited the rescuers and their
friends to Ids own house for refreshments. Mr. May and two other gentlemen united in
a public declaration that they had ** assisted all they could in the rescue of Jerry," that
they were ready for trial, and would give the court no trouble as to the fact, but would
rest their defense upon '* the unconstitutionality and extreme wickedness of the fugitive
shive law;" but the district attorney never brought them to trial. Mr. May, during the
war. was constantly engaged in labors for the health and comfort of union soldiers, and
when the struggle was ended he took an active part in associations for the relief of the
f reedmen. Many of his sermons and addresses were published, and a volume of his
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
May. gOA
Mayer. "-^
liecoUections of th^ AtiUdavery Conflict appeared before his sfeath. His Memcir by
Tliomas J. Mumford was published in 1873.
MAY, Thomas, an English historian and poet. 1595-1650; b. Sussex, Eng., of an
ancient family; educated at Cambridge; repaired to London, became a member of Gray's
Inn, and w.is admitted to the bar. He published the tragedies of Antigone and Agrippina,
a comedy entitled The Heir, and other works. Some of his poems were published by
special command of Charles I. , with whom he was a favorite. Abandoning the court
lie becami' a republican. He was secretary to Cromwell during the civil war, and
employed to write its history. This was published originally in Latin, and translated
into Eu'j:lisli in 1650. He published two poems on the reigns of Henry IL and Edward
in. He translated into English verse Selected Epigra)m of Martial, Virgil's Georgian, and
Lucan's Phnrmlia, to the last of which he wrote a continuation in English and Latin.
His Ilitttoi-y of the Engliah Parliament, begun Nov., 1640, was edited by Baron Masdreti.
and translated into French by Guizot. He was buried in Westminster abbey, but soon
after the restoration his body was disinterred and thrown into a pit in the adjoining St,
Margaret's churchyard. A monument which had been erected over his grave was demol-
ished.
MAY, Sir Thomas Erskine, b. England, 1815; educated at Bedford school, became
assistimt librarian of the house of commons in 1831, and entered the bat in 1838. In
1844 he published a treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usages of Parlia-
ment, which has become a standard authority on parliamentaiy law. In 1846 he was
made examiner of petitions for private bills, and the next year he was appointed taxing-
master to the house of commons, of which he became clerk in 1871. in 1849, he pub-
lislied in pamphlet Renmrks and Snggestions with a Ftew to Facilitate the Di^patcli of
Public Business in Parlmm^nf; in 1850, another pamphlet, On the Consolidation of tiie
Election Laws, and in 1861-03, The Constitutional History of England since the Accession of
George III., 1760-1860. This work is supplementary to llallam's, and brings the consti-
tutional history of England down to the* present generation. It is a sound and trust-
worthy book, without special brilliancy. Sir Thomas published, in 1877, Democracy in
Europe— a History; and he has contributed to the Edinburgh Beview and the Law Maga-
zine.
MAYA is, in the Purdnic mythology of the Hindus, tlie personified will or energy of
the supreme being, who, by her, created the universe; and lus. in this later doctrine, the
world is unreal or illusory, MilyS assumes the character of illusion personified. In this
sense, MSya also occurs in the later VedSnta philosophy, and in some of the sectarian
philosophies of India.
MAYAS, a race of Indians found in the countries of Yucatan, Guatemala, and
Tobasco, presenting a subject of interest as to their origin and habits, and their position
as reijanls civilization. They differ decidedly, and in many respects, from other native
races of that region. By some they arc regarded as of wholly distinct origin ; but by
most ethnologists it is thought that they are descended from the ancient Toltecs, the
builders of the extensive and grand structures whose ruins may be seen at'Uxmal,
Copan, Itza, and other sites in the neighborhood. The traditions of theTVIayas indicate
that they have occupied the country for from 600 to 800 years, and it is not improlia-
ble that the To! tecs may have merged with trilies immigrating from Cuba or th<;
Antilles. The comparatively higli degree of civilization is, doubtless, derived through
the Toltec descent. Mayapan, tlie northern part of Yucatan, was in ancient times their
chief home; and in that locality are the ruins of many noble cities. In their early his-
tory, though possessed of skill in architecture, with some knowledge of navigation and
commerce! and though using an alphabet and written language, the Mayas were serai-
barbarous in many respects, such as painting and tattooing the body and compressing
the heads of their infants. After the Spanish invasion the Mayas were gained over to
ClnUtianity, after the usual fashion of the invaders, by fire and sword. Many of their
savage customs were laid aside; but in 1848 occurred a most extensive uprising of the
natives in many parts of Mexico, and the race regained its independence. Little com-
nmnication has been held with them since, but it is said that they are once more lapsing
into their old religion, which, like all those of Mexican origin, was founded on the
basis of human sacrifice, and was blood-stained and revolting in the extreme. The
ancient language and the alphabet of the Mayaa have long been a subject of discussion
by grammarians and students of comparative philology. The alphabet proper contAins
29 characters, two or three forms being used for some of the English letters, while d,f
ff, o, r and v are wanting; s and z are denoted by the same hieroglyphic, as are also i
and J. There are in use, additionally, a set of marks indicating syllabic sounds. The
manuscripts in existence are written upon bark, and the lines read from right to left,
A number of grammars and dictionaries of the language exist, mostly in Spanish and
French. The latest is that of Dr. Behrend (1875).
MAY-APPLE. See Podophyllum, ajite,
MAYBOLE, a burgh of regality, in the county of Ayr. Scotland, 9 m. s. of the town of
that name, and on the line of the Ayr and Girvan railway. Pop. 71, 8,797, who are
Digitized by VjOL^V IC
621 S^ir.
mostly shoemakers and weavers. In feudal times it was considered the capital of Car-
rick, and was the seat of the courts of justice of the Carrick bailiery. In the vicinity of
Maybole are tlie ruins of the famous abbey of Crossraguel, the liead of which, at the time
of ihe reformation, was Quentin Kennedy, who held a public disputation with John
Knox in a house at Maybole, which is still shown.
MAY BUG. See Cockchafeb, ante,
XATEKCE. See Mainz.
MATEKKE (Lat. Meduana\ a river in the n.w. of France, which rises in the depart-
ment of Orne, and after being joined on the right by the Varenne, Calmont, Emee, and*
Oudon, and on the left \yf tlie Jouanne and Ouette, debouches at Pont, de Ce, into the
Loire, under the name ot the Maine, having become navigable 60 m. s. of Mayenue. —
This river gives its name to the department of Maysnne, which has been formed from
the western part of the old province of Maine and the n. of Anjou. Area, 1990 sq.m. ;
Eop. '72, 850,637. Muyenne, which is included almost entirely within the basin of the
lOire, has a mild climate, but only a partially productive soil, being occupied in many
districts by extensive sandy heaths. The chief branches of industry are the breeding of
cattle and sheep, and the rearing of bees; while the iron mines aim marble quarries of
the district yield employment to the poorer classes. The linen, hemp, and paper manu-
factures are of some importance. Mayenne is divided into the three arrondissements of
Laval, Ch&teau-Gontier, and Mayenne.
MAYEHITE, chief t. of the French department of the same name, is situated on the
Loire, on the right bank of which rises, on a steep and rocky height, the ancient fortress
of the dukes of Mayenne. Lat. 48* 14' n., long. 0"* 85' west. The town is pleasantly
situated, has several good squares, and some fine fountains; but it is specially remarkable
for the extreme steepness of its narrow and winding streets. Manufactures of calico and
linen. Pop. '76, 8,826.
MAYER, Alfred Marshall, b. Baltimore. 1836; educated at St. Mary's college. In
1856 he was appointed professor of physics in the university of Maryland ; and he has since
held a similar position in the Westminster college in Missouri; in Pennsylvania college;
in Lehigh university, and in the Stevens institute of technology, Hoboken, N. J., where
he remains. He was for a time one of the editors of the Amerimn Journal of Science
and Arts, and has published a number of contributions to science, of which may be
not<?d: Mtijnation of tJie Weifflifs of tery SmaU Portions of Matte)', 1858; BesearcMS in
Electro-MagnetismylQlZ; and Researches in Acoustics, 1874. Since his connection with
the Stevens institute, he has made a specialty of acoustics, in which he has made many
interesting experiments, and some valuable discoveries. He has established the connec-
tion between the pitch and duration of a sound, has invented a method of determining
the comparative intensity of sounds with the same pitch, and has located the organs of
hearing in the mosquito. He has also developed new processes for analyzing sound, and
hiw made researches into the nature of electricity.
MAYER, Brantz, 1809-79, b. Baltimore; educated at St. Mary's college, and after
graduation, made a tour to the East. He returned to America in 1828, and was called to
the bar, but gave up the practice of his profession in 1841, to become secretary of the
American legation at Mexico. He came back in 1842 and for a time edited the Baltimore
American. In 1867 he became a paymaster in the amiv. In 1844 he published the
results of his observations in Mexico, under the name of Mexico as it teas and is, describ-
ing the political and social state of Mexico at that time, with some account of the ancient
3Iexican civilization. To the latter branch of this subject, he returned in his Mexico:
Aztec, Spanish, and Bepublican. This work, which appeared in 2 vols, in 1861, is of con-
siderable value for the study of Mexican history after the Spanish conquest. In 1864 his
Captain Canot came out, devoted to the exposure of the slave trade, and from its subject
became highly popular. The Smithsonian institution published in 1856, his Ohservationt
on Mexican History and Archasology. He was one of the founders of the Maryland his-
torical society.
MAYER, JoHANN Tobias, 1723-^2, b. Wttrtemberg; son of a civil engineer,
whose death left him dependent on his own exertions. He taught mathematics for
a living, and devoted himself to the study of gunnery. In 1746 he assisted in
founding the cosmographical society of Nuremberg, to whose TranRnctior^ he con-
tributed a number of papers, among them an important paper on The Libration oj
ths Mooji, in which he made the first use of the equations of condition, which
have since been so generally applied. In 1751 he was appointed director of the
observatory of Gttttingen, where for the remainder of his life, he did much to advance
the Bciences of astronomer and navigation. His first published work was A Treatise on
Curtes for the Constnictum of Geometrical Probletns, which was followed the same year,
1745, by A Maihematiedl Atlas, At GOttingen, he gave much labor to a Zodiacal Cator
loffue, which contains 998 stars. His Lunar TaJbles were published in 1755, and were so
correct as to be be adopted by the Britisli board of admiralty. In the same year he dis-
Digitized by
vjuogle
Mayer. ^OO
May memo. \J^a
covered the repeating circle, which was afterward used with so much success by Borda.
in measuriug the arc of the meridian. He left a large number of scientific memoirs.
MAYER, Julius Robert, Dr., a German physicist, b. in Heilbroun, Wartemberg.
1814. He attended the gymnasium at Heilbroun, studied medicine at TQbingen, ami
finished his course at Munich and Paris. He made a voyage to Java in 1840, and while
there he made observations on the blood wliich led him'to the investigation of the mh-
ject of animal heat, and finally to that of the conservation and coiTclation of forces.
After his return to Heilbroun he became town physician, which interrupted hisinvts
tigations, but he published a preliminary notice of the work he had accomplished up 10
f842, in Licbig's Annnkn der Cfiemie tiiid P/iarma^ under the iiile BemerktingeniiberdU
Krdfte der unbelebUm Natnr. In 1845, he made a fuller explanation of the subject in a
memoir, under the title, Die organiifche Beivegung in iJirem Zvsammenhangemit dtm Stof-
wecJisel. In 1848 he published Beitrage zur Dynamie des Ilimmels, and in 1851 the essay
for which he is perhaps more generally known in popular science, that upon the mechani-
cal equivalent of heat, in which he developed and expanded the principles laid down in
his former papers. His argument is that the sun*s power is the source of all energy on
the earth, nature storing up the light and heat, ana molding it into permanent forms,
from which other kinds of energy may be derived. In this way various potential con-
ditions arc formed, plants storing up power to be afterward transferred to animals and
diffused in motion or w^ork; or the plants in the form of wood and coal may liberate
their forces by combustion. He determined the numerical relation between lieat ami
work, and followed up his investigation by considering the vast amount of heat gtMU'r-
ated by gravity when the force continues its action through sufficient space; concludini:
that the gravitating force between the sun and the earth possessed a heat equivalent
to a mass of 6.000 times the weight of the earth, and that the lisht and heat of the
sun are maintained by the constant impact of meteoric matter. In 1848 Dr. Mayer
incurred the displeasure of many of his former friends by taking sides agamst the revolu-
tionists, and the attacks made upon his scientific investigations so affected him as to
throw him into a sleepless condition which resulted in delirium, during which he leaped
from a window 80 ft. high, sustaining severe injuries, from which, however, after a
long time he recovered. Ilia works have been published under the title Die Mechanik dtr
Wdrme, (Stuttgart, 1867). The Copley medal was awarded to him by the royal society
of London in 1871.
MAYER, Karl, 1T99-1862, b. Germany; a voluminous composer for the piano. He
went to Russia with his father, who was a member of a regimental band, in 1812.
While at Moscow he was a pupil of the pianist John Field. After a residence in Paris
and Brussels, and a tour through German}*, he went back to Russia, where he won a
liigh reputation as a teacher of the piano. He gave lessons at St. Petersburg and Wo«5-
cow, but finally made his home in Dresden, where he died. He left 351 compositions
for the piano, of which the more pretentious are concertos for the piano and orchestra.
XAY-FLY. See Ephemera.
MAY' HEM. See Beatikq and Wounding, anU,
MAYHEW, Experience, 1673-1758, b. Martha's Vinej-ard. He was the oldest son of
Rev. John May hew, and great-grandson of Gov. Thomas Mayhew. He began to preach to
the Indians at' the age of twenty-one, in 1694, and had the oversight of five or six Indian
assemblies, which he continued for 64 years. Though not favored with a learned
education, he Iwcame so conspicuous th?it Dr. Cotton Mather in a sermon printed at
Boston in 1698. and reprinted m his Magnalia, London, speaking of more than "thirty
hundred Christian Indians," and "thirty Indian assemblies," adds: "A hopeful and
worthy young man, Mr. Experience 3Iayhew. must now have the justice done him of
this character, that in the evangelical service among the Indians there is no man that
exceeds this Mr. Mayhew, if there be any that equals him." Having thoroughly mastered
the Indian language, which he had learned in infancy, he was employed by the commis-
Hioncrs to make a new version of the Psalms and the gospel of John, which he did in
1709 in collateral columns of English and Indian. He was offered the degree of master
of arts at Cambridge, which, thou<;h he declined, was conferred upon him at the public
commcn^ement, July 3. 1728. He published in 1727- Indian Contejis^ comprising the
lives of 30 Indian preachers and 80 other converts, besides a volume entitled Qrace Dt-
fended.
MAYHEW. Henry, 1812-76, b. London; son of a solicitor in good practice. Was
sent to Westminster school, but twice ran away, and made a voyage to Calcutta on a
ship-of-war. On his return to London he passed three years in his father's law office as
• an articled clerk, traveled for a period in Wales, and finally adopted the literary profes-
sion and settled in London. His first venture was theatrical. In company with Mr.
Gilbert t\ Beckett he took the Queen's theater, where he produced the clever farce of
The Wandering Minfircl, About the same time he started a comic paper called Figaro in
London^ which was the precursor of Pancfi, of which Mr. Mayhew was also one of tlie
founders. Between the years 1846-51, in conjunction with his brothers, Horace and
Augustus, he brought out a number of fairy tales and farces, and a scries of humorons
sketches, including The Greatest Plague of Life; Wh<m to Matrv, €md I^wjo Get Mar
623 Maymeme.
ried; The Imnge of his Father; etc. He also pTiblished individually Toung Benjamin
Franklin; Boyhood of Martin Luther; The Wonders of Science; and other books for
children. In 1851 he produced his most important work, London Labor and the London
Poor, a CyclopcBdia of the Condition and Earnings of those that ttiU Work, those that can-
not Work, and Utme that wiU iwt Work, Of this book Mr. Henry T. Tuckerman wrote
as follows: ** Mayhew iias given us the diagnosis of London street life with an analytical
precision quite scieutitic A body of the most curious information is brought
together, wiiich reveals a world of facts appalling to the senfiibllities, and wonderfmly
suggestive to the political economist." Mr. Mayhew also commenced the publication
in numbers of a similar work entitled Ths Great World of London, which was not com-
pleted. The first of these works was begun in the London Morning Chronicle; it was
published in 3 vols., 1861, and reprinted 1868. The versatility of Mr. Mayhew's talent
is shown by the widely differing nature of his various works. The London Athenceum
said of him: ** We have long been in want of a 'young people's author/ and we seem
to have the right man in the right place in tlie person of Mr. Mayhew." Another Lon-
don journal, referring to one of his biographical stories for boys, said that it was '*toId
with the ffrace and feeling of €k)ldsmitii, and by one who has that knowledge of science
which QoTdsmith lacked.
MAYHEW, Ira, b. New York, 1814; received an education and went west in early
youth, and settling i n Mich jgan became a successful teacher. He was for some years super-
mtendent of schools for the state of Michigan. In 1849 lh6 legislature of Michigan passed
a resolve in favor of the publication of a Treatise on Popular Education for the use of
parents and teachers, whicli was written by liim, considered satisfactory, and is now
tiie sixth volume of A. S. Barnes & Co.'s school-teachers' library, New York. He has
published Practical Synt/tm of Book-keeping, and Unirersal Book-keeping. His work is
characterized as an efficient help to the cause of popular education which has received
merited recognition.
MAYHEW, Jonathan, 1720-66, b. Martha's Vineyard, Mass.; graduated at Har-
vard college in 1744; ordained minister of the West church, Boston, in 1747, which
place he occupied until his death. He took a decided stand agjiinst the introduction of
bisliops into the colonies by the Gospel propagjition society, which led to a controversy
with Dr. Apthorp and the bishop of Canterbury. He took sirles. too, with the opponents
of the arbitrar}- iiolicy of England toward the colonies. lx)ldly expressinij his views even
in the pulpit. His published' works are a volume of seven sermons: Christian Sobriety,
in Eight Sermons to Young Men; Observations on the Charter and Conduct of the Society
for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Pai'ts. A memoir of him was published by Alden
Bradford.
MAYHEW, Thomas, 1592-1682, b. England; was a merchant in Southampton;
emigrated to America in 1631, and settled in Watertown in 1636, obtained in 1641 from
the agent of lord Sterling a grant of Martha's Vineyard and the neighboring islands,
about 50 m. from Plymouth rook. In 1643 he became both patentee 'and governor of
Martha's Vineyard and other islands. His son having been called to labor in the minis-
try at Edgartown, governor Mayhew encouraged his work, both by his advice and by
inducing the Indian sachems to govern their people according to English laws. They
"loved and admired liiui as the most saperior person thoy had ever seen." They drew
up a writing in their own language. si»fned by men **of the greatest noto and power,"
declaring tliat as they hud freely bubmitted to the crown of England, so they resolved to
assist the English on the islands against their enemies. For 40 years while he lived
among them the English and Indians were at peace. While governor lie also preached,
walking sometimes, even in his old age, 20 m. through the woods. When alK)ve four-
score years of age lliey urged him to accept the pastond charge of them, which, however,
he declined on account of his position as governor. He continued to preach to extreme
old age.
MAYHEW, Thomas, 1621-57; the only son of ffovernor Thomas Mavhew; b. Eng-
land; received a liberal education; removed with his fatlier to Martha's Vineyard in
1042; was called by the settlers on the new plantation to the ministry among them.
Soon learned the Indian language, and began to preach among them. In 1651 there
were 199 men, women, and children wlio professed to be worshipers of tlie true God.
Desiring to give a more detailed account of the Indians than he could by letter, and to
staire aid in his work, he embarked in 1657 for England with his brother-in-law and an
Indian preacher, but nothing w&s ever again heard of the ship. He was an earnest and
successful minister, greatly beloved and esteemed by the Indians.
MAYHEW, Thomas, b. London, 1810; brother of Henry and Horace; entered the
profession of literature, and particularly distinguished himself by becoming a pioneer
in the production of cheap reading matter for the poorer classes. He published a num-
Iter of works sold for a penny; including dictionaries and grammars, and founded the
|)enn}' national library.
HAYICEKE, or Maimenah, a city in independent Turkestan, about half way between
Balkh and Herat, on a river flowing n. towards the Jihun. It consists of aoout 1500
mud huts, a frail bazaar built of brick, three mosques of mud, and two medresse, w
Mayo. ^^^
colleges, of brick. It is coBsidered by the natives to be a jwwerfiil stronghold, but its
onl}' defenses are a simple wall of earth around the city, 20 ft. high; and a citadel sur-
rounded by a fosse, and situated upon a conspicuous hill of steep ascent. The people
of the town, as well as those of the khanat, are bold and fearless riders, and of resolute,
warlike character.
MAYNADIKR, William, 1806-71; b. Md., a graduate of West Pomt militaTv
academy; in 1827 was appointed brevet 2d. lieut. of artillery. He was at one lime
adjutant of the artillery school of practice at fort Monroe, having been previously
assigned to duty there. lu 1832 he was one of gen. Winlield Scott's aids in ihe BUicK.
Hawk war in Illinois, and in 1835-38 served in the same capacity with gen. Macomb in
the Seminole war, a contest between the Indians and settlers in Jf'lorida. In 1838 he was
appointed capt. and acting inspector of ordnance, and placed on duty at the U. S. aivenal
in Pikesville, Md. In 1842 he was promoted to assistant chief of ordnance, holding the
position for several successive yeai-s, and was gradually advanced from maj. in 1861,
to brevet brig.gen. in 1865. He was remarkable for tine abilities rendered useful by a
varied experience, for sound judgment and careful discrimination.
MAYNARD, Horace, b. Mass, 1814; educated at Amherst college. Removed to
Tennessee, and held the position of tutor, and afterwards that of professor of mathe-
matics in the Eiist Tennessee university. In 1844 he was admitted to the bar, and
entered upon a law pi-actice which became lucrative and important. He was a member
of congress from 1857 to 1863, and during the rebellion suffered from serious losses of
property. He was again elected to congress in 1866, and continued to represent the
Knoxville, Tenn., district until 1873, and afterwards for two years was representative
at large. He was appointed minister to Constantinople in 1875 and continued there
until 1880, being appointed postmaster-general in August of the latter year.
MAYNARD, Sir John. 160^-90; b. at Tavistock, England; educated at Exeter col-
lege, Oxford. After the regular course of study in the Middle Temple he was called to
the bar, having been made a member of parliament in the previous year, 1625. He was
subsequently made a sergeant-at-law4ind king's sergeant, but declined the place on the
bench offered him by Charles II. in 1660. In a long political career, extending over 65
years, sir John was a witness of and prominent actor in the most eventful crises of
English history. An urgent advocate of increasing the power of the people, he never
concurred in the extreme views taken by the radical republicans; an eai-ncst Presby-
terian, he stood aloof from the absurd fanaticism of many in his part3^ He was active
in the prosecution of Strafford and Laud, but strongly opposed the arbitrary power
a.ssumca by the army, and Cromwell's evident intention of making himself king in fact,
if not in name; and for the position he took in this respect was twice imprisoned by
order of the protector in the tower of London. At the restoration the honor of knight-
hood was conferred upon him by Charles II. ; and his political course under that mon-
arch wa« judicious and conservative. In the time of the revolution and the accc^onof
William and Mary, he showed great ability, and notably in the great conference held
iKjtween the house of lords and the commons in regard to the abdication of James H., a
measure which he strenuously advocated. In the same year, 1689, he was made a com-
missioner of the great seal. Macaulay relates that when, nt an interview with William
III., the king remarked to Maynard that he must have outlived all the I a w^y ere of his
time, sir John both wittily ana truthfully replied, "Yes; and if your highness had not
come to our assistance, I should have outlived the law, also." Both as a statesman and
as a lawyer and expounder of the true principles of the British constitution, Maynard
occupied a very high position among the many remarkable men of his age. A number
of his political speeches and legal decisions have been collected and published.
MAT'HOOTH, a village of the co. Kildare, Ireland, 15 m. n.w. from Dublin by the
Midland Great Western railway; pop., including the college, '71, 2,091. It is of some
historical interest as the seat of the powerful family of tlie Gerald ines, of whose castle
large and very striking ruins still remain ; and as the scene of more than one struggle
with the English power, especially the "rebellion of Silken Thomas,'* in the rei^n of
Henrj*^ VIII., and m the war of the confederates (1641-50). But its chief modem Inter-
est arises from the well-known Roman Catholic college, which supplied for many years
material for strife to the zealots of the rival religious parties in Great Britain. This
college was established during the ministry of Mr. Pitt, in the year 1T95, by an act of
the Irish parliament, in order to meet a necessity created by the utter destruction, through
the French revolution, of the places of education in France upon which the Irish Cath-
olic clergy, excluded by the penal laws from the opportunity of domestic education, had
hithertobeen driven to rely. The original endowment, an annual vote of £8,928, was
continued, although not without sustained opposition, by the imp^ial parliament after
the act of union. In the year 1846 sir Robert Peel earned a bill for a permanent endow-
ment of £26,000 a year, to which was added a grant of £30,000 for building purposes.
The building erected under the original endowment is a plain quadrangle. The new
college is a very striking Gothic quadrangle by Pugin, containing professors* and
students' apartments, lecture-halls, and a singularly fine library and refectory. Pugin's
design included a chapel and common-hall, which, owing to ia-iufficieucy of funds, have
been postponed. Under the act of 1845 the college was to receive 500 students, all
Digitized by VjiJOV IC
625 ss^r"*^-
dc5;tined for the priesthood. The patronage of the 500 studentships was diTided in the
nnio of population among the bishops of the several sees of Ireland; but the candidates
ihus named were subjected, before matriculation, to examination in a comprehensive
ctitniuce course. The full collegiate course was of 8 years, 2 of which were given to
(•la.ssic8, 2 to philosophy, and tlte reniuiuing 4 to the more directly professional studies of
divinity, scripture, church history, cauon hiw, and the Hebrew and Irish languages.
The divinity students, 250 in number, received a money stipend of £20 annuall v ; and
^. .t the close of the ordinary course, 20 scholarships, called from the founder, lord Dun-
.H)yue, ** Dunboyne scholarships," were assigned by competition to the most distinguished
students, and might be held for 3 years. The legislative authority was vested in a boai-d
of 17 trustees, and the internal administration in an academical body, consisting of a
president and vice-president, together with a numerous body of professors and deans.
A visitorial power was vested in a board of 8 visitors, of whom 6 were named by the
cTown, and 8 elected by the trustees. In 1869, by the Irish church act (32 and 83
Vict. 0. 8&-41), the 3Iaynooth endowment was withdrawn — ^a capital sum, 14 times its
amount, being granted to the trustees for the discharge of existing interests. The
(ollcge, however, is still maintained on the same footing. The educational arrange-
ments are unaltered, and although the number of pupils, owing to the suspension of
free studentships and exhibitions, has somewhat fallen off, the diminution is regarded
as temporary. The visitorial powers created under the act of parliament are now exer-
dscd by visitors appointecF by the trustees, and all state connection is at an end. The
college also possesses some landed and funded property, the result of donations and
l>equests, the most considerable of which is that ot lord Dunboyne, Roman Catholic
bisliop of Cork, who had for a lime conformed to the Proteetant faith. A great part of
llie college buildings was burned in Nov., 1878.
HA'TO, a maritime county of tlie province of Connaught, Ireland, ia bounded on tlio
n. and w. by tlie Atlantic ocean, e. by Sligo and Eoscommon, and s. by Galway. Area,
1,368.882 acres, of which 497,587 are arable; population, which in 1861 was 254,449, had
fallen in 1871 U> 246,030, of whom 238,319 were Roman Catholics, 6,096 Protestant
Episcopalians, and the rest Protestants of other denominations. The coast-line of Mayo
is about 250 miles. The surface is very irregular, the interior heiug a plain bordered by
two ranges of mountains. Of these ranges, the highest points are Croagh Patrick,
2,610 ft., and Nephin, 2,646 ft. in height. The soil of the plain is fertile, and for the
most part suitable either for tillage or for pasture, although the prevalence of rain and
inigenial winds render tillage, especially of wheat and potatoes, precarious and unre-
niunerative. The number of acres under crop in 1878 was 192,021. The resting of
(uttle forms in most parts of the county the more ordinary pursuit of the agiicultural
l>opulation. In 1875 the number of cattle waa 174,614; sheep, 800,828; and of pigs,
.')3;.661. Ironstone abounds in some districts, but, owing to want of fuel, no attempt is
made to work it. An excellent marble is found in the north-western district, tind
there are several places in which slates are successfully quarried. The chief towns
are Casllebar, Westport, Ballina, and Ballinrolw. Almost the only occupations of the
nopulfttion are agriculture and fishing A valuable salmon-fishery exists in the river
Moy; and the small lake of Lough Ma^k is the habitation of the well-known *'gil-
laroo" trout. The Irish language is still spoken in a large part of Mayo. The uum-
Iwotf pupils attending school during 1875 was 50,173— an increase of nearly 10,000 since
1871.
Mayo formed part of the extensive territory granted by Henry II. to William de
Burpho; but in the middle of the 14th c. one of the younger branches of the family,
scizmg on the counties of Galway and Mayo, threw off the English allegiance,
adopted the •* customs of the Irishry,*' together with the Celtic name of Mac William.
In tiie year 1575 tlie MacWilliam made his submiasion at Galway; but having subse
qnently revolted, the district was finally subdued by sir Richard Bingham in 1586. The
antiquities of Mayo arc chiefly ecclesiastical . Four round towers are still in existence*
and there are at Com; the remains of a splendid abbey, which dates from the 12th cen-
tury. The celebrated '* Cross of Cong," now in the museum of the royal Irish academy,
\vas the archiepiscopal crosier of Tiiam, once preserved in the abbey of that name.
MAYO, Amory Dvvight. b. in Warwick. Franklin co, Mass., Jan. 81, 1823; edu-
cated at Amherst college; studied theology with the rev. Hosea Ballon, formerly presi-
«1ent of Tufts college; from 1846 to 1854 was pastor of a Universalist church in Glouces-
ter. Mass. ; from 1854 to 1856 preached in Cleveland, O. ; from 1856 to 1868 in Albany,
>'. Y.; and from 1863 to 1872 m the church of tlie Redeemer (Unitarian), in Cincinnati,
O.; and from 1872 to 1880 was pastor of the Unitarian church in Springfield,. Mass.
Dtiring his whole public life he has been an earnest advocate of popular education, and
lis« written much upon the subject. He has opposed with zeal the effort to secularize
the public schools, contending for the use in them of the Bible as a means of moral
instruction. He has also taken a decided stand in favor of the so-called *' Christian
amendment" to the constitution of the Unhed States. For several years he was profes-
i^ of ecclesiastical polity in the Meadville (Penn.) theological school, visiting the
institution yearly to deliver the necessary lectures. He is at present the editor of the
Ma9saeJ^tMeiu Jour^nal of Skiueation, and engaged besides in general labore thrpt^hout
U. EL IX. — 40 o
IttiJanderaii. "26
tlie countzy to stimulate populnr interest in tbe scbool^e^stem. His published works arc
Tlie Balaii^ce; Memoin of Mrs. 8. C, E, Mayo^ his first wife; Gracat and 2\/W6n vf the
ChrUtian Life; and SynU>oU of Uie Capital, a volume of sermons on tiie elements of
Cliristian civilization.
MAYO, RicHABD SorTHWELL BbURKB, Earl of, 1822-73; b. Dublm, Ireland; educated
at Trinity college in fliat city. He was the sixth earl of Mayo, and, until his 6ucc«S)iioQ
to the title at his Cather's death in* 1867, was known as lord T^aas. After gnuluatiun he
traveled in Russia, and publisbed an account of the trip in 8i. Petenburgh and Mwrex/to
(1845). His career in politics was most successful ; he was twice returned to parliament,
and was made <diief secretary for Ireland in 1852 by lord Derby, and again in 1858,
and 1866, when that statesman was in i^wer, was reappointed to the same position;
and under Disraeli's administration was in 1868 made viceroy of India. Here he ut once
ihtroduced extensive reforms in the conduct of the puWic service. To this mutter he gave
hi8 most earnest attention, and it was while engaged in an examination of the pcnaiEet.
tlemeut at fort Blair among the Andeman islands that he met his death at the hands of
one of the convicts. It is generally believed that the act was prompted only by natural
imalignity, and was not occasioned by any political cause.
MAYO, Willi Aac Stabbcck; b. at Ogdensburg, N. Y., 1812; educated as a physi-
<cian. and took his degree at the New York college of physickns and surgeons in 1833.
IDr. Mayo is cliiefly known as a traveler and writer of fiction. He spc'nt some time in
Spain and iu Morocco and other parts of North Africa: and the experience and iufornia-
ition gained iu these travels was employed with effect in hts earlier novels. In liciroa
lie Ims written Kaloolah (1849); T/m Berber^ or Mountaineers (fllie Atlas (1850); liomanec
3ustfrom tJis Historic Placer (1857); and lietfer Again (1873>. Of these, the first was the
most popular, and obtained a very large circulation. His books abound in incidents of
;aES venture and perils, and show versatility, but his character portrayal is, with one or
two exceptions, inferior to his narrative. His stvle does not avoid *extrava!^nce; and
iscnnetimes, as in his last book, is somewhat morbid. His work, however, is interesting;
and has not failed of readers.
XATOB (Fr. inairCy Lat. major; see Maob), originally a steward, bailiff, or overseer,
thence the chief magistrate of a city or corporate town in England or Ireland. The
ma^'or is the head of the local judicature, and the executive oiiicer of the municipality;
l»e is elected by tlie council from the aldermen or councilors, and holds office for a year
•onily. His duties include those of returning officer in all burghs except those cities and
Uiiwns which, being counties of themselves, have sheriffs of their own. The first mayor
of London was appointed in 1189, the first mayor of Dublin in 1409. The mayors of
Loikdon, York, and Dublin are called ''lord mayor." The lord mayor of London has
the title of "right honorable," which, along with the title " lord," was first allowed by
BdvArd III. in 1354; is the representative of royalty in the civil government of the city,
tlie chief commissioner of lieutenancy, the conservator of the river Thames; and on the
dexaise of a sovereign, he becomes, pi'o tempore, a member of the privy counciL To sus-
taia the hospitality of the city, he receives an allowance of £8,000 a year, with the uso
of the Mansion-house, furniture, carnages, etc. He is chosen bv the livery (q.v.) on
Sept. 29, l)eing commonly the senior alderman, who has Ixjen sheriff, but not lord mayor.
In former times, it was the ambition of the first merchants and bankers of the city to be- ^
come lord mayor; but since the district within the metropolitan boundaries has come to '
lie h^i a small fraction of w*hat is generally known as London, this has ceased to be the
case; and it is only in the eye of foreigners ihat the lord mayor of London is one of tbe
roost important public functionaries of the realm. The mayor of Dublin was first styled
lord mayor by Charles 11. in 1665.
MAYOR, ante, the ordinary name for the chief executive officer of an incorporated
city. No general definition of his powers can be given. They are defined by the charter
of the particular city where he holds office, and, as in the case of New York city, are sub-
ject to almost annual changes by the legislature. In some cities the mayor actually has
great authority; in others, liis powers are divided among executive boards or conamis-
sions, or he. is made dependent for confirmation of his acts or appointments upon the
consent of aldermen, or the conimon council, or other elective or appointive bcnlies, so
that the mayor's actual powers are often extremely limited.
MAYOR, John Eytoit BiCKERSTETir; b. Ceylon, 1825; educated at Shrewsburv
school, and St. John's college, Cambridge, of which he became fellow in 1849. He
was assistant master of Marlborough collefre from 1849 to 1853, took orders in the cliurrh
in 1855. and in 1863 l^ecame librarian of the university of C'ambridge, where, since 18?2.
he has oeen professor of Latin. His services to Uie study of classical literature and philo-
logy have l)een eminent, and the numlxir of his worl«i, nnd particularly of his editions
of classical authors, is large. lie published an edition of the satires of .Juvenal iu 1S53.
and a new edition of the same work appeared in 1878. He has edited the works of
Quintilian. the f^peculum Historials of Richard of Ciroencester, the Second PhilipjHC of
Cicero, and a portion of Homer's Odyssey. He has also published a numlxM- of school
text-books, ana A Bibliogvnphicnl Clue to Latin Literature. He has l)een an a<5sociate
editor of the Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology, and of the Journal of Pkihlogy.
Digitized by VjiOLJ V IC
637 Max^donui*
MAYOR'GA, Martin de, a Viceroy of Mexico. Wlien he anirccl in tlic cor.n:ry the
gmali pox was W|»ing with great violence, and in a few days 8, COO pei^ons died. Ho
ordered a general inoculation of the people. He was a man of cncrg}-, and much intcr-
csIikI iu the welfare of the people, but his wise and useful measures were greatly hin-
dered and opposed. He founded, an academy of arts in Mexico* During his udniinii-
tratioQ gold and silver to the amount uf neaiiy $75,000,00^ were coined. He died from
poison on his way to Spain. He was the 47th viceroy of Mexico.
MAYOR OF THE PALACE, orif^nally the tiMc of the royd steward ur.der tlu»
Merovingian kings. His proper function was the administration of the rcyrJ estates, and
the care of the royal household; but by 650 the entire cdmir.ifrtralion of the i^ovcmmcnt.
Lad passed into the hands of the mayors of the palace. Giimoald of Austrasia, and
Bbroin of Burgundy, exercised an absolute authority in their oHce as mayors. The
most famous of the mayors of the palace. Pepin of Herif.tal, who held the ofilce 688-714,
and bis son, Charles Martel, who died in 741, were kings in everything bi:t name; an<l
Charles Martel's son, Pepin the short, took the title of king. Thcncefo^^Yal•d the office
lost much of its importance.
MATOTTA. one of the Comoro is'es (q.v.), ceded to France in 18-i3, lici iu lat. IT S4'
to 13" 4' s. , ana long. 44* 59' 15' to 45** 23' east. It is of irreguhir form and u\easures 21 m.
from n. to s., with an average breath of G or 7 m.: if, however, the dangerous coral reefs
which surround the island be included, the whole occupies a simce of 80 m. n. and s.,
and 24 m. e. and west. The surface of Mayotla is vej-y uneven, and is studded with
volcanic-looking peaks, some of which exceed 2,000 ft. In height. The shores of the
islnnd are in riome places lined with mangrove tfwamps, whicli are uncovered at low water
and are productive of malaria and fever. The island is in most parts capallc of crJi!-
vation, and contains several sugar plantations. There are produced annually from 40,000
to 50,000 cwts. of sugar; and the total exports for a year are valued at nearly £n0,000.
It is principally sugar that is exported; and the supply of food grown on the isUmd is
insumciont for the use of the inhabitants. The total irnports in a year do not exceed in
value £'2.>,000. As a colony Mayotta has certainly not fulfilled the cxpectatione enter-
tained by the French at the time of its occupation, notwithstanding* the unusually libenil
terms held out to the colonists. The French establisluncnt is on the island of iaondd,
inside the chain of reefs on the e. side of Mayotta, and consists of a governor, colonial
officer, some artificers and seamen, and about 100 soldiers, besides a few native ones.
There are several substantial government huildings and store-houses; there is a gO( d road-
stead, and the fort has been recently strengthened. Mayotla is the only refuge for French
ships in the Indian ocean. It is the principal market lor the neighboring islands. Pop.
75, 10,875.
MAYOWor MAYO, John, lt..d.. 1045-79; b. Cornwall, England; educated at the
univcrsitv of Oxford, and studied both law and medicine, but his taste was for phil-
osophical and chemical investigation; and, though he acquired some celebrity in his
profession, both iu his practice at Batli and as a medical writer, he is chicily remarkr.ble
for his discoveries and ^^peculations in certain chemical subjects and especially cs regards
the nature of the process of combustion and chemical aHinities. As regards these wuh-
jeets, he scenM to have been far in ad\-ance of the sciemitic theories of his lime, and to
some extent to have anticipated the discoveries of Prieslly and otlicrs of the following
century. His pamphlet, De SaUNitro et Spintu Mtro-aerco (1074), mnintnins that atmos-
pheric air undcr^«joc8 change in its composition during the canibustiou of fuel. A col-
lection of his wnting. Opera Omnia Medica Fhydca, was published in IG^l. lie <lied
when only 34 years of age.
MAYSYILLE, a cltv of Kentucky, United States of America, on the Ohio river, 63 m.
B.e. of Cincinnati. It is finely situated, is the river port of a rich territory, and one
of the largest hemp-marts in America. It has extensive manufactcries of cotton, hemp,
tobacco, iron, and coal-oil. It contains the county buildings, city hall, market, 3 banks,
12 churches. Pop. 70, 4,70u.
MAYWEED, Mamta eolitla, a common road-side plant, growing also in pastures and
meadows, belonging to the order compasitcB, It is a native of Europe, but although
widely spread in America, it is not an aggressive weed. The flower has somewhat the
appearance of chamomile, and is sometimes called' stinking chamomile. It has been
classed as nntJiemu, and the two genera r.re much alike.
MAZAKET, a t. of France, dcp. of Tarn, 43 m. e.s.e. of Toulouse, on the Amette. a
feeder of the Tarn. It has extensive woolen manufactures and cloth-fairs. Pop. '72,
10,500.
HAZANDEBAK, a province of Persia, hounded on the n. by the Caspian sea. It con-
sists for the moat part of a tract of low coast-land, about 200 m. in length by 50 in breadth.
Along the shore of the Caspian the land is marshy, but further in!and the surface
hec;omcs elevated. The climate cannot be called salubrious, although it is more healthy
than that of the neighboring i)rovlnce of Ghilan. The soil is fertile; rice, cotton, mul-
l)erry, sugar-cane, and a variety of f raits are produced. It exports silk, cotton, and rice
to ftus.sia, and imports woolen goods, cutlery, tobacco, etc. Throughout the whole
province, parallel with the shores of the Caspian, extends a causeway, constructed by.
^ '^ » ' DigitizeabyVjUUglC'
8hah Abbas the gfeat itx Uic 17th c, and still in good repair. Pop. about 190,000; capital,
Sari (q.v.).
MAZAHTH, Jules Qtal. Qiulio Mazarint), cardinal and chief minister of France during
the minority of Louis XIV., was bom July 14, 1602, at Home, or, some say, at Piscina
in the Abruzzi. The social position and occupation of his father are points in dispute.
Mazann studied law at Home and at the Spanish universities, where he contrived to unite
industry with amorous gayety. Afterwards he entered the pope's military service,
perhaps about 1624. Having accompanied a papal legate to the court of Frauce, he
' became known to RicheUeu about 1628, who perceived his great political talenlB, aud
engaged him to maintain the French interests in Italy, which he did wliilc still employed
by the pope as vice-legate to Avignon (1632) and nuncio to the French court, an office to
which he was appointed in 1634. The Spaniards complained ol his partiality for France,
and the pope was obliged to recall him. The subtle Italian was not thus to be check-
mated. In 1689 he openly entered the service of Louis XIIL, and was naturalized a
Frenchman ; and in 1641 received a cardinal's hat, through the influence of Richelieu,
who, when dying, recommended Muzarin to the king as the only person capable of curry-
ing on his political system. Mazariu'a position was one of p'oat difficulty amidst the
intrigues, iealousies, and strifes of the earlier years of Loins XIV. 's minority. The
qucen-motner, Anne of Austria, was at first particularly hostile to him; but although Fbc
was declared sole regent and guardian of the young king, Mazarin kept his place as
minister, and soon made himself indispensable to her, partly by his wonderTul businew
qualities, and still more by the exquisite charm of his mniincr, so that, although with
greater smoothness, he nilcd with almost as unlimited a sway r.s Richelieu. The parlia-
ment, thinking to regain political power, resisted the registration of edicts of taxation;
but Mazarin caused the leaders of the opposition to be arrested, upon which the (li«turl>-
ances of the Fronde (q.v.) began. The court retired to St. Germain; Mazarin was out-
lawed by the parliament; but by the truce of Ruel he still remained minister The feel-
ing agamst hnn, however, became still more inflamed when, at his instigation, the
queen-regent caused the princes of Conde aud Conii and the duke of Longueville to be
arrested in Jan., 1630. Mazarin went in person at the head of the court troops totlic
insurgent provinces; and after the victory at Rethel showed so much insolence that tlw
nobles and the people of the capital made common cause against him, and he thought it
necessary to secure his safety by flight to the Netherlands, whilst the press teemed with
violent publications against him, known as Mazarinades. After the rebellion of the
Srince of Conde he ventured to return to France; but pans making his removal a con-
ition of its submission, he retired again from the court, and it was not till Feb. 8, 16.%.
that he made a triumphant entry into the capital, where he was received with significant
silence. Yet in a short time he was popular, and had acquired his former power. Under
him the influence of France amongst the nations was increased, and in the internal gov-
ernment of the country those principles of despotism were established on which jJonas
XIV. afterwards acted. The administration of iustioe, however, became very ccHTupt,
and the commerce and finances of the country sunK into deep depression. It is admitted
that as a financial administi-ator he was far inferior to Richelieu. Mazarin died at Vin-
cennes, March 9, 1661. He was very niggardly and very avaricious, and liad acquired
in various ways, fair and foul^ an immense fortune, amounting to 12,000.000 livrcB,
which he offered to the king shortly before he died, afraid, it is thought, that it mi^ht
be rudely seized from his heirs. Louis declined the restitution, which was ]jerhaps what
the wily minister expected. He was privately married to Anne of Austria. See the
Memoirs of Mazarin's contemporaries, Retz, Mme. Motteville, La Rochefoucault, Tun»nne,
Qrammont, etc.; Siede de Louis XIV,, by Voltaire; Mme. de LonffueviUe, etc., by Victor
Cousin ; and A. Rente's Les Nihes de Mazann.
MAZARRE'DO Y 6ALAZ0R, Jos6 Maria, Admiral, 1744-1812; b. at Bilbao, S^iain:
entered the navy in 1760; participated in the campaign against Algiers in 1775, and was
the means of saving the remnant of the army from destruction. He negotiated peace
with the regency, was made ma j gen. of naval forces, and took part m the naval opcm-
tions against the British in 1780-^. He was promoted to the rank of lieuLgen. in 1789.
and to that of commander-in-chief in 1793, and defended Cadiz against the British in
1797. He* served as ambassador to Paris in 1799 and 1804; was a zealous supporter of
Joseph Bonaparte, who made him counselor of state and minister of marine, which
offices he held to the clo;^e of his life. As a scientific seaman his rank was high. He
built the naval observatory at Cadiz, and published Rudimentos de lactiea JSMtal.
XAZAB'BOF, or AiiMAZABBON, a sea-port t. of Spain, in the province of Murcia, 27
IB. W.8.W of Cartagena, on the coast of the Mediterranean. The inhabitants are employed
in flshrng and mining—silver ores and alum being found in the neighboring hills. Much
barilla is made here. From the numljer of ruins found in the vicinity, this is supposed
to have been the site of an important Carthaginian settlement. Pop. about 7.000.
KAZATLAK, a sea-port of Mexico, at the mouth of a river of its own name, which
falls into the entrance to the gulf of California, hit.' 28° 10' n., long. 106" 21' west. . It is
ft well-built and picturesque town. The climate is healthy, but very hot (85° to lOfe* in
the shade during August). Pop. from 12,000 to 15,000— -a mixed race of old Aztec
Mexicans, Indians, Spaniards, and negroes. The chief exports to California and £urope
T)igitized by VjjUUV IC
ftOO Mazarln.
"-^^ Mtexxlul.
are silver dollars, Brazil or Lima wood, and copper: imports, provisions, machinery,
British hardware and crockery, and dry goods from France and Germany. In 1864 tlie
town was besieged by the French and imperial troops. The harbor of Mazatlan, though
much exposed to winds from the s.w., is the most important on the Mexican coast.
MAZDAK, a Persian religious enthusiast and founder of a sect; b. at Persepolis, a.d.
470. Ho became a priest at Nishapar. Professing himself a prophet sent to regenerate
mankind, he obtained many followers, and declared a community of property. Uo
succeeded in converting the king, Kobdd, and his system of communism made ereat
changes in tlie social order. But tlie revolution was temporary. He was put to £;ath
with thousands of his followers between 590 ^md 540.
XAZSFPA, Jan '* John'*, hetmnn of the Cossacks, was b. about 1645, and was descended
of a poor but noble familv of Podf)lia. He became a page in the service of John Casi-
mir, king of Poland. A l*olish nobleman, having surprised him in an intrigue with his
wife, caused him to be strip|)ed naked, and bound upon his own horse, lying upon his
buck, and with his head to its tail, and sent the {miinul off, leaving Mazeppa to his fate.
'Hie horse carried him to his own distant residence — not to the Ukraine, as has been often
Siiid; but Mazeppa, out of shame, fled to the Ukraine, joined the Cossacks, and by his
strength, courage, and activity rose to high distinction amongst them, and in 1687 was
elected their hetman. He won the confidence of Peter the great, who loatled him with
honors, and made him prince of the Ukraine; but on the curtailment of the freedom of
the Cossacks bv Russia. Mazeppa conceived the idea of throwing off the suvereignty of
the czir, and for this purpose entered into negotiations with Charles XII. of Sweden.
Th *se and other treasons were revealed to Peter the great, who did not credit the infor-
mants; but afterwards, being convinced of Mazcnpa's guilt, caused a number of h)4
accomplices to be put to deaUi. Mazeppa joinea Charles XII., and took part in the
balile of Pultowa. after which he fled, in 1709. to Bender, and there died in the same
year. Hw story has \yeen made tli» subject of a poem by Byron, of a novel by Bulgarin,
and of two paintings by Horace Veraet.
KAZUTUBABAS', a t. of India, in the Punjab, about 300 m. n.n.w. of Lahore, at the
confluence of the Jiielum and Ita great tributary, the Kishengunga, over both which
rivers there are ferries. It is of importance chieily on account of its commanding posi-
tion at the entrance of the Baramula pass into Cashmere. The emperor Auruugzebo
built a fort here, which was subsequently replaced by one of greater strength, erected by
the Afghan governor Ata Mahomed.
MAZmtKA, a lively Polish dance of the grotesque kind, the music of which is some-
times in I time, but more commonly in f. The peculiarity of the rhythm, which has a
pleasing effect, is what characterizes the music or the Mazurka« It is danced by four or
eight pairs, and is much practiced in the north of Germany, as well as in Poland.
MAZZA'BA, a city of the island of Sicily, 26 m. s. of Trapani, stands in a fine plain on
the sea-shore. Pop. 11,000. It is inclosed by walls, and Las a cathedral, an episcopal
palace, a college, and several convents. It has a considerable trade in cotton, which is
extensively grown in the neighborhood.
ICAZZAEI'KO, a t. of Sicily, in the fertile province of Caltanisetta, and 15 m. s.e. of
the town of that name. Pop. 11,600.
MAZZEI. Pnihip, 1780-1816, b. Italy; practiced medicine for a numl)er of years in
Syria, and was afterwards ene^ged in mercantile business in Lon<1on. In 1773 he came
to Virginia with a number of Italian cmigmnts, familiar with the cultivation of the olive,
which he wished to domesticate in this country, but the experimen<i«proved unsuccessful.
He became a sympathizer witli the American revolutionists, and made the acquaintance
of many of them in Yirsinia, including Jefferson, with whom he continued to corre-
spond after his return to Europe, where he was successively attaclted to the service of
the king of Poland and the Russian czar. He published in 1788 Historical and FUitieal
Re*earehes on t/ie United States,
XAZZI'VI, Giuseppe, 0!»e of the most remarkable men of modern Italy, was born in
180S at Genoa, his father being a physichm of note, of good private means. In youth
Mtizzini was noted for the warmth of liis friendships, .the fixity of his will, and the
exag^rated susceptibility of his humane feelings. Prom birth sentiments of social
equality were engendered in him by the example of his parents; and very early the '
desrraded political condition of his country began to prey upon his mind, producinfj "
ardent aspirations for her national unity and deliverance from foreigpn domination, •
which seemed to him att^iinable only through a return to the republican glories of ancieni
•times. Mazzini's patriotic enthusiasm speedily gained absolute sway over his spirit, and
led him to renounce his dierished idea of a life of literature and contemplative study
for the action and strife of the political arena. In 1827 his maiden essay m literature,
"Dell' Amor Palrio di Dante," appearetl in the liberal journal, the Sttbalpino; and ho
subsequently contributed critical, literary, and political papers to the Antohgia of •
Florence and the Indicatore Oenove»e. In Ihe pages of this latter originally appeared the
essay- subsequently republished under the title of ScrUti iVun KaUano Vivente. Litera-
ture, according to Mazzini's own assertion, having been employed bvtl^el^b^KpM-ty
MaszuchelU. 630
solely as a means for tbe great end of liberal propagandism, the journals were suppressed,
and the writers disbanded. In 1880, the attiliiition of Mazziul to the secret society of
the carbonari was the introductory step to his practical poliiical career; and the young
member was speedily invested with a preponderating iuniiencc in the counsels and mis-
sions of the body. Insnared and betrayed by a Piedmoiitcse spy Mazzini was arrested,
detained for 6 months in the fortress of Bavoiia, and finally liberated on condition of his
departure from Italy. After short residences in se>renil places, he took up his abode in
Marseilles, and thence he addressed to Charles Albert his famous letter, which drew down
on the daring young writer a decree of perpetual bauishmeut. The organization of a new
liberal league, ** Young Italy," was Mazzini's next work. Republican and unionist to
the core, the tendencies of this ^reat body were more humaniiaiian and univer^ than
its extinct predecessor, carbonarism. In addition to the panunount aim of Italy's repub-
lican union under one common law, and the extinction of foreign rule, the geneml
principles of this new association enforced the universal obligation to labor for a common
moral regeneration, and the establishment of political equably over the world. Liberty,
equality, and humanity were the watchwords of the body; "God and the people" their
motto; white, red, and green their tricolored banner;. educaiion and insurrection Ihe
great agencies of their operations; assassination was erased from their statute?, and the
symbolic dagger of the carbonari was replaced by the more humane emblems of a book
and tlie cypress. Mazzini was the animating spirit of this formidable league, which
speedily inclosed all Europe in a netwjf)rk. of similar associations, moditied to meet the
individual requirements of the various European nationalities. Banishment from Mar-
seilles in consequence of the extensive operations of the society having been revealed
to the authorities compelled Mazzini to resort to concealment for a period of several
months. About this time a charge was brought against him of advocating assassination
as a legitimate weapon in llie warfare of liberalism; but the charge was proved iu tbe
public tribunals of France to be false; and iu the British parliament (1^45) sir James
Graham made an apology to Mazzini for having re-ecjioed the caluinnj>'. The first-fniits
of La Giovine Italia was the revolutionary expedition of Savoy, organized by Mazzini at
Geneva, but which was defeated by the royal troops. Sentence of death, pttr contufwiee,
was recorded against Mazzini in the Sardinian courts for his participation in the affair;
but he soon recommenced witli increased vigor his revolutionary operations. A new
association entitled, "New Europe," and bas^ on principles of ^European rights and
enfranchisement, was inaugurated by tlie exertions of Mazzini in Switzerland. In 1887
Mazzini quitted Switzerland for England, and flnftlly took tip his abode in Londcm.
From thence his labors in the Italian revolutionary cause have been incessant. To trace
the part enacted by Mazzini in the ^at crisis of 1848 would be to record the history of
that period, so intimately were his individual acts connected with the course of events.
The resolute combatant of partial union and monarchiQil leadership at Milim, Mazzini
retired to Switzerland on the capitulation of Milan to the Austrians, to reappear in
Florence on the rising of Tuscany, and flnallv at Romp, where he was elected triumvir
amidst the triumphant rejoicings of the capital of Italy. Ilis tenure of supreme author-
ity was marked by such wisdom, moderation, and success, as to elicit a public tribute
of approbation from lord Palmerston. On the surrender of Rome by Mazzini's advice,
he quitted the city, and proceeded to Lausanne vid Marseilles. The conduct of France he
bitterly attacked in public letters to De Tocqueville and others. He subsequently returned
to London, and at his instigation risings in Milan (1813) and in Piedmont (1857) wei^e
attempted. In 1859 while lending the whole weight of his influence to the revolutionary
movements going on in Italy, he combated with vi^lant foresight the threatened French
predominance, and refused to accord faith to the liberal programme of Louis Napoleon.
The Sicilian expediti(in of 1860 owed as much to the organization of Mazzini as to tbe
heroic command of Garibaldi (q.v.). In 1864 he was expelled from Switzerland, and
returned again to Enfi:land. Next year he was elected by Messina deputy to the Itadian
parliament; but the election, to which he himself as a republican would have declined to
accede, was canceled by the parliament. Mazzini is said to have founded in 1865 tbe
*' Universal Republican Alliance." In 1868 he fell into a dangerous illness, from tbe
effects of which his health never recovered, though his zeal remained as ardent as ever.
After an ineffective scheme for a republican rising, Mazzini ventured to enter Italy, and
was arrested at Gaeta, where he remained a prisoner till Rome was taken by the Italian
army. He condemned the Parisian commune of March, 1871. On his death at Pisa,
Mar. 11, 1872, the Italian government honored him with a public funeral.
Mazzini's writings are various and extensive, and include dissertations on art. litera-
ture, and music. A complete edition {ScritUy Editi e Inedlti) wtis published in 1861 and
following years. Whatever may be thought of Mazzini's political views, few will refuse
to admire the ardent sincerity of his patriotism, or the inflt^xibility with which he lias
pursued his aim, unchecked by persecution, calumny, and defeat. Mazzini possessed in
the highest degree tliat personal fascination by which friends are converted into ardent
partisans. In his private life he is allowed to have been a model of purity and fni/ral
simplicity, as in his public career he was conspicuous for disinterestedness and self-abne-
gation ; and to these personjil virtues of Mazzini, aided by his extraordinary influence
and eloquence, those who know Italy best ascribe a great share at least in inspiring that
higher tone of life manifest in recent yeai-s among the Italian youth, Without which the
Digitized by VjOUV IC
/> Q 1 Maunchelli.
Meade.
poKtical Tegenenition of the countiy would have been hnposaible. 8ee Memoir, by £.
H. V. (London, 1874).
MAZZUCHELLI, GiovAimi Mabia, Conte, 1707-65; b. Italy; studied jurisprudence.
but j^ivc much uttention to soientific i-esearches. In 1787 he published his JS'oime Sfai'ic/te
eeritiehe intonioalla vita e agli tcritti d'Archimede, describing tlie various inventions attri-
buted to Archimedes, and questioning the story of the mirrors by which Archimedes was
believed to have burned the ships of Marcellus at Sj^racuse. The favor with wtiich this
work was received induced Hazzucbelli to undeitulce tlie task of compilings gieat
cvclopsediu of Italian literature and science from the beginnings of Italian civilization.
The hrst two volumes of this work, cempleting the letter A., appeared at Brescia, in
1753. Ho lived to publish four additional volumes which caiTy the work Ihrougli B.
He also wrote Dinserta^ioni StoHdie^ seterUtfic/ie ed erudite, containing an account of tlie
meetings of a literary society which was accustomed to assemble at his house. He
wrote biographies of Scipio Capece, and Giusto de* Conti; and he edited Villani's series
of biographies of illustrious Florentines. He left a larpe collection of ancient manu-
scripts, medals, and cast6, which were engraved and published with a descriptive text by
the abbe Pietro Gaetauo, at Mihm.
^lAZZUOLA, Frajjcksco. See Pabmiqiano, ante.
KBAB, a fermented liquor made from hooey. The honey is mixed with water, and
fermentation is induced and conducted in the usual manner. Cotiagers sometimes use
the honey wbich remains in the combs after the usual processes of dropping and squeez-
ing, for making mead, which is a tbin and very brisk, but at the same time luscious
beverage. Mead has, been in use from very ancient times, and was known equally to
the poTislied nations of southern Europe and the barbarous tribes of more northern
regions. Pliny says it has all tlie bad qualities of wine, but not the good ones. The
Latin name is hydromeU,
MEAD, Charles Mabsh, d.d., b. Vermont, 1836; graduated at Middlebury col-
lege, Vt in 1866, and at Andover tbeoloffical seminary in 1862. In 1868 he went abroad
and studied at German universities uniiT 1866. Beturning to Andover be accepted the
professorsbip of Hebrew. He has given two lectures in Boston on Christianity and
SSceptimm. He was one of the American editors of Lange's commentary on the Bible,
ana is a member of the Old Testament company of the American committee now (1881)
oagaged in the revision of the English version.
MEAD, Labkin Goldsmith, b. Chesterfield, N. H., 1835; in the earlier part of bis
life resided at Brattlel:oro, Vt. In the year 1852 he began the systematic study of
sculpture under Henry K. Brown, of Brooklyn. For tbis branch of art be had already
shown a decided aptitude, and had attracted the attention of many artists by his first
attempt in desijjn, the execution in en&to of tlie figure of an angel. His earliest work in
marble was a reproduction of this and was called "The Recording Angel." In 1857 he
modeled the colossal statue "Vermont," which now crowns the dome of the state-house
at Montpelier, the capital. " Ethan Allen," a finely executed figure of Vermont's hero,
ndoms the same building, and is one of the artist's later workfr. Mr. Mead spent some
time in Italy and particularly in Florence, whence on his return he brought a number
of statuettes, such as "Echo,'^ "La Contadinella," and the "Mountain Boy." He is an
excellent drauirhtsman, as well as sculptor. The Lincoln monument at Springfield, 111.,
was erected from his designs. Among bis later works are also the soldiere' monument
at St. Johnsbury. Vt.. and" Columbus's Last Appeal to Queen Isabella." His sister is
the wife of William D. Howells, editor of the Atlantic Magazine,
MEAD, Richard, 1675-1754; b. at Stepney, England, not far from London. At
an early age he entered the university at Utrecht, and, after three years' study, went to
Leyden, where he entered upon the study of medicine under the noted professors Pit-
cairn and Herrmann. After taking his degree of doctor of philosophy and physics lie
returned to Stepney and boijan « he practice of his profession in 1696. In tliis ho soon
won the verv first plnco. In 1703 Dr. Mead was made a member of the Royal society,
and lecturer^at St. Thomas's hospital. Oxford bestowed a diploma upon him, and after
long acting as physician to the prince of Wales, was continued in theoftlce on his acces-
sion to the throne, as George II. His reputation both as a practitioner and as a writer
on medical subjects was very great, and he was in constant correspondence with the
most eminent scientists of the dav in bis own and foreign countries. Most of his publi-
cations were written in Latin. Among them were: De Imperio JSolie et Lvna in O^rpffia
Humana et Morbid inde arinndie, (1702), On SmaU Pox and Meades, (1748) Monitaet Pm-
eepta Medica, (1751), and many others. His works were translated into Englisii and
passed through many editions. In addhion to his acquirements as a physician. Dr.
Mead devoted much time to the study of natural history, antiquariauism and numisnmt-
IC8. Memoirs of his life were published by Dr. MaUhew Maty in 1755, the year after
his death.
MEADE, as.w. co. in Kansas; 720 sq.m.; watered by the Cimmaron river and its
branches, and well adapted to grazing. Digitized by VjUUV IC
Meadow. ^^^^
MEADE, a co. in Kentucky, on the Ohio river, whicli sepamtes it from Indiana; 500
sq.m. ; pop. 9,485; tlie surface is rollina:, tlie soil fertile; live-stock, tobacco, corn, oaU,
and wool are the principal products. Capital, Brundenburg.
MEADE, GEORaE Gordon, 1815-72; b. Cadiz, Spain; liis parents being temporarily
in that country. On their return to America, he was sent to the boys' school in Waslj-
ington, D. C, at that lime under the direction of Salmon P. Chase, afterwards chief
justice of the supreme court of the United States. On leaving this school, he was sent
to a military school at Mount Airy; and from there, in Sept., 1881. entered the military
academy at West Point, where he graduated in the summer of 1885. He entered the
army as brevet second lieut. of tlie third artillery, and lU; the end of the same vear, 1885,
received his commission as second lieut. ; but on Oct. 36, 1836, he resigned from the
army, after having, however, seen some active service in the Florida war, even within
his brief military experience. He now adopted the profession of a civil engineer; and
between 1887 and 1842. was employed as an assistant engineer in the surveys made by
thcU. S. government of the delta of the Mississippi, the Texas boundary, and the north-
eastern boundary of the United States. On May 19, 1842, he was reappointed to the
army, with the rank of second lieut. of topographical engineers. On the breaking out
of the war with Mexico, in May, 1846, when gen. Taylor crossed the Rio Grande, he
was ordered to the front, and served throughout the war. being a member of the staff
of gen. Taylor, and that of gen. Scott, and distinguishing himself in the battles of Pnlo
Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and Monterey. He was brevetted iirst lieut., for gallant con-
duct at Monterey, in the flvo days' fight whicli closed Sept. 24, 1846. On hiM return to
the states, the citizens of Philadelphia pn^sented him with a sword. After peace was
declared, lieut. Meade was employed in superintending river and harbor improvements,
and in the construction of lighthouses on IXOaware bay, and off the coast of Florida.
Ue was promoted to be first lieut. in 1851. and capt. in 1856, and had charge of the
national survey of the northern lakes until 1861, beiu^ at Detroit, Mich., at the period of
the outbreak of the rebellion. He was ordered to W ashingtim, and received his com-
mission as brig.^^en. of volunteers, bearing date Aug. 31, 1861, with the command of
the second brigsuTe of the Pennsylvania reserve corps. He was in the action at Dniues-
ville, Va., Dec. 20, the first victory of the army of the Potomac; was at Mechauicsville.
June 26, 1862; at the battle of Cold Harbor, on the following day; and served with his
reserves, with which he had become identified, continuing with McClellau throughout
the peninsular campaign, in McCalPs division, being severely wounded at the battle of
Frazier's farm (White Oak Swamp), June 80. He was appomted maj. of topographical
engineers, June 18, 1862. On Aug. 29-80 he was engaged in the second battle of Bull
Rim; and in September took command of a division of the first army corps (gen. Rey-
nolds'), SLud at the battle of Antietam was slightly wounded and haa two horses shot
under him. He was given command of the fifth army corps, and on Nov. 29, 1862, was
commissioned maj.gen. of volunteers. He was engaged in the battles of Chancellors-
ville and Fredericksburg; covering the retreat at Chancel lorsville with his corps, and
guarding the crossings, until the entire army was safely over the river. On June 28,
1863, he was unexpectedly ordered to relieve gen. Hooker of the command of the army
of the Potomac. This was the period of Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania, and the union
army was in hot march to interfere with his plans, and. if possible, drive bis sanguine
forces south again. Portions of Lee's army had reached York, Carlisle, and tlie Susque-
hanna; but. upon the* advance of tiie- federal army, thepe were called together from their
various posta, and by order of gen. Lee, drawn in, and concentrated" for a great field
struggle. Those which were at Chambersburg crossed the South mountain towanls
Gettysburg, and those that were nearer the Susquehanna converged upon the same
point. Tliis was done by Lee, apparently under the impression that Meade designed to
cut off his communications. And had it not been for Meade's ma<cuverin«j. Lee would
have crossed the Susquehanna and struck Harrisburg, and probsibly even imve made a
dash at Philadelphia. Gen. Meade now saw that a great battle was inevitable, and at
first concluded to receive it at the line of Pipeclay creek, a small stream ninning a few
miles s.e. of Gettysburg. But on consultation ^Nvith gen. Hancock, who had been
appointed to gen. Keynolds's command (that distinguished ofilcer having l>een shot\ and
on the selection of Gettysburg by the latter, as a l)ettcr ground on which to f "-lit the
battle, he made that his choice. [S^trnton's Army of the Potomac] Tlie great battle
was fought July 1-8, 1868. S** GBTTT8Bmto. <>en. Meade's commission as brig.gen.
in the U. S. army, bore the last of these dates. For the inestimable service which he
had accomplishecl bv the victory of Gettvaburg, he was publiclj' thanked by a resolution
of congress passed Jan. 28, I860: "for the skill and heroic valor with which at Gettys-
burg he repulsed, defeated, and drove back, broken and dispirited, beyond the Kappa-
hannock, the vetenm army of the rel>eUion." From May 4, 1864, to April 9. 1866, gen.
Mejide commanded the army of the Potomac, under gen. Grant, through the disastrous
struggle in the Wilderness, and until the capture of Petersburg, and the surrender of
Lee." On Aug. 18, 1864, he was commissioned a maj.gen. in the U. S. army. At the
close of the war he was placed in command of the military division of the Atlantic,
which command he retained from July 1. 1865, to Aug. 6. 1866. During the years 1866-67
he was in command of the department of the e.; and subsequently of the taird militaiy
Digitized by Vji^JL^V IC
/I Q Q M ea Ae«
* OOO Meadow.
dtotiict of the s. (under tho reconstraction laws), inclading Alabama, Georgia, and
Florida, with bk headquarters in Philadelphia. He was highly honored by his fellow-
citizens for his high character, his freat military ability, and the important share he had
borne in the war of the rebellion. Philadelphiaus presented hiui with the house in which
he died (Nov. 6, 1872); and after his death a fund of $100,000 was collected by subscrip-
tion, and presented to his family.
MEADE, RicHAUD Kidder. 1750-1805; b. Virginia, was educated in London at tlie
famous grammar school of Harrow, and, returning lo his native stale, at the aire of 25
he commanded a company in the battle cf Great Bridge, near Norfolk, Dec, 1775, the
first engagement of the revolutionary war fought on Virginia soil. In 1777 he was pro-
moted lo the rank of col., and to the position of aid lo gen. Washington, serving in that
capacity until 1788. He was a prompt and faithful subordinate, always at hand, and
rendered signal service to his country. He was present in an official capacity at the
execution of maj. Andre. After the war he lived in relircment on his estate in Clarke
oo«inty.
MEADE, Rtchard Worsam, 1778-1828; b. Chester co.. Penn.; son of George of
Philadelphia, who was noted among his contemporaries for his anient suppr>rt of the
revolution, in aid of which he contributed very large sums. The subject of this sketch
yerv early in life engaged in the shipping business at Cadiz, Spain, where he sympathized
wit]b and assisted the Spanii^ patriot party, and during the peninsular war imported
great quantities of provisions into Cadiz, then in a state of siege. From 1805 to 1810 he
occupied the post of commercial agent for the United States, and In the last named year
was arrested and imprisoned for two years in the castle of Santa Catalina on charges of
couspincy against tlie government. On the peremptory demand of the U. S. diplomatic
agents, he was released; but his business had been completely ruined by his unjustitiable
treatment, and a long legal contest for compensjition ensued, in which Webster and others
cf our most eminent lawyers were engaged for him, but unsuccessfully. In this country
Mr. Meade eugtkged in a large importmg trade, made a large fortune, and his private art
gallery was one of the first coUvcted here by a private individual.
MEADE, William, d.d., 1789-1862: b. in what is now Clarke co., Va.; educated at
Princeton college, and after graduation in 1808 studied theology. For many years, as a
clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal church, he gave his services without any char^;
in lwe9 he was appointed assistant bishop, and in 1841 bishop of the diocese of Virginia.
It is worthy of note that, at the outbreak of the rebellion, he was earnestly opposed to
the secession of his state. His principal literary productions are: T^ectures on iJie Pti*-
torai Office; Letters to Students; Lectures on Family Prayers, and Old ChurcJies, Ministers
and JfnmUies in Virginia; besides many papers published in church periodicals. An
account of his life has been written by Dr. John John?, who, in 1842, was appointed his
assistant in the Virginia bishopric.
ICEABOW 0BA8S, Poa, a genus of grasses, having a loose .c^prendlng panicle, the
spikelets usually containing a number of florets, and with two irlumes shorter than the
florets, the florets each having two paleee, w^hich are bluntish and awnless, the fruit free.
The species are very numerous, chiefly natives of the temperate and colder parts of tho
world, and forming in these a very important part of the herbage of pastures and mead-
ows. Most of the species arc of a' slender and delicate appearance, with small spikeUJts
and florets; and the herbage is tender, nutritious, ^nd rather abundant. Of ihe British
species, the Rouoh-stalkkd Meadow Grass (P. t;imalis) and the Smooth-stalksd
Mbadow Grass (P, pratensis) are amoui; the most common, and are esteemed among the
most valuable for sowing in mixtures of grasses for pasture. — The Abyssinian Meadow
Grass (P. Abyssinica), an annual species, yields immense returns of herbage in its native
rx)untry, but a warmer climate than that of Britain seems to he requisite for its successful
cultivation. It is called Teff in Abyssinia, and its seeds are used as corn for making
bread. Beer is made by putting slices of this bread into warm water, the temperature of
which is kept up in a close vessel for some days. — P. annvn is an exti-emely common
British species, springing up continually ns a weed in cultivated grounds, and abounding
oa waysides as well as in pastures. It is often to be seen in flower, even in winter, and
in summer is said to ripen its seetls in four or Ave weeks from the time of sowing. It i^
employed with advantage for sowing on greens in towns, and wherever from any cause
perennialgrasses are apt to be destroyed. It is very abundant in most ))arts of Europe,
and Dr. Hooper found it at one of the most elevated; passes of the Himalaya mountains.
—Manna grass (q.v.) is closely allied to this genus.
MEADOW LARK, an American bird belonging to the order Insessores, sub-order
conirostres, family «/t/rnM2e9 or starlings, genus stvrneVa, common species, stvrneHa magna.
It IS a common bird of the eastern and middle United Stated extending s. as far as
Texas, inhabiting southernparts in winter, and going as far n. as the St. LawTcnce river
in the summer to breed. Tney are therefore birds of passage, returning to the south in
flocks in the autumn, but while breeding, are not gregsrious. Thej' are beautiful singers,
their songs being of the most joyous character and performed when flying high in the
air, as well as when skimming over tho meadows. Like most of the lark family they
build theh: nests on the ground, am(mg the green tall grass of %^i^e^^^^fu^^^^^^
upon infiects and seeds, and are said to sometimes kill smaller birds. Their eggs, fnvm
four to five, are wiiite wiUi beautiful reddish brown spots, and are laid in oveu-shaped
nests. Body robust; legs and claws strong; tail vellow beneath, yellowish with brown
bars above, with pointed feathers; whole length of body and tail d or 10 in.; back, dark
brown, each feather having a brownish white margin and a brown terminal spot; breast
and under side yellow, with a beautirul, black, pectoral crescent, convexity downwards;
bill about an inch long, and characteristic of the family, although rather more slender
than the average. See Lark, ante.
MEADOW MOUSE, an animal belonging to the order of rodents, family murida (rat
family), genus arvieola (voles). There are many kinds of mice. See Mouse, ante. The
meadow mouse here designated, the arvieola rlparia, is American. It is about 4^ in. in
length with a tail about 1^; feet large and scuy; hair short; eyes small; no thumb on
fore foot; color of back darkish brown, varying in depth, a^iv on belly. Several species
are described in the 8th vol. of the Pacific railroad survey. The European species are
called campaguoles and voles; some of them are aquatic, digging in the marshes and
banks of streams.
XEAOOWB, a term somewhat indefinitely applied to moist level lands covered with
glass, which is usually rich in consequence of the moisture, and often also from advan-
tages of soil. The grass is either used for pasture, or is mown and carried away. Waitr
intadmos ai*e meadows in which the supply of water is increased and regulated by arti-
ficial irrigation. See Ikbiqation. The herbage of all meadows consists generally of
vanous kinds of grasses; meadow-grass, rye-grass, timothy, fox-tail, and bent-grass or
fionn, predominatmg.
MEADOWS {ante). The propriety of confining the word meadow either to moist
or to level lands covered with grass is doubtful, for though moisture >)c( essential to the
growth of gravSs as to all other crops, and level ground is preferable tortigged. no* greater
moisture or naore level surface is required fur good meadow land than for good coni
land. Marsh hay is mnde from marsh meadows, both ftcsh and f'alt; while timothy
and red clover, grown for hay, flourish beat in rich soils not particularly moist, and
derive the same advantage from deep-till drains^ as other field crops. Grasses of the
red-top family grow best in soils a little more moist than required for the best growth of
timothy. Meadows are more comprehensively defined to be lauds gix>wing grasses suita-
ble for hay, whether upland or low laud, seeded by band as on farms, or growing wild
on marsh alluviums, or western plains, or mountain valleys. The vast prairies m the
basin of the Mississippi were probably the greatest extent of natural meadows in the
world. Where these grasses were fed down by cattle they ceased to be meadows and
became pasture. The use of mowing-machines has quite revolutionized the labor of cut-
ting hay within the past thirty years, and by their use long reaches of narrow valleys
among the drier plains, and still narrower bottoms of defiles in the Rocky mountains, are
made to yield hay for the needs of regions where hand' labor could not be obtained to do
the work. The second mowing of meadows in one season is called the aftermath. The
seed of clover is usually obtained from its second cut tin cr. In connection with landscape
effects meadows and pasture-lands are grouped togeth* r, and it is one of the beautiful
effects of cultivated crops in scenery that their diflPereut colors and modes of growth
checker a landscape with varieties of light and sliade never seen where there is no culti-
vation. A meadow before the cutting, by the side of one recently cut, makes a contrast
as of two different crops, more marked than the contrast between the uncut meadow and
the pasture-field. There is no season of the year when lights and shadows in rural
scenery are so charming as just after the harvest, or when the hay cutting is nearly done,
and the shadows of trees and clouds are brightly outlined on their shaven stubble.
MEADOW SAFFEOK. See Colchicum.
MEADVILLE, a city in n.w. Penn^lvama, incorporated 1866; on the c. bank of
French creek at its entrance into tiie Alleghany river, and on the Atlantic and Great
Western railroad; pop. 70, 7,108. It is the terminus of the Franklin branch railroad to
Oil City, the center of a fertile agricultural region, well watered, and having a lai^ge pro-
duction ; and is a central sluppin^ point; market, and de])ot for the oil regions. Petro-
leum oil, lumber, and grain are the chief products of Crawford co., in which it is sitosr
ted, 100 m. n. of Pittsburg, 86 m. s. of Erie, and 24 m. w. of Titusvillc. It is the seat of
a Unitarian theological seminary, established 1844, with a library of 12,000 vols., and of
Alleghany college, a Methodist Episcopal institution, founded lol7. open to both sexes,
having a library of 12,000 volumes. It has an elegiint court house, 3 hotels, 15 churches,
good public schools in handsome edifices, 6 banks, 2 of them national with a joint-capital
of $300,000, a public library of 8,000 vols., a state arsenal, 4 newspapers, and an opera
house. It has a publicppark; and Greeudale cemetery, pleasantly located and tasteailly
laid out, is in the immediate vicinity. Its leading industries, which are important, are the
manufacture of agricultural implements, carriages, engines, wooden shoes, edge tools,
paper, and woolen goods; and it has oil refineries, machine shops, and extensive railroad
repair shops.
MEAGHER, a co. in central Montana, having the Missouri river for its w. boundsiy.
drained in the 8.e. by the MusclesheU river, an affluent of the Missouri, and in the n.e. by
Digitized by VjOUV IC
635 it:t""
the hefid waters of the Judith river; 7,650 sq.m.; pop. '80, 3,744— 3. 095 of AmericaD birth,
385 colored. Its surface is composed of mountain, plain, and valley; its plains stretch-
ing out for miles treeless and verdureless, covered with the short brown bulfalo-gruss,
with no break to the monotony but the telegniph poles, 80 to a mile, along the river, and
the print of wagon wheels, the double track of the team, aud the single track of the pony
by its side. In other sections the mountains of the Bolt and Snowy range ri^ie into steep
buttes, round and smooth, or jagged by the action of the atmosphere, around whose sides
the rmid cautiously winds, or precipitates itself through narrow cafions overlookiug the
beautiful green lawns of the Judith valley, where suddenly appears the "shack (log
house) and wood-pile of the frontiersman, the harbinger of &wif t-coming civilization, in
this wide, fertile vaUey the soil is adapted to stock-raising, and the culture of all n on hem
products that will survive its winters. It contains some of the best land in that pai-t of the
country for the cultivation of apples and pears; and butter is one of the chief comiuodi-
ticcii. It is being rapidly settled by emigrants from the southern and western staces, and
its agricultural products are beginning to attract notice. Placer minine of gold in the
mountains has been Uie greatest source of its wealth. Seat of justice, Diamond City.
MEAGHER, Thomas Prancts, 1828-67; b. Waterford, Ireland; educated at the
Jesuit college of Clongowes "Wood, and Stonyhurst college, Lancashire, Eng. He was a
close and earnest student, and in 1842 was awarded the silver medal for English comjw-
sition, defeating more than lifty English students. On completing his studies he inter-
ested himself in Irish politics, and became one of the "Young Ireland" party; and,
displaying great oratorical powers, was a very popular leader. Un the outbreak of the
French revolution in 1848 he was sent to Paris to congratulate the republican leaders.
On his return to Ireland he was arrested on a charge of sedition, held to bail, afterwards
tried for hirfi tretison, found guiltv, and sentenced to death; but subsequently the sen-
tence was changed to banislimeut for life to Van Diemen's Land. He was accordingly
transported thitiier, but escaped in 1852, and succeeded in reaching New York. Here,
for two years, he devoted himself to lecturing, with great success. In 1856 he com-
menced practice at the New York bar, and the following year became* the editor of the
Iritt^i News, At the beginning of the rebellion in 1861 he organized a company of
zouaves, joined the 69th regiment, N. Y. volunteers, was actm^ maj. at first Bull liun,
and after serving the three months of the first call, returned to >iew York and organized
the Iri.^ brigade, being commissioned brig.gen. Feb. 8, 1862. He was engaged in the
seven, days' battles, at Manassas, and at Antietam, being specially commended by gen.
McClellan in his report of the latter engagement. At ^Vedericksburg he was seriously
wounded in the leg while charging with his men on Maryc's heights, and was incapaci-
tated for further fijjhting. He resigned temporarily, but was recommissioned in 1864,
and held command m Tennessee and Geor^, performing distinguished service. In 1864
he was appointed secretary of Montana territory, and for some time performed the duties
of governor in the absence of that official. On July 1, 1867, he fell from the deck of a
steamer, at fort Benton, on the upper Missouri, ana was drowned. He was at the time
traveling to take measures for the protection of the white settlers in that region, threat-
ened by tlie Indians. One of his last acts was to contribute to the pages of JIavper's
Magautie a most entertaining paper entitled "Rides through Montana," and which was
designed to be the first of a series. Three weeks before his death he wrote to his pub-
lishers as follows: "Ever since I dispatched to you the text of my paper on Montana
I have been in the field 200 miles from here against the Sioux and other implacable red
devils." He published, also, Speeches on the LegisUitite IndependeTice of Ireland; and
Last Daps of t/ie 69t/i New York Regiment in Virginia, He was a man of brilliant aud
versatile capacity, and a soldier of unfailing resources and marked personal daring.
HJSAIi (Sax. mod, a part or portion; Ger. mahl), a portion of food taken at one time,
a repast. The number of meals eaten per day has varied at different times and in dif-
ferent countries. Among the Greeks and Romans of the classic ages, it was the genend
pnictice to have the principal meal toward evening, a light meal in the morning, and
another in tiie middle of the day. The akratisma. ariston, and deipnon of the Greeks,
corresponded nearly to the breakfast, luncheon, and dinner of our own country at the
present time; the first was taken immediately a^ter ri.sLng in tiie morning, tiie second
about midday, and the deipnon, the principal meal, often not till after sunset. In Rome of
U»e Augustan age, the three corresponding meals vf ere jen^acvlum, prandinm, and eana.
The two former were simple and hasty, except among persons of luxurious liabits, with
whom the midday meal was sometimes of an elabonite description. The emna, taken in
tlie evening, consisted of three courses, with often a great variety of viands. Reclining
waj» the usual posture at meals for the men, the women and childnen sitting, Two per-
sons, and occasionally three, reclined on one couch. Before a guest took his place at
table, his shoes were taken o£F^ and his feet washed by an attendant.
In medifiBval and modern Europe, tlie prevailing practice, down nearly to the middle
of last century, was to have three meals in the day, the midday and not the evening
meal beinflf the principal one. The habits of all chisses were early; four was a usu^
hour for rising, and five for breakfast. Twelve was the dinner-hour, when it was the
uaage in England, down to queen Elizabeth's time, for every table, from that of the
twenty •shilliDg freeholder to the table in the baron's hall and abbey refect|)]j^ (p J^pj^n
MeaniiTe. 636
to all coiners, with free fare, bread, beef, and beer. Supper followed in the evening, a
less abundiint repetition of dinner. In tlie course of the last 120 years, u revolution has
been going on in tlie hour of dinner, wliicli lias gradually got later till it has reached the
preseui u»age of from six to eight in the evening among the more cultivated classes.
The Introduction of tea and coffee has, to a certain extent, changed our habits as regards
nieids. They form an essential part of our breakfast, which is later than that of our
ancestors, from nine to ten. Tha meal called tea is but u pai-t of dinner, and supper, a.s
a regular meal, has nearly discppeare<l. A light meal, called luncheon, is often taken
between breakfast and dinner. Our dinner has therefore come nearly to correspond
with the supper of our ancestors. This clnmgo of hours has brought with it one impor-
tant change to the better in social habits; the excessive drinking, so common during the
Georgian era, even among people of refinement, has disappeared! ; the long carousius of
that period have been abridged to an hour, or half an hour, spent over wine after dinner.
In Britain, dinner is, more than anvwhere else, made a social meal, and an occasiou of
meeting one's friends; and public dinners, with toants and after-dinner speeches, area
diaracteristically British mode of celebrating any public event or anniversary. In
Fmnce and Italy, the jrradual advance of the dinner-hour has not proceeded further than
four or five o'clock. In Germany, the usage still obtains, to a large extent, of an early
dinner and a supper. One o'clock is a usual dinner-hour, and even the court hour has
hardly advanced beyond three and four. In Vienna, and some other parts of Germany, it is
not uncommon to have live meals a day — breakfai>t, luncheon, dinner, tea, and supper.
KEAL. See Bread.
MEALrTUB PLOT. An attempt at conspiracy which Dangerfield made in 1679
against James duke of York; so called because the paper containing the scheme was bid
in a tub of meal in the house of Mrs. Cellier. Dangeriield, having at length admiited
that the whole affair was a forgeiy, was whipped and compelled to stand in the pil-
lory.
XEAL-WOBM, the larva of tene^rio molitor, a coleopterous insect of a genus allied to
Uaps (q.v.), but possessing wings and wing-oovers. The perfect insect is of a pitchy
or dark chestnut color, smooth, "about half an inch long, with short 11-jointed antennw,
and stout legs. It is a common insect in Britain, most active in the evening, abountling
in granaries, mills, and houses in which considerable stores of meal or flour are kept; a.s
its eggs are deposited among these substances, on which the larva feeds, often doing con-
siderable injury. Stores of ship- biscuit often suffer from this cause. The larva is about
an inch long, thin and round, of an ocherous color, with bright rusty bands, very smooth
and glossy, with six small feet, and two very short antenme. — Another species, T. obwu-
rus, Tn\s been introduced with American flour, and has Iwcomo pretty common in some
parts of Britain. The insect is of a dull black color above; the under parts, legs, and
antennsB, chestnut. The larva is shining and pale brown. — Cleanliness and care are the
best preventives of these pests. Meal-worms are a favorite and excellent food of caged
nightingales.
ICEALT BUG, Coccm adoiiidum, an insect . naturalised in our hot-houses, and very
injurious to pine-apples and other plants. It is reddish, and covered with a white pow-
dei'y sub;»tance. See Coccus..
nAV, in mathematics, Is a term interpolated between two terms of a series, and con-
sequently intermediate in magnitude. The geometric mfaii (q.v.) of two numbers is
always less than the arithvieiic mean (q.v.), and greater than their linnnnnic mean; and
the geometric mean is itself a geometric mean between the two other ** means."
MEANS, AiiBXAKDER, D.D.. LL D., b. Statesvillo, Iredell co., N.Y., in 1801; was
educated at the academy at Statesville; removed to Georgia in 1822, and after tt»aching
school for four years attended medical lectures at Transylvania university. Ky.. and com-
menced the practice of medicine in Covington, Ga.. 1826; tJie same year was licensed to
preach by the Methodist Episcopal church. In 1834 he was appointed to superintend
the manual labor school near Covington ; was chosen professor oi the natural sclenoes at
Emory (now Oxford) college. After a service here of 18 years, he was appointe<i in
1840 professor of chemistry and pharmacy in the medical college of Georgia, at Augusta,
lecturing in winter, and performmg his duties as professor in Oxford college 8 months
of the year. In 1853 he presided over the masonic female college in Covington ; was
called to the presidency of Emory college in 1854. and shortly after to a professorship of
chemistrv in the Atlanta medical college, accepting the latter and retaining it for 12
years. In 1851 he traveled in Europe. In the state convention of 1861 he spoke and
voted against secession, but afterwards identified himself with the south. He has held
since the war the position of state agricultural chemist at Savannah, retaining at the
same time his connection with Emory college. He has published Centenniulttf Chem-
MEARE8, JoHK, 1746-1801. b. England; entered the navy in 1776; served against
the French in the West India islands; became captain in the merchant service after the
peace of 1788; went to India and formed at Calcutta what was called the Norihweti
America company for. opening trade with Russian America. In 17^ 1^ explored a
637 Meaaui'e.
part of the coast of Alaska; went to China by way of the Sandwich Islands ; entered
Kootka sound, 1789; examined and took possession of the nei^li boring coasts in belialf
of England, and reached Macao Dec. 5, 1789. He published Voyages made in the years
nSS-iiii from China to the norihicest coast of America, 3 vols,
MEARIM RIVER; in Brazil, called also the Miarim and the Maranhao, rises in the
n. central part of the province of Maranhao, and follows a general northerly direction,
emptying into tiiebay of S&o Marcos. It has many affluents, of winch the most import-
ant is the Piudare. Its entire length is about 850 m. ; it is navigable, and several steam-
ers ply upon it. The river is specially notable for tlie tremendous force of its current,
which for a long time resists the action of the tide, and is at last overcome with a roar-
ixig sound and an exceedingly swift rush upward of the waters.
lOSABKB. See Eincabdineshibb.
MEASLES (known also as Rubeola and Mobbilli) is one of the group of blood-dis-
eases termed Exantfiemata (q.v.), although, from the eruption which appears on the
surface of the body, it is sometimes classed with the skin-diseases. It is communicable
from person to person, and seldom occurs more than once in the ?ame individual. Its
period of incubation — that is to say, the time that elapses between exposure to the con-
tagion and the fii*st appearance of the febrile symptoms which i)recede the eruption — is
usually' about a fortnight; then come lassitude and shivering, which are soon followed
by heat of skin, increased rapidity of the pulse, loss of appetite, and thirpt. The res-
piratory mucous membrane is also affected, and the svmpioms are very much the same
as those of a severe cold in the head, accompanied with a dry cough, a slight sort'
throat, and sometimes tightness of the chest.
The eruption which is characteristic of the disease usually appears upon the fourth
day from the commencement of the febrile symptoms and the catarrh— seldom earlier,
but not unfrequcntly some days hiter. It is a rash, consisting at first of minute red
papulsc, which, as they multiply, coalesce into crescentic patches. It is two or thi«e
days in coming out, beginning on the face and neck, and gradually traveling down-
wards. The rash fades in the same order as it occurs; and as it begins to decline
three days after its api^earance, its whole duration is about a week. The red color
gives way to a somewhat yellow i^h tint, and the cuticle crumbles away in a fine bmn-
JilvC powder; the process being often attended with considerable itching.
T here are two important points in which it differs from small-pox (q.v.V with which
in its early stage it may be confounded; these are — 1. That the fever does not cease
cxr even abate when the eruption appears, but sometimes increases in intensity; and (2),
that the disease is not more severe or more dangerous because the eniption is plenlifid
or early. The character of the eruption, after the first day, will serve to remove all
doubt regarding these two diseases; and the comparative prevalence of either disease
in the neighoorhood wiH materially assist in forming the diagnosis. It is distinguished
from scarlet fever (q.v.), or scarlatina, (1), by the presence at the outset of caijirrhal
symptoms, which do not occur in the latter disease, at any rate, prior to the eruption;
(3), by Ihe absence of the throat-affection, which always accompanies well-marked cases
of scarlet fever; (3), by the character of the rash, which in measles is said to present
somewhat the tint of the raspberry, and in scjirlet fever, that of a boiled lobster; which
in measles appears in crescentic patches, and in scarlet fever is universally diffused;
which in measles usually appears on the fourth day, and in scarlet fever on the second
day of the disease.
In ordinary uncomplicated measles, the prognosis is almost always favorable. The
<-hief danger is from inflammation of some of the textures that compose the lungs; and
in scrofulous children, it often leaves chronic pulmonarj' mischief behind it. No a jape
is exempt from the disease, but it is much more common in childhood than subBe-
quently. The reason is probably that most persons have it in early life, and are thus
protected from an attack at a later period.
In mild fonns of the disease, nothing more is requisite than to keep the patient on a
low diet, attend to the state of the bowels, arid prevent exposure to cold, which is best
accomplished by keeping lum in bed with the ordinary waimth to which he is accus-
tomed in health. If the chest symptoms become urgent, they must be treated according
to their nature. Bronchitis (q.v.), sometimes extending into pneumonia (q.v.), is most to
be feared. If the eruption disappear prematurely, it may sometimes be brought back
by placing the patient in a warm bath. In such cases, stimulants are often required,
but must, of course, only be given by the advice of the physician. The patient must
be carefully protected from exposure to cold for a week or two after the disease has
apparently disappeared, as the lungs and mucous coat ©f the bowels are for some time
very susceptible to inflammatory attacks.
MEASUSE, in music, is a term applied to the quantity of notes which are placed in the
bar, and which is generally called the time, of which there are but two kinds, viz., com-
mon time, containing an equal quantity of notes in the bar, and triple time, containing
an unequal quantity. Common time is generally marked with a C at the beginning,
which means that every bar contains four crotchets, or their value in other notes.
There are also other kinds of common time, which are marked f , }, J. Triple- tjme is
Measure. 638
marked {» }, {, f, ). -Sometimes, in common time, we have V, V* '^^ lower fiffure
indicates tne parts of the semibreve, and the upper figure shows how many of taeso
parts there are in the bar.
MEASURE OP DAMAGES, the body of rules which governs the amount of pecun-
iary compensation awarded by courts of justice for violation of personal or property
rights. In its most extended sense, it might be said to cover almost the whole
ground of legal procedure; but is used not to represent inquiry as to wlmt cases require
the award of ditmages, but rather, as to what hmit sliould be placed on the award in
certain cases. The rules apply to common law rather tlian to equity, ns the former is, in
general, remedial in its nature, and tlie latter preventive, offering injunctions, specific
relief, etc, In early English law tbe question of damages was left to ihe jury, while in
countries whose jurisprudence is founded on the civil Taw, the question was'left to the
discretion of the magistrate; but common law declares that the compensation must be
fixed by those legal rules wliich form the Measure of Damages; though these are not as
yet free from contradiction and discrepancy. ••The general rule," says Story, **is that
whoever does damage to another, is liable in damages to the extent of that injury; it
matters not whether it is to the property or person or riglits or reputation of another.*'
But n»t every loss gives right to legal relief; the injury must be Uj^fU, Thus injury to
moral sentiments has no remedy. Suit cannot be sustiuned by a private individual for a
public wrong, as a highway nuisance, unless there be some element of spc^cial injury to
him. Injury may consist in direct or indirect pecuniary loss, value of time, expenses
such as costs and counsel fees, mental suffering and the sense of wrong or insuH arising
from tlie intention to vex or annoy. But the law will refuse to give compensation for
any of these kinds of injury except direct pecaniary loss and the costs of the suit, unless,
indeed, there be present the clement of malice and willfulness; or, as has been said, it
will divid'i the loss, discriminating between that which must be borne by the offending
paity ana that which must be borne by the sufferer; but wiiere there is fraud, malice, or
gross oogl'gence, vindictive or exemplary damages will be given. In quantity, the djim-
ages may be nominal or substantial ; nominal when there is it^uria sine dtimno, legal
injury but no actual loss. The giving of nominal damas^es often suffices to establish
rights or titles, as in action for trespass on lands. It is well settled in American law that
where there is any invasion of ri^ht there must bo at least nominal damages, and it is
often the duty of the court to so mstruct the jury. In such cases care should be taken
not to hold the defendant for costs, if the action is trifling and tinged with malice.
What may be included under consequential damages? Usually the consequences
must be direct and immediate; in the words of the N. x. supreme court, " must lie the
fair natural and legal result of the breach of the defendant's agi*eement. Prospective or
continuing profits are usually excluded, if not very clearly the natural resuU." Thus in a
suit for price of a steamer, the profits on trips she might have made were disallowed.
But when goods have deteriorated in market value the courts will give compensation for
the loss. If tharc is no clement of contingency and the profit was certain and actual, it
will be admitted. In torts, also, the damages are confined to direct consequences, but
incidental expenses are sometimes allowed. In a case where an anchor was warranted,
it was hekl that the holding of the cable was of the essence of the warranty, and it was
even implied that if the ship were lost by the imperfection of the anchor, a suit would
He for its value. If an act is illegal or mischievous of itself the courts will go far in con-
struing the law of consequential damages. If a plaintiff could have avoided the injury
without loss or danger he cannot recover; and this law of contributory negligence is very
imporU^at in torts such as nuisance or collision. As to award of costs, there is some
conflict; but they usually go with the verdict, unless the suit l)e vexatious and won on
mere technical rights. Though, as a rule, damages are only allowed for injury up to
the time action is brought, yet in many cases of contracts where successive suits are
impossible from the entirety of the contract, and in torts and trespass, greater latitude is
allowed. If, in a continuing agreement the violation has, of necessity, entailed loss after
the bringing of action and if tlie loss is certain and ascertainable, proi^pective damages
will Ije given. And in torts the averment may be of loss prohabk; as, in case of injurv
by negligence of a railroad, it may be set forth that plaintiff's health is pennanenily
injured. In case of a contract to pay money, there can be no consecjueutial damaire
lieyond legal interest; if it be to door not do some act, the law will consider only
those consequences which seem to have Ixjen in the contemplation of the parties at the
time; and in case of torts in which no fraud or malice enters, only natural and proximate
consequence's are considered. In regard to real estate, it was formerly thought to lie in
the very nature of actions for posscSvsion that damages did not lie; but there has been
much statutorj'^ enactment on the subject, and damages are now generally allowed in
actions of ejectment and dowtr. In the first, the damage in the actual ejectment is
almost always nominal; but, though the improvements pass with the land, me^ne profits
are given to the plaintiff to the extent of the annual value, as well as costs and some-
times interest ancl compensation for his trouble. In New York, for instance, interest is
allowed on rents, but all equitable defenses are admitted. In dower the EngUsli law of
damages is governed by the statute of Merlon, and it U generally held here that damages
accrue after a husbaacVs death and are to be measured by one-third the mesne profits;
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639
Memmrt*
bat the usual course in dispossession from dower land is by action of ejectment, the old
writ of dower havlDg fallen in disuse. Without going into details as to the measure of
d<images in cases of trespass, waste, nuisance, and real covenants, it may be said that
with few exceptions the general nile of natural relation and compensation for actual
injury ffoverna. In contracts, many and important classes are presented, such as
negotiable paper, insurance, sale and warranty of chattels, agency and surutyBhip. In
all these the jury has lost much of the power' possessed in former times, and it is well
settled that it is for the court to determine the measure of damages and for the jury only
to determine the amount under that rule. It is clear that the motives of the contracting
parties do not fix the rule, though in breach of promise of marriage the jury may take
all fact3 into consideration, as it is impossible to formulate a law of damages which will
cover the peculiar injury. Other exceptions exist; but, where the contract is not uncon-
scionable, it furnishes the measure of damage itself. Contract price is recoverable and
actual loss is the basis of compensation, so that quAiivtum meruit applies. With all nego-
tiable pMiper the measure is easily and arbitrarily fixed by the legal rate of interest.
Marine insurance has special laws arising from the nature of the i^eculiur doctrines of
general average and total and partial loss; in fire insurance the actual loss is the measure;
while in life insurance no actual loss need be shown by the assignee of a policy. In con-
tracts for the sale of personal property, tlie vendee after breach of contract by the
vendor can, by the usual rule, recover only the difference between the contract price and
that on the day fixed for delivery; but it has been held in cases involving stock transac-
tions that the vendee can recover the highest price reached by the stock in the interval.
The vendor can recover full price as against the vendee on refusal of the latter to
receive the goods, even though they are not actually delivered. Warranty of personal
property is governed as to damages by the actual value and not the contract price, if
there be no fradulent representations. The principle has been disputed but is e^ow well •
settled in this country. A surety must pay the claim he guarantees before he can sue
his.principal, and his damage is measured by the amount, interest, and costs. An agent can
be sucdTby his principal for the whole loss incurred by his negligence, even thouffh not the
direct consequence of his act ; and in such cases cannot offset his commission. In actions
against common carriers indemnity is afforded for actual loss at time of injury; the value
of goods destroyed is estimated at the place of destination and interest is reckoned under
the law of that state. Where transportation of a passenger is refused, after contract to
do so, the injury by loss of lime and wages or profits is the measure. But the loss must
be actual ; thus the rate of wages in the plaintiff's trade at the place of destination was
admitted as evidence of probable loss but not to set the measure of damage; and courts
have even said that the expenses of an illness following but not caused by railroad deten-
tion and prolonging such detention might be included in the damages, so far as they
were in excess of wnat they would have been elsewhere. Where a telegraph company
undertook to transmit a message and, by their negligence, plaintiff lost a chance to col-
lect an otherwise worthless debt, the corporation was held to be a common carrier and
liable. Other decisions are averse to this doctrine. Dispute on the point is usuallj^
avoided by provisions made part of the contract, disclaiming such responsibility. If the
company is a common carrier it is, in effect, an insurer, is bound to use more more than
ordinary care, and liable for consequential damages.
Interest is always allowed when a sum is to be paid at a certain time, the law assum-
ing that legal interest l^egins at that date; and the courts of this country have been very
liberal in infeiTing that an understAnding for interest existed ; but if claims are uncertain
or unliquidated, interest will not be allowed. A most important distinction exists
between liquidated damages and a fixed stim agreed upon as a penalty, as in bonds. In
the first case the parties have fixed a sum certain as the measure of damage from breach
of contract; but the courts will often refuse to consider the amount as mtended to he
absolute and will measure the actual loss. The intent of the parties on the point must
govern rather than the language. The tendency in this country is to frequently consider
a stipulated sum as liquidated djimages and but rarely to regard it ns a penahy ; and the
first, especially if there is appearance of usury or oppression; and, if there is nothing to
certainly determine the damages outside of the stipulation, they will invariably be con-
sidered licjuidated. Recoupment and set-off will be allowed even where the demand is
not for a liquidated sum.
Vindictive or exemplary damages have already been referred to. The principle
applies mainly in cases of tort and vei-y materially enlarges the considerations regarded
in fixing the measure of damages. Wlierc there has been maliciousness or fraud or evil
intent, the jury may go beyond the principle of compensation and punish defendant bv
heavier dama;xes. In torts the intent of the wrong-doer is of great moment, and Ihougli
it may seem Incongruous that the penalty shouhl be paid to ^e plaintiff rather than to
the state, yet in practice it is the most effective mode of punishment. The rule that the
jury may take evil intent into consideration is now well settled both in England and in
the United States. In cases of libel and slander the law will often not require the least
proof of actual injui-y, a distinction being draw^n between words actionable per se where
ri.-image is presumed, and other lilxjls in which actual injury must be set out. The
subject of measure of damages will be found treated in detail in works devoted to the
special topic by Maine, Field, and Sedgwick, and its application to various branches of
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MeMure^, itlA
MechftnioaL ^^^
jurisprudence is set fartb under many heads in FarsonB On Contracts, Greenleaf Ot^ Eti-
dence, and Kedfield's Railroad Law.
MEASURES. See Weights and Measures, ante; Metbic Systek.
MEAT EXTRACT, a substance of a composition varying witli the procen employed,
extracted from beef or mutton or other animal flesh, and us^ as an article of diet. Tlie
Well known common beef tea is made in various ways, and differs greatly in strength.
A common method, and perhaps the best when reauired fresh and condensed, is to put
the chopped meat without the addition of any liquid in a bottle and immerse this in a
vessel of water at about 180* F. Tlie blood, lymphatic, and muscular Juices ooze out of
the meat and form a red liquid containing a large amount of soluble nutritious proteine
matter. If this is heated to the boilini; point, there will be considerable coagulation and
the fluid extract will not be so easily digestible. If the meat, on being heated to about
180"" F. be pressed, most of the nutritious sultstances will be expressed, and the extract
so obtained, on being evaporated, may be brought to any desirable degree of solidity.
This solid extract, by the addition of common Sidt, can be kept, especially in closed ian^
an indefinite length of time, and makes, when mixed with hot water, an excellent boef
tea for the sick room. Another method of making beef tea is very common, and in
many cases perhaps the best, because it is seldom that it is desirable to have it in loo con-
densed a state. Patients require considerjible drink, nnd this is conveniently given in
well-seasoned beef tea, made by heating choi)ped beef in water to about 200" sufficiently
long to extract most of the nutritious material. It is more palatable than that extrad^l
by tiie bottle process, and for food and drink combined is in most ca^^es superior. A
portion of the meat may also be boiled and made into a broth, where the patient's
stomach is in a condition to digest it readily. The albuminoids are, of course, precipi-
tated by boiling, but the »hreddy precipitate may be taken with the clear liquor often
with benefit.
MEATH, a maritime co. of the province of Leinstcr, Ireland, bounded on the e. by
the Irish sea and the countv of Dublin ; area, 906 sq.m., or 580,083 acres, of which 547,99*1
are arable, about 30,000 waste, bog, etc. Pop. '51. 140,748; '61, 110,575; '71, 95.558, of
wliom 89,140 are Roman Catholics, 5,826 Protestant Epii'copalians, the rest ProtestsDtB
of other denominations. The surface is for the most pan an undulating level, forming
the eastern extremity of the great limestone plain of Ireland, and rising slightly towards
the n. and north-west. No minerals of any importance are found. The soil is a rich
loam, and extremely fertile; but it has long been devoted almost entirely to pasture; the
total extent under crops in 1876 being only 140,720 acres. In the same year the caule
amotuUed to 170.349. the sheep to 217,065, and the pigs to 17.085. The chief rivers aw
the Boyne and Blackwater. The principal towns are Trim. Kavan. and Kells, in tlis
first of which the assizes arc held. Meath possesses abundant means of communication,
being intersected by numerous roads and several railways, also by tlie rojal canal. The
coast-line, about 10 m., has no port of importance, even as a fishing-station. The occu-
pation of the people is almost wholly agricultural. The number of children attending
the national schools in 1875 was 16,9f2. Anciently, ?!leath,which included West Meath,
and probablv portions of several other adjacent counties, formed one of the kingdoms
into which Ireland was divided, the royal seat being the celebrated Temor or " Tara of
the kings," the scene of the first preaching of Christianity under St. Patrick. After the
English invasion, Meath was early txjcupieu by Strongbow, and was erected into a county
palatine by Henry II., who conferred it on Hugh de Lacy. From this time forward, it
was the scene of many conflicts. In the end oi the reign of Henry VIII. it was sepa-
rated into e. and w.- Meath. Few Irish counties present so many interesting relics of
Irish antiquities of all the various periods. Celtic remains abound along the IJoyne and
Blackwater. The earthworks of the ancient royal seat at Tara are still discernible, anil
some valuable and highly characteristic gold ornaments were there discovered. John^e
castle at Trim is one of the most extensive monuments of English nile in Ireland. Tlie
round tower and sculptured crosses of Kells are singularly interesting; and almost even-
parish in the county contains some relic of the feuclal or ccclcsiaslical ttructures whkh
fornierly covered the land. Meath returns two membere to parliament.
HEAUX, a t. of France, in the department of Seine-et-Marne, on the river Mame, 25
m. e.n.e. of Paris. It is a bishop's see, and its cathedral, begun in the 11th c, is a noble
Gothic structure. Bossuet, the famous preacher, was bishop here, and is buried in the
choir. Corn and flour from the water-mills on the Mame are sent to Paris in large quan-
tities, nnd there are manufactures of cotton and other cloths, pottery, leather, saltpeter,
etc. Pop. '72. 9,528.
MECCA {Om Al Kora, mother of cities), one of the oldest towns of Arabia, 'the capi-
tal of the province of Hedjaz, and, through being the birthplace of Mohammed, tl)C
central and most holy city of all Islam. It is situated in 21° 80' n. lat , and 40** 8' e. long..
245 m. s. of Medinar and about 65 m. e. of Jiddah, the well-known port on the Red rh,
in a narrow. Iwirren valley, suiTounded by bare hills and sandy plains, and watered by
the brook Wadi-Al-Tarafeyn. The city is about 1500 paces long, and about 650 broad,
and is divided into the upper and lower city, with about 25 chief quarters. The streets
arc broad and rather regular, but unpaved; exocssively dusty in summer, and muddy m
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^^^ MeohHnicaL
the rainy season. The houses, three or four stories high, are built of .brick or stone,
ornamented with paintings, and their windows open on the streets. The rooms are much
more handsomely furnial^, and altogether in a better state than is usual in the east; the
inhabitants of Mecca making their living chiefly by letting them to the pilgrims (see
K&jj) who flock here to visit the Beit Ullah (house of God), or chief mosque, containing
the kaaba (q.v.). This mosque, capable of holding about 35,000 persons, is surrounded
by 19 cates surmounted by seven minarets, and contains several rows of pillars, about
20 ft. nigh, and about 18 in. in diameter, of marble, granite, porphyry, and common
i^ndstone, which at ceitain distances are surmounted by small domes. A great number
of people are attached to the mosque in some kind of ecclesiastical capticity, as katibs,
muftis, mueddins. etc. No other public {Hace or building, sacred or profane, of any
importance is to be found in this city, which also is singularly destitute of trees and
verdure of any kind. It is protected by three castellated buildings, and is governed by
a sherif. The population has, in consequence of the rapidly decreasing number of pil-
^ms, fallen off considerablj'^ of late, from above 100,000 to hardly 40,000, who do not
And the 100,000 annual pilgrims sufflcient to keep them in the state of prosperity of for-
mer years. The trade and commerce of Mecca hardij deserve mention ; the chief articles
manufactured there are chaplets for the pious pilgrims. The townspeople themselves
are lively, polished, and frivolous, and growing up amid an immense concourse of stran-
gers from all parts of Asia, are generally able to converse in three or four eastern lan-
guages. Respecting the history of Mecca, it was known to Ptolemy already as Macoraba.
and first belonged to the tribe of the Kosaites, later to the Koreish. Mohammed, who
had been obliged to leave it precipitately (see Hedjrah) in 622, returned to it and con-
quered it in ^7. Within the course of the present century, Mecca was t^ken by the
Wahabites (1803), but given up again to the pasha of Egypt, Mehemcd All (1833), whose
son, Ibrahim, was made Sheik El Haram — *' of the sacred place." At present, however,
Mecca is directly dependent on the sultan. — A certain balm, called balm of Mecca, is
made from a plant which grows in abundance in the neighborhood of the city, called
betem.
MECCA BALSAM. See Balsam or Balm of QiLfiAD, ante.
MB'CHAIN, Pierre Francois Akdr6, 1774-1805; b. Prance; studied for a time at
the school des B)nU et*0haus9Ses, which he was compelled to leave for want of money.
He then gave instruction in mathematics, giving all his spare time to the study of astron-
omy. Soon afterwards he was accidentally brought to the notice of Lalande, who had
bought of him an astronomical instrument, which poverty had obliged him to sell. Lalande
secnred him a place as goremment hydrographer. In this capacity Mechain drew up a
number of marine charts, and made a survey of a part of the French sea-coast. He still
parsaed his astronomical studies, investigated the theory of eclipses, calculated the orbits
of 34 comets, and discovered 11. The academy of sciences gave him its prize for his
paper on the comet of 1580, and in 1783 he was elected to membership of the academy.
In 1791 he was employed, at the suggestion of the academy, to* measure a portion of the
arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, which the national convention liad
selected to form the basis of their now system of measures. He continued his observa-
tions at the Paris observatory after his return from Spain. Under the auspices of the
Frencii board of longitude he went once more to Spain to continue his measurements of
the arc of the meridian, but he was taken ill soon after his arrival and died at Castellon.
Hifl publications were not numerous; they are paj^ers chiefly on eclipses and the theory
of comets, contributed to the Transactions of the academy of sciences, and to the Con^
naimartee du Temps of which he was at one time editor.
MECHANICAL CALCULATIOK See Calculating Machine," ante.
XXCHAKICAL P0W£U— MACHIKE8. Machines are instruments interposed between
the moving power and the resistance, with a view of changing the direction of the force,
or otherwise modifying it. Machines are of various degrees of complexity; but the
sinaple parts, or elements of which they are all composed, are reducible to a very few.
These elementary machines are called the MEkCHANiCAL Powers, and are usually reck-
oned as six in number, three being primary — viz., the lever, inclined plane, and vuUey;
and three secondiiry, or derived from the others— viz., the wheel-and-axle (derived from
the lever), the wedffe, and the screw (both derived from the inclined plane). To these
some add toothed- wheels. What is special to each machine will be found under its name;
a few observations applicable to all may approi)riately Ikj made here. 1. In treating of
the theory of the lever and other mechanical powers, the question really examined is,
not what power is necessary to move a certain weight, but what power is necessarv
to balance it; what force at P, for instance (see Lever, fig. 1), will just keep W
suspended. This once done, it is obvious that the least additional force to P wlU
suffice to begin motion. 2. . In pure theoretical mechanics, it is assumed that the machines
are without weight A lever, for instance, is supposed to be a mere rigid line; it is also
supposed to be perfectly rigid, not bending or altering its form under any pressure. The
motion of the macliine is also supposed to be without friction. In practical mechanics,
the weight of tlie machine,. the yielding of its parts, and the resistance of friction, have
to be taken into account. ^ 3. "W hen the effect of a machine is to make a force overcome
a resistance greater than itself, it is said to give a mecJiariical ddt^ii^a^^ ^^rp^^Mf^,
MeduuilM.
643
however, never actually increases power— for that would be to create work or energy, a
thing now known to be as impossible as to create matter. What is gained in one way
by a machine is always lost in another. One lb. at the long end of a lever will lift 10
lbs. at the short end, if the arms are rightly proportioned; but to lift the 10 lbs. through
1 ft., it must descend 10 feet. The two weights, when thus in motion, have equal
momenta; the moving mass multiplied into its velocity, is equal to the resisting mass
multiplied into its velocity. When the lever seems to multiply force, it only concen-
trates or accumulates the exertions of the force. The descending 1 lb. weieht, in the
case above supposed, may be conceived as making 10 distinct exertions of its farce, each
through a space of a foot ; and all these are concentrated in the raising of the 10 lb
weight through 1 foot. The principle thus illustrated in the case of the lever holds good
of all the other mechanical powers. 4. The object of a machine is not always to increase
force or pressure; it is as often to gain velocity at the expense of force. See Leveb.
In a spinning-factory, e.g., the object of the tram of machinery is to distribute the slowly
• workinff force of a powerful water-wheel or other prime mover, among a multitude of
terminu parts moving rapidly, but having little resistance to overcome. 6. Tlie
mechanical advantage of a compound machine is theoretically equal to the product of
the separate mechanical advantages of the simple machines composing it; but m applying
machines to do work, allowance must be made for the inertia of the materials composing
them, the flexure of parts subjected to strains, and the friction whicli increases rapidly
with the complexity of the parts; and these considerations make it desirable that a
machine should consist of as few parts as are consistent with the work it has to do. 6.
The forces or " moving powers" by which machines are driven are the muscular strength
of men and animals, wind, water, electrical and magnetic atti'actions, steam, etc. ; and
the grand object in the construction of machines Is, how, with a given amonnt of
impelling power, to get the greatest amount of work of the kind required. See Work,
Foot-pound. This gives rise to a multitude of problems, some more or less general,
others relating more especially to particular cases— problems, the investigation of which
constitutes the science of applied mechanics. One of the questions of most general
application is the folio wing i If the resistance to a machine were gradually reduced to
zero, its velocity would be constantly accelerated until it attained a maximum, which
would be when the poiB4 to which the impelling force is applied was moving at the
same rate as the impelling force itself (e.g., the piston-rod of a steam-engine^ would
move if unresisted, if, on the other hand, the resistance were increased to a certam pointy
the machine would come to a stand. Now the problem is, between these two extremes
to find the rate at which the greatest effect or amount of work is sot from tbe same
amount of driving power. The investigation would be out of place here, but the result
is that the greatest effect is produced when the velocity of the point of application is one-
third of the maximum velocity above spoken of. The moving force and the resistauoe
should therefore be so adjusted as to produce this velocity.
MSCHAinOS is the science. which treats of the nature of forces and of their action on
bodies, either directly or by the agency of machinery. The nature of force will be found
treated of under Force. The action of forces on bodies may be in the form of pressure
or of impulse, and may or may not produce motion. When the forces are bo batenoed
as to preserve the body affected by them in a state of equilibrium their ajctions are
investigated in that branch of mechanics called Statics (q. v.); when motion is produeed,
thevare considered under the head of Dyvamicr (q.y.) or Kineiieg, The equilibrium
and motion of fluids (including liquids and cases) is treated in the subordinate branches
of Hydrostatics and HTDRODTNAjacs; though the special terms Aisrobtaticb and
Aerodynamics (for which the comprehensive term Pneumatics is oiten used) are some^
times employed to designate those portions of the science of mechanics in which the
action of j^aseous bodies is treated of.
The science of mechanics owes very little to the ancient philosophers. They were
acquainted with the conditions of equilibrium on the lever— discovered by Archimedes—
ana had reduced the theory of all the mechanical powers, except the pulley usd ^
inclined plane and its derivatives, to that of the lever, but this was nearly all. ArcShi-
medes, starting from the principle of equilibrium on the lever, struck out the idea c^ a
center of gravity for every body, and investigated the position of that point for the
triangle, parabola, and paraboloid. Till the 16th c. the science remained stadonaiy;
Cardan, tne marquis Ubaldl, and Stevinus — who was the first to give the correct theory
of equilibrium on the inclined plane — ^then cave it a slight impetus, and the labors Of
Galileo, who introduced the expression of mechanical propositions in mathematical
formulas, discoyered the laws regulating the motion of falling bodies, and originated
investigations concerning the strength of materials, placed the science on a br<nd and
substantial basis. Torricelli, Descartes, Pascal, Permat, Roberval, and Huygens, on the
continent, and Wallis and Wren in England — ^the last three of whom simultaneously
discovered the laws which regulate the collision of bodies— added each his quota to the
new 9eience, as mechanics was then called. In 1687 appeared Kewton's JPrtTtcuria, in
which the complete experimental basis of the subject was first laid down in a satisraetory
manner, and the mechanical principles, which had before been considered to act only at
the surface of the earth, were shown to rule and direct the modons of the plan^
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643
Meohauios. '
Cotitemponiry.witli Newton were Leibnitz atkd the two elder Bernouillis, James and
John, who, besides contributing greatly to the advancement of the science, applied to it
the newlv'invented diiferential calculus, which was found to be a weapon of immense
power. From th»'tirae a constant succession of illustrious men have prosecuted the
study of theoretical mechanics, or of subjects connected with it. The chief names are
Daniel BernouiUi, £nler, D'Alembert, Clairaut, Lagrange, Laplace. Lagrange's
MSeauique AnaXyUq\i€ not only systematized the subject but enormously increased its
power and tlie ranr^e of its applications. The last great additions to the science are
those made by Sir W. R. Hamilton (q. v.) under the name of the principle of tai'ping
aeUon. The developments which this has received from Jacobi, Boole, Cayley, Liou-
ville, Donkiii, fioup. etc.. form an extensive imd difficult brunch of applied mathematics, i
chiefly of tlic theory of rimultaneous dttferenlial equations. I
MECHANICS, Animal. A moment's reflection sIiowb that this subject is exhaust-
lesa, the application of forces and the variation in the mechanism being infinite, and
this, without embracing molecular mechanics or kinematics, which would necessarill be
involved iu a minute study of the action of tJie nervous system. We must, therefore, .
content ourselves with a few brief general illustratiotis of the more obvious vital
mechauical movements. The simjptest examples are the hydromechanics of some of the
lower infusoria, where the animal is propelled through its native element bv the reaction *
of water forced out of a single oriflce by the contraction of the simple cell which forms
the body. Some of these minute animals have cilia which also serve as locomotive -
organs. Other hollow animals of a higher organiasation propel themselves through water
in a similar manner, as those belon^g to the sub-kincaom coslenterata (q.v. in art.
Intebtbbrate Anthals). These animals are also provided with filamentary tentacles •
Which have contractile properties, and tbe power of forming hooks or prehensile organs.
The mechanism of the circulation in the c^dippe, a coelentrate belonging to the order .
Gteoopfaora is exceedingly interesting. It consista of a complex caniu system, the
tttbHlar branches of whicn ara lined by a ciliated endoderm for tlie purpose of keeping .
\tp within them the circulation of water. These animals, although no doubt assisted by
the contractions of the body cavity, are propelled by certain organs called ctenophores,
or parallel rows of cilia, wliich urc arranged in comb-like plates longitudinally upon
their lobular or oval bodies. 8ome infusorial animals, as tlie rotifera or wheel animal*
cules, included iu a higher sub-kingdom (annulosa), possess a l>j|:hly mechanical
ol*gan]zation, approaching fK>mewhnt, in that respect, tlie insects, llie characteristic
wheel organ consists of a retractile disk carrying numerous cilia which, by their succes.-
Bive rapid vibrations, produoe the illusory appearance of a rotating wheel. The motions
are regarded as having an action similar to tliat of a screw propeller, and as aiding in •
locomotion as well as serving to throw currents of wtiter into the mouth. All the move-
ments in these soft-bodied animals involve as complex mechanical principles as those
which are exhibited in the action of muscles and tendons upon framework which serve
as levers in the higher animals. The locomotion of fishes involves similar applications
of force in the oblique manner in which the sides and tail fin are' brought to act apiinst
the water in which they swim, and also in the position of the pectoral and other fins,
which give direction, and are not — with the exception of the dorsal and caudal fins —
organs of propulsion in ordinary swimming, as is sometimes supposed. When a fish is
comparatively quiet he may change his pi)sition by the action of all the fins, and a back-
wara motion is often produced by a paddle action of the pectoral and ventral fins. The
i^lique action of the sides of a fish against the water is of the same nature as that of a
ship when tacking against the wind, or of the paddles of a screw propeller, or of an oar
in sculling, or of a seri)ent in running through grass, and involves mathematical
elements of all orders, from the simplest to the most complex.
The attempted solutions of the application of force in the locomotion of fishes, which
represent the wlmle of the tail and latter part of the body tis movmg alternately from
aioe to side,, and producing alternate periods of retarding and of forward action, are
founded upon erroneous views. No fish, not even, thechimsiest, propels itself in accord-
ance with sucb crude mechanical principles. The longitudinal line of the latter part of
the body presents a numl)er (depending upon the foim and flexibility of the fish) of ser*
pentine curves, of more or less depth, whose combined action produces (in the most rapid
motions) an almost uniform forward propelling foree, and in one direction, except when
the fish curves its hoAy for the purpose of turning, or altering its com-se. The Ixxly and
tail fin do not oscillate in one curve, but tlie fin is always applied to the water in a direc-
tion which tends to propel the lK)dy forward, and its suppleness and flexibility are <iual-
itles given to it for this purpose. The complex mechanism displayed in the higher
Miimals and in man is all the more interestinc beaiuse of its involving the simpler prin-
ciples of the mechanical powers, particularly the lever and pulley, as well as those of
oblique Action in fishes, which includes in its elements the principle of the inclined plane.
The linea of force in the action of the muscles, as applied to the bones, undergoing, as
ihey do, constant variation of direction, present, however, equally difficult mathematical
problems if it is required to estimate the expenditure of power. The apparatus for mas-
tication and deglutition in various classes of animals furnishes one of the most com-
.^ex aubjecta of investigaition, one, indeed^ whose elements are, in theige %aal xesulta,
Digitized by VjOUV IC
MeohanlcsburiT. fKA.A
Meokleuboiv "**
insolvable, on account of the constantly variable condition, quality, and qusatity of food,
involving, as it does, constantly varying applications of muscular force, and constantly
varying caixicity and fof-m of tlie moutU and pharynx. Most of the movements aie
produced automatically » but the perfect adaptation of the mechanism, to the required
functions b none the less wonderful. The masticating apparatus in various animals is
as various as the animals tliemselves, and one is adapted to the other so perfectly that
many have adopted the idea that the development of the organism must have kept pace
with the development of an appetite, or a change of circumstances. It is maintained
by otliers, however, that there are facts in anatomy which render such • progressive
development hypotheses improbable; as, for instance, the arrangement of the superior
oblique muscle of the eye-ball. One end of this muscle is attached to a part of the
sphenoid boue at the bottom of the orbit; it then passes forwards to a cartilaginous ring
or pulley which is attached to the frontal bone at the inner angle of the orbit, and
becoming a rounded tendon it passes through this pullev and is then turned backward,
becoming again muscular. It then expands into a broad band which is inserted into the
sclerotic coat of the posterior and outer surface of the eye-ball. It is difficult to inaagine
how the force of an impending function, or any physiological want, could cause the
development of such a piece of apparatus. It is so much of a contrivance, to all app^r-
ances, that the elements of design and of immediate creation cannot well be denied
recognition. The internal mechanism of the eye-ball is held to afford as much evi-
dence of design as that furnished by the superior oblique muscle. For the purpose of
accommodating the eve to vision at different distances, among other provisions, the
degree of convexity of the crystalline lens requires to be constantly changed. This is
effected by the ciliary muscle, a circular organ situated at the outer border of the iris
and at the junction of the cornea with the sclerotic coat. As examples of the "meehan-
ical powers" in the mechanism of the human body, we find the cord and pulley in the
arrangement of the superior oblique muscle of the eye, instanced above; the first kind of
lever, that where the fulcrum is between the resistance and power, in the support of the •
head upon tiie asa$ (the upper cervical vertebra) and the depi^ssion of the occiput and
elevation of the face by the contraction of the extensor muscles of the neck, and also in
the arm when the extensor muscles act upon the olecranon process of the ulna. See
Skeleton. ,Tho arm also affords an example of the third kind of lever whec acted uiK>n
by the flexor muscles, the power being applied between the hand and dhow joint, which
is the fulcrum. The raising of the body upon the toes is usually instanced as an exam-
ple of the second kind of lever. It is evident, however, that if a person lies upon the
back and places his toes against a resisting, but movable, object, and pushes it away, he
will virtually be performing the same mechanical operation, as far as the foot is con-
cerned, as when rising upon his toes, and the relations of the toe, the ankle joint, and the
heel will be precisely the same; that is to say, Uie ankle ioint will be the fulcrum, the
application of the toe will be at the point of reustance, and the power will be applied by
the tendo-achilles at the heel. In raising one's self upon the toes, therefore, the ankle
Joint is in reality a movable f ulcrunt Moreover, the first and second kinds of lever are
convertible into each other by making the resistance in the first kind stationary and
causing the fulcrum to move. One of the most celebrated and elegant essays upon ani-
mal mechanism is the Bridgwater treatise for 1884, by Sir Charles Bell, on J7ie Hand,
its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Emndng Design, The mechanical contriv-
ance known as the toggle joint, sometimes spoken of as one of the mechanical powers,
but which acts upon the principle of the inclined plane, is exemplified in the knee joint
When the knees are considerably bent it is difficult to raise a heavy weight, but as the
legs become straighter the power over resistance becomes enormous. Of course the tog-
gle, or knee joint, in this instance is moved by the application of muscles and tendons
to levers whose arms ^thighs and legs) ar3 also the arms of the. toggle joint. In reality
the operation of raising the body from a sitting posture combmes the principles of
1 wo mechanical powers, the lever and inclined plane, the hip forming a toggle joint as
well as the knee. See Toggle Jonrr.
The mechanics of aerial motion in birds furnishes one of the most interesting subjects
of philosophical inquiry and physical research, and has been ably treated bj the present
duke of Argyle in a work called '*The Reign of Law." See also in this cyclopsKlia
the article on Bibdb. An examination of the anatomyof abirdisasource of never-
ending admiration to the student of natural history. It reveals the most perfect adap-
tation of means to results — and results, too, which would seem impossible if one had
ticver witnessed the phenomenon of aerial flight. To watch a bird — ^like one of the
hirger sea-gulls, poise itself without flapping its wings for a quarter of an hour or more,
tinu when the wind is blowing, for an indefinite space of time, or as long as the bird can
(Hi seen, without descending from its altitude of several thousand feet, but floating aloft
like a kite held by a cord, now rising with majestic motion, and now darting obliquely
downward with immense speed — ^is one of the most fascinating of recreations. Scarcely
Icits wonderful is the flight of insects, and perhaps none of the class possess the power in
greater perfection than the common fly. See Flying, ante, and Inbects, ante,
MEOHANICSBURG, a t. in s. Pennsylvania, incorporated 18^; in Cumberland co.
vj. close proximity to the iron region, at the junction of the Cumberland valley railroad
Digitized by VjOUV IC
^**^ Meokleubarg.
and the Billsburg branch ; pop. '70, 2,569. It is 8 m. s. w. of Harrisburg, and 10 m. e. of
Carlisle. It is the seat of the Cumberland Valley institute and the Irvingv college for
women, and has.excellent educational advantages in free schools, and a public library.
It is lighted with gas and has an abundant water supply, and 5 hotels. Its industries
are represented by manufactories of sashes and doors, paper mills, foundries, and spoke
and bending works. It has a variety of stores, is the shipping point for iron ore, and a
depot for supplies for the iron region.
MECHANIC8VILLE, Battle of, fought at the village of that name in Henrico co.,
Va., June 26, 1862. The battle-ground is within 7 m. of Richmond, and the intervening
country was held by* the confederates, comnumded* by gen. Lee in person, with his
forces strongly concentrated immediately about the capital. Mechatiicsville was occupied
by the advance of the federal troops — a regiment of infantry and a battery. . On the
afternoon of the 26th the movement was begun by the confederate gen. Au P. Uill cross-
ing the Chickahominy and advancing on the federals, who retired about a mUe to a
strongly intrenched position held by gen. Fitz John Porter, on the left bank of Beaver
Than, creek. This movement, uncovered the Mechauicsvilie bridge, and enabled gens.
Longstreet and D. H. Hill to cross the river and march down its left bank with the
design to attack the federal communications with th^ York river. But the federal posi-
tion was discovered to be stronger than had been anticipated by gen. Lee when be made
his plans; and the confederates found themselves exposed to a galling, fire of artillery
and musketry, the approaches to their line of battle being over open tields swept by their
batteries. Continued ass^iults being unsuccessful, the confederates were forced to retire,
with a loss of between 3.000 and 4,000; the federal loss bciug under 4CK), and only a
portion of their force engaged. On the arrival of Stonewall Js^kson the next day, the
lederal position was abandoned.
H£OH£RmO. See Beccafcmi, Domenico.
MECHI, John Joseph, b. London, 1802: of Italian descent; became in youth a clerk
hi a mercantile house, and in 1827 set up business for himself and opened a cutler's shop.
Having obtained a patent for a "mngic razor strop. "he acquired a fortune from its sale,
and in 1840 bought a farm of 170 acres at Tiptree Heath, Essex, making experiments in
scientific agricnJtuTe. He was ridiculed for his exi)eriments. but by deep draining,
steam ploughing, and by liquid manures conveyed through subterraneous pipes, he made
his farm before sterile ver}' fertile and profitable, and indeed one of the notable farms in
England. He has been an alderman and sheriff of London, and was a commissioner to
the Paris exliibition of 1855. He has published Letters on Agricultural Improvements;
Sxpernments in Drainage;^ Hoto to Farm Profitably.
XECHITAJtlSTS, a congregation of Armenian Christians, who reside on the island
of San Lazaro at Venice, but who have also obtained a fooling in France, Austria.
Turkey, Russia, etc.. They derive their name from Mechitar (i. e., the Comforter)
DA Petro (born 1676. died 1749), who, in 1701, founded at Constantinople a religious
society fpr the purpose of diffusing a knowledge of the old Armenian language and lit-
erature. Subsequently, the Mcchitarists removed to the Morca, and thence, on the
conquest of that portion of Greece by the Turks in 1715, to San Lazaro, which was
granted to them by the Venetian government, — The >Uchitarists acknowledge the
supremacy of the Roman pontiff. Their most useful occupation is printing the classic
writings of Armenian literature; their additions are universally admitted to be the best
and most correct. They also issue "a J<?« ?•/?«?, which is much read throughout the
Levant. — Compare Bone, Leconvenl de St Lazared Venisc, ouUistoiresuccinctede VOrdre
des Mechitaristes Armeniens (Paris, 1887),
XEGH'IJir. 6ecMALiN£9.
MECKEL'S GANGLION, or fiPHB]fo-PAi.ATiKE Ganomon, the largest of the four
sympathetic ganglia situated in the cephalic region, the others being the ophthalmic
(q/V.), the otic (q^.v.), and th© sob-maxillaiy (q.v.). It Ues in the splieno-maxiltary fossa,
close to the spheno-palatine foramen. It is triangular or heart-shaped, of a reddish gray
Color, and was first descril)ed by Meckel. It is connected with the superior maxillary
nerve, which is a branch of the fifth cranial nerve (sensory), with the seventh cranial
nerye, called the facial (motor), and with the carotid plexus (sympathetic) through the
vidian nerve. Its Inranches are divided into four groups: 1. Ascending, passing to
theorbit of theeye; 2. Descending, passing to the palate; 8. Internal, passing to the nose;
4. Posterior, passing to the pharynx.
MECKLENBURG, a co. iris.w. part of North Carolina, bordering at the s. on South
Carolina, and w. on Catawba Hver; 650 sq.m. ; pop. 70, 24,299, since considerably
increased. The surface is hilly, and there are large forests, but a great part of the soil
is productive— cotton, grass, and Indian com being the staples. Granite and gold are
found; the amount of the latter obtained In a year, according to the census of 1870, is
over 160,000. At Charlotte, situated almost exactly In the center of the coimty, several
important railroads form a junction. These are the Atlanta and Charlotte (part of the
Piedmoiit air line), Charlotte, Columbia and Augusta, Atlantic. Tennessee and Ohio, and
the North Carolina railroads. At the outbreak of the war of independence, the inhab-
itants of this region distinguished themselves for tiieir ardent patriot&m, and as being the
S:SS!"*"*- . 646
^le<lal,
- first community in the country formally to renounce allegiance to the Biitirii crown,
- which ihey did in ^ay, 1775.
MECKLENBURG, a co. in s. central Virginia, bounded on the s. by North Carolina;
drained by the Meherrin river, which forms its n. boundary, and also by the Roanoke;
650 sq.m. ; pop. *80, 24,611. The surface is rolling and broken, but remarkably fertile.
'The chief products are tobacco, Indian com, and wheat. Of tobacco there were over
2,000,000 lbs. raised in 1870. Granite quarries are fotmd in the district, it is intenected
by the Roanoke Valley railroad. Capital, Boydton.
MECKLENBURG DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. This is a document
: sufficiently near in tenor to the declaration of the continental conffrem to warruit the
people of North Carolina in claiming priority of action; but that action was by only one
.' colony, indeed, by the citizens of one county — ^the other by all the colonies in perfect
harmony. The statement generally accepted in the state is that at a public meeting in
. Charlotte, Mecklenbun^ co., held May 20, 1775, a series of resolutions was adopted, and a
copy is produced. Other accounts oate the meeting May 81. The tenor of the re^lu-
tions is m harmony with the declaration of July 4, 1776; but that must have been true
of all public declarations of the people then in rebellion.
MSCK'LEKBTTBO-flCHWBXnf , a grand duchy of northern Germany, bounded on the
n. by the Baltic, e. by Pomerania, s. ly Brandenburg, and w. by Lauenburg. The area
is about 6,196 sq.m., and the pop. '75, 558,784. Mecklcnburg-Schwerin is watered by
several rivers, the most important of which are the Elbe and the Wamow, and has a
great many lakes and ponds, yielding an abundant supply of fish. The country is gen>
erally flat, although here and there intersected by low ranges of hills, and its surface is
still extensively covered with wood, notwithstanding the great clearings which have
been made in the forests during the present century. Near the sea, tracts of sand and
morass cover large areas; but on the whole the soil Is of a good quality, and well adapted
for the growth of com or. the rearing of cattle, which constitute the princiDal native
' industry. There is considerable commerce through Wamemtlnde (Rostock) ana Wismar ;
there were in 1875, belonging to the two ports, 42% vessels, with a burden of 118,656
tons. The grand duch^ is divided into the circles of Schwerin, GQstrow, Rostock, and
Wismar. The capital is Schwerin. The central and s.e. districts are the most densely
peopled. The-people of both the Mecklenburg duchies (Schwerin and Strelitz) are for
the most part of Slavonic origin, but amalgamation with their Saxon neighbors has
largely Germanized the original race. Tlie predominating form of religion is the
Lutheran, Roman Catholic and other churches numbering about 1100, while there are
upwards of 8,000 Jews. Much has been done of late years in extending the educational
organization of both duchies, althou^ the lower classes do not jei enjoy as many advan-
tages as in some other districts of Germany. Besides the university at Rostock ((J. v.),
there are five gymnasia, and numerous burgher, parochial, and other schools. The
troops of Mecklenburg-Schwerin number in time of peace 2,700 men, and when <mi a
war-footing, 5,880 men. The principal towns are the capital Schwerin, Ludwigslust,
Rostock, Ghstrow, and Wismar. The grand duke, whose powers are limited by a mixed
feudiil and constitutional form of government, has the title of royal highness, and is
styled prince of the Wends, and oi Schwerin and Ratzeburg, count of Schwerin, and
lord of Rostock, Stargard, etc. The two Mecklenburg duchies have provincial estates in
common, which meet once a year, alternately at Mdchin and Stembei]g^ J'his united
chamber consists of 684 landowners and the repiresentatives of 47 provincial boroughs,
while the country people have no representation. There is no general budget fox
Mecklenburg-Schwerin. ; there are three entirely distinct systems of finance. The budget
of the first system, called the administration of the sovereign, is estimated at about
12,000,000 marks; the second, the states administration, has but small resources to
dispose of: the ordinary budget of the common administration of the sovereign and the
sUtes was, for 1876-77, about 2,000,000 marks. The public debt is upwards of 48,000,000
marks. Mecklenburg-Schwerin has two votes in the federal council, and six representar
tives in the imperial diet.
Hiitory, — The Mecklenbtunr territory, anciently occupied by Germanic, and after-
ward by Slavonic tribes, 'was finally subdued, in the 12th c, by Henry the lion, duke of
Saxony, who, after thoroughly devastating the country, and compelling the small num-
ber of inhabitants remaining after the war to adopt Christianitj^, restored the sprcater
part of the territory to Barewin, Uie heir of the slain Slavonic prince Niklot, and gave
him his daughter in marriage. The country at that period received its present designa*
tion from its principal settlement, Mikilinburg, now a village between Wismar and
Bruel. In 1849 it was elevated into a duchy by the emperor Charles. Duke Johann
Albrecht intix)duced the Protestant doctrines in 1550, and his grandsons, Wolf-Friedrich
and Johann Albi-echt, founded the lines of Mecklenburg-Scnwerin and Mecklenbuig>^
Gllstrow, which were, however, deprived of the ducal title in 1627, in consequence of
their adhesion to the Protestant cause, when the imperial gen. Wallenstein was pro^
.claimed duke of all Mecklenbuig. In 1682 Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden restored his
kinsmen, the deposed dukes, to Uieir domains. After various subdivisions of the dueal
line into the branches of Schwerin, Strelitz, and others, and the successive extinction of
several of these collateral houses, the imperial commission, which met at Hamburg in
- ^^ ^ Digitized by VjUUVIC ®
647 SSSi™""*
1701, brought about the settlement of a family compact, hj which it was atranged that
tfchwerin and Gttstrow should form one ducby, and Strehtz, with Ratzeburg and Star-
gard, Mirow and Nemerow, anollier independent sovereignity. After this, very few
eveats of importance occurred till the accession in Schwerin. in 1785, of Friedrich Franz,
who obtained tlie title of srand duke in 1815, and died in 1837, after a long reign, which
he hnd made hij^hly conducive to the internal welfare and external reputation of his
hereditary dominions. The reign of Fiiedrich Franz II., who succeeded his father, Paul
Friedrich, in 1842, was disturbed by a contest between the nobles and the burgher and
equestrian landowners, the former arrogating to themselves the exclusive right of elect-
lag members into the equestrian order, nominating to benefices, and monopolizing other
prerogatives of the ancient feudal nobility. The revolutionary excitement of Vm ffave
a fresh stimulus to the popular fei-ment, and the disturbances could only be quellea by
the intervention of Prussian troops. Both as members of the north German confederal
tion and of the empire, the two duchies have maintained their internal constitution very
much on the old footing.
MSOKLEVBUXChSTXBLITZ, a gmnd duchy of Germany, composed of two distinct
portions of territory, viz., Star^rd (by far the larger division, lyinff to the e. of Meek:
lenburg-Schwerin) and the principality of Ratzeburg (bet\f een llecklenburg-Schwerin
and Lauenburg), and comprising an area of rather more than 1000 8q,m., with a pop.
75, of 95,678. The country is flat, and similar in its phvsical diaracters to Schwerin,
although, from its greater distance from the sea, the climate is less humid and less
diangeable. Strelitz, as already oliserved, has one joint representative chamber with
Scliwerin, but the lordship of liatzeburg is not included in these estates, and is governed
directly by tlie gi-and duke, who possesses very considerable private domains, from which
he dmws large revenues. The grand duke ^ve Ratzeburg a representative constitution
in 1869. Mecklenbuig-Strelitz has one vote in the federal council of the empire, and one
representative in the diet. Mecklenburg-Strelitz has a debt of nearly 3,000,000 thalers.
For the history of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, see preceding article.
The Mecklenburg duchies are essentially agricultural, 71 per cent of the inhabitants
bein^ employed on the land. In Mecklenburg-Schwerin 3,549 sq.m., and in Mecklenburg-
Strelitz 670 sq.m. are under cultivation. The cattle of the duchies are considered the
best in Geimany: the horses especially are held in high esteem. The principal products
are corn (which is exported to Scandinavian and British ports), cattle and sheep (which
are sent to the markets of Hamburg and Berlin), wool, tobacco, butter, cheese, fish,
fruit, hiilcs, etc. The matricular contribution of both duchies towards imperial expen-
diture amounted in 1876 to 890,560 marks, the share of Mecklenburg-Strelitz being 182,-
864.
ItECON'IC AOID (CMHOio.3HO-f 6Aq), (from Gr. mecon, a poppy), an acid existing
in opium, which, when good, yields from 6 to 8 per cent, of it. Both the acid and its
salUi assume a characteristic blood-red tint with peraalts of iron, and this test, which is
very sensitive, is employed by the toxicologist in searching for traces of opium, As,
however, the allcaline sulphocyanides which exist normally in the saliva give a precisely
similar tint with the persalts of iron, it is necessary to be able to distinguish the meco-
nate of iron from the sulphocyanide of iron. A solution of terchloride of gold or of
corrosive sublimate removes all doubt, by dischaiging the color of the sulphocyanide,
bat not affecting the color of the meconate of iron.
IGBCO'Himi. ' This term is applied to the earliest matter discharged from the bowels
of a new- bom infant. It is of a brownish-green or almost black color, acid to teat-
paper, but devoid of odor, and rapidly putrefying on exposure to air. It is usually
re^rded as a product of the foetal hver, but, acooiSing to Lehmann, it contains neither
biliary acids nor bile-pigment. When examined under the microscope, it is found to
consist of an abundance of cylinder epithelium of a beautiful ^reen tint, of mucus-cor-
puscles, and of fat, with which there is a good deal of cholesterlne.
MECOSTA, a co. in w. Michigan, intersected by the Grand Rapids and Indiana raiU
road, and a branch of the Chicago and West Michigan, terminating at Big Rapids; 576
S.m. ; pop. '80, 13,978 — 10,479 of American birth, 817 colored. It is drained by the
uskegon and Clilppewa rivers. Its surface is generally level, and extensively covered
with forests of oak and pine, furnishing good building timber, with groves of su^(ar
maple. Its soil is fertile and well adapted to wheat, other kinds of grain, and dairy
products. Some attention is paid to the raising of stock. The Muskegon river supplies
extensive water-power, and its leading industries are the manufacture of lumber, shingles,
furniture, etc. Co. seat, Big Rapids. '
XEDAL (Fr, medaiSe, Lat. metoMum), a piece of metal in the form of a coin, not issued
or circulated as money, but stamped with a fl^re or device to preserve the portrait of
some eminent person, or the memory of some illustrious action or event. The study ot
medals, interesting in an historical and antiquarian point of view, is also important as
illustrating the contemporary state of art. ttike coins, medals belong to two periods,
ancient and modern,. separated by a wide interval. To the former belong those pieces
i.*i=iuing from the mint or ancient Rome, known as medaUivM, of the size of the aureus in
gold, of the denarius in silver, and of the first or large brass in copper. They are gener-
Digitized by VjOUV IC
MecliUllon. AJ.Q
Medhunt. V**^
all^' supposed to have beea struck on occasions similar to those on which medals are
coined in modern times, on the accession of an emperor, on the acliievement of an
important victory, or as specimens of workmanship; but there are circumstances which
countenance the lielief that they were circulated as money. Medallions prior to the time
of Hadrian are rare and of <great value; one of the most beautiful and most famous being
a gold medallion of Augustus Coesar; from Hadrian to the close of the empire they are
comparatively common. Of the Roman medallions, some were struck by order of the
emperors, some by the senate; the latter may be known by being inscribea witli the let-
ters S. C. The larger bronze medallions are of admirable woi-kraanship. In some of
them a ling of bronze suiTounds a center of copper, and the inscription extends over
both metals. No portrait of a person not princely occurs on any ancient medal, a
remarkable circumstance, considering the numerous con temporary statues of poets, lijs- «
torians, and phiIosophei*s. Tlie contorniati are bronze medals marked with furrows {ctyn-
Un'ai\ distributed at the public games, and apparently also in use as money. Numerous
medals and medallions were struck in the Greek provinces of the Roman empire, of less
substance and thickness, for the most part, than those of Rome. The Sicilian medals
are of very fine workmanship, particuliurly one with a head of C^res, and on the reverse
a Victory crowning a figure in a car.
Modern medals begin in the 14th c, but few were struck prior to the 15th. PortraitB
of non-princely persons are freely introduced after the 16th century. An affectation of
the classical takes from their value as illustrations of contemporary life. Most European
countries possess a succession of medals from the 15th c. on words. The best in point
of de<%ign of the 15th c. medals are those wrought by Victor Pisaui of Verona, and
inscribed " Opus Pisani Pictoris." The medals of the popes form an unbroken series
from the time of Paul II., who filled the papal chair from 1464 to 1471. Those that
purport to be of earlier popes are all known to be, in point of fact, of later date. The
reverse generally bears the cross-keys and mitre, and the obverse the head of the reigning
pope. Some of the medals of Julius II., Leo X., and Clement VII. have an especial
value, as having been designed by Raphael and Giulio Romano, and engraved by Ben-
venuto Cellini. A 16th c. medal of Sicily is probably the first instance in modem times
of the use of a medal as a vehicle of political satire; it is directed by Frederick II. against
his adversary, Ferdinand of Spain, whose head is on the obverse, with the inscription,
*• Ferdinaunus R. R. Vctus Vulpcs Orbis;" and on the reverse a wolf carrying off a sheep,
with " Jugum meum smive est et opus meum leve.'* Satirical medals were afterwaros
common in the Low Countries. A medal representing Van Heubingen, the Dutch
ambassador, in the character of Joshua arresting the course of the sun, is said to have so
exasperated Louis XIV., who was understood to be typified by that luminary, as to
cause the whole hostile force of France to be brought against Holland. Some of the
Dutch medals are noted for the elaborate views, maps, and plans engraved on them.
France produced few medals prior to the time of Louis XIV. ; but there is a series illus-
trative of the chief events in the life of the Grand Monarque. and another devoted to the
career of the first Napoleon. The Spanish medals begin with Gonsalvo about 1500.
Scotland produced one of the earliest of modern medals, struck by David II,, perhaps
during his captivity in England, and formed on the model of the nobles of Edward III.
English medals only begm with Henry VHI., and fmm Edward VI. onward there is
an unbroken succession of coronation medals. The Scottish gold coronation medal of
Charles I. is the first modal strtick in Britain with a legend on the eilge. The medals of
the commonwealth and Charles II. are by Simon; lliose of queen Anne record the
achievements of Marlborough. Medals, in connection with numismatics (q.Y.)» are
treated of by the various writers on that subject.
Medals in the prewnt day are conferred by the sovereign as maiira of dictinction for
eminent worth or noble conduct, more particularly for naval and military services. Such
medals of honor are seldom of great intrinsic value, their worth depending merely on the
-associations connected with them. They have ribbons attached, with clasps or small
bars, each of which bears the name of a particular action. The Waterloo medal is of
silver, with the head of George IV. (Prince re^nt), a winged Victory, and the words
"Waterloo," " V/ellington ;" it hangs from a crimson ribbon, with a narrow stripe of
blue near each edge. The Crimean medal,, also of silver, is attached to a blue nbbou
with yellow edges when worn for service in the Crimea, and to a yellow ribbon with blue
edges* when for service in the Baltic. Good-service medals of silver were instituted in
1^ and 1831, and rules formed for their distribution among meritorious sailors, soldiens,
and marines. The naval medal is worn suspended from a blue, and the military from a
crimson ribbon. There are also various British medals whicJi have been conf^red for
services in the Peninsula, India, etc. On every medal is engraved the name, rank, etc,
regiment or nhip of the recipient of it. Medals and decorations do not seem to have been
ever conferred as rewards in the army or navy prior to the commonwealth. The French
military medal and the Sardinian war-medal were some time ago bestowed to a large
extent on British officers, soldiers, seamen, and marines. The former exhibits the effigy .
of Napoleon III., surmounted by an eagle, and is worn from a yellow ribbon with green
borders; the latter is charged with the cross of Savoy, and suspended from a sky-blue
ribbon. No medal of honor from any foreign sovereign is allowed to be worn or accepted
Tjy any British subject without the sanction^of the queen.
Digitized by LjOOQ IC
aAQ Medftllioiu
0*» Medliurrt.
XXSALLIOH (in ardiitecture), a circular panel containing a bas-relief of a head, bust,
figure, etc.
MEDARY, 8AHUBL, 1801-64; b. Penn.; received only a common-flchool education,
and became a printer. He entered into politics, and sustained gen. Jackson; and for
many years ediXed tike 0/Uo 8t<U$»nan. From 1857 to 1860, he was governor of the terri-
tories of ^^linnesota and Kansas, in each case for two years. He had preyiouslv been
0!ffei«d the position of minister to Chili, which he refused. He established the Oolumhtts
Orinst at Columbus, O., and continued to conduct and edit it until his death. In 1860
his many personal and political friends erected a costly and beautiful monument to. his
m^oaory.
MEDE, or MEADE, JofiBPH, 1686>1688; b. Berden, Essex, Eng. While a boy at
school at Wetherfield he accidentally, on a visit to London, picked up a copy of Bellar-
mine's Hebrew grammar, and soon acquired a good knowledge of the language. He
graduated at Christ church, Cambridge, in 1610. His leamins: at this time is spoken of
as extraordinary. His first work was l[}e SanetUaie Belatira, aodressed to bishop Andrews
who requested him to become his domestic chaplain. Declining this he was soon after-
ward made a fellow of his college, and reader of the Greek lectures on Sir Walter Mild-
may's foundation, which office he occupied till his death. In 1618 he took his degree of
B.D. The provostship of Trinity college, Dublin, offered him twice, in 1627 and 1680,
through the influence of archbishop Uuier, he declined, preferring the retirement of col-
lege for study. He was distinguished for meekness, modesty, and liberality, devoting
the tenth of his small income to charitable and pious purposes. His learning was van-
ous and profound. He was well acquainted with ma^matics, medicine, the various
branches of natural science, history, antiquities, and the literature and sciences of the
East His chief work was Glavis ApocalypHea, translated into English in 1643, the first
rational attempt, according to bishop Hurd, to interpret the apocalypse. His complete
works were collected after nis death in one folio volume by Dr. Worthington, with a life
of the author.
MSDE'A, in Qrecian legend, a famous sorceress, the daughter of A6tes, king of Col-
chis, and of the Oceanid Id^a, or of Hecate. Bhe mamed Jason, the leader of the
Argonauts (q.v.), and aided him in obtaining the Golden fieece. Jason, after his return
home, being desirous to be revenged on Pelias for l^e murder of his parents and 'his
brother, Med6a pereuaded the daughter of Pelias to cut him in pieces and boil him, in
order to make him young again. Jason and she fied to Corinth, where, after she had
been bis wife for ten years, he repudiated her, to marry Glauce or Crcusa, and Med^a,
in revenge, sent by her son to her rival a poisoned robe or diadem, the virulence of which
destroyed both her and her father. Med6a then slew the children which she had borne
to Jason, and fled to Athens in a chariot drawn by dragons, which she obtained from
Helios. There she was received by ^geus, to whom she bore Medos; but afterwards
being compelled to flee from Athens, she took Medos to Aria, the inhabitants of which
were thenceforth .called Medes. She finally became immortal, and the spouse of Achilles
in the Ely^ian fields. Such is the classic legend, which afforded material for many pro-
ductions of the tragic muse, and subjects for the painter and sculptor, and which even in
modem times has been so employed.
VEBE'AR, a t. of Algeria, 48 m. s.s.w. of the town of Algiers, consists of a walled
town and suburbs. It is considered as, on the whole, one of the finest towns in Algeria.
There Is an Arab market held every Friday. Under the Romans, Med6ah was a military
station. Pop. within the walls, 2,100; without the waUs, 5,700; total, 7,800.
MEBELIIH, a city of the United States of Colombia, South America, in the province
of Antioquia, and 50 m., s.e. of the cit^r of that name, between the ranges of the central
and western Cordilleras. It is a beautiful town, and, placed at an elevation of about
6.000 ft. above sea-level; its climate is exceedingly pleasant. It is the entrepot of trade
for the surrounding district, and contains a pop. estimated at 15,000.
MEDiJOLA. See Indian Cucumber.
MEDFORD, a t. in Massachusetts, on the Mystic river at the head of navigation and
n<ar the Mystic pond, which forms a part of its boundary and supplies water to certain
sections of Boston; pop. '80, 7,573. It is 4 m., n.w. of Bioston, on the Boston and Maine,
and Boston, Lowell, and Nashua railroads, and is the seat of Tufts college (Universalist).
It has a public library, a savings bank, 2 newspapers, a reading room ; excellent public
schools, 7 churches, and a town house. It has many beautiful residences occupied by
men of business in the city of Boston, and has delightful drives and lovely scenery.
The celebrated Medford rum is manufactured here, and it has manufactories of tin ware,
hamea<t, leather, crackers, woolen ^oods, cotton cloths, button.*?, carpets, dl ?]Vr, boots
and shoes, and bricks. In former times it numbered ship-building among its industries.
MEDHUUST, Walter Henby, an English misttionarv; 1796-1857; b. London; edu-
cated ft)r the ministry, and, by appointment of the London missionary society in 1816,
labored successfully in India, Malacca, and other Asiatic countries, and afterwards set-
tled In Batavift. Java, where he remained eight years, performing missionary work also in
Borneo. In 1845 he was sent to China, and settled at Shanghai. lie had charge of the
printing establishment, which before this had been worked at Batavia, but he now
Digitized by VjOUV IC
M«dl«l. ^•'V
removed it to Shanghai, and beiran to print sermons and tracts. For six years he per-
formed mission work in the interior of Cliina amid much peril. He was much opposed
by the Romanists in the year 1847, yet 84,000 copies of various works were pricted, and
500 tracts were weekly distributed. During this year delegates from several stations
convened in Shanghai for the revision of the New Testament. In this work he was
engaged till 1850, when he devoted his time to the Old Testament. In 1856 he returned
to Kngland in impaired health, and died three days after his arrival. He was a faithful
r missionary, and a distinguished oriental scholar. He was well versed in the Chinese*
.Japanese, Javanese, and other languages, besides Dutch and French, in all of which he
wrote. His special works are: China, it$ State and Pragpeets, toAA JStpedal JBsferenee ta
the Diffunon (tf t/ie Oo^; Dis9ertatian on the Theologjf of the Chinese; The Chinese Ver-
gion of the Scriptures; A Chinese Dictionary; A Jwpanese and English VoeatmUury; J>uh
tionary of the Hokkien Dialect; TraThslation of a Comparatite VocabuXary of the Languages
of China, Q/rea, and Japan; Notes on Chinese Ghrammar; Chinese Dialogues. He was
engaged also on the following works: Chinese Bepository, 30 vols.; Chinese Miscdlanies,
8 vols. He published also an Account of the Malayan Archipelago, and A Glance at the
Interior of CfUna,
MEDIA, in ancient times, the name of the north-western part of Iran, which was
bounded by the Caspian sea on the n., by Persia on the s., bv Farthia on the e., and by
Assy tiji on the west. The northern portion of the country is very mountainous^ the s.
is a' rich and fertile tract. Media at present forms the Persian provinces of Azerbiten,
Qliilun, Mazanderan, and Irak-Ajemi, and the northern portion of Luristan. The
Medial ns were in languMre, religion, and manners very nearly allied to the Persians.
After they had shaken off the yoke of the Assyrians, their tnbes united about 708 B.C.,
according to the common account, chose Dejoces (Kai-Kobad) for their chief, and made
Ecbatana then: capital. His son Phraortes, or Arphaxad, subdued the Persians. Cyax-
aies (Kai'Kaous), the son of Phraortes, in alliance with Nabopolassar, king of Babylon,
overthrew the Assyrian empire about 604 B.C., spread the terror of his arms as far as
Egypt and the furthest bounds of Asia Minor, and vanquished the brigand hordes of
Scythiiv, who had carried their ravages. as far as Syria. He was succeded by his son
Astyage (Asdehak), who was depo^ (560 B.C.) by his own grandson Cyrus (Kai-
KlivLsru), king of Persia; and from this thne the two nations are spoken of as one peo-
ple. Ecbatana, the capital of Medea, became the summer residence of the Persian
kings. After the death of Alexander the sreat (824 B.C.), the n.w. portion {Atropatene)
of Medea became a separate kingdom, ana existed till tihe time of Augustus; the other
K^rtion, under the name of Qreat Media, forming a part of the Syrian monarchy,
edea was on several occasions aepanted from Persia. In 153 b.c. Mithridates L took
Qreat Media from the Syrians, and annexed it to the Parthian empire, and about 36 B.c.
it had a king of its own, named Artavasdes, against whom Mark Antony made war.
Under the Sassanian dynasty the whole of Media was united to Persia. It became,
during the 14th and 15tn centuries, the stronghold of the Turcoman tribes Kara-Koinld,
or "Black Sheep," and Ak-Koinltl, or *• White Sheep."
In early times the Medea were a warlike race, possessed of an enthusiastic lov«
of iudependence, and distinfl^uished for their skill w;th the bow. They were also cele-
brated for their horsemanship, and it was from them that the Persians adopted this and
other favorite exercises and acquirements. In subsequent times they appear to have
become efFemlnated by luxury. (See the works of Xenophon, Strabo, and Ammianus.)
HE'DIATE, in the old German empure, a term applied to those lordships or possesdona
which were held by feudsd tenure under one of the greater vassals, and so only mediate^
under the emperor as the supreme feudal lord. Manv of the smaller states or lordships
were gradually .reduced to this condition as the neighboring greater states increased in
power: and amidst the changes caused by the wars of the French revolution in 1803 and
1806, many small states were thus mediatized, in which the greater states found a sort of
compensation for their losses in other quarters. The term continued to be employed
even when the feudal sovereignty of the derman emnire did not exist. At the congress
of Vienna, further mediatizations were effected; ana at the present day the people of
many of the smaller existing states are anxious for a similar change. The question of
mediatization was one of those affecting the internal welfare of Germany which were
most keenly agitated in 1848.
XXDIATOB, a term applicable to any person who endeavors to reconcile parties
at variance. In theology it is employed to denote Jesus Christ, both with respect to his
sacrifice of atonement ^. v. >— making God and man as one again, by satisfying divine
justice, which ot^erwise demands the punishment of sinners->and with respect to his
continual intercession (q. v.). The Boman Catholic church represents saints as mediators
of intercession, although not of atonement; but this view is rejected by Protestants.
MEBIOAL DEPAXTXSirT of an army, next to the commissariat, is the most impor-
tant of all the non-combatant sections. The surgical treatment of the wounded in
actual tlghtinff, and still more the combat with disease engendered by crowding;
unhealthy stations, and the reckless habits of the soldiery, necessitate a large medicSl
staff; for, on an average of the whole army, it is found that the rate of atclkness is aft
feast triple that for the civil population. . .,.,.. ..^
*^ *^ Digitized by VjUUVIC
^^^ . M«4ieL
In the Britisfi arm^ eyery battalion, when at home or in the temperate zone, has
a surgeon and an asaistantrsurgeon ; when in India or the tiopics, another aasiatant-
smgeon is added. In addition to these officers, there are numerous staff medical offi-
cers ai all stations, who liare charge of detachments, hospitals, etc. The active list of
the medical officers comprised, iu 1879-80, 580 suiveons-general, deputy surgeons-gen-
eral, surgeons-major, and surgeons. Besides these, there are between 40u and 600 medi-
cal officers employed with tlie army iu India. The total estimate for medical establish-
ments and services in 1879-80 was £266,200.
The medical department is governed by a director-general, who is a member of the
war office, and has charge of the surgical, medical, and sanitary arrangements of the
army. The special duties, pay, etc, of the several ranks will be found under Subobon.
UZBICAL DEPAXTKSVT, in the navy, is only of less importance than the same
department in the army, in that the sea-service is vastly more healthy than service upon
land. After an action, the surgeon, of course, is in equal requisition in either cose. In
tbe British navy, the medical officers in active employ, in 1876, comprised 6 inspectors-
general, 12 deputy inspectors-general, 81 fleet surgeons, 123 staff surgeons, and 195 sur-
geons. The pay of these officers ranges from £2 lOs. a day for a senior inspector-general
of hospitals ana fleets, to lis. a day for a junior surgeon.
HK)ICAL DEPARTMENT is the U.S. Abict akd Navy. See JJvttsd Statbs
Ajuit ; United States Natt.
MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. See Jurispbupskce, Medical,
XEDICAL PBACTITI0HEB8, In point of law, have lately been put on a new footing
in many respects. The late statute (21 and 22 Vict. c. 90), and later ones, gave tlie body
of medical practitioners powers of self-government, so far as regards qualification and
training. All duly qualified persons are now registered, and the register is published,
though it is not in strict law compulsory on practitioners to register themselves, the only
dijutovantage being that those who are not registered cannot fill certain offices, and can-
not sue for their fees. Before the late acts, physicians were on the same footing as bar-
risters, and could not sue for their fees, these being considered an honorarium which
ought to be paid beforehand, and, at all events, were not a legal debt. But the act
remedies this defect as regards qualified registered practitioners. Another enactment of
the recent statute, which was intended to put down quacks, but which is still found to
be capable of evasion to some extent, was the giving of power tp justices of the peace to
punish with fine of £20 or imprisonment those who falsely pretend to be, or ttikc, or use
the name or title of a physician, doctor of medicine, licentiate in mcdiciue or surgery,
bachelor of medicine, surgeon, general practitioner or apothecary.
XESIGAL SCHOOL, VETLET, an establishment for the technical education of medical
ofi^cers for the British and Indian military service. Candidates are examined competi-
tively in the ordinary subjects of professional knowledge; and, passing satlsfactoiily
through thart ordeal, are then required to attend, for six months, at the Military Medical
school, where they go through practical courses of military hygiene, military and clini-
cal-militarv surgery and meaicine, and pathology with morbid anatomy. As the school
is attachea to the Koyal Victoria hospital, which is the great invalid depot for the whole
army, the students have ample opportunitv of seeing theory exemplified in ])ractice.
The school comprises 4 professors with £850 a year each, 4 assistant-professors hav-
ing £450 each, and usually about 40 medical candidates, who receive each 5s. a day and
lodging-money. The annual cost of the whole establishment is about £7,900. See
Nbtley.
XESICI/Thb, who ranked among the first and most distinguished families of the
Florentine republic, owe their earliest distinction to the success with which they had
pursued various branches of commerce, and the liberal spirit in which they devoted tlieir
wealth to purposes of general utility. From the beginning of the 18th c, the Medici
took part m all the leading events of the republic; and from the period when Salvestro
de' Medici attained the rank of gonfaloniere in 1378, the family rose rapidly to pre-
eminence, although the almost regal greatness which it enjoyed for several centuries is
more especially due to Giovanni de' Medici, who died in 1^, leaving to his sons, Cosmo
and Lorenzo, a heritage of wealth and honors hitherto unparalleled in the republic.
With Cosmo (bom 1889, died 1464), on whom was gratefully bestowed the honored title
of " Father of his country," begsin the glorious epoch of the Medici; while from Lorenzo
is descended the collateral branch of the family, which, in the 16th c, obtained absolute
rule over Tuscany. Cosmo's life, except during a short period, when the Albizzi and
other rival families re-established a successful opposition ngainst the policy and credit of
the Medici, was one uninterrupted course of prosperity; at once a munificent patron and
a successful cultivator of art and literature, he aid more than any sovereign in Europe
to revive the study of the ancient classics, and to foster a taste for mental culture. He
assembled around him learned men of every nation, and gave liberal support to numer-
ous Greek scholars, whom the subjection of Constantinople by the Turks had driven into
exile: and by his foundation of an academy for the study of the philosophy of Plato,
and of a library of Gveek. Latin, and Oriental MS&, he inaugurated a new era in modern
learning and art. But although these merits must bo conceded to him, it must not ba
Digitized by VjjUU VIC
Mmdiaine. ^*>'^
forgotten that while he retained the name of a republican form of government, and
nominally confided the executive authority to a gonf idoniere and eight priori or senators,
he totally extlnguiahed the fre^om of Florence. His grandson, Lorenzo the Magnifi-
cent (born Jan. 1, 1448, died April 8, 1402). who succeeded to undivided and absdnte
power in the state, after the murder of his brother Giuliano in 1478, pursued, with signal
success, the policy of his family, which may be characterized as tending to ennoble in-
dividuals and debase the nation at large. He encouraged literature and the arts,
employed learned men to collect choice books and antiquities for him from every part
of the known world, established printing-presses in his dominions as soon as the art was
invented, founded academies for the study of classical learning, and filled his ^ard<9tt
with collections of the remains of ancient art; but when his munificence and conciliatory
manners had gained for him the atfection of the higher and the devotion of the lower
classes, he lost no time in breaking down the forms of constitutional independence that
he aud his predecessors had hitherto suffered to exist. Some few Florentines, alarmed
at the progress of the voluptuous refinement which was smothering every spark of per-
sonal independeucc, tried to stem the current of corruption by an ascetic severity of
morals, which gained for them the name of piagnoni, or weepers. Foremost among
them was the Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola (q.v.), whose eloquent appeals to the
people in favor of a popular and democratic form of government, threatened for a tune
the overthrow of the Medici; but the jealousy of the Franciscans, and the vindictiveness
of the papal court, averted their doom. Savonarola's martyrdom restored outward tran-
quillity to Florence, and left the Medici in undisturbed possession of absolute power.
Pietro (born 1471), who succeeded his father Lorenzo in 1492, possessed neitlier capacity
nor prudence; and in the troubles which the ambition of her princes and the pronigacj
of her popes brought upon Italy, by jplunging her into civil and foreign war, he showed
himscli treacherous and vacillating alike to friends and foes. Lodovico Sforza, sumamed
the "Moor," relying on the friendship which, from the middle of the loth c, had pre-
vailed between the Sforza family of Milan and the Medici, applied to him for assistance
in establishing his claim to the duchy of Milan; but seeing that no reliance could be
placed on Pietro, he threw himself into the arms of Charles VIII. of France. The result
%vas the invasion of ItAly by a French army of 82,000 men. Pietro, in hopes of conciliat-
ing the powerful invader, hastened to meet the troops on their entrance into the domin-
ions of Florence, and surrendered to Charles the fortresses of Leghorn and Pisa, which
constituted the keys of the republic. The magistrates and people, incensed at his per-
fidy, drove him from the city, and formally deposed the family of the Medici from all
participation in power. Pietro, who was slain in 1503, while fighting in the French
ranks, and several of his kinsmen, made ineffectual attempts to recover their dominions,
which were not restored till 1512. The elevation of Giovanni de* Medici to the papal
chair, under the title of Leo X., completed the restoration of the family to their former
splendor, while the accession in 1528, of his cousin Oiulio Medici to the pontificate as '
Clement VII., and the marriage of Catharine, the granddaughter of Pietro, to Heniy IT.
of Prance, and her long rule over that country as regent for her sons, together with the
military power of the cadet branch (descended from a younger brother of the "Father
df his countrj'"), threw a weight of power into the hands of the Medici, which rendered
all attempts to maintain even a show of independen<^ futile on the part of the Floren-
tines. The faintest indication of republican spirit was at once crushed by the combined
aid of the pope and Charles V. ; and though the legitimate male line of Cosmo was ex-
tinct (witli the exception of pope Clement VII.), the latter gave in 1529, to Alessandro,
natural son of the last prince Lorenzo II., the rank of duke of Florcncc ; and on his
death, by assassination, without direct heirs, in 1587, raised Cosmo I., the descendant of
a coUateml branch, to the ducal chair. Cosmo, known as the great, possessed the astute-
ness of character, the love of eleg^ance, and taste for literature, but not the frank and
generous spirit that had distinguished his great ancestors; and while he founded the
academies of painting and of fine arts, mtide collections of paintings and statuary, pub-
lished magnificent editions of his own works and those of others, and encouraged tiruie.
for the protection of which he instituted the ecclesiastical order of St. Stephen, he was
implacable in his enmity, and scrupled not utterly to extirpate the race of the Strom,
the hereditary foes of his house. • His acquisition of Sienna gained for him the title of
grand duke of Tuscany from Pius V. ; and he died in 1574, leaving enormous wealth and
regal power to his descendants, who, throughout the next half century, maintained the
literaij and artistic fame of their family. In the 17th c, the race rapidly degenerated;
and anec several of its representatives had suffered themselves to be made the mere tools
of Spanish and Austrian ambition, the last male representative of the line, Giovanni
Gaston, died in 1737, and Ids only sister the Electress Palatine, the last of the Medici
family, expired in 1748. In accordance with a stipulation of the peace of Vienna, the
grand ducliy of Tuscany passed to the house of Lorraine.
^lEDICI, Catkabinb de\ See Catharine de' Medici, anU.
MEDICI, Marie de*. See Mabie de* Medici, ante,
MEDICI'KA, a t. of Italy, in the province of Bolonia. IS m. e. of the city of that
name. Pop. 4,000. It is a thriving place, with consiaerable trade and large markets.
Digitized by VjjOUV IC
AX<t Medlol.
It has five churcbes and a theater, and is surrounded by walk. It occupies the site of
the ancient city Glatema, of which some remains are still visible.
MEDIGIHAL PUUIT8. Those plants of which some part or product is used in
medicine, are very numerous, and belong to the most widely different orders. In some
orders, particular properties ar^ prevalent; other medicinal species are exceptional as to
their properties in the orders to which they belong. Important properties and products
are sometimes characteristic of a particular very limited group of species, as in the case ,
of the cinchonas. Many medicinal plants are merelv used by the people of the countries
in which they grow, others — known as officinal mcmU — ^have a place accorded them iu
phasaaacopeelas and in the practice of educated medical practitioners. Many plants,
however, are in high repute among the native physicians of India, which have not yet
found a place in any western pharmacopceia, although a few of the most valuable have
recently been introduced to notice in Europe. Of the plants which have been rejected
from the pharmacopoeias, but retain their place in rustic practice, some are really
useful, and would be held in greater esteem if there were not preferable medicines of
similar quality; others have owed tlieir reputation merely to riaiculous fancies. Some
medicinal plants are always gathered where they grow wild, others are cultivated in order
to have them in sufficient abundance. This branch of gardening is carried on to a greater
extent at Mitcham, near London, than in any other part of Britain. A great boon has
very recently been conferred on mankind — so recently that it has scarcely yet begun to
be enjoyed — in the introduction of cinchona (g.v.) trees into India, Ceylon, and Java,
where their cultivation has been commenced with every prospect of success, a continued
supply of Peruvian bark and of quinine, their increased abundance, and a diminution
of their price, being thus secured.
Amons the most valuable books on medicinal plants are Ilayne's Getreue Da7*iteUung
und Beschreibung der in Arzeneikwnde gebrduAucIien Qewdc/m (4 vols. Berlin, 1805-
46); Iffees von Esenbeck, Weihe, Walter, und Funke, VolUtandige SarmrUung qffleineUer
Ppanxen (3 vols, DQsseldorf, 1821-38).— Pereira's Materia Mediea is also of veiy high
exceUence.
MEDIOIHS, HiBTOBY OF. There is reason to believe that Egypt was the country in
which the art of medicine, as well as the other arts of civilized fife, was first cultivated
with any degree of success, the offices of the priest and the physician being probably
combined in the same person. In the writings of Moses there are various allusions to
the practice of medicine amongst the Jews, especially with reference to the treatment of
leprosy. The priests were tlie physicians, and their treatment mainly aimed at p^omo^
lag cleanliness and preventing contagion. Chiron (q.v.), the centaur, is said to have
introduced the art of medicine amongst the Qreeks; but the early history of the art is
entirely legendary. See iBsctJLAPiua.
With a passing allusion to the names of Pythagoras, Democritus, and Heraclitos,
who in their various departments may be regarded as having advanced the art of
medicine, we arrive at the time of Hippocrates (q.v.). The advance which Hippocrates
made in the practice of medicine was so great, that no attempts were made for some
centuries to improve upon his views and pi^ecepts. His sons, Thessalus and Draco, and
Ills son-in-law, Polybius, are regarded as the founders of the medical sect which was
called the Hippocratean or dogmatic school, ** because it professed to set out with certain
theoretical principles which were derived from the generaliaition of facts and obser-
vations, and to make these principles the basis of practice."
The next circumstance requiring notice in the history of medicine is the establishment
of the school of Alexandria, which was effected by the munificence of the Ptolemies,*
about 300 years before the Christian era. Amongst the most famous of its medical pro-
fessors are Erasistratns and Heropbilus. The former was the pupil of Chrysippus, and
probably imbibed from his master his preiudice against bleeding, and against the use of
active remedies, preferring to trust mainly to diet and to the vis medicatrix nahirm. It
was abont this time that the empirics formed themselves into a distinct sect, and became
the declared opponents of the dogmatists. The controversy, says Bostock, in his ffistcry
of: Medicine, really consisted in tlie question— how far we are to suffer theory to influence
our practice. Wliile the dogmatists, or, as they were sometimes styled, tbe rationalists,
asserted, that before attempting to treat any disease, we ought to make ourselves fully
acquAinted with the nature and functions of the body generally, with the operation of
medical agents upon it, and with the changes which it undergoes when under the operation
of any morbid cause; the empirics, on the contrmry, contended that this knowledge is
impossible to be obtained, and, if possible, is not necessary; that our sole guide must be
experience^ and that if we step beyond this, either as learned from our own observation,
or that of others on whose testimony we can rely, we are always liable to fall into dan-
jererous and often fatal errora. According to Celsus, who has given an excellent account
of the leading opinions of both sects, the founder of tlxe empirics was Sernpion of
Alexandria, who was said to be a pupil of Herophiliis. At this period, and for some
centuriqs subsequent to it, all physicians were included in one or other of these rival
sects, and, apparently, the numbers of the two schools were about equal.
We learn frdm Pliny that medicine was introduced into Rome at a later period than
the other arts and sciences^ The first person who seems to have made it a distinct pro-
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feflsion was Archagathug, a PeloiK)ilne8iaiii who* £ettied at Ronxe about 200 b.c. IBs'
treatiiient was so severe and unsupcessful that he was finally banished; .and we bear o|
no other Roman physician for about a century, when Asclepiades, of Bithynia, acquired
a great reputation. His popularity depended upon his allowing his jMtients the liberal
use of wine and of their favoritb cashes, and in all respects consulting their inclioations
and flattering ti^elr prejudices ; and hence it it is easy to understand the eminence at
which he arrived. He was succeeded by his pupil Themisoii of Laodicea, the founder
of a sect called Metbodics, who adopted a middle course between tlie dogmatists apd
empirics. During the greater part of the first two centuries of our era the Meihodics.
were the prepondering medical sect, and they included in their ranks C. Aureliauus,
some of wnose writings have come down to us. They then broke up into various sects, •
of which the chief were the Pneumatics, represented by Aretseus of Oappadocia, whose
works are still extant; and the Eclectics, of whom Archigenes of Apamea was the most
celebrated. But the most remarkable writer of this age is Gelsus (q. v.). whose work De
Medtcina ^ives a sketch of the history of medicine up to his time, and the state in which
it then existed. He is remarkable as being the first native Ronotan physician whose name
has been transmitted to us. The names of Andromachus, the inventor of the theriaca,
a preparation which was retained in our pharmacopoeias until the close of the hist cen*
tury — of Pliny the naturalist — and of Dioscorides, cannot be iltogether omitted in even
the briefest sketch of the early history of medicine ; but their contributions to its progress '
dwarf into insignificance when compared with those of Galen (q.v.), whose writings
were universally acknowledged as ultimate authority until they were attacked and pub-
licly burned in the 16th c. by the arch-quack, Paracelsus (q.v.). A learned and impar-
tial critic, the late Dr. Aikin,- after giving full credit to Galen for talent and acquire-
ments, thus concludes: " His own mass .and modern improvements have now in a ^reat
measure consigned his writings to neglect, but his fame can only perish with the science
itself As in the case of Hippocrates, his immeasurable superiority over his contem-
poraries seems to have acted as a check to all attempts at further improvement.
The first names of an^ renown thai occur subsequently lo the death of Galen (about
198 A.D.) are those of Onbasius, Alexander of Tralles, ^tius, and Paulus ^gineta, who
flourished between the 4th and 7th centuries. They were all zealous Gakniats, and
those of their writings which are extant are for the most part compilations from that •
Sredecessors, and especially from their great master. With the death of Paulus Uw
^reek school of medicine may be considered to have come to an end, for after his time
no works of any merit were written in this language. The Arabian sdiool was now
beginning to rise into notice. The earliest Arabic writer on medicine of whom we have
any certain account is Ahrum, who was contemporary with Paulus. The most cele-
brated physicians of this school were Rhazes (who flourished in the 9th c, and was the
first to describe the smalKpox), Avicenna (q.v.^, (who flourished in the 11th c, and
whose Oaium Medidna may be regarded as a cyclopedia of all that was ^en known of
medicine and the collateral sciences), Aulbucasis (whose worlcs on the practice of sur- -
gery were for several a^s regarded as standard authorities), Avensoar, and Aveniioea
(q.v.), (who flourished m the 13th c, and was equally celebrated as a physician and a
philosopher). The works of Hippocrates and Galen, which, together with those of
Aristotle, Plato, and Euclid, Vere translated into Arabic in the 9th c, formed the baas
of their medical knowledge; but the Arabian physicians did good service to medicine hi
introducing new articles from the east into the European materia medicar-as^ for exam-
ple, rhubarb, cassia, senna, camphor — and in making known what may be termed the
first elements of pharmacMitical chemistry, such as a knowledge of distillation, and of
the means of obtaining various metallic oxides and salts.
Upon the decline of the Saracenic universities of Spain, which may date from the
death of Averrhoes, the only modk^al knowledge which remained was to be found in
Italy, where the school of Salerno acquired a considerable celebrity, which it maintained
for some time, till it was gradually eclipsed by the rising fame of other medical schools
at Bolognar— where Mondini publicly dissected two human bodies in 1315— Vienna,
Paris, Padua, etc. Contemporary with Hondini lived Gilbert, the first English writer
on medicine who acquired any repute; and the next century gave birth to Linacre, who,
after studying at Oxford, spent a considerable time at Bologua. Florence, Rome, Venice,
and Padua, and subsequently became the foimder of the London college of physicians.
It was in this (the 15th) c. that the sect of chemical physicians arose, who maintained
that all the phenomena of the living body may be explained by the same chemical lavs
as those which rule inorsanic matter. Although the illustrations and proofs whidi they
adduced were completely unsatisfactory, a distinffuished phyaiologicai school of tilt
present day is mexgjng into a very similar view, with, however^ far more cogent ana-
ments in its support. The chemists of that age, with Paracelsus at their head, did
nothing to advance medicine, except to introduce into the materia medica seveEal vatai- *
able metallic preparations. •
This period seems to have been prolific in originating new diseases. It is in the Iflth, '
14th, and 15th centuries that we hear most of leprosy and of the visitatkins of tiie pta^lQe '
in Europe. Until the 15th c. whooping-cough and scurvy were unknown, or, at all
events, not accurately described: and it was towards the dose of that centrnT* that
syphiUs was first recognused in Italy (from which country it rapidly extended over %tm
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M«didbM.
Wbote of Enrope), and that the sweating siekaete {pidor ongtUamAii^ made its first appear,
ance in this country.
In the 16th c, the study of human anatomy may be said to have been first fairly
established by the zeal and labors of Vesalius (^.t.)? i^id in this and the succeeding cen^
tury we meet with the names of many physicians whose anatomical and physiological
investigations matenallv tended, either directly or indirectly, to advance the science of
medicine. This was the epoch of Eustachius, Fallopius, Asellius, Harvey, Rudbeck,
Bartholin, Malpighi, Glisson, Sylvius, Willis, Bellini, etc Chemistry was now separat-
ing itself from alchemy, and was advancing into the state of a science, and a combina-
tion was now formed between its principles and those of physiology, which gave rise to
a new sect of chemical physicians, quite distinct from the sect represented two centuries
previously by Paracelsus. They considered that diseases were referrible to certain fer-
mentations which took place in the blood, and that certain human were naturally acid,
and others naturally alkaline, and according as one or other of these predominated, so
certain specific diseiEises were the result, which were to be removed by the exhibition of
remedies of an opposite nature to that of the disease. They were soon succeeded by the
mathematical physicians, or the latoo-mathematical school, of whidi Borelli, Sauvages,
Keill, Jurin, Mead, and Friend were amonc the most celebrated. In proportion as this
sect ^nedground that of the chemists decuned, while the old Galenists were fast disap-
pearinff. To these rival sects must be added that of the Vitalists, which originated with
Van Helmont (q.v.), and which, with some modifications, was adopted by Stahl and
Hoffmann. The greatest physician of the 17th c. was, however, unquestionably Syden-
bam (q.v.), who, though inclining toward the chemical school, did not allow his specula-
tive opinions regarding the nature of disease to interfere with his treatment.
The most eminent teacher of medicine in the early part of the 18th c. was Boertiaaf e,
who was elected to the chair of medicine at Leyden in 1709. Amon^ the pupils of Boer-
haave must be especially mentioned Van Swieten, whose commentaries on the aphorisms
of his master contain a large and valuable collection of practical observations; and
Haller (q.v.), the father of modem physiology; while amon^t the most celebrated oppo>
nents of the Hallerian theory, that imtabilny and sensibility are specific properties of
the muscular and nervous systems; must be mentioned Whytt and Porterfleld, phy-
sicians of high reputation in Edinburgh, and the former professor of medicine in the
university.
In the article upon Cullen (q.v.X bo full an account is given of the doctrines of that-
celebrated physician that it is unneocessary to add mote than that most of the distin-
guished physicians of the laUer part of the 18th c. belonged to what may be termed the
CuUcnian school of roedidne. His views were attacked with great acrimony by his
former assistant, John Brown, the founder of the Brunonian system of medicine. In
this country the views of Brown were regarded as too purely theoretical, and did not
acquire any great popularity; but on some parts of the oontment, and especially in Italy,
they were very generally adopted, and became for a considerable time the prevailing
doctrine in several of the leading medical schools. To supplement this meager outline
of the progress of medicine in the 18th c. the reader is recommended to consult the
biographical sketches of Monro, Blane, the Hunters, Jenner, etc.
If we exclude certain popular quackeries, we may r^ird the Brunonian as the last of
medical sects. The present century mm be considered as the epoch of physiological
experiment and clinioEd observation. The efficient laborers in the field of. medicine,
during the last 60 years, have been so numerous that it would be impossible to notice, in
this article, even those whom we deemed the most oelebiated, while it would be invidi-
ous to attempt such a selection.
Our materia medica has received a large number of most important additions, among
which maybe especially noticed quinine, morphia, strychnine, iodine, and the iodides,.
the bromides, hydrocyanic acid, cod«Uver oil, and chloroform. The physical diagnosis
of disease has been facilitated to an extent far beyond what the most san^ine physician
of the last century could have deemed possible, by the discovery and practical application
of tbe stethoscope, the plezimeter, the speculum, the ophthalmosoope. and the laryngo-
aeope; while chemistry and the microscope have been successfully applied to the investi-
gallon of the various ezcretioDS, and especially of the mine and its deposits.
The discovery of vacdnation as a means of preventmg small-pox, although made
(see Jbnneb) at the close of last century, may be regarded practically as belon^nff to
the present, since a considerable tune elapsed before its value was generally recognized.
The true and certain diagnosis between U^phus and typhoid (or enteric) fever is due
' .to living phyaiciaas; and the discoverers of Blight's disease of the kidneys, and of Add^
flCMi's disease of the supra-renal capsules, have only recently been lost to science.
The treatment of many diseases, especially those of an inflammatory nature, has been
woch modified, and in most cases improved, especially during the last quarter of a cen-
tury. The victims to the lancet are far fewer than they fonneriy were, but if th6
l>atie&ts of the present day run little risk of being bled to death, there is an occasional
ebanee of their perishing from the too copious administration of brandy. The moral 10
lie drawn l^ the unbiased observer of the dei^etlng and the stimulating modes of treat-
iiog inflammatory diseases such as pneumonia and pericarditis, is that nature will often
e&ei a cure even in spite of the interference of too energetic phystciana. It is esta^h:
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lidhed beyond all question by tlie statistics which have been collected by an eminent
living physician, that tiie progress of pulmonary consumption is retarded for an average
space of three years by the judicious lulministration of cod-liver oil; due attention being,
of course, paid to the general treatment of the patient.
MEBICK, Medicago, a genus of plants of the natural order leffuminosof, sub-order
papiUonacew, nearly allied to clover (q.v., trifolium), but distinguished from that and
other kindred genera by the sickle-shaped, or, in most species, spirally twisted legume.
The species, which are very numerous, are mostly annual and perennial herbaceous
plaYits, with leaves of three leaflets like those of clover, natives of temjjerate and warm
climates. A number of them are found in Britain, and many more in the south of
Europe. They generally afford good green food for cattle, and some of them are culti-
vated like the"^ clovers for this use, amongst which the most important is the Pukplb
Medick or hicern (q.v., Jf. sativa). Besides this, the Black Medick, Nonsuch, or
LupuLiNE (if. lupuUna), is one of the most generally cultivated. It receives the name
black medick fi-om the black color of the ripe pods, which are short, black, twisted, and
arranged in oblong heads, and is often called vellow lucem, or yellow clover, from
the color of its flowers. It is a common native of Britain. In habit and general appear-
ance it is very similar to trifoUum procumbens, or T.fUiforme, In British husbandry
it is now very generally sown in mixture with red clover and rye-grass, and is useful
where a close turf is desired.
MEDIKTA'TE LIH'aUJE, JuBY DE. See Jury.
MEDILL, Joseph, b. New Brunswick, 1828; while still quite young, removed to
Massillon, O., studied law, and began his experience as a journalist in 184i>» when he
established a free-soil paper at Coshocton, O. In 186d he was in Cleveland, where he
founded the Fore8t GUy, a whig paper; and in 1854 was among those who organized the
ne^, republican party in Ohio, In. 1855, in company with two partners, he bought the
Chicago Tribiine; and in 1874, after his return from a tour in Europe, he purchased a
controlling interest in the paper and became editor-in-cluef, a position which he continues
to retain (1881). In 1870 Mr. Medill was a member of the Illinois constitutional conven-
tion; in 1871 he was appointed a member of the U. 9. civil service conmiission; and in
tlie latter year he was elected mayor of Chicago.
KEBI'HA (Arab, city), or, more fully, Medinat Al Nabi (City of the Prophet), also
called Tabah, Tibah, etc. (the Oood, Sweet, etc.), and mentioned by Ptolemy as Jath-
rippa: the holiest city throughout Mohammedanism, next to Mecca, and the second
capital of Hedjaz in western Arabia, is situated about 370 m. n. of Mecca, and 140 n. by
e. of the port of Jembo on th^ Red sea, and contains about 16,000 inhabitants (Burton).
It consists of three principal parts — a town, a fort, and suburbs, of about the same
extent as the town itself, from which they are separated by a wide space (the Munakha).
Medina is about half the size of Mecca, and forms an irregular oval within a walled
indosure of 85 to 40 ft. high, and flanked by thirty towers— a fortification which ren-
ders Medina the chief stronghold of Hedjaz. Two of its four gates — viz., the Bab
Al Jumah {Friday gate, in the eastern wall) and the Bab Al Misri (^gypttany^^^vQ mas-
sive buildings with double towers. The streets, between fifty and sixty in number, are
deep and narrow, paved only in a few places. The houses are flat-roofed and double-
stoned, and are built of a basitltic scoria, burned brick, and palm-wood. Very few pub-
lic buildings of any importance are to l>e noticed besides the Grent Mosque Al Haram (the
Sacreil), supposed^ to be erected on the spot where Mohammed died, and to inclose his
tomb. It is of smaller dimensions ttian that of Mecca, being a parallelogram, 420 ft.
long and 840 ft. hroad, with a spacious central area, called El Sahn, which is surrounded
by a peristyle, with numerous rows Of pillars. The Mausoleum, or Hnjrah, itself is an
irregular square, 50 to 55 ft. in extent, situated in the s.e. comer of the building,
and separated from the walls of the mosque by a passage about 26 ft. broad. A large
filt crescent above the ** green dome," springing from a scries of globes, surmounts the
[ujrah, a glimpse into which is only attainable through a little opening, called the
Prophet's Window ; but nothing more is visible to the profane eye than costly carpets or
hangings, with three inscriptions in large gold letters, stating that behind them lie the
bodies of the prophet of Allah and the two caliphs— which curtains, changed whenever
worn out, or when a new sultan ascends the throne, are supposed to cover a square edi-
flce of black marble, in the midst of which stands Mohammed's tomb. Its exact place is
indicated by a long pearly rosary (Kaukab Al Durri) — still seen in 1855— suspended fo
the curtain. The prophet^s bodv is supposed to lie (undecayed) stretched at fbU length
on the right side, with the right palm supporting the right cheek, the face directed
towards Mecca. Close behind him is placed, in the same poeitton, Abubekr, and behind
hhn Omar. The fact, however, is that when the mosque, whieh had been struck by
lightning, was rebuilt in 892 three deep graves wers found in fhe interior, filled only"
with rubhish. Many other reasons, besides, make it more than problematic whether tlie
particular spot at Medina really contains the prophet's remains. That his coflBn, said to
be covered with a marble slab and cased vrtth silver (no European has ever seen it), resta
suspended in the air, is a stupid story, invented by Christians, and k)ng exploded. Of
the fabulous treasures which this sanctuary once contained, little now remains. Aa in
Mecca, a great number of eoclesiastical offlciids are attached in some capacity or other to
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tbe Great Mosque, as ulemas. mudarisin, imaums, khatibs, etc. ; and not ^odIj they but
tlie towDBpeoplc themselves live to a great extent only on the pilgrims' alms. There are
fcAv other noteworthy spots to be mentioned in Medina, save the mincxr mosques of Abu-
iK'kr, All, Omar, Balal, etc. The private houses, however, surrounded oy gardens,
fuAUnXiiijiB, etc., have a very pleasing appearance; and the city, although in its decay, is
yet one of the busiest and most agieeubie. Thirty medresses, or public endowed schools,
represent what learning there is left in the city, once famed for its scholars,
i MEDINA, a co. in n.e. Ohio. It is traversed by Black and Rocky rivers and Chip-
]>ewa creek, and by the Atlantic and Great Western, and the Cleveland and Wheeling rail-
roads: 425 sq.m.; pop. '80, 21,454—17,644 of American birth. The soil is undulating
and shows much clay. All the common agricultural productions are staples, and coal is
fimnd in the region. There are manufactories of harnesses, lumber, and cheese.
MEDINA, a co. in s.w. Texas; 1175 sq.m.; pop. '80, 4,492— 8,4^8 of American
birth. The county, bounded on the n.e. by Medina river, is drained also by Rio Hondo
ami Scco creek. It is not particularly productive, water and timber being scarce. Stock-
raising is the chief industiy, and in 1870 there were over 40,000 head of cattle. Chief
town, Castroville.
•MEBI'KA DE KIO SECO (anc. Forum Egurronim), a t. of Spain, in the province of
Valladolld, 22 m. n.w. of tlie city of VnUadolid, on the Sequillo, an affluent of the Dourq,
This place was a famous emporium in the 14tlic., when its cluth and linen fairs werp
amongst the greatest in the kingdom ; it is now a place of little or no importance ViU(^t»
fvt*r. There still exist some remains of its fonncr greatness, in its arcades, arch^
ruins of a palace, etc. In 1808 the town was given up to pillage by Bessi^rea, fopw.
5,100.
XEDIKA SIBO'KIA (Arab. Medinatu^Sliulundh, "City of Sidon," so called \^ tb»
J^Ioors because they conjectured it to be the site of the Phenician Aitidon), a e*y qI'
i!^pnin, 25 m. e.s.e. of Cadiz. It has a picturehque and splendid appearance at a Uistan^^;:
but within it is described as a *'a whitened sepulcher full of decay," It is of Mo^scU^k
origin, and contains a beautiful Gothic church and extensive rums pi a castle^ Tbia
town gives the title of duke to the descendants of the famous Guzman the goo^ andii»
otherwise noted in Spanish history. Pop. 10,800, who carry on manufaotureaoC encUMD^
ware.
XSmST-SI-FATniC'. SeeFATthf.
MEDIOLA'NUM, the ancient capital of Gallia Cisalpina. now Milan. It lav along
a little stream, whose modem name is the Olona, on a plain between the rlTers 'ftcinus,
now the Ticino, and Addua, now the Adda. It was said to have been founded by the
Insubres, whose capital city it was, and who named it after a village in Transaipine
Gaul, whence they had emigrated. It is first heard of in the time or the Gallic wars,
but was of little importance, till, with the Insubres, It submitted to the Romans, 190 n.c.
Its situation in the center of the plain of n. Italy made it a favorite place of residence,
and by the time of Strabo it had gained some consequence. Its most prosperous period
was in the 4th c, in the early part of which the emperor Maxlmian selected it for his resi-
dence. It was adorned with elegant public buildings, temples, theaters, baths, a mint, anl
in the latter part of the same centiu-y Ansontus ranks it as sixth among the cities of the
empire. It was the headquarters of the l^mans in their campaigns against the barbari-
ans. Its prosperity continued till Honorius, in 408, withdrew to Ravenna, at the time
of the Visigothic invasion under Alaric. It was sacked by Attila, but the Gothic kinga
ro-cstablishcd it as the imperial capital alx)ut 476. It was captured soon after by Belisa-
rius. but in 539 it was recaptiin d b}' the Goths and Burjrundians, and burned ; and 300,000
of its inhabitants arc said (almost incredibly) to have been massacred on this occasion.
In the middle ages it became a great commercial city. Sec Milan, ante.
XEDITA'TIO FI7'0£, a phrase used in Scotch law to denote an intention to abscond
from the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts. It is used chiefly in reference to debtors.
AVlierever a creditor in Scotland believes — i.e.. 04in make an oath or affidavit that he has
resisonable ground to believe — that the debtor is about to leave the country in order to
evade payment of debts, he can obtain from a justice of the peace a warrant toappre-
Iiend the debtor. The consequence of this is ihat the debtor must either pay or give
security, or remain in prison till the cause is tried. The prcxiess may be used either
airaiust natives or foreigners who have lived forty days in Scotland, but not where tliey
are merely passing through the country on business or pleasure. The warrant may be
<Ocecuted on a Sunday as well as other days. It may also be executed within the sanc-
tiijiry of Holyrood. Though creditors often avail themselves of this compulsitor to
recover their debts, they are liable to an action if they maliciously and without cause
procure the debtor's arrest; and if the debtor can show that he never intended, at the
time in question, to leave the country, and that the creditor had no iust ground to believe
lie so intended, an action of damages will lie. — In England and Ireland there is a similar
process. See Debtors, Absconding.
JDEDITEBBA'HEAH SEA, so named from its being almost entirely inclosed by the
continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, one of the greatest inland seas in the world,
extends (inclusive of the sea of Marmora, but exclusive of the Black sea £md sea of A^of)
JitS^. 658
to about 1,000,000 sq. miles. Tla longth, from e. tow., is about 2,33(7 m., its greatest
breadth about 1080, but it is divided into two great basins by tlie approacli of* tke' Euro-
pean and African coasts in its middle. It is connected witli the Atlantic ocean onlv 1)^
the straits of Gibraltar, through which a strong current continually flows into the llcdi-
terranean. Another strong current also flows Tuto it from the Blaclc sea, wiiich receives
large HUpplies of fresli water, wliereus the great rivers which fall into the Mediterranenn
itst'lf are comparatively few ; the priucipsil being the Ebro, the Rhone, and the Po. from
Europe; and the Nile, from Africa. It receives no large river from Asia. Theevapom-
tion from the surface of the Mediternmcun is, on the contrary, greater than what takes*
place in the ocean generally, owing to the heat which proceeds from the African dtsaertu,
and the slielter which mountains afford from the cold winds of tiie north. The sarfaoe
temperature, dependent on the intensity of Holar radiation, is in summer about 5" above
that of the Mediterranean. By the expeditious for the scientific exploration of the deep
sea in 1869 and 1870 it has been ascertained that the effects of this surface-healing are
limited to a depth of 100 fathom»; at every depth beneath this, even down to 1600 fuih-
oms, the temperature of the Mediierrauean, unlike tliat of the Atlantic, is uniform, and
stjmds about 54** or 55 \ This is, in fact, the winter temperature of the entire contents
of the basin, from the surface downwards, and also the mean temperature of the crust of
the earth in that region. In winter the temperature of the Mediterranean and the Atlan-
tic approximate very closely. In consequence, probably, of the greater evaporation,
the water of the Mediterranean,, unlike that of inland seas in general, contains about
one-sixth per cent more salt tlian the Atlantic ocean. Its specific gravity is almost every-
where greater than that of the Atlantic, being in the proportion of 1.0386 to 1.0283. Its
color, when undisturbed, is n bright deep blue; but in the Adriatic a ^reen, and in the
Levant a purple tinge prevaiK while the dark hife of the Euxine is indicated in its name
of ** Black sea." Different parts of the 3IediteiTanean sea bear different names — ns the
u£gean sea, the Ionian sea, the Adriatic sea, or gulf of Venice, etc. Its northern coavi
is very much broken with bovs and ])eniusu1as, and abounds in harbors, affording the
inhabitants of the south of Europe great advantages for commerce, of whieh the Metli^
terranean sea was the chief seat during all periods of history, till toward the close of the
middle ages, when, after the invention of the mariner's compass, a spirit of maritime
1^ venture sprung up, and the discoveries of the Portuguese and of Columbus led to the
extension of commerce over the whole world. The commerce of the Eg>'ptiau8, the
Plienicians, the Greeks, and Romans, was almost entirely confined to the Mediterruican
sea.
Tlie depth of the Mediterranean s(»a is generally greatest in its western basin. In
many places it is 3,000 ft. deep. Near Kice it is 4,200 ft. deep at a distance of only a
few yards from the shore. In many places it is 5,C()0 ft. deep and more. The depth in
the straits of Gibraltar is about 5,500 feet. It is highly probable that the coasts of
Europe and Africa were once united here, and have been separated by some ^at con-
vulsion; it is also supposed that land onoe stretched from Sicily to cape Bon m Africa,
where now a ridge exists along which there is for the most part a depth of scarcely 200
ft., and in some places of Uttle more tlian 40 ft., whilst on each side, at a short distance,
^e depth is more than 6,000 feet. The Mediterranean sea is subject to the w., n., and
n.e. winds for more than two-tliirds of the year, while in sprin^^ the s.e. and s.w. winds
prevail. The most formidable of those windH which are peculiar to the Mediterranean
sea is ihi^ aolaiu} or levanier. In the gulf of Venice the greatest tides rise about 8 ft.
and in the Great Syrtis, 5 ft., but in most places the tides are scarcely observable.
According to the measurements of Napoleon's EgA-plian expedition (17d9) the surface of
the Mediterranean sea, in the neighborhood of Alexandrin, was from 24 to 30 ft. lower
than that of the Red sea at Suez; but more recent measurements have shown that the
difference of level Is inconsiderable, and that the mean level of the Red sea is at most 6
in. higher than the Mediterranean.
Of the 643 species of European sea-fislu j», 444 inhabit the Mediterranean sea, some
of which are pcrulinr to it. It has a greater number of species than the British atid
S<;andinaviau seas, but docs not nenrly so much abound in useful kinds. Tunny-fishing
is extensively prosecuted on some y.'.\r\9> of its ( nn^'ts. It is rich in red coral, which \t
Erocured in great quantity on the <'o:i-ts of Provence, of tlie Balearic Isles, and of Sicily,
ut particularly on the coasts of Bon.i and Bnrcii in Africa.
The shores' of the McMliterranoan ncii are in ninny pnrts subject to frequent wirth-
quakes. Besides the cxistinir active vojcnnoos of YAv\}\, Vcj^uvius. and Stromboli. there
are many evidences of recent volcnnic .uiion, and inF^tanccs have occurred of isfauid^s
suddenly upheaved by it, where volcanif; lirrs liave appeared for a short time.
MEDJIDIE, a Turkish order, instituted in 1853. and conferred after the Crimean
campai,^, to a considerable extent, on Ihilish officers. It has five classes; and the
decoratioti, which differs in size for the different classes, is a silver sun of seven triple
rays, with the device of the crescent and stnr alternating with the rays. On a circle <»f
red enamel, in the center of the docorntion, is the leirend in Turkish, whose signification
is **zejil, honor, and loyaltv," and the i\\\\t 1268. tlie Mohammedan year correspond ing
to 1H52; the sultan's name fs insrribcd on a gold field within this circle. The first ilinn?
classes suspend the badge around the neck from^a red ribbon liavin^g[ije(!p,^^M's. and
^ifel5i''y1§^6gY^''
the fourth ami fifth classes wear it attached to a Biniilar ribbon on the left breast. A
star, in design closely resembling the badge, is worn on the left breast by the first cIilss,
and on the right breast by the second class.
AI£DJLDI£H, a t. in European Turkey, called by the name of tlie sultan Abclul
Medjid. and now the principal pUce in ihe Dobnidja. It was of little iuiportaucc till
after the Crimean war, when a large number of Tartare immignUed to Kusiendji, 28 m.
distant, and worked upon the railroad l)etwccn the Danube and Kustendji. These and
ctiier Tartar immigrants afterwai-ds settled at.Medjidieh.and by 1863, rihc number of
TiirUir immigrants alone was estimnted at 40,000. There are no trustworiliy means for
forming an estimate of its present size, but it has probably largely decreased.
HXDLAJL, MeffUiLS, a genus of trees or shrubs of the natural order roMirem, sulv
order pomem, having a 5-cIeft calyx with leafy segments, uetu*ly round ix'ttds. a large
honey-se<;reting disk, and 2 to 6 styles, united together in the tiower, but widely separated
on the fruit, the upper ends of the bony cells of which are exposed. The Commok
Medlar (Af, Oernuznica), a large shrub or small tree, spiny in a wild state, but destitoto
of spines in cultivation, is a native of the s. of Europe and of the temperate parts of
Asia, but is a doubtful native of Britain, although it is to be seen in hedges and thickets
in some parts of Eugland. It has lanceolate leaves, not divided nor serrated, solitary
large white flowers at the ends of small spui-s, and somewhat top-shaped fniit, of thb
size of a small pear or larger, according to the variety. The Medlar is much cultivated
in some parts of Europe, and is common in giudens in England, but it does not gen-
erally ripen well in Scotland without a Wall, it isicery austere, even when ripe, and is
not eaten t\i\dMied, when its tough pulp has become soft and vinous by iacipieut decay.
MEDLEY, John. d.d. ; b. England, 1804; educated at Oxford" university, where
he took the degree of b.a. with high honors at Wadham college in 1826, and the degiee
of 3kLA. in 1830. After taking orders in the chnrch of England, he obtained, and for
some years held, a living at Exeter, and was soon after made precentor. of the cathednd
in tiiat town. In 184> he was made bishop of the ucwly formed diocese of !Ncw Bruns-
wick and was the first to hold that position.
MfeDOC. See Pkench Wines.
MED0W8, Sra William, 17381-813; b. in England; in 1756 entered the British
army, in which he served for many years; first in Gennany, then in the war with the
American colonies, where he commanded the 55ih regt., but was soon placed at the
head of the 1st brigade of grenadiers and distinguished himself by his bravery at the
battles of the Brandy wine and St. Lucie, lie afterward resided in India from 1781 to
1793; where he occupied several posts of responsibility, and was governor of Madrid
from 1790 to 1792. llis military renown wjis greatly incrcjised by gallant conduct nt
the siege of Seringapatam and the rank of lieuLgen. was confeiTcd upon him. After
his return to England he for some time was governor of the Isle of Wight, and after-
ward succeeded torn wall is as comraaifder-in-chief in Irehmd, (1801-03).
KEBXTLXA OBLOirGA'TA. See Brain.
KEOIILLABT BATS. See Exogenous Plants and Pith.
MBSUL'LABT tULSCO'MA is one of the synonyms for that vnriety of cancer (q. v. )
wliicli is also known as encephaloid. oelluhu* cancer, medullary cancer, fungus niedul-
luiris. etc It grows more quickly, distributes itself more rapnlly, and attaiun a more
ccm^iderable bulk than any other form of cancer, tumors of this nature being often as
large Jis a man's head, or even larger. Of all forms of cancer, it runs the (jui«;kest
course, soonest ulcerates, is the most malignant, and causes death in by far the fth<»rUfst
time, often destroying life in a few weeks, or, at furthest, in a few months after its first
appearance, unless it has been removed by an operation at an early stage.
Wl»en it ulcerates, fungoid growths form upon the surface; they are extremely vascn-
. lar. and bleed on the slightest provocation. In this state, the disease has received the
name of Fungut hameUodea.
MEDULLA SPINALIS. See Spinal Cohd, ante,
MEDTT'SA. See AcALEpniK, and Geneuations, Alternation of.
MEDUSA. See Gorgo. or Gorgon, ante.
MEB'WATi a river of Enghmd, rises near the northern border of the co. of Sussex.
and, after a n.e. course of upwards of 50 m., it Joins the Thames at Sheerness. At
Pciishurst, 40 m.. from its mouth, it becomes navigable. The chief towns on its Iwnks
are Maidstone, Rochester, Chatham, and Sheerness. Large vessels do not ascend above
Uochester bridire, but below that the river widens into an estuary, and forms an import-
ant harbor for the navy.
MED WAY, a t. in Norfolk co., Mass., on the Charles river, and the Woonsocket
division of the New York and New England railroad; pop. 8,7:J1. It has 6 churches, 8
schools, 4 public halls, a library, a savini^s bank, 2 weekly newspapers, and manufac-
tures of boots and sh<)es, brick, cotton and woolen goods, leather, organs, bells, etc.
HCSEAIflE, or Mitani. a village In Sinde, Hindustan, on the Indus, 0 m. n. of Hyder-
abad, is celebrated as the scene of a great battle fought betwecgi^fejij^'^rlca Napier and
Meek. p/»A
the ameers of Sindc, Feb. It, 1845. Sir Charles's force, composed parti v. of Etiropcnu^
and partly of natives, amounted to only 2,800 men; that of his foes 22,000, yet the lader
were totally routed, losing in killed and wounded 5,000 men. Sir Charles's loss was
only 256. Tlie result of this victory was the conquest and annexation of Sindc.
MEEK, Alexander Beaufort, 1814-65; b. S. C; was a graduate of the univer-
sity of Alabama; and having studied law, was admitted lo pmcUce at the bar of the
state in 1835. At this time he inte rested hioiself in politios, and edited a democratic
paper called the Flag of tM Union, He served as a licut. of volunteers iu the wtir
' against the Seminoles in 1836. Ho was aftei-wards attorney-gencr«;l of the sUite. ami in
1839 edited a literary monthly at Tuscaloosa called the SoiWtt'on. He was made counly
iudge in 1842; in 1845 became a clerk in the office of tlic solicitor of the treasury in
Washington; was U. S. district attorney for the southern district of Alabama 1846-50;
and in 1853 was a member of the state legislature, having been also for 5 yer.rs associati:
editor of the Mobile Daily B/'gistcr. In the legislature judge Meek distingtiished himseli'
by organizing and establishing the free-school system in Alabama. He was judge of
probate in Mobile county in 1854; and in 1859. was again in the legislature, and held the
office of speaker. He wrote and published several volumes of poems, sketches and other
fu<ntive efforts, besides having compiled a history of Alabama. He was an enthusiastic
and very able chess-player, and wjis one of the foremost contestants in the first chevs
tournament, held in New York in 1857, when he met on equal terms such playei's as
Morphy, Paulsen, Marasche, Fiske, Thompson, etc.
MEEKER, a cr. in ccntnil Minnesota, drainWl by the North Fork of the Crow nvcr,
on the St. Paul and Pacific railroad ; 560 sq.m. , pop. '^SO, 11,739—7,567 of American birth.
The surface is diversified, and much of it heavily wooded with maple, elm, aah, and oak.
The soil is fertile and produces large crops of wheat, oats, and Indian com. There are
a number of saw and nouring mills. Couniy seat, Litchfield.
MEEKER, Joseph Ruslino, b. Newark, N. J., Apr. 27, 1827; educated at commf>n
schools iu Cayuga county, N. Y. Early showed a taste for painting. After 3 year>'
study in New York, 1845-48, he went to Buffalo, opened a studio, and was an a«?<>ci:iU'
there with W. H. Beard and Thomas Le Clear, also artistja. From 1852 to 1859 ho
worked at Louisville with moderate success, and in 1859 went to St. Louis. On the
breaking out of the rebellion he joined the navy service as paymaster. While on a guii-
l)oat on the lower Mississippi river he first saw those weird swamp and lowland fon>i
scenes from the sketches of which l^e has since made numerous paintings iu a field nW
his own, with felicitous rendering of the dreamy languor in the hazy air of cypn-^^
swamps, and moss-draped groves of oak. At the close of tlie war he was one of tli-:
founders of the St. Louis art society, and thrice its president; also an active memlxT of
the St. Louis academy of fine arts. He is the writer of an article on Turner iu tht-
Western Magazim (Dec., 1877), St. Louis.
MEEBANE, a prosperous manufacturing t. of Saxony, in the circle of Zwickau. 10
m. n. of the town of Zwickau. Until witlun the last few years, it was an uuimporumi.
small country town; but it has recently increased rapidly in size and importance, throiiglr
the development of its industrial resources. Its pop., in 1849, was 7,846; 1858, 11,147;
1861, 13,626; 1875, 21,277. * The manufactories produce, ahnost exclusively, woolen and
mixed fabrics; and employ about 15,000 looms, of which about 8,000 are in the town
itself, and the rest elsewhere. There are upwards of 190 manufactories, the yearly pn-
ducts of which are estimated at upwards of £2,000,00d. A large export trside iB carriwl
on with England, France, and America, three of tho principal firms having sot up c^VskV-
lishments in New York. There are some lar^ tanneries in Meonane. The town itself
has within the last few years been very much improved.
MEER'MAN, Gerakd, Baron, 1722-71, b. Holland; studied jurisprudence nt Lcydeu.
and soon acquired a reputation as a learned law writer. lie held but two pnl>1ic oflict*»<,
that of pensionary of Holland, to which he was nominat-ed in 1748; and of envoy to Eng-
land, whither he was sent in 1757. The rest of his life was spent in researches on law or
the art of printing. On the latter subject he wrote his Cfrigines Typographiof, 1765.
wherein he claimed for his eomitryman Lawrence Koster the honor of the invention of
printing. His great legal work is the Novua 'I'Jiesanrua Juris Cittlis et Canonict, which
appeared from 1751 to 1754, in 7 volumes.
KEEBSCHATTM, a mineral existing in many parts of the world. In Europe, it is found
chiefly at Hrubschitz in Moravia, and at Sebastopol and Kaffa in the Crimea: and in
Asia it occurs abundantly just below the soil in the alluvial beds at Kittisrh and Bursa in
Natolia; and in the rocks of Eski-Hissar in the same district, it is mined ?o extensively
as to give employment to nearly a thousand men. Meerschaum, from its having been
found on the sea-shore in some places, in peculiarly roimded snow-white lumps, w:w
ignorantly imagined to be the petrified froth of the sea, which is the meaning of its German
name, tts composition is, silica, 60.9; magnesia, 26.1 ; water, 12.0. Almost all the mec*r-
flchaum found is made into tol)aoco-pipes«, in which manufacture the Germans have been
for a long time pre-eminent. Vienna contains many manufactories, in which some very
artistic productions are made; and pipes worth a 100 guineas, from the beauty of their
designs, are by no naeans uncommon. The French pipe-makers have lately used moer-
Digitized by VjOUv IC
AA1 Meek.
^^* Megikcerops.
sckaum, and hare lately displayed great taste in their works. When first dug from the
earth, meenjcliauni w quite soft and soap-like to the touch, and as it lathers with water,
aad removes ^^rease, it is employed l)y the Turks as a substitute for soap in wasliiiig.
Tlie waste in cuttiug and turning the pipes was formerly thrown away, but it is now
reduced to powder, mixed into a paste, and compressed into l^ad masses, which are
carved into inferior pipes.
XSSBUT', Merut, or Mirut, a t.. district, and division of British India. The town
is tbc chief town of the district and province, and is cm the Kalli Nuddi, about 42 m.
n.e. of Delhi. Its most important editice is the English church, a fine building, with an
excellent organ, and large enough tu accommodate 8,000 persons. The climate of
Mecrut is healthy. Pop. 71, 79,878. Tlie cantonment is situated 2. m. n. of the town;
on the oppt).siie side of the sti-eani are quarters of the native infantry. Here, on May 10,
18i)7, the native troops revolted, shooting their own European ofilcers, firing the bunga-
lows, and massacring the European inmates without respect to age or sex. The disinct
of Meeiiit has un area of 2,868 sqm,, and a pop. '71, of 1,273,914. The diudoa of
Meerut lies in the n.w. provinces; area, 10,947 sq.m. ; pop. 71, 4,973,190.
KEETIHO, an assemblage of people called with a view to deliberate on some speci
fled subject, or to accomplish some specified purpose. The proceedings begin with the
choice of a chairman, or presiding officer, ancf consist in the proposing and seconding of
resolutions, on which the voice or vote of the meeting is taken. The chairman, in addi-
tion lo his deliberative vote, is often entitled to give a second or casting vote, in case of
c(|uality. Any number of pei'sons may in this country assemble for any puipose not in
itself illegjd; but the use of force or violence, or any tendency towards it, may entitle
the iuithorities to inter feie with a meeting, as an unlawful as*iemblage. Meetings called,
not officially, but by private arrangement, are looked on in the continent as a chardcter-
i?«tu:ally English institution; in most parts of the continent, the right of holding such
a.ssemblages is more or less I'estricted by law.
MEETING, is the name applied by the society of Friends to their various assemblies
for woi^ip and for the management of official business. 1. To their usual gatherinfrs
on several days of the week for worship, meditation and Instruction. 2. The monthlv
meeting is an assembly of members from several contiguous congregations, charged with
making provision for the poor and for the education of cliildren ; with the admission of
persons aeairous of joining the society; with giving attention to the proper performance
of religious and moral duties among Friends; and with the administration of needed dis-
cipline. In this last duty is included the appointment of committees to see that the rules
are observed and to settle difficulties among members by private admonition and counsel
so as if possible to prevent their being brought before the meeting. And even when
cases are introduced to the meeting similar committees are appointed to settle them
informally if possible. In all disputes the practice of the society is to refrain from going
to law. *It therefore directs all its members to harmonize their differences by prompt
and impartial arbitration. To the monthly meeting belongs the allowing and solemnizing
of nmrriages. It keeps a record of marriages, birtiis, and deaths aniongitsmembei-s. 8.
The quarterly meeting is composed of seVeral monthly meetings. It receives answers
from the monthly meetings to questions it had sent to tliem concerning tlie conduct of
flietr members and of the care taken of them. The statements tints* received are con-
flensed into a report, also expressed in answer to inquiries previously received, Pent by
representatives to the yearly meeting. The quarterly meeting receives appeals from the
judgment of monthly meetings and has supervision over their neglect of discipline and
laire. 4. The yearly meeting has the general superintendence of the society in the coun-
try in which it is established; and therefore as the accounts whidi it receives discover
the stale of inferior meetings, as particular exigencies require, or as the meeting is
impressed with a sense of duty, it gives forth ita advice, makes such legtdationRassippenr
to be requi.*iite, or excites to the obServanceof those already made, and sometimes appoints
committees to visit those quarterly meetings which appear to bfc in need of immediate
advice. At the yearly meeting a sul)-committee caHed the morning meeting is appointed
to revise the official manuscripts prior to their publication and aim to grant in the inter-
vals of the yearly meeting certificates of approval to those ministei-s who *' have a con-
<!eru" to travel in the work of the ministry in foreign parts in addition to ihose gnmted by
t heir monthl}' and quarterly meetings. Appeals from the quarterly meetings are heard by
the yearly meetings. There are 10 such: in London, Dublin, New England, New York,
Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, Ohio, and Indiana.— The Quahterlv
MEiSTiNe in the Methodisf clmrch is a general meeting, of the stewards, leaders, and
other officers, for the purpose of transacting the general business of the "circuit** or
** district." In the Methodist Episcopal church it is presided over by the ** presiding elder,**
*>r by the minister in charge. Its special object, in addition to celebrating the love-feast,
is to examine the spiritual and financial condition of the church.
MECrAC'EROPS, an extinct genus of animals found in the miocene formation of
Colorado by prof. O. C. Marsh of Yale college. They belong, with other genera, titano-
fherifim, Sconndon, and bixnitotheHvm, tr» the family Brontotheridse of Marsh, which
liave four nearly equal toes in ihefore feet, rnd three in the hind feet, as in the tapirs.
I n size and conformation of skeleton they resemble the elephants, but they had shorter
• Digitized by VjiOUV IC
Jlmbs and probably no proboscis, but a tapir-iike no60. 6ku11 elongated, brain cavitj
very gmall, the cerebral hemispheres scarcely covering the olfactory lobes. A pair of
horn cores is placed transversely upon the maxillary boues in both sexes. They belong
to that section of the order of ungulates called periModaetyla, (q.y.).
MEGAC'EROS HIBERNICU8, or great-homed Irish elk. an extinct species of
gigantic deer whose bones are found in the quaternary deposits of marl in the peat
swamps of Ireland, and also of England, as well as in bone caverns. The laTgesi were
11 ft. in height to the tips of the antlers, which were 12 ft. across. The females had no
antlers. The bones were proportionately stronger than in living species, and Hie cervical
vertebra of Uie males were very heavy for the purpose of carrying the maasivethorns.
The dentition was of the ordinary ruminant type. They are regarded as intcndediatc
lietweeu tlie reindeer and fallow-deer, and their fossils arc exclusively post-tertiary, but
not extending to the historic period.
MEGADACTYLUS, a name given by prof. Edward Hitchcock to an extinct genus
of bird-like reptiles whose fossils are found in mesozoic formations of the Connecticut
valley. The les bones of one of these were slender and hollow, and the walls thin and
dense, as in birds. Its tracks were for a long time, with others in the same locality,
regarded as those of bii*ds.
MEGADERMA See 3at, anSs,
MEGAIJ0HTHT8 (Gr. great fish), a genus - of fossil' hetorocercal {^mHd fishes, so
named from their large size, compared with the other fish of the period. They were
covered with large strou;^ rhomboid scales, composed externally of brilliantly polished
brown enamel, usually granulated, as in the scutes of the recent crocodile. These scales
have been found as large as 5 in. in diameter. The head was defended by similar strong
plates, and the Jaws were furnished with immense laniary teeth, of a size rarely attained,
even in the largest modem reptiles, and so closely resembling them, tliat they were for
some time considered as having belonged to some crocodilean animal. Tliese teeih —
specimens of which have been found measuring 4 in. Ions and two broad at the base* —
were smooth at the point, had a long furrowed root, and a hollow base, in which the
new tooth was prepared. Numerous smaller teeth were scattered over Uie jaw among
the large ones. The fish of this genus must have been the terror of the seas they inhab-
ited. Their strong skeleton, large tail, powerful head, and ferocious jawe Kmarkably
suited their carnivorous habits.
Three species have been described from the carboniferous strata of Edinburgh^ Glas-
gow, and the center of England.
^lEQALONYX. See Meoatheriitm, anU,
MEGALOPOLIS, the later capital of Arcadia, in the Peloponnesus, was situated on
the river Helisson, in the center of a spacious plain on the n.w. border of Arcadia. It is
H:iid to have been founded in 370 B.C. ; being suggested by Epaminondas, after the battle
of Lcuctra and designed to become the capital and stronghold of the Arcadian confeder-
ation against Sparta. It occupied three years in building, and was then settled by draw-
ing upon the population of 40 different; towns. The number of inhabitants was insb;-
nificiint in comparison to the size of the citv, and the latter never rose to the height of
importance that was anticipated for it. The Thebun supremacy bein^ overthrown, it
was forced to ally itself to Macedonia, in order to\streBgthcn itself against Sparta. In
222 8.0., the Spartan king, Cleomenes III. surprised the city, and a large number of its
magnificent buildings were destroyed. Some of its inhabitants were put to the swonl,
and the remainder fied to Messene. Later on the f6g4tives returned and rebuilt their
city, which, however, never after recovered its former importance. Megalopolis was the
birthplace of the celebrated Greek gen. Philopoeraen, who fought bravely in defen.se of
the city aorainst the Spartan king Cleomenes. Polybius, the Greek historian, was also a
native of Megalopolis, his father being the head of the Achaean league after the dcatli of
PhilojxBmen. A status in honor of Polybius was erected in his native city during his
life.
KEGALOSAU'BUS (Gr. great lizard), a genus of fossil dinosaurians, or land-Faurians,
of gigantic size and carnivorous hnbits, whose remains occur in the rocks of the oolite
m»fi(Mi. The huge body of the animal was supported on four large and strong ungulcn-
late limbs; specihiens of the femur and tibia have been found measiuing each n«arly 3
ft., giving a total length of almost two yards to the hind leg; and a metatarsal bone' 13
in. Ions sliows that the foot had a corresponding magnitude. The sacrum was composed
of 5 vertebrae, anchylosed tr)gether, as in the other dinosaurs. Bucklsnd calctilated that
the meg^ilosaurus must have been 60 or 70 ft. long; but it is not likely thac a reptile
raised so high above the ground would have its body and tail so large in proportion to its
limbs, as in our modem lizards or crocodiles. There seems good reason for rather
ac.*cepting Owen's more moderate estimate of 30 ft. as its whole length. A fragment of
the lower jaw, containing several teeth iu position, tells of its carnivorous habits. Only
a single species has been referred io this genus.. Its remains are abundant in the Stones-
field slate, in the lower oolite of Glouccstershii^^ and in the Wcalden and Purbeck lime-
stones.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
663
MEG ANTIC, a co. In Canada, Provinoe of Quebec, intersected in ther w. hy the
Grand Trunk railway; 745 sq.m. ; pop. 18,878. Its surface is uadulMting and drained by
lake St. Francis, lake Inverness, lake Joseph, and lake William, the iiecancaur river,
and the River du Cbene. Its mineral products arS iron and copper, which are found iu
al>undance. It has tanneries, grist and saw mill; and fulling mills. County seat, Leeds
village.
MEG'APHONE, a combination of the speaking-trumpet and ear>trumpet, devised by
-'Mr. Edison. It consists of two laree funnels, each about 7 ft. long and 8i ft. across tlie
mouth, and connected at the smtilTer end with a flexible tube having a tip suita^eto^
apply to the ear. Slight sounds may be heaixi at a distance of over 1000 feet. By the
use of a large speaking-trumpet a conversation may be carried on between two stations
two miles /ipart.
MEBAiODWM, a family of birdn, referred by some naturalists to the order grallm, but
more generally to the gallinaceous order, being re^arded-as allied to the curassows, etc.
The feet are large and have large blunt claws. To this order belong the genera megapo-
diu9 (see Junole-fowl), leipoti (<j.v,). taUgalla (q.v.), etc. The order is peculiar to
New Holland and the neighboring islands.
MEG'ARA (Megaris, anU) was about 30 m. n.w. from Athens and built at the base
of two hills, Caria and Alcathous, each defended by a citadel. Two walls, built by the
Athenians during their protectorate over Mcgara, between 461 and 445 b.c., run down
from the city to its harbor, Nisaea. In the time of Pausanius, the Megarian capital had
many temples and public buildings, of which only the most scanty ruins have been
preserved. According to its local legends, the city was named for its founder. Megarul»^
a Boeotian, son of Apollo. Its walls, which were razed by Minos, were said to have
been rebuilt by Alcathous. the son of Pclops. Hyperion, son of Agamemnon, is repre-
seMted as the last king, after whose death the government became republican. In his-
toric times the city seems to have been under the power of the Athenians, from whom it
was wrested by Dorians from the Peloponnesus. It was now colonized by Messcniaus
and Corinthians, and adopted Dorian institutions. At a time not definitely known it
ceased to be subject to Corinth, and us an independent stato rose to a high degree of
power. It sent out many colonies, of which the mast famous were Byzantium, Chaice-
don, and the Sicilian Megara. It rivaled Athens as a naval power, and for a long time
kept possession of Silamis, in spite of the continued efforts of the Athenians to recapture
it. The government had originally been in the hands of the Dorian landed aristocracy,
from whom it was usurped about 620 b.c. by Theagenes, who led the popular faction,
and esUiblished himself as absolute ruler of the state. Upon his expulsion, soon after, a
fierce contest took place between the democratic and aristocratic parties, of which Theog-
nis. a bitter partisan of the latter, has given an account in his poems. Aftei* the Persian
wars, Megara carried on hostilities with Corinth, against which she formed an alliance
with Athens 461 B.C. But in 455 the Mcgarians repudiated the Athenian alliance, and
put to death the Athenian garrison which had been stationed at Megara. In the seventh
year of the Peloponnesian war the democratic party in Mcgiura, fearing that the aristo-
cratic faction would take advantage of the Laceds&moniun alliance to re-establish an
oligarchy, resolved to surrender the city to the Athenians. An Athenian army captured
Nisaea, but the arrival of Brasidas with a force of Lacedcemonians prevented the surren-
der of Megara. From this time Megara is but little heard of in history. A democratic
form of government was re-established in 357; after the death of Alexander the great, the
city passed into the control of Demetrius Poliocertes and Ptolemy Sotcr successively.
Dcmetiius, the son of Antigonus Gonabas, captured and nearly ilestroyed it. It was
afterwards partially rebuilt, and finally surrendered to the Romans under Metelhis.
Alone among the cities of Greece it was not restored by Hadrian ; Alaric still further
reduced it. and in 1687 the Venetians completely destroyed it.
KEOAEIC SCHOOL. See Sucltd.
ICBGABISy a small mountainous region of Hellas, or Greece proper, bounded by
Attica. Corinth, and the sea. It formed the north-eastern part of the isthmus of Corinth.
The capital was Meqaua, famous amongst the ancients for its white-shell marble, and
for a white kind of clay, of which pottery was made. — From Euclid, the philosopher,
who was born at Megara about 400 b.c„ the Megaric School, took its name.
MEGASTHENES (Gr., great strength), a name given by prof. J. D. Dana to a grand
division of the higher mammals of a superior and powerful type. It includes the quad-
remana, carnivora, herbivora, and cetaceans. He has given the name microgtheTie* to
inferior mammals, as the bats insectivora, rodents, and edentates. There is a parallel-
ism between these two divisions, the bats in the latter representing the monkeys in the
former; the inseclivora the carnivora; the rodents the herbivora. and the edentates the
cetaceans. The marsupials and monotremes form a lower, or semi-oviparous division,
while man forms the highest division, the archonts.
MEGAS'TirlENES, a Greek writer in the time of Seleucus Nicator, about 300 b.c.
Seleucus sent him on a diplomatic mission to Sandrocottus, king of the Prasil, a))eop]e
In India. There he spent a number of years, and on his return to Syria, gave a general
historical and geographical account of India, including the first description of Ceylon.
Digitized by VjOOyiC
MMathexlidaD. f\(\A
His work is known only in such fragments of it as arc quoted by Strabo, Arrian, and
Elian. Tiie former did not set a high estimate on the accuracy of Megasthencs. It js
certain, boWever, that the works include much information in regard to the geography
and social condition of Indian peoples previously entirely unknown to the Greeks.
MEGATHERIID^. a family of extinct mammals of the order Edentata, named
bv prof. Owen, and containing several genera. Pictet gave it the name grawffrade*.
placing it between the sloths and the armadilloes. There aie nine or more genera, 1
megatherium, 2 coelodon, 8 lestodon, 4 megalonyx, 5 mylodon, 6 scelidotherium, 7 sphc-
rodon, 8 megalocnus, 9 myomorphus. See MuOATUERiusc, ante.
M£GATH£ BIUM (Gr. great beast), a gigantic ejttinct quadruped of the ord«* Eden-
tata, nearly allied to tlie sloth, found in the feuperficial stratum of the Soutb^ American
pampafl. In structure, it is very near its moaern representative, except that the whole
skeleton is modified to suit the requirements of an immen>>e heavy-boned and heavy-
bodied animai, some 18 ft. in length and 8 ft. in height. The appellation tardigrade,
which Cuvier applied to the sloth, cannot be given to the megatherium ; its limbs weie
comparatively short and very strong, and the feet adapted for walking on the ground,
approaching m this respect nearer to the allied ant-eaters, but with this peculiarity, that
the first toe of each of the hind feet was furnished with a large and iK)werful claw,
which was probably used as a digger to loosen roots from the Foil, and enable the crea-
ture the more easily to overturn the trees on the foliage of which it browj-ed. The
enormous development of the bones of the pelvis, the hind legs, and the tail, gave tie
animal great power when, seated on its hind legs and tail, as on a tripod, it rai^ed its
fore legs against the trunk, and applied iis force against a tree that had already been weak-
ened by having its roots dug up. The structure of the lower jaw seems to indicate thtit
tlie megatherium was furnished with a huge prehensile tongue like that of the giraffe,
with which it stripped the foliage from the trees.
The remains of several allied genera of huge cdentata are associated with the mega
therium in the pampas deposits. They form the family megatheriida? of Owen, which
includes mylodon, megalonyx, sceledotherium, etc., genera which are separated from
megatherium chiefly from peculiarities in the dentition.
The modern sloth is a native of South America, and the fossil remaing of these
immense creatures, which represented it in the newer tcrtiaries. have been found only in
this continent, the past and present distribution of the family being the ^ame.
MEGERLE, Uluich von. See Abraham A. Sai^cta Claba, ante,
ME'CBIM (Gr. hemieram'a, the migraine of the French) is the popular term for neu-
ralgia occupying one half of the head, or more commonly only the brow and forehead of
one side. It is often periodical, coming on at a certain hour, lasting a certain tine, and
then entirely disappearing for a fixed inten'-al. It may be induced by any cause that
debilitates the system; it not unfrequently attacks women who have suckled their chil-
dren too long; or it may be associated with hysteria; or it may arise, like ague, frotu
marsh miasma; and sometimes no exciting cause can be detected.
When it is associated with anaemia (paleness and general debility), it should be treated
with the preparations of iron, the shower-bjith, nourishing food, and plctty of exercise
in the open air. When it is strictly periodical, quinine m full doj-es t-Lould be tried
(the bowels being previously well cleared out); and if the (juinine fail.«, Fowler's foIu-
tion of arsenic, given in small doses (three minims in a wine-glasbful of water), three
times a day, after meals, will be almost sure to remove it.
ICBChBIMB— YEBTIOO are the terms usually applied when a horse at work reelF, and
then either stands for a minute dull and stupid, or falls to the ground, lying for a time
partially insensible. These attacks come on suddenly, are often periodical, are most
frequent during hot weather, and when the animal is drawing up » hill, or exposed dur-
ing heavy work to the full rays of a hot sun. Liability to megrims cont-titutes unisoiind-
iiess, and usually depends upon the circulation through the brain Ixing temporarily
disturbed by the presence of tumors. Horses subject to meirrims are always dangeroas
if driven at all. they should be used with a breastplate or pipe-collar, fo as to prevent, a*
much as possible, pressure on the veins carrrying the blood from the head : they should
be moderately and carefully fed, and during hot weather have an occasional laxative.
MAHXDIA, the ancient Thurmae Hercules, a t. of Hungary, 6 m. w. of Boumania,
15 m. n. of Orsova: pop. 1800. Since the time of the Bomans it has been noted ISsr !t«
baths. The sulphurous springs are beneficial in gout and other diseases. Tfiey are
annunTTy frequented by many visitors.
UEHEKED or Meiiemet At.i, also Mohammed Am, Viceroy of Egypt, was b. in
1789 at Kavala, a little town in 3Iacedonia. entered the Turkish array at an early age,
and, in 1799, was sent to Egyr«t at the head of a contingent of 300 troops to co-openite
with the British a.^nst the French invaders. Here his fine militar}' qualities rapidly
developed themselves, and he at length became commander of the Albanian earfiti
€Cfirm& in Egypt. In 1806 he was recognized by the porte as viceroy of Egypt, and
ptisha of Three Tails; but was soon involved in disputes with the Mamelukes, who had
long practically ruled Egypt. The struggle was finally terminated ii^lSJ^j t^i^^ ^^'
665
MefKn.
sacre of the greater number of these at Cairo. Tlic rest fled to Upper Egypt, but were
expelled by Meheuied in the following year. They then took refuge in Nubia from their
remorseless foe. but in 1820 he followed them thither, and they were utterly exterminated.
The Porte now felt alarm at his growing power, and with a view to break it, intrusted
him with the command of an expedition against the Wahabis, a religious sect of Arabia.
But the victories of his son, Ibrahim Pasha (q.v.), only rendered him more powerful, and
his auUiority extended itself over a great part of the Ai-abian peninsula. Shortly after,
he conquered Kordofan, added it to his dominions, and opened up a great trade in black
slaves rrom the interior of Africa. About this time he began to reorganize his army oh
Bomething like European principles, built a fleet, and erected fortres^^es. military work-
shops, and arsenals. His ambition, however, received a severe check by the total
destruction of his new navy at Navarino, in 18jS7. In 1880 the Porte conferred on him
the government of Candia, but this did not satisfy him; and in the following year, on a
frivolous pretext, he sent out an ariny for the conquest of Syria, under Ibrahim Pasha,
who, by his victory at Konieh (Dec. :;iO, 18B;2), brought the lurkish government to the
brink of ruin. The European powera now stepped m, and a treaty waij concluded (May
4, 1833), by which Syria was ced(^ to Mehemed, on condition of his acknowledging him-
self a vassal of the sultan. Neither of the belligerents was satisfied, and Mehemed con-
tinued to plot in his usual secret and crafty style, till sultan Mahmud was obliged in 1889
to deglare war against his dangerous subject. The European powei*s again interfered,
and Mehemed saw himself comi>elled to give up all his claims to the possession of Syria,
and to content himself with getting the paijhalic of Egj^pt made herediUiry in his family.
If the infirmities of age had not now begun to tell upon Mehemed, he might have become
what many in fact have pronounced him to be — the regenerator of Egypt! He thor-
oughly cleared the country of robbers from Abyssinia to the mouths of the Nile; he may
almost be said to have introduced the cultivation of cotton, indigo, and sugar into the
country. While Syria was under his rule, he increased to an immense extent the mulberry
plantations, and consequently the cultivation of silk; and to crown all his efforts, he
CBtablLshed in Egypt a system of national education ! In his last years, he fell into a sort
of religioas dotage, and at last, in 1848, resigned his viceroy ship in favor of his son,
Ibrahim Pasha (q.v.). Mehemed died Aug. 2^ 1849.
MEHUL, feriENKE Heniii, 1763-1817; b. at Givet, France. At the age of 10 he was
organist of his native village and was soon after destined for the church. The advent of
a regiment and mardal music fired liis worldlinesH, and he found means to reach Paris.
There, after fighting the imexpccted misery of cold and hunger, at the age of 17 he
attracted the sympathy of Gliick, the composer. After several unsuccessful efforts his
Enphroune et Coradin achieved fame in 1790, and other compositions previously written
were then brought to light. Stratonice appeared in 1792; and this was followed by patri-
otic national hymns for the army of the republic, entitled Le Chant da Depart; Lc Oh ant de
Victoire; Le Wuint du Relour, which won him higli popularity. Other worki? appeared in
i-upid succession: in 1803 Uthal; afterwards JJne FoUe, ou Us AtevgU de Toledo; and in
1817 Jowph, his most esteemed composition. Died in Paris.
HEIAFON'TE, a t. of Brazil, in the province of Gk)yaz, about 80 m. e.n.c. of the town
of Goyaz, on the river Almas. In the neighborhood are some gold mines; and the
district produces millet, bariey, cotton, tobacco, and sugar. Pop. 8,000.
MEIGG9, Henry, 1811-77; b. N. Y. ; was in New York, engaged in the lumber busi-
ness, in 1885, and failed in the commercial crisis of 1887. He, however, made another
effort in the same business in Williamsburg, L. I., was for a time succc^fful, and w^as
elected president of the board of trustees of the town; but in 1842 he again failed, and it
wjw not until the outbreak of the gold excitement in California that he again became
seemindy prosperous. He shipped lumber in large quantities to the Pacific coast; and
his trade so increased that he was encouraged to build a large number of vessels, until, at
length, a financial strinffency in the San Francisco money market drove him to borrow-
.ng. and eventually his business collapsed, and he fled to South America. He settled in
Chili, and entered into the business of a contractor for buiWing bridii:e8, and, by one of
his contracts with the government of Chili, made a profit of $1,800,000. He afterwards
devoted himself to railroad constniction, and in Peru accomplished engineering works
which are objects of general admiration. He made contracts for the construction of j^ix
railrpads in that country, one of which, the Callao, Lima and Oroya railroad, ranks
among the first public works of t'ne kind in the w^orld. It is recorded to the honor of
Mr. Meij^ that, having by his industry and enterprise succeeded in greatly improving
his Impaired fortune, he returned to San Francisco and arranged to discharge all the
obligations which were in existence there against hfm. He was a man of refined tastes;
greatly interested in art, in which he was a connoisseur; and at the time of his resklence
m New York city was president of a prominent musical association.
MEIGS, a CO. in s.e. Ohio; drained by branches of the Ohio river, which separates it
on the 8. and s.e. from West Virginia; 490 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 32,285—2,278 of foreign
birth. The surface is uneven and in large part covered by forests of valuable timber;
wheat, hay, corn, and oats are staples.' Bituminous coal, salt, and limestone are found;
-n 1870 over 200,000 tons of coal were mined. Chief town, Pomeroy.
Digitized by VjO^JV \SC
MEIGS, a CO. in o. Tennessee; drained by creeks emptying into the Tennessee and
Hiawaseec rivera, which bound it on the n.w. and g. ; the Kast Tennessee, Virginia and
Georgia railroad rung near the B.e. boundary; 225 sq.m.; pop. '80, 7,117— 810 colored.
Ttie Blue Ridge mountains cover much of the surface, and the hill-slopes and bottom-
land is well fitted for raising com. The climate is very invigorating. County seat,
Decatur.
MEIGS, Benjamin C, 1789-1863; b. Conn.; graduated at Yale college in 1809; at
Andover theological seminary in 1812; was ordained in 1815; sailed as a miasionary of
the American board; reached Ceytoii in 1816. He was stationed for many ycara at Til-
lipally. lieluruiug for the second time to America in 1858, on account of ill health, he
died lu New York. He was a iirnii of kind, conciliatory spirit, sagacious in judgment,
and greatly esteemed by the natives as well as by his missionary associates.
MEIGS, Charles Deluceka, 1792-1869; b. at St. Georges in tlie Bermuda islands;
educated as a physician, taking degrees from both the university of Pennsylvania and
the college at Princeton (1818). In' 1820 he began practice in Philadelphia and was «
chosen a professor in the Jefterson medical college in 1840, a position which he held for
22 years. He was specially skillful in obstetrics and the diseases of w^omeu and chiltlren,
to which he devoted most of his time. He published several ireaUscs on th(?se and kin-
dred subjects, and also, in 1852, a memoir of Samuel G. Morton, m.d.
MEIGS, James Aitken, b. Philadelphia, 1829; received a medical degree from the
Jefferson medical college, and in 1857 was appointed to the professorship of the institutes
of medicine in the medical college at Philadelphia. In 1859 he was called to a similar
position in the Pennsylvania medical college, whence he removed in 1868 to become a
professor in the Jefferson medical school. Besides a number of scientific papers, he lifts
published an edition of Kirke's Manual of Phyttiology,
3IEIGS, Montgomery Cunningham, b. Ga. 1816; received biv*» education at the
unlversjtv of Pfennsj^lvania and the U. S. military academy, graduating at West Point,
July, 1836, and receiving the appointment of second lieut. in the artillery. In the fol-
lowing year he was exchanged into the corps of onirineers, in which corps he became first
lieut. in 1838 and capt. in 1853. Dunng the period between his graduating and the y«sir
1852 he was employed in various important engineering undertakings on the pari of the
war department, including the building of fort Delaware and the Delaware breakwater,
improvements of the Delaware bay and river, the construction of fort Wayne, Mich ,
and forts Poricr and Niagara, K. Y., and fort Montgomery, N. Y. In 1852 and for 8
years thereafter he was clnploycd in superintending the Washington and Georgetown
v:ater-works, a magnificent engineering enterprise, by means of which those cities were
^applied with water from the Potomac river by means of the Washington aqueduct.
i)uring this period he also superintended the erection of the capitol extension in Wash-
ington and the post-office extension, as well aa the great iron dome of the capitol. In
the early part of the winter of 1860 he was dispatched to forts Jefferson and Taylor, in
'Florida, with orders to place them in a position for defense, and in the following spring
was made chief engineer of the fort Pickens relief expedition. On May 14, 1861, he waa
appointed col. 11th infantry; and May 15 quartermaster-gun. of the U. 8. army, with
the rank of bri^.gen. In this important position gen. Meigs had the direction of the
supply and equipment of the United States forces in the field during the continuance of
the war. He was frequently obliged lo make personal inspection of the quartermaater*a
department of the various armies duiing siege and field operations, this being particu-
larly the case at Chattanooga in 1863 and during the battles of the Wilderness in 1864.
On July 5, 1864, he was brevctted maj.gen. In Jan., 1865, he superintended the
refitting of the army of gen. Sherman afti*r its return from the march to the sea. In
1867 and '68 he made an inspection of the departments of the west and the Pacific coast;
and in 1875 was sent to Europe on a special mission of examination of the staff depart-
ment of the European armies.
MEIGS, Rbtttrn Jonathan, 1740-1823; b. at Middletown. Conn.; he was en^^aecd
, in the attempt on Quebec under Arnold, holding the rank of maj., and was there taken
prisoner. After his exchange in 1776 he became col. of a regiment raised in the follcyw-
. ing year by his own exertions, and servetl with great credit in the actions of Sag Harbor
and Stony Point. He was naturally of an enterprising and restless spirit and was one
. of tlie first emigrants to tliat part of 'Ohio known as the Connecticut Reserve; settling at
Marietta in 1788. He was commissary-gen. under Wayne in the Indian campaigns, and
in 1801 was made an Indian agent by the government. It wtus while employed in this
capacity at the Cherokee agency in Georgia that his death took f^ace. In 1778 coL
Meigs published in the American lUmembrancer an account of the Quebec expedition,
which has been reprinted (N. Y., 1864).
MEIGS, Return Jonathan, Jr., 1765-1825: b. Middletown, Conn. ; g^duated at
Yale in 1785; went with his father to Marietta, O., in 1788, and entered upon the pro-
fession of the law. He was chief-justice of the supreme court of Ohio in 1808-4; brevet
col. of the U. S. army, serving in Louisiana 1804-6; a judge in Louisiana 1805-4; and
U, 8. district judge in Michigan 1807-8. He was U. 8. senator from Ohio 1808-10;
governor of that state 1810-14, and U. S. postmaster-general 1814-28. Died at Marietta.
Digitized by VjOUV \SC
667 a^jit
HEINERS, Chribtoph, 1747-1810; b. Ottendorf, Jlanorcr. LitUc U known of his
esrlT life. He was educated at tlie univerMity of GOttingpen, iKliere lie was nppoinUHl
professor of philosophy, and afterwards rvclor. Of iiis numerous historical works the
foUowing are tlie most important: lintmon tin* P/aloaupJu'e; Versucfi einer RtUgiom
0eiichiehUderditMUn,V6lkerbemnder» ASgyffUnt; Historia DoctrincB da VeroDeo; Gencfu'chfe
de9 VerfoUk der SUUn und StaaUterfatMuno der Hamer, Besides his own woikh. lie cdiud
in connection with J. O. Feder P/tUusophuefie Bibliothek, 4 vols. ; and with Spitiler Got-
Ungui^im HUtoruciiM Magasin; IftuereB Magazin^ 8 vols. Most of his works were debigutd
to show the difference between past and present morals.
M£IH'IKO£K, the capital of the ducli^' of Saxe-Meiningen-IIildbnrghnuson, lies in a
narrow valley, on the banks of the Werra.. Pop. *75, 9,621. The ducal ensile, built iii
1681. contains a flne library and several art collections. The " £n}!]ish garden'' attached
to it U one of the finest in Germany. Meiniugen has almost no trade.
MEIS'SEIT one of the oldest towns in the kingdom of Saxony, is situated on the left
bank of the Elbe, 15 m. below Dresden. Its cluef building is the cathedral, tlie finest
Gothic church in Saxony, surmouoted by an exquisite spire of open-work, and contain-
ing many monuments of very early times. There are here a number of brasFos, some <.f
them finer than any in England or Flanders. Meissen was founded in 928 by Henry I.
of Germany, as a bulwark of his German territories against the Slavonians, and was loig
the capital of the markgrafdom of Meissen, which was subsequently merged in the duf hy
of Snxony. Otto I. founded the cathedral. It was. however, burned down at the begin-
ning of the 18th c; rebuilt 1366-98; since which time it has lieen twice destroyed" by
fire, and restored. The castle, built on a precipitous rock overlooking the town, and
formerly the residence of the nuirkgrafs, burggrafs, and bishops of Meissen, was rebuilt
in 1471; and in 1710 was converted into a porcelain factory, but has recently been
restored to more dignified uses. The famous porcelain factory, now provided with more
suitable premises, employs about 400 hands. Other manufactures are iron, machinery.
pottery, and ivory-carving. Pop. 75, 1302.
. MEISSNER, Auatjsrrus Gotti^ibb, 1758-1807, b. Bilesia; educated at Wittemberg
and Leipsic, where he studied law. He was for a time a chancery deik. and curator of
the Dresden archivca In 1785 he was appointed to the chair of classical literatuie utd
nathetics in the university of Pnigue; and for the last two years of his life he >Mis
director of the Fulda high school. He translated a number of dramatic pieces from
Moli^re, and Destouches, and was himself the author of three fairl}' succcK^ifuI operas.
TheMfrf^H Grave; TheAlchemut; and IVie Beavtiful Arsene, But his most popular work
is hiB Bicetchet, 14 series of which were published between 1778 and 1796. The>' are a
oollection of miscellaneous stories, dialogues, anecdotes, and essays. These pieces were
extensively translated and imitated in other languages, and a few of them wei-e included
by Thompson in his Ger7nan MiiceUany, Of a similar plan and character are the ToUh
and Dialogue*, which appeared from 1781-89. Besides these smaller works 3Ieissner
wrote a number of romances, and historical novels of considerable length, such as
Aleibiadee; Jdamiiiello; Biaiica Capello; and Spariacus,
MEIS60NIER, Jean Louis Ebmbst. b. Lyons, in 1811, of a poor family. At the
age of 19, after a youth of little opportunity for improvement, ana manv hardships, he
found his way to Paris to study painting, which he haa already practiced in Lyons on works
for which he and Daubiipiy received 5 francs a square yard — paintings made for ex)X)ria-
UoD. He was soon admitted to the studio of Leon Cogniet, where his dispell lion to make
small paintings of exquisite precision, and his neatness of touch in giving liigiy relief to
small figures, soon made him the leader of a distinct school. His first pulilic exhibitions
were in 1886, the *' Chessplayers," and the '* Little Messenger." From that time he hns Imd
a continually increasing reputation, and his industry and care in the exquisite finish of
his almost microscopic details has been maintained withdUt sncritice of the genernl
effects. Tli6ophile Gautier says of him : "He is oiiginal. What he hns wished to do,
he has done completely, in design, color, fineness of touch, und result." The smallest
inanimate objects acquire n peculiar life and meaning under his touch, and when he
has finished a painting it seems ocyond the suggestion of improvement. Mcis.(-onier has
won all the honors of his art in the salons and exhibitions of Paris, and is nch with the
proceeds of his labor. His works are too numerous to name. One of his bc^st. "A
Charge of Cavalry,'* is in the possession of Mr. Proba«5Co of Cincinnati, for which he
paid $80,000. >felssonior has also succeeded in portraits, though not so remarkably as
in his cliaractcristic work.
MEJERDA RIVER, in n.e. Africa, flowing through Algeria and Tunis. It rises m
the Great Atlas range and is formed by the juncture of several small streams; its course
is n. and n.e., and it empties into the gulf of Tunis, about 24 m. o. of the city of Tunis.
The extent of the whole course is al)out 200 miles. In ancient times it was known as
the Bagradas, and Carthage was not far from its banks; but its course has since been
greatly changed, and it now flows near the mins of Utica.
MEJI'A, Ignacio, b. Mexico. 1814; received his education at the institute of arts
and sciences of Oaxaca. In 1829 he voluntered for the defense of his country against a
BimnifiU invasion, and in 1833 was made capt. of grenadiers, and col. in 1846. Uc was
Digitized by VjOUV IC
SSS^^ 668<
military commander and provisional [,'overnor of the state of Tehnantepec in 1852, and
during the " war of reform" was prominent on tlie side of the llbends. In 1858 he was
in command of a brigade, and fought the battles of Teotitlan and Pachuca; l>cing
defeated in the first Of lliese, Oct. 20, 1861. He acted as qnartermaaler of the army
which resisted the invasion of the French in 1861, and was engaged in the defense of
Pueblo in 1802. iHjiiig taken prisoner when that strongliold capitulated in May, 1863.
Ke was sent to France, and not releaped imti! the summer of 1804, when he returned to
Mexico, and In 1865 was appointed a gen. of division, and made minister of war.
MEJIA, Thomas, 1812-67, b. Mexico; a native Indian, who exercised great power
over the Indian tribes in Mexico, and took a prominent part in Mexican affaii^. lie
served with distinction through the war witli this country in 1846-48. He quelled an
insurrection In 1849, but six years later put liimself at the head of one for the purpot^e
of overthrowing gen. Comonfort. This movement wsis unsuccessful, as was a coalition
which he organiised the next year between the clericals and conservatives. In 1857.
after several defeats, he was forced to surrender. In 1858 he drove the Juarez govern-
ment out of Queretaro, and held out successfully against Juarez, till the triumph of
the latter in 1860, when he resorted to guerilla warfare. He was a tixLSted adherent of
Maximilian, but was finally captured and put to death.
MEK'HITAR, or Mechttar. See MECHiTARiSTfl, aiite.
KEKXOK0, a t. of Slam, at the confluence of the Mcklon.<r river with the w. mouth
of the Menam, 30 m. s.w. of^Bankok. Pop. estimated at 10,000. The province furuifchcs
salt for all the kingdom.
MEKONG, Meikhong, Makiako, or Cambodia, RIVER See Cocuns Chiva, an!e.
MEKRAN, or Mukhan, a province of Beloochlstan in Asia, lying between 26' and
28** n. lat., and 58** and 68* e. long. It is bounded on the s. by the Indian ocean, w. by
Persia, and n. by Afghanistan and Sarawan, being about 600 m. in length and 20O m".
broad. It comprises by far the greater part of Bdoochistan, about 100,000 sq.m., and
is divided into many petty districts, each having its separate chief. The n. part is very
rugged, and is traversed irom e. to w. by two ranges of mountains, while tlie lower or
B. part is level, barren, and desolate. The inhabitants, of whom there 9re 300.000
or more, are not advanced in civilization. They practice polygamy and hokl -Blavra.
There is very little trade or manufacturing earned on. The vegetation is scanty, the
most prolific natural production being the date-palm. Fishing is cariied on to a very
considemble extent, and is the main support of a lars^e part of tiie people. The country
is, as to government and law, in a wretched condition. The route used by Alexander
the great on Ids return from Egypt is still to be seen, and with one exception is the
only practicable road for an army between India and Persia.
KELA) PoMPONius, a Latin writer— the first who composed a strictly geographical
work — was a native of Spain, and is believed to have lived in the time of the emperor
Claudius, but nothing whatever is known concerning him. Mela*s compend is in three
books, and is entitled Be SUu Orbts. The text is greatly corrupted, on account of the
abundance of proper names; but the style is good, and the author shows a verv ci«dit-
able diligence of research and discrimination in the use of his authorities. The wHtia
princept appeared at Milan in 1471; there are editions by Tschucke (1807), W^^cbert
(1816), Parthey (1867). Mela was translated into English as long ago as 1685.
MEIALEU'OA. See Cajeput.
MELAMPUS, in mythology, the son of Amythaeon; his mother is said by dliTercct
Authors to be Aglaia, Rhodope, or Eidomene. He is represented as a physician and proph-
et, and is said to have acquired his powers of divination in this way: While he was
sleeping, one day, before the house of his uncle, kin^ Neleus of Pylos, some serpenta
which he had tamed licked his ears and wakened him, whereupon* he understood the
language of the birds, and could read the future. Apollo imparted to him all the secrets
of the art of medicine. For his services in curing tlie Argolian women of madness,
Anaxagoras gave him a third of the kingdom of Argos, and another third to his brother
Bias. According to other mythologists. Melampus restored to sanity the three daugh-
ters of king Proetus of Argos, ana was rewarded by their father with the hand of
Iphianassa, the eldest, and with a third of the Argive kingdom; by her he had four diil-
liren, Antiphates, Manto, Bias, and Pronoe. He was accounted by the Greeks the first
physician and prophet; and his posterity were also endowcKl witli prophetic gifts, lie
was worshiped as a god after his death, and a temple was erected in his honor at
JEgosthena, in Megaris.
HELAKCHO'LIA, as a disease, is the exaggeration of the natural and legitimate feel-
ings of grief, daspondency, and "ipprehension, which become morbid where the emotion
Is without a cause, dispropof'tionea to the actual cause, or so intense as to disturb and
destroy the exercise of thp other mental powers. This dejection and suffering is found
very conc»cnt-ation of thought bestowed upon them. The patient lives in fear ot death.
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669 M2ian«8la.
in the conviction that he is diflfcrently or more exquisitely constructed than those
around; that he labors under some foul or fatal disease; that lie is destitute of streogth
c»r comeliness. This has been regarded as hjrpochondriacal melancholia — the mdUtdie
anglaiga, and affects the opening of life. Similar feelings are called fortii in reference
to the social position. There arises a dread of poverty and want. The victim is haunted
by imaginary debts, obligations, peculations. He feels incapable of extricating himself.
The poor, as well as the rich, entertain such doubt and dread. They starve, iu order to
husband their resources. This affection prevails at maturity — at the period of g^entest
nctivity and usefulness.' Toward the decline of life — although encountered at cveiy age
— niorbid depression assumes the form of religious anxiety, despair, remorse. Moral
statistics show that nmong the inhabitants of northern Europe the number of cases of
melancholia exceeds those of mania; and it hns been supposed that the rudiments of the
malady may be detected in the original character, the temperament, and the habits of
the race, as well as in tlie climate, domestic condition, and diet, by which these are
modified. Defective blood nutrition, or ansemiii, appears to be the phyrfcnl state with
wiuch the great majority of cases of melancholia arc conn(*cted, and to wliich all moden
of treatment are directed. Powerful and permanent and depressing moral emotions act
as effectively iu arresting healthy digestion and alimentation, as the use of injudicious
food, or the use of proper nourishment under circumstances such as the respiration of
impure «»ir, or indulgence in intemperate or degraded tendencies, which render assimila-
tion impossible. The aspect of the melanchnliac corroboi-atcs the view of inanition ami
oxhaudiion. The siurfaec is pale, dry, cold, attenuntedt even insensible; the muscles
are rigid; the frame is bent; the eyes sunk, and fixed or flickering; the lips parched and
colorlecia. There is a sense of exhaustion or pain, or impending dissolution. It has
l>cen remarked, that in propoi'tion to the iotensit}*- of tlie internal agony is there an
obtuseness or anaesthesia to wounds or external injuries. Such an immunity gives in
lunutics an indiflercnce to the mo&l grievous forms of suffering, and may explain the
conduct of many reputed martyrs and even criminals under punishment. — liaslam,
Obnervationa on 'Madness and McUindiQly; Esquirol, MfUtidies Menktks, t.i. p. 808;
Cricliton, Inquiry into ^'aiure and Origin of Menial Derangement.
KELAirCHTHON, Phtlip, Luther's fellow-laborer in the reformation, was b. Feb.
16, 1407, at Bretten, in the palatinate of the Rhine, nov/ in the grand duchy of Baden,
iiis name was originally Schwarzerd (black earth), of v.liich Melanchthou is a Greek
translrtlion. He was educated at the university of Heidelberg, where he took the dcCTce
of bachelor of philosophy in 1512. In the same year lie went to Tubingen, studied
theology, took the degree of master, and in 1514, gave lectures on the Aristotelian philo-
sophy and the classics. About this time, he published n Greek grammar. On his rela-
tive neuchlin's recommendation, ho was appointed, in 1518, j rofccsor of the Greek
language and literature iu Wittenberg. He soon decided in favor of the reformation,
iwuX brought to the aid of Luther great attainments in learning, great r.cuteness in ilia-
loctics and exegesis, a remarkable power both of clear thinking and of clearly expressing
his thoughts; and, along with all, a gentleness and moderation that most advantageously
Icmpered Luther's vehemence. In lo31 he published his Loci Communes JRermn Thco-
logirnrvm, the first great Protestant work on dogmatic theology. It passed through more
llian fifty editions in the course of the author's life. In 1530, he made a most important
contribution to the cause of Protestantism in the Augsburg confession (q.v.). In 1541
he went to Worms, and soon after to Ratisbon, lo conduct the cause of the Protestants
in the conferences there. But the influence of th'e papal legato counteracted all hi:i
efforts for a peaceful accommodation, and his own party w-ere much dissatisfied on
jK'COunt of the concessions which he made. After Luther s death Melanchtlion lost in
some measure the confidence of some of the Protestants, by those concessions to the
Roman Catholics which his anxiety for peace led him to make; whilst the zealous
Lutherans were no less displeased because of his approximation to the doctrine of Calvin
on the Lord's supper. His consent, conditionally given, to the introduction of the Augs-
burg interim (q.v.) in Saxony, in 1549, led to paintul controversies; and he was involved
in various controversies, which filled the latter veai-s of his life with disquietude. H(;
died at Wittenberg, April 19. 1560. Melanchthou. although gentle, was emotional and
excitable, and conciliatory in the extreme. As a public teacher, he was exceedingly
admired, and students flocked to him irom all parts of Europe. He was essentially a
theologian and scholar, and in his habits, if not in his opinions, was the precursor of
those acute and laborious divines who have in modern times shed so much luster on the
German church. The most complete edition of his works (which comprise a Greek and
Latin grammar, editions of and commentaries on several cl&ssies and the Septuagint,
biblical commentaries, doctrinal and ethical works, official documents, declarations, dis-
sertjitions, responses, and a very extensive coriespondence with friends and the leading
men of the age) is that by Bretschneider in his Coiyvs liefoi^maiovum (28 vols. 1834-60).
Ifelanchthon's life has iJeen written by his friend Camerarius (1566). and frequently in
the course of the present centurj'. One of the latest is by Schmidt (1861). The tricen-
tenary of Melanchthon's death (April 19, 1860) was celebrated with great aolemnity
throughout Germany.
MELANESIA. See MiCKOincsiA and Melanesia. C^r^r^^]r>
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XELANOBBHCE'A, a genus of trcos of the natural ordct anaeardiaeM. To this genus
belougs tho Black Vaukibh Trbe (Af. usUata) of Burmah and the n.e. of India, called
I'heet-Uee or ZiUi in Burmah, and KJiew in Munipoor. It is a very large tree, attaining
a height of 100 ft, with large, leathery, simple, entire, deciduous leaves, and axillary
panicles of flowers. It yields a viscid, rust-colored juice, which becomes black on
exposure to the atmqsphcre, and is excessively acrid< causing swellings with much pain
lUid fever if it touches the skin.. It U, however, much valued as a varnish for painting
boats, and vesselifi intended to contain liquids, and also as a size glue in gilding. This
black varui;$h is a considerable article of trade in India and Burmah.
MELANO'818. See Tumors, ante.
HELAHTHA'C£JB, a natural order of endogenous plants; containing bullious, tube-
rous, and fibrous-rooted plants, with or without stems, and having parallel-veined leaves
which are sheathing at the base. The fruit is a capsule, generallv divisible into three
pieces. — There are about 130 known species, natives of all parts or the world, but most
abundant in northern countries. 8ome resemble crocuses, and some are like small
lilies. The order is characterized by a great prevalence of poisonous qualities. Hove
of the species are employed in medicine, particularly colchicum (q.v.), white hellebore
{peratrum alburn^ sec Hellebore), and Sabadilla ((}.v.). The root of helanias dunea is
used in North America as an anthelmintic and touic bitter. The plant grows in wet
places, and is called stanoort and blazing star, also unieortiS horn and deoiCt bit,
M£LA-BOflA, the fruit of the j^enus citrus, and pntbnbly a variety of the lime (q.v.),
cultivated in Italy. It receives its name from its fragrance being thought to resemble
. that of the rose. It is a small flattened fruit, with a protit Iterance at the tip, from which
many raised ribs proceed in a star-like form to the circumfereucc. The skin is yellow,
thin, and adheres closely to the pulp.
MELASTOICA'CES, a natural order of exogenous plar.ts, containing about ISOOknow'n
species; trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, mostly natives of warm climates, although
a few are found in the temperate parts of North America. They have opposite undivided
leaves, destitute of dots. The flowers are regular. — None of the melHStomncese possess
poisonous proi)crties; some are used in dyeing; the gratefully acid leaves of some arc
cooked and eaten — particularlv those of species of m^niUa and (tstronia papetarin in the
Malay Archipelago; some yield eatable and pleasant fruits, as biakea InpUnerrin in Qui-
ana, elidema hirtti in the West Indies, and memeeylon edule in Coromandel. The wood
uf some is tough and hard.
HELAZZO. See Milazzo, ante.
HEL'BOVBKE, capital of the British colony of Victoria, in Australia, is situated
chiefly on the n. baiiK of the Ynrra-Yarra, about 9 m. by water and 3 m. by land above
its mouth, in the spacious bay of Port-Phillip. Lat. 87" 48' s., long. 144" 58' east. Its
streets are straight, regular, and wide, and are paved, macailamized, and plentifully
supplied with gas and ire.sh water. Collins street, one of the leading thoroughfares, U
one-third wider than the famous Broadway of New York. Melbourne is built of brick
and stone, and contains many fine churches. Perhaps norhing gives stronger lesliraony
to the wealth and enterprise of the inhabitants of Melbourne, than the rapidity with
which so many noble institutions as adorn the cily have sprung up among them. Among
these, one of the chief is the university, with an aumisil endowment from tlu* stale of
£9,000. and possessing valuable scholarships and exhibit ions. It is a Inrje building, in
the shape of a parallelogram, and is surrounded by extensive grounds. It was opened
in April, 1855, and has a respectable staff of professors, with a considerable attendance
of students in arts, law, engineering, etc. The post-office, a maspificent structure, in the
Italian stylo, elaborately ornamented with sculpture, was built m 1859. The Ynn- Yean
water-works, by means of Avhich water is conveyed by iron pipes from a distance of 18
m.. were opened in 1857. The parliament houses were erected in 1855. at a cost of
£400,000. The buildings for the exhibition of 1880 cost above £'10,000. Besides tho'^^e
mentioned, the chief institutions are the Melbourne hospital, the henevolont asylum, the
immigrants' home, the servants* home, the orphan asylums, the lying-in hospital, tnas-
ury, county and city courts, public library, custom-house, ban-acks, picture gallery, the
numerous richly ornamented banks, the grammar-school, Scotch college, besides many
other educational establishments, and numerous literary and scientific institutions and
societies. There are three daily newspapers, one evening journal, and several weeklit^s
and monthlies. Melbourne is the center of about a dozen converging lines of railway;
eeveral of these btung. however, only suburban lines. There are sevenil theaters ancl
public parks. The tem'perature is moderate: the mean of the year being 59*, and the
variation between the average temperature of January (midsummer) and July (winter).
19*. The annual rainfall is about 3"^.33 inches. Melbourne occupies the^flrst rank
among the ports of the British colonies, and is the most impiortant trading town of the
southern hemisphere. The pop., including the suburbs, is, 77, 244,700. The chief
exports are gold, silver, wool, hides, cattle, and sheep. Six -sevenths of the entire com-
merce of the colony is caiTied on by Melbourne. For further information n^garding
trade, etc., see Victoria. Ves.sels dfav.ing 24 ft. can come up to the mouth of the
Vanra- Yarra, bat are unable to ascend the river, on account of two bars which obstruct
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oPt't MelftahorrlMB^
^ < -L Melchiaedelu
its coarse MBlbourne*. however, is connected with Sandridge on Port-Phillip by mcoBf
of a railway 2 m.. long. The chief indoatriai establishmeuts of Melbourne are flour-
mills, ttiUow-boiling works, and brass and iron foundries. It is the see of an Episcopal
blsliop and a Roman Catholic archbishop.
Pobt-Phiixdp, on which Melbourne is situated, is a spacious and beautiful inlet of
the South Pacific ocean, on the s. coast of Australia, and is 85 m. long, by about 2C m.
broad. Its entrance, which is only 2 m. in width, is formed by two projecting promon-
tories, called the Heads; and on these promontories strong fortifications were erected in
1861. Navigation at the entrance of the port is difficult, on account of the foul ground
on either side, and tlie violence of the ebb and flood tides, which id caused by the uucvcu-
nesB of the bottom.
Melbourne was first colonized in 1835, and received its name from lord Melbourne,
then the British prime minister, in 1887. It became tlie seat of a bishop in 1847, nnd in
1851 the capital of the newly-formed colony of Victoria, The discovery of gold in Vic-
toria in 1851, which gave such a surprising impetus to the material prosperity of Mel-
bourne, is treated of under Victoria.
XBLBOHBITE, William Lamb, Viscount, English minister, was second son of Fir
Peniston Lamb, of Brocket hall, Herts, who was raised to tlic peerage, Melbourne was
bom in Ijondon in 1779. His university education he receivod first at Trinity collcffc,
Cambridge, and next at Glasgow, where he studied jurisprudence and politics under
prof. Mifiar. He entered the house of commons for Lieominstcr in 1805, and joined the
wbig opposition, under the leadeisbip of Cliarles James Fox. lie accepted the chief
secretaryship of Ireland in Mr. Canmng's government, and tbis partial alienation from
the whig-) was increased when he not only took office under lord Godcrich, but remained
for a short time in the govurnment of the duke of Wellington. In 1828 tl\e, death of his
father iransf erred him to the upper house. In 1830 he accepted the seals. qf tlie home
qt^vp in the;government of earl Grey, but lus administration was by no means popular
qr successful. In July, 1884, eari Grey retired, and William IV. sent for Melbourne. In
November, the king chose to consider the removal of lord Althorp to the upper house
as the breaking up of the Melbourne ministry, and sent for sir Robert Peel, to foiin a
conservative administration. But the house of commons resented tlie interference of
the crown, and a new parliament having shattei'ed the new government, Melbourne again
became first lord of the treasury. On the accession of queen Victoria in 1837, it became
the duty of Melbourne to instruct the young sovereign in the various duties of her high
station, and fit her to pei-form her part as the constitutional monarch of a free country.
In 1841 his government was succeeded by that of sir Robert Peel. Henceforward, Mel-
bourne took little part in public affairs. 'He had little of the oratorical faculty, and was
ineffective as a speaker, but possessed a cheerful temper and cordial frankness of mnn-
ner, which made him many friends. He possessed classical tastes and rare social qual-
ities, joined with an easy temper and careless habits. Bydney Bmith, in his second letter
to archdeacon Singleton, has described his character with an exouisite mixture of sarcasm
and compliment. He married (1805) a daughter of the earl of Bessborougli, who, under
tlie title of Lady Caroline Lamb (b. 1785, d. 18&8), attained some celebrity as a novel-
writer and a correspondent of lord Byron. Melbourne died Nov. 24, 1848.
KSLCHITES, the name given to Christians in Syria and other parts of the east, who, .
acknowledging the authority of the pope, and the doctrines of the church of Rome,
adh(!rc to the liturgy and ceremonies of the Eastern church. They conduct divine serv-
ice m the vernacular tongue, and receive the Lord's Supper in both kinds. Their priests
may be married before ordination, but not their bishops. They are chiefly to be found
in Aleppo and Damascus. Their patriarch resides at Damascus. The name Melchites
(lit. Royalists) dates from the 6th c, when they were supported by the emperors against
the Monophysites (q.v.).
MELCHIZEDEK, or MELCIIISEDEC, said in Genesis to have been "king of Salem
and priest of the most high God," met Abraham — on his return from the succesHful
pursuit of Chcdorlaomer and his allies which be had undertaken for the rescue of I^ot —
refreshing him wiUi bread and wine and pronouncing a remarkable blessinfj on him;
after which Abraham gave him tithes of all tlie spoils, thus acknowledging his oiliciiil
Buperiority. In Ps. ex. David, in predicting the Messiah, says that by divine decix^e he
was to be ** a perpetual priest after the order of Melchisedec." This prediction the epistlts
to the Hebrews interprets in its application to the Lord Jesus Clirist and as connected
with the historical narrative, to all of which it ascribes a symbolic character, botli in the
particulars which it relates and in the silence wliich as to other things it maintains. As
named Melchisedec he represented the king of righteousness, and as being king of Salem
iJie king of peace. As in the narrative he stands alone with no mention of his father,
mother, descent, birth, or death, he becomes a striking emblem of the uncreated Son of
Qwl and of a perpetual priest. As blessing Abraham and receiving tithes from him his
superiority to Abmham and therefore to Levi the priestly son of Abraham was proved.
Consequently the priesthood of Christ, which was accordmg to the order of Melchisedec,
was designed to supersede the priestbootl of Levi and was superior to it, as Levi ancl
bis descendants were all under the power of detUh and would in succession pass away.
These three passage;^ of Scripture (in Genesis, the Psahns, and HebrewsJ contain all that
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MlilchthaL A TO
Meletlas. ^ < ^
is snid about bim and all tbat is known. But in all the pa5;t centuricg mystery has enveloped
his name, and various conjectures concerning bim have been made. The Jews perceiv-
ing bis superiority to AbnUiam as indicated by the blessing bestowed and tbe tithes paid,
explained it by supposing that the kingly priest was Shem, who as a survivor of antp-
dlluviau times had a right to be reverenced as the head of the human race. JeEotne
testifies that tbis was the opinion of the Jews in his day, and it was adopted in modelm
times by Luther, Melanchthon, Selden, Lightfoot, and others. Another old notion which
Jerome says Origen cherished was that tbe royal priest was an angel. A small sect in
the 4th c. called after liis name taught that he was a power or influence of God grenter
than Christ. A few others regarded him as the Holy GhoBt Epiphanius says that some
iu his day believed that ho was the Son of God in human form; to this opinion Ambrose
seemed inclined and it has been held by many in modern times. Some among the Jews
also regarded him as the Messiah. All these conjectures, however, are not oaTy without
support, but are with difficulty reconcilable with the Scriptures. '
MELCIITHAL, Arnold von, b. Switzerland, late in tlie 13th century. He wa«»
called Mclchtlml from the villajje of bis birth in the canton of Unterwaldcn, but his name
was Winckelricd. Melchthal killed the servant of an Austrian bailiff, who had come to
Melchthal to seize the oxen of Melohtbal's fatlicr, a well-to-do proprietor in Unterwalden.
In revenge, the Austrians put out his father's ejes, a tragic incident which is employoi!
by Schiller in his WiUuHm TeU. Wben Melchthal heard of his father's blindness, he fnet
his friends Fnrst of the canton of Uri, and Stauffacber of tbe canton of Sohwyz, on tbe
banks of lake Lncerne, and all tbrce took oath to do all in ibcir power to libefatethe
three cantons from Austrian rule. This was in November, 1807; and tbe next year the
mountaineers of the three cantonc snccessf ullv opposed tbe Austrians. Arnold or Melch-
thal is said to have attempted, at the battle of Sempach, to break a line of Austrian
spears, and to have died ** gathering into his bosom the sheaf of foreign spears." Tlie
whole storv of the three patnots of the three cantons, seems to be as miich of a myth as
the legcncl of William Tell with which it is connected. It is found in the Chronieon
llelTcticrim of ^Egidius Tschudi.
MELCOMBE, Loud. Sec Dodington, ante,
HEL'COHBS BE'GIS and WETKOITTH. See Weykouth.
MELE'AGER, a legendary Greek hero, whasc name is connected with the Ajgo-
nautic expedition, and more conspicuously with the bunting of the Calydonian boar, lie
was the sou of Oencus, king of JEtolia, and Althjea, daughter of Thestius. Upon the
seventh day after his birth the three Fates came to the palace of Ocneus, and poiatini;
to a brand burning on the hearth, said tliat the child should not die till that brand should
Ik? sjjent. Althaja thereupon put water on the brand, and laid it away in a safe place.
As Meleager grew to manhood he made a great name iu war and m the chase. lie
went with the other heroes in quest of the golden fleece; and when Artemis^ in her
wrath, sent a monstrous wild boar to harry Calydon. Meleager was at the head of the
hunters. Of this Calydonian hunt two stories are told. Cue says that iVrtemis had sent
a wild boar into Calydon because Oeneus had not dono stioritice to her at the feast bi
harvest-home, and that Meleager, with many huntsmen and dogs, gave chase to tbe hour,
which was soon slain. The Curctea and ^Etolians wrangled over the boar's hide and
head; and war breaking out between them, the Curetcs had ever the worst, till Melea-
ger, angered at Althaia, his mother, left the field and shut himself up in his house with
Cleopatra, his wife; nor would he be moved by the prayers of hi i father and moth^T
to go out against the Curetes till they had scaled the towers of Calydon; when his wife
succeeded in persuading him to fight against the enemy, whom he repelled. The other
and more modern legend represents all the Greek heroes as taking part iu the hunt at
the invitation of Meleager. Among Uiera were Castor and Pollux. Theseus, Pelcus,
Jason, and Pirithous. Atalanta, daughter of Jasus. had come from Arcadia to join the
hunt, but some of the heroes objected to a womam taking part in it. Their objections were
overcome by Meleager, who wf^s in love with her. The hunt began at once; Ancncus
and Cepheus were killed by the boar; Peleus killed Eurytion by accident. Then At«lantn
gave the boar tbe first wound, Amphiaraus pierced "bis eye with an arrow, and the
monster was finally killed by Meleager, who gave the head and hide to Atalantn. Melen-
ger's uncles, the sons of Thestius, took the hide away from Atalanta, and were killed
by Meleager. Althaea, eiiragod by the death of her brothers, burned the brand upon
which her son's life depended, and Meleager wasted away and died. Althaea took her
own life, Cleopatra died of grief, and Meleager's sisters, with the exception of two, were
changed into birds called Meleagiides. The later legend is told in Swinburne's Ata-
lanta in Calydon.
MELEAGER, a Greek epigrammatist in the 1st c. b.c. He compiled the first known
Greek anthology, a collection called Tlie Garland, and containiug specimens from 46
authors. His anthology has been lost, but 131 of Meleager's own epigrams have l^een
preserved. They are remarkable for their purity of style and grace of yersifik^ation.
The best edition is that published at Leipsic, by Gracfe, in 1811.
MELEAGRIDI'D-iE, See Turkey, ante.
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a7^ Melchthal.
" * ^ Meletiua.
nXEOVAirO) or Malegnano, formerly Mabignano. a town of northern Italy, 10
m.9.e. of Milan, has a pop. of 5,000. It is famous as the scene of a great victory won by
Francis I. of France over the Swiss and Milanese in the month of September, 1515;
upwards of 20,000 men were slain. This conflict has been termed tlie Battle of the Giants.
Francis accepted the honor of knighthood on the field from the chevalier Bayard. A
second battle was fought here June 8, 1859, between a French force of 16.000 men, under
marshal Baraguay d'Hilliers, and a rather larger body of Austrian troops, in which the
latter were routed with a loss of about 1,400 killed and wounded.
mXBKOSZ YALBBS^ Don Jvan, one of the most distingaished of the modem Span-
ish poets, was b. Mar. 11, 1754, at the Tillage of Ribera del Fresno, in Estremadura.
He studied at Madrid and subsequently at Salamanca, where he became intimate with
the poet Cadalso. and acquired a thorough knowledge of English. It was Locke, he
said, who flrst taught him to reason, and his writings contain imitations of Pope. Thom-
son, and Yoimg. In his earlier period he wrote admirable anacreontics in praise of stu-
dent-life; his descriptive poetry is also excellent. His style and sentiment are simple
and natural ; and the national idioms are used with singular grace and vigor. The first
collection of his verses appeared in 1785, and soon became very popular. Four years
before this publication Melendcz Valdes was appointed a professor at Salamanca, and
high political honors even seemed in store for him, but during the French invasion he
allowed himself to be cajoled by Murat, and afterwards bv Joseph Bonaparte; a weak-
ness which was as disastrous to his prospects as it was discreditable to his character.
When the invaders were driven out of the peninsula the unhappy poet was forced to
accompany them. He died a proscrilxjd traitor, at Montpellier, May 21, 181 7> Melen-
dez Yaldes's anacreontics are the writing on which his fame rests, and they have pro-
cured for him the title of Bestaurador delParnaso.
MELETIUS, Saint, of Antioch, a famous Greek ecclesiastk); b. in the beginning of
the 4th c. at Melitene in Armenia Minor. His first important appointment was to
the bishopric of Sebaste on the deposition of Eustathius in a.d. 857, but his position
was made so unpleasant by the stubborn conduct of the people that he soon resigned,
and retired to Bereea or Aleppo in Syria. The Arian controversy was now engrossing .
the minds of the people, and extinguishing true piety, but Meletiiis endeavored by his
ministrations in the pulpit and his consistent private life to commend to his people the
essenttai truths of the gosnel. He thus won the respect of buth factions, and in a.d.
960 was raised by universal consent to the see of Antioch. In his new and high posi-
tion he felt bound to take a decided course in the prevailing dispute, and in liis inaugu-
ral discourse in 861 he expressed his sympathy with the orthodox party. This confes-
sion re-awakened the spirit of controversy "in the church of Antioch. The Arinns
charged him with Sabellianism and other crimes, and in a month he was banished by
command of the emperor Constantius to his native Melitene. Euzoius was installed in
his place. The orthodox party in the church of Antioch seceded from the communion
of the Arians, and on the accession of the emperor Julian in 862 Meletius was
recalled from exile. He now strove earnestly for two years to effect a union between
the Eustathians and the orthodox party that had separated from the Arians at the time
of his banishment, but the Eustathians refused to recognize any bishop who had been
consecrated by the Arians. The council of Alexandria sent Lucifer of Cagliari to Anti-
och to settle the dispute, but he defeated the plan of reconciliation by ordaining Pau-
linus bishop of the Eustathians. Soon after the accession of Valens in 864 Meletius was
a^in banished. B^ an edict of Gratian in 378 he was recalled, and reinstated in his
bishopric. He again endeavored to effect a union with the Eustathians, but was unsuc^
cessful through the unrelenting prejudice of Paulinus. Meletius died at an advanced
age, while in the council of Constantinople in 381. His body was taken to Antioch
and buried with great honor beside the tomb of the martyr Babylas. His funeral ora-
tion was pronounced by Gregory of Nyssa. A part of the inaugural discourse of Mele-
tius at Antioch is printed in the fifth vol. of Galiand*s BibUoVieca Patrum,
IHELETIUS, or MBLirnjs; b. in Egypt about 260; was bishop of Lycopoiis in The-
bais in tlie beginning of the 4th c, and founder of the sect of tne Meletians. During
the severe persecution under Diocletian and Maximin, he and Peter, archbishop of
Alexandria, were thrown into prison. Many Christians who had been led through tor-
ture to renounce their faith, repenting of their sin. repaired to the two bishops to receive
absolution, and to be reconciled to the church. Peter was willing to receive the back-
sliders, on their doing penance, but Meletius refused to have any intercourse with them
until the close of the persecution. A majority of the imprisoned Christians approved
of bis conrse. This caused a schism, and Meletius became the leader of the disaffected.
After obtaining liis freedom he traveled through the patriarchate, ordaining and excom-
municating according to his own will, obtaining many, followers, and disregarding the
protests of the Egyptian bishops. This proselyting tour wfts extended to Palestine.
But in 825 the council of Nice checked his career, compelling hiip,^to remain at Lycop-
oiis as a mere titular bishop without active jurisdiction. He died soon after tins. The
Meletians called themselves the church of the Martyrs, They afterwards allied them-
selves with the Arians against Athanasias, continuing, however, a distmct sect until the
M elloBi. O 4 i
MZL'FI, an ancieDt episcopal town of southern Italy, in the province of Potenza, 82
m. 6. of Foggia, on a feeder of the Of an to (anc. Aufidiu). It is situated on a bed of lava
to the n.e. of tiie lofty (3,000 feet) volcanic Monte VoUure, now extinct, from which it is
separated by a deep ruvine. Tlie once magnificent cathedral, erected in 1155, was
almost entirelv destroy e<l by an earthquake m 1851, which at the same time leveled
many fine buildings, public and private, and destroyed about 1000 persons. The only
evidences of volcanic action are tlie severity of the earthquakes which occasionally deso-
late the district, and the emission at times of carbonic acid and other gases from tbe
lakes in the old crater of the volcano, throwing up columns of water, accompanied by
internal rumblings. This phenomenon generally takes place when Vesuvius is in a stale
of activity. The district around the city is celebrated for its wine. Pop. 11,225.
HELIA'CEIB, a natural order of exogenous plants, containing nearly 200 known spe-
cies, trees and shrubs, natives of warm climates, and mostly tropical. Many of tlie
species possess bitter, astringent, and tonic properties; some are used in medicine; the
seeds of some yield useful oil; some are poisonous; some yield pleasant fruits; the wood
of some is valuable. See Carapa. — The lanseh is the most esteemed fruit of this
order; and next to it is milnea eduUs, a fruit of the n.e. of India, of which the edlbk
part is the large succulent aril. — The Cape Ash {ekeberffia capensiti} deserves notice among
the timber trees of this order. It has a trunk two feet in aiameter, and yields excellent
tough timber, useful for many purposes. — Melui azedarach, a tree about forty feet high,
with large bipinnate leaves, a native of Syria and other parts of the east, hsis long been
much phinted as an ornamental tree in the -a. of Europe, and is now common in the*
southern states' of North America. Its flowers are in large spikes, and very fragrant.
The fruit ts of the size of a cherry, somew^hat elongated, pale vellow, containing a brown
nut. The nut^ are bored and strung for beads in Roman Catholic countries, whence the
tree is often called Bead Tree. It is also known as the pride of India, and is sometimes
erroneously called Persian lilac. The fruit is sweetish, and not poisonous, although very
generally reputed so. The bark of the root, which is bitter and nauseous, is used as an
anthelmintic. The pulp of the fruit of the Nebh Tree or MARaosA Tree {eusndiraehta
Indica) yields a fixed oil, which is bitter, stimulant, and anthelmintic. The bark is a
valuable tonic. The leaves are universally used in India for poultices.
XELIC GRASS, Melica, a genus of grasses, having a lax panicle, and spikelets of 2 to 5
awnless florets, of which one is generally impKsrfect. M. uniflora is a common grass
in Brltmn, grovvin^ in the shade of woods. It is of a graceful and delicate apx>earanoe.
Cattle are fond of it. M. nutans is a rarer British species. M, ctUUtsima, a Siberian spe-
cies, Rowing to the height of 8 or 4 feet, has been introduced in some parts of Europe,
and yiQlds a considerable bulk of herbage. It is perennial.
HELtCOO'CA, a genus of trees or shrubs of The natural order sapindaeecB, one of which,
M. bijtiga, a native of the West Indies, is there unlversidly cultiviiled for its fruit.
It is called the Honet Berry, and the Jatnftim. ImUaee plum; by the Spaniards ww/w?,
and bjr the Dutch knipnee. It is from 16 to 20 ft. high. The fruit is jet black, abont
the size of a bullace. The seeds are roasted, and eaten like chestnuts. Other species of
melicocca yield eatable fruits.
MELIKOFP, LORIS, Michael TARiELOvrrcH, b. Russia, 1826; descended from a
wealthy family of the Cauciwian nobility. He was educated in the school of the guards
of St. Petersburg, and joiued the army with the rank of comet, being promoted tb a liea-
tenancy in 1847. He saw active service in the Caucasus, as adjutant to prince .Vorow-
ssoff, and gained a reputation for remarkable military talents. Here he led a number of
expeditions against the fierce native soldiery, and had even the honor of def easting the
celebrated Shamyl. During the Crimean war he had several successful engagements
with the enemy in front of Kai-9, and on the capitulation of that stronghold was
appibbited its governor. In 1856, at the close of the war, h^ was made a maj.gen.,.and
in 1B68 lieut.^n. He was appointed adj.gen. in 1865, and gen. of cavalry in 1875; and
in the following year was placed in command of the corps wliich was stationed on the
Turkish frontier, and, on the declaration of war, marched into the enemy *b territory.
He besieged Kars and encountered serious resistance, being forced to retire; he, how-
ever, received relnforoements, defeated the Turkish army before Kars, and captured the
fortress by storm. In 1880 the nihilist movements having become alarmin?, and the
danger of Russia being apparently imminent, the czar Alexander appointed Mellkoff to
a position of absolute authority and power— an actual dictatorship without responsi-
bility— in which delicate and dangerous situation he conducted himself in such a manner
as to ooaunand the admiration of the statesmen of Europe. He restored order in a great
measure where anarchy liad been impending; and wiclaed his urilihtited authority with
such firmness and judgment as to fully sustain the wisdom of his appointment.
* XSL'HiOT, Ahltlatns. a genus of clover-like plants of ,tUe natural order legumMOsa,
with ternate leaves, differing from the clovers in the generally elongated racemes of
flowers, the stamens not adhering to the corolla, and tbe 1 to 4 seeded tumid poda All
the species have a strong peculiar a'^eetish smell, which becomes more agreeable when
they are dried, and is owing to the presence of coumarin <q.v.)— The Common Tellow
Hblilot {M. offieinaHiyis found in bushy places and the borders of fields in Britain
Digitized by VjOUV IC
fir^ Mem.
nnd most parts of Europe. It has an erect stem, two or three ft. high, and lon^ loose .
axillary nicemcs of yellow flowers. A water distilled from the flowera is used m per-
fumery. The herbage is relished b^ cuttle, but the produce is not large. It is au annual,
but if frequently mowed without being permitted to flower, lives for several years. — Tho
White Mei4Iix>t (if. vulgaris or leueantha\ common m some parts of Europe, has
become naturalized in many places in Britain. — The Blue Melilot (Jf. cm-ulea), a
native of the n. of Africa, wiih short racemes of blue flowers, is cultivated in many parts
of Europe, particularly in Switzerland and the Tyrol, and has the peculiar melilot odor
m a high degree. It was formerly much used in mediciue as an anodyne, discutieut, ;^
diuretic, sudforiflc, expectcvrant, ami vulnerary; and to the many good qualities supposed j
to belong to it may be ascribed the high estimation in which the ttchabzuger or chapeisger j
cheese of Switzerland is held, to which it imparts its flavor. Where this cheese is made.l
in considerable quantities the smell of melilot can be discerned even at a distance. —
Bokhara Clovek (if. arhorea) has attracted attention on account of the fiber of its
stem, which is used for the same purposes as hemp. — The l^lsssmA Melilot {M. me»-
dnejkMs), a native of the countries near the Mediterranean, is believed to be one of the .
plants called loUu by the ancients.
XELIOSA'TIOlfB, the name used in Scotch law to denote the improvements made Uy
a tenant to the estate or farm which he oocupied. If the leasu is terminated prematurely
and abruptly he is entitled to compensation from the landlord for the vahie of the
improvements; it is otherwise in England. Similar claims exist in Scotland in case of
iieirs of entail or life>renters improving the estate.
MnPJ.TPKAOlDiE. See Hokey-eateb.
XXLIS 010 ACID AND XSLISSHr. See Wax.
MELISSUS, of Somos. Sec Eleatic School.
MELITA. See Malta.
HELL, Patrick H., d.d., ll.d., b. Oa., 1814 Left a destitute orphan by the death
of his parents at the age of 14, but having received a good elementary education he
earned the means to support himself for two years at ^^herst college. He hecam^; a
Baptist minister, and soon after the opening of Mercer university- he was appointeil pro-
fessor of ancient languages. In 1861 he was called to the same professorship in the state
university, and sub^uently became vice-chancellor, resigning in 187^, but retaining
the professorship. H^was for 1^ years president of the Georuria Baptist convention, and
for 9 yeais of the southern Baptist convention. His published works are Baptism;
Correctiw Church Discipline; PredesHnaUon; Essay on Calvinism; An ArguinetU on tJie
SuiQett of Slavery; A Sermon on OodCs ProeidsfUial Governtnent; a Treatise on ParUa-
meniary Practice; Prayer as Belated to P/vvidence*
MELLEN, Grbitvtlle, 179&-1841; b. in Bfddeford, Me.; son of chief-justice Mel-
Icn ; educate<l at Harvard and, after graduating in 1818. studied law and engaged in
practice in North Yarmouth. He was a poet of much taste and some power, and also a
magazine writer. Besides many occasional pieces, such as The Best of Empires, read in
1826 before the Maine peace society, he published, in 1827, Our Chronicles of Tieenty-six,
a satire; Glad Tales and Sad Tales (1829), a collection of prose papers; and, in 1888, T/ts
Montyrt^ Triumphs and other poems. In New York he l)egan the issue of a Monthly
MsoeUany, which failed after a few numbers. Mr. Mellen had long been a sufferer
from consumption, and in 1840 made an unavailing voyage to Cuba for his health.
MELLEN, Prentiss. ll.d., 1764-1840; b. at Sterling, Mass. ; educated at Harvard,
wher^ he graduated in 1784, and be^n the practice of law at Bridgewater, Mans. He
afterward resided in Biddef ord aqd Portland, Me. In his profession he soon acquire(j^ a
high standing and took an active part in political movements. . From 1817 to 1820 he was
one of the United States senators from Massachusetts. In 18?0'he was made chief-justice
of the supreme court of Maine, which position he held for 14 years.
MELLONI, Macedokio, 1800-54; b. Italy: began the study of natural philosophy
at sqliool, and had already entered upon extensive experiments in regard to the radiation
of heat, when, in 1824, he was callea to the chair of natural philosophy in the university
of I^ma. In 1881 he was forced for political reasons to leave Parma and remove t^
Prance. His discoveries in the radiation of heat he laid before the French academy of
sciences, in a memoir to which that body paid little attention; but the English royal
society deemed it worthy of the Rumford medal. Tlirough the influence of his friends
Arago and Humlwldt, Melloni was allowed to return to Italy, and \vas appointed by the
king of Naples director of the meteorological observatory on Mt. Vesuvius. Here he
di8a>vered the existence of heat in the limar light. In 1849, though he had taken no
active part in politics, he was dismissed from his position in the observatory, on account
of his known liberal views. He lived thenceforward in his villa at Partici, near Naples,
eontinaing his experiments. In 1850 appeared the lirst volume of his La Termocrotl,
dedicated to Arago and Humboldt. He disputed the theories of Faraday as to the dimin-
ished velocity noticeable in an electric current passed through wires under grotmd, or
under water, in comparison with an equal current pasabg through wires in the air.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
Melrose. ^ ' ^
MELMOTH, William, 1666-1743; b. England; called to the bar in 1719. and a
l)encher of Lincoln's Inn, of which he was treasurer in 1730. He was a&sociated with
Peere Williams in the publication of Vernon's chancery lleporU. He is, however, best
kdown by his work Tke Great Importance of a Religious Life Considered, which was
e:j^ceedingly popular in the last c, and of which over 100,000 copies are said to have been
8old. It appeared anonymously, and was for a time ascribed to the first earl of Egmont.
T^ie Memoirs of William Mdmoth was published by his son William in 1796.
MELMOTH, WiLLiAK, 1710-99; b. England; son of William; called to the bar, and
in 1756 made a commissioner of bankrupts; but he paid little attention to the practice
of his profession, devoting his ample leisure to the cultivation of literature. Two vol-
umes of Letters on Several Sul^ects appeared from his pen in 1742, under the paeudon^m
of sir Thomas Fitzosbome. They deal with a variety of subjects, chiefly htenur and
ethical. Five years later he published a translation of the Lettei's of Fliny, which is a
model of ele^nce and exactness. This was followed in 1753 by a translation of Cicero's
Letters, and in 1778 and 1779 by translations, with full notes, oi the De Amiciiia and De
/ieneetute. He also wrote a treatise on the Christian religion; a poem on Actitse and
Retired Life, which may be found in Dodsley's Poems-, and a memoir of his father, which
appeared in 1796 as Afemoirs of a late Eminent Advocate.
MELO or MELLO, Francisco Makubl db, 1611-65; b. Portu^l; entered the
army and became coL He was sent to suppress the insurrection in Catalonia against
Phiup IV. He entered the service of Portugal tiiter its separation from Spain, but, f aladv
accused of murder, he was imprisoned, and for years was an exile in Brazil. He wrote •
in Spanish at the request of PhiUp IV. a history of the Catalonian revolution entilUd
Historia de los Movimientos, Separacton y Ouerra de Catalufla, 2 vols. More than 100 vol-
umes of his works have been printed. He wrote sAao aereral disamas aud poems, the best
of which was Las tres Musas de Melo dino,
MELODEON. Bee Reed I2?8trument8.
XELOD&AKA (Gr. melos, a song, and drama) strictl^r denotes a half -musical drama,
or that kind of dramatic peif ormance in which declamation is interrupted from time to
time by instnimental inusic. The name, however, was flret applied to the opera by its
inventor, Ottavio Rinuccini. In Germany the melodrama retains its primitive charac-
ter; but both in France and England the name has come to designate a romantic play,
generally of a serious nature, in which great prominence is given to splendid decoration,
to sensational incidents, and to an effective denouement.
XELODT (Gr. sweet song) is a succession of musical notes regulated so as to be please
ing to nil cultivated ears, and expressive as a whole of some particular feeling. It is
opposed to harmony, in which different notes, being chords, are sounded together. The
part intended for the leading voice in a harmonized piece of music is often called the
nndody or air. The character of a melody depends in a great degree on the rhythm and
measure, as the same succession of sounds may, by the slightest change in the power of
the notes, be so altered in character as to produce a different effect.
XSLOn, Cueumis melo, a plant of the same genus with the cucumber (q.v.), much
cultivated for its fruit, which is sweet, with a delicious though peculiar flavor and smell
The melon la an annual, with trailing or clunbing stems, lateral tendrils, rounded
angular leaves, small,, yellow, monoecious flowers, and laiige round or somewhat ovate
fruit. It is supposed to be a native of the sub-tropical parts of Asia, although it has
ncv^ been discovered in a wild state, and it was flrst introduced into England from
Jamaica about 1570. It is said to derive its name fi-om the Grecian island Melos. It«
English name was originally musk melon. The varieties in cultivation are very numer-
ous, some of them distinguished bv a thick and warty rind, some by a rind cracked in a
net-like manner, some by ribs and furrows, some by a peiicctly smooth and thin rind:
they differ also in the color of theflesJi of the fruit, which is green, red, yellow, etc; and
in the size of the fruit, wliich varies from 8 or 4 in. to a foot or more in diameter. The
melon is eaten either by itself or witli sugar, and sometimes with pepper or ginger.
The melon can be grown in the open air only in the most southern parts of Britain, and
even there requires a hot-bed in spring. Its cultivation in hot-beds is extensively carried
on in all parts of Britain, and verj"^ great care is bestowed on it. A loamy soil is best
Sioited to It. The setting of the fruit by dusting the female flower with the pollen of the
male flower is constantly practiced by gardeners. Warmth and bright sunshine are
requisite to the production of fruit or good ^[uality.— The Water-Mbloh or Gitrul
{cucumis citrutlm), although rarely cultivated in Britain, is highly esteemed and much
cultivated in almost all warm countries. It is a native of the warm parts of the old
world. It has deeply lobed and gashed leaves, and a largB round fruit with smooth
dark-green spotted rind, and pink or white flesh; less sweet than the melon, but mnch
more juicy or watery, and therefore much prized in many warm countries, not merely
as an ai'ticle of food, but for quenching thirst and allaying fever. — South Africa has
ainother species of water-melon {C. Caffer), very valuable to the inhabitants.— Tlic
Chate (uichixte) is a native of Egypt and Arabia. Its taste is sweet, and as cool as the
water-melon. —The Kaitkoor (C. utilissimus) is a native of India, and much cultivated in
some parts of that country; it ha& oval fruit, smooth^ variegated with different shades of
Digitized by VjOUV IC
yellow, and about 6 in. long, with mucli the flavor of the melon. The fruit will keep
for ^veral months, and is much used both raw and in curries. -The half-grown fruit m
pickled. The seeds contain much farina and oil, and are ground into meal ; the oil is
also expressed, and used both for food and in lamps. The seeds of others of this genus
may be used in the same way; and they are said to be useful as a diuretic medicine, and
for relief of strangury.
XELO'BIA, a small island of the Mediterranean, about 5 m. in length and 1 in
breadth, 4 m. from Leghorn. In 1284 the Genoese gained a famous naval victory over
the Pisans in the vicinity of Meloria, by which the latter were deprived of their mari-
time supremacy. An ancient Pisan tower stands on a rock to the s. of Meloria.
HELOS, or Kilo, an island of the larger Ovclades In the Grecian archipelago, or
uCgean sea, about 70 m. n. of Crete, and 65 m. e. of Peloponnesus; pop. 4,000. It is 14 m.
lon<?, and 8 broad, and has on its n. coast one of the best and safest natural harbors m the,
Levant. The surface is generally mountainous, and of a volcanic character, and there are
hot mineral springs, and deposits of sulphur. The soil is fertile, and produces largely la
fruit, wine, and ml, wliile SLCfording also excellent pasturage for cattle. In the e. part of
the island, near the port, is the chief town, called Milo; and near are extensive rcmama
of the ancient capital of the island. Near the sea the groi!ind is marshy, and the air ti
unwholesome in summer. This island is Fald to have been' coloniased *tir6t by the Phe-
niciftitfs and afterwaids by the LacedoBmotuana. An attempt made by the Athenians to
reduce it during the Peloponneeian war, was miflacoessfal, but some years later they be-
sieged the town, put the adult males to death, carried away the women and children into
slavery, and occupied the place by a colony of Athetaians. Melos fell succeesiveljr under
the dominion of the Romans, the Byzantine emperors, Venice, and the Turks: it is now
a pan of Greece. In 1820 admiral Dumont found in Melos the since celebrated statue
kuown as the '' Venus of Milo," and which now stands in the Louvre. This statue was
without arms when found, and in 1877 it was reported that the lost members had been'
found near the locality where the statue was originally discovered. The highest emi-
nence on the island is Mt. St. Ellas, 2.688 ft. higli. The Cydades group of islands are
believed to have formed in antediluvian times a part of a continuous chain of mountains
connected on the n. with the mountains of Attica, and by the island of Melos with the
western mountains of Candia on the south. Between Melos and Argentiera, a rockv
Island to the n., is a channel half a mile wide, which has an evil notoriety for its pecul-
iarly dangerous character.
XELFOH'SHS (the 6inging One), one of the nine Muses, specially invoked as the
muse of tragedy.
MELROSE, a t. in Middlesex co., Mass., 8 m. n.w. from Boston, on the Boston and
Maine railroad ; pop. 8,414. It has seven churches, 14 public schools, 2 post-offices, a
public park, a library, 1 weekly newspaper, a volunteer fire department, and manufac-
tures of furniture, boots and shoes, sewing-machine needles, silver polish, etc. It is
supplied with water from Spot pond. It is pleasantly situated, and is an attractive place
for residence of business men from Boston.
MELBOSE', a pleasant vilia^ at the foot of the Eildon hills, on the s. bank of the
Tweed, having a population of 1405 at tiie census of 1871. It is famous for the ruins
of its noble Cistercian abbey, founded bv king David I. in 1136. The original pile hav-
ing been destroyed during the wars of the succession, the monastery began to be rebuilt
alx>ut 1326. "fhe work was helped by large grants from king Robert Bruce, and his
son king David II., but proceeded so slowly that it was scarcely finished at the refor-
mation, in the middle of the 16th century. It was in the second pointed style, with one
or two approaches to third pointed, and was beyond doubt the most beautiful structure
of which Scotland could boast in the middle ages. What now remains are the chief por-
tions of the conventual church, measuring 261 ft. in length, and some fragments of the
cloister, which would seem to have been a square 150 it. deep. The tracery and carv-
ings, cut in stone of singular excellence, are scarcely surpassed by any in England.
In the pages of Scott, Melrose shines with a splendor which its meager history fuls to
sustain. Its line of abbots showed one saint, St. Waltheof, the stepson of its royal'
founder. King Alexander II. chose his sepulture within its walls; Bruce left it the legacy
of his heart; and it gave tombs to that flower of Scottish chivalry, the knight of Liddes-
dale, and to his kinsman, the heroic Douglas who fell at Otterbum. But its annals have
little else to record. As a seat of piety and learning, its renown is eclipsed by the older
and humbler monastery founded by St. Aidan, about the middle of the 7th c, and com-
memorated by the Venerable Bbde as the home of Eata, of Boisil, of Cuthbert, and
of Drycthelm. **Old Melrose," as it was called after the 13th c, stood about two m.
below the modem abl)ey, on a beautiful promontory almost encircled by the Tweed, It
was biirned by Kenneth, king of Scots, in 889, and seems never to have recovered the
blow. After it had lain waste for many years, we hear of it about 1078, as giving shel-
ter, for a short season, to a few fugitive monks. All that survived the erection of the
later abbey was a chapel dedicated to St. Cuthbert, and still famous about the middle of
the 15th c. as a resort of pilgrims. The Chronica de Mailroi, a series of brief obits and
annals from 781 to 1275, has been twice printed, flnst among the Quind^eem Scrwtoxes
Melton. />^Q
.Itelyme. ^*0
JlistaricB Anglkana, published by. bishop Fell at Oxford in 1684; and again by Mr. Joeefdi
Btevenson, for the Bannatyne club, at Edinburgh in 1835. The charters of the ftiore
modern abbey iivere printed by Mr. Cosmo Innes, at Edinburgh in 1837, for tlieaanie
society, at the cost of the duke of Buccleuch, in two sumptuoua quartos, with the title
of the Liber 8. Marie de Metros.
KELTOH-XOWBSAT, a market-town of England, in the county of Leicester, and 16
ra. n.e. of the town of that name, on the Eye near its junction with the Wreak, which
is navigable to the Soar-Navigation, about 11 m. above the town. Stilton cheese is
manufactured, and pork-pies are extensivel^r made, chiefly for retail in the London,
Mancliester, and Leeds markets. In the vicinity are numerous hunting-seats, and tbe
town, with stabling accommodation for 800 horses, is the central rendezvous of tlie
famous Melton hunt. There are breweries, tanneries, and 5 banks. Pop. 71, 5,011.
XEIITV, an ancient t. of Prance, capital of the department of Seine-et-Marne, built
on an island and on both banks of the Seine, 28 m. s.c. of Paris. The manufactures are
cement, bricks, tiles, and hats, and there is a trade in timber, grain, and flour. Melun,
tJie Melodvnum of 'the Romans, was stormed five times during the 9th c. by the North-
men, and fell into the h^nds of the English after a siege of six months, in 1419, and was
held by them for ten years. Pop. 76, 11,215.
MELVIL, Sir Ja3CES, op HALLHrLL, 1585-1617, was the third son of sir John Melvil
or Melville of Baith, Scotland, who was convicted and executed at Stirling on charges
of high treason brought by archbishop Hamilton, on account of his devotion to the prin-
ciples of the reformation. His estates were conflscated and the widow and children
reduced to poverty. Young Melvil was sent to France and became page of honor to
the bishop or Valence, and was afterwards attached to the service of the constable Mont-
morenci. Under him he saw his first military service in Flanders in 1558, and in 1557
was taken prisoner at the battle of St. Quentin after the defeat of the constable's fon-es.
Two years afterwards he obtained his release and was dispatched to Scotland on a
secret mission. During his absence occurred the tournament in w^hich Montmorenci bad
the ill fortune to kill Henry II. ; and at Melvil's return he judged it best to turn his stefys
towards Germany, where he was employed by tlie elector palatine. While on a visit to
France in 1561 he for the first time met queen Mar^ of Scotland, to whom he tendered
his allejriance and sword ; and in 1564, having received a summons through Moray, lie
returned to his native land and presented himself to Mary at Perth. ShorSy afterwards
he was sent to England as ambassador to queen Elizabeth, and the account given in his
memoirs of this embassy is of great historical value. Again in 1566 he was sent to
England to bear the news of the birth of an heir to the Scottish throne. In the event-
ful period which followed, Melvil displayed much prudence and policy. He adhered to
the queen so long as there appeared to be any hope of her ultimate succef», but after siie
was committed to Lochleven castle, was received into some favor- by the regency; but
not being a favorite of the earl of Arran, his name was struck ofiF the list of privy coun-
cilors. In 1590 he was attached to the queen's household. T/ie Memoirs ^ Sir James
Melvil of HjalrhiXl: Coviaining an Impartial Aeemtntofthe most Bemarkabls Affairs cf State
during the last Age, etc., was published in 1688 by his grandson, George Scott. This
edition differs in many respects from a manuscript afterwards found, in what is thought
to be sir James's handwriting; the latter was printed in 1827 at Edinburgh.
MELVILL, Hknry, d.d., 1800-71; b. at Pendennia castle, Cornwall, England;
educated at St. Peter's college, Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1821. After
taking orders he became the incumbent of the parish of Camden chapel, in London ; and
filled successively the offlces of principal ot the East India college, chaplain of the
Tower of London, chaplain to the aueen, 1858. canon of St. Paul's, 1S56; and in 1863
became rector of Barnes, and a rural dean. His reputation, both as a finished and ele-
gant w^riter and as a pulpit orator of power and eloquence, gave him a very high position
among the English clergy. In 1848 he w^as elected mcumbent of what is known as the
golden lectureship of St. Margaret's. A great number of lus lectures and sermons have
been published in England and republished in this country. Of these the Golden Lecture*
axul a number of others were printed without his consent. In 1847 a New York hou6e
published in two volumes 68 sermons, printed with the consent of the author. We may
also note Voices of the Tear; Golden Counsels (1857); and Persuasions to a Christian Life,
as among the best of his writings. Melville is described by the author of Random
BecoUeciions as " certainly the greatest rhetorician among our metro[>olitan prau:^crs.
He clothes the most commonplace ideas in language wliich is so rich in the ornaments
of rhetoric that they are often mistaken for conceptions of the most brilliant character.
He is exceedingly partial to th§ use of -analogy in addressing his hearers. And his an«k>-
fies are often exceedingly happy; at times they are particularly striking. ....
[e arrests the hearer's attention the instant he begins, and carries him with him, a will-
ing captive, to the close of his sermon." A severe taste will sometimes conaider his
analogies extreme in their range.
M£L'YILI£, the name of an island, a sound, and a peninsula in the n. polar r^;ioiis
of America. The island is in lat. between 74* 80' and 77"* n., long, between 106* 40 and
117° 80' west Greatest length, 200 m. ; greatest breadth, 130 m. It is separated on the
Digitized by V^OUV IC
■* A7Q Meltoh,
• ^'^ . M«lvUI«.
west by Fitzwilliam and Kellet straits from Prince Patrick island,' the most westiTn
islaiid of these regions. In 1819 lieut. Parry, who gave its name to Melville islaud.
passed the winter here with his crews, in the vain hope of finding in summer a passage
westward to the Pacific. Melville sound, about 250 m. long by 209 m. broad, extends
immediately south-east of Melville island. It communicates with the Arctic ocean on
the west by Banks's strait, and with Baffin's bay on the east by Barrow stniit and Lan-
c:ister sound. Melville peninsula, abutting from the continent of British North Amer-
ica, is bounded on the north by Fury and Hecla strait, and Connected with the main
land by Rue isthmus. It is 2«30 m. in length by about 100 m. in average breadth. Lat.
06' lO'^to eg** 50' n., long. 81* to 87° west.
MELYILLE, Andbew, an eminent Scottish reformer, was b. Aug. 1, 1545, at Baldovy,
on the backs of the South £ak, near Montrose. He was educated at the grammar
school of Montrose, whence he removed in his fourteenth year to the university of St.
Andrews. Here he remained four years, and left it with the reputation of being ** the licist
philosopher, poet, and Grecian of any young master in the land." He then proceeded
to Paris, where he continued his studies for two years. His reputation must have been
already cousidcnible, for in his twenty-first year he was chosen regent in "the college of
St. Marceon, Poictiers, whither he had gone a perfect stranger, to acquire a knowledge
of law. Some time afterwards he proceeded to Ckneva, where he was more in his ele-
ment, both politically and religiously, and where, by the infiuence of his friend Beza.
he was appointed to the chair of humanity in tlie academy. He returned lo Scotland
in 1574, and was, in the course of the same year, appointed principal of the universiry
of Glasgow, where his scholarship, energetic discipline, and intrepidity of character exer-
cised a most quickening and elevating influence. When the regent Morton exclaimed
on one occasion, *' There will never be auielness in this country till half a dozen of you
be hanged or banished," Melville is said to have replied: **Tu8h, man; threaten your
courtiers so. It is the same to me whether I rot in the air or in the ground; and I have
lived out of your country as well as in it. Let Gk>d be praised, you can neither hang
nor exile his truth I" In 1580 Melville was chosen principal of St. Mary's college, St, .
Andrews. Here^ "besides giving lectures on theology, he taught the Hebrew, Chaldee,
Syriac, and rabbinical languages. In 1582 he prea<uied the opening sermon before the .
general ass^nbly, and boldly *' inveighed against the bloody Knife of absolute author-
ity, whereby men intended to pull the crown off Christ's head, and to wring the scepter
oiit of Ills hand." The assembly applauded his intrepidity, drew up a rcmonstmnce in
a similar spirit, and appointed Melville and others to present it. In less than two years
Melville was summoned before the privy council, on account of a sermon preached at
St. Andrews. He declined to appear, maintaining that whatever a preacher mij^ht say
in the pulpit, even if it should be called treason, he was not bound to answer for it in a
civil court, until he had been first tried in a church court. For this denial of secular
jurisdiction he was condemned lo imprisonment, but escaped to London, where
lie remained till the downfall of Arrau in the following year. After an absence
of twenty months he returned to Scotland and resumed his office at St. Andrews.
He was repeatedly elected moderator of the general assembly and rc/ctor of ihe
univei-sity. A remarkable instance of his plain speaking took place at Cupar in 1590. ,
Melville was heading a deputation to *' remonstrate" with the king. James reminded
the zealous remonstrant that he was hU vassjd. "Sirrah I" retorted Melville, **yc
are 6od*s silly vassal; there are two kings and two kingdoms in Scotland — there is
king James, the head of this commonwealth; and there is Christ Jesus, the king of the
church, whose subject James the Sixth is, and of whose kingdom he is not a king, nor
a lord, nor a head, but a member." In 1605 Melville was called to England to attend *
the famous conference at Hampton court. Having ridiculed the service in the chapel
royal in a Latin epigram, he was summoned before the English privy council, where
bis temper gave way, and he broke out into a torrent of invective agjiinst the archbishop
of Canterbury for encouraging popery and superstition, profaning the Sabbath, etc.
The king, violating every principle of justice, immediately sent him lo the Tower, where
he remained for more than four 3'^ears. In 1611 he was released on the solicitation of
the duke of Bouillon, who wanted his services as a professor in his university at Sedan
ID France. Melville, now in his sixty-sixth year, would fain have gone home to Scot-
land to lay his bones there, but the king would on no account hear of such a thing; and :
he was forced to spend his old age in exile. Melville died about 1622, but neither the
date of his death nor the events of his last years are ascertained. See Life of AndTew
MelvOU by Dr. M'Crie (2 vols. 1819).
MELVILLE, Hbbman, an American author, was b. in New York, Aug. 1, 1819. At
the age of 18 he shipped as a common sailor on a voyage to Liverpool; and in 1841 he
went again liefore the mast on a whaling voyage to the Pacific. Ill-treated by the capt..
he deserted at Nukafaeva, Marquesas islands, and was kept four montlis as the prisoner
of a savage tribe in the Typee valley, whence he was rescued by an Australian whaler,
and taken to Tahiti. After visiting the Sandwich islands he shipped on a U. S. frigate,
and returned to Boston in 1848. In 1846 the first literary result of his adventures was
ptiblhthcd in Typee, a spirited account of ills residence in the Marquesas. Omoo, a CH)n-
tinuatlon of his adventures in Oceania, appeared in 1847, in which year he married a
Digitized by VjOiJV IC
Melville. AQA
MemmiBs«r. ^^v
daughter of chief-justice Shaw of Massachusetts. Hardi, a strange philosophical
romance, in 1848, was followed by Bedburn in 1849; White Jacket, or uU World in a
Manof-War, 1850; Mcby Dick, or ike WMte W/uUe, 1851; Pierre, or the AinbiguUie^
ia52; Isiad Potter, 1855; The Piassga Taies, 1856; and T?ie Confidence Man, 1857. In
18dO he embarked in a whaling vessel for a new tour round the world. Battle Piut*
(1860) appeared after his return.
XELVILUB, ViBCOLTH'. See DuKDAa
MELVILLE ISLA.ND, off the n.w. coast of Australia, from which it is separated
on the e. by Dundas strait and on the s. by Van Diemen's gulf and Clarence strait,
while Bathurst island lies to the w., being separated from Sfelville island by Apf^ley
Mtrait; it is 70 m. in length and 80 m. wide, and extends from Int. 11* 8' to ll^'do' s . nnil
from long. ISO"" 20' to 181 '^ 84' east. The coast is in general high and steep, the surface
being in great part table-land, though it rises to the height of 150 or 175 ft. in the
ceulral part. The fauna and flora in general correspond to those of Australia. The
natives ai^* superior to those of the continent both in physique and in mentiil capacity.
The climate is, of course, veiy warm, and during the wet season is not healthful.
XEXBEBED, in heraldry. When a bird has its legs of a different color from its
body, it is said to be membercd of that color.
MEMBEKTOU, Henrt, 1500-1611: b. Canada; a medicine-man in the Micmoc
tribe. He was friendly to the French colonists who arrived in 1604, and fought a num-
lK*r of Indian tribes hostile to the French. Lescarbot wrote a poem in honor of the vic-
tory gained by Membertou in 1607 o^er the Armouchiquois, a tribe in the vicinity of
the Merrimac river. Three years later he, his wife, and three sons were baptized as
Christians. The next year, under the care of the French missionaries, he died at Fort
lioyal at the estimated age of 110.
KEKBBA'KA PUPILLA'BIS, the name given to a very thin membrane which closes
or covers the central aperture of the iris in the fetus during a certain period of gesta-
tion, but Which disappears in the seventh montlL
XEMBBAHE, in anatomy. This term is applied to designate those textures of the
animal body which are arranged in the form of laminae, and cover organs, or line the
interior of cavities, or take part in the formation of the walls of canals or tubes. The
Ktructure and special uses of some of the most important of the animal membranes are
noticed in separate articles, such as Mucous Mrmbrane, Sbrous Membrane, etc. ; and
the membranes in which the fetus is inclosed— commonly called the fetal membranes-
are described in the article Placenta. The membranes which cover and protect the
brain and spinal cord are commonly termed meninges, from the Greelc word meninx, a
membrane.
ME.MBRANE, (ante), a name given to different thin organs, in the form of supple,
more or less elastic tissues, for the purpose of enveloping or separating other organs, and
in many cases, of secreting certain fluids. Bichat divided membranes into simple and
compound. Simple membranes arc of three kinds, mucous, serous, and fibrous. Mucous
membranes line the cavities which communicate externally with the skin, as the mouth,
intestinal canal, genitourinary passages, internal surface of the eyelids, and the ramifica-
tions of the respiratory passages, the eustachian tubes and middle ear. Mucous mem-
brane has three layers; a fibro- vascular layer, composed of blood-vessels, nerves, and
connective tissue, which is continuous with the tissue beneath and interlacing with it; a
more superficial layer, called basement membrane, which is described as structureless,
and upon which rests the superficial laver, or epithelium, the latter presenting a variety
of structure in various paits of the body. The two lower layers, the flbro-vascular and
the basement membrane are continuous with the two lower layers of the skin, in reality
forming the same organ, which passes under the common name of corium. The ba^-
mcnt membrane is not in all localities s.isceptible of demonstration. The epithelium is
composed of numerous cells called epithelial cells of various forms. The chief purpose
of the mucous membranes are to secrete mucus to lubricate the various passages, at the
Hanie time that the mucous fluid performs other physiological offices. The salivary
mucus, to some extent, aids digestion, and the digestive fluid (gastric Juice) is a species
of mucus; so also is the pancreatic fluid, and the product of the various intestinal glands.
See Epithguum, ante. The serous membranes fine all the shut or closed cavities, and
are of two kinds; those lining the cavities of the thorax and abdomen, the pleurse (q.v.)
and peritoneum (q.v.), and those which line the cavities of the joints. See Synovial
Membranes, ante. The third species of simple membrane of Bichat is the fibrous,
divided into two sections; enveloping aponeuroses, the fibrous capsules of joints and the
Hhcaths of tendons'— and the enveloping membrane of bone, the periosteum, the dura-
mater (the internal periosteum of the skull), the fibrous membrane of the spleen and
other glandular organs. 8ee Spleen, ante. The compound membranes Bicbat divided
into tiiree sections. 1. Sero-fibrous, composed of fibrous and serous layers inUmately
adherent, as the pericardium, dura-mater, and timica-albuginea. 2. Sero-mucous, com-
]>o<^ed of serous and mucous layers, as tlie gall bladder at its lower part. 8. Fibro-
mucous, formed by the union of fibrous nnd mucous membrane, as the mucous meni'
brane of the nasal fossa?, gums, etc. It will be perceived that the compound memhnuiei
Digitized by VjOUV IC
ao^ MelarlUe.
form a classification which embraces elements classed among the simple membranes; and
this in natural, seeing that the compound are made up of simple membranes.
MEMBR£, Zenobius, 1646-87; b. at Bapanme, France; became a member of the
Franciscan order, and went as a missionary to Canada in 1675; accompanied La Salle
upon hi« expedition to the Mississippi in 1679, stopping at fort Cr^vecoeur, on lake
Peoria, where he aided in making peace between the Iroquois and Illinois Indians;
descended the Mississippi with La Salle in 1682, and retumea the same year to France,
where he published an account of the expedition. After acting for a time as warden of
a convent at Bapaume, he came again to America, and accompanied La Salle in liis fin^d
expedition by sea to Texas in 1684, and remained in Fort St. Louis, where, with his
companions, he was massacred by the Indians.
XE'ICEL, a governmental district of Prussia, forming its most northerly boundary
towards Russia, and included in the circle of KOnigsberg. The chief town, Memel, situ-
ated in 55° 43' n. lat, and 21° 6' e. long., and lying at the northern extremity of tiie
Eurisches Half, at its opening into the Baltic, is a well-fortified, active seaport. Pop.
75, 19,796. It has an excellent larse harbor, and is the center of an active trade in corn,
wood, hemp, and amber; the produce of Lithuania and other Russian provinces being
brought tliither for exportation. The town itself, which is surrounded by an unproduc-
tive sandy plain, possesses several good manufactories for the preparation of brandy,
soap, linseed-oil, etc., and extensive saw-mills, inMi->fouiidric9, and aml>er and iron works,
the last of which are noted alike for their strong cables and their light and elegant cast-
iron goods. Ship-building is carried on at Memel, which owns about 100 ships, and has
a good school of navigation; in 1874, 1284 vessels entered, and 1840 left, the port, and
Kteam-packets maintain a commonication with many of the other Baltic ports. Memel
was foimded in 1253 by the Livonian CNrder of knights; in 1404 it was fortified by the
Teutonic knighta In consequenoe of a tie in 18M it has of late years undergone an
almost complete renovation, and is now a clean, well-built town.
MEMLINO or HEMLINO, Han&, 1485-05 (about) probably a native of Bruges, but
very*little is known about the date and place of his birth or the time of his death, which
could not, however, have been later than 1495. Several other ways of spelling the name
are given, but ** Memlin^" has decidedly the best authority. He was, at least, an artist
of the Flemish school, if not of Flemish biith, and painted a large number of altar-
pieces and pictures on sacred subjects, to which his work was almost wholly confined.
It is a matter of great uncertainty to say what were and what were not his productions.
Rnthgeber designates over one hundred pictures, but very few of these are fully authen-
ticated. The earliest of those which it is thought are genuine is dated in 1450 and the
latest in 1491. Memling is said to have served under Charles the bold of Burgundy, and
it is related that after the battles of Granson and Morat, he was admitted as a wounded
soldier, into the hospital of St. John's, at Bruges. Here it was, at all events, .that were
painted many of the finest works attributed to him. Of these, the principal are ; the
illustration in a picture composed of many small compartments, of the history of St.
Ursnla and her companions; tne marriage of St. Catherme, his finest picture, and one of
tlie best of that c, consists of a central composition representing the marriage, and two
wings or side pieces, depicting the beheading of John the Baptist and the vision of John
the Evangelist. There are many pictures, presumably Memling's, at Berlin, Antwerp.
the Hague, and other parts of Europe, and two or three in England. Specially worthy of
praise are: — " St. Christopher carrying the Child," "Joys and fi)rrow8 of the Virgin,"and
*• The Journey of the Three Kings from the East." In all of these there is not only great
harmony in color and effective use of light and shade, but most noteworthy of all is the
wonderrnl perfection in matters of detail. The last named picture contains nearly 1500
olijacts and figures of small size, all of which are elaborated in the most minute manner,
ana this, too, without neglect of general effects.
MEMLOOKS. See Mamelukes, ante.
WEM'VISGfES, a t. of Bavaria, near the right bank of the Iller, 42 m. s.w. of Augs-
hxiTfS. It has handsome streets, carries on manufactures of woolen, cotton, and linen
ffoocls, gun-powder, and iron-ware; the chief part of the trade is in hops, wool, leather,
and grain. Pop. 75, 7,762
MEMMINGER, Chakles Oustavus, b. Wtlrtemberg, Germanv; and was brought
to this country at a very early age b^ bis mother. By her death he was soon left an
H^pban. Much interest was taken in him by gov. Thomas Bennett of Charlestown, S. C
nt which place he was then situated. He was educated at the South Carolina college,
wbere he graduated in 1820 and subsequently studied law. He opened practice in
diarlestown, where he acquired some note as an opponent of the Calhoim doctrine of
nullification; and on that subject he wrote a satirical book which he called the Hook of
linUifteafion (1832), and which was written in an imitation of Biblical style. He was
fdccted to the state legislature, and made strong arguments in opposition to the suspen-
sion of $!pecie payments- by the banks after the ]Minic of 1839; and he was for many
years head of the legislature finance committee. Shortly after the outbreak of .the
n4)eHion he was made secretary of the treasury by the confederate government, and held
U^at posiiion for thi^o years, 1861-64, when he resigned.
Digitized by VjOUVIC
MBM NOK, a celebrated hero, the son of Tithorus and Eoe or Aurora, who led to Troy
a lioHt uf ^Jkiopians, to support the cause of Troy after the fall of Hector. He was
said to be clad in armor made by Uephsestus or Vulcan, and killed Antilochus, son of
Kestor, in single combat. He was killed in single combat with Ajax or Achilles. Others
suppose he was ruler of the nations between Susa and Troy, or a vassal of the Assyrian
monarch Teutamus, who sent him with 10,000 iiSthiopians, and as many Susians, to the
Trojan war. After his death, his corpse was carried by Aurora to Susa, and buried in
the acropolis of that town, Memnoneia; or his ashes, collected in a silver urn, borne to
his sister Himera at Puphos, and thence to Palliochis or Paltos; or to the banks of the
Belos, near Ptolemais. The river Paphlagonios flowed from his blood, and his compan-
ions were changed into birds. But the Memnon of the older writers obtained a »till
greater renown by the name being transferred at a later period by the Greeks to a celu-
brated colossus, seated in the plains of Thebes, on the left or west bank of the Nile:
while.the name of Memnoneia was applied by the Egyptian Greeks to the sepulchral
quarter of Thebes, as Diospolis was to the right or east bank. Memnoneia, or suppopcd
palaces of Menmon. also existed at Abydos. The two statues— one of which is the
celebrated vocal Memnon, one of the wonders of the old world — arc at a place called
Koum-cl-Sultan. Both are seated on thrones, and represent the monarch A ineuophis III.,
of the 18th dynasty, whose name and titles are inscribed on the plinths behind. At tlie
Hides of the throne are sculptured the wife and mother of the monarch, about 18 ft
high. The height of each of these colossi appears to have originally been 60 ft, and
they are made ot a coarse hard gritstone or breccia. They are at present known by the
sobriquets of Tammy and Shammy, and were originally placed btfore the propylon of
an Amenopheion or palace-temple of Amenophis III. in this quarter at Thebes. The
easternmost of these colossi is the celebrated vocal statue, distinguished from its com-
l)anion by having been anciently broken and repaired from the lap upwards with blocks
of sandstone, phiced horizontally, in five layers. The statue was either injured by
Carabyses, to whom the Egyptian priesta ascribed most of the mutilations of the Theban
temples, 01 else thrown down by an earthquake. The peculiar characteristic of this
statue was its giving out at various times a sound resembling the breaking of a harp-
string or a metallic rmg; and considerable difference of oi)inion has prevailed as to the
reason of this sound, which has been heard in modem times, it being ascribed to the
artifice of the priests, who struck the sonorous stone of which the statue is composed,
the passage of light draughts of air through the cracks, or the sudden expani^ion of aque-
ous particles under the influence of the sun's rays. This remarkable quality of the
statue is firat mentioned by Strabo, who visited it in company of JElius Gallus, about 18
B.C. ', and upwards of 100 inscriptions of Greek and Roman visitors incised upon ita leg^,
record the visits of ancient travelers to witness the phenomenon, from the 9lh year cf
Nero. 63 A.D., to the reign of the emperor Severus, when it became silent, AmoDgst
other visitors whose names are recorded are those of th^i, emperor Hadrian and his wife
Sabina; Septimius Severus also visited the statue, and is conjectured to have restored
it; for Juvenal mentions it as broken in half , and no*notice of it occurs under the
Pharaohs or Ptolemies The idcniity of this statue and of Memnon is mentioned in tlie
Sloss upon Manetho, and by Pausanias and the inscriptions. — ^Besides the mythical
lemnon, two historical personages of this name are known — one a Rhodian commander
of the mercenaries of Artabazus m the war against Artaxerxes-Ochus, who subsequently
fled to Macedon, and afterwards entering the Persian service, defended Persia against
Alexander, 833 B.C.; but flnallv died at the siege of Mitylcne. 838 b.c.: the other, a
Greek historian, who wrote a history of Heraclea Fontica, in 16 books, which have been
epitomized by Photius— Welcker, Episeli, Cyel 211; Strabo. xv. 728, xvii. 816; JBlian,
U, A., V. 1; Jacobs, Die Graeber dett Memnon; Eusebius, Bieron, p. 154; Juvenal, xv.
5; Letronne, 8ur le Man. d* 0»f/mandffas; Wilkinson, Top, of TJiebet, p. 83; Voasius, 2M
Hist, GrcEC, dWestermann, p. 236; Diodor. xvi. 62*
XEXOBT. This is one name for the great and distinctive fact of mind, namely, the
power of retaining impressions made through the senses, and of reviving them at after-
times without the originals, and by mental forces alone. The conditions of this power
liave been already stated (see Assoctation of Ideas, Habit). We shall advert here to
some of the arts and devices that have been propounded from time to time, for aiding
our recollection in the various kinds of knowledge.
Perhaps the commonest remark on this subject is, that memory depends on atten-
tion, or that the more we attend to a thing, the better we rememlier it. This is true with
reference to any special acquisition; if we direct the forces of the mind upon one point,
ve shall necessarily give that point the benefit of the concentration, but this does not
affect memory as a whole: we merely take power from one tbhig to give it to anothar.
Memory at large can be improved only by increasing the vigor and freshness of the
nervous system, and by avoidinsr all occasions of exhaustion, undue excitement, and
other causes of nervous waste. We may do this by general constitutional means, or
by stimulating the brain at the expense of the other functions; this last method is. how-
ever, no economy in the end. Every man's system has a certain fund of plastic power,
which may be hustmnded, but cannot lie materially increased on the whole; the powei
being greatest in early life, and diminishing with advancing yean. If it is atronglj
Digitized by VjOUV IC
AQQ IKciniiaii*
OOO Memory.
drawn upon for one doss of aoquigitioDS, we must not expect it to be of equal avail
for others.
But there may bewa¥8 and means of presenting and arranging the matters of our
knowledge so as to make them retained ut a smaller cost of the plastic power of the
brain. These include the arts of teaching, expounding, and educating in general, and
also certain more special devices commonly koown as the arts of memory', or mne-
monics. A brief account of these last may be given here.
The oldest method of artificial memory is said to liave been invented by the Qreek
poet Simonides« who lived in the 5th c. b.c. It is named the topical, or localiiy memory »
from the employment of known places as the medium of recollection. As given by
Quintilian it is in substance as follows: You choose a very spacious and diversely
arranged place— « large house, for instance, divided into several apartments. You
impress on the mind wiUi care whatever is remarkable in it; so that the mind may run
through all the parts without hesitation and delay. Then if you have to remem her a series
of ideas, you place the first in the hall, the second in the parlor, and f o on with the rest,
going over the windows, the chambers, to the statues^ and several objects. Then when you
wish to recall the succession, you commence going over the house in the order fixed, and
in connection with each apartment you will find the idea that you attached to it. The
principle of the method is that it is more easy for the mind to associate a thought with a
well-known place than to associate the same thought with the next thought without any
medium whatever. Orators are said to have used the method for remembering their
speeches. The method has been extensively taught by writers on mnemonics in modern
times. Probably for temporary efforts of memory it m* y b 3 of some use ; the doubtful point
idwavs is whether the machinery of such systems is not more cumbrous than helpful.
Much labor has been spent on mnemonic devices for assisting in the recollection of
numbers, one of the hardest efforts of memory. The principal method for this purpose
is to reduce tlie numbers to words, by assigning a letter for each of the ten ciphers. Tnis
method was reduced to system by Gregor von Feinaigle, a German monk, and wiis
taught by him in various parts of Europe, and finally published in 1812. He made a
careful choice of the letters for representing the several figures, having in view some
association between the connected couple, for more easy recollection. For the figure 1,
he used the letter t, as being a single stroke; for 2, n, as being two strokes combined; 3,
tn, three strokes; 4, r, which is found in the word denoting "four" in the European
hinguages; 5, I, from the Roman numeml L, signifying fifty, or five tens; 6, d, because
the written d resembles 6 reversed ; 7, k, because k resembles two 7's joined at top; in
place of this figure is also used on occasion g, g, c (hard) as all belonging to the
guttural class of k; 8, b, from a certain amount of similarity, also w, for the same reason,
and sometinoes «, or the half w; 9 is p, from similarity, and also /. both of which arc
united in the word puff, which proceeds from a jptpd, like a 9 figure; 0 is*, x, or z, because
it resembles in its roundness a grindstone, wluch givoe out a* hissing noise like these
letters. The letters of the alphabet not employed in representing figures are to be used in
combination with these, but with the understanding that thev Imve no meaning of them-
selves. Suppose, then, that a number is given, say 547; 5 is /, 4 is r, 7 is k; which makes
f, r, k; among these letters we insert an unmeaning vowel, as a, to make up juiinielligiblc
wonl LaiiK, which remains in the memory far moreetisily than the numerical form. In
making up the words by the insertion of the unmeaning or dujnb letters, we should also have
regard to some connection with the subject that the number refei-s to, as, for example, in
clSonology. Thus, America was discovered in 1492; the letters here are f, r, />, 7i/ they
may be made into to iujp*n^, because that discovery led to rapine by the first Spaniards.
There is. of course, great room for ingenuity in the formation of these suggestive words.
Also, a series of numbers may be joined together in some intelligible sentence which
can be easily remembered. Such combinations, however, should be formed once for all
in the case of any impjortant series of numbers, as the daU>8 of our sovereigns and other
historical epochs. It is too much to expect pupils to construct these felicitous combina-
tions. Feinaigle combined .the topical method with the above plan in fixing a succession
of numbers in the memory.
Dr. Edward Pick, a recent lecturer on mnemonics, has called attention to a peculiar
mode of arranging lists of words that are to be fixed in the memorj% as the exceptions
to grammar rules, etc. He proposes to choose out such words as have some kind of
connection with one another, and to arrange them in a series, so that each shall have a
meaning in common with the next, or be contrasted with it, or be related to it by any
other bond of association. Thus, he takes the French irregular verbs, which are usually
arranged in the alphabetical order (which is itself, however, a mnemonic help), and
puts them into the following series, where a certain connection of meanings exists
between every two: as aew, sit down, move, go, go away, send, foUovi, run, sfmn, etc. In a
ca.se where two words have no mutual suggestiveness he proposes to find out some inter-
mediate idea tha( would bring al)Out a connection. Thus, if the words were garden,
hair, watchman, philosophy, he would interpolate other words; thus, garden, plant,
hair of a plant — hair; hair, bonnet, watchman; wtUchman, wake, study — phUoeophy; and
so on. Of course the previous method is the one that should be aimed at, as the new
words are to a certain extent a burden to the mind. Dr. Pick further suggests as a
practical liint, in committing to memory, that the attention should be couoentrated sue-
ir«««nr. 684
cessively upon each two consecutive members of the series; the mind should pause upon
the first and the second until they have been made coherent; then abandoning the first,
it should in the same way attend to the second and the third, the third and the fourth,
etc. Of course if every successive link is in that way made sufficiently strong, the
whole chain is secure.
There are various examples of effective mnemonic combinations. The whole doc-
trine of the syllogism (q.v.) is contained in five lines of Latin verse; as regards amount
of meaning in small compass, these lines have never been surpassed, if, indeed, they have
been equaled. The versification of the rules of the Latin grammar h&s the same end in
view, but all that is gained by this is merely the help from the association of the sounds
of the verse in the ear; in comparison with a topical memory, this mi^ht be chIUhI a
rhythmical memory. The well -Known rule for the number of days in the different
months of the year (''Thirty days hath September," etc.) is an instance of nuiemonic
verse.
XEMOBY, Diseases of. Memory, or the power of reproducing mental impressions,
is impaired by a^e, wounds, or iniuries to the head or nervous system, fevers, intem-
perance, and various physical conditions. It is perhaps affected in all kinds of mental
derangement, but is in a most signal manner obliterated or enfeebled in dementia^
There are, however, examples of recollection surviving all other faculties, and preserving
a clear and extensive notion of long and complicated series of events amid the general
darkness and ruin of mind. Incoherence owes some of its features to defective or
irregular memory. Cases of so marvelous an exaltation and extension of this capacity,
as where a whole parliamentary debate could be recalled^ suggest the suspicion of
unhealthy action. There appear, however, to be special affections of the faculty. It
may be suspended while the intelligence remains intact. Periods of personal or general
history may elude the grasp, and even that continuity of impressions which goes far to
constitute the feeling of personal identity, is broken up, and a duality or multiplicity of
experiences may appear to be conjoined. The converse of this may happen, and
knowledge that had completely faded away ma^, under excitement or cerebral disease,
return. There are, besiaes, states in which tins power is partially affected, as in the
instances where the numbers 5 and 7 were lost, and where a highly educated man
couid not retain any conception of the letter F; secondly, where it appears perverted,
recalling images inappropriately, and in an erroneous sequence of order or time, and dif-
ferent from what are desired; and thirdly, where, while the written or printed signs of
ideas can be used, the oral or articulate signs are utterly forgotten. All tliese deviations
from health appear to depend upon changes generally of an apoplectic nature in the
anterior lobes of the brain. — Crichton on MerUai Derangement, i. 837; Teucbtersleben,
Medical Pitycfiology, p. 121.
C'PHIB, a celebrated Egyptian city, situated in the Delta, or Lower Egypt, the '
the ancient capital of the country, called by the Egj'tians Men nefer, or "the Good
Station ;" by the Hebi-ews, Moph; and by the Arabs, Memf, It was founded by Menes,
the first monarch of the first dynasty, who, according to Herodotus, changed tlie bed of
the Nile, and made an embankment, 100 stadia above Memphis, to protect the new city
against inundations. The remains of this bank still exist at Kafr-el Tyat, about 14 m.
above Metrahenny, which is the center of old Memphis, and the site of the temple of
Ptah or Hepheesteum. Menes fortified the city, and laid the fotmdatlons of the temple.
Uchoreus. a later monarch, is also said to have founded Memphis, and introduced the
worship of Apis and Epaphus. The site of the city was well chosen, protected alike by
the Libyan and Arabian chains of mountains against the river and the incursions of the
sand, defending the approach of the country from the incursions of Asiatic nomads, and
communicating with the Red sea and the Mediterranean. The city was composed of two
portions — one built of crude bricks; the other, on which was the citadel, of calcareous
stone, called the Leukoa Teichos, or '* White Wall," which held some of the principal
buildings. The palace, built by Menes, was enlarged by his son Athothis, and was
always inhabited either by a monarch or his viceroy. Under the Persian rule it was
occupied by the satrap; and by the Greek mercenaries under the Saite kings. Under
Uchoreus the total circumference was 150 stadia. After the 6th dynasty the citv
declined in Importance, and was apparently held by the Hykshos after the 18th ami
before the 18th (1500 b c). At this period Memphis was ruled by a viceroy, a prince of
the blood, and still n^mained the religious capital of the old worehip. It rose again to
great importance under the Saite monarchs, about 600 b.c, who restored it, became the
seat of a separate monaixjhy, and was conquered by Sennacherib and his successors. The
temples of this city were magnificent, and comprised the Iseum, a large temple of Isis,
completed by Amasis II. just prior to Cambyses (525 B.C.): a temple dedicated to
Proteus, in the foreign quarter; the temple of the Apis, having a peristyle and court
ornamented with figures, opposite the south propylreum of the temple of Ptah, where the
sacred bull resided; the Serapeum, or temple of Os or Apis, in the quarter recently dis-
covered by M. Mariette (see Serapehm); the Nilometer, removed by Constantine I. to
Constantinople, replaced by Julian III. or the apostate; a temple of'Ra; and the shrine
of the Cabiri. Here were the statues of Rameses II.. one of which exists as the fallen
colossus, Metrahenny, and others have been discovered by Hekekyan. Bey.in Jiis
exca-
685 gsr'^-
vations. These cdossi, above 75 ft. high, were of syenitic j^mnite, or of the limestone of
Tourah or Mokattam. These temples flourished in all tiieir glory till the Persian con-
quest. Still more remarkable was the great necropolis of the city * in the center of which
towered the pyramids (see Pyramids). During the attempts of the native rulers to
throw off the Persian rule, Memphis was an important strategic point. Ochus inflicted
severe injurv on this town, having plundered tlie temples and thrown down tlie walls
after he Irnd driven out Nectanebus. Alexander the greaX here worshiped the Apis, and
his corpse was brought to this city by Ptolemy before it was finally transferred to Alex-
andria. The first Ptolemies were crowned in the serapeum. Ptolemy VIII. destroyed
the city« and it had so dechned after his time as to become a decayed site. It fell with
the rest of Egypt under the Roman rule, and afterwards was conquered bv Amru Ben
Abas (6S9-6^ a. p.); and Fostat and Cairo were built out of its ruins, whicli were large
and important in the 18lh c, when they were seen by Abd-alatif. The few remains of
of the ancient city are Koum-el-Azyzeh to the n., Metrahenny on the w., and the canal
of Bedracliin on the s. ; but the remains here are submerged many ft. in the soil of the
Delta.
Herod, ii. 97, 101, 147, 178; Diod. xviii. 84, i. 46. Fragm. t. 88, Ivi. p. 184; Thucyd. i.
104; Hygin. xiv. 90; Heliod. ii. 59, 61; Hoeea ix. 6; Isaiah xix. 80; Ezek. xxx. 18, 16;
Wilkinson, Top. Thebes, p. 840; Bunsen, £!gypf8 Place, ii. p. 47; Ohampollion-Figeac,
VEgypU, 85, 63, 205, 286; Lepsius, Bme, 20, 51, 68.
JOXPHIB, a city and port of entry on the e. side of the Mississippi river, in the s.w.
comer of Tennessee, 420 m. below St. Louis. It is handsomely built on a bluff, 60 ft.
above the highest floods. It is the outlet of a large cotton region, receiving, in 1873-74,
429,827 bales. It has fine public buildings and hotels and theater, 48 churches, 8 col-
leges. 100 schools, 5 daily and 10 other newspapers, 10 banks, and several insurance
companies; railways connecting it with New Orleans, Charleston, Louisville, Little Rock,
etc. ; with several foundries, manufactories of boilers, machinery, etc. In the war of
secession it fell into the hands of the federal forces in 1862, and was the base of military
operations for the capture of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. Memphis was desolated by a fear-
ful outbreak of yellow^fever in the summer of 1878. Pop. 70, 40,226.
MEMPHIS \mt€)s capital of Shelby co.; the chief citv in Tennessee, and the largest
city on the Mississippi river between St. Louis and New Orleans; pop. '80, 83,593. It is
situated on the fourth Chickasaw bluff, 800 m. above New Orleans. The view of the
city from the river is very attractive; a broad esplanade, extending along the bluff, cov-
ered with fine warehouses, presenting a very striking appearance. The streets are broad
and regularly laid out, the suburbs ^ing occupied Xyy handsome residences standing in
I tlie midst oi fine lawns; the entire length of the city is three miles. A fine park in the
I center is filled with large old trees, in which thousands of squirrels disport themselves,
and are so tame that they will. eat from the hands of visitors, clamber upon their knees
and shoulders, and hop fearlessly about on the graveled walks, regardless of the numbers
of persons who are commonly promenading. The safety of these attractive little crea-
Uirea is am|}ly provided for by the j^eneial understanding that they are not to be molested.
There are six cemeteries in the vicmity of Memphis, of which the principal one is Elm-
wood, on the s.e. border of the city. There is a local chamber of commerce, a board of
health, and a cotton exchange. Railroads centering here make connection with all parts
of the country, north and aoutli ; while the Mississippi river, affording navigation during
the entire year, is the scene of an iipmense commerce. Owing to its proximity to stag-
nant water and to an imperfect system of drainage and sewerage, Memphis has fre-
quently been subject to visitations of the yellow-fever, which have nearly depopulated
die city! The last epidemic occurred in 1879, lasting from July until cold weather set
in. The mass of the inhabitants deserted the city, leaving only the very poor and the
oc^ored people. Dunne this season there were several hundred deaths by yellow-fever,
an efficient quarantine being sustained. Recent and, it is said, successful efforts have
been made to improve the drainage and prevent disease.
MEMPHREMAGOO, Lake, in Canada and in Orleans co., Vermont; about 80 m.
long from n. to s., with a width varying from 2 to 5 miles. Its outlet is the Magog river,
which discharges into the St. Francis river, a tributanr of the St. Lawrence. Its shores
are steep and picturesque, and it contains a number of islands. Its scenery and facilities
for fishing attract manv visitors in the summer. Steamers run, in that season, between
its 8- point, the town of Newport, Vt., and Magog, the village at its outlet.
MEN, Thb, are a somewhat remarkable class of persons found, chiefly in those ijarts
of tiorthem Scotland in which the Gaelic language is spoken, and "^here large undivided
parishes, a deficiency of ministers, and other causes have developed a class of religious
inst.rtietors aad oyeTseers who, without reffular appointment,, syxnewhat resemble the
local preachers of tUe Methodist church. They are called **men" as a title of respect,
in acknowledgment of their mental endowments, knowledge, and piety. They pass into
the order informally, and by the gradual reputation which they acquire among the people
s^round them for superior gifts and experience. By excellent in prayer and exhortation,
and by constant attendance at the meetings for promoting <%ristian activity and fellow*
ship, they step by step advance into the order of " the men." There are m many par.
iabes three or four ''men;" 9!oA on communion occasion^^ Friday being specially devoted
' • ' ' • ■ Digitized by'VjUUVlVi:
Menabrea. AfiA '
Menohikow. ^OO
lo prayer and exhortation, these lay-exhorters have then a public opportonity for exer-
cising their gifts. As there may be 20 or more of theiu a^semblea from nei^boritij^
parishes, the services of the day are given up to them, presided over by tlie ministct of
the parish, who generally sums up the opinions and seutiments tliat have been expressed.
Many of the "men" wear on tlieae occasions a large bhie cloak, and in going about'
among the people they are received with much respect and Icindness. The influence
which they acquire is very great, and in some cases is grievously abused. Yet these con-
stitute the exception, not me rule. There is no doubt that in many destitute regiuus
these workers ainon^ the people have done much to keep alive and extend true leiigion.
Since the organization of the Free church of Scotland, as the supply of regular gospel
ordinances in the Highlands has been greatlv increased, the need for the services of the
"men" has been proportionally diminished, and tlieir influence is thei^fore passing
away.
MENABRE'A, Luigi Federioo, Count; b. at Chambery, in Savoy, 1803 •. educated
for an engineer; entered the army as lieut., but was early promoted to a piofcssorship of
applied mathematics in the mihtary academy of Turin, where he at once distinguislicd
himself by scientific essays coutrilmted to the academies of science of Paris and Turin.
In 1848 he promoted the union of Piedmont and Sardinia; was elected a member of the
Subalpine parliament, appointed secretary of the minister of war, and the following year
secretary of foreign afltairs. After participating in vigorous measures to resist the Aus-
trians, he continued a member of the chamber, assuming at first the defense of the church
of Rome, and believing in the possible accord of the papacy with Italian unity. But,
through the influence oi Cavour, after 1859 he abandoned that hope, and rangca himself
with the radical unionists. After the defeat of the Austrians by the French, and the
annexation of Savoy to France, he left the province to retain his citizenship of Italy, and
was made director of military siece operations against Gaete and the king of Naples, in
" the Sebastopol of the Bourbons.^' It surrendered after 57 days' siege, for which success
he was made lieut.gen. and count. In 1861 he succeeded Ricasoli as minister of marine,
and in 1862 added the duties of minister of public works. He was a party to the con-
vention between France and Austria in 1864, and of the treaty of Prague in 1866, which
finally led to the annexation of Venice to Italy; and it was he who presented to Victor
Emmanuel the iron crown of Lombardy. He was called in 1867, on the retirement of
Ratazzi, to fonn a new cabinet. Garibaldi was marching upon Rome, to sever the last
link in tlie chain of papal civil power in Italy. France opposed Garibaldi with her
troops. Menabrea did the humiliating duty of endeavoring to buy the withdrawal of
the Frencli troops, and the substitution of Italian troops, by a promise to disavow the
acts of Garibaldi. . Occupying this equivocal position of half-sustaining the temporal
power of the pope, keeping the peace with France, and yet advocating the unity of Italy,
he fell between all the parties and Jendered his resignation. Victor Emmanuel refused lo
accept it. Menabrea formed a new cabinet and continued wilh adroitness to pursue the
road which Cavour had mariicd out: viz., to submit to the meddling of France in tlie
defense of the pope till events should ripen for Italian unity. He continued at the head
of affairs for two years, temporizing with the pope and the republicans, and enduring
the policy of Napoleon through fear. When the pope in 1869 conToked the bishops to
announce the syllabus of infallihility, Menabrea proclaimed the reserved rights of the state
as without the pale of the pope's powers. Italy outgrew his timorous policy, and in Nov.,
1869, he gave way to the ministiy of Lanza-^Ua. He has published lUpubtiqus et Mann
archie dans Vetat actud de la France, 1871.
MEVADO, an important poasession of the Netherlands, on the n. of Celebes, is under
the government of the Moluccas. The oountzy is volcanic, with many lofty mountains.
The mountainous grounds of the province of Minahassa are well adapted for the g^wth
of coffee, which was first planted in 1820, and speedily beoBune. favorably known in tho
market. The coffee-culture is compulsory, and the government monopolizes the produce
at a fixed price. In 1874 there were 10,987,200 coffee-trees, which produced 1(K>4 tons.
The rice-crop averages 47,880 tons. There are 400,000 sago and 800,000 cocoa-nut trees,
and cacao, tobacco, cotton, and cinchona are cultivated. On Jan. 1, 1875, there were
.11,626 horses, 19,867 cattle, 201,284 swine, 8,641 buffaloes, and 17,169 sheep and goatg.
In this residency, civilization and Christianity have made rapid progress. The pop., on
Jan. 1, 1873, amounted to 605,756, of whom 777 were Europeans. Twenty veara ago,
the pagans were most numerous in the Minahassa district, but 77,184 are now Christians,
The town of Menado is neatly built, has a church, a school for the children of Europe-
ans, and others for those of natives.
UVAOE, JSoiDitra, or Giles db; a French lexicographer and linguist, was b. at
Angers in 1618. Disliking the profession of an advocate, he renounced it, along with ao |
oflSce under government, which his father had transferred to him, entered the churdi,'.
and fixed his residence in the convent of Notre Dame. His Ume was chiefly spent in '
literary pursuits, in which ^ acquired a great reputation. He was an extreme pedant, *
full ofprejudioes and bitter hostilities. Hb DieUonfuure E^jfmaUigique de la Lan^fue FSrat^ "
foise (Par. 1650; best ed. by Jault, 2 vols. Par. 1750), and his Ongini dMa Idngna Ital-
iana, are erudite and valuable woiics^ although they contain many enoneoas etymolo-
Digitized by VjOUV IC
OO I Menobikow*
gies. His poems (Latin, Italian, French, and Greek) are of little worth. He died in
1092.
XEHAI STRAIT, which separates the island of Anglesey from the main-land, runs
e.n.e. from its southern extremity to Bangor, a distance of 18 m., and there wideus out
into Beaumaris bay. Its width varies f Jx>m about 250 yds. to 2 miles. The navigation
is hazardous, but the strait is nevertheless much used for the sake of expedition by ves-
sels under 100 tons, and occasionally by some of larger size. At the entrance of the
strait, the tides sometimes rise to a height of dO ft., and the ordinary neap-tide rises
from 10 to 12 feet Communication between Anglesey and the main-land .was former^
maintained by ferry-boats at different points; but a suspension bridge was constructed
by government in the line of the great Holyhead road, and subsequently railway com-
munication was established by means of the Britannia bridge (q. v.). The scenery on
both sides of the strait is mildly beautiful.
XSHAHDEE, the most celebrated Greek poet of the New Comedy, was b. at Athens,
842 B.C. His uncle was the comic poet Alexis; he had Theophrastus for his teacher, and
Epicurus for a friend; and the influence of all three is discernible in his style of thought
and feeling. Menander was a handsome, light-hearted, and elegant Greek, somewhat
luxurious, but not impure in his manners. He was drowned wliiie swimming in the
harbor of the Pirseus. Menander wrote more thun 100 comedies, which were in high
repute among his countrymen, at least after death; but we possess mere fragments of
them. We know something of their character, however, from the imitations of them
by Terence. Pleasant and refined wit, clear, sententious reflection, and a vein of real
earnestness at times, are the qualities most apparent in them. The besi edition of tlus
extant fragments of Menander is Meineke's Pragmenta Comicorum QrcBcorum (Berl.
1841).
. MENARD, a co. in central Illinois, along the Sangamon river, which with Salt creek
forms its n. boundary; 300 sq.m.; pop. '80, 18,028. The surface is level, with consider-
able growth of wood. The soil is fertile, and produces oats, Indian com, hay, wheat,
and potatoes. The Chicago and Alton, and the Springfield and Northwestern railroads
pass through it. Co. seat, Petersburg.
MENARD, a co. in n. central Texas, along the shores of San Saba river; 800 sq.m. ;
pop. '80, 1839. The soil is fertile, and there is a considerable growth of wood. The
principal production is cattle. It is a good grazing country, which, as yet, has been,
little opened to cultivation. Co. seat, Menardville.
MENARD, Ren^, 1604-61, b. in Paris; sent to Montreal as a French Jesuit mission-
ary in 1640; thence to the Nipissings n. of the lakes; afterwards at Three Rivers. He
was at Cayuga in 1656, at Oneida soon afterwards, and remained with the Indians when ,
personal violence and death to the missionaries was frequent among them. In 1658 and «
1660 he was with the Ottawas of lake Superior, by whom he was not well treated. His
last station was in 1661 at St. Teresa's on Keweenaw bay.
MENASH'A, a village of Winnebago co.. Wis., on the Chicago and Northwestern,
and the Wisconsin Central railroads, 18 m. n. of Oshkosh; pop. of village, 2,484; of
township, 8,107. It has a weekly newspaper, a national bmk, and several manufac-
tories.
MENAS'SEH BEN ISRAEL (Manabssh vsss Josbfh ben Israel), 160^^59, b.
Spain; went to Holland, when young, with his father, to escape the inquisition. There
lie was educated, and when but 18 vears old succeeded^ his tutor, the rabbi Uziel, as
expounder of the Talmnd, and preacher in the Amsterdam synagogue. He now began
liis ConeiUador nel PentaieveJio, which appeared in 1632, and secured for its author a
high rank among Hebrew theologians. A Latin translation of it, by Dionysius Yossius,
tras published the next year, under the title of Conciliator,
MENDiEANS. See Chrtbtianb of St. Johk.
XENCEIKOW, or KEKCHXXOFF, Alexander Dantlovitch, a Russian field-marshal
and minister of state, was b. at Moscow on Nov. 28, 1673. He was a baker's
apprentice, when his intelligent countenance attracted the notice of gen. Lefort,
through whose patronage he was taken into the service of Peter the great. He had the '
good fortune to discover a consmracy among the czar's guards, and his rapid promotion
vras secured. He accompanied Peter in his travels to Holland and England, and on the
death of Lefort was raised to the post of chief adviser. Menchikow was one of the
greatest men of his time, excelling equally as a gen. and a diplomatist; and although
totally uneducated, he did much to promote the education of the people, and was a
liberal patron of the arts and sciences. On Oct. 80, 1706, he defeated the Swede»
at Kalisch; he contributed to some of the czar's other victories; was made a
field-marshal on the field of Pultawa; and compelled LOwenhnupt to capitulate with
great part of the Swedish army. In 1710 he took Riga; in 1718 he led tlie Russian
troops into Pomernnia and Holstein, and took Stettin, but gave it up to Prussia, con-
trary to the will of the czar. This and his avarice so displeased Peter that he subjected
Jvim to a court-martial. He was condemned to death by a majority of voices; but was
pflfdoned on payment of a heary fine. During the reign of Catharine L he r^ained
Digitized by VjOUV IC
Menctittft* ACQ
SUMdiciuiey. ^^^
lii8 iofluence at court, and, afier her death, governed Russia with almost absolute
uuthority in ihe name of Pet^r II., whose father-in-law he was just about to become,
when he w^as overthrown by Dolgorouki. and banished to Siberia {Sept., 17271 His
imniensee states and treasures were confiscated. He died Oct. 22 (Nov. 2) 1729. His
great-grandson, prince Alexander Sergejevitch Mekchikow, was b. in 1789. and
after being long an attach^ of legation at Vienna, served in the campaigns of 1812-15,
rose to the rank of gen., and after the accession of the emperor riicholas, was
employed both in diplomatic and military services. In the Turkish campaign of 1828
he took Anapa after a short siege, but received so severe a wound before Varna as com-
pelled his retirement. He was afterwards for a time at the head of the Russian navy,
tmd raised it to a high state of efficiency. In March, 1858, he was sent as ambassador to
Constantinople, where his overbearing oehavior produced a speedy rupture between tl»e
porte and tlie czar, and brought about the Crimean war. In this war he commanded
both the land and naval forces of Russia, and displayed the utmost energy in defending
SebastopoL In March, 1855, he was appointed commander of Cronadadt Meuchikow
was till his death in 1869 one of the mo0t prominent members of the old Ruasian party.
KENGIUB. See MEKChTSB.
MENDA'f^A DE NEY'RA, Alyaro, 1641-95; b. in Spam; emigrated to Peru, and
had resided some time at lima, when his uncle. Lope Garcia de Castro, the viceroy of
the country, put liim in command of an expedition for purposes of discovery amon^ the
islands of the Pacific. With two small ships and 125 men he sailed from Callao Nov.
19r 1567. Among liis discoveries was a group of islands which he named ** Solomon
ialands," thus indicating his belief that Bolomon obtained from them the gold used in
the temple at Jerusalem. Returning to Lima in 1568 he circulated reports of the
wealth of these islands, which led, 27 years later, to an expedition for their colonization,
of which lie took the command. Sailing from Callao April 11, 1595^. he discovered
another group of islands, which he named the Marquesas, after the wife of the viCcray
of Peru, the marchioness Mendoza. Sailing n.w., other groups of islands were visited,
but Mendafladicd in October without having reached the end of his voyage, which, how-
ever, was completed by his widow. Mendafta's narrative of his first expedition is in the
imperial library at Paris.
MENDAf^A ISLANDS. See Marquea-VS, ante.
KEKSE, a town of France, capital of tho department of Loz^re, on the Lot, in a val-
ley surrounded by high hills, about 70 m. n.n.w. of Montpellier. In the vicinity arc
numerous villas and gardens. Mende has a cathedral surmounted by two apiresy and
manufactures serges and other coarse cloths. Pop. *7B, 6,239.
HEKSELBSOHN, M08B8, an eminent German philosopher, was b. Sept. 7, 1729, at
Dessau. From his father, a Jewish schoolmaster and scribe, he received his first edu-
cation ; and in his 18th year proceeded to Berlin, where, amid very indigent circum-
stances, he contrived to learn Latin and modern languages, and to apply himself to the
study of philosophy, into which early readings, chiefly of Maimonides s Moreh JfiebucMm,
had initiated him already. After many years of comparative indigence he became the
partner of a rich silk-manufacturer, whose children he had educated. The intimate
friend of men like Lessing, Sulzer, Nicolai, he, directly and indirectly, contributed in a
vast degree to the extermmation of the brutal prejudices against the Jews, and the dii-
gracef ul laws with respect to them. On the other hand, he acted in the most benefl*
cial manner on his own co-religionists, by rousii«g them from the mental apathy with
which they regarded in his daj" all that had not a distinct reference to religion, and by
waging fierce war against their own religious and other prejudices. He was also, on
account of his immense influence upon tliem, called another Moses. He died Jan. 4,
1786, and Ramier wrote the following epitaph on him : *' True to the religion of his fore-
fathers, wise as Socrates, teaching immortality, and becoming immoital like Socrates.**
His principal works are, Pope, ein Metaphymer {vith Lessing) (Dan. 1755); Brirfe fifter
die Empftndungen (Berl. 1764); Ueber die EmcUmz der Metapkymchen WissenK?iaJ%en, a
prize essay of the Berlin academy, which thereupon unanimously resolved to elect him
a member of their body; Frederick the great, however, generally prejudiced against the
•Jews, struck his name off the list; Pluiedon, ader utter Unsterblichkeit der Seele (Berl,
1767) a dialogue in the manner of Plato; Jerusalem, odor uber religum Mae?U dee Juden^
(hums (Berl. 1783), chiefly in answer to Lavater's obtrusive, sometimes even offensively
worded arguments, by which he intended to convert Mendelssohn to Christianity, or to
prove that he was a Christian already. Further, Morgemtunden (Berl. 1785) — morn ins
conversations with his children and friends, chiefly in refutation of Pantheism and
Spinozism. Besides many other smaller Hebrew and German essays, contributions to
the Bibliotlisk der echdiuen WlesenachafUn, edited by Lessing (to whom, in a manner, he
furnished the prototype to his Kathan der WeUe)^ etc., his translation of the Pentateuch
and the Psalms deserves n pix)mlnent place. His works have been collected and edited
by G. B. Mendelssohn (Leip., 1843-45, 7 vols.).
MEKBELSSOHN-BABTHOLDTf Felix, a German musical compoaer, son of Abraham
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, the eminent banker, and grandson of Moeea Mendelssohn, the
I^UoBopher, was b. at Hamburg, Fcbj 8, 1809. Hie father waa a c<MLvert to Christianity,
Digitized by VjUUVLC
OOlf Mendiounoy.
nnd young Felbc was bronglit up in the Lutheran fnith. The adB9uent circumBtances of
his parents enabled them to bestow a most liberal and careful education on their sou, whose
fine genius early showed itself. Zelter was his instructor in composition, Ludwig Ber-
ger ou the piano. In his ninth year he gave his first public concert in Berlin, and in
the following year played in f^aris. From this period he commenced to write com-
positions of ail soxts, some of them of a very difi&cult character, for the piano, violin,
violoncello, etc. In 1824 the first of these — three quartets for the piano— were published.
In 1825 lie went a second time to Paris — his father, on the advice of Cherubini and
other eminent artists, having consented that he should devote himself exclusively to
nmdc. He now gave concerts both in Paris and Berlin, after which he traveled for
three years in England, Scotland, France, and Italy. In tbe first of these countries he
obtain.^ enthusiastic applause by his overture to Shakespeare's Midsummer MphVs
Dream, which, in its blending of the fanciful, the delicate, and the grotesque, is said to
have caught the inspiration of Shakespeare himself. He afterwards wrote music to
accompany the whole of the play. His lales cf FingaX is a fine memorial of the impres-
sion left upon him by the wild scenery of the western Highlands. His letters from
Italy also show how profoundly he was affected by that glorious land—the true hume of
art. Mendelssohn subseouentlv attempted to otart a musical theater for the cul-
tivation of high art, at DOaseldorf, but it did not succeed. In 1885 ^ accepted the
directorship of the Leipsic concerts. Here he was in the center of the musical world of
Germany, and was stimulated to his highest and most brilliant efforts; yet it was in Eng-
land that Mendelssohn first met with a reception proportionate to his genius. His
oratorio of St. Paul, after bein? performed at Dresden and Leipsic, was produced
under his own management at the Birmingham festival, Sept. 20, 1837, and created quite
a furor. It and his other oratorio of MijaJ^, on which he labored for nine years, and which
was first brought out at the Birmingham festival of 1846, are reckoned his two great-
est works. He died at Leipsic Nov. 4, 1847. Among his best-known comix)sitions are
his music for Goethe's Wwpurgimaeiit, the Antigone and (Ediptu of Sophocles, Ailialie,
and a great number of splendid sonatas, concertos, trios. In his Leider ohrve Worte (songs
without words), he has achieved a great and novel triumph. 31endelssohn's character,
which was even finer than his genius, is charmingly delineated in his Letters wliich haye
been translated from the German by lady Wallace (London, 1862).
MENDES, a city of ancient Egypt in the delta Parvum, and near the coast. It gave
name to the Mendesian district, and was its chief city. It was near the point where the
Mendesian arm of the Nile enters the lake of Tanis. It was a place of importance in
the time of the Pharaohs, and noted for the manufacture of a perfume called Mendu-
siam unguenium. The deity there worshiped was in the form ot a goat, and called Pan
by the Greek writers. Mendes gradually disappeared from history, being in ruins in
the 1st c. B.C., but in its vicinity arose the city of Thmius.
MENDE2-PINT0, Fernam, 1510-83, b. Portugal; at first a servant to a gentleman
in Portugal. He sailed for the East Indies in 1537, in the hope of making a fortune.
Ihe ship on which he embarked was captured by the Turks, and he was sold a slave.
Finally, by the good offices of the governor of Ormus, who had redeemed him fi-om
slavery, he was enabled to go to India, where he remained for many yciurs. He
returned to Portuo^jil, in 1558. He wrote an account of his travels, which was published
in 1614, and translated into French in 1654. It contains much curious information in
regard to the geography and social condition of the east; but it indicates great credulity
or a want of veracity on the part of its author.
MENDICANCY. (See Poor and Poor Laws, ante.) Mendicants are practically
all persons who gain a livelihood by beggary; a definition excluding those who are will-
ing to work but cannct, owing to lack of demand for labor; and those who temporarily
receive assistance because of ill-health or other misfortune. The class we are cont-icl-
ering does not exist in uncivilized or savage society. Yet among the least hiy:hly civil-
ized we find it flourishing— as in Egypt, and in the case of the hizzaroni of Italy In
large cities mendicancy has become an art, and professional beggars are found in
London, Paris, and New York, who have amassed large sums of money by the consUuit
pursuit of a trade which with them has ceased even tc Ik; precarious. Whifc we may pos-
aibly, with some degree of justice, find the origin of professional be^gar^ in the course
not only pursued by, but enjoined upon the orders of, mendicant friars in cenliid and
southern Europe, it is certain that the concentration of wealth, the decUne in the value
of money in the minds of those by whom it has been easily obtained, ami the conse-
quent habit of lavish giving, must eventually have brought this condition into Ixing,
even though the church had not encouraged its establishment. Twenty-five years ago
(1855) it was said by an English writer that a three days' rain about ^London woiihl
at any time bring ^,000 coster-mongers, or venders of provisions, to the verge of fam-
ine. This is su^estive. The precjtfious character of the vocation of many of the
lower classes of laboring people, and the imminent danger in which they constaniiy
are, must be a grave temptation to the purauit which we arc considering. In tiiickly
settled towns arid cities the chances of gaining the nacessitiesof life are certainly greater
in this line than in many tnides. It is not liable to the fluctuations occiisfoned by
fashion, or changing taste; by the influence of the seasons; or by the other numerous
U. K. IX. 11 Digitized by VjiUUglC
Mendicant. AOA
Xendlp. OVv
-vicissitudes which deprive ordinary trades of the element of oertaintv of return. * The
professional beggar is not iimited to any special range, but may vary his huutin^^griouiid
hy necessity, capnce, or accident, and be equally certain of sucoemk Also there are
'peculiar aUractions in mendicancy for the uneducated and unskilled, yet not lawless
portion of a population, in its comparative freedom from restraint; its opportunity for
roving, and for a ^ild companionship with coneenial spirits, precluded by the social
order of a regular business life; and, Anally, the charm and satisfaction which it offers,
of gaining something for nothing; of living on humanity without labor yet witliout
critiie; of satisfying the stem natural sense of justice which exists in the bosom of tlie
unfortiimite and the indigent, by making the rich support the poor — yet without ooro-
I>ulsion. It may also be considered as one of the compensating forces of tho social
organism, occiisioned by the reaction from extreme wealth to extreme poverty, and
formulated in an unreasonable demand, answered by a groundless concession; in foctu
humanitarian paradox.
The difficulty of dealing witli poverty justly, and with a due sense of its vnrious
causes and results, has been a sociarprobiviji ever Kinco there has been any society; and
<iuite the most difficult part of this problem to handle wisely, or to control at all. bos
lieen mendicancy. The same -English writer to whom we have already referred.^*
: writing generally on the charities and poor of London, says: **But the great problem
which perplexed our ancestors less than oniTelves, only l)ecnu6C in a less crowded 6tate
of society social evils were more easily dealt with, was* mendicancy. In every commu-
nity there must alwavsbe some who cannot disr. and in the most primitive' there afine
aiJwAVB some who will not, and arc not ashamed to beg. From the earliest times the
lilunjy mendicant has constituted himself the repropontative of the poor, in whose behalf
the Gospel pleads so authoritatively. In that character he lounged at the convent-grate,
he devoured his dole at the baron's hall-door, he clamored for alms at the church-porch,
and in tliat capacity we ijrcsume he is accepted by the modem advocates (happilif few
in number) of indiscriminate alms-giving. But even in tlie most picturesque times,
when he pretended to show the scallop shell from the holy land in his Imt, or perhaps
the scars of infidel sabers on his 1)ody, he was but a good-fbr-tiothing vagabond." The
enactment of the poor-law In queen Elizabeth's reiini has l)een attributed to a necessity
ix;casioned by the dissolution of the convents, wlii(ii were supposed to feed tho poor to
such an extent as to make the necessity when they ceased to exist. That this was not
true is shown by the fact that acts for the suppression of mendicancy were passed
before the dissolution of the monasteries. The act of Elizabeth was passed from a desire
to effect a social reform, and similar acts were passed in succecdir.g reign.« down to tlic
present, and for the S2\me reason. But though from time to time acts a^iinst able-bod-
ied paupers were multiplied, the vagrant continued to prefer idleness and independence
to work or the poor-house, and by degrees the numl)cr of beggars swelled, till they
.exceeded the powers of the beadle and constable to arrest, and of the jail or poor-house
to contain, and actually acquired an almost legalized existence. At the close of the great
European war the evil had reached its heiglit; ostentatiously loathsome objects paraded
the great thoroughfares; professional beggars, by a police of their own, quartered the
towns among them, and in 1818 an association was formed in London to accomplish
what the state had failed in doing. This organization took the name of the society for
the supi)ression of mendicity. A large staff of paid agents was engaged, and tho com-
mittee for its management counted amcmg its mrml)crs many naval and military men,
trained to habits of order and system; and who, being without professional employ-
ment, brought their administrative talents to the service of the new society. This organ-
ization did good work, and was the foundation of methods which have since been
applied with success; and mendicancy haw largely diminished. The reforai movement
in England in 1834, and new legislation, still further lcs5?ened the evil; yet so acute and
well informe<l an observer as the rev. Charles L. Brace Sjiys that ** the conclusion of all
European experience is that nothing can jwrmanently affect the evil of mendicity but
a general diffusion of prosperity, "morality, and inicliigcnce," certainly affordmg a
gloomy outlook for the future, both in En rope and America; since concentration of
wealth, rather than its diffusion, scen-s to have become the order of society; and the
prol»l>ility of gtmeral "prosperity, morality, and intelligence," in tlie face of that tend-
ency, is, to say the least, remote.
The theory hekl by many that pauperi'im l)ears a direct relation to tho price of corn
would seem to have Iwen practically <lispo?ed of by tho statit^tics of the sums expended
in relief from 1813 to 1860 m England. Bv these it is seen that while there was a stcndv
decline in the amount from alnnit £0,650.000 in 1818 to £5,550,000 in 1859, the differ-
ence of 20 per cent was far less than it should have been to sustain the theory. For
the price of com had fallen during the 46 years, from 125«j. per quarter to 42{<. W.. or
sixty-six per cent. And this fact goes far to sustain the assertion that pauperism, and
I'qu.ally or even more, mendicancy, rely for their fluctuations in degree upon cau«'S
outside of all su?h material considerations.
The history of mendicancy in France attests the antiquity of the profession, aodoffer*
some pertinent facts. Thus, as early as the middle of the 14tli c, in the reign of king
John, it was found necessary to is.sue an ordinance commanding ^^^ able-bodied beggars
to find work or leave Paris, with the alternative of imprisonineiit. t^e^^o|^, and brand-
atl-l Mendteant.
^•'^ MeMcUp.
lug, accontittg to fiie tramber of oiffenBeB against the ]aw. A similar act was passed in
1418; but Fmnds I. rescinded both, and instead directed the public anthorities to set
those persons indicated to work, if necessary b)r force. But it was found that severe
laws had but little effect in suppressing the evil; and though in 1637 beggars were
directed to be impressed into the naval service, and even expatriated by being sent to
the Indies, work^houses were established in France, and thus a new system was begun.
In 1688, all, previous plans having failed, a law was enac'ted forcing cvfery beggar to
leave Paris, on pain of being sent to the galleys. Even this harsh measure was incom-
petent to relieve the city of mendicants, much less the entire kingdom; and in 1698 it
was estimated that one-tenth of the entire population were beggars. The work-house
plan was now tried again, and in four years 80 of these were established. These institu-
liona not only did not succeed in rooting out the evil, but they were found to be, instead
of self-supporting, as was anticipated, a severe tsix on the state. They were gradually
suppressed, and at present very few exist. Mr. Brace remarks as to the various French
methods: " Thus, duringflve centuries ever^ species of penalty and punishment has been
tried in vain in France to repress mendicity. Humane legislation has been equally
a failure; and the sum of all experience in that country is that all legal menus fail
to reach this great evil.*' But the fact is that there is less mendicancy, as there is less
pauperism in France, in proportion to its population, than there is in any other country
m Europe, or in the United States. And it would appear that to seek for the cause of
this fortunate condition we must analyze the effect of the French land laws. For the
fact that in France, where there is no law of entail for landed property, and where
a father cannot by will alienate this species of property in any one airection ; but where,
on the contrary, land is divided among all the heirs, on the death of the owner, — there
must of necessity be such a stcbdi vision of land that the existence of pauperism on
a large scale becomes practically impossible: the result being that tiie land is divided
among a larger number of owners than is the case with any other country. Another
and curious reason for the condition of France as regards pauperism is found in the
fact of the apparently stationary condition of her population. Between 1861 and 1876
tlie population increased only about 8 per cent, and was nearly what it was in 1870.
The birth-rate in France is only 26 in a thousand, being far below that of any oiher
country. An Ingenious Frenchman bases on this condition the positive prosperity of
his country, on the ground that the number of non-producere is lessened, and so much
less drain on the resources of tJio country for their support is the result.
The record of pauperism and mendicancy in the United States has been similar
to that of England in its general conditions. The class of beggars in the large cities and
towns has been supplemented by that of "tramps." These are coniparntivcly recent in
their origin in the United States; and it is not improbable that they were originally an
exportation from England, where they have long been a feature of paupeiism. They
have increased greatly in number in recent years, and in Ma/jsacliusetls alone there were
said to be a few years ago 25,000 of these peripatetic beggars. It is certain, also, lliat
they are to a certain extent organized, that Uiey associate with each other, and that ihey
communicate by signs and marks placed where they can be found by the initiated.
The proportion in Massachusetts applied to the entire population would give 750.000 as
the number of tramps in the entire country, or one m 66. In Enclnud, in 18C7, tlu^
number of tramps was returned, on a certain specified night, at 83,191— very little more
than the number in Massachusetts alone, and in the proportion of 1 to 666. Various
efforts have been made in the V-dted States in the special direction of reducing the
number of tramps, culminating in the passage of severe ** tramp laws" in Massacrhu setts
and a few other states. These laws are of very recent enactment, and their effect has
not yet lieen made known. It is probable that unless similar legislative action look
place in all the states the effect would be only to drive them from one slate to another.
XBN'SICAKT OBDEBS, certain religious associations in the Roman church, which,
carrying out the principle of religious poverty'- and self-humiliation to its fullest extent,
make it a part of their profession to denude themselves of all property, whether real or
personal, and to subsist upon alms. As the scriptural foundation of this practice, the
words of our Lord (Matt. xix. 21) to the young man who sought coupj;- 1 of him, and
again (verses 27-30) to his own disciples, are commonly alleged, both by the mendicant
orders and in general by all who profess what is called evangelical poveity. lu tho
mendicant orders alms are commonly collected by the lay-brothers; in .'ome, by actual
solicitation; in others, by the ringing of the convent bell when the stock of provisions is
exhausted. Formerly such ordere w^cre numerous in the church; but by a decree of the
second council of Lyons m 1274 the mendicant orders were limited to four — the Domini-
cans. Franciscans, Carmelifcs, and Auu:uslinians or Austin friars. Sec these articles,
also Frlvrs. The rule by which individuals are denied the possession of even personal
property is strictly understood in Catholic countries. In England and Ireland it was
considerably relaxed, but of late years has been enforced with increasing exactness.
XBHSIP HILI8, a rangf^ in the northern part of Somersetshire. England, extenci in a
n.w. and s.e. direction, and are about 25 m. in length by from 8 to 6 m. in breadth. In
former times the moors of Mendip were attached to the crown as a roval forest, and
were frequently hunted over by the Saxon and Norman kings. Q|^_,^^^id§^^y^)ortion
MeiidlsaimL AQO
MeMndM. ^^^
of the range is dow un'dei^ cultivation. The summit is BUick down, 1100 ft in heig^
The lead and calamine mines of Mendip (called grooves, the miners being called grooten)
were in operation before the dawn of history.
MENDIZABAL, Juan AlvaUez y, 1790-1853; b. in Cadiz; son of a Jew, brought
up in trade, placed in a bank, where he quarreled w^ith the principal, and first noted as
a politician in connection with the republican movement in Spam between 1819 and
1823; for which he obtained in England timely loans. In 1824, 'banished from Spain,
he established a commercial house \u London ; was the medium of a loan to Dom Pedro
in 1837, to Spain in 1838, and was recalled in 1835 by Toreno to take charge of the depart-
ment of finance. He returned to Spain with the eclat of a completed loan of £1,150,000,
made in London. After great boasts of what he would do, followed by small results,
lie was displaced in May, 1836, and, though twice called back to the portfolio of finance,
was not afterwards distinguished.
MENDOCI'NO, a co. in n.w. California, having the Pacific ocean for its w. boundary,
the Mayacmas mountains for its s.e., and the contmuationof the Shasta mountain range
for its e. boundary; 3,650 sq.m.; pop. '80, 12.800—10,393 of American birth, 1613 col-
ored. It is drained by the Eel river and the South Fork in the e., the Russian river in
the s., and the Novarro river. Its surfucc is mountainous, furnishing good grazing
pastures,, and is diversified by lakes, fertile valleys, and immense forests of redwood,
used for building- timber, grow along the coast. Its soil is very fertile, and adapted to
. the production of ^jrain, fruit, and dairy products. Horses and cattle are raised, and
large numbers of sheep. Wool and lumber are the chief products. It has several
excellent harbors. County seat, Ukiah.
MENDO'TA, a village of La Salle co.. Ill , at the junction of the Chicago, Burling-
ton and Quincy, and the Illinois Central railroads. Pop. of village, exclusive of town-
ship, 1043. it has 2 churches, 2 graded pubUc schools, a library, 2 banks, an iron
foundiy, an organ manufactory, and a weekly newspaper.
MENDOZA, a province of the Argentine Confederation, South America, along the e.
of the Andes, bounded on the n. by the province oF S. Juan, on the e. and n.e. by
S. Luis, on tiie s. and s.e. by Buenos Ayres, and on the w. by Chili; about 34,000
sq.m.; poij. about 65,000. llie w. part of the province is traversed by a part of the
Andes chain, from which the surface slopes down to the Mendoza river, at which a
great plain begins to stretch eastward. This plain is sandy, but with proper irrigation
produces. goo(l crops of barley, maize, wheat, and lucerne. Apart from the cereal crops
the cliiaf productions are wines, brandy, tallow, and soap.' Hides and dried fruits arc
exported to Chili. There are a few silver mines, and copi^er is known to exist in quan-
tities, but the veins have not as yet been worked. There are extensive saline deposits;
and shales, slates, gypsum, and limestone are foimd. Rain and dew are infrequent,
except along the s. boundary; elsewhere artificial irrigation has to be resorted to, as
even grass will not grow on the e. pluins without it. Mendoza is one of the federal
fjtates of the Argentine republic, but practically manages its own affairs by means of a
i^overnor and an assembly. The capital of the province is Mendoza, built on a plain,
2,801 ft. above the level of the sea. Pop. about 10,000.
XEND3'ZA, the capital of a department of the same name in the Argentine republic
(q.v.), is situated on the eastern bjise of the Andes, 110 m. e.n.e. of Santiago, and at a
height of 2,891 ft. above sealcvel. It was totally destro3'ed by an earthquake in 1861,
when its buildings were demolished, and most of its inhabitants, 15,000 in number,
perished; but it is rapidly recovering.
MENDOZA, Antonio de, 1495-1552; b. Granada; was appointed viceroy of Mexico
l;y Charles V. April 17, 1535, invested with full power of rule. In the administration of
1 he government he made many wise and benevolent reforms, especially m regard to the
Indians who had been the victims of much suffering. In 1536 he introduced into the
city of Mexico the first printing-press brought to the country; established a mint, at
which the first coining, in the same year, was done by his orders; promoted agriculture
und developed the mining wealth of the land, and founded the first college there. He
repressed a serious Indian revolt, wisely tempering rigor with justice. In 1551 he was
1 '.-unsfeiTed to the viceroy alty of Peru. He was the first of 64 viceroys in Mexico, and
iiis government was the longest and most distinguished of all.
KEKSOZA, Don Diego Hurtado de, a Spanish classic, distinguished also as a states-
man and a gen., was b. at Granada about 1503, studied there and at Salamanca; and
shortly after leaving tho latter university was sent hy the emperor Charles V. as ambas-
sjidor to Venice. Later, he w^as present at the council of Trent as imperial plcnipoten-
liiry, and in 1547 was appoicted ambassador to the papal court. Asa gen., he was
successful in subjugatinc Siena, which was handed over to Cosmo L Medici, as a fief
ot the Spanish crown. Ilis position, however, was a difficult one; he was hated both by
\> )pe and people, and in 1554 the emperor recalled him. During his residence in Italy
h J showed the greatest zeal in collecting literary tieasures, especially ancient MSS. H^e
s 'lU learned men for that purpose to Mount Athos, and also took advantage of the regard
«'!uertained for him by Soliman the magnificent, sultan of Turkey. In 1508 an affaSr of
:,^illantry terminated in his banishment from court. He withdrew to5|i^n^(}^jwliere ha
AQQ Mendlzabal*
spent his last years in writing his Ouerra contra lo$ Moriseoa (history of the war against
the Moors — first published — with parts omitted — in 1610, and in a complete form in 177(5,
by Portalegre, who prefixed a life of the author). This work is regardwl by Mendoza's
countrymen as a masterpiece. Mendoza died in 1575. His library is now one of the
ornaments of the Escurial. In his poetical epistles lie gave his country the first good
model for that form of composition. His sonnets and serious poems are of inferior
merit
MENDOZA, IfTioo Lopez db. Marquis of Santillana, 1398-1458« b. Spain; son of
the grand admiral of Castile, and grandson of the poet Pero Gonzalez Mendoza. His
father died durine Ifligo's infanc3% and the family estates, the most extensive in Cas-
tile, were seized oy the ruling nobles of the kingdom. But Iftigo recovered them,
either in the courts or on the field, before he was out of his minority. He took a promi-
nent share in the military and political affairs of Castile, and was created marquis of
Santillana after the battle of Olmedo. After the fall of the constable Alvarado de Luna,
Mendoza retired from public affairs, and devoted himself to literature. His poetry is
largely unpublished, though some of it is contained in different collections of songs. He
was familiar with Italian and Provencal literature, and many of his most charming
poems show the effect of Proven^ influence. He introduced the sonnet into Spain, but
his own sonnets are of little vidue. He imitates Dante, in his poems on the death of thb
marquis of Villena and on the coronation of Jordi. The most important of his poetical
works is the Ckmiedieta de Ponzit; his most pleasinff poem is called a 8erm7iiUa, or little
mountain song, and was composed in honor of a little shepherdess, *'the milkmnid of
sweet P^nojosa." In Spain itself his Refranes, a collection of rhymed proverbs, is "his
most popular work. His principal though perhnps doubtful service to Spanish poetry
was his mtroduclion of allegory mto poetical composition.
MENDOZA, Juan Oonzaueb ds, 1540-1617; b. Toledo, Spain ; of a wealthy and di»-
tinguished family. He joined the army, but resigned after some years to enter the order
of dt Augustine; was sent by Philip U. to China in 1580, where he spent three years
in gaining iuformtition as to the politics, commerce, manners, and customs of the country.
He spent two years in Mexico before returning to Spain. He published an account of
his observations in China in a work entitled Histoiia de lots Cwsom nuis NotabUa Ritos y
Cotiumbre^ del Gran lieyno de la China. An English translation appeared in 1588. and
It was reprinted by the Hakluyt society in 1853>54. Father Mendoza was successively
bishop of the Lipari islands, vicar-apostolic of Mexico, and bishop of Chiapas and of
Popayau, New Granada, where he died.
3IEND0ZA, Pedro de, 1487-1537, b. Spain; an official in the service of Charles V.
In 1535 he went on a voyage to South America for the purpose of exploring the south
of that continent, and with authority to take possession of and colonize it m the name
of Spain. Made governor of the territory he was to conquer, he left Spain with a fleet
of ^12 ships, containing 800 men. At Rio Janeiro, Osorio, the vice-admiral, was mur-
dered by some of his subordinates. Mendoza then sailed up the Rio de la Plata, and
laid the foundations of the city of Buenos Ayrcs. where he established a colony. His
brother, Goncalo, went to Paraguay and founded Asuncion in 1536. The colony at
Buenos Ayres did not prosper from the first. Aside from the privations to which the
colonists were exposed, and the mortality incident to a community not yet accustomed
to a new climate, the settlement was constantly attacked by the neighboring Indian
tribes, and brought to the verge of destruction. Mendoza, after many disappointments,
died on his voyage back to Spain.
XSinSLA'ITS^ in ancient Greek legend, was king of Lacerjsemon, the younger brother
of Agamemnon, and husband of the famous Helen. The aMuction of his wife by Paris
is represented as the cause of the Trojan war. After the fall of Troy he sailed with
Helen for his own land; but his fleet was scattered by a storm, and he wandered for
eight years about the coasts of Cyprus, Phenicia, Ethiopia, Egypt, and Libya. After
his return lie lived at Sparta with his wife Helen in great style and happiness.
MENENDEZ DE AVILES, Pedbo, 1519-74; b. at Avilcs, Spain. Educated to
the sea, he for many years commanded a privateer which was tlie terror of the French
corsairs. By Philip U. he was given a commission in the regular navy and made capt.
gen. of the India fleets. In this position he won important victories over the pirates,
and was of ^rreai service in successfully transporting to Philip the reinforcements which
carried the day at the battle of St. Quentin. On June 29, 1565, he sailed from Cadiz with
a fleet of 34 vessels with the intention of founding a colony in Florida, of which he had
been appointed adelantado. The French Huguenots had already established a foot-hold
near the mouth of the St. John's river, under the leadership of Kibault. The Spaniards
were hy far the most powerful m numt)er8 and equipmentp., and in the ensuing contest
the main French stronghold, fort Caroline, was captured, many of tlie colonists were
massacred, and when those who had escaped to the ships of Kibault were wrecked and
in a starving condition, Menendcz received their surrender, promising to spare them;
but, with a treachery and cruelty almost beyond belief, violated his plighted word and
slew nearly all of them. Many were hanged and left bearing inscriptions stating that
Ihey were killed ** not as Frenchmen, but "as heretics." When, g^g^jiJl^^^^'pcity
Menes. AQJ.
M«ulDgltU. ^^*
was avenged by the French adventurers under Dominique de Gouigues, the Bpaniards
were buug upon tlie same trees, with placards stating that they were executed "not as
Spuuiards, but as cut-throats and murderers." It was in this expedition that St. Augus-
tine was discovered and named. Other posts were established by Mcnendez further up
the coast, as iat cap3 Canaveral and Port lioyal. Menendez returned to Spain, but still
controlled the affairs of the new colonies. In 1572 he again visited the western continent
and airried his explorations still further. He was recalled and ordered to the command
of a fleet to be employed in the war with the Low Countries; but died at Santander while
engaged iu fitting out his vessels.
XE'KES, tlte first king of the first Egyptian dynasty, who built Memphis, made foreign
conquests, introduced luxury, and was subsequently devoured by a hippopotamus.
During liis reign theit3 was a revolt of the Libyans. His mime marks a great chronological
epoch, b^ing placed by chronologists 8648, 8892 b.c., or even 5702 B.c. Stricter chro-
nologists make his accession 2717 b.c. This name, which signifies the conductor, has
been found on inscriptions, but no contemporary monuments of him are known. — ^Bun-
sen, EgypVs Place, ii. p. 579; Lepsius, Kotiigbuch, quelUntqf,, p. 5; B5ckh, MaTUtho, p.
386; Poole, R. S., Uor. ^ffypt, p. 219.
XElin, or Menfiuci, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Git^enti. 48 ni. 8.s.w. of
Palermo, crowns a long bare height, about 8 m. from the coast. Pop. 9,900.
1CEN0L', Anton Rafael, a modern German artist and writer on art, b. at Auseig, in
Bohemia, ilar. 12, 1728. His father, Israel Mengs, was himself a painter, but possessed
of very mediocre talent, and from him young Rafael received his first instructions in art
At the age of thirteen he went to Rome, where he remained three years, rigorously
devoting his wliole time to the study of the works of Michael Angelo, Raphael, and
others of the old masters. On his return to Dresden in 1744 he was appointed court-
iminter to Augustus III., king of Poland and Saxony, but received permission at the
Hame time to go back to Rome. Here he established his reputation by a picture of the
"Holy Family." TJie young peasant-girl who sat for the Virgin so charmed the painter
b^' her beauty that he subsequently passed over to the Roman Catholic church, and mar-
ried her. In 1754 he accepted the presidency of the newly instituted academy of paint-
ing at Rome. Within the next few years he executed the frescos in the church of San
Eusebio, and those of *• Apollo and the Muses on Parnassus " for cardinal Albani; besides
which he copied Raphael's *' School of Athens" for lord Percy, and* painted eeveml
original pictures in oil, among which may be mentioned a **Cleopatm." a '*Holy
Family," and a ** Magdalene." In 1761 he went to Madrid, on an invitation from Charles
III. of Spain, and while there executed a great variety of works, the best-known of
which is his *' Aurora;" but ill-health and the intrigues of enenies induced him to return
to Italy. He had do sooner arrived than Clement XIV. craj^loyed him on a large alle-
gorical subject for the Vatican library, representing Janus dictating to History, who
appears in the act of writing. After three years he again visited Spain. To thisperipd
Iwlongs his most celebrated effort; it represents the apotheosis of the emperor Trajan,
and is executed on the dome of the grand saloon in the royal palace at Madrid. Ill-
health, however, again forced him to leave Spain. On his way back to Italy he stopped
at Monaco, where he painted his picture of the ''Nativity," reckoned by many to be his
finest piece. Shortly after reaching Rome he died, June 29, 1779. Mcngs's works arc
careful and elaborate imitations of tlie great masters. He borrowed the technical quali-
ties of a painter in high perfection, but the living soul of genius, the quickening and
creative power of imagination, was not his. His works, therefore, though lofty in their
subjects^ seldom exhibit more than a correct and cultivated taste. Mengs's writmgs were
edited in Italian by Azara in 1780. There is an English translation (Lond. 1796).
XEHG-TSE (i.e., the teacher Meng; earlier, Meng-ko; Latinized by the Jesuits into
Mencius), a Chinese sa^», b. in the beginninj; of the 4th c. B.C., in the village of Tseou,
in the present district of Shantung. He died about 317 b.c. Meng-tse is the greatest of
the early Confucians. His father died while Meng-tse was very young; but he was edu-
cated with such admirable care by his mother that the phrase ''mother of Meng" has
become a proverb for an excellent preceptress. At this period China was divided into a
number of states, all acknowledging the suzerainty of the emperor of Tseu. Meng-tse
traveled to several courts, seeking to introduce his doctrines of " virtue " and "justice:"
but unfortunately, as too frequently happens, he found that princes and great men did
not admire these things so much as poor scholars. His conversations with ruiere and
state-functionaries, with his disciples and acquaintances, were taken down by his
admirers. They form XheHi-Ui, otherwise called the book of Meng-tse— the fourth of
the Pour Books. See Conftjcius. Manv of the thoughts are exquisitely true, sunes-
tive, and subtle. Several translations of !t have been published, but they fall far short
of the energy, sen tent imisness. freshness, and vivacity of the original. One of the best
is the Latin version of Stanislas Julien, 12 vols. (Paris, 1824), There is also an English
one by Collie (Malacca, 1828), and another by Pauthier (Paris, 1851).
XSKHA'BEK, Atom menhaden^ a fish of the same genus with the shad (q.v.), which
is caught in great quantities on the coasts of New York and New England during the
fiummer months, when it visits them for the purpose of spawning. Its length is from 8
Digitized by VjiOUV VC
£tCkK Menet.
lo 14 inches; the color of the upper parts is greenish brown, Ihe bellj silvery, a black
spot on the shoulder, the whole surface iridescent. The menliaden is not a very palat-
able fish, but Is rich in oil, wbich is used by painters, and is considered superior to linseed
oil. Great quantities of this fish are taken in some seasons, and are sold for manure, one
fish being considered equal to a shovelful of barn-ytutl manure, and 2,500 sufiicieut for
an acre of land.
MENIER, Emilb^ubtin, 1820-81 ; b. Paris ; in early life studied with Arfila. Du-
•nlas, and Pelouze, to become versed in tbe science of chemistry. He established large
laboratories at St. Denis, which he freely opened for the use of students and scitilitiiic .
men. In 1859 he founded an annual prize for researches into the nature and pruperties
of drugs, and in 1864 oi^ganlzed a school of practical chemistry, devoting the sum of
10,000 francs to establish lecture^courses on this subject. In the town of Nnisiel, he
built at his own expense model schools for the entire population, and gave 10,000 iTuncs
to be distributed among the school teachers in the diiierent departments of France who
reported the largest attendance of scholars. At one time lie was at the head of the most
important wholesale drug and chemical business in France, situated in the old quai'tier
du Temple, in Paris, lietiring from this business, he undertook the manufacture of
chocolate on a gnmd scale, and laid the foundation for a colossal fortune. He founded
his factories at Noisiel, where he established a thriving settlement of pretty and conve-
nient houses for his operatives, with schools, a hospital, baths, and other instiiuiions for
health and comfort. His factor!^ eventually reached a trade of $5,000,000 per annum,
and M. Menier became one of the wealthiest men in France. He resided in Paris in a
palatial dwelling in the pare Monceaux, where he gathered together a remarkable and
iijghljr valuable collection of objects of art and vertu. In 1879 he purchased the chateau
of Koisiel for the sum ot- $2, 000, 000. He was also the owner in Nicaragua of a section
of territory 25 ni. sq., and another tract of 6,000 acres on lake Nicaragua. Herejwere
his plantations of cocoa-trees, whose product he made into chocolate at his factories in
Noisiel. In 1862 M. Menier was chahrman of one of the international juries of bhe Lou-
don exhibition ; at the Paris exhibition of 1867 he was commissioner for the republics
of Nicaragua and Costa Rica. During the Franco-Prussian war he organized an ambu-
lance corps, and was present durin^s^ several battles, caring personalljr for the wounded.
In 1870 he entered political life, being elected a member of tlie conseil-geneial of Seiue-
et-Mame, and later was returned to the chamber of deputies. He was alno one of the
few Frenchmen who bad been elected members of the Cobden club. M. Menier devoted
much of his time and influence during the latter years of his life to establishing closer
commercial relations between France and the United States, and was one of the princi-
pal promoters of the Franco-American treaty of commerce, which he sought strenuously,
by moans of intelligent and skillful agents, to render acceptable to the two countries.
In this effort he had only been partially successful at the time of Ids death.
MENIFEE, a co. in e. Kentucky, bounded on the n.e. by the Licking, nnd s. by
the Red river, both tributaries of the Kentucky; 450 sq.ra. ; pop. '80, 5,410. The surface
is hilly and broken, but not unfertile. Thj chief proaucts arc Indian corn, wheat, and
oats. Sheep-grazing is a prominent industry. Chief town, Frenchburg.
KESINj a frontier t. of West Flanders, Belgium, on the left bank of the Lys,
which separates it from France, 80 m. 8.s.w. of Bruges. It was formerly fortified, but
its works have been demolished, and it is now a dismal and lifeless town, with some
mmufactures. Pop. 76, 11,887.
XSNINOI'TIS (Gr. meninx, a membrane) is the term employed in medicine to desig-
nate inflammation of the arachnoid and pia-mater (the middle and innermost of the
membranes investing the brain).
This dlswjase has been divided into three stages — the symptoms of the first being those
of excitement, resulting from inflammation ; those of the second being those of compres-
sion, showins: that an elfusion of fluid into the arachnoid cavity has taken place; while
those oif the third stage vary according as convalescence or death is the result.
Menin^tis is especially apt to occur in children of a tuberculous diathesis, in which
case the disease is usually described as acute hydrocephalus (q.v.). Scarlatina, measles,
and other diseases .caused by a blood-poison, may induce it in children. In adult life,
the disease may often be traced to the action of typhous and marsh poisons, to intemper-
ance, sunstroke, mechanical injuries, etc.
When the disease is due to any of the above-named blood -poisons, or to any constitu-
tional cause, little cim be done effectually in the way of special treatment. When it
arises from mechanical injunes, bleeding, calomel, active puigatives, nnd cold applica-
tions to the head are often of use. The patient should be kept on low diet, and all men-
tal excitement should be most carefully avoided.
MENINGITIS {ante), inflammation of the meninges. The meninges are the three
investing memby/ines of the brain and spinal cord: the dura-mater, which lines the inter-
nal surface of the cavities; the pia-mater, which is in contact with the nervous substance:
and the arachnoid, lying between the other two. Meningitis is generally confined to the
arachnoid and .pia-mater. In the foimer it is aradinitU, and in the latter pieitia; but in
whichever membrane the inflammation commences the diagnosis between the two is
Digitized-by VjOOV IC
Maningltls*
69©
either difficult or impossible, and therefore the name msningiiU is most applicable to
either or both. Inflammation of the cerebral meninges is called cerebral meningitis, and
that of the spinal meninges, spinal meningitis. When the membmnes of both brain and
cord are involved, the anection is called cerebro-spinal meningitis. Inflammation of the
substance of the brain is cerebriiis, while inflammation of the spinal cord iswiy«?«<M(q.v.).
MeniiujitU may be arranged under the following heads : 1. Inflammation of the dura-
mater, or pacliymenin^tis. 2. Cerebral meningitis, acute and chronic, including rheu-
matic meningicis. 8. Tubercular meningitis. 4. Spina) meningitis, acute and chronic
5. Oerebro-spinal meningitis. 1. Inflammation of the dura-mater, or pachymeningitis (so
called because it is inflammation of the thick, tough membrtme, the dura-mater), wasflrst
described by Virchow under the latter title, and also, in some cases, under that of hema-
toma of the dura-mater. The inflammation may be on the outer surface of the dura-ma-
ter next the osseous substance, but this form is of rare occurrence, and never takes plaoo
except from injuries or osseous growths; it is to the affection attacking the inner surface
of the dura-niater— that covered by the outer layer of the arachnoid membrane — to
which attenti<m is here culled. A principal characteristic is tlie formation of adventi-
tious membranes, which appear to be repetitions of the arachnoid, resembling it in its
spider-web structure, not Ijeing false membrane, but havincr blood-vessels, which after a
while rupture and cause extravasjitlon of blood, which collects in cysts, thus constitut-
ing the peculiar fomi called hematotita of the dura-mater. In some crises tliere are as
many as twenty layers of memlirane. The extent covered by these cysts varies. TTiey
are generally oval, four or Ave inches long and a half an inch or more in thickness,
containing from one ounce to sometimes morel htm a pound of blood. The bniin beneatli
Is, of course, compressed, an«*mic, and often softened. The symptoms are, primarily,
those of inflanunation, and secondarily, tliose of pressure. The diagnosis is exceeclinc^-
ly difllcult, and the termination is usuully fatal 2. Cerebral meninditU, Acute cerebral
meningitis is not of very common occunence, but nevertheless of great importance. The
inflammation is of the same character as that which attacks other serous membranes —
redness, with senun, coagulated fibrine or lymph, and pus; but these products are
beneath, and not upon the surface of the arachnoia; in other words, they are deposited in
the meshes of the pia-mater. Generally both hemispheres ars involved, constituting what
is called a bi-lateral affection. Post mortem examination often discloses the existence
of serum beneath the arachnioid, but this may follow atrophy or anaemia. The condition
most to be relied on is lymph, in sufficient quantity to be seen, or pus. The affection
may be caused by injuries to the head, sometimes by exposure to the sun. Indulgence
in spirituous liquors is not an infrequent cause. Acute cerebral meningitis sometimes
occirs in connection with acute rheumatism of the joints, and is then called rljeunmtic
meningitis and cerebral rheumatism; and it is regarded as being produced by the same
Cimses which produce arthritic rheumatism. Acute meningitis may be mistaken for
cerebral congestion, and after recovery in cases where the disease has not passed into the
second stage, that of compression, it is often impossible to be certain vi to wh:it the
affection Inis been, congestion or inflammation. Typhoid fever has been mistaken for
meniniijitis, when there has been much delirium, but the presence of diarrhea, tender-
ness and gurgling on pressure in the right iliac re^on in typhoid fever, and the continu-
ance of delirium in the latter affection, are sufficient to mark the distinction. Acute
mania has some symptoms like those of acute meningitis, but there is not that morbid
acutoness of the senses; moreover, in mania, fever and tlie symptoms of compression do
not follow the delirium. Acute meningitis is a very dangerous disease, some cases end-
ing fatal fy in 96 hours; but the fatal cases rarely extend beyond 9 days. The most
unfavorable symptoms are coma (q.v.), difficulty of swallowing, feebleness of pulse, and
WHUt of nervous sensibility (anaesthesia). liecovely frequently takes place after there
has been strabismus (see Squinttkg, ante), paralysis, and convulsions, but as a rule
more than half of the Ciises terminate fatally.
Chronic cerebral meningitis, unconnected with a tuberculous condition, is not of fre-
quent occurrence, although not so rare as the acute form. In most instances it is a
sub-acute affection from the commencement, and is very insidious in its character, the
symptoms being such as not to strongly attract attention. There is pain in the head, but
not usually violent, and the febrile symptoms are unimportant, vomiting is common,
but as all these symptoms accompany other diseases, it is difficult to'mnke the distinct
tion. There is often a degree of stupidity or apathy, accompaniefl by irritability when
aroused, and which, taken in connection with all the other symptoms and the circnm-
stances attending the inception of the disease, furnish to the experienced practitioner
data for forming in most cases a correct judgment. 8. Ttfberctihys inenivfjiti». The
recognition of this form of meningitis is due to Guersaut in 182S, and Gerhard and Ruiz
in 1838. Post-mortem examination reveals usually at the base of the brain beneath the
arachnoid a fibrinous exudation, covering the pons- varolii, optic commissures and cere-
l>ellum; but the most prominent feature is the presence of numerous minute granula-
tions having tlie appearance of gray tubercles, such as are found in the lungs and spleen
in tuberculosis. These miliary tubercles, as they nre called, are in the tract of the cere-
bral vesisels, and according to Bastian and others within sheaths which are peculiar to
the blood-vessels of the brain, and called perivascular sheaths, because surrounding the
blood-vessels. (These perivascular sheaths are also found in the liver, q. v.). The symp-
Digitized by VjOUV IC
697
Meningitis.
toms are somewhat intermediate between those of acute and chronic simple meningitis,
but the affection is frequently preceded by signs of tubercles in the lungs. It generally
attacks children between 2 and 7 years of age, rarely appearing during tlie flrst year,
but it is not confined to childhood. It usually commences with'pain in the head, gencr
ally in the forehead. Vomiting is a frequent and early symptom, and there is more
fever than in simple chronic meningitis. Remissions usually take place daily, with
increased symptoms during the night. Sometimes the headache is very severe, attended
by a short, sharp cry which has been called the ** cephalic cry." There is great sensibil-
ity to light and sound. The pupils, in this the first stage, are contracted, and the con
Jttnctiva suffused. A prominent symptom is the flushed face which comes on in
paroxysms, often preceding convulsions. In the second stage there is drowsiness and
less headache, although lancinating i>ains often occur. The pulse becomes less frequent,
sometimes falling below the natural standard, and is often fluctuating and irregular.
The respiration also becomes irregular. The pupils are dilated, and not infrequently
unequal in size. Strabismus and oscillation of the eyeballs sometimes occur, and the
patient often lies with the lids partially or widely open. There is often paralysis of one
side of the face, and sometimes, more or less, of one side of the body. The muscles of
the back of the neck often have tonic contractions, and there are sometimes contractions
of the muscles of the limbs. There is almost alwavs obstinate constipation in conse-
quence of the sluggish and deranged condition oi the nervous system, end there is
generally retention of urine. The duration, varies from 1 to 3 weeks and is almost
invariably, some say invariably, fatal. 4. Spinal meningitis. This disease, like cerebral
meningit^s, may be acute or chronic, and it is also rare; excluding cases arising from
injury, even more rare than the cerebral affection. The pathological conditions are simi*
lar to those in cerebral meningitis, but the symptoms are somewhat different, owing to
effects manifested through the spinal nerves. Pain is felt in the spine, passing to the
extremities, and it is increased by movements of the body more than by pressure over
the spinal colunm, and there is great increase of sensibility of the surface of the body.
The pain is referable to the posterior roots of the cord. Muscular contractions are
referable to excitation by the disease of the anterior roots, sometimes causing the bend-
ing of the body backwards, producing the condition known as opisthotonos (q.v.).
Sometimes the thoracic muscles are the subject of tonic spasm, causing great difficulty
of breathing (dyspncea). These are the early symptoms; subsequently i>aralysi8 anil
other symptoms follow, constituting the second stage. Acute spinal meninj^itis is rapid
in its course, generally terminating fatally within 8 or 10 days. Asphyxia is the usual
mode of death, in consequence of spasm of the respiratory muscles, or, more frequently
perhaps, from paralysis of the respiratory nerves.
5. Oer€br(Htpinal Meningitis. This disease usually occurs as an epidemic, idiopathic
cases l)eing very rare. The epidemic form is a consequence of blood poisoning, and is a
very dangerous affection wliich has sometimes extensively prevailed in different parts of
the United States and Europe. It has sometimes received the name of spotted fever in
consequence of the appearance of certain spots upon the skin in the course of the attack,
but the spots are not constant accompaniments. The latter name was applied to an epi-
demic which prevailed in New England between the years 1807 and 1816, from the symp-
toms of which, as described, there is scarcely any doubt it was what is now called cere-
bro-spinal meningitis. This disease has been considered by some as a variety of typhus
fever, but its greater suddenness and the absence of the characteristic mulberry rash of
typhus prevent the ^neral adoption of this view. The disease is usually ushered in with
a chill followed by violent headache, vertigo, vomiting, end muscular rigidity pasfsing into
tetanus. There is here also, as in the other acute meningeal affections, increased sensi-
tiveness of the skin; the face is pale, the pupils contracted, and the conjunctiva red.
There. is delirium, and usually as early as the second day in the more severe cases the
extensor muscles of the necK and back are strongly contracted. The delirium soon
passes into coma. According to Wunderlich there are three forms. In the first, the
most rapidly fatal, the temperature rises at the approach of death to 108" P. and con-
tinues to rise for some hours after death. In the second form the fever has an irregular
course and short duration. The third form is protracted and with great variations in
temperature. In the commencement of an attack of cerebrospinal meningitis the pulse
is often slower than in health, but sometimes is more frequent. It increases with the dis*
ease, but generally does not exceed 100 beats per minute till towards the fatal termina-
tion, when it became very frequent. Headache is one of the most prominent symptoms.
It was wanting in only one of o4 cases analyzed by Ames. The pain is intense,* lancinat-
ing, and may DC seated in the forehead, occiput, or the whole head. It is increased by
noise, light, and the motions of the body, and is persistent. There is usually pain also in
the spine, but not always throughout its whole length, and the probability is that the
Sain corresponds in location with the seats of the inflammation. In the less severe cases the
eliriura is rather slower in being developed, and varies much in intensity. At first the
patient appeara stupid, and sometimes remains so, but often becomes wildly delirious, and
struggles with his attendants. As a rule there is obstinate constipation in consequence of
the semi-paralyzed or deranged condition of the nervous system. The tongue varies
in appearance, sometimes being large and flabby, and showing marks made by the teeth.
As the disease progresses it becomes dry and dark. Petechial spots are frequently
Digitized by VjjUU^LC
SSSlSKt- 698
observed, but they are not constant, and accompanying some epidemics more than otherB.
They vary in size from a pin's liead to a quarter of an inch or more, and are regarded as
beiug due to an extravasation of hemaline. They are of the nature of the ccchymoses
which occur in scorbutus, purpura, and some cases of continued fever, and do not consti-
tute a specific eruption. According to Tourdes, however, a rose-colored papular erup-
tion, resembling that of typhoid fever, sometimes appears. The duration of the disease
varies. Of fatal cases observed by Tourdes the shortest duration was 20 hours. Ames
states the shortest duration to be 45 hours. The longest duration of fatal cases is stated
by Tourdes to be lOOudays. Of 160 cases analvze<| by Dr. 8. B. Hunt 12 died within the
first 24 hours; 92 died before the end of the fifth day: 14 before the end of the tenth; 4
before the end of the fifteenth, and 18 survived for shorter or longer periods. Some wTitere
regard the disease as belonging to the class of fevers instead of primarily to the nervous
system, and this is proljably the correct view. Boudin, in 1849, proposed to call it
cerebro-spinal typhus. It attacks all ages, but the larger number of cases occur between
20 and 80 years, and the liability is rather small before 7 years. Males are more fre-
quently the subjects than females, but the difference is not great. It prevails more in
the winter and spring than during the summer. It is stated to be a disease of confined
quarters, such as barracks and prisons. From 1887 to 1842 it prevailed in most of the
crowded barracks of France, and has been a frequent visitor of the galley slaves at
Toulon.
]C£NIF PUS, one of the most noted of the cynic philosophers, and a pupil of Diooe-
nes. was born at Gadara, in Syria, and flourished in the 1st c. b.c. He was originally
a slave, and acquired considerable wealth by usur^, but lost it all a^n, in consequence
of which he strangled himself out of mortification. He satirized the philo^phers of
his time in terms so severe that the most biting satires were afterwards designated
Menippean. Lucian pronounces him "the greatest snarler and snapper amon^ all the
old dogs". (the cynics). His works were thirteen in number, according to Diogenes;
they are all lost.
XENISFEBXA'CEX, a natural onler of exogenous plants, mostly tropical and sub-
tropical; creeping and twining shrubs, the wood of which is frequently disposed in
wedges, and wiiliout the zones usual in exogenous stems. The leaves are alternate,
generally simple, destitute of stipules; the nowers small, unisexual, often in lars^
panicles or racemes. There are about 200 known species, including those which by aome
botanists have been formed into the two small separate orders sSuzandracea ana tardi-
zdbalacecB. The true meuispermacese are generally bitter and narcotic; some of theni are
very poisonous, and some are valuable in medicrne. See CALUMa\, Cissampklob^ and
COCCULUS.
MEKNO, Simons, the founder of the later school of Anabaptists (q.v.) in Holland,
was born at Witmai-sum, in Friesland, in 1498; took orders in 1524. and officiated for
some years as a priest, first in the village of Pinjum, and afterwards in his native place.
The study of the New Testament, however, about the year 1530. excited grave doubts in
his mind regarding the truth both of the doctrine and constitution of the church; and in
1536 he withdrew'from it altogether. He now attached himself to the party of the AJia*
baptists, was re-baptized at Leeuwarden, and appointed a teacher and bishop at QrOn-
ingeu. Henceforth his great endeavor wns to organize and unite the scattered members
of the Anabaptist sect in Holland and Germany. With this design he spent much time
in traveling; but Friesland was his chief residence until persecution compelled him to
flee to Wismar. Finally he settled at Oldeslohe, in Holstein, where he found not onlj
protection, but even encouragement, and was allowed to establish a printing-press for
the diffusion of his religions opinions. Here he died in 1561. He was a man of gentle,
earnest,* modest, and spiritual nature, with no trace about him of the wild fanatictsm of
the earlier Anabaptists. His b6ok of doctrine, entitled Fundamenibuch tn/n dem rechten
ChinsUichen. Olanben, was published in 1539. See Anabaptists.
MEN'NONITES. deriving their name from Simon Menno, arc claimed by some Bap-
tists as their predecessors, coming down directly from the Walden?es; but this claim is
denied generally by other Protestant denominations, who regard the Mennonites simply
as the followers of Menno, who, in the 16th c. drew together the better cl;*ss of the
Anabaptists under new rules, and expounded to them the principles of revealed trnth.
As thus instructed thejr professed belief in the personal reign of Christ on the earth
during the millennium; in the unlawfulness of oaths, of war— even in resisting violence
and wrong, — of lawsuits, and of allowing civil magistrates to be members of the church.
All immoral practices they, as a denomination, condemned; and in their own conduct
were exemplary, prudent, and devout. So far from being guilty of the excesses which
have made the name Anabaptists odious, they are numbered by some writers among the
best Christians which the church ever knew, and the best citizens which the state ever
had. Menno, in order to unite his followers together, separated them from all other
Dutch and German Protestants and gave them a regular system of church order. His
statements of doctrine were so explained and modified that they resembled strongly the
general system of the reformed churches, and thus greatly promoted the growth and
mfluence of his followers. The stringent discipline which he maintained soon produced
divisions in the flock. The parties formed were known by various names, as the fijie
Digitized by VjOUV IC
699 sssisssa..
and the coarse, denoting different degrees of strictness in discipline, the Flandrians and
Waterlanders, named from the districts in which the disputants lived ; the orthodox-
called from their leader, Dr. Samuel Apostool, Apostooliaus — and the remonstrants
•were divided in their views concemin^^ vital doctrines.
I. The Dutch Mknnonites. William, prince of Orange gi-anted the Mennonites a
settlement in the United Provinces near the end of the Ittth century. In 16*i6 their
confession of faith was published; in 1626 an association was formed among them, and
was strengthened in 1649. which in its orc:anization resembled in some respects that of
the present Congregationulists in tl^e United Stales. As a result of this fellow;»hip^pome of
the rigorous rules of Menno ari(t his successore were softened and improved. E«ch congre-
gation chose its own pastor who was called an exhorter, and, not being supported by
his people, provided for himself in the best way he could by enpiging in business oV
trtidj. Where no pastor could be obtained, the deacon and deaconess minisiered respec-
tively to the men and women. In the 17th and 18th c. persecution drove many of the
Mennonites from Germany and Switzerland to Holland, so that at one time the denomi-
nation, in what they regard as their parent country, contained at Iciist 160,000 persons.
In 1735 their theologicS seminary was established at Amsterdam, the students of a\ hich
receive instruction in a part of the chapel that also contains the library. A knowledge
of Latin and Greek is a necessary qualification for admission; the lectures are in Latin,
and instruction is provided in llebrew, church histoiy, physics, moral philosophy, and
kindred studies. This institution was at first supported by contributions obtained in
Amsterdam alone, but now churches in other places also send aid. All the students
have the ministry in view, and some of them receive aid from a public fund. The edu-
cated ministry thus provided has made the denomination respectable among other Prot-
estants, and has raised up theologians that are highly esteemed. In 1795 they obtained
equality in law among other Protestants, and have since gradually formed themselves
into one national body. In 1811 they united in forming a society to promote theological
education. A foreign missionary society also receives general support.
XL The Mennonites were numerous in Germany iu the 17th century. In Moravia
alone they amounted so 70,000. In 1822 they were expelled by Ferdinand II., and after
a brief sojourn in Hungary and Transylvania removed to liussia. They were very
numerous in eastern Prussia, especially at Dantzic, Marienburg, and Elbing, where their
clcjinliness and industry soon transforaied desolate marsh grounds into wardens. But
persecution compelled many of them to flee until after 1782, when the king removed
some restrictions from them, so that they ijradually increased again in numbei-s until
1780, when the right to acquire property m land was taken away, yet with all their
hindrances they have maintained themselves in some parts of Prussia and have espe-
cially made the valley of the Vistula " the garden spot of the land."
III. In 1786 Catharine II. invited the Mennonites to settle in Russia with other G^eT-
man emigrants, and between that time and the close of the century about 350 families
found there a home, on and near the island of Khortiz, in the lower Dnieper. The privi-
leges pledged to them were: Protection from nil attacks; freedom of woi-sliip; a gift of 190
acres of land for each family; exemption from taxation for ten years; money for their
journey; money and wood with which to establish themselves; freedom of trade and
manufactures; the administration of oaths in their own way, and perpetual exemption
from military service. These great advantages induced a large and constant Mennonite
immigration into Russia until 1817, the new colonists settling near their brethren in the
government of Taurid, and between the rivers Molotchua, Dnieper. andTokmak; and
from that lime they continued to increase in nuhibers and prosperity. Tliey were
always protected and favored by the government, and, chiefly through the character
and efforts of Johann Cornies, preserved uninjured their German instftutions and
habits. This remarkable man, without office or rank, though both were once and again
offered him by the government, exerted a veiy great influence over liis countrymen and
over the government in their bebal f. Through his efforts, besides having their own schools
and churches, and retaining their native language and ways of living, they enjoyed also
a kind of popular government among themselves; each group of towns being under a mag-
istrate chosen by themselves from among themselves, and forming the organ of communi-
csktion between them and the imperial government. In 1861 the late emperor. Alex-
ander II. , gave new lands and confirmed all the old concessions to a colony of Mennonites
-who established themselves on the Volga. Tiiese lands, indeed, as well as those which
Catharine had given, were not altogether without restriction. The holders could
bequeath them to their children or sell them to any of their own community, but could
not part with them to any one except a Mennonite unless bv express permission from
the government. But within tlie last decade the conduct of the imperial government
towards this community as well as towards other colonists has been greatly changed.
In June, 1871, an edict, addressed to all the colonists in the empire — German Lutherans
and Roman Catholics, as well as Mennonites. Bulgarians, and others to whom lands and
privileges had been ^ven — ^limited the period of exemption from military service to ten
years, with the proviso that, as to furnishing recruits, the laws ruling colonists should
continue in force only till the publication of a general law on military duty. As such a
law might be issued at any time, the Mennonites, with the rest, might be compelled to
furnish recruits, notwitbstaoding their belief in the unlawfulness of war. The general
Digitized by VjOUV IC
MenturaUon. «^^
law of Russia docs not allow emigration, but in this instance ten years were allowed for
any to leave the empire who were unwilling to comply fully with the laws. Inquiries
were at once commenced by some of the leading Mennonites concerning the best location
for a new home. Many answers highly favorable having been received from several
parts of the Uuited States and Canada, and circulated widely among the people, ^e
sum of $20,000 was raised by their voluntarv contributions to send a delegation to visit
the most promising regions of America and report the result of their observations on
their return.
IV. The first Mennonites came to the United States in 1688, influenced doubtless by
the sentiments which tlie society of Friends held in common with them, William Pena
invited them to settle in his new province of Pennsylvania. Accepting the kind offer.
600 families within half a century made there their homes. In 1708 thev built a scliool
and church in Germantown. In the following year another colony settled in what is now
Lancaster countv, and was strengthened by other families in several successive years, so
that in 1735, 506 families were found in that county alone. Afterwards their descend-
ants emigrated to various places in Maryland, Ohio, New York, Indiana, and Canada.
At the present time, while they are most numerous in the states already mentioned, some
of them are found in nearly every part of the land. The results of the visit of the Rus-
sian delegation are very apparent in the arrival of large numbers of families who have
bought lands on the prairies of the west and in the southern states; and they, probably,
are the advance guard of all the Russian M«nnonites. As they do not publish tlieir sta-
tistics, accurate statements concerning their numbers cannot be made. They have a
publishing house at Elkhart, Ind. Their bishops, ministers, and deacons are all chosen by
lot and meet semi-annually; in district conferences. Their pastors give their services
gratuitousl3r. Their confession of faith was translated and published at Philadelphia in
1727. Besides the main body of the denomination there are in America: 1. The
Reformed, or strict Mennonites, who in 1811 seceded from the rest and profess to maintain
strictly the dicipline of Simon Mcnno. 2. The I^eic Mennonites organized in 1847 by
about a dozen ministers of the old denomination* 8. The Etangelieal Mennonites, who
in 1856 seceded from the previous secession. 4. The Amisli Mennonites, who greatly
resemble the Reformed, and are sometimes called Hookers, because they substitute hooks
for buttons on their clothes. They concern themselves but little in political matters,
sometimes voting at elections when school officers are to be chosen. They have no
denominational schools or religious paper, but send their children to the public schools
and depend for religious literature on the regular Mennonites. See Anabaptists;
Menko; ante.
MENOBRANCHUS, Proteus op the Lakeb, or Fish lizard, a genus of batrach-
inns belonging to the division of perenibranchiate amphibia of the order ampliipneusta,
which also includes the European proteus. See Proteus, ante, the axolotl (q.v.), am-
phiuma (q.v.). siren (q.v.), menophome (q.v.) The menobranchus has a large head and
mouth; both upper jaw and palate armed with small sharp teeth; three branchial tufts
on each side of the short neck; tail compressed laterally and fringed with a membrane;
four limbs, each four-toed, the toes havine no nails; small eyes without lids; large
tongue, movable only at tip; nostrils small and near the lip, which is fleshy; body
long and covered with a smooth skin. The most common species is if. miiculatus, or
spotted menobranch, which has an ashy gitiy color with darker spots and a brown
stripe extending from tiie snout over the eyes. It inhabits the great lakes of North
America and lake Champlain. Another species, JT. lateralis, is dark brown above, and
it has dark bands extending from the nostrils through the eyes. and along the sides to the
tail; the colctr of the belly is a dirty reddish brown, and the body is more slender than
in M. maculatiis. It is found in the Ohio nver and other tributaries of the Mississippi
on the eastern side, from Pennsylvania to Tennessee.
MENOMI'NEE, a co. in the s.w. part of the upper peninsula of Michigan; bounded
8.e. by Green bay, and s.w. in its entire extent by Menominee river, which separates it
from "Wisconsin ; drained also by Cedar river; 1860 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 1791, It is trav-
ersed by the Chicago and Northwestern railroad. The surface is uneven and covered
with extensive x)ine forests. The climate is cold. Lumber is the chief export, and tlicre
are four large saw-mills in operation. A great part of the population are engaged in
iron mines and marble quarries. Chief town, Menominee.
MENOMO'NEE. a t., the co. seat of Dunn co., Wisconsin; on the Red Cedar river
and on the West Wisconsin railroad; 25 m. n.w. of Eau Claire, and 43 m. n.e. of Red
Wing, Minn. ; pop. 8,488. There is a large trade in lumber and in furs; several carriage
and machine shops, a sash factory and several brickyards. The town has the county
court-house, 2 excellent public schools, 7 churches, and there are two weekly papers.
MENOMONEES, or Mjenomineks, a tribe of Indians first described near the Me-
nominee river in Wisconsin, which empties into Green bay. The name, both of the river
and tlie tribe, is synonymous with wild rice, which is found in great abundance
near the mouth of the river, and was an important part of tlieir food. Fathers
Allouez and Andre established a mission among them in 1070. and describe them
as lighter in complexion than the neighboring tribes. They remained allies of Prance
in the wars with the English, aided in the relief of Detroit in 1712, and were a part of
Digitized by VjOOV IC
mMenolnmn^iis.
BEmsantloA.
the French-Indian forces until the time of the revolutionary war, when a part of the
tribe went over to the English. In the war of 1812 they again were with the Englisli,
and aided in the capture of Mackinaw that year, and under their chief Bouligny formed
n part of the Indian force in command of the great chief Tecumseh at the siege of fort
Meigs, on the Maumee, in 1813, and of tlie party repulsed by col. Croghan at ttandusky
about the same time. Mar. 80, 1817. their chiefs by treaty ceded grants of land to
Clirke, Edwards, and Choteau. Successive treaties were made between them and the
U. S. government in 1825, 1827, 1831, 1836, 1848, 1852, and 1854. By the last they are
in possession of a reservation on the upper Wolf and Oconto rivers in Wisconsin, 50 m.
from Green bay, containing 240,400 acres. Their numbers decrease rapidly ; in 1822,
csliiuatod, 8,9(}0; in 1872, 1480. The Menomonees are one of the Algonquin tribes.
XElf OPOMB, Praton&pms horridly one of the largest of batrachians, found in the
Ohio and other rivers of the same region, and known on their banks by many names,
such as hellbender, mud devil, ground puppy, young alligator, and tweeg. In form it
resembles the newt and salaouuider; the heaa is flat and broad ; the teeth in two concen-
tric rows in the upper jaw; and one row in the lower, numerous and small; it is about
2 ft. long, and of a slaty gray color, with dark spots. Notwithstanding its small teeth
it is fierce and voracious, feeding chiefly cm flsh and batrachians; and partly from its
habits, partly from its ugliness, is much disliked by the fishermen of the Ohio, who
erroneously regard it as venomous. ^
MENSES. See MEWsniUATiON, ante,
MEX'SHIKOFF, or Mknschikoff. See Mekchikow, or Mbnchieoff, anU.
MEHSTBTTA'TKnr is the term applied to the discharge of blood which issues every
month from the generative organs ot the human female during the period in which she
is capable of procreation.
The first appearance of this discharge, to which the t«rms menMS and catamerUa
(each having reference to the monthly period) are indiscriminately applied, is a decided
indication of the arrival of the period of oommeucing womanhood, and is usually
accompanied by an enlargement of the mammary glands, and other less imx>ortant
changes. In this country, menstruation usually commeuoes between the 14th and the
10th years, and terminate between the 48th and 62d years. The interval which most
commonly elapses between the successive appearances of the discharge is about four
weetLS, although it is often shorter; and the duration of the flow \a usually three or four
days, but is liable to great variations. The first appearance of the discharge is usually
preceded and accompanied by pain in the loius and general disturbance of the system,
and in many women these symptoms invariably accompany the discharge. As a gen-
eral rule there is no menstrual finw during pregnancy and lactation, and its cessation is
one of the first signs that conception has taken phtce.
KEKSUBA'TIOK, the name of that branch of the application of arithmetic to geometry
which teaches, from the actual measurement of certain lines of a fissure, how to find b}**
calculation, the length of other lines, the area of surfaces, and the volume of solids. The
determination of lines is, however, generally treated of under trigonometry (q.v.), and
surfaces and solids are now understood to form the sole subjects of mensuration. As
the length of a line is expressed by comparing it with some well-known unit of lengtli,
such as a yard, a foot, an inch, and saying how many such units it contains, so the
extent of a surface is expressed by saying how often it contains a corresponding super-
ficial unit, that is, a square whose side is a yard, a foot, an inch ; and the contents of
solid bodies are similarly expressed in cubes or rectangular solids having their length,
breadth, and depth, a yard, a foot, an inch. To find the length of a Ime (except in
cases where the length may be calculated from other known lines, as in trigonometry)
we have to apply the unit (in the shape of a foot-rule, a yard measure, a chain), and dis-
cover by actual trial how many units it contains. But in measuring a surface or a solid
we do not require to apply an actual square board, or a cubic block, or even to divide it
into such squares or blocks; we have only to measure certain of its boundary-lines or
dimemiom; and from them we can calculate or infer the contents. To illustrate how
this is done, suppose that it is required to determine the area of a rectangular figure
ABCD, of which the side AB is 7 in., and the side AC 3 inches. If AC be divided at
the points F and E into 8 portions, each 1 inch long, and parallels be drawn from F and
E to AB or CD; and if AB be similarly divided into 7 parts, of 1 inch each, and pnr-
nllels be drawn to AC or BD through the points of section, then, the figure will be
divided into a number of equal squares or rectangular figures, whose length and breadth
are each 1 inch; and as there are 8 rows of squares, and 7 squares in each row, there
must be in all 7x3, or 21 squares. In general terms, if a and b be the lengths of two
adjacent sides, there are a rows of little'squarcs, and b squares in each row. Hence the
area of a rectangle = theprodu/it of two adjacent sides.
The areas of other figures are found from this, by the aid of certain relations or prop-
erties of those figures demonstrated by pure geometry; for instance, the area of a parallelo-
gram is the same as the area of a rectangle having the same base and altitude, and is there-
fore equal to the base multiplied by the height. As a triangle is half of a parallelogram,
the rule for its area can be at once deduced. Irregular quadri|a|f |^ |^i[j|^^ons are
Xeatal. ^AQ
MereiuiUUi. *^^
nicaeured hj dividing tliem into triangles, the area of each of whidi is Bepamtely calca-
lated. For the area of the circle, see Cibclb. By reasoning similar to what has been
employed in the case Of areas, it is shown that the volume of a rectangular paraUelo-
piped or prism is found in cubic inches by multiplying together the length, breadth, and
depth in mches; and the oblique parallelopipcd, prism, or cylinder, by multiplying the
area of the base by the height.
MENTAL PHlLOSOI^flY. See Mind.
MENTA'NA, Battle of, Nov. 3, 1867. On Oct 28 and 29 a detachment of French
troops, under gen. de Failly, landed at Civita Vecchia, a seaport town of Italy. Gari-
baldi, who was before the Roman gate of St, Jean, had defeated the pontifical troops at
Monte Rotondo, 17 ni. n.w. of Rome, witli 4 battalions of volunteers; and, proposing to
^in possession of Rome and join the papal states to the kingdom of Italy, was intend-
mp^ to proceed there forthwith, but hearing of the approach of the French brigade he
fell bao!< to Monte Rotondo and Men tana, in order to raise defenses. On Nov. 2 he
ad van red Sn 2 detachments, one toward Correse and one toward Tivoli. The TivoU
column, infc*ivinff the French troops. 2,000 men under Kanzlar and Polh^s, led by 3,000
of the poni\lio.ir troops, fell back to Mentana, 18 m. n.e. of Rome; were pursued by tlie
enemy; and c^i: Sunday, Nov. 3, an engagement of 4 hours followed, ending in the defeat
of the voluntvM3"s. Tlie French in this Iwltle made the first trial of the Ohassepot gun;
their troops wci.) regulars thoroughly drilled and disciplined, and the loss on the other
side was heavy and crushing. Garibaldi had undisciplined, poorly armed recruits;
infantry only. Vith the conquering army in front, they Crossed the Italian frontier, to
find tlie Italian army in the rear, which overwhelmed them, seized their arms, and took
many of them prisoners; among them Garibaldi, who was arrested at Correse on his
journey to Caprera, and imprisoned in the fortress of Varignano, near Spezzia, an island
of Greece ; and the Italian troops retired from the papal states. Gkiribaldi, protesting
against this treatment, claiming the protection due to an American citizen and an
Italian deputy, was set at liberty on the 26th. To commemorate this victory a medal was
struck by onler of the pope, in the shape of a cross, made of silver, and presented to
all who took part in the battle. It bore the inscription, Fidai et VirttUiy and Bine Victoria^
A mtmument to the Garibaldians who fell at this battle was dedicated Nov. 25, 1877.
MEN'TCHIKOF, Mentschikopp, or Mekzikoff. Sec Menchixow or Menchi-
KOPF, ante,
XEKTOHE (Ft. JIfenU)}}), a t. in the department of Alpcs Maritime^ France. It is
l)leasantly situated on the shore of the Mediterranean, and from its southern exposure,
as well SIS a high sheltering range of mountains on the n., it en joys a salubrious and
aj^ecable climate. In its environs are groves of orange, lemon, and olive trees. Latterly
Mcntonc l;as l)ccome a favorite winter resort of invalids and health loungers from Eng-
land, GemiKny. and other countries; and is greatlv improved as a place of residence by
the addition of numerous hoteU, pensions, etc. In i8W), by a vote of the inhabitants. Men-
tone was detnchcd from the small principality of Monaco, and annexed to France: the
French government paying 4,000,000 of francs to the prince of Monaco for relinquishing
his rights, and nccordmg to him certain privileges. Mentone Is within a mile and a
half of the Italiar. frontier on the railway and Corhiche road from Nice to Genoa. Pop.
76, 6.891.
^lENTONE (ante) is celebrated for its bone caves, which are situated upon the e.
^wiy. Tlicy arc about SO ft. above the Mcditermnean. formed by rifts in the Roches
Rouges mountain, and have furnished interesting pre-historic fossils and implement-^.
In the spring of 1870 a fossil human skeleton was found in one of these caves, buried
211 ft. lK»neath the surface. The skull is said to have had shells upon it, as if the head
had l)een ornamented with them, and the teeth of the stag,- these articles beinjj •'per-
forated and foiTTiing a net-work about the head.** How the net-work was retained in
]>oj*ition it is impossible to say with certainty. The cranium >vas fractured before and
l)chin(l, so that no peifect measurement could he made. It belongs to the long-heade«l.
or dolichocephalic, branch of the human family, and is said to have a facial angle of
85''. The height of the figtiro is estimated to have been 6 feet
MENTOR, a village and township of Lake co., Ohio; 23 m. n.e. of Cleveland on the
Lake Shore railroad; the township extends to the shore of lake Erie; pop. 70, 1666.
There are two churches and a graded school. The people are almost all engaged in
apiculture and country trade. This little town is noted as having been for some years
the residence of gen. James A. Garfield, elected in 1880 president of the United States.
MENTOBf the son of Alcimus, was the trusted friend of Ulysses, who, on setting out
for Troy, left to him the charare of his household, and by him Telemachus was educated.
Uis name became a sort of appellative for an instructor and guide of the young.
MENTZ. See Mainz, ante,
MENU. See Manu.
MEKIT BA. See Lyre-bird.
XEHZA'LEH, Lake, a lake of Egypt, extends e. from the Damietta branch of tho
Nile, and is separated from the Mediterranean by a narrow sjm^i^^^fi^^^u^gh which.
l7Ad Mmital.
however, there are several openings. It receives the Pclusiac and Tanitic branches of
the Nile, and is 87 m. in length, by about 16 m. in average breadth. Its surface is studded
with islands, the most interesting of which is Tennees, the ancient Teunesus, with
Roman remains of l)aths, tombs, etc. An extensive fishery is carried on on tlie lake;
and its shores abound in wild-fowl. The line of the Suez canal passes through the
eastern portion of lake Menzaleh.
XEVZEIi, WoLFOAKG, an eminent Qerman author, was the son of a medical prac-
titioDjer, and was born at Waldenl)urff, in Silesia, June 21, 1798. He studied at Jena
and Bonn, was for two years schoolmaster at Aargau in Switzerland, and in 1824
returned to Germany. He first made himself known in the literary world by his Streck-
tene (Heidelb. 1828), a volume replete with poetry and wit, and opening up many novel
and ingenious views of art and literature. He then euniged with several coadiutors in
a periodical called Enropdufc?ie Blatter (ZQr. 1824-25), In which war was waged «.fl:alnst
the prevalent heartlessness and formality of German literature, in which he was led to
attack vehemently the school of Goethe. This involved liim, however, in a controversy
with the extreme admirers of that poet. He was afterward engaged in a succession of
controversies, in consequence of opmions expressed by him in his various publications;
among which may be noticed his Qeacfiidiic der Deutscheii (3 vols. ZUr. 1824-25, and
several editions); Die deuUdie LUeratar (2 vols. Stuttg. 1828, and sevend editions);
Tuacfienbuc^i der iieueaten Oeschichie (5 vols. Stuttg. 1829-38); MyiholagMic Foracliungea
und SamnUungen (1842, etc.); and GeschicJUc Europiis ton 1789-1815 (1853). As a poet,
he acquired a high reput^ition by a volume entitled Rubczahl (1829), and another entitled
J^areissus (1830). His GeMnge der Volker (1851) is a valuable lyrical collection. After
the July revolution, he set himself to counteract the French influence that set in strongly
among the youth of Germany, whence B5rne gave him the nickname of der Fraiizown-
frt»»er ("the Frenchman-eater"). He also published Prentaten und Oesteri'dch im Jahr4
1866. in 1866; Haines UnrecJit in 1871; a history of the war of 1870-71; etc. He died in
1878.
MEPHISTOPH'ELES, one of the seven chief devils in the old demonology; the
second of the fallen archangels, and the most powerful of the infernal legions after
Satan. He fiffures in the old legend of Dr. Faustus as the familiar spirit of that renowned
magician, and his name was commonly uped as a term of jocular reproach. To modern
readers he is chiefly known as the cold, scoffing, relentless fiend of Goethe's Faust, and
the attendant demon in Marlowe's Favstus,
P'PEIi,an important trading and manufacturing t. in the Netherlands province
of Drenthc, is situjited near the northern boundary oi Over}'ssel. Pop. '76, 7,IK)1. It
has a trade in butter, cattle, rye, and buck-:\iieat. In 1875 the butter brought to market
weighed 3,705,779 lbs. The principal manufactures are spinning flax, weaving linens,
swl-clotli, and coarse striped woolen fabrics. There arc also corn, saw, and oil mills,
breweries, etc. The union of several iniportant water-ways with the Mcppeller Diep.
through which they flow into the Zuyder Zee, brings a large shipping- trade to the town.
Peat is manufactured extensively in the moss-land of Overyssel, the greatest part of
which is forwardeil from Meppel to Amsterdam and other cities of the Netherlands.
Butter, cattle, and bark are sent to England and Germany. Meppel is about nine cen-
turies old, and has often suffered the evils of war, being favorably situated for receiving
a garriflon.
lOSQUUTEZ. See Miknas.
MERCADANTE, Savkrio. 1797-1870; b. Altamura. He studied the violin and the
flute under Zingarelli at the conservatorio San Sebastiano at Naples, but soon turned
his attention to compositions for the voice, at the earnest solicitation of his master. In
1818 he produced a grand cantata, entitled VUidone ddle Belli Ar(i, which was per-
formed at the Teatro Tondo, and met with a vr^ry favorable reception. This led to an
engagement at the Teatro San Carlo, where his first opem, I/Apoteosid'Ercole, was well
received. After thiR he composed a great naml)er of operas; but many of them were not
successful. In 1833 he wtw appointee' chapel master at the cathedral of Novara. In 1836
his opera, I Brignnti, was performed in Paris, but proved a complete failure, in spite of
the extraordinary cast of Rubini, Tamburino. Lablaohe, and Grisi. He was made
director of the royal consorvatorj' at Naples in 1840, but became toUdly blind in 1862.
Though his rompositiona are vivacious and ^rmwfid, his opera 11 Giuranienio and some
of his sacred pieces are all that have survived him.
KE&CAHTIIE LAW. This is the only branch of municipal law which, from the
necessity of the case, is similar, and in many respects identical, in all the civilized and
trading countries of the world. In determining the relations of the family, the church,
and the state, eacli nation is guided by its own peculiarities of race, of historical tradi-
tion, of climate, and numberless other circumstances, which are almost wholly unaffected
by the conditions of society in the neighboring states. But when the arrangements for
buying, selling, and transmitting commodities from state to slate alone are m question,
all men arc very much in the same position. The single object of all Is that the trans-
action may be effected in such a manner as to avoid what in every case must be sources
of loss to somebody, and by which no one ultimately is a gainer — viz., disputes and delay.
•^ "^ JO Digitized by VjUUVLC
Mercer. • ^*
At a very early period in tlie tradiug history of modem Europe* it was found that the
only method by which these objects could be attained was by establishing a common
understanding on all the leading points of mercantile, and more particularly of maritime
law. This was effected by the establishment of those maritime codes, of which the most
famous, though not the earliest, was the Coniolato del Mare. It is sometimes spoken of
as a collection of the maritime, laws of Barcelona, but it would seem rather to have been
a compilation of the laws and trading customs of various Italian cities — ^Venice, Pisa,
Genoa, and Amalfl, together with those of the cities with which they chiefly traded—
Barcelona, Marseilles, and the like. That it was published at Barcelona towards the end
of the 13th c, or the beginning of the 14th, in the Catalonian dialect, is no proof that
it originated in Spain, and the probability is that it is of Italian origin. As commerce
extended itself to the north-western coasts of Europe, similar codes appeared. There
was the Guidon de la Mei\ the B6^ d^Oleron, the Umges de Damme, and, most importaot
of all, the ordinances of the great Hanseatic league. As the central people of Europe,
the French early became distinguished as cultivators of maritime law. and one of the
most important contributions that ever was made to it was the famous ordonnance of
1681, which formed part of the ambitious and in many respects successful legislation
and codification of Louis XIV. See Code. All these earlier attempts at general mer-
cantile legislation \Yere founded, as a matter of course, ou the Roman civil law, or rather
on what that system had borrowed from the laws which reguhited the intercourse of tLe
trading communities of Greece, perhaps of Phenicia and Carthage, and which had been
reduced to a system by the Rhodians.
From the intimate relation which subsisted between Scotland and the continent of
Europe, the lawyers of Scotland became early acquainted with the commercial an-ange-
ments of the continental states: and to this cause is to be ascribed the fact that down to
the period when the affairs of Scotland were throw^n into confusion by the* rebellious of
1715 and 1745, mercantile law was cultivated in Scotland with much care and success.
The work of lord Stair, the greatest of all the legal writers of Scotland, is particularly
valuable in this department.
lu England the case was very different. After the loss of her French provinces the
legal system of England became wholly insular, and there was no branch in which it
suffered more in consequence of being thus cut off from the general stream of European
progress than the law-merchant. It was lord Mansfield who. whether guided by the
wider tiaditions of his original country, or deriving his views from the source from which
these traditions sprung, viz., the Roman law, as modified and developed by continental
jurisprudence, introtluced those doctrines of modern commercial law which English law-
yers have since developed with so much acuteness and logical consistency. Many
attempts have recently been made to assimilate the commercial laws of England and
Scotland, and a commission of lawyers of both countries was recently appointed for the
purpose. One of the most important results of their deliberations was the mercantile
law amendment act, 19 and 20 Vict. c. 60.
MERCAP'TAN and MERCAPTANS, a class of compounds discovered by Zeise in
1833. The name is a contraction of mercmio cotym a})tum, given on account of its
eowerful reactions with compounds of mercur>% Zeise's original mercaptan is ethyl
ydrosulphide, GaHgSH. It is the sulphur analogue of ethyl alcohol, and is produced
by the action of hydrosulphide of potassium on ethyl sulphate of calcium. A solution
or caustic potash of sp. gr. 1.3 is saturated with sulphureted hydroffen gas and mixed
in a retort with an equal volume of solution of ethyl sulphate of calcium of the same
density. The retort is connected with a condenser and heated by a bath of salt and
water. Mercaptan and water arc distilled together, and may be separated by decanta-
tion or by a tap funnel, the sp. gr. of mercaptan being 0.8325 at 69.8' F. and onlv
slightly soluble m water. It boils at 96.8" F. giving off a vapor havinij an intolerable
odor of onions, which adheres to the clothing with great obstinacy, ft is very inflam-
mable, giving a blue flame. In contact w^ith red oxide of mercury, even in the cold,
mercaptan causes a violent reaction with the formation of water and a white substance
soluble in alcohol, and separating from the solution in crystals havinc the formula
Hg(SC,H5)a. ^
MERCATOR, Gerard. 1512-94; b. Flanders; the name is a Latinized form of his
real name, Kauffman, i.e., merchant. Having finished his elementary education at Bois-
le-Duc he studied and took a degree in philosophy at the university of Lou vain. After
leaving the university, he m?.de a profound study of the sciences of geography and math-
ematics, and in 1559 was appointed cosmo^rapher to the duke of Juliers. His name is
perpetuated by the projection used in nautical maps, in which the meridians arc repre-
sented by parallel lines, and parallels of latitude by straight lines intersecting the merid-
. ians at riglit angles. The projection, however, seems to have been applied to nautical
maps by Edward Wright. Besides a large niunber of maps. Mercator compiled a chron-
ological table under the name of Chronoloijui a Mundi Evordio ad annum 1556; and a
series of geographical tables, Tabul<B Oeogmphicm ad ^fenUm Ptoiemaei Resiitutce, He
also wrote two theological treatises, one a Harmony of the Gospels, and the other, which
was condemned by the church, a work on the Creation of the W(/rld.
XEBCATOB'S FBOJECTION, or Mebcatob's Chakt. See MAP,r^ t
Digitized by i^jOOQ IC
KEHCED', a CO. ia California, extending a.e. from Uie main coast ran^e, traversed
by the San Joaquin rivcT, and by the Visuuji divisiou of the Central Pacific railroad;
1080 8q,m.; pop. 2,807. Cattle, wheat, wool, aud fruit are the chief products; brandy
and wine are the principal muuuf a. lures. Capital, Snelliug.
M£RC£R, a co. in n.w. part of Dakota, adjoining Missouri on the n. and e. ; 9,006
sq.m. ; pop. not enumerated in 1870; in 1880 the oeusus states that it is combined with
Billings, Morton, and Stark cos.; total pop., 1588. It is drained by the Qig Knife and
other branches of the Missouri river. The surface is rolling and capable of cultivation,
I but at present the locality is sparsely settled and. there is little trade or agricultu^.
MERCKH, a co. of n.w. Illinois, bounded w. by the Mississippi river, and traversed
by the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy, and the uockford. Rock Island and St. Louis
railroads; 540 sq.m. ; pop. *80, 19,505. The surface is rolling, the soil fertile. Live stock,
grain, and wool are the principal products. Coal is mined m various places. Carnages
aud wagons are the chiei articles of manufacture. Capital, Aledo.
MERCER, a co. in the blue-grass region of Kentucky, near the center of the state,
and bounded u.e. by the Ohio river; §0Q sq.m.; pop. '80, 14,141. live stock, wheat,
corn, aud wool are the chief productions. CapiuU, Harrodsburg.
MERCER, a oo. of Missouri^ bounded n. by Iowa, and traversed by the south-west
division of the Chicago, Rock Island aud Pacific niilroad; 480 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 14,674 It
is well timbered, with a fertile soil, containing de{)ositsof iron, copper, aud coal. Cattle,
grain, and wool are among the chief products. Capital, Princeton.
MERCER, a co. of Kew Jersey, bounded s.w, by the Delaware river, and traversed
by the Camden and Amboy, the rfew Jersey, the Belvidere, Delaware, and other rail-
roads; about 220 sq.m.; pop. '80, 58,058. The surface is generally level, the soil very fer-
tile and well cultivated. Tiie principal productions are live stocK, wool, grain, tobacco,
hay, fruit, aud gai-den products, 'i'he manufacturing interests include iron, iron castings,
stone, earthen and metallic wares, carriages, clothing, woolen goods, flour, etc. Capital,
Trenton.
MERCER, a co in Ohio, bounded on the w. by Indiana; 470 sq.m; pop. '80, 21,808.
The ^[reat canal reservoir, probably the largest artificial lake in the world, is nearly all
in this county. It is 8 m. m length, 81 in width, and 10 tt. deep, and covers an area of
17,000 acres. Its waters feed the Miami canal. The chief productions of the county
are cattle, gmin, and wool. Coal is mined to a considerable extent, and bricks and
timber are extensively manufactured. Capital, Celina.
MERCER, a CO. of Pennsylvania, bounded w. by Ohio, and traversed by the Altantic
and Great Western, the Erie and Pittabursr, the Jamestown and Franklin, and tne
Bhenango and Allegheny railroads; 600 sq.m. ; pop. 4(^.077. The surface ia uneven, the
soil very fertile. Coal is abundant; chief productions, livestock, grain, and wool.
There arc manufactures of leather, lumber, flour, carriages, iron, and iron castings.
Capital, Mercer.
MERCER, a co. of West Virginia. Iwunded s. by Vir^nla, and lying between Great
Flat-top mountain on the n.w.. and Eti.'rt River mountain on the s.e; 450 sq.m. ; pop.
'80, 7.4i57. It is a well-timbered region, with a fertile soil, containing deposits of coal and
limestone. Capital, Princeton.
MERCER. Ch.\rle8 Fenton, ll.d., 1778-1 8~; 8; b. Fredericksburg, Va. ; graduated
at Princeton in 1797; in 1798, in anticipation of a war with France, he was commissioned
by Washington as capt. of cavalry; studied law, and in 1802-8 traveled in Europe,
w^aa aid de-camp to the governor of Virginia during the war of 1812; commanded the
defenses of Norfolk in 1818. with the the rank of brig.gen. ; was a member of the
legislature from 1810 to 1817, and chfiirman of the committee of finance in 1816,
when he introduced the bill to incorporate the Chesapeake and Ohio canal company;
was elected to congress as a federalist in 1816, and remained a member of that body
until 1840. In 18to he visited Europe, and conferred with leading men of difl'erent
countries in regard to measures for the complete abolition of the foreign slave-trade.
He was a leading advocate of the protection of home manufactures. Died at Howard,
near Alexandria.
MERCER, HuoH, 1721-77; b. in Aberdeen. Scotland; educated at the university
there; entered the medical profession, and served as assistant-surgeon in the arm}" of
prince Charles Edward, the "young pretender," in 1743. The insurrection proving a
failure, he emigrated to America in 1747, settling as a physician near the present town
of Mercersburg, Penn. He served as a volunteer in Braddock's campaign, was appointed
capt., and so severely wounded in the battle on the Monongahcla that he was unable to
keep up with the other fugitives from that disastrous fi(*ld, wandered for several weeks
alone in the forest, until at last he readied fort Cumberland, 100 m. from the point of
departure. For his courage in this expedition he received a medal from the city of
Philadelphia.' In 1758 he was promoted to the rank of lieut.col., accompanied gen.
Forbes to fort Duquesne, now Pittsburg, and commanded the post for some time. After
tliis he settled as a physician in Fredericksburg, Va., but entered zealously into the revo-
lutionary conflict. He organized and drilled the minute-men of Virginia in 1775, aud
U. K. IX.— 45 Digitized by VjUU^IC
Mercer. 'T/lA
Mercentbttrg. • ^^
the niilitiu in 1776, and at Washington's request was chosen a brig. sen. by congress,
June 5, 1776. He commtinded a column in the attack on Ti-enton, and led llie advance
in the niglit march on Princeton, which he had himself advised. Early iu the battle
there he was mortally wounded and left for dead on the field. Being discovered alive,
he was taken to a neigh Ixmng farm-house, where he expired in the anus of maj. Lewis,
his Hid-(ie-camp. Uis funeral iu Philadelphia is said to have been atteuded by 90.000
giople, and ^monument to his memory was erected at Laurel Hill cemetery m 18^.
is son, Hugh, was educateil at the expense of the nation.
MEriCER, Jesse, 176d-lWl; b. Halifax oo., N. C. After removing to Georria he
was ordained to the ministry in the Baptist denomination, and became pastor of a diurcli
in Wilkes co. in 1789. He was a popular and useful preacher. He took a prominent
part in the constitutional convention in 1798. He founded an institution named Mercer
university, which at first was at Penntleld, but was removed to Macon, Ga.. and is pros-
perous. He published a collection of hymns entitled Afereer^s Civt^ter, gencndly used in
the southern Baptist churches; History of the Georgia BapHit A$9oeiation; and edited for
several years the Christian Itidex of Georgia.
MERCER, John Francis, 1758-1821; b. Va.; educated at William and Mary college;
served iu the continental congress 1782-85, and was a delegate from Maryland to the
convention which formed the federal constitution, which he refused to sign. He was a
member of congress from Maryland 1792-94, and governor of that state 1801-4J. He
also served in the state legislature.
MEKCERSBURG, a borough in Franklin co., Penn., at the terminus of a branch of
the Cumberland Valley railroad, 15 m. s.w. from Chambersburg, and 62 m. s.w. from
Harrisburg. The theological seminaiy of the German Reformed church, commenced at
Carlisle, Penn., in 1825 and removed to York four years later, was, in 1835, located at
Mercersburg, where it continued until its removal in 1871 to Lancaster. The high
school, commenced by the same denomination at York in 1880, waft removed" to Mercers-
burg in 1835; and having, under a charter from the state, become Marshall college,
remained thereuntil 1853, when it was removed to Lancaster and combined with Frank-
lin college under the name of Franklin and Marshall college. Mercersburg college was
organized 1865. under tlie care of the German Reformed churcJi, and the theological
department was added in 1872.
MEKCERSBURG THEOLOGY is the name given to a philosophical representation
of Christian doctrine emanating from the theological seminary of the German Reformed
chur(*li formerly located at Mercersburg. Penn., and especially from Dr. John W. Kevm,
one of the professors there. Critical students of theology regard it as presenting sub
stantially Schleiei'macher's views modified by American habits of thought and bv fftitli
in the inspiration of the Scriptures. It has its starting point in a peculiar psycholo^icHl
theory concerning the perscm of Christ and the nature of man. This tlieory determiues
the views expressed —
I. Concerning th^i person of Clirist. Dr. Nevin says that he had not one life of tlie
body and anotlier of the soul; nor one life of his h'umanhy and another of his divinity.
It is one life throughout, and it is in nil respects a true human life. Christ is the arche-
typal man in whom the true idea of humanity is brought to view. He is the ideal nian
in whom only human nature is complete. Tlie writers of the Mercerigbiirg Betieic teach
that the incarnation is the proper completion of hum unity and that the glorification of
Christ was the full advancement of our human neture itself to the power of a divine life.
II. Concerning human nature, ** Tlie world in its lower view is not simply the out-
ward theater or stage on which man is set to act his part as a candidate for heaven. In
the widest of its different forms of existence it is pervaded throughout with the i>owfr
of a single life, which comes ultimately to its full sense and force only in the human
person." The world is an organic whole which completes itself in man ; and humanity is
regarded throughout as a single grand fact which is brought to pass not at once, but in
the way of history, unfolding always more its true interior sense, and reaching on to its
final consummation. It is a universal property of life to unfold itself from within, by a
self-organizing power, towards a certain end, which end is its own rcaltEation, or, in
other words, the actual exhibition and actualization in outward form of all the elenjcnK
funrtfon'4, powers, and capacities which potentially it includes. Thus life may be noA
to Ijc all \\i its commencement which it can become in the end. Humanity is defined to
be a gonoric life. Man is the manifestation of this generic life in connection with a
spociiil corporeal organization, by which it is individualized and becomes personal. It
wa>i this generic humanitv which sinned in Ad.m, and thenceforth was corrupt in all
the individnai men in whom it was manifested. It was this generic humanity which
Christ assumed into personal union with his divinity, not as two distinct substances, but
so united as to become one generic human life. This purified humanity now develops
ivf.elF by an inward forc^ in the church, just as from Adam generic humanity was devel
op*"(l iu* his posterity. It is still, however, assumed as the fundamental idea of Ihe gospt'l
that God and man m Christ are one. This generic humanity is only a form of the life of
God. And as to its sinning in Adam, and iS^ing thenceforth corrupt, sin and corruption
are only imperfect development. God, the universal life principle, as Dr. Nevin calls it,
so variously manifested in the different existences of Uiis world, is imperfectly or instif
Digitized by VjOUV IC
j>TrvY Mercer.
ficiently manifested in man generally, but perfectly in Chriflt, and through him ultimately
in lilLc perfection in his people.
IIL Concerning jtutiflcaUon, Dr. Nevin saya: "Our nature reaches after a true and
real union with the nature of God as the necessary complement and conaummation of its
own life. The idea which it embodies can never be fully actualized under any other
form. Tiie Incarnation is the proper completion of humanity. Christ is the true ideal
man. The word became flesh — not & single man only as one among many, but 'flesl^/
or humanity in its universal conception. How else could he be the principle of a general
life, the origin of a new oi-der of existence for the human world as such? How else
could the value of his mediatorial work be made over to us in a real way, by a true
bnputation, and not a leg-.il fiction only ?** " Christianity is a life, not only as revealed
at first in Ohiist, but as continued also in the church. It flows over from Christ to his
people, always in this form. They do not simply bear his name and acknowledge his
doctrine. They are so united to him as to have part in the substance of his life itself."
*• By the hypostatical union of the two natures in the person of Jesus Christ, our hiunan-
ity as fallen in Adam was exalted again to a new and imperishable divme life." *' The
object of the incarnation was to couple the human nature in real union with the logos as
a permanent source of life." ** The new life of which Christ is the source and organic
principle is in all respects a true human life;" ^'qot a new humanity, wholly dissevered
from that of Adam, but the humanity of Adam itself, only raised to a higher cliaracter,
and filled with new meaning and power, by its union with the divine nature." ** Christ's
life, as now described, rests not iu his separate person, but pusses over to his people."
He communicates his own life substantially to the soul on which he acts, causmg it to
grow into his very nature. ** This is the mystical union, the liasis of our whole salvatioB ;
the only medium by which it is possible for us to have an interest in the grace of
Christ under any other view." With liis substance, his life, his divine human nature,
thas communicated to the soul, come his merit, his holiness, his power, his ^orr.
These are predicates of the nature which becomes ours, constituting our personal lite
and character. Even the resurrection is to be eflfected, not by the power of Christ
operating ab extra, as when he raised Lazarus from the dead, but by a new divine
clement^
•• The fall of Adam wns the fall of the race; not simply because he represented the
race, but because the race was compi'eheiKled in his person. Sin in him was sin incor-
porated with the inmost life of humanity, an<l became from this i>oint onward an insur-
mountable law in the progress of its development." It was " an organic ruin, the ruin
of our nature; not simply because all men are sinners, but as making ail men to be sin-
ners. The human race is not a sand heap; it is the power of a single life. Adam's sin
is therefore our sin. It is imputed to us, "indeed, but only because it is ours. A fallen
life in the first place, and on the ground of this only, imputed gtdlt and condemnation.
In order then that the race miglit be saved, it was necessary tliat a work should be
wrought not beyond it, but in it. Our nature, humanity, must be healed, the power of
sin, incorporated in that nature, must be destroyed. For this purpose the logos, the
divine word, took our humanity into personal union with himself. As the bearer of a
ftUlen humanity he must descend with it to tlie lowest depths of sorrow and pain. He
triumphed over the evil ; his passion was the world's spiritual crisis in which the princi-
ple of health came to its last strus^gle with the principle of disease and j^ned the vic-
tory. This was the atonement. When Christ died and rose, humanity died and rose in
lii:i person. Our nature iK*as thus i-estored and elevated, and by itsceiving this renovated
nature we are saved. Ciirist's merits are inseparable from his nature; they cannot be
imputed to us, except so far as they are immanent in us. As in the case of Adiim, we
have his nature, and therefore his sin; so we have tlie nature of Christ, and therefore
his righteousneas. The nature we receive from Christ is a theanthropic nature. For as
he is one person, his life is one. His divine nature is .it the same time human, in the
fullest sense. All that is included in him as a person — divinity, soul, and body — is
embraced .in his life. It is not the life of the logos, separately taken, but the life of the
word made flesh, the divinity joined in personal union with our humanity, which is
thus exalted to an imperishable divine life. It is a divine human life.
IV. Concernifuj tlu church. This being so, " the divine human nature as it exists in
the person of Christ passes over to his people, thus constituting the church which is his
body, the fullness of him that filleth all in all. The process is not mechanical, but
orgimic. It takes place in the way of history, growth, regular living development."
The supernatural IxKiomes natural, and as thus made permanent and historicnl in the
church, must, in the nature of the case, correspond with the form of the supernatural as
it appeared in Christ himself. The church must have a true theanthropic character
throughout. The union of the divine and human in her constitution must l)e inward
and real, a continuous revelation of God in the flesh, exalting this last continuously into
the sphere of the Spirit. The incarnation being thus progressive in the way of actual
human development in the church, the church is, in very deed, the d^epository and con-
tinuation of the Savior's theanthropic life itself, in which powers nnd resources are con-
tinually at hand, involving a real intercommunion and interpenetration of the human
and divine.
V. Concerning the mteramenti, A part, at least, of these powers ai
^ 1— » » *^Digitized by
iRiTOg^^
M«v«lui.nt«
708
lodged in the sacrnments of the churcli, which have a real objective force contained in
theniselves. Our faith is needed only to make room for that force in our souls. The
things signified are lx)und to the signs by the force of a divine appointment; so that the
grace goes inseparably along with tlic signs, and is tmly present for all who are prepared
to make it their own. And while union with Christ is by regeneration, regeneration is
by the church. It is by the ministrations of this living church, in which the incarnation
o) Christ is progressive, and by lier grace-bearing sac^raments that the theanthropic life
of Christ IS continually carried over to new individuals. The sacraments, therefore,
convey and sustain the life of Christ— his divine human life. We partake not of his
divinity only, but also of his true and proper humanity; not of his humanity in a sepa-
rate form, nor of his flesh and blood alone, but of his whole life, as an undivided fonn
of existence. Consequently in the Lord's supper he is present in a peculiar way, as to
his entire theanthropic life; the sign and the thing sign itied, the visible and invisible,
form one invisible presence. Unl)eliever8 receive only the outward t^isa, because they
have not the organ of reception for the inward grace. Yet the inward grace is there,
and believers receive both — the outward sign and the one undivided theanthropic life
of Christ. This gives the eucharist a peculiar and altogether extraordinary power, as
providing a mode of receiving Christ to he had nowhere else. Where the way is open
for it to take effect, the sacrament serves in itself to convey the life of Christ into the
person of a believer.
MERCHANT COMMISSION. See Commission Merchant; Factor, ante.
MEBGHANT 8HIPPIK0 ACT of 1854 (stat. 17 and 18 Vict. c. 104), a measure which
in many important respects amended, and at the same time consolidated, the law of
this country relative to merchant shipping. By the merchant shipping repeal act of
the same year (stat. 17 and 18 Vict. c. 120), the statutes relative to merchant shipping
previously in foyce were, with one or two unimportant exceptions, repealsd; the new act,
which formed an almost complete code of the laws affecting merchant-ships, coming in
their place. No fewer than nine acts have since been passed, some amending, oiiiera
supplementing, the act of 1854 — viz., the merchant ahipning act amendment acts, 1855
and 1862 (18 and 19 Vict. c. 91, and 25 and 26 Vict. c. 93); the merchant shipping act,
1867 (80 and 81 Vict. c. 124); the colonial shipping act, 1868(31 and 82 Vict. c. 129);
the merchant shipping (colonial) act, 1869 (82 and 88 Vict. c. 11); the merchant ship-
ping act, 1871 (84 and 85 Vict. c. 110); the merchant shipping act, 1872(85 and 36 Vict,
c. 73): the merchant shipping act, 1878(36 and 87 Vict. c. 85); the merchant ahippiog
act, 1875 (88 and 89 Vict c. 88). A bill to consolidate and amend the law relatmg to
merchant shipping has been brought before the house of commons, but has not heen
proceeded with. The act ofnl854 is divided into 11 parts; and the principal pro-
visions of the amendment acts are referred to the part of the principal act to which thev
severally belong, so as to facilitate the reading the acts con jointl}'. The act of 1867. with
the exception of two unimportant clauses, is occupied with a single subject — ^the enforce-
ment of proper sanitary conditions on board ships. The acts of 1668 and 1869, relating
to colonial shipping, are not of general importance.
The general superintendence of matters relating to merchant ships and seamen is, by
the act of 1854, part I , intrusted to the board of trade, which is invested with powers
for compelling local bodies, and shipowners or shipmasters, to perform the duties which
the shipping acts impose upon them.
Biitish -ships, their ownership, measurement, and registry, is the subject of part II.
of the act of 1854. And it is provided that no ship shall be deemed a British ship unless
she belonff wholly to owners who are of one of the following descriptions: 1. Natural-
born subjects; 2. Persons made denizens, or persons naturalized in terms of an act of
parliament, or an act of the legislative authority of some British possession; 8. Bodies
corporate establinhed under, subject to the laws of, nnd having their principal place of
business in the United Kingdom or some British possession. Every British ship, witli
a few unimportant exceptions, must be registered; and a ship, unless registered, though
8ub;ject to all the ordinary liabilities, is not to be recognized as a British snip, llie regis-
tration is to be made bjr the principal officer of customs for the time being at any port
or place in the United Kingdom approved by thelward of trade for the registry of 'slaips,
ana by certain specified officers in the colonies and possessions abroad. The registration
is to comprise the name of the ship, which cannot afterwards be changed without per-
mission of the board of trade, and the names and descriptions of the owners; also the
tonnage, as ascertained by specified rules, the build, and description of the ve&<«el, the
particulars of her origin, and the name of the master. A certificate of registry, containing
all the particulars registered, is given by the registrar to Uie master. On this certificate,
changes in the ownership and changes of the master are indorsed as they occur; and a new
certificate may be granted, after certain formalities, in exchance for a former one, or in the
event of a former certificate being lost. The master is the |x?rson entitled to the custody
of this document, and it is a penal offense to detain it from him, upon wliatever pretense
of right or title. The certificate is given up to the registrar on llie ship being lost, or
ceasing to be British. The acts of 1871, 1878, and 1^75 require certain particulars to be
marked on ships in specified ways — viz., the name, the official number, the registered ton-
nage, a scale denoting the draught of water, the deck-line, and the load-line; and besides
Digitized by VjOL^V IC
709
that there are penalties for defacing, or not maintaining sucli marks, and for making
them inaccuFately, the ship may Im detained until the roqairemeuts of the law are com- .
pUed with. In any case or chiss of cases, the board of trade may direct that the drought
of water, and also the extent qt the elear side of a sea^golng sliip be recorded by the
officers of customs, and the record preserver! , tmd also niarkeid in the official log-book.
The act of 187B provides that where a British ship has ceased, for any reason other than
capture or transference to a foreign owner, to Im.> registered, she shall not be again put
u{K>n the register without a survey to test whether she is seaworthy.
The property in every ship is, for purposes of registration, divided into sixty-four
shares. No person is entitled to be registered as owner of any fractional part of a share;
but any number of persons not exceeding five may be registered as joint-owners of a share.
Counting joiut-owners, who are not entitled to dispose in severalty of their respective
interests, as constituting one person only, not more than thirty-two persons can be re^^
tered at the same time' as owners of a ship. The power of oisposing of tlie ship or its
sliares is vested exclusively in registered owners. Notwithstanding this, persons bene- •
ficially or equitably interested are to have their interests protected upon application to
tile proper court. When a re^tered ship, or any share therein, is disposed ojf to persona
qualitied to be owners of British ships, the transfer must be made by a bill of sale under
seal, according to a form prescribed, and the names of the transferees are to be entered
on the register as owners of the sliip or share. Mortgages also must be in a form pre-
scribed, and are to be recorded by the registrar upon production to him in each case of
the mortgage deed.
In part III., under the heading ''masters and seamen," it is provided that local
marine boards shall be establishea at certain ports of the United kingdom; and that
each of these shall consist of 2 ear officio members — the mayor or provost, and the stipen-
diary magistrate of the place— 4 members appointed by the board of trade, and 6 elected
annually by the owners of foreign-going ships and of home-trade passenger-ships. The
local marine boaiti is required to establish an office (called the shipping office in the act
of 1854, but now, under the act of 1862, called the mercantile marine office) or offices,
under the management of a superintendent (originally called shipping-master^, whoso
duty it is to afford facilities for engaging seamen, l)y keeping registries of their names
and character; to superintend and facilitate their engagement and discharge; to provide
means for securing the presence on board at tlie proper time of men who are so engaged *j
to facilitate the making of apprentice-ships to the sea-service; and to perform such other
duties relating to merchant-seamen and merctlan^ships as shall be committed to them by
the board of trade. The local marine boards are also required to hold examinations for
persons who intend to become masters or mates of foreign-going ships or home-trade
passenger-ships. And no person can be employed in a foreign-going ship as master, or
first, or secoml, or only mate, or in a home-tnide passenger-ship as master, or first or
onlv mate, unless he holds a certificate of competency obtained at such an examination ;
or else a certificat4f of service obtained in virtue of his having lield a certain rank in the
roval navv, or certain employment in the merchant service previous to the passing of
the act of 1854, as specified in the act. The act of 1862 extended the requirement of a
certificate from the board of trade to engineers employed in steamships. There are first
and second class engineers' certificates, and an engineer cannot be employed unless h&
holds the one or the other-— according to his employment and the cngine-ijower of the
si lip — obtained at an examination, or else in consideration of his service previous to 1862,
or of the rank he has held in the royal navv.
The master of every ship, excepting ships of less than 80 tons burden, exclusively
employed in the coosting-tradie, is required to enter into an agreement — in a form pre-
scril>ed by the board of trade— with every seaman whom he takes to sea from any part
of the United Kingdom. This document, which must be signed by the master and by
the f^eainen, seta forth the nature and duration of the voyage ; the number and descrip-
tion of the crew; the time at which each seaman is to be on board, or to begin work;
the capacity in which he is to serve; the ancount of his wages; a scale of provisions;
regulations as to conduct; and such punishments for misconduct as the board of trade
shall have sanctioned, and as tlie parties shall have pgrced to adopt. In the case of
foreiTn -going ^ips, the agreement must be made before, and be attested by the superin
temlent of the mercantile marine office; and seamen engaged abroad must be cngaj^ed, if
at a colonial port, in the presence of a shipping-master or customs officer; if at a foreign
port, in the presence of the consul. The discharge of the crews of foreign-going ships
miL<t lie made at the mercantile marine office before t lie superintendent, to whom the ship-
maKter must deliver a full account of the wages due to each seaman, and of all deduc-
tions made from them. It is enacted that no riglrt to wages shall be dependent on the
earning of freight; and that every stipulation on the part of the seaman for abandoning
his right to wages in the event of the loss of the ship, shall be inoperative. Previous to
1872, time agreements with seamen in home-trade ships could not be made for a longer
period than 6 months. This provision was repealed by the act of that year* The act of
1873 provided that in an agreement with scumen, it should only be necessary testate the
maximum period wliich the agreement is to cover, and the places or parts of the world,
if any, to which the voyage is not to extend. Some provision was made in the act of .
1854 as to the amount of space to be set apart for the accommodation of ever}' seaman.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
lUroluinta.
710
as to the maintenance of the sleeping-plaoes in a proper state of order and ventilatioii,
and as to the supply of medicines fur the voyage; but the clauses of that act relating to
these subjects have beeu repealed, and fuller provision fur them has been made bv the
act of 18o7. In this act, special precautions have beeu taken to insure that ships take to
sea with them a sulflcient supply of lime-juice and other antiscorbutics; and tbe local
marine boards arc empowered to appomt medical inspectors to examine seamen applymg
for employment, if tbe ship-master desires it.
The act of 1854 provide for the establishment in the port of London of a geueral
register and record otllce for seamen, under the management of a registrar-general uf
B&imen; anil required returns to l)e made to tbis olticial by the officers of customs, and
throui;h sup'jnur(>udonts of mercantile marine offices, by masters of ships both in the
home and iii the foreign trade, from whicU a genenil view might lie had as to tbe state
of our inercaniile marine. Official log-books, in forms prescribed, are required to be
kept in every ship, other than those exclusively employed in the coasting-trade, either in
connection with or distinct from tbe ordinary lo^-book; and in these, entries must be
m;ule of numerous specific occurrences. Provi.vion is made for the punishment of
offenses against discipline and good-conduct committed either by seamen or by sbip-maii-
ters, and tor the trial in tliis country of person:* cliarged with any crime committed upon
the high seas. The act of 1871 provides that where seamen are charged witb deserting
or ref u<ting to join a ship, or rcf usinir to go to sea, and a fourth of tbe crew, or 5 or more
of the crew, if the number of the crew is 20, idlege that the ship is from auy esiuse, as
unseaworthiness, overlonling, improper loading, or defective equipment, not in atitcou-
dition to proceed to sea, or that the accommodation of the ship is insufficient, the court
before which they are charged may order the sliip to be surveyed, and unless the opinioos
of the surveyor b3 disproved, shall act upon them; tlie ship-owner or the accu.<^d paying
the cost of the survey, according as the d^'fense is sustjuned or overruled. Where the
defense is sustained, the court may, under ih(j act of 1878. make an order for compeiisii-
tioD to be paid by tlie ship-owner or ship-master to the seamen. The board oi tnide
miy suspend or cancel the certificate (whether of competency or of service) of any irnxs-
ter'or mate (1) if, after investigition, he is reported to be incompetent, or to have heen
jruilty of imy gross act of misconduct, drunkeaness. or tyranny; (2) if, after investigation.
It is reported that the loss or almndonnient of, or serious damage to any ship, or loss of
life, has beeu caused by his wrongful act or defnult; (8) if be is superseded by the order
of any ad mind ty court,, or nayal court held abroad under the provisions of the act; or ^4)
if he is shown to have been convicted of auy offense.
In Part IV., under the liead of ''Safety and Prevention of Accidents," rules are laid
down as to the boats and life-buoys which are to be carri-jd by sea- going ships; and it is
provided that the officers of customs slriU not griui a clearance to any vessel by whicli
those ndes have not been complied with. As to the use of lighta and fog^-aignals on
board ships at sea, the regulations now in force are contained in the schedules of the act
of 1833; where is also 1-dd down the rule of the roatl for pi-eventing collision}^ Initween
ships meeting each other at sea. Under the acts of 1871 and 1878, ships which come
into collision are rcquinKi to exchange names, and give other information necessary' for
idemiilcation; and if, after the collision, one of the vessels does not stay b^** and give
assistance to the other, it is deemed to have been in the wrong. The person in cliarge
of it may be prosecuted for a misdemeanor, and have his certificate canceled.
Wherever one of two vessels which have been in collision has infringed tbe regula-
tions of the shipping acts, it is to be deemed in the wrong unless circumstances are
adduced which disprove this presumption. Certain stringent provisions are maiie as to
the build ami equipment, and also as to the surveying and certificating of steamships.
The act of 1872, which transfers to the board of trade the powers exercised under the
passenger acts by the emigration commissioners, and, in certain cases, by the home st^cre-
tary, requires that passenger steanK^rs should undergo survey at least once a year. Under
the acts of 1871, 1873, and 1875, the board of trade is enabled, either on the informatioa
of complainants, orof its own motion, to order any vessel to be surveyed, and after survey
to declare it unseaworthy, and to make an order for its detenti<m, or for its release, only
on the fultillment of such conditions as tbe board may prescribe. The owner or master
of the vessel must be furnished witb a copy of the surveyor's report on which tbe order
of the board of trade has proceeded, and he may appeal to the local court having adtni-
ralty jurisdiction, the decision of which is final. The owner of a vessel detained p:iys the
cost of the survey, and the complainant whose case has not been substantiated pays tbe
cost of the survey, and is liable in compensation to the owner of the vessel; the board
of trade also is liable in compensation to the owner when it has acted of its own motion,
and unseaworthiness has not been established. The act of 1875 also contains tbe follow-
ing provision (s. 4): '* Every person who sends to sea. or is a party to any attempt to do
so. and every master who knowingly takes to sea. a ship in such unseaworthy state, that
the life of any person would be likely to be thereby enaangered, shall be guilty of a mi<t-
demeanor. Burden laid on tbe accused of provmg that he did all he coula to insure
seaworthiness, or the ship going to sea in such unseaworthy state was, in the circum-
stances, reasonable and justiAable." Any person prosecuted under this prtyvision is
enabled to give evidence on his own behalf. The act of 1873 contains provisions as to
Digitized by LjOOQI(C
Til
Merchant*.
the carriage of dangerous goods, and goods suspected of being dnngrrous; and the act
of 1875 provides for the carrying of grain.
For the provisions as to pilotage, in Part V., we refer to the acts themselves. See
also Pilot.
Part VI. deals, with the subject of light-houses. Bee Light-house; Trikitt House;
and Northern LdOHTHousES.
Part VII. relates to the mercantile marine fund.
Part VIII. makes provision for cases of wreck, casualties, and salvage. An inquiry
i3 to be made whenever any ship is lost, abandoned, or materially damaged on or near
Xlvi coasts of the United Kingdom; or causes loss or material damage to any otiier ship
ou or near suoh coasts; whenever, hy reason of any casualty on board of any ship, on or
r.ear such coasts, loss of life ensues; and whenever any such loss, abandonment, damage,
or casualty happens elsewhere, and any competent witue&ses thereof arrive at any place
in the United Kingdom. Tliis inquiry is to be made by the ins|)ecting officer or the
coast-guard, or the principal officer of customs of the place at which the occurrence in
question happened, or of the place at whicli competent witnesses of it arrive, if it has
happened abroad, or can be conveniently examined; or by ^ome other person appomted
ftn- the purpose l>y tlie bcwird of trade. Such officer or person, if lie thinks fit, or if the
lM)ard of trade so directs, may have the matter formally invesiigated before two justices
or u stipendiary magistrate; ani the board of tra<le may appoint some person of nautical
skill and knowledge to act as assessor to such justices or magistrate. If the conduct of
any master or mute is in question, the magistrates may require him to deliver up his cer-
titicate pending the inquiry; and the certificate mav be canceled or suspended by the
board of trade upon their report. The board of trade has the .ireueral superintendence
of all matters relating to wreck, and has power to appiint a receiver of wreck in any
district.
Part IX. relates to the liability of ship-owners; and the provisions of the principal act
have here lieeu materially altered by the act of 1833. Under the act of 1863, the owners
of any ship, whether British or foreijjn, are not answerable in damages for any loss of
life or personal injury to persons carried in the ship; for any damage or loss caused to
any goods on board the ship; for any loss of life or personal injury by reason of the
improper navigation of the ship caused to any person carried in any other ship; or for
any loss or damage similarly caused to any other ship, or the gr)0(ls on board of it, when
such loss, or injury, or damage happens without their actual fault or privity, except as
follows: Where loss of life or personal injury kis occurred either alone or together with
loss or damage to ships and merchandise, they are liable to the extent of £l/j for each
tcm of the ship's tonnage; where there is hii^s or damage only of ships or merchandise,
they are liable to the extent of £3 per ton. The tonn Vge, on account of which the lia-
bility in these ai<es is to be calculated, i.s, in the care of sailing-ships, the registered
tonnage, and, in the case of steamships, the gross tonnage, without deduction on account
of the engine-room; and the tonnage of foreign sliips. is to be estimated according to the
rules of mea^^^nrenient laid down for British ships. The act of 1854, how^ever, provided
that the owners of sea-going 6hi|)s should l)e liable in respect of every loss of life, personal
injury, Uxs of or damage "to goods which may arise on distinct occasions, to the sjune
extent as if no other lo8.s, injury, or damage haa arisen; and this provision is still in force.
In cases of loss of life or personal injury, the act of 18o4 empowers the board of trade to
institute an inquiry, and provides in detail for the recovery of damages bc^fore the sheriff
and a jury. The damages are to be assessed at not more than £30 for each case of death
or personal injury. These are to bo paid to her majesty's paymaster-general, and to be
distributed by hini as the board of trade directs; the board having power to direct pay-
ment of Rich compensation, not exceeding the statutory amount, as may be thought fit.
A person dissatisfied with the amount of damages awarded to him may bring his action
iu theoixlinary courts, but he is liable in the costs of the action unless he recover a sum
cxceedins double the statutory amount.
Part X. of the act of 1854 lays <lown the legal procedure to be taken in cases arisinij
under the act; and part XI. deals with several miscellaneous matters of no general
importance. The act of 1862 provided that foreign ships within British jurisdici ion .>hall
lie subject to the niles for preventing collisions applicable to British ships. Tlic linal
issue of Mr. Plimsoll's indefatigable labors was the passing of the act to amend the iner-
chant shipping acts, which became law in Aug., 1876. Here provision is made for the
detection of unseaworthy ships, to prevent overloading, to secure thai all deck cargoes
sliall be included in the tonnage, and that grain cargoes shall not be carried loose in
bulk, but shall be kept from shifting either by boards or bulkheads or by being carried
in sacks. The act of 1873 provides for the application, by order in council, of all the
SrovLsions of the merchant shipping acts to foreign vessels, the states to which they
elons: assenting. The act of 1802 contains the law on the subject of delivery of goods
and lien for freight (for which see Lien).
ICptCHAHTV MARXg. In the middle ages it was the practice for merchants, traders,
fliid others to whom t(ie proper use of heraldry was not conceded, to be allowed by the
heralds to bear devices indicative of their trades or occupations. A cutler might bear
Digitized by VjOtJyiC
Kerela. 'T 1 O
M«iicary. < A^
his knife, a tailor his shears, a mason his trowel and compasses. These insignia were in
Btriciness ordered lo be borne only in ** targets hollow at the chief flankcs,'* yet we often
find tliein on sliields, and sometimes even imptrfed and quartered with arms. " Mer hants,
along witli a monogram of their initials, often bore a mark composed of u c-r<».>> and a
figure resembling the Arabic numeral 4 turned backwards— perhaps a symbol of the Holy
Trinity, though it has also been explained to represent the mast and yanl of a ship.
The insignia of their companies were frequently Dome by mercliants in a chief above
their marks, and occasionally quartered with tliem. 1 hcse merchants' marks were
probably the origin of the trade brands and marks of our own time Many of ihem arc
to be seen sculpiured on the walls and roofs of the churches of the 14th c. and 15th c.
and engraved on monumental brasses both in England and on the contiueuff Seals with
merchanUs' marks are occasionally found appended to conveyances of land.
M£B CIA. See Heptarchy.
MEBCUBY. See Hermes.
MEHCURY, planet. See Solar System, ante.
MZBCUBY, or Quicksilver (symb. Hg, equiv. 100— new system, 200— sp. gr. 18.6),
one of the hO-calleJ noble metals, remarkable as being the only metal that is'fluid at
ordinary temperatures. It is of a silvery while color, with a striking metallic luster.
When pure, it runs in small spherical drops over smooth surfaces; but when not per-
fectly pure, the drops assume an elongated or tailed form, and often leave a gray stain
on tiie surface of glass or porcelain. Moreover, the pure metal, when shaken with ahr,
presents no change upon its surface; while, if impure, it becomes covered with a pray
film. It is slightly volatile at ordinar}' temperatures, and at 662^* it boils, and forms a
colorle>s vapor" of 'sp. gr. 6.976. Hence it is capable of l)eing distilled; and the fact of
its being somewhat volaiile at ordinary temperatures, helps to explain its pernicious
effects upon those whose trades require iLem to come much in contact wiih it — as, for
example, the makers of barometers, looking-glasses, etc. At a tcmpeniture of —39'', it
freezes, when it contracts considerably, and becomes malleable. In consequence of the
uniform rat^* at which it expands when heated, from considerably below O"" to above 360*,
it is employed in the construction of the mercurial thermometer.
All mercurial compounds are either volatilized or decomposed by heat; and when
heated with carbonate of soda, they yield metallic mercury. Native or virgin quicksilver
only occui-s in small quantity, usually in cavities of mercurial ores. Of these ores, by far
the'most important is cinnahar (q.v.j. There are two means of obtaining the metal from
the cinnabar: the ore may be biyned in a furnace, in which case the sulphur is riven off as
sulphurous acid, and the mercury is collected in a condensing chamber: or the oiv may
1 e (liHtilled with some substance capable of combining with the sulphur — as, for example,
with slaked lime or iron filings.
The mercury imported inio this country is usually almost chemically pure. If the
presence of other metals is suspected, it may be ]n•es^^ed through leather, re distilled, and
then digested for a few days in dilute cold nitric nc id, which exerts little action on the
mercury, if more oxidizable metals are present. The mercury, after being freed from
the nitric acid by washing with water, is chemically ptire.
There are two oxides of mercury, the black suboxide (Hg30)and the red oxide (HgO).
Both of these lose all their oxygen when heated, and form salts with acids. The Uaek
nulxw/de, although a powerful base, is very unstable when isolated, being readily con-
verted by gentle warmth, or even bvmere exposure to light, into red oxide and tlie metal
(HgaO = IlgO -{- Kg). The most important of iis salts is the nitrate (Hg,0,NOft + 2Aq),
from whose watery solution ammonia throws down a black precipitate known in phar
macy jih mnrurhn^ Holubilis Htthnemanniy from its discoverer, and consisting essentially
of the black suboxide with some ammonia and nitric acid, which are apparently in com-
bination. Of the red oxide, the most important salts are the nitrate (HgO.NOa + 8Aq);
the sulphate (HgO,SOj), which is employed in the manufacture of corrosive sublimate;
and the basic sulphate (3HgO,SO«), which is of a yellow color, and is known as inrpeth
mi /I era t.
The haloid salts of mercury correspond in their composition to the oxides. Of the
most important of these — the chlorides — there are tiie subchloride (HgaCl), well known
as calomel (q.v.), nnd the chloride (HgOl), or corrosive sublimate.
The chlonde (formerly termed the bichloride, when cnlomel was regarded as the pn>-
tochloride, and the equivalent of Hg was regarded as 200 instead of 100), when cr^istal-
lizcd from a watery solution, occurs in long white glistening prisms; but when ol>tained
by sublimation, it occurs in white transparent heavy masses, which have a crvHtallinc
fracture, and chink with a peculiar metallic sound agninst the sides of the bottle i^n which
they arc contained. This salt melts at 509°, and volatilizes unchanged at about 570*.
It has an acrid metallic taste. It is soluble in 16 parts of cold, and in less than three
Earts of boiling water, and dissolves very freely in alcohol and in ether. Corrosir** sub-
mate enters into combination with the alkaline chlorides, forming numerous distinct
compounds. (A double chloride of ammonium and merciuy, represented by the formula
3H4NCl,HgCl + Aq, has been long known as ml aXemhroth.) It combines with oxide of
mercury in various proportions, forming a class of compounds of great interest m theo-
retical cliemistry, termed oxi/chloridcs of mercury. On adding a solution of conxjsive sub»
« Digitized by VjOUVIC '
limate to a solution of ammonia in excess, a compound, which, from its physical characters,
is lernied whifs precipitate, is thrown down, which is generally supposed to be a compound
of cliloride with amide of mercury, HgOl.HgNH, (Kane). Chloride of mercury coagu-
lates albumen, and combines with the albuminous tissues generally, forming sparingly
soluble compounds. Hence, in cases of poisoning with the salt, the white of raw eggs
is the best antidote ; and for the same reason corrosive sublimate is a powerful antiBepUe,
aud is employed to preserve anatomical preparations.
Amongst the most important tests for this substance, which is not unfrequently used
as a poison, may be mentioned— 1. Iodide of potassium, which, when added to a crj-'Stal
or to a watery solution of chloride of mercury, gives rise to the formation of a bright
scarlet iodide of mercury. 2. The galvanic test, which mav be applied in various ways, •
of which the simplest is the *' guinea and key lest," devised by Wollaston. He placed a
drop of the fluid suspected to contain corrosive sublimate on a guinea, and simullane-
ousfv touched it and the surface of the guinea with an iron key; metallic mercury was
deposited on the gold in a bright silvery stain. 3. Precipitation on copper, and reduc-
tion. To apply this test, we acidulate the suspected fluid with a few drops of hydro-
chloric acid, and introduce a little fine copper gauze, which soon becomes coated with
mercury. On heating the gauze in a reduction tube, the mercury is obtained in well-
defimd globules.
With iodine and bromine, mercury forms two iodides and bromides, corresponding
in composition to the chlorides. Both the iodides are used in medicine; the bromides are
of no practical imporlnnce. The subiodide (Hg«I) is a green powder formed by triturating
5 p:irts of iodine with 8 of mercury, and is of far less interest than the iodufs (Hgl),
whicii is most simplv obtained by precipitating a solution of corrosive sublimate by a
solution of iodide of potassium. The precipitate is at first salmon-colored, but sooa
changes into a brilliant scarlet cn-ystalline deposit.
Sulphur (irms two compounds with mercury — ^viz., a subsulphide (Hg^S), a black
powder of little importance, and a sulphide (HgS), which occurs naturally as cinnabar
(q.v.). Sulphide of mercury is thrown down as a black precipitate bjr passing sulphur-
eted hydrogen through a solution of a persalt of mercurv (corrosive sublimate, for
example). When dried and sublimed in vessels from which the air is excluded, it
assumes its ordinary red color. The well-known pigment termUton is sulphide of mer-
cury, and is sometimes obtained from pure cinnabar, but is more frequently an artificial
product.
Mercury unites with most metals to form amalgams (q.v.), several of which are
employed in the arts.
Of 'the numerous organic compounds of mercury, it is unnecessaiy to piention more
than the fulminate (described in the article PuLMmrc Acid (q.v.), and the cyanide
(HgCy), which may be prepared by dissolving the red oxide of mercury in hydrocyanic
acid, and is the best source from which to obtain cyanogen.
The uses of mercuiy are so numerous that a very brief allusion to the most important
of these must suftlce. It is employed extensively in the extmction of gold and silver
from their ores by the process of amalgamation. Its amalgams are largely employed in
the processes of silvering and gilding, and some (as those of copper and cadmium) are
employed by the dentist for stopping teeth. It is indispensable in the construction of
philosophical instruments, and in the laboratory in the form of the mercurial bath, etc.
t is the source of the valuable pigment vermilion. The use of its chloride in anatomical
preparations has been alrea<ly noticed; it is similarly found that wood, cordage, and
canvas, if waked in a solution of this salt (1 part to (JO or 80 of water), are better able
to resist decay when exposed to the combined destructive influence of air and moisture.
The uses of meroury and its preparations in medicine are noticed in a separate article.
XEBCUBY AND MSBOUBIALS, MEDtcmAL tTSBB OP. Liquid mercury is no longer
used in medicine, although, until lately, it was occasionally given with the view of over-
coming, by its weight, obstructions in the intestinal canal. There are, however, many
preparations which owe their value to extinguished mercury; that is to say, to mercury
triturated with chalk, saccharoid matters, oil, etc., till globules can no longer be detected
in it. It is possible that, in these ca.ses, the metal is partly reduced to the state of sub-
oxide. Amongst these preparations must be placed niereiiry ttith chalk, or gray powder
{ftydrargymm cum creta), which is the mildest and best mercurial to administer to infants
and children, the dose varying with the age; Uue p»W(q.v.); and the various ointments,
liniments, and plasters of mercury. Calomel (termed, in some of the pharmaoopceias.
hydrargyri eJUoridum, for the same reason that con'osive sublimate, as already mentioned,
is terme<l in the same works hydrargf/n bidUoridam) is perhaps more given than any
other medicine of this class, and may be regarded, in so far as its actions are concerneo,
as a type of mereurials generally. Given in small doses, *he first effects of these medi-
cines are observed in the increase of the various secretions, as, for instance, of the saliva
(see Salivation), of the various fluids ponred into the intestinal canal,* and sometimos
* It Ib very doubtful whether, as is generally believed, mercuriala locrease the secretion of the
eeaentfal constituents of the bile. The watery portion is undoubtedly, and the coloring matter prob-
ably, increased. .,,.,.... ^
Digitized by VjOUVIC
t
Mereory. 7 1 J.
of the urine. When continued in small doses for some time, they cause the ahsorption
of morbid fluids, and even of morbid products tliat have assumed a partially solid form.
The follow iug are some of the diseases in which they are of most importance: (1) lu
iuUrtuU coiigeattofift, as of the liver, etc., to increase the secretions, and hence relieve the
vessels of the affected organ; (2) in various <icute iaflammatioru, especially of serous
membnmes (q.v.), of tUe structure of the liver and of the limgs, etc.; (3) in numerous
forms of chronic inflammation ; (4) in dropsies, dependent upon inflammation of serous
membraDes or disease of the liver, but not in dropsy from disease of the kidneys, where
tlie^ are generally injuiious; (5) in numerous chronic affections in which an alterative
action is required; and (6) as a purgative (to be followed by a black draught), when a
patient is in tlic condition popularly ^own as bilious (in this case, blue pill is usually as
eflicacious as calomel).
In syphiliti, mercurials were at one time universally prescribed; now they are not
considered essential to the cure of this disease, except in comparatively few cases.
If calomel, blue pill, or any other mercurial l>e given in too large a dose, or for too
long a period, most serious consequences may result — such as very profuse salivation,
witli swelling of the tongue and gums, and loobcuing of the teeth; purging; certain skin
affections; disease of the periosteum and of the bones (formerly ascribed to syphilis, but
in reality oftener due to the supposed remedy); and a low febrile condition (termed mer-
curial erythism), accompanied with greaX general prostration.
The (loses of calomel for an adult vary from 8 to 6 graius when taken as a purgative.
If the oblect is to affect the system generally, as in a cose of acute inflammation, small
doses (half a grain to two fraius, combined with a little opium) should be given several
times a day; while as an suterative, still smaller doses (not sutficieut at all to afitect tlie
mouth) should be prescribed. The compound calomel pill popularly known as Pluminer$
pill (in which the calomel is associated with oxysulphide of antimony and guaiacum) is a
most valuable alterative in chronic skin-diseases — ^a five-grain piU to be taken every
night.
Oorrosiw sublimate (the bicJUoride of the pharmacopoeias, and oxymuriate of the oVl'^r
chemists), although a very powerful irritant .poison, is extremely useful in ver^' small
doses. as 'an alterative in man^ chronic affections of the nervous system, the skm, etc
The dose varies from one-thirtieth to oue-oighth of a grain; the average dose of its phar-
macopceial solution, the Uqiu>i' hydrargyri bicldoi^idi, being one dram, which contains
one-sixteenth of a grain of the salt. This medicine should always be given on a full
stomach.
The above arc the chief mercurial preparations that are given internally. Certain
external applications require a tew remarks. The phisters, ointments, and iluiments are
absorbed by the skin, and act in the suine manner as mercurials taken internally.
White precipitate ointment is the universal remedy for the destruction of lice, and is
a useful stimulatiug application in chronic skin-diseases. Ointment of niJtraAe of mercury^
popularly known from ita yellow color as citrine, or golden ointment^ is, when sufficiently
ailuted a most useful stimulating application in inflammation of the eyelids, in indolent
ulcers, etc. ; and the ointtnent of nitric oxide of mercury is similar in its action. The pre-
cipitated suboxide that occurs in black i/oaeh, and its use as a local application, are
described in the article Linimsih's.
The toxicoloyirul relations of the mercurial compounds must be briefly glanced at
There are cases on record in which, probably from some peculiaritv of constitution,
ordinary and evc^n small doses of the milder mercurials have caused death; thus, Chiis-
tison mentions a caae in which. two eraius of calomel destroyed life by sev ore salivation
and by ulceration of the throat; and similar cases in which small doses of gray powder,
blue pill, and calomel have proved fatal are recorded by Taylor in his Medical JuHb-
prudence. The prepamtions employed for the purpose of poisoning are mainly corrosive
sublimate and white and red precipitates, coiTosive sublimate Mug used in at least
four-flfths of the cases. The symptoms produced by a poisonous dose of this salt come on
immediately, there being during the act of swallowing an intense feeling of constrictioa.
and a burnmg heat in the throat, while a metallic taste is left in the mouth. Violent
pain in the stomach and abdomen is felt in a few minutes, and vomiting of mucus and
blood, and purging, follow. The pulse becomes smidl, frequent, and irregular, the
tongue white and shriveled, the skin cold and clammy, the respiration difiicult, and
death is preceded by fainting or convulsions. Any dose exceeding two grains would
probably prove fatal to an adult, unless vomiting were induced, or the whites of eggs
administered. Death commonly ensues in from one to five days, but may take plaoe in
less than half an hour, ur not for three weeks or more.
XEBCUBT, Doo's. Mercurialis, a genus of plants of the natural order eujdkarbiacea,
having unisexual flowers, a tripartite perianth, 9 to 12 stamens, two simple styles, and a
dry two-celled fruit with two seeda. The species are not numerous. The Common Doe
MsRCURT ( M. perennia) is very common in woods and shady places in Britain. It has a per-
fectly simple stem, about a foot high, with rough ovate leaves, and axillary loose spikes of
greenish flowers. It turns a glaucous black color in drying, and the root contains two
coloring substances, one blue and the other carmine; so thiat it may probably becotne of
importance in dyeing. It is very poisonous. The mercury which some old writers mentkm
.Digitized by VjOUV IC
^15 SSJSS^-
as a poMierb is not this plant, but ckemopodiufn honwt henrimu. Annual Dog Mebcurt
(J/, annua) is a much mrer British plant, and less poisonous. The leaves are indeed eaten
in Germany, as spinach. A liaif-shrul)by species (M. tometUom), found in the countries
near the Mediterranean, has enjoyed an extraordinary reputation from ancient times; the
absurd belief mentioned by Pliny being still reiained.ihnt if a woman after conception drink
the juice of the male plant she will give birth to a boy, and if of the female plant her
offspring will be a girl — the male plant, however, being mistaken for the female, and the
female for the male.
MERCY, SISTERS of, or Order op Our Lady of Mercy, an order of the Roman
Catholic church founded in Dublin in 1827. They are of two classes, choir slsttrs and
lay sisters; the choir sisters being occupied with the visitation of tlie sick and prisoners,
the care of poor and virtuous girls, ana other charities; the lay sisters being employed
iu the domestic occupations of the convent, etc. Each community is independent of
the rest of the order, being subject only to the bishops. The origin of the order was due
to Miss Catharine McAuley of Dublin, who, born of Roman CaiTiolic parents and left an
orphan, having been educated as a Protestant, joined the Roman Caiiiolic church, and
devoted her life and ample foriune to the service of the poor. The order Iwsbeen intro-
duced into many parts of Ireland, England, Scotland, and America. After a prelimi-
nary pi'eparatiou of six months, candidates assume the white veil nod become novices.
The novitiate lasts two yeare. Their vows hind them to poverty, chastity, obedience,
and the care of the sick and poor.
MEREDITH, Owen (pseud.). Sec Rulwer-Lytton, Edward Robert, Earl.
MEREDITH, William Morris, ll.d., 1799-1873; b. Penn.: a graduate of the uni-
versit}' of Pennsylvania at Philadelphia, class of 1812; commenced the practice of law
about 1820, and became a distinguished member of the profession. He held many posi-
tions iu the gift of his native state, representing his district in the legislature from 1824 to
1828, and was president of the city council of Philadelphia from 1834 to 1849. He was
attorney -general of Pennsylvania from 1861 to 1867, avus elected president of the Penn-
svlvania constitutional convention in 1857. and was U. S. secretary of the treasury under
president Taylor from Mar. 7, 1849, to July 20. 1850. At the time of the Geneva con-
ference on the Alabama question in 1871, he was offered the position of counsel for the
United Stales, but declined. .
MERES, Francis, b. England, 1570; distinguished chiefly as being the author ol
WU's Academy, a Treasurie of Ooulden Sentences, SimiUes, and EramjtUs, 1634. Palladia
Tamia: WiVi Ti-ea^ftie, being Ute Second Part of WiC» Cmnmonwealih, a ComparaiiTS
Discourse of our Englii*lt, Poets with the Greek, Latin, and Italian Poets, appeared in 1597.
His references to Shakespeare are considered of value as showing tlie number of works
* by that author produced up to that time; in his review of the lilernture of the day, his
criticisms are considered for the most part just. He published GtHftt AHthmetique, 1597 —
a sermon on Eccles. v. 9. He was author of a translation of the Sinner's Guide by Fray
Lul.H de Granada.
XEBOAK SEB, Mergus, a ^nus of birds of the family anatida, having a slender,
straight, much compressed bill, hooked at the lip, and notched at the edges, almost
furnished with teeth. See Bill. The species are all inhabitants of the seas and coasts
of northern regions, but migrate southwards in winter. The goosander (q. v.) is the
krgest and best known British species The Redbreasted Merganser {M. serra-
Urr) is plentiful in the northern parts of Britain, at ]e|ist in winter, and is found in all
the northern parts of the world. It is not much sitaller than the goosander, which it
much resembles.— The Hooded Merganser {M, cvcvlhituf). a smaller species, only about
18 in. in entire length, is a very rare visitant of Britain, but is very plentiful in North
Ajnerica.
MERGER, in law, is the absorption of one right, estate, interest, or offense in another
of a higher degree vesting in or committed by the same person. The doctrine of merger
]fl most commonly brought to bear in the case of real estate. Thus, where there is no
intervening estate between a greater and a less limited to the same person, the less estate
ifl absorbed or merged In the greater. If an assignment of the mortga^ is made to the
mortgager, the whole estate vests in him. Or if the reversion in fee simple come to the
tenant for years, either by descent or purchase, his term for years is merged in the fee.
But both estates, to produce a merger, must be held by the same person, by one right,
and at one time. Merger occurs either upon the meeting, in the same person, of an estate
of higher and an estate of less degree, or by the meeting in the same person of the rever-
sion and the particular estate. The inferior estate is extinguished by the merger, but
the greater estate remains the same as before the merger. As a rule, whenever the legal
and the equitable estates meet in one and the same person, the former absorbs the latter.
But a court of equity will not allow the two interests to be merged, if such merger would
be contrary to the intentions of the parties, or if, without pra^ioe to other parties, the
legal and equitable estates can be kept apart, to the profit of the part v in whom thery
would otherwise merge. Instances of a partml merger may occur, where an estate is
merged hi part, and exists in part. Thus, if a tenant for years acquire the reversion of
part of the leased ^property, he owna part of the jproperty leased in fee-simple, and is a
Digitized by VjOUV IC
MeHdian. «AO
tenant as to another part. Where two estates meet in the same person bat by different
rights, merger will not talce place — In criminal law a less offense is merged in a greater
which includi*s it. Thus, every assault includes a battery. But whi*ro tJie offenses are
of an equal degree, merger will not take place. In torts, when a felony is also a tort,
for which a private person may institute a civil action, the private wrong merges in the
public wrong. But the merger in such cases is not complete, and, upon (he conviction 0f
the criminal, the civil remedy is revived. This rule of mei^er in the criminal law ob^
tains in England, where criminal prosecutions are usually conducted by private persons,
and the iustitication of it is to be found in the fear that criminals would not be pros-
ecuted, if the injured pei-son could first obtain civil satisfaction. In this country, crimi-
nal proceedings are generally conducted by public prosecutors, and the English doctrine
of criminal merger does not obtain. In England itself, it applies only to actions t>f tort
and trespass. Merger is also extended to contracts. Thus, against a debtor by specialty,
the remedy for breach of an ordinary simple contract is merged in the higher remedy
upon the specialty, ami the creditor can resort to the latter only. 80 where a creditor
has obtiiined a judgment against his debtor by contract, he can only bring suit upon the
judgment, if it be unsatisfied.
MER'IAN, Mauia Sibylla, 1647-1717; b. Germany; daughter of Matthftus Mcrian,a
Swi^s engraver, and sister of the historical painter Matthftus Merian; had a natural talent
for drawing and painting, which developed in the direction of flowers and insects. She
was the pupil of Abraham Mignon, celebrated for his exquisite representations of flowers,
fi-uit, and insects. In 1665 she married Johann Andreas Graff, a painter, and removed
to Nuremburg. She was never called by her married name, more fame attaching to her
own, and published, 1679^3, an illustrated work in the Dutch language, 2 vols., Origin
of CaUrpiUam; their Nouristhment and Changes. It was translated into Latin in 1717,
published in Amsterdam with a portrait of herself engraved by Houbraken; and in 1730,
a French edition appeared, entitled Hi'4f)ire GSnSralerf^'S Insectes de V Europe. In 1698 she
went to Surinam, and pursued her studies in South America, remaining there until 1701,
?ublishing the result of her labor under the title of Generation, and Tranrformation of
nstct^, 2 vols., with colored plates, and an additional volume by one of her daughters.
She had 2 daughters, Jane Helen and Dorothea Maria Henrietta, 'who after their mother's
death gave a new edition of her work to the public. The orig;inal was published in
Amsterdam in 1705. In 1763-71 all her works were published, iii Paris, under the title
of Ilistoire des Insects de VEarope et de VAmerique. A number of her origimil drawings,
upon vellum bound in 2 vols., noted for their skill and accuracy, are in tiic British
museum collection among the prints, anil, with a portrait of herself, were the property
of sir Hans Sloane. They were purchtised at a great price, and the European specimens
are said to be entirely original delineations, celebrated for scrupulous exactness. There
are collections of her drawings in St. Petersburg. Holland, and Frankfort. She excelled
as a writer no less than in the more conspicuous professions of painter and naturalist
UERGUI', a t. and seaport of Mergul. one of the Tenasserim provinces, British Bur-
mah, stands on an island in the delUi of the Mergui river. Lat. 12^ 27' n., long. 98^ 42'
east. It is about three miles in circuit, and is surrounded by a stockade. Its harbor
is spacious and secure. Exports: sapan wood, dried fish, ivory, etc. Pop. '71, 9,877.
KEBGT7I ABCHIPELAOO, a group of islands in the gulf of Bengal, lyin^ off the
southern shores of the Temusserim provinces, in lat. from 9' to 13" north. *The islands
are mountainous, some of them rising to 8,000 ft. above sea-level. Pearls are found on
the coasts of many of them ; and edible birds'-nests, which are sold to the Chinese and
Mala3^s. as also timber and coal, are among the chief articles of export.
MEU'IAN, Mattii.kus, the elder, 1593-1653; b. at Bale; lived in Paris and Frank-
fort. He began in 1640 a work presenting perspective views of some European cities,
which were drawn, eiignived, and described by himself ; the work is regaraed as very
valuable. It was continued after his death.
MER'IDA, a state in n.w. Venezuela, bounded on the n. by Maracaybo; on the e. by
Truxillo and Barinas; on the s. by Barinas and the United States of Colombia; and on the w.
by Psimpnora. The surface consists of elevated table-lands and valleys, between the num-
erous mountains, off shoots of the Andes chiiin, which extend through the country in
all directions. The Sierra Nevada, the highest of these mountains, rises to a height of
15,066 feet. There are many rivers and extensive lakes, among which may be mentioned
the Lagunilla, 3.000 ft. above sea-level. The ordinary productions of the temperate and
torrjd zone are grown. Area, 10,000 sq.HL ; pop. 70,000, largely Indians and Mestizos.
Capital, Merida.
XEB'IBA, a t. of Venezuela, South America, capital of a province of the same
name, about 60 m. s. of Ike lake of Maracaybo. It was formerly the largest and one of
the most important cities of Venezuela; but in 1812 it was almost wholly destroyed by
an earthquake, from wlueb misfortune it has somewhat recovered, and is again in a
flourishing condition. Pop. 6,000.
KEBIDA, the capital of Yucatan, Mexico, is situated on a barren plain. 25 m. from
the gulf of Mexico, in lat. 20° 50' n. , long. 89" 40' west. It occupies the site of a former na-
tive city, and was founded by the Spaniards in 154^ Merida has a university, a cathedral.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
mMerian.
Meiiciitui.
and 13 clnirclies. Its port is Siznl, with wbich it commanicates by a good road. Its
trade and manufactures are not extensive. Pop. 71, 88,025, almost all Indians uud hall-
bloods.
ItEB IDA (anc. Avgusta Emerita), a small, decayed t. of Spain, in the province of
E^trtjiiiadura, ri^os on the riglit hank of the Guadiaua, 8*3 m. e. of Badajoz. It is unique
in Spain, and i$ in some points a rival of Rome itself, on account of the number and
magnitude of its remains of Roman antiquity. The Guadiana is here crossed by a
Bcaimn bridtje of 81 arches, and with a length of 2,575 ft., and a breadth of 26 feet. It
was erected by Trajan. There is another Roman bridge over the Albarregas, 450 ft. long,
and 25 ft. wide, still quite perfect, in spite of the traffic of 17 centuries. There are also
remains of a castle built by the Romans; and among the other most noteworthy monu-
ments of antiquity arc an old half -Roman, half -Moorish palace, the Casti de los Corvos.
constructed out of a temple dedicated to Diana, several aqueducts, an ancient tlieater, and
a circus. Merida was built 23 years b.c., and flourished in great splendor, until, in 1289,
it was taken from the Moors, after which it began to decline, Pop. 5,500.
XERIBEK) township and village in Connecticut, 18 ra. n.e. of New Haten, containing
the siute reform school and several manufactories. Pop. '70, 10,495.
MERIDEN {ante\ incorporated as a town in Conn, in 1806, as a city in 1867; pleas-
antly situated on elevated land, 94 m. n.e. of New York, and 18 m. s.w. of Hartford;
pop. '80, 18,840. It has 8 postnofBces, eacli the center of a considerable trade, called
respectively Meriden, West Meridcn. and South Meriden. The New York, New Haven
and Hartford railroad pa&ses through it. Meriden contiiins the city hall and 2 national
banks. In West Meriden, the principal place, sever»l daily and weekly newspapers are
published, and it has 1 national bank. The aggregate capital of the bmks in both vil-
lages is $1,000,000. They liave manufactoiies of electro-plated silver-ware, tin-ware,
cutlery, steel, cement pipe, bronzes, gas fixtures, machinery, malleable iron, brass cast-
ings, fire-arms, aiul w^oolen goods, employing a capital of $5,000,000, with an annual
product of about $15,000,000. The annual product of the britannia works, an extensive
establishment, ia e$iimated at. $3,500,000, occupying several factories, and employing
nearly 1000 men. The township contains 12 churches, 1 fire insurance company, 1 sav-
ings bunk, a well-orgjmized fire department, water-works, and is lighted with gas. It is
one of the most eutei*pribing and prosperous mauufacturing centers in New England.
]CEBI])IAK(T^t. fneridi€B, midday), the name given to the great circle of the celestial
sphei'e which passes through both p Aca of the heavens, and also through the zenith and
nadir of any place on the earth's surface. Every p^aoe on the earth's surface has conse-
quently its own meridhm. The meridian is divided by the polar axis into two equal por-
tions, which stretch from pole to pole, one on each side of the earth. It is midday at
any place on Iho earth's surface, when the center of tlie sun comes upon the meridian
of that place; at the same instant it is midday at all pl<aces under the same half of that
meridian, and midnight at all places under the opposite half. All places under the same
meridian have therefore the same longitude (see Latitude and Longitude). Stars
attain their gi'entest altitude when they come upon the meridian; the same thing is true
approximately of the sun and ]ilanets; and, as at this point the effect of refraction upon
these bodies Is at a minimum, and their apparent motion is also more uniform, astrono-
mers prefer lo make their observations when the body is on the meridian. The instru-
ments used for this purpose are called meridian circles'. Sec Ciucle, IMunAL.
MERIDIAN, a village in e. Mississippi, at the junction, in Lauderdale co., of the
Yicksburg and Meridian, and the Alabama Gn;at Southern, on the Moble and Ohio rail-
road; pop. about 4,500. It is 185 m. n.w. of Mobile, and 96 m. e. of Jackson. It con-
tains a court-house, 5 schools, 8 churches, 5 newspapers, and 2 female colleges. Its
leading industries are represc*nted by the manu acture of cotton goods and yarn, furni-
ture, sashes, doors, and blinds, and plows; other manufactories are foundries, machine
shops, steam corn mills, and soda-water factories. It has an excellent trade, due chiefly
to its central position in the midst of the lumber region, and is rapidly increasing in
wealth and population. It was at this point that the troops of gen. Sherman, on Feb.
16, 1864. accomplished " the most complete destruction of railways ever beheld." accord-
ing to his own official report.
MEBIDIAK MDASTTBEMENT. The determination of the form and size of the earth
from the measurement of an arc of a meridian has been a favorite problem with
mathematicians from the earliest times, but up to the middle of last century their opera-
tions were not caiTied on with exactness sufficient to render their conclusions of much
value. Since that time, however, gef)desy has so rapidly progressed, owing to the
invention of more accurate instruments and the discovery of new methods, that the
measurement of the meridian can now be performed with the utmost accuracy imagin-
able. The modus opemnrft IS as follows: Two stations, having nearly the same lonp-
tude. arccho<«en; their latitude and longitude are accumtely determined (the error ot a
second in latitude introduces a considerable error into the result), and the direction of
the meridian to be measured ascertained: then a base line is measured with the greatest
accuracy, as an error here generally becomes increased at every subsequent step; and
tiicn, by the method known as triangulation (q.v.), the length of the arc of the meridian
M«rim««.
Merle.
718
contained between tlie parallels of latitude of the two stations is asoertained. As the
previouMly found latitudes of its two extremities give tlie number of degrees it contains,
the average length of a degree of this arc can be at once determined; and also— on the
supposition tliut tlie length of u degree is uniform — the length of the whole meridional
circumference of the earth. This operation of meridian measurement has been per-
formed at different times on a great many arcs lying between 68" n. lat. and SB"* s. lat.,
and the results show a steady though irregular increase in the length of the degree of
latitude as the latitude increases. On the supposition that this law of increase holds
good to the poles, the length of every tenth degree of latitude in English feet is as m the
following table:
Degree of Latitude.
Length of Defcree In
Eoglish Feet.
Degree of Latitude.
LenffthofDMrreein
E^UsbFiet
0»
40»
802,843
863.1S6
803,641
804,288
60"
eo»
W
864,an
88K,464
80S.087
806,861
This result shows that the earth is not spherical, as in that case the length of all degrees
of latitude would be alike, but of a more or less spheroidal form — that is having its
curvature beconung less and less as we go from the extremity of its greater or equatorial
diameter to the lesser or polar axis. See Earth. It was by the measurement of a
mcridiiiiial arc that, in 1702-4N^, the lenf^th of a quadrant of the earth's circumference
was deterniiued, in order to form the basis of the French metrical system (see MItfbs).
X£RIM£:£, riiosPER, novelist, historian, and archseologist, was bom at Paris, Sept.
28. Ib03. His father, Jean Fran9ois Leonore, was a painter of distinction, and secretary
to the eeole des Beaux A'rts. The son entered the college of Charlemagne, kept terms
as a laiw-studint, and l)ecame early acquainted with English and Spanish literature.
The influence of Shakc>peare, Calderon, and Goethe was then makmg itself felt in
France, and the rouiaunc school, headed by Victor Hugo, was contending for the
possession of the singe against the classic traditions of Racine. Merim^e, a devotee of
the new sect, published '^uudor a double disguise his first work, Le Thidirs ds Clara
Gaztfl. a collection of studies for the stage, professing to be translated from the Spanish
by a C(M tain Joseph rEstrnnge. This work raised great expectations, which were never
realized. !Merinu'^e did not become a dramatist, and one of these pieces failed when
represented in 1850. Ilis next publication, also pseudonymous, La Utuskt, by Hyadnihe
MtigUnumtch, was an effort to emlKxly the spirit of the popular lays of Illyria and Mon-
tenegro. It wa-j written to meet the then prevailing rage for Slavonic-poetry, and the
niat<Mijil.s were taken at second hand. It was, however, admired in Germany, and
received the approval of Goethe. Merimfe now became a regular contributor to the
Retve (le Parin and the Ucrue de» Ikvx Mondes; and after one or two more anonymous
efforts si, crnrd his name to Tnmango. After the revolution of July he entered public
Ufe, and before long was made inspector of historical monuments, and in that capacity
visited many parts of France, publishing the results of his researches in a series of
reports. During nil this time he continued to write for his favorite reviews a series
of romantic tale's in which terrible, almost repulsive, subjects are handled with wonder-
ful reali*<lir power, and in a style singularly clear, condensed, and vigorous. This
series, in which the Klnmean Vaite and the Cupture of the Bedaubt t^re e^pccially note-
worthy, cuhninnted in Offombn (1841), written by him when fresh from Corsica and its
tales of vengeance. After this, his greatest and (with the exception of ^rwn<5 Ouillot,
and Cnnncii) his last romamre, Merim^. applied himself to historical researches. The
Compirttry of Catiline and the Srtcial W(n\ studies of Roman history, preliminary to a
life of C.psnr, on which he is said to have been occupied many years, appeared in 1844.
In this year he was elected to the chair in the academy vacated by the death of C.
Nodicr. His ]Ii»toi^ of Dom Pedro tJte Cruel (1848), dedicated to the countess of Mon-
tijo, the mother of the empress Eugenie, has been translated into English (1860), and
reviewed in the Edinburgh. After the fall of the Orleans dynasty he was placed on the
commission to draw up an inventory of the art treasures left by them in France. In
18i54 he published his Falee Demetrii, an episode of early Russian history, the preface
to which was written in prison, where he was sent for criticising, in the Hetfie des Deux
Monden (\S^2), the sentence passed on his old acquaintance. M. Libri (q.v.). a sentence
which he tried to cret reversed in the senate June 11, 1861. ]Merimee has also trans-
lated from Pu'»hkin and Nicolas Gogol. Among his latest writings may be mentioned
an introduction to Marino Vretro's Floury of Modern Chreeee (1865), two brief articles in
the R/^r^te den Devx ifon<f«« (1864): and Lettrea d xtne Inetmnue {\^1^\ Eng, trans. 1874).
Merimee was made a senator in 1858; president of the commission for reorganizing the
biblioth^que 1mp5riale in 1858; commander of the le^on of honor, April 13, 1800.
He was also one of the ten menU>ree libree of the academic des Inscriptions. He died
Oct.. 1870.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
/7 1 Q Merimae*
• •» ^ Merle.
MEBIVO, an important breed of sheep, originally Spanish, but now widely diffused
throughout £uroi)e, and constituting a great part of the wealth of Australia. The
Merino has large limbs, and the male nas large spiral horns, which do not rise above the
bead; the skin of the neck is loose and pendulous j the cheeks and forehead bear wool;
the fleece is tine, lon^, soft, and twisted in silky spmil ringlets, abounding in oil, which
attracts dust, so that it has generally a dingy appearance. The fleece is sometimes black,
and black spots are apt to appear even in tlie most carefully bred flocks. The Merino
sheep fattens slowly, and owes its value altogether to the excellence of its wool. It has
not l)een found profitable in Britain, wliere the production of mutton is a great part of
the object of the siteep- farmer..
XEBIKO. See Woolen Manufactvbb.
MERIONES: Mbrionidid/B, a genus of rodents of the family dipodidse, allied to
the common jerboa (dipua JEgyp(icu» of Africa and south-western Asia. The best-known
species is the meriones hudsorUus, or jumping mouse of Korth America {jerboa Hudsonicus
of Baird, Labrador, southward and westward to the Pacific). It is about 3 in. long to the
tail, wliich is from 6 to 6 inches. Its color above is light brown, lined with black; belly
white, sides yellowish gray, contrasting finely with the back and belly. It takes very
long and rapid leaps, moving probably with greater rapidity when pursued than any
other mammal of its size See Rodentia.
XESIOHETH, a co. of Wales, is bounded on the w. by Cardigan bay. and on the a
by the counties of Caernarvon and Denbigh. Area, 885,291 acres; pop. *7l, 46,598. The
coast immediately south of the town of liarlcch rises into cliffs, is skirted by sands, and
fringed by three dangerous sandbanks at some distance out to sea. Merioneth is the
most mountainous co. in Wales, although its peaks dp npt rise to the height of some of
those in Caernarvonshire. The chain comprising the' highest peaks runs from n.w. to
8.e., and its summits are Arran Mowddy (2,955 ft.) and Cader Iciris (q.v.). The county is
watered by the Dee, which flows n.e., and l)y the Mawddach and the Dovey, which reach
the sea after a s.w. course. The soil of Merioneth is generally poor, and large tracts are
unfit for profitable cultivation. Of the total acreage only 151,291 acres were under crop
in 1876; and of this portion 113,698 acres were^in permanent pasture. There were
376,986 sheep in the county. Slate and liriiestone are largely quarried; a little lead and
copper ismmed; and of late gold has been iound in Merioneth. In 1866 there were
obtained at castle Camdochan 5^ oz. of gold, and at Yigra and Clogau 214 ounces.
Woolens and flannels are manufactured. Chief town, Dolgelley (q.v.).
JCBEIYALE, John Herman, an English scholar and translator, was b. at Exeter in
1779, studied at St. John's coUeare, Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1805. He
contributed largely to Bland's Chileclw}i9 from the Greek AntJwlogy, published in 1818,
and brought out a second edition himself in 1833. From 1831 to his death in 1844 he »
held the office of commissioner of bankruptcy. Among his other literary performances
may be mentioned Poems Original' and Trandated (1841). and Minor Poems of SchiUer
(1844). Merivale, the rev. Charijss, son of the preceding, was b. in 1809, studied at St.
John^s college, Cambridge, where he look his degree in 1880, and was successively
scholar, fellow, and tutor. He has acquired a great reputation as an author by his Fm
of tJie Roman, BepfiWe (1858), History of the Rotnans under tJte Empire, 8 vols. (1859-65),
and Boyle lectures (1864-^5). etc. Merivale was installed dean of Ely in 1869. Another
son. Herman, born in 1805, was appointed prof, of political economy at Oxford in
1837, and permanent under secretary' of state for India in 1859. In the same year he was
made c.b. He also wrote on colonization. He died on Feb. 8, 1874.
MERIWETHER, a co. in w. central Georgia; bounded w. by the Flint river, and is
drained by many tributary creeks; 550 sq.m.; pop. '80. 17,651—9,886 colored. The
surface is hilly and varied. The staples are cotton, Indian corn, and grass; of cotton
there are produced not far from 10,000 bjiles yearly. There are many mineral springs in
the CO., of w4iich the largest is at Warm springs on Pine rock, 40 m. n.e. of Columbus;
it discharges 1400 gallons a minute; the water lias a temperature of 90" Fahr., and con-
tains magnesia, carbonic acid, etc. Chief town, Greenville.
MERIWETHER, David, 1755-1.'^25; b Va.; a soldier at the siege of Savannah
1778-79, in which he was taken prisoner by the British. In 1785 lie removed to Georgia
ind filled several offices in the gift of the slate, representing his district in the legislature,
and was incmlK?r of congress 1803-07 as representative from Georgia. He was an earnest
supporter of president Jeflferson, whose policy he cordially indorsed, and was appointed
by him Indian commissioner to adjust the claims of the tribe of Creek Indians in Florida.
Im 1817 he was chosen presidential elector, and the same year was on the commission
with gen. Andrew Jackson and gov. McMinn of Tennessee, to treat with the Cherokee
Indians of (Jeorgia, which was concluded July 8, 1817, by which an extensive tract of
land, w. of the Appalachee river, was added to the territory of the United States, open-
ing the cotton-bowing region of Georgia, now thickly populated, intersected by rail-
roads, and furnishing granite, iron ore, and gold to the mineral wealth of the country.
In 1831 he was again chosen presidential elector.
MEKLE. See Blackbird, ante.
Digitized by
Google
Xlerle. ^00
Bferom. * ^^
MERLE D'AOIGNE, Jean IIekki, a popular ecclesinsticnl historian, was b. at Eaux-
Vives, near Genevii in Switzerland, Aug. 16, 1794, studied there and at Berlin— under
Neander — and subsequently became pastor of the Frencli Protestant church in Hamburg.
Thence, after a residence of five years, he proceeded to Brussels, became chaplain of
king William, who, after the revolution of 1830, invited him to Holland, aA tutor to the
prince of Orange, Merle, however, declined the offer, and returning to Geneva took
part in the institution of a new college for the propagation of orthodox theology, in
which he was appointed professor of church history. With the exception of some visils
to England and Scotland, where he had numerous readers and admirers, be remained
constantly at Geneva. The work which has given him so wide-spread a reputati6n is his
Hiatoire de la Befoj-matian au Seizieme Siecle (1835 et seq.). It is written with the utmest
vivacity, and is sometimes eloquent. Its popularity has been immense. Among Merle
d'Aubigne's other writings are — Le Lut/ieranistne ei la Refarme (Par. 1844); Gennuny,
Krifjlnnd, and Scotland (iS^); Le Protecteur, au la Bejntbliqus (TAngUferre aux Jonrsde
Cromtrell (1848); Trtn's Sikles de Lutte en Ecosse (1850); Cametkre du R^farmateur etdela
Reformatio ti de Geneve, and Histmre de la Reformation en Europe au Tsmpa de Oainn
(1862-77). He died at Geneva Oct. 80, 1873.
MES LIN, f'aleo ceealon or Rypotriorehis <Baalon, the smallest of the Bntisli faJconida,
scarcely exceeding a blackbird in size, but yery bold and powerful, and possessing all
the characters of the true falcons, with the distinction of large hexagonal scales on the
front of the tarsi It is of a bluish ash color above; reddish yellow on the breast and
belly, with longitudinal dark spots, the throat of the adult male white. The wings reach
to two-thirds of the length of the tail It builds its nest on the ground, and is fond of
localities wliere large stones are plentiful, on which it is often to be seen perched, and is
therefore often called the ^tone falcon. It is common in most parts of Europe, is found
in Asia and ^orlh America, and extends southwards in Africa, even to the cape of
Good Hope. It was of great repute in the days of falconry, being very easily trained,
uud flying readily at its quarry. It waa there/ore often used for taking partridges and
wood-pigeons. It is a very lively bird, and often utters a harsh scream. - It usujuly flies
low and very rapidly, threading its way, if necessary, through branches and leaves, but
it will also follow its prey in mounting upwards to a great height.
MERLIN, the name of an ancient Welsh prophet and enchanter, who is believed to
have tioarishetl during the decline of the native British power in its contest with the
* Saxon invaders. Both the Cambrian and the Strathclyde Britons boasted of a Merlin who
was, in all probability, the same personage decked out in diJIerent legendary guise. — The
Cambrian Merlin cnWcd Merlin Emyrs or Arnbrosius, is said by Geoff y of Monmouth, in
his IlistoiHa Brittonum, to have lived in the 5th c, to have spnmg from the intercourse of
a demon with a Welsh princess, and to have displayed the possession of niiraculoiis powers
from infancy. He is alleged to have been the adviser of King Vortigern. and subse-
qiicntly of Ambrosius, Utcrpendrapon, and the great King Arthur. He is often
alluded to bv our older poets, especially Spenser, in his Fairy Q.icen, and also figures in
Tennyson's tdylli* of the King. He has been made the subject of a metrical romance, of
which there is a manuscript copy in the advocates* library in Edinburgh. (For an
analysis of this romance, see "EWWs Specimens of Early Kngltnh Metrical R/tmnncen.) A
coll<»ction of prophecies attributed to him appeared in French (Paris, 1498), in English
(Lond. 1529 and 1533). and in Latin (Venice, 1554); and their existence is traceable at
least as far baek as the lime of the poet Lawrence {circa 1360). — The Strathclyde, or —
if wc may be allowed an expression which anticipates history — the ScottUh Merlin, called
Merlin the Wyllt, or Merlin Caledonius, is placed in the 6th c, and appears as a con-
temporary of St. Kentigem, bishop of Glasgow. His grave is still shown at Dnjm-
melzicr on tlie Tweed, where, in attempting to escape across the river from a band of
hostile rustics, he was impaled on a hidden stake. A metrie^d life of him, exten<Hng to
more than 1500 lines, professedly base<l on Armoric materials, and incoiTectly ascribed
to Geoffrey of Monmouth, was published by the Roxbui^he club in 1830. His prophe-
cies— published at Edinburgh in 1616— contain those ascribed to the Welsh Merlin.
MER'LOIT, in fortification, is the portion of the parapet between two embrasures.
Its length is usually from 16 to 18 feet.
MERLU'CIUS, a genus of fishes belonging to the cod family. See Hakk, ante. The
American hake (3f. alhidus of DeKay), called whiting in New England, and nl«o siWer
hake, is from one to two feet lonj, the upper part of the body rusty brown, with golden
hues, by reflection, while alive. It is silvery wliile on the belly, and the iris has a silvery
appeanuicc. Lower jaw longer than upper; teeth long and sharp. It is abundant in
Bntish America, and as far south as New Jersev. It is very voracious, and dcvf)urs
many of the smaller fishes. ' Another American hake belongs to the genus phycin (q.v.)
KESIIAU) (i.e.. sea-maid), an imaginary inhabitant of the sea. The upper part'^ of
mermaids are repn»sented as resembling those of a human being, generally of a fcnuib —
although the mo-man is also sometimes heard of — whilst the body terminates in a Xx\\\
like that of a fish. There is an evident aflinity between the stories concerning mermaids
and those concerning the sirens and triions, perhaps also the nercids. of the ancients.
The probability is that these stories have origimited in the appearance of seals, wal-
Digitized by VjOUV IC
m Merle*
Merem.
ruses, and perhaps still more of the herbivorous cetacea, in regions where they are rare,
or to persons unaccustomed to see them. "Large allowances must be made for the
workings of an excited imagination, in situations of solitude and apprehension, on the
unexpected appearance of an extraordinary and unknown object." Many of the stories
concerning mermaids belong to the northern parts of the world, where the herbivorous
cetacea are of rare occurrence, and perhaps some of the solitary seals have often given
occasion to them. But the herbivorous cetaceans do occasionally wander into the
British and probably even into more northern seas. Sir James Emerson Tennent says
concerning the dugong(q, v.): " The rude approach to the human outline, observed m
the shape of the head of this creature, and the attitude of the mother while suckling her
young, holding it to her breast with one flipper, while swimming with the other, holding
the he^s of both above water; and when disturbed, suddenly diving and displacing
her fish-like tail — these, together with her habitual demonstrations of strong materniu
affection, probably gave rise to the fable of the mermaid; and thus that earliest inven-
tion of mythical physiology may be traced to the Arab seamen and the Greeks, who had
watched the movements ot the dugong in the waters of Manaar." It is right, however,
that we should bear in mind the possibility of the existence in the ocean of cetaceans not
yet known to naturalists. — The mermaid is a not unfrequent heraldic bearing. In the
heraldry of France, she is called a siren, and in Germany she is occasionally furnished
with two fishy tails.
XEEXAIB'S OLOVE, Halichandria paJmaia, a sponge pretty common in the British
seas, and the largest of British sponges. It grows in deep water, and is sometimes two
feet in height, it receives its name fi-om tl^ somewhat finger-like arrangement of its
branches. It is not slimy, and has a very porous surface; rough, wit£ myriads of
minute fragile spiculse. Its color is yellowish.
MER'(n>ACH, or Bel Mer'odach, the name of a Babylonian god, as is evident
from its occurring in Jer. i. 2 in connection with idols. It is supposed to be the name of
a planet, either Mars or Jupiter. - It is supposed to be derived from the Persian and the
Indo-Germanic rtwrd or mm'ty which means death, and the affix odi found in many Assy-
rian names, as.Nisi'och, etc. Merodach was identical with the famous Babylonian Biel
or fiellis, the word being first probably a mere epithet of the god, and by de.srrecs super-
seding the proper name. But the names were sometimes distinguished. The golden
image in the temple of Babylon seems to have been worshiped as Bel rather than Mero-*
dach, while other idols may have represented him as Memdach. The temple described
by Herodotus as the temple of Bel us is, in the inscriptions, the temple of Merodach. !
But we do not know what the distinction was between the two names. It is not clear ^
what the aspect of the god was when worshiped. Bel Merodach is represented as
the "old man of the gods," "the judge," and Nebuchadnezzar calls him the great lord,
"the most ancient," and Neriglissur the "first-born of the gods," "the layer up of
treasures." He is regarded as the source of ail power, and thus concentrates in bis own
person the greater part of that homage which had previously been divided among the
various gods of the Pantheon. The Babylonian kings were often named after him, as
Merodach Baladan, Evil Merodach, etc.
M6R0DE, PRAN9018 Xavier Marie PRfiofeic Ghislain de. 1820-74; b. Brus-
sels; a grand-nephew of Lafayette. His father, count Felix de Merode, had been offered
and refused the Roman Catholic candidature for the throne of Belgium. His son at first
entered the arniy and took part in the Algerian campaign. In 1848 he l)egan the study
of theology at Koine, where he was ordained to the priesthood in 1850. Pius IX. at
once made him his chamberlftin, and canon of St. Peter's. In 1860 he was appointed
temporary minister of arms, and recruited, chiefiy from foreigners, a pontifical army.
In 1865 he went out of office in consequence of a alspute with cardinal Antonelli. The
next year he was made archbishop of Melitene, ana papal almoner. In 1869, at the
instance as is supposed of his brother, count Montalembert, he resisted the declaration of
the doctrine of panal infallibility; but he acquiesced in the final enunciation of it by the
ecumenical council. He gave liberally for the foundation of charitable and educational
institutions, and the improvement of public grounds and streets in Rome.
XE'BOS. See Ethiopia.
MEROM, or hDlEH, Lake, generally regarded as the waters of Merom, where the
assembled forces of the confederate kings of Canaan were defeated by Joshua, is at the n.
end of the Jordan valley, where it forms the central part of a low plain, 16 m. long and 7
wide, and surrounded with hills of various heights. The lake itself is triangular at the
base, of which towards the north the upper Jordan enters and from its apex flows out
again towards the s. on its steep descent to the sea of Galilee. The falling rains and
melting snows periodically increase its size, but its average length is about 4^ m. and its
width 3i. It is surrounded with marshy gTOimd covered with a dense jungle of canes,
the home of wild swine and ill-looking buffaloes that are often seen wallowing in the
mud or standing almost immersed in the water. The lake is shallow and is covered for
acres with yellow and white water lilies and with the true E^'ptian papyrus, Hflleh is
one of its ancient names, which Josephus employs for the region under the form Ulatha,
'While he calls the lake itself SemeclioniiU, The district as well a;|j|fj^l^^)^3^j^t^(|i|lled
U. K. IX.-46 ^
Meropldie. 'TOO
Hdleh, is very. fertile, but inhabited only by a few. Arabs who dwell in tents. There is
not a village or a house in any part of it.
XSBOFlDf, See Bee-eatek.
MER0PI8. See Cob, ante,
MEROSTOM'ATA (Gr. meron, thigh; stoma, mouth), an order of crustaceans com-
prising two sub-orders, eurypterida (Gr. ewus, broad; pteron, wing) and xiphosura
(Gr. xiplioa, sword; oura, tail), the latter including the only living representative, the
king-crab, or horse-shoe crab. The iirst of these sub-orders is extinct, and their fossils
are exclusively paleozoic, all the members being coniiued to the Silurian, Devonian, and
carboniferous formations. The sub-order eurypterida is described by Henry Woodward
as composed of "crustaceans with numerous free tlioracico-abdominal segments, the
first and second of which bear one or more broad lamellar appendages upon their ventral
surface, the remaining segments being devoid of appendages; anterior rings united into
a carapace bearing a pair of larval eyes near the center, and a pair of large, .margiual,
or sub-central eyes; the mouth furnished with a broad post-oral plate or metastoma, and
five pairs of movable appendages, the posterior of which form great swimming-feet;
the telson, or terminal segment, extremely variable in form ; the integument character-
istically sculptured." Some of the members of this sub-order were of gigantic dimen-
sions, as pten/gotus angllciis, measuring 6 ft. or more in length. The berry-like bodies
found in the old red sandstone of Scotland, and described under the name of parka
deeipiens, are regarded as the eggs of large crustaceans of the eurypterid group. The
second sub-order, xiphosura, are characterized by Woodwai-d as follows: "Crustacea
having the anterior segments welded together to form a broad, convex buckler, upon the
dorsal surface of which are phiced the compound eyes and ocelli ; the former sub-
centrally, the latter in the center in front. The mouth is furnished with a small labrum, a
rudimentary metdatoTna, and six pairs of appendages. Posterior segments of the body are
more or less free, and bearing upon their ventral surfaces a series of broad lamellar append-
ages ; the telson, or terminal segment, ensiform. " The only living members of this sub-order
are the limuli, commonly known as king-crabs, horse-shoe crabs. They inhabit the Indian
and Japanese seas, the Antilles, and the coasts of North America. The xiphosura com-
menced their existence in the upper Silurian formation, where they are represented by
the neolitnulus fcUecUus of Henry Woodward. In this genus the head-shield has a
resemblance to tliat of the king crab, and there are traces of a divisional line crossing
the head, and apparently corresponding with the facial suture of the trilobite8(q.v.).
Compound eyes and oceiti seem to be present, and there are six free thoracic, and
probably three free abdominal segments, of which only two have been preserved. No
members of the sub-ordet have been found in the Devonian formation, but several types
occur in the carboniferous, the most important member being pe»twiciUa rotu7idlfoUa of
the coal measures of Europe, and the genus euprodp$ of the North American coal
measures, very similar to each other, the latter, however, having eyes situated on the
anterior edge of the cephalic buckler. Limuloid crustaceans are also found in the
permian and triassic formations, as well as in the upper Jurassic, the cretaceous, and
tertiary. See Inveutebrata.
XEROYHf OIAHS, the first dynasty of Frankish kings in Ghvul. The name is derived
from Merwig oi' Mcrovaens, who ruled about the middle of the 6th a, having united a
few tribes under his sway. His grandson, Chlodwig or Clovis (q.v.), greatly extended
his dominions, and on his death divided his kingdom amon^ his four sons, one of whom,
Chlotar or Clotaire I., reunited them under his own sway in 558. On his death, in 561,
the kingdom was again divided into four parts — Aquitaine, Burgundy, Neustria, and
Austrasia. His grandson, Clotaii*e II., again united them in 613; but after his death, in
628, two kingdoms, Neustria and Austrasia, were formed, in both of which tlie Mero-
vingian kings retained a merely nominal power, the real power having passed into the
hands of the mayors of the palace. Theaynastyof the Merovingians terminated with
the deposition of Childeric IV., in 752, and gave place to that of the Carlovingians (q.v.X
sprung from the Austrtisian mayor of the palace. The chief authority for the earlier
parts of the history of the Merovingians is Gregory of Tours. See also Thierry's JBeeits
Meromngiens (Par. 1839), and Pertz, Ge^chichte dei' Meramng. Hausmeier (Leip. 1819).
MERRICK, a co. in o. central Nebraska; drained by Prairie creek, Loup fork, and
Pllt^te river, the latter forming its s.e. boundary; 650 sq.m.; pop., '80, 5841, ahowing
nearly a tenfold increase from that of '70, 557. The Union Pacific railroad traverses
the s.e. part of the county. The surface is rolling prairie, well wooded, and very fertile.
Wheat and the other cereals are raised in large quantities. Chief town. Central Oily.
MERRICK,. 3r AMES Lymak, 1813-66; b. Monson, Mass.; graduated at Amherst col-
lege in 1830, and at the theological seminary at Columbia, S. C., in 1833; ordained as a
missionary to Persia in 1834; embarked for Constantinople in 1834, and arrived in 1885
at Tabriz, Persia. Having traveled and labored among the Mohammedans for two years,
he Joined the Nestorian mission at Oroomiah. Returning to America in 1845 he was
installed pastor of the Congregational church at Amherst, where he remained until his
death. He was a faithful missionary and pastor. He had not only a thorough knowl-
edge of Persian, but was well versed in Arabic, Hebrew, Turkish, Greek, Latin, and
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• ^*> Merritt.
IVench. He was much interested in tbc Persian language and literature, and bequeathed
his property for the forming of four Persian scholarships in Amherst college and Colum-
bia seminary. He published the PUgrinCs Harp^ a volume of poems; The Life and,
BeUgion, of MoJiammedy translated from the Persian; Ketth*$ Etideneett ofPropfieq/, trans-
lated into Persian; A Full Work on Astronomy, left in MS. and translated into Persian;
A Friendly Tteatm on Vie Christian lieligion; A Treatise on the Ortitograpfiy and Gram-
mar of t/ie BngliisJi lAngnage,
MERRILL, Stephbm M., d.d., b. Ohio, 1825; became a traveling preacher in the Ohio
conference, 1846; was chosea editor of the Western Christian AdtocaU, 1868; and elected
one of tlie bishops of the Methodist Episcopal church, 1872. His residence is at Chicaga
MERRILL. William E., b. Wis., 1837; appointed brevet 2d lieut of engineers in
1869, having graduated first in his class at the West Point military academy; promoted
to Ist lieut. in 1861, capt. in 1863, and uiaj. in 1867. His father, capt. M. E. Merrill,
was killed in the Mexican war, where he strved in the 5th U.S. infantry, under gen.
Winfield Scott, failing at the head of his command in the attack on the fortress of
Moliuo del Rey, whicli yarded the field of Cliapultepec, Sept. 8, 1847. During the
war of the rebellion William E. was appointed assistant en.i?iueer in the armies of Vir-
ginia and Ohio, and afterward chief engineer of the army of the Cuml)erland under gen.
Kosecrans. He was present at the battles of Ohickamuuga, Sept. 19, 20, 1868, when the
union forces under gen. Itosccnms suffered defeat by gen. Bragg, and at Missionary
Ridge on Nov. 24, 1863, when the same army under gen. Iprant defeated gen. Bragg.
Subsequently, hewent'wltii the federal force under gen. Sherman to reinforce ^en.
Burnside, intrenched at Knoxville; the movement resuUing in the raising of the siege
and tlie defeat of Longstrect. In 1864 he raised a regiment of volunteer veteran
engineera, and being commisuoned col., be served with them in tlie departments of
Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia, in raising fortifications at unprotected points. At
the close of tiie war he was given a commission on the staff of the lieut. gen. of
the army, and engag^ed in improving the communications of the west, river naviga-
tion, surveys, and building roads and bridges. In 1870 he published Iwn Truss Bridges
for Haiitvails.
XSBBIVAC, a river of New England, U.S., rising in New Hampshire, and falling
into the Athuitic ocean at Newburyport, after a course of about 120 miles. It receives
severar small tributaries, and lias numerous falls, affording immense water-power, on
the principMl of which are the manufacturing towns of Nashua and Manchester, in.
New Hampshire, and Lowell and Lawrence, in l^Iassachusetts. Navigable 15 m. to
Haverliill.
MERRIMACK, a co. in s. New Hampshire, drained by the Merrimac river intersect-
ing it centmlly, and furnishing extensive water power; 900 sq.m. ; pop., '80, 46,211. It
is ah?o drained by the Contoocook, Warner, and Black rivers in the w., and Suncook
river, with other branches of the Merrimac, and has numerous lakes on tlie east. Its
surface is rough and hilly. It is well timbered, many forests of maple, pine, and oak
growing .along the rivers, and on the hill tops. The Winnepesaukee river forms part of
Its n. boundarv, fiowing s.w. from Great bay. It contains Kearsage mountain, 2,948 ft.
above the level of the sea, 10 m. w. -of lake Sunapec, which for 9 m. forms part of its
n.w. boundary, the Litde Sunapee lake lying a little to the nortli. It is traversed by
the Concord railroad in the e., the Concord and Claremont railroad, and Contoocook
brnnch, the Northern (N.H.)« and the Suncook VaUey railroad. Its soil' is fertile,
producing large quantities of fruit, all kinds of grain, wo<^, Irisli potatoes, and daiij
products. Much live stock is raised. It has quarries of. the finest ^granite which is
extensively exported. Araonir its manufactures are cotton goods, woolen goods, silver
w«re, wooden ware, iron castmge, leather, carriages, lumber, and paper, machinery,
brieks, furniture, leather belting, organs, etc. In the n.e. section is Shaker village, con-
taioing a Shaker church, the inhabitants being engaged in the manufacture of hosiery,
com brooms, and washing machines. Seat of justice, Concord.
MERRITT. Timothy, 1775-1845; b. Conn.; entered the ministry of the Methodist
Episcopal church in 1796, and for 84 years waspastor successively In Boston, Lynn;
Providence, Springfi^d, New Bedford, etc. While preaching at Maiden he edited
Ziffn^s Herald in Boston, and in 1832-86 was assistant editor of the Christian Adwcate
and Journal in New York. He was a thorough scholar, an able writer, an eloquqpt
preacher, an accomplished debater. He t)ublished lite Cltrislian's Manual; T?ie Convert* s
Ouide and Preacher's Assistant: Validity and Svjftdeney of Infant Baptism, and' in con-
nection with the Rev. Wilbur Fisk, Lectures and Discourses on Universal Salvation; also
many controversial pamphlets and sermons.
MERRITT, Wesley, b. New York, 1886; after graduating from the U. 8. militery
academy at West Point, class of 1860, was commissioned brevet 2d lieut. of dragoons and
in 1862 capt. 2d U. 8. cavalry. He was on the staff of the cavalry gen. Stoneman when ,
he made tlie raid on Richmond in April, 1863, and 2 months after was promoted to vol-
unteer brig. gen. For bravery at Gettysburg, where he commanded the reserve cavalry
bri&;ade, he was brevetted maj. July, 1868. From 1868 to 1864 he commanded a cavalry
divlBion in central Virginia. He commanded a cavalry brigade under gen. Sheridan In
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the Riclimond campaign of 1S64 and did good work at the battle of Yellow Tavern, for
which he was brevetted Ueut.col. Ma^^ 11, 1854, and col. for the battle of Hawes'B Shop,
Mav 28, 1864 He was present at the battles of Opequan, Cedar Creek, and Fisher's
Hill ; and commanded a division under gen. Sheridan through the Shenandoah campaign,
for which service he was brevetted maj.gen. of volunteers. He distinguished himself at
Five Forks, Sailor's Creek, and at the final surrender, and was promoted to maj.gen., his
commission dating from Five Forks. On July 28, 1866, he was conynissioned lieut.col.
of tlie 9th U. S. cavalry, having some months previous been mustered out of the volunteer
service.
MERRY, Robert, 1755-98; b. in London; took a degree at Christ's college, Cam-
bridge, and began the study of law, but was never called to the bar. Having purchased
a commission m the army he was for some years a lieut. in the horse-guards. After
leaving the service, Merry traveled extensively throughout Europe ; and in Florence was
admitted a member of the noted Delia Cruscan academy. After hL« return to England
he published many poems under the signature of Delia Crusca. His ambition was to
form a new school and his style is ^milar to that of Mrs. Piozzi and Bertie Greathead.
His audacity was much ^eater than his genius; and the whole school of his imitators
was satirized by sir Wm. Gifford of the Qvarierly Re^Uw in his Mceviad and Bairiad.
In 1791 Merry married an acti-ess. Miss Brunton, and 5 years later emigrated to the
United States, and died very suddenly in Baltimore. His principal writings were:
Lorenzo; Fenslon; and Ambitious Vengeance, — ^all dramas; and he left many fugitive
poems.
MFiMKBTTBg, a t. of Prussian Saxony, capital of a circle of the same name, on the
Saale, 60 m. s.s.e. of Magdeburg. The cathedral, a noble specimen of mediaeval archi-
tecture, is suinnounted by four beautiful towers, and has one of the largest organs (with
4,000 pipes) in Germany. It contains the moniunent of Rudolf of Swabia, an aspirant
to the imperial title, who was here defeated and slain (1080) bv Henry IV. ; a bronze
plate in low relief, probably the oldest mediaeval eflBigy extant. The castle — a picturesque
edifice, mostly of (ne 15th c. — was once a residence of the Saxon princes. Cotton and
woolen goods, paper, and tobacco are here manufactured, and bleaching and brewing
are carried on. The beer of Merseburg is famous. Pop. '75, 13,678. It was near this
town that the emperor Henry the fowler gained his famous victory over the. Hungarians
in 934.
. KEBSET, an important river of England, seiMirates, in its lower course, the counties
of Cheshire and Lancashire, and has its origin in the junction of the Thame and Goyt,
on the borders of Derbyshire, e. of Stockport. It flows in a w.s.w. direction, and is
joined on the right by the Irwell from Manchester, at which point it becomes navigable
for large vessels. Besides the Irwell, the chief afQuents are the BoUId and the Weaver
from Cheshire. At its junction with the Weaver the Mersey expands into a wide estuary,
which forms the Liverpool channel. The estuary is about 16 m. long, and from 1 to 3
m. broad ; op|M)site Liverpool it is a mile and a quarter in width, with a considerable
depth at low water. It is much obstructed by sandbanks; but the excellent system of
Silotage in practice here renders the navigation comparatively secure. Congers, shrimps,
ounders, and sparlings abound in the river and estuary. Entire length with the estuaiy,
nearly 70 miles,
KSBTHTB-TTDVIL is a market t. of South Wales, with a pop., in 71, of 61,949
within the parish, which has a local board of health. The parliamentary borough
embraces Aoerdare and two other outlying districts; pop. 97,020. It is on the norttkem
border of the county of Glamorgan, abutting upon the county of Brecknock, and snr-
rounded by lofty hills. It is. built upon the river Taff, 500 ft. above sea-level, 24 m.
from its mouth and port at Cardiff; and it includes the junctions of the greater and leaser
Taff. the Morlais, and the Dowlais, streams which there unite to constitute the main
river. Merthyr-Tydvil is the seat of the iron trade of Glamorgan, as represented by the
great works of Dowlais, Cyfarthfa, and Plymouth, and in a less degree by that of Feny-
arren. It also contains large collieries, and is celebrated, with Aberdare, for the excel-
lence of its steam coal. . The annual make of finished iron in this place, chiefly in the
shape of rails, merchant-bars, girders, and ship-plates, may be stated roughly at ^0,000
tons. The exports of coal are considerable, and are increasing, but the chief consump-
tion is within the works. The population are all directly dependent upon the works,
there being no other trade or maniuacture. Railways branch from Merthyr-Tydvil to
Breton, to Sv?an3ca, to Cardiff and Penarth, and to Newport and Hereford. The
borough Was created by the first reform act, and now returns two members. Its chief
town-olficer is the headborough of the lordship, called the **high constable," and its
government is vested in a local board. Dowlais contains some fine public buildings, bu^.
Merthyr-Tydvil is deficient in this respect. Though a busy, it is not a striking place,
having risen verj' rapidly with the local trade, and having attained nearly its present
dimensions before it was under any but the ordinary parochial government. There are,
however, symptoms of improvement. It is well supplied with water, and the infantile
mortality, long extraordinary, is now reduced. The people, chiefly Welsh, are indus-
trious, and, on the whole, verj' orderly. There are 17 established churches, and 118 dis-
senting chapels in the borough.
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MERTON, "Walter dk, d. 1277; b. England; educated in the convent at Merton,
in Surrey, and ordained to the priesthood, Henry III, raised him to the lord chancellor-
ship in 1358, from which office he was deposed by the barons under Simon de Montfort
in 1259. He returned to that office in 1261, was removed in 1263, and reappointed in
1272. He resigned two years later, when he was appointed to the see of Rochester. He
founded at Basingstoke a hospital for superannuated clergymen and travelers in distress;
but he is best known by his foundation of Merton college, Oxford, which was completed
in 1274. Tliis was a purely secular and literaiy institution, and became the model of the
subsequent Oxford foundations.
XEBTOK COLLEGE, Oxford. The house of the scholars of Merton, commonly called
M.c, the model of all the secular colleges, was first founded in Maldon in Surrey by
Walter de Merton, bishop of Rochester, and lord high chancellor, in 1264, for the main-
tenance of 20 scholars in the schools of Oxford, and of a warden and three or four minis-
ters of the altar, who were to manage the property. Before 1274 he transferred his
warden and ministers to Oxford — thereby not only founding his own college, but con-
tributing in no small degree to fix the university in its present locality. The fellows
were to be as many as the means of the house could maintain, and after some changes,
this number was^flxed by archbishop Laud at 24. They were to be elected first and
chiefly from the founder's kin ; but this was from an carfy period evaded, and the com-
missioners of 1852 sixjak of "a common belief in the university that the elections to
fellowships at Morton were fonnerly determined by personal interest." In 1380 Dr.
Wylliot, cliancellor of Exeter, endowed twelve portiotiuttcB, or postmasters as they are
now called, equivalent to the scholars of other colleges; and in 1604 John Chamber,
fellow of Eton, endowed two more — restricted, however, to foundationers from Eton.*
By the ordinances under 17 and 18 Vict. c. 81, considerable changes were made — six
fellowBhips were suspended, of which two were assigned to increase the postmasterships,
etc.. and four to the endowment of the Linacre professorship of physiology, of value
£800 per annum. The remaining 18 were thrown open, and not to exceed £250 per
annum, exclusive of rooms, until the original number of 24 was restored. The number
now being completed, they have reached their limiting value of £800. Sixteen post-
masterships, and four scholarships (founded by Henry Jackson in 1758), each of the
value of £80 a year, are open without restriction, and tenable for 20 terms from election;
but the two po8tmasters<hips on the foundation of John Chamber are only to be thrown
open in default of ct^ndidates from Eton being found duly qualified. This college pos-
sesses 18 benefices, to some of which, however, certain other patrons present in turn.
XEBU, in Hindu mythology, a fabulous mountain in the center of the world, 80,000
leagues high. It is the most sacred of all mythical mountains, the abode of Vishnu, and
endowed with all imaginable charms.
XEBIT'LIBJE, or Tvkdidm, a family of birds of the order Imesaores, sub-order Denli-
rostres, havinij arched and compressed bills, which are pointed and notched, but not
strongly. They are ren^arded by many naturalists as intermediate between the Laniada
(Shrikes, etc.) and the Syloiadm (Wwhlers, etc.). The species are very numerous, and are
arranged in many genera. They are very widely distributed over the globe, some of
them being found in cold and some in warm climates. Some are migratory, a few spe-
cies are ^egarious at all seasons, many are gregarious only in winter. They generally
build their nests in trees. They feed chiefly on soft animal and vegetable substances,
as berries, insects, and worms. Many of them are birds of very sweet song; some are
remarkable for their imitative powers. To this family belong thrushes (among which
are reckoned tiie blackbird, redwing, fieldfare, ring- ouzel, etc^, orioles, mocking-birds,
dippers, etc.
MfeliY, Joseph, 1798-1866; b. Prance, educated at a seminary and subsequently
studied law, but early developed a passion for atheistical lore, and was expelled from
the seminary on that account. While reading law he had an unfortunate aiiair, ending
in a duel, which resulted in his dismissal from the school, but not in dulling his keen
sense of honor, for he was soon after one of the principals in a duel in Paris in which
he was severely wounded. Subsequently he lived a dissipated life in Italy, and was
ultimately obliged to ieave the country. In 1821 he attacked the abb^ Elicagaray in a
pamphlet, and was placed under arrest, but not profiting by this seclusion he soon found
himself again in durance for transgressing the laws regulating the press. The following
year he went to Constantinople and returned after a short sojourn (not being on good
terms with the French ambassador at that port), to edit a newspaper at Marseilles, and
in 1824, found himself once more in Paris, associated with Auguste Marseille Barthelemy
the satirist, and to»;ther they published La ViUeliade, an attack on the ministiy of
Villfile. With him he was associated in writing verses dedicated to the Bonaparte family,
and satirical verses on other administrations, and published poems, romances, and dramas
in rapid succession. In 1828, they published Napoleon en i^pte, a lyrical poem, sending
presentation copies to each member of the Bonaparte family. Among his most attrac-
tive works, some of which have been translated into English, are Nuita angla£tie8j first
issued as Nuits de Londres; Heva; La guerre du Nizam; Les confessions de Marion Delorme;
Nuits d* Orient; Un car natal de Paris; and Poesies intimes, late edition 1864. He pub-
lished, 1861, Thedtre de salon, and wrote the libretto for Semiramis and other operas.
Mesmerism. • -"^
XESAO'N'A, a t. of the province of Lecce, in southern. Italy, situated amidst scenery
of oriental beauty, 27 m. n.w. of Leccu, and surrounded by strong walls. The district
around is fruitful, and yields delicious oil, which forms an important article of the trade
of Mesagna. Pop. 8,6(>0.
MESCA'LA, a river of Mexico, which takes its rise in the s.e. part of the country,
not far from Puebla. Its general course is westerly and southerly; and it is about 400 m.
in length, emptying into the Pacific at the port of Zacatula. It is known in the first
part of its course as the Atoyac, then as the Rio Pablano, and, where it serves as the
boundary line between Guerrero and Michoacan, as the Rio de las Balsas; and near the
city Zacatula is known by that name. The current of the stream is exceedingly swift
and the river consequently not navigable. It has been thought by the natives that the
water contains poisonous mineral ingredients, and to this is ascribed the jjrevalence of a
loathsome skin disease among the Indians living on its banks. Gk»ld is found on its
banks and especially near the moutli.
KSSEXBBTA'CEJB, or FicoiDEiE, a natural order of exogenous plants, both herbaceous
and shrubby, but all succulent. As defined by some botanists, it includes the orders
tetragoniacecB, ^esuviac&s, etc., of others. Of the more restricted mesembryaceae about
400 species are known, a few of which are natives of the south of Europe, but none are
British-; the greater number belong to South Africa and the South Sea islands. The ice
plant (q.v.) iSlongs to this order. The leaves of some species, when burned, yield soda
in great abundance. Large quantitias of barilla are made from them in the Canary
islands, in Spain, and in J^ypt. The seeds of some, as mesembryanViemum crystaUinum
(the ice plantj and M. genicuUflonLm^ are ground into flour to make bread, m. genUuli-
.fiorum is used as a pot-herb in Africa. The fruit of M, edule (Hottentot's fig> is eaten in
South Africa, and that of Jf. CBquilaterale (pig's-faces) in Australia. M, emarcidum is
called kou by the Hottentots, who beat and twist up the whole plant, allow it to ferment,
and chew it like tobacco. When newly fermented it is narcotic and intoxicating.
Some species of meiiembryantTiemum are now common annuals in flower gardens in
Britain
MESEVTEBT,— -XSBENTEBIC DISEASE. The mesentery derives its name from
being connected to the middle portion (Gr. meson) of the small intestine (enteron). It is
a broad fold of peritoneum (the great serous membrane of the abdomen), surrounding
the jejunum and the ileum, and attached posteriorly to the vertebral column. Its
breadth between the intestinal and vertebi-al borders is about 4 in. ; its attachment to the
vertebral column is about 6 in. in length, and its intestinal border extends from the
duodenum to the end of the small intestine. It serves to retain the small intestines in
I their place, while it at the same time allows the necessary amount of movement, and it
contains between its layers the mesenteric vessels, the lacteal vessels,- and nniesenteric
glands. These glands are 100 to 150 in number, and are about the size of an almond.
They exert an organizing action on the contents of the lacteals, the chyle being more
abundant in fibnne ana in corpuscles after it has passed through them. Hence it is
obvious that disease of these glands must always seriously affect the process of assimila-
tion. The most important Section of these organs is their scrofulous or tubercular
degeneration, which gives rise to the disease known as tabes mesenterica, a disease most
common in childhood, but conflned to no period of life. In the great majority of cases
it is associated with, and often marked by, other results of the tubercular or scrofulous
diathesis, such as pulmonary consumption, tubercular peritonitis, scrofulous disease of
the spine, rickets, etc. ; but sometimes the mesenteric glands seem almost exclusively
affected, in which case the disease becomes sufficiently distinct to allow of ea.sy detection.
The leading symptoms are acceleration of the pulse, occasional fever, especially towards
evening, loss of color and flesh, derangement of the digestive organs (constipation or
diarrhea, and occasional vomiting), a steady pain in the region of the navel, increased
by pressure; but perhaps the most characteristic symptom is tumefaction and hardness
of the abdomen, with general emaciation. The enlarged glands can sometimes be
detected by a careful examination with the hand, especially m advanced cases. The
progress of the disease is generally slow, but at length hectic fever sets in, the emaciation
becomes extreme, dropsical effusion appears, and the patient dies exhausted, if not cut
off by the access of some acute inflammation.
llie treatment mainly consists in the administration of cod-liver oil, or. if the stomach
is too irritable to bear that medicine, of iodide of potassium, combined with some bitter
infusion, the bowels being at the same time carefully attended to. The applica-
tion of stimulating liniments, or of iodine ointment, to the abdomen is often of great
service. When the disease has advanced to a considerable extent, remedies are of little
use, except to palliate some of the more urgent symptoms.
Independently of the disease that has just been noticed, inflammation of those glands is
by no means uncommon when the mucous membrane of the small intestine is ulcerated,
as, for example, in typhoid or enteric fever.
ME'SHA, king of Moab in the reigns of Ahab and his sons Ahaziah and Jehoram,
kings of Israel, and tributary to the first. He seized the opportunity afforded by the
confusion which followed Ahab's death, and the feeble reign of Ahaziati, to shake off the
yoke of Israel, and free himself from the heavy tribute imposed upon him. Jehoram,
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Mesmerism.
on succeeding to the throne of Israel, secured the aid of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, his
father's ally, to reduce the Moabites tp their former condition of tributaries. The united
armies of the two kings were joined by the forces of the king of Edom. The Moabites
were defeated. The king took refuge in his last stronghold, and having in vain
attempted to force liis way through the besieging army, he, in the madness of despair,
withdrew to the wall of the city, and in the sighfof the allied host offered up his first-
bom sou and successor as a propitiatory sacrihce to Chemosh, the cruel fire-god of the
Moabites. The bloody deed had the desired effect of causing the besiegers to retire to
their own land. On withdrawing, however, they ravaged the country, and carried off
much spoil. The Moabite stone (q.v.) is a memorial of this king.
XE'SHID, an important city of Persia, capital of the province of Ehorassan, in a fer-
tile and well-cultivated plain, on the Tejend, in lat. 36** 17' n., long. 59* 40' east. It is
by far the most important town of the n.e. of Persia, being the center of numerous con-
verging routes. Tlie city presents a surprising and beautiful view from a distance.
Above the walls, which are of vast circuit, shine the gilded dome of one of the most
splendid mosques of the eiist, the beautiful minarets of the tomb of Imaum Riza, a fol-
lower of All, and the summits of other sacred buildings. Meshid, as the chief seat of
the great sect of the Shiites. is of nearly equal importance with Mecca, the sacred city of
the orthodox Mohammedans, and hence it abounds in "holy" men, arrayed in green
turbans and sashes, who instruct the pilgrims visiting the city. The town carries on
manufactures of woolen goods and of metal- wares, especially sword-blades, gold-work,
and articles of jewelry. It is a famous place of pilgrimage, and a center, to some
extent, of edpcation. Caravans arrive almost daily. Pop. 70,000. In the neighbor-
hood are the ruins of Thus, the old capital of Khoi-assan, which contains the tomb of the
celebrnled poet Firdftsi.
HESILXA, a.^. and valley on the Rio Grande, New Mexico, U. S., acquired of Mexico
in 1^ by purchase under the Gadsden treaty. Lat. 32" 17' n., long. 106*" 45' west. It
Is a narrow, but fertile valley, on the southern overland route to California. The town,
settled in 1850, had in 1870 a population of 1578.
ME8KEB, Franz (according to others, Friedbich- Anton), the founder of the doc-
trine of animal magnetism (q.v.), or mesmcri&ra, was born in 1788 or 1784 at a village
near the Uodensee. lie studied at Vienna, and there took the degree of doctor of meai-
cine in 1766. About 1772 he V^gan, along with father Hell, to mvestigate the curative
powers of the magnet, and was led to adopt the opinion that there exists a power simi-
lar to magnetism, which exercises an extraordinary influence on the human body. This
he calkd^animal maffnetism, and published an account of his discover}% and of its medici-
nal value in 1775. Honors were conferred upon him in Germany. In 1778 he went to
Paris, where he attracted much attention. His system obtained the support of members
of the medical profession, as well as of others; but he refused an offer of an annual pen-
sion of 20,000 livrea (about £800) to reveal his secret; and this, combined with other cir-
cumstances, gave rise to suspicion, and induced the government to appoint a commission,
composed of physicians and naturalists, whose report was unfavorable to him. He now
fell into disrepute, and after a visit to England retired to Meereburg, w^here he spent the
rest of his Rfe in complete obscurity. lie died Mar. 5, 1815.
MESMERISM (ante). The following is the account given bv Mesmer of the agent
by which he claimed to produce the phenomena which distinguished his experience and
practice: "Animal magnetism is a fluid universally diffused; it is the medium of a
mutual influence between the heavenly bodies, the earth, and animated bodies; it is con-
tiuuous so as to leave no void ; its subtiity admits of no comparison ; it is capable of receiv-
ing, propagating, and communicating all the impressions of motion; it is susceptible of
flux and reflux. The animal body experiences the effects of this agent; by iusmuating
itself into the substance of the nen'cs it affects them immediately. There are observed,
particularly in the human body, properties analogous to those of the magnet; and in it
are discerned poles equally different and opposite. The action and the virtues of animal
magnetism may be communicated from one body to other bodies, animate and inanimate.
This action takes place at a remote distance without tiie aid of any intennediate body; it
is increased, reflected by mirrors; communicated, propagated, augmented by sound; its
rirtues muv be accumulated, concentrated, transported. Although this fluid is universal,
all animal bodies are not equally susceptible of it ; there are even some, though a very small
number, which have properties so opposite that their very presence destroys all the effects
of this fluid on other bodies. Animal magnetism is capable of healing diseases of the nerves
immediately, and others mediately. It perfects the action of medicines; it excites and
directs salutary crises in such a manner that the physician may render himself master of
them ; by its means he knows the state of health of each individual, and judges with
certainty of the origin, the nature, and the progress of the most complicated diseases; he
prevents their increase, and succeeds in healing them, without at any time exposing his
patient to dangerous effects or troublesome consequences, whatever be the age, the tem-
penjment, and the sex. In animal maffnetism nature presents a universal method of
healing and preserving mankind." (Me moire sur la Decouverte du Magnetimte Animaly
por M! Mesmer, Paris, 1779, p. 74 et seg).
In presenting any question for consideration and discussion it is simple fairness to
• Digitized by VjOtiV IC
Mesmerism.
128
pernxit each side to exhibit its position after its own manner. It is matter for reflection
tliat tills strttemLMU by Mr. Mesmer has never been authoritatively controverted by any
of the numerous opponents whom it has met in the century which has elapsetl since it
Avas first promulgated. It should first be remembered as to Mesmer that he was undoubt-
edly very much of a charlatan; and that partly from the character of his temperament,
and partly from the nature of his surroundings, he accompanied his practice by methods
which were designed to be striking and dramatic, rather than scientific; and to cloud
with an appearance of mystery, and even supematuralisra, processes wliieh were in
themselves of the simplest character. The shrewdness of this operator is seen in his
careful provisioii for accidents, and for the unsuccessful termination of any of his experi-
ments or treatment hj'' the explanation that although the fluid is universal in its scope,
there are persons obnoxious to its exercise, who can prevent its influence. It should
further be noted that the sweeping conclusions of the commissi onera appointed by tlie
PYcDch government to investigate the validity of Mesmer's pretensions — among which
commissioners wjis Benjamin Franklin — were afterwards qualified materially by the
decision of a second commission of no less importance as to the ability of its member^
ship. And it remains to be said that the distinct assertions of Mesmer as to the power
of some occidt force which he terms animal magnetism have been sustained over and
over again b^ actual experiment and practice; while new features and new developments
of the nature of this foice have l)eeu made known to us within the present generation.
The theory that the cause of the phenomena produced lies in the principle of mggettion
is set at rest ix)sitively by the fact that subjects have been influenceti without the prox-
imity of the operator, and even when the latter was miles distant from them. Tlie point
as to its efficacy in disease has been tested numbers of times with success. So far has
this been the case that in India amputations have been conducted while the patient was
under this influence, and this in the presence of valid witnesses, and successfully. The
idea of any other than a psychological control being exercised is disposed of by the
remarkable phenomena of phreno-mesmerism, by which certain faculties and propensities
have been made to display themselves, by irritation of the con-csponding orinins of Uie
head, and in cases where the subject was utterly ignorant of the nature an^ details of
phrenology as enunciated by Gall and SpurzheinL The fact that such eminent scientists
us Ellioisou, Braid, lieichenbach, and Carpenter have added their testimony as to the
existence of a certain subtle fluid, such as is described by Mesmer, is not without its
bearin:j on this question. Baron Reichenbach, an eminent German chemist, experi-
mented in great detail with magnets and crystiils, and claimed to have demonstmted the
fact of the existence of such a fluid, which he termed od or the oclic force, and which he
alleged could be brought into exercise in the case of a certain class of subjects termed
He/\8UUc8, by employing those objects. His plan was the use of passes, making these,
however, by means* of the magnet or the crystal instead of the hand; the result being to
throw the subject into a cataleptic condition, accompanied by the occurrence of phe-
nomena similar to tliose otherwise attributed to animal magnetism. Braid, by the use of
a brilliant object fixed to the forehead, in such a position as to distort the vision when
the eyes were directed towards it, produced an identical condition (see Hypnotism). It
wfll be remembered in this connection that the Hindu devotee, desirous of achieving
the condition Nlrcana, abstracts his attention from suiTOunding things, and fixes it upon
the pit of his stomach. It has been a common method in the practice of mesmerism,
instead of emplo3ing passes, to direct the subject to fix his attention and his gaze on a
bright object— a ring, for instance — held in his hand, the hand resting on his knee as he
sits in a ccmifortable position. In the use of this plan the result has been fouud to be
precisely tlie same as that gained by the employment of passes.
A German writer, Kluge, has given the following classification of the effects observed
in mesmerized subjects: 1. CnWeS irakinf;. Pn;sents no very remarkable phenomena. The
intellect and the senses still retain their usual powers and susceptibility. 2. Half -sleep, or
imperfect crisis. Most of the senses still remain in a state of activity, that of vision only
being impaired, the eye withdrawing itself from the power of the will. 8. The magnetic
or mesmeric sleep. The organs of'the senses refuse to perform their respective func-
tions, and the patient is in an unconscious state. 4. The perfect crisis, or simple somnam-
bulism. In this stage the patient is said to •* wake within bimeelf," and his conscious-
ness returns. He is in a state which can be called neither sleeping nor waking, but which
appears to be something between the two. 5. Lucidity, or Incid vi^jion. Tiiis is called,
in France, daircoyancf,; in Germany, Hell^ehen. In this state tlie patient is said to obtain
a clear knowledge of his own internal mental and bodily state, is enabled to calculate
with accuracy the phenomena of disease which will naturally and inevitably occur, and
to determine what arc their most appropriate and effectual remedies. He is also said to
possess the same faculty of internal inspection with rcimrd to other persons who have
been placed in mesmeric connection {en rapport) with him. 6. Universal lucidity; Ger-
man, aXlfjemefne Klarhetf. In this state the lucid vision becomes greatly increased, and
extends to objects whether near or at a distance. To this very accurate catalogue we
should add a condition — 7. Coma. Into this state the patient falls who has been per-
mitted to escape from the influence of the v;ill of i\\e operator. He no longer responds to
command, he is apparently unconscious, his pulse recedes to the vanishing-point, and
his heart-beats cease to be noticeable. This stale closely simulates death, ana is believed
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729"
Mesmerlmu
to be actually premonitory of dissolution. Cases have occurred in which it has required
the utmost exertion of all the methods known to those who practice mesmerism to
restore to consciousness patients who had reached this condition.
The mesmeric state has been applied mostly to the cure of disease, for which purpose
it was used by Mesmer when it first attracted public attention. It has also been used for the
purpose of producing sleep during surgical operations; and Miss Martineau relates a case
of one of her servants, who when in tlie mesmeric condition was said to be able to predict
future events. The class of diseases which have been cured by its means are those which are
known to medical men as functional nervous diseases. Various nervous diseases, such
as paralysis, epilepsy, etc., occurring from changes in the stnicture of various organs,
are not susceptible of benefit' from the mesmeric state. It is in those cases where no
structural lesion can be supposed to exist, and which often yield to sudden changes of
the mind from various causes of excitement, and which frequently cease without obvious
cause, that the disease has yielded to this remedy.
In 1836 Mr. Colquhoun published in London a work on animal magnetism, entitled
Ins Bevelata, which attracted considerable attention to the subject, and which contained
as an appendix a translation of the report of the second French commission appointed to
investigate this subiect in 1831, and to which we have already referred. Tins was fol-
lowed by the arrival in London of baron Dupotet, who performed many experiments,
some of which were witnessed by Dr. Elliotson, who immediately undertook the further
investigation of the subject. The results of the experiments of Dr. Elliotson, which were
published in tlie Lancet, produced a great sensation, and phenomena which had hitherto
Deen regarded as impossible were constantly produced. In 1841 M. La Fontaine, a
Frenchman, visited London, and gave public lectures on mesmerism and examples of
its phenomena. A number of persons claiming to be " professors" of animal-magnetism,
or electro-biology, have from time to time given public exhibitions in the cities and towns
of the United States and the British provinces in America. In these exhibitions the
object has been to exhibit voluntary patients placed under the control of the operator,
and to display the various phenomena which could then be produced. These have been
always simple in their nature, and of a character to amuse more than to instruct. No
scientific man had given himself to the investigation of this subject to any important
extent in America until, during the winter of 1880-81, Dr. George M. Beard, of New
York, a member of the Neurological society, and a man qualified by the nature of his
studies and experience, and his avowed skepticism on this subject, to undertake its inves-
tigation with a mind at least free from bias in its favor, commenced a series of experi-
ments, and eventually conducted certain of these in public. Tliese experiments were
none of them novel in character, except possibly that of showing the insensibility to the
most powerful light of the eye of a patient In a mesmeric condition. The experiments
were all conclusive as to the nature of the phenomena produced, but the inferences
reached by the experimenter and those who witnessed them as to their occasion and
origin have not been made public at the time of this writing. But the bald facts of the
phenomena have never been disputed by intelligent investigators. Only those unaccus-
tomed to profound investigation have set these down as the result of self-deception or of
collusion. It still remains to be discovered what influence produces the conceded result,
and to what extent, if at all, the human will is engaged in the matter. Something sug-
gestive as to these points might be stated in this wise : that a subtle force pervades crea-
tion and envelops the earth, with the other planets; that this force performs specific
duties in connection with vitality, and in the form of a positive ether becomes visible
under certain conditions, and In the case of animals, including human beings, more
readily so to those possessing certain natures and temperaments (sensitives) ; that this
force may be and is exerted without sensible remird to time or distance; that it is subject
to evolution and direction by fhe human will ; that it is concentrated in cei-tain material
forms, as in the magnet and the crystal, and in certain atmospheric and meteorological
conditions, as in snow-storms; that it is correlated with the other forces and, like these,
is one of the modes of motion ; that it is more elevated in its character than any of the
simply material forces; because it responds to mental impressions and psychological
influences; that it includes all the forms and modes of expression of all the subordinate,
or. strictly material, forces ; that thus it is enabled to act upon things animate or inanimate,
material as well as immaterial, thus accounting for the phenomena of table-tipping, so-
called ** spiritual'* rapping, etc. ; that it may even exhibit or tnanifest conditions simu-
lating intelligence, wherein would appear one explanation of these phenomena in the
practice of spiritualism; finally, that it is superior to material laws, whence the phe-
nomenon of levitation, that of untying impossible knots, etc. As suggestions, merely,
these may awaken interest in the general subject.
Oersted says {Saul in Nature), "Everything in science prevailing throughout a certain
period contains actual scientific tmth, though frequently much obscured." The fact
that mesmerism, or animal-magnetism as it may more properly be termed, has continued
to aflTect mankind as a possible scientific fact during more than a century of pronounced
opposition, would seem to bring it within the category signified by Oersted. And in
these days of investigation into the nature of things, and when such extraordinary dis-
coveries are constantly being made as to the limitless nature and scope of the natural
forces, it would appear proper to devote a certain fair degiee of scientific skill and
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.M««ne. 'T^n
Me»i»«nia. • ^^
patience in the direction of elucidating the nature and origin of such remarkable plie-
noniena. See Animal Magnetism, ante.
XESNi: IiOED is, in Englisli law, a lord who is himself a tenant to some other lord,
called a lord paramount. The phrase is, however, not now used, because subinfendalioiitras
abolished in the time of Edward I.— Mesnb Process was the name given to vmts which
issued in respect of a pending action before final judgment was given. — ^Mesne PaoFm
are the profits or rents drawn by a person who is wrongfully in possession of real prop-
erty, and who is afterward ejected, in which case the mesne profits are recoven^le,
along with the estate itself.
XESOFOTA'MIA (Gr. mssos, middle, and poiamoB, a river), the region between the
Euphrates and the Tigris; but the name is jgenerally applied to the northern part of
this reg-ion, which is called by the Arabs Al -Jesira (the island). The northernmost dis-
tricts of Mesopotamia are mountainous, being penetrated by the southern spurs of the
moimtains of* Armenia; all the rest fs a plain, rarely broken by rocky heights. This
plain is dry steppe, green with vegetation only in the wet season ; but wherever it is
naturally watered or artificially irrigated it displays fertility. The inhabitants consist
chiefly of Turks, Kurds, Turcomans, and Yesids, with Armenians in ihe n. and Syrians
and Arabs in the plains. The chief occupation of the people is the feeding of ci\ltle; and
of the civilization of ancient times, or even of that which prevailed in a later period
^uring the Ayubite rule), few or no traces now exist. Mesopotamia forms a part of the
Turkish empire, and is divided into several eyalets, or governments. For the history of
the country, see Assyria, Babylonia.
MESOZO'IC (Gr. middle-life), a term introduced by prof. Phillips to designate the
group of geological periods, the fossil remains of which differ e(^ually from those of the
paleozoic (ancient-life) and cainozoic (newer-life) epochs. It is synonymous with the
more generally employed term secondary, and includes the rocks of the triafisic, oOlitic,
and cretaceous periods.
MES'PILTTS. See Mbdlab.
MESQUITE QRASS, a procumbent pasture-grass, abundant in the 8.w. part of the
U.S., and belonging to the genus aruHda.
MESQUITE TREE. See Mezqtjite Tree, ante,
HESS (Fr. mets. Old Fr. mes, Ital. messo, a dish, from Lat. miwum, sent or served up),
originally signified a dish or portion of food; but is used in the Briti£di army and navv in
the sense of a number or association of officers or of men taking their meals together.
In societies consisting entirely of the male sex, and of one set of men continually tnrown
together, it is a very important social point that the mess i^ould be well regulated.
There are consequently stringent rules — both of the service and of mutual etiquette-
laid down for its government. One officer acts as caterer, receives subscriptions from
the several members, charges the wine to those who drmk it, etc. ; a steward has charge
of the more menial department, arranging for the cooking, .purchase of viands, servants,
rations, etc.
In the navy, the admiralty lend the plate and glass; in the army such expenses are
met by the mess fund, which is kept up by a contribution not exceeding thirty days'
pav, or difference of pay, on the appointment or promotion of an officer, and an annual
subsciiption from each officer not exceeding eight days' pay, which subscription, in the
case of subalterns, is, since 1872, paid by the state. Of course, each officer has to paj
periodically his share of the .general exoense for provisions, etc. In the nav^, this
expense is limited to £3 a month per heaa for the ward-room mess, and £1 1(^. in the
gun-room. In the army, there is no specific limit, but commanding officers are enjoined
to enforce proper economy. Government assists the mess of regiments serving at home,
and on certain foreign stations where the necessaries of life are expensive, with an
annual. allowance of £25 for each troop or company. The whole of this allowance is to
be applied in aid of the cost of the first allowance of wine, and towards reducing the
daily expense of the mess, etc. The annual vote for this allowance is about £40,0(%.
In regiments, there is the officers' mess, to which all the officers of the regiment are
bound to subscribe their regulated entrance-fee; but it is optional with married officers to
use it or not, and if they .elect not to do so they are exempted from the annual contribu-
tion, and only pay for their share of the consumption on the special occasions when
they may attend. The sergeants have also a mess, when the comanding officer can
miceeed in establishing one. It is considered necessary for discipline that these meases
should be quite exclusive, though, in continental armies, and especially the French, the
case is different, the utmost familiarity being encouraged between all ranks when off
duty. The social equality of officers and men, due to conscription and promotion from
the ranks, suffices to account for the difference of system. The sergeants draw their
rations (q.v.). supplementing them at their dispretion; the officers can draw them or not
(through their messman), but on foreign stations they almost invariably do so.
There Is no mess for staff-officers with an army, unless they form private arrange-
ments among themselves.
In the British navy, if the ship be small there is one genenU mess — the gnn-room— to
^hich all the officers must belong. If the vessel have a considerable complement, there
Digitized by VjOUV LC
' frOI Mesne.
'*^^ Mensenla.
is tbe ward-room mess (of whidb the captain is not an effectiye meml)er, as he clinee in
his own suite of cabins), for the commander, Heutenants, master, chaplain, paymaster,
marine officers, snr^on, assistant-surgeon, and chief engineer; the gun-room for sub-
iieutenant$>, second masters, midshipmen, cadets, and master's assistants; and the engi-
neers' mess (governed by tlie rules for the gun-room), for engineer officers below the
rank of chief endneer. Officers or civilians voyaging in a ship of war as passengers are
ordinarily elected honorary members of tbe mess to which their rank would entitle them,
liations are not issued to members of a mess; but each is granted, in lieu thereof, an
allowance of £1 a month, with the power of purchasing ship's provisions at government
rates.
Common seamen and common soldiers in the navy and army, respectively, mea
together in tables comprising a certain number, according to their ratings or squads; but
this has no reference to the technical meaning of messing as applied to officers, and is
merely for the purpose of economy of fuel and labor in the cooking of their rations.
MESSALIKA, Valeria, the daughter of Marcus Valerius Messala Barbatus and wife
of the Koman enipei'or Claudius, a woman infamous for her lasciviousness, her avarice,
and the atrocities which she perpetrated. Taking advantage of the weakness and stu-
pidity of the emperor she played the adulteress without restraint, and unrelentingly
caused all to be put to death who stood in the way of her unhallowed gratifications.
The best blood of Rome flowed at her pleasure. Among her victims were the daughters
of Oermanicus and Drusiis, Justus Catonius, M. Vincius Valerius Asiaticus, and her
confederate Polybius. She went so far in vice as to oflfer her chnrnts for sale like a
common prostitute; and at last, during a temporaiy absence of the emperor, she
publicly married one of her favorites, C. Silius, upon which Narcissus, one of the
emperor's frcedmen, represented to him that Messalina was aiming at his destruction, and
received orders for her execution. She was put to death by Enodus, a tribune of the
guards, in the gardens of Lucullus, 48 a.d. Her name has become a by-word for crime
and lust.
MESSA'KA. See MBsanrA, ante.
MESS API A, the name given by the Greeks to the peninsula in the s.e. part of Italy,
and called by the Romans Calabria. It was known to the Greeks also by the name of
lapygia. There were two tribes, the Salentini on the 8.e. coast near Tarentum, and
the'Calabri in the n.e. These last the Greeks called Messapians. They were the most
powerful, and from them the whole district was called Calabria and Messapia. It was
▼erv fertile and celebrated for its wine, olives, and other fruits. The Calabrian horses
and the Tarentine cavalry were famous. The inliabitants occupied the cities of Hyria and
Brundusium in the 8th c. b.c., when the Greek colony was founded. They fought
against the Tarentine colonists and defeated them in a great battle about 478, but gradu-
iilly yielded to the Greeks. In union with other tribes under the command of Pyrrhus
they opposed the Romans, but after his fall were subdued in a single campaign. In the
second Punic war they revolted to Hannibal, but were soon conquered.
MESSE'NE, capital of Messenia, in the Peloponnesus, founded by Epaminondas, 871
B.C. It was situated at the foot of Mount Ithorae, on both sides of the Black springs.
So great were the zeal and activity of the Thebans and their allies that it was completed
and fortified in 85 days. The walls of the city were of stone, exceedinglv strong, and
Well supplied towers and buttresses. The citadel wtis on 3Iount Ithome, famous m his-
tory for the protracted defense which the Messenians made in their last revolt. It was
with the Acropolis the strongest city, next to Corinth, of the Peloponnesus. It was sup-
plied with water from a fountain called Clepsydra. The city was named from the wife
of Polycraon, one of the earliest rulers of the country. The ruins of it are visible at the
modern village of Mavroniati.
KESSEHGEBS, King's (Queen's), oflacers employed by secretaries of state to convey
dispatches at home and abroad. In former days their occupation consisted, to a con-
siderable extent, in serving the secretaries' warrants for the apprehension of persons
accused of high treason and oUier grave offenses agaipst the state, nor was it unusual
for them to keep the prisoners whom they apprehended at their own houses. They are
now principally employed in foreign sei-vice.
MES8E1IOEB8-AT-AB1I8, the officers who execute tlie process and letters of the courts
of session and justiciary in Scotland. They are appointed by, and arc under the con-
trol of the Lyon king-at-arms <q.T.). Act 1587, c. 46, contains various provisions regard-
ing these officers, which show that, prior to that period, the Lyon exercised jurisdic-
tion over them, both as to their admission and the trial of complaints against them.
There are a certain number of messengers-at-arms in every county of Scotland, amount-
ing in all. at present, to about one hundred.
XESfDB'llIA, a district in the s.w. of the Peloponnesus, bounded on the e. by Laconia,
on the n. by Arcadia and Ells, and on the s. and w. by the sea. It was composed
chiefly of extensive plains, watered by The Pnmims and other streams. Those plains
were famous for their fertility, and particularly for their wheat-harvests. At an early
period, after the Doric conquest, it rose to power and opulence. Its chief cities were
Jlessene, Methone, and Pylos. It is chiefly noted for its two wars with Gparta, known
Digitized by VjXJUV IC
as the Messenian wars, the first of which (according to the commoa chronology) lasted
from 743 to 724 b.c.; fHad the second from 686 to 668 b.c. Iu both instances the Mes-
senians were defeated, aud in consequence a great part of them emigrated to Sicily,
where they took possession of Zancle, which then received the name of Messana, the
preseu t Messina. After the lapse of 800 vears Epaminondas invited their descendants back
to Greece, and they joyfully responded to his invitation. Messenia is the name of one
of the lumuirchies of the modern kingdom of Greece.
MESSER, Aba, d.d., ll.d., 1769-1886; b. Mass.; graduated in 1790 at Brown uni-
versity, in wliich he was tutor in 1791, professor of languages in 1796, of mathematics
and natural philosophy in 1799, and president 1802-27. He was licensed to preach by
tlie First Baptist church in Providence ; ordained in 1801, and preached occasionally,
while professor and president, for churciies of different denominations. After retiring
from the presidency he was elected to several city offices by the people of Providence.
He published several discourses and orations.
MESSERVE, Nathaniel, d. 1758; b. N. H.; a ship-builder; one of the 304 New
Hampshire men who went, iu 1745, with the British forces to besiege the fortress
of Louisbunr, Nova Scotia, at the sight of whom the detachment of the royal battery on
the shore spiked their guns and fled. He was lieut.col. of col. Moore's regiment, and
rendered important service. He was present at the attack on fort Edward, in com-
mand of the New Hampshire regiment, and bravely defended the position. In 1756 he
commanded the New Hampshire troops on the expedition to the French post of Crown
Point, on lake Cliamplain. Iu 1758 he set out with the second expedition, under geo.
Amherst, to Louisburs^, tlien defended by the chevalier de Drucourt, but died of small-
pox before reaching his destination. His son George held offices under government ia
New Hampshire and Massachusetts, having been appointed stamp agent in the former
state and collector in Portsmouth and Boston. During the revolution George espoused
the tory cause, aud went to England in 1777.
UESSI'AH (Heb. MashiacJi), equivalent to the Greek ChristaSy the Anointed, designates,
in the Old Testament, the great deliverer and Savior whom- the Jews expected to be sent
by God, not only to restore their countrv to the power and splendor which it exhibited m
the days of David, but even, by compelling the Gentiles to acknowledge the supremacy
of the theocratic people, to raise it to the summit of universal dominion. This large con-
ception, however, first begins to develop itself after the time of Solomon; for the oldest
biblical records in their Messianic indications refer rather to the high degree of prosperity
which the chosen people were to expect /<9r themselves. This expectation, already visible
in the Abrahamid®, appeared for a moment to have realized itaelf in the conauest of
Canaan: but the subsequent, and often disastrous wars (in the period of the '* Judges"
and of Saul), as well as the internal feuds and dissensions of the Hebrews themselves— I
left it, in point of fact, unfultilled. Nevertheless, the hope of the appearance of the Mes-
siah had rooted it^lf strongly in the people, and, during the glorious and peaceful reigns
of David and Solomon, had so grown and enlarged that even after the secession of Israel,
and during the momentous ages that elapsed until its destruction as a kingdom, not
only was the hope of a universal world-sovereignty, and of an extmordinary degree of
prosperity, warmly cherished, but it was also confidently expected that God would raise
up a branch f roni the stem of David as the Messiah, the founder of the national pros-
perity, and the briiiger-in of the all-embracing theocracv. That branch was declared to
be " the anointed of the Lord," and since David applied that epithet to himself, the Jews
transferred it to the deliverer whom they expected, and called him "Son of David."
The prophetic writings contain many sucn allusions to Uie Messiah, whose coming was
expected shortly, and even during the time of the generation then living, whose birth-
place, in congruity with his Davidic descent, was announced to be Bethlehem and who.
It was believed, was to be endowed with divine attributes. These prophetic allusions are
commonly termed Messianic Prophecieb. Along with such, the prophets associated the
idea of a forerunner (Elijah, Jeremiah, or Moses), whose function was to prepare the
people for the appearance of the Messiah. The coming of the Messianic kingdom was
to be preceded by a period of severe misfortune and bitter sorrows, the purpose of which
was the reconciliation of the people with God (Isaiah i. 25, etc. ; Joel iii. ; Dan. ix. ;
Zech. xiii.). These sorrows are called the woes of the Messiah: they are minutely
described in the second book of Esdras — an apocryphal work. Hence sprung up the
idea of a suffering Messiah — widely diffused among the Jews— who, by enduring grief
and shame, should make atonement for the people, and reconcile them with God. This
conception was ereatly strengthened by the picture in lauah (chapters Iii. and Hii.), of a
" servant of Goa," which, in fact, ia generally regarded as the most distinct prophecy of
the Savior. Hence the step further of considering the Messiah an offering and sacnlSoc
for the sins of the people was an easy one; yet, on the other hand, it is singular |hat no
trace of this is found in the Apocrypha, not to mention the popular belief of the Jews^
tliat tlie Messiah was to live forever (John xii. 34), that a crucified Savior was a stum-
bling-block to them (1 Cor. i. 23). that even the disciples of Jesus did not comprehend
his allusions to his death, and that their faith iu him as the Messiah was for long dim and
doubtful. In fact, this popular belief of the Jews was the very reason why they did not
Digitized by VjOUV IC
7QQ MesMr.
« ^^ MeMlnft.
recognize Jesos as the Meesiah. In the later Judaism (as it shows itself in the Talmud)
the conceptions of the Messiah are rich in singularities: It was believed that the true
MoBsiah, .the son of David, would be preceded bv another Messiah, a son of Joseph or
Ephraim, who should suffer death for men as a sin-offering. Century after century the
Jews have expected the former, and repeatedly have they risen and placed themselves
under the standard of dreamers, fanatics, and impostors, who took to themselves the
sacred name; as, for example, Bar-Cochba (q.v.) in the 2d. c; one Moses in the isle of
Candia in the 5th c. ; one Julian in Palestine in the 6th c. ; several in Persia and Arabia
in the 12th c. ; and as late as the 18th c, Sabatai Zevi in Aleppo. Even yet the hope of
a Messiah is not dead in the hearts of the strict Talmudistic Jews.
The eruei€U question of theoloffv, however, is not the form in which the doctrine (so
to speak) of the Messiah was held by the Jews. All rational students of Scripture,
whether "orthodox" or "heterodox," now admit that its growth was gradual, and that it
acquired precision and deflniteness of outline in the course of ages from its first rude
phase, among the pastoral princes of the Syrian wilderness, down to that sublime yet
shadowy personality— the Man of Sorrows— that continually floats before the vision of
the '* Younger Isaiah." Tbe grand question is, Was this doctrine essentially a divine
inspiration, an objective truth of God, or only a lofty conception of the religious soul?
The strict rationalistic theologians maintain — and endeavor to prove by an analytic
examination of the Gospels — that Jesus assumed the dignity of Messiah eitlier to accom-
modate himself to a rooted conception of his countrymen, or partly because he had come
to believe it himself — a conclusion. It is said, at which he might arrive quite honestly,
since he felt that the truth which he tau^t was the real and only "kingdom of Qcd" and
that therefore he was justified in applying to himself all that was said (tropically) by the
prophetic poets in old times concerning him who should usher in this " golden ago'' of
the world's faith. The mass of orthodox theologians, on the other hand, regarding the
so-called Messianic prophecies of the Old Testament as positive, divinely suggested (per-
haps, even on the part of their author coTisdous) predictions of Jesus Christ, repudiate the
grinciple of accommodation, or even spiritual application, and try to show that the
avior accepted the Messianic prophecies as hterally and- exclusively applicable to him.
The histonco-spiritual school, represented in Germany by men like Neander, Rothe,
Tholuck, etc., and in England, generally speaking, by the divines of the " broad
cl)urch " party, occupy a middle position between these two extremes : with the ration-
alists, they hold that the Old Testament doctrine of tbe Messiah was gradually developed,
contains many human elements, and does not imply any knowledge of the historical
Jesus on the part of .those who announce it; with the " orthodox," on the other hand,
they assert that the doctrine is the expression of a fact, not of a sentiment — that Jesus of
Nazareth was actually the Son of God, the appointed Messiah, and that in him the
so-called Messianic prophecies were fulfilled in a far higher sense than ever the prophets
could have dreamed. It will tlms be seen that the rationalists resolve the doctrine of the
Messiah into a merely stU^fedtive religious idea; while the orthodox, and also the historico-
spiritual school of theologians, hold that the doctrine was the expression of a divine fact
— the substa/ice of a heavenly faith.
MESSI'NA, a province in n.e. Sicily separated from the province of Calabria, m
Italy, by the straits of Messina, and supposed to have been cut off from the main-land
b;^ an earthquake before the historic period; 1708 sq.m. ; pop. 420,649. It includes the
Lipari islands, lying n.w. of it, in the Tynhene sea; its coast is washed by the Ionian
sea, and its s.w. boundary is the base of 1ft. Etna. It contains the Neptunian range of
mountains, part of the reloric chain, which traverses the n. 9f 6icily. Its surface is
diversified by fertile valleys, which are irrigated by heavy torrents that descend on
either side of the mountains in the rainy season, but are dried by the heat of summer.
Its productions are wheat, flax, ar^ol, oorn, fruits, hemp, nuts, oil and the red Faro
wine; among the exports is the cordial called eimheoUo from Milazzo. Sulphur is found
in large quantities; also granite, quartz, and mica. Its coast presents a varied outline,
the town of Messina on the right of cape Faro, or Pelorus, at its extreme n.e. point,
occupies the section of the coast line called from its form the " sickle," having a conven-
ient harbor with spacious wharves defended by a fort. The whole country has been
racked by wars and shaken by earthquakes, ana the cities have a modern appearance,
having been, in most cases, rebuilt. It is drained by the Monforte, San Antonio, and other
small streams. It is divided into 4 distrelli and 116 communes. On a projection called
cape Milazzo in tlie n. portion the sen-port town of Milazzo is built, wliose inhabitants
are sailors and fishermen, and the vine and olive are cultivated. Toormina, built on a
steep towering cliff, overlooks the sea on the e., and contains many interesting ruins.
On the n. coast are profitable manufactures of earthenware, and a iJorman castle; and
j?o substantially have the military works been laid on the natural defenses that it has
lieen considered the Gibraltar of Sicily, and has been the scene of many ancient and
modern wara. The province contains many churches and convents, and relics of antiq-
oity of great interest, cenotaphs, tesselated pavements, etc. Its principal city of
Messina, the terminus of a railway along the coast to Syracuse, is nearly opposite Reg^
(aoeient Rhegium), which is 9 in. s.e. across the straits of Messina, the most noted city
of 8. Italy.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
SSr 784
JHA, a city of Sicily, chief t. of the province of «une name, one of the most
ancient and most important cities of the islana, is charmingly situated on the strait of
Messina, encircled by a zone of abrupt conical rocks^ and commands a view of Calsr-
bria. Pop. in 71, 71,921. The town is inclosed by old walla, and has several fine
squares and wide lava-paved streets. The harbor, which is formed by a proiecting
tongue of land curved in the form of a sickle (whence its primitive name, Zancle— Gr.
sickle — see Messbkia), is about 4 m. in circumference, and can contain a thousand
ships; it is defended by a citadel and six forts; the depth is sufficient to admit vessels of
large size; and the quays are spacious. The trade of Messina* chiefly in silk, oil. wine,
coral, fmits, linseed, fish, etc., although less extensive than formerly, is still an impor-
tant source of wealth to Sicily. The chief imports are cotton and woolen manufactures,
hardwares, and other articles of colonial produce. The damasks and satins of Messioa
are excellent, and the fisheries important. Messina has steamboat communication
with Naples, Marseilles, and Malta. In the 16th c. Messina was a renowned seat of
learning; and in the 16th c. a famous school of painting was founded there by
Peitdora da Oaravaggio. In modem times it has undergone terrible vicissitudes, haviog
been ruthlessly bombarded by the royal forces on several occasions during the war of
independence m 1848.
MESSIKA, Straits op (Ital. Faro di Messina, Lat. MdmertCnum fretum), between
Italy and Sicily, are 23 m. in length, and vary from 2^ to 10 m. in breadth. A strong
current runs through the strait, which is of great depth. See Scylla and Chabtbdis.
XES'SUAaE, the legal term used in English law to describe a dwelling-house and
piece of land adjoining.
MESTI'ZO, a Spanish word meaning literally mongrel, derived originally from the
Latin mixtm, and used in Spanish- American communities to denote the oflrepringof a
white or creole and an Indian. A feminine form, mesUza, is also in use; and the word
tnestino is but another form of mestizo. In Mexico and Brazil are very large numbers
of the mestizos, who are very light complexloned and have a remarkably clear *in,
thin beards, and oblique eyes, iffie creole offspring of a mestiza and a white man diffw
very slightly from those of pure white descent. The child of a metiza mother and an
Indian father is called mestizoclaro, and many of this class are of very remarkable
beauty. The offspring of a mulatto and mestiza is a cMno; of a negro and a mestiza, a
mulatto-oscuro; and there are many other similar terms used by tlie whites to denote
different admixtures of European, creole, Indian, and negro Mood.
MES'TEfi, a t. of northern Italy, in the province of Venice, and S m. n.w. of the city
of Venice, on the ma^n of a lagoon. It is connected with Venice, Padua^ and other
places by railway. There ai'e many villas around the town and along the road to
Padua, reaching almost to that city. Meatre has a considerable transit trade. Pop. 8,500.
M^SZIrOS, Lazar, 179^1858; b. at Baja, in Hungary. He at first studied the-
ology, and afterwards became a law student in the universitfMof Pesth. He became a
volunteer in the Hungarian army in the war with Napoleon and gained a high reputation
for gallant conduct in the campaigns of 1813-15. He rose gradually in rank, and in
1848 was col. of a hussar regiment, at which tithe Batthyfini became president of the
new ministry, with Kossuth as minister of finanoe, and the rule of Mettemidi was over-
thrown, l^z^os was placed at the head of the war department, and tbou^ opposed
to the adoption of extreme measures waa most valuable in the reorganization of the
Hungarian forces. Austria having declared its intention of subjugating Hungary, be
left liis place in the diet and took tne command of the attempt a^nst the Rasdans in
his native district, B&cs. This proved a complete failure, and m Jan., 1849, his army
was defeated with great loss before Kaschaw. In April of the same year the dedaratioa
of independence was issued; M68z6ros was givea an important command, and in con-
junction with Dembinsld led the patriot army which was defeaited at 8z5reg and Temes-
v4r ; he then fled to Turkey and was sentenced in contumaoiam and hun^ in effigy by the '
Austrians. After residing for some years in Engiaod, Fiance, and the island of Jersev,
M^zdros emigrated to the United States, and became a citizen of Flushing, L. L lie
died at Eywood, Herefordshire, England, while on his way to visit Switzerumd.
XETACEH'TBE. See Htdrostaticb.
KETAL (in heraldry). The field of the escutcheon and the charges which it bears
may be of metal as well as of color; and the two metals in use among heralds are gold
and silver, known as or and argent. It is a rule of blazon that metal should not be
placed on metal, or color on color.
MET'ALINE, a metallic compound invented in 1870 by Dn Stuart Gwynn of New
York, and used in place of lubricants to counteract the friction of machinery. )
XET'ALLUBaT is the art of extracting metals from their ores. The operations are *
partly mechanical and partly chemical. Those processes which depend prindpally on )
chemical reactions for their results have reference chiefly to the roasung and smelting of *;
* ores, and are described under the heads of the different metals. But there are certain
preliminary operations of a mechanical kind which metallic ores undergo, such as crush*
ing. Jigging, washing, etc., which we shall describe here, as they are essential^ the
Digitized by Vj^JLiV IC
f7QK HeMlMft.
* ^^ Metelt*
same for the ores of lead, copper, tin, zinc, and indeed most of the metals. (For IscAir,
see that head.)
Ores are first broken up with hammers into pieces of a convenient size for crushing
or stamping. Waste material, such as pieces oi rock, spar, etc., which always accom-
pany ore, arc as far as possible picked out by hand, and the ore itself arranged in sorts
according to its purity. Various kinds of ai>paratus, such as riddles, sieves, etc., are
then usea for separating it into different sizes, in order to secure a uniform strain on the
crushing machinery.
In one of the most approved forms of crushing-mills the ore is raised by means of
small wagons to a platform, where it is ready to be supplied to the crushing-rollers
through un opening. These rollers are mounted in a strong iron frame, held together by
wrought- iron bars, and bolted to strong beams. Their mstance apart is regulated by
means of a lever to which a weight is attached. The bearings of the rollers slide in
grooves, so that when any extra pressure is put upon them by a large or hard piece of
ore, the lever rl^es, and allows the space between the rollers to widen. The crushed ore
falls upon a series of sieves, which are made to vibrate. These have meshes increasing
in fineness as thev descend; and the upper two are so wide that pieces of ore too large
to pass through them are conducted into the lower part of the bucket-wheel and raised
again to the platform to be recrushed. The lower four sieves separate the remaining
portion of the crushed ore into different degrees of fineness, which is collected in pits.
Instead of crusdiing-roUers, sometimes a stamping*mill is iised, especially for tin ores^
which require to be reduced to a fine powder. The stamping-mill consists of a series of
upright shafts with a weighty piece of iron at the bottom of each. They are raised by
means of an axle with projectmg cams, and then, falling by their own weight, act like
hammers.
After being crushed, the ore is washed and sifted on a Jigging sieve. In one of its
simplest forms the ore is placed on a table from which a sieve is filled. It is then
immersed in a tub of water and a liggins motion communicated to it b^ a workman .
alternately raising and lowering a Imndle. This effects two purposes— it washes the
ore, and separates the material mto two l^ers: the upper consists of the lighter spar
and other impurities, which are xaked off; and the lower consists of the heavier and
purer portions of the ore, which are now ready for the roasting furnace.
It will be apparent that in the bottom of the tub there must be a quantitv of more or
less valuable ore, which, from its fineness, has fallen through the sieve. This is called
sludge or slime; and the minute pfurticles of ore it contains are recovered either by
simply forming an incline on the ground, and washing it with a current of water, or by
using an inclined table called a sleeping-table. Ore which has been reduced to powder at
the stamping-mill, as well as slime, is washed by this apparatus. The material is put
into a chest which is placed in a sloping position, and is supplied with water on turning ^
a stop-cock. The current carries the contents of the chest through an opening at the ?
bottom, and spreads it, with the aid of a series of stops^ or small bits of wood, over the
surface of the table. A stream of water is then kept flowing over the table till the
earthy impurities are all carried down into a trough, the pure particles of the ore remain-
iD& hy reason of their greater specific gravity, near the top of the table, whence they
are removed to be smelted. Sometines the table is suspenaed by chains, and receives a
succession of blows at the top from a Iniffer, moved by cams on the same ]3rinciple
as the stamping-mill. This arrangement is found of great advantage in dressing very
poor orea
The variety of machinery and apparatus used in dressing ores is very great, and they
pase under different names m different districts, but they are all very similar in principlo
to those we have described.
]IETAL8>-METALL0ID8. Although each metal is considered in a separate article,
there are various points regarding the general physical and chemical characters of these
bodies, and the method of classifying them, which require notice.
It is not easy to define a meUd. AH the elements are usually divided by chemists
into two CToups — ^viz., the non-metaUic bodies or metalloids, and the metals; the list of
non-metatUc bodies containing all those elements in which the characteristic properties
of the bodies pNOptdarly known as metals (such as silver, gold, iron, etc.) are wanting;
these characteristic properties being their metallic luster, their opacity, and their capaciQr
of condncting heat and electricity. The non-metallic elements are 14 in number---
viz., oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, selenium, tellurium, phosphorus, chlorine,
bromine, iodine, fluorine, carbon, boron, and silicon, of which five are gases, one a
liquid, and the rest are solids at ordinary temperatures.
The division of the elements into these two great groups is, however, not based upon
any definite scientific grounds, and it is still an open question whether some of the ^
metalloids, as, for example, tellurium and silicon, should not be placed among fher
metals. The non-metallic bodies or metalloids being only remarkable as a group for/
their negative properties, require no special consideration, and we therefore proceed toL
notice the general properties of the metals.
The following are the most important of the phytical properties of the metals:
1. All metifis, unless when thev are in a finely pulverized form, exhibit more or less
of the characteristic luster termedi metallic. Two of the non-metallic el^^^^^^ipf^ine
Metasnorphlc
786
and carbon, in Bome forms, present also a metallic luster. 2. All naetals are good con-
ductors of heat and electricity, although in very unequal degrees. 3. With the excep-
tion of mercury, all the metals are solid at ordinary temperatures. With the exception
of gold, copper, calcium, and strontium, the metals are more or less white, with a tendency
to blue or gray. Most of them have been obtained in crystals, and probably all of tiiem
are capable of crystallizing under certain conditions. 4. Metals are remarkable for their
opacity, and, with the exception of gold, do not transmit light, even when they are
reduced to extremely thin leaves. 6. All the metals are fusible, although the temperatures
at which they assume the fluid form are very different (see Fusing Points); and some
of them, as mercury, arsenic, cadmium, zinc, etc., are also volatile. 6. Great weight,
or a high specific gravity, is popularly but erroneously regarded as a characteristic of a
metal ; while platinum, osmium, and iridium (the heaviest bodies known in nature) are
more than 20 times as heavy as water, lithium, potassium, and sodium are actually
lighter than that fluid. 7. Great differences are observable in the hardness, brittlenesa,
and tenacity of metals. While potassium and sodium may be kneaded with the finger,
and lead may be marked by the finger-nail, most of them possess a considerable degree
of hardness. Antimony, arsenic, and bismuth are so brittle that they may be easily
pulverized in a mortar; while others, as iron, gold, silver, and copi)er, require great
force for their disintegration. Taking iron and lead as representing the two extremes
of tenacity, it is found that an iron wire will bear a weight 26 times as heavy as a
leaden wire of the same diameter. See DtJCTiLiTY, Mai^eabilitt. 8. It is a remark-
able property of the metals that none of them are capable of being dissolved without
undergoing chemical change. Sulphur, phosphorus, iodine, etc., may be dissolved, and
after tlie evaporation of the solvent, may be reobtained with all their original properties;
but this is never the case with metals.
Amongst the chief chemiaU properties of metals we next notice:
Their strong affinities to certain of the non-metallic elements. All the metals, with-
out exception, combine with oxygen, sulphur, and chlorine, and often in several propor-
tions, forming oxides, sulphides (formerly termed sulphurets), and chlorides. Many of
them combine with bromine, iodine, and fluorine. The other compounds of this nature,
excepting carbide (formerly carburet) of iron, or steel, and the hydrides of arsenic and
antimony (commonly known as arseniuretted and antimoniureted hydrogen), which aie
of importance in toxicology, may be passed over without notice.
The metallic oxides are, without exception, solid bodies, insoluble in water, and
usually present a white or colored earthy appearance. Hence the old name of fMtaUic
edkt for (liese oxides.
Those oxides which are termed basic possess the property of directly uniting with tJie
so-cnlled oxy -acids (such as sulphuric, nitric, carbonic, and silicic acia), and of fomuDg
a new chemical compound of the second order, termed a saU (q.v.).
The compounds of the metals with chlorine, iodine, bromine, and fluorine, such, for
instance, as chloride of sodium, or common salt (CJlNa), are termed haloid salts (q.v.).
The same metal may often combine both with chlorine and with oxygen in more than
one proportion. For example, we have subchloride of mercury fHg,Cl); suboxide of
mercury (HgaO); chloride of mercury (HgCl); oxide of mercury (HgO). For the com-
pdunds of the metals with sulphur, see Sulphides op the Metals.
Metals enter into combination with one another when they are fused together, and
such combinations are termed flMM!oy«(q.v.), unless when mercury is one of the combin-
ing metals, in which case the resultine comi>ound is termed an amaXgam, It is doubtful
whether all alloys are tnie chemical compounds. Definite compounds of the metals
with each other do. however, certainly exist, and are sometimes found native, as, for
example, the crystallized silver and mtrcury compound represented by the formula
AgHga.
In consequence of their strong aflinities for the metalloids, the metals are seldom
found in a free or uncombined strie. (jvcii in the inorganic kingdom, and never in ani-
m^or plants. The more common metiils, in consequence of their strong afilnlty for
oxygen and sulphur, are very rarely met with in the uncombined state; but some of
those which are less abundant, such ns gold, silver, and platinum, are found uncomMned,
in which case the terms native and rmjtn i«e applied to them; and other metals, as mer-
cury and copper, occur both in a free and in a combined state. Many native aJlova are
found, but the ordinary sources of the metals are oxides, sulphides, chlorides, and car-
bonates, sulphates, and other salli>\ These arc tcimcdthe oresoi the metals. The methods
of obtaining the metals from their vnrious ores fall under the head of Metai^lurot.
Various classifications of the nictnls have iK'cn suggested by different chemists. The
following is probably one of Oie most convcuient:
I. — The light metals, subdivided into —
* r. The metals of the alkalies— viz., potassium, sodium, cesium, rubidium, lithium.
2. The metals of the alkaline earths— viz., barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium.
8. The metals of the true .earth<4 — viz.. aluminium, glucinum, ziroonium, yttrium,
erbium, terbium, thorinum, cerium, lanthanum, didymium.
II.— The heavy metals, subdivided into —
1. Metals whose oxides form powerful bases— viz., iron, manganese, diromiaBi,
nickel, cobalt, zinc, cadnuum, lead, bismuth, copper, uranium, thallium.
, Digitized by VjOU* V IC
T37
Metamotphle.
2. Metals who$e oxides form weak bases or acids— viz., arsenic, antimoxiy. titanium,
tantalum, niobium (or columbium), tuncsten, molybdenum, tin, vanadium, osmium.
8. Metals whose oxides are reduced by beat— noble metals— viz., mercuiy, silver,
gold, plaiitmm, palladium, iridium, ruthenium, rhodium, osmium. (Several of the rare
metals are here omitted.)
Another classification is that by which the metals are arranged in six groups, each
group being named after a metal whicli possesses the common characters in a well-
marked degree: viz., (1) the sodium group; (2) the calcium; (3) the iron; (4) the copper;
' (5) the platinum; and (6) tJie antimony groups.
XETAKOBPHIO ItOCXS. Few of the deposits forming the crust of the earth remain
in the condition in which they were deposited. Bv infiltration of a cementing fluid, by
pressure, or by some other indurating agency, sana has become converted into sandstone,
and clay and mud into shale. In some strata, this operation has been carried still
further. There is a class of rocks, including gneiss, mica-sdiist, clay-slate, marble, and
the like, which, while certainly of aqueous or mechanical origin, have, by intense molecu-
lar action, become more or less crystalline. To them, the convenient name metamorphic
(Qr. transformed) rocks has been given by Lyell.
The metamorphic rocks were ^nnerly considered to be the fundamental strata of the
earth's crusL The original incandescent mass, it was said; losing its heat by radiation,
a solid uneven crust of granite was formed. As soon as the ordinary atmospheric and
aqueous agencies began to operate, a disinto^ation took place, and theabradea matei'iaJs,
carried down by the waters, were deposited m the ba.sins which contained the boiling sea.
It was thought that this not only accounted for the condition in which the metamorphic
rocks now exist, but for the remarkable undulations and contortions so characteristic o£
these strata. Gneiss and the allied crystalline schists wero accordiuglj placed us the low-
est sedimentary strata in a division equivalent to the palaeozoic period, and called the
azoic, because they were destitute of organic remains, the conditions in which they were
formed being opposed to the existence of animals.
It is novv, however, known that metamori)hic rocks occur as contemporaneous
deposits in nil epochs of the earth's geolo:^ical history. In Canada and in the HelirideA^
they are of Laurentian age; in the Ilighland^ of Scotland^ Cambrian and Silurian; ia
Devon and Cornwall, old red sandstone and carboniferous; and in the Alps, oolitic ami
cretaceous, and in some parts even tertiary. Although deposits of such various ages
have been thus altered, the re^Ailtiug rocks are in structure and composition very sinuJifts;
Uicir ultimate constituents do not differ from those of ordinary clays and snndstooea la
all of them silica fofuis the largest proportion, consisting of about 60 to 70 per cent;
nlnmina follows next, and then other substances in smaller quantities, such as lime, sods,
potash, iron, etc. This similarity of composition, and the abundance of days sod saud-
stones, suggest the supposition that the metamorphic rocks may bo nothing moi'e than
these deposits greatly altered ; this is confirmed by many observed instances, inwMdi
aqueous strata are continuous with, and gradually chiinge into, metamorphic rocks. The
granite of Dartmoor has intruded itself into the slate and slaty sandstone, twisting and
contorting the strata. Hence somjB of the slate rocks have become micaceous; i>therB
more indurated, having the characters of mica-slate and gneiss; while others, again,
appsar converted into a hard-zoned rock, strongly iaipregnated with feldspar. In some
places in the eastern Pyrenees, the chalky limestone become.') crystalline and sac(;iifnmid
as it approaches the gmnite, and loses all trace of the fossils which it elsewhere contain^}
in abundance. These illustrations toll of changes occurring in the proximity of gninite,
and it has been consequently somewhat hastily concluded that this rock, coming up in a
molten condition from below, has, bv the radiation of its heat, produced the metamor-
phosis. But the observed stratigraphical position of granite, its sometimes pasairtg by
insensible degrees int') gneiss, and the experiments of Solly and Br3'son on its internal
structure, show without doubt that this rock is, .at least ip many places, an exti'eme result
of metamorphic action, and not the cause of it. To call the energy producing these
results metamorphic or molecular action, is simply to hide our ignorance — we get a
name, but nothing more. To speak dogmatically on a subject so obscure, is a sign of the
84une ignorance. Tiie following, however, are the most probable agents that, together
or separately, produced these remarkable changes:
1. Heat. — Prom whatever source derived, heat does exist, either distributed univer-
Milly, or occurring locally in the mass of the earth; and where it exists, thermo-electric
influences induce action, which, carried on over immense series of years, might produce
in the end great changes. It is generally maintained that granite is the result of crys-
tallization from perfect fusion, and that the strata converted into gneiss must have been
i*cduced to a state of semi-fusion. But we know of crystallization taking place in the
most compact amorphous solids without any approach to fusion, as in the axles of rail-
way carnages; and of metamorphoric action without semi-fusion, as in the highly
in^oratod lK>ttOTns of bakers* ovens, in which the clay is subjected to a long-continued
tliou^i not a great heat; or in the sandstone floor of an iron furnace, which, from long
contact with Uic molten iron, loses its color, becomes white and hard, and breaks with a
porcehinic fracture, having, indeed, been changed into quartz rock. Besides, the fre-
quent occurrence of cavities in the rock crysuds of granite containing a fluid which fills
U. K. IX— 47 Digitized by VjUU^IC
MeUimorpliotls. • ^^
them only when the tcmpepture is raised to At least 94^ Fahr., shows that the crystal
could not have heen formeo nt a higher temperature. We are therefore safe in main-
taining, that the heat was not in all cases so great as to produce fusion
3. Pre9sure,—Th\9 alone is sutficient to effect the consolidation and induratioo of
aqueous deposits, converting clay or sand into solid stone. When beat is addeil to pres-
sure, gi-eater activity is likely to be the result. The undulatory movements of tbe earth's
crust, by carrying doMm to great dcptlis deposits formed on the sur&ice, bring them under
the influence of pressure, heat, and tlicrmo-electricity, and at the same time elevate roclca
that have been thus acted upon.
It is Uiought that heated water may be also a powerful o^nt, cspedaliy when it in
subjected to ^at pressure.
^ These and other agents, then, operating through ImmeBSc intervals of time, set in
motif )n chemical attraction, whereby the various substances which entered into the com-
position of the sedimentaiy depk)Sits rearranged themselves as they are found in the
metamorphic rocks.
The description of the various metnmorphic rocks will be found under their different
names, viz., Qneibs, QuARTzrrE, MiCA-scHiar, Clat-slate, and Marble.
M£T AMORPHIC ROOKS (an/e), geological formations wlOch bavn undergone alter-
ation of stracture and sometimes of constitution. The subject of metamorphism lm»
within a few years recdved much attention from geologislo, nnd agreat increase of knowl-
edge has been the result RocIks, such as granite, which were not many years ago regarded
as primitive and okler than all others, are now known to be of all ages and the resalt of
changes or metamorphisms of other rocks. The word primitive is abolished in geology
in its former absolute sense, and is only used to denote the Urst condition of any fomia-
tion, whether old or recent The general principles of metamorphtfm are treated in the
article Gbolooy. Metamorphic rocks are produced from the vartons sedimentary rocka,
and also from volcanic products; but the cliief source is the sedimentary rocks. The
geological ages which have produced the greatest amount of metamorphic rucks are the
Lanrentian and Unronian. The Laorentiap age oommences in azoic time, and if the
term primary could be applied to any formation It would be to the older of the Laurentian
locks; but it cannot be stated positively that they were the first formed, or» if so, that
they have not undergone neat alteration. In the Laurentian formations there are
found many limestones, but it cannot be demonstrated that they are produced from shells,
or that tbev contained animal life, except eotodn CanadSnie be regarded as such. See
EozodN. iTlicse Laurentian or archsBan rocks extend over the whole globe, and either
they or the roeks of which th^ are the metamorphosed products composed the floor of
the first ocean, and eonstitutea the foundation upon which the first life was developed.
Tlie action of water and heat caused sedimentaiy deposits, and when the heat was suffi-
dentlv reduced life began, and l)ecame, in some degree^ an element in the process. The
principal areaa of arohsean rocks in North America are in British America, extending in
broad lines from the region of lake Superior north-west to Alaska, on one hand; and cm
the other, to Labrador, having the form of the letter V. inclosing Hudson's bay witliin
the triangle. There is a much smaller region called the Adirondnck, lying in the
counties of Essex, Clinton, Franklin, St. Lawrence, Hamilton, and Warren, N. Y., and
also an Appsikicliian line of Laurentian rock, including the highland ridge of Datcdicss
county, N. Y., and, passing through New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia, forming the
Blue ridge, and a long rocky mountain series, embracing the Wind River mountains, tbe
Laramie range, and other summit ridges of the Rocky mountains. The rocks include
granite (q.v.), gneiss (q.v.), mica schist (q.v.), mica slate (q.v.), udc (q.v.), chlorite (q.v.),
syenite (q.v.), hornblende (q.v.), serpentme (q.v.), chrysolite (q.v.), apatite (q.v.), and
plumbago ((j.v.), which is supposed to have a vegetable, but may have had an entire
mineral or inorganic origin. Tlie archsean rocks are rich in iron-bearing minerals, as
for example in the Missouri Iron mountain, containing magnetite, Fes04, and hema-
tite, Fe«0». Some of the beds are sevenU hundred feet thick. Crystalline limestone,
often occurring as statuary marble, is one of the rocks found in the archajan formations.
See Marble. Nearly all geologic ages have produced metamorphic from sedimentary
tx>cks, such as sandstone (q.v), shale (q.v.), argil lite, or clay slate (see AitGniL.ACEOUs
Rocks), massive limestones (see LptfESTONE)," magnesinn limestone (see Dolomite), hy-
tlraulic limestone (see Cements), nnd occasionally volcanic products, as tufa (q.v!).
Sandstones have passed into quartzite, quartz rock, or granular quartz. See Quartz
Rock in Quartz, ante.
KETAMOB'FHOSIS (Or. change of form) denoted, in the mythology of the ancients,
those transformations of human beings into beasts, stones, trees, and even into fire,
water, etc., in fables of which that mythology abounded. The origin and significance
of such fables it is often impossible to determine. Some of them probably originatetl in
observation of the wonderful transformations of nature; some in a misapprehension of
the metaphors employed by the older poets; and some, perhaps, in mere superstition
nnd love of the marvelous, The wild imagination of tbe orientals filled their myf Itolo-
gles with metamorphoses in the greatest number; nnd the classic mythology appfoaclie<i
to them in this respect. They were the theme of some of the poets and other Greek
authora of the Alexaudiine period, and of Ovid among the Latin classics. The medi«vai
Digitized by VjOL^V IC"
^OO Mtttmnorphlo. *
• ^•^ Metamorphosis.
ijtcratuie of Europe, especially of Oermaoy, in its fairy taiefi and otUer farms of folk-
lore, is also wondurfully rich la inelamorplioacs.
mtAMOXFHOSIS OF AHIXAU. This term is applied to changes which certain
animaft ahdergo after their escape from the envelope of the e^, and wliich are of such
a nature as essentially to alter the general form or the mode of life of the individual.
Tlie'most reniarlcable metamorphoses occur in the batrachians, crustaceans, insects,
and tapeworms, and are hrieflv noticed in the Articles on thoflD ehis«s of luiinuils. For an
excellent general account of the metamorptioses of animals the reader is referred to a
Serite of articles by De Quatrefages in the Bemie des Deux Mender for 185^.
METAMORPHOSIS of ANDIALS {ante). In the development of an animal the
embryo may pass through all the stages of growth to a condition which differs from the
adult onlv m size, proportion, and sexual characteristics, having tbercafter only to be
nourished, to attain full development; or it may leave the ^gg in a condition remote from
that of the adult, and then pass through a greater or less number of stages of distinctly
marked characteristios. Each one of these stages is a metamorphosis, and collectively
constitute the metamorphoses througli which the animal passes. ''When metamorphosis
occurs the larva may live under conditions totally different froni those under wiiich the
adult passes its existence. Thus the larva of an animal which is fixed in the adult state
may be provided with largely developed locomotive organs; while that of an adnlt which
feeds by suction may be provided with powerful appamtus for the seizoro and mandu-
agKion of vegetaUe and animal prey. The larva of a free adi^t may be parasitic, or that
oJP a parasitic adult free and actively locomotive^ Moreover, the whole eoune of devel-
opment may take place outside the body of the parent, or more or less extensively within
it; whence the disanction of <w^pann/«, ownit^'ptitwe, and mtmpar&ve animals" (HuxleyX
An example of that kind of metamorphosis in which Boa-pnrMilio hirvee become para>
sitic pnpffi and adults is seen in the rhizoeephaia. See Ikybrtbbaatb AiriMAfA 8ul>
kln^om annulosa, class cruhtaoea, order rbizooepbala. For lurtber Information see
various parts of the article on Invertebrate AKUCAiiB, and also Insects, a/niey and
Locusts, and Ora80H(»>fer8.
1IETAX0BPE08I8 oF OBOAITB. in botany, a subject of so much importance that it
lias been exalted to the rank of a distinct branch of botanical science, under the name of
morpJudogy or tegefable morphology. Attention to it is essential to a philosophical stody
of botany; yet it may almost be said that nothing was known either of its facts or its
laws till the poet Goethe proclaimed them to the world In his treatise entitled Die Meta-
morphose der Pflamcn in 1790. Linnaeus had, indeed, called attention to the develop-
ment of organs, and the changes which they undergo, and bad made this the subject of a
iJiesis entitfed ProUptM P'antarum in 1760; but, in a manner very nnusual with him, he
mixed up with his obwjrvntions and philosophical speculations certain fanciful siipposl-
tions, tlie f»}lsehood of which soon becoming apparent caused all the rest to be neglected.
"Wolff afterwards extricated the true from the fanciful in the views of Linneeus, and gave
them greater completeness; but he introduced the subject only incidentally in a^paper on
^comparative anatomy, which filled to attract the attention of botanists, and probably
had never been scon by Goethe, whose discovery, apparently altogether original, is one
of the finest Instances on record of acute observation combined with philosophical gen-
eralization.
The metamorphosis of organs is noticed in the articles on particular organs. It is
only necessary here to make a very general statement of its facts and laws. A plant is
composed of tlie az^ and its appendages; the axis appearing above gronnd as the stem
and branches, below ground as the root; the appendages lieing entirely above ground,
and essentially leaver; all organs which are not formed of the axis being modified leaves.
The proof of this consists ver>' much in the gradual transition of one organ into another,
manifest in some plants, although not in oth«»rs; as of leaves into bracte, one of the most
frequently gradual transitions; of leaves into sepals, as seen in the leaf -like sepals of
many roses; of sepals into petals, as seen in the petnl-like sepals of lilies, crocuses, etc. ;
of petals into stamens, as seen in water-lilies; and even of stamens into pistils, often
exemplified in the common house-leek. The proof is confirmed and completed by obser-
vation of the monstrosities which occur in plants, particola4*ly in the frequent return of
some part of the flower to its original type, the leaf, and in the conversion of one part
of the flower into another, which is often the result of cultivation, and is particularly
illustrated in double flowers, the increase of the number of petals bemg the result of
the conversion of stamens into petals.
A flower-bud being a modified leaf-bud (see Bud), and a flower therefore fhe develop-
ment of a modified ieaf-bud, the parts of a flower corresnond in their arrangement with
the leaves on a branch. But peculiar laws govern the aevelopment of organs in each
species of plant. Thus the leaves in one are opposite; in another, alternate; in another,
whorled; all depending on the law which governs the growth of the axis in relation to
the development of leaves, which is very constant in each species; and in like manner
the parts of the flower are devclopt^d in whorls around an abbreviated terminal portion
of the axis, the energies of the plant being here directed to the reproduction of the
species, and not to the increase or growth of the indivi'.lual. The fruit itself, l)eing
formed from the pistil, is to be regsinied as formed of modified leaves. Goethe truly
MetamorpliotlA. *7 A(\
Mettflltts. • *^
8ny»: " The pod isa leftf which S» folded up and grown together at its ed^, and the
capsule consists of several leaves grown together; and the compound fruit is composed
of several leaves united round a cominou center, thdir sidej^heing opened so as to Xorm
a communication between them, and their edges adhering logether."
The metamorphosis of organs has been investigated with great diligence and success,
and beautifully elucidated by Miquel, Liudley, Schleiden, and other botanists.
KTETAKOSPHOSIB OF TISSUE. See TissuK.
METAPHOB (Gr. metaplwra, a transference), a fi^re of speech b}' means of which
one tiling is put for another which it only resembles. Thu«T, the Psalmist speaks of
Go !'s law as being '* a light to his feet and a lamp to his path." The metaphor is there-
lore a kind of comparison in which the speaker or writer, casting aside the circumlocu-
tion of the ordinary similitude, seeks to attain liis end at once by boldly identifying his
inustration with the thing illustrated. It is tlius of necessity, wlien well conceived and
expressed, graphic and striking in the higliest degree, and has lieen a favorite figure
Willi poets ancf orators, and the makers of proverbs, in all ages. Even in ordinary lan-
gua;je the meanings of words are in great part metaphors, as when we speak of aa
acute intellect, or a hold promontory.
METAPHT8IGS, a word of uncertain origin, but first applied to a certain group of the
philosophical dissertations of Aristotle (see Abjbtotlb:). As since employed, it has had
various significations, and more especially two — a larger and a more confined. In the
more confined sense it is allied to the problems of the Aristotelian treatise, and is con-
oorned with the ultimate foundations of our knowledge of existing things. What is tltc
nature of our knowledge of the external world, seeing that mind cannot properly know
what is not in contact with itself ? has been asked by philosophers, and answered in
various ways; and this is the great question of metaphysics (see Percrption, Ck>irMOK
Bemse). The name ** Ontology'' has been applied to the same inquiries into our co^-
niz^ance of existences out of ourselves. But as the solution of this difllcult questiou
was found to involve an investigation into the nature of the human mind, it bectunc
allied with the science w^ose object it is to describe full}' and systematically the law8
and properties of our mental constitution — a science called by the various names of
p.yycliology, mental philosophy, moral philosophy; and hence metaphysics came to l>e
an additional name tor this more comprehensive department. The word is employed
at the present day by writers of repute in both meaninsfs. Thus, Ferricr's In$tUuth «/
MdapUysic is occupied solely with the questions connected with knowledge, or tlio
nature of our perception of an external worid; his explamitory title is, T/t^ Tfiwnf of
Kiiowiiuf and Beiiig. On the other hand, ManseVs metaphysics is divided into iw«>
parts— PsYCuoLOGy, or the science of the facts of consciousness, which expresses ih'*
j*tience of mind generally; and Ontology, or the science of the same facts considered
ja their relation to realities existing witliout tlie njind — that is, the problem of pcrccp-
lion, or metaphysics in the narrower sense.
METAPONTUM, or Mbtaponttum, an ancient city of Magna Gnecia, Italy; 24 m.
from Tareutum, and 14 from Heraclea. It was founded by an emigrating tribe of the
Ach»ans as early as 700 B.O., and perhaps before tha^ time. In 415 B.C. we find ti)c
inhabitants allies of the Athenians in tlieir invasion of Sicily, and for some lime pre-
vious the town had evidently been in^ a condition of constantly increasing prosperit}'.
Here the philosopher Pythagoras spent his last days, and in classical times hi-s tomb vr^
still to be seen. In the wats waged against Kome by Pyrrhus and Hannibal, the
IVIetapontines were hostile to the imperial city. At the end of the war of Pyrrhus they
were subjugated completely by the liomans, and in 212 b.g. succeeded in throwing oil
the yoke by admitting the Carthaginians. When the latter retreated from Italy the
Melupontines, fearing the vengeance of Rome, fled with Hannibal; and the city was
deserted, and soon fell into ruins, some of which may still be seen.
XETASTASIO (oririnally TBAPAS8I), Pietko, one of Italy's most admired poets, was
b. at liome in 1698, of humble parents, and gave early evidence of his ^ntua by his l>oy-
ish improvisations. Metastasio having attracted the casual notice of Gravina, a famous
jurisconsult of the day, the latter undertook the entire education and career of the youth,
wJio^e paternal name of Trapassi became tlienceforward Grecized into Metastasio, both
words being identical in signification. The young poet speedily advanced in classicnl
and general knowledge; and to his patron's enthufiastic devotion to the Greek drama
may doubtless be traced much of the after-beni of Metastasio's ovm poetical tastes. By
the early dbath of Gravina, Metastasio was placed in possession of considerable property.
In 1724 he published one of his most celebrated dramas, La Didoney whicii, with 11 Catone
and // Si'roc, conferred on the poet a European name. In 1730 Metastasio acoepted the
post of poet-laureate to the imperial court of Vienna. During his sojourn in Vienna,
Metastasio composed his Giuseppe Jiiconoacinio, II DemofouU, and the CMimpiade, lie
died at Vienna in 1782. Metastasio was distinguished for the generosity, integrity, and
oandor of his nature, the sincerity of his frienflahips, and the disinterested warmth of his
.^Mitinients. His works arc innumerable, embracing 63 dramas. 48 cantatas, besides a
vast number of elepies, canzonet te, sonnets, and ti-anslations. They enjoy unexampled
popularity among all grades of his countrymen; in their pur§.dmiga|^s|^l^^ and forms
MoteUuK.
the edncafcrl student finds instrnction and delight; while their facile musical grace and
verbAi Mi'u])J(i^y hdapt them to the popular appreciation of the artless beauties uf ^toeiry.
The bejii (dit:(>ii'< of Metustasio are those of Turin (1757, 14 vols.); Paris (1755, 12 vols.);
Paris (17W, 12 vols., large 8vo); Genoa (1802, 6 thick vols.); Mantua (1816-20, SO vols.).
METASTASIS, a change in the seat of a disease from one part of the body to
another. Rheumatism uud gout ai-e examples. Muscular rheumatism is more or lebs
movable, changing from one set of muscles to another. Arthritic rheumatism is more
liable to change pei'slstently from one joint to another, or it may pass to an analogous
tissue in another kind of organ, as to the serous membranes of the heart, or pericardium,
constituting cardiac rheumatism, a dangerous, tiffection. Gout is well known for iis
flights from one point to another. luHammation of the parotid gland, or mumps (q.v.)
is also a metastatic affection. I^he cafises of metastasis are rather obscure, bat tliey arc
undoubtedly intimately connected with the nei-vous. system, w^hose terminal fibers, end-
ing as they do in tlie cellular elements of the tissues, influence, in a great measure, their
pathological as well as physiological action.
XSTAYEB (Ital. fnetd, Fr. ^n&itie, half), in French, is the cultivator of a mctairie, or
farm, the tenant of which gives the landlord a portion of the produce as his rent In
some of the older French dictionaries, such as that of Trevoux, the word is 8aid to apply
to any kind of farmer, but in the oldest dictionary of Fi-ench and English, Cotgrave's,
the word is thus interpreted: '* Properly one that takes ground, to tlie halves, or binds
himself by contract to answer unto iiim of whom he holds them half, or a great part of
the profits thereof." The term has lately got a meaning in political economy. on account
of some eminent writers having raised the question whether tliis aiTangemt»nt lK»tween
landlord and tenant is not so much more advantageous than any other, both to the par-
ties immediately concerned and to the public at large, that ft ought to be specially
encouraged. Bismondi appears to have been the first to open this wide view of the influ-
ence of the practice, and he has given a chapter to its consideration in his Politic d
Economy (b. iii. chap. 5). He says what cannot bo denied, that such an nrningement
was a great improvement on. mere serfdom, which gave the cultivator no interest in the
pixxluce of his industry. But in giving the reasons for his admiration of the sys'em as
one which provides in the general case for the wants of the peasant while relieving him
of all anxiety about markets and prices, he admits that a metayer peasantry never
advance beyond the humble, happy, and contented lot which immediately falls to them.
It is a system, therefore, inconsistent with the application of large capital to cultivation,
and consequently with the extraction of the highest value which the soil can yield. A
tenant w^ill hesitate to lay £50 worth of guano on his fields if half the additiomil crop it
will bring goes to his landlord. To those who maintain that the moral effect of the sys-
tem is beneficial, this will be no argument against it, but to the political economist if is
an argument against the practicability of the system in a rich money-making agricultural
country. Where there is an enterprising peasantry without capital it is a valuable
resource; a great portion of the valuable agricultural districts of Scotland were thus
brought into cultivation by improvers whose rent was a portion of the crop. But while
these very districts in a great measure owe their present prosperity 'and the existence
of a set of capitalist-farmers to such a system of cultivation pursued with more energy
than M. Sismondi considers natural to it, there is no doubt that the substitution of such
an arrangement for money-rent would now be a very serious ^aste.
METCALFE, a co. in s. Kentucky, drained by the south fork of Green river, which
rises within its liaiiU; 870 sq.ra. ; pop. '80, 9.423—0,414 of American birth, 10«% colored.
Its surface is varied, and largely covered with timber. Its soil is fertile, producing large
quantities of tobacco, and suited to the production of wool, sweet-potatoes, the products
of the dairy, flax, inaple sugar, sorghum, honey, fruit, and every kind of gniin. Stock-
raising receives much attention, and its grist-mills are run by steam. Seat of justice,
Edmonton.
METCALFE, Frbdcrtck, b. England, 1817; a distinguislied scholar and educator,
having pursued the regular course of study at the university of Cambridge, gi-aduate<l in
1888, and wjis elected fellow of Lincoln college, Oxford. In 1848 lie accepted the posi-
tion of principal of the Brighton college, an institution founded in 1847 for tlie sons of
jDoblemen. In 1844 he published a translation of prof. A. Becker's QaUv9, or liomdu
Seenes of the IXmes of Augu^us, with notes and exercises, considered of great historical
value; 2d edition, 1868. In 1845 a translation of Becker's Charieks, a tale illustrative
of private lifo rmong the ancient Greeks, with notes and exercises. He was the author
of History cf Oertnan Literature, based on the German work of Vilmar,«1858; other
works are The Oxonian in Ntmeay^ or notes of excursions in that country. 1866, Hie
Oxonian in TbeUmarker, 1868, The Oxonian in Iceland, 1861, and an adaptation, for use
in schools, of WhitUker's edition of Dr. Charles Anthou's VirgU, 1846.
KSTELIiTfS, the name of a Roman family of the plebeian gens Ceecilia, which rose to
be one of the first faniilies of the Roman nobility.— One of the most distinguished mem-
bers of the family was QnirTUfl CiBciLius Mktellub Magbdonictjs, who received his
surname from his victory over Andriscus, an aspirant to the throne of Macedonia (148
B.C.). HiB life was considered by ancient writers an example of the greatest felicity.
Digitized by VaOUV IC
M«teotoloty* * ^^
He died 115 B.C.— Another was QniNTtTB CiBciLiufi Mjbtellcb Nuhidicus, who twice
defeated Ju^urtha in Numidia (109 B.C.), and was celebrated for his integrity of char
acter» but was superseded in his command by Marlus. His son, Ouintub Vxctlive
Hbtellus, sumamed Fiu9, joined 8uUa in 88 b.c., but sought to moderate the severity
of Ills proscriptions. He, too, bore a distinguished character for virtue. — Quihtus
GiKCiLius Metellub CnETicrs conquered Crete, and reduced it to a Roman province
(67 B.c.).— QuiNTUs CMCthivs Metellub Pirs 8cmo, sometimes called Qriwnis
j BciPio, and sometimes Scipio Metellub, was a son of Publius Cornelius Scipio, who
was adopted by one of the Metelli, and became the father-in-law of Pompey, and his
zealous partisan. He commanded under him at Pharsalus, maintained war on his behalf
for some time in Africa; and after the battle of Thapsus (46 B.C.), died by liis own hand.
XETE1CF870KO 8IS. See TBANSMiGBATioif ov Souls.
][£T£OBOL'OGT (Gr. metiora, meteors, or atmospheric phenomena) was originally
applied to the consideration of all appearances in the sky, botn astronomical and atmos-
pherical; but the term is now confined to that department of natural philosophy which
treats of the phenomena of the atmosphere as regards weather and climate. The lead-
ing points of this wide subject will be found under i-uch heads as A&boliteb, At-
mobpheke. Barometer, Boiling, Clouds, Dew, Electricity, Evaporation, Fog,
Hailstones, Halos, Hoar-frost, Lightning, Magnetism, Kain, Snow, Svobmb, etc.
We confine ourselves here to a historical sketcli of the science.
Owing to the complexity of the phenomena, meteorology is the most difflcnlt and
involved o/ the sciences, and seems, indeed, at first sight, almost incapable of being
reduced to a scietice'at all On this account, the only procedure admissible in the first
place is long and patient observation, and a faithful I'ecording of facts.
From the nature of the subjects which make up the science, it may be inferred that
they occupied nten's minds from a remote antiquity. The splendid and ever-varying
panorama of tiie skv, and the changes of temperature through the days and the seasons,
with all the other elements constituting the weather, and thus powerfully i ffecting the
necessities and comfort of man, ai'e of a nature well fitted to arrest his attention. From
the time spent in the open air in the early ages, and from the imperfect protection
afforded against the inclemency of the seasons, those appearances which experience
proved to precede a change of weather would be eagerly recorded" and hnnded down.
In this way, many most valuable facts were ascertained and passed current from
hand to hand; and, perhaps, there is no science of which more of the leading facts
and inferences have been from so early a period incorporated intb popular language.
Aristotle was the first who collected, in his work On Mete&n, the current provost ics
of the weather. Some of these were derived from the Egyplinns, who had stuaied the
science as a branch of astronomy, while a considerable number were the result of his
own observation, and bear the mark of his singularly acute and reflective mind. Tlie next
writer who took up the subject was Theophrastus, one of Aristotle's pupils, who clas-
sified the opinions commonly received regarding the weather under four heads, viz.,
the prognostics of rain, of wind, of storm, and of fine weather. The subject was
discussed purely in its popular and practical bearings, and no attempt was made to
explain phenomena whose occurrence appeared so irregular and capncious. Cicero,
Yirgil, and a few other writers also wrote on the subject without making any sub-
stantial accessions to our knowledge; indeed, the treatise of Theophrastus contains
nearly all lliat was known down to comparatively recent times. Partial explanations
were attempted by Aristotle and Lucretius, htit as they wanted the elements necessary
for such an inquiry, being all but totally ignorant of eveiy department of physical
science, their explanations were necessafrily vague, and often ridiculous and absurcf.
In this dormant condition meteorolog}' cemained f or^ages, and no progress was made
till proper Instruments were invented for making real "observations with re^rd to the
temperature, the pressure, the humidity, and the electricity of the air. The discovery of
the weight or pressure of the atmosphere made by Torricelll in 1648 was undoubtedly
the first step In the progress of meteorology to the rank of a science. This memorable
discevery disclosed what was passing in the more elevated regions of the atmosphere,
and thus the elevations and depressions of the barometric column largely extended* our
knowledge of tliis subtle element. See Barombtbr.
The invention and gradual perfecting of the thermometer (q.v.) in the same century,
farmed another capital step; as without it nothing could be known beyond vague
impressions regarding temperature, the most important of all the elements of climate.
This great invention soon bore excellent fruit. Fahrenheit constructed small and portable
thermometers, which, being carried by medical men and travelers over every part of the
world, furnished observations of the most valuable description — the comparative tempera-
ture of different countries became known, and the exaggerated accounts of travelers with
regard to extreme heat and cold were reduced to their proper meaning. Scaicely less
important was the introduction of the hy^ometer (q.v.), tnX systematieallv used by
Da Saussure (died 1799), and afterwards improved by Dalton, Daniell, ana August.
From the period of t)ie invention of these instruments, the number of meteor I'ogic a!
observers greatly iacreased, and a large body of well-authenticated facts of tlie I'most
yalue was collected. The climates of particular parts oi the earth were detenxdncu, un<i
' * Digitized by VjOUVIC
ir^O Metemp«yolio*ls.
* "^^ Jtet«orolof(y.
the seieDce made great and rapid advances by tlie investigations undertaken by distin-
guulied philosophers into the laws which regulate the changes of the atmospheric
phenomena.
Tlie theory of the trade-winds was first propounded by George Hadley In the PMlo-
9ophic<U Tran»aethn9 for 1789; and it may be meutioneti as a remarkable fact that for about
Imlf a century it remained quite unnoticed, when it was independently arrived at by
Dalton, and published in his essavs.
The publication of Dalton's MeteorologictU Essays, in 1703, marks an epoch in mete-
^orology. It is the first insUince of the principles of philos()pl;y being brought to bear on
the explanation of the intricate phenomena of the atmosphei'e. The fdea, that vapor, is
an independent elastic ftuid, and that all elastic fluids, whether alone or mixed, exist
independently; the great principles of motion of tlie HJtmospheve; the theory of winds^
their effect on the barometer, and tlieir relation to the temperature and rain; observations
on the height of clouds, on thunder, and on meteors; and the relations of magnetism aud
the aurora t)orealis, are some of the important questious discussed in these remarkable
essays, with an acuteness, a fullness, and a breadth of view that leave little to be desired.
One of the most interesting and truthful subjects of inquiry that eugiiged the atten-
tion of meteorologists was dew. The observations on this subject were first collected and
reduced to a perfect theory by Dr. Wells. See Dew.
In 182S3 Daiiiell published his Meteorological Essayi and Observations, which, while
adding largely to our knowledge in almost every department of the subject, are chiefly
valuable as bearing on the hygrometry of the atmosphere. Though the practical advan-
tages which be anticipated would flow from it have not been realized, yet this difli-
cult and still obscure department of meteorology stands indebted to him more than to
any other philosopher. The law of the diffusion of vaiK>r through the air, its influence
on the barometric pressure, and its relations to. the otlier constituents of the atmo:»phere
are among the least satisfactorily^ determined questvins in meteorology. Since this ele-
ment is so important as an indicator of storms and other chimges of the weather, and
since so much remains still to be achieved, it is to be hoped that it will soon be more
thoroughly investigated. A most important addition lias hxtely been made to our knowl-
edge of the vapor of the atmosphere bv professor Tyndall, in his experiments on radiant
heat, especially as regturds the gases, i'lic vapor of water is tliere shown to exert extraor-
dinary encrgv as a radiant aud abs3rbcnt of heat; and hence the vapor dissolved in
the air acts the part of a covering or protection to the earth. As it is, to some extent,
impervious to solar and terrestrial raaiation, it follows ttiat if tlie air were quite draine<l
of its moisture, the extremes of heat aud cold would be so intense and insufferable
that all life would instautlv perish, there being no screen shielding the earth from the
scorching glare of the sun by day and from the equally scorching and blighting effects
of its own radiation by night. It is to be expectcid that this great discovery will soon
throw light on many (]^uestious of meteorology.
Blectrical observations have been, of all meteorological observations, perhaps the
least productive, partly owing to their scantiness, from the expense and trouble attend
ing then), and partly, no douot, to the free and bad use made of the name of electricity
by crude theorists in explaining phenomena of which it would have been wiser to have
confessed Ih3ij- ignorance. But the brilliant discoveries which have recently been made
on the mutual relations of heat, motion, electricity, magnetism, and the other forces of
iniU^ter, lead us to indulge the hope that the application of these results to meteorology
will be attended with discoveries equally brilliant and important.
Humboldt's treatise on Iwtkei^mal Lines (1817) constitutes a notable epoch in experi-
mental meteorologjr. Dove has since continued the investigation, and in his splendid
work. On the DUtnhation of Heat on t/ie Surface of live Globe, has given charts of the world,
showing the temperature for each month and for the year, and also cliarts of abnormal
temperatures. It is scarcely possible to overestimate the value of this work, for though,
to a considerable extent, the lines are hypothetical, there can be no doubt that a clo^e
approximation to the march of mean temperature and its distribution over the earth through
the year has been arrived at. The idea has been carried out with greater fullness of detail
by tile United States government in the beautiful and elaborate series of charts of tcm-
I^erature and rainfall ^iven in the^rm^ Meteorological Register for ld5o. In these charts
the temperature and rainfall in the different seasons for every part of the United Suites,
deduced from accurate observations, maybe seen at a glance. Buchan has publisheir
isothermals for the British isles. Mohn for Norway, and Blandford for Hindustan; and
isothermalff for the sea have been published by the admiralty.
The establishment of meteorological sodeties during the last twenty years must also
be commemorated as contributing in a high degree to the solid advancement of the
science which, more than any other, must dcpena on extensive and carefully conducted
observation. In this respect, the United Stales stand pre-eminent, the observers there
numbering nearly 800. Great Britain is also well represented in the English and Scot-
tish societies, which together number above 200 observers. In France, Germany, Uns-
sia, etc., the science is luso being widely cultivated. Owing to the disastrous flooding of
the Rhone, an inquiry has been carried on for several years, having for its object the deter-
mination of those 'Causes which affect the rainfall in the 'basins of 'the Rhone and
SaOne. Observccs in Germany and Great Britain have been secured to co-opemte^th
the French observers, and under the management of h commission it maybe expected
that important couchisions respecting the rahifall and tlic progress of storms will be
arrived at, and means devised to avert the calamity of these great floods by timely warn-
ing l)eing given of tlieir approach.
A special object of meteorological societies is to ascertain the degrees of heat, cold,
and moisture in various localities, and the usual periods of their occurrence, together
witii their elfects on the healiliof tlie people and upon the different agricultural produc*
lions; and by searching into the laws by which thegrowtiiof stich products isre^i- r
lated the agriculturists may beentibled to'judge>'ith some degree of certainty wlicuicr
any given aiticle can be profitably cultivated.
But perhaps none ot the arts have benefited to so hvrge an extent by the laliors of
meteorologists, as navigation. The linowtedge thus acquired of the prevailing ^windi
over the different parts df 'the earth during the different seasons of the year — and the
regions of storms and calni&— and the laws of stoi*ms, have both saved innumerable
lives, and by pointing out the most expeditious routes to be followed, shortened voyages
to a remarkable degree. In connection with this, the name of Captain Maury (q. v,)
deserves special commendation for the signal sei*vicc he hais rendered to navigation.
Another fruit of tiie mnltipiicatlou of meteorological stations is the prediction of
storms and " forecasts" of the weather, which have been carried on in the United States,
and commenced with ability and success by Admiral Pitzroy in England, These
••forecasts '* are based on telegrams which are received every morning from above forty
selected stations in Great Britain and Ireland, and on the continent, from Hai>aninda as
far south asf Lislwu. These telegi-ams give the exact state of the barometer, thermom-
eter, hygrometer, and rain-gimge, with the direction and force of the wind, and appear-
ance of the sky, at each of these forty stations at eight in the morning. In the eveut of
there being any storm or other atmosi)heric disturbance at one or more of these places, a
full and aeeurate description of it is thus conveyed to London; and it is thence the duty
of the officials there to cotisider the direction in which the storm is moviuc, so as to
enable them to give warning of its approach Ijy special signals. But in acid it ion to
warnings of stoims, Fitzroy also issued daily '• f'orecasts" of the weather likely to occur
in the different districts of Great Britain for the following two days, and which were in
like manner founded on the state of the atmosphere at distant points, keepiftg In view
the atmospheric currents known generally to prevail at that particular time of the year.
As the cost of this system was about £2000 annually, a severe test was applie<l, at tlie
instance of the Treasury, from July 1861 to June 1882, for the purpose of ascertainim^
whether the expenditure was justified by the success attending it. During the fli-st six
months. 413 signals were hoisted, and in 214 cases a storm occurred where a wamin:;
was given. It must not be inferred that in the remaining 199 cases there was no storm
anywhere; all that was meant was, that no storm o<»curr5l at the places where flie signal
wjis given; but a stonn may have occurred, and probably did occur, in some other part
of the country. Now that the system has been longer in use, the signals are given ffom
a l)etter knowledge of the movements of the Atmosphere, so that if the test were Jigain
applied, the numl)er of failures would be found to be much fewer. Since the barom-
etric depixjssion is in almost all cases spread over a wider area than the storm whicli
accompanies it, and since the storm occasionally passes into the upixjr regions of the
atmosphere, so as to be less felt on the earth's surface at that place, it is obvious that a
considerable time must yet elapse before a sufficiently intimate knowledge of the move-
ments of the air l)e acquii'ed in order to indicate with certaintv tlie particular plaices
where the storm will break out, and where it will not. The problem to be practically
worked out is this: Given the telegrams from the stations showing llie exart meteoro-
logical conditions prevailing over the included area, witli indications of a storm
approaching in a certain direction, to determine, not tlie probable area over which the
tempest will sweep, but the precise localities which will aUogetlier escape, the places
where the storm will rage, and the places where it will not touch the earth, but. pass
innocuously into the upper regions of the atmosphere; its continuance, its violence, and
the particular directions from which the wind will blow at the places visited by the
s*orm while it lasts. Considerable progress has already been made towards the soluli<m
of this difficult problem; and if a complete solution be impossible, such an approxima-
tion to a solution will doubtless be arnved at as will render it foolhardy to disregard the
warnings given.
But these predictions only extend to a few days. Does the present state of tlie
6cien(;e afford any grounds to hope that prediction for longer periods will yet Ix;
attained ? Weather-registers extending over long periods give no countenance whatever
to the notion, that there are regularly recuning cycles of weather on which pretliction
may Ikj l)Hsed. Further, the manner in which good and bad seasons occur in diJTerent
]>lnces with respect to each other, shows dcnrly that they have little direct immediate
de]>('ndence on any of the heavenly bodies, but tliat they depend directly on terrestrial
ranses. Thus, while the smnmer of 1861 was almost unpreccdentedly wet and cold in
Seoilind, the same summer wjis hot and dry to a degree equally unprecedented on the
continent of Europe, and particularly in Italy; and such examples may be multiplied
almost €kI inrftnitun*
The assumption that the cquatorlai and polar currents of wind at ^nyj|«^ty may
•"*^ Meteorology.
ultimately balance each other, would appear, from recent ohservation, to give some
grouutl for predlclion extmiding over considerable intervals. Thus, a wet summer was
j)rc<iicted for Britain in 1862, from the circumstance of a most unusuul prevalence of
e. winds in the spring of that year. An almost incessant continuance of 8.w. winds
forllowed, which discharged themselves in deluges of rnin. clouded skies, and a conse-
quent low temperature. .As these s.w. winds prevailed till the spring of 1868. less s.w.
wiud was looked frtr during the summer, which was thus expected to be fine and warm—
a prediction which was realized. Tiiis prediction holds in about three cases out of
four.
The following are a few standard* works on Metcorolocry, in addition to those
already referred to: L. P. Kaemtz's Afeteordogy, trnnslated irom the German (T.ond.
lS4oh Dr. Ernst Erhard Schmid's Lehrhuclt der lieieoiologie (Leipz. 1860); Professor
J!,>m^^ Fourth Report on Meteorology (Washington, 1857); Drew's ifete6rology, a useful
haudliook (Loud. 2ded. 1860); llerschers MeteoroU^y (1861): D. P. Thomson's Introdvc-
thn to Meteorology (ISid)] Buchau's Handy Book of Meteorology {IS6S)\ Loomis' TreatUe
on Meteorology (1868).
METEOROLOGY {anfe). The advancement in meteorological science in recent years
has been mainly in the direction of the application of the laws of storms to practical use,
in foretelling perlurbalions in the interest of commerce and navigation. In this direction
great progress has been made, as to which, see Sionai. Service of the United States.
From the accumulation of statistics and history In this department, the following
information concerning the government and private machinerj' for metcorologiciH
observation in different countries, is compiled: The first internhtiotial meteorological
congrcj-s occurred at Vienna, in September, 1878, when eighteen governments were
represented by delegates officially apnointed. This congress had been preceded by the
Brussels maritime conference in 1858, the conference at Leipsic m 1872, and the meet-
ing at Bortleaux in the latter year. The object of these meetings was to establish an
international and reciprocal meteorological svstem for the benefit of the countries
participating, and indeed of the civilized world. T his object li^as so far effected that a
strong interest was awakened in the subject on the part of the different governments, and
a jKjrmanent committee was appointed wLich holds annual meetings. Among those— and
chief among them— who have labored unselfishly to awaken interest in the study of the
laws of storms should be ever remembered the names of Redfield, Espy, Fitzroy, Reid.
and Maury; besides Humboldt, Dove, Bitter, Sabine, Kfimtz, and Ilerschel, who preceded
them in the same field. Through the efforts of some of these meteorologists the mfoima-
tion gained by the experience of navigators has been 'collated and analyzed, and a veiy
cH>mplete knowledge of ocean meteorology has l)een obtained; while the storms of the
Indian ocean and the law of cyclones have been studied byMeldrum, with the assistance
of the Mauritius meteorological society, to the great advantage of the \xorld's information
on the science. The first effort in the direction of making regidar meteorological obser-
vations in the United States wafl made in 1818 at milifary posts, under the dircctioh
of surgeon general Lovell. and as these are still continiK d, they form the oldest uidnoken
national scries of the kind in existence. Certrtin of the Mates afterwards entertained the
idea, and New York from 1825-1863. Penn.sylvania 1885-1842, Ohio in 1842, and Illi-
nois in 1856, formed organizations fpr the same purpose, but which have all been dis-
continued. Besides the information obtained from these sources, there has been nuich
service performed in a desultory way by the Franklin institute, Smithsonian institution,
state boards of health, agricultural and geological societies, and other organizations, as
well as by special expeditions. Half a century ago, James P, Espy, an enthusiast, as
well as a clear headed observer, devoted himself to the study of meteorology, and by lec-
tures and writing sought to popularize the subject. In 1836 he wrote a memoir which
gained for him the Magellanic premium awarded by the American philosophical swriety ;
and in 1841 appeared his Philosophy of StojtnSj which ptd)lication completely revo-
lutionized the sum of scientific opinion on the subject. The following year he was
appointed meteorologist in the surgeon-general's ofilce of the war department, and having
already begun the practice of weather-mapping, he continued it (laily. His first pub-
lished report in 1848 is acknowledged to have been "by far the most important contribu-
tion to our knowledge of storms that had then -been made by any government in the
world." This was in 1848; and on Mr. Espy being transferred to the navy department,
he published two other reports, dated 1849 and 1851 respectively. His fourth report
was uuide to the U. S. senate m 1864. Mr. Espy died in 1857, at the age of 72, having
devoted forty years of his life to meteorological study and investigation. Thus much is
here given concerning this remarkable man, l)eciiusc of the influence which he exerted, and
which doubtless gave the timely impetus that resulted in placing the United States in
the front rank among those nations that have given its due importance to the study of
meteorology. This study, with its accompanying rec^ni of observation, is prosecutetl in
the United States at the following points, 1. The independent observatories at Cam-
bridge, Washington, Albany, and rfew York Central Park. 2. The state weather ser-
vices of Iowa, receiving reports from 80 observers; Missouri, with 100 observers; awl
Nebraska; which all publisli monthly reviews and annual reports. 8. The state boards
of health for Michigan, New Jersey, etc. 4. The state boards oi^^agii^i^t^i^^^i^lUj^iR,
Meteorology. ' '^^
Ohio, etc. 5. The «tale schools of ogriculture at Lansiaf, Mich., and Boston and
Amherst, Mass. 6. The Central Pacific railroad company land office, which receives
reporta from 120 stations. 7. The army engineer bureau lake survey, which has maiu-
tatned 8 or 10 important stations on the lakes. 8. The geological and geographical sur-
veys of western territories (Wheeler's, Hayden's, Poweirs. etc.), and the iT S. coast spr-
vey. 9. The hydrographic office of the navy department, which maintains an hourly
series of observatioas on every vessel in commission, and at all naval stations, and pub-
hshes important charts relating to ocean meteorology. 10. The army surgeon-genertirs
office, the Smithsonian Institution, aud the affricultural department. Of these three the
firot continues its observations imd the second its publications, although most of the data
are transferred to the army signal office. . 11. The army signal office,, division of reports
and telegrams for the benefit of commerce and agriciUture. This 'last-named organiza-
tion, whose meteorological work began by order of con^pess in February, 1870, far
exceeds all other similar organizations in the world. It mamtains 166 regular, 28 sunset,
80 river, and about 10 temporary West India stations. It also receives reports from 95
army-post surgeons. 800 voluntary civilian or Smithsonian observers, 120 railroad em-
ployes (mostly in California), about 150 observers through the state organizations in Iowa,
Missouri, and Kanaas, about 40 vessels and stations of the navy, about 20 merchant vessels
through their respective owners, aud about 890 foreign stations through the central
offices of their respective countries. Rainfall reports are thus obtained from about -870
stations within the United States. It publishes a triweekly bulletin and map, with pre-
dictions based on tri-daily telegraphic reports from 85 additional stations; displays cau-
tionary storm- signals at about 80 coast stations; bulletins the state of the rivers and
cominff floods: distributes farmers' bulletins or predietions to over 6,000 post-offices;
furnishes special predictions to several hundred railroad telegraph offices; and publishes
a weekly weather chronicle, a monthly weather review with charts of American storms,
temperature, rain, and ocean storms, and an annual report. It also prints for exchange
a daily bulletin of international simultaneous oljscrvations, with daily chart of the winds,
temperature, and pressure throughout the northern hemisphere. This is based on about
700 reports from land and sea contributed by all nations, and made simultaneously witji
those that are made at 7 h. 85 m. a.m. at Washington, or 12 h. 43 m. p.m. at Green-
wich. In the prosecution of its meteorological work and in order to carry out tlie sys-
tem of frontier defenses, and in cooperation with the life-saving service on the United
States coast, tlie signal service also builds and maintains lines of telegraph, of which it
now controls about 8,000 m. on the Atlantic coast and in the s.w, and n.w. territories.
The service employs the whole time of about 15 officers aud 475 men, and a portion of the
time of about 150 others. The meteorological service of foreign countries is now sustained as
follows (1878): West Indies. — Numerous stations are supported in these islands by tlie
respective home governmenta. The U. S. signal service maintains about 10 stations dur-
ing the hurricane season. The principal independent stations are at Havana, Cuba;
Kingston, Jamaica; and in Barbadoes and Porto Rico. Great Britain.— The metcorolo^-
cal committee of the royal society have charge of the meteorological work, with office m
London. There are 7 stations properly equipped, receiving telegraphic reports from 29
British stations, and publishing daily weather-maps, bulletins, storm-warnings and sig-
nals, quarterly and annual reports, etc. It receives observations from several hundred
vessels at sea, and from about 80 voluntary observers on land. 'besides minor stations.
The medical department of the army also maintains observers at the forts throughout the
British colonies, some of which report to the London office. The royal engineera and
ordnance survey offices also maintain several stations. The different meteorological
societies of the empire publish memoirs which contain reports from different sta-
tions. Wind and current charts and pilot charts are published by the hydrographer to
the admiralty, ba«ed on observations made on sliipboard. France.— Observations are
maintained smce 1878 by the bureau centrale de meteorologie, the departments of France
preserving their separate organizations. The meteorological association of France has its
own stations. The bureau centrale publishes daily bulletins, weather-charts and storm-
warnings, and in conjunction with the association scientifique de France, issues the
annual volumes of the Atlas metfiorologique de France. The meteorological association
corresponds with about 50 obsei-vers in aiflferent parts of the world. Glermany. — The
headquarters of the meteorological system is in Hamburg, and maintains aboXit 40 sta-
tions (27 telegiaphic), publishes daily weather-maps and predictions, storm-warnings, and
monthly weather reviews, and receives a large number of logs from German vessela.
The German forest commission maintains several stations for meteorological observa-
tions. There are subordinate organizations with stations in Bavaria. Baden, Prussia,
Saxony, and Wttrtemberg; with headquarters respectively at Munich, Carlsruhe, Berlin,
Leipsic, and Stuttgart. The whole number of well-equipped stations in Germany is about
200, and slowly increasing. Russia.— Observations are made at most of the universities,
and published in full independently at Dorpat, Helsin^ora, Tiffis, and Moscow. The cen-
tral meteorological office is at St. rctersbiirg, and receives reports from 130 well-equipped
(50 telegraphic), 220 rainfall, and 810 thunder-storm stations, distiibuted throughout the
Bussian possessions, abstracts of which are published annually. The central office pub-
lishes a daily telegraphic bulletin, displays storm-signals, and publishes volumes of
mem^Hrs ana investigations. The academy of sciences and the geographical society aid
Digitized by VjOUV IC
747
MeteOroloflTi
in the advancement of the study. Italy.— Kumerous independent meteorologioU organi-
zatlons exist, the Italian alpine club publishing observaiions made at about 70 stHtions;
and the observatories at Moucalieri, Turin, Fesuro, Venice, Kaples, and Kome, issuing
their Qwn observations. A general Italian meteuruloglcal association was organized in
1877. Spain. — The central meteorological otiice is at iVIadrid, and receives reports iruiu
80 liome stations including Portuvnl (i^o teleflpniphic), all of which are published aimually.
A daily telegraph bulletin is pulHished, and storm- warnings are issued when sent Irom
Paris or London. In the Spanish colonies, the most important stations are at Manila
and Porto liico. Portugal. — 'the meteorological observatory at Lisbon receives reports
from 5 home and as many colonial stations, and from the vessels of the Portuguese navy.
The observations made at Coimbra and Lisbon are published in full. It ])ubli6he8 a daiiy
telegraphic bulletin (10 telegraphic stations), and repots the storm- warnings sent from
London and Paris. Belgium.— The royal 6baervatory at Brussels receives reports by
telegraph from 4. stations, and publishes daily weather-maps and predictions, annual
volumes of its own detailed observations, and of 4 Belgic and 4 Dutch iuternaiicmal and
of 86 Bel^c climatologic stations; also an annuadre, Austria and Hungary. — The ceu-
trnl meteorological institution at Vienna has charge of all observations made in the
empare, and receives reports from about 275 stations {2Q by telegraph, daily); it publishes
a daily bulletin, storm-warning signals, and annual volume of observations. In Boheuua
there are about 50 rainfall stations, and a similar system is arranged for Stvria. The
hydrographic office has charge of marine meteorology, with a school at Trieste and
observatory at Pola. There arfr also independent observatoiies at Cracow, Prague,
and Vienna, which publish their own observations. The central magnetic and
meteorological institution for Hungary is at Buda-Pesth, and was founded in
1870. It publishes annually reports from about 100 stations, mostly well equipped.
A summary fbr 32 stations m Carinthia is published monthly at Klagenturth.
Korway. — ^The royal meteorolo^^ical institute at Christiania receives reports from 10
full stations (7 telegraphic), 10 lighthouses, and a large number of minor stations, and
logs of vessels. A telegraphic daily bulletin has been published since 1861. The meteor-
ological observatory at Christiania was founde<l in 1886. Sweden.-r-About 80 stations
(9 telegraphic) and several naval vessels report to the central meteorological institute
at Stockholm, which publishes a daily telegraphic bulletin and annual volumes.
The Lund and Upstila observatories publish their own observations sepanuely.
Switzerland.— The central institute for Swiss mcteorolog}' has its seat at Zurich, and
publishes in full the observations at about 15 stations. Tlie totil numl)er of reporting
stations is about 80. The observatories ut Bern and Geneva publish their own work in
detail. The central office is maintained by the Swiss association and not by the state.
There are stations in Africa — in the Transvaal, at Zanzibar, Katal, and other places,
besides those in the large colonies; in Algeria observations are made under the direction
of tlie military authorities, a daily weather bulletin and chart are published, and about
20 observing stations are* maintained; at Cape Colony there is a meteorological commis-
sion instituted in 1861 and reorganized in 1874. It receives reports from 80 or 40 sta-
tions: the royal observatory at Cape Town maintains an independent scries of observations.
AnstraliH.— The several provincial governments maintain systems at Queensland, 5 tele-
graphic stations; New South Wales, 190 sttitions (35 telegraphic); South Australia, 110
stations (5 telegraphic); Victoria, about 40 stations (27 telegraphic). The centnd offices
of these are at Brisbane, Sydney, Adelaide, and Melbourne; there are also individual
stations at Melbourne, Windsor, and Hobart Town, which publish their own ol»cr-
vations. Ceylon. — About 80 stations report to the surveyor-general at Colombo, and
the reports are partially published. China.— Instruments for equipping about 20 stations
were obtained in 1874, but we have no reports. Egypt. — The principal service is that of
the lighthouse keepers, though observations are made at the observatories near Cairo ami
at Alexandria, and on the Suez canal. Japan. — Observations are made at the impennl
observatory and at the imperial colleges of mining and engineering, nnd a system of
records is preserved by the lighthouse keepera. Reports will >bc soon forthcoming also
from about 20 equipped stations. New iSealand. — About 20 meteorological stations are
maintained. Philippine islands. — The observatory of the Jesuit college at Manila,
in Luzon, is the onlv station permanently occupied, and publishes annually its obser-
vations. Netherlands. — The central meteorological institute maintains 14 full and 28
minor stations (4 telegraphic), issues storm- warnings, and publishes annual volumes.
Tliere are a large numT>er of rainfall stations. Its most important colonial station is at
Batavia. ' Denmark. — The royal Danish meteorological institute receives reports from 12
principal (8 by telegraph) and 70 minor stations in Denmark, also 5 from Icehind and 5
from Greenland. It publishes daily bulletins, annuiil volumes, and a daily chart of the
Atlantic ocean. Finland. — The scientific association at Helsingfors maintains 22
stations and publishes ils own results. The observatory at Helsingfors is independently
maintained. India.— The provinces of Bengal, the Punjab, the Northwest, Madras,
etc., maintain independent systems of meteorological reports. In 1875 a general
meteorological office was established in the department of revenue, agriculture, and com-
merce. About 800 stations report by mail to the head of this office daily, and about 50
toy telegraph. It publishes aaily, weekly, and monthly bulletins, and. special storm-
warnings. Chili. --An extensive system oi observations is maintained at Santiago,
Digitized by VjO^JV IC
Meteors* fjAQ.
Met©i> ( •*«5
. Rctiving regular reports from 13 or more Ftntions. Costa Rica. — There is c ccr.Jnil
ottlce for staiistics and meteorological obscrvtiticms, and a station at the capital. Aijicn-
tine liepublic. — The meteorological office is attached to the astronomical observatory,
about 3v) voluntary observers reportiii^. 'J'liere are also scattered stations in .tkmtli
America, at Quito, Lima, Rio Janeiro, Georgetown, Surinam, and Trinidad. M^xioa—
A central office in the capital publishes a daily telegraphic bulletin from about 30
stations, and monthly Bummaries. Canada and Newfoundland. — ^Tho Canadian meteo-
rological ofllce is under the minister of the marine, "who receives repprts from about 20
lirst-class (14 by telegraph) and about 140 minor stations, distributed throughout the
British possessions. It issues daily weather predictions and storm-warnings, and displays
storm-signals. Turkey. — The central observatory at Constantinople receives reports
from about 80 stiitions, publishes a daily telegraphic bullettn of 17 stations, and its awn
observations in full, and issues storm-warftings. Syria. — Observations are maintained at the
Syrian college (Protestant mission) In Beyrout, and a more extended system is understood
to have been recently organized under the British and American ** Palestine Explora-
tion" societies, Mauritius.— The meteorological association of Mauritius was estab-
lished in the year 1851. It has published irregularly monthly notices, maintains a large
number of rainfall sbitions, and gives warning of such stonns as are evidenlly about to
uuikc themselves felt in the vicinity of the island. Beyond this there is no mention of
any meteorological work progressing here.
IIETEOBS. The whole subject of meteors was treated in the body of the work
under the head of AfinoLiTEs. The subject, however, has sinte occupied a great deal
of attention, and there is at present a tendency on the part of astronomers and phydcists
to separate that class of meteors known as "shooting-stars" from the group of meteoro-
lites (which includes nero-siderites, or masses of meteoric iron; tiderdUtes, which arc
conglomerates of iron and stone; and aerolites, which are wholly of stone), on the
grounds that the most prominent appearances of the former are periodic, while the
latter seem to occur at irregular intei-vals, and that the former have hitherto not been
proced to leave any traces of their visit on the earth's surface. We are, however, hardly
as yet in a position to decide as to the similarity or dissimilarity of the two classes of
bodies.
Popular interest has been lari^ely aroused respecting "shooting^stars," by reason of
the brilliant display of tiiem which took place on the night of rfov. 18, i866. Tliis
** star-shower," the grandest that has ever been observed in Britain, was confidently pre-
dicted, from the occurrence of a similar shower at the corresponding date in 1799,1883,
and 1884; and the extremely favorable state of the atmosphere rewarded those who were
on the watch with a complete view of one of nature's most magnificent displays. The
shower commenced about IH P-'m,, with the appearance at brief intervals of singk'
meteors; then they came in twos and threes, steadily and rapidly increasing in ntiin^
till Ih. 13m. A.M. on Nov. 14, when no fewer than 67 appeared in one minute. From
this time the intensity of the showier diminished gradually, wholly ceasing about 4 a.m.
The total number of meteors which at that time came within the limits of the earth's
atmosphere was estimated at about 240,000, and the number seen at each of the several
observatories in Britain averaged nearly 6,000. This star-shower, like those of 1838 and
1834, seemed to proceed from tl^e region of the heavens marked by the stars C and ^ in
the constellation Leo; and it has been shown by astronomers that this was the point
towards which the earth in her orbit was moving at the time; consequently, she had
either overtaken tbe meteoric shower, or had " met it proceeding in a contrary direction.
The meteors on that occasion presented the usual variety of color, size, and duration; the
great majority were white, with a bluish or yellowish tinge; a considerable number were
red and orange; and a few were blue; many surpassed the fixed stars in luster, and
some were even brighter than Venus (the most brilliant planet as seen from the
earth) at her maximum. Most of the meteors left trains of vivid green light 5" to 15* in
length, which marked their course tlyough the heavens, and endured for 8' on an
average, then becoming dissipated; though some of the trains were almost 40° in leii^h.
and remained in sight for several minutes. Prof. Airy observed that the direction of
the meteors' flight was little influenced by the earth's attraction.
On the morning of Nov. 14, 1867, a star-shower equal in magnitude to that of 1866
was observed in France and America, but was almost wholly invisible in Britain, on
account of the cloudy state of the atmosphere.
The brilliant display of 1866 gave a vigorous impulse" to the nstronomical investiga-
tion of shooting-stars, and it is n(fw generally agreed that the Noveml)er meteors move
in an orbit round the sun, inclined at about 7' to tluit of the earth, and that, in all proba-
bility, this orbit forms a ring or belt of innumerable small fragments of matter, aistrib-
utt;d with very variable density of grouping along it. thns corresponding so far to the
planetoid (q.v.) group between Mars and Jupiter. It is also agreed that the motion of
this meteor ring round the sun is retrograde; that the earth's orbit at that point where
she is situated on Nov. 13-14 inlei-sects this ring; and that, probably, in 17©9. 1888-34,
and 1866-67, it is the same group of meteors which has lieen observed; and tlic laat-
mentioned hypothesis has been made the foundation of a calculation of the probable
orbit and pcnodic time of this meteor-ring. The fact that a November star-sbowcr
Digitized by VjiOOV IC
generally occurs for two vears m Bucoession, and tben recurs at an interval of 9!^ or 83
years, seems to indicate that tliougb tlie eartli may pass through the meteor-orbit evcr>'
year, the meteors are so grouped at intervals along the ring, and their periodic time
difTers so much from that of the earth, tliat it requires 83*^3 years before this accuiuu-
latiug difference amounts to a complete revolution of either the earth or the ring, and a
repetition of the stsir-shower becomes possible.
Prof. Newton- of Yale College, Americ*i, who entered into an elaborate investigation
of tlie subject, concluded that the 5 possible periodic times (the eartli^s being taken as
unity) of the meteor-ring were ^±rt^B* I^tt.W* ^^^ ttVy* ^^^ ^^^ of them the
fourth, 1— tvVt' ^^ 85162 days, is the actual period of its revolution round the sun, and
ihat, consequently, it has described 84 revolutions while the earth has described 88, the
cycle of 84 meteor levolations differing from 38 yeara by only 8J7 days; and in accord-
ance with tliiB- estimate, ha oalouUtea its orhit and the approximate ejctcut (seemg tlie
meteor shower generally occurs in two successive years) of the meteor-group which
prodaoes the luirember showers. Hie conchisions have, however, been vigorously
opposed by other eminent astronomers, such as Prof. Adams (q. v.) and Hr. Alexander
Uerschel, both of whom hold that the flrst four of the possible periods given by Prof.
Kewton are impomble, and that the last, ^Vr 0*^** ^^^ ^^^ meteor-ring makes ^^ Vr of a
solar revolution in a year, and one complete revolution round the sun in 83.25 years), Ls
the correct estimate. If this view be correct, the meteor-group must be so much extended
along its ring or orbit as to take more than a year to cross the earth's orbit, and a long
time must necessarily elapse before a fair estimate of Ita extent can be obtained. A
periodic time of 83^ yetu-s, and an orbit which at the same time ap{>roaGhes so near the
sun as to intersect that of the earth, indicate a path of great elllpticity, akin to those of
the comets; and the idea of the cometary nature of these meteors derives support from
two remarkable facts, the one discovered by Bchiaparelli of Milan, that this assumed
orbit coincides very nearly with that of the great comet of 1862 (Prof. Adams connects
this comet with tbe August meteors), and the other by C. F. W. Peters of Altona, that it
coincides with that of Tempel's comet.
Mr, Alexander Hei-schel also maintains that the meteors are of recent origin, probably
fragments from some of the great luminous bodies, and that though at present assembled
in a comparatively dense group, the difference of their relative velocities will have the
effect of gradualiy distributing them nil over the meteoric ring, when a November
shower will occur every year. Mr. Hei*schel also carefully observed 20 meteors with the
view of calculating thcirVeight, froni the rate of their motion and the amount of heat
(as shown by their brightness) evolved in the destruction of their velocity, by the resist-
ance of the atmosphere, and found their weight to vary from 80 gr. to 7^ lbs.
The cause of tuc luminosity of meteors was long a point in dispute, the two chief
suppositions being, that the resistance of the atmosphere to a body dashin|T ihrou^t it at
about 30 miles per second, generated so much heat as to produce ignition; while the
other was the action of terrestrial magnetism. The point most strongly urged against
the first supposition, by the supporters of the second, was, that the height at which
meteors were occasional! v seen rendered any action of the atmosphere impossible; but as
tliis objection was founded on the purely hypothetical opinion that the atmosphere did
not extend more than about 50 m. from the earth's surface, it was not very cogent. This
problem was handled by sir John Uerschel in an able paper published in the lEdinhurgJi
Mctiew (January, 1848), in which he clearly showed that the very high latent heat of the
air in the higher and rarer parts of the atmosphere would be sufficient to cause an enor-
mous development of heat in the event of the air being compressed before a body advanc-
ing into it with a "planetary" velocity. This opinion is now held by almost all eminent
men of science. The enonnous heat to which the meteor is thus subject produces incan-
descence, after which, with more or less facility, according to the nature of the materials
of which the meteor is composed, the outer portion becomes liquid, and. by the power-
ful resistance of the air to the meteor's rapid course, is thrown off in a long stream,
forming the tail, which, after rapidly losing Us velocity, is precipitated to the earth as a
flue duht like volciinic ash; while the meteor, thus rapidly and constantly diminishing cs
it flies along in its headlong course, either becomes wholly dissipated into "tail," falls to
the earth, or makes its way out beyond the limits of the earth's atmosphere, and contin-
ues its course. This supposition of exclusive at mos])heric agency also gives a plausible
explanation of the phenomenon of meteors " bursting," this being caused bv the sudden
heating and consequent expansion of the outer part, while the interior was still in the state
of intense cold acquired while in interplanetary space.
While astronomers and physicists in general have been thus tiying to reduce the phe-
nomena of meteors to u system, their chemical brethren have not been idle. Public
collections of meteoric bodies have been made at Vienna, the British museum, Paris,
Berlin; and private ones by Mr. Greg of Manchester, baron Heichcnbach in Austria, and
prof. Shepard in America; and opportunities have thus been afforded of determining the
nature of their composition.
XETBB (Gr. measure) is that regulated succession of certain groups of syllables in
which poetry (q.v.) is usually written. A greater or less number of groups forms a Une
or verse (Lat. a turning), and in modem languages, the verses usually rhyme with one
jTtteK
750
another; althongh this is not at all csseotial to tlie notion of mster. See RsmfK,
Blank Ykrbr,' In the classic langua^, meter depended upon tlie way in whicli long
and short syllables were made to succeed one another. English meter depends, not upon
the distinction of long and short, but upon that of aeeeuted and unaccenM sylUUes.
Thus, in the Hoes,
The cu'rlfew to'lls | the kne'Il J of pa'rtiing da'y —
"Wa'rriors and | chi'efs, sliould the f shaft or the | swo'rd —
the accents occur at regular interrals; and the groups of syllables ttiua formed consititatc
eiich a meter or measure. The groupa of long and short syllables composing the meters
of classic verse were caWedfeei, each foot having a dislinctiTe name. Tlie i«aiiie names
are sometimes applied to English measures, an acoented syllable in English iMfing lield to
be equivalent to a long syllable in Latin or Gh^eelL, and an unaccented syllable to a
short.
Every meter in English contains one accented sylhible, and either one or two unaocented
syllables. As the accent mayl)e on the fiiBt, second, or third syllable of the group, there
thus arise live distinct measures, two dissyllabic and thi^ee trisyUabic. as seen in the
words— 1, fo'lly (corresponding to the classic Trochee); 2, reca'Jl (Iambus); 9, te'rribly
(Dactyle); 4, confu'sion (Amphibrachys); 5, absentee' (Anapiest).
These measures are arranged in Hnes or ueruM, varying in length in different pieces,
and often in the same piece. The ending measure of a line is fr^uently incomplete, or
has a supernumerary syllable; and sometimes one measure is substiiuteil for another.
All that is necessary is, that some one measure he so predominant as to give a character
to the verso. Constant recurrence of the same measure produces monotony. The fol-
lowing lines exemplify the Ave measures:
lit Measure,
Bi'ch the | trea'sure.
Be'tterlsi'xty | yea'rs of | Europe | than a | cy'cle | of Caltha'y.
2d Measure,
Alo'ft I in a'wiful sta'te.
HiQ pro'pier stu'diy of | manki'nd | is ma'n.
9d Measure,
Bi'nl of the I wi'ldemess.
Wa'rriors and | chi'efs, should the | sha'f t or the | swo'rd.
4th Measure,
The de'w of | the mo mlng.
O you'ng Loch|«nva'r has | come ou't of | the we'st
5th Measure,
As they ro'ar | on the sho're.
The Assy'riian c>ame do'wn | like a wo'lf | on the fo'ld.
It is instinct! velv felt that some of these measures are belter suited for particular subjects
than others. Tlius. the first has a brisk, abrupt, enei^gctic character, agreeing well with
lively and gay subjects, and also with the intense feeling of such pieces as JScot* uhmhne.
The secona is by far the most usual meter in English poetry ; it occurs, in fact, most
frequently in the ordinarjr prose-movement of the language. It is smooth, gi'aceful, and
Btntely; readily adapting itself to easy narrntlve, nnd the expression of the gentler feel-
ings, or to tlie treatment of severe and sublime subjects. The trisyllabic meters, owing
to the number of unaccented syllables in them, are rapid in their movement, and calcu-
lated to express rushing, boimding, impetuous feelings. They are all less regular than
the dissyllabic meters. One of them is frequently substituted for another, as in tlie
opening'of Byron's Bride of Abydoe :
Kno'w ye the | la'nd where the 1 cy'press and | my'rtle
Are emblems | of dee'ds that | are do'ne in I their cli'mc;
Where the ra'ge | of the vu'llture, the lo've | or the tu'rltle—
where each of the three lines is in a different meter. In addition to this irrcprularity,
one of the unaccented syllables is often wanting. For instance, in Mrs, Hemans's poem,
The Voice of Spring :
I co'mc, I I co'me ! | ye have ca'lled | me lo'ng;
I co'me I o'er the mou'nitains with li'ght | ana so'ng—
he first line lios only one measure of three syllables, although the general character of
Ihe versification is tfisylhibic.
In a kind of verse introduced by Coleridge, and used occosionallv by Byron and
others, the unaccented syllables are aitogethsr left out of account, and the versincation is
made to depend upon having a regular number of accents in the line: jUUV IC
761 X«Ur.
There i's not vi'nd enon'gh to twi'rl
The o'ne red le'af, the la'st of its cla'n, .
That da'nces as o'ften as da'nce it ca'n
On the to'pmost twi'g that looks u'p at the sky'.
Here there are four accents in each line, but the number of syllables yarles from efght to
eleven.
To Mem a line or group of Unes, is to divide it into the measures of whidi it is com-
posed.
The variety of combinations of meters and rhymes that maybe formed is endless;
but a few of the mope usual forms of ^glish verslfieution have received special names,
and these we may hnsAy notice.
MotyUabies are verses made up each of four measures of the second kind of meter, and
therefore containing eight (octo) syllables:
With fru'UUesa la'ibor* Cfla'tra bau'nd
And stro've | to sta'nch | the gu'ahiiog wo'und.
Scott's poems are mostly in octosyllabics, and so is Eudibras, and many other pieces.
Heroie is a term applied to verses containing Jfr^ meters of the second kind, or ten
syllables. Heroics either rhyme in couplets, or are without rhymes, constituting blank
verse. Many of the chief narrative and didactic poems iu the English language are in
rhymingheroics; as ttiose of Chaucer, Dryden, Pope, Cowper, etc. Milton's two great
poems. Young's Night TIhouglU$, Tlioiuson's Seaso7i$, Cowper's Task, Wordsworth's
MeeunioUf and many others, are written in blank heroic^. JMetricnl dramas are almost
always in blank verse; in which case there is frequently a supernumerary syllable, or
even two» at the end of the line;
To be, I or not | to be, | that is | the qnes\tion:
Whether | 'tis nolbler in | the mind | to mt\fer.
In Elegiaes, the lines are of the same length and the same measure as in heroics; but
the rhymes are alternate, and divide the poem into quatrains or stanzas of four lines, as
in Gray's Blegy. The Spenserian stanza, populai-ized by Spenser in the Fairy Queen, ,
and much used by Byron, differs from common heroics only in the arrangement of the
rhymes, and in concluding with an Alexandrine (q. v.)
Service meter, also called eommon meter, is the form of versification adopted in the
metrical Psalms, in many hymns, and other lyrical pieces. From being frequently
emoloyed in ballads, this meter is also called batiad meter. The first and third lines often
rhyme, as well as the second and fourth.
Such are some of the more usual and definite forms of versification. In many poems,
eepeciaUy the more recent ones, so much license is assumed, that it is difficult to trace any
regular recurrence or other law determining the changes of meter, or the lengths of the
lines; the poet seeks to suit the modulation at every turn to the varying sentiments. But
it may be questioned whether much of this refinement of ait is not thrown awav, upon
ordinary readers at least, who, failing to* perceive any special suitableness, arc fnclmed
to look upon those violent departures from accustomed regularity as the results of
caprice.
The kind of verse called kexametei' is described under it9 own name.
XZTSB, the basis of the "metricar* or modem French system of weights and
measures, and the unit of length. The first su^estion of a cha:jgc in tlie previous sys-
tem dates as far back as the time of Philippe le Bel ; but up till 1790 no important change
had been effected. On May 8, 1790, proposals were made by the French government to
the British, for the meeting of an equal number of members from the academy of sciences
and the roval society of London, to determine the length of the simple pendulum vibrat-
ing seconds in lat. 45** at the level of the sea, with the view of making this the unit of a
new system of measures. The British government, however, did not give this proposal
a favorable reception, and it fell to the ground. The French government, impallent to
effect a reform, obtained the appointment by the academv of sciences of n commission
composed of Borda, Lagrange, Laplace, Monge, and Condorcet, to choose from the fol-
lowing three, the length of tne pendulum, of the fourth part of the equator, and of the
fourth part of the meridian, the one best fitted for their purpose. The commission
decided in favor of the last — ^resolving that the looAoop ^^ ^ quadrant of the meridian
(tlie distance from tlie equator to the pole, measured as along the surface of still water)
be t^en for the basis of the new system, and be called a ''merer.'* Delamlirc and
Mechain were inunediately charged with the measurement of the meridian between Dun-
kerque and Barcelona; and the result of their labors was referred to a committee of 20
members, 9 of whom* were French, the rest having been deputed by the governments of
Holland, Savoy, Denmark, Spain, Tuscany, and the Roman. Cisalpine, L'gurian, and
Helvetic republics. By this committee the length of the meter was found to be 448.290
Parisian lines, or 39.8707904 English inches; and standards of it and of the kilogmm
(see Oram) were constructed, and deposited among the archives of Fnmce, where
tUey still remam. The ** metrical system" received legal sanction Nov. 3, 1801. The .
Digitized by VjOUV IC
Muter. ^ftA
followins^ are tlie multiples fifid fractions of the meter wMch are In oonunon nee,
expressed in English measure :
Eogliah Inches.
Millimeter 0898707904
Centimeter 898707904:
Decimeter 8-93707904 English Feet English Tarfa.
Meter 89-8707904 ^' 8-2808993 cs 1*098688
Decameter 393-7fla904 = a»-808992 = 10-93638
Hectometer 8987 07904 s 838 08990 =: 109-8688
Kilometer. 89870*7904 :^ 8380-8992 = 1093-688
Myriameter 893707*904 = 32808:993 = 10986-88
From the meter tlie other principal units of measure and weight are at once dcriyed.
See Are, Liter, Gram, Franc.
METER (ante). It is probably that in reality the meter of the French archives is not
exactly what it was supposed when determined; for the measurement was made upon
the supposition that the earth is a regular spheroid having, an ellipticity of ^^, but it is
more probable according to the investigations of ^n. Schubert of the ftussian army and
capt. Clarke of the British ordnance survey that it has three unequal axes, and that tUe^
Paris meridian is a very little longer than was computed by the French mathematicians. *
Tlieir measurements were accurate and the computations upon tliem, but they measured
only 10" of the Paris meridian, and from this deduced the length of the quadrant. It
has, however, been computed that if there be an error in the ciilculaiion of the French
meridian, the prototype meter of the archives is as near as possible the ^uv^^vv P^^t of
the quadrant of the meridian which passes through New York.
In consequence of the discussion it was deemed advisable to have a meeting of an
international commission to settle the question; 80 independent powers were represented
in the commission which assembled at Paris in 1870. Their deliberations were inter-
rupted by the Franco-Prussian war, but were resumed, and resulted in an international
convention which established at Paris an international bureau of weights and measures
supported by contributions of the participating powei-s. This bureau was given the care
of the prototype standards, and other matters connected with the establishment of tlie
system, and its adoption by other powers. The commission came to the conclusion that
the prototype meter, and also the kilogram of the archives, shall be recognized as stand-
ards irrespective of anydoubt5 as to their variation from the theoretical value of the
Paris meridian. See Metric Syotem.
* METER, GAS. See Gas, Lighting 3y, ante.
METHODIST CHURCH, FREE, organized in 1860 at Pekin, N. Y., by a convention
of ministers and laymen who were, or had l)een, members of the MetJiodist Episcopal
church. The various reasons which led to the movement may be summed up in the
conviction avowed that the Methodist church had declined from its original siniplieity
and spirituality. In proof of this it was alleged that many converts had been received
without sufficient evidence of repentance and ftonversion ; that worldly practices were
tolerated, and eugai>ing in unlawful business was allowed; that the direct witness of the
spirit was wanting in many professed Methodists; that power over all sin was not pos-
sessed, and that, while entire sanctification was not often even professedly attained, the
preaching concerning it was widely divergent and contradictory; that discipline was
generally neglected, and by some abandoned; that simplicity in dress had given place to
fashionable attirc; that free seats had been exchanged for pews; that choira and orpwB
had broken up congregational praise; that sermons were often resd instead of being
preached: that very costly church edifices were btiilt aiwi church fairs held; and tb^
oath-bound fellowship in' secret societies with ii-religtous men was tolerated, and even
encouraged. In the new organization, bishops were exchanged for general superin*
tendents, to be elected every four yearjj. Quadrennial, annual, quarterly, and dltttrici
conferences are held, and lay delegates equal in number to the ministers are admitted.
The otllcial board is retained. Attendance at class meetings is made a condition of
church membership. The preachers in charge nominate, an<l the classes elect ^elr
leaders. The office of presiding elder is retained under the name of district chairaifin.
The articles of faith are the same as those of the Methodist Episcopal church, with two
additional : one designed to give emphasis to the doctrine of entire sanctificatlon. and
the other to that of endless future rewards and punishment. No persons areailmitted
to church membership, even on probation, without professing to exercise giving fftitli in
(Jhrist. All members are also required to lay aside all superfluous ornaments of dress^ to
abstain from the use of intoxicating beverages and of tobacco, and not to join rot
society requiring an oath, affirmation, or promise of secrecy as a condition of member-
ship. The denomination has made some progitjss and cheiishes the hope of reviving
the spirit of primitive Methodism. Their reUffious services have mucli of the cAriy
warmth and zeal, and consrregational singing is nniversally practiced among thein.
They have two literary institutions, one at^North Chili, N. Y., and the other at Spiin|^
Arbor, Mich. : they are conducted in strict accordance "with the principles of the denomi-
nation, and are making fair progress. The work of the church has ^^|^^pg the poor
'r^Ct Meter.
• ^^ Metlu>dlBt.
and less educated classes, -whence chieli^r their ministers have been taken. They have
not as vet had time or opportunity to build up a denominational literature. A monthly
magame entitled llie Earned ChrisUan, and a weekly paper, I'Tie Free MethodUd,
acre well sustained. Several writers of considerable practical power are highly esteemed
within and bevond the denomination. In 1880 they reported 271 itinerant ministers,
828 local preachers, and 12,642 lay members.
METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH (Methodists, arUe) is the name assumed by
the Wesleyan Methodists in this country when, after the attainment of national indepen-
dence, they were organized as a denomination, under rules proposed bv John Wesley and
adopted by themselves. I. Their doctrine is set forth in 25 articles, formed from the 89
of the church of England by omitting some of them entirely and modifying severid
of the others, with the design to offer a broad and liberal basis on which the general body
of evangelical Christians might unite together in brotherly love. Since 1834 a restrictive
rule has removed from tlie authorities of the church all power to revoke, alter, or
change these articles of religion; or to establish anjfr new standards or rules of doc-
trine contrary to the existing and established doctnnai standards. Their theology is
s^led by themselves "Arminian," according to what they consider the true import
of the name as exhibited in Weslejr'g doctrinal sermons, Note$ on the New Teetamenty
and other writings. They adopt his doctrine concerning the "witness of the Spirit"
—called by many "assurance— which he defines as "an inward impression on the
soul, whereby the spirit of God immediately and direetly witnesses to my spirH
that I am a cliild of God; that Jesus Christ hath loved me and given himself for me;-
that all my sins are blotted out, and I, even I, am reconciled to God;" and in mak-
ing this impression Wesley supposes that the Holy Spirit "works upon the soul by
his immediate influence, and b^ a strong, though inexplicable, operation." Thev gener-
ally hold, also, the doctrine which many call " sanctification," or, as Wesley prefeired to
say, "Christian perfection," and which, as the intelligent among them affirm, negatively
" teaches no state, attainable in this life, like that of the angels, or of Adam in paradise,
or hx which there is an exemption from mistakes, ignorance, infirmities, or temptations;"
but positively, "that all saints may, by faith, be so filled with the love of God that aJl
the powers of the soul shall be recovered from the abnormal, perverted, sinful condition,
and, together with the odtward conduct, be controlled in entire harmony with love."
IL The government of the Methodist church is administered in a series of 6 oonferenoes
(see Conferences of the Methodist EpisoopiiL Chuegh), in addition to which the
leaders' and stewards' meeting, presided over by the pastor and consisting of all the class
leaders and stewards of his charge, has important functions connected with the well
being and efilciency of each particular church. Evangelization, to extend the work, and
supervision, to secure firmly all advantages gained, were at the beginning the two funda-
mental principles adopted, and they are still diligentljr maintained. The bishops preside
in the conferences; form the districts according to their -judgment; appoint the preachers
to their fields, permitting none to continue more than three successive years in the same
charge, except the presiding elders, whose term may extend to four years, and a few
others by special appointment; ordain deacons, elders, and bishops newly elected; travel
through the denommation at large, and oversee, in accordance with the rules of the
general conference, the spiritual and temporal affairs of the church. They have no par-
ticular dioceses, but exercise a joint Jurisdiction over the whole church as an itinerant
eeneral superintendency. They annually arrange and divide the work among themselves,
being responsible for its performance to the general conference, by which they are elected
and have their respective residences assigneo. As an elder was originally put in charge
of a district containing several circuits^ he was practically a presiding officer over them.
Thus the office of presidine elder was gradually established, and became very useful.
It is a sub-episcopate, charged with the duties of oversight and administration in a limited
sphere, and makes the ecclesiastical system complete and strong. Their intimate
aoquaintance in their districts with both pastors and ])eop1e, and their presidency in the
quarterly conferences, enable the presiding elders to give valuable information and coun-
sel to the bishop in arranging the appointmenta. In doing tliis, usage makes them the
bishop's advisers, but wi£ no actual authority, as the church considers it wise to put the
whole responsibility of the appointments on the bishop. Candidates for admission to an
annual conference are put on probation for two years in the itinerant work, and are sub-
jected to a thorough examination in prescribed studies; and all who are approved in
these trials are ordained deacons; and in two years more, if they complete the required
studies, they are ordained as elders. The former administer baptism, solemnize mar-
riage, assist elders in administering the Lord's-supper, and perform all the duties of a
traveling preacher; and the latter, in addition to these, administer the Lord's-supper.
An elder, deacon, or preacher, may be in charge of a circuit or station with similar func-
tions, exQiept as to the administration of the sacrament. He is the chief executive officer
of the local church, charged with the care of its interests according to the requirements
of the discipline; and is responsible to the annual conference for his fidelity in perform-
ing all his ministei^ial duties, and for his moral deportment. In subordination to him,
cmss leaders, or sub<pastors, have the special oversight of small portions of the church
members whom they meet weekly for "social religious worship, and for instruction,
U. K. IX-48 Digitized by VaUUglC
Methodist.
754
encouragement, and admonition." Local preachers have a share in the acts of the dis-
trict and quarterly conferences; nnd as a lay ministry fonn a body of self-supporting
evangelists more numerous than •' the itineracy," whicli, in many sections of the church
and various pliases of society, has been verv useful. All church buildings and parson-
ages belong to the local society, and are held by trustees chosen jiccording to the law of
the state or territory wherever a particular mode is prescribed, and in other cases by the
quarterly conference. Admission to membership in the church is preceded by a proba-
tion of six months or longer, as may be determined in particular cases, after which the
Srobationer may be admitteti to full membership by complying with the mles prescribed,
[embers of other evangelical churches, coming with proper testimonials, are received
into fellowship without probation. III. Progress of the Church. 1. Pioneer W&rk,
Methodism, says the historian of tJie church, presented itself to the new nation a.s an Epis-
copal church with all the necessary functions and functionaries of such a body; the only
one of Protestant denomination, for the colonial fragments of the English cstabHshment
had not yet been reorganized. Led by their bishops, the itinerants went forward in
their work, convinced, as they said, "that they were raised up to reform the continent,
and to spread scriptural holiness over these lands." Thus, "feeling tliat their one great
work was to save souls," they retained and built up what had already been gained, and,
pressing on into new fields, preached wherever hearers could be found. C?rossine the
Alleghanies they were always with the advance, and were soon found also in Now Eng-
land, Canada, and Nova Scotia. Gowns and prnyer-books obstructed their progress and
were therefore abandoned. Their system was, in a great degree, constructed to meet the
exigencies of the work. Their "chiss and prayer meetings trained most, if not all, the
hidty to practical missionary lnlK>r, and three or four of them, meeting in any distant
part of the earth by the erai^tions of these times, were prepared immediately to become
the nucleus of a church. 1 he lay or local ministi-y, borne on by the tide of population,
were found almost everywhere, prior to the arrival of regular preachers ready to sustaux
religious services — the pioneers of the church in eveir new field. " At the end of the
century they hod increased their 15,000 members to 65,000 and their 80 itinerants to 280,
besides many who, physically unetpial to the stmin of the advance, still did their utmost
in easier fields. Bisliop Coke's stay in the country was only for limited periods, and
after 1787 some of the more arduous portions of the episcopal labors devolved on bishop
Afibury alone, who was the chief apostle of the church, consecrating to the work all hi*
powers, making himself an example to all in self-denying toil, giving pei-sonal attention
to minute details, and visitins: much from house to house. One of the first Sunday-
schools in America was organized by him in 1786, and four years after the conference
ordered Sunday-schools to be generally established for the instruction of "poor children,
white and black, in learning and piety. 2. Denominational Inntitutions. (1.) •* The Book
Conceni." In 1788 a" lK>ok steward" was appointed, and a borrowed capital of f600
obtained. In 1804 the concern was removed from Philndcli^da to New YorK, nnd subse-
quently enlarmjd the number of its publications, scattering tbem througii the circuits
by making all the preachers agents, who, althougli too busy to write books, could sell
them and thus greatly increase the eflHciency of their work. In 1818 the Methodist
Maganrie was commenced, and, now called the MeOiffdist Qttarterly Beri^^, has
attained a high rank among religious jotirnals, nnd has a considerable circula-
tion. In 1830 Zion'8 Hernid was commenced by the New England Methodists, and was
followed, four years after, by the Christian Adtoeate, the first weekly religious paper
published by the book concern. A second publishing house was opened at Cincinnati
m 1820; and in 1838 the New York house was removed to larger quarters in Mulberry
street, which, in 1886, were consumed by fire at a loss of $250,000. New and better
buildings were soon erected on the site, which, havinc: been subsequently enlarged to
meet the constantly increasing business, are now usetl only in the manufacturing of
books. The principal office is in the building provided for it and the missionary society,
at an expense of a million dollars. (2.) "The Preacher's Fund." Prom the beginning of
their history Methodists have had regard to the wants of their sick and superannuated
ministers, and of deceased ministers' destitute families. Funds for their relief have been
raised in various ways and have been designated by diflferent names. At present the
principal dependence for this purpose is on the contributions of the congregations, which
nowyield annually 1150.000. (8.) '* The Missionary Society." The Methodist church itself
is Justly regardeo by its members as one of " the great home-mission enterprises of the
North American continent, " and for a long time it called for all their resources of men
and money. The conference of 1784 ordered a collection to be taken annually in all the
principal congregations. While the constant extension of the church was thus a mis-
sionary movement, further progress was marked in 1819 by the organization of the mis-
sionary society, which, having primary reference to homework, joined with that also the
foreign field; in this last its operations, having been gradually extended, now embrace
missions in Africa, China, India, Japan, (Jermany, Switzerland, Denmark, Norway,
Sweden, Bulgaria, Italy, Mexico, add South America. Its work is aided by the
woman's foreign missionary society, Sunday-school union, tract, freedman's aid, and
chorch^xtension societies. (4.) " The educational work began with the church itself.**
The plan for an academic institute was formed in 1780, the foundation of a building for
it being laid at Abington, Md. ; and in 1787 Cokesbury college was opened. Its eurricu-
Digitized by VjOUV IC
^ 0^ Metliodlftt.
lum included " English, Latin, Greek, logic, rhetoric, history, geography, natural philos-
ophy, astronomy, and, when the finances admit of it, Hebrew, French, and, (Jerman." This
huifding having been burned in 1795, a new one was provided in Baltimore; but in a year
this also was lost in the same way. This repeated calamity led bishop Asbury to think
that the attention of Methodists should be given to the general establishment of schools "
from which the high-sounding name of colleges might be withheld. One such school he
wished to see in every conference. In 1820 the general conference recommended that
each annual conference should establish a school for itself. Several conference schools
were soon started, and within 12 years five colleges were founded. These were followed
by theological seminaries which, at first, were called biblical institutes. The first pro-
iected was located at Concord, N. H., in 1847; and, liMving been afterwards removed to
Boston, became, in 1871, the theological department in the university there. The Gar-
rett biblical institute at Evanston, 111., founded in 1855, received its name and an endow-
ment of $300,000 from a lady of Chicago. The Drew theological seminanr at Madison,
N. J. (see Madison), was established by the gift of Daniel Drew of New York. There
arc also schools at several points in the Southern states, in Germany, at Frankfort on
the Main, and in India. At the close of the centennial year of American Methodism
the church reported 25 colleges and theological schools, having 158 instructors, 5,350'
students, about $4,000,000 in endowments ^and other propurt3% and more than 105,000
volumes in their libraries; and also 77 academies, with 556 iustruotors and nearly 18,00(1
students of both sexes. 8. Dmtions. (1.) Jn 1792 James O' Kelly and aome other ministers,
with a considerable number of members, dissatisfied with tbe appointing power being
vested in the bishop, witliout appeal, and unable to effect any modification of a system
which the great mass of the church cordially approved, withdrew from the denomin<^
tlon and formed themselves into ** The Christian Oliurch." (2.) In 1816 the colored mem^
bers in and around Philadelphia organized themselves into tbe African Methodist Epis^
copal church. (8.) In 1820 a similar movement in ood around New York resulted in th^
formation of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion church. (4.) In 1828 the Canada con-
ference withdrew and became a distinct church. This separation was regarded by both
sections as a matter of necessity, and was effected without any interruption of fraternal-
relations between them. (5. ) In 1880 the Methodist Protestant diurch was formed, having
at the outset 83 preaehera and 5,000 members. (6.) In 1845, at a convention held in
Louisville, Kv., impelled by differences of opinion, feeling, and policy on the subject of.
slavery, the Methodist Episcopal church, South* was formed by the withdrawal of the
southern conferences, embracing about 1850 traveling and 8,160 local preachers, with
496,000 members. Through all these divisions and troubles the church pressed on vig*»
orously with its work. During the war of the rebellion it stood with all its moral power
on the side of the imion, and more than 100,000 of its members entered the armies of
their country. Before and after the elose of the war it made preparations for celebrating
the centenary of American Methodism by all its churches and people '' with devout,
thanksgiving, by special religious services, and liberal thank-offerings," for which the
month of Oct., 1866, was set apart. As at the end of the century, notwithstanding its
losses, it contained more than a million of members, the hope was cherished that not
less than twice that number of dollars would be given to promote its future work. The.
expected services were held tiiroughout the church, and at the close of the month the
total amount contributed was fotmd to be $8,709,500. 4 Ad'misa<m of lay delegates
into the gen^rcU cottference. This important change was inaugurated in 1872, after Ion®
consideration throughout the church. The plan adopted provides that " the ministerisuL
and lay delegates shall sit and deliberate together as one body, but they ehaU vote sepa^
rately whenever such separate. vote shall be demanded by one-third of either order; and
in such cases the concurrent vote of both orders shall' be neceasai-y to complete aa
action." According to official reports for 1880 there are 95 annual conferences; 18 bish->
ops; 11,798 itinerant and 12,620 local preachers, making with the bishops a total o£
24,481; churches, 17,111, containing 1,728,147 lay members, on probation and in full
connection; 20,754 Sunday-schools, containing 1,793,763 officers and scholars; ainount
contributed during tbe vear for the support ana extension of the gospel, at home and in
other lands, not less than |14, 500,000.
31ETH0DIST EPISCOPAXi CHURCH, SOUTH (Methodists, arUe), was organ-
ized by a convention of delegates from the southern annual conferences which met at.
Louisville, Ky., May 1, 1845. Its first general conference met at Petersburg, Va., May,
1846. The property belonging to the whole church was divided, through the action of
the supreme court of the XJnited States, in accordance with the plan adopted by the gen-
eral conference of 1844. A publishing house was establishea at Nashville, Tenn. ; a
quarterly review, weekly ana Sunday-school papers, books, and tracts were printed.
All things went on prosperously until the war of the rebellion hindered the work of the
church and broke up its institutions. Much of its property was used by others during
tlie continuance of military operations in the south, but the greater part of this has since
been restored. The church is fast recovering from the effects of the war. At the separa- ^
tion, in 1844, the southern church containea about 450,000 members. In 1860 the num-
ber had increased to 757,205, of whom 207,766 were colored people. During the war
these figures were greatly reduced. Some modifications in the government of the church
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Methodists. • "^
have been made. The annual conferences are composed of traveling ministers and fonr
lay delegates (one of whom may be- a local preacher) from each district. The general
conference contains an equal number of mimsterial and lay delegates. A revised edition
of Wesley's abridged liturgy has been published, but is not much used. The ritual and
the psalmody have been revised and improved. Much attention is given to Sunday-
schools, and many publications for their use are prepared. Seminaries for both sexea,
colleges, and universities have been established in different parts of the south. The pub-
lishing house has revised and reprinted the standard Methodist works, and have added
to them many new books of history, biography, and theology. The publishing house,
destroyed, in part, by fire in 1872, has been rebuilt on a much larger scale. The desti-
tute portions of the south, laid waste by the war, require a large amount of nussionary
labor; and, in addition to this, missions have been established in China, Mexico, and
among the Indians. The statistical reports for 1879, the. latest that are accessible at the
north, give 39 annual conferences; bishops, 6; traveling preachers, 8,867; local ditto,
6,832; members of churches, 822,476; Sunday-schools, 8,941; containing 58,528 teachers
aod 421, 137 scholars. The total amount expended in supporting and extending the gospel
at home and abroad is not reported.
METHODIST PROTESTANT CHURCH, oi^nized in 1880 by a portion of the
Methodist Episcopal church who, agreeing with the majorilr in doctrine, were opposed
to the episcopacy and to the exclusion of the laity from a Toioe in the government of tiie
church. Each annual conference elects by ballot its presiding oflScer, and in all legisla-
tion and government the laity and clergy equally participate. The general conference,
meeting every four years, b composed of delegates elected by the annual conferences in
the ratio of one nunister and one layman for every 1000 communicants. Under specified
restrictions it has authority to make rules for the government of the church declarative
of the laws of Christ; to ddtermlne the duties and compensation of traveling ministers,
preachers, and other oflKcers; to devise ways and means for raising funds; and to declare
the boundaries of the annual conferences. The annual conference, consisting ai all the
ordained itinerant ministers in the district, elects to orders, stations ministers, preachers
and missionaries, makes nlles for their support, and declares the boundaries of circuits
and districts. The quarterly conference — composed of the trustees, ministers, preachers,
exhorters^ leaders, and stewards of a district — examines the official character of its mem-
bers, licenses preachers, and recommends candidates for ordination to the annual con-
ference. The classes, leaders, and stewards are similar to those in the Methodist Epis-
copal church. In 1868 the Methodist Protestant church was divided by differenoes on
the subject of slavery into the Methodist Protestant church of the north-western states,
with its headquarters at Springfield. Ohio; and the Methodist Protestants of the south-
ern states, with headquarters at Baltimore. At the time of the division the diurch
contained 2,000 stationed ministers, 1200 churches, 90,000 members, and property worth
$1,500,000. In the hope of a speedy reunion of the separated branches, the Protestant
Methodists, North, changed their name to l%e Methoditi Church, and removed their head-
quarters to Pittsburg, Penn. Their college at Adrian, Mich., is flourishing. Their mis-
sionary board, while zealously engaged in the home work, has also formed plana for the
foreign field. The strength of the Methodist Protestants. South, was principally in Vir-
ginia, Maryland, and some parts of Pennsylvania and Ohio. They have three colleges:
the Western Maryland, at Westminster, Carroll co. ; Yadkin college. North Carolina; and
one in Western Virginia. Initiatory steps had been taken with a view to the union of aU
non-Episcopal Methodists under the title of T/ie MethodUl Okurck^ but before this was
accomplished the two branches of the Methodist Protestants met in convention at Balti-
more in 1877 and formed an organic union under the original name of the Methodist
Protestant church. In 1880 the reunited church reported 1814 itinerant ministers, 925
local preachers, and 113,405 lay members. Their headquarters are continued both at
Baltimore and Pittsburg.
METHODISTS, the name originally given, about the year 1729, by a student of Christ
Church to the brothers Wesley and several other younff men of a serious turn of mind,
then members of different colleges of Oxford, who usea to assemble together on particu-
lar nights of the week chiefly for reli^ous conversation. The term was selected, it is
believed, in allusion to the exact and methodical manner In which they performed the
various engagements which a sense of Christian duty induced them to undertake, such as
meeting together for the ijurpose of studying Scripture, visiting the poor, and prisoners
in Oxford jail, at regular intervals. Subsequently it came to be applied to the followers
of Wesley and his coadjutors, when these nad acquired the mt^^tude of a new sect;
and though their founder himself wished that " the very name," to use his own words,
"might never be mentioned more, but be buried in eternal oblivion," yet it has flnidly
come to be accepted by most if not all of the various denominations who trace their
origin mediately or immediately to the great religious movement commenced by John
Wesley. For an account of the origin and earlier development of Methodism see articles
on the brothers Wesley and Whitbfieuo. We confine ourselves here to a brief notice
of its organization, doctrine, and present condition.
1. Organization. — This appears to have been partly Improvised by Wesley to suit the
exigences of Ms position. It was not a theoretical and premeditatea Jinil a prac^cal and
^e/T Methodist.
• ^ < Methodists.
extempore STstem. In the Bales of ihe Society of the People eaUed Jlfeihodists, drawn up by
Mmself, he says: " In the latter end of the year 1739, eight or ten persons came to me in
London, who appeared to be deeply convinced of sin, and earnestly groaning for redemp-
tion. They desired (as did two or three more the next day) that I would spend some time
with them m prayer, and advise them how to flee from the wrath to come, which they saw
continually hanging over their heads. That we might have more time for this great work,
I appointed a &y when they might all come together, which from thenceforward they
did every week, viz., on Thursday, in the evening." This he calls *' the first Methodist
society. Its numbers rapidly increased, and similar "societies" were soon formed in
different parts of England, where the evangelistic labors of the Wesleys had awakened
in many minds *' a desire to flee from the wrath to come, and be saved from their sins"
— the only condition, we may remark, required of any for admission into these societies.
In order to ascertain more minutely how the work of salvation was progressing in indi-
vidual cases, Wesley subdivided the societies into *' classes," according to their respective
places of abode, each class containing about a dozen persons, under the superintendence
of a " leader," whose duties are partly religious and partly financial. 1. He has to see
each person in his class once a week, ''to inquire how their souls prosper," and to
encourage, comfort, or censure, as the case may require. 2. To collect the voluntary
contributions of his class, and pay it over to the " stewards" of the society, and to give
the ministers all necessary information regarding the spiritual or bodily condition of
thoae under his leadership. For preaching purposes, on the other hand, the societies
were aggregated— a certain number of them constituting what is called a circuit. This
now generally includes a town and a rm-al circle of 10 or 15 miles. To each circuit two,
three, or four ministers are appointed, one of whom is styled the '' superintendent;" and
here they labor for-at least one year, and not more than three. Every quarter the classes
are visited by the ministers, wLo make it a point to converse personally with every mem-
ber; at the termination of which proceeding a ' ' circuit-meeting " is held, composed of min-
isters, stewards, leaders of classes, lay -preachers, etc. The stewards (who are taken from
the societies) deliver their collections to a circuit-steward, and the financial business of
the body is here publicly settled. At this quarterly meeting candidates for the office of
the ministry are proposed by the president, and the nomination is approved or rejected
by the members. 8till larger associations are tlie "districts," composed of from 10 to 20
circuits, the ministers of which meet once a year, under the presiaency of one of their
number, for the following purposes: 1. To examine candidates for the ministry, and to
try " cases" of immorality, heresy, insubordination, or inefliciency on tlie part of the
clergy. 2. To decide preliminary questions concerning the building of chapels. 3. To
investigate and determine the claims of the poorer circuits to assistance from the general
funds of the body. 4. To elect a representative to the committee of conference, whose
duty is to nominate ministers for the different stations for the ensuing year— their
appointments, however, l)eing subject to the revision of conference. In all the financial
and other purely secular business of the districts, laymen (such as circuit-stewards and
others) deliberate and vote equally with the clergy. The supreme Methodist assembly is
the "conference." The first was held in 1744, when John Wesley met his brother
Charles, two or three other clergymen, and a few of the "preachers" — men whom his zeal
and fervor had induced to abandon their secular employments and devote themselves to
declaring the message of the Gospel. The purpose foi* which he called them together
was, he says, ** for the sake of conversing on the affairs of the 'societies* and
the result of our consultations we set down to be tJie rule of our future practice." In the
course of his life Wesley presided at 47 of these annual assemblies. Tlje conference
now consists of 100 ministers, mostly seniors, who hold th^ir office according to arrange-
ments prescribeil in a deed of declaration, executed by John Wesley himself, and enrolled
in chancery. But the representatives previously mentioned, and all tlie ministers allowed
by the district committees to attend — who may or may not be members of the legal con-
ference—-sit and vote usually as one body, the 100 confirming tlieir decisions. In this
assembly, which is exclusively clerical, every minister's character is subjected to renewed
and strict scnitiny, and if any charge be proved against him, he is dealt with accord-
ingly; candidates for the mmistr}^ are examined both publicly and privately, and set
apart to their sacred office : the entire proceedings of the inferior courts (if we may so
call them) are finally reviewed; and the condition, requirements, and prospects of the
bodv are duly considered.
i. Doctrine and TToraA^.— Under this head not much requires to be said. Wesleyan
Methodists claim to be considered orthodox, Protestant, and evangelical. The propriety
of the last two appellations will probably not be disputed, but a rigid Calvinist might
object to the first. They accept the articles of the English church, but believing these
articles to have been framed on a basis of eojnprehensionf they consider themselves at
liberty to accept them in an Anninian sense. It must not, however, be supposed that
they are out-and-out Arminians. Their great distinguising doctrine is the universality
and freedom of the atonement; hence they reject the Calvmistic doctrine of predestinii-
tion (which they conceive to be incompatible with the former), but while they maintain
the freedom of the will and the responsibility of man, they also maintain his total fall
in Adam, and his utter inability to recover himself. If these two appar to the human
UBderstanding to conflict^ it is nevertheless asserted that the Bible teacnes both; and it is
Digitized by VjOUV IC
MetbodUta.
758
ol)jccted to hi jh Calvinism that in its anxiety to bo logical it has shown itself unscriptural.
Prominence is also given by the Wesleyan Methodists to certain points of religion,
some of which are not altogether peculiar to them. Tbey insist on the necessity of men
who profess to be ChristiauH feeling Vkpersonalinteretit in the blessings of salvation — i.e., the
assurance of forgiveness of sins and adoption into the family of God. This, however,
is not to be confounded with a certainty of jliial salvation. They believe the spirit of
God gives no assurance to any man of tliat, but only of present pardon. In harmony
with this view, they reject tlie doctrine of the necessary perseverance of the saints, and
hold that it is fearfully possible to fall from a state of grace, and even to perish at last
after having "tasted of the heavenly gift," and having been "mjwie partakers of the
Holy Ghost." They also maintain the perfectibility of Christians, or rather the
possibility of their entire sanctificaction as a privilege to be enjoyed in this
life, liut Wesley "explains** that "Christian perfection does not imply an exemp-
tion from ignorance or mistake, infirmities or temptations; but it implies the being
so crucified with Christ as to be able to testify, *I live not, but Christ livcth in
me.*" He regards the sins of a "perfect" Christian as "involuntary transgres-
sions," and does not think they should be called "sins** at all, though he admits that
they need the atoning blood of Christ. The Wesleyan Methodists, in their religious
services, use more or less the English lituigy; the morning service being read in many
of their chapels, and the sacramental offices being required in all. Thejr observe a
" watch-night ** on the eve of the new year, on which occasion the religfous services
are protracted till midnight, and their cnapels are generally crowded to excess; and in
the beginning of the year they hold a " covenant-service," at which congregations stand
up to a man (though this form is not invariable), and solemnly vow to serve the Lord.
But even the ordinary religious services in some places are frequently marked by an
ebullition of fervent feeling on the part of the audience, which has a very singular effect
upon a stranger.
8. History.— The history of Methodism is for many years the history of Christian effort
to evangelize the neglected "masses" of England. The labors of Wesley, and of those
whom he inspiretl to imitate his example, were of the noblest description, and met with
remarkable success. The reformation of life which his preaching produced, for exam-
ple, among the Kingswood colliers and the Cornwall wreckers, is a testimony to the
power of religion which cannot be too highly estimated. The zeal which has inspired
the body in regard to foreign missions, although in the highest degree honorable, is only,
the logical development of their efforts at home — for they originallv regarded their soci-
■ ety in England as simply a vast "home mission," and neither Wesley nor his followers
desired to consider themselves a " sect,*' a new church, in the common usage of the term,
but were warmly attached to the old national church, and considered themselves amon^
her true children. When Wesley died (1791) his " societies** had spread over the United
Kingdom, the continent of Europe, the states of America, and the West Indies, and
numbered 80,000 members. Since then they have larp?ly increased, and, according to
the returns for the year 1875, the membership (Including the numliers in foreign mis-
sioiH. embracing continental India, Northern Europe, China, Asia Minor, the South Sea
and We-st India islands) amounted then to 564,315 (of whom 898, 34*3 belonged to Great
■ Britain and Ireland), and the number of ministers, 3,905 (of whom 2,050 lielonged to the
United Kingdom). The annual income of "The Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Soci-
ety" in 1875 was £190,000.
The Wesleyan Methodists have three theolorical colleges for the training of ministers,
one at Richmond Hill, Surrey, a second at Didsbuiy, South Lancashire, and a third at
Headingley, in Yorkshire, besides the establishments at Sheffield and Taunton; two
schools (New Kingswood school and Woodhouse Grove school) for the education of sons
of We.»ileyan ministers; and two for the daughters, one at Clapton and another at South-
port. The boys re(^oive a six years* and the girls a four years* course of instruction.
The Methodist Book-room is situated in the City Road, London, and issues hundreds of
thousands of religious publications (tracts, etc.) monthly. Tlxe newspapers and other
periodicals, professedly m connection with the bodj', are the larger and smaller Maga-
zines, the Ckristian Miscellany, Wesleyan Sunday-Scficcl Magazine, monthly Exerei$es on
Scripture Lesson>s, Early Days, the Watchman, tlie Methodist Recoi^der, and the London
Quarterly lledew. Among the more eminent Methodist authors mav be named the two
Wesleys, Fletcher, Benson, Clarke, Moore, Watson, Drew, Edmondson, Sutcliffe, Jack-
son, Treffry, Rule, Nichols, Smith, and Etheridge.
Methodist Episcopal Church, the name given to the Society of Wesleyan Metho-
dists in the UnitecJ States, where the first members of that body — immigrants from Ireland
— established themselves as a religious society in New York in the year 1766. In the
course of a year or two their numbers liad considerably increased, and they wrote to John
Wesley to send them out some competent preachers. Two immediately offered themselves
for the work, Richard Boardman and Joseph Pilmoor, who were followed in 1771 by
Francis Asbury and Richard Wright. The agitations preceding the war of independence,
which soon afterwards broke out, interrupted the labors of the English Methodist
preachers in America, all of whom, with the exception of Asbur}% returned home before
the close of the year 1777; but their place appears to have been supplied by others of
native origin, and they continued to prosper, so that, at the termination of the revolution-
Digitized by VjOUV IC
759
Methodists.
aiy struggle, they numbcrod 43 preachers and 13,740 members. Up to this time, the
Americau Wcsleyun MetUodisU hud laid no claim lo being a distinct reh^ious organization.
Like Wesley himself, they regarded themselves as members of the English Episcopal
church, or rather of that branch of it then existing in America, and tlicir "preachers" as a
body of iiTCgular auxiliaries to the ordained clergy. " Episcopal churches," we are in-
formed, * * are still standing in New York and elsewnere, at whose altars Embury, Pilmoor,
Boardmau, Strawbridge, Asbury, and Hanliiu, the earliest Methodist preachers, received
the holy commuuion." But the recognition of the United States as an independent country,
and the difterence of feelings and interests that necessarily sprung u]) between the congrega-
tions at home and those in America, rendered the formation of an independent society m-
evitable. Wesley became conscious of this, and met the emergency in a manner as bold as
it was unexpected. He himself was onl3r a presbyter of the church of England, but
Laving persuaded himself that in the primitive church a presbyter and a blsUop were one
and the same order, differing only as to their official functions, he assumed the office of the
hitter, and, with the assistance of some other presbyters who hud joined his movement,
he set apiu-t and ordained the Rev. Thomas Coke, d.c.l., of Oxford university, bishop of
the infant church, Sept. 2, 1784. Coke iounediatcly Siulcd for America, and appeared,
with his credentials, at the conference held at Baltimore, Dec. 25 of the same year. He
was unanimoual^r recognized by the assembly of preachers, appointed Asbuiy coadjutor
bishop, and ordained several preachers to the omces of deacon and elder. Wesley also
granted the preachers permission (which shows the extensive ecclesiastical power he
wieldeil) to organize a sepamte and independent church under tlie episcopal form of gov-
ernment : hence arose the "Methodist Episcopal Church iu the United Stiites." Neverthe-
less, there were not a few who were dissatisfied with the Episcopal form of government.
This feeling grew stronger and stronger, until, in 1830, a secession took place, and a new
ecclesiastical organization was formed, called the Methodist I^iotestant Cnuucn, whose
numbers, according to the returns for 1874, amounted to 66,000 members and 924
preachera. In 1842 a second secession took place, chiefly on the question of slavery —
the secetlcrs pronouncing all slave-holding sinful, and excluding slave-holders from
church membership and Christian fellowship; and in 1843 a meeting was held at Utica,
N. Y., where a new society was constituted and named the Wesleyan Methodist
Co:iNECTioN OF America, whose members in 1870 amounted to 20,000, and its preachers
to 250. But in 1844 a far larger and more important secession took place on the same
question, when the whole of the ^lethodist societies in the then slave-holding states,
conceiving themselves aggrieved by the proceedings instituted at the geueral conference
of New Vork (1844) against the Rev. James O. Andrew, d.d., one of the bishops, afid a
citlzei) of Georgia, who had married a lady possessed of slaves, resolved to break off
connection with their northern brethren. Hence originated the Metuodiot Efibcopal
Church, South, whose numbers, in 1874, were as follows: Traveling preachers, 8,184;
local preachers, 5,844; and members, 663,106, including whites, colored, and Indians.
To these must be added 200,000 members forming the African Methodist Episoopal
church, and 170,000 of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion clmrch. In 1869 a move-
ment begrm in favor of the reunion of the northern and scmthern sections of the
Methodist Episcopal churches, which nmy — now that slavery is abolished — be successfully
carried out. It may here be stated that the members of the NorUiern Metlwdist Episcopal
Churcfi amounted in 1874 to 1.345,089.
Returning to the English Weslcyan Methodists, we now proceed to mention the various
secessions from the parent body in the order of time.
1. The >Iethodi8T New Connecjtion. — This society detached itself from the older
one in 1797. Its doctrines and order are the same; the only difference being that it
admits one layman to each minister into the conference, and idlows them to share in the
transaction oi all business, both secular and spiritual. These laymen are chosen either
by the circuits, or by ** guardian representatives" elected for life by the conference. In
1875 the numbers of the new connection were: members, 24,760; preachers, 159. There
were in addition 2,849 members on probation.
3. Prxhitive Methodists, vulgarly designated Ranters, were first formed into a
society in 1810, though the founders had separated from the old society some years
before. The immediate cause of this separation was a disagreement as- to tlie propriety
of camp-meetings for religious purposes; and also upon the question of females being
X)ermitted to preach. A third point of difference is the admission to their conference c^
two lay delegates for every mmister. In 1875 their numbers were: members, 179,439;
preacherH, 1169.
8. Independent Methodists, who separated in 1810. They are chiefly distinguished
by their rejection of a paid ministry, ana number in England and Scotland: members,
4,000; preachers, 290; scholars, 6,000.
4. BiBLB Christians, also called Brtanitss, were formed by a local preacher named
Bryan, who seceded from the Wesleyans in 1815. The only distinction between them
and the original body appears to be that the former receive the eucharistic elements in a
sitting posture. In 1875 their numbers were: members, 26.699; preachers, 276.
5. United Free Church Methodists have been recently f(»rmed by the amalga-
mation of two sects of nearly equal numerical strength. The older of these, called the
Weslsyan Association, originated in 1834 in the removal of one or two infliiential
MethodloB. PTa(\
Mekhylene. < ^^
ministers from the original connection Points of difference subsequently appeared with
regard to the constitution of the conference. The younger sect, called the Wesleyan
Reform Association, took its rise in 1849 through the expulsion of several ministers
from the parent body on a charge of insubordination, and being founded on the shme
principles as the last-mentioned community, arrangements were entered into for their
uniou, which was subsequently effected. Church independency, and freedom of repre-
sentation in the annual assembly, are two of the most prominent distinctive traits in the
organization of the united Methodist free church. Their united numbers in 1875 were:
memlxjrs, 71,817; ministers, 875; local preachers, 8,266. The Wedeyan Reform Union
consists of about 20 ministers and 7,000 members, who have not amalgamated with the
Methodist free churches.
This is perhaps also the most convenient place to notice the Welsh Calvinibtic
Methodists. They are not a secession from the followers of Wesley, but originated
partly in the preaching of his friend and fellow-evAngelist Whitefleld, and partly in that
of Howel Harris, a Welsh clergyman of the church of England. Whitefield was a CaU
vinist; Wesley, as we have 8eeu,was on some points decidedly Armininn. A difference
arose between tliem on the subject of election. Henceforward their paths lay in differ-
ent directions. Whitefield, however, did not form a religious sect; and after his death
(1769) his followers, being left without anj^ distinct bond or organization, either foU
lowed the leading; of the countess of Huutmgdon (q^.)> or became distributed among
other denominations, a large portion, especially in Wales, becominff absorbed in the
new society gradually forming itself through the preaching of Howel Harris and his coad-
lutors. This body, however, was not formally constituted a religious society till the
beginning of this century.
METHODIUS, a noted theologian of the eastern church of the 8d c ; one of the
fathers and martyrs of the church. He was surnamed Eubulus and Eubulius. He was
first the bishop of Olympa and Patara in Lycia, hence called Patarensis, and afterwards
presided over the see of Tyre and Palestine. He is supposed to have died early in the
4th century. He was a contemporary of Porphyry, and suffered death probably in a.d.
803 or 811. Epiphanius says that " he was a very learned man, and a strenuous asserter
of the truth." Jerome ranks him among the church writers. His principal works are:
Be BesurrectioTie, against Origen; De Creatis; De UberoArhUrio; Be AngelicaVtrginitat*
et Castitate, written in the form of a dialogue ; Oratio de Simeane et Anna Seu in Fe9tum
Oceursus et Purificationis B, Maries.
METHOMANIA. Bee Dipsomania. anU.
ME'THUEH TBEATY, a commercial treaty between England and Portugal in 1706, 80~
called in consequence of being negotiated by Paul Methuen of Corsham, -English ambas-
sador at Lisbon. It was agreed, by the treaty, that the wines of Portugal should be re-
ceived by England at a rate of one-third less duty than those of France. In 1886 the
Portuguese government relinquished the stipulations of the treaty.
METH'TL is an organic radical homologous with ethyl (q.v.), being the lowest term
In the series C^Hq -f* i> ^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ being equal to 2. Its formula is CsHs; but in its
free state, two atoms unite to form a single molecule, so that free methyl is more acca-
rately represented by (CaHt)a. It is a colorless gas, of specific gravity 1.036; it bums with
a very feeble bluish flame, and is not liquefied at a temperatiu^ of 0". It is obtained by
acting upon iodide of methyl with zinc, in the same manner as in the preparation of
ethyl.
Like ethyl, it forms a very numerous class of compounds, of which the foUowmg are
the most important: Hydride of methyl (CaH«,H), known as light carbureled hydrogen
(q.v.), marsh-gat, hnd fire-damp, maybe obtained either naturally or artificially. Aa a
natural product, it sometimes issues from fissures in coal-seams, rushing forth as if un-
der high pressure. These discharges of this gas are termed ' * Blowers " bjr the miners, and
it is by the combustion of this fire-damp that the terrific explosions which occasiofnally
take place in coal-pits, are caused. For its combustion, twic»e its volume of oxygen (and
consequently ten times its volume of air) is required: the resulting compounds beine one
volume of carbonic acid and two of steam. The vitiated air thus produced, which to ut-
terly unfit for respiration, is known as the after-damp or ekoke-damp, and is as much
dreftded" as the explosion itself. Hydride of methyl is also one of the gaseous exhalations
from marshes and stagnant pools; and the bubbles that rise to the surface when the mud
at the bottom of a pond is stirred up, consist chiefiy of this gas. It may be prepared ar-
tificially by strongly heating a mixture of crystallized acetate of soda, hydrate of potash,
and powdered quicklime. It is a colorless, inodorous, tasteless gas, which may be
breathed without apparent injury if well diluted with air. Hydrated oxide of methyl
(C«H,0,H0), known also as mUhyUe alcohol, uood spirit, and proxylio spirit (under which
title its properties are described), is the strict homologue of vinous or ethylic alcohol
(C4H»0,H0). Oxide of methyl (CiUtO), or methylie ether, corresponds to the ordinary,
or, correctly speaking, the ethylic ether, and, like the latter, is produced by the distilla-
tion of a nuxture of methylie alcohol and sulphuric acid. Oxiae of methyl, like oxide
of ethyl, combines with acids to form a chiss of ethereal salts, or compound ethers, as
they are termed bv some chemists — ^as, for example: Acetate of methyl (or methvl-acetic
ether), C,H,0,C«H,Os; butyrate of methyl (or methyl-butyric ether) CsHaO,C»HvOs;
Digitized by VjO^JV IC
m Methodius*
Methylene.
nitrate of methyl (or methyl-nitric ether), CsHsO,NO»; salicylate of methyl (or methyl-
suUcylic ether), CsH|0,Ci4H»0». The last-named compound may not only be obtained
by distiUing a mixture of pyroxvlic spirit with salicylic and sulphuric acids, but
occurs ready formed in the vegetable kingdom, constitutiag the esseutial oil procured
from the betula Unta, a species of birch, and from the ffauU/teria proeumUns, or winter
green.
Methyl may be made to enter into combination with bromine, iodine, chlorine, and flu-
orine, the bromide and iodide of methyl bein^ colorless fluids, and the chloride and fluoride
colorless gases. Amongst the most interestmg of the numerous methyl compounds must
be mentioned the artificial bases or alkalies, which can be obtained from ammonia by
the substitution of one, two, or three equivalents of methyl for one, two, or three of the
equivalents of hydrogen contained in the ammonia.
If onlv one equivalent of hydrogen is replaced by methyl, the resulting compound is
!NHi(CsH«) or CaHoN, an extremely alkalme gas known as 'meVtylamine, or methyUa,
which is more soluble in water than any other known gas; water at 55^ dissolving 1150
times its bulk. It is a frequent proauct of the destructive distillation of nitrogenous
subslances; and it is present when many natural alkaloids, such as narcotine and mor
phia, are distilled with caustic potash. The product resulting from the substitution of
two equivalents of methyl for two of hydrogen, and known as dimethylaiMne, closely
resembles methyLamiue. When the three equivalents of hydrogen are replaced by three
of methyl, the resulting compound is N(CfH»)« or CcHgN, a colorless gas, which is
known as trimeViylamine, or trlmethylia, and has a disagreeable fishy odur. It occurs in
large quantity in herring-brine, and has been detected in the spirit m which anatomical
preparations have been long kept It is also found in ehenapodium vultana (stmking
goose-foot), in the flowers of cratague oxyacaiUha (common hawthorn), and in ergot of
rye.
XETH'TLATEB flPIXrt consists of a mixture of alcohol, of specific gravity 0.880,
with 10 per cent of pyroxylic (q.v.) or wood-spirit. This addition of wood-spirit ren-
ders it unfit for drinking, although it scarcely Interferes with its power as a solvent It
is allowed by the excise to be sold duty-free for manufacturing purposes, and for pre-
aerving specimens in museums.
METH'TLEVE, Bichloride of (CsHt,Cls), is an oreanic compound which has recently
attracted much attention from its value as an aniesthetlc agent Dr. Richardson, who
has lonff been studying the physiological properties of the methyl-compounds, with the
riew of finding amongst them a safer compound than chloroform, believes, from his
experiments on animals, that in the subject of this article he has found such a com-
pound. As the deaths from chloroform may be computed, according to him, at one in
1500 administrations, it is obvious that there is reason for searching for a still safer
ansesthetic ai^ent Dr. Snow, as is well known, thought that he had discovered an almost
positively safe agent in amylene (CioHi«); but the value of more than 200 safe adminis-
tratWns was at once destroyed by two rapidly succeeding deaths; and hence a large
number of successful cases of the new agent must be reported before it will displace
chloroform from its present well-deserved position. In the article on methyl (q.v.), wo
have shown that the composition of hydride of methyl (or marsh gas) is expressed by
CtHs,H, wliich may be written CsHHHH. Now, according to the theory of substi-
tutions, one, two, three, or even all four of the atoms of hydrogen may be replaced
by a corresponding number of atoms of chlorine. Thus (a), if one atom of H be
replaced by one atom of CI, we have chloride of methyl, CiHtCI ; (b) if two atoms of H
are replaced by two atoms of CI, the resiilting compound is bicMoridc ^methylene, CaH^CU,
the CfsHt here representing a new radical termed methylene, of which very little is
known; (c) if three atoms of H ere replaced by three atoms of CI, the resulting compound
is terclUoride of formyU, CiHCls, or common chloroform, another radical, viz., formyle,
CiH, now appearing; (d) if the whole of the H is replaced by CI, the resulting com-
pound is telrac/Uonde of carbon, CCI4. We thus have four -new bodies which maybe
constructed step by step out of hydride of methyl or marsh sas, and similarly, by start-
ing with tetrachloride of carbon, the chemist may retrace the individual stages till he
fets back to marsh gas. All these derivatives of marsh gas possess the power of pro-
ucing anaesthesia when they are inhaled as vapor by men ana animals. That the latter
two— viz., chloroform and tetrachloride of carbon — possess this power, has been long
known, Dr. P. Smith having especially directed attention to the properties of the last-
named compound ; but that tne first two also exert the same influence is a fact new to
science, for which we are indebted to Dr. Richardson. "I discovered," he observes,
" that chloride of methyl was a certain and gentle ansesthetic in July [1367] last, and
this led me to hope that something more stable and manageable could be obtained — some-
thing that shoula stand between the chloride of methyl and chloroform. That substance
is now found in the bichloride of methylene. That thic; compound would produce rapid,
safe, and easy general anaesthesia, I discovered by experiment on Aug. 80 of the present
year."— ifttl. Tlrnes, Oct. 19, 1867.
It is a colorless fluid, having an odor like that of chloroform; and is pleasant to
inhale, as it cauf^es little irritation to the mucous membrane. It boils at 88*. and has a
spec. gr. of 1.844, while that of its vapor is 2.987 (or nearly three tunes that of alrjk
Digitized by VjiOUV IC
Metonio. PraO
Metric. • ^^
Hence, it boils at a lower tcm^erattire than other anajsthctics; while its specific gravity,
both as a liquid and a vapor, is lower than that of chloroform, but much higher than
that of ether; hence, from its easier evaporation, it requires more free administration
than chloroform, and, from its greater vapor-density, it should be given less freely than
ether. It mixes readily with absolute ether, and this combination yields a vapor con-
taining corresponding proportions of each, their boiling-points only differing at most by
4**. It also combines with chloroform in all proportions. It should have a neutral reac-
tion to test-paper. If a trace of acid be present — which Is possible, but not probable —
its inhalation miglit prove dangerous. To prevent decomposition, it should, like chloro-
form, be well guarded from the action of light.
Pigeons are the animals which Dr. Richardson most employs for experiments on anes-
thetic agents generally. They present various advantages over most other animals; one
of the most important being that they die with singular readiness under the influenee of
these agents. On exposing three pigeons to the action of the vapor of a dram of chloro-
form, bichloride of metliylcne, ana tetrachloride of carbon, the peculiarity in the action
of the bichloride Is the absence, in the sleep it produces, of the so-called second degree
of narcotism. The bird glides from the nrst degree directly into the third, or that of
absolute insensibility. The biclUoride enters the circulation freely, and sustains the
insensibility so well, that intervals of many minutes may be allowed to pass without
readmiuistration; while, from its being transformed altogether into vapor at a tempera-
ture lower than that of the body, it can be more readily eliminated from the system than
chloroform, or tetrachloride of carbon, when its administration is withheld. On ani-
mals it acts more evenly on the respiration and circulation than any other of the various
substances which Dr. Richardson has tried; and the only drawback yet observed la,
that it sometimes produces vomiting; but this misadventure, so far as we know, has not
yet been observed when it has been administered to the human subject, and pigeons are
known to vomit on slight provocation. The numbers of the lespiratious and of the
pulse rise and fall toge&er, which " is a good point, because there is no condition more
perilous than disturbed balance of the circulating and respiratory systems."
All ansesthetics given by inhalation after a certain. dose destroy life; but that the
destructive power of this new agent is less than that of either chloroform or tetrachloride
of carbon, seems proved.
On trying the vapor upon himself, after ascertaining that it could be safely given to
the lower animals, Dr. Richardson inhaled it until it produced insensibility. "I found
tlie vapor very pleasant to breathe and little irritating, while drowsiness came on and
unconsciousness without any noise in the head or oppression. I recovered also, as the
animals seemed to recover, at once and completely. I felt as though I had merely shut
my eyes, and had opened them again. In the mean time, I had, however, performed
certain iicts of a motor kind unconsciously; for I inhaled the vapor in the laboratory,
and there went to sleep, but I awoke in the yard adjoining. This was on Sept. 28 last,
when I inhaled from a cup-shaped sponge. Since then, I have inhaled the vapor in
smaller quantities from several instruments, with the effect of proving that there is little
difference required for its administration and that of chloroform. A little more bichlo-
ride is reciuired in the earlier stages than would be required if chloroform were being used,
the fluid being more vaporizable. One dram of bichloride to 40 minims (fds of a dram)
of chloroform represents the difference required; but when the narcotism is well set up,
less of the bichloride is required to sustain ilie effect.'*
The materials on which this article is based are taken from a lecture delivered by
Dr. Richardson on Oct. S, 1867. In an address on anaesthetics by Dr. Tidy, published
in the British Medical Journal, Jan. 4, 1879, it is mentioned that Mr. Morgan, a dentist,
has " administered methylene 1800 times to persons of all ages, and for periods varying
from a few minutes to three-quarters of an hour, without a single accident. He also
regards it as safer than chloroform, and speaks of the rapidity with which it effects
complete unconsciousness, as a rule two minutes only being needed; the rapidity of
recovery, from one to three minutes only being required for the aniesthesia to pass away;
and lastly, the rapidity with which consciousness may be abolished, if it return during
the operation— as the chief points in its favor. The cause of death from its administra-
tion IS syncope, not coma; hence, a bloodless condition of the lips — a point easily to he
noticed — is the principal indication of danger."
On the other hand, the preliminary report on the action of amesthetics presented to
the committee of the British medical association, and published in the same number of
the Journal, does not speak so favorably of methylene. The so-called bichloride of
methylene, it is allejijed, has no definite and constant'boiling point, and Uierefore appears
to be a mixture. The formula, as now generally used, CHaCla. shows it to be a com-
pound of chloride of methyl and chloroform (CH,C1 -f CHCl,). With frogs under
methylene it was found that the heart became rapidly affected and soon stopped. With
rabbits, respiration rapidly deteriorated and stopped while the heart was still beating.
In an experiment with artificial respiration ana exposure of the heart, the heart was
weakened and soon stopped, but not as rapidly as with chloroform. As in the case of
chloroform, the right ventricle became enormously distended, the first sign of paralysis
being the commencement of the distension. [Ether does not affect the heart.] TTie
experimenters found that as anwsthetics, uobutyl cJdoride (C»Hb) and ethidene diehbride
Digitized by VjOUV IC
763
Metilc
CC9H4Cla) combine the advantages of speed and safety, and are therefore preferable to
methjieue.
Cntoride ofvieiJiyl, tlie first of the compounds derived by substitution from hj'dride
of methyl, has, according to good authorities, also valuable remedial qualities. Ilalf an
ounce ol" it, diluted with water, and with tlie addition of a little sugar, acts as a pleasant
but potent inloxicator. In smaller doses, it might be useful as a soothing and refrigera-
ting agent.
KETON'IC CTCL£,fio called from its inventor, Meton, who flourished at Athens about
432 B.C., is a cycle of 19 years, at the end of which time the new moons fall on the eame
days of the year, and eclipses recur in nearly the same order. This arises from the
circumstance, that 19 solar years are nearly equal to 235 lunations, their average values
being ($939.68835 and 6939.60249. days reepcctively.
METON' IC CYCLE, ajite. TImj discovery of the'Metonic cycle forms an era in tli«
history of the early astronomy of Greece. The Chaldeans established several luni-solar
periods; and the ditliculty of reconciling the motions of the suu and moon, or of assign-
ing a period at the end or which these two luminaries again occupy the same positions
relatively to the stars, had Ion? embarrassed those who had the care of regidatin^ the
festivals. The disco veiy of Meton, therefore,. which was brought into use on July 16,
433 B.C., was received wilh acclamation by the people assembled at the Olympic games,
and adopted in all the cities and colonies of Greeca It was also engraved in golden let-
ters on tables of brass, whence it received the appellation of the golden number, and has
been the basis of the calendars of all the nations of modem Europe. It is still in eccle-
siastical use, with such modifications as time has rendered necessary, — The period of
Meton consisted of twelve years, containing twelve months each, and seven years con-
taining thirteen months each; and these last formed the 3d, 5th, 8th, 11th, 13th, lOlh,
and 19th years of the cycle. He divided the cycle into 125 full months of 30 days, and
110 deficient mouths of 29 days eiich; the whole exceeding 19 revolutions of the sun by
9i hours, and exceeding 235 lunations by 7i hours. A ceniury after !Mcton, his cycle
was corrected by Calippus by quadnipling the period of 6,940 aays, and deducting one
day at the end of that time by changing one of the full months into a deficient month.
By this change the error of lunption was reduced to one day in 304 years. The calen-
dar, as laid down by Ideler, was as follows :
Tkab or THX QrcLB.
MoirrBS.
1
■'
III.
IT,
T.
30
30
99
Ttil.
30
80
at
XL
29
20 1
ao
HT.
30
IT.
ao
XTll.
29
XTIIl
80
XIX.
Heoatombeon
-*} ' -m
SO
30
30
80
Boedroiuion
m 1 m
20
%i
31
20
80
2!» 20
ai
30
ao .
20
29
£9 1 :i0
30
29
29
ii'J ' e9
ai
m
aj
at)
s&
30
W
so
29
29 '
30
SO
30 'J9
29
^
30
Pyanepslon
Hetnacterion...,.
:-k» .30
20
SSI
m
m
80
ss
S9
30
«0
30 !
WH
29
20 1 JJO
30
29
HO
2*3
i,U
DO
au
as
m
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30
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su
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m
80
30
30 1 i9
29
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119
Poaeideon
ao
m
£»
2U
ao
m
ao
$9} ; ^
30
30
30 1
2U
29
ao :jO
30
29
30
Poaeideon U. (in
leap years)
'Gsmelion -
30
3»
30
30
30
29
29
2f>
ao
aj
m
m
S9
89
n
30
39
29
SO
29
-m
29
ao
^
80
30
ADthe«terion
m
89
-m
ift*
'J!A
ao
30
30
i»
:io
m
ao
30
tin
yo
30
30
29
29
Elapheboiion.....
iS)
30
30
m
m
29
ao
a>
30
20
^
29 !,^
m
_>o
29
29
30
30
Hunjchion
a>
29
iiD
'J9
e»
m
29
BO
^
ao
ao
30 30
m
:iO
30
30
29
29
Thargelion *,
t:> ^ so
;«i
JM>
liH
2fl
ao
n
ao
20
29
30
29
so
'J9
29
29
80
30
Sciorphorion
ao 1 i»
^
2U
30
^
tm
30
!»
ao
30
29
;jo
5a>
30
30
30
29
29
Number of days In
a year
jj.v> aG4
m.
3W
384
ms
EM
884
3M
355
3&4 a-w a.*^
1
;i£4 !S^
3H4
364
8M
384
XXTOlTTinr (Gr. mOonigmia, signifying a change of name) is a figiire of speecb by
which one thine: is put for another to which it bears an important relation as a part for
the whole, the ^effect for the cause, the abstract for the concrete, etc. For example.
''Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord." This figure is very expressive, and is
much used in proverbial and Other pithy modes of speech.
KET'OPSi, the space, in the frieze of the Doric order, between the triglyphs— generally
ornamented with ngures, or bulls' heads, or paterae.
miT'BA, an ingenious pocket-instrument, invented by Mr. Herbert Mackworth about
1868. It combines the thermometer, climometer, goniometer, anemometer, level, plum-
met, scales, etc.. so that, by its assistance, travelers or engineers can at once record then:
observations. It enables us to determine the dip of rocks, angles of crystals, tempera-
ture, rate of wind, to take levels of large surfaces, determine latitude, and a vanety of
other matters connected with physical science. As a pocket-instrument it is of great
value.
METRIC SYSTEM (Meter, aiUe), The modem or decimal system of measurement
takes name from its unit, the meter. It should be understood that all Indo Enropojin
nations originally counted by twelves. They were exposed to the influence of Lr altaic
Digitized by VjUO^IC
Ifetrio.
764
races, who seem to have preferred Ihrees and sixes. Prom the Egyptians they borrowed
the count by tens, and from Shemites periods of seyens, and the double-ten or score.
All these systems, complicated with yaiyinj^ units as bases, may be traced in the tables
of measurement of moaern Europe. Besides, although the value of place in notation
was known to the Babylonians — and, in fact, it is not eas^ to write mixed measurement
without assuming it — the general use of decimal notation in Europe dates only from the
renaissance. Common measurements, then, do not agree with our notation, and the
metric system does. It is not in itself best fitted for treating a universal unit, because
it neither divides nor cubes &s weU as a series of doublings— ttie binary system. As, for
instance,
83
= 4»
1
2
4 =a«
8
. =3»
16 =4«
or a count by eights, thus:
Unit*.
Oktadi
1
8 = 2»
2
16=r4»
8
24
4 = 2«
82
6
40
6
48
7
56
when 64 =: 4> and 8* is written 100 = 4< ai
64
...=8»....
128
1 • • •
256
. . . = 16«
512
= 8» etc, etc..
16adB.
64 = 8> and 4^
128
192
256 = 16«
820
884
448 etc., etc.,
4« and 10*, and 266 = 16* is written 400 = 20».
But the binary system is open to the slight objection that it takes eight naughts
to express 512, and oktads are evidently more cumbrous than dekads. A system of
dodekads would match our multiplication table, correspond better with the tradi-
tions of our race, and have the inestimable advantage of possessing 6 and 3 as factors,
without which the circle, geometrically considered, can hardly be grappled with. The
meter is neither a part of an ascertainable distance nor the true portion of that distance
as ascertained; the English yard, 89.18929 in., or the length ,of a pendulum vibrating
seconds of mean time in vacuo, at the latitude of London and the level of the sea, being
much more easily and surely measured. The advantages of the metric system are that
it is a settled measure, in use by more people than an^*^ one other, and that its divisions
correspond with what must always remain the notation of the educated world. It was
made compulsory in France in 1840, legal in England in 1864, and in the United States
by act of July 28, 1866. Its friends have as yet failed to render it acceptable to the
nation, and apparently from misconception of the wants and prejiidicos of the populace, i
They have not decided upon any neat or consistent way of exprt'S' 'yr its abbreviations,
so that draftsmen and printers are either unwilling or unable to use tl.em. Tliey have
neglected to make for workmen comparative tables giving its equivalents in the measures
daily in use by them, and they have never succeeded in giving to the public a few brief
rules for interchan*ring quantities, not necessarily exact, but near enough for hourly use.
It is plain that a sudden change in the whole system of measures of a country involves
loss of time with perplexity and expense. The advantages of a decimal notation may
be shown by retaining some known unit and the popular names, but with change of other
divisions; as au English foot, but of 10 in. and running 10 to the pole, etc., very much
like- the temi^orary change by the Swiss confederation ; or by fixing upon some point
which nearly coincides, changing that by legislation to an exact part of the right system,
and leaving: to time the gradual displacement of the more cumbrous. Thus the aadition
to an English inch in a yard made equal to a meter is easily made allowance for by
tradesmen and workmen on a scale of tlie present pattern. This seems to account for
the failure of the French law of Feb. 11, 1812.
The unit of the system is the Meter, one ten-millionth of the calculated dlstence
from the pole to the equator. See Chemistry, ants (diagram). By prefixing the Greek
words deka, hekfo, kilo, and myria for multiples, and the Latin ded, eenUt and mUU for
divisionals, there results a series of terms, each increasing by a power of ten. The
Liter, or cubic decimeter, of water furnishes a standard for capacity, and a subdivision
of it, the Oram, or cubic centimeter, for weight. We have, then, five kinds of measures,
of length, surface, volume, capacity, weight, and (but not carried out) money. It must
be noticed that the French law supposes a double and a half to each measure; that many
of the divisions have not been adopted in common use; and that certain modifications
based on a larger unit have been found convenient in practical and scientific use. One
adviintage of tne decimal system is that when speaking, say of kilom. for distance, or
milligr. for weight, wo may write 19.786 kilom., or 118.26 milligr., that is without treat-
ing them from the scale of meters or liters.
MBABtiRBs ov Length.
Myriameter myriam. =" lO.dOO m. = 6.2187 miles.
Kilometer kilom. = 1,000 " = 8,280 ft. 10 in.
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765
Xotitob
Hektometer hektom. =
Dekameler dekam. =
Mbteb m. s=
Decimeter «. . decim. =
Centimeter centim. =
Millimeter millim. =
SuireyoTs' chaiDs are a dekam., a double or a half dekam. in length. The cable-length
is 200 m.
Mbasubbs of Bubfagb.
100
* =
838 ft. 1 in.
10
' s=
82 ft. 9.7 in.
1
* s=
89.8707904 in
0.1 '
* —
8.937 in.
0.01 '
« =
0.8937 in.
0.001 •
' =
0. 0894 in.
Square liETER sq. m. =1. sq.
Square decimeter sq. decim. = 0.01
Square centimeter sq. centim. = 0.000,1
Square millimeter sq. millim. = 0.000,001
m. = 1,550 sq. in.
or
10.747 sq. ft.
Kote that the sq. dacim. is not the tenth of a sq. m., but the square of a tenth, a hun-
dredth. It follows that the decimals are read by pairs; thus, 8.582 sq. m. is read 8 sq.
m., 58 sq. decim., 20 sq. centim., etc., etc.
T<ypogT<vpbiG,
Square myriameter, sq. myriam. = 100,000,000 sq. m.
Square kilometer, sq. kilom. = 1,000,000 "
Square hektometer, sq. hektom. = 10,000 "
Squai'e dekameter, sq. dekam. = 100 "
= 0.885496 sq. miles.
Hektare hekta. = 10,000 sq.m. = 2.471 acres.
Are : a. =: 100 " = 119.6 sq. yds.
Centiare centia. = 1 " = 1150 sq. in.
Hyriameters and myriares are used only in geographical or statistical works, and the
bware, like our acre, is the general, unit in speaking of farm-land. While the sides of
the measures differ by tens, their surfaces differ by hundreds. There are no such terms
as decare, kilare, declare, and milliare, for they are not squares of any multiple of ten.
Mkabuees of yoLxnoB.
Cubic meteb. . • •
Cubic decimeter...
Cubic centimeter..
Cubic millimeter..
Gubic Measure.
cu. m. = 1.
cu. decim. = 0.001 .
cu. centim. = 0.000,001
cu. millim. = 0.000,000,001
cu. m. = 85.81481 cu. ft.
As before, the tenth of a cable meter must not be confounded with the cubic decim. ;
the first is contained ten, the second a thousand times in a cu. m. Decimals must Uiere-
fore be read by threes; thus, 5.427,98 cu. m. must be read 5 cu. m., 427 cu. decim., 990
cu. centim., etc.
Mbasubbs fob Fibb-wood.
Dekastere • dekast. =
Stebb St. =
Decistere dedst. =
10.
1.
orcu. m,
0.1 St.
St
^1= 1.808 cu. yds.
Note that the decist. is equal to one-tenth of a St., or cu. m., and is not to be con-
founded with cu. decim.
Mbasubbs of Capagitt.
Unit, the liter, equivalent to one cubic decimeter.
Diy Measure. Wine Measore.
Myrlaliter myrial.
Kiloliter kilol. =
Hektoliter hektol. = 2bu.8.85pk.
Dekaliter dekal. = 9.08 quarts.
Liter 1. =r 0.908 **
Deciliter decil. = 6.1022 cu. in.
Centiliter centiL s?
MilliUtcr miUil. =
264.17 galls.
1.0567 quarts.
0.845 nils.
0.838 fl. oz.
0.27 fl. dr.
The myrial. and kilol. are seldom used: but for grains, potatoes, seeds, as well as
alcohol, wine, and oil, the hektol. is in general use. The liter is used as we use both
gaHon and bushel The kilol. is a cu. m., the hektol. its tenth pari, and the liter a thou-
^^oMl Digitized by VjUUVIC
Metronome. TAA
Mettoinloh. «^a
Mbasukes of Weight.
Unit, the gram, weight of a cu. centim. of distilled water, at the temperature of melting
ice, i" C, in the latitude of Pans, in vacuo, and altitude jeduced to searleveL
Metric ton met. ton = * 2,204:6 lbs. avoir.
Metric quintal met. quint.
Kilogram kilo. = 2.2046 "
Hektoi?ram hektogr. = 8.5207 oe. "
Deka^m dekagr.
Gram c. = 15.432 gr. «'
Decigram oeci^.
Centigram centigr.
Milligram ;. milligr. = 0.0154 "
The kilo, is the weight of a cu. decim. of water, or a liter. The met. ton is therefoie
that of a cu. m. of water.
The application of the metric system to coins has not yet been adopted, to the excla-
sion of any other, by any nation. The republics and the minor kingdoms have a more
or less perfect series.
The division of the circle into lOO"* never was a success, and for reasons already
noted. It has been proposed to substitute 600**, or six sextants of 100" each. But, if any
change be advisable 120° seems preferable, being handily small, and divisible by 2, 8, 4,
5, 6, 8, and 10.
The thermometer of Celsius, or the centigrade (lOO**), has 0° at freezing, 82*', and 100*
at boiling water, 212°, of the Fahrenheit. It is translated into Pahrenheit, F., or Reau-
mur, R, by the formula:
C = ?(F-.82)or?R.
The Wedgwood pyrometer, W., has its 0** at 58a56'' C, and each degree of W. =
72.22° C.
The measure of work is the kilogrammeter, or 1 kilo, raised 1 m. high in 1 second,
or 7.283 f. lbs., and a horse-power equals 75.78 kilogmet. It has been proposed to sub-
stitute ton meters, when 1 h.p. = 18.47 tonmet. The atmospheric pressure is reckoned
at 1.033 kilo, to the sq. ceutim. The following approximate rules are useful for every-
day necessities. As there are 96 eighths to one foot, a drawing to the scale of
i" = 1' is equiv. to 1 centim. = 1 m. nearly.
3- __ J. .c «. .. 2.5 decim, = 1 m., etc.
Five miles = 8 kilom., and a little more.
The meter is 3 ft. 8 in. f". nearly.
The decim. is 4 in., slack.
The centim. is f, full
The sq. meter is 10^ sq.ft., and more.
The sq. mile contains nearly 8 sq. kilom., and the sq. kilom. is W7 acres.
The hekt. is nearly 2^ acres.
Tlie are is a rood, nearly.
Three cu. yds. contain nearly 4 cu. m.
One cu. m., or St., equals } of a ton of coal, of 40 cu. ft, which is also the U. S. ship-
pins' ton, or 83 U. 8. bushels; and 2 cords of wood contain a little more than 7 steres.
Tlie liter is a quart, both ^ry and wine measure (nearly 0 of our so-called quart bottles
to 4 liters
Four and a half I. to the gallon, imperial.
A new 5 cent nickel wei^s 5 grams.
Fifteen grams of letter-weight are called i oz. avoir.
The kilo, is 2 pounds, full.
The met. ton is the old big ton.
One horse- power, 88,000 foot-pounds, Is 76 kilogmets.
Mechanical equiv. of heat, 772 f. lbs., is 4S5 kilogmets.
MET'SOKOXS, a valuable small machine for mdicating the correct time or speed at
which a musical composition should be played. It was in'^ented in 1816 by Mftlzel, the
inventor also of the automaton trumpeter. See Automatok. The test of a correct
metronome is, that when set at 60 it shaJl beat seconds.
METROPOLIS, a city in Ullnols, on the n. bank of the Ohio river; pop., '70, 2,490.
It is 88 m. e. of Cairo, and 11 m. above Paduoah. Its streets are reffularly laid out, of
a uniform width, and it is built on a high bluff, which sl(^)ea graduaUy toward the river;
the lowest line being above high-water mark in the .greatest floods. It has a bank, 8
churches, and 2 newspapers. The principal manufactories are potteries and tobacco
factories. Lumber is manufactured; it has 2 ship-yards and several flomr-miUs.
XETBOP'OIJS LOCAL lUlTAUlCSVT ACT. The inetropolis of the United Kmg-
dom, owing to its immense size, has been regulated for sdile and flanitsry ourpose*
^ A ^ MetroBome.
< ^ < MetteriOofeu
chiefly by special acts, one of which is called the metropolis local management act. It
had long been subject to a special building act, which laid down minute regulations as
to tbe formation of strcetB, alteration and building of houses; and Ihe metropolis build-
ings act still contains a code applicable to building regulations, the chict principle of
which is, that no person can build or make alterations till they have been duly approved
by the inspectors, whose duty it is to see that certain conditions have been complied
with as regards the public safety. In 1855 a great change was made in the internal
economy of the metropolis by the metropolis local management act, which created the
metropolitan boaixl of works, and provided it with extensive powers of drainage, sew-
erage, lighting, cleaning, removing nuisances, and general improvements, and with
powers also to rate the occupiers of nouses for the expenses of tlie general management.
Formerly, each vestry did what it thought proper within its own parish, and there was
no uniformity observed in the details of management. But the above act contained a
code of laws affecting numerous details of street and city life. One important function
was the systematic construction of sewers and the removal of nuisances. No new build-
ing is now allowed to be built without sufflcieni drains and water-closets. Paving is
enforced in most cases.
KETEOPOUTAir, in church law, the bishop of a metropolis, or '• mother city,"
upon which other episcopal cities are in some sense dependent. The gradations of the
hierarchy, on which this dependence is founded, are of very eturly origin, and may, it is
alleged, be traced, at least in germ, in the letters of St Paul to Timothy and to Tltua
The commentaries of the Fathers (as Chrysostom, 15 Horn, in 1 Tim.^ and Eusebius./Zwt.
Eocles, \, iii. c. iv.) recognize it as of apostolic institution. The jurisdiction of metropoli-
tans, according to the ancient law of tlie church, was very considerable, and extended
over all the bishops of that province of which the metropolitan see was the capital. It
was their privilege not only to suinmon and preside over provincial councils, to conse-
crate the provincial bishops, but also to decide certain causes, and in other ways to
exercise authority within the sees of their snffraj^ns. Recent canons have very much
restricted their powers. The metropolitan is distinguished from an ordinary archbishop
by his having suffragan bishops subject to him, which is not necessarily the case of an
archbit^hop.
In the church of England the archbishops of Canterbury and York are metropoli-
tans, and in the Protestant Episcopal church of Ireland, those of Armagh and Dublin.
In the newly constituted hierarchy of the Roman Catholic church in England, the arch-
bishop of Westminster has the rank of metropolitan. In the Roman Catholic church of
Ireland, the archbishops of Armagh, Dublin, Cashel and Tuam all possess the same
rank.
METTEHNICH, Clemens Wenzel Nepomtjk Lothah, Prince von Metternich, and
dnkc of Pontella, an eminent Austrian diplomatist and statesman, was b. at Coblenz, '
May 15, 1778. His father, Franz Georq Kabl, count von Metternich, was also an
Austrian diplomatist, and an associate of Eaunitz. He represented a very ancient and
distingiu^lied family, whose original seat was in Jtllich. Young Metternich was edu-
.cated at the university of Strasburg, and afterwards studied law at Mainz and traveled
in England. In 1795 he married the granddaughter and heiress of the celebrated minis-
ter Kaunitz, bv whom he acquired large estates. His diplomatic career commenced at
the congress of Rastadt, which he attended as representative of the Westphalian counts.
His rise was very rapid: he added to the advantages of his birth and connections, a more
than ordinary share of diplomatic abilitv, with the most graceful and ^^•innin5 manners.
In 1801 he became Austrian ambassador at Dresden; and on the outbreaking of the
third coalition war, he negotiated the treaty of alliance between Austria, Prussia, and
Russia. In 1806 he went as ambassador to Paris, and concluded, in 1807, the treaty of
Fontainebleau. very favorable to the interests of Austria; but on the outbreakinff of the
war between France and Austria in 1809, he was detained some time ere he could obtain
his passport. In course of that year> he succeeded count von Stadion as minister of
foreign affairs, concluded the treaty of peace with the French minister Champagny, and
accompanied the empress Maria Louisa to Paris. He guided the course of Austria
amidst the difficulties of 1818-18. He maintained at first a temporizing policy and a
scheme of an armed mediation of Austria; but the obstinacy of iJapoleon reduced him
to the necessity of adopting at last a decided step, and led him to resolve upon that
declaration of war by Austria against France, which took place in Aug., 1818, and he
sub&equentlv conducted with groat ability the negotiations which ended in the com- .
pletion of the quadruple alliance. On the eve of the battle of Leipzic, the emperor of
Austria bestowed upon him the princely dignity. He was afterwards employed in almost
all the chief diplomatic affairs of that eventful time; and after the congress of Chatilloa
and negotiations with the count d'Artois, he went to Paris, and signed the convention of
Fontainebleau with Napoleon, went to England to negotiate concerning a new quad-
ruple alliance, and attended the congress of Vienna, of which he was unanimously i
eieinted president. He signed, as. Austrian plenipotentiary, the second pence of Pans/
Nov. 20, 1815. After this, he continued still to conduct the diplomacy of Austria, and
in 1831 was appointed chancellor (Hews-, S<3fund BtaaMcamler), and in 1836 succeeded
count Zichy in the presidency of sunistenal. conferences on hoime affairs. His effort*:
Digitized by VjiOUV IC
M^r. 768
vrere now earnestly directed to the maivtneence of peace in Europe, and the preservation
of the existing state of things in the Austrian dominions by the strictest measares of
police and severe despotism. The revolutionary movement of 1848 breaking forth with
sadden violence, caused the aged minister to flee from Austria, and to seek refuge in
England; nor did he return to Vienna till the end of 1861, when he received great marks
of honor and favor from the emperor; but although sometimes consulted, he was nev^
again asked to undertake the cares of office. He died at Vienna, June 11, 1859. The
general opinion I'especting Metternich has been well expressed by the Times newspaper:
"He was renowned rather than great, clever rather than wise, venerated more for his
age tban his power, admired but not lamented." His son Richard became ambassador
at the court of Napoleon HI. after the peace of Yillafranca.
XETTBAY. The reformatory of Mettray is the true parent of all institutions intended
to reform and restore to society, and not merely to punish, juvenile delinquents.
Mettray Demetz, a member of the Parisian bar, struck with the evils and hsutiship
attending the committal to prison of younff, and, considering their training and habits,
scarcely responsible criminals, there to languish hopelessly for a time, and then to
emerge worse than when they entered, resolved, in conjunction with the Vicomte
Bretign^rcs de Courteilles, to found a school which should have for its object the refor-
mation of this class of offenders. In 1889 accordingly, the reformatory, or, as it is
called, the colony of Mettray, was set on foot, about 5 m. from the city of Tours in
France. Thus M. Demetz, by his assiduous labors and self-dcvotedness, rendered to
Prance and Europe one of the greatest benefits that could be conferred on society, by
proving that, by agricultural and other labors of industry, and well-considered rules of
organization and discipline, the neglected and criminal may be trained to take their
place honestly and honorably in society. The children consist wholly of orphans,
foundlings, and delinquents, and, in 1872, amounted in number to 792. From the
foundation up to that date, 4,287 had Ixjen received. The relapses into crime of those
who had left the colony amounted only to about 4 per cent. The success of this estab^
lidiment is to be attributed not solelj^ to the excellent training and close supervision at
Mettray itself, but to the care which is taken to preserve the hnk between the authorities
and those who have left the colony. A small payment is. made. by the state for children
sent under judicial senience; the large extra expenditure necessarily incurred being
defrayed from charitable contributions from the individuals constitutmg the "patemiS
society of Mettray."
HETZ, tlie strongest fortress of the German imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine, and
capital of the district of Lorraine ; before 1871, the main bulwark of France in her north-
eastern frontier, and capital of the department of Moselle. It is situated on the Moa^le
at its confluence with the Seille. The strength of Metz consists in its exterior defensea,
of wiiich the principal are 11 forts, partly strengthened and improved since the German
occupation, and partly entirely new. The city contains many important institutions,
barracks, hoBpital, military schools, and arsenals. The cathedral, a Gothic edifice^ begun
in 1014, and nnished in 1546, is remarkable for its boldness, lightness, and elegance, and
has a beautiful spire of o])en work, 378 ft. in height. The industry of Metz is active; '
there is a good trade in wine, brandy, indigo, glass; and there are several cloth manu-
factories in the neighborhood. The pop. of Metz, which in 1869 was 48,325, had in 1875»
by reason of emigration into France, decreased to 37,925, or with garrison, 45,856.
Metz, known k) the Romans as Divodwrwn, was afterwards called Mettis (corrupted
from Mediomatrici, the name of the people), and hence the present form. Under the
Franks, Metz was the capital of Austrasia(q.v.). At the aivision of diarlemagne's
empire, Metz, with the rest of Lorraine (q.v.), fell to Germany, and was afterwards made
a free city of the empire. In 1552 it was treacherously taken possession of by the French ;
and although Charles V. besieged the place from October, 1552, to Januaij, 1553, they
kept it till It was formally ceded to them in 1048. In August, 1870, Bazame was com-
pelled to retire into Metz with his army; and after an investment of 70 days, during
which no attempt was made to take the city by force (not even a single shell having been
flred into it), Europe was startled to hear of the capitulation of Metz, by which 1BD,000
men and immense military stores fell into German hands (Oct. 27, 1870). By the treaty
of Frankfort, Metz was annexed to Germany as part of Lorraine.
METZU, Gabriel, 1615-^7; was b. at Leyden, in s. Holland. Jiittle is known
of his early li^e, and from what artist he acquired his education in the rudiments of
painting is unknown. He was, however, Still young when already possessed of a high
reputation at Amsterdam. As a painter he belonged to the Dutch school, and was essen-
tially a materialist in art. Although he painted a few portraits, most of his sublects were
taken from commonplace scenes of middle-class or humble domestic life. Or imagina-
tion or high artistic conception he had but a small share; but in minuteness of detafi, in
perfection of coloring and execution, he was very remarkable. His subjects were such
as morning visits, 'musical parties, ladies at their toilet, a cavalier smoking and drinking
at a cabaret; in short, he was a genre painter, and in exact reproduction of scenes of
familiar life stands very high. His work commands a great price, and many excellent
apecimens are to be found in the Louvre and the other principal art-galloieB of Surope.
Digitized by VjiOUV IC
It bss been asserted t\mt Metsu died in 1958^ but one of bis best and undoubtedly genuine
works bears date 1667.
KEVBOV, a t. of France, in the dep. of Seine-et-Oisc, 5 m. w. of Paris, on the Ver-
sailles and Paris -railway. The ch&teaa, approached by a fine avenue of four rows of
lime-trees, was built by the side of an older chftteau, the work of Philibert Delorme, by
the grand dauphin, son of Louis XFV., in 1699. During the revolution it was converted
into a factory for warlike engines, and surrounded with a permanent camp to keep oiit
spies. The chateau, as it exists at present, was fitted up for Marie Louise by Napoleon
in 1812. It has a fine terrace, gardens beautifully laid out, and commands a venr fine
prospect. The For6t de Meudon is a favorite holiday resort of the Parisians. I4ear it
has been erected an expiatory chapel, dedicated to Notre Dame des Flammes, marking the
spot where a terrible railwav accident occurred in May, 1843, in which more than 100 per-
sons were burned alive. Whiting is manufactured to a considerable extent, and there are
numerous bleachficlds. Babelais was cur6 of Meudon for a long time. The chateau
was for many years a favorite summer residence of Prince Napoleon. Pop. 76, 6,385.
XSnXEBEXS, a t of Belgium, in the province of West Flanders, ^ m. s. w. of Ghent,
on the Mandel, a tributary- of the Lys. Weaving is carried on, and there are several
breweries. It is near a railway, which connects it with Bruges and other places. Pop.
8,300.
MEURSIUS. or DE MEXJRS, Johajskbs, 1OT9-1689; b. Bel^um; educated atLeyden,
where he became famous for his classical attainments. At the age of 12 he wrote
orations in Latin, at 13 he composed Qreek verses, and at 16 he had finished a com-
mentary on Lycophron, the most diflflcult Greek author. On leaving the university lie
became tutor to the sons of John of Barneveldt, the grand pensionary, and traveled with
them through Europe. He continued his studies on the continent, and the imiversity of
Orleans recognized his great learning by conferring upon him the degree of ll.d. He
returned to Holland in 1610, and became professor of history in the academy of Leyden,
and the next year was transferred to the chair of Greek. He was made historiographer to
the states of Holland, and enjoyed a high degree of favor, till the execution of Barne-
veldt, his known intimacy witli whom exposed him to considerable persecution. He was
offered and accepted, in 1625, from the king of Denmark, the professorship of luBtory in
the university of Sora, and the x)osition of royal historiographer, and he remained at
Sora till his death. His published works are 67 in number; (hey include editions of
many Greek authors, such as Lycophron, Procopius, Porphyry, andAristoxenes; treatises
on Oreek and Roman antiquities; and a OhMorium Orieo-Barbarum, still a standard
work on the Greeks of the lower empire.
MXVXTHE, formerly a department in the n.e. of France, immediately s. of the former
department of Moselle. Hie area was about 2,254 sq.m. ; pop. '66, 428,387. Its surface
is undulating and picturesque; while along the eastern boraer run the Vosges mountains,
rising in one point to 1 148 ft in height. The chief rivers are the Moselle, and its affluents
the Meurthe, the Madon, the 8eille, etc. This district is no less remarkable for the
beauty of its soeneiy than for the fertility of its soil and the variety of its productions.
After the treaty of Frankfort, by which part of Meurthe was ceded to Germany, the I'est
of Meurthe, together with the small part of the department of Moselle that remained to
France, was formed into a new department imder the name Mbubthe-et-Moselle;
area, 2,015 sq.m.; pop. '76, 404,609. Arroudissements: Nancy, Luneville, Toul (from
Meurthe), and Briey (from Moeelie); capital, Nancy.
MEU8E, a river of northern Europe, rising in the department of HavU Mame in
France, flowing northerly through the departments of Vosges, Meuse, and Aitiennes.
traversing the mountainous region of the *' forest of Ardennes," entering Belgium at
Namur, where it is joined by the Sambre from the w. ; thenc^ runs n.e. past Liege, where
it receives the Ouerthe, forms a part of the boundary between Belgium end Holland,
passes Macstricht and Koermond, and receives the Roer. At Bommel it almost joins the
Khine, and Anally mingles its waters by two channels with the Waal, one of the mouths
of the Rhine, the easterly channel reaching Rotterdam, and afterwards being joined by
Uie other, when both empty into the North sea. Their delta forms extensive shoals anil
quicksands. The river is 580 m. long, and can be navigated 460 miles. Canals in
Holland and Belgium connect it with their other rivers.
XSTTSE, a frontier department in the n.e. of France. Area, 2,400 sq.m.; pop. '76,
294,054 The surface is traversed from s.e. to n.w. by two parallel ranges of ^ills, which
form the right and left bank of the river Meuse (see Maas), and separate it from the basin
of the Seine on the w. , and from that of the Moselle on the east. The Meuse, the Oniain.
and the Aire are the chief rivers. The soil is generally poor, except in the valle3^8 of
the principal rivers, which are remarkably fertile apd well cultivated- Tlie usual crops
are raised in average quantities. Twenty-two milUon gallons of wine (red and white)
arc made annually. Tne four arrondissements are Bar-Ie-Duc, Commercy, Montmedy.
and Verdun. The capital is Bar-le-Duc.
HEW, or SEA jIiIEW, the English name for the common European gull i^aruB canu»)
and other small gulls.
U. K IX.— 49 Digitized by VjUU^IC
Xexl€«<
no
two constitQtes the south-west extremity of Korth America, and occupies a por-
lion of the isthmus which connects the latter- with the s. part of the American continent.
U is bounded on tlie n. by the territoriu!^ of the VniUtA States, on tiie w. by the PaeiDc
ocean, ou the s. by the Pacific and Centnd America, and on the e. by IIm; siilf of
Mexico. Tlie ami (»f Mexico is about 750,000 Bq_.m., and the pop. (1878) about 9,^.000.
in 1361 the S.GOO.OOO inhabitants were thus dLstributetl amongst tlie various races:
Imlians, 4,800,000; whites, 1,004,000; lialf-bi-eeds, 1,190,000; negroes, 0.000. The follow-
ing table gives the names of the provinces and their chief towns, with the populations
ijv 1869;
Pop. in 1S09. 1
Chief Tomia.
Population.
AguasOalientw...
Campeochy
Chiapas
Chitacuihua.
CoahuUa
CoUiua
inirango
Guanajuato
Guerrero
Hidalgo
lalisco.
Mexico
Uioboaoaa
Moreloa.
Nuevo Leon
Oajaca
Fu«Wa.
Queretaro
San Luis Potosi
Sitmloa
8oaoi*a
Tabasco
Tainauilpas
TlAxcala
Vera Cruz
Yuoatan
Z jcatecas.
Federal District.
California.
140,680
80,366
108,187
170,971
05,807
166,W7
874,04'$
800,029
401,307
(«1,560
660,0.18
618J^
150,981
174,000
640,7;»
6^.783
153.2«(5
4rr,!»o
108,005
109,388
88,707
108,778
191,065
4.'>9.ai:i
423,306
897,945
27ft,990
21.(545
A^rnas Calientea. . . . .
Campeachy
ISan Cristobal
Chihnahaa.
SaltiUo
'Cdiua
iDurango.
: GuanaiiUtto ........
Tixtla
Pachuca
Guadalajara
Toluca
MoreUa
Cuemavaca
Tklonterey
Oajaoa
tlHiebia.
.Queretaro
San Luis Potosi
CMUacau
lUres
San Juan Bautista.,
Ciudad Victoria
Tlaxcala ,
iVera Cms
,MerIda
iZacatecas
IMextco
iLaPiaz
S2,5a4
15,196
10,473
12.000
8,103
81,000
1^4^
03,000
G.SOl
li.OOO
;o,ooo
1-2,600
^000
2:>,ooo
73,300
47,570
10,000
7,000
6.000
6,1M
4,000
10.000
S8.500
81,000
200,000
500
Physical C/iaracler, etc, — The great mass of the Mexican territory consists of an ele-
vated plateau, formed hy an expansion of the Cordilleras of Central America (q. v.). from
which terraced slopes descend with a more or less rapid inclination towards tlie Atlantic
on the e. and the Pacific on the west. Tills vast tradt, wliicli extends from 18* to 82**
n. lat., and from 95° to 115* w. long., comprises one of the richest and most varied
zones in the world; for while its geographical position secures to it a tropical vegeta-
tion, the rapid differences of elevation which chai-ncteriKc it nflford it the advantages of
tcmpenite climates, in which all the varieties of our Etiropean flora and fauna can come
to perfection; and it tlins eomhlnes within its limits an almost unparalleled exuherance
and multiplicity of natural products. The table-lands of Mexico lie at elevations varyini^
from 5,000 to more than 9,000 ft. above the level of the sea, and exhibit great differences
of level and varieties of soil. They generally incline northward, and are for the most
part girt in by low mountain chains, among which rise individual lofty peaks, as
Coffre de Perote (13,400 ft.), Orizava (17,870 ft.), and others ; while thev are intersected by
higher ranges, above which tower a few cones, as Istaccihuatl, the white woman (15,700
fL), and the volcano of Popocatupetl, or the smoking mountain (17,880 feet). These
volcanoes and several otlicrs of less note, lying within the parallels of 18" 15' and 19"
30' n. Int., forma transverse volcanic band botfvveen the two oceans, and do not follow
the in.clination of the central chain, as is the case in the volcanoes of South America.
Volofmoes also occur isolated, as, for instance, in the plain of Mixtecapan, 2,900 ft.
above the sea, where, in 1759, the volcano of Jorullo, which still emits smoke, was
formed after an eruption, bv which a surface of manv square miles was raised several
feet above the level of the plain; in fact, every part of the Mexican territory betrays tJie
volcanic uature of its formation, although neither eai-thquakes nor any other active phe-
nomena have of late been of frequent occurrence. The principal chain, intersecting the
tiible-laud, is the Sierra Madre, or Tepe Sucne, in which lie tiie chief gold and silver
mines, and which, after traversing the states of Queretaro and Guanajuato, divides into
three main branches, the central of which forms the water-shed between the Pacific
ocean and the gulf of Mexico. In addition to these great chains, the Mexican territory
is intersected by numerous lesser ranges, which on the Pacific side break up the termceJl
declivities into innumerable deeply cleft valleys, which assume almo<Jt the character of
sleep ravines near their junction with the narrow littoral plains of the Pacific ocean.
Violent storms rage on this coast, blowing from the south-west during the hot months,
when tlte climate is as prejudicial to whites tis on the Mexican gulf, although it is not
visited by the yellow-fever. Mexico may be said to be generally deficient in navigabk*
rivers; for altijough some of the largest have a course of more than 1000 miles, few
are free from rapids. I'hc Rio S^intiago, or Rio Grande, with a course of 500 m., is-
Digitized by.VjOUV IC
in
broken near Guadalajara by 00 falls in the space of leas than three iniles; the Rio Grande
del Norte, which forms in its lower course the boundary between Mexico and the
United States, has a winding oourse of nearly 1800 m., but it is only navigable fcr
)QialL sailing vessels to Hatamoras, 60 m. from its mouth, where a bar and numerous
shoals prevent the passage of large vessels. A similar remark applies to the majority of
the rivers which fall into the gulf of Mexico. The eastern coast generally presents great
obstaeles to navigation, as it is low and sandy, unbroken by bays or inlets, and
lined by sandbanks eeveral miles in width; the only points of access being the mouths
of rivers, which are t>ot good roadsteads, as with few exceptions, the rivers have little
water, except at the rainy season, which generally sets in about June, aocompauied by
overpowering heat, during the prevalence of which the yellow-fevei% oi wf/iito mieto,
rages like a pest in all the low lands. Mexico is on the whole badly suppliea with
water; and since the Spaniards have discontinued the system of irrigation, which was
followed by the Aztec raees with so much success, many tracts have become barren,
and unsuited for the ptrrpose of human occupation. A great portion of the table-lands
can onl^ be used for pasture. Springs are rare, and many en the riveiB flow in deep
mountain beds, witlioat receiving smaller tributaries, while the rapid evaporation on a
light soil, covering porous rocks, leaves the surface dry and hot, and unable to support
any vegetation, b^ond tlie eaotus and some low grasses. The plains, moreover, con-
tain the beds of numerons dry salt lakes, but this is chiefly the case on the north and
cast of the table-land. Tl»e western parts of the plateaux between 100° and 102° w.
long, (known as die Baxio), yield, by careful irrigation, rich crops of maize and wheat,
and rank among the most fertile agricultural districts of Mexico. They are, however,
here and there interrupted by eterile tracts, either covered by stones, and then known os
** pedegral," or with lava, when they are characterized as a fnal pais (bad country). In
contrast with these nnprofltable districts^ the plains are oocaskraally broken by depres-
sions of -the soil, known as bawaneas, des'oending sometimes 1000 ft., and measuring
several miles across, which are covered with a luxuriant vegctaticm of trees and shrubs,
and watered by small streams running through the middle of the valley. Mexico has
numerous lakes, but few of any importance; that of Chapala in Jalisco is one of the most
considerable, being more than 90 m. long.
OUmate, Products.— The differences of climate, depending upon the different degrees
of alHtude, are so great in Mexico thut the vegetable products of this vast country
include almost all that are to be found between tbe equator and the polar circle. In tho
course of a few hours, the traveler may experience every gradation of climate, embracing
torrid heat and glacial cold, and pass through different zones of vegetation, including
wheat and the sugar-cane, the ash and the palm, apples, olives, and guavas. Tbe Span-
iards, on their first occupation of Mexico, 4t8tinguished its great climatic divisions under
the characteristic names, which are still retained, of the Uerraa calientes (iiot or littoral
lands), tien-as iempUidaa (temperate landsi), and tierrasfncu (cold or high lands). The
mean annual heat of the tierras calicntes is 77°; and the soil, which is generally feriile,
procluces maize, rice where water can l)e procured for irrigation, bananas, pine-applos,
orange^, manioc; and sarsaparilla, jalap, and vanilla in the littoral swampy forests.
This tract has only two seasons — the winter, or season of north winds, and the Mini mcr,
or season of breezes. In the former, the hurricanes are the tcn-or of navigator^ but tlu*
coast is clear of yellow-fever, which prevails in the hot eeosou. On the mcdinm eleva-
tions of the tierras tcmpladas, the temperature is extremely equable, varyinii: only from
about 70"* to 80** F.; the climate healthy, and wherever water is abundant, a ])erpetual
summer reigns, yielding a varied and active veretntion, which embraces all the ccreaN,
fruits, and vegetables of central and southern Europe, amongst which maize, oranges,
lemons, grapes, and olives arc produced in the most exuberant abundance. The tierras
frias, whieh would scarcely have been characterized as cold by disco verere Ijelonging U)
a less southern climate than Spain, possess a generally temperatfe climate, the mean
annual heat ranging between 66' and 68" F. ; but on the highest of the table-lands, the
air is keener, and the soil more arid, and agriculture is limited to the cultivation of bai-
ley and of the agave, or Mexican aloe, which held the place of the vine among the ancient
Aztecs, and is still extensively cultivated for the sake of its juice, which is made into
the fermented drink known under the name of pulque. In addition to the vegetable
products already referred to. Mexico yields coffee, tobacco — whose growth is, however,
limited by governmental restrictions — yams, capsicums, pepper, pimento, indigo, ipe-
cacuanha, dragon's-blood, copaiva, fan-palms, india-rubber trees, mahogany, rosewood,
el)om^ etc.
The products of the mines, which rank among the richest in the world, include the
precious metals. The gold mines of Mexico occur principiUly on the w. side of the
Sierra Madre, n. of 24° h. lat., and, until the discovery of the metal in Australia, their
yield surpassed the produce of any other part of the world. Silver mines abound in
Mexico, and the argentiferous veins, which may be said to intersect every part of the
western declivities of the Andes, occur in 80ic_o places, as in the Vela Madre lode at
Guanajuato, in l)eds vaiying from 10 to 50 yards in depth; the precious metal being in
these cases intermixed with sulphur compounds, antimony, and arsenic. But although
these mines possess the additi(mal special advantage of bemg situated in fertile districts,
• affording abundant food to miners and their cattle, their working has been very iniper-
Mflcdco.
772
fcctly carried on, owing to the unsettled state of the country. At the cloee of the last,
and the beginning of the present centuiy, the annual value of the gold and silver of Mexico
was upwards of £6,000,000, of which nine-teoths were yielded by the silver; but the
political disturbances, preceding and consequent on the wars c)f independence, have verj
considerably reduced this sum, whiph lias probably never been readied since Mexico
WAS finally separated from the mother-count^. In addition to gold and silver, Mexico
Yields tin, antimony, mercury, copper, lead, iron, and zinc; while carbonate of soda, used
in finieltins^ silver, is found crystallized on the surface of several lakes, and occurs,
together with common salt, in dry seasons, on the more arid parts of the surface of the
elevated table-lands.
Cuttle, horses, asses, mules, and sheep abound in Mexico, where, in cQusequence of
the extent and excellence of tlie pasture-groimds, all the domestic animals introduced
from the old world have multiplied excessively. Buffaloes feed in the lower plains;
gouts and sheep are plentiful; the tapir, wolf, American lynx, jaguar, wildcat, several
species of the skunk, the brown porcupine, sing, deer, etc., are to be found. Parrots,
humming-birds, and wild game birds, including tiirkeys, are abundant; and almost all
tbe lakes yield large quantities of fish. The codbineal insect and the silk- worm are reared
with great success on the table-land of Mixtecapan.
(Jommerce, e^— Notwitlistanding the enormous advantages presented by her natural
productions, and the important geo^apliical position which she occupies between tbe
Atlantic and the Pacific, Mexico, owmg to her unsettled government, and the^nsequcot
incet^urity of life and property, has not been able to develop her foreign commerce
beyond the value of about £10,000,000. 1'he precious metals constitute, it is estimated,
nearly nine-tenths of tbe exports, the remainder bein£ made up by productions of the soil,
and industrial products, such as cotton, woolen and silk goods, soap, leather, saddlery,
ffold and silver lace, cigars, brandy, etc. England, France, Hamburg, and Lubeck, and the
united States, are the principal powers with which Mexico maint-ams relations of foreign
commerce; while the city of Mexico is the chief focus of internal trade, and Vera Cruz
tlie principal port for maritime commerce. . The total value of the foreign trade of
Mexico in 187G was— for imports, £5,600,000; for expoits, £5,100,000. For the number
of ships entering and clearing the ports of Mexico, see Vbra Cbuz and Tampico.
Mexico possesses about 400 m. of railway, the line from Vera Cruz to Mexico being one
of the most wonderful pieces of engineering enterprise in the world. The annual traffic
amounts to about 260,000 passengers, and 190,000 tons of freight. The financial con-
dition of Mexico has been allowM to fall into such disorder since the establishment of
independence that the expenditure has been continually increasing beyond the receipts.
According to the printed estimates, tbe estimated amount of the budget for 1675-76 was
£4. 760,000. The total expenditure for the same year was estimated at £4,980,000. The
revenue is derived mainly from the customs. The total amount of the national debt
ouinot bo stated. The loans contracted by the imperial government are entirely
repudiated by the present government.
Army, Navy, etc, — In accordance with the old constitution of Mexico, the standing
army was to consist of 26,000 men, with a reserve of 65,000 men; but this number,
which had fallen to nearly half the required force in 1855, has been so extensively
reduced since that period by continual civil wars, that, according to Spanish authorities,
the government of the late president Juarez, on the breaking out of hostilities with the
French in 1862, was unable to brmg into the field more than 5,000 infantry, 800 cavalry,
;tnd 9,500 of the national guard. The total strength of the army is now estimated at
iibout 20,000 men. The navy consisted of only some 300 men, whije tlie fleet numbered
mly 9 small ships of war, carrying in all between 80 and 40 cannon. Education in
aiexico, long in the lowest possible condition, even among the wealthier classes, is now
steadily improving. Liberal allowances have been made by the central and state gov-
ernments for establishment of new schools, etc. In 1878 there were in Mexico nearlr
4.000 public schools, with about 190,000 scholars.
lidiffion, etc. — The Roman Catholic is the dominant church of Mexico, but all other
sects ni*e tolerated. Mexico has 3 archbishops and 10 bishops. The administration of
justice is not what it should be, but is not so inefficient, nor the courts so corrupt, as
tv>rmer1y. Brigandage and smuggling endanger personal security, and seriously damage
;iic resources of the nation, but are gradually disappearing.
Tlie supreme power of the state was, in 1858, vested in the hands of Benito Juarez,
>vho was to bear the title of constitutional president, and admiuistor public affairs in
conjunction with a legislative congress, composed of a chamber of senators and lower
I oiise of representatives. Each province was to elect two senators and one deputy to
ivery 40,000 inhabitants, and was, moreover, to have a separate provincial legislative
< liamber, presided over by its governor. President Juarez ia imdoubtedly, alons^ with
trnn. Iturbide, to be regarded as the most distinguished character in moaem Mexico.
• he imfortunnte Maximilian was a mere episode in the career of the country. A pro-
visional regency of the Mexican empire was appointed by the Jv^nta Superior dA Gdnsmo;
which was itself constituted (June 16, 1863) by a decree of marshal Forey, leader of the
French army of invasion. It was composed of 85 members. This junta at the same
time established, under French influence, an assembly of notables, whom it charged
with deciding in the name of the people what form of government ]Sj[ex^9|^iild adopt
On July 10, 1868. this body, by an overwhelming majority, decided In favor of a con-
sUtutioual hereditary monarchy, and that the new ruler should bear the title of emperor
of Mexico. See succeeding article. The present constitution dates from 1857. The execu-
tire power is vested in a president, elected by universal suffrage, for a period of 6 years.
The legislative power is confided to a congress consisting of a house of representatives
(one for each 80.000 inhabitimts), and a senate (with two members for each state!
HUiory of Meocico, — ^The history of ancient Mexico exhibits two distinct ana widely
diftering periods, the former of which, that of the Toltecs, appears to have begun in the
7th and ended with the .12th c. ; while the second, that of the Aztecs, began in the year
1200, and may be said to have been closed by the conquest of Oortea in 1519; for
iilthough the race has maintained occupation of the Mexican territory, its existence as fi
nation ceased with the Spanish domination. The origin and primitive seats of the Tol-
tecs arc shrouded in mystery; and aJl that we learn of this people is, that they came
from the north, from some undetined locality, which they designated Tullan, and from
whence they brought to the valley of Mexico the first eiemeuts of civilization. Their
laws and usages stamp them as a people of mild and peaceful instincts, industrious,
active, and enterprising. They cultivated the laad, introduced maize and cotton, made
roads, erected monuments of colossal dimensions, and built temples and cities, whose
ruins in various parts of Kew Spain still attest their skill in architecture, and sufficient-
iy cxpUun why the name Toltec should have passed into a synonym for architect. They
unew liow to fuse metals, cut and polish the hardest stones, fabricate earthenware, ami
weave various fabrics: they employed hierogljrpliics for the record of events, were
a rgnninted with the causes of eclipses, constructed sun-dials, devised a simple system of
not 2U ion, and measured time by a solar year, composed of 18 months of 20 days each,
u Uling 5 complementary days to make up the 865, and intercalating 12^ days at the
expiration of every 52 years, which brought them within an almost inappreciable frac-
i Oil to the length of the tropical year, as established by the most accurate observations,
i'ucse and other arts, with a raUd form of religion, and a simple but lust mode of
ad ministering the laws, tlie Toltecs bequeathed to the Aztecs, who engrafted upon the
clvtiization of their predecessors many tierce and sanguinary practices in their religious,
and many puer'le usages in their social life. Nothing is Known of the exact time, and
still less of the manner and causes of the departure of the Toltecs from Mexico; but it
lias been conjectured that thev went towards the south, and that the colossal architec-
tural remains of the cities of Palenqiie. Uxmal, and Mitla, in Central America, are the
work of their lianiis. The Aztecs, as we have said, imparted to the institutions of the
Toltecs a tinge of tJieir own somber cruelty, and product an anomalous form of civiliz-
ation, which astonished the Spaniards by its mingled character of mildness and ferocity.
Like the Toltecs and the Chichmecs, a rude tribe who had succeeded them, the Aztecs
came from the north, and after wandering from place to place, founded in 1825 the city
of Tenochtitlan, or Mexico. On the arrival of the Spaniards, their empire was found to
extend from ocean to ocean, stjrelching on the Atlantic from 18*" to 21'' n. lat., and on
the Pacific from 14'' to lO"* n. lat. Their government was an elective empire, the
soverei^ being selected from the brothers of tne deceased prince, or, in default of them,
from his nephews. Tlieir laws were severe, but Justir3 was administered in open courts,
the proceedmgs of which were perpetuated by means of picture-written records.
The Aztecs believed in one supreme invisible ci'cator of all things, the ruler of the
universe, named Taotl— a belief, it is conjectured, not native to them, teit derived from
their predecessora, the Toltecs. Under this supreme being stood 13 chief and 200 infe-
rior divinities, each of whom had his sacred day and festival. At their head was the
patron god of the Aztecs, the frightful Huitziiopochtli, the Mexican Jfar^. His temples
were the most splendid and imposing; in every city of the empire his altars w^
drenched with the blood of human sacrifice. Cortes and his companions (see Diaz)
were permitted by Montezuma to enter that in the city of Mexico, and to behold the goa
himself. " He had a broad face, wide mouth, and terrible eyes. He was covered with
gold, pearls, and precious stones; and was girt about with golden serpents On
his neck, a fitting ornament were the faces of men wrought in silver, and their hearts in
gold. Close bv were braziers with incense, and on the braziers 8 real hearta of men
who had that day been sacrificed" (Helps's Spanith Conguegt in America, vol. ii., book
X., chap. 4). The smell of the place, we are told, was like that of a slaughter-house.
To supply victims for these sacrifices, the emperors made war on all the neighboring
and subsidiary states, or in case of revolt in any city of their dominions, and levied a
certain nuihber of men, women, and children by way of indemnity. The victims were
borne in triumphal processions and to the sound of music, to the summit of the great
temples, where the priests, in sight of assembled crowds, bound them to the sacrflcial
stone, and opening the breast, tore from it the bleeding heart, whidh was either laid
lH.'fore the image of their gods, or eaten by the worshipers, after having been carefully
Qut up and mixed with maize. In the years immediately preceding tlie Spanidi con-
quest not less than 20,000 victims were annually immolated. These atrocities were
inoongruously blended with milder foms of worship, in which fruits, flowers, and per-
fumes were ofi^eretl up amid joyous outbursts of song and dance. According to their
mythology, Taotl, who delighted in these purer sacrifices, had once reigned in Anahuac
(a name which at first probably applied only to the country in the immediate vicinity otf
Digitized by VjOL^V IC
VI«doa«
*IU
tlie capital, tbftugji aft^rWardsit vas applied to the whole Attec empire) In the golden
age of the world, but being obliged, from some unexplained cause, to retire from earth,
he departed by way of tlie Mexican gulf, promifiing to return. This traditi<m acceieiated
the success of the Spaniards, whose light skins and long dark hair and beards were
nfjnirded as evidences of their affinity with the long-looked-for divinity. The Mexican
priestliood formed a rich and powerful order of the state, and were so numerous that
Cortes found as many as 5,000 attached to the great temple of Mexico. The education
of the young of both sexes remained till the age of puberty in the hands of the priests
' and priesti'sses; nnd tUe sacerdotal class were tlms able to exercise a widely-diffused
influence, which, under thu later rulei*s, was almost equal to tliat of the emperor him-
self. The women shared in all the occupations of the men, and were taught, like them,
the aits of reading, writing, ciphering, singing in chorus, dancing, etc.» and even
initiated in the secrets of astronomy and astrology.
On the arrival of Cortes iu 1619. the Aztec throne was occufHed by Montesama, an
energetic prince, who, after his election to the throne, which for several senerations had
been occupied by his ancestors, made successful war on the powerful and highly-civiiized
neighboring state of Tlascala, and on Nicaragua and Honduras; after a time, however,
he giew iudoleht, and alienated the affections of his subjects by his arrogance and exac-
tions, and by his unremittiug devotion to the services of the temples. According to
the oracles, which he frequently cousulted, great changes were impending over the
empire, the return of Quetzalcoatl was near at hand, and the fall of his race w^as impend-
ing. The tidings of the arrival on the coast of the expedition of Grigalva in 1518 terri-
fied Montezuma and his priestly councilors; and when the hieroglyphic reports of his
provincial ofiicers announced the landing. in the following year of Cortes and his com-
l>auious, he endeavored to propitiate tiie dreaded strangera by sending an embassy
charged with valuable gifts to meet them. The road to success was thus open to the
Spanish captain, who, with a handful of men, advanced from St. Juan de Uiloa to
Mexico, and gradually subdued the entire empire of the Aztecs, whose power crumbled
to dust befoi'e the greater energy and superior civilization of their Christian invaders.
In 1540 Mexico was united with other American territories under the name of New
Spain, and governed by viceroys appointed by the mother.couDtr}\ The intolerant
spirit of the Catholic clcr^ led to the suppression of almost ever}' trace of the ancient
Aztec nationality and civilization, while the strict system of sequestration enforced in
Mexico crippled the i-esources of the colony; yet notwithstanding these drawbacks,
Mexico ranked first among all the Spanish colonies in regard to population, material
riches, and natural products. It may be said to have vegetated for nearly three centuries
in a state of semi-quiescent prosi)erity, interrupted by few disturbances of any kind
until the year 1810, when the discontent, which had been gaining ground against the
vice-regal power during the war of the mother-count ly with Napmeon, broke into open
rebellion under the leadership of a country pri«st named Hidalgo. The defeat and sub*
sequent execution of the latter in 1811 put a partial stop to the insurrection; but the
atrocities committed under the sanction of the new viceroy, Calleja, exasperated the
people, and gave an Irresistible impulse to the revolutionary cause. Guerrero and
Iturbide in turn gained signal advantages over the Spaniards. For a time Iturbide
maintained a self-estabhshed imperial rule over the colony; but on the downfall conse-
<lueDt on his tyrannical abuse of power, a constitutional mode of government was
inaugurated, and in 1824 the independence of Mexico, which had cnosen a federal
republican form of government, was finally established, and in the following year
definitely recognized by every foreign power except Spain. The Mexican war 'was
stained with excesses add atrocities on both sides; but it must be confessed that the
Sjoaniards gained an unenviable pre-eminence in regard to the wanton cnielty which
cflanicterized their method of conducting hostilities. With them the war was one of
extermination, every commander being allowed, at his own discretion, to hunt down
and slaughter the insurgents like brutes.
The welfare of the how republic was unhappily disturbed by constant outbreaks of
<;ivil war under the leadership of the escosses, or aristocratic faction, and the yorkinof,
or democrats; and the history of the quarter of a century during which Mexico has
exercised independent power, leaves little to recount beyond ever-recurring acts of
violence, and the rapiJl and sum mar}' deposition of one president after another. In 1830
Texas secured its independence of the Mexican republic, for which it had struggled for
several yeara, and at the same period differences arose with France, which were, how-
ever, brought to a peaceful conclusion after the taking of Vera Cruz in 1888 by the
French troops. In 1841 gen. Santa Anna, on the retirement of Bustamente, succeeded
in regaining the direction of affairs, from which he had been more than once deposed,
and, under tlie title of dictator, exercised the power of an autocratic niler. In 1845
Mexico was compelled to recognize the independence of Texas, which was incorporated
with the United States, whose troops having entered the Mexican territory, provoked a
declaration of war on the part of the Mexican government Hostilities were carried on
with great energy by both parties until 1848, when peace was finally concluded, after
several 1)1 oody engagements had been fought without any definite result on either side;
and the city of Mexico had been stormed and taken by the Americans under gen. Sco^
Ig 1852, after Santa Anna and Herrera had been in turn deposed and recalled to iwwer.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
•«r5
Mcnaook
a rev<dutionary movement of more than ordinary importance brought gen. Cevallos for
a time to the head of affairs; but, when the insubordination and arrogauce uf the soldiery
threateued universal anarchy, Santa Anna was again recalled. Mar. 17, 1858. Having
reorganized the army, and suppressed by, the most cinael severity the insurrection of Uie
federals, he declared himself president for life, and thus again rekindled civil war. In
1856 he had to flee from tlic country. Since then, utter confusion has prevailed.
Santa Amia was succee^^ed by gen. Alvarez, who held office for about \,wo raonAjs, nfier
.whom came gen. Comoiifort, who was forced to resign in 1858; when a gen. Zulvjigo
assumed supreme power, but w^as almost immediately deposed by a pen. Roblcs. Tnis
person also proving a futility, Benilo Juarez was elected; but bis clamis were contested
bv gen. Miramou — the head of the priestly and conservative party — and the country was
plunged in civil wtir. The acts of wanton a^^ression and flagrant injustice perpetrated
on foreigners in Mexico during this period of mtemal disorder, during which llie cortes
passed an act saspending all payments to foreigners for two yWrs, coilTd not fail to diaw
uix)n the Mexican government the serious remoust ranee of those European powers wliose
subjects had just cause of complaint; and the result was to bring a fleet of Englii^h,
French, and Spanish sliips into the Mexican ffulf for the purpose of enforcing satisfac-
tion. In Dec, 1861, the Britii^li minister left Mexico, and the Spaniards disembarked a
force at Vera Cruz, and took possession of the fort of St. Juan d' tUoa, a step which was
soon followed by the arrival before the former city of the allied fleet. A proclamation,
signed by the commanders-in-chief of tlie three naval divisions, and addressed by them
to the M!exican people, elicited no satisfactory reply; and steps wei-e accordingly taken
to advance at once upon the capital. This measure alaimed the provisional government
of Mexico, and brought about an armistice, with a view of negotiating a treaty for the
future regulation of commercial intercourse between Mexico and the great European
powers. This treaty was drawn up and provisionally ratifled by the different command-
ers, but not confirmed on the part of France, and consequtntly the French troops
retained occupation of the Mexican territory after the English" and Spaniards had
declined to join in further hostile demonstrations. In April, 1862, the French emperor
formally declared war against the government of Juarez, who had assumed arbitrary
rule as president of the republic. The French, who spent £8,000,000 on the Mexican
expedition, did not meet with the sympaUiy and welcome from the people at large which
the assumed unpopularity of Juarez haa led them to anticipate; and, although the
taking of Puebla and other decided successes gave them a firmer footing in the countr}',
it was evident that whatever grievances the Mexican nation had against their govern-
ment, they entei-tained a deeply rooted hatred against foreigners, and were certainly not
prepared to welcome with cordial unanimity^ the thorough reorganization of their politi-
cal system which the European powers, witli France at their head, were initiating for
the country. —Comp. Le Mexiqite, Anden et Moderne, par Michel Chevalier (Hachette,
1883).
]i£XICO. [Fivm Supplement] After the declaration of war agamst Juarez by the
French, they issued a proclamation to tlie Mexican people, April 16, 1863, setting forth
that one of the objects of the contest was to rescue them from the tyrannjr of the presi-
dent,.and put the government of the country on a stable footing. Little faith, however,
seems to have been put in these professions; and the invaders, though joined by Mar-
quez, the military leader of the clerical party, met with little success till the arrival of
gen. Forey with a reinforcement from France in September. Forey then took the com-
mand in chief, addressed a proclamation to the Mexicans, promising tliem perfect liberty
in the choice of a new government in room of that of Juarez; and in the spring of 18^
concentrated the French troops, and marched on Mexico. On his way he took the
strongly fortified city of Puebla after a two months' siege, capturing its defender, Ortega,
and his whole force (May 18); and, Juarez having fled from the capital, and transferred
the seat of his government to San Luis PotosI at their approach, the French entered
Mexico on June 10. A fortnight afterwards, a provisional government, headed by gen.
Almonte, was established, ana an "assembly of notables," which was called (June 34)
to deliberate upon the best form of government, decided in July, by a vote of 231 to 11^.
in favor of a '* limited hereditary monarchy," with a Catholic pnnce for sovereign, under
the title of " emperor of Mexico," and resolved in the first place to offer the crown to
the archduke Ferdinand MdJarmlmn (q.v.) of Austria, failing whom, to request the good
otBces of the emperor Napoleon in obtaining another monarch. * That this I'esolution
was the fruit of a general earnest wish on the part of the Mexican notables, the feeble and
almost unwilling support most of them accorded to their chosen emperor after hi8<leser-
tion by the French," will not allow us to suppose; but, on the other hand, we have not
the slightest reason for believing tliat anything approaching intimidation or undue influ-
ence was exercised by the French. Most of them doubtless argued that a government
supported Uy France would be suflftcicully powerful to maintaip the country in a state
of tranquilliiy, and in the hope of this long wished-for result, cast in their lot for empire.
These changes were, of course, vigorously protested against by the republican assembly
at San Luis, juid the two parties prepared with eagerness to try the fortune of war. On
Oct. 1 Forey departed from Mexico, and gen. Bazaine took the command of the French
forces, and commenced the campaign with vigor. The result of the winter's struggle
Mezlotti
Y7«
was that in spriag the Imperialists were in possession of the whole country, with the
exception of the four northern provinces. On Oct. 8, 1803, the archduke MazimiHan
liad given audience at his chftteau of Miramar, near Trieste, to a deputation which was
Heiit to offer him the crown, and had accepted it. On May 29 the emperor and empress
landed at Vera Cruz, and on June Id made their public entry into the capita); and soon
after tlie middle of the year the imperialists had gained poHsession of every state in the
kingdom, Juarez fleeing in August to theX^nited States. As small parties of the repub-
iicaiis still mainttiined a species of guerrilla warfare in various districts, Maximilian, on
Oct. 2, 1805, published a proclamation, menacing with death, according to the laws oi
war, all who were found in armed opposition to his government; the republic having
ceased, not only by the express wish of the nation, but also by the expiry (Nov, 22, 1804) '
of Juarez's term of offlce. nnd his flight beyond the frontiers; an amnesty, however,
being accorded to such as submitted .before Nov. 15. In acconlance with this edict,
fens. Artcaga and 8alazur« who were defeated and captured Oct. 18, were shot on the
1st; and many hundreds of capturetl republicans were dealt with under the terms of the
same order. ....
This contest in Mexico had from the commencement excited the liveliest Interest in
the United 8tate^ though the civil war, raging .there also, prevented any active inter-
ference in the affairs of its neighbor. A general impression existed that Fniuce had
taken advantage of the troubles of the United States to establisli its authoritv flrmly on
the American continent; and this belief, alone with the violation of the '* Monroe doc-
trine" by the establishment of im|)erialism in Mexico, induced the United States to give
all their sympathy and diplomatic aid to Juarez and his supporters. In Nov. 6, 1865.
secretary Seward forwarded a dispatch to Paris, in which it was stated that the presence
of 'the French army in Mexico was a source of " grave reflection" to the government of
the United States, and that the latter could on no account allow the establishment of an
imperial "'overnment, based on forei^jn aid, in Mexico, or recognize in that country other
tian repuolican institutions. This dispatch led to an interchange of diplomatic notes
during the following six months; the Americans holc^ng flrmly to their first statements,
and even insinuating the proliabillty of an armed Interference on behalf of Juarez; till
the French emperor, who was weaned with a contest so expensive and. thougli success-
ful, so barren of lasting fruits, ultimately agreed, in the summer of 1866, to withdraw
his troops from Mexico. The Belgian legion and some Austrian levies, liowever, were
not included in this arrangement. Accordingly, from the autumn of 1869 till Feb.,
1867, the French troops by degrees evacuated Mexico, and their departure was the sig-
nal for a fresh rising on the part of the Juarlsts. Sec Maximilian and Jctaukz. Since
1871 Mexico has remained a republic; but it has repeatedly been disturbed by rebellion
aiid civil war.
MEXICO (ante). Juarez, president of Mexico until 1872, was succeeded by Lcrdo de
Tejada (O- v.), under whose adminislration the country remained in a satisfactotr con-
dition. This statesman was minister of foreign affairs under Juarez, and his ability as
a diplomatist was well recognized. The perpetual tendency to revolt which characterizes
the Me:dcan people, though smothered during the presidency of Lerdo, became active
toward .he end of 1876; and his re-election for four years precipitated a revolution,
headed by PorfirioDiax, by. which the latter gained control of the government, while
Lerdo and his cabinet fled. President Diaz remained in possession of the government
until 1880, when the regular quadrennial election resulted in the success of the govern-
ment candidate, gen. M. Gonzalez, who was declared president; he had been secretary
of war in 1878. A few revolutionary outbreaks which occurred during president Diaz's
administration were promptly suppressed, through the employment of vigorous measures
by the government. — A table published in Mexico in 1876 (not entirely trustworthy)
gives the pop. of the republic as 8,743,000, and that of the city of Mexico as 250,000.
The republic is divided politically Into 27 states, one federal district, and one territory.
The names of the states are as follows: Aguas Calientes, Campeachy, Chiapas. Chi-
huahua, Coahuila, Colima, Durango, Guansmiato, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico,
Michoacan, Morelos, Nuevo Leon, Oajnca, Puebla, Queretaro, San Luis Potosi, Binaloa.
Sonora, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Tlaxclala, Vera Oruz, Yucatan, and Zacatecas. Each of
these states is administrated over by a governor, and an assembly called the state con-
gress. The army of the republic comprised, in 1879, 20 battalions of foot, 14,640 men f
and 765 ofl9cers; 10 corps of horse. 4,840 men and 390 oflScers; 4 brigades, of 4 batteries
each, of artillery, 1815 men and 148 officers; coast-guards, 71 men and 22 officers; and
invalids, 265 men and 19 officers; total, 22,875. .The annual expen^ of the Mexican
army and navy (the latter comprising only 4 gun-boats) average over $8,000,000. — The
national deht of Mexico was set down in 1878 at $181.9tC665; of which, to Great
Britain, $69,311,657; to Spain. $9,460,986; to France, $2,859,917: Interest, $57,892,145:
miscellaneous (including American claims awards $8,875,128), $6,121,758. The annual
revenue is about $17,000,000; the annual expenditure about $19,000,000. The total
amount of the exports varies lietween $25,000,000 and $35,000,000 annually, that ef the
imports being about the same, though the prevalence of smuggling renders it impo^ible
to more than approximate to the correct figures. The amount of the trade of Mexico
Digitized by V^OUV IC
777
Mezlooa
With the TJnited States is only attainable in part from the published reports, as given in
the following table.
T&ADB BBTWSEIf MbXIGO AND TKB UlTITED STATES (iK PART) FOR 1878.
Imports. Exports.
VemCruz $1,587,916 29
Mazatlan $1,182,987 00 2,398.493 00
Mtttamoraa 865,011 00 476,831 00
At the close of the year 1879 there were 872 m. of railroad in operation in Mexico,
the pi'iucipal line being that between Vera Cmz and the capital. Education was con-
ducted, in 1876, in the^republie by 8,106 priiliary schools; 54 professional and secondary
aOiiools; a national preparatory ^dtool in the city of Mexico; and other institutions of
learning. There were also 40 public libraries; 8 of which, containing an aggregate of
i£36,000 volumes, were in the capital This important staple articles of export are
mahogany and dye-woods, cochineal, tobacco, coffee, sugar, and the hennequen plant
(agaw Americana), from which is prepared Sisal hemp. During the year 1875-76 It uca-
tan produced 22,000,000 lbs. of tliis fiber, representing the product of more than
18,000,000 plants under cultivation. The capital invested in this industry wiis
$5,147,000. Maize is largely cultivated, and yields three and sometimes four crops
annually; but, with wheat and rice, is only grown for home consumption. The value
of the exportation of tobacco in 1878 amounted to $182,984.75.
MZXIOOy or Mejico, the capital city of the republic, is situated in 19° 20' n. lat.,
and 99* 5' w. long., at an elevation of nearly 7,500 ft. above the level of the sea, in the
valley of Tenochtillan, 2i m. w. of lake Tezcuco. The pop. was, in 1878, 280,000.
This beautiful city, which is built on the site of the ancient Tenochtitlan of the Aztec
empire, is situated on an extensive plateau, having an area of more than 1700 sq.m., sur-
rounded by lofty mountains, and including 5 lakes within its area. The principal streets,
which all converge towards the great square of Mexico, are regularly and well laid-out,
broad, clean, and well-paved ancT lighted; but the buildings, both private and public, are
low, and of a light style of architecture, in consequence of water being found in many
parts of the city at only a few feet below the surface, and partly from apprehension of
earthquakes. The plaza mayor, one of the finest squares of the western world, con-
tains the cathedral, a spacious and imposing building, erected on the ruins of the great
UoeaUi, or temple of the Aztec god Mixitli, and adorned with the kelleuda, a circular
stone, covered with hieroglyphics, by which the Aztecs used to represent the months of
the year. The palace of the cortes, in tlie same square, consists of various buildings
appropriated to offices of state, government schools, and public insti'.utions of vaiious
kinds, but like everything else in Mexico, has been suffered gradually to fall to decay since
the evacuation of the Spaniards. Mexico contJiins 14 churches, some monasteries and con^
vents, and numerous charitable institutions; the fine hospital has been converted into a
barrack. There are schools of jurisprudence, medicine, aCTiculture, engineering, and
jin academy of the fine arts, containing valuable Aztec antiquities; also several theaters and
a circus: the bull-ring was demolished in 1874. In addition to the ordinary alameda or
public walk of a Spanish city, Mexico is remarkable for the extent and beauty of its
paseoe, or raised paved roads, planted with double rows of trees, which diverge far into
the country from every quarter of the city. Mexico still boasts a few of the water-
gardens for which the ancient city was so celebrated, and, although no longer floating,
as in the days of the Aztecs, they form attractive objects in the niidst of the surroimd-
ing swamps, which, by the negligence of the Mexicans, have been suffered to increase
in the vicinity of the lakes. The trade of Mexico is chiefly a transit-trade, although it
has a few manufacttires, as cigars of superior quality, gold-lace, hats, carriages,
saddlery, etc. ; and these articles, together with gold and silver, and some of the numer-
ous valuable natural products of the Mexican plain, it transports, chiefly by means of
mules, to Vera Cruz and other ports, importing in return the manufactured goods of
Europe and various colonial proaucts.
MEXICO, a viUace in n.e. Missouri, a junction of the Bt. Louis, Kansas City and
Northern railroad, with the Louisiana and Missouri river railroad, and the Soutli Branch ;
poDw %0, 8,841. It is the county seat of Audrain oo.. and is pleasantly located on an
R^ent of the Salt river. It is 50 m. n. of Jefferson City, and 108 m. w. bf St. Louis.
It is the seat of Hardin (female) college, has good public schools, an elegant court-
house, a variety of stores, 8 newspapers, and 8 banks. Its industries are the manufac-
ture of woolen goods and plows.
MZZICOi GxTLF OF, a basin of the Atlantic ocean, the estimated extent of which is
800,000 English sq.m., is closed in by the United States on the n., by Mexico on the w,
and s., ana its outlet on the e. is narrowed by the jutting peninsulas of Yucatim and
Florida, which approach within 500 m. of each other. Kight in the middle of this
entrance is planted the island of Ctiba, dividing the strait into two— the strait of Florida,
120 m. wide, between Cuba and Florida, and tne strait of Yucatan, 105 m. wide, bet^cn
Cuba and Yucatan. The former, or northern, entrance connects the giUf with the
Atlantic ocean; the latter, or southern, with the Caribbean sea. The depth of water
Digitized by VjOUV IC
^1S
is supposed nowhere to. exceed three-fourtlis of a mUe/yetthe guH contains few
islands — the Florida Ke^s, the deltas of the Mississippi, and a few on the coast of
Yucatan, being the most important of them. The shores, which are very sinuous, form
numerous bays, the largest of which is the bay of Catmpeochy (q.r.). 'The eoasts are
mostly low and sandy -or marshy, and are lined with numerous l^oons; good har-
bors arc consequently not numerous', the best being those of 'Vera Cruz, New Orleaiis,
Pensacola, and Havana. The gulf is visited by violent northern gales called nortes,
which prevail from September to March, when they attain their maximum force and
then immediately termiuate. The most remarkable feature in connection with the gulf
of Mexico is tlie gulfttreniii (q.v.), which enters it bv the southern channel, passes round
it nud emerges tlirougll the strait of Florida. Owing partly to the presence of tbU
heated current, the temperature of the gulf is 8" or 9^ higher than that of the Atlantic
in the same latitude
MEXICO, ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE of, structural remains of the Aztec, Tol-
tec, and other races who peopled Mexico prior to and at the time of the Spanish invasion
under Cnrtcz. Although these remains have been from time to time explored and inves-
tigated, it has been chiefly with the desire to sustain some comprehensive theory of
comparative architecture, and from a stand-point of supposed similarity In their case to
the remains of ancient Egypt, India, Greece, and, as ford Kin^borough conceived, of
Jerusalem. Humboldt's work on New Spain first excited the curiosity of the Europeans,
and rescued the antiquities of Mexico from the oblivion to which they had so long been
consigned; but it wtis not until a comparatively recent period that their value as works
of art, and as indications of a considerable advance m civilization, was fully appre-
ciated. Pyramids .having even a larger base, and being otherwise scarcely inferior in
inagnitude to those of Egypt, are found in many parts of Mexico; while the general con-
dition of architecture at the period when those were erected has been found to be of a
character to surprise and charm even those familiar with the monuments of the east
Mexican architecture is that of two distinct peoples, the Toltecs, who occupied Mexico
prior to the 7th c. of our eni, and the Aztecs, with wl^pm may be associated the Chiche-
macas, who inhabited the country at the Spanish conquest early in the 16th century.
That which is believed to belong to the earlier race is also the most remarkable; tite
later would seem to have been derived from it. Architecture in its essential featufes
similar to that of the Toltecs exists iu various parts of Central America, and may be
associated with it. As far as our present knowledge extends, the architecture of Mexico
is to be regarded as, in the main, self-developed, i-ather than borrowed from that of any
other country. The buildings display vast labor, and often gi:eat skill, and are works of
singidar interest, promising to npay a far more thorough investigation than they have
ever yet received. As in almost every other national architecture, the most important
edifices are those devoted to tlie purposes of religion. These are known as teocallis,
and appear, like the Egyptian temples, to have contained apartments for the priests;
they also contained sepiilchral chambers, and had descending galleries leading down into
cavernous recesses or halte, which are variously conjecturfd to have been used for
religious ni^'stcries, or as places for the concealment of treasures, and may probably
have been used for Iwth purposes. In plan these buildings are square; in form pyram-
idal, generally rising in successive stories or stapes, like a series of truncated pyramids
placed one above another, each successive one being smaller than the one on which it
immediately rests, so that it stands upon a platfoiin^or terrace; the holy place, or temple
proper, l>eing built on the summit, and subordinate in effect to the pyramid. The sides
of the pyranuds face the cardinal points; their angle of inclination is seldom less than
70% which differs little from that of the pyramids of Egypt. The lai^est, most sacred,
and best-known of these teocallis is that of Cholula, for which a fancied prototype has
been found in the temple of Belus, as described by Herodotus. This pyramid-temple of
Cholula is now in appearance little more than a vast mouijd of earth covered with vege-
tation, and crowned with a small church. But on near inspection its architectural fea-
tures are sufticiently distinguishable. The base of this huge structure measures 1440 ft
each way (some authorities say 1488 ft.); its height is 177 ft ; t\\e aides of the base of the
great pyramid of Qizeh are only 783 ft., so that the area of the Mexican pyramid is
nearly lour times that of the greatest of those of Egypt, but it la not a thira of tlieir
height. The body of the pyramid of Cholula is formed of clay and sun-dried bricka
It consists of four teiTaces; and on the summit is a small church dedicated to theVimn,
which occupies a temple of the Toltec god of the air. Prom the perishable material of
which it was constructed, the decorative features have almost entirely disappeazed,
though there are evidences remaining of what were once elaborate and interesting aculp.
tures. In its present condition but a very imperfect notion can be formed of Its original
appearance. It contains spacious sepulchral cavities; and a square chamber formed of
stone and supported by beams of cypress wood was some years ago discovered in^it,
within which were two skeletons and several painted vases. The buildings outside the
liitfts of the valley of Mexico, and especially those in Central America, are in far bet-
ter preservation. One of the most stupendous monuments of this style of architectura
occurs at Pal en que, in the state of Chiapas, Mexico. Tlie great teocalli at Palenqae
Cbuilt, according to the startling assimiption of lord Kingsborough, after the model of
Digitized by VjOUV IC
.779
Mexico*
tiio templo of Solomoa) cemprised within its extensiin^ prccindfl various saDctuaries and
sepuLcUers, courts and cloisters, subterraneous galleries, uud cells for tiie habitation of
the priests. The whole rests on a platform composed of three graduated terraces, and
forms a spacious quadrangle inclosed by porticoes. On each side of the exterior is an
ascent or flight oi stairs, and on the east a second flight leadiug down, after the flrst is
ascended, into the cloistered court. Beneath the cloisters are what are conjectured to
liave been initiatory galleries; aud in the center i)f the quadrangle is what apiK'ars to be
tiie ruins of an altar or *' high place." The temple itself is obloug in plan, 76 |t. wide by
20 ft. deep, aud is decorated with sculpture and hieroglyphics executed in stucco. The
roof is formed by graduated courses oi^stono, which meet at tlie summit, aud has six
ornamental projections, placed above the openings formed by the support iu^ piers,
which were probably intended to support small idols or ornamental figures. The city
of Palenque itself eidiibits a variety of buildings, temples, palaces, baths, and private
houses, all manifesting excellence of workmanship combined with considerable skill in
design. The palaces, or houses of the kiugct, appear to have resembled the temples in
being based on pyrauudal substmctures; but these 'arc generally obloug instead of
square in plan, and much lower than the temple pyramids. Their substruclure is
usually of stone, aud very massive, elaborately sculptured with figures of idols and
masks of monstrous proportions, scrolls, mat-work, etc., often executed with great skill.
The upper part appears to have been of wood, but has mostly perished. The ruins of
Palenque extend for more than 20 m. along the summit of the ridge which separates
the country of the wild Maya Indians from the state of Ciiiapas, aud must anciently
liave embraced a city and its suburbs. The principal buildings arc erected on the most
prominent heights, and several of them, if not all, have been provided with stone stairs.
The principal edifice, which has been sometimes st;jled a palace, is built in several
squares; but the main halls or galleries run in a direction from the n.n.e. to the s.s.w. ;
aud this position has been observed in all the edifices examined, be their situation what
it may. The houses Imve all been substantially built of stone cemented with mortar;
but symmetry has been but little studied in their construction, it is supposed less from
ignorance than design. Other ri^ns of considerable magnitude, and aistinguished by
numerous sculptures, are found upon the neighboring hills. In the vicinity there is one
building in particular, apparently a religious edifice, which deserves notice. Two gal-
leries constitute its fouuciation; the front one occupying its whole length, while the
back one is divided into three compartments. Of these the eastern has the apjicarancc
of a dungeon; the western is a small room with a chapel ornameutcd with elegant ri'litvos.
The^se consist of representations of the human figure, in various attitudes, and adorned
generally with boughs and feathers. There are other ver}' interesting ruins in this part
of Mexico, but they have not as yet been sufficiently examined for description. One of
the moot characteristic of the palaces is that of Mitla, the remains of which show that
it must have been an edifice or great extent and gmndeur. It appears to have originally
comprised five distinct, portions, which have been regarded as places of retirement for the
kings, or as tombs. Three of these still remain. The principiu one is nearly 130 ft. long.
A staircase leads to a subterranean apartment 88 ft. by 26, the walls of which, like the
exterior, appear to have been sculptured or tooled in imitation of mat or basket-work—
a species of decoration characteristic of ToUecan taste, and often found in sepulchral
chambers. This same building has also a spacious hall supported by six plaii\ cylindri-
cal coluums of porphyry, without base or capital, and in some respects differing from any
found elsewhere. The ceiling which they support is formed of beams and slabs of cypress
or savin wood of large size. Over the principal entrance is a stone lintel 12 ft. long and
3 ft. deep. There is no appearance of windows. The interiors of the chambers have Ix'en
elaborately painted with representations of sacrifices, trophies, weapons, etc. ; and with
ornaments resembling those found in Etruscan decorations. At Testihuacan, about 25
m. to the n.e. of the city of Mexico, are several hundred small pyramids ranged in files or
Unes, and two larger ones, w^hich are believed to have been consecrated to the sun and
moon. EacJi of the latter is divided into four platforms, the slopes between w^hich con-
sisted of steps, and on the summit was a colossal stone statue covered with plates of
gold, which were stripped off by the soldiere of Cortes, while the statues wei*e de.«4tro3'cd.
fiesides monuments which are cliiefly works of magnificence, others exist which attest
the Ijigh degree of civilization attained by the Toltecans, such as roads and bridges.
The former of these were constructed of huge blocks of stone, and frequently carried on
a continued level, so as to be viaducts across valleys. There are also rock-hewn halls
and caverns which curiously resemble the Pelascic remains. Doorways to subterraneous
^lleries and apartments are found similar to tlie gate of Mycenae; and another similar-
ity exists in the peculiar triangular arch formed by courses of stone projecting over each
other, of which specimens are found in the cloisters of the building at Palenque. There
are also extensive works for defensive purposes, earthen sepulchral mounds, etc. The
mouutain of Tezcoca is nearly covered with ruins of ancient buildings. There is also
evident a remarkable skill and high decree of taste in sculpture. 3iany of the statues
found at Otumba, Mitla, Jochidialo, and the magnificent flower-teniple of Oajaca, are
sculptured in a purely classical style; while vases rivaling those of Egypt and Etniria
have been discovered in sepulchral excavations. The successors of the Toltecs, the
Chichemacas, the Acolhuas, aud other nations of Mexico, built houses and fdtmed
Digitized by VjO^JV IC
cities, seeming to be well skilled in architecture. The Mexienns (Aztecs) constructed
tlieir houses and public ediflccs with roofs of cedar, flr, cypress, or of a native wood
called ojametl: the columns, of common stone, except in the palaces, were either
cylindrical or square, and without base or capital. In the palaces these columns were of
marble, and even alabaster. The pavements were of a common red stone, sometimes
tesselated with marble and other ornamental substances. Cortes, in a letter to Charles
v., said of Montezuma: •' He had, besides those in the city of Mexico, other such admir-
able housefi for his habitation, that I do not believe I shall ever be able to expnpss-Hicir
excellence and grandeur; therefore I shall only say that there are no equals to them in
Spain." The Mexicans also constructed, for the convenience of their inhabited places,
several excellent aqueducts. Those of the capital, for conducting the water from Cha-
pultepec, 2 m. distant, *' were two in number, made of stone and cement 5 ft, high, and
2 paces broad, upon a road raised for that purpose upon the lake, by which the water
was brought to the entrance of the city, and from thence it branched out through smaller
channels to supply several fountains, and particularly those of the royal palaces." The
creat temple in the city of Mexico, the sanctuary of MexiUi, whence ** Mexico," was
built by the emperor Ahuitzotl. It occupied the center of the city, and Cortes stated
that on the space which it occupied a town of 500 houses could have been erected. It
was incloseci by a square wall, 8 ft. high and very thick, crowned with battlements;
built of stone and lime, and ornamented with many stone figures in the form of serpents.
It had four gates to the four cardinal points, and over each gate was an arsenal filled
with oflfensive and defensive weapons, from which the soldiers were supplied when it
was necessary. In the center of the inclosure was an immense flat, solid building, built
in five gradually narrowing platforms or terraces, with stairs to each terrace at the s.w.
corner, so arranged that each terrace had to be traversed around the entire building
before the next staircase could be reached. At the top of the structure, at one end,
were two tall towers, sanctuaries; liere also was an altar for sacrifice, and two stoves of
stone, in which a fire was kept burning night and day. In the space between the wall
and the great temple were 40 lesser temples; a place for the native religious dances;
colleges for the priests and seminaries for children ; and many other buildings, including
a great house of entertainment for stmngers of distinction who visited the place from
curiosity, or to join in the religious rites performed there. Out of the city of Mexico
the most celebrated temples were those of Tezcuco, Cholula, and Teotihuacan. Cortes
said that from the top of one temple in Cholula he had counted more than 400 towers of
others. Torquemada estimates that there were upwards of 40,000 throughout the empire,
and there were certainly hundreds in each principal city. The peculiar coincidences of
form, position, and ornamentation to be founa between these structures and those
employed for similar uses among the ancient Egyptians, have given rise to a belief in
gome relation between them, which is not unfounded; but no certain theory as to this
relation has ever.yet been formulated. For many years the ruins and monuments of
ancient Mexico had been suffered to lie uninvestigated, and their secrets remain unre-
vealed— further than had occurred in the works to which reference has been already
made, and others like them, of a comparatively remote date. In the spring of 1880 an
expedition under the direction of M.D6sire Chamay undertook a careful exploration of the
territorv in question, and the result of this examination was communicated to the world
by M. Charna;^ through the pages of the North American Bevimc, from which we gather
the following information. The first visit of the exploring party was made to the ruins
of Teotihuacan, a city which is said by M. Charnay to have been about 23 m. in circum-
ference. " At first view," he writes, " one can form no just idea of the grandeur of these
ruins. As with ruins in general, especially when they are overturned and wrecked like
those before us, one experiences a grievous disillusion when he looks at them for the
&rst time. It is only after you have made a thorough study of them in mass and in
detail ttiat they impress vou with their amazing vastness. Nowhere else in America can
you, in my opinion, find a more imposing mass of ancient ruins, nor do I know of any-
thing that can compare with this city of the gods." Here is the pyramid of the sun,
whose base is 761 ft. square, and its height 216 ft. ; its four sides facing the four cardinal
points. It is constructed of volcanic debris laid in vegetable mold. There is no sign of
mortar, but the structure was coated with cement, of which large slabs remain in per-
fect condition. Torquemada said of this city: *• All these temples and palaces, and all
tliese houses round about, were wholly built of white polished lime, so that on beliolding
them from afar one experienced no end of pleasure at the sight. . The alleys, the streets,
and the plazas were of colored and polished cement, and so fair were they, so cleanly
and so shining, that it seemed impossible that human hands should have CK^en able to
construct them, or that human feet durst tread them. And so true is this that, all exag-
geration aside, my report can be believed, for in addition to what others have certified
to me I have myself seen certain ruins that gave proof of all I have said; and amid
these temples were trees and fiowerp, magnificent gardens, and parterres breathing
fragrance, all for the service and the ornamentation of the temples." It is stated that
there were 27,000 buildings in Teotihuacan, not counting the temples. Charnay says
that the term Toltec meant *' builder," or •* architect," and that it was applied to those
who^eared cities and built edifices, and not to anv particular race or nation. In upper
Mexico the material used in building was adobe; in some provinces a mixture of stones
Digitized by VjOUV IC
781 as^
and mud: at Hochicalco and at Teotihuacan a mixture of volcanic stoneB and mud,
covered with a laver of cement; at Mexico it was adobe covered with cement or lime,
and polished; at Oaxaca it was stones and mortar overlaid witli cement, and this cement
modeled into bas-reliefs; at Palenq^ue, too, there are sculptured stones bearing inscrip-
tions; in Yucatan there are pyramids and monuments of stone and mortar; the builders
used the material nearest to them, but the general style of the architecture and tlie
methods of building are in all instances nearly identical. Tula, which was another site
visited by Charnay, the ancient metropolis of the Toltecs, 65 m. n. of the city of Mexico,
was founded in t>67. Bere he exaivated Toltec dwellings, found specimens of their
sun burned bricks, and numerous vases and other articles of pottery. He also claimed
to have discovered fragments, or a fragment of a glass vessel, now iridescent from long
buriul under ground. A palace was also unearthed having 43 apartments. Under the
reign of Mitl, in 927, the race and empire of the Toltecs. reached the climax of their
fortunes. The population had increased to such an extent that the nation occupied a
territory more than 3,000 m. in circumference. The population of Teotihuacan is
Relieved to have l)een half a million. M. Charnay's exploration is conducted w ith all the
zeal and enthusiasm which characterized that of Dr. Schliemann in ancient Ilium, and
I>romises to reveal much that has been unsuspected with regard to the ancient civiliza-
tion of Mexico, as this was displayed in the condition of the arts, and particulariy of
architecture, aujong its people. In the mean time it has not advanced sufficiently far at
the present writing to have demonstrated either the justness or the inaccuracy of past
theorists on the probable origin to which these may be attributed. Sew Cholula and
Palenque, ante,
MEXICO, PicjTtTBE Wkitikg op. See HiEBOGLTPHtcs, ante.
MEYENDORFF, the name of a Russian family which originally lived in Saxony.
Peter, 179(5-1863, was ambassador to Austria in 1850, and signed the convention of
OlmUtz. Geobg, d. 1863, wrote Voyage d'Orembourg d Boukhara. Felix, d. 1871, was
a son-in-law of prince Michael Qortcbakoff, cliarg^cC affaires at Rome, and af tei-wards at
C2arlsruhe.
MEYER, Felix, 1653-1718; b. Switzerland; studied art at Nuremberg, and afterwards
under Ermels, a landscape painter. He then went to Italy to continue his studies, but
tlie climate proving injurious to his health, he returned to Switzerland. He studied, and
represented henceforth in his pictures, the scenery of his country. He was not successful
as a figure painter; but as a landscape painter he united a quick imagination with great
technical skill and swiftness of execution. In illustration of the latter qua) it v, the story
is told that he was one day asked by the abbot of St. Florian, in Upper Austria, the
proper design for painting in fresco two great rooms in the abbey, which the artist
engaged seemed unable to decorate in a suitable manner. Meyer at once sketched with a
piece of charcoal the objects of natural scenery about the abbey which seemed to him
wortliy to be included m the frescos; and the abbot, impressed with his facility and
fertile invention, employed him to carry out in fresco the charcoal sketches. Thence-
forward his work received the patronage of the nobility. In the last years of his life he
assumed a new manner in his pictures, and his productions in this later manner are by
no means equal to his earlier work.
MEYER, Heinrich August Wilhelm, Th.D., 1800-73; b. Gotha. In 1881 he
appeared as an exegetical commentator on the New Testament, displaying sound learn-
ing and acute criticism, combined with evangelical sentiments. His commentaries arc
highly esteemed. Besides his commentaries, he edited an important work on the evan-
gelical confession, and preached for many yeare in the church at Hanover. An Eng-
lish translation of his commentaries is now publisliing at Edinburgh, under the direc-
tion of Drs. W. P. Dickson, of the imlversity of Glasgow, and F. Crombie, of St.
Mary*8 coUejOce. Those on Gkdatians, Romans, and the Gospel of John have already
appeared. Their value is very great.
MEY1ER, Jean George (Meyer von Bremen^, b. in Bremen, 1818; student 1838-42
in the art school of Dflsseldorf, where he opened a st\ulio. His first productions were
religious works of lar^e size, but the spirit of Meissonier soon possessed him, and he
commenced that series of domestic subjects on diminutive canvas of which the
exquisite finish and natural pathos have made his name a household word on two con-
tinents. In 1852 he established himself in Berlin, and so great has been the demand for
his pictures that they have generallv been sold into private hands before they could be
placed in the great exhibitions. Their usual small size, and lively tone as well as deli-
cacy of finish, make them peculiarly valuable as parlor pictures. Among his well-
known paintings are "The Widow's Evening Prayer with Her Children,*' which has
been eni^reved; ** Inundated;" "The Return of the Soldier of the Landwehr,'* also
engraved; " The Very Small Brother," engraved; ** The First Pravcr," engraved ; ** The
Repentant Daughter;" "Grandfather's visit;" "Fisherman's Children." The first
named and " The Very Small Brother " were exhibited at the Paris exposition of 1856.
A considerable number of his paintings are now in the United States.
METTER, JoHANN Heinrich, 1759-1832; b. Switzerland; studied painting at
Z&rich, under FOssly, brother of the well-known royal aca^^gfl^g^i^J^^fvi^j^lL
5SJf^" - 783
In 1784 he went to Rome, where he met Goethe, with whom he contracted a frfendship
80 mtimate that he was known in Germany by the name of ** Goethe-Meyer.** After
spending some time in Venice, Napies, and other Italian cities, he returned to Z&ridi In
1787. He made at Naples the acquaintance of Tischbein, and of Herder, who was
making a tour of Italy as an otMehS in the service of the duchess of Weimar. In 1793 he
visiteci'Goethe at Weimar, and was appointed to a professorship in the Weimar school
of design. Three years later he revisited Italy, a^in passing much of .his time at
Naples and Florence. In 17^7 he returned to Weimar, which became henceforth his
home. He was on intimate terms with the court and the literary men and scholars at
Weimar. He was honored with the title of Hofrath, and in 18tf7 was made a director
of the academy there. He continued his intimacy with Goethe, who consulted him on
all matters of art; and many of the critical portions of Goethe's works on art, such as
Kunat und Alterthum, and Wtnekelmann und mn Jahrhundert are to be credited to
Meyer. As a painter, his production was scanty. There is an allegorical frieze by him
in the palace at Weimar, and he left a few water-colors, for the most part sketches from
ancient works of art. It was as a writer on the history and theory of art, and par-
ticularly of Greek and Roman art, that he acquired authority. He published, with ex-
tensive annotations of his own, the works or Winckehmum. These notes be subse-
quently expanded into a seneral history of Greek art, which appeared, at Dresden in
1820, under the name of G^esehielUe der BUd&nden Kunste bei den Cfnecfien, A third vol*,
ume of this work was published by Relmer, after Meyer's death, as Qe^MchU derBU-
denden Kiifiate bei den Qriecken^und Nomern.
UTSBBEEB, Jakob, commonly called Gucoho Metersosek, a celebrated musical
composer of the present age, was the son of a wealthy Jewish banker, and was b. at
Berlin. Sept. 5, 1794. He was a precocious child, playing tunes on the piano spontane-
ously (it is said) as early as his fifth year. He began to study dramatic composition un-
der Bernhard Anselm Weber; and in 1810 entered the school of Vogler at r>arm9tadt,
where he formed an intimate friendship with the renowned Karl Maria von Weber.
While at Daimstadt. he wrote a cantata, Oott und die Natur.' Subsequently, he com-
posed an opera, JepfUJuih, produced at Munich in 1812; but though warmly admired by
his friends, Vogler, Weber, and others, it fell flat on the audience, and was considered a
failure. He now proceeded to Vienna, where he acquired a brilliant reputation as a
pianist; but another opera which he produced here by command of the courts Die beidcn
KJidtifen, was no more successful tlian the previous one. Italian music was the rage at
the time, and nobody had a chance who did not imitate Rossini. Meyerbeer was mduceil
by his friend Salieri to visit Italy, where he became on enthusiastic convert to the new
Italian school, and began the composition of a series of operas which proved highly
popular. We may mention his KomUda e Coiutama (performed at Padua in 1819),
Semlramide'XTxmu, 1819), Emma di Heeburgo (Venice, 1820), the fli*st of Meyerbeer's com-
positions that excited a furor; Mirglienia cPAnjoullQSSZ), Eetdedi Gren<ida {1S22\ and
Orocuito (Venice, 1825). The last of these afforded, perhaps, the most decisive proofs of
the high genius of its author, and was received with great applause in Paris, whither
Meyerbeer wow proceeded, and took up his residence. In 1^1, was produced, after
numerous rehearsals, hin Eobert le DiaUe, which caused an excitement "perhaps un-
paralleled in the history of the Parisian stage:" while it was received with neariyas
great enthusiasm in England, Italy, Austria, and Russia; and m 1836, Lee HugueiiotB, in
whi('h h« rt;ached the climax of his fame. His next opera, /> Propheie (1^9), fairly
sustained his reputation. It was followed by Pierre k Grand (1854), Dinorah (185i8), and
VAfrlcaine (1865). Meyerbeer died May 2, 1864.
MEYERS, a CO. in s. central Dakota; drained by the s. fork of White river und by
the Keyapaha which separates it on the s. from Nebraska; 1400 sq.m. ; pop. *80, 115 — 2S9
of foreign birth. The soil is undulating and broken. As the country is very sparsely
settled, there is little agriculture and no manufacturing*
MEYR. Melciiior, 1810—71; b. Germany; educated at Munich and Heidelberg. He
made his first appearance as a poet, at the age of 25. and as a prose writer three vears
lajer. His most important works are Storten from the Rles, 1856-60; God and his king-
dom, 1860, with its sequel, Etnilia, 1863; Cfiarlee the Bold, 1862; and I'alke with an Oaf
(Gr<^rian), 1866.
MEYRICK. FiiEDEiircK, b. England, 1826; educated at Trinity college, Oxford, of
which he was successively scholar, fellow and tutor; graduated in 1847, and has held the
univci-sity offices of sele<!t preacher and public examiaer. In 1856 he was appointed one
of tlie queen's Whitehall preachers, in 1859 inspector of schools, and in 1869 became
rector of Blickllng with Erpinarham in Norfolk. Hq was the chief agent in establishing
the Anglo-Continental society for making known the piinciples of the English church iu
foreign countries, and published several controversial treatises in Latin, Spanish, Italian,
etc. He is the author of Practiml Working of the CharcJi in Spain; The Moral Theology
ffft/te thurch of Borne; T fie Outcast and Poor of London; The Wisdom of Piety; But isn't
kingsley Bight after AUt; On Dr. Newman^ s Ajection of Ligtiori's Doctrine of Eqaivocth
tion. He has contributed also to Dr. Smith*s Dictionary of the Bibte, and to the Speaktr*^
Commentary edited by Canon Coek. Digitized by VjUUV IC
m
KeMvbMKW
MemtecMb
MEYRIGE* Sir Saxuhl Rcbh, ll.d., 17B3-184S, b. England; educated at Oxford.
He mauried at the ace of 20, against lUe wisUes of liU father, wbo disinherited him. In
1810 he published Thfi HUtory and Antiquities of tlie CouiUu of Cardigan, He was now
called to the bar, and practiced law in the ecclesiastical and adiuit-alty courts. In 1814,
in association with capt. Charles Hamilton Smith, he published a book on the Costume
of the Original Inhabitants of i/ie Britisfi Islands, But his chief antiquarian work did
not i^pear till 1824, under the title of A Critical Eaqaii-y into American An/kor, in
3 vols. 4to. He assisted rev. T. D. Fosbroke, in 1825, in the publication of TJie Encydo-
pcedia of Antiquities, In the next year, he arranged the arms and armor in the Tower of
London^ and two years later, he performed the same service at Windsor castle, at the
request of George IV. He was knighted by William IV., in 1882. He had already built
near Goodrich castle on thie Wye, a house called Goodrich court, arranged to exhibit his
oqMectionof armor, an account of which is to be found in Joseph Bkelton's/^/t^raeed.
IllustraHans of Ancient Artnor. In 1886 sir Samuel furnished the text to Henry Shaw's
Specimens of Ancient FuriUtuiie, His last important publication was Leuis Dunnes
Heraldic Visitation of Wales^ which appeared in 1846.
KBZBK, or Mbkbnk, a riyer in the n. of European Russia, rises in the n. of the govern-
ment of Vologda, and fleFws n.w. into the White sea, having a course of about 450 miles.
KEZZV, or Mezbnb, a district t. in the government of Archangel, European Russia.
50 m. from the mouth of the river of the same name, remarkable for the salmon ana
hei-ring fisheries which supply St Petersburg with frozen fish during winter. Pop.
*67, 1746.
MEZEKAY, FaAN€X>ts Eudes de, 1610-i^; b. in Secz, France; educated in ibid uni-
versity of Caen ; was for a time m the commissary department of the arm^. Its labors
proving distasteful, he commenced writing in Iglit literature, and perceiving that his-
torical literature was not of a high order ai that time, conceived the notiort of supplying
the want. His labors attracted the attention of Richeneu. The first vol. of his nistory
of France appeared in 1648 in quarto, illustrated. Industriousv independent, and supea-
cilious towards his predecessors, he produced a work thad placed him temporarily at the
height of fame. Richeheu sustained him. In 1651 he had published the 8d vol., and been
made a member of the academy. His style is vigorous and original, and though far leaa
thorough tlian modern historians, '* his sagacity of ten supplies his lack of knowledge." After
t he History of Fixince was completed, he made a translation oC * ' Tiie Histovyofthe Turks '*
by Chalcondyle. During the wars of the Fronde he mingled in the wordy war of
pamphlets, poems, madrigals, and satires, with a profuse pen, distingiushed more by its
grossness than its wit; and largely aimed at cardinal Mazarin und Jiis belles nieces. For
the history of France in the 16th c, which was near to him, he is still the highest histor-
ical authority of his time.
MEZEREON, the l^ric of daphne megereirm, Lin. ; daphne gnidum, Lin. ; and daplme
laureola^ Lin. Natural order thymelacefs. These three plants are small shrubs from 2 to
4 ft. high. Daphne mezcreum has rose-red, sefsile, fra^rmnt flowers, in small clusters,
preceding the deciduous leaves. It is indigenous to hilly and mountainous regions of
Europe, e J tending to the Arctic circle «nd eastward to Siberia. The other two species
grow in southern Europe, D. Jaureola, spurge laurel, has large evergreen leaves and
yellowish-green flowers in axillary clusters. D. gnidum, spurge flax, has narrow,
annual leaves, and small white flowers in terminal racemes. Mezereon Imrk occurs in
commerce in long bands about one-half an in. wide and one-twentieth an in. thick,
folded and tied together in bundles, or rolled up into flat disks. The dried bark is
inodorous, but has a persistently acrid and burning taste. The bark of D, gnidum is
darker, and that of D. laureola is more gray and has a greenish bast. They resemble
mezereon in acridity. The root bark of the three species is the strongest, but the stem,
bark is the more common. It is used as an adjunct to sarsaparilla in making the com-
pound decoction imd the compound extract of that dnig. Ancient and modern authori-
ties assign to mezereon irritant qualities, and it was long aj?o used as an emetic, purga-
tive, chola^ogue. enimenagogue, and sudorific. It has produced narcotism and convul-
sions, acrid and blood-red urine, and death has sometimes followed its experimental use
on animals. In medicinal doses the decoction causes salivation and increased cutaneous
and niucou-s secretions, d*;scril)ed as having a peculiar odor. A case is recorded of a
girl upon whose cheek the fresh juice had been rubbed. This was followed by a vesic-
lilnr eruption, fever, internal diwonlers, and after a period of nine months, death. Not-
withstanding this, it is still used as a local irritant in the fonn of the juice, and tliat of
an ointment It onco had a reputation for curing skin di.'-eases.
mSZIESES, a fortified t. of Fmnr«, capital of the department of Ardennes, on a bend
of the Meusc. which washes its walls on two pides, and separates it from Charleville
(q.v). It was strongly fortified by Vnuban, and is defended by a citadel. It communi-
cates with Charleville by a suspension bridge. In 1815 the town held out for two months
ajrainst the allies, wlio besieged it after the battle of Waterloo. Over the n. aisle of the
church is a bomb-shell, which has been sticking there ever since the town capitulated.
In 1530 the chevalier Bayard, with 2.000 men, successfully defended it against 40,000
Spaniards under Charles V. In tlie Franco-Genuan war of 1871 Mezieres capitulated
after a cannonade of two days. Pop. '76, 5,204. Digitized by VjjUUV IC ,
Mesleras. IfQi
MUdi. »0*
M^ZIERES, Alfbed, b. at.Rehon on Ihe Moselle in ldd6; edacsted in ParlB; pro-
fessor of foreign literature at Nancy in 1854, and afterwards assistant professor of th«
same in Paris. Among liis Dublislied works are Memoire sur U PeUon €t r 0$9a, 1853;
Shakespeare, ses CEuvres etses OnHqties, 1861 ; Bredeeee^ewnet Goniemparaiinsde Shakespeare,
1808. The last two works were crowned bv the ^Fi^dnch acadenay. €hnternpi¥(Ufi9 St
Sucteettors de Shakespeare, 1864; Datite et VlUuie Nauvelle, 1865; Charades et tee Jfomonj^mss
ou VAri de s'liistruire en s'Amusant, 1866; Petrarch, 1867; and Beeits de CIwMsion, Alsate
et Loiraine, 1871.
HEZO-TITB, a t. of Huneary, on the Berettyo, an affluent of the K5ros, 60 m s.w. of
Dcbreczcn. Pottery is made, and there is an important market. Pop. '67, 20,447.
MSZQUITE, tlie name of two Mexican trees or shrubs, of the natural order legntninasa,
suborder papiUonaeea, bearing pods filled with a nutritious pulp. The Cohhom Mez-
QUITE {algarobia glandtdosa) is a small shrub, with stems often decumbent, and armed
with strong straight spines. It is found in great profusion throughout vast regions,
chiefly consisting of dry and elevated plains. In diy seasons it exudes a great quantity
of gum (ffwn mezquite), similar in quality to gum-arabic, which seems likely to become a
considerable article of commerce, and which has begun to be exported to 8an Francisco
from the Mexican ports on the Pacific. — The Curly Mkzquitk or Scbew Mkzqutte
{strombocarpa pubeseens), also called Sckew Bean and Tournil., although only a slirub
or small tree, is of great value in the wild and desert regions of the western part of
North America, where it occurs along with willow bushes near springs of water. Its
wood is used as fuel, and the pulp of it« pods for food. The pods are spirally twisted
into compact rigid cylinders, from an mch te an inch and a half in length.
MEZZO signifies middle, or mean, and is generally used in music in conjunction with
some other word, as mezzo-forte — ^moderately loud; mezzo-piano — rather soft; mezza-
voce — with a moderate strength of tone; mezza-orchestra, with ha]f the orchestra, etc.
"When written alone and applied to the grand piano-forte it denotes that the pedal is to
be used, avoiding one of the sets of stnugs
]fSZ20FAHTI, Giuseppe, Cardinal, a remarkable linguist, was b, Sept. 17, 1774, at
.Bologna, where .he received his education, and subsequently (1815) received the office of
university librarian. In 1831 he settled in Rome, and was advanced to the dignity of
roonsignore; in 1888 he was appointed secretary of the college of the propaganda; then
keener of the Vatican library, and in 1888 he was raised to the. dignity of caitiiual. He
diea Mar. 15, 1849, at Rome. Mezzofanti's European reputation was founded not on any
litcmry or learned works that he wrote, but on the almost miraculous extent of his lin-
Suistic acquisitions. Towards the end of his life he understood and spoke fifty-eight
ifferent tongues. As early, indeed, as 1820 lord Byron called him ** a walking polyglot,
a monster of languages, and a Briareus of parts of speech." He was not in the strict
sense a critical or scientific scholar, yet, although his linguistic skill lay chiefly in verl)al
knowledge, his acquirements in other departments were by no means inconsiderable.
See Russell's Life of Cardinal Mezeofanti (Lond. 1858).
XSZZOJU'BO (Arab. Mermt-Jvmif village of Joseph], a t. of Sicilv, in the province of
Palermo, 18 m, 8.8. e. of Paleiino city. It is one of the four colonies of Albanians
who, on the death of Scanderbeg, in the 15th c, fled to Sicily to avoid the oppression
of the Turks. They preserve Uieir languaee to a great extent, and follow the Greek
ritual, their priests being allowed to marry; nut, except on f6te-days, (hey are not to be
distinguished in feature or dress from the peasantry of the rest of Sicily. Fop. 5,700.
MEZZOTINTO, a style of engmving on copper and steel which was very popular
during the first half of the 19th c. in Endand and America, being applied to reproduc-
tion of works of the masters; nnd also to the illustration of subjects for the class of mft
books known as "annuals," and which were greatly in vogue between 1820 and 1860.
In this style of engraving, which essentially differs from every other, the surface of the
plate is first indented or hacked all over by the action of an instrument something like a
chisel, with a tootlied or serrated edge, called a cmdlc, or mezzotinto grounder. Tliis
tool, being rocked to and fr(» in many directions, indents or barbs the plate uniformly
over its face, nnd produces what is called the mezzotinto grnin or ground. The bai"b or
nap thus produced retains tlie printing-ink; and if in this state of preparation an
impression were tftken from the plate upon paper, it would be uniformly of a deep black
color. The directions, or wa.v«, as they are technically called, given to the grounding-
tool are determined by a regulated plan, and for this purpose an ingenious sort of scale
is used which enables the workman to pass over the plate in almost any number of direo
tions without repeating any one of them. The mezzotinto ground bemg thus laid, it is
at this period that the business of the artist properly commences. Having traced or
drawn, with a pencil or other instrument, his outline upon the paper (unless, as is some-
times the case, this should have been etched by the ordinary process previous to the
mezzotint groutid having been laid), he proceeds'^ to remove the nap or ground, in con-
formity with the design, from all those parts which are not intended to be perfectly
black m the impression. The instruments required for this p'&rpose are scrapers nnd
burnishers; with t^e former he scrapes awav more and more of the ground in proportion
to the brightness of the light, and the burnishers are used t03,{]f?;^i|9€Lif!^^^^^t<^<^<''^
19S
If licre U Ib required, us the high lights on the forehead oif tip' of the nose, or white linea
iu « |K>rtrait, 4;tc. Aa the work proceeds it may be blackened with ink, applied with a
printer'ii ball or otlierwiae, to ascertain the effect; after which the scraping may again be
)>roc6eded witb, the artist takine care always to commence where the strongest iigbtsare
intended to appear. The great Ubcility with which mezzotin to engraving can be executed,
as compared with line-engraving, was the principal cause of its popularity in the days of
the heigU( of its success* But it also possesses peculiar advantages of richness of color,
capacity for broad contrast of light and shade, and mellowness of tone, which adapt it
for certain classes of work, and, in its proper place, enable it to produce effects not
otherwise attainable. The richness and depth of tlie sliadows in this kind of engraving
are measurably balanced, however, in the corresponding poverty of the lights. Where
lliese occur in masses in mezzotinto^ngraving the effect is cold and imsatisfactory. At
first copper was used in the production of mezzotinto-engraving, but steel plates eventu-
aliy superseded tliem, on account of the greater scope which its hardness afforded to the
tools employed, and also the very much larger capacity for impressions of steel plates.
Tiie legend which associates the name of prince Rupert with the discovery of the art
of mezzotinto-engraving is an interesting one; and, as the Italians say, si non e vera, e ben
trovato. It is said that tne prince observed one morning a soldier engaged in cleaning his
musket, removing from it the rust which the night^iew had occasion^; and perceiving
upon it, as he thought, some resemblance to a figure, it occurred to him whether or not, .
bv corroding or grounding plate all over in a manner resembling the rust, he might not
afterwards scrape away a design upon it, from which impressions might be obtained. It
is alleged tliat he succeeded, and thereby accomplished the invention. Unfortunately for
the claim set forth in behalf of prince Rupert, it has been proven groundless, and the
prince is accused of having learned the art from its original inventor or discoverer. This
was Louis von Siegen, a lieut.col. in the service of the landgrave of Hesse-Caasel, and
Ids first w^ork which was published was a portrait of the princess Amelta-£iizabeth of
Ucsse, proofs of which before letter bear the date 164d, or fifteen years anterior to the
earliest of prince Rupert's dates. This method of illustration was not only adopted by
sir Joshua Reynolds, but even employeil in so important a work as Turner's Liber Studt-
omm. In the United States the mezzo tinto style was a favorite with magazine pub-
lishers in the early days of that kind of literature, being introduced from England by
John Bartain, an expert mezzotint engraver, in 1830. He published SarUiin*s ScLgaeine,
illustrated after this fashion. See ENeaAViica.
XOLIH, a t. of Russia, in the government of Tchemigov, 125 m. n.n.e. of the town
of Tchernio^ov. There is a large cloth-factory, and a considerable number of German
families. Pop. '67, 5,842. ,
MHBlTDiaTTirj, a t of British India, in the territory of Oude, 90 m. 8.e. of Lucknow,
3 m. 8. of the right bank of the river Saee. It is a busy, thriving place, with a popula-
tion estimated at 20,000,
MHOW, a t. of British India, in the territory of Indore, 18 m. s.w. of the town of
Indore, near the Vindhyan mountains, on an eminence on the Qumber river. Near it
are the cantonments, wnich have altogether the appearance of a European town, having
a church with steeple on an eminence, a spacious lecture-room, a well-furnished library,
and a theater. They are situated at an elevation of 2,019 ft. above the sea, and are occu-
pied by a consideraMe force. On the 1st of July, 1857, the sepoys mutinied here during
the great rebellion of that year.
MIA'CO. SecMiAKO.
MIAOAO, a t. in the ishind of Panay, one of the Philippine isles, in the province of
Iloilo. The inhabitants, who are industrious, comfortable, and well educated, are est!
mated at 31,000 in number.
MIA'XO, or Kioto, now called Sai-Kito; the ancient capital of Jaimn, situated in the*
s.w. of the island of Nipon. Broad and clean streets cross each other at right angle.M,
and tlie houses are mostly of the better class. During the doul)le rule in Japan it was
the residence of the mikado, then only the spiritual emperor, and was and is the strong-
hold of the national religion. Some of the temples are of gixsit size and splendor, in
1868 the great revolution broke out; tlie sho?un, or temporal ruler, was deposed; and
the mikado, who was now invested with complete authority, both temporal and spiritual,
removed his court to Yedo. Most of the aristocratic dwellings are consequently ten-
antiess, and the population in 1876 was only 374,496, Miako is still, however, the scat
of <*onsiderablc trade with the interior. It is also a center of Japanew literature and art,
and is well provided with public schools for boys and girls, ft is famed for the manu-
facture and dyeing of silks. Miako is connected by railway with Osaca and Hiogo.
MIALL, Edward, b. England, 1829; educated at the Protectant dissenters' college in
AVymondiey, Heifortshire, where ho studied for the ministry. He was for three yeai-s a
minister oi the Independent church at Ware, aad was afterwards settled in tiie same
<!a{)acity at Ijeic(>stor. In 1841 he left Leicester for London, wliere he established the
Nonroiiformut, which he still owns and edits, and which remains the chief organ c)f the
English dissenters. He contested, unsuccessfully, a seat in parliament in 1845 and >647;
U. K. IX— 50
bat was returned from Hbchdale in 18$3: He was dented in lA$7, bat saf for Bradfonfl
froEXi 1^9 to 1874. He is a leader of the movetnent for tlie disestftbliRhment «f the Eng-
lish church, and a supporter of universal Bufifraivt^ ThcLadtierents of the views whicSi he
represents gave him. in 1873, n purse of £10,000 iili recogiiitton of his services a»edilQr
and member of parliament in behalf of complete civil and religious equality. He haf*
written a number of worlds in support of his ideas — FSfciw of ths Voluntary Principle,
published in 1845; Efhiat 4f NoncrjN for mitt/, 1848: I'h^i British €hnrehe» in lielaUaH itf the
Briti^i People, 1849; IXUe-IMedn of the Ghureh of England to her Pnrochinl Kndotenunte,
1661. Of a less tM>lemical character is bis An Editor off the Line; or Wayside Mueinge and
HcminixeenceSy IbvSS.
HIA'llI, a river of Oliio. United States of America, rises by several brandies in the
western center of the stiite, and after a 8.s. w. course of 150 m. Uiiough one uf the rich-
est regions of America^ and the iniporlant towns of Dayton and ilaniiltou. empties
itself into the Ohio river 20 m. w. uf Ciuciunati. It U sometimes calleil the Great
Miami, to distinguish it from the Little ^liumi, u smullcr river, which runs parallel to it,
lo to 25 m. e., through tlie Miami valley.
MIAMI, a CO. in n. Indiana, crossed centrally by the Wabash and Erie canal, the
BvansviUe and Terre Haute railroad, the Eel River railroad, and tlie Indmnapolis, Pent
and Chicago, and Pitt«ihurg. Cincinnati and St. Louis milroads; 880 sq.m.; pop. '80.
24.088—32,843 of American birth, 240 colorod. It is drained hy the Wabnsh, Eel, and
Mississiaewa rivers, and Pipe creek, lis surface is !^>nenilly level, the banks of the
rivers rising mucli higher than the interior phiins; a large proportion being covere<l
with hard wood forests, oak openings, and groves of sugar-maple trees. Its soil is fer-
tile; especialiy the bottom lands, producing iob:icco, wool. Irish and sweet potatoes, wine,
dairy products, hops, tiax, maple sugar, sorghum, honey, and grain. Stoci^ raising is
extensively t-amed on, and there is much valunble water power. Its manufactories
include a brewery, woolen fnctorie?*. cabinet- making establish ments, and manufactories
of carriages, lumlKT, furniture, cigars, agriculturiil miplements, etc. Seat of jusric<*,
Peru.
MIAMI, a CO. in e. Kansas, having the state Une of Mississippi for its cboundiury ;
intersected centrally Ivy tlio Kansas City, Foil Scott and Gulf railroad, and tlie Osa^
hranch of tlie MiHsoun. Kansiis and Texus, forming a junction at Paola; 600 sq.m. « pop.
*80, 17,818 — 16,677 of American birth, 902 colored. Its surface is undulating and sprejian
out into broad prairitis with a smiall proportion of woodland. It is drained by the Of^e
river, or Marais des Oygnes, and Peoria, Wea, and Pottawatomie creeks. Live stock "is
raised, and the ^rtilc soil produces Indian corn, oats, wheat, potatoes, wool, and the
products of the dairy. Limcstooe is the loundation of the soil, and it contains beds of
bituminous coal: petroleum is nlso found. Among its manufactories are c-arringe sliops,
and it has saw-mills, and wind-mills for grain. Seat of justice, Paola.
MIAMI, a CO. in 8.w. Ohio, intersected by the Great Miami river, and drained by
Greenville and Stillwator creeks; 400 sq.m.; pop. *80. 36.178—34,039 of American birtii,
1,176 colored. It is trjiverscd by the Pay^tou and Michigan railroad, and the Columbus.
('hi<;agf) and Indiana Central raih-oad, cro5wing it centrally, and forming a junction at
Piqua, and the Miami and Erie canal, following the general course of the Dayton and
Michigan railroad, nnd the Great 3Ilami river. Its surface is undulating and well
wooded, particularly in the e. portion. It has limestone quarries in the w.. and the soil
having gc^nerally an understratum of Silurian limestone, is very fertile, and produces
large qimntities of fruit, gmin, tobacco, wool. Irish and sweet potatoes, dairy products,
flax, maple sugar. Sorghum, and honey. Live stock is an important commodity. The
extensive hydraulic power of the river is uii'izod, and its trade in grain is considemble.
Among its manufactories are tanneries, distilleries, breweries, spring-wagon and wheel
^vorks, machine shops, and oil mills; other mantifsctures are carriages, furniture, w^ool.
clothing, brick, and metallic wares. Scat of justice, Troy.
MI AMIS, a trilK! of Indians of the grwU Algf)nquin family, and whose habi^ntt was in
the ntiighborliood of Green bay (Wisconsin) as ejirly lis 1658, when they were found then*
bv the French. They were also disc^overed in 1670 about the Fox river, to the nuinber
0^8,000, and disclosing social and tribnl conditions of a more elevated character than
thoHC usual among tht; tribes so far north. Tliov occupied a village of houses made of
matting, and surrounded by a palisade: and tlieir chief dis]>layed several of the adjuncts
of rank and authority. Later, this tribe wa « collected on the* St. Joseph's river, aiui in
1683 they were at war with the Sioux and the IrocjuoLs at the ssime time, lieing aidc»d by
the Illinois, who were friendlv to them, in their struggle with the latter. Thoy afterwards
became inimical to tJie French, and made overtures to the English, being by tliis time
cngagi'd in a war with the Ilurons. and threatening the Ohipt^ewas. The Miamis were
ill fact a wartikc tribe, and not a little afifgressive. \n 1706 the French brought about h
war between them and the Ottawas. Finally, when the French and Engllsli war broke
out, tluT" were in doubt to which side to ally them«ielve8, but generally f^upportcd the
Knglish and made depredations on the French. Yet when the French were driven out
of that part of the country the Miamis united with Pontiac in the capture of the British
forte, St. Josepirs and Miami: and when the American revolution be^^n they ppposed
mXtottii.
• Miasma.
1^6 psttioif and skied wifh tiie ISnglisli. After the close of the reyolutionary war they
continued to oppose the settlement of the country by the whites, and in 1790 it was found
necessary to send a force against them under gen. Harmer. A series of battles, in which
success veered from one side to the other, failed to effect a reconciliation, and hostility
continaed until 1795, when peace was made. In 1790 they had been able to put in the field
only about 1500 warriors, and after the peace they rapidly* dwindled in numbers luid
importance. They now ceded lands between the Wabash nTer and the Ohio state line,
but the new mode of living imposed upon them by the nature of the annuity Bystem com-
pleted their degradation. Theur natundly warlike and energetic chiiracter succumbed to
the inroads effected by an idle life and facility for obtaining intoxicating liiq^uors; and
though they broke into action and attacked me whites on one or two occasions, their
aneient spirit had deserted them, and these conflicts availed them nothing. In 1822 their
entire number amounted only to between two and three thousand, living on three different
reservations. They gradually ceded all their lands to the U. 8. government, and in 1846
tJtey were removed to the neighborhood of the fort Leavenworth agency. They then
numbered only 250 souhr, and were dissipated and wretched in the extreme. About the
year 1878 the remains of this once powerful tribe, 160 in number, were finally placed on
the Quapaw reeerration.
MIANTONOMOH, the name of a sachem of the Narragansett tribe of Indians, who
succeeded his uncle, Canonicus, in 1686. He was on friendly terms with the early set-
tlers of Massachusetts, and assisted them durinff the Pequot war. In 1642 he conducted
an expedition against Uncas, the Mohecan chief, but was unsuccessful, and was captured
at Korwich, Conn. Uncas sufrendercd him into the hands of the commissioners of the
united colonies, and his execution being advised by them, he was tomaliawked on the
spot where he was captured,' known as Sachem's plain, arid where a monument in com-
memoration of the event was set tip in 1841.
MXUBltA (Ql. pollution: in the plural. Nioimata), or Malaua. It is proved by the
experience of all ages that there is an intimate connection between marshy districts and
certain diseases, especially the various forms of intermittent and remittent fever; but the
exact nature of the noxious agent, and the circumstances on which its formation and
extrication depend, are even at the present day not altogether established. It is clearly
neither heat nor moisture, for the crews of clean ships, when cruising in the tropics at u
distance from land, are usually very healthy; nor is it any known gas extricated from the
marsh, for the gases collected by stiiTing up marshes (carbonic acid, nitrogen, oxygen,
and carbiiretedliydrogen) may be inspired without giving rise to any symptoms resem-
bling those produced by malaria. It may be regarded as an established fact that the
noxious agent is a product of vegetable decomposition occurring under certain conditions,
of heat and moisture. That vegetable decomposition is the source of. the poif^on is
inferred from various circumstances. For example, this special morbific iunuencc is
nowhere so powerful as in the deltas and along the banks of large tropical rivers which.
in their flood^ bring down the washings of the soil, full of vegetable remains, which,
upon the subsidence of the waters, are left reeking in the hot sun. Again, the poison
has been traced, in various places in Italy, France, and the Ketheilnnds, to the Israel ice;
of Sleeping flax in stagnant waters, and even in streaiuR. and m India it was fornurly
the cujtom, after cxinicting the coloring matter, to throw the remains of the imlipo int*)
larre Iraips which, m the course of three years, became excellent manure; it was found,
however, that these heaps, alternately soaked by the heavy rafns and heated by a tropical
sun, decomposed and emitted miasmata precisely similar m their effects to those produced
\yy marshes. Marsh-miasmnta are seldom evolved at a temperature \mUer 60°. but at and
afeoveSO^ they are prevalent and severe; and the nearer we approach the equator, the
more violent,*Hs a general rule, do they become. Although moisture is neceshary to ihe
evoiution of miasmata, an excess of it often acts. as- a preventive, and by impeding the
access of atmospheric air retards or prevents decomposition. This explains the apparent
anomaly of an uncommonly rainy season producing opposite effects in different localities,
sometimes not far distant from one another. Thus in tlie West Indies a veiy rainy
season induces general sickness in the dry and well-cleared island of Barliadoes; whne
at Trini<lad, whose central portions are "a sea of sv.amp," and where it raius nine
months in the year, the excessive rairi is a preservative from sickness; for in the seasons
when the rain falls only eight months or less, the swamps become dry and exposed to the
sun, and severe remittent level's are sure to follow.
Chemistry has hitherto failed in detecting any special ingre<lient to which the air
evolved by marshes owes its poisonous qualities. Tlie air collected in the most poisonous
districts gives, on analy.sis, t!ie same gases existing in the same proportions as normal air,
nor(if we except the observations of Boussingault, which have not been confirmed by
other chemists) does it give evidence of the pi^sencc of any organic body.
The infecting distance of this poison is a subject of great practical importance: and
both the altltudinal rnnire and the liorizontal spread have to be noticed. In Italy it is
csltmated that an altitude of about 1,500 ft. assures an exemption from marsh-poison:
while m the West Indies an elevation of at least 2,000 ft. is necessary. From observa-
tions made by sir Gilbert Blane during the ill-fated Walcheren expedition, it appears
tiiat in Europe the horizontal spread of marsh-miasmata over fresh water is kss than
Digitized by VjOU V IC
MlcMliile. I op
U.OOO ft. ; but over salt water— at all eventg, in the troptca— the horizontal tange to
greater. . The extent to which the poison may spread horizontally over land is a much
more complicated question, and depends, to a ^i«at extent, upon the nature of the suiL
The effect of trees in intercepting miasmata is very remarkable, and is probably due
partly to their condensing the^ •vapors of the marsh, and partly to their altering thedirec-
tioii of the current of air. Pope Benedict -XIV. caused a wood to be cut down which
separated Yillatri from the Pontine m^uli^i^, and in consequence, for many years* there
wuH a most severe and fatal'fev^r in a -dklrii^t^ previously healthy; and the aame resulta
have in many other cases followed the removal of trees.
In districts where this poison exists it is found by experience that those who go out
<>f their houses only during the day, after the morning fogs have dispersed, aud before
the evening mists appear, often escape the bad effects; and a full meal, with a few grains
of quinine, should be taken before exposure to the morning air by travelers in a malaii-
ous district.
Dr. Wood of Philadelphia has pointed out the extraordinary and very important fadi^
that miasmata are neutraii/icd, decomposed, or in some other way rendered innocuous
by the air of lar^ cities. Though malarious diseases may rage around a city, and even
invade the outsorts, yet they are imable to penetrate into thd interior, and individuals
who never leave the tliickly-built parts almost always escape. What it is in the air of
the city which is thus incompatible with malaria, is unknown; but very probably it is
connected with the results of combustion, for the fire and smoke of camps are asserted to
have had the same effects. See Malaria.
MIAULIS, Andreas VoKos, 1770 — 1835. b. Greece; adhered to the Greek revolution-
ists in 1821, and the next year, was put in command of the Greek fleet. In March of
tliat year, he defeated a Turkish squadron at Patras, and in September, another squadron
near'Spezzia. In 1825 he burneu the fleet comnumded by Ibrahim Pasha near Modon.
lie left the service in 1827, upon the appointment of lord Cochrane, as his superior in
conmiand. He was soon restored to his old rank, and stationed at the harbor of Poros.
He participated in the insurrection of 1881, and burned the fleet under his command at
Poros, to keep it out of the hands of the Russians. He Wiis indicted for treason, but the
proceedings came to nothing. In 1882 the naval stations in the Archipelago were placed
m his charge. Soon after, ne was made vice-admiral.
MIAVTBE, the aborigines or hill-tribes of Chma. From the dawn of Chinese history,
we find the people of the plains contending against those of the high lands, and to the
present day the hardy mountaineers have maintained their independence. They consist
of numerous tribes, occupying large portions of Kwang-se, Kwei-chow, Yun-nan, Sze-
chuen, and adjacent provinces. Some of them own Chinese sway; other tribes are
absolutely independent. They are smaller in size and stature, and have shorter necks,
and their features are somewhat more angular than the Chinese. Their dialects arc
various, and wholly different from the Chinese. Dr. Macgowan describes them as skillful
in the manufacture of swords. He has shown that the Miautse of AVestern China and
the Karens or hill-tribes of Burmah are identical. — Reports of Dr. Macgowan's Lectures.
KIA'VA, a market-town of North-west Hungary, on the Miava, an afiluent of the
Moi-ava, 48 m. e.n.e.of Presburg city. There are manufactures of woolen cloth and
bagtring, and hemp and flax are cultivated. Pop. *69, 9,637.
ICI CA, (from the same root with Lat. mieo, to glitter), a mmeral consisting essentiaHT
of n silicate of alumma, with which are combined small proportions of silicates of potash,
Hixld, lithia, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese, etc., accordmg to which and the some-
what varying external characters, numerous species have l>een constituted by mioerak)-
}^ists Common Mica, also called Potash Mica, contains a notable but variable propor-
tion of silicate of potash; it contains also a little fluorine. It is a Avidely diffused and
plentiful mineral, entermg largely in to the composition of granite, mica-eXate, and some
other rocks, veins and fls3ures of whicli it also often flUs up. It has a strong, and often
almost mctalUc luster. It is remarkable for the readiness with which it splits into thin
<«lHstic plates, which arc generally transparent. The thinness and elasticity of these
plates readily distin<nnsh them from those of talc, and of the laminated variety of gyp-
sum, they are also devoid of the greasy feel of talc. They are sometimes not more than
«»ne SOO.OOOth part of an inch in thickness, are generally quite transparent, and are there-
fore much used in setting objects for the microscope. 'Plates of Mica of large size are
also used in Sil>ena, Peru, and Mexico as a substitute for glass in windows. Large
plates, often a yard in diameter, are found in these countries, and in Norway and Sweden.
Mica is advantageously substituted for class in lanterns, as it bears sudden changes of
icrapcrature better than glass, and in 8hips-of-war, as it is not liable to be broken on the
•lischarge of cannon. Another use of Mica is for making an artificial avanturine; it is
jiho employed in a powdered state to give a brilliant appearance to walls, and as a sand
So sprinkle on writing. In the state of a very fine pow(ter, it is known as Cats Gold or
Ott $ micer, according to its color. It is usually colorless, but sometimes white, gray,
arreen, red, brown, black, and rarely yellow, owing to the presence of iron, manganese,
I hronie, fluorine, etc , in its composition. It is sometimes found in beautiful ciystal^,
which are generally rhombic or six-sided tables. Lithia Mica, or LEPiDOLrrB, conta»s
l.iliia in small proportion. It is often of arose color, or a peach-bloesom color. It is
Digitized by VjjOUQ IC
• O^ MicMlate.
used for ornamental purposes. It is found in several places in Britain.— Magnesia
Mica, or Biotite, contains about as much magnesia as alumina. It is often dark
green.
MrCAH, the sixth (third in the Ixx.) of the twelve minor prophets (Mfcayahu: Who
is like unto Jah f), probably a native of Moresheth, prophesied during tlie reigns of
Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, and was therefore contemporary witli Isaiah, and Rosea,
and Amos. — ^The Book op Micah is regarded as divisible into three parts, each com-
mencing with ** Hear yc," organicallv connected, however, with each otuer, and showing
even a progressive development of idea in the mind of the writer. The destruction of
Samaria (£rael), the danger and sul)sequent cuptivitY of Judahr the wickedness of the
rulers, the punishments Uiat overtake the land, the glorious restoration of the theocracy;
Jehovah's ** controversy with his people" on account of their sins, his warnings, his
exhortations, and his sublime promise of forgiveness, form the principal points of
Micah's prophecies, which relate to the invasions by Shalmaneser, Sennaclierib, the
Babylonian exile,, the return, and the re- establishment of the theocracy under Zerubbabel.
The style of Micah is clear, vivid, concise, yet richly poetical; some passages, especially
in the beginning and the last two chapters, are among the noblest in tjio Old Testament.
The play upon words noticeable in Isaiah is also a marked feature of this writer.
MICAH, PROPHECY op (Micah, ante), after the headiue contained in the first verse,
Ib divided into three sections, each beginning with *' Hearyo, I.— Chapters i. il, addressed
to all tljo people, describe the coming of the Lord in judgment on the transgressions of
Israel and Judah, the doom of Samaria; and the march of the invaders of tlie laud from
Samaria south to Jerusalem; denounce luxury and covetousness as the sources of tmus-
grcssion, and condemn the false prophets for leading the people astray; foretell the
banishment of the people into captivity and promise their return under the guidance of
the Lord their king. II. — iii.-v., addressed to.the heads and princes of the people, con-
demn their oppressive rapacity, and declare that as they had been deaf to the cry of
the poor in their wrongs, they too shall call on the Lord but will not be heard. Tlie
false prophets also who had deceived others should themselves be made asliamed. As
the judges, priests, and people had become mercenary in all their service all of them
should be left destitute, Zion should be a ploughed field, Jerusalem heaps of riiins, and
the temple height a forest. This second threatening of judgment is followed by a
second and fuller promise of Messianic times when the mountain of the Lord's house
should be exalted on the top of the mountains, all nations flow to it, and the peaceful
Tciga of the Messiah Ixj extended over all the earth. His birth in Bethlehem Ephratnli
is K>retold, yet his being from everlasting also is affirmed; his government, it is declared
shall be marked by divine strength and majesty, and his greatness be extended over
all the earth. III. — vi., vii. The Lord, calling on the people the third time to hear,
and on the mountains to l)e witnesses of the controversy, appeals to all his past govern-
ment over Isniel as approving his righteousness. The people, answering, complain that
the burden of tlie sacrifices required is too great to be borne, and the Loi-d in reply says
that he asks of them only to do justly, love mercy, and walk humbly with God. That
they had failed to comply with these demands is shown by the treasures of wickedness
found in their houses, by the scant measures used, the false balances, the deceitful
weights. For these crimes punishments will be inflicted; the wheat, the oil, and wine
shall be cut off. The prophet mourns the justice of tlie sentence, and acknowledges tho
guilt of all classes of the people who do evil with both hands eamestlvvthe best of them
bcin^ shaip as briers and thorns. Yet he waits for the salvation of the Lord, triumphing
in his parcfoning mercy which will certainly be manifested and in his faithfulness which
will perform all that he had promised with an oath to Abraham .in ihe days of old.
MICA'LI, GirsEPPE, 1776-1844, b. Italy; after prolonged travels, devoted himself
to the study of archa?ology. His most important work is his Italia avanti il Dominio
(fe^Romnni. It was published under that title in 1810, and a revised edition, with exten-
sive chaii.fccs. appcan'd in 1882. as Storia depli Antichi Popdi ItcUiani. Raoul Rochettc
made a French translation of this work. Micali's last book was the Monumenti ArUicJu,
Which was issued the year of his death.
MICA-SCHIST is, next to gneiss, one of the most abundant of the ;netamorphic rocks
(a. v.). It consists of alternate layers of mica and quartz, but is sometimes composed
almost entirely of the thin and shining plates or scales of mica, and from this it passes
by insensible gi-adations into clay-slate. The quartz occurs pure m thin layers like vein
(quartz. Garnets are in some districts abundant in this rock, making up a large propor-
tion of the whole mass. Mica-schist is believed to be a highly altered shale or clay
deposit, and the component mi'nei^Is,- including the garnets, to have been developed
under the influence of metamorphic action from materials already existing in the unal-
tered strata. In many places the mica-schist has a finely corrugated or wavy structure,
MICA8LATE, a variety of mica-schist (q. v ) containing, more claiyey matter than
that which generally pisses under the name- of schist, and also having the micaceous
scales more finely divided, so that they are scarcely visible by the unaided eye. Praqti-
cal geologists use the term to designate a condition midway between mica-schist and
olay slate. * i^ydromiea sehi9(, or ^ate, is a thin schistose rock consisting prijidmlly' oi
SI,""-'
ia::hi. V9o
hydrous mica, ivith occasioiuilly more or leas quartz, and having a pern
(q.v.); whitish to pale green, and darker, ia color, pearlj to ffhsteDing m
feel, Hke talc
. . . „ , . • ^ « luster. It used
to be calkd talcose slate, but contains no talc, as shown by Dr. C. Dewey. There are
several varieties.
MICHAEL, THE Abghangel. meaning in Hebrew, " Who f$ like Qod,** in Scripture a
prince among the angels, whom the Divine Being, that appeared to Daniel in iMiiDan
form, described as a guardian of the Jewish people co-operating with him in their beijaif,
- thwarting the efforts of their human adversaries and resisting also the schemes of fiatan
ngaiust them. Tiiis is in uccordiiuce with other Scripture teachings concerning the angel
Jehovah as directing the history of Israel and concerning .the angels aa aabject to him
iu the work of redeeming men. In the epLstlc of Jude Micliael is called the archangel,
and it is said coucorniug him that *' when, contending with the devil, he disputed about
tlic body of Moses, he durst not bring against Satan a railing accusation, hiit said, Tlie
Lord rebuke thee." Some interpret this passage as affirming a dispute about the litetal
body of Moses wliich the Lord buried in a sepulcher unknown to men. Others regard
tlie "body of Moses" as a symbolical phrase for the Mosaic law and institutions, in
accordance with the common usase among Christians in speaking rf the church as the
•' Ixxly of Christ." In the book ol Revelation, xii. 7-9, in language which is symbolical
whatever its precise significance may be, it is declared that ** there was war in heaven:
Michael and his angels fought agtunst the dragon and his angels, who prevailed not,
neither was their place found any more in heaven. And the great dragon was cast out.
that old serpent, called the devil and Satan, who decciveth the whole world: he was cast
out into the earth, and his angels were cast out with him." The nature and method of
this war against Satan arc not explained; the fact itself is revealed with that mysterious
vagueness which hangs over all angelic ministration, but also with positiveness. In
addition to what the Scriptures reveal concerning the archangel there are vaiious legends
connected with his canonization as a saint in the church of Rome, where his festival,
called Michaelmas, Is celebrated on Sej^t. 29. In legendary art lie is represented as youn«r
and beautiful, winged, iu armor, bearing the shield and lance, with his foot on the evil
one, ready to pierce and bind him. An old English gold coin l)earing his image was
therefore called an "angel." Of such Shakespeare speaks, when he says of a rich man.
'' he hath a legion of angels" in his purse.
MICHAEL, the name of six emperors of Constantinople. — I. succeeded to the throne
ton the death of Stauracius, in 811, who conducted a war against the Bulganans, and wrji
a great and iust monarch; he was deposed by Leo, the Armenian, a gen. in his service,
818. and retiring to a monastery, passed the remainder of his life in devotional exerciscK.
— II. was bom in upper Phrygia, of an obscure family, but was ennobled by Leo, the
Armenian. The latter, however, appears to have become angered against him, and
imprisoned and condemned him to death. His life was saved by the assassination of
lico. and Michael was crowned emperor, 820. He was cruel and arbitrary; and his
attempt to force his subiects to celebrate the Jewish Sabbath and passover brought about
a revolt on the part of his gen. Euphemius, who proclaimed himself emperor. TLe
rebellious gen. was slain near S3'Tacuse, in Sicily. Michael was surnamed **the staTn-
merer."- During his reign the Saracens of Spain wrested the island of Crete from the
empire, and in 827 the Aglabite Saracens seized Sicily. Michael died. 829. — III suc-
ceeded his father, Theophilus, in 842, under the regency of his mother, Theodora, whom
he compelled, with her daughter.4, to enter a convent. In his reign the Russians first
appear as foes to the empire; and the foundation for the separation of the eastern and
western churches was laid by a quarrel between the patriarch Photius and the pope
Nicholas I. Miohael was assassinated by Baail the Macedonian in 867.^1 V sumamcd
the Paphlagonian, from the place of his birth, was raised to the throne by the empress
Zoe, who, on account of her infatuation for him, murdered her husband He was suc-
cessful in wars against the Swacens and Bulgarians, but retired to a monastery, where
he died in 1041.— V. succeeded the last-named, who was his uncle. Having exiled the
empress Zoe, who desired to marry him, he was overthrown by the people, and after
having his eyes put out, was sent to a monastery. — YI. succeeded the empress Theodora
in 1056, but retained the throne only a year, when he was compelled to resign in favor
of Isaac Comnenus, while he retired to a monastery. Michael VI. was surnamed Strati-
oticos, and with him the Macedonian dynasty became extinct, his successor being of the
family Comneni.
MICHAEL, or Mikall, BOMANOFF. See Romanoff, ants,
MICHAEL VI., surnamed Pal^oloous, emperor of Constantinople. See Pal^-
OLOOUS.
mCHAU AXeSLO CBUOKABOTTI), who, hi an age when Christian art had reached
its zenith, stood almost unrivaled as a painter, sculptor, and architect, waa born in 1474
at Chiusi. in Italy. He was of nolile origin, having descended .on his mother's side traa
the ancient family of Canos^a. in Tuscany, while the Buonarotti had long been associated
with places of trust In the Florentine republic. Michael Angelo learned the nM^menls
of pamting from Bertoldo, a pupil of Domenico Qhirhindaio; and having bj^n i|4mltt6d
Digitized by VjOUV IC
«y^ HiiliMilb.
M A Student into tbo MSminary wiiich was efttabHshed by LorenifD the Hagnifloent for tBe
iitody of ancient art in connection with the coUeOtions of statuary In ttie Mediceau gar-
dens, he attruetod the notice of Lorenzo by the artistk skill with which he had restored
the mutilated head of a laughing faun, and was received into the palace of the Medici,
where he spent sevunil years. Lorenzo's death in 1483, and the temporary reyeniOM
which befell the Medici iiimily in consequence of the incapacity of hb successor, 'Piero.
led Michael Angelo to retire to Bologna, whence he soon removed to Home, wlnther Ills
fame had preceded him. His earliest original works were a kneeling nn^l, executed for
the grave. of St. Dominic, at Bologna; the statues of Bacchus and David at Florence;
and a ma^ificeut group representing the Mater LMorona, which was placed in St.
Peter's, at Home. Next in order of time, aiid, according to some of his contemporarie'*,
first in merit, ranks Michael Angelo's great cartoon for the duciil palace at Floitiicf,
which, togetlier with tlie pendant executed by Leonardo da Vinci, has louj? since i>er-
i^ied This work, which represented a scene in the wars with Pisa, when a number of
young Piorentines, while bathiuff in the Arno, are Hui-prised by an attack of the Pisau<<,
showed so marvelous a knowledge of the auatomical developoieut of the. human figure,
and such extraordinary facility in the power:? of execution, that it became a study for
artists of every land, and by its excellence created a new era in art Pope Julius II.
called Michael Angeio to Rome, and commissioned him to m:fke hi.s monument, which
was to be erected witldn St. Peter's. Although this work was never roinpleted on thu'
colossal scale on wliicli it had been designed, and was ultimately erected in the church
of 8t. Pietro ad Vincula, it is a magnificent composition, and is memorable for hiiving
giving occasion to the' reconstruction of St. Peter's on its present sublime plan, in order
the better to adapt it to the colossal dimensions of the proposeit monument. Tlie pope
insisted upon Michael An^elo painting with his own hand the ceiling of the SLstine
chapel, and, although unwillingly, he began in 1509, and completed within less than two
years his colo.^sal task, which proved one of the most marvelous of his works. The
subjects of these cartoons are taken from the book of Genesis, "^'hile between these and
the representations of the persons of the Savior's genealogy arc colos>;al figures of the
prophets and sibyls. Michael Angelo's genius was too often trammeled by tiie unworthy
tasks in which Leo X. and successive popes engaged him, tha former having emploveil
liim for years in excavating roads for the transportation of marble from Carrara, and in
other ignoble labors. The Florentines and Bolognese vied with the pontiffs in trying
to secure his services; and to his skill as an engineer Florence was indebted for the plans
of the fortifications by which she was enabled for a prolonged time to resist the attempts
of the Medici to recover possession of the city after their expulsion from it. Otf the sur-
ronder of Florence, he returned to Rome, where his great picture of the last ]uda:ment
was painted for the altar of the Slstine chapel. This colossal fresco, nearly 70 feet \\\
height, which was completed in 1541. was regarded by contemporary critics as having
surpassed all his other works for the unparalleled powers of invention and the con-
Hummate knowledge of the human figure which it displayed. After its completion,
Michael Angeio devoted himself to the perfecting of St. Peter's, which, by the touch of
his genius, was converted from a mere Saracenic hall into .the most superb model of a
(christian church. He refused all remuneration for this labor, which he regarded as a
service to the glory of God. Michael Angeio died in 1563. at Rome, but his remains
were removed to Florence, and laid within the church of Santa Croce. His piety,
benevolence, and liberality made him generally beloved; and in the history of art, no
name shines with a more unsuliied luster than that of M'chael Angeio. — See Vasari\s
Tite de' Pittori (English translation), and Lives by Duppa '(1806), Harford (1657), and
Wilson (1876). ^
MICHAEL BRADACIUS, the first Moravian bishop, at first a Hussite priest at Zam-
berg in the eastern part of Bohemia, in the middle of the 15th century. When the
Moravian breihreu left the national church and established a ministry of their own,
Michael having joined them was sent with two other priests to a ViTaidensian colony on
the frontier of Bohemia and Austria for the purpose of securing the episcop}icy. They
were consecrated the first tnsfaops of the Bohemian brethren. A church council was
organized of which Michael was constituted the president. After a while he resigned,
aiui Matthias of Kunwalde became prcsident.
KIGHAEIJS, JoHANir DAvrD, one of the most eminent and learned biblical scholirs
of the 18th c, was b. on Feb. 27. 1717, at Halle, where his father. Christian Benedict
>Iiohaelis, a theologian and orientalist of some distinction, was a professor. After com-
]>leiing his studies at his native university he traveled in England and Holland, when*
he made ihe acauaiutance of several celebrated scholars. In 1745 he became a professor
of philo.sophy at C5ttingen, and took an active part in the formaticm of a scientific nsso-
ciatioB there. From 1758 to 1770 he was one of the editors of- the Gottirifjrr geh'hrlen
Aihzeigen, and for some years he filled the'Office of librarian to the university. During
the seven yeais' war-he was occupied fn making preparations for nn expedltrion of dis-
fovery in Arabia, which. was afterwards made Iw Nielmhr. In the latter years of b^s life
he was almoHt always in the professorial chair of at his desk He died on Aug. 22, 1791.
MtchaeUs was a man of vast attainments In history and apehseology. amd his labors were
of great importance in the departments of biblical exegesis ana hiatory. He may ho
Digitized by VjOUV IC
regarded as among the eariiest of the critical school of Gennan theologianB, tmt he Itvod
at too early a period to acquire anything like a consistent or systeniatic theory of the gene-
sis of the Hebrew Scriptures. He loved to nitiooHlize in details, and was never quito
certain what to think about inspiration; at all events, he seeks constantly to prove how
thon)Ughly human the Mosaic legislation was, though he does not exactly deny its claims
to being considered a Divine revelation. Many of his pupils became professors^ and
disseniinaled his principles through the €krman universities.
Michaelis's chief works are his Eirdeitung in die QdtUicheji Sehriften de% Keuen Bunde»
(2 vols. GOtt. 1750; English by bishop Marsh); his MomUches Hecht (6 vols. Frankf.
1770-76; English by Dr. Alexander Smith, 1814); and his Moral (3 vols. G6tt. 17»-
1823). See his J^ensbeschreibung von Dim SeJM Abgefassl (Rintehi und Lelp. 1793).
KI'CHAELltAS DAISY. See Aster.
ICICEAELMAS BAT, one of the English quarter-davs for payment of rent by tenants
— viz., Sept. 29. i^iichaelmas term isj one of the four legal tt mis- during which ihe Eng-
lish courts of luw und equity sit daily for dispAtch of business. It liegins on the 2d and
ends on the 25th of November. Michaelmas head court is the name given in Scotland to the
annual meeting of lieritbrs or freeholders of each county to revise the roll of freeholders,
the duties being now discharged by thq commissioners of supply.
MICHAELMAS DAY {auk), a day set apart according to the Roman Catholic church
to offer thanks to God for the benefits received by the ministry of .angels, and* called
Michaelmas in honor of St. Michtiel the archangel, whose power and vigilance saved
the church from her enemies. The feast of St. AOchael or Midhaehnas was instituted,
ncconling to Brady, in 487, and Sep. 29 was fixed for the celebration, the day on which
St. Micliaers church on Mount Garganus was dedicated. Ihere ir a tradition that lhu>
feast was instituted bv Alexander, bishop of Alexandria. There was a superstition in the
10th c. that on every Monday morning bt Michael held high mass in the churches. The
Greek and other eastern churches, the church of England, and some other refonned
churches, continue to observe the feast of St. Michael, iu order, as Wheatly says in Ids
book On tlie Common Praj/er, " that the people may know what benefits Christians receive
by the ministry of angels."
MICHAUD, JosEiTH FRAN90TB, 1767-1889; b. in Savoy, educated in the ecclesiaetfcal
college of Bourg; at 19 employed in a book-store at Lyons; author, the following year,
of Voyage au Mont Blanc, followed by other essays. In 1790 he had the good fortone
to meet the comtess Fanny de Beauhaenais who persuaded him to go to Paris, where he
became a hearty follower of Voltaire and Rousseau, espoused republioinism by the force of
the current around him, but was at heart, and by his social liens remained, a conservative
and rovallst. After the fall of RobesiDierre he contributed to the Quotidtertne articles so
squarely favoring the restoration that it became necessary for him to leave Paris. He
was arrested, condemned to death, escaped, and passed four years in Switzerland and
south France, occupied in light literary work. Returned to Paris in 1799; in 1808 pub-
lished the poem Print&mps t^un ProBcrit. In 1806, in partnership with a younger brother,
a printer, he undertook the great work Biogra'Me Moderne in which the public men
who were actively engaged in the great revolution were painted with dark colors.
Michaud was led into history by a request of Mme. Cotton to write an introduction to
her MailiiUie, which called for an examination of original documents on the crusades, in
which he l)ec»me so deeply interested that it resulted In a work entitled TfMeanx HiOor-
iqve des Trois PrhnUre Utw'mdes, in the form of a romance published in 1807. Micbaiid
was made n^ember of the French academy in 1812. After the return of Liouis XVIIL
he was a pronounced adherent of the old dynastv, and in the QuoUdienne, which he then
edited, advocated all the tyrannous reactions of the Bourbon government. His poems
thougli numerous, and in their time popular with those who sympathized with his opin-
ions, are not of a high order. His UApoiJieose de FrankUn, 1792, is interesting to Ameri-
cans. The Dei'uier R^ne de Buonaparte, published in 1815, is a valuable contribution to
the history of that time.
MICHAUX, ANDRfe, 1746-1802; b. France; studied science under the botanist Jus-
Fien, and the astronomer Lemonnier. In 1779 he traveled in England, whence he
brought into France some new plants and shrubs. The nextj^ear be traveled throng
Auvergne and the Pyrenees, and, on his return to Paris, introduced several new
varieties of Spanish grain. In 1782 the count of Provence, afterwards Louis XVIII.,
sent him to Persia on a scientific mission. On his anival he was robl»ed by the Arabs of
all liis effects except his books. Assiste<i by the British consul at Bassorahe went on as
far as Ispahan, where he cured the shah of a dangerous disease. After spending two
years in Persia he brought back to France a fine collection of drii*d plants and seeds. In
1785 he traveled extensively in North America on a scientific mission at the expense of
the government; but the Fi-ench revolution compelled him to return for wajSt of flinds.
He was shipwrecked on the voyage to France, and lost nearly sU his specimens. On- his
arrival in Paris in 1796 the directory wotild give no aoequate recompense for his losses.
In 1800 he sailed for Madagascar, where he died. His most important publications are
Hisloire de*. O/iinet de VAmerique Setftentrifmale- 1801; and Flora BnrfaUs Afntriumd,
1803. It is said that much of the latter work is the prcductton of prof. Ixmia Claude
Richard.
Digitized by
Googk
793 2J2hSS?*^
MTCHAUX, Frakqoib Ammk, 1770-1855; b. Prance; son of Andr^. He came to
the United States three times in the employ of the French goverumcnt, and made
explorations among the North American forests for the purpose of bringing into Europe
new varieties of trees. His HUtoire des Arbres forettiers d^ VAmerique Septentn'onale
coutfidns the results of his American explorations, and gives an account of the distribu-
tion and the scientific classification of the principal American timber-trees, and the nature
and uses of their timber. He also wrote a work On the NaZuralvtation of Forent 'Trees in
hraau*; Jourtu/u ^ ^ H^ ixf theAUeffhanjf MauntadM; and A Ifotke of the Bermudas,
OTCHEL, Francisqub Xavier, b. in Lyons, 1809, and there educated. He went to
Paris on the completion of his school studies, contributed articles to several journals,
and soon became interested in the literature of the niiddle ages. In 1830 he was sent by
Guizot to Enjgland to examine docunjcflts ptfrtalnhig to the ancient history of France. In
1837 he was in Scotland on tie same mission. In 1889 Michel waa called to the profes-
sorship of foreign literature at Bordeaux. He is member of the academies of inscrip-
tions of Paris, Turin, and Vienna; and of the society of antiquaries of France and Lon-
don. Amonur his original works are: Job, oules Pastoureaux, 1882; Hlstoire des Croimdes,
1833; DeuxAnnees du Regne de Henri II, , rot d*Angleterre 1841 ; Bistoire des Races Mnn-
dites de la France et de CEspagne, 1847, 2 vols., an unique contribution to history; Les
Ecossais en France, et Us Frangais en Ecosse, 1862, 2 vols. ; etc.
laCHSLET, Jules, a brilliant French historian, b. at Paris, Aug. 21, 1798. Hu
studied with great success trnder YiUemain and Leclerc, and at the age of 23 became a
• professor in the college Hollin, where he taught history, philosophy, and the classics.
In 1826 he published Les Tableaux Synchroniques de VBistoire Moderne, and was named
master of conferences (Maitre des Conferences) at iheecole norfnale. After the revolu-
tion of 1830 he was chosen head of the historic section, intrusted with the care of the
archives of the kingdom, assistant to Guizot at the Sorbonne, and tutor to the princess
Clementine, daughu^r of the French kin^, and published several valuable books, such as
Precis deTHisiaire jfodeme ('1833, of which there have been more than 20 editions); Precis
de VHisioirtide France jusqir a la UevoliUion Fran^aise (the 7lh edition of which appeared
in 1S42)\ Menwires de Luther (1885); Origines du Droit Fran^^ais cheidiees dans Us ^m-
boles et Formules du Di'oit Universel (1837). In 1838 he succeeded Daunau in the college
de France, and comte Keinhiurd in the professorship of moral philoifophy. He now
plunged into controversy with all the vivacity and impetuosity of his nature. The
Jesuits were the grand objects of his dislike; and eloquence, sarcasm, sentiment, and
liistory were all brought to Lear upon them with brilliant effect. Three books were the
liults of his polemic: Des Jemits, in con junction with Edgar Quinet (1848); DuPietre, de
la Femme^ et de laFamille, (1844); Du Peuple (1846). In 1847 appeared the first volume of
his Hisloire de la Berolutian; and it was finished in 1853. m 6 vols. AYhen the affair
of 1848 broke out, acting more wisely than most of his learned canfreres, he declined to
take an active part in political struggles, and quietly pursued his literary avocations, lie,
however, lost his situation in the archives office after the coup d'etat, by refusing to take
the oath of allegiance to Louis Napoleon. Other works of his were L'Oistau (1856);
rinseeU (1857); VAmour (1858); and La Femme (1869); La if^jr (1861); La S(/rcihre
(1862); La BiUe de VHumanite (1864); and Nos Fils (1869), a plea for compulsory educa-
tion. His masterpiece is his ffisioire de France, ctni tinned in Histoire de la lietolution
Fran^aise, and Jlistoire du XIX'^ SO^, Michelet died in 1874.
MICHELET, Karl Ludwto, b. Berlin, 1801 ; graduated at the university of Berlin,
receiving the degree of ph.d. in 1824. The following year he was appointed professor of
philologv and philosophy in the French gymnasium, and continued to hold this position
for twenty-five years. During a portion of this period he was also professor of philoso-
phy in the university of Beriln. He published a large number of works on metaphysical
subjects, including the following: System der philasophischen Moral; Die Ethik des AHs-
tofeles; Geschiehte der letzten Systsme der Philosophie in DeutscJdand vmi Kant bis Uegel;
Anihropoloffie und Pityehologie; etc. From 1860 he edited the Berlin Gedanke, represent-
ing the philosophical society of that city.
MICHELI8. Friedrich, b. Germany. 1815; educated to the profession of theology;
ordained a priest at Munster, his birthplace, and became a private tut/)r. In 1864 he
received the appr)intment of professor of philosophy at the lyceura of Braunsberg. Two
years later he was an opponent of the ecclesiastical policy of Bismarck in the Prussian
chamber. Notwithstandmg this fact, he also opposed the Jesuitical influence and the
dogma of the infallibility of the pope; publishing several pamphlets in support of his
views, and incurring the displeasure of Rome, and eventually excommunication. He
wrote ^'n opposition to the theories of Darwin, and his intention appears to have been to
reconcile the teachings of modem science with the doctrines of the Roman Catholic
church. His most important work is Die Philosophy Pfaton*s in threr innern Betiehung
evr Geoffenbarten Wahrheit, He has of late edited an anti-Jesuit publication called Der
Katholik.
WCHIOAK, a lake in the United States, the second In size of the five p'esit fresh-
water lakes, and the only one lying wholly in tlie United States, having Michigan on the
n. and e., and "Wisconsin on the west. It is 320 m. long, 70 m. In mean breadth, and 1000
Digitized by VjiOOV IC
Michlgftn.
794
ft. in mean depth. It is o78 ft. above the level of the sea. and haabeenjound by accu-
rate observations to have a lunar tidal wave of 3 in. It is the outlet of numerous rivers,
and is connected by a canal, and sometimes by flooded rivers, with the Mississippi,
which is believed to liave l)cen its ancient outlet. Its principal harbors are those of
Chicago, Milwaukee, and Grand Haven ; and its bold and, at certain seasons, dangerow
shores are guarded by 23 lighthouses. It forms, with the lower lakes and the St. Law-
rence, a natural outlet for one of the richest grain-growing regions in the world.
MICHIGAN, Lake {anU\ containing an area of about 02,400 sq.m., 3,000 sq.m.
larger than lake Huron. Us banks arc low and sandy, containing rocky sections of
sandstone and limestone, but no high bluffs. Inland the sand hills rise to the height of
150 ft. Its waters arc wearing away the Wisconsin shores and leaving land on the
Michigan side. Its outlet is through the straits of Mackinaw into lake Huron at its n.c.
extremity, near the old trading-post of Mackinaw. Racine, a city of Wisconsin at the
mouth of the Root river, and Manitowoc, Wis., at the mouth of a river of its own name,
are among the larger cities on its borders. The best harbors are in the bays, and are
artiflciallv formed. Its islands are in the n. portion; the lai-gest, Beaver island, 50 m.
long, ana the Fox islands in the n.e. It has 2 large bays — Green bay, 100 m. long, and
Grand Traverse bav, 30 m. long, and 3 of lesser dimensions, Little Traverse bay, Little
bay of Noquet, and Big bay of Noquet. It has important fisheries; white-fish and large
trout are taken and exported in large quantities, fn,'sh and canned. The largest rivers
whicli empty into It are the St. Joseph, the Muskegon, tiie Grand, emptying into the
lake at Grand Haven; the Kalamazoo, 200 m. long, the Manistee, 50 m. long, all in
Michigan; the Fox in Wisconsin, and the Menomonee in Wisconsin, emptying into
Green bay.
MICHIOAH, one of the United States, lying in lat. 41" 40' to 48° 20' n., and long. 8S' 25'
to 90^* 34' west. It is br»undcd on tht' n. by lake Superior and St Mary's river; e. hy lake
Huron, river and lake St. Clair, Detroit river, and lake Erie; s. by the states of Ohio aud
Indiana; and w. by lakes Michigan and Wisconsin, aud has an area of 56,248 sq.m., or
85,995,520 acres. It is divided into 77 counties. Tlie capital is Lansing; the chief towns
are Detroit, Grand Rapids, East Basrinaw, Jaclcson, Bay City. Saginaw City, etc. Michigan .
is divided by lakes Michigan and Huron into two irregular peninsulas-— the upper, a wild
and rough region of mountains and forests, containing about one-third the area of tlie
state, lies between the northern portions of lakes Michigan and Huron, and lake Superior;
while the lower is nearly inclosed in a vast horse-shoe bend of lakes Michigan, Huron.
Erie, and the connecting straits and rivers. In the upper peninsula are the Porcupine
mountains, rising to a height of 2,000 ft. with sandy plains and forests. The southern
is a level, rich, fertile coiwitr}' of prairies and oak-openings, watered by numerous rivers,
as the Grand, Kalamazoo, Muskegon, Saginaw, etc. The lower peninsula is of limestone
strjita, with coal and gypsum; the upper, of azoic formations, with metamorphic slates,
gneiss rocks, trap, and rich mines of copper and iron. The climate is mild in the
southern, and cold and bleak in the northern regions. The southern portion producer
wheat, maize, fruits, butter, cheese, and wool in great abundance. Vast quantities of
pine lumber are exported from the northern half of the state. The principa.1 manufac-
tures are flour and woolens. The extensive coast and rivers afford great facilities to
navigation, while several railways traverse the state. The government is similar to
those of the other states, and the school system is based on tlmt of Pmssia, with abun-
dant revenues from public lands. The universftr of Michigan at Ann Arbor has 44
professors, and a foundation of 1,000,000 acres m land. The on<y chargre to students
who are resident in Michigan is $10 admission, and $15 annual fee. Detroit was settled
by the French in ICIO. who also established a trading-port at Mackinaw at about the
same period. The British took Detroit in 1812, but rest/)red it at the end of the war. The
state was admitted to the union in 1837. Pop. '40, 212,267; GO. 397,654; 70. 1,184.2»6.
MICHIGAN (ftnte) derives its namo from two Chippewa words, mitckiAudsawgpegan,
meaning "lake country." The discoverers and first settlers of the territory were the
French missionaries and fur-traders, some of whom visited the site of Detroit as early
as 1610, while in 1641 some French Jc-suits found their way to the falls of the St. Mary.
The first actual settlement by Europeans within the limits oi the state was tlie mission at
Sault Ste. Marie, founded by father Marquette aud othere in 1668. Three years later fort
Michilimuckiuao (now Maclkinaw) was established. Detroit was founded in 1701 by an
expedition under Antoine de la Mothe Candillac. The teiTitory fell into the hands of
the English with other French possessions iji 1763. After this event the Indian chief
Pontiac organized a conspiracy to extcrmhiate the whites, when a bloody conflict ensued.
The garrison at Mackinaw was butchered, and Detroit was subjected to a long siege. It
was not until 1796, 13 years after the peace of 1783, that the United States took actual pos-
session of this region, though it was included within the boundaries of the northwest terri-
tory, so-called, aud amenable to the ordinance', of 1787. Afterwards it formed for a time a
•part of the territory of Indiana. In 1805 it was erected into a separate territory, with
substantially its present boundaries, gen. William Hull being appointed governor. Dar-
ing the war of 1812-15 the Inhabitants were sorely harassed by the Indians and the Brit-
ish. Gen. Hull surrendered Detroit to the British under circumstances which led to his
trial and condomnation to death by court-martial. The sentence 'was not ezecated, how-
Digitized by VjOUV IC
795
Mlchlgaou
cver^ and facto afterwards caipe to light which partially, or it may be wholly, relieved
him from blame. Mackinaw was also captured, aad at Frenchtown, early iu 1818, u
number of American prisoners were massacred by the Indians. Shortly afterwards gen.
Harrison succeeded in driving the British out of the territory, and in 1814 a truce was
concluded with the Indians. In 181^17 a considerable portion of the territory wjis sur-
veyed, and in 1S18 a large body of land was offered for sale. In 1819 the territory was
authorized by act of congress to send a dele^ite to that bod^. At different times from
1819 to 1886 the Indians ceded large tracts of land to the tenitory, and at the last-named
date all the lower and a part of the upper peninsula had becirfitied from Indian titles.
Partly in 1818 and partly in 1834 the territory now forming th* state of Wisconsin was
annexed to Michigan; but in 1836 il was erected into a territory by itself, and Michigan
was reduced substantially to its original Ijoumlaries. Previous to 1828 the legishitive
power was vested in the governor and iudges, but in that year it was transfeiTed to a
council consisting of 9 persons selecte(f from 18 chosen by the people of the territory.
Iu 1825 the council was increased to 18 members chosen upon the same plan, but in 18:J7
the law was changed so as to provide for the election oi tlie councilorn by the popular
vot«. In 1831 gen. Cass was succeeded by George B. Porter as govenior, and the latter,
dying in 1834, was succeeded by Stevens T. Mason. In 1885 a state constitution was
adopted by a convention called for the purpose. It claimed jurisdiction over a strip of
lanu also claimed by Ohio. There was dano:er that the dispute would lead to blornlsiied,
but in 1836 congress agreed to admit Michigan to the union upon condition that she
shouli surrender her claim to the disputed territory and accept i-n lieu thereof a larger
aa-a in the upper peninsula. The first convention called to consider this proposal rejecietl
it, but it was accepted by a second in Dec, 1836, and in January following Michigan
was admitted to the union as a state. In 1847 the seat of government was removed from
Detroit to Lansing, the latter at that time being in a dense wilderness. It is now a ll'inr-
isbin^ town, and the state capltol is one of the largest and finest structures of the kind in*
the United States.
Michigan is comprised in two peninsulas of irregular shape, separated from each
other by the strait of Mackinaw, connecting lake Michigan witii lake Huron. The
largest of these peninsulas embraces the whole territory lying between these two lakes, and
at Its s.e. comer touches lake Erie. From lake Erie to the southern end of lake Huron
it is divided from Canada b^ the Detroit and St. Clair rivers, the latter flowing into the
former through lake St. Clair. The great mass of the inliabitants of the state at the
present time dwell on the southern half of this peninsula, the northern portion, together
with the whole of the upper peninsula, being very sparsely inhabited.
The upper peninsula, containing a little more than one-third of the state's area, is
rugged and broken, and in parts mountainous. The Porcupkie range of mountains is
the watei-shed between the streams flowing into lake Superior and those flowing into
lake Michigan. This range at its highest point is 1400 ft. above lake Superior — 2,000 ft.
above the sea. The surface on each side of the mountains presents a rugged asncct,
witli some picturesque scenery and considerable variety of soil. At the eastern ena tlie
mountains at their highest points do not rise more than 400 ft. above lake Su|>erior.
There are numerous lakes and marshes, and great forests, where pine and other soil
woods are the prevailing growths, though flne gj-oves of sugar-maple are found in some
places. In some portions of the peninsula the forests have been destroyed by Are, thus
transforming the region into a desert. The n.w. extremity of the peninsula is celebrated
for its extensive deposits of copper and iron. The sugar-maple is found here in great
abundance and of the best quality, but the softwoods are scarce. The land is generally
sterile. The northern peninsula is 818 m. in length from e. to w., and from 30 to 160
m. in width, and in 1874 contained'61.814 inhabitants.
The southern peninsula, or Michigan proper, is in almost every respect a contrast to
the northern. The surface is generally level, though in tjie s. it is broken by low conical
hills rising from 30 to 200 feet. The length of the peninsula from s. to n. Is about 275 m..
Its width 259 miles. It is unequally divided by a low water-sbed extending from s. to n.,
and risins: at Ihe'highcst point from 600 to 700 feet. The larger portion ot the peninsula
lies w. of this water-shed, which slopes gradually towards lake Michigan. The shores
on both sides are in many places steep, curving picturesquely around numerous bays
and inlets. On lake Michigan they are frequently broken by bluffs and sand-hills from
100 to 300 ft. high. Tlic s.^portion of the peninsula Is very fertile, the n. portion less so.
The islands in the state are numerous. The princip^il of these are isle lioyal and
Grand isle in lake Superior; Sugar and Nebish islands in St. Maiy's strait, and Drum-
niond island at its mouth ; Marquette, Mackinaw, and Bois Blanc islands near the n. end
of lake Huron ; and the Beaver, Fox, and Manitou groups in the n. end of lake Michigan.
The principal rivers are the Chebov^n, Thunder Say, Au Sable, and Saginaw, flowing
into lake Huron; the Huron and Raisin, into lake Erie; the St. Joseph, Kalamassoo,
Grand, Muskegon. Manistee, Grand Traverse, Manistique, and Escinnba, into lake Michi-
gan : and the Ontonagon and Tequamenon, into lake Sup>erior. Most of these rivers are
snuiU, though several are navigable for short distances. Many small ponds are scattered
through the state.
There is a coal field of 12.000 sq.m. in extent in the s.e. part of the state, but the veins
are so fur below the surface that they caDnot be worked to advantage. The supplies of
Digitized by VjOUV IC
Michlgui. ^^^ *
fuel for tlic iron-works on lake Superior are more cheaply obtained from Ohio. lime-
stone is abundant, and on the shores of lake Huron, in the n. part of the state, are
formatiouB wliich yield excellent grindstones. In the valley of Saginaw river salt is
obtained by boring. The most productive copper region in the world, except that of
Chili, is at the n.w. end of the upper peuiusula. The veins sometimes bear silver in
small quantities. The copper mines are raainlv in the counties of Ontonagon, Houghton,
and Keweenaw. The iron mines are principally in Marquette countj. In the peninsula
arc remains of ancient mines and mining implements, which justify the presumption
that at some distant period in the past the country was occupied by a race advanced in
civilization.
Among the natural curiosities of the state are the " pictured rocks," so-called, on the
shores of Take Superior, not far w. of Sault Ste. Marie. They are sandstone rocks worn
b^ the water into picturesque shapes, Tesembling old castles, temples, arches, etc., which,
viewed from a steamer's deck, are impressive and wonderful. In some instances the
upper sui-face of these bluffs projects so far over the lake that steamers pass direcf ly
under tliem, and behind cascades which fall from the summits.
The climate of the lower peninsula is so tempered by the proximity of the lakes that
it is much milder than that of other regions in the same latitude. The northern penin-
sula in winter is very cold. The average annual difference of temperature between the
two peninsulas is 7°. Oak openings and prairies are the most characteristic feature of the
lower peninsula. In the forests the prevailing growths are the sugar-maple, oak, walnut,
ash, hickory, elm, linden, locust, dogwood, beech, sycamore, cherr3% pine, hemlock, spruce,
tamarack, cypress, cedar, and chestnut. In the n. portion of the peninsula the white pine
is a source of wealth. The soils on the lower peninsula are well adapted to tlie production
of fruit. Apples are produced in large jtuantities. Peaches grow well on the shores of
■ lake Michigan, while grapes are extensively produced on the shores of lakes Michigan
and Erie, and in the river valleys. Pears, quinces, plums, cherries, and the small fruits
generally, are raised in perfection in the interior as well as on tlie borders of the lakes.
The extensive forests of northern Michigan are a covert for large numbers of wild
animals, among which are the black bear, wolf, lynx, wildcat, panther, fox, weasel,
marten, badger, skunk, mink, otter, raccoon, opossum, beaver, marmot, hare, rabbit, and
squirrel. Deer are plenty in some parts, and the elk is not yet extinct. The birds are
of great variety, and the waters of the state are well stocked with edible fish.
As an agncultural state Michigan ranks high. The number of farms in 1879 was
111,822, embracing 5,785,102 acres of improved and 4,530,486 of unimproved land — in
all, 10,815,588 acres. Number of horses; 272,608; of milch cows, 291,248; of other
cattle, 338,910; hogs, 498,109; sheep. 1,772,812; number of acres in apple orchards,
229,262; in peach orchards, 10,771. The latest crop statistics are thoA of 1878, from
which the roUowing items are gathered: Bushels of wheat raised, 29,511,889; corn,
36,663,299; oats, 13,454,517; clover-*eed, 166,465; barley, 806,463; peas, 641,061; pota-
toes, 6,190,406; tons of hay, 1,124.931; lbs. of wool, 8,666,467; bush, of apples sold,
8,944,206; of peaches, 107,244; lbs. of grapes sold, 1.014,950; bush, of cherries, currants,
plums, and berries, 100,498. The cash value of farms in 1870 was estimated at
1398,240,578; of farming implements and machinery, $18, 711, 979; wages paid during the
year, ^,421,161; value of farm productions, $81,508,623; of orchard products, $3,447,985;
of produce of market gardens, $352,658; of forest products, $2,559,682; of home manu-
factures, $338,000; of animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter, $11,711,624; of live
Stock, $49,809,869. In 1873 there were sold, of dried fruits, 2,664,709 lbs. ; of cider,
182.347 bbls.; of wine, 50,858 galls.; of 2-lb. cans of fruit, 1,003,803; of maple sngar,
4,319.793 lbs. The aggregate value of real estate assessed m 1875 was $808,753,086; of
personal property, $66,127,992. These 4gures are supposed to represent but one-third of
the real value of the property.
According to the census of 1870 there were in the stale 9.455 manufacturing estab-
lishments, giving employnujnt to 63.694 persons, of whom 2,941 were females above 15,
and 2,406 were under that age. The capital invested was $71,712,288; wages paid,
$21,205,355; value of products, $118,394,676. The principal industries, with the value
of their products respectively in 1870, were. Agricultural implements, $1,569,596; black-
smithinir, $1,581,357; boots and shoes, $2,552,931; carpentering and building. $3,976,383;
carriages and wagons, $2,393,328; railroad cars. $1,488,742; clothing. $2,577,154; coop-
erage. $1,176,768; copper, milled and smehed, $9,260,976; flouring and gristmill products,
$21,174,247: furniture, $1,953,888; iron products, $4,938,947; leather. $2,670,608; dis-
tilled and fermented liquors. $1,821,286; lumber, planed and sawed, $33,078,241;
machinery, $2,830,564; prmting and publishing, $1,071,523; salt. $1,176,811; sash, doors,
and blmds. $1,868,596; tobacco and cigars, $2,572,528; woolen goods, $1,209,518. Other
industries, the products of which ranged from $96,000 to $967,000 respectively, were
masonry, brick and stone; tTm, copper, and sheet-iron ware; wooden ware; ship-building;
meat packed; paper; ttoldlery and harness. The lumber statistics of 1879 show: Num-
ber of mills, 64; men employed^ 4.003; lumber cut. 2,289,066,855 ft.; shmgles cut,
685,619,150. The salt product of 1879 was 2,058,040 bbls, ; the wheat product. 10,290.200
bush.; product of iron mines, 1,453,765 tons, valued at $7,418,114. The total product
of the copper mines In 1877 was 24,958 tons; total product from 1845 to 1877 InclusiYe,
Digitized by VjO^JV IC
.w
']lCl.chlg«ii.
389,188 tons; ingot copper, 1677, 19,066 tons, valued at $7,686,480; total mLue of prod-
uct from 1845 to 1877, f 116.928,280; total aasessmenta from 1845 to 1877 by working
luinea, |3,960.000; total dividends paid in same time. $21,780,000; dividends paid in 1877,
$1,740,000. The catch of fish from the lakes in 1870 was valued at $567,576.
Tho value of foreign imports in 1874 was $2,353,786; of exports, $9,526,629; number
of vessels which entered the ports of the state, 4,682-^tonnage, 1,420,317; vessels cleared,
4,718— tonnc^e, 1,431,355. The foreign tmde is almost entirely with Canada. The
exports consist for the most part of grain, flour, hogs, lumber, beef, pork, tobacco, cot-
ton, and railroad cars. The vessels registered in the state in 1874 were: sailing, 368, of
52,907 tons; st<)amers, 358, of 68,289 tons; vessels built: steamers, 34, of 8,834 tons,
sailing, 42, of 15,383 tons.
The railroad statistics for 1878 were as follows: Miles of track, 8,564; capital stock
paid in, $148,152,011; total debt, $101,373,748; cost of roads and equipment, $154,256,078.
The railroad interests are- represented bv 41 distinct corporations, but the roads are
actually managed by 27 companies. Of the 11,552 stockholders 4,550 reside in the state,
hohlmjj $4,685,819 of the more than $147,000,000 of capital. But 5 of all the roads
Said dividends in 1878, viz..: the Chicago and Northwestern; Detroit Lansing and
[orthern; Lake Shore and Michigan Southern; Michigan Central; and Mineral liange.
There is a ship-canal about a mile long around the falls of the St. Mary's at Sault Ste.
Marie, which is of great advantage in facilitating commerce between lakes Sujjerior and
Huron; and another, two miles long, connecting Portage lake with lake Superior on the
w. side of Keweenaw point. The lirst of these canals was opened in 1855, the second
in 1873.
In 1873 there were in Michkan 77 national banks, witli a capital of $9,802,200; and
a circulation of $7,139,217. In 1879 there were 14 state and 14 savinis-banks. The
capital of the former was $874,400; resources of the latter, $7,958,675. The number of
insurance companies authorized to transact business in Micliigan in 1878 was 195, of
which 50 were mcorporaLed under the laws of the state. One of these was a life insur-
ance company, with assets amounting to over $900,000, and risks amounting to "
$11,641,000. Two stock fire companies had risks amounting to $22,000,000; 47 farmers'
mutual fire companies, with 57,000 members, had at risk $107,000,000. From 1870 to
1877 the aggregate businsiis of stock fire companies in ths state was as follows: Risks,
$1,210,261,335; premiums received, $17,071,744; losses^ $9,817,689. During the same
period these companies paid to the state in taxes about $500,000. The number of life
msunmce companies of other states doin^ business in Slichigan in 1878 was 28. The
whole number of policies on the lives of citizens of the state was about 22,000, repre-
senting insurance to the amount of $42,000,000.
Michigan takes a hiffh rank in all matters pertaining to education. The school
statistics for the year ending Sept. 1, 1879, were as follows: Number of school districts,
6,248; children of school age, 483,933; whole number attending school, 342,018; number
of teachers, 18,616; total wages of teachers, $1,880,945; average monthly wages of male
teachers, $33.69; of female teachers, $23.48. Amount of moneys from preceding year,
$729,744; received from two-mill tax, $494,011; from primary school fund ($2,743,'519),
$229,P84; from district taxes, $2,049,755; from all other sources. $340,893— total receipts
for the vear, $3,843,790. Expenditures: Male teachers, $712,594; female teachers,
$1,160,865; for building and repairs, $864,135; bonded indebtedness, $329,466; all other
purposes, $497,576. The state normal school, opened in 1853, has graduated nearly
1000 teachers. It is well organized and efficiently managed, having four courses o"f
instruction — common school, full English, ancient languages, and modern languages.
Few states of the union have made more ample provision for the hi<rher education of
youth than Michigan. High schools or academies, supported by state^ funds and taxes,
are established in all the larger cities and towns: the state university at Ann Arbor, one
of the foremost of American colleges in respect botJii of its endowments and courses of
instruction, went into operation m 1842, and is open to students of both sexes on equal
terms. The state agricultural college, near Lansing, affords instruction for those who
wish to fit themselves for agricultural pursuits. &sides these theie are six other col-
leges under the patronage of different religious denominations, nearly all of which are
open to students of both sexes. There are lor women several seminaries of a high grade.
The professional schools equal the best elsewheie.
The bonded bebt of the state in 1879 was $913,149; and at the same time there were
on hand applicable to its payment funds amounting to $912,000. The total resources of
the state, applicable to ordinary expenses, amounted in 1879 to $2,626,153; the expenses y
of the year were $2,019,885, leaving a balance. of $606,267. The trust funds (mainly for ^
educational purposes) for which the state is accountable amount to $3,419,145. The
new capitol at Lansing, costing $1,390,000, the corner-stone of which was laid in 1873,
was dedicated Jan. 1, 1879.
In 1873 there were in the state 253 newspapers and periodicals, of which 22 were
dailies, 8 tri- weeklies, 209 weeklies, 2 semi-monthlies, 1 fortnightly, and 16 monthlies.
According to the census of 1870 the whole number of libraries was 26,763, of which
23,761 were .private; total number of volumes reported, 2.174,744, of which 1.196,118
were in the private libraries; 423 town and city libraries had 14,207 volumes; 246 school
Digitized by'VjOOV IC ■ ■"
SS2IS&.. 798
and college Ifbraries, S7.T34 volumes; public school libraries, 135, 881 volumes; 1731 Sun-
iliiy-scbool libraries, 289,471 volumes; 486 church libraries811,891 volumes; 116 circu-
Litins libraries, 53,704 volumes.
The principal chiiritable, reformatory, and penal institutions of the state are: tihe
Michigan iisylum for the insane at Kalamazoo, organized 1854; the eastern Michigan
asylum, founded at Pontiac, 1878; the Micbi^n state retreat for the insane, near Detroit,
under the care of the sisters of charity; the msHtuilon for the deaf and dumb, at Flint;
the state asylum for the blind (now nearly completed); the state public school at Cold-
water, designed to "provide for all tlie dependent children of the state, whether in or
out of the county poor-houses, who are sound in body and mind, to maintain and edn-
cute them while temporarily 4n the school, " and until homes can be provided for them;
the state reform school at Lansing; the state house of correction at Ionia ; the reform
school for girls; the Detroit industrial school; the state prison at Jackson.
The population , of Michigan has risen from 551 in 1800 to 1,686,881 in 1880. The
inhabitants of foreign birth numbered in 1870 only 268,000. The number of males in
1874 was 697,184: of females, 636,847. The governor and other state officers are elected
once in two years, the day of election being tlie Tuesday after the first Monday in.
November. The governor's veto can be set aside by a vote of two-thirds of both liouseii
of the legislature. The legislative power is vested in a senate of 33 and a house of rep-
resentatives not exceeding 100 members, elected for two years, and meeting every
alteiTiate ^ear on the first Wednesday of January. The supreme court consiats of a
chief-justice and three associate justices, elected for 8 yeara, and eligible to re-election.
The court lias both appellate aad original juriHdiction. There are 14 circuit courts, euc^
presided over by one judge, elected for 6 years; they have original jurisdiction in all
matters civil and criminal, and appellate jurisdiction from all inferior courts. Tli«
salaries of the supreme court judges are $4,000 per annum, those of the circuit court
judges. $1800. A probate judge is elected in each county for 4 years; justices of the
peace in every township for the same terra. The churcli organizations in 18T0 num-
bered 2,239; church edifices, 1415; church property, $9,138,816. The principal denomi-
nations are: Baptist, Freewill Baptist, Christian, Congregational, £pisoop»aI, Evangelical
Association, Friends, Disciples, Jews, Lutheran, Methodist, Presbyterian, Reformed
Dutch, Reformed German, Roman Catholic, Second Advent, Spiritualist, United Biethren
iu Chrii^t, Unitarian, and Univcrsalist.
The electoral votes of Michigan for president and vice-president of the United Ststeii
have been cast as follows: 1886, 8 for Van Buren and Johnson ; 1840, 8 for Harrison and
'Fyler; 1844, 5 for Polk and Dallas; 1848, 6 for Cass and Butler; 1852, 6 for Pierce and
King; 1856, 6 for Fremont and Dayton; 1860, 6 for Lincoln and Hamlin: 1864, 8 for
Lincoln and Johnson; 1868, 8 for Grant nnd Colfax; 1873, 11 for Gi-ant and Wilson; 1876,
11 for Hayes and Wheeler; 1880, 11 for Gai-field and Arthur.
MICHIGAN CITY, a t. in Indiana, on the s. shore of lake Michigan and on tho
Michig»in central railroad, at the junction of the Louisville, New Albany, and Chicago
railroad with the Indianapolis, Peru, nnd Chicjigo; pop., 70,3,985. It is delightfully
situated at the mouth of Tniil creek, about 88 m. from ('hicago by water. 56 m. by rail,
18 m., n. w. of La Porte, and 140 m.. n.w. of Indijmapolis. It is the center of an impor-
tant trade in nalt an.l lumber, and the commerce of the hike, and as a shipping point for
in>n ore. It contiiins the northern state prison, has two newapapjers, and a national bank.
It has good schools and is the seat of Ames college. It<4 industries are the manufacture
of lunil>':r, wagon.^ boots and shoes, and furniture; and it has planing mills, foundries,
locomotive works, and the mil road repair shops of I he lines which center there.
MKUIIGAN STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, at Lansing the capital of the
fU\U*., is I he oldest of nil the institutions of the kind in the country. It was established
in obedience to a direct provision of the constitution of the state, Feb. 12, 1855, and
opened to students May IS, 1857. It is endowed hy the sjile of lands given by the gen-
eral government to the state in 1862. Of the 285,6*78 acres so given, 86,121 acres have
be<*n sold, forming a fund of $275,104, on which the state pays 7 per cent interest to the
colleire for its current expenses. The annual income of nboilt 1*1*8.000 is .supplemented
by liberal ai)propriations on the part of the stale. The properly of the college' exclusive
of the lands and endowjnent fund, is $275,000. The college buildings stand in a park of
about 100 ac!re3. IXMUg a part of its farm of 076 acres. The principal building arc a c^>l-
K'^ge hnll for ehanel, library, general museum, and class rooms, two dormitories with the
armory in one of them, a chemical laboratory, a botanical laboratory, a greenhouse with
propagating houses attached, an apiary. 5 farm barns, pigger}', carpenteV*s shop, 5 dwel-
ling houses. It has farm gardens of various kinds, botanical grounds, an arboretum,
orchards, stock, etc. Its collections in natunii history and its apparatus are of considor-
alile value. Its library contidns about 5,000 bound volumes and 900 pamphlets. The
college has but one course of study, four years in length, embracing, besides agrlculturfi,
horticulture, and the sciences connected tLcrewith. the elements ofa general educjition.
It has 7 profejeors. and 6 other officers, 282 students; and 205 alumni. Women are
adr .Itted into the classes, and one woman has been graduated. Students are required to
lalj-jr three hours each day, Saturdays and Sundays excepted, nnd for the most of this
labor a small compensation is given.*^ The str.te has on deposit arms and accoutermenta.
^QO MtchifMl.
ftiid a volanteer milltaty company drills once (usually twice) a week. There is no pre*
paratory department. Presiaent, T. C. Abbot.
MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY of, at Ann Arl)or, Washtenaw co., Mich.,. was founded
in 18]i7, though notoi^ened until 1842. Its first endowment was the gift by conCTcss- in
1886 of two townships of land. It is supported !)y the state, and open to i^tudents of
both sexes, without charn:c for tuition, on payment of a small matriculation fee and the
anuuai payment of $15. It is a part of the public educational system of tl.e state, the
constitution providing for the perpetuation of the governing body of the institution, the
boAid of regents. It aims to complete and crown the worli wliich is begun in the public
schools, by furnishing ample facilities for liberal education in literature, science and the
arts, and for thorough profef^sional study of medicine, law, and dentistry. While
Michigan has endowed her university primarily for the higher education of her own sons
and daughtei*s, she also opens its doors to all students, wherever their homes. Students
from other states are asked to pay a larger admission fee than students from Michigan,
Iml in all other respects tlieir advantages are the same. The imiversity comnripcs the
department of literature, science and the arts, the department of medicine ana surgery,
the department of law, the school of pharmacy, tiie homoeopathic medical college, and
tiie dental college. Each of these dcpai*tments and colleges has its faculty of instniction,
who are charged with the special management of it. The university senate is composed
of all the faculties, and considers questions of common interest and importance to them
all. Post-graduate courses are provided for the graduates of this university, or for the
graduates of any college or university who ma}' desire to pursue advanced study whether
for a second degree or uot. Tlic school of pharmacy is a distinct school, having a regu-
lar course of two years. The libraries of the university accessible to the students, amount,
in the ag^egate. to about 86,000 volumes. The astronomical observatory contains the
large meridian circle conntructed by the famous makei's, Pistor & Martins, of Berlin, one
of the largest and best of the kind To fidereal clock, made by Tiede, of Berlin; the colli-
mators for the meridian circle; the library of the observatory, and the smaller instru-
ments. One of thtfse is a chronograph with Bond's new itodynamic escapement, for
recording obser\'ations by the t Icctro-magnetic method. In the dome is mounted a
lai^ refracting telescope, with an object glass 18 in. in diameter, constructed hy tholate
Henry Fitz. of New York. A fcet of self-rcijistermg meteorological instruments has
recently been added. It consists of Hough's barograph and thermograph, Robinson's
Rnemometer with Gibbons's Fclf-registering attachment and an anemograph. Means
have been provided for the erection of a Fmall observatoiy for the purpose of instniclion,
on the observatory grounds near the main building. A fire-proof museum building 127
by 47 ft., has just been erected. The collections in the museum embrace 6,000 miner-
alogical specimens; a geological cabinet, with 41,000 specimens; zo^Mogical cabinet with
orer 110.000 specimens; a botanicar cabinet, containing 10,000 species. 20,000 entries,
and 70,000 specimens; exhibitions in archeology and relics, embracing memorials of the
native Indian tribes; collection in dej^artment of fine arts and histoiy. embracing a gal-
lery of casts of the most valuable ancient statues and busts, term cotta models, gallery
of engravings and photographic views executed in Italy and Greece, historical medal-
lions, and copies of modem statues, busts and reliefs by the great masters. The ana-
tomical museum is rich in valuable specimens. There are no dormitories and no com-
mons connected with the university. The university (1880) is served by 80 professors, 0
assistant professors, and 16 lecturers and assistants. Number of students in 1880:
department of literature, science and art. 44S; department of medicine and surger3% 250;
department of law, 895; school of pharmacy, 81; homoeopathic medical college, 70; col-
lege of dental surgery, 83; total, 1427. President, James B. Angell, U..D.
MICHILIMACK'INAC. See Mackixaw, a7it€.
MICHOACAN', hr Mbcho'acan, a political division, or state of Mexico, extending
over the table-land of Uie same name, and the low country lying between il and th«
Pacific, and a portion of the hilly country s. of these districts-. 21,609 sq.m.; pop..
'68. 618.240. Its n.c. districts are watered by the river Santiago. The Sierra Madre and
ita branches traverse it in nil directions; and within its territory are the lake of Patzcuaro,
the peak of Tancitnro. and the volaino of Xorullo (Jorullo). The Cerro de Santa liosa,
in the district of Tlapujahua, about 17,000 ft. in height, is the highest point. The moun-
tain ridges are divided by fertile valleys, drained bv the Lerma. Mescala, and other rivers,
and numerous mountain streams. The hirgeat lakes are the Patzcuaro, already named,
80 m. irt circumference; and Chapala, which is 60 m. long by 30 wide. The coast line
is 100 m. in extent, the only ports being San Telmo, Maratua. and Buccria. The state
is divided into 17 districts; 'the climate is very variable, the mean snnual temperature in
tha capital being 71° F. The country has large mineral deposits, including gold, silver,
copper, iron, coal, cinnabar, lead, 'sulphur, emery, lilhogrnphic stone, and copperas.
The mines are but little worked, the annual yield iK'ing nt present a little more than one
million dollars, that of silver being one-third' of the amount. In the districts along the
n. Imundary line carbonate of soda is collected. There are manufactures of importanc?e,
including sampcs (Mexican shawls), blankets, silver ware, flour, and glass. Cabinet and
dye-woods are exi^ortcd; also coffee, indigo, silk, gold, silver, and copper, chiefly to con-
tiguous states and to Guatcnmla. Education is conducte 1 in thit|,j^^|^ij,hrough a system
JIEJtoraMMiBio. <>^^^
iucluding a state college, 58 girls' schools, and 28 for boys. Capital, Morella (formerly
Valladolid).
MICIPflA. See Juoitbtha, ante.
MICKIEWICZ, Adam, 1798-1855; b. Poland; son of a Lithuanian nobleman, who
pursued unsuccessfully the profession of an advocate. Mickiewicz received his ele-
mentary education at tlie sclioola in Nowogrodek and Minsk, and in his eighteenth year
entered the university of Wilna, where his^unclc was a professor. This university, for
whose regency the poet Campbell was at one time a candidate, was then the most impor-
tant educational institution in Russian Poland. There Mickiewicz became acquainted
whh the Polish revolutionist, Thomas Zan, and joined one of the patriotic secret socie-
ties which Zan was forming at Wilna. He ffave most of his time, while at the univer-
sity, to chemistry and poetry; his firet piiblished poem was addresse<l to Lelewel,
university professor of history, and an ardent Polish patriot. After leaving Wilua, ho
l)ecame professor of classical literature in the college at Kowno, and it was during hia
residence there that two volumes of his poems were published, in 1822. Like Byron,
Mickiewicz ''woke up to find himself famous." The poems in these two volumes,
though of varying degrees of merit, at once gave their author a reputation superior to
that of any native poet. Many of them are founded on old Lithuanian suprstitions and
folk-songs. Two longer poems are contained in this collection : one of tliem, Gi-azerui^
tells how a Lithuanian princess, for her husband's honor, dies, in his armor, ^pon the field.
The other. Dziady, or The Ancestors, is a sort of autobiographical drama of marked
l>ower. Dmochowski, the translator of Homer, attacked him for liis romanticism ; but a
new school of rising poets gathered round him, and became known as the "School of
Mickiewicz." His popularity with his countrymen was raised to an unbounded pitch by
his imprisonment by the Russian authorities on account of his couneclion with tlie Polish
secret societies. His friend Zan- was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment; and Mickie-
wicz was condemned to perpetual banishment in Russia. He resided at fii-st in St
Petersburg, where he maae the acquaintance of Pushkin and other literary men. His
intimacy wi:h Pushkin excited the suspicions of the Russian government, which forced
him to remove to Odessa. He traveled through the Crimea, and records his impre&sions
in the Crimean Soiviets, These sonnets became very popular, periiaps as being the first
written in Polish; but they are inferior to most of his other work. He lived for a time
in the household of prince Galitzin, the governor of Moscow; but was soon allowed to
remove to St. Petersburg. There, in 1828, he published Conrad WaUenrod, which,
though having a distinct politicjd animus, escaped the Russiim censorship. It relates the
story of a Lithuanian, who rose, in the 14th c, to the miistership of the order of Teutonic
knights, enemies of Lithuania, solely to have a belter opportunity to destroy them. The
intention of the poem was clear to the Poles, but was lost upon the Russians. Tho work
was translated into Russian, and the emperor Nicholas complimented .its author. It is
said that he was even oHered a post in the Russian service, but he declined, and requested
to he given permission to visit Italy for his health. His request was granted, tlirough
the good offices of the Russian poet Zhukovsky, and he started for Italy, by way of Germany,
where he met Goethe. He took up his residence in Rome, where lie becanje an intimate
friend of James Fenimoro Cooper. At Rome he heard of tlie Polish uprisin^^ of 1830,
Which the insurgents at Warsaw began by singin.g some parts of his Ode to Youth. He had
gone as far as Posen, on his way to participate in the insurrection, when the news cams
that it was quelled. He went to Dresden, where he wrote a second part of Dziady^
which appeared at Paris in 1832. This second part is likewise autobiographical, and
gives an account of the poet's imprisonment at Wilna. He here represenu himself in a
scene which has been pronounced worthy of Goethe, as possessed by the devil, who is
driven out from him by a priest. His last wovlt of any length was^a poem called Fun
Tadeusz, or Sir Thaddeue, which appeared in 1884. It is entirely different in character
and construction from the poet's other works. It deals with Lithuanian domestic life
at the time of the approach of Napoleon's army in the campaign of 1812. IVo years
before the publication of Pan Tadeusz he wrote an absuixi and eccentric work called A
Book of Uie Polish Nation and the Polish PUgnmage. In this book he attributes all the
calamities which have fallen upon Poland to its toleration of Protestantism. Count
Montalembert translated the book into French, on account of the warmth of its Roman
Catholicism.. He wius married at Paris, in 1834, to a Polish lady named Celina Szyman-
owska, to whom some of his earlier verses are addressed. In 1839 he became pi*ofessor
of classical litersiture at Lausanne, and the next year he was called to the newly estab-
lished chair of the Slavonic languages and literature in the collefrc of France. His first
lectures were successful; but he soon l)egan to display a peculiar fanaticism. A Polish
impostor, named Towianski, who had cured Mme. Mickiewicz by mesmerism in 1841.
j)retended to have revelations from the Virgin Alary, and these were inteipreted by
Mickiewicz. The latter finally ceased to allude to Slavonic literature at all in his lec-
tures, but extolled Towianski as the new Messiah, and preached the worship of Napoleon
Bonaparte. In 1844 the French ^vcrnment put a stop to the lectures, and ordeml
Towianski out of Paris. Mickiewicz's name, however, was not expunged from the list
of professors. In 1848, after the February i*e volution, he went to Italy, in the vain hope
of inducing the pope to do something ui behalf of Poland^ At^ tl^^^^ng of the
OAI Mlclpun.
*^^^ MLlcrocotfmlo.
CrittMan war he premnlcd the cause of Poland to Louis Napoloon, who sent him on a
mission to the e«ist in 1855; and lie died at Oonstantiuople. The best edition of his
works was published at Paris iti 1844. edited, under his own. supervision, by Alexander
("hodzke. The PoUafi Pilffrirmtge wvl^ IranshUcd into English by Lach SzyrnEia, and the
Wallenrod by Leou Jablonski. A poetical version of the latter work, by Cattley,
appeared at London iu 1840. Mickiewicz sUmds at the head of the literature of his own
country, and his position iu the general literature of Europe is high. No poet of this
century, except ByroA, to whom he has often been' compared, has leff more original
poetical work of undoubted intellectual power and imagination; but the prose writings
of Mickiewicz are, for the most part, extravagant and feeble.
MIGKLE, Wn*LiAJf Julius, 1734-^, b, Scotland; soa of a Ptesbyterian clergyman,
who had been a-saistant to Dr. Wut(8, and had been one of the translators of Bayle s JJie^
tutuary. After his father's death Mickle entered, the business of his uncle, an Edinburgh
brewer, who tinally admitted him as a partner. He had, however, little busuiess apti-
tude, and in 1755 he went up to London to get a commission ia the navy. His eHortain - .
this direction were unsuccessful, but he made the. acquaintance in London of the first lotxl
Lyttelton, who advised him to continue those poetical studies to which he had already
giveu much of his time. He secured employmant for a time as a cprrectorfor the Clai^
endon press in Oxford. This was about 17U(^ and between that year and 1770 he pub-
lished a number of minor pieces, one of which, an elegiac ode called PaUiOy attracted
considerable attention. Concubine, a poem in the Spenserian maimer, appeared in 1767,
and. again, with uiauy alterations and ailditious, as iSir Martyr^ some ten years later. In
his Letter to Dr. Harwoixi, and hMp VuUmre in t/ie tihadee^ he attacked Arianism and
deismi and about the same time he wrote a trsgedy called The Siege of Mar$eiUes, which
was refused by all the mauagera, and was not represented. He had long projected au '
English version of tlmjjusiacl of CauioQus; aud his translation of the first book of tliat
work appeared in 1771. He now left Oxford, though still maintaining himself by his •
work as a corrector there', and removed to the country, where he continued his transla- •
tion of Camofias, wluch was comjpleted in 1775. Thw tran3lation, though severely criti-
cised in England on account of its diffuseness and inexactness, secured for Miukie the
honor of au election to the royal academy of Portugal, duriug his residence iu that
country, whei'c he had gone in 1779 as secj-etary to gov. Johnstone, and prize-agent. He
published, while In Portugal, a poem called Ahnada MilL On his return to England
ho wrote a number of pieces in verse aud prose; the last of his productions waa a l&Uad
called Enkdale Braes,
MICMAOS, the ivune of a tribe of Indians belonging to the Algon>quin family, and
inhabiting the maritime provinces of the Dominion of Canadar— New Brunswick, Nova
Scotia, Cape Breton, and Prince Edward iftlaDd*-«and Newfoundland. They were
found by the Cabota in their voyage in- 1497/ and some of them were taken to England
as specimens of the North American Indian mce. Tbey jm;ferred the sea-coast, and
were expert hunters and fishermen. At the time of the French settlement of Canada
there were lielieved to be between 3,000 and 4,000 Micmacs in the lower provinces; and
misaionaries worked among them with good results, particulariy in saining their per-
nianent friendship for the French people. They fOugbt and plundered the English per-
sistently until 1700, after which date treotiea were made with them, and reservations
were set aside for them in New Bruaswiek. Efforts were made to direct their attention
to agricultural pursuita, but these were unavailing. Tliis tribe was peculiar in possessing
a system of hieroglyphica o# considerably .more scope than existed among any other ot
the northern tribes. In 1878 there were &, 600 Micmacs, of whom 2.166 wore in Nova
Scotia and Cape Breton, 1,886 in New Brunswick, and 70 in Newfoundland.
MI'OBOGOflK AKT> KACBOCMV . The belief, current in ancient times, that the world
or cosmos was animsted, or had a sonl (see Anima Mundi), led to the notion that the
partd and tnembers of organic belAgs must have tiieir connteiparts in the members of the
cosmos. Thus, in a hjmn ascribed to Orpheus, the sun and moon are looked upon as
the eyes of the animatm^ godhead, the earth and ita mountains as his body, the ether as
his intellect, tlie sky as his wings. The natural philosopliers of the 16th c— Paracelsus
at their head — took up this notion anew in a somewhat modified stiape. and considered
the world as a human organism on the large scale, and man as a world, or cosmos, in
miniature; hence they called man a mieroa^em (Or. little world), and the universe itself
the maeroeoMn (great world). With this was associated the belief that the vital move-
ments of the microcosm exactly corresponded to those of the macrocosm, and represented
them, as it w^ere, in copy; and this led nnturally to the further assumption that the
movements of the stars must exercise an influence' on the temperamemit and fortunes of
men. See Astroi.ogTi.
MICBOOOB'MIC SALT is a tri basic phosphate of soda, oxide of ammonium, and water,
which crystallizes with 8 equivalents of water, its fonnula being NaO,H4NO,HO,PO»+
8Aq. It is prepared by mixing a hot solution of 6 parts of phosphate of soda with a
concentmtea solution of I part of muriate of ammonia, when the microcosmic salt crys-
tallizes in large transparent prisms, while common salt remains in solution. On the
application of heat it first loses its water of cr5^stallizatio^, and then its oxide of ammo-
nium and basic water, }«o that only melaphosphate of soda renaains,, which,, finm its *
U. K. IX. -51 '^igit.z^dbyliftyWg'. ..
Mleromet«r* Q€\0
ready fusibility IdIo a coltMrles glass, is yaloable as a flux in bUrtr-pipe ezpcrlmeDtft.
6ce Blow-pipe. This salt occurs in decomposed urine.
mCSOK'STEB (Gr. mikrot, little; metran, measure) Is an instrument used for the
measurement of minute distances and angles. Its different forms, depending on different
principles, may be divided into two sections, according as they are applied to physics or
astronomy. Of the former section are the vernier (q.v.) and the micrometer screw, the
latter instrument being merely a screw with a veiy regular threap and a larce round
head, which is cjirefully graduated, generally to sixtieths, and furnished with an index. It is
easily seen that if a complete turn uf the screw advance its point ^th of an inch, a turn
sufficient to pass the index from one graduation to another will only advance it jj^th of
an inch, etc. This is the uiich>ilAeter used in ihe construction and graduation of instru-
ments. Of those applied to astronomical purposes, the most simple is a short tiiltc.
across the opening of which are stretched two parallel threads, whidi are moved to <ir
from each other by screwA. These threads are crossed bv a third perpendicularly, and llie
whole appanitus is phiced in the focus of a lens. The diBtance of two stars is found by
adjusting the two parallel threads, one to pass through the center of each star, taking
ciire tlmt the thretids are placed perpendicular to the Tine joining the stars:, nnd finding
how many turns and parts of a turn of the screw are required to bring the w>.cs to coin"-
cide. The au£;le of position of tw^o stara is also obtained by turning round the insf ru-
men t till the third wire, which is normally horizontal, bisects both stars; and reading
off on the circumference the arc passed over. Frawihojfer^s suspended annvlar wicrometirr
coniiists merely of a steel ring surrounded by a flat rim of glass, and the position of the
star is deduced from the time when it crosses the ring, and its path while within it The
abbe Kochon substituted for the wire micrometer one made of two prisms of rock-
crystal or Iceland spar, capable of double refraction.
MICRONESIA AKB MELANESIA, names of Greek origm, meaning respectively
*' small islands*' and ''black kilands." The first is used by . . ..
the Ludrone and Caroline islands, Marshall's islands,
lialick cliains. the Qilbert group, and manv others (
tiie n.w. part of Polynesia and e. of India, being all n. of tlie equator and between 180*
and IbO^ e. long. Ihe most important of the groups are described under the proper
titles. The inhabitants of the various groups speak a tongue which is not similar to
those used in other parts of Polynesia, but nearer akin to that of the Malays, to whom
ninny of the islanders bear a strong resemblance in color and features. Like most of the
Polynesian groups, the islands are of coral cr volcanic formation, scarcely rising above
the level of the sea. Y617 little political or social connection exists between the differ-
(nt groups. The civilicatlon and language of Micronesia were evidently derived in
ancient times from contact with or descent from tiie Malays. The hmniage is clear,
flowing, and indicates tliat tlie inhabitants have at some time in the past lieen in a mndi
higher state of civilization than when first visited by Europeans. Missionai^ statiooA
have been established upon many of the islands and large numbers of the natives have
boen Chiistianized. On the other hand. Ihe custom of ships, and especially whalers, rf
using the inlHuds as a watering-station, has introduced drunkenness, debauchery, and
disease to such an extent that the population is rapidly decreasing. The natives are dis-
tinguished from those of AuMralaHin by their brown ccmple^ii ns and' straight hair. In
Mehuiesia, as the name impUes, the mhabitants have the ciianietenstics of the negro
race. This name is given by some modem writerson geography to that part of Australaaia
king s. of the equator and of Micronesia, and indudiiiff Pamia or Kew Oninea* New
Ireland, Solomon's isle^, the Louisiadc group, New Hebrides. New Caledonia, and many
small groups. The name is given akogetber on the physiologica] grounds indioateif.
and is hardly well established as a geographical des^ignalioB. 6ee» Iqk description, Uie
articles under the names of the separate islands; also Poltkbsia, anU^
MI CBOFHOVE. This iastrument, invented in 1878 by prof. Hughes, does for feint
sounds what the microscope (q.v.) does for matter too small for sight; the fall of a bit of
tissue-paper or the tread of a fly being rendered audible at many miles distance. In
principle the microphone ilUistrates the action of sonorous vibrations on the stren^ of
an. electric current. One of the mo<v( sensitive suhstanees for microphonic 4ictiim is
wiiiDw-charoodL plunged in a state of while heat into mercnrr. The theory is that in a
homogeneous conductor the compressions nnd dilatations of the molecules imlanee eadi
otljer, and no variation of current ensues, while under minute subdivision, with electrical
continuity, sonorous waws affect the strength of an electric current, and variations in
the current reproduce sonorous waves. One form of microphone consists of a piece of
mercury-tempered carbon an inch long, placed vertically between two carbon-blocks
hollowed to receive its ends, wires connecting the blocks with the battery and the receiver
by which the sounds are to be heard. ** A piece of willow-charcoal.*' says the inventor,
'*thc sise of a pin's head is sufficient to reproduce articulate speech." Two nails laid
parallel, with wire connections, and a third nail laid across them, make a simple form of
microphone. A few cells of any form of battery may be used. A continuous sound has
beeh made by the mutual interaction of the microphone and teleplione (q.v.X each instru-
mont in turn repeating the sound made by the other. Many useful applications of the
inicrophoue have lecn made or suggested.
Digitized by VaOUV VC
QAQ Weroiiietor.
O^'*' MleroMope*
in COftOBOOn (Or. mitroB, small, and «Xxi|)e0, 1 see) is an iiulruuient for enabling us to
examine objects which are so small as to be almost or quite undisoemible by the unaided
eye. Its early faistoiy is obscure; but as it is quite evideut the property of magnifying
possessed by the leas must have been' noticed as soon as it was made, we are (fiite safe
m attribution its existence in its simplest form to a period considerably anterior to the
time of Christ It U generally believed that the iSrst compound microscope was made by
^acharias Janseti, a Dutchman, in the year 1S90, and was exhibited to James L in Lon-
don by his astrfmomer, Ooruelins I>rebbel, in 1610. It was then a very impeif ect instru-
ment, coloring aQ<i dtstortini^ all ol)]ect8. Foi< many years it was more a tov than a useful
instrument, and it was not until the invention of the achromatic lens by Hall and Dollond,
and its application to the microscope by Lister and others, that it reached the advanced
position it now occupies among* scientific instruments.
An object to be magnified requires simply that it be brousht nearer to the eye than
when first examined, but as the focal distance of the eye ranges from 6 in. to 14 in.— 10 in.
being the average focal distance—it follows that a limit to the magnifying power of the
eye is attained whenever the object to be examined is brouglit so near. If, however, we
blacken a card, and pierce a hole in it with a tine needle, and then examine a minute object,
as, for instance the wing of an insect held about an inch from the card, we siiall see it
distinctly, and that too magnified about ten times its size. This is explained by the fact
that the pin-hole limits the divergence of the pencil of rays, so that the eve can converge
it sufficicnily on th3 retina to produce a distinct impression, which is faint; and did not
the blaclcensd card exclude all other light, it would . be lost. If we now remove the
blackened card without either removing our eye or tiie object under examination, it will
be found that iho in.sect'8 wing is almost invisible, the unassisted eye beinr unable to see
clearly an object so near as one inch; thus demonstrating the blackened card with the
needle-hole in it to be as decided a magnifying faistrument as any set of lenses.
By the apparent size of an object is undenitoad the angle formed by two lines drawn
from the center of the eye to the extremities of the olttect, which is larger when the
object is nearer the eye than when further removed. This angle is 'Oalled the anele of
vision, and is ^dte distinct from the angle of the pbndl of light, by which the ob^ct is
seen. The focal length of a lens determines its magnifying power. The object to be
examined is placed in its focus, so* tliat the light whfch diverges from each point may,
after refraction by the lens, prococd to tiM eye in Unes as nearly pandlel as is necessary
for di itiiict vision. Thns, in fig. 1, Afi is i
a double convex lens, in tfate focus of
which we have drawn an arrow, EF, to
represent the object under inspection.
The cones drawn from its extremitieB
are portions of tlie rays of light diverge*
ing from these points, and falling on &
lens. These rays, if not interrupted in
their course by the lens AB^ would he
too divergent to pennk their beuig ^
brought to a focus upon the retina by "^ -. -
the lenses which constitute the eya ^^'
22ut as ihey.aM 4roii|Mased Ihaough tbe JensAJK, 4key aie bent.into nearly parallel lines.
Of into lilies diverging from some points witlun the Hmits of distinct vision, as from CD.
Thus beut, these nyn are received by the eye as if proceeding fraok the larger arrow CD,
which we may suppose to be 10 hi. from the eye, and then the TBtio of the length of the
vutual image to that of the real arrow (nearly 10 to 1) gives the ma^ifying power of
the lens in question. The ratio of CD to £F is the same as that of HQ to KG. Now,
H6 19 tho distance of distinct vision, and KG the focal length of the lens, so that the
magnifying power of a lefts is obtained by dividing (he distance of distinct vision (10 in.
for most individuals) by its focal length. Thus, if the focal length of a lens be } in.,
10
the magnifying power is — - = 40. This supposes that tlie distance between the eye and
the lens id so small as not materially to interfere with the correctness of this statement
We have supposed the whole of the light to enter the eye through the lens AB (fig. 1),
but we must now stiite that so large a pencil of light pa.sslng througli li single lens would
bo so distorted by its spherical figure, and by the"chrom:nic dispersion of the glass, as to
produce a very indistinct and Imperfect imrigc. Tliis is so f.ir rectified by applying a
stop t^) the lens, so as to allow only the eetitral |X)rtion of file i^encil to
^ pa**. But whiij such a hinited pencil wom Id 'represent correctly the form
and color of the object, so small a pencil of light is unable to bear diffusion
over the magnified picture, and is tnercl'orc incapable of displaying those or-
panic markings on animals or plants whi^ h are often of so much importance
Y^^ ^ in distinguishing one class of objects fnmx another. Dr. WoUaston was the
first to overcome this difficulty, which he achieved by constructing a doub-
let (fig. 2) which consists of two plano-convex lenses, hnving their focal lengths in the pro-
portion of 1 to 3, and plw^ed at a distance beat ascertained by experiment. Their plane
sides aro placed towards the object, and the lens of shortest focal length next the
Digitized by VjOL^V IC
Microscope.
804
n»&
CD
Fig. 4.
object. By this arrangement the distortion caused by the first lens is corrected by the
0«oond« ana a wellnlefiBed and illuminated ima^ i» seen. Dr. WoUa^on's douiikt was
further improved by Mr. HoUand, who substituted two lenses for the
first in Dr. WoUastoii's doublet^ and letiiiued the stop between than and
the third. This combination, though generally called a triplet, is virtu-
ally a doublet, inasmuch as tlie two Jenses only accomplish what the
anterior lens did in Dr. Wollaston's doublet, although with less precision.
In this combination (fig.* 8) of lenses, the errors are still further reduced
by the close approximation of the lenses to the object, which causa»4bc
refractions to take place near the axis, and thus we have a still larger pencil of light
transmiticd, and have atop a nMure distinct and vivid image presented to the eye.
^fnjph Jitc'fVtaype.'^iy this term w^ mean .an i^trumei^t.L|r, means of wl^ch we view
the obffet through the Fens directly." These instruments' may be. divided into two'
classes^ tboae simply used in the hand, and those provided with a stand or frame, so
arranged as to be capable cf being tid justed by meaa^ of a screw to its* exact focal diH-
tance, and of being moved over diifereut parts of the object. The single lenses used may
1)6 either a double convex or a plano-convex. When a higher power is wanted, a doub-
let, such as we have already described, may be ^nplo^eil, or a Coddington lens which
consists (fig. 4) of a sphere in which a groove is cut and hlled up with opaque
matter. This is perhaps the most convenient hand lens, as it matters little,
from its spherical form, in what position it is held. In the simple micro*
Fcope. flinkle or combined lenses may be employed, varying from i to 2
inches. There are many different kinds of stands for simple microscopes
made, but as they are princi pally used for dissection, the most important
point next to good glasses is to secure a firm lai^e stage for supporting the
objects under examination.^ • When low powers alone are used, the stages
movements may be dispensed with; but when the doublet or triplet is employed, aome
more delicate adjustment than that of the hand is necessary.
Compound Mtcrv^eop^, — Iw^he cqoipoiind mieroscope Ihe observer does not view the
object dii'ectl^, but an Ihverted image or picture of the object is formed bv one lens or
set of lenses, and that inuige is seen through another lens. The componna microecop f
canaiata of two lenses, an object and an eye lens; but each of these may be compounded
of several lenses playing the part of one, as in the simple micro-
scope. The eye-lens ia that placed next the eye, and the object-
lens tliat next the object 'The former is also called the ocuhir. and
the latter the objective. The object-glass is generally made of two
or three achromatic lenses, while the eye^pSoe generally consista
of two plano-convex lenses, with their flat faces next the eye, and
separated at half the sums of their focal lengths, with a diaphragm
or stop between them. Lenses of high power are so small w*
to admit only a very small beam of light, and consequently wh?it ia
gained in magnifying power is often worthless from deficient illn-
minntion. Various devices have been employed to overcome this
difficulty. The light may be concentrated br achromatic condensers
placed beneath the stage, or the curvature of the lens may be such as
to allow as large a number of divergent rays as possible to impinge
npon it. SWich a lens Is said to have a large *' angle of aperture," the
angle of apertnre being that made by two lines converging from the
mai^na of the lens to its focal point. Recently lenses, termed
'* immersion lenses," Irave been constructed, of such a curvature that
when immersed in a drop of water placed over the object, light is
admitted on all sides. With an immersion lens, there is high magni-
fying power with Bufllcient Shnnination.
Tiie following diagram (fig. 5) explains the manner in which the
compound microscope acts. We haTe here represented the triple
achromatic objective, consisting of three achromatic lenses combined
in one tube, in connection with tlio eye-piece, which consists of the
field-glass FF, and the eye-glass ££. Three rays of light are repre-
sented as proceeding from the center, and three from e^ end of the
obiect These rays would, if not interfered with, form an image at
A A.; but coming in contact with the field-glass FF, they are bent,
and made to converge at BB, where the image is formeo, at whidi
place a stop or diaphragm is placed to intercept all light, except
what is required to form a distinct ima<^ From BB, the rays pro-
ceed to the eye-glass exactly as they do in the simple microscope,
and as we have explained in fig. 1. The image therefore formed at
BB is viewed as an origioal object by an observer through the eye-piece EE. The lens
FF is not essential to a compound microscope; but as it is quite evident that the rays
proceeding to AA would fall without the eye-lens EE, if it was removed, and only a
part of the object would thus be brought under view, it is always made use of in the
comjpound microscope.
A mirror is placed under the stage for reflecting the light thit)ugh thq object under
»lg».
Digitized by VjOL^V IC
805 Microscope.
observation. This method of illamination by transmitted light is used T^ben the object
Is transparent. When opaque, light is reflected ou the object by a bull's-eye lens, called
A condenser. The best instruments are supplied with six or seven object-ghisses, varying
in magnifying power from 23 to d,500 diameters. The eye-pieces supplied arc three in
jiumb^, each of which consists of two plano-convex lenses, between which a stop or
diaphragm is placed, half wav between the two lenses. As tl>e magnifying power of a
compound microscope depends on the product of the magnifying powers of the object-
^lass and the eye-piece, it follows thut its power may be
mcreased or dimmished by a change in either or both of thet^e
glasses. In the mechanioil antrngemeuts, it is of impoilance
to have the instrument so constructed* that while every facil-
ity is uJQtorded for making observations and easy means of
adjustment, titere rtiouki also be great steadiness, without
which, indeed, no satisfactory results will be obtained.
These ends aie achieved in various ways, of which Fig. 6 is
une of the i>implest: a, brass stand, supported on three feet;
b, mirror, supported on trunnions; e, diaphragm, pierced with
circular holes of various sizes, to regulate tue admission to
the object of reflected light from the mirror; d, stage-plaite,
on which the object is placed; «, screw, with milled head for
tiiie adjustment;^, the ohject -glass, or objective; g^ bnisstnbe
in winch tiie body of the instrument is moved, so as to effect
the coarse adjustment; A, the eye-piece, or ocular.
The microscope haancw become so important an instru-
ment in education, that almost every dcpuruuent of science in
which it can be employed has a microiscope suited to its par-
ticuliur kind of worlL, and a special treatise explaming and
illustrating its use; and many branches of science have inttru-
mcnts peculiarly their own. Thus, chendsts, anatomists,
zoologists, etc.,: have each an instrument which tiiey value i:s
being peculiarfy adapted for their special fields of inquiry and
observation. Prom this instrument the chemist, and natural
philosophers generally, iiave derived great assistance in sludy-
mg the different kinds of cr}>tals; for, by n^eans of it, they can not only observe and
recognize the great variety of forms that exiVt, but nt nuy moment, and with little trouble,
they may witness the process of crystalhzation, and leisurely study it. Those sciences
in which it is most used, and for which it has done most, are anatomy, phpiolog>\
botany, zoology, medicine, ntineralog}'. and irtolopy. In the ynictice of medicine all
medical men who aim at a scientific tKatmcnt of ilinense have fully recognized how
useful it has been as an agent in difgnosis, more c Fpech.lly in diser.ses of the kidneys.
In the detection of crime and the vindication of innocx^nce it is no leps useful, as by
means of it we can with certainty determine whether a suspicious stain, found, for
jristamce, on the clothing of «n individual charged with murder has been caused by
blood or by another coloring-matter. In like manner we can determine t\iietlier hair
found in similar circumstances belongs to a human being or not. It has also enabled us
to distinguish the difTerencc existing between substances that l^ave a siniihir chemical
reaction (e.sr.. the vari<Mi^ kinds of stare?!); as floiir, poraf6,"si!go, etc.), and thus we are
provided with an agent quick in detecting adulteration.
A few hints to anuiteur i'lworvers mav not be out o* place here. In choosing an
instrument, the simpler it is the b€»tter. The essential point to attend to is to have good
glasses, which are tested by their power of showing some very minute markings, such as
we tind on diatoms. The circumference of the field of view should not be tinged witli
color, and the definition should Ikj as good at the edire as at the center. The beginner
should ufe low powers m preference to high ones. The l>eKt light is that reflected from
a white cloud during the day. Artificial light should, if possible, be avoided. The
table must be steady on which the microscope is* placed, and when not in use
the instrument should l)e covered by means of a glass shade. The observer
nlso r<*quires a few oblong ghiss slides, and a few ciit- les of thin glass, called
rovering-glasses, to lay over the preparation under examination. For making sections,
dissecting, ami the various manipulatory operations attending the use of the microscope,
he requires, moreover, a pair of forceps, a knife*, or, perhaps letter, a razor giotind flat
f>n the one side, a few needles flxea in handles, and two or three bair-penciK So
equipped, the oliserver is able to l)egin examinations of texture at once with pleasure
and advantage. Begin with simple objects, such as pollen and thin sll es of the cuticle
of flowers, mosses, and different kinds of starch, such as tons le nmn, buck yam, cycas,
arrow-root, etc., and notice particularly their <lifferent characters. Make as thin a
section as possible, place it on the center of the slide, and allow a drop of water to fall
on it from the end of the handle of the needle. Then allow the covering-glass to fall
gently on it^— obliquely, so as to press out any small bubbles of air. He should also.iiave
a few. bottles containing ''reagents," such •a^'dilute acetic acid (equal parts of pyrolig-
neous acid* and Water) and liquor potassae. By means of these reagents, peculiarities of
structure may often be observed. Digitized by VjjUUV IC
Ml.ro«oplo. 806
Microscopes vary much in price, from 58. to upwards of £100. A good serviceable
(Ussecting simple microficope mity be had from any pbilo«H>phicul-instrumeot maker for
from 9e. to 15s. Compound microscopes are more exix?iisive, bat a wouderfulij gcMid
instrument for beginners om be hud at dUs: It baa one e} e^ghisa and three ohjcfct-glasaea.
and magnifies from 70 to 200 diameters. If a superior instrument is wiabed— one suited
for most purposes of observation and research — ^any one of the follovring wiil be found
well worth the price* The microscope of Hartnuclc, with a joint, so thut it may be
inclined at aiiv angie. has two eve-pieces, two tibject-glassea, maguitieB from 50 to 450
diametera, and costs about £7; Nachet'a micro^^cupe has tliree e^e-piei-es, tiiree object-
glasses, magnifies from 50 to 750 duimeters, and costs £10; 6mitJi and Beck's educa-
tional microscope has two eye-pieces, two object-gia^ses. magnifies from 50 to 350 diam-
eters, and costs £10; Ross supplies microscopes from £5- to £100, wiih various number of
glasses.
For a more complete account of the diff^^nt kinds of microscopes, and the various
purposes to which they are applied, see Quekett On the Microncope (1855); Carpenter On
ihs Micrmoope (1862); Hogg Oa ths Mieroteope (1655); and JIow ta v>vrk uiUi tUe Jlicrw
•cope (1864X by Beale.
MICROSCOPIC ANIMALS. See Animalcttle, ante,
MICROTASIMETER, an instrument invented by Mr. Thomas A. Edison for tlie
purpose of measuring very minute variations of pressure caused by the expansion or
contnictioa of any given body, from whatever causes, heat, moisture, etc. A p:irt of
the apparatus is constructed upon the principle of the pyrometer, and when the exp;in-
sion is caused by moisture, upon that of some forma of hygrometer. But the novel and
unique part of the invention consists m the effect which the pressure of the expanding
rod has upon the electric resistance of a piece of carbon placed in the circuit of a gal-
vanic battery. A rod of vulcanite is used as the expanding element when it is desire<l
to use the instrument to ascertam slight variations in the heat vibrations coming fnmi
any object, as the sun. or a gas, or alectric light. This rod is adjusted in a strong
frame kept at an equable temperature, so that no expansions or contractions sliall exert
«Qy influence, except those which take place in tiie vulcanite rod itself. In the
ciiamber which receives one end of this rod. or plate, there is placed under a follower,
or slide, a piece of carbon, which becomes compressed with great force upon tlic
expansion of the vulcanite rod. If radiant heat is to be measured, a laiige funnel is
placed in front of the apparatus to gather the rays and throw them upon the rod or
plate. When the rays increase in intensity the rod expands, comp»«sse3 the button, and
changes its conducting capacity, which at evenr moment is indicated by a galvanom-
eter. The instrument has been used successfully to ascertain the variations in the
radiation from the sun during an eclipse. It may also be used to note the variations
taking place on a day when clouds arc passing across the sun's disk, or when the
transmission of his rays differs from increase or decrease of moisture. It may be used
as a delicate hygrometer by substituting in place of the vulcanite rod a body contaiifing
gelatine, which expands under the influence of moisture.
XIOBOZA'lflA, a genus of plants of the natural order eycadacem. They are widely
diffused over Australia. The fronds resemble those of palms, and are used in the Roman
Catholic church on Palm Sunday. The underground stem is larce and turnip-lilLe, but
covered with scales or leaf-scars, and contains a substance resembling tragacanth. The
nuts of M. spiralis are edible, but are only used in times of scarcity.
MIDAS, a genus of platyrhine monkeys belonging to the family hapalidse, which
also contains the marmosets. The common name for the different species is iawuirin.
It has the following characters: Muzzle short, facial angle 60""; forehead with an
appearance of prominence, arising from the great angle of the upper edge of tlie orbits;
upper incisors contiguous, under incisors of the same size as upper; nails like claws,
exciting those of the thumbs behind; tail the same as in the marmoset, or jacchus of
Qeoffroy, and dental formuhi the same, except that in the latter the inci.<<or8 are more
irregular. There are seven species, the typical one being mida$ ratfUia^ the marakina or
silky tamarin. This very beautiful little monkey is of a golden yellow color, varying to
a redder tint, rather paler on tlie back and thighs. The long and silky hair about "the
bead and neck forms a kind of mane, on account of which it has sometimes been called
the lion-monkey. Its beauty and gentleness render it a great pet; but it is delicate, and
rcqiiires to be kept warm and dry. It is squirrel-like in its habiu, a native of Guayana
and the south of Brazil, from Rio Janeiro to cape Frio, There is a black and red variety,
and one of a brizht, shining red. The species sliould not be confounded with Jf. let>nina
of Humboldt, which is probably .the smallest monkey known. It is brownish, and has
a well-developed mane of tliat color which bristles up when the animal is angry so as to
look like a little lion. It has a black face, a white mouth, and a tail bUck nbove and
white below. It inhabits the plains bordering on the eastern slope of the CordiUeras,
and is rare.
MIDAS, a common name of the more ancient Phrygian kinss, of whom Midas, the
son of Oordhis and Oybele, Is the most fkmons. He was a pupU of Oiphens. Among
the many legends regarding* him is one that Bacchus granted his wish that whatever
Digitized by VjOUV IC
807 ■ SlddST'"*
he touched might become cold; from which so great incoDvcnicnce ensued, that ho was
glad to get himself relievc*d from tlie burdeu by washing, at the command of the god, in
the Pactoliu, the SHods ol which . became tlieuccfortb productive of goUl. Another
k^^d represents him as havmg oilcuded ApoUu l)y asi>igQiug the prize in a musical
competitio& lo Paui, and aa havmg therefore been endowed by him with a pair of ass's
ettis» which he concealed under his Phrygiain cap, but which were discovered by his
servant.
HID BBIBVBO, a t. of (he Netherlands, capital of the proTincc of 2Seeland, in the
island of Walcheren. It is connected with the sea by a canal, 6 m. long, which admita
nhips of heavy burden, and is a station of the railway from Flushing to Rooseudaal to
join the Dutch and Belgian lines. Pop. Jan. 1, 1876, 15,926. The city is nearly circu-
lar, and a league in circunrference, surrounded by a "broad canal. In former times Mid-
delburg was one of the leading mercantile cities of the United Provinces, sendin.ijr many
ships to the East and West Indies, America, and all European ports, founding the
colonies of Surinam, Berblce, Essequibo, Demerar? etc. ; but the opening of the Scheldt
for Antwerp, and other causes, have reduced th^ loreign inule to single ships to Java.
Many of the inhabitants are wealthy, which, with its ocing the meeting-place of the
provmcial states of Zeeland, and possessing a considerable trade in grain, salt, etc. —
making beer, vinegar, starch, leather, having snuff, chocolate, oil, and saw mills, and
foundries — make it still a city of importance. It is the finest city of the northern prov-
inces, having handsome houses, ornamented with g^nlens, and the canals and streets
shaded with trees. The town-house, founded in 1468, has a beautiful tower, and is
decorated with 25 colossal statues of counts and countesses of Holland. At the l)egin-
uing of the 12th c. an abbey was founded, which was later enriched by Willem II.,
count of Holland and Zeeland. The buildings are now occupied as the meeting-place of
the provincial states.
Middelbui;g does not date further back than the 9th century. In 1574 the Spaniards,
under Mondragon, were compelled by famine to rive up Jiiddelburg, after having
defended it for 2d months against pnnoe Willem L Though troops are stationed in
Middelburg, it is no longer tenable against an enemy,
KIDDLE AGES, the designation applied to the great historic period between the times
of cUssic antiquity and modern times. The beginning and close of this period are not
very definite. It is usual, however, to regard the middle ages as beginning with the
ovaUirow of the western Roman empire in the year 476; and there is a pretty general
concurrence in fixin^^ on the reformation as the ^vcat event which brought this period to
a close. It began with the rise of the Frankisli upon the ruins of the ancient Roman
empire, and with the commencement of civilization among the barbarous tribes which
hml taken possession of the former Roman provinces. In course of it the different
nations of modem Europe were formed, and their political and social systems developed.
It was a period of much superstition, in connection with which much religious enthusi-
asm very extensively prevailed, manifested in many great religious endowments, in
magnificent ecclesiastical buildings, in pilgrimages, and, above all, in the crusades. In
the earlier parts of thia period the church was much occupied in the extension of its
bounds in the north of Europe, where heathenism still subsisted, and the means employe 1
were not always consistent with the spirit of Christianity. During the middle ages the
hierarchy acquired enormous power and wealth, and the papacy rose from compara-
tively small beginnings to its utmost greatness.. During the mi(Klle ages chivalry had
its nae and decline, modifying and in many respects tending to refine the feelings and
usages of society. Towards the close of the middle ages the revival of letters, the
increase of knowledge, and the formation of a wealthy and influential class in society,
distinct alike from the aristocracy and the peasantry, tended, even before the reforma-
tion, both to the dihiinution of the power of the hierarchy and the decray of the feudal
system. See Guizot's Hintaire d& la Civilisation ; RUlis^s Hajidbueh der Geichic/ite des Mit-
iilaltera; and Hallam's Histoi-y qf tlie Middle Ayes.
MIDDLE AGES (amiey the period in history from the 5th to the 15th c, or between
the fall of the Roman empire and the reformation, its beginning witnessed the success-
ftd invanian of southern Europe by the barbarians of the north. The Vandals were
maKters of Africa; Spain was divided between tlie Suevi and' the Vi>«igoths, the latter
occupying alw a large portion of Gaul; Italy was in the hands of the Ostrogoths; whUe
a tribe of Germans under Clovis had i invaded and conquered France. The compara-
tirdy new Byzantine or eastern empire had ahrcady begun to decline, through the
weakness and' licentiousness of its rulers. Paganism had been overthrown, and Chria.
tianity was eradnally penetrating into the unknown wilderness of northern and central
Enropc. What were known as the "dark a^s," the firM centuries of this period, had
ronmenced the destrootion of the old civilization which bad been propngatf^d from
Phenicia. itnd had cnlminated in the ascendency of Greece and Home. Western
Eiiropi*. including even Italy, "lay prostrate at the feet of barbarian conquerors, and
waa H howling waste, in wmch the law of the strongeFt only prevailed." — The middle
fi§M closed with- the advent of Luthef, Melaoc^hon, and Calvin, and thagicat battle for
\ho freedom of tlie4iumait conscience: with the discovery of America by C'oluinbu.s; and
with the invention of the art qi prhiting by Guttenberg^ Fau^, and SchOffer, and
Digitized by VjOtJy IC
Middle. CAQ
Miaaleborotigh. OUO
its application to the printing of the Bible at Mayenca. In llic be;^intiing of this period
the countries wiiich we Imve named were swayed by incidental icndei-s mid poioniateft,
and given up a prey to a eoldiery who live<i by depredation and rapine. Pi*oteciian for
life or property there was none; and even the savage chieftains of that ignorant agv
i-oon perceived the necessity for some authoritative re:$traint. Out of this nccew-iiy
grew the feudal Bystem, in France, Genn&uy, Aragon, a large part of Italy, Kngland,
and Scoiland. probably occasioned in part by the gradual destruction of slavery, and in
part to the fall of the lionian empire^ tor so long u time' the scat of goverumtrnt of the
world. It was natural that with Rome fallen, Europe should becou.e divided anior.g
petty barons and princes, whose aulhoriiy could only suUii^^t go king as thry weif
enabled to sustuhi it b^ force of arms. Under these circum»^tan<es, each kader fbrtilitHl
ills possessions; and it was then that many of the castles and for{reH>cs were erected,
wUo.-e ruias are to-day the admiration oi lourisits in Enn pe. E\eiy man who was
capable of bearing arm.s was a soldier; and tlieio was no such thirg Ui a h boiirg clai^i*,
hince the hinds and villains who did the drudgery under the fcudid ^y^lcm ^cre hi hi
to be ba I little above the brutes who^e cat© was one of their chii f (luties. Of this period
it has been concisely said, "the peculiar general character of feudalihm is the d,i>niem-
berment of the people and of power into a number of petty r.jUionsand petty sovereigns;
the absience of any central government." The foundation of this system cont-istcd in the
allotment of land in fee (Latin ftudum), with the ] owers of bequest and inheritance, to
t lie petty chieftains, who on thehr part agreed to give .their stTvicis ami ihote of their
Mu-ials, whenever called upon, either toreptl inva>ion or to make inturhions into the
territory of others. LiUer, these barona, counts, and others, were |.eimincd to take sur-
iiame«i, usually from the names of their castles or vilh ges, and to adopt armonal hear-
ings. Thici whole n)ovement was a slow foimation of the loyal aud noble elements of
bocietv JUS organized in future centuries.
AVlih feudalism intervened another element of rpeciflc iufluence — the iutniductioo of
moua. ticisni and the monaatic orders throughout Eui ope; for the foundation of mon
iwterie.s in Europe proves to have been a necessity to the piocress of civi!iz*i;ioM. They
served as a nucleus around which settlementa were .formed, the i«cttlemcnt8 growing into
towns, the towns into cities. The prelates and abbots were feudal noble.s, equally with
the barons and counts. Their tenure of land was the Fame; and though they were not
ahsolutely required to perform military fervice, there were many fighting men among
them who diet so, while none were exempt from furnishing their quota of armed vassals.
And as the church grew strong in Rome, some reflection of her strength was felt wher-
ever her servants were; until it was often the case that the lords and barons were made
to exi:>eriencc a power in the hands of the abhots that they themselves did not possess.
While the monastic system had undeniable and great evils, the teachings of the monks
led generally toward a respectable, honest, and humane mode of life; and on sucii teach-
ings the arts of peace and culture began to take root and flourish amid disorder and
depredation, such as had not been known before since the foundation of Rome.
A new feature was after a time introduced into the feudal system by the occasional
calling together of an assembly of the feudal lords by the sovereign— more, it is true,
with the view of sustaining amicable relations with them than for any purpose of the
division either of power or responsibility. At first the^e assemblies were merely festive
gatherings; but after a time they assumed the form of advisory, and at last of delibera-
tive iheetings, when all legislative enactments were considered and debated. There
were even in some of these gatherings traces of representative legislation; they were the
first faint l)eginning8 of the constitutional monarchy of a later age. The convocation of
the French states-general, in 1802, was the first positire departure in this direction.
The feuflal system was now gradually discarded. The petty feuds of the early part of
Uie middle ages became the great wars of their latter centuries, wheij the simple feudal
compact could not supply such armies as were required. The tendency towards coneol!-
dation began now to be felt, just as that of displacement and separation had held sway
after the fall of Rome. Kingdoms grew into enormous possesfrions and great wealth.
Mercenary troops were employed in war, hired from monarrhs or states not engaged in
the conflict; and thus the klea of standing armies ready for emergencies grew into being.
In fact, centralization of power began to l>e the law under which kings and emperors
were conducting their policy, while representation was being made the lever with wbich .
the people were seeking to gain greater freedom of conscience and of person. This gen-
end condition spread through England and Scotland, France, Germaoy, Italy, and
Spain. In Italv, Lombardy, and Venice arose republican governments; and the anom>
aly of great cities self-governed appears as one of the extraordinary features of the
middle ages. Venice grew great in the »rt8 and in commerce, and the marvelous
promi«?e of the period was broken only by intestine quarrels and the factiotis fights of
the Giielphs and Ghibellines. and of other powerful Italian families, which, however.
n»sulted in the destruction of the franchises of the people, and the foimdatlon ct V^y
principalities on the ruins of the liberty which had l>een achieved by the free cities.
The history of Florence, Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, during a major part of the middle
a;?es, is that of all Italy after the period when the northern portion of that eonntry waa
under the control of the German emperors. Their commerce rovered the Mediterranean,
tlie Black sea, and the Adriatic, and extended into the far vast byearavana. In tlie
Digitized by VjOUV IC
QAQ Middle.
<5^*^ Mlddleborong^h.
darkest and most barbarous period,Veuice conducted an extensive traffic botli with the
Greek and Saracen regions of the Levant. The crusades, which swept over Europe wiiii
an -unexampled wave of enthusfastn, enriched and agernndizcd Venice more perliaps
than any other city. Her splendor, however, may be dated from the capture of Con-
stantinople by the Latins in 1204, by an enterpriHe whicti, originally intended for the
recovery of Jerusalem, was diverted to tins more profitable adventure, in which not only
the Venetian na;iioQ9 but the French were engaged. In the meantime wars assumed a
Bcientiflc character, gunpowder was Introduced into Europe, probably through the Sara-
cens, and artillerv began to be used in the early part of the 14tli century. But incessant
revoiations and family feuds tore the Italian republics to pieces, until Florence, the last
of them, succumbed under the domination of Lorunzo de' Medici.
Charlemagne, kin^ of the Franks and emperor of the Homans (768-814 A.D.), after
h\» conquest of the Saxons and the Loinbards, was invited into SpJiin to interpose in the
wars of the Arabs and Moors in that country, and seized and added to bis dominions all
that territory lyin« between the Pyrenees and the Ebro. The Saracens conquered Spain
io 711 A.D., and left behind tbem monuthents whose ruins attest to this day tlie wonderful
progress of oriental art under the caliphs, and give evidence of the spint and enterprise
which characterized the Arabs from the time of Mohammed to that of their expul-
sion from Spain (1492), when tliey had erected new empires in three-quarters of the
globe.
The beghining of the 18th c. had seen an eruption of barbarians from Chinese
Tartary, extending across all Asia and as far as the Euxine, which was not even par-
alleled by the invasion of Spain by the Saracens, or that of Italy by the savages of the
north. Reducing the caliphate of Bagdad, they subverted the "governments of Persia,
Syria, and Icooinm. To them k was owing that the Turks of the latter country, under
Otbman, penetrated through Asia Minor into Europe, from whence not all the western
powers in six centuries Imve dislodged them. *
The power of the church in the middle ages becan in the conversion of Constantine,
emperor of the west, who was baptized shortly before his death, 337 a,d. It was miined
by slow steps, beginning with the accumulation of territory, and being extentled by
assumption of the authority to declare excommunication and mterdict. By gaining vast
wealth, and by playing ujjon the fears of weak princes, the bishops gradually encroached
upon the rights and privileges of the highast potentates of Europe, until the pontiflcal
authority of Rome controlled nearly every kinc i^nd emperor from the Adriatic to the
North sea. It was this influence that organized the crusades, and that occasioned half
the wars that convulsed Europe during a period of ten centuries, yet without which, at
this peculiar age of the world, civilization, the arts, letters, and commerce alike would
liave languished or remained unborn. The missionary enterprise of the church, after
the discovery of America, populated the western continent, and opened an entire
hemiHphere to new empire and a new civlU^ation. Devotion to the church prompted
the genius of Raphael and Michael Angelo, and gave form to the wonderful conceptions
which resulted in the spread of (3k>thic architecture, the most original, the most compre-
hensive, and the most symbolic that the world ever saw. It has already been shown
liow the ceaseless energy' and enterprise of the church was the foundation of tfie advance
from barbarism to civilization which characterized central and northern Europe between
the 6th and the 12th century. At no other period in the world's history has there been
such an awakening out of darkness and incapacity into light and power as that which
followed the culmination of the strength of the church. Yet it was in the period imme-
diately succeeding the reformation — ^the first and fiercest blow struck at the influence
and prerogative of the churcli — that this awakenings— r^/w»?Vr*/!;»C(? — reached its height.
When the middle ages closed, a Protestant qtieen was on the throne of England, then in
tJje zenith of po^er and splendor. Calvin, Luther, and Melanchthon were defying the
pope and making ail Europe ring with tones deeper and further reachini? than even those
of the Vatican. The schools of art of Antwerp, Venice, Rome, and Siena had revived the
genius of the Augustam age, and the newly-discovered power of the press was begin-
ning Uiat vast dispensation of intelligence which marks the modern period. Meanwhile,
Cabot, Vespucius, and Vasco de Ckma were sailing forth to discover new continents;
Cortes and Pizarro were destroying the hitherto unknown Aztec civilization; and but a
lirief time elapsed before the pilgrim fathers planted the first seeds of freedom in America,
leading in the new epoch of wars, conquest, legidation, disintegration, and rebuilding,
which we call modem history.
XrOBLE BASE A^D KIDDLE CHIEI'. See Points of Escutcheon.
MIDDLE BASS ISLAND. See Put-in-Bay Iblamdb.
MIDDLEBOROUGH, a t in 8.e. Massachusetts, on the Kamasket river, the junc-
tion of sevemi lines of the Old Colony railroad— the Cape Cod branch, Boston to
Provincetown, the Middleborough, Taunton and Providence, and the Old Colony and
Newport. It is one of the most ancient towns in Plymouth co. , and a summer resort
of great attractiveness, on account of the picturesque beauty of its scenery and numer-
ous features of historic interest within the town limits. Previous to the incorporation
of the town of Lakeville, which was taken from its territory, it was the largest town in
Uie state, and now numbers more than 60 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 5,237. It lies on both sides
Digitized by VjOUV IC
BnVdlebnry. CIA
JMldUAenMrough. ^^^
of the river, which runs in a winding course from large lakes (in the adjoining to\m) 5 m,
away, wiib three falls furnishing valuable water-power, emptying into Taunton river.
Game and fish abound in tlie lalces and llieir vicinity, and a small excursion steamer plies
between the pic-iric grounds on tlie hikes to a pier at tlie upper fulls. It comprisest tiie
tliriving villages (all with churches, post-offices, and manufactures) of North Middie-
l)orough (Titicut), South Middleborougli, TUe Rock, East Middleborough (Eddyville), a
number of smaller villages and neighborhoods, and Middleborough Four Coruers, tbc
central portion, which is designated as Middlebf)rough. It has several pubUc halls, an
eles'ant town house containing a commodious hall, a room for the district court, the pub-
lic libniry, and a bank, besides the town offices, erected at a co6t of $50,000, standing on
an eminence commanding a view of many points of interest, among them Muttuckliiil
cemetery, about a mile from the Corners, a beautiful spot, where rest some of the foundei^
of the old colony. In this viciniry is Oliver's walks, the site of the mansion of jud rt;
Oliver, who in the revolution espoused tbe tory cause and went to England. It wusi the
seat of Peirce academy (Baptist), founded 1808, with a idaseical department, a vnluable
cabinet, and an average attendance of 800 pupils, including many from the 8i>utlK*ru
states. During tbe rebellion its popularity diminished, aad it has since lieen dis)C:<miiu-
ued. The town has excellent public schools, is lighted by gas, and is laid out regularly,
witb numerous maples, elms, and otber ornamental trees shading the streets and bigii-
ways, which are celebmted for their beautiful drives. It contains the Riy State straw-
works, employing a large number of girls in its extensive factories ami at their homes in
tbe adjoining towns and villages, 6 shoe-factories^ 8 churches, 2 newspapers (1 montbly),
3 priniiug-ottices, a hotel, tbe Star mills (woolen), and manufactories of lumlier, shove.i(.
needles, trunks, boxes, varnish, marble- works, and a variety of stores. It is a center of
an important trade in horses, wbich arc brought from Vernaout and Canada. It is 12 ni.
from Plymoutb, 10 m. from Taunton, 20 m. from New Bedford, 20 m. from Fall River,
and 84 m. from Boston.
MIDDLEBURY, a t. in central Vermont, de%htfully situated on Otter creek, a
small stream flowing n.w. and em] • ■ - -
presenting very attractive scenery;
through It. It is 88 m. n.w, of
Montpelier. It has valuable water-power. It is the seat of Midillebury college, and hi\a
excellent public schools and a public library. It contains a national bank, 2 newspapers,
6 churches, 3 hotels, and a well-organized Are department. It hjis six quarries, where
marble of various colors is quarried and exported, and it has iron-foundries and flour-
mills; otber industries are tbe manufacture of sashes, doors and blinds, cotton, wool,
paper, and leather.
MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE, in Middlebury, Vt„ opened In 1800, under Congrega-
tional control, has three buildings valued at $100,000, an interest-bearing endowment of
$180,000, and an income of $18,000 annually. There are 11 instructors, and a library of
12,000 volumes. President (1881)i Eev. Cyrus Hamlin, d.d., formerly a well-known
missionary in Turkey.
MIDDLE C, in music, receives its name from its positlop on the general scale. It
is the note whicb is a fifth above the P or bass clef, and a fifth below tbe G or treble
clef. The C clef always represents the note termed middle C, and the lines and spaces
above or below are designated accordingly.
KBDLE LATITUDE BAILDTO. See S^ilinos.
MIDDLE LEVEL. Under the heading Bed*' bd Lkvbl, a remaii:able district, cov*
ering 400,000 acres, is desoribed, boundjag tlie Wash on all aides exeept seawvrd, extend-
ing landward nearly to Brandon. Cambridge. Peterborough, and Bolingbroke, and
embracing portions of the six counties of Northampton, Huntingdon, Cambridge, LId-
coin, Norfolk, and Suffolk. It nearly ooinoidea In area wiUi what is popularly known
as the Fens. Tbe whde region was, centxzriea ago, converted into an unprofitable marsh
b^ i*epeated incursions of the sea, coupled with obatmctions to the outward flow of .the
rivers Nene, Cam, Ouse, Welland, etc. Vast operations have been carried on ever since
tlie time of Charles L, by digging new channels and outfalls, and employing windmills
and steam-engines to pump the water from the marshes and ponds into them artificial
channels. The Bedford level is divided into the Nartk, the Middle, and the Bouth lemtt,
tnanaged by commissioners, whose powers are derived from special acts of parliameot
Tbe improved value of the land is the fund out of which the expense of the engineering
works is defrayed. It was in one of these districts (tlie Middle level, between Uie Nene
and the Old Bedford river) thai an irmptioa took place in 18Si$, which strikingly illus-
trates the dependence of the safety of tbe whole region on well-forned and well main-
tained embankments. There was a .sluice, called St. Germain^fi skUce, sicuaited at the
confluence of the Middle level main outfall drain with tbe river Ouse, near the upper
end of another artificial channel, known as the Eau Brink cut. Tbe drain was made in
1347, and was enlarged ten years afterwards to a bottom-width of 48 ft., a side-slope of
2 to 1, and a level of 7 ft. l)elow low-water spring-tide in the river; the nve of nigfa-
watcr spring-tide at that point was 19 ft., and tbe sill of tbe sluice was 6 ft. below low-
water spring-tide.
Digitized by VjOUV IC
oil MIddlebury.
^ ^ -L ]IUa4i«»broiibli.
On May 4, 1862, this sluice gave wny witlioit the slightest warning: the tidal waters
undermined tlie (irickwork, and formed a hole in the l)ed of the river, into which the
works of the »luice sank. The tidal waters rushed up the opening, and ebbed and flowed
throughout, a distance of 20 mileaw. The cuxiuuissiouers of tbe Middle level applied to
Mr. Uawkshaw, the engineer, to devise means for repuh'ing the disaster. An earth nnd
cradle-dam was attempted to be thrown across the dndn. at about 500 yards from the
fallen sluice; but this was relinquished in favor of a permuuent eiiffer-dam of pile-work,
at a distance of half a aiilt» from the sluice; and after incessant exertions from May 16
to June 19, the tidal waters were at length effectually shut out by a strong dam. Tlie
failure of the St. Germain's sluice was not the only irruption that had to be battled with;
eight days after that failure, under the pressure of a high spring-tide, the west bank of the
.dr»in gave way, on May 12, at a point about 4 miles from tbe sluice; the bank had been
built only to resist upland waters, and not a rush and u prci^sure of the sea. The inipture
carried away 70 yards of the bank, scouring out a hole 10 feet deep at the spot, an<l
admitting a rush of water which covered 6.000 acres of fertile land to a depth of 2 or 3
.feet, increased at successive high-tides to 10,000 acres.
When the finishing of the dam had enabled Mr. Hawkshaw to shut out the tidal
wateJrs, means had to be devised for getting rid of tbe flooding waters, and providing an
outlet for the usual rivers and land-dniiuage of the Middle level. It was resolved to utilize
some of the old outlets at other spots, and to supplement their action by enonnous
siphons, placed over the coffer-dam. Sixteen siphons were provided. They we]% miide
of cast iron, 3 feet 6 in. internal diameter, and some vv bat over 1 in. thick ; they rested on the
top of the dam, and on inclined framework supported by piles at the sides. The valves
were so armnged, that the siphons could be put in operation, either by exliau.stiug the
air or by filling them with water. When only six of the sipdions were in position, they
carried 50,000 gallons of water per minute over the dam.— For more minute detidUs of
the dam and tlie siphons, see Mr. Hawkshaw's paper read before the institute of civil
engineers in 1863.
There are large items both of cost and of compensation in works of tliiskind. Nearly
the whole of the Middle level is 15 feet below high-water spring-tides; it is difficult to
keep out the sea-water, and at the same time to preserve an outlet for the land-wat('r.
especially Whittlesea mere; there are 180,000 acres to be drained somehow or other; but
as the land is rich for farming, the commissionei-s, in pai^t yeare, did not hesitate to spend
£400,000 on 11 miles of drain, and £30,000 on tbe sluice. The drain runs through a dis-
trict called Marsfdand, between Linn and Wiabeach; and as the bui*sting of the bank
caused this district to be deluged with water, the commissioners have had to compennnte
the Maryland farmers and others; the amount of this compensation nas frequently liti
gated between 1862 and 1867. As concerns the land it«elf, it is foui^d to be more fertile
after such inundations than before, owing to the amount of silt deposited on the fiekK
After repairing tbe breach In the bank, the 10,000 inundnicd acres weie drained without
much difficulty, through the 3Inrsliland, Smeeth, and Fen drain, and the Marshland
sewer; the siphons are permanent channels, to carry off the usual land-waters regu-
larly. The siphons were subjected to a severe trial in Jan., 1867, by the ice which accu-
mulated around their lower ends; but iron gratings effectually resisted the entrance of
the ice into the siphons.
MIDDLE PARK, one of the numerous fertile valleys which extend over broad dis-
tances in Colorado, being inclosed by spurs of the Rocky mountains, and remarkable for
the variety and picturesque character of their scenery. It is in Summit co., about 3,000
square miles in extent, being 65 m. in length by 45 in Width, nnd is 7,500 ft. above the
level of the sea. It lies directly s. of North park, from which it is separated by one of the
cross ranges of the great mountain cliain. On its eastern side the Snow-range or conti-
nental divide sweeps around it. and it is completely suiTounded by lofty mountains,
among which Long's peak, Gi^v's peak, and Mt Lincoln, from 13,000 to 14,000 ft.
high, stand prominent The heaa-waters of Grand river and the Blue river water this
territory, botli flowing westward to the Colorado. A portion of the park is heavily
wooded, but much of it presents an expatise of grass-grown meadows, dotted with
wild-flowers. Wild game is plentiful, and includes bcai-s, elk, mountain-sheep,
deer, and antelopes, and the waters are filled with fish. The climate is genial and the
temperature equable. The most important feature of the park for tourists is the hot
sulphur springs, 45 m. from Georgetown and 60 m. from Central City. These springs
are found near a branch of the Grand river, about 12 m. from the southern termination
of the park. Their waters are said to exercise a curative influence in cases of cutaneous
disease, rheumatism, and neuralgia. About these springs a settlement for the accommo-
dation of invalids is rapidly spreading into a considerable town. Grand lake, a hand-
some sheet of water, offering excellent trout and other fishing, is 27 m. from the Hot
Springs, and is a point much frequented by excursion parties of tourists and convales-
cents.
KIBPUSBBOtlOH, the center of the n. of England iron manufacture, is an important
mark(ft I., port, and parliamentary borough in the North Riding of Yorkshire, at the
mouth of the Tees. 48 m. n.e. from York, returning one member to parliament. The
town is of recent growth, and owes its origin aa a port to its convenient position for the
Digitized by VjOUV IC
]ltlddl«MX« fi 1 O
Middleton. Oi^
» shipment of coals brought down by railway from the mines in South Durham. In 18^
a commodious dock was constructed, which has recently beeuTeryconsiderabiy enlarged,
tuid will admit siiips of the largest tonnage.
On the discovery, in 1840, of inunense beds of ironstone, extending throughout the
whole range of the Cleveland hills, a portion of which lies close to the town, the smeltr
Log of iron was speedily embarked in on an extensive scale, which has since incrs«sed to
a marveloufl extent, to which has been added iron-foundries, the manufacture of rails,
locomotive engines, tubes, boilers, etc; chemical works, potteries, and ship-building are
also carried on to a large extent. The town of Middleftbiv>itgh was incorporated in 1868,
and constituted a parliamentanr borough in 1866. Ill well built, and some of the streets
present handsome specimens of architecture. The .noyal exchan^, bulH in 1867, is a
large and handsome building; within its spacious interior the weekly ht>n-market is held
on Tuesdaysi and m attended by parties eonnected with the iron trade from all puts of
the kingdom, as well as foreigners. There are five churches of the national establishment,
and numerous places of worship connected with the various religious deBominations.
Albert park, containing 72 acres, is tastefully laid out
At the census taken in 1881 Middlesbrough was an obscure hamlet with 883 inhabit-
ants; in 1871 the parliamentary borough contained a pop. of 46,643, and in 1874 it was
estimated at upwards of 60,000.
MIDDLESEX, a co. in s. Connecticut, intersected from n. to 8.e. by the navigable
Connecticut river, emptying into Long Island sound, which forms its s. boundary; 400
t>q.m. ; pop. '80, 85.987—^,611 of American birth, 887 colored. It is drained by the
Hammonasselt river in the s., and the Salmon river, a branch of the Connecticut, both
furnishing water power. It is Intersected by the Connecticut VaJley railroad, the Shore
Line (N. Y., N. H. and Hartford), and the Boston and New York Air Line. Its surface
is hilly and well wooded, and celebrated for the beauty of iCe scenery, the picturesque
blufEs and terraced banks of the river. Its soil is not in general very fertile, except in
the celebrated Connecticut valley: yet, well fertilized, it produces grain, garden procluce,
tobacco, a variety of orchard products, and those of the New England states in general.
Among its variety of manufactures are Victor sewing-machines, brittanla ware, tape,
v^ebblng, pumps, sleigh and hand bells, augurs and gimlets, ivory and bone ^oods.
emery wheels, and engine-governors, etc. Granite, cobalt, and freestone are found, and
valuable quarries of the celebrated Portland sandstone, which is largely exported for
building-material. Capitals, Middletown and Haddam.
MIDDLESEX, a co. in e. Massachusetts, having the state line of New Hampshire
for its n. boundary, drained by the Meirimac and Nashua rivers in then., and the
Charles, Concord, Sudbury,, aud Assabet rivers in otiier sections; 800 sq,m. ; pop, '80,
817,951—284,665 of whom are of American birth, and 2.675 colored. It is intersected
by a net- work of railroads; the Bostcm and Albany, bnmches of the Boston, Lowell and
Nashua, the Boston, Clinton, Fitohburg and New Bedford, and the Boston and Maine.
Its surface is hilly, and groves of oak, white ash, beech, elm, hickory, and other trees
grow on the hilU along the river banks, which are celebrated for their quiet lieauty. Its
soil is very fertile, producing large crops of corn, potatoes, and other garden and orchard
produce. Horses, cattle, sheep, and swine are raised The immense water power fur-
nishes facilities for extensive manufactures, which command the attention of Uie inhab-
itants, somewhat to the exclusion of agriculture. They consist of a large variety, among
them cotton and woolen goods, straw goods, boots and shoes, leather, carpets, aad
watches (at Waltham). The value of the manufacture of boots and slioes for one year is
estimated at over l|16,000,000, and of cotton goods at over $12,000,000; the reported
annual value of all manufactures for one year is $118,147,270. ' The county includes tli«
cities of Lowell and Cambridge fthe seat of Harvard university), and the towns of Med-
ford (the seat of Tufta college;, Lexington, and Concord (the home of Emerson, and tlie
seat of tlie Concord school of philosophy). Capitals, Lowell and Cambridge.
MIDDLESEX, a co. in e. New Jersey, having Staten Island sound and Raritan bay
for part of its e. boundary, drained by the Raritan river, navigable to its county seat, flowing
through it and forming its n.w. border, and emptying into the bay of the same name;
also the South and Millstone rivers; 340 sq.m.; pop. '80, 52,286— 42,162 of American
birth, 1628 colored. Its surface in the n. portion is hilly, but in the a. is generally level.
It is a fine agricultural region, the soil being in some portions light and sandy, and in all
parts feriile. Its' products Include corn, wheat, and dairy products, and fruit in abtin-
(Innco. Cattle, sheep, and swine are r^sed. Sandstone is found, fire-clay or kaolin, and
molding-siiud. It Is intersected by the railroad of the united companies of New Jersey,
the Lehigh Valley railroad, and the New York division of the rcnn^ylvania railroad.
The Millstone and New Brunswick raihroad and the Delaware and Raritan canal ter-
minate at its county seat, and a portion of it is traversed by the Freehold and Janiesbuig
agricultural railroad. It has extensive manufactures of India-rubber goods, carpets,
hosiery, cork, paper-hangings, metal screws, white-ware, drain pipes, freight and pas-
senger care, harness, shoes, etc. Across the sound, 1 m. in width, is 6t«ten Island 18 lu.
long, 5 m. s. w. of the citjr of New York. The harbors of the county are easily accessible
to vessels, and have 4 ship-yarflfl. A Inrgo number of steamboats and steam ferry»-boata
ply between itn ports and neigiiio \i\g cities. Scat of justice. New Brunswick,
Digitized by VjUOV IC
Q1 q MlddleMX.
MIDDLESEX, a co. in e. Virgiuiii, bnvmg the Cbesapeake bay for its s.c. boundary,
the Rappahannock river for its n., and the Piaukatuuk river for its s. border; 150 sq.m. ;
pop. *80, 6,!^{52— 6,242 of American birth, 8,634 colored. Its surface consists mostly of
level plains with low marahes in some sections. Its soil is a sandy loam, producing wheat,
oats, corn, and dairy products. Cattle, sheep, and swine are raised, and oysters are
abundant. Scat of justice, Saluda.
MIDDLESEX, a co. ia 8.w. Ontario, drained by the Thames river, forming part of
its 8. w, boundary; about 1228 8q.m. ; pop. '71, 82,686. It is intersected by ^e Great
Weatem railway, the branch railroad to Bamia, the London and Port Stanley railway, the
Grand Xrujik, .iM»d a Ivauch from Su JCavy'a.. It i« a line sgriciilturrl region, and has
whHfe'%ulphur springs in the e. portion. It has 3 ridings. It. is also supplied with water
power by the Auz Sables ana Bytienhan rivers; and has extensive iron-foundries,
niaclune shops, chemical works, breweries, and manufactories of boots and shoes, soap,
canUleSk musical instrumeote, carriages, cabuiet'^making cstiibUahments, and has a large
trade in grain and countj^ produce. Seat of justice, London.
XIDBLESEZ, the metropolitan co. of England, in the 8.e. of the country, bounded on
the n. by Hertford, and on the s. by SuiTey, and about 60 m. inUmd (westward) from
the North sea, with which it communicates by the river Thames. Next to Rutland, it
is the smallest of the £nglish counties, its area being only 180,186 statute acres; but its
population is inferior only to that of Lancashire, and was, in 1871, 2,680,766. The sur-
face is on the whole letel, with gentle undulations. The Thames, which forms its
soothem boundary, and its alUueotei, are t|ie only rivers of the county. Two of these, .
the Colne and the Lea» form respectively the western and the eastern boundaries of the
county. The surface is also traversed by the Gr^nd Junction and Regent's canal, and
the New river, an artificial cut intended to supply the capital with water. The soil is in
general poor, with the.excoptipn pf a tract along the banks of the Thames, which consists
of a "good fertile loam, liie county is chiefly occupied in grass and hay farms, and in
market-gardens, tlie produce of which is sent to supply the metropolis. Parliamentary
elections of memb«*r8 for Middlesex nre held at Bi-eritford, which is the county town.
There are no other towns of importance except London.
KIDDLE TEXPLB, one of the four English inns of court, having the exclusive priv-
ilege of calling persons to the bar. See Inns of Court.
MIDDLE THIBET. See Ladakh, aiUe,
XIDDLETOH, a small manufacturing t. of Lancashire, 6 m. n.n.e. of Manchester.
Pop. '61, 9,876; 71, 14,587. It is chiefly dependent upon its manufactures of cotton
cloth and silks.
nDDUTOir, a small decaying market t. of Ireland, in the county of Cork, and 18 m.
by railway e. of the city of that name. It contains a college, founded in 1696, noticeable
as the place in which Jolm Phllpot Curran was educated, and still of considerable repu-
tation, and carries on a general trade. Pop. '71, 3,608.
MIDDLETON, ARTHint, 1686-1745 about, was the son of Edward Livingston, and
an eminent member of the South Carolina colony. The proprietary sy.stem, which
existed under the royal charter, was obnoxious to the colonists, and in 1719, under the
lead of Middleton, they flucceeded in placing themselves under the immediate protection
of the crown. He had previously (1712) been made a member of the council; and in
1796 succeeded Nicholson as governor, w^hich position he held for six years, and for the
remainder of his life was a member of the royal council.
MIDDLETON, Arthur, 1743-48, b. S. C. ; educated at Harrow and Westminster,
and at Cambridge. On his return to this counttyhe took a prominent ptVrt in the aflfairs
of his native state, where his family possessed largo estates and exerted a great influence.
His father, Henry Middleton,. had l)een president of congress in 1776, and he himself,
after serving with distinction on the first committee of safety, was sent by his native state
in 1776 to congress, where be signed the declaration of independence. He remained in
congress till 1777; and two years later, after refusing the governorship of South Carolina,
he Joined in the defense of Charleston. The British troops pillaged his phmtation, one
of the most valuable in the state; and in 1780 he was made prisoner at the capture of
Charleston. His plantation was confiscated, and he was confined first at St. Augustine,
and afterwards in the Jersey prison ship till near the close of 1780. when he was
exchanged. He was again returned to congiess, where he remained till the war wa^
closed. He was afterwards a member of the senate of his native state. His writings are
confined to- a number of essays on political subjecta, published under the pseudonym of
'* Andrew MarvelL" To his skill as a stenographer we are indebted for a report of many
debates in which he took part, and whose records would otherwise have been lost to us.
rnDDLETOH, CoTTTERS, i>.D., a well-known divine and scholar of the church of
England, was b. in 1683 at Richmond, in Yorkshire. He studied at Cambridge, wlicre
he took the degree of b.a. in 1702, was elected a fellow in 1706, nnd shortly after married
a lady of fortune. His life was a scries of bitter, nnd, on the whole, not very creditable
controversies, though he is said to have been rather a likable person in private. His
first and most formidable opponent was Richard Bentley (q.v.); afterwaras his polemics
Digitized by VjUUVLC
wei-e chiefly of a theological character. The views he ezpreased and defended were
generally bucli os to draw down upon him the imputation of being an "Inddel In dis-
guise," though some of them — sucli as that the Jews borrowed some of their customs
troiii Egypt, and that the primitive writers in vindicating Scripture found it necessary
sometimes to recur to allegory — are now establislied beyond all doubt; while a third
opinion, viz., that the Scriptures are not of absolute and universal inspiration, has since
Middleton's day been adopted by many of the most learned and accomplished divines
even of his own church. Middleton aied at Hilderaham, in Cambridgeshire, July 98,
1760. His principal writifi^ are The Hwtory €f th6 Life of M. TttOita Oieero (9 vols.
1741), a work both interesting and valuable, but neither very impartial nor quite aocuraie.
His celebrated Letter fr&m Hume, knowing an exact Conformity bettbeen Btpery and Poffau-
ism; or the Beiigion of the preeef,* Romans dmvied from that of their Heathen Aneeetart
(1729), provoked the most violent indignation among Roman Oatholica, and is still read
with interest. All bi» pamphlets, treaiises, etc., were oollected and published nader ibe
title of MieeeiUaneoue Workit (4 vols. Lond. 1759M)7), and eontaitt much that la curxoas
and valuable on theological and untiqunrian topics.
MIDDLETON, Edward, 1640-1700 about, the first of a family well known In the
political history of this conntry, and especially of South Carolina. Ue was bom in Twick-
entmm, England, from which place he emigrated to this coaiftry and took up bis red-
dence in South Carolina, being one of the very earliest settlers. Here he took an active
part in the affairs of the young colony and was useful not only from his great wealth
but also from his political sagacity. He was of very liberal tendencies, and seems to have
foreseen tlie sepanition of the colonies from the mother country. In 1680, ten years af>
ter the settlemen( of the colony, Le was a member of the cotmcll under the lord-proprie-
tors. ^
MIDBU&TON, Hbkry, 1771-1646, was the son of Arthur Middleton, signer of the
Declaration of Independence, and was b. in Charleston, S. C. He was a member of the
state legislature 1801-10; was then elected governor of the state and in 1815 was elected
to congress, where he served two terms. In 1^ he was appointed U. S. minister toRua-
siii, in which capacity he served for about ten years and on his return to this coimtry ve-
tired from public life.
MIDDLETON, Henry, b. not far from 1700, son of gov, Arthur Middleton, and
like all his family, took much interest in tlie political affairs of the state. He is chiefly
imown as president of the congress of 1775. to which he was sent as a delegate by the
colonial convention of South Carolina ; and notwithstanding his great' age at the time
was an active and eflBicient supporter of the revolutionary measures.
MIDDLETON, Thomas, d. 16^, b. England; lived in the reigns of Elizabeth, James
I., and Charles I. Very little Is known of his life beyond the fact that he was made
chronologer to the city of London in 1620. His earliest known piece belongs to 1608
and his latest, to 1626. The best of his numerous plays are -^1 Mad World my Maslere,
and T'he Roaring Girl. The latter is intereating from the picture it contains of the Lion-
don life of that day. Its heroine was an actual person, the notorious Moll CulptiiEe,
who also figures "in the Amend% for Ladies of Field, a contemporary of Middleton.
Another play of Muldleton's, The WUch, is supposed to havefumisfaed or suggesied to
Shakespeare, some of the incantation scenes of Macbeth. A tragedy foYinded upon the
Ktory of Binnca Capello is distinguished by a forcible action. The comedy, A ^IViek to OaUh
the Old Oiie, is full of spirit ana humor, as are moat of Middleton's comedies. His lan-
guage is often coarse, and his charactere repulsive; he has little skill in the construction of
a plot, but his works are full of life. He displays a richness of humor in his comedy, and
un occasional power of imagination in his tragedy, which entitle him to a high rank
among the Elizabethan dramatists of the second class. He worked with Rowley on the
composition of Tfi£ Fair Quarrel, ihe Spanish Gipsy and The Changeling, with Rowley
and Massinger on T/ie Old Law, and with Fletcher and Jonson wrote I'he Widow, printed
in Dodsley's Plays,
MIDDLETON, Thomas Fai^shawk, d.d., 176»-1822, b. Enffland; educated at
Christ's hospital, and Cambridge, and ordained in the Engttah church in 1792. He was
appointed to the curacy of Oainsborough in Lincolnshire, where for a time he edited a
periodical called the Cmintry Speetator. In 1794 he acted as tutor to the sons of the
archdeacon of Lincoln, Dr. John Prettyman, who presented him in 1796, to the living of
Tansor, in Northamptonshire, whence he was transferred in 1799. to St. Pfeter's. Man.
croft. In 1802 he became rector of Bytham. in Lincolnshire, and bc^an his most impor-
tant book, a treatise on the DoOfine oft?ie Qregk Artkie, whidi appeared in ISOft. In
1811 he l)ecame vicar of St. Pancras, Middlesex, and in 1814 was conteorated first bishop
of Calcutta. In this capacity he did much to promote the advancement of Christianity
and education. He founded the bishop's college at Calcutta in 18S0, to educate mission-
aries and clergj^men for the English Asiatic possessions, and he established a consistory '
(?onrt at the came place. In his book on the Greek article, after laying down the rules '
to which it is subject, and applying them to New Testam^t interpretation he attempts
the discussion of passages from which the divinity of Christ may be argued for or again^st,
according to the special force of the Greek article in that particular connection. The
** *^ Digitized by VjUUVIC
815 JSj1^*«-
work created considerable theological discussion, and was opposed by a number of Uni-
tarian writers.
IQPDLEf OWH, a city and township in Connecticut, United States, at the head
of navigation, on the riffht bank of tlie Connecticut river, 28 m. from its mouth. It
is a well-built town, wiUi a handsome custom -house, Wesieyan university, episcopal
seminary, 16 churches, four banks; 8 cotton factories, foundries, mills, etc. Fop. of city
in 1870, 6,923.
MIDDLETOWN {ante), a city in s. Connecticut, incorporated 1874; on the Connecti-
oat Valley raairoad and the Boaimi «id Kew York Air Line, at the terminus of a branch
of the Kew York» New Haven and Haitft>id ndkosd; pop* '8(>, 11,781. It is a port of
entoy, admitdBg lo the wharves vessels drawing • ft. of water. It is a stopping place
for the New York and Hartford steamboats, daUy line. It is built on rising ff round,
oommanding a fine view of ohanning enviffons, and is situated on tlie w. bank of the
Connecticut river, 81 m. above its mouth, dirsdl}'^ s. of one of its small branches, and is
one of the county seats of Middlesex county. It is regularly laid out, with wide streets
at right angles; buildings principally of brick, and residences, particularly on the hills,
having spacious grounds, tastefully ornamented. Main strjeet, in the mercantile quarter^
is a wide and level thoroughfare, and High street contains the most fashionable resi-
dences. The streets are well shaded by trees. It contains a court-house, built of Port-
land freestone; 6 hotels, 7 banks — 4 national— with an aggregate capital of $909,800, and
8 institutions for savings, having $8,000,000 of deposits, ' It ba§ a custom-house, 5 news-
papers. 15 churches, and a public library. It is the seat of Berkeley divinity school
(Episcopal), established in 1854. having a library of 14,000 vols. ; also of the Wesieyan
university (M^Choidist), di^ganited' 1^1, halving a. litiiH^y of 25,000 vols., a valuable
cabinet, and fine telescope: and faasezoellent public schools . In the suburbs are the
oommodlansbiiildlngB/of the state ^nemi hoepital Cor < the insane, and it has also the
state industrial school for girls* la tlievioinity- are valuable mineral deposits: feldspar,
columhite ^very rareX gold, -silver, snd aa atmndonad leiid-nttne opened in revolutionary
tiiaes. It.ul5 m. a. «a Hartford and 24 m. n.e. of New Haven, at an equal distance
from Nmr York and Boeiaii; It iatlw center ol mm ImpuMtant trade; has some ship-
building, and various naamnf artttre»t-a mong tliem britanuia ware, silver-plated ware,
cotton goods, sewing-machines, rules, chisels, guns, screws, etc Across the river is the
L of Portland, connected with it by an iron rauway bridge of the Boston and Ne)v York
Air Line.
MIODLETOWN, a vffiage In Orange oo., K. Y., the terminns of the New Jersey
Midland rsUroad, at the jonetioa of the £rie railroad with the New York and Oswego
Midland railreadt pop. '70, 6,04§. It is a part of the township of Wallkill, and is on the
Wallkiil river, built on the long, sloinng Kides of low hills. It is 24 m. w. of Newburg,
and Oft UL n.w. of New Yoork by rail. The Bhawangunk mountains, a portion of the
Appal^ohiaii system, lie at the'w. of it, and on the e. are the highlniTds of the Hndsou.
It baad ohurches, 2 natiobal banks, a savings-bank, several public halls (1 masonic), a
public library and reading-room, a union school^ Vfallkil) acllflem3^ and several private
schools: and it is the- seat of the state asylum for the insane (homeopathic) e^taWisbed
1874 It has an opera-house,, twq hotels, and 4 newspapers* Us spne9t,s Are wide, orna-
ment^ with shade-tree^ well sewered, and lij^hted by gas. It has nn eflioient fire dcpar^
raent and police force. Its water-works conduct its water supply 2 m. fi'om lake Mon-
ho^an, the reservoir containing 80 acres,, situated nearly 200 ft, above the level of the
village. In the s.w. portion is Hillside cemetery, a beautiful spot containing 50 acres,
well laid out and carefully tended. Its leading industries are the manufacture of wool
hats, blankets, saws, files, carpet-bags, furnaces, agricultural implements, lawn mowers,
gloves, patent medicines, ete^, and it is the center of an impoilant country trade in gar-
den produce and stofsk.
MIDDLETOWN, at in Dauphin co., Pennsylvania, 9 m. s.e. of Hnrrfsburg, at the
mouth of Swatara creek, on thee, side of the Susquehanna, snd the Pennsylvania rail-
road and Union canal, and connected bv ferry with the Middletown ferry Btation on the
NorUiem Central railroad; pop..*70, 2,fc0. It has a numlier of churches, newspapers,
a bank, and an orphan asylum. There are grist, planing, and saw mills, car and machine
shops, and a foundry^
■IDBLEWIOH, a small market t. of England, Ohofihire. on the Grand Trunk canal, 20
m. e; of Chester. Salt is extensively made; boat-building is carried on, and brick- Works
aiti in operation. Pop. 71, 8^085.
XnyClB, the common name of many species of small dipterous insects, of the family
lipuUdtB, much resembline gnat», but having a shorter proboscis. Their larvae are aquatic ;
the perfect insects are often very annoying both to human beings and to cattle. The
little pink-colored tortuous worm known to anglers as the blood-worm, frequent in water-
barrels and in the mud near the edges of ponds and ditches, is the larva of a species of midge
{e?tironomu9 plunumis), a little larger than the common gnat, very abundant in Britain,
particularly in marshy situations. The larva is much sought after both hy birds and
fishes, and is a very tempting. bait for the lattci^. The pupa is cylindrical, with respira-
tory organs on the sides of the thorax. When the insect is rej^^g^,^]^|i||^p|^case.
Mldhunt, Q 1 fi
Mldwlft). <51©
it ri^es to the surface of the water and there remains suspended for n short time; the
perfect insect, when it has issued from tlie case, also stands fur a short time on the sur-
face of the water. The genus is remarkable for the long hairs with which the antenns
of tike male are furnished.-* Another genus of midges {aimuUa) cuntolAs many ^lecies
which are most tormenting to men and cattle, bytmtering the ears and nostrils, and
alighting on the eyelids. Heveral species are British. They awarm on marshes and damp
heatiiS' in the wanner months. But nosie of them is nearly so mlschieyous as a species
(<S'. colunibascJunm) found on the banks of the Danube, and so plentiful, that horses and
cattle are of L^n suffocated by the numbers which get into the windpipe.
KIDHUBSI, a. market t aad paiiiaiiwBtary fooroagih of Eneland, ia Suaaez, on. the
Bother, a navigable tributary of the Arun, 60 m. t.w. of Loooob. Here are the niuiB<
of an old castle of the Bohuns, lords of Midhiirat ; and within hall a mile e. of the town stood •
Cowdry house, the seat of the Montagues, which, with the exception of the gate-honse,
was burned down in .1798. Midhurat returns one member to paiiiament. Pop. (1861)
of parliamentary borough. 6,405; (1871) 6,75a-
KIBIAHITES, an Arab race, descended, according to Scripture, from Midian, the son
of Abraham by Keturah. They occupied the ereater part of the country between the n.
side of the Arabian gulf and Arabia ^elix as far as Uie plains of Moab. Others more
civilized (if not, indeed, of Cushite origin) dwelt in the vicinity of the Sinaitic peninsula,
and carried on a trade, particularly with Egypt. To the latter, we may presume,
belonged Jethro, priest or * * sheik'* of Midian — the father-in-law of Moses. The Midinnites
were very troublesome neighbors to the Israelites till Gideon's victory over them.
Their national god was Baal-Peor.
MIDLAND, a co. in central Michigan, intersected by the FBnt and Fftre Marquette
railroad ; 560 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 6,894-^,158 of American biith, 26 colored. It is drained
by the Tittibawassee river, formed by the union of the Chippewa, Pine, astd Toteoro
nvers within its limits. Its surface is generally level prairie, hugely covered with build-
ing timber, with groves of sugar maple, and pine growing on the low hills. Lumber is
one of the chief commodities, and is largely exported. Its soil is fertile in some sectioas,
producing oats, Indian com, potatoes, wlieat, rje> and the. products of the dairy. Its
soil and climate arc favorable for stocfc-raising. It has manufactures of lumbar, nXt,
and flour. Capital, Midland.
MIDLOTHIAN. Bee Edinburohbhibb, ante,
MIDNAPOOR, a district in s.w. Bengal, f onnittg part df 'the province of Orissa;
4,015 sq.m. : pop. about 500,000. It is traversed by the Coeai river and many mnaller
Htreams. The soil is rich and produces in abundance rice, sugar/ tobacco, cotton, and
indigo; but much of the district is jungle and the atmos^iere ia eKoeedmely unheelth]^.
Tigers and poisonous reptiles infest Uie district, and the annual loss of life from this
cause is sometimes very large. The inhabitants are in religion partly Buddhists and in
part Mohammedans. Midiuipoor and Jellaaore are the main towns; the formed is the
capital, and is 65 m. s.w. of Calcutta.
MIBBASH (Heb. darci»ih, to search, explain the Scriptures) is the general name given
to the exposition of the Old Testament, which for alwut 1500 years, formed the center
of all mental activity, bolh in and out of the schools, among the Jews after the Baby-
lonish exile. The prohibitions and ordinances contained in the Mosaic records, to which
a precise meaning was not in all cases attached, were, according to cettedn hermeneuticfil
rules, specified and particularized, and further surrounded bv traditional ordinances and
inhibitions: Halacha(q.v.) = rule by which to go, or the binding, authoritative, civil, and
relig'ous law. The chief codes of this are the Mishna (q v.), Ctemara (q. v.), Sifra (an
amplification on Leviticus), Sifri (on Numbers and Deuleronomjr), and Mechiltha (on a
portion of Exodus). Another branch of the Midrash, however, is the Haggada (q.v.)« «
kind of free poetical homileotics On the whole body of the Old l?estament (the Halacha
lieing chiefly confined to the Pentatench). The chief collections of that part of the Mid-
rash aro Midrnsh Rablm, 700 to 1100 a.d. (on Pentateuch and Megilloth), and Pesikta
(700), the extracts from which (Jalkut, Pesikta, Rabbatl, Sutarta^ etc.) only are known,
the original itself never having been printed.
lOBSHIFMAH, the second rank attamed by combatant officers in the royal navy.
After two years' service as naval cadet, the aspifant be<;omed a midshipman, which is
rather an apprenticeship for his after-naval career than any really effective appointment.
The midshipman's time is principa11.y devoted to receiving instruction, both in the ordi-
nary subjects of a gentleman's education, and in the special professional dpties of a naval
officer. After 1^ yearV service as such, the midshipman is required to pass a qualifying?
examination in geography, history, and general knowledge; and two years later he must
pass in French conversation, and'in seamanship, steam, and gunnery. He then becomes
a sub-lieut. (q.v.);'and if 19 years of age, is eligible for promption to lieut, whenever
opportunity offers.
A midshipman only receives Is. 9d. a dav (£31, 18«. 9c2. per ax^um); he is conse-
quently dependent on nis friends for more or less pecuniary assistance until he becomee
a sublieutenant.
Digitized by V^OUV IC
mMidbnrst.
BlidwlM.
MIDSHIPMAN (am^ in the U, a na^, is the ninth and lowest mde of officenln
the line of promotion. The appointments for serrice are made from the cadet-fraduates
of the Annapolis naval academy, where the course of study lasts six years, and includes
a very thorough training in theoretical and practical navigation, mathematics, the natural
sciences, moaern languages, etc. Cadets are appointed to the academy on the recom-
mendation of the members of congress for the districts in which the^ reside, and on con-
ditions similar to those ffoverning the appointments to West Point. Since 1865 ten
<»idets are also appointed from amon^ the apprentices of the school ships after a compet-
itive examination. After passing the examination of the academy, the midshipmen
receive their warrants and enter upon actual service, with the pay oi $800 per annum.
Promotion to the rank of ensign follows after two years* actual sea duty, and a strict
examination before a board of three captains and two commanders.
XIBSTmEB BAY, one of the four English quarter-days for payment of rent by ten-
ants, viz., June 24. See Landlobd and T^ant.
lUDSTJiaiSB EYE. See John's (St.) Evk.
MIDWIFE,— XIDWUEBY. Midwife (Anglo-Saxon, med-mf, meaning probably a
woman hired for mede, or reward) is the name applied to a woman who asnsts in partu-
rition or delivery. From this is derived the term midmferp, for that department of
medical science which concerns itself with delivery, and its allied subjects. Writers
who prefer words derived from Latin and Greek roots to such plain old English words
as midwifery have substituted for it obstetrics (Lat. obsMrix, a woman who stands near,
a midwife), and tokolopy (Qr. tokoSy child-birth), or £iynaiX^20^(Qr. ^Tia, woman);.for a
male practitioner in this line of the medical art the French name accovcheur is used; and
recently an obnoxious new verb, to ttccouch (Ft. aecoucher, to deliver a woman), has made
its appearance in medical literature.
Midwifery, as a branch of medical science, is understood to include the study of the
anatomy of the parts of the female body concerned; the doctrine of conception and of
sterility, and the signs and duration of pr^ancy ; parturition in all its varieties; and the
diseases peculiar to the puerperal state. To enter into details of such mattera would be
out of place in this work. With regard to parturition itself, it may be interesting to
remark that in a vast majority of cases the labor is what is called '' natural," that is, the
child presents itself in the normal position, and unaided nature completes the delivery
within 24 hours with safety to the mother and child. Dr. Smellie calculated that 990 in
1000 are " natural" labors; and the later statistics of Dr. Collins, based on 15,850 cases,
give a similar result — viz., 988 in 1000.
"Umiaturar' labor arises either from malformation, disease, or weakness on the part
of the mother, or from abnormal conditions of the child; and manual or instrumental
aid becomes necessary to prevent the labor from being dangerously prolonged, or — in the
more extreme cases — to render delivery at all possible. Of instrumental applications, by
far the most important and frequent is that of tlie forceps (q. v.), which is not intended
to injure either mother or child. In 128,295 cases of labor attended by British prac-
titioners, there were 342 forceps casesi or 1 in 860; of these about 1 in 21 proved fatal
to the mother, while 1 child in 4 was lost. In craniotomy the head of the child is inten-
tionall}^ destroyed, with a view to save the life of tlie mother, the death of both bein^
otherwise inevitable. Among British practitioners this operation is not often resorted
to; it proves fatal to about 1 mother in 5^. See also CiBSABEAN Operation.
History, — From all the passages in the Scriptures where midwifery is referred to, it
is plain that women were the only practitioners of this art among the Hebrews and the
Egyptians (see Gen. xxxv. 17, and xxxviii. 28, and Bx. i. 15-21), and it is equally cer-
tain that the Greeks and Romans confided this branch of medicine to women. Fhan arete,
the mother of Socrates, was a midwife; and Plato explains the functions and mentions
the duties undertaken by these women. The Greek and Roman physicians were not
ignorant of midwifery, for Hippocrates refers to the neoessity of turning the child in
certain cases, although bis doctrines on Uiis point, as also on the management of the
placenta, are replete with danger; and Celsus, nearly four centuries later, treats of the
mechanism of labor with great clearness. A gradual increase in the knowledge of this
subject may be traced in the writings of Aetius and Paulus ^gineta, who advocates the
operation of craniotomy in certain cases. Rhazes seems to have been the first to advocate
the rupture of the membranes, when, by their toughness, they impede labor; and Avi-
cenna gave the first description of an instrument partially resembling the more modern
forceps.
At the commencement of the 16th c. Eucharius Rhodion published a little book
which soon acquired a n-eat celebrity. It was translated from the original high-German
mto Latin, French, and English, and is remarkable as being the first book published on
this subject in England. Its title is T?ie Byrth of Manhynde, othenoise named t?ie Woman^s
Book, by Thomas Ray nold, physician (London, 1540), and it contains no external evi-
dence tnat it is a mere translation. In 1578 Ambrose Par6 published a small work in
which he showed that foot-presentations were not dangerous, and that in mal-presenta-
tions it was better to deliver bv the feet than to attempt to bring down the head.
In the earl^ part of the 17th c. the sage-f&mme ahe French term corresponding to our
English midwife) of Marie de Medicis puMishea a collection of observations on mid-
U. K. IX.-52
Kieris. 0.1 Q
Ml«:ne. 015
Wifery. About this time (probably about 1640) Dr. Paul Chamberlen, an Bn^idi
physician, invented* the forceps with separate blades, such as are now used. The
Chamberlen family (the father and three sons) did not, however, publish their discovery,
considering that they had a right to use the secret in the way most to their own advan>
tage ; and the exact nature of their instruments was not known till 1816, when the tenant
of a house near Maldon, in Essex, where Dr. Peter Chamberlen, one of the sons, had
resided more than a century previously, accidentally discovered a concealed space, in
which were, inter alia, a collection of obstetric instruments, including a double-bladed
forceps and a vectis, which are now in the possession of the London medico-chirurgical
society. Although Chamberlen's celebrated arcanum was doubtless the double-bladed
forceps, he seems, therefore, also to have been the discoverer of the vectis or lever. In
1668 Mauriceau's Treatise api)earcd, which ran through seven editions, and was for a
loDg time the standard work on the subject. He gives a very full account of the process
of labor; and, his book having been translated into English, in 1672, by Hugh Chamoerlen,
became widely known in this country. This seems to have been the time when men
began to engage generally in the practice of midwifery ; Harvey, the Chamberlens, and
others, taking it up in England; while La ValU^re, the mistress of Louis XIV., did
much to establish the practice in France by employing Julian Clement, a surgeon of
high reputation, in her first confinement in 1668.
The last point requiring notice in the history of midwifery in the 17th c, is the dis-
covery of the use of ergot of rve in accelerating parturition. In 1688 Camerarius Btated
that midwives in some parts of Germany were in the habit of employing it for this pur-
pose; but it is not till 1774 that we find any further reference to the use of this drug.
In the early part of the 18th c. different varieties of forceps, closely resembling Cham-
berlen's instrument, were invented byGiffard, Chapman, and others; Chapman being,
as it is believed, the first public teacher of midwifery in London. About the middle of
this century lived sir Richard Manningham, who devoted himself to this branch of the
profession, and established a small hospital for the reception of parturient women, which
was the first of the kind in the British don^inions. It is scarcely necessary to enter into
further historical details, as midwifery was by this time fully recognized as a branch —
although then and long subsequently considered as the lowest branch — of medicine.
The names of Smellie, William Hunter, Denman, and Bland in England, and of Astruc
and Baudelocque in France, are well known as promoters of various departments of the
art of midwifery to«rards the close of this century.
In the present century the art of midwifery has steadily progressed. The by-laws
precluding practitioners in midwifery from the fellowship of the London college of
physicians, and other equally offensive rules in other institutions, have been repealed;
there are professors of, or lecturers on, midwifery in all our medical schools (excepting
at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge^; and a knowledge of this department <^
medicine is now required from everv candioate for the medical profession. And not
only are the members of the medical profession compelled to be as well versed in mid-
wifery as in medicine or surgery, but the ignorant midwives of past times are now
replaced by comparatively well-educated nurses, with diplomas, certifying that they
have regularly attended lectures on midwifery, and have taken personal charge of a
certain number of labors under the superintendence of a aualified teacher. And that
roperly educated women are capable of undertaking all the responsibilities of this
iepartment of practice is shown by such cases as those of mesdames Boivin and Lac^-
pelle, who (to use the words of prof. Yelpeau), " although the pupils of Baudelocque,
were not afraid to shake off, to a certain extent, the yoke of his scientific authority, and
whose high position and dignity form the starting-point of a new era for the science of
obstetrics in Paris."
MIE'RIS, Franb, the elder, 168Ch-81; b. Holland; studied under Abraham Toome
Vliet, a celebrated Dutch designer, and afterwards under Gerard Dow, who called him
the prince of his scholars. The sublect which Mieris most frequently treats is domesdc
life. He was a brilliant colorist, ana superior to Dow himself m his treatment of stufiEs
and textures, particularly rich materials like velvet and satin. His pictures are rare and
command a high price. His portrait of the wife of Cornelius Plaats is considered one
of his finest works. The Florence gallery has many of his pictures. His son, WnxiAM,
1662-1747, was also an artist. He had attained a considerable degree of skill under the
direction of his father, upon whose death he turned his attention to making studies from
nature. His earlier works portray domestic scenes, in the manner of his father; after-
wards he took up historical and romantic subjects. His painting of RinaJdo sleeping in
the lap of Armiaa, surrounded by the loves and graces, was so successful that he tre&ed
the same subject throe times afterwards. He also painted in landscape and modeled in
clay with considerable skill. His landscapes are not always natural, and in his historical
compositions his costumes are often inappropriate. He is surpassed bv his father in
elaboration and exactness, but surpasses him in the brilliancy of his coloring and the
* The exact date of this fanportant invention is not known, but in 1647 Dr. Pdter Chamberien pab-
liflhed a pamphlet entitled A voice in RKama, in which he spealES of his f ather*8 (I>r. Paul Chamber-
len) diseovenr for the saving of infantile life. Hence the forceps must have been^inycflited in the first
half of the mh century. Digitized by^ -*^^^^^
I
Q1Q lUerlB.
xeptesentation ' of natural objects. Fraitcib Mibbis, sometimeB called Francis the
younger, 168(^1768, was the son of William, with whom he studied art. But he never
attained high rank as an artist, his efforts in that direction being mostly confined to
copyhig the pictures of his father and grandfather. His tastes were for historical and
antiquftfian researches.
Ml£ROSLAWSKi, LuDWiK, 1814-78; b. France; son of a Polish officer in the
service of France, his mother being French. He received his education at ihe military
school in Ealisz, and when only Id years of age united himself with the Polish insur-
gents. This was at the beginning of the revolution of 1880, and Mieroslawski distin-
guished, himself greatly, and was made an officer, serving through the campaigns of 1881
and until the fall of Warsaw, when he settled in Paris. Here he devoted himself to
historical and other writing, publishing a number of books in Polish and French, par-
ticularly a military history of the revolution in Poland. He became the central figure
of the club of Polish refugees in Paris, and, in 1846, took the command of another rev-
olutionary movement, which failed, and resulted in his imprisonment and sentence to
death. The outbreak of the general revolutionary movement of 1848 on the continent
saved him from this fate, and he repaired at once to Poland on being released from
prison in March* of that year, and fought in a number of well contest^ engagements,
gaining a complete victory at Miloslaw. But the insurgents were at length subdued,
and Mieroslawski resigned his command. In the following year he was in command of
the revolutionary movement in Sicily, and was wounded at Catania. He was next
heard of in Baden fiehting the Prussians^ but here also he was unsuccessful, and after
the capture of the fortress of Rastadt, in which he had taken refuge, he once more
retired to Paris. The Polish insurrection of 1868 brought him again to the front, but
only to be defeated in the battle of Raziejewo, after which he retired finally to France,
and devoted the remainder of his life to political writing.
MIFFLIN, a co. in central Pennsylvania, drained by the Juniata river and its
branches, and intersected by the Pennsylvania railroad ana two local branches, and also
by the Pennsylvania canal; 875 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 19,577—19,090 of American birth.
There are many hills, but in the valleys the soil is very fertile; wheat, oats, Indian corn,
and potatoes being the staples. There are factories of woolen goods, axes, tools, cloth-
ing, harness, and saddles, 6 flour mills, and 11 tanneries. Co. seat, Lewiston.
MIFFLIN, Thomas, 1744-1800: b. Philadelphia, of Quaker parentage. He received
his education in the university of Pennsylvania, and in a business establishment. In
1765 he visited Europe, and on bis return joined his brother in a copartnership, and
rapidly attained to position and influence. In 1772 and the following year he was a
member of the le^sfature, and in 1774 a delegate to the first congress. He was com-
missioned a maj. m one of the first re^ments raised in Philadelphia for the war, and
was aid-de-camp to gen. Washington, with the rank of col. He was rapidly promoted,
becoming in succession quartermaster-gen. and adj.gen. ; and commissioned brig.gen.
May 16, 1776, and raaj.gen. Feb. 19, 1777. During the retreat from Long Island he
commanded the covering party, and was afterwards prominent in going through the
country arousing the patriotism of the people by stirrmg appeals; he was enabled by
this means to brins: essential aid to gen. Washington before the battles of Trenton and
Princeton. He became dissatisfied after the ^New Jersey campaign, and engaged in
opposition to the commnnder-in-chief, being a prominent member of the movement
known as the '* Conway cabal." He was electea a delegate to congress in 1782, and
became its president the following year. He was a member and speaker of the Pennsyl-
vania state legislature in 1785, and a delegate to the constitutional convention of 1787.
He held various state positions until 1791, when he was made governor, holding the
office until 1800. He contributed greatly to the suppression of the whisky insurrection
in 1794.
MIGNE, Jacques Paul, b. in St. Flour, Cantal, in 1800; educated at Orleans. In
1824 he became a priest and performed the functions of his office till 1888, when a
pamphlet published by him, entitled Be la Liberie, par on Pritre, brought upon him the
censure of the bishop of Orleans, who forbid its publication. Mimie quit his pastorate,
went to Paris, and the same year established L' Uniners BeiUgioux, aesigned to harmonize
the church with the free spirit of civil government; but pleasing neither extreme his
journalistic venture was assumed by others, and he commenced the publication of a
collection of works entitled Cours CompUts de TJieology et cCEcriiure Sainte, and founded
a publishing house on a large scale called D'lmprimerie CatlioU^xte, designed to furnish
standard religious works at a low price. He established the daily Verite, which in 1856
became the Courrier de Paris, In 1861 he founded the weekly Verite, a religious jour-
nal. The publishing house was burned in 1868: 8,044,152 francs insurance received
indicates the extent to which the establishment had grown. It was immediately rebuilt,
Migne remaining its chief director. The Conra Complet, etc., first mentioned, finally
grew into an immense series of volumes of standard authors under the general head
of BibUuthegue UniverseUe du C^ergi et des Lalques Instruits, The different jbarts of this
I an immense sale. Digitized by ^
Mimet.
HDuido
820
XianT, Fbak<;;oib AuaiJeTB Albxis, a French historian, was b. May 8, VM, at
Aix in Provence, studied law in his native city along with Thiers, and went to F«u» in
.1821 to devote himself to a literary life. He found employment in writing for the pub-
lic journals, and having ^ven lectures on modern history, which were received with
great approbation, he was induced to write his Hittoire de la Bewltaian Franfa$$B (2 vela
Par. 1824; 10th edition, 1840), a work in which that great event is regarded less in its
moral than its philosophical aspects. It has therefore been reproached with leading to
fatalism. His style is brilliant but academic. After the revolution of 1830 he became
a counselor of state, and keeper of the archives of the ministry of forei^ affairs; but
lost these offices in 1848, since which time he has lived in retirement. He has edited
NegodaMont relatives d la Succession d'Ettpagne sous Louis XIV. (4 vols. Par. 188<Md), to
which he prefixed a masteriy historic introdfuction. Among his later works are Mttoin
de Marie Stuart (2 vols. Par. 1851), and Charles Quint, son Abdication, son Sjiour et sa
Mort au Monast^re de Tuste (1854); Moges Historigues (1864); and EivaUtS de Francois I.
et de Charles V. For a Histoire de la M^orme, de la Ligue, et du Eigne de Bmri IV, he is
said to have collected hundreds of volumes of manuscript correspondence.
MIOHOHSTTE', Reseda odorata, a plant of the natural order resedaeem, a native of the
n. of Africa, in universal cultivation on account of the delicious f ragraftce of its flowers.
It is, according to cir<;umstances and the mode of cultivation, an annual or a perennial,
and even half-shrubby plant, with lanceolate entire or trifid leaves, and erect terminal
racemes of small whitish flowers, which have the calyx 6-parted, and as . long as the
corolla; the capsules 8-toothed. It is to be seen during summer in almost every garden,
and during winter in almost ever}' green-house in Britain; it is often cultivated m flower-
pots in apartments, and no flower is so common in the boxes which are placed outside
of windows in towns. Yet it was first introduced into England by lord Bateman, who
brought it from the royal garden at Paris in 1752; nor had it then been long known in
France. It rapidly became a universal favorite throughout Europ. The French name
mignonetto, now its popular name everywhere, siffnifles liUU darUng, What is called tree
mignonette is not even a distinct variety, but merely the common kind trained in an erect
form, and prevented from early flowering by pinching off the ends of the shoots. — ^Weld
(q.v.) belongs to the same genus.
MIG&A'TIOKS 07 AKDIAIS, which must not be confounded with their diffusion
over a more or less extended area, are apparently always ^ided by an instinct operating
on all, or nearly all, the individuals of a species, and leading them to move in a definite
direction in search of food or (in the case of fishes) of a fit position for spawning.
Among mammals, such migrations are comparatively rare. The most remarkable
instance Is that of the lemmings, which at no definite epochs, but generally onoe or
twice in a quarter of a century, traverse Nordland and Finmark in vast ho8ts» ending
their career in the western ocean, into which they enter, and come to a suicidal end; or,
taking a direction through Swedish Lapland, are drowned in the gulf of Bothnia. M.
Martins, who was a member of the great scientific Scandinavian exp^tion, seems to
doubt the generallv entertained view of these animals casting themselves into the West-
em ocean, and believes that most of them perish from the cold in crossing the rivers,
while many are killed by dogs, foxes, and a species of homed owl (strix brac^otos), which
in large numbers always accompanies these emigrations.
According to Qmelin, the Arctic fox (wilpes lagopus) always accompanies the lem-
mings in such numbers that, on this ground, it is entitled to be considered a migratoiy
animal ; but independently of these special migrations, it is stated by sir James Boss
that ''the young generally migrate to Uie southward late in the autunm, and collect in
vast multitudes on the shores of Hudson's bay; they return early the following spring to
the northward, and seldom again leave the spot they select as a breeding-place."
The spring-bok {antidorcas euehore) is accustomed to make pilgrimages from one spot
to another in the vast plains of southern Africa. Herds of many thousands are led l^
their chiefs in these migrations, and the wonderful density of the moving mass may lie
imagined from the fact that a flock of sheep has been inextricably entangled and earned
along without the poRsibility of escape. Want of water is said to be the cause of these
mictions, but Dr. Livin^tone thinks that there must be other causes.
The occasional incursions of wolves, in very severe winters, into districts in which
they are not commonly found, and the long excursions of large groups of monkeys
{enteUus and rh^siis), hardly fall within the scope of this article.
Many of the cetacea are probably misratory. **The migrations of the porpoise
(phoccBna communis) appear — says Marcel de Serres in his prize-essay. Dee Gau$m dee
Migrations des divers Animaux, p. 68 — ^to be as periodic as those of certain species of
birds. During the winter, they constantly proceed from n. to s. ; and when they feel the
warmth of summer, they turn northwards. Thus thev are common in summer in Green-
land, while they are rare on our own coasts, where they abound in winter."
The number of species of birds that periodically migrate is so great that it is impoasi-
ble to find space for a list of them. Marcel de Serres, In the work already quoted, gives
a ** Tableau de TEpoque des Passages des Oiseaux," which extends over neany 100 pages.
See Birds of Pabbaob. The desire for a suitable temperature and the sesufch for their
proper food are the apparent causes stimulating birds to these migrations; and in most
821 ffifiSt
insttnoes especially in the case of insectivorous birds, the food is intimately associated
with the temperatore.
The migrations of many species of fishes are as remarkable for their regular perio-
dicity as those (tf birds. In some cases, fishes that are produced in fresh-water streams'
migrate to the ocean, and after spending some time in salt water, return (generally, with
singular instinct, to their own birthplace) to fresh water to prop^igate their species.
Some of these fidie&— as, for example, the lamprey (petrompeon marmiMW-spend most of
their lives at sea, and others, as the salmon, in fresh water. The remarkable migrations
formerly, but erroneouslv supposed to be made by herrings, are noticed in the article on
that fish. Manv fishes of the same family as the herring, the elupeicU»—as, for example,
tlie sprat and pilchard— leave the deep sea for shallow water diiring the spawning period,
when they approach our coasts in vast shoals. All such migrations as these seem mainly
due to a reprcxluclive impulse. See Fishes, Land-crab.
Amongst insects, the locust (locusta migratMa) is most remarkable for its migrations.
These insects are probably produced much more abundantly some years than others, and
as in such years their birthplace cannot afford them sufficient vegetation, they are led to
miflrate in search of food. Some idea of the occasional extent of their wanderings may
be formed from the fact that, in the early part of 1810, myriads of locusts appeared in
Bengal, from whence they proceeded westward completely across the great Indian penin-
sula to Guzerat and the neighboring provinces, from whence they pursued their course
southwards towards Bombay, the whole period of their migration extending over between
two and three years; while, in relation to their numbers, capt. Beaufort calculated a
swarm that appeared at Sardis, in Asia Minor, in 1811, at upwards of 166,000,000,000,000.
MIOUEL, Dom Maria Evarist, b. at Lisbon Oct 26, 1802, was the third son of John
YI. of Portugal. He spent his early years in Brazil, unrestrained and uneducated.
When he returned with the royal family to Portu^l in 1821, he could neither read nor
write, and showed no talent for anything but fencing. He Joined his mother, Charlotte
Joachime of Spaiji, in her plots for the overthrow of the constitution and the establish-
ment of a despotic government; part of the scheme being, that his weak father should
be either formally deposed, or virtually deprived of all power. The aged marquis of
Loul6, the faithful servant of the king, having been removed out of the wav by assas-
sination, Miguel, as infant-generalissimo, caused the ministers to be airestea, April 80,
1824, and his father to be closely watched in his palace; but the plot failed, and Miguel
and his mother were banished. He led for some time a remarkably wild and profligate
life in foreign countries. After the death of his father in 1826, the queen's party set
forth a claim to the throne on h\A behalf, as his elder brother, Dom Pedro, Was emperor
of Brazil; and on May 2, 1826, Pedro resigned the crown of Portij^l in favof of his
eldest daughter, Donna Maria da Gloria, proposing that her uncle Miguel should be her
husband, and regent of* the kingdom till her majority, to all which MigUel agreed. But
queen. Joachime's party had everything prepared for the restoration of abtolutism.
Miguel was declared king of Portugal. War ensued, and at first Miguel Was victorious.
He carried into full effect the principles of his party by a system of the most severe
repression of all liberalism, and signalized himself by the most extreme tyranny of every
kind, whilst- his own lifd was one of the wildest < excess. In 1882 Dom Pedro took
Oporto, and his arms gradually prevailing, Miguel was obliged to sign a capitulation at
Evora, on May 26, 1884, by which he resigned all claim to the throne of Portugal, and
agreed to retire altogether from the country. But scarcely had he been conveyed to
Genoa, when he protested against this deed, and consequently alliiis estates in Portugal
were confiscated, and an annual pension which had been secured to him was stopped.
He went to Bome, where the papal, government acknowledged him as rightful king of
Portugal, solely because he had petted the Portuguese priesthood in his war against the
national liberties. Latterly he lived at the castle of Bronnbach, in Baden, whece he
died Nov., 1866.
MIKADO. This is the popular title of the emperor of Japan, though in official
documents the term tenno (heavenly king) or tenshi (child of heaven) are most fre-
quently used. Other titles used in the native parlance or literature are nin-(J (king of
men), o-(5 or dai-0 (great king), ko-tei (ruler of nations). Other terms, arising from the
application of the name of the mikado's place of residence to his person, are: dai-ri
(imperial palace), chd-tei (hall of audience)! kinri (the forbidden interior), go-sho ^al-
ace), which names occur frequently in old European works on Japan. The term mikado
means honorable ^te, like the Turkish "sublime porte," and the Egyptian "pharaoh."
The dynas^of mikados is the oldest in the world, the present ruler Mutsuhito (q.v.),
being the l»3d of the imperial line. The first mikado was Jimmu TennO, who began to
reign 660 b.c., the professed starting-pNoint of Japanese chronology. The first seven-
teen mikados in the official list are said to have died at ages ranging from 100 to 141
yeara. The mikados have each a personal name, but no family name, and the name of
any one mikado is never repeated; though in two instances in the list, two mikados
reigned each twice, and have each two posthumous titles. Seven of these sovereigns of
Japan were females. The average duration of each reign is nearly 21 years. The
mikados claim descent from the heavenly gods, and their regalia of sovereignty are a <
mirror, crystal ball, and sword. The possession of these palladia is the test of legiti-
MlkAhl*. goo
macy during civil or dynastic war, of which but one is known in Japanese history — the
period 1336-92, when a compromise was made by the rival in possession of the regalia
receiviorg the title of ez-emperor, and handing over the sacred emblems to the other.
After death, the mikado receives a posthumous title b^ which he is known in history.
The mikado is allowed twelve miogo or concubines, besides the empress; and in addition,
there are four noble families called shinnO, from whom heirs may be chosen for adop-
tion. Succession is not always to the oldest son, but usually to the mikado's nominee.
The imperial household forms a distinct department of the government, called the
kunaishO.
MIKA'KIA, a genus of plants of the natural order eomposiUB, nearly allied to eupth
torinm (q.v.)- The heads of flowers are 4-flowered, and have four involucral leaves.
Mikania offidnaXis is a Brazilian species, with erect stem, and heart-shaped leaves,
abounding in a bitter principle and an aromatic oil, and valuable as a tonic and febri-
fuge. J^kania Ouaco and Mikania opifera also natives of the warm parts of South
America, are among the plants which have acquired a high reputation — deserved or
undeserved — for the cure of snake bites. They are twining herbaceous plants. Mikania
Quato is remarkable for the large indigo-blue spots on the under side of its ovate leaves.
The mode of using this plant, which is one of those called QuACO, or Huaco, by the
Indians, is by dropping the juice of the fresh leaves into the wound made b^ a serpent;
or little cakes are formed of the bruised plants, which are said to retain their power for
a long time. The whole subject i;equires investigation.
MI'XLOS (St.) TOBOK, a t. of Hungary, in the county of Heves, near the Theiss, about
70 m. s.e. of Pesth, with which it is connected by railway. Pop. '69, 13,024, chiefly
employed in rearing horses and cattle, and in fishing.
KDCL08ICH, Frakz, the most learned living Slavist, was b. at Luttenberg, in the
Slavic part of Styrk, Nov. 20, 1813. After studying law at the university of Grfttz,
he went, in 1838, to Vienna to practice as an advocate; but in 1844 obtained a situation
in the imperial library. In 1850 he was appointed professor of Slavic in Vienna. His
principal works are — Bodices Lingua PalcBoslavenica (Leip. 1845); Lexicon Lingua PoUeo-
slavemcm (Vienna, 1850) ; Vergkiehende Orammatik der Slaw. Spraehen (1852-71), a
work whi<3i has done for Slavic what the works of Grimm and Diez have done for Ger-
man and Romanic. Die Bildung der Slaw, Personennamen was published in 1860; and
Die Zigeuner Europas in 1872-77.
MI'KNAS, Mb'quinbz, or Mekitaza, a t. in the province of Fez, in Morocco, 38 m.
w. b^ s. from the town of Fez, stands in a fertile valley near the Sebu. It is surrounded
by triple walls and a moat, is neat and well built, and contains the finest imperial palace
in Morocco. This vast pile, erected by the sultan Muley Ismail, is built of marble, and
the surrounding grounds are laid out in gardens, said to be the most beautiful in Mo-
rocco, and here and there adorned with u^untains. Miknas is the summer residence of
the sultan. Pop. estimated at from 15,000 to 55,000, who carrv On an extensive trad.e in
native produce. The chief manufactures are of painted earthenware and leather. In
the vicmity are large plantations of olives.
MI'LAM, a CO. in central Texas, drained by the Brazos and Little rivers and many
tributaries of the latter, and intersected by the International railroad; 1160 sq.m.; pop.
'80, 18,659—8,952 colored. The surface is uneven and hilly, and in large part covered by
forests. The staples are cotton, Indian com, sweet potatoes, wool, and butler. Sheep
grazing and cattle breeding are carried on to a considerable extent. Chief town,
Cameron.
MIL' AN, a province in w. part of Lombardy in n. central Italy; bounded n. by the
province of Como, e. by Bergamo, s. by Cremona and Pavia, and w. by Pavia and
l^ovara; 1165 sq.m; ; pop. '72, 1,009,794. It is drained by tlie Ticino, which separates
it from Piedmont on the w., by the Addio on the n., and also by the Lambro, Olona,
and other branches of the Po. Theprovince is traversed by r&ilroads leading to
Venice, Como, Parma, and Turin. When subject to the Austrian power the area
of Milan was but about 746 sq.m., and it was divided into 16 districts; but in the
readjustment of boundaries which followed the establishment of Italian unity
and the kingdom of Vjctor Emmanuel, it was considerably enlarged. Besides the
capital, Milan, the only town of any size is Monza, 10 m. n.e. of mlan on the river
Lambro, which has about 20,000 inhabitants, and is specially noteworthy for its old
cathedral. The portraits of all the sovereigns who have worn the iron crown of Lom-
bardy are to be seen at Monza. The surface of the province of Milan is level, it being
a part of the great plain of Lombard^, and the country is intersected by many canals for
irriffation; by which means the soil is rendered exceedingly productive, llie staple
products are fruit, com, rice, and silk. The cattle are imusually fine. There are many
flourishing villages, fanns, and country seats; and the whole aspect of the province is
indicative of great prosperQr. It is now divided into the districts of Abbiategiasso,.
Gallarate, Lodi, Milan, and Monza.
MIL'AV (Ital. MHano\ the chief city of Lombardy, stands on the river Olona, in the
center of the great plain of Lombardy. Pop. (1872) of city, 199,009; of surrounding dis-
trict, called Corpi Santi, 62,976. From its position on the line of the chief routes of
82a juasse"-
the ce&trarAlps it derives great dommercial advantages^ wliile its fine canal system
opens for it communication with the prindpal rivers of Italy. The Ncmglio Grande,
or Grand canal, connects Milan with the Ticino» and the Martesana canal with the
Adda. The cit^, which is almost circular^ is encompassed on three sides by walls and
low ramparts; it has a circuit of about 7{ m., and is entered by 10 gates. Notwith-
standing its great antiquity, Milan possesses but few remains of its early splendid struc-
tures, in consequence of the many calamitous wars by which it has been ravaged. Mod-
em Milan is one of the most opulent and populous cities of Italy ; its best streets are
regular, wide, and well paved, and kept with scrupulous care; the dwellings are commo-
dious and tasteful, though of a less imposing character than the great feudal Tuscan houses.
Milan abounds in churches worthy of note: of these the principal is the famous Gothic
cathedral, the DuomOy which, with the exception of St. Peter's in Rome, is the most
magnificent ecclesiastical structure in Italy. It has a fa9ade of white Carrara marble,
and is adorned by 106 pinnacles and 4,^00 statues, besides a variety of carvings of
unsurpassable beauty. In form it is a Latin cross, with a length of 485, and a breadth
of 252 ft. The height of the dome is 355 ft. Its foundation was laid in 1886 by Gian
Galeazzo Yisconti, and during its erection many of the greatest European architects con-
tributed designs for its embellishment. Within it Napoleon was crowned king of Italy
in 1805. Besides the Duomo may be mentioned the church of St. Ambrose (founded
by that saint in the 4th c), the most ancient in Milan, containing inscriptions, sar-
cophagi, and monuments f lUl of antiquarian interest, and the one in which Uie German
emperors were crowned kings of Italy; the Dominican church of Santa Maria delle
Oraeie, which contains in. its refectory the famous "Cenacolo," or "Last Supper," by
Leonardo da Vinci; and that of San Carlo Borromeo (1847); of St. Nazaro, which pos-
sesses several masterpieces of the best schools of Italian art; and of St Sebastiano, once
a Roman temple.
Among the secular buildiugs of Milan, the most noteworthy is the magnificent Brera
palace, formerly a Jesuit college, and now used forpublic schools of the fine arts, with
the ofiicial name of Palace of Arts and ScJences. Within its vast precincts this unique
institution includes an academy of art, a choice gallery of paintings of the Bolognese
and Lombard schools, a fine collection of casts for modeling purposes, a splendid public
library, containing 140,000 volumes, and a rare collection of manuscripts, medals, and
antiquities; it has also attached to it an observatory and a botanical garden. Besides
the Ambrosian (q.v.), there are several large private libraries. Among the scientific and
artistic institutions of Milan are the museum of natural history, the schools of surgery
and medicine, especially that of veterinary practice, the celebrated conservatory or
school of music, and a military geographical institute, well known for the excellence of
the maps it has issued. The educatioual establishments include four gymnasia, besides
normal schools, technical schools, conventual schools, and a seminary. The charitable
institutions are numerous and splendidly endowed, having an aegregjate property of
upwards of £7,000,000 sterling; the Ospedale Maggiore, or Great Etospital, founded by
the ducal house of Sforza in 1456, accommodates 2,000 patients, ana annually admits
upwards of 20,000. The Trivulzi hospital, endowed by the Trivulzio family, maintains
and clothes 600 aged nensioners. The Milanese places of amusement are on as ^and a
scale as the other public buildings of the city, the first in point of celebrity bemg the
theater of La Sealay which can accommodate 8,600 spectators. The Cor90, or chief street
of Milan, is the universal fashionable promenade of the inhabitants; and the famous
arcade, or GaUeria di Oristqforis, with its brilliant shops and caf6s, is also a favorite place
of evening resort, and on account of its ea>r appearance has been called ''Little Paris."
Milan carries on an immense inland troae in silk, grain, rice, and cheese, and has con-
siderable manufactures of silk goods, ribbons, cutlery, and porcelain.
Milan (Lat. Mediolanum) was originally a t. or village of the Insubrian Gauls. It was
conouered by the Romans 222 b.c, received the Latin franchise about 89 b.c., and the
full Roman franchise 49 b.c. Under the Romans it became a conspicuous center of
wealth and civic influence; its citizens were noted for their refined manners and literary
tastes, and the public buildings for their beauty and elegance. In the beginning of the
4th c. it was selected as the residence of the imperial court by Maximian. Milan was
sacked by the Huns (under Attila) in 452, by the Goths (under the brother of Vitiges) in
539, and passed to the Longobards and Pranks previous to its subjection by the German
empire. After 961 it was long governed by dukes in the name of the emperors. The
feuds of the Guelphs and GhibeUines distracted Milan, like all the other Italian cities.
Supreme power became eventually vested in the Ghibelline Yisoonti, by whom the
ascendency of Milan was extended over tjie whole of Lombardy. From 1545 to 1714
Milan submitted to the successive predominance of France and Austria. Under Bona-
parte It was declared the capital of the Cisalpine republic, or the Italian republic, and,
finally of the kingdom of Italy. In 1815 Milan was restored to Austria, and continued
the capital of the Austro-Italian kingdom until the annexation of Lombardy to Pied-
mont, m 1850, by the peace of Yillafranca.
MIL' AN, ARCHBISHOPRIC op. Of its eariy history we have no certain knowledge.
There is a tradition that the apostle Barnabas established the Christian church at Milan,
and was its first bishop. Tlie first bishop of Milan of whom weJ^]^g^i|j^3(J;^y]^M^ is
MUe.
824
Auzentius, 859-74. He was the leader of t&e Ariaiu in Ibe western chiirdi. The Oirtho-
dox bishops, who at a synod assembled at Rome In 889 condemned Arlanigm, f^Mured to
pronounce against* Auxentius because he was protected by the emperor Yalentinian I.,
and, though the sjpsod was prerailed upon by Athanasiae to condemn him, he remained
in his see till bis death. The contest aHsing from the Arian heresy rendered the election
of a new bishop very difficult, and Ambrose, the consular prefect, found it necessary ta
proceed to the church at Milan for the purpoee of restoring otder. At the close of hi»
speech both the orthodox and the Ariaois united in a demand that he siK>uld be their
bishop. He accepted, and acquired great influence with the people and the emperor
Yalentinifioi. He vigorously opposed the Arians, and in 882 presiaed at a aynod which.
deposed the Arian bishops Palladius and 8ecundiauus. All me bishons who succeeded
Ambrose were elected by the people. After the overthrow of the Gooiic Idnj^om, the
archbishops of Milan, on account of the hostility between the people and the ComhanlB,
their conquerors, resided at Geneva. But afterwards the Lombaras beoune endmsiaatie
friends of the church, and the archbishops returned to Milan. Though the first biafaof^
in the kingdom, and having the power even of crowning the king with the so-called iron^
crown, the archbishop was yet subject to the king, and the church was subordinate to the
state. After the overthrow of the Longobard kingdom, the power of the ardibishops of
MUan was much reduced, but they subsequently became more independent than l)efore,
large feudal estates being bestowed upon them, and thev were the most influential allies-
of the (German em^rors. Eriberto oi Areago, archbishop of Milan 101iM5, organized
in 1084 a revolt agiunst the emperor Conrad tne Salic, and was expelled. After his death,
in the excitement prevailing over the election of his successor, tne popular chief Erlan-
baldo persuaded the people to select four candidates, from whom a choice should be
made. These names were sent to the emperor Henry II. to make the appointment, but
influenced by a faction of the nobles he appointed a rival, Guido oi Yalatei This-
appointment was disliked, both by the people ou whom he wiais foroed/and bv tibe disap-
pointed caiAlidatesi Milan wns at one time independent of the papacy^ tne spiritoai
and temporal power beihg granted by the emperor. But the German popes b^gan to-
interfere. Pope Leo IX. and his duocesspors attacked the Milanese clergy, who at that
time were allowed to marry, and in a council held at Rheims in 1^19 hiws were enacted
against clerical marriage. Archbishop Guido defended the clergy both by Scripture and
by a decision of Ambrose which he cited. The popes ami their emissaries^ who excited
great tumults iii Milan, which Guido, who argued in favor of the married cler^, was.
uuable to quell. The people rose in arms and resisted the papal faction, which resulted
in fights and blo6dshea. Nicholas 11., then pope, sent Hilaeorand and Ansdiii to allay
the strife. Anselm was conciliatory, but Hildebrand demanded tmoondltiooBl submis-
sion to Rome. In 1059 another papal legation was sent with full power tocolhpel sub-
mission from the archbishop and clergv. These ecclesiastics at first earnestly denied the
authority of Rome, but finally acknowledged it, signing a paper in which thev expressed
their penitence in humiliating terms. But when in 1061, after the death of Nicholas,
their fellow-citizen Anselm was elected pope under the naine of Alexander IL, the church
of Milan endeavored to regain its independence. A council of German and Lombard
bishops convened at Basle and elected Cadalus, who was bishop of Panna, pope under
the title of Honorius II. The German bishops, under the influence of Hanno, archbishop
of Cologne, sided with Alexander, and in 1064 the synod of Mantua deposed Honorius.
Guido, the archbishop, was excommunicated by the pope in 1066, but disregardiiig the
deposition he appeared at the altar to officiate at the services of Pentecost day. The
papal party attacked him in the church. His followers rallied for his. defense, but he
was nearly killed by the papists. A few months later Guido reoiganlEcd his party, and
the war continued for several years. Hildebrand finally, in 10tf9, proposed (hat the
Milanese clergy and laity should take an oath that in future their archbishops- should
apply for confirmation to the pope, not to the German emperor. Guido, weary of strife,
resigned his* archbishopric to his sub-deacon Gotefrido. He was confirmed by Henry.
IV., but the Milanese refused to receive him, and to save his life he escaped from the
city. The papal appointee was also rejected, and compelled to iswear that he would not
attempt to enter the see. Milan was thus without an archbishop. Hildebrand^ who. suc-
ceeded Alexander, issued an interdict against it. The Milanese, oisregarding the interdict,
appealed to Henry IV. for an archbishop. Henomiinated Tedaldo, who was consecrated.
He was the leader of the disaffected bishops who, at the synod of Pa via in 1076, excom-
municated pope Gregorv himself i He reniained in his see till his death, notwithstanding
the frequent excommunications from Gregory. With him ceased the independence of
the Milan arcbtnshopric. The clergy of Muan now largely belone to the Old Catholic
party. The reforms which they seek are the election of priests by the parish, the use of
the vernacular in the church service, the cessation of the worship of Mary and the
saints, the marriage of priests, etc. E. Serra Gropelli is the leader of the reform party.
KILAZ'KO (anc. MM), e^ fortified seaport on the n. coast of the island of Sicily, IS
m. w. of Messina. Pop. '72, 7,744. Its situation is unhealthy. The chief exporta
are tunny, wine, silk, fruits, com, oil, and liqueurs. The town is irregularly built, and
Is considered almost impregnable, owing to the great natural strength of its position and
the extent of its militarv works and citadel. Garibaldi, with 2,l!»oS men, defeated 7,000
Neapolitans here on July 20, 1860, and compelled the garriso;]fg{^j^g(^i^^i||^^e4c|rtres8.
825 gar"
MILBUHK, WtLUAM Hfemrr; b. I*hiladeipbiA, 1S38; studied at Illinois college. In.
boyhood he lost totally the sight of one eye, and partially that of the other, and the
skfll of the most distinguished ociilists in America and Burope failed to restore it. At
the age of twentv lie was admitted a preacher in the Methodist Episcopal church, his
field of labor bemg chiefly in the southern states, and his pastorates at Montgomery
and Mobile, Ala. He is said to have trsyeled in the period of bds itineracy over 200,000
miles. In 1856 he was chaplain to the house of representatives at Washington. In 185^
he visited England with bishop Simpson and Dr. McOlintock, where he delivered
lectures with great success in the principal cities. On his return he was confirmed in
the Protestant Episcopal church, but returned to the Methodist church in 1872. He is
well known as the blind preacher, and as an eloquent lecturer. He has published
Bifle, Axe and 8addUfbag$; Ten Yeofrt cf Preacher life; PMneere^ Prmchen, and People
aflMMittimppiVaUey,
MUBSW (Gkr. Xehtffuya, meal-dew), a term of somewhat vague application to cer-
tain diseased states of plants caused or characterized by the growth of small parasitical
fungi, and also to spots on clotb, paper, etc., and even on the surface of fflass and other
inorganic substances, produced by the growth of minute fungi. The mwiew fungi eir^
nunnerous, and the name mildew is often given to many ttiat are also known by other
names^ as Bkioht, Brahd, Bunt,. Rust, etc. ; see these heads; see also Botbttis and
OiDicif . Difl«eiit species or families of plants have their own peeuliar parasites ; sevej'al
kinds of pansitio fungus being, however, often known to infest one ploat. Probably,
the name mildew oriffinally belonged to those molds which form white mealy patohea
on leaves. Some of mese belong to the genus Brysiphe, which exhibits flrahy somewhat
gelatinous masses, becoming globose 9porangiaj filled with spore-contasiniiig ami, and
sunrounded by a flooky.my60^um, often spreading widely over the leaves and othet parts,
of plants. Maples are sometimes, covered with a mildew of this kind, so as ta be quite
hoary. • Similar^ ndldews are .often seen on peas and other leguxninoua plants; also on
umbelliferous plants. Sulphur has been found effectual in . curing some of ibtae mil-
dews. Many of the most destructive mildews are of a red or brown Color, sl^ the iiuldew
of the pear, Aiecidium ^sance^tatun^, that of the barberry, Aeeidium BerberidiB, ^tc. ;. whilst
some are ajlmost lf>lack, as th^ coin mildew, Puceinia graminis, by-wh^ch the crop® are in
some ye;ai:s greatlV injured. ! j ^ '
. Whether milaew. is the consequence of unfavorable weather and of rungl attacking
an already Weakened plant, oi; is the consequence of infection by spores of fund br6tight
through the air or soil to a plant previously healthy, is riot yet well ^scertalneci ; and
Srobably the one may be sometimes the 6ase, and sometimes the othet. 'There is no
oubt that many kinds of mildew appear chiefly toward the close of' summer on leaves
in which vegetable life has already in a great measure lost its pow^r.
MILE, the largest terrestrial measure of length in common use among the British and
most continental nations, is derived from the Roman m&liare, which contained 1000 paces
CmiUe paseuum) of 5 Roman ft. each, the pace being the length of the step made by one
root The Roman foot being between 1 1 . 6o and 1 1 . 62 English in. , the Roman mile was thu»
less than the present English mile by from 142 to 144 yards. The length of the modem mile-
in different countries exhibits a remarkable diversity, not satisfactorily accounted for.
Before the time of Elizabeth, scientific writers made use of a mile of 5,000 English ft.,
from the notion that this was the Roomn mile, forgetting the difference in value between
the Englidi and Roman foot The present statute mile was incidentally defined by an
act pasasd in tbe 35th year of the reign of Elizabeth to be '' 8 furlongs of 40 perches of
16i ft each"-^i.e., 1760 yards of 3 ft each; and it has since retained this value. The-
geograjMxU or nautical mile Xa the 60th part of a degree of the equator, aqd is employed
by the mariners of all. nations; but in Giarmany, the geographical mile denotes ^th part
of a degree of* the equator^ or 4 nautical miles. The following table gives the length,,
in Engflsh statute miles; of the various, miles that have been or are comxponly used:
£iur. Miles.
English geographical mdl^.....:.. « ..;. ,. =1.153
Gtennan geographical mile. » ==4.611
Tuscan mile.. =1.027
Ancient Scotteh mile =1.127
*• Irish mUe =1.278
German short mile =8.897
Prussian mile. =4.680
Danish mile. ,..., =4.684 '
Hungarian mile. . .- =5. 178
Swiss mil^ =5.201
Q^rman long mile ;.... i.,. =5.758
Hanoverian mile =6.568
fiwedislmaile.v.... t =6.648
The Prenoh kilomMre =0.621
and 29 kil.=18 English statute milc»s nearly. Digitized by VjUUV l€
Sfilta
itoxy.
826
MILES, NEL80K A., b. Mass. 1889; received an ordinary education, and took a posi-
tion in a store in Boston in 1856. When the war of the rebellion broke out, he accepted
a commission as first lieut. 22d Mass. volunteers, under date Oct. 1861, and was in the
seven days' battles, and the engagement at Charles city cross-road. He was wounded in
tlie battle of Fair Oaks, and again at Malvern hilL Between Fair Oaks and the change
of base to Harrison's landine, he acted as adjt.gen. of the 1st brigade, 1st division, 2d
army corps. Sept. 30, 1862, ne was made colonel of the 61st N. T. volunteers, and led
that regiment at the battle of Fredericksburg. At Chancellorsville, he was dangerously,
and, as was supposed, fatally wounded, and carried from the field ; he however recovered,
and during the campaign before Richmond in 1864, he commanded the brigade in which
he had been acting as adjt.gen. His commission of brig. gen. was dated May 12, 1864;
and he was brevetted maj.gen. Dec. 1864, for gallantry at the battle of Ream*8 Station^ On
Oct. 21, 1865, he was commissioned maj.gen. (volunteers); in July 1866 appointed colonel
40th infantrv; transferred to 6th infantry Mar. 15, 1869; and brevetted brig, and maj.gen.
U. S. army, Mar. 2, 1867. Since the close of the rebellion, ^n. Miles has gained hi^h praise
as an Indian fighter, being engaged on the frontier, in the protection of the settlements,
and in preservmg order among the tribes in and out of the reservations.
MILS'TTJS, anciently, the greatest and most fiourishing city of Ionia, in Asia Minor.
It was situated at the mouth of the Mseander, and was famous for its woolen manufac-
tures, and for its extensive trade with the north. Before being forciblv colonized by the
lonians, it appears to have been inhabited by Carians. Miletus early founded a number
of colonies on the Black sea and in the Crimea, possessed a fieet, which sailed to eveiy
part of the Mediterranean, and even ventured into the Alantic, and maintained long and
expensive wars with the Lydian kings. The " Milesians" were believed to be the purest
representatives of the lonians in Asia. After the conquest of Lydia by the elder Cyrus,
it was subdued with the whole of Ionia. It continued, however, to flouriah till it was
excited to rebellion against the Persians in the Ionian war, and was destroyed 494 b.c.
It was rebuilt, but never reacc[uired its former imp^ortance. Miletus has an honorable
place in the history of Qreek literature, being the birthplace of the philosophers Thales,
Anaximander, and Anaximenes, and of the historians Cadmus and Hecatseus.
MILFORD, a t. in s. Connecticut, on the s. shore, with a harbor on Long Island
sound, a station on the New York, New Haven, and Hartford railroad, and another at
the junction of the Naugatuck railroad with that road; pop. '80, 8,847. It is divided by
the Wopewaug river, emptying into the sound; and the Housatonic river celebrated for
its beautiful scenery washes its w. border. It is 11 m. s.w. of New Haven, and contains
the factories of the Automatic book-sewing machine company, and manufactories of
straw goods, boots and shoes, and carriages. It has excellent public schools, 1 news-
paper, 1 savings-bank, 5 churches, and 2 hotels.
KILFOBI), a village of Mass., 81 m. s.w. of Boston, having 6 churches, a manufactory
of machinery, and large boot and shoe manufactures. Pop. '70, 9,890.
MILFORD (ante), a t. in e. Mass., on the Boston and Albany railroad, Milford branch,
at its junction with the Milford, Woonsocket (R. I.) and Hopkinton railroad; pop. '80,
9,810. It Is 18 m. s.e. of Worcester, and 14 from South Framingham. It has 2 banks
<1 national), a town-house, 1 newspaper, a public library, and several tanneries. The
township includes Milford Center, North, East, and South Milford, and Hopedale, all
thriving villages.
MIL70BD, a parliamentary borough (contributory to Pembroke) and searport of south
Wales, in the county of Pembroke, on the n. shore of the haven of the same name, 7 m.
e.n.e. of St. Ann's Head. The haven is said to be unequaled as a harbor by any other
in the world. It is formed by an estuary running inland for 17 m. to Langwm (which is
easily reached by vessels of 2,000 tons), and varying from 1 to 2 m. in breadth. It is
protected from winds by a girdle of undulating hills, is deep (from 15 to 19 fathoms in
most parts, while the spring-tides rise 25 ft.), easy of access, and capable of anchoring
the whole fleet of England in safety. Its distance, however, from the channel, the high-
way of British commerce, is a serious disadvantage. The merits of the haven have been
recognized from the earliest times; but the rise of the town of Milford may be said to
have begun with the present century, when docks and quays, together with a mail
packet station for Ireland, a dock-yard, ship-building slips, and an arsenal, were estab-
lished here, only, however, to be removed in 1814. Since that time, with only occasional
gleams of prosperity, Milford has been in a declining condition; but the opening of the
Milford railway, and the constructwn of docks and wharfs, have given an impetus to
its progress; though the trade of the place is little developed as compared with the capa-
bilities of the haven and the mineral resources in the neighborhood. In 1875, 1362 vea-
sels, of a burden of 268,804 tons, entered the port, and 1173, of 228,080 tons, cleared.
Pop. '71, 2,886.
MILFORT, Le Clkrc, 1750-1817; better known by his given name, a French adven-
turer, b. near Mfe6reff, and d. there. First a fugitive from Justice in France be Uxk
refuge among the Creeks of Louisiana, where he acquired the title of "great warrior.'
During the revolution of 1789 he returned to France, and occupied various militaiy posi-
tions in the army, where he distinguished himself often by the resouTOS andbmrery of
?
ii brigand. In 180d lie published Jfei»0irM ou Chup^ d^€BU Bapide $ur Mu Vcyoffei cUmu
la Lottman^ et Ma 8^cv/r dans la Nation Creeks
nXiHAtr, or MiLLAU, a t. of France, in the department of Aveyron, in a rich and
fertile dale on the right bank of the Tarn, 55 m. n.w. of Montpellier. During the 16th
and 17th centuries it was one of the strongholds of the Calvinists. Leather and gloves
are manufactured, and there is a good trade in wool, timber, hides, cheese, and wine.
Pop. '76, 14,482.
HLITABT ACADSXT, RoTAL, an establishment at Woolwich, through which must
ass all candidates for the royal artillery and ro^al ennneers. The age for entrance is
7, and the vacancies are open to public competition. The pupils are denominated mil-
itary cadets, and the parents or guardians have to make a consiaerable payment in reeard
to each, 80 long as thev remain at the academy; the annual charge for the son of a civilian
being £120, that for the son of a naval or military officer less, according to the rank of
the father. When the term of instruction — which comprises the subjects of a thorough
^neral education, the higher mathematics, fortification, gunnery, and military duty —
IS completed, the cadets compete for the vacancies in the engineers and artillery, those
who pass the best examination being allowed the refusal of the former corps. Those who
obtain commissions in the engineers proceed to Chatham for further instruction (with
military pay, however) in their professional functions. The artillery cadets at once join
the royal artillery as lieutenants. The vote for the royal military academy for the year
1870-80 was £31,287, of which sum about three-fourths would be made up to the
^exchequer by the payments for pupils and a contribution from the Indian government.
MILITARY ACADEMY, U. 8. See United States Mimtaby Academy.
XILITABT ASTLUK, RoYAi<, an educational government institution at Chelsea, near,
but wholly distinct from, the royal hospital for pensioned soldiers. Its object is the
suitable education for trade, etc., of 500 male children — ^generally orphans — of British
soldiers. For these there are a model school and an infant school, and the boys liave a
•completely military organization, with scarlet uniform, band, etc. As a result of their
training, a large proportion of the pupils ultimately volunteer into the army. The school
was originally established in 1803 by the late duke of York, whence it is still commonly
known as the ** duke of York's school." Originally a similar school for soldiers' daugh-
ters was included, but was not found to answer, and has been discontinued. Attached
to the school is a training establishment for military schoolmasters, known as the normal
school. The total cost of the whole institution is about £11,500 per annuuL
MILITARY LAW. See Court Mabtial; Mabtial Law.
, MILITAB7 7B0KTIES (Ger. MiUtdrgrenuXiixQ former name of a narrow strip of
land along the Turkish frontier of the Austro-Hungarian empire. It had a special mil-
itary constitution, and formed a separate ''crown-land." Of late, however, the peculiar
institutions of the Military Frontier have been abolished; portions of the territory have
been incorporated with adjoining provinces; and since 1873 the remainder of the Military
Frontier, now officially termed the Croato-Slavonic Border-land, forms, along with
Slavonia and Croatia, a dependence of the Hun^rian crown. The constitution, civil
-and military, is now accordingly similar to that of the other provinces of the Hungarian
part of the empire. The area of the Military Frontier was about 7,500 sq.m., and its
pop. in 1869 was 690,800. The breadth of the territory once known under this name is
considerable towards the western extremity, but diminishes to only a few miles at the
eastern. The surface has an average elevation of upwards of 2,000 feet. All the impor-
tant rivers flow eastward. The climate is severe in the highlands of the w. , but mild in the
lower districts towards Slavonia. Maize, wheat, oats, fruits, and vegetables are the
princi pal productions.
The Military Frontier owes its origin as a crown-land to the necessity of having a per-
manent body of defenders on the borders during former wars, and especially during wars
with the Turks. In the 15th c. the Austrians had gained from the Turks certain tracts
•of territory on the banks of the Save and Danube. These tracts they colonized, making
it, however, a condition that the colonists must render military service against the
Turks. Thus originated the capitanate of Zengg, during the reign of Mathias Corvinus.
The Warasdin Frontier originated in the same manner in the 16th, and the Banat Frontier
in the 17th century. The constitution of the Military Frontier, as it existed till 1878, has
been thus described: " The military stations along the frontier serve a threefold purpose
— the defense of the country, the prevention of smuggling, and the prevention of the
spread of contagious disease into the territories of the Austrian empire. The inhabitants
of this crown-land enjoy peculiar privileges. Their immigrant ancestors received only
the temporary use of lands consigned to uem ; but in 1860 a law was passed making over
the land to the occupiers as their own property. This right of property does not belong,
however, to individuals, but to the family in a united sense. The oldest member of a
family (called the hauwater) is intrusted with the management of the land; his partner
(the hautmutter) ranks equal with him, and they each receive a double share of the
profits for the year as recompense for the management of the estate. A family of this
sort is called a border-house {grei^zhaus). All who are able to bear arms are sworn to
the service from their 80th year. The soldier of the frontier, who is clothed as weU as
^ Digitized by VjOUV VC
XiUlMry. 828
armed and supplied with ammunition by government, finds it«his duty not only to wmlcb
and protect the frontier, but to preserve peace and order in the interior, and to so on
foreign service when required. Only the smaller portion of the forces of the Ifilitar^
Frontier is retadned in readiness for active service, wliile the remainder pursue theu^
ordinary employments. To facilitate the accomplishment of the purposes aimed at by
-the Military Frontier, the cordon, a series of guard-houses along tne whole frontier,
affording accommodation to from 4 to 8 men, as well as larger ones, accommodating 13
men and a Junior officer, has been instituted. Within this line are the officers' posts.
Without announcing himself at the posts, no one is allowed to pass the boundary; and
after permissAon is given, the passenger must remain a longer or shorter time at the quar-
antine establishment, in order that ail introduction of disease may be prevented.
KUiITAST OSDEBS, religious associations which arose from a mixture of the religious
enthusiasm and the chivalrous love of arms which almost equally formed the character-
istics of mediseval society. The first origin of such associations may be traced to the
necessities of the Christian residents of the Holy Land, in which the monks, whose first
duty had been to serve the pilgrims in the hospital at Jerusalem, were compelled, by
the necessity of self-defense, to assume the character of soldiers as well as of monks.
Bee John (St.), ENiafirs of. The order of the templars (q.v.) was of similar origin.
Those of Alcantara and Calatrava in Spain had for their immediate object the defense of
their country against the Moors. These orders, as well as that of Avis in Portugal,
which was instituted with a similar view, followed the Cistercian rule, and all three
differed from the templars and the knights of St. John in being permitted by theur insti-
tute to marry once. The same privilege was eoioyed in the &voyard order of knights
of St. Maurice and the Flemish order of St. Hubert. On the contrary, the Teutonic
knights, who had their oridn in the crusades (See Grakd Mabttbr), were bound by an
absolute vow of chastity. W ith the varying conditions of society, these religious associa-
tions have at various times been aliolishea or fallen into disuse; but most of them still,
subsist in the form of orders of knighthood, and in some of them attempts have recently
been made to revive, with certain modifications, the monastic character which they
originally possessed.
MILITARY PUNISHMENTS, those which are inflicted upon soldiers regularly
enlisted, or non-cominissioned or commissioned officers, for infractions of discipline or*
, breaches of military law. Among the ancient (jlreeks the commander of an army was
. empowered, in case of sedition or mutiny » to cause the ringleaders to be seisced and
instantly put to death', l^hus, we read in the Iliad that Agamemnon threatened deserters
with death; and Alexander the great, when a mutiny took place -partly in consequence
of the jealousy excited by the favor which he diowed the Persians, caused thirteen of his ,
Macedonians to be executed without a trial. The military law of Athens prescribed the
punishment of death for the crime of desertion while on service. Among the Laoedie-
monians, cowards and deserters were either put to death or publicly disgraced; offenders
who did not suffer the extreme penalty were made, when at home, to wear a parti-colored
dress, and were obliged to submit in silence to any insult which the meanest citizen
would like to offer. Disgrace was also attached to any soldier who had tlie misfortune
to lose his shield. Said the Spartan mother to her son, '* Return, my son, with your
shield, or upon it." The ancient Romans punished crimes committed by the soldiery
with great severity. For the gravest offenses they were beheaded or crucified; and
under the Pa^an emperorss some were burned alive, while otiiers were exposed to wild
beasts; but this may have been in the cases of those who professed the Christian religion.
On the occurrence of a mutiny, every tenth, twentieth, or hundredth man engaged in it
was selected for punietoient; though sometimes only the ringleaders were chosen.
Frequently, in the case of deserters or seditious persons, they were first scourged and
af terw^rdtf sold^ into' slavery ; and sometimes such an offencler was condemned to lose his
riffht hand, or Wali bled nearly'to death. If a soldier absented himself from his pMost
when doin^ guard duty, he was examined by the tribune, and on the offense being
proved against him was sentenced to the bastinado. Sometimes the culprit was per-
mitted to escape, if able, while a shower of blows was being visited upon him ; but in
such instances he became an outcast, whom no one dare harbor. Punishments for
theft, or for giving false testimony, and slight breaches of discipline, were ligiiter
though frequently of a similar character. Sometimes the culpnt was temptorarily
deprived of his pay, forfeited his arms, or was degraded in rank. Again, h^ was sen-
tenced to remain outside the camp, subject to the danger of being captnred by the
enemy; or he was made to stand in the pnetorium exposed in an unmilitar^ dress. Or
he was senteneed to a period of hard labor, reduced to an inferior rank, or diamiased the
service in disgrace; Cowardice, or loss of arms, always subjected the Roman soldier ta
punishment, A centurion who committed a breach of discipline was condemned to
surrender his omi>lem of authority, a vine branch. The power of life and death rested
in the hands of a dictator, who could sentence to deatli any offender against military
regulations; and the Roman consuls had the power of exercising summary juriadiction
m capital cases. Punishments were ordered by the legionary tribunes and by the pre-
fects, with the concurrence of a council. The Roman system of punishments continued
in vogue among the nations of modern Europe, so far as military offenses were con-
Digitized by VjOUV IC
839 HUlt^ry.
oQcnedf until a recent data. Besides the infliction of a certain number of lashes 'with
cords, soldiers convicted of theft, maraudkig, or any other breach of discipline not
punishable with death, were sentenced to run the gauntlet [gauntelope, or ganglope;
irom gang, a passage, and the root ** to run," found in elopel For the execution of tnis
sentence the raiment was drawn up in a double line, and each man being furnished
with a small stick, generally of osier (except the grenadiers, who used their belts), the
culprit, naked to the waist, was either marched slowly or allowed to run as fast as he
could, according to circumstances, from the head to the rear extremity between the two
lines, each man striking him as he passed along. In certain cases the offender was
afterwards expelled from the regiment, and sometimes also from the town or district,
. with a charge never to appear there again under pain of death. The punishment of the
knout in the Russian army is inflicted with a leathern strap or belt, having a wooden
handle, and is applied on the naked back of the offender. Cavalry soldiers were for-
merly frequentlv punished by the jncket^ as it was called; this consisted in the man
being made to hang by his hands from a beam during a certain time, a stake, with its
upper end made sharp, being planted in the ground under him, so that, when from
weariness he could no longer keep himself up, his foot was pierced with the stake ; this
kind of punishment has been long abolished. Conflnement without liffht during a certain
number of hours was, and still is, a frequent punishment for being absent without leave
from parade, either on account of drunkenness or from any other cause. Formerly the
pillory was a punishment awarded to offenses of this nature. Besides the punishments
of death and transportation, which for great crimes are within the scope of military law
in the British army, breaches of disciplme are visited by temporary imprisonment, extra
drills, extra guards, and the performance of fatigue duties; but punishments consisting
of protractea periods of conflnement to banracks accompanied by laborious employments,
inflicted at the discretion of commanders of regiments, have been abolished for many
vears, not, however, before the most serious mortality in consequence had made it abso-
lutely necessary. While an army is in the fleld, breaches of discipline must be punished
promptly and with more than usual severity. It might be presumed that acts of
treachery will seldom be committed: desertions to the enemy do, however, occasionally
take place; but the more usual crime is quitting the ranks on a lawless expedition of
Slunder, generallv accompanied bv gross acts of outrage and often murder, against the
efenseless people of an invadea or occupied country. In such cases, it is generally
conceded that the offenders should be, and thev usually are, shot or hanged on the spot.
Even when the crime is less heinous, the well-being and perhaps the s«jety of an army
may be periled in consequence of resentment excited among the surrounding inhabi-
tants, and punishment should be swift and condign. In the presence of an enemy tliere
can scarcely be a more serious offense than intoxication; miscarriage *of an enterprise,
and defeat, with the loss of numbers of gallant men in an action, may be the fatal con-
sequences of indulgence under such circumstances. Whatever may be the defense in
other instances, there can be none in this, and the punishment is therefore always imme-
diate and widiout recourse. The punishment of the lash is one that is now given up by
civilized nations. Formerly, and particularly in the British army, a terrible frequency
in the use of this discipline could not but tend finally to the demoralization of the men.
Qen. sir Charles Napier has stated that in the beginning of this century, when flogging
was common, he had frequentlv seen from 600 to 1000 lashes given under sentence by
merely regimental courts-martial; and in those days a man who had suffered a part of
his sentence was often brought from the hospital, before his wounds were entirely healed,
to receive the remainder. The power of public opinion proved so strong in England,
and was so manifestly opposed to flogging in the armv and navy, that it gradually fell
into disuse, until a regulation issued in 1866 practically abolished it. By the existing
law, a man has to be convicted of one disgraceful offense before he becomes liable to
flogging for the next one, and flfty lashes is the extreme penalty; see Flogging. In the
United States this practice does not exist. Punishment by military law is oonflned,
except in the case of the death-penaltv, when engaged in war, to imprisonment, expul-
sion from the service, and minor penalties.
XILXTABT SCHOOLS, as regards the British army, are divisible into several classes
1. Those for the education of oflicers already in the service; of these there are the staff
college (q.v.) and the establishment at Chatham for training engineer officers. 2. Pro
fessional schools common to officers and men will be found under Gunnery, School of,
and MusKBTRY, Schools of. 8. Schools for the professional education of candidates
for commissions; for these reference should be made to Military Academy, Royal.
and to Sandhttrot Mh^itary College. 4. The schools for men in the ranks and for
their children are described under Schools, Regimental; while the instruction provided
for their sons or orphans is shown under Military Asylum, Royal.
The military schools of foreign countries deserve considerable attention, especially
those of Prance, where a military commission is one of the best scholastic prizes looked
forward to. In France no attempt is made to impart general education at the military
seminaries; a boy is required to have a thorough general knowledge before he can be
admitted to these institutions. Being open to universal competition, and being the only
channel— or nearly so — to the best employment under the state, the great military
* , - Digitized by VjOUVIC
schools, by the high standard Tequired for them, give great impetus to general edacatloD
throughout the empire and the m;6e8, or public schools, adapt their course of instruc-
tion to the anticipated competition. In the anny, two-tliirds of the line commiasiona
and one-third of those for the scientific corps are given to non-commissioned oflBcers,
but very few of these rise beyond the rank of captain; the remaining commissions in the
' line and scientific corps, and all appointments to the staff, are given by competition,
after a careful course of professional education. The candidates in open competitiou
are placed according to merit either in the infantry school of St. Cyr or the celebrated
Poly technique; at \x)iix colleges they have the right, if they need it, to partial or entire
state support. From the school of Bt. Cyr the more promising pupils pass to the staff
school, and thence, after a thorough course, to the §tat majeur of the army; the remain-
ing students pass as subalterns into the line. The pupils of the Polytechnique, which Is
.entered after the age of 17 years, have annually about 160 valuable prizes open to them.
The first 80 to 40 candidates usually select civil employment under the state, such as the
'* ponts et chau8s6es;" those next m merit choose the artillery and engineers, and pass
through a technical course at the school of application. The remaining students either
fail to qualify and leave the school, or have to content themselves with commissions in
the line, subordinate situations in the government, civil or colonial service, or they retire
into civil life altogether.
In actual service there are schools for the men, who are also taught trades and sink-
ing. The standard of education among French soldiers is far higher than among thenr
English brethren, as the conscription draws the men from all classes of society.
The Prussian system of military education differs from that of France in that competi-
tion is but sparingly resorted to; and the object is to give a good ^neraland professional
education to all &e ofilcers, rather than a specially excellent training to a selected few.
Aspirants for commissions must enter in the ranks, and within six months pass a good
examination in general and liberal knowledge; if, however, the candidate has been edu-
cated in a cadet -house— which is a semi-military school for youths — and has passed prop-
erly out of it, this examination is dispensea with. After some further service, the
aspirant goes for nine months to one of three "division schools," where he completes
his professional education. If he pass the standard here required, he is eligible for the
next vacancy, but cannot be commissioned unless the oflicers of the corps are willing to
accept him as a comrade. The artillery and engineer schools do for those services what
the division schools do for the line. The culmination of Prussian military education is
the staff school, open to competition for all the ofilcers of the army, and presenting the
highest prizes in the profession. In all the schools, the candidates study at the expense
of the state, or ipceive great auxiliary grants.
The Austrian system is very elaborate, and commences at an early age; boys intended
for military service beginning their professional almost contemporaneously with their
general education. There are schools for training for non-commissioned oflicers and for
officers, and senior departments for imparting more extended instruction to both classes.
Candidates for appointment as non-commissioned officers pass by competition throu^
the lower houses, where they remain till 11 years old ; the upper houses, which detam
them till 15; and the school companies, whence, after actual apprenticeship to service,
a few pupils pass to the academies for aspirants for commissions, and the others are
drafted into the service as non-commissioned officers. For officers, boys are pledged
to the service by their parents at the age of 11, when they are placed in cadet-schools;
after which the state takes charge of them. At about 16 the boys pass, according to
qualification, to the line or scientific-corps academies, and four years later into those
services themselves. The young officer's chance of entering the staff school — and there-
fore the staff'-Hlex>ends upon his place at the final academic examination. The compe-
tition observed throughout the course of military education is said to impart great vigor
to the tuition.
In the Italian army the system so nearly approaches that of France that a separate
description is unnecessary. It need only be stated that the educational status of the
Italian officers is considered high.
lOLITABT 8ECBETABT, an officer on the personal staff of generals in high com-
mand. His duties are to conduct the correspondence of his chief, and to transact a great
amount of confidential business which would dangerously occupy the time of the gen-
eral himself. The military secretary to the officer commanding-m-chief at the war cSlce
receives £1600 per annum, and is usually a general officer. The military secretary to a
commander-in-chief in the field is for the most part below that rank, and receives only
the staff pay of £346 15s. ; while to a general commanding a division only, an amtUint
miUtary secretarp, at £178 Ts. 6d. per annum, is allowed* This staff pay is of course
additional to the officer's regimental or unattached pay.
MILITABT TRAXSf formerly a highly important corps of the army, of which the
function was to transport the provisions, ammunition, and all other materiel, together
with the wounded in time of battle. It was formed after the Crimean war, on the
dissolution of the land-transport corps (q.v.). It comprised six battalions, m all 1840
officers and men, and its annual cost for pay, etc. , was about £71,000. The corps ranked
after the royal engineers, and was classed as mounted infantry, the officers receiving
• Digitized by VjjOU VIC
QO-l Military.
iofmtiy Tstes and the men cavaliy ntes of pay. The commisBions were pnrchasable,
as in the lUie. The men were armed with carbine and sword, but rather for defensive
than aggressive purposes. Attached to each battalion were 166 horses, with proportion-
ate wagons and ambulances.
It is proper to observe that the military train constituted only the nucleus of a trans-
I>ort service for a large army, and that in time of war it would oe expanded by the addi-
tion of thousands of horses or mules and the incorporation of many hundred drivers,
etc. The advantage of possessing even a few men readv trained and capable of direct-
ing the movements of others was amply demonstrated by the failures oi the Crimea in
18^4 to 1856; so that parliament voted ungrudgingly the expense of this corps, although
in time of peace it was comparatively without employment. The military train was dis-
banded in 1870, as being too military in its formation. Its functions were transferred to
the transport section of the army service corps, a purely non-combatant organization.
XILITEL'LO, a citv of Sicily, in the province of Catania, and 21 m. 8.w. of the
town of that name. rop. '72, 9,978. It stands on a mountain in a somewhat unhealthy
Bituation. In its vicinity there are important salt-lagoons.
XILITIA (Lat. miles, a soldier) has now the acquired meaning of the domestic force
for the defense of a nation, as distinguished from the regular army, whic^ can be
employed at home or abroad in either aggressive or defensive operations. Every nation
has a reserve, under its law military, upon which its defense would fall, on the discom-
fiture of the regular army; but the system differs in each country, and, with the excep-
tion perhaps of the United States during peace, none are formed on the model of the
BriUsh militia.
The militia is a constitutional force raised under the sanction of parliament, in which
the people— in theory, at least — wase their own bodies for the defense of their own soil, and
in whidi they depute the sole leadership and command to the sovereign and the crown
nominees. Organized by counties and cities, it is essentially a local force: the selection
of candidates for first commissions by the lord-lieut. of the county connects it with
the land, while the command of the sovereign effectually combines in it the interests of
the three estates. Under the Anglo-Saxons all men were required to bear arms, as a
sort of body-rent for the land they held; but no special or^nization being adopted,
efficiency was rarelj attained in the use of arms. This the nation found to its cost when
the Danes overran it during Alfred's reign. That great king, to prevent a similar occur-
rence, established the miHtia or fyrd, making land the basis of numbers, but the family
system that of discipline: so many families were a ty thing, ten t3rthing8 a hundred, and
hundreds were united into county powers, each under its heretoeh, dux, or duke. Each
section of the community had not only to furnish its quota in time of war, but also to
provide arms, keep them in repair, and to undergo so many days* training every year.
This arrangement subsisted in more or less vigor until the conquest; then the feudal
troops at first rendered the militia unnecessary; but it never ceased wholly to exist.
When the crown began to contend with the Korman barons, it naturally found its most
powerful instrument in reviving the Saxon militia, and the English yeomanry became
thenceforth the fear of Englancrs enemies, and a guarantee for the gradual enfranchise-
ment of the people. Henry II. established ''an assize of arms," at which every holder
of land was bound to produce one or more men fully equipped, and capable of flgliting
in tlie national defense. The arms were annually inspected, and it was illegal to sell, lend,
or pawn them. This annual assembly of the fyrd or militia is first recorded after the con-
?[uest in 1181 ; by the statute of Winchester in 1285 Edward I. revised the scale of arms
or the several ranks. Further alterations to suit the advances in the art of war took place
in 1558 (4 and 5 Ph. and M. c. 2). In 1604 James I. (1 Jac. c. 25) abolished the fyrd,
and substituted ''trained (commonly called train) bands," to the number of 160,000 men
— a force partaking of the nature of militia and volunteers, but deficient in discipline
and drill. During the civil war of Charles I. the train bands or militia mostly sided
readily with the parliament. Up to this time the command had never by any law been
definitely assigned to the crown or to any other body. After the restoration, the loyal
parliament of Charles II. immediately reorganized the militia— essentially on its present
looting — and declared as law that "the sole supreme government, command, and dis-
position of the militia is, and by the laws of England ever was, the undoubted right of
his majesty and his royal predecessors." As, however, the crown from this time began
to depend for its support upon a mercenary army, and as the local status of the militia
officers must always render the militia a force dependent on parliamentary influence and
ties, the militia was much neglected until 1757, when a large portion of the regular army
being absent in the seven years* war, it was carefully organized for the defense of the king-
dom. Several militia acts have been subsequently passed, but rather with a view to con-
solidating the militia laws of England, Scotlana, and Ireland, and to effect minor
changes necessary for the growth of the institution, than to remodel in any essential
degree the constitution of the force. The acts under which the militia is now organized
are the 42 Qeo. III. c. 90 and 91; 49 Geo. III. c. 120; 15 and 16 Vict. c. 50; 17 and 18
Vict. c. 18, 105 and 106; 18 and 19 Vict. c. 57, 100, and 106; and 88 and 89 Vict,
c. 69, consolidating previous acts. The present law stands thus: The soverei^
appoints lords-lieut of counties, who nominate to fret comimssi5p^ J^t^^U^^^ regi-
Mttk.
8a2
mente. The general oommandiog in the mllitoiy district oonnunds the mdlltl* fone
through the colonels of the sub-districts in which the re^pmeots respectively are.
The force to be proyided by each county — known as its "quota — is fijLed by govern-
ment in proportion to the population, etc. The numbers must be provided in some way.
In practice Uiey are raised by voluntary recruitment; but should volunteering fail, a
levv by ballot would be made upon all the inhabitants of the locality between me ages
of 18 and 85. The power of makine this ballot always exists, and would have by law
to be enforced but for the militia ballot suspension act, which, when the measure is
unnecessary, is passed from year to year. Many classes are exempt from tJhe ballot, as
peers, soldiers, volunteers, yeomanry, resident members of universities, clergymen,
parish schoolmasters, articled clerks, apprentices, seafaring men, crown employees, free
watermen of the Thames; in England any poor man with more than one child bom in
wedlock; in Scotland any man with more than two lawful children, and not possessed
of property to the value of £50; in Ireland any poor man not worth £10, or who does
not pay £5 per annum for rent, and has more thain three lawful children under the age
of 14.
The militia are bound, when called upon by the crown, to assemble annually for any
period not exceeding three monthB, for training purposes; and tlie government can
embody the whole or part of the force at any national crisis. The regiments were
embodied almost without exception during the Russian war of 1854-56, and to a con-
siderable extent at the time of the Indian mutiny, 1857-59. The quota of the United
Kingdom is 200,000 men, but not above two-thirds of that number can be considered as
effective. They may not be sent out of the kingdom, except thej volunteer, and then
only by special permission of parliament. As a defensive or gamson force, setting free
the regular army for aggressive operations, the militia is a most valuable institution;
and in times of war it has ever been found an admirable training-school whence soldiers
volunteer into the permanent forces.
A militia volunteer receives bounty, payable partly on joining and paiily in install-
ments after each training period. When out for traming, or embodied for permanent
duty, the officers and men receive the same pay as regular troops of corresponding arms
of the service, and are under the mutiny act and articles of war, except that no punish-
ment can extend to life or limb. The officers rank with, but junior to, their brethren of*
the regular army; the great distinction in appearance between reffular and militia troops
being that in the former the appointments are all of gold-lace, and in the latter of silver;
the buttons being similarly distinguished. The force is divided into heavy, lisbt, rifles,
and Highland infantry, and into artillery, the latter being generally limited to coast
counties, and beinff veir highly esteemed by the authorities.
The celebrated local miUtia was instituted in England and Scotland in 1808, and sus-
pended in 1816. It consisted of a force for each county six times as numerous as the
proper militia quota, comprising, of course, many classes, which, from a^ or other cir-
cumstances, were, ineligible for the militia. These troops could only be marched beyond
their respective counties in the event of actual invasion. Their numbers reached, in 1811,
to 218,000 men..
The cost of the militia for the year 1879-80 amounted to £1,289,650, the number of
officers and men provided for bBin^ 187,556 (including permanent staff and militia
reserve). As a constitutional precaution, the estimates were formerly prepared — at least
nominally — ^by a committee of the house of commons; but as the check was of no real
advantage, it was abolished by a resolution of the house in 1868, and thenceforward the
minister of war includes the charge among the many services provided for in his depart-
ment.
MILITIA (ante). The militia system of the United States arose from that jealousy
of standing armies which has always characterized the Anglo-Saxon peoples. After the
revolutionary war congress determined to limit the regular army to the actual require-
ments of immediate necessity, and supplement it by a state militia. The president is
commander-in-chief of the m'ilitia of the several states, when called into the actual ser-
vice of the United States. He has the power to call out these forces, by orders to any
officers of the militia he may address, in case of invasion or rebellion against the
authority of the United States. The militia may be required to serve for a period not
exceeding nine months. The troops receive during this time the pay and rations of
Boldiers of the regular array, and the officers rank next after officers of the same grade
in the regular service. The majority of the state constitutions require the passage of
laws for the organization and equipment of their militia. The governor is the com-
mander-in-chief, and subject to his orders are the necessary officers, chosen by various
methods in the different states. It was customary for many years to have annual drill
days for all the state troops, who were compelled to attend under penalty, but the laws
providing for them have been repealed or fallen into disuse. Voluntary organizations
are now formed, which select their own uniforms and the branch of the service they
desire to be attached to. They receive small state bounties to perfect their drill and
keep themselves in good condition for an emergency. These organizations form only a
small part of the whole militia, but quite sufficient for the government in time of peace.
The actual militia of the United States consists of these vomnteer iJ^Mi^Land^jdl other
888
Mill;
^e-1lodied male-citizeDs of the i^ of 18 aad under 45, with the exoeptioDfi providecl by
national and state laws, all of whom are subject to be summoned to perfonn i^tary
duty according to the laws of congress or of their respective states.
The state militia was often called out during the revolution, and the "whisky insur-
rection" of 1794 was put down bv the militia of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Haiyland,
and yirf;inia. During the war ot 1812 disputes arose between the national ana state
authorities legardins; the right of the president to determine whether the emergency had-^
arisen which authorized his calling them out, the right to place them under officers of
-the president's appointment, and the right to march them beyond the limits of the
state. The courts decided in favor of the president, and his right to decide whether
the militia shall be summoned, and his- right to place them under the command of a
federal officer ranking their own officers is- no longer disputed. During the civil war,
the first call of the president for 75; 000 men was- principally filled by the militia, and
the total number of volunteers, drafted men. and militia troops during the whole war
was 2,690,401. There were 1,000,516 -men in the field at the proclamation of peace, and
of these soldiers about 978,000 were volunteers or drafted men.
KILK is an opaque white fluid secreted by the mammary glands of the females of the
class Mammalia, after they have brought forth their young, and during the period in
which their oftsprine are too immature to live upon orainary food. It is devoid of odor.
€xcept for a short tune after its extraction; is of a slightly sweet taste, most commonly
of a slightl^r alkaline reaction (except in the Carnicora, in which it is acid); and its
avert^e specific gravity (in the case of human mUk) is 1082.
When milk has been allowed to stand for sonit? time, a thick, fatty, yellowish-whi©B
stratum (the cream) forms upon its surface. Wlien this is removed, the fluid below
(popularly known as " skim-milk**) is found to be of greater speciflc gravity, and of a
more bluish- white tint. Milk does not coagulate on tailing, but a membrane or film of
coagulated caseine, containing fat corpuscles, forms upon its surface. If milk be allowed
to swuid for some da^s exposed to air at the ordinary temperature, it ffradually begins
to exhibit an increasing acid reaction, from the formation of lactic acid from the milk-
sugar; while the caseine becoming coagulated by the action of the lactic acid, is separ-
ated in the form of "curds," and the fluid gradually assumes the form of a thickish pulp.
The Ordinary means of obtaining the caseine (which exists in solution in the milk) in the
form of curds is by the addition of a piece of rennet (the dried stomach of the calf), which
acts as powerfully as any acid. The curds thus separated form the basis of cheese, while
the fluid portion left after their removal is known as the * whey."
When examined under the microscope, the milk appears as a clear fluid, containing
fat globules (the milk globules, as they are usually called) in suspension. They com-
monly va^y from .0012 to .0018 of a line in diameter. They are each invested with a
delicate coat of caseine, which prevents their running together. By churning, the sur-
rounding envelopes become ruptured, and the contents are made to unite, forming butter.
In addition to milk globules, colostrum globules (see Colostkum), which are irregular
conglomerations of very small fat globules, occur in the milk for the first fliree or four
days after delivery.
The following table, which is based on the researches of Vemois and Becquerel,
represents the density and composition of 1000 paris of milk in various animals:
Density.
Wtttor.
Solid Con-
stituents.
Caseine and
Bxtraotite
Bfaltora
Sugar.
Fat
(Butter).
Salta.
Caw.
lOW.W
1088.68
1040.96
.hJW1.«
860.06
St:S
690.12
644.00
688.88
7W.06
110.08
185.94
96.70
109.88
155.10
107.66
887.08
89.94
65.10
38.85
85.66
85.14
09.78
110.88
48.64
88.08
88.76
S0.46
88.91
89.48
15.S9
98.66
85.18
d4.86
16.68
66.67
61.31
67.95
188
6.54
ifjsu ,:; :: ;:
5 88
Affl
5 IM
Oost
6 16
Swe
7 16
Bftfih. ..... ....
im
The actual. caseine which in the preceding analyses is associated with the undefined
STOup of substances termed extractive matters, ranges from 27 to 85 in 1000 parts of
healUiy human milk,, while in the colostrum it amounts to 40; in the milk of the cow
it is somewhat hleher; while in that of the bitch, and probably of all carnivorous ani-
mals. It [is more than trebled. It is found in the case of women that the quantity of
the caseine increases with the free use of animal food, and diminishes upon vegetable
diet.
The faulty matters ran^e from 25 to 43 in 1000 parts of women's milk» while in cows'
milk they average, accoraing to Lehmann, 45; and in bitches' milk, rise to 110. These
fatty matters, which collectively form butter, consist of an admixture of 08 per cent of
margarine, 80 per cent of oleine, and 2 per cent of an admixture of fats, which, on
saponification, yield butyric, caproic, caprylic, and capric acids. The milk which Is
last yielded is much richer in fat than that which is first drawn.
U. K. IX.— 68 Digitized by VjUUVIC
884
The sugar, or laciine, whose properties are deecribed in the article Sugab of Hilk,
varies in human milk from 82 to 62 in 1000 parts, and in cows' milk from 84 to 48. The
milk of bitches, when fed on a purely animal diet, often contains no traces of sugar;
but if tbev are fed on vegetable or mixed food, a considerable quantity of sugar is
found. The salts in women's milk range from 0.6 to 2.5 in 1000 parts, and in cows'
milk from 8.5 to 8.5. That a peculiar selective power is exerted by the mammary gland,
is shown by the following table, which shows the comparative analyses of the ashes of
cows' milk and of cows' blood, each reckoned for 100 parts:
ABhofMflk. AshoCBlood.
Chloride of potassium 14.18 none
Chloride of sodium 4.74 8&82
Potash 28.46 11.44
8oda 6.96 29.00
Phosphoric acid 28.40 7.74
Lime 17.84 1.90
Magnesia 2.20 0.75
Why the pot!»sium and sodium compounds stand in this inverse relation to one another
in these two fluids, is not accurately Known. The abundant suppiy of phosphoric add,
lime, and magnesia in the milk is doubtiess for the purpose of building up the infant
skeleton.
The mUk is liable to tolerably regular changes at different periods of lactation; for
example, the sugar is deficient during the first month, and is in excess from the eighth
to the tenth month; the caselne is m excess during the first two months, and is most
deficient between the tenth and eleventh month; the butter is considerablv in excess
during the first month, and slightly so for the next two months; while the salts are most
abundaut during the first month, but present no regular law of decrease. Hence, it will
readily be seen that in the selection of a we^nurse, one of the leading requirements
should be that her milk should be of the same age as that of the mother's. Various
medicines, as, for example, iodide of potassium, iodide of mercury, and quinine, have
been detected in the milk, after bein^ taken by the mother; and many cases are on
record in which strong mental impressions, as fear or anger, acting on the mother, have
so far poisoned the milk as to cause immediate convulsions in the infant.
The daily quantity of milk is dependent upon various conditions, such as bodily con>
stitution, food, etc. Lamperierre determined the quantitv of milk secreted 'in definite
times by a large number of women, and found as a mean for each breast between 50 and
60 grammes (&e ^amme bein^ 15.4 grains) in the course of two hours, assuming that
the secretion contmues at a uniform rate.
In those cases in which a wet-nurse cannot be obtained, it is expedient to modify
cows' milk, so as to make it resemble that of women. 'The main differences are, that the
former contains more caseinc and less sugar and water than the latter. By exposing cows'
milk to a gentle heat in a wide open vessel, we obtain a film of caseine which may be
removed (more than once, if necessary}; on then adding sugar (sugar of milk, if pro-
(*urable) and water, we obtain a good imitation of the human secretion.
In the article on Digestion, the uses of the leading ingredients of the milk in rela-
tion to nutrition are sufilciently noticed. The milk of cows is extensively used as an
article of diet both for healthy persons and invalids, and it enters largely into all hos-
pital, prison, and workhouse dietaries. In patients with a tendency to consumption, or
in whom that disease has already manifested itself in its early form, cream is often of
great service, especially when the stomach cannot bear cod-liver oil.
The adulterations to which milk is often subjected are noticed in the article Food^
and the instruments used for testing the purity of this fluid are briefly referred to in the
article Galactombter. Water is by far the commonest adulteration, and if it has been
added in largo quantity, the fraud may be detected by evaporating a small weighed quan-
tity of the milk (say 500 grains) to dryness, and ascertaining whether the due proportion
of solid constituents is left.
Various methods have been proposed for the preservation of milk for sea voyages,
etc. Moore's essence of milk is prepared by the addition of« little sugar and the evapo-
ration of the fluid at a temperature of 110°, to one-fourth of its bulk, when it is put in
small tin cases, soldered down, steeped in boiling water for a time, and ti^en out to
cool. This preparation keeps good for a long time. Blatchford's solidified milk is pre-
pared by mixing 112 lbs. of milk with 28 lbs of white sugar and a little bicarbonate of
soda. The mixture is evaporated under certain conditions till it assumes the form of a
creamy powder, which is cooled, weighed into parcels of 1 lb. each, and compressed
into brick-shaped masses, which must be triturated and mixed with warm water when
required for use. Grimwade*s desiccated milk is prepared by mixing the fluid with a
little sugar and alkali, and evaporating it till it is as thick as dough; it is then dried,
crushed, aud bottled. At the meeting of the British association in 1850, the abb6
Moigno described four methods employed in France for the preservation of milk, of
which the most valuable seemed those of Maber and De Pierre. For details regarding
these methods, we must refer to the abbe's paper. He found milk prepared by Maber's
process perfectly good after having been kept between five and six years. The^ijlk pre-
835
pared by De Pierre's process, unlike the oliier pvparation, is liquid. A specimeii of it,
the age of which was not stated, which the abbe brought to Aberdeen, was found to be
perfectly fresh. The preparation of condensed milk is now conducted on a hirge scale
in Switaeiiand.
MILK-JTJSVJSJK, in the lower animals, comes on within a few days after puritiontar.
One variety common to most animals consists in inflammation of the membranes of the
womb and bowels, and is produced by. exposure to cold, overdriving, or injury during
labor; it is best treated by oil and laudanum, tincture of aconite, and hot fomentations
to the belly. The other variety, almost peculiar to the cow, attacks animals in hi^h
condition, that are good milkers, and have already borne several calves; it consists m
conffestion and inflammation of the brain and large nervous centers, and impairs all the
vitsi functions, leading to dullness, loss of Kcnsatiou and motion, and stupor. Blood
must be drawn early, whilst the cow is still standing and sensible. Later, it only liastens
death. A large dose of physic, such as a pound each of salts and treacle, a dram of
calomel, an ounce of gamboge, and d oimces of ginger, should at once be given, solid
food withheld, clysters of soap, salt, and water thrown up every hour, cloths wrun^
out of boiling water applied along the spine, the teats drawn several times daily, and
the animal frequently turned. Although treatment is uncertain, prevention is easily
insured by milking the cow regularly for 10 days before calving, feeding sparingly on
laxative unstunulating food, giving several doses of physic before, and one immemately
after calving, and when the animal is in very high condition and prone to milk-fever,
bleeding her a day or two before calving.
MILE-FEVER (ante), the fever which aocompanies or precedes the secretloa of milk
in women recently delivered. The most conunon time of its appearance is about the
third day after parturition, the symptoms being a quick pulse, increased heat, redness of
the face, a diminution or temporary suspension of the lochial discharge, and swelling of
the breasts, with a feeling of tension and oppression. There is a tendency to this con-
dition in all women, and perliaps it may be r^arded as a normal one, as it is difficult to
suppose that so important a phenomenon as the establishment of the secretion of milk
could take place without a certain degree of constitutional disturbance, and without
there being any real pathological state of any of the organs. There are women, how-
ever, who suffer but little constitutional disturbance, comparatively. Those who suffer
the most, among healthy women, are the plethoric aud robust, and those whoee minds
are much occupied, lliose who are subjects of chronic diseases wiD be affected in
various ways, and no rules of prognosis can be relied on. The natural tendency is for
the symptoms to pass away without any special treatment, but a judicious diet oi bland
articles, with the administration, when indicated, of salines and mild laxatives should
not be disregarded.
KILE LEG. See PHiiBOMASiA Alba Dolenb, ante.
MILE, SUGAR of, or Lachne. See Sugak (Milk Sugab), ante,
MILE TREE. See ABTocAKPACBiB; Cow Tbbb, ante.
MUX VETCH. See Astragalus.
MILE WEED. See Asklepiadaceje; Asblepias; ante.
MILKWOBT. SecPoLYGALA.
MIIJnr-WAY. See Galaxy.
MILL. This word is now used in a general way as a name for almost all kinds of
manufactories, as well as for grinding-machinery; but we shall only describe here the
arrangements of an ordinar)' dour-mill, adding a brief notice of the edge-mill in use for
grindmg oil-seeds and some other substances.
From time immemorial corn has been ground by a pair of stones. The earliest and
rudest handmills were no doubt somewhat like one sent home by Dr. Livingstone, the
African traveler, from the banks of the Shire in South Africa. He describes it as '^a
mill such as Sarah used, when told by her lord to do the thing handsomely and m a
hurry for the strangers — i. e., a big stone worn hollow by the operations of grinding.
The upper stone is grasped by both hands, and the weight of the body brought down on
it as it IS shoved to the lower part The meal is made very fine." The next step
in advance of this was the quern or handmill still in use in the Shetland isles, the
Faroes, and other places. The old quern scarcely differs from a pair of modern mill-
stones, except in the stones being small enough to allow of the upper one being turned
by the hand instead of by vnnd, water, or steam power.
The millstones which are now all but universally used for grinding com are made
from buhr-stone, a form of silica like flint in hardness, but not so brittle. This rock is
only found in abundance in the mineral basin of Paris and some adjoining districtsf and
belongs to the tertiary formation. It is of a cellular texture, and is frequently full of
silicified shells and other fossils. Millstones are usually from 4 to 6 ft. in diameter, and
are each made up of a number of pieces strongly cemented and bound together with
iron hoops. One 6 ft. in diameter, of fine quality, will cost about £50. The grinding
surface of each stone is furrowed or grooved, the grooves being cut perpendicularly on
the one side, and with a slope on the other. A pair of stones are used together, aAd
836
both being furrowed exactly alike, the sharp edges of the grooves on the oae come
against those on the other, and so cut the gram to pieces.
Fig. 1 shows a section of a flour-mill reduced to its simplest elements. The millstones
are at a, the lower of which is firmly fixed, it being a matter of importance to have this
done securely; and the upper is made to revolve, on a shaft which passes up through
the lower one, at a speed of one hundred revolutions per minute, more or kSa Motion
is communicated by the spur-wheel ft, which is driven by a water-wheel or other power.
The com, previously cleimed, is supplied to the millstones by means of the hopper 6,
connected with which there is a valve, d, for regulating the supply. Passing through a
hole in the center of the upper millstone, it comes in between the two, where it is
ground, and thrown out on all sides by means of the centrifugal force. The millstones
are, of course, inclosed, and the flour passes down through the spout e, to the wbrm at/,
which, while it cools the ground com, carries it along to elevators g. These raise it up
to the floor on which the silk dressing-machine, A, is placed. This is a cylinder, whidi
was f ormiprly made of wire-cloth of various degrees of fineness, and consequentlv separ-
ated the flour into different qualities — the flnest passing through the first portion, the
second passing throught the
next, and so on ; but no part of
it large enough in the openings
to let through the bran, which
passed out at the end. Silk is
now preferred to wire-cloth for
dressing the flour. Hoppers t ,
are placed below the dressing-
machine, by means of which
the flour and bran are filled
into sacks; No. 1 being fine
flour; No. 2, seconds; and No.
3, bran.
One of the lar^t flour-mills
in Great Britain is the one be-
longing to Mestirs. Tod atLeith.
It is about 150 feet lon^, 50 feet
broad, and 65 feet high. At
one end of it is placed a steam-
en^ne of 350 horse-power,
which works all the machinery
of the mill. This communi-
cates motion to a series of
shafts aud wheels occupying
the ground-floor, belts being used as much as oossible for driving the wheels instead of
spur gear, so as to avoid a Siaking motion. On the second floor are placed 36 pairs of
millstones, arranged in two lines alon^ the room, the wheat being supplied siientiy to
them by centrifugal feeders. On the third floor are situated the hoppers for feeding the
millstones. The fourth floor contains iron rollers for partially crushing the wheat before
being supplied to the millstones. This floor also contains silk and wire (&essing-machines.
On the flfth floor are placed the flrst silk dressing-machine, and also flmat-lnachines
for cleaning the wheat previous to grinding, which are somewhat similar to thradiing-
machines. The sixth and highest floor also contains smut-machines. All these machineB
are connected in the most skillful manner by means of elevators ascendii^ through all
the floors; and along each, where necessanr, there runs, in a horizontal direction, an
archimedean screw, so that the grain or the nour can be conveyed to any of the machines
without the assistance of hand-labor.
This mill converts wheat into flour at the rate of about 500 sacks a day of 24 hours —
a quantity nearly sufiident to supply bread for the entire population of a city like Edin-
burgh. [The above description applies to Messrs. Tod's mill as it stood in 1868. It was
subsequently ^eatly extended; ana, after beiog destroyed by flre in 1874, has been com-
pletely refitted.] The great government mill of St. Maur is the most remarkable miU in
France.
There is a fonn of mill in use for some purposes where the millstones are vertical, and
called the edge-stone mill. It is sometimes, though rarely, used for grinding com; but
is much employed for crushing oil-seeds and for grinding dye-stuffs, sugar, chemicals,
and a multitude of other substances. The stones are generally of some hard rock, such
as granite or sandstone, and from 5 to 7 feet in diameter. For such puiposes as grbiding
cUy or loam they are usually made of cast iron, and of a smaller size. The stones
reiK>lve in opposite directions, sometimes upon a fixed stone or metal bed, and at other
times it is the 1)ed- plate itself which revolves, and in so doing turns Uie edge stones
which rest upon it.
Among the recent improvements in our flour- mills which have attracted considerable
attention are: 1. The patent process of dressing the grinding surface of the mUlstpnes by
means of a peculiar kmd of diamond, which rapidly covers it with fine grooves. This is
atill, however, more largely, and perhaps more efficiently, done by the slower process with
¥ig, 1— Elementary Seotlan of a Fkar-mllL
887
the Hiding hammer; 2. The keeping down of the temperature of the milktoiies by
mefiBs ^a current of cold air; and 8. The introduction of Carr's patent diHintegrater,
which ^inds wheat and other substances by means of two vertical ison disks about fAre
feet in diameter, and a few inches apart, in each of which are several concentric rows
of steal pegs^ arranged that those on the one disk overlap without touching those, on.
' . The disks are made to revolve rapidly in opposite directions, so as to griad
the oUi^r.
tlie wheal by percussion.
]PU^ in law. The owner of a mill situated on the bank of a stream is entitled to
have tluQ uqe of the stream undiminished in volume; and if the other riparian owiftera
above interfere with the stream by diminishing its volume, thereby causing injury to
the miU, the miUrOwner has a right of action agfinat the party so acting.
MILL, Jamils, was the son of a small farmer, and was b. in the neighborhood of Kont-
rose, Scotland, April 6, 1778. He studied, with a view to the church, at tlie universi^
of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himoelf in Qreek and in moral and metaphysiciQf,
philofloi^y. lie was liceused to preach in 1798; but instead of foUowiug out the min-
istry, he went to London in 1800, where he settled as a literary man. He became editor
of the Literary Journal, which after a time was discontinued; and wrote for various
periodicals, including the EdactU and the Edinburgh Beview. In 1806 he commence^
Yiia Histo^ry of BrUisR India, which he carried on along with other literary work, arid
published in the winter of 1817-18. The impression produced by tliis masterly his-
tory on the Indian authorities was such that, in 1819, the court of directors of the com-
pany appointed him to the high poet of assistant-examiner of Indian correspondence,
DOtwitMaading tlie then unpopukuity of his well-known radical opinions. The busi-
nesa assigned to his care was the revenue department, which he continued to superintend
till four years before his death, when he was appointed head of the examiner's office,
where he bad the control of all the departments of Indian administration—political,
judicial, and financial — managed by the secret committee of the court of airectors.
ohordy after his appointment to the India House he contributed the articles on TOvern-
ment, education, jurisprudence, law of nations, liberty of the press, colonies, ana prison
discipline to the BneyelopaHa BritanTuea, These essavs were reprinted in a sei>arate
form, and became widely known. The powers of analjrsis, of clear statement, and of
the thorough-goinff application of priiMsiples, exhibited in these asticles had probably
never before bsen brought to bear on tuat class of subjects. In 1821-22 ^e published
his ElemeiUs of PoUUDaTEeanamy, a work prepared primarily with a view to the educar
tion of his eldest sou, John Stuart Mill, in 1829 his Analym of the m^man Mind,
appeared. His last published book was the Fragment on Mackintosh, brought out in
1835. fie was also a contributor to the Westminster Bemeuo and to the London Benew,
which meiged in tlie London and Westminster.
Not long after he settled in London he made the acquaintance of Jeremy Bentiham,
and for a number of vears lived during the summer in Bentham*s country-house.
Although he must have derived much benefit from his intercourse with the great law*
reformer, he was not a mere disciple of Bentham, but a man of profound ana original
thought, as well as of great reading, in all the departments of moral, mental, and politi-
cal philosophy. His conversation was impressive to a remarkable degree, and he gave a
powerful intellectmil stimulijis to a number of young men, some of whom (including his
own son and Mr. Grote, the historian of Greece) have since risen to eminence. He took
a leading part in the founding of University college, London. He died at Kensington,
June 23, 1836. See Autobiography of J. 8. Mill, and an interesting Biogiaphy by prof.
Bain in Mind, 1876-78.
MILL, John, 1645-1707 ; b. Shapp, Westmoreland, Eng. ; graduated at Queen's col-
lege, Oxford, in 1669: was soon after elected a fellow and beoune eminent as a tutor;'
entered the ministry, and became distinguished as a preacher; became rector in 1681 of
Blechintcton, Oxfordshire; was made chaplain to Charle-s II.. and received the degree of
D.D., the same year. In 1685 he ^vas made principal of St. Edmund's hall; in 1704, by
queen Anne, prebendary of Canterbury. The work for which he is the most distin-
guished is his new edition of the Greek Testament, on which he spent 30 years, finishing
it only 14 days before his death. It was undertaken at the advice and expense of Dr.
Fell, i)ishop of Oxford, but after the bishop's death Mill continued it at his own expenee,
and repaid to the executors what he had received. It was published the year that he
died. The text which Mill adopts is that of Robert Stephens of 1550, and contains
30,000 various readings collected from manuscripts, commentaries, writings of the
fathers, etc. Dr. Whitby attacked the work in his Examen f>ariani^tm teetionum Joh.
MUlu; but Dr. Bentley approved the labors of Mill, and Michaelis, Marsh, and other
critical scholars acknowledged the value of the edition. It was taken up for a different
purpose by Antony Collins in his discourse on Free TJUnkmg, in which he contends that
** these numerous variations destroy the authority of the New Testament," a book which
was ably answered by Whiston and Bentley who show that the variety of readings is only
the necessary result of the number and variety of manuscripts. Mill's text has long been
held in high esteem by scholars.
MUL, John Stuart, was b. in London May 20, 1806. He was educated at home,
by his father. In 1820 he went to France, where he lived for upwards of a vear^^ng.
KllfcnariMis. 0«^^
blinBelf master of the French languaee, and occasional Ij attending public lectures on
i»cieiice. He Uved for some time at Parif?, in the house of the French economist Jean
£ft )tis(e Say, where he made the acquaintance of many men distinguished, then or after-
wards, in letters and in politics. He spent part of his time in the s. of France, in the
house of sir Samuel Bentham, brother to Jeremy Bentham. During this stay in France
he-Uud the foundation of his great familiarity with, and interest in, the politics as well as
the literature of the French nation. In 1828 he entered the India House, and became a
clerk in tlie examiner s office, where his father was assistant examiner. For thkir-tferee
yeais he continued to be occupied in the department of the office named the political, or
the transactions of the company with the native states. In 1881 he was appointed
assistant examiner, and in 1856 he was placed at the head of the department. He ener-
getically opposed the transfer of the India government to the crown in 1858. On the
score of failing health he declined a seat at the new Indian council, and retired from
office in October of the same year, on a compensating allowance. At the general election
of 1865 Mill was returned to parliament for Westminster; and till lie lost his seat at the
election of 1868 he acted with the advanced liberals. He died May. 8, 1878, at Avignon,
where he had spent most part of the last years of his life.
Mr. Mill became an author at a very early age, and may be looked upon as one of the
foremost thinkers of his time. His first publications consisted of articles in the Weti-
mimter Beview, He took an active part in the political discussions that followed the
revolution of 1880 in France and the reform-bill movement in England; and from 1835
to 1840 was editor, and along with sir W. Molesworth proprietor, of the London and
Westminster Bedew, where many articles of his own appeared. In 1843 he published his
J^siem of Logic; in 1844, Essays on some Uiisettled QuesUons of Political ItJconamy; in 1848,
Principles of Political Economy; in 1859, an essay on Uberty; in 1860, Discussions and
Dissertations; in 1868, a small work on Utilitarianism; in 1865, Comia and PMiiivimi
and the Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy; in 1867 (when Mill was rec-
tor of St. Andrew's university), his Inaugural Address; in 1868, England and Ireland;
and in 1869, The Std^ed^n of Women. After his death apppeared his AiUobiography
(1873), read with intense interest; Three Essays on BeUgion (1874); and a second volume
oi Discussions and Dissertations (1S75).
MILLAIS, JoHK BvEBETT, B.A., a celebrated English painter, was b. at Southampton
in 1829, entered the royal academy at the age of eleven, and in 1847 carried off the gold
medal for his picture of **The Tribes of Benjamin seizing the Daughters of Shiloh,"
exhibited, .in the following year, at the British institution. Before tnis period he had
Acquired a considerable reputation among younger painters by his avowed antipathy to
the principles of art which then prevailed. His views were shared in by other students,
such as Holman Hunt (q.v.), Dante Rossetti (q.v.), and Charles Collins, and a sort of
artistic fraternity was formed, which obtained the name of the Pre-Eaphadite School.
Millais's principal paintings arc : " Our Savior" (1850); ** Mariana in the Moated Grange"
.(1851); **The Huguenot" and '* Ophelia" (1852); "The Order of Release" and " The
Proscribed Royalist" (1858); •'The Rescue" (1856); "Autumn Leaves" (1866); "The Here-
tic" (1868); "Spring Flowers" (1860); "The Black Brunswicker" (1861); "My P^rst
Sermon" (1863); "My Second Sermon" (1864); "Joan of Arc" (1865): "Sleeping"
" Waking," " Jephtha" (1867); " Moses" (1871); " Chill October" (1871) ; "Day Dreams"
(1874); " Sound of Many Waters" (1877), etc. Whatever opinions may be held of Mil-
lais as an artist, no respectable critic denies the subtlety of his imagination and
depth of sentiment. He Is profoundly poetical, and has probably never been surpassed in
representing intense feeling and tliought by means of color and composition; but his
perverse affectation and contempt for "conventionalism" have marred his finest pro-
ductions.
MILLARD, a co. in w. central Utah, bordering on Nevada. It is drained by the
Sevier river, flowing into the lake of the same name, which is found in the central part
of the CO., and which has no visible outlet; pop. 70, 2,758—1,974 of American birth.
Though of large area— 160 m. in length and 65 m. wide— the greater part of the surface
is either mountainous or a barren desert. Some small sections are fertile, and here
Indian com and wheat arc raised. Chief town, Fillmore City.
MILLARD, David, 1794-1878; b. N. Y. ; was the son of a revolutionary officer, and
spent his early life in farming. His education was entirely self -acquired. He studied
theology, and m 1818 became pastor of a church in West Bloomfield. N. Y., where he
remained until 1882. He then edited the Gospel Luminary, a reiigious monthly, and in
1887 settled in Portsmouth, N. H. He occupied for several years the professorship of
biblical antiquities and sacred geography in the Unitarian theological school at Mead-
ville, Penn. ; and published ThA Thie Messiah in Scripture Light and Travels in Egypt, Ara-
bia, Petrcsa, and the Holy Land. His life was published in 1874 by his son. Rev. D.
£. Millard.
MILLAU, or Millaud. See MiiiHAtr, ante.
MILLBURY. a t. in Worcester co. , Mass., 6 m. s. of Worcester, 87 m. n.w. of Provi
dence, on the Blackstone river, the Providence and Worcester, and the Millbury branch
of the Boston and Albany railroads; pop. 70, 4,529. The chief business is the manufac-
* Digitized by VjUUVIC
889
tare of cottons and woolens. There are also boot and shoe, whip, cacriage, stockmg,
and cutlery factories, and machine-ahope.
MILLEDGE, John, 1757-1818; b. 6ft. ; was an active supporter of the revolutionary
cause, being one of Habersham's party which made a prisoner of gov. Wright of
Qeorgia— the first act of open revolt in that state. At the capture of Savannah, MiUedge
escaped and was present at its siege by the colonial forces under gen. Lincoln. In many
other scenes of the revolution he played a prominent and gallant part, but before the
close of the war was asked to take the position of attorney-general, wnich he did in 1780.
He served nine times as the representative of Georgia in congress; from 1802 to 1804
was ^vernor of the state, and filled a short term as U. S. senator, 1806-9. The town
of MiUedgeville, in Baldwin county, formerly the capital of the state, was named after
him. To the establishment of the state university and its seat, Athens, he contributed
liberally, and was in fact the founder of both town and college.
MILLBBOEVILLE, the former capital of Georgia, U. S., on the w. bank of the
Oconee river, 150 m. n.w. of Savannah, in a rich cotton country. Among its edifices are
the fomier governor's residence and state buildings, and several churches. Pop. '70, 2,750.
MIL'LEDOLER, Philip, d.d., 1775-1852; b. Rhinebeck, N. Y. His father emi.
CTated from Bern, Switzeriand, to America about 1751. Philip graduated in 1793 at
Columbia college; studied theology, and was licensed to preach at the age of nine-
teen ; became pastor of the German Reformed church, Nassau street New York, in 1795.
preaching in German and English. His eloqucDce drew large audiences. In 1800 he
was called to the Third, or Pine street Presbyterian church, in Philadelphia. In 1805 ho
accepted the pastorate of the Presbyterian church in Rut^er street New York. In 1813
he transferrea his relations to the Reformed church, and became pastor of the Collegiate
Dutch church in New York. In 1825 he was elected professor of polemic and didactic
theology in the seminary at New Brunswick, N. J., at the same time president of Rut-
gers college, and professor of moral philosophy; which offices he retained until 1841,
when he retired to private life. He declinea several offers of high position in the
church. He was one of the founders of the American Bible society. Dr. Milledoler
was a man of great unction and power in the pulpit, and uncommonly gifted in the
conduct of pubuc prayer.
MILLE LACS, a co. in e. central Minnesota, bounded on the n. by lakes of the
same name; drained by Rum river; 570 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 1501 — 242 of foreign birth.
The surface is undulating, and mostly covered with forests. Wheat, com, ana hay are
raised, but the chief industry is in getting out and sawing lumber. Chief town, Prince-
ton.
MILLENARIANS (MiLLSimraM, ante), in a general sense all who believe that
Christianity will attain in Uiq future a marked degree of prevalence through the world.
Their faith in this rests on many prophetic descriptions and promises. But that the tri-*
umph will be for a limited period is founded on a declaration in the Apocalypse that Sat^n
will be confined in the bottomless pit for a thousand years, and that durins the same
period the souls of the martyrs and others wiU live and reign with Christ. Some inter-
pret this period literally; others think that the definite period is put for one indefinitely
long; and a third class suppose that a day stands for a year, and consequently that an
exceedingly long period is marked out. But while these differences of opinion are
found among the general class, a more radical difference divides modern millenarians into
two great classes: the one affirming that the period of a thousand years will be introduced
by and follow the second visible coming of "Christ; the other declaring that the second
coming will be after the millennium, and will introduce the end of the world. The first
are called strictly premillenarians but in popular usage the title millenarians is almost
entirely restricted to them. They hold that the second coming of Christ will be in
order to reign visibly on the earth to subdue the obstacles that now restrict the exten-
sion of his kingdom, and to destroy the personal enemies of it and of himself. And
simultaneously with his coming they believe there is to be a resurrection of a part or of
the whole of those who have died in Christ, but that the resurrection of the remainder
of mankind will not take place until the end of the world. This point is of viCal
importance to their whole system. If it be true, much that they teach with it must be
admitted; if it be false, the whole system falls to the ground. Their belief in the first
partial resurrection rests on three passages of Scripture. The first is: 1. Thess. iv. 16,
"The dead in Christ shall rise first." Here, they argue, the distinction drawn is between
the dead who are Christians and those who are not; and it is declared that the Chris-
tians shall rise first. But to this those who hold the contrary opinion reply that the dis-
tinction which the apostle draws is between two classes of Christians — those who have
died or will die before the coming of the Lord, and those who then will be living on the
earth. The latter, he affirms, shall not prevent (shall not have any priority or advan-
tage over) their brethren who are dead; but that at the coming of the Lord first the dead
in Christ will rise, and afterwards those who remain alive shall together with them be
caught up to meet the Lord in the air. In this passage, therefore, those who are not pre-
millenarians find no intimation that one portion of tlie dead will rise before other por-
tions. The second passage, supposed by some to teach that the resurrection of Christians
840
will precede that of other men, is 1. Cor. xy. 22-24, ** For as in Adam dl die, even so in
Chriet shall all be made aliye. But every man in his own order: Christ the flwifrukg;
afterwards they that are Christ's at his coming. Then cometh the end, when be shall
have delivered up the kingdom to God." Here, premillenarlans say, it is taught that
the resurrectioo takes place in the following order: (1) That of Christ. (2) That of his
people. (8) That of other men. And, as between the resurrection of Christ and that of
his people a long interval Is placed, so there may be a period of less or greater extent
between the resurrection of believers and that of unbeuevers. To this the otto side
repty that Paul speaks throughout the passage only of the resurrection of believers.
This some among the Cbrintnians denied, and this, therefore, he undertook! to prove,
making no reference to the resurrection of other men, knowing that the one stifflciently
involved tl^e other. And the "end" of which he n)eak8, refers, they s)iy, not to tbie
resurrection, but to the completion of the work of redemption, when Christ shall have
put down all opposing rule, authority, and power. But the passage which apparently
favors the pre-miUens^an view most strongly, and witliout wMch the otbBn pAiliably
would not be supposed to have much force, is Rev. xX. 4r-6: "I saw the souls of them
that were beheaded for the witness of Jesos, and for Hie woid of Qod, uid wMcsh ted
not wx>rsh]ped the beast, neither had received his nxark upon their foreheads, or hi their
hands: and they lived and reigned with Christ a thoiisand years. But the rest of the
dead hved not again untn the uiousand years were finished, This is the first resurrection.
Blessed and holy is he that hath part in the first resurrection; on such the second death
hath no power, out they shall be priests of God and of Christ, and shall reiffn with him
a thousand years." Fremillenariaus, interpreting this passage literally, regard it tA teach>
ing that a thousand years before the end of the world, when Christ shall come to reign
visibly on the earth, there wilT be a resurrection of Christians from their graves to dw^
here, and share with Christ the glories of his reign. To this those on the other side
reply that the passage is to be understood not literally, but as a symbolic representation
of the actual event. At the beginning of the book it is said that €k>d sign^leA the
revelation to his servant John; that is, represented it b^ signs or symbols. Aooord-
ingly, the book contains a succession of symbols in which the actual meaning is set
fortn with striking impressiveness. There are 7 stars, 7 golden lamps, 4 horses and their
riders; and so on through the book. Some of them are interpreted, e.g., the stare, the
lamps, and the golden censer; others the reader is left to study out for himself. At the
l)eginning of chap. xx. there are two principal symbols employed. 1. The binding of
Satan in which the bottomless pit, the key, the chain, are symbols of the suppression of
Satan's power over the souls of men. 2. John says that he saw certain classes of aonls;
that he describes, and that they lived and reigned with Christ a thousand years. That
which he saw was — as those who argue against a literal resurrection think — ^a symbol of
the actual event intended to be foretold, viz. the zeal for Christ that his disciples would
display. This would be so remarkable that the souls of .martyrs would be an vppto-
priate symbol of it; a symbol worthy to be ranked among those employed in this book
of revelation. Tried even by this high standard, what symbol, it is asked, could be
more significant of devoted zeal than that here employed? How could thepiety of a
man be more highly commended than to say he has the soul of a martyr? What conld
be said more expressive of power in a church than that all its members manifest Uie
spirit of those who had forfeited their lives for the testimony of Jesns? How coold
irresistible power in Christendom be more strikingly expressed than try saying that no-
where or by no person is any other spirit manifested than the sphrit of martjm Tet,
according to this interpretation, John says, this will be the case in the unllenniiim.
"The rest of the dead lived not again until the thousand years were fnlfllled." There will
be none like them in all that time. The souls of the wicked, of the worldly, ^ double
minded, half-hearted, or timid Christians, are not an appropriate symbol of OfaiistiaiiB
in millennium times. And these devoted ones, it is added, shall reign with Christ
during the thousand years. They shall not only be devoted to him, but fdso happy with
him. The mart3rr's zeal will be united with the prosperity of triiunphant times. The
symbol having been given, the inteipretation is added: "This is the first resurrectiim.''
That is, the new life of the soul which comes with faith in Christ. This is experienced
before the resurrection of the body, and is therefore called the first resurrection. The
Savior foretold both together, and placed this first. ''The hour is coming, and now is,
when the dead shall hear the voice of the Son of God, and they that hear shall live."
This describes the resurrection of the soul which was even then taking place. After
that comes the description of the general resurrection— even of all that are in the graves.
And fdl through the epistles this resurrection of the soul is afiirmed, and its impoiianoe
is magnified as by the power of Christ, the source of all the life of Christianity in the
church. This, therefore, is actually "the first resurrection," separated from the gen-
eral resurrection by the whole period between the first preaching of the gospel and the
last day. And besides this, those who are not premillenarians say there is nothing dbae
foretold in Scripture to which the name, first resurrection, is to be applied. It is proba-
ble that neither of these interpretations is found satisfactoir in every point by tlie great
mass of the nominal adherents to either view. On each siae a few leaders are enthosi-
astically sure; but the common Christian feeling is that in each view there is some
strength and much weakness; that while the strict premillenniAl view from aflat
841
literal interpretation of a few texts, tends to an externaliBm and a ffross materialism in
the handling of noble spiritual facts, the opposite and more usual yfew tends to diasoWe
an spiritual facts in a vast sea of symbolism, and this on a principle of interpretation by
wliich any words in Scripture may be turned to almost any meaning. The usnaJ
expedient of seeking a view carefully limited between the two extremes and antagonizing
both. Seems scarcely feasible in this case. This is not the place to say more than that
the truth will probably be found not between, but combtninff both — not so much reject-
ing eitfaer, as solvent and comprehensive of both in some hi^er range of thought.
WTfJiiCifHAirM (Lat a thousand years' time) demgnates a certain period in the history
of the world, lasting for a long indefinite space (vaguely a thousand vears), during whicu
the kingdom of Messiah will, according to tradition, be visibly establisliea on the earth.
The idea originated proximately in the Messianic expectations of the Jews; but more
^motdv, it hapB been conjectured, in the Zovoastrian doctrine of the final triiunph of
Ormuza over Ahriman, and was connected by*' the Christians with the Pounousui, or
Second Onnhsg of Christ. The notion of a golden age, preserved by the converts fr<»n
heathenism to Christianity, as well as the oppression and persecutions to which they were
long subjected by the state authorities, were naturally calculated to develop and strengthen
8U(£ hopes. The diief basis of the millenarian idea in Judaism as well as in Christianity,
however, is the ardent hope for a visible divine rule upon earth, and the identification of
the church with that of which it is merely a s^bol. In the 1st c. of the church, millen-
arianism (the Greek equivalent of which, chihasm, from efuHoi, a thousand, is the term
employed by the fathers) was a widespread belief, to which the book of Daniel, and
more particularly the pictorial predictions of the Apocalypse (chaps, xx. and xxi.), gave
an apostolical authority; while certtdn prophetical writings, composed at the end of the
let and the beginning of the dd c. — stx;h as the Tettament of tM Twelve PatiioTche, the
Pov/rtkBook ofEedrae, the lUwlaiian of Saint Peter, etc.; also the Christian &byUine.
Books, the BpnUe of Barnabas, the Shepherd of the Peeudo-Hermae, several Midrashim,
Targums, and other works of a partly legendary character emliodied in the Talmud-AenX
it a more vivid coloring and imagery. The unanimity which the early Christian teachers
exliiblt in regard to millenarianism, proves how strongly it had laid hold of the imagina-
tion of the church, to which, in this early stage, immortality and future rewards were to
a great extent things of this world as yet. Not only the heretic Cerinthus, but even ^e
orthodox doctors — ^such as Papias, bishop of Hierapolis, Irenssus, Justin Martjrr, etc. —
delighted themselves with dreams of the glon' and magnificence of the millennial king
dom. The SibylUne Books, for instance, hold that the earth will be cultivated through-
out its length and breadth, that there will be no more seas, no more winters, no more
nights; everlasting wells will run honey, milk, and wine, etc., etc. Papias, in his col-
lection of traditional sayings of Christ (Kuriakon Logion Exeg^seis), indulges in the most
monstrous representations of the rebuilding of Jerusalem, and the colossal vines and
CTapes of the millennial reign. Every vine will bear 10,000 branches, every branch
10,000 shoots, every shoot 10,000 sprigs every sprig 10,000 bunches, every bunch 10,000
berries, every berry 86 times 25 gallons of wme; and if a Saint come to pluck a berry,
they will all cry out: ** Pluck me, O Saint, I am better, and praise the Lord through me."
The Talmud calculates the height of the men of the millennium to be, as before Uie fall,
of 200 — ^900 yards; the moon shall be, according to a prophetical dictum, like the sun;
the sun shall be increased S43 times; and every Israelite will beget as many children as
there were Israelites going out from Egypt— 60,000. Each grape will be large enough to
fill the biggest ship. Above all, however, the land of Israel will be free again, and the
primitive worship restored with unheard-of splendor. ** Such a chiliasm," Neander
Justly remarks, could only ** promote a fleshly eudaimonism;" and indeed ere long it
call^ into more energetic activity the opposition of Gnostic spiritualism. According to
the general opinion, which was as much Christian as Jewish, the millennium was to be
preceded by great calamities, reminding us in some degree of the Scandinavian ragnarfik
(or '' Twilight of the Gk)ds"). The personification of evil appeared in Antichrist, the
precursor of Christ (identifiea, during 1st c, with Nero), who would provoke a frightful
war in the land of Magog (Ezek. chaps, xxxviii. and xxxix.) against the people of €k>g,
after which the Messiah — some say a aouble Messiah, one the son of Joseph, vanquished
in the strife; the other, the victorious son of David — would appear, heralded by Elias, or
Moses, or Melchizedek, or Isaiah, or Jeremiah, and would bind Satan for a thousand
years, annihilate the godless heathen, or make them slaves of the believers, overturn the .
Koman empire, from the ruins of which a new order of things would spring forth, in
which the "dead in Christ " would arise, and along with the surviving saints enjoy an
incomparable felicity in the city of the "New Jerusalem," which was expected to*
descend literally from heaven. To the innocence which was the state of man in Para< i
disc, there was associated, in the prevalent notions of the millennium, the finest physical
and intellectual pleasures.
In the Mosaic account of creation, we find the primitive ground for making the vic-
torious era of the church last a thousand years. Tbat account was regarded by the Jews
and by the Judaic Christians as a type of the destinies of creation. Now, by a strictly
literal interpretation of the 4th verse of the 90th Psalm, it was nipposed that a day of
God was arithmetically equal to a thousand years; hence the 6 d^s ofcij^ti|m .^sre
imSSSSi' 849
understood to indicate that the earth would pass through 6,000 years of labor aad suffer-
ing, to be followed by a 7th dajr — that is, 1000 years of rest and happiness. In the Book
of Revelation (chap, xx J this view is presented. Still, the rabbiDical traditions differ
widely amoDg themselves as to the duration of the happy period. Instead of 1000 years,
some of them count 40, 70, 90, 865, 400, 600, 2.000, or 7.000, or so many years as have
elapsed from the creation of the world or the flood. The Gospel of Nicodcmus makes it
500 years, etc. In fact, the systems of apocalyptic chroDology were of a varied and
somewhat arbitrary cast; according as their originators laid mater stcess upon the
Apocalypse, the Book of Daniel, the Song of Songs, the Jewi£ '•Gematria." or Com-
putation of Letters — a very pliable art in itself— or on astronomy, asUoloQr, ''natural
phenomena," and the like.
The lapse of time chilling the ardor of the primitive Christian belief in the nearness
of the parousia had without doubt also the tendency to eive a more sliadowy, and there-
fore a more spiritual aspect to the kingdom over whidi the expected Messiah was to
reign. The influence of the Alexandrian philosophy contributed to produce the same
result. Origen, for example, Af^ started the idea tliat instead of a perpetual opposition
of paganism to Christianity — instead of a final and desperate conflict between the two—
inste^l of an insolent triumph on the part of the saints, and a servile submission on the
part of the unbelievers, the real progress and victory of Christianity would consist in the
gradual spread of the truth throughout the world, and in the voluntary homage paid to
ft by all secular powers. This was an immense advance on the views previously enter-
tained. It is owinff largely to Origen and his disciple Dion^sius that more spiritual con-
ceptions of the miUennium Anally established themselves in the church; at all events,
they furnished the fathers with the majority of their arguments. Yet even in the
£gypto- Alexandrian church, millenarianism, in its most literal form, was widely diffused,
and was only eradicated by the great wisdom and moderation of Dionysius. The Hon-
.tanist8(q.v.) generally, as might be expected from the enthusiastic tendencies of the
sect, were extreme millenarians or chiliasts, and, being considered a heretical sect, con-
tributed largely to bring chiliasm into discredit, or, at all events, their own carnal form
of chiliasm, which TertuUian himself attacked. Caius, the presbyter, in his ''Disputa-
tion" against theMontauist Proclus, traces ite origin to the hated heretic Cerinthus, whom
he accuses of forging a certain revelation, which he passed of as the work of an apostle.
From his description of this revelation it is almost certain — strange as it may appear-
that he nlludes to the canonical Apocalvpse. Lactantius, in the beginning of the 4th c,
was the last important church father who indulged in chlliastic dreams, while amon^ its
earlier advocates may be mentioned chiefly Nepos, Methodius, Korakion, ApolUnarius,
Victorinus, etc. In the 5th c. St. Jerome and St. Augustine expressly combated certain
fanatics who still hoped for the advent of a millennial kingdom whose pleasures included
those of the flesh. But from this tinie the church formally rejected millenarianism in
its sensuous " visible" form, although the doctrine every now and then made its reappear-
ance, especially as a general popular belief, in the most sudden and obstinate manner.
Thus the expectation of the laat day in the year 1000 a.d. re-invested the doctrine with
a transitory importance; but it lost all credit agiiin when the hopes, so keenly excited by
the crusades, faded away before the stem reality of Saracenic success, and the predic-
tions of the Everlasting Oospel, a work of Joachim de Floris, a Franciscan abbot (died
1212). remained unfulflllcd.
At the period of the reformation, millenarianism once more experienced a partial
revival, because it was not a difficult matter to apply some of its symbolism to the papacy.
The pope, for example, was Antiehiist — a belief still adhered to by some extreme
Protestants. Yet the doctrine was not adopted by the great body of the reformers, but
by soRiC fanatical sects, such as the Anabaptists and by the Theosophists of the 17th
i'entury. During the civil and religious wars in France and England, when great excite-
ment prevailed, it was also prominent. The fifth monarchy men of Cromwell s time were
millenarians of the most exaggerated and dangerous sort. Their peculiar tenet was that
the millennium had come, and that they were the saints who were to inherit the earth.
The excesses of the French Roman Catholic Mystics and Quietists terminated in chllias-
tic views. Among the Protestants it was during the thirty yem's' toar that the most
enthusiastic and learned chiliasts flourished. These may — broadly — be brought under
the three chief heads of exegetical chiliasts, who, by some biblical dates, endeavored to
compute the predicted time; akhemuitic or cabalistic chiliasts, who endeavored to hasten
the period by some mystical discovery; and poUtico-tTieoeratie chiliasts, who wished to
reduce the governments of the world to a biblical standard. See Anabaptists, MIjI^zer.
The awful suffering and wide-spread desolation of that time led pious hearts to solace
themselves with the hope of a peaceful and glorious future. Since then the penchant
which has sprung up for expounding the prophetical books of the Bible, and particularly
the Apocalypse, with a view to present events has given the doctrine a faint semi-theo-
logical life, very different, however, from the earnest, practical faith of the first Chris-
tians. Among the foremost chlliastic teachers of modern centuries are to be mentioned
Ezechiel Meth, Paul Felgenhauer, bishop Comenius (Luj' in Tenebris, 1657); prof. Juriea
{L'AeeompliMement des Proprieties, 1686); Serarius {Assertion du Begne de MiUe Ans, etc^
ab. 1670); FoireU {Ek^nomie Divine, 1687); J. Mede (Clav, Apocal 1627); while Thomas
Burnet and W. Whiston endeavored to give chiliasm a geolog|^l^^ip4^P% ^^^ with-
QAO Millepede.
^^^ BUllepilMK
oat fhiding much favor. Spe&er, on acooant of bis EGfawnjg besaerer ZeUen, has been
accused or cbiliasm; no less Joachim Lange {LiM und BeM); and Swedenboi^ employed
apocalyptic images to set forth the transfigured world of the senses. Latterly^ especially
since the rise and extension of missionary enterprise, the opinion has obtained a wide cur-
lenoy that after the conversion of the whole world to Christianity, a blissful and glorious era
will ensue; but not much stress — except by extreme literalists— is now laid on the nature
or duration of this far-off felicity. In fact, the common Christian conception of a mil-
lennium without a visibly present Christ, as held at the present day, is little different,
so far as results are concerned, from the belief of philoeophers in the perfectibility of
the race. The essence of both conceptions is the cessation of sin and sorrow, the preva
lence of holiness and happiness. But this departs widely from the "ancient hope of the
church** — a kingdom of risible majesty, with Jesus and the saints ruling the world from
Jerusalem, the central city of the earth!
Great eagerness and not a little ingenuity have been exhibited by many persons in fixing
a date for the commencement of the millennium. The celebrated theologian, Johann
Albrech^ Bengel (BrkUtrte Offmbarung; Bedm fuf'9 Vcik\ who, in the 18th c, revived
an earnest interest in the subject among orthodox Protestants, asserted from a study of
the prophedee that the milleDnium would besin in 1886. This date was long popular.
Bengel's general millenarianism was adopted by Oetinger (d. 1782), and widely spread
throughout Qermany in a more or less poetio form by Hahn, Crusius, Jung Stilling,
Lavater, and Hess (Briefe fiber die Qffenb, JohJ), Some of the greatest of the more recent
German theologians are millenarians, such as Rothe, Delitzsch. Hoffman, Kurtz, Hebart,
Thiersch, ^itzsch, P. Lange, and Ebrard. Swedenborg, to whom reference has already
been made, held that the last judgment took place in 1757, and that the new church, or
"' Church of the New Jerusalem, as his followers designate themselves — in other words,
the millennial era, then began. In America, considerable agitation was excited by the
preaching of one William Miller, who fixed the second advent of Christ about 1843. Of
late years, the most noted English millenarian is Dr. John Cumming, who originally
placed the end of ihi^preierU dispensation in 1866 or 1867; but as that time drew near
without any millennial symptoms, he was understood to have modified his origiDal views
considerably, and now conjectures that the beginning of the millennium will not differ so
much after all from the years immediately preceding it, as people commonly suppose.
See Corrodi's KriUsche Oesehic?Ue des OhtUasmus (Zurich, 1794, 4 vols.); Calixtus, De
OhiUasmo cum antunio turn prideni renato Helmst. (1692, 4to); Klee, Tentam Hist. erit.
ds GhU. prim, scee, Herbip. (1825); Mtlnter, Dogmengesehichte, etc. A really good history
of cbiliasm, however, is as yet a desidemtum.
IQLLSFEDE, a popular name of many kinds of myriapoday of the order chUogmiffia,
and chiefly of the families /t^e<2(» (see Jui^us) and Ihlydesmida, In the latter family, the
feet are arranged in numerous groups along both sides; otherwise, they much resemble
the JtUidtB. The largest species are found in warm climates, and some of them are
brightly colored; but small ^)ecies of both families are common in Britain; and some of
them. ti& Polydesmus complancUtis — which is lilac-colored, flattened, and from a quarter to
half an inch in length — are very destructive to the roots of plants. Doubt has been
expressed if they attack roots perfectly healthy; but at all events, they take advantage
of incipient decay, and greatly extend and accelerate it. The application of salt, lime,
.nitrate of soda, etc., has been often recommeixied as a preventive of their ravages. — The
name Pill Millepede is often given to those shorter CMognatha, of the family
OlomeridoR, which, when disturbed, roll themselves up into an almost globular form, like
the crustacean called armadillo. Olomeris marginata is common in Britain, under stones
and among moss. Some of the tropical species are large and finely colored.
MILLEPORE, a genus of hydrozoa which have recently been placed in a new sub-
class, hydroceraUin(B by Mr. Moseley. It contributes largely to the formation of coral
reefs in the West Indies and Pacific. The calcareous skeleton is mostly in the form of
laminar expansions having the surface studded with minute holes of two sizes, the
larger being the fewest. The larger openings are the mouths of tubes which are divided
by transverse calcareous partitions into a number of compartments, only the most super-
ficial of which contain the animals. The smaller tubes are similarly constructed, and
the general tissue of the skeleton is composed of trabeculsB traversed by a series of
anastomosing canals which place the tubes occupied by the zo5ids in direct communica-
tion. On account of some resemblance in the skeleton the mUlepora were formerly
classed with the labulate corals. The late Prof. Agassiz was the first to examine the
living animals, and he at once referred the genus to the hydrozoa, Mr. Moseley arrived at
the same conclusion, and has recently had opportnnities of examining the living animal
minutely. According to him the co.ony of millepores consist of two kinds of zoOids.
The larger, or gastrozo^Uds occupy the larger tubes of the skeleton, while the smaller, or
dactylozoOids occupy the smaller tubes, which are generally placed around the larger in
somewhat of a systematic arrangement. The small, or dactylozoOids have no mouth
and are long and slender, carrying on their sides numerous short, clavate tentacles. They
perform the functions of prehension for the colony, and supply food to the stomach
bearing gastrozoOtds, which perform the work of digestion and assimilation for the
family. The nutritive fluid thus elaborated is distributed to the c^^^iyjt^rough branched
844
ouials which ramify in every direction. The reproductive prooeBs is still unknown.
See bnrBBTBBRATB Animal&
MILLER, a co. in s.w. Georgia, drained by Spring creek, a branch of Uie Chstte-
hoochee river, and intersected by the Atlantic and Gulf railroad; 260 sq.m. ; pop. '80,
8,720 — 1898 colored. Tlie surface is level and moderately productive; corn, oats, sweet
potatoes, butter, molasses, and cotton, are the staples; of the last the annual ykUd Is
about 1700 bales. Chief town, Colquitt
MILLBR^ a co. in s. Missouri, drained in the n. by the navigable Oaun river; <M)0
sq.m. ; pop. '80, »,807— 9,661 of American birth, 280 colored. Its surface is hilly and
nearly equally divided between woodland and prairie; the timber including walnut
and sugHr*maplfi trees. In some sections, and alou^ the river bottoms, the soil producen
com, wheat, oats, tobacco, and maple-sugar; and hve stock is raised to some extent.
The Osage river furnishes water-power, and lead and iron are mined. Lutaber is manu-
factured. Capital, Tuscumbia.
MILLBR, CtKcmKATUB Hbenb (Joaquin Kiludr), b. Ind., 1841; wlisle stiU a boy
was taken to Ore»>n by his parents, and practiced mining in CaMfonua. He now led
an adventurous life, banning as a volunteer with gen. Walker's Nieamgiia es^edition
in 1855; continuing among the Indians of tlie Paci^ coast; and condnding with his
appointment to a county judgeship in Oregon in 1866. In 1860 ha had mMte some
attempt at studying law; and in the following year edited a piwer at SiigeiieCiU%
Or., which was suppressed bv the authorities for disunion sentuncnia. In 1870 he
visited the eastern states, and thence went to England; where, in the folkywing ynr, he
published his Songs cfjffie Sierras, which caused him to be accepted for a time aa a '* lion'*
m London society. The poems contained in this volume had previira^ been publiahed
in the United States, where they had made very little impression. Mr. Miller afterwards
published other volumes of poetry, and achieved a considerable reputation, fie ia the
author of 7he Demites, which was successful in the United States and Knglaad
MILLER, Edwabd, 1760-1812; b. Del.; son of the rev. John Miller, who was settled
over a Presbyterian society in Dover, Del., 48 years, and brother of Samud Miller, d.d.,
late professor in the theological seminary at Pnnceton, N. J. Having acquired a classical
education, he attended a course of medical lectures at the university of Pennsylvania and
had a year's experience at the military hospital at Baskingridge, K. J. He was su^eon's
mate in the U. S. army in 1780, and m 1782 crossed the ocean as surgeon of a I^neh
ship of war. Retiring to private life in 1783, he had a successful practice in TVederica.
Del., and in Maryland. In 1788 he received the degree of m.d. from the university
of Pennsylvania. In 1797, associated with Dr. Samuel L. MitchlU and Elihu N. Smith,
he estabhshed the Medical Bspontory in the cit^ of New York, the first American medi-
cal journal, and was connected with it at the time of his death, witnessing the publica-
tion of the 14th vol. and a part of the 15th. He and his coadjutors were members of
the Friendly club, whose list bore the names of Dunlap, Brown, Hleecker, and Kent. In
1808 he was appointed city phjrsician of New York. He was a member of the American
philosophical society, and published a Treatise on the TeUaw Feter of New York in 1805,
takinff the ground that it was not contagious. He was connected with the university of
Niew York in 1807 as professor of the theory and practice of medicine, and in 1800 with
the New York hospital as clinical lecturer. He was veiy popular in the profession and
had a laree acquaintance. He was associated with his brother Samuel in his Brief Betro-*
speet of die EXghteenth Oentwry. He advocated temperance principles, and deprecated
the use of tobacco. In 1814 a memo r of him was published by his brother Sunuel in
connection with his medical works; and in the Afnerican Medical and PkHosojphical Beg-
ister has appeared a biographical notice by John W. Francis, m.d., of New York. He
was distinguished for his learning as a scholar, his generosity and humanity as a ph}'-
sician, and held a high rank among American men of science.
MILLER, HenbTp 1751-1824; b. Penn. ; originally intending to practice hiw, he
became a member of the bar, but beforo becoming established the revolutionair war
broke out and he left for the rendezvous with a lieutenant's commission, and marched with
his company to Boston. He was soon promoted to col. of the regiment, and led his com-
mand in the New Jersey campai^. At the battle of Monmouth, June 28, 1778, between
the American forces under Washington and the British imder sir Henry Clinton, he had
two horses shot under him, and he bore a record for dauntless bravery through the war.
He was at one time quartermaster-gen., and at the close of the war turned his attention
to mercantile pursuits, doing business in Baltimore. In the second year of the war of
1812 he held the position of brig.gen., commanding the defenses at Eialtimore. On the
restoration of peace he was appointed, among other offices of trust under government, to
be superintendent of revenue for the district of Pennsylvania.
MILLER, dsKRY, 1800-74; b. Ky. ; studied medicine in Lexington with the cele-
brated surgeons Dudley and Caldwell, and,, having taken his degree of m.d., commenced
the practice of medicine in Glasgow, puraued it in Harrodsburg, and finally, in 1885.
settled in Louisville as professor of obstetrics and diseases of women and children in the
university' school of medicine. He made frequent contributions to the prominent medi-
cal journals, and was much respected by the profession. I^ j^^^h^^g^li^dd Human
845
Parturithn, and in 1868 Th$ PrineiplM and PraeHee &f Gb$ttiHe9, the laUer Urork being
a roTision of the former enlarged and rewritten, adding the views of Dubois, CMseaux,
Simpson, W. Tyler Smith, and others to his own valuable expedence, and giving the
results of the obstetric schools of America, Paris, London, and Edinburgh — adapting the
knowledge so gained to the wants of students. In 1859 he was elected president of the
American medical association, and afterward professor emeritus in the Louisville medi-
cal college.
MILLER, Homer Y. M., b. Pendleton co., S. C, 1814; studied medicine at the state
medical school of South Carolina, and graduated with high honors in 1835. He then
spent three years in the further study of his profession in Paris, began practice in Oass-
ville, Ga., and soon became known not only as a very skillful physician, but also as a
public speaker and propa^tor of education and religion. He occupied a medical pro-
fessorship at both Memphis, Tenn., and Augusta, Ga. ; at the outbreak of the civil war
became a surgeon in the confederate army, and was promoted to the rank of division
surgeon and then medical director of the Georgia military department. From 1865 to
1869 he was a professor in the Atlanta medical college, ana now resides in that city. In
1869 he was elected U. S. senator from Georgia to fill an unexpired term, and took an
active part in the acceptance by the state of the reconstruction acts.
ynJilR, Hugh, a distinguished eeologist, was b. in Cromarty, in the north of Scot-
land, Oct. 10, 1802. He was descended from a family of sailors, and lost his own father
by aatorm at sea when he was only five years of age. In consequence of this misfortune
he was brought up chiefly under the care of two of his mother's uncles, one of whom
<" uncle Sand v") imbued him with a taste for natural, and the other (*' uncle James")
for traditional, histor\\ He acquired a good knowledge of English at the Cromartv
grammar-school. Before his 11th ye^tr he had read those glorious romances of childhoocl,
Jack the (Hant-kiUer, Jack and the Beanstalk, SindJbad the Sailor, The Yellow Dwarf, and
Aladdin amd the Wonderful Lamp, besides several other works of higher literary preten-
sions. As he grew older he became extremely fond of the great English poets and prose
writers. From his 17th to his 84th year he worked as a common stone-mason, devoting
his leisure hours to independent researches in natural historv, and to the extension of his
literary knowledge. In 1829 he published a volume entitled Poems written in the Leisure
Hours of a Journeyman Mason, which was followed, a few years afterwards, by Scenes
and Legends of tits North of Scotland, His attention was soon drawn to the ecclesiastical
controversies which were agitating Scotland, and his famous Letter to Lord Broitgham
on the " Auditerarder case brought him prominently into notice. In 1840 he went to
Edinbui^h as editor of the Witness, a newspaper started in the interest of the non-intru-
sion par^ in the church of Scotland, and in the course of the same year published in
its colmnns a series of geological articles, which were afterwards collected under the title
of The Old Bed Sandstorm, or New Walks in an Old Field, These articles were very
remarkable, both in a scientific and literary point of view. They contained a minute
account of the author's discovery of fossils in a formation believed, until then, to be des-
titute of them, and written in a st^le which was a harmonious combination of strength,
beauty, and polish. At the meeting of the British association in the same year (1840)
he was warmly i>raised by MurcMson and Buckland, and in fact his discoveries were
the prittc^l topic of discussion among the savans. His editorial labors during the heat
of the disruption struggle were immense, and so seriously injured his health that for
some time he had to give up all literary activity. About 1846 he reaumed his pen, and
became the most vigorous and eloquent writer in the service of the newly constituted
free church. After ten years of hard, earnest, fagging toil his brain gave way, and in a
moment of aberration he put an end to his own existence, at Portobello, near£dinburgh,
on the night of the 28d or morning of the 24th Dec. , 1856. Miller's principal works, besides
those aii^uly mentioned, are: First Impressions if Bnglamd and its People; Pootprints of
ike OrtcOor, or the Asterolepis of Stromness, designed as a reply to the VegtuesqfAe Natu-
ral SSftery of Creation; Mjf Schoolsand Schoolmasters, or the Story of Ify Mueation; and
TeMnony of the Bocks, the last of which is an attempt to reconcile the geology of the
Pentoteudi with the ^ology of nature, by the hypothesis that the days mentioned in the
first chapter of Genesis do not represent the actual duration of the successive periods of
creation^ but only the time occupied by QoA in uiHoUing a panoramic vision of these
periods before the eyes of Moses.
Miller's services to science have undoubtedly been great, but he is even more distin-
guished as a man than as a savant Honest, high-minded, earnest, and hugely industri-
ous, a true Scot, a hearty but not a sour Presbyterian (for he loved Bums as much as he
revered Knox), there are few of whom Scotland has better reason to be proud than " the
stone-mason of Cromarty." Besides his autobiography quoted above, see Life by Peter
Bayne (2 vols., 1871).
MILLiai, James, 1776-1861; b. N. H. ; was educated for the bar,>>ut when not far
from 80 years old entered the army as maj. and took part in the frontier warfare, where
he displayed great gallantry. In 1812 he was made col. by brevet, and in 1814 took part
in the Canadian invasion in tx>mnuind of the 21at infanlry. In the battles of Chippewa
and Lundy's Lane he did material service. Tlie latter contest was virtually dedaed by
his gallant cfauge on a British battery. These servioee were oecognized bv congress: a
Digitized by VjiOUv^LC
Miller.
846
gold medal was presented him, and he was promoted to the nmk of brig.geD. From
1819-25 he -was governor of Arkansas, then a territory; and from that tune until he
reached the age of TB was collector of the port of 8alem, Mass.
MILLER, JoAQUXN. See Miller, Cincinnatus Heine.
MILLER, Joseph, 1684-1738, an English actor of low comedy, whose name can be
found in the casts of Congreve's plays. He was noted for his wit off as well as on the
stage, and his name was ffiven to a collection of jokes printed by one John Motley in
1789. The term '* a Joe Miller" is now in common use to denote an ancient or stale wit-
ticism. The tomb of the original Joe Miller may still be seen in St. Clement's ehurch-
yard in the Strand, London.
MILLER, Patrick, 1780-1815; b. Dalwinston, Scotland. A man of wealth and of
a mechanical turn of mind, he began in 1785 to experiment in the construction and pro-
pulsion of a vessel in a lake near his estate, and in 1786 gave an account of a vessel which
he had made, maintaining in a pamphlet that the steam-engine could be made to woHl
the wheels. With the aid of James Taylor he propelled a boat 5 m. an hour by the
steam-engine. But for some reason the experiment was unsatisfactory, and was aban-
doned.
MILLER, Samuel, d.d., 1769-1850; b. Delaware, son of the rev. John Miller, who
was a native of Boston and pastor of the Presbyterian church at Dover, Del. The son was
graduated at the university of Pennsvlvania in 1789 with the highest honors of his claas:
commenced the study of theology with the guidance of his father and finished the course
under Dr, Nesbit, at Dickinson college; was licensed to preach in 1791; in 1798 was col-
league pastor with Drs. McKnight and Rogers, of the first Presbyterian church, New
York city, and afterwards of the Wall street church until 1818. He was active in estab>
lishing the theological seminary at Princeton, N. J., in which he was professor of church
history and government from 1818 till his death. His admirable natural qualities of per-
son, mind, and heart were highly improved* by assiduous culture. His manners were
remarkably dignified and urbane. In character and attainments he was eminent^ qual-
ified to be one of the founders and builders of a theological school, and his innuence,
combined with that of his distinguished colleague Dr. Archibald Alexander — the one
being an admirable complement to the other — on successive classes of students can hardly
be over-estimated. His preaching was luminous and earnest, his lectures were learned,
catholic, enthusiastic, and enlivened with wit and literary grace. He was prominent in the
counsels of the Presbyterian church. Among the many works which he published may be
mentioned: Letters an the Constitution and Order of the Chrietian Minittry; L^ttars an
Unitarianism; On the Eternal Sonship of Christ; Clerical Manners and Jaiints; On the
Utility and Importance of Creeds and Confessions; On the Office ofRuUng Elder; On Bap-
Ustn; Letters from a Father to his San in CoUege; Thavghts on Public Pfayer.
MILLER, Thomas, 1807-74; b. Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, Eng. At first a
farmer's boy, then a basket-maker, he spent his leisure in study, and wrote pieces in
poetry and prose on rural life and scenery, which attracted attention, and were noticed
with favor by Moore, Campbell, and Rogers. By the help of Rogers he became a book-
seller. His principal novels are Boyston Gower; Fair Basamond; Lady Jane Orey; Gid-
eon Giles the JRoper; Godfrey Malvern. Among his popular books are those pertaining to
the countrv, including A Day in the Woods; Beauties of Hie Country; Bural ESketmu;
Pictures of Country Life; Country Scenes. His poems are entitled. Common Wayside
Ffoioers; Poetical Language of Flavors; Original Poems for my Children; Songs for British
Biflemen. He wrote also a History of the Anglo-Saxons, and lAvee of Tfii^ner, BeatUe^ and
OolUns.
MILLER, William, 1781-1849; b. Mass; served during the war of 1812 as a virfon-
teer with the rank of captain, on the Canadian frontier. He was a farmer, and his edu-
cation limited, but he applied himself to the study of the prophecies, and in 1888 b^an
to lecture on the second comin*' of Christ, and to predict the destruction of the world in
1848. The very day was named either by himself or by his followers. For 10 years he
continued his prophecies, and his converts in the United States, Canada, and Great
Britain, called Millerites, Adventists, or Second Adventists, were estimated at 00,000.
In consequence of the repeated failure of his predictions his followers ^dually forsook
him. They, however, regarded him as a man of more than ordinary intellectual power,
a cool and honest rcasoner, and a sincere devoted Christian. This may be conceded^
though he evidently was a blind and ignorant guide.
MILLER, William Allen, 1817-70; b. England, was a student first at the mer-
chant tailor's school, and having served five years in apprenticeship to his unde, who
was hospital sui^on at Birmingham, took his degree at King's college, London, study-
ing chemistry Wuh Dr. Daniell, under whose direction he investigated the electrolysis of
salts. He afterward went to Giessen and studied in the laboratory of Liebig. In 1840
he became demonstrator of chemistry in King's college, London, and in 1845 professor
of chemistry there. He has contributed valuable scientific articles to medical and phil-
osophical journals, and in 1851 was appointed assayer at the mint and bank o^lkigland,
and water commissioner. He was elected president of the dhemic^m^]Ei and vice
president of the royal society; and published In 1860 EleimmU of ChemUtry, TkeoreUcal
and PraeUedL
MILLER, William Hallowes, b. in 1801 in Carmarthenshire, Wales; educated at
St. John's coUe^, Cambridge, and after graduating in 1826. became a fellow and tutoj
of the college; m 1882 was appoiDted professor of mineralogy; in 1888 was elected a
fellow of the royal society, and since has been elected a member of all the great scien-
tific and philosophical societies of Europe and America. From 1848 to 1854 prof.
Miller was engaged as member of a government commission in replacing the standards
of weight ana measure, which had been destroyed by fire, taking as his share of the
work the standard of weight; in 1867 he was again placed on a commission to examine
the exchequer standards, and in 1867 on the ** commission inteimattoncUe du m^tre" The
reports of these bodies all gave the credit of their success in great part to prof. Miller's
accuracy and scientific experience. He was one of the first to employ the Wallaston
goniometer in measuring the angles of crystals, and amon^ his many contributions to the
J^roeeedings of the Boyal Society, and other scientific publications, are several articles on
the subject of crystaxlography. In 1865 the de^e of ll.d. was bestowed upon him by
Dublin university, and in 1876 Oxford made him a doctor of civil laws; he was for 17
years secretary of the royal society.
MILLEBITES. 8ee Advbs^tists, ante; Ssyenth Day ADvsNTiffrs; Miller,
William.
MILLER'S FALLS, a village in Massachusetts, partly in the township of Montague
and partly in Erving, in the county of Franklin. It was originallv called Grout's Comers ;
and is pleasantly situated on Miller's river, which affords valuable water power near the
point where it empties into the Connecticut. It is at the junction of the New London
Korthern and the Vermont and Massachusetts railroads. It has extensive factories,
where tools are made; and it has an increasing trade.
lOLLEE'B THUMB. See Bxtllhbad.
MILLET, a grain, of whic& there are several kinds, the produce of species of 'panicum,
setaria, and allied genera. .The genus panicum contains many species, natives of tropical
and warm temperate countries, and some of which, as Guinea grass (q.v.), are amongst
the largest fodder grasses. The flowers are in spikes, racemes, or panicles; the glumes
very unequal, one of them often very minute; each spikelet containing two florets, one
of which is often barren. The genus setaria has a spike-like panicle, with two or more
bristles under \h<& glumes of each spikelet. Common Millet (ranicvm miliaoeum) is an
annual grass, 8 or 4 ft. hich, remarkably covered with long hairs, which stand out at
ri^ht angles. It has a much branched noddine panicle; the spikelets are oval, and con-
tain only one seed. It is a native of the East Indies, but is extensively cultivated in the
warmer parts of Europe and other quarters of the world. It succeeds only in those
climates m which wine can be produced. It is called warree, cheena, and kadi-kane' in
India. The grain, which is very nutritious, is onlv about ODe-eighth of an inch in length.
It is used in the form of groats, or in flour mixed; with wheat-flour, which makes a good
kind of bread; but bread made of millet alone is brittle and full of cracks. Poultry are
extremely fond of millet. The straw is used for feeding cattle. Other species, P.
miliare, ]P. frumentaceum, and P. pilosum, are cultivated m different parts of India,
chiefly on light and rather dry soils, yielding very abundant crops. German Millet, or
MoHAR {setaria Qermanica), and Italian Millet (8. ItaUca), regarded by many as
varieties of one species, and probably originally from the east, although now naturalized
in the south of Europe, are cultivated in many of the warmer parts of Europe, in India,
and other countries. Italian millet is 8 or 4 ft. in height; German millet much dwarfer,
and its spike comparatively short, compact, and erect; and less valuable as a corn-plant.
The grains of both are very small, only about half as long as that of common millet; but
they are extremely prolific, one root producing many stalks, and one fepike of Italian
millet often yielding 2 oz. of grain. The produce is estimated as five times that of
wheat. Italian millet is called koongoonie, kcdor-kan^nee, and kora-kang in India. The
grain of these millets is imported into Britain for feeding cage-birds, and for use as a
light and pleasant article of food, although for this purpose it is little used in Britain,
whilst it IS very extensively used in soups, etc., in the south of Europe. It does not
make good bread. To the same tribe of grasses belong the gener&paspalum, pennisetum,
peniceUaria, digUaiia, and milium — species of which are cultivated in different parts of
the world for their grain. BcLspatum exile is thR fundi (q.v.) of Africa ; and P. scrobiculatum
is the koda of India, where it is cultivated chiefly on poor soils. PenidUaiia spicata, or
pennisetum typlioideum, is very extensively cultivated in Africa, and to a considerable
extent in India. Its cultivation has been introduced into the south of Europe. It
succeeds best on light soils. Its Indian name is ha^ree. It often receives the names
Egyptian Millet and Guinea Corn. It has a somewhat spiked cylandrical panicle.
Pennisetum distichum abounds in central Africa, on the southern borders of the Great
Desert, where it is called uzak, and is described by Barth as causing much inconvcni
ence to the traveler, the little bristles which are attached to its seeds making them stick
like burs to the clothes; they also pierce the skin, and cause sores, so that it is necessary
to be provided with small pmcers for their extraction, and none even ^^^^^^V^P^i WW^
mn^
itWfm.
jsi*^
natives is ever without such an instrament. But its seed is a common and pleasant
article of food, in some places the principal food of the people, and a pleasant l^erera^
is made from it. Digilaria mnguinaUa is called Polish Millet, being cultivated m
cottage gardens in Poland, where the grain is used like rice. It is a common grass in
many parts of Europe, although very rare in Britain. The spikes in this genus are 0(Nn-
pound, and from their appearance give it the names digiUma and finger-€ram. The
MiLTiBT Grass (milium effumm) of Britain, occasionally found in shady woods, is a very
beautiful grass, 3 or 4 ft. high, with a spreading pale panicle of small flowers; and has
been much recommended for cultivation as a forage grass, and for the sake of its very
abundant small seeds, an excellent food for game. Another species of the same genus
(M. nigrieansS is the Matte de Guinea of Peru, where its seeds, after beins dried by heat,
are converted into a very white flour, a pleasant article of food; and a oevcrage ealled
nUpu is made from them. The name Indian Millbt is sometimes given to durra (q.v.),
but it belongs to a different tribe of grasses from the true millets.
MILLET, Adtb, b. in Paris about 1816; sod of a distinguished French painter; after
studying painting under his father he studied sculpture under David d'Augers, and has
become famous. Imaginative busts, female flffures, busts of distinguished mem, and
lastly colossal figures for bronze, have indicatea his genius from the commencement of
Ms career. '* L'Ariane/' a female figure exhibited in 1857, regarded as one of his greatest
works in marble, was bought by the government. His statue of "Mercure" for the court
of the Louvre, exhibited in 1859, and *' Yercingetorix,*' a colossal statue in bronze, finished
in 1866, are among his later best works. '*Apollon," the statue which crowns the grand
opera house of Paris, Is by him. Millet's scientific knowledge of the human form is said
to equal his grace and skill in its molding.
MILLET, Jban Pran<joi8, 1815-75; student of painting with Delarochc in Paris.
He commenced exhibiting pictures in 1844 with la LaiH^re et la Le^on dBqrdtatkm; in
1845 exhibited (Edipe detache de VAi-bre; in 1848 Us Juifs d Babylone. From that time a
marked chan^ came oVer his style, and from meChocb of representation dtstingoiiiaed for
rough vigor, he became painter of pastoral pieces of the greatest refinement of thouxiit and
execution. Of this class are the SSmeur, La Pa^fsanne Asm, and Lb% Bottdewn, exhibited
in 1849 and 1850. He lias since become one of the greatest landscape jMunters in France
by representations of field, peasant, and animal life the most quiet, simple, and noble.
Amongthese arc the Berger Moisaoneurs, Tondeurs de Mouions, 1852; PaystMfh m BepotarU
9ur naMoue, 1863; Bergere awcwn TYonpeau, 1864; and Femme BaUant du Beurre, 1870.
All his works are favorite subjects for engravings, and have thus become familiar works
everywhere.
MILLET, PiBKRK, 1681-1708; a French missionary who died in Quebec. He came
to America in 1666, and labored among the Onondagas and Oneidas tiH 1664. After^
wards chaplain at ft. Frontinac (Kingston. Canada), from which he was lured, and taken
grisoner by Indians in the service of the English. The Christianized Onddas adofrted
im into their tribe, much to the chagrin of the English governor of New Tei^L, who was
suspicious of his FVench mfluence with the Indians. The French governor of Oanada
was quite content with the situation. The narrative of his captivity was pfreserv^d and
published in New York in 1865.
MILLIER. See Mbtbic Stbtbm.
MILLI, GiANNiKA, b. in 1828 in Italy. When but a child she began to practice the
composition of verses, and when a girl of seventeen or eighteen be»une a pupil of the
poet Regaldi, the greatest of Italian improvisatores, and soon developed considerable
power in improvising popular and amatonr verses. As is the custom witii artists of this
class, she traveled and gave public exhibitions of her skill in various parts of Italy and
Sicily Medals of gold and silver were awarded her, and after her tripe tbrongh Tuscany
and upper Italy (1857-60) a pension was bestowed upon her by Qiuibaldi. Since that
time she has been engaged as instructress and supermtendent in the schools of Naples
and Rome. A number of her best efforts have been collected and pubUshed.
MILLIGRAM. See Metric Ststsm.
MILLILITER See Mbtric Ststkh.
MILLIMETER. See Metric Ststbm.
MILUUHI), or Fbr de Moulin, in heraldry, a charge meant to represent a mill-
iron, originally a mere variety in designating the cross moline, but accounted a distinct
charge by some heralds.
MILLS, a CO. in 8.W. Iowa; drained by the Missouri, which bounds it on the w., and
by the Nishnabatona river and Keg creek, and intersected by the Kansas City, St
Joseph and Council Bluffs, and Missouri River railroads; 460 sq.m.; pop. 'SO, 14,185 —
12,860 of American birth. The surface is in great part prairie, but there are extensive
woodlands. Hay, wheat, oats, Indian com, and pork are the chief products. Co. seat,
Glenwood.
MILLS Charle8» 1788-18d5; b. near Greenwich, Eng. ; admitted to the bar in 1809,
but devoted himself chiefly to historical study. He is the author of JSMory ^ ifoAom-
Digitized by VjiUUVnC
<'*«' BllUto'wn:
medanitm; History of the Gru%ades, 2 vol's. ; Tratds of Theodore Dueas, % vols. ; History
of Chivalry, 2 vols.
MILLS, Clark, b. in Onondaga co., N. Y^ 1815, of poor parents; leame<J the trade
of plasterer; and practiced it in Charleston. S. C., for nine years. Developing a tast« for
sciApture, in 1846 he completed a bust of John C. Calhoun, which was purchased hy the
city of Charleston for the city hall. Li 1848 he furnished a design which was accepted,
for an equestrian statue of gen. Jackson, to be placed in Lafayette square, Washington. •'
There bein^ no bronze-foundry for such work in the United States, Mills, after spending
two years in modeling the statue, set to work to learn the art of such castings, and
erected in Washington an experimental foundry, where, after many mishaps and trials
he at last succeedea in Oct., 1852, in producinj^ a perfect cast. It was accepted formally
Jan. 8, 1858 — ^the anniversary of the battle of New Orleans. Congress made an extra
appropriation of $20,000 to cover his losses, and remimerate him for his time. He was
next engaged on the colossal equestrian statue of Washinfllon, which was formally
received Feb. 22, 1860. For this he received $50,000. Mr. Mills's last great work was
the casting of the colossal statue of Liberty, finished in 1868, which crowns the dome of
the capitol at Washington. This was modeled by Crawford. There has been much
hsush criticisms of Mills's equestrian statues. Doubtless the work of one without school-
ing in the great art of sculpture compares unfavorably with that of masters. But there are
now enough poor works m the United States by those who have had the highest advan-
tages to show that Mills had the genius for great and good work. His errors are mostly
in endeavoring to render his subjects too striking, too expressive. This is especially the
case with the statue of gen. Jackson, in which the horse is made to balance reared on
its hind feet, and the gen. appears equally excited. Continued through many decennial
X)eriodB, the pose becomes ridiculous.
MILLS, Samuel John, Jr., 1788-1818; b. Conn.; graduated at Williams college in
1809. WlJle in college he formed an association among those students who were con-
sidering the question of entering upon foreign missionary work. After spending a short
time in the study of theology at i^^ew Haven, he entered Andover theological seminary in
1810, where, being deeply impressed with the importance of foreign missions, he endeav-
ored to awaken the same spirit among his fellow-students. With Judson, Hall, Newell,
and Nott he united in a memorial to the General association of Massachusetts (Congi*e-
^tional), which resulted in the formation of the American board of commissioners for
foreign missions. He was licensed to preach in 1812, and spent two years in mission
work in the southern and western states with Messrs. Schermerhorn ana Smith. On his
return he was ordained June 21, 1815. He published an account of his tour. Finding
sreat destitution of the Bible in those states, he suggested at the close of his report the
formation of a national Bible society, which resulted in the organization of the Ameri-
can Bible societ^r. To him was due the formation of the UnUed f orei^ mission society,
jind also the African school at Parsippafny near Newark. Through his exertions in con-
junction with Dr. Finley, the- American colonization society was formed in 1817, and he
was appointed with Dr. Burgess to visit England in behalf of the society, and to explore
the west coast of Africa for a suitable site for a colonv of colored people from America.
He sailed in Nov., 1817, and wonderfully escaped shipwreck on the coast of France.
Embarking from England for Africa Feb. 2, 1818, he arrived on the coast Mar. 12.
After faithfully exploring it, he embarked for the United States in the brig Success May
22, 1818. Having taken a severe cold which was followed by fever, he died at sea June
16. He is calledfthe *' father of foreign missions in America.'' A memoir of him was
published by the Rev. Dr. Gardiner Spring.
MILLSTONE. See BtJHR-sf o*e, arUe.
MILLSTbNE GRIT, a species of conglomerate composed of silicious sand and small
pebbles. , It is named froih it^ frequent use for millstones in England. Its geological
XKMition is at the pommencement of the coal formation or the terrestial period. The beds
along the Appaiachian ran^e in Pennsylvania are very coarse and are over 1200 feet
thic£ The ro<?k here is a hght^colored silicious conglomerate, interstratifled with some
sandstone, and thin beds of carbonaceous shells. In Virginia the beds are sometimes
1000 feet thick, but here it is principally sandstone, containing, however, deep beds of
conglomerate. In Alabama the rock becomes quartzose, is or great thickness, and is
used there for tniUstones. Millstone grit also extends into the southern tiet of counties
In New York, somethnes attaining a thickness of 50 or 60 feet. In Cattaraugus and
Alleghany counties it has a cuboidal structure, which in the course of time has had por-
tions worn and washed away leaving large blocks sfAnding alone, and having various
shapes which have suggested such names as **Rock citf* and ''Ruin city* Fossil
plants found in the formation are ferns, calamites, lepidodendrons, and sigillaria.
MILLTOWN, av. in Washington Co., Maine, on the St Croix river. The chief
business is the manufacture and shipment of lumber. It is on the St. Croix and Penob-
scot railroad, and is a part of the city of Calais.
MILLTOtVN, a t. in Charlotte co.. New Brunswick, on the St. Croix river, opposite
Milltown, Maine. Pop. 2,000. It has 8 churches, a library, and an academy. The
principal business is the sawing and ^ipment of lumber, of which great quantities are
U. K. IX.— 54
iffiS!^ 850
exported. There Ib also a tool-factory. The St. Croix river is here spanned with several
bridges.
MILLVILLE, a city in s. New Jersey, on the West Jersey railroad; pop. '70. fi,101-
It is at the head of navigation on the e. bank of the Maurice river 40 m. from Fliila-
delphia and 6 m. s. of Vineland; in a fine agricultural region, with a large local trade.
It contains a fine city hall and post-office, 9 churches, a national bank, 4 hotels, and t
weekly newspapers. Its leading industries are manufactures of lumber, cotton, iron^
window glass, and hollow e lass-ware. Water and gas pipes are made, and turbine water-
wheels; immense wheels for water-works being exported to northern cities. It ha«
excellent public schools.
mUCAV, ELenbt Hart, d.d., an Enelish poet and ecclesiastical historian, was the
youngest son of sir Francis Milman, physician to (George III., and was b. in London,
Feb. 10, 1791. He was educated at Eton*, and afterwards at Brasenose college, Oxford,
where he took the degree of m.a., obtained the Newdegate prize in 1812, published
Fheio, a Tragsdy (which was successfully brought upon the stage at Ck)vent garden), in
1815, took orders in 1817, and shortly axter was appointed vicar of Bt. Mary^s, Reading.
In the following year appeared his Samor, Lard of the Bright City, an Heroic I^oem.
which was follow^ in Iwfo by the FaU of Jerusalem, a b^utiful dnunatic poem, with
some fine sacred lyrics interspersed. In 1821 Milman was chosen professor of poetry at
Oxford, and published three other poems in the course of the same year — The liafrijfr <ff
AnUoch, Belahoigar, Anne Balleyn, His Sermone at the Bampton Lecture appeared in 1827,
and his History of the Jews (8 vols.) in 1829. The last of these works cud not bear the
author's name; it was written in so liberal and tolerant a spirit that ecclesiastics of the
stricter sort could hardly fail to be offended. Its weak point was a want of adequate
learning, especially in the department of biblical criticism. A new edition, greatly
improved and more critical, jet still far from being very accurate or built on solid
foundations, with an interesting preface, was published in 1863. In 1840 appeared a
collected edition of his Poetical Works, containing some other pieces besides those
already mentioned. The same year witnessed the publication of his History of Christian-
ity from the Birth of Christ to the Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire (3 vols.).
In 1849 he was made dean of St. Paul's; and in 1854 published his masterpiece. History
of Latin Christianity, including that of the Popes to the Pontificate of Nichckts V. (3 vols.).
It is a work of great learning, liberality, and chastened eloquence; it displays a broad
grasp of human nature in its religious workings; besides a philosophic and poetical
sympathy with the different men and opinions wliich it reviews. The work secured for
its author a position in the first rank of English historians. Milman edited Gibbon, and
contributed extensively to the Quarterly Review. He died in 1868. A posthumous work
contains his Msays on St, Paul, Sa/tonarota, Erasmus, etc.
MILMORE, Martin, b. Mass., 1845; began his studies in sculpture under the direc-
tion of Thomas Ball. His first effort which attracted public attention was his modeling^
. of the alto-relief Phosphor, an ideal subject, which gained the favor of patrons of art.
He produced a statuette of DewUon, and was given commissions for an ideal of Mira/nda^
and the busts of George Ticknor, Longfellow, gen. Thayer, and Sumner, previous to
1864, and in that year he commenced work on the granite statues surmounting the front
of Horticultural hall in Boston, and those of Flora and Pomona, omamentid figures,
which were placed in position in 1866. In the following year he designed a bronze
statue for the soldiers* monument at Forest Hill cemetery. Boston highlands, and was
the sculptor of the army and navy monument on Flagstaff hill, Boston (X>mmon, 90 ft.
in height, erected at a cost of $75,000, dedicated Sept. 17, 1877. On the four sides of
the pBnth are bronze mezzo-relievos, one representing the dwarture of troops, one
symbolical of the sanitary commission, another the return from the war, and the fourth
to commemorate the achievements of the navy, the departure, and the naval engagement.
Above this plinth, 9 ft. high, rises a shaft of white Maine granite of the Roman-Doric
order, surmounted by a bronze ideal statue of the genius of America. Bronze figures
representing peace, history, the army, and the navr stand on the pedestals at the four
comers, and about its base are grouped figures m alto-relievo representing the four
sections of the union, north, south, east, and west.
MILNE, William, d.d., 1780-1822; b. England. In 1813 he visited China under
the London missionary society, traveled extensively in China, Malacca, and other islands
of the Indian archipelago, in 1815 he went as missionary to Malacca, translated the
Scriptures, superintended the publication of religious works and of a monthly mM;azine.
and presided over th? Anglo-Uhinese college on which Dr. Morrison had bestowed much
labor. He also took part in translating the Old Testament into Chinese, and established
a quarterly publication entitled Indo-Chinese Gleaner. He published Retrospect of the
Protestant Mission to China.
XUR-BDWABBS, Hknbi, the most eminent living representative of the French
school of natural history, was bom at Bruges in 1800. His father was an Englishman.
Milne-Edwards studied medicine at Paris, where he took his degree of m.d. in 1828, but
abandoned tnedicine to devote himself to natural historv. He was first appointed professor
of natural history in connection with the Lyc6e Henri Quatrej ^^^jB^f^^^^mu^ to the
851 ggSf*-
Museum and the Faculty des Sciences, of which he is now president. In 1888, he was
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences (section of Anatomy and Zoology); and in
1864 was chosen a member of the Academic de Medecinc. He is also a member of many
other societies, French and foreign, and a commander of the Legion of Honor. Milne-Ed-
wards is distinguished for his extensive Isnowledge of comparative anatomy and physiology
well as of zoology. Passing over some of his early works, which, though valuable, are
thrown into the shade by his later ones, we come to his Monogrwph on tfie Orustcieea
(1887-41), which is universally regarded as of pre-eminent merit, not only for its rich-
ness of detail, but also for the value of the general doctrines relating to homologies,
development, geographical distribution, and other points of the highest physiological
interest In 1840, an improved edition of his ElemerUs of Zoology ^ a work in 4 vols., and
containing 600 illustrations, began to appear. In 1841 he published his researches on
the Compound Ascidian Mollusca, which have led to an entirely fresh appreciation of
some of the most important points in the history of that group, such as, ibsX propagation by
gemmaUon, which had been previously supposed to be a zoophytic character, is equally true
of the lower mollusca. In other departments of science, Milne-Edward has been equally
successful; but it is to the invertebrate animals that his chief attention has been given,
and in ^ch of the three Cuvierian sub-kingdoms, ArUculata, Mollusca, and Badiata^
his researches have been so important, that what he has accomplished for either alone
would suffice to establish for him a high scientific reputation, in 1856 Milne-Edwards
obtained the Copley Medal of the Royal society of London. His later works include
Lectures on Physiology, and on the Comparative Anatomy of Men and Anmais (1855-^7);
History of the Mammalia (1872, ei seq.); etc.
MILKER, John, d.d., 1752-1826; b. London; educated at Edgbaston and Douai;
took orders, and in 1779 had charge of Winchester chapel. Though a zealous Roman
Catholic he refused to join in the attempt in 1788 and 1791, to obtain from parliament
the repeal of the laws against the Roman Catholics. He was devoted to the study of
archsQology, on which he published several works, for which he was admitted in 1790 to
the royal antiquarian society. He was engaged in several religious controversies both
with Protestant theologians and the Roman Catholic clergy. In 1808 he was appointed
vicar-apostolic of the midland district and bishop of Castalxala. His chief publications
are History Civil aiid JScclm^tical, and Survey of the Antiquities of Winchester, 2 vols. ;
The End ^ BeHgious Controversy; Letters to a Prd)end/iry; A Dissertation on the Modern
Style of Altering Cathedrals; Treaties on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of England during
the Middle Ages; Divine J^ght of the Episcopacy; Notes on Irdand. His works are numer-
ous, but none are more highly valued by Roman Catholics than his End of Controversy
and Letters to a Prebendary, He was a man of great learning and acuteness.
XILirEX, Joseph, an ecclesiastical historian who once occupied a respectable place
in literature, was bom near the town of Leeds, in Yorkshire, Jan. 2, 1744. He
studied at Catharine Hall, Cambridge, where he took the degree of b.a. in 1766, and
afterwards became head-master of the grammar-school at Hull. In this capacity, his suc-
cess was very great. Shortly after, he was appointed lecturer in the prinoipaJ diurch of
the town, and in 1797, vicar of Holy Trinity church. He died Nov. 15th of the same
year. Milner's principal work is his Hist&ry of the Churchof Christ, of which he lived to
complete 8 vols., reaching to the 13th c. (1794) ; a fourth volume, reaching to the. 16th c,
was edited from his MSS. by his brother. Dr. Isaac Milnkr, dean of Carlisle, who also
published a comple edition of his brother's works in 8 vols., 1810. The orinciples on
which the History of the Churchof Christ is wntien are of the narrowest kind; the scholar-
ship is poor, the literary merit still poorer, and the critical insight poorest of all. It
deserves mention only for the estimation in which it was formerly held, at a time when
the English church seemed sunk in ignorance and stuiK>r.
■ILns, Richard Moncktou, Baron Houohton, English poet and politician,
descended from an old Yorkshire family, was bom in 1809, and educated at Tnnity Col-
lege, Cambridge. He entered parliament as m.p. for Pontefract in 1887, and continued
to represent that borough until the close of the parliamentary session of 1868, when he
was called to the upper house by the title of Baron Houghton. In tiie house of com-
mons he began life as a conservative, hut afterwards allied himself to the liberal party, and
was a faithful follower of Lord Palmerston, when his foreign policy and high-handed
dealings at the foreign office led to the temporary estrangement of that statesman from
the Whigs. Milnes has distinguished himself, however, rather by his philanthropic
labors, and his speeches on behalf of the Italians, Poles, and other oppressed nations,
than by his devotion to party politics. He has been Idlie advocate of public education
and refigious equality. He carried, in 1846, a bill for establishing reformatories, tfndhas
taken a great interest in the reform of the criminal classes. Milnes has also cultivated
the muses with pace and success. He has traveled much in oriental countries, and is
the author of Memorials of a Tour in Greece, and also of poems called Ptilm Leaves, in
which apoetical halo is thrown around the manners and domestic institntioiis of the
East His Poems of Many Tea^s, and Poems Historical and Legendary, contain many
simple and elegant effusions. In 1849, he edited the Life, Letters, cmd Library Remains
<(fjohn Keats. He has also written Thoimhts on Purity of Election; Monographs^ Pfrsonal
and Social (1878-76); etc. His (Mected Poetical Works appeared in 187<LjUuy iC
Milton. ^^-^
MILNOR, Jambs, d.d./ 1779-1844; b. Philadelphia; studied in the iiniyersity of
Pennsylvania, but without completing the course, entered on the study of law and
became a practitioner first at Norristown, Penn., and, from about 1797, in Philadelphia.
Having by his marriage forfeited his birth-right in the Society of Friends, he attached him-
self to the Episcopal church, of which his wife was a member. While practicing law he
was prominent in the civil councils of the city aijd, 1810-18, was one of its represen-
tatives in congress. Having, 1812, become a communicant of the church he prepared
for the ministry, and, 1814, was ordained as a deacon, and 1815, as a presbvter. He
was soon after chosen a minister of the united Episcopal churches in Philadelphia,
Christ's church, St. Peter's, and St. James's. From 1816 until his death he was rector
of St. George's church in New York city; his active service there being, however, inter-
rupted, 189^, by a visit to Europe as a dele^te from the American to the British and
Foreign Bible society. He was a man of emment piety, benevolence, wisdom, and dig-
nity, exerting a great influence through the attractiveness of his Christian character. His
publislied writings were chiefly occasional sermons.
MILO, the ancient Melos, a Greek island in the Cyclades group in the archipelago,
about 65 m. e. of the Peloponnesus, in lat. 86° 40' n., long. 24'' 23' e.; 65 sq.m.; pop.
about 3,500. The surface is mountainous, showing traces of volcanic action; 'and Mt.
Calamos is still occasionally active. Mt. St. Elias, in the n.w., the highest point, is
2,838 ft. above the sea level. The soil in the valleys is fertile, and produces wine, com,
oil, fruits, and cotton; but many portions are sterile, and the lowlands uncultivated and
malarious. The ancient Melos, of which extensive ruins still exist, was situated on a
deep bay in the n. coast. It was a colony of Phenicia, and afterwards of LacedaemoiL
During the Peloponnesian war it was captured by the Athenians, who put the adult
males to death and enslaved the women and children. The statue " Venus of >lilo*' was
found near Melos, in 1820.
KILO, of Crotou, in Magna Grsecia (q.v.), an athlete famoiis for his great strength,
who lived, according to Herodotus, in the time of Darius Hystaspes, about 520 'B.G.
Among other displays of his strength, he is said to have on one occasion carried a live
ox upon his shoulders through the stadium of Olympia, and afterwards to have eaten
the whole of it in one day; and on another (reversing the stor^ of the Hebrew Samson),
to have upheld the pillars of a house in which Pythagoras and his scholars were assembled,
BO as to give tliem time to make their escape when the house was falling. He is said to
have lost his life through too great confidence in his own strength, when he was gating
old, in attempting to split up a tree, which closed upon his hands, and held him fast until
he was devoured by wolves.
MILO, Tmrs Annius Papinianus, 05-48, b.c., b. Italy; belonged to a distinguished
family, and married a daughter of Sylla. Few details of his life are known, tiU hi^
election as tribune of the people in 67. He was then a partisan of Pompey, and attempted
to bring about the recall of Cicero from exile. This measure, which was warmly sup-
ported by the Pompeian party was bitterly opposed by Clodius, who, as tribune of the
people, had been instrumental in passing the law condemning Cicero to exile. Milo
attempted to have Clodius condemned as a violator of the public peace, but the proceed-
ings were quashed. Both Milo and Clodius now hired a body-guard of gladiators, and
armed collisions between their retainers became almost every- day occurrences. About
this time Milo, who had greatly reduced his fortune by the spleqdid spectacles which he
had displayed to the people during his tribunate, married Sylla's daughter, Fausta, for
her fortune. ^ Sallust, tho historian, was afterwards discovered in adultery with her, and
after being severely handled was allowed to escape with his life only on paying a con-
siderable sum of money to Milo. Meanwhile Cicero had come back, and both he and
Pompey were continually attacked by Clodius. The latter was elected curule sedile in
56, and in his turn accused Milo of being a violator of tlie public peace by keeping a
force of armed retainers. Pompey conducted Uie defense of Milo, but no decision was
ever reached. In 58 Milo offered hunself as a candidate for the consulship. Clodius
opposed the candidature of Milo, who was defended in the senate by Cicero in a speech
of which some fragments are still extant. On Jan. 20 of the next year Milo was on his
way to Lanuvium from Home, accompanied by his usual band of armed gladiators.
Clodius, also with an armed company, met him near Bovillie. Milo was cuctator of
Lanuvium, where he was going to take part in some religious ceremonies, with his wife
and a friend, and a number of slaves. Clodius had about 80 slaves with him. I^lo
and Clodius passed eaoh other without trouble; but some of Milo's followers picked a
<}uarrel with the slaves of Clodius, who attempted to interpose, and was at onoe stabbed
in the shoulder by one of Milo's men. Clodius was taken to a tavern in BoviUsb, but
was dragged out by the slaves of Milo and put to death. The corpse of Clodius was
placed on the rostra of the forum, in Rome, and a gr^t mob set fire to thq senate i^use.
These acts of popular violence crated a reaction in favor of Milo, who ventiire4<to return
to Rome. But the cjisturbancp in Rome soon became Solent that PonmeVjwas made
eubconsul. Milo was tried for the murder of Clodius, ana thou^ defenoea byf Cicero,
he was condemned to exile. He went to Marseilles, and while i^ere received a revised
copy of the speech which Cicero had intended to make in his favor. On reading it, he
is flaid to have remarked that he was glad it had not been deliv^^^*^ ^||ff^I ahoold
*8d8
not now be eating such Umb mullets at ManeHles.'' In his nbamce he was tried and
condemned on chains of violence, of bribery, and conspiracy. In 48 he went back to
Italy without permission, to Join Marcus C»lius, an expelled senator, who was attempt-
ing to excite a rebellion in s. Italy, and he was killed before a fort near Thurii.
ItHJfXE'^ MiLREi, or MiLBEA, a Portuguese silver coin and money of account, con-
tains 1000 rees, and is valued at 4s. 8id. sterling. The coin is commonly known in
Portjigal as the oorda, or "crown," and Is (since April 24, 1885) the unit of the money-
system in that coimtry. It is used in Brazil. The half-coroa, or half-milrei, of 500
rees, i^.also used in both countries. The name ' ' milrei " was used in Portuguese accounts
long bSalore any coin representing its value existed.
]IILfrABX8.a celebrated Athenian general, ''tyrant of the Chersonese," yet, as
Byton 'sinffs, " freedom's best and bravest friend." C^orced by Darius to flee from his
dominkms^e took refuge at Athens, and on the second Persian invasion of Oraece, his
military talents being of a hieh order, he was chosen one of the ten generals. He par-
ticularly distinguished himself by the great victory which he gained at Marathon (q.v.)
with a small body of Athenians and 1000 Plat»ans (Sept. 29, im b.c.) over the Persian
host, under Datis and Artaphernes. By this victory the Greeks were emboldened for
the heroic struggle which they made in defense of their country and their liberty.
Mlltiades bein£ intrusted with the command of an armament for the purpose of retali-
ating on the Persians, made an attack on the island of Paros in order to gratify a private
enmity; but failing in the attempt, he was, on his return to Athens, condemned to pay
a heavy 'fine as an indemnification for the expenses of the expedftion. Being unable
to do this, he was thrown into prison, where he dfed of a wound received at Paros.
The fine was exacted after his death from his son Cimon (q.v.).
MILTON, a CO. in n. central Georda, drained by the Chattahoochee river, which
forms its s. boundary; 150 sq.m. ; pop. 80, 6.261—777 colored. The Piedmont Air Line
railroad passes near Warsaw in the s.w. part of the county. The surface is rolling
and fairly productive; Indian corn, sweet-potatoes, and wheat are the chief products.
Chief town, Alpharetta.
MILTON, a t. in e. MassachusetU on the Old Colony railroad; pop. *80, 3,206. I
18 7 m. from the old city limits of Boston, which is reached by a horse railway, and is
on the Neponset river, which furnishes water-power for several manufactories; among
them a paper mill and Baker's chocolate factory. The latter is an old land-mark«
standing near the bridge that spans the river, on the opposite bank of which is the Dor-
chester district of Boston. Country produce is sent to the Boston market, and ice' is
exported. Leather and rubber goods are manufactured. It has excellent public
schools. 3 churches, and many fine large estates, approached by long drives from the
turnpike; and from the crest of one of the famous Milton Blue huls, following this
fashionable drive, a view of the harbor. Boston light. Deer island, fort Warren, etc.,
may be obtained. Its roads are dblebrated, beine made of the dust of Quincy granite
taken from ledges in the vicinity. It includes Milton Lower Mills, having 2 churches,
a paper mill, and a granite quarry.
MILTON, a t. in Rock co., Wis., the post village of which is 62 m. by rail 8.w. of
Milwaukee, at the Junction -of the Monroe branch of the Milwaukee and St. Paul rail-
road with the Prairie du Chien division ; popi 70, 2,010. Milton college, established in
1867 by the Seventh-Day Baptists, is its chief institution.
MILTON, John, an Engli h poet, was b. in Bread street, London, on Dec. 9, 1608.
His father was of an ancient Catholic family, but was disinherited on becoming
Protestant. He followed the occupation of a scnvener, by which, according to Aubrey,
** he got a plentiful estate," and was a man of great musical accomplishment, being the
composer, among other things, of the two well-known psalm -tunes Norvnch and York.
Prom him his son derived his matchless ear, and that strict integrity of character for
which he is as famous as for his verse.
Milton was carefully nurtured and educated. He was first placed under the care of
a private tutor named Young, a Scotchman by birth and education; and at the ace of
12, was sent to St, Paul's school, London, and afterwards to Christ's college, Cambridge.
According to the university register, he was admitted Feb. 12, 1624-25. He took his
degree of m.a. ; and having relinquished the idea of following divinity or law, he left
Cambridge in 1632, and went to live at his father's house at Horton, in BucAcinghamshire.
There, in serenity of mind and passion, he lived five years, reading the Greek and Latin
poets, aijd composing Gomtis, I^ddca, AreadM, VAUegi'o, and II Fen«erow>, On the death
of his mother in 163|, he went abroad, visiting the chief Italian cities, and malrins the
acquaintance of Qrmius and Galileo. While traveling, being* made aware that clouds
were gathering in tlie political atmosphere at home, he returned in 1680, and engaged
himself with the tuition of his nephews — on which portion of Milton's life. Dr. Johnson
could not help looking with ** some degree of merriment." In 164L he engaged in the
coptroversies of the times, and in the course of that and the fiiuBwing year he issued
the treatises Cf HeformaHon, The B^aaon of Church Oowmment urged against Prelaep,
Prdatieal Bpitcapacy, and An Apology for SmeetymnuuM. In 1648 he married rather
suddenly Mary, daughter of Richard Powell, an Oxfordshire royal^t, l^ul^tl^imion did
MSMI^fU '
S54
not at flist. pvore happy. His iHf«» who had been aocustomed to "danee viHi Aha
king's officers at home, found her husband's society too austere and philosophic for her
gay tastes. After the seveie honeymoon was over, she obtained permission to yisit her
relatives till Michaelmas; but when Michaelmas came, she refused to return. Stem and
proud, Milton repudiated her at once; and the matrimonial disagreement made the
world the richer by four Treatises on Dicoree, A reconciliation, however, took place,
which, we have no reason to doubt, was both genuine and permanent. Mary Powell
died in 1652-58, leaving him three daughters, Ann, Marv, and Deborah, of whose
undutifulness and in£ratitude we have latterly many complaints. In 1(N^ he produced
his Tractate on Educ&tion and his Areopagitica — a name of eloquence at which one may
warm one's hands yet. After the execution of Charles, he was appointed Latin secre-
tary to the council of state, with a salary of £290. In his new position his pen wbb as
terrible as Cromwell's sword. In EihmoJdastes he made a savage but effective reply to
the famous Eikon BasiUke; and in his Pro Poputo Anglieano Drfensio he assailed his
opponent, Claude de Saumaire, better known as Satmaaitis, with such a storm of ek>>
Quence and abuse that the latter, who died at Spa in 1658, is believed to have lost hla
life through chagrin. Milton at least flattered himself with having " killed his man."
His seconid wife, whom he married Nov. 12, 1656, was a daughter of capt. Wood-
cock of Hackney. She died in childbed in Feb., 1658, and her husband has enshrined
her memory in an exquisitely pure and tender sonnet.
Unceasing study had affected his eyesight, and about 1654 Milton became totally
blind. After the restoration, he retired from affairs; he was obnoxious to the reigning
Sower, and it is said that he was once in custody of the serseant-at-arms. On the pub-
cation of the act of oblivion, he married his third wife, Elizabeth Minshnll, and
shortly after removed to a house in Artillery walk, when he was busy with Paradue
Lost, This great poem was originally planned as a mystery; then some idea of treating
it as a drama haunted the author's mmd; finally, however, he i-esolved to write an ejHc
poem on the Fall of Man. The poem was published in 1667. He received five pounds
from his publisher, and a promise of other five pounds when 1300 copies should have
been solcf. In 1670 .he published his History of England, Next year he printed Para-
dise Beaained and Samson Agonistes. He died on Sunday, Nov. 8, 1674, and was buried
next his father, in the chancel of St. Giles, at Cripplegate. He left property to the
value of £1500.
Milton was, above all English poets, stately and grandiose. He arrived early at the
knowledge of his powers, and did not scruple, in one of his prose tracts, to inform hia
readers that he proposed to write a poem which would be considered one of the glories
of his country. Drawn away for a time by the heats of controversy and by ofiScial
tasks, he never forgot his pledge, and redeemed it at last in old age, blindness, and
neglect. In comparison, other poets are like sailing-ships, at the mercy of the winds of
passion and circumstance; he resembled the ocean.-steamer, which, by dint of internal
energy, can pierce right through the hurricane, !^^,ever, perhaps, was a mind more
richly furnished. His careless • ' largess " is greater than the fortunes of other men. His
Comus is the very morning-light of poetiy ; while in his great epic there is a massiveness
of thought, a sublimity of imagery, a pomp of sound — as of rolling organs and the out-
bursting of cathedral choirs — which can be found nowhere else. His great passages
echo in the mind as if loath to die. Of all great writers, he is perhai)s the one for whom
we are conscious of the least personal affection, and this arises from a certain hauteur
and severity which awes — which repels some natures; yet he infects his reader with his
own seriousness. See Pattison's short life (1879); Stern's MtUan u, seine Zeii(lS7B); and
Masson's Life and Times of MiUon, 6 vols. (1858-80).
MILUTIN, orMILYUTIN, Nikolai Alexbyevitch, 1818-72; b. Russia; educated
at the lyceum of Moscow, graduating in 1835, at the expense of the czar Nicholas, who
gave him a free -scholarship at the university of St. Petersburg, where he finished his
studies in 1838. In 1844 lie was appointea chief of the press bureau, but left it to
revise the Russian municipal laws. He was appointed by the czar on a committee con-
cerning the serfs, and afterwards was under-aecretary of the interior. When Alexander
II. came to the throne in 1855, he was his confidential adviser. He countersigned the
ukase of emancipation, Mar. 8, 1861, and prepared the laws required by that act. He
was made secretary of the interior, and to him are due in Russia the criminal code, the
press law, and trial by jury.
MILWAU'KEE, a co. in 8.e. Wisconsin, having lake Michigan for its e. boundary;
240 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 138,523—88,460 of American birth, 319 colored. It is traversed by
the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul railroad, the Chicago and Northwestern, I>etroit,
Grand Haven and Milwaukee, the Milwaukee, Lake Shore and Western, the Western
Union, and the Wisconsin Central. It is drained by the Menomonee, Root, and Mil-
waukee rivers. Its surface is hilly, and the soil is very fertile, having a lower stratum
of limestone. It produces grain and dairy products, and is adapted to stock-raising. It
has manufactures of lumber and wool, machine shops, rolling mills, basket factories,
etc. The Milwaukee river furnishes extensive water-power. Wheat is largely exported,
and steamers cross the lake in every direction laden with its products and
Digitized by KjV
855
'XltW AVXSE, a city of 'Wificonfiin, on the western shore of kke Michigan, at the
mouth of Milwaukee river or creek, which forms its harbor. The town, oeaatifuUy
built with light yellow bricks, crowns a high bluff on the lake, and contains county
buildhigs, custom-house, and post-ofDce, 60 churches, public schools, female college,
banks, insurance companies, asylums, hospital, and many daily and weekly papers.
Several railways connect the city with a country of sreat fertility. In extent of marine
commerce, Milwaukee ranks fourth among the cities of the union; and it has great
advantages as a manufacturing center. The grain received at Milwaukee in 1878
amounted to 38,988,315 bushels. Pop. 'CO, 45,254; 70, 71,440.
MILWAUKEE (awU\ the 19th city in population of tne United States; pop. '80,
115,578. Lat. 48" 8' 45" n. ; long. 87" 57' w. It is 90 m. n. of Chicago, and 80 m. e. of
. Madison, on the Milwaukee, which flows into the lake from the n. and is navigable for
2 m. from its mouth. The Menomonee discharges into the Milwaukee about i m. from
the mouth <rf the latter. The city harbor is 6 m. long and 8 m. wide, and has been
extensively improved by the government, so as to be one of the best harbors on the lakes.
The city lies on both sides of the river. Its streets are regular, and the architecture has
a pleasing appearance, the most common building material being the cream-colored
brick manufactured in the city. The business part of the city is in its center, near
the rivers; the higher parts to the e. and w. are occupied by residences. The streets
are lifted with gas, and well-paved, and there is a good. sewage svstem. The county
oourt*houBe is an eletfant sandstone building, erected at a cost of over $400,000; the
U. S. courts are held In the marble post-office, which is also used for a custom-house.
The county jail and workhouse are here. There are 35 public and 50 private schools,
a number of academies, an industrial school, 4 orphan asylums, and 3 hospitals. There
is a ooUege for women in the city, and a Franciscan college and Capuchin monastery in
the suburbs. There is a public art gallery, a public library coDuected with the young
men's association, and a German library and museum, lliere are 3 theaters, and 47
^riodicals, of which 30 are in German; 7 are dailies. The city has 71 churches, a
Roman Catholic and an Episcopal cathedral. The former is the seat of the archbishop.
Milwaukee is the terminus of 6 railroads: tlie Chicago and Northwestern; Wisconsm
Central; Western Union; Milwaukee, Lake Shore and Western; Detroit and Milwaukee;
and Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul. It is the greatest wheat market in the world,
and the port irom which are shipped the agricultural products of the three great states
of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Iowa. The receipts of wheat in 1877 were 19,855,469
bush. ; of flour, 1,905,454 bbls. ; of oats, 1,550,363 bush. ; of corn, 935,739 bush. ; of barley,
3.444,454 bush.; of butter, 8,898,875 lbs.; of wdol, 3,538,843 lbs.; of cheese, 8,389.701
Ibk The shipments of wheat for the same year were 18,304,358 bush., and of flour
3,!^,78Q bbls. There is storage for 6,000,000 busli. Another article of extensive export
is lumber, of which 186,439,000 ft. were shipped in 1877, besides 177,189,000 shingles.
The Milwaukee river furnishes an abundant water-power for manufacturing purposes.
A dam 8 m. from its mouth brings the water up 13 ft. above high-water mark, and a
canal 1^ m. long, runs from this dam along the w. side of the river. Manufactories and
mills are built along the canal, and their wares can be loaded directly into steamers with-
out another transfer. The most important manufacturing establishments are the iron
and rolling mills, with a capital of nearly $4,000,000, ana employing over 3,000 men.
There are 18 flouring mills with a capital of over $1,500,000. Over $8,000,000 is invested
in the manufacture of beer, and $1,800,000 in the manufacture of leather. Large
amounts are invested in the pork-packing business. Among the smaller manufactures
are woolen cloth, boots and shoes, sashes and blinds, wagons, barrels, brooms, furniture,
tobacco and cigars, soap and candles, paper, and white lead. There are 14 banks, and
a number of insurance companies. The national asylum for invalid soldiers is about 8
m. from the city. It is a government institution, and contains some 600 soldiers. A
line of steamers runs across the lake, connecting with the Detroit and Milwaukee rail-
road. The tonnage of vessels belonging to Milwaukee is nearly 70,000. Milwaukee
has a very large German population, and many Scandinavians and Bohemians are settled
there. It is divided into 13 wards, each of which elects 1 alderman and 3 common
councilmen. The city is furnished with water from the lake. Its first white settler
was a Frenchman named Jumeau, who came thero in 1835 to engage in the fur-trade,
and was afterrt'ard mayor. It was incorporated as a city in 1846.
MIICAKSA (from the Sanskrit m&n, to investigate; hence, literally investigation) is the
collective name of two of the six divisions of orthodox Hindu philosophy. See Sakskbit
LmsRATUBB. It is distinguished as Pd^rva- and Uttara'mimd'M&t the latter beii^ more
commonly called Veddnta (q.v.), while the former is briefly styled JUlmdtud. Though
the Mlmftnsft is ranked, bjr all native writers, with the five other philosophical systems, the
term philosoi>hy' — as understood in a European sense-— can scarcely be applied to it; for
the Miin&ns& is neither concerned with the nature of the absolute or of the human mind, nor
with the various categories of existence in general — topics dealt with more or less by the
other five philosophies; its object is merely to lay down a correct interpretation of
such Yedic passages as refer to the Brdhmamc ritual, to solve doubts wherever they may
exist on matters concerning sacrificial acts, and to reconcile discrepancies — according
to the Mlmftnsft, always apparent only — of Vedic texts. Thefoundation^f thia^stem is
'It- ••- •
therefore preceded bjr a codification of the three principal Vedas— the Bik, Blacks Yajtis^
ana Bflman — and hv the existence of schools and theories which, by their diiferent inter-
pretations of the Vedic rites, had b^gun to endanger, or, in reality, had endangered a
correct, or at least authoritative understanding of the Vedic texts. It is the method,
however, adopted by the Mtmftnsd which imparted to it a higher character than that of a
mere commentary, and allowed it to be lookea upon as a philosophy; for, in the first place»
the toriics explained by this system do not follow the order in which they occur in the
Vedic writihgs, especially in the Brfthmana portion of the Vedas (q.v,); they, are
arranged according to certain categories, such as authoritativeness, indirect prepept, con-
current efficacy, co-ordinate effect, etc. ; .and secondly, each topic or case is dlJacuseed
according to a regular scheme, which comprises the proposition of the subjtet^matter,.
the doubt or question arising upon it, the primdrfaeie or wrong argument applied to iU
the correct alignment in refutation of the latter, and the conclusion devolving from it.
8ome 8ubj90t8 trested of in theMlmAnsft, incidentally as it were, and merely for the sake
of argument, belong likewise more to the sphere of philosophic thought than to that of
oommentatorial criticism, such, for instance, as the association of articulate sodnd with
sense, the similarity of words in different languages, the inspiration or eternity of the
Veda, the invisible or spiritual operation of pious acts, etc. The reputed founder of
this system is Jaimini-H>f unknown date — ^wbo taught it in twelve books, each sub-
divided into four chapters, except the third, sixth, ana tenth books, wiiich contain ei^ht
chapters each; the chapters, again, are divided into sections, generally oomprismg
several Slltras or aphorisms, but sometimes only one. The extant commentary on thia
obscure work is. the Bhds^fa of Sabaraswftmin, which was critically annotated by the
great Mlmftnsd authority, Kumftrila-swtoEin. Out of these works, which, in^heir turn,
quote several others, apparently lost, has arisen a great number of other writangs,
explaining and elucidating their predecessors. The best compendium amongst these
modem works is the Jammi^fO'ni^ci'fndld^mskira, by the celebrated MftcDiavdehftrya
(q.v.).
KIXEfl, the name given by the ancients to certain dramatic performances, in which,
with little attempt at art, scenes of actual life were represented, sometimes in impro-
vised dialogue. The Greek mimes appear to have been invented by the Greeks of
Sicily and southern Italy. They were a favorite amusement of convivial parties^ the
guests themselves beinggenerally the performers. Sopbron of Syracuse, about 4S0 B.C.,
composed many in the Doric dialect, which were much admired, and which jPlato waa
accustomed to read.— The Roman mimes were not borrowed from the Greek, but were
of native Italic growth. They were npt only far ruder and coarser, but in some respects
they were essentially different — ^the dialogue occupying a smaller place, and mere ges*
ture and mimicry predominating. The humor and satire, however, were often genuine,
though rough, ana even indecent, and they were greatly relished by all classes; even the
patrician Smla was fond of them.
MIMNER'MUS, b.c. about 685-600; b. probably at Colophon or Smyrna^ but little is
known of his life except as disc osed in his poems. As an elegiac poet he is spoken of
by ancient critics with great admiration, but of his work only a few fragments remain.
These are partly erotic, and in part treat of such subjects as the short-livednesa of pleas-
ure, fleeting youth, etc. ; and all his topics are tinged with melancholy. He was the
first to adapt the elegiac verse to this kind of composition. The best of his existing
poems is ifanno, a love song to a young musician.
KDCO'SKS, a suborder of legunuTioscB, one of the largest natural orders of exogenous
plants: distinguished by regular flowers and petals valvate in bud. About 1000 species
are known, aU natives of warm climates, a few only extending beyond sub-tropical
regions in the southern hemisphere. The genera cteada (q.v.) and mimota are the best-
known. To the latter genus belongs the sensitive plants (q.v.). Some of the lai^ger
species of mimosese are valuable timber trees. The Talha (miinoM fem^finea) is one
of the most common trees of central Africa. They are also trees of great btfauty. Some
species of the genus prosopit, natives of the western parts of South America, are remark-
able for the abundance of tannin in their pods.
XnCULlIS, a genus of plants of the natural order acrophtUariacea, having aprismatic
5-toothed calyx, a Somewhat beU-shaped corolla, of which the upper lip is bifla and the
lower trifid, the lobes not very unequal, two long and two short stamens, and a stigma
of two lamelke, which close together upon irritation. The species are mostly hert>aoeou&
plants, natives of America. Some of them are veryfrequent m flower-gardens, and
many fine varieties have resulted from cultivation. They sometimes receive the name
of mankey-fiower. One species, M. lutetu, a native of Peru and Chili, has become
naturalized in many parts of Britain. The little yellow-flowered MtmK PIiA»t, now so
common in gardens and on window-sills in Britain, is M. mosehatus, a native of Oregon
and other north-western parts of America.
XIITA, or UTA, the name of a Greek weight and money denomination, derived from,
an oriental word, maneh, signifying ''weignt." The nuna contained 100 drachma
(q.v.), and was the sixtieth part of a talent; conseauently, as a toeight, it was equivalent
to about 1} of a pound avoirdupois, varying in different districts to the extent of one-
Digitized by VjOUV IC
^p7 ittSifK;t.
third of a pound more or less, followiiu^ the fluctuations of the talent itself. As a mone/y
^aeeount, it preserved the same relation to the talent, and was worth £4 Is 8d. Seib
TAUBorr.
MKA, Don Francisco Esfoz y., 1782-1886; b. Spun; first distinguished himself
in 1809 by guerrilla warfare, organizing bands of mountaineers in Catalonia to repel the
Prench invaders. In 1810 he became commander-in-chief of the Catalonian army,
and noted for his incessant activity and remarkable presence of mind. In 1812 he waa
made commander in Aragon, with the rank of general,, and assisted in gaining the
victories of Salamanca and Yittoria, and conducted an efiScient blockade of Fampeluua.
Discovering, when peace was made, in 1814, that he had been laboring in the interest of
the d68p>dtic policy of Ferdinand III., he made an ineffectual attempt to gain over the
garrison of rtimpeluna to the cause of freedom, and then sought an asylum in France.
While resident in Paris he was arrested by a French commissary of police, employed
by the Spanish ambassador. On this occasion Louis XVIII. acted with great magnan-
imity.' . He dismissed the commissary, demanded the recall of the Spanish ambassador,
and not only released. Mina but gave him a pension of 1000 francs. In 1822, when the
army of Cadiz proclaimed the constitution of 1812, and began a new revolution, gen. Mina
repaired to Navarrej' where he learned that the king had accepted the new constitution,
and accordingly ceased an aggressive movement which lie had already undertaken. He
was appbintea capt.gen. of the armies of NavaiTe, Catalonia, and Aragon ; but on Ferdi-
nand recanting his assurance of adherence to the constitution, he again retired from
Spain, ahd went to England. After the accession of Isabella 11., under the regency
of queen Christina, he l3ecame prominent in the operations against don Carlos; and on
these ^ndifag, tlie chairge of ^educating the young queen was allotted to gen. Mina and his
wife^ » ' '< . -
HINA, Xayikr, 1789-1816; b. Spain; nephew of Francisco; edacatedfor the priest-
hood. He was with his uncle in the guerrilla warfare of 1808-09, was taken prisoner in
1810, and detained four years at Vincennes. In 1814 he was again in arms, and forced
to flee to Pnnce. Thence he went to England, where he interested himself in the cause
of Mexican patriots struggling for independence, and bv the aid of some prominent
Englishmen chartered a vessel, purchased arms, organized an expedition, and sailed for
America, arriviVig on the coast of Virginia in the summer of 1816, with his party. In
the United States he received sympathy and substantial support, and took 200 volunteera
with him, arriving at Galveston in November, but soon afterwards crossing over to New
Orleans obtained more assistance, and after being reinforced by 100 Americans at Gal-
veston, landed at Soto la Marina, province of Tamaulipas, April, 1817. He now marched
at the h^ of 500 men towards the capital, fighting his way through such bodies of
Spaniards as he met. He was successful in a number of engagements, but was at length
surprised at night, captured, and put to death in front of the fortress of Remedios, Oct.
27, 1817.
IdKA BIBB, Sulabes Tndieus or Ghracula IruUea, a species of grakle (^.v.), or of a
nearly allied genus, a native of many parts of the ISistat Indies, about the size of a com-
mon thrush, of a deep velvety black color, with a white mark on the base of the quill-
feathers of the wings, yellow bill and feet, and two large bright yellow wattles at the
back of the head. The bill is large, conical ; the upper mandible a little curved and
sharp-pointed. The food of the mina bird consists of fruits and insects. It is very
lively and intelligent, and possesses a power of imitating human speech excelled by
none of the parrots. It has sometimes been trained to repeat sentences of considerable
length. It IS therefore in great request, and is often brought to Europe. — ^Another and
larger species is found in Sumatra and some of the other eastern islands; possessing the
same power of articulation. It is highly prized by the Javanese.
MINAMOTO, or Gen, the name of an ancient noble famUy in Japan, whose mem-
bers for many centuries were military vassals of the mikados. Under the leadership of
the Minamoto generals the whole of eastern and northern Japan, above the 86th parallel
n. lat. was conquered, and the aboriginal tribes brought under the government of the
imperial court at Kioto, and the brocade banner of the mikado was borne even into
YesM). The Minamoto family was founded by two grandsons of the 67th mikado, Seiwa,.
who reigned 859-76. From these princes, in two branches, have descended the hundreds
of illustrions military characters whose names and exploits fill the annals of Japan. .
Among their living descendants are seventeen families oi nobles of the imperial court, of
whom are Iwakura, now premier, Ohara, Higashi, Kuze, and other prominent rulers.
Their crest condsts of three bamboo leaves surmounted by gentian flowers. See '
YOBITOMD.
■IirABET,->MnrAB, a tall turret, used in Saracenic architecture. Jt contains a stair-
case, and is divided into several stories, with balconies from which the priests summon
the Mohammedans to prayer — bells not being permitted in their religi/5n — ^and is termi
nated with a spire or ornamental finial. The minarets are amongst the most beautiful fea-
tures of Mohammedan architecture, and are an invariable accompaniment of the mosques
(q.v.). In India, minors, or pillars of victory, are frequently erected in connection with
mosques; some of these are lofty and splendid monuments, that of Kootub, at Oid Delhi,
Digitized by VjOUV IC
MiMna.
858
being 48 feet 4 in. in diameter at base, and about 250 feet high. They are often built on a
plan of a star-like form, and are divided into stories by projecting balconies, like the
minarets.
MINAS GERAF8, an interior province in e. Brazil, bounded on the n. by fiabia, on
the e. by Porto Segtiro and Eepiritu Santo, on the s. by Rio Janeiro and Sfto Paulo, and
<5n the w. by Goyaz, 237.481 sq.m. ; pop. 72, 2,039,735. It is an elevated table-land, inter-
sected by many mountain chains, which send out offshoots in all directions. The highest
peaks are Itambi, 6,950, acfd Itacolumi, 6,750 ft. above the level of the sea. Between
the mountain ridges are sloping and well* watered valleys. There is an abundance of
small streams, which flow into the Sfto Francisco, or the tributaries of the Parana. The
Sfto Francisco rises in the s. of the province, flows through almost its entire length, forms
the boundary line between Bahia and Pcrnambuco, and between Ser^pe del Rei and
Alagoas, ana finally falls into the Atlantic ocean. The Doce and the Jequitinonha flow
e. to the Atlantic, and the Rio Grande and Rio Parnahiba unite to form the P^unmo.
Other rivers of importance are the Verde Grande, Paranahyba, Rio das Yelhas, and
Mucury. On account of its elevation the climate is much milder than that of districts
within the same parallels of latitude. The soil is fertile, and produces the ordtnair
•cereals of the temperate zones, besides the crops characteristic of a warmer climate, snuxL
as tobacco, cotton, sugar, coffee, and indigo. Ipecacuanha, manioc, and lalap are pro-
duced largely. The pibductions of the country are exported to the nei^boring prov*
inces, from which imports of wine, salt, and flour are made. The valleys between the
mountains are used for grazing purposes, and cattle are raised in large numbers. The
mines were formerly among the richest in Brazil, yielding laige Quantities of gold, but
they are for the most part abandoned, though gold is still founa in paying quantities.
Diamonds were discovered in the province in 1746, and diamond-washing is extensively
pursued. Other varieties of precious stones are found in the rivers. The mineral
deposits are extensive, including, besides gold and silver, iron, lead, mercniy, bismntii,
antimony, alum, and sulphur. The want of railroads makes transportation, wbi^ is
dependent on mules, difficult and expensive. Cotton and woolen manufactorks, foun-
dries, and other manufacturing industries have been introduced. Capital, Ouro Preto.
MINATITLAN, a t. on the isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico, 125 m. s.e. of Vera
Cruz, on the w. side of the Coalzacoalcos. It is in a nat country, and is often eaqx)eed
to floods. Mahogony grows in the region, and considerable is exported. This t. k the
proposed terminus of the Tehuantepec ship canal and railroad.
XIKCH) the channel which separates the island of Lewes from the counties of
Cromarty and Ross, in the n.w. of Scotland. Its shores are exceedingly irregular, and
its average width is about 28 miles. The LiUle Mineh, which separates the island of
Skye from that of North Uist and the neighboring islands in the outer Hebrides, is
upwards of 15 m. in width.
XIVCXO (anc. Mindus), a river of n. Italy, a continuation of the Tyrolese stream,
the Sarea, emerges from lake Garda at Peschiera, and after a course of about 88
m. through the province of Mantua, which it separates from Verona, falls into the Po, 8
m. below the city of Mautua. The Minclo has constituted an important basis of opera*
tion during the wars between Italy and Austria.
MIHB. Having adverted in various other articles — Emotion, Intellect, Will, etc
— to the chief component parts of our mental constitution, all that is necessary under the
present head is to consider the deflnition or precise demarkation of mind as a whole. In
this subject we cannot resort to the common method of defining, which is to assign
something more simple and fundamental than the thing to be defined; as when we define
gravity' to be an aMractif)e force, the notions of force and attraction being supposed to be
more intelligible than gravity. Mind can be resolved into nothing more findamental than
itself; and therefore our plan must be to call attention to those mdividual facts or expe-
I'iences that are pointed at by the name, and to circumscribe, in some way or other, the
whole field of such experiences. For an example of mind, we should probably refer
^ach person to his pleasures and pains, which are a class of things quite apart and peculiar ;
we filiould also indicate thou^^ts or ideas as mental elements; also exercises of will or
voluntary action. There is a sufficient conununity of nature in those various' elements
to cause them to be classed by themselves under a common designation, namely, mind.
If any one could be made aware of all the phenomena that have received this desi^atioa,
he would, of course, know the meaning in the detail; but this is not enough. Mind
being a general or comprehensive name, we ought to see distinctly the common char-
acter or attribute pervaaing all those particular phenomena: the recognition of this oqiii>
mon character is the knowledge of mind in general, or the determination of its deAnlng
attribute. For the settling of tliis common attribute we have another great resouxee*
hesides comparing the individual facts, that is, to determine the opposite, or contrast of
mind. Now, the usually assigned contrast is matter; but more preoisely, it is extennoii,
or iM extended, including both inert matter and empty space. When we are consoioua
of anything as haviug the property of extension, our consciousness is occupied wiUi the
object world, or something that is not mind. When we are feeling pleasure or pam,
remembering or willing, we are not conscious of anj«thing extended; we ^^rc^^ f^ to be
859
MliMraL
in % state of soblectiTe coDBciousness, or to be exhibiting a phenomenon of mind proper.
Hence, philoeophers are accustomed to speak of the inextentUd mind, as distinguished
from the outer or object world. In one sense everything that we can take cognizance
of is mind or self; we cannot by any possibility transcend our own mental ^here; wliat-
ever we know is our own mind ; hence the idealism of Berkeley, which seemed to annihilate
the whole extenial universe. But this large sense of mind is not what is usually meant,
4Uid whatever view we take of the reality of the external world, we must never merge
the distinction between the consciousness of the extended— which is also coupled with
other truly object properties, as inertia, for matter— and the consciousness of the inex-
tended, as constituting our feelings and thoughts. This opposition is fundamental and
inerasable, and is expressed in language by a variety of desienations— mind and not mind,
«ubiect and object, mtemal and external. The laws and phenomena of the extended are
£et forth in the sciences of the external world — mathematics, mechanics, chemistry, etc. ;
the laws of the mind proper, or the subject consciousness, are quite distinct in their
nature, and are embodied in a separate science, called mental philftsophy, psydiology,
<eta
MINT), QoTTFRiBD, 1768-1814, b. Switzerland; educated at Pestalozzi's charity-
school. His education, however, except in the art of design, was extremely limited.
He was naturally eccentric, and a deformity to which he was subject increased his
peculiarities, and made him avoid society. He was fond of cats, his pictures of which
are his most characteristic works. He was also successful in the delineation of children
and beggars. He died poor, but some of his pictures have since been sold at very high
rates.
XIVDAKA'O. See Philippine Islands.
mjTDXV, a Prussian t. in the province of Westphalia, lies on the Weser, is a pros-
perous, closely-built city, with a population of (1875) 17,088. It was till lately a fortress
of the second class. Imnden, whicn ranks as one of the oldest towns in Germany, has
a stone bridge across the river, originally erected in 1518, and possesses several ancient
churches, the most noteworthy of which is the present Koman Catholic church. Built
in the second half of the 11th c. it was till 1811 an episcopal cathedral. A battle was
fought near Mlnden in 1769, in which the French were defeated by an army of Anglo-
Hanoverian troops.
The Hanoverian town of Minden or Munden is situated in the district of Hildesheim,
within the province of G^ttingen, and at the confluence of the Fulda and Werra. Pop.
75, 5,616. Minden lies in one of the most picturesque and fruitful parts of Hanover.
It has 8 breweries, and manufactories of china, earthenware, sugar, tobacco, and linen, <
with a noted linen-market. There are alum-works and good coal-mines in the immedi- '
ate neighborhood; and it has an extensive river transport-trade in millstones, com, and
timber. Minden possesses several architectural remains, indicative of its former more
pro^)erous condition.
MINDORO. See Philippine Islands, ante.
MIVDSZEITT, a t. of Hungary, in the county of Csongrad, near the left bank of the
Theiss, and just below the mouth of the Saros, 19 m. north from Szegedin. Pop. '69,
9,414.
MINB. See Minbs; Mmmo; ante.
imnS'O, a t. of the island of Sicily, m the province of Catania, 82 m. s.w. of Mes-
sina. It is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient MetuB, founded by Ducctius,
459 B.n. Pop. 9,500.
MINER, a CO. in s.e. Dakota, drained by Sand Hill creek and Marsh creek, affluents
of the Dakota river; about 504 sq. m. ; pop. '80, 368-299 of American birth. It is prin-
cipally slightly undulating prairie land, little cultivated, but with a soil of exceptional
fertility.
MINER, Alonzo Ambs, d.d., b. N. H. 1814; principal of the military and scientific
academy at Unity, New Hampshire, 1835-89. In the latter vear, he was ordained to the
Universalist ministry. He has been pastor of Universalist churdies at Methuen, Lowell,
and Boston, an overseer of Harvard college, a member of the Massachusetts board of
education, and president of Tuft's college, Medford, from 1862 to 1874, when he re-as-
sumed the pastorate of the second Universalist church, Boston. He is an advocate of
total abstinence, and has been the candidate of the "prohibitory" party for governor of
Massachusetts. He was was also prominent in the antislavery agitation.
MINER, Thomas, 1778-1841 ; b. Conn. ; a graduate of Yale, and a physician who
ffained some distinction in his profession by the publication in 1825 of Emm upon Tel
Um IfHers and other Medical Subjects and a treatise on T^fphus SynoopaHs. He was also
one of the founders of the Yale medical institute, and the Connecticut retreat for the
insane. His autobiography was published in the yew Englander, vol. ii.
MINERAL, a co. in n.e. West Virginia, having the n. branch of the Potomac river,
the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, and a ridge of the Alleghany mts. for its w., n., and n.e.
boundaries, separating it from the state of Maryland; 280 sq. m. ; pop. '80, 8.639-8,170
of American birth, 486 colored. Its surface is mountainous with wide fertile valleys,
Digitized by VjOUV IC
MlnenU.
860
and is drained by Patterson's creek. The soil is adapted to the cultivation of grain and
potatoes; its dairy products are considerable^nd live stock is raised. Iron and bitumin*
ous coal are mined, and largelv exported. The Chesapeake and Ohio canal follows the
course of the river and the railroaa on its n.e. border, and the Cumberland and Penn-
sylvania railroad terminates at Piedmont. Capital. Keyser.
MINERAL ACIDS, in medicine. The ordinarjr mineral acids are sulphuric (oil
of vitriol), nitric (aqua fortis), hydrochloric (muriatic addy phosphoric, chromic, and
carbonic acids. Of these the latter only is usually rcgBiaed as a gas. that being its
ordinary condition, but all the others are gases or vapors at certain temperatures, except
phosphoric and chromic which on being heated change in composition. Concentrated
sulphuric add boils (in other words becomes a vapor) at CdO"* F.. and ooncentFated nitric
at 184^ F. Hydrochloric add is a solution of a. gas in water, and has constantly varying
degrees of strength. An aqueous solution boiling at 230° F. gives off a vapor which
contains' 90. 23 per cent of anJiydrous acid gas dissolved in 79.78 per cent of water, which
may be condensed In a reodver. A more concentrated solution when heated yields at
first only gas; as it gets weaker by parting with the gas. water begins to pass off alon^
with it. These acids have various uses m medicine. Sulphuric, nitric, chromic, and
hvdrochloric acids in a concentrated state are powerfully corrosive, and on this account
nitric acid is used in surgery as an escharotic. to destroy warts and other excrescences or
diseased growths or unhealthy tissues. It has the property of only injuring the tissue as
far as it destroys it^ paving a wound .wmch heals easily. Sulphuric acid, on the con-
trary, produces an indammation which does not readily subside, while hydrochloric acid
used as an escharotic produces sloughing, sometimes of a dan^rerous character. Chro-
mic acid which is ordinarily a crystalline solid of a beautiful cnmson color is soluble in
water, and its solution, of a proper strength, is also used as an escharotic in surgery, and
is generallv preferred to nitnc acid, being rathev more manageable. It is also used, in
weaker sofutions. as an appttcation to the gums in scrofulous patients, when there is a
tendency to ulceration, and in other ill-conditioned states of nie system.* and also as a
styptic for arresting surface hemorrhage. It is not administered internally. Sulphuric
acid in a diluted form is sometimes employed as a tonic, and its various salts are many
of them valuable medicines. See sulphates in Sulphubic Acid, ante. Dilute nitric
add is given as a medicine in several affections. It sometimes succeeds in intermittent
fever when quinine is contra-indicated, and has been given in dysentery, on the recom-
mendation of Hope. In some forms of dyspepsia and mal-assmiilation it is useful in
a&sisting digestion and improving nutrition, in combination with hydrochloric acid,
in the form of diluted aqua^regia. it is often successfully used in cases of Jaundice, and
also in some forms of dyspepsia, hydrochloric add beinff a natural ingredient of the
gastric juice. Dilute nitric add has been used with benefit in diabetes mdlitua, and it
IS stated that in large doses, largely diluted in water, it has cured several cases of diabe-
tes insipidus. It has also been successfully used in scrofula and glandular enlargements.
See Carbonic Acid. Nitric Acid. Hydrochloric Acid, and phosphoric add in I^oe-
PHORU8.
XnnSSAL C9A1IXI.E0H. See Manoanbsb.
MINERAL DEPOSITS. This term is generally understood as a collection of
metalliferous ores occurring in geological formations where they have been depodted
bv the processes of nature, and have, with some exceptions, undergone more or less
alteration, either in composition or position, by subsequent changes. Sometimes the
ore is a native metal, but is more frequently a mixture oi compounds of different metals.
A single metal may be the principal one. the associated metals forming a mixture which
is called a gangue. the principal ore and the gangue constituting the deposit. In gen-
eral, ores may be classified as follows: compact, when the structure is close and Ine-
grained; granular, when composed of visible particles; micaceous or finely laminated,
when existing in the form oi minute scales, as, for example, micaceous specular iron
ore; disseminated, when scuttered throughout the gangue in laminse or coarse grains;
porphyritic, when distributeil in distinct crystals; banded, when the prindpal ore, or the
gangue. or both, are arranged in parallel layers, or bands. Sometimes the bands are
arranged concentrically, when the deposi( is said to be concentric-banded; brecdated,
when the deposit contains fragments of other rock or of older ore, these fragments often
forming nuclei around which the ore or the gangue lias formed further deposits or crys-
tals ; and it is called dnisy when there are many cavities lined with cmtols. Mineral
deposits may also be divided into superficial, stratified, and unstratifled deposits. Super-
ficial deposits are those in which the materials lie in a more or less unconsolidated or
loose condition where they have been washed from cliffs and mountain slopes whose
rocks contained metals, ores, or gems. The surface gold deposits of California, Aus-
tralia, and the Ural are examples, as also the platinum beds of Oregon and Iberia, and
the stream tin of Cornwall, Australia, and Durango, and the diamond, sapphire, and .
ruby "mines" of Brazil. South Africa, and the Indies. The ease with which such
deposits are worked renders them as a rule the most profitable when first discovered.
Stratified deposits have their examples in the coal beds, and many beds of iron, such as
the clay iron-stone of the coal measures; and the schistose copper beds in the triassic
sandstones of New Mexico. Unstratlfied deposits have tlieir examples in those meta-
Digitized by VjjOLJV IC
861
morphosed rocks wbich haye been much disturbed by geolog[te forces, as the iron ores
of Missouri, lake BupNerior, and the Alleghanies. These deposits were formerly supposed
to be of eruptiye origin, but it is now understood that they are principally stratified
deposits which have l^n subjected to great disturbance and to metamorphism. The
vast deposits of metallic copper in the lake Superior region were once supposed to have
been formed from subterranean fusion, but it has been pretty clearly demonstrated that
the metal was deposited from solution under the influence of galvanic or ma^etic
action. There are, however, eruptive rocks which contain minerals in dissenunated
condition, such as the volcanic rocks containing the amygdaloid copper of lake Superior,
and the volcanic rocks in Japan, from which larse quantities of copper are obtained.
Among the unstratified deposits are what are called conioGt deposits. These occur at
the junction, or surface of contact, of two different formations, as where sedimentary
have been displaced by igneous rocks. Concretions and sheets of ore are thus found at
the junction of trap and sandstone. Deposits occur also as im/pregnaUons, where the
metalliferous minei^ is diffused through a mass of rock in irregular streaks of more or
less richness, as is generally the case with deposits of quicksilver. Fahibandt is a name
given to deposits where the ore is diffused throu^ certain layers -which become more
softened or rotten, ovfahl, than the other strata. Examples of fahlbandt» are more fre-
3uently met with in mines in Scandinavia than elsewhere. Stockicork is a kind of
eposit where the rock is penetrated in every direction, so that the ore must be taken out
with the mass of the metalliferous rock. Some of the great iron ore deposits of the
world, as the magnetic stock at Tagilsk in the Ural and the hematite of the Missouri
iron mountain are examples, as also the copper mines of lake Superior, and the silver
mines of Norwiy^, Saxony, and Nevada.
Mineral vein$ are sheets of metalliferous matter, which are divided into three principal
varieties — ^eash veins, segregated veins, and fissure veins. Gash veins are those which
have been formed in fissures that have resulted from the shrinking of the rock, and are
limited to one rock, generally to one bed. Examples are seen in the lead mines of the
upper Mississippi, where the ore is confined to the Galena limestone, a lower Silurian
formation. It usually occurs in vertical fissures of little depth, but sometimes in hori-
zontal fissures, often opening into caves or chambers lined with ore; indeed, gash veins
are often the commencements of cave fonnations. Segregated veins are those which
are interposed between the strata, and always occur in metamorphic rocks, metamor-
phism being the cause of the segregation by the separation of the metalliferous materials
from the masses of adjacent strata. They have not the banded character of the fissure
veins (to be described), and are generally composed of quartz, often rich in gold. All
the mnitoid rocks of the Alleghanies are of this character, and contain more or less
gold. Iron, and also copper, and less freauenUv nickel, are conmion associates. fMs-
sure veins, true veins, or lodes, are formed in fissures which have been produced by
volcanic or earthquake action. The displacements caused by these forces result in the
formation of fissures because of the inability of the strata to return to their former rela-
tional position from the interposition of weaves of rock or other causes. The subsequent
filling of the fissure by metalliferous material forms the vein or lode. As a consequence
of the mode of formation, a fissure-vein is usually of unequal thickness, having the form
of a wedge.' They usually send out minor fissures, generally at acute angles, which are
called branches, and sometimes feeders. The horizontal direction of a vein is called its
strike or course, and is expressed by degrees of the quadrant in relation to points of the
compass. The vertical angle which it makes with tne horizon is called the dip. Geo-
logical disturbances are a frequent cause of displacement of parts of veins, formmgwhat
are called faults. The ores contained in fissure- veins are various, such as silver, copper,
lead, tin, zinc, antimony, and other metals. Gold is less common than in segregated
veins, and it is usually only worked in them as a side product. Silver is the most valu-
able constitu^it, and these veins constitute the great silver repositories of Hie world. The
Comstock lode and various others in Nevada are examples. Various theories have been
advanced to account for the filling of mineral veins. The earliest was the plutonic
theory, which supposed that the materials were injected into the fissures in a state of
fusion. An irresistible objection to this theory is that such a method would have neces-
sitated the production of alloys to a much greater extent than is found to obtain. A
later theot7*regarded the formation as the result of aqueous deposition, or sedhnentation,
in the manner of Bmestone and other sedimentary rocks. An overwhelming oblection
to this theory is the fact that veins are not horizontally stratified, but the materials are
often deposited in vertical positions against the walls of the fissures. The theory of
lateral secndtion or transfusion has been proposed, which supposes that the contents of
the fissures weiid derived by percolation through the widls of the veins from the adjacent
rocks; but a fatal objecfti«»n to this theoiy is &e fact that the composition of a mineral
vein is often the same throughout its extent, or in passing throufffa various stntta,
whereas it ought txv vary if the tbeoiy were true. Agaitt, two veins of diasimilar consti-
tution ofteri-^trav^^se the sam# stratum adjsicent to each otSier. This theory demands
that they shimlehbe alike. The chemiea) precipitation theory regards the deposition as
due to preoipltiitioh from euperkeated ^lutions under great pressure. These solutions,
coming from Subterranean sources, parO with heat in passing into the fissuroB. The
deposits made by thermal springs are instanced as affording illustrations of this mode of
862
produotioa. Water oontainW salts of variouB kinds ia capable, when under great preaaiiie
and at a high temperature, of dissolving most minerals; and if it came in contact with
silicic acid charged with sulphur, many metals witJbi which it came in contact in its pass-
age through the fissures would be reduced to sulphides and deposited on cooling. Illuatra-
tions embracing the action of solutions of various saline and other bodies are carried to a
greater or less extent in systematic works. Most mineral veins are more or less decom-
posed when situated at or near the surface, and, indeed, this condition usually extenda
downwards to the permanent water level, below which the ore is usually in iu original
state, which is, generally, a sulphide. In Cornwall the decomposed portion of a mineral
vein is called a gossan, and this term is generally used amone mmers who speak the
English language. In the gossan, silver ores are usually converted into chloride, bromide,
etc., associated with various-shaped masses of native silver. Sulphide of copper is con-
verted into oxides, and then into malachite, azurite, the green and blue carbonates, and
into chrysocolla, the green hydrous silicate. On account of the disintegration which ha&
taken place the gossan is more economically worked than that part of the vein which lies
below the water level, and is in its natural state, and therefore the first workings of min-
eral veins are generally the most profitable.
MIKSXAL XIHODOM, the inorganic portion of nature. Under this term,, however,
are not included the inorganic products of organic beings, as sugar, resins, etc., althon^
substances more remotely of vegetable or even animal origin are reckoned among nun
erals, as coal, fossils, etc. To the mineral kingdom belong liquid and gjiseons, as well
as solid substances: water, atmospheric air, etc., are included in it. All the chemioai
elements are found in the mineral kingdom, from which vegetable and animid organ
isms derive them ; but many of the compounds which exist in nature belong entirely to
the vegetable and animal kingdoms, and are produced by the wonderful cnemis^ of
life.
MIHSXALOOT (Fr. nuner, to dig, mine; Gael, meinn; WeL mwn, ore, mine), the
science which treats of minerals. But it does not embrace all that relates to the mineral
kingdom. Simple minerals alone, or homogeneous mineral substances, are regarded as the
Bubjects of mineralogy; rocks formed by the aggregation of simple minerals, and their
relations to each other, are the subjects of geol^y (q.v.). This limitation of the term
mineralogy is comparatively^ recent. Geology or geognosy was formerly included in it.
The arrangement and description of simple minerals according to their external charac-
tera has been called by Werner and others oryciognosy, but the term has fortunataly
fallen into disuse. Nor is the study of mere external characters sufficient in minersJofy,
The chemical composition of minerals equally demands attention. In tlie classification
of minerals, some mineralogists, as Mobs and Jameson, have regarded only the external
characters, and some, as Berzelius, only the chemical composition; but the results have
been unsatiafactory, and the present tendencv is in favor of a system which seeka to
constitute natural groups bv having regard to both.
Some minerals being of great use, and others highly valued for their beauty, have
received much attention from the earliest a^es. But the ancient naturalists describe few
minerals. The first attempt at scientific mineralogy was by Ckorge Agricola in the 16th
century. The systems of the Swedes Wallerius and Cronstedt, in tlie latter half of the
18th c, were the first worthy of the name. That of Werner followed, and was exten-
sively adopted. The discoveries of Hauy in crystallography, and the progress of
chemistry, gave mineralogy a new character; and then sprung up two schools of
mineraloj^sts, one resting chiefly on external characters, and the other on chemical
composition.
The chemical classification of minerals is rendered diflScult by the endless vaiiety of
combination and proportion in the elements of which they are composed, the presence
of substances not essential to the mineral, and yet more or less affecting its characters,
and the frequent impossibilitv of determining what is to be deemed essential, and what
accidental. Chemical purity is almost never found in nature. Even the purest diamond,
when burned, leaves some traces of ash; and the various colors of diamond, quartz, and
other minerals are due to the presence of substances which are often in so small quantitv
as not to affect their crystalline forms or other physical propertiea Again, some minexaJs
of identical chemical composition differ in their crystallization, so that an anangement
founded upon it would separate them too widely. There are also many minerals which
are often found in an uncrystallized state, and others which are always so. In the
. arrangement of minerals into natural groups, their chemical composition, although not
alone to be regarded, is of the first importance, so that the place of a new mineral in
the system can never be determined without analysis; and m detenooining the nature
of a mineral, diemical tests, such as the application of acids, are continually resorted
to. It is also necessary to know its specific gravity, and how it is acted upon both
by a moderate heat and by the blowpipe. An ezaminaticm of the czystalline forms^
with measurement of the angles of the crystals, is often suflAcient to distinguish minerals
which have otherwise much resemblance. The eCsMO^ of ciystals is also Important, a
readiness to split in planes parallel to certain of their faoes omy, by which the prtfluiewe
farm of the ciystal mav be ascertained. Minerals not crystallised exhibit Important
varitiesof i*^dlufifl» as MMn^iNatel.>?dfvii^ C^f^Oig p^CT^i|^tifl^^f farm
86S
MiB«iar
are also frequently characteristic of uncrystallized minerals, as mamSla/ryy MfiPvMaX^
etc. Minerals exhibit, when broken, very different kinds of fracture, as tnen, eanmoidal,
tpUni&ry, etc. Opaqueness, transluceney, and transparency are moi-e or less characteristio
of different kinds: eleetric and magnetic properties demand attention; and very impor-
tant characters are derived from luster, which in some minerals is metalUc, in otners-
semi-metaXUc, in others pearly, vUretms, etc. Color is not generally of much importance,
but in some minerals it very characteristic. Hardness and tenacity are veiy important,
and are of all various degrees. A few fluid, and even a few gaseous substances, are
included in mineralogical systems. Undiiosity and other peculiarities to be ascertained
by the touch, are very characteristic of some minerals; peculiarities of taste and smeU
belong to others.
Mineralogy has ver^ important relations with geology, which cannot be studied
without regard to the mineral constituents of rocks. The mineral composition of soils
greatly affects vegetation and agriculture. The economical uses of minerals are also
very important and various. It is enough merely to allude to coal, lime, salt, and the
metallic ores. Naphtha, petroleum, bitumen, aspnalt, etc., are of well-known utility;
and a high value has always been attached to gems and other ornamental stones.
MINERAL POINT, a city in s. Wisconsin, the n. terminus of the Mineral Point
railroad a branch of the Illinois Central; pop. *70, 8,065. It is 45 m. w. of Madison,
180 m. from Chicago, 190 m. from Milwaukee, and 86 m. n.e. of Dubuque, Iowa. Large
quantities of lead are taken from mines in the neighborhood, the surrounding countrv
being a rich mineral region ; and a vast amount of copper and lead is annually exported.
It has zinc smelting furnaces, lead furnaces and foundries, d banks, a number of excel-
lent public schools, a seminary, 6 churches, 2 hotels, 8 newspapers, and a car factory.
It is a market for grain and general produce supplied by a tract of country 15 m. square.
XHrSSAL XX8ZHB. See Rssms.
XmSBAL TALLOW, or Hatchbtike, a remarkable substance found in several places
in Britain, Qermany, Siberia, etc., soft and flexible, yellowish white, or yellow, resem-
bling wax or tallow, often flaky like spermaceti, inodorous, melting at IISMTO" P.,
and composed of about 86 carbon and 14 hydrogen.
IQVEBAL WATEBS. This term is usually applied to all spring waters which possess
qualities in relation to the animal body differenvfrom those of ordinary water. Mineral
waters have been used as remedial agents from a very early period. The oldest Greek
physicians had great faith in their curative power, and the temples erected to .^cu-
lapius were usually in 'close proximity to mineral springs; they had recourse to the
sulphurous thermal springs of Tiberias (now Tabareah), which are still used by patients
from all parts of Svria in cases of painful tumor, rheumatism, gout, palsy, etc., and to
the warm baths of Calirrhoe, near the Dead sea, which are mentioned by Josephus-
as having been tried by Herod in his sickness. We are indebted to the liomans for
the discovery not only of the mineral thermic springs in Italy, but of some of the
most important in other parts of Europe, amongst which may be named Aix-la-
Chapelle, Baden-Baden, Bath, Spa in Beldum, and many others; and Pliny, in his
Ifatural History, mentions a very large number of mineral springs in almost all parts of
Europe.
The therapeutic action of mineral waters, or of spas, as they are frequently termed,
dei>ends chiefly upon their chemical composition and their temperature, although a
variety of other circumstances, as situation, elevation, cUmate, geological formation,
mean temperature, etc., have an important bearing upon the success of the treatment.
The best time for undergoing a course of mineral waters is, in the majority of cases,
the months of June, July, August, and September. There are, however, exceptiona
depending upon climate; for example, at Qastein, celebrated for its thermal springs,
the weather is changeable and stormy in June and July, but pleasant in May, August,
and September. Early rising is usually advisable durmg a coiurse of mineral waters,
and. as a general rule, the water should be drunk before breakfast, at intervals of about
a quarter of an hour between each tumbler, moderate exercise being taken in the inter-
vus. In many cases bathing is of even greater importance as a remedial agent than
drinking. Baths are generally taken between breakfast and dinner; and should never
be taken soon after a full meaL The time durine which the patient should remain in
the bath varies very much at different spas, and the directions of ihe local physician
should be strictly attended to on this point. It is impossible to determine beforehand
how long a course of mineral waters should be continued, as this entirely depends upon
the symptoms observed during treatment. As a general rule the treatment should not
be protracted beyond the space of six weeks or two months, but on this point the patient
must be solely guided by the phpician resident at the spa. It cannot be too forcibly
impressed upon the patient that indulgence in the pleasures of the table, and excesses
of anv kind, frequently counteract the salutary effects of the waters, while perfect
mental relaxation is an important auxiliary to the treatment. It will be seen from
remarks on the nature of the cases likely to receive benefit from the various kinds
of mineral waters that spas are only suitable for patients suffering from ehvwiic dis-
orders.
No classification of mineral waters based upon their chemical €ompo^^9^^<^i|fi, be-
Mini
BfM<
eral.
8^4
Strictly exact, becauae many springs are, as it were, intermediate between tolerably well
characterized groups. The following classification, which is adopted by Dr. Althaus,
in his Spas ^ Europe (Lond. 1862), is perhaps the most convenient: 1. Alkaline
waters; 2. Bitter waters; 8. Muriated waters; 4. Earthy waters; 5. Indifferent thermal
waters; 6. Chalybeates; 7. Sulphurous waters.
1. The alkaline waters are divisible into (a) Simple dUcaUne acidulous waters, of which
the chief contents are carbonic acid and bicarbonate of soda. The most important spas
of this class are the thermal spring of Vichy and the cold springs of Fachingen, Gellnau,
and Bilin. These waters are usetul in certain forms of indigestion, in jaundice ariBing
from catarrh of the hepatic ducts, in gall-stones, in renal calculi and gravel, in gout, in
chronic catarrh of the respiratory organs, and in abdominal plethora. Vichy (q.v.) may
be taken as the representative of this class of springs, ^b) Muriated alkahne addul&us
waters^ which differ from the preceding sub-group in additionally containing a consider-
able quantity of chloride of sodium. The most important spas of this kind are the ther-
mal springs of Ems, and the cold spring of Selter?, Luhatschowitz, and Salzbrunn.
They are useful in chronic catarrhal affections of the bronchial tubes, the stomach, and
the intestines, and the laiynx; and the Ems waters possess a high reputation in certain
chronic diseases of the womb and adjacent organs, {e) AlkaUne saline waters, of which
the chief contents are sulphate and bicarbonate of soda. The most freauented of these
spas are the warm springs of Ciirlsbad and the cold springs of Marienbaa. Patients suf-
fering from abdominal plethora are those most frequently sent to these spas, which often
prove of great service if the stagnation of the blood is owing to habitual constipation,
pressure from accumulated fseces, or congestion of the liver, unconnected with diseases
of the heart or lungs. These waters, especiallr those of Carlsbad, afford an excellent
remedy for the habitual constipation which so frequently arises from sedentary occupa-
tions; the result being much more permanent than that produced by strong piurgatiTe
waters.
2. The chief contents of the bitter waters are the sulphates of magnesia and soda;
and the best-known spas of this class are those of PtlUna, Saiasch&tz^ Sedlitz,
Priedrichshall, and Eissingen ; although there are two English spas — namely, the bitter
water of Cherry Rock, near Kingswood, Jn Gloucestershire, and the Pm'ton spa, near
Swindon, in Wiltshire — which *'are, by tneir chemical composition, admirably suited
for the treatment of many cases of disease, and may perhaps even prove superior to the
continental spas of this class." — Althaus, op. cU. p. 360. These waters act both as pur-
l^tives and diuretics, and may therefore be used advantageously in the numerous oases
m wliich it is advisable to excite the action both of the bowels and kidneys.
8. The muriated waters are divisible into {a) Simple muriated waters, of which the
chief contents are a moderate quantity of chloride of sodium, or common salt. The chief
spas of this class are Wiesbaden and Baden-Baden, which are hot; those of Soden (in
Isassau), of Mondorf (near Luxembourg), and of Can statt (near Stuttgart^, whicli are
tepid; and those of Kissingen, Homburg, and Cheltenham, which are cola. They are
omefly employed in cases of gout, rheumatism, scrofula, and abdominal 't>lediora. (d}
Mnrvated kthta waters, of which the chief contents are the chlorides of sodium ana
lithium. The discovery of lithia in some of the Baden-Baden springs is so recent that
there is as yet no sufilcient experience concerning their therapeutic action. Tlu gout they
first aggravate the pain, but then give relief; ana in periodic headache they mive been
found serviceable, (e) Brines, whose chief contents are a laige amount' of chloride of
fiodium. Amount the spas of this kind those of Rehme, in Westphalia^ and' Kauheim,
in Hesse, have the ^atest reputation. They are mostly employed for bathing, and are
often of much service in scrofula, anaemia, rneumatism, certain forms of paralysis, and
catarrh of the mucous membranes, {d) lodo-bromated muriaied waters, in which, besides
a moderate quantity of chloride of sodium, the iodides and bromides of sodium isind mag-
nesium are contained in an appreciable quantity. Ereuznach is the most cele'brated of
the spas of this class. Its waters are used both for drinking and bathing^ aadf are of
service in scrofulous infiltrations of the glands, in scrofulous ulcers, in chronic inflamma-
tion of the uterus and ovaries, etc. The waters of Hall, in Austria proper, are also of
this class, and have a high reputation in cases of brondbocele or goiter.
4. Earthy waters, of which the chief contents are sulphate and carbonate of lime.
The most important waters of this class occur at Wildungen, Leuk, Bath, Lucca, and
Pisa. The Wildungen water, which is exported in large quantities, is, according to Dr,
Althaus, "a capital diuretic, and not only promotes the elimination of gravel and renAl
calculi, but by its tonic action on the mucous membrane of the urinary passages serves
to prevent the formation of fresh concretions. It is also much used for cnromc catarili
of the bladder, neuralgia of the urethra and neck of tlie bladder, dysuria, and inconti-
nence of urine." The baths of Leuk, in which many patients remain nine hours daily
(viz., from 4 a.m. to 10 a.m., and from 2 p.m. to 5 p.m.), until an eruption appoE^s, are
chiefly used in chronic skin diseases. The waters of Bath, Pisa, andXucca, which are
thermal, are useful in chronic skin diseases, scrofula, gout, rheumatism, etc.
5. Indifferent thermal waters, which usually contain a small amount' of saline con-
stituents. Of the spas of this class, the most important are Gastein (95*^ to 118"), TOplitz
(12(y'),Wildbad (W*), Warmbrunn (lOO'), Clifton (86'), and ^^,|^'^y^''J:>i^eir most
865
Miner^A..
striking effects are to stimulate the skin and excite the nervoos S3mteoDi. *' They are
especially used in chronic rheumatism and atonic gout; in diseases of the skin, sudi as
f)rurigo, psoriasis, lichen; in neuralgia and paralysis due to rheumatic and gouty exuda-
tions, to parturition, or to severe diseases, such as typhoid fever and diphtheria; in hys-
teria; and in general weakness and marasmus." — Althaus, op, dt p. 421.
6. Chalybeate waters, which are divisible into (a) Simple acidulous ehcUpbeatei, whose
chief contents are carbonic acid and bicarbonate of protoxide of iron; and (b) Saline
acidttloue chalyheateSy whose chief contents are sulphate of soda and bicarbonate of pro-
toxide of iron. These waters are considered in a special article. See Chalybbatb
Watebs.
7. Sulphurous waters, which contain sulphureted hydrogen or metaUic sulphides
(sulphurets), or both. The most imj^rtant sulphurous theiiials are those of Aix-la-
Chapelle, fiaden (near Vienna), Bare^s, Eaux-Chaudes, and Baendres de Luchon;
whilst among the cold sulphurous sprmgs, those of Nenndorf (in Hessen-Nassau) and
Harro^te are of great importance. They are extensively used in chronic diseases of
the skin, and are of service in many cases m which exudations require to be absorbed,
as in swellings of the joints, in old gunshot-wounds, and in chronic gout and rheuma-
tism. In chronic larvugeal and bronchial catarrh, they frequently give relief, and in
chronic poisoning by lead or mercury, they favor the elimination of the poison, although
to a far less degree than iodide of potassium taken internally. The sulphurous waters
are employed externally and internally, and mineral mud-baths are believed by many
physicians to form a valuable auxilianr to this treatment.
For further information on this subject, the reader is referred to the work of Dr.
Althaus ^f which free use has been made in this article), and to the Dietionnav-e Oh^
eral dee Eatux Mineralee et Shydrologie M^dicale of MM. Burand-Fardel, Le Bret, and
Lefort.
MINERAL WATERS, Abtificial. See A&eiatbd Waters, arUe.
MINERSVILLE, a borough in e. Pennsylvania, on a branch of the Philadelphia and
Reading railroad at its junction with the Schuylkill Haven and Mine Hill railroad, and
the terminus of the People^s railway to Mount Carbon ; pop. '70, 91,699. It is on the
West Branch of the Schuylkill river, in the center of the anthracite coal mining region,
not far from Broad mountain, 46 m. n.e. of Hhrrisburg, and 4 m. w. of Pottsville, in
the southern or Schuylkill coal field. Other mineral deposits are sandstone, shale, and
limestone. It is in a valley surrounded by hills seamed with iron ore and covered with
the rough and dangerous apparatus of anthracite coal mining. It has a newspaper, 10
church£(, a public library, water works, a well-organized fire department; there are
machine shops and iron foundries, an anthracite furnace, a car factory, soap and shoe
factories, and flour and saw mills.
MIKEBVA, the name of a Roman goddess, identified by the later Grsecising Romans
with the Greek Atherte, whom she greatly resembled, though, like all the old Latin
divinities, there was nothing anthropomorphic in what was told concerning her. Her
name is thought to spring from the same root as mens (the mind) and monere (to warn or
advise]; and the ancient Latin schojar and critic, Varro, regarded her as the impersona-
tion oi divine thought — the plan of the material universe of which Jupiter was the
creator, and Juno the representative. Hence all that goes on among men, all that con-
stitutes the development of human destiny (which is out the expression of the divine
idea or intention), is under her care. She is the patroness of arts and trades; and was
invoked alike by poets, painters, teachers, physicians, and all kinds of craftsmen. She
also guides heroes in war; and, in fact, every wise idea, every bold act, and every use-
ful design, owes something to the hi^h inspiration of this virgin goddess. Her oldest
temple at Rome was that on the Capitol, but she had another on the Aventine. Her
festival was held in March, and lasted five days, from the 19th to the 28d inclusive.
• Athene, or Pallas Athene, the Greek goddess corresponding, as we have said, to
the Roman Minerva, was one of the few truly grand ethical divinities of Greek myth-
ology. Different accounts are given of her origin and parentage, probably from the
jumbling together of local legends; but the best known, and in ancient times, the most
orthodox version of the myth represented her as the daughter of Zeus and Metis. Zeus,
we are told, when he had attained supreme power after his victory over the Titans,
chose for his first wife Metis (Wisdom); but being advised by both Uranus and Gsea
(Heaven and Earth), he swallowed her, when she was pregnant with Athene. When the
time came that Athene should have been born, Zeus lelt great pains in his head, and
caused Hephaestus (Vulcan) to split it up with an axe, when the goddess st)rang forth —
fully armed, according to the later stories. Throwing aside the thick veil of anthropo-
morphism which conceals the significance of the myth, we may see in this account of
Athene's parentage an effort to set forth a divine symbol of the combination of power
and wisdom. Her father was the greatest, her mother the wisest of the gods. She is
literally born of both, and so their qualities harmoniously blend in her. It is possible
that the constant representation of her as a strictly maiden goddess, who had a reai, and
not a merely prudish antipathy to marriage, was meant to indicate that qualities like
hers could not be mated, and that, because she was perfect, she was doomed to virginity.
8he was not, however, a cold unfeeling divinity; on .the contrary, she warmljiignd
U. K IX.-56 ^
866
actively interested henielf in the affairs of both sods and men. She sat at the Ti^t
hand of Zeus, assisting him with her counsels; we helped him in his wa», and con-
quered Pallas and Encelados in the battles of the giants. She was the pattoneas of
agriculture, invented the plow and rake, introduced the olive into Attica, and 0n bar-
mony with her character as the personification of aetire wisdom) taught men the use of
almost all the implements of industry and art; and is said to have devised nearly all
feminine employments. Philosophy, poetry, and oratory were also under her care:
She was the protectress of the Athenian state, was believed to have instituted the couTt
of justice on Mars' Hill Tthe Areiopagus). As a warlike divinity, she was thought to
approve of those wars only which were undertaken for the public good, and coDducled
with prudence; and thus she was regarded as the protectress in battle of those heroes
who were distinguished as well for ukeir wisdom as their valor. In the Trojan wm, she
favored the Greeks— who, in point of fact, were in the right Her worship was univer-
sal in Qreece. and representations of her in statues, busts, coins, reliefs, and vase-paint-
ings were and are numerous. She is always dressed, generally in a Spartan tunic, with
ofdifferei
a cloak over it, and wears a helmet, beautifully adorned with figures of different nnimah,
the segis, the round Argolic shield, a lance, etc. Her countenance is beautiful, earnest,
and thoughtful, and the whole figure majestic
MiAJsBYI'KO, a t. of southern Italy, in the province of Bari, called the Balcony of
Puglia, from the extensive view it commands of several cities. It stands on a fine hill,
and enjoys excellent air. Pop. 18,800.
MuiJsS, in law. In England and Ireland the crown has the right to all mines of gold
and silver; but where these metals are found in mines of tin, copper, iron, or other baser
metal, then the crown has only the right to take the ore at a price fixed by statute. As
a geneml rule, whoever is the owner of freehold land has a right to all the mines
underneath the surface, for his absolute ownership extends to the center of the earth.
When the land is given by will or otherwise to a tenant for life, while a third party has
the reversion, then the tenant for life is held to be entitled not to open mines which have
never before been opened, but to carry on such as have been open, and are going mines.
So in the case of a lease of lands for agricultuml purposes, if nothing is said as to mines,
the tenant is not entitled to open any mines, for that would be committing waste. It is
not uncommon for one person to be ow#er of the surface of the land and another to be
owner of the mines beneath; or several persons may be owners of different kinds of
mines lying above each other in the different strata. Many questions have been raised
lately between railway companies and mine-owners as to their respective rights and lia-
bilities. When a railway passes through a mining country it is generalljr optional with
the owner to sell to the company merely the surface of the lands, reserving to himself
the mines beneath; and it is usually provided that, if ever the owner woi^ his mines so
near to the railway as to endanger its stability, the company must have notice of that
fact, and then, if necessary, may purchase the mines immediately under the railway.
But the courts have determiued that even though the owner of the land reserve his right
to minerals, he is nevertheless prevented, by common law, from workii^ the mines
immediately under the railway, so as to endanger the use of the nulway. In these mat-
ters the law of Scotland does not at all differ, though, as to other points of the commcm
hiw, some differences of no great importance occur. See Paterson's Compendium of
English and Scottish Law.
The practical working of mines and collieries in any part of Great Britain has been
controlled by certain recent acts of parliament, with a view to insure the greater safety
of the persons working them, and to prevent the employment of women and children.
Thus, the owners of mines are prohibited, by the mines regulation acts, 1872 (repealing
prior acts), from employing any female or boy under 10 underground. Boys under 16
can only be so employed ten hours per day, ana boys under 12 must attend school at cer-
tain times. No owner or worker of a mine or colliery is allowed to pay the wages of the
men at any tavern, public-house, beer-shop, or place of entertainment, or any office or
outhouse connected therewith. No person under 18 is to be employed at the entrance of
any mine, to have cbar^ of the steam-engine or windlass, or other machinery and tackle
for letting down and brin^in^ up the men. In^tectors are appointed by government for
th3 express purpose of visiting mines, and seeing that the statutes are complied with.
The statutes in question now apply not only to coal-mines and collieries, but to metal-
liferous mines of all kinds. Whenever an inspector, on examination, finds anything
dangerous or defective in the mine, he is bound to give notice to the owner, so that it
may be amended. In case of accidents occurring in the mine, caused by explosion, and
resulting in loss of life or bodily injury, the owner is bound, within twenty-four hours
thereafter, to send notice to the secretary of state, and to the district inspector of mines,
specifying the probable cause of the accident.
MIlfSB, MiLrrART, constitute at once one of the most important departments in mili-
tary engineering, and a very formidable accessory both in the attack and defense of foi^
tresses. A military mine consists of a gallery of greater or less length, run from some
point of safety under an opposing work, or under an area over which an attacking force
must pass, and terminating in a chamber which, being stored with gunpowder, can be
exploded at the critical moment. Mines are of great use to the besiegers in the oveithrow
QA7 Minerrino.
®0 4 Mine..
of ramparts and formation of a breach; the countermiMS of the besieged in undermining
the glacis over which the assaulting column must charge, and blowing them into the
air, or in destroying batteries erected for breaching, are equally serviceable. But for
above the actual mischief wrought by the mine — often very great — is its moral influence
on tlie troops, and especially on the assailants. The bravest soldiers, who advance with-
out flinching to the very mouth of the cannon wAtc^ they see, will hesitate to cross ground
which they suppose to be undermined, and on which they may be dashed to destruction
in a moment, without the power of averting the unseen danger. The flrst employment
of nunea was very ancient, and merely consisted in obtaining an entrance to the interior
of towns by passine beneath the defenses; but this soon fell into disuse, the chances of
success beine merely those of introducing a bod}r of men before the besieged discovered
the mine. The next use occurred during the middle ages, and was more destructive.
T^e miners went no further than beneath the wall, then diverged to either side, and
undermined the wall, say for about 100 feet. During the process, the wall was sustained
by timber-props; and these being ultimatelv set on nre, the wall fell; and the besiegers,
who had awaited the opportunity, rushed in at the breach. This use of mines of attack
necessitated those of defense, which obtained in mediaeval times and have ever since kept
the name of *^ countermines,'* The earliest subterranean defense consisted of a gallery
surrounding the fort in advance of the foot of the wall, and termed an "envelope-gal-
lery." From this the garrison would push forward small branches or tributary gal-
lenes, whence they could obtain warnmg of the approach of hostile miners, and by
which they succeeded, at times, in overthrowing the battering-rams or towers of the
Two centuries appear to have elapsed between the introduction of gunpowder into
European warfare and it» application to subterranean operations. The flrst instance of
this occurred in 1503. at the sie^e of the Castello del' IJovo, in the bay of Naples, which
a French garrison had succeeded in holding for three years against the combined Spanish
and Neapolitan forces. At len^h, a Spanish capt., Pedro Navarro, devised a gallery
into the rock, which he stored with powder, whereof the explosion, hurling portions of
the rock and many of the besieged into the sea, caused the immediate capture of the
place. At once the use of mines of attack spread throughout Europe; and so irresisti-
ble were they soon considered, that it was not unusual for the besieger, after preparing his
mine, to invite the hesieged to inspect it, with the view of inducing the latter at once to
surrender. Defense soon availed itself of the new power, and, retaining the envelope-gal-
lery as a base, ran small countermines in many directions, to ascertain by hearing the
approacli of the enemy's sappers — bis work being audible, to a practiced ear, at a hori-
zontal distance of 00 feet. Small charges were then exploded, which, without creating sur*
face disturbance, blew in the approaching gallery, and buried the sappers in its ruins.
Thus commenced a system of subterranean warfare, requiring the greatest risk and
courage, in which the operator waiB in constant danger of being suffocated. Of course,
in sncn a system, the balance of advantage lay with the besieged, who had ample oppor-
tunities before (he siege commenced, of completing his ramincations in every direction,
and, if desirable, of revetting them with masonry, which much diminished the chance of
being blown in ; while the assailant, no longer able to cross the glacis by an open zigzag
trendi, was compelled to engage in a most uncertain subterranean ailvance. The French
engineer, Belldor, in the 18th c, restored the advantage to the attack, by demonstrating
that the explosion of a very large mass of powder in a mine which had not yet entered
the labyrinth of defensive mines, effected the destruction of the latter for a great space
round, plearing the way with certainty for the hostile advance. Although the primary
purpose of a mine is the explosion of a charge of powder, they are often used as a means
of communication between different works, or between different parts of the same work,
some beinff constructed of dize sufficient to permit the passage of four men abreast, of
horses, ana of artllleTy.
It is, of course, impossible, in such a work as this, to give even an outline of the pro-
fessional part of military mining; bat the article woukf be incomplete without some
allusion to the main principles.
Mines are either vertical — ^whcn they are called M/r/)!^— horizantal, or inclined, in
either of which cases, they are '' galleries," the word " ascending" or "descending" being
added if there be inclination. The dimensions ranire from the "great gallerv," 6 ft.
6 in. by 7 ft., to the "small branch"— the last diminutive of the gallery — which has
but 8 ft. 6 in. height, with a breadth of 2 feet. The most frequent work is the "com-
mon gallery," 4 ft. 6 in. by 8 ft., which is considered the easiest for the miner.
The sapper's tools are numerous, but most in request are his shovel, pickaxe, and,
above all, his "push-pick;" he has besides a barrow, a small wagon, a lamp, and other
accessories. As he advances, it is necessary to line his galleiy, always at the top,
and almost always at the sides. This he" does either bj frames — which resemble door-
frames, and serve to retain horizontal planks or " sheeting" in position against the earth
—or by cases somewhat resembling packing-cases, of little depth, which are used to form
the sides and top. With cases, galleries are supposed to advance one foot and a half
per hour; while with frames, the progress is bnrely more than half that amount.
When a mine is exploded, tlie circular opening on the surface is called the crtUer:
the line of least resistance is the perpendicular from the charge ta the J^^^^P^^^^ fi^^'
i41nghettl« QAfi
Minfms. OOO
diameter of the crater is its radius; and the radvus cfeoDpUmon is a line from tbe <diarg«
to the edge of tbe crater, on the hypothenusc of the triangle, the revolution of which
would form the cone. When the diameter equals the line of least resistance, the crater
is called a one-lined crater; when it doubles that line, a two-lined crater; and so on. The
common mine for ordinary operations is the two-lined crater; and for this the charge of
powder should — in ground of average weight and tenacity — be in pounds a number equal
to one-tenth of the cube of the line of least resistance in feet, for example, at a depth of
18 ft., tlie charge should consist of 588 pounds. In surcharged mines, or globes of com-
pression, as introduced by Belidor, vastly greater charges are employed, and craters of
six lines are sometimes produced. The niles, in these cases, for computing tlie charges
vary exceedingly, accorainff to different engineers, and in every case are very compli-
cated. Previous to the explosion, the gallery is filled up behind the charge, or tampsd,
with earth, sand-bags, etc.. to prevent the force of the powder wasting itself in the mine.
This tamping must extend backwards for one and a half or twice the length of the line
of least resistance. The mine is commonly fired by means of a powder-hose, composed
of strong linen, inclosed in a wooden pipe laid carefully through the tamping, or by
wires from a voltaic battery.
In the system of countermines the magistral gallery is immediately within the wall of
tlie counterscarp, through orifices in which it derives light and air, and by its loopholes,
the defenders can take in rear any enemy who might obtain momenta]^ possession of the
ditch. Further in advance,, and reached by gal ieries of communication is the envelope-gal-
lery from which radiate the listeners. To prevent the enemy's advances, these listeners
should not be more than about 54 feet apart. Besides listening, they are used for aggres-
sive purposes, such as driving branches and blowing in or up hostile works. Modem
engineers object to the envelope-gallery, as affording too good tf base to the enemy, should
he obtain possession of it; and cither dispense with it altogether, or merely retain it in
short sections. At suitable points among the mines, small magazines for tools and
powder are formed ; and at about every 30 yards, loopholed doors of §reat strength are
made, to stop the advance of an enemy, should he break into the gallenes.
In the course of their excavations, hostile miners frequently meet, or approach within
a few feet. It becomes, then, merely a question of time which shall destroy the other;
shells, pistols, pikes, and petards, as well as small mines, being used with murderous
effect.
Provision is made for pumping foul air out of mines; but such military works are in
general badly ventilated.
XIKOHETTI, Cavaliebe Marco, a distinguished Italian writer and stateBman, and
for a lime prime minister of Italy, was bom at Bologna, on Nov. 8, 1818. He belonged
to an opulent commercial family, and on tbe termination of his studies, entered on an
extensive continental tour, with the object of closely investigatinir the political, social,
and economical institutions of France, Germany, and more espedaUy of firitain. On his
return from traveling, he published his maiden essay, inculcating the great commercial
advantages of free trade, as existing in England, and espousing with warmth the econo-
mical views of Richard Cobden. In 1846 Minghetti opened bis political career by starting
a journal of liberal tendencies, soon after the advent of Pius IX to power; in 1847 he
was elected member of the Consulta deUe Finame, and in 1848 became minister of puUic
works. Having speedily lost faith in papal progression, Minghetti withdrew from office,
and joined the army of Char es Albert in Lombardy, where ne was warmly received by
the king, and appointed capta n. After the battle of Goito he was promoted major; and
for his bravery in the engagement of Custoza, he received from the king the cross of the
Knights of St. Maurizio. On the conclusion of the war, Minghetti resumed his study of
political economy, and gained the confidence of Cavour, by whom he was consulted
during the conferences of Paris. He subsequentlv became secretary for f<»eign afCairs,
and only resigned with Cavour on the peace of Villafranc^. Minghetti became minister
of the interior in 1860, and premier in 1868. On leaving the ministry, he went as ambassa-
dor to London in 1868, and was subsequently, for a short time, minister of agriculture.
In 1878 he became premier of a new ministry. His chief work is Delia Bcofwmia ptMliea
e delle 9ue AtUnerue con la moraU, e Vol dirUto (1859).
MINGRE'LIA, the name of a division of Russia in Asia, on the Black sea; partly
bounded by Circassia; 2,600 sq.m. ; pop., 240,000. It is a mgged, mountainous countiy.
but, in the southern part, fertile slopes lie along the river Kion, the moet important
stream in this part of Uussia. £xtensive forests of valuable timber cover the mountains,
and there are mines of copper, some of which are worked ; gold has also been found.
The country is peopled by Georgians; not, however, of as fine a type as those who
inhabit the Caucasus. It was formerly a part of Georgia, and, at a later period, wa«
ruled by native princes; one of whom, in 1867, ceded his rights to Russia, on being paid
the sum of 1,000,000 roubles. Mingreiia was the ancient Colchis, where was the mythi
cal golden fleece, in pursuit of which occurred the expedition of the Argonauts (q.v.). It
was also the birth-place of Medea. The productions are tobaooo, maize, rice, wool.
honey, and wine. Silk is manufactured to some extent
XIVHO. See EnTRB DoURO E MiNHO Digitized by VjUU^IC
869 ffiSfil**^'
xnnso (Span. MiU>, anc. Mnius), a river of Spain and Portugal, rises in the n.e. of
Galicia, in lat. about 48" 30' n., long, about 7"* 15^ w. Its course is s.w. through the
modern Spanish provinces of Lugo and Orense, after which, continuing its course, and
forming the nortliern boundary of the Portuguese province of Minho, it falls into the
Atlantic Ocean. Its length, exclusive of windings, is 180 m., and it is navigable for
small craft 28 m. above its mouth.
mVIATinitE-PAnrTIHO, or the {>ainting of portraits on a small scale, originated in
the practice of embellishing manuscript books. See Manuscripts, Illumination of.
As the initial letters were written with red lead (Lat. nunium), the art of illumination
was expressed by the low-Latin verb miniare, and the term miniatura was applied to the
small pictures introduced. After the invention of printing and engraving, this delicate
art entered on a new phase; copies, in small dimensions, of celebrated pictures came to
be in considerable request, and, in particular, there arose such a demand for miniature-
portraits that a miniature, in popular language, is held to signify "a verv small por-
trait." Soon after their introduction, miniature-portraits were executed with very great
skill in England. Holbein (b. 1498, d. 1554^ painted exauisite miniatures, and having
settled in London, his works had great intiuence in calling forth native talent. The
works of Nicholas Billiard (b. at Exeter 1547, d. 1619) are justlv held in high estimation.
Isaac Oliver (b. 1556, d. 1617) was employed by queen Elizabeth and most of the distin-
guished characters of the time; his works are remarkable for careful and elaborate
execution; and his son, Peter Oliver, achieved even a higher reputation. Thomas Plat-
man (b. 1633, d. 1688) painted good miniatures. ^ Samuel Cooper (b. London 1609, d.
1672), who was, with his brother Alexander, a pupil of his uncle, Hoskins, an artist of
reputation, carried miniature-painting to high excellence. Cromwell and Milton sat to
hidQ — he was employed bv Charles IL— and obtained the highest patronage at the courts
of France and in Holland. Till within these few years miniature-painting continued to
be successfully cultivated in Britain; but it has received a severe check since photog-
raphy was invented, and most of the artists of the present time who exercised their
talents in this exquisite art have left it for other branches of painting. As to technical
details, the early artists painted on vellum, and used body-colors, that is, colors mixed
with white or other opaque pigments, and this practice was continued till a compara-
tiveiv late period, when thin leaves of ivory, fixed on card-board with gum, were substi-
tuted. Many of the old miniature-painters worked with oil-colors on small plates of
copper or silver. After ivory was substituted for vellum transparent colors were
employed on faces, hands, and other delicate portions of the picture, the opaque colors
being only used in draperies and the like; but during the present century, in which the
art has been brought to the highest excellence, the practice nas been to execute the entire
work, with the exception of the high lights in wmte drapery, with transparent colors.
In working the general practice is to draw the picture very faintly and delicately with &
sable-hair pencil, using a neutral tint composed of cobalt and burned sienna. The
features are carefully made out in that way, and then the carnations, or flesh-tints, com-
posed of pink, madder, and raw sienna, gradually introduced. The drapery and back-
ground should be freely washed in, and tlie whole work is then brought out by hatch-
ing, that is, by painting with lines or strokes, which the artist must accommodate to the
forms, and which are diminished in size as the work progresses. Stippling, or dotting,
was a method much emploved, particularly in early times; but the latest masters of the
art preferred hatching, and. there are specimens by old masters, Perugino, for instance,
executed in that manner.
MINIE, Claude foiENNB, b. Paris, 1810; entered the army as a volunteer, and served
in Algeria during several campaigns. He was made capt. in 1840, and in 1852 was
agpointed by Napoleon III. superintendent of the school of ordnance at Vincennes. In
1858 he resigned this post, and was appointed by the i^gyptian government to superin-
tend a manufactory of arms and a school of gunnery at Cairo. His invention of the
Jtfini6 rifle was made about 1838, and adopted by the French government. It was the
first practical introduction of the principle of expansion in the manufacture of firearms,
and gave to the bullet a precision and range previously unknown to gunnery.
MIH'nc, the name of one of the notes in modem music, the value of which is the half
of a semibreve.
xnmcs (Lat. fratres minvmi, least brethren), so called, in token of still 'greater
humility, by contrast with the /ra<r« minores, or lesser brethren of St. Francis of Assisi
(q.v.), an order of the Roman Catholic church, founded by another St. Francis, a native
of Paula, a small town of Calabria, about the middle of the 15th century. Francis had,
as a boy, entered the Franciscan order; but the austerities of that rule failed to satisfy
his ardor, and on his return from a pilgrimage to Rome and Assisi, he founded, in 1453,
an association of hermits of St. Francis, who flrat lived in separate cells, but eventually
were united in the conventual life in 1474, and established in several places in Calabria
and Sicily. Francis was also invited hito France by Louis XI., and founded houses of
his order at Araboise and at Plessis-les-Tours. In Spain the brethren took the name of
"Fathers of Victory," in memory of the recovery of Malaga from the Moors, which was
ascribed to their prayera. It was not till very near the close of the life of Francis that
he drew up the rule of his order. It is exceedingly austere, the brethren being debarred
Sftinlni^.
870
the use not only of meat, but of em, butter, cheese, and milk. Kotwithstandinff its
severity, this institute attained consiaerable success; its houses, soon after the death of
Francis (1502), numbering no fewer tlian 450. It has reckoned several distinguished
scholars among its members; but in latter times the order has fallen into decay, beinff
now limited to a few houses in Italy, the chief of which is at Rome. The superiors of
couvents iu this order are called b^ the curious name of corrector, the general being styled
generalU corrector. A correspondiDg order of females had its origin about the same tune,
but this order also has fallen into disuse.
MIKINO is a general term for the underground operations by which the vniloiiB
metals aud other mmerals are procured. It has been practiced to some extent from the
remotest times, as is proved by the reference to it in the 28th chapter of the bo;k of Job.
Id its proper sense, the art was certainly known to the ancient Phenicians and Egyp-
tians, and also to the Greeks and Komaus. Miuing operations were carried on in Britain
by the latter at the time of the Roman conquest. After the Norman conquest, Jews,
and, at a later time, Germans were largely employed m our mines. The introduction
of gunpowder as a blasting material in 16»0, led the way to many improvements in min-
ing; so also did the introduction of powerful engines for pumping water, about the
beginning of the 18th century.
There ai'e two principal methods of mining: one of which is adopted where the mine-
ral occurs iu veins or lodes, as copper and lead ore; and the other where the mineral occurs
in more or less parallel beds, as coal. Mining in alluvial deposits is a third method,
largely practiced in the gold regions of California and Australia, and includes the novel
process of " hydraulic mining."
In mines like those of Cornwall and Devonshire, where most of the copper and tin of
Great Britain, and also some of the lead, are obtained, the ores occur in veins filling
cracks or fissures in the rocks. Such veins are termed lodes, to distinguish them from
veins of quartz and other non-metallic minerab. Lodes are very irregular in size, aud in
the directions they take, though they usually follow one general line.
A lode consists of a main or "champion" lode and branches, called feeders, shoots,
and strings. Mineral veins sometimes extend for several miles through a country; but
they expand and contract so much, and split up into so many branches, that it is per-
haps uncertain whether the same lode has ever been traced for more than a mile. Veins
seldom deviate more than 45 degrees from a perpendicular line, and descend to unknown
depths. They penetrate alike stratified and unstratified rocks. Those veins which run
e. and w. have been observed to be the most productive.
Fig. 1 shows a section of a Cornish mine across the lodes /, I, I, I; a is the en^ne-
shaft, in which are the pumps and the ladders for ascent and descent; 5, b are ichim-
shc^s for raising the ore, which
is done by means of buckets. The
adit, or day-level, is a long passage
to which the water of the mine is
pumped up and conveyed away.
Some adits are made to traverse
several mines. The great adit
which drains the mines of Glennnp
and Redruth, in Cornwall, is 90 m.
long. At c, c, c, are cross cuts, by
which the workings on the differ-
ent lodes are connected.
A horizontal section in the di-
rection of a lode would show the
horizontal galleries, termed lerds,
which are driven upon the lode,
and small upright shafts, called
winces. Levels are generally about
ten fathoms (60 ft.) apart. They
are rarely perpendicular above
each o'ther, as they follow the in-
clination of the vein. In the sec-
tion, the richer portions of the lode,
termed '* bunches," are shown
Pig. l.-Cro8MeotlonofaOoniWhMtoe. shaded; and where these have
been removed, and their place filled with rubbish, angular fragments are repre-
sented. This is necessary to prevent the sides of workings from falling in. The
bottom of the engine-shaft is the lowest portion of the mine. It is called the
sump, and is the place where the water from the various levels and workings
collecU, in order to be pumped up to the adit. The galleries and shafts in
an extensive mine are very numerous, making it altogether a very complicated affair.
The shafts, however, have all distinct names, and the levels are known by their depth in
fathoms, so that particular places are as easily found as streets in a town. The under-
ground workings of the Consolidated mines, which are the largest m Cornwall, being a
871
Btintnff.
oonJuDOtion of four mines, are 05,000 fathoms, or 08 m., in extent. In working out the
lode between one level and - another, the miner usually goes upwards, it being easier to
throw down the ore than to raise it up. He worlis with the light of a caudle, stuclL
with clay to the side of the mine. His tools are few — ^namely, a pick, a hammer, and
some wedges where the vein is soft and friable; but it is generally hard enough to require
bla^ng, in which case he uses a borer or jumper, and some smaller tools for cleaning
and stemming tlie hole which is made. The ore is filled into wagons, and then drawn
along the gallery to the shaft, to be raised to the surface in Idbidee,
A vein may be 80 or 40 ft. thick, and so poor in ore as not to be worth working;
again, it may be only a few inches thick, and yet its richness may amply repay the labor
of extracting it Three or four feet may be taken as the average of several kinds of
veins. In extensive mines, portions of the ore are here and there left in the lode, so as
to furnish a steady supply when other parts are unproductive. These are called eyes,
and when they are afterwards removed, the operation is termed picking out the eyes of the
"mine.
The old plan of ascending and descendinfthe mines by ladders, so destructive to the
health of the miners, is still largely in use. The ladders are now about 25 ft. long, and
set with a slope. There is a platform at the bottom of each called a soUar, with a man-
hole in it leading to the next ladder beneath. 8ome of the Cornish mines are half a mile
deep, so that it takes the miner an hour to reach the surface after he is done with his
work; most of the journey being accomplished on wet, slippery ladders. The bad effects
of the fatigue so produced are augmented by the fact that the men come from a constant
temperature of 80° or 90' F. below, to one of perhaps 80° or 40" on the surface. Dr. J.
B. Sanderson states, as the result of recent inquiries, that 90° F. is the highest limit of
temperature consistent with healthy labor in a mine.
A great improvement on the ladder system is now in operation in several of the deep
Cornish mines. It is a method first introduced into the deep mines of the Harz. and
called \hefdlir-kunet. The plan of this " man- engine " is this. Two rods descend through
the depth of the shaft, and upon these bracket-steps are fixed eveiy 12 feet. The rods
move up and down alternately through this distance by means of a reciprocating motion.
If the miner wishes to ascend, he places himself on the lower step of the first rod, and is
raised by the first movement of this rod to the level of the second step on the second
rod, to whidi he now crosses. The next movement raises the second rod, and briugs
the second step up to the level of thf third step of the first rod, to which he next crosses;
and so, ascenoing stage by stage, he reaches the top. The descent is, of course, accom-
plished in the same way.
Some of the Cornish pumping-engines are very large and powerful. The cylinder of
one of the largest is 7 ft. 6 in. in diameter. With the expenditure of one bushel of coal,
it can raise 100,000,000 lbs. weight one ft. high; this is called its '* duty." It lifts nearly
800 gallons of water per minute, and its cost was about £8,000.
In Cornwall the miners are divided into two classes: one of them called tribuiers,
who take a two months' contract of a portion of the lode; the other called tutmen, who
are employed in sinking shafts, driving levels, etc.
A detailed analysis of One of the largest Cornish copper mines, published some years
ago, shows that in that year it produced, in round numbers, 16,000 tons of ore, realizing
£90.000, and yielding a net profit of about £16,000. It employed about 700 miners, 800
laborers, 800 boys, and 800 women and girls. The cost for coal was £1800; for malle-
able iron and steel. £1800; for foundry castings, £2,000; for ropes, £1000; for candles,
£1800; for gunpowder, £2,000; and for timber, nearly £8,000. The last mines regula-
tion acts were passed in 1872 (amended in 1875). See Mines in Law.
Mining far Coal. — The minerals of the carboniferous formation, at least those which
occur in beds or strata, as coal and clay ironstone, are mined, as has been already said,
in a different way from metallic veins. Originally deposited in a horizontal position,
they have been so altered by movements in the earth's crust, that they are rarely found
«o now. They are more generally found lying in a Kind of basin or trough, with many
minor undulations and dislocations. But however much twisted out of thefa- original
position, the different seams, more or less, preserve their parallelism, a fact of great ser-
Tice to the miner, since beds of shale, or other minerals, of a known distance from a coal
seam, are often exposed when the coal itself is not, and so indicate where it may be
found
The great progress made of late years in the science of geology has made us so
minutely acquainted with all the rock formations above and below the coal measures,
that it is now a comparatively easy matter to determine whether, in any given spot,
<joal may or may not be found. Nevertheless, large sums are still occasionally, as they
ha vein past times been very frequently, wasted in the fruitless search for coal, where
the character of the rocks indicates formations far removed from coal-bearing strata.
When there are good grounds for supposing that coal is likely to be found in any
particular locality, before a j)it is sunk the preliminary process of *' boring "(q. v.) is
resorted to, in order to determine whether it actually does exist there, and if in quantity
sufficient to make the mining of it profitable. The usual mode of " winning" or reach-
ing the coal is to sink a perpendicular shaft ; but sometimes a level or eross^cut Jpine,
and at other times an inclined plane or 'Mook," is adopted. Bef^f^if^^^t^yiVm^mTlgfASrof
MlnlBK.
872
pumpiDg-ennnes, all coa^woTkingB were drained by means of a level mine called a daif-
md^ driven from the lowest available point on the surface, and no coal could be wrought
at a lower depth than this, because there were no means of removing the water.
When the shaft has been sunk to the necessary depth, a level passage, called the dip-
heckd, or main-lef>d, is first driven on each side, which acts as a roadway or passage, and,
at the same time, as a drain to conduct the water, which accumulates in the workioss,
by means of a gutter on one side, to the lodgment at the bottom of the shaft. Tnia
level is the lowest limit of the workings in the direction of the dip, and from it the
coal is worked out as far as is practicable along the rise of the strata. There are two
principal methods of mining the coaL One is termed the ''post-and-stall" or "stoop-
and-room" system, and is used for
|[ thick seams; the other is called the
'* long-wall" svstem, and is adopted
for seams unaer 4 ft. in . thickness.
In a mine wrought on the post-and-
stall plan, the c»al is taken out in
parallel spaces of sa^ 15 ft wide,
mtersected hy a similar series of
passages at right angles. Between
these '' rooms, ^ as they are called,
"stoops" of coal, about 80 ft. each
way, are left for the support of the
"roof" of the seam. Larger stoops
are left at the bottom of the shaft, in
order to secure greater stability
there. There is a modification of
this plan adopted at Newcastle,
called the " board-and-pillar" method,
by which a certain number of the
stoops or pillars are removed alto-
gether, after which the roof fails in,
and forms a mass of ruins, termed
a "goaf."
The long^waU system consists in
extracting the entire seam of coal
at the first working, the overlying
strata being supported by the waste
rock from the roof of the workings.
It is necessary, however, to leave
large stoops at the bottom of the
shaft for its support, as in the stoop-
and-room method. In long-wall
workings, roads of a proper height
and width require to be made for
communication with the different
parts of the mine.
The collier's usual mode of ex-
tracting the coal from its bed is this:
With a light pick, he undercuts the
coal-seam, technically termed *' hol-
ing," for 2 or 8 ft. inwards, and
then, by driving in wedges at the top
of the seam, lie breaks away the
portion which has been holed. Blast-
mg is occasionally, but not often re-
sorted to. For the past ten years,
machines, some for "holing" only,
and others for both ' ' holing" and hew-
ing down coal-seams, have been more
or less in use. They usually work
with compressed air, but sometimes
with steam or water. It is still pre-
mature, however, to express any decided opinion as to their efficiency as compared
with hand-labor. The coal, when separated from its bed, is put on tubs or hutches,
which are generally drawn by horses, but sometimes by engine-power, along the roads
to the bottom of the diaft, and hoisted to the surface.
The shaft is perhaps the most important portion of a coal-pit, and the principal parts
of one are shown in fig. 2. The upper part shows the pit-head arrangements, the central
part shows the force-pump, etc., and the lower part shows the pit-bottom arrangements.
To make the section complete, the reader must imagine a great depth to intervene at
the gaps A and B. There are four divisions in this shaft: the two center ones, a, a, are
used lor sending up and down the men and the coal ; the one on the right side, &
Fig. 2. —Vertical Section of the Shaft of a Ooal-nit, with
a Detached Portion, showing a Miner at work on the
Coal Seam.
873
eontidns Ihe ptnnp; and the Temaining one on the ]eft> e, is for -withdrawing the yitiated
air tfom the mine, and has usually a furnace at the bottom of it. In some pits a special
shaft is applied to the Tentilation, for which mechanical contrivances, such as ventilating
fans, are now also partially introduced. Since the dreadful accident at the Hartley
Colliery, in January, 180d, caused by the beam of the engine breaking and closing
up the shaft, an act of parliament has been passed making it imperative to have two
shafts, or at least two outlets, to every coal-mine, as a means of escape, in case of an acci-
dent to one of them.
The cages d, d, by which the colliers ascend and descend, are also used for raising
the coal. They are merely square plats of timber, with rails across thorn, for the con-
venience of running off and on the coal-hutches, e, and with a light iron frame, b^ which
they are suspended to a fiat wire-rope. On each cage there are iron clasps, which slide
up and down on guide-rods. In the figure, two miners are shown standing on one
cage at the bottom of the shaft, and the other is at the top, with a coal-hutch upon it.
The accidents resulting from the raising and lowering of the cages are numerous; many
of them happen by the carelessness of the engine-man in not stopping the cage when
it reaches the mouth of the pit, and so allowing it to be upset by over-winding. Many
accidents also happen from the rope breaking. To prevent this, numerous "safetvr
cages" have been invented, most of which depend on the action of a spring, which is held
in a certain position while the cage is suspended by the rope; but should the latter snap,
the spring is suddenly relieved, and then grasping the guide-rods, prevents the cage from
falling. Other safety ca^es act by levers ana clutches, but it is still disputed whether
there is, on the whole, a aecided advantage in using any of them, since they are all liable
to get out of order. The man-engine, although not used in British collieries, is adopted
in several on the continent, and is certainly the safest way of putting up and down men
in a pit.
The steam-engine, E, works the pumps, in this case by a direct action, the pump-rods
being attached to the piston-rod. The engine also winds up the cages, one of which
ascends while the other descends— the barrel and other arrangements for which are shown
in tlie figure.
The proper ventilation of any ndne, but especially of a coal mine, is of very great
importance. It clears the mine of the dangerous gases, fire-damp and foul-danip, dries
the subterranean roadways, and furnishes the miners with a supply of pure air. Some
idea of the general mode of ventilating a mine will be obtained by referring to Fig. 2,
where the arrows pointing downward indicate the dovmcast shaft, and the arrows point-
ing upward, the upcast one. A number of doors and stops secure the traveling of the
current in a proper direction, so as to reach the furthest recesses of the mine. It then
returns by the upcast shaft, where, as has been already stated, it is usual to keep a fur-
nace burning, to aid in withdrawing the impure air. It is very difficult, however, to
secure efficient ventilation through all the zigzag windings of a mme; hence the frequent
and sometimes terrible explosions of fire-damp, or light carbureted hydrogen, which
explodes when mixed with a certain proportion of atmospheric air; hence, also, the occa-
sional accumulation of foul-damp (carbonic acid) in some pits, which suffocates any one
breathing it. This deadly gas is always produced in large quantity by an explosion of
fire-damp, and chokes many who have survived the violence of the explosion. Many
collieries are so free of fire-damp, that the miners work with naked lights, but in others
it is necessary to use the safety lamp (q.v.).
Besides the already mentioned sources of accident, there is the sudden falling-in of
pieces from the roof of the workings. The following summary, made up from H. M.
mspector's returns, shows the number of lives lost, in proportion to the quantity of coal
raised:
Total tons of mineral raised in Oreat Britain for the year 1878 ^. 148,080,885
Total number of Uvea lost in 1876 088
Average tons of mineral raised to each life lost 160,688
To show the magnitude of some of the lar^e coal-mines, it may be stated that the
Hetton colliery, in Durham, yields 800,000 tons in the year, employs about 1000 men and
800 boys underground, and 800 people at the surface. The Monkwearmouth pit, near
Newcastle, is 1900 ft. deep, and its face-workings are 2 m. from the bottom of the shaft.
Rosebridge colliery, near Wigan, has the deepest shaft in England, being nearly 2,500
ft. deep. The sinking of some of the more difficult shafts has cost from £50,000 to
£100,000 each.
MINING. See Appendix.
MINING CORPORATIONS, companies incorporated under national, state, or colo-
nial law, to mine for the precious metals or other minerals. Such companies are some-
times permitted also to manufacture, or to do a milling or reduction busmess, in connec-
tion with mining; or to engage in transportation— as of coal from the mine to the market.
Mining property is held by purchase and absolute ownership, or by lease. In the
Dominion of Canada leases are granted by the queen, and a rojralty on me yield paid to
the government. The number of mining companies in the United States in gooa stand-
ing, reported on Jan. 1, 1881, was 212, oivided as follows as to the location of the mines:
California 87, Colorado 80, Montana 4, Dakotab 11, North Carolina ^,^l^^^^^^ri.
mnlstor. g^^
zona 15, Maryland 1, JJith 11, New York 1, Geoi^^ Z, Vkhlgfoik 5, Mezko %,
2, New Mexico 1, Virginia 8. These mining properties were capitalized in the sum of
1^81,000,000. As an illustration of the extent to which mines were ovei^capitalized, it
may be mentioned that the market-Talue of the properties of 05 of these mines capitalized
in $745,000,000, estimated on the selling prices of the yarious stocks, was 0a round nora-
bcTR) $60,000,000, or ej^ght per cent of the capital; amounUng to the fact that the stocks
in question were at the time when the figures were procured seUing on tha Biining-stock
exchange of New York dty at the discount of 92 per cent
XIHI8TEB, a public functionary who has the chief direction of any department in a
state. See Mikistrt. Also the delegate or representative of a sovereign at a foreign
court to treat of affairs of state. Every independent state has a right to send pubuc
ministers to, and receive them from, any other sovereign state with which it desires to
preserve relations of amity. Semi-sovereign states have generally been considered not
to possess theJiM tepaiionu, unless when delegated to them oy the state on which they are
dependent. The nght of confederated states to send public ministere to each other, or
to foreign states, depends on the natiu^ and constitution of the union by which ihey are
bound together. The constitution of the United Provinces of the Low Countries and of
the old German empire preserved this ri^ht to the individual states or princes, as do the
present constitutions of the (German empire and Swiss confederation. The constitution
of the United States either greatly modifies or entirely takes away thejt/x legationu of
each individual state. Every sovereign state has a right to receive public ministers from
other powers, unless where obligations to the contrary have been entered into by treaty.
The diplomatic usage of Europe recognizes three orders of ministers. Ministers of the
first oraer possess the representative character in the highest degree, representing the
state or sovereign sending them not only in the particular affairs with which they are
charged, but in other matters: they may claim the same honors as would belong to their
constituent, if present. This first class of diplomatic agents includes papal legates and
nuncios, and ambassadors ordinary and extraordinary. A principle of reciprocity is
recognized in the class of diplomatic agents sent States enjoying the honors of royalty
send to each other ministers of the first class; so also in some cases do those states which,
do not enjoy them; but it is said that no state enjoying such honors can receive ministers'
of the first class from those who are not possessed of them.
Ministers of the second and third order have not the same strictly representative char-
acter; their representation is not held to go beyond the affairs with which they are
charged. They are, however, the natural protectors of the subjects of the state or country
sending them in the country to which they are sent Ministers of the second class include
envoys, whether these are simply so styled, or denominated envoys extraordinaiy, and
also ministers plenipotentiary. The third class of ministers does not differ from the
second in the degree of their representative character, but only in the diversity of their
dignity, and the ceremonial with which they are received. This class comprehends min-
isters, ministers resident, ministers charges d'affaires, such consuls as are possessed of a
diplomatic character, and those charges d'affaires who are sent to courts to which it is
not wished to send agents with the title of minister. Ministers of the third class have,
for the most part, no letters-credential from the sovereign, and are accredited only by
letters to the foreign minister or secretary of the country to which they are sent.
Besides these orders of ministers, there are other diplomatic agents occasionally recog-
nized— as deputies sent to a congress or confederacy of states, and commissioners sent to
settle territorial limits or disputes concerning jurisd iction. These are ffenerally considered
to enjoy the privileges of nunisters of the second and third order. Ministers-mediators
are ministers sent by two powers, between which a dispute has arisen, to a foreign court,
or congress, where a thirci power, or several powers, have, with the consent of the two
powers at variance, offered to mediate between them.
Diplomatic agents, except, as already mentioned, those of the third class, are accred-
ited by a letter to the sovereign of the country to which they are sent The letter of cre-
dence is usually dispatched under a cachet «(^n^— i.e., a seal which does not close the
letter; or else, in aadition to the principal letter, an authenticated copy is sent, which the
diplomatic i^nt on his arrival presents to the minister or secretary for foreign affuia; aa
his right to demand an audience of the sovereign ; the original is presented to the eov-
ereign. Ministers sent to a congress or diet have usually no credentiali, but merely a
full power, of which an authenticated copy is delivered into the hands of a directmg
minister, or minister-mediator. A minister of the first class is received to both public
and private audiences by the sovereign to whom he is accredited; a minister of the second
class generally to private audiences only. Diplomatic agents are entitled to conduct
negotiations either directly with the sovereign, or with the minister or secretary Hot for-
eign affairs. The latter course is the more usual, and generally the more convenient
The title " excellency" has since the peace of Westphalia been accorded to all diplo-
matic agents of the first class; and in some courts it is extended to ministers of the
second class, or at least those sent by the great powers. See Ambassador, Envot, Con-
sul. Under Ambassador the immunities and privileges enjoyed by diplomatic agents
are explained.
MINISTER. Chbbtiak. See CutRGT. a»to. Dgi.izedbyGoOgle
Q^K IttimUter.
O * ^ lUniAtry.
MINISTER,— MINISTRY ianie). I. Fuhotionabt Diplomatic. By the Americaa
«y8tem ministera to exercise diplomatic fuDctions near foreign courts are appointed by
the president and confirmed by the senate of the United States. They are accredited by
letter to the sovereini of the country to which they are appointed, ana are permitted cer-
tain immunities and privileges: being entitled to be addressed as *' excellency," and con-
ceded exemption from the operation of municipal law. The United States send no
envoys of the rank of ambassadors, permanently accredited to foreign courts; but have
not infrequently conferred the rank and authority in the case of special missions. See
Ambassadob, ante, II. Fui7Ctionary Executiyb. In the United States government
the executive offices are under the inunediate official direction and control of the heads of
the departments, including those of state, treasury, interior, war, post-office, navy, jus-
tice, and agriculture. Seven of these officials have seats in the cabinet or council of
advisers of the president, and are termed "the cabinet." They are the secretaries of
state, war, the treasury, the navy, and the interior; the postmaster-general, and the
attorney-general, or head of the department of justice. These officials are appointed by
the presiaent and confirmed bv the senate; their duty is to administer or execute the
functions of their respective ofiices under the direction of the president, to whom they
are immediately responsible and to whom they report annually; and from time to time
on special subjects if so desired by him. They hold their offices at the will of the presi-
dent, who may request their resignations if the good of the public service shall seem to
require it. As an advisory council, they assemble at the call of the president, or at
stated times, for conference, to enunciate opinions or to answer questions. There is noth-
ing, however, in the constitution or elsewhere in American law which renders it obliga-
tory on the president to employ them in this manner, though custom has made it usual
ana convenient so to do. flxceptin^ to the president for the proper performance of their
official duties, they have no responsibilities; and in no particular except in the nature of
these duties do they resemble the ministers of Great Britain or those of the European
powers. See Cabinet, arUe,
1CIVI8TBT, the body of ministers of state, or persons to whom the sovereign or chief
magistrate of a country commits the executive government.
It is a principle of the constitution of Great Britain, that "the king can do no
wrong;" that- is to say, the sovereign personally is irresponsible for his acts, the real
responsibility resting with the administrative government. The "king's council," or
Privt Council, were the earliest advisers of the sovereign in matters of state; but when
this body came, in the course of time, to be found too large for the dispatch of business,
its duties were transferred to a small committee of privy councilors selected by the king.
As late as in Charles I.'s time, all the more important resolutions of the crown werw
taken after deliberation and assent of the privy council. An unsuccessful attempt was
made in the reign of Charles II. to restore the council to its original functions. Its
numbers were limited to thirty; and it was intended that this limited council should
have the control of the whole executive administration, superseding any interior
cabinet. But the council was found too extensive for an effectively womng ministry,
and the former arrangment was restored. The Cabinet or Ministry is now but a com-
mittee of the privy council; and its exclusive right to discuss and determine the plans
and business of the government has been often said not to be recognized by the law, a
position which, however, was disputed by lord Campbell, who maintained that, " by our
constitution, it is in practice a defined and acknowledged body for carrying on the execu-
tive government of the country." Proclamations and orders still issue from the privy
council; and it w occasionally assembled to deliberate on public affairs, when only those
councilors who are summoned attend. The cabinet is a merely deliberative body; its
members collectively have no power to issue warrants or proclamations; but all import-
ant measures which engage the attention of the government, whether regarding matters
domestic, foreign, or colonial, and all plans of action, whether purely administrative, or
to be carried out in parliament, must be proposed, considered, and adopted by the
cabinet. The sovereign intrusts the formation of a ministry to a statesman, who selects
for the members of his cabinet those who are attached to his political views. He
generally places himself at the head of the government as first lord of the treasury, and
in popular language, he is called the premier, or prime miiustor. The lord chancellor, the
cdiancellor of the exchequer, the secretaries of state for home, foreign, colonial, and
Indian affairs, the secretary at war, and the president of the council, are necessarily
members of the cabinet; and with them are associated the heads of various other import-
:ant departments of government, including generally the first lord of the admiralty, the
president of the board of trade, the postmaster-general, the president of the poor-law
board, the chancellor of the duch^r of Lancaster, and occasionally the chief secretary for
Ireland. The premier has sometimes held the office of chancellor of the exchequer in
conjunction with that of first lord of the treasury. A privy councilor of great political
weight is sometimes called into the cabinet without office, and takes the post of lord
privy seal. Her majesty's ministers include the following, who have usually no seat in
the cabinet: the chief secretary for Ireland, the first commissioner of works, the vice-
president of the board of trade, the vice-president ot the committee on education, the
commander-in-chief, the lord chamberlain, the steward, the ^M^b^CJ^ii^^'^* ^^
Minnesinger. ^ * ^
master of the buckhounds, the comptroller of the household, l^e lord lieutenant of Ire-
land, the attorney-general and solicitor-general of England, the lord advocate and soHcl-
tor-general of (Gotland, and the attorney-general and solicitor-general of Ireland.
Occasionally, but exceptionally, the commander-in-chief, and the lord chief justice of
England, have been members of the cabinet A ministry is often spoken of as the
ministry of the person who is at its head.
Meetings of the cabinet are held on the summons of any one of its members, usually
at the foreign ofiQce. Its proceeding are secret and confidential, and no record is kept
of its resolutions, which are carried mto efFect by those of its members to whose depart-
ments they severally belong. As the acts of a mmistrv are at all times liable to be called
in question in parliament, it is necessary that the heads of the chief departments should
have seats in either house, in order to be able, when required, to give prompt explana^
tions.
A government exists only so Ions as it can command the confidence of parliaments
The sovereign has the power to dismiss his ministers whenever they cease to possess his
confidence, but such a change would be useless without the support of the house of
commons, who, by withholding their support, could paralyze all the functions of
government. A sovereign has sometimes got rid of a ministry with whose policy he
was dissatisfied, by dissolving parliament, and appealing to the country. When a ministry
cannot command the confidence of parliament, they resign, and a statesman of some other
political party is sent for by the sovereign, and authorized to form a new cabinet. All th&
adherents of a ministry filling political offices resign along with it, as also the great officers
of the court, and those officers of the royal household who have seats in either house of
parliament. Sometimes officers holding lucrative appointments which do not necessitate
resignation, have retired, as a manifestation of adherence to their political friends. In
addition to the ministers already named, the following adherents of the ministry go out
of office on a change of government: the three junior lords of the treasury, the twO'
secretaries of the treasury, the four parliamentary under-secretaries of state, the pay-
master-general, the master-general of the ordnance, the surveyor-ffeneral of the ordnance,
the tve junior lords of the admiralty, the first secretary of the admiralty, the chief com-
missioner of Greenwich hospital, the president and parliamentary secretary of the poor-law
board, the president of the board of health, the vice-chamberlain, the captain of the
genllemen-at-arms, the captain of the yeomen of the guard, the lords in waiting, the
mistress of the robes, the treasurer of the household, the chief equerry, or clerk marshal,,
the judgp advocate-general, and the lord chancellor for Ireland. The private secretary
to a minister loses office on a chanse, his appointment being a purely personal one; and
some changes are generally, though not always made in ambassadors extraordinary.
In 1889, when viscount Melbourne's ministry resided, sir Robert Peel, who was-
intrusted by the queen with the formation of a new ministry, proposed that, in order to
give public proof of her majesty's confidence, the change should include the chief
appointments held by the ladies of her majesty's household. The queen, x^ounseled by
lord Melbourne, refused her consent to this proposal, on the ground of its being contrary
to the latest precedents of the reign of queen Anne. Sir Robert, however (witii whose
opinion the duke of Wellington expressed concurrence^, considered the change a neces-
sary one ; and as he refused to undertake the formation of a government without its
being adopted, the result was that lord Melbourne and his colleagues were reinstated.
At a council held on their resuming office, it was resolved ''That for the purpose of
giving to the administration the character of efficiency and stability, and those marks of
the constitutional support of the crown that are requisite to enable it to act usefully to
the public service, it is reasonable that the great offices of the court, and situations in^
the household held by members of parliament, should be included in the political-
arrangements made in a change of the administration. But they are not of opinion that
a similar principle should be applied or extended to the offices held by ladies in her
majesty's household."
HXE'TUK (Lat. red-lead). See Lead.
XINK, Mustela lutreola, a species of weasel inhabiting the northern parts of Europe-
and Asia; very similar to which in characters and habits is another species, by some-
regarded as onlv a variety of the same, the mink or VisoK {M. mstm) of North America,
abundant in almost every part of that continent. Both inhabit- the nei^borhood of
streams, lakes, and marshes; have seini-palmated feet, are expert swimmers and divers,
and prey on fishes, frogs, and other aquatic animals, as well as on birds, rats, mice, etc.
They are covered with a downy fur, interspersed with longer and stronger hairs: the color
is brown, with more or less of white on the under parts. The American mink is generally
larger than that of the old world, being often more than 18 in. from the nose to the root oY
the tail, whilst the latter is seldom more than 12. It has also a more bushy tail. It is very
active and bold, and often commits great depredations in poultry-yards, carrying off a
fowl with great ease. Unlike most of its congeners, it is easily tamed, and becomes
much attached to tliose who caress it. In domestication it ceases to regard the inmates-
of the poultry-yard as prey. It emits an unpleasant odor only when irritated or alarmed.
The fur of the mink is valuable. Sc»o Wbasel. ^^ , ^ ^ . ^i »« m , n-
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8rrfr Mluinin.
• ' Minnt»slns«rt*
MINNEAPOLIS, a city in 8.e. Minnesota, incorporated 1867; enlarged by the annex-
ation of the city of St. Anthony, 1872; situated at the falls of St. AnUiony, 10 m. w. of
St. Paul; pop. *80, 46,887. It is built on a broad plateau, through which flows the Mis-
sissippi river, overlooked by bold bluffs, which command a view of the surrounding
country, noted for its picturesque scenery. At the falls' of St. Anthony the river makes
a descent of 50 ft. within a mile (80 ft. within the limits of the city), and has a perpen-
diculaar descent of 18 feet. It is crossed by 4 bridges, including a suspension bridge built
in 1876; and in the vicinity are lakes Oeaar, Calhouh, and Harriet. It is supplied by
means of the river with extensive water-power, which is utilized by immense manufac-
tories and mills. The value of the lumber sawed in one year was (2,948,385 ; that of flour
made in one year was $7,820,410. It has grocers who do a business of from $4,000,000 to
$5,000,000 a year; and lar^ dry -goods and commercial houses. There was expended in
the city, for building and improvements, in one year, $1,729,700. The leading industries
are lumber and flour, and among its flour-mills is one with 40 run of stone — the largest
in the country. An immense amount of grain is milled; other industries are the manu-
facture of iron machinery, engines and boilers, water-wheels, agricultural implements,
saslies, doors, and blinds, beer, cotton and woolen goods, furniture, barrels, boots and
shoes, paper, linseed-oil, etc. It has pork-packing establishments, and a large number
t>f saw-mills. It has been a city of rapid growth, and has an important wholesale trade,
which is constantly increasing. It is on tbe Chicago, Milwaukee and St Paul railroad,
at the ^'unction of the St. Paul and Pacific and the Lake Superior and Mississippi with
the Minneapolis and St. Louis line, all of which roads transport a large amount of
freight, which is increasing yearly. It has a line of steamers to St. Cloud. It is regularly
laid out, with avenues 80 ft. wide, crossed by streets at right angles, which are Coiaded
by two rows of trees; is lighted by gas; is well sewered ; and has a public park. It has 10
wards, a mayor, and board of aldermen of two members from each ward, a police force,
and a fire department. There are 11 banks — 6 national, with an aggregate capital of
$1,025,000. Among public buildings are a court-house, a city hall erected in 1873, an
academy of music, and an opera-house. There are 65 churches. The athenssum has
a library of 8,000 vols. Minneapolis is the seat of the university of Minnesota (non-
sectarian, and open to both sexes), organized in 1868, and having a libraiy of 10,000 vols. ;
and the Au^sburff theological seminary (Lutheran), established by the Scandinavians of
the n. w,, with a library of 1100 vols. ; also Hamline university (Methodist). It has 14
newspapers— -2 Norwegian, 1 (^terman; and 2 semi-monthly periodicals, 1 Norwegian.
The falls of Minnehaha (laughing water) are 8 m. distant.
MINNEHAHA, a river and fall in s.e. Minnesota, near the station of Minnehaha on
the St. Paul and Pacific railroad, one-half mile from the Mississippi river and a short
distance from Minneapolis. Considerable interest attaches to this cascade, it being the
scene of a legendary romance wrought into the story of Longfellow's poem of HioMatha,
The river Minnehaha flows over a limestone cliff, making a sudden descent of 60 ft., and
the sto^ runs that Minnehaha, an Indian maiden crossed in love, here took the fatal
leap. Minnehaha, in Dakota language, signifies laughing water.
MINNEHAHA, a co. in s.e. Dakota, having the state-line of Minnesota for its e.
boundary; drained by the Big Sioux river ana small affluents; 800 sq.m. ; pop. '80
8,252—5,602 of Amencan birth, 48 colored. It has Beaver lake and other small lakes in
the n.w. Its surface is generally rich level prairies with little timber, but very pro-
ductive where under cultivation. It is intersected by the Sioux City and St Paul rail-
road, and its county seat contains a U. S. land office. Capital, Sioux Falls.
mrmBSDIGEBS, a designation applied to the earliest lyric poets of Germany in the
12th and 18th centuries, and derived ironi the word minne, or love, which was at first
the predominating, and- almost sole subject treated of in their productions. The works
of the minnesingers are for the most part superior to those .of their more generally known
contemporaries, the troubadours, both in regard to delicacy of sentiment, elegance and
variety of rhythmical structure, and grace of diction. Henry of Veldig, who fiourished
in the beginning of the 12th c. at the court of the Swabian, Frederick Barbarossa,
emperor of Germany, is regarded as the father o\ the minnesingers, and Walther von der
Weide, who was bom about 1170, as the last of this great vocal band, which included
emperors, princes, nobles, and knights. Many of ^their productions have of course per
ished, although, in addition to a very lar^e collection of poems by anonymous minhesin-
eers, we still possess some remains of the songs of more than 150 known composers.
Amongthe most celebrated of these, special notice is due to Wolfram von Eschenbach
(q. v.), Henry von Ofterdingen, Hagenaue, Hartmann von der Aue (qv.), Gottfried von
Strasburg (q.v.), Otto von Botenlauben, Truchsess von St. Gall, and tllrich von Lichten-
stein — men of noble houses, who, although they belonged to every part of Germany, wrote
almost exclusively in the Swabian dialect, which, during the brilliant days of the Fred-
ericks and Conrads of the house of Swabia, was the language of the court in Germany.
Among the few other forms of German employed by the minnesingers, the one next In
favor was the Thuringian, adopted in compliment to Hermann, landgraf of Thuringia,
who, next to the princes of the Swabian dynasty, was the most munificent patron of the
minnesingers during the period of their renown, in the early part of the 18th centuiy.
Besides songs in praise of women, the minnesingers composed odes on public or private
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occasioBB of lament or Joy, disticliot or azIomB, and wtchHttitt, or ^ratdi-flongB, in whidi
the lover was represented as expostalating with the watchman, who kept guard at the
gate of the castle within which his lady-love was imprisoned and trying to persuade him
to grant him admittance to her presence. These songs and odes were reeUed by the com-
poser, to his own accompaniment on the viol; ancT as few of the minnesiageis could
write, their compositions were preserved mostly by verbal tradition only, and carried by
wandering minstrels from castle to castle throughout Qermauy, and even beyond its bcnr-
ders. As the variety of rhythm and complicated forms of versification affected by
the minnesingers, more especially towards the decline of their art, rendered it difficult ti>
retain by memory the mass of mmnesong which had been gradually accumulated, these
itinerant musicians finally made use of tvritten collections, a practice to which alone we
are indebted for the many beautiful s^cimens of early Qerman lyrical poetry which we
yet possess. The glory of the minnesingers may be said to have pertshea with the down-
fall of the Swabian dynasty, under which greater liberty of thoi^ht and word was
allowed among Germans thim they a^in enjoyed for many ages; and in proportion aa
the church bucceeded in reasserting its sway over the minds of men, which it had lost
under the rule of the chivalric Fredericks, freedom of speech and action was trammeled,
and song and poetry contemned. Paraphrases of Scripture, hynins, and monkish
legends, took the place of the chivfdric songs of the nobly bom minnesingers, and Gkr-
man poetiy was for a time almost annihilated.
In the i4th c, tlie art of minnesong was partially revived, althoqgh nnder a rude and
clumsily elaborated form, by the matter-nngers, a body of men beloueing to the burgher
and peasant classes, who, in accordance with their artisan Habits, formed themselves
into guilds or companies, which bound themselves to observe certain arbitrary laws of
rhythm. Nuremberg was the focus of their guilds, which rapidly spread over the whole
of Qermany, and gained so firm a footing in the land, that the last of tliem was not dis-
solved at IJlm till 1839. As the title of master was only awarded to a member who
invented a new form of verse, and the companies consisted almost exclusively of unedu-
cated persons of the working^lasses, it may easily be cohceived that extravagances and
absurdities of every kind speedily formed a leading characteristic; of their modes of ver-
sification; attention to quantity was, moreover, not deemed necessary, regard being had
merely to the number of the syllables, and the relative position ahd order of the verses
and rhymes. Their songs were lyrical, and sung to music; and altliough, as before
remarked, each master was bound to devise a special Hole or order of rhymes for each of
his compositions, these stoles were subjected to a severe code of criticism, enacted by the
tabiUatur, or rules of the song-schools. Among the few masters who exhibited any gen-
uine poetic feeling, the most noted were Heinrich KQgeln, Michael Beliaim, and the
Nuremberg shoemaker. Hans Sachs, who prided himself on having composed 4,275 bar
or master songs. See Tieck's Minnduder (1808); Taylor's Lays of the Minne and Magter
8ingen(Lond. 1825); and Yonder Eton's Jiinnei&nger (4 vob. 1888).
SUB 09 VOL, IX.
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