Skip to main content

Full text of "Library of universal knowledge : being a reprint entire of the last (1879) Edinburgh and London edition of Chambers's encyclopædia; a dictionary of universal knowledge for the people; with very large additions upon topics of interest to American readers"

See other formats 


This  is  a  digital  copy  of  a  book  that  was  preserved  for  generations  on  library  shelves  before  it  was  carefully  scanned  by  Google  as  part  of  a  project 
to  make  the  world's  books  discoverable  online. 

It  has  survived  long  enough  for  the  copyright  to  expire  and  the  book  to  enter  the  public  domain.  A  public  domain  book  is  one  that  was  never  subject 
to  copyright  or  whose  legal  copyright  term  has  expired.  Whether  a  book  is  in  the  public  domain  may  vary  country  to  country.  Public  domain  books 
are  our  gateways  to  the  past,  representing  a  wealth  of  history,  culture  and  knowledge  that's  often  difficult  to  discover. 

Marks,  notations  and  other  marginalia  present  in  the  original  volume  will  appear  in  this  file  -  a  reminder  of  this  book's  long  journey  from  the 
publisher  to  a  library  and  finally  to  you. 

Usage  guidelines 

Google  is  proud  to  partner  with  libraries  to  digitize  public  domain  materials  and  make  them  widely  accessible.  Public  domain  books  belong  to  the 
public  and  we  are  merely  their  custodians.  Nevertheless,  this  work  is  expensive,  so  in  order  to  keep  providing  this  resource,  we  have  taken  steps  to 
prevent  abuse  by  commercial  parties,  including  placing  technical  restrictions  on  automated  querying. 

We  also  ask  that  you: 

+  Make  non-commercial  use  of  the  files  We  designed  Google  Book  Search  for  use  by  individuals,  and  we  request  that  you  use  these  files  for 
personal,  non-commercial  purposes. 

+  Refrain  from  automated  querying  Do  not  send  automated  queries  of  any  sort  to  Google's  system:  If  you  are  conducting  research  on  machine 
translation,  optical  character  recognition  or  other  areas  where  access  to  a  large  amount  of  text  is  helpful,  please  contact  us.  We  encourage  the 
use  of  public  domain  materials  for  these  purposes  and  may  be  able  to  help. 

+  Maintain  attribution  The  Google  "watermark"  you  see  on  each  file  is  essential  for  informing  people  about  this  project  and  helping  them  find 
additional  materials  through  Google  Book  Search.  Please  do  not  remove  it. 

+  Keep  it  legal  Whatever  your  use,  remember  that  you  are  responsible  for  ensuring  that  what  you  are  doing  is  legal.  Do  not  assume  that  just 
because  we  believe  a  book  is  in  the  public  domain  for  users  in  the  United  States,  that  the  work  is  also  in  the  public  domain  for  users  in  other 
countries.  Whether  a  book  is  still  in  copyright  varies  from  country  to  country,  and  we  can't  offer  guidance  on  whether  any  specific  use  of 
any  specific  book  is  allowed.  Please  do  not  assume  that  a  book's  appearance  in  Google  Book  Search  means  it  can  be  used  in  any  manner 
anywhere  in  the  world.  Copyright  infringement  liability  can  be  quite  severe. 

About  Google  Book  Search 

Google's  mission  is  to  organize  the  world's  information  and  to  make  it  universally  accessible  and  useful.  Google  Book  Search  helps  readers 
discover  the  world's  books  while  helping  authors  and  publishers  reach  new  audiences.  You  can  search  through  the  full  text  of  this  book  on  the  web 


at|http  :  //books  .  google  .  com/ 


'"'"' V' 


Botanical  ILaborators 

OF 

HARVARD    COLLEGE, 


TRANSFERRED 


y  Google 


1 


V, 


y  Google 


"^"^^^^m^^^- 


y  Google 


y  Google 


IIN^VE|,CiL  KNOWLEDGE 

juTLiiflB^DV  THE  LAST  (1879)  EDINBtTBGH  AKD  LONDON  EDITION 
iV^  OF  CHAMBERS'S  ENCTCLOPJEDU ; 


WITH    VERY    LARGE    ADDITIONS    UPON    TOPICS    OF     SPECIAL 
INTEREST  TO   AMERICAN    READERS. 


IN   TWENTY-ONE    VOLUMES. 

VOL  la 


NEW  YORK: 
AJM.13iT<,lCA.T^    BOOK     KXCKCA-TQ-O-B:. 

Tribune  Building. 

1980. 

Digitized  by  VjjOOQ  IC 


•1% 


^ 


HARVARD  COLLEGE  LIBRARY 

TRANSFERRED  FROM 

BOTANICAL  MUSEUM  UBRABY 

FEB.  26,  1934 


tj 


y  Google 


LIBRAKT  OP 

UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE. 


[ 

MULREADY,  Williara,  R.  A.  was  horn  nt  Enni?,  Id  Irelniul,  nbont  Hie  year  1786. 
"When  a  Imy,  lie  went  to  Loudon  with  his  part-nts ;  at  the  age  of  fifteen  entered  art 
a  Btndeut  iu  the  Royal  Academy,  and  made  good  prt^reee,  aimiiig  at  first  at  the 
cluBi^ic  style,  or  what,  according  to  the  notions  of  the  dav,  was  called  high  art.  Fol- 
lowing the  l>fnt  of  his  genius,  however,  he  soon  rellnqnished  this  course,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  nature  and  the  works  of  those  artistfi  who  attainec| 
bigh  reputation  in  a  less  pietentious  walk  of  art.  His  first  pictures  were  landscapes 
of  limited  dimension  and  subject,  views  iu  Keusiuctou  gravel-piit*,  old  houses  at* 
Lambetli,  and  interior  of  cottages.  He  next  esstiyed  figure-subjects  of  incidents  iu 
every-day  life,  such  as  **A  Roadside  lun,"  *•  Horses  Baiting,"  "The  Barber's 
Shop,"  and  "  Punch '» (painted  iu  1812),  "  Boys  Fishing  "  (1818),  "  Idle  Boys  "  (1816). 
H.  was  elected  au  Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  iu  November  1815,  and  an  Acad* 
emician  io  Februaiy  1816;  a  Kroug  proof  of  the  high  estimatiou  iu  which  his  tal- 
ents were  held  by  his  brethren,  for  the  hiirher  diguity  is  rarely  conferred  till  after  a 
probatiou  of  several  years  as  Associate.  £veu  in  his  earlieht  time,  his  works  were 
charaiCterised  by  much  elaboration ;  but  thot^e  he  executed  about  the  middle  period 
of  his  career  exhibit  an  extraoixilnary  amount  of  fiuish  and  greater  brilliancy  of 
coloring, qualities  that  he  carried  further  and  further  as  he  advanced  in  years;  and 
though  he  lived  to  a  great  a^e  (he  died  on  July  7,  1863),  he  continued  to  work  with 
nudimiuishcd  powers  till  withiu  a  day  of  his  deaili.  A  great  number  of  M.'s  best 
works  now  belong  to  the  public,  as  portions  of  the  Vernon  and  Sheepshanks'  coUec- 
tious.  In  the  first-named,  there  are  four  pictures,  one  of  these  **  The  Last  in,  or 
Truant  Boy,"  exhibited  iu  1835,  being  one  of  the  most  elaborate  works  of  his  middle 
period ;  while  hi  the  Slieepshanks'  collectioo  there  are  no  fewer  than  28  of  his 
works,  aino'ig  which,  "  Firi*t  Love,"  exbibited  in  1840,  is  a  remarkable  example  of 
refiiieineiit  in  drawiug,  and  deli<-acy  of  feeling  and  expression.  **  'i  he  Sonnet,"  ex- 
hibited in  1839,  is  perhaps  his  highest  effort  in  point  of  style ;  and  by  **  The  Butt- 
Shooting  a  Cherry,"  exhibited  in  1848,  is  best  exemplified  the  remarkable  minute- 
ness of  his  fiiiish  and  richness  of  his  coloring.  An  tdiiion  of  the  *•  Vicar  of  Wake- 
field," pnblislied  in  1840,  by  Van  Vooi-st,  embellished  with  20  wood-cnta  from  M.'s 
drawings,  is  a  very  fine  work.  '*  Women  Bathing  *'  was  exhibited  in  18^  ;  and,  iu 
1852,  *Blacklieath  Park."  **  The  Toy  Seller,"  a  large  picture  exhibited  the  year 
before  he  died,  was  unfinished,  aud  not  at  all  equal  to  etirlicr  and  smaller  ones,  bnt 
.  remarkable  as  the  work  of  a  man  wlioae  artistic  efforts  iiad  beeu  landed  sixty  years 
before. 

MULTA'N  (or  JfooZten),  an  ancient  and  important  city  of  India,  in  the  Punjab, 
on  a  mound  consisting  of  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities  that  occupied  the  same  site, 
three  miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Ohenab — the  inundations  of  wRich  sometimes 
reach  M.— and  200  miles  south-west  of  Lahore.  It  has  railway  communication  with 
til  the  principal  towns  of  India-Calcutta,  Bombay,  Madras,  Peshawar,  &c  The 
1  -    -     —  -  


Digitized  by 


Google 


Mafip'«  9 

Mnnohhansen  ^ 

city  is  feurroimded  by  a  dilapidated  waJl,  from'  40  to  60  feet  in  height.  TJie  vidoitr 
aboniida  in  mo^qaes,  tombs,  ehriiieB,  &c.,  arte&tiD^  niike  tlie  antfqnity  and  nia^i-  ' 
flcenceof  the  former  cities ;  and  theconntry  aroiiud  is  remarkable  for  its  feriifity. 
M.  is  a  military  station,  with  a  small  redonbt  iu  the  rear  of  the  cantonmcDt.  Its 
bazaars  are  iinmeroas,  extensive,  and  well  stocked ;  and  its  bh0|>8,  6000  in  onmber, 
are  well  supplied  with  European  and  Asiatic  comraoditieo.  Mnnnfuctnres  of  Bilk^:, 
cottons,  shuwisi,  scarfs,  brocades,  tissues,  &c.,  are  carried  on,  and  there  is  an  ex- 
•tensive  banking  trade.  The  merchants  of  M.  are  proverbially  esteemed  extremi^ly 
rich.  Steanuira  ply  between  this  city  and  Hyderal)a<l,  a  distance  of  570  miles ;  and 
the  Indus  Valley  Railway  opens  up  a  commercial  outlet  from  Central  Asia,  the  i*nn- 
iab,  and  tlife  North-west  Provitices,  to  the  Arabian  Sea  by  Hyderabad  and  Kiiraclii. 
Iu  1849,  M.  was  taken  by  the  British  troops  nnder  General  Whish,  and  annext-d  with 
its  territory  to  ilie  Brilish  possessions.    The  population  of  M.  in  1868  was  56^8:26. 

MULTIPLE-POINDINQ  is  a  well-known  form  of  actiop  in  Scotland,  by  which 
competing  claims  to  one  and  the  same  fund  are  set  at  rest  It  means  double  poind- 
ing or  double  distrcs.^.  suggesting  that  » person  whohasfnnds  in  his  possession  is 
liable  to  be  harassed  by  doable  distress;  and  hence  he  commences  a  suit  called  the 
action  of  muUiple-poiuding,  by  which  he  alleges  that  he  ought  not  to  be  made  to  pay 
the  sum  more  than  once  ;  and  as  he  does  not  know  who  is  really  entitled  to  payment, 
he  cites  all  the  parties  claiming  it,  so  thiit  they  may  fight  ont  their  claims  amongf 
theinselves.  The  suit  corresponds  to  what  is  known  iu  England  as  a  bill  or  order 
of  interpleader. 

MDLTI PLICA 'TION,  the  third  and  most  important  of  the  four  principal  pro- 
cesses of  arithmetic,  is  a  compendious  mode  ot  addition,  when  a  number  is  to  be 
added  to  itself  a  given  number  of  times.  The  Ibret;  tcrii^  of  a  multiplication  are 
the  multiplieand,  or  number  to  be  multiplied  ;  the  multiplier,  or  number  by  which 
it  is  to  be  multiplied ;  and  the  prodttct,  giving  the  amount  which  would  Ik?  obtained 
if  the  multiplicand  were  added  to  itself  llie  number  of  times  denoted  by  the  multi- 
plier. The  ^mbol  of  mnltii>ncation  is  x  ;  and  in  aritlimetic,  the  numbers  are  placed 
above  each  other  as  in  addition^  with  a  line  drawn  under  them  ;  in  algebra,  the  quan- 
tities are  merely  plactid  side  by  side,  with  or  without  a  dot  between  i hem— e.g.,  rhc 
multiplication  of  2  by  4  may  be  written  2  x  4,  and  of  ahy  b,  a  x  b,  a.b,  or  ab.  For 
multiplication  of  fractions,  see  Fbaotions. 

The  operarion  of  multiplication  has  been  much  abbnwiated  by  the  use  of  JjOga- 
ritlnus  (q.  v.),  and  has  been  rendered  ajnere  mechanical  process,  by  the  invention 
of  Napier's  Bones,  the  Sliding  Rule,  Qunter's  Scale,  Ac. 

MU'LTI VALVE  SHELLS,  or  Multi valves,  are  those  shelly  coverings  of  mol- 
luscs '  which  are  formed  of  more  than  two  distinct  pieces,  in  systems  of  Con> 
choiogy  (q.  v.),  the  term  is  one  of  primary  impoi'tance ;  hut  since  the  study  of  the 
living  animals  has  led  to  arrangements  very  different  from  those  foimded  on  their 
mere  shells,  a  very  subordinate  place  has  bwn  assigned  to  it,  as  indicating  a  dis- 
tinction, much  less  important  than  was  at  first  supposed.  Thus,  Chitons  (q.  v.), 
which  have  mnltivalve  shells,  are  now  placed  iu  the  same  order  of  gasteropods  with 
Limpets  (q.  v.), of  which  the  shells  are  univalve;  and  PAo/a«  (q.  v.)  and  Teredo 
(q.  v.),  which  have  two  princiiml  valves  and  some>»mMll  accessory  valves,  the  latter 
also  a  long  shelly  tube,  are  placed  among  lamellibranchiate  molluscs,  along  with 
most  of  the  bivalves  of  conchologists.  In  conchological  systems,  barnacles  and 
ac.oru-shells  were  also  generally  included,  and  ranked  among  mnltivalves;  but  these 
are  now  no  longer  referred  even  to  the  same  division  of  the  animal  kingdom.    See 

ClBRHOPODA. 

MU'LTURES,  in  Scotch  Law,  mean  a  quantity  of  grain  either  manufactured  or 
in  kind  deliverable  to  the  proprietor  or  tacKsman'of  a  mill  for  grinding  the  com  sent 
there.  Some  persons  living  in  the  neighborhood  are  bound  to  send  their  corn  to  l)e 
ground  at  a  particular  mill,  in  which  case  the  lands  are  said  to  be  astricted  to  the 
mill,  and  form  the  thirl  or  sucken,  and  the  tenants  or  proprietors  of  the  land  are 
called  insucken  multnrers.  Those  who  are  not  l>ound  to  go  to  the  mill  are  called 
out-sucken  multurers.  Thirlage  is  thus  classed  amoiig  servitudes,  being  a  kind 
of  burden  on  the  lands.  Such  a  right  is  unknown  iu  i^glaud,  except  Bometimes  la 
old  manors,  _ —  -  -- — —       -  -  i 


Digitized  by 


Google 


^  o  Mn'tiplt 

*^  Miiiicnhai»«n 

MUM,  a  pecnliar  kind  of  beer,  formerly  oaed  In  this  conntry,  and  still  need  in 
Gernittiiy,  especinlly  in  Brunswick,  wh#i-e*it  inuy  be  a!ni08t  n-jrarded  as  the  national 
drink.  Ineteud  of  only  mult  Wmg  usfd,  it  1b  mudu  of  mall  and  wheat,  to  wbicli 
some  brewers  add  oats  and  beuu-meaL  It  is  uelther  so  wholesome  nor  so  agreeable 
as  tlie  common  ale  or  Ixjer. 

MUMMY.    See  Bmbal^hnq. 

MUMMY- WHEAT  is  said  to  be  a  variety  of  wheat  produced  from  grains  foand 
in  an  E^piiau  mummy.  Bat  no  ^ood  evidence  of  this  origin  lias  been  addnced— in 
fact,  it  18  as  good  as  proved  to  be  impossinle ;  and  the  same  variety  has  long  been  in 
geni'ra)  cnltivatiou  in  Egypt  and  neigbltorintf  conntriep.  The  pplke  is  compound— a 
diHtinguishini?  character,  by  which  it  is  retidily  known,  but  wliicii  is  not  altogether 
piTinunent.  It  is  occasionally  cultivated  in  Britain,  but  seems  more  suitable  to 
warmer  region?. 

MUMPS,  the,  is  a  popular  name  (»f  a  pppciflo  infliimmntlon  of  the  salivary  glands 
dest-ribt'd  by  noso1ogi^ts  as  Cynaiiche  Parotidaea,  or  Parotitis.  In  Scotland,  itls  fre- 
qntntJy  termed  The  Branka. 

The  disorder  nsunlly  begins  with  a  feeling  of  stiffness  about  the  jaws,  which  is 
followed  by  pains,  heat,  and  swelling  l>eneath  the  exr.  The  f  welling  begins  in  the 
parotid,  bnt  the  other  salivaiy  glands  (q.  v.)  usually  poon  txH^ome  implicuted,  so  that 
the  swelling  extends  along  the  neck  lo\\ard8  ihe  chin,  thutt  givinj;  the  patient  a  de- 
formed and  somewhat  grotesque  appearance.  One  or  both  sides  may  be  affected,  and, 
in  general,  the  disease  appeara  first  on  om*  side  and  tht-n  on  the  other.  There  is  sel- 
dom much  fever.  ITie  inflammniion  is  usually  at  iis  h  ghcst  point  in  three  or  four 
days,  after  which  it  begins  to  decline,  suppuration  of  iht*  glands  scarcely  ever  occur- 
ring. In  most  cnees  no  treatment  further  than  antiphlogistic  regimen,  due  attention 
to  the  bowels,  and  protection  of  the  parts  froni  c»  Id,  by  the  app  ication  of  flannel  or 
cotton- wool,  is  reqiiir»'d,  and  the  pntient  eoujpleiely  recovers  in  eight  or  ten  days. 

The  disease  often  originates  from  epltleniic  or  endemic  influences,  but  there  can 
be  no  donbt  tlnit  it  spreads  by  contagion  ;  and,  like  most  contagious  diseases,  it 
seldom  affects  the  same  person  twice.  It  chiefly  attacks  children  and  young  per- 
sons. 

A  f  inirnhir  rircumstance  connected  with  the  disease  is,  that  in  many  cases  the 
snbi»idei  c.^  of  the  swelling  is  immedi.Mtely  followed  by  swelling  and  pain  in  the  teatea 
in  the  nnile  s-  x,  and  in  the  manivice  in  the  female.  The  inflanimation  in  these 
land?*  Is  si'ldoin  very  painful  or  long  continued,  bnt  occasionally  the  infl.immatioa 
-  transfer  •••d  from  these  orgttns  to  the  brain,  when  a  comparatively  trifling  disorder 
1>  converted  into  a  most  j>erilons  diseube. 

MCNCHHAUSEN,  Knrl  Friedrlch  Hieronymus,  Baron  von,  a  meml>er  of  an 
aneienr  and  noble  German  farailv,  who  attained  a  remarkable  celebrity  by  false  and 
ridiciilonsiy  exaggerated  tales  of  bis  exploits  and  adventures,  fo  that  his'name  has 
be<'oinb  proverb.al.  He  was  born  in  1720,  at  the  family  estate  of  Bodenwerder,  in 
Hanover,  sei-ved  as  a  cavalry  officer  in  the  Russian  campaigns  against  the  Turks  iu 
T73T— 1789,  and  die<l  in  1797.  A  collection  of  his  marvellons  stories  was  flrst  pnb- 
Ii.4|ied  in  En<rland  under  the  title  of  **  Baron  MQnchhausen's  Narrative  of  his  Mar- 
vt-llous  Travels  and  Campaigns  in  Russia"  (Lond.  1785).  The  compiler  was  one 
Kndolf  Erich  Raspe,  an  expatriated"  countryman  of  the  baron's.  A  second  edition 
appiared  at  Oxford  (1786)  under  the  title  of  **  The  Singular  Travels,  Campaigns. 
Voyages,  and  Sj.oriing  Adventures  of  Baron  Munnikhoupen,  commonly  pronouncea 
MiuK'hansen  ;  as  he  relates  them  over  a  bottle  when  snrroujided  by  his  friends.'* 
Several  other  editions  rapidly  followed.  In  the  same  year  (1786)  appeared  the  flrel 
German  iniition,  edited  by  the  poet  BQrger;  the  latest — entitled  "Des  Preiherrn  vou 
Munchhauseiij  wunderbare  Reiseu  und  Abonteuer"  (1849  and  1856)— is  enriched  by 
till  admirable  mtroduction  by  Adolf  Ellisen,  on  the  origin  and  sources  of  the  famous 
book,  and  on  the  kind  of  literary  flctiou  to  which  it  belongs.  Elliseu's  father  knew 
the  splendid  old  braggart  in  his  latter  days,  and  used  to  visit  him.  Nevertheless, 
although  Raspe  may  have  derived  many  of  his  narra.tlves  from  M.  himself,  he  ap- 
pears to  have  drawn  pretty  largely  from  other  sources.  Several  of  the  adventures  , 
^scribed  to  the  baron  are  to  be  found  in  older  Iwoks,  particularly  in  Bebel's  •'  Faco- 
Ite"  (Siraeb.  1608) ;  others  iu  Castiglioue's  ♦»  Corteglauo,"  aud  Bildermauu'a  "  Uto- 


fJ 


y  Google 


Mundane  A 

MuaicH  * 

pla,"  wliich  are  included  in  Lange^s  "Deliclae  Academlcffi"  (Heilbronn,  1T66).  M.'a 
stories  still  retain  tlieir  popularity,  es|^ecially  with  tlie  young. 

MU'NDANE  EGG.  In  uiauy  heathen  cosmogonies,  tlie  world  (Lat.  mundtu)  is 
represented  as  evolved  from  an  egg.  The  production  of  a  young  animal  from  what 
neither  resembles  it  in  form  nor  in  properties,  seems  to  have  Aeen  regarded  tis 
jitlordiug  a  good  figure  of  the  production  of  a  well-ordered  world  out  of  chuos. 
Thus,  in  tiie  Egyptian,  Hindu,  and  Japanese  systems,  the  Creator  is  repreiwuted  iis 
producing  an  eg?,  from  which  the  world  was  produced.  The  same  notion  is  found, 
in  variously  modified  forms,  in  the  religions  of  many  of  the  ruder  heatlien  nations. 
Sometimes  a  bird  is  represented  as  deposiriuo^  the  egg  on  the  primordial  waters. 
There  are  other  modiflcations  of  this  notion  or  belief  in  tiie  classical  and  other  my- 
thologies, according  to  whicli  the  inhabitants  of  the  world,  or  some  of  the  gods,  or 
the  powers  of  good  and  evil,  are  represented  as  produced  from  eggs.  The  egg  ap- 
pears also  in  some  mythological  systems  as  tlie  symbol  of  reproduction  or  renova- 
tion, as  well  as  of  creation.  The  Mundane  Egg  belonged  to  the  ancient  Phoenician 
system,  and  an  egg  is  said  to  have  been  an  object  of  worship. 

MUNQO.  St,  tlie  popular  name  of  St  Kentigern,  one  of  the  tliree,  great  mission- 
aries of  the  Christian  faith  in  Scotland.  St  Niniaii  (q.  v.)  conv  rted  tlie  tribes  of  the 
t*outh  ;  St  Coluniba  (q.  v.)  was  tlie  apostle  of  the  west  and  north  ;  St  Kentiffern  re- 
stored or  established  the  religion  of  the  Welsh  or  British  people,  who  field  the 
country  l)etwcen  the  Clyde  on  the  north,  and  the  furthest Iwundaties  of  Cumberland 
on  tlie  soiith  (see  Bbbtts  and  Scots).  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  a  British 
l»riuce,  Owen  ab  Urien  Rhej^ed,  and  of  a  British  prin  *ess,  Dwyuwen  or  Tiienaw,  the 
daughter  of  Llewddy  n  Lueddo":  of  Dinas  Eiddyn,  or  Edinburgh.  He  was  born  about 
the  year  514,  it  is  believed  at  Culross,  on  the  Forth,  the  site  of  a  monastery  tlieu 
ruled  by  St  Serf,  of  whom  St  Kentigern  became  the  favorite  disciple.  It  is  said, 
indeed,  that  he  was  so  generally  beloved  by  the  monastic  brethren,  that  his  baptis- 
mal name  of  Kentigern  or  Cynduyrn,  signifying  ^'ctiief  lord,"  was  exciiangcni  iu 
conunou  speech  for  Mnngo,  signifying  "lovable"  or  **dear  friend."  Leaving 
Cu:r>)ss,  lie  planted  a  monastery  at  a  place  then  called  Cathnres,  now  known  tui 
Glasgow,  and  became  the  bishop  of  the  kingdom  of  Cumbria  (q.  v.).  The 
nation  would  seem  to  have  been  only  partially  converted,  and  the  accession  of  a  new 
k|ng  drove  St  Kentigern  from  the  realm.  He  found  refuge  among  the  kindred 
people  of  Wales,  and  there,  upon  the  banks  of  anothe^  ClydCj  he  founded  another 
monastery  and  a  bishopric,  which  still  bears  the  name  of  his  disciple,  St  Asaph. 
Kecjilled  to  Glasgow  by  a  new  king,  Rydderech  or  Roderick  the  Bountiful,  Kentigern 
renewed  his  missionary  lal)ors,  in  which  he  was  cheered  by  a  visit  from  StColumba, 
and  dying  al>onttiie  year  601,  was  buried  where  the  cathiidral  of  Glasgow  now  stands. 
His  life  iias  been  often  written.  A  fragment  of  a  memoir,  comiKJsed  at  the  desire 
of  Herbert,  Bishop  of  Glasgow,  between  1147  and  1164,  has  been  printed  by  Mr 
Cosmo  Innes  in  the  •' Registruiii  Episcopatus  Glasgiiensis."  Tlie  longer  life  by 
Joceliiu'  of  Furness,  written  about  U80,  was  pnl)lished  by  Pinkerton  in  his  "•Vii» 
Aiitlquae  Snnctorum  Scotise."  It  appeals  to  two  still  older  lives.  The  fame  of  St 
K<.'utigern  is  attested  by  the  many  churches  which  still  bear  his  name,  as  well  in 
Scoitand  as  in  the  north  of  England.  The  church  of  Crostliwaite.  where  Southey  is 
buried,  is  dedicated  to  him.  Tiie  miracles  which  he  was  believen  to  have  wrought 
were  so  deeply  rooted  iirthe  popular  mind,  that  some  of  them  sprung  up  again  iu 
the  18th  c.  to  grace  the  legends  of  the  Cameraniau  martyrs.  Otiiers  are  still  com- 
memorated by  the  armorial  ensigns  of  the  city  of  Glasgow— a  hazel-tree  whose 
froz.Mi  branches  he  kindli^  into  a  flame,  a  tame  robin  which  he  restored  to  life,  a 
hand-bell  which  he  brought  from  Rome,  a  salmon  which  rescued  from  the  depths  of 
the  Clyde  the  lost  ring  of  the  frail  queen  of  Cadyow.  Nor  is  it  St  M.  only  whose 
m-mory  survives  at  Glasgow ;  the  parish  church  of  '*  St  Enoch  "  commemorates  his 
mother,  St  Thenaw  ;  and  it  is  not  many  yeara  since  a  neighboring  spring,  which  still 
bears  her  name,  ceased  to  be  an  object  of  occasional  pilgrimage. 

MUNI,  a  Sanscrit  title,  denoting  a  holy  sage,  and  applied  to  a  great  number  of 
distinguished  personages,  supposea  to  have  acquired,  by  dint  of  austerities,  more  or 
less  divine  faculties. 

MU'NICH,  (Ger.  MHjiohen)^  the  capital  of  Bavaria,  is  situated  in  48®  8'  n.  lat., 
9Dd  11^  ^'  e.  long.,  in  the  midst  -of  a  barren  and  flat  elevated  plain,  at  a  height  oC 


y  Google 


\ 


McmdaiM 
Manioh 

abont  1700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Pop.  (1871),  109,478,  about  90  per  cent 
beiiis;  Romau  Catholics,  9  per  cent.  Proteatants,  aiid  1  per  cent,  Jews:  (1876)  198.024. 
H.  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  I^er,  and  cousiBts,  in  andition  to  the  old  town,  ot  five 
anbnrbs,  and  of  the  three  coutiguoas  districts  of  An,  Haidhansen.  and  Obergiesiug. 
Fy  the  efforts  of  King  Lndwig  f,  who  spent  nearly  7,000,000  (balers  on  the  Improve- 
nient«  of  the  city,  M.  has  been  decornted  with  bnildings  of  almost  every  style  of 
architecture,  and  enriched  with  a  larger  and  more  valuable  collection  of  art- 
trt'iisnrfs  tlian  any  other  city  of  Qerinauy.  It  possesses  4%  churciu'S,  of  which 
all  Imt  two  or  three  are  Catholic,  and  of  these,  the  most  wortl»y  of  noic  are:  the 
c^itliednil,  which  Is  the  see  for  the  archbishopric  of  Munich-Frei'>ing,  bnilt  be- 
twe^'U  146S — 1494,  and  remarkable  for  its  iwo  nqnare  towt-rp,  with  their  octagonal 
upper  ston«e,  cupped  by  cupolas,  and  its  30  lofiy  and  hlglily-decorated  windows ; 
the  chnrch  of  the  Jesuits,  or  8t  MichaePs,  which  contains  a  monument  by  Thor- 
"v^aidsen  to  Eugene  Beanharuals;  tlie  Thetuiner  Kirche,  completed  in  1767,  and 
conttiiuing  the  bnryiug-vaults  of  the  royal  tamlly ;  llie  bvautifnl  modern  cliurch 
of  St  Mariahilf,  with  its  gorgrons  painted  fflai^s  and  exquisite  wood-carvings; 
the  round  church,  or  Basilica  of  8t  BouTiace,  with  its  dome  resting  on 
64  monoliths  of  gray  Tyrolean  marble,  and  resplendent  wiih  gold,  frescoes,  and 
noble  works  of  art;  the  cruel form-Htiaped  Ludwie  Kirche,  emoellislied  with 
Cornelina's  fresco  of  the  Last  Judgment;  and  lastly,  the  Court  Chapel  of  All 
Sahits,  a  perfect  casket  of  art-treasares.  Among  the  other  numerous  public  build- 
ings, a  description  of  which  wouid  fill  a  volume,  we  can  only  briefly  refer  to  a  few 
of  tiie  more  notable;  as  the  theatre,  the  largest  in  (Germany,  and  capable  of  ac- 
commodating 2.400  spectators;  the  post-office ;  the  Ituhmes-halle ;  the  new  palace, 
includtue  the  older  royal  residence,  the  treasury  and  chapel,  antiquarian  collections. 
Ac.;  and  the  Koiiigsbtm,  desiu:ned  by  Klenzuin  imitation  of  tiie  Pitti  Palace,  and 
built  at  a  cost  of  1,260,000  thalers,  containing  J.  Schnorr's  frescoes  of  the  Nibelun- 
geu ;  the  Banquet  lug  Halls,  rich  in  sculpture  by  Schwauthaler,  and  in  grand  fresco 
and  other  paintings.  In  the  still  incomplete  suburb  of  Maximilian  are  situated  the 
old  Piunkothek,  or  picture  [lallery,  erectetl  in  1S36  by  Klenze,  containing  800,000  en- 
gravings, 9,000  drawings,  a  collection  of  Etruscan  lemains,  &c.;  and  immediately 
opposite  to  it,  the  new  Pinakothek,  completed  in  1863  and  devoted  to  the  worki«  of 
recent  artists;  the  Qlyptotiiek,  with  its  twelve  galleries  of  ancient  sculnture,  and  its 
noble  collection  of  the  works  of  the  great  modern  sculptors.  asCauova,  Th(»nvaldf»en, 
Sciiadow,  &c  Among  the  gates  of  M.,  the  mostlx'autiful  are  the  Siegesthor  (**The 
Gate  of  Victory'* >  designed  after  Coustuntiue's  triumphal  arch  in  ihcFoin.n,  i.nd 
the  Isarthor  with  its  elal)oratA  frescoes.  In  addition  to  the>e  and  many  other  build- 
ings intended  either  solely  for  the  adornment  of  the  city,  or  to  serve  as  depositories 
for  works  of  art,  M.  prtssesses  numerous  scientiflc,  literary,  and  b;uevo!cnt  iiii-titn- 
tious,  alike  remarkable  for  the  architectural  and  artistic  beauty  of  their  external  aj)- 

Iieantnce,  and  tlie  liberal  spirit  which  characterises  tlieir  internal  organisation.  1  he 
lt)rai'y,  which  is  enriched  by  the  biblical  ti*eahUi-es  of  numerouti  supprefsed  monas- 
teries, contains  about  800,000  volumes,  of  wliich  1,300  are  incunabula,  with  nearly 
22,000  MSS.  TJie  university,  with  which  that  of  Landsiiut  was  incorporated  in  1826, 
and  now  linown  as  the  Ludwig-Maximillan  Univeivity,  con  prices  5  faculties.  vilU 
a  titixtt  of  116  professors  and  teachers.  In  1876  the  number  of  malricalated  students 
attending  the  university  was  1208.  In  association  with  it  are  numerous  medical  and 
other  schools,  a  librarj'  containiuff  200,0(0  volumes,  and  various  museums  and  cabi- 
iHits.  M.  has  an  ably-conducted  oi)8ervatory,  supplied  with  firs^t-rate  instruments  by 
Frannhofer  and  Reichenbach ;  8  gymnai'ia,  4  Latin,  1  normal,  various  military, 
professional,  polytechnic,  and  parisn  scliools,  of  which  the  majority  are  Catholic ; 
institutions  for  tlie  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  and  crippled,  and  for  female  orphans, 
besides  numerous  hospitals,  asylums,  infant  schools,  &c. ;  an  academy  of  sciences ; 
royal  academies  of  painting,  sculpture,  music,  &c. ;  a  botanic  garden,  parks,  public 
M'all^,  and  gardens,  adorned  with  historic,  patriotic,  and  other  monuments,  and 
designed  for  the  celebration  of  annual  and  other  national  faii-s  and  festivals;  spa- 
cious cemeteries,  &c.  M.  is  mainly  indebted  to  Lndwig  I.  forits  celebrity  as  a  seat 
of  tlie  fine  arts,  as  the  jireater  nnral)er  of  the  huildinys  for  which  it  is  now  lamed 
were  erect«"d  between  1820  and  1850,  althougli,  under  his  successors,  Maximilian  II., 
and  Lndwig  IL  (af»cended  the  thn.ne  in  1864),  the  progress  of  the  cmbellisliments  <  f 
the  city  has  been  continued  on  au  equuily  liberal  scale.    M.  Is  eomewhat  beh* 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Mnnlcipal  ^    (• 

ManicipaUtjr  ^ 

many  lesser  towns  of  Germany  In  regard  to  literary  advancement  and  freedom  of 
epeculation,  while  its  inda!«tridl  activity  is  also  inferior  to  its  state  of  bigli  artistic 
development.  It  has,  liowever,  some  emineiiliy  goo«l  iron,  bruuze,  and  hell  foun- 
diles,  and  is  famed  for  its  lithoi^raphers  and  engravers,  ana  lis  optical,  matbemati- 
cut,  and  mochanical  instrnment-makei'S,  amongst  whom  Uizschneider,  Frauuiiofer, 
and  Ertl  have  acquired  a  world-wide  renown.  M.  is  noted  for  its  enurnious  brew- 
eries of  Bavarian  beer ;  and  has  some  jjood  raunutactones  lor  coitou,  wool,  and 
damask  goods,  wax-cloth,  leather,  paper-haugiugs,  carriages,  pianos,  gold,  silver, 
and  steel  wares,  &c. 

The  present  name  of  this  city  cannot  be  tr.iced  further  than  the  12th  c,  when 
Henry  the  Lion  raised  the  Villa  Munichen  from  ili*  pivviona  obscurity,  by  estnblish- 
iug  a  mint  within  its  precincts,  and  making  it  the  chief  em|>oriiim  fur  the  t<alt  which 
was  obtained  from  Halle  and  tht;  nei^'hb  xuig  dist.ricn*.  In  ihc  13lli  c,  the  dukcwof 
the  Wittelsbach  dynasty  selected  M.  for  their, residence,  bniU  tlie  Ludwij^sbarg,  some 
parts  of  whose  original  strnctnre  still  exi^t.  and  snrrwuiided  the  town  with  wallt<  and 
other  fortified  defences.  In  1321.  thi^  old  town  was  nearly  destruyc  d  by  fire,  and  re- 
built by  the  Bmperor  Lndwig  of  Buvnria  very  mucli  on  ihe  plan  which  it  stili  ex- 
hibits; but  it  was  not  till  tbo  clo-'e  of  iatut  century,  when  tlie  fortifications  were  raZvHl 
to  the  ground,  that  the  limits  of  the  town  were  enlarged  to  any  extent.  The  huit 
fifty  years  indeed  comprise  the  true  hi^tcn-y  of  M.,  -ince  within  that  period  tdl  its  fin- 
est buildings  have  been  erected,  it*  character  as  a  focus  of  artit«tic  activity  lias  been 
developed,  ita  population  lias  been  more  tlian  doubled,  and  its  material  prosperity 
augmented  in  a  proportionate  di'gree. 

MUNI'CIPAL  ARCHITECTURE,  the  style  of  the  buildings  used  for  innnicipa 
purposes,  Huch  as  town-halls,  guild-halL«»,  Ac  Tliese  were  first  used  whiu  tlie  «o»vu8 
of  the  middle  ages  rose  in  importance,  and  assert^^d  their  freedom.  Those  of  Norili 
Ira  y  and  Belgium  were  the  firs^t  to  m<)ve,  and  consequently  we  find  in  these  coiiu- 
trie.-i  the  earliest  and  most  importnnt  -p.^cimjn^  of  man  cipal  archit  -ct^ire  during  the 
middle  a^e-*.  It  is  only  in  tlie  *•  free  citltss"  of  tinit.  epoeli  that  town-hails  nro 
found.  We  therefore  look  for  them  in  vain  in  Prance  or  England  till  the  devi-Iop- 
m*int  of  Industry  and  kuowl^rdge  had  inadelhe  citiz  mis  ot  the  large  towns  so  wealthy 
and  important  as  to  enable  them  to  raise  the  municipal  power  into  an  institution. 
Wjien  this  became  the  case  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  we  find  in  these  countries 
abundant  instances  of  buildings  erected  for  the  use  of  the  guilds  and  corporations 
and  the  municipal  courts.  Many  of  these  still  exist  alon^  with  the  corporate  bodies 
they  belong  to,  especially  in  London,  where  the  halls  are  frequently  of  great  mag- 
nificence. Many  of  these  corporation  halls  have  recently  been  rebuilt  by  the 
wealthy  bodies  they  belong  to,  such  as  the  Fishmongers,  Merchant  Taylors,  Go  d- 
smiths,  and  other  tompauies.  Municipal  baildings  on  a  large  scale  for  the  use  of 
the  town  coancils  and  magistrates  have  also  been  r  cently  erected  in  many  of  our 
large  towns,  which  Inid  quite  outgrown  their  original  modest  bnildiugs;  and  now 
DO  town  of  importance  is  complete  without  a  great  town-hall  for  the  nse  of  the  in- 
habitants. 

Municipal  buildings  always  partake  of  the  cbaract'»r  of  the  arbhitecture  of  the 

Seriod  when  they  are  erected;  thus,  we  find  in  Italy  that  thev  are  of  the  It^ilian- 
^othlc  8ty'v»  in  Oomo,  Padua,  Vicenza,  Venice,  Florence,  &c.,  during  the  ISth,  14th, 
and  15th  centuries.  In  Belgium,  during  the  same  period,  they  are  of  the  northern 
liothic  styl.^  and  are  almost  the  only  n^ally  fine  specimens  of  the  civil  an  hitecture 
of  the  middle  ages?  we  possess.  The  Cloth-hal!  at  Ypres,  and  the  town-hulls  of  Brus- 
pels,  Lou  vain,  Bruges,  Oudenarde,  &c.,  the  Exchange  at.  Antwerp,  and  many  other 
nuirkets,  lodges,  halls,  &c.,  testify  to  the  early  importance  of  the  municipal  institu- 
tions in  Bvilgium. 

It  is  a  carious  fact,  that  in  France,  where  the  towns  became  of  considernble  im- 
portance during  the  middle  ages,  so  few  municipal  buildings  remain.  This  arist-s 
from  the  circumstance,  that  the  resources  of  the  early  municipalities  of  France  were 
devoted  to  aid  the  bishops  in  the  erection  of  the  great  French  cathedrals,  and  tt»e 
town8peo])le  used  these  cathedrals  as  their  halls  of  assembly,  and  even  for  such  pur- 
poses as  masques  and  amusements. 

Of  the  English  corporation  halls,  those  whicli  remain  are  n earl j' all  subseqnent 
to  the  14th  c,  from  which  time  to  tlie  present  there  are  very  many  examples.  The 
'^•lild-hall  of  Loudon  ia  one  of  the  earliest.    The  present  building  was  begun  in  1411, 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


7MQn'cipat 
Manioipa  ity 

and  WRS  built  chiefly  by  coiitribntions  from  the  trades  "  companies  "  of  Loudon.  Of 
the  towu-halla  receutly  erected,  those  of  Muucbester,  Liverpool,  and  Leeds  are 
amongst  tlie  most  important. 

MUNICIPA'LITY,  Municipal  Coiporation  (from  Lat.  municepf,  from  munua 
and  capio^  one  who  eujoys  the  rights  of  a  fi-ee  citizen),  a  town  or  city  possessed  of 
certuiu  privlie^'es  of  local  self-government;  the  goveruing  l)ody  in  such  a  town. 
Municipal  iubtitationsorigiuattd  in  the  times  of  ttie  Roman  empire.  The  provin- 
cial towns  of  Italy,  which  were  from  the  first  Roman  colonies,  as  also  those  which, 
afttT  having):  an  independent  exi^t^uce,  became  members  of  the  Roman  state, 
though  subjected  to  the  rule  of  an  imperial  governor,  were  allowed  to  enjoy  a  right 
of  rejfulating  their  internal  affairs.  A  clast*  of  the  inhabitants  called  the  ctma,  or 
decuriones,  elected  two  officers,  called  duumviri^  whose  functions  were  suppoi-ed  to 
be  analogous  to  those  of  tne  cousul.'Of  the  imperial  city,  and  who  exercised  a  limittd 
jurisdictiou,  civil  and  criminal.  Thei-e  was  an  impoitaut  functionary  in  every  mn- 
niiupality  called  the  de^emor  civitatis^  or  advocate  for  the  city,  the  protector  of  the 
citizens  against  arbitrary  acts  on  the  part  of  tlie  imperial  governor.  In  thtf  later 
aa:es  of  the  empire,  the  Decurions  were  saljjtjct  to  heavy  burdens,  not  compeuMited 
by  the  honor  c*  the  position,  which  led  many  to  endeavor  to  i»hun  the  office.  The 
municijml  system  declined  with  the  decline  of  the  empire,  yet  it  retained  vitality 
enongi:  to  be  afterwards  resuscitated  in  nn:on  wiili  fendalism,  and  with  the  Saxon 
instil atioHS  of  Britain.  Some  cities  of  Italy,  France,  and  Germajiy  have  indeed  de- 
rived their  present  magisti:acy  by  direct  succession  from  the  days  of  imperial  Rome, 
as  is  notably  the  aise  with  Cologne.  The  bishop  being  a  shield  between  the  con- 
querors and  the  conquered,  in  many  cases  discharged  the  dnties  or  obtained  the 
lunctious  of  the  defensor  ctvilatis.  'Jo  the  north  of  the  Alps,  nnder  the  feudal  sys- 
tem, he  became  officiailv  the  civil  governor  of  the  city,  as  the  count  was  of  the  rural 
district  In  Sontiiern  Europe,  where  feudalism  was  less  vigorous,  the  municipalities 
retained  a  large  share  of  freedon»  and  self-government. 

Of  the  cities  of  the  middle  ages,  some  were  entirely  free  ;  they  had,  like  the  ]  ro- 
viuciai  towns  of  Italy  l>efore  the  extension  of  the  Roman  conquests,  a  confii  uiitm 
independent  of  any  other  powers.  Venice.  Genoa,  Florence,  Hamburg,  aid  Lu- 
.  beck,  all  stood  in  this  position.  Next  in  dignity  were  the  free  iraperlin  cites  in 
Germany,  wtiich,  not  being  comprehended  in  the  dominions  of  any  of  the  princ4S, 
Were  in  immediate  dejien^nce  on  the  empire.  Mo^t  of  these  cities  rose  into  mij'or- 
tunce  in  the  18th  c;  and  their  liberties  and  privileges  were  fostered  by  the  Frnnco- 
Diau  emperors,  to  afford  some  counterpoise  to  the  gi owing  power  of  the  immediate 
nobility.  NHmberg  was  especially  celebrated  for  lis  stout  resistance  to  the  House 
of  Brandenburg,  aiidMhe  successful  war  which  it  waged  with  the  FrancOnian  no- 
bility. In  Bngland,  the  more  important  cities  were  immediate  vassals  of  the  crown ; 
the  smaller  municipalities  sometimes  owned  a  subject  superior,  sometimes  a  greater 
municipality  for  iheir  overlor^. 

Under  the  Anglo-Saxons,  the  English  burghs  were  subject  to  the  rule  of  au 
elective  officer,  called  the  **Porireve,"  who  exercised  in  burgh  functions  similar  to 
those  of  the  hh ire-re ve  in  the  shire.  The  Norman  conquerors  reiognized  the  al- 
ready existing  privileges  of  the  towns  by  granting  them  charters.  Instead  of  a 
sliire-reve,  a  viscount  was  placed  by  the  king  over  each  shire,  and  a  bailiff  inslcjid 
of  the  former  elective  officer  over  each  burgh.  In  the  larjrer  towns,  the  baiiiff  was 
allowed  to  assume  the  Norman  appellation  of  Mayor.  The  municipal  franchise 
seems  to  have  been  vested  in  all  the  resident  and  trading  inhabitjmts,  who  shared 
in  the  payment  of  the  local  taxes,  and  performance  of  local  duties.  Titles  to  free- 
dom were  also  recognised  on  the  grounds  of  birth,  apprenticeship,  marriage,  and 
sometimes  free  gift. 

In  all  the  larger  towns,  the  trading  population  came  to  be  divided  into  guilds  or 
trading  companies,  through  membership  of  which  companies  admission  was  ob- 
tained to  the  franchise.  Eventually  the  whole  community  was  enrolled  in  one  or  other 
of  the  guilds,  each  of  which  had  its  property,  its  by-laws,  and  its  common  hall,  and 
the  community  elected  the  cliief  officers.  It  was  on  the  wealthier  and  more  influ- 
ential inhabitants  that  municipal  offices  were  generally  confeiTed ;  and  the  practice 
gradually  gained  ground  of  thes«  functionaries  i)eip<?tuating  their  authority  without 
appealing  to  the  popular  suffrage.  Contentions  and  disputes  arose  regarding  the 
rigbt  of  election,  and  eventually  the  crown  threw  the  weight  of  ItsinfloeuceJnto  th*^ 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Mnn  ment  Q 

scale  of  self-eTectlve  nUins  bodies.  As  the  greater  mnnicipalities  grew  in  etrengtb, 
we  find  tbeir  right  recoiruTsed  lo  ap])ear  iu  parliaineut  by  luuaiis  of  representatives. 
Tlie  sheriffs  were  considered  to  have  a  discretiouary  power  to  determiue  which  towns 
should,  and  which  should  not  have  this  privil^e  of  represeutalion.  The  sovcrbigiis 
of  the  House  of  Tudor  and  Stuart  acquired  the  habit  of  extending  the  right  of  par- 
liamentary representation  toburgbanot  Iu  the  enjoyment  of  it,  while  at  the  same 
time,  l^  granting  or  renewinu:  to  them  mauicipal  charters,  they  modelled  the  consti- 
tution of  these  burghs  to  a  self-elective  type,  and  restrictea  the  liglu  of  voting  in  the 
choice  of  a  representative  to  the  governing  body.  During  the  reign  of  Witllam  III., 
Anne,  and  the  earlier  Georges,  tiie  iudueuce  of, the  crown  was  largely  employed  in 
calling  new  municipal  corporations  into  existence,  with  the  view  of  creatnig  addi- 
tional parliamentary  support  for  the  ministry  in  power.  The  burghs  of  Scotland 
had  a  history  much  like  that  of  the  burghs  of  HUiglaud;  their  earlier  charters  were 
mere  recognitions  of  already  existing  rights,  and  were  sruuted  to  the  inhabitants  at 
large.  In  the  course  of  the  14th  and  15tn  centuries,  themnnlcipal  suffrage  fell  gmd- 
ually  more  and  more  into  the  hands  of  restricted  bodies  of  men,  until  act  1469,  c.  5. 
gave  to  the  councils  the  right  of  appointing  their  successors,  the  old  and  new  council 
together  electing  the  ofBcer-beurers  of  the  corporation.  This  etoite  of  things 
continued  till  188S,  not  without  much  complaint.  In  Ibe  Scottish  burgiin, 
the  several  trades  poss'ssed a  much  more  exclusive  monopoly  than  in  England. 
Along  with  the  outcry  for  parliamentary  reform  arose  an  outcry  for  municipal  re- 
form ;  and  a  separate  municipal  reform  act  putting  an  end  to  the  clo!*e  system  was 
passed  for  each  part  of  the  empire.  'I'ho  Eiigiish  act  (5  and  6  Will.  IV.  c.  76),  en- 
titled "An  act  to  provide  for  tho  regulation  of  Muuicip.il  Corporations  In  Bngland." 
conferred  the  francbise  on  the  owners  and  occupiers  of  property  within  burgh,  with 
certain  qnaliflcaii<ms  as  to  pnjp -rty,  residtMice,  Ac.  This  cont<tiinency  elected  the 
councillors,  and  from  the  body  of  the  councillors,  tlie  mayor  and  aldermen  were 
chosen.  Act  88  md  88  Vict.  c.  55,  limited  the  requisite  period  of  residence  to  one 
year's  occupation,  and  the  ballot  was  introdnceil  by  35  and  Bi  Vict  c.  33,  in  munici- 
pal as  in  parlianient.iiy  elections.  Act  8  and  4  Will.  IV.  made  an  entire  chnnge  in 
the  modii  of  electlng-couniils  iu  Scottish  burghs  which  already  had  a  council,  and 
conferred  councils  on  burghs  which  had  none.  A  vote  was  given  to  every  one  wha 
had  resided  six  months  in  the  burgh,  or  within  seven  miles  of  it,  and  possessed  the 
requisite  qualification  to  exercise  the  parliamentary  franchise ;  a  property  qualifica- 
tion similar  lo  what  conferred  the  parliamentary  franchise  being  required  in  but'ibrhs 
that  did  not  send  or  contribute  to  send  a  member  to  parliament.  The  Municip>il 
Elections  Amendment  Act  (Scotland)  1868,  has  placed  tlie  municipal  fnmchiseiu  the 
Inmds  of  all  registered  voters  to  return  a  member  of  parliarocut,  and  in  the  case  of 
boughs  not  represented  In  pirlianient,  in  the  hands  of  all  iiersons  possessing  similar 
property  qualmcatious :  and  act  83  and  34  Vict,  c  92  has  provided  for  the  establish- 


ment of  a  municipal  register  in  burghs  not  represented  in  parliament.  An  exemp- 
.  tion,  under  8  and  4  Will.  IV.  c  76,  of  nine  small  burghs  from  the  operation  of  the 
new  system  has  been  done  away  with.    Town-councllloi*a  must  be  electors  residing 


in  or  carrying  ou  business  in  the  burgh.  'Iliey  remain  in  office  tirree  years,  and  elect 
from  their  own  number  the  provost  and  bailies.  'J'he  EngHsh  act  of  Will.  IV.  al>ol- 
islied  the  exclusive  privileges  of  the  guilds,  but  these  monopolies  continued  in  Scot- 
land till  1839,  when  they  were  swept  away  oy  9  and  10  Vict,  c  17.  The  Irish  munici- 
pal system,  which  had  ooen  imported  remiy-made  from  England,  was  assimilated  to 
the  altei-ed  English  sy.-tem  by  8  and  4  Vict.  c.  108. 

MU'NIMENT-UOUSE,  a  strimg  fire-proof  apartment  or  building  suited  to  con* 
tain  archives,  papers,  and  other  valuables. 

MU'NJEET  {Rubia  cordifolia  or  Tnunjista)^  a  species  of  Madder  (q.  v.),  of  which 
the  root  yields  an  excellent  red  dye.  The  ptant  diff^M-s  from  the  common  madder  in 
its  more  distinctly  quadrangular  stem,  its  cordate-oblong  leaves  commonly  in  fours, 
aud  its  red  lierries.  It  is  a  native  of  India,  China,  Japan,  Central  Asia,  and  Siberia. 
The  root  has  long  been  used  in  India  as  affording  a  rtd  dye ;  aud  is  now  an  article 
of  export  to  Europe,  as  a  substitute  for  madder. 

MUNKA'CS,  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  situated  on  an  affluent  of  the  Theiss, 

178  miles  north-east  of  Pesth.    The  inhabitants  are  mostly  artisans,  and  the  chief 

"oductiou  Itilioaicry.    There  are  also  alum  manufactories,  saltpetre- works,  aud  in 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC  ' 


9 


Moiuur 


the  Vicinity,  Iron-works,  and  mines  of  rock-crystal,  cnlled  Hunsrarfan  diamondB.  A 
short  diBtauce  east  from  the  towu  is  the  fortress  (foanded  in  1859)  of  M.,  built  upou 
&B  isolated  height,  which,  although  Buiall  and  iusi^nificunt-looking,  yet,  from  its 
Btroug  wulls  aud  advantag^ns  positiou,  has,  for  the  last  few  centuries,  withstood 
many  a  siege.  Since  the  Deginuiug  of  the  preaeut  century,  it  baa  been  used  aa  a 
•tate-prison.    Pop.  0S69)  86<^ 

MtJ'NSTER,  the  largest  of  the  four  provinces  of  Ireland,  occupies  the  south-west, 
and  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  Connuught,  on  the  e.  by  liclnster,  niid  on  the  w.  aud  s. 
by  the  Atlantic.  It  conthins*  tlie  six  cottni ies  of  Olare,  Corlt,  Kony,  Limerick,  Tippo- 
rary,  and  Waterford,  and  the  country  is  described  under  tlies^e  heHd«<.  Area,  6,0<i4,- 
679  statute  acres.  The  population  of  tlie  province,  which  in  1S41  was  higher  than 
thnt  of  any  of  the  other  provinces,  wat^  sliewn  to  be,  iu  18(1,  l,'o98,486,  or  4S9,7iB  lesa 
than  that  of  Ulster,  now  the  most  populous  of  the  provinces. 

MCNSTKR,  cl»ief  town  of  the  dlftrlct  of  the  s.ime  name,  as  well  as  capital  of  all 
Westphalia,  is  situated  in  6lo  55'  n.  lut.,  aud  1^  40'  e.  long.,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
An  with  the  Mfm^ter  Canal.  65  miles  iiorth-eat-t  of  Diisi^eldorf.  The  populaiiou  in 
1871  was  24^815;  iu  1876, 35,683.  M.»  which  Is  a  bibliopric,  and  the  peal  of  «  military 
council,  n  higii  court  of  Hp|>eal,  and  otlier  governmental  tribunals,  is  one  of  the 
liaudsomest  towns  of  Wesiplialia,  retaining  numerous  remainsof  medieval  architec- 
ture, whose  cjinaint  picturesqueuess  is  enhanced  by  tlie  immerons  trees  and  shady 
al]^({8,  by  whicli  the  squares  and  streets  are  ornamented.  Among  its  14  churches, 
of  whicli  tht^  majority  are  Catliolic,  tlie  n»08t  notewortliy  are  tFie  cathedral,  built  be- 
tween the  18th  and  15th  centurie:;!,  and  despoiled  of  all  its  internal  decorations  by 
the  Auat)aptists ;  Our  Lady's  <J)ini-ch,  with  its  noble  tower;  the  splendid  Gothic 
chmxjh  of  St  Lambert^  in  the  market-plare,  flnished  in  the  13th  c,  on  the  tower  of 
wliich  may  still  l)e  seen  the  tliree  iron  cnjres  in  whi<  h  the  bodies  of  tlie  Anabaptist, 
leaders.  John  of  Leyden,  KnipperaoUing.  and  Krechting,  were  f'Ui'pended,  after  they 
had  suffered  the  mo^t  horrible  martyrdom  ;  and  the  church  dedicated  to  St  Ludge- 
rus,  the  first  bishop  of  M.,  witli  its  singular  round  tO"  er,  surmonnted  by  an  octa- 
gonal lantern.  The  Gotliic  town-hall  possesses  historical  interest  in  being  the  spot 
at  which,  iu  1648,  the  I'eace  of  Wef>tpha Ma  was  signed  in  a  large  hall,  which  has 
lately  been  restored^and  which  contains  portrults'of  all  the  amhaPSJidorH  who  were 
parties  to  the  trejity.  The  palace,  built  In  1767,  is  surrounded  by  fine  pleasnre- 
gi-ouuds,  including  horticultural  and  botanical  gJirdeiie,  connected  with  the  academy  ; 
and  these,  with  the  rampai-ts,  which,  since  the  Seven  Years'  War.  have  been  eon- 
Verted  into  public  walks,  form  a  gieat  nttraction  to  the  city.  M.  is  well  provided 
With  institutions  of  charity  and  benevolence.  The  old  Catholic  university  of  M. 
was  diamembered  in  1818,  and  its  funds  apportioned  to  other  educational  establish- 
ments ;  and  the  present  academy,  wliich  comprises  a  Catholic  theo'ogical  and  philo- 
sophical faculty,  is  now  the  principal  school.  It  has  a  library  of  60.000  volumes,  a 
natural  history  innsumn,  and  vtu*loU8  collections  of  art  aud  antiquity  connected  witli 
it  M.  has  one  gymnasium,  a  normal  school  for  female  teachers,  and  a  numl>er  of 
town  schools.  Tiie  industrial  products  of  M.  include  leather,  woollen  fabrics,  thressd, 
starch,  and  sugar,  besides  which  thei-e  are  pood  carria^'C  manufactories,  b«-eweries. 
and  distilleries.  The  trade  is  limited  to  the  produce  of  the  country,  the  principal 
of  which  are  the  noted  Westplialian  ham  aud  sausages. 

M.  was  known  under  the  name  of  Aiindgardevoi^e  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne, 
who,  iu  791,  appointed  it  as  the  see  of  the  new  bishop  of  the  Saxons.  St  Ludgerus. 
Towards  the  middle  of  the  lUh  c,  a  monastery  was  founded  on  the  spot,  which  in 
course  of  time  derived  its  pscsent  name  from  its  vicinity  to  the  minster,  or  mona.<«- 
tery.  In  the  12th  c,  the  bishopric  wat*  elevated  into  a  principality  of  the  empire. 
Iu  the  Idth  c,  the  city  was  incorporated  in  the  Hansealic  League;  and  in  1532,  it 
declared  ite  adhesion  to  the  Reformed  faith,  notwithstanding  the  violent  opposition 
of  tlie  chapter.  During  the  years  1535  and  1586,  M.  was  the  scene  of  the  violent 
poiitico-religfous  movement  of  the  Anabaptists^,  when  the  excesses  of  these  preteiuU  d 
reformers  worked  a  violent  reaction  in  the  minds  of  the  people,  which  had  ihc  elf^-ct 
of  restoring  the  prestige  of  the  episcopal  power ;  aud  although  the  citiKens  ocra- 
Fionally  made  good  their  attempted  acts  of  opposition  to  their  stnritual  rukis, 
they  were  finally  reduced  to  submission  nnder  Bishop  Christopher  Bernhard  of  St 
Qal',  who  having,  iu  1663,  built  a  strong  citadel  within  the  city,  transferred  the  cpis- 


y  Google 


Mnrat        '  J-U 


Marat  

copnl  place  of  residence  thither  from  Koesfeld,  where  It  had  beon'establifhed  by 
earlier  bishonsi.  In  the  Seven  Tears'  War,  M.  was  repeatedly  besieffed  and  taken  by 
both  the  belhgerent  parties.  The  bishopric  of  M.,  which  since  1719  had  l)een  merged 
in  the  archbisliopric  of  Cologne,  althongli  it  retained  a  special  form  of  government, 
was  secalaHsed  in  1803,  and  divided  among  various  royal  houses ;  but  subsequently 
shared  in  the  common  fate  of  other  GermuH  provinces,  and  was  for  a  time  incorpo- 
rated with  France.  Tht?  Congress  of  Vienna  gave  tlu*  greater  part  of  tin?  principality 
to  Prussia,  a  small  portion  being  nuportioncd  to  the  House  of  Oldenburg,  while 
Uunuver  acquired  poss^ssiou  of  the  Miiuster  iciTitorius  of  the  mediatised  Ditlces  of 
Arcmbcri^. 

MU'N  TJAK  {Cervtis  muntjac,  Cervnlua  vaginalis^  or  Stylocerua  mun^ac),  a 
sp  Ties  of  de«T,  ahnndnnt  in  Java,  Sumntra,  and  other  islands  of  th<' same  region. 
It  is  about  oue-flfth  larger  than  jhe  roebuclc,  Which  it  considerably  resembles  in 
form.  The  liorns  are  remarkable,  as  there  spdngs  from  tlio  common  base  ot  each  an 
additional  liorn,  which  is  aliont  an  inch  and  a  half  in  leu{|th;  the  principal  horn, 
whicli  is  simple,  curved,  and  nointed,  l)ein«j  about  five  luchos  in  lengtli.  The 
female  has  nO  horns.  The  male  has  larg.?  caniiie  teeth  or  tusks,  which  also  ate  want- 
ing in  the  female. -^Allied  species  are  found  in  India  and  China. 

MCNZER,  Thomas,  one  of  tlie  leaders  of  the  Anabaptists  (q.  v.),  was  bom  at 
Stoiberg,  in  the  Harz.  took  his  degree  at  Wittenberg  as  Master  of  Arts,  and  for  some 
time  preaclied  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  in  Zwickau  and  other  places.  Ere 
long,  however,  he  adopted  mystic  views,  and  di^'claimed  against  what  he  culU-d  the 
"servile,  literal,  and  half"  measures  of  tlie  reformers,  rei^tiiring  a  radical  reforma- 
tion Ijoth  in  churcli  and  state  according  to  his  **  inward  light"  He  proclaimed  an 
entire  commuuily  of  goods,  and  Incited  the  populace  to  plunder  tlie  houses  of  the 
wealthy.  Mi'ihihaasen  fell  for  a  time  under  Itis  sway,  and  that  of  another  fanaiic 
named  Pfeifer,  who  joined  liim.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  Peasant  War,  and  in- 
flamed the  spirits  of  the  insurgents  by  the  wildest  speeches  and  songs;  bat  they 
were  utterly  defeated  on  15lh  May  1626,  after  a  severe  conflict,  at  Fran  ken  huusen,  b/ 
the  Elector  John  and  Duke  G«orge  of  Saxony,  the  Landgmve  of  Hesse,  and  the 
Duke  of  Brans wiclc  M.  fled,  but  was  taken  and  carried  to  M&hlhauseu,  where  he 
was  beheaded  along  with  Pfeifer  and  a  number  of  oth«^rs.  He  sliewed  no  dignity  or 
courage  in  the  closing  scenes  of  his  life.  See  Strol)el*fl  *»Lebeu  Sclirift-n  nhd 
Lehren  Thorn.  Manzer'8"(Nurnb.  1796):  Seidemann's  "Thoin.  Munzer"  (Dresd. 
nndLeips.  1842);  and  Heinrich  Leo  in  the  **  Evangelische  Kircheuzeituug  "  (Bcrl. 
1866); 

MURiE'NA,  a  genus  of  mnlacopterons  flshes,  of  tho«e  to  which  the  name  Eel  is 
commonly  given,  the  whole  of  the  eels  being  sunetiines  included  in  the  family 
Mur^7iidce.  See  Ebl.  The  trne  Murcenm  have  nr)  fins,  except  the  dorsal  tmd  anal, 
which  are  low  and  fl-^shy.  They  have  one  row  of  sharp  teeth  in  each  jaw.  The 
head  is  very  large,  and  the  jaws  are  moved  with  gr.^at  power.  The  M.  of  the  Ro- 
mans, or  MURRT  {M.  helena),  abounds  in  the  Mediteranean,  and  is  sometimes  of 
large  sizs  four  feet  or  more  in  ength,  golden  yellow  in  front,  and  purple  towards 
the  tjrt!,  beautifully  band.'d  and  mottled.  It  -is  much  thicker  in  proportioti  to  its 
length  than  any  of  the  fresh-water  eels.  Irs  flesh  is  white  and  highly  esteemed.  It 
prefers  salt-water,  but  can  acc^mm«)date  it^if  to  a  fresh-water  pond.  The  ancient 
Romans  kept  and  fed  it  in  vivaria.  The  story  of  Vedins  Pollio  fecd-ng  his  munenas 
with  offending  slaves  is  well  known.  This  M.  has  been  caught  on  the  British  sliores, 
but  very  rarely. 

Allied  to  the  genus  M.  is  the  genus  Sidera^  found  In  flie  Pacific. 

MURAL  CROWN,  in  Heraldry,  a  crown  in  the  form  of  the  top  of  a  circular 
tower,  masoned  and  embattled.  It  is  me  m»  to  repn'sent  the  crown  which  was  given 
by  the  Komans  as  a  mark  of  distliiciicm  to  the  soldier  who  first  nmunted  the  walls 
of  a  besieged  town,  and  fixed  there  the  standard  of  the  «rmy.  A  mural  crown  sup- 
porting the  crest,  in  place  of  a  wreat:i,  occurs  in  the  achievements  of  several  of  the 
English  nobility,  and  in  various  grants  of  arms  made  in  the  early  part  of  the  pres- 
ent century  to  ofllcers  who  had  distinguished  themselves  in  the  war.  Viscount 
Beresford,  in  consequence  of  his  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  Aibnera,  obtaln<d  as 
crest,  iasniug  oat  of  a  mural  crown,  a  dragon's  head  with  its  neck  pierced  through 


y  Google 


-^-^  Murat 

by  a  broken  spear,  the  head  of  the  spear  point  downwards  being  held  in  the  mouth 
'Of  thedragoh. 

MTJRAT,  Joachim,  king  of  Naples,  was  the  son  of  an  1niikee|)er  at  La  Bn^tide- 
Fortunidre,  near  Oahonk  In  Fi-ance,  and  was  born  there  S6th  March  1767  or  1768.  lie 
was  at  first  intended  for  t  lie  priesthood,  and  actaaliy  commenced  the  study  of  theology 
and  canon  law  at  Toaiouse,  but  entered  the  army,  and  being  threntened  with  pnnish- 
ment  for  insubordiiiatiou,  deserted,  and  after  siiendiug  some  time  at  iiomo,  pi'o- 
ceeded  to  Paris,  where,  it  is  ^aid,  he  wh»  for  some  time  a  \vnit<*r  at  a  cuf^  but  toon 
obtained  admission  iuto  the  Ooiiotitntioual  Gnai-d  of  Louis  XVI.  On  the  outiirenk 
of  the  RevoliiMoii,  la;  was  mude  u  sul)-lieuienaut  in  a  CHTaliT  regiment.  Hit* 
l^ullautry  und  extrenierepabliciuiisui  soon  won  him  the  rank  of  colont*!.  Hent^ 
ladled  liimwlf  closely  to  Bonaparte,  uiidur  whom  he  served  in  Ilalv  and  in  Kjryi't, 
cignalisiug  himself  in  many  hatilett ;  rose  to  the  rank  of  a  gener.il  ox  divihiuu  (liOO) ; 
returned  with  Bonaparte  to  France;  and  rendered  him  moat  luinortant  as>ist}iii<'o 
on  the  IStli  Bruniaire,  hy  dispersing  the  Oonncii  of  Five  Hanared  at  St  ('loud. 
Bonaparte  now  inirnst^^  him  with  the  command  of  tlie  Consular  Quard,  and  ir.-ive 
liim  his  yoHugest  si.>«tv'r,  Carjiino,  in  marriage.  M.  commanded  the  cavaliy  at 
Marengo,  where  he  greatly  distinguished  hiuiwlf.  Oh  the  estahlishni<>nt  of  the 
French  Empire,  he  was  lo  d'?d  with  honors.  He  continued  tooommaiKl  ti>e  cavalry 
in  the  armies  led  by  the  Eniperor,  and  coniriluitid  noi  a  little  to  the  victory  i.t 
Ansterlitz,  and  to  many  otin  r  victories.  In  1806,  the  n  vly-^rected  gi^ml  dueiiy  of 
Berg(q.  v.)  was  bestowed  u^ion  him.  On  1st  Amru?*!  18  8,  he  was  i)rocl:iime<l  ki»^ 
of  tire  two  Sicilies  hy  the  stjle\>f  Juucliim  I.  Na^iolion.  He  took  pof Si^sion  c£ 
Naples,  but  the  Bourbons,  through  thesuppoit  of  Britain,  retained  Sicily. 

M.  po8:^ssedthe  qualities  req^i^ite  fur  a  general  of  cavali-y  rather  than  those  of  a 
king.  He  was  very  deficient  in  political  skill  and  energy ;  but  by  the  moderation  of 
his  govenmient,  he  won  the  henris  of  his  subjects.  Even  his  love  of  pomp  and 
show,  and  the  theatrical  splendor  of  hs  equipment,  which  were  a  subject  of  mirth 
in  France  and  Germany,  rather  gratified  the  Neapolitans.  He  enduretl  with  dif- 
ficulty the  yoke  of  Napoleon,  which  left  him  little  but  the  outward  show  of 
royalty.  In  the  ezi»editiow  against  Knssia,  hecommmided  the  whole  cAvalry,  but 
on  its  falluFC^  he  returned  to  l^aples,  aiiziouH  and  discontented.  He  joined  the 
French  army  again  in  18U%  but  after  the  battle  ot  Leipzig,  witiidrew  to  his  own  do- 
minions, determined  on  breaking  the  French  fettei-s  with  which  he  was  bound. 
He  concluded  a  treaty  with  Austria,  and  a  truce  with  the  British  aduiiral,  and 
promised  the  alHe»*  an  auxiliary  corps.  He  hesitated,  however,  even  after  liis 
new  course  seemed  t^  have  been  decisively  adopted  \  and  finding  his  position 
jnsecureaft^r  Njipoleon'soveitluow,  he  enteied  into  private  communications  with 
Inm  at  £iba.  On  the  Einp<»roi'B  return  to  France.  M.  placed  himself  at  the  head  of 
an  army  of  40.(M)0  men,  and  convmenced  a  hacty  war  against  Austria.  He  was 
defeated  at  ^errara,  12th  April,  1815,  and  a?a;u  at  Toleiitino,  2nd  May.  With  a 
few  horsemen  he  fled  to  Naples,  where  all  was  insurrection  i.nd  cojumot.on  ;  thence 
to  the  island  of  lochia,  and  found  hb  way  to  France,  whilst  his  wife  and  children 
took  refuge  in  the  British  fleet.  After  NuiKjleon'.-  final  overthrow,  he  found  refiij-e 
in  Corsica,  from  which  he  proceetled  in  a  fooMmrdy  h^anner  with  a  few  followers  to 
the  coast  of  Naples,  and  proclaimed  himself  king  and  libejtitor,  but  was  presently 
taken  prisoner,  and  after  trial  by  a  court-martial,  was  siiot  in  a  hall  of  the  castle  of 
Pizzo,  on  ISth  October  1815.  See  Leonard  Gallais,  "Histoire  de  Joachim  Mu- 
rat" (Paris,  1828),  and  Coletta,  "Histoire  des  Sixd'-miers  mois  de  la  Vie  de  Joa- 
chim Mnrtct "  (Paris.  1821).  His  widow  assumed  the  title^of  Conntess  of  Lipona,  and 
resided  in  the  neighborhood  of  Trieste,  where  she  <lied  in  1839.  His  two  sons  went 
lo  tlie  United  States,  where  the  elder.  Napoleon  Aohille  Murat,  settled  in  Phirida, 
and  published  a  number  of  works  on  the  constitution  and  politics  of  his  adopted 
country.  He  died  15th  April,  1847.  The  younger,  Napoleon  Lucien  Charles, 
married  an  American  lady  in  1827,  bnt  sufEen?d  several  reverses  in  fortune,  ami 
Madame  Murat  was  obliged  to  open  a  boarding-scliool  for  the  support  of  herself  and 
iter  husband.  Twice  he  aiten^pted  to  return  to  France  secretly  (m  183T  and  1844), 
but  failed  on  both  occasions.  The  Revolution  of  1848,  however,  opened  the  coun- 
try to  him.  He  attached  himself  closely  to  Prince  Louis  Najwleon ;  and  was  in  1849 
French  Ambassador  Extraordinarv  at  Turin.  In  1S52  he  was  made  a  senator;  and 
iu  1633  h«  received  the  title  of  p«ucu.    The  Italian  revolution  appeai-ed  to  present 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Mnrstorl  .10 

Mnrcia  AJ  _ 

Bome  chauces  for  him,  bnt  nothlog  cam<!  of  these.    He  WM  made  prisoner  by  the 
Germanti  at  Metz  iu  1870. 

MURATORI,  Lndorico  Antonfo,  a  celebrated  antiqaarr  and  historian,  was  bom 
at  Viguoia,  in  the  dachy  of  Modena,  October  8t,  1678.  From  a  rery  early  period, 
liis  prodilectioii  for  liistorical  and  literary  parsalts  began  to  mmiifest  itself;  and, 
liaviug  entered  into  lioly  ordeiv,  witltont,  iiowever,  accepHJjg  any  eccleeia9t{cal 
office,  liis  life  was  devoted  partly  to  the  literature  of  bis  profe»«lou,  bnt  mainly  to 
reaenrclies  in  hit)tury,  both  aacred  and  profane,  especiulfv  tlie  liintory  of  his  native 
country.  In  hiii  82d  year,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  librarians  of  ttie  Ambro^iao 
Library  at  Milan,  a  post  which  has  since  received  equal  celebrity  from  a  sncceseor 
not  nuworthy  of  the  fame  of  M.,  the  il  ustriuus  Angelo  Mai  <q.  v.).  Here  he  pwe 
to  tlie  world  his  ili-st  pnblicatiou,  a  collection  of  inedited  Greek  and  Lsitin  tn«K- 
nients,  ander  the  titles  of  *'Anetrdota  GniBca*'and  "  Anecdota  Lritina."  Bat  his 
most  imporrjuit  labors  were  ref^irved  for  the  capital  of  his  native  duciiy,  whither,  in 
1700,  he  was  r  called  bv  the  Duke  of  ModcMisi,  to  take  charge  of  tiie  celebnited 
D'E^te  Library,  and  of  the  dncal  arcliives;  liis  only  ecclesiastical  preferment  bciii:; 
lliat  of  provost  of  the  chnrch  of  8t  Mary,  at  Fomposa.  From  the  date  of  in's  retnru 
to  Miidena,  M.  began  to  devote  himself  more  exclusively  to  Italinn  history,  e9p<;ci- 
ally  to  tlie  history  of  medieval  Italy ;  and  bis  lal)ors  in  this  department  extended 
over  the  (Greater  purt  of  his  life.  It  was  not  until  the  year  1728  that  the  first  volume 
of  his  great  collection,  *^  Reram  Italicarum  Scriptores,"  appeared,  and  thu  work 
proceeded  at  regular  intervals  for  nearly  thirty  years,  the  last  of  the  twenty-.ighc 
folio  volumes  which  compose  it  bearing  the  date  of  1751.  Tiiis  immense  publication, 
which  was  produced  by  the  joint  contributions  of  the  princes  and  higher  nol>iljt^ 
of  Italv,  embraces  a  range  from  the  5tli  to  the  16th  c,  and  contains  aU  the  cliront* 
cles  of  Italy  during  that  vast  period,  illustrated  with  commentaries  and  critical  no« 
tices.  It  was  accompanied  by  a  collection  of  dij^serlations  llInHtrative  of  the  reli- 
gious, literary,  social,  political,  military,  and  commercial  relations  of  tiie  several 
states  of  Italy  during  the  period,  in  6  vols,  folio,  1788—1742,  a  work 
which,  although  far  from  beintf  exempt  fi*om  errors,  Is  still  regarded  as 
as  a  treasure-house  ot  medieval  antiquities.  Wliilo  engtiged  in  these  pro- 
digious labors,  M.  carried  on  an  active  literary  correspondence  with  tlie 
scholars  of  the  various  countries  of  Europe,  and  contributed  eswiys  not  uufreqnently 
to  the  principal  historical  and  literary  academies,  of  most  of  which  lie  was  a  mem- 
l>er.  He  was  the  first-,  moreover,  to  nndertako  a  general  History  of  Italy  from  tiie 
commencement  of  the  vulgar  era  down  to  his  own  time,  it  is  in  12  vols.  4to,  and 
still  retains  its  value  as  a  book  of  reference,  having  been  continued  by  Coppi  clowii^ 
to  the  year  1819.  In  his  capacity  of  arcliivist  of  the  l>nke  of  Modona,  lie  compiled,^ 
in  two  vols,  folio,  the  **  AnMqulties  of  the  d'E-^te  Family"  ^1710-1740),  as  well  as  a 
series  of  historical  and  polemical  treatises  on  certain  territoriil  questions  in  dispute 
between  the  House  of  Modeua  and  the  court  of  Rome.  To  tlie  d  partnient  of  classi- 
cal scholarship,  M.'s  collection  of  "Inscriptions"  (6  vols,  folio,  i78»— 1748),  whicli, 
in  tills  point  of  view,  was  a  necessary  supplement  to  tlie  collection  of  Gmter  and  tiie 
other  antiquaries  wiio  had  preceded  him,  is  still  acknowledged  as  a  most  import4Uit 
contribution ;  and  he  has  also  left  woriss  of  standard  merit  in  tlie  departments  of 
jurisprudence.  Of  literary  criticism,  of  poetry,  of  biography,  and  even  of  the  history 
or  medical  science.  In  the  studies  of  his  own  profession,  ns  well  liturgical  and 
liistocjcal,  as  dogmatical  and  even  asceiical,  M.,  altliou^h  he  did  not  follow  the 
method  of  the  schools,  was  hardly  less  distinguished  than  if  he  had  made  these  the 
pursuit  of  his  life.  Soaie  of  liis  opinions  were  regarded  with  disfavor,  if  iioi  direci  ly 
condemned;  bnt  his  vindication  of  himself,  addressed  to  tlie  learned  Pope  Benedict 
XIV.,  drew  forth  a  warm  and  honorable  testimony  to  the  upriglitness  of  his  motives, 
wliich,  without  approving  of  the  opinions  to  which  exception  had  l>een  taken,  de- 
clared tliem  free  from  the  imputation  of  being  contrary  eitlicr  to  the  doctrine  or  to 
the  discipline  of  the  church.  Although  M.'s  life  was  essentially  that  of  a  scholar, 
yet  his  exactness  in  discharging  the  duties  of  a  parifh  priest  was  beyond  ail  pr:i:se, 
and  several  of  the  existing  cliaritable  institutions  of  Poinposa  were  founded  by  iiim. 
He  died  at  Modena.  January  28, 1760,  in  his  78th  year.  His  works,  wiiich  it  would 
be  tedious  to  enumerate  in  full  detail,  flii  46  volumes  in  folio,  84  in  4to,  13  in  8vo, 
and  many  more  in  12mo.    Sjme  of  these  are  posthumous,  and  were  published  by 


y  Google 


13 


Muratort 
Marc.a 

>- 

lff«  nephew,  Q.  F.  Mnratorl,  from  whom  we  also  hare  a  life  of  hiB  ditttiugaiaUed 
Uide, m  4to,  piinted  at  Omer,  1768. 

MURCHISON,  Sir  Boderick  Iiupey«  geologist  and  geographer,  was  born  at  Tar- 
rad^le,  Ro88-6hire,  iu  1792.  He  whs  educated  at  tbe  Grainmar-schooi,  Durham,  aud 
haviug  a  bias  for  military  life,  next  stndicd  at  the  Military  Coliei>:e,  Murlow.  He 
cntei^  the  army  at  no  early  age,  aud  served  as  au  officer  in  the  86th  Ui'giraetit  in 
8puii.aiid  Porlugiil.  He  was  placed  on  the  staff  of  UIh  ancle,  Qeueral  Sir  Alexander 
llilackeuzie,  aud  then  obUdnea  ii  captaincy  iu  tbe  6th  Dragoons.  Quittiug  the  army 
in  18U,  he  devoted  liims*elf  to  scieuce — more  especially  to  geology.  He  afterwards 
travelled  iu  various  parts  of  the  globe.  He  fouud  the  same  sediu^utary  stnita  iyiug 
in  the  earth's  crn.«t  beneath  the  old  red  sandstone  in  the  mouiitainons  regions  uf 
Norway  and  Sweden,  in  the  vast  and  distant  provinces  of  the  Russian  empiru,  aud 
aK-o  iu  America.  The  result  of  his  investigations  was  the  discovery  and  estublish- 
nicnt  of  the  Silurian  system,  which  won  for  liim  the  Copl.  y  Bfedal  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  £ui'0|)e:in  reputation  as  a  geolo^st.  His  subsequent  exposition  of  the 
Devonian,  Permian,  aud  Laurentiau  systems  increased  and  cuntlrmed  his  reputation. 
He  explored  several  parts  of  Getmany,  Poland,  and  the  Carpathian!* ;  and  iu 
1840  he  commenced  a  geological  sui*vey  of  the  Rnssiau  empire,  under  the  counte> 
nance  of  the  imperial  government.  M.  de  Verneuil  was  associated  with  him  in  this 
great  work,  comuletedin  1845.  Struck  with  the  resemblance  in  geological  structure 
between  the  Ural  Mountains  and  the  Australiau  chaiu,  M.,  iu  his  anniversary  address 
in  1844,  first  predicted  the  dis^rovery  of  gold  in  Australia.  In  1846,  f^ix  years  l)efore 
that  metal  was  practically  worked,  he  addressed  a  letter  to  thePresideut  of  tlie  Royal 
Geological  Society  of  Cornwall,  inciting  the  unemployed  Cornish  tin-miners  to 
emigrate  and  dig  forgokifn  Australia.  He  was  elected  President  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Scieuce  in  1846 ;  President  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society  iu  1844  aud  1845  ;  was  re-elected  in  1867,  and  coutlnn«  d  to  hold  that  post 
till  1810,  when  he  was  compelled  to  resign  it  by  paraly^i8.  His  nnniversary  ad- 
dresses to  the  geographers  were  of  great  interest  and  value.  Perhaps  no  man  of 
the  present  century  has  done  more  to  promote  geographical  science  at  home,  and 
kindle  a  spirit  of  adventure  among  those  engaged  iu  Arctic  exploration  on  the  one 
hand,  and  Africjin  discovery  on  the  other.  In  1856,  ho  succeeded  Sir  H.  De  la  Beche 
in  the  office  of  Director  of  the  Mus4*um  of  Practical  Geology.  He  was  a  D.C.L.  of! 
Oxford.  LL.D.  of  Cambridge,  and  a  Vice-president  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  was 
knighted  iu  1846,  made  K.C.B.  iu  1853,  and  a  barouet  in  1863.  From  the  Bmpercr 
of  Russia  he  received  the  Grand  Cross  of  St  Anne,  and  also  that  ot  St  Stanislaus. 
He  (lied  22d  October  1871.  The  greater  portion  of  his  coutributious  to  scieuce  were 
published  In  the  "Transactions"  of  the  Geological  and  other  Societies.  His  princi- 
ml  works  were  "  The  Silurian  "  (1836) ;  "The Geology  of  Russia  iu  Euro|)e  and  the 
IJral  Mountains,"  iu  1845  (2d  ed.  1853;.  He  also  puniislied  [volumes  on  the  **  Ter- 
tiary Deposits  of  Lower  Styria,"  &c.  (1830),  the  "Geology  of  Cheltenham"  (1834), 
Ac— See  »« Life  of  Sir  Roderick  M."  by  Anh.  Geikie,  LL.D.  (1875),  and  obituaiy 
notice  by  Sir  Hen  17  Rawliusou  In  ^' Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Soci- 
ety," vol.  xvi.  No.  4. 

MURCHJSO'NIA,  a  genus  of  fossil  gasteropodous  mollusca  belonging  to  the 
fauiiiy  HcUiotidcBj  and  so  nauted  in  honor  of  Sir  R.  L  Murchison.  The  geuus  con- 
Bisisof  atl(a«>t50  species,  all  which  are  characteristic  of  the  Palaeozoic  rocks, 
occurring  in  the  series  from  the  Lower  Silurian  up  to  the  Permian.  The  shell  dif- 
fers from  the  large  genus  Pleurotomaria  only  in  beiu^  very  much  elongated.  Like 
it,  the  whorls  are  sculptured  aud  zoned,  tbe  aperture  is  chaunelled  in  front,  and  the 
outer  lip  is  deeply  notched. 

MU'RCIA,  ft  former  province  of  Spain,  now  suMivlded  Into  the  smaller  provinces 
of  Albacete  and  Murcia,  Is  situated  in  the  south-east  of  the  |)eninsula.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  u.  by  New  Castile,  on  the  e.  by  Valencia,  on  the  s.  by  the  Mediterranean,  an<l 
on  the  w.  by  Granada,  Andalusia,  and  New  Castile.  Area,  10,811  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1870) 
660,040  (of  modern  province,  439,067).  In  the  u.-e.,  the  province  is  partly  level ;  but 
iu  the  s.-w.,  it  is  composed  of  vreat  valleys,  high  plateaus,  aud  mountain  ranges.  The 
coast  comprises  stretches  of  desert.  The  principal  river  Is  the  Seguni^  which  f[o\v8 
through  the  middle  of  the  province  from  w.  to  e.  Ou  the  whole,  Ift*  'f  not  vtiy  pro- 
ductive, aud  never  will  be,  ou  accouut  of  the  failure  of  yi^\^Xi  Pftrily  caused  by  the 


y  Google 


Muro'a  1  A 

,  MoricUe  ^^  , 

destrnction  of  the  forests.  The  only  fertile  districts  nn?  tlio  Tiinejrf*  of  the  S-jnini, 
and  tbe  Bide-vaU«ya  of  Lorca,  Alhacete,  Chinchilla,  and  Aln)an>a.  Tlie  E-p.-dlo 
wa»t«s  have  reinaiued  uucultiviited  shice  the  bauuishnient  of  the  Moriscoes  in  idIO; 
and  the  auml  of  M.,  which  is  intended  to  irripite  tlie  arid  Catupo  dc  Carttigenu,  is  - 
not  vet  finished.  M.  is  one  of  the  most  thinly  peopled  districts  ot  Spain.  The  north 
yields  wheat  and  barley;  the  south,  maize,  fruits,  wine,  oil,  silk,  and  liemp.  Qoutn, 
sheep,  and  swine  are  reared  in  great  unnibers.  In  metals,  salt,  and  mineral  springs, 
M.  is  abundant;  it  has  also  many  snieltiug-works  for  iron,  lead,  and  cppper  ores, 
brimstone  and  alum.  The  roads,  however,  are  in  the  most  wrelchid  condirion,  aud 
industry  in  general  is  still  in  a  backward  stat«.  The-province  was  frightfnlly4leva»- 
tAted  bv  a  great  earthquake^  18—21  Marcii  1829.  M.  was  conquered  by  the  Arabs  in 
TU  ;  after  tlie  fall  of  Hie  califate  of  Cordova,  it  became  an  independent  Arab  king- 
dom, but,  six  years  afterward*,  was  subjugated  by  King  Ferdinand  IlL  of  Castile 
in  1241. 

MURCIA  (the  Roman  JHurffi),  a  1ar};;e,  important,  and  ancient  town  of  Spain, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  oa  the  left  bank  of  the  Segara,  and  near 
the  junction  of  that  river  with  the  Sangonera,  60  miles  south-west  of  Alicante.  It 
stands  in  tbe  midst  of  a  beautiful  and  luxuriantly  productive  huerta  or  garden,  16 
miles  In  length,  and  from  7  to  8  miles  wide.  This  huerta  foijus  a  portion  of  what 
Is  called  the  vale  of  M. ;  is  well  watered,  has  a  bright  gr»en  appearance  evc;u 
in  winter;  produces  wheat,  flax,  pulse,  aud  vegetables,  and  giown  innumerable  mnl- 
l>erry,  orange,  fl^,  and  palm  trees.  The  streets  of  M.  are  nanow  but  clean,  and  the 
houses  are  gandny  painted  in  pink  and  yellow.  Its  squares  are  filled  with  cypret^s, 
orange,  lemon,  and  other  southern  trees.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop  suffragan  to 
Toledo ;  the  cathedral  is  surmounted  by  a  tower  begun  in  1522,  completed  1766, 
and  a'owned  by  a  dome  from  which  a  magnificent  view  is  obtained.  The  city  con- 
tains few  objects  of  fine  art,  u  circumstance  which  is  accounted  for  by  tbe  fact  that, 
on  the  occasion  of  its  siege  by  Sei>astiani,  that  general,  after  promising  that  persons 
and  property  should  l)e  respecttnl,  enterod  the  town  2Sd  April  1810,  aud  rifled  it  of  its 
wealth  and  art-treasures.  Silks,  linens,  baskets,  mats,  and  cordage  are  nmnufac- 
tured,  and  oil-mills,  tanneries,  and  other  works  are  in  operation.    Pop.  80,000. 

MURDEK  is  the  crime  of  killing  a  human  being  of  malice  aforethought,  and  is 
punishable  with  death.  It  is  immaterial  what  means  are  employed  to  effect  the  ob- 
ject. Blackstone  says  that  the  name  of  murder,  as  a  crime,  was  anciently  applied 
only  to  the  secret  killing  of  another,  which  the  word  moerda  signifies  in  the  Teu- 
tonic language.  And  among  the  ancient  Gtoths  in  Sweden  and  Diiimark,  the  whole 
vill  or  neighborhood  was  punished  for  the  crime,  if  the  murtlerer  was  not  discov- 
ered. Murder  is  defined  by  Coke  thus :  **  When  a  person  of  sound  memory  and  dis- 
cretion unlawfully  killeth  any  reasonable  creature  in  l)eing,  and  under  the  king's 
peace,  witii  nnilice  aforethoiiirht,  either  «!xpres8  or  implied."  Almost  every  word  in 
this  definition  has  l>eeu  the  subject  of  discussion  in  the  numerous  cases  that  have 
occurred  in  tin;  law-courts.  'Vha  murderer  must  be  of  sound  memory  or  discretion  ; 
i.  e.,  he  must  l>e  at  least  14  years  of  age,  and  not  a  lunatic  or  idiot.  The  >ict  must  l)e 
done  niilawfnlly,  i.  e.,  it  nmst  not  i>e  in  self-defence,  or  from  other  justifiable  cause. 
The  person  killed  must  be  a  reasonable  creature,  and  hence  killing  a  child  in  the 
womb  is  not  murder,  but  is  punishable  in  another  way  (see  Infanjtioide).  The  e:^ 
seutial  thing  in  murder  is  that  if  be  done  maliciously  and  deliberately  ;  and  hence,  in 
cases  of  hot  blood  and  scnfflin;;,  the  offence  is  generally  manslaughter  only.  Kill- 
ing by  duelling  is  thus  murder,  for  it  is  delil)erate.  It  is  not  necessary,  in  onlcivto 
constitute  mui'der,  that  the  murderer  kill  the  man  he  intended,  provided  he  had  a 
deliberate  design  to  mui'der  someone.  Thus,  if  one  shoots  at  A,  and  missi'S  him, 
but  kills  B,  this  is  murder,  liecauso  of  the  previous  felonious  intent,  which  the  law 
tran!«fers  from  one  to  the  other.  So  if  one  lays  poison  for  A,  and  B,  against  whom 
the  noisoner  had  no  felonious  intent,  takes  it,  and  Is  killed,  this  is  murder.  For- 
merly, in  England,  the  Benefit  of  (Tlergy  (q.  v.)  was  allowed  in  cases  of  murder,  till 
it  was  abolished  by  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.  c  28.  The  only  sentence  on  murderers  is  now 
death,  which  is  carried  out  l)y  banging.  Formerly,  the  murderer  was  directed  after 
death  to  l>e  hung  on  a  gibl)et  in  chains  near  the  place  of  the  crime.  Formerly,  also, 
dissection  was  added  as  part  of  the  sentence,  and  the  execution  was  to  take  place 
on  the  day  next  but  one  after  sentence.    But  now  an  interval  of  u  fortnight  usually 


y  Google 


'     ~  "I  ?;:  /  Murda 

^  '^  Mar.da 

ttfces  place,  and  the  body  is  bnried  in  the  precinct^  of  the  prison.  Attempts  to 
innnler  were  until  receutly  puuinhable  in  Eiigiuiid  like  capital  ft- lony  ;  bnt  now  at- 
tempts to  murder  are  punishable  only  with  penal  servitude  fur  life,  or  lor  not  lees 
than  three  years. 

MU'REX,  a  Linnsean  ^eiios  of  gasteropodons  moUnMS,  of  which  has  now  been 
formed  the  family  ifuricuto,  beloneiug  to  the  order  Peetinibranchiata  of  Cuvicr. 
Tiie  sexes  are  distinct;  the  aDimal  has  a  broad  foot,  often  mucli  cxpande<l ;  the 
eyed  are  not  uu  stalks;  the  shell  has  a  straight  canal  in  front,  often  prolonged 
through  part  of  a  very  long  beak ;  no  canal  l>etiind.  The  Muricidoi  mII  prey  on 
other  mollusci),  boring  throuL'h  the  bhells  with  their  hard-tootlied  probo&cir.  The 
name  Rook-shell  is  often  given  to  many  species  of  M.  ;  and  HOioe,  from  the  length 
of  the  beak,  are  called  Woodcook-sbell.  Some  have  the  shill  beset  with  long  and 
regularly  arranged  spineV.  The  whorls  of  the  shell  are  niaikcd  with  ndj,'<  s»  «r 
varices.  Some  ppecies  of  M.  nre  found  on  the  British  coacts.  Species  are  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  world ;  the  largest  are  tropical.  The  ancients  (ihUiincd  their  purple 
dye  isc^TYBiAir  Purple)  from  species  of  M.,  particularly  M.  ti'unculxis  and  Al.  bran- 
daris.  The  Venus  Comb  uf  the  Indian  seas  is  Jtf .  tnWtM,  a  very  deiicatt-  and 
l>eaatifnl  shell,  with  many  long  tliin  spines.  Fossil  iffin'etc^^e  are  nanieroos,  but  are 
scarcely  found  in  any  formation  older  than  tiie  eocene  teriiaiy. 

MUHE'XIDE,  Purpnrate  of  Ammonia,  or  Roman  Purple,  a  curious  coloring 
matter  obtained  from  guano.  It  is  similar  to  tl»e  purple  dye  or  Tyrinn  purple  of 
the  ancl<!Uis,  which  was  made  from  a  specie?  of  Murex — hence  \\a  name.  Mnrexide 
is  a  prt)duct  of  unc  acid,  and  as  this  exists  in  abundance,  and  in  a  very  free  state, 
iu  guano,  that  material  has  Ixien  found  one  of  the  best  sources  from  which  to  ob- 
tain it.  One  process  usied  by  Mr  Ruronoy  of  Manchei'ter,  the  chief  manufnctun  r 
of  this  material,  to  produce  murexide,  is  to  dissolve  ufic  acid  in  dilute  nitric  iicid, 
and  after  evaporating  for  some  time  at  a  temperature  a  little  short  of  boiling,  whilst 
still  hot,  to  add  a  sliuht  excess  of  ammonia.  Two  compoui^da  are  formed  by  this 
process,  Alloxan  and  Alloxantin,  and  their  mutual  reaction  on  eacli  other  re.-ults  in 
tlie  formation  of  the  i)eantiful  minut(*  green  metnllic-lnstred  crystals  of  murexide. 
which,  in  combination  with  some  of  the  compounds  of  lead  and  mercury,  yield 
most  brilliant  red  and  purple  dyes.  The  use  of  murexide  was  becoming  extensive 
until  the  discover}*  of  tlie  aniline  colors,  the  greater  biilllancy  of  which  has  cliecked 
it-*  t'mployment.  Jtfntexide  is  used  in  printing  both  cotton  tmd  silk  goods,  wliich, 
under  the  luime  of  the  **  Jcomau-pnrple  style, '"has  been  broaght  to  great  perfect  ion 
by  several  large  firms. 

MU'RGAB,  a  river  of  Central  Asia,  which  rises  on  the  northern  border  of 
Afgh.tnistan,  in  the  Hindu  Eush,  immediately  to  the  north  of  the  sources  of  the 
Heri  (q.  v.).  The  M.  flows  westward,  tlien  uOrth-westward,  and  finally  northward, 
passing  from  amongst  the  mountains  in  which  it  has  its  source  into  the  desert 

itlains  of  Turkestan,  where  the  volume  of  its  water  jrradcally  diminishes,  until  it 
inally  loses  itself  in  a  swamp  in  the  sandy  plain  of  Merv,  after  a  course  of  about 
400  miles.  In  the  upper  i)art  of  it«  course  it  receives  many  tributaries,  but  none  iu 
the  lower.  Tlie  most  noteworthy  place  oii  its  I)ank8  is  Merv,  or  Meru  (anc  Antio- 
eheia  Margiana)^  &  town  of  Independent  Turkestan,  abont  800  miles  south-east 
from  Khiva.  Merv  was  an  important  town  in  the  days  of  the  Seijuk  dynasty,  of 
which  it  was  the  cjipital,  but  is  now  very  ruinous. 

MXJRIA'TIC  ACID.    See  Htdrochlorio  Acid. 

MU'RIDJE,  a  family  of  rodent  cmadrnp'  ds,  containing  many  genera  and  a  very 
larce  numl)er  of  si>ecies,  distributed  over  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  of  which  rais 
and  mice  may  l>e  regarded  as  typical  examples.  ■  To  this  family  belong  also  voles, 
lemmings,  dormice,  jerboas,  marmots,  Ac.  The  M.  are  of  the  section  of  rodents 
having  distinct  clavicles.  They  liave  three  or  four  molars  on  each  side  in  each  jnw, 
the  molars  at  first  furnished  with  round^  tubercles,  which  wear  down  till  they 
exhibit  mere  roughened  crowns.  The  typical  M.,  and  those  most  nearly  allied  to 
them,  have  scaly  tails.  Marmots,  dormice,  jerboas,  Ac  ,  have  hairv  tails.  There 
are  great  diversities  of  structure  and  habits  among  the  Muridee.  All  of  them  feed 
on  vegetable  food,  bnt  many  of  them  are  ready  also  to  eat  animal  substances.— The 
limits  of  the  family  M.  are  very  differently  stated  by  different  naturalists. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


fyinrilo  Ift 

Murray  aO 

MURILLO,  Bartho1om6  Estfeban,  was  bom  at  Seville-,  and  baptised  Jnn.  1, 
1618:  aud  after  receiving  some  education,  was  placed  with  liis  reiutive,  Juan  del 
Castillo,  to  Btndy  painting.  Having  saved  a  little  money,  which  he  made  by  paint- 
ing religioas  pictares  for  exportation  to  South  Aroeriui,  he  went  to  Madrid  in  1641, 
being  then  in  his  24th  year,  wa8  favorably  noticed  by  hi-5  celebrated  townsman, 
Yelasqnez,  and  through  his  influence,  was  enabled  to  study  the  efui/B-d'oBtwre  of 
Italian  and  Flemish  art  in  the  royul  collections.  In  1645,  he  determined  to  return 
to  Seville,  though  advised  to  proceed  to  Rome  by  Velat^quez,  who  oflEered  him  leitera 
from  the  king.  After  Settling  in  Seville,  lie  i-eceived  numerous  important  commis- 
sions, aud  was  soon  acknowled;;ed  as  the  head  of  the  school  tiiere.  In  1648,  M. 
married  a  lady  of  fortune ;  he  now  maintained  a  handsome  establishment,  aud  his 
lionse  was  the  resort  of  people  of  taste  and  fashion.  The  Academy  of  Serville  wns 
founded  by  him  in  1660,  but  he  filled  the  oflke  of  presidentjDtily  during  the  first  year. 
He  felt  from  a  scaffold  when  painting  in  Cadis  on  an  altar-piece  for  the  Church  oC 
the  Capuchins,  ndurned  to  Seville,  aud  soon  after  died  from  the  Injury  he  received, 
April  8, 1682.  In  early  life,  he  painted  many  pictures  illustrative  of  Immble  life ;  iu 
these,  the  manner  was  daikerand  less  refined  than  that  exhibited  in  his  liter  Vic- 
tures,  which  are  mostly  scrinturai  or  religioui*  pieces.  In  the  Louvre,  and  in  Eng- 
Jatid,  there  are  ubout  forty  or  his  works.  Sir  David  Wilkie,  who  greatly  admired  and 
carefully  studied  the  Spanish  school,  baa  remarked,  iu  reference  to  It:  ** Velasquez 
and  Murillo  are  preferi-ed,  and  preferred  with  reason,  to  all  the  others,  as  the  most 
original  and  characteristic  of  their  schooL  Those  two  great  painters  are  remarkaiile 
for  having  lived  in  tiie  same  time,  in  the  same  school,  painted  for  the  sanitf  people, 
and  of  the  same  age,  and  yet  to  have  formed  two  styles  so  different  aud  opposite, 
that  the  most  unearned  can  scarcely  mistake  them;  Murillo  being  all  BOttness, 
while  Velat^quez  is  all  sparkle  and  vivacity." 

MU'RO,  an  episcopal  to^^'n  of  South  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Poteuza,  17  railea 
north-west  of  the  town  of  Potenz:u  Its  cjistle,  built  on  a  heiglit  overlooking  the 
ravine,  was  the  scene  of  the  murder  of  Joaniia  I.,  queen  of  Naples.    Pop.  8388. 

MURO'M,  or  Mooroin,  a  town  in  the  south-east  of  the  governnientof  Vladimir, 
in  European  Russia,  70  miles  east-s-outh-east  of  Vladimir,  and  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Oka,  a  tributary  of  the  Volga.  Pop.  (IS67)  11,286.  The  chief  indnstriid 
establishments  are  tanneries  and  sail-cloth  and  linen  factories.  The  fisheries  on  the 
Oka  supply  the  surrounding  country.  M.  i>'  also  noted  for  its  orchards  and  kitchen- 
gardens,  the  latter  of  wliich  supply  a  great  portion  of  Russia  with  cucumber-seed 
of  the  first  quality.  Gypsum  quarries  In  the  neighborhood  are  extensively  worked 
during  winter.  There  is  a  large  trade  in  wheat,  flux,  linseed,  and  timber.  M.  has  a 
very  nicturesqHo  appearance,  and  was  formerly  surrounded  by  impenetrable  for^'stj*. 
It  is  frequently  mentioned  iu  the  old  national  ballads,  aud  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
towns  of  Russia. 

MU'RRAJN  is  the  generic  term  loosely  used  to  designate  a  variety  of  diseases 
of  domestic  animals,  but  more  correctly  restricted  to  the  vesicular  epizootic,  popu- 
larly known  as  the  mout'a  and  foot  disease.  It  is  a  contigious  eruptive  fever,  affect- 
iui;  cattle,  sheep,  pig?,  and  poultry;  but  rarely  communicable  to  hoi-ses  or  men.  It 
is  characterised  by  the  appearance  of  little  bladdia's  or  vesicles  iu  the  month,  on  the 
lips,  gums,  and  tongue;  on  the  udder, and  in  the  Intel-digital  space;  causing  inability 
to  eat,  and  drivelling  of  saliva,  heat  and  swelling  of  the  udder,  and  lameness.  Thvj 
disorder  runs  a  fixed  and  definite  course  usually  in  eight  or  ten  days.  Good  nursing, 
comfortable  lodgings,  and  a  liberal  supply  of  soft,  easily  digestible  food,  are  tne 
chief  requisites  for  si>eedy  recoveiy.  A  laxative  may  be  given  if  needed.  The 
mouth  may  be  washed  out  twice  daily  with  a  mild  astringent  eolntiou,  which  may  be 
made  with  half  an  ounce  of  alum,  oxide  of  zinc,  or  sugar  of  lead,  to  the  quart  of 
water.  The  udder  in  milch  cows,  iu  wliich  the  complaint  is  usually  most  serious 
should  be  bathed  with  tepid  water  bc:fore  aud  after  milking,  which  must  be  attendi  d 
to  very  regularly ;  aud  the  feet  kept  clean,  and  washed  occasioually  with  the  lotiou 
used  Cor  the  moutht 

MURRAY,  or  Moray.  James  Stewart,  Barl  of,  sometime  called  the  "Good 
Regent,"  was  the  natural  sou  of  James  V.  of  Scotland,  by  Margaret,  daughter  of 
John,  fourth  Lord  Erskiuc,  afterwards  wife  of  Sir  Robert  Douglas  of  Lochlevcu. 
He  was  born  about  1631,  made  Commeudator  of  the  priory  of  St  Audrews  iu  1688, 


y  Google 


,     f^  Mnnllf 

.        ;  •"■'  _  ,        Marwf 

andsabe^qneutly  of  the  priorv  of  MAcon  (in  France).  He  Joined  the  Reformers  i0 
1566,  and  alraost  immediutely  became  tbe  chief  of  the  Protestnnt  pariy  iu  Scotland; 
In  1661,  be  was  sent  to  France,  to  invite  Queen  Mary  to  retnrn  to  her  kinsdom ;  and 
on  her  arrival,  be  became  her  prime  minister  and  adviser.  In  February  1562,  he  wa* 
created  Barl  of  Mar;  but  that  earldom  having  been  claimed  by  Lord  Erekiue,  th€ 
title  of  Earl  of  Moray  was  conferred  npon  hfm  InateHd"  a  few  months  nfterwarda. 
Strongly  opposed  to  the  marriage  of  Mary  with  Lord  Daniley4  29th  July  1666,  he  en- 
deavored to  oppose  it  by  nn  appeal  to  armt> ;  but  he  was  easily  put  to  flight  by  tlM 
queen,  and  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Etiglaiid.  Ue  did  not  return  to  Edinlmrgh  til 
the  lOtli  March  1666,  the  day  alter  the  assussiustion  of  RIccio.  in  which  he  was  an 
accomplice.  In  April  1567,  he  went  to  France,  but  was  reca'ied  in  August  of  the 
same  year  by  the  lordrf  in  arms  aga'.nst  the  queen,  when  he  found  Mary  a  pnt«ouei 
in  Ix)chleven,  and  himself  appointed  regent  of  the  kingdom.  After  iheescnpe  of  tli« 
queen,  he  defeated  lier  forces,  May  i8, 1663,  at  Ltiugside,  near  Glasgow,  and  \vm 
afterwards  one  of  tiie  coniniisi>ioners  sent  to  Eiiglimd  to  conduct  tli'negotiationa 
against  her.  By  his  prompt  and  vigorous  measures,  seal,  and  prudence,  he  succeeded 
iu  securing  the  peace  of  the.  kingdom,  and  settling  tlie  nffairs  of  the  church,  but  was 
assnssinnted  at  Linlithgow  by  Hamiltun  of  Bothwellhaugli,  January  21, 1570. 

MURRAY,  John,  the  name  of  three  generations  of  English  publishers,  will  for 
ever  remain  associated  with  the  pnhnie^t  days  of  EuKlit^h  literature  in  the  ISMi  and 
19th  centuries.  The  founder  of  the  house,  Johi*M'Muiray,  was  born  in  Edinburgh 
about  1745.  He  obtained  a  commission  iu  the  Royal  Marines  in  1762,  and  in  1168 
was  still  second-lieutenant,  when,  disgusted  with  the  slowness  of  promotion,  and 
panting  for  a  more  active  career,  he  purchased  the  bookselling  business  of  Mr 
8Audl)y,  opposite  St  Dunstan's  Church,  London  ;  and,  dropping  the  Scottish  pn-flx, 
became  a  iTOokseller  and  publisher  at  '*  82  Fleet  Street."  He  brought  out  tiie  '*  Eng- 
lish Review,  **  and  published  the  elder  Disraeli's  "Curiosities  of  Literature,"  Ac 
Ho  could  himself  wield  the  pen,  as  some  pamplilets  remain  to  testify.  Ue  died 
November  16, 1793,  and  was  succeeded  in  due  time  by  his  son  John,  who  wap  left  a 
minor  of  fifteen  at  his  father's  death.  One  of  the  earliest  hits  of  John  the  second  was 
Mrs  Rundell's  Cookery-book,  which  proved  to  t>e  a  mine  of  wealth— more  produc- 
tive, nttrhsns.   than   **  Childe  Harold  "  itself.     He  heciiine  connected  with  Thonins 


CarapWl  and  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  in  1808—1809,  projected  the  *♦  Quarterly  Review," 
a  Toi-y  organ,  in  opposition  to  the  Whig  "  Edinburgh  Review,"  then  in  the  height 
of  its  influence.  The  fli-st  unml)er  was  published  February  1, 1809,  under  the  editor- 
ship of  William  Giffoi'd.  The  new  j)eriodical  was  completely  successful,  and 
brought  M.  into  communication  not  only  with  the  chief  literati,  but  also  with  the 
Conservative  statesmen  of  the  time.  A  still  more  fortunate  acquaintance  was  that 
with  Lord  Byron,  whose  "  Childe  Harold  "  was  published  by  M.  in  1812.  M.  now 
removt^  from  Fleet  Street?  to  AHwmarle  Street,  where  the  business  is  still  car- 
ried on.  Here  Byron  and  Scott  first  met,  and  here  Southey  made  the  acquaint^ince 
of  Crabbe.  Almost  all  the  literary  magnate?  of  the  day  were  "  four  o'clock  visitors  " 
in  Albemiirle  Street.    Byron's  pleasant  verae  has  described  the  scene : 

**  The  room's  so  lull  of  wits  and  bards, 
Crabbes,  Campbells,  Ci-okers,  Freres,  and  Wards." 

M.'fi  dinner-parties  included  politicians  and  statesmen,  as  well  as  authors,  artists, 
and  dilettanti.  M.  paid  Byron  nearly  jC20,000  for  his  works,  and  his  dealings  with 
Crabl)e,  Moore,  Campbell  and  Irving,  were  princely.  The  second  John  M.  died  in 
his  66th  year,  in  1843,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  John  M.  ihc  ihiitl.  Burn  in 
1808,  he  was  educated  first  at  the  Charr^r  flouse,  and  afterwards  at  Jiklinbnrgh  Uni- 
versity. The  age  of  Byron  had  gone  by,  when,  hi  1843,  he  succeeded  to  the  hnslness 
of  Iris  father  and  grandfather.  A  more  prartical  and  realistic  nge  iiad  succeeded,  and 
the  "  Home  and  (>)k)nial  Library,"  issued  to  beat  off  foreign  and  American  piracies, 
was  the  precursor  of  the  cheap  railway  and  other  literature  of  the  present  day.  A 
lively  and  vigorous  competition,  arising  out  of  the  wants  of  anew  era,  hMS  somewhat 
altered  the  relation  of  tlic  great  publishing  houses.  That  of  Albemarle  Street  no 
longer  ranks  first  iu  the  extent  and  vaiiety  of  its  transactions,  but  many  of  tlie  great- 
est works  in  history,  biography,  travel,  art,  and  science  have  issued  fnan  the  Albe- 
marle Street  press  under  the  regime  of  the  third  M  urrny.  A  inong  his  later  successes 
may  be  mentioned  Dr  Livingstone's  "  Tmvels  "  and  "  Last  Journals,"  Smiles's  **  Lite 


y  Google 


of  George  Steplieii«on,*'  and  Clmrles  Darwin's  "  Origin  of  Species  by  Nntaral  Selec- 
tion." Uis  baudbuoks  of  coiitlueutat  travel  have  lately  been  »uppleineiited  by  hand- 
books of  Bnglish  counties,  and  tiiese,  it  is  understood,  owe  ranch  to  the  personal 
assistance  and  superintendence  of  the  present  head  of  the  fainons  lionse  of  Manay. 

MURRAY,  Lindley,  an  Bnglish  grammarian,  was  bora  at  Swatara,  Lancaster 
County,  PennsylTuola,  U.S.,  in  1745w  He  was  enncated  at  an  academy  of  tlio  Soci- 
ety of  Friends,  Mud,  on  his  father's  removal  to  New  York,  waspiuct-d  hi  ii  cotintiiie 
house,  from  which  he  escaped  to  a  school  in  N«w  Jerm-y.  He  then  studied  law,  and 
wa^«  admitted  to  the  bar  at  the  age  of  21,  and  connneiiced  u  good  practice.  During; 
the  revolutionary  war  he  engaged  in  niercantiie  imrsnits  with  puch  saccess  b»  to 
acca<nulat43  a  handsome  fortune.  His  liealih  failing,  he  came  to  Biiglnnd  and 
piirchasud  the  estate  of  Holdgate,  near  York,  where  h«  d  voted  hiuiseU  to  litertiry 
pursuits.  In  178T,  he  published  his  "Power  of  U«'ligion  on  tht*  Mind,"  which  passed 
throuifh  seventeen  editions.  His  **  Qraminar  of  the  Bnglish  Language  "  was  issuRd. 
in  17»5,  an<f  was  followed  by  *♦  English  Exercises,"  the  **  K- y."  the  "Bngliali 
Reader,"  "Introduction  and  Sequel,''  and  a  "  Si>elling  Book."  There  can  be  uo 
stronger  indication  how  entirely  the  systematic  study  of  tliK  English  language  waa 
— ^nntil  reci'nt  years — neglected  by  scholars,  than  the  fact,  that  M.'s  Grammar  was 
for  half  a  century  the  standard  lext-bouk  throughout  Britain  and  Anieiica.  M. 
wrote  an  autobiography  to  the  year  1809,  which  was  published  after  his  death,  Feb- 
ruary 16,  1826. 

MU'RRAY  RIVER,  the  principal  river  of  South  Aastralla.    See  Australia. 

MURSHEDABA'D,  a  town  of  India,  capitil  of  a  British  dhstrict  of  the  same 
name  iu  Bengal  proper,  is  situated  <M)  the  left  hank  of  the  Bhagratti,  a  brunch  of 
the  Gauge:<,  about  124  m.  n.  of  CalcntUu  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  slanda 
Mahinagar,  usually  reckoned  a  i>art  of  M.  The  town  occupies  u  great  space,  lieius 
several  miles  both  in  leus^th  and  breadth,  but  the  buildings  are  for  the  mo-^t  part  (^ 
mud.  It  contains  two  palaces;  the  one,  old  and  gloomy;  the  otiier,  constructed 
after  the  European  style,  and  of  great  heanty,  wag  coiuplet+tl  in  1840.  Situated  on 
the  most  frequented  route  by  water  from  Cilcntta  to  the  North- West  Province.*,  the 
trade  of  M.  is  important.  Formerly,  it  was  the  capibil  of  Bengal,  and  so  wealthy, 
that  Clive  compared  it  with  Lindon.  Pop.  (1871)  46,182,  of  whom  aboat  60  per  cent, 
arc  Hindus,  and  40  per  cent-  Mohammedans. 

MURVIE'DRO,  a  small  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Valencia,  and  18 
miles  north-north-ettstof  the  city  of  that  name  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Palancia, 
and  two  miles  from  its  mouth.  Pop.  about  6000.  It  stands  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Sagnntum  (q.  v.). 

MURZU'K.    See  Fbzzan. 

MUSA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of  endogenous  plants,  the  largest  of  herbaceous 
plants,  generally  destitute  or  almost  destitute  of  true  stems,  yet  resemblinjf  trees  im 
appearance,  and  sometimes  rivalling  palms  in  stateliness;  i lie  long  t«heathmgba^e8 
of  the  leaf-stalks  combining  to  form  a  false  stem.  The  »»lade  of  the  leaf  has  many 
fine  parallel  veins  proceeding  from  the  midrib  to  the  margin.  Tlie  flowers  are  con- 
gregated on  spadices,  which  are  protected  by  S])athes.  The  fruit  is  either  u  8-valved 
capsiule  or  fleshy. — The  species  are  not  numerous ;  they  are  natives  of  warm 
climates,  in  which  they  are  widely  distributed,  and  are  of  great  value  to  the 
inhabitants  of  tropical  countries;  the  fruit  of  sonLe,  particularly  of  the  genuA 
Muaa^  l)eing  much  used  for  food,  whilst  the  fibres  of  the  leaves  are  employed 
for  coidage  and  for  textile  pnr|)0.«es.  See  Plantain.  Banana,  and  Abaoa.  A 
very  interesting  plant  of  the  order  M.  is  the  Tbayxllbr's  Tbek  (q.  v.)  of  Mada- 
gascar. 

MUSAUS,  Johann  Karl  August,  a  German  writer,  Iwrn  in  1787  at  Jenti,  whero 
he  studied  theology,  was  nominated  to  a  country  church,  but  prevents  d  from  enter- 
ing upon  the  cure  committed  to  him  In  consequence  of  the  opposition  of  the  i>e!isan- 
try  of  the  parish,  who  i*efiised  to  receive  him  on  the  ground  tliat  he  had  beeu  once 
seen  to  dance.  In  1763,  he  received  the  ap|>ointment  of  tutor  to  the  pages  at  thu 
ducal  court,  and  in  1770  he  became  professor  at  tlie  Weimar  gymnasium.  His  flr^t 
lit^iary  prodnetion,  which  appeared  in  1760,  was  a  parody  of  Richardson's  **Sir 
Charles  Qraudisou,"  which  was  at  that  time  extravagantly  admii-ed  iu  Germany. 


y  Google 


10  Monr«y 


Musoa 

The  Bnccees  of  thfs  satirical  sqnib  was  complete;  bat  as  literary  fame  did  uot  bring 
with  It  a  correspoDdiug  amouut  of  pecuniary  reward,  M.  was  com))elled  to  gain  hi? 
living  bv  other  meaoa  than  writing ;  uud  au  iuteryal  of  more  thau  eighteen  yearf^ 
elapt^  before  he  found  leisure  to  reMpi>eur  as  an  author.  In  1778,  he  pubii8bed  iiil 
**  Fliyeiognomischen  Reisen,"  in  which  lie  endeavored,  by  good  nutorea  yet  ptrilcind 
satire,  to  counteract  the  absurd  uses  to  wliich  the  Oermans  of  his  day  Itad  tiinn  J 
L«vater*8  system.  This,  like  his  previous  work,  was  preeminently  siicceHsfnl,  ai  d 
encouraged  l)y  tlie  marks  of  popn  ar  favor  witli  whicli  it  was  received,  lie  laid  asid* 
Ills  incognito,  ^nd  coiitlnued  to  a>^vote  himself  to  authorship.  In  1782,  appeared  hit 
channing  version  of  Qerinsm  folk-lore,  under  the  title  of  **  Volksmftrchen  der 
Deutschen,"  which  profH^^e<l  lo  be  merely, a  collection  of  popufar  tales  iiotxtl  down 
from  the  lips  of  illiterate  old  country  i>eople;  hut  tliooe  tales  were  tinctured  with 
such  a  hlending  of  genial  iminor,  quaint  fancy,  and  t^trung  s<>iise,  tbat  tiiey  havf 
1>ecome  u  classical  work  of  their  kind,  popular  among  persons  of  every  use  and 
class.  His  satirical  sketeiies,  entitled  "  Fr»  und  Heiim  £rt«heiiiungeu  iu  Holbein's 
Manier,"  (Winterthiir,  17S5),  maintained  his  reputation  as  one  of  the  sprigbtli<  i*t 
and  mo^t  genial  satirists  ot  bis  country.  Under  the  name  of  Schellenberg.  he  l)e- 
gaii  a  courts  of  tales,  "  Straussfedern  "  (Berl.  1787),  which,  however,  lie  did  not 
five  to  complete.  He  died  in  1787.  His  "Morallsche  Kinderklapper"api)eared  ihe 
year  after  hisdeath,  while  his  other  po^thnmous  writings  were  edited  in  1791,  wiih 
an  interesting  notice  of  the  author,  by  his  relative  and  pupil.  A.  V.  Kotz<  hue  M.'m 
style  was  at  once  conect  and  elegant,  adapting  itself  with  lingular  flexibil?ty  to 
the  various  subjects  which  he  handled:  wliile  the  unaffected  geniality  and  liunk 
loving  nature  which  are  reflected  in  all  lie  wrote,  have  deservedly  made  him  one 
of  the  most  popular  writers  of  his  day  in  Germany. 

MUS-fi'US,  one  of  the  ancient  Greek  po<?ts  of  the  mythic  period,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  son  of  Enmolpus  and  Selene;  aec<»rdiiig  to  others,  the  son  and  pu|>il  of 
Orplieus.  To  him  was  ascribed  the  introduction  of  the  Eleusinian  and  oilur  myn- 
teries  into  Greece,  and  the  ordering  of  many  religious  rites.  He  was  among  the 
ancients  also  the  reputed  author  of  a  unjjiher  of  poems,  oracles,  purlfleatory  verses, 
a  war  of  theTitans,*a  theogony.  hymns,  &c. ;  but  of  the  few  verses  which  remain 
the  authenticity  is  very  doubtful.— A  later  Mus^us,  who  probably  floiirished  about 
the  end  of  t'le  sixth  c.  of  the  Christian  era,  wus  the  author  of  a  very  pleasing  ama- 
tory poem,  iu  Greek,  entitled  "Hero  and  Leander,"  discovered  in  the  ISth  c.  of 
"whicn  the  first  edition  was  published  by  Aldus  Mauutius  about  1^4,  and  of  which 
there  have  been  many  suhi*(  qiient  ediiiouti. 

MU'SC^  VOLT TA'NTES  Is  the  term  applied  to  ocular  8pf>ctra,  wliich  appear 
like  fli.  s  on  the  wing,  or  floating  black  spots  heforf  the  eyes.  There  are  two  icinds 
of  muscse  volitantes — the  one  a  {perfectly  harmless  kind,  while  the  other  is  sympto- 
matic of  one  of  the  most  serious  diseanes  of  the  eyes,  viz.,  amaurosis. 

Whoever  will  look  through  a  minute  pin-hole  in  a  card  at  the  clear  sky  may  see 
floating  l)efore  bis  sight  a  number  of  translucent  tubes  or  flbres,  and  many  little 
beads,  of  which  some  are  separate,  some  attached  to  thetul)es,  and  some  apparently 
withhithem.  Some  of  the  tubes  or  fibres  are  ntraight,  other:<  looped  or  twisted,  and 
others  again  forked.  All  these  objects  are  briuht  hi  the  middle,  and  bounded  by  flne 
black  liuis,  beyond  and  parallel  to  which  may  be  seen  an  appearance  of  colore<l  lines 
or  fringes.  The  doublings  and  crossings  of  the  loops  or  knots  in  the  twisted  fibres 
appi'ar  as  black  points.  Though  the  eye  be  fixed,  these  l)odies  change  their  |K)- 
sitioii  with  greater  or  le.-s  rapidity.  Now,  in  ordinary  light  and  vision  all  these  ohj  etg 
are  imperceptible,  unless  the  knots  or  fibres  hai>pen  to  be  larger  than  usual,  wIm'U 
they  constitute  the  harmless  kind  of  musc«  volitantes.  The  lilack  lines  and  fringes 
are  phenomena  of  the  inflexion  or  diffraction  (q.  v.)  of  light,  which  are  never  seen 
except  in  divergent  raysj^and  all  muscse  volitant^»  having  sucii  fringes  must  be 
situ  .ted  at  a  greater  or  less  distance  from  the  retina ;  and  there  are  conclusive  rea- 
sons for  believing  that  th-y  occupy  the  vitreous  humor,  and  cannot  therefore  por- 
tend amaurosis ;  whereas  those  black  spot«  which  have  no  fringes,  and  which  do 
not  move,  or  which  move  only  with  the  motions  of  the  eye,  .are  points  in  tiie  retina 
which  are  insensible  to  light,  and  are  therefore  to '>e  dr.aded  as  symptomatic  of 
danger  to  vision.  To  decide,  then,  whether  the  iniiPCie  volitantes  arc  or  are  lot 
iudfcativo  of  danger,  the  patient  should  fix  his  eye  ou  a  white  surface  (as  a  sheet  of 


y  Google 


Ite"^"*  20,. 

letter-paper)  after  a  Btiddeti  »liake  of  the  head  ;  if  they  sink  gently  dowiiwafdi, 
they  are  lunoceut.  It  should  perhaps  be  added,  that  thougli  they  seem  to  descend; 
they  must  In  reality  be  ascending;  floating  tip  in  the  vitreous  htimor  as  far  as  the 
cellular  partitions  formed  by  tlie  hyaloid  membrane  will  permit  See  EtU*  Fof 
further  iuformatlon  on  the  differencei  between  tlie  innocent  and  the  daugerona 
forms  of  musccB  voUtantes,  tlie  readef  is  referred  to  an  article  by  SirDatidBrewstet 
in  the  "  North  British  Keview  "  for  November  1866. 

MU'SOARDINB,  or  8llk-worni  Rot  iBotrytU  JkL89iana)i  a  fungus  <pee  BoTRTTis) 
which  grows  on  silk-woriuS)  and  often  kilL-t  them  in  great  nnm1>ert>.  It  consists  of 
erect  branching  threads,  wiih  clusters  of  spores  at  the  end  uf  shoi't  lateral  brHnches. 
I'he  s})ore8  of  this  fungus  germinate  eveu  on  healthful  silk-worms,  and  In  circuni- 
stances  otherwise  most  favorable  to  their  healthfnlness.  They  germinate  also  on 
the  caterpillars  of  othei"  lepldopterous  inspects.  When  tlii^  pc.-t  ijtjpenrs  among  silk- 
worms, its  progress*  cannot  be  checked  by  any  meaiifi  known.  For  preveutiuu,  It  is 
most  important  that  the  siik-wurms  be  not  overcrowded. 

MUSCAT,  or  Maskftt,  an  independent  Arab  slate,  forming  the  sea-cbftst  of  OmAii, 
in  Eastern  Arabia.  It  <'Xtjnds  from  the  Strait  of  Ornuis  to  the  Island  of  Moseirali, 
nnd  now liere  exceeds  160  miles  in  width.  The  coast  ^id  intirior  arc  both  ett^rilei 
but  the  country  is  studded  with  veiy  feriile  oa?cs.  Thi;  Cnpltal  is  Muscat  (popula- 
tion, 60,000),  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  a  foi-tlfled  town,  snrroundfd  with  pHrdens  and 
date-palms.  It  luis  a  very  good  liarbor,  which,  in  the  winter  njonllis,  is  reckoned 
tlie  best  refuge  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  is  a  most  important  centre  of  trade,  where 
the  productions  of  Europe,  of  Africa,  and  of  the  East  are  exchanged.    Tlie  princl- 

Sal  exiTorts  are  Arai)ian  coff -e  and  pearls  obtained  from  the  Persian  Golf;  but  wheat, 
ates.  raisins,  salt,  sulphur,  drugs,  nnd  horses  ure  tdso  exported.  Tlie  ludcpendenco 
of  Oinftn  dates  from  761,  wnen  the  people  elected  a  povereign  of  their  own.  For  IWO 
years  the  Imaums  wei**?  elected  for  personal  merit,  and  afterwards  from  meml)er8  of 
par.sonal  merit,  and  afterwards  from  mtnnljers  of  a  ruling  family.  M.  was  taken  by 
Albuquerque  in  1507,  and  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Portoiruese  till  164S,  when 
the  Arabia  recovered  possession  oti  it.  Tlie  Imatims  nfterwn  ds  made  extensive 
conquei»tjs  in  Ensteni  Africa,  including  Zanzibar,  Moinbas,  Qnlioa,  Ac.  In  179S. 
they  acquired  possession  of  the  coastsof  Laristan  nnd  Mogisian,  the  islands  of  El 
Kishim  and  Ormns,  and  the  town  of  Bender  Abbas  in  Persia,  paying  to  the  Shah 
a  rent  or  tribute  of  6000  tomans.  The  state  was  yery  prosperous  under  the  wise  and 
miid  sway  of  Said  Seid.  the  late  Imaum.  He  ascended  the  throne  in  1808,  ut  the 
age  of  16,  and  reigned  till  his  death  in  1866.  Re  was  long  a  ftilthrnl  ully  of  Eng- 
land. In  1854,  the  Imaums  were  driven  from  their  Persian  dependencies,  which  m 
their  opinion  belonged  to  them  in  i)erp3talty  so  long  as  they  paid  the  rental.  They 
recaptured  BcJiider  Abbas,  but  in  consequence  of  English  interference,  they  were 
compelled  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  Persia  in  April  1866.  This  is  said  to  have 
broken  the  h^urt  of  the  old  Seid,  who  died  on  19th  Oct,  1856.  He  iippoluted  his 
son  Majid  to  succeed  hlin  in  Zanzibar,  and  liis  son  Thuwany  to  succeed  him  in 
Muscat.  The  latter  was  murdered  by  bis  son  Salim  in  1868,  who  reigned  for  a 
short  time,  but  was  driven' out  by  his  uncle,  Sayed  Tnky.  Inconsequence  of  the 
unsettled  state  of  aflahs  in  M.,  Persia  has  assumed  the  irovtrnment  of  Bender 
A-bbas  and  the  Persian  coast  territory.  See  Zanzibar  nnd  Wahabis.— See  "His- 
tory of  the  Imaums  and  Sen-ids  of  Oman,"  by  Sahib-iUp-Razik,  from  the  Arabic,  by 
Rev  G.  P.  Badger  (1871);  Markham's  "History  of  Persia"  (1874). 

MU'SCATEL  (Ital.  moeoado,  musk),  the  name  given  to  many  kinds  of  sweet  and 
strong  French  and  Italian  wines,  whether  white  or  red.  Amongst  the  finest  nre  the 
white  Rivesalt  and  red  Bagnol  wines  from  RoQssillon,  and  the  Lunei  from  the  Py- 
renees, the  LiicrymflB  Ohristi  and  Carigliano  of  Naples,  4tc. 

MtJSCATI'NE,  8  city  of  Iowa,  V.  8.,  is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi, 
100  miles  above  Keokuk,  and  82  south-east  of  Iowa  city.  It  has  a  large  trade  by 
the  river,  and  several  railroads,  three  steam  flour-mills,  planing-machines,  fonrlnrgo 
saw-miKs,  which  annually  produce  about  80,000,000  feet  of  timber,  besides  shingles, 
&c.    There  are  14  churches,  schools,  newspapers,  &c.    Pop.  (1870)  6718. 

MU'SCHELKALK  (Qer.  shell-lime),  the  middle  member  of  theTriassic,  or  New 
"Red  Sandstone  period,  the  beds  of  which  ore  entirely  absent  from  the  British  strata. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Q 1  Mnsoard'ne 

-^  ■*•  Mascio 

Being  tj-pically  developed  in  Germauy,  the  foreign  name  has  been  univerenlly 
adopted  to  designate  them.  They  consist  of  (let)  a  serieH  of  compact,  grayish,  regu- 
larly-bedded limefltoue,  more  thnn  800  feel  thick  ;  and  <2d)  alteriiutions  of  limestone, 
dolomite,  marl,  gypsum,  and  rock-salt,  nemiy  800  feet  thick.  The  limeBtoue  abounds 
in  the  remains  of  Mollnsca.  The  pulBBOzoic  Qoni.ititeB  ai*e  rephiced  by  the  Ccratites, 
a  remarkable  link  between  them  nnd  ihe  Secondary  Ammonites.  Ceratitesare  di-- 
tingnished  by  the  few  small  denticu)ati(m»(  ol  the  inner  lobes  of  the  sntnre.  The 
heads  and  stems  of  Lily  eucrlnhes  {Enerinus)  are  also  abundant  in  these  struta,  aud 
the  remains  of  ganoid  fish  have  also  been  met  with, 

MXJ'SCI.    SeeMossBS. 

MUSCICA'PID^,  a  family  of  feirds  of  the  order  InsesBorea  and  tribe  Dentiros- 
treSf  of  which  the  greater  uninber  receive  the  popular  name  Fly-catcher  (q.  v.).  The 
limits  of  the  family  arc,  however,  very  variously  defined  by  different  omlthologisis. 
The  M.  are  mostly  inhalntants  of  the  warmer  jiarts  of  the  world,  in  which  they  are 
very  widely  diffused.    The  species  are  very  numerous. 

MU'SCID^,  a  family  of  dipterous  insects,  having  a  short,  thick  membranous 
proboscis,  genlculated  ut  the  ba^e.  entirely  retractile  so  as  to  be  concealed  within 
the  mouth,  and  terminated  by  two  large  lobes  (see  House-Fly)  ;  the  antennae  three- 
jointed;  the  thorax  with  a  transverse  suture.  The  species  are  very  numerous,  and 
universally  distiibuted.  More  than  800  an- found  in  Britain,  among  whi<h  are  the 
well-known  House-fly,  Blow-fly,  &c.  The  lat vjb  are  Maggots  (q.  v.).  Although 
some  of  the  M.  are  troublesome,  none  of  them  are  so  much  so  as  species  of  some 
other  allied  families. 

MUSCLE  AND  MUSCULAR  TISSUE.    Muscular  tissue  is  s|)ecia]ly  distinguished 


by  its  contractile  power,  and  is  the  instiumeut  by  which  all  Ihe  sensible  movemenis 
of  the  animal  body  are  performed.  When  examined  under  a  high  magnifying 
power,  the  fibres  of  wlilch  it  is  composed  are  found  to  exist  under  two  forms,  which 


can  be  distinguished  from  one  another  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  very  dose  and 
minute  transverse  bars  or  stripes.  The  fibres  of  the  volurUarp  muscles — or  those 
whose  movements  can  be  influenced  by  tlie  will— as  well  as  the  fibres  of  the  heart, 
are  striped;  while  those  of  the  invofuiUary  mmcleB — Ihe  muscular  structures  over 
which  we  have  no  control— as,  for  example,  the  muscular  fibres  of  Ihe  intestinal 
canal,  the  uterus,  and  the  bladder,  are  uiistriped. 

On  examining  an  ordinary  voluntary  nmscle  with  the  naked  eye  (a  muscle  from 
one  of  the  extremities  of  any  animal,  tor  example),  we  observe  that  it  presents  a 
fibrous  appearance,  and  that  the  fibrt  s  are  arniugcd  with  great  regularity  in  the  di- 
rection in  which  the  mn.*cle  is  lo  act  or  contract  (for  it  is  l)y  their  inherent  power 
of  contracting  that  muscles  act).  On  clo8<  r  examination,  it  is  foimd  that  these 
fibres  are  anunged  In /(WCTCi*/?,  or  bundles  of  various  sizes,  enclosed  in  sheaths  of 
areolar  tissue,  by  which  they  are  at  the  same  time  counected  with  and  isolated  from 
those  adjoining  them;  and  when  the  smallest /a«cicu/tt«,  visible  to  the  naked  eye, 
is  examined  with  the  microscope,  it  is  seen  to  consist  of  a  number  of  cylindrical 
fibres  lying  in  a  parallel  direction,  and  closely  bound  together.  Tlmse  primitive  (or, 
as  some  writers  term  them,  the  ultirnate)  fibres  present  two  sets  of  markings  or 
«irMB— viz.,  a  longitudinal  and  a  transverse  set.  The  fibres,  when  separated  from 
each  other,  frequcnily  split  longitudinally  iuto  Jib-rillai,  Sometimes,  however,  when  a 
fibre  is  extended,  it  separates  in  the  direction  of  the  transverse  strise  into  a  series  of 
discs.  Either  cleavage  ]S  equally  natnral,bnt  the  latter  is  the  least  common.  Hence.  o1)- 
serves  Mr  Bownnui,  who  hasajH-'cially  inveslitrat*.d  Ihe  minute  structure  of  the  volun- 
tary muscle,  '*  it  is  as  proper  lo  say  tliat  the  fibre  is  a  pile  of  discs  as  that  it  is  a  bun- 
dle of  fibril'fe ;  but^  in  fact,  it  is  neither  the  one  nor  the  other,  but  a  mass  in  whose 
structure  there  is  an  intimation  of  the  existence  of  both,  and  a  tendency  to  cleave  in 
the  two  directions.  If  there  were  a  general  disintegration  along  all  the  lines  in  boih 
directions,  there  would  result  a  series  of  ^)articles,  which  may  be  termed  primitive 


varticles  or  sarcous  eleTfteiUs,  the  union  ot  which  constitutes  the  mass  or  tlie  fibre. 
These  elenienlai-y  pai'ticles  are  arranged  and  united  together  in  the  two  directions, 
-    ,  ..  .^,_        .  ,.         -,   ....  ,  ._  lother  in  size,  r    ' 

ose  both.  ^  To 
vice  versa."  '. 
m\a  between  tk( 

y  Google 


and  the  resulting  discs,  as  well  as  fibrillse,  are  equal  to  one  another  in  size,  and 
contain  an  equafnumbcr  of  particles.  The  san»e  pnrticles  compose  both.  ^  To  dc- 
tadi  an  entire  fibrilla  is  to  abstract  a  particle  of  every  disc,  and  vice  versa."  The 
fibres  are  aupplied  with  vessels  and  nci'VCB  which  lie  in  the  intervals  between  tkcm, 


Mnsole 


22 


and  are  attached  by  their  extremitlcB  tliroagh  the  medinm  of  tendon  or  aponeuro-ia 
to  tho  parts  which  tliey  are  intended  to  move.  Aggregated  in  parallel  eeiiee,  o£ 
greater  or  lesser  size,  and  associated  with  nerves,  vessels,  tendinous  structures, 
AC,  tuey  form  the  various  MrrsoLES,  which  are  for  the  most  part  solid  and  flou-* 
gated,  but  are  sometimes  expanded  (as  in  the  diaphragm)  into  a  membranous  shape. 
The  length  of  the  fil)ro8  is  usually  about  that  of  the  muscle  in  whicli  they  may 
occur,  and  may  vary  from  two  feet  or  more  (in  the  sartorius  muscle)  to  less  than 
two  lines  (in  the  stapedius  muscle  in  the  middle  ear) ;  while  their  width  varies  from 
l-60th  to  l-1500th  of  an  hich,  being  largest  in  crustaceaiiS,  fishes,  and  reptiles,  wheie 
their  irritability,  or  property  of  contracting  under  the  action  of  tt  stimulus, 
is  moat  enduring,  and  smallest  in  birdt*.  where  it  is  most  evanescent.  Their 
average  width  in  man  is  about  l-400th  of  an  Inch,  being  about  l-352d  of 
an  inch  In  the  male  and  l-454th  of  an  inch  iu  tl»e  fen»ale.  Tlie  average 
distance  between  the  strife,  or  the  size  of  tiie  sarcoas  elements  in  the 
human  subject  is  l-9400th  of  an  inch,  the  extremes  being  l-15000th  and  l-6000tli 
of  an  inch,  according  to  the  contraction  or  relaxation  of  the  fibre.  The  form  of  the 
fii)res  i?<  polygonnl,  their  sides  being  flattened  against  those  of  the  adjoining  fiores. 
Each  fibre  is  enclosed  in  a  transparent,  very  deMcate,  but  tough  and  elastic  tnbuiar 
8  lea  h,  whivih  cannot  always  be  readily  seen,  but  is  dis  iucfly  t^hewn  stretching  be- 
tween I  he  separated  fragments  of  a  fibre  which  has  been  hrolcen  within  it,  for  its 
tDU'^hness  will  often  resist  a  force  before  which  its  brittle  contents  give  way.  This 
tubular  slieath  is  known  as  t\\e  sarcolerriTna  ov  myolemma — ihe  former  term  being 
derived  from  tlie  Greek  words  sarx^  fl  sh,  and  lemma,  a  skin  or  husk;  and  tlie  latter, 
from  the  Greek  words  mus,  a  muscle,  aud  lemnui. 

It  was  for  a  loiig  time  believed  tliat  the  contraction  of  a  muscle  was  associatrd 
with  a  change  in  tiie  direct iou  of  each  fii)re  from  a  straight  line  to  a  sinuoins  or  zig- 
zag course.  The  investigations  of  Mr  Bowman  have,  however,  shewn  tlnit  this  view 
is  erroneous.  He  has  proved  that  in  a  sfcite  of  contraction  there  is  an  a))))roxium- 
tion  of 'the  trausvei-se  strise,  and  a  general  shortening  with  a  simultaneous  thickening 
of  the  fibre,  but  that  it  is  nev  -r  thrown  out  of  the  straight  line,  except  when  it  has 
ceased  to  contract,  and  its  extremities  are  acted  on  by  the  contraction  of  adjacent 
fibres. 

Muscles  grow  by  an  increase,  not  of  tlie  nnmber,  but  of  the  bulk  of  their  elemen- 
tary fibres ;  and  Mr  Bowman  believes  "that  the  numl>er  of  fibres  remains  through 
life  as  it  was  in  the  foetus,  and  that  the  spare  or  muscular  build  of  the  individual  is 
determmed  by  the  mould  in  which  his  body  was  originally  cast." 

The  structure  of  the  involuntary  or  unstriped  muscles  must  now  be  considered. 
This  form  of  muscular  tissue  most  commonly  occurs  in  the  shape  of  flattened  bands 
of  considerable  length,  but  of  a  width  not  exceeding  l-2000ihor  l-3000th  of  an  inch. 
These  bands  are  translucent,  and  sometimes  slightly  granular,  and  are  usually 
marked  at  intervals  by  elongated  nuclei,  which  become  much  more  apparent  on  the 
addition  of  acetic  acid.  Kolliker  has  shewn  that  every  one  of  these  bands  or  fibres 
is  either  a  single  elongated  cell  (a  fibre-cell)  or  is  a  fasciculus  of  sucli  cells.  These 
fibres  have  not  usually  fixed  points  of  attachment  like  tlie  striated  fibres^  but  form 
continuous  investments  around  cavities  within  th(ibo<Iv — such  as  the  intestinal  canal, 
the  bladder,  Ihe  uterus,  the  l)lood- vessels,  &c. — or  are  dis|)ersed  through  the  subs  ance 
of  tissues,  such  as  the  skin,  to  which  they  impart  a  contractile  properly. 

The  chemical  composition  of  ordinary  (or  volBiitfiry)  muscle  is  described  in  the 
article  Fu:sh.  It  is  only  necessary  to  add  that  the  fibrii'ae,  or  the  sarcous  elemt-nts 
of  wliich  they  are  co  i  posed,  consist  of  a  substance  termed  Stntoninb  (q.  v.). 
which  closely  resembles  the  fibrine  or  coagulating  constituent  of  the  blood;  and 
that  the  same  8:^ntoninc  is  also  the  main  constituent  of  the  unstripcd  muscles,  or  at 
all  events  of  their  fibre-cells.  Like  tlie  blood-fibrine,  it  exists  iu  a  fluid  form  in  the 
living  tissue,  and  only  coagulates  or  solidifies  after  death. 

Our  limited  spacp  prevents  even  an  allusion  to  the  arrangement  aud  distribution 
of  blood-vessels,  nerves,  and  areolar-t Issues  in  muscular  structures;  and  we  there- 
fore pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  the  muscles  and  their  functions. 

Muscles  vary  extremely  in  their  form.  In  the  limbs  they  are  usually  of  consider- 
able length,  surrounding  the  bones  and  forming  an  important  protection  to  tlio 
joints;  while  in  the  trunk,  they  are  flattened  and  tnoad,  aud  contribute  very  essen- 
thtlly  to  form  the  walls  of  the  cavities  which  they  enclose.    There  is  unfortunately 


y  Google 


23 


Muscle 


DO  dcfiuite  rule  regardlDg:  the  noraenclutnre  of  muscles.  Mnscles  derive  their  names 
(1)  from  their  situutiou— ns  tlie  temporal,  pectoral?,  gluteals,  Ac  ;  or  (2)  from  ibcir 
direction — as  the  rectns,  obliqous,  &v.,  of  which  there  mny  be  pevcra)  pairs — as,  for 
example,  reclns  femoris,  rectns  abdouiiualis,  rectus  capitis,  &c ;  or  (3)  from  their 
uses — as  the  masseter,  1  he  various  flexors,  extensors;  or  (A)  from  tlieir  f^hape — as 
the  delioid,  tra|»e2iuB,  rhomiK)id,  Ac. ;  or  (5)  from  the  iiutuber  of  tiieir  divisions— as 
the  biceps  and  triceps |  or  (61  from  their  points  of  attjiclimeut— as tlie  Ptemo-cl«ido- 
masioid,  tlie  genio-iiyo-glossus,  tlie  slemo-thyroid,  Ac  In  tlie  dcsrri|iliou  of  a 
muscle  we  express  its  points,  of  attschment  by  the  words  orinin  and  insertion;  the 
former  bein^  applied  to  tiie  more  fixed  point  or  that  towarcfrt  wliich  tbe  motion  is 
directed,  while  the  latter  is  applied  to  the  more  movable  point.  'Ui*  anp]ic&tit)n  of 
tiie^e  terms  is,  however,  iu  mauv  cases  arbitrary,  as  many  musctles  pull  equally  to- 
wards bolli  attachmenls.  Muscles  opposed  in  action  are  tqrnicd  antagotiiats^  this 
autji<;onism  being  iu  most  cases  required  l)y  the  necessity  lliat  exists  for  an  uciivc 
moving  power  iu  opposite  directions.  Tlius,  by  one  set  of  musclrs«  tlie  flexors,  ih^ 
limbs  iirc  bent;  wliile  by  a  contrary  set,  tlie  extensore^  they  are  straightened.  One 
set,  termed  tbe  mnscles  of  mastication,  closes  the  juws,  while  another  set  opens 
them ;  and  probably  every  mn^le  iu  the  body  has  its  antagonists  in  one  or  more 
other  mnscles. 

The  skeleton,  whicii  may  be  termed  the  locomotive  framework,  may  be  re^rded 
as  a  series  of  levers,  of  wliich  the  fulcrum  is,  for  tiie  most  part,  in  a  joint— vi«.,  iit 
one  extremity  of  a  bone— the  resistance  (or  weiglit)  at  the  further  end,  and  the  force 
(or  muscle)  iu  Uie  intermediate  portion.  In  most  cases,  in  order  to  preserve  the 
necessary  form  of  the  body,  muhclesare  applied  at  a  great  meciianical  disadvantage 
as  regards  the  exercise  of  their  power ;  that  is  to  say,  a  much  larger  force  is  employed 
tliau  would  suffice,  if  differently  applied,  to  overcome  t^e  resistance.  The  two  main 
sources  of  this  disadvantage  lie  iu  the  obliquity  of  the  insertion,  and  consequently  pf 
tiie  action  of  most  muscles,  and  in  tiie  miu^cles  being  usually  inserted  very  near  tbe 
fulcrum.  Tlie  first  of  these  disadvantages  is  in  many  cases  diminished  by  the  en- 
largements of  the  hones  at  tlie  joints.  Theteudonsof  the  muscles  situated  above 
the  joint  are  usually  inserted  immediately  below  the  bony  enlargement-,  and  thus 
reach  tlie  bone  thai  is  to  l)e  moved  in  a  direction  somewliat  approaching  tlie  per- 
pendicular. If  this  enlargement  did  not  exist,  the  contraction  of  tiie  muscle,  instead 
of  causing  the  lower  bone  to  turn  upon  the  upper  one  with  comparatively  little  loss 
of  power,  would  do  little  more  than  cause  tlie  two  ends  of  tlie  bones  to  press  upon 
euchothw.  llie  second  mechanical  disadvantage  is  compensated  for  by  gain  in  the 
exteut  and  velocity  of  movement,  and  by  tiie  avoidance  of  the  great  inconvenience 
of  having  the  mnscles  extended  in  straight  lines  bitween  theeudsof  jointed  con- 
tinuous levers.  Thus  the  bones  of  the  forearm  are  bent  uiion  tlie  bone  of  the  arm 
by  the  biceps  muscle  which  arises  close  to  tlie  head  of  the  latter,  atid  is  iuserted  at  a 
sJiort  distance  from  the  elix>w-joiut,  wliicii  acts  as  the  fnl<rum  of  the  lever.  Bjr  this 
arrangement,  a  contraction  of  u  single  iucli  in  the  muscle  moves  -the  hand,  in  the 
same  time,  through  the  extent  of  about  12  inches,  hut  then  the  hand  moves  through 
every  inch  witli  only  about  the  twelfth  part  of  tlie  power  exerted  by  the  muscle.  By 
file  junction  of  two  or  more  levers  in  one  diiectioii.  as  in  the  different  segments  of 
the  extremities,  the  extent  and  velocity  of  their  united  actions  are  commnnicated  to 
tlie  extreme  oue.  Thus  a  blow  of  the  fist  may  bt*  made  to  include  the  force  of  all 
the  muscles  engaged  in  extending  the  shi^iUlder,  eibow,  and  wris<t. 

Tbe  great  ana  characterii«tic  property  of  muscular  ti-siie— tiiat  of  shortening 
Itself  ill  a  particular  direction  when  stimulated— is  called  contractility.  'J  he  stimulus 
may  be  direct  irritation  by  mechanical  means,  or  by  Kalvaulsm,  or  by  some 
chemical  substance,  but  iu  the  living  i)ody  tlie  muscular  nlires  are,  in  most  c:ises, 
made  to  contract  by  the  immediate  influeuceof  the  nerves  distributed  among  them, 
which  are  consequently  termed  wotor  nerves  (see  Nervous  8tstem>,  and  are 
under  Jhe  influence  of  the  will.  By  an  exertion  of  volition,  we  can  contract  more 
or  fewei-  mpscles  at  once,  and  to  any  degree,  within  certaiu  limits;  and  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  there  is  hardly  any  ordinary  movement  performed  in  whicli  several  mnscles 
are  not  called  in  play.  But  every  voluntary  muscle  is  also  subject  to  other  in- 
fluences more  powerful  iu  their  operation  than  the  will.  The  movement  of  the 
featuies  under  the  impulses  of  passion  and  emotion  ai-e  more  or  less  iuvoluniary, 


y  Google  • 


Mascniar  . ,    "^  '      "^  O  J  , 

Mnseam  /^^         "* 

as  is  shewn  by  the  very  partial  power  the  will  has  of  restraiuing  them,  and  the  ex- 
treme difficulty  of  iraitatiDsr  them. 

Many  movements  ensue  involuutarlly  when  certain  impressions,  which  need  not 
necessarily  be  attended  with  conscioasuess,  are  mude  on  tlie  surface  of  the  body,  or 
on  any  part  of  its  interior,  either  by  external  or  internal  causes.  Such  movements 
are  termed  re/lea;,  and  are  noticed  in  the  article  I^ebtous  Ststek.  Our  space  pre- 
cludes us  from  noticing  the  individnai  groups  of  moKcle.'^  in  tlie  human  body. 
Several  important  groups  are,  however,  noticed  under  Abm,  Ets,  Foot,  Hand, 
Leo,  &c 

MU'SCULAR  FORCE,  Orijnn  of.  The  recent  and  decisive  investigation  of 
Professor  Fick  and  VVislicenus*  of  Znricii,  of  Professor  Fr.inkJaud  and  of  Prof*  ssor 
Parkes,  have  completely  overthrown  the  physiological  views  on  this  subject  held 
previous  to  the  year  1866.  While  the  inference  from  previous  ex|)erimenta  was,  that 
the  effect  of  exercise  wjis  to  cause  a  very  large  increase  in  the  elimination  of  carbon, 
and  a  much  smaller,  but  very  perceptible  increase  in  the  elimination  of  nitrogen, 
Fick  and  Wisliceims  ^rom  observations  made  on  the  excretion  of  nitrogen  during 
the  ascent  of  the  Faulhorn)  deny  altogether  the  increase  of  the  nitrogen^ 
and  come  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  force  generated  in  the  ma.-^cleB  is  the 
result  of  the  burning  (oxidation)  of  nou-nitroeenous  substances  (futs  or  carbo-^ 
Ijydrates),  and  not  of  the  burning  of  the  albuminous  constituents  of  mus- 
cular tissue;  and  they  conclude,  that  the  nitrogenous  constituents  of  muscles 
are  rather  to  be  regarded  as  forming  the  machine  in  wliich  these  fats  or 
carbo* hydrates  are  burned,  than  as  the  nubjects  which  are  burned.  Dr  Frankland 
.(**  Philosophical  Magazine,"  Septemb3r  1-66)  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  the  nou- 
nitrogenous  constituents  of  the  food,  such  as  starch,  fat,  &c.,  are  the  cliief  sources  of 
the  actuid  energy  wiiich  l>ecome8  partially  transformed  into  muscular  work.  He 
does  uot,  however,  deny  to  the  albuminous  matter  a  co-operation  in  the  prodnctioa 
of  muscular  power,  but  he  regards  their  chief  use  as  being  to  renew  the  muscular 
tissue.  The  muscles  are  thus  the  source  lK)th  of  animal  heat  and  of  muscular  force. 
One  of  the  latesf  mvestigators  of  this  important  subject  is  Professor  Purkes,  wiio 
communicated  the  result  of  his  inquiries  to  the  Royal  Society  (t^ee  "  Proceedings  of 
the  Royal  Society,"  No?.  89  and 94, 1867).  Two  series  of  experiments  were  made  on 
soldiers  at  Netley.  Two  men  were  kept  on  ordinary  diet  ami  on  usu.d  work  forf«)ur 
days;  were  then  keut  in  perfect  rest  for  two  days,  on  a  diet  free  from  nitrogen; 
then  finally  returned  for  four  dtiys  more  to  their  usual  for)d  and  work.  In  the  s-^ 
cond  series,  tlie  same  course  was  adopted,  except  that  thronsrhout  tlie  whole  i)eriod 
the  men  took  a  constant  quantity  (302  grains)  of  nitrogen  dai'y. 

The  conclusions  deduced  by  Dv  Parkes  from  these  exueriments  were,  that  Pro- 
fessors Fick  and  Wisliceiius  a.e quite  correct  In  staling  thjit  there  is  no  increase  of 
nitrogen  eliminated  during  the  period  of  exercise.  There  ip,  on  the  contrary,  u 
sliglit  decrease.  They  are  not  cori*ect  in  slating  that  there  is  no  increase  after  ex- 
ercise, for  there  is  a  perceptible,  thouch  not  a  very  large  increaHC.  **  Without  going 
into  an  analysis  of  the  experiments,  which  would  occupy  too  much  space,  I  believe," 
says  Dr  Parkes  in  his  Sanitary  Reiiort  contained  in  the  last  volume  of  the  Army 
Stati?»t5cai,  Sanitary,  and  Medical  ltepor%  1867,  p.  846,  "my  results  indicate  that  our 
idiiis  of  the  orl'jin  of  muscular  force  and  of  nnlrition  generally,  must  be  modiflHd ; 
that  during  action,  muscles  appropriate  nitrogen,  and  grow  ;  and  that  they  do  not 
give  it  off  and  waste,' as  was  formerly  supposed,  or  undergo  no  change,  as  Fick  and 
Wislicenus  believe.  In  ot  ler  words*,  formation  of  nitrogenous  tissues  goes  on  dur- 
ing action,  and  removal  of  nitrogen  goes  on  during  rest.  The  mechanical  force 
manifested  during  muscular  action  is,  however,  probably  derived  from  changes  in 
the  carbo-hydrates,  e>pecially  the  fats,  which  changes  are  connected  with  the  ap- 
propriation of  nitrogen  by  the  muscles." 

The  theory  of  muscular  action  which  he  proposes  for  consideration  is  this.  Dur- 
iug  Action,  the  muscles  ap()ropriate  nitrogen  ;  this  act  is  accompanied  by  changes 
In  the  carbo-hydrates,  which  lead  to  the  manifestation  of  mechanical  force;  these 
changes  lead  to  effete  products  (lactic  acid,  &c.)  in  the  muscles,  which,  as  appears 
from  Rauke's  experimeuts,  stop  their  contraction.    Then  ensues  an  action  of  oxy- 

•A  translation  of  their  Memoir  may  be  found  in  the  **  Philosophical  Magaaiue* 
for  June  1866  (supplementary  number). 


y  Google 


o?:  Mu»cnlar 

^  ^  Masenm 

pen  nnon  the  nitrojsrenons  framework  of  the  mnscic,  and  a  removal  of  the  effcto 
producU  of  the  carbo-liydratep^  eo  that  the  muscle  I>ecoine6  Hijaiu  capable  of  ap- 
propriatiug  nitrogen,  and  of  actiuir.  The  amonut  of  truth  in  this  theory  mn^t  be 
decided  by  the  investigations  of  others;  it  seems  the  only  oue  which  cao  explain 
the  facts,  if  these  have  bees  correcily  made  oat. 

Aithongh  it  is  mainly  to  the  above-named  physiologista  that  wo  owe  onr  recently 
acquired  knowledge,  it  deserves  inuotiou  that  previous  invei*tieations  undertaken 
on  different  bnt  nlllwl  subjects  by  other  pliysiologicul  chemists,  as,  for  exHmpie,  Dr 
Edward  Smyth,  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  Playfair,  and  UunghtOD,  are  entirely  in  accord- 
ance with  our  views. 

MUSES,  in  tlie  Clnssic  Mythology,  divinities  ortginnlly  Inclnded  nroongst  the 
NympiiH,  but  afterwards  ri>garded  as  quite  dbtinct  from  them.  To  them  was  as- 
cribed the  power  of  inspiring  song,  and  poets  and  mat*iciaus  were  t  herefore  regarded 
as  their  pupils  and  favorites.  They  were  at  first  honored  amongst  the  Thriiciaus, 
and  as  Pieria  around  Olympus  was  the  original  seat  of  that  people,  it  came  to  be  con- 
sidered as  the  native  country  of  the  Muses,  who  were  tlierefore  called  Pierides.  In 
tiie  earliest  period  their  number  was  three,  though  Homer  sometimes  speaks  of  a 
single  muse,  and  once,  at  Iga^t,  alludes  to  nine.  This  last  Is  the  number  given  by 
Hesiod  in  his  ♦*  Theogoiiy,"  who  also  mentions  their  namet^— Clio  (q.  v.),  Euter|>e 


(q.  v.),  Thaleia  (q.  v.),  Melpoaiene  (q.  v.),  Terpsichore  (q.  v.),  Erato,  Polyhymnia 
(q.  V.)  Urania  (q.  v.),  and  CalliojMS  (q.  v.).  Their  origin  is  differenlly  given,  but  the 
most  widely-spread  account  represented  them  as  the  daughters  of  Zens  tmd  Mnen.o- 
syne!.  Homer  speaks  of  them  as  the  goddesses  of  song,  annas  dwelling  on  the  summit 
of  Olympus.  They  are  also  often  represented  as  the  companions  of  Apollo,  nnd  os 
singing  while  played  upon  the  lyre  at  the  banquets  of  the  Immortals.  Various 
legend^  ascribed  to  them  victories  in  musical  competitions,  piirliculiiriy  over  the 
Sirens  (q.  v.).  lu  the  later  classic  times,  particular  provinces  were  ass^igned  to  them 
in  connection  with  different  departments  of  literature,  science,  and  the  fine  nrts; 
bnt  the  invocations  addressed  to  them  iippear  to  have  been,  as  in  the  case  of  modern 
writers,  merely  formal  ffhitatious  of  the  early  poets.  Their  worship  amongst  the 
Romans  was  a  mere  imitation  of  the  Greeks,  and  never  became  truly  national  or 
popular.  Among  the  places  sacred  to  them  were  the  wells  of  Aganippe  and  Hippo- 
creiie  on  Mount  Helicon,  and  the  Castaliau  sprins  on  Mount  Parnassus. 

MUSE'UM  <Gr.  tnouteton),  originally  the  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  a  temple 
of  the  Muses,  and  afterwards  to  a  buiidhig  devoted  to  science,  learning,  and  the  fine 
nrts.  1'he  fii'st  nmseam  of  this  kind  was  the  celebrated  Alexandrian  Museum  (see 
AOADEXT).  After  the  revival  of  learning  in  Europe,  the  term  mnseum  was  some- 
times applied  to  the  apartment  in  which  any  kind  of  philosophical  apparatus  was 
kept  and  used;  but  it  has  long  been  almost  exclu!*ively  appropriated  to  collections 
of  the  monuments  of  antiquity  and  of  other  things  interesting  to  the  scholar  and 
man  of  science.  In  this  sense  it  began  to  be  first  used  in  Italv,  and  probably  in  the 
case  of  the  famous  Florentine  Museum,  fotmded  by  Cosmo  de  Medici,  which  soon 
became  a  great  and  most  valuable  collection  of  antiquities.  Nothing  analogous  to 
the  museums  of  modem  times  existed  amongst  the  ancients,  the  greatest  colfecliona 
of  stutoes  and  paintings  which  were  made  in  the  honses  of  wealthy  Eomans  having 
been  intended  for  splendor  rather  than  for  the  promotion  of  art.  Tlie  name  soon 
ceased  to  be  limited  to  collections  of  antiquities,  and  scniptures,  and  paintings ;  col- 
lections illustrative  of  natural  history  and  other  sciences  now  form  a  chief  part  of 
tlie  treasures  of  many  of  the  greatest  museums,  and  there  are  museums  devoted  to 
particular  branches  of  science.  Of  the  museums  of  Britain,  the  British  Museum 
(q.  V.)  is  the  greatest;  that  of  Oxford,  founded  in  1679,  is  the  oldest. — The  inut«eum 
of  the  Vatican,  In  Rome,  contiiins  immense  treasures  in  scniptures  and  paintings, 
and  also  In  l)ooks  and  manuscripts. — The  museum  of  the  Louvre  in  Paris,  that  of  St 
Petersburg,  and  those  of  Dresden,  Vienna,  Munich,  and  Berlin,  are  amongst  the 
greatest  in  the  world.  The  usefulness  of  a  museum  depends  not  merely  upon  tho 
amount  of  ita  treasures,  but,  perhaps,  even  in  a  greater  degree  npon  their  proper  ar- 
rangement ;  and  whilst  great  collections  in  the  chief  capitals  of  the  world  are  of  in- 
calculable importance  to  science,  its  interests  are  also  likely  to  be  much  promoted 
by  those  local  museums,  still  unhappily  not  numerous,  which  are  devoted  to  the 
illustration  of  all  that  belongs  to  particular  and  limited  distilcts.  Museums  appro- 
prhttad  to  the  illustraUon  of  the  iudostrlal  arta— their  raw  material,  their  machines. 


y  Google 


Mns.c  ZO 

*  r-  ■% 

and  their  prodacts — and  of  everything  economically  vnlnnWe,  are  of  recent  origin, 
^ut  tlieir  iinportauce  ig  nuquestioiiably  very  great  Pre-eminent  among  liistitntions 
Of  this  kind  in  Britain  are  the  Soutti  Kensiugtou  Moiieum  iu  London,  and  the  Ma- 
senra  of  Science  and  Art  in  Edinburgh. 

MU'SHROOM,  or  Agaric  (Agariciis)^  a  genus  of  fnnei,  of  the  Bul)order  Hymen- 
omycetea^  having  a  hjrm^nium  of  unequal  plates  or  gills  on  the  lower  side  of  tlie 
pileus.  The  species  are  very  numerous.  Man  v  of  them  are  poisouon^,  many  are  ed- 
Iblet,  and  some  are  among  the  most  esteemed  funzi.  The  species  ntost  esteemed  in 
Britain  is  the  Common  M.  {A.  campestris),  a  native  also  of  must  of  tiie  temperate 
regions  both  of  the  nortiitm  and  of  the  sontiiern  hemispliere,  and  of  which  a  very 
large  and  floe  variety  occurs  in  Basrern  Australia.  It  is  found  during  summer  anil 
antumn  (but  chiefly  in  autumn)  in  pastures,  orcliards,  vineyards.  &c.  Its  pileus  i» 
regularly  convex,  becoming  almost  fiat  when  old;  fiv'shy,  dry,  white  with  a  ting(;  of 
yellovr  or  brown  ;  of  a  silky  Bmoothuess  on  the  upper  surface,  or  somewhat  8c:ily. 
nut  never  warty  ;  thickly  set  on  the  under  side  with  very  unequal  ^ills,  which  in  a 
yonug  state  are  pink,  and  afterwards  l>ecome  dark  l)rown.  The  piieus  is  attached 
by  its  centre  to  the  top  of  the  stem.  The  stem  is  of  a  firm  fleshy  text  ure,,and  towards 
the  top  is  surrounded  by  a  more  or  less  distinct  white  mnmbmnons  rins:,  the  remains 
of  the  curtain  or  vail  {indiisium.)^  which  in  a  young  state  extends  to  the  pileus,  and 
covers  the  gill:*.  This  M.  is  gathered  for  the  table  when  young,  being  preferred  when 
the  vail  is  still  unbroken,  and  the  nnexpanded  pileus  has  the  form  of  a  ball  or  bnt- 
ton  ;  but  both  ii»  this  slate,  and  afterwards,  whilst  it  shews  no  symptoms  of  dec««y, 
it  is  used  for  makiiij;  Ketchup  (q.  v.).  It  has  a  very  pleasant  smell  and  taste,  and 
the  flrtsli,  when  bruised,  assumes  a  reddish-brown  color.— Very  similar  to  il,  and  often 
sold  instead  of  it  in  Lond(m  and  elsewhere,  but  rejected  by  all  skilful  honsekeeiiers 
as  nnfit  even  for  making  ketcimp,  is  the  St  Geoboe*s  Aoabic  {A.  Georgii)^  some- 
times called  whUecaps,  frequent  in  moist  pjistures  and  near  buildings  in  all  parts  of 
Britain.  This  s|>ecies  is  easily  distjignlshcd  by  its  larger  size — the  pileus  being  some- 
times 18  inches  broad— its  coarser  appearance,  its  rather  disagreeable  smell,  the  yel- 
low color  which  its  flush  assumes  when  bruised,  and  the  lighter  color  of  ils  gills. — 
Care  must  bt^  taken  not  to  confound  f  lie  Common  M.  with  the  white  variety  of 
AgaricuH  pJialloide^,  a  species  not  uncommon  in  Britain,  chiefly  in  woods  and  on 
the  borders  of  woods,  whicli  is  very  poisonous.  Perhaps  it  is  the  possibility  of 
this  mistake  which  has  led  to  the  prohibition  of  the  Common  M.  in  Koine,  wbero 
many  kinds  of  esculent  fungi  are  brought  In  great  abundance  to  the  market,  and 
where  a  special  officer  supiiiintends  the  sale  of  tiiem.  A.  pkalloides  is,  however, 
easily  distinguished  by  the  ring  at  the  bottom  of  the  stem,  the  white  color  of  the 
gills,  the  warts  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  pileus,  and  the  powerful  smell,  which 
becomes  extremely  disagre- "able  as  the  M.  grows  old. — Another  species  of  M.  much 
in  use  for  the  table  is  the  Faiby-rino  M.  (A.uyreadea),  sometimes  called  Scotch  Bon~  ^ 
netd—tUe  Champignon  of  lite  French.  It  is  common  iu  pastures  in  Britain  and 
most  parts  of  Europe,  often  formimr  Fairy  Kings  (q.  v.).  It  is  much  smaller  than 
the  Common  M.,  the  pileus  being  seldom  more  than  an  inch  broad,  the  j*tem  taller 
in  proportion.  The  stem  if  solid,  fibrous,  and  tough,  with  i>o  ring;  the  pileus 
smooth,  fleshy,  tougii.  convex,  with  a  more  or  less  distinct  l)08s  (wmfto)  in  the  centre, 
of  a  walery-brown  color,  tlie  flesh  white.  The  odor  is  strong,  but  agreeable.  Tliis 
M.  Is  used  for  ketchup,  and  is  also  dried  and  powdered  for  use  at  taoU?  as  a  savory 
addition  to  sauces  and  stews.  It  is  constantly  brought  to  market  in  England.  It 
is  liable,  however,  to  be  confounded  with  several  poisonous  species ;  but  only  one 
of  them,  A.  dcalbcUiiSy  forms  fairy  rings,  and  this  may  be  readily  distinguished  by 
its  disagreeable  (Klor,  »)y  its  becoming  grayish-brown  in  zones  when  soaked 
iu  water,  by  the  margin  of  the  pileus  being  at  first  rolled  Inwards, 
and  by  Its  very  fine  dingy  whitish  gills.  —  The  other  edible  species  of 
M.  or  agaric  are  numerous,  but  they  are  chiefly  used  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  and  scarcely  at  all  in  Britain,  although  some  of  them  are 
commoif  British  plants.— The  Oranob-mii.kbd  Aoabio  (il.  delieumu)^  wlilch 
grows  chiefly  in  fir-woods  and  among  junipers,  has  a  viscid  pileus,  four 
Inches  or  more  broad,  at  first  orange,  afterwards  pale,  the  gills  and  juice  orange, 
the  gills  running  down  the  stem,  the  smell  and  taste  agreeable.— The  Mousberon 
(,A.  prunulua)  is  common  in  woods  and  pastures,  particularly  on  sandy  soils.  It 
|ia«  a  pileuB  about  2—4  iuches  broad,  couvex,  yellowish-white  when  young,  the  gills . . 


Digitized  by 


Google 


21 


Mnshroom 
Mnsio 

at  first  white,  and  aftenvards  fleph-colored.  The  mlor  1b  a^n^ceable.  It  is  much  es- 
teemed ou  the  coutinent  as  an  aiiicle  of  food.— The  Parasol  Agaric  {.A.procenis) 
Is  found  in  pastures,  especially  under  trees.  It  loves  sand^  eolls.  It  is  reninrknblo 
for  its  long  stem,  8 — 12  inches  high,  with  u  thick  t-pongy  ring.  The  pileus  is  8— T 
Inches  broad,  at  fiipt  obtusely  conic,  then  bell-eliniH'd,  covered  with  brown  scales. 
ThQ. taste  and  smell  are  plensiint.— The  WniTi  Field  Aoarig  {A.  virginew*)  is  one 
of  the  most  common  of  British  species,  growing  in  pjintures,  wiih  viscid  or  satiny 
white  or  whitish  convex  pileus,  fully  nu  nuh  broad,  stem  nearly  two  inches  long, 
and  light  chocolate-colored  distant  ^ills,  which  run  down  the  stem.  It  grows  either 
singly  or  in  groups.— The  Anise  M.,  or  Sweet-scented  Aoario  (A.  odortw),  grows 
in  sh.-idy  woods  nod  dells  among  moss  and  decaying  leaves.  It  has  a  sli^hily  con- 
Tez  piicns,  about  three  inches  broad,  with  ))ale  gills.  The  odor  is  like  that  of  anise. 
— Tiie  IvoRT  M.  {A.  ebur7ieus)  is  found  in  wojjos,  with  pileus  2—3  inches  l>road,  of 
a  gr.iyish-yellow  color,  broad  gills,  and  a  rather  long  and  somewh.at  scaly  stem. — 
Tlie  Smoky  M.  (A./umosus),  with  piltjus  smoke-gray  above,  the  gills  and  stalk  yel- 
lowish, is  common  in  fir-woods.— All  these  arc  e<libl«,  and  more  or  Irps  pleasant 
and  nutritious.  Finer  than  most  of  them  is  the  Imperial  M.  {A,  eafsarituf)^  tho 
Kaiaerling  of  the  Germans,  a  Fpeciea  found  in  loamy  f^oils  in  some  parts  of  Europe, 
with  orange  pileus  and  lighter  yellow  stem  and^ilis ;  but,  unhappily,  it  is  apt  to  be 
confounded  with  the  very  poisonous ^ImantYa  (q.  v.)  mttscaria. 

The  Common  M.  is  frequently  cultivated  both  in  tbe  open  garden  and  in  houses 
or  sheds.  To  grow  it  in  the  open  garden,  be<l8  are  prepared,  generally  of  earth 
,  mixed  with  horse-dung,  pai-tiy  fresh  and  partly  from  Oid  hotbeds,  and  are  raised  into 
ridges  almost  as  high  as  broad.  To  grow  it  in  hon!<es,  boxes  are  filled  with  alter- 
nate layers  of  half-rotten  horse-dung  and  of  straw,  with  a  surface  layer  of  fine 
mould.  But  of  each  of  these  methods  there  are  many  different  modifications,  none 
of  which  can  here  be' detailed.  -  In  both,  the  production  of  mushrooms  is  sometimes 
left  to  the  cliauce— oft^n  almost  of  a  certainty— of  spawn  {myceliuvi)  or  spore?  exist- 
ing in  the  dung  or  earth;  sometimes,  to  incM-ease  the  probability  of  a  speedy  and 
abnndaut  crop,  earth  is  introduced  into  the  bed  or  box  from  a  pasture  known  to  be 
rich  in  mushrooms,  and  M.  spawn  is  al.<°o  frequentlv  planted,  which 
is  either  collected  where  mushrooms  grow,  or  produced  by  arlificiat  means, 
often  appearing  and  being  propagated  extensively  without  the  develop- 
ment of  the  M.  itself.  The  almost  certain  production  of  M.  spawn  in  heaps 
of  slightly-fermenting  horse-dung,  straw,  and  earth,  has  heen  often  urged  as  an 
ai-gnraent  in  favor  of  the  equivocal  generation  of  fmigi,  but  the  minuteness  and 
multitude  of  tlie  spores  may  more  reasonably  be  urged  on  the  opposite  side. 

MUSIC  (6r.  moitmkey  from  vwtimj  muse ;  Lat.  mitsica),  a  combination  or  succes- 
sion of  sounds  having  the  property  of  pitchy  so  an-anged  as  to  please  the  ear.  The 
pleasure  deiived  from  music  arises  from  its  exciting  agreeable  sensations,  and  rais- 
ing pleasing  mental  images  and  emotions.  Apart  from  words,  it  expresses  passion 
and  sentiment,  and  linked  to  words,  it  loses  its  vagueness,  and  becomes  a  beautiful 
iilustratiou  of  language. 

The  doctrine  of  nmsical  sounds  is  based  on  the  principles  of  Acoustics  (q.  v.). 
Somid  is  conveyed  througli  elastic  media  by  waves,  not  of  altt  mate  elevation  and 
di-pression,  but  of  alternate  condensation  and  rarefaction,  in  which  it  is  the  form, 
the  condition  of  the  jrroups  of  particles  that  progresses,  not  each  individual  particle. 
When  a  series  (5  vibrations  recur  on  the  ear  at  precisely  equal  intervals  of  time, 
following  each  other  po  closely  that  each  cannot  be  separately  distinguished,  the  re- 
sult is  a  musical  sound  or  note.  The  sound  ceases  to  have  a  musical  character  when 
each  pulsation  is  individually  audible,  as  is  the  case  when  there  are  fewer  than  about 
sixteen  beats  in  a  second.  The  gravity  or  sharpness  of  the  sound  is  called  its  pitch, 
and  depends  on  the  number  of  vibrations  in  a  given  time.  A  succession  or  progres- 
aion  of  musical  sounds  following  each  other  constitutes  melody;  the  difference  in 
pitch  i)etweeu  any  two  of  them  is  called  an  interval.  Where  two  or  more  musical 
sounds,  whose  relative  pitch  is  properly  proportioned,  are  heard  simultaneously,  tho 
result  is  a  chord,  and  a  succession  of  chords  constitutes  hatmony. 

When  a  vibration  is  communicated  to  a  string  stretched  between  two  points,  the 
reanlt  Is  a  musical  note,  whose  pitch  is  dependent  on  the  length  of  the  string  and 
the  degree  of  tension  applied  to  it ;  tbe  shorter  the  string,  and  the  greater  the  ten- 
irtou,  the  higher  Is  the  pitch.    If  the  string  be  divided  in  the  middle,  the  tension  re- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Mus'o 


28 


xnaining  the  same,  the  note  produced  is  twice  as  high  iDipitch,  and  is  called  the  octave 
to  the  note  produced  by  the  whole  string.  Every  vibration  of  the  one  corresponds 
to  two  of  the  oilier,  and  there  is  between  a  not-e  and  its  octave  a  fur  closer  relatiou 
than  between  any  two  other  notes ;  they  go  together  almost  as  one  sound,  and  are 
considered  to  a  great  extent  us  one  musical  sound.  In  the  diatonic  sciile,  familiar 
to  every  correct  ear,  thei-e  are  six  notes,  bearing  certnin  harmonic  relations  to  the 
fundamental  note,  interposed  between  it  and  its  octave ;  and  as  we  ascend,  the 
tiotes  arrange  themselves  in  similar  successions  of  sevens,  euch  set  an  octave  higher, 
or  double  the  pitch  of  that  which  preceded  ii.  The  seven  notes  are  designatea  by 
the  names  of  the  ftist  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet,  the  same  letter  being  used  for 
any  note  and  iis  octave.  For  another  notation  also  in  use,  see  Souiization.  Talk- 
ing C  for  the  fundamental  note,  we  have  for  our  scale 

CDEFGABCDBFGABC,&c 
The  scale  may  1>e  extended  up  or  down  indefinitely,  so  long  as  the  sounds  ob- 
tained continue  to  be  musical.  The  satisfaction  and  sense  of  completeness  whicli. 
the  diatonic  scale  gives  the  ety,  arise  from  its  being  founded  on  correct  harmonic 
principles.  The  quality  called  harmony  is  produced  oy  a  coincidence  of  vibrations : 
notes  are  more  harmonious  the  ofteuer  their  waves  coincide.  Besides  the  octave, 
two  of  whose  waves  coincide  witli  one  of  the  fundamental,  there  are  other  intei-vals 
harmonious,  though  in  a  less  degree.  Dividing  our  string  nito  three  parts  instead  of 
tveo,  we  have  a  note  higher  than  the  octave,  which  may  be  lowered  by  an  octave  by 
making  the  string  two-thirds  of  the  original  length,  as.d  produces  a  wave  of  which 
three  coincide  with  two  of  the  fimdameutal.  Next  to  the  octave,  this  note  stands  in 
the  most  intimate  relation  to  the  fundamental ;  it  is  called  the  dominant.  Dividing 
the  string  by  five,  and  lowering  the  note  two  octaves,  another  harmonic  is  got,  called 
the  mediant.  In  contmdistinction  from  both  these,  the  fundamental  note  (or  any  of 
Its  octaves)  is  called  ttie  tonic  or  key-note.  C  being  taken  as  the  key-note,  E  is  the 
mediant,  and  G  the  dominant.  These  three  notes,  when  struck  simultaneously^  form 
the  harmonic  triad,  and  stand  to  each  other  in  the  relation  of  1,  6-4,  3-7  (numbers 
indicating  the  number  of  vibrations,  which  are  inversely  as  tlie  length  of  the  string) 
or.  reducing  fructions  to  Integers,  in  the  relation  of  4,  5,  6.  When  a  musical  string  is 
viorating,  these  sounds  are  heard  on  close  observation  more  or  less  distinctly  vibrat- 
ing along  with  it,  the  cause  being  a  spontaneous  division  of  the  string  into  aliquot 
parts,  producing  subordinate  vibrations  simultaneously  with  the  principal  vibrations.  _ 
But  the  dominant  may  in  its  turn  be  the  tonic  from  which  another  triad  of  tonic, 
juediant,  and  dominant  is  taken,  forming  a  scale  of  triads  extending  indefinitely  up 
and  down,  and  it  is  from  three  such  adjacent  triads  that  the  diatonic  scide  originates. 
Its  elements  are  the  triad  of  the  tonic  united  with  the  triads  which  stand  iu  the  must 
intimate  relatiou  to  it— via.,  those  inimed  ately  above  and  below  it— 
F  A  C,    C  E  G,    G  B  D. 

F  is  the  note  whose  dominant  is  C  (the  tonic),  and  therefore.  In  respect  of  C,  it  is 
called  the  subdominant.  A  is  the  mediant  of  tlie  ^ubdominant  F,  and  therefore 
called  the  submediant.  D  is  the  dominant  of  the  dominant,  and  is  culled  the  super- 
tonic.  B,  the  mediant  of  the  dominant,  is  called  the  leading  note.  We  have  «»en 
that  the  notes  of  each  triad  stand  to  each  other  in  the  relation  of  4,  6,  d.  Preserving 
this  proportion,  and  multiplying  to  avoid  fractions,  we  have 
F  A  C  E  G  B  D 
as  16,  20,  24,30,  36,  45,  64 

We  must  multiply  F  and  A  by  2,  and  divide  D  by  2,  to  bring  them  within  the  com- 
pass of  an  octave,  and  then  we  have 

CDEFGABC 
as  24,  27,  80,  82,  86,  40,  46,  48 

These  are  the  degrees  of  the  Diatonic  Scale,  wliich  are  indicated  by  the  white  keys 
of  the  pianoforte,  as  in  the  following  figure. 

The  Interval  CD  is  commonly  called  a  second;  CE,  a  third ;  CF,  a  fourth;  CG, 
a  fifth  ;  CA,  a  6ixth  ;  and  CB,  a  seventh  ;  CC  being,  as  already  seen,  an  eighth  or 
octave— names  corresponding  to  the  position  of  the  notes  on  the  key  board  or  iu  the 


y  Google 


'29 


Mnsio 


diatonic  scale,  but  baying  no  relation  to  the  proper  proportional  unmbera  already 
^veu.  The  int«rval8  ot  the  third,  fifth,  and  sixth  (counting  from  the  key-note), 
owine  to  the  more  intimate  harmonic  relation  of  the  notes  between  which  they  lie, 
afford  more  satisfaction  tq  the  ear  tlian  ilie  otliers,  or  are,  as  it  is  called, 
the  most  perfectly  cousouaut  iutervali*.  Intervals  may  be  connted  from  any  note 
as  well  as  tlie  tonic  DF  )«  called  a  tiiird  as  well  as  C£,  although  those  intervals 
are  nneanal.  We  may  have  intervals  Injyond  the  octave :  they,  are,  however, 
snbetantially  but  repetitions  of  those  below,  CD,  a  ninth,  being  also,  a  second, 
and  ^80  on. 

It  is  often  desirable  in  the  conrse  of  a  musical*  composition  to  change  the  key- 
note, which  involves  the  formation  of  a  diatonic  scale  on  some  Other  note  than  C, 
in  which  case  we  are  said  to  modulate  from  one  key  into  another.  As  the  Intfrvald 
CD,  DE,  EP,  &c.,  are  by  no  means  all  emnil,  the  notes  which  we  have  already  got 
will  not  do  for  a  scale  lounded  on  nny  other  tonic  than  C.  'i'be  ratios  of  the  iuter- 
Tals  in  the  diatonic  scale,  expre:>8ed  in  numbers  by  lo&:aritbms,  are  : 


E        P 


B 


51        46        28        61        46        61        28 

At  first  sight  it  would  appear  that  in  keyed  instruments  there  must  be  a'scparate 
row  of  keys  for  each  tonic,  but  practically  tliit»  is  found  not  to  l)e  in;ce«8ary»  If  D 
instead  of  C  he  taken  as  key-note,  E,  G,  and  A  are  some  approach  to  the  correct 
is>ccoud,  fourth,  and  fifth,  bnt  P  and  C  are  greatly  too  low  in  pitch  for  a  proper  third 
and  seventh.  With  some  notes  taken  as  key-note,  the  correspondence  is  greater,  with 
others  it  is  Iej»s.  The  difficulty  is  overcome  by  a  system  of  compromises  called 
Temperament  (q.  v.).  Roughly  speaking,  we  have  in  the  diatonic  scale  an  alter- 
nation uf  two  long  intervals,  a  short  interval,  three  lung  intervals,  and  a  short  inter- 
val. The  long  intervals  61  and  46  are  styled  tones,  and  the  short  interval  28  a 
semitone.  Were  the  tones  all  equal,  and  the  semitone  exactly  half  a  tone,  a  note 
interposed  in  the  middle  of  each  tone,  dividing  the  seven  mtervals  into  twelve, 
would  make  it  immaterial  where  the  scale  bt  gan.  A  system  founded  on  this  sup- 
position is  the  remedy  actually  adopt-od  in  most  keyed  instruments,  and  the 
uiaccuracy  produced  by  this  compromise  is  not  sufficiently  great  to  offend  the  ear. 


The  interposed  notes  indicated  by  the  black  keys  of  the  pianoforte  (see  fig.),  com- 
plete what  is  called  the  chromatic  scale,  consisting  of  twelve  iutei-vals  approximately 
equal. 


122: 


zsn 


The  notes  of  music  are  represented  in  ordinary  notation  on  a  series  of  five  paral- 
lel liiif!*,  called  thn  staff.  On  these  lines,  and  in  the  fonr  spaces  lierwecn  thniu. 
marks  are  placed  indicating  the  notes,  which  are  counted  upwards,  bej^iuuiug  with 


y  Google 


MmIc 


30 


the  lowest  line.    Erery  line  or  space  is  called  a  degree,  the  staff  consisting  of  nine 
deOTees. 

When  more  than  nine  notes  are  required,  the  spaces  below  and  above  the  staff  are 
nsed,  and  the  scale  la  extended  by  means  of  short  added  lines,  culled  leger  lines. 
The  pitch  of  the  notes  ou  the  scale  is  determined  by  a  flgnre  called  a  clef,  (eZaris,  a 
key),  placed  at  the  begiDuinK.of  the  Btaff  on  a  particular  note,  from  whicli  all  the 
others  are  counted.  The  clefs  most  in  use  are  the  bass,  tonor,  and  treble  clefs,  re- 
presented on  the  iiotes  P,  C,  and  G  i-espcctively  (see  Clef).  The  treble  and  bass 
clefs  only  are  used  in  music  for  keyed  instruments,  and  when  a  siaff  is  required  for 
each  hand,  they  are  joined  together  by  u  brace,  the  upper  staff  for  the  right  hand, 
the  lower  for  the  lefL    The  asceddiug  scale  in  these  clefs  is  us  follows : 

C   DEPGABCDEFGABO 


^2^ 


=^^^ 


-isr^ 


^i^ 


^^^ 


C^D  E  FG  ABCDEFGA  BC 

These  notes  correspond  with  the  white  keys  of  the  pianoforte  or  the  dfatonic 
scale  when  C  is  key-note,  no  allowance  l)eing  nind  «  for  the  black  keys,  which,  as 
we  have  seen,  divide  the  ton«*s  into  semitones.  Those  semitones  which  do  not 
occur  with  C  as  k<y-note  are  represented  by  the  signs  J  (sharp)  undt(flar).  The 
pig"  $.  prefixed  to  a  note,  elevates  it  a  semitone  In  the  scale,  raining,  tor  exanii)le, 
F  to F  sharp.  |t  lowers  the  uote  by  a  semitone,  deprt;s8:^inir  B  to  B  flit.  When  a 
note  which  has  betiu  elevated  by  a  sharp,  or  depressed  by  a  flat,  is  to  be  restored  to 
its  origiual  place,  the  character  t]  (natural)  is  prefixed  to  It 

The  names  of  the  Intervals  corre9|>ond  to  the  degrees  of  the  staff,  but  it  ha-* 
been  seen  tiiut  intervals  of  thj  ^anie  name  are  not  necess:irily  equal.  If  the  sign  of 
a  flat  or  a  sharp  be  pi-efixed  to  either  note  of  an  interval,  it  still  preserves  its  name 
of  a  third,  a  fifth,  &c. ;  but  to  distinguish  intervals  of  thu  same  degree,  the  qnali- 
fyins^epitliets  of  major  and  minor,  augmented  and  diniinislied,  are  used. 

The  different  keys  in  music  are  ^st  understood  by  ntvertlng  to  the  scale  of 
triads,  ou  which  the  diatonic  ttcale  is  foundt'd.  Taking  a  series  of  triads,  of  which 
the  dominant  of  each  is  the  key-note  of  the  next,  we  obtain  the  following  scale, 
extended  both  upwards  and  downwai-ds  from  C: 

Each  triad  is  com|)osed  of  the  key-note,  its  mediant,  and  dominant,  and  the 
scale  of  each  key  is  composed  of  the  triad  of  the  key-note,  with  the  triad  immedi- 
ately preceding  and  that  immediately  following  it.  Each  key  is  pucceeded  by  the 
key  of  its  dommant,  and  if  we  begin  with  the  key  of  C  (in  the  midtlh^  of  the  scale), 
each  key  acquires  an  additional  sluirp  till  we  reach  the  key  of  Fj(  with  six  sharps. 
These  are  the  sharp  keys.  If,  beginning  aeain  with  the  k^y  of  C,  we  go  back  m- 
stead  of  forward  in  the  scale  of  triads,  we  obrain  the  flat  keys;  each  key  has  an  ad- 
ditional flat  to  that  above  it^  till  we  come  down  to  the  key  of  Gt^  with  six  flats. 
This  key  in  in8trnmciit.s  with  t^Mnperament  is  exactly  the  same  with  that  of  Y%^  and 
on  this  account  it  is  not  generally  found  couvenieui  to  extend  the  keys  beyond  six, 
or  at  most  seven,  sharps  or  flats.  GJJ  with  seven  sharps  is  the  same  as  Dft  witli  flve 
flats,  and  C|jr  with  seven  flats  is  the  same  as  B  with  Ave  sharps.  In  music  written  in 
these  keys,  double  sharps  and  double  fl  its  occur,  which  are  indicated  by  the  char- 
acters X  and  l)k  respectively.  In  writing  music  in  any  key  with  sharp-*  or  flats, 
it  is  usual,  instead  of  prefix! njg^  the  sharp  or  flat  to  each  note  when  required,   to 

Slace  the  sharps  and  flats  belongiiiir  to   the  key  together  aft^er  the  cUi,  on   the 
etrree  to  which  they  belong,  and  such  collections  of  sharps  ou  flats  are  culled  the 
fignuture.  « 


y  Google 


31 


5 


M 

& 


1 

o 

^  ■ 

- 1 

1 

1 
1 

r   ^ 

1 

1 

a 
f  ■ 

lb 

i  D 

• 

1 

Key  of  Bfe,  two  flute                Key  of  D,  two  shai-ps 

i5- 
o 

1 

L  § 

o 

1 

...a- 

f 

► 

o 

o 

i 

s- 

1 

3 

K^ 

a 

w. 

1 

o 

s 

■  1 

• 

s 

•  .•^• 

^ 

& 

...2- 

'^ 

//-   s. 


K.,X.,i 


Go&g'Ie 


Mos'c  09 

Siohatubbsof  thb  Siiarf  Ksm. 


G  D  A  £  B  F$ 


SlONATURES  OF  THE  FLAT  KeTB. 


S^fa^-=jlfeJ3SfegEt#fej 


F  Bb  Et  Ab  Dk  Gb 

A  Rhnrp  or  flat,  introduced  in  a  compoaitioD  wliicli  does  not  appear  iu  the  si<:niatnrey 
is  prefixed  Iu  the  note,  and  called  »n  accidental. 

The  diatonic  scale  and  keys  above  described  i>elong  to  what  is  called  the  major 
mode  ;  there  is  also  another  mode  in  use  called  the  minor  mode.  In  the  minor,  as 
iu  I  he  major  mode,  the  diatonic  scale  and  the  keys  are  based  on  the  scale  of  triads. 
Each  of  the  triads  already  considered  consists  of  two  unequal  intervals,  called  a 
major  third  and  minor  tliird.  Supposing  we  begin  with  the  minor  instead  of  the 
major  third,  we  Imve  a  succession  of  chords  taking  their  minor  third  from  one  triad 
and  their  major  third  from  another.  These  compound  cords  are  called  minor  triads. 
Their  proiK)r(ioii  is  as  10, 12, 15,  and  out  of  three  such  consecutive  miuor  Iriado  the 
sctUe  of  the  miuor  mcxle  is  constructed. 

D    P    A      C     E     Q     6 

80,  98,  120,  144,  180,  216,  270 

Multiplying  D  and  F  by  2,  and  dividing  B  by  2,  to  bring  the  whole  within  the  com- 
parts of  au  octave,  we  have : 

A      BCDBFGA 

120,  135,  144,  160,  180,  192,  216,  240. 
The  scale  here  representetl  is  what  is  known  as  tlie  descending  scale  of  the  mi- 
nor mode.  When  the  seventh  of  tlie  scaic  ascends  to  the  cigiith,  it  becomes  sharp, 
as  the  proper  leading  note  or  sliarp  seventh  to  ttie  tonic.  Tliis  sharp  is,  however, 
always  omitted  from  the  sigmiture,  and  placetl  accidentally  before  the  seventh 
which  it  is  to  elevate.  In  order  to  avoid  th.c  harsh  interval  of  the  augmented  second 
(from  F  to  G$),  it  is  usual  iu  the  ascending  scale  to  make  the  sixth  sharp  also,  iu 
order  to  accomodade  the  seventh;  thus  the  ascending  or  accidental  scale  of  the 
miuor  mode  has  two  notes  altered  from  the  biguature. 


Ascending  Scale,.  Descending  Scale. 


SCALE,, 


i^ 


ar^-^"     '  \A,< —';;=£ 


Each  minor  scale  is  called  the  relative  minor  to  the  major  scale  on  it«  right  hand 
.  in  the  scale  of  triads,  with  which  it  has  the  same  sigimtnre :  thus  the  rellitive  miuor 
'  scale  to  C  major  is  that  of  A  miuor. 

I  C  major  ^  A  C  E  6  B  l5 

A  minor        D  F  A  C  E  G  fe 
Each  minor  scale  is  also  called  the  tenia  minor  to  the  major  scale  on  the  same  key 
^ote,  from  which  it  differs  iu  flattening  the  third  of  ito  touic,  and  iu  the  dcsceudiug 


Digitized  by 


Google 


0cn1e  also  the  third  of  its  eabdomiiuuit  and  domloant.    Tho  tonic  minor  »cale  to  C 
umji;r  ia  C  minor. 

CMajob. 


i 


-^— ^g- 


ISII22_ 


._,5_^ 

C  MmoR. 


^ 


ii^r^^?=^^C?=^— 


As  the  descending  scale  resrnlates  the  pfpnatnrc.  cncli  tonic  minor  has  Ihrcc  d-M^ 
more,  or  thre<» shar|)8  li*88  In  lin  siguatorc  than  iiB  tonic  nuijur.    • 
F  Major.  r>       •  F  Uinok. 


-^- 


m 


fe^^ 


E^^Sfi^^S^^i 


A  Major.  A  Mixob. 


i 


^^^^^^ 


G  Major.  GMixor. 


i^zs:: 


li^^^^ 


In  this  l.iet  example,  Ff,  Bt].  and  Et]  arc  all  considered  sharps  in  contrast  with  Ft] 
1%,  and  Eb  of  the  minor  ecjile.  * 

Rhffthln.—lu  musical  nolation,  tlio  relative  dnratiou  of  notes  is  indicated  by  their 
fonn.  Notes  may  be  op<?n  or  close  ;  they  may  consist  of  a  head  only,  or  of  a  heatl 
and  stem.  Where  there  is  a  stem,  it  may  be  tnrucd  ap  or  down,  according  to  con- 
venience. The  senjihreve,  the  lonjjjest  note  in  ordinary  mni*!c,  is  open,  and  con- 
eiets  of  a  head  only  (fi').  The  minim  is  an  open  note  with  a  stem,  half  the  length 
of  a  seinibreve  ^ ;  the  crotchet  is  &  close  uute  with  a  fctem,  half  the  length  of  a 
minim   P  ;  the  quaver  is  a  close  note  with  a  stem  and  hook,  half  the  length  of  a 

crotchet  [.;  a  quaver  is fmt her  divided  into  two  semiquavers  with  two  hooks  5  ; 

four  demi-semiquavors  with  ti.r^  hooks  y  ;  and  eight semi-demi-eemiqnavers  with 

four  hooks  {^.    In  slow  religious  music,  au  open  square  note,  called  a  breve    la 

sometimes  occurs.  The  semibreve  is  equivalent  in  time  to  two  minims,  four 
crotchets,  eiirht  qnnvers,  sixte<Mi  semiquavers,  thirty-two  demi-semiquavers,  and 
sixty-four  feemi-dcmi-:jcmiquavers.    Tho  notes  formed  with  hooliii  may  be  groni>ed 


together    -Jk^f^ — ! — i ^t  " '     i  .^  •    I"  vocal  music  this  is  not  done  except 


y  Google 


Mnale 


34 


when  a  group  is  to  be  song  to  one  syllable.  When  a  dot  Is  placed  after  a  note 
^  *  it  is  lengthened  by  oue-half ;  when  two  dots,  ^  **  it  is  lengthened  by  three- 
fuarths. 

Bvery  piece  of  mnsic  is  divided  into  portions  eqaal  in  time,  called  measnres, 
wiiich  are  sepanited  from  each  other  by  vertical  linos  called  bun^  The  term  bnr  is 
often  loosely  n^ed  to  denote  the  measure  as  weH  as  the  Hue.  Tl.fe  (>xact  l«Migtli  of  the 
measure  Is  indicated  by  a  sign  at  the  beginning  of  the  movement    In  common 


time,  indicated  by  the  sign  : 


',  each  measure  includes  a  semibreve,  or  its  eqni- 


#-#- 


-  All 


valent  made  up  in  notes  of  lower  value 


other  measures  of  time  have  for  their  signatures  two  figures  placed  as  a  fraction, 
one  over  the  other.  The  figures  of  the  denominator  are  either  2, 4,  8,  or  16,  which 
stand  for  minims,  crotchets,  quavers,  and  semiquavers  respectively  (i.  e.,  halvet*, 
fourths,  &c.  of  a  semibreve) ;  the  numerator  iumcates  the  number  of  these  frac- 
tional parts  of  a  semibreve  contained  in  each  measure.  There  is  another  form  of 
common  time  besides  that  already  noticed,  which  is  called  half-lime,  has  a  minim  or 


two  crotchets  in  the  measure,  and  is  known  by  the  signature      "^    -  L  e.,  two 


crbtcbets-k- 


JArai^ 


^^m 


A- 


I 


When  there  are  three  minims,  crotchets,  or  quivers  in  a  measure,  the  piece  is  said  to 
be  in  triple  time,  its  signature  being  -g—  -¥-  ^  -g-  • 


-¥=W^- 


:?=F 


Hi=ir:s 


When  two  or  more  measures  of  triple  time  are  united  in  one  measure,  the  move- 
ment is  said  to  be  in  compound  common  time.    Its  usual  forms  are  iudlcated  by 

the  signatures  "  g      *Dd     Ij"  •    In  the  first,  there  are  three  submeosuies  of  three 

*ssz       ~tr: 

jBTOtchetg  \  in  the  aeoondi  two  submeasures  of  three  quavera-. . 


y  Google     . 


85 


<Mnt!4 


Componiid  triple  time  occars  where  tlu-re  iire  iiiue  notes  in  a  ineneinre,  eltlirt 
crutcUets,  quavers,    or    Hemiquavers,    grouped    lu    three.    Its    siguutures    are-' 


=g==5= 


and  ' 


±£ 


A  variety  occasionally  occurs  in  simple  or  triple  tlma 


by  the  menpure  note  being  divided  Into  three,  or  evn  five  or  seven,  instond  of  two 
parts',  wUicIi  are  grouped  together,  souietiUK^  with  the  figure  3,  5,  orJT,  placed 


above  ihem 


,.K  JJ?.«  ?^^  ?i  **®  diyi?ion  of  mnsical  passages  Into  measures  is  to  Indicate  their 
v*?iJ?:*^»3Il*-'^^Ti£°^'"^"?  ^  essential  element  In  Ihe  pleasure  derivtd  from  munic. 
^^i^ff ^!  S"*'*^**"*^*!  ""S*"'?  ^'  *y"ables,  are  accented  or  unaccented.  The  prli.cjpal 
S?^  .^i^^Tf^^i^lH®*^,'""^®®/*^™®*"**'®-  Of  '»»e  fowr  measure  notes  in  coni- 
Si?!i«  JSIS  ^^n^^'^  *""  *^^^.*  subordinate  accent,  as  lias  the  third  measure  note  iu 
f  .sS  «i  ♦!.  •  ^i^^  ^^  occasions  when  a  strong  accent,  or  emphasis  as  it  is  cjilled,  is 
Ssli?  i  ^?*'t.°f.  '^®  measure  wjiich  is  usually  unaccented;  thin  the  composer  in- 
dicates by  the  Italian  terras  rinforzando,  ^orzato,  abbreviated  n«/.,  «/. 
u^T^.  ? '"  the  course  of  a  movement  silence  is  requlrtd  for  a  time,  this  is  indicated 
byarestorr^ts  corresponding  to  that  time;  the  breve,  semibreve,  minim,  &c., 
liave  each  their  respective  rests,  which  are  represented  as  folows :— 

Sreve.    Semibreve,  Minim.  Orotehet    Quaver.  Semiqua-  Demi-mni-  Semvdemi 

ver.  quaver,    setniqtiaver 


Efe 


A  rest  may,  liJte  a  note,  be  dotted  to  indicate  the  addition  of  half  to  its  length. 


m 


The  doable  bar  • 


consists  of  two  strong  vertical  lines,  placed  at  the  end  of 


a  musical  composition,  and  also  at  of  her  parts  (not  necessarily  coincident  with  the 
w2  i?  >neasure)  whtre  a  strain  or  rhetorical  division  of  a  movement  terniii.at.'S. 
JJlPf'^r  ^.^".^"®,  side,  all  the  measures  on  the  side  with  the  dots  are  to  be  re- 
^  A  ♦«  4  "'  beginning,  or  from  the  antecedent  double  bar. 
i««^H  i?  fi"  y^'*  P'"P®*^  between  two  notes  on  the  same  degree,  to  indicate  th:it 
w1lSr*?^f  *'^^?  uotes  written,  one  note  is  to  be  played  of  the  length  of  both, 
wiieu  the  last  note  of  one  measure  is  thus  connectetlwlth  the  first  of  the  next  ineas- 
nre,  lue  lormer,  though  naturally  the  unaccented  note,  acquires  the  emphasis— 


^-^—(S- 


=t= 


* 


When  the  Bamc  arch  is  drawn  oyer  two  or  more  notes  not  In  the  same  degree,  it  la 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


MnCo' 


36 


called  a  slar,  and  merely  ii:dicate8  that  Uiey  are  to  be  played  smoothly  or  flacntly 

{legato) 

When  notes  are  to  1)e  playwl  nhort,  distinct,  and  detached  («to«eato),  a  dot  Is 
placed  over  tliem.  A  dush  implies  u  greater,  and  the  union  of  dot  and  slar  a  less  de- 
gree of  staccato— 


w 


^4- 


i==t 


m 


1 


=t: 


The  pansc  O  placed  over  a  note  indicates  a  delay  in  the  time  of  the  movenieut, 
and  a  continnance  of  the  sound  made  o:i  that  part  of  the  measure. 

The  various  ^eijroes  of  softness  and  Ioudne*»8  which  occur  in  a  piece  of  music 
are  indicated  l>y  the  letter  ^  for  forte,  -ioad  ;  p  for  piano,  Foft,  al^o  pp  (or  jn'anifi- 
8imo,  very  soft;  mftot  mezzo  foite^  rather  loud,  and  ff  fov /oi-tiseimoy  very  loud.  A 
gradual  increase  of  loudness  is  denoted  by  the  word  crescendo^  or  the  sign  -<;  and  a 
diminution  from  loud  to  soft  by  the  word  diminueiidoy  or  the  contrary  sign  >.  Many 
other  expressions  are  used  in  tlie  l>ody  of  written  music,  indicating  nlowuess,  quick- 
ness, and  the  character  of  execution.  The  most  important  of  them  are  explained 
under  separate  articles — as  are  the  variooe  musical  graces  or  eml>eUishinent8  kuowu 
pnder  the  names  of  the  Appogiatura,  Beat,  Shake,  and  Turn.  Among  abbreviations 
in  frequent  use  are  a  line  drawn  over  or  under  a  semilireve,  or  through  the  stem  of 
a  minim  or  crotphet,  to  divide  it  into  quavers  ;  or  a  double  line,  to  divide  it  into 
flemiqHavei*8.  Two  miuiiuB  may  be  connected  to  indicate  their  repeiiiion  aaqnaverd. 
Thus—  . 

Written. 


i 


^3E 


] 


Played. 


SS^ 


Hctrmony,—We  have  mentioned  tliat  when  a  string  is  struck,  its  harmonics  ara 
more  or  less  distinctly  heanl  along  wiih  it.    This  arises  from  the  string  spouta- 

133456789         10 


-i-g-^ 


L^^^g^^ 


-A—fiL. 


I 


neonsly  dividing  itself  Into  aliquot  parts— as  one-hnlf,  one-third,  one-fourth,  one- 
filth,  one-sixth,  one-seventh,  Ac,  of  the  string.    The  numbers  2,  8, 4,  5, 6, 7,  expres- 


y  Google 


37 


Mndo 


sinfT  the  relntive  number  of  Tibratlone  lu  a  given  time,  are  fl  meaBnre  of  the  pitch  of 
the  iiote,  and  placed  proportiotially  to  one  another,  or  in  the  form  of  a  fraction,  tliey 
are  a  measure  of  ilie  interval.  The  prime  uunihers  2,  8,  6,  and  7,  and  their  com- 
]>ounds,  con8Titnte  the  harmonics  of  a  mnRical  Aound ;  no  division  by  a  hi^lier  prime 
iinmber  is  tolerable  to  the  ear  along  with  the  fmuiumental  note,  and  no  sound  corrcs^ 
ponding  to  sncli  division  is  andible  in  the  vibrntions  of  a  string. 

Tlie  degrees  of  the  harmonic  scale  consist  of  intervals  decreasing  in  a  geometric 
cal  ratio  from  the  octave  to  the  minor  tone,  viz. — 

1  :  2  Octave.  6  :    7  Grave  third. 

2  :  «  Fifth.  7  :    8  Tone  mnzimus. ' 

5  :  4  Fourth.  8  :    9  Tone  mujor. 
4  :  6  Major  third.  9  :  10  Tone  minor. 

6  :  6  Minor  third. 

Other  intervals  more  or  less  consonant  ore  to  be  found  in  the  harmonic  scale,  of 
which  the  most  important  i8  4 :  7,  the  grave  seventh.  From  this  scale  is  derived  the 
triad,  wliich  we  have  seen  to  be  the  foundation  of  the  diatonic  scale,  and  also  the 
whole  theory  of  chords. 

The  first  five  notes  of  the  harmpnic  scale  are  the  component  parts  of  the  major 
common  chord,  by  far  the  most  consonant  chord  that  can  be  proaucod  by  five  notes, 
neglecting  octaves,  its  essential  notes  are  the  major  triad,  C  E  6,  or  4,  6,  6,  which, 
as  tUready  seen,  consists  of  a  fifth  divided  harmonically  into  major  third  and  minor 
third.  The  root  on  which  a  chord  is  formed,  or  th«!  note  by  whose  division  into 
aliquot  parts  l;he  m^s  of  the  chord  are  produced,  is  called  its  fundamental  bass,  and 
the  fundamental  bass  of  the  triad  C  E  G  is  C.  The  common  ch<.rd  is  the  triad  with 
the  addition  of  the  octave  of  the  root ;  its  proportions  are  4,  6,  6,  8.  Every  key  con- 
tains within  itself  two  other  triads  besides  that  of  the  key-note—viz.,  those  of  the 
pubdominant  and  dominant,  which  have  the  subdominant  and  dominant  of  the 
k«*y-not.e  respectively  for  their  fundamental  basses ;  and  the  feeling  of  satisfaction 
produced  by  the  diatonic  scale  arises  out  of  the  fact,  that  its  notes  belong  to  a  pro- 
gression of  chords  formed  on  a  fundamental  bass  suggested  by  the  ear.  This  fuudop 
mental  buss  is  here  indicated  on  the  lower  staff-r- 


s^^^i 


I5t 


The  relative  position  of  the  notes  of  a  chord,  and  consequently  its  Intervals,  may 
be  alteri'd  by  raising  one  oi;  more  of  them  an  octave ;  and,  on  the  whole,  the  nearer 
tlie  Intervals  approach  to  their  position  in  the  harmonic  scale,  the  purer  is  the  har- 
mony. Clope,  in  contradistinction  to  dispersed  harmony,  is  when  the  notes  of  a 
chord  are  so  near  that  no  component  note  could  be  ]>laced  botwccn  t.hcm.  Wln'n 
the  fundamental  bass  of  a  chord  ceases  to  be  ltd  lowest  note,  the  chord  is  said  to  ho 


inverted.  Thus , 


^ 


are  inversions  of  the  common  chord, 


but  not 


Wu — <g^ — <  where  the  fund 


fundamental  bass  is  still  the  lowest  note. 


y  Google 


Mnile 


38 


The  minor  triad  In,  as  we  have  ^een,  a  componnd  chord,  whose  ratio  Is  80,  84.  80, 
tnking  Us  minor  thiixl  from  the  triad  below,  and  it?  major  third  from  the  triad  above 
Its  fundamental  bass  is  the  key-note.  The  minor  mode  lias,  like  the  major,  three 
triadrt  in  each  key— those  of  the  tonic,  snlxlomlnant,  and  dominant ;  and  the  minor 
common  chord  admits  of  tiie  same  inversions  as  the  major,  by  making  the  third  or 
fifth  the  lowest  note. 

Tlie  first  seven  notes  of  the  harmonic  scale  contain  the  chord  next  in  consonance 
to  the  common  chord,  tlie  chord  of  the  seventh  or  dominant  harmony.  Rejecting 
octaves,  it  is  the  harmonic  triad  with  the  addition  of  the  grave  seventh.  4,  6,  6,  7, 
C  E  G  Bj^,  or  G  B  D  P,  and  admits  of  three  inveri«ions,  according  as  the  third,  fifth, 
or  seventh  is  t-aken  instead  of  tlie  root  as  the  lowest  note.  Tlii6  chord  belongs  to 
the  key  of  which  its  fiind:iincnt.ai  note  is  the  dominant ;  and  in  order  to  satisfy  the 
ear,  it  requires  tp  bo  followed  by  a  rcsolntion  into  the  common  chord  of  the  key,  or 
one  of  it!«  inversions,  the  major  third  rising  a  semi-tone  to  the  key-note,  and  the 
seventh  descending  one  degree — 


^ 


-f9- 


-js2z. 


=JF 


The  domi  iiant  seventh  note  is  flatter  by  an  interval  of  68, 64  than  the  snbdomi- 
nant  of  the  key,  thougli  the  two  are  not  distingnishableon  k«'yed  inptrnmehts.  The 
chord  of  the  dominant  seventh  is  the  SMme  in  the  Ionic  minor  as  in  the  major  mode^ 
bat  differs  in  its  resointiun,  in  respt:ct  that  it  descends  a  tone  instead  of  a  semiione 


'        G       I 


The  dominant  harmony  affords  nnmerons  means  of 


modiilatiiig  from  one  kny  to  another.    For  example,  the  addition  of  a  dominant 
seventh,  to  the  common  chord  of  a  key,  effects  a  modulation  into  the  key  of  the 


sub-dominant ' 


pf=i=N-- 


modulating  hito  the  key  of  the 


dominant,  the  supertouic  beur^  the  dominant  harmony,  and  becomes  dominant  of 


the  new  key 


i 


:i=te 


^zyg- 


-^-1 

^ 


For  other  modulations  we  mnst-  refer  to 


works  on  the  theory  of  music. 

The  following  more  complex  harmonies  are  also  in  general  use — 


I^^^^^Ppg^feiS 


1.  the  chord  of  the  added  ninth,  consisting  of  the  dominant  harmony  (Its  root 
g(;neraHy  omitted)  with  the  fifth  of  the  adjaceiitWiad  above.  2,  8,  and  4.  thediffijr- 
ont  f«»rni8  of  tlie  added  eix'li,  or  chord  of  the  pnbdomlnant.  2  is  the  irijid  of  the 
subdominaiit,  with  the  third  of  the  adjacent  triad  below,  or  rather  its  octave;  3  is 


y  Google 


39 


Maik 


the  triad  of  the  enbdominant,  minor  mode,  with  the  third  of  the  adjacent  triad  l>e- 
low ;  aud  4,  the  eaiiie  triad  witli  the  third  of  the  tonic  major  to  the  adjacent  triad 
below.  5,  tlie  diminished  seventh,  a  componnd  of  the  chinacteri^ic  notes  (B  F)  of 
tlie  dominant  harmony  of  the  major  mode  with  tliose  (G  |D)  of  the  relative  minor. 
6,  7,  aud  8,  the  aogmenred  sixths,  all  dominant  harmonies,  resolving  into  the  major 
tonic.  6.  called  the  Italian  sixth  (F  A  Df),  Is  a  componnd  of  the  ciiaracteristic  uotea 
(A  Dip  of  thedomin.mt  harmony  of  the  minor  moae  (B  DS  F  A)  inverted,  with  the 
dominant  seventh  note  (F)  of  the  major  triad  (C  E  G)  below  for  a  buss;  7,  the 
French  sixth  (F  AB  D$),  the  pnme  as  the  last.  wHh  the  addition  of  the  octave  to 
the  fnndamental  bass ;  8.  the  German  sixth  (FAG  D$),  componnded  of  the  char- 
acteristic notes  of  the  dominant  harmony  of  the  minor  mode  inverted,  with  the 
dominant  sevenths  of  the  major  triads  below  and  above. 

AH  classical  hannoniea  can  be  ndnced  to  the  chords  enumerated,  varied  by  inver- 
sion:*, omissions,  saspensionf,  and  pedal  bashes.  A  pt  dal  l<a»8  or  urgnn-point  is  a 
bass  note  snstained  through  a  progression  of  chords,  to  only  the  first  aud  last  of 
which  it  is  the  proper  basal  The  )^al  bass  of  the  tonic  is  often  used  with  the 
chord  of  the  dominant  seventh,  the  added  ninth,  and  the  diminifhed  seventh,  aud 
occasionally  with  other  chords:  sometimes  the  pedal  harmonies  an*  taken  on  the 
dominant  instead  of  the  tonic,  and  the  holding  note  sometimes  occupies  an  upper 
part  instead  of  the  bass— 


i 


I 


zszz 


^^i 


=s 


EE 


^ 


zsz 


-SZ 


ZOL- 


m 


t 


^ 


i 


E£ 


M 


^^ 


^ 


tie=t^ 


A  mujiical  composition  consists  of  a  succession  of  notes  or  of  chords  subject  to 
c*»rtaiu  laws.  Like  discourse,  mnsic  has  its  phrases,  periods  and  punctuation. 
When  a  piece  of  music  continues  in  the  same  key,  it  is  said  to  move  by  progression, 
a  term  used  in  contradistinction  to  modulation,  where  the  key  is  changed.  Progres- 
sion iu  music  of  two  parts  is  of  three  kinds— oblique,  when  one  part  repeats  or  holds 
on  the  same  note,  while  the  ol  her  moves  up  and  down ;  direct,  where  both  i>arta 
move  in  the  same  way;  and  contrary,  where  one  moves  up,  and  the  other  down. 
Consecutive  chords  should  in  {reueral  be  connected,  either  as  having  some  note  in 
common,  or  as  l)eing  the  chords  of  closely  connected  keys.  Theni  are  certain  chords 
which  require  a  special  resolution— i.  e.,  they  must  be  followed  by  certain  other 
chords ;  and  there  are  certain  progressions  which,  from  harshness,  are  in  ordinary 
cases  to  be  avoided,  more  particularly  consecutive  fifths,  and  congecutive  octaven, 
the  lattor,  however,  i)eing  admissible  when  used  merely  to  strengthen  a  part  Modu- 
lation is  generally  eff«,'cted  by  Introducing  the  chords  common  to  both  keys,  and  the 
secret  of  good  modulation  consists  In  the  skilful  choice  of  intermediate  chords. 
Every  regular  piece  of  music  is  composed  iu  a  particular  key.  iu  which  it  beelusand 
ends,  and  which  predominates  over  all  the  other  keys  Into  which  it  has  modulated. 
The  keye  into  which  a  key  most  readily  modulates,  are  those  most  nearly  related  to 


y  Google 


Mnslo 


40 


It— vi«  ,  the  dominnnf,  the  snbdomtnant,  and  the  relative  and  tonic  major  or  minor. 
We  have  seen  how  modulation  may  take  place  by  introducing  the  dmninunt  har- 
mony of  tlie  new  key  or  one  of  its  inversiuns,  and  in  this  way  thu  entire  harmonic 
circle  of  the  keys  can  be  matle,  either  by  ascending  or  descending llfths;  but  in  order 
to  effect  this  cliauge,  it  will  be  necessary,  on  reacliing  the  key  of  CJ,  with  seveu 
sharps,  to  substitute,  by  what  is  called  an  Buharmonic  (q.  v.)  cliangc,  1%  wiUi  five 
flats,  or  vice  versd^  wnich  on  instruments  with  temperament  produces  no  real  change 
on  tne  pitch,  Imt  merely  on  tl»e  names  of  the  notes. 

The  arrangement  of  chords  which  the  ear  naturally  expects  at  the  close  of  a 
strain  is  c&Um  a  cadence ;  it  corresponds  in  music  to  the  period  wliich  closes  a  sen- 
tence in  discourse.  It  is  perfect  when  the  harmony  of  the  dominant  precedes  tlie 
liarmony  of  the  key-note,  and  imperfect  when  the  harmony  of  the  key-note  precedes 
that  of  the  dominant  without  its  seventh. 

The  imperfect  cadence  is  the  most  usual  termination  of  a  musical  phrase,  or 
Bliort  succession  of  measures  containing  no  perfect  musical  ideiu  A  portion  of 
melody  formed  of  two  re<;ular  phrases,  and  containing  a  perfect  musical  idea,  iii 
called  a  section,  and  its  regular  termination  is  the  perfect  cidenc-e. 

Perfect  Imperfect. 


P=:^fi3£| 


-■tg- 


w 


-^ 


^ 


=?2= 


^^1 


zsz 


^ 


Itfnsic  is  produced  by  the  hntiHUi  voice,  and  by  a  variety  of  nrtlflcial  instruments. 
For  the  application  of  the  voice  to  musical  purposes,  see  Singino.  Musical  in- 
struments are  classified  as  stringed  instruments,  wind  instruments,  and  instruinents 
of  i)ercns8ioii.    In  some  stringed  instruments,  as  the  pianoforte,  tlie  sonnd-^  aro 

Produced  by  striking  the  strings  by  keys ;  in  others,  :is  the  Imrp  and  gtiitar,  by 
rawing  them  from  the  position  of  rest.  In  a  third  class,  including  the  violin,  viola, 
violoncello,  and  double  bass,  the  strings  are  put  into  vibration  with  a  t)OW.  In  wind 
instruments,  the  sound  is  produced  by  the  agit^ition  of  an  enclosed  coiunm  of  air ; 
some,  as  the  flute,  clarionet,  oboe,  ba.'Msoon,  flageolet — instruments  of  wood,  and  the 
trumpet,  horn,  comet-a-piston,  &c.,  of  metal,  are  played  hy  the  breath  ;  in  others, 
as  the  orgim,  harmonium,  and  concertina,  the  wind  is  produced  liy  other  me:ins.  In 
the  two  last-named  instraments,  the  sound  is  prodttced  by  the  action  of  wind  on  free 
vibrating  springs  or  reeds.  Instruments  of  pc-rcussiim  are  such  as  the  drum,  kettle* 
drum,  cymoal»,  &c  The  ciiief  peculiarities  of  the  more  important  musical  instru- 
ments are  noticed  in  special  articles. 

Musical  compositions  are  either  for  the  v  Dice,  with  or  without  instrumental  ac- 
companiment, or  for  instruments  only.  Of  vocal  music,  the  principal  forms  may- 
be classed  as  church  music,  chamber  music,  dramatic  music,  and  popular  or  national 
music.  The  flrst  inclndes  plain  song,  fanx-bourdon,  the  chorale,  the  anthem,  tho 
sacred  cantata,  the  mass  and  requiem  of  tlie  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  the  ora- 
torio. Vocal  chamber  music  includes  cantattis,  madrigals,  and  their  modern  succes- 
sors, glees,  as  also  recitatives,  arias,  duets,  trios,  quartetts,  clioruses,  and  eeneruliy- 
all  forms,  accompanied  or  unaccompanied,  wh.ch  are  chiefly  intended  ^r  small 
circles.  Dramatic  music  comnrehends  music  united  with  scfiiic  representation  in 
a  variety  of  ways,  in  the  l)allet,  the  melodrama,  the  vaudeville,  and  the  opera,  iu 
which  last,  music  supplies  the  place  of  spoken  dialogue.  Instrumental  music  may- 
lie  composed  for  one  or  for  more  histrnments.  The  rondo,  the  concerto,  the  sonata, 
and  the  fantasia  generally  belong  to  the  former  class;  to  the  latter,  symphonies  and 
overtures  for  an  orchestra,  and  instrumental  chaml)er  music,  including  duets,  tiios, 
quartetts,  and  otiier  compositions  for  several  instruments,  where  each  takes  the 
lead  Id  tnrii,  the  other  parts  l)eiug  accompaniments.  These  and  Other  forma  of 
composition  will  be  found  noticed  separately.  C^ r^r^ni\r> 

Digitized  by  VjOUy  IC 


41 


Mwitf 


History  of  Mwic-^A  c«»rtain  »ort  of  mnnc  Beem»  to  have  existed  in  all  countriea 
and  at  all  tiuus.  Even  hiftrnineiitul  mn»ic  is  of  a  ver>'  early  dale:  reprei»eutation.<4 
of  mnnical  iiistruinenta  occur  on  the  Egyptiaii  obeiiaks  and  toniba.  The  innaic  oi 
the  Hebrews  is  siippoaed  to  have  had  a  di^flned  rhythm  and  melody.  The  Greeks 
lanubered  raudic  ninouj;  the  acienceB,  and  studied  the  iimthematiciil  proportioua  oi 
pounds.  Their  music,  liowever,  was  but  poetry  e«ng,  a  sort  of  ninaical  recitation  or 
intoning,  in  which  the  melodic  part  was  a  mere  acce880i7.  The  Komana  borrowed 
titoir  music  from  the  Blroacana  and  Gi*eek^,  and  had  both  stringed  iustramenta  and 
wind  instmmeuta. 

The  music  of  modem  Europe  is  a  new  art,  with  which  nothiuj;  analo}^na  aeems 
to  have  existed  amou);  the  nations  of  antiquity.  The  early  music  of  the  Christian 
Church  wasprobublv  in  |)art  of  Greek,  and  in  part  of  Hebrew  oricin.  'J'be  chorale 
was  at  first  anng  in  octaves  and  unisons.  St  Ambrose  and  Grejjrory  the  Great 
directed  tlieir  attention  to  its  improvement,  and  under  them  some  sort  of  liamiony 
or  counterpoint  seems  to  have  found  its  way  into  the  service  of  the  church.  Fur- 
tlier  advances  were  made  I)y  Guido  of  AreuKO,  to  whom  notation  by  lines  and  spaces 
js  due,  but  the  ecclesiastical  music  had  stilt  an  uncertain  tonality  and  an  uncertain 
riiytlim.  Franco  of  Cologne,  in  the  ISih  c,  first  indicated  the  duration  of  notes 
by  diversity  of  form.  The  invention  of  the  organ,  and  its  use  in  accompanying 
tlie  chorale,  had  a  large  share  in  the  development  of  harmony.  Along  with  the 
music  of  the  church,  and  iudi-pendently  of  it,  a  secular  music  was  making  gnidual 
advances,  guided  more  by  the  ear  than  by  science;  it  seems  t»)  have  had  a  more 
decided  rhythm,  though  not  indicated  as  yet  by  bars.  The  airs  which  have  become 
national  in  different  countries  were  developments  of  it,  but  it  had  its  chief  scat  in 
BolgicGaul;  and  the  reconciliation  of  musical  science  with  musical  art  Iwpnn  in 
Flanders  by  Josquin  Deprda  in  the  15th  c,  was  completed  in  the  ITlh  c.  bv  Pales- 
trina  and  his  school  at  Rome,  and  reacted  eventually  on  the «  ccleslastical  style.  The 
opera,  which  aupeared  nearly  contemporaneously  with  the  "Reformation  and  revival 
OI  letters,  greatly  enlarged  the  domain  of  music  Italy  advanced  in  melody,  and  Ger- 
many in  harmonv.  Instrumental  music  occupied  a  more  and  more  prominent  plnce. 
Corelli'b  composltious  exalted  the  violin.  Lulli  and  Rameau,  with  their  hallf  t-like 
music,  seized  the  characteristics  of  French  laste,  fill  the  German  GIGck  drove  them 
out  of  the  field.  The  scientific  and  majestic  fugue  reached  its  highest  perfection  un- 
der J.  8.  Bach.  The  changes  introduced  in  ecclesiastical  music  in  England  at  the 
Restoration  gave  birth  to  tlie  school  of  Purcell ;  and  a  little  later,  Eneland  adopted 
the  German  Handel,  who  was  the  precursor  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  Btethoven,  Spohr, 
and  Mendelssohn.  The  principal  fact  in  recent  musical  history  is  the  movement 
with  whicli  the  name  of  Wagner  is  connected,  having  for  its  aim  the  production  and 
])erfrction  of  a  true  musical  drama,  in  wliich,  unlike  the  opera,  the  words  and  music 
shall  be  of  equal  importance. 

See  Pepusch's  *•  Treatise  on  Harmony,"  Calcolt's  "Musical  Grammar,"  Hawkins' 
and  Bunjey's  *♦  History  of  Music,"  Marx's  "  Allgcmeine  Schnlc  der  Musilv,"  Bn  wn*8 
**  Elements  of  Musical  Science,"  and  Chambers's  '•Information  for  the  People,"  Nos. 
96-97  (1875). 

MUSIC  RECORDER.  Many  forms  of  apparatus  hav«l>een  invented  for  writing 
down  iriU'«ic  in  a  legible  form  by  the  veiy  act  of  playing  it  on  a  keyed  instrument, 
such  Its  the  pianoforte  or  organ.  Beginning  witn  1T47,  various  attempts  had  been 
made  to  elfect  this  object,  when,  in  1863,  Mr  Fen  by  invented  and  patented  his  FhO' 
nograph,  in  which  he  brought  in  the  aid  of  electro- nniguetism.  His  chief  aim,  as  an 
improvement  on  previous  apparatus,  was  to  devise  a  method  of  denoting  the  length 
of  the  notes,  as  well  as  their  pitch  and  the  interval  between  them.  On  pressing 
down  any  key  of  the  instrument,  a  stud  on  the  under  side  touches  a  spring ;  the 
spring  sets  inaction  a  small  electro-magnetic  apparatus,  wliich  causes  a  tracer  to 
pass  against  a  strip  of  paper  moving  onward  at  a  uniform  rate  by  means  of  a  cylin- 
der and  clockwork.  Tne  paper  is  chemically  prepared,  so  as  to  receive  a  brown 
stain  whenever  the  tracer  passes  along  its  sui-face.  The  length  of  each  note  ia 
expressed  by  horizontal  dashes  of  greater  or  less  length,  made  by  the  tracer;  and 
the  arrangement  is  such  as  to  denote  the  lines  of  the  stave  as  well  as  the  character  of 
the  note.  By  subsidiary  adjustments,  the  apparatus  is  made  to  express  accidental 
sharps  and  n;iti»,  chan<;es  ot  time,  &c.  .     . 

The  Abb6  Moiguo'a  PhonauUjgraphf  introduced  to  the  British  Astocialion   "- 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Miuk 


42" 


1860,  la  a  contrivance— not  for  noting  down  sonnds  In  any  kind  of  ronsieni  notation 
— bnt  for  ciiQ9iitg  a  vibr.iting  surface  to  tell  its  numlter  and  character  of  vibrations. 
A  kind  of  Bp!»eroidai  dnnn  is  covered  at  one  end  with  a  diaphragm  or  stretched 
membrane ;  a  slieet  of  paper  is  carried  along  this  drnm-liead  by  means  of  clock-* 
work ;  and  a  system  of  small  levers  moves  a  pen.  A  tuning-fork,  an  organ-pipe, 
or  the  voice  is  sounded  in  proximity  to  the  drnro,  the  body  or  air  within  wliich  acta 
as  a  reinforcement  of  the  fonud  ;  the  membrane  vibrat<'B  in  a  manner  whicli  can  be 
felt  by  the  p«m,  although  not  seen  l)y  Iho  eye ;  and  the  pen  makes  zigzag  niarkingfi 
on  the  paper.  Wiien  the  sound  is  produced  by  a  tuning-fork  or  an  organ-pijH*,  th.i 
zigzag  lines  are  so  regular  ttiat  they  serve  to  connt  the  nnml>er  of  vib-atiou:^ 
belini^ing  to  each  particular  note.  When  the  sound  is  that  of  a  singing  voice,  tlid 
nmrkiiigs  become  very  peculiar,  especially  in  such  words  as  contain  the  gutim'ula 
r,  flr,  &c. 

MUSK,  or  Musk  Deer  (^owhvM  nioHchcUus)y  a  rnminnnt  qnadrnp-^,  the  type  of 
tho  family  Moschidce.  Tins  family  difEers  from  Cei'videe  (De«;r)  in  the  want  of  horns, 
and  ill  the  long  canines  of  the  males,  proj  cting  beyond  tlie  lips.  The  M.  is  an 
inliabitant  of  the  elevated  mount^iiiions  regions  and  table-lands  of  Central  Asia. 
The  habits  of  the  M.  are  very  similar  to  those  of  tlm  Chamoi;*.  Its  favorite  haunts  are 
the  tops  of  pine-covered  momitain**,  but  its  summ«?r  range  extends  far  above  the 
region  of  ni^es.  Its  liabits  are  nocturnal  and  solitjtry,  and  it  is  extremely  timid. 
It  is  much  pursued  by  liuntors  on  account  of  its  odoriferous  secretion,  wiiich  lias 
been  known  in  Europe  since  the  8th  c,  and  is  much  valued  as  a  i>erfnme.  This  se- 
cretion, nitisk,  is  produced  in  a  glandular  poucli  situated  in  tlie  iiinder  part  of  the 
abdomen  of  the  males;  and  its  naMiral  use  seems  to  l>e  that  of  increasing  sexual  at- 
tractiveness. The  musk-bag  is  formed  by  an  unfolding  of  a  portion  of  the  skin  of 
the  belly,  witliin  whicli  a  number  of  membranes  are  contained,  and  between  these 
membranes  are  glands  by  which  the  musk  is  secreted.  When  newly  taken  from  the 
animal,  musk  is  sofr.  and  almost  resembles  an  ointment;  it  is' reddish-brown,  and 
has  an  excessively  powerful  odor.  Very  little  of  it  reaches  Europe  unadult.erat<*d. — 
Musk  is  usually  imported  either  in  the  form  of  grain-musky  that  is,  the  musk  which 
bus  been  coll^jcted  chiefly  from  stones  upon  wliich  it  has  been  deposited  by  the  ani- 
mal, in  which  sta,te  it  is  a  coarse  powder  of  a  dark-brown  color;  or  in  the'jjod,  that 
is,  in  the  musk-sac,  which  is  cut  altogether  from  the  animal,  and  dned  witli  the  musk 
Inside.  Of  both  kinds  the  annual  importations  are^ibout  15,000  ounces  per  annum, 
chiefly  from  Cliina  and  India.  Small  quantities  arc  used  in  medicine,  but  the  greater 
portion  is  employed  l)y  the  perfumers.  It  is  imported  in  small  lK)xes  or  catties,  often 
covered  with  bright-colored  silk,  and  each  containing  25  pods.  The  kinds  generally 
known  in  trade  are  the  Tonquin  or  Chinese,  which  is  worth  two  guineas  an  oniico  in 
the  pod,  or  £3,  10«.  per  ounce  in  urain  ;  and  the  Cahardine,  Kabardine,  or  Sil)eriaii, 
whicli  is  always  imported  in  ixw,  and  is  very  inferior,  being  only  wortli  about  15«. 
an  ounce. 

The  flesh  of  the  M.  is  sometimes  eaten,  but  has  a  very  strong  flavor.  Tlic  season 
of  migration  from  the  liigliest  and  cohfcst  to  more  temperate  regions,  is  that  ut 
whicli  the  M.  is  chiefly  purtsned.— No  other  animal  of  tlie  family  Moschidce  yields  the 
perfume  called  musk,  or  has  more  than  a  rudimentary  musk-bag.  Tlie  other  species 
r)f  Moschidce  belong  to  the  genus  Tragulus,  and  receive  the  populkrname  Chevrotain, 
I'licy  have  a  very  elonirated  muzzle  ;  and  the  acc-ssory  hoofs  assume  the  form  of 
oppressed  conical  claws.  TUey  inhabit  the  thick  woody  copses  or  jungles  of  the 
Indian  islands,  and  are  the  smallest  of  ruminant  quadrupeds.  Some  of  them  are 
not  larger  than  a  hare.  Their  tusks  are  not  so  long  as  those  of  the  Musk.  One 
of  them,  the  Napu  of  Java  and  Sumatra,  has  the  siiiallest  blood  corpuscles  of  any 
known  animal. 

MUSK  DUCK  {Cairina  moschata).  a  species  of  duck,  of  the  non-oceanic  section 
of  Anatidce  (see  Duck)  ;  of  a  genus  characterised  by  an  elevated  tubercle  at  the  base  ' 
of  the  bill,  the  edsres  of  the  mandibles  sinuated,  the  face  and  lores  covered  with  a 
'  bare  tuberculated  skin,  the  wings  furnished  with  a  knob  or  spnr  at  the  bend.  The 
M.  D.,  or  Muscovy  Duck — so  called,  however,  through  mistake,  and  receiving  its 
name  M.  D.  more  appropriately  from  its  musky  smell — ^is  a  native  of  the  warm  parts 
of  America.  It  is  very  plentiful  in  Guiana,  in  that  part  of  the  year  when  winter  ; 
reigns  in  the  north,    it  is  a  larger  bird  than  tUe  common  duck,  in  Us  wild  state ' 


Digitized  by 


Google 


43 


Miuik 


almoBt  black,  with  glowiw  (rf  bine  nnd  grocn,  and  white  wing-covcrti*,  but  varioB 
consklerably  in  domepticatimi.  It  in  often  to  be  seen  \n  poDttry-yardB  in  Britain,  but 
is  rather  cnrious  than  profitable.  It  hybridisea  readily  with  the  common  daik.  bat 
the  hybrid  is  Pterile. — The  M.  D.  of  Aastralia  is  a  yeryuifFereiit  epecies  belonging  to 
Ibe  genns  Biziura, 

MUSK  OX  (Bos  moachahis^  or  Oviboa  mo9ehattts)y  an  animal  of  the  family  Bmridcey 
regarded  as  a  conuectiiig-liuk  hetween  oxen  nnd  phern.  It  inhabits  the  niosi  norili- 
ern  parts  of  America,  enduring  the  winlt  r  even  of  Melville  Island  nnd  Banks'  Land ; 
but,  like  many  other  animals,  it  is  partially  migratory,  some  individuals  or  herds 
seeking  more  Ponthem  regions  and  l>etter  paplures  on  tlie  approach  of  winter, 
whilst  some  remain  in  the  furthest  norih.  It  is  not  found  in  Gre<Miland.  Spitz- 
be  rjren,  or  Siberiju  The  M.  O.  Is  scjircoly  equal  in  size  to  the  smalloHt  of  Highland 
cattle,  but  appeal's  lareer  from  the  profusion  of  long  matted  woollen  hair  with  which 
it  is  coverea,  and  which  hangs  almost  to  the  ground.  The  head  is  covered  with 
long  hair  as  well  as  the  body,  the  face  alone  having  short  hair.  Beneath  the  long 
hair  there  is  a  thick  coat  of  exquisitely  fine  wool.  The  head  is  large  and  broad ; 
the  forehead  convex  ;  the  extremity  of  tl  e  muzzle  Iwtiry.  Tlie  horns  are  very  broad 
at  the  haw,  and  in  the  male  meet  on  the  forehead ;  they  do  not  rise  but  bend  down 
on  each  side  of  the  head,  and  curve  outwards  and  upwards  towards  the  tip,  which 
tapers  to  a  sharp  point.  They  are  about  two  feet  long  measured  along  the  curvature ; 
and  about  two  feet  in  girih  at  the  base ;  a  pair  of  them  sometimes  weighing  sixty 
Tiounds.  The  limbs  are  ehorr,  the  le^  have  short  hair.  The  tail  is  very  short,  and 
Is  covered  with  long  hair,  so  that  it  is  undistinguishable  to  the  eight  The  general 
color  is  brOM'U.  The  female  is  smaller  than  the  male,  has  shorter  hair  on  the  chest 
and  throat,  and  smaller  horns.  The  frosr  of  the  hoof  is  short,  and  partially  covered 
with  hair ;  the  foot-marks  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  reindeer. 

The  M.  O.  feeds  on  gra^s,  twigs,  lichens.  &c.  It  is  fleet  and  active,  very  snr^ 
footed  on  rocky  ground,  and  ascends  or  descends  very  steep  ^Is  with  great  ease. 
It  is  gre«:arious ;  the  herds  generally  number  thirty  or  forty.  The  powerful  horns 
are  exc<^llent  weapons  oi  defence  against  wolves  and  bears,  which  are  often  not 
only  i-epell<-d  but  killed.    When  mu^k  oxen  are  assailed  by  firearms,  however,  they 

Seiierally  huddle  more  and  more  closely  together,  and  do  not  even  seek  safety  by 
Ight,  »o  long  as  the  assailants  are  unseen.  I'be  flesh  is  much  prized  by  the  Esqui- 
maux, but  retains  much  of  the  strong  musky  odor  which  characterises  the  living 
animal.  The  horns  are  used  for  various  purposes ;  particularly  the  wide  base  for 
Tessels.  The  fine  wool  has  been  spun  and  woven  into  a  fabric  softer  than  silk.  No 
attt^mpt  has  yet  been  made  to  domesticate  the  M.  O.;  which,  however,  seems  worthy 
of  it,  and  suitable  for  all  cold  regions. 

MUSK  PLANT,  Musk  Boot,  Musk  Tree.  Musk  Wood.  Different  parts  of  a 
number  of  plants  smell  more  or  less  strongly  of  musk.  Among  these  are  the  com- 
mon little  Musk  Plant  (see  MiMUiiUs),  the  Musk-tree  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  (see 
AsTSR),  and  the  Musk  Ochlo  (see  Hibiscus)  —The  musk-tree  of  Jamaica  (Mot- 
ehoxylum  Swartzii)  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Meliacecu,  It  emits  from  all  parts 
a  smell  of  musk. — All  parts  of  Ouarea  grandifolia,  another  tree  of  the  same  order, 
a  native  of  the  West  Indies,  sometimes  called  musk  wood,  also  smells  strongly  of 
musk,  but  pairticularly  the  bark,  which  is  used  in  perfumery. — Tlie  drug  called 
Musk  Hoot  or  Samhul  is  brought  from  t  he  East^  aua  is  the  root  of  a  plant  sup- 
posed to  be  of  the  natural  order  Umbelli/ercB  ;  but  the  plant  is  unknown,  nor  is  it 
certain  whether  its  native  country  is  Persia,  or  some  more  remote  region  of  Cen- 
tral Asia.    It  has  a  pure  musky  odor,  and  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  musk. 

MUSK  BAT,  or  Desman  {Mygale  or  Galemys)^  a  genus  of  insectivorous  quadru- 
peds of  the  Shrew  (q.  v.)  family  (Sorecid/s)^  differing  from  the  true  Shrews  {Sorex) 
in  haviug  two  very  small  teeth  between  the  two  large  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw,  and 
the  upper  incisors  flattened  and  triangular.  Behind  these  incisors  are  six  or  seven 
small  teeth  (lateral  incisors  or  false  canine  teeth)  and  four  jagged  molars.  The  muz- 
zle is  elongated  into  a  small  flexible  proboscis,  which  is  constantly  in  motion.  The 
eyes  are  very  small ;  there  are  no  external  ears;  the  fur  is  long,  straight,  and  di- 
vergent ;  tlie  tail  long,  scaly,  and  flattened  at  the  sides.  All  the  feet  have  five  toes, 
fallv  webbed;  and  theaniunds  are  entirely  aqnntic,  inhabiting  lakes  and  rivers,  and 
luaking  holes  iu  the  banks  with  the  entrance  from  beneath  the  surface  of  the  wat^ 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IVC 


Ma«k  '  A  A 

MuMel 

Only  two  species  are  known,  one  (Jf.  or  G.  Pyrenaiea)  nljoat  eieht  Inches  long,  with 
tail  as  long  as  the  body,  a  native  of  tbe  sfreuuis  of  the  Pyrenees ;  another  laflger 
ppecies  {M.  or  O.  moachata),  very  plentifnl  in  the  Volga  and  other  rivers  and  laiies 
nf  the  south  of  Rassia,  nearly  eqaal  in  size  to  tlie  common  liedgehog,  with  tail  tilmnt 
thne-fourfhs  of  the  length  of  the  body.  The  Ruj^sian  desman  is  bhickish  above, 
whitish  beneath  ;  it  has  long  silky  hair,  with  a  softer  filt  beneath,  and  its  fur  is  held 
in  some  esteem.  Desman  skins,  however,  are  chiefly  valued  on  account  of  the 
musky  odor  which  therlong  exhale,  and  which  is  derived  from  a  fatty  secretion 
jjroduced  by  small  follicles  under  the  tail  of  the  animal.  'J'he  desman  feeds  on 
JiMHihes,  aquatic  larvae,  &c.,  searching  for  them  in  the  niTid  by  means  of  its  fli?xible 
prol)08ci8.  It  seldom,  if  ever,  voluntarily  leaves  the  water,  except  iu  the  interior 
of  its  burrows,  which  are  sometimes  twenty  feet  long, 

MUSK  RAT  {Swex  murinw)^  an  Indian  sfiecies  of  Shrew  (q.  v.),  in  size  about 
equal  to  the  common  brown  rat,  iu  form  and  color  much  resemt)Iin£  the  common 
shrew  of  Britain,  but  remarkable  for  the  powerful  musky  odor  of  a  seci-etion  which 
proceeds  from  glands  on  its  belly  and  flanks.  This  odor  adheres  most  prtlnacloosly 
to  any  object  with  which  the  annnal  may  cmne  in  contact,  and  provisions  are  often 
utterly  spoiled  by  it.  Even  wine  and  beer  are  said  to  l)e  spoiled  by  it,  iu  spite  of 
the  glass  and  cork  of  the  bottle  ;  although  the  probability  is  much  ^eatcr  that  it 
adheres  to  the  outside  of  the  Iwttljj,  and  that  the  liquid  is  spoiled  us  it  is  i>oured  out. 
One  of  the  Indian  names  of  this  animal  is  Sondelt 

MUSK  RAT.    See  Musquash. 

MUSKET,  or  Musquet  (Fr.  niausqitet ;  from  moucheU  a  sparrow-hawk ;  in  the 
same  way  that  other  shooting  implomenta  wen;  named  falcon,  fcUconet,  &c.),  the 
firearm  for  infantry  soldiers,  which  Huccoeded  the  clumsy  harquubnss,  find  in  1851 
gave  way  before  the  Enfield  rifle,  which,  in  its  turn,  was  converted  into  Snidcr's  pa- 
tent l>reech-lo(uling  rifle,  now  known  as  the  Snidcr-Bnflcld ;  the  latter  arm,  so  far  as 
the  regular  in  infantry  is  concerned,  has  been  replaced  by  the  Martini-Hen  17  breech- 
loader, but  the  navy,  cavali-y,  and  auxiliary  forces  still  retain  the  Snider.  The  first 
muskets  were  matchlocks  ;  after  which  came  wheel-locks,  asnaphann  or  sunphance, 
and  flint  muskets;  and  lastly,  percuHnion  nmskeis,  whicli  were  a  vast  imnrovement, 
both  for  accuracy  and  lljrhtness,  on  all  which  had  gone  before.  Coroparea,  however, 
to  either  the  Bufiuld  or  Martini-Henry  rifle,  the  musket,  familiarly  known  as  Brown 
Bess  (po<*sibly  a  corruption  of  Ger.  buchse.  a  hollow  iulye  or  gun) — was  a  heavy 
ugly,  and  ineffective  weapon.  The  following  is  a  table  of  tlie  ranges  attained,  on  uu 
ou  average,  by  the  musket,  the  Bufljld,  and  the  Martini-Heury  : 

MnslcPt        Enfield       Martini- 
Musket,        jjjgg^      jj^jj^  j^jfl^ 

yds.  yds.  yds. 

Accurateflre. .' KK)  600  1200 

Effective  against  detached  parties 160  800  1500 

Effective  against  troops  iu  column 200  1000  1800 

M  USKETOO'N,  an  obsolete  weapon,  was  a  short  musket  of  very  wide  bore, 
carrying  a. ball  of  five  ounces,  and  sometimes  bell-mouthed  like  a  blunderbuss. 

MU'SKETRY,  Schools  of.  When  the  introduction  of  the  Minii  rifle  in  the 
French  service,  and  the  sul)sequent  armhig  of  the  British  troops  with  the  still  more 
delicate  Enfield  rifle  iu  1861,  brought  the  accuraty  of  a  soldier's  fire  to  be  an  impor- 
tant consideration  iu  estimating  his  value  (which  witii  the  old  musket  was  not  the 
case,  as  it  was  i^roverbial  that  the  bullet  n<!ver  hit  the  point  aimed  at,  however  care- 
fully), the  English  government  at  once  saw  the  necessity  of  providing  instructiou  iu 
the  manipulation  of  the  rifle.  Accordingly,  instructors  of  musketry  were  attached 
to  the  troops,  one  to  each  regiment:  and  a  school  was  cstablishtkl  at  Hyth^  in  1854, 
under  the  late  General  (then  Culouel)  Hny,  where  le8S<ms  on  the  theory  of  the  arm, 
and  practice  in  its  actual  employment,  were  the  sole  occupation  of  the  d>iy.  Oflicers 
and  promising  men  were  sent  there  as  fast  as  the  accommodation  permitted  ;  and 
lUter  a  course  of  a  few  weeks  were  able  to  return  to  their  corps,  and  bej-ome  instruc- 
tors to  their  coniradi^s,  So  that  the  rthqotinj^  of  the  whole  army  soon  rone  in  a  sur- 
iirising  degree.  Whereas,  before  the  e'stablishnjent  of  this  school,  the  Eii;rll!«h  stood 
*ow  iu  the  scale  of  shooting,  the  competitions  held  during  recent  years  at  Wimble- 


45 


Mnsk 
Mncsel 

don  have  demonstrate<l  that  no  nation  can  now  excel  them  as  mnrkemen.  The  for* 
mation  of  the  volniiteer  corps,  in  1859,  led  to  a  greatly  iucrensed  demand  for  mus- 
ketiy  instruction,  which  the  governmeul  met  by  forming  a  second  school  of  mns- 
ketry  at  Fleetwood  (now  abandoned),  where  the  troo|)s  and  volanteero  of  Scotland, 
Ireland,  and  the  northern  Eugllsh  counties,  found  the  necespary  teaching.  The 
Hythe  school  is  superintended  by  a  commandant  and  inspector-general  of  musketry 
instruction,  with  subordinate  instructors.  The  insiMJCtor-genenu  Is  re««ponsible  also 
for  the  instruction  throughout  tlie  regimenis  all  over  the  world,  and  to  him  the 
musketry  returns  from  each  regiment  are  sent  annually. 

MU'SLTN,  a  cotton  fabric  of  Oriental  origin,  is  said  to  have  derived  it«  name 
from  the  town  of  Mosul,  in  Mt sopotimia,  wliere  this  material  was  ai  one  time  very 
largely  manufacturert.  At  present  no  such  trade  exists  tliere;  and  for  muslins,  of 
the  common  kinds  at  least,  the  Indian  market  dejTends  upon  the  manufactnres  of 
England  and  France.  But  no  European  manufacturer  has  ever  been  able  to  rival 
the  wonderfully  fine  mtiHlins  of  Dacca.  This  docs  not  arise  so  much  from  the  fine- 
ness of  the  yaiii,  although  that  too  is  very  great,  but  from  the  marvellous  flnenesa 
conjoined  with  a  most  delicate  softness  to  tlie  touch.  The  fineness  of  the  yarn  ia 
so  great,  that  until  lately  no  machinery  could  produce  anything  like  \t\  a  piece  of 
Dacoi  muslin,  shewn  in  the  luternationol  Exhibition  (1862),  was  81  feet  in  length  by 
S  feet  in  width,  and  contained  in  a  square  inch  104  warp  threads  and  100  weft  threads, 
yet  the  entire  piece  weigln  d  only  B)4  ounces.  A  French  manufacturer,  M.  Thivcl  Mi- 
clion  of  Tavare,  has  made  a  muslin  of  English  yarn  spun  by  the  Met^srs  Houldsworth 
of  Manchester,  which  surpassed  the  finest  Dncca  in  the  excessive  thinness  ol  the  yarn, 
but  it  wanted  its  delicate  softness.  Muslin  is  much  le^^s  compact  in  its  texture  than 
calico,  iudee<l  it  more  nearly  resembles  gauze  in  appearance ;  but  it  is  woven  plain, 
without  any  twisting  of  the  weft  threads  with  those  of  the  warp.  Tlie  manufacture 
of  muslins  in  Great  Britain  and  France  is  very  extensive,  especially  printed  muslins, 
ill  which  the  patteras  are  produced  by  the  same  procei^ses  as  in  calico-printing.  See 
Weaving. 

MU'SNUD,  a  Persian  throne  of  state. 

MUSOPHA'GID^.    See  Plaintain-batbb. 

f7  MU'SQUASH,  Mnsk-Rat,  or  Ondatra  {Fiber  zibethicwi)^  a  rtdent  quadruped,  a 
native  of  North  America.  It  is  the  only  known  spicies  of  the  genus  to  which  it 
belongs,  which  is  characterised  by  denlit ion  similar  to  that  of  the  voles;  in  some 
other  characters  more  nearly  agi-eeiug  with  the  beaver.  The  M.  is  in  shape  nearly 
similar  to  the  brown  rat ;  the  head  and  body  are  about  15  inches  in  length,  the  tail 
ten  inches.  The  whole  l)ody  is  covered  with  a  short  dawny  dark-brown  fur,  inter- 
mixed with  longer  and  coarser  hairs.  It  Is  common  in  almost  all  parts  of  North 
America,  from  lat.  80°  to  lat.  69°,  except  in  the  southern  alluvial  districts.  It  ia  a 
Tery  aquatic  animal,  seldom  wandering  from  the  rivers,  lakes,  or  marshes  in  which 
it  makes  its  abode.  The  fur  is  in  demand,  and  forms  an  article  of  commerce — skins 
in  large  number  being  still  ex|)orted  from  America  to  Britain  and  other  European 
coQutries.  The  M.  burrows  in  the  bankit  of  streams  and  ponds  ;  the  entrances  of 
its  burrows  being  always  under  wat»T,  so  that  it  must  dive  to  reach  them.  In  marshes, 
the  M.  builds  u  kind  of  hut,  collecting  coarse  grasses  and  mud,  and  raising  the 
fabric  from  two  to  four  feet  about  the  water.  The  flesh  of  the  M.,  at  those  seasons 
when  it  is  fat,  is  in  some  request  among  the  American  Indians,  and  is  said  tu  be  not 
unpalatable. 

MUSSEL  (Mytilu8\  a  genus  of  lamelMbranchiate  molluscs,  the  type  of  the  family 
MytUidcB,  which,  however,  is  much  more  restricted  than  the  Linnseau  genus  MytiluB. 
The  MpUlidcB  belong  to  the  division  of  Lamellibranchiata.,  called  by  Lamarck 
Dimyaria^  having  two  adductor  muscles — muscles  employed  in  closing  the  valves  of 
the  shell.  The  mantle  has  a  distinct  anal  orifice ;  the  foot  is  small ;  and  there  is  a 
large  Byatnis  (q.  v.),  which  is  divided  into  fibres  to  its  base.  The  valves  of  the  shell 
are  equal ;  the  hinge  is  destitute  of  teeth.  Some,  but  few,  of  the  sjMJcies  are  found 
in  fresh-water,  ^e  Dbeissena.  Some  {Lithodomua)  burrow  in  stone.  How  they 
do  It  is  utterly  unknown,  but  they  do  burrow  even  in  the  hardest  stone ;  and  some 
small  tropical  species  excavate  for  themselves  holes  In  the  shells  of  great  limpets. 
The  LUhodomi  are  sometimes  called  DaU-9h6tt9»    Some  of  them  are  very  beaatifm. 


y  Google 


MuMelbvrgh  Afi 

Mustard  ^^ 

which  is  the  case  nlso  with  the  frne  ninnBel?,  nfter  the  epidermis  fs  remoTccL  Even 
tlie  CoMXON  M.  {M.  adults)  then  exliibiie  beautifnl  veins  of  blue.  This  8|)ecies  is 
very  abnuduut  on  the  British  coasts,  and  is  much  Ofed  as  bait  by  fishermen.  It  is 
gregarious,  and  is  found  in  vast  beds,  closely  crowded,  adlieriuK  by  the  byssiis  to 
rocks,  &c  Ttiesebeds  are  u&uully  uncovered  at  low- water.  The  shell  isoblonz; 
at  its  greatest  size  about  three  inches  Ion;:,  and  an  inch  and  a  half  broad.  Mussels, 
when  young,  move  about  by  means  of  the  foot,. with  which  they  lay  hold  of  objects 
and  drag  themselves  along,  until  they  find  some  suitable  spot  to  anchor  themselves 
by  a  byssuB.  If  detached,  they  soon  find  another  anchorage.  In  an  aquarium  they 
readily  attach  their  byssus-th reads  even  to  the  smooth  glass,  and  the  threads  may 
be  broken  more  easily  than  separated  from  the  t;lass.  An  ingenious  and  importaut 
application  of  the  strength  of  tliese  threads  has. been  made  by  the  French,  to  render 
Cherbourg  breakwater  more  secure  by  binding  tlie  loose  stones  together,  for  whicli 
purpose  it  wbb  planted 'witU  tons  of  mussels.  The  Common  M.  is  much  used  as  au 
article  of  food,  and  is  generally  found  quite  wholesome ;  yet  it  sometimes  proves 
poisonoufi,  particularly  in  spring  and  summer,  either  causing  blotches,  swellings, 
and  au  erupi ion,  accompanied  with  asthma,  or  a  kind  of  paralysis,  and  even  some- 
times producuig  delirium  and  deatli.  For  the  Fbbsh-watsb  Mussel,  sec  tbtik 
article. 

MU'SSELBITRGH,  a  small  seaport  and  royal  and  parliamentary  burgh  of  Scot- 
land, in  the  county  of  Edinburgh,  is  situated  at  the  month  of  the  Esk,  6  miles  east  of 
Edinburgh.  On  the  west  side  of  the  Esk  is  the  fishing  village  of  Fishecrow.  Tau- 
Bing,  leather-dressing,  and  the  manufacture  of  sailcloth,  nets,  and  salt  are  carried 
on.  Tiie  harbor  of  Fisln'rrow  is  frequented  by  coasting  craft,  and  by  small  vessels 
from  Holland  and  the  Baltic.  Timber,  oil-cake,  bark,  seeds,  and  liides  are  im- 
ported ;  coal  is  the  chief  export.  On  the  **  links^"  a  famous  golfing  ground,  the 
Edinburgh  races  tike  place  annually.  M.  unites  with  Leith  and  JPortobello  iu  send- 
iiig  a  member  to  Parliament    Pop.  (1871)  T517. 

V  MUSSET,  Louis  Charles  Alfred  de,  one  of  the  foremost  of  recent  French  poets* 
was  born  at  Paris,  11th  Nov.  1810.  He  studied  in  succession  medicine,  law,  finance* 
and  painting ;  but  finally,  under  the  influence  of  the  Romantic  School  (q.  v.),  de- 
voted himself  to  poetry.  The  first  work  that  attracted  notice  was  **-Les  Con t^s 
d'Sspainie  etd^talie  "  (1830),  which  by  their  elegant  but  audacious  seusuousness  gave 
deep  offence.  "  Le  Spectacle  dans  uu  Fanteuil "  (1632)  is  a  strange  medley  of  con- 
trasts. ^*  Les  Nuits  "  (1840).  admittedly  shew  his  lyrical  power  at  itsbest.  Many  of  the 
** Comedies  et  Proverbes "  were  popuhtr  on  the  stage;  and  M.  wrote  several  prose 
romances.  In  1852  he  was  admitted  to  the  French  Academy.  He  died  at  Pans,  2d 
May  186T.  The  exquisite  beauty,  tenderness,  and  power  of  much  of  M.'s  work  is 
continually  marred  by  the  morbid  pessimism  of  a  man  prematurely  old,  disillnstoned, 
blas^;  on  this  very  ground  M.  is  often  regarded  as  the  representative  poet  of  the 
modern  Parisian. 

MUSTANG.    SeeHoBSB. 

MUSTARD  {Sinapia)^  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Cruei/ercn,  having 
yellow  flowers,  and  linear  or  oblong  pods,  which  terminate  iu  a  swoi^-shafied  and 
compressed  or  4-comered  beak,  and  contain  one  row  of  seeds.  The  seeds  areglobu- 
lar,  and  tlieir  Cotyledons  (q.  v.)coudnplicate. — The  most  im)>ortant  species  is  Black 
M.  {S.  nigra),  au  annual,  which  grows  wild  in  flelds  and  by  waysides*  in  the  middle 
aud  south  of  Europe,  and  is  not  uncommon  in  the  southern  parts  of  Britain.  Its 
pods  are  bluntly  4-angled,  smooth,  erect,  and  lie  close  to  the  stem,  their  valves 
1-nerved ;  the  leaves  are  smooth,  the  lower  leaves  lyrate,  the  upper  leaves  linear- 
lanceolate.  The  seeds  are  brownish  black. — ^Whitb  M.  (S.  alba)^  also  a  native  of 
most  parts  of  Europe,  and  of  the  southern  parts  of  Britain,  is  an  annual,  having  diver- 
gent pods  covered  with  stiff  hairs,  the  valves  5-nerved,  the  seeds  yellowish,  the  leaves 
pinnatifld. — Both  these  species  are  caltivated  iu  Eenglaud  and  elsewhere,  fcMr  their 
seeds,  which  are  ground  into  powder  and  mixed  with  water,  to  make  the  well-knowu 
condiment  ctUled  Mustard.  The  powder  of  the  seeds  is  also  much  used  in  medicine 
as  a  rubefacient.  The  use  of  M.  as  a  condiment  is  often  found  favorable  to  diges- 
tion. M.  seeds  depend  for  their  pnrgency  on  a  principle  which,  when  water  is  acUled 
to  Black  M.,  forms  Volatile  Oil  of  Mustard,  (See  next  article.)  Tliere  is  also  iu  the 
seeds  a  bland  fixed  oil,  Oil  o/M,,  which  is  obtained  from  them  by  expression,  aud 


y  Google 


AH  Massetbargh 

*•  .  Mtuitard 

constihites  at)ont  28  per  cent,  of  their  welglit.  The  cake  which  remniiitf 
afUT  the  oil  is  expresw^d,  is  too  acrid  to  be  freely  used  for  feeding  cattle.  It  la 
Black  M.  which  ii*  chiefly  cnltiv  ted,  it;*  seed  being  more  pungent  and  powerful 
than  that  of  White  M. ;  but  there  is  more  difficulty  iu  removing  the  skin  of  its  seed 
than  that  of  White  H.,  which  is  therefore  olten  preferred,  but  more  in  Euglund 
than  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  M.  requires  a  very  rich  sdll.  It  is  cultivated  on 
the  alluvial  lands  of  the  level  eastern  counties  of  England.  Wiebeach,  in  Cambridge- 
shire,  is  the  great  M.  market  of  England.— White  M.  is  often  sown  in  gardens  and 
forced  in  hotlionses,  to  be  used  iu  the  seed-leaf  as  a  small  stilad,  having  a  pleasant 
pungency.  It  is  also  sometimes  sown  for  feeding  sheep,  when  turnip  or  rape  has 
failed,  being  of  veiy  rapid  growth,  although  inferior  m  quantity  of  crop. — Wild 
M.,  or  Charlock  (S.  anoensis)^  which  is  distinenished  by  turgid  and  knotty  pods 
witli  many  angles  and  longer  than-the  two-edged  beak,  is  a  most  troublesome  anun.tl 
weed  in  cornfields  iu  Britain,  often  making  them  yellow  with  its  flowers  in  t>so 
beginning  of  summer.  Its  seeds  are  said  to  have  yielded  the  original  Durham  M.^ 
and  are  still  gathered  for  mixing  with  those  of  the  cultivated  species.  The  blMiid 
oil  of  the  seeds  is  used  for  lamps.— Pekin  M.  (S.  Pekinenais)  is  an  annual,  very 
extensively  cultivated  in  China,  its  leaves  beinir  used  as  greens.  It  is  quite  hanly 
in  the  climate  of  Britiun.— Indian  M.  {S.  raviona)  is  extensively  cultivated  iu  India 
for  its  seeds,  which  are  used  as  a  condiment;  as  are  those  of  S.  aichoUmia  and  S. 

ftouca,  also  cnltivatecl  iu  India,  'i'he  oil  of  the  seeds  is  much  used  throughout 
ndia  for  lamps.  HillM.  is  a  different  genns,  J5i«m(w  (q.  v.).— Tlie  M.  Tree  of 
Scripture  is  supposed  to  l)e  Salvadma  Perinea^  a  Fmtill  tree  of  the  natural  order 
Salvadoraeece^  a  small  or^er  alii*  d  to  MyrHinacece,  It  abounds  in  many  narts  of  the 
East.  The  seid  has  an  aromatic  pungency,  and  is  used  like  mustard.  The  fruit  is 
a  berry  with  a  pungent  taste. 

Manufacture.— ^hQ  mannfr.ctnre  of  M.  ns  it  was  originally  used  in  this  country, 
and  as  it.  still  is  on  the  continent,  consisted  in  simply  grinding  tl  e  seed  into  very 
fine  meal.  A  false  tiiste,  however,  arose  for  having  an  improved  color,  and  the  flour 
of  mustard  was  introduced,  in  which  only  the  interior  portiqn  of  the  seed  is  used, 
tiie  husk  i)eing  separated,  as  the  bran  is  from  wheaten  flour.  This  causes  a 
great  loss  of  flavor,  as  the  pnngent  oil,  on  which  the  flavor  chiefly  depends,  exis»t  iu 
greiitest  abundance  iu  the  husk.— Hence  other  materials,  such  as  capsicum  powder, 
and  other  very  pungent  matters,  are  added  to  bring  up  the  flavor,  and  wheaten  flour 
and  other  substances  are  added  to  increase  the  bulk  and  lightness  of  color.  Indeed, 
so  manv  sophistications  have  been  added,  that  the  M.  of  the  En«rlish  tables  can  no 
longer  be  regarded  in  any  other  light  than  an  elaborately  compounded  condiment, 
for  which  each  mauufactuier  has  his  own  particular  recipe. 

MUSTARD,  Oil  of.  The  seeds  both  of  the  black  and  the  white  mustJird  yield  by 
expression  a  large  qnantily  of  a  bland  fixed  oil,  but  they  do  not  contain  any  essential 
or  volatile  oil  ready  formed.  It  is  only  the  black  mustard  which  by  distillation 
yields  the  compound  usually  known  as  the  oil  or  essence  of  nmstard,  and  which  is 
in  reaTity  snlphocyaiiide  of  ally  (see  Garlic,  oil  of)  contaminated  with  a  little  browu 
resinous  matter,  from  which  it  may  he  freed  by  simple  re-distillation. 

When  first  obtained,  it  is  a  colorless  fluid,  which  gradually  becomes  yellowish. 
It  has  a  painfully  pnngent  odor  and  acrid  laste;  and  when  applied  to  the  skin,  it 
e|>eedily  raises  a  blister.  It  is  soluble  in  all  proportions  in  alcohol,  but  dissolves 
very  sparingly  iu  water.  In  the  article  already  referred  to,  it  has  been  shewn  that 
this  oil  and  oil  of  garlic  are  naturally  convertible  into  one  another;  in  combina- 
tion with  ammonia  it  forms  a  compound  which  is  termed  thiosinnamine^  and  wliicli 
combines  directly  with  acids  like  a  true  organic  base.  Its  mode  of  formatiou  is  ex- 
plained by  the  equation-^ 
.  ^  Oil  of  Mustard.   Ammonia.    Thiosiunamiue.   • 


C«H5,CaNS3    +     NHa      =      CsHglSIaSa 
By  digesting  oil  of  mustard  with  alkalies,  or  with  hydrated  oxide  of  lead,  we  also 
obtain  a  feel>le  base  termed  siriapoline,  whose  formula  is  CJ4H13NJ1O3. 

The  <)il  is  formed  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  Volatile  Oil  ot  Almonds  (q.  v.). 
The  black  mustard  contains  the  potash  salt  of  a  compound  termed  myronic  acid^ 
and  a  peculiar  coagulable  nitrogenous  ferment,  which,  when  the  crushed  8e<;d  is 
luoifiteQed  with  water,  act  upon  each  other,  and  develop  the  oil.    It  is  the  gradual 


y  Google 


Mnstt  Ida  4  o 

Mutinjr  4o 

formatiou  of  this  oil,  when  powdered  innBtnrd  and  warm  water  are  mixed,  that  oc- 
casions the  special  actiou  of  tlie  coiniiiou  mustard  poultice.  The  pnugeiicy  of  mus- 
tard as  u  condiuieut,  of  horse-rudisli,  &C,  Is  mainly  due  to  the  presence  of  this  oil. 

MUS'I'E'LID^,  a  family  of  digitignide  Caniivora  (q.  v.),  mostly  forming  tlie 
genus  Mttstela  of  Linnteus ;  uow  divided  into  a  number  of  genera,  in  which  are 
raulced  the  weasel,  ermine  or  stout,  sable,  marten,  ferret.  |)OlecaC,  mink,  skunk,  &c 
The  M.  are  distinguished  by  the  eiongaied  form  of  the  body,  aud  the  shortness  of 
the  limbs;  also  by  having  generally  four  or  five  molars  ou  each  side  in  the  upper 
jaw,  and  five  or  six  in  the  lower.  On  each  side  of  lK>th  jaws  there  is  a  single  tuber- 
culate  tooth.  AH  the  feet  have  five  toes.  The  skull  is  much  elongated  behind  the 
eyet*.  The  M.  display  great  lithenoss  aud  suppleness  of  movement.  They  are  very 
caruivorous.    Otters  are  rauked  among  the  muslelidiB. 

MUSTER  (It  mostrare,  from  Lat  monstrare,  to  shew)  is  a  calliitff  over  of  tlic 
names  of  all  the  men  compos. ng  a  regiment  or  a  ship's  company.  Each  man  pre- 
sent answers  to  his  name,  tho5e  not  answering  being  returned  as  absent.  -The  mus- 
ter-roll from  wliicli  the  names  are  called  is  the  paymaster's  voucher  for  the  pay  he 
issues,  and  must  be  signed  by  the  coninnmdiug  offlcir,  the  adjutant,  and  himself. 
The  crime  of  signing  a  false  master-roll,  or  of  personating  another  individual  at  a 
muster,  is  held  most  severely  punishable— by  imprisonment  aud  flogging  for  a  com- 
mon Soldier,  by  immediate  cashiering  in  the  case  of  an  officer.  lu  regiments  of  the 
line,  A  muster  is  ttiken  ou  the  24th  of  eacii  month  ;  in  ships  of  war,  weekly.  The 
muster  after  a  battle  is  a  ra-lancholy  proceeding,  intended  to  shew  the  casualties 
death  has  wrought.  In  early  times,  before  the  anny  was  a  standing  force,  and  when 
each  captiiiu  was  a  sort  of  contractor  to  the  crown  for  so  many  men,  the  muster 
was  most  important,  as  the  only  security  tlie  sovereign  had  that  he  really  obtained 
the  services  of  the  number  of  men  for  whom  he  iwid.  Accordingly,  any  fraud, 
as  making  a  false  return,  or  as  musteriuiij  with  his  troop  men  not  actually 
serving  in  It,  was  by  the  Articles  of  War  of  Henry  V.  made  punishable  with  death 
for  the  second  offence,  and  by  Charles  I.  with  death  '*  without  mercy  "  for  even 
the  first  such  crime ;  while  any  person  abetting  in  any  way  iu  the  fraud  shared  the 
penalty. 

MU'SULMAN,  MosU^nan,  a  Mohammedan  (from  Arab.  ScUama),  equivalent  to 
Moslem,  of  which  word  it  is,  properly  speakiuij,  the  plural ;  used  in  Pei-sian  fahhlou 
for  the  singular.  We  need  hardly  add  that  this  Arabic  plural  termination  of  '*&u," 
has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  our  word  man^  and  that  a  Cuither  English  plural 
in  «icn,  is  both  barbarous  and  absurd. 

MUTE,  a  small  instrument  used  to  modify  tlie  sound  of  the  violin  or  violoncello. 
It  is  made  of  hard  wood,  ivory,  or  brass,  and  is  attached  to  the  bridge  by  nieims  of 
a  slit,  a  leg  of  it  being  interjectetl  between  every  two  strings.  The  use  of  the  mute 
both  softens  the  tone,  and  imp  irts  to  it  a  peculiar  muffled  aud  tremulous  quality, 
wiiiuh  is  sometimes  very  effective.  Its  application  is  indicated  by  the  lettei*s,  c,  «., 
or  con  sordino^  and  its  discontinuance  by  «.  «.,  or  senza  aordvio.  The  mute  is  some- 
times used  for  the  cornet,  being  inserted  into  the  bell  of  the  iustrtiment,  thereby 
subduing  the  sound,  and  prodncitig  the  effect  of  great  distiince. 
\  MU-^riNY  (Fr.  mutiner^  from  mttthi^  **  riotous."  "  Mutiu  "  is  connected  with  an 
'  old  French  meute^  still  seen  in  imetUe^  a  **  sedition,"  and  is  therefore  from  the 
Latin  moiiere,  "  to  move  "  or  **  btir  up."  The  supposition  that  the  word  is  derived 
from  the  Latiu  mutiOy  a  '^  muttering,'^  is  a  mistake).  The  term  is  used  to  denote  be- 
havior either  by  woixl  or  deed  subversive  of  discipline,  or  tending  to  undermine  su- 
perior authority.  Till  lately,  mutiny  comprised  speaking  disrespectfully  of  the  sover- 
eign, royal  family,  or  Ktyieral  conimauding,  quarrelling,  And  resisting  arrest  while 
quarrelling,but  these  offences  have  now  been  reduced  to  the  lesser  crime  of  **  mntin- 
ous  conduct."  The  acts  now  constituting  mutiny  proper  are,  exciting,  cimsing,  or 
joining  ih  any  mutiny  or  sedition  ;  when  present  thereat,  failing  to  use  the  utmost 
effort  to  suppress  it ;  when,  knowing  of  a  mutiny  or  intended  mutiny,  failing  to 
give  notice  of  it  to  the  commanding  officer ;  striking  a  superior  officer,  or  using  or 
offering  any  violence  against  him,  while  iu  the  execution  of  his  duty;  di8ot)eyiug 
tlie  lawful  command  of  a  superior  officer.  The  punishment  awarded  by  the  Mutiny 
Act  to  these  crimes  is,  if  the  culprit  be  an  officer,  death  or  such  other  pnuishmcutas 


y  Google 


49 


.   Mn&toUdA 
Matinr 

a  gc^neral  conrt-marshal  shall  award ;  if  a  Boldier,  deatli*  ponnl  scrvitnde  for  not  Icra 
than  four  venrH,  or  8nch  otiier  puiii»iuneui  us  a  gciierni  cuiirl-inartial  ahall  award. 
As  tlie  crime  of  mutiny  liat<  a  tendency  lo  Inimediately  destroy  all  antliorlty  and  all 
coljesion  in  the- naval  or  military  body,  commanding  omcers  liave  strong  nowers  to 
Bfop  it  summarily.  A  drnm-ljead  conit-umrtiul  nmy  sentence  an  offeniler.  nnd  if 
the  case  be  nrgent,  and  the  spread  of  the  mutiny  appreliendod,tl«e  Immediate  execu- 
tion of  tlio  mutineer  may  follow  within  a  few  mlnut*  s  of  the  detection  of  his  crime. 
It,  however,  belioves  commanding  officers  to  exercise  this  extraoi-dintiry  power  with 
grejii  caution,  as  tlie  use  of  so  absolute  an  antlmrlty  is  nari-owly  and  jealously 
watched.  To  prevent  mutiny  among  men,  the  officers  sliould  be  strict  without  hnrsli- 
ness,  kind  without  familiarity,  attentive  to  all  the  just  rights  of  their  subordinates, 
and,  above  all  things,  most  particular  iu  the  carrying  out  to  the  very  letter  of  any 
promise  they  may  have  made. 

MUTINY  ACT  is  an  Act  of  the  British  parliament,  paused  from  year  to  year.  Invest- 
ing the  crown  with  large  {>owers  to  regulate  the  gooil  government  of  the  army  and 
navy,  and  to  frame  the  articles  of  war.  By  the  Bill  ot  Riglits,  the  maintenance  of  a 
pta'.iding  army  In  time  of  peace,  unless  by  consent  of  'parliament,  was  declared  ille- 
gal, ana  from  tiiat  time  the  number  of  troops  to  l)e  maintained,  and  the  cost  of  the 
different  branches  of  the  service,  have  l)een  regulated  by  an  annual  vote  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  But  parliament  iiossesses  a  further  and  very  important  source  of  con- 
trol over  the  army.  Soldiers,  in  time  of  war  or  rel>ellion,  being  subject  to  martial 
law,  may  Imj  punished  for  mutiny  or  desertion  ;  but  the  occurrence  of  a  mutiny  in 
ceruiin  Scotch  regiments  soon  after  the  Kevolution,  raisid  the  question,  whether 
iiiiiiiary  discipline  could  be  maintained  in  time  of  peace ;  and  it  \p\»  decided  by  the 
courts  of  law,  that,  in  the  absence  of  any  statute  to  enforce  discipline  nnd  punish 
juilitai-y  offences,  a  soldier  was  only  amenable  to  the  common  law  of  the  country; 
if  he  deserted,  he  was  ojily  liable  for  beach  of  contract,  orif  he  struck  his  officer,  to 
an  indictment  for  assault.  The  authority  of  the  l^islature  thus  became  indispensa- 
ble to  the  maintenance  of  militarv  discipline,  and  parliament  has,  since  1C89,  at  the 
"boginnineof  every  session,  conferred  this  and  other  powers  in  an  act  called  the 
Mutiny  Act,  limited  in  its  durution  to  a  year.  Although  it.  is  greatly  changed  from 
the  form  in  which  it  first  pa?8ed,  175  years  ago.  the  annniU  alttiiations  in  thT>«  act  are 
uow  very  slight,  and  substantially  it  has  a  fixed  form.  The  preamble  starts  with  the 
above  quoted  declaration  from  the  Bill  of  Rights,  and  adds,  that  it  is  judged  neces- 
saty  by  the  sovereign  and  parliament  that  a  force  of  such  a  number  should  l)e  con- 
tinued, "  for  the  safety  of  the  United  Kingdom,  the  defence  of  the  possessions  of 
the  crown;**  while  it  gives  authority  to  the  sovereign  to  enact  Articles 
of  War  for  the  control  and  government  of  tlie  force  granted.  'JMic  act  com- 
prises 107  clauses,  of  which  the  first  five  specify  tlie  i>ei>on8  liable  to  its  pro- 
visions— viz.,  all  enlisted  soldiers  or  commissioned  officers  on  full  pay,  and  to  those 
of  the  regular  army,  militia,  or  yeomanry,  when  employed  on  active  service,  and  to 
recruits  for  the  militia  while  under  training.  Clauses  6—14,  treat  of  couits-martial, 
their  procedure  and  powers.  Clauses  15 — &,  rel.ite  to  crimes  and  their  punishment, 
the  le:iding  offences  l)eing  mutiny,  des»  riion,  cowardici*,  treason,  insubordination, 
for  each  of  which  deatli  may  be  the  penalty  ;  frauds,  embezzlement,  &c.,  for  which 
ptuial  sei-vitnde  is  awarded.  Clauses  29—33,  provide  far  the  government  of  military 
prisons,  and  for  the  reception  of  soldiers  in  civil  jails,  under  the  sentences  of  courts- 
martial.  Clauses  34— 3T,  enact  rules  to  guide  civil  magistrates  in  apjjrehending  de- 
serters or  persons  suspected  of  desertion.  Clause  38  refers  t«  furlough ;  39—41,  on 
the  privileges  of  soldiers,  enact  that  officers  may  not  lie  sheriffs  or  mayors ;  tliat  no 
person  acquitted  or  convicted  by  a  civil  magistrate  or  jury  be  tried  by  court-martial 
for  the  same  offence ;  and  that  soldiers  can  only  be  taken  out  of  tlie  service  for  debts 
aliove  jeSO,  and  for  felony  or  misdemeanor.  Clauses  42—59,  have  reference  to  Enlist- 
ment (q.  V.) ;  60—74,  to  stoppages,  billets,  carriages,  and  ferries,  providing  for  the 
coinpulsoiy  conveyance  and  entertainment  of  troops  by  innkeepers.  Clause  76  re- 
lates to  the  discharge  of  soldiers ;  and  the  remaining  23  clauses  advert  to  miscel- 
laneous matters,  and  the  penalties  under  the  act  on  civil  functionaries  who  neglect 
to  comply  with  Its  requirements,  Bv  chinses  105  and  106  the  militia,  yeomanry,  and 
volunteers,  may,  on  emergency,  be  attached  1«  the  Kegnlar  Forces.  Clause  10»  ren- 
ders a  soldier  liable  to  maintain  his  wife  and  children,  and  his  bastard  children. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Mntnal  'firri  ' 

Mr.itta  OU 

MUTUAL  INSTRUCTION.    See  Mokitorial  Ststbm. 

MU'TTRA,  or  Mathnrd,  a  town  of  British  India,  capital  of  a  district  in  the  n. 
w.  Provinces,  97  miles  8.s.e.  of  Diliii,  U  situited  on  tlie  ri^lit  bank  of  the  Jaintia. 
The  fort  was  built  bribe  ct^lebrated  aetroiioiner,  Jey  Singh  (who  l)ecanie  Prince  of 
Amber  in  1693);  ana  on  the  roof  uf  one  nf  the  ti}>artmeut«  i»  a  rninous  observa- 
tory, contain  lug  a  great  nninber  of  ast.ronoinicaJ  ini^tniment?.  Access  is  bad  to 
tiie  river— whiclj,  along  with  the  town,  is  considered  sacred  by  the  Hindas — by  iia- 
inerons gh&ts,  ornamented  with  little  temples;  and  its  banks  are,  every  moniini; 
and  evening;,  crowded  by  devotees  of  all  u^es  and  both  sexes,  to  perform  their  reli- 
cions  exercises.    In  Hindu  Mythology,  it  is  regarded  as  the  birthplace  of  the  diviuo 


ity  Krishna.  In  honor  of  the  nionk.^y-god  Hanuman,  monkeys  are  here  protected 
and  fed,  l)ein^  allowed  to  swarm  everywhere.  There  are  also  great  numbers  of  parro- 
qnets,  peacocks,  and  sacred  hulls  at  large,  without  owner*.    There  is  a  very  ext*Mi- 


sive  military  cantonment  about  a  mile  sontii  of  the  town.  M.  appears  at  an  earJy- 
.  period  to  have  been  of  much  more  importance  than  it  is  at  present;  and  its  enor- 
mons  wealth  and  splendor  made  it  an  object  of  attack  to  the  first  Afghan  invaders. 
Mahmnd  of  Ghnznee,  in  lOlT,  gave  it  up  to  |)lnnder,  breaking  down  a  id  burning 
all  the  idols,  and  amassing  a  vast  quantity  of  gold  and  silver,  of  which  the  idols 
were  made.  After  this  calamity,  it  sank  into  comparative  ol>scurity.  In  Oct.  1803, 
it  was,  without  resistance,  ocupied  by  the  British  troops.    Pop.  (1872)  59,281. 

MU'TULE,  a  plain  block  under  the  corona  of  the  cornice  of  the  Doric  style,  sim- 
ilar in  position  to  the  modallio  of  the  Ooriuthian  order,  and  having  a  number  ot 
guttse  or  drops  worked  ou  the  under  side.    See  Entablature. 

MU'TUUM  is'  a  term  used  in  Scotch  Law,  borrowed  from  the  Roman  law,  to  de- 
note a  contract  of  loan  of  a  certain  kind  of  things,  as  corn,  wine,  money,  which  are 
consumed  in  the  use,  and  as  to  which  the  borrower  is  bound  to  restore  as  much  of 
the  same  kind  at  some  future  time. 

MUZA  IBN  NOSEYR,  the  Arab  conqueror  of  Spain,  was  bom  640  a.d.  He  dis- 
played great  bravery  and  high  military  talents  in  the  contests  of  that  turbulent  perio<i, 
so  much  so  that  he  was  appointed  by  the  calif  general  of  the  army  which  was  raised 
lor  the  conquest  of  Africa  in  698— <599.  After  an  insignificant  expedition  into  the 
interior  of  Africa,  he  set  out  in  707  for  Mauritania,  conquering  the  kindred  tribes 
of  Eastern  Barbary,  and  enrolling  their  waiTiors  under  liis  standard  ;  and  by  709, 
the  whole  of  Northern  Africa,  including  the  Gothic  strongholds  on  the  coast,  acknow- 
ledged the  authority  of  the  calif.  At  tbis  period  the  Gothic  monarchy  in  Spain  was 
in  a  state  of  complete  disorganisation,  and  M..  seizing  the  favorable  opt)ortunity 
thus  presented,  sent  his  lieutenant.  Tarik  Ibn  Zeiad,  in  April  711  to  make  an  incur- 
sion into  Spain.  Tarik  landed  at  Gibraltar,  marched  inland  to  the  lianks  of  the  Gua- 
dalete,  where  he  was  met  by  Roderic  the  Gothic  king.  In  the  battle  which  ensued, 
the  Goths  were  decisively  vanquished,  their  king  perished  in  the  waters  of  the  Gtm- 
delete,  and  the  whole  of  Soutliern  Spain  lay  at  thd  mercy  of  the  victor.  M.,  on  hear- 
ing of  these  successes,  sent  orders  to  Tarik  to  halt  for  further  instructions ;  but  the 
lieutenant,  flushed  with  success,  pressed  ou  to  tbe  very  centre  of  Spain,  and  seized 
Toledo,  the  capital  of  the  Gothic  kingdom.  M.  immediately  set  out  for  Spain  at  the 
head  of  48,000  men  (June  712),  took  Seville,  Carmona,  Merida,  and  otlier  towns,  and 
tlieu  marched  upon  Toledo,  where  he  joined  Tarik,  whom  he  caused  to  be  bastina- 
doed and  incarcerated,  but  afterwards  reinstated  in  obedience  to  an  order  from  the 
calif.  M.  then  marched  first  north-west  and  then  east,  suMning  the  country  as  he 
went ;  lie  then  crossed  the  Pyrenees  into  France,  but  soon  after  retnnjed  to  Spain, 
where  he  and  Tarik  received  messages  from  the  calif,  commanding  their  immediate 
presence  at  Damascus ;  Tarik  imm«liately  obeyed,  but  M.  delayed  till  a  second  mes- 
sage was  sent  to  him.  On  reaching  Damascus,  he  was  treated  with  neglect^  and,  on 
the  acce&sion  of  the  Calif  Suleiman,  was  cast  into  prison,  and  mulcted  in  200,000 
pieces  of  gold ;  feis  two  sous  were  deprived  of  their  governments  of  Kairwan  and 
'1  angler ;  and  the  third  son,  who  governed  Spain  in  his  father's  absence,  was  be- 
beacled,  and  his  head  sent  to  Muza.  M.  died  soon  after  in  the  greatest  poverty,  at 
Hedjaz,  717  a.d. 

MYCE'LIUM,  in  Botany,  a  development  of  vegetable  life  x>eculiar  to  Fimgiy  but 
"tpureutly  common  to  all  tbe  species  of  that  order.    Tlie  spaton  of  mushrooms  is 


Digitized  by 


Google 


'R1*  Mnttud 

^^  Mfiiti* 

the  Myceliam.  The  M.  appears  to  he  a  proriflon  for  the  propagation  of  the  plant 
where  its  8i>ores  may  not  reacli,  its  extension  in  the  poil  or  mau^  in  wliich  it  ezisti*, 
and  its  preservation  when  circamstances  are  uufavurable  to  its  farther  development. 
Itconsistsof  elongated  filaments,  simple  or  jointed,  eitoated  either  within  the  matrix 
or  upon  its  surface.  It  is  often  membranons  or  pulpy.  The  development  of  tlie 
fnngus  in  its  proper  form  seems  to  be  ready  to  take  place,  in  proptr  clrcamsitancut*. 
from  any  part  of  the  Mycelium.  Fungi  often  remain  long  in  the  state  of  M.,  and 
many  liinds  of  M.  have  beoi  described  as  distinct  sptcies  and  formed  into  genera. 
Fries  has  rendered  great  service  to  botany  in  investigating  these  spurious  speciis 
and  cenera,  and  detcrmhiing  their  true  nature.— Liquors,  in  which  the  flocculent  M. 
of  ainngus  is  spreading,  are  said  to  be  niotbery, 

MYCE'N^,  a  very  ancient  city  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Argolls,  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, built  npou  a  craggy  height,  is  said  lo  have  been  founded  by  Persens.  It 
Mas  the  capital  of  Agamenmon's  kmgdom,  and  was  at  that  time  tlie  principal  city  in 
Greece.  About  468  B.  c,  it  was  destroye<l  by  the  inhabitants  of  Arjros,  and  never 
roj?e  again  from  its  ruins  to  anything  like  its  former  prosperity.  In  8tralK)'8  time  its 
ruins  only  remained ;  these  are  still  t«  be  seen  in  tlie  neiehborbood  of  Kliarvati. 
and  are  specimens  of  Cyclopean  architecture.  The  most  celebrated  is  the  **  Gate  ot 
Lions,"  the  chief  entrance  to  the  ancient  Acropolis.  Excavations  prosecuted  at  M. 
by  Dr  Henry  Schlieniann,  brought  to  light  in  1876  ieveral  ancient  tombs,  coutaiu- 
ing  a  large  quantity  of  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  Ac. 

MYELI'TIS  {myeloSf  maiTOw)  is  the  term  employed  to  signify  inflammation  of 
the  substance  of  the  spinal  cord.  It  may  l)e  either  acute  or  chronic,  but  the  latter  is 
by  far  tlie  most  common  affection.  The  chronic  form  l)egins  \sitli  a  little  nneasin<*S8 
in  the  spine,  somewhat  disordered  sensations  in  the  extremities,  and  unusual  fatigue 
after  any  slight  exertion.  After  a  short  time  paralytic  symptoms  appear,  and 
ftlowly  increase.  The  gait  becomes  uncertain  and  tottering,  and  at  length  the  limbs  > 
fail  to  support  the  body.  The  paralysis  finally  attack?  the  oladder  and  rectum,  and 
the  evacuations  are  discharged  involuntarily  ;  and  death  ta,ke8  place  as  the  result  of 
exhaustion,  or  occasionally  of  asphyxia  if  the  paralysis  involves  the  chest.  In  the 
acute  form  there  is  much  pain  (especially  in  the  spinal  region),  which  usually  ceases 
when  paralysis  supervenes.  The  other  symptoms  are  the  same  as  tho^e  of  the 
chronic  form,  but  they  occur  more  rapidly  and  with  greater  severity,  and  deatii  some- 
times takes  place  in  a  few  days. 

The  most  common  causes  of  this  disease  are  falls,  blows,  and  strains  from  over- 
exertion ;  but  sexual  abuses  and  intemperate  habits  occasionally  Induce  it.  It  may 
also  result  from  other  diseases  of  the  spine  (as  caries),  or  may  oe  propagated  from 
inflannnation  of  the  corresponding  tissue  of  the  brain. 

The  treatment,  which  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  inflammation  elsewhere,  mn^t 
1)e  confided  entirely  to  the  medical  practitioner ;  and  it  is  therefore  unnecessary  to 
enter  into  any  details  regarding  it-  When  confirmed  paralysis  has  set  in,  there  is 
little  to  hope  for,  but  in  the  early  stage  the  disease  is  often  checked  by  judicious 
remedies. 

MT'GALE,  a  genus  of  spiders,  the  type  of  a  family  called  MygaXidae.  They  have 
four  pulmonary  sacs  and  spiracles,  four  spinnerets,  eight  eyes,  and  hairy  legs. 
They  make  silken  nests  in  clefts  of  trees,  rocks,  &c.,  or  in  the  ground,  sometimes 
burrowing  to  a  great  depth,  and  very  tortuously.  To  this  genus  belongs  the  bird- 
catx;hing  Spider  (g.  v.)  of  Surinam ;  but  it  seems  now  to  he  ascertained  that  several 
of  the  larger  species  frequently  prey  on  small  vertebrate  animals.  They  do  not  take 
their  prey  by  means  of  webs,  but  hunt  for  it  and  i>onnce  upon  it  by  surprise.  They 
construct  a  silken  dwelling  for  themselves  in  some  sheltered  retreat  Some  of  them 
make  a  curious  lid  to  their  nest  or  burrow.  They  envelop  their  eggs,  wliieh  are 
numerous,  in  a  kind  of  cocoon. 

MYLA'BRIS.  a  genus  of  coleopterous  insects,  nearly  allied  to  CarUharis  (q.  v.), 
and  deserving  of  notice  because  of  the  use  made  of  some  of  the  species  as  blister- 
ing flies.  M.  eichorii  is  thus  used  in  China  and  India ;  and  M.  Fuesselini^  a  native 
of  the  south  of  Europe,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  blistering  fly  of  the  ancients. 

MYLI'TTA  (?  corresponding  to  Heb.  Meyleadeth,  Genitrix,  who  causes  to  bear), 
a  female  deity,  apparently  first  worshipped  amon>;the  Babylonians,  who  gradually 


y  Google 


Mylodon  ftn 

MfTTh  ^-^ 

spread  her  worship  throngh  Assyria  and  Persia.  She  Is  originally,  liicc  almost  eyery 
otiier  inytholoeical  deity,  u  cusinic  eymbol,  and  reprcHents  the  female  pen  ion  of 
the  twofold  prniciDle  tiirongh  whicli  all  creation  bni-st  iut)  extsteHce,  and  which 
alone,  by  its  united  active  ami  passive  powers,  upholds  it.  M.  is  to  a  certiilu  degree 
tlie  representative  of  E.irtli,  the  Mother  who  conceives  from  the  Sun,  Bel  or  Bsial. 
M.  and  Baal  together  are  considered  the  type  of  the  ♦'  Gootl."  Procreation  thns  being 
the  basis  of  M.'h  office  in  nature,  the  act  itself  became  a  Icind  of  worship  to  M.,  and 
was  liallowed  through  and  lor  her.  Tims  it  came  to  pass  that  every  Babylouian 
woman  had  once  in  her  life  to  give  herself  up  to  a  stranger,  and  thereby  considered 
her  pei-son  consecrated  lo  tlie  great  goddess.  Tli«;  sacrifice  itself  set^mo.  especially 
in  ilie  early  stage  of  Its  introduction  among  the  divine  rites  of  the  primitive  Baby- 
lonians, to  have  had  much  less  of  the  repulsiveness  which,  in  tlie  eyes  of  highly- 
cultivated  nations,  mnst  be  attaclied  to  it;  and  It  wius  only  in  later  days  that  it  gave 
ri:4e  to  the  prov(>rbial  Babylonian  lewdness.  Herodotus's  account  of  this  subject 
must,  like  almost  all  his  otiier  stories,  be  received  witli  great  caution. 

MY'LODON  (Gr.  grinder- teeth),  a  genus  of  huge  fossil  sloths,  whose  remains 
are  found  in  the  Pleistocene  deposits  ot  South  America,  aHsociated  with  the  Mega- 
therium and  other  allied  genera.  A  complete  skeleton,  dug  up  at  Buenos  Ayres, 
measured  11  feet  from  the  fore  part  of  the  skull  to  the  end  of  the  tail.  Although 
like  the  modern  sloth  in  general  structure  and  dentition,  its  immense  size  forbids  us 
to  suppose  that  it  could  have  had  the  same  arl>oreal  habits,  and  the  modifications  of 
Uh  structure  seem  to  have  fitted  it  for  the  uprooting  and  prostrating  of  the  trees,  the 
foliage  of  which  supplied  it  with  food. 

MY'NIAS,  more  accurately  Minyas,  was,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  son  of 
Cliryscs.  He  was  king  of  Jolcos,  and  gave  his  name  to  the  people  called  Minyce. 
He  built  the  city  of  Orchomenus,  where  rites  (named  after  him)  were  celebrated  in 
his  honor.  His  three  daughters  Clymene,  Iris,  and  AlcithoS,  according  to  Ovid,  but 
Lenconofi,  Leucippe,  and  Alcithoe  according  to  other  authors,  were  changed  into 
bats  for  liaving  coutemued  the  mysteries  of  Bacchus. 

MYNPURI.  or  Mainpuri,  a  town  of  British  India,  capital  of  a  district  in  the  N. 
W.  Provinces,  i"*  situated  on  the  banks  of  a  small  affluent  of  Ihe  Ganges,  160  miles 
sonth-east  of  Delhi.  It  lies  at  an  elevation  of  6'm  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  a 
favorite  station  for  troops,  as  provisions  and  water  are  abundant  and  good.  M. 
imssesses  a  Jaiu  temple.  The  rebels  were  driven  from  this  place  in  1851.  Pop. 
(1871)21,179. 

MYOSO'TIS.    See  Fobqbt-mb  not. 

MY'RCIA,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  HfprtacecB,  to  which  belongs  the 
Wild  Clovb  or  Wild  Cinnamon  of  the  West  Indies  (M.  acn's)  a  handsome  tree  of 
20  or  30  feet  high.  Its  timber  is  very  hard,  red,  and  heavy.  Its  leaves  have  an 
aromatic  cinnamon-like  smell,  and  an  agreeable  astringcucy,  and  are  used  iu 
sauces.  Its  berries  are  round,  and  as  large  as  p<^as,  have  an  aromatic  smell  and 
taste,  and  are  used  for  culinary  purposes. — The  leavi'S,  berries,  and  flower-l)uds  of 
M.  pimentoides  have  a  liot  taste  and  fragraut  smell,  and  are  also  used  for  culinary 
purposes. 

MYRIA'PODA  (Gr.  myriad-footed),  a  class  of  Articulat€h  resembling  Atinelida  in 
their  lengthened  form,  and  in  the  great  number  of  equal,  or  nearly  equal,  segments 
of  which  the  body  is  composed ;  but  in  most  of  their  other  characters  more  nearly 
agreeing  with  insects,  among  which  they  were  ranked  by  the  earlier  naturalists,  and 
still  are  by  some.  They  have  a  distinct  head,  but  there  is  no  distinction  of  the  other 
segments,  as  in  Insects,  into  thorax  and  abdomen.  They  have  simple  or  compound 
eyes ;  a  few  are  destitute  of  eyes.  They  have  auteriuae  like  those  of  insects.  The 
mouth  is  furnished  with  a  complex  masticating  apparatus,  iu  some  resembling  that 
of  some  insects  in  a  larval  state,  iu  others,  similar  to  that  of  crustaceans.  Reispira- 
tion  is  carried  on  through  minute  pores  or  spiracles,  placed  on  each  side  along  the 
entire  length  of  the  body,  the  air  being  disiributed  by  innumerable  ramifying  air- 
tubes  to  all  parts,  in  most  parts  of  their  internal  organisation  the  M.  resemble  in- 
s«'ct»s;  although  a  decided  inferiority  is  exhibited,  particularly  in  the  less  perfect 
"oiu-entration  of  the  nervous  system.    'I'iie  resemblance  is  greater  to  insects  in  their 

■'al  tlian  In  their  iierfect  state.    The  body  of  the  M.  is  protected  by  a  hard  chitin- 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


53  5K,fr 


Myrrh 

mu  covering.  The  nnm1)er  of  poginents  le  varions,  ncldom  fewer  than  24  •.  oUboiigh 
iiiBOiiie  of  tlie  higher  genera  they  tire  consolidaeed  together  in  pnin*,  t*o  tbnl  euch 
pair,  auletiB  cl08<'ly  exuinined)  ini{rht  be  cotipidered  lui  one  8«-gnieDt  bearing  two  pairs 
of  feet  The  legs  of  some  of  the  lower  kinde,  as  JuIhb  (q.  v.),  are  very  uunierons, 
nud  may  be  regarded  us  intermediate  between  the  briftle-liiie  appendages  wliicli 
serve  many  annelids  as  organs  of  locomotion,  and  the  distinctly  articulated  legs  (if 
insects.  In  the  higlier  M.,  as  8col(mendra,  the  legs  are  mncli  fewer,  and  articnlnted 
lilte  tlioee  of  insects.  None  of  the  M.  Iiave  winss.  Some  of  them  feed  on  decaying 
organic  matter,  chiefly  vegetable;  those  of  liTglier  orgnuisaiion  are  camivorons. 
Tiie  M.  do  not  amlergo  cha>gc8  so  givat  as  tliose  of  insects,  but  emerge  from  tlie 
egg  more  similar  to  what  they  are  ultimately  to  l>ecome;  altJiough  fome  of  them  are 
at  first  quite  destitute  of  feet;  and,  contrary  to  wliat  lakes  place  in  insects,  tlie  body 
becomes  more  elongated  as  maturity  is  approached,  the  number  of  segments  and  of 
feet  increasing. 

The  M.  are  divided  into  two  orders:  the  lower,  Chilog^^atha  (JuluSi  Ac),  havinc 
the  body  sulMjyIiudrical,  the  feet  very  nninerous,  the  head  rounded,  the  mandibles 
thick  and  strong;  the  higher,  Chil<^wda  { ScolopetidrOy  Ac),  having  the  body  flat- 
tened, the  feet  comparatively  few,  the  head  broad,  the  mandiblts  sharp  and  curvid. 

The  M.  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  in  the  ground,  among  moss,  under 
stones,  in  the  decaying  bark  of  trees,  in  decaying  root**,  and  in  many  similar  situa- 
tions. The  largest  8i)ecie8  are  tropical.  They  are  all  generally  rejjarded  with  aver- 
sion. It  is  doubtful  how  far  any  of  them  are  injurious  to  crops,  although  it  is  not 
improbalile  that  they  accelerate  rottenness  already  begun  ;  but  some  (Centipedes) 
have  a  venomous  and  painful  bite.     . 

MYRl'CA.    See  Camdlebebbt. 

MYRISTICA'CEuE.    See  Nutmeo. 

MYRl'STIC  ACID  (Ca8Ha,Oj,IIO)  is  a  crystalline  fatty  acid,  found  in  the  seed" 
of  the  common  nutmeg,  Myristica  mosclMtcu  It  occurs  in  the  form  of  a  glyceride 
in  the  fat  of  the  nutmeg,  or  nutmeg  butter.  It  has  recently  been  foundln  small 
quantity  amongst  the  products  of  thu  saponification  of  spermaceti,  and  of  the  fatty 
matter  of  milk;  and  hence  this  organic  acid  must  be  ranked  amongst  those  which 
are  common  both  to  the  duiinal  and  v^etable  kingdoms. 

MYBMECOTHAGA.    See  Amt-batbr. 

MYRO'BALANS,  the  astringent  fruit  of  cerfaiin  species  of  Termiiialia,  trees  of 
the  natural  order  Conibretaeeig,  natives  of  tlie  mountains  of  India.  The  genus  Ter- 
mtno/ia  has  a  deciduous  l>ell-siia|>ed  calyx  and  no  corolla;  tlie  fruit  is  a  juiceless 
drupe.  T.  Beleriait  a  species  with  alternate  elliptical  entire  leaves,  on  long  slalkM, 
produces  great  ^wirt  of  tb«  M.  of  commerce  ;  but  the  fruits  of  other  species  often 
appear  under  the  same  name.  Tonic  properties  are  ascnbed  to  M.;  but  although 
once  in  great  repute,  tliey  are  now  scarcely  used  in  medicine.  They  are  used,  how- 
ever, by  tanners  and  by  dyers,  and  have  therefore  become  u  very  considerable  article 
of  iini)ortation  from  India.  They  give  a  durable  vellow  color  with  alum,  and,  with 
the  iiddition  of  iron,  an  excellent  h\nck.--Emblie  M.  are  the  fruit  ot  Emblica 
ogieinalis,  of  the  natural  order  EuphorbiacecB^  a  native  of  India.  They  are  used  in 
Lidia  as  a  tonic  and  aairhigent ;  also  in  tanning  and  in  the  making  of  ink. — There  is 
a  kind  of  plum  called  the  MyrobcUan  Plum,    See  Plum. 

MYRKH  (Heb.  war),  a  gum  resin  produced  by  Balsamodendron  (q.  v.)  mprrha^ 
a  tree  of  the  uuturul  order  kmvndao«eB,  growing  in  Arabia,  and  probably  also  in 
Abyssinia.  The  M.  tree  is  small  and  scrubby,  spiny,  with  whitish-gray  bark,  lliinly- 
scattered  small  leaves,  each  cousistlni;  of  three  obovate  obtusely  tootliletted  leaflets, 
and  the  fruit  a  smooth  brown  ovate  drupe,  somewhat  larger  than  a  pea.  M.  exudes 
from  the  bark  in  oily  yellowish  drops,  which  gradually  thicken  and  finally  become 
bard,  the  color  ut  the  same  time  becoming  darker.  M.  has  been  known  and  valued 
from  the  most  ancient  times;  it  Is  mentioned  as  an  article  of  commerce  in  Gen. 
zxxvli.  26,  and  was  amongst  the  presents  which  Jacob  sent  to  the  Egyptian  ruler, 
and  amongst  those  which  the  wise  men  from  the  East  brought  to  the  infant  Jesuf. 
It  was  an  ingredient  in  the  **  holy  anointing  oil "  of  the  Jews.  M.  appears  in  com- 
merce either  in  tears  and  grains,  or  in  pieces  of  irregular  form  and  various  sizes, 
yeUow,  red,  or  reddish  brown.    It  Is  brittle,  and  has  a  waxy  fracture,  often  exhlbit- 


y  Google 


Myrsinacea  Ki 

Mysteries  *^* 

ing  whitish  veins.  Its  smell  Is  balsnmic,  its  ti^iite  nrorantic  ntid  bitter.  It  is  nned  In 
medicine  as  u  tonic  and  stimuluut,  in  disorders  of  tlie  dit^cstive  oi'gniis,  cxcesi<ive  se- 
cretions from  the  mncous  uiembruues,  &c.,  aiso  to  cleuuse  foal  ulcers  and  promote 
their  healing,  and  us  a  dentifrice,  particular! v  in  a  spongy  or  ulcerated  condition  of 
the  gums.  It  was  much  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  fii  embalming.  The  best  M. 
is  known  in  commerce  as  Turkey  M.^  l>eing  brought  from  Turkish  ports ;  as  the 
name  Ea»t  Iiidian  M.  is  also  given  to  M.  brought  to  Europe  from  the  Eaft  Indies, 
although  it  is  not  pioduced  there,  but  comes  from  Abyssinia.  It  is  not  yet  certainty 
known  whether  the  M.  tree  of  Abyssinia  is  the  same  as  that  of  Arabia,  or  an  allied 
species. 

MYRSINA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  consisting  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  natives  of  warm  climates,  and  having  simple  leathery  leaves,  destitute  of 
stipules;  hermaphrodite  or  unisexual  flowers,  generally  small,  but  often  in  nmi)cl><, 
corymbs,  or  panicles ;  very  similar  in  structure  to  the  ilowers  of  the  PriTnulacecb ; 
the  fruit  generally  fleshy,  with  1 — 4  seed.^.  'ITto  flowers  are  very  often  marked  with 
sublcen  dots  or  glandular  lines.— There  are  more  tlnm  S(H)  known  species.  Many  o£ 
them  arc  beautiful  evergreen  shrubs,  particularly  the  genus  Ardisia.  Some  havo 
peppery  fruit,  as  Embelia  ribes.  * 

MYRTA'CEiE,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  consisting  of  trees  and 
8hrubj»,  natives  chiefly  of  warm,  but  i)artly  tupo  of  teuiperiite  countries.  The  ordor, 
as  defined  by  tl»e  greater  number  of  boianisj^*,  includes  several  suboitlers,  which  are 
regarded  by  some  as  distinct  order?,  pjirticniarly  CHAMJELAUCiACEiB  (iii  which  aro 
contained  about  50  known  si)eci(*s,  mostly  beautiful  little  l)U8hej«,  often  with  fragrant 
leaves,  natives  of  New  Holland),  BARBiNOTONiACEiB  (q.  v.),  and  LECYTHiDACEJi 
(q.  v.).  Even  as  restricted,  by  the  separation  uf  these,  the  order  cont4iins  about  1300 
known  species.  The  leaves  are  entire,  usually  with  pelluci<l  dots,  and  a  vein  ruiming 
para! lei  to  and  near  their  mai^in. — Some  of 'the  ppccies  arc  gigantic  trees,  as  tho 
jEucalypti  or  Onni  Trees  ot  !New  Holland,  and  different  species  of  Metrovideros,  bt 
which  one  is  found  as  far  south  as  Lord  Auckland's  Islands,  in  Int.  50>^o.  'iMie  tim- 
ber is  generally  compact — Astriugeucy  seems  to  be  rather  a  preralent  property  in  the 
order,  and  the  leaves  or  other  parts  of  some  species  are  used  in  medicine  as  astrins- 
eutSand  tonics.  A  flagrant  or  pungent  volatile  oil  is  often  present  in  considerabTo 
quantity,  of  which  Oil  of  Cajeput  and  Oil  of  Cloves  are  examplws.  Ctove^and  PimerUa 
are  amongst  the  best  known  products  oi  tlie  order.  The  lorries  of  several  species 
are  occasionally  used  as  spices  in  the  same  way  as  the  true  Pimento.  A  considera- 
ble number  yield  pleasant  edible  fruits,  among  which  are  the  Pohegbanate,  tho 
GuAVA,  species  of  the  genus  Eugenia,  and  some  species  of  myrtle. 
-  MYRTLE  {Myrtus)  a  genus  of  Myrtaceoe,  having  the  limb  of  the  calyx  4—6- 
parted,  4—6  petals,  numerous  free  stamens,  and  almost  globose  germen,  and  a  2— 
8  celled  berry,  crowned  with  the  limb  of  the  calyx,  and  containing  kidney-sha{>ed 
seeds.  IHie  leaves  are  opposite  and  marked  with  pt'llucid  dots;  the  flower-etalkri 
are  axillary,  and  ireueralfy  one-flowered.  The  Common  M.  (Jf.  communis)  is  well 
known  as  a  beautiful  evergreen  shrub,  or  a  tree  of  moderate  fize,  with  white  flowers. 
It  is  a  native  of  ail  tlie  countries  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  of  the  temperate 
ptirts  of  Asia,  often  forming  thickets,  which  sometimes  occur  even  witiiiu  the  reach 
of  the  sea-spray.  The  leaves  are  ovate  or  lanceohite,  varying  much  in  breadth. 
They  are  astringent  and  aromatic,  containing  a  volatile  oil,  and  were  used  in  medi- 
ciue  by  the  ancients  as  a  stimulant  'I'he  berries  are  also  aromatic,  and  are  used  iu 
medicine  iu  Greece  and  India.  A  M.  wine,  called  Myrtidanum,  is  made  in  Tuscany. 
M.  bark  is  used  for  tanning  in  many  parts  of  the  south  of  Europe.  Among  the 
ancient  Greeks,  the  M.  was  sacred  to  veiiuSj  as  the  symlM)!  of  youth  and  beauty, 
was  much  used  in  festivals,  and  was,  as  it  still  is,  often  mentioned  in  poetry.  The 
X.  endures  the  winter.^)  of  Britain  only  in  the  mildest  situations  in  the  soutli. — ^The 
Small-leaved  M.  of  Pern  {M.  microphylla)  lias  red  berries  of  the  size  of  a  pea,  of 
a  pletisant  flavor  and  sugary  sweetness.    Those  of  the  Luma  (if.  luma)  arc  also 


palatable,  and  are  eaten  in  Chili ;  as  are  those  of  the  Dowkt  M.  (M.  tomentosa),  on 
the  Neilgheriy  Hills;  and  tliose  of  the  White-berried  M.  (If.  lexicocarpa\  by 
some  regaixled  as  a  variety  of  the  Common  M.,  in  Greece  and  Syria.    The  berries  of 


the  Neilgheriy  Hills;  and  tliose  of  the  White-bebried  M.  (If.  leticocarpa),  by 
some  regaixled  as  a  variety  of  the  Common  M.,  in  Greece  and  Syria.  The  berries  of 
this  species  or  variety  arc  larger  than  those  of  the  Common  M.,  and  have  ft  Teiy 


y  Google 


KK  Mfrtlnacea 


Mjtteries 

pteaeant  taste  and  smeU.^A  yeir  humble  species  of  M.  (M.  nummularia)  spreuda 
over  the  ground  in  the  Falklaud  Islauds,  na  iliyine  does  in  Britain. 

MYRTLB-WAX.    See  Wax. 

HT'SIS,  a  gennn  of  podothalmous  (stalk-eyed)  crnstaceans,  of  the  order  Stdmct- 
jpoda^  much  resembling  tlie  common  slirimps  fn  form,  aithouffli  differing  from  tlicni 
111  tlie  external  |>08ition  of  tlie  gills,  lliey  are  often  called  Oposgum  Shriwpsy  Ixs 
caufle  the  last  two  feet  are  furnished  with  an  appendage,  wliicn  in  the  female  forms 
a  large  pouch,  and  in  this  the  eggs  are  received  after  tliey  leave  the  ovary,  and  tire 
retained  till  the  young  acquire  a  form  very  similar  to  that  of  the  parent,  when  the 
whole  brood  are  at  once  st-t  free  into  the  ocean.  Species  of  M.  are  found  on  tlie 
British  shores,  but  they  are  far  more  abundant  in  the  Arctic  seas,  where  they  form 
no  small  |Mirt  of  the  food  of  whales,  and  of  many  fishes,  particularly  of  different 
species  of  salmon. 

MYSO'RE,  or  Maisur,  a  raj  or  pilncipallty  of  Southern  India,  under  the  protec- 
tion of  tlie  British  government,  in  lat.  lio  86'— 15°  n.,  and  In  long.  T40  45'— T8o  45'  e. 
It  is  bonudetl  on  tlie  u.  by  the  British  collectorate  of  Dharwar,  and  otherwise  sur- 
rounded by  districts  1)eIonging  to  the  Madras  presidency.  The  area  is  27,000  square 
miles ;  the  pop.  In  1871—1878  was  6,056  412.  M.  is  an  extensive  table-land,  with  an 
average  elevation  of  about  20iiO  feet,  and  with  a  slope  principally  toward  the  north 
and  north-east.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Cauvery,  flowing  south-east,  and  the  Tun- 
gabhadro,  the  Hngri,  and  the  Pennar  flowing  north  and  north-east.  The  clinnite  of 
the  higher  districts  is  during  a  great  portion  of  the  year  healthy  and  pleas;int.  In 
1871—1872,  the  value  of  the  exports,  which  consist  of  l)etel-nnt.  coffee,  cotton,  car- 
damoms, ric,  silk,  and  sugar,  amonnted  to  jG1,100.000.  The  imports,  con^is1ing 
mainly  of  iron,  gold,  pepper,  salt;  and  pulses,  were  Xl,070,000.  Since  1882,  the  con- 
trol of  the  conntry  has  been  entirely  fn  the  hands  of  the  £nglish,  and  the  povern- 
meut  is  administered  by  a  British  commissioner.  Chief  town,  Mysore.  For  the 
history  uf  M.,  see  articles  Htder  Ali,  Tifpoo  Sahib,  and  India. 

MYSORE,  or  Mnisnr,  n  city  of  India,  the  seat  of  a  British  residency,  capital  of 
the  territor}',  and  of  the  subdivision  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  amid  piclnrepqne 
ecenery  on  a  declivity  formed  by  two  parallel  ranges  of  elevated  gronud  rnnnnie 
north  and  south.  245  miles  west  south-west  of  Ma'iras,  lat.  12°  !»'  n.,  long.,  76°  45? 
e.  The  houses  are  generally  built  of  teak,  and  among  the  chief  edifices  are  the 
British  residency  and  church.  The  fort  is  quadranguhir  in  form,  three  of  its 
sides  being 460  yards  in  length,  and  the  remaining  side  longer.  The  rajahV  palace, 
occupying_three  sides  of  the  Interior  fort,  contains  a  magnificent  chair  or  throno 
of  gold.  The  climate  is  mild,  but  not  healthy;  fevers  are  of  frequent  occnrrence. 
Carpets  are  manufactured.    Pop.  (1872)  67,765. 

MY'STAGOQUE  (Gr.  tn«»te«,  an  initiated  person,  and  agoj  I  load),  the  name  in 
the  Greek  religions  system  of  the  priest  whose  duty  it  was  to  direct  the  prepiirations 
of  the  candidate?  for  initiation  in  the  several  mysteries,  as  well  as  to  conduct  the 
ceremonial  of  Initiation.  It  was  sometimes  applied  by  a  sort  of  analogy  Ui  the  . 
class  of  professional  ciceroni,  who  in  ancient,  sb  still  in  modem  tinu»s,  undertook  to 
shew  to  strangers  newly  arrived  in  a  city  the  noteworthy  object«  which  it  contained; 
but  the  former  meaning  is  its  primitive  one.  and  formed  thegroimd  of  the  applica- 
tion of  the  same  name  in  the  Chrl!«t1an  cnnrch.  to  the  catechists  or  other  clergy 
who  prepared  candidates  for  the  Christian  my fttericH,  or  sacraments,  of  baptism, 
confirmation,  and  the  eucUjirist,  especially  the  last.  In  thin  sense,  the  word  in  con- 
stantly used  by  the  fathers  of  the  4rh  and  6th  centuries;  and  in  the  well-known 
lectures  of  St  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  although  all  were  addressed  to  candidates  for  the 
mysteries,  some  for  baptism,  and  some  for  the  enchaiist,  it  is  only  to  the  lectures 
addressed  to  the  latter  that  the  name  myatoffogie  is  applied.  This  distinction  was 
connected  with  the  well-known  Discipline  of  the  Secret;  and  it  appears  to  have 
ceased  with  the  abolition  or  gradnal  disuse  of  that  discipline. 

MYSTERIES  (Gr.  from  wuo,  to  close  the  lips  or  eyes),  also  called  Teletaiy  Ortfiiu 
or,  in  Latin,  iniUa,  designjit*^  certain  ritea  and  ceremonies  in  ancient,  chiefly  (iretft 
and  Roman  religions,  only  known  to,  and  pracliscU  by,  congregations  of  certain 


y  Google 


My»t©rle«  Kg 

inUiated  mon  and  women,  at  appointed  ^eaoonfi,  nnci  in  strict  fieclofilon.  Tho  origin, 
ns  welt  ns  the  run]  purport  of  IIiuho  n>yf>terit;t),  wbich  take  no  uuUnportuiit  jmico 
among  the  religions  fesrivals  of  tlie  classical  period,  and  wliicli,  in  Iheir  eyer-chaiij^- 
iiig  nature,  desigimte  various  pliasee  of  religiouB  development  in  llie  antique  world, 
is  all  but  nnlvuown.  If  does  seem,  indeed,  as  if  the  vague  B|)eculatiou8  of  modern 
times  on  the  subject  were  an  echo  of  the  manifold  interpretations  of  Uie  various  acts 
of  the  mysteries  given  by  the  priests  to  the  inquiring  disciple — ^according  totheiights 
of  the  former  or  the  latter.  Some  investigators,  tiiemselves  not  entirely  free  from  cer- 
lain  mystic  influences  (like  Creuzer  and  otliers),  have  hdd  them  to  have  been  a  kind 
of  misty  orb  around  a  kcniel  of  imre  llglit,  tlie  bri^lit  rays  of  wlucli  were  too  strong 
for  the  eyes  of  tlie  multitude ;  tluit,  in  fact,  they  hid  under  an  outward  garb  of  mum- 
mery a  certain  portion  of  the  real  and  eternal  truth  of  religion,  the  knowledge  of 
which  had  been  derived  from  some  primeval,  or,  perhaps,  the  Mosaic  revelation  ;  if 
it  could  not  be  traced  to  certain  (ornncertaiu)  Egyptian,  Indian, orgenerallyEiist^jni 
Boui-ces.  To  this  kind  of  hazy  talk,  however  (which  we  only  mention  because  it  is 
still  repeated  every  now  and  then),  the  real  and  thorough  investigations  begun  by 
Lobeck,  and  still  pursued  by  many  competent  pcholars  in  our  own  dliy,  have,  or  ou<;Iit 
to  have,  put  an  end.  There  cannot  bo  anything  more  alien  to  the  whole  spirit  of 
Greek  and  Roman  antiquity  than  a  hiding  of  abstract  truths  and  occult  wisdom  under 
rites  and  formulas,  songs  and  dances;  and,  in  fact,  the  mysteries  were  anything  but 
exclusive,  eitlier  witSi  respect  to  sex,  age,  or  rank,  in  ])oint  of  initiation.  It  was  only 
tUe  speculative  tendency  of  later  times,  when  Polytheism  was  on  the  wane,  that  tried 
to  symbolise  and  allegorise  these  obscure,  and  partly  imported  ceremonies,  tlie  bulk 
of  which  had  undoubtedly  sprung  from  the  midst  ot  the  Pelasgian  tribes  themselves 
in  pi-ehistoric  times,  and  wliich  were  intended  to  represent  and  to  celebrate  cerlain 
natural  phenomena  in  the  visible  creation.  There  is  certainly  no  reason  to  deny  that 
some  more  refined  minds  nniy  at  a  very  early  period  have  endeavored  to  impart  a 
higher  sense  to  these  wondrous  performances ;  but  tuese  can  only  l)e  considered  as 
solitary  instances.  The  very  fact  of  their  having  to  l)e  put  down  in  later  days  as 
public  nuisances  in  Home  herself,  speaks  volumes  against  the  occult  wisdom  incut- 
cate<l  in  secret  assemblies  of  men  and  women. 

The  mysteries,  as  such,  consisted  of  purifications,  sacrificial-  ofiferings,  proces- 
sions, song«,  dances,  dramatic  ])erlormances,  and  the  like.  'Ihe  mystic  tormula« 
(Deiknunieita,  Dromena,  Legoviena,  the  latter  including  the  Litui-gies,  &c.)  were  held 
deep  secrets,  and  could  only  be  communicated  to  those  wlio  had  passed  the  last 
st}ige  of  preparation  in  the  mystagogne's  hand.  The  hold  which  the  nightly  secrecy 
of  these  meetings,  together  with  their  extraoi dinary  worship,  must  naturally  have 
takim  upon  minds  more  fresh  and  childlike  than  our  advanced  ages  can  boast  of. 
was  increased  by  all  the  mechanicai  contrivances  of  the  effects  of  light  and  sonua 
which  the  priests  could  command.  Mysterious  voices  were  heard  singing,  whisper- 
ing, and  sighing  all  around,  lights  gleamed  in  manifold  colors  from  above  and  be- 
low, figures  appeared  and  disappeared ;  the  mimic,  the  tonic,  tlie  plastic— all  the 
arts,  in  fact,  were  taxed  to  their  very  utmost  to  nnike  these  performances  (the  near- 
est approacli  to  which,  in  this  country,. is  furnished  by  transtfoiination-scenes,  or 
pensation-dramas  in  general)  as  attractive  and  proftiabU;  (to  the  priests)  as  could 
be.  As  far  as  we  have  any  knowledire  of  the  plots  of  these  Mysteries  as  scenic  re|>- 
rosentations,  tlujy.  generahy  brought  the  stories  of  the  special  gods  or  goddesses  bo- 
fore  the  spectator — their  births,  sufferings,  deaths,  antf  resurrections.  Many  were 
the  outward  symbols  used,  of  which  such  as  the  Piiallus,  the  Thyrsus,  Flower  Bas- 
kets, Mystic  Boxes,  in  connection  with  special  deities,  told  more  or  le^s  their  own 
tale,  although  the  meanings  supplied  l>y  later  ages,  from  the  Neo-platonists  to  oar 
own  day,  are  varions,  and  often  very  amazing.  The  most  important  Mysteries  wei*e, 
in  liistorical  limes,  those  of  Elensis  and  the  Thesmophorian,  both  i-epresen ting— each 
from  a  different  i;x)iut  of  view — the  rape  of  Proserpina,  and  Ceres's  search  tor  her  : 
the  Thesmophorian  mysteries  being  also  in  a  Diauner  connected  witli  the  Dionysiaii 
worship.  There  were  fuither  those  of  Zeus  of  Crete— derived  from  a  very  remote 
period— of  Bacchus  himself,  of  Cyl)ele,  and  Aphrodite— the  two  latter  with  reference 
to  the  Mystery  of  Propagation,  but  celebrated  in  diametrically  opposed  ways,  the 
former  culminating  in  tlie  ^el^-mUlilation  of  the  worshipper,  the  latter  in  prostitu- 
tion. Further,  the  Mysteries  of  Orpheus,  who  in  a  certain  degree  was  considered 
tuo  founder  of  all  mysteriea,    I^or  were  the  other  gods  and  goddesses  forgotten  ; 


Digitized  by 


Google 


sr 


Mysteries 


Hera,  Minerva,  Biana,  Hecate,  Tiay,  foreign  gods  like  Mithras  (q.  y.),  and  tlie  like, 
lja<l  their  due  secret  eolemiikies  all  over  the  clas(>ictil  soil,  and  wtiithersoever  Greek 
(and  partly  Koinaii)  colonists  took  their  Lares  and  Penates  all  over  the  autiqno 
world.  The  beginning  of  the  reaction  in  the  minds  of  thinking  men,  against  this 
mostly  gross  and  degenernled  kind  of  veneration  of  natural  powers  and  iustinclK, 
is  marked  by  tlie  period  of  the  Uesiodic  poems ;  and  when  towards  the  end  of  the 
classical  periods,  the  mysteiies  were  no  longer  secret,  Iwit  pnblic  orgies  of  the  most 
shameless  kind,  their  days  were  numbered.  The  most  subtle  metaphysicians,  alleg- 
orise and  symbolise  as  they  might,  failed  in  revivins;  them,  and  in  resloriug  thoiu 
to  whatever  primeval  dignity  there  might  have  ouce  been  inherent  in  them. 

MY'STERIES  and  MIRACLE-PLAYS  were  dramas  founded  on  the  historical  parts 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  the  lives  of  the  8niiit>«,  perfornud  during  tlio 
middle  ages,  first  in chnrchcy,  and  afterwards  in  the  streets  on  fixed  or  movaMo 
stages.  Mysteries  wore  properly  taken  from  biblical  and  niiracle-|)lays  from 
legendary  subjects,  but  this  diptlnctlou  in  nomenclature  was  not  always  t-trictly  ail- 
hered  to.  We  have  an  extant  specimen  of  the  ruligious  \t\&y  of  a  date  prior  to  the 
beginning  of  the  middle  a^fos  in  the  Christos  P.iacliuii,  asnigned,  somewhat  ques- 
tionably, to  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  written  in  4th  c.  Greek.  Next  come  six  Latin 
plays  on  subjects  connected  wiHi  the  lives  of  the  faints,  by  Roswitha,  a  nun  of 
Gandersheim,  in  Saxony,  which,  though  not  very  artistically  constructed,  possess 
considerable  dramatic  power  and  intcret^t;  they  have  been  lately  published  at  Paris, 
witli  a  French  translation.  The  i)erformer8  were  at  first  the  clergy  and  choristers, 
afterwards  any  layman  might  participate.  The  earliest  recorded  pei-foruiance  of  a 
iniracle-nlay  took  place  in  England.  Matthew  Pari?*  relates  that  Geoffroy,  afterwards 
Abbot  01  St  Albans,  while  a  t'ccular,  exhibited  at  Dunstable  the  miracle-play  of  St 
C^itherine  and  bon'owed  copys  from  St  Albans  to  dress  his  characters.  'J  his  nnist 
have  been  at  the  end  of  the  11th  or  beginning  of  tlie  12th  centurv.  Fitzstcphen,  in 
his  *•  Life  of  Thomas  iBecket,"  1183  a.  d.,  describe  with  approval  the  representation 
in  London  of  the  sufferings  of  the  saints  and  miracles  of  the  confessors.  On  the 
establishment  of  the  Corpus  Christi  festival  by  Pope  Urban  IV.  in  1264,  njiraclc- 
plays  became  one  of  its  adjunct.**,  and  every  considerable  town  had  a  fiaternity  for 
their  performance.  Throughouli  the  15th  and  following  centurit-s,  they  continued 
in  full  force  iu  Eughmd,  and  are  mentioned,  sometimes  approvingly^  sometimes 
disapprovingly,  by  contemporary  writers.  Designed  at  first  as  a  means  of  religious 
instraction  for  the  people,  they  had  long  before  the  Reformation  so  far  dnjiart-  d 
from  their  original  character,  as  to  be  mixed  up  in  many  instances  with  bnffooneiy 
and  irreverence,  intentional  or  unintentioinvl.  and  to  be  the  means  of  inducing  con- 
tempt rather  than  respect  for  the  church  and  religion.  Renuirkable  collections  exi^t 
of  English  mysteries  and  miracles  of  the  15th  c,  known  as  the  Clie.*'ter,  the  Coven- 
try, and  the  Townley  plays.  The  first  two  have  been  published  by  the  Shakspeare 
Society,  and  th§  other  by  tho  Surtees  Society.  The  Townley  mysteries  are  full  of 
the  burlesque  element,  and  contain  many  curious  illustrations  of  contemporary 
manners. 

Out  of  the  mysteries  and  miracle-plays  sprang  a  Ihird  class  of  religious  i)ljiy 8 
called  "Momlifie!*,"  i"  which  allegorical  person ilications  of  the  Virtues  and  vices 
were  Introducetl  as  (?roma<w  ^rsoncB.  These  personages  at  flr>t  only  took  pjirt  iu 
the  play  along  with  the  scriptiu'al  or  legendary  characters,  but  nfterwads  entirely 
superseded  them.  The  oldest  known  English  compositions  of  this  kind  are  of  the 
time  of  Henry  VL;  they  are  more  elaborate  and  less  interesting  than  the  miracle 
plays.  Moralities  contiimed  iu  fnshron  till  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  and  were  the  im- 
metliate  precursors  of  the  regular  drama. 

Miracles  and  mysteries  were  as  popular  in  France,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy  as 
iu  England.  •  A  piece  of  the  kind  yet  extant,  composed  in  France  in  the  11th  c, 
is  entitled  the  "Mystery  of  the  Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins,"  and  written  partly  iu 
the  Provincial  dialect  and  partly  in  Latin.  A  celebrated  fraternity,  called  the  Con- 
frerle  de  la  Passion,  founded  in  Paris  in  1850,  had  a  liionopoly  for  the  performance 
of  mysteries  and  miracle-plays,  which  were  of  such  a  length,  that  the  exhibition  of 
each  occupied  several  days.  A  large  number  of  the  French  mysteries  of  the  14th  c. 
are  extent.  In  the  alpine  districts  of  Germany,  miracle-plays  were  composed  jind 
acted  by  the  peasants ;  Ihcsu  peasant-plays  had  less  regularity  in  their  dramatic  form, 


y  Google 


Myateriei    .  ^58' 

were  often  interspersed  with  songs  mid  pi*ocePsion8;  andlu  their  nnlon  of  simplicity 
with  high-wfongnt  feeliujj  were  most  clianicteristic  of  the  people  iu  whom  the  reli- 
gions and  dramatic  element  are  both  so  largely  developed.  In  the  early  part  of  laet 
century,  they  began  to  partake  to  a  limited  extent  of  the  barlesqae,  which  had 
bronght  miracle-plays  into  dlsrepate  elsewliere. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  snpiiose  tliatthe  liosrility  of  the  reformers  was  what  snppressed 
these  exhibitions.  The  fathers  of  ttie  Reformation  shewed  uo  nnfrieudly  feeling  to- 
wards them.  Lnther  is  re|X)rted  to  liave  said  that  they  often  did  more  gooa  and 
produced  more  impression  than  sermons.  Tlie  most  direct  euconragement  was 
given  to  them  by  tlie  fonnders  of  the  Swedisli  Protestant  Church,  and  by  the  earlier 
Lutheran  bishops,  Swedish  and  Danish.  The  authorship  of  one  drama  of  the  kind 
Is  assigned  to  Qrotius.  In  England,  the  greatest  check  thej  received  was  from  the 
rise  of  the  secular  drama  ;  yet  tliey  continued  to  be  occasionally  performed  in  the 
times  of  James  T.  and  Charles  I.,  and  It  is  well  known  thai  the  first  sketch  of  Mil- 
ton's *'  Paradise  Lost "  was  a  sacred  drama,  where  the  opening  s{)eech  was  Saturn's 
Address  to  the  Sun.  A  degenerate  relic  of  the  miracle-play  may  yet  be  traced  in 
some  remote  districts  of  England,  where  the  story  of  St  George,  tne  dragon,  and 
Beelzebub,  is  rudely  represented  by  the  peasauiry.  Strange  to  say,  it  was  in  the 
Catholic  south  of  Germany,  where  these  miracle-plays  and  mysteries  had  preserved 
most  of  their  old  religious  character,  tlmt  the  severest  blow  was  levelled  against 
them.  Even  there,  thev  had  begun  to  be  tainted  to  a  limited  extent  with  the  bur- 
let«que  element,  which  had  bronght  t  hem  into  cisrejiute  elsewhere.  In  1TTV>,  a  mani- 
festo was  issued  by  the  Prince-archbishop  of  Salzburg,  coudeniuing  them,  and  pro- 
hil)iting  their  performance,  on  tlie  ground  of  their  ludicrous  mixture  of  tlie  sacred 
and  the  profane,  the  frequent  bad  acting  in  the  serious  parts,  the  distraction  of  the 
lower  orders  from  moreedifyinir  modes  of  instruction,  and  the  scandal  arisiiijg  from 
the  exposure  of  sacred  subjects  to  the  ridicule  of  free-thinkerp.  This  ecclesiastical 
denunciation  was  followed  by  vigorous  measures  on  the  part  of  the  civil  authorities 
In  Austria  and  Bavaria.  One  exception  was  made  to  tlie  general  suppression.  Iu 
1633,  the  villagers  of  Oberammergan,  in  tlie  Bavarian  highlands,  on  the  cessation  of  ji 
plague  wliich  desolated  the  surrounding  country,  had  vowed  to  perform  every  tenth 
year  the  Passion  of  Our  Saviour,  out  of  gratitude,  and  as  a  means  of  religious  in- 
struction ;  a  vow  which  had  ever  since  been  regularly  observed.  The  pleading  of  a 
deputation  of  Ammergau  peasants  with  Max.  «Joset»li  of  Bavaria  saved  their  inyftery 
from  tlie  general  condemnation,  on  condition  of  everything  that  could  offend  good 
taste  being  expunged.  It  was  then  and  afterwards  somewhat  remodelled,  a^  is 
perhaps  the  only  mystery  or  miracle-play  which  has  survived  to  the  present  day. 
The  last  performance  took  place  in  1870.  The  iuliabitauts  of  this  secluded  village, 
loiif^  noted  for  their  skill  in  carving  in  wood  and  ivoiy,  have  a  rare  union  of  artisiic 
cultivation  with  perfect  simplicity.  Their  familiarity  with  sacred  subjects  is  even 
beyoud  what  is  usual  in  the  alpine  part  of  Germany,  and  the  spectacle  seems  still 
to  be  looked  on  with  feelings  much  like  those  with  which*  it  was  originally  conceived. 
What  would  elsewhere  appear  impious,  is  to  the  alpine  peasants  devout  and  edify- 
ing. The  personator  of  Christ  considers  his  part  an  act  of  religious  worship ;  he 
and  tlie  other  principal  performers  are  said  to  be  selected  for  their  holy  life,  and 
consecrated  to  their  work  with  prayer.  Tlie  players,  about  500  in  number,  are  exclu- 
sively the  villagers,  who,  though  they  have  no  artistic  instruction  except  from  the 
parish  priest,  act  their  parts  with  no  little  dramatic  power,  and  a  delicate  apprecia- 
tion of  character.  The  New  Testament  narrative  is  strictly  adhered  to,  the  only 
legendary  addition  to  it  being  the  St  Veronica  handkerchief.  The  acts  alternate  with 
tableaiKC  from  the  Old  Testament  and  choral  odes.  Many  thousands  of  the  peasantry 
are  attracted  by  the  ppectacle  from  all  parts  of  the  Tyrol  and  Bavaria,  among  whom 
the  same  earnest  and  devout  demeanor  prevails  as  among  the  performers.  Plays  of 
a  humbler  description,  from  subjects  in  legendary  or  sacred  history,  are  not  unfre- 
quentiy  got  up  by  the  villagers  around  Innsbruck,  which  shew  a  certain  rude  dra- 
matic talent,  though  not  comparable  to  what  is  exhibited  at  Aihmergau.  Girls  very 
generally  represent  both  the  male  and  female  character. 

MY'STICISM  (Gr.  mttntikoay  mystical),  a  term  used  with  considerable  vagnenesB, 
but  implying  that  ^eperal  tendency  in'rellgion  to  higher  and  more  intimate  commu- 
nication with  the  Divine,  to  which,  in  most  religious,  ancient  and  modern,  certain  indi- 
viduals or  classes  have  laid  claim,  Iu  the  Platouic  phlloBophy,  and  iu  the  Eaeteru  sy»- 


y  Google 


59 


Mysteilas 


terns,  from  which  that  philosophy  ia  derived,  the  hamnn  sonlbeinp  regarded  q8  a  por- 
tiou  of  the  divine  uainre,  it  is  lield  to  Im  the  great  end  of  life  to  fne  tlie  soul  from 
tlie  embarascmeut  aiid  ineutal  durkuess  in  which  it  is  held  by  tlie  material  tram- 
mels of  the  body  in  which  it  is  imprisoned.  In  the  par^ait  of  this  end,  two  very 
opposite  courses  were  adopted :  the  first,  that  of  spiritual  purification,  partly  by  re- 
pressing the  natural  appetites  and  weakening  the  sensual  impulses  by  corporeal 
austerities,  partly  by  elevating  the  soul  throus^h  intense  contemplation  and  with- 
drawal from  the  outward  objects  of  sense;  the  other,  that  of  regarding  tlic  soul  as 
superior  to  the  body,  independent  of  its  animal  impulses,  incapahle,  from  its  higher 
origin,  of  being  affected  by  its  outward  actions,  or  sullied  by  contact  with  the  cor- 
ruption in  which  its  lower  nature  might  love  to  wallow.  A  similar  element  of  M., 
which,  in  truth,  must  form  in  some  sense,  a  constituent  of  every  religions  system, 
is  traceable  in  the  earl^  doctrinal  history  of  Christiauity,  and  the  career  of  Christian 
M.  also  divides  itself  mtothe  fame  twofold  coursti.  An.ong  the  early  sects  external 
to  tlie  church,  we  trace  the  first  in  the  system  of  Tatian  and  of  the  Eucratites, 
while  tiie  second  finds  its  parallel  in  the  Svriau  Gnostics,  in  Cnrpocrates,  Bardi- 
sanes,  and  in  one  form  at  least  of  the  Nicolaitic  heresy.  Within  the  Christian  church 
there  never  has  l)een  wanting  a  continuous  manifestation  of  the  mystical  element. 
The  language  of  St  Paul  ii:  GaL  ii.  20,  and  in  8d  Cor.  xil.  2,  and  many  expn^sions 
in  the  Apocalypse,  may  be  taken  as  the  exponents  of  Christian  M.,  the  highest 
aspiration  of  wliich  has  ever  been  towards  that  state  in  which  the  Christinu  '*  no 
longer  liveth,  but  Chri&t  liveth  in  him."  And  although  no  regular  scheme  of  M. 
can  be  found  in  the  enrly  Fathers,  vet  the  writings  of  Hermes  the  Sheplierd,  the 
Epistles  of  St  Ignatius,  the  works  of  St  Clement  of  Alexandria,  the  Expositions  of 
Origeu,  and  above  all,  the  Confessions  of  St  Auj^ustine,  abound  with  outpourings  of 
the  true  spirit  of  Christian  mysticism.  It  is  curious  that  the  flrf>t  systematic  exposi- 
tion of  its  principles  is  said  to  l>e  in  the  works  of  the  pseudo-Dionysius  the  Areo- 
pagite;  but  it  was  not  till  the  days  of  the  Scholastics  that  It  received  its  full  devel- 
opment, when  the  mystic  life  was  resolved  into  its  three  stages,  viz.,  of  Purification, 
of  Illumination,  and  of  Ecstatic  Union  with  God  and  Absorption  in  Divine  Contem- 
plation. It  was  upon  the  explanation  of  this  third  stage  that  the  groit  division  of 
the  medieval  mystic  schools  mainly  turned ;  some  of  them  explaining  the  union 
with  God  in  a  pantheistic  or  semipantheistic  sense,  and  thereby  annihilating  the  in- 
dividual will,  and  almost  the  personal  action  of  man  in  the  state  of  ecstasy ;  others, 
with  St  Bernard,  fully  preserving  both  the  individuality  and  the  freedom  of  man, 
even  in  the  highest  spiritual  communication  with  his  Creator.  Of  the  former,  many, 
as  the  Hesychasts  (q.  v.)  in  the  Greek  Church,  and  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit 
(q.  V.)  and  the  Beghards  in  the  Latin,  drew  from  these  mystical  doctrines  the 
most  revolting  moral  consequences ;  in  others,  as  Tauler,  Rnysbroek,  Ekkart,  the 
error  does  not  seem  to  have  jrone  beyond  the  sphere  of  speculation.  The  writings 
of  Thomas  h  Kempis  (q.  v.),  of  St  Catherine  of  Siena,  of  St  John  of  the  Cross,  and 
of  St  Teresa,  may  perhaps  tye  taken  as  the  most  characteristic  representations  of  the 
more  modern  form  of  the  traditionary  M.  which  has  come  down  from  the  mystics 
of  the  middle  ages. 

The  later  history  of  M.  in  the  Boman  Catholic  Church  will  be  found  under  the 
heads  of  Fenelon,  Madame  Guton,  Mounos,  and  Quietism.  The  most  remnrk- 
able  followers  of  the  same  or  kindred  doctrines  in  the  Protestant  communions  are 
Jacob  BOhme  (q.  v.)  of  GOrlitz,  Emmanuel  Sweden borg  (q.  v.)»  and  the  celebrated 
William  Law  (q.  v.). 

MYTH  ANH  MYTHO'LOGY.  The  word  myth  (Gr.  mythoa\  originally  signlfted 
tpeech  or  ducoursej  and  win*  identical  with  the  word  logos.  After  the  age  of  Pindar 
and  Herodotus,  however,  it  came  to  be  synonymous  with  the  Latin  word  fabula^ 
fable,  or  legend.  According  to  the  present  use  of  our  language,  a  myth  is  an  idea  or 
fancy  presented  in  the  historical  form ;  and  though,  of  course,  any  fiction  at  any 
time  in  this  shape  might  be  called  a  myth,  yet  by  usage  the  word  is  confined  to  those 
fictions  made  in  the  early  periods  of  a  people's  existence,  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
senting their  religious  belief,  and  generally  their  oldest  traditions,  in  an  attractive 
form.  The  tendency  to  create  myths  in  this  way  seems  inherent  in  every  people ; 
certainly  there  is  no  people  so  sunk  into  the  brute  as  to  be  without  them.  A  myth 
is  not  to  be  confounded  with  an  allegory  ;  the  one  being  an  unconscious  act  of  the 
popular  mind  at  au  early  stage  of  society,  the  other  a  conscious  act  of  the  individual 


y  Google 


Myth  go 

mind  at  any  Bt&ge  of  social  progress.    The  parables  of  the  New  TestamMit  are  alle- 

f;or\t'A\ ;  80  are  ^Esop's  Fables ;  no  one  mistakes  them  for  realities ;  they  are  Icnowit 
oliuvebeen  invented  for  a  npecial  didactic  purpose,  and  so  received.  Butthei>e- 
cnliarity  of  myths  is,  tlmt  they  are  not  only  conceived  In  the  narrative  form,  bnt 
generally  taken  tor  real  narrations  by  the  people  to  whom  they  belong,  so  long  at 
least  as  they  do  not  puss  a  certain  stage  of  futellectnal  cnltnre.  Even  niytlis  of 
wiilch  the  allegorical  significance  Is  pretty  plain,  sach  as  tlie. well-known  Greek 
myth  of  Prometheus  and  Epimetheus,  were  received  as  facts  of  early 
tradition  by  tlie  Greek.  Mvths  may  be  divided  into  sevenil  classes,  of 
which  the  first  and  most  imporbint  is  the  tiieological  and  moral.  Tiie 
oldest  theology  of  all  nations  is  in  the  form  of  mytiis;  lience  the  great 
iniporlance  of  mytliological  study,  now  universally  recognised;  for  it  is  not  oc- 
cupied merely  or  mainly  with  strange  fancies  and  marvellous  fictions,  in- 
vented for  the  pake  of  amusement,  but  contains  tlic  fundamental  ideas  !>elongiiig 
to  I  lie  n)oral  and  religious  nature  of  man  as  they  have  l)een  embodied  by  the  imajri- 
nativo  faculty  of  tiie  ipost  favored  races.  It  is  tills  dominance  of  the  imagination, 
BO  cliHracterfstic  of  the  early  stages  of  society,  wliicli  gives  to  myth  its  peculiar  dra- 
matic ('xpre^siou.  and  stamps  the  popular  creed  of  all  nations  with  the  ciiaracter  of 
a  poetry  of  nature,  of  man,  and  of  God.  Prom  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  tlie  mytli- 
produciug  faculty  exercises  itself  with  exuberance  only  under  the  polytheistic  form 
of  religion ;  for  there  only  does  a  euflScient  nnml)er  of  celestial  personages  exist, 
>yliose  attributes  and  actions  may  be  exhibited  in  a  narmtive  form;  tliere  is  notli- 
ing,  however,  to  prevent  even- a  monotheistic  people  from  exhibiting  certain  great 
ideas  of  their  faith  in  a  narrative  form,  so  as  bv  prosaic  minds  to  he  taken  for  literal 
historical  facts.  But  besides  strictly  theological  myths,  tlierc  are  pliysical  myths, 
that  is,  fictions  representing  the  nmst  striking  aj)i>earance8  and  cliangcs  of  externni 
nature  in  the  form  of  poetical  history ;  in  which  view,  the  connection  of  legends 
about  giants,  chimeras,  Ac,  with  reidona  nnirked  by  peculiar  volcanic  phenomena, 
has  been  often  remarked.  It  is  diflUcult  Indeed,  in  jiolytheistic  religions,  to  draw 
any  strict  line  lietween  physical  and  theological  myths ;  as  the  divinity  of  all  the  ope- 
rations of  nature  is  the  first  postulate  of  polytheism,  and  every  physical  phenomenon 
becomes  the  manifestation  of  a  god.  Again,  though  it  may  appear  a  contradiction, 
there  are  historical  myths ;  that  is,  marvellous  legends  about  persons,  wlio  may  wiih 
probability  be  supposed  to  have  actually  existed.  So  int-Hrmingled,  indeed,  is  fact 
with  fable  in  early  thnes,  that  there  must  always  be  a  kind  of  del>atable  land  l»e- 
tween  plain  theological  myth  and  recognized  historical  fact.  This  land  is  occup{o<l 
by  what  are  callen  the  heroic  myths;  that  is,  legends  al)OUl  heroes,  concerning 
whom  it  may  often  be  doubtful  whether  they  are  merely  a  sort  of  inferior,  and  more 
huuian-Iike  gods,  or  only  men  of  more  than  ordinary  powers  wiioui  tlie  popular  im- 
agination has  elevated  mto  deuii-gods. 

The  scientific  study  of  mytliology  commenced  with  the  ancient  nations 
who  produced  it,  specially  with  the  acute  and  8i>eculative  Greeks.  The 
great  mass  of  the  Givrek  people,  indeed— of  whom  we  have  a  characteristic 
type  in  the  travaller  Pausan las— accepted  their  oldest  legends,  in  the  mass,  Jis 
divine  and  human  facts;  but  so  early  as  the  time  of  Euripides,  or  even  before  hid 
day  in  the  ease  of  tlie  Sicilians,  Bpichurmus  and  Empedocles,  we  find  that  pliiioso- 
pliers  and  pouts  had  begun  to  identify  Jove  with  ilie  upper  sky,  Apollo  with  tho 
sun,  Juno  with  the  netlier  atmosphei-e,  and  so  forth  ;  that  is»  they  interpreted  llieir 
mythologv  as  a  theology  and  poetry  of  nature.  This,  indeed,  may  be  regarded  as 
tlie*prevalent  view  among  all  the  more  reflective  and  philoaophical  heathens  (wlio 
were  not,  like  Xenoplion,  orthodox  believers)  up  from  the  age  of-PtA*icIes,  450b.  c, 
to  tho  establishment  of  Christianity.  But  there  was  an  altogether  opposite  view, 
which  arose  at  a  later  period,  under  le^»B  genial  circumstances,  and  exercised  no 
small  iiifiiience  both  on  Greek  and  Roman  writera.  This  view  was  fii*»t  prominently 
put  forth  by  Euhemerus,  a  Messeuian,  in  the  time  of  the  first  Ptolemies,  and  con- 
sisted in  the  flat  prosaic  assertion,  that  the  gods,  equally  willi  the  heroes,  were  orig- 
inally men,  and  all  the  tales  about  them  only  human  facts  sublimed  and  elevated 
by  the  imagination  of  pious  devotees.  This  view  seemed  to  derive  strong  support 
from  the  known  stories  about  the  birth  and  death  of  the  gods,  specially  of  Jove  in 
Oret<i ;  and  llie  growing  sceptical  teuilencies  of  the  scientific  school  at  Alexandria, 
were  o£  course  iavorabiu  to  the  pj'omulgatlou  of  sach  views.    The  work  of  EuUe- 


y  Google 


;6i 


Myth 


mems  accordingly  obtained  a  wide  circulation ;  and  hnving  Iwen  tranMated  into 
Liitiiif  \v(;iit  to  lioarisli  tltat  crass  form  of  relit^iune  scepticism  wbicli  wh»  one  of 
tlie  iiiopt  jiotable  synipfonis  of  tlie  decline  of  Roman  jrenins  at  tlie  time  of  tlie  em- 
perors, llisioiinns,  like  Dioilurus,  gladly  adopted  an  interpretation  of  tlie  popnlai 
mythology  which  promised  to  swell  iheir  stores  of  reliable  material ;  the  myths  nc* 
coidlngly  were  coolly  emptied  of  the  poetic  soul  which  inspired  them,  and  the  early 
traditions  of  the  heroic  ages  were  Bet  forth  as. plain  history,  with  a  grave  sobriety 
cqnally  opposed  to  sound  criticism,  natural  piety,  and  good  taste. 

In  modern  times  the  Greek  mythology  hi\p  again  formed  the  basis  of  much  specn* 
lation  on  the  character  of  myths  and  the  general  laws  of  mythical  interpretation. 
The  first  tendency  of  modern  Christian  scholars,  following  the  track  long  before 
taken  by  the  fatliers,  was  to  refer  all  Greek'mythology  to  a  corruption  of  Old  Tes- 
tament doctrine  and  hintoiy.  Of  this  system  of  interpreting  mytljs.  we  have  ex- 
anipUjM  in  Vos^ins,  in  the  Kiarned  and  fanciful  works  of  Bryant  and  Fabcr,  and  veiy 
recently,  though  with  more  pious  and  poetic  feeling,  in  Qladstoue.  But  the  GKm-- 
mans,  who  have  taken  the  lead  here,  as  in  other  i-egionsof  combined  research  and 
speculation,  have  long  ago  given  up  this  ground  as  untenable,  and  have  inti'Odnced 
the  rational  method  of  interpreting  every  system  of  myths,  in  the  first  place  accord- 
ing to  the  i)eculiar  laws  traceable  in  it«  own  genias  and  growth.  Ground  was 
broken  in  this  department  by  Heyne,  whose  views  have  been  tested,  corrected,  and 
enlarged  by  a  great  number  of  learned,  ingenious,  and  philosophical  writers 
among  his  own  countrymen,  especially  by  Bntlmami,  Voss,  Orenzer,  MAIler. 
Welcker,  Gerhardt,  and  Preller.  The  general  tendency  of  the  Germans  is  to  start 
— as  Wordsworth  does  in  his  **  Excurt^iou,"  book  iv.— from  the  position  of  a  devout 
imaginative  coutempialion  of  nature,  in  which  the  myths  originated,  and  to 
trace  the  working  out  of  those  ideas,  in  different  places  and  at  different  times,  with 
the  most  critical  research,  and  the  most  vivid  reconstruction.  If  in  this  work  they 
have  given  birth  to  a  large  mass  of  ingenious  nonsense  and  brilliant  guens-work, 
there  has  not  l)een  wanting  among  them  abundance  of  Fober  judgment  and  ^onnd 
I«en8e  to  counteract  such  extravagances.  It  may  be  noticed  however,  as  characteristic 
of  their  over- speculative  intellect,  that  they  have  a  tendency  to  bring  the  sway  of 
tiM'ological  and  physical  symbols  down  into  a  region  of  what  appears  to  be  plain  his- 
torical fjict ;  so  that  Achilles  becomes  a  water-god,  Peleus,  u  mud-god,  and  the  whole 
of  th*.  "Iliad,"  according  to  Forch  hammer,  a  poetical  geology  of  Theesaly  and  the 
Tro.idl  Going  to  the  opposite  extreme  from  Euhemerus,  ihey  have  denied  the  ex- 
istence even  0/  deifieil  heroes;  all  the  heroes  of  Greek  tradition,  according  to  Us- 
chold,  are  only  degraded  gods ;  and  generally  in  German  wiiters,  a  preference  of 
transcendental  to  simple  and  obvious  explanations  of  myths  is  noticeable.  Crenzer, 
some  of  whose  views  had  been  anticipated  by  Blackwell,  in  Scotland,  is  espt^cially 
remarkable  for  the  high  ground  of  religious  and  philosophical  conception  on  which 
lie  has  placed  the  interpretation  of  myths;  and  he  was  also  the  first  who 
directed  att^intlon  to  the  oriental  element  in  Greek  mythology— not,  indeed,  wiih 
snfiicient  discrimination  in  many  cases,  but  to  the  great  enrichment  of 
mythological  material,  and  the  enlargement  of  philosophical  .sui-vey.  In  the  most 
recent  times,  by  uniting  the  excursive  method  of  Creuzer  with  the  correction  sup- 
plied by  the  more  critical  niethod  of  O.  MQller  and  his  successors,  the  science  of 
comparative  mythology  has  l)een  launched  into  existence;  and  specially  the  com- 
))arison  of  the  earliest  Greek  mvthology  with  tko.  sacred  legends  of  the  Hindus,  has 
been  ably  advocated  by  Max  Mtlller  in  the  "  Oxford  Ej»8ay8  "  (1856).  In  France,  the 
views  of  Euhemerus  were  proi)ounded  by  Banier  (1739).  By  tiie  Britii^h  scholars, 
mytholo^  is  a  field  that  ha>«  been  very  scantily  cultivated.  Besides  those  already 
named,  Payne  Knight,  Mackay,  Grote  in  the  first  volumes  of  his  history,  and 
Kelghtley  are  the  only  Jiames  of  any  note,  and  their  works  can  in  nowise  compete 
in  originality,  extent  of  research,  in  di::'criminating  criticism,  or  in  largeness  of 
view,  with  the  productions  of  the  German  school.  The  best  for  commou  purposes 
j."  Keightley  ;  tne  most  original,  Payne  Knight  Recently,  G.  W.  Cox,  in  a  work  on 
Aryan  mythology,  has  pushed  the  sanscritising  tendencies  of  Max  MQIler  to  an  ex- 
treme which  to  most  minds  seems  abpurd.  On  the  special  mythologies  of  India, 
Koine,  Greece,  &C,  infornujt ion  will  be  found  under  the  heads  of  the  respective 
countries  to  wliich  they  belong.  The  more  important  mythological  p«*r8onaged  uro 
uoticed  under  their  own  names ;  see  Bacchus,  Jupiter,  Hercules,  «fcc. 


y  Google 


N«vio«  62 


N 


N,  the  foarteenth  letter  of  the  Englfsh  atphnliet,  \b  one  of  the  nasnl  llqnids  of  f lie 
linganl  chiss.  See  Lbttbrs.  ,  Irs  Hebrew  (uud  Phoeuiciuii)  uaiiic,  Nun,  »\g\ufied  a 
Ash,  which  its  ori^nal  form  was  proUnbly  meant  to  n-present  N  is  interchangea- 
ble with  L.  (q.  V.)  and  M,  as  in  collect,  cowimingle,  confer;  and  in  Ger.  bodetij  con»- 
]>ared  with  Eiifr.  bottom.  In  Latin,  tliis  let-ter  hud  a  fiiint,  unceriaiu  Honnd  attneeiid 
of  words  and  lu  some  other  positions,  especially  before  «.  'JMiis  accounts  for  words 
in  on  having  lost,  the  n  in  the  nominative  case,  tliougii  retaining  it  in  tlie  ohiiqne 
cases,  as  homo,  hominis ;  and  for  Greek  names  like  JHaton  l>eing  written  withunt 
the  finui  n  in  Latin.  Tt»e  dnll,  mnffled  prounnciation  of  ?»,  which  is  indicated  itj 
snch  words  as  consul,  censor,  testamento,  being  frt qncntly  pj)elled  cosuly  eemtr,  teata^ 
meto,  was  the  fii-st  stage  of  the  modern  French  uusal  n.  Before  a  guttural  letter,  n 
naturally  assumes  the  s  )und  of  ng,  as  bank. 

NAAS,  a  market  and  ns^ize  town  of  Kildare  County,  Ireland,  20^  miles  south- 
west of  Dnhlin,  and,  next  to  Athy,  the  largest  town  in  the  connty.  The  population 
in  1S71  was  3660.  The  principal  street  is  alwnt  half  a  mile  in  lengtli ;  the  couniy 
conrt-houfft  is  in  the  main  street.  Having  l)een  anciently  the  seat  of  the  kings  of 
Leinster,  N.  wjis  early  occupied  by  the  English.  A  parliament,  was  held  in  it  iu 
1419,  and  It  obtained  clmi*ters  successively  from  Henry  V.,  Elizal>eth,  and  Junuw  I. 
At  present,  N.  is  a  place  of  little  trade,  and  is  almost  entirely  without  manufac- 
tures. It  returned  two  members  to  the  Irish  p  irllament,  but  was  disfruncliised  at 
the  Union.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  diocesan  school,  n«id  of  three  national  schools,  one 
of  which  is  attjiched  to  the  Roman  Catholic  convent  A  newspaper,  printed  at 
Maryborough,  is  also  published  here. 

NA'BOB,  or  Nabab,  a  corruption  of  the  word  Nawdb  (deputy),  was  the  title  lie- 
longing  to  the  udmiuisU'ators,  under  the  Mogul  enipire,  of  t  he  seimrate  provinces 
into  which  the  district  of  a  Subahdar  (q.  v.)  was  divided.  The  title  was  continued 
under  the  British  rule,  but  it  gradually  came  to  be  apjilied  generally  to  natives  who 
were  men  of  wealth  and  consideration.  In  Europe,  and  especially  in  Bntain,\it  is 
applied  derisively  to  those  who,  having  made  great  fortunes  in  the  Indies,  return  to 
their  native  country,  where  they  live  in  oriental  splendor. 

NABONA'SSAR,  Era  of,  was  the  starting-ix)intof  Babylonian  chronolojry,  and 
was  adopted  by  the  Greeks  of  Alexandria,  Bero.xus  and  othors.  It  l)e^an  witn  the 
accession  of  Nabonassar  to  the  throne — an  event  ca  leu  1. 1  ted  (from  certain  astronomi- 
cal phenomena  recorded  by  Ptolemy)  to  have  taken  place  261  h  February  74T  b.c. 

NABULU'S,  or  Nablu's  (a  corruption  of  the  Gr.  Neapolia^  New  City,  the  name 
given  to  it  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian),  anciently  cjillpd  Shecheh  or  Sichem,  in  the 
New  Testament  (John  iv.  6),  Stghab  ;  is  a  town  of  Palestine,  i^ssessing,  it  is  said, 
"the  only  beautiful  site  from  Dan  to  Beersheba."  It  lies  between  Mount  Ebal  and 
Mount  Gerizim,  on  the  south  side  of  the  valley  of  Erd-MAkhna,  and  has  a  population 
variously  esiimafed  at  from  8000  to  14,000,  of  whom  about  600  are  Christians,  150 
Samaritans,  and  50  Jews ;  the  rest  are  Mohammedans,  fierce,  turbulent,  and  fanati- 
cal. The  houses  are  pretty  good,  but  the  streets  (as  usual  in  the  East)  are  narrow, 
gloomy,  and  filthy.  The  chief  productions  are  soap,  cotton,  and  oil— the  soap-manu- 
factories are  large,  and  the  oil  i.*  cont«idered  the  best  in  Syria. — See  Porter's  **  Hand- 
book for  Syria  and  Palestine,"  and  Stanley's  "  Pulei^tiiie." 

NACKE.    See  Mother  or  Pbabl. 


y  Google 


63  ITeviiif 

NA'DIR,  an  AraWc  word  t*igiilfving  that  i)oiiit  In  (h«  beitvems  "wliich  Is  c1ianietri« 
caliy  opposite  to  the  zciiitb,  tfo  tlint  the  sctiiti),  iindir,  ai)dceiitr«>  of  tbe  cnrth  ore  iu 
one  firaigbt  Hue.  TUe  zvuith  aud  nadir  form  tbo  poles  ot  tlio  Horizon  (q.  v.).  See 
Zkxitu.. 

NADIU  SHAH,  of  Perslji,  belong<'d  to  tbe  AfsbnTS,  a  TnrklsV.  tribe,  and  was  bom 
near  Ke!af,  in  the  ceiilre  of  Kliora.-s.iu,  Persiji,  in  1(5SS.  When  17  yo;:r8  old,  lie  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  UsbeUp,  but  escaped  after  fonr'ycnr«  of  cuptivity ;  cnteretl  tlio 
pervictt  of  tbe  governor  of  Ebora^snn,  and  soon  obuilned  liigb  promotion.  Huxii.p, 
bowevor,  been  dijrrnded  and  piiuinbed  for  tome  rt-al  or  supposed  offenrc,  he  l)eloi;k 
bim^lf  to  a  lawless  bfo,  and  for  several  years  was  the  dariiii;  lender  of  n  baud  of 
3«)00  robbfi-ii,  wIjo  levied  contril)ution8  from  almost  tbe  wiiole  of  Kboi-assaii.  An 
epporinnity  having  occurred.  N.  seissed  the  town  of  Kehit,  and  gradually  extended 
bif«  territbnal  antliority.  Porsii.  was  at  this  time  ruled  by  Meiek  Ashraf,  an  Afghan 
of  the  tril)e  of  Qhilii,  whose  grinding  tyranny  and  crnelsy  pro<lnced  iu  the  mlid  of 
every  Persian  a  deadly  hatred  of  tlie  veiy  name  Afghan,  whicli  exists  to  the  present 
day.  N.  having  avowed  iils  intention  of  expelling  tbe  bated  race  from  the  counti*jr 
aud  restoring  tlie  Snffavean  dynasty,  numbi  rs  flcrcked  to  his  standifrd,  and  Meshed. 
Herat,  and  all  Khofnssan  were  eiJeedily  reduced.  Aslirnf,  signally  defeated  In  t^everal 
engagements,  fl'd  before  the  avenger,  who,  v.iib  a  Celerity  only  equalled  by  Ita  thor- 
onghness,  purged  tbe  provincen  of  Irak,  Pars,  and  Kei'nian  of  wen  the  semblance 
of  ATgbtui  domination.  Tbe  assassination  of  Ashraf,  during  his  retreat,  terminated 
the  war.  Tlie  rightful  heir,  Tamasp,  then  ascended  the  throne,  and  N.  received  for 
bis  8i'rvic«;8  the  govern mcnt  of  tbe  provinces  of  Khorassan,  Mazanderan,  Scistan* 
and  Kerman,  asi^^uming  at  tbe  same  time  the  title  of  Tamas|)-kAli  (tlie  Slave  of  'J'a- 
nias|\),  the  title  6f  kimu  being  subsequently  added.  He  was  sent  against  the 
Turks  in'  1T31,  and  defeat»d  tmm  at  Ilaniidan,  regaiuiiig  the  Armenian  pro- 
vi4icc«  which  had  been  .«6ized  by  the  Turks  in  the  preceding  reign;  but 
bis  sovereign  having  in  his  absence  engaged  utisuccessfuUy  the  same  enemy,  N. 
caused  bim  to  l)e  pot  in  prison,  and  elevated  bis  infant  son.  Abbas  III.,  to  tlie  throne 
in  1738.  The  de:itb  of  this  pupi>et,  in  1786,  opened  the  way  tor  the  elevation  of  N. 
himself,  who  w^  crowned  as  A'adir  Shah,  February  M  1736.  He  resumed  tlie  war 
with  tbe  Turks;  and  though  totally  defeated  iu  theftrst  two  b  .ttles  by  the  Grand 
Vizier  Asman.  tunied  the  ilde  of  fortune  in  tbe  subsequent  campaign,  and  granted 
peace  to  the  Titrks  on  condition  of  receiving  Georgia.  He  also'  conquered  Afglia« 
ni^itan.  and  drove  back  the  invading  Usbi'ks.  His  ambassador  to  tlie  Great  Mogul 
having  buen  uiurd<!red  along  with  all  his  suite  at  JelalalMid,  and  satisfaction  having 
bi.en  refuseil,  N.  in  revenge  ravagixl  the  Nonb-wtst  Pi(»vlnceB,  and  t»Jok  Delh^ 
which  he  waf»,  by  the  insai}e-1)ehavior  of  the  inhabitants,  reduced  to  the  necessity  of 
l)illiiging.  Vith  booty  to  the  amount  of  i:20,000.000,  including  the  Koh-i-nfir  (q.  v.) 
diamond,  he  returned  to  the  west  bank  of  the  Indus.  He  next  reduced  Bokhara  and 
Khaurrzm.  restoring  to  Persia  her  limits  under  the  golden  reign  of  the  Sassauides. 
From  this  period,  liis  character  underwent  a  sudden  change:  he  was  formerly  open- 
liearted,  liberal,  and  tolerant ;  he  now  became  et!.«Ricious,  avartoious,  and  tyraunl- 
caL  'llie  emjiire  groaned  und-r  his  extortions,  and  he  was  finally  assassinated  ou 
Ibe20ib  June  174T.  His  only  surviving  son  was  carried  to  Constiuitinople,  and 
thence  to  Vienna,  wher/  he  was  brought  up  as  a  Cttbolte,  under  tbe  surveillance  of 
tlie  Empress  Maria  Theresa,  and  died  a  major  in  the  Austrian  service,  under  the 
title  of  Baron  Somliu.  N.'s  tyranny  has  now  been  forcotten  ;  and  at  tlie  present 
d'ly,  he  is  reg:irded  with  pride  and  gratitude  as  the  **  Wallace  "  of  Persia. 

NiE'VIUS.  Cn,  oneof  the  earliest  Latin  poets,  was  born,  probably  In  Campa- 
nia, in  the  first  half  of  the  Sd  c.  B.  c.  In  his  youtli,  be  served  in  the  first  Funic 
war;  but  about  the  year  235  b.  c,  he  made  bis  appearance  at  ROn:e  as  a  dramatle 
writtT.  Of  his  life,  w-e  know  little ;  but  nt  his  character,  rather  more.  He  was  very 
dccidwlly  attjiched  to  the  plebeian  party;  and  in  his  plays,  satirisicd  and  lampooned 
I  lie  Homan  nobles  with  all  the  virulence  aud  indiscretion  of  a  hot-blooded  impetuona 
Campanlan— that  Gascon  Of  and  nt  Italy  1  His  rashness  ultimately  caused  his 
bMnisJiment  to  Utica  in  Africa,  where  he  died,  204  or  202  b.  c.  Besides  his  dhimatic 
writliigs,  qomprisiug  both  tragedies  aud  comedies,  he  wrote  an  epic  poem,  *Dii 
B'jIIo  rtiuico,''  in  the  old  Saturuian  metre.  Of  these,  only  a  few  very  unimportant 
iragineufs  are  extant,  which  may  be  fouud  iu  Bolho'a  '*  Poet^rum  Latinoruu  Sceni- 


y  Google 


lf»TtUI  C4 

ITagpor  ^* 

corum  Fra^euta  "  (Hnlbtiratntit,  1834) :  or  KlKiimaiin'*  collection  of  Hie  eamo  (Jena, 
1343),  euricliud  by  a  life  of  N.,  and  nii  eBSKiy  uu  kis  poetry.  Sue  ul:<o  SoUars's  ** Poets 
of  tiie  Ro!naii  Kepublic  "  (Ediu.  18J3). 

N^'VUS  (known  practlciiUy  ns  mother-spot  or  mole) !»  n  conurnnltsl  iiiark  or 
growl U  oil  rt  part  of  the  skiu.  Soniel lines  it  i&  iiierely  a  dark  dJHCiiloiation  of  tlie 
surface  sis  described  in  tlie  article  Macule,  in  whicli  case  it  is  t*rm  d  a  mole  and 
ie  perfectly  harmless;  but  often  it  consists  of  a  dense  network  of  dilated  blood- 
Tcpsels,  forming  a  retldish  or  livid  tumor,  more  or  less  el,3vated  above  the  sai'facu 
of  the  Burroundin}?  skiu.  The  most  frequent  situations  of  these  vascuhir  ua&vi 
are  the  skin  and  subcntaneons  cellular  tissue  of  the  l»ead ;  but  they  may  occur  else- 
where. The  popular  belief  is.  that  i hey  are  ciused  by  the  lont^Ing  of  the  mother 
during  lier  prejjnaucy  for  a  looster,  or  H^^^rawbeny  or  raspberry,  or  some  other  red- 
Colorcd  article  of  food,  and  that  the  influence  of  her  ndnd  ha:5  impressed  upon  tho 
foetus n  more  or  less  vivid  imasje  of  the  Ihing  *he  long.d  for;  and  hence  tlie  name 
of  mother-tpot.  Sometime'«  these  tumors  wtiste  n way  spont4ineonsly,  nud  give  no  : 
trouble;  but  fivquently  they  increase  rapidly,  invade  the  adjacent  tissues,  and  ulcer- 
ate or  slough,  and  thuA  become  dangerous  to  life  by  hemorrhage.  When  these  tn- 
mors  do  not  sliew  a  tendency  to  increase,  no  treaiment  is  ne<'.es»ary.  When  thi-y 
are  Obviously  inci*easing  in  siz<*,  the  continual  application  of  cold  (by  means  o'f 
fl'eezin:;  mixtures),  with  mo  lerately  firm  pressure,  is  sometimes  of  survict? ;  but  a 
more  certdn  method  is  to  tanploy  means  to  produce  such  au  amount  of  inflamma- 
tion as  to  obllter.ite  the  vessels;  fortius  purpose,  tlie  s-.tton,  the  applicaiioti  of 
nitric  acid,  and  vaccination  of  the  tuiiu)r,  b;ive  been  successfully  applied.  The  in- 
jection of  strong  astrini;ents,  with  tlie  view  of  coaguliiing  the  blo<jd,  has  sou.ie- 
times  effected  a  cure.  If  all  those  nieanalail,  extirpation,  eiilierwith  the  lijfatnre 
or  knife,  must  be  resorted  to ;  the  ligature  bi-ing  P's^arded  as  tlie  safest  and  l)x>st 
Diethod.  For  the  various  methods  of  applyin*j  the  liijature,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  any  standard  work  on  operative  surgery.  If  the  tumor  is  in  an  iiniccessibie  spot, 
as  ill  the  orbit  of  the  eye,  and  is  increasing  nipidly,  the  only  course  is  to  tie  the 
large  vascular  trunk  supplying  it.  ,The  common  can)i.id  artery  ho^iu  sevenil  iu- 
Btauces  been  tied  with  success  for  vascular  nsevus  iu  tlie  orbit.       ^^ 

NA'FELS,  a  village  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Glnrus,  and  five  milea  north 
of  the  town  of  tinit  name,  in  a  d,;ep  valley,  is  one  of  the  most  famous  battle-fields 
In  the  country.  Fop.  (18T0)  2490.  Here,  iu  1388,  1500  men  of  Glarus,  under  Mat- 
thias am  Buhl,  overthrew  au  Austriau  force  of  from  0000  to  8000  men.  The  event 
is  still  celebmted  yearly. 

NA'FTIA,  Lago,  a  curions  small  lake  in  Sicily,  ai)oat  two  miles  from  Mlneo,  iu 
Catania.  It  is  situated  in  a  plain,  amidst  craggy  hills,  and  is  of  a  circular  form,  com- 
monly sixty  or  seventy  yards  in  diameter,  and  about  fifteen  feet  deep,  but  iu  dry 
•weather  shrinking  to  a  much  smaller  size,  and  being  occasionally  altoi'ether  dried 
np.  In  the  midst  of  it  are  three  small  cratcre,  two  of  which  iwrixjtumly  scud  np 
water  in  jets  to  the  height  of  two  or  three  feet ;  the  third  is  more  intermittent.  The 
water  is  gi-eenish,  or  turbid,  and  has  an  odor  of  bitumen.  The  whole  lake  resembles 
a  boiling  cauldron,  from  theescfipo  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  rushing  upwards  wirh  great 
ftjrce.  The  atmosphere  is  consequently*  fatal  to  birds  atteniptinj<  to  fly  across  the  sur- 
face of  the  lake,  and  to  small  animals  which  approach  it  to  satisfy  their  thirst  r  and  an 
approach  to  itis  attended  with  headacheand other  painful  circumstances  to  man  him- 
self. The  ancients  regarded  these  phenomena  with  groat  dread.  Tliey  puppo8t:d  that 
Pluto,  when  ctirryingoff  Proserpine,  drove  his  fiery  steeds  through  this  lak?,  ere  his 
descent  to  t  he  lower  regions.  A  temple  was  erected  hen;  to  the  gt  ds  of  tlic  i  wo  ciniters, 
the  DiiPaHci,  who  were  supposed  to  be  twiu  sons  of  Jupiter,  by  the  nvmph  Thalia. 
Pilgrims  fl)cked  to  this  Bhrino;.and  it  afforded  an  inviolable  asylum  to  slaves  who 
had  fled  liom  their  masters..  An  oath  by  the  Dii  Pa  lie!  was  never  broken  by  the 
master,  who  found  himself  compelhMl  here  to  come  to  terms  with  his  runaway  slave. 
No  remains  of  the  temple  of  the  Dii  Palicl  are  left,  although  it  isd  scribed  as  having 
been  maguiflceuL 

NAGA  Ifl,  in  Hindn  Mythology,  tlie  name  of  deified  serpents,  which  are  repre- 
sented as  the  sons  of  the  Mnni  Kas'yapa  and  his  Wife  K.'.dt-fi,  whei!C3  they  are 
also  called  ESdravdyas.    Their  king  is  S'esha,  the  sacred  serpent  of  Vishn'iu 


y  Google 


^•^  iragpur 

NXGAPATA'M,  a  seaport  o€  British  Indin.  on  the  Cbromaiidd  coapt,  io  the 
proviuce  of  Tanjar,  16  miles  south  of  Karikal.  It  was  taken  by  tlie  Dutch  in 
1660,  bat  fell  Ink)  fh«  huuds  of  the  Eui:)i8h  In  1781.  its  «>ite  is  an  op<ii  faiidy 
plaiiK  (^levnted  oiilj  three  or  fonr  tt^-t  at)Ove  sen-Ievd.  The  |X)rr  i»  visit.-d  by 
t<mall  vessels  au4  caitiie»  ou  «omc  trude  wlUi  Ceylou.  Pop.  at  tiie  ceunufi  of  1S71, 
48,525. 

NAgARJUNA,  or  NAfnwaia,  is  the  name  of  oi»«  of  the  most  celebrated  Bucld- 
bistic  teachers  or  patHarcha — the  thirteontU — wbct,  MOconliog  to  some,  lived  ahf)ijt 
400  years,  according  to  otiiers,  alwui  608  years,  afierlhe  death  of  the  Buddlia  S'-u- 
vamnui  <i.  e..  14S  or  4S  b.o.).  He  was  fbe  foaitder  of  the  Mfiilhyumika  eciioo),  and 
Lis  principal  dL^ciplvs  w«re  Aryadeva  and  Badhnuftlita.  Accordlng^  tothe  tradition 
of  the  Baadha£>,  he  was  born  iu  the  coutli  of  ladia.  in  a  Brahmaiiicai  family.  Rwn 
as  a  child,  lie  studied  aH  the  four  Vedas ;  later,  be  travelled  through  various  coun- 
tries, aud  becamu  proficient  in  astrottomj,  |;eograpliy,  aud  magiad'  arts.  By  mcaua 
of  the  last,  lie  had  several  ainorona  adveu tares,  which  ended  in  the  denth  of  thren 
compauioua  oi  his,  but  in  his  own  rcpenCauce,  and,  with  tlie  assistance;  of  a  Bnddiiist 
mendicant^  in  his  conversion  to  Buddhism.  Many  miracles  are.  of  c-ourse,  attri- 
buted to  ins  Career  as  propagator  of  this  doctrine,  especinlly  in  the  south  of  India, 
and  tiis  life  is  said  to  have  lasted  300  years. — 8ee  E.  Burnonf,  **  Introdaction  h 
rUistoire  du  Bnddhisme  IndivU  "  <Paris,  1844);  Bp<;iice  Haixiy,  '-A  Manual  of 
Buddhism  "  (Lond.  18:8) ;  W.  Wassiijew,  *'  Dcr  Buduhiamns,  aeiue  Dogiucu,  Gce- 
chiohte  uud  Liierutnr  **  (4C  Peteri»burg,  1890). 

NAGAS A'KT,  or  Nanjrasiki,  a  city  niid  port  of  Japan,  opr ned  to  foreign  coni- 
iTiPi-ce  l)y  the  treaty  of  1858,  ou  the  first  July  IB.';*,  is  situated  in  82©  44'  n.  Hit.,  and 
129°  61' e.  long.,  ou  the  western  side  of  ajYvninsnia  in  tlic  nort invest  of  tlie  Island 
of  Kinsin.  Previonsly  to  1850,  it  was  tlie  only  ])ort  in  Japau  op«'n  to  foreigners.  Tho 
harl>or,  wliicii  is  one  of  the  most  bauitifnl  in  the  world,  is  aiiont  six  miles  iu  width, 
and  threeor  fonr  in  leii};th.  To  a  person  Insid'-s  it  app«'nrs  coinplcttly  land-Ioclved, 
and  it  is  snrronnded  by  hills  of  about  ISUOftct  in  lu-iglit.  Th^se  are  bi-okfii  into 
long  rid-zes  and  deep  valleys;  while  the  more  fertile  spots  are  triract-d  and  under 
cuiOvntion.  Tlie  town  of  !N.,  which  is  al)out  a  mile  in  lentrth,  and  ihrce  qnarters  of 
a  mile  in  wldtli,  li<s  ou  tie  north  side  of  the  bay;  its  population  is  estimated  at 
70,000.  The  streets  iu  general  are  clean  and  well-paved,  but  the  bourns  are  not  par- 
ticularly ^oorl,  excei)t  those  possessed  by  conitoi'ans,  and  known  as*  tea-lionses." 
Ou  the  lulls  Ijehind  the  town  are  various  temples,  tliose  dedicated  to  **Sinto,"  or  th« 
worship  of  the  snit  godd'ss,  which  is  the  old  naiioual  r<-Hg':on  of  Ja|>au.and  those  iu 
which  the  Bnddliist  c  worship,  ini])Oi'ted  from  Ciiina,  is  i()llowcd.  The  foieign  set- 
tlement lies  to  the  south  of  tlie  native  town,  the  British,  French,  Gh'.rman,  Prusi^ian, 
and  Portuguese,  consulates  occupying  the  hilly  gi'ound  back  from  the  bay.  On  the 
opposite  sido  of  the  bay,  the  Jupaiiese  have  a  steam-factory,  under  the  diiVction  of 
Dutch  officers,  and  clofe  by  is  the  Russian  aettleinent.  The  climate  of  N.  V  genial 
but  variable.  'I  he  trade  of  N.  is  inferior  to  ihat  of  K'unagawa.  Sea-weed,  salt-fish, 
and  other  articles  are  exported  to  China.  The  exports  to  Enroj)e  are  mainly  tea,  to- 
bacco, coal,  ginseng,  vegetable  wax,  and copjier.  The  chief  imports  are  cotton  piece- 
goods,  Moolleu  good:*,  sugar,  oils.  The  total  value  of  iini>orts  iu  1875  amounted  to 
1,617.000  dollars,  and  of  llie  exports  to  close  on  2.000,000  dollars.  The  import  trade 
suffers  (according  to  the  consular  report  of  1872)  from  the  very  confiiud  outlet  of 
this  mftrket.  the  absence  of  we.-iUiiy  native  mercliants,  and  of  all  the  baulting  facili- 
ties, both  foreign  aud  native,  existing  at  Hiogo,  Osaca,  aud  Yokohama. 

NA'GEIiFLUE,  the  provincial  name  for  a  bed  of  conglomerate  belonging  to  tho 
Mollasse  (q.  v.),  which  forms  a  considerable  poriion  of  tlie  htrata  in  the  etntial 
region  of  Switzerland,  Ix^lweentbe  Aljw  and  tlie  Jura.  It  is  said  to  ati.;in  the 
enormous  thickness  of  600U  uud  8000  feetiu  the  Rhigi  uear  Lucerue,  and  iu  the 
Si>eer  near  Wesen. 

NAGKESUR,  the  name  under  which  the  blossoms  of  the  Mesua  /eirea  are  sold 
iu  thj  bazaars  of  India.    See  Guttifer.«. 

NAGPU.'R,  a  city  of  British  India,  capitjd  of  tbo  province  of  the  same  iiaine, 
and  situated  near  its  north-west  extremity,  in  an  nnhealihy  swampy  hollow,  489 
miles  iu  a  direct  line  east-uorth-east  of  Bombay.    Inclusive  or  Its  exieusivo  suburbs. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


KaUs  ^^ 

U  I»  Beven  mlloa  In  cIrcnmf(»reMCi%  ItGOutains  no  Important  cdiAcoe*.  Tlie  gre^ 
body  of  the  Inbabitanta  live  in  tliatche<l  iniid-tcut'',  inier£'|M»^)d  with  tre<;«»  wUioli 
preveut  thocircnintiouof  Mir,  mid  »ccroru  itioi>tnr<j,  Um»  rendcHu^  the  to\vn4iQ- 
BecesMiily  uiihetdthy.  Theincnii  temperatnreof  N.  foestiuinted  ut  ui>out  80*^  ^.  Cot- 
ton clothe,  courpe  nnd  fine  cIiIiuzch,  turbans,  silks,  brociides,  blnnkHP,  woolluim, 
feut-closhs,  nnd  articli'8  in  copper  and  brnsp,  are  ninnuCactnred.  Hem,  ^  on  the 
26th  and  2Tth  Novenib.T  1S17,  a  small  British  force  of  135i)  men,  conunandeil  by 
Colonel  Scott,  defeated  a  native  army  of  18,000  men.    Pop.  (1872/  84,441. 

NAGPUR,  an  extensive  inland  province  of  BriH.'»li  India,  i*  ander  the  chief  com- 
missioner of  the  Central  Provinces.  Its  area  is  22^3sqnare  miles,  and  its  |K>|>al:s- 
tion  in  18T2  was  2,280,081 ;  but  this  dp.xi>;natiou  has  been  uspd  lo  kiclode  a  miich 
grcatttr  areju  The  north  part  of  iho  province  is  mountainous  in  character,  b«jl4tg 
travei*sed  by  gpnrs  of  the  great  Vindhya  ninge;  the  general  slope  of  tbe^cufact!  i* 
from  north-weftt  to  soath-east,  ami  the  piy  ot  Bengal  rec^'ives  the  dKiinage  of  tho 
conntry  chiefly  thiongb  ihei  ivers  Miimnadiff  and  WaUitbin^A— the  lattur  a  tributary 
«f  the  God4vari.  The  climate  i»,not  healtliv,  an<l  is  esix.'cially  insMlubrioiiain  t.u 
extensive  tracts  of  low  umrshy  Jand  wtiich  abound  in  the  province  Tho  Qonds  <s  'O 
India),  supposed  to  l>e  the  aliorigines,  are  the  most  remarkable  class  of  tiie  inhabit- 
ants. They  rear  fowls,  swine,  an<l  iHiffaloi's;  bnt  their  country,  forming  tbemnith- 
caeteru  trapts— al)oiit  one -third  of  the  wiiole— is  covered  with  a.dense  jnu*?le,  swarni- 
Ing  withligers.  In  tlie  more  favored  districts,  where  the  inhabitants  are imOTe,)li^ 
dnstrioi^s,  rice,  maize,  oil,  and  other  seed?,  and  vej^etuhles  are  exreneivelycullivttti'<L 
Tlie  ra}alis  of  N.,  someilmes  ctdled  tlie  rajahs  of  Berar,  ruled  over  a  state  formed  o?;t 
of  at  part  of  the  gieat  Mahnittii  kingdom.  The  dyuastv,  however,  died  put  in  185^ 
and  he  territory  cane  into  the  possession  of  tho  Britislu  The  province  has  five 
divisions — capital,  Najrpnr. 

NAG'S  HEAD  CONSEORAnON.  Tlds  story,  which  was  trst  clrqnlatod  hv  the 
Roman  Catholics  forty  years  after  the  event,  with  respo  t  to  Archbisliop  Parker's 
consecration,  was  to  the  follmving  effect  On  the  passing  of  the  first  Act  of  IJn!- 
formity  In  the  first  yc:»r  of  <5t>i<^n  Elizabeth,  fourteen  bishops  vacated  their  see?, 
and  all  the  other  sees  excepting  that  of  LlandafC  bein^  vacant,  there  was  a  dlflaculty 
in  maintaining  the  hitherto  unbroken  succession  of  bishops  from  apo.-tolical  lin)es» 
Kitchin  of  Llandatf  refused  to  officiate  at  Parker's  con8<H;rat!o!i,  ai;d  consequently 
tlie  Protestant  divines  procured  the  help  of  Scory,  a  deprived  Uinljop  of  the  reign  of 
£dward  VI,,  and  all  haviuir  met  at  the  Nag's  Head  Tav<rn  in  Cheap-lde,  th<»y  kn^-'lt 
%eforo  ScOi^f  wlio  laid  a  Bible  on  their  heads  or  shoulder-*,  saying:  **Take  thou 
authority  Jo  preach  the  word  of  God  sincerely:"  nnd  they  rosse  up  bishops  of  tho 
New  Churcit  of  Buirland  I  The  story  is  discredited  by  the  Roman  Catholic  historian 
Liugard,  and  Is  carcfnlly  refuted  by  Strype  in  his  life  of  Parker.  The  facts  of  thu 
CJ»se  are,  tlmt  tlie  election  took  place  in  the  cha|)ter-house  at  Canterbury,  tlie  confir- 
mation ut  St  Mary  le  Bow's  Clinrch  in  Cheaps^ide,  and  the  consecnition  in  the  chapcil 
of  Liimbeth  Palace.  Scory,  then  elected  to  the  see  of  Herefoi*d;  Barlow,  formerly 
Bishop  of  Wells,  then  elect*  d  to  Chlche.^tiT;  Coverdalo,  formerly  of  Exeter,  ana 
never  rcai^pointed  to  any  see;  and  Hodgkie,  s-iffrairan  of  Hereford,  officiated  at  tho 
consecration.  The  Naj^'s  Head  Mtory  probably  arose  from  tlie  company  hayiirjrpoa 
slbly  goije  from  Bow  Church,  after  the  rontirmation,  to  take  a  din;  er  together  - 
the  tavern  hard  by,  according  to  the  prevailing'  eusloju.  The  due  succession  of  bish- 
fl^  in  the  English  Church  has  never  i»een  broken. 

N AG Y,  a  Hungarian  word,  meanino^  *' great."  It  is  prefixed  to  tho  names  of 
many  towns  in  Hungary  anci  Transylvania.  In  the  present  work,  many  of  lUe 
towns  that  take  this  prefix  are  given  under  the  name  that  conges  after  it. 

NAQYBA'NYA.    SeeBANYA. 

NAGY  ENYE'D  a  small  town  of  Transylvania,  on  the  Maro«,  17  miles  north* 
north-cast  of  Karlsburg.  It  contains  a  fa'uions  Calvinistic  college.  Pop.  (1869) 
6X19, 

NA'QYKARO'LY  (I.  e.,  (Jrest  Ka'<51y>,  a  town  of  Hungary,  capital  of  the 
county  Sziitiiinar.  SZ  miles  east-north-<?ast  from  Debreczin,  on  a  smull  fi.'eder  lif 
the  Thpiss.  It  has  several  important  ainioal  fairs,  and  a  trade  in  corn  and  &ittld» 
]?0p.  (1869)  12,754. 


y  Google 


67  .        gS" 


NA'HUM,  one  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets,  wa8  a  native  either  of  Elkosb.  fa 
Galilee,  or  thei*ou(>fu  mnn  named  Eikosh.  The  ideiitllictttioH  of  bis  birib|imco 
witli  Capernanm  (XalunnV  Villa;?e)  or  a  place  c  lied  Eiko««li,  on  the  ea*t fJde  of  Iho 
Tigri?,  not  far  from  Nineveh,  is  ihc  reenli  of  v.igue  sp<*<'ulaiiou.  He  wan  jmibahly  a 
contemporary  of  Isaiah,  and  flwunshid  about  718-711  B.C.  The  bniden  of  his 
*' vision"  (in  8d  chilp.)  \»  ihe  <iedtrticlion  of  Nineveh  and  the  downfall  of  the  As- 
syrian iciugdoin.  Hia  iftyle  is  full  of  animation,  fancy,  and  oii^nality,  and  at  th.} 
sttuie  time  clear  and  roundeil.  Hia  language  tliroui^hout'ia  cluarical,  and  iu  the 
pnrest  Hebrew,  beloning  totlio  e«cond  half  of  Hezekuih's  reijrn,  or  lo  the  tinte  im- 
mediately foUowins^  tlie  def<fat  of  Sennacherib  before  Jerusalem  (2  Klnj*!*  xix.  8S, 
Ac).  A  corinui-ntary  on  N:,  with  apecial  rt-ferenco  to  tlie  At^syriau  nionuuienla 
lately  discovered,  has  Iwen  written  by  O.  Strauss  (Berlin.  1853). 

NA'IA.    See  Asp  aud  Cobka. 

NA'IADES,  Nalnda'ceae,  or  Potjim»'ie,  a  natural  order  of  endogoucns  plants 
divided  by  Honie  bOfaniyrs  into  several  oider>«  {Juncoffiuere,  ^osfejafra",  &c.),  eon 
taining  in  all  not  quite  100  known  species,  all  ac^natic  t^ant><,  t^ome  of  tin  ni  inhabit 
ing  tlie  ocean,  ?onie  found  in  lukrs  and  ])onds.  some  in  streams.  They  are  all  of 
very  ceihilar  structure;  the  leaves  have  parallel  veins,  ai  d  the  fluwers  are  ineonspic- 
Qous.  To  this  order  belongs  the  Ponawcrd  C^otowioflre-fon),  of  which  a  number  of 
speides  abound  in  the  still  watt-i'S  of  Britniu,  and  of  wh  ch  some  are  found  as 
for  north  as  Icelauft.  To  thlrf  order  alro  belongs  the  Gsasswrack  (q.  v.)  of  our 
shores,  used  for  stuffing  mattresses.  The  Lntt  ice-leaf  (q.  v  )  of  Madagascar  is  one  of 
the  most  interesting  specii-s,  and  one  of  the  few  wliich  attract  notice  as  in  any  way 
beautiful. 

iNA'IADS,  in  Grecian  Mythology,  the  nymphs  of  fresh-water  lakes,  rivers,  and 
fountains.  They  were' l»elieved  to  possess  the  power  of  inspiration ;  hiiice,  nocah- 
sayers  and  otlmrs  are  sometimes  called  nymphoieptm  (wfzed  by  the  nymph).  1  hey 
were  represented  as  hulf-clothed  maidens,  and  not  niifrequently  us  companions  of 
Pan,  of  Hercuk's.  the  patron  of  war ni  springs,  or  of  the  Sileni  and  the  Satyrs,  iu 
whose  jovial  dances  tin  y  join. 

NA'IANT,  or  Na'tant  (Lat.  tuitare^  to  swim),  a  liemldic  term  applied  to  a  fl>h 
when  borne  horizontally  across  the  shield  iu  a  sw.mming  position. 

NAIGUE,  or  Naik,  a  native  subaltern  offi'^er  among  Indian  and  Anglo-Asintlfc 
troops,  whose  functions  are  somewhat  analogous  to  those  peifornu d  among  Emo- 
peaii  troops  by  the  drill-sergeant. 

NAILS  are  flattened,  «'lastic,  horny  plates,  which  are  placed  as  protective  covrr- 
^r^^%  <  n  the  dorsal  surface  or  the  termiin»l  phalanges  of  tne  fingers  and  toes.  Each 
Bail  consists  of  arooi,  or  part  conceahd  within  a  fold  of  the  skin  :  a  hody^  or«x- 
posed  part  attached  to  the  surface  of  the  skin ;  and  a  free  anterior  extremity  called 
the edg^.  The  skin  below  the  root  and  body  of  tiic  n.  il  is  t4rme<l  the  matrix,  from 
its  being  the  part  from  which  the  nail  is  pn'iducid.  This  is  thick,  and  covered  with 
highly  vascular  papillfe,  And  ilie  oolor  is  seen  through  the  transparent  horny  tls^ine. 
Kear  the  root,  the  papille  are  smaller  and  less  vi'scular;  lunce  the  portion  of  nail 
corresponding  to  tliis  part  is  of  a  whiter  color;  from  its  form,  this  ))orlion  ist»'rm<  tl 
tbe  lunula,  -It  is  by  the  successive  growth  of  new  ct-lls  at  the  root  ai  d  under  the 
body  of  the  nail  that  it  advances  forwards,  and  n»aint«ins  a  due  thickness,  whilst  at 
the  same  time  its  growth  in  a  proper  dinctinn  is  insured.  The  clumncal  composi- 
tion of  the  nails  is  given  in  tiie  article  Horny  Tissues,  to  which  class  of  strnctarts 
tliey  l>el(>ug.  According  to  the  observations  of  Beau,  the  fln;ier-i/ails  grow  ar  the 
rate  of  about  two-fifths  of  a  line  in  a  wet  k,  while  tin;  toe-nails  only  grow  with  about 
one-foui-th  of  that  rapidity.  When  a  nail  has  been  removed  by  violence,  or  h.s 
been  thrown  off  in  cons^qticnce  of  the  formation  of  nnitter  (pus)  beneath  it,  a  new 
sail  is  speetlily  formed,  p:ovi(le<l  the  matrix  has  not  buen  st  h(uisly  injured. 

There  is  a  vt^ry  cnunon  and  trouhl  some  r.f[t'<tion  popularly  known  a.B  ingrowing 
nail.  Its  most  usual  s«  at  is  l  y  the  side  of  tljc  gnat  toe.  Itd(.es  not  iu  roalUy  ai  i  ^e 
from  any  alteration  of  the  nail,  but  from  the  adjacent  soft  parts  being  constaiUy 

{pressed  by  tiie  use  of  tight  slioes  asrainst  its  edge.  These  parts  become  swo!l« n  and 
uflanied  ;  suppuration  lusu-s, auilan  Intensflv  sensitive  ulcer  is  formed,  in  whicli 
the  u»il  iB  embedded.    Surgical  advice  should  at  onco  be  resorted  to  In  tbeee  eases. 


y  Google 


Nailf  ^Q 

Walodaya         «  ^^ 

as  there  is  no  probability  that  the  nicer  will  heal  ^pontaneonsly,  especially  if  the 
patient  coutintie  to  move  about,  and  ttiaa  keep  up  initAiioii.  In  obstinate  cn^ea,  it 
IB  not  un frequently  necessaiy  to  remove  u  portion  of  llie  uail,  au  opcratiou  attcudid 
with  much  pain,  althoogli  quiclily  pirforraed. 

NAILS,  pointed  pieces  of  metal,  usually  with  flattened  or  rounded  heads,  used 
for  driving  into  woo<t-w«irk,  for  f  lie  purpose  of  holding  tlie  piece;*  to^jetlier.  A  va- 
riety, in  wtiich  the  liead  is  very  large,  and  tlie  spike  |»ortiou  small,  used  l>y  sliuc- 
makera  for  protecting  the  soles  of  lM>otB and  sliotns  from  wear  is  culUd  the  hob-tuiU; 
anotlier,  wiiich  is  made  by  cutting  tiiin  plate-iron  into  tJiin  pointed  pieces  of  vnriuus 
lengths,  is  called  brada  ;  tliese  aometimus  are  witliont  heads,  but  are  usually  made 
wiin  a  aligtit projection  by  way  of  a  he<id.  When  made  sunill.  wiiii  flu  heads,  lor 
attaching  cloth  or  hangings  in  upholstery-work,  they  are  called  tacka;  and  wheu  very 
large  for  heavy  carpentry,  xpik>iH. 

AatZ-moiWiuf.— Formerly,  all  nails  were  hand-made,  by  forgiug  on  an  anvil;  and 
in  lirit:iin  and  tlie  north  of  Europe,  va.>«t  quant itiits  are  still  nmde  in  this  manner, 
being  preferable,  for  nmny  kinds  ol  carpenlAjrs'  work,  totho:«e  made  by  machimrry. 
In  France,  the  greuttu*  part  of  tlie  inuld  used  for  light  carpentry-work  are  made  of 
soft  iron  wire,  pointed  with  the  hainin(;r;  and  iu  order  to  Ivead  them,  Ineyarep'mhed 
in  a  toothed  vice,  which  leaves  the  portion  for  the  lii^ad  projecting,  and  makes  lie'ow 
it  tliree  or  four  grooves  in  the  nail,  whlcit  iiicrcasj  its  hold  on  the  wood  when  driven 
home.  The  heatl  is  beaten  into  a  counter-sinking  on  the  vice,  wliicii  regulates  tho 
'  size. 

The  irOu  used  for  hand  nail-making  in  Britdn  is  sold  in  imndlea,  and  is  called 
nail-ro(U\  itiseitlier  prepired  by  rolling  the  malleable  iron  into  rods  or  small  l>ars 
of  the  required  thickness— whicli  process  is  only  em;»loyed  for  very  fine  qualitie-— or 
by  cutting  plate-iron  into  strips  by  means  of  rollinv;-.'*liears;  these  shears  consist  of 
two  powerful  revolving  shafts,  upon  wtiich  an;  ftxed  disc^  of  hard  steel  with  squared 
edges.  The  discs  of  one  shaft  alternate  with  thor*e  of  tlieorher;  they  are  otf  tlu 
thickness  of  the  plate  to  l)e  cut,  and  the  shafts  arc  so  placd,  that  a  small  portion  of 
one  Set  of  the  di!«c?4  are  inserted  between  tliose  of  tlie  other  Sft.  When  the  sliafia 
are  revolving,  a  plate  of  iron  is  press»^  between  the  discs,  and  it  is  forcibly  drawn 
through,  the  st«el  discs  cutting  the  plates  into  strips  with  great  rapidity.  The  qua  n- 
tity  produced  in  tlii:^  way  is  euormou-,  some  mills  taming  out  at  the  rate  of  ten  miit'S 
per  hour  of  nail-rods. 

S.rveral  iuventions,  in  whicli  A.m>inc>i  took  the  lead,  have  l^een  Introduced,  and 
are  successfully  worked,  for  making  nails  direct  from  plate-iron,  either  by  cutting 
them  out  cold  or  hot;  and  a  very  l.-irg^i  proportion  of  th  •  nails  in  use  arc  made  i.i 
tbia  way.    Nail-making  by  muciiiu  ry  was  originated  iu  Massachusetts  iii  1810. 

NAIN  DE  TILLEMONT.    See  Tillemont. 

NAIRN,  iu  the  county  of  the  same  name,  is  a  royal,  parliamentary,  and  ranni- 
cipal  burgh,  and  is  15  miles  north-east  by  rail  from  luvernesft.  It  is  situated  at  ihn 
mouth  of  the  river  Nairn,  on  the  wei»t  side,  and  for  that  reason  w.is  ancienf ly  called 
Inver-Naim.  Lyiuir  on  the  southern  ahoro  of  the  Mway  Pirih,  which  is  here  about 
eit^ht  miles  across,  it  commands  a  gran  I  and  extensive  view  of  the  coast  of  Ross- 
phire,  iuciuding Cromarty  Bay.  nearly  opposite.  N.  waa  regal IsiMi  by  William  the 
Lion.  It  has  little  historical  iuterest^  and  few  olijects  worthy  of  antiquarian 
attention.  It  is  principally  remarkal>le  for  the  excellency  of  it'*  aea-batliin^  nml 
artifl  ial  t>aths,  in  which  refpoet  it  is  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  any  town  Tn  tho 
iiortii  of  Scotland,  as  a  resort  in  summer.  The  temperature  is  mild  and  <  quable. 
The  inhabitants  enjoy  a  reiuarkahU'  immunity  from  epidemic  diseases.  There  is  a 
com  I. odious  harbor.  The  town  has  a  literary  hociety,  a  museum,  a  newspapir,  three 
branch  banks,  and  a  j-avings  Iwnk.  It  is  conspicuous  for  good  and  cheap  education. 
Pop.  iu  1871,  3761.  N.  uultea  with  Inverness,  Forres,  and  Fortro^e  in  8eudin;r  a 
member  to  parliament. 

N.AIRNSHIRE  is  l>onnded  on  the  n.  by  the  Moray  Firth,  and  on  its  other  sides  by 
thee  muties  of  Invernct*8  and  Moray,  of  tiie  hitter  of  which  it  .inc  (Mitiy  formed  a  pni  r. 
It  extends  north  and  xonth  22  miles,  and  1-^  miles  from  east  to  west.    Its  area  is  SliS 

Suare  miles,  or  187.600  acres,  of  which  about  26.000  are  under  cultivation.    Fop.  in 
71, 10,225,  including  the  burgh  of  Nairn.    Aloiig  with  Elglnshii'e,  It  returns  ono 
nember  to  purliaineut.    Constituency  ^876— 1877),  868;  iHJutal,  ^£34,941.  |Nairu  ia 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


hi 


^^  Nalodaya 

the  only  royal  biirffh  in  the  comity,  bnt  there  nro  the  villngefi  of  Cawdor  aud  Aald- 
eariiA  The  soil  ii«lor  the*  luont  jiarl  1  ght  and  sandy.  Tliem  is,  how»?ver,  coiipider- 
hhle  a^ricaHuml  activity,  tiiongh  th-.?  c<»unry  m  peni»pa  better  known  for  lie  Cuttle- 
l»rev-(hii«i:.  An  Importrfi'it  cattle  "tryst  "  i«»  held  at  Cawdor  once  a  month  during  the 
;rt:a'er  part  of  the  year.  The  ciimatc  of  this  couuiry  is  distingni^hiHl  for  its  wiUi- 
irity,  and  the  teaipt-nmirc  is  reimirkably  t-qufiblf.  The  thermoinctrr  iu  the  shade 
has*  uoi  ri«jn  above  T8°  3',  or  fall  n  b.^luw  11'  2',  dnnn^  the  hist  twenty  years.  Ac- 
c<.Td]ii;rto  the  iatest  ob^n-valioiis,  t!ie  V'  arly  niinrall  did  not  anuiur.t  lo  more  than 
2t>  ineJies,  the  jirenteft  Jail  bein^  in  Ot  tob«;r,":i»d  the  Ie:i8t  iu  April.  At  Bracklu  ll»s- 
tilkry,  wiiicliheloiigs  to  Ko'K'H  Frat»or,  Eaij.,  from  40,000  to  60,000  gallons  of  p]>irits 
are  n.anufaetinvd  annually.  Tiie  r.vor  Nitini  runt*  tlirougli  the  county  iu  a  beuuti- 
ful  valley,  wliicii  (iresenl^  particularly  ut  ructivc  and  roninntic  ticenery  in  tlie  iicigh- 
boriiood  of  Cawdor  C'a.-'tle,  one  oi  ine  residences  of  tlie  Earl  ot  Cawdor.  Tliis  las- 
lle  is  of  uncertain  aniiqu;ty,  .-.nd  it»  in  an  excellent  Htnte  ot  prem:rvation.  It  wai*  the 
residence  of  the  ancient  Thautsof  Cawdor,  tuie  of  wliom  i»  meittioned  in  "Mac- 
beth." About  ti»e  year  15'0,  the  e^t^itea  belonging  to  the  eurldom  {Kissed  by  uiarriage 
from  tiie  old  family  OI  Caldiu:  into  the  JK^uds  of  a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Argyiu,  and 
are  still  in  the  uos^ession  of  his  di-Hcendunts.  JSoi  a  few  otiier  objects  of  autiquariau 
intere^  are  to  be  tonud  in  tlie  county  ot  X^airu. 

NAISSANT,  a  term  applied  iu  honddlc  blnison  lo  an  nniihal  depicted  as  coming 
forth  one  of  the  middle— uoi  like  Jn«uarU  or  JetmttU  (q.  v.),  out  of  tlie  l)onudary 
hue — of  an  ordinary. 

NAKHICHEVA'N,  on  the  Don,  a  thriving  town  of  South  Russia,  iu  the  gov- 
enimeut  of  Elsuierinoslav,  on  the  light  b:<nk  of  the  Don.  and  near  the  mouth  of  that 
river,  two  miUs  east  of  Kostov.  It  was  founded  in  17T9  by  Armenian  settlers  from 
liie  Crimea,  and  has  (1867)  16,584  inhabitants,  mostly  Armenians,  belonging  to  the 
Greek-Armeuian  Church.  Tlie  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  the  inanufactiiro  of  sil- 
ver ornaments  and  woolleu  goods,  and  an  extensive  tmdc  Is  caiTied  on. 

NAK8HATRA  (a  Sanscrit  word  of  doubtful  etymology,  but  probably  a  com- 
)>onnd  of  an  obsolete  hm^e  naksha^  night,  and  tra,  protecting,  i.  e.,  literally  night- 
])rotecting)  means  proprrly  star,  mid  is  u:<ed  in  this  sense  iu  the  Vedas.  At  a  later 
period,  it  was  applied  to  ihe  a^terisms  lying  in  the  moon's  path,  or  to  the  mansidns 
in  which  the  uioon  is  piippo8<  d  to  rest-  in  her,  or  rather,  aecoiinir  to  Hindu  notions, 
his[M\b.  The  number  of  these  aslerisms  was  reckoned  originafiy  ut27,  later  at  28; 
and  mythology  transformed  them  into  as  many  daught^^rs  ot  the  pat.iiarch  Daksha, 
who  became  tlie  wives  of  the  moon.  Sm  Moon.  Blot,  Ihe  dis:inguiFed  French  as- 
tronomer, endeavored  to  ghew  that  the  Uindn  system  of  the  Nakshatras  was  d«> 
rived  fmni  tlie  Chinese  tden  ;  bnt  his  theory,  though  mpported  by  very  learned  ar- 
guments, has  been  refuted  by  Proft  S!«or  Whitney,  in  his  notes  to  Burgess's  transla- 
lion  of  Ihe  '•  Sfii^a-Siijdh&rita  "  (New  Haven,  United  States,  1860),  and  by  Professor 
MiSller  in  his  preface  to  116  4111  volume  of  the  ^  Kig-Veua"  (Lond.  186*Z);  for  their 
argniiieuts  leave  iitilc  doubt  that  the  system  of  the  Nakshatras  originated  from  the 
HiiKln  uiind. 

KALA  is  a  legendary  king  of  ancient  India— a  king  of  Nishadha— wboso  love  for 
Damayautt,  the  daughter  of  Biiiiua,  king  of  Vidarbha,  and  the  adventures  arising 
from,  or  connected  with,  it— the  loss  of  Ids  kingdom,  the  abandonment  of  his  wife 
and  children,  and  their  ultimate  restoration — have  supplied  Fcvend  Hindu  poets 
witli  the  subject  of  their  nmse.  ■  The  oldest  poem  relating  to  Nala  and  Damayanit  is 
a  celebrated  episode  ol  the  V  MnhabharaUi  "  (q.  v.),  edited  both  in  India  j  iid  Eurqjx', 
and  translated  in  Latin  by  Boppj  in  German  by  Kosegarten,  B^pj),  KQckert.  and 
Meier;  and  in  English  by  Dean  Mdnnin.  The  two  other  n-nOwned  poems  treating 
of  the  same  legenu.  bnt  with  far  less  completeness,  are  thc"Nalodaytt"  (q.  v.)  and  the 
**  Nalshadhachanta "  of  S'll-Harsha, 

NALODAYA  is  the  name  of  a  Sanscrit  poi-m  which  is  highly  |>rlzc»d  by  the  mod- 
eni  Hindus.  Its  subject  is  the  story  of  N:>la  (q.  v.),  but  more  concisely  narrated 
than  in  the  episod<>  of  the  •'Mah&bliaraJa,"  w'sence  its  contents  are  borrowed;  and  its 
reputed  author  is  K&lid&?<a  (q.  v.).  Great  doubts,  however,  must  attach  to  the  attri- 
bution of  this  authorship,  it  by  Kftlid&^a  the  author  of  *>  S'&kuniala"  is  meant,  and 
not  some  other  poet  bearing  the  same  name ;  for  the  merits  of  this  poem  consiyts 
neither  in  elevation  of  thought  uor  in  richnusB  of  fiction :  they  are  soi^ht  for  by  the 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


dtizeo  bad  three.    The  priftiomen,  like  oor  OhriMlan  name,  waf  personal  to  the 


iodividiial— OaiQn,  Marcus,  Ciieiiip;  in  wriliug  ireuenilly  abbrevtnted  to  uu  iuitiul  or 
two  leiteri*,  C,  M.,  or  Cu.  It  was  ^\yei\  iu  uarly  times  on  the  ntt^tlnnieiit  of  pti1>crtr. 
irad  afterwards  on  the  iiluth  day  after  birth.  There  were  al>out  thirty  recojjnisea 
prseiioiniua.  Woiuen  hnd  no  pi-seiionien  till  marriage,  when  tliey  took  the  feminine 
form  of  that  borne  bv  their  Imsbund.  Kvery  Roman  citizen  bclouged  both  ^o  a 
gena  and  to  a/amilia  included  in  tliat  gene.  The  second  name  was  the  nomen  gen^ 
iilictum^  generally  ending  in  -ttM,  -eivs,  or  -aiiis.  Tlie  thinl  name  was  tlie  lu;ro- 
ditary  eoaiionim  belonging  to  ilie  familia.  Cognomlna  were  often  derived  from 
some  biKUly  peculiarity,  or  event  in  the  life  of  the  founder  of  tlie  family.  A  second 
cognomen,  or  agiwnun^  as  It  was  called,  was  sometimes  added  by  way  of  hojjorrfry 
diiftinctlen.  In  common  intercourse,  the  pneno?neu  and  cognomen  were  used  with- 
out thenomen  geutilicinm,a3  O.  Caesar  for  C.  JnHiisC«sar.  M.  Cicero  for  M.  IHillins 
Cicero.  The  Roman  names  were  iatlteir  origin  less  digniflcd  and  aspirin?  thnu  the 
Greek;  some  were  derived  from  ordinary  employments,  as  Porcins  (swlneiien!), 
Cicero  (vetch  grower) ;  some  from  personal  peculiarities,  Crassos  (fatX  Na^o  (long- 
nosed) ;  a  few  froin  numerals,  Seztus,  Septimus. 

The  Celtic  and  Teutonic  names,  like  the  Jewish  and  Greek,  had  beeu  originally 
very  sign iflcaui;  but  at  an  early  period  their  exutierauce  became  checked ;  people 
conteuFiHl  tiiemt!>elves  with  repeating  the  old  stock.  While  the  speech  of  Enroiie 
was  undergoing  a  transformation,  the  names  in  use  remained  the  same;  belonging 
to  an  ol>i<>olete  tongne,  their  sij^niflcation  by  and  by  became  unintelligible  to  the 
people  using  them.  Many  are  tlerivcd  from  "QiKii^a*  Gottfried,  Godwin;  some 
irom  an  inferior  class  of  gods  known  by  the  title  cui  or  ana,  whence  Ansel m,  Oacar, 
SUmond;  others  from  elves  or  genii,  Alfrtd,  Alboin,  Elfric  (Elf  King).  Bc^riha  is 
the  name  of  a  favorite  feminine  goddess  and  source  of  light,  fiom  the  same  root 
as  the  word  ''  bright; "  the  same  word  occurs  as  a  compound  in  Albrecht,  Bertram. 
To  a  lars^e  dab*  of  names  indicating  such  qualities  as  pursonal  prowess,  wisdom, 
and  nobdity  of  birth,  t)elou^  Hildebrand  (war  brand),  Konrad  (bold  in  counsel), 
Hlodvvig  (s;l  irlou.^  warrior),  called  by  us  Clovls,  and  tha  original  of  Lndwig  and 
Louis.  The  wolf,  the  bear,  the  eagle,  the  Iwar,  and  the  lion  entered  into  the  com- 
po^itioti  of  many  proper  names  of  men^  as  Adolf  (noble  woif),  Arnold  (valiaiu  etigle), 
0--«»)oni  (God  bear).  Respect  for  femiiune  prowess  also  appeared  in  sncli  names  as 
Mathilde  (mighty  araazon),  Wolfhilde  (wolf  hei-oine).  The  spread  of  Christianity 
tnrew  a  number  of  the  old  names  into  comparative  oblivion,  and  introtlnct'd  u»'w 
on  ;s.  The  uam-i  selected  ar,  baptism  was  more  fivquently  taken  from  the  history 
of  tlie  Bihle  ur  the  church  than  from  the  old  traditional  r.  pertorv,  which,  however, 
was  n  ver  altoircthiT  disus  d.  Many  names,  snppos(;d  to  be  local  and  very  ancient, 
p  irticnlarly  in  the  Scottissh  Uighlan(U,  Wales,  ^nd  Cornwall,  are  in  reality  bat  cor- 
ruptions of  names  of  Cln*i!*tlan  origin  which  are  In  nse  el:«ewhere.  Owen,  Evan, 
and  Eoghan  (the  latter  often  Anglicised  into  Bector)  seem  all  to  I)e  forms  of  Johauu 
or  John.    A  chanite  of  name  was  sometime-^  made  at  conflrmation. 

Periods  of  rcligitms  and  poliiical  excitement  liave  had  a  very  powei-ful  influence 
In  modifying  the  Fashion  in  namc^s.  Tne  Puritans  woiUd  only  aumit  of  two  classes 
of  name:*,  those  dir  -ctly  expressive  of  nligions  se'>tim-'nt— -Praise-God,  Live-well — 
and  names  which  occur  in  Scripture  ;  thes ;  latter  IndtscriminHt-ely  made  nse  of, 
however  ol>scure  their  meaning,  or  however  indifferent  the  diameter  of  the  orFgl- 
nal  bearer  of  them.  Old  Testament  names  were  ustul  in  preference  to  liew,  prob- 
ably because  they  did  not  convoy  th«?  notion  of  a  patron  saint.  Old  Tesiamejil  uaiues 
siill  prevail  largely  in  AnnTica,  where  exist*  a  medhy  of  Christian  names  from  a!l 
possible  sources.  At  the  French  Revolntion,  ran  e^  su))posed  to  tavor  of  either 
loyalty  or  religion  were  abandoned,  and  I  hosii  of  Greek  and  Ronnui  heroes  came 
into  vogue  Instead.  The  Augustan  period  of  English  literature  gav;?  a  leniponiry 
popularity  to  such  ferainin.i  names  as  Narci.'*i«a,  Uelia.  Sablna,  In  Gernnuiy,  tli«j 
names  in  use  are  particularly  free  'from  foreign  admixture* ;  they  are  almost  all 
either  of  Teutonic  origin,  or  connected  with  the  early  histoiy  of  Christianity.  In 
Britain,  the  number  of  names  has,  pjiriicularly  fiuce  the  Rifunnation,  been  moni 
limited  tlian  In  most  olh»^r  countries.  In  some  f:imilie8  of  dii'tinction,  nuuKnal 
names  have  been  handed  down  from  fatlier  to  son  for  centaries— e.  g.,  Per-grine 
among  the  Barties,  and  Sholto  in  tlie  Donghis  faHiily.  The  accnmnlation  of  1  wo  or 
luoreCbristiuu  uuiueaouiy  bcciiuie  cumuiuu  in  the  present  cvutury,  and  another 


y  Google 


73  »— 

piACtlce  vfh\r\\  hii?  pvine<1  irronnfl  hi  BrJ!a!u  \»  th(>  tiw?  of  pnrnnm(»8  as  Chrlrtliin 
iiHujes*,  Moiv  reoetrtTy,  ViiriouH  old  ii:imo!«,  psrtlcuhirly  femiijJiie  imnu'F.  as  Mand, 
PKiitJMce,  Bthirl,  haVf  h  en  wlilidrawn  from  their  c)b:»cMiiiy.  and  ret«U!«clt!»t«^. 

Ttu*  use  of  flxt?;i  fwrnVy  ftumaineH  cmiior  he  iitir.fd  niiieji  furiher  buck  than  fho 
Ittttfi*  jmrt  of  the  lOlh  cfutniy.  '1  h -y  firnt  viuw  into  nsc  hi  Fitmce,  mid  njirfJcnJarly 
in  Norinniuiy.  Ai  the  Conqii  st,  th'y  were  hitrtxhiced  hito  Enffhiid  by  tne  Norinnn 
adventaitrs,  and  were  general  .n  the  Donu»rt3ny  Vnlurt!ion.  Mmy  of  Ibe  folhiwtrs 
of  VVilli.iin  had  hiktui  nnni  M  from  their  paU'rind  chalfunx  or  villa  e«  on  the  oth«T 
Bide  of  tlie  Channel,  names  Which  w  re  u^ed  wirh  th--  Frenth  prejiofkioii  de  btforo 
th-m.  Ilicir  younger  sou jy  and  oth  rs  :ii»;iM«.d  tlie  •*(1e*'  to  cj^tatep  awarded  to 
them  as*  fhi-ir  portion  of  th-'.  conquered  coaniry,  jiud  calh  d  then  Mves  De  Uaetings, 
Be  Winton,  &c.,  a  prefix  probably  iievfr  iu  veruacniar  u-e  in  Bngland,  aud  coni- 
pleiely  dl«<taided  wiih  the  dli^appearance  of  Norman-Frenc-h,  ntdesj*  tn  a  few  caf«es 
where  It  Wa."*  retain  d  for  flu  ^ike  of  enphony,  or  from  ccalewhig  wltli  the  initial 
vowel,  as  in  De  laH^che,  Dinvers  (d'Anver^),  Dant'orfleid  (d'Angerville).  When 
Enirl  sIj  waj*  nxetl  in  phice  of  J^rmun-Prench,  the  »*dc"  \vh««  alway»»  rendered  imo 
'•  of."  The  affectation  of  re»»itmii)}r  it  in  recent  tiinert  is  as  nnuarrautabic  in  tlieory 
as  in  tJiere.  Such  a  designalittn  as  Lord  De  'I  abley  of  'J'abl<  y  House  is  an  unmean- 
ing tantology.  The  Scotch  Inive  a  more  expn  ssive  dehignation  when  they  say  Col- 
quhoun  of  that  Ilk.  In  France  and  Gen s  any.  a  territorial  snnnime  (denoted  iw 
**Ue"  or  "von")  ovT^ie,  when  hurnamcs  ppread  to  jiU  classes,  to  I)e  tlie  mark  of  nobil- 
ity, 80  mn  h  so  that  in  later  times*,  when  any  me  was  ennobled  by  the  sovereign, 
the  "de"  was  prefixed  to  his  prevlou^'ly  plebian  and  not  territorial  name.  In  Britain 
the  "de"  was  never  considered  the  test  of  nobijitj';  the  names  of  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  familie:»  were  not  territorial— e.  p.,  Stewart.  Butler,  Spencer.  In  Scot- 
land, surname.'^  were  hardly  in  use  till  tlie  12;  h  c,  and  were  for  a  long  time  very 
varijible.  The  assumption  of  surnames  by  the  conunon  people  is  everywhere  of 
much  later  dn^e  than  their  use  by  noble  (gentle)  families.  As  yet  they  cuu  hardly  be 
8aid  to  be  adopted  by  tha  people  of  the  wdder  districts  of  Wales. 

Th«*re  are  many  existing  local  Burnamcs  in  Britain  besides  those  derived  from  the 
names  of  the  manors  of  the  gentry  or  landholders.  Farms,  homesteads,  the  natural 
features  of  the  country,  all  gave  their  names  to  those  who  resided  at  or  near  th»m ; 
lieuce  such  nim  ;s  as  wo  xi,  Mar<*h,  Dale.  The  pr.positioii  "at "  is  in  a  few  cases 
retained,  as  in  Atwootl,  A'Court,  Nish  (atten-ash,  i.  e.,  at  the  ash).  The  tnivelling 
habits  of  the  Scots  account  for  such  names  as  In^lls,  Fleming,  Welsh  (the  original 
of  Wallace),  applied  to  those  who  had  visited  foreign  parts ;  and  sometimes  a  Scots- 
nuin,  wandering  into  England,  returned  with  the  acquired  name  of  Scott. 

A  lai^e  class  of  surnames  are  pati-onymics,  often  formed  by  "  son,"  or  its  equiva- 
lent in  the  language  of  the  country,  added  to  the  Christian  name  of  the  fj.ther. 
Names  of  this  soit  often  fluctuate  from  generation  togenenuion.  Alan  Walttrhon 
had  a  son,  Walter,  who  called  himself  Walter  Alanson.  The  genitive  case  of  the 
father's  name  sometimes  served  the  same  purpose,  as  Adams,  Jones ;  and  similarly 
in  Italian.  Dosso,  Dossi.  A  fashion  of  using  *•  Fit 2,"  the  equivaletit  of  "  son,''  before 
the  ancestml  name,  as  in  FItzherbert,  prevailed  tempoiarify  in  Normandy,  whence  it 
was  imported  Into  Bngland.  In  the  Hisjhlands  of  Scotland,  the  prefix  " Mac  "  (Mac- 
douald)  served  the  same '{^rpose,  which,  however,  fluctuated  far  longer  than  the 
patronymic,  surnames  of  England  and  the  Lowlands;  so  also  the  "O"  (grandson)  of 
the  Irish  (O'Neil),  and  "An"  of  the  Welsh  (Ap  Rhys,  otherwise  Apretce).  The 
**de"  of  Prance  had  sometimes  a  similar  ori-.'in,  as  in  d'Andre,  d'Hugues;  and  sti.l 
more  frequently  the  "  de,"  "d -i,"  or  "degli  "  ot  Italy — di  Cola,  di  Giacomo. 

Office,  occupation,  or  condition,  gives  lise  to  surnames — e.  g..  Knight.,  Marshall, 
Pa«_'e,  Smith.  Brewsier,  Shepherd  ;  Hi  Germany  and  H(»lland,  I&uImm-  and  dfe  Rogver 
(robber) :  and  from  such  appellatives,  patronymics  may  be  auain  derived  ;fthU8,  we 
have  Smith»(on,de  Maistre  (master^s  son).M*Nab  (son  of  the  abbot),  M*I*lierson  (sou 
of  the  parson),  del  Sarto  (jion  of  the  tailor),  &c.  So  also  in-rsonal  qualities— Black, 
Wliite.  Strong.  Static, , Lang  (long),  Littlejohn,  Cruikshanlct*;  and  nicknames  have 
not  unfreqnently  been  t>erpetnated  as  surnames.  We  have  also  surnames  derived 
fn)m  the  signs  and  cognissunces  which  were  borne  In  the  middle  aires,  not  onlv  bv 
inns  atid  shops,  but  by  private  houses.  John  at  tht?  Bell  became  John  Bell ;  at  Mia- 
dlelKfrg,  in  Holland,  Simon,  apothecary  in  the  "Drake," or  Dragon,  bt^came  Simon 
Dmek;  benc6,  probably^  the  frequency  o{  family  utimus  derived  from  animals,  and 


y  Google 


also  of  tko^e  Iv^ginnini?  with  **  Saint;"  tlioogii  this  Iflstclws  may,  perhaps,  lome' 
lVni'8  li^ve  imd  its  orljciu  in  the  first  owner  of  tliiMiuine  d.dic.-itiiic  hiiiiseif  to  tha 
HM'Vici^  o.'  tlie  sjd'.it  lit  qti 'Stion.  lii  SooJlund  and  Tr.'.land.  **Th  ^'' is*  a  dtPtnictive 
title  i)ornt}  by  t  le  heads  of  sonio  old  fninilie.— — u;*  •*  Tli  •  Chisholih,"  **  Th.!  O'CouUor 
Dm."  In  t'le  Uigliia;ids  of  Sc  itJand,  th  :  chief  of  A  cl  in  i»  usually  addrc."<tsed  by  tlio 
Druiui  alone  in  a  murlti'd  niunuer:  thUf«,  "  Mucl«-o.i  "  InipiifM  a|H?cuilly  Macieod  cf 
Diinv^guu.  in  Sylct*,  head  of  the  cUtn  MaoKod  ;  **Mak<ntotfU,"in  liko iiiiiuuer, applies 
jsolely  to  Maclcin  osh  of  Mt»y,  in  Inverneert-flhiic. 

In  Bnghuid,  the  nuuibar  of  exiftiu^  purtiiinieM  upproaclics  to  40,000,  or  al)0ilt  ono 
to  every  five  hiiudrod  individuala;  in  Scotland,  there  are  far  fewt^r  mirtiames  fii 
proportion  to  tlie  poi)nhition.  Th ;  remarkable  predominance  of  certain  Buruumes 
in  certain  loc:ditie:«^aM  Ountp')ell,  Cameron,  Maclean  in  Ari^ylesliire,  Macdonald  iii 
liiverneftg,  Macluiy  in  Siitherhuidf  Gordon  aud  Forbes  in  Aberdeenaliire,  and  Scott, 
K:;r,  Elliot,  Mrixwell,  and  Johnstone  on  the  bordera -arises  from  tlie  clan:4iueii  hav- 
in:4  made  a  practice  of  takini?  the  name  of  their  chit^fs,  cousldcriug  tben)8elvcs 
members  of  their  family  by  adoption,  if  nototherwiso.  Elsewhere  than  in  Scotland, 
ya8Aals  often  adopted  tlie  names  of  their  lords,  and  servants  those  of  their  masters. 
'I'wo  or  more  surname--*  are  often  borne  by  one  individual^  in  which  case  the  paternal 
f  nrnam  *  U  som  jtiinas  placed  first,  som.stlmes  lost ;  and,  in  recent  timps,  it  Is  by  the 
name  which  occurs  lust  that  the  bearer  of  the  two  suruauies  is  u^Ott  frcquentj^ 
known.  v 

The  wife,  wl!h  us  at  least,  changes  her  surname  to  tliat  of  tier  hnsljand  on  mar- 
riage. In  the  continent,  it  is  .tot  unusual  for  (he  husband  to  append  his  wife>  naovs 
to  his  own  ;  aud  in  Spam,  tlie  wife  reluina  lur  own  name,  while  the  sou  is  at  libjrQr 
to  use  either  piteruul  or  maiernal  ifkuie^as  he  pleuso-^,  the  choice  generally  fulling  on. 
the  b  ;st  family. 

Cfumgc  of  ?uime.— Prior  to  the  Reformation,  surnam-'S  w^re  le?s  fixed  than  they 
have  smce  liecouie.  Oocasionally,  younger  sons,  iusteud  ot  retaining  tiieir  pati*p- 
nymlc,  adopted  the  name  of  their  estate  or  place  of  residence.  A  great  matrimonial 
aitiance  was  a  frequ  nt  cause  for  adopting  the  patronymic  of  tJie  wife.  With  this 
clefgy.  ordinatiou  was  a  common  occasion  of  a  change  of  nam;N  the  |)ersoual  sur- 
name liiiuji:  exchanged  for  the  iiaaie  of  the  place  of  birth—thus,  William  Longe  be- 
came WilWam  of  Wykehan.  In  time  of  political  troubles,  a  new  name  was  ofteu 
assuaged  for  concealaient ;  and  In  Scotland,  tlie  name  of  il'Gregor  wijs  proscribed 
in  1664  by  an  act  of  the  privy  council.  In  modern  times,  Injunctions  in  setUeinents 
of  Imid,  and  d!^e<ls  of  ent^ail,  are  frequent  grounds  for  a  change  of  name,  it  being; 
made  a  co:idit  on  that  tiKi  devisee  ordis|>one.^  s  lall  assuine  a  certain  surname  under 

f>emUty  of  forfeiture,  a  stipulation  which  thi;  law  recogni.-<eA  as  valid.  Such 'an  ob- 
igation  is  often  combined  with  one  relative  to  arms.  In  a  Scotcii  entail,  it  is  a  Very 
frequent  conditio  i  that  i^acU  succeeding  heir  of  entail,  or  husband  of  an  helre^  oc 
oiitii!l,  shall  assum  ;  the  entailer's  name  aud  arms,  or  his  name  aiid  arms  exclm'iVfXy; 
\\\  the  toriner  case,  he  niay,  if  he  pletises^  coulinue  to  use  his  pwu  surname  along 
witii  the  assuuied  one.  Ihe  heir  of  entail  is  not  held  legally  to  take  up  any  arms 
not  otherwise  Jiis  Oivn,  unlt^ss  he  have  applied  to  the  heraldic  authorities  for  leave 
so  to  do.  Where  a  Scotch  entail  contain iid  an  injunction  to  bear  arms  which  had 
no  existence  in  the  official  record  of  arms,  tiie  ctnulition  has  not  b^eu  held  to  be 
null;  tht^heirof  I'litail  >nust  apply  to  the  Lord  Lyon  for  a  graut  of  arins  bearing 
the  desigr^ation  of  t  iose  disponed.  It  England,  it  used  to  be  commou  to  obtain 
a  private  MCt  of  parliiuieut  to  authorise;  one  to  change  his  surname ;  and  authority 
for  such  a  propeeding  has  generally  been  given  in  later  times  by  royal  licence, 
which  is  grante^A  only  on  a  reasonable  ground  being  established  for  the  alteratiou, 
to  the  satisfaction  of  I  he  kings-at-arms,  to  wliom  a  remit  is  made.  It  has  some« 
times  been  sup)H>:«ed  that  tids  roy  il  licence  is  necessary  to  legalise  such  a 
cliange,  but  the  hjighest  legal  authorities  have  laid  it  down  that  there  is  nothing 
in  the  luw  of  England  to  prevent  any  one,  who  may  consider  it  foc'liis  inter- 
est so  to  do,  to  change  his  suruhme,  or  even  his  Chrisliiui  name,  llie  idea, 
lately  prevalent  to  soma  extent,  is  equally  erroneous,  that  an  advertisement  in  a 
gazette  or  newspaper,  or  the  execution  of  some  deed,  is  a  necessary  form  in  order  Xo 
effect  a  change  of  name.  There  are  always  great  Inconveniences  in  changing  one*a 
name,  which  sufliciently  account  for  the  geuei  al  indisposition  to  do  so,  except  frQm 
tt  quwftiouuble  ipotlve.    As  there  is  uo  law  to  prevent  a  person  from  changing  Ids 


y  Google 


nnmc,  so  there  i»«,  on  the  other  hand,  no  law  to  compel  Uiir^  parties  t>)  nee  the  new 
liHuie,  and  Ulspuies  aiid  uiiiioyuuces  arising  fro:n  t^uch  n  state  of  (bin^  are  mntteri 
of  coarse.  Tlic  cbaugu  tends  to  n  certain  extent  to  dcetroy  th^'  means  of  ideDtiflca- 
t.a.1  aft«?r  tlie  hipseof  years,  wbich  mayor  nmy  not  l>e  ilio  nbjoci  dei^ired.  Not- 
vitlistaudiD;  these  difflctiltius  and  iuconveui^icqj^  there  are  many  cxainptc»  of  i>er« 
sons  who  Iwve  succct  dcd  ufier  a  few  years'  in  b.  ing  jgencnilly  known  under  a  new 
name,  and  of  Hie  |>dt)lie  as  well  ns  his  friends  reco«;nt^u2  H.  Tlie  chnuee  of  Dnmet 
in  zciiftrMl,  prodaces  no  chauge  wbat^er  ou  tlie  legal  stntns.  A  pnrfy  Is  oqnaihf 
puurshahle  lot*  swindling,  hirccny,  and  other  cojnmttt  offences,  Wlmterer  name  hs 
tildes;  and,  on  the  otiier  hand,  if  lie  is  legat  e,  he  in'  not  prevented  from 
establishing  and  receivlnir  his  legacy,  whatever  inune  he  has  adopted.  It 
follows  from  wliat  pri-cedt'S  that  no  pi^r^u  is  pmtlsliahle  for  nring  a  new 
name,  tliout^h  it  is  sometimes  an  intrredieitt  for  a  jttry  to  take  isito  con.^idera- 
tion  when  i  hey  are  i-eqnred  to  infer  a  part<cnlHr  motive  of  condnct.  The  royal 
liseuceispractiCiDy  reqiiiritd  to  be  obtained  by  Eu<;li8limcn  (not  Scotchmen)  hold* 
in^  commissions  in  the  army,  as  als«  when  tlie  cliunse  of  i.siite  Is  to  b ;  htcomptt- 
iiiiul  by  :i  change  of  arms,.ic  b«>iug  the  practice  of  the  English  Ilernlds'  College  to 
r.  fuse  to  ^ant  arms  corresponding  ro  sndi  cliange,  niiless  the  roytd  lleenoe  fiavs 
been  obtained.  In  SootlaiHl,  a  bona  fids  changeof  name  reqnlns  neither  royal,  judi- 
cial, nor  p:irHamentary  ant  horitj-,  the  sole  exception  Ihtioj?  thccMseof  memlwrsof 
tne  Qoflege  of  JtMticis  who  require  tlic  iiermission  of  th<i  Court  of  St-HSion.  A  royal 
liceiice  is  not  generally  applied  for  by  nativv^s  of  Bcothind.  as  it  i.-*  not  required  lo 
be  prodaced  to  the  h  -rd  Lyon  on  appmiig  for  a  corres|x)iiding  ciniiige  of  arms.  Tlia 
arms  will  generally  be  granted  wh<  ii  the  Lord  Lyon  is  8ati>fl(tl  thai  the  change  haa 
b^en  madeou  some  n^asonahle  ground,  and  not  from  a  niircly  cipricions  motive; 
and  the  fact  of  tlie  cliangi;  of  name,  with  tlie  reason  why  ft  has  been  madi\  are  nar- 
ratvd  in  the  new  patent  of  arms.  When  such  change  of  snrinime  and  correspond- 
fti^  change  of  arnts  has  be«n  made  by  a  Scotsman  who  Is  an  olflcer  in  the  army,  the 
hnflMirities  of  the  War  Office  are  in  the  habit  of  r^^qniring  u  cert.flCiite  from  the  Lyon 
OfflcH  to  the  effi»ct  tli:it  tlie  change  Is  rcc«)gni  ed  there. 

A'ainM  0/  jiiocwi.— Th'iHC,  like  names  of  p  rsons.  belong,  in  a  groat  meatinre,  to 
the  hins6asi:e  of  p.it«t  rtiH'S.  All  over  Great  Biit;; in,  a  veiy  lar}:e  projwrtion  afe 
deriveajOfoni  the  Celtic  names  for  nntural  fen(urt»s  of  the  comitiy.  Fiom  Oteynfff 
afow,  ftiwt,  taVy  ^Inyd—w  tlie  Celt'c  speeches  <'qn5valent  to  trat^  or  Hver — we  hava 
E«k,  Ai^n,  Wye,  Thiam's,  Tnvy,  Clyde.  iVn  or /?fn,  hi!l,  rivos  ri*«c  to  the  names 
of  hills  in  England  and  Wales  (l»enrhys,  Penwii.cp).  and  stHl  more  In  Scotland  (Ben 
Nevis').  So,  al*o,  euym.  eomft,  valley— as  Tn  Cinnl)erlai;d,  land  of  valleys.  The 
memory  of  th»  RmiHii  III vatiion  has  been  pi-eserved  In  tlie  termhiation  -cJfc^rfsr 
('lerived  from  mutra)  In  tlie  fiames  of  towns,  as  Manchester.  ITiongh  surnames 
t*'fteii  driglnatetl  in  local  nam<»s,  the  revers<^ process  also  Occurred  ;  as  win-re  viUe^ 
ttm  or in^tottj  ham  or  hftrffk^  has  been  append*^  to  the  nann^  of  the  owner  of  the 
hind,  e:  g.,  Charleville,  Johnston,  Wymoncfbam,  Edinburgh  (t.  cEdwInVbnreh), 

Srte  Poft'M  ♦<  DiePrrs<meiinamim  nnd  ihiv  Entstebnngj^ai ten  "  (2  vols.,  1888 ;  Id  ed. 
ISW);  Miss  Yoiige  **  History  of  Christian  Karnes"  (Lond.  18«3) ;  Lower,  "  On  Eug- 
IMi  Snnntmes *»  (fiOiid.  1849);  Professor  Iiines,  "Concerning  Some  Scotch  Stfr- 
jiamcs  "  (Edlii.  1880). 

NAMU'R,  a  urovinco  of  BclKinm,  lH>nndefl  on  the  n.  by  Brabant  and  Ll^ge,  e.  by 
Luxemburg,  w.  by  Haiiiault,  and  s.  by  France.  Area  about  1400  Hiuare  miles.  Pop. 
f  Decern i>ej*  1874)  319,3S6  Th^pnucipalriversaretheMcuse— which  entirely  intersects 
flic  province — the  Sambre,  and  the  L<'S«e.  N.  presents  g<  iu*i-ally  an  alternation  of 
fruitful  valleys  aud  low  hilly  tracts ;  but  in  soine  parts,  where  the  heights  constitute 
offshoots  of  the  Ardennes,  and  are  deusely  wooded,  tinv  attiiii  a  cousidernble  eleva- 
tion. Wis  h  the  except lou  of  the  land  in  the  south-west,  wliere  there  are  large  tracts 
of  bog  and  heath,  the  soil  is  extrniely  rich,  yielding  almndant  cro|>aa»idfii)e  pa>*- 
ture.  The  chief  products  of  N.  are  wheat,  oat4>,  hpiw,  oil  yielding  plants,  and  fltix. 
^>)«kies  iron,  copp  :r,  lead,  and  co  il  mines,  N.  has  mai'l>le  and  slate  quarries,  and 
yields  snlplmr,  ninm,  csdmium,  alumina,  flints.  Ac  It.  hf s  good  steel,  iron,  and 
smeitii^  works,  breweries,  paper-mills,  &c.  N.  is  divided  iuto  the  three  arondisse- 
inefits  of  Kanrar,  Dinant.mid  Phillppeville.  At  the  close  of  the  t%i\\  c,  N.  was 
united  to  Luxembourg,  after  having  existed  as  nii  ind^'pendent  countship  for  np- 
^aMa  of  I5U  jfears.    Touiud^  the  middle  of  the  13:h  c,  H>as&^  by  l>orchaBe  to  (ba 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Vamor  ht\ 

Nanking  .  '^ 

Ilonae  of  FlaJidcr?,  wTifcli  Trta!nct1  poe*<*s«IOn  of  It  till  1420 :  when,  on  tbo  <fenth  of 
CouiU  John. III.,  wiThont  direct  heirs,  the  couiilsiiip»  which  was  in  u  8t:Ue  of  ex- 
tretiie  finnncial  etHb-airassineiit,  was  piircliabed  fi>f  182,000  gold  dncats,  bj  Piiilip 
Ihi:  Good,  Dulte  of  Burgundy,  aud  eubsequcutlj  atmrcd  the  fate  of  the  other 
Bui^aiidi;ii)  states. 

NAMUR  (Fiein.  Ifamen).  tlio  chief  town  of  tlie  provhice  of  the  ennic  name,  is 
ftiruiited  }it  tlie  eonfineuce  of  the  S(iinl>re*  with  tht*  Meiise,  and  is  a  sti-ongly  fortiiltHl 
town  and  tiie  seat  of  a  bishop.  Popr  in  1S76,  25  O661.  Ainuug  its  serentceu  chnrclien, 
the  cathedra!,  or  St  Anl>iH's,  wiiieh  was  consecnited  in  1772,  is  oue  of  tiie  tti<»t 
beantifiil  Rharclus  of  Belgiiinu  M.  has  an  ncadeniy  of  painting,  a  conserriitoire  fur 
niosic.  two  ptibiic  libraries,  a  mnseniiu  and  lionpital  for  aged  puni^ern,  a  theolofpca) 
seminary,  mid  two  coit^es,  oi>e  eonducte*!  \>y  Jesuits.  The  present  citadel  was  con- 
struct d  in  i  184,  but  the  city  has  been  fortifl-d  troin  tl>c  earliest  iieriod  of  itt«  history ;  * 
and  hi  1682,  its  defencHve  works  were  repaired  and  streiigthuned  by  Cuehooro,  only, 
however,  to  Iwtalten  in  the  following  year  by  Lous  XI  v.  and  Vaul>an,  tlie  latter  of 
whom  added  conaidernbly  to  its  original  strength.  The  repntsilion  of  its  citadel 
made  N.  a  prieed  stronghold  in  every  war  of  later  timet*;  and  after  Iraving  been 
pi llantiy  defended  by  its  Frencli  conquerors,  in  1816,  against  tite  Prussians  under 
Pircli,  It  was  finally  restored  to  th^  Netherlands  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  and  at 
once  put  into  tiioroit«;h  rep.iir.  K.  is  uoted  for  its  cutlery,  itn  leather-works,  and 
ltd  iron  ai:d  bniss  foundries. 

NA'NAS,  a  town  of  fluijgnry,  in  the  midst  of  exten!»1ve  morasses,  about  110 
miles  east-north-enst  from  Pefth.  The  popiilutioii,  partly  Protestant  and  pirtly 
Boinan  Catholic,  is  employed  iu  cattle-husbandiy  and  agricultural  pursuits.  Pop; 
11.300. 

NANA  SAHIB,  a  Hindu,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  sepoy  revolt  of  185T.  He  was 
said  tol)e  tiie  tf>oii  of  a  Brahman  from  ihe  Docciin,  and  his  real  name  was  Dhniida 
Punt.  He  was  i)oru  about  1820,  and  was  adopted  as  a  ^»on  in  1827  by  Rijee  Rao,  the 
childless  ex-peishwa  of  Pooua,  thereby,  accurding  to  Uiiidn  law  and  custouu  ac- 
quiring most  of  the  right-"  oc  a  legitimate  son.  He  was  educated  as  a  Hindu  noble- 
man—taiighi.  English,  and  l)rou;;bt  much  iu  contact  with  tlie  Btmipean  officers,  in 
wliose  aniuseiiieiiis  he  seemed  toiid  of  participating.  A  decision  was,  howevtr, 
com  ?  to  by  the  goveriimei»t  of  Calcutta,  tiiat  they  shotild  not  I'ecognise  riglits  to 
pcuxious  or  indemuities  acquired  by  adoption ;  and  iu  consequence,  N. 
».    was    refused    the    eontinuauee    of    a    pension    of     eight    lues    of    rupees, 

fiaid  to  his  adopted  father  uudor  a  treaty  inadv;  iu  1818.  This  is  )>e- 
ieved  to  have  rankled  in  his  mind,  along  witli  f>lights  he  received  from  the  supercil- 
ious Bnglish  youth  wiih  whom  he  came  in  cont^ict.  He  was  allowed  to  retain  some 
of  the  statt;  of  a  native  prince— a  reiinue  of  200  soldiers,  witli  8  fleld-piectis, 
and  a  fortifi-'d  re^«idellce  at  Bithoor,  10  miles  west  of  Cawupore.  When  tlie  mutiny 
broke  out  in  May  1867,  he  offiered  to  assist  the  English,  but  instead,  he  ti'earherously 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  mutineers.  The  Europ -an  troops  were  induced, 
on  tlie  26ih  of  June,  to  capitulate  to  N.  S,,  who  proiniMeu  tiiey  should  bitfentdown 
Ihe  Q.inges  in  safety.  They  goi  on  board  "boats  provid  d  for  tliem,  but  had  no  sooner 
done  so,  than  two  gnus  were  unmasked,  and  a  murderou!' fire  was  opened  upon  them. 
The  sepoys  w.  re  ordered  to  slioot  the  men,  but  to  spsre  the  women  and  children, 
who,  when  their  hn-^baiids  and  parents  had  l>eeii  shot,  were  removed  to  a  house  iu 
Cawnpore.  On  tlie  16th  July,  Sir  H.  Havelock,  who  had  advanced  to  their  assistance 
from  Allahabad,  defeated  the  sepoys  in  two  engagements,  one  within  8  miles  of 
Cawnpore;  and  N.  8.  next  day  directed  that  \hi  women  and  children  should  be  put 
to  deatli,  au  order  carried  out  with  unparalleled  atrocity.  A  long  series  of  engage- 
ments ajrainstN.  S.  followed.  In  whlcli  lie  was  alway.'t  the  loser,  and  he  was  ulti- 
mately driven  beyond  the  English  frontier  Into  Nepaul.  In  1860,  his  death  was 
announced,  but  two  years  later,  new  movements  were  di»»covered,  which  were  at- 
tributed to  him,  and  it  is  not  certainly  known  whethlt  he  Is  dead  or  alive.  Sevei*al 
Eersons  have  huen  tirre-ted  on  suspicion  of  being  N.  S.,  but  in  all  cases  a  mistake 
as  l>een  made^  A  column  has  been  erected  at  Cawnpore  iu  memory  of  those  who 
perished  in  the  masmicre. 

NANCY,  a  beautiful  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  department  of  Menrthe-et- 
Hoeelloi  10  abated  ou  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Henrtbet  at  the  foot  of  wooded 


y  Google 


77 


Vamnr 
NaakBg 

Jiiidvino-clad  hills,  220  miles  east  of  Paris,  on  the  Purla  aiwl  Strnshurg  Railway. 
Pop.  (18'6)  6«,c03.  li  ts  divldetl  Into  the  o'd  and  new  towns  (the  former  irregnlar 
and  with  narrow  street!*,  the  latter  oi)eu  and  handsomOi  Hud  C(>nit>i'i.>e8  alno  two 
Hubarbit.  It  contaiuH  many  hands^onie  ^quart^^  and  inipo>-ing  edifiivM,  and  owes 
much  of  its  architectnral  ornanuntaflon  lo  S:anislau((  Lccsinbky.  wlio, after  al>«U- 
caring  the  crown  of  Poland  in  1786,  continued  to  reside  lu-re  as  Duke  of  Lorraine 
li.l  hi-  death,  in  1766.  His  statue  ht:indj>  in  tiie  Place Royale,  a  fine  hquare,  porrounded 
by  ini)K>itant  pnbiic  buildlngp,  a?  the  HOtel  de  Ville^  the.iti*e,  &c.  The  gnli^.»  of  N. 
look  more  like  iriumphal  arches  than  the  ordinary  entrancet*  of  a  to\Mi.  Among 
the  InHiiuiions  are  the  univi-reity-nc^sdemy,  the  noruuil  ^chool,  the  schoo!  of  nudl- 
cine,  the  lyceiun.  the  public  lihrary,  and  uumerous  art  and  Mrieniiftc  pocieiiep.  Cot- 
ton, woollen,  and  limn  nmnufafiuveH  are  currie<l  on;  but  the  prhicipal  branch  of 
indusiri7  is  the  ouibroidering  of  cambric^  mH8lhi,  and  j  lonel  goods.  N.  is  known 
to  have  ex!8t«'d  in  the  lllli  c.  Two  c-niuri' s  Jaier,  it  bccanie  ihe  cjipital  of  tho 
Duchy  of  Lorraine  (q.  v.}*  Charles  the  Bold  was  killed  while  befiegiug  N.  In 
1477. 

NA'NDU,  or  American  Ostilch  (Rhea),  a  genns  of  Sonth  Americ  n  birrlp  allieil 
to  the  Oi'trich,  cassawary,  and  enin,  and  nio^t  nearly  to  the  o.-trich,  ironi  which  it 
differs  in  having  the  feet  Ihree-tued,  and  each  toe  arn:cd  with  a  cinw ;  also.  In  )>oing 
more  completely  feathered  on  the  In  ad  and  neck ;  in  having  no  tail ;  and  in  having 
the  wings  better  d<veloiM'd  and  plpmod,  and  terminated  ov  a  ho<.ked  spar.  The 
wings  arc  indeed  bttter  tieveloped  tlian  in  any  other  of  the  Stnithioniditi,  although 
still  unfit  tor  flight.  The  neck  h.-is  sixlecn  vertebra.  There  are  at  lefl>«t  three  hiKcies. 
The  best  known  species  {It.  Avieiicana)  Im  con^lderJlbIy  smaller  than  the  osttich, 
standing  about  five^feet  high.  It  is**  of  uniform  iinsy  coh)r,  except  en  the  l)ack, 
which  ha.<  a  brown  tint.  The  male  is  larger  and  daiker  colored  than  the  fenuiic. 
The  back  ai  d  rump  arc  furnished  witli  hmg  feathers,  but  of  a  n;ore  ordinary  kii.d 
thnntho^'eof  the  osnich.  'Ibis  bird  inhabits  the  gre.*it  gra9>y  phuns  of  South 
Americ.i,  southward  of  the  equator,  ab(  undi>  g  on  tlie  i)}UikH  of  the  La  Plata  and  its 
more  scmthern  tribuiaries,  and  as  far  ^outtl  as  lal.  42^  or  4^°.  Its  r.-mge  does  not 
extend  across  the  Cordilleras.  It  is  geueniily  seen  in  small  troops.  It  runs  with 
great  cHtrity,  using  its  wings  in  aid.  It  is  iiolyganion.^,  one  male  securinir  poss'os- 
siou  of  two  or  more  females,  wliieh  lay  their  eggs  in  a  common  ne^t,  or  drop  them 
on  the  Kiound  near  the  nest,  to  which  the  male  rolls  them.  Contrary  to  the  u^nal 
habit  of  birtis,  incub:  tiou  is  perfi  rmed  by  the  male.  The  N.  is  shv  and  w.iry,  but 
is  SQCccssfully  hunted  by  the  Indians,  gentaally  on  hor^eback.  The  flesh  of  the 
young  is  not  unph^asant.  The  N.  is  cap.ible  of  being  domesticat*  d.— A  smaller  and 
more  recentlv-<fiscovercd  species  (/?.  Darwinii)  has  liglit-browu  plumage,  each 
feather  tipiied  with  white.  It  inhabits  Patagonia.  A  third  species  (It.  niocroT' 
hyneha)  is  distinguished  by  Its  large  bill. 

NANKEE'N  CLOTH.  Calico  of  the  kind  calVd  "nankeen."  or  nankin,  waff 
formerly  imported  extensively  from  China  to  Europe,  and  said  to  Imj  the  manu- 
facture of  Nanking;  the  color,  a  yell(iwi>^i-huff,  being  a  favorite  one.  It  was  sup- 
posed that  the  Citinese  held  a  secret  for  dyeing  this  color,  which  was  found  to  be 
reumrknbly  durable;  bntir  became  known  that  ir.  w:is  not  an  artificial  color  at  :a II, 
the  cloth  being  made  of  a  colored  vjirii  ty  of  cotton,  which  was  pn  duced  occasionally 
in  China  and  India.  Artificially  dyed  nankeen  cloths  now  form  a  considerable  ex- 
port from  England  to  China. 

The  color  of  artificial  nankeen  cloth  is  produced  by  an  elaborate  process,  in  which 
the  yarn  or  cloth  isflrs:  dipped  in  a  saturated  solution  of  alum ;  then  hi  a  decoction 
of  oak-bark;  then  in  a  bath  of  Itme-water;  and  next  in  a  bath  of  nitro-mniiate  of 
tin.  Another,  but  K-as  permanent,  nnuk<en  dye  is  product  d  by  boiling  annatto  in  a 
strong  solution  of  pearl  ashes,  and  diluting  with  water  to  therequir.  d  tint. 

NANKI'NG,  capital  of  the  province  of  Kingsu,  formerly  the  capitnl  of  China, 
on  thtf  YauL'tse  River.  90  jniles  from  tl-:e  beginning  of  its  estuary,  n.  lat.  82o  40'  40". 
c.  long.  118°  47'.  Its  name  frignifies  the  Southern  Capital.  Since  tlic  reinov.  1 
of  the  se:.t  of  irovernment  to  Pttking  (Noriheru  Capital),  it  has  b -en  ctilie.l 
by  the  Chinei^e  Kian<.'ning-In.  The  walls  enclosu  an  area  of  nearly  20  miles  iu 
ch-cxinference,  the  g  eater  part  of  wiiich,  iH;wcver.  is  entirely  waste.  They  reach  tu 
many  places  an  elevatlou  of  70  feet,  and  are  fully  thirty  feet  in  thickness  at  tlie 


y  Google 


ITantte 


78 


Imse.  According  fo  ChFnose  ncconiiN.  tlie  |M>pnlAtioi)  of  N.  ws»  oiice  4,000,000,  hut 
n  more  recent  eAtiiniite  itiade  it  300,000.  A»  the  city,  howi  ver.  hap  of  l:i?e  |>a»$t^ 
Ihvougit  so  mnuj  vidsMimles,  it  ie  iii)i>Of^8i>)]e  to  a-HCcrtain  Ufi  present  iiBnibfr  of  iti- 
habitaiiits.  Tlie  inhabited  partlon  of  thn  irutled  nrea  lies  toward  the  we^t,  aud  v^ev- 
eral  miles  from  tlic  bank  of  the  river.  It  i?<  do  longer  possible  to  ajM-ak  of  N.  In  the 
Jan<;n»ge  which  former  travellers  nwjd.  Thtj  barbaric  dtst'olation^  to  which  it  wns~ 
iu»jocied  during  Mie  Taoping  robelliou  left  it  a  sort  of  wnck,  and  one  can  only  di*- 
Kiibe  it  as  it  wan,  Ixtfore  tlie  victorious  a.-'Snult  of  tbe  rcl)el8,  on  tlur  19th  Marcii  18.53. 
N.  is  the  t»eat  of  tlie  vlce-re^jal  gov«rnmeDtfor  th'^  |>rovinc«*t«  grouped  tcsriMhur  under 
the  name  of  Kiangiiau.  Ht^rc,  as  elsewlirre  in  China,  therl;~^vas,  and  again  in,  n  ■ 
Hauchn  garrison,  or  military  colony,  separated  by  a  wall  from  that  portion  of  th.; 
€ity  whicli  is  occapiod  by  the  Chine."<e.  Some  of  the  finest  streets  of  N,  were  in  ilii! 
TSiitar  city ;  sevt'ral  beiui?  nearly  10  feet  wide,  having  n  spare  in  tlie  middle  of  almnt ' 
8  feet  in  width,  flaggiKl  with  well-^ewn  blocks  of  blue,  and  white  marble,  and  on  e:\ti\i 
side  of  this  a  brick  pavement  14  feet  or  more  wide.  A  deep  canal  or  «litch  runs  from 
the  river  directly  under  the  walla  on  the  west,  serving  to  htren'Mhen  the  defences"  of 
the  city  ou  tliat  aide.  The  ancient  i>alac«s  have  all  disappeared.  The  offices  of  the 
public  functionaries  were  ntinierons,  but,  like  i he  shops,  presented  the  general  fed- 
tnres  common  to  all  Cbiuesc  towns.  Tbe  o''jjcts  moi^t  worthy  the  in^pectioD  of  tho 
traveller  are  fotnid,iii  rains,  outside  the  precincts  of  the  modern  ciiy.  Among  these 
Sa  the  summer  palace  of  the  Emperor  Kienlung.  Ir.  consisted  of  a  number  of  one- 
story  buildings,  wi:b  spacious  courts  between,  and  fliuiked  by  snntiler  buildings  on 
the  sides.  Enough  still  remains  to  shew  that  tiie  workmanship  was  of  the  mof  t 
eIal>orate  and  tniiane  character.  Wlien  under  cultivation,  the  spot  must  have  been 
exceedingly  beautiful.  The  tombs  of  the  kfngs  are  remaikable  for  their  sepnlehml 
Rtatnes,  which  form  an  nvcnne  leading  up  to  the  graves;  they  consit^t 
Of  gigantic  fl<rnre,  like  warriors  c-tsed  'in  a  kiiKl  of  armor,  standing  on 
either  side  of,  the  i*oad,  .-.cross  widcli,  at  intervals,  large  stone  tablets  iiri 
ezteudi'd,  supported  by  huge  blocks  of  stone  Instead  of  pillars.  Amon^ 
the  buildings  totality  destroyed  by  the  rebels  was  tlje  f  n*-fained  Porcelain 
Tower.  It  was  erecte<l  by  the  en>jieror  Yungloh,  to  reward  the  kindness  of  UXa 
mother;  the  work  was  commenced  in  the  lOtli  year  of  his  reign  (14  8),  at  noon,  oh 
the  15th  day  of  the  moon,  in  the  six  h  moiitli  of  the  year,  and  was  completed  in  nine- 
teen year-*.  The  l>oard  of  works  was  onlered,  acconllngto  the  plm  of  the  tnnp<iror, 
to  build  a  towe:-  nine  stories  high,  the  biicks  and  tiles  to  be  g1>iz<Ml,  and  of  '*&ne 
colors ;"  aud  it  wju*  to  bii  superior  to  «dl  othi-rs.  in  order  to  make  widely  kno.vn  the 
virtues  of  hi.-*  mother.  Its  height  was  to  he  S22  feet.  The  ball  on  it*  spire  was  t  >  he 
of  brass,  ov  rlaid  witli  gold,  so  that  it  might  last  forever  and  never  srrow  dim.  Prom 
its  eight  hooks  as  immy  iron  chains  extended  totheeigiit  eorners  of  its  highest  roof  ; 
and  from  each  chain  nine  lielis,  8ns|>ended  at  iqnal  distances  apart ;  these,  toiretlnr 
with  eight  from  the  corners  of  each  projecting  roof,  amomtted  to  144  l)ells.  On  tlie 
outer  face  of  each  story  were  16  lanterns,  138  in  all;  which,  with  12  in  the  ins  d  % 
made  140.  It  required  64  catties  of  oil  to  fill  them.  On  the  top  of  the  highest  roof 
were  two  brazen  vessel:',  weighing  together  1200  pounds,  and  a  nrazen  bowl  l)esid<*^ 
Weigliing  600  pounds.  Encircling  the  spire  were  nine  iron  rings,  the  large.-t  lieing'OS 
feet  in  circumference,  aud  the  smallest  24  feet,  altogether  weiL'hing  nearly  5000 
pounds.  In  the  bowl  on  the  top  were  deposited  one  white  shining  pej»rl,  one  fire- 
averting  pearl,  one,  wind-averting  i>earl,  one  water-averting  pearl,  one  du.-t-avcri in g 
pearl,  a  lump  of  ^o!d  weighing  .50  ounces,  a  box  of  tea-leaves,  10«)0  taels  of  silver, 
one  lump  of  orpiment,  ahogether  weighing  4000  pounds;  one  precious  stone-gem, 
JOOO  strings  of  copper  coin,  two  pieces  of  yellow  satin,  and  four  copies  of  Bnddlnj»t  - 
classics.  N.  continued  in  possession  of  the  Tae-ping  rebels  till  the  successes  of  tl:e 
troops  under  Major  Oordon  had  crushed  one  nftt^r  another  all  their  o.itlaying  forces, 
when  at  length,  on  the  l»lh  of  July  1864,  the  city  was  stormed  by  the  im'peralist  sol- 
diers under  the  viceroy  Tseng  Kwo-fan.  The  last  blow  was  thus  d«alt  to  tlic  Tae- 
ping  rebellion,  whose  principal  leader  |>crished  by  his  own  hand  amid  the  blazing 
ruins  of  the  palace  ho  had  occupied  for  eleven  years.  Since  its  recapture,  N.  has  r.>- 
samed  its  former  position  as  the  seat  of  the  v  c  -regal  government,  tnit  shew.*  few 
signs  of  revival  from  its  desolation.  It  has,  however,  been  made  the  headqnaj-t«*r«» 
of  a  large  miiit.iry  force,  and  also  of  an  arse»ial  for  the  manufactore  of  cannon  and 
Other  warlike  stores  ou  tbe  Enropeau  model.    Although  speciiied,  in  the  Treaty  of 


y  Google 


Ttoutrfu  (1866)  ftp  a  river-port  to  be  opened,  no  steps  hnve  iwcn  twken  to  procluini 
itoue.— Dr  Macgowau,  **Nortli  China  Henild,"  uud  ••Treaty  Ports  of  China  aiid 
Japan  "  (18«7). 

NANTES,  (anc.  Kammtes,  or  yannttes)^  an  Important  8ea]»ort  town  of  France, 
ca)>ita1  of  the  department  of  Loire-Iiif^rienre,  is  sitnat^d  on  i  he  right  hank  of  tho 
L»»ire,  30  miles  from  its  month,  and  at  the  point  of  conflut  nee  witli  it  of  the  Enlio 
and  t4ie  Sdvre-Nantaisc,  both  navigable  streams.  Besides  raihvays,  there  is  com- 
mnnicntion  wiih  the  interior  by  steamers  on  the  Loin*.  Tlie  uutural  beanties  of 
the  site  have  been  much  im]u*bved  by  art,  and  now.  tJie  noble  river  on  whicli  I hn 
town  is  placed- covered  with  craft  of  every  si xe  and  description,  tlie  i.««land8  that 
stnd  its  chunnel,  tiie  meadows  that  t-kirt  its  hanks,  and  the  bridges  (npwards  <  f  16 
In  number)  that  cross  it  and  itt^  tribnlarles  here,  combine  to  nialvc  the  fcene  a  hi|;lily 
pksinresqne  one.  N.  contains  nnmerous  squares  and  clinrches.  Several  dii^trT  s 
of  ihe  town  are  nearly  as  flue  as  the  bestdiftricts  of  Paris,  the  old  town  hav'ng  he«  n 
palled  down  between  1866  and  1870.  Iliistown  tH>ss<>SKes  numerous  strikintr  and 
Deaiitifnl  Ijuildings;  among  whicii  the  cathedral  of  St  Pierre,  containing  the  sph mild 
nionomeui  of  Francis  II.,  the  last  0ukc  of  Bn  tiipnr,  and  of  Margneritf,  his*  wif«' ; 
and  the  ()ld  castle,  the  temporajy  resid  nee  of  most  of  the  kinjjs  of  Fnince  since 
Charles  VIII.,  and  bniliin  988,  are  the  chief.  Ihere  is  a  pnblic  lihrary  ccHitaining 
60,000  vols. ;  a  imiseam  of  paintings;  and  a  mnst'nm  of  natnr:il  history.  Thcquny^, 
lined  on  one  side  with  houses,  and  in  some  cafes  planted  with  tires,  afford  :n 
agreeable  and  inten  sting  promenade  of  ab(  ut  two  miU-s  in  length.  Tlie  mosfbeonii- 
fnl  pnnuenade.  however.  lonnod  by  tie  Conrs  St  Pierre  and  the  Ct)nrs  St  Andi6, 
extends  from  th.e  Erdre  to  tlie  Loire.  It  is  ]>lanted  with  four  rows  of  trees,  boidered 
with  lines  of  palatial  honses^  end  ornamented  with  statnes.  The  harbor,  1968  yards 
in  length,  is  capable  of  accommovlating  npwards  of  VOO  vessels.  Formerly,  vi  ssela 
of  no  more  than  200  tons  lon'd  rciich  the  ptrt,  all  v<  ssels  of  greater  bnrdm  un- 
loading at  Pa:mb€enf,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river ;  but  within  rec<nt  yean-,  much  hab 
been  done  by  dredging  for  the  improvement  of  the  river-bed,  ai;d  large  vesj^els  can 
now  reach  the  hari'or.  The  chief  manufactures  of  N.  art^varielitsof  linen  and  cotton 
fabrics,  calicoes,  flannels  ;  musical, matheroat'!cal,  and  optical  instruments;  n fined 
sugar  and  salt,  chtmiral  pro('ucts,  cordage,  Ac.  It  contains  tanyauls.  copper 
foundries,  hnmdy  distiUi-ries,  &c.,  aid  numerous  establi>hm4nts  engagid  in  thu 
▼arious  nrannfacturcs  to  which  a  port  giv«  s  rise,  as  slil|>-bnilding,  the  pn-TMirat  on  «'f 
preserved  meats,  &c.  In  1872,  the  imports  of  N.  w«  re  valued  at  70,000,000  of  francs, 
the  exports  at  55,000,000.    Population  in  1876, 116,093. 

NANTJES,  Edict  of,  the  name  piven  to  the  famous  decree  published  in  that  city 
by  Henry  IV.  of  Franco,  13il»  April  1598,  wliich  secured  to  the  Protesiant  poriion  of 
his  subjectt*  freedom  of  reliuion.  Among  its  more  important  provisions  were— lib- 
erty to  celebrate  worship  wherever  Protestant  communities  already  existed  ;  to  es- 
tablish new  churches,  txcept  in  Paris  and  the  suiTOunding  district,  and  in  the  royal 
residences;  and  tomaintJiin  uniycrsitieK,  or  theological  colleges,  of  which  they  h;id 
four,  those  at  Montauban,  Saumur.  Montpellier.  and  Sedan  ;  adherents  of  the  Re- 
formed faith  were  al^o  to  be  eligible  to  all  civil  cflices  and  dignities;  bu»j  on  the 
other  hand,  they  were. not  allowed  to  print  I  ooks  on  the  tenets  of  their  religion,  ex- 
cept In  those  places  M'here  it  existed  ;  and  they  were  obliged  to  outwardly  celebrate 
the  festivals  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  to  pay  tithes  to  the  Catholic  priesthood. 
From  this  period  tie  Reformers  or  Huguenots  ^who  then  counted  760  churches) 
bad  a  legal  existence  in  France,  but  graduaify  their  political  strength  was  crushed 
by  the  mighty  genius  of  Hichelieu— who^  however,  ut-vt-r  dreamed  of  intrrfering 
with  their  liberty  of  worship.  Neither  did  his  succes^j^ors,  Mazarin  aid  Colbert; 
but  under  Wut  influence  of  a  **  peniteiice,"  as  corrupt  and  sensual  as  the  sina  which 
occasioned  it,  Louis  XIV.,  aft(  r  a  series  of  detistnble  Vragoniiad^s  (q.  v.),  signed  a 
dicne  for  the  rt-vocaiion  of  the  edict,  18th  Octt 'her.  1685. — ThciesuUol  this  dts- 
potic  act  was  that,  rather  than  conform  to  the  establisln-d  religion,  400,0<'0  Protest- 
ants— among  the  mos»t  li;dustrious,  the  mo^t  intelligent,  and  the  most  rcli«rions  of 
the  nation— quitted  Fraic**,  and  to- k  rt  f uge  in  -Gnat  Britain,  Holland,  rrnssia, 
Switzerland,  ai.d  Anvrica.  The  loss  to  France  was  immense ;  the  gain  to  other 
coun'ries,  no  le^s.  Composed  largely  of  merchants,  maiiufac^nrers.  .-.nd  .-killed  ar- 
tisuna,  they  carried  w.th  them  their  kuowkdge,  taste,  and  aptitude  for  basrness. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Nantucket  qa 

Naphtha  ^^ 

From  them  Bngland,  in  partlcnlar,  learned  the  Art  of  manufacturing  silk,  ciyBtal 
glH88ef>,  aud  tile  more  delicure  kiuda  of  jewellery. 

NANTU'CKB T,  nii  i!«laiiU  aud  town  npou  lt»  on  the  8onth-en»t  coast  of  Maitsa- 
cluiaetts.  The  Island  i»1ft  miles  Iou^j:  niul  an  uvm'ugc  o(  4  wide,  with  un  ttrea  of  50 
sqaure  miles.  It  wtia  l)ouglit  from  the  ludiuus  by  Thomjis  M.icy,  lit  1669,  for  £30 
and  two  beaver-huta.  N.  was  at  one  time  a  jrreut  seat  of  tlie  whale  fisiiery,  hnviiig 
ill  1775  had  as  many  ns  150  whaling  vessels ;  bnt  this  brunch  of  indu!<try  has  dccliued 
since  1846,  aud  since  the  civil  war  has  be<  ome  extiucr.  The  harbor  is  couuiKxiious 
and  safe.    N.  has  2  uewspupera  ;  pop.  (1870)  4128. 

NA'NTWICH,  a  small  market-K)wn  of  Chrshire,  England,  on  the  Weaver,  2© 
miles  south-east  of  Chester.  Many  of  its  hour's  are  interesting  from  their  age  ami 
coii«trnotion,  l>eing  built  in  many  cases  of  timber  and  piaster,  and  witb  overhanging 
upper «t or ie:i.  The  parish  church,  one  ot  thu  li:jet<t  cuuntry  ciuitclies  in  En>rland, 
was  thorou^Iy  rostored  in  1864  at  great  cost.  N.  was  famous  in  formnr  times  for 
its  briue-sprmgs  and  nalt'WorkiJL  Slioex,  jrloves,  uud  cottou  goods  are  munul'actui  I'd, 
and  maltiug  is  carried  on.    Fop.  (1871)  WIB. 

NA'OS  (Gr.  a  dwelling),  the  cell  or  enclosed  cliamber  of  a  Qreek  temple. 

NA  PHTHA  is  derived  from  the  Persian  word  tuxfata,  to  exude,  and  was  originally 
applied  U>  an  iuflammable  liquid  hydrocjirbon  (or  rather  a  mixtuiti  of  neveral  hydro- 
c  irbons)  which  exudes  from  the  ^oil  in  certain  parts  of  Persia.  (According  to  Pclie- 
tier  and  Walter,  it  consists  of  three  hydroiiurl)ons— viz.,Ci^Hit,  which  boils  at  190° ; 
CisHi«,  which  ooilB  al839^;  aud  CgVUss.  which  l)oils  at  iii4^.)  The  term  is,  how- 
ever, now  used  uot  only  to  di^signatd  a  MUiilar  and  almo^at  idenlioil  fluid,  that  issues 
from  the  gtiouod  in  many  parts  of  thti  world,  aud  in  known  as  petroleum,  rock-oil, 
Ac,  hut  is  also  applied  to  other  liquids  which  resemble  true  naphtha  in  little  else 
than  in  their  volatility  and  infl  nun  ibiKty.  Thnn,  wood-spirit  or  methyllc  alcohol 
is  often  spoken  of  is  wood  nap/UlMy  aud  acetone  iHeomctimeH  described  as  naphtha. 
Coal-tar  yields  i)y  distillation  u  liquid  which  hai  a  heavier  specific  gravity  aud  a  lower 
boiling-point  than  Persiau  naphthi,  but  resembles  it  in  guueral  propcitiets  aud  cau 
generally  l)e  snl^stituted  for  it.    See  Gas-tah. 

Crude  Naphtha,  whether  occurring  as  a  natural  product,  or  as  obttiiued  from 
coal-tar,  is  purified  by  agitition  mtli  strong  snl|>liu!*lc  acid ;  after  which  it  must  be 
wellwashedvvit.lt  water  (in  which  it  is  quite  insoluble),  and  finally  dlutilUd  from 
gnicklime.  Pure  miphtiia  is  colorless,  and  of  a  peculiar  taste  aud  odor;  it  is  ^uble 
in  auout  eight  limes  it»  bulk  of  alcthol,  and  diissolves  in  all  proportions  iu  ether  and 
in  the  esHeiitiai  oils.  Hot  naplitlia  disi^olve.s  piiosphorns  and  sulpiuir,  but  deposits 
them  on  cooling.  It.  is  an  excelli-nt  solvent  for  jriittapercha,  caontchonc,  camphor, 
and  fatty  and  resinous  bodies  generally ;  and  hence  it  is  ext^mslvely  used  in  the  arts 
for  these  purposci«,  and  it*  employment  tis  a  source  of  artificial  light  i»  now  becom- 
ing universal.  In  coiiHtquence  of  its  containing  no  oxygen,  it  is  employed  by  chenv* 
ista  for  the  preservation  of  potassium  and  other  metaln,  whith  Inive  a  powerful 
affiuity  for  oxygen.  Owing  to  its  vohitility  and  inflammabilfty,  it  must  be  handled 
with  great  caution,  mriiiy  fatal  cases  liaving  arisen  from  its  vapor  catching  fire  qu 
the  approach  of  a  caudle. 

The  principal  kinds  of  naphtha  known  in  commerce  are  native  naphtha,^  conl- 
naphtha,  Bogtiead  naphtini  (abo called  paruffiu  oil  and  photogen),  shale  uaphtha,  and 
naphtha  from  caoutchouc  or  caoutcluue. 

Native  naphtha,  petroleum,  or  rock-oil,  is  foimd  In  many  parts  of  the  world,  as  In 
Japan,  Burmah,  Persia,  tiie  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  Siberia,  Italy,  France,  and 
North  America.  It  is  of  various  degrees  of  con8i!«tency,froni  a  thin,  Hght,  colorlehS 
fluid  found  in  Persia,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  al)out  0*760,  to  a  substauce  as  thick 
as  butter,  and  nearly  as  heavy  as  water.  But  all  the  kindfe  wheu  rectified  have 
nearly  the  same  constitution.  They  contain  no  oxygen,  and  conHsr  of  caii)on  aud 
hydit)g«'n  compounds  only.  Bitumen  nnd  asphaltum  are  closely  alli'-d  substances 
in  a  solid  or  semi-solid  form.  From  a  very  early  period  in  Persia  nnd  Japan,  and  at 
least  since  last  century  iu  Italy,  native  naphtha  lias  iKjen  used  to  bum  in  lamps. 

Coal-tar  naphtha  (see  Gas-tar),  as*  state«l  above,  is  of  a  higher  specific  gravity 
thau  native  naphtha—viz.,  from  U*860  to  0*900,  aud  lias  a  moie  disa^rettuble  aud 
peuetratiug  odor. 


y  Google 


81 


lfanttick«f 
Naphtha 

Parnffln  of],  for  dome  time  known  lO^o  n?  0o?1iend  naphtha,  h:iB  become,  of  late 
years,  fo  impovtimt  a  maunfactiire.  iliar  u  brief  history  of  it*  orMn  cnniiot  be  niiiii- 
terePtliig.  In  the  year  184t,  Mr»  Jniiu'S  Youug,  now  of  llie  Batligatc  Chemical 
Works,  hnd  hip  attention  c.illed  lo  apelroleiim  t*prhig  Jit  Alfretoii,  ni  Derbyshirf, 
from  which  he  distilled  a  light  iliiii  oil  for  biirtiing  in  lamps,  obtaining  ut  the  Fame 
timo  u  thicker  oil,  wliich  M'as  neted  for  iubricuiiiiu  machinery.  After  a  year  or  two 
tiiu  RUpply  began  to  fail,  bat  Hi*  Toimg,  noticing  Hint  petioieam  waH  dropping 
fronrtite  hnndstone  roof  of  a  coal-mine,  conjeciur«Hl  tliut  it  originated  by  the  action 
of  heaf  on  the  coa!->enm,  tlie  viipor  from  wliicli  had  condensed  in  the  sand- rone, 
and  8ap|>0Qe<l  from  this  ^  iiat  it  might  lie  produced  artificially,  following  up  thin  idea, 
he  tri'-d  a  threat  huiny  <  z|>erimeul«>,  and  nltiiu.iiely  huccecded,  l>y  distilling  coal  at  a 
low  red-heat,  in  ol)taining  a  sultstance  reaemblintf  )>etroleum.  wliich.  when  treated 
in  the  fame  way  as  the  u.-itaral  petroleum,  vieldeasunilar  modaets.  'the  ol')taining 
of  tiiese  oils  and  the  solid  sub^tuvcu  paniffln  from  coal  formed  the  subject  of  bis 
now  celel)r:iled  putent.  dnt«d  Octol^r  17,  1850. 

In  the  years  1860  and  1864.  loi.g  and  costly  litigationfi  as  to  theTalidltyof  Mr 
Young's  patent  took  place  in  Edinburgh  and  London,  reMilting  in  the  main  iu  his 
favor.  Many  years  ago,  Reichenlmch  had,  by  distilling  100  lbs.  of  pit-coal,  obtained 
nuirty  two  ounces  of  an  oily  liquid  exactly  resembling  natural  nauntha;  and  various 
other  cbemicul  writers  were  api)ea]ed  to,  as  pn)ving  that  methuas  substantially  the 
fcinic  ax  Mr  Young's  were  previonsly  known  and  pnictised.  One  thing  seems  to  have 
been  iidmitied,  ttjit  previous  to  his  patent,  no  one  had  succeeded  in  prodacifg  the 
oil  on  a  commercial  scale. 

The  processes  by  whicii  tlie  oil  ar.d  parafSn  are  obtained  ar»»  simple.  The  mate- 
rial best  jidnpted  for  the  pur])ose  was  f(»r  yv  ars  believed  to  tio  Bog-heiid  coal,  a  very 
rich  g«s-co:il,  occurring  in  a  field  of  limited  extent  uenr  Bathgate  ir  Linlithgowshire. 
All  cannel  coals,  however,  give  the  same  products,  and  some  of  them  in  nearly  as 
large  quantity  ;  but,  as  stated  below,  sliale  is  now  generally  used  and  treated  iu  the 
same  way.  The  coal  la  broken  intofragmcn*»  like  road-metal,  and  gradually  heated 
to  rednet'B  in  cast-j>on  rctMrts,  which  arc -similar  lo  those  u^ed  tor  coa'-gas  (see 
Oas).  The  retorts  are  most  usunlly  upright,  about  10  f<Mst  long  and  14  Inches  in 
diameter  at  the  bottom,  tai)ering  to  12  inches  at  the  top,  and  built  in  acts  of  S,  4,  or 
d,  so  that  one  fi]*e  may  heat  e.HCli  set.  The  coal  is  fed  by  m(  ans  of  a  hopper  on  the 
top  of  the  retort,  and  after  passing  throngl»,  it  at  a  low  red-heat,  is  drawn  out  aa coke 
at  the  Ijottom,  \\  here  there  is  a  water  lute  to  prevent  the  e?cat>e  of  oil  or  gas.  There 
U  a  spherical  valve  in  the  hopper,  counterpoised  with  a  weight,  which  closes  the 
retort  at  the  top.  The  volatile  matters  distilled  from  the  coal  are  conducted  by  a 
pipe  to  the  condensers  (similar  to  those  used  for  coal-iras),  where  they  are  condensed 
mto  a  thick  black  oil,  of  a  a|)ecific  gravity  of  about  0  900,  aloiig  with  a  little  water. 
Great  care  is  necessary  to  pn.vcut  the  heat  from  becoming  too  high,  bt^anse  gas 
and  gas-tar,  and  not  imrafflii  oil,  are  obtained  when  coal  or  f  hale  is  distilled  at  a  high 
temi)enttare.  A  ton  of  Boghead  coal  gave  about  120  gallons  of  crude  oil. 
•  The  crud )  oil  from  the  fii-st  diptillaiion  is  then  distilled  again  in  long  cylindrical 
malleable-iron  st  lis.  From  this  sccoid  distillation  a  **  green  oil  "  is  obtained,  and 
the  residuK  is  removed  as  lokefrom  the  bottom  of  the  still.  This  oil  is  then  mixed 
with  from  6  to  10  i)er  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  afterwards  with  about  the  same 
quantity  of  soda,  the  mixture  being  made  iu  circnlar  tanks  with  revolving  stiri-ers. 
Both  the  acid  and  the  Bo<la  mix  with  impuriiieSj%vhich  fall  to  the  bottom  as  heavy 
tarry  matters,  and  are  run  off  by  a  stop-cock,  till  only  the  clear  ^nperuatant  oil  re- 
mains. After  b<!iug  so  fai^nrified,  the  oil  undergoes  three  ftirther  distillations,  be- 
ing at  tlie  same  time  treated  with  strong  acid  (I  per  cent.)  and  soda.  1  he  final  result 
is,  that  a  small  quantity  of  light  naphtha  is  olttained  in  the  later  distillations,  three- 
fourths  of  wiiat  is  left  l>eing  a  light  and  nearly  colorless  oil  used  for  burning  in 
lamps,  and  the  remainder  a  thicker  oil  containing  pamflln.  This  latter  portion  is 
pressi'd  iu  a  hydrnulic  pn^ss,  which  f-qneezes  out  the  greater  portion  of  the  paraflln, 
leaving  an  oil  which  is  sold  for  Inhricitiiig  machinery. 


The  crude  paraffin,  after  being  subjected  to  hydrnnlic  pressure  three  or  four 
times  is  chiefly  purifi  d,  ny  n'pealed  crystallisations,  from  naphtha.  Steam  is  atter- 
j^  t-i .1 1.  :*  1 ,.-1  _._. .   -.  J  .....-_  ii....i,_  * — *  J  ^jjjj  3  p^^r  cen» 

Ming  the  pure 
or  even  oxcol,  j 

y  Google 


w:.rds  blown  through  it  in  a  m*  lt€«l  state,  and  when  finally  treated  with  3  per  cent. 
of  animal  cliarcoal,  it  is  an  exquisitely  beautiful  substance,  resemUling  the  purewt 
white  wax.    It  irlaigely  maniuactureu  Into  caudles,  which  equal,  or  even  oxcol,  m 


nppearaiice  thof»e  mnd«  from  wnx,  nnd  are  only  about  half  n«  coptly.  Para^iBn  has 
uow  a  uumlvr  of  curious  minor  upplicatioii!».  * 

Slialti  naphtlm,  or  **r«li  lo-oll,'*  is  a  t«u'.).^tanc«?  which  has  l)een  innnufuctnrcd,  for 
luuuy  yeui"?,  from  bihimliioua  shalea  b«»th  in  Enjjlaud  andou  tlie  ontineut.  Partly 
l)^^!'!!?^  the  Bagh  ad  Coal  has  l).!Coni  •macticaliy  crliauptcd,  but  chiefly  l>ecau8e  the 
Volatile  products  from  H  are  more  e}u«ify  piirifl  d  tliaii  from  any  coal,  tjeds  of  bitum- 
hions  shale  found  in  the  carhonif  ran 9  formation  are  now  iilmont  eutln-ly  used  iu 
8c^»tla«d  MS  the  raw  material  from  which  paraiBn  oil  and  parnfBn  are  obtuiued.  Pre- 
vious 10  1856,  these  shales  were  turned  to  no  account.    Sec  8hale^ 

Naphtha  from  caoutchouc,  or  caoutclnne^  Is  obtained  from  caoutchouc  by  de- 
structive dit«tilIatiou.  In  cotuposition  it  consists  mainly  -of  liydrocarbon^,  having 
t!ie  same  proportion  of  caibo-i  to  hydrogen  as  i.idla-rhbt)er.  Caoutohiue  luis  the  re- 
patafiou  of  b«?ing  one  of  tin*  b  'st  known  solvents  for  Indla-rui^ber.t 

Until  tlie  discovenr  of  the  Ponnsylvanian.  tiie  Burniese  (Raii'rooiO  p?trolenra  or 
rock-oil  was  oue  of  thi  best  known.  It  Is  obtained  in  a  treacly  stat(s  by  sinking 
wells  al>out  sixty  teet  in  the  soil,  and  couFists  of  several  fluid  hydrocarbons,  witu 
about  ten  or  eh^veu  per  cent,  of  the  solid  liydrocar1>on  paraffin  The  different  nuph- 
tias  it  contains  are  highly  prized  as  Ijurning  and  lubricating  oil?>,  and  for  removing 
;?r.ra«y  stains,  on  account  of  their  apreeab'e  smell.  The  naphtlia  wliicli  is  fonud 
abundantly  at  Baku,  on  tlie  shor  ;«  of  the  Caspian  Sf^a,  closely  resembles  tl>e  Rau- 
jroou  lu  its  qualities.  The  Persian  naphtha  Is  frequently  pure  enough  for  burning 
without  rectification. 

Prominent  among  the  woud(Ms  of  our  time,  however,  as  rega'ds  new  fields  of 
industry  aud  wealth,  stand  the  disK-overies  of  tlie  naphtha,  or,  as  they  are  called,  the 
petroleum  regions  of  thM  United  States.  Some  of  these  sourcifi  ot  native  naphtha 
were  known  to  the  ludians,  1)j'  whom  it  was  at  one  time  collected  for  sale  ;  but  it  Is 
little  more  than  twenty  y«aira  since,  by  sinking  deep  wells,  the  great  extent  of  the 
oil-boaring  strata  became  known.  The  princip  I  supplies  are  (»bta1ned  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. West  Virsinia,  and  Oliio,  a  considerable  quantity  In-ing  alro  obtained  In  West 
(Jinaau  Other  region ■«  in  North  America  ji rod uco  it,  but  the  Penn«ylvanian  yiel^ 
i  <  Six  or  seven  times  greater  than  all  the  rest  i)iit  togeillrr.  Consul  Kortrlgiit,  in  Ida 
report  on  the  states  of  Peiinsylvania,  Ohio,  &c.,  for  1870  and  18T1.  says  S.**  The  oil 
ntglons  are  100  miles  in  length  by  80  to  50  iu  brwadth,  and  the  nnntber  of  wells  to  bo 
tapped  eHo  great,  that  the  supply  is  considered  to  be  sufficient  for  a  ceutury  tO  tiome  at 
least.*' 

Much  curiosity  exists  respecting  the  origin  of  thej'e  great  natural  soui-Wfl  of  petro- 
leum. It  j*eems  to  be  the  giMierftl  opinion  of  geoloi^lsts  that  it  has  in  most  cases  been 
])t'oduced  by  the  deconipoHiition  of  i>otli  veiretahle  nnd  animal  matters.  In  this  re- 
spect it  differs  from  coal,  which  has  arisen  from  the  deciiy  of  vegetabh;  matter  alone. 
Ii  would  appear  th  it  the  PeniMvlvanian  oil  proceeds  from  f hales  of  carlwiiifewus^ 
age;  the  Canadian,  from  those  of  Dev<mian  age.  In  l>oth  countries  the  oil  i«  found^ 
In  cavities  in  sandstone,  and  has  therefore  been  derived  from  sul)jucent  rocks.  It  is 
now  known  that  petroleum  has  fornn-d  in  rocks  of  nearly  all  ^reological  ages.  Pro- 
fessor Dana,  the  American  mineralogist,  says  that  the  ccmditious  favorable  to  the 
formation  of  native  naphtha,  as  sliewn  by  the  charact^riHtics  of  the  deposits  iu 
Which  It  Is  found,  are:  (1)  the  cliff  nsioii  of  organic  material  tlirout'h  a  fine  mud' or  clay; 
(2)  the  material  in  a  ve.rj'fltiely  div  d»'d  state';  and  (3),  as  a  consequence  of  the  pre- 
ceding, the  atmosphei'e  exchnled  as  far  as  i)OS8ible  from  the  mat  rial  undergoing 
dicomposition. 

In  Penn  ylvauia  the  first  borings  for  petroleum  took  place  iu  1859,  and  in  that 
yejir  82,000  barrels  (reckoned  at43  gallons  each)  were  obtained;  in  iSOl,  the  prtjdnce 
had  reached  2  million  barrels;  and  since  then,  as  a  rule.  It  has  increased  from  year 
to  year.    In  18T2,  the  total  produce  of  North  America  was  7,894  000  bairels ;  Canada 


furnishing  530.000  barrels.  In  the  same  year  the  total  exports  from  tin;  Unitixl  States 
Of  refined  petroleum  amounted  to  2.951,310  Imrrels,  an  enornuuis  quantity,  consider- 
ing the  first  ex|)Ort8  took  i)lace  so  rwently  as  IS61.  Of  late  years,  the  |)etroleuir 
trade  is  said  to  have  employed  iu  Nortli  Atnericii  as  many  hands  as  coal-mining  and 
the  working  of  iron. 

In  18«2  and  18T1,  acts  of  n.irliament  were  passed  limiting  the  amount  of  petro- 
leum to  be  kept  lu  store,  and  regulating  the  sole  of  su.h  kiud-i  as  give  off  au  iuflaiu- 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


C  Q  Naphthalic 

©%)  l^ap.er 

piuble  vapor  below  100®  F.  There  are  special  Trarchouses  for  the  roceptiou  of 
petroleum  ut  the  Lou(tou  and  Liverpool  docks. 

Teniblc accident)*  have  uowiuid  lliou  hnppeucd  wUh  Fome  cf  the  more  Inflam- 
mahle  Aniericuu  oiI<«,  by  reuhoit  of  their  vapors  cxi»lc  ding  in  t'.ior'tervoinsof  liinms. 
MotJt  of  these  have,  lio  doubt,  t^iktM)  plac«!  witli  oils  whomi  vapor*  fonn  an  cx|)lotiivo 
mixture  with  air  at  a  teniperatnrub.  low  10(P  J*.,  but  they  can  hardly  bo  conaiderod 
pafe  if  their  vai»or«  will  take  fire  on  the  approach  of  a  light  at  Icj^s  than  18(P  F.  The 
v.ipor  of  the  paraffin  oil  pre|>arcd  f or  ilhuulnatiug  purpo«e«  bv  Young's  Mineral  Oil 
Company,  and  no  doubt  1>y  other  finnis'f  roni  Scoich  aiiah*,  will  not  form  au  explosive 
inixmre  t)eiow  1209  V.y  and  ic  is  therefore  quite  safe.  Since  this  oil  has  to  ronn>ete 
with  |)etroleani.  such  a  staudard  cuu  only  oe  kent  up  at  a  loss,  and  there  is  tberetoro 
a  ^^t  temptation  to  keep  down  the  firing-point  of  tliese  nurniug  oils  as  low  as 
I>of)^ible,  with  a  view  to  greater  profi^t;  ana  although  accidents  have  Inippened  with 
pampffin  oil,  ns  well  as  with  Americuu  petroleum,  rtiero  is  little  doubt  that  the  latter 
caHUOt  be  ho  tH(»rouirhly  relied  upon  for  tafeiy.  It  could  easily  be  made  fo,  how- 
ever, if  tht^  lighter  h'yclro>carbonH  wtiich  i(  contains  were  caret  uly  removed. 

NAPHTHA'LIC  GROUP  OR  SERIES.  Tlw  stnrtlng-iioint  of  the  group  is 
Haphthalin  <C««llg).  a  ^ul>8taDce  of  great  interest  in  the  lii*»tory  of  organic  chemis- 
try, from  its  being  that  upon  which  Diareiit  chiefly  founded  his  Theory  of  Substi- 
tatious.  It  may  be  obtained  in  various  ways,  but  is  im>Bt  easily  and  abundantly  pro- 
dac-d  frQm  the  last  portions  of  ihe  distillate  of  coal-tar,  which  become  semi-solid 
on  cooling.  The  liquid  part  of  this  masa  is  got  rid  c  f  by  pressure,  and  the  uaph- 
thnHn  isthcu  taken  up  by  hot  alcohol,  from  which  it  is  obtaiued  iu  a  pure  state  by 
crystaUisatlou  and  sublimatloD. 

K.phthalln  crystalHaea  In  large,  tliiii,  rhombic  plates,  which  are  nuctnous  to  the 
touch,  and  have  a  pearly  lustre.  Expos-ed  to  light  under  a  ».'i'«BS  covering,  ii  gradu- 
ally snbliines  at  au  ordinary  temperature  iu  splemlid  cry^'tals.  It  has  a  eoujc- 
wliat  tar-Uke  odor,  and  a  pniigent  and  someM-hat  aromatic  ta»te.  It  f  usea  at  174°, 
and  l>oil8  ut  428<^.  Its  ppeclflc  (rravity.  in  the  polid  state,  is  1*1S,  and  as  a  vapor, 
4*528,  It  is  not  very  *nflammable,  and  when  ignited,  burns  with  a  white  smoky 
flame.  It  is  insoluble  iu  water,  but  dissolves  readily  iu  alcohol,  ether,  and  the  fixed 
i.ud  eescutial  oils. 

By  acting  on  naphtlmlin  with  an  excess  of  sulphuric  acid,  we  obtain  9ulpho- 
fiaphtfuUic  acid  (Ca.lIjSsOe  +  «Aq),  from  which,  by  t-ui  slituilou  pi-ocesscs,  a  large 
number  of  comi»ouiid»*  are  protluccd-  Willi  nttric  acid,  naphthaliu  yields  nltiO- 
imphthaliii  [C,»Ht(N04)]  binitrb-uaphthaliu  LCa,H«(N04)a],  and  triniti-o-uaplrth- 
aliu  CCj«U»(N04),j.  the  group  (NO4).  or  its  inui.iple»»,  being  Kubstltuted  for  one, 
two,  and  iiiree  equivalents  of  the  hydrojien  of  the  naphthaliu.  The  final  pnkluctof 
the  prolonged  action  of  boiling  nitric  acid  ou  naphthaliu  is  a  mixture  of  oxalic  aiid 
ttapht^alio  or  phUialic  acid^  the  re-action  being  slieii'n  by  the  equal iou : 

Naphthaliu.  Oxygen.     Oxalic  Add.       Naplithalic  Acid. 

C»«'Jt    +  ^    =    2HO,C40.     +    2I10,Cj4ll40e 
Tills  acid  is  also  obtaine<1  by  the  continued  action  of  nitric  acid  upon  alizarin,  which 
U  au  imiiortaut  fact,  tiuce  it  indicatos  a  conuectiou  between  uapfathaliu  aud  the  col- 
oring matter  of  wwlder. 

Laureut  has  discovered  a  very  numerous  series  of  substitution  compounds 
formed  upou  the  type  of  napthalin.  Into  the  composition  of  which  chlorine  entei-s. 
They  are  of  little  practical  importance  alt hous;h  their  iiivestigatiou  has  exerted  a 
remarkable  influence  upou  the  progress  of  organic  chemistry. 

NAPIER,  John,  Laird  of  Merchistfin,  was  bom  at  Merchiston  Castle,  near  Edln- 
bnrgli,  in  !6I»,  and  died  there  on  Ihe  4rh  of  April  161T.  After  attending  the  regular 
course  In  Arti*  at  the  university  of  8t  Andn'ws,  he  travelled  for  some  time  ou  the  con- 
liufut.  and  rettirii«d  to  his  native  country  highly  informed  and  cultivated  for  the  age. 
DecHuing  all  civil  employmeuti*,  for  which  ids  many  accomplisitments  eminenily  fit- 
Xtl  him,  he  |»referred  the  seclusion  of  a  life  devoted  to  literary  and  scientific  study. 
From  this  time  Ids  history  Is*  n  blank  till  159S,  when  he  published  his  "Plalno 
DiiH»iiery  (or  *  Interpretation  ')  of  tlie  whole  Kenelatlon  of  St  John  "  (Bdin.  6t.h  «!. 
4to,  HM6>,  a  work  displaying  great  acirteueea  aud  ingenuity,  but,  it  is  scarcely  neces- 


y  Google 


Napier    ..  g^ 

Barj'  to  adfl,  not  In  any  P^n»e  a  **  plalne  diMionery  "  of  the  apocalypse.  In  the  dedt- 
cariou  to  \Liu^  Jsunos  VI.,  he  gavis  his  ni.ijesiy  t*oiu»  very  plahi  advice  rfgarding  ihe 
propri 'ty  of  n^fonuiiig  his '*  lions -,  faiHily,  and  conrt;"aud  on  repabiinhiiig  the 
work,  ho  add  d  a  supplenu-iit,  involving  *  cerlahit*  donbt:*  uiOoved  by  some  well- 
aff  cod  bretli^'U.*'  Ahout  tula  tune  be  .'*<;ems  to  liuve  devotecl  nmch  of  his  time 
lv»  the  inv.'uHoii  of  wrirliku  umchiuHa,  Imt  Iheso  inventions  were  never 
p  rfocted,  prob  ibly  from  motives  of  iiumaniiy.  Like  other  eminent  men  of  the 
li'in  •,  N.,  thougn  a  at  net  Presbyterian,  j«oem»*  to  have  bi*en  a  billever  in  astrology 
and  divitialioii,  but  there  is  no  natisfactory  proof  tnat  he  ever  praciic(>d  ttieee  artt*. 
In  1696.  lie  proposed  Ihe  use  of  fall  as  a  fertiliser  of  land,  an  idea  which,  though 
scouted  at  the  time,  is  now  generally  received.  Another  lari^e  blank  in  hie  history 
here  occurs,  and  tenniu  ites  in  1614,  at  wliich  date  he  first  gave  to  the  world  his  fa-  Jj 
mous  invention  of  Lojmrithoiusiq.  v.),  iu  a  treatimsentiiled  **Mtrillci  Lo^riUiim>-^ 
rum  Cauonis  Descrlptio  "  (4to.  Eilm.).  This  was  followetl  by  another  worK,  *'  Kal>< 
dolo.'lee,  sen  numurationis  per  Viigulas  libri  das  "  (Bdln.  IfllT),  detailing  an  inven- 
tion for  simplifying  and  shortening  tlie  processes  ot  inaltiplication  and  division.  Si*6 
Napibr's  Bones.  He  also  prepared  a  second  work  on  Lugaritlnus,  shewing  tlieir 
mo  le  of  construction  and  application,  with  an  appendix  containing  several  propo- 
sitions of  spherical  trigonometry,  and  those  forniulie  wliich  are  no  v  known  by  his 
name.  This  work  was  publi^hett  alter  bis  death  i>y  his  sou  Kob<;rt,  nuder  the  title 
of  "  Jtfirifici  LoyarithinoriiRi  Oanonis  Ooiistructio,  Ac<,  qniltus  accessere.  Propoei- 
Tiones  ad  IManguia  s  hiericu  faciliore  calcalo  resoiveuda,  ^^"  (Edin.  1619),  and 
occurs  along  wiib  the  ^*  Cauonis  Dj^crlptio."  The  latter  work  is  included  in  Baron 
Masere's  extensive  collertlon.  the  "  Scriptorirs  Logarithmici  '•'  (Loud.  1806).  N.*8 
eldest  son,  Archibald,  was  raised  to  tne  peerage  as  the  first  Lord  N.ipier  by  Charles 
I.  in  1627,  and  his  de.^.Midant<  still  be.ir  the  title.  Two  lives  of  N.  imve  been  put>- 
lisiie.l.  the  one  bytlie  Earl  of  Bnchan  (1781),  and  the  other  by  Mr  Murk  Napier  (i884). 
NAPIER,  Sir  Charles  James,  G.C  B.,  English  general,  one  of  several  brothers 
distintruislhrd  for  their  bravery,  tnr.u;  of  whom— ClKirles.  William,  and  George— 
were  known  in  the  Peninsular  War  as  •*  Welliusftou's  Colonels.'*  They  were  sons, 
by  a  second  marriagN  of  Hon.  Colonel  George  Napier,  grandson  of  Francis,  fifth 
Lord  Napiei-,  wlio  was  fifth  in  descent,  but  through  two  females  in  succession, 
from  the  inventor  of  Logirithms.  Charles,  the  eldest  was  bom  at  Whitehall,  West- 
minster,  Au.'ust  10  1782.  B  fonihe  had  tlnished  his  twelfth  yeir,  young  N.  re- 
ceive<l  a  commission  in  the  ttSd  Foot.  His  first  service  was  in  Ireland,  wiiere  he 
assisted  in  patting  down  the  rebellion.  He  commanded  the  50th  Foot  dnrhig  the 
retreat  on  Corunna;  and  at  the  fatal  battle  in  which  Sir  J.  MoorK  te>l,  he  Was 
wounded  in  five  places  and  made  pi*ison"r.  Marshal  Ney  dismissed  iiim,  with  per- 
mission to  go  to  England  on  parole.  On  his  returu,  he  engag.-d  in  literary  works, 
and  even  wrote  an  historical  romance,  in  1811,  he  returned  to  the  Penmsula.  At 
Coa,  whore  hefoaght  as  a voluuteer,  he  had  two  horses  slkot  under  him.  At  Busaco. 
he  was  shot  in  the  face,  having  his  jaw  broken  and  his  eye  injured.  He  recovered 
in  time  to  be  present  at  the  l)atHe  of  Fucntes  d'Oiioro  and  the  second  siege  of 
Bad  ijoz.  After  distinguishing  himself  in  innumerable  sklrmishi^s,  tlie  daring 
soldier  returned  to  Enjrland.  He  next  took  part  in  a  fighting  cruise  off  the  Chesa- 
peake, capturing  American  vessels,  and  intikiiig  fn  qn  -nt  descents  upon  the  coasts. 
He  did  not  return  to  Barop;  soon  enough  for  Waterloo,  but  was  engaged  in  the 
storming  of  Cambray,  and  accompanied  the  army  to  Paris.  After  tbe  peace  he  was, 
in  1818,  made  governor  of  the  island  of  Cephalonla,  the  affairs  of  which  he  ad- 
ministered with  great  ener},'y  and  intelligence.  Being,  however,  of  an  excessively 
c<nnl)ative  disposition,  he  became  embroiltd  wiih  tiiu  authorities  at  home,  lu 
1S41,  he  was  ordered  to  Ind  a  to  assume  the  command  of  the  army  at  - 
Bombay.  This  was  the  most  splendid  period  of  his  career,  resulting  in 
the  conquest  of  Scinde  asainst  terribh;  odds.  His  destrnction  of  a  ^rti' 
fication  called  B.nann  Ghur  in  1843,  wius  descriiM>d  by  tiie  Duke  of  Welliugiou 
as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  military  feats  he  had  ever  li^rd  of.  The  fearful 
battle  of  Meanee  followed,  where  N.,  with  160)  English  and  sepoys,  defeated  4ieur 
80  UOO  Biloochees,  strouKly  posted,  with  the  loss  of  6000  men.  The  Ameers  snr- 
renden/d,  except  Shere  Mahomed,  who  brought  2ft,000  men  into  line  of  battle  at 
Hvdrabad.  N.  had  only  6900  men,  but  in  three  hqurs  Ids  little  army  gained  a  d^ 
ciSire  victory.    A  few  days  aften^'ards,  N.  was  iu  the  pahice  of  the  Ameers,  and 


y  Google 


85 


Nmp:«r 


maftfcr  of  Scinde.  He  was  fortanate  in  posaessfog  the  entire  ooiifldenoe  of  Lord 
Blleuboroif};h,  who  made  him  governor  of  Scinde.  His  civil  admiuietratioii  mih 
i*curce!y  leas  remaricahie  or  iexs  i^uccemfnl  thnn  liis  iniiitiiry  operation!*.  He  gained 
the  respect  aiid  reverence  of  the  inhubiiantp,  bat  soon  l>ecanie  engaffcd  in  nn  ncri- 
mooiouB  warof  despHtcheswith  the  directors.  In  1847,  lie  retnrned  to  Enghiud. 
After  at  tending  a  series  of  festivals  in  his  lionor,  Ite  lived  in  lelirtment  noiil  ilie 
disasters  of  tlie  last  Sikh  war  caused  the  eyes  of  his  connirymen  to  bo  inmed  to  tho 
her  of  Scinde  as  the  deliverer  of  oiir  Indian  empire.  He  went  tc»  India,  bnl  found 
on  his  urrivai  that  the  Siichn  iniU  t»een  routed.  He  now  turned  his  atieniiun,  as 
commander-in-chief  of  tlie  army  in  India,  to  the  snbj  cr  of  niiliiary  reform.  Ho 
baile  a  final  adieu  to  the  East  in  1851,  and  returned  to  his  native  cortniry,  where  ho 
resided  until  his  death,  «rliicli  took  place  at  his  seat,  at  O.iklands,  near  Portsmouth, 
August  Y9^  1858.  He  lt:id  thou  attained  the  rank  of  lientenauti^eneral,  was  G.C.B., 
and  colonel  of  the  82d  Foot  It  must  l>e  remembered  to  his  honor  that  he  waa  the 
first  Bngli(<h  general  who  ever  recorded  in  his  despatches  the  uannrs  of  private 
e«>kliers  >-ho  had  dietiugnishcdMliemselves,  pide  by  side.wiUi  thoi>e  of  ofl)ci-rs. 
Bnive  to'ra.«hnc!*.*<,  ready  alike  with  tongue,  |>eD,  nud  sword,  qinirrelHome  with  h'S 
superiors,  but  beloved  by  his  soldier?,  and,  to  crown  all,  of  a  t>trnn}:cly  wild  yet  noble 
and  striking  Hpi>earance,  N.  was  one  of  the  most  rema:kable  men  of  his  time,  and 
iu  losing  him  the  country  lost  one  of  its  brightest  military  ornaments.  His  ftatao 
was,  after  his  death,  erected  iu  Trafalgar  Square.  The  story  of  his  **  Conqaef>t  of 
Scinde"  has  l>e6n  written  by  his  brother,  Lienteuant-Generul  Sir  William  Fbancib 
Patrick  Napier.  K.C.B.,  born  17th  December  1785,  who  servt  d  in  the  Peninsular 
cainiMiigu,  and  wan  engaged  from  1824  to  1840  in  pri-paring  his  **  History  of  the 
PeiiHisnhir  War,"  tho  greatest  military  history  in  the  £llg.'i^h  languitge.  He  died 
February  12,  I860,  at  Scinde  House,  Clfipham,  and  was  f()lTo\v«hl  in  a  few  weeks  to 
the  totnb  by  his  wile.  Lntly  Napier,  niece  of  the  great  C.  J.  Fox.  Her  extraordi- 
nary  skill  in  translating  French  doc^rmeuts  written  in  cypher,  and  her  indefatigable 
labors  as  her  husband's  amaiiueiiitis,  are  t.ou<-liiugly  commemorated  in  the  preface 
to  the  edition  of  tlie  '*  History  of  the  Peninsular  vvur,"  published  in  1851. 

l^AFIBlt,  Sir  Charles  K.  C.  B.,  Eii!;li.<'li  admiral,  was  cousin  to  the  hero  of  Scindo 
and  thi!  hi!«toriaii  of  the  Peuiui*ular  War.  His  father  was  the  Hon.  Captain  Charleys 
Napier,  R.  N.,  second  son  of  Francis,  fifth  Ix>rd  Napier.  He  was  born  March  6, 
1786,  at  the  family  seat,  Mcrchistouo  Hall,  iu  the  county  of  Stirling.  At  18,  he  went 
to  8ca  aa..4i  naval  volunteer.  In  1808,  he  received  the  command  of  tlm  lUervitj  18 
guns,  and  had  his  thigh  broken  by  a  bnilet.  Ho  kept  np  a  running  fight,  in  his  IS- 
gnu  brig,  with  the  rearmost  of  three  French  line-of-batlle  ships,  flie  D^HautpovJti 
which  escaped  frofti  Qnndeloupe,  and  was  I  tins  in!>trnmental  iu  tn  r  capture.  This 
obtiiiiied  him  a  posi-cnptaincy.;  but  b.ring  thrown  out  of  active  serv'ce,  lie  served 
ashore  as  a  volunteer  iu  the  Peninsular  army,  and  was  wounded  at  Bui^aco.  Com- 
manding the  Th^nmes  in  1811,  he  inflicted  an  inci*edil)le  amount  of  damage  upon  the 
enemy  in  the  Mediterranean,  ami  tilso  condiict«*d  several  de.-poratt;  land  oiH-raiious 
with  marked  success.  In  1814,  he  wns  ordered  to  America,  and  Id  the  way  in  the 
lia«ardous  ascent  and  descent  of  thu  Potomac.  He  afterwards  look  an  active  part 
in  tbe  operntions  Against  Baltimore.  In  1S29,  he  received  the  command  of  the 
OtUaUa^  a42-gun  frigate,  ahd  was  employed  on  '*  particular  service"  on  the  coast  of 
Portugal.  Becoming  acquainted  wirh  tlie  leodei-s  of  the  Constitutional  party,  ho 
accepted  the  command  of  thy  fleet  of  the  young  queen  ;  and  by  defeating  the  Migue- 
Ilte  fleet,  he  concluded  the  war,  and  placed  Donna  Maria  on  the  throne.  He  was 
made  adminil-iu-cliief  of  the  Portuguese  navy,  and  attemptod  to  remodel  it;  but 
official  and  corrupt  influence  was  too  strong  for  him,  and  he  returned  to  England. 
Ill  tlie  war  between  the  Port<;  and  Mehemet  Ali,  he  organised  a  land  fortte,  with 
whicti  he  stormed  Sidon,  and  defeated  Ibrahim  Pasha  among  the  heights  of  Muunt 
Lebanon.  He  took  part  hi  the  naval  attack  on  Acre,  and  did  noihositaietodipregatd 
the  orders  of  his  chief.  Admiral  Stopford,  when  he  paw  the  way  to  bring  the  battle 
to  a  8|>eedy  tenniiirttioii.  He  next  blockaded  Alexandria, and  c«  ntluded  a  couveniJou 
with  Mehemet  AH.  In  1847,  he  received  the  coiumjuul  of  the  CImnnel  fl  ei.  When 
the  Russian  war  broke  out,  he  was  sent  out  to  command  the  Baltic  fleet ;  but  the 
capia:-eof  BouKin»iiud  failed  to  realise  the  high  expectations  formed  of  N.'s  exnloit?. 
He  twice  sat  in  parliament,  aud,  until  his  death,  November  6,  18Uj,  ho  labored  wliU 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


"Napier  ot* 

Naples  ^" 

sncceae  to  reform  our  navnl  admii)if>tration.  He  was  nt  the  time  of  his  dtath  a  vU» 
admiral  niid  a  kuijrht  of  pevenil  Tureigii  ordiTS. 

NAPIER,  ThH  Righl  Hon.  Sir  Rolwrt  ConieUp,  Baron  Napier  of  Magilnla,  was 
born  in  Ceylon,  6th  Dv^ceiub^r  1810,  and  wnt^  educaifd  at  the  Military  College  at 
Addiscoinbc.    He  entere<l  tin;  B  Mijral  Engiueera  in  1826,  wi-ved  in  tbe'Sntlrj  cam- 


e: 


•aign,  was  wonnded  while  aciing  as  chief  tn^net>r  at  rlic  aUige  of  Moiiltau,  and 
laa  a  prominent  8haro  in  the  battl<' of  Gujehit^  As  cliiff  eugiiieer  of  the  Pa iijjib. 


with  The  rank  of  colonel,  he  greatly  dev«'IO|M'd  the  resoni-ccs  of  tlie  countiy.  Daring 
the.  Indian  .mniiny,  lu;  was  cim-f  eugiuGer  in  Sir  Colin  Campbell's  army,  ana 
especially  diptin»rnt5*hod  hinis<'lf  at  thu  siege  of  Lucknow.  For  his  ferv.ces  m  lite 
Ohin«»se  war  of  1868,  he  was  inade  nr.jor-general  and  K.C.ft,  As  commander  of  tli^ 
expedition  in  Abyrtsiuia  in  1368  he  aohiovtd  a  brilliant  snccefS,- both  by  his  wholv: 
mauagenitMit  of  the  short  cainp.ign  and.  in  the  storming  of  Magduhi,  wluci*  ended 
It.  On  his  rotaru  he  received  the  thflitks  of  parliament,  an  aunnity  of  X209O  and  a 
peerage.  In  1870.  he  was  appointed  Connnander-in»chief  of  the  fores  in  Ind  a.  and 
nominated  a  member  of  tlie  Indian  Council.  In  1877  he  was  made  govemur  of  Qib- 
raltar. 

NAPIER'S  BONES,  an  invention  of  th»  celebhited  Napier  (q.  v.)  of  Meichfstdn, 
for  the  pin-pose  of  performing  meclianically  the  opifrations  of  nmltiplication  and 
alvision.  The  •'  bones  "  were  narrow  slips  of  t)one,  wood,  ivory,  or  nn'tiil.  abont  S 
inches  long  by  3  lOlhs  of  an  incli  In  breadth,  and  divithd  hy  tr:iusvert»e  lines  tbfo 
nine  compartments;  eacli  of  tiies'e  compartments  being  dividitl  into  two  portions  1)^ 
a  diagonal  line  running  from  tljH  uppi^r  right  hand  to  t1ie  lowtr  left  iuind  coniei*9. 
The  *•  bonus  "  were  divid  ^d  Into  sets,  all  tnor*e  of  gin  ;  set  liaving  thc-'anv;  <?lirit  occu- 
)yiug  the  lop  compartment,  and  the  several  nniltipli-sof  that  digit  occnpyii-g  in  ordet 
he  eiirht  lower  compartmMjts;  when  tlie  multiple  consisted  of  two  figures,  these 
were  plactid  one  on  eac'.i  sidj  of  the  diagonal  line.  There  was  nt;C'/s3arily  a  set  of 
bones  for  each  digit.  There  was  also  another  rod  similarly  divided  into  compart- 
ments, in  whicii  were  placed  th.)  nine  digits;  this  was  called  the  index-rod.  Miilti* 
plication  was  performed  :is  follows;  e.  g,,  if  6793  is  to  be  multiplied  by  97834.  four 
rods  \Vhose  top  digits  were  6,  7, 9,  5  are  ."elected  and  arrangi-d  m  the  order  of  the 
flgaros  in  the  multiplicand,  and  the  index-rod  placed  alongside  them,  as  in  th^ 
figare;  the  several  ftirares  of  the  mnltiplier  are  then  sought  for  on  the  iud^x-ri&t, 
the  two  lines  of  figures  opposite  eich  ftgur.;  on  the  index  are  then  addttd  togettter 
diagonally,  and  the  five  sums  tlms  obtained  are  arranged  as  follows ; 


S 


61155 
475H5 
6t360 
2038.5 
27180 


661782030  =  the  product  required. 

Division  is  performed  in  an  analogous  itjianner.  The  conteittporaneona  inretitioti 
of  logarithms  for  the  same  purpose  of  converting  multiplication  and  division  into 
addinon  and  sub-raction,  caused  Napier^s  bouei  to  be  overlooked,  aud  they  ai'e 
now  scarcely  ever  used. 

NA'PLES  (Ital.  Napolij  anc  yeapolis)^  a  city  of  Southern  Italy,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Naples,  is  built  partly  ai  the  base,  partly  on  the  slopes  of  two  crescent- 
shaped  acclivities  on  the  fa'nous  bay  of  the  same  name.  Pop.  (I87:i)  448.33.5.  Ltd. 
40°  51'  8"  n.,  long.  14<>  15'  5''  e.  The  wonderful  Iwauty  of  the  site  aiid  of  the  sur- 
rouudii^  prosp'-ct,  the  delicious  softness  of  the  climate,  and  the  clear  litmospliere, 
make  NT  famed  among  the  cities  of  the  world.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  centres  6t  com- 
merce and  industry  of  Italy,  possesses  a  very  extensive  mercantile  shipping,  and  is 
one  of  the  principal  station^  of  Mediterranean  f^team-navifjation. 

The  public  buildings  of  Naples  ar;  numerous  and  grand,  but  are  devoid  of  archi- 
tectural symmetry  in  cons-quence  of  tlie  antiquity  of  their  origin  ami  the  in"e«j:nhir- 
ity  of  their  site.  Many  of  the  old  streets  are  paved  with  lava,  and  incouvenieuily 
narrow,  with  honse.s  of  great  height.  The  modern  streCti*,  however,  an;  8i>:iici0as 
and  spl  udid.    The  city  fi  divided  into  the  Old  and  the  New  Town,  or  the  Bast  and 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


0*f  Haplsr 

Went  Crescertp,  by  a  lefser  range  of  li<»i;jht3— vlz^  fhc  CiipodomOnte,  Jlie  St  £!mo. 
and  ihe  Pizjiofrtlconc,  iiriniimtini?  in  the  rocky  proraoiiioiy  c.illcd  tlio  CHHteil  dell* 
Ovo.  ill  1868^  a  l.iiid-elip  destroyed  a  umnbcr  of  lioiie'efl  at  ilic  Toot  of  Pizrofalcouc 
The  eaf-terii  divipion  of  N.  is  tlie  niofcf  imclent  and  the  most  deiifvly  iK?opIed ;  it  con- 
tains the  priucipal  public  siructnreB,  aiul  is  intfrwcted  l>y  tlio  spknidul  Via  or  Street 
di  Toledo.  The  vvesterir,  or  modern  section,  contains  «he  fjinmns  liivicra  di  Chinja, 
or  the  Quay,  a  fine  road  running  alonj?  the  bay  in  a  curved  cour«je  of  tliree  miles, 
flanked  on  th«  right  hy  a  row  ofiinlnces,  and  bonhM-ed  on  llui  left  by  tlie  heautifnl 
pleasurcvgrounds  of  the  Villa  R'-iaPe,  which  lie  botwifen  It  and  the  sea,  and  of  wiiich 
Ihe  natural  beauty  is  heightened  by  the  Intersper-ion  of  temples,  fonntniue,  and  etnlu- 
nry  ^oupsainids^tihe  ac.icia,  myrtle,  and  orangegroves.  The  public t*qua res, or  largki, 
of  N.  are  adorned  with  fountains  and  obelisk' ;  and  within  the  precinct?*  of  the  cily, 
tl:ere  are  several  hfghly-prized  springs  both  of  fresh  an<l  mineral  waters.  'J'he  for- 
lifted  Qistlef*  are  numerous.  Amongst  the  principal  are  the  Cas^U!l  Nuovo,  cjdird  the 
Basiileof  Naples,  somewhat  himllar  to  the  Tower  of  London,  and  adorned  with  a 
fine  U'lnmpiKl^  arch,  erected  in  honor  of  Alfonso  of  Araj^ou ;  the  Caatel  d'»ll'  Ov<i,  hO 
Called  from  its  oval  or  eg«r  shape,  standing  on  a  promontorv,  and  connectetl  by  a 
bridge  with  the  inainlan(r;  the  Castel  Sunt'  Elmo,  counnancliiig  a  magnificent  view 
from  na  ramtmrts,  and  formerly  of  immense  strength;  and  the  dismanthd  Castle 
del  Carmine  Tlie  churches  are  upwards  of  SCO,  and  many  are  rich  In  architeclund 
and  urcbselogical  interest.  The  catlxKlral  dedicated  toStGeniiHi-o  (Jauaarius;  q.  v.) 
contains  the  celebrated  phials  in  which  the  liquefaction  of  S'  Gennaro's  blood  la 
alleged  to  take  place  on  two  annual  festivals;  it  also  contains  the  tombs  of  Ctiarlea 
of  Anjon  and  of  Pope  Innocent  IV.,  besides  uuipcroua  fine  paintings  and  statues. 
The  edncational  insiitntions  of  N.  embrace  famous  scliools  of  surgery,  law,  and 
g  -nHral  acieuce,  A  magnificent  aquarium  has  i>een  o|Xined  since  1S71,  with  a  zoolog- 
Ogicid  laboratory  in  which  many  distinguished  foreign  naturalist*  are  at  work.  The 
uhilaiithropicid  establishments  are  on  an  imnienso  scale,  and  are  richly  endowed. 
Tliere  are  alao  several  theati-es  in  the  city,  of  which  that  of  San  Carlo  (devoted  to 
Iht:  OiRira)  is  one  of  the  largest  and  moat  celebrated  in  I  aly  ;  but  the  characteristic 
theatre  of  N.  is  the  Te-.tro  di  $an  Car/i/to,  the  headqnartrrs  of  Fulcinella  (-^ \ho 
jf'aii.'iii  Punch."  I'lmre  are  four^rand  public  iibrarie}' ;  an<l  in  the  Museo  Boib^)nico, 
N.  contains  ap  unrivalh'd  co  lection  of  art,  coinprisiig  fresi-oes,  paintings,  mosaics, 
sculptures,  bronzes,  antiquities,  coins,  nitdals,  inacriptionH.  and  the  renowned  col- 
lection of  precious  obji^cts  excavated  from  Uercnlaneum  and  Pompeii. 

The  environs  of  N.,  apart  from  their  extreme  beauty  of  scenery,  are  higlily 
iiitej-estihg.  The  Jocality  which  contains  the  tomb  of  Virgil,  the  disinterred  towns 
^f  Herculanenin  and  Ponii)eii,  Vesuvius  (from  an  (ruption  t)f  which  N.  suffered  In 
1872),  and  the  Bpman  remains,  must  po^'Ses*s  an  inexhanstible  source  of  interest 
for  >cient'.fic.  antiquarian,  and  classical  in vestigaiors:  The  modi  rn  villas  of  N.  are 
spleiuiid  and  Inxuiiou:'.  One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  N.  is  its  unique  popu- 
lation and  the  universal  publicity  in  which  life  is  passt;d.  The  Inhabitiints  forever 
swarm  in  the  thoroughfares,  where  an  incessant  throng  of  vendors,  purcha-ers, 
and  idlers  intermingle  with  asses,  mules,  han(l-carts,  and  conveyances,  dazzling  the 
eye  with  their  brlliant  variety  of  cos'.ume,  and  the  ]>antominiic  expressiveness  of 
tiicir  franiic  gestures  and  attitudes  ;  while  tiic  ear  is  stunned  by  the  siirill  conflict- 
ing cries  of  the  ambulatory  vendors  of  ev«'iy  conceivable  commodity,  by  the  pierc- 
ing notes  of  the  improvi»»«tore'.s  song,  and  the  uprojirious  hihu'ity  and  high-pitcln  d 
patois  of  the  ^otlntle^s  masses,  whose  sole  abode  appears  to  stranjrers  to  be  tiie 
thronged  public  square.*  and  stre  ts.  The  popular  language  of  N..  which  is  a  cor- 
mj)t  dialect  of  Iiallan  and  Spanish,  i«  in  prevalent  iisi;  among  all  classes  of  society ; 
if  lends it~elt  esptcially  lo  the  satirical  and  facetious  squibs  and  compositions  in 
which  the  Ne:ipolltans  exc  ;1.  The  popular  Neapolitan  songs  in  the  naiive  patois 
are  exquiait<?ly  naive  and  expressive  in  sentlmeni,  and  are  set  to  popular  melodies 
wliicli  i'xert  a  nmd«loning  charm  over  this  sonthcni  popniaee.  The  pliysicul  condi- 
tion of  the  lower  classes  of  N.,  and  especially  of  ttie  lazzironi  (q.  v.),  has  of  late 
J  ear*  sensibly  Improvi'd  b«>th  as  regards  raiment  and  lodging. 

The  name  Naples  (Qr.  ^Veapo/ta,  new  city)  had  reference  to  an  older  town  in  the 
neighliorhood.  called  originally  Parthenope,  and,  after  the  foundation  of  the  new 
town.  Pal^poiis  (old  town),  which  was  situnted  most  probably  on  the  ridge  c.-illed 
Poailipo,  tliat  separates  t^o  Bay  of  Pozzuoli  or  Bai»  from  that  of  Naples.    Both 


y  Google 


Naples  '    Q  Q 

NaDOMH  OO 


Napoeon 

towns  were  Greek  settlement',  apparently  coloiilos  from  the  'tielghboring  Cnmse. 
joined  by  iiimiignuits  dinct  from  Grot-ce.  In  827  B.C.,  Palaepolls  was  I)f0iei;ed  and 
inkuii  by  tb«  Komaiia.  and  thtiicefi>rth  (lisap'.Mars  from  bistory  ;  Neapoliflsabmit- 
ted  without  resihtanci,  aud  I)  cam  ?  a  favor.Hl  and  faithful  ally,  or  nitlier]>rQviiicial 
city  of  Rome.  It  long,  bowfver,  ret:iin.d  its  purely  G  eoli  c 'aractcr  and  institu- 
tion!* ;  and  there  Is  eviilence  t!iat  \\h^  Gr.j.k  1-iugaage  coiitiuiit-d  to  b  •  u-cd,  even  in 
pnbllc  ducam'ints.  as  late  as*  tlic  2d  c.  of  llie  Christian  era.  N.  wiw  n  fl  >nrit*liiiig  aud 
popnlou;^  city  diirini?  the  Koiuan  empire  ;  aud  nutwitlit«taDdm;r  t.ic  vicissitudv-H  of 
the  Gothic  conquest  of  Italy,  and  thu  n^couqii.sts  by  the  Byzantine  emp«*rors,  it  con- 
tinued to  be  one  of  i!>e  most  import  lut  and  opulent  place.-  iu  Italy,  .-vbont  the  Sili 
c,  it  threw  off  allegiatxe  to  tlie  Byzantine  emperors,  remained  indt'pt'ndent  lill  it 
fell  into  the  h.mdd  of  tlie  Normans  in  114U  a.d.,  and  became  the  capital  of  tbekiug^ 
dom  of  Naples. 

NAPLES,  B  ly  of,  an  indentation  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  soatb-west 
coast  of  Italy,  oppo<*ite  tite  city  of  Naples,  is  20  miles  whie  from  CapeMiseuo  ou  ttie 
nortli-wext  to  Cape  CampanelH  ou  the  Houth-ca***,  and  from  tidsiine  extends  iulaud 
for  about  ten  miies.  The  scener..  i<*  veiy  iH'autifnI.  Ou  thesiioi-ep  are  laaur  towns 
and  villasres ;  llie  prosi>ect  is  l)ounded  on  the  cast  by  Mount  Yesavinb,  aud  ou  the 
outskirt.'«  of  ihe  bay  are  tlie  islauds  of  Ischia  and  Citpri. 

NAPLES.  The  Italian  provinces  (formerly  kinj^dom)  of  N.  and  Sicily,  or  the  Two 
Sicilies,  occupy  the  south  end  of  th:;  Iralian  peuinsuia,  aud  con^ist  of  tlie  continen- 
tal tern  tory  of  N.  aud  the  insular  depf^ndency  of  Sicily.  The  distinctive  physical 
features  of  N.  and  Sicily  are  noted  und-  r  the  names  uf  the  different  provinces  of 
Italy  aud  in  the  article  Sioily.  Th;»y  «ro  favored  by  nature  with  a  salubrious  and 
almost  tropical  climate,  unbounded  fertility,  and  teendug  popolntion;  aud  they  pre- 
sent natural  features  of  rare  attractiveness.  The  rural  population  are  an  acute,  fru- 
gal, and  laborious  race,  imd  form  a  strong  contrast  to  their  idle'  and  debased  brrthreii 
of  the  towns.  For  statistics  of  product.^,  exports,  and  populaiitm,  see  Ii'alt  and 
Sicily.  N.,  In  ancient  times,  was  divided  i:ito  nnmorous  petty  states  independent 
of  each  other,  and  its  Inhab.tjuita  were  of  various  races.  Many  of  these  states  aro-e 
from  Greek  coloidrs,  wliich  had  b  ;en  founded  in  the  country  previous  to  the  7th  c. 
B.O.  Th.!  ancient  historical  importance  of  N.  is  attested  by  the  splendor  of  its  ritiee, 
and  the  warlike  r-nown  of  its  population.  On  its  conquest  by  the  Romans.  tl»e 
great  Neapoliiau  cities  soveral'y  adopte<l  the  mnnicial,  federative,  or  coloidst  form 
of  government,  and  gradoaily  assimilated  their  laws  and  customs  to  those  ol  their 
couquerors.  After  the  downfall  of  the  West.irn  Empire,  N.wius  seized  by  Odoacer,  but . 
soeu  afterwards,  (490  a.d.)  it  was  subjected  by  the  Goths,  and  in  the  following  ceu-  ' 
tury  by  the  Lombards,  who  established  in  it  various  independent  duchies,  as  Bene- 
vento,  Spoleto,  S  demo,  Capua,  Ac  Mo-t  of  these  were  overthrown  by  iuvadini' 
bands  tif  Arabs.  Saracens,  and  Byzantines,  who  were  in  turn  cxitelled,  and 
the  whole  country  subdued  by  the  Normans  in  the  llth  century.  Tlie 
Normans  subsequently  erected  N.  and  Sicily  iuto  a  kingdom,  and*  est^iblish^d  a 
new  political,  ecclesiastical,  and  militsry  system.  To  the  Norman  dynasty 
succeeded  that  of  tb<^  Ilotienstaufen,  whose  rule  was  mtuked  by  i\u  immense 
intellectual  and  social  advancement  of  the  people;  but  the  vindictive  enmity 
with  which  the  p.ipal  seeregardctd  this  dyna.-ty,  letl  to  the  invasion  of  N.  by  Charles 
of  Atijon,  who.  notwithstanding  tlie  heroic  fesistanee  of  King  Manfred  (q.  v.),  by 
the  battle  of  Benevento  (1266)  annihilated  the  power  of  the  Hoiienstanten.  The 
wsc-^ndeucy  of  Charles  of  Anjou  was  further  effectually  s<'cnred  by  the  treacherous 
defeat  and  decapitation  (Vi6S)  of  Konradin  (q.  v.).  the  last  male  heir  to  the  throno. 
By  tlie  Sicilian  Veapern  (q.  v.)  the  island  of  Sicily  was,  however,  wrested  in  12S2 
from  his  gr  isp.  and  liecame  an  appanage  of  the  Spanisii  crown.  Tlie  predominance 
of  the  Neapolitan  Gnelph  or  papal  party  during  ihegit)rious  reign  of  Uobert  I.,  who 
w  IS  the  patix>n  of  Dante  and  Boccaccio,  the  depraved  libertinism  of  Ids  heiress  and 
granddaiightei-  Joanim,  the  fearful  ravages  committed  by  )>redatory  bands  of  €k;r- 
man  mercenarie>»  and  by  the  plague,  the  futile  attempts  of  the  Anjou  i^ovendgns  to 
recover  Sicily,  and  the  en  vent  nn-d  fends  of  rival  claimants  to  the  throne,  ai*e  tho 
leading  features  of  tae  history  of  N.  during  the  nde  of  this  dyn  isty,  which  expired 
with  tJio  profligate  Joanna  II.  iu  1435;  and  was  followed  lij'tliat  of  AragOH,  wliicli 
had  ruled  Sicily  from  th«  time  of  the  Sicilhiu  Vespers,    faring  the  tenure  of  the 


y  Google 


89 


NmolM 
Napoleon 

Azflgon  race,  yariona  aDf>ncce8sfal  attempts  were  made  by  the  Honse  of  Anjoii  to 
recover  their  loft  8)vereiffiity  ;  and  rhe  conutry.  eppecitilly  near  the  i-oant,  wax  re- 
peHtedly  ravaged  by  tiie  Turks  (1480).  lu  facf,  nfrtrthe  denili  of  Alfonso,  t.i«  fli>t 
ruler  of  the  Anigoii  clynaHly,  tho  conutry  groaiM  d  nnder  a  load  of  mittf  ry.  Wan*, 
dvfeut«ive  and  offensive,  were  iiitefsant,  tho  country  was  hnpovtrlnhcil,  ami  a 
conspiracy  of  the  noblt-s  to  remedy  tlie  condition  of  .iffrtirs  was  product ive  of  the 
most  luHicniahle  results  tH^th  to  I  tie  coui^pirators  themselves,  and  to  the  oth>  r  in- 
flizentini  NeapoliUtu  fandiien.  In  1495.  Charles  Vlll.  invaded  N.,  and  ihoti;;1i  ho 
wa^  compelled  to  withdraw  in  the  same  year,  his  tfacce^sor,  Louis  XII.,  wiili  tho 
treacherous  assistance  of  Ferdinand  (the  Cuiholic)  of  Suain,  succerded  in  conquer- 
ing the  country  in  1501.  Two  year*  afterwards,  the  Spaniards  niuler  Gonj«alvo  di 
Cordova  (q.  v.)  drove  out  the  French,  and  the  country  from  IniH  lime  hecavie  u 
province  of  Spain.  Sicily  had  pteviously  (1479)  been  annexed  to  the  same  kinp- 
doni.  Daring  the  two  ct'Uturies  of  Spanish  rule  in  N.,  the  parliaments  whcb  had 
existed  from  the  time  of  the  Normans  fell  into  desm'tude,  the  exercise  of  nupremo 
antliority  devolved  on  viceroys,  and  to  their  ignorance,  rapaciiy,  and  oppressive  ad- 
ministration may  be  ►olely  ascribed  the  unexampN  d  misery  anti  ahH>ement  of  thia 
period.  In  tlie  wordtf  of  Sismondi,  *^  no  tax  was  imponed  save  with  the  apparent 
ohjecr  of  crushing  commerce  or  destroying  a«,'riculiure.  and  the  viceregal  palace  and 
thetrilmnals  of  ja:>ticc  became  public  offices  in  which  the  highest  dignities  and  mo»>t 
BHcrcd  interests  of  tlie  stale  were  opi.nly  Iwrtered  to  the  wealthiest  hidder." 
Dnriiig  the  Spanish  rale,  a  formidable  rebellion  took  place  in  1647.  headed  fli-st  by 
Hu&inielto  (6.  v.),  and  afterwards  by  Henry  V.,  Dnke  of  Guise;  the  whole 
popn!:ition  or  the  province  j-enouuced  tiKiir  allcy;lHnce  to  their  Spanish  sov- 
ereigns, but  the  arrival  of  a  new  viceroy,  wlio  was  equal  to  the  occasion,  resnlu  d 
In  the  captnre  of  the  Duke  of  Guise  and  the  re-subjugatlou  of  the  country. 
At  length,  during  the  war  of  the  SimnUh  Snccemon  (q.  v.),  N.  was  wrested  from 
Spain  by  Austria  in  170T,  and  Sicily  in  the  following  year;  but  while 
«.  wns  secured  to  Austria  by  the  treaties  of  Uti«-cht  (1713)  and  Rasiadt 
(1T14),  Sicily  was  handed  over  to  Savoy  by  the  former  treaty.  In  1720,  however, 
both  Sicilies  were  reunited  under  the  Austrian  rule,  and  in  1736  were,  given  to  Don 
Carlos,  third  son  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  who  a^CelKled  tlse  throne  as  Cliarle"*  1.,  and 
found«d  the  Bourbon  dynasty.  Hie  reijjn  wns  nnirljed  by  equity  and  modernt on  ; 
great  reforms  were  efEi'cted  in  the  admini>tratioii  of  piii)lic  aftairs,  science  and  liter- 
tnre  were  encourai;ed,  ami  splendid  works  of  public  utility  were  erected  ihrou^'l^out 
the  kinirdoui.  It  was  during  hi?*  reijni  tliat  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  were  ^li^c^)v- 
ered.  His  successor,  Ferdinand  IV.,  followed  in  ilie  coui-se  of  legislative  reform; 
hut  on  the  proclanuition  of  the  Freiieh  Republic  (1789),  his  states  were  invndcKl  liy  a 
French  anny.  and  the  kingdom  of  N.  was  en  cted  into  the  Partheuopean  lit  public 
(1799).  Ferdinand  retiretl  with  his  court  to  Sicily,  ai  d  for  a  biief  period  enjoyed  the 
restoration  of  his  sovereign  rights  in  N. ;  hut  a  second  invasion  by  Naivdeon  (18(>«) 
ended  in  u  proclamation  of  liiti  brother,  Joseph  Bonaparte,  asking  of  N. ;  and  on 
this  hitter  assuming  the  Spanish  crown  in  1808.  thai  oi  N.  was  awarded  to  Joiichim 
Hurat,  brother-in-law  of  NaiX)leoi;.  On  the  defeat  and  execntion  of  Murat  i:i  1S15, 
the  Bourbou  monarch,  Ferdinand  IV.,  was  restored.  The  lil)cral  insurr<«tiOMjtry 
movements  in  N.  in  1821  and  183(»  were  the  forerunners  of  tlie  revolut  on  of  1848; 
and  in  each  case  the  party  of  progress  was  combated  by  the  respctive  Ulnars  with 
ruthless  severity,  ifnd  pei-fldious  conce.«s*ions,  to  be  cancelled  and  avenged  wiili  snn- 
guinary  fury  when  the  disjirnied  and  credulous  patriots  were  at  the  mercy  of  tho 
sovereigns.  See  article  Garibaldi  for  the  ultiiunte  overthrow  of  the  lJ<inrhon 
dynasty  in  the  kingdom  of  N.,  and  its  hubaequent  annexation  to  tl»e  kinjrdoin  of  Italy 
under  King  Victor  Emmanuel;  al»»o  art icles.  Ferdinand  II.  and  Italy.  For  the 
history  of  Sicily  previous  to  its  annexation  to  and  during  its  various  separailons 
from  N.,  see  Sicily. 

NAPLES-YELLOW  Is  a  pigment  used  by  artists.  It  cousl-ts  of  antlmoniatc  of 
lead,  and  is  obtained  by  the  direct  combinaiiou  of  antiiuonic  acid  and  ox.de  ot  Kud 
under  the  influence  ot  heat. 

NAPOLfiON  BONAPARTE,  Emperor  of  the  French,  vras  born  st  Ajacc'o,  in  tlie 
island  of  CorsiC4i,  15th  Augtist  1760.  (For  nn  account  of  the  family  lowliwch  he 
belonged,  sec  Bohapabtb,  Family  of).    At  the  age  of  10  he  entered  the  Milltaiy 


y  Google 


Napoleon  qA 

School  at  Brienno,  as  n  kliig^s  penBlonor.  Here  lie  romafncd  five  yonn  and  a  haT£, 
During  that  period  be  di!«pluyed  a  irioat  apiitndc  hi  d  nrediliciion  for  mntbeinnticH, 
history,  and  ijeograpliy,  jiiid  an  indiff-'rence  to  n»«nly  vtnbal  and  literary  »»indii't». 
His  manner  was  :*onil)re  and  tacitnrn.  luit  as  Bonrrieune  (wlio  wasliis  Bchoolfellow  ) 
Buys,  this  arose  cliiefly  from  the  circuni.*«t.ii!ce  that  l»e  was  a  foreigner,  poor  and 
nnaccnstomed  to  tlie  nan  of  Frtmcli,  wldch  he  first  learned  at  Briiime.  In  Octob'-r 
1784,  he  proceeded  to  tlie  Military  School  to  complete  his  stndies  for  the  nrmy,  and 
iu  rather  less  than  a  year  obtaniod  his  commission  as  snl>-lientei)nnt  in  theartilh^ry 
regiment  de  la  Fere.  When  the  Iti'VoUilion  broke  out,  N.  wms  in  garrison  iit 
Valence.  He  took  the  popular  side,  but  in  a  quiet  and  nudenionstrntive  way,  for  he 
did  not  love  the  ^jisterous  enthusiasm  of  UMmaiiageabU!  mol)s.  When  the  armed 
rabble  of  Paris  poured  out  to  the  Tnilcries  on  tlie  f;'mous20tli  of  Juue  1792,  N.,  who 
was  then  in  the  city,  followed  the  •'despical>!c  wretches"  (as  lie  called  Ihcm),  aloiiix 
with  his  friend  Bohrrienue ;  he  saw  them  force  the  poor  king  to  stick  the  red  cap  on 
his  head,  and  smilu  fatuously  from  the  windows  of  his  palace.  **  It  is  all  over  liencc^ 
forth  wi til  that  man,"  Haid  the  younj?  officer,  and  returned  to.  Pilrie  gniver  and 
more  thoughtful  than  Bonrrieune  had  over  sefii  him.  After  the  scenes  of  thelntli 
August,  he  left  for  Corsica,  where  General  Paoli  held  the  cliief  command.  Tli»j 
excesses  of  the  S  iptembrist-*  and  Terrorist^  however,  induced  Paoli  !0  ihrow  off 
his  allegiance  to  the  Convention,  and  to  set-k  the  assistance  of  England.  N.  waA 
active  hut  unsuccessful  in  Itis  oppo-'itioii  to  the  designs  of  the  general,  and  wa^ 
obliged,  along  witn  his  relatives,  to  fle6  from  the  island. 

He  now  ixailioned  the  Convention  for  employment,  and  was  sent  to  ai«isl  in  the 
reduction  of  Toulon,  with  llie  rank  of  lientt  naut  colbnel  of  artlll<ry.  The  city  wj  d 
captured  (Idlh  December  1798)  entirely  through  the  strategic  genius  of  N. ;  and  \:\ 
the  following  February  he  was  raised  to  llie  rank  of  brigaaier-genehil,  and  placed  at 
the  heud.of  the  ariilh^ry  in  the  army  of  the  south.  L  iter  in  the  year,  he  was  sent  lo 
Genoa,  to  examine  the  state  of  the  forliflcations  of  tlie  city,  and  todisc-ovei*  the  poli- 
tical disposition  of  the  inhabitants.  In  the  l>eginniiig  of  .'795,  l-.e  was  aitaln  iu  Pari^ 
seeking  active  employment  and  thinkinir,  from  slieer  ennui,  of  transferring  his  ser- 
vices to  the  Sultan  of  Turkey.  The  Convention  was  now  in  great  peril,  on  iiccount 
of  the  mutinous  spirit  of  the  arrondi.-'seraents  of  the  capital,  nnd,^on  thesugsre^tion  of 
Barras,  Carnot,  Tallien,  and  others,  N.  was  made  commander  of  The  ti-oops  provided 
for  its  defence.  On  the  13ih  Vend^mlaire  (4th  October  1795),  tl»e  mitional  guard,  Sb,^ 
000  strong,  attempted  to  force  its  way  into  iheTuileries,  where  the  Convention  was 
sitting,  but  was  route:l  and  disperaed  by  a  terrible  cannonade  diree.ted  by  the  yonn«f 
artillery  officer.  N.  was  immediati^ly  appointed  lo  the  coinnuind  of  the  army  of  tliu 
interior.  About  this  time,  he  made  the  acqmiintance  of  Josephine  S^anharnais. 
whom  he  frequently  met  at  the  bouse  of  Madame  Tallien.  Captivated  l>y  herelegaiit 
manners  and  amiat)le  disposition,  he  pro]K)sed  marria<je  to  the  graceful  widow,  aii^ 
was  accepted.  The  cere.nony  took  place  9tli  Mar<th  1796.  A  few  days  before,  1^ 
had  been  appointed  to  the  supreme  co  nmund  of  ttie  army  of  Italy,  and  he  \vaH 
obliged  to  leave  his  l>ride  almost  at  the  altar.  On  his  arr.v  I,  he  found  the  troops  ia 
a  wretched  condition.  He  bad  only  36,00t)  av:ii:jible  men,  and  even  these  were  ba'f^ 
starved,  and  only  half-clothed,  to  oppose  to  an  Austrian  and  PiedmOniese  force  ot. 
76  000.  Yet  he  was  not  afraid  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  XJp|>er  Italy.  I^eavimj 
Nice  at  the  close  of  Mai-ch,  he  won  bis  first  victory  over  the  Ansfriaus  at  Mo-  - 
tenotte  (11th  April),  which  opened  the  Apennines  for  him;  tlu*ee,  dnyi 
later,  a  second  success  at  Millesimo  separated  the  allied  armies;  and,  final  y, 
his  victory  at  Mondovi  (on  the  22d)  compelled  Sardinia  !0  implore  peaeW 
He  now  hoped  to  utterly  crusli  the  Austrian  army  under  Beaulieu.  nnd  at  the  batilo 
of  Lodi  (on  tlie  lOtli  May)  nearly  accomplished  it.  His  <  ppomni  did  not  venture  lo 
defend  the  line  of  the  Mincio,  but  hastily  throwing  a  pirnVoii  info  the  city  of  Mantu:i, 
retreated  into  the  Tyrol.  N.  immediately  entore  i  Milan  and  took  jmsse^sion  besi(h«H 
of  all  the  prineipa!  cities  of  Lombanlv.  Now  began  that  Hysrera  of  enormous  nnd 
unscrupulous  plunder  in  Northern  and  Central  Italy  whicli  gives  something  of  a  Imr- 
baric  character  to  the  conqae»»tj«  of  the  French.  'I  he  Directory  ^rave  ordei-s  that  N. 
should  levy  coniriimtions  from  h'i  the  states  which  he  had  gVatuitons'y  freed,  aiul 
according  to  his  own  account,  be  sent  to  F- ance  iit)t  less  than  S't.OOO.OOO  franco.  His 
officers  anil  commissiries  actually  sejz  d  whatever  they  wish  f<l,  jirovisions,  l!ors«'S, 
and  all  mauuer  of  stores;  and  because  Pa  via  ventured  \o  make  fome  blight  1*06151- 


Digitized 


fey  Google 


91 


NapolMn 


ance  to  the  Bharaefnt  extortions  of  the  Renubllcnns,  N.  gave  It  np  to  liavoc  for  24 
lionre  I  A  Iwxly  of  ^avaui-  ^iucluding  Monge,  berthollet,  and  otlMJr^)  were  dei'p'tctied 
to  Iialy  to  sniJeriuteiid  the  spoliatiou  of  iie  nrtlstlc  tr«««'nT«'8  ;  mid  boih  ikjw  mi  d  hi 
the  *«ub»oqueut  Iialian  cuni)>iiigu»,  pictures,  ntataes,  va»i*»,  aud  M88.  wert;  cun*ifd 
oft  in  gri'at  uniiibers,  to  gratify  the  vnuhy  of  the  ParWnn  elglit-Reerp.  lu  tiiie  wiiy 
L  )iiibardy,  Parma,  Modcna,  Bolojnia,  and  the  States  of  the  Churcli  were  sjiv.ifrt  Iv 
bariied  I>ffore  the  end  of  June— Pope  Pius  VI.,  in  particuUir,  bciug  forced  toti'ubnnt 
to  conditions  of  ixticaie  rigor. 

Mfauwhile,  Austria  lind  resolved  to  inalse  another  effort  for  the  recovvry  of  Lom- 
barcly.  About  iho  close  of  July,  Marshal  Wurniher  :  dvanci  d  from  Trent  at  tho 
lu-at!  of  6U,000  men,  forced  Napoleon  to  i-ai^e  tlie  hicge  of  Mantnn,  hnt  wan  hiiuhelf 
deftMitcd.  with  the  h)H6  of  all  hit;  camion,  near  CaHtighone  (5th  Angufit),  and  again  at 
Bu88iiuo  (8th  September),  in  cons^t qmnce  of  whkh.  lie  was  driven  lo  lake  refrgo 
within  the  fortress  of  Mantua  with  iH>me  16.00J  tioop>— tito  shattered  remnina  of 
his  60,000.  Austria,  however,  was  not  dishearii  ned.  A  third  army  waB  diHpalchcd 
in  two  divisions:  30.<  00  from  Carinihia^  under  Marclud  Alvinzi ;  and  20,00«  from  the 
Tyrol,  niideir  (general  Davidowich.  This  was  a  terrible  campaign  for  N. ;  his  veternns 
were  exhausted,  his  new  ^npportv^  had  not  arrived;  he  liiuiself  was  despond«iit, 
while  the  Anj^tii:ins  were  fresli  aaid  liopeful.  At  first,  the  latter  were  Qomplettly 
•nccessfnl ;  hut  the  great  victory  of  Areola,  won  by  N,  (17ih  November),  after  thee 
days'  fli-rce  flighting,  jn  which  he  lost  nearly  all  his  general  officers,  decided  the  fate 
of  the  cunipulgn.  His  diiipatches  to  the  Directory,  penned  about  this  pei'iod,  shew 
how  thoroughly  he  apprehended  tho  state  of  parties  in  Italy,  and  also  how 
utterly  indifferent  he  was  to  any  considerations  l>eyond  those  that  advanced 
the  interests  of  Prance.  In  January  1791,  a  fourth  campaign  Mas  commenced 
by  Austria.  At  the  head  of  60,000  fresh  troopf,  Alvlnal  descended  from  tho 
Tyrol,  but  was  completely,  routed  by  N.  at  Kivoli,  on  the  J4th  of  the 
month ;  while  not  long  after,  WurrasiT  was  i^tarvetl  into  surrender  at  Mantua. 
A  fifth  army  was  assembled  on  the  Tugliamento,  under  the  command  of  the  Arch- 
duke Charles:  but  his  troo|)S  were  mainly  ruw  recruits,  while  those  of  N.  were 
inured  to  war,  and  flushed  with  iumnuerable  ttriumi>hs.  In  consequence,  ho 
was  forced  to  retreat,  \yhich,  however,  he  did  I'lowly  ai  d  in  good  order,  hoping  to 
»nrionnd  his  opponent  in  the  interior  of  the  country.  N.'s  desism  was  to  maich 
on  Vienna,  and  he  actually  jwneli-ftted  as  far  as  Judenhurg,  in  Upper  Styiia,  only 
eight  days'  march  from  the  capital.  'Jhc  Austrian  government  nt  length  was  seized 
with  alarm,  made  overtures  of  peace;  and  finally,  on  the  ITth  October  1T97,  the  fa- 
mous treaty  of  Campo-formio  was  signeil,  by  which  Au>tria  ceded  the  Netherlai.ds, 
Ix)inl)ardy,  and  ^ojne  other  smaller  territories  to  France ;  while  she  herself  obtain<d 
in  return,  throu£;h  disgraciful  treachery  on  the  part  of  the  vic'or,  possession  of  the. 
province  of  Venice.  It  is  generally  said  that  N.'s  military  genius  was  never  more 
brilliantly  displayed  than  in  these  early  Italian  campaigns.  In  ingenuity  of  j)lau,celer- 
ity  of  movement,  audacity  of  assault,  he  far  outshines  all  his  adversaries ;  it  is,  more- 
over, but  jnst  to  liim  to  Ktaje  further,  that  ho  made  desperate  efforts  to  stop  the  ex* 
cesses  of  tho  most  scoundrelly  conunis»'ariat  in  Europe ;  and  that  while  in  the  main 
he  shewed  no  hesitation  in  carrying  out  the  brlgancl-like  orders  of  the  Director}', 
be  does  not  appear  to  l-ave  appropriated  a  single  penny  to  himself.  It  was  power, 
not  gold,  that  he  cared  for. 

In  December  1797,  N.  retnrnrd  to  Paris,  where  he  was  received  with  the  utmott 
enthupiasm.  At  this  lime,  there  m'OS  much  talk,  and  probably  some  vague  design, 
on  the  part  of  the  Direeiory,  of  invading  Enirland.  and  N.  was  jiMjKHUted  coni- 
mander-in-cliief  of  tin*  invading  army.  It  ban  h;  en  thought,  however,  iluit  this  was 
merely  a  feint  to  mask  the  real  design  ot  the  Directory,  viz..  the  invasion  of  Egypt, 
as  perhaps  a  preliminary  step  to  the  conquest  of  British  India.  Be  that  as  it  may, 
an  expedition  against  Egyijt  was  resolve<l  on  by  the  Directoiy  ;  and  onihe  19th  of 
May.  1T98,  N.  sailed  from  Toulon,  with  a  fleet  containing  80,000  Soldiei'S,  ai  d  a  body 
of  savans  to  investigale  the  antiquities  of  the  country.  He  readied  Alexandria  on 
tlie  29th  of  June.  At  this  moniMut,  France  was  ni  peace  with  Turkey;  the  invasion 
of  Egypt  a  T«rki:«h  <le|)endeucy,  was  therefor.*  an  aet  utterly  unjustifiable,  ami 
reminds  us  not  of  European  warfare,  but  rather  of  the  irruption  of  a  horde  of 
liarbarlc  Tartars.  N.  having  landed  his  troops, ca]>iured  AUxaiidria,  and  marclud 
on  Cidrb.    The  Mamelukes  prepaivd  resistance ;  but  on  the  2Ut  July,  at  the  battle 


y  Google 


Nmpo'eon  GO 

of  the  Pyramids*,  tlioy  were  completely  defeated,  and  the  French  became,  in  a  snr- 
fttr«-way,  masters  of  Kgypt.  ]N.  now  entered  the  cnpitn),  and  imnifdialely  coni- 
ni«*nc('d  10  reorguuiso  ibo  civil  and  uiililary  tiduiini?irjttion  of  tiiecuuiiir> — for  ho 
took  a  grejit,  hnt  als'o  au  u(«teiitutiou!*  plennnre  in  this  port  (»f  work.  Mt^nwl>ile.  ou 
the  2(1  of  Aueu!»t,  Nelson  had  uiteHy  dent  roved  the  French  fleet  in  Al)ouk:rBay, 
and  M)  cut  ott  N.  from  communication  witli  KuroiM).  A  montli  later,  the  Kuitan  di> 
clared  war  a2ain^t  him.  This  w:ifl  followed  by  ai«*turbBnce8  in  Cairo,  which  wirc 
only  9nppre.Mtd  by  horrible  nniHS'icres.  It  wa»  oi>vion8ly  necesHury  that  N.  .should 
go  somewhere  else.  He  resolved  to  meet  the  Turkish  loi-cee  astf^eiubling  hi  Syiia; 
and  in  February  1799,  crosaeti  tne  desert  at  tlie  head  of  10,000  men,  storuK'd  JaffA 
ou  the  7th  March,  after  a  heroic  resiatiiuce  on  the  part  of  the  Ttirks ;  marched  north- 
wards by  the  coast,  and  reachetl  Acre  ou  the  Ittli.  Here  his  career  of  victory  was 
stopped.  All  his  efforts  to  capture  Acre  were  foiled  through  the  desperate  and 
obstniate  valor  of  old  Djeszar  Pasha  (q.  v.),  a8»i^te<l  by  Sir  Sidney  Sraitli,  with  a 
small  body  of  Bnelish  sailors  aud  marine«i.  On  tiie  21st  of  May,  he  commenced  his 
retreat  to  "Egypt,  leaving  tiie  whole  country  on  flro  lieliind  liim,  and  re-entered  Cairo 
ou  tlie  Uili  of  June.  It  was  daring  his  absence  tliat  the  savaun  made  their  vulunble 
researches  among  tlie  monuments  of  Upper  Bgypt.  About  the  middle  of  July,  the 
Sultan  landed  a  force  of  18,000  men  at  Aboukir,  who  were  attticked  hj  N.  on  t>.e 
26th,  and  rpnted  with  immense  slaughter.  But  tiie  ponition  of  the  victor  wa^  far 
fi*om  coroiortable,  and  ho  theivrfore  if680lved  to  ntiirn  to  France— eHjMJCial'y  «« 
news  had  couiit  to  him  of  disasters  in  Italy  and  confusions  in  Piirif.  On  the  23d  of 
August,  he  sailed  from  Alexandria,  leaving  his  army  beiiiud  liim,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Kleber;  and  after  narrowly  eetcapnig  capture  by  the  JJhiiiiisii  fleet,  iandd 
near  Frejns  On  tlie  9th  October.  He  liMStenedto  Paris,  poon  niantei-ed  the  htate  of 
affairs,  threw  himself  into  the  party  of  Sleyd*,  and  overthrew  the  Diivctoi-y  (q.  v.) 
on  the  famous  18»h  Brumaire.  A  new  constitution  was  drawn  uo,  chiefly  by  Sieyd^, 
nnder  which  N.  i>ecamj  First  Consul,  with  tlie  power  of  appointing  to  ;  II  pul>lic 
offlces,  of  pro|>osing  all  public  measures  in  peace  or  war,  and  the  entire  coiniuaud 
of  all  administrative  affairs  civil  and  militaiy.  In  a  woitl,  ho  was  ruler  of  France; 
and  thong^li  far  from  sutiyfled  with  the  clumsy  machinery  of  Sieyes's  plan,  lie 
could  afford  to  wait  the  ftiture.  About  the  end  of  January  1800  he 
took  up  his  residence  in  tiie  Tnilerics.  Tlie  country  was  tired  of  revolutions, 
discords,  and  confusions;  it  was  proud  of  its  young  leader,  who  seemed  inspired  but 
not  enslaved  by  the  id  as  of  his  age,  and  who  knew  how  to  enforce  obedience,  as 
well  as^o  panegyric  principles.  If  therefore  re^'ardeil  liis  assumption  of  sovereign 
power  with  positive  satisfaction.  N.  displayed  extraoitiinary  vigor  as  an  administra- 
tor, recruited  the  national  treasury,  by  various  itagacioas  exiiedienis,  reiiealed  the 
more  violent  laws  passed  during  the  Revolution,  such  as  iMinishinent  for  matters  of 
opinion,  reopened  the  churches,  imd  terminated  by  policy  the  Vendean  struggle. 
Bathe  knew  well  that  his  genius  was  essentially  military,  and  that  his  most  dasxling 
aud  influential  triumphs  were  th>>se  won  ou  the  battle-field.  France  was  still  at  war 
with  Austria,  and  lie  resolved  to  renew  the  glories  of  his  first  Italian  campaigns. 
Leaving  Moreaa  in  command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  heassenibled,  with  wonderful 
rapidity  and  secrecy,  an  army  of  8(t,0vjd  men  on  the  shores  of  tlie  Lake  of  Geneva, 
and  ou  the  18th  May  (1800),  began  his  m:<gn!ficent  and  daring  march  across  liie 
Alps.  Almost  before  the  Austrl.iii  general.  Melus,  wtis  aware,  K.  hadeiitereil  Milan 
(2d  Junit).  Twelve  days  aflerwanis,  was  foaght  the  fiercely  contested  yet  decisive 
iNittle  of  Marengo,  wiiich  compelled  the  Austriaus  to  r<!sign  Piedmont  with  all  it.s 
fortresses,  aud  (lor  the  seconcl  time)  Loml)ardy  to  the  Freiicii.  Later  in  tiie  year, 
hostilities  were  recommenced;  but  the  Aiisirians,  beaten  Vy  Morenn  in  (^rmany 
(at  HohenUndeii,  &c.),  and  by  N.  in  IUi\y^  were  at  last  forced  to  make  peace;  and 
on  the  9th  February  1801,  signed  the  treaty  of  Lun6ville,  ivhicn  was  maifily  bast  d  on 
that  Campo-furmio.  In  tlie  course  of  the  same  year,  France  and  Fnglaiid  also 
nnide  iieace,  but  the  treaty  (known  as  that  of  Amiens)  was  not  definitively  signed 
till  thv;27tli  of  March  1802.  N«)t  le-«  important  for  tiie  conaolidation  of  nffaii-s  in 
France  was  the  lamous  •*  Concordat "  (q.  v.)  between  N.  and  Po|)e  Pius  VII.,  aiso  con- 
cluded in  1801.  In  Jannary  1802,  N.  ovcame  President  of  the  Ois.-ilpine  itepublic  ; 
and  on  the  2d  August  following,  was  declare^!  Consul  for  life  liy  a  decree  u£  tlie 
French  senate. 

Meanwhile  N.  was  busy  saperiuteudlug  the  drawing  up  of  a  code  of  civil  laws  for 


y  Google 


Q  Q  Napol«0n 

France.  He  assembled  the^i-st  lawyers  in  ilie  nation,  nndi.-r  tl»e  presidency  of  Cnni- 
ba(--6rd;t,  un  I  trequenrly  took  priti  in  tlu-ir  deiibcrutitaiM ;  ihe  rehultaof  tliuir  labors 
were  the  '*  Code  C.vll  det«  Frnig.iip,''  '•  Code  d«:  Procedure,"  "  Cixle  Penal,"  und  **  Code 
d'l  1 1  Si  I  ruction  Cnnjiueile,"  heMdvS  connnerci.-il  and  niililatycodeH.  nil  of  which  oflt-n 
go  loosely  under  the  i^Jtnie  of  tlic  *•  Code  Nupoi6on.''  Tl>e  first  of  these  is  an  ndndrahie 
prooaction,  and  is  in  force  to  the  prest  ut  day.  Couniderable  uitention  woj*  l)esided 
paid  to  sucli  immclies  of  education  as  were  likely  to  nrouiote  efficiency  in  Ihe  public 
service.  'Mathematics,  physical  science  in  all  its  departments,  engineering,  Ac, 
were  us*  vigoronsly  encouraged  as  pliilosophy,  ethics,  anM  political  siMcnlatlon  were 
discouraj^ud.  But  tne  best  proof  thutN.  wanted  not  an  educaiecl  people,  hut  only  ac- 
tive and  fzpert  lools  and  agents,  was  the  indifference  that  he  nuiuifestcd  to  priniaiy 
and  elementary  education.  lu  a  population  of  32,000.000,  the  number  of  pupiin 
under  teu  years  is  given  by  Fourcroy  at  only  76,000  1  Tlie  internal  goverument  was 
tlie  acme  of  desi)otic  centi-Alisatii»n.  N.  appointed  ail  prefects  of  di  partments,  and 
all  mayors  of  cities,  so  that  not  a  vestige  of  ))r(>vlncial  or  muuicipal  freedom  re- 
mained. He  ruled  France  as  he  ruled  the  array  of  France,  aud  was  already  au 
Ciuperor  in  almost  evt^rything  but  the  name. 

Peace  l)etween  France  and  England  did  not  last  long.  N.'s  policy  in  Italy  irri- 
tated tlie  British  government,  and  as  remon^trance8  were  ineffectual,  war  was  de- 
clared against  Frjaice.lSth  May  1803.  Tl»e  English  fleet  scoured  the  seas,  paralysing 
the  commerce  of  France ;  while  N.  threatened  to  invade  Eugland,  and  assembled  a 
large  army  at  BoulO:,'ue.  tso  uJ  tei  ly  did  he  misconceive  I  he  character  and  condition  of 
Euglish men,  that  lie  felt  sure  (l)y  his  own  statement)  he  should  be  welcomed  as  a 
lil)ci-utor  by  the  peoplo  I  Wliile  these  warlike  pr(M)aiations  were  going  on,  occurred 
the  dauirerous  conspiracy  of  the  Chonau  chief.  George  Catloudul  (q.  v.),  Plchegru 
(q.  v.),  Moreau  (q.  v.),  and  others.  Its  discovery  (Fithruary  1804)  alarmed  N.  exces- 
sively, and  led  to  what  lias  been  considered  one  of  the  r)]acki"ht  deede>  in  his 
catwer — the  nmrde.r  oj  the  I>nke  d'Enghien  (q.  v.)  on  the  20th  of  Marcij  following. 
lie  now  appears  to  have  felt  it  necessary  to  assnme  the  title  of  emperor.  Franci", 
be  allege  d,  wanted  an  empire  as  n  eymhol  of  perjnnnent  security.  An  appeal  wub 
made  to  the  naiion.  Upwards  of  8,000,(00  votes  were  given  in  favor  of  tlie  proposed 
diange  in  the  torm  of  goveniment;  only  80(1)  or  4C00  against  it.  But  where  there 
Is  no  niunicipiil  freedom,  one  docs  not  know  what  valne  t<>  put  on  votes.  On  the 
18th  M.y,  N.  assumed  the  title  of  Empet  or  at  St  Cloud,  and  was  crowned  by,  or 
ititiier  in  the  presence  of,  the  pope  (for  M.  rndely  crowned  Idmself),  on  the  2d 
December.  In  the  following  summer  (May  26)  he  was  also  crowned  king  of  Itidy, 
in  the  great  cahedral  of  Milan;  aud  Engine  Beauharuais,  liis  step-sou,  was  af)- 
pojnied  t^)  lluj  office  of  Viceroy. 

This  policy  of  aggrandisenunt,  which  set  at  naught  the  conditions  of  the  treaty 
of  Lnn^vllle,  alarmed  the  other  nations  of  Europe,  especi  Uy  Ansiria,  who  saw  her 
Italian  possessions  seriously  threatened.  In  1805,  a  coalition  was  foimed  between 
England,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Sweden,  mainly  through  the  pert<everiiig  policy  of  the 
first  of  tliese  countries;  ?.nd  war  again  broke  out  in  the  month  of  Sepiemher.  N. 
actetl  with  amazing  Celerity.  Concentrating  his  w■idely-^caItcred  forces  at  Mainz, 
he  marched  at  once  across  Bavarta.  compelled  G*^ner;tl  Mack  to  capitulate  at  Ulm 
with  2&,000  men  (ITtii  Octol)er) ;  and  on  the  13th  of  November  entered  the  capital  of 
Austria.  France  was  ele*  trifled ;  the  rest  of  Europe  was  llmmler-struck.  Bni  a 
more  glorious  triumph  was  yet  to  come.  The  Russian  arnjy  was  already  in  Moravia, 
undt  r  the  immediate  command  of  tlie  EmiHMor  Alexander  I.,  and  was  there  being 
joined  by  the  scattered  Austrian  troops.  K.  did  not  lose  a  moment.  Hurrying 
north,  lie  gave  battle  to  the  allies  at  Austerlitz,  on  the  2d  of  D«  cember.  The  con- 
tent was  tremendous ;  but  the  victory  was  complete.  N.'s  opponents  were  utterly 
crashed ;  and  next  day  the  Austrian  emperor  sought  an  interview,  and  sued  for 
pt-ace.  A  treaty  wa!*  signe<l  at  Presburg  on  tlie  26th  Deceml)«^r,  by  wluch  Austria 
ced«'d  to  France  all  her  Italian  and  Adriatic  provinces;  other  changes  effected  by  it 
were,  the  dissolution  of  the  old  German  empire,  and  the  formation  of  the  Confedet'' 
tttitm  of  the  JUiine  (q.  v.). 

In  FeWniary  180tJ  a  Fi*ench  army  conquered  Naples,  and  the  crowu  was  conferred 
by  N.  on  his  brother  Josep.j ;  in  the  following  June,  another  brotlier,  Louis,  was 
made  king  of  Hollaud.  Prussia  now,  when  it  was  too  late,  assumed  a  liostile  atti- 
tthe  had  bung  off  partly  througli  fear  aud  partly  through  eelflshness,  from  the 


y  Google 


Mapo'eon  Q 1 

great  iiDti-Freuch  coalitioo  of  tbo  previous  year,  aud  uow,  when  circumstances  were 
ttlinost  hopu'teiflly  tidverse,  she  unully  rui^lied  a^Iuet  h^  colu8t<al  euuuiy.  AnMria^ 
w'tUi  luort;  m:i}nm:iiinity  than  iirucKiuc,  lent  Iter  help,  bat  tbe  st^ir  of  N.  was  still  in 
tl«e  UBccndaiit.  Th  ;  b  ittK;  of  Jena  (October  14)  absolut  'Ay  iiniihilMtc-d  the  power  of 
Prussia ;  Ave  days  later  N.  entered  Berlin,  whence  lie  issued  (November  21)  Ids  cele- 
brated **  Decrees"  against.  Brili^b  commerce,  hoi)!Ug  to  ruin  ln-r  by  Hliutting  out  her 
Hiips  from  every  harbor  in  Europe.  His  expu*ctaJions,  it  need  Imidly  be  sai'l,  were 
disappointed.  His  policy  well-nigh  ruined  the  commerce  of  bis  own  and  other 
countries,  hut  it  only  increased  the  prosperity  of  England.  Her  fl-ets  and  cruisers 
swefil  the  seas;  nothing  could  begot  from  the  colonies  save  through  lier,  and  the 
merchants  of  the  continent  \vere  oblig-id— in  order  to  supply  their  customers  as  be- 
fore— to  let  her  carry  on  a  vast  coutrabainl  traffic.    See  Obdbbs  in  Council. 

After  the  ca|Ttnre  of  Berlin,  N.  proceedv'd  northwards  to  encounter  the  Russians, 
who  were  advancing  to  ttie  help  of  Prussia.  On  liis  way,  he  summoned  Poland  to 
rise,  but  only  witli  jiartial  snccesu.  At  Pultusli  (Dcceuil)er  28, 1806),  aud  at  Eylan 
(February  8,  1807),  the  French  were  beaten  and  driven  back  on  the  Hue  of  tlie  Vis- 
tula; but  after  some  months,  he  received  heavy  reinforcements,  and  on  the  13th  of 
June  fought  and  wou  the  great  battle  of  Friedland.  which  led  to  the  treaty  of  Tilsit, 
signed  on  tbe  7th  of  July.  By  a  secret  article  ot  this  treaty,  Russia  i>comised  lo 
dose  her  ports  to  British  vessels.  It  is  important  to  ol)servc  liere,  that,  as  the 
military  triumphs  of  N.  increased,  the  civil  and  political  liberties  of  his  subjects 
diminished,  i'onseqiient  on  the  troa'y  of  Tilsit,  a  decree  of  the  Imperitd  senate 
al>olished  the  tribunate— the  pnly  political  body  in  France  that  preservit^^-the  sem- 
blance of  national  self-government.  It  Auirnst,  N.  create<l  his  brother  Jerome  sov- 
ereign of  Westphalia— having  patched  up  a  Icingrdom  fcir  him  in  his  usual  nuscrnpu- 
lous  way — ^imd  soon  atter,  entered  on  a  war  with  Portugal — the  beginniug  of  the 
great  Peninsular  War.  The  occasion  of  the  war  was  the  rd[us.il  of  the  Prince- regent 
of  PortUi^al  to  carry  out  the  Berlin  decree  in  r^ganl  to  British  shipping.    In  March 


ing. 


1808,  occurred  that  extraordinary  Insrauce  of  trepanning  at  Bayonne,  by  which  tlio 
whole  royal  family  of  Spain  fell  into  the  hands  of  N. ;  and  in  the  following  July, 
his  **  dearly  Iwlovid  brotlier  "  Joseph  was  ordered  to  exchange  the  throne  of  Napks 
for  the  *' crowns  of  Spain  and  the  Indies.^'  His  successor  was  the  *^  handsome 
swordsman  "(2>eau8a6rtfur),  Joachim  Murat.  Spain  rose  In  insurrection,  aud  an 
English  force,  under  Sir  JoJin  Moore,  was  despatched  to  its  assistance.  N.  invaded 
the  country  about  tlie  close  of  October,  defeated  the  Spanish  forces,  and  captured 
Madrid  (4ih  December).  But  his  presence  wa*?  urgently  needed  cltewhere,  and  he 
was  forced  to  let  Soult  and  other  gencnds  conduct  the  war  in  the  peninsula.  Aus- 
tria, again  irritated  and  alarmed  at  his  aggressive  policy,  especially  in  Italy  (where 
he  had  seized  Tusotny  aud  tiie  States  of  the  Church),  once  more  prepared  for  war, 
which  broke  out  in  tite  spring  of  1809.  Her  array  of  Oermany,  commanded  by  the 
Archduke  Charles,  was  in  splendid  condition  ;  but  still  fortune  was  adverse.  N. 
hurried  iuto  Bavaria,  routed  the  Archduk-;  at  EckmiiUl  (22d  April),  compelled  him  to 
retrrat  into  Bohemia  ;  and  on  the  12th  of  May,  entered  Vienna  for  the  second  time. 
But  the  struggle  was  not  over.  The  Archduke  rallied  his  scattered  forces,  worst (hI 
N.  in  ilie  terrible  conflicts  of  Aspv  rn  and  Esslinir  (21sr  and  22d  M.iy),  and  drove  Idm 
to  take  refuge  for  a  time  on  an  island  of  the  Danube.  The  battle  of  Wagram  (6th 
July),  however,  once  more  prostrated,  or  at  least  intimidated  Austria;  and  on  the 
14tn  of  Octol>er,  she  signed  the  peace  of  SchOnbrnnn. 

N.  appears  to  have  now  come  to  the  conclusion,  that  he  cotild  only  put  a  stop  to 
the  hosiile  tnachinatlons  of  the  old  legitimate  dynasties  by  intermarrying  with'some 
one  of  them.  Besides,  his  wife  Josepliine  haci  no  children — and  he  wasiimi^|;iou8 
of  perpetuating  his  power  in  his  family.  Witli  that  cjdlon-ness  to  everything  except 
his  own  interests,  which  is  a  prominent  feature  of  his  character,  he  imm-diutoiy 
j)roccfded  to  divorce  her.  The  act  of  divorcement  was  solemnly  registered  on  the 
16tli  December.  Less  than  three  months  afterwards,  he  married  Maria  Louisa, 
Archduchess  of  Austria.  He  was  now  at  the  zenith  of  his  power,  and  so,  ticeording 
to  the  old  Greek  l)eI1ef,  Nemesis  was  on  his  track.  What  caused  his  ri^in  wa«  renl^ 
that  outrage  on  civilisation— the  Berlin  Decrees.  Russia  found  it  impossible  to  carry 
it  out.  without  permanent  injury  to  her  great  Iandowni*rs ;  Sweden  and  othen  coun- 
tries were  in  a  similar  predicatnont.  This  led  to  evasions  <)f  tl>c  decJve,  and  these, 
agtiiu,  involved  Russia  particularly  in  further  complications,  until  Anally,  in  M&f 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ ICL 


OR  Nftpoleon 

1812,  N.  declared  war  agafnst  her;  and  in  spite  of  the  advice  of  his  most  prndent 
couiiseilors,  resolvetl  to  uivade  the  country.  Every  one  knows  the  dreadfnl  liit>tory 
of  ilie  Bnesi^iu  cumpui^n.  N.,  wriu^iug  contingents  frttmall  his  allies — 6ennain<, 
Aiistiiuus  Itulians,  Poles,  uud  8wih6 — concentrated  lietweeu  tlie  Vistulu  uud  th>! 
Nieuien  an  tumy  of  hulf  a  niiiliou  of  men.  Tlie  vnst  horde  crossed  the  lutier  river 
~(24tii  aiid  25tli  Jone)  in  three  divif ious,  uiptun  d  Wilna  (28ih  JoDe),  and  iiiviiged 
Lithuania.  The  Rc><8iaii  generals  ntreated  before  tlie  invading  host,  delib*  rauly 
waiting  the  conutry,  and  carryinj^  off  tlie  snppliea.  bnt  avoiding  as  txr  -.  h 
possil)]^,  all  eDgagenieuts— t  h(  ir  design  being  to  surroaud  N.  in  the  heurt  of  the  coun- 
try, jind  by  the  hejpof  fuminciind  tlie  r  gors  of  a  uortheru  winter,  lo  anniiiihiiu  iiiii 
in  liis  lioar  of  weakness.  N.  followed  up  ttse  reireuting  foe  with  recldess  lesoluiion. 
He  risked  everything  upon  the  chance  01  striking  some  overwiielmiiig  blow.  The 
liorrors  of  his  march— iii  Lithnuniu  alone,  1UO,0<IO  dropiied  off  (dead,  sick,  or  cuyy- 
tured  by  the  swarms  of  Cossaclcs  that  hung  \x\)ou  his  flanks)~are  too  faiiiiliar  to 
n quirt:  description.  When  he  leactud  Smolensk  (16th  August),  the  Rusniaus  had 
just  U£l  it — on  fire  I  Three  weeks  or  so  later,  ho  made  upon  the  enemy  at  Borodino, 
where  an  obstinate  and  blo<;dv  battle  was  foutht  (7lh  KeptemlK-r).  The  Fni.cli 
reu  uiucd  in  losses^ion  of  the  field,  but  of  noti.iug  else.  A  week  after,  N.  enter*  d 
Woscow,  hoping  to  find  r«>t  for  a  time  in  the  ancient  metropolis  of  the  country. 
But  the  city  wrs  diserted  by  itsinliahitants;  and  on  Ihe  16th  a  fire  hrokeout,  whJeU 
iag<  d  till  the  l»th,  and  left  Moscow  a  heap  of  ruins.  After  five  weeks'  stay,  N.  wis 
obligtd  to  coimnence  liiy  retcettt  (l»ih  October).  His  army  was  i educed  to  IXO.WO 
men.  The  \vinter  ^t  in  much  earlier  than  usual,  and  lie  had  to  retain  thiough  tlio 
v<  ry  dif^tricts  wliich  liad  been  wasted  on  his  advance.  Wlieii  he  left  Smolensk  (Uili 
>ioveinbtr),  ho  had  only  40.C00fi<:i)lii.^-men  ;  vhen  heirofStd  the  Berezina  i2<iih 
and  27ili  JJovemher),  he  had  not  more  than  25.000.  With  the  excuse— which  wat»  in 
itself  no  d  ul>t  tim — that  lii»  presence  wts  urgently  needed  in  France,  he  now 
abfliidoDcd  the  mimrable  ren  ains  of  his  anny  ;  ami,  on  the  fiiii  of  December,  letix- 
ing  Mural  iu  couiinand,  set  out  in  a  sledge  for  Paris,  w  here  he  aiTived  on  the  ISih  of 
the  same  mouth.  Be  inftanily  Bit  about  a  fresh  conscription;  and  in  tint 
spring  of  1813  marched  into  Germany  at  tlie  head  of  360.060  men  ;  hut  the  Rnsr'ljiii 
canipuign  had  broken  the  hpell  of  tenor  which  his  name  had  till  llieii 
«x<rci8ed.  The  spirit  of  all  Euroiie  was  thoroughly  roused.  A  convictltiU  wab — 
somewhat  nnconii'ciously — seizing  ev<iy  n  ind  (at  the  close  of  the  campaiizn 
of  1S14,  even  France  shared  it),  that  the  world  had  bad  **enongh  of  Bonn* 
parte"  (OMsez  de  Bonaparte).  Pru^sia,  in  particular,  was  burning  to  wi|>e  out 
the  disgnice  of  Jena,  and  all  the  bitter  humiliations  to  which  she  had  Ik*  n 
snl)seqaeiitly  subjected.  The  >ictorie8  of  the  British  in  Spain,  the  fame  of 
which  was  spreading  all  over  the  continent,  also  proved  to  her  that  French 
so'dicrs  cotUd  be  beaten,  not  once  or  twice  only,  bnt  throngli  whole  c-mpaigns.  An 
:iil  auce  wasfonnt  d  between  the  king  of  Prussia  and  theBuiperor  Alexaider.  At 
first,  Austria  remained  neutral,  but  afterwards  she  joined  the  coalition.  N.'s  mi.i- 
txiry  geiiins.  It  has  l>een  often  remarked,  never  shewed  to  greater  advantage  than  in 
this  and  the  next  campnign,  which  cost  him  his  crown  and  his  liberty.  He  was  f <  r 
some  months  successful  in  winning  battles — at  Liitzeu  (2d  May).  Bautzen  (2\>t 
M-.y),  and  Dresden  (24th,  251  h,  and  27ih  August)  ;  bnt  the  invincible  temper  of  the 
allies  wiioknew  that  he  was  playing  his  last  caid,  made  these  victories  almost  fruit- 
less. They  were  convinced  that  one  grand  defeat  would  neutralise  all  his  triumphs. 
This  was  inflicted,  after  several  minor  defeats,- at  Leipzig — the  great  Battle  of  Saiions^ 
na  it  has  been  called  (16th,  ISth,  aud  19ih  Octoiier).    The  result  juftified  their  ex- 

i>ectations — ^N.  was  hopehsssiy  ruined !  He  commeiieed  his  retreat  towards 
''i.nsice.  followed  bv  the  allies.  When  he  ncrossed  the  Rhine,  he  had 
only  70.000  or  J«,000  men  left  out  of  his  360,000.  All  the  F»-ench  gan-isons 
in  tlie  Prussian  towns  were  compelled  to  {surrender.  N.  appeared  at 
i^.n*  9th  Novemlier;  aud  though  great  discontent  prevailed  in  the  country, 
ai'd  a  spirit  of  op|)osiiiou  shewed  ilsTlf  even  in  the  legislative  body,  the  senate 
decreed,  flt  IiIh  bidding,  another  conscription  of  300,000  men,  with  which  N.  began, 
in  January  1814,  lo  attempt. lo  drive  the  allies  out  of  France.  The  skill  and  enerjry 
which  lie  displayed  were  extraordinary;  but  they  only  marked  the  intensity  of  his 
dsptilr.  On  the  30th  of  March,  the  allied  forneB  captured,  after  a  severe  engage- 
ueiit,  the  lortiflcatious  of  Paris  j  next  day,  the. Emperor  Alexander  and  the  king  or 

^'  ^'  ^*  ^  D  git  zed  by  GoOglC 


Napoleon  qf* 

Narbonne  *^^' 

Prnssia  entered  the  city  amid  the  ahmtts  of  the  popidctee ;  on  the  4th  of  April.  N.  ab- 
dicated at  Fontiiiiieblean.  He  was  allowed  to  retain  the  title  of  einpen)r,  with  the 
sovereigDty  of  the  ishiud  of  Elba,  and  an  income  of  6,000,000  f nines,  to  be  paid  by 
the  French  government.  A  Britii^li  ship  conveyed  him  to  Elba,  where  he  arrived  on 
tlte  4th  of  May. 

After  a  lapse  of  ten  months  most  of  which  wa?  spent  in  intrigncs,  N.  made  his 
e$tcape  from  ihe  island,  landc^d  near  Frcjus  ou  the  1st  of  March.  1815,  and  appe^iled 
again  to  France.  The  army  wont  over  to  him  in  a  body,  and  several  of  his  marshals, 
hut  the  majority  remained  fail  hfal  to  Lonis  XVIIL  On  thu  20th  of  March,  he  reiJcUed 
PaMs,  reassiimed  thesnpreme  power,  promisitd  a  liiieral  consfitntion,  and  prepared 
once  more  to  try  the  fortune  of  batile  witti  the  allies.  At  tlic  head  of  125,000  men, 
h«  marched  (15th  June)  towards  Charleroi,  on  the  Flemish  frontier,  wliere  the  Eng- 
lish and  Prussian  forces  were  assembliuor.  Tlie  Duke  of  Wellington^  who,  the  year 
before,  had  completed  the  deliverance  ot  Spain,  was  appointed  by  tlie  Congi-ess  ot 
Vienna  commander-in-chief  of  the  armies  ot  theNetlv-rlunds.  'J  be  campaign  lasted 
only  a  few  days.  On  the  16th,  N.  dofeattd  the  Prussians,  under  Marshal  Bluchei^  at 
Ligny,  which  compelled  WeHmgton  to  fa;ll  back  on  Waterloo,  where,  on  the  18th, 
■was  fought  the  most  memorable  and  decisive  battle  of  modem  times.  It  resulted  in 
the  utter  and  irretrievnble  ruin  of  Nnpoleon.  The  despot,  who  knew  what  awaited 
him — ^for  Pnince  had  not  recalled  him  from  Elbti ;  became  at  the  desirt;  of  a  faction, 
whose  iutere.'ts  were  ideiitictil  with  his — ritamed  to  Paris.  The  House  of  Repre- 
ftt^ntatives  fiercely" insinted  ou  his  abdication.  He  did  so  (22d  June)  in  favor  of  his 
son.  Napoleon  II. ;  they  further  denninded  that  he  should  leave  the  country  for  ever, 
and  ho  retired  to  Uochefort,  with  the  design  of  embarking  for  the  United  States. 
On  the  Tth  July,  the  allies  again  entered  Paris,  and  refused  to  acknowliidge  the  aicts 
of  the  French  provisional  government  N.,  who  saw  that  he  could  not  escape  either 
by  sea  or  land,  voluntarily  siirrendere<i  (15th  July)  to  Captain  Malt  laud  of  the  BelU- 
rophofiy  clrtiraing  the  protection  of  British  laws!  It  was,  however,  resolved  by  the 
British  government  to  confine  him  for  lifts  on  the  islet  of  St  Hel -na,  a  lonely  roek 
in  the  Southern  Atlantic,  1000  nnles  from  the  coast  of  Africa.  He  was  conveyed 
thither  by  Admiral  Cockburn.  and  landed  at  St  Helena,  16th  October,  1815.  Tlie  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was  no  iticidly  insignificant.  His  clironic  quarrels  with  hl:»  gov- 
ernor—or  jat7«r,  as  the  French  prefer  it— Sir  Hnd-on  Lowe;  his  conversations  with 
frltMids  and  visitors  about  his  past  career  ;  his  deliberate  attempts  lo  falsify  history 
in  his  writinjis,  are  familiar  to  every  one.  After  njore  than  a  yepr  of  bad  health,  be 
expired,  5th  M.iy,  1821.  Ho  was  buried  with  milijary  honors.  In  18i0,  his  reuiahus 
were  removed  to  France,  and  deposited  in  the  HStel  des  Invalidcs. 

NAPOL^fiON  II.,  son  of  Napol6oii  Bonaparte.    See  Keichstadt,  Duke  of. 

KAFOL&ON  III.,  nephew  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.    See  Louis  Napoleon. 

NAPOLfiON,  or  in  full,  Niipolfeon  Jost-ph  Charles  Paul  Bonaparte,  is  the  son  of 
Jemme,  King  of  WestphUia,  and  >ya8  born  at  Trieste,  in  1822.  When  the  insurrec- 
tion broke  out  in  the  Romagna  in  1831,  he  was  staying  in  Rome  with  his  gnmd- 
inother,  Madame  lietitia  Bonaparte,  but  wns  forced  to  leave  the  city  for  Florence  on 
account  of  his  cousins  (.^ee  Louis  Napoleon)  being  injpHcaiedin  thercvolutioniuy 
(lisrurbaiices.  He  was  educated  at  a  boarding-school  in  Geneva,  and  at  the  Military 
School  of  Ludwigsburg,  in  Wfirterabcrg,  completing  his  stndie-*  in  1840,  after  which 
he  travelled  for  five  years  in  Germany,  England,  and  Spain.  In  1845.  he  obtJiined 
permission  to  visit  Paris  under  the  name  of  the  Comte  de  Monlfort;  but  his  relations 
with  the  democratic  party,  and  his  advanced  politiciil  opinions,  rendered  him  sus- 
pvtcted  by  the  goveminent,  who  ordered  him  to  quit  the  country.  He,  however,  again 
made  his  apjM»m*ance  on  the  eve  of  the  n^volution  of  February  1848.  After  the  fall 
of  i^nis-Phiiippe,  he  offered  hia  services  to  the  provisional  govennnent,  and  was 
:  electetl  by  the  Corsicans  a  meml>er  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  where  he 
■  voted  with  the  moderate  republicans.  He  held  for  a  short  time,  in  1849.  the 
office  of  miuister-plenipoientiary  at  Madrid.  After  the  cwip  delate  he  withdrew 
into  privare  life;  but  on  tlie  restoration  of  the  Empire  he  reapiM'si'cd 
to  share  in  the  honors  that  now  fell  thickty  on  his  family.  Bv  a 
decree  of  the  senat.*;,  28d  Decemher  185,H,  he  was  pronounced  a  French  prince, 
with  the  right  to  a  place  in  the  Senate  and  the  Council  of  State;  at  the  same 
time,  he  received  the  insignia  of  the  Grand  Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  and 


y  Google 


0^  Napoleon 

^«     ^  .  Narbonae 

^tbongh  he  had  not  served— the  rank  of  General  of  DiTision.  In  the  Crimenii  war, 
he  coinmnuded  adivisiou  of  infuiiiry-reserveB  at  the  buttles  of  Almn  and  Iiiker- 
niaiiu,  but  8<>on  after  returned  to  France,  on  the  plea  of  ill-henlth.  N.  was  Prfsl- 
dcut  of  the  Imperial  Commission  of  the  Paris  Exhibition  \u  1865.  In  1868.  iie  was 
appointed  bend  of  tiie  ministry  for  Algiers  and  tl»o  colonies,  bnl  held  the  office  only 
for  a  short  time.  Diu-ing  the  same  year  lie  married  the  Princess  ClotiUle,  daughter 
of  Victor  Emmanuel,  and  in  the  Italian  war  of  lBb9,  commanded  tlie  Frvuch  army 
of  reserve  in  the  south  of  Italy,  but  was  not  engaged  in  actual  hostility.  In  1861, 
iie  made  a  speech  in  the  senate,  reflecting  ou  the  Orleaus  family,  for  which  he  was 
challenged  by  the  Dae  d'Anmale.  'J'he  challenge  was  i»ol  accepted,  much  to  tl>c 
dif^ast  of  the  French  anny.  N.  was  President  of  the  French  Commission  at  the 
London  Exhibition  of  1862.  In  1866,  he  was  appointed  president  of  the  commis- 
sioners for  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1867,  bat  resigned  this  post  and  the  vice-presi- 
dentsiiip  of  tiie  privy  council  owing  to  a  reprimand  from  the  emperor  auout  a 
speech.  Afterwards,  however,  be  was  inlrnst<d  with  many  delicate  miitsions,  and 
ni^ed  the  emperor  to  a  Mberai  policy.  He  Iwd  no  command  in  the  late  war.  In 
1876,  he  was  i-eturued  to  tlfe  French  Assembly  for  Corsica;  bat  in  the  election  of 
18T7  was  n-jected. 

NAFOLEON-VENDfiB,  Bonrbon- Vendue,  or  La  Roche  Snr  Yon,  a  town  of 
France,  the  capital  of  the  dep.  of  Vendue,  pleasantly  situated  on  a  hill  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Yon,  37  miles  south  frtan  Nantes.  The  town  has  no  manufactures,  and 
little  trade,  bnt  derives  its  importance  chj^fly  from  Ms  being  the  seat  of  depart- 
mental administration.  The  town  contained  only  800  intiabitants  when  Niii)ol«H)n 
I.  select efl  it  for  fhe  capital  of  the  department,  granted  great  sums  for  its  improve- 
ment, and  called  It  Na}>oleon-Vendie,  changed  to  Botirbon^Veiulie  ai  the  restoration 
of  tiie  Bonrboi:S,  the  former  name  coming  again  into  use  under  Napoleon  IIL  It 
ie  now  known  as  La  Roche  mr  Yon,    Pop.  (1872)  7110. 

NARAKA  Is  the  hell  of  the  Hindus.  Manu  (q.  v.)  enumerates  twenty-one  hells 
or  divisions  of  N.,  and  gives  a  general  description  of  the  tortures  which  await  the 
imptons  there.  The  Pur&n'as,  however^  are  more  systematic.  The  Vislm'u-I'ui'ftn'a, 
for  instance,  not  only  names  twenty-eight  such  hells,  but  dli«tinctly  asfigns  eacli  t»f 
tliem  to  a  particular  class  of  sinners.  Thus,  a  man  who  1)ear8  false  witness  is 
condemned  to  the  hell  Raurava  (i.  e.,Feaifnl)  ;  the  mniderer  of  a  Bi&hnuin,  stealer 
of  gold,  or  drinker  of  wine,  goes  to  the  hell  S'idkara  (L  e..  Swine),  &c.  Besides  these 
tweuty-eiglit  whi«  h  the  Pur&n'a  knows  hy  name,  we  are  told  of  "  hundreds  and 
thousands  of  others  in  which  sinners  \my  the  penalty  of  their  crimes." 

NARBONNE,  a  town  in  the  sooth  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Aade,  65 
miles  soutli-west  of  Moutpellicr,  on  a  branch  (La  Robine)  of  the  Canal  du  Midi.  It 
is  tlie  Narbo  MarUw*  of  the  Itomans;  bnt  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  well 
known  to  the  Greeks  600  years  before  the  Christian  era.  It  was  colonist d  by  the 
Romans  118  B.O.,  and  probably  got  the  dehignation  Martius  from  Q.  Marcius  I^  x, 
one  of  the  consols  at  the  time.  Situated  only  about  8  miles  from  the  sea.  on  the 
direct  road  into  Spain  and  into  the  liasln  of  the  Garonne,  N.  was  in  early  linuiS  a 

SUice  of  great  commercial  prosjierity.  It  was  the  second  settJemeut  founded  in 
ontb  Gallia  by  theRonwus,  and  was  considered  by  theih  an  important  acquisiilon, 
both  for  its  strength  and  as  the  key  to  the  road  into  Spnin.  Under  Tilwrius,  it  flour- 
ishi  d  j^reatly ;  the  arts  and  sciences  l)eing  cultivated  with  success,  and  its  schools 
rivalling  for  a  long  time  those  of  liome.  About  80i^  A.D.,  it  l)ecanie  the  capital  of 
Gallia  Narbonensfs,  and  contained  among  other  buildings  a  capitol,  theatre,  forum, 
fcquedut  ts,  triumphal  arches,  &c  It  was  taken  in  719  by  the  Sarncens,  wIk)  plantt  d 
here  a  Moslem  colony,  and  de^troyed  the  churches.  In  869,  it  fell  to  the  jirms  of 
the  Northmen.  During  the  11th  and  12th  centuries,  it  was  a  flourishing  manufac- 
turing city,  bnt  subsequently  it  fell  into  compamtive  decav,  and  is  now  entirely  des- 
titute of  any  monnnunt  of  Its  former  splendor.    A  considerable  number  of  archi- 


tectural fragments— as  capitals,  marble  slabs  with  inscriptions^  friezes,  Ac.— liave 
l)een  found,  and  have  been  grouped  into  a  collection  of  aniiquities. 

•    •    -  *^      •  -  •      -^    •  ^'-  —  T  Cathedral  of  g^ 

best  in  Franc< 
3nt.    Pop.  (18I< 

y  Google 


ITie  present  very  dirty  town  contidns  one  imposing  building,  the  Cathedral  of  St 
Jnst,  founded  in  1271,  but  still  unfinished.  The  honey  of  N.  is  the  best  in  France, 
both  for  color  and  flavor.    Mauulactures  are  carried  ou  to  some  extent.    Pop.  (18 i 6) 


NarciMiM  QQ 

Nar»M  *^0 

NARCI'SSUS,  accordiDi;  to  a  Greek  fable,  was  the  son  of  tlie  river  pod  Cep- 
bi9«*u8  aud  of  tlie  nymph  Liriope  or  Lirioest^u  o(  The^pise,  in  Bceotia.  Ue  wus  a 
youth  of  extraordiuary  oeanty.  of  which  ho  was  excewively  vuiii ;  aud  for  ibis  he 
\va»  paiiished  by  Nemeais,  by  being  made  to  fail  in  lov«  with  himself  on  BtivUig  tiie 
reflection  of  hia  own  face  in  a  fountaiu.  He  died  of  ihiH  love-fickneBs ;  and  on  the 
place  wliere  he  died,  aitrun^  up  tbe  flower  which  betira  his  uame.  The  atory  of  N., 
finely  narrated  by  Ovid*  ia  of  comparatively  late  origin. 

NARCISSUS,  a  gcnnn  of  plants  of  tbe  natoral  order  AmaryUidem,  having  n  peri- 
anth of  Hix  equal  petaUlike  segments,  and  a  IhjII  shnpt'd  corona  of  vurioas  Tuagiii- 
ludo.  'Vhii  species  are  natives  of  tlie  south  of  Euro|ie,  the  ttortli  of  Africa,  and  tlie 
ti-mperate  parts  of  Asia.  ITie  Comniuu  Daffodil  (q.  v.)  Is  tiie  only  ono  whifh  c«i« 
be  regarded  u«  truly  a  native  of  Britain.  Many  are  cultivated  in  eardens,  for  tliu 
sake  of  their  beantifal  and  often  fragrant  flowers,  which  in  general  appear  early  in 
tne  Sfas<^on.  Some  of  them  are  known  b^  tins  names  of  Daffodil  (q.  v.)  aud  Jonqnil 
(q.  v.).  The  name  N.  is  pounlarly  restricted  to  those  whicli  have  flat— not  msh-like 
— leaves,  and  a  short  not  bell-shaped  coromu  Of  these,  one  of  the  lie^t  known  is 
the  Poet's  N.  {N.  poetums)^  with  generally  one-flowered  sciipe,  the  flower  white  an<4 
fragrant,  the  corona  witli  a  deeply-colored  border;  olhers,  with  one  or  two  flowei-^ 
on  the  8cai)e,  are  in  coininou  cultivation. — The  Polyanthus  Narcissus  (N.  T€ueUa) 
lias  a  unmber  of  flowers  on  the  scape.  It  grows  wild  in  stony  places  uiai*  thu 
Mediterranean  and  eastwards  to  Chiinu  Many  varieties  of  it  are  in  cultivation.  It  is 
not  only  grown  in  gardens  and  green-houses,  but  in  water-glai^ses,  like  thehyncintli. 
It  is  very  common  in  fi;ardens  in  India,  Vhere  it  is  higlily  esteemed  as  a  flower. 
The  narcissi  in  general  are  propagated  either  by  seed,  or  by  offset  bulbs.  They 
succeed  best  in  a  rich  light  sou. 

NARCCTIOS  (Qr.  narki,  stupor)  are  remedies  which,  in  moderate  doses,  lessen 
the  action  of  the  nervous  system.  Their  full  operation  is  sleep  or  coma.  Opium  is 
the  type  from  which  most  aescriptions  of  this  class  of  medicines  have  been  drawn  ; 
but  although  most  narcotics  more  or  less  resemble  opium  in  their  action,  almost 
every  one  presents  some  pecnliurlly  in  the  way  in  which  it  affect}<  the  system. 
These  medicines  are  primarily  stimulating,  especially  wheu  given  in  praall  or  moUer-i 
ate  doses ;  but  this  stage  of  their  action  is  comparatively  short ;  and  when  the  dose 
is  large,  the  excitement  is  scarcely  perceptible.  Their  power  of  inducing  sleep  has 
procured  for  them  the  names  of  Hypnotics  and  Soporifics;  while  many  of  theiu  are 
termed  Anodynes,  from  their  possessing  the  property  of  alleviating  pain.  Next  to 
opium,  Henbane,  Indian  Hump,  and  Aconite  may  be  regarded  as  the^noat  import- 
ant narcotics.  It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  there  are  differences  in  the  mode 
of  operation  of  the  ditferent  members  of  this  class.  *'  Some  dilate,  while  others 
contract  the  pupil ;  some  appear  to  coucv^ntnite  their  sedative  action  more  partLcn- 
larly  upon  the  functions  of  the  encephalou,  others  upon  the  con  tractile  power  of  the 
alimentary  and  bronchial  tubes,  while  a  strict  distinction  is  to  l)e  drawn  between 
those  wtiich  occasion  constipation  aud  those  which  do  not;  all  these tliin^rs being  of 
great  practical  importance.  Ballard  aud  Ganod's  ^*  Elements  of  Materia  Medica," 
p.  18. 

Narcotics  are  usually  administered  either  with  the  view  of  inducing  sleep  or  of 
alleviating  pain  or  spasm.  As,  however,  their  action  is  much  modified  by  a  variety 
of  circumstances— such  as  age,  idiosyncrasy,  and  prolonged  use— they  e>hould  l»e 
administered  with  extreme  caution  ;  and  as  a  general  rule,  only  under  com|»eteiit 
advice.  The  various  quack  medicines  for  children  which  are  known  as  Cofmina- 
tives.  Soothing  Si/rupg,  &c.,  contain  some  form  of  opium,  and  are  a  fertile  caus«  of 
the  great  mortality  tliat  occurs  in  early  life,  especially  among  the  poorer  classi-s. 

It  is  almost  uuueceasary  to  add,  that  all  the  narcotics  when  taken  in  exces  are 
poisonous. 

NA'RCOTINE  (C48njBNOi4-|-2Aq)  is  one  of  the  organic  bases  or  alkaloids  oc- 
curringju  opium,  in  whic.i  it  usually  exists  in  the  proportion  of  6  or  8  |>er  cent . 
It  is  nearly  insoluble  in  water,  but  dissolves  readily  in  alcohol,  eiher,  and  chloroform. 
Its  ethereal  solution,  when  submitted  to  spontaneous  evaporation,  yields  it  ci-ystitl- 
Used  in  col(frluss  acicular  groups  or  in  rhombic  prisms.  A  mixtur«;of  concentrated 
sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  produces  a  blood- red  color  with  narcotine  and  its  com- 
pounds. Narcotine  possesses  very  sli«rht  alkaline  pi-oiierties ;  its  salts  do  not  roiulily 
crystallise,  aud  are  even  more  bilier  Ihaii  those  of  morphia,  although  the  substance 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


QQ  Nardsfiui 

^^  .     Narsos 

Itffelf  1«  almoAt  taBtelesB.  When  llrpt  discovered  ('n  1808>,  it  wn§  pnpncwed  lo  »)e  the 
f»tiinulaiit  principle  of  opium;  but  in  reiility  it  poHwsKeH  very  lit  lie  lutiviiy.  It 
biiB  been  pro6cril)ed  in  gnidually  liicrejiwd  doHes  np  to  a  pcniplc,  witlioul  tin-  le.iht 
injury.  Its  snl[Aate  hits  be<ni  ucetl  In  India  uh  a  fubrttitutf  for  quiiiiuu;  niid  nearly 
800  cases  of  intermittent  and  reinitteDt  fevers,  treated  by  it  witli  fcuccesi<,  have  betu 
published  by  Dr  O'Shan^hnessy. 

NARD  AND  NARDO'STACHYS.    See  Spikenard. 

NA'RDO  (anc  JVerctttwi),  a  town  of  South  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Lecce,  8  inMes 
iu)rth-uortJi-e*i8t  from  Gallipoli.  N.  has  manufacture!*  of  cotton  good»  and  j^nnff, 
from  cotton  and  tobacco  ^-own  in  the  neighbortiood.  The  sarroanding  countiy 
abounds  in  olive  plantiitions.    Pop.  about  8M0. 

NARDOO  {MoTMlea  quadrifida%  a  plant  of  the  acotylednnons  natnrni  order  S'aV' 
tnleiioece  (q.  v),  the  only  plant  of  that  order  which  i»  nwjd  in  iiny  way  by  man.  It  liua 
but  recently  become  known  to  iKitanists.  It  is«  found  in  Aui«traIiH,  and  jifford**  im- 
portant supplies  of  food  to  the  natives  of  some  npions;  it  has  also  been  of  j^n  nt 
nse  to  gome  recent  explorin^-))artie8.  It  grows  in  places  Dccaslonnlly  covertd  with 
vrater;  vej^etating whilst  moisture  nhounds,  and  then  <'xhibiting  abundance  ol  ^mii  n 
clover-lilte  foliage,  the  leavfS  consisting  of  three  lejiflcts  at  the  top  of  a  stalk  .«oine 
inches  in  len^fth.  When  the  water  dries  up,  the  remains  of  tiie  phmts  are  olteu  cov- 
ered with  dri»d  mud.  It  is  then  thjitthe  spore-cases  are  gathered  f(»r  lood.  Tluy 
are  ovalf  fl.tttene<T,  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length,  hard  and  Iiorny,  and  re., 
quiring  considerable  force  to  pound  tliem  when  dry,  but  heconiing  soft  and  mncihigi- 
uous  when  moistened.  Tlio  spore-cases;  pounded  with  their  contents,  are  made 
into  cakes  like  flour. 

NA'RDUS,  a  gonns  of  frrass'^s,  having  a  simple  spike,  spikeleti*  all  on  one  side, 
no  glumes;  each  spiki-let  consisting;  of  one  floret,  which  lias  two  ntilvse,  tin?  outer 
ending,  in  a  long  point.  N.  ntricta  is  one  of  the  mo>-t  common  of  British  grasses, 
growing  in  diy  elevated  situations,  and  very  characteristic  of  tliem.  It  grnws  in 
tufts,  and  is  often  i  ailed  Mat-grass  It  is  |')er«*nnial,  purplish,  short,  rigid,  and  very 
'U'orthluss,  as  almost  no  animal  but  tlte  goat  will  eat  it. 

NA'EEW,  a  river  o^  West, Russia,  an  affluent  of  the  Bug,  rises  in  the  government 
of  Grodno,  and  flows  west-south-west  to  tiie  main  stream,  whicli  it  joins  at  Sieiock, 
after  a  courst*  of  2W  milTO.  The  witters  of  the  N.  are  aooiit  as  jrreat  in  volume  as 
those  of  the  Bug.    It  is  navigable  to  Tykoczin,  150  miles  from  it«  month. 

NA'RO,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Girgenti,  and  14  miles  east  of  the 
town  of  that  ntime.  It  has  10,253  inhabitants,  who  trade  in  oil,  wine,  and  sulphur. 
Numerous  toml)s,  medals,  and  other  antiquities  have  been  found  here. 

NA'RSES.  a  celebrated  statesman  and  general,  and  almost  the  last  stay  of  the 
old  Roman  empire  in  It aiy.  was  born  towards  the  last  quarter  of  the  6th  century. 
The  place  of  his  birth  is  uncertain.  His  parentage  was  obscure,  and  he  wasproljab  y 
pold  as  a  slave  in  childhood,  having,  according  to  the  barbarous  usage  of  the  period, 
been  previously  emasculated.  From  some  menial  office  in  the  imperial  lionsehol(( 
at  Constantinople,  he  rose  by  Bucc«-ssive  stet>9  to  the  post  ot cubiouktHua,  or  private 
chaml>erhun  of -the  Emperor  Justinian,  and  ultimately  to  that  ot  ke  per  of  the 
privy  purse.  In  thrt  d:flicult  art  of  courtiersliip,  N.  long  maintained  a  pre-emi- 
nence. More  remarkable,  however,  considering  bis  conditioti,  was  the  distinction 
which  he  att^'iiiied  in  inilitaiy  affa  rs.  Jn  583ihe  w*  s  sent  to  Italy  in  (omiiiand  ot  a 
body  of  troops,  professedly  to  act  in  c  'Heert  with  Belisarins  (q.  v  ),  but  in  reality,  it 
1-*  conjectured,  with  asi-cret  commission  to  observe  and  tocon'rol  that  general. 
After  some  successes,  N.  having  disputed  with  B«'lisarins,  assumed  an  iudcpeiident 
mithority  ;  but  his  separate  command  was  unlortunate,  and  he  was  recall*  d  to 
Constantinople  in  539.  Atter  some  years,  how<*ver,  Belisarius  was  re- 
callefl,  andN.  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  in  Italy.  His  conduct  of  that 
expedition  extorted  the  admiration  even  of  his  enemies.  Not  having  Jhe 
command  of  a  sufficient  number  of  transports,  he  marched  his  army  alone 
the  WiiOlo  circuit  of  the  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  and  while  thb  enemy's  fleet  were  still 
in  possi'ssion  of  the  sea,  was  enabled  to  encounter  ttiem  in  the  plain  of  Sentagllo, 
near  Tagina,  wliere,  after  ti  desperate  engagement,  the  Goths  were  totally  defeated. 
and  their  king,  Totila,    slain.    N.    took    possestsiou    of    Rome,   and    after 


Digitized  by 


Google 


^n 


scries  of  sacccsses   both  )ii  Sonthern  and  Northern  Italy,  completely  eztii>- 

faished  the  Gothic  power  iii  that  t>eiiinsnla.  Jn^tiuiaii  Hppoiiitcd  N.  «xurch  of 
taly  in  663.  He  fixed  his  court  at  Raveaua,  and  continued^  till  the  death  of  Jus- 
tinian, to  administer  the  affairs  of  Italy  witli  a  vigor  and  ability  which  did  much  to 
stay  the  prot^rens  of  that  decay  which  bad  long  infected  all  its  social,  puliticiil.  aud 
military  lustitatious.  The  ouly  blot  on  the  character  of  bis  administration  is  the 
avarice  with  which  he  is  chariftHl  by  his  coutemporarles.  His  exactions  pressed 
heavily  on  the  exhausted  reRonrces  of  the  i)opiilution ;  though  their  severity  niav 
be  in  some  degree  palliated  by  liie  splendor  and  utility  of  the  public  worlss  on  which 
he  partly  expended  the  public  ref>onrces.  On  the  death  of  Juslinianf  his  Hsceudeucy 
came  to  nn  end.  The  Romans,  ou  the  accession  of  Justin,  complained  to  him  of 
the  exactions  of  N.,  and  that  emperor  deprived  him,  in  666,  of  his  oflBlce ;  a  pro- 
ceeding to  which  a  special  indignity  was  imparted  nyau  insulting  message  froiu 
the  empress,  that  it  was  time  for  him  to  ^'  leave  arms  to  men,  and  to  spin  wool 
among  the  women  of  the  palace."  To  this  bitter  taunt  (according  to  Paulus  Diaco- 
DUB,  '*De  Gest.  Long."  il.  6),  N.  replied  that  he  woald  "spin  for  her  a  thread  which 
she  would  find  it  hard  to  unravel;"  aud  he  is  accused  of  secretly  intriguing  vtilii 
Alboin,  king  of  the  Lombards,  to  incite  a  new  invasion  of  Italy,  at  tiie  same  time 
submissively  fCer  ng  his  services  to  the  emperor  for  the  purpose  of  repelling  tlio 
Invasion.  This  account,  however,  seems  uncertain,  and  perhaps  Improbable ;  and 
as  N.  died  at  Rome  in  568,  just  on  the  eve  of  the  Lombmd  invasion,  no  light  i^ 
thrown  upon  this  story  by  the  actual  events  of  the  w  ir.  His  age  at  the  time  of^bis 
death  is  a  subject  of  much  curious  controversy.  According  to  the  popular  account, 
it  was  no  less  than  96  years ;  hut  this  is  doubted  by  mo^t  or  the  historians. 

NA'RTHEX,  a  part  of  the  early  Christian  churches  separate  froni  the  rest  by  a 
railing  or  screen,  aud  to  which  the  catechtunens  aud  penitents  were  admitted. 

NA'RVA,  a  Russian  town  in  the  gov.,  and  95  m.  w.  s.  w.  of  St  Petersburg,  is  sit- 
uated oh  tlie  Narova,  10  m.  trom  its  mouth  in  the  Qulf  of  Finland.  It  was  tound>  d 
in  1^  by  Waldemar  II.,  king  of  Denmark^  aud  came  into  the  possession  of  lins- 
sia  in  1704.  The  navigation  of  the  Narova  is  im|>eded  by  a  waterfall  near  N.,  14  feet 
high.  In  1873,  168  ships,  of  18,176  lasts  (I  last  —  1  11-14  ton),  entered  the  port;  tho 
export!),  chiefly  flax  aud  timl)er,  were  jC160,693  ;  the  iuiportt*,  ^£402,340.  At  the  water- 
fall above  the  town  there  are  sawmills,  and  an  extensive  cotton-mill,  which  employi^ 
1700  workmen.  Though  belouj^ing  to  the  government  of  St  Petersburg,  N.  is  ruled 
by  the!awsof  the  Baltic  provinces.  Here,  in  November  1700,  Charles  XII.,  with 
6000  men,  defeated  a  Russian  army  of  60,0UO  men,  under  Peter  the  Great  aud  the 
Duke  of  Croy.    Pop.  (1867)  61T6. 

NARVA EZ,  Don  Ramon  Maria,  Duke  of  Valencia,  a  Spanish  general  and  states- 
man, was  born  at  Loja,  in  Andalusia.  4tli  August  1806,  and  when  very  voung,  served 
in  the  war  of  Liberation  against  the  French.  He  was  an  officer  in  18dO,  when  coi»- 
stitutional  government  was  ro-establlshed  in  Spain,  and  in  1882,  when  a  reactionat^ 
party  of  the  royal  guard  took  up  arms  to  clesiroy  the  work  of  the  revolution,  N. 
ranged  himself  on  the  side  of  the  liberals,  and  contributed  by  his  courage  to  tlie 
repression  of  the  mutiny.  Slioitly  after,  under  the  command  of  MIna,  he  made  i he 
campaign  of  Cataluna  aj^ain^nt  the  guerillas,  wiio  were  asnisted  by  the  monkp.  The 
invasion  of  Spain  by  a  French  army  in  1828  force<l  him  to  retire  fiVnn  active  life. 
He  withdrew  to  Loja,  and  lived  there  in  obscurity  until  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII. 
Ill  1832.  In  1834,  as  captain  of  cliasseui'tf,  he  maintained  a  hot  struggle  against  the 
Curli!:>tsof  the  Basque  provinces,  and  signalised  himself  in  various  engajfementH. 
In  1836,  hu'coiiuna'ided  a  division  under  the  ordert*  of  Espanero.  and  in  Noveinl>er 
of  that  year,  completely  routed  the  Carlist  leader,  Gomez,  near  Arcos.  This  wan  u 
decisive  moment  in  his  career.  He  now  I)ecanie  immensely  popular,  aspired  to  the 
highest  offices  of  the  state,  aud  was  regarded  tw  the  rival  of  Espartero.  In  1888,  by 
acts  of  terrible  severity,  he  cleared  the  dintrict  of  La  Manclia  of  hrlgandf,  and 
was  appointed  in  1840  captain-general  of  Old  Castile,  and  general-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  reserve.  Wh-*u  Espanero  cave  General  Alaixa  plac«iiitlie  ininisiry,  N, 
resigne<l  his  command.  He  took  part  In  the  insurrection  airainst  Espartero  that  broke 
out  at  Seville  in  1840,  but  diat  having  failed,  he  waf*  coiniH'lled  to  lletUo  Fiance,  where 
hewassliortly  after  joined  by  Queen  Christina  (see  Mabia  Chbistina),  and  coui- 
meuced  those  plots  against  the  government  of  Espartero  which,  in  1848,  effected  Its 


y  Google 


1  A 1  Nmrthex 

^^^  Nasatis 

overthrow.  In  1844,  he  was  api>oinied  president  of  coancil,  nnd  created  Duke  of 
Valt-ncitu  Hie  miniptiy  wjis  thoroughly  reactionary.  He  re*  ailed  MuHu  CbriPtina, 
Uiid  revised  the  li1>eral  conBtitntion  of  1837.  The  progressiistji  party  was  dii*Bntifrfied. 
niid  petty  iusurrections  broke  out,  which  the  rigoroas  soldier-ptiitesman  repref^cd 
wiiii  au  iron  hand.  But  his  dictatorial  nmnners  finully  alienated  even  his  personal 
friend^S  «"d  '^'s  nuuisiry  was  overthrown  (10th  Pebroaiy  184«).  After  a  brief  exile  as 
epeciui  unibaSMidor  at  the  French  court,  he  returned  to  power  in  1847,  l)ut  soon  arter- 
wjirds  quarrelled  with  Queen  Christina,  and  found  it  necessary  again  to  retire  from 
office  in  1861.  In  1856,  on  the  overthrow  of  0*Donnell*8  niini:iitryf  he  again  became 
president  of  council^  and  iinniediatclyconinieuced  to  sirengthen  tiie  niyal  aulhority, 
and  to  restrict  the  liberty  of  the  press.  The  intrigues  cf  the  court  con.pelled  his 
nsigna'iou  iu  1857.  He  returned  to  power  in  1864,  nnd  (1866)  was  succeeded  by 
O'Doiujell,  with  whom  he  suppressed,  in  1866,  a  military  revolt  in  Madrid.  He  re- 
placi  d  O'Donuell  in  the  same  year,  and,  despite  the  efforts  of  O'Douuell  and  Prim, 
retained  power  till  his  death  in  1868. 

NA'h  WHAL  {Monodon  or  NdrtDhalU8).  a  geaius  of  Cetacea.  of  the  family  Delphi' 
nidcBj  resembling  Beluga  (q.  v.)  iu  form  and  iu  the  want  of  a  dorwil  fin.  bui  remark- 
aJ>ly  cluiracterised  by  having  no  teeth  at  all,  exca|>t  two  In  the  upner  jaw,  supiHisi'd 
to  be  canines,  which  sometimes  remain  quite  rudimentary,  even  in  the  nniture  animal, 
as  they  are  in  the  young,  and  are  sometimes  developed  into  great  spirally  twisted 
straight  tn^ks,  passing  through  the  upper  lip,  nnd  projecting  like  horns  in  front. 
Only  one  species  is  ascertaiiied,  M.  nionoceros  or  JV.  vulgaris;  the  other  spoeicp  whi<h 
have  iHjen  described  by  naturalists  liavingbeen  founded  on  exaggerations  and  un- 
trustworthy  observations.  It  inhabits  the  Arctic  seas,  nnd  is  very  rnrely  found  so 
far  south  as  the  Shetland  Isles,  although  an  accidental  wanderer  has  reached  the 
const  of  En<;land.  Narwhals  arc  often  seen  in  great  numbers  among  the  ice-fields, 
and  in  the  creeks  and  bays  of  the  most  jiortiiem  coasts.  They  commonly  associate 
in  snnill  herds.  The  tUfks  arc  much  more  frequently  developed  in  the  male  than  in 
tlie  female,  but  in  the  female  also  tliey  sometimes  attain  a  large  size.  It  is  but  rarely 
that  both  tusks  are  largely  developed,  all  hough  they  sometimes  are  so,  and  then 
diverge  a  little;  one  of  them  gem  rally  continues  rudimentary,  or  attains  a  lenptli 
lOily  of  a  few  Indies,  whilst  the  other  becomes  u  great  horn,  projecting 
striljrijt  in  front,  from  which  the  animal  has  received  the  name  of  Sea 
Unicorn.  A  mature  N.  is  generally  about  fifieon  or  sixteen  feet  in  length, 
without  reckoning  the  tusk,  which  is  from  6  to  10  feet  long.  The  body  is  less  thick 
tb-m  that  of  the  Belujra;  the  head  is  small,  the  forehead  rl^*es  abrnpily.  the  muzzle 
ix  veiT  obtuse,  the  upp<^r  jaw  proj''Cts  a  little;  the  first  half  of  the  body  is  nearly 
cylindrical,  the  remainder  to  the  tiil  fin  is  conical.  The  tusk  is  hollow  nearly  to  the 
point.  Its  use  is  rather  conjectnred  than  kuo\n>.  It  is  prolwbly  a  weapon  of  de- 
fence, but  Seoresby  hiis  ^ugge8ted  that  it  may  be  also  used  for  breaking  thin  ice  in 
order  to  obtain  opportunity  for  respiraiion;  and  for  killing  fish,  as  be  found  re- 
mains of  skates  and  other  flat-fish  in  the  stomach  of  a  N.,  which  it  is  not  easy  to 
imagine  how  a  toothless  animal,  with  rather  small  month  and  lips,  could  capture  and 
swallow,  unless  the  formidable  tusk  were  first  employed.  Cephalopodous  molluscs, 
howev»!r,  are  believed  to  constitute  a  principal  part  of  the  food  of  narwhals.  The  N. 
is  a  very  active  animal,  swimminjr  with  great  rapidity,  lively,  nnd  playful.  A  group 
of  narwhals  playing  together,  proj-cting  their  great  horns  from  the  sea,  nnd  cross- 
ing them  in  their  sport,  is  h  very  interesiing  sight  The  N.  is  pursued  by  the  Green- 
landers  and  otiier  inliabittmtsof  the  north,  for  the  sake  of  its  blubber,  with  which  its 
whole  1)ody  is  invested  to  the  thickness  of  nbont  three  inches,  ainounthig  to  iienrly 
half  a  ton  in  weight,  nnd  yielding  a  large  proportion  of  excellent  oil.  The  tuskf  are 
also  valuable,  being  of  an  extremely  compact  white  substance— denser,  harder,  and 
winter  than  ivory — which  is  used  as  a  substitute  lor  ivory.  The  jiings  of  Dennmrk. 
have  long  possessed  a  magnificent  throne  of  this  material,  wliicli  is  preserved  in  the 
Cattle  oi*  Rosenberg.  The  flesh  of  the  N.  is  used  by  the  Greenlanders  as  food. 
Great  medicimd  virtues  were  formerly  ascribed  to  the  tusks ;  but  were  merely  im- 
aginary. 

NASA'LIS,  or  Proboscis  Mrmkey  (Nasalia  larvatus)^  a  monkey  allied  to  tlie  Doitea 
or  Semnopitheci,  but  distingnished  from  all  other  monkeys  by  an  extreme  elongation 
of  uose,  that  organ  being  nearly  foui'  inches  iu  length  iu  the  mature  animal.    In  thf 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


102 


^  N&«CCBt 

NaMaa 

yonng.  the  nose  ifl  comparatively  nndeveloped.  The  nostrils  are  placed  quite  at  the 
extremity  of  the  nose,  aud  are  separated  merely  by  a  thin  cartilusre.  Of  what  n^e  the 
magnitude  of  ita  nose  is  to  thenuimul,  is  niiknowii.  The  N.  iuhabiis  Borneo  and 
neighboring  inlands.  It  is  gregarious.  It  Is  au  uuiinal  of  about  tliree  fuel  in  iieight, 
if  placed  erect,  a  position  it  dues  not  ofteu  assume.  It  can  leap  ilfttieu  feet  or  mure. 
Its  fur  is  thick,  uot  long,  uor  woolly ;  chestuat  red,  aud  in  soiue  parts  goldeu  yellow. 

NA'SCENT  STATE,  in  Chemistry.  When  an  element  or  compound  is  liberated 
from  80ino  chemical  coinbinatiou  in  which  it  had  previously  existed,  the  element  or 
compound  so  liberated  is  at  the  moment  when  it  escapes  pnid  to  be  in  a  nascent 
Btite;  and  it  is  then  often  capable  of  exerting  far  more  powerful  combining  action 
with  other  bodies  than  it  can  exhibit  when  brou^t  in  contact  with  them  after  it  has 
be^jn  liberated.  Arsenic  ami  hydrogen  will  not  directly  combine  if  brought  in  con- 
tact With  one  another  under  ordinary  circumstances,  but  the  application  of  Marsh's 
test  (see  Absxnio)  depends  upon  the  direct  union  of  the  nai*ccut  hydrogeu  (liberated 
by  the  decompositiou  of  the  water)  with  the  arsenic,  giving  rise  to  arseniuretted  hy- 
drogen gas.  Again,  if  hyd rated  protoxide  of  nickel  (NiO, HO)  be  suspended  in  a 
BoUition  of  caustic  potash  (KO,HO),  it  will  undergo  no  change  if  a  current  uf  oxy- 
Ken  gas  be  parsed  througli  the  solution ;  but  if  a  current  of  chlorine  be  substituted 
for  the  oxygen,  the  whole  of  the  metallic  protoxide  will  be  converted  into  the  browu 
Besqnloxide  (Ni^Ot),  the  resultinij  decomposition  being  shewn  in  equation : 


Hydrated 
S^qniox- 
ide  of     Chloride  of 
Nlcki;!.    Potassium. 


Protoxide  of    Solution  of 
Nickel  Putash. 

2(Ni0,H0r+^K0^H0'-|-  C\  ='N5aO,.8HO'+'KCL' 

This  change  arises  from  the  action  of  the  chlorine  upon  the  potash,  during  which 
cliloride  of  potassium  (KOI)  it*  formed,  while  the  nascent  oxygen  which  is  lilM^mted 
from  the  potash  combines  with  the  oxide  of  nickel.  Again,  cyanogen  (C-N)  and 
clilorine  do  not  enter  directly  into  combination,  but  if  cyanogen  at  the  insfcuit  that 
it  is  liberated  from  one  of  its  compounds  (as,  for  example,  cyaindo  of  mercury)  com«*a 
in  contact  with  chlorine,  the  two  combine ;  and  many  other  examples  of  similar  ac- 
tion might  be  adduced. 

NA'SEBY,  a  parish  and  village  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Northampton.  12 
miles  north  of  the  town  of  that  name.  Pep.  (ISH)  693.  The  battle  of  N.,  between 
Charles  I.  and  the  parliamentary  army  under  Fairfax  and  Cromwell,  took  place 
bei-e,  June  14, 1645.  It  resulted  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  royalists,  the  king  being 
compelled  to  flee,  after  losing  bis  cannon  aud  baggage,  and  nearly  6006  of  his  army 
as  prisoners. 

NASH,  Richard,  better  known  by  the  name  of  Beau  NanJi,  a  faphionable  rliar- 
actw  of  the  last  century,  who  attained  to  a  very  remarkable  notoriety,  was  the  son 
of  a  Welsh  gentleman,  and  was  l)orn  at  Swansea,  in  GIamorgan«hire,  October  18, 
1674.  After  studying  at  Oxford,  he  held  for  some  time  a  commission  in  the  armv, 
and  subsequently  took  rooms  in  the  Temple,  but  the  dissipations  of  pocjety  had 
more  altractioiirt  for  him  than  the  pursuits  of  law.  He  beeame  a  di- er-ont.  a  fre- 
quenter of  good  society,  and  contriv«>d  to  support  himself  bv  gambling.  But  the 
grand  turning-point  in  his  fortunes  was  his  visit,  in  1704,  to  Bath— then  a  favorite 
Iwinnt  of  elegant  invalids,  and  the  scene  of  the  gavest  intrigues.  N.  undertook  the 
management  of  the  public  balls,  which  he  condncted  with  a  splendor  and  decency 
never  before  witnessed.  In  this  way  he  came  t-o  acquire  an  imp-rial  influence  in 
the  fasldonable  society  of  the  place.  It  appears  that  he  wns  also  distingui!>hed  by  a 
Bjiecies  of  sentimental  benevolence.  He  played  hard  and  successfully ;  yet  if  he  heat-d 
an  individual  sighing  behind  his  chair:  **Good  Heavens!  how  happy  wonid  that 
money  make  me,"  N.  would  thmst  his  own  winning!*  into  his  hands,  with  tbeatrical 
generosity,  and  exclaim:  *'Qo,  and  be  happy."  His  own  equipage  at  this  periokl 
of  his  career  was  sumptuous.  He  u«ed,  we  are  told,  to  travel  to  Tunbridee  iu  a 
post-chariot  and  six  grays,  with  outriders,  footmen,  French-horns,  and  every  other 
ppendage  of  expensive  parade.  He  is  prais<'d  for  the  great  care  which  he  to<'k  «»f 
9  moralts  of  the  young  ladies  who  attended  tbe  Bath  balls,  always^ ^ttipg  them 

Digitized  by  V 


1 AQ  Nafoent 

on  their  gnard  ngnlnst  needy  odventnrers— like  himself.  In  his  old  age,  Beau  N. 
8auk  iuto  poverty,  and  often  felt  tlie  want  of  th:it  charity  which  he  himsi'If  had 
never  refused.    He  died  at  Batli,  February  3, 1761,  ai  the  age  of  87. 

NASH,  John,  an  architect,  was  honi  in  London  in  1752.  He  underwent  the 
usual  course  of  training  for  his  profession,  but  soou  entered  into  some  building 
speculations  which  enaolfd  liiin  to  buy  a  small  propertv  in  Caerniartlien.  Here  in 
fresh  sjMiCulaiions  Ije  lost  much  money;  tlierefon?,  in  17M,  returned  to  London  and 
architi'Cture,  in  which  he  speedily  rose  to  enduence.  On  the  str^-uglh  of  hnviug 
obtained  a  patent  hi  1797  for  improvements  in  the  coustrnctiou  of  the  arches  and 
piers  of  l)ridges,  he  whs  in  the  habit  of  claiming  a  great  part  of  the  credit  of  intro- 
ducing the  u«e  of  cast-Iron  girders.  A  lai-ge  part  of  his  time  was  occupied  in  d«- 
signing  and  coustnicting  mauslou-houfres  for  the  nobility  and  gentry  in  England 
aiid  Ireland,  bnt  he  IschTeflv  celebrated  in  connection  witli  tlie  great  street  improve- 
menis  in  London.  From  Fubruary  1816,  when  l»e  was  appointed  **  architt^ct,  valuer, 
iiud  agent  to  the  Board  of  Woods  and  Forests,"  down  till  near  the  end  of  bis  pro- 
ft»f  ional  career,  he  was  bui«ily  engaged  in  the  planning  of  routes,  grouping  of 
buildings,  and  fixing  of  sites.  Regent  Street,  Hayniarket  Tlieatre,  Langham  Plnce 
Church,  and  the  terraces  in  Reg«nt*s  Park,  are  specimens  of  his  designs.  The 
Pavili«m  at  Brighton  wan  another  of  his  works.  He  retired  from  his  profession  iu 
1834,  and  died  May  13, 1835.  N.,  not  witlist  a  tiding  his  many  defects,  i>otse>sed  great 
power  of  effective  grouping,  as  is  well  shewn  in  his  works.  In  the  architecture  of 
mausion-bouses,  the  desijiuing  of  **  interioi-s  "  was  his /ort<. 

NA'SHUA,  a  rannufncturing  city  of  New  Hampshire,  U.  S..  at  the  junction  of 
the  Merriniac  and  Nashun  Rivers.  The  falls  of  the  fatter  afford  water-power  to  six 
large  manufacturing  companies,  which  have  extensive  cotloi  -mills,  innchine-shope, 
Ac-   It  has  ten  churches,  8  Imnks,  2  newspapers.    Pop.  (1870)  10,648. 

NA'SnVILLE.  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  capital  of  Tennessee,  U.  S.,  on  the  Cum- 
berhmd  Riv -r,  200  miles  above  the  Ohio,  avd  a  little  north  of  the  centre  of  the  slate. 
The  river  is  navigable  by  steara-1>oats  oi  1500  tjns  fifty  miles  above  Nashville.  Five 
railways  connect  It  with  a  vast  and  fertile  conntry.  It  is  a  handsome,  well-built 
city,  with  a  state-house,  which  cost  a  million  of  dollars ;  conrt-lionse,  3  niiivcrsities, 
hospital,  cnstom-honse,  theatre,  penitentiary,  free  academy,  Protestant  and  Catholic 
orj>haii  asylums,  34  chnrche:-',  with  numerous  daily,  weekly,  and  monthly  pnblica- 
tions.  It  has  a  lai-ge  commerce,  flonr,  saw,  and  phming  iiiillp,  a  large  cotton  factory 
(with  400  looms  and  13.640spindle8  in  18'5).  inannfaeto'les  of  engines  and  machinery, 
&c.  The  vjiln«  of  the  wholesale  trade  in  1873  was  61.261,670  dollars.  Near  the  ci^ 
lire  the.  State  Lnnitic  Asylnuh  and  the  *'  Hermitsige,"  once  the  residence  of  Presi- 
dent Jiukson.  N.  was  occupied  by  the  Federal  troops  In  1862,  and  here  the  Federal 
General  Thomas  gained  a  victory  over  General  Hood.    Pop.  In  1870,  26,866. 

NA'SSAU,  formerly  a  German  duchy,  now  Wiesb.iden,  a  district  of  the  Prussian 
province  of  Hesse-Nussau,  In  49°  50'— 50°  60'  n.  lat,  and  7<^  80'— 8°  45'e.  long.,  is  bound'  d 
w.and  s.  by  the  Main  and  the  Rhine,  the  Pmssiau-Rhenish  provinces,  and  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Hesse;  e.  by  the  Hesse  and  Frankfort  territories;  and  n.  by  Westpha- 
lia. Area,  1802  square  miles.  Pop.  (1876)  680,215.  Wiesbaden  |)0S8'6se8  very  great 
physica  advantages.  In  its  sontheiii  districts,  lu  arly  the  whole  of  its  area  is  occu- 
pi«rt  by  the  Tnnnus  Mountains,  whose  highest  point,  the  Great  Feldl)erg,  attains  an 
elevation  of  about  276 )  feet.  This  range  includcrs  witliln  its  boundaries  the  fertile 
valleys  known  as  the  Rhelngau.  The  northern  part  of  the  district  includes  the  bar- 
ren riigblands  of  the  Westerwald,  whose  iiiOist  (onsidenible  p<>ak,  the  Salzburger 
Head,  is  iiearly  2000  feet  high.  Besides  the  Rhine  and  tiie  Main,  which  are  the 
bonndary-rivers,  Wiesbaden  is  traversed  from  enst.  to  west  by  the  Lahn,  which  be- 
comes navigable  at  Wielbure,  and  Is  augmented  by  the  confluence  of  nuinerous 
other  streams,  as  the  Weil,  Einbs,  Aar,  Dill,  and  Elbe.  The  pix)dnctiveness  of  the 
Boll  Is  proved  by  the  excellent  quality  of  the  numerous  vegetable  |irodncts,  which 
iuclndecom,  hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  v^etables,  and  fruits,  incln(linggnipes,  which  yield 
f«ome  of  the  most  highly  esteemed  Rhenish  wines.  The  hills  nre  well  woode<l.  and 
abound  with  game  of  various  kinds,  and  the  rivers  yield  an  alMindance  of  fish  and 
crustnccius.  In  the  more  mountainous  districts,  iron.  lead.  cop|)er,  an<l  some  silver 
are  obtained,  together  with  good  bnilding-stone,  marble,  and  coal;  ti»e  chief  niineral 
•wealth  is,  however,  derived  from  the  numerous  springs,  whicli,  directly  and  iudirea- 


y  Google 


Niissau  1  A  I     * 

Natai  l^d 

ly,  bring  the  government  it  clear  annanl  gain  of  more  than  100,000  gnlden.  The 
ino:«t  iiotoil  of  tiiese  t>priiij£8f  of  which  there  nre  more  than  100,  are  Wieinjadcu,  W*dl- 
bncli,  Luiigen-Scliwalbach,  8chlani;eiibad,  Eiua,  Selterd,  and  Qeiluao,  the  majority 
of  which  were  ihe  nro|Mjrty  of  tl»e  diike. 

\Vle.*baden,  which  l«  divided  into  12  circles,  has  few  towns  of  any  commcrcinl 
import  ince,  but  it  boat^ls  uf  mnny  fastiioutible  wateriuir-places,  which  are  unnuaily 
cix)\vdrd  witli  vinltora  from  every  pm  t  of  the  world.  Of  these,  the  mort  consider- 
able t>ri!  VViosbadeu  (q.  v.),  Mie  capital  of  the  district— pop.  (1876)  43,6T4— Sclm'.-il- 
bacU,  Schlani^enbad,  Fachiu^eu,  Seltei*s,  and  Geiinan.  UOclist,  au  active  little  placo 
on  tiie  M:unt  is  the  only  manutucturing  town  of  the  duchy,  but  a  brifk  trade  is 
carried  on  ut  many  small  ports  on  tlie  llhine,  Main,  and  Lahn,  from  whence  Mie 
mmcr.il  wtiters,  wines,  and  other  nataral  products  of  tiie  country  are  exported.  Tim 
exports  Ant  wine — including  some  of  the  clioicest  kinds,  as  Ilochheimer,  Joliannleu 
berg«*r,  Rudeaheimer,  Markobrnnner,  Asmannsh&nser— iniuend  waters,  com,  Iron, 
nuuigiinese,  cattle,  &c :  while  the  imports  embrace  colonial  products,  manufactured 
goods*,  Mill,  jfwellery,  Ac. 

N.  Iiad  a  representative  form  of  government,  based  on  the  constitution  of  1814; 
and  the  duice,  who  was  also  a  Connt-Palatiue  of  the  Rhino,  Ck>uui  of  Sayn,  Kuiii^- 
stein,  Kalxonelienbogeu,  and  Dictz,  Ac.,  was  assisted  in  tlie  government  by  acounc.t 
of  Slat*.',  presldeil  over  l»y  a  prime-minister.  The  legislative  assembly  consisted  of 
an  npjHjr  chamt)er,  com|)Osed  of  24  representatives,  chosen  for  fix  years,  and  ii 
second  chamber,  chosen  annually.  More  than  one-third  of  tint  population  belon^t-d 
to  the  Catholic  Chutch,  which  was  nnder  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop 
of  Limburg,  who  was  assisted  by  a  bo.ird  of  commissioners,  locvted  at  Eltvillf,  on 
tite  Rhine;  and  excepting  about  19,000  persons  who  lKlont;cd  to  the  Jewish  uud 
other  per»«uasion!»,  the  remaiudcr  of  the  people,  including  t!ic  tlien  reigning  house, 
profei*si'd  the  "evangelical" form  of  ^jrman  Protestantism,  and  were  con.pre- 
Iiended  in  one  episcopal  see  under  the  bishop  of  Wi  sbaden.  Ample  provisions 
were  nnide  in  the  district  for  popular  education,  in  furtherance  of  which  there  were 
upwards  of  700  elementary  schools,  wiih  about  1000  teachers,  10  normal  schools,  a 
Kymnasinm,  various  trtduing,  theological,  polytechnic,  military,  and  other  educa- 
tional iusiitulions.  In  accordance  with  a  treaty  with  Hanover,  GOttingen  con- 
stitutes the  university  for  art's!  fur  Wiesbaden,  which  has  also  a  Rtmnin  Catholic 
theological  faculty  in  conjunction  with  Hesse-Cassel  at  the  university  of  Marburg. 
Wiesbaden,  which  is  the  principal  seat  for  all  national  institutions  of  literature, 
science,  and  houevolunce,  h:is  a  good  public  library,  containing  60,000  volumes,  a 
mysenin,  &c, 

N.  occupied,  In  conjunction  with  Brunswick,  the  thirteenth  place  In  the  limited 
council  of  the  diet,  but  it  had  two  votes  in  thoplenum^  or  full  coiinciL  Itfurnis«h'  d 
a  c  )ntingent  of  4279,  with  a  reserve  of  1833  men,  to  the  army  of  the  old  confeder- 
atiou. 

The  receipts,  according  to  the  budget  of  1866,  were  4,461,410  florins  derived  fram 
the  crown  domains  and  indirect  taxes,  and  317,935  florins  from  direct  taxation, 
while  the  expenditure  was  estimated  at  6.804,975  florins.  The  national  debt  it  thu 
close  of  1844,  represented  a  capital  of  6.088,300  florins.  The  duke,  who  was  in  pos- 
8e:>siou  of  very  extensive  domains,  ranked  as  one  of  the  richest  princes  of  Ger- 
many. 

In  tracing  the  history  of  N.  to  its  earliest  origin,  we  find  that  the  districts  now 
known  by  that  name  were  anciently  occupied  by  the  Alenianui,  and  on  the  suhjugn- 
tiou  of  the  latter  people  by  the  Franks,  became  incorporated  first  with  thePranldsh, 
and  next  with  the  German  empire.  Among  the  various  chiefs  who  raised  themselvt-a 
to  independent  power  in  this  |>ortion  of  ttie  Frankish  territories,  one  of  the  modt 
influv.ntial  was  Olio  of  Lanrenburg.  brother  of  King  Conrad  I.,  who  l»ec4ime  the 
founder  of  two  distinct  lines  of  prlnc(^.  The  heads  of  these  lines  were  Walram 
and  Otto,  the  sous  of  Count  Henry  I.,  who,  in  1255,  divided  the  land  between  them. 
Walvani  II.,  the  elder,  was  the  progenitor  of  the  house  of  Lanrenburg,  which,  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  12lh  c  ,  assumed  its  present  name  of  N.  from  the  name  of  its 
chief  stronghold ;  while  Otto,  the  younger,  by  his  marriage  with  tlie  heiress  of  G  Id- 
crn,  founded  the  Hue  of  Nassau-Gelders,  whose  la!»t  male  representative  died  in 
1423,  but  which  still  surviv^'S  through  a  female  branch,  in  the  family  now  occupyin|r 
the  thi-onc  of  the  Nutherlunds.    This  junior  branch  of  the  house  ot  Nassau,  by 


y  Google 


1  Ap:  Vassal 

IV  O  jjatai 

Inberifance  fro.m  a  collateral  rcprwtMitatlve,  ncqnired  po^aeBsion,  in  1644.  of  the 
principality  of  Orauge;.  and  siuce  that  ix^riod.  the  repre^eiitniivea  of  the  Otto  line 
I'.ave  been  known  hs  Princes  of  Ornuge  (q.  v.)-  The  Walrain  line,  which  iu  liW 
tave  an  emperor  to  €K'nnaDy,  in  the  person  of  Adolf  of  N.,  wan  aniKlivided  hy  the 
deecendants  of  that  prince  into  several  branchep,  until,  by  the  pnccowive  extinction 
of  the  otlier  lines,  I  he  Nat«8Ha-Wei)hnrg  fmni'iy,  which  at  present  reigne  over  tlie 
dnclty,  was  left,  in  1816,  the  cole  heir  and  reprcf«eututlve  of  the  Wtilrani  dynai^ty  in 
Gerniaiiy.  N.  had  been  declared  a  dncliy  in  1806.  and  in  1817  the  reigning  Dnke 
\Villiam  granted  a  new  conetiiniion  ;  htit  daring  tlie  flr»t  sittings  of  the  i.ssenibly, 
dissenbiouK  arose  between  the  dncal  government  and  the  representntives,  thetormer 
having  attempted  loe^t-ahlish  the  pro|)OHition  that  the  ducal  domains  were  the  un- 
coiiditional  pro])erly  of  the  royal  house,  and  that  all  the  cz|>eusv8  of  the  state  would 
cojise^uenily  have  to  be  met  by  taxation. 

This  proved  a  fruitfnl  sonrce  of  dissension  between  the  dnke  and  his  people,  and 
the  opposition  atid  discontent  to  which  it  gave  rise,  were  not  Anally  allayed  (ill  1884, 
when  a  more  liberal  mioisiry,  under  Count  Walderdorff,  succeeded  the  unpopular 
cabinet  which  had  hitherto  directed  public  :  ffairs.  Concessions  were  made  hy  the 
duciil  government,  which  met  the  requirements  of  the  chaml)ers.  and  a  satisfactory 
compromise  was  effected  in  regard  to  the  crown  revenues.  In  1886,  N.  joined  the 
Gennan  Zoll-Verdn,  and  siihfeqnentlv  to  that  jieriod,  It  has  continued  to  advance 
iu  material  prosperity.  The  reiging  l>uke  Adolphus  William,  who  succeeded  his 
father,  Duk ;  William,  In  1889,  slicwed  the  same  consei^itive  teiideneies  a»«hi8  pre- 
decessor. The  revolutionary  crisis  of  1848  fonn<i  the  people,  who  had  been  har- 
ass^ed  by  over-government  and  by  a  jealous  dread  ol  liberal  s<  ntimeiits,  ripe  for 
insurrection.  The  peasantry  rose  en  rnoMtie  in  the  rnral  districts,  ai.d  revenged 
themselves  for  the  severity  of  the  game-laws,  and  other  obnoxious  restrictions,  by 
i>crpetratiug  the  most  wanton  destruction  of  game  and  w()Od  in  the  foresta 
belongin|^  to  the  crown  and  nobilitv.  These  disoracrs  were  speedily  put  dowi»  by 
the  aid  of  federal  troops,  bat  notwithstanding  the  concessions  made  by  the  govern- 
ment, the  relations  between  the  people  and  th<lr  ruler  continned  for  many  years  to 
be  nn.atisfaetory.  For  the  events  which  led  to  the  incorporation  of  Nassau  with 
Prussia,  see  Gebmakt. 

NASSAU,  the  capital  of  New  Providence,  is  the  centre  of  the  trade  of  the 
BnhnmaA  (q.  v.).  It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  face  of  a  hill,  in  lat.  26^  5'  n.,  long. 
71°  21'  w.  Pop.  9  00.  The  town  is  well  laid  out,  has  several  handsome  pul>iic 
buildings,  and  an  excellent  and  well-shelter etl  harbor.  The  climate  is  very 
Balnbrlous,  and  N.  is  a  great  rcFort  of  invalds  fiom  the  i:orth.  Ii  las  exti  nslve 
Imtel  accommodation,  n  lanatic  asylum,  and  a  leper-house,  and  is  def(!nded  by  two 
forts.  N.  exi>ort8  cotton,  i>imento  and  salt.  Daring  the  civil  war  in  the  United 
States,  it  became  notorious  in  connection  with  the  blockade  runners. 

NASSI'CK,  or  Nashik,  a  town  of  British  India  in  the  district  of  the  snme  nam»», 
In  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  95  miles  nortli<  ast  ol  Bon»lniy,  on  theriverGodavery, 
jiot  far  from  it*  sonrce.  It  la  a  town  of  great  sacredness  in  the  estimation  of  the 
Hindus — more  revered  than  even  Ben;ire8 — is  a  great  place  of  pil^rinmge,  the  chief 
seat  of  Brahmanism  in  thcDeccan,  and  the  r'sidence  of  ntany  families  of  Brahmans, 
some  of  them  living  in  great  affluence.  It  contains  many  tenmles,  which  are  built 
along  both  banks  of  tbe  Godavery,  ai;d  on  rocks  in  the  river.  They  are  all  of  black 
Imsalt,  and  dedicat«d  to  Siva.  Of  far  greater  interest,  however,  are  the  Buddhii't 
caves,  about  6  miles  from  the  town,  which  are  situated  in  a  conical  hill  at  a  height 
of  about  100  yards  from  its  base,  'i'liey  are  rudely  executed.  The  figures  which 
they  contain  are  in  a  state  of  good  preservation,  and  the  leading  figures  are  those  of 
Buddha ;  but  the  whole  character  of  the  remains  is  thonglit  to  indicate  Buddhism  in 
a  state  of  transition  or  compromise  with  Brahmanism.  One  c&vv  is  45  feet  square, 
and  its  flat  rooris  wholly  uusup{M)rted.  Notwithstiiuding  Hie  Buddhist  origin  and 
character  of  these  caves,  the  Brahmans  of  N.,  for  the  sake  of  gain,  encourage  the 
]>opahtr  reverence  for  them.    N.  contains  a  resident  pop.  of  (1872)  22,486. 

NASTU'RTIUM.    See  Cress  and  Tbop^bolum. 

NATA'L.  The  region  now  forming  the  colony  of  Natal  derive?  Its  name  from 
Its  being  discovered  by  the  rorfigueee  on  Christmaa-day  149T.    It  wua  vteited  about 


y  Google 


Katal 


106 


1822  by  several  white  traders  from  the  Capo,  who  found  the  conulry  in  posaession  of 
the  Zulu  chief  Chaka,  who  ruled  in  a  nioHt  puniruiunry  manner  Dver  nil  the  tribes, 
from  the  Umzinicuhi  to  the  8t  Lucia  Rivt-r.  He  wjia  kihed  and  sncceedfd  by  his 
brotht^r  Din<rtuiu  in  1838,  but  Ihe  hitter  having  treacheront^lv  ninrdered  a  ])arty  of 
emigrant  Dutch  Doers,  wlio  Imd  paid  liini  a  friendly  visit  by  iiivit^lion  to  buy  land, 
lie  was  attacked  and  finally  destroyed  by  the  Boer»,  who  at  that  time  had  cmigratfcl 
from  the  Cape  Colony  in  large  numbers,  and  who  made  hin brother  Panda  paramount 
chief  in  his  stend,  aiid  then  settled  thenn^elves  dowu  iU  the  country  as  iiia  lords  and 
masters.  The  Brilis<Ii  government,  however,  now  interfered,  and  after  a  severe 
struggle  on  the  i>art  of  tlie  Boers,  Ihe  country  was  formally  proclainied  a  British 
colony  on  the  12th  May  1*43,  since  which  time  it  hus  progressed  very  Hatisfactorily. 
In  1866,  it  was  erected  into  a  distinct  and  separate  colony,  free  from  the  control  «>f 
the  governor  of  the  Cape.  The  att'Mition  of  our  colonial  office  has  recently  b;?en  called 
to  the  rehitious  iHJtween  the  European  and  native  population  of  N.,  by  the  case  of 
Langalibalele,  a  Zulu  chieftain,  who,  on  slight  grounds  of  suspicion,  was  treated  vt?ry 
j'ummarily  by  Uie  colonwl  government,  some  of  his  people  slain,  and  hinh«»eif  ban- 
ished. Tiie  colonial  secret^ny  informed  the  government  of  the  colony  tlnit  their  pro- 
ceedings were  illegal,  and  in  1875  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  was  despatched  to  N.  as  tem- 
porary governor,  and  passed  a  Reform  Bill  likely  to  secure  a  more  satisfactory  stale 
of  at&irs  in  rtrgnrd  to  Ihe  {K)sition  of  the  two  races. 

The  w)lony  of  N.  looks  out  on  Ihe  Indian  O'-ean,  being  sitinited  on  the  s.e.  coast 
of  Afiica,  alK)ut  80'J  ra.  e.u.e.  of  the  dpe  of  Good  Hope,  between  the  29th  and  81st 
parallels  of  south  latitude.  Its  u.e.  bouudary  is  tl>e  Tupela  or  Buffalo  River,  which 
divides  it  from  Zululand,  and  its  s.w.  boundanr  is  the  Umzimcnlu  and  Umtamonn;i 
Rivers,  separating  it  from  Kaffraria  proper.  A  lofty  and  rugged  range  of  mountains 
calU^  the  Quuthlamba»  or  Drachenberg,  divides  it  from  the  Free  State  and  Basutu- 
land,  and  it  contains  a  well  defined  area  of  20,212  square  miles. 

Tliese  mountains  are  composed  of  a  confused  nnisa  of  granite,  gneiss,  sand- 
stone, basaltic  veins,  and  shale,  and  present  both  the  fl  it  top  and  serrated  Bumniiu 
of  the  chain,  of  which  they  are  a  continuation,  so  well  known  in  the  Cape  Colony 
ns  the  Sneeuwberg  and  Stormbcrgeu.  About  hit.  28°  30',  these  mountain?*  8*em  lo 
readi  their  culminating  iK)int,  and  probably  rtttjiin  a  h<;ight  of  10,000  feet,  forming 
a  summit  line  of  waterslnid,  from  whlcli  fljw  to  all  points  of  the  compass  the  waters 
of  the  Orange,  Umzimvoobo,  Vaal,  Tuirehv,  and  other  large  South  African  stre:ims. 
Towards  tlie  coast,  these  mountains  present  a  scarped  and  almost  inaccessible  fac4* ; 
towards  the  interior,  howev(^r,  they  gradually  die  away  into  the  immense  rolling 
plains  of  the  Free  State.  Many  oiBfshoots  from  these  mountains  travei-se  the  col- 
ony, dividing  it  into  a  series  of  steps  (n-  plateaux,  gradually  rising  from  the  coast 
region  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  and  forming  so  many  zones  of  uathral  pro- 
ductions. 

The  coast  region,  extending  about  25  miles  inland,  is  highlv  fertile,  and  has  a 
climate  almost  tropical,  though  perfectly  healthy.  Sugar,  coffee,  indigo,  arrowroot, 
ginger,  tobacco,  and  cotton  thrive  annizinirly,  and  the  pinn-apple  ripens  in  the  open 
jdr  with  very  little  cultivation.  The  midland  terrace  is  more  fit  for  the  cereals  and 
usual  European  crops ;  while  on  the  higher  plateau,  along  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tains, are  immense  tracts  of  the  finest  pastur.sge  for  cattle" and  sheep. 

The  climate  is  very  salubrious ;  the  thermometer  ranges  between  «0o  and  88°.  but 
the  heat,  even  in  summer,  is  seldom  oppressivft.  The  mean  annmd  t  -mperatui-e  at 
Pletermaritzburg,  tlie  capital.  Is  64°  71'.  The  winter  bedns  in  April  and  ends  in 
September ;  the  average  number  of  rainy  days  being  13.  In  the  summer  season  the 
thunder-storms  are  very  frequent  and  severe.  The  annual  rainfall  on  the  coast  is 
a!)Our  86  mches.  Inland,  it  varies  a  good  deal  in  different' districts,  and  is  greatest 
in  summer.  Tlie  south-east  is  the  prevailing  wind  here  in  the  summer  months,  as 
in  the  Cape  Colony.  Occasionally  the  sirocco  or  hot  wind  from  the  north-west  is 
felt,  which  generally  terminates  in  a  thunder-storm.  ^ 

■N.  has  but  one  harbor  on  its  coast,  and  that  is  D'Urban,  or  Port  Natal,  in  lat,  27® 
53  .  It  is  completely  landlocked,  but  a  bar  prevents  vessels  above  a  certain  tonnage 
from  entering.  There  is,  however,  generally  a  depth  f)f  water  on  it  vailing  from  9» 
to  18  feet.  There  is  secure  holding  ground  'in  the  outer  anchorage.  Tlie  harbor  of 
D'Urban  is  of  great  importance  to  N.,  .is  It  is  the  only  nn<«  worthy  of  the  name  on  the 
south-east  coast.    Many  extensive  engineering  oijeratious  have  'been  carried  on  with 

Digitized  by  VjiOOQ  IC 


K)7 


Natal 


Hiuporpose of  improving  the  harbor  and  Incrfianiiig  \ho  depth  of  watpr  nt  tlie  cntmnce. 
The  principal  rivers'arc  the  Tugvlii  or  Buffalo,  iTie  Uniioinnnz'u  Dinjiaiii,  und  Uin- 
sinicnln  ;  like  the  inujority  of  Sontli  African  rivt-ri*,  iney  are  of  no  use  fur  pnrpop<-s 
of  inhiud  uavi^utiun ;  btit  tlieir  streunia  are  )>crn)aneni,  and  ofnn  uvatni1>]e  for 
irrigating  purposes,  thus  giving  N.  iu  one  very  ettsentiul  point  u  decided  superiority 
over  tlie  Cape  Colony.  ^ 

CoaU  cop|)er-ort',  iron,  and  other  minerals  are  found  In  eevernl  places,  and  tliere 
Ss  no  doui>t  that,  when  the  great  uiountain-rauge  is  properly  explorid,  it  \vill  be 
found  very  rich  iu  mineral  w«aith.  Large  forests  of  valuable  limber  abound  in  ti»e 
kloofs  of  all  the  monntaln-rangeH,  and  many  tracts  alone  the  coast  are  also  well 
\vo<>d»'d.  N.  is  divided  into  the  following  countries :  D'Urhnn,  Victoria,  Alexandra, 
»ud  Alfred  on  the  const  region ;  Pieterniaritzburjr,  Umcomanisi,  and  Uiaroti,  central ; 
«nd  Klip  Kiver  and  Weenen  at  foot  of  the  nionntains.  Tlie  tapiial  is  Pieterniaiitz- 
burg,  with  :ibont  «800  hihabitauts,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Umgaui  River,  alwnt  60 
milvs  inland.  It  possesses  a  lai^  military  Establishment,  and  many  substantial 
public  buildings,  its  name  is  a  compound  of  the  Christian  name  of  P'iefter  Rietief, 
and  tlie  surname  of  Gert  Maritz,  two  celebn»ttd  leadeis  of  the  emigrant  Boers  who 
were  murdered  by  Dingaan.  D'Urban,  or  Port  Natal,  is  also  a  very  flourishing 
town,  having  a  railway  connecting  the  lunding-place  at  Point  Natal  with  tlie  town, 
and  a  population  of  (1878)  627S.  It  has  2  newspapers,  and  several  banks  and  ot Iter 
public  instltntious.  Verulam,  Weenen,  Ri<*hmond,  Newcastle,  and  Ladysmith  are 
also  flourishing  towns,  and  several  other  new  villages  have  l>een  recently  formed. 

N.  is  governed  by  a  lieutenant-governor,  aided  by  a  legislative  connefl,  consisting 
of  thirteen  members  appointed  by  the  colonial  oflB«*c,  and  fifteen  electtd  by  the  con- 
stituencies into  which  the  colony  is  divided.  Municipal  institutions  have  been 
granted  to  the  principal  towns.  It  forms  the  diocese  otf  a  colonial  bishop,  and  many 
stations  of  the  Wosleyan,  American,  Norwegian,  and  Berlin  missions  exist.  Edn- 
cadou  is  receiving  much  attention,  and  schools  are  multiplying. 

The  De  Beeir  and  Beznidenliout  Passes  are  the  only  practicable  roads  across  the 
mooDtains,  and  lead  by  very  circuitoas  routes  across  the  Free  State  into  Cape  Col- 
ony ;  and  tlie  numerous  mountain  streams  wanting  bridges  reitder  internal  commn- 
nicjition  very  diflicnlt  'J  hree  lines  of  railway,  of  a  total  length  of  104  miles,  are  in 
course  of  construction ;  the  chief  to  connect  D'Urban  with  the  capital. 

The  principal  articles  of  export  from  N.  are  wool,  sn$rar,  ivory,  and  hides.  The 
wool  exported  10  Great  Britain  in  1ST6  was  va!ned  at  £614310.  jmd  weighed  8,828,624 
lbs.  The  total  value  of  exports  for  the  same  year  was  je986,695.  The  exports  com- 
prise cotton,  ivory,  sugar,  coffee,  arrowroot,  wool,  hides,  feathers,  molasses,  and 
'Thinoceros  horns.  The  value  of  imports  iu  18T5  was  XI ,268.838.  Tiie  revenue  of  the 
colony  in  1875  was  i;260,271.  principally  raised  from  cut-tom-duties,  transfer  dues, 
and  taxes  on  native  hnis,  &c.  In  1843,  the  viUne  of  imports  was  jC11,712,  that  of 
exports  jC1261,  while  the  revenue  was  only  £12,000.  N.  productions  were  very 
Tesf>ectiib1y  represented  in  the  Givat  Exhibition  of  1862,  and  formed  one  of  the  most 
interesting  of  our  colonial  compartments.  The  population  consists  of  Dutch  Boers, 
who  remamed  in  the  country  after  it  became  a  British  colony ;  of  English  and  Ger- 
man settlers ;  and  the  remains  of  the  Zulu  tribes,  who  originally  possessed  the 
country.  It  numbered,  in  1877,  395  512.  of  whom  22,664  were  whites.  The  Datives, 
.  the  most  iiiiustrions  of  the  EafBr  races,  possess  hordes,  cattle,  sheep,  &c.,  valued 
at  jC1.600,000.  and  properly  managed,  make  excellent  servants. 

The  total  tonnage  of  the  vessels  that  entered  and  cleared  the  port  of  N.  in  1875 
was  187,227  tons,  of  which  121,322  were  British.  The  discovery  of  diamond-fields 
on  the  Vaal  River  is  an  event  in  which  the  colony  is  deeply  concerned. 

The  large  aninnils  are  gradually  disappearing,  althouffh  elephants  are  still  occa- 
sionally met  with  in  the  dense  bush  of  the  coast  region.  Lions,  leopards,Volves,  and 
hysenas  still  hang  on  the  outskirts  of  civilisMtion.  The  smaller  antelopes  are  plenti- 
ful, and  allig:itoi*s  are  met  with  in  nearly  all  the  rivers  north-east  of  the  XJmzimciilu. 
N.,  besides  several  poisonops  snakes,  produces  a  small  species  of  boa,  which  eome- 
timc"*  attains  a  length  of  16  feet.  The  hippopotamus  is  still  found  near  the  months 
of  the  rivers  on  the  eastern  frontier. 

The  botany  of  this  retdon  resembles  that  of  Kaffraria  proper,  although  generally 
of  a  more  tropical  character.    All  the  timber-trees  of  the  Cape  Colony  are  found  here, 


y  Google 


Natal  1 AQ 

National  *  J-^O 

besides  many  new  ones.  The  climate  of  the  coast  region,  however,  is  too  warm  for 
the  grape,  at.  least  for  the  purpose  of  wine^uitiking. 

Broolc's  "  Natal,"  by  Mauu  (1869) ;  Hall's  »•  South  Af ricnu  Geography ; '» »» Natal 
Alumnae  "  (18T6) ;  **The  Cape  aud  South  Africa,"  by  John  Noble  {1818). 

NATAL,  or  Rio  Grande  do  Norte,  a  fortified  seaport  of  Brazil,  cjipital  of  the  pro- 
\ji)cc  of  Bio  Grande  do  Norte,  aud  bnilt  on  low  lauds  about  three  miles  from  the 
luoulh  of  the  river  of  that  name,  100  m.  n.  of  Parahiba.    Pop.  10,00a 

NATAL,  John  William  Coleuso,  D.D.,  Blsiiop  of,  a  divine  of  the  Cbnrch  of 
£ui;land,  was  bom  in  1814,  aud  educated  at  St.  John's  College^  Cambridge,  where 
be  graduated  as  Second  Wrangler  and  Suiith's  Prizeman  in  18S&  From  1838  to 
184-i,  he  was  one  of  the  masters  of  Harrow  School,  and  for  the  next  four  years, 
tutor  of  St  John's  College.  In  1846,  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Forncelt  St  Mary, 
in  the  county  of  Norfolk,  and  in  1864,  first  bishop  of  N.,  South  Africa.  The  works 
by  which  he  was,  nntil  recently,  most  widely  known  were  his  two  treatises  on  Alge- 
bra and  Aiithmetic.  The  treatise  on  Algebra  was  first  published  in  1849,  and  that 
on  Arithmetic  in  1853.  They  soon  acquired  great  popularity,  and  have  been  adopted 
as  text'books  in  many  of  the  principal  schools  aha  colleges  in  Great  Britain.  He 
iias  also  pablished  other  educational  works.  He  first  attracted  public  notice,  how- 
ever, by  the  dedication  of  a  volume  of  Sermons  to  the  Rev  Mr  Maurice  (q.  v.),  at 
the  moment  when  that  gentleman  was  in  disgi-ace  with  the  "orthodox"  section  of 
,  the  religious  world.  His  affection  and  respect  for  Mr  Maurice  were  further  sliewu 
by  his  edition  of  the  ^*  Communion  Sei-vice.  with  Selections  from  Writings  of  the 
Rev  P.  D.  Maurice  "  (1855).  In  the  same  year  appeared  his  **  Ten  Weeks  in  Natal ;" 
fn  1861,  his  **  Translation  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  commented  on  from  a  Mis- 
sionary Point  of  View ;"  and  '*  A  Letter  to  his  Grace  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, upon  the  Question  of  tbe  Proper  Treatment  of  Cases  of  Polygamy,  as  fonnd 
already  existing  in  Converts  from  Heathenism,"  in  which  he  recommends,  on 
grounds  both  ofreason  and  Scripture,  that  Converts  to  Christianity,  already  pos- 
sessing several  wives,  should  »m><  be  forced  to  put  them  all  away,  except  one.  He 
nd'Jiits  that  monogamy  is  most  in  liarmony  with  the  genius  of  Christianity,  but 
would  enforce  it  only  m  the  case  of  those  who  married  after  their  convers«ion.  Tbe 
outcry  raised  hy  his  professional  brethren  against  the  •* Letter"  was  sufficiently 
loud,  but  it  was  nothing  to  the  tempest  of  disapprobation  that  burst  forth  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  (1862),  when  he  published  *'The  Pentateuch  and  Book  of  Joshua  Criti- 
ically  Examined,"  in  which  he  endeavored  to  prove  that,  as  they  stimd,  these  books 
are  not  the  products  either  of  the  age  to  which  they  are  usually  assigned,  or  of  the 
authors  whor^e  names  they  bear;  and  that  they  are  not  entirely  historical,  but  in 
many  most  important  passages  are  overlaid  with  legendary ,'niytliica],  aud  symbolical 
incidents.  Part  VI.  of  this  work  was  published  in  1872.  TheBishop  of  C.ipo  Town, 
the  metropolitan  bishop,  d< dared  Colenso  deposed  from  bis  see;  but  on  an  ap|>eal 
to  the  Privy  Council  in  1865,  tlie  deposition  was  pronounced  null  and  void.  In  1874, 
Colenso  visited  England  to  plead  the  cause  of  Langalibalde  (see  Natal).  Other 
works  by  the  bishop  are  **  Natal  Hcrmons"  (1866);  and  "Lectm-es  ou  the  Penta- 
teuch and  the  Moabite  Stone  "  (2d  ed.,  1873). 

NA'TANT.    See  Naiant. 

NATATO'RES  (Lat.  swimmers),  the  name  given  by  Illiger,  and  Tnany  other 
ornithologists,  to  the  order  of  birds  called  Palmipedes  (q.  v.)  by  ()uvier. 

NATCHEZ,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in  Mississippi,  U.  S.,  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Mississippi  River,  280  miles  north  of  New  Orleans.  It  is  finely  situated  ou  tlie 
bluff,  150  feet  high,  winch  here  forms  the  bank  of  the  river.  A  portion  of  the 
town  at  tl»e  bottom  of  the  bluff  is  calU^  Natchez-under-the-Hill,  ana  was  formerly  4^ 
the  resort  of  the  river  gamblers,  pirates,  and  otlier  desperate  characters.  The  city 
has  eight  churches,  a  court-house,  jail.  United  States  Marine  Hospital,  a  daily  and 
two  weekly  papers.  It  is  the  shipping  port  of  a  large  aud  fertile  cotton  district,  aud 
has  steam-boat  connections  with  the  whole  Mississippi  valley.  N.,  which  derives 
its  name  from  a  noted  tribe  of  Indians,  was  settled  by  the  French  in  1T16,  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  ludians  in  1729,  who  were  subsequently  defeated,  aud  banished  to 
the  VVest  Indies.    Pop.  in  1870,  9057. 

NATION  (Lut.  iuUiOf  from  nattut^  bom),  a  word  used  In  two  distinct  senses.    1* 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


^J 


i  VV  National 

ABtnte-or  independent  society  nnited  by  common  politicaliiislitatlons ;  S.  Au  ng* 
fijegate  ma^  of  persona  coUtroeil  by  tie«»  of  blood  aiid  lineage,  aud  Bonxutimes  of 
ItHigoagt'.  The  modern  dogma  of  uatimialittui,  us  maintained  by  ar.laM  of  continental 
politicinnt*,  starts  from  au  assamptiou  that  a  nuiiou  in  the  latter  sense  onglit  necei*- 
Btirily  to  he  also  a  nation  iu  the  foriiMtr,  and  endeavors  to  asnlxn  limits  to  the  several 
ra6^  of  Europe,  with  the  view  of  erecting  each  into  a  diMiuct  state,  separated  from 
other  stated  or  nationalities.  The  extiemu  poUiiciaus  of  the  national  reboot  8<m m 
to  consider  the  ^apposed  rights  of  nationalities  as  paramount  even  to  the  obligations 
of  treaties,  and  the  political  coujauctiou  of  one  nutiouuliiy  with  another  is  looktil 
on  by  them  as  an  adequate  ground  for  a  revolt  or  separatioi),  apart  altogether  fr(nii 
the  question  whether  tlie  nationality  is  well  |r  ill  govemud.  In  point  of  fact,  tho 
different  races  in  Europe  are  so  commingled, Tnat  any  reconstruction  of  tlie  political 
map  of  Europe,  on  ethuolo|(ical  princlplet^,  would  lie  impossible,  even  if  desirabU . 
The  blood  of  uiDe>teuthsof  flnrope  has  l>een  mixe<l  within  tl)e  historical  period.  The 
test  of  language,  on  which  uatioualily  has  sometimes  been  based,  is  a  d<>ceptive  one, 
in  so  far  as  it  is  indefinite  and  per)>etually  fiuctnating.  The  people  on  the  fron- 
tier between  two  rsices,  an  in  the  South  Tyrol,  g  nerally  speak  two  languages.  Then 
we  have  dialects,  like  tlie  Walloon,  tlw  GiOdiierii^ch  of  the  Tyrol,  and  the  Komansch 
of  the  Orisons— a^i  also  the  Breton,  Wel^h,  Gaelic,  and  Irish  languages,  which  could 
hardly  be  made  the  basis  of  independent  communities.  The  weillwing  of  the  people 
governed  is  properly  tlie  end  of  all  government,  and  it  has  practically  not  lieen  al- 
ways touiid  that  a  slate  is  better  governed  when  it  coufists  of  one  race  only,  than 
When  it  includes  an  aggregtite  of  races.  Highly  diversified  nationalities  nniy  bo 
united  in  One  t>olitic»l  sy^teu»,  provided  only  that  the  government  leppects  aud  con- 
sults the  peculiariiies  of  the  several  races,  a  id  doe«  not  attempt  to  force  the  usages, 
liabits,  or  language  of  one  ou  the  rest.    See  Ethnology. 

NATIONAL  C0NVENT:T0N,  an  assembly  of  deputies  of  the  people,  which  as- 
Burasdthe  whole  government  of  France  on  the  overthrow  of  the  throne  in  1792. 
When  the  National  Assembly  (!«ee  Assembly  National)  had  decreed  tho  suspen- 
sion of  thekhig.  10th  August  1T92,  it  appointed  the  election  of  the  N.  C,  wlilcU 
commenced  its  sittings  2l8t  September.  Its  first  act  was  to  declare  France  a  repub- 
lic, 25th  September.  Upon  this  followed  the  tr  al  and  condemnation  of  the  king. 
Thi*ough  the  support  of  excited  mobs,  the  oxti*emo  Jacobin  jmrty  became  predomi- 
nant in  the  Coi»vention  ;  where,  from  the  elevated  S'-ats  on  whlth  its  memlwrs  sat, 
it  received  the  name  of  the  Mountain  party.  The  Revolutionary  Tribunal  was  es- 
tablished ;  the  chief  adminiistration  of  afitairs  was  intrusted  to  the  Committee  of 
Public  Safety,  which  exercised  the  most  despotic  powers.  The  Girondists  (q.  v.)f  »t 
first  a  powerful  jmrty  in  the  Conveni  ion,  were  destroyed,  many  of  them  p.  rlshin«? 
by  the  guillotine;  and  a" new  constitution,  thoroughly  democratic,  was  adopted, 
10th  Ang^ust  1798 ;  but  its  operation  was  suspendecTuntil  pence  should  be  restond. 
Meanwhile,  the  actual  rulers,  of  tlie  country  displayed  marvellous  energy ;  ahnost  a 
million  of  citizens  beiug  placed  under  arms,  and  immetise  provision  of  all  warliko 
stores  made  by  means  of  requisitions.  They  al!<o  proceeded  with  merciless  feveriiy 
against  their  poUticiil  opponents,  dealing  with  them  as  traitors;  btindreds  of  thou- 
sands were  thrown  into  pripon,  and  the  number  who  died  by  the  guillotine  increaned 
daily  both  in  Paiis  and  throughout  France.  The  N.  C.  itself  latterly  became  sub- 
ject to  the  dictatorial  |)Owerof  Robespierre;  many  of  its  members  were  guillotined 
iHthin  a  few  weeks ;  and  independent  opinion  was  no  longer  expressed.  The  over- 
throw of  Robe-pierre  was  followed  by  a  great  reaction ;  the  Jacobins  were  sup- 
pressed; and  finally  the  N.  C,  after  concluaing  {)eace  with  Prussia  and  Spain,  dis- 
eolved  itself  26th  Octol)er  1795  (4th  Brumaire  of  the  year  IV.),  leaving  to  the  nation 
a  new  crmstitution,  which  placed  the  government  iu  the  hands  of  a  Directory  (q.  v.). 

NATIONAL  COVENANT.    See  Covenant. 

NATIONAL  DEBT.    See  Dejjt,  National. 

NATIONAL  EDUCATION.  The  general  subject  of  Educotion  lins  been  already 
treated  under  th:  t  Jiead.  By  the  term  •*  National  Education  "  is  understood  (1)  the 
means  taken  by  the  IxKly  of  any  natitni,  either  through  the  state  or  other  organisa- 
tions, for  edncAiing  the  people ;  (2)  the  ohjet^ts  which  the  nation  pnght  to  place  be- 
fore itself  in  its  educationiU  measures.  These  questibns  involve  thfe  whole  inner  and 
outer  history  of  education,  and  are  fiif  too  large  aud  impoitaut  to  be  capable  of  sucli 


y  Google 


ITat'ontf 


110 


treatment  here  as  woiild  convey  accnrjite  notfons  to  the  render.  All  we  can  do  in  to 
glunce  slightly  at  the  hi»lory  of  the  two  hraiiclies  into  which  tho  -ubjeirt  divide^  it- 
t«elt'.  Among  ancient  nntioufi,  and  among  not  a  few  nations  now  existing.  odnciHioii 
in  any  definite  »ent«e  did  not,  and  doeft*  not,  exiht  for  the  ma^nes  of  the  |>;oj>le.  Tn« 
children  grow  np  in  refli^ciive  or  unreflective  iinitatiou  of  tii«ir  futliers.  Bnt  at  nil 
times,  nations  wl»ich  Inive  quite  en»erg«d  from  tite  ravage  state,  liave  liad  soiiie  nior.? 
or  less  orgauli«ed  scheme  of  edncarion  for  the  leisured  and  governing  classes.  TIk* 
])nrpo8e  kept  In  vit-w  in  such  education  lias  l>een  to  fit  the  pupils  to  discharjLTH  c  t- 
tAin  duties  of  w:ir  or  goverinnent.  In  addition  to  this,  thepriiwthood  h.-id  theedaua- 
lion  which  their  traditionary  liynnis,  laws,  and  customs  afforded.  That  man  as 
snch,  apart  from  any  siwcial  practicai*ind8,  should  be  edncated,  uas  an  Idea  \nte  of 
})elng  recognised,  and  occurred  first  to  the  Greeks,  to  whom  tlie  world  owes  so  much.' 
But  neither  amoi^  tliem  nor  their  imitators,  the  Konians.  was  thee<lucaiiun  <»f  Ute 
masses  of  the  people  ever  conten)plate<l.  Education,  proi>crly  ho  calle<l,  was  confin.d 
to  a  few.  In  the  centuries  which  succec^detl  the  introilacti«>n  o^  Ohristmniiy,  the 
church  was  tlic  great  educating  bwly— -tiidning  those  intendtd  for  the  st-rvice  of  I  he 
altar,  not  only  m  Christian  doctrine,  but  in  nU  the  learning  of  the  prist.  This, 
at  least,  was  the  general  tendency  of  education  in  Iho  church.  But  it  was 
not  till  the  Itcfonnalion  in  tlie  16th  c.  that  learning,  eveu  to  th  ;  limited  extent  of 
reading  and  writing,  was  considerttd  a  worthy  object  rf  pursuit  by  any  save  those 
who.  in  sonic  form  or  other,  were  destined  to  be  drawn  witlUu  the  clerical  ruuka. 
The  Kefonnation  introduced  the  idea  of  educating  the  masses  of  the  p.'0|>le— tho 
leadi?r8  of  this  movement  being,  no  doubt,  forced  to  this  conclusion  by  the  necessity 
which  tlieir  view  of  man's  |>ersonal  reli|;Ious  obligations  Imp  )«pil  on  thent  It  wa» 
manifestly  a  corollary  from  th^  position  they  took  up  that  epery  viands  ii»lellect 
should  !>:;  so  trained  as  to  l)e  able  lO  risad,  and  inquire,  and  think  for  itself.  It  was 
only  vei^'  slowly  ihat  so  large  a  conception  of  the  sphere  of  education  could  hj 
given  effect  lo.  Gradually,  however,  popular  schools  arose  in  many  parts  of  thi 
continent  of  Europe,  especially  in  Gernmny,  and  the  unuibar  of  gymnasia  or  grani- 
nnir-schools  w;is.  during  the  same  period,  incre^i^ed.  In  Scotland,  »o  early  as  1<596, , 
the  government  took  up  the  matter,  and  ordained  that  there  should  be  a  sctU)ol  aa 
well  ns  a  church  in  evei*y  parish,  at  the  same  time  providing  for  their  nmintenano 
by  a  tax  on  laud,  and  for  their  mainigemeut  by  ))uttiug  them  undt*r  u certain  numb  r 
of  tliose  who  |uud  I  he  tax  conjoined  witli  the  minister  of  the  parish — all  being  sul)- 
j-ct  to  the  presbyt»'ries  witliin  wliosfi  bounds  they  were  situated.  The  exiwnpKi  of 
Scotland  cannot  b'!  said  t.o  have  been  followed  on  a  lything  like  a  uationnl  sc  de  by 
any  country  till  after  the  French  H  -voliilion  had  exUau-ited  its.:l£.  Since  1815,  tho 
distinguishing  idea  of  government  adaiinistratiou  may  be  said  lo  be  the  necessity 
f)f  educating  the  people^  atuicUl  the  people— e\en  the  outcast  and  the  criminal.  Dur« 
ing  th  '■  last  fifty  years,  all  the  German  titates,  and  more  especia  ly  Prns.>Hu  and  Sax- 
ony, hav  •  dcVido'p  d  excellent  national  systems  of  education,  and  France  has  fol** 
lowed  their  example.  Ilussia  and  the  new  Kingdom  of^ialy  are  also  now  organic 
ing  primary  instructicm  ;  and  at  tlie  same  time,  as  in  all  Enro|>ean  comitrles,  they 
are  making  pr()vision  f-n*  the  instruction  a<id  professional  training  of  the  teachers 
in  Normal  Scliools  (q.  \X  T&e  schools  for  insrrucring  the  liiidd  e  classi's,  and 
grammar-schools  (French, /^c^e« ;  German,  ^ym»WMtttww»).  whose  object  isio  pre- 
))are  pupils  lor  the  univrrsities,^  have  received  increased  attention.  Uniyersitiog 
ttieinselves,  too.  have  been  further  develo|)ed,  their  curriculum  extended  in  range, 
their  objwts  elevated,  and  th  ir  number  increa-'ed. 

To  return  to  primary  iiistructi(m.  In  E-igltuid  there  was  no  national  syst-tnn, 
properly  so  called,  before  JSTii,  but  volunt^iry  effort4S  were  largely  aid  d  by  the  .<fcite 
in  tlie  form  of  Privy  Coundl  grants.  The-'e  grants  were  also  extended  to  Scotland^ 
us  it  became  necessary  to  supplement  the  ))arochlaI  schools  there,  owing  to  the  in- 
crease of  population.  The  principal  conditions  on  which  these  trrants  were  made 
were,  that  they  were  only  to  supplement  local  efforts,  that  the  schools  should  pa:^  a 
satistactory  e;cainl.n«tion  I>ef04-e  a  goveniniinit  inspector,  and  that  tlie  Bible  be  rtv-ni 
in  them.  As  much  additional  religious  instruction  migiit  Ih;  iriyeii  as  tiie  sdiool- 
managers  pleased,  but  no  schools  were  admitted  to  Privy  Council  aid  from  which 
the  Bible  was  excluded.  Under  the  stiinnhis  afforded  1^  these  graut«»,  the  educa- 
tional wants  of  England  were,  after  1839,  to  a  great  extent  supplied  :  but  matiy  dis- 
tricts were  left  anprorided  with  schools,  and  many  more  very  badly^^upplieo.    In 


y  Google 


Ill 


'  Nat.ooal 


1870,  np  ImpoHnnt  menwiv,  pnfitlW!  "An  Act  to  provirle  for  PnW!c  Elonientanr 
Sdiication  in  Eiitrhiiid  mid  Walft»,"  wj»p  iviH^ed  by  ]»arl1iiineiit,  accorditifr  to  which  ft 
is  enacted  tliat  ** there  shall  be  provided  for  every  pchool  di-trlct  n  pufllcioiit  ninonnt 
of  ac<^oinm<Mhitioii  hi  public  clemeMtairy  t«choo]8  avnilahle  for  all  tin*  <  hik!re1i  rohl- 
dent  in  snch  district,  for  whooe  elementary  ethication  Lfflcient  luid  suitable  pn-vii»foH 
ii*  not  otbi'rwise  made."  It  i»  enacted  further,  that  all  rliildren  att<'ndtng  tliefe 
schools,  whofe  parents  are  nnaWe,fron»  poverty,  to  p:iy  anythiug  towardt<  lliHircdn- 
catiou,  shiiU  l)e  admitted  free,  and  the  ex|K'ns«-8  so  Incurred  be  diHCharjrcd  from  loc;  1 
rates.  The  new  schools  are  phicetl  ill  each  district  under  *•  school-bo.-irds  "  Inveht  d 
with  great  powers — among;  oth^^rs,  that  of  coraiM-lIing  (mrents  to  seinl  their  cliiUlrt'U 
to  Hchool.  An  act  in  most  respects  similar  U)  the  abovt>  was  passed  iu  1872  for  Scot- 
laud,  whose  educational  wants  had  previoiwly  been  well  supplied. 

Id  Ireland,  a  njil^ional  sy.-tem  instituted  and  maintained  by  the  state  existp,  and 
one  of  its  main  features  is  the  separation  of  the  religious  from  the  f  ecuhir  teachinj;— 
at  least  iu  theory.  The  extent  to  which  this  principle  has  In^eu  cncronched  upon  iu 
the  course  of  working  out  the  scheme,  is  not  accurately  known,  but  is  won  by  of 
Bpecial  inquiry. 

In  the  British  colonies,  as  in  the  United  States  of  America,  adequate  state  sys- 
tems of  education  have  V.een  provided  on  the  basis  of  the  sociihir  principle.  8<ie  fhe 
articles  National  Education,  and  Privy  Council,  Committee  of,  on  Edu- 
cation.  "• 

NATIONAL  EDUCATION,  Systems  of,  the  provision  made  by  vnrlons  sfafea 
for  the  idncatlon  of  their  cifzeiis.  In  England,  the  term  national  education  Is 
commonly  used  as  implying  only  a  provirfon  made  for  the  instruction  qf  children  of 
the  i>oorer  classes.  But  it  is  capable  of  a  much  more  exteissive  application,  and 
ill  most  of  the  conutri('8  in  which  the  state  provides  for  the  edncatfon  of  tlie  people, 
the  state  regulates,  more  or  len?,  all  instruci ion,  from  tliat  of  the  primary  echonl 
to  that  of  tile  univer-'ity.  -In  EnL'land  national  education  has  no  existence.  The 
pjirish  Schools  (q.  v.)  of  Seotl.ind  at  one  lime  made  a  near  approach  t^j  being 
national,  but  the  alt-nd  religions  ci  renin  stances  of  tl»e  connti-y  liave  made  them 
case  to  be  so.  The  lni|)erfect  means  :  donted  to  supply  the  deficiency  in  both  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  are  de^crib^•d  under  the  head  of  Privy  CotJNOiL,  Committee  or, 
ON  Education.  See  also  Schools,  Public  akd  Grammar  ;  Industrial  Schools  ; 
Reformatory  Schools,  &c.  In  Ireland  the  foundation  of  a  reahy  national  sy^t.-m 
AvasJaid  in  1S33  in  the  *'  National  Schools  "  (snpplenienti'd  since  by  the  (^mreii's  Col- 
leges and  University),  the  piiiuiple  of  which  is  briefly  stated  under  Ireland. 
These  schools  have  exhibited  a  steady  and  even  snriili>Ing  proKresa,  when  we  con- 
piderthc  determined  opposition  they  have  inet  with  fnun  pcwerfnl  ecclesiastical  par- 
ties, l)oth  Catholic  and  Protestant.  In  several  of  the  British  colcmies  the  local  leg- 
islatures  have  boldly  dealt  with  the  question  on  the  national  i)rinctpie,  ill  apposition 
10  the  denominafl(.nal.  See  Victoria.  As  this  is  hkely  to  be  one  of  the  firi-t  im- 
portant subjects  to  come  Iwfore  the  reformed  parliaim'i.t,  it  may  be  optpoitnije  to 
give  our  readers  a  sketch  of  what  some  neighboring  naticiie  have  done  in  regard  lo 
it.  B-foro  entering  npon  the  dcf'cription  which  we  propose  lo  give  of  the  piincijial 
systems  of  national  education,  if  will  be  proper  to  giv«  fome  account  of  the  obt'ta- 
cles  which  have  hitherto  prevented  the  et-lablishment  of  anaiiornl  system  among 
oni-selves,  and  to  indicate  some  of  the  matters  as  to  which  we  have  to  look  fur  in- 
struction from  foreign  experience. 

And.  first,  in  Great  Britahi  the  establishment  of  a  national  system  of  education, 
and  of  all  interference  with  education  on  the  part  of  the  s'ate,  has  until  lately  been 
opposed  upon  principle  by  a  numerous  and  respectable  body  of  politicians.  Th<  y 
for  the  most  part  connstVd  of  Dissenters  of  the  inidd*e  class,  wlio,  Iieglnning  with 
Volnntaryism  in  ecclesiastical  matt'-rs,  had  passed  on — at  least  the  loaders  had-  to 
the  docirine  of  tot«««-2/ai#'c  in  politics.  The  others  were  chUfly  speculative  per- 
'  Sims,  deeply  imbued  with  the  same  doctrine,  who,  profoundly  (lisbelieving  in  the 
wisdom  of  st itesmen,  and  the  cap  icity  of  officials,  and  upcarently  in  the  po-sibil- 
ity  of  foresiaiit  In  laree  affairs,  heW  ihat  tlH'  state  should  undertake  as  little  as  pos- 
sible, and  leavei  things  to  what  they  railed  their  natural  course.  The  arguments 
used  by  these  two  chisses  were  not  always  alike.  Individuals  of  the  former  ch.ss 
were  apt  to  go  back  to  the  reliurious  ground  from  which  they  started,  maintaining 
that  education  ought  to  be  religious,  that  the  suite  ought  not  to  teach  religion,  that 


y  Google 


Kat.onal  Edacation 


312 


thorefore  edDcation  was  out  of  the  province  of  the  Btate.  Bnt  what  the  spokeflroen 
of  both  dasBesi  most  iusisted  on  wim  thiis  that  education  ehoald  be  left  to  the  law 
of  supply  and  demand,  or  ratlier,  to  the  voluntary  action  of  iudividnaia,  single 
or  combined.  It  was  iu  tiiat  way,  tliey  declan^,  that  'the  edacation  of  the 
people  couid  be  most  beneficially  carrieii  on ;  for  so  carried  on,  it  would  arwa5-s  Ix?, 
i>otli  in  kind  and  iu  exientt  what,  on  the  whole,  the  circnmstauces  of  the  people 
required.  In  the  liands  of  government,  they  said,  au  educational  system  must  be. 
more  or  less,  au  instniment  of  state.  And  at  the  besi,  the  extent  and  thaquaiity  of 
the  iustruction  provided  must  deiiend  upou  the  will  of  persons  who  might  be  very 
ignorant  of  the  wants  of  the  people.  They  used  declamatiou  about  the  bad  way 
iu  which  governments  did  everytliing  they  attempted ;  about  the  dat^ger  of  creating; 
a  host  of  new  officials;  and  about  the  impropriety  of  interfering  with  natural  laws 
and  of  discouraging  voluntttry  agency.  Theu  they  enlarged  upou  the  great  progress 
which  education  had  made  iu  Biigland  since  the  beginning  of  this  century,  Inde- 
pendently, as  they  said,  of  the  state— miiintaining  not  only  that  it  had  l)eeu  as  great 
as  the  circuuiKta;»c»8  of  the  country  pcrmittid,  but  that  it  was  almost  as  much  as 
the  state  had  accomplished  in  any  country^  and  that  it  proved  (hat  in  Bnglaud, 
supply  and  dcmautl,  or  the  voluntary  principle,  would  soou  provide  for  tlie  ^uca* 
tioii  of  the  whole  people.  The  greater  part  of  tlie  increase  in  the  supply  of  educa- 
tion, so  far  as  it  was  uot  due  to  the  actiou  of  the  state,  had  come  from 
the  benevolent  exertions  of  individuals.  But  their  chief  reliance  was  U|>ou 
the  ag»'ucy  of  iudividuals  or  societies  inspired  by  beuevolence  or  religions 
zeal.  They  held  that  the  same  objections  did  not  apply  to  voluntary  organisations 
which  lay  against  the  state ;  they  declared  that  it  was  the  great  glory  oi  Eugland  to  ac- 
complish by  ^uch  means  things  which  elsewhere  were  attempted  only  Iiy  tiie  state. 
Combined  voluntary  action,  they  said,  was  consonant  witii  the  national  habits  and 
institutions;  it  was  a  part  of  the  system  which  had  made  the  English  a  (ree,  self- 
reliant,  and  euterpiising  race;  it  should  be  fosterid,  not  discouraged ;  and  it  was 
worth  our  while  to  pay  a  price  if  necessary,  rather  thau  let  it  be  superseded  by  the 
action  of  the  state. 

It  wao  answered,  first,  that  tlie  commercial  principle  of  supply  and  demand,nuless 
suppK-mented  by  tlie  benevolence  of  iudividuals,  could  not  be  expected  to  educate 
the  people  except  by  very  slow  degr^'es ;  that  education  mustj^reate  tlie  demand  for 
education;  that  children  of  the  lower  classes  in  large  towns,  unless assibionce  or 
stimulation  came  to  them  from  without^  had  at  present  no  more  chance  of  receiv- 
ing iiiHt ruction  tliau  if  they  were  living  iu  Africa.  And  tiie  nation  would  lose' in- 
calculably by  delay  in  educating  the  masses;  for  nothing  would  so  greatly  increase 
its  power  and  prosperity,  so  materially  improve  the  condition  of  the  humbler  classes, 
as  the  education  of  tlie  whole  people.  The  importance  of  voluntary  agencies  was 
admit  ted;  but  why  was  the  state  to  be  precluded  from  at  least  co-operating  with 
tliem?  The  states  it  was  said,  had  a  greater  interest  in  educating  the  people  than 
any  of  her  citizens  could  have;  and,  moreover— this  was  the  real  question — could 
undertake  it  more  successfully.  Voluntary  agency,  it  was  maintained,  was  too  slow, 
toouiicei'tAiii.  loo  spasmodic  in  operation,  to  l)e  permanently  and  solely  relied  upon 
in  a  matter  of  such  great  national  concern.  The  friends  of  stiile  actiou  coiiftdenily 
a|)|>ealed  to  the  experience  of  foreign  countries  as  shewing  the  superior  efflcieucy 
of  state  education,  and  pointed  to  the  effects  wliicli  government  stimulation  on  a 
limited  scale,  had  had  at  home.  It  is  now  several  years  since  this  controversy  was 
at  its  height.  The  Voluntaries  have  since  that  been  acquiescing  in  the  interference 
of  the  state  with  education  ;  and  recently,  several  of  their  foremost  men  have  frank'y 
admitted  that  they  had  been  mistaken,  and  that  the  state,  by  what  it  has  done  for 
education,  has  made  good  its  claim  to  the  regulation  of  it.  The  course  of  poilticjil 
events  has  recently  added  gre^itly  to  the  importance  of  popular  education  ;  and  at 
present  it  may  be  said  that  tliere  is  practically  no  opposition  upon  principle  to  the 
control  of  education  by  the  state. 

Ttiere  have  always,  however,  been  obstacles  to  the  establishment  of  a  national 
system  more  formidable  thau  the  opposition  of  the  Voluntaries,  and  these  appear  to 
remain  unabated. 

The  most  important  of  tliem  are  those  which  are  concerned  wiih  the  place,  if 
any.  to  l)e  assiinied  to  religion  in  the  school  instruction.  Upon  this  nmiter,  tlien^  ia 
a  conflict  of  opiuiouB  which  seems  ulmost  irreconcilable.    A  iiaity,  which  is  growing 


y  Google 


113 


Hational  Edacatioa 


\n  nnmbers,  and  which  in  renpectable  from  it?  nctivlty  ami  iutHHj^ence,  hold?  that 
the  ^tati;  slionld  give  iiorhing  bnt  secniar  iimtrnrtion';  iluit  rellifloii  is  lH*yoiid  Ita 
province,  :iud  Mhtmid  not  be  taoght  withiu  its  schooln ;  tti:it,  iiid<-ed,  with  a  |K)pala- 
tiuii  divided  into  UMuierons  secti«,  a  practicable  eclienit»  of  sta!e  edacati(»D, 
embracing  ri'ligion  cannot  l>e  devij*ed.  To  this  party,  a  portion  of  the  Knij:li>h 
Vulnut-aries  now  setMns  di.xposed  to  ally  ihielf.  Tlnre  are  others  who  believe  it 
possible  to  teach  an  nndenoniinatioual  Ohristiauity  in  schools;  who  desire  that  the 
state  schoolmaster  crlionld  coDflne  himself  to  this;  and  that  dotnnatic  teaching 
shon Id  I>tih*ft  to  the  religions  bodies.  A  third  party  hold  tliat  dogmatic  teaching 
shuald  be  gi^eu  in  state  schools ;  that  religions  teaching,  to  have  any  value,  nin!*t  oe 
dogmatic;  hut  that  arrangements  miglit  he  made  for  the  religions  instrnclion  of 
f'ltiidren  by  persons  of  tlieir  own  iiersuasions ;  and,  at  anyrate.  that  childrt^n  should 
be  exempted  from  the  religions  instnictlon  given  in  a  school,  if  their  i>arents  should 
so  desire.  The  most  niimerous  l>ody  of  all  are  satisfied  with  the  system  of  aiding 
denominational  fchoois  which  now  exists;  because  they  approve  of  schools  l)eii;g, 
as  for  the  most  pan  ihey  now  are,  under  clerical  supervision,  and  fear  that  by  any 
change  the  inflncnre  (»f  tin*  clergy  npou  education  would  be  weakened.  Among  ibe 
managers  of  Chnruh  of  £n>,'land  schools,  fault  is  scarcely  found  with  niort>  limn 
onepoii4  in  the  present  system  ;  there  ia  nn  incessant  agitation  ngainst  the  ^*  Con< 
science  Clause,"  which  the  htate  has  placed  among  the  conditions  of  lis  aid,  by  which 
is  stipulated  that  religions  instruction  shall  not  Iw  given  contrary  to  the  wish  of  tiie 
parent.  Between  tho  Beuominationalist  and  the  Secularist  there  is  a  difference 
whiciiscarcolv  admits  of  compromise;  and  until  they  agree,  a  national  system  is 
lirirdly  possible.  The  former  woald  most  probably  oppose  any  scheme  for  supple- 
meniing  the  Denominational  system— for  the  pur|>08eof  educating  the  clashes 
wiiich  this  sysiera  does  not  educate — unless  it  were  to  include  religions  teaclimg. 

The  question  of  reliffions  instruction  has  been  found  a  troublesome  one  in  nearly 
every  country  where  tlie  stale  regulates  c<lncation,  and  tliere  is  nothing  more  iu- 
strnctlve,  in  loreign  experinice,  than  the  ways  in  which,  In  different  systems,  this 
.  difliculty  has  been  disposed  of.  Next  to  this,  the  most  important  thing  to  l)e  ol)- 
servcd  Is,  tlie  parts  which,  in  different  systems,  are  assignea  to  the  state  and  to  the 
locHliry  res|)ectively ;  for  it  is  unquestionable  that  there  are  some  dangers  attaching 
to  state  education,  when  the  influence  of  the  state  is  predominant,  and  that,  the 
function  of  theslate  in  education  must  l>e  carefully  defined.  By  the  mere  seicctiou 
of  ttcbool-books.  the  state  could  powerfully  influence  the  rising  generation;  and  In 
Austria,  and,  it  is  said,  in  France  also,  the  school  has  been  mnae  use  of  as  an  iustm- 
juent  or  state  policy.  With  a  popular  government,  however,  there  is  not  much  risk 
f  f  it  being  ns  d  for  sinister  jmrposes;  and  in  this  country,  we  are  in  more  danger 
of  having  recourse  too  little  to  the  powers  of  the  state  thap  of  trusting  it  too  much. 
Mhrt  possibility  of  making  education  compulsory,  is  another  matter  u|M>n  which  for- 
eign systems  of  education  throw  much  light :  we  are  perhaps  more  interested  in 
noting  how  far  indirect  methods  can  l)e  resorte<1  to  for  comiielliug  attendance  at  the 
schools.'  Upon  the  limits  of  the  instruction  which  should  be  attempted  in  sch(  ols 
for  the  ]K)orer  classes — a  suliject  which  has  l)een  much  d.scussed  in  connection  with 
I  he  Revised  Code  of  1861— and  upon  the  results  of  government  regulation  of  the 
middle  and  upper  schools  also,  there  is  much  to  be  learned  from  the  foreign  ednca- 
liouui  systems.    We  begin  with 

StaU-education  in  HollancU 

There  nre  several  cotmtries  in  which — if  school  statistics  conld  be  taken  as  a 
test — popular  instruction  is  more  widely  diffused  than  it  is  in  Holland;  but  In  no 
European  countiy  is  it  so  uncommon  to  meet  a  man  who  cannot  easily  rend  i  nd 
write.  The  primely  schools  of  Holland  have  a  hi^'h  i*epntation  for  the  solidity  of  tho 
instruction  they  impart,  and  have,  by  competent  ob^eivcrs,  been  declai-ed  to  be  the 
l>est  in  Europe.  A  small  and  wealthy  state — rich,  t«  o,  in  the  public  spirit  of  its  citi- 
zens— with  a  populatio'n  singularly  docile  and  ortletly,  the  task  of  educ^tintr  the  peo- 
ple has  l>ecn  for  Holland  exceptionally  free  from  ilithcnlty.  It  had  the  start  of  most 
other  Eurof>cau  nations  in  the  work  of  pofralar  education.  So  far  back  as  1811,  its 
p»1n»ary  rchools  had  been  celnhnited  in  a  Report  by  the  famous  Cuvier.  It  has  had 
an  educatiouttl  law  since  180«;  atid  of  this  lttW|  though  it  underwent  modillcatiou  in 


y  Google- 


National  Sdaoation 


114 


1867,  it  is  necensAry  to  ^ve  somA  accoant.    Its  anther  waa  M.  Van  Bon  End^s  who, 
from  1S06  till  1883,  had  tUe  Buperhiteiideuco  of  popiilnr  ediictuioii  iu  the  cunutry. 

Ou  the  face  or  it,  this  law  seemed  far  from  inakiug  a  complete  provisiou  for  the 
educatiuu  of  the  people;  it  left  mucti— in  any  other  courttry,  it  wonlil  have  l)een  a 
grejit  deal  too  much — to  the  public  spirit  of  locjil  unthorities.  It  did  uot  make  edu- 
c  ition  coinpnlsory ;  it  did  not  even  enforce  tlie  estiiblislimeut  of  pnblic  schools ;  but 
it  provided  for  two  things  l)eing  done  tlioronirhly — the  inspection  of  tlie  schools  and 
the  exauiinatiou  of  ttie  teacliers — and  to  this  seems  to  liave  been  chiefly  dne  ila 
eminent  success.  Bach  province  of  Holhind  was  formed  into  a  certain  number  of 
school-districts,  aud  over  each  school-district  wtis  placed  an  iu8]>ector. ;  Tiie  in^iector 
was  m:ide  supreme  over  primary  instruction  in  his  district,  He  was  a  memiier  of 
every  scliool-committec,  and  school-committees  could  be  mmied  only  with  his  con- 
currence; no  teticher,  pnlilic  or  private,  could  exercise  his  calling  witiiont  hit>  ])er- 
iQis.«ioii ;  and  be  iu8|)ected  every  school  in  liis  distriet  twice  a  year.  The  united  iu- 
si>ector8of  the  province  formed  ttie  provincitU  commission  for  primary  education. 
This  commission  met  three  times  a  year,  and  received  from  each  of  its  members  a 
report  upon  his  district ;  once  a  year,  it  sent  a  deputy  to  tlie  Hague,  to  form,  witii 
the  deputies  from  other  proviuces,  a  commission  to  discuss  and  regulate  scliool- 
matters,  under  the  direction  of  the  Minister  for  the  Home  Department  and  his  In- 
spector-general. The  inspectors  in  the  various  provinces  were  appointed  by  tlio 
Home  Office,  on  the  presentation  of  the  provincial  commission.  It  has  heeu  said 
that  iu  Holland  public  spirit  is  very  strong.  St4ite-eniployments  are  tiins  deemed 
very  honorable ;  and  the  inspectors  gave  their  services  gratuitously — ^receiving  only 
an  allowance  for  expenses.  It  was  one  of  tiie  duties  of  the  provincial  commission 
to  examine  teachers  for  certificates.  First,  the  teacher  tmd  to  gt^t  a  genercU  admission 
— a  certificate  of  competency,  admitting  liim  into  the  teaching  profession; 
he  iiad^  to  got  a  special  admisftionj  alno.  before  he  could  cxeixjise  his 
profession.  Tliere  were  four  grades  of  certificates — the  first  or  second  gnide  I«ad 
to  1)6  obtiiined  l)y  a  school-master,  public  or  private,  in  the  to\^ns;  the  third 
grade  qualified  for  a  village-school ;  the  f(mrth  grade  was  lor  nuder-masters 
and  assistants.  To  the  ingliest  grade  were  adn'iitted  tliose  candidates  only 
who  gave  signs  of  a  distinfruished  culture.  For  public  mastership^*,  wlien  ihey 
fell  vacant,  a  competitive  examination  was  held;  the  successful  candidate  received 
Ids  special  admission — his  appointment  to  exercise  liis  profession  in. the  school.  For 
special  admission  as  a  piivate  t(>acht!r,  there  was  no  second  examination ;  it  was  in 
the  pow^'r  of  the  municipality,  with  tiie  concurrence  of  tlie  insptKirtor,  to  grant  it 
upon  application.  Although  there  were  no  obligatory  provisions  in  tiie  law,  the  pro- 
vincial and  commuual  administrations  were  charged  by  ttie  government  to  provide 
the  means  of  instruction  iu  their  localities,  to  insure  a  comfortaiile  subsistence  for 
teachers,  and  to  obtain  a  regular  aitendniice  of  the  children  in  the  sdiools;  and  they 
did  all  this  to  the  i)e8t  of  their  ability.  Free  schools  for  the  poor  were  provided  iu 
the  towns;  in  the  villages,  schools  to  which  the  poor  were  admitted  gratuitously. 
Svery  effort  was  used,  botli  by  the  lay  authorities  and  the  clergy,  to  dniw  poor  ; 
children  into  the  schools ;  and  the  schoelmasters  were  provided  with  incomes  much 
su|)erior  to  what  is  nsuully  paid  to  schoolmasters  in  any  other  £nro])eaii  country.  To 
tills  M.  Cuvier  attributed  much  of  the  success  of  the  'Dutch  school-'.  Some  of  the 
best  scholars  were  kept  in  the  school  to  assist  in  the  teaching;  they  became 
^Tinder-masters,  and  eventually  masters  ;  and  thus,  even  before  tlie  institution  of 
normal  schools,  an  efficient  Iwdy  of  teachers  was  provided.  In  the  normal  schools 
which  were  afterwards  establisiied,  sciiool-methods  and  the  practice  of  teaching 
formed  a  more  prominent  part  of  the  in8tJ*uction  than  in  tltose  of  otiier  countries. 
It  soon  appeared,  tliat  the  free  schools  for  the  poor  in  towns  were  giving  l)ettt*r  iu- 
sinictiou  than  could  be  obtained  by  the  lower  middling  elaoses;.  and  intermediate 
schools  had  to  be  established  In  the  towns  {tusschen-schoolen),  in  which,  foi*  a  small 
fee,  an  excellent  education  was  provided.  Aliove  tiie  intermediate  school  was  the 
French  school,  in  which,  besides  a  sound  commercial  educalion,  inod<'rn  languages 
were  tanglit;  above  thiit  w»isthe  Latin  school,  giving  a  classical  I'ducntiou.  and  pre-* 
]>ariug  for  the  universities.  Tiie  classical  schools  and  the  univt'i-sitieM  of  Holland 
do  not  receive  from  foreign  observers  the  commendation  so  fi-eely  bestowed  upou 
the  other  parts  of  the  e<lucatioual  system  of  the  country. 

Under  this  law,  the  public  schools  were  uou-deuominatloual ;  no  dogmatic  in- 


y  Google 


1 115 


Natloiul  Education 


ptmction  was  to  be  piven  by  the  teachor  or  in  the  pcliool ;  bnt  tlic  Iiwtmctioii  wns 
to  Iwj  fcoch  as  to  **  train  it«  rwipleiitJ*  for  the  fxerciw  of  uil  FOcitU  and  C'hrit*tiuii  vir- 
tues. Tlie  relisrioua  etlncatioii  of  Ibe  cliildreii,  hnwever,  was  not  ovtrlook*  d.  The 
pdVt-rHiiieut  rxlj(»rted  the  clergy  of  the  differeot  coinmuuioiis  to  take  upon  them  Ihc 
religions  iiistrnctioii  of  children  of  their  own  i)er8uai*ion8 ;  niul  this  tlie  clerjry  wil- 
linjrly  <lid — giving  no  a  portion  of  every  Snnday  to  this  duty.  The  wihoouna-ter 
iiiSlrncted  the  ciiiklren  in  the  truths  common  to  all  religious,  and  on  Sntnrthiys, 
when  the  Jews  were  ahsi'nt,  in  the  New  Tesfamcnt  and  t\w  Life  of  Clirist.  M. 
Cavier,  in  1811,  stated  tliat  lie  found  the  education  religion.*',  thongli  not  dognratic ; 
and  in  1836.  high  satisfaction  with  it  was  expresMtl  bv  M.  Ckinsin,  an  earnest  advo- 
cate of  vrerigiousedaeation.  It  was  thought  thnt  the  Dutch  sclioola  had  proved  the 
possibility  of  teaching  in  sclioots  an  nusectarian  Christianity.  Bnt  it  was  chiefly 
upon  this  )>oint  that  tlie  controversy  arose  which  led  to  the  ennctiueut  of  1867 ;  and 
as  ngards  it,  it  cannot  be  said  that  tlie  controversy  is  yet  ended. 

There  were  oilwr  inattors  which  excited  a  dennind  for  tlie  alterntions  tlien  made 
hi  the  law.  The  constitntion  of  1S48  l«ad  granted  the  lilx-rty  of  in»»trnction.  and  was 
tiierefore  in  conflict  witli  the  law  of  180«.  Thefchool  attendance  had  In-eu  falling  off. 
Some  of  tlKj  mnnicipalities  had  been  evading  tlieir  dntv  to  tlie  schoolmasters  and 
the  schools.  It  was  thought  desir.-iiile  that  the  dnties  of  the  coininone  In  regard  to 
edn  ation  should  be  carefnlly  defined  by  law.  Tlie  changes  made,  however,  M'ero 
not  of  much  practical  Importance. 

^he  law  of  tf67  pranird  "  liberty  of  instrnction ; "  ptill  requiring  from  the  private 
teaclnr  the  eertificate  of  competency,  it  rid  him  of  the  veto  of  the  mnnicipality  and 
tlie  inspector.  It  expressly  prescribes  thtit  primary  schools,  in  each  commune, 
shall  be  at  the  communc^s  charge;  they  are  to  be  in  sufllelent  nnml>er ;  and  t lie 
slates'  deputies  and  the  eupjjemc  government  are  to  judge  whether,  in  any  commune, 
they  are  in  sufficient  number  or  not.  If  tlic  charge  of  its  bcIjooIs  is  too  heavy  for  a 
commune,  it  receives  a  grant  in  aid,  of  which  tin;  state  and  the  province  each  con- 
tributes half ;  but  there  is  no  fixeil  i>oint  at  which  the  (omniune  can  demand  this 
aid.  The  law  fixes  the  minimum  salary  for  a  schoolmaster  at  400  florins  (al)out  jG34)  ; 
for  an  under-master  at  200  florins.  (The  schoolmat«ter'8  salarv,  however,  is  usually 
much  higher;  in  towns,  not  uufrrqumtly  four  times  as  much.)  It  provides  that 
when  the  number  of  scholars  exceetls  TO,  the  master  is  to  have  the  aid  of  a  pupil- 
teacher;  when  it  exceeds  100,  of  an  under-master;  wlien  it  exceeds  150.  of  an 
an  under-master  and  pupil-teacher ;  for  eyery  60  scholars  above  this  last  number,  be 
is  allowed  another  pupil  teacher;  for  every  100  sclio1ai*s,  anotlier  undfi-inaster. 
School-fees  are  to  be  exacted  f»uly  of  those  who  can  afford  to  pay  tin  m  ;  and  the 
municipalities  are  enjo'ned  to  "provide  as  far  as  possible  for  the  attendance  at 
e<*hool  of  all  children  whose  parents  are  in  the  rec(i])t  of  public  relief."  The  law 
defines  tlie  subjects  of  primary  instruction  as  follows :  Retiding,  writing,  aritlimetic, 
the  elements  of  georaetiy,  of  Dutch  grammar,  of  geography,  of  history,  of  the 
natural  Miiences,  and  singing.  Tliere  is  still  a  competitive  examination  for  the 
office  of  public  schoolmaster ;  a  list  of  those  who  have  acquitted  themselves  best  is 
made  up  l>y  the  inspector  and  a  committee  of  the  communal  council,  and  from  this 
list  the  selection  is  made  by  the  whole  body  of  the  council.  For  the  provincial 
commission,  consisting  of  the  inspectors  of  the  province,  there  has  been  substituted 
a  salaried  provincial  inspector;  and  tlie  provincial  inspectoi-s  are  assembled  once  a 
year  to  devbenite  uj>on  the  state  of  tirimary  instruction.  The  Minister  of  the  Home 
Department,  assisted  by  a  referendary,  is  the  supreme  authority  in  matters  con- 
nected with  education. 

Upon  the  subject  of  religloua  instruction,  the  law  was  left  unaltered.  The  enact- 
ment of  1857  provides  as  fiillows:  *♦  Primary  instruction,  while  it  impart?  the  iulor- 
matloiv  necessary,  is  to  tend  to  develop  the  reason  of  the  young,  and  to  tndn  them 
totbeexerciseof  all  Christian  and  social  virtues.  The  teacher  shall  abstain  from 
teaching,  doing,  or  ptnmitting  anything  contrary  to  the  resjiect  duo  to  tlie  convic- 
tioiisof  Disst^nters.  Religious  instruction  is  left  to  the  different  religious  commu- 
nions. Tlie  Bchoolrooni  may  be  putat  tlieir  disposal  for  that  purpose,  for  the  benefit 
of  children  attending  school,  out  of  scliool-hours."  This  was  the  conclusion  arrived 
at,  after  much  excited  discussion. 

Iji  1848,  all  religions  were,  in  Holland,  placed  by  the  law  on  a  perfect  equality ;  and 
immediately  tbefeuf ter,  au  attack  was  begun  by  the  Roman  Catholics  on  the  rtli- 


y  Google 


Natoaal  Education 


116 


plona  iiiPtrnctlon  of  the  scliooU.  Professedly  neutral,  they  maintained  ihat  ii  was 
reully  Protestant,  and  probably  they  were  rigiit.  The  schooniiastera,  on  tht*  demand 
of  the  Roman  Catholics,  were  eujolned  to  comply  more  strictly  with  the  law;  and 
tliereupou  titere  began  amou^  the  orthodox  Protesunit  bodies  a  violent  tigitatiou 
ngainnt  the  law — a  movement  for  connecting  every  public  school  with  some  religions 
cumtnaiiion.  The  Roman  Catholics,  believing  that  in  Holland  nculral  schools  ma?it 
be  Proteslnnt,  desired  that,  the  instrnct:on  shuald  be  purely  secular;  and  u  consider- 
able party  among  the  Prot(}st>ints  contended  for  the  sjime  obj -ct.  The  only  iMirty  iii 
favor  of  J  he  exi>tiiig  law  were  the  Rationalists  or  New-school  Protestants,  who 
attach  more  ini|K)rtance  to  the  moral  and  civilizing  side  of  Christianity  than  to  its 
dogmatic  aspects.  Between  tlio  Denominutionalii^td  on  one  hand  and  the  Secularists 
on  the  other,  the  victory  fell  to  this  last  party.  Of  course,  the  dinnsion  was  a  cont- 
promise;  and  neither  the  liigii  Protestant  narty  nor  the  Roman  Catholics  regard  it 
with  satisfaction.  The  conr^equence  has  been  that,  advantage  l>eing  taken  of  the 
newly-conceded  freedom  of  in>trnction,  there  has  been  a  great  incretise  in  tlie  num- 
ber of  private  ebmv'nt.;iry  schools  conducted  on  tlie  denominational  basis.  The  noii- 
denonnnational  school  in  Holland  Ciinnot  be  considered  entirely  succe^'Sfn].  since 
the  opiK>sition  to  it  sinims  to  b<!  leading  to  primary  educatiou  being  to  a  cousiaerable 
extent  taken  out  of  tbe  control  of  tlie  state. 

State-editcation  in  Switzerland. 

In  no  part  of  Europe  has  the  edncsUion  of  the  people  \yeeu  more  successfully  prose- 
cuted than  ill  Swiizeiland.  In  all  the  cautonn,  French  and  Qennan,  it  has  been 
carefully  attended  to  by  the  governing  iKxlies;  and  for  small  communities,  provided 
th  >  rulers  have  iutt^lligeuce  and  pnbhc  spirit,  it  is  comparatively  a  simple  and  easy 
task.  To  those  who  arv!  interesttMi  in  school-methods  and*  school-inanagemeut, 
nothing  can  I>e  more  instractive  than  the  education  of 'the  G.innan  cantons.  Their 
primary  schools  are  unsurpassed  ;  those  of  tlie  canton  Aargan  have  the  reputation 
of  bciing  the  best  in  Europe.  The  experience  of  the  French  cantons  tlirows  liglil 
upon  more  than  one  of  the  questions  vkIiIcU  occur  in  the  constructiou  of  a  national 
svHtem.  It  is  with  th;  latter  clasM  of  quef>tions  that  we  are  concerned;  and  to  the 
French  cantons— Geneva,  Vaud,  Freiburg,  Neufchatel,  and  the  Valais — the  following 
stattiiuent  is  confined. 

In  thjse  Ave  cantons,  the  school-system  was,  until  recently,  the  same  in  Its  main 
outlines;  it  was  a  system  designed  to  put  public  education  in  harmony  with  the 
di'mocratic  ccmstitniions  establisheil  after  the  war  of  the  Sonderbnud.  In  Vaud,  it 
wastonndedin  1846;  iu  Geneva  and  Freiberg,  in  1848;  in  the  Valai",  In  1849;  and 
in  Neufchatel,  in  1850.  In  Freil)erg,  it  underwent  niodiflcation  in  1866.  Its  nmiu 
features  wre  as  follows:  The  communes  were  required  to  provide  and  maintain 
public  scliools,  tlie  state  a.^sisiiiig  ihem  wlieu  the  charge  became  too  heavy.  In  gen- 
eral, every  place  with  more  than  20childr  n  of  school-age  was  required  to  have  its 
school ;  every  place  with  more  th  in  60  or  60,  a  second  school ;  and  so  on.  Infant- 
schools  were  recommended  andaidt^  liy  the  state,  but  their  establishment  was  nut 
nude  obli«jatoi-y.  The  council  of  state — the  supreme  executive — of  tlie  canton  ap- 
^ointiHi  a  Board  of  Public  Instruclion  to  exercise  the  government  of  education  ;  but 
n  import^mt  matters,  an  appeal  lay  from  this  body  to  the  council ;  and  by  the 
council  only  could  a  master  T>e  dismissed.  The  municipality  appointed  a  coiiimn- 
nal  school-coininitree,  which  had  the  local  su|)erintendence  of  the  schools.  Ministers 
of  religion  were  eligible  for  tiiis  l)ody,  lint  were  not  memlKTs  of  it  by  virtue  of  officii 
It  was  the  duty  of  the  school-committee  to  visit  the  schools  of  its  commune  not  lew 
than  once  a  fortnight,  besides  holding  a  public  geuenri  examination  of  them  o::ce 
a  year.  Tne  teacher  reouired  to  get  a  certificate  of  capacity  ;  the  examinationri  for 
tlie  ceitiflcate  I)e!ng  under  (lie  management  of  tlie  Boaixi  of  Public  Instruction.  Iu 
Vand.  however,  five  years'  service  in  a  public  school  exempted  a  teacher  from  the 
obliiraiion  of  a  certificate;  and  In  other  cantx>ns,  it  does  not  seem  to  have  1)ee]i 
rigidly  in^'isted  on.  For  vacant  masterships,  tliere  was  a  coni|>etitive  examination, 
to  winch  |)er8ons  qualified  by  certificate  or  service  only  were  properly  admitted;  iu 
Vaud,  however,  failing  quatitied  {lersons,  other  ciuididatcs  might  be  admitted  to 
examination,  and  nrovisionally  appointed.  In  Geneva,  Freiburg  and  the  Vulais, 
there  were  hcIiooI  insiiectors  who  periodically  reiK)rted  to  the  Board  of  Public  In* 
Biruction ;  Vaud  and  Neulchatvl  had  no  inspector;   the  duty  of  iuapectiou  iu  thes^ 


!;; 


y  Google 


117 


Kattonal  Edaeation 


cantons  devolved  upon  the  Pchool-commUtee.  Tlie  tnbjccts  tnngbt  were  religion, 
reading,  wntliig,  grmnmnr,  aritlimetic  Hwd  book-keeping,  geogniphy,  HwiHS  1111*1017, 
andf^Jngiug.  Th»*  instnittion  given  Imd  two  ornioi-e  degroes  (in  Geuevji,  aix  do- 
greHi).  according  as  these  Bnbj>.;ctt>  weretaii<;ht  with  more  or  lesH  extension ;  instnu- 
lion  in  botli  degree b  l)eing  nnanily  given  iu  tlie  same  scliooU  and  by  the  snmc  n)u»rer. 
Btlaciition  was  10  l)e  based  upon  the  •*  principle  of  Chrisiianity  and  dcmo<Tnry.*' 
Hours  were  to  be  set  apnil  for  religions  in»trnction ;  from  tlie  ordinary  sctiool- 
]*'8pons  do<,nna  was  to  bo  strictly  exclnded ;  and  it  was  regarded  as  the  province  of 
tile  minister  of  religion,  not  of  the  schoolmaster,  to  give  religions  instructiun, 
thongli  the  latter  was  not  prevented  from  giving  it  in  the  rooni  of,  and  nnder  ilu) 
rei«pon9il»ility  of  a  minister.  In  all  the  cantons,  except  Oeneva,  edncation  wns 
niHde  compnisory;  nttendauce  at  school  was  required  from  the  seventh  to  the  tif- 
teenth,  or  from  tlie  eighrl)  to  the  sixteentli  year.  It  children  were  privately  ediicati  d. 
the  state  must  he  satihfii-d  that  their  edubution  wus  sufficient ;  such  children  cinilu 
be  called  np  for  examination  with  the  scholars  of  the  public  scliools,  and  if  found 
inferior,  mighi  be  transferred  to  a  public  school.  A  certificate  of  emancipation  whs 
panted  when  tlie  obligatory  course  bad  been  fullllled.  'I'he  luw  contemjilated  tlnit 
roe  instruction  should  oe  gratuitous,  and  in  Geneva  and  tlieValals  it  was  grutnitoiis. 

In  Freiburg,  the  school-system  was  fnmied  in  no  small  degree  for  the  purpose  of 
strengthening  the  democratic  purty  against  the  clerical  party.  It  providetl  that  no 
religions  society  should  be  allowed  to  teach ;  that  persons  educated  by  the  Jesuits 
should  be  incapable  of  holding  any  offic<^  iu  church  or  state ;  it  Jmposed  a  political 
oath  upon  the  schoolmaster ;  U  prohibited  children  from  l)eing  sent  to  a  private 
school,  except  with  the  sanction  of  the  inspector  and  the  school  committee ;  and  if 
sent,  required  that  tiiey  should  come  np  for  examination  everv  half-year.  At  the 
same  time,  it  establie^hed  an  excellent  programme  of  primary  instniction.  At  the 
elections  of  186«,  tlh^  clerical  party  regained  the  ascendency  iu  Fn^Ibnrg ;  and  iu 
January  1S68,  the  council  of  state  made  a  considerable  alteration  in  the  school-law. 
It  reduced  the  programme  of  primary  instniction  ;  it  made  the  clergyman  a  necen- 
sary  member  of  the  local  school -commit  tee.  freed  the  teacher  from  the  necessity  of 
taking  an  oath,  aifd  relaxed  the  obligation  of  attendance  at  the  public  schools,  giv- 
ing parents  liberty  to  t^uc^ite  their  children  at  home  or  at  private  schools.  In  other 
respects,  the  system,  as  above  described,  has  been  maintained  in  Freiburg.  There 
has  been  no  change  in  the  other  Clintons. 

The  law  as  regards  religions  instruction  seems  to  work  with  tolerable  smooth- 
ness. In  Vand,  it  appears  that  the  laxity  which  prevails  as  to  the  requirement  of  a 
certificate  sometimes  leads  to  the  admission  of  nnqualifled  persons  as  teachers ;  and 
ill  Vaud  and  Ncnfchatel,  complaint  is  made  of  the  incapacity  of  the  school-commit- 
tee to  make  op  for  the  want  of  professional  inspection. 

In  the  four  cantons  in  which  education  is  by  law  compnisory,  the  school-atinid- 
ance  is  found  to  l>e  no  l>e1ter  than  in  Geneva,  where  it  is  not  compulsory.  In  these 
cantons,  tlie  law  provides  tlial  parents  not  sending  tlieir  children  to  school  are  to  be 
warned  ;  if  the  warning  l>e  neglected,  that  they  are  to  be  summoned  before  the  tri- 
bonats,  which  can  punish  them  by  flue  or  imprisonment.  But  it  appears  that,  in 
point  of  fact,  the  tribnnals  are  never  resorted  to;  and  that  the  authorities  are  care- 
inl  not  to  insist  noon  more  than  the  people  are  easily  able  and  willing  to  comply 
with.  Ill  the  Valai's,  the  school-year  need  not  last  for  more  than  five  months.  In 
Freiburg,  the  vacation  may  last  for  three  months ;  and  the  ins|>ector  may  exempt 
from  attendance  at  school  chik.reu  who  are  sufficiently  advanced,  andchihlreii  whose 
Ittlior  their  parents  cannot  do  without.  In  Vaud,  the  local  school-committee  may 
4iraut  to  children  above  twelve  yeai-s  of  age,  whose  labor  is  nec<'ssary  to  their  pa- 
rents, dispensations  which  in  a  great  measure  exempt  them  from  attendance  at 
school ;  the  master  may  grant  the  scholar  leave  of  abf^ence  for  two  days  in  the  week  ; 
the  president  of  the  school-committee  may  srraiit  him  leave  for  a  week  at  a  time ;  the 
iK'.hool-committee itself  for  a  month  at  a  time.  It  at)pearsthat  in  Vaud,  the  attendance 
at  the  Bchools  had  been  steadily  falling  off  from  1846,  the  date  of  the  law,  up  to  1868  ; 
tud  the  attendance  ai  the  children  whose  names  were  on  the  books  was  then  re- 
ported  to  be  by  no  means  regular.  New  brandies  of  industry  which  gave  tmjjloy- 
■  Bwnt  to  cliildren  had  been  introduced  into  the  canton ;  and  the  Council  of  Public  In- 
Btrnctiou  seems  to  liavebeeu  compelled  to  sacrifice  the  law  to  the  interests  of  families. 


y  Google 


National  Educatloo 


'118 


The  experiment  of  conipnigory  ecIncatioD  cniiiiot  be  said  to  ba^e  succeeded,  becaii8» 
it  has  not  really  boeu  made,  in  Frcueli  Switzcrlaud. 

State-education  in  France. 

At  the  head  of  the  edncntioii  of  Frnnce  is  the  Mhiister  of  Pnblic  InBtrnctioii ;  h«« 
ip  advisKjd  and  assisted  by  the  Imperial  Conncil  of  Public  lust  ruction,  a  body  iUa 
nie.nbers  of  which  are  appointed  by  tlie  crown  for  the  period  of  a  3rt*iir.  The  min- 
ister if  lie  thinks  fit,  brings  before  the  council  for  discussion  pi*0}  -cted  laws  and 
decrees  on  public  educntiou  ;  he  is  bound  to  consult  it  resiiectjng  the  proj^auinirg 
of  study,  methods,  and  l)opk8  to  be  >idopted  in  all  classes  of  nublic  schools.  Tin; 
minister  has  succeeded  to  the  functions  in  respect  of  education  which,  under  the 
flr^t  Empire,  were  conferred  upon  the  University  of  France ;  he  is  head  of  the  uni- 
versity, the  officials  of  which  still  perform  a  couciderabLe  part  in  the  niuun^^euirnt 
of  education,  but  do  so  under  his  control.  'As  respects  the  higher  and  the  prufc— 
siouMl  education,  the  university  is  both  a4«acliing  and  an  examining  body,  granting 
degrees  under  conditions  pre8cril>ed  by  the  minister  and  council.  The  :.dmini8tn^ 
tion  of  the  secondary  iustj'uclion  is  committed  to  it.  and  it  shares  in  the  super- 
vision of  the  pnnniry  instruction.  It  is  composed  of  18  Academies,  each  of  which 
comprehends  several  departments.  These  academies  are  so  iwiny  local  centres  of 
the  Department  of  I'ublic  Instruction.  "At  the  head  of  each  if*  a  rector;  the  chi*f 
officials  nnder  iiiin  are  called  Academy  inspectors.  Tlie  Minister  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion is  olt*o  rector  of  the  Academy  of  Paris. 

The  Acad(!my  oracjials,  under  the  emit  rol  of  the  minister,  have  the  superintend- 
ence of  secondary  instruction  in  the  departments  within  the  Academy's  jurisdiction ; 
there  is  an  inspector  for  each  department  The  instruction  is  minutely  regulated,  as 
to  the  quantity  to  be  provided,  as  to  the  subjects  to  be  comprehended  in  it,  and  as  to 
it«»  cost;  it  is  the  chief  duty  of  the  Academy  inspectors  to  st^e  that  the  requirements 
with  respect  to  it  are  complied  witli.  The  inspection  iff  said  to  be  highly  efficient. 
The  lyceum  is  the  principal  seminary  of  secondary  instrocl  ion;  in  general,  the  chi'f 
town  of  ev«ry  French  department  lias  its  lyceum.  There  is.  besides,  the  cotnnmnal 
college.  Every  town  of  considerable  population  has  its  commimal  college.  Tha 
lyceun^  is  founded  and  maintained  by  the  state,  with  atd  from  the  department  and 
the  communes;  the  communal  college  is  founded  and  maintained  by  n»e  commune, 
with  occasional  aid  from  the  state.  The  instruction  given  in  the  communal  college 
and  in  the  lyceum  is  substantially  the  same  in  character;  in  the  lyceum  it  is  the 
more  extensive.  To  the  lyceum  there  is  usually  at tjiched  a  preparatory  school  for 
the  youns^er  boys.  In  both  lyceurait  and  comumnal  colleges,  there  are  Iwarders  and 
day- scholars.  French,  Latin,  Greek,  and  mathematics  are  the  principal  8nb}-;ci8  of 
instruction  ;  arithmetic,  history,  geography,  modern  langunges,  and  the  natural  sci- 
ences are  also  taught.  The  couree  at  the  lyceum  lasta  for  six  years,  and  qualifies  for 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Letters.  Keligious  instruction  is  given — to  the  Koniau 
Catholic  boys,  by  chaplains  attached  to  the  school ;  to  the  Protestants,  by  a  Pro- 
testant minlT'ier,  specially  appointed  to  this  duty ;  and  the  N^v  Testament  In 
Greek  or  Latin  is  read  daily  by  every  class. .  In  the  lyceums,  the  average  charge  for 
day  scholars  is  from  110  francs  {£4,  la.  4d.)  to  180  francs  i£188.4d.)&  ye:u*;  the 
charge  for  boarders  from  800  francs  (^£32)  to  90J  fnuics  (jCSS),  according  to  their  aire 
and  advancement.  In  Paris,  the  charges  are  higher — from  £Z8  toX60a  year  for 
l)oarders,  and  from  £6  to  ^12  a  year  for  day  scholars;  on  the  other  hand  there  are 
lyceums  where  the  highest  charge  for  botirders  is  je22  a  year.  There  are  pnblic 
scholarships  (bourses)  founded  by  the  state  to  l)e  obtained  by  competition,  the  hold- 
ers of  which  are  relieved  from  all  (tost.  The  educatiOH  given  is  in  no  respect  much 
inferior— and  in  some  respects  it  i8sui>eiior— to  that  which  is  to  be  had  at  an  enor- 
mous cost  at  the  best  English  public  scl^ools;  it  is  far  superior  to  tlnu.  which,  at  a 
far  higher  cost  is  ordinarily  given  to  children  of  the  middle  classes  in  England.  A 
private  secondary  school  c:innot  be  opened  without  notice  to  the  pnblic  anthoriti's: 
they  must  l>e  satisfied  that  the  premises  are  suitable;  and  the  director  must  have  a 
certificate  of  probation— shewing  that  he  has  served  five  years  in  a  secondary  school 
— and  a  certificate  of  competency  obtained  at  the  public  examination  for  secondary 
teachers.  The  Academy  inspector  in8|>ects  private  secondary  schools,  but  only  to 
see  tliat  the  pupils  are  properly  lodged  and  fed,  and  tltal  the  teaching  contains 
nothing  couliary  to  morality  and  the  laws.    The  mliiisler  may,  however,  dispense 


y  Google 


119 


VttlODal  EdBcatlon 


with  the  ccrtiiicate  of  probation,  and  holy  orders  are  accepted  in  lieu  of  the  certifl- 
Ciite  of  coiiipetenry. 

A  hvjy,  dated  21ht  June  1865,  founded  a  new  conrse  of  stndy  in  secondary  schools 
— a  special  secondary  instruction.  The  object  of  the  special  secoudnrv  iiisi ruction  is 
declared  to  be  to  *•  foun<l  the  sub-offlcei-s  of  Indtistry ;"  int*trnctioii  in  fivinij  lungunga 
\»  Hubstiinted  for  the  classical  int«lruction  of  the  secoiid:>ry  schools;  the  elements  of 
science  and  its  applications  receive  great  attention — particular  regard  htiup  had  to 
the  t('nchiugof  agriculture  and  the  sciences  which  boar' upon  it.  The  teaching, 
moreover,  is  intended  to  impart  what  may  be  called  a  sound  French  education.  A 
normal  school  has  been  founded  at  Cluny  for  the  preparation  of  masters  for  this 
spei'ial  secondary  instm<5tion. 

For  primary  instruction  in  France,  an  excellent  basis  was  laid  by  M.  Guirot's 
law  of  1833.  of  which,  indeed,  the  more  imi)ortant  provisions  iiave  been  rutainetl. 
The  body  of  legii^lation  actually  in  force  consists  of  the  law  of  Marcli  16, 185u,  the 
organic  decree  of  Marcli  9,  1852,  the  law  of  June  14, 1854,  and  the  law  passed  during 
the  year  T[867.  The  law  requires  ttiat  every  commune  shall  maintain  an  elementary 
school,  eitlier  by  itself,  or  in  combination  with  other  communes  t  in  founding  and 
maintaining  its  schools,  it  is  to  be  aided,  if  necessary,  by  the  department  and  hy  the 
state.  It  must  have  ttixed  it«elf  specially  for  the  schools  three  centimes  per  franc  of 
rental  before  it  can  claim  aid  ;  the  depart ment  mu>t  have  taxetl  itself  specially  two 
centimes  for  the  communal  schools  l)efore  the  state  is  resortt  d  to.  Up  to  the  pre- 
sent year,  a  certain  number  of  i»oor  children— ^he  numlier  det  rmiiud  for  each 
school  by  the  prefect  of  the  department— were  admitted  to  the  school  gratuitously  ; 
for  others,  a  fee  was  charged,  whicli  was  collected  every  month  by  the  tax-cathere/. 
llie  stiite  contributed  whatever  was  necessary  in  addition  to  the  coinmunarand  de- 
IMirtniental  taxation  and  the  school-fees.  The  law  of  tlie  present  year,  however, 
pmvides  that  all  children  are  to  be  admitted  gratuitously  whose  parmts  would  have 
difficulty  in  payinjr  the  school-fee  :  and  that  a  commune  whose  taxation  amounts  to 
four  centimes  additional  may  dispense  with  the  school-fee  altogether,  the  detlciency, 
if  any.  so  aiisin^  being  made  up  by  the  state.  In  the  large  towns,  the  schools  hnve 
long  been  gratuitous— the  communes  often  taxing  themselves,  for  school-purposes, 
beyond  the  amount  required  by  law.  Up  to  tiie  year  1867,  the  law  did  not  oblige  the 
comninues  to  maintain  separate  schools  tor  girls,  though  a  lan/e  proportion  of  them 
contributed  towards  the  maintenance  of  tucli  schools.  The  law  of  1867  provides  for 
the  establishment  of  girls'  schools ;  the  cost  of  them — the  communal  and  the  de- 
partmental t;ixntlon  being  in  most  places  previously  exhausted— will  fall  in  a  great 
measure  upOM  the  >-tate. 

Religious  instruction  is  given  in  every  school.  In  France,  the  Roman  Catholic, 
the  Protestaiit,  and  tlie  Jewish  forms  of  worship  are  subsidised  by  the  state ;  and  it 
Is  ptxjvidei'  that,  in  comnmnes  where  more  than  one  of  these  is  publicly  professed, 
each  form  is  to  have  its  separate  school.  The  depar:  mental  council,  however,  has 
power  to  authorise  the  nnnm,  in  a  common  scliool,  of  children  belonging  to  differ- 
eni  communions.  For  such  cases,  jt  is  provided  that  ministers  of  each  commnniou 
sliall  have  free  and  equal  access  to  the  schiol,  at  separate  limes,  to  attend  to  the 
religious  instruction  of  meml)ers  of  their  own  flock.  To  a  school  appropriated  to 
ouf  denomination,  no  child  belonging  to  another  is  admitted,  ejfcept  at  the  express 
demand  of  his  parent  or  guardian,  signified  in  writing  to  the  teacher.  Denomina- 
tional schools  are  now  tlie  ^-ule,  common  schools  the  exception.  Previously  to  1850, 
niider  M.  Qnizot's  law,  common  schools  were  the  rule,  but  it  was  found  that  in  them 
the  religious  instruction  presented  grave  practical  difficu  ties.  All  the  religious 
l>odi<?s  appear  to  be  satisfied  with  the  present  system,  Tlie  schools,  though  denomi- 
national, are  communal  schools ;  the  denominations  have  not  the  management  of 
them  ;  and  they  are  all  subiect  to  the  same  inspection. 

The  mayor  and  the  mmlster  of  religion  in  each  commune  have  the  supervision 
and  moral  direction  of  the  primary  school ;  iu  practice,  they  are  strictly  confined  to 
matters  connected  with  its  morality.  Cantonal  delegates  are  ap))ointed  by  the  de- 
Iiartinental  council  (the  canton  is  a  division  larger  than  the  commune),  who  inspect 
the  primary  schools  of  their  canton  ;  but  they  have  no  real  authority  over  tlio 
schools;  they  are  only  allowed  to  make  rtpresentations  as  to  the  state  of  the  schools 
to  tiiedep:irtmental  council,  or  to  the  insp^'Ctor.  The  departmental  council  has  the 
Chief  pait  iu  the  regnlatiou  of  the  primary  schools ;  moreover,  no  private  primary 


Digitized  by 


Google 


National  Edacation  1  *  1^0  .  ^^^ 

school  can  be  opened  wllhont  ife  pcrmlsnion ;  nnd  If  !t  refnsc  permission,  there  l« 
no  appeal.  It  i»  the  prefect,  however,  who  haH  the  ^>o\ver  of  iiomiiiatiui.%  easpeud- 
iiig,  and  disniissiug  pnhiic  primary  teachers.  Hib  auttiorKy  Us  u?'iial!y  cxeix'imd 
ui)On  the  report  of  the  Academy  insiKJCtor — ihe  nuivci"«ity  ofllcial  whose  importniU 
function?,  in  respect  of  secondary  iustrnction,  have  alrt:ady  l>eeu  described.  Tiie 
acadenueH  have  the  charge  of  the  normal  schools  of  prinmiy  instrnction,  and  ttm 
euperviaion  of  the  prinnu-y  schools  tis  resrardt*  the  methods  of  te:iching  and  cour-e 
of  study.  Under  them  are  the  primary  inspectors,  who  re|>ort  to  the  Acadeuiy  in- 
spirctors;  ahove  the  latter,  as  rejjarda  primary  instruction,  there  are  fonr  rnspectoi- 
geiienils,  attached  to  the  office  of  educjiliou  at  Paris*  It  is  tlie  primary  inspector 
who  really  superintends  the  instruction  ot  the  schools ;  hi»  labors  arc  ance-ising,  his 
insp'.^ciiou  in  a  reality,  for  lie  is  not  n-quired  to  give  notice  of  his  visit**.  The  private 
primary  schools  are  subject  to'  ids  iunpection,  but  only  as  regards  tlie  provision 
nnide  for  the  bodily  health  and  comtort  of  the  pupils  and  ihe  maintenance  of 
morality. 

The  fubjects  whish  mast  bi;  taui^ht  in  every  primary  school,  in  addition  to  moral 
and  religious  teaching,  are  reading,  writing,  aritlimetic,  ilie  elenientsmif  French 
grammar,  and  ilie  French  system  of  weiglits  and  measures ;  there  are  other  subj'cts 
which  are  f.-tcultative— wliicli,  in  wliole  or  in  part,  may  be  taught,  that  is,  if  the 
council  of  tliecominnne  should  so  desire,  and  the  departmentnl  council  g>ve  its 
consent.  Th  r»e  farulbitive  matters  are  tlie  applictuions  of  arithmetic: 
the  elements  of  history  and  of  Geography,  the  elements  of  physics  and 
of  ualnral  history;  elementiii'y  instruction  in  agriculture,  the  arts,  and 
hy-jfiiiie;  survc^yiug,  levelling,  drawhig,  singing,  and  gymnastics.  For  girls, 
there  are  superior  priinai'y  sciiool-*  whicli  ttmcli  the  faciiltitive  matters  only,  and  in 
giris'schools.  instruction  is  usually  given  in  needle-work  for  ai)out  three  hours  a  day. 

For  the  preparation  of  male  teacliers  the  law  reqninw  every  deimrtment  to  main* 
t'liii  a  nornud  ^'Cho<)l;  in  some  cases,  however,  two  departments  are  allowed  to 
maintain  one  jointly  :  theie^are  now  70  of  these  schools.  Tliere  are  se|Mirate  nor- 
mal schools  for  female  teachers ;  of  these,  the  n u in i>er  was  recently  34;  now  tliat 
the  law  is  al)oul.  to  add  largely  to  the  number  of  girls'  schools,  it  will  proimbly  lie 
incr(!ased.  The  memhers  of  the  religious  orders  devoted  to  teaching,  which 
perform  a  great  part  in  prim  iry  educ-iiioii,  are  tiair.ed  for  their  duties  in  tlie 
e.-itahlishments  of  their  respective  orders.  (Of  these  orders,  the  most  important  U 
that  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Oiiristiun  School?*).  The  iiisiruction  of  the  nor- 
mal schools  is  meagre;  it  scarcely  exceeds  the  siibj  cts  of  primaryNnsti'uctiou; 
a  considerable  proportion  of  the  students,  indeed,  acquire  only  un  im- 
perfect knowledge  of  tlu  facultative  8ai>j.K;t8.  School-mei hod  is  what  in  the 
normal  schools,  it  is  deemed  most  important  to  teach.  The  examination  for  primary  . 
sell  olunisters— which  is  condiict'd  by  a  commission  appointed  by  the  d^partiueu^ 
tal  council — is  limited  to  the  subjects  taught  in  the  schools.  Tli  re  are  two  classes 
of  ceriificates,  according  as  the  teacher  pa-^ses  in  the  obligatory  siibj  cts  only,  or  m 
the  whole  or  part  of  the  laciillative  subjjcts  also.  Every  m;di}  teacher,  public  or 
private,  Is  required  to  have  the  cert.ftcatuof  capacity  granted  after  an  examination; 
also,  excepting  in  ihe  case  of  religious  p;'it<on8.  a  certificate  of  morality.  The  law  - 
recognises  a  certificate  of  stage  to  be  granted  to  assistants  who  have  served  as  such 
for  three  years,  as  a  substitute  for  the  certificate  of  capacity;  but  this  provision 
hiM  been  unpopular,  and  the  qualification  of  stage  is  practically  unknown.  Female  . 
lay  teaclKtrs  require  t  »e  certifljate  of  capa  ity ;  f«;male  teachers  of  tiie  religious  or- 
d  rs  are  exempt  from  it.  No  person  can  b.i  ai)poin!ed  a  regular  coramanal  teacher 
unless  he  be  twenty- four  years  old,  and  has  served  for  three  years  since  his  twenty- 
first  year  as  an  assistant,  or  as  a  «»*pp/yi7»f7  teaciier.  The  supplying  teacher  g»-ta 
a  lower  salary,  and  may  be  employeil  in  the  poorer  communes.  The  salaries  are 
low  even  in  the  towns:  in  many  of  the  country  communes,  the  Ic^ral  minima  are 
not  exiteeded  :  these  are— for  an  ordinary  communal  teacher,  ^€24  a  y«ar ;  for  a  fe- 
male t*!aclier,  or  a  supplying  teacher,  £20  a  year.  The  commune  pays  jGS  a  yeiur, 
besides  the  school-fees ;  whatever  is  require« I  to  mnke  up  the  legal  minimum,  ihe 
government  supplies:  and,  since  1862,  the  government  has,  upon  certain  condi- 
tions, made  slight  allowances  iu  addition  to  the  minimum. 

It  is  ill  secondary  instruction  that  the  education  of  France  has  a  dmded  sn^.Ti* 
ority  over  thai  of  JSuglaud.    The  primary  iudiractiou  is  scarcely  equal  to  thai  givttii 


Digitized  by 


Google 


121 


Nat  oiial  Educrt  on 


Jn  English  ec^ool8  of  the  «ime  ^d".  Mr  Mtittheiv  Arnold  hns  reported  tli:jf  in  lsft9, 
he  ioaitd  in  Freiicli  primary  eciioolt)  the  writing  fftir,  bin  nau-cely  soKuod  h8  in  lu  t- 
lish  echools;  tl>e  reiidiug  better,  the  itrtth luetic  much  better  tiiiiii  iu  Bnti^iifiii  hcIiooIs. 
Of  hi»»tory  and  geogrupiiy,  t lie  pupils  w«re  far  more  igiiorunt  tlinu  Eii);)ii«li  tcln»«»l 
childreu  of  the  emiie  ui;e.  'J*t)e  uiiuintry  of  M.  Dumy,  however,  bii^  been  iiii  eia4»f 
impFOTenient ;  mnch  nU)re  attention  is  given  totbefacnltnlivemnttersiiow ;  e^|H•ci;tl 
attention  to  agi-icnlture  and  tite  Bul>ject8  connected  with  the  daily  life  of  the  |>e}iBaiit. 
Mr  Arnold  came  to  the  conclnsion,  that  even  in  the  preat  towns  there  Wf  rc  no 
m»M>e8  of  children  left  atiOKfther  nneducat«d^  that  almost  all  passed  at  some  lime 
tiirotigli  the  schools.  Adult  classes',  t^msrht  ni  the  evenings,  have  greatly  increased 
in  numbers  of  late  years,  and  are  now  aioed  by  the  state. 

In  1834— just  after  the  p^issiiigof  M.  Gnizot's  iaw-4he  nnmber  of  primary  schools, 
pnblic  and  private,  was  lU  816 ;  in  1867,  It  was  66.1(K) ;  in  1872,  it  was  70,180,  of  which 
3S,S60  were  boys'  or  mixed  schools,  17.460  girls'  schools,  and  11.000  wore  fw*:  schools. 
In  the  primary  schools  alone  tliere  were,  in  1872,  4.722.000  scholars— 3,600.000  more 
than  tlie  nnniDer  of  scholars  In  1829.  In  1872,  tli«  year  of  the  census,  a  cart-fnl  iiiquliy 
was  made  into  tiie  condition  of  the  French  people  with  regard  to  prinniry  education. 
Of  the  totiil  population  al)Ove  llie  years  of  childhood,  it  was  foui'd  that  80-77  |>er  c<iit. 
conid  neither  rea<l  nor  writc^  10*94  could  niUy  read,  and  but  68-29  could  do  both. 
1'here  was  a  most  extraordinary  difference  between  one  department  and  another  in 
thix  respect,  the  ))ercentageof  utterly  illiterate  persons  ranging  from  6-9  |>er  cettt.  in 
Bonbs,  to  61-8  in  Haute-vitfime ;  the  most  favorable  figures  Indiailing  universally 
the  north-eastern  departments.  In  1872  tlie  stat«  and  the  commaues  exiieuded 
85,000,000  of  francs  on  primary  education  alone.  Tlie  item  of  puliiic  iustructioii 
stood  ftt  40,211,000  in  the  budget  of  1877.  For  the  means  of  higher  edacatiou  iu 
France,  see  Univebsitt  of  France. 

StaU-education  in  Prussia. 

In  all  the^^tostant  states  of  Germany,  the  school-system  In  its  main  features  is 
the  same.  Th«  Prussian  system — more  celel)ruted,  more  extensive,  more  practical 
and  thorough  than  tlie  system  of  the  minor  states— alwaj'S  powerfully  inflnenciiig 
tb«ise,  and  now  likely  to  influence  thein  more  than  ever,  is  that  wliich  must  l)e 
selected  for  description.  AtK)nt  tiiis  system,  M.  Cousin,  l»y  a  strange  confusion  Im-- 
tween  it  and  a  project  of  law — a  mere  scheme  drawn  up  by  tlie  educiilion  mini^tt  r. 
Von  A]t4-nstein,  never  even  proposed  for  legislation — spread  misconceptions  througli- 
out  Europe,  which  have  scarcily  yet  been  disi)elled.  It  has  been  greatly  changed, 
greatly  improved  since  Counin  wrote  in  1881 ;  out  it  does  not  yet  In  tymmelr}'  and 
completf  iie-^s  approach  to  what  ho  describ -d. 

In  P*ms«ia,  there  is  a  Minister  of  Public  Worship  and  InstmctioD  ;  but  the  offi- 
cials who  under  him  carry  on  the  government  of  education  are  the  officials  of  the 
Department  of  the  Interior.  At  the  head  of  the  government  iu  each  province  is  ii 
president  ;vover  each  of  the  deiNirtuieuts  into  wliich  the  province  is  divided  there  is 
a  prefect  ijbezirk) ;  each  of  these  officers  is  assisted  by  a  council,  of  which  one  sec- 
tion, called  Sehnlcollegium^  forms  a  separate  council  for  deliberating  upon  the  local 
scbool-affiiirs.  One  member  of  the  school-council,  called  provincial  nchool-councillor. 
is  assocfatHJ  with  tlie  president  for  administrative  purposes :  the  prefect  has  atl.ach<  d 
to  him  two  de])artinent4il  school -conncillops,  one  Protestant,  one  Catholic,  to  advise 
with  him,  and  to  .administer  the  scliool-affairs  of  their  respective  commuiiioiiH. 
There  is  practically  a  division  ma/le  of  ednoitional  affairs  between  the  offlcialn  of 
tiie  province  and  those  of  the  department.  The  provincial  schooKcouucillor  takes 
the  charge  of  secondary  education  within  the  province;  the  departmental  school- 
coimcillors  the  charge  of  the  primary  scliools  of  the  department 

Over  each  of  the  arcles  into  which  the  department  is  divided  is  nn  officer,  termed 
a  Landrath,  who  reports  \o  the  prefect  of  tlie  department.  With  tlie  luiidrath,  ^*n 
tiie  management  of  primary  schools,  is  associated  the  aiuperintendent^  ihe  chnrcli 
dienitary  of  the  circle.  The  siiperinteudeut  is  ex-ojicio  inspector  of  the  primary 
schools  wit iiin  the  district.  The  parish  clergyman  i»eX'Ojffieio  local  inspector  of 
primary  schools  within  his  parish.  There  is  also  for  the  school  or  schools  of  each 
paristi  a  board  of  managers,  the  composition  of  wliich  varies  in  different  provinces. 
I'he  clergyman  is  always  a  member  ot  it :  he  is  usually  chairman.  In  conutry  places, 
tht  iHiok:  powers  of  the  board  are  often  left  in  his  hauda. 


y  Google 


National  Bdaoatioii 


122 


In  the  *♦  exterior"  affafra  of  t!»«  Pchool>-pa8.<*{Dg  school -Acconiits,  vIsitaHon  of 
achool-premisea,  control  of  the  fKshool-eatatea.  adjntftineot  of  the  echool-ratc^'&c.— 
the  hiiidmtli  ia  aaaociated  with  the  Hnperhiteudenu  Ka  *Mnterior "  affuinn,  ull  tiiat 
conceriiB  its  teaching  and  ita  dit*cipliue,  are,  8iibj(>ct  to  the  eatablialied  re^alntions, 
under  tlie  aaperinfa^udent'a  control;  bnt,  in  practice,  they  arc  more  nouer  t lie lu- 
flaeuce  of  tlie  de|)artmental  acliuol-coniicillor.  Tt>e  att|)erintend(*Ht,  howevt^r,  ia 
roqaired  to  visit  the  achool:*,  and  to  wntcii  over  tlie  conduct  of  the  local  iuapector, 
and  lie  reporta  annaaily  to  rhe  government  of  the  d^^ttinent  The  iocti  inapoctor'a 
province  la  tiie  interior  afEaira  of  tlie  school.  He  is  expected  to  vii<iit  the  ^chooitt  • 
diligi*ntly,  and  to  be  active  in  the  anperviaion  of  them.  The  religiona  teaching  of 
the  children  ia  almost  entirely  done  by  hint,  it  being  his  duty  to  prepare  them  for 
confirmation,  which  comes  at  the  end  of  tlie  school-period.  To  qualify  thciro  for  the 
duly  of  sclkool-inspection,  the  candidates  of  theolo^  are  required  to  attend  for  fix 
weeks  as  auditors  at  a  normal  school,  and  to  have  attended  a  course  of  Pddagogik 
at  the  univei-sity.  Nevertlieless,  it  appears  that  many  clergymen  are  very  ill  dtted 
for  this  work,  and  th<>ir  powers  of  interference  are  often  exercised  in  ways  annoy- 
ing to  tlie  master,  and  detrimental  to  the  school.  The  ** exterior"  affairs  of  the 
schools  of  a  parish  belong  to  the  board  of  managers. 

This  lK)tir«t  is  usually  composed  of  representatives  (1)  of  the  patrons,  if  any,  of 
the  school ;  (S)  of  the  parochial  clergy ;  (8)  of  the  municipal  l)ody ;  (4)  of  the  house- 
holders. It  has  a  iitated  meeting  once  a  quarter ;  it  meets  whenever  it  is  summoned 
by  the  chairman.  It  manages  the  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  school,  in  respect 
of  which  it  is  responsible  to  the  laudrath;  it  is  the  irnsiee  of  tlie  school-buihlings 
and  property.  It  is  it«  duty  to  see  tliat  tlie  Ft>gular  scliool-liours  are  kept ;  tliat  no 
unauthorised  holidays  are  given ;  to  it  application  must  lie  made,  for  dispensalionB 
for  periods  exceeding  a  week.  Its  members  should  be  present  at  nil  exiirainatiuns 
and  other  public  solemnities  of  the  pchool.  In  tite  large  towns,  there  are  school- 
delegacies  appointed  by  the  Magixtrat^  whose  powers  are  more  extensive,  and  are  in 
practice  the  greater,  because  in  the  large  towns  the  pastors  \m,y  little  attention  to  the 
schools.  The  school-delegacies  have  control  over  the  higher  as  well  as  the  primaiy 
schools  whicli  their  constitueots  niainiaiu  ;  two  paid  meml)er»-«ohool-delegatea — 
who  must  be  members  of  the  Magistraty  exercise  the  greater  part  of  their  auuiorily. 
Under  the  delegacy,  for  every  school  there  is  a  school-board,  consisting  of  the  cler- 
gyman and  two  lay  memliers,  whom  the  delegacy  appoints.  The  delegacy  itself  is 
accountable  to  the  nia>;tstrat,  aiid  both  are  suhordhiate  to  the  provincialcouncil. 

Every  commune  is  bound  to  find  scliool-room  and  teachers  for  all  the  children  of 
school-age  belonging  to  it.  The  amount  of  the  teacht^r's  stipend  in  in  every  case 
fixed  by  the  departmental  government;  tliere  is  no  legal  minimum  ;  the  salaries  are 
usually  very  low.  Some  parishes  possess  endowments ;  but,  iu  general,  the  coet  of 
maintaining  the  schools  is  defrayed  by  means  of  (1)  school-fees,  (2)  a  local  rate,  (8) 
a  grant  from  the  national  treasury.  As  children  are  only  oxpecte<l  to  pay  what  tliey 
can,  and  as  the  state  srants  aid  only  after  tlie  strictest  proof  of  the  incapacity  of 
the  cx)mmune.  the  weiglit  of  the  burden  falls  upon  the  local  rate.  The  maintenance 
of  the  schools  ranks  with  the  first  chai'ges  ui>on  the  local  purse.  The  teacher  is 
appointed  by  the  departmental  councillor;  in  a  few  towns,  however,  a  certain  power 
of  choice  is  allowed  to  the  municiiMilAiitiioiities— they  may  select  one  from  a  num- 
ber of  candidates  presented  to  them  by  the  government. 

School-attendance  is  by  law  coinpuls^orv  Kir  eight  y^'ars ;  the  school-age  beginning 
at  the  completion  of  the  flfih  year.  But  in  most  parts  of  Prussia,  children,  thongh 
allowed,  are  not  compelled  to  attend  till  tlie  completion  i,t  their  sixth  year.  Ttie 
school-period  closes  with  confirmation.  A  re^i!*ter  of  all  children  of  school-ogc  is 
made  U)) — usually  at  tlie  police  office ;  every  child  is  registered  for  a  {laiticnlar  school ; 
there,  whatever  his  rank,  he  must  attend,  nnless  a  dispensaiion  i>e  gr)t  for  him  from 
the  landrath.  Whei\a  di$>pensation  is  applied  for,  tlic  parents  innst  state  the  motives 
of  the  application,  and  tlie  provisions  to  lie  made  for  the  child's  education.  All  per- 
sons ofllcially  connected  wit  ii  sclioo Is  are  expected  to  use  their  influence  to  secnre 
regular  attendance;  but  failing  moral  suasion,  there  are  other  means  of  enforcinir  it. 
The  schoolmaster  keeps  a  llKt  of  ansences,  excused  and  inexcused.  When  a  cliHd'a 
attendance  is  irregular,  tiie  lioardof  nian:igcrs  admonishes  its  parent.  If  admonltiou 
— which  in  general  is  repeatedly  resorte<l  ti) — has  no  eifi-ct,  a  fiateinent  is  sent  to  the 
police-office;  the  pui-eut  is  fined  a  email  sum  for  each  day  of  ihu  child's 


Digitized  by 


Google 


123 


Natioaal  Edocat'oa 


ptnce  the  lust  admonition ;  and  the  fine  can  be  levied  by  execution,  enforced  by  im- 
j»ri8oDniei»t,  or  t:»ken  ont  iu  iNirish  Inlior.  It  seenia  that  veiy  few  cliildix'ii  fMoapt) 
legietratioii ;  but  i  lie  regularity  of  Uic  attendance — in  general  it  is  very  rt»vnlar—varl»*« 
ciuiBiderabjy  in  different  diMrict^ ;  tlie execntion  of  the  law  being  Pirlct  or  otlur- 
wise  acconllng  to  the  tenter  of  tlie  people,  their  circninMuncea,  and  tlie  vigiltnico 
of  tlie  Bi-lKiol  tiaiboritieB.  niere  are  no  8tati9tic8  by  whicb  the  succeas  of  tin*  l:i\v 
c:mi  i>e  exactly  tej*ied.  In  pouie  of  tlie  larger  towns,  tlie  demand  for  child-labor  and 
the  growth  of  panperipm  are  'adding  to  the  difflcnlty  of  enforcing  it.  FmcBia  has*  a 
fuctory-law  requiring  ttiat  every  child  employed  in  a  factory  skall  attend  acliooi  lor 
three  hoiira  a  day,  and  tliis  law  is  strictly  enforced. 

'lei.chers  of  every  class,  pnblic  aud  private,  have  to  pass  two  examinations.  Certi- 
flcatt'H  att'.  of  tliree  d»*grees  of  merit — tliey  may  be  marked  **  very  well  qnalifled,"  *•  v  ell 
qualified,"  or  "snfflcieutiy  qnalified."  The  beads  of  exanilnntion  are** religion,  tlie 
German  langnagts  the  art  of  schoul-^eeping,  geography  of  Prussia,  arithmetic  :ii)d 
geometry,  knowledge  of  natural  objects,  writing,  drawing,  singing  and  the  theory  of 
iiiosic,  organ."  After  the  first  examination,  the  candidate  is  eligible  as  an  assistant 
or  provisional  master ;  he  must  serve  in  this  capacity  for  three  years  before  taking 
the  second  ;  he  must  pass  the  second  within  five  years.  The  second  examination  is 
In  tbe  same  subjects ;  but  now  most  u-eight  is  given  to  tlie  art  qf  S(*.hool-keepiiig.  Of 
the  subjects  taught  in  primary  schools,  the  principal  is  religion;  the  others  are 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  singing,  and  tlie  elements  of  drawing.  Incidentally,  the 
te.-tciier  may  communicate  information  about  natural  phenomena;  alKiut  geography, 
beginning  with  that  of  the  locality  and  the  history  of  Prussia.  'J'he  teaching  was  much 
more  ainlntions  before  1864;  Iiefore  1854,  alsi>,  he  normal  schools,  now  limited  to  a 
jiiengi-e  programme,  were  universities  on  a  small  scale,  aiming  at  the  mental  trnining 
of  their  atU'ients,  rather  than  at  fitting  them  to  teach  elementary  schools.  'J  he  change 
is  often  ascribed,  lioth  in  Prussia  and  out  of  it,  to  politiciil  motives.  h:iving  lieeii  made 
by  a  part^'  unfriendly  to  jiopular  education  ;  hut  eminent  educationists  defend  and 
approve  it.  Tlie  sciiOols,  they  say,  are  now  attempting  as  much  as  can  be  thoroughly 
dune  in  llie  time  allotted  for  primary  education,  and  are  doing  it  thoroughly  ;  while 
the  showy  teaching  ot  former  tiixes,  with  its  endeavor  to  develop  tlie  faculties,  and 
to  commniiicate  knowledge,  neglected  the  indispensable  elementary  instruciioii,  and, 
us  jfg  irdc^  the  gr«'ater  number  of  the  scholars,  was  in  no  respect  successfu'.  The 
normal  school  training,  it  is  said,  now  fits  the  t<aclier  for  his  duties  and  his  position 
in  life;  fonnerly|it  rather  unfitte<l  btm  for  them,  while  fitting  him  |>erhaps  lor  some- 
thing l)etter.  It  is,  however,  admittedly  a  defect  in  the  Prusaian  system  that  it  offers 
lo  tint  humbler  classes  no  oppoi  tnnity  of  carrying  their  education  heyond  the  point 
ut  which  the  elementriry  schools le  tve  it.  In  some  of  the  lovviis  there  are  improveniei.t 
institutes,  M'hero  younir  persons  are  taught  in  the  evenings  or  on  Hnndayj* ;  bui  they 
attempt  little,  are  badly  organised,  and  are  neglect^'d  by  tlie  school  administrationt«. 
Ii  should  be  st:<ted  that  the  town  schools  often  teacbsomewhat  more  than  istau^iit  in 
country  places—more  geography,  histoi-y,  and  uatumi  knowledge— but  lhi>*.  though 
permitted,  is  not  encouraged  oy  the  authorities.  Grammar  is  entirely  exc  luded  from 
piiniary  instruction.  The  only  part  of  the  teaching  which  is  less  than  cxceihsnt  is 
the  writing:  it  has  been  stated  that  upwards  of  50  per  cent,  of  the  recruits  are  un- 
able to  write — the  art,  never  perfectly  mastered,  being  lost,  it  must  be  supposed, 
through  want  of  practice. 

As  regards  religious  instmction,  the  rule  is.  that  the  primary  school  is  denoini- 
natioual— public  schools  are  set  apart,  that  is,  for  children  of  each  of  the  religious 
iKidies;  the  clergyman  who  has  the  charge  of  the  school  is  the  clergyman  of  ilie 
body  to  which  ft  is  appropriated.  Besides  the  *' Evangelical  Establihhinent,"  in 
which  Lutherans  and  Caivinisis  are  combined,  there  are  the  Koman  Catholici*  aiid 
the  Jews  to  be  provided  for ;  of  other  sectaiies,  there  are  not  10,W0  iu  all  l*rii«Bla. 
The  Lutherans  and  Caivinisis  are  combined  in  the  svhool  as  in  the  church.  Dis- 
senters are  allowed  to  withdraw  their  children  from  the  religious  instruction,  and 
have  it  given  by  their  own  pastor.  Any  commune  may  establish  a  mixed  school,  If 
if  so  desire,  and  if  the  authorities  permit ;  but,  in  practice,  mixed  schools  are  only 
to  be  found. where  it  would  lie  very  inconvenient  to  establish  a  school  for  each  bofly. 
Ill  mixed  schools,  the  teachers  are  chosen  jiroportionately  from  each  of  the  two 
groat  religious  booiee;  if  there  be  only  one  teacher,  it  is,  in  some  dlMricts  at  leas't, 
costomary  that  he  should  be  alternately  a  Protestant  and  a  Catholic.    The  expen- 


y  Google 


National  Education 


124 


xnent  of  mixed  Bcbools  liad  along  trinl  in  Prumia,  and  wm  fonnd  to  be  nnsatifffac- 
tdry,  leadiug  to  utteni;it0,  or  mittuected  utteiupis,  at  pronelyfiKiii,  uud  to  parish 
squabbliug.  It  has  beeu  nbundoueti,  not  so  iiiucU  from  the  wish  of  tiie  jp^veriiiaeiit, 
us  in  deiereitce  to  llie  ftH>liii^s  of  tiie  ptM>plo,  and  to  the  demands  or  the  Roiiiau 
C  itholic  hierarchy,  lint  the  denoniiuatioual  system  is  ntoM  in  accord  with  the  najt 
which  the  state  assijj^ns  to  religion  in  the  scliuol.  'J'he  scliool,  it  is  said,  shoa'a  Ix 
tlio' organ  of  the  choircli  for  training  children  to  chnrcb-menibersiiip ;  school  and 
church  are  expected  between  them  to  form  tho  cJiikt  into  a  man  contented  with  hi-* 
position  in  life.  Religious  teaching  must  be  given  by  the  master  for  uu  hour  eveiy 
day.  lu  thij  Protcstaut  schools,  tlie  master  tcaciies  tlie  Lutheran  cateciiism  lo 
Lutheran  children ;  the  Heidell}erg  catechism  to  tlie  Kefurnied  children.  Scriptme 
liistorv  is  also  taught ;  and  hymns,  from  a  prescribed  collection,  have  to  bo  <-X)tn- 
luitted  to  memory.  TIic  master  is  not  allowed  to  expound  the  catechism ;  iiis  duiy 
is  to  S"e  that  ihe  cliildrtMi  learn  it^  and  understand  tlie  words  in  wliich  it  is  expresseil. 
It  is  the  clersfymaii  who  explains  its  doctrines  to  the  elder  chUdreu  iu  preparing 
them  for  couflrmaiion. 

Any  one  may  open  a  private  school  of  any  class  in  Prussia  wlio  can  obtain  a 
licence  for  the  purpose  from  the  goveniinent ;  l>ut  iu  tlie  city,  it  must  be  sliewn  ttint 
the  district  in  wiiich  the  school  is  to  be  placird  is  insnffleieiitly  supplied  witti  school.^ ; 
and  ev(5ry  private  teacher  must  have  passed  the  two  examination!<.  Private  schools 
are  subject  at  all  times  to  the  inspection  of  the  school-councillor,  and  are  bound 
strictly  to  follow  the  regulations  e!*tablished  for  private  schools.  The  larger  towns 
in  Prussia  are  not  yet  adequately  supplied  with  public  priinaiy  schools;  private 
pri.nary  schools  ai*e  therefore  common  in  such  places:  iu  Berlin,  they  educate 
nearly  half  tiie  children  who  are  in  primary  schools. 

Of  the  secondary  and  higher  education  in  Prussia,  a  brief  and  general  notice 
must  sufflc.'.  It  has  already  lieen  stated  that  the  superintend. -nee  of  the  Si coudary 
schools  i-*  undertaken  by  the  school-couiiciilor  of  the  province ;  it  is  indei>Aiideut  of 
ecclesiastical  control.  The  larger  communes  and  the  tuwni  are  re^uirfd  ta  inaln- 
taiu  middle  schools,  giving  instruction  of  a  higher  ordi-r  thnn  is  iriveu  iu  the  ele- 
meutiu-y  scIiojIs,  n  sound  G.Mnian  education,  and  preparing  boys  tor  the  gymna>ia. 
These  niu!*t  bs  provid  "d  to  the  satisfaction  of  theantliot-ities,accoi*diugtothe  wants 
of  the  population.  They  are  maintained,  like  the  primary  schools,  by  school-fees, 
local  taxation,  and  these  failing,  the  state  treasury.  Some  of  the'larger  towns 
maintain  also  sec(uidary  schools  of  a  liigiier  class ;  tnese  are  of  two  kuids — the  resd- 
school,  and  the  gynuiafium  or  grammar-school.  In  such  towns  ns  stated  already, 
tlio  looU  management  rests  with  the  school-del  -gacy.  There  in,  besides,  a  consideV- 
uble  unmi)er  of  n'al- schools  aud  gymnasia  which  are  entirely  ni  the  bauds  of  the 
govemniont.  Noun  of  tlie  real-s-hools  take  l)o.-irders;  very  few  of  the  gymiia^^ia 
do  so.  The  gymnasium  is  a  classical  school  pr.'paring  for  the  universities.  In  tii«) 
real'Schoo!,  mathematics,  scientific  studies,  and  modern  languages  are  sui^stituted 
for  the  classics,  and  the  insti'ucfion  is  designed  t>  prepare  tlie  pupils,  us  far  as 
possible,  for  tlie  pursnits  of  life.  The  re:U-Pchools  irrant  certificates  to  their  pupils. 
The  royal  real-scliools  and  the  gymnasia  (o;her  than  those  luaintained  by  the  lar  r  ^ 
towns)  ari!  under  tiie  management  of  th  ?  provincial  school-councillor.  Some  of  tlie 
old<n'  of  those  gymnasia,  have  endowments,  but  the  money  neoessaiy  for  their  sup- 
port is  ccmtributed  by  the  state.  Appointments  lo  tie  schools  are  made  by  the 
school-councillor;  he  appoints  the  teachers,  or  nominates  the  leet  out  of  which  local 
anthoritl  -s  have  to  clioos-,  in  all  the  secondary  scUools.  Teachers  for  all  the 
schools  have  to  pass  two  cxa  mi  nations.  There  are  boards  of  examiners,  ap{>ointed 
by  the  provincial  government,  which  conduct  the  examinations;  these  bruirda  also 
ex  imine  the  students  of  the  gymnasia,  to  test  their  fitness  for  the  university.  The 
tmiv'-rsity  in  Prussia  is  a  tcacldng  (or  rather  a  leclurinL'),  as  well  as  an  examining 
body,  and  grants  degrees  in  four  faculties — Theology,  Jurisprudence.  Medicine,  and 
Phiio.-»opliy.  There  are  seven  universities  within  the  territory  hehl  l>y  Prufsiu.  l»cfo;o 
the  w^ir  of  1860;  in  two  of  these— Breslau  and  Bonn — there  Ik  a  Iloman  Catholic  as 
well  as  a  Protestant  institute  of  theology.  The  univer.«iiy  affairs  are  administer*  d 
by  a  commissioner  appointed  by  the  crown  ;  ail  Uicir  regnlatious  are  prescriovd,  and 
ail  the  appointments  in  them  made  by  the  state. 

Statc-edticati&n  in  the  United  States, 

Iu  the  United  States,  the  education  of  the  people  is  out  of  the  sphere  of  the 

Digitized  by  vJOOQlC 


d 


1  c)  ;^    ^  National  Education 


cpntrnl  govpinmciit ;  it  ranks  among  the  domestic  affafns  of  the  several  states,  and 
it  is  chi'-fly  in  Jlie  Northern  States — those  from  whicli,  i>efore  the  hue  war,  slavery 
was*  exclndfd — that  systematic  attempts  have  been  made  to  promote  it  The  centrnl 
^overnmeiil  has,  liowevt-r,  in  moretlian  one  Instance  endeavored  lo  assist  edncation 
in  lUc  states,  by  providing  for  it  endowments.  In  the  states  which  contain  waste 
lauds,  it  puts  aside,  in  every  newly-snrveved  township  of  six  miles  squan',  one 
sqnare  mile,  for  the  sup^wrt  of  schools  within  the  township.  Tlie  stat«  btKiomes 
trustee  of  this  laud,  or  of  the  price  oi)tained  for  it,  whicli  is  usually  called  the'lown- 
f^hip  Fund,  and  pays  over  the  yearly  income  to  the  township  when  it  has  tieen  set> 
tied.  The  central  government,  about  1886,  had  accnmulated  in  its  treasury  n  con- 
siderable J)alance,  the  suriiJus  of^  Its  income  over  its  exi>onditure  during  sevtsral 
years :  ^hi«t  it  apportioned  pro  ra^<z  among  the  states,  reserving  the  right  to  reclaim 
ir.  This  right  has  not  l)een,  and  is  ?io!  nicely  to  be  exerciseo;  and  in  niost  of  the 
Northern  States,  the  income  of  the  '*  United  States  Deposit  Fund  "  is  appli  d  to  the 
^npport  of  education.  Since  1864,  by  what  is  called  the  "  Agricultural  College  Act." 
tl'C  central  government  has  made  a  liberal  offer  of  allotments  of  land  to  the  nUWvts 
upon  certain  conditions,  for  the  endowment  of  one  or  more  institutions  in  every 
state,  in  which — whatever  the  other  instruction  nuiy  be — special  attention  shall  he 

§ivt«ii  lo  I  hose  branches  of  learning  related  to  agricult  ure  and  the  mechanic  arts. 
•  veral  states  are  preparing  to  avail  themselves  of  this  off  r. 
Every  one  of  the  Northern  States  has  its  common  schools.  Before  the  war,  Ken- 
tucky, Mi:<f>ouri,  and  Louhtiana  had  each  some  kind  of  school-svstem ;  at  various 
pointd  throughout  the  South,  particular  towns  had  establlghed  schools,  always  after 
the  model  set  in  the  Noiiheni  Statt^s.  The  new  stjite  of  Western  Virginia  has 
past«ed  a  ctchool-law  since  the  conclusion  of  the  war.  In  the  Northern  Slates.  Imv 
sides  the  endowments  above  deK<!ril)ed— both  of  which  are  possessed  by  most  or  the 
states — every  state  i)Osse:»8eB  a  sctiool-fund  arising  from  various  sources — sale  of 
landit,  taxation,  p^maltJes,  and  forfeitures — which  is  usually  vested  either  in  the 
Ftjite  legislature  or  in  a  Board  of  Edu<  ation.  In  one  or  two  of  the  states,  the  income 
of  this  fuud  is  considerable,  but  in  general  it  is  small.  It  is  usually,  but  not  in  all 
the  st:»te«.  applied  solely  to  the  support  of  public  schools,  or  of  the  normal  schools 
which  luHp  to  provide  them  with  lenchers.  Apart  from  ll»e  influence  exercised  by 
tj-eans  of  this  fund,  the  state  usually  pnjmotes  public  instruetion  only  by  its  leels- 
iation,  by  which  it  requires  orei  abloj*  local^bodies  to  make  certain  provision  for  the 
f-dncMtiou  of  children  within  their  juriMliction.  Ev«rywhere,  the  law  haves  much, 
and  usually  the  practice  leaves  everything,  to  the  local  bodies;  and  these  come  short 
nf.  or  exceed  the  legal  requirements  according  to  the  local  interest  in  education  nnd 
ai)iliiy  topay  for  it.  It  is  through  the  interest  of  the  municipalities  in  education  that 
very  ample  provision  is  made  in  the  towns ;  it  is  thiough  the  foice  of  exninple,  ai.d 
in  deference  toeducational^expcrienco,  that  a  certjiln  uniformity  of  system  pi-evails. 
There  is  a  close. approach  to  uuilormity  both  in  the  law  and  in  the  practice  ot  the 
Several  st-ites ;  and  a  description  of  the  system  of  one  stjite  will  be  approxinnitely 
true  of  that  of  other  states.  The  Massac^tUfetts  system  is  fittest  lo  be  selec.ted  for 
de:«cription,  as  l)eing  the  oldest,  the  ntost  celebrated,  that  which  on  our  side  of  ihe 
Atlantic  is  mo>«t  identified  with  the  common  schools,  and  perhaps  on  the  whole  the 
nio8t  successful*-   Sdme  of  the  principal  variations  from  it  will  oe  noted. 

In  1642 — ^twenty  years  after  the  landing  of  tl»e  Mayfowef—ihe  Mashachnsetts  col- 
onists pnssed  a  hiw  rt-quirlug  every  citizen,  under  a  penaltyof  208.,  to  te.ach  his  cliil- 
dn^n  and  apprentices,  or  have  them  taught,  to  read  perfectly  the  English  language. 
Five  years  later  they  passed  another  law,  requiring,  under  penalty,  every  township 
eontruning  50  householders  to  support  a  teacher  to  teach  their  children  to  read  and 
write;  reqtdring  every  townslrip  containing  100  householders  to  nuiintain  a  gram- 
I  ar-school  capable  of  fitting  youths  for  the  university.  The  present  law  is  difter«  nt, 
if  not  less  liberally  conceived.  The  cl»ange  was  made  by  numerous  steps,  and  was 
p Mhably  forced  on  by  the  circumstances  of  the  community.  T\\e  hiw.  as  it  now 
>tands  in  the  revis«l  statutes  of  the  state,  provides  that  in  ev(  ry  township  the  inhab- 
itants shall  maintain  for  at  leai«t  six  months  in  the  y<'ar  a  sufficient  nnnd)erof 
scliMols  f'.ir  all  the  children  of  the  township.  The  teachers  are  to  be  of  competent 
nhjlity  and  good  monds,  and  they  are  to  teach  orthographv,  reading,  writing,  Eng- 
lish grammar,  geography,  anthmetic,  the  hi.>*lory  of  the  United  States,  and  good  he- 
h.jvior.  Other  subj'Cts— algebra,  vocal  music,  drawinir,  physiology,  and  hygiene-- 
ore  to  be  taught  or  not  at  the  discretion  of  the  local  comuiiilec.    Every  township 


Digitized  by 


Google 


'National  Edacation  _  ^  1  OA  ^ 

Tiitty,  and  every  towship  coiitalnlnff  500  liouReholders  malt,  afpo  maiirtitlu  for  ten 
months  iu  the  year  a  ocliool  wliicTi  eball  jrive  iiimniction  in  jreuerul  Itiniory,  hook- 
keoplnjj,  enrveying,  geometry,  nalurul  }>liilo8oplty,  ciieuiii'try.  boUtuy,  the  civil  polity 
of  Mas^achnsettf*  and  of  th^;  United  8t:itft<,  una  tlie  Latin  iauginii^e.  And  in  cvcrv 
township  containing  4000  intiabitaiis,  the  leiiclicr  must  be  cuni|>e!teut  to  inRtruct.  iii 
the  QreeKaud  French  languagoB,  in  astronomy,  geolajry*  rliotoric,  logic,  iuteltectn.il 
a'.id  moral  sciences,  and  political  ecouonii'.  Aibrtfover,  any  lowntdiip  may 
ei(ta')Hsh  schools  for  children  ovtr  16  years  of  ago,  dertirniiniittc  the  inHiriicriua 
to  be  given,  and  appropriate  money  for  tiieir  sapport  The  compulsory  purt  of  the 
law  is  Hopported  by  penalties,  but  it  is  said  that  there  would  l)e  difficnhy  in  enfoix>- 
ing  them ;  at  anyrare,  they  are  not  enforced.  It  is  also  provided  th  it  every  cluid  \w^ 
twf en  8  and  14  mast  be  Pi:nt  to  scliool  for  at  least  18  weeks  in  a  year :  tue  penalty 
for  breach  of  this  provision  is  20  dollars,  bnt  the  idea  of  enforcing  it  seems  ni-ver 
to  liave  been  entertained ;  its  existence  even  is  not  generally  known.  Tim  Inw  do.-i* 
not  permit  school-fee^,  or,  as  they  are  called  in  America,  rat^:  bills.  There  Het'iiis 
to  be  no  fand  arising  from  waste  lands  in  Msssachusetts ;  and  the  township  raiseif 
the  necessary  f unite  ny  a  lax  upon  property — the  personal  property  of  the  inhabi- 
tants and  the  capitalised  value  of  their  real  projjerty  siluatt^  within  the  towoMhip. 
The  amount  of  the  rate  is!  by  the  law  left  wholly  andetermincd :  it  is  dftermined  ly 
the  householders  at  their  annual  meetinj?.  The  state  endeavors  to  inflneuce  tht> 
townships  to  maike  a  liberal  provision  by  means  of  the  school-fund,  a  sharo  of 
which  is  given  to  every  township  which  has  imtde  its  returns  to  the  Board  Of  Bda- 
cation,  and  has  spent  not  less  than  at  the  rate  of  a  dollar  and  a  half  per  head  for 
all  the  children  of  the  township.  The  school-fund  contribution  is  very  small-^less 
th:tn  a  quarter-dollar  for  eyjery  child ;  hut  it  is  said  to  have  an  excellent  influence 
npon  the  rural  towudhips.  No  doubt,  the  publication  of  the  returns  made  to  tlia 
Bo  irdof  Education  tends  t^  ppar  on  the  backward  districts. 

The  mana<;ement  and  control  of  all  the  public  schools  of  a  township  are  placed 
In  the  hands  of  a  school-committee,  cousistini^  of  any  number  divisible  by  three; 
the  members  of  this  committee  hold  office  for  three  years,  and  one-third  of  theui 
are  elected  annnually  at  the  anual  meetnigof  the  township.  The  commiUee  have  the 
superviHon  ot  the  schools ;  and  it  is  among  their  duties  to  see  that  no  book  oilcn- 
laiert  to  favor  the  teuetd  of  any  particular  sect  of  Ohrit*tians  hhall  be  used  in  the 
schools,  and  to  require  the  daily  Heading  of  some  jiortion  of  the  Bible  in  tlie common 
English  version.  Any  township,  by.its  public  meet.ing,  or  a  city,  by  its  citv-conncil, 
may  require  the  committee  to  appoint  a  paid  superintendent  of  schools  :  when  this 
is  not  done,  the  me!nl)er8  of  the  committee  receive  a  small  allowance  for  tlie  11  mo 
during  which  they  are  en^a^ed  upon  the  rchool-affalr.^.  But,  moreover,  any  town- 
ship  may,  at  a  meetiutf  called  for  the  purpose,  resolve  to  divide  itself  into  districia 
for  the  support  of  its  pchools.  If  this  be  done,  the  township  named  for  each  district 
a  "  prudential  committee,"  consisting  eitlier  of  one  or  of  three  |>ersons,  resident 
within  the  district,  wl»icl»  is  charg  d  witli  providing  and  keeping  in  repair  the  scliool- 
honse,  at  the  expense  of  the  district,  and,  if  the  towusldp  so  determines,  with  the 
duty  of  selecting  and  contracting  with  the  teachers.  Tlie  district  determines  tho 
amount  to  bo  raiped  by  it  for  the  building,  or  repair  or  furnishing  of  it-s  school ;  this  is 
collected  by  the  town^^hip  collector,  and  handed  over  to  the  district-committee,  'j'lm 
school-committee  retains,  its  functions  of  maihigement,  except  so  faras  they  have 
been  made  over  to  the  districts ;  and  hence,  there  is  a  double  management  of  the 
pchools.  which  is  found  to  he  attended  vvith  Inconveniences.  The  division  into  dis- 
tricts, too,  is  said  to  have  led  to  an  unnecessary  multiplication  of  schools  In  conntiy 
plac(5s  ;  people  scheme  to  have  the  township  so  divided  iliat  there  may  be  a  school 
in  tlK'ir  neighborhood— there  are  therefore  more  schools  than  are  needed,  and  more 
.  tlian  can  be  maiuttdned  in  efficiency,-  Tho  school-committee — ^In  cities,  the  school- 
I  superintendent — examines  the  teacher  before  his  appointment,  and  ^ttiijts  bhn  a 
t  certificate  which  remains  in  forc^  for  a  cei'ttiin  time.  There  are  three  classes  of 
c  Ttiflcate— one  valid  for  six  months,  another  for  twelve,  a  tliii-d  for  two  years. 
The  common  schools  of  a  township  are  open  to  all  children  resident  therein  l)eiweeu 
five  and  fifteen  years  of  age :  none  are  to  be  excluded  on  account  of  race,  color,  or 
religious  opinions;  and  it  has  been  held  t hat  a  child  unlawfully  excluded  may  re- 
cover damaffMs  thcn^for  in  an  action  of  tort. 

lu  New  Yoi-k,  iu  Peuusylvouia,  and  iu  most  of  the  Westeru  States,  large  nmni* 


y  Google 


12^ 


If  ational  Ediication 


cipal  powers  are  posst'srad  by  the  connty,  and  the  conoty  shares  with  the  township 
the  iii:ii»ag«ineut  of  K:hoo]-nff»ir8.  Nev  York  has  a  state  superfutendeutt  whose 
power  over  the  sHiools  la  considerable.  lu  that  state,  it  is  the  srlKioI-couiinissioDer 
<>f  th»i  **  AsscinWy  Districi  '*  in  wliich  the  township  lies  who  dlridee  the  townsliip 
into  sohool-districts :  nnd  it  is  the  district  which  determines  the  scbool-taz:  the 
township  is  ahnost  completely  ignored.  In  New  York.  Ohio,  and  Illinoia.  it  is  by 
cnniitv  officials  that  teachers  are  examined  and  cerJllcated.  In  New  Yon,  Rhode 
Inland,  and  Connecticut,  *'  rate-bills  "—tliat  is,  school-Cees— are  allowed,  and  are  nso- 
»!ly  levifd.  Several  states  besides  Massachasetts  mJ^e  schooi^t tendance  compnl- 
Kory  :  in  most  of  the  states,  tliere  appears  to  l»e  sonie  proTisiou  against  *•  truancy  ;** 
bnt  it  appears  that  attempts  are  not  made  to  enforce  the  law  except  occasionally, 
HI  the  case  of  homeless,  wandering  children,  who  aft  liabh:,  in  lien  of  a  line,  to  be 
■  sent  to  reformatory  schools.  It  has  been  Ciilcniatid  that  in  tlie  city  of  New  York 
(pop.  »40,000)  there  are  al)oat  100,000  children  who  do  not  go  to  school— thoogh  in 
no  city  is  there  a  l>etter  or  ampler  provision  of  common  schools. 

As  mfght  be  expecied,  the  t  chool  laws  work  badiv  in  Ci  nntry  districtju  The  bonse- 
lio'd'-rs  are  disposed  to  be  satisfied  wit  h  any  kind  of  school,  pi-ovided  It  Ix-chwip,  and 
\%ithin  easy  re:tch  of  them  ;  and  the  malt iplicai ion  of  schooli*  by  the  district  system, 
m-ikes  it  almost  unavoidable  th:it  an  insufficient  sura  should  be  s))ent  upon  e:ich  school. 
The  t»*achers— -«  vast  majority  of  whom  are  women— being  wretchedly  paid,  are  badIv 
qualified ;  th(;y  are  constantly  changing;  scarcely  any  intend  to  make  teaching  their 
uccnimtion  for  life.  Pew  of  them  have  been  trained  for  their  work — the  normal 
schools  which  eximt  beinj^  utterly  inadequate  to  supply  the  dennind  for  teachers ; 
and  the  examination  by  a  rural  schooUommlttee  affords  bnt  a  slender  guarantee 
of  comiietency.  The  teacher  is  usually  '*  lioardrd  round  "  among  the  farmers  of  the 
district,  and  is  said  to  be  treated  by  them  with  nmch  olwervan^;  but  his  income- 
putting  a  money  value  upon  the  board — has  l)een  estimated  at  an  average  of  about 
50«.  a  mouth,  and  that  only  during  the  time  that  the  school  is  openl  In  1864,  in  84 
^ttiwiiships  or  MassachuseUs— more  than  a  fourth  of  all  the  townships  in  the  state — 
tlieschools  were  kept  open  for  less  than  the  statutory  period  of  ^Ix  months.  The 
teaching  is  said  to  be  wonderfuUy^ood,  considering  tlie  scanty  pay  given  ;  but  where 
the  vacations  last  for  more  tlian  six  months,  and  the  teacher  is  changed  almost  every 
term,  thoroueb  and  systematic  instruction  is  scarcely  {lossible.  It  is  in  the  towns 
that  the  workinsr  of  the  school-laws  has  1)eeu  crc>ditablc  and  successful.  Tiirongh  the 
high  pDl>lic  spirit  of  the  munici{uii  bodies,  and  the  great  importance  attacheil  to  edu- 
cation, the  support  of  the  common  schools  is  in  general  most  liberally  provided  for. 

In  the  towns,  there  is  usually  a  superintendent  of  schools,  by  whom,  und-rand 
iu  co-operation  with  the  general  and  district  scliool-commiitees,  the  schools  are 
Inspected,  and  the  character  of  the  instruction  determined;  by  liinitheexammatiou 
of  the  teachers  also  is  conducted.  Of  the  schools,  there  arc  four  classes — primary, 
intermediate,  ^ammar,  and  liigh-schools  or  a&idemies.  Children  ucually  enter  the 
primary  school  alwnt  5  or  6;  the  grammar-school  between  Satid  9;  the  hiich-school 
iM-tween  12  and  13  years  of  age.  They  are  not  promoted  from  one  class  of  school  to  an- 
otlier  without  undergoing  an  examination  :  the  intermediate^scliools,  where » hey  exist, 
are  intended  for  those  wMio  are  too  old  to  be  at  the  primary  school,  and  too  backward 
to  enter  the  grammar-school.  To  be  admitted  to  a  gmmmat-school,  a  child  must  l>e 
able  to  read  at  first  sight  eaf»y  prose,  to  spell  common  words  of  not  more  than  three 
syllables,  and  to  have  acquired  a  slight  knowledge  of  arithmetic  For  admission  to 
the  high  sclTooI,  the  usual  requirements  are  ability  to  read  con-ectly  and  finently,  an 
acquanitauce  with  the  Sfinlple  rules  of  arithmetic,  and  some  knowledge  of  geography 
and  grammar.  From  these  tests  may  be  inferred  the  average  proficiency  expccled 
to  be  attained  by  children  leaving  the  primary  and  the  grammar  school  respeciively. 
Iu  the  gramntar-schools  of  Boston,  the  programme  of  studies  consists  of  spelling, 
reading,  writiiig.  arithmetic  with  book-keeping,  geography,  English  grammar,  the 
hii»:ory  of  the  Ijnited  States,  natural  philo>«ophy,  drawitig,  and  vocal  music:  this  !« 
nearly  the  usual  programme;  bnt  in  New  York  and  one  or  two  other  states  a  little 
more  is  attemptefl.  Between  the  hiKh-schools  or  aaidemles  in  the  variotis  state**, 
there  are  considerat>le  differences.  In  the  city  of  New  York,  for  example,  tlie  Free 
Academy  has  pretentious  to  the  rank  of  a  uuivet:sity,  and  grants  decrees  in  arts 
and  sdeoce  (Bachelor  of  Arts.  Bachelor  of  Science,  Master  of  Art?)  to 
stndeots  who  have  completed  with  credit  the  curriculum  of  five  years.    But,  r 

U.  K.,  X,  5. 


y  Google 


5:s:r*^-^^«  vjs 


Native 

U.-iu-nu.     the      hi...,-iK:hoor«    nro     w^^o^^'?    *'•    f  <'0|l'^«''y /"^^'nctipn,   iotcnded    A 

cla-^Ycal    Iain/««g."!     tn  „hei  atics     the    bcieuces,     hiMory,    antV  tlie   EugUah    «  t 
limsW'»i:e    mid    Zu^Xi^^U     nun-utncc.      The    usual    cumculnm    w   one   of    iuor      \\ 
rearj*  ;  aud  tlie  fcitud.-iits  are  lioi  n-qHiied  Xa  eludy  all  the  snlv)ect8  taugltt  i,i  the       kI 
icliooL    At  Bos-tou,  wiiere  boys  ure  adtiiissiiilti  to  trie  Latin  liigii-school  at  10  yeure       W 
of  iii^e.  ttie  cmrit  uUiiu  Ja.H|8  for  six  yeans.     Tlicre  uru  high-schools  for  girls  aa  wnil       ■[ 
t^  fur  boy«*,  the  proi;rumnu;  of  iustructioii  being  the  same  in  b.>th.    At  Boston,  tlui        ■ 
cunicnliim  at  the  girl**'  iiigh-school  lastis  for  turue  yours;  and  pupils  at  udmisiAiou       Wk 
niusl  be  botweou  15  mid  19  yeara  of  age.     Bo?<tou  possesses,  b^'sidcs  its  Latin  liijju-  *     H 
bChool,  and  itsgiilrt'  higlischool^an  Enjfiish  high-scliool,  .^:>id  Jo  be  admirably  pUmu  'd       ■ 
4iud  couducted.    The  iustr action  iu  it  clo8ely  resembiea  that  given  iu  ihe  r  aU        ■ 
acliuoU  of  Germany,  including  French  and  German,  aud  various  sciences,  withtUeic       fl 
application  ;  being  intended  to  enable  boys  to  complete  a  sound  Euglidh  educiitiuii,       S 
and  to  prepare  tluunselvee  for  conunercial  iife.     Great  complajuts  are  nhiioal  every-        ■ 
where  maJe — Bosion  soemm  to  be  except ionut  in  thi«  respect — of  the  irregularity  of       '9 
the  atreijdance  at  the  primary  schoil;*.    It  is  estimated  that  in  most  stuert  not  umcU.       \ 
nioi'e  than  half  of  the  children  pifs  from  these  to  the  griumnar-scliools ;  but  a  trlflibx        1 
proportiou  of  the  gram  mar-school  pupils  enter  tlie  higli-schools,  aud  of  these,  o  dy         1 
a  small  fraction  i>er8i8t  to  tiie  end  of  the  ctirriculum.     All  high-scl»ools  t;™nt  cur-       -j 
tlflcates  of  graduation  to  pupils  who  have  creditably  gone  throuLjli  the  course  of         ' 
study.    The  study  of  the  clas^if.s  doeft  not,  even  in  the  uioiit  pretentious  iustitatioua        ' 
of  this  class,  seem  to  be  carried   very  far,  much   more  attention  Iwiug  given   to 
luatliematics  and  natui'al  science.     In  Boston— in  many  resp/cts  the  most  tuvorahl'-j 
example  that  could  be  taken— there  were,  in  1S64,  32,SU  children  of  school-age— be- 
tween 5  and  15  ;  of  tliese,  26,960  were  in  school,  the  averau'e  attend  iucebjing2-l,61i. 
Tlie  number  enrolled  at  tiie  throe  high-schools  was  only  iiiS,  and  the  ave  age  attend- 
ance 691.    The  Dumber  of  students  who  complete  the  Ave  years'  curriculuta    of  the 
New  York  Free  Academy  seUlom  exceed.'*  flity.    Among  the  wealthy,  there  in  gaid 
to  l)e  a  growing  disinclination  to  make  use  of  the  common-schools:  their  cbildri-n 
ai^  Udually  sent  to  private  academies.    Th»5  only  serious  opposition  to  the  non- 
religiotis  character  ot  the  common-schools  com  'S  from  tho  Roman  Catholic  clergy; 
but  it  is  stnted  that  there  Is  a  gi'owing  feeling  upon  this  snbj  ^ct  among  nonio  of  the 
other  religions  bodies.    In  many  of  the  New  York  schools,  in  wlitch  tiie  majority  of 
tlie  children  are  Roman  Catholic,  clerical  iutlueiiee,  insnffleient  to  impress  tipouthe 
education  the  ndigioua  character  which  it  would  approve,   tias  ohtjiined,  witli   tlie 
tacit  assent  of  tlie  school-authorities,  thj  disuse  of  the  daily  Bible  r. -ad ing  which  thj 
law  prescribes. 

The  primary  and  grammar  schools  are  most  frequently  mixed  pchoos — that  is, 
they  admit  boys  aud  girls  ;  in  the  teaching,  however,  the  sexes  are  kept  ajxirt.  The 
teachers  iu  primary  aud  grammar  schools,  eveu  in  tlie  towns,  ure  iisualJy  wunieii ; 
but  in  Boston  the  priuci|)al  of  a  gramniar-sctmol  is  always  of  the  other  sex.  Tho 
schools  are  iu  towns  always  graded — divided,  that  is,  inio  classes  composed  of  those 
who  are  at  the  same  stage  ;  each  grad.;  forms  a  Siq)arate  department  of  the  t^chool, 
aud  is  tangJit  by  a  separate  m;ister.  The  usual  number  of  pupils  allotted  to  a  teachiir 
is  iu  the  primiry  schools  about  50  ;  in  the  grammar-schools  about  S5.  I'iiia  j'ystL-m 
of  grading  is  a  cheap  syste.n,  h. 'cause  it  enables  a  teacher  to  take  charge  of  a  bii'i^e 
number  of  pupils  ;  but  it  is  ^aid  to  lead  to  u  want  of  thoro.ighne.'is  in  I  he  Instrnctitiu, 
the  teaching  lieing  addressed  to  the  class  rather  than  to  the  individual  ^nemb  -rs  of 
it.  \V;»nt  of  thoroughness  seems,  indeed,  the  besetting  sin  of  American  t^'uclii  11^9 
wliich  aims  too  much  at  communicating  knowledge,  not  ^ufflciently  at  d-velopiiit; 
cup:icities.  In  the  primary  and  grainnmr  schools,  tne  iducatiou  costs  froiu  25^.  to 
3i)i*.  per  head  ;  in  the  high-scliools,  from  £6  to  XIO  per  head. 

StatUUca  of  National  Education. 

ThepropoitioD  of  clilldren  attending  scliool—i.  e.,  enrolled  Iu  «chool-re'.fisten5» — 
to  the  whole  population  of  the  couutriea  under  mentioned  tuay  he  approzimattrly 
BUiteil  as  follows:  Englaud  1  in  7*7;  Scotland,  1  iu  6*5;  Prussia,  1  iu  6*2;  ;  Fraiic^i* 
1  in  9 ;  Holland,  1  iu  8*11 ;  Belgium.  1  iu  11 ;  Northeru  States  of  the  American  UniQU* 
1  in  4-5;  Switzerland,  1  in  t  ;  tiic  minor  ProtestiUit  states  of  Germany,  1  in  6*7. 
TbcBu  figaiea,  however,  muat  iiut  be  takeu  aa  iudicalui^  the  comuurative  diftu^&iuu 


yLiOOgle 


Ion  National  Edncatioa 

-*^  Native 

of  edncalion  In  the  coantriea  named :  nor  are  thev  to  be  relied  on  an  indicating  witli 
anything  KIceezactueBe.  the  comparative  pmporijiouM  of  cliildreu  actuuHy  aitctidhig 
pclioo! ;  for  tlie  proportion  of  Un-  cliildreii  enrolled  which  on  the  average  5?  in  acinul 
attendance  varies  in  diffiiinrnt  countries.  It  shonld  also  be  liorne  in  inTnd  tiiut  aver- 
fi^*8  conceal  the  condition  ot  the  worrt  parta  of  u  coantry :  in  Scotland,  for  Inpt-unce, 
whore  the  scliool  at'endance  varies  from  1  in  4  of  the  population  in  the  t>t:st  dis- 
tricts, to  1  in  15, 1  in  90,  and  even  to  1  in  80  in  tlie  worst 

Sec  tlie  ReiK>rts  of  tlie  attsist.iut-connnissionors  appointed  to  inqnire  Into  the 
Slate  of  Popular  £dacatiOD  in  Englnud,  voL  iv..  biinj^  vol.  xxi.  part  iv.sess.  1861 : 
the  r«t-on(l  Iteport  of  the  Scottish  Educational  ComniiHsiOnerH,  1867 ;  the  Statistical 
S(>cieiy':i  Qimrterly  Jonrnal  for  March  1867;  Horace  Mann  on  Kdmation  in  Euro- 
p<'un  Countries;  Fraser's  ltt>port  on  A merican  (U.  8.  and  Canada)  Sciiools;  Cousin 
on  German  and  Dutcli  Education ;  M.  Block's  A  Instruct  of  Puhiic  Documents  relate 
inj;  to  Edncatlon  in  Franco  ;  *'  L'lnHtruclion  du  Peuple,"  par  Pierre  Teniiteis  (Brnx- 
eiles,  1865)  *  **  Statistiche  Nachrichten  &ber  das  Elcuieutar  Schulweseu,*'  ^n  oIHc(hI 
ret nni.  which  ^ives  a  complete  survey  of  elemeutory  education  in  Prn6»<iA  to  tlie 
end  ot  1864;  "Congr6s  Inleniutiouurdc  Bienfai^aiuedel^ndres,  Session  de  1862;** 
and    *  Uapport  et  Discussion  sur  riiistruction  Ol)U^ui«ire." 

[Since  the  preceding  accx>aut  was  written,  the  claima  of  national  rdncatiou 
have  been  more  fully  recognised,  mid,  w  ith  let<H  opposition  iboU  might  have  l>eeii 
expected,  a  untional  sysleni  has  l>een  esl»I)]it>hed  in  EnglaiMl  and  Scotland.  The 
Elementary  Education  Act  for  Enghind,  1870,  enacts  that  eveiy  district  in  which  the 
exist int!  schools  are  found  deflcieutalmll  have  a  popularly  elt-cled  school-lK>ard.  to 
manage  its  rale-supported  schools,  levy  school-rates,  appoint  teaclu-rs,  Ac  Ele- 
liieutury  »  bools  are  to  be  supported,  and  the  expenses  of  school-botirds  pai<l,  out  of 
funds  called  S4:hool-fnndB.  The  local  rate  form.«  the  nucleus  of  « ach  school-fund  ; 
but  every  school  under  the  act  is  likewise  entitled  to  an  annual  grant  from  paiiia- 
ineut  not  exce<  ding  tlie-  income  of  the  sdiool  from  other  sources,  and  varying  iu 
nmount  according  lothe  nuinl>er  of  ptipils  and  their  proficiency  as  tested  by  different 
Btauclanls  of  examination.  Schools  are  to  be  open  at  all  times  to  government  iu-- 
e>l>eetiou.  R«]igions  instruction,  if  given  at  all — ai:d  this  is  left  to  each  l)oard  to 
decide — is  to  he  given  at  ^ed  times  other  than  ttic  ordinai-y  school-hours,  wlien  no 
(thild  is  compelled  to  attend.  It  is  furtiier  left  to  the  discretion  of  school-l)Oards  to 
make  education  compulsory — The  Scotch  Education  Act,  1872,  differs  materiallv 
from  tile  Biiglisli  acton  three  jmints  only:  first,  by  providing  iluit  a  Kthool-boara, 
under  the  Scotcli  Education  Department,  is  to  l>e  elected  in  every  parish  and  bnrgh; 
secondly,  by  making  it  illegnl  for  purents  to  omit  educating  their  children  l>etween  5 
and  18  m  reading,  writing,  and  iu-ithmetic;  and  ibiitilv.  by  comprehending  higher- 
eltiss  scliools.  Otherwise,  the  acts  «re  much  alike.  Every  school  is  to  l)e  open  to 
children  of  all  denominations,  and  religious  intii ruction  is  only  to  l>e  given  iH'fore 
or  after  ordumry  scliooi-hours.  Provided  they  (Onforin  to  the  **  conscience  clause,** 
school-boards  may  make  any  provision  they  pleiii-e  for  n  ligiiius  iostrnction.  School- 
bounle  are  enjoined  to  relieve  the  teaclicrs  of  higher-class  schools,  so  far  as  may  be, 
from  ekmentary  work.] 

NATIONAL  GUARD,  an  organization  for  local  defence,  differiitg  from  the 
British  Mililia  and  Vi.iunt^^ers.  in  Ming  at  the  disposal  of  the  municipairiies,  not  of 
the  crown.  Italy,  Gret'cc.  and  other  nations  have  maintained  this  civic  force;  but 
the  country  whence  it  derives  historic  funn*,  is  France.  The  French  Nw  G.  was  in- 
stitate<I  in  Paris  iu  1789  wlieii  the  government  had  an  army  of  30.000  at  the  gat*  s. 
'J'he  municipality  ariui^d  48,000  men,  and  their  example  was  followed  hy  the  chief 
towns  of  Fmnc«'.  These  coipt^  ol)taiiied  the  name  of  N.  G.  and  assumed  tlie  fainons 
tricolor  as  their  ensign.  Iu  1795,  30,000  of  the  P.  ris  N.  G.  attacked  the  Tuileries, 
and  were  repulsed  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte'  with  6000  regular  troops.  In  16S0  tliey* 
were  leoipinised  under  the  command  of  Lafayette,  their  original  chief;  and  be- 
tween 1843  and  1851  a  luw  was  pu6.>od  by  which  all  males  above  20  not  oihtrwise 
employed  under  government  were  included  in  the  N.  G.  After  the  coup  d'etat  in 
DiH'^  1851,  they  were  reduced  to  the  condition  of  an  armed  police.  In  the  war  of 
IS70-TI,  they  shewed  some  signs  of  vliality  in  sympathy  with  tiie  Coiniiinne,  but 
effected  nothing  for  Franca.    After  the  fall  of  the  Commune  they  were  disbanded. 

NATIVE,  a  term  mostly  applied  to  metals,  and  employed  to  designate  sub- 


I 


^.^    * 


y  Google 


Natron  1  QA , 

Natural  ±0\J  ^ 

Ptaiicos,  (U3  minerals,  whicli  are  moftt  of  them  more  nWindantly  obtained  fi-om  other 
minerals  by  chomicul  processes.  Tims  silver  found  pure,  or  nearly  so,  is  Ciilled  ya- 
tioe  Silver,  whilst  luorft  of  the  silver  iu  u«5e  is  procured  froui  ores  in  which  it  ezivts 
Yiiriously  combined. 

NA'TRON,  or  Trona,  nn  impure  8P8qnicarl>onat«  of  soda  (2NaO,nO,3CO,+3Aq), 
wliich  always  conliiins  sulphate  of  hcmIu  and  chloride  of  sodium.  Ii  ii«  obtaiiMta 
f roui  tlie  margins  of  hikes  in  Egypt,  Siberia,  Tibet,  &c.,  and  from  the  borders  of  the 
Black  and  Caspian  Sous. 

.  NATRON  LAKES.  Natron  wjis  one  of  the  snbstjmcifs  employed  by  tlie  ancient 
Eiryptiaus  in  cmbalmhig  mnmini^s.  They  called  it  heatnen,  and,  'Oirethcr  witli  rh  5 
hike:*  from  wlience  it  was  derived,  it  is  mentioned  in  tt^xts  of  the  12th  dynnsty.  drca. 
1800  BC.  Tlieselakes,  eight  In  number,  arc  in  thw  vicinity  of  Zake-k,  a  village  Wv;dt 
of  the  Damietta  Iwancli  of  tlie  Nile.  They  sire  below  the  level  of  the  mm,  au<!  tho 
natron  U  obtained  bv  evaporation.  The  locality  K*  also  nniownetl  for  four  mona:»- 
teries,  Deyr  Stiriana,  St  Malarhis,  Amba  Bishol,  Devr  B:mimo08.  from  \vhor*e 
libraries  of  Ambic,  Coptic,  and  Svriac  M^S.  thts  national  collections  have  been  en- 
riclied.  In  the  time  of  St  Pachomins,  5000  anchorites  dwell  liere;  they  at  present 
number  about  300.  ~  ^         «   , 

LefMlus,  ^•Todt.  Taf.**  vil.  c.  17.  1.  IT;  Wilkinson.  "Mod.  Ejrypt,"  i-  882; 
Brugsch,  "  Wandernng  nach  Natron  K  (J.-tern  »  (12mo,-tierl.  1S55). 

NA'TTBRJACK.    SeeTo^D. 

NATU'NA  ISLANDS,  The,  lie  to  tl»e  north-west  of  Borneo,  between  V>  SS*  and 
40  56'  n.  lal.,  and  101°  51'  and  i08*>  15'  e.  long.  Tliey  ar.?  d  nis  jly  wooded  and  moan- 
tainons,  Ranay,  i>ii  Gretit  Natuna,  rising  to  a  height  of  3500  feet.  Tue  largest  of  1  he 
islands  is  aijout  600  square  miles.  Pop.  of  the  whole  ab.>iit  1S»MJ.  who  grow  ric.*, 
maisK),  aigo>  cocoa-nuts,  &c^  and  exchangj  tho  produce  of  their  fishings,  tiieirs:iffo 
and  cocoa-nut  oil,  for  rice,  iron,  and  cottons,  at  the  Eui-opeou  settlemeuis  on  tha 
Strait  of  Malacca. 

NATURAL,  in  Music,  a  note  b"lon£;in«r  to  th'»  diitonic  scalo  of  C,  and  neither 
elevatetl  by  a  shiirp  nor  dopresse<l  by  a  flat.  When  a  note  has  bten  so  elcva'etl  or 
deim*8sed,  the  natural  sign  JJ  prefix  'd  to  it  on  its  recurrence  restores  it  to  it-*  plact* 
on  the  scale.  When  music  is  wriJt.n  on  a  kjy  with  a  signature  of  sharps  or  fliits,  it 
is  the  oflSct  of  tlie  natural  sign  to  countei*uct  the  signature  :ui  regards  the  note  to 
which  it  is  prefixed. 

NATURAL  HISTORY,  in  the  widest  Bcn8(%  includes  all  natural  science,  and  has 
the  whole  of  creation  for  its  suhiect  In  this  nense  the  t€»rm  was  emiMoyed  by  th  » 
philosophers  of  antiquity.  But  it  is  now  limited  to  those  branches  of  science  which 
relate  to  the  cnist  ot  the  eartn  and  its  producMo  is.  Of  thests  geolc^^'^  and  miner* 
alogy  have  for  their  subject  inorganic  portions  of  creation ;  botany  and  zoology,  tiie 
varioQH  branches  of  which  are  often  pursued  m  sep  irate  sciences,  with  physiology, 
have  for  their  subj^tct  orgjniiz'^d  civatures.  Naturtd  history  tak«'S  cosfniztnice  of  T»i« 
productions  of  nature,  and  of  th  -ir  relations  to  each  other,  with  all  the  chan<r6s  011 
the  face  of  t  le  earth,  and  all  the  plienoniena  of  lite,  ly)th  aiitmiU  and  veg<ttablo.  It 
derives  assistaiuH;  from  ot  her  sciences,  particularly  chemistrv  and  nat  uiHl  philosophy  ; 
and  some  of  tiie  brandies  of  chemistry  may  also  b«^  i-egarded  as  branches  of  natni-al 
history.  When  man  himself  is  considered  as  a  subject  of  scientific  study,  psycho- 
logy must  be  addi'd  to  the  branches  of  natural  history,  but  in  tlie  terra  asconiniuniy 
etuptoyed  this  can  8cai*cely  be  said  to  l>e  included. 

In  every  depzirtnumt  of  natural  history,  cla<s?flbation  is  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance, and  scarcely  less  iinportmit  is  a  scientific  nomencl.-ttnre  snited  to  the  classifl- 
catiim.  The  subjects  of  study  are  so  incalculably  nnmerons.  that  an  arrangement 
of  tliem  in  well-defined  groups  is  m^cessary  to  any  conk'idenible  aitainment  in  tht 
knowledge  of  them ;  and  it  is  only  by  systems  of  cla8.-ificati(ni  which  arrange  smaller 

{groups  in  larger,  and  these  in  larger  «\'h\  lai^^er  again,  that  ntnnr.il  history  has  lv»en 
>ronght  to  its  present  state.  The  very  division  of  natural  history  into  difft^nnit 
sciences  is  a  refudt  of  snch  a  ol&**8iflcation,  and  implies  a  n'tO::niiion  of  the  larg<^t 
and  highest  gron|>s.  It  is  not  always  in  the  establishment  of  these  gron|>s  that  the 
trrrnt^tdifiAculiy  is  ez|)eiienced.  Tlie  primary  distinction  of  all  the  subjects  of 
iiaturid  Idstory  into  organised  and  unorganised,  or  into  those  having  hfe  aud  tnuse 


y  Google 


m  Natron 

Natoral 

not  having  life,  pr^Henrg  Itwlf  vorj  readily  to  every  mind.  And  rqnally  nntural  and 
>  i)ectt.>-8tn*y  1»  tbu  tJi-^tiucMon  of  or};fluir<ed  being  into  Plants  and  Aninialt,  how- 
ever difficult  It  has  b<'e«  found  to  draw  the  pn-ciHe  limit  between  the  low*  sr  of 
plants  and  tlie.  lowest  of  tinimal^.  Another  di^tinction  readily  preiients  itself  to  the 
stndi-ut  ot  Tving  beings,  In  the  kinds  which  retain  the  snme  cliaructers  from  one 
generation  to  another.  But  here  arisM's  one  of  tlie  most  Important  of  nil  the  qnes- 
flont«  of  natural  history,  wlmt  :i  species  Is,  and  how  it  differs  from  a  variety.  For 
this  wu  refer  to  tlie  article  Species.  But  mucii  difference  of  opinion  as  there  Is  on 
thii«  i)oint,  the  common  and  long-prevalent  notion  nmy  be  afsnmcd,  as  rnitablc 
enough  for  guidance  in  ail  that  relates  to  claHsiflcatlon,  tliat  those  are  distinct 
species  which  cannot  by  any  change  of  circumstances— or,  let  it  be  said,  by 
any  ordinary  cliange  of  circnnistances,  and  within  any  moderate  period  of 
time — be  po  modiii>'das  to  be  trausmiited  one  into  another,  whilst  tttose  are  only 
varieties  oi  y:\vq\\  the  modiflcaiion  and  tranhmutation  can  bie  thoseffectea.  Thus, 
in  botany,  Bfosonca  olera^a  is  a  species,  of  which  kale,  cabbagts  cauliflower,  broc- 
coli. Brussels  si)routs.  &c,  are  varieties.  Spe<i<s,  grouped  tog<  ther,  according  to 
their  natural  amuilies,  form  getieta;  but  a  genus  does  not  necessarily  consist  of 
more  species  th:  n  one;  for,  whilst  some  contain  hnndreds  of  species,  others, 
appannily  very  distinct^  coutaiu  only  one  as  yet  known  to  naturalists.  The  dis- 
tinctions by  which  genera  are  separated  are  of  courstt  arbitrary,  and  are  admitted  to 
be  so  i>y  those  wtio  deny  that  the  dit^tinctions  between  f>pecics  are  arbitrary,  or  that 
there  is  any  unCert4nniyal)ont  them  but  wluit  aris>e8  from  the  imperfection  of  our 
knowledge ;  for,  at  present,  it  must  l)e  admitted  on  all  hand^,  that  the  uncertainty 
is*  in  iininnieral>le  instances  very  yreat,  what  are  ppecles  and  wliat  are  varieties. 
IMie  ;ireat  object,  however,  in  the  formation  of  pettera  is  that  they  shall  be  accordant 
with  the  facts  of  nature;  and  f^o  in  regard  to  tne  larger  or  hisher  groups  which  are 
composed  <  f  asHOclated  genera,  as  tribes,  families,  orders,  classes,  Ac.  But  in  all 
tliis,  ihe^'rent  dlfiicuhy  istliat  affinities  exist  on  many  sides;  and  that  groups  can- 
not be  satiffactorily  arranged  in  the  order  of  a  series,  but  often  rather  as  if  they 
Ti  dialed  from  a  coniuon  centre;  whilst  otherwise  viewed,  the  same  {groups  might 
set'iu  to  radiate  very  difffrently  from  auothes  common  centre.  A  natural  systeva 
Is  one  framed  with  the  utmost-  pos^iule  regard  lo  all  these  facts ;  an  artifitial  system, 
fixes  on  one  class  of  facts  and  proci^eds  uikmj  H,  in  disregard  of  all  oihers.  See 
BuTANT.— In  the  inoi^unic  dt^partments  of  nature,  a  species  is  of  course  something 
differ*  nt  from  what  it  is  in  the  organic.  But  clnssiflcaiion  still  proceeds  on  the 
recognition  ol  facts  in  nature  itself,  wliich  it  is  sought  to  exhibit  in  the  groups  that 
are  formed.    See  Minebaloot. 

The  nomencl.-tture  of  natural  history.  In  po  far  as  it  relates  to  organic  beings,  con- 
tinues essentially  as  it  was  e^tfll)Iished  by  Linusens.  See  Gbnus.  The  names  have 
in  many  ca  es  bvren  changed,  but  not  the^node  of  nomenclature. 

NATURAL  OBLIGATIQN,  In  Law,  means  an  obligation  which  Is  supposed  to 
be  prescribed  by  tlie  law  of  Da  in  re,  us  the  obligation  of  a  parent  to  maintain  his 
child.  In  England,  such  an  obligation  is  not  recognised  by  the  common  law,  and 
therefore  it  wns  necessary  in  the  Poor-Law  statutes  to  puni.>^h  by  a  penally  parents 
who,  being  able,  refused  or  decllmid  to  maintain  their  children.  In  Scotland,  the 
natural  obligation  of  a  parent  to  maintain  his  ebild  is,  however,  recognised  by  the 
common  law,  though  It  is  also  enforced  by  the  Poor-Law  statute. 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  is  a  term  frequently  employed  In  Great  Britain  to 
de»'1gnate  that  branch  of  phyi^'lcal  science  which  has  for  its  subject  those  properties 
and  phenomena  of  bodies  which  are  unaccompanied  by  any  essential  change  in  the 
bodies  theniselves.  It  thus  includes  the  various  sciences  which  are  classed  under 
Physici  (q.  v.)  in  the  limited  sense  of  that  term. 

NATURAL  THEOLOGY  is  the  name  given  to  that  branch  of  moral  science 
which  concerns  itself  with  the  evidences  for  the  existence  of  God,  drawn  from  an 
inquiry  into  the  constitution  of  the  universe.  It  Is  l)*'lieved  by  the  majority  of  phi- 
lo.-ophic:il  thinki'rs,  that  these  evidences  warrant  the  belief  in  a  Being  of  inflnito 
power,  wisdom,  benevolence,  and  justice.  There  are,  however,  philosophers  of  great 
eminence  who  deny  that  tliere  is  such  a  thing  as  Natural  Theology,  who  say  that 
nature,  at  tbt-  b(«t,  gi,v«!8  forth  an  uncertain  sound  regarding  the  existence  of  a 
Supreme  Beinir,  and  that  a  logical  demonstration  of  t»uch  existence  is  l>"t>o*'-^''^^ 
and  hm  always  broken  down.    This  view  is  held,  for  example,  by  at  heibts  hke  David 


y  Google 


NataraVsat'on  1  QC> 

Nature  LO^ 

Unme,  And  the  recent  Scoto-Oxonlun  school  of  metflphysicfane,  of  whom  the  prfo- 
cipal  repnaseutative  is  Dcaij  Mansel.  Tlie  stuiidanl  EfnglUh  work  on  the  snhject  baa 
Ioiiij:  been  Pal -y'B  *' Natural  Theology  "  <L()D().  1802;  new  edition  by  Lord  Broagham 
niia  Sir  Cliarle8  Bell,  1836).  The  Bridgewater  uud  Bnruett  Treatises  are  also  coniri- 
bntious  to  tliis  brunch  of  science. 

NATUKALI8A"l'ION,the  act  of  placing  an  alien  in  the  porition,  or  investing 
liim  with  the  rights,  of  a  natnnil-bom  citizen.  The  present  arrangements  with  re- 
ference to  natnralisation,  l)y  which  the  old  rule  tliat  Britisli  nllegiance  is  Inihtlibl**, 
lias  been  changed,  are  eiulKMlie«l  In  the  Nutumlisation  Act  (1870),  d3  Vict.  c.  14,  aiKl 
tlie  Natnraiiifanon  Oath  Act  (1870),  88  and  84  VIcf.  c  108.  By  the  fonner  of  the>*e 
statutes  it  is  provided,  That  an  alien  who  has  resided  in  the  Uuiied  Kingdom  for  a 
term  of  not  lean  tnnn  five  years,  or  has  been  in  the  s«?rvice  of  the  crown  Tor  a  term  of 
not  le-^s  than  five  years,  and  intendis  when  natonUiBed,  either  to  reside  in  tlic  UuiteU 
Kingdom  or  to  serve  nnder  the  crown,  may  apply  to  one  of  Her  Mnjoirty's  Principtl 
Secretaries  of  State  for  a  certificate  of  naturalisation.  Tlie  applicaint  it»  bomid  to 
«idduce  such  evi<lence  of  his  residence,  or  service,  dud  intention  to  reside,  or  serve, 
asiihall  satisfy  the  Secretary  or  State,  who  mav,  with  orwitliout  reason  fkssiinie*!, 
give  or  withhold  a  certificate.  No  appeal  lies  from  his  decision,  bnt  liis  certificate 
tatcos  no  effect  until  the  applicant  ints  taken  the  oatli  of  allegiance.  An  alien,  to 
whom  a  certiflcaie  of  natur.:lisation  has  l)een  grtuited.  is  entitled  to  all  political  and 
ofhor  rigliti^  powers,  and  privileges ;  and>f>ubiect  to  all  obligations  to  which  a  natnrnl- 
born  stiT>ject  is  entitled  or  subject  in  the  United  Kingdom,  with  this  qnalificatioti, 
that  he,  when  within  the  limits  of  the  foreign  stat«  of  which  he  was  previously  a 
snbject,  is  not  deemed  a  British  subject,  nnieifis  he  Ims  ceased  to  be  a  snbiect  of  tho 
foreign  state  by  the  laws  therdof,  or  by  a  treaty  to  that  eflfect.  Snch  acertiftcat'!  may 
l)e  granted  to  any  person  with  resi)ect  to  whose  British  nationality  a  don  lit  exi»«u»  ; 
aiida  grant  of  snch  special  certificate  for  the  puqwsaof  quieting  doubts  shall  nor  b^ 
d«.'emed  jui  adniission  that  the  person  to  whom  it  whs  granted  was  not  previonsly 
a  British  Bubji>ct.  Aliens  previous  y  naturalised  may,  on  application,  ontain  cer- 
tificates. A  Briti^li  subject  who  has  bt^ome  an  alien,  in  pursuance  of  thi8  act  (see 
Alibn),  may  apply  for  a  certificate  of  reodinission  to  British  nationality  on  the  saino 
Ijoiiditioiis  its  an  alien  by  birth.  The  Secretary  of  State  has,  in  this  case,  the  same 
discretion  ;  and  jui  oath  of  allegiance  is  likewise  required.  The  privilege  of  read  mis- 
sion, like  that  of  admission  to  British  nationality,  ruqnireii  tlial  the  recipient  sinill 
have  cetufied  to  be  a  subject  of  the  foreign  stiite.  In  the  colonic*,  tiie  powers  of  tho 
Seeretaty  of  State  are  conferred  on  the  governor.  By  the  Oaths  i^aturolisntion  Act, 
83  and  34  Vkt.  c.  132,  any  person  making  or  subscribing  a  false  declaration  is  de- 
clared to  *)e  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

In  Fr;uict!,  •*  La  grande  Naturalisation  "  confers  political  privileges ;  **  Li  |»6tito 
Naturalisation"  gives  all  tlie  private  rit^lits  of  a  French  citizen,  and  it  Iras  l)eeii 
doubted  whether  even  public  rights  are  not  included  in  it  In  18d7,  the  term  of  re>*i- 
deuce  'vas  reduced  from  ten  years  to  three.  A  subject  of  France  losses  his  iiaiiv.) 
character  by  naturalisation  in  a  foreign  country,  or  acceptance  of  office nbro:id  witlk> 
out  permission  of  the  ntate,  or  even  by  establishing  liiiuhelf  t>erMtafienUy  out  of 
lii.i  country.  He  may  recover  his  rights  by  renunciation  of  his  foreign  ofliv^e  or 
doinicile. 

Ill  Prussia,  the  higher  administrative  autlioritles  can  naturalise  any  stranger  who 
salistles  thom  as  to  Ins  conduct  and  means  of  subsistence.  Nomination  to  a  public 
office  confers  naturalisation.  Prni»8ian  nafionalliy  is  lost— (a)  by  di^ciuirgenpon  the 
eu!»ject's  request ;  (6)  bv  sentence  of  the  competent  antiiority ;  (c)  by  living  ten  yeara 
in  it  foreign  country  ;  (a)  l)y  mirrlage  of  a  female  subject  with  a  foreigner. 

In  Au?»tria,  Hie  authorities  may  confer  the  rights  of  citizenship  on  a  persoti,  after 
ten  years*  residence  within  the  empire,  who  has  been  allowed  to  exercise  a  profes- 
sion. A  public  functionary  l>ecoines  thereby  invested  with  rights  of  citizenship  ; 
but  adinission  into  the  army  has  not  this  effect.— In  the  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
land-,  the  power  of  uatnralisiin;  ro^ts  in  tlie  crown. — In  Russia,  naturulisatiou 
is  eifected  by  taking  an  oath  of  allegianci!  to  the  em|)erof; 

III  the  American  States,  five  years'  i-esidence,  and  a  dt^claration  of  intention  to 
l>eroine  a  citizen,  emitied  before  a  magistrate,  is  r«  qiiisite  to  naturalisation.  See 
**R-p(ntof  Itoyal  Oommi>sioners  on  Naturalisation'^  (1869). 

NATUHALl'SED.  In  Hie  language  of  lM>tanii't9  ana  e<miogists,  those  plants  nncl 
animals  are  i^id  to  be  naltii'ali»iU  in  uny  country,  which,  having  been  introduced 


Digitized  by 


Google 


IQQ  Hat«rallaat1oii 

-i^«*  Nat«r« 

into  It  by  man,  tiAve  eiitabH^«*<l  Ummselves  so  as  to  exff^  wllhont  his  ctire.  A  piniit 
or  animal  is  uercr  naid  to  be  Hatitrali»Ki  so  loug  as  it  vx\nt»  merely  iu  a  etMtc  of  rnl- 
tivatiOD  or  domesticatiou,  bat  ix  so  wbeii  it  bticomes  truly  wild,  aiid,  niiai4i<^,  com- 
petea  sncGessfnlly  for  a  pince  among  tlioae  wliicb  are  iiidigcDons  lo  tite  coniitry. 
Tlina,  the  lionte  is  not  natnrali!«6d  iu  Brittiin,  or  in  ntost  of  llie  coantries  in  wliieli 
it  is  most  )ii$;bly  rained ;  bnt  l>otli  the  hor»«e  and  the  ox  may  i>e  said  to  be  nntorul- 
i'^ed  in  Sontli  America.  Haay  of  the  plants  now  most  ctianicteriatic  of  Southern 
Bnrope.  are  sometimea  said  to  have  been  ori^tnnlly  introduced  from  ilie  East ;  niid 
some  tiiat  are  abannnnt  in  many'pnrts  of  Brittiin  t\ere  in  all  prolwbflity  bronvrlit 
from  tlie  continent  of  Earope.  Some  of  tliese  iilmost  evince  their  forei)ru  origin  by 
growing  chitilv  near  mini*,  or  in  places  which  have  long  been  the  renisof  hiinuin 
h»biiati~on.  Many  plants  now  naturalistnl  iu  Britain  appear  to  liave  tn^n  urlginally 
bronght  for  me<licinal  use,  although  now  disregankKi.  Ju  insuy  cjtses,  lowever, 
uatoraliimtiOii  baa  taken  place  witliont  any  attempt  having  «'ver  l>een  made  by  mnn 
to  introdiica  tins  plant  even  for  cultivation ;  and  thns  many  EnrepcMn  weede  nre 
itoir  common  iu  America,  the  seikbi  having  found  tlieir  w^y  tidtlier  with  those  of 
more  valuable  plants,  or  in  some  such  aecidcnial  iminner.  The  siiroe  thing  hns 
taken  plnce  as  to  animals.  Thns,  mice  and  rats  find  their  way  from  om*  country  to 
another;  thus  the  bed-bug  found  lis  way  at  no  remote  date  to  Britain  ;  otiier  iiinects 
hnve  been  even  more  recently  introduced  with  foreign  productions  of  different 
kinds;  and  a  mollusc  (see Dbeissbma;,  pre\ion8ly  unknown,  has  eslablishefl  ilsilf 
in  some  British  riven*  and  canals.  The  |>hea«>ant  inav  l>e  mentioned  as  nn  instance 
of  nut'nndisntton  in  Brititiu,  designed  and  succes^fally  accomplished  by  man.  An 
Aeclimatiiiatwti  Society  has  recently  been  formed  in  London,  which  has  for  its  ol>- 
j  ct  the  naturalising,  rather  than  what  may  more  strictly  be  calU^I  tlie  acclimati^iitg, 
of  animals  detuned  snitiihle  and  desirable.  It  is  unquestionable  that  much  nisiy  he 
done  by  naturalisntion  of  animals,  not  only  lo  i-ender  rural  pcenes  moie  nttrjittive, 
but  also  to  increase  tlieir  economic^il  prod  net  ivenesi*.  Perhaps  nothing  of  this  kind 
l>as  received  f>o  little  of  the  attention  due  to  its  iniportuoce  as  the  naturalisation  of 
fidbet*.    See  Fiscioul'Tdbb. 

NATURE- PitlNTING.  This  is  a  process  by  which  engravings  or  i)Jat«8 
answering  thereto  are  produced  by  takui^  impreSHioiisuf  the  objfctr*  tlieniHlves, 
and  printing  from  them.  There  is  i-ome  dispute  as  to  the  original  inventor  or  this 
art;  D-ninnrk  claims  it  for  a  native  of  Copi>nha^en,  Peter  KyU-,  a  goldsmith,  who 
died  about  1833,  l<<^ving  tin;  MS.  description  of  his  inviniion  ni  the  archives  of  the 
Koyal  Colliction  of  Engravings  iu  that  canital.  It  is,  however,  admitted  that  no  use 
was  uuule  of  hisinvuntton.  In  1853,  Alois  A ner,  director  of  the  Slate  printing 
establisliment  of  the  Austrian  empire,  ]>nblit'h«-<l  his  pro*  e^s,  and  als<»  some  vi  ry 
beautiful  works  illostratetl  by  this  art.  Alwut  the  same  time,  in  this  country,  Mr 
O.  W.  Aitkin  made  known  his  discove  ry  of  an  exactly  similar  process,  and  shewed 
some  very  beautiful  plates  <)f  feathers,  ferns,  ^.  Bnt  whatever  other  claims  may 
be  ad%'anced,  it  is  <iertain  tbat  Alois  Aner  holds  nndifnuted  right  to  the  title  of 
original  inventor  and  practical  applier  of  ihe  invention.  The  process  is  very  simple 
aapmctised  byAuer;  but  it  cannot  be  applied  to  any  obiects  except  those  with 
tolerably  flat  surfaces,  such  as  dried  and  presse^l  plants,  embroidery  and  lace,  and  a 
very  few  animal  pnMluctions.  ITie  object  is  placed  between  a  plate  of  copiier  and 
another  of  lead,  l>oth  worked  smooth,  and  puli!=>hed ;  th<-y  are  drawn  through  a 
pjiir  of  rollers,  under  considirabic  pr»'8j»ur  • — M.  Aner  Fays  lorty  to  fitly  tons;  then, 
when  tiie  plates  are  separated.  It  is  foimd  tiiat  a  nlo^t  beautiful  and  peifect  inipit  s- 
sioii  of  ihe«»bject  has  been  made  in  the  le:i(len  plate.  This  may  l>e  us^ed  dirtctly  as 
an  engnived  pl:>te,  if  only  a  very  fewinipre^sions  an?  wnnied  ;  but  as  il  is  too  ^o(l  to 
resist  the  nction  of  the  press  for  practical  purposes,  a  fac-siiiiile  of  it  Is  obtained  in 
copper  by  the  electrotype  process,  which  is  u.-ed  as  the  printing>plate.  The  iH-s-t 
practical  n«*e  to  which  natnre-pri  siting  has  yet  been  applied  is  the  ninltiplicalion  of 
pattt'niH  of  lace  and  other  fl^ure<l  surfaces,  either  in  textile  materials  or  metalp,  for 
trade  purposes.  Lace-piint.s  especially  are  ^o  exactly  like  the  originals,  that  the 
most  fastidiiHis  can  require  nothinjr  more ;  henct;  the  cutting  up  of  valuable  pieces  of 
hicc  for  patterHB  has  heen  saved.  Henry  Bradbury,  of  the  then  existing  firm  of 
Bradbury  and  Evans,  Lomlon,  made  natu'e-printing  his  special  stndy,  and  prmlnred 
tlie  exquisite  work«,  '*Natur«?-priuted  Perns," and  "Nature-printed  Sea- Weeds?," 
iu  two  vob.  cticU  (Loudoiu  Bradbury  and  Evans). 


y  Google 


Naamach'a  1 0A 

Nautilas  -» ^* 

NAUMA'CHIA,  a  Greek  word,  nlgiiifying  litenilly  a  naT«l  battle,  afterwnrdis 
ainoug:  the  Koinaus,  a  spectacle  which  coiisiated  in  tlie  imilattoii  of  a  naval  bHttlu. 
Juiiiid  CTsesar  was  the  flrnt  lo  iiitrodnce  a  naniiiMchin  into  Roine,  4<b.c.,  cniiniiz  a 
portiou  of  the  Campos  Martias  to  be  da^  to  form  a  lake,  on  which  the  **  sptHStacl^  " 
cnine  off.  Ao^stiis  made  an  artificial  lake  {stagnum)  near  the  Tiber  for  the  same 
pnrtiofle,  which  wai»  afterwards  fre^enUy  u»ed  for  nanmacbiie.  OiaBdius  :il8o  ex- 
liibiied  a  splendid  one  on  Lake  Kncuinn.  Nero,  Domitian,  and  others  w«rc  likewise 
fond  of  snch  arao^meuts.  The  comlMitants  wttre  termed  NaumaeharH;  tlwy  were 
for  the mo»tp:irt  either  captives  or  condcmnt^l  criminals;  and  the  rival  fleeto  took 
their  names  from  the  famoiii*  maritime  nations  of  antiquity;  Tyrinnn  and  ^gy}>' 
tians,  Khodlans  and  Sicilians,  Persians  and  Aihenians,  Curcyrseaos  iiud  Corinthians, 
Atlienium*  and  Syracnsaus.  The  mtigniflcence  of  tlie^e spectacles  may  Ixs estimated 
from  the  faet^  that  in  the  one  exhibited  on  Lake  FuoinnH,  19,i)00  men  were  en^rasn-d. 
Ttietie  naHtiMoklas  were  not  9ham-Jlg/U«,  any  more  than  ordinary  i^Udiatorial  com- 
bats. Both  sides  foaght  on  iu  real  earnest  for  dear  life  nnifl  one  w:is  ntterly 
overpowered ;  and  as  a  rale,  maltitndea  were  **  batchered  to  make  a  Roman 
holiday.*' 

NAU'MBURG,  a  town  of  Prnsslan  S:ixony,  in  the  govemm<n>t  of  Mersabm^, 
situated  17  m.  s.-s.-w.  of  the  town  of  that  name  on  the  Saale,  in  the  mid^^t  of  a 
striking  amphitheatre  of  vlM«i-cl;»d  hills.  Besid^>s  its  cathedral—a  noble  Gothic 
strncture,  completed  in  1349,  with  two  choirs,  and  containing  many  beautiful  scni|>- 
tnres—there  are  several  other  churche:^  The  m-innfactnres  ar«:  cott-on  and  woollen 
fabricts  leather,  and  chemical  products.  Wine  is  grown  hi  Uie  vicinity  in  consider- 
able quanlity— 11  000  gnllous  yearly.  During  the  Thirty  Yetirs'  Wnr,  and  in  tlie 
campaigns  of  1806  and  1813,  N..  in  whicLi  ttie  Prnsslan  magiisln^s  were  lodift^l.  was 
a  place  of  great  im|>ortance.    Five  annual  fairs  are  held  here.    Pop.  (1675)  16,327. 

NAU'PLIA,  a  sm:dl  fortified  town  and  8eni>ort  iu  tlie  Morea,  Grvec«v  nt  tim 
iiortiiuru  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Argo3  orNaupiia,  and  7  miles  south-ea-'t  ot  tlie 
town  of  Argos.  It.  is  laid  out  in  the  m  inner  of  a  European  town.  Its  ro  »d:^tead  Is 
one  of  the  best  iu  Greece.  In  the  CImrch  of  Si  Spiridion,  C  i)>o  d'lstria  was  as- 
sassinated iii  1881.  N.  is  of  high  antiquity.  At  an  early  p  'Hod  it  was  the  port  and 
nrdenul  of  Argos.  In  the  18th  c,  it  wa^  occupli'd  hy  tlie  Ven  ^tians,  and  was.t«k  mi 
by  the  Turks  ill  1640.  From  18U  to  1835,  it  was  the  caiiital  of  Greece,  and  had  a 
population  of  upwards  of  12,0u0;  baton  tho  removal  of  the  court  to  Athens,  it  fell 
into  decay.    Pop.  ahout  4000. 

NAU'SEA  is  a  distres.<«ing  sensation  alwavs  referred  to  the  stomaclu  It  is  un- 
attended by  pain,  but  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  feeling  of  general  languor  or 
debility,  a  small  and  oftm  irregular  piiltfte,  a  pale,  cool,  and  moist  skin,  e  •iieral 
muscubir  relaxation,  an  increase<l  fiow  of  saliva,  and  a  sensation  that  voinitmg  will 
supervene.  It  is  most  common!y  a  direct  symptom  of  disease  or  disont-T  of  ttie 
stomach,  but  sometimes  it  is  >i  very  important  indirect  symptom<of  dhtca<<e  of  simm 
part  at  a  distance  from  the  stomncli — as,  for  uxstmple,  ttie  brain  or  tlie  kidney. 
The  nausea  which  is  so  troublesome  to  pregnant  \^oinen  is  due  to  the  in-itiition 
excited  by  the  enlarged  uterus  being  reflected  by  nervous  agency  lo  the  Btoninch. 

NAU'TJBi,  Canpo'nes,  Ac.  These  word-*  are  the  commencemimt  of  an  edict  in 
Roman  law,  which  made  sliipmii^ters,  innkeepera,  and  stablers  liahlefor  the  Siifety 
of  the  goods  brought  into  the  ship,  hiii,  or  stable.  The  same  doctrine  is  adopted 
by  the  common  law  of  England  and  Scotland,  Subject  to  variation^  producetl  hy  the 
Carriers*  Act,  and  Railway  and  Canal  Trafllc  Act,  so  far  as  regards  carriers  and  i-ail- 
way  and  canal  companies. 

NAU'TICAL  ALMANAC,  a  work  projected  for  the  special  behoof  of  astrono- 
mers and  navigators.  See  Auianac.  It  is  chiefly  vahiable  to  the  latter  class  from 
its  containing  tables  of  the  **  lunar  distances  " — i.  e..  distances  of  the  moon  from  a 
few  (5  to  7)  of  the  more  prominent  stars,  «iven  for  every  three  hours  tlironghoat  the 
year— by  whiph,  at  the  present  day,  loiigitmlei*  {m-o  Latitude  and  Longitude)  are 
moat  conveniently  and  accurately  determined.  To  the  :u*trouonier,  the  *^  Nautical 
Almanac"  furnishes  a  gre:>t  ma^s  of  important  data;  it  gives  the  |K>sition  of  the 
moon  in  right  ascension  and  declination  Cor  every  hour,  and  the  sun's  latitude  and 
longitude  tor  every  day  iu  the  year ;  it  eliews  ihc  obtiquity  of  the  ochptic,  the  sou's 


y  Google 


1  QX  Hamnach'm 

A«5^  NanUins 

and  moon*s  parallaz,  aberration,  Ac,  at  different  thnes ;  ft  rapplkM  the  neceeaary 
data  for  the  aeteisaiinalion  of  the  nmi  or  aitpareut  »lse,  position,  nud  motion  of  the 
planets  taul  their  mtelMtes;  it  Axes  accnrately  tlie  phicea  of  abontlSO  fixed  star*, 
and  givuti  full  details  coiiceruiu);  eclipses,  occoltntioiit,  tmnnit^,  and  otiier  celestial 
piieiioineua  occnrriug  during  tlte  year.  It  is  geueruliy  tssued  loor  yiturs  hi  advance, 
for  the  siike  of  umiiners  going  on  long  voyugc^^. 

NAU'TILUSj  a  jrenus  c>f  tetra branchiate  Otphalapoiia  (q.  v.)»  extremely  Intor- 
eetiug  tis  tiie  fziftiug  representatives  of  im  oidtT  ot  uiolius<  s  now  reduced  to  a  vrry 
few  8|>ecie8,  bo  of  which  the  fusKil  remains  attest  the  great  abnndnuce  in  furiner 
gtM)lo!£ical  periods.  The  >])ecies  of  this  gomis  are  found  only  in  the  seas  of  wurni 
cl'.maies.  One  or  more  of  tiieni  must  have  l)een  known  to  AristotU-,  as  appeai-s 
from  his  description,  which,  liowever,  is  not  minute.  Yet  it  is  hui  recently  that 
f  lify  CJime  niider  Uie  oi)t>ervatmn  pf  modern  naiurali^ts  ;  and  Ihey  were  very  imper- 
fectly known,  till  a  specimen,  obtained  hy  Dr  B<  nn<tt  in  a  hay  of  the  I*iew  Hi bndes 
in  1829,  wus  submittMl  to  the  examination  of  Professor  Owen,  and  i)ecarae  the  snt>- 
i  ct  of  a  valuable  memoir  by  him.  I'lie  shell,  indeed,  luts  long  been  common  enough 
In  colIectionH,  being  plentifully  footid,  fntire  or  in  fragments,  on  many  tropical 
Bitores;  liut  from  the  shell  alone,  little  could  be  learned  conceiidng  the  aniui'tl  to 
which  it  belonged.  The  sliell  is  spiral,  tlie  spire  not  at  all  elevated;  and  thus,  in 
external  form,  resembles  the  shells  of  many  sp*  cies  of  snail ;  but  hiternally,  it  is 
eamerated^  or  divide<t  into  Ghaml)ers,  by  iransverse  curved  partitions  of  shelly  mat- 
ter. In  a  very  young  state,  this  structure  doeii  ut  t  exist ;  but  us  the  auinml  increns<-8 
ill  size,  it  d«serts  its  first  habitation.  v\hich  then  becomes  an  empty  ci  amber,  and 
so  proceeds  from  one  taanoiher  still  larjrer.  occupying  the  outernK>st  only,  but  re- 
taining a  coniiectiou  with  all  by  means  of  a  nn  lubniuous  tube  {m'phunele)  which 
passes  through  the  cent  re  of  each  partition.  Th^  use  of  this  connection  is  not 
piown  ;  but  the  most  probable  suppo.^ilion  it«,  tluit The  animal  is  eniible<l,  by  throw* 
iiig  air  or  some  kind  of  gas  into  the  ejnpty  chambtrs  of  the  ^1^1,  or  by  <  xhausiing 
them  of  air,  to  change  the  total  weight,  n)  that  it  n:ay  rise  or  sink  in  the  water  at 
pleasure.  Jt  connnonly  inhabits  the  bi)ttom  of  the  pea,  where  it  creep?  aliont, 
probably  like  the  gasteropojls,  by  means  of  a  hii-ge  muscular  disc  with  whicii  the 
jiead  is  furnished ;  but  it  soinetimes  rises  to  tiie  surface,  and  is  to  be  seen  floating 
there.  Dr  Bennett  states  that  the  s|)ecimen  which  he  fortunately  captured.,  ut- 
tr:icted  his  attention  when  thus  floating,  as  an  object  reseniMIng  a  dead  tortoise- 
shell  Ciit  The  story  of  its  spreading  a  sail  is  as  fabulous  as  the  similar  story  re- 
garding the  argonaut  The  head  and  arms  can  be  protrudt^l  from  the  shell,  and  can 
uIho  Incompletely  retracted  within  it.  There  are  numerous  arms  attached  to  the 
jK'ad,  nineteen  in  the  l)e»r  known  sp(  cies  ;  there  are  also  numerous  other  tentacles; 
bat  none  of  these  oi-gans  are  furnislwd  with  suckers,  and  they  are  feeble  in  com- 
purition  with  thf  corres]>oiidlng  organs  of  nmny  of  tlie  higher  or  dibranchiate 
cephalopods.  The  mouth  Is  of  the  p?»rrot'8  bill  form,  as  in  the  other  cephalopods ; 
liut  Ihti  mandibles  are  not  entirely  couiposed  of  horny  matter,  their  extremities  be- 
ing r^ilcareoiis  and  of  a  hm'<lnefs  apparently  adaptt  d  for  breaking  shells.  Their 
edges  are  ala<j  notched,  and  shew  an  sidaptation  for  crushing  rather  than  for  cutting. 
Tiie  U)ugne  is  large.  The  giezard  is  muscular.  The  food  appears  to  consist,  at 
lea.«t  in  great  part,  of  crustaceans. 

Only  three  species  of  N.  are  known,  of  which  the  best  knowu  and  apparently  the 
most  aonndant,  is  the  Pb^bly  JJ.  (xV.  ixmiptWtar),  wliicli  is  found  in  the  Indian  and 
the  Pacific  Oceans.  It**  shell  is  beautiCully  nacreous  within ;  and  is  externally  por- 
celian-Uke,  wliit<*,  and  streak^*d  with  reddish  chestnut  The  shell,  being  large,  thick, 
and  strong,  is  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes  by  the  natives  of  the  Bast  Indies  and 
South  Sea  Islands;  it  is  also  made  nito  ornaments  of  various  kinds  in  China  and 
elsewhere.  The  animal  is  eaten  by  the  Fijinns  and  other  South  Sea  islander;>,  and 
is  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food.  The  Fijians  capture  it  by  means  of  a  basket- 
trap,  somewhat  like  those  ujaed  for  catching  lobsters,  baited  with  boiled  crayfish. 
Tlie  name  Paper  N.  has  sometimes  been  given  to  the  Argonaut  (q.  v.) 

Fo6Hl  NatailiM.—A\)Out  one  hundred  and  fifty  species  of  fossil  shells  have  been 

fofeaeiX  to  this  genus.    They  occur  in  all  the  strata  from  the  Upper  Silurian  to  the 

t  recent  deposits.    Numerous  forms,  however,  which  exhibit  very  wide  differ- 

~,  haye  beeij  iocongrnonsly  associated  under  this  generic  name.    Thepalaeozo 

*      B  so  remarkable,  thai  they  must  certainly  be  referred  to  one^*  more  sept 

Digitized  by  VjjOOQIC 


Nantrui  i  ox* 

Naval  ^"J^ 

ate  genera :  aome  of  the  cnrbonlferonfl  anecies  have  a  pqnare  back,  and  the  whoris 
either  compact  or  opeu  in  tlie  ceiitr**,  wuile  tlie  lartchamiiefis  moreor  leradiatuated 
from  tlie  shell;  and  the  DevuuiHii  Clviueuia  hue  angular  fiatnres  aud  an  internal 
Biphiiucle.  Until  a  carefnl  reviMOu  of  tliie  section  of  the  Cephalopoda  is  made,  it 
will  bti  better  to  consider  tlic  species  as  belongmg  lo  titc  family  NatUUidm^  and  not 
to  the  genus  yaxUiltia. 

NAU'TILUS  PKOPELLBR  was  long  the  bt»Pt  known  amonsr  many  nnmes  given 
to  u  mode  of  proDiilling  ttreuni-ves^'els  by  me:ins  of  a  horizont4il  wheel  within  Imard. 
iiisttead  of  a  paddle  or  a  ncrcw  ou  the  ontside.  Hydraulic  propeller  has  latterly 
co.ne  more  into  U!*e.  Etigintt^rs  thought  of  this  mode  of  propulsion  generations 
nifi),  and  patents  have  beun  taken  out  for  inventions  feiatin;;  to  it  by  Toogood, 
HiyaK,  liiimaey,  Liintker,  Hall,  and  others;  hut  tl^  mos*t  snccesHfnl  attempts  to 
realr<(4i  it  have  Been  thoi^c  of  Mr  Ruthven.  ^e  constructed  a  small  boat,  9  feet  lon^Tf 
ii  1839  (tried  on  the  tJniou  Canal),  audavensel  40  feet  long,  in  1844  (tried  on  the 
F^irMi).  to  te»t  the  principle ;  each  was  worked  by  a  smtUl  steam-engiue,  and  pro- 
vided with  the  hydraulic  apTuiratus.  lu  1849.  MrRnthveu  made  improvemeuta  in  tho 
app  irntus  aiid  introduced  them  in  a  vessel,  SO  feet  long,  tried  upon  the  Thamefi. 
Ill  185t,  he  placed  a  bo:it  in  the  Great  Exhihition.  In  1853,  a  vessel  ou  this  prln- 
cinle,  called  the  Albert^  wa;*  built  iu  Prussia  by  M.  Sydel,  the  machinery  being  sup- 
lilicd  by  Mr  Ruthven.  She  plied  ou  the  Oier  as  a  passenger-steamer  for  mauy  yearei, 
and  illustrated  favorably  some  of  the  chamcteristic  features  of  the  nautilus  system. 
'IMie  term  Of  Mr  RuMiven's  pitentezp1r(*d,  however,  before  the  invention  had  worked 
its  way  Imo  use  in  England ;  and  the  Privy  Council,  in  1863,  gave  a  farther  term  of 
ten  ye  ir.-*.  He  afterwanls  bv*gan  building  a  vessel  to  be  called  the  NatUUtu:  whilo 
the  Admiralty  authorised  the  commencement  of  the  gnu-vessel  Watencitehf  both  to 
be  work>*d  on  the  Itnihven  prin#ple. 

The  Nautilus  wjis  first  tried  ou  the  Tharaoi*  in  April  18M.  It  is  fitted  with  two 
steam-enghie:*  of  10(nomin:il)  horse-power  eacli,  with  cylinders  of  IT  inches  d.ani- 
eter,  and  2  feet  stroke.  Water  U  iidmitted  throu<;h  apertures  in  the  bottom  of  the 
vesetv;!  into  a  water-tight  irou  case  or  compartment.  In  this  case  is  placed  a  bori-> 
zunta)  so-cailed  turbin  i-wlieH,  7  feet  in  aiameter,  acted  on  f fom  a  vertiod  shaft 
connected  with  tlie  steam-cylindera.  The  wheel  is  divided  in  cmipartmeuts  by 
)>lates  or  radii  of  pecalhir  ciirvatnrt;,  and  is  placed  below  the  water-line  of  the  vessel, 
no  as  to  be  always  immersed.  Two  pipes  extend  from  the  wheel-case,  one  to  either 
side  of  the  vessel,  where  they  emerge  nt^rly  at  midship.  Each  pipe  terminates  with 
nozzles,  10  inches  in  diameter,  placed  outside  tiie  vessel  at  right  angles  to  the  pipes; 
iiisoamch  that  each  side  of  the  vessel  has  a  nozzle  pointing  ahead  and  another  point- 
ing astern.  A  valve  is  fitted  to  each  pipe,  at  its  junction  witli  the  nozzlt^s,  to  open 
the  passage  to  one  nozzle  and  close  it  against  the  otiier ;  and  the  movement  I)oth  of 
the  starboard  and  the  port  valves  ciui  be  governed  from  a  niised  deck  built  over  ttie 
engine-house.  The  whjel-case  is  always  full,  or  nearly  full  of  wnier,  whicii  enters 
thriwgh  the  apertures  iu  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  When  the  wheel  is  made  to  rotate 
horizontally  by  the  steam-engines,  warer  is  drawn  !n  throiigh  the  hollow  axin,  and 
expelled  at  the  periphery  by  centrifugal  force;  it  can  only  find  an  outlet  through  the 
two  pipes,  and  then  tlirongti  the  nozzles  which  terminate  tliem.  Supposing  the  nos> 
zies  iM>inting  astern  to  be  open,  aud  those  pointing  ahead  to  be  closed,  the  vessel  is 
propelled  forward  by  the  resistance  of  the  water  of  the  river  or  st»a  to  tliat  rnshing 
out  of  the  nozzles ;  when  the  forward  nozzles  are  open,  and  the  hinder  ones  closet^ 
the  vessel  Is  propjllcd  backwards  or  driven  astern.  The  captain,  standing  on  the 
raised  deck  and  commanding  both  valves,  can  close  the  fore-nozzles  i^nd  open  tlte 
aft,  wli  ch  makes  the  vessel  go  ahead  ;  he  can  open  the  fore  aud  close  the  aft,  which 
makes  her  go  astern  ;  he  can  open  one  fore  nozzle  and  close  the  other,  which  makes 
h  -r  turn.  The  exit  of  ttie  water  from  the  nozzles  is  a  little  above  sea-level,  a  plan 
found  to  be  better  than  actually  immi'fslng  them.  In  one  of  the  tr{al-trii)S  of  the 
Nautihut^  with  strons  wind  and  tide  urging  her  on,  and  gohig  at  full  speed,  she  was  ' 
f>topped  dead  in  less  than  10  seconds,  and  lu  about  a  quarter  of  her  length,  by  simply. 
reversing  the  valves. 

The  iierformance  of  tlio  Nautilus  was  satisfactory  enough  to  lead  the  Admindll^ 
to  ex{>v>aite  the  fluishing  of  the  iVcUerwitchj  an  iron-clad  gun-vessel  Of  778  tons  and 
IttO  horse-power.  Tlie  wheel  is  rotated  by  an  engine  having  three  separate  cvUn* 
ders,  each  8S>^  inches  diameter  by  3  feet  6  inches  stroke.    The  vessel  was  bunt  at 


137 


Nau  Uuf 
Navai 

the  Tharacs  iron-works,  and  englnert  bv  Messrs  J.  nnd  W.  Dndgoon  of  Biackwall. 
lt»  tiirbim;- wheel  w  14  feet  h\  diameter  ;  il  rotate**  (at  full  engine-power)  89  times 
I>er  iniunte.  The  hniKs  discUarge-nozBle>,  wiiich  measni-e  24  hichef*  oy  1»3<, are  lon- 
tinaed  along  Uio  ontoideo:  the  vessel  8 feet  on  each  side  of  the  centre  ;  ti»e  lower 
lips  of  the  dlscliarge-tiozzlHS  are  8  Inchet*  b<'luw  water-line,  the  remainder  of  the 
opertnre  beiui;  iilwve  water.  The  Watertoiteh  is  flat-bottomed  and  double-ended, 
j.  c.,  she  has  a  ruddfrat  each  end.  ho  thai  8he  can  steer  equally  well  when  going 
ribead  or  astern.  Her  total  cost  was  XtfU,U0O,  of  which  uo  lesa  than  X18,60U  was 
for  the  enghies. 

As  regards  her  speed  and  the  efficiency  of  her  machinery,  tlie  Watcrwiteh  did 
not  do  all  that  was  ^xpected  of  her  ;  t>he  wa§  neither  more  nor  less  sncce  sful  than 
her  sister  shiiw,  the  Vtper  and  TtVcen,  and  they  tUI  three  belonged  to  tlHf  slowest  cla^s 
of  gnu-boats.  As  iter  machiu<-ry  was  much  more  expensive  thnn  that  of  tlie  others, 
nothing  has  as  yet  been  done  in  the  way  of  adding  to  the  number  of  liydn^ulic  engines 
ill  tlie  uayy.  They  possess  many  advantages  in  regard  to  manoeuvring  the  ship,  hut 
these  are  to  ai^eat  extent  al^«o  possessed  by  twin-screw  engines,  which  can  he  made 
at  a  less  cost;  while  sorn^  ot  the  advaottiges  originally  claimed  for  tbem,  such  as 
freedom froih  slim  have  not  ^^^  realised  in  actual  work.  In  sucli  exceptional 
▼eeseht^as  ibose  of  the  Fiper^lass,  a  fair  compari^K>u  of  the  merits  of  the  hydraulic 
propeller  with  thOi<e  in  common  use  cannot  lie  made.  The  nett  result  of  the  experi- 
iiients  hitherto  made  it,  that  while  the  ad<lition  of  one  additional  part  to  the 
machinery  between  the  engiues  and  the  actual  propellers  (which  iu  this  case 
are  the  columns  of  water)  is  open  to  grave  oi>joctiou8 ;  still,  with  a  *Murbine'* 
less  faulty  iu  design,  and  puder  more  favorable  circumsttuices  as  regards  the 
vessel  iu  which  it  is  placed,  the  hydraulic  pro|>eller  may  be  found  useful  hi  men- 
of-war.  The  Waterwiich  has  chiehy  been  employed  iu  harbor  work  as  a  tender 
to  larger  vessels. 

NAUVOO',  a  town  in  Tllinois,  United  States  of  America,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  220  miles  above  St  Ixmis.  It  was  built  by  the  Mormons  in  1840, 
aiid  in  1846  contrfim-d  a  population  of  16,000.  Its  principal  feature  was  a  great 
temple  of  polished  marble,  original  in  style,  and  imposing  in  ap))earaiice.  After  the 
mnraer  of  Joseph  Smith,  the  Mormon'^roi>iiet  (see  MoRifOMS),  and  the  expulsion  of 
his  foUowens  the  temple  was  burned.  'J'he  town  was  afterwards  bought  and  occu- 
pi<^d  by  a  Fi'euch  Socialist  coinmnnity,  under  the  leadership  of  M.  Calm.  This 
experiment  having  proved,  like  others,  a  failure,  the  once  famous  city  has  been  re- 
duced to  an  inconsiderable  village. 

NAVAL  ARCHITECTURE.    See  Ship-building. 

NAVA'L  CADETS  are  the  youths  training  for  service  as  naval  officers.  Every 
admiral  on  hoisting  his  Qig  may  nominate  two,  every  captain  one  cadet.  The  boy 
11 1 nstlw  between  12  and  13>^  years  old.  He  is  exaniinea  at  the  Royal  Naval  Col- 
lege at  Greenwich,  and  if  he  passes,  is  sent  for  two  years  to  the  Britamn'a  training- 
fibip,  tt^  Dartmouth.  At  the  end  of  that  time,  if  he  has  progressed  t^atisfactorily,  he 
irt  put  into  a  scu-goiug  ship,  and  becomes  a  midsbipmau  at  once  if  he  has  gained  a 
first-clafs  certificate. 

NAVAL  CROWN,  in  Heraldry,  a  rim  of  gold  round  which  are  placed  alternately 
iMTows  of  galleys  and  s<}uare  sails.  The  device  is  said  to  have  originated  with  the 
Roman  emperor  Claudms,  wlio,  after  the  conquest,  of  Britain,  instituted  it  as  a  re- 
ward for  maritime  services.  He  who  flr«?t  l)oarded  the  enemy's  ship,  and  was  the 
occasion  of  its  being  captured,  was  entitled  to  a  naval  crown.  A  naval  crown  sup- 
porting the  crest  iu  place  of  a  wreath,  occurs  in  various  grants  of  arms  iu  the  early 
part  of  thepresent  century,  to  the.naval  heroes  of  the  late  war.  The  crest  of  the 
Barliof  St  Vincent,  bestowed  on  him  after  his  victory  over  the  Spanish  fleet  iu  1T9T, 
islaeuing  out  of  a  naval  crown  or,  enwrapped  by  a  wreath  of  laurel  vert,  a  deini- 
p^asus  argent  maned  and  hoofed  of  the  firdtaud  winged  azure,  charged  iu  the  wiug 
with  a  fleur-de-lis  or. 

NAVAL  RESERVE,  Royal,  is  a  sort  of  militia  auxiliiuy  to  the  roynl 
navy.  It  is  a  force  hekl  in  high  esteem  by  naval  men ;  and  is  con- 
Mtked  an  extremely  valuable  reserve  of  trained  men  ready  to  man  the  fleet  in 
^a9«  of  emergency.  The  force  was  instituted  in  1869,  under  the  Act  22  and  23  Vict. 
f^m.  That  act  authorizes  the  engagement  of  30,000  men,  each  fov  a^J^o^  <f  "^° 

Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


Navan  1  QQ 

Navarre  ^  ^^ 

yearn,  and  provides  that,  each  Bball  he  IfMiiied,  for  28  drt.rp  In  «vory  yonr,  to  flic  T\M 
of  Jiriua  and  iiavul  tactics,  elth  -r  in  H^t  Maj<**ij'*R  elups  or  on  ffhure.  In  cnuw*  of  nn- 
tioual  einergeiicy,  tliese  men  can.  hy  roynl  proclan»«U«»n,  Ihj  called  ont  for  8«;rvlcf  in 
the  uuvy  in  any  imrt  of  tlio  world,  for  pvriod*  not  exceeding  Avh  yarp.  Wlil  e 
training  and  wliflo  called  ont  for  actaal  mirvic*-.  ilie  men  receive  tlio  wime  wajrei*  fis 
corru8)K)ndnig  ratinj^  in  the  royal  navy ;  4n  aduition,  they  fa-h  receive.  n»  retiiiniug 
fee,  a  sum  of  six  ponnds  for  every  year  iu  whicli  the  regtriated  training  bus  h<H-a 
completed.  Ou  actual  nervlce.  after  Miree  year*— whether  of  uninT4irriipicd  wrvice, 
or  at  l)r>>ken  inlervala— tlin  volunteer  becomes  eutitljtni  to  twopence  exra  per  diem. 
The  man  can  terminate  hix  engagement  at  the  end  of  five  years,  uid(tsi<  on  actual 
service,  when  tlie  (^neeu  nniy  require  liim  to  complete  Ave  yi-ars  of  snch  service  be- 
fore discharging  him.  Daring  the  continaance  of  M»  engagement,  lie  must  not  eni« 
imrk  on  voya«j:e8  which  shall  entail  a  longer  absence  from  tlie  United  Kingdom  than 
His  months,  nuiess  with  special  i)ermisst<>n  of  ttie  Admiralty.  Tlieiii*riods  for  train- 
iui;  are  m  tde  as  far  as  practicaole  to  poit  the  sailor's  convenience:  lie  may  break 
the  28  days  into  sliorter  ^riods,  none  beiuj?  I  'ss  than  seven  d.iyj*.  lie  is  drilled  as 
near  as  practicable  to  his  own  iiom«^,  the  drilliiiK  1>eine  iutnisted  to  the  officers  of 
the  Co:ust-guard.  While  drilling,  if  on  hoard  a  Qneru>  ship,  hn  has  flie  regnlaiion 
victuals;  if  hiileted  on  shore,  while  training  for  gresit-gnn  exerci:«e  in  batteries,  he 
la  allowt>d  U.  4d.  a  d-ty  for  v(ctnal9.  It  is  optional  witli  the  volunte*»r  to  renew  his 
engai^ement.  from  time  to  time,  as  tlie  respt;ctive  periods  of  Ave  years  expire ;  and 
at  about  the  age  of  45,  he  i)ecame.4  entitled  to  a  ))ension  of  XI 2  or  upwards  for  the 
rest  of  Ills  iife,  sal)]  ;ct  to  tlie  usual  obligation  of  nervlce  lu  certain  circnm^talK■«8  in 
the  navy,  which  all  pensioners  are  nnder.  This  pension  m:y  be  comiunted.  if  de- 
sired, into  one  of  less  amotiut,  to  lust  until  the  death  of  the  longest  liver  of  the  vol- 
unteur  and  his  wife. 

To  ba  eligible  for  the  Royal  Navy  Reserve,  a  mnn  must  be  a  Brilisli  subject, 
under  86  years  of  agi?,  In  fioitd  Iiealth,  and,  within  the  precedinjr  ten  yiarf,  must 
have  served  at  least  five  years  at  sea,  of  which  one  year  siiatl  liave  been  as  able  sea- 
man. Soldiers,  militiamen,  and  Coast  Yolanteers  are  ineligible,  and  snhject  to  a 
penalty  if  they  join ;  bat  a  member  of  the  last  force  nniy  obtain  his  dischar^ 
titerefrom  for  the  purpose  of  joining  the  Navad  Re^ene.  JPenalties  are  enacted  in 
case  men  fail  to  attend :  and  failure  after  proper  notice  to  come  up  for  actual 
service  is  lield  eqnivaient  lo  desertion.  While  training  or  on  duty,  tlje  men  are 
liable  to  all  the  punishments,  as  they  are  entitled  to  nil  tlie  rights  and  privileges 
of  regular  seamen.  The  men  considered  mOist  desirable  are  (l)'tliose  having  fixed 
residences;  and  persooallv  known  to  tJie  sliippiug-niaster  or  his  deputies;  and  (2) 
men  iiaying  regular  employineut  in  the  coasting-trade,  or  in  vessels  the  business 
of  which  brings  them  Imu;k  to  the  same  porti>  at  frequent  and  known  intervals. 
In  187T.  about  20,000  men  belonged  to  the  Naval  RusoiTv',  and  were  in  a  fitate  of 
great  efficiency 

In  186L  the  system  of  the  Reserve  was  extended— by  the  Act  24  and  86  Vict  c. 
129— to  officers  of  the  merclmnt-service,  certificated  masters  and  mates  \yelutt  re- 
spectively granted  commissions  in  the  Naval  Reserve  as  lieutenants  and  su  lieu- 
tenants. The  holders  are  required  to  train  for  28  days  annually  ou  board  Uer  M;i- 
J3sty's  ships,  and  are  liable  to  oe  called  ont  for  actual  service  when  required.  Wlieu 
training,  or  ou  actual  Bei*vice,  lieutenants  receive  10«.  and  snb-lleutenantsT*.  aday, 
with  all  the  ptivile^es.  pensions  for  wounds,  pensions  to  widows,  nuifurms,  Ac., 
of  naval  officers  of  corresponding  rank.  Thenninl)erof  these  officers  allowed  by 
regulation  is  IHO  lieutenants,  and  270  snb-Heutenants :  of  these,  in  1874,  commis- 
sions had  l)ecii  grant^^  to  117  Hentenauts,  78  snb-lienteuants,  and  2  enghieers.  'ilie 
total  cost  of  Uie  Naval  Reserve,  cheers  and  men,  for  the  year  1876^1877,  was 
estimated  at  jfi2i0,l09. 

N  A'VAN.  a  market  town  of  Meath  County,  Ireland,  situated  at  the  junction  of  the 
Boyne  ami  Blackwater,  38  n.-w.  of  Dublin,  with  which  city  it  is  connei'^t^  by  two 
railways.  Pop.  (1871)  4104.  of  whom  3868  were  Catholics,  203  Bpiscopalian-Protes- 
T^uts,  and  the  rest  Protestants  ot  other  denominations.  N.  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  boroughs  iu  Ireland,  and  returned  two  meml)era  to  the  Irish  parliament  It 
possesses  couslderai)le  Inland  trade,  a  flax-mill,  several  flour-mills,  and  two  paper- 
mills,  besides  a  tannery, a  brewery,  and  two  distilleries.  Tliere  are  also  an  endowed 
school,  a  Roman  Catholic  seminary  (one  of  tlie  flrst  opened  iu  lijslaud  after  the  re* 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


1«>0  Naran 

**^  NavajM 

pea]  of  the  penal  l^w).  niift  fonr  ualioiial  ecliools  coiitHiiiing  (1871)  1304  pupii^  of 
whom  e99were  Jw^yg, and  606  irirl>».  Tlurtwo  prlH'tK'.litioldtirvattHchoU  lo  Hie  Komim 
Gatliuiic I'oii Vi  lit  ik'vcnil  iuterestiug  reuuiiua,  both  Celtic aud  Normuu-Eiiglitf h,  ara 
foniid  ill  N.  and  the  vicinity. 

NAVAHI'NO,  or  NtH>-Ca?tro.n  pwiiwrt  and  citadel  on  the  8ontli-we#>t  coast  of  tho 
Mort^a  in  Gret-c«\  conUiinp  only  SiHK)  inhahitantSf  bat  is  of  importance  from  iti«  posi- 
tion, comnmndiiig  the  (Mjlran(x>  of  ilic  Bay  of  Nuvarino,  at  tlie  soutlieni  eztremity  of 
which  it  Is  sitnated.  On  the  ishuul  of  ^pliairin  or  Sphacterla,  which  closes  tlio  bay's 
month,  was  fornn'rly  situated  Pylus  Mepseuiuca,  tlie  town  of  Nestor,  in  n  spot  win  ro 
now  stands  Old  Navarino  or  Paiseocastron.  The  Bay  of  Navarino  was  the  scene  of 
a  «:reat  8en-fl«;ht  i>etween  the  AtiimhiM!*  under  Cleon.  and  the  Spartans  (425  B.C.),  in 
wnidi  the  latter  were  defeated ;  guidon  the  20ili  OctoWr  18«7,  it  saw  the  annihilation 
of  the  Turkish  and  Egyptian  navitts  by  the  combined  British,  FreLch,  and  Kussiau 
fleets  under  Sir  Edward  Codringt.on. 

NAVA'RRB,  a  province,  and  formerly  n  kingdom  of  Spain,  is  bonnded  on  the  n. 
by  France,  on  ihe  s.  and  e.  by  Aratron,  and  on  the  w.  by  tlie  Biscays ;  and  is  sitn- 
att'd  in  42°  20'--43o  16' n.  lat..  aud  DO  60'— 2°  30'.w.  long.  Area  aliont  40u0  sgnare 
miles,  t'op.  (1S70)  313,687.  Tbe  coantry  is  mountainous,  being  l)onndfd  and  tra- 
vei-scd.by  the  Pyrenees,  spurs  of  which  occupy  alinost  the  wliole  of  the  province  in 
its  northern  and  eastern  ])art8.  The  highest  (teaks  are  Altovisear,  Adi,  AK  orrunz, 
and  Knfi.-i.  N.  is  watered  by  the  Bidassoa,  tlie  Aiiczo,  and  by  the  Ebro,  together 
with  its  iribataries,  theEganud  Ara^ou,  on  the  level  shores  of  which  corn,  wine, 
aud  oil  of  good  quality  are  iwoduced.  »onie  of  the  valleys  which  intersect  the 
mooutaiu-Qinges,  as  those  of  Roiicesvalles,  Lescon,  Bastan,  and  Roncal,  have  a 
fniitrul  soil,  and  yield  goo<l  crops;  but  in  the  mountain  dirtricts,  husbandry  is  im- 
practicable, and  the  inhabitants  nearly  all  follow  the  chase,  as  much  from  necessity 
as  inclination ;  and  wliilea  lari^e  numlxr  of  Ihe  Navarri?se  are  soldiers,  a  still  lurirer 
proportion  are  smngglei-s — tbe  proximity  of  the  province  to  France,  and  the  dan- 
}:erou8  character  of  the  almost  inacc(>ssible  mountain  {tasses  which  alone  connect 
ttie  two  countri(!8,  holding  oi^t  many  inducements  and  facilities  in  tlie  way  of  smug- 
gling. The  mountain  forests  still  harlntr  iHsars,  wolves,  wild-cjits,  goats,  deer,  and 
au  abundance  of  game  of  every  other  kind.  Iron  and  salt  are  the  chief  mineral  pro- 
ducts of  the  district,  but  these  are  obtained  in  sufficient  quantities  to  Ikj  exportet!. 
The  people  of  N.  are  a  hardy,  bra\'e,  and  hospitable  race,  loyal  to  tiie  sovereign,  at- 
tentive observers  of  the  forms  of  their  religion,  and,  except  in  the  matter  of  smug- 
gling, bonest  and  moral ;  but  they  are  passionate  and  distrustful,  pi*oiie  to  anger, 
a*jd  keen  in  avenging  an  insult^  real  or  imaginar}'.  Although  not  industrhm;*,  the 
people  follow  a  few  branches  of  industry,  aud  manufacture  glass,  leather,  soap^ 
chocolate^  Ac,  of  good  quality. 

nieNavarrese,  with  few  exceptions,  are  meml>er8  of  the  church  of  Rome,  to 
whoso  tenets  they  cHng  witli  superHitioiis  devotion.  They  have  always  intermar- 
ried chiefly  among  their  own  compatriots,  and  are  a  nearly  nnre  Bnt-que  race.  In 
the  mountainous  districts,  Basque  is  still  spoken,  but  in  the  plains,  the  modern  Cas- 
lilian  form  of  Spanish  is  rapidly  supplanting  the  ancient  language  of  the  conuliy. 
The  chief  town  is  Pamplona  (q.  ^.). 

The  territory  known  fr.im  an  early  period  of  Spanish  history  under  the  name  of 
N.,  was  occupied  iu  atieient  times  by  the  Vascones,  who  were  subdued  by  Ihe  Goths, 
ii)  the  5tli  century.  After  having  become  gradually  amalgamated  with  their  con- 
querors, the  1>eople  continued  to  enjoy  a  species  of  turbulent  independence  uudtrr 
millitary  leaders  until  the  8ih  c,  when  they  vri've  almost  annihilated  by  the  hordes 
of  Arabs  who  were  rapidly  spreading  tlieir  dominion  to  all  parts  of  I  lie  peninsula. 
The  Gothic  Vascones  of  N.,  who  had  been  converted  to  Gliristianity,  offered  a  gal- 
lant resistance  to  their  iuftdel  invader*,  and  althoui^h  repeatedly  »»eaten,  they  were 
not  wliolly  subtlued.  The  remnant  which  escaped  the  sword  of  their  Moslem  ene- 
mies took  refuge  in  the  fastnesses  of  the  mountains,  and  choosing  a  knight  of  their 
number,  Garcia,  Xlmenes;  as  their  leader  or  king,  they  ^'allied  fort h,  aud  by  their 
gallant  resistance,  compelled  tlie  Arabs  to  leave  them  In  the  enjoyment  of  an  Inde- 
iwiideuce  greater  than  t hat  of  the  neighboring  states.  On  the  extinction  of  the  race 
of  Hmeiies,  fn  the  middle  of  the  9th  c,  the  Navmrrese  elected  as  their  king  lingo 
Sslichoa,  Co^nt  of  Bigorre,  in  whose  family  the  sdccesslon  remained  till  the  mar- 
.  Hage  of  Philip  the  Fair  with  Queen  Joanna  I.  of  N. ;  aud  the  accessiumof  thefpnner 

*  *^  ^        •  Digitized  by  VjOOQLVS- 


to  the  throne  of  Frtince  in  1286,  rendered  N.  an  appnnago  of  the  crown  of  Prance.  It 
coiiiiiiiuid  a  part  of  that  kiii);doin  during  the  snccetwive  rnigiis  of  Loiis  X.,  Philip  V., 
and  Charie."  the  Pair ;  bnt  oii  the  dwith  of  thia  la-t  in  1828,  Prince  M\  lo  the 
family  of  Valois,  and  the  daughter  of  liouis  X.,  ihe  riglitfnl  heir,  siiccefdrttl  to  N.  as 
Jo:niiin  II.  The  eveutt)  of  the  kingdom  present  no  feainrea  of  iutctrest  during  the 
iK^xt  hundred  year9.  The  marriage  of  Blanche,  dunghter  of  Charles  III.  of  N.,  with 
John  IL  of  ^ragon,  in  1442,  did  not  proiluceau  annexation  of  N.  to  Aragon,a)»  Jiihn 
sufferod  his  Wife  to  rule  Iter  own  kingdom  us  she  pleased,  and  even  after  lier  dearli 
and  his  subs  quent  re-m.irriagtN  lie  resigned  the  govern  ni«nt  entirely  to  his  son  \rf 
Blanche.  Thi:*  son,  known  as  Charles.  Prince  of  Yiano.  having  attempted  to  remain 
iieiitrui  in  his  father's  Quarrels  with  Castile,  John  expeiled  him  and  his  eldor  sister 
Blanche,  who  sided  with  hiui.  from  N.,  and  ctmferred  the  kingdom  on  Leonora 
Countess  de  Foix,  his  younger  daughter,  by  Blanch",  whose  misrule  completed  tJie 
di!«ori;aiii.''ation  which  these  family  quarrels  had  couunenced.  Her  son,  Friiucii>, 
called  Phoebus,  from  his  beauty,  succct;ded  in  1479,  and  his  sister  Catherine  in  14S3. 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  sought  to  marnr  the  young  queen  to  their  son  and  heir,  the 
Prince  of  Asturlas,  bnt.  her  mother,  a  French  princess*,  married  her  to  Jean  d'AIbrct. 
Ferdinand,  however,  was  not  willing  to  let  the  prize  escape  him,  and  on  some  slight 
pretext  he  siMzed  N.  In  1512.  After  this  act  of  8|)oliation,  there  remained  nothing  of 
ancient  N.  beyond  a  small  territory  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  which  wag 
subsequently  united  to  the  crown  of  France  by  Henri  IV.  of  Bonrboh,  King  of  N., 
whose niothi^r.Jemni  d'Albret,  was  gmnddanghter  of  Queen  Catherine;  and  hence 
the  history  of  N.  ends  with  his  access^n  to  the  French  throne  in  1589.  The  Navam*.se 
were,  however,  permitted  to  retain  many  of  their  ancient  privileges,  after  their  iin 
corporation  with  the  other  donndns  of  the  Span  sh  crcnvn,  until  the  reign  of  Qneen 
Isabella  II..  winnj  the  active  aid  which  they  fumishid  to  the  pretender,  Don  Carlos, 
id  the  rebellion  of  1834 — 1889.  led  to  the  abrogation  of  their /tte/'os,  or  natioind  as- 
semblies, and  to  the  amalgamation  of  their  nationality  with  titat  of  the  kingdom  at 
large.  In  the  Inter  Carlist  i?trnggle  of  1872--1876,  N.  was  again  a  principnlseat  of 
the  war,  the  Inhabitants  being  stimulated  in  their  assist'Uice  of  the  representative 
of  the  claims  and  title  of  Don  Carlos  by  his  promise  of  restoring  their  Jkteron, 

NAVB.    See  Church. 

NA'VEW  (Fr.  navetW),  a  garden  vegetable  much  cultivated  in  France  and  other 
parts  of  the  continent  of  JBurope,  although  litile  used  in  Britain.  It  is  by  some 
Dotanists  regarded  as  a  cultivated  variety  of  Bra^aica  naptM,  or  Rape  (q.  v.),  whilst 
others  refer  it  to  B.  eamipestris^  sometimes  called  Wild  N.,  the  siiecies  wiiicii  is  also 
supposed  to  b-a  the  original  of  the  Swedish  Turnip  (q.  ▼.).  The  p  irt  used  is  the 
swollen  root,  which  is  rather  like  a  carrot  in  shape.  Its  color  is  white.  Its  flavor  is 
much  stronger  than  that  of  the  turnip.  It  succeeds  best  in  a  dry  ligiit  soiL  The 
seed  is  sown  in  spring,  and  the  plants  thinned  out  to  6  Inches  apart. 

N  AVI'CULA  (Lat.  a  little  ship),  a  genus  of  DiatcmaeecB  (q.  v.),  receiving  Us  name 
from  the  resemblance  of  its  form  to  that-of  a  boat.  Some  of  the  species  are  very 
common. 

NAVI'CULAR  DISEASE,  in  the  Horse,  consL«ta  in  strain  of  the  strong  flexor 
tendon  of  the  foot,  at  the  point  within  the  hpllow  of  the  fetlock,  where  it  passes  over 
the  oavicnlar  bone.  It  is  most  common  amongst  the  lighter  sorts  of  horses,  and 
especially  where  they  have  upright  pasterns,  out-turned  to/s,  and  early  severe  work 
on  Imrd  roads.  It  soon  given  rise  to  a  short  tripping  yet  aiutious  gait,  nndne  wear  ' 
of  the  toe  of  the  shoe,  wasting  of  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder,  and  projecting  or 
'*  pointing  "  of  the  affected  limb  whilst  sttuidiug.  When  early  noticed,  and  in  horses 
with  welt  formed  legs,  it  is  often  curable;  but  when  of  several  weeks'  standing,  it 
leads  to  so  much  inflammation  and  destruction  of  the  tendon  and  adjoining  parts, 
that  soundness  and  fitness  for  fa^t  work  are  again  impossible.  Re^t  shouUl  at  once 
be  given,  the  shoo  removed,  the  toe  shortened,  and  tlie  foot  placed  in  a  large,  soft., 
hot  poultice,  changed  every  few  hours.  Laxative  medicine  and  bra  IT  masliet*  should 
l>e  ordered,  and  a  soft  bed  made  with  old  short  litter.  After  a  few  days,  and  wh«n  the 
beat  and  tenderness  abate,  cold  applications  should  supersede  the  hot;  and,  after 
another  week,  a  blister  may  be  applied  round  the  coronet,  and  the  aninnil  placed  for 
two  mouths  in  a  good  yard  or  in  a  grass  field,  if  the  ground  be  soft  and  moist ;  or» 


y  Google 


1  J  1  Kavd 

if  snfSclently  strong,  at  slow  fann-work  on  reft  land.  Division  of  the  nerve  gofug 
to  ttie  foot  removes  BciisniTon,  and  consequently  lumeneM ;  and  bence  is  iiseiol  in 
relieving  auiinats  Intended  for  breeding  purposes  or  for  slow  work.  The  operation, 
however,  is  not  to  be  recom mended  wfrere  fust  work  is  required;  for  the  auimnL  in- 
sensible to  pnin,  ases  the  Ifmb  as  if  nothing  were  amiss,  and  (he  diseate  rapidly 
becomes  worse. 

NAVIES,  Ancient  and  Me<lievnl.  The  ancient  method  of  naval  warfare  consisted, 
in  ^ri'ut  part,  in  the  driving  of  beaked  vessels  against  eacli  other;  and  therefore  skill 
ntul  citlerity  in  munoeuviing,  so  as  to  strike  tlie  enemy  at  the  greiitept  disadvantage, 
w<  ic  of  tlie  utmost  importance.  The  victory  Ihns  usnaUy  remained  with  tlie  best 
sailor.  This  mode  of  conflict  has  been  attempted  to  be  revived  at  the  present  time, 
and  vessels  called  ** steam-ranjs  "  are  specially  constructed  for  this  spttcies  of  con- 
flict. The  earli<  St  p^owers  having  efficient  fleets  appear  to  liave  been  the  Phcenicians, 
C;irlhauin4un><,  Persians,  and  Greeks;  the  Greeks  had  fleets  ascarly  as  the  beginning 
of  the  1th  c  B.C.— the  first  sea-flght  on  record  l>eing  that  l)etween  the  Corinthians 
aiid  their  colonists  of  Corcyra,  664  B.C.  The  earliest  great  battle  in  which  tactics 
r:p|M>ar  to  have  dlstiuctlv  been  opposed  to  superior  force,  and  with  sacceas,  was  that 
uf  Saiamis  (480  bo.V.  where  Themisiocles,  taking  advantage  of  the  narrows,  forced 
the  Persian  fleet  of  Xerxis  to  combat  in  such  a  manner,  that  ^^^^  '^"®  ^'  battle  bnt 
little  exceeded  in  length  the  line  of  the  mach  inferior  Atlienlan  fleet  The  Peiopon- 
iiesian  War,  where  ^^Greek  met  Greek,"  tended  nmch  to  develop  the  art  o(  naval 
warfare.  But  the  destruction  of  tlie  Athenian  marine  power  in  the  Syracusian  expe- 
dition of  414  B.c  ,  left  Carthage  mistress  of  the  Meditttrranean.  The  Roman  power, 
however,  gradually  asserted  itself,  and  after  two  centurits,  became  omnipotent  by 
the  destruction  of  Carthage.  For  several  following  centuries  the  only  sea-fights 
were  occasioned  by  the  civil  wars  of  tne  Romans.  Towards  the  close  of  the  empire, 
the  system  of  fighting  with  pointed  prows  had  been  discontinued  in  favor  of  that 
which  had  always  co-existed— viz.,  the  running  alongside  and  l>oard{ng  by  armed 
men,  with  whom  each  vessel  was  overloaded.  Onagers,  balisUe.  &c.,  were  ultimately 
carried  in  the  ships  and  used  as  artillery  ;  but  they  were  little  relied  on,  and  it  was 
n:>nal,  after  a  discbarge  of  anows  and  javelins,  to  come  to  close  quarters.  A  sea- 
fight  was  therefore  a  liaud-to-hund  struggle  on  a  floating  base,  in  which  the  van- 
quished were  almost  certainly  drowned  or  slain. 

Tlie  northern  invaders  of  the  empire,  and  8ul)sequently  the  Moors,  seem  to  have 
JDtrodnceil  swift-sailing  galleys,  warring  in  small  hqunclrons  and  singly,  and  rav- 
niring  all  civili>ed  coasts  for  nlnnder  and  slav<s.  This — the  break-up  of  the 
empire — was  the  era  of  piracy,  when  every  nation,  which  had  more  to  win  than  lose 
by  freebooting,  sentoat  its  crai^ei-s.  Foremost  for  daring  and  seamanship  were 
the  Norsemen,  who  peneinited  in  every  direction  from  the  Bos)>oru8  to  Newfonnd- 
hiiid.  Combination  being  the  only  security  a^ainht  these  marauders,  the  medieval 
navies  gradually  8t>rang  up;  the^inost  conspicmnis  being — in  the  Mediterranean, 
those  of  Venice.  Genoa.  .Pisu,  Aragon  ;  on  the  Atlantic  sea-hoard,  England  ana 
Franco.  In  the  Medstorranean.  Venice,  after  a  long  struggle  with  the  Genoese,  and 
Bobsequetitly  with  the  Tmks,  t>ecanie  the  great  naval  nower.  The  Aragonese  fleet 
grudually  developed  into  the  Sptmierti  navy,  Mhich,  hy  the  epoch  of  Columtms,  had 
a  rival  in  that  of  Portngal.  Many  strnggkss  left,  in  the  16ih  and  17th  centuries,  the 
principal  naval  power  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  French,  Dutch,  Spaniards,  and 
f*orlugnese.  The  present  state  of  these  and  other  existing  navies  will  be  briefly 
given  under  Navies,  Modern. 

NAVIES,  Modem.  Paling  the  modem  navies  of  the  world  from  the  16th  c,  we 
fivid  the  British  navy  rising  from  insignificance  by  the  de.'*truction  of  the  Spanish 
Armada  in  158S ;  a  bkJtv  which  Spain  never  recovered^  and  which  the  Dutch,  whoso 
iiavtil  force  had  acquired  tremendous  strength  in  their  struggle  for  independence, 
increased  the  weight  of,  by  their  triumph  in  1607,  in  the  Bay  of  Glbralfar.  At  this 
lime,  there  was  no  decisive  superiority  of  the  fleet  of  England  over  that  of  France; 
t*nt  each  was  inferior  to  the  Dutch  navy.  Tlie  Comnmuwealth  and  reign  of  Charles 
II.  were  signalised  by  the  struggle  for  mastefy  l)etween  the  Eoglish  and  Dnteb; 
wireii  victory,  after  many  alt«'ruations,  finally  sided  with  the  former.  ThrongU  the 
18ib<v^ihefiiiglisbaud  French  were  the  principal  fleets;  ImM^uis  XVI.  ginre  a 
dectdM  superiority  to  the  navy  of  France ;  and  at  the  period  of  tl»e  American  War, 


y  Google 


Karlga  ton 


142 


the  naval  power  of  Englaiul  wm  Rcrlonply  tbreotcnf'ck  Spain,  Hollandt  and  Rassia 
(nuw  for  tue  Qrift  time  n  uavni  power)  itaU  mean  while  acquired  con»iiIerahle  fleets* 
and  the  "armed  neqtnility,"  to  wliich  tlic  noriliern  pow<ni  gave  tlieir  adhereucti, 
rendered  the  Britinh  popition  mont  criticnU  However,  tlie  slowly  roaeed  energy  of 
hertrovernmt'nt,  tlteinvincihje  conrajjfe  of  tier  seamen,  and  the  genins  of  her  ad- 
n1iral^<,  brought  Britain  ihrou^li  all  her  trials.  Oamperdown  broke  the  Dutch  power ; 
many  buttles  weuki  ned  the  French  navy ;  and  at  Trufal^ur,  in  1806,  it,  with  tlie 
Spuniflh  power,  was  swept  from  U\6  oc<mn.  I'he  United  States  had  in  the  mcati- 
time  angmented  tlteir  fleet,  and  in  the  wtir  of  1812 — 1814,  maintained  a  glorious 
struggle.  During  the  American  War  of  Seoeeaton,  many  gnn-lwat8,  **  moniti»n»," 
and  iron- dads  of  all  classe.*,  were  created;  Imt  chiefly  adapted  for  river  and  c<wiMt 
service.  The  growth,  in  recent  times,  of  the  Britisli  navy  will  be  found  uiul  r 
Navy,  BRlTiaH.  The  Emperor  Napoleon  III  yreatlyeni  rgeil  and  Improved  ihe 
French  navy,  yet  in  the  war  of  18T0— 1871  it  had  no  opportunity  of  proving  ita  effec- 
tiveness. 

The  contef*t  between  the  attack  and  defence  which  has  been  going  ou  for  8on)e 
time  appears  to' have  attained  itm  limits  in  the  100-ton  guns  of4hi^  Italian  fvavy,  anil 
the  24-inch  armor  plate  of  the  British  ;^nd  a  new  departure  seems  already  to  have 
been  taken  which  points  in  the  direction  of  steel-piatea  and  s|»eed,  and  a  more 
special  adaptation  of  whips  for  particular  services.  The  torpedo  system  has  iiiiro- 
dnced  a  new  element  Into  naval  warfare,  particularly  in  harbors,  rivers,  and  inland 
waters',  which  Cun  hardly  be  said  to  lie  yet  fully  developed  (!«ee  Torpedo);  and  the 
ealacitroplvft  of  the  Vanguard  of  the  Britich  navy,  and  the  Oi(n*ser  Kurfurst 
of  the  Ocrman,  have  pointed  out  dangers  connected  with  the  ram  system  Hiut  hud 
not  been  calculated  upon. 

The  following  table  givei»  a  fair  estimate  of  the  comparative  strength  of  tho  chief 
navies  of  the  world.  Comparison  by  the  numb'  r  ol  giinf»  i;*  of  little  account  now ; 
that  of  armared  uteaniers  and  horae^powef  is  more  to  the  point : 

CHIEF    NAVIES    OP    THE    WORLD,  1877. 


Country. 


Austria-Hungary  ... 

Brazil 

Denmark 

France 

Gt-rinany, 

Great  Britain 

Grtwce 

Italy. 

Netherlands 

Portiijral 

KiiHsin 

Spain .   .. 

Sweden  and  Norway 
l^irkey......  ...•  .. 

United  States* 


-oi 

It 

5i 

S  11 

si 

Sailing 
Ves.eK 

Total 
Ships. 

Horse- 
Power. 

Guns. 

Men. 

<^ 

11 

37 

10 

68 

16,206 

324 

9.970 

11 

46 

3 

50 

12.02T 

197 

6.1)9  r 

7 

21 

28 

«•    . . 

2,964 

63 

326 

113 

492 

2W»,324 

2834 

7M64 

yo 

36 

4 

60 

108,800 

407 

7435 

65 

860 

126 

64.-. 

•297,700 

*770 

•81.400 

2 

6 

6 

14 

653 

16 

70 

86 

41,216 

676 

16.036 

17 

68 

20 

106 

470 

9.346 

1 

26 

12 

89 

4,255 

180 

8,393 

29 

194 

...'. 

223 

81,080 

548 

29,04§ 

10 

71 

8 

89 

23  267 

922 

15.649 

18 

68 

180 

266 

8,268 

667 

38 

46 

. . . 

78 

•i»s' 

84,000 

M 

70 

22 

116 

8,287 

Annnal 
Cost. 


JG941.019 
1.132  OOO 

272,162 
7  439,000 
1  428,850 
ll,()91,89» 
75,62'» 
1.836,243 
1,136.049 

287,85.1 
3,589.431 
1,039.000 

4-M,I66 
8,000.000 
2,84o,S20 


NAVIGA'TION,  tii»'tory  of.  In  its  widest  sense,  this  subject  is  divisible  into 
t)tr«;eseciK)ns-r^lhe  history  of  the  prognssive  improvement  in  the  -const ruction  of 
sltlps,  the  history  of  the  growth  of  naval  powers,  and  the  history  of  the  trradiial 


.  •The  hoi»e-powf*r  aud  runs  of  the  armored  steamers  oidy  are  given, 
ber  of  wen  iuclad(j8  the  Royal  Naval  Reserve. 


The  imm- 


y  Google 


1  J^Q  Havigaloa 

^protid  nnti  increase  of  the  BClence  of  nRvigation.  Although  there  three  trclioiiB  Are 
to  j»oin«  extent  Interwoven,  the  pn^ent  article  will  l)e  irHiitc'd  to  a  coii^iderution 
of  t\ie  lust,  the  ftrsi  two  being  sufficieiitly  described  ouder  Shjp-buildimo,  nud 

Th*!  flrpt  nee  of  ships,  aa  dir»tiii|:nlphed  from  bouts,  appears  to  have  been  by  the 
tarly  Egyptiuuft,  who  nre  Iwllevid  to  hove  reached  the  wei«teni  coui«t  of  India,  lie- 
^id<'S  nHViKating  the  McditeiRineiin.  Little,  however,  is  known  of  tlifir  prowt-fs 
on  tlte  witycK;  uud*  wimtever  it  inay  have  l)eeii,  Ihev  were  soon  eclipsed  by  tho 
citisens  of  Tyre,  who,  to  niake  lunends/or  tlie  nnprudnctiveiies:<  of  their  stiip  of 
t-<»rritory,  laid  the  sens  nnder  Iribnte,  itnd  made  their  city  the  ^.'rent  eniiMiriuni  of  ^ 
£as'<*m  and  Earopean  trade.  Thi  y  ppreud  their  uiercluint  fli'ets  throughout  tlie^ 
Mi'diterninean.  n.-ivigiited  8olomon'H  nqnudronr*  to  tite  Pereiun  Gulf  and  Iu<li:iu 
OeeiiH,  «u<l  planted  colonies  everywhere.  Priuciiml  among  tliese  colonies  was 
Carthage,  whvch  soon  outslione  the  patent  state  in  \i^^  niarltiine daring.  The  Cartha- 
jirinian  fleets  passed  the  Piliars  of  Hereules',  and,  w  ith  no  btttter  guide  than  tlw:  slarn, 
arebetievid  to  liave  t^pread  northward  to  ihe  B  itii»h  IMe»»,  and  ^OlllhwaId  for  8on»e 
distance  alon^  tlie  westcoaHi  of  Africa.  From  the  6ih  to  tlie4ili  centuries  B.C.,  the 
Orvek  iitati'Sgriiduaily  developed  the  nrtof  nuvii:ution,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  tlie  Atiientansapp'ar  to  have  been  skilful  tacilclans,  capable  of  concerted 
inanoeuvno.  The  Greeks  however,  were  rather  warlike  than  commercial  in  their 
naiiiical  affairs.  I«  ttie.4th  c  B.C.,  Alexnodcr  destroyed  the  Tjrian  power,  trans- 
ferring its  commerce  to  Alexandria,  which,  having  an  adroirahie  h- rlior,  Ih> 
came  the  centre  of  trade  for  tiie  ancient  world,  and  far  t-nrparsi  d  in  tlie  magnilndu 
of  iti>  marine  transactions  any  city  whieii  had  yet  exihted.  Rome  next  wre»te<i  from 
ICnrthage  its  naval  |)pwer,  and  to(»k  its  vast  trade  into  the.  hands  of  the  Iiali  u 
suUora.  After  the  battle  of  Actiam,  Egypt  became  a  Uomnii  province,  and  An}fu>tiis 
wfts  master  of  tlie  enormous  commerce  both  of  the  Roman  and  tlie  Alexandrian  mer- 
cimutt.  Dnrine  all  tlijs  period,  the  size  of  Che  ves.'-els  liad  lM*en  continually  incre:is* 
ing,  but  probably  the  form  was  that  of  the  galley*,  still  common  In  the  Medi terra neiin, 
t  .ougl:  a  more  cliimHy  craft  tiien  than  now.  Sails  went  known,  and  pomt;  knowledge 
was  evince<l  even  of  i>eating  up  against  a  foul  wind  ;  6ut  oars  were  tlie  great  motive- 
])Ower;  speed  wa-*  not  thoujrht  of,  a  voyage  from  the  Levant  to  Italy  being  tlie  work 
of  a  season  ;,and  so  little  confidence  had  the  sailoi-s  in  their  skill  or  in  the  stability 
of  their  ships  (>«iill  steered  by  two  oars'  proj-cting  from  the  stern),  that  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  haul  tlie  vessel's  np  on  shore  wtien  win  er  set  in.  During  the  empire,  no 
great  prc^ess  seem^  to  have  been  made,  except  in  the  size  of  the  ves-els;  l)ut 
regular  fleets  were  maintained,  botii  in  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the  coast  of  GaxI, 
for  the  protection  of  commerce.  Meanwhile  the  barbarinn  nations  of  the  north 
were  advancing  in  quite  a  different  sciiool.  Tlie  Saxon.  Jntish,  and  Non^e  prows 
begait  to  i^am  the  ocean  in  every  direc  Ion  ;  in  snnill  ves«»el!«,  they  trusted  more  to 
tlie  winds  than  to  oars,  and,  cailiii^  sitiyly,  gradually  acquired  that  hardihood  and 
daring  which  nlt.imat«-ly  renderetl  tltem  nnisters  of  the  sea.  Tlie  Brjtons  were  no 
mean  seamen,  and  wiien  Caran^ius  assumed  tlie  purple  in  their  island,  he  was  able, 
for  several  years,  by  his  flcvts  alone,  to  maintaiii  his  hidependence  against  all  the 
power  of  Rome. 

The  art  of  navigation  became  almost  extinct  in  the  Mediterranean  with  the  fall 
of  tlie  empire ;  hut  the  barhan)U8  conquerors  popn  perceived  its  value,  and  revived 
StB  practice  with  the  addition  of  new  inventions  sugge.-tetl  by  their  own  energy. 
The  iiAiinders  of  Venice,  the  Genoese,  and  tlie  Pisans,  were  tiie  carriers  of  that  great 
inland  sea.  Tbeir  merchants  tradi'd  to  the  furthest  Indies,  and  their  markets  be- 
came tlic  exchanges  for  the  produce  of  the  world.  Vast  fleets  of  merchant  galleys 
from  tl:ese  flourishing  republics  dand  the  storm,  while  their  constant  rivalries  gave 
occasibn  for  tiie  gniwtli  of  naval  tJictics.  So  ricli  a  comiherce  tempttd  piracy^  aiui 
the  Moorish  corsairs  penetrated  everywhere  on  lioth  sides  of  the  straits  of  Gibral- 
tar in  quest  of  prey;  evincitig  not  less  skill  and  nautical  audacity  than  savage  fury 
and  iniiutnan  cruelty.  Tut  the  Atlantic  powers,  taught  in  Ptormy  seas,  were  rejirinir 
a  naval  might  that 'should  outrival  all  other  pretenders.  The  Nor^iemen  extended 
Hielr  voyages  to  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  Newfoundland,  while  tliey  first  ravag<Hi 
and'  then  coloniseil  tlie  coarta  of  Brifain,  Fnince,  and  Sicily.  Tlie  sea  had  no 
terrors  for  these    hardy  rovers ;  their  exploits  are  imperisbably  recorded  in  the 


y  Google 


Kav-'gafon  i  4  i 

Icelnudic  Snga»,  and  iu  the  nnmerona  Islands  and  promontories  to  which  thej  ba;t« 
given  names. 

Enrly  in  the  I5th  c,  the  Introdnctioo  of  the  niMrfner's  compass  rendered  the  sea- 
mau  inrt«|xndoiit  of  sun  jind  stars— au  incalculable  ijaJu,  as  was  soon  shewn  mi  the 
ocean- voyajjes  of  Colnmbus,  Cat)ot,  and  others*.  In  1492»  Colanilms  rendere*! 
navigation  more  secure  by  the  discovery  of  the  vaHatiun  of  the  coiHi>a«s.  Between 
ihat  and  1514.  the  ••  cross-staff"  begtm  to  l>e  n'*fd  ;  a  rude  inHtm  intent  for  apcertain- 
in^  'ht?  autrle  between  the  moon  and  a  fix«d  star,  with  the  coiifequent  longitude. 
E.trly  in  the  16th  c,  tiiblus  of  dfclinutiou  and  ascension  became  common.  In  1637,  . 
'^  Nufioz  (Nonius),  a  Portuguese,  iuveuted  various  methods  of  coin|)uting  the  rhumb- 
liiicrt  and  sailing  on  the  trreat  circle.  In  1545,  the  two  first  treatises  on  systematic 
nnvigntiou  appeared  in  Spain,  one  by  Pedro  de  Medina,  the  other  bv  Martiu  Cones. 
Til  •»«  works  were  speedily  trau!«l:ited  into  French,  Dutch,  Ensnsh,  Ac,  and  for 
mriny  yejus  served  as  the  text-iM)uks  of  practical  navigation.  Iwards  the  end  of 
tiie  century,  Bourne,  in  England,  and  Stevin  iu  Holland,  improve  the  astronom- 
ical portion  of  the  art,  while  the  iutrodnciion  of  time-pieces  and  the  Log  (q.  y.)  « 
fendcr^d  the  computation  of  distance  more  easy. 

II  would  be  tedious  to  enumerate  the  successive  Improvements  4)y  which  the 
science  of  navig>ition  has  been  brought  to  its  present  high  perfection ;  but  as  con- 
spicuous points  \u  tlie  history  of  the  aVt^  the  following  stand  oat:  The  invention  of 
M.?rcafor*8  chart  in  156» ;  the  formation  by  Wright  of  tables  of  meridional  parts, 
1597  ;  Davis's  quadrant,  about  1600 ;  the  npplicailon  of  logarithms  to  nautical  calcu- 
lations, 1620,  by  Edmund  Onnter;.the  introduction  of  middle-latitude  salting  ia 
1623;  the  measure  of  a  degree'  on  the  meridian,  by  Richard  Norwood,  hi  1631. 
Uadley's  quadrant,  a  century  later,  rendered  observations  easier  and  more  accurate ; 
while  Harrison's  chronometers  (1764),  rendered  the  computation  of  longitude  a 
marter  of  comparativeiy  small  difflcu  tv.  Wright,  Bond  and  Norwood  wtye  the 
authors  of  scientific  uavigaticm,  and  their  science  is  now  made  available  iu  practice 
by  means  of  the  **  Nautical  Almanac,'*  published  annually  by  the  British  Admiralty. 
The  more  important  points  of- the  science  of  navigation  are  noticed  under  such 
head-*  as  Dkad-Ueokoninq,  Latitude  and  Lomqitudb,  Gbeat-CibcIa  Saiuno, 
Sailinqs,  «fcc. 

NAVIGATION,  Laws  as  to.  By  the  law  of  nature  and  of  nations,  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  open  sea  is  free  to  all  the  world.  T|ie  open  sea  means  all  the  main  ^aa 
and  oceans  bevond  three  miles  froin  laud.  The  sea  within  three  miles  from  land  ia 
called  the  turrftorfal  sea,  and  each  ^tat^  has  a  kind  of  pro|>erty  iu  such  fea,  and  has 
a  rigitt  to  regulate  the  use  thereof.  Hence,  it  was  natural  that  in  early  times,  be- 
fore the  laws  of  commerce  were  properly  understood,  each  state  should  endeavor  to 
exclude  foreigners  from  ttiat  part  of  the  sea  so  as  to  secure  to  its  own  subjects  tlie 
l>enefits  of  the  carriage  of  goods  in  ships,  which  has  always  been  an  increasing 
source  of  wealth.    In  England,  however,  as  in  most  countiies,  the  first  care  seema 


to  have  been  bestow«!d  on  the  navy,  as  the  great  means  of  defending  the  realm 
against  enemies,  and  trading-ships  came  to  be  firat  subj^'Ct  to  statutory  regulation 
only  as  being  in  some  way  ancillary  to  the   interests  of  the  navy.    The  Taws  of 


Oleron  were  the  first  code  of  imiritime  laws  which  obtiiined  notice  as  well  as  general 
acceptance  in  Eurojie,  in  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  and  the  authorship  of  those  laws  is 
claiiiu  d  by  Scldon  and  Blackstone  for  Edward  I.,  though  the  point  is  disputed  by 
the  French  writers.  By  a  statute  of  Richard  II.,  in  order  io  augment  the  navy  of 
England,  it  was  ordained  that  none  of  the  liegeS  should  ship  any  merchandise  out 
of  the  realm  except  iu  native  shi()s,  though  the  statute  was  soon  varied  and  seldom 


followed.  At  length,  in  1650,  an  act  was  passt^d  with  a  view  to  stop  the  gainful  trade 
of  tht?  Dutch.  It  prohibited  all  ships  of  foreign  nations  from  trading  with  anv  Eng- 
lisli  plantation  without  a  licence  from  the  Conncil  of  State.    In  1651,  the  prohlbitiou 


was  extended  to  the  mother-countryj  aiKi  no  goods  were  suffered  to  be  impr>rted 
into  England  or  any  of  ita  dependencies  in  any  other  than  English  bottoms,  or  in  the 
ship:4  of  that  Euro|>ean  nation  of  which  the  merchandise  was  the  genuine  growth  or 
man  u  fact  ure.  At  the  Restoration,  these  enactments  were  repeated  and  coutiuoud  by 
the  Navigation  Act  (12  Char.  II.  c.  18>,  with  the  further  additiou,  that  the  mast^^rand 
three-fourths  of  the  mariners  should  also  be  British  subj«H;ts,  The  object  of  this 
act  was  to  encourage  British  shipping,  and  was  long  believed  to  be  wise  and  saftttary. 
A.dum  Smith,  however,  has  the  sagacity  to  see  that  the  act  was  not  favorable  to  fc«^ 


y  Google 


lAK  Narlgafon 

elfrn  comtnerce  or  \o  opnlence,  nnd  it  was  only  on  the  gronnd  thnt  defence  was 
ntore  Important  tlmu  opnieuce,  that  he  paid  it  was  **  perhaps  the  wif^est  of  hJI  the 
conimerttiiil  regnlutions  of  £ngland."  In  1820,^he  statnte  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  41  repealed 
the  Nayigatiou  Act,  and  establiRbed  a  new  syatem  of  reflation?,  wbicli  wtre  fnr- 
ther  varifd  by  pnbseqnent  8tatate8.  till,  under  tlie  inflaei^ce  of  tlie  free-trade  doc- 
trines, new  statutes  were  passed,  which  reversed  the  ancient  policy.  By  the  law,  as 
now  altered,  foreign  vessels  are  allowed  free  commercial  intercourse  and  eqality  with 
the  ships  of  this  country  and  its  dependencies,  except  as  reeards  the  co:i«ting- trade 
of  the  BritiBb  poscssious  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  for  the  conMing-tnide  of  ihe 
United  Kint;dom  is  now  entirely  thrown  o|>en  to  all  comers.  The  advantages  of 
equality  and  free  trade  are,  however,  f^ofar  onalified,  that  in  the  case  of  the  ships  of 
tliopc  nations  which  do  not  concede  to  British  ships  like  privileges,  prohibitions  and 
restrictions  may  be  imiH)«ed  by  order  in  council. 

As  regards  those  laws  of  navigation  which  effect  the  property  and  management ' 
of  ships,  a  complete  code  of  regulations  is  contained  in  the  Merchant  Shipping  Acts, 
which  are  IT  and  18  Vict.  c.  104, 18  and  19  Victc.  91,  25  and  26  Vict  c.  63,  84  and  86 
Vict,  c  110.  86  and  87  Vict,  c  86.  1.  As  to  ownwshlp,  rogistnition,  and  transfer  of 
merchant  siiips.  No  ship  is  deemed  a  British  ship  unless  she  belong  wholly  to  natu- 
ral-born subjects,  denizens,  naturali<*ed  persons,  or  bodies  corporate,  having  a  place 
of  business  in  the  United  Kingdom  or  some  British  posM^^slon.  Every  British  ship, 
with  a  few  exceptions  as  to  old  ships  and  small  vessels,  must  he  registered,  other- 
wise, it  is  not  entitled  to  the  protection  of  the  Britinii  flag.  The  Commisnioners  of 
Customs  indicate  at  wliat  port  in  the  United  Kin^'dom  ships  may  he  registered  by 
their  officers,  and  when  registered,  the  ship  is  held  to  belong  to  that  port.  The 
name  of  the  ship  and  its  owners  must  be  stilted ;  and  as  regards  joint-ownership,  a 
ship  is  capable  only  of  l>eing  subdivided  into  sixty-four  shares,  and  not  more  than 
tliirty-two  owners  shall  own  one  ship.  These  registered  owners  are  deemed  the 
legal  owners,  and  so  long  as  the  register  is  nnclianged.  the  shi|)  is  held  still  to  belong 
to  them.  The  only  way  of  trantiferring  the  property  is  by  a  bill  of  sale  under  seal ; 
or  if  a  mortgage  is  made,  it  must  he  made  in  a  particular  form,  and  duly  registered, 
and  the  priority  of  title  as  between  several  mortgagees  is  regulated  by  the  date  of  the 
entry  in  the  register.  2.  As  regtirds  the  laws  concerning  merchant  seamen,  there  is 
established  in  every  such  seaport  a  superintendent,  whose  bisiness  it  is  to  afford 
facilities  for  engaging  seamen,  by  keeping  rtgisters  of  seamen,  and  superinten- 
ding the  making  and  discharging  of  contracts.  No  person  is  allowed  to  be  employed 
in  a  foreiffii-going  ship  as  master,  or  as  first,  or  second,  Or  only  mat**, 
or  in  a  home-trade  imssenger-sbip  as  master,  or  first  or  only  mate, 
nnless  he  lias  a  certificate  of  competency  or  a  certificate  of  service,  ij*sned 
by  the  Board  of  Trade  only  to  those  who  are  .deemed  entitled  thereto.  The 
master  Of  every  shipAbQve  80  tons  burden  shall  enter  into  an  agreement,  of  a  certain 
form,  with  every  seaman  lie  carries  from  the  United  Kingdom,  and  in  which  the 
names  of  the  seamen,  wages,  provisions,  capacity  of  service,  &c.,  are  set  forth.  The 
seamen  are  not  to  lose  their  wages  though  no  freight  is  earned,  or  the  shin  lost 
The  men  are  also  to  have  a  berth  of  a  certain  s-.zt^,  and  tlie  ship  to  be  supplied  with 
medicines,  log-book,  &c  In  order  to  secure  general  information,  every  master  of  a 
fomigu-going  ship  js  bound,  within  48  hours  after  ariiving  at  the  final  port  of  desti- 
nation in  tlie  United  Kingdom,  to  report  his  ship.  Unseaworthy  or  overloaded  ships 
may  be  surveyed  by  Uie  Board  of  Trade  and  detained.  8.  As  regards  the  liability  of 
shipowners  for  loss  or  damage,  it  is  provided  by  statute  that  no  owner  of  a  sea-going 
ship  shall  be  liable  to  make  goodmiy  loss  or  damage  occurring  without  his  actuul 
fauH  or  privify,  to  goods  or  things  on  board,  by  reason  of  fire  on  board  the  ship ;  or 
to  any  gold,  silver,  diamonds,  watches,  jewels,  or  precious  stones  on  board,  by  rea- 
son of  robliery  or  enibeEslement,  nnless  the  true  nature  and  value  of  sucn  articles 
have  been  inserted  in  the  bill  of  lading.  And  in  cases  where  loss  to  goods  occurs 
without  his  actual  fault  or  i)rivity,  the  owner  shall  not  be  liable  in  damases  to  an 
aggregate  amount  exceeding  X8  per  ton  of  the  ship's  tonnage.  In  case  ot  k)ss  of 
life  or  personal  injnry^an8t;a.^y  misinanagement  of  the  ship,  out  without  the  actual 
fault  or  privity  of  the  owners,  they  shall  not  lie  h&hlv  beyond  jG15  per  ton.  In  case 
of  accidents,  whereby  a  large  nniiiber  of  iiersims  have  been  killed  or  injured,  and  to 

firevewt  a  mult4plicity  of  actions,  the  sheriff  of  Ihe  county  is  to  empaunel  a  jniT.imd 
Mqoire  into  the  question  of  liability.    If  the  owners  aie  found  liable,  then  £30  is  to 


y  Google 


Navigato«'  ]  4(.  - 

be  assessed  as  the  dnmngep  for  each  case  of  death  or  per9on:il  Injury.  In  case  of 
denth^encli  enm  ij*  to  be  jwiid  to  the  hn*band,  vife,  (uirent  or  child  of  the deceaned. 
If  any  person  considt^r  tins  in  not  «>irfficient  dnmagef*.  then  ou  rctnruing  euch  »uni, 
he  niny  conunence  an  action  ;  bnt  nnlft^s  he  recover  doable  thai  aaui,  he  must  paj 
costR.    See  »l?o  Pilotb  and  LiaHT-HOUdE«. 

NAVIGA'TORS',  or  Sanioan  Inlands,  a  gronp  of  nine  Wands,  with  porae  ieletn.  In 
the  Pacific  Ocesin,  lying  north  of  the  Fri.udly  Inlands,  iu  lat.  13°  SC— 14030'  a.  and  lonir. 
168o~lT3°  w.  The  fonrprincipat  inlands  of  thegmap  areM:inna,Tntuila,  Upolu,  and 
Siivaii.  Of  thene,  Siivaii.  40  nii^ea  in  1-ngth  by  20  miles  broad,  and  having  a  iiopnlH^ 
tlon  of  20rf>00.  is  I  he  largest.  Area  of  thu  group  estimated  «t  2650  ^qn.tre  miles  ; 
popnlaiion  about  66.000.  With  the  exception  of  one  (Ro^e  Island),  the  N.  I.  .-ire 
ail  of  volcanic  origin.  For  the  most  part  titey  are  lofty,  and  broken  nud 
rugged  in  ap|>earance,  rising  In  some  cases  to  upwards  of  '2600  feet  in  heiglit,  and 
C(»vcred  with  the  richest  vegetation.  Tin-  coil,  formed  chiefly  by  the  decomposition 
of  volcanic  rock,  is  rich,  and  the  clin;ate  is  moist.  'I  he  forests,  which  Include  the 
bread-fruit,  tlie  cocoa-nnt,  banana  and  palm-trees,  are  remarkably  thick.  The  orange, 
lemon,  tacca,  (from  whlcli  a  kind  of  sago  Is  made),  coffee,  jjweet  potatoes,  pine- 
apples, yams,  nutmeg,  wild  sugar-cane,  and  many  other  important  plant-s,  grow^ 
luxuiiantly.  Until  recently,  when  swine,  horned  cattle,  and  horses  were  iutroduct-d, 
there  were  no  traces  among  these  islands  of  any  uativn  mammalia  ezce})t  a  species 
of  bat.  'J'he  natives  are  well  formed  (e^pecially  the  males),  ingenious,  and.  affee.tloii- 
ate.  The  women,  who  superintend  tiie  indoor  work  and  manufacture  mats,  are  held 
in  high  respect.  There  are^Eng'ish  and  American  mission  stations  on  the  isl:uHl;«, 
as  well  as  several  Roman  Catholic  eslablisimients,  and  mnny  of  the  natives  have 
embraced  Christianity.  The  government  is  hi  the  liand<4  of  the  hereditaiy  chiefn. 
In  1875,  Col.  Stcinl)ergcr,  from  theUuiK'd  States,  established  himself  at«  (virtually) 
dictator  of  the  N.  1.^  hut  was  removi'd  by  the  commander  of  a  British  war-ve&>cl  iu 
1876.    Trade  is  carried  on  with  Sydney. 

NAVY,  British.  Owing  to  the  Insular  positiou  of  Great  Britain,  her  navy  haB 
long  l)eeii  considered  a  matter  of  vital  ini|M)rtancp,  and  Is  the  service  in  which  eveiy 
inhabitant  tnkes  a  pec'uliar  pride.  In  consid.»ring  the  history  of  the  B  itisli  navy,  Itia 
convenit'Ut  to  divide  the  subject  into  matiriel  ami  persomm.  The  latter  had  no  dis- 
tinct organisation  till  the  time  of  Heni-y  Vllf.;  bnt  of  the  former,  we  recognise  m 
the  earliest  tlnies  ihe  g«^rui  of  subsequent  glories.  Caransius,  a  Roman  genera]  wiio 
had  thrown  off  his  depend"  nee  ou  the  empire,  maiutaiued  himself  In  Englmid  &>r 
SI' vera)  yeare  by  his  flret,  with  which  he  prevented  the  Imperial  forces  from  reaching^ 
the  island.  The  Saxons  brought  nniritline  prowesw  with  tliem  to  tliit  British  shores, 
bnt  appiar  soon  to  have  lost  it  amid  ihe  rich  provinces  in  wliicb  they  settled.  Some 
organ i^al ion  for  tlie  defence  of  the  coast  whs,  however,  maintained,  and  Alfred  the 
(jrent  availed  himself  of  it  to  repulse  the  Danes;  he  at  the  same  time  raiseii  the  ef- 
ficiency of  his  navy  by  increasing  the  size  of  hisjealleys,  some  being  built  which  were 
capable  of  being  rowed  by  ililrly  pair  of  oars.  Under  his  successors,  the  number  of 
vessels  increased,  and  both  E<lwnrd  and  Athelstan  foughl  many  naval  batthiS  with  the 
Danes.  Eklgar  asph-ed  to  be  loi-d  of  all  thte  northern  seas,  ana  had  from  three  to  five 
thousand  galleys,  divided  into  three  fleeta  on  ihe  western,  Boutticrn,  and  eastern 
coasts  respectively ;  but  the  size  of  most  of  these  sli1|>s  was  very  lusigniftcant,  and 
the  greater  part  were  probably  mere  row-boats.  Ethelrcd  IL  formed  a  sort,  of  naval 
militia,  enacting  that  every  owner  of  SIO  hydes  of  laud  should  build  and  furnish 
one  v»s8fl  for  the  service  of -his  country. 

William  the  Conqueror  established  the  Cinque  Ports,  with  important  privileges, 
in  reiurn  for  which  they  were  Itound  to  have  at  the  seiVice  of  the  crown  for  16day8 
in  any  emergency.  62  ships  carryine  24  men  each.  Richard  I.  took  100  large  ships 
and  60  galleys  to  Palestine.  John  claimed  the  sovereignty  of  the  seas,  and  required 
all  forergners  to  strike  to  the  English  flag;  a  pretension  which  lias  been  tlie  cause 
of  some  bloody  battles,  but  which  England  proudly  upheld  In  all  dangers.  (Thi6 
honor  was  formally  yielded  by  the  Dutch  in  1673,  and  the  fVonch  In  1704 ;  and, 
alihougli  not  now  exacted  in  its  fulness,  the  remembranceof  the  right  survives  iu  re- 
quiring foreign  vessels  to  salute  fhst).  In  the  same  king's  reign,  a  great 
naval  engagement  with  the  French  took  place  (1298)  in  mid -channel,  wh;;n  260  French 
vessels  were  captured.    The  Edwards  and  the  Henries  maintained  the  glory  of  the 


y  Google 


]47  N«,"*°"' 

Brifiyh  flag;  Edwonl  III.,  in  i^oreon,  wilh  tUe.BI.ick  Prlnc**,  nt  flie  battle  of  Shiy% 
111  1S40.  defeated  a  uroatly  i*npcrioi'  Pivncli  fl<!ef,  with  40,IH)0  inuii  on  h<tiird.  Uenry 
V.  had  **^reie  slnppes,  currnkt'P.  iMirgep,  ami  biillyiigen*  ;'*  and  at  one  linie  collected 
vessels  enough  t4>  iransiHirt  26.^)0  men  into  Normandy.  Il«n.ry  VII.  was  the 
fii>t  monarch  who  maintained  a  tleet  dnring  {M-aoit;  he  built,  ihe  Great  Harry^ 
Mrbich  was  the  earliest  war- vessel  of  any  size,  and  which  was  barued  at  Wool- 
wich iu  1663. 

To  Henry  VIII..  however,  belongs  the  honor  of  having  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
Briti^  navy  as  a  distinct  service.  Besides  bnildinir  srveral  lai-ge  vo?sel>»,  of  which 
the  Uenry  Chaee  de  Dien.  of  T2  pnns,  700  men.  and  probably  alw>ui  1000  ions,  was  the 
'  HKjst  cons'iderable,  he  constituted  a  |)ennaneiit  personnel,  defining  the  my  of  ad- 
'  inirals,  vice-admirals,  captains,  and  8e4tmen.  He  ul^o  estnWished  royal  dcickyanls 
Ht  Deptford,  Woolwich,  and  Portsmouth;  and  for  the  government  of  the  whole 
Bttrv  ce,  instituted  an  Admiralty  and  Navy  9oard,  the  latrer  being  the  forerunner  of 
thi'  pn  sent  lYiuity  Board.  When  this  king  died,  he  left  60  ships  of  various  ^Ie  s, 
manned  by  nl>oui  8000  hands. 

Under  Edward  VI.,  the  navy  fell  off,  but  was  sufficiently  important  in  the  puc- 
ceedlug  reign  for  the  English  admiral  lo  exact  the  salute  to  his  flag  from  Philip  II. 
■with  a  larger  Spanish  fleeL  when  tlie  latter  was  on  his  way  to  e>pouse  Queen  Mary. 
Elisabeth  liad  the  struggle  wilh  the  Spanish  Armada  to  try  her  navy,  and  left  42 
ships,  of  17,000  tons  in  all,  and  8846  men— 16  of  her  ships  being  upwards  of  000  tm»s. 
From  this  period  the  tonnage  of  the  ships  »<teadily  increased.  Under  James  I.  and 
Cliarles  I..  Mr  Ph^.neas  Pett,  M.A.,  the  first  scientlfi<'  naval  architect,  remodflled  the 
navy,  abolishing  the  lofty  forecastles  aird  i)oo|>s,  which  had  made  earlier  ships  n- 
8<MiiiYle  Chinese  junks.  In  1610,  he  laia  down  the  Pri^ice-Royal.^  a  two-decker, 
carrying  64  lars^e  gnus ;  and  tn  1637,  from  Woolwich,  he  launched  the  celeltrated 
Soceretf^no/ttc  fiteos,  the  first  three-decker,  and  certainly  the  largest  ship  hitherto 
con.sfructed  on  moaern  principles.  She  wna  232  feet  in  leiigth,  of  1687  tons,  and 
c'lnied  at  first  130  pieces  of  cannon  ;  but  l)cing  found  unwieldy,  was  cat  down,  and 
then  |>roved  an  excellent  ship.    She  was  burned  in  16.Mi. 

Pritice  Rupert's  devotion  to  the  crown  was  Iwid  for  the  navy,  for  he  carried  ofE  25 
large  chip?* ;  and  Cromwell,  on  acceding  to  power,  had  but  14  two-decktrs.  His 
energy,  however,  soon  wrought  a  change,  and  in  five  years  he  had  160  fhips,  of 
which  a  third  were  of  the  line;  his  crews  amountwd  to  20,000  men.  Duriut;  the 
Pnrtectorate,  Peter  Pv't^,  son  of  Phlneas,  bni.t  the  Con«ton<  Warvriek.  \\\e  earliest 
Brili8h  frigat<',  from  a  French  design  and  pattern.  Cromwell  first  laid  navy  e^sti- 
nnites  before  parliament-,  and  obtained  jC400,000  a  year  for  the  service.  The  Duke  of 
York,  afterwards  James  II.,  assisted  by  the  indefatigable  Mr.  Samuel  Pepys,  <lld 
much  for  the  navy,  establishing  the  syst-i-m  of  Admiralty  government  much  on  its 
present  tooting.  In  his  time,  Sir  Anthony  Deane  improved  the  model  of  ships  of 
war,  again  after  a  French  design.  James  left,  in  1688, 108  ships  of  the  line,  and  65 
otiier  vessels;  the  total  tonintge  of  the  navy,  101,892  tons;  the  armatneiit,  6930 
•cons ;  and  the  ))er6onnel,  42,00i»  men.  Williaai  III.  sedulously  augmented  the  foiv«', 
foreseeing  its  importance  lo  his  adopted  country.  When  he  died,  there  were  272 
ships  of  169,030  Ions,  and  the  animal  charge  for  the  navy  had  risen  to  jei.066  916. 
Gleorge  II.  paid  much  attention  to  his  fleets,  and  greatly  augniented  the  size  of  the 
ships ;  lie  left,  in  1760,  412  ships  of  321,104  tons.  By  1782,  the  navy  had  rimn  to 617 
sail  of  600,000  tons;  and  by  1802  to  7uO  sail,  of  which  148  were  of  the  line.  In  1818, 
there  were  1000  ships  (266  of  the  line),  meai>uring  about  900,000  ions,  and  carrying 
146,000  seamen  and  marines,  at  an  annual  charge  of  about  jei8,0iK),000.  Since  the 
l)^ce  in  1815,  the  number  of  vessels  has  been  gix*atly  diminished,  although  their 
power  has  vastly  increased^ 

The  progresslre  angmeutution  of  sijte  In  vessels  may  be  jndgi'd  from  the  increase 
in  first-rates.  In  1677,  the  largest  vessel  was  from  1600  to  1600  tons;  Wy  1720, 1800 
had  been  reached  ;  by  1745,  2000  tons;  1780,  2200  tons;  1795,  2360  tons;  1800,  2600 
tons ;  1808,  2616  tons ;  1858,  4000  tons.  From  1841,  a  gradual  substitution  of  steam 
for  sailing  vessels  be^an,  which  was  not  completed,  Imwever,  till  1869.  Since  1860, 
another  reconstruction  has  taken  effect,  armor-plated  frigates,  impervious  to  ordi- 
nary shot,  armed  cither  as  broadside  vessels  or  m  turrets,  beintc  substituted  for  tini- 
l)er  Tcssels.  At  the  ^ame  time  three  and  two  deckers  have  ceased  to  be  employt^d, 
cootinoos  frigat(;s  and  turret  shiiw  replacing  them  of  a  tonnage  far  exceediuji  the 


Digitized  by 


Google 


largest  threc-deckerfi  of  former  times;  they  mount  fewer  funn,  bnt  tfioM  they  carry 
nre  of  etnpendoiiR  calibre,  imd  of  rifletl  bore.  Tlie  JSorthnmberland,  oue  of  ttie 
lurgest  frijiates  of  tliis  new  class,  is  of  6621  toiip,  1360  bori*o-)K>wer,  and  88  hin^e 
gniiH,  wbile  the  DivastcUion  carries  4  ffrear.  gnus  iu  turrets  of  the  most  imtesive 
armor.  Tlie  Tnjlexihle  (turret-ship)  carries  four  81-tou  guns,  aud  is  supposed  to  be 
the  most  powerful  war-ship  in  the  world. 

On  tlie  Ist  of  April  1874,  the  effective  vessels  of  the  iinvy  were  as  follows :  83 
armor- plated  frigates  (8  building);  14  turret  vessels  (2  bnildintr);  3  annor-nlated 
corvettes,  and  two  sloops ;  8  floating  batteries ;  8  armored  gnnbonts;  37  fhip«t  of 
the  line  (10  without  steam) ;  48  frigates  (7  without  steam) ;  42  corvettes,  (7  build- 
ing, 5  without  steam) ;  46  sloops  (8  building  and  4  witliout  steam) ;  48  gnn-vi'ssel^  ; 
69  smaller  steamers  (10  Iwiilding) ;  71  gunboats;  with  17  transports,^  yachts,  and  5 
schooners;  giving  a  total  Of  424  vessels.  At  the  end  of  1877  there  were  in  all  249 
ships  iu  commission,  exclusive  of  Indian  troop-ships.  Th^  personnel  of  the  uavy 
amounted  in  1877  to  60,000  men,  including  14,000  marines.  iHit  excluding  artificers 
aud  laborers  iu  dockyards ;  the  armament  being  about  5000  guns,  mostly  of  beavy 
calibre.  The  annual  charge  for  1874-6  was  esiinintv>d  at  ^610,179,485,  which  may  l>e 
thus  broadly  subdivided  (iu  1878-9  it  was  ^611,063,091) : 

Wages,  Victuals  and  Clothing  Of  Officers  aud  Men jC8.667,021 

Admiralty  Office 118,066 

Coast-Guard  aud  Naval  Reserve 163,31 1 

Scieutific  Branch  (Sui-vey ing.  Hydrography,  Ac.) 111,170 

Dockyards  and  Victualling  Yards, ,..  1,253,211  - 

Stores  for  Building  aud  Repairlug  Ships. 1,851,068 

Hi-^cellaneous  Services. : 964,117 

Half-pay aiid  Pensious. ..,  1,816,926 

Conveyance  of  Troops. 175,600 

il0,179,4S5 

Information  on  the  Various  points  of  detail  connected  with  the  navy,  will  be 
found  under  the  respective  heads,  as  Admibal,  Captain,  Halt-fat,  Shif-build- 
INO,  Signals,  &c. 

NA^XOS,  the  largest,  most  beautiful,  and  most  fertile  of  the  Cyclades,  is  situated 
In  the  Mgeauy  midway  betwe^^n  the  coasts  of  Greece  aud  Asia  Minor.  Exti-cme 
length,  about  20  miles;  breadth,  15  miles.  Pop.  about  12,000.  The  shores 
are  steep,  and  the  island  is  traversed  by  a  ridge  of  mounttiius,  which  rise  iu  the 
highest  summit,  Dia,  upwards  of  300O  feet.  The  plains  and  valleys  are  well  watered : 
the  priucipal  products  aud  articles  of  export  are  wine,  corn,  oil.  cotton,  fruits  and 
emeiy.  The  wine  of  N.  (the  best  variety  of  which  is  still  calleain  the  islands  of  the 
JSgcau,  Bacchue-wine)  was  famous  iu  ancient  as  it  is  in  mo<lem  times,  and  on  tliis 
account  the  island  was  celebrated  in  ttie  legends  of  Diouysins,  ana  especially  in 
those  relating  to  Ariadne.  Among  its  anti(}ditie8  are  a  curious  Hellenic  tower,  and 
an  unfinished  colossal  figure,  84  feet  long,  still  lying  in  an  ancient  marble  quarry  iu 
the  uorth  of  the  island,  and  always  called  by  the  natives  a  figure  of  Apollo.  It  was 
ravaged  by  the  Persiaus,  490  b.c.,  and  after  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the 
La<iui>,  1)ecame  the  seat  of  a  dukedom,  founded  by  the  Venetians.  It  now  forms  a 
portion  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece  (q.  v.).  Naxos,  theCapit^l^  vvMYx  a  population  of 
about  5000,  is  situated  on  the  north-west  coast,  Contains  16  Greek,  ana  4  Catholic 
churches,  aud  3  convents,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  and  a  Latin  bishop.  * 

NAZARE'NE  (Gr.  Nazarmos  and  NazaraioBj  an  ''inhabitant  of  Naxareth  ")  waa 
used  by  the  Jews  as  one  of  tlie  designations  of  our  Lord,  and  afterwards  became  a 
common  appellation  cf  the  eiulv  Christians  iu  Judeea.  Although,  originally,  it  is 
bnt  a  local  appellation,  there  can  d<^  no  doubt  that  as  Nazareth  was  bnt  a  second-rate 
city  of  the  despised  province  of  Galilee,  it  was  eventually  applied  to  our  Lord  and 
his  followers  as  a  name  of  contempt  (John  xviii.  5,  7 ;  Actsxxiv.  5).— Fortbe  Jnd»* 
Isiug  sect  called  Kazarenes,  see  Ebionites. 

NA'ZARETH,  a  small  town  or  village  of  Palestine,  anciently  in  the  district  of 
Galilee,  and  in  the  territory  of  the  trilie  of  Zebulon,  21  miles  south-east  of  Acre,  It 
lies  in  a  hilly  tract  of  country,  aud  is  built  partly  on  the  sides  of  some  rocky  ridgosi 


Digitized  by 


Google 


149 


VazM 
Nm! 

partly  !n  some  or  the  ravines  by  irh!ch  they  are  soamed.  It  fa  celebrated  as  the 
scene  of  the  Aniinuciatlon,  and  the  place  where  the  Bnvfour  spent  tht  greater  part 
.  of  his  life  In  ol>8cnre  labor.  Pop.,  according  to  Dr  Robiuson.  8120.  of  whom  H»40 
are  Grt^eki^,  520  Greek  Catholic^*,  4S0  Latinf>,  400  Muronitet*,  and '680  Mohammedans. 
Por:er  thinks  4000  a  moderate  esftiniate.  In  the  earliest  ages  of  Christianity,  N.  was 
qu'xtv  oviTlouki-d  by  the  clmrrh.  It  did  not  contain  a  Hingfe  Christian  resident  l)efore 
the  time  of  Coiistantine^  an^-ttie  tinit  Christian  pilgrimage  toil  took  place  in  the 
6th  ct-nlnry.  Tiie  principal  ImiUling  is  tiie  Ltitin  convent^  reared,  according  to  plons 
tradition,  on  the  ppol  wliere  the  aneel  announced  to  tlie  Virgin  the  birth  of  her 
Savionr-son  ;  bnt  tlie  Greeks  have  afro  encted,  in  anotlier  part  of  N.,  a  cimrch  on 
the  scene  (»f  the  Annnitciation.  Besides  thehc  rival  edifices,  tlie  traveller  Is  t>hewn  a 
Irfitin  cha|)el,  affirmed  to  l>e  l)uilt  over  the  *'  workshop  of  Joseph  ;"  also  tlie  chajM;!  1 1 
*-The  Table  of  CiiriHf  {Menm  Christf),  a  vanlted  chamber,  containing  the  v«^rital)le 
tal)le  at  wliich  onr  Lord  and  liis  discif  Us  used  to  eat ;  the  synagogae,  oat  of  which 
he  was  tlirust  by  his  townsmen ;  and  *'  the  Mount  of  Precipifation,"  down  which  lie 
narrowly  esenped  Ix'ing  cast  headlong.  Ttie  women  of  the  village  have  been  long 
famous  for  tlieir  beauty. 

^A'ZAHITBS  (from  Heb.  nazar,  to  separate)  denoted  among  the  Jews  those 
persons,  male  or  female,  who  had  consecrated  themselves  to  God  by  certain  acts  of 
al)stinence,  wliich  marked  them  off  or  ♦*  separated  '*  them  from  tlie  rest  of  the  com- 
munity. In  particular  tliey  were  proliil)ited  from  using  wine  or  strong  drink  of  any 
kind,  ^apes,  whether  moist  or  dry,  or  from  shaving  their  heads.  The  law  in  regard 
to  N.  IB  laid  down  in  the  Book  of  Nnmbera  (vi.  1— St).  The  only  examples  of  the 
class  recortled  in  Scripture  ara  Samson,  Sanmel,  and  John  the  Baptist,  who  were 
devoted  from  birth  to  that  condition,  thotigh  tlie  law  appears  to  contemplate  tempo- 
rary and  voluntary,  rather  than  perpetual  ^azaritesh1p. 

I9EAGH,  Lough,  the  largest  lake  of  the  British  Islands,  Is  situated  in  the  province 
of  Ulster,  Ireland,  and  is  surronnd<  d  by  tlie  counties  of  Armagh,  Tyrone,  London- 
derry, Antrim,  and  Down.  It  is  18  niilet<  (English)  in  length,  and  11  miles  in  breadth, 
contains  98,255  acres,  is  120  feet  in  irreatest  deptli,  and  Is  48  feet  above  sea-level  at 
low  water.  It  receives  the  waters  oi  numerous  streams^  of  which  the  principal  are 
the  Up|>er  Bann,  the  Blackwater.  the  Moyola,  and  the  Main  ;  and  its  suiplus  waters 
are  carried  off  northward  to  the  North  Channel  by  the  Lower  Bann.  CommunicJi- 
tlou  by  meiins  of  canals  subsists  between  the  Lough  and  Belfast,  Newry,  and  the 
Tyrone  coal^eld.  In  some  portions  of  the  Lough  the  waters  shew  remarkable  )>etri- 
fyiug  qualities,  and  petrified  wood  found  in  its  \«aters  is  niauufactared  into  hones. 
The  southern  shores  of  the  Lon^h  are  low  and  marshy,  and  dreary  In  appearance. 
It  is  well  stocked  with  fish,  and  its  shores  are  frequented  by  the  swan,  heron,  bitterUf 
teal,  and  other  watei-fowl. 

NEAL,  Daniel,  a  dissenting  minister  and  author,  was  bom  in  London,  December 
14,  1678.  He  was  edncatid  first  at  Merchant  TayIo»s'  School,  and  afterwards  at 
Utreclit  and  i^yden,  in  Holland,  and  in  1706  succeeded  Dr  Singleton  as  pastor  of  a 
congregation  in  his  native  city.  N.'s  first  work  was  a  "  History  of  New  England" 
(1720),  which  met  with  a  very  favorable  reception  in  America.  Two  years  after- 
wanls,  he  published  a  triH-t  entith^d,  >*  A  Narrative  of  the  Metbod  and  Success  of 
Inoculating  the  Small-pox  in  New  England  by  Mr  B'  ujamin  Colman,"  which 
excited  considerable  attention';  but  the  production  on  which  his  reputation  rests  is 
his  **  History  of  the  Puritans"  (4  vols.  1732-1788),  a  work  of  great  labor,  and  invalu- 
alrfe  as  a  collection  of  facts  and  characteristics  both  to  churchmen  and  dissenters^ 
though,  of  course,  written  in  the  interest  of  tlie  latter.  It  involved  its  author  in 
several  controversies,  which  failing  health  rendered  it  impossible  for  him  to  prose- 
cute.   N.  died  at  Bath,  April  4,  1748. 

NEAL,  John,  an  American  author  and  poet,  of  Scottish  deJ»cent,  was  bom  nt 
Falmouth,  now  Portland,  Maine,  August  25,  17l>8.  His  parents  belonged  to  the  So- 
ciety of  Friends,  of  ,wlii<jh  he  was  a  member  until  disowned,  at  the  age  of  25,  l)e- 
cau^e  lie  failed  to  live  up  to  the  rule  of  "living  peaceably  with  all  men."  With  the 
scantv  education  of  a  New-Enghnid  common  school,  he  became  a  shop-boy  at  the 
age  of  12 ;  but  learned  and  then  taught  penmanship  and  drawing.  At  the  age  of  81, 
he  entered  a  luiberdashei-y  trade,  first  in  Boston,  and  then  in  New  York ;  and  a  year 
after,  became  a  wholesale  jobber  in  this  business  at  Baltimore,  in  partnership  with 


y  Google 


Nebraska  -  J  *^" 

AiHtther  American  Jlterary  flii4  palpit  wiebrlty,  Juhn  Pienpont.  They  faflod  in 
1816^  a  d  N.  turned  blt«  alteniioii  to  tiie  Ptudy  of  law.  With  the  ciKTjry  wliirb 
a<!(|nired  for  him  the  sohriqust  ot  **Je!ia  0'Cnt.iract«"  Hfflxrd  to  his  jKKMn,  **  Tiie 
BnttUt  of  Niugara,"  a*'  went  tlnoHjfh  the  uBnal  srven  yeine' law-coiirhc  in  uiie,  be- 
t«idei»p  mlyin^  i»everal  ))ni)rn>i>^efs  and  writing  for  a  Bul)fiii*ience.  In  1817,  lie  pub- 
ii-h«d  *'Koru Cool,'*  tt  novel;  tlin  n  x\  year  a  vohi  i  e  of  poems;  in  1819,  **Otln>,"» 
a  flve-.icttrftin^y;  and  in  18i8,  four  novdn — ** S«v«*nty-i*Ix,"  " Logan,** •* Raudt»lph," 
and  '*  EiTijtji.'*  These  impctnouH  worlvH  were  each  written  In  from  twenty-Heveii^to 
thirty-nine  days.  In  1824,  he  came  to  Eni^laud.  witere  he  lM;cume  a  c(mtrIluitor  to 
"Bluckwood'i  '•  and  oJlu-r  nniga/'mee  aniireviews.  and  enjoved  the  friendship  mid 
)n)tt(>italiiy  of  J<'rontv  Bentham.  On  his  reinrn  to  America,  he  settled  in  his  native 
town,  pfttcti.«<*d  lj«w,  wroii'j  editrd  new»»4Mip«Ms,  gave  iircturop,  and  occnpied  liis 
li^ibure  lK>ars  in  teaching  l>oxniir,fcncing  iMid  gymnastics.  Among  his  nnmenms  works 
are  *•  Brotlier  Joi  athan."  "Rachel  Dyer,"  •*Benfham*s  MoihIs  and  Lcgislai ioit," 
**  Anthorsliip,"  **  D«>wa^aster!«."  Ac  AtUtr  a  long  ««ilenc  •,  <levored  to  profeeaioual 
business,  he  iMihJu^hed,  in  1854, '•  One  Word  More;"  and  ip  186»,»*Tnie  Woninn- 
liood."  The  latierwork,  thongh  n  •  ovc-l,  emhodies  the  more  herions  r»lig'on8  con- 
victious  of  his  later  years.  In  1870,  apiwarcd  his  *•  Wandering  Ke<ollectionv  of  a 
Somewhat  Busy  Life."  N.*h  volnmiuons  writings,  with  ail  iheir  glaring  fual0l  of 
haste  and  inexperience,  are  fnll  of  genius,  fire,  aim  natiimnlity. 

NEANDEK,  Jotiann  Augimt  Wiiheim.  by  far  iliu  grealiist  of  $cclesi:Mitical  hi^' 
torians,  was  i)orn  atGOdin^'cn.  I6t.h  January  1789,  of  Jewish  paieutage.  His  unuie 
prior  to  baptism  wa-*"  David  Mendel.  By  the  mother's  si«le,  lie  was  related  to  tli » 
eiuiiient  pnilosoplier  and  piiilantliropift  Mendelssohn  (q.  v.)  H'?  received  his  tuirly 
edactition  at  the  Juhanneum,  in  Hamburg.  :.nd  iiad  for  conm.-imons  Varnhagen  voii 
£nse,  Cliamisso.  tin;  poet,  Wilhelm  Neumann,  Noodt,  and  Sieveking.  Already  the 
abstract,  lofty,  and  jmregenius  of  N.  was  beginnintr  to  shew  itself,  Plato  and  Ptn- 
tjirch  were  his  favorite  classics  rfs  a  ^Yi^  »ud  he  was  profonndly  strrred  by 
SUilelwrm.icher's  frtinou*  *•  D  scour.-^es  on  Religion**  <I799).  Finally,  iir  180d,  ha 
pnl>Iicly  renounced  Judaism,  and  was  bripiiz-d.  adopting,  in  allusion  to  the  religions 
change  which  he  had  experienc»'d,  the  imme  of  N.  (Or.  tico«,  new  ;  rt»i«r,  a  man), 
and  taking  his  I'hrlstlaii  names  from  several  of  his  friends.  His  sisters  and  bro- 
thers, and  later  his  mother  also,  followed  his  example.  He  now  proceeded  to  Hall<*, 
where  he  studi'  d  theology  with  wonderful  ardor  and  success  turner  Schleiermaclier, 
and  concluded  his  aaidi  niic  course  at  Ins  native  town  of  06  thieen.  where  Planck 
was  then  in  th(;  z  nilh  of  his  reputation  asa'chnrch  historian.  In  1811.  he  took  up 
his  residence  at  Heidelberg  University  as  a  privat-docent ;  In  I8l2,  he  was* 
ap)K>iDled  there  extraoi-dinary  professor  of  theology ;  and  in  the  follow  ng  year,  w-  a 
called  to  the  newly  establinh.  d  univer-ity  of  Berlin  as  Professor  of  Cnnrch  Hhjtory. 
Here  he  labored  till  his  death,  July  14,  1850.  N.  enjoyed  immense  celebrity  at*  n 
lecturer.  Students  flocked  to  him  not  only  from  all  p?irts  of  Germany,  but  ftiivn  tbo 
most  distant  Protestant  cfmntrles.  Many  Roman  Catholics,  even,  were  among  liia 
auditors,  and  it  is  ^aid  find  there  is  hardly  a  great  preacher  in  Ghtrmany  whp  is  not 
more  or  less  p  iietraii  d  with  his  ideas.  His  chnraeier,  reKgiimsty  considen*di  is  <  f 
so  noble  a  CnHHiiau  type  that  it  odls  for  special  notice.  Ardently  ahd  profoundly 
devotional,  sym|>flthetic,  glad-hearted,  pmfasely  beiiev(tleni,  and  without  a 
shadow  of  selfishness  resting  on  his  S(ml,  lie  inspired  nniTers:d  revereuc<', 
and  was  himself,  by  the  mild  and  attractive  sanctity  of  his  life,  a  more  powerful  ar- 
gument on  behalf  of  Christiatdty  than  even  his  writif^s  themselves.  Perhaps  no 
professor  was  ever  so  much  lovtnl  by  his  stndcnts  as  Neander.  He  used  to  give  the 
jxiorer  ones  tickfts  to  his  ie<ttnres,  and  to  supply  them  with  clothes  and  money. 
Mhe  grtniter  portion  of  what  he  nnide  by  his  books,  he  bestowed  upon  missionary, 
Bible,  and  other  societies,  ami  upon  hospitals.  As  a  Christian  sdudar  and  thinker, 
he  ranks  aiiK>ntr  the  Arst  uautes  in  modern  tinu^s,  and  i^  l)elieved  to  have  conlribnte<l 
more  than  any  other  shigie  individnal  to  the  overthrow,  on  the  one  side,  of  that 
anii-ldstoricai  Rationalism,  and  on  thr*  other  of  that  dead  Lutheran  formalii'ni, 
from  both  of  which  the  religions  life  of  Germany  had  so  long  suffered.  To  the  de- 
lineation of  tlie  devi  iopment  of  hisiodcal  Christianity,  he  brings  one  of  the  broad- 
est, one  of  the  mo?t  safnicioas  fin  r  gard  to  religions  matters),  one  of  the  moht  ini- 
piirtial  yet  geHert)U8  and  sympathetic  intellects.  His  conception  of  church  history 
aa  the  record  aud  porlraUqre  of  all  forms  of  Christian  thought  and  life,  and  Ibo 


Digitized  by 


Google 


1  ?;  1  Nepnt'rr 

^"^^  Nebraska 

pklll  wHb  which,  by  mcnwi  of  hlp  pyinpnUiy  with  nil  of  the^e,  and  hie  cxfraoitliTinry 
ermiitioii,  he  elicitPj  In  his  i*  Kircheiige.<chichrc"  the  surfed  phHiioineua  of  9  airJctly 
Chrietiati  luitnre,  hnve  plnced  hiiri  fjir  iihove  hut  of  hin  pnileccMutrn.  N.'s  u-orke, 
ill  tbeortlerof  time,  nre:  "Utberden  Kjiiser  ^n]1ai>n»  nird  »ein  Z'^tulfer"  (Leip. 
1S12);  '*Der  Heil.  Benil.ard  und-HMii  Ziftjilii-r**  (Bt-rl.  1818);  **G«'nettachHKntw)ric- 
Hmijrder  vorDehmdreji  OtioHf lichen  8yt«ttnii«**  (Bcrl.  1818);  *•  D«r  Hfll.  Chrv^oj*- 
toinus*  mid  die  Klrcthn,  b«'80iidon?  dw«  Orient*,  in  (le!«fu>n  Z  hiilt<»r"  (8  vols.  B«tI.*  1821 
— lS2a;  3d  ed.  1849);  •' Deiikwftrdi.  IcHt'ii  am*  <Vr  G«»-ciiiclrt«  de*  ClirirtenthnnM 
iiDd  d«-8  Ch ri8tllch.il  Leb<mj«"  (3  voIb.  Bcrl.  182»;  8d  etl.  1845— 184«) ;  **  AntiifiiOB- 
ticHJ*,  G  ift  d«»»  TertnllljinnB  nnd  EU^WMime  in  diWe?.  8<'hrift4U**  (Berl.  1826); 
•*  Allgetiifiiie  GwchicJite  dor  ChripJUchen  Ke%ioii  niid  Kirchu"  (5  voln.  HHmh. 
1825— IS62) ;  "  GefchichtH  dir  Pflanznnp  and  Lelhiiig  i\er  KJitIm;  dtirch  die  A|>o«lel '» 
<2  vols.  Hainb.  1882— 188S;  4th  ed.  1847);  "Dns  Lebeii  Jtwu  Chrihti  in  Kehieni  jrc- 
Mhiclitlich«ii  Zn'-HinnieiibaiigH,'*  wiilteu  J*  a  re\iiy  to  StrftiiPB'e  work  (Hnnib.  1837; 
5'h  td.  1863) ;  "  Wips'cnw.liaflliche  Al)h»ud'uu|j:ou,'*  published  by  Jarobi  (Berl.  186) ; 
**  O-.tiicbichte  dor  Cbriat  lichen  Doginen,^  also  pul>lii!ilird  by  Jucobi  (1866).  The  ina- 
iiir.ty  ot  tlies*  workn,  including  the  n»ot»t  impi)rtant,  have  been  tianslnted  iuio  Eny- 
Jii»b,  jind  form  more  thau  a  dozen  vo)iuues  of^Bohn'ti  '*8taudard  Library." 

NEAP-TIDES.    See.TiDES. 

NEA'KCHU8,  tlw»  comuMindir  of  the  fleet  of  Al«aandor  the  Great  in  his  Indian 
oxiM-diiion,  827— 326  b  o..u-aB  thr  i-oii  oJ  one  Adri.tiniufi,  and  w.ia  born  in  Cnte,  bnt 
«Jtii«'d  iu  An  pld|)oiiH,  In  829  B.C.,  he  joimd  Abxanjler  in  Bnctiia  with  a  body  of 
Gn'«k  imrcenarie9,  and  when  tlje  lait^r  ordend  a  fleet  to  be  bnill  on  th«'  Hv(lH^pi  a, 
N.  rfH.'eived  the  c-onunand  of  ir.  He  conducted  it  f^pni  the  month  of  theindn^to 
the  Pendaii  Gttlf.  in  >«pite  of  groat  obntaeKg,  reuniting  p-irtly  Jrom  ihe  weath'rand 
l»:irily  from  t'n*  nintinons  disposition  of  hij<  crewi*.  N.  h:ft  the  Indnn  on  the  Slat  of 
^Sept«•lnb^'r  825,  and  arrlv«d  at  Snea.  in  Pi  rpia.  in  Fibrnarv  3 '4.  shorty  aft«r  Alrx- 
aiidrr  hintffolf,  who  had  mnroh-  d  ov<'rhjnd.  Fr:ignioiit.«»  of  his  own  namilive  of  his 
voyagf  iiave bettn  i>re»^erv«  d  in  the  **  Ind'ca"  of  Arritin. — See  Dr  Vinrei  t's  *•  Coniinorre 
and  Navigjition  of  the  Ancienta  in  the  li  diau  Seaa  "  (vol.  i.  pp.  08— 71,  Loud.  ISuT), 
ittid  GeierV  *•  Ah'xandri  M:>gni  Hiatoriaruni  Scriptores"  (pp.  108—150). 

NEA'I!H,  a  parliauMntjiry  and  municipal  borough  nnd  nvcr-|M)rt  of  the  county  of 
G1aiiiom.ui.  South  Waloa,  on  a  nnvirable  river  of  tl»«  winie  name,  peven  niilej*  foutii- 
*a.«t  of  Swatmia.  It  in  built  on  tlio  site  of  Ihe  Uonian  ptaliou  yidwn.  and  it  contaius 
the  ronniiiiH  of  an  aciont  caatle,  burned  in  1281.  Iu  tlie  iniinedate  vicitity  are  tlie 
iin)>otnng  niins  of  Nonf h  Abixy,  defcribed  by  Leland  a?'  " the  lairt* »t  abljey  in  all 
"Walop,"  but  now t«ad"y  decayed  and  begrimed  by  the  pmoke  and  coai-dui*t  ot  the 
I'liblic  woikp  of  the  diatrlct.  There aro  at  N.  nevenU  oxicHnive cooper  and  tin  worka. 
Coppr.  8|M'lter,  i'on  and  tin  platea,  and  flue  bricka  are  extenaiveiy  exjwrted,  ^tone8 
art*  quarrird,  and  coal  and  cuHn  arc  rai»d.  The  tnide  of  the  port  hfte  largely  iu- 
en  a»'od  within  late  yeara.    Pop.  (1871)  10,060. 

NEB-NEB;  or  Nib-Nib,  the  dried  pods  of  AKaeia  Nihh'cay  one  of  the  apeciea  of 
Acricia  (q.  V.)  which  yield  gum-arabic,  and  a  naiiveof  Africa.  Thete  pods  arc  much 
used  in  Bgypi  for  tanning,  and  have  been  im|)ortod  into  Britain. 

NEBRA'SKA,  one  of  tin-  Unite<l  States  of  America,  lying  in  hit,  40"— 43©  n.,  and 
loner.  950-1040  w. ;  bounded  <»n  the  w.  b^  Wyoming,  and  11.  by  Dakota,  Ixdng  partly 
pcjmrated  from  the  latter  by  the  Mi8!>ouri  River,  and  its  branch  the  Niolirani;  o.  by 
I»WM  and  MiBtfOiiri,  from  wliich  it  ip  H«pnrat«  d  by  the  Minsonri  River;  a.  by  Kansa's 
and  Colornda.  Tlile  Bt.vte  i«  about  426  milea  fnmi  <w»t.  to  west,  and  from  138  10  208 
Irom  noith  to  south,  and  hanau  area  oslimated  at  76.995  Fonare  miles.  Origiually, 
wlien  this  stale  w"   "  -  -  -'" —    ='    _... .. j -j  x .1..  %.i.._- — ^  t*: — ._  ..     ..     •• 

MonntaiuB,   and 


wlieii  this  stale  was  a  territory  it  oxtoudod  from  llie  MigBOuri  River  to  the  Kockv 
from  lat.  44JO  to  the  boundiuy  of  what  was,  at  ttie  time,  Briti.^fi 
Anii-ricai.  The  chief  towns  aro  Onwiha  City,  tlio  Htaitinc-polnt  of  the  Union  Pacific 
Jtiilway,  Nebraska  Cilr.  and  Lincoln,  the  capital.  N.  Is  a  vast  plain  rlsjiiff  gradu- 
ally toward  the  Rocky  Mountains,  with  immense  prairies,  the  haunts  of  vast  henls  it 
boftilo,  and  with  fertile  and  well-iimbored  river-b-ntoins.  Tlie  chief  rivers  are  the 
Missonrl  on  its  eastern,  and  the  N  ot)rara.  parf^  tm  ttie  northern  Ijoundary,  the 
Platte  or  Nebraska,  and  the  R<pnbl  can  Fork  of  tlie  Kansas,  and  their  branches. 
The  Piatttt  Valley,  running  through  the  whole  centre  of  the.  territory,  is  broad  and 


y  Google 


SISS?"  162 

fertile.  There  are  qnaniea  of  fan^otooe,  a  soft  limcutone  wh!ch  h.'irdi'ns  on  expo- 
sure, uud  thin  beda  of  cool.  Id  Uie  uioautaiiionH  westeru  r^ioii  are  luiuca  of  gold, 
silver,  co|>per,  and  cinnabar.  Between  the  fertile  lauds  of  tl>e  eaoteni  and  Cf  nrnti 
i>ortion  uud  the  moantains  is  a  IT^t  desert  va'.Iey  of  90  by  90  mile^.  8i»0  feet  (Iih-;', 
luil  of  roclty  pinnacles,  and  rich  in  fossil  reniains.  The  climate  is  dry  and  snlnbrion:', 
witli  an  ttlmndance  of  clear  sanny  days.  The  country  produces  wheat,  niaix-.*, 
hemp,  tobacco,  and  frn its  in  abundance',  while  the  rolling  prairies  affoi-d  niu'qn.tliotl 
pasturage.  The  Oinalias,  Pawnees,  Otoos,  Siuux,  and  other  wild  Iribea  hunt  over 
the  nnoccupird  territories,  bat  the  ininiigratiou  is  progressiiie  rapidly.  Er  •cted  uh 
a  tenitory  In  1894  it  had,  in  1860,  a  ()opnlation,  exclnsive  of  ltidiaii'<,  of  29,836;  an  I 
in  1870,  witii  tlie  same  exclaslon,  it  was  1^1 17.  N.  became  a  »tate  in  I6v7.  Soe 
*'  Nebraska,''  by  BUwiu  A.  Cnrley  (Lond.  1876). 

NEBRASKA,  or  Platt«,  a  river  of  Nebraska,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  lat.  42°  80'  u.,  long.  IW  w..  nnd  flowing  e;n»t  r!y 
600  miles  through  the  entire  territory,  watering  its  groat  valley,  falls  into  tiie  Mis- 
souri. ^  * 
NEBUCHADNE'ZZAR.  SeeBABTix)N.  ' 
NB'BULiB,  a  n:inie  given  to  indistinct  patches  of  light  in  the  heavena,  supposed 
to  proceed  from  aggregations  of  rarely  distributed  matter  b<ilongiiig  to  distant  worlds 
...               I  of  for      "         "^     *            ....     -  -  . 


in  the  course  of  formation.  By  the  gradual  improvement  of  iel«!SC0p<'8  in  itower 
and  distinctness,  these  nebulfle  have,  one  after  anotlier,  become  resolved  hitoclustera 
of  distinct  stars,  and  it  is  now  genenilly  supposed  that  such  a  resolution  of  all 
nebnlie  #hich  have  been  o'»served  is  only  limited  l»y  tUe  nower  of  the  tolescopf?.  It 
is  nrol)abIe  that  tlio  group  of  stars  with  which  our  sy.<<tem  U  immediately  sarronnded, 
and  whicli  forms  to  our  eyes  the  gahixy  which  studs  the  flrmnmeitt^  would,  if  lookt>d 
upon  from  the  immeasurable  distances  at  which  tliese  so-cnlled  nebnlie  are  situated, 
itself  assume  the  appearance  of  such  a  nebula;  and  that  in  the  Kitervals  there  exiHt 
spaces  as  void  of  sarry  worlds  as  thesu  are  comparatively  full  of  them.  8  «  Stabs. 
Some  uebuliB  are  of  a  round  form,  presenting  a  gnidu.»l  condensation  toward  the 
centre;  oth ts  consist  of  one  star  surrounded  by  a  nebulous  haee;  while  a  third 
class  present  just  the  same  app^mnince  as  would  l)e  exhibited  by  tiio  solar  system  if 
seen  from  a  point  immensely  d  staut.  These  and  other  phenomena  suggested  to 
Laplace  tite  idea,  afterwards  develoi)ed  into  a  theory,  and  known  as  the  nehulaf 
htfjxfthesU,  tliat  these  nebulffi  were  systems  hi  process  of  formation ;  the  flrst  staee 
presenting  an  agglomeration  of  nebulous  matter  of  uniform  density,  which,  in  the 
second  st^,  showed  a  tendency  to  gredual  condensation  toward  the  centre ;  and, 
finally,  the  nebulous  matter  round  the  now-formed  centre  of  the  system,  separated 
itself  into  distinct  portions,  each  portion  becoming  condensed  into  a  planet.  The 
same  opinion  regarding  the  formation  of  planets  from  nebulse  was  put  forward  by 
Sir  William  Herschel  in  1811 ;  but  the  subsequent  discoveries  made  by  Lord  Rosse 
were  supposed  to  expose  a  fallacy  in  tliis  theory.  Tliat  wonderful  instrument,  tlie 
81)ectrodCope,  lias,  liowever.  recently  reinstate  the  nebular  tlieory,  by  shewing  that 
among  these  appeanmces  there  are  real  nebnlse  devoid  of  solid  or  liquid  matter, 
and  consisting  or  masses  of  glowini;  gas — apparently  nitrogen  and  hydrogen. 

NE'BULY,  one  of  the  partition  lines  in  Heraldry,  which  runs  out  and  in,  in  a 
form  supposed  to  represent  the  uneven  edges  of  clouds. 

NBCE'SSITY.  This  word  occurs  in  connection  with  two  different  philosopliical 
subjects,  namely,  the  freedom  of  the  will  (see  Free- Will),  and  the  nature  of  our 
belief  in  fundamental  truths,  such  as  the  axioms  of  mathemaUcs,  It  is  allegwl  by 
some  philosophers,  that  the  truths  held  by  us  as  most  certain  are  the  result  of  ex- 
perience, and  tliat  the  degree  of  certainty  is  but.  a  measure  of  the  universality  of  the 
experience.  Others  contend  that  such  first  principles  as  tlie  axioms  of  routhematica 
are  not  only  true,  but  n<^cex«art/j/ true.  Such  necessity,  it  is  a r^'ued.  cannot  como 
from  mere  experience,  and  therefore  implies  an  innate  or  intuitive  eourcf.  HiMicii 
tlie  theory  of  necessary  truth  is  only  another  name  for  the  theory  of  instinctive  or 
intuitive  trutli. 

Necessity  is  a  word  too  vague  in  its  signification  to  serve  as  a  leading  tertn  in 
philosophy.  Tliere  are  sevenil  ineanines  attaching  to  it,  which  should  be  cK«nrly 
set  forth  before  entering  ou  the  diacussTou  of  auch  questions  tis  those  above  uicu- 
tloucd. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


1  e;  Q  Neb  a«ka 

lOO  '    Neckar 

1.  Necesflffy,  In  the  flr^t  pince,  means  ihaf!  one  fact  or  statement  is  implied  fa 
onotlii-r.  Thus,  if  we  say  tliar  all  flu*  ajjipsrles  were  Jews,  it  follows  necessarily  tlint 
Peter  was  a  Jew  Lthis  is  not  a  new  fact,  but  merelv  a  re-assertiou  of  a  portion  (»f 
the  t^iime  fact.  We  are  not  at-in)erty  to  siffirm  a  tliini^  in  one  form,  and  tlien  deny 
the  same  tiling  when  oxprei»8i  d  in  a  different  form.  If  we  say  this  room  is  hot,  it  is 
repeating  the  assertion  hi  another  M'ay,  to  say  that  It  is  not  cold.  I'hi-se  trnlhs  fol- 
low by  necessary  inference.  Hence  the  general  axiom  of  the  sylloLn^m,  that  what 
is  trne  of  a  whole  class  mast  be  true  of  e-ach  indWidnal,  is  a  nt  c»'Shai7  tiuth  iu  this 
f>eiise.  Tn  affirndng  snch  a  truth,  we  merely  dt  clnre  that  we  shall  bt*  cQitsisteut,  and 
tliar  win  n,  we  luive  ufilrmed  a  proposition  in  company  with  other  pn>poiiil1<  ns,  we 
are  prepared  to  affirm  it  when  taken  apart  from  the  others.  This  k.nd  of  necessity 
is  sometimes  called  Lo^cal  necessity,  and  sometimes  Mathematical  necessity.  We 
nii^ht  c»ill  It  Dednctive  nectssity,  or  necessity  by  Implication. 

\  A  H<'Cond  meaning  is  Inductive  certainty ;  or  the  certainty  that  arises  from  a 
\rell-^ronnded  exi)erience.  That  lead  will  sink  in  waUr;  that  animals  ne»d  fowl 
and  air  lii  order  to  live ;  that  warmth  promotes  vegetation  ;  are  truths  that  we  call 
iivcessarj',  in  tliC  sense  of  being  so  certain  that  we  may  alwavs  conn^  ni>ou  ihem. 
We  presume  with  the  highest  confidence,  that  an  nnsnp).orted  f^ody  will  fall  to  the 
ground,  not  because  the  fact,  of  falling  is  implied  iu  the  fact  of  matter,  but  because 
nature  has  uniformly  conjoined  the  two  facts.  We  can  speak  even  of  m-  ral  lu  ces- 
hity  ;  by  which  we  mean  only  nnilorm  sequence  and  cons«  quent  certainty.  Wh«n 
we  di^lare  that  children,  whose  education  has  been  nejrlcct.  d,  nmst  fall  into  evil 
courses^  we  declare  what  experience  has  shewn  ns  will  happen  Iu  relation  to  the 
human  mind. 

3.  When  necessity  means  neither  deductive  implication,  nor  Inductive  certainty, 
it  refers  us  to  a  peculiar  test  suppponed  to  apply  to  the  truths  iu  dispute— namel.\ , 
the  iucpnceivableness  of  their  opi>osite.  It  Is  said  that,  not  only  can  we  not  believe 
iu  tlie  opposite  of  the  aidom,  that  *Mhe  sums  of  equals  are  equal,"  but  we  cannot 
even  conceive^  imagine,  or  picture  to  ourhclves  the  opposite  of  it.  This  impossibility 
of  conceiving^  the  contr.diction  of  any  srritement.  Is  regarded  by  many  as  a  peculi- 
arly cogent  circumstance  in  its  favor.  Il  distinguishes  the  axiomatic  flrst  principles 
from  the  trntiis  of  inductive  science,  these  having,  It  is  said,  an  inferior  order  of 
certjilnty.  To  this  it  m.iy  be  nplied,  however,  that  meirs  power  of  conceiving  is  so 
much  afflicted  by  tlieir  etincatiou  and  habits,  that  many  things,  whose  opposltes 
Were  at  one  time  iuconciivable,  have  since  been  found  to  be  talse.  For  examnie, 
the  notion  that  nun  could  live  at  the  antipodes  was  once  refkoncd  Inconceivable, 
and  we  now  know  it  to  be  a  fact.  An  unvarying  association  will  olten  produce  u 
disability  to  conceive  anything  different. 

In  commencing  a  discussion  as  to  tlie  neci^ssary  character  of  any  truth,  the  dis- 
putants should  agree  lM!foi*ehand  which  of  the  three  meanii  gs  ti.ey  intend.  In  the 
controversy  on  the  Mathematical  axioms,  maintain*  d  betw*  en  Dr  Whewell  (ju  the 
one  hand,  and  Sir  John  Hersch  1  ai  d  Mr  J.  S.  Mill  on  the  otie  r,  the  third  meaning 
is  more  particularly  Involved,  The  doctrine  of  Inconceivability,  a^"  the  test  of  truth, 
has  been  put  foiwanl  by  Mr  Herbert  Spencer,  under  the  title  ot  the  Univci*sal  Pohtu- 
Jate  (**  Priiiciples>of  Psychology,"  l*art  I.). 

NE'CHfiS,  a  river  of  Texas,  U.  8.,  rises  In  the  central  eastern  portion  of  the 
state,  and  flt)WH  souUi  by  ent<t.  20Q  miles.  Into  Sabine  Bay,  where  it^  waters, 
with  those  of  the  Sabine  Hiver,  tlnd  their  way,  by  Sabine  Puss,  lulu  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 

NE'CKAR,  one  of  the  largest  tributaries  of  the  Khiiip,  and  the  principal  river  of 
Warieiiiljerg,  ri-es  near  to  ike  hource  of  ihc  Danube,  oti  the  eahtern  declivity  of  the 
Black  Forej»t,  and  close  to  tlie  village  of  Schweningc  n.  It  has  a  winding  course  of 
240  miles,  first  nortli-east  to  its  junction  w  til  the  Fils,  then  north  to  its  juiiCtion 
W!fh  the  Jaxt,  and  finally  north- we^t  to  MUnnheim,  where  It  joins  the  Rhine.  The 
nrinci))nl  plac«'8  0u  Its  banks  are  TtVblngen,  Ileilbron,  Heidelberg,  and  Mannheim, 
Itf  c«)arse,  leading  first  through  a  deep  and  narrow  dale,  l<*ads  aiiei-wards  through  a 
HKcecsio  .  of  wide  aid  fertile  tracts,  enclosed  by  soft  vine-clad  hills.  The  scenery 
cf  its  banks  Is,  In  gt-neral,  very  Iwantiful,  and  in  many  places  highly  I'omantio. 
FiOm  Cannstadt,  alwui  midway  in  its  course,  the  N.  is  navigable  ;  steamers  ply 
ri-gnlarly  to  JIeld(!lb<«rg.  Gootl  winen  m-e  g  own  on  its  banks*.  Chief  atfiuents,  on 
the  left,  the  Enz  J  ou  the  r^ht,  the  Fils  Itciub,  the  Kocher  and  the  JaxU 


y  Google 


Necker  1  P\  J. 

Necropolis  l  Ort 

NECKER,  Jocqnes,  a  famons  flnnnrler  and  minlator  of  Prance*,  ^ras  horn  30th 
Sojiteiiil)er  1782,  at  Geneva,  where  Ins  father,  a  native  of  Braudenbnrt;,  bnf  of  Aiiirlo- 
lrl.«*h  de-cent,  was  prof«;K8or  of  Q'Tinaii  law.  He  l)ecanie  a  bunker  in  Paris,  and 
acqulrt'd  a  large  fortnne  during  the  SevtMi  Years*  War.  After  retiring  from  hnf^inet-fi, 
he  i)ecaniH  the  reprnsentafve  of  his  native  city  at  the  French  CDnrt,  and  jil^o  ac- 
quired a  high  hnt  not  exactly  a  solid  ri*niitation  by  his  niilMicationi*  on  political 
ecouomv  an. I  flnmce,  particularly  his  ''Basal  pur  la  L6>dHl:>tiou  et  le  Conuncrce <le 
Grains"  .Par.  1775).  In  this  essay  he  appears  as  the  opponent  of  the  wise  Tnr«rot*H 
li'KMal  measures  In  regard  W  the  traffic  m  gndn.aud  claims  for  the  st^ite  the  right  of 
flxinjr  its  priCe.  and  if  he  think-*  it  necessary,  of  prohibiting  its  export-ation.  On  fh«j 
r.Muoval  of  Turgot  from  office  in  Jnue  1776,  N.  was  called  to  assist  inftnanrial  nffnin'. 
and  after  the  brief  admiuii^tration  of  Clugny.  he  was  made  General  Director  of 
F  nances  in  June  1777.  N.  could  not  conceal  his  elation.  Itils  was  his  weak  )>oiiit. 
He  iiHd  all  the  vanity,  eirotism,  and  love  of  show  that  marked  his  brilliant  but  stip  r- 
ficial  dauglitcr.  Nevitrtheluss,  he  succeeded  not  only  In  meeting  the  exigeneies  or  the 
American  war,  but  in  restoring  to  some  degree  of  order  the  general  financial  aftairs 
of  the  country,  though  mainly  by  the  jH^rilous  expedi«'nt  of  lK>rrowiug,  which  he  was 
enabled  to  do  to  an  almost  unlimited  extent,  owing  to  the  confidence  reposed  in  his 
financial  dexterity.  Some  years  he  Iwrroweid  as  much  as  4W  millions  of  francs.  His 
Protest  autism,  howev-r,  ami  some  r<*tn;nchment«  which  he  made  in  the  royal  house- 
hold, with  ilia  publication  on  the  financial  affairs  of  Franco  (**Comi)te  llendu," 
which  produced  an  imtn-'nse  si.-nsutioi),  unide  him  4in  object  of  great  dislike  to  the 
queen  and  t  ourt,  aud  on  l*h  May  1781  he  was  suddenly  dismissed.  He  redreti  to 
Geneva,  where  he  was  visited,  fr  un  motives  of  symoathy  and  respect,  by  the  highest 
personages  in  tiie  n^alm,  the  Prince  of  Cou'16,  the  Dulces  of  Orleans  and  Chartres,  tlie 
Prince  o(  Bt^auvau,  the  Duke  of  Luxeniboin-g,  Marorfial  de  Richejieu,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Palis,  ^c.,  but  reuirned  tx)  Paris  in  1787,  from  which  he  was  soon 
btnislied  on  account  of  an  attack  which  lie  pabli»hed  un  the  financial  nianaiie- 
nu:nt  of  the  reckless  and  ignorant  Oaloune.  In  the  financial  and  political  crisis, 
however,  which  followed  upon  the  fl:jancial  admhiistration  of  Loni6nie  de  Brienne, 
Loiiis  XVL  found  himself  under  tlie  n  cossity  of  calling  N.iii  November  1788,  to 
t  ■M)ffic,e  of  Compu-o  ler-Qeneral  of  Fiimnces  and  Miidsterof  State.  N.  recom- 
m  id  d  tlie  ca  ling  of  the  State-'  G  ni'ral,  and  thereby  acquired  the  greati^sl  popii- 
li  -.ly.  He  fuled,  however,  in  the  difficulties  which  ensued,  havhigno  capacity  for 
» illtical  aff-drs  in  other  than  t  leir  m  i^e  financitd  asp  cts.  When  flie  court,  on  the 
ikl  June,  1789.  determined  upon  nullifying  the  resolution  of  the  third  estate,  N. 
hesitated,  and  tlie  king  therefore  dismissed  him  on  11th  July,  and  required  him  to 
leave  the  French  dominions  imm-'diately.  He  obeyed,  but  the  disturbances  of  the 
12tii,  18tli,.and  14th  of  July  (on  the  last  of  which  (lays  the  Bastille  was  t^iken)  were 
the  result  of  his  dismissal,  and  the  king  was  under  the  necessity  of  recalling  him. 
He  now  allied  himself  with  Mounier  ami  oth.-r  ministers  for  the  introduction  of  a 
conatit.ution  like  thitof  Britain,  with  two  chambers  or  Houses  of  ParUament;  but 
this  caused  a  gr -at  diminution  of  his  popularity,  and  he  was  unable  to  contend 
in  <lel)rite  with  Miral)eau  and  other  great  leaders  of  the  National  Assembly.  On  the 
rejt^ctlon  by  iheassjinbly  of  his  scheme  of  a  loan,  and  the  adoption  in  tead  of  it 
of  Mirabeau's  scheme  of  assignats,  he  resigned  his  offlw  in  Septeml)«»r  1790,  and  re- 
tir  d  to  Ills  estate  of  CopjuH.  nenr  Geneva,  where  he  died,  9th  April.  18'»4.  JE^idiis 
the  works  already  inention«'d,  he  published  several  on  political  and  on  relig  oiis 
siibji'Cts,  particularly  a  work  on  the  Frencii  R<;volntion  (4  vols.  P;ir.  179«),  which 
has  been  frequently  reprinted.    His  daughter  was  the  celebrate  d  Madame  de  8t::Sl. 

NECK- MOULDING  A  moulding  at  the  junction  of  the  capital  and  shaft  of  a 
column.  The  p'aiii  space  between  tlie  astragal  of  the  shaft  and  the  mouldiugs  of  the 
cap  of  the  lloinan  Doric  or<U.'r  is  called  the  iiecJk 

NE'CltOMANCY  (Gr.  nekron.  dead,  and  wantexa,  divination),  a  mode  of  divina- 
tion by  the  conjuring  up  of  the  dead  to  question  them  concerning  the  fufuiv.  It 
originate  I  in  tlie  Esi^t,  and  in  times  of  tlie  nio>  t  remote  antiquitv.  It  is  coiidemned 
in  tile  OM  I'tislam-'iit;  and  the  story  of  the  witch  of  Endor  affords  a  remarkable 
ilUistratioii  of  it*  which  has  not  a  little  perplexed  interpreters  of  Scripture.  The 
eleventh  book  of  Homer's  **  Odyssey  "  bears  the  title  of  NexgopiavTSta,  and  hi 
it  the  ahttde  of  Tircieias  is  represented  as  brought  up  aud  consulted  by  Ulysdes.    lu 


S 


y  Google 


155 


N«ck«r 
Necropo:'s 

mo  t  pnHi»  of  Oreeca,  nocromancy  was  practif<od  hy  pripulii  or  con«ocnit«d  p<'rw)ii8 
in  the  tonipicH :  in  Tlit?R«aly.  it  was  the  iirofesKioii  ut  a  dit^tinct  clang  oC  p«Tsoim 
caWed  Ppychjurogoi  ("Evokera  of  Spirit**)."  The  i)rnctice  of  if  in  tiu.t  cnnntrr  wnn 
nltlniatfly  connected  with  many  hoirid  ritoa,  in  which  hnman  b!<od,  hMlf-hiniiod 
p4)rti*)ni«  of  iKxlite  from  fnneral  pilvB,  the  itnnuitnre  fcetne  cut  ont  of  the  won  U,  &«•. 
were  employed,  and  nometlmes  Imnxtn  beings  were  Plain,  tliat  tiielr  spiritB  nilplii  bo 
conHtdt^Ml  ere  ihey  Unaily  pimfcd  iuto  the  lower  world.  The  estahli^hnient  of  ( -lirlr- 
tluniiy  under  Constantine  caiiM-d  necromancy  to  1)e  phiccd  under  the  ban  of  iho 
church.  There  are  evident  trace.-*  of  necromancy  in  Fome  of  the  old*  r  Norpe  and 
Ti  utonic  poems*.  The  medieval  belief  in  the  evocation  of  pplrirn  be'ongs  rethrr  to 
Porc<ry  than  to  in  cromancy.  See  Peucer's *•  Commeutarius  ue  Freecipais  Divhiatio- 
num  Geiieribii:)  '*  (Zerbst,  1591). 

NEGRO' PHFLISM.  np  unnatnral  and  revolting  lore  or  appetite  for  the  dead  which 
Ihih  manifested  it*«elf  in  vanon«  ways.  Con^'orthigor  livliisr  with  the  dead  ha**  be<n  ob- 
served as  a  cbaractcMistic  of  m<hincholiu.  IndiridnalB  have  inhabit  d  graveyard?,  prc- 
ferrinir  the  proximity  and  ^so(*1atlon  of  corjJ  es  with  which  they  hv.d  no  tie,  to  I  ho 
eluferfulnese  and  comforts  of  Itoine;  and  theri»  is  recorded  one  notorions  case,  iu 
which  a  gentleman,  ahlK>UL'li  on  bad  terms  with  his  wife  while  alive,  carrie<l  her  body 
with  him  through  India,  «c»ndalieinfftho  ntitivis,  and  outraging  the  feelings  of  yll 
by  placing  the  coffin  nnder  his  bed.  This  hideous  t<ndoncy  may  enter  into  certain 
deveiopnients  of  cuunibalism,  where  the  feast  ie  celebrated'in  memory  of  a  depail^^cd 
frie>iid,  ratber  than  in  trinniph  over  a  flain  foe.  If  is  affirmed  tli- 1  there  were 
-anthropophagous  epidemics  m  1436  and  1500;  aid  the  history  of  v.impirism  con- 
nects that  ddusion  with  tho  moral  perversion  now  dcscrilvd.  Patients  in  asylumn, 
especially  in  contiuentid  asylums,  are  j-till  often  enconntercd  wholh -moan  the  crime 
of  having  devoured  the  dead,  and  violated  chMrnel-houBcs.  The  niost  extra- 
ordinary exiiibition  of  necrophilism  is  where  individuals,  i  ot  ii»  f  incy  but  In  reality, 
have  exhnmed  corpses  to  see  them,  to  kiss  them,  to  carry  them  away  to  their  own 
homes,  or  to  mutilate  rnd  tear  them  to  pieces.  It  i»»  woV  hy  of  notice  that,  so  far 
i!8sncii  cases  have  been  »l»j»erved  in  tliis  coantiy,  tluy  have  been  confined  to 
commiraiiies  living  fn  ft'mote  places,  of  rude  pnd  unenlightened  character,  and 
«'in;rishing  the  superstitions  of  ages  and  stjites  of  Focietv  wtlh  which,  tbey  have  no 
oilier  connection,  and  of  wh'ch  they  bave  almost  lost  the  recollect ioa. — '^Annales, 
Hedieo-PsychoIogiqucF,  t.  viii."  p.  472. 

NECBO'POLIS,  a  Greek  term,  meaning  the  city  of  the  dead,  and  npp'f«!d  to  the 
cemeteries  In  the  vicinity  of  ancient  ciries.  It  occurs  in  clapsical  antiquity  only  as 
applied  tea  suburb  of  Alexandria,  lyinerto  the  west  of  tiint  city,  having  many  hIu  ps 
and  gardenfi  and  placea  sahable  for  tbe  reception  of  the  dean.  The  corpt^os  were 
received  and  embalmed  in  it.  Here  Cieop.itra.  IIk'  la^t  of  the  Ptolemies,  appli<  d  the 
anp  to  Iter  breast^  to  avoid  the  ignominy  of  being  led  in  triumph  by  Augustus^  Tho 
Hte  of  tlie  necropolis  of  anrtem  Alexatidria  scenes  to  have  Imhmi  where  are  now  the 
catacoml)8,  consisting  of  galleries  and  tombs  hollowed  ont  of  the  ><oft  caloin  oua 
stone  of  which  the  city  is  built,  and  lying  at  tlie  extremity  of  the  city.  The  t4frm 
necropolis  is  now.  however,  U"*!  d  in  a  much  more  extended  st-nse,  and  applied  to  ail 
the  cemeteries  of  tliie  ancit-nt  world.  These  consifted  either  of  tombs,  coitstruetetl 
in  the  ainipe of  houses  and  temples,  and  arranged  in  sfr«ets,like  a  <ily  of  the  d  ad  ; 
or  else  of  chambers  hollowed  in  the  rock,  and  ornament  'd  with  fao:ides,  to  imitatu 
bonS'-B  and  temples.  Such  cemeteHes  are  to  >>e  distingnished  from  the  colnnibariay 
or  snbt«'rran**on8  chambers  of  the  Rotiians,  In  which  th<'ir  urns  were  de|K>sited  ;  or 
the  rows  of  tombs  along  the  Via  Appla;  or  the  cemeteries  of  the  Christians,  wIioho 
bodies  were  deposited  in  the  ground,  'l^e  most  reinarkable  neci*oi)olisei»  are  that  of 
Theltesin  Ejrynt,  sftnafed  at  a  place  called  Gournah,  on  the  left  hank  of  the  Nile, 
capable  of  holding  3000  persons,  and  which  it  is  caienla^'tl  mnst  at  least  have  con- 
tamed  5000  mnmn\ies;  those  of  El-Knb  or  Eilelfbyia;  of  Beni-Hassan,  or  the  Speos 
Art-niidos;  and  of  Madfnn  <ir  Abydon;  of  Siwali  or  the  Oa^ls  of  Ammon.  S'-o 
Oasis.  In  Africa,  the  n«cronolls  of  Cyren**  is  a'so  extensive;  and  those  of  Vnlel, 
«'  rnefo,  Tarquinii.  and  Capua  «vo  distintruislk-d  for  their  painted  tombs  (see  Tomb). 
as'd  the  nninerons  v  Fes  and  other  objects  of  »ncient  art  wliich  have  been  exhumed 
from  tUeui.  Ltirge  ncc^opoli^ea  have  aUo  been  found  iu  Lyciu,  Sicily,  and  else- 
where. 


y  Google 


Needles  •  ^^^ 

Strabo,  xvlli.  p.  TO5— 799;  Plntarcb,  vit  Anton ;  Xictronne.  **  Journnl  den  SftTaiw,'' 
1823,  p.  103;  Demiid,  *"  Cities  aud  Cemeteries  of  Btraria,"  i.  412,  i.  276—358. 

NECIIO'SIS  (Gr.  nekron^  dead)  is  a  term  emploj^ed  to  denote  tlie  dentil  or  mortifi- 
Ciitiou  of  i>oiie,  but  often  restricted  to  the  c-iBes  in  wbicli  tlie  shaft  of  a  long  bone 
diet*,  eitlier  directly  from  injury  or  from  violent  infliiiumation,  and  is  encIos<^  by  a 
layer  of  new  l)one ;  the  death  of  a  thin  snpSerfioial  layer,  which  is  not  enclosed  iu  a 
Bliell  of  new  l)Oue,  being  nsnally  termed  exfoliation. 

The  bones  of  tlie  lower  extremity — the  feninr  and  tibia — are  those  which  are 
most  frequently  afftfcted  by  n«crosi8.  The  lower  jaw  is,  however,  extremely  often 
affecteti  by  it,  in  per:<>ons  engaged  in  makiui<  Incifer-matclies  ;  the  disease  being  set 
np  by  the  pemieions  action  ot  the  va[K>r  of  phosuhorus.  The  dead  bone,  known  as  the 
sequestrum,  generally  consists  of  the  ciecnmterence  of  the  shaft  only,  and  not  of 
tlh)  interior,  and  the  inside  of  the  dead  )X)rtiou  presents  a  rotigh  appetirauce,  as  if 
worm-eaten.  If  the  membrane  iuvq^ting  the  bone  {\lw  perlostenni)  remain  healthy, 
it  deposits  lynip,  which  S|ie«>dilv  ossiflv*8«  forming  a  she  1  of  healthy  bone,  whicti 
completely  invests  the  dead  iiortfon.  .. 

'Phe  ed.oeiitial  point  in  the  treatment  is  the  removal  of  the  aequestrum,  which  is 
too  purely  a  surgical  operation  to  be' described  in  these  pages.* 

NE'CTAR,  the  name  given  by  Homer,  Hesiud,  Pindar,  afid  the  Greek  poet«  arener- 
ally,  and  by  the  Komaus,  to  the  beverage  of  the god^  their  foot!  Iwing call,  d  AmbiOfmi. 
(q.  v.).  But  Sapplio  and  A Icman  make  nectar  the  food  of  the  goods,  and  ambrosia 
their  drink.  Homer  describes  nectar  as  ri'sembliiig  t*h\  wine,  and  represents  itn  con- 
tinued Ui'e  as  causiug  inimurtality.  By  the  later  poets,  nectar  ajiii  ambrosia  are  n>- 
preseuted  as  of  most  delicious  odor ;  and  sprinkling  with  nectar,  or  anointing  witli 
anii)r()sia,  is  spoken  of  as  conferring  i>erpetnal  youth,  aud  they  are  as^umcd  as  the 
symbols  of  everything  most  delightful  to  the  taste. 

NE'CTARINE.    See  Pbaoh. 

NE'C TARY,  in  Botany,  an  organ  in  the  flowers  of  many  phanerogjimons  plant", 
d  'voted  either  to  the  secretion  o'ir  the  recimtioii  of  honey.  Of  tlie  former  kind'  aro 
nect^iriferons  glands,  scales,  and  port^;  of  the  latter,  tubes,  cavities.  &<i.  Bnt  tho 
term  was  for  a  long  time  very  vaguely  employed  by  botanl  ts,  and  s-emi-dtoba 
found  convenient  for  the  designation  of  any  p  irt  of  a  flower  for  which  ito  orlier 
name  was  known.  Thus  amou^:«t  the  parts  Cidl  d  niH'tiiries  liy  the  bldvT  t>ot*iui8T>s 
nifiy  be  found  those  uow  culled  Diae  (q.  v.),  aud  that  which  bears  the  name  of 
Coroiia  (q.  v.). 

NEEDPIRE  (Ger.  nothfeuer;  alli<;d  to  Sw.  gnida,  to  rub;  Eng.  hnead),  flm  ob- 
tained  by  tho  friction  of  wood  u|>on  wood,  or  tiie  friction  of  arot)eo-<  asiakeoC 
wood,  to  which  a  widespread  superjitition  aM><igns  iXMUiliar  virtues.  Witli  varietie^it 
of  detail,  the  practice  of  raising  needflre  in  cases  of  calamity,  particalariy  of^isease 
among  cattle,  ha«  Ixien  found  to  exist  amontr  most  nation^  of  tiie  Indo-European 
race.  It  ha:*  t)eeu  sup]>o<4ed  effectual  to  defeat  the  sorcery  to  which  the  disease  in 
assigned.  Wiien  the  incantation  is  taking  place^  all  the  Area  in  the  neigh borliood 
mu-^t  be  extinguished,  and  they  have  all  to  i>e  relighted  from  the  sticred  spark.  In 
vations  parts  of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  the  raising  of  needfti*e  was  practised  not 
long  ago,  and  it  is  |>erhapM  still  Inid  recourse  to  in  some  very  remote  localities.  Thn 
sacr.flce  of  a  heifer  was  thought  necessary  Xo  insure  Its  efHciency.  The  ways  of 
obtaining  fire  from  woo<l  have  been  vurionr> ;  one  i?*  i)y  an  apparatus  which  has  b<!«'u 
culled  the  ^*  ftre-ciiurn,"  a  cylinder  turuhig  on  a  p!vot,*and  furnished  with  s)K>kes,  by 
menus  of  whioh  it  is  made  to  revolve  very  ra|>idlv,  and  fire  is  generated  by  the  fric- 
tion. Fire  struck  from  met:il  has  been  supposed  not  to  |K)8siess  the  same  virtue,  and 
in  some  instances  tho  |)ersons  who  pei-fornietl  the  ceremony  were  required  to  divest 
themselves  of  any  m('U\\  which  might  be  alK)ut  them.  In  its  origin,  the  flre-churn 
was  considered  a  model  of  the  apparatns  by  which  the  fires  of  heaven  were  d-iily 
rekindled.  It  is  still  in  daily  u.-<ein  the  temples  of  tlie  Hindus.  The  same  super- 
stition was  doubtlifss  the  origin  of  the  story  of  Prometheus  (q.  v.).  See  Qriuini's 
"Deutsche  Myihologie;"  Sii|)plenient  to  Jamif son*s  ** Scottish  Dlctlomiry." 

NEEDLES  are  instruments  of  met^il,  or  other  material,  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
ing tlie  thread  In  sewing,  embrold-ry,  knitting,  netthig,  and  other  similar  optf  rations. 
Tiiey  are  guueraily  made  of   metal,  bat  bone,  ivory,  and  wood   are  also  used ; 


y  Google. 


for  ordinary  needlo-work,  called  p«wlng,  tlM»y  ore  made  of  flno  efrel,  niui  iirp  |4K) 
well  kiiowu  to  nev6  dt>Mcrjptioii ;  for  oilier  kinds  of  work,  they  fire  often  innrli 
laricer  and  differently  formed,  according  to  to  the  requiremeots  of  the  work  to 
be  done.  *^ 

Needle-inaking  la  nn  important  iH'anch  of  induotflHl  art,  and  it  lias  of  lato  yenrs 
attniiied  to  extmordtnary  perfecrioiL  Small  bara  of  8teel.  uoi  thicker  than  a  good- 
hixedbrlMle,  cau  l)e  made  perfectly  ronnd,  |>oiiited  at  one  end  with  wonderfnl  ac- 
curacY,  pierced  attheotlierend  wiili  atroval  hole,  llie  aides  of  which  are  po  8inootl>ly 
roaoded  that  there  ia  no  friction  npon  the  tiir^ad,  and  the  whole  of  encli  iii»triiiuent. 
not  more  than  an  inch  in  length,  lieantifnily  polialied.  and  pold  at  loa.^  than  ti  shilling 
per  handred,  iiotwitlistandiiig  that  a  large  port  of  the  0|M'ratlonB  requirt^  in  their 
inannfactiire  are  iiiannaL  The  tint  op<>ratioii,  >ifter  the  wire  hua  been  selected,  and 
its  HiickufHs  accnrately-ganged,  ia  to  cnt  it  into  eight-feet  lengtha ;  this  \f  duiu>  by 
winding  it  in  a  coil  of  !•  feet  circnmrereiice,  and  then  cutting  this  cuil  inio  exact 
halves  with  powerful  cotiiug  aliears.  The  coiling  of  tlie  wire  is  so  maiiag<;d,  tl»it 
there  are  100  pieces  in  each  half  when  cnt ;  the  biiudle>*  of  100  wires  are  again  cut 
into  the  necessary  lengths  for  two  needles;  and  so  well  arranged  are  the  cnttliig 
shears,  that  a  man  can  easily  cnt  enongb  for  1,000,000  netdles  in  a  day  of  12  lioiiif<. 
The  pieces  cnt  from  a  coil,  although  now  ndtfced  to  the  length  of  two  (tinall 
needles,  are  nevertlu'less  somewhat  curved;  tliey  are  therefore  coJlccted  into  hnndh's 
of  abonr  60GO,  und  placed  in  two  iron  rings,  which  hold  them  loosely  together;  they 
are  then  slightly  softened  by  firing.  ai>d  are  laid  on  an  iron  plate  or  b.neh,  hihI  are 
pressed  with  a  small  curved  l>ar  in  two  or  three  positions,  by  which  the  0|>cratur 
manages  to  make  them  all  perfectly  stniigbt.  They  are  now  t  ken  to  the  grind  r, 
who  sits  in  front  of'fiis  grindstcme  ufion  a  seat  which  is  hollow,  and  forms  uit  iiir- 
shaft  open  towards  the  stone  ;  through  tiiis  a  blast  of  air  is  forced  when  the  wheel 
is  in  motion,  i^hich  carries  away  from  the  grinder  every  partxle  of  ihe  subtle  dn^t 
from  i lie  needle  iK)int8  and  the  stone.  B<^forc  this  humane  invention,  which  linn 
rendered  the  op-ration  quite  innocuons,  tlie  loss  of  life  in  this  mannfaclnre  was 
niOre  serious  tliaii  in  any  other  iudtistrial  mcupation.  The  operator,  witli  ;:ieat 
Tact,  hokis  al)0ut  Sft  of  the  wires,  by  means  of  his  thiiinb.  pressed  ngciiiiM  the  iiipido 
iff  his  flngen*,  the  wir«'S,  which  arc  held  straight  and  applied  to  the  uriiidftone,  l>eiiig 
dexterously  turned  round  on  the  iui«ide  of  tlie  hand  by  means  of  the  thumb,  in  til 
thr-y  are  ground  sharp  atone  end;  thi-y  arc  then  rcver.-e*!.  and  the  other  e-nds 
are  Fiinflarly  siinrpeued.  They  are  next  t:ikeh  to  the  rmprexttivg  inactiinc, 
wbidi  in  i)rinci|He  consists  of  a  weight  banging  to  a  block,  which  is 
raised  by  .the  band  and  let  fall  at  pleasure ;  the  wires  are  plaeetl  in 
su'-cesslon  under  this,  so  that  tlie  falling  weight  strikes  each  wire  ex- 
actly in  the  middle,  and  there  flattens  it.  The  haidiiiing  of  the  flattened  part  by 
the  blow  is  removed  In  the  annealing  own,  and  the  holes  are  next  nnnched,  two  in 
<'ach  flattened  portion.  These  are  either  done  by  hand-punches  worki'd  by  children, 
W'iiO  }icqnlre  gnait  nicety  in  the  0)>eration,  or  by  a  machine  on  the  same  principle  as 
the  impressing  machine ;  this  not  only  punches  the  two  hoK'S,  but  also  formsa  sniall 
cross-cut  between  them,  which  is  otherwise  made  by  a  fll»*.  At  this  cros^^-Cllt  the 
wire  is  br«)ken  in  two.  and  may  now  be  regarded  as  two  rudely-formed  needles,  each 
bavin?  a  flattened  and  pierced  head.  A  number  of  these  are  now  threaded  {spitted) 
on  a  thin  m  ire,  atid  are  phiced  in  a  vice,  which  holds  tliem  ftrm  and  straight,  so  that 
the  workman  can  file  the  beads  on  the  top  and  sides,  so  as  to  remove  all  the  burred 
td«:e.  The  next  process  Jh  oil  tetvpering.  for  which  tliey  an*  made  hot.  and  imiiievped 
in  snfflcient  oil  to  coat  them  thoroughly ;  the  oil  is  then  burned  off,  an  operation 
which  renders  the  needles  brittle.  They  are  then  weighed  out  into  Ioti»  of  about 
500,000  each,  and  aft<r  l>eing  shaken  so  that  they  He  sidi^by  side,  they  are  laid  on  a 
Fqnare  piece  of  strong  canvas,  and  a  quantity  of  aand  and  emery-jwiwder  being 
mixed  with  them,  they  are  conh^d  up  very  cecnrely  inio  a  long  roll,  from  IS 
inches  to  2  feet  in  l«-iigth.  A  numher  of  these  rolls  or  bundles  are  placed  on  a 
movable  wooden  slab,  in  the  scouring  machine,  and  over  them  is  placed  another 
heavily  weighted  slab.  The  action  of  the  machiiu*,  of  which  these  slabs  form  )>art, 
is  to  move  tliein  batrkwaids  and  fort^ards  in  oppo!*ite  dlrectiom*,  the  bundle's  of 
needles  acting  as  rollers,  the  pressure  umm  which  works  the  enclosed  needles,  sand, 
Ac.,  together,  so  that  after  eight  to  ten  iionrs,  which  this  ojieration  occupies,  I nsteiu I 
Of  tiie  blackened  appearance  they  had  when  it  commenced,  they  arc  white  and 


y  Google 


Negative  /«^<5 

pllvery-1  >olciii|^.  They  are  now  removed  to  an  exactly  Mrollnr  mnchlne,  where  they 
tiro  polifihud.  Ht-re  tlioy  ar«»  i>ep<trated  from  the  aaiio  and  rmtTy.  and-  are  rsimived 
to  other  canvaM  Hqutire^ :  and  wlKtu  imzed  ui»  with  a  punte  of  yuUy'fwwder  and  o!l. 
iire  Hgahi  corded  up,  aita  made  to  roll  backward-*  alid  rorwiirdtt  u<idur  the  weighted 
woodbn  ehil»  of  the  poliMhiiig  fiiaehine  for  four  lioorH  more.  The  i»ext  iiroceaa  i« 
to  remove  tlieni  from  the  canvaHf  uud  nxitate  tliem  iu  a  vewel  with  aufr-Hoap  and 
water,  to  remove  the  oil  and  patty >|iowd<?r.  and  next  to  dry  them  in  aMi-v^^ood  auw- 
duHt.  Tli(«y  are  now  hi,'hly  polished  and  well  ieiu|M're<l,  hnt  not  all  of  ezm-tiy  tlie 
pame  lengtli,  nor  are  tlie  eyee  poi-fect ;  thoy  are  tlierefore  pansed  to  a  iM-ruon  wlio, 
by  u\w.  management  of  a  small  gange,  porta  them  verv  qnickly  into  certain  lengtlta 
(eoening),  ^iid  arrangea  them  all  lu  oni;  directiuii  {keadv^).  'J  hey  tiien  pneo  ou  to 
I) :  <lnlh)fl,  ail  op^TaiJou  requiring  great  nicely,  us  the  vinall  oval  bolca  have  to  he  no 
imliAhed  all  round,  ap  n<»t  to  cause  any  friction  on  the  ttircad  in  seizing  with  tliem; 
a  clever  workman  will  drill  and  polinh  the  h(»lesii  of  70,U00  tiendles  p«*  week.  The 
ne  -die  i^  now  practfoilly  fiuishjo,  hnt  many  minor  oper  tiona  are  considered  mcee- 
Mry  to  produce  liigh-fluinh ;  theao  we  pun>ot#«ly  omit,  lo  avoid  complicating  our 
dencrfprion.  It  ia.  howeyer,  wortliv  of  renuirl^.  ilntt  this  little  inptrnmeur,  which 
coKtj*  ao  nmch  labor  for  ita  formation,  ha«  by  llnfie  operatioiin  acquired  imnieuae 
vnlnti.  'Hie  wire  of  which  the  ordiuary-Hiz  (t  needlea  are  made  w  po  thin,  that  A^ 
pounds  go  to  form  74,000  needles.  Of  ordinnryHBieed  ne«-dles,  2)^  niilHom'  weigh  S 
c\vr«,  and  are  worth  rutiier  more  than  £200,  although  the  Ptt^l  win*  ot  which  they 
wer<i  nnide  was  oulv  worth  £IA  at  the  coinni'-ncement  of  the  nmnnfacturc.  Bnglmli- 
nindt;  nt^dien are  the  best  iu  the  world,  and  are  ihiefly  made  in  Ri*d<liteh  and  the 
n<M<;hlK>rhoo(l,  where,  aiid  in  otJier  parts  of  the  county  of  Worcester,  this  luauv- 
fucture  employ**  a  lai-ge  numbi^.r  of  iieraons. 

NEBUU'CH.  or  Nimac'i,  a  town  of  In<lla,  !n  the  territory  of  fiwaPor,  (q  v.>, 
n  'ar  the  nonh-wefterH  lionler  of  Ma'wa.  820  miles  soutli-wesr  from  Ddiii,  on  a 
^  ightly-elevai«d  ridge  rising  from  a  we.l-cnltlv.ited  plain  If  in  1476  feet  al>ov«'  the 
se:u  'ilie  native  population  of  the  town  is  only  about  4000 :  hnt  N.  has  aeqnirfd 
importance o  I  accoairt.  of  a  Briti!*h  cantonment  «stahlished  here  in  1817.  Priiir  to 
the  sepoy  mutiny  of  1851— 1859,  the  officer •>' qmirters  coin|Hri8<!d  al>out  80  bungalows, 
t><matifully  situated  among  trarduns;  but  all*  exeept  a  single  bungalow,  were 
d  !}4troyed  in  1857  by  the  mutineers,  who  massacre<l  the  Enropeaus,  and  kept  pos- 
session of  the  fort  for  some  time,  till  it  was  captured  by  Brigadier  6tuartf>if tor  a 
siege  of  fourtmm  days.  Th^  situation  of  N<  is  regardtnl  as  one  of  the  most  healthy 
in  India;  the  climate  is  agreeable,  the  nigiiti*  cooreveu  in  theboiseasou,  ilie  winter 
sohlom  so  cold  as  to  make  flres  reqiitnite,  and  frobt  very  rare. 

NKBM-TREE.    8ee  Meuacejs. 

NEE'RWINDEN,  a  small  village  of  B«'lsrlnm,  in  the  north-west  corner  of  the 
proviuc.'.of  Liege,  is  celebrated  inhi-to-y  for  the  gnat  victory  gained  by  the  Fren«h 
umU'.r  Luxembourg*  ov.r  the  English  und-r  William  III.  (29tirjuly  1^3} ;  and  also 
fmihe  defeat  ot  the  French  uM  r  Daniourics  by  tlic  allies  under  the  Prince  of 
Cobarg  (I8th  March  1793). 

NB  EXEAT  REGNO  is  the  title  of  a  writ  issued  by  the  Court  of  Clianc^ry  to 
))revent  an  individual  from  leaving  tiie  kingdom,  nnlens  he  gives  security  to  abule  a 
dj<"ree  of  that  court  The  writ  w»s  orh^mally  resorted  to  iu  c:ises  of  attempta 
agiinst  the  safety  of  the  sfafe,  but  i»  now  is.«<ued  in  cases  where  an  equitable  debt  or 
dinand  is  sought  to  l>e  substantiated  l)y  a  bill  or  proceeding  in  Oiiancery.  The 
writ,  is  only  grantedwhere  the  party  usually  n*s{des  within  t  lie  jurisdiction.  It 
res*'ml>l(ts  t  le  proc  'ss  wiii(4l  Is  known  in  the  common- law-courts  us  arresting  and 
holding  to  bail,  and  in  Seotlaiid  as  arresting  a  persoii  in  rtuS^itaiitme  ftitfCB, 

NBCIAPA'PA'M,  a  town  of  BHiisb  India,  in  the  pra«*idency  of  Madms»  and  district 
of'Tanjore,  124  miles  south-soul h-vve8t  from  Madras,  on  a  small  estuary  ol  one  i»f 
the  mauy  snuill  soutiiern  mouths  of  the  Canvery.  The  manufacture  of  cotton  and 
silk  fabrics  was,  in  forni'-r  times,  extensively  carried  oti  here,  but  hj>8  g»*eatlydtv 
dined  in  consequence  of  tlie  cheapness  of  British  goods.  A  chief  biancli  of  Indus* 
try  is  the  expression  of  oil  from  the  cocoa-nut  and  front  oil-?»efd8.  There  is  a  con- 
siderable t.raile  witli  C'-ylou.  The  harbor  is  suited  only  tor  stuall  cossting-vesRi-lH; 
but  muasurus  arc  iu  progress  for  Its  iiuin'ovemeut.    N.  is  a  tenuiuus  of  the  Grvuft 


y  Google 


1  ^Q  Neemach 

SotitberQ  Kailway  of  India.    It  woe  the  cnpilal  of  the  Dutch  pOMessions  iu  luditt, 
but  was  takeu  by  the  BriUsh  iu  1T81.    Poi'.  (I8T1}  43,526. 

NR'GATIVE,  in  Photography,  i«  thnt  kind  of  pholo?rnphlc  pictnre  In  which  the 

lights  and  ebadowH  of  the  niitnnil  obj'.:ct  are  tmui*|»0M^d ;  tl«c  liijjli  ligiits*  IveUm  bl;ick, 

and  tlie  deep  pliadows  transparent,'  or  nenrly  ko.    Negatives  are  taken  on  gl  .m 

.   and  paper  by  various  processep,  and  shonld  iudi-ute  with  «'Xtren»e  delifticy,  and  i»i 

. ,  r.vHvsie  order,  tiie  various  irradations  of  light  and  shade  whici  occur  in  a  hindeoiixj 

or  iK)rirait.    A  negative  differs  from  a  po*'iiive  innt>ninch  a:»  ni  tlie  latter  case  it  in 

•  \ieqnirfd  to  prmluce  a  deposit  of  pure  metallic  silver  to  l>e  viewed  by  rejleetcd  Hjjiil ; 

while  in  the  latter,  densiry  to  transviitted  lifht  is  the  cidef  desideratum ;  according:!/ 

iiiorsrnnic  re<lucing  and  retarding  agents  are  employed  in  the  development  of  a 

jwisidve,  while  thos»e  of  oi*j;auic  origni  are  used  in  the  production  of  a  negative. 

Adoptinir  the  collodion  process  (which  ha**  almost  comphstely  rei>laced  every  other) 

U8  a  tyjK?  of  the  rest,  the  condUions  bestiula|>t<  d  for  M^curing  a  good  negative  may 

Im*  briefly  indicated,  leaving  it  to  the  reader  to  apply  the  priuciplca  iuvolvcd  to  any 

process  he  may  desire  to  practice. 

The  possession  of  a  g(X)d  leus  and  camera  bein?  takeji  for  granted,  and  favomblo 
conditions  of  weH-directcfl  light  being  secured,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  establish  a 
proper  and  harmouions  relation  between  the  collodi.in  bath,  deveio|)er,  and  time  of 
exposure.  A  recently-iodised  collodion  will  generally  be  tolerably  neutral,  in  which 
cai«.  if  the  developer  l>e  at  all  >-t«ong,  and  the  weather  warm,  the  bath  should  be  de- 
cidedly acid,  or  fogging  will  bo  the  result  Should  the  collodion,  however,  l)e  re<l 
with  free  iodine,  a  mere  tra<-eof  acid  iu  the  bath  will  rnffiee,  while  the  develonment 
may  be  much  (H-oionged,  even  in  waru»  weather,  without  fo^rging.  If  the  simple  fact 
be  boiTie  iu  mind  that  the  presence  of  acid,  eilher  in  the  bath  c()l!odion  or  devil(;p<^r, 
retards  the  reducing  action  of  the  developer,  it  wiU  suffice  to  guide,  the  opevj«tor  iu 
many  difBcultiej*.  The  value  of  a  negative  consists  in  the  power  It'gives  of  uiulti> 
plying  positive  proofs.    See  Positive  Printing  ;  also  Photoorapuy. 

NEGATIVE  QUANTITIES  are  generally  defined  as  quantities  the  opposite  of 
••  positive "  or  "niim«.ric:»l"  qmmtities,  and  form  the  flret  and  gi-ear  point  of  dii- 
fcreiice  between  algebra  as  a  separate  science,  and  arithmetic.  In  the  oidist  tre:> 
tiscs  pn  algebra  they  are  rucoffni«;d  as  distinct  nnnliflcaiious  of  quantity,  and  exist- 
ing apart  from,  and  inde])endeiit  of  ]>Oi<itive  quantity.  In  later  times,  thit^ opinion 
was idgoi-onsSy  combated  by  many  mathematicians,  amonij  whom  Vieta  occupied  a 
prominent  idnce ;  but  the  ntore  eminent  analysts  rettiined  the  old  opinion.  Newton 
and  Enler  distinctly  assert  the  existence  of  negative  quantities  as  quantities  less 
than  zero,  and  the  latter  8uppoi*t«.  his  opiniou  by  tiie  well-known  illustration  of  a 
man  who  has  no  property,  and  is  £50  in  debt.,  to  whom  £50  rc(inireB  to  be  given  in 
order  that  he  niay  have  nothing.  After  ail,  this  discussion  is  little  more  than  a  ver- 
bal quibble,  though  intereisting  from  the  prominent  position  it  for  a  long  time  held. 
It  had  its  ri.-e  in  the  difflcnlty  of  satisfying  the  requirements  of  a  constantly  pro- 
gressinir  science  by  the  use  of  signs  and  forms  retaining  their  original  limited  sig- 
nifiiatiou.  It  was  soon  felt  that  the  limited  interpretatiou  must  1m;  given  up;  and 
accordingly  an  extension  of  signitlcaiiou  was  allowed  to  signs  and  modes  of  opera- 
tion. +  aud  — ^,  which  were  formerly  considered  as  merely  symbols  of  the  aritli- 
luetical  operations  of  addition  and  subtraction,  were  now  considei*ed  as  "general 
cumulative  symbols,  the  reverse  of  each  other,"  and  could  signify  cam  and 
loss,  npwai-ds  and  downwards,  risht  an<l  left,  same  and  oppO!*ite,  to  and  from,  Ac. 
Applying  this  extended  int^erpretation  of  sicns  to  a  quantity  such  as  —  4,  we  obtain  at 
once  a  true  ideii  of  a  negative  quantity;  lor  if  +  4  signifies  4  inches  above  a 
C(-rt4iiu  level,  — 4  signifies  4  inches  below  that  level,  and  therefore,  thongli  a  posit ivo 
quautity  in  itself  (a  negative  being,  strictly  speakings  an  impossible  existence),  ii 
liiny  l)e  fairly  considered  to  be  less  than  zero,  as  it  expresses  u  quantity  less  by-L 
than  0  inches  libove  the  level.  Keeping  this  id^a  in  view,  it  has  been  conventionally 
agreed  to  admit  the  exiv^tence  of  negative  qualities  as  existing  jMir  se.  The  oidy 
vrrorss  which  can  flow  from  this  aiise  from  inisinterpretaiion  of  results  for  the  four 
fnndiniciital  operations  of  addition,  subtraction,  multiplica1»on,  and  division  aro 
unaffected  by  the  extended  interpretation  of  signs.  The  following  is  an  illusi ration 
of  the  value  of  an  extended  Intenjrctation  of  the  negative  Sign,  sliewing  at  the  same  * 
tluie  how  niuch  more  general  are  the  idaus  conveyed  by  algebraic  oxprcesious  than 

U.  K.,  x.«ft. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


^T^s:  .  160 

by  ordinary  lani^tiajro :  If  at  Ihe  prt^sent  time  a  father  is  50  yenrsVanrl  1»i5  son  fO 
years  old,  wlicn  will  ilio  fntber  be  tljroH  limes  ne  old  a«  his  so  •.  -  This  pro»>ciii, 
when  solved,  givt-r*  —  5  as  the  unmber  of  years  which  must  eiapiw  l)€forf  the  father's 
a.i?!i  is  ihive  times  the  hoii'.-.  Now,  at  first  sight,  tiiis  re>uU  api>e;lrs  to  b<»  ab."^rd. 
bill  when  we  CO). aider  the  t  ;rms  of  tlie  problem,  \t*  explnuation  iis»  ea^'y.  Tb«'  qii'*5- 
tioii  ;isked  p'>iiitt'<l  to  a  luimhtir  of  years  lo  cin»«,  and  liiid  llici-esuit  tuincd  out  to  be 
positicey  HHCIi  would  h;iv.;  been  tlic  case,  and  I  lie  fact  of  its  l^'injj  negative  din-cis  na 
to  look  in  a**  contrary"  dir.ctioii,  or  backwards  to  time  past;  and  this  is  found 
to  scJtisfv  iho  prohleui,  as  5  year:*  •'  ago  "  the  father  was  45  and  ids  son  15. 

Nsjjalive  quantities  iiri.so  our,  of  Um  ns-;  of  jreueral  symbols  in  aubtraction,  as  in 
the  formula  a  —  &,  where  we  may  afterwards  find  that  b  is  greater  than  a.  See  Sub- 
traction. ,  . 

NEGRl'TOS,  or  Nogrnioa  (Spanish,  diminutive  of  Negroes)^  ts  the  name  given 
by  the  Spaniards  to  certiiin  negro-liUj  tri^uis  inha>>itii)^  tUt:  inleribr  of  some  of  the 
riiilfijpine  Inlnndri,  an<l  differing  essentially  botb  in  featmes  and  manners  from  tho 
Malay  inhabliants  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  'J'hey  buar  a  very  strous^  ywuMii- 
blanceto  Ihe  ne^jrotis  of  Guinea,  but  are  mncii  smalliT  in  j«tzft,  averjigius  hi  hfiglit 
not  more  than  four  feet  eight  inches*,  whence  their  ap?)ellation  of  N.,  or  Ktile 
Neg[nie:».  They  are  also  called  by  t!ie  Spaniards  Acflmfos  dW  Mtmtts  from  I  heir  iu- 
hH!)iring  the  moniitahtons  di-tricta  for  the  most  part;  and  one  of  tlie  islands  where 
tit-y  are  mo:*t  nnmerou!*,  bears  the  name  of  Ma  de  loiNtgros.  Tlieee  N.  i»realeo 
known  by  the  names  Aeta,  Aiirta,  Ite,  Inapra.  and  Igolote  or  Igorore-  'Jh^y  are  de- 
scribed as  a  si K)rt,  small,  but  well-made  and  active  peoide.  the  lower  part  of  tlie 
frtce  proj  'Ctnig  like  that  of  ti»e  African  Negrowa,  the  hair  either  woivlly  or  frizzed, 
«nd  the  coraoh-xlon  «x(ie  :dlngly  d«rk.  if  not  quite  so  black  as  that  qf  thel^egroes. 
'J'h«? Spaniards dtwcribe ti»em as Kss Wack and  nmch le!»8  ngiy  than  the ne^ztOfS^-i/CTiot 
2ierjros  y  nienosfeoa.  All  writers  concur  in  sp-mkinj^  of  ihem  us  sunk  m  tlie  lowest 
depths  of  savageilom.  wandering  in  the  woods  and  monnt.nins  without  «nv  fixe<l 
tlweilijigs,  and  witli  only  a  strip  of  birU  to  cover  their  uakrdnpss.  Tht-ir  only 
weapous  Jirrt  the  bow  nud  arrow*  and  tlK-y  live  upon  ruois,  wild  fruits,  and  nuy 
sort  of  animals  that  they  can  surprise  in  their  haunts,  or  conquer  in  the  chase. 
By  the  Malays,  they  are  displsrd  ^«  1  hatvid;  aud  ih?  bjifaTo-hnntei'S  in  Urn 
woods,  when  they  meet  with  ihem,  do  not  scruple  to  shoot  them  doAvn  like  wild 
beasts  or  «;aine.  '*  It  nas  not  com'»  to  my  knowledg  ■,"  !-a.vs  a  Spanish  writer,  "that 
«  f  imily  of  ih«;se  NegroiS  ever  took  np  their  -.bode  in  a  village.  If  the  Mo5)amnji»* 
dan  inha'>l:ants  mtUjtj  slave"  of  lhen>,  they  will  rather  submit  to  be  bwtten  to  death 

*    " ....  "  "^  either  by  force  or  j)en»na-i6n, 

lastlc,  hpeaks*  of  thiin  as pente 
If  can>e  in  coniact  with  ihe;u> ; 
and  although  informed  that  sou'ie  of  thfui  were  cinnii^ais,  he  wa.<  not  inclin  d  to 
bi'liisVivtheH'ejwrt.  BrCart  8ch  Tzar,  the  historian  of  the  circnmnavlgatiou  of  t)jo 
Movara,  when  at  Manilla,  had  an  opportunity  of  }»e»;ing  a  Nogrlta  girl  whom  he  ihns 
de-crlbe-* :  *"This  was  a  girl  of  a'jont  twelve  or  fourteen  years  of  age.  of  dwarf-lfke 
fiiOire,  with  woolly  hair,  hroad  no<ftrils,  but  without  the  dark  skin  and  wide  «  verted 
lips  which  characterise  the  Ni'jrro  tyt»e.  'J'his  pleasing-looking,  symmetrically- 
fornu'd  ^irl  had  bisen  bnnigbt  up  in  the  hons^  or  a  Spaniard,  app.-irefitly  with  the 
pious  ol^jct  of  rescuing  her  foul  from  heathenism.  Tlut  poor  little  Negrilla  hardly 
und  rstood  her  own  niother-tougue,  bi'sides  a  very  little  Tagal,  fO  thatwe  had  cou- 

•  Bidi-rable  diflicnliy  in  nn<ler<ta»Khng  each  other." 

i  According  lo  Soanifh  statemtMits,  :h«  N.  are  found  only  in  five  of  the  Philippine 
Islands.— naui-lv,  Luzon,  Mindofo.  P  ma y.  Negi-03.  and  Mindanao— and  are  t^siun- 
ated  at  about  25  000  souls.  Kemnants  of  them  exl:-t,  howewr,  in  the  interior  of 
pome  of  the  other  island.-*  in  the  ICastern  Areiiip<lttgo  :  and  they  ar  •  8catt«n'd,  also, 
though  in  small  numbers,  through  certain  islaude  of  Polynesia.  T»iey  are  alto^^tlnr 
an  island  p -ople,  and  are  iienix-  ireated  of  hy  Pricliard  under  the' designation  of 
J'elatjian  Ncffro  s.  By  l)r  Pickering  thev  are  treated  of  as  a  distinct  race,  resemhiiug 
tin;  Papuan,  but  differing  frous  It  in  the  diminutive  srature,  the  gtMmjjil-ahSKtR't^  of  u 
beani,  jiK!  nroj»H:iiug  nt  tne  lower  part  of  the  face  or  the  incline^!  profile,  andtrte 

■  er  igverated  Ni-uro  fi'ai  nn^.  Ttns  hair,  al?'0.  is  more  M-oolly  than  that  of  the  Papuans, 
thou'/h  far  froin  f*q!uilllng  that  of  the  N<gr<>e*.?n  kiujtty  clo.-'enrys.     Ky  Latham^hd 

K.  ai'O  cluosiJied  uuder  tho  i»abdiviaIuQ  of  '^  Oceanic  Mongolids,  C>"  wliich  eiibalvt^ 


than  undei^  any  boddy  fatigue,  and  it  is  iu>po3sible^  either  by  force  or  j)en»na-i6n, 
to  bring  them  to  labor."  The  same  writer,  nn  ecclesiastic,  speak?  of  thiin  as  gentls 
and  Inoifenslve  in  thtir  mannerr*,  whenever  he  himsilf  cau>e  in  coniact  with  lhe;u> ; 


yGopgle 


161  Negroe* 

flon  Is  fntllier  modfiled  by  him  Into  the  de^fenttfon  of  **Ainnhlnef»l»08»»  and 
*♦  KetoBuoueHlaiis."  The  N.  out  of  tlie  Pliiilppiiie  ts):uid:»  nn-  fo-M.d  tor  the  m(»»t  part 
111  thu  ishuifis  embracca  niiJer  the  hitter  desigiiutioii,  u«Ni'W  Qiiliu-ji,  Now  In'!a!  d. 
Solomou'8  WcH,  Loui««inri»',  New  CnL*(lonhi,  and  Tmsiujujui  or  V;in  D  eim  n'i  Laid. 
Excci>t  in  the  hi.-t-u»i  nt!0Mf<l  i.-laud,  however,  th^  N.  strictly  j»iKjakiiij?—ihnt  Ir,  tln» 
hhickif»h  ptople  wiili  wnoHy  hair — do  not  prepoudenit*  ovi r  the  other  nniive  irii'es 
le:»s  t«trouirlv  nuirk<-<l  with  Ne;jro  (en'ures»;  while  in  Tafuuiiiin  itnilf,  th<'  rare  luw 
tthnot't  cnfmlv  d'.pjippe.ired,  nmoniint?  ut  prentut  to  not  more  tliun  two  or  ti.n*o 
dozt'u  Honlj*.  t)v  Pii  kerhijr  if  of  (jpiuion,  that  the  Nejrriio  ruce  **  onc«*  occnpk'd  moro 
Ppnct!  than  it  dojus  at  tiiit*  time,  and  that  u  has*  in  many  intjiamcj*  i»r«T'  ded  ilie  di-^- 
P'minution  of  other r.icep."  Wt-  con«  hide  wiih  a  de>rrlptlon  ot  a  N«irrito  iiMtiv*-  of 
BrromnD^o  (tluj  inland  winre  the  miiiBionai-jr  Williainp  was*  mimU-re*!),  enppMrd  to 
Dr  Plckeriiig  hy  Horatio  Halep,  hit^  ass'ficlat''  in  liie  United  Stated  explorii  g  exepdi- 
tion.  *•  He  w.u»  above  five  feet  hijjh,"  pays  Mr  Halec,  " slend'  r  and  long  lindnd  ;  he 
bad  C40f«e  woolly  liair,  and  retrt* atin^;  archid  forehead,  pbort  and  sciinty  eyt:brow9,  and 
BniaU  pnnb  dom,  thick  i{i>a  (cfijecially  the  npi)er),  a  rctretiiiiii:  cidn.  and  tlnit  projec> 
tion  of  the  jawd  and  lower  part  of  the  face,  which  is  one  of  the  distinctive  character- 

istica  of  tlitf  N'^ro  ract Plicitd  iu  a  crowd  of  African  b'ack<s  there  waa 

nothing  al)ont  him  by  which  be  could  have  been  diatingaiabed  from  the  reat."  8co 
Pafuanb  and  Poltnesiass. 

NE'GUO,Rio.    »ee  Hid  Niaiio. 

NEGRO  MINSTRELSY,  a  pncclcs  of  finging  which  orldnnted  nmoniif  the  nejrro 
filavcK  of  the  United  States,  and  is  now  popular  at  piil>lic  entertainments.  The  Si-n* 
timeut  of  tb(^  earlier  of  tbc^e  negro  nielodiet*  was  of  the  mo^t  slntplu  kind,  tlic  words 
niOHtly  broken  En^lisii,  and  the  barmoniet*  confined  chit-fly  totwocbords—'tho  tonic 
and  dominant  How  the  airs  were  composed  has  been  a  matter  of  curious  inquiry. 
Some  of  tlicm  nre  believed  to  l>e  broken  down  and  otherwise  altered  old  psului  innes, 
which  had  i>ecii  cunght  up  by  the  more  musical  of  the  ne^ro  race.  In  some  instan- 
ce^, the  singing  of  the  melodies  is  accompanied  wiili  grotefqac  geytores ;  iht  effect 
bting  to  give  the  idea  of  good-tiatnre  and  love  of  fun  in  the  dark-skinned  minsirels. 
STegro  roelotliei*  may  l)c  aaid  to  iiave  b-eii  made  known  by  Mr  D.  Kice,  who  first  in 
I7<;w  Yoikf  iu  1891/ and  ufterwards  in  London,  created  a  Sensation  by  his  singint;  of 
**Jim  Crow."  Otiier  son«;s  fullo»ed,  such  as  '* Jim  along  Josey."  and  "Buffalo 
Onis;"  and'from  lo!«s  to  more,  there  was  created  a  very  cb.iracteristic4llT  national 
nin-ic,  if  the  Americans  will  allow  ns'to  call  it  so.  Becoming  extensively  pop  Inr 
and  addressed  to  fashionable  sudiences,  this  negro  nTiii.«irelsv  now  comprelnuds  a 
large  I'ariety  of  rongs,  with  airs  of  a  pleasing  kind,  the  wlioje  mncli  iu  advame  of 
the  original  negro  compositions.  For  these  improvements,  the  world  ie  iiidehi«d, 
among  oiiicn'f  to  Mr  B.  P.  Chrif>iy,  wlio  began  a«  conductor  of  a  lamd  of  minstrels  at 
Buffalo  hi  1842,  and  who  established  himself  iu  New  Toik  iu  1846.  At  first,  hia 
troupe  were  called  tlie  **  Virginia  Minstrels,"  Init  afterwards  they  wire  known  as  iho 
"Christy  Minstrels.**  Mr  Chrisiy's  grvat  surces*  in  this  species  of  enterijiinmcnt 
brought  otiier  leaders  and  troupes  icfo  the  field.  In  moat  ca^es.  the  niembirs  of 
the  negro  minstrel  tronjNS  arc  orwv  negroes  in  name,  with  faces  nud  hands  black- 
ened for  t  lie  purnoflc.  Sec  **  Ciiri!*ty*s  Miuatrela' New  Songs,  with  Music,"  edited 
by  J.  Wade ;  and  otiier  similar  collections. 

NEGROES  (from  the  Snanisb  word  negro,  black ;  Lnt.  niger)  is  the  nnme  given 
to  a  CQUHiderahle  hnrach  vt  the  Iiaman  family,  possessing  certidn  physiad  ehar- 
ucterisMc:*,  which  d'atirguish  it  In  a  very  marked  degree  from  tiie  ottier  branchea 
or  varieties  of  n-.anWn<i--more  especially  the  po-calie<l  whites  or  Euif)))eans.  In 
Blameiib:icli'9  fivi'fold  division  of  mankind,  the  Negroes  occu])y  the  first  idace  nnder 
tlieTuriety  J^hiopiatt^  which  likewise  embraces  the  Kafirs,  Hottentots,  An-«traliuns. 
Alforiaus,  and  Oceanic  Negroes.  In  Latham's  threefold  dlvisl'^'n,  they  are  placed 
among  tlie  AtUvnlidm.  and  form  the  niiinory  suMi vision  of  Negro  AtlantidcB  iu 
that  anthor'a  cla-siflcation ;  while  in  PlekiVing's  elevenfold  division,  they  occupy 
the  last  place  iu  his  en  n  me  rat  ion  of  tlie  races  of  mankind. 

Botli  PrUchard  and  Latliain  strongly  protest  against  tlie  common  error  of  look- 
ing Mon  tbe^^erra  Negro  us  synonvmous  wiiU  African.  "It  onght  to  be  ro- 
lOemMred,"  says  tlie  former,  "^  that  the  word  Negro  is  not  a  r.atjona  oi^lie  latlon, 
bot  danotea  the  ideal  type  couatituted  by  the  aaaembluge  of  certaip^hysical  char 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ftcteri«tlc«,  wlilcli  \»  exemplHlM  In  the  natives  of  OoIiM^  In  Western  Africa,  and  In 
their  descendants  In  America  and  the  West  Iitdiefl."  And  Latham  hi  like  munuur 
obsei-ves :  '*  No  fact  is  more  ueceesary  to  ]>e  remember(>d.  than  the  diflfereuce  be- 
tween the  Negro  and  African ;  a  fact  whicli  is  well  verified  by  reference  to  rtie 
map.  Here  the  trne  Ne<^ro  area— tlie  area  occupied  by  men  of  the  black  skin, 
thick  Up.  depressed  nose,-  and  woolly  hair— Is  erceedingly  small ;  as  small  in  pro- 
portion 10  the  rest  of  the  continent,  as  the  area  of  the  district  of  tlie  stunted  Hyper- 
boreans is  in  Asia,  or  thnt  of  the  Laps  in  Buroi)e.  Without  goint;  so  far  as  to  main-  i 
ialu  that  a  dark  complexion  is  the  exception  ntther  than  the  rnle  in  Africa,  it  mny  \ 
safely  be  said  that  the  hue  of  the  Arab,  the  Ind^n,  and  the  Australian  is  the  preva- 
lent color.  To  realise  this  we  may  aslc.  what  are  the  true  Negro  districts  ?  and 
what  those  other  than  Negro?  To  the  former  belong  the  valleys  of  the  Senegal, 
the  Gambia,  the  Niger,  and  the  Intermediate  rivere  of  the  co:i8t,  parts  of  Sndanid, 
and  parts  about  Sennaar,  Kordofan,  and  Dai-ffir ;  to  the  latter,  ii»e  whole  coast  of 
tht!  Medllerr.niean,  the  Desert,  the  wliole  of  the  B^afir  and  Hottentot  areas  sontJi  of 
the  line,  Abyssinia,  and  the  Middle  and  Lower  Nile.  Tliis  leaves  but  little  for  the 
typfcal  Negro."  Bearing  in  mind  this  limitation  of  the  primitive  area  of  tlic  Negro, 
M'e  »*hnll  next  proceed  to  Speak  Of  his  prominent  phvsiail  cliaractei  istics. 

The  Nfgro  has  a  black  skin,  unctuons  and  softr;  woolly  hair;  thick  lips;  the 
lower  part  of  tlie  face  prognathic,  or  projecting  like  a  muzzle:  the  skull  long  and 
narrow;  and  a  low,  reireuiing  forehead.  The  skull  of  the  Negro  is  remarkably 
solid  and  thick,  so  that  in  ftifhting  tliey  often  butt  apiinst  each  other  lilc<*.  ram;*, 
without  mnch  damage  to  either  combatant;  and  it  is  likewise  so  flat  that  biii  dens 
are  easily  carried  npou  it  According  to  Camp»ir'8  lateml  adnieasuremeut,  tlie  head 
of  the  Negro  shows  an  angle  of  70<3,  while  thnt  of  the  European  shews  one  of  SQo,  on 
which  difference  of  10<^,  as  be  considered,  deiicnds  the  superior  beauty  of  the  latter. 
There  is  not  much  de|)endence,  however,  to  f>e  placed  on  such  a  mode  of  admeasure- 
went ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Blumenbaclrs  vertical  method.  According  to  this, 
a  considerable  difference  would  appear  to  exist  between  the  skull  of  tiie  Negro  and 
that  of  the  Euroj»ean.  **  But,"  says  Dr  Prichard,  "  I  have  carefully  examined  th« 
situation  of  the  foramen  magnum  in  many  Negro  skulls ;  in  all  of  them  its  position 
may  be  accurately  described  as  beine  exactly  behiud  the  transverse  line  bisectins 
the  antero-posterlor  diameter  of  the  oasis  cranil.  This  is  precisely  the  place  which 
Owen  has  i>ointed  out  as  the  general  position  of  the  occipital  hole  In  the  human 
skull.  In  those  Negro  skulls  which  have  the  alveolar  process  s'ery  protul>erant,  the 
anterior  half  of  the  line  above  described  is  lengthened  in  a  slight  degree  Xiiy  this  cir- 
cumstiince.  If  allowance  is  made  for  It,  no  differenctf  is  perceptible.  Tlie  difference 
is  in  all  instances  extremely  slight ;  and  it  Is  equally  jjerceptlble  In  heads  l)elonging 
to  other  races  of  men,  If  we  examine  crania  which  have  ])rominent  upper  jaws.  If  a 
line  Is  let  fall  from  the  summit  of  the  head  at  riyht  angles  with  the  pluue 
of  the  basis,  the  occipiuti  foramen  will  be  found  to  l>e  sitaatcd  imme- 
diately behind  it ;  and  this  is  precisely  the  case  in  Negro  and  Euro- 
pean headH«."  There  is,  In  fact,  neither  in  this  respect— the  cOMformatiou 
of  the  Negro  skull— nor  in  any  other,  solid  ground  for  the  opinion  ha»- 
arded  by  smne  writers,  ^nd  supported  either  through  Ignorance  or  from  inter- 
ested purposes,  by  many  persons— that  the  Negro  forms  a  coiniecting  link  betweeti 
the  higher  order  of  npes  and  the  rest  of  mankind.  The  difference  is  cert  »lnly  c<m- 
sideraole  between  the  highest  European  and  the  tj'pical  Negro,  but  the  gulf  bi*tween 
them  both  and  the  highest  of  the  Simiee  is  so  nearly  of  the  same  width,  that,  the 
difference  Is  scarcely  distinguishable.  But  the  skin,  hair,  skull,  lips,  maxillarv 
profile,  an*general  facial  appewance  of  the  Negro,  are  not  the  only  features  that 
distinguish  hiniiu  a  great  degree  from  the  Europ»*an,  and  seem  to  sbimp  hin»  us  a 
distinct  variety  of  the  human  race.  "  In  the  Negro.*'  says  Prichard,  •*  the  lionus  of 
tint  legs  are  bent  outwards.  Soemmering  and  Lawrence  have  observed  chat  the 
tii)ia  and  fibula  in  the  Negro  are  more  convex  in  front  than  hi  Euro))emis;  tht* 
calves  of  the  legs  are  very  high,  so  as  to  encroach  npou  tlie  hams:  the  feet 
and  hands,  but  particularly  ihe  former,  are  flat;  and  the  os  calcis,  instt^d  of 
b.'ing  arched.  Is  continued  netirly  In  a  straight  line  with  the  other  bones 
of  the  foot,  which  is  remarkably  broad.**  As  to  the  supposed  excessive  lengtJi  of 
llie  forearm  in  the  Negro,  a  circumstance  also  dwelt  upon  as  shewing  :m 
'^ppiotich    to  the    authroi)oid    apes,   facts    are  altogether,  vtigainst    jLbe  btate^ 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


168  tfagtoe^ 

incnr;  thisre"  being  no  greater  cTiff|»reiioe  than  la  observable  In  l-.clIvMnf?ls 
of  faiy  other  variety  of  mankind.  KfMutirrc,  tJie  N^»gl  o  is  very  iiincli  on  a  par  uirU 
the  Eiiro^iean,  often  reachfnj?  sir  fc-et,  mid  nirely  d  -cllnlnK  below  five  and  a  half. 
Into  tUe discnPBiou  as  to  the  canse  ofthe  bhicknes.n  of  the  pkiu  In  Hie  Nc^io  we  have 
not  sfKice  to  enter.  It  is  generally  pnpp0!«ed  to  depend  npon  the  greater  anumnt 
of  pi^inont  eel  1^  !n  the  Bete  3fahHgkn\  and  in  the  greater  nnnibcr  of  cutanewn?  gliind-, 
as  compared  with  the  Pkfu  of  Enropeans..  In  the  skiu  of  the  Negro  there  In  nnich  oily 
matter,  and  l»«  perspires  pmfupefy,  which  serves  to  keep  min  in  heakh,  while  it 
diffn!»es  a  pmell  far  from  agieeable  to  bvptanderM  whose  olfactory  nerves  are  at  all 
sensitive.  Of  the  hair  of  the  Ni^ro,  Dr  t*ritchai"d  remarks:  *' I  am  convinced  that 
tlie  Negro  has  hair  properly  so-calletl,  and  not  Wool.  One  differeiice  bctwetn  tl.o 
hair  of  a  Negro  and  taat  of  a  European,  consists  in  the  more  curled  and  frizzled 
condition  of  the  former.  This,  however,  is  only  a  difference  In  the  degree  of  crispn- 
tiou,  some  European  hair  l)ein«j  likewise  verp  crisp.  Another  dltterencc  is  the 
greater  quantity  of  coloring  matter  or  pigment  in  the  hair  of  the  Negro.  It  is  very 
probuble  that  this  quality  is  connected  with  the  former,  and  is  its  causae,  though  wo 
cannot  detemine  in  what  manner  one  depends  upon  another  ;  bnt  as  these  proper- 
tics  vary  simnitmeously.  and  are  hi  proportion  one  to  tuiother,  we  may  inu-r  that 
tuev  do  not  depetid  upon  iii(le|)en.dent  causes." 

I'he  Nei:roei»,  in  their  nativ<'  seat,  comprjse  various  Indrnondent  tribes,  which  aro 
thus  ciasi^lfied  and  enumeratetl  by  Dr  lijif ham :  1.  Wefteni Nemo  Atlaniidce,  embacing 
the  VVoloffs,  Sereres,  Serawolli,  Mandins;o?,  Pelups,  &c.;  Fantis,  &c.;  the  GliA,  ilie 
Whidali,  Malm  and  Benin  tribes,  the  Grebo.  &c.  2.  Central  Negro  Atlantid^yOAxy" 
braciiig  the  Yarriba,  the  Taj)nn,  Hnussa,  Pnlahs,  Cunjbri,  Suugal,  Kii'^6r,  Bornu, 
&c.:  Begharmi,  Mandnra,  Mobba.  Furians,  KoldagI,  Z.  Eastern  Negro  A  tlaniid<»j 
embracing  tlte  Shlll6k,  Ac;  Q&inamyl,  Dallas,  &c.;  Tibhoo,  Gongas.  This  list 
might,  of  course,  be  still  further  enlarged  by  reference  to  the  works  of  Earth, 
LiTingstouo,  Spekc.  and  other  travellei-s,  whose  researches  have  been  publisljcd 
since  the  anpearjince  of  Dr  Latham's  •*  Varieties  of  Man,"  In  1S50. 

While  these  sevcitil  tribes  have  their  distinctive  peculiarities,  they  yet  benr  a 
strong  genenil  resemblance  to  each  other,  not  only  In  their  physical  appearance,  but 
ill  their  intelleoinal  capacities,  nioral  Instincts,  customs,  and  manners.  The  Negro 
intellect  Is  generally  acknowle<lged  to  be  Inferior  not  only  to  the  European,  but  to 
that  of  many  pritnitive  races  not  as  yet  brought  within  the  pale  of  civilisation, 
while  it  Is  superior  to  that  of  the  Australian,  Bushmen,  and  Esquimaux.  Soma 
tribes  are  sunk  In  the  lowest  depths  of  barbarism,  and  are  either  ferocious  savages, 
or  stupid,  sensual,  and  indolent.  This  Is  the  case,  for  the  most  part,  according  to 
Prichnrd,  where  the  exaggerated  Negro  type  is  discernible,  as  amoug  the  Bulloins, 
Papals,  and  other  tribes  uu  the  coast  of  Western  Guinea;  also  among  the  tribes 
Dear  the  slave  coast,  and  Iti  the  Bight  of  Benin,  where  the  slave  trade  has  b;en 
carried  on  to  tlie  greatest  extent.  In  other  parts  they  shew  a  capacity  lor  i)ractis;ng 
thenils  of  life.  They  are  ingenious  in  the  construction  of  their  dwellings,  they  have 
pome  knowledge  of  tiie  worklj;g  of  iron  and  other  metals,  they  manufacture  arms, 
dres8  and  prepare  the  skins  of  animals,  weave  cloth,  and  fabricate  numerous  useful 
iionsehold  utensib*.  Neither  are  they  altogether  deficient  In  a  knowledge  of 
agriculture.  These  marks  of  clvivilisatlou  are,  for  th©  most  part,  apparent  iu 
the  districts  either  wholly  or  partially  converted  to  Mohammedanism.  Muniro 
I'rnk.  in  hi**  account  of  Sego,  the  capital  of  Bambarra,  describes  it  as  a  city 
of  30,000  Inhabirants,  with  houses  of  two  stories  high,  having  flat  roofs,  ino^q^iies  in 
«  ve»y  quarter,  and  ft-rries  conveying  men  and  horses  over  the  Niger.  '*  The  view  of 
tbi^  extensive  city,". be  says,  "the  numerous  canoes  upon  the  river,  the  crowded 
]M  pniation,  and  the  cultivated  state  of  the  surrounding  comitry,  formed  altogether 
!i  proMpert  of  civilization  and  nuigniflcence  which  I  little  expected  to  find  Iji  the 
bo^Miii  of  Afriea."  All  tribes  of  negroes  appear  to  be  passionately  fond  of  music, 
iii;d  slnw  no  Httle  skill  in  the  manufacture  of  musical  insti-uments.  They  also  es- 
pr«*8s  their  hop' •*  and  fears  In  extenjporary  songs.  Where  Moharamedanisnr  has 
not  l>eeu  introduced,  the  religion  of  the  negroes  Is  nothing  but  a  debased  fctiiih 
win-sht}).    They  make  fetishes  of  serpents,  elephants'  teeth,  trgers' cla\V8,  and  other 

EariB  of  ajilinals,  at  tije  dictation  of  \he]v  fetish  man,  or  priest.    They  also  maim- 
tcture  idols  of  wood  and  stone,  whicJj  they  worship;  and  yet,  under  all  this, 
tiiey  have  some  Idea  of  a  Supreme  being.    They  believe  lu  good  and  evil  spirits, 


y  Google 


S' 


tSSS^  164 

aud  ure  perpetually  practii^lnt^  incantMtloDs  to  ward  off  the  banefnl  lallflence  of 
tli'jir  pplnrnul  epBinies.  Their  rel  gion,  iu  fact,  la  oue  iittOi^eUit^'r  of  ft>;ir;  and  hs 
this  geueraily  leuda  to  crneLty,  wu  Aud  tliein  lor  tlie  iitust  p^irt  liidiffereDt  to  tlic  stic- 
rificu  of  liutuau  Hte.  In  soiue  purtp  tlify  even  offer  up  liainuii  victims  to  pix>piti:ife 
their  deities.  They  are  cruel  tu  tiieir  enemies  aud  priBouertii.  und  ofteu  i«hud  bluod 
f>r  (lie  mere  savuj^u  dellglit  tiiey  experience  iu  iK^eiug  it  llow  from  their  vitt.mi*. 
We  IK  ed  only  a'.lude  to  tiie  inhuman  customs^  as  they  nre  callfd,  of  l>i|ljomc.v,  and 
the  Yam  a^  Adai  cutitoma  of  the  Asliuntees,  a»  degciibtd  by  Bowdich,  in  ^lippuit 
ot  this  Htaremeut. 

This  fame  indifference  to  human  suffering,  conplt>d  with  the  pti99ion  of  nvaric<*, 
has  douhtless  beeu  ttie  niaiuHpring  of  the  slavo-tradi*,  carried  ou  during  so  many 
centuries  between  tlie  Negroes  aud  Enropejtu  tniders  iu  tlie  western  coast  <if 
Afiiia.  Bu'j^un  by  tlie  Portuguewj  as  early  as  16(^,  when  negro  slaves  were  fil^t 
imported  into  thn  West  Indies,  sanctioned  by  Ferdinaud  of  Aragon  in  1511,  and  e>ub- 
sequeutly  l)y  Ctiarle^  V.,  leguIiziHl  in  Enghtnd  uuder  Elizabetli,  and  eveutnally 
practised  by  every  maritime  nation  of  Europe,  tliis  iufamuus  trade  fl  nirisbed  uud^r 
the  sanction  of  law  as  late  as  thf  year  18j7,  when  it  was  liappily  ai>o)i^hcd  by  act  of 
Purliamcut  iu  Great  Britain,  and  U  now  treated  as  piracy  by  almost  every  civili.-ed 
nation,  fiveu  still,  however,  it  is  practised  by  lawless  nten,  iioiwithstauding  llie 
humauc  efforts  of  (ireat  firit:iiu,  France,  and  the  United  Stutez*  to  suppress  it ;  and 
the  encouragement  which  it  has  ^iven  to  the  {)etty  chielt:tius  ou  the  slave  coast, und 
the  country  behind  it,  to  enrich  llnrmsilvea  at  the  expense  of  tlieir  fellow-country- 
men, has  contributed  more  than  anything  else  to  retard  the  progress  of  clvUisatloa 
in  that  part  of  Africa.  "  Tlie  region  mcuiioned,"  says  Pritchard,  "•  has  boiii  the  gruat 
scat  of  the  exportttlou  of  Nejjro  slaves,  and  th(!  tribes  on  the  coa-ft  have  been  rc- 
dnced  to  the  lowest  state  of  phvj*ical  and  moral  degradation  by  tlie  taaniitica 
and  vices  attendant  on  that  tratnc  Throughout  Negroland,  and  e.'pjcialiy  tills 
part  of  it,  the  inhabitants  of  one  district  iu  the  interior,  the  uwt.llcrs  ou 
oue  monutaiii,  are  ever  ou  the  watch  to  seize  the  wives  aud  childrcu 
of  the  ueighl)oring  clans,  and  to  sell  tlieai  to  strangers ;  many  sell  their  own.  Every 
recess,  and  almost  every  retired  corner  of  tiie  land,  ha'^  bi-cu  the  ftceue  of  haiefiil 
raipinc  aud  shiui^hter,  uot  to  t>e  excused  orpiliiated  by  the  spirit  of  warfariv  but 
perpetratetl  in  cold  l)Iood,  and  for  the  Idvj  of  gain." 

The  custom  of  polygamy  prevails  anu)ug  alt  the  Negro  tribes,  aud  where  thefteara 
constituted  into  nations  or  kingdoms,  as  in  Dabomey,  the  sovereign  has  often  iu« 
many  as  two  or  three  thousand  wives,  whom  he  occasionally  disposes  of  aspreseuti* 
to  his  chief  officers  aud  favorites. 

The  languages  of  the  various  luxtious  and  tribes  of  Negroes  are  very  nnmeroufi. 
Vocabularies  of  nearly  200  languages  h.iv»?  heen  brought  from  Africa  by  the  Kev. 
Dr  Koelle.  "A  slight  examination  of  tnese  vcKabnlaries,"  says  Mr  Edwin  Norris. 
**  See. us  to  shew  that  there  are  amung  tlie  Negro  idioms  a  dozen  or  luure  classes  of 
languages,  differing  from  each  other  at  least  as  much  j:s  the  more  remote  ludo* 
G  rtnanic  huiguag  s  do.''  To  these  Negro  idioms  I)r  Krapf  bad  glvtu  the  uame  of, 
Nigro-Hamitie  Langtiages.  These  may  perliai>8  have  affinities  with  some  of  the 
other  Afr.cui  tongues,  hut  not  with  any  of  the  great  well-deflned  families  of  lau« 
gU)ige.'*.  For  furtlier  lufOQiuatiou  upon  this  subject,  we  imist  content  ourselves  with 
referring  to  Dr  Pilchard's  *•  Natural  History  of  Man,"  and  especially  fo  a  learned 
note  by  Air  Edwin  Non  is,  in  vol.  i.  of  t.iat  work,  page  323. 

Of  the  condition  aud  prospects  of  the  Nej^roes  in  tlie  various  conutries  into  which 
they  have  been  imported  during  the  prevalence  of  the  sUive-trade,  we  have  scarcely 
room  to  speak.  Tliey  are  found  iu  all  the  West  India  Islands,  to  the  number  of 
about  3,000  000;  in  the  Uuited  States,  bnusil,  Peru,  aud  other  iMits  of  South 
America  ;  also  iu  the  Cape  de  Verde  Islands.  Arabia,  Morocco,  &c  In  ttie  British 
West  India  Islands  they  were  emancipated  iroiu  slavery  iu  1884,  and  iu  those  be- 
longing to  France  in  1^.  Indeed,  shivery  now  exlst.>«  nowhere  iu  the  West  Indies, 
witii  the  single  exception  of  Ouha.  In  the  Uuited  States,  the  Negroes  amoanled  in 
ISTa  to  4.830,009.  Many  of  these  were  emancipated  in  the  ooiirse  Of  tiie  late  un- 
happy civil  war,  all  the  Negroesi  of  Secusssion  masters  l)eiug  didctred  euuuicipatod 
by  proclamation  of  Pre»'ideut  Lincchi  aud  act  of  the  Federal  con«re6s ;  at 
the  same  time  that  indemnities  were  promiiMHl  to  such  loyal  states  aa  of  thdr 
own  accord  decreed  emaudpatiou.    Ne|;ro  toluv**i-y  iu  the  uuited  State*  has  be«a 


y  Google 


165  if.Tgr!? 


utleriy  destroyed,  and  tbe  groftt  nroblera  which  nwsd  to  exerci««  pliilantropUic 
]nii)di«,  has  been  solved— the  Nfgro  hrtving  become  a  Uuited  States  citiaeu  at  & 
fuorfal  cost  of  blood  uud  treasnre  to  both  their  posaeAsors  aud  their  liberators, 

NE'GROPONT.    See  Eubosa.  ^ 

NE'GROS,  Is'.ii  de.    See  Philippine  Islanps. 

NEGU'NDO.  a  gtnns  of  trees  of  the  uataral  order  Aceraceas  (see  Maple),  diflFer- 
ing  from  the  niupfes  cliiefly  iu  the  dice  ious  flowers  being  destitute  of  peiul^,  aud  in 
the  piiiiiuied  ash-like  leaves.  The  Common  N.  or  Ash-leaved  Maple,  is  n  uative 
of  North  America,  and  not  now  uufrequent  iu  Britain  us  uu  oi  namcntul  tree. 

NE'QUS,  a  GOinponiid  of  either  port  or  sherry  wlue  and  hot  water  sweetened  with 
sngar  and  flavored  with  lemon-peel  and  spices.  It  is  a  favorite  beverage  in  England, 
aud  derives  its  name  from  a  Colonel  Negus,  who  claimed  to  be  the  inventor. 

NEHEMrAH,  son  of  Hnchaliah,  probably  of  roynl  descent,  is  first  mentioned  In 
tite  Bil)Ie  as  cupbearer  to  Artaxerxes  Longiumuus  in  hli*  palace  at  Siiuslinn  about 
444  B.C.  Having  learned  the  sad  fate  of  the  retunied  colonists  in  Jeriisalent,  lie  pi-e- 
vailed  n|x>n  tho  King  to  send  him  to  his  brethren  there  with  fnll  powers  »*to  seek 
their  welfare."  For  twelve  years  (444—432)  he  Avas  ni.tiringly  engapd  as  •'Gov- 
ernor" iu  works  for  their  safety  from  within  aud  without;  reforttlying  the  city 
walls,  notwithstaudlogthe  hindrances  aud  claugers  that  beset  him  on  all  sides ;  iudiic* 
ing  i>eople  from  the  country  to  take  up  their  permanent  abode  in  tlie  city,  thus  i)ro- 
nioting  its  prosperity;  and  flually,  and  above  all,  rekindling  the  flame  of  aucl<nt 
piety  and  the  enthusiasm  for  the  cbaervance  of  the  Law  in  the  heartt«  of  the  rough 
Immigrants.  He  theu  retunied  to  Persia,  tiupting  to  the  new  vitality  which  his 
reforms  had,  as  he  tiiongbt.  iufust^d  into  the  Jewish  comnionwealih.  But  not  long 
nfterward:*— vviililn  a  period  whith  it  Is  extiemely  difficult  now  to  fix— he  hud  n«;ain 
to  obtain  leave  from  the  king,  for  tbe  puipose  of  aboilhhiug  the  unuiy  abuses  that 
had  ^rept  iu  during  his  brief  absence  from  Jeru?ulem.  His  eneigies  now  were 
chiefli' dincted  against  the  foreign  elt-ment 8  mixtd  up  with  the  people,  l)olh  pri- 
vately and  publicly.  He  enforced  the  rigorous  observation  of  Feast  and  Snbhuth, 
and  rearmnged  the  Temple  6cr\*ice  in  nccordancc  with  lt>  primeval  purity,  procuring 
at  the  same  time  the  means  for  its  proiwr  support  by  Inducing  the  people  to  offer  the 
tithes  as  of  old.  His  second  stay  pi  Jerusalem  f-eems  to  have  la^ted  between  ten 
and  fifteen  years;  but  the  dates,  as  gnthertd  from  circumstantial  evidence  only,  ai*e 
<xceedlngly  vague.  He  seems*  to  have  livi d  to  an  old  age,  but  the  place  and  year  of 
his  death  are  unknown.  What  was  the  part  he  took  in  the  formation  and  redaction 
of  tin'  biblieal  canon,  cannot  be  investigated  in  this*  place.  But  theie  can  hardly  be 
n  doul)t,  that  among  the  reformatory  works  undertaken  I  y  him,  the  collection,  and 
jK-rhaps  the  edition  of  some  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  nmst  be  included. 

The  Book  known  under  his  name  (iu  13  cliapters)  is  believed  only  partly  liisown 
work.  Kecent  investigation  ascribes  to  him  only  the  first  six  chapters,  part  of  the 
scveuthj  and  the  laj^t  chapter  and  a  half;  the  rest  being  a  compilation  by  other 
liands.  Its  style  and  character  ara  veiy  simple,  free  Irom  anything  supernatural  or 
prophetic  Its  language  resembles  much  that  of  Chronicles  and  Ezra,  and  is  replete 
with  AraiRaisms  and  other  foreign,  partly  Persian  words.  Originally  considered  a 
mere  continuation  of  the  Book  of  Ezra,  It  was  by  the  Greeks  and  Latins  at  first 
called  '*The  Second  Book  of  Kzra."  Gradually,  however,  it  assumed  its  pre.- eut 
Independent  position  iu  the  canon  after  JEzra.  It  is  tupposed  to  have  been  written 
or  compiled  towards  the  end  of  N.'s  life. 

NEILGHE'RRY  (properly  Nilgiri)  Hills  (Skr.  nlla,  blue,  and  giri,  mountain), 
a  remarkat}le  ^'roup  of  mount^iins  in  the  south  of  Hindustan,  entirely  isolated, 
with  the  exception  of  a  precipitous  granite  ridge,  15  miles  in  width,  which  connects 
It  with  tbe  iiigh  table-laud  of  Maisur  on  the  north.  Lat.  ll®  10'— 11°  88'  n.,  long.  76* 
SO' — 77°  10';  'J'he  sluipe  of  the  group  is  that  of  a  trlan^ile,  of  which  one  side  faces 
the  district  of  Malatmr  on  the  west.  Greatest  length,  al)Out  40  miles;  average 
bnmdth,  about  15  miles.  The  base  of  the  ujountains  is  covered  by  a  dense  and  un- 
liealthy  forest,  swanning  with  wild  anlmalH,  among  which  tarv  the  eJephiini  and 
tiger;  but  In  tjiejiiglier  regions  of  the  UiIIh,  wood  is  comparatively  scanty.  The 
surface  of  the  group  is  undulating,  rising,  iu  tiie  pi-ak  of  Dodabetta, near  the  c<.-ntrc 
to  the  height  of  8760  feet,  the  greatest  height,  as  yet  ascertained,  iiMudia,  south 

^     _        ■  Digitized  by  VjO'OQIC 


S»-^  ■  166 

tho  Himalayas.  Th«  Hills  for  the  rnont  part  consist  of  granite,  covered  often  to  tb© 
d.n>tl»  of  upwards  of  ten  feet  by  a  richly  prodacttve  black  i*oil.  There  are  mrveral 
morasses  yiekliug  peat,  which  is  n>*ed  for  f  ncJ.  The  higher  lauds  form  a  fine  open 
gr:l5^  coiiMtiy,  covered  with  the  vegetation  of  the  temperate  zone,  and  inhufoited  Ivy 
n  mo»t  r(;maikable  tribe,  the  Tudas  or  Toruvars  (herdsmen).  Tl»i8  tribe  nniiibirs 
ou!y  about  2000  persons.  Tlie  men  are  tall  and  handforae,  with  Boman  nosen.  fii»c 
teeth,  jujd  large  expressive  eyes ;  tl»e  women  are  singularly  beaatifnl.  Their  rt-ligion 
is  Theism;  they  Imve  no  idols.  Owing  to  their  great  elevation,  the  N.  H.  have  » 
dilightfully  cool  climate,  and  are  much  resorted  to  on  this  acconnt  by  invalided 
Enropt-ttiis.  The  principal  station,  and  the  only  place  on  the  Hills  that  deserves  the 
iianu!  of  a  town,  is  Utakamand,  situat-ed  in  the  centre  of  the  Hills,  at  au  elevation  of 
7300  feet  above  sea-  level.  Its  climate  is  cokl  and  damp  during  thQ  monsoon ;  at  oiher 
times  it  is  intensely  dry,  and  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  58*.   • 

NEILGHERRY  NETTLE  {Oirardinia  Leschenaultii)^  a  plant  of  the  natnral 
order  llitice(x,  nearly  allied  to  the  true  nettles,  and  |>088t'ssing  in  a  high  d-.-gree  the 
BtlH}jln<x  |>o\ver  whicli  is  common  in  them.  It  ha  fi-eqneut  on  all  the  higher  ranges 
of  the  Neilghen-y  Hills.  The  bark  yields  a  valuable  fibre,  wliiclj  the  natives  obtuiu 
by  first  boiling  the  whole  plant,  to  destroy  Its  stinging  properties,  and  then  peeling 
ti»e  stalks.  Tlie  fibre  is  of  great  delicacy  and  strength,  and  is  wortji  JC200  a  Ion  iu 
Eiii^iuiid.  The  cultivation  of  tiie  plant  is  therefore  thought  likely  to  be  remunera- 
tive.—Markham's  "  Travels.'* 

NEI'RA.    See  Moluccas. 

NEl'SSfi,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  and  a  fortress  of  the  second  rank,  is  slt- 
nntfid  ill  a  broad  valley  on  the  Neisse,  an  affluent  of  the  Oder.  80  miles  south  west 
of  0:)p3in.  It  consists  of  the  town  proper  on  the  right  bmik,  of  the  Fiiedric»i*8 
Toww,  and  of  tlie  Preiissen  Port  on  the  l«ft  hank.  It  contjiius  two  great  squares, 
has  eight  Catholic  and  two  Evangelical  chnrchef,  a  hospital,  theatre,  Ac.  It  carries 
on  manufactures  of  arm*,  chemical  products,  and  tobacco,  and  esitai»li»hmftnts  for 
spliHiiiijj  and  weaving  are  in  operation.  The  en  ire  population  in  1871  was  19.3TC 
N..  formerly  the  chief  town  of  a  principiillty  of  the  same  name,  and  the  residence  of 
a  piiiice-bishO|),  has  frequei»tly  been  the  scene  of  conflict. 

N'ELLO'RE,  a  town  of  British  India,  capital  of  a  dlstrlr-t  of  the  same  name.  In 
tho  presidency  of  Madras,  situated  on  an  elevation  on  tlie  riglit  bank  of  the  Northern 
P^nnar,  20  miles  iroin  its>  month,  and  95  miles  uoith-north-we»t  from  Madraa.  I^  is 
Irroi5ularly  built,  and  the  population  in  some  places  much  ci-owdod;  but  tliere  aro 
some  good  streets.  Th«!  abundant  supply  of  water  contributes  to  the  health  of  tho 
town.  N.  wjis  formerly  an  imi>ortant  fortress.  It  is  a  curious  circumstance  » bat, 
in  the  end  of  last  century,  apotfilled  with  Roman  gold  coins  and  medals — chiefly  of 
Trni m,  Adrian,  and  Faustina— was  found  nuder  the  ruins  of  a  small  Hindu  temi>le 
at  N.'.llore.    Pop.  30,000. 

NEJI'N,  an  ancient  town  of  Little  Rnssin,  in  the  government  of  Tchernigof,  on 
the  Oster,  an  aflEluent  of  the  Dnieper,  about  80  niilfs  nOrfh-ea^t  of  Kiev.  It  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Lithuanians  in  1320,  ami  of  the  Poles  in  1386.  but  was  annexed  to 
Russia  in  1654.  N.  is  an  industrious  town  of  (1867)  20.616  inhabitants,  many  of  whom 
are  descendants  ot  Greek  immigrants  who  settled  here  in  the  reUrn  «f  Catharine  II. 
Tlie  principal  branch  of  indnstrv  Is  the  cultivation  of  tob'K.co.  Great  qnaniities  of 
ieaf-tobaecj  are  sent  hence  to  l^t  Petersburg,  Riga,  and  Mittau.  The  chief  iustiin- 
tiosis  are  two  monasteries,  25  churches,  and  a  lycciim. 

NELSON,  Horatio,  the  createst  of  Britain's  admirals,  was  bom  on  the  8»th  Sep- 
tember 1768,  at  Burnham  Thorpe,  Norfolk,  of  which  place  his  father,  Edmnnd  Nel- 
son, was  rector.  His  mothf-r's  maiden  name  was  Suckling,  and  through  her  heconld 
claim  a  collateral  kinship  with  the  celebrated  Sir  Rol>ert  Walpole.  As  a  child,  lie 
M'as  feeble  and  sickly;  and  thro'ighont  life  his  small,  frail,  ^md  atfenuoted  frame 
Seemed  to  consort  bnt  poorlv  with  the  daring  and  Impetuons  spirit  which  "  stirred 
and  lilted  him  to  high  attempts."  At  the  age  of  13.  he  entered  the  roynl  navy,  com* 
mencing  hi«  career  in  the  Rai«onnable^  64  guns,  commanded  by  his  uncle,  Captnin 
Suckling.  Thi'O,  even  more  than  now,  promotion  In  the  first  stages  of  thff  itrofcsslon 
was  determined  by  Admiralty  Interest;  and  fortunately  for  him  and  for  England,  his 
tiucle,  eliortly  afterwards  becoming  comptroller  of  the  navy,  waa  able-to  facilitate  bis 

Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


1^7  N el  then r 

rlJ»«.  His  promotion  wa»  nearly  as  rspld  ne  itconld  bo,  and  before  h«»  wa^  qnlte  21,  he 
had  nttuiued  ihe  rank  of  post-cupiuiii,  which  fairly  opened  thewny  for  hiui  to  ihu 
higher  honors  of  the  service.  Up  to  tiiis  time,  no  opp<»rtnnity  bad  been  afforded 
bin)  of  acliieTiu};  any  marked  distinction,  bnt  to  all  who  wave  bronght  into 
contact  nitli  him,  he  had  already  approved  himself  a  bold  :uid  cap)it>le  officer. 
Henceforward,  for  some  years,  he  was  nearly  coustatitJv  employed  in  a  variety 
of  harassing  services;  and  in  till  hi»  conduct  \ru»  such,  that  in  no  long  time 
he  had  made  tor  himself  a  brilliant  reputation.  His  growing  fame  was  as  yet,  l)OW- 
ever,  chiefly  confined  to  professional  circles,  no  VC17  t-igital  exploit  having  brought 
his  name  proiniuently  before  the  public.  Bnt  with  the  advi  ut  of  the  war  with  revo- 
lutionary France,  tlie  time  bad  come  when  he  was  to  ^' flume  amaEement *' on  the 
world  i>y  a  series  of  noble  deeds,  in  the  lustre  of  which  all  other  naval  glory  looks 
paJe.  In  bis  obscurer  years,  he  seems  to  have  been  cheered  onder  what  paiiad  Inm 
a?  unmerited  neglect  by  that  prescience  of  a  grand  destiny,  which  ha**  so  often  pre- 
luded to  a  career  of  exceptioual  splendor.  11  u^,  oi\^ue  oi-(  asion,  he  writes :  **  'i  hey 
have  not  done  me  justice.  But  never  mind.  Oi^e  day  III  have  a  (.azette  of  my 
own."  And  subsequently  the  same  confidence  ii«  exi)rtfs«  d  with  something  like  the 
depth  rif  a  religions  conviction  :  *'*One.dMy  or  otitr  I  will  have  a  longg.'zciteto  niv- 
wflf.  I  feel  ihat  such  an  opportunity  will  be  given  me.  I  cannot,  if  I  am  in  the  ^«  Id 
of  g!ory,  be  kept  out  of  s)t:nt ;  wherevtr  th<re  is  anvtbiog  to  he  done, /*<?»c  /*;ptt*- 
tiefice  us  sure  to  direct  my  steps."  In  1793,  appointed  to  \1\g  Aaawe^nnov,  C4  guns, 
betook  a  diHinguished  part,  among  otberi servic« s.  In  Ihe  H<g<s  of  Bastia  aid 
Calvi,  in  Corsica,  losing  an  ^e  at  Ihe  laft  of  these;  and  In  the  eeUbraUd 
liction  of  Sir  John  Jervis  on  Cape  St.  Vincent  with  the  Spanich  fleet,  lo 
a  manoeuvre  of  extreme  and  ma^terly  daring,  executed  by  NeUou  in 
defiance  of  orders,- that  officer  was  nairJy  indebted  lor  the  splendid  huccess  obtained 
and  the  peerage  with  which  it  was  rewarded.  Though  in  the  ijiterval  an  ex)M'dition 
which  he  commanded  itgainst  Teuerifie  had  failed  disastrously,  with  loss  to  himself 
of  hisrigiit  arm  in  the  assault^  it  was  on  ail  bands  admitted  thai  everything  vas 
done  on  ibe  occasion  whieb  skill  and  valor  in  their  highest  combinatioir  could  efftct, 
and  N.,  on  liis  nturn  to  England  in  1797,  was  received  with  general  acclamation. 
He  was  invested  witli  the  Order  of  the  Bath,  and  a  pension  of  iilOOO  a  year  w  as  voted 
to  him.  Beine  next  year  intrusted  with  a  fleet,  be  sigiuilised  this  lis  fii*st  ii.depen- 
d-  nt  command  of  any  magnitude  by  the  stupendous  victory  of  ihe  Nile,  memorable 
Ji;  naval  annals  as  the  complelest  annihilation  of  an  enemv  on  record.  See  Aboukib. 
Finding  the  French  fleet— to  which  4i is  own  wi's  considerably  ii.ferior  in  foice — 
skilfully  moored  so  as  to  defy  oi3diuary  isttack,  he  adopleil  the  novel  exptxlient  of 
doubling  on  the  enrmv.*«  ships,  and  was  rewarded  with  success  the  most  consum- 
niate.  Of  the  French  line  cf  battU*.  two  f=hips  only  ( sc-ped  to  be  aftei-ward  captured ; 
«i:d  it  was  considered  that  solely  to  a  wound  in  the  head,  which  in  the  heat  of  the 
action  prostrated  N.,  did  even  these  owe  their  temporary  safety.  Honors  were 
now  from  all  quarters  showen'd  upon  him;  and  in  particular  the  gratitude 
and  enthusiasm  of  bis  conntrym.n  were  signified  by  the  title  bestowed 
on  him  of  Baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile,  and  a  grant  of  £2000  a  year  for  his  own  life, 
and  the  Jives  of  his*  two  imme<Hate  successors.  For  his  sei-vices  immediately  snb- 
Si'quent,  in  effecting  the  expulsion  of  the  French  fiom  Naples,  the  Neapolitan  king 
rewarded  him  with  the  Dukedom  of  Bronie  and  a  domain  of  X.«tOOO  a  year.  These 
last  bonorf,  however,  were  In  one  senfo  dearly  purchased.  T  he  sinjile  suspicion  of 
a  blot  on  his  public  fame  is  In  regard  of  his  relations  with  the  corrupt  court  of 
Naples,  and  (tf  certain  questionabl"  acts  into  which  by  thest^  he  was  led.  The  only 
flaw  in  his  ]>rlvate  chanicter  was  his  infatuated  attachment  to  Lady  Hamilton,  the 
wife  of  the  English  ambassador,  a  woman  of  questionable  antecedents,  but  perilous 
ftscinatlon,  with  wham  he  waa  here  thrown  in  contact.  The  influence  which  she 
iTow  obtained  over  him,  she  continued  to  the  end  to  exercise.  Early  in  life  he  had 
married,  and  manied  happily.  If  to  the  charms  of  an  impure  adventuress  he  sacri- 
flced,  on  his  return  to  England,  the  wife  to  wl)om  before  he  bad  been  tenderly  de- 
vofa'd.  it  is  not  necessary  to  indulge  in  comments  Let  us  compassionate  the  one 
cruel  frailty  of  a  man  iu  all  elae  and  in  his  proper  nature,  as  gentle  and  generous  aa 
he  was  brave.  ... 

Hie  next  jnagnlflcent  exploit  waa  the  battle  of  Copenhagen  in  1801,  in  wnien, 
after  a  atrn^le  of  terrible  aeverUy,  be  shattered  the  naval  power  of  Denmark,  and 


y  Google 


He' son  -i  ^o 

nJong  with  it  the  drt^adnt  conlition  ngaiiist  Ku^lund  of  the  thive  northern  kfns:' 
(I01118.  N«ver  were  tfee  chiifticfceristic  and  h**roic  qnnlitiep  of  the  man  luore  bril- 
Htintly  drnplnyttd  thun  on  tlfis  most  trying  occjiston.  In  tlic  moral  connige  to  ftccwpt 
ruHpoiiHibility  ut  .ill  hazards,  no  m.'\n  ever  8nn>n»s'6<l  him.  In  the  heat  of  the  bat- 
tle, his  chief,  Sir  Hyde  Parker,  in  deadly  anxiety  a«  to  the  issne  of  what  »t  a 
di-taiu-c  seemed  to  be  a  hopelej**  conflict,  8igwall»'d  him  to  diwontjime  octton, 
**D;imn  tlie  sij^iial  1 "  paid  N.,  wImmi  this  was  report^td  to  him.  **  Keep  mine  for 
i  eloner  battle  fft/in^.  That't*  the  wav  I  answer  i»uch  piguals.  Nail  mine  to  the  mast." 
^  And  witii  the  certainty  of  nrofeHsional  disgrace  and  ruiu  Bttiriug  him  in  the  face  in 
cas*^  of  failure,  lie  worke<i  ont  his  grand  triumph. 

Haul  N.'s  services  liere  ceased,  bis  fame  wonkl  still  have  been  assared  an  the 
greateait  of  England's  naval  heroes.  But  a  crowning  glory  awaited  him.  In  the 
earlier  pnrt  of  1805,  glowing  with  flerce  ardor  and  impatience,  he  had  chased  iialt 
round  the  world  a  French  fleet  of  neiirly  double  the  force  of  his  own,  sAired  by  the 
very  terror  of  hii»  name ;  and  oiKthe  morning  of  the  memorabk?  21st  October  of  tliat 
vear,  the  desire  of  his  eyes  was  satisfled,  when  in  the  Bay  of  Trafalgar  he  saw 
neforc  hlni  the  combined  navies  of  Prance  and  Spain  moving  to  meet  t^im  in  frank 
fight.  Of  the  glorious  consnnimatioii  which  followed,  we  need  not  speak  in  detjili. 
Ere  night,  the  power  bf  France  upon  the  seas  was  annihilated,  ond  her  threatened 
invasion  of  England  bad  t)ecome  an  abortive  dreatn.  But  N.  was  no  more.  He 
dle<l  as  such  men  wish  to  die,  amid  the  thunders  of  his  mightiest  victoiir. 

ITie  character  of  M.  was,  for  a  mair  of  his  greatnes:*,  nmisually  simple  and  trans- 
parent. A  more  ab!«61ute  sinirleness  of  aim  and  aspiration  than  his,  it  ii<  difficult 
even  to  conceive  of.  Literally  on  Are  with  that  ardor  and  passion  of  enthHsiaam. 
without  some  tincture  of  which  scarce  any  man  |>erhaps  h:is  ever  jet  achieved  dt»- 
tiuctiou,  he  was  driven  by  it  imperiously  in  one  direction.  The  greatest  of  sailon 
— he  was  a  sailor  and.  little  -^Ise.  Of  his  genius  for  command,  n  wouid  be  idle  at 
lai^^e  to  s|)eak.  In  coolness,  fd'esight,  promptitude,  instant  intuitive  deciaioiu,  and 
a  daring  whidh,  even  when  it  seemed  at  times  to  touch  temerity,  was  yet  regulated 
throughout  by  the  nicest  culcnlatlous  of  reason,  he  luis  perhaps  never  been  quit-j 
equtilied  on  the  clement.  His  nature  was  tuo^t  noble  and  tnimuue.  His  heart  was 
as  soft  as  a  woman's,  and  overflowed  with  all  liberal  i^onerosities.  He  had  but  to 
be  known  to  be  beloved;  and  of  tlie  tender  chivalry  of  bis  relatioixs  with  bis  gallant 
bretlireu  in  arms,  it  is  touching  to  read. 

NE'LSON.  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  oame,  in  New  Zealand,  ifl  situ- 
ated at  the  north  end  of  South  Island, at  tbenooath  of  the  Haitai,  a  small  river,  au.l 
at  the  head  of  a  large  bay  called  Blind  Bay.  The  situation  is  very  beautiful,  un  a 
flat,  hemmed  in  by  rugged  hills,  and  amidst  almost  tropical  luxuriance.  The  Inirbor, 
however,  only  admits  vessels  of  600  tons  at  high  water,  and  this  circumsiuuce  has 
nmch  retar<lt  d  the  process  Iwth  of  the  town  and  the  settlement.  The  pentre  of  the 
town  ii*  a  hill  rising  40  feet  above  the  surrounding  streets,  and  Taid  out  as  a  sqnar  ? 
with  an  Episcopal  church  in  its  centre.  N.  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  The  city  wa* 
founded  in  1841.  The  population  in  1871  was  5-34.  Three  newspapers  are  puWishisl 
here.  The  manufactures  of  the  town  comprise  cloth  and  leather.  Steamers  saii  to 
the  neighboring  potts. 

NELU'MBO  (yeluftibium),  a  genus  of  aquatic  plants  similar  to  Water  Lilies*  aiid 
often  included  under  that  name,  as  well  as  by  some  botanists  In  the  uatttral  order 
NympJuEOc^ai  (q.  v.) ;  although  by  others  constituted  into  a  distinct  order,  Neh^m^ 
hiacecey  differing  in  the  want  of  albumen  In  the  »eed.  and  in  the  distinct  carpeld, 
which  are  one-see<led,  and  buried  in  tl»e  cavities  of  a  large  fleshy  receptacle;  wbi^ 
eventnally  becomes  a  broad  tiard  bed,  fnll  of  holes,  with  the  large  seeds  half  buried 
in  them.  The  flow(;rs  and  leaves  are  very  similar  to  tfaOse  of  water-lilies.  The  s|m- 
ciesare  few,  and  are  found  in  the  warm  psirts  of  Asia,  in  tlie  north  of  Africa,  and  in 
North  America.  They  arc  all  distlngnlehed  by  the  beauty  of  their  flowers.  N.  «jwe- 
cioaumU  the  Eotpti'an  Bean  of  Pythagoras,  the  Lotus  (q.  v.)  of  the  Hindus,  held 
sacred  by  them  and  by  the  people  of  TIiTIxjL  It  is  also  much  esjeemcd  and  culti- 
vated in  China,  and  elsewhere  in  the  East,  for  its  seeds,  roots,  leaf-stalks,  and  flower- 
stalks,  all  of  which  are  eaten.  It  has  been  used  as  food  by  the  Egyptians  from  n*- 
mote  antiquity,  llie  seeds  are  in  size  and  shape  like  acorn^,  with  a  tai»te  more  deli- 
cate than  that  of  almoiids.    Tlie  root  cdiitains  much  starah,  and  Ckxneie  hHow-tooi 


y  Google 


I-AQ  ITeUoa 

, -l"^    >.  KTem^ 

is  ea!d  to  be  oMalned  from  it.  Slices  of  it  nre  often  tterved  np  fit  tiiblo  in  CliiDs. 
Grutit  qnnntitioB  ai-e  picktod  wsith  palt  tiud  vinegiu".  :wm1  vatt-u  with  rice.  TJie  ])0\v- 
dered  root  nmjies  <'XC«llent  Boup  with  water  or  milk.  Tlu;  flowers  nre  generally  rose- 
colored,  tieldoni  white.  The  aucieut  Egyptian  mode  of  t'owiin;  thia  plMit,  by  enclos- 
ing each  seed  iu  a  ball  of  clay,  and  throwruc  it  into  the  water,  is  piactimd  at  tlve 
prerteiit  day  In  India.— A',  luieum  l<  a  North  American  ^]^ecil*al,  extendini;  nlmo8t  as 
Jar  uorth  as  Phi  adelphia ;  \vith  yellow  flowers.  The  nettls  Mre«<*u»;lit  afser  by 
children  and  by  Indian?,,  and  the  farinaceous  roots  are  agreeable  when  boile<l. 

NJSMATE'LMIA  (derived  from  the  Gr.  words  neniOy  a  thread,  and  helming  an 
iiitet>iinal  worm)  is  the  tenn  given  by  recent  soologintHto  a  huge  and  imiioitautchiss 
of  the  subdivUiou  Vermes  of  the  Artienlata,  'i'he  wornin  bctui  ging  tu  this  claso  are 
of  a  more  or  less  elongated  cylindrical  furm.  Tlteir  hkin  \b  thick  uiul  ptrong,  and  ic 
n-ually  wrinkled  in  siicii  a  manner  as  to  give  lite  body  an  auunlaied  appearance, 
wbich,  liowevtT,  disappi^ars  if  the  auinnil  is  placid  In  water.  "  'J  he  u*  nous  Byl^teQl 
iu  the  higher  forms  (a^  the  Aacarida)  ci  iinistB  of  two  lateral  ganglia  at  Ibe  anterior 
extremity,  whit  h  are  united  by  a  slender  nervoos  ring,  and  (lom  i\hich  two  lateral 
iHirvottit  trunks  prt>ceed  to  tiie  posterior  part  of  the  booy  ;  while  in  the  lower  forms 
DO  dii^tiiict  nervous  system  cau  be  recoguiord.  No  sptciai  orirann  of  the  senHCs  are 
met  with  ;  but  a  general  sen^e  of  touch  is  probably  pieH<  nt.  'I  he  dige^tive  •rgunt 
«re  extn-inely  simple.  Iu  one  order  (the  Acanthocevha<'a),  no  trace  ot  an  iuteetinal 
canal  can  be  detected;  iu  another  order  (the  Ocraiacca)  there  is  a  mOuth.  Intt  uo 
auna;  white  the  higher  forms  are  providen  with  mouth,  intestinal  canal,  and  auuB. 
Id  tlie  liigher  form^<,  a  kind  of  vapcular system  ib  develop*  d  in  the  skin,  in  the  nhajw 
of  ctiuals,  ill  which  the  uutiient  fluid  is  ]iropeIled  by  the  niuvements  of  the  Inxly. 
Ko  distinct  respiratory  organs  cau  be  dett!cted;^  but  in  some  geneia  there  areghinils 
mtaose  Oiijoci  is  not  Clearly  known.  These  worms  are  nni^excal ;  but  the  males  are 
comiwratively  rarely  found,  and  are  always  smaller  than  the  females.  With  tlie 
exception  of  two  lamilies'-the  Urolabea  and  AnguillulitlfK,  or  paste  and  vinegar 
ceis— all  tho  oui^alB  of  this  class  arc  parasitic;  indeed,  Cams,  in  hin  **tiandbuch 
der  Zoolope"  (1863),  vol.  il.  p.  468,  ^tocs  so  far  as  to  say  that  '*prol>ably  all  the 
uemaielmlu  live  as  pafaeiteB,  eiilier  during  their  whole  lives  or  during  certum  stagea 
of  their  ejdsteuoo." 

The  N.  are  sometimes  termed  Hofrnd-voormSf  just  as  the  Plafyelmia  (tape-worros, 
flukes,  Ac.)  are  called  Flnt-xvorme,  Most  comniorly,  however^  the  teini  round-woini 
is  restricti'd  to  the  Ascaris  lumbriwides,  the  nwst  common  of  the  i  nman  ei  tozoa. 

This  class  Is  dlvlsn)ld  into  three  Very  distinct  Orders — vxz.^Ww  A (^inthocejyftala^ 
which  are  destllttteof  ftii  intestinal  canni ;  \\\Q.Oordiac€a.  which  pot'cet'iK  au  inteFtinnl 
canal,  but  no  anus;  and  the  Nematoidea,  which  possess  a  perfect  iutcbtiual  canal, 
provided  with  two  oiiflces. 

NEMATOrDEA  constitute  the  highest  order  of  the  Neraatelmia,  and  indeed  of 
intestinal  worms  generally,  inasmuch  as  they  present  a  distinct  nervous  system,  a 
complete  intestinit  provided  with  mouth  and  anus,  and  distinct  sexual  oi*gaus.  The 
history  of  their  developnvnt  ia  not  fully  known ;  but  there  Is  no  rea?on  to  believe  that 
these  animals  imdergo  any  remarkable  metamorphoses,  although  fome  perforate  the 
intestinal  wallef  and  become  cncyetcd  in  parenchymatous  organs.  The  great  majority 
of  the  N.. are  parasitic  'i'he  N.  are  divided  by  Carus  into  twelve  families,  all  the 
mentbera  of  which  are  known  only  in  a  parasiac  state  of  esdstence,  excepting  certain 
genera  of  the  first  and  s<7Cond  family. 

Althotigh  the  intestinal  canal  istiie  most  common  reeddence  of  these  worms,  some 
as  T/iekina^raii*^  are  found  chiefly  iu  the  muscles;  otheri<,  as  Fiiatia  tnediitennitiy 
in  the  suboataneoas  cellular  tissue ;  and  others  in  the  kidneys,  lungs,  <&€,  See  £m- 
TOZOA.  For  farther  information  regarding  these  worms,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
JSberth's  ^  Uptersacbnngen  fiber  Nematoden  "  (4to,  1868;, 

NS'MBA,  anciently  the  name  of  a  deep  and  well-watered  valley  of  Aroolis,  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  between  Cleonse  and  Phlius.  It  lies  north  and  south,  and  is  from  two 
to  tliree  miles  long,  and  more  than  half  a  mile  broad.  It  possessed  a  saored  gi-ove, 
with  a  maguificent  temple  of  Zeus,  and  was  celebrated  for*  the  games  culled  the 
SemM,n  Oanies^  which  took  place  four  times  in  two  Olympiads  in  an  adjacrnt  woody 
talley.  This  was  one  of  the  great  national  festivals  ot  the  Greeks,  and,  awoi-ding  to 
U)e  %eQ4t  was  foimd^  by  the  ecven  princes  who  were  coiubincd  aguiuet  Thebea; 


y  Google 


je?*^  '170 

according  to  another,  by  Hercnlefi  after  his  Yictonr  over  the  Nemean  Lion.  TbB 
games  consisted  partly  of  exerdses  of  bodily  skill  and  etren^ — such  as  chaxickf 
raang,  quoit-throwiug,  wrestliug,  raunlqg  iu  armor,  borse-niciug,  boxing,  tbrovriog 
theBpear,  and  archery,  and  partly  o£  musical  and  poetical  competitious.  The  prize 
was  originally  a  crown  of  olive  twigs,  after^vards  of  parsley.  We  have  eleven  odes 
by  Pindar  in  honor  of  victors  in  the  Nemean  Games. 

N£!M£'RT£S,  a  gen  as  of  marine  Annelidg^  the  type  of  a  family,  Nemertidce,  re- 
markable for  the  prodigious  length  which  soiij^  of  the  species  attain,  which,  in  tiieir 
most  extended  state,  is  30  or  40  feet  But  the  animal  which  stretches  itself  out  to  this 
leu^tli,  is  capable  of  suddenly  contracting  itself  to  three  or  four  feet  The  stmctnre 
is  similar  to  that  of  leeches,  bntthere  is  no  sucker.  These  annelids  feed  npon  moUnscs 
by  sucking  them  out  of  their  shells.  They  generally  lurk  in  the  mnd  or  sand  of  the 
searcoast,  and  are  sometimes  drawn  up  niitti  the  nets  or  lines  of  Ushermeo.  They 
twine  themselves  into  knots  and  coils^  apparently  inextricable,  but  without  any  real 
entanglement  The  Jlfe-hlstory  of  the  yenufrtidas  is  curious.  ITie  embryo  has  at 
first  a  ciliated,  uoii-coutractile,  oval  body ;  from  which  there  issues  a  small  actively 
contractile  worm,  leaving  iKjhfaid  it  the  oval  skin,  and  this  worm  ^ws  to  the  size 
aheady  mentioned.  The  larval  state,  however,  exhibits  a  cleft  with  raised  ttdges, 
whlcQ  becomes  the  month  of  the  perfect  animaL 

NB'MESIS,  according  to  Iledod,  the  daughter  of  Night,  was  originally  the  per- 
■onllicatiou  of  the  roorai  feeling  of  right  and  a  just  fear  of  criminal  actions— in  othw 
words  of  the  conscience.  Afterwards,  when  au  enlarged  experience  convinced  men 
that  a  Divine  will  found  room  for  its  activity  amid  the  ottle  occurrences  of  human  life. 
N.  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  power  who  constantly  preserves  or  restored  the  moial 
equilibrium  of  earthly  affairs— preventing  mortals  from  reaching  that  excessive  pro»- 
perlry  which  would  lead  them  to  forget  the  reverence  due  to  the  Immortal  gods,  or 
visiting  them  with  wholesome  calamities  in  the  midst  of  their  happiness.  Hence 
originated  the  latest  and  loftiest  conception  of  N.,  as  the  Neing  to  whom  was  intrusted 
the  execution  of  the  decrees  of  a  strict  retributive  providence— the  awful  and  mysteri- 
ous aveujger  of  wrone.  who  punishes  and  humbles  haughty  evildoers  in  pai-ticular. 
N.  was  thus  regarded  as  allied  to  At6  (q.  v.),  and  the  Knmenides  (q.  v.).  She  was 
sometimes  called  AdrastSa  and  Kbanmosia,  the  latter  designation  being  derived  from 
Khanmus,  a  village  of  .Attica,  where  she  had  a  temple.  She  was  represented  in  the 
older  t  mes  as  a  young  virgin,  resembling  Venus ;  in  later  times,  as  clothed  with 
the  tunic  and  peplus,  sometimes  with  swords  in  her  hands  and  a  wheel  at  her  foot  a 
grlflfln  also  having  his  right  paw  upon  the  wheel ;  sometimes  in  a  chariot  drawn  by 
griffins.    N.  is  a  frequent  figure  on  coins  and  gems. 

NE'NAGH,  a  market  town  of  Tipperary  cousty,  Ireland,  distant  95  miles  south^ 
west  from  Dublin ;  pop.  (1871)  6C96,  of  whom  the  Koman  Catholics  were  twelve  times 
as  many  as  the  Protestants  of  the  Episcopalian' Church,  and  there  were  fifty  or  sixty 
Protestants  of  other  denominations.  N.  is  the  assize  town  of  the  North  Hiding  of 
'IMpperary,  and  is  a  place  of  more  than  ordinary  pretensions  in  its  public  buildings. 
The  ancient  keep,  called  Nenagh  Round,  is  a  striking  object,  ftQd  the  court-house, 
jail,  barrack,  and  union  workhouse  are  im|)08iug  edifices.  There  is  a  free  school, 
ana  tliree  national  schools.  Among  the  not  very  numerous  articles  manufactui-ed  at 
N.,  are  woollens,  tobacco,  soap  ana  caudles.  It  is,  however,  a  place  of  very  consider- 
able inland  trade. 

NE'OPHYTB  <Gr.  nMvhutos,  from  now,  new,  and  phuo^  to  crow),  the  name 
privtjw  III  early  urcle»iustic:u  language  to  pt^r^-oiis  recently  coiivirted  to  Christianiiv. 
T  li  word  is  u^ed  in  tlii-*  senne  by  St  Paul  <l  Tim.  ill.  6).  and  is  ex|>lj»iued  hv  St 
•Gr.;goiy  lu*  Git'ur.  as  un  allusion  to  **thoir  b.^int^r  newly  p'nntwl  in  Ibe  falih  "  (Ep|>. 
i>.  V.  cp.  61).  It  diff  red  from  Catedinmen  (q.  v.),  inasmnch  ««  it  snpmised  the  p  -ly 
foil  to  have  not  only  umbrae  d  tbe  doctrines  uf  the  chuicli.  but  also  to  nave  reccivi*d 
ba|»li.«*in.  St  Paul,  In  the  pussajje  refnn-ed  to,  dir-cts  Timothy  not  to  prnmutH  n 
n  'pj^hyte^  to  tlieepit«co!>ate;  and  this  prohibiii xi  wasi^uH'^rally  maintained.  uUliough 
occasionally  disivgarded  in  very  extraordinary  cinmin^tanc  h^^  Hicii  m  \UOf^  of  St 
Ambrodu  (q.  v.).  The  duration  of  tills  exclu.xlon  was  left  for  a  tim«  to  «lie  discro- 
tion  of  bisliO|>s ;  but  several  of  the  ancient  synod-*  legis|jit«Ml  regarding  it. .  The 
tliird  cunncil  of  Aries,  524,  and  the  third  of  Orange  in  688,  fix  a  yi-af  as  the  least 
Uiuit  of  probaiiou.    lu  the  iuoUy;ru  So.uau  CaiUouc  UhorcU'  th^  same  dLi^liue  is 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


mNemQrt#« 
W©o  ^ 

otxierved,  apd  ejctfDds  to  persons  convrrted  not  njone  from  heathenism,  bat  from 
•  auy  sect  of  Ubriatiaiw  uepanit^d  from  the  coinmnnioii  of  Roine.  The  tirae,  how- 
evjT,  it*  left  to  be  deleiniliu'd  by  circumstance^'.  Tlje  luuiie  ueopbvtc  is  alfto  appiitd 
in  UoiiiMn  nroige  to  tiewly-ordaiued  priesU,  uud  Bometimcs,  tbou;;b  more  rare&,  to 
the  nojoice*  of  a  rel){rioa8  order. 

•  ME'O-PLA'TONIS'l'S,  the  name  given  to  an  illnstrions  rncceMioo  of  ancient  pbil- 
oMopbcrs  wbo  cluimed  to  fonud  their  doctriues  and  ppecnhitioiis  on  those  of  Fhito. 
•Strictly  fpoukinj^,  however*  tlm-Platoiiic  philosoplty — that  it*,  in  its  original  and  gen- 
nine  torm— expired  witli  Phito^s  immediate  disciples,  Spensippns  and  Xtuocr:tt«-8. 
Arcmlans  (a.  v.),  tlie  fQtnider  of  the  New  Acjideniy,  and  at  a  luier  |)eriod  Carnt-ades 
(q.  T.).  iutruauced  and  diffused  a  sceptical  Probabiiisni,  wliicli  gradnaliy  destroyed 
llitrt  earnest  and  reverent  spirit  of  inteliectnal  inquiry  t-o  cliuractcristic  of  tlie  great 
pap!l  of  Socrates.  Tiie  coarse  of  political  events  in  the  ancient  world  also  htrsely  > 
asshsted  iu  bringing  alx)nt  tnesame  result  The  triumphs  of  the  Homon  power  hud 
been  accomplished  at  the  expense  of  national  libeities,  and  had  issued  in  a  general 
doterioratiou  of  inonii  character,  btjtb  In  the  Sast  and  the  West.  Public  men*  es- 
pecially, nought,  above  all  things,  material  cratiflcations,  and  came  to  look  lipoii 
pliilosupiiy  Itself  as  only  a  more  exquisite  kind  of  tuxory.  It  was  quite  ontural, 
therefore,  that  Scepticism  and  Eclecticism  shonid  become  the  prevalont  forms  of 
pliit<>eophy.  ,  Besides,  the  ppeculations  of  the  older  philosophers  were  felt  to  be  nn- 
patlsfactory.  When  men  beiran  to  review  the  long  soccessioM  of  contradictory  or 
diven;eut  systems  that  had  prevailed  since  the  time  of  Thalea  the  MiKsiun, 
in  the  gray  duwn  of  Greell  history,  a  snspidou  appears  to  have  sprnug 
up  tlmt  reality,  certainty,  troth,  was  eitlier  not  attainable,  or  could  only 
be  attained  by  pelectinj?  something  from  every  system.  Moreover,  the  Im- 
mensely extended  intercourse  of  nations,  it^lf  a  result  of  Roman  conquest. 
.Jiad  l>r6nght  into  the  closest  proximity  a  crowd  of  conflicting  opinions,  beliefs,  auu 
practices,  which  could  not  help  occasionaliv  uudergijing  a  confused  nuialeaination, 
and  in  this  way  presented  to  view  a  {)i-acticai  eclecticism,  less  refined  auu  philoso- 
phical htdeed  tlmu  tiie  e>poculative  systems  of  the  day.  but  not  esscntiall^r  different 
from  them.  Tliis  tendency,  to  amalgamation  shewed  hself  most  prominently  in 
Alexandria.  Placed  at  the  junction  of  two  continents,  Asia  and  Afrii^  and  clo^e  to 
the  most  cultivated  and  intellectual  regions  of  Europe,  that  celebrated  city  naturally 
became  a  focus  for  the  chief  religions  and  philosophies  of  the  ancient  world.  U<-re, 
tlie  East,  and  the  West,  Greek  cuhure  and  Oriental  enthusiasm,  met  and  mhigled ;  mid 
here,  too,  Christianity  sought  a  home,  and  strove  to  quell  by  the  libei  ality  of  its 
sympathies,  the  mvriad  dif'cords  of  Paganism.  *•  Greek  Scepticism,"  says  Mr  Lewes, 
*•  Judaism,  t'V'toinsnj,  Christianity— all  lind  their  interpretei-s  within  a  small  tUMance 
of  the  temple  of  Berapis."  It  is  not  wonderful,  therefore,  that  a  philosophy,  which 
BO  disthictly  combines  the  peculiar  mental  characteristics  of  the  Bastand  the  West,  as 
that  promnfgat«jd  by  the  Neo-Phitonists,  slionld  have  originated  io  Alexandria.  Yet,  at 
thesame  time,  it  is  but  right  to  notiC(%  as  does  M.  Matter  in  his  '*  Hictoire  de  TEcole  d' 
Alexandiie,"  tiiat  it  soon  censed  to  have  any  local  connection  with  the  citv.  Its 
most  illustrious  representatives  were  neitlier  natives  of  Alexandria,  nor  members  of 
the  famous  Museum,  and  they  had  their  schools  elsewhere— in  Kome,  in  Athens,  and 
iu  Asia. 

"  It  is  not  easy  to  say  with  whom  iVeo-Ptotoniam  commenced.  Scholars  differ  as 
to  how  much  should  l>e  inchuied  under  that  term.  By  some  it  is  used  to  designate 
the  whole  new  Intellectual  movement  proceeding  from  Alfxandrla,  comnrising  in 
this  bro-.d  view,  j he  j)hilosophy,  1st,  of  Philo-Jndseus  and  of  Nnmenius  the  Syrian  ; 
9il,  of  the  Christian  JP*atiiers  (Clemens  Alexaudrinns,  Origen,  &c.) ;  8d,  of  the 
Gnostics ;  and  4th,  of  Ammonius  Saccas  and  his  successors.  Others,  again,  would 
exclude  tli6  second  of  these  (though  the  Alexandrian  divines  frequently  Platonin ) ; 
while  a  third  party  ie  disposed  to  restrict  tiie  applicitiou  of  the  term  to  the  fourth. 
The  hist  of  these  modes  of  regarding  Neo-Plntonism  is  the  one  most  cnrrent.  and 
1«  perhMps  the  most  convenient  and  definite ;  yet  Bouterwek.  Tennemann,  Lewi-n, 
Ac,  agree  iu  connidering  Philo-Judsens  (q.  v.),  an  Alexandrian  Jew,  an<i  (in  part) 
contemporary  of  Jesus  Christ,  as  the  first  of  the  Neo-Platonist:*— that  is  to  sny,  as 
the  flr*t  wriio  endeavored  to  unite  the  mysteries  of  Oriental  belief  with  the  dialectics 
and  apecalatioiiff  of  the  PhiiotoiPts.  A  similar  course  was  at  least  partially  pnn»uf  d 
^ih»€Liui»^Usiitt%oi  AjAssaudxi^  partijtfrou  a  prv4ikctifQ4i.  for  il^i»UllQeo- 


y  Google 


Vm 


173 


phy  in  which  tbsy  had  been  reared,  and  partly  from  a  desire  to  harmonlee  resf«tt 
aiHl  falti),  uud  to  iniku  tiieir  reli)j:iou  acceptable  to  tlioughtfal  and  eiincnted  pkgatiff; 
het)C«»«  they  tuo  may,  not  without  ruocoii,  be  classed  aloirg  with  Phila,  tboitifh  ibefr 
ppirit  and  aim  are  distiuctively  and  even  atronsjrly  Christian.  In  Qiiostici-ra,  on  tlia 
other  liaiid,  spealcin*:  genemlly,  ti»e  Iawl€i»8  mystlciam  of  tite  Kaht  predoiuinmed, 
and  we  aee  little  either  of  the  pplrit  or  logic  of  Plato.  They  n«»y  therefore  Iw 
<1ianiis8ed  from  the  catei;ory  of  Neo«Platbiiit«ta.  Ret;ardint(  Phiio-Judeoe  aitd 
the' Alexaiidt'lan  divines,  ir  nmr^t  he  notlcfd  that  ttiev  wrote  and  taiij^hr  iu  ib«  in- 
tereifta  ot  tuelr  own  reli^Mon,  and  had  no  idea  of  d^^endin*;  or  propajmtiug  a 
iicathen  piiilo40  >hy.  It  ia  thia  which  atrikingly  diet ii iff aiahes  tliein  fnnn  the 
8cho:)l  fotiiided  by  Aninionins  i^acca^,  and  also  from  an  independent  group  of  pit}!un 
ti'ach.'ra  and  anthora  who  likewiae  flonriahud  in  the  flrar  |tnd  i«eisond  ceutnries  after 
Chri^r»  and  whone  main  object  was  to  popuiariae  and  diSn?>e  the  ethics  and 
rcii};:io-piiiloa()pliic  pyatem  ot  Pinto,  by  aileforicaify  ezphiiniuf  tite  ai}ek*iit  mya- 
teriea  of  tlie  p  ipniar  belief  lo  hamw>iiy  with  the  ideaa  of  their  mnater,  imt,  at  the 
aame  time,  blending  with  these  many  Pythagorean  and  Aristotelian  notions.  The 
best-known  names  of  this  ffi^im  are  Plotarch  (q.  v.)  and  Apputeiw  (<}>  tO*  The!»e  nseft 
have  a  better  claim  to  the  title  <x  Neo-Platouists  than  our  of  the  others.^  They  adhered 
far  more  closely  to  their  geeat  master,  and  were,  in  fact*-to  the  best  of  their  «bUity-^ 
simply  popular  expoimders  of  his  philosophy,  living  at  a  time  wbe&pagaxiism  was 
in  a  mod  band  condition,  thev  eonght  t<f  revive,  purify,  and  elevate  the  faith.tn  wbieh 
thdr  fathers  had  lived.  Cbriatiaiiity.  a  yoaug,  vjgoroas,  and  boetiie  system^ 
was  rooting  itself  iu  the  hearts  of  men  deeper  sbd  deeper  every  day,  and  these 
disdplea  of  Plato— tenderly  attached  to  their  ancestral  religion— f^  that  something 
TOQi^t  be  done  to  preserve  from  going  out  the  fires  that  were  fedl>ly  burning  oS 
the  altars  of  the  ancient  irods. 

Bat  these  commentaton  and  expositors  of  Plato  were  not  remaiieable  for  tbefr 
philosophical  power ;  a  fresh  eticam  of  life  was  first  ponred  into  the  old  ciiannels  q(E 
Platonic  speculatidn  by  Ammonias  Saccas  (q.  v.)  and  Plotiuos  (q.  t.),  and  it  is  this 
fact  which  gives  the  school  which  they  established  its  best  claim  to  the  ^^dnaiv*  titte 
of  yeo-  P:alam,UL    ^  In  no  species  of  grandeur  was  the  Alexandrian  sdiooi-d^ftcie^* 

,  as  M.  Saisset  jastly  observes :  **  genius,  power,  and  doratlon  have  consecrated  it  B^ 
animatiug  dating  an  epoch  of  decline  the  fecmidity  of  an  aged  civilisation,  it  created 
a  whole  &raily  of  illastrioas  names.  Plotinas.  its  real  founder,  resascitated  Plato  t 
Proclui  g^ve  the  world  another  Aristotle ;  and  in  the  person  of  Jalkui  the  Apostate, 
it  became  master  of  the  world.  For  three  centuries  it  was  a  formidable  rival  to  the 
greatest  power  that  ever  appeared  op  eartii— the  power  of  OfarlstiaDity :  and  if  it  suo 
cdmbed  ill  the  struggle,  it  only  feU  with  the  civliisatioa  of  which  it  aad  been  the  last 
rampart "  (Lewed  s  -'Biog.  Hist.  PhiL"  pi  260^.  The  essence  of  aU  the  Alssandrjan 
speculations,  we  have  stated,  consists  iu  the  blendhig  of  Platonic  ideas  with  (^iental 
mysticism ;  the  peculiarity  of  the  Neo-PiatonisU^  strictly  so-called,  lies  simply  in  the 
novelty,  audacity,  and  ingenuity  of  their  reasonings.  They  .-ilnKa  at  constructing  a 
relieiou  on  the  basis  of  dialectics.  They  strove  to  attain  a  Imowledge  of  the  Ui^<Mt, 
an  Aha  way  iu  wiiich  they  endiavored  to  accomplish  this  was  by  assuming  the  exist- 
ence of  a  capacity  in  man  for  passing  beyond  the  limits  of  his  personality,  oud  acqniiv 
ing  an  intuitive  loiowledge  of  the  absolute,  the  true— that  which  is  b^ond  and  above 
the  fluctuutions  and  dubieties  of  ^^  opinion. "  This  impersonal  faonlty  is  called  ifiesfOM^. 
Bv  means  of  it,  man—ceasing,  howeTer,  it  should  be  observed,  to  beicdi^dnal  man, 
1.  e.,  himMlf—caik  identify  himself  with  the  Absolute  (or  Infinite).  Plothsos,  iu  fad, 
set  put  from  the  belief  that  *^  philosophy"  (1.  e.  **  Absolute  truth '*)  is  only  possible 

<  through  the  identity  of  the  thinker,  or  rather  of  the  subjective  thought,  with  the  thing 
thought  of,  or  the  objective  thought   This  intuitive  grasp  or  ^^  vision ''  of  the  Absokite . 
is  not  constant:  we  can  neither  force  nor  retain  It  by  an  effort  of  will^  itspriugsift 
from  a  diviue  ipspiration  and  enthusiasm,  higher  and  purer  ttian  that  ot  poet 
or  prophet,  and  is  the  choicest  *''•  gift  of  Qod,*^ 

The  god  of  Plotiuus  and  the  other  Alexandrians  Is  a  mystical  Trinity.  In  the  expo* 
sitiou  of  which  they  display  a  dialectioal  snbtlety  that  even  the  most'ii<genioiis  of  the 
schoolmen  never  reached.  .The  Divine  Nature  contains  within  it  three  hypostases 
(Subatances);  its  basis,  if  we  may  so  speak,  hi  called  nnity,  also  poetically  irlmitive 
Xight.  &C  The  Unitt  is  not  itself  any  thinot  bat  the  prinetole  (tf  «il  tUnos;  H  if 
libiMitetood,  obtraiMepeM^ctlat;  And  th9J^  «ttirlyiiiQ^^*btedll»dit,ti»iM>ivji 


y  Google 


1T3 


N«o 


by  the  miflerfttait^iifl;,  them  is  that  in  innn  that  AMnmn  him  that  lt~ihe  Incompreii^ii- 
Bible,  ttaeliteffable,  ta.  *'It  baa iieii tier qnaiitity  uorqnalify ;  neither reiipon  norronl ; 
it  cxipttt  neiiber  111  niotioii  nor  re{>ot« ;  iicither'iD  spiice  nor  time ;  U  ii*  not  n  nnmeric 
unity  nor  a  pointy  ....It  i«  pure  Besewithont  Accident;  ....  it  i«»  exenipr  from 
all  want  or<lepeDdency,  a;*  well  us  from  nil  tliomrht  or  will  *  it  is  not  a  thinking  BeiujTi 
bntTbnnght  fl^if^^thepiriuclple  andcanseof  all  thing-."  O'othe  hcepric  iUh  •*Prinii- 
tiTe  LigiJi,"  wt"  arc  afiaid.  will  not  ?€em  very  luniiimna. '  Froni  "  Unity,"  aa  the pri- 
mord  al  soiirc<!pf  all  things,  emanateR  **  t'ure  lutelllgence  "  (yotw— the  Vemnt\/tiit 
modern  German  metaptiyeics);  it*«  reflection  andinjige,  that  l»y  wliich  it  \»  intuiiivfly 
apun-liended  ;  from  pnre  IiitelIigonc<-,  in  inrn,  entaniiteH  tin*  *•  Soul  of  the  World  " 
iP^yehe  Uni  pantce).  whose  •creative  aciivlty  pnMlnces  tiie  ponla  of  nn-n  and  anlninls, 
and  **N»iture  ;**  and  flualiy  from  nutnrepruccodt^**  Mjitt<r/'  which,  lioweve*-,  is  subject- 
ed by  Plotinos  to  »i(cJi  refluement  of  deAnitlon  that  it  loses  all  its  frrussnt  i<is.  Unit>-, 
Pnru  Intelti^nce,a:id  the  World-Soul  thasconstituttttimPlotinian  Triad,  witlu^hicli 
l8  connected,  as  we  have  seen,  the  doctrine  of  an  eternal  Emanation,  tiie  necessity  of 
wuicli  he'-idoi^vors  to  deinouKtrato  by  the  most  strin^rent  logic.  Hnman  H>a]s. 
wi)08eM)nrce  is'  tlie  Piuv  Intdligence,  are — by  some  my^terion8  fate— imprii>ooid 
hero  in  perif  halile  iKKliee,  and  the  higher  sort  arc  everiitriTing  to  reascend  to  their 
original  home.  So  Pimijms,  xi:hvu  intlie  agonies  of  deatif,  eaid  calmly  to  his  fi-ici.ds  t 
*•!  am  striigglii>g  to  lHwnite  the  divinity  witliin  nie." 

The  m<Si»t  dtsinignished  pnpil  of  Ploiiniis  was  Pbrj^Iw^rlns  to.  v.),  who  mainly  de- 
Tcted  hiui^elfta  expoundii«  and  qualifying  the  philuttAhy  of  his  mat*ter.  In  him 
we  see,  foe  the  first  Hine,  iTie  pretsence  of  a  distinct!  vWy  aiiti-CliriPtian  teiidency. 
Nco-PIn  ton  ism,  which  can  only  bo  proiwrly  nndi  n*tood  when  we  regard  it  as  an  at- 
tempt to  place  Pag:>nisu» on  a. philosophical  ba?is— to  naketheOreetc  nrliglon  philo- 
sophicaL  and  f^reek  philosophy  religions— did  not  coiuteiowUy  set  out  as  the  antago* 
uit<t  of  Christianity.  Neitiier  Ammonins  Sacois  nor  Plotinus  assailed  tiie  new  faith ; 
but  IIS  the  hitter  coutinned  to  grow,  »nd  to  attract  many  of  the  mo^'t  powerful  intel- 
lects of  the  aipe  into  its  service,  this  latent  aut1|Mithv  l)t>L'ai)  to  shew  )U>elf.  Porphyry 
wrote  against  ltj:Iaml)lichus  (q.  v.).  tin*  most  nott^d  of  his  pnpiis.  did  i  lie  same.  'J'he 
1  tteraiso  introdoctdajheut^c  or  *'  magical "  element  into  Nco-Platouisro,  leaching, 
among  otlier  tldngs.  that  ctfinain  mystenons  practices  mid  symbols  exercised  a  6U)h  r- 
natarui  iuflaence  over  the  divinities,  and  made  them  L^ant  our  desires.  Magic  is 
aiwiiys  popular,  and  it  is  therefore  not  wonderful  th.'it  lamblicba!*  sliould  have  had 
nomerons  followers,  ifidvsios  succeeded  to  his  master's  <hair,  and  appe:irs  to  have 
h^td  also  a  considerable  niuuher  of  disci pl-s.  To  tiie  school  of  one  of  them  the 
]£inpeit>r  Jniiiu  bcloitgid.  whos<'  patronage  for  a  moment  shed  a  gleam  of  splendor 
over  Neo-Platoni/rai,  and  seemed  to  promftc  it  a  nirfversal  victory.  After  a  snecession 
of  aide,  bnt  not  always  consistCitt  tnchers,  we  reach  Proclus  (q.  v.),  the  Inst  great 
Neo-Phitonlst,  who  In-longs  to  the  5th  c,  a  nnui  of  prodigious  learning,  and  of  an 
enthaf4astic  temperamoir,  in  whom  the  pagan-reli|(10us,  and  consequently  auti- 
Clirixtian,  tendency  of  the  Nco- Platonic  plIilo^ophy  cul]i)inated.  His  ontology  was 
biscd  on  the  Triad  of  Plotinns,  but  was  conKiderahly  modified  In  detail ;  iie  exaltt'd 
**  Paitli  "  above  **  Science  "  as  a  means  of  reaching  tiie  Absolute  Unity ;  was  a  be- 
liever in  Theurgy,  and  so  naturally  Initl  great  stress  upon  the  ancient  Chaldiean  ora- 
cles, Orphic  tiyinns.  mvfeleries,  Ac^  VFhlch  he  regarded  as  divine  revehitions.  and  of 
wiii<?li  l»«  con^idej^ed  hImself-HW,  indeed,  lie  was— the  last  great  '*  iut«rpretcr."  Hl^ 
hostility  to  the  Oiiristian  religion  wimkeen ;  in  its  success  he  saw  only  the  triuiniih  of 
a  vnlgar  f^og^l:rifsnt>erstitiou  over  the  refined  and  beantiful  theories  of  philosopliy ; 
It  WM!-  as^itlie  beiield  ii  horde  of  barbarian!*  defacrng  the  statues  and  rectjrds  oi  the 
.Panibeiin.  -  The  disciples  of  Proclus  w»re  pretty  numerous,  hut  not  remaikahle  for 
hi:rh  talent.  Perhaps  the  ablest  of  his  successors  was  Bamascins,  in  whose  time  the 
Emp<*ror  Justinian,  Ivv  an  nrHtrarv  decree,  closed  the  schools  of  the  heath(>n  philoso- 
phers. *<  'file  victimes**  «iys  Cousin  ("  Cours  d'Histoire  de  la  Philosopliie  Modt-rn.  "), 
*^"0f  fierce  retiiliation,  and  of  an  obstinate  |»ersecution,  these  poor  Ai«xandrinns. 
afrer  liaving  sought  an  asylum  in  their  dear  Biuof,  at  the  court  of  Cbosroes,  re<urne<l 
to  Europe  ^583  AD.),  were  diBper^'ed  over  tlic  face  of  the  eartii,  aitd  the  most  part 
extingnislifd  in  tbe  deseits  of  Bg^pt,  which  were  converted  forihem  into  a  philo- 
fopHlc 'l*hebais."  See  Pichte,  '^t>e  Philosophise  Nov«  Platonic©  Oritrinc  "  (Berl. 
18fS) ;  Bout^rwelt,  •♦  Phllosophorum  Alex.»ndrinorumac  Neo-Platonjcoriim,  recensio 
•ccuratSOr  "  (GOlt.  1821)  { MAlt^, "  EsSiii  Historique  sur  I'Bcole  d»Alexaudrie    (8  vols. 


y  Google 


Neozoic  l^A. 

NebiUddah  *  «  ^ 

Par.  1820);  81mon,  "Hlatolre  de  I'Ecole  d' Alexandrle "  («  vote.  Par.  184^-  ilartb4. 
lemy  St  Ililalre  "l)e  I'Ecole  d'Alexaudrie  "  (Par.  1846);  Lewea,  **  Biographical  Ute^ 
toryoi  Philoeophy''  (1857);  aud  Ueberweg's  "  Hiatory  of  Philosophy '^  (I'raufilatioii, 
Hodd^r  aud  StCHighton  1S78). 

NEOZOIC  (Gr.  new  life),  a  term  iotrodticed  by  Edward  Forbea  tainclncle  aH  the 
fltrata  from  the  Trias  to  the  most  receut  deposits.  They  are  geucrally  divided  into  the 
two  great  m>nps  of  Secondary  and  Tertiary  Kocks.  This  division  is,  however,  quite 
arbitrary— I'he  chief  point  of  dlffei-ence  depending  on  the  occurrence  in  the  Tertiary 
deposits  of  species  snpposed  to  be  the  same  as  some  still  living.  There  is  no  pakeou  to- 
lo^cal  nor  petralo^cal  break  similar  to  that  which  exists  between  the  Penman  »ud 
Tnas.  Forbes,  accordingly,  suggested  the  obliteration  of  the  division  between  the 
Secondary  and  Tertiary  series,  and  the  division  of  all  geological  time  into  two  epochs 
•—^e  Palseozoic  and  the  Neoxoic. 

NE'PA  AND  NEPIDiE.    See  Wateb-ScoSpion. 

NEPAU'L,  or  NIpal,  an  Independent  kingdom  of  Hindnstan,  ^yingon  the  BOnthF* 
cm  slope  of  the  Hinudayas,  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  Tibet,  on  the  s.  and  w.  by  Brit- 
ish Itfdia,  and  on  the  e.  by  SiWm,  a  protected  state.  Long.  80°  15'— 88°  IS'  e.  tt  to 
600  miles  in  length,  by  about  109  milop  in  average  breadth.  Area,  66«745  eq.  m. :  popL 
estimiited  (1878)  at  8,000,000.  The  kingdom  is  separated  from  the  plains  of  India  by 
the  long  narrow  strip  of  land  resembling  an  English  down,  but  unhealthy,  called  ths 
Terai;  which  extends  along  the  whole  southern  border.  North  of  this,  and  munfxie 
parallel  with  it,  is  the  great  forest  of  N.,  from  8  to  10  miles  broad.  North  of  tlifl 
strip  is  a  tract  of  WUy  countrv,  and  above  that  are  two  tracts  of  greater  elevation, 
the  first  of  which  may  oe  called  mountainous,  while  the  second  might  appropriate]^ 
be  called  Alpine,  if  it'did  not  comprise  among  its  mountains,  peaks,  which  like  Mount 
Everest  and  Dhawalagiri,  attain  almost  tmce  the  elevation  of  Mont  Blanc  The 
principal  rlvera  are  the  Kumalli,  the  Gk>gra,  the  Rapti,  the  Qunduk  with  its  trilmta'^ 
ries,  and  the  Kosi.  The  climate,  most  unhealthy  In  the  Teroi,  is  healtbr  and  pleas- 
ant in  the  hilly  and  mountainous  districts,  suggesting  that  o^outhem  Europe.  la 
the  V^alUy  of  ^T.— the  district  surrounding  the  capital— the  he<it  of  Bengal  wuteh  to 
felt  ill  the  hollows,  may  be  exchanged  for  the  cola  of  Russia  by  ascending  the  akmes 
of  the  hills  which  enclose  it  The  soil  to  extremely  ridi  and  fmitf nL  Barley,  minet, 
rice,  matoe,  wheat,  cotton,  tobacco,  sugar-cane,  piue-apple,  and  various  tropical  fruits 
are  ctdtivated.  Gold  bus  not  been  found,  but  iron  and  copper  mines  ore  workedr 
The  inhabitants  consist  mainly  of  two  tribes— the  Ghnrkas,  whose  ctiief  occupatidli 
is  war,  and  the  Newai*8,  who  are  principally  artisans.  The  capital  of  the  cckmtry  to 
Khatmauda  (q.  v.). 

NEPE'NTHfiS,  the  only  known  genus  of  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants 
called  NepenthacMiy  constoting  of  herbaceous  or  half-shrubbv  plants  with  dioecioas 
flowers,  natives  of  swampy  ground  in  India  and  China,  chiefly  remarkable  lor  th<^ 
leaves:  Each  leaf  consists  of  a  dilated  f oliaceous  petiole,  prolonged  beyund  ita  foUn- 
ccons  part,  as  if  it  were  the  prolonsatioii  of  the  nndrib  of  a  leaf;  and  terminating  in 
a  pitcher  {attciidium)^  from  wnich  the  name  Pitchsb  Vukint  has  been  very  genenUly 
given  to  the  species  of  this  order.  The  pttclier  to  terminated  by  a  lid,  which  to  ro* 
i^arded  as  the  true  blade  of  the  leaf.  The  fluid  found  in  these  pitchers  is  a  secretion 
of  the  plant  itself.'  Insects  often  enter  the  pitcher,  and  are  appai^itiy  iYvste  dissolved 
and  absorbed ;  so  that  the  N.  would  rank  amongst  the  plantH  called  '*'  InsectivorouB  ** 
by  Mr  Darwin.  Pitcher  plants  {N,  distilUUoria)  are  not  nucomraon  in  our  hothouses. 

NEPHE'LIUM.    See  LiTcni. 

NE'PHRITB,  a  mineral  which  to  not  unfrequently  called  Jade  (q.  v.),  and  of  which 
Axestone  (q.  v.)  to  very  generally  considered  a  variety.  It  Is  composed  of  silica, 
magnesia,  and  Hme ;  is  compact,  with  a  coarse  splintery  fracture,  very  tenacious^ 
sometimes  translucent,  greasy  to  the  touch,  and  of  a  green  or  greentob  color.  It  to 
found  in  granite^  gneiss,  greenstone,  &c.,  in  many  ^rts  of  we  world.  Very  fine 
specimens  are  brought  from  Persto,  Siberia,  and  China,  and  are  Imown  as  Ortental 
JcuU,  The  kind  called  Indian  Jade  is  olive  green,  and  strikes  fire  with  steel ;  that 
from  China  it  whittoh,  and  does  not  strike  fire.  TS,  to  used  for  ornaments.  11m 
U'arks  make  it  into  handles  for  sabres  and  daggers.    Many  imaghiary  viituss  wers 


Digitized  by 


Google 


ie"^r 


175 


Neozoic 
Nebruddak 

once  ascribe  to  It.  such  as  the  cure  of  eplJeptlc  fits  aud  of  DPpbrltic  (Gr.  ^uyhra 
kiduey)  coniplaiiitii ;  heucf  itB  name. 

NEPHKI'TIS  (Gr.  liepkroe,  kidney),  Inflammation  of  the  Kidneys,  (q.  -v.). 

NEPOMUC.    See  Johh  op  Nijpomuk. 

NE'POS,  ConielinH,  a  Boman  histonan,  bom  in  the  first  c  B.C.,  hut  the  place 
and.  precise  time  of  his  birth  are  nuknowu.  lie  was  the  friend  of  Cicero  aud  Catul- 
lus. The  only  work  of  N.'s  which  has  survived  (if  indeed  it  be  bie)»  is  a  peries  of 
twenty-five  generally  brief  biographies  of  waniors  aud  statesmen,  mostly  Gioekp. 
llieee.biographies  are  distiucmshed  by  the  purity  of  their  Latinity,  the  coucieencsa 
of  tlieir  style,  and  their  admirable  exhibitiou  of  character,  but  enfllcieut  care  has  not 
been  exercised  in  the  examination  of  authorities,  nor  In  the  relative  importance  of 
things  duly  regarded.  Untjl  the  middle  of  the  16th  c  these  b|ograpniep,  on  the 
tfrreiJgth  of  the  titles  given. in  the  various  31 SS.,  were  generally  ascribed  to  Jiniilins 
Probus,  a  writer  who  lived  in  the  latter  prt  of  the  4th  c  ;  but  in  1669,  fin  edition  was 
put  out  by  the  famous  Dionysius  Lambmus,  who  pronounced  the  so-called  "  Lives  " 
of  ^milfus  Probus  to  be  in  reality  the  lost  work  of  Cornelius  Nenos,  "  De  Viris  llut«- 
trtbns."  His  weightiest  argument  is  drawn  frdm  I  he  excellence  ot  the  Latin,  and  the 
chastity  of  the  style,  so  nnnke  the  cx)mipt  aud  florid  language  of  the  "Decline.  Many 
critics  bold  that  these  Lives  ought  to  be  regarded  as  an  abbreviation  of  the  work  uf 
If.  by  Probus.  I'his  hypothes^  is  not  without  its  diflicnlties,  but  it  is  perhafMi  the 
feast  objectionable  of  any.  There  are  many  editions,  amcug  which  may  be  mentioned 
tboB^  of  Van  Staveren  (Leyd.  1778),  of  Tzschucke  (Gott.  1804),  and  of  Bremi  (Zor. 
1820) ;  and  the  book  is  in  general  use  as  a  school-buok.  It  has  been  very  frequently 
translated  into  Euglisli  aud  other  languages. 

NE'PTONE,  an  ancient  Italian  god.  It  was  doubtful  whether  he'was  originally  a 
marine  deity  at  all,  for  the  old  Italians  were  the  very  opposite  of  a  maritime  peoplfl. 
et  hiB  name  is  commonly  bonnected  with  vato,  to  swim ;  hence  at  an  earlier  penoq 
_je  may  have  borne  another  designation,  afterwai'ds  f orgottoui  When  fee  Komans  be- 
came a  maritime  nower,  and  had  ^wb  acquainted  with  Grecian  mythology,  they,  in 
accordaiice  with  their  uBiwl  practice,  identified  him  with  the  Greek  god  whom  he 
ixK>6t  resembled.  This  waa  Fosetdiin^  also  Poteidan  (connected  with  potoe^  a  drink, 
ponton,  the  seo,  and  jwtanioa.  a  river).  Poseidon  appears  in  bis  most  primitive  my- 
thological form  as  the  god  of  water  in  general,  or  tne  fluid  element  He  was  the  son 
of  Cronos <Saturii)  and  Khea,  and  a  brotner  of  Jupiter.  On  the  partition  of  the  uuiveree 
amcmgst  the  iormoi  Cronos,  he  obtaiited  the  eea  as  bis  portion,  in  the  depths  of  which 
be  had  bis  palace  near  Mgs&,  in  Eubcea.  Here  also  he  kept  his  brazen-hoofed  and 
golden-maned  steeds,  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  which  he  rode  over  the  waves,  which 
grew  calm  at  his  apprc  ach,  while  the  monsters  of  the  deep,  recognizing  their  loi-d, 
made  sportife  homage  ftund  his  watery  path.  But  he  sometimes  presented  iumself  at 
the  a«#embly  of  the  goda  on  Olympus,  and  in  conjunction  with  Apollo,  built  the  walb* 
of  TiOy.  In  the  Trojan  war  he  sided  with  the  Greeks ;  neveriheless  he  subsequently 
Bbewed  himself  inimical  to  tt»e  great  sea^wanderer  Ulysses,  who  had  blinded  his  son 
PolyphemuB.  He  was  also  believed  to  have  created  the  horee.  and  taught  men  its  use. 
The  symbol  of  his  power  was*  a  tiident,  with  which  he  raised  and  stilled  storms, 
broke  rocks,  Ac.  According  to  Herodotus,  the  name  and  worship  of  Poseidon  came 
to  the  Greeks  from  Ubya.  He  was  worshipped  in  all  parts  of  Greece  and  Southern 
Italy,  especially  in  the  seaport  towns.  The  Isthmian  games  were  held  in  his  honor. 
Black  and  white  bulls,  boars,  and  rams  were  offered  in  sacrifice  to  him.  N.  was  com- 
monly represented  with  a  trident,  and  with  horses  or  dolphins,  often  along  with. 
Amphitrite,  in  a  chariot  dra^vn  by  dolphins,  and  surrrounded  by  tritonsand  other  sea- 
monefers.  As  befitted  the  fluctuating  element  over  which  he  ruled,  he  is  sometimes 
l^r^  asleep  or  reposing,  and  sometimes  In  a  state  of  violent  agitation. 

NERBU'DDAH,  a  river  of  Hindustan,  ri»e8  in  the  Vindhya  MonnTains.  at  a 
height  of  from  300<)  to.4000  feet  above  sea-level,  in  lat.  22o  40'  n..  long.  S1°  fi2'  e.  Ir. 
flowd  west,  past  Jnbalpur  (190  miles  from  its  souico),  where  the  great  depression 
between  the  Vindhyn  Mountains  on  the  north  and  the  8iitpur:i  Mountainn  oi»  the 
sontlu  known  as  the  Valley  of  the  N.,  begins.  The  other  principal  towns  on  ttj»  bunks 
STK  HoalMmpahad,  Burvvanl,  aud  Barnch.  At  HoshangaOnd  it  Is  900  yard^  wide,  nnd 
'      I  4t©  to  elx  feet  in  depth.    At  BumeU  It  begins  to  expai»d  Into  a  wide  eatuary. 


I 


y  Google 


and  ntter  flowing  80  nillefl  fnrlhor,  it  falls  Into  the  Oalf  of  CamhuT.  Entire  length 
about  800  miles,  of  which  66  miles  are  iiaviguble  for  sbips  of  considerable  »i«e. 

HBUOHrNSK,  an  important  mining  town  of  Raesis,  Bastem  Sibttria.ln  the 
Traiii*-BHilc;il  Territory,  on  the  Nerclja,  a  tributary  of  the  Shilk«,  in  l«t  6lo  58'  «., 
long«  1160 86'  e..4707  miles  from  8t  Petershnrg.  It  was funudtKi  in  1658, nud  h.d. in 
1867,  8988  inl)abit.iint&  The  di>tTict  of  whicli^.  is  the  centre  yields  a  good  deal  of 
gold  yearly,  together  with  large  quantities  of  silver,  lead,  and  iron,  and  preciona 
stone-.  The  only  tin-mines  in  the  enipiro  are  worked  here.  The  soil  in  the  vicinity 
is  fertile,  and  the  climate  mild  and  agreeable. 

NG'RBIS,  a  genus,  and  Nerei'dse,  a  family  of  Anttelid<iy  having  a  long  slender 
body,  a  distinct  heau,  wiih  trntncles  and  eyes;  the  whole  body  covered  witb 
tubercles,  and  the  gills  lobed  and  tiltttd.  They  are  all  marine,  and  generally  hide 
under  rocks  or  in  the  sand.  TIxy  swim  actively,  by  rapltl  and  nndnlatnig  inflections 
of  the  body,  and  by  the  aid  of  nuineroui*  oars  arranged  along  t  lie  sides ;  «aeh  formed 
of  a  stout  footstalk,  numerous  bristles,  uud  a  flap.  The  proboscis  is  thick,  strougi 
and  armed  with  two  jaws.  -  v 

NB'REITES,  the  name  given  to  noimals  which  hove  left  their  improsA  on  the 
Silurian  Hocks,  and  wiilch  exhibir  a  form  similar  to  the  modern  Nereis,  'llieyoccar 
on  the  surface  of  the  !amin»  of  fine  shales  over  whicli,  when  it  was  soft,  the  creature 
moyt'd,  leaving  a  long  and  tortnouslmil.  which  is  geneniliy  fonud  tu  terminate  in  a 
mofe  defined  representation  prodnced  apparently  by  the  body  itself,  althoagh  ^very 
truce  of  il  has  dii^appeared.    See  Ichnologt. 

NEBI,  Philip  de,  a  saint  of  the;  Roman  Catholic  Chnrch,  and  founder  of  tho 
Congregation  Of  the  Oratoiy  (q.  v.»,  was  born  bf  a  distinguished  family  in  Florence, 
July  21i  1616.  His  cliuracter,  even  in  boyhood,  foi&iliadowed  the  ctireer  of  piety  and 
benevolence  to  wliich  he  was  destined,  and  he  was  commonly  known  iiisong^iis 
youthful  companions  by  the  name  of  "  good  Philip."  On  the  death  of  his  parenti*, 
he  was  adopted  by  a  very  weultiiy  uncle,  with  whom  he  lived  for  some  time  at  Sail 
Qerinauo,  near  Monte  Casino,  hm\  by  whoui^Rs  was  recoirnised  as  his  destined  heir. 
But  he  reiinqnislted  all  these  prospects,  for  a  life  of  piety  and  charity,  and  hai»iug 
come  to  Route  in  1684,  he  there  completed  bis  philosopliioil  and  tlieological  studits, 
and  won  the  esteem  and  reverence  of  all  by  hia  extraordinary  piety,  and  his  l)ettevo- 
lence  and  activity  in  every  good  work  whetlier  of  charity  or  of  religion.  Although 
he  did  not  receive  priest's  orders  till  1661,  he  had  already  been  for  years  one  of  tne 
most  earnest  and  devoted  in  ail  the  pious  wo  k^of  Rome  for  the  instrnctiuu  of  the 
poor, the  oire  of  the  sick,  and  the  reclamation  of  the  vicious;  and  in  1560,  in  nnisou 
witli  several  of  his  friends,  he  established  a  coufrateniity  for  the  care  of  poor  pilgi'ims 
visiting  Rome,  and  other  houseless  persons,  as  well  as  of  tiie  sick  generally,  which 
■till  snuaisis,  and  which  has  numbered  among  its  associates  many  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished members  of  the  Roman  CatiioUc  Cliurcii.  This  confraternity,  however, 
is  cliiefly  note  wortliy  as  having  been  the  germ  of  the  far  more  celebrated  CoNdK^ 
OATioN  or  THB  Oratobt  (o.  V.),  whicii  was  founded  by  St  Philip  in  concert  with 
bis  friends  Baronius  and  Tarugio.  both  afterwards  cardinals,  Subriati,  and 
some  others.  Besides  the  general  objects  above  indicated,  and  Hie  spirit- 
ual duties  designed  for  the  personal  sanctification  of  the  members,  the 
m.tin  object  of  this  association  was  the  moral  instruction  and  religions 
training  of  the  yomig  and  uneducated,  who  were  assembled  in  chapels  or  oratorios, 
tor  prayer  and  for  religious^  and  moral  instruction.  As  a  further  nieans  of  with- 
.- drawing  youth  from  dangerous  amusements,  sucred  musical  entertainments  <tlienc6 
f  called  by  the  name  of  oratoi'io)  were  held  in  the  oratory,  at  first  consisting  solely  of 
•  hymns,  but  afterwards  partaking  of  the  nature  of  sacred  operas  or  dramas,  except 
that  they  did  not  admit  the  scenic  or  dramatic  accompaniments  of  these  more  secu- 
lar compositions.  Religious  atid  literary  lectures  also  formed  part  of  his  plan,  and 
it  was  in  the  lectures  oiTijinally  prepared  for  the  Oratory  tlmt,  at  tlie  instance  oi  N., 
.  the  eigaiitic  **  Churcli  History  *'  of  Baronius  had  its  origin.  The  personal  character 
of  N.,  the  unselfish  devotedness  of  his  life,  his  unaffected  piety,  his  genuine  love  of 
the  poor,  his  kindly  and  cheerful  disposition,  and,  periiaps,  as  much  as  any  of  the 
rest,  a  certain  quaint  linjnor,auda  tinge  of  what  may  almost  be  chilled  drollery  which 
pervaded  many  of  his  sayings  Jiiid  doings,  contributed  to  iwpiihlrise  h1s1fi$titut(*,and 
to  engage  the  public  favor  for  iiimself  and  his  fellow-hiboters.    He  himself  enjoyed 


Digitized  by 


Google 


»^^ 


t!ie  reftttatfon  of  ?«f»cti^  an^  c^  m1t«d«s  amon«  b!«  feUoW-rstiglaolstt  alina««t  h«r 
yoiid-aiijr  of  the  modern  paints;  and  ho  may  etill  be  described  as  em|)bati(^ally  tlie 
popiilHi*  sal  lit  of  tbt»  Romau  people.  He  lived  to  an  extreme  age  In  the  fuU  enJoy«> 
pieiit  of  nil  his  faculties,  und  in  the  active  diecharire  to  the  laett  of  all  the  chariruhle 
duties  to  which  Ills  life  hud  been  devoted.  He  dieid  at  tJie  ago  oi  Stf,  Mi»y  26,  3IJ95. 
He  Avpp  caiK>nifted  by  Gregory  XV.  In  16W.  His  only  literary  remufiis  are  hi?  *'  Let- 
ters" (8vo,  Padua,  1751);  the  "Constitnfioiis*'  of  hia  congregatiou,  printed  In  1612; 
some  short  hpintuftl  treatises,  and  a  fe\r  aouneta  which  are  printed  in  the  collection 
ot  *'"RiineOneSte.»' 

NERIA'D,  a  town  Of  British  India,  In  the  presidency  of  Bombay  and  diftrirt 
of  K:«iru.  on  the  ronre  from  Barodn  to  Abmedabnd.  88  miles  north-west  from  BHrodn, 
on  a  fei'd^r  ot  tl»e  Sabrtrmati.  It  is  the  chief  town  of  an  extensive  and  well-cnlti- 
vuted  tract,  which  produces  much  tobacco,  and  contains  many  prosMrous  towns 
nud  villages.    Pop.  (IbTl)  25,620. 

ITO'RIITM.    See  Olsandeb. 

KB'RO,  Roman  einperor  from  64  a.ix  to  68  a.B.,  waa  l)om  at  Antinm.  on  the 
coa^t  of  Laiinui,  15th  I)ecember  37  a  d.,  and  wa»  the  aon  of  Cn.  Doniitiiis  Ahenc^ 
biirbu»tti:d  of  AgripiHnn.  the  da^iieUter  of  Oermanicu'*  CsSiUir,  and  sister  ot  Oiiligiilat 
His  mother  lK*coming  the  wife  of  the  Emperor  Clandiui*.  Claudius  adopted  him  (60 
A.l>.).  and  his  nam ',  originiilly  L.  Dojuitius  Ahenobarbus,  was  changed  to  Nero 
CInaditi?  Csesar  Drnans  Qermanicas.  After  t)ic  death  of  Chmdins  (^4  a.d.),  the  Pne- 
toriaii  Guards,  at  the  instigation  of  Afranina  Burrbu^.  their  prefect,  declared  him 
emperor,  iii8te:id  Of  Clandins'  eon  Britunnicns,  and  their  choice  was  acknowledged 
both  by  the  feu&te  and  the  provinces.  His  reign  bejian  with  the  semblance  of 
luoderntion  and  good  i)romi?e,  under  the  guidai/Ce  of  Burrhus  and  his  tutor  Seneca 
ti:e  pbiloeophcr;  but  the  biilefnljnfluence  of  his  mother,  together  with  his  own 
moral  uetiknefis  iind  Sen.^u:i1ity,  frustrated  their  efforti*,  and  he  f>oon  plunged  heiid- 
Ibng  intodebauciiery,  extravagnnce,  nud  tyranny.  He  c»u?«'d  Britanuicup,  the  soii 
of  Claudius,  to  be  n'enclurpusTy  jjoiponed  at  the  age  of  14,  because  he  dreaded  him 
asa  rival,  nndafterwnrds  (59  A.D.)  <aiwed  lii^  own  mother  Agrippina  (with  whom 
Jie  was  latterly  on  bad  terms)  to  be  assapsinated,  to  please  his  mistress  Poppiea 
Snbiua  (the  wife  of  his  principal  boon-companion  Otho,  afterwarda  emperor).  In  or- 
der-to many  whom  he  also  divorced  and  acterwards  put  to  death  his  wife  tHtavia 
(a^ed  20),  the  sister  of  Britaunicns.  The  low  servility  into  whi<  h  the  Roman  senate 
had  fitmk  at  this  time,  may  be  ettimated  fit)in  the  fact  that  it  actually  issued  an  ad* 
dress  con^ratnlatin^ithe  hateful  matricide  on  the  death  of  Agrippina,  N.  himself 
on  the  otiier  hnud,  confessed  that  he  was  ever  hauuted  by  the  uhost  of  hif  mnrtlered 
motlier.  The  affairs  of  the  enipire  were  at  ihi5  time  far  from  tranquil.  In  61  a-d?, 
«it  liVflurrection  broke  out  in  Britain  under  Q>ieeu  Boadicea,  which  was.  however, 
f  upprepsed  by  Suetonius  Paulinus.  The  following  year  saw  an  unsncc<'SJ«ful  war 
against  the  Parthians  in  Armenia.  At  home,  matters  were  not  much  better.  'J'he 
eiiipenorwiis  lampooned  in  verse;  the  senate  and  priesthood,  alike  venal,  were  also 
satirised  by  audacious  malcontents;  Burrhus,  a  valuable  trieud,  died;  and  even 
8eneca,  though  not  a  great  moralist,  out  of  his  books,  thon^rlit  it  onlj  decent  to  re- 
move from  court  In  July  64.  occurred  a  great  coufla^ralion  In  Rome,  by  w  hich 
two-third!<  of  the  city  were  reduced  to  ashes.  N.  himself  is  usually  believed  to  have 
been  theincendiary.  It  is  said  that  he  admired  the  spectacle  from  a  distanc**,  rt>cit' 
jng  verses  about  the  burning  of  Troy,  but  many  scholars  are  doubtful  whether  he 
really  had  any  hand  in  It.  At  all  evi  nis  he  laid  the  blame  on  the  Christians-^that 
mysterious  sect,  who,  like  the  Jews  in  the  middle  ages,  were  the  cause  of  all  other- 
wise iucxplic^ble  caUimities,  ai:d  persecuted  them  with  greai  lury.  Moreover,  he  - 
rebuilt  the  city  with  creat  magniflcence,  and  reared  for  himself  on  the  Palatine  Hill 
a  splend:d  palace,  called^  from  th6  Immense  profusion  of  its  golden  ornaments  the 
Aurea  Dvinus^  or  Golden  House  ;  and  in  order  to  piovlde  for  this  expenditure,  and 
for  the  }^ratiftcutiou  of  the  Roman  populace  by  spectacles  and  (listrihntionsof  corn, 
Italy  and  the  provinces  were  unsparingly  plundered.  A  cotisplracy  agaitist  him 
failed  in  the  year  66,  and  Seneca  and  the  pmit  Lucan  fell  vi  tims  to  his  vt  ngcaiKe. 
In  a  fli  Of  pai'siou  he  murdered  his  wile  Poppeea,  by  kicking  her  when  she  Wa«  preg- 
fiaQt  He  then  proposed  to  Antouia,  the  daughter  of  i;iandius,  but  was  refiisjd, 
WWaret^  h>s  catUTcU  the  too  fiistidJolw  h»dy  to  be  ptit  to  dcftth,  atid  u»«rrted  »«triU 

Digitized  by  VjiOOQ  IC 


N«iVoiu  ^^  ,^  , 

MeBsallinaf  fif tor  kiH!ng  her  hoeband.  lie  also  executed  or  iMoiftbed  maoT  persoDS 
liighly  diBtiDgnished  for  iutegrity  and  virtue.  His  vanity  led  him  to  feek  distluction 
as  a  tx^t,  a^  pbilosopber,  au  actor,  u  mnsician,  aud  a  charioteer,  mid  he  received 
evcopltaiitic  am>)au8ei»,  not  ouly  in  Italy,  but  iu  Grct-ce,  to  whicli.  upon  invitation  of 
the  GrtJek  cilid^;  he  made  a  viwt  iu  67.  But  iu  6S,  the  Gallic  «ud  Spuuish  legiot)Js 
and  after  tiiem.the  Prsetoriun  Guards,  rose  again&t  him  to  make  Gaiba  emperor,  and 
K.  fled  from  Rou>e  to  the  house  of  a  freedman,  Piiaou,  about  four  miles  distant. 
Tlie  senate,  whicli  had  hitherto  beeu  most  subservient,  declared  him  au  enemjr  of 
his  country,  nud  the  tyrant  ended  hie  life  by  suicide,  *lHh  June  68.  One  is  sorry  to 
learn  tlmi  such  a  wretch  had  a  taste  for  poetiy,  aud  was  skilled  iu  painting  aud 
modellhi^. 

NE'RVA,  M.  CJocceius.  a  Roman  emperor,  elected  by  the  senate  after  the  mur- 
der of  Domitiau,  ISib  September  96.  Htf  was  born  82  a.d.,  of  a  family  belonging  to 
Narnia,  in  Umbria,  and  twice  held  the  honor  of  consulship  before  his  election  to 
the  dijrnify  of  emixjror.  Hedisplajred  great  wisdom  and  mpderatiou,  rectifltni  the 
administration  of  justice,  and  diminished  the  taxes;  but  finding  himself,  upon  ac- 
count of  his  advanced  age,  not  viporons  enough  to  repress  tlie  Insolence  of  the 
Praetorian  Guards,  ho  adopted  M.  Ulplns  Trajanuf*,  then  at  the  head  of  the  army  of 
G(>rmanv,  who  succeeded  iiim  on  bis  death,  27th  January  98.  After  his  decease,  he 
ot)tained  an  apotheosis. 

NERVOUS  DISEASES.  OF  AN  OBSCURE  NATURE  and  NERVOUSNESS. 
Although  the  most  iniportantaffections  of  the  nervous  system,  as  chorea,  convulsions, 
epilepsy,  hydrophobia,  hypochondriasis,  hysteria,  neuralgia,  paralysis,  spasms,  and 
tetauus,  have  been  considered  in  special  articles,  there  is  an  in flnite  variety  of  (often 
evanescent)  forms  which  the  di:5eaaes  of  the  nervous  system  assume,  some  of  wbrch 
we  propose  now  to  consider. 

These  nervous  affections  are  almost  solely  confined  to  women,  and  most  c*  tbera 
may  be  regarded  as  modified  forms  of  hysteria.  Simuletted  Pteffnanejf^  or,  as  the 
French  physicians  term  it,  Nervous  Ib-egnancf/j  U  an  affection  of  not  very  rare  occur- 
rence. The  abdomen  generally  enlarges,  I  lie  cutanienla  are  suppressed,  aud  sick- 
ness, enlargement  of  the  breasts,  with  the  other  symptoms  of  pr -gnancy,  supervene 
(as  far  as  they  can  be  recognised  by  the  non-professional  observer),  and  it  is  onlvthe 
;)on-appeanujce  of  the  infant  at  the  expected  period  that  leads  to  a  sn*«pidon  of  the 
true  nature  of  the  case.  Tlie  diagnoMis  of  such  a  case  is  extremely  difficult,  and  the 
jnost  celebrated  accoucheurs  have  been  deceived.  We  commence  with  this  extreme 
instance,  as  being  singularly  illustrative  of  the  power  whicli  a  perverted  action  of  the 
nervous  system  nniv  impress  npou  certain  persons.  The  somewhat  allifd  cases  iu 
which  patients  persist  in  fancying  themselves  pregnant  in  opposition  to  tl«e  opinion 
of  tlieir  medictil  adviser  (as  the  well-known  case  of  (^aeen  Mary,  so  admirably  drawa 
by  Proude),  ai-e  far  more  numerous.  The  intestines  are  often  implicated  in  cases  of 
a  deranged  condition  of  the  nervous  system.  The  excretioti  of  gas  frou»  the  intesti- 
nal mucous  membrane  is  often  much  increased  in  the  class  of  patients  commonly 
called  nervous.  The  rat!  ling  sounds  produced  by  the  movelnent  of  the  gas — scien- 
f-fically  known  as  boniborygml — are  sometimes  so  loud  aS  to  prevent  the  patient 
from  entering  into  society  with  comfort;  and  sometimes  the  mere  f^rof  the  occur- 
rence of  tliese  ^<Ol^lds  is  sufficient  to  induce  them.  A  depraved  Hppetite,  scietitifl- 
cally  known  asjn'cc^isa  common  symptom  of  derangea  nervous  system  both  in 
chlorotic  young  women,  in  whom  tlie  catamenial  discharge  is  not  well  established, 
and  iu  pregnant  women.  See  Morbid  Appetites.  The  not  very  rare  cases  of  fast- 
ing women  and  girls  belong  to  the  same  categoiy.  All  these  cases,  however,  ulii- 
mately  undergo  detection. 

Dr  Parry  and  other  physicians  have  described  cases^  of  morbid  sensibility  of  the 
mucous  muMnbrane  of  the  pharynx,  iu  which  the  muscles-of  tlie  larynx  are  cjilled 
Into  violent  action  if  the  patieut  takes  a  sip  of  wat^'r  or  other  fluid.  Such  cjis*  8  so 
Btrons^'ly  simulate  hydropliohia,  that  they  are  described  as  hysteric  hydrophobia. 

Passing  on  to  thtf  special  modifications  wliicli  au  abnormal  state  of  the  nervous 
system  impresses  on  the  organs  of  circulation,  we  have  nervous  palpitation  of  the 
liu'irt,  which  may  readily  be  distinguished  from  palpitation  deijendent  on  change  of 
atructure  by  due  attention  to  symptoms."  There  is  a  peculiar  form  of  alidoininal 
j^\fi^Ajfnx,  jdi^u  sK>Iuly  to  nervous  iuflu<^uce,  which  ma^  not  very  aufi'equeutljr  te 


y  Google 


J 


-^  «  ^  Nervoni 

f«*H  on  pre^sfng  the  hand  on  the  patient's  abdomen.    It  has  in  many  cases  buen 
niis'tiikeii  for  ai)enri<»ni. 

The  nervous  symptoms  implicating  Wie  respiratory  or^rans  are  not  only  the  most 
common  of  any,  but  arc  alarming  aud  nrpentt  and  may  be  readily  mfstakcn  for 
iudications  of  gerious  inflammatoiy  o»"  organic  dit«ea8e.  Nervous  anthma.  which  is 
pnpposed  to  depend  uposi  a  spasmodic  coin*truction  of  the  bronchial  tnb^^s,  is  too  well 
kitowti  to  require  comment.  Women  suffering  from  a  derang<'d  condition  of  the 
nervous  pystxan  sometimes  ]»rcftcut  symptoms  of  what  may  be  termed  nervous 
•  crttarrh — srich  as  a  copious  now  of  tears,  free  dlscliarge  from  the  nostrllis  and 
coil ?tiitit.  sneezing.  Such  cases  are  often  |)crio(1ic.  They  raa^  he  treated  with  pr«- 
]>:«raT.lon.'*  of  irou,  and  are  sometimes  at  oncecheclced  by  a  pmch  of  bnuff.  There 
are  vnrions  forms  of  cough  due  mainly  to  nervous  irritation,  tiie  difference  In  the 
cbfjracter  of  the  congh  pi-obably  depending  ou  the  spot  which  is  the  seat  of  lirlia- 
tioii.  Tlius,  we  hear  of  jsjmsmodic  cougli,  wluch  is  often  accompanied  by  mncb 
fit  raining  aud  convulsive  agitation,  and  somewhat  resembles  hoopii>g-cough ;  ring- 
ing cou«rli,  accompanied  by  dyspncea  and  hoarscuefs,  or  loss  of  voice;  barmng 
congii,  often  arising^  from  irritation  of  the  ovaries,  &c.  8Dcb  couffhs  as  Uicfe  are 
aegrnvated  by  depleting  measures,  oi^iuary  cough  medicines,  «€.,  aud  usually 
disappear  under  the  use  of  tonics. 

The  aervous  affections  of  the  motor  system  are  conveniently  grouped  by  Dr  Lay- 
cock  ninkjr  three  lieads—^l)  the  fir.-t  including  those  cases  in  which  their  is  paralysis 
or  spasm  without  distortion  ;  <2)thpse  in  which  distortion  follows  cessation  of  mus* 
cnlar  eqnilibrinm,  as  in  the  various  form  of  club-foot;  aud  (8)  paroxys<nnil  affec- 
tions. Tl»e  best  example  of  the  Jlr»t  class  is  hysterical  patalyfls  of  the  lower 
extremities,  of  which  Sir  Benjamin  Brodie  long  ago  wrottj  as  follows :  ♦•  I  have 
known  not  a  few,  but  very  numerous  instances  of  young  ladies  being  condemned  to 
the  Uorizontal  posture,  and  even  tdthe  torture  of  aiustic  issues  and  netons,  for  s»ev* 
erul  successive  years,  in  whom  air  and  o^Xercise,  aud  cheerful  occupations  would 
prolmbly  have  procured  a  cure  in  the  course  of  a  few  months."  A  notice  of  Bnch  cases 
as  ttiese  may  be  found  in  the  article  Hysteria.  Paralysis  of  a  lateral  luilf  of  the 
body,  or  of  one  linib  oiily,  may  also  be  merely  a  manifestation  of  liysteria.  The 
secttnd  clasi*  Is  well  illusitrated  by  the  following  case,  which  is  reported  by  Mr  Shaw. 
A  3^irng  lady  who  had  suffered  from  a  tniin  of  symptoms  indicative  of  a  disturbed 
nervous  system,  had  jtheanlsle  so  turned  round  that  she  wnllced  on  one  side  of  the 
foot,  'ihe  Isnec  \xa8  also  l)eut  outwards,  and  the  spine  was  becoming  distorted.  Sir 
Charles  Bell,  who  ^aw  her  in  consuliation,  i-egardtd  the  case  as  one  of  wilful  decep- 
linu,  and  iu  a  year's  time  his  diagnosis  was  completely  established,  scarcely  any 
tjatee  of  lameness  l>eh»g  apparent  Many  of  the  joinfj*— as  the  knee,  hip,  &c.— may 
be  the  seats  of  purely  neuralgic  symptoms,  which  so  closely  simulate  orgauic  disease  ' 
of .  tlie ,  cartihiges,  as  to  lead  to  the  removal  of  the  limb.  Oarmichael,  Brodie,  and 
others  have  lecordi-d  cases  in  wliich  this  terrible  mistake  has  been  made  by  experi- 
enced snrgeons.  Spinal  irritiition,  or  spinal  tenderness,  is  a  mysterious  affection, 
whose  diagnostic  value  is  not  very  definite,  as  it  may  arise  from  a  large  number  of 
distinct  conditions,  as,  for  exam])i<',  d  sease  of  t-ome  part  of  the  spinal  cord,  utetfhe 
disease,  chronic  di>ease  of  the  intestinal  viscera,  Ac 

One  of  the  mof»t  anomalous  affections  of  the  nervous  system  ever  recorded  is 
describeil  t>y  Mr  Holdeu  in  the  *'8i  Bartholomew's  Hospibil  Report*,"  186T.  voL 
iii..  pp.  299-306.  The  patietit  was  a  bright-looking  l>oy  about  12Xi  who,  as  he  lay 
rcjdingin  t>ed,  presented  every  appearance  of  perfect  health:  all  that  hecomplained 
of  was  what  he  called  his*bnihp,"  which  was  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  and 
l:iy  on  the  right  side  of  the  neck,  ju»»t  above  the  shoulder.  If  the  *' bump "  were 
toarh'-d-  eVen  niont  gently^  the  boy  ins'tantly  lost  all  consciousness,  and  became 
d-jif,  dumb,  jind  blind,  while  his  body  Ix-came  arclied  like  a  bow,  and  was  supportni 
OM.y  by  the  back  of  tlie  head  arid  the  heels,  while  his  arms  were  rigidly  extended. 
Ho  miiihr  bt;  pinch«d  or  pricked,  but  shewed  no  sign  of  sensation.  After  remaining 
in  tln»slal«  for  homewhat  less  than  a  minute.  Ins  drew  a  deep  long  breath,  which 
wsfoih>Med  by  adtsep  sigli.  Inftanily  the  Hpasm  Ceased,  and  the  body  fell,  seem- 
ingly iifcless.  on  the  btd.  After  two  Other  similar  sigiis,  whicli  occurred  in  a  few 
Seconds,  the  boy  awoke  as  if  from  profound  sleep,  aud  in  a  few  minute?  was  non.* 
tlie A\orse. for  what  he  luid  gone  through.  Wlienever  the  bump  was  touched—even 
wteu  ttiu4)0y  was  fast  asicei>-^QJe  eaine  phououi«iia  occurred.    ^It  was  fotuil  thai. 


y  Google 


B«m« 


180 


on  toacliins:  the  backbooe  fn  the  dor»Al  rrg^rm,  the  snme  seriet  of  erento  happened.) 
By  coutiimoiis  gemie  manipniatloi)  of  the  bninp,  tho  boy  waai  kept  uucoiisi-ious  {or  » 
tvv«:nty  mimitcs.    Another  and  even  more  remarkatjle  phase  of  the  boy'**  aCEectiwi 
wua  liis  crowing  and  barking  lit,  which  took  place  every  day  at  the  same  toine, 
Almost  to  !i  mhinte.    See  the  K'porrs  abovu cfred. 

Witli  this  illustration,  we  close  oiu"  remarks  on  M'hat  may  be  termed  Anomalous 
KervoUH  AJ^Uotis.  With  rejrard  to  NcrvovAUMH^  which  alto  ntandf  at  the  cad  of 
thit«  arifcle,  we  may  obsei've,  tliat  it  is  a  word  prrtaining  rather  to  the  vocalnilary  of 
tlj"  patient  (and  pe-eminenily  of  tlie  female  patient)  tnan  of  the  pliysicinn.  ft  is 
Usually  fuiders«rood  to  indicat'  a  condition  ot  which  a  rt'j»t]ef»8  niobiiity,  wirii  or 
withont  an  undue  excitability  of  the  nervii»  of  seuHatton,  is  the  chief  chai-act eristic 
For  furtiier  information  on  thi^  subject,  the  reader  i:^  refern-O  lo  Dr  Lnycock's 
various  works,  and  to  Komb^rt;  "Ou  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System/'  2  vul&, 
tran.-*lat«<d  t»y  Dr  Sievtrking. 

NERVOUS  SY8  TEM,  The,  iscompo'ed  in  all  vertebrated  animals  of  two  distinct 
portions  or  system? — viz.,  the  «v«frjo-»p<nai and  eympathetio  or  ganglionie. 

Th '  (ferebrO'Spinal  »ifjftem  inclndes  ihu  brain  and  spiual  cord  (trhich  form  the 
ecrebrO'spiTUil  axin),  and  tlte  cranial  and  spinal  nerves,  it  was  termed  by  Bxliat  the 
nervous  synteni  of  animal  life,  and  coniprit<es  all  the  uervoaa  organs  cuucurued  hi 
Sensation,  volition,  and  mental  action. 

The  a^//ipat/ie^8y«t0m consists  essentially  of  a  chain  of  ganglia  conoected  1^ 
nervous  cords,  e^tt ending  from  the  cranium  fotbe  pelvis,  along  each  side  of  th^ 
vertebral  column,  and  from  which  nerves  with  large  ganglionic  masses  proceed  to 
the  viscera  and  nlood-vessels  in  thn  cnvitii-s  of  the  c\wsl,  abdomen,  and  pelvis.  It 
was  termed  by  Bichat  the  nervous  system  of  organic  life,  wince  itseema  to  reirnlate 
— almost  or  quite  independently  of  the  will— the  due  perfornuuice  of  the  functions 
of  the  organs  of  respiration,  circulation,  and  digestion. 

The  essential  parrs  of  the  c&rebro-9pinal  axis  are  described  in  the  articles  BBlllT, 
CEBEBB171II  and  Cbbebelluu,  and  SPINAL  OoRD.  The  brain  and  spinal  cord  are 
covered  and  protecleil  by  three  menibranes  or  •meninges,  as  they^re  freqaffut'y 
ternied— viz.,  the  dura  rnater,  the  arachnoid^  and  the  pia  mater,  Tlie  dura  - 
mater  is  a  strong  flbn»usmeml)rane,  which  supplies  the  cranial  bones  with  blood 
In  early  life,  ami  adheres  fli'mly  to  their  inner  surface.  It  is  less  closehr 
atiuclied  to  (he  bony  walls  of  tie  spinal  canal.  Insid;  the  cranium  itcivea  off 
processes  (such  n^thefalx  cerebri,  tentorium  eerebeUi,  and/aCx  cerebeUi)  whk^h  divide 
and  support  diffrent  parts  ot  the  brain;  it  gives  a  strong  fibrou<*  sbsath 
to  every  nerve  ;  aid  by  splitting  into  rwo  layers  at  certain  points,  it  forms  recep- 
tacles for  venous  b:oo<l,  which  are  termed  ISiNUSSs  (q.  v.).  The  arachnoid  {^ 
called  from  its  being  supposed  to  be  as  tliin  as  a  Bpi«ler*'8  web)  Is  a  serous  membrane, 
and.  like  all  serous  membranes,  is  a  closed  fac,  consisting  of  a  parietal  and  a  vis- 
ceral  layer.  The  pari  -tal  layer  adheres  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  dura  mater,  to 
which  it  gives  a  smooth  polished  appearance  ;  while  the  vit>ceml  layer  somewhat 
loosely  invests  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  from  direct  contact  with  which,  however, 
it  is  sitparated  by  (he  intervention  of  tne  piatnater  and  some  loose  areolar  tisane. 
In  most  regions  there  is  an  interval  between  the  visceral  layer  of  the  arachnoid  nlid. 
t  he  ;)ta  mater,  which  is  called  the  stib-araehncrid  cavity^  and  is  filled  during  life  by 
tho  cerebrChspinal  fluid.  This  fluid,  which  varies  in  quantity '.from  two  to  ten 
ounces,  keeps  tiie  opposed  surfaces  of  the  arachnoid  in  close  contact,  and  affords 
luechanicai  protection  to  tite  nervous  centres  which  it  surroitnds,  and  guards  thcai 
ag  tinst  extermil  shocks.  It  1^  accumulated  in  considerable  quantity  at  the  base  of 
the  brain,  where  It  serves  for  the  protection  of  (lie  hirge  vessels  and  nerves  situated 
tlii;re.  In  fracture  of  the  b:ise  of  tiie  skull,  the  draining  away  of  this  fluid,  often  iu 
very  large  quantity,  through  the  external  auditory  meatus,  is  often  one  of  tho  most 
si«;nlticant  symptoms.  It  is  doubtless  secreted  by  the  «na  rnater,  which  is  tiie  im- 
mediate inve.'<ting  membrane  of  the;  brain  and  spinal  cord.  This  menibrane4;ons^4a 
of  minute  blood-Vttssels,  held  together  by  an  extremely  fine  areolar  tissue.  It  dips 
down  between  the  convolutions  and  fissures  of  the  brain,  and  is  prolonged  in^o  the 
inter;or,  forming  the  w/um  «7it<Jr2>o«tf«m  and  the  choroid  plexuses  of  the  fourth 
Vintricle.  It  is  by  meana  of  this  membrane  that  the  blood-vessels  are  conveyed  iotd 
the  nervous  sunstance.  . 

W«  uow  {M*otte«d  to  notice  tkM  nerves  connected  with  thecerebro-vpiualoeatriof 


y  Google 


181 


N«rToiM 


•axis.  These  are  aftualty  describe<)  in  two  claiwes— the  tpitiai  and  (he  cranial  or 
enfifj^niic  The  former  cIrsh  contiifits  of  all  tUoae  wiiicii  ar!»e  from  ihu  spinal  cord, 
and  e^ergp  from  the  spinnl  caiml  through  the  iiilorvertebral  foramina ;  while  tlie 
'  lattor^incmdeB  tboiKe  which  Hrieefroni  ^omu  part  of  the  cerebro-ephial  centre,  and 
emerge  i  hrongh  foraminn  in  the  cranium  or  BknlL 

The  Spinal  Jferves  (ezclnaive  of  the  »piuai  accewsory  nerve,  which,  from  the  fart 
that  it  emerges  from  the  skull,  ia  usually  nmked  among  the  cranial  nerves)  are 
thirty-one  on  ciUit-r  side,  ilicrc  being  a  wiir  for  each  pair  of  intervertebral  fonnnlua 
{\rh03*e  formation  i?  de»cril)ed  in  the  article  Yebtebra  and  Vxbtebbal  Colgiin), 
and  for  the  foramina  between  the  atlas  (the  first  or  iiitihcpt  vertebra)  and  the  oeci* 
pital  bone  ai.  Uic  liase  of  the  sknlU  Kvery  spinal  nerve  arises  from  the  cord  by  two 
roots,  an  anterior  uud  a  p>osterior,  of  which  the  latter  is  dictinctly  the  larger.  Each 
root  p:i8se8  out  of  the  ppinal  canal  by  a  disthict  opening  in  the  dura  mnter.  Im- 
mediately after  its  einergei]C<^,  a  ganglion  is  seen  on  the  posterior  root,  and  in  the 
anterior  surface  of  this  ganglion  the  anterior  root  lies  iml.edded.  Just  beyond  the 
fraitgiion,  but  not  at  all  previously,  t-be  nervous  fibres  of  both  roots  intermingle, 
and  a  compound  nerve  results.  The  trunk  thus  formed  Separates  immediuteiy 
after  it  has  p:u»sed  through  the  intervertebral  cmnil  into  two  divisions — the  anterior^ 
and  posterior — each  of  which  contains  filaments  from  t>oth  roots,  and  poss*  sninir. 
a9  win  be  immediately  shown,  perfectly  different  functions.  These  divisions,  ot 
whidi  the  anterior  is  considerably  t4ie  larger,  proceed  to  the  anterior  and  posterior 
pans  of  tl)«  body  respectively,  and  are  distrihuted  to  the  skin  and  the  muscles. 
The  anterior  branch  communicates  witli  the  sympathetic  nerve.  The  mode  of 
eonnection  of  the  roots  of  the  nerves  with  the  cord  is  noticed  in  the  nnicle  Sfinal 
Cobs.  These  nerves  are  arranged  in  classes,  according  to  the  regions  of  the  spine 
in  which  Uiey  originate,  and  we  thus  spea^  of  eight  cervical,  twelve  dorsal,  five 
Inmbtir  and  six  sacral  nerves  on  either  side. 

TUe  discovery  of  the  separate  functions  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  roots  of  the 
^nnl  nerves,  which  Ims  been  characterised  as  the  first  important  step  towards  a  riglit 
nnderstauding  of  the  pl»ysiology  of  the  nervous  system,  wjis  maae  by  our  disun- 
gaisbed  countrj'man  Sir  Ch:u'le8  Bell,  although  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  Mh- 
geudie,  without  any  knovvledge^of  Bell's  experiments,  arrived  at  similar  conclusions 
at  nearly  the  same  time.  The  original  experiments  consisted  in  laying  open  the 
•piual  C4inal  in  rabbits,  and  irritating  or  dividing  the  roots  of  the  spinal  nei-ves.  It 
was  observed  that  irritation  of  the  anterior  roots  caused  muscular  movement,  and 
that  the  posterior  roots  migiit  be  irritated  without  giving  rise  to  any  muscular 
action ;  while  division  of  tl^  posterior  roots  did  not  impair  the  voluntary  power 
over  the  mascies.  Hence  it  was  inferred  that  the  anterior  roots  were  motor  (or  con- 
Ysyed  motive  power  to  muscles),  and  the  posterior  roots  not  motor;  but  it  was  not 
fully  determined  what  degree  of  sensibility  remained  in  parts  supplied  from  the 
divided  roots.  Non»erous  physiologists  arrived  at  similar  results  to  those  of  Bell ; 
but  the  most  conclusive  experiments  are  those  of  MUller,  who  operated  ou 
frogs;  in  which,  from  the  great  width  of  the  lower  part  of  the  spinal  canal,  the 
roots  of  tiie  nerves  cau  be  exposed  with  great  facility.  In  these  experiments,  it 
was  found  that  irritation  of  tiie  anterior  root  always  excited  muscular  contraction, 
wiiile  no  such  effect  followed  irritation  of  the  posterior  root ;  that  section  of  the 
anterior  root  caused  paralysis  (or  loss  of  power)  of  motion,  while  section  ot  the  pos- 
terior  root  caused  paralysis  ol  sensation ;  and  that  when  tlie  anterior  roots  of 
the  nerves  going  to  the  lower  extremity  were  cut  on  one  side,  and  the  posterior 
roots, ou  the  otlier,  voluntary  power  without  sensation  remaineo  in  the  latter,  and 
•ensation  without  voluntary  motion  in  the  former.  The  obvions  conclusion  to  be 
derived  from  tliese  experiments  is,  that  the  anterior  root  of  each  spinnl  nerve  is  rnotw, 
and  the  posterior  iensitive.  (In  place  of  the  terms  sensitioe  and  motor^  the  terms 
mftrent  and  efferent  are  now  frequently  used.  The  functions  of  the  nerves  being  to 
4siMabtish  a  communication  between  the  nervous  centres  and  tlie  various  p:irt>«  of  the 
kody,  and  nice  oersa ;  9Mafftreni  nerve  comnuinicates  the  impressions  made  upon 
the  pieripheml  nervous  raniifications  to  the  centres,  while  an  efferent  nerve  conducts 
the  impnlsesof  the  nervous  centres  to  the  periphery.) 

The  Cranial  NerveSy  although  twelve  in  number  ou  eitlier  side,  were  arranged  by 
WSUis<**  Cerebri  Au&tome ;  cui  accetsit  Nervorum  Descriptio  et  Usns,"  t6«4),  whose 
^stem  is  still  generally  adopted,  in  nine  polrs,  which,  taken  from  before  backwards 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


Nervous 


182 


in  The  oi'Aer  In  wlild)  th<*y  arc  tmnsTnitted  throiigh  the  foramina  at  the  hai>o  of  the 
Bknll,  stand  as  follown:  let,  Olfactory;  «tJ,  Optic;  3d,  Motores  Ociilomm ;  4iK, 
Pathetic ;  5ih,  IVifailal ;  6th,  AlKliicentet*;  7th.  Purt.m  Dora  or  Facial,  Portro  lilollft 
or  Auditory ;  8th,  Glosaopharyiij^ea),  Par  Vugiiui  or  Pueuiuogaatric,  Spiual  Acc^* 
Bory ;  9th,  HypogloB^]. 

Tliey  may  be  suWivided"  into  thi-ee  pronpp,  according  to  their  functiona— viz. 
Nerve*  of  Special  Scnae—flie  Olfactory  (See  NosB).  Optic  (pee  £ts),  and  Auditory 
(q.  V.) ;  Nerves  of  Motion  or  Afferent  A>rt>e»— thf  Motorea  Ocaloriim,  Patiietic,  Abdu- 
ccnti^a  Facial,  and  Hypojjlosfud  ;  and  Compoutid  MeTt>e«— the  Trifacial,  Qlossopharyu- 
geal  Pirt;nin()j?a»trlc,  and  Spintil  Acce^-Bory. 

The  reason  why  uo  nerve  of  Tnate  is  iiicladed  in  the  above  arran^'ement  amongst 
tlie  nei-ves  of  special  sense  will  bo  subsequently  seen ;  aud  we  proceed  briefly  to 
uotice  tlie  fnnctions  of  the  motor  crauial  nerves. 

Tlie  3d.  4tli,  and  6th  paired — the  Motores  Oculorum^  PtUhetie.  and  Ahdtusentes—^O' 
gether  make  up  the  apparatus  l)y  which  tlie  nmscles  of  the  orbit  (the  four  Kecti,  the 
tinpeiior  and  inferior  Oblique,  and  the  Levator  palpebrsB)  are calkxi  iuio  luutiou,  and 
are  cnfflciently  noticed  in  the  article  Etb. 
#  The  Facial  Nerve,  or  tlie  Portio  Dura  of  the  7th  pair,  is  divisible  into  three  stuees. 
The  first  sta^uis  thfe  intercranial.  from  \U  origin  ti>  its  exit  from  the  cranial  cavTly, 
in  nssociatlon  witli  tlie  Portio  Mollis  or  AxuiUory  Nerne  (q.  v.),  at  thi  iuteriuU 
auditory  meatus.  The  second  stage  is  coutuiued  iu  the  Aqvedttet  qf  Falhpi^u^A 
bony  canal  lying  in  the  petrous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone.  In  this  sr^itre  it 
anastoinises  with  other  nerves,  ana  tlins  sensory  fibres  are  introduced  into  it  fro  a 
the  6th  pmir  and  other  sources  whicli  muke  irritation  of  some  of  its  branches  to 
cause  p.iin.  Ttie  tiilrd  stage  commences  with  the  eiAergeuce  of  the  uervu  throuiiri 
the  sivlo-mastoid  foramen.  The  nerve  now  lies  in  the  i>arotid  gl:ind,  and  after >:iv- 
Ing  oft  tlie  posterior  aurictdar^  and  a  few  smnlier  branehes,  finally  divides  into  the 
temporal.  fadcU^  and  cervical  brunches.  This  di\«rgiiig  distribution  of  the  uervons 
branches  over  the  fnce forms  ihe  pc*  anseriniis  of  the  older  uuatomis»«,  from  tlw 
supposed  resemblance  to  the  ex])anded  foot  of  a  goose.  Careful  di^seftion  of  tliia 
iierve  shews  that  the  great  majority  of  its  fii>res  arc  distributed  to  mu!«cics ;  and 
indeed,  if  we  except  the  mirscles  of  mastication,  whicli  receive  their  iisotor  pow«r 
from  tlieSd  division  of  the  5ih  pair,  thia  may  be  regarded  ha  the  getieral  iiiot'tr 
nerve  of  the  face.  **  The  muscles  whieh  are  supplied  by  ilie  facial  uewe  are  chieflf 
those  upon  which  the  aspect  of  tlw  countenance  and  the  balance  of  the  features 
depend.  The  power  of  clawing  the  eyelids  depends  upon  Ibis  nerve,  as  it  alone 
8upi>lies  the  orbicuhiris  pa'pebrarum  ;  and  likewise  tliat  of  frowning,  from  its  iiiflu*  j 
ence  upon  the  corrngator  siipeit^itii.  Anatomy  indicates  that  this*  uerve  is  tlie  ^ 
motor  uerve  of  the  superficial  muscles  of  the  face  aud  <*ar,  and  of  ihe  deep-sented 
muscles  within  tiie  ear.  Tliis  couclnsion  is  abuiKlantly  confirmed  by  comparative 
anatomy.  For  wherever  the  Biipei-ficial  muscles  of  the  face  are  well  developed,  and 
the  play  of  the  features  is  active,  this  nerve  is  large.  Iu  moukeye  it  is  especially  vo. 
That  extremely  mobile  instrument,  the  elephant's  trunk,  is  provided  witli  a  largo 
branch  of  the  facial  as  its  motor  nerve.  IU  birds,  «u  the  otht^r  baud,  it  is  very 
small."— Todd  aud  Bowmau,  "Physiological  Auaiomy  and  Physiology  of  Man, 
vol.  ii.  p.  107. 

Before  Sir  Charles  Bell  commenced  his  experiments  on  the  functions  of  the 
nerves,  ft  was  believed  that  the  facial  was  the  nerve  of  seusibility  of  tlie  face,  and  it 
was  on  several  occasions  divided  with  the  view  of  relieving  tic-doaioureux,  of  which 
it  was  supposed  to  be  the  seal.  But  the  operation,  of  course,  yielded  uo  relief,  aud 
always  inflicted  a  jiermauent  injury,  since  it  was  succeeded  by  ptunlysia  of  the  facial 
muscles,  with  totiil  loss  of  control  over  tlie  fentures  and  over  the  closing  oi  the  eyOi 
ou  the  side  on  which  the  operation  M'as  (lerformed. 

Tlie  treatment  of  facial  palay,  wiiich  is  otten,  especially  if  it  arises  from  cold,  a 
very  tempomry  uft'ection,  attiioiigh  usinHiy  a  very  alarming  one  to  the  patient  and 
his  friends  is  described  iu  the  article  Paralysis. 

The  Hypoglossal  Nerve  (deiived  from  the  Greek  words  hypo,  under,  and  gloUa.  the 
tongue)  escapes  from  the  cavity  of  the  skull  by  the  aiiterJor  condyloie  foramen,  and 
parses  outwards  aud  forwards  around  tlie  pharynx  to  the  interior  surftkce  of  the 
tongne,  where  it  breaks  up  into  its  terminal  branches,  which  sapply  the  ronscohur 
sti'uctiire  uf  that  organ  with  motor  pow^.    This  nerve  oommauiciitea  with  Uie 


y  Google 


183 


Nerroos 

...  V  ;-         -  -  •  _       f 

mogttBtrlc  nerve,  with  the  sympathetic  (hy  branches  deriv<»d  ftom  the  snpcrior  cer- 
vical ^rau^lion),  and  with  the  cervical  piexns,  soon  after  its  emerireiice  from  the 
cniiilnfii ;  and  »nl>»eqnently,  as  it  cui-ves  round  the  occipital  artery,  it  gives  off  tlie 
loiig  unMStomds'ing  branch  known  us'the  Veacendens  7wni. 

Experi«iient8  on  living  nniniali>,  compumtive  tinaroniy,  and  pathological  invrsti- 
gatiout*,  alike  iudicaie  that  Wiis  is  the  motor  nei-ve  of  the  ton<;nu.  In  cas'es  of  pa- 
ralysis of  this  nervt',  tl»o  power  of  articnialion  is  much  injnnd  or  totally  destroyed : 
and  this*  Is  often  one  of  the  first  symptoms  which  lend  the  physician  to  apprehend 
serions  cerebral  lesion. 

We  liow  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  the  Compound  Xerves,  l>eginnimi  with 
the  Trifacial  or  Fifth  Nerve.  This  nerve,  as  was  first  point^'d  out  by  Sir  Cliarie.-*  Bell, 
prest^nts  n  remarkable  resemblance  to  the  spinal  nerves  in  its  mode  of  origin  ;  for  it 
arises  by  two  roots,  one  large  and  the  other  small,  and  on  its  larger  root,  as  on  the 
posterior  ai.d  larger  root  of  liie  spinal  nerves,  is  a  distinct  ganglion  ;  the  two  roois 
being  qnire  distinct  until  after  the  formation  of  the  gangfion,  when  (he  kssef  one 
coalesces  with  tlie  lowest  branch,  which  emerges  from  the  ganglion  to  form  the  In- 
ferior niaxillary  nerve.  This  ganglion, which  isknown  as  the  Gassertau  Ganglion,  and 
whieti  is  fonned  upon  the  larger  root  of  the  nerve,  lies  upon  the  upper  >urlace  of  the 
petrous  iMirtion  of  the  temporal  bone,  and  is  of  somewhat  tiian^nlar  form,  wiih  its 
base  directed  fortwirdsand  outwards.  From  this  base  there  proceed  three  nerves — via., 
tbeonhtnalniic,  on  the  insldef;  the  superior  maxillary,  in  the  middle ;  and  the  inferior 
maxillary,  externally.  The  first  two  of  these  nerves  coisist  exclusively  of  fibres 
from  the  ganglionic  root,  while  tlv  third— the  inferior  maxillaiy— is  coinponed  of 
fibres  from  both  roots,  and  is  therefore  a  compound  nej-ve.  From  the  mode  of  dis- 
tribution, as  well  as/rom  tliat  of  origin,  it  is  inferred  that  the  ophih.ilmic  and 
BU{>erior  maxillary  are  purely  sensory,  wlulethe  inferior  maxillary  is  a  motor  and 
sensory  nerve.  Experiments  on  living  animals  confirm  the  inference  that  have  been 
drawn  on  anatomical  grounds.  Division  of  the  ophthalmic  or  of  thesujwrior  nnixil- 
lary  nerve^  induces  loss  of  aenaibility  wliliout  any  serious  impalrnu;nt  of  mnsinlar 
power;  but  when  the  inferior  maxillary  nerve,  on  either  8ide,viH  divided,  the  power 
oC  miieticatioit  is  destroyed  on  thai  sidtf,  and  tfie  sensibility  of  the  tongue  and  of  tlte 
lower  imit  of  the  face  on  that,  i^ide  is'^^ldst. 

The  lingual  or  gustJitory  branch  of  tl»e  inferior  maxillary  is  distributed  to  tlie 
mut  ons  membrane  and  papillte  at  the  fore  part  and  sides  of  the  tongue,  Aviiere  it  acts 
Ixith  as  a  nerve  of  common  sensibility  and  of  taste.  (The  co-»ideration  of  the  re- 
spective parts  which  this  nerve  and  the  glossophaiyngeal  play  in  the  sense  of  taste, 
is  considered  in  the  articles  Tongue  and  Sbnsi  or  Tastk. 

The  trifacial  nerve  Is  the  seat  of  the  affection  known  as  tic-douloureux,  and  de- 
Bcriiied  in  the  article  Neuralgia.  It  is  In  the  denutl  branches  of  this  nerve  that 
tootitaChe  is  situated;  and  in  me  process  of  teething  in  young  children,  the  irrita- 
tion of  these  branches,  cour'eqnent  upou  the  pressure  of  the  teeth,  oft^u  gives  rise 
to  convulcions,  by  being  conveyed  to  the  medulla  oblongata,  and  exciting  motor 
nerves  by  reflex  action. 

The  Gimsopliaryngeal  Nerve  is  principally  an  afferent  or  sensory  nerve,  but  has  a 
small  motor  i-oot.  It  escapes  from  the  cranium  in  association  with  the  pueumogas- 
tric  and  spinal  accessory  nerves,  through  the  same  foramen  as  that  througli  which 
the  jugular  vein  emerges.  It  then  descends  l>y  the  side  of  tl»e  pharynx,  and  after 
anastomosing  with  the  facial  and  pneumogasttic  nerves,  and  giving  off  a  branch  to 
the  tympanum  of  the  ear,  terminates  in  branches  to  the  mncous  membrane  of  the 
base  of  tlie  tongue,  of  the  palate,  tonsils,  and  pharynx,  and  in  twigs  to  the  digastric 
flud  stylopharyngeal  muscles;  so  that  its  distribution  is  admost  entirely  to  sentient 
surfaces.  From  a  careful  examination  of  the  investigations  of  Dr  John  Reid  and 
oilieri*  regarding  the  functions  of  this  nerve,  Todd  and  Bowman^  arrive  at  tiie  fol- 
lowing conclusions:  1.  *•  It  is  the  sensitive  nerve  of  the  mucoirs  membrane  of  the 
f  nces  and  of  the  root  of  the  tongue^  and  in  the  latter  situation  it  ministers  to  taste 
«ud  loiich,  as  well  to  common  sensibility ;  and  being  the'sensiiive  nerve  of  the  fauces, 
it  Is  probably  concerned  in  the  feeling  of  nausea,  which  may  be  so  readily  excited 
bystininialing  the  mucous  membrane  of  this  region."  2.  **Such  are  its  peripherarl 
otSuuisatiOn  and  central  connections,  tluit  stimulation  of  any  part  of  the  mucous 
aiMibntne  fu  wtildt  it  randfles,  excites  instantly  to  contraction  all  the  facial  mua- 
^tetfcappOed  by  the pueumogastric  and  the  facial  nerves;  and  the  permanent  irrilu- 


L^ 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Ncrvoafl ' 


184 


J 

tioH  of  its  peripheral  ramlflcntioofi,  as  in  the  case  of  sore  thrnat,  will  nifect  otber 
muscles  supplied  by  the  faciul  n«rve  likewise.  It  is  therefore  an  eicilor  of  tbs 
movemeiiU  iiecessnry  to  pliaryiigeal  deglutition."— **  Op.  cit."  voli  ii.  p.  119. 

The  Pneumogastric  A'ei-ve  or  Par  Vagum,  is  distributed  to  so  many  important 
organs  (the  Ijiryux,  htmrt.  lungs,  stomach,  <fec.),  and  is  of  such  great  pliylsiologioii 
importance,  that  a  special  article  is  devoted  to  its  colisideratlou. 

The  SpinaX  Aece8>*ory  Nerve  is  more  remarkable  for  its  peculiar  course  than  In 
any  otiier  respt^ct.  It  rises  Irom  the  spinal  cord  at  the  level  of  the  fifth  or  sixth 
cervical  nerve,  passes  upwards  between  tlie  anterior  and  pt)sterlor  roots  of  tlie 
cervicjtl  nerves  into  the  skull,  and  emortjes  from  the  cranial  cavity  witli  the  two 
preceding  nerves.    It  is  chiefly  distributed  to  the  trapezius  muscle. 

In  the  above  remark**  on  the  cranial  nerves,  we  have  omitted  all  notice  of  their 
points  of  origin,  as  that  subjact  is  sufficiently  noticed  in  the  article  Brain. 

We  sliall  now  briefly  notice  the  mode  In  wliich  the  extremities  receive  ttieir 
nerves.  These  nerves  are  derived  irom  the  spinal  nerves,  through  the  intervention 
of  what  Is  termed  in  anatomy  a  plexus.  Pour  or  five  nerves  proceed  from  tlie 
spinal  cord  for  a  certain  distance,  withont  any  communication  with  each  otber. 
Tliey  theu  divide,  and  from  the  conjunction  of  the  adjacent  branches  new  nerves 
result,  wlilch  again  subdivide  and  interchange  fibres.  JProm  the  net-work  or  plexim 
thus^ormed  nerves  emerge,  each  of  which  Is  composed  of  fibres  derived  from 
several  of  the  original  branches.  The  most  important  of  these  plexuses  are  found 
in  the  regions  of  the  neck,  the  axltia,  the  loins,  and  the  sacrum,  and  are  known  as 
the  cervical,  brachial,  lutnoar,  and  the  sacral  plexuses. 

The  Brachial  Plexus  is  formed  by  comnmnlcation  between  the  anterior  roots  oC 
the  last  four  cervical  nei-ves  and  the  first  dorsal  nerve.  Those  nerves  are  nearly 
equal  in  size.  The  branches  emerging  from  this  plexns  supply  the  Bboalder  audlbi- 
arm. 

The  Lumbar  and  Sacral  Plexwies,  with  the  nerves  of  the  lower  extremity.  In* 
elude  the  first  four  lumbar  nerves  which,  with  tlie  branch  from  the  Inst  dorsal, 
form  the  lumbar  plexus;  the  four  upper  sacral  nerves,  which,  with  the  last  lumbar, 
form  the  sacral  plexus;  the  anterior  crural  or  femoral  nerve;  its  branches;  its 
terminal  branch,  the  long  or  internal  saphenous;  the  ^luteftl  nerve;  the  le«sur 
l^•chiatic  nerve;  the  greater  ischiatio  or  sciatic  nerve  (the  uirgest  nerve  in  the  body), 
dividing  at  a>>out  the  lower  third  of  the  thigh,  the  popliteal  nerve,  the  peroneal 
nerve;  muscular  branches  of  the  popliteal,,  given  oft  in  the  posterior  region  of 
the  knee ;  the  posterior  tibial  nerve,  dividing  Into  the  internal  and  external  j^tiDtar 
nerves,  which  are  distributed  to  the  sides  of  the  toes,  in  precisely  the  same  man u6fr 
as  the  median  and  ulnar  nerves  are  distributed  to  the  fingers;  the  external  sapbt^noiis 
nerve;  and  the  two  terminal  branches  of  the  peroneal  nerve— viz.,  the  auten'of 
tibial  and  tlie  musculo-cutaneous  nerves. 

The  general  arrangement  of  the  sympatJietic  system,  or,  as  it  is  sometimM 
termed,  the  sympathetic  nerve,  has  been  already  noticed  at  the  beginning  of  Ibis 
article.  Its  cephalic  portion  consists  of  four  ganglia  on  either  side— viz.,  (1)  tiiS 
Ophthalmic,  or  Licnticular  Ganglion  ;  (2)  the  Splieno-palatine,  or  Meckel's  Qaiigliou ; 
(8)  tljeOtic,  or  Arnold's  Ganglion  ;  and  (4)  the  Submaxillary  Ganglion.  They  are  flU 
closely  connected  witlt  the  branches  of  the  trifacial  nerve.  The  cervical  portion 
contaius  tliree  ganglia,  the  dorsal  twelve,  the  lumbar  four,  the  sacral  five,  and  tlis 
coccygeal  one,  wliich,  instead  of  lying  on  the  side  of  the  vertebral  column,  is  placed 
in  front  of  the  coccyx,  and  forms  a  point  of  converjreuce  for  the  two  gaugliouated 
cords  which  run  from  the  cervical  to  the  sacral  region  parallel  to  one  another. 
Each  ganglion  may  be  regarded  as  a  distinct  nervous  centre,  from  which  branches 
pas^  off  in  various  directions.  In  addition  to  the  cords  of  coniinunlcation  between  the 
ganglia,  certain  sets  of  nerves  may  be  nsually  traced— viz.  (1)  visceral  nerves,  which 
[enerally  accompany  bitmches  of  arteries  to  the  viscera  (the  lung.-*,  heart,  kidneys^ 
Iver,  spleen,  and  intestine,  &c. ;  (2)  arterial  liranches,  d!Strii)uted  to  arteries  in 
the  vicmity  of  the  ganglia;  and  (8)  branches  of  communication  with  the  cerebml 
and  spinal  nerves. 

The  only  nerve  that  our  limited  space  will  permit  us  to  notice  is  the  great  aplandl^ 
nie.    This  nerve  arises  by  separate  roots  from  the  6th,  6tli,  7th,  8th,  imkI  9tb  tboruc^ 

ganclia.    These  roots  unite  to  form  a  large  round  cord,  which  passes  obliqw^Qr 
ownwards  and  forwards,  and  after  entering  the  abdomen  by  piercing  tJ^e-^iiK 


y  Google 


■'^" 


185 


VmrvBM 


I^hrn^ni,  endj^ln  n  lar^^  and  complex  gnncnoo,  the  semilunar  gtn/tgllant  which  lies 
npoti  tlie  side  and  front  of  the  aoriu,  at  the  ori{!in  uf  ihti  c-oeliuc  ftxi;*.  The  Beml- 
lunar  gantflia,  wiih  the  nerves  euteriug  and  «'inci"ging  from  thwni.  couiUine  to  form 
th';  aolnr  piexvfi^  which,  from  the  mnssof  nervoiin  matter  which  itconiainff,  habl>-  eu 
tcrmeii  ^^' abdomiual  brain.  It  iff  in  couseqnenc*-  of  the  t'xihtcncc  of  thi^  gn>nt 
nei-vous  conire,  that  a  biow  ht  tlie  region  in  which  it  lies  ulwuys  iuAictsu  severe 
ncrvoHM  ffhoclc,  and  not  nnfreqacMitJy  CAnsen  dt^atlu   - 

ExiM^rimcnt.^  :ind  clinical  obscrvn'tious  lead  to  the  eonclnnion,  that  the  fympa* 
theiic  i<ys!em  Mippilcs  motor  power  10  many  of  rlie  internal  vi^ceni,  et*p<!cially  iho 
hwirt  !Mid  the  iiifestinnl  canal ;  that  It  alt-o  contains  sinsitive  fibres,  as  is  sln-wn  by 
the  sufferiui^s  of  patients  dnring  the  passiige  of  a  gall-Htoueor  a  renal  c.-ilcnins 
tlirrsiijli !»  dnct.  wiiosc  sole  nervous  energy  is* derived  from  tliift  syi^tem ;  that  it  pn- 
sideii  over  the  process  of  secretion  in  theroo:«t  important  ifland.>;  and  that  it  oper- 
ate:^ on  the  blood-ve.«self*  in  canslug  them  to  contract,  while  thecerebro-spiunl  nerves 
produce  the  opposite  effect. 

On  jBxamining  different  parts  of  the  nervous  system  under  the  ralcroscope, 
we  find  that  the  nervous  matter  Is  distributed  in  two  forms*,  the  vesieular  and  the 
fihrotuL  The  vesicular  matter  is  gray  in  color,  and  granular  in  texture,  cont^iina 
uncehited  nerve  cellf ,  and  Is  hirgely  supplied  with  bloo<l ;  ii  is  immediately  associated 
with  mental  aetloHS,  and  Is  the  seatJu  which  the  force  manifested  in  nervous  action 
oriirJnates.  The  fibrous  matter  is.  In  most  parts,  while  and  composed  of  tubular 
tbres,  though  in  some  paits  it  is  pray  and  consists  of  solid  fibres;  it  is  less  vascular 
than  the  lornKT,  and  is  simply  the  conductor  of  impressions  made  upon  it  When 
tliese  two  kinds  of  matter  are  united  togtther  into  a  tnass  they  form  a  nervous  centre^ 
snch  as  the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  wliile  the  iM^-vtfA  p.issing  to  and  from  them  ara 
eomposed  of  threads  of  fibrous  matter.  The  nervous  matter  of  both  kinds  is  a  soft, 
nnctnons  substance,  with  very  slight  tenacity  ;  tiie  softness  being  in  a  great  mcus- 
nre  «'ue  to  thclai-ge  qnnnlity  of  water  whicli  It  contains. 

The  fibrous  form  is  the  most  extensively  diffused  thronghont  the  liody.  It  forma 
alar^e  portion  of  th©  nervous  ceutres,  and  is  the  main  constituent  of  all  the  nerves. 
It  occnrs  ill  two  vjirieties— viz.  as  the  tubular  fibres  or  the  nerv4  tiube,  and  the  gela- 
Unous  fibre,  the  latter  being  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence,  and  being  found 
chiefly  in  the  syntpathetic  system. 

When  a  fibular  fibr^  is  viewed  by  reflect-ed  light,  it  presents  a  beantiful  pearly 
lustre,  and  appears  to  be  homogeneous.  But  if  viewed  by  transmitted  licht,  wirii  a 
sufficient  mngnifying  power,  indications  of  structure  become  visible.  Externally, 
there  is  the  tubular  membratie,  a  homosreneous  a'^d  probsibly  very  delic-ite  elastic  tis- 
■ne^  ac<*ording  to  Todd.  Within  the  edge  of  the  tubular  membrane,  on  either  side,  are 
seen  two  thicker  and  darker  lines,  which  appear  to  mark  the  outer  and  inner 
limits  of  the  structure  known  as  the  white  fxibstance  of  Schwann^  which  forms  a 
tube  within  the  tubular  membrane ;  and  within  the  whiie  substance  of  Schwann  is 
a  transparent  material  occupying  the  axis  of  the  neiT©  tube,  and  commonly  known 
M&iXk^  axi9  cylitider.  By  the  application  of  reasrents,  it  is  seen  that  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  white  substance  is  different  from  that  of  the  axis  cylinder, 
and  hence  the  functions  of  these  two  parta  are  doubtless  different ;  the  latter  is  in 
general  soft  and  pulpy.  The  nerve-tubes  tu'e  cylindrical  in  form,  and  lie  pnrallel 
to  one  another,  without  any  inoscnlaUou,  if  we  except  their  frequent  terminations 
la  loops.    Their  average  diameter  is  alK)at  l-3000ih  of  an  inph. 

The  gelatinous  fibres  are  flattened,  soft,  and  homogeneous  in  appearance,  and 
contain  numerous  round  or  oval  nuclei.  Their  diameter  is  about  l-5000th  of  an 
inch.    In  appearance  they  much  resemble  the  fibres  of  nnstrii^ed  muscle. 

The  vesicular  form  of  nervous  matter  Is  of  a  dark  reddish-gray  color,  is  found 
only  in  the  nervous  centres,  is  always  well  supplied  with  capillaries,  and  consists 
etseutiaTy  of  nucleated  cells  or  vesicles,  which  are  most  commonly  globular  or 
Ofoidal,  bat  often  preseiit  one  or  more  tail-like  processes,  when  they  are  termed 
cMnZate.  These  caudate  vesicles  present  great  difference  In  shapti  and  siae.  'J'ho 
mticessifff  are  very  delicate,  and  readily  break  off  close  to  the  vesicle.  They  prob- 
uly  eit&er  serve  to  connect  distant  vesicles,  or  else  l>ecome  continuous  with  the 
nS»  <7Hnders  of  the  tubular  fibres.  , 

We  may  now  ponslder  the  way  in  which  th©  norves  and  nervous  centres  are  maae 
.    «p.o£  thestf  anatomical  elements.  r^  ^  ^ r^ T  ^ 

Digitized  by  VjOUyiC 


A  nerve  to  cdmnosed  df  a  lnin<11e  of  tiiMlnr  flbre*  forronnded  and  eoniKHrted  hr 
areolar  tissue,  which  forms  n  shetith  known  n&the  neurolemma^  yifUo^  ofBceintb 
protect  the  delicate  tnbee,  aud  tusnpport  the  capillaries  from  which  tbey  derive 
their  iionrishmeitt. 

The  nervous  eentree  exhibit  a  niilon  of  the  veRlcnlar  and  flTirons  textnrep.  which 
may  be  varlonsly  arranged.  lu  the  Braiu  (q.  v.)  the  vesicular  matter  lies  cxtertially, 
torminzthe  gray  or  cineritioas  substance;  Inthusphiul  cord,  on  the  other  li.ind, 
tlie  vetjTcnlar  or  irray  matter  lies  in  the  central  jmition,  and  the  flbrotii*  or  wiiitj 
matter  is  externa!  to  it ;  while  iu  the  ganglia  the  two  structures  ai^e  more  or  leM  * 
uuiforiHly  dissociated. 

Prom  the  observations  which  have  been  made  In  an  earlier  part  of  this  article  o^i  the 
functions  of  iudividnul  nerves,  it  is  anfilciently  obvions  that  it  Ia  through  theinstm- 
mentality  of  the  nervous  system  that  the  niiml  influences  the  bodily  orgmu*,  as  wheti 
volition  or  emotion  excites  them  to  action  ;  uud  that^  conversely,  impi-e^ions  made 
on  the  organs  of  the  body  affect  the  mind,  and  excite  mental  perceptions  through  the 
Slime  channel.  "  In  this  way,"  to  quote  the  words  of  Dr  Todd,  "  tlie  nervous  system 
becomes  the  main  agent  of  what  h:isbeen  called  the  life  of  relailon ;  for  witbout'some 
channel  for  the  ti'unsmission  of  the  maudbtesof  the  will  to  the  organs  of  motion,  or 
some  provision  for  the  reception  of  those  impressious  which  external  objects  are 
capable  of  exciting,  the  mind,  thus  completely  isolated,  could  hold  no  commnuion 
with  the  external  world."  Tlie  nature  of  the  connection  between  the  mind  and 
nervous  matter  is,  and  must  ever  be,  the  deepest  mystery  in  physiology,  and  ooe 
into  which  the  human  intellect  can  never  hops  to  penetrate.  There  are,  hoivever, 
many  actions  of  the  body  in  the  prridnction  OC  which  the  mind  luis  no  share.  Of  this 
kind  are  the  nervous  actions,  which  are  associated  with  tlie  functions  of  organic 
life,  snch  as  digef^tion,  respiration,  and  circulation.  Again,  there  is  another  daes 
of  actions  for  which  two  nerves  (an  affei;ent  or  cxcitor,  and  a  motor)  and  anervoni 
centre  are  necessary.  These  are  the  actions  known  as  reflex  or  exdto-motory.  for 
the  full  investigation  of  which  physiology  is  esp^'cially  indebted  to  the  labors  o£  the 
late  Dr  Marshall  Hall.  For  example,  the  movement  of  the  oesophagus  in  propelling 
the  food  onwards  to  the  stomach,  is  c;insed  by  the  sttimilns  of  the  food  acting  on  tlie 
excitor  or  afferent  nerves,  which,  through  tlie  spinal  cord,  excite  the  motor  or  eSat' 
ent  nerves,  aud  thus  give  rise  to  the  necessary  muscular  fiction.  When  the  edge  of 
the  eyelid  is  touched,  the  excitor  nerve  (a  branftli  of  tlic  ophthalmic  division  of  the 
fifth  or  trifacial  nerve)  convey*  the  impression  of  the  stimulus  to  the  nervous  «9iitre, 
and  the  eye  is  at  once  closed  by  the  motor  influence,  which  is  transmitted  by  a  branch 
of  the  facial  nerve  to  the  orbicular  mnsete.  In  such  cases  as  these— and  they  fortu 
a  very  numerous  class— the  mind  takes  no  part  In  some  of  them  it  la  coiiBcions 
of  the  application  of  the  stimulus,  as  well  as  of  the  muscular  act  which  follows ;  but 
even  In  these  cases  no  effort  of  the  will  could  modify  or  interrupt  the  sequence  of 
the  phenomena. 

It  has  been  already  shewn  that  the  stimuli,  by  which  the  action  of  nerves  is 
commonly  excited,  are  of  two  kinds,  mental  and  physical,  and  the  change  which 
these  stiinitii  produce  in  a  nerve  develops  the  power  kfiown  to  jihysiologisia  as  ttw 
vis  nervosct,  or  nervous  force.  *'  The  nervou**  force,"  says  Dr  Sliarpey,  In  bis  *•  Ad- 
dress on  Physiology  "in  1862,  "has  long  been  likened  to  electricity,  bnt  rather 
through  a  vague  perception  of  analogy  than  ii^>m  aiiy  rigorous  compansoii.  It  Is 
true  that  electric  force  is  developed  in  the  nerves,  and  even  exhibits  niodiflcations 
connected  with  different  conditions  of  iieiTOus  action.  Still.it  must  bo  l>orne  in 
mind  that  tiie  evolution  of  electricity  Is  a  common  accompaiilmeut  of  various  pro- 
cesses^ involving  chemical  change,  whether  within  the  livlutr  body  or  in  external  na- 
ture ;  and  the  tendency  of  recent  speculation  is  not  towards  the  identification  of  tlie 
nerve  force  with  electricity,  but  rather  to  suggest  that  the  two  stand  related  in  the 
same  way  as  electricity  ancf  other  nhysical  forces  are  related  to  each  otiier— tiiat  is, 
as  manifestations  of  a  common  force  or  ei»i"gj',  of  which  they,  sevenillv,  are  the 
special  modifications."  The  velocity  with  whloii  impressions  are  tninsinitted  by  tlie 
nerves  has  been  recently  made  the  subject  of  investigation,  but  it  is  donbttlul  how 
far  the  olwervations  are  to  be  defieuded  on,  in  consi*quence  of  the  yarions  sonroes 
of  fallacy  by  which  such  experiments  are  heaeU  According  to  Hirsch.  tiie  velo^y 
is  84^  inetr>'H,  or  al>oni  lit  feet  per  second  in  man ;  while  ifelmholtx  fixes  H  ftt  IN 
f set  per  second  iu  the  frog.  ^    . 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


187 


Tho  d**ciiptlicHi  of  tlH^  nervoifM* >y^t«n  jrUeii  In  the  forepofncr  peg«8  i#»  ApplUahl**, 
with  j*Hghr.  luodiflcatiofiis  to  all  the  VertebrHien ;  the  mulu  dlff<  reiices  being  in  tlie 
d^rcet)  of  tho  developmcut  of  the  hrnin— a  point  which  has  hoeii  tilr^mly  iioii(H>d  at 
theconuneiicemeiit  of  rh^  article  Brain.  For  a  snfiScieut  notice  of  thti  plnu  of  the 
nervous ftystein  lu  the  Invertebrate  unimnlff,  the  n^ader  in  referred  to  the  nrticlet 
ABTtciTiJkTBD  Animals^  Mollcsoa,  and  Radiata.  It  is  only  in  the  lo\ve:<t  nnb- 
diTi»iou  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  the  Pboi*ozoa,  that  no  traces  of  u  uervons  syt^tein 
can  be  detected. 

For  f  nrtlier  infornlation  on  the  Pnbjt-ct  of  this  article,  the  reader  la  refom«d  to  Dr 
Carpenter'ii  works  on  *'Hninan"  and  **Coinpnraiive  Phypioloj^y,"  :to  Dr  Todtl'a 
article  on  **  The  Nervoijs  Syatem  "  In*' The  Cyclopfedia  of  Anatomy  and  Phy^l- 
oiogy,"  to  Todd  and  liowinnn'8  **  Phys»iological  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Man,** 
aoa  lo  Fanke's  ''Lehrbach  der  Physiologic." 

NESS  (identical  with  Bn^.  nose,  A.-S.  ncese,  Ger.  nase^  Ice.  ties,  Lat.  rnnnta.  Fr. 
n«z),  a  Ideographical  termination,  pi^nifying  nioniontoiy.  Namt^a  in  .-n«««  abound 
among  the  Orkney  nnd  Shetland  Islands,  ana  on  the  Const  of  Caithness ;  and  they 
occm',  thoagh  less  frequently,  aJong  tiie  oast  coast  of  Q»*eat  Britain,  as  far  as  Dtnigc- 
iiess  in  Kent  As  the  corresponding  Scandinavian  termination  -nae«  prevails  in  the 
names  of  j)romontories  in  Norway,  Sweden  and  Denmark  (e.  gi,  Lindesnaes,  in 
south  of  Norway),  the  existence  of  names  in  -ness  in  Britain  is  held  as  an  evidence 
of  Scimdinavian  and  Danish  colunisatiOQ.  Qrisnes,  on  the  north  coast  of  France, 
points  to  the  same  source. 

NESS,  Loch,  a  long  narrow  lake  in  InvemessHBhIre,  Scotland,  extends  north-eapt 
and  sontb-wejit,  and  is  23  njiles  in  lengi  Ji  and  13i  iwlle  in  average  breadth.  Its  north- 
enet  extr«mity  raaches  a  point  6  miles  south-we>t  of  the  town  of  Inverness.  It 
rec<!ives  tho  Morriston,  ibe  O  ch.  the  FoytTS,  and  othtr  streams,  and  its  surplus 
waters  are  carried  off  to  the  Moray  Firth  by  the  Uiver  Ne?s.  It  lies'in  tlie  valley  of 
Glesmon*,  and  is  enclO!^  by  moiiniain  masses  averaging  1000  feet  in  height ;  but 
the  sc^'Wery  on  its  banks  is  not  srnkiHirly  pictnresqne.  In  many  places  it  isainrnt 
180  fathoms  in  depth,  and  owhig  to  tlw  length  of  time  which  this  immense  body  of 
water  takes  to  cool  down  to  the  freezing-point,  ice  never  forms  to  any  cousi'iderable 
extent. 

NEST-BUILDING  APES.  Reference  was  made,  but  with  some  hesitation  in  the 
article  Gobiixa,  to  certain  new  species  of  apes  of  the  same  genus  witii  tlie  chimpan- 
»eo  and  gorilla,  Siiid  to  have  l>een  discov.  red  by  M.  du  Chailln  in  .Western  Afiic^u 
The  compler.e  vindication  which  has  since  taken  place  of  that  traveller's  reputation 
as  a  truthful  and  trust  worthy  observer,  makes  it  necessary  to  give  some  further  no- 
tice of  tSiese  now  unquestioned  discoveriei*,  exceedingly  remarkable  on  account  of 
ti»e  habits  of  some  of  tlie  animals.  To  protect  themselves  from  the  rain,  they  con- 
Btrnct  nests,  or  nither  umbrella^,  among  the  branches  of^ie  trees,  of  long  branches 
and  leaves  laid  one  over  the  other  very  carefnlly  and  thickly,  bo  as  to  be  '^^capahloof 
aheddliig  water."  The  hi-anclies  are  listened  to  the  tree  in  tlie  middle  of  the  slruc- 
tnre  by  portions  of  the  stenis.of  twining  shrubs,  abundant  in  these  forests.  When 
the  leaves  dry,  so  that  the  structure  no  longer  keeps  oul  the  rain,  the  owner  builds 
another  shelter;  and  Du  Ohaillu  says  this  happens  once  in  ten  or  fifteen  days.  The 
nest-building  ape  {Ti otjlodytes  calmia^  called  Nshiego  Mbouve  by  the  initiveR)  is 
nearly  four  feet  in  len;^th.  Du  Chaillu  supposes  lhi^^'ape  toivst  all  night  oli  a  pro- 
jecting branch"  under  its  nest  or  jjmbrella,  with  an  arm  round  the  siem  Oi  the  tree 
for  security.    The  nests  are  generally  const rucled  about  15  or  20  feel  from  the 

Konnd.  and  invariably  on  a  tree  which  stands  a  little  apart  from  others,  and  wiiieh 
ts  MO  limbs  below  the  one  in  which  the  nest  is  placed,  probably  in  order  to  s-afety 
from  serpents  and  other  :mimals.  'i'hese  apes  inhabit  the  most  loqely  parts  of  the 
foreRt^.  The  nests  are  iiev<;r  congregated  tOirethor,  so  that  this  ape  does  not  seem 
to  be  gregarious.  It  feeds  on  fruits. — Du  Chaillu  discovered  a  second  species  of 
neat^biilldifjg  ape,  on  his  second  visit  to  the  Ogobai,  very  similar  to  the  Troglodpte^ 
COlviM,  but  which  constructs  Itsniest  in  ii  somewhat  diffei-ent  fashion.  It  is  calle<l  , 
Kshi^o  Mketigo  by  the  natives.  It  makes  its  nost  or  ylwilter  at  the  height  of  about 
S>or  TO  feet  from  the  ground,  bv  bending  over  and  intertwining  a  number  oi  the 
tVCBker  boughs,  the  folnige  of  wliich  forms  its  protection  from  rain. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


188 

NBSSSLBODBi  RnrI  Rob,  OoQDt,  oi)«  of  the  mdfft  eminent  diplbmaH^t?  of 
modem  timesv  wuB  l)ori),  14th  Deceml>er  17S0.  at  Li»l)un,  whei-e  bis  father,  n  de> 
sceiidaiir  of  till  uiicieiir  noble  fuiiiilv  on  tlie  Lower  Rhine,  wua  tii(>n  Rusjiinn  aniba^- 
•ador.  He  Huly  d<iv<>ted  himself  to  a  diplonmiic  career,  gained  in  a  liigh  d«>rrtH' ilie 
«9t<>em  and  coiifldcMice  of  the  Emperor  Aicxaudor,  and  in  1818  wai*  one  i>f  ili«  ropr-- 
*<*uhiliv«fS  of  Rn'<t«ia  in  the  important  uegotiuti«)n8  which  look  place  betweru  the 
powers  who  cotnblned  ajiCMinst  France.-  In  1814,  he  accompanied  tlie  Riis-iuii 
Emporor  to  Prance,  and  on  1st  March  signed  the  trenty  of  th'^  Quadruple  A])ianc<'>tt 
Cliauinoiint.  He  waft  also  one  of  tlioee  who  c-oncludud  tiie  treaty  with  Marebai 
Marnumtjfor  the  puirender  of  Paris.  Ue continued  lo  t^lce  a  principal  \u\n  in  all 
tlie  nejjjotiiitlonB  which  ended  in  the  Peace  of  Pari-* ;  imd  wa«  one  of  tlie  most  prouii- 
nent  aod  active  of  the  pieni|)Oienti}iries  in  theCougnms  of  Vienna.  Ho  wjik  ojjc  of 
the  iuo8t  active  diplomatists  of  the  Holy  Aliauce,  and  accompanied  the  Eiutierur 
Alexandria  to  the  Congreases  of  Aix-hi-Chapelle,  Troppau,  Laihach,  ami  V»roi»a. 
TtieEm|>eror  Nicholas  reposed  In  liim  the  eaine  conftdeuce,  aiid*nitder  his  reign  ho 
conducted  the  Rnssi  lu  policy  in  tiie  affairs  of  Greece  and  Turkey.  Amidst  tlw 
Buroptum  convulsions  of  1S48  and  1849,  RustiA,  under  his  guidance,  rafrained  from 
intertereuce,  till  opportunity  occurred  of  dea Hug  a  deadly  blow  \o  the  revolofiouary 
cause  in  Hungary ;  and  at  the  same  time,  of  bHugiu}'  Austria  very  mndi  nndcr 
Rusmjin  influence.  Being  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  German  or  moderate  party  iu 
Russia,  N.  in  supposed  to  have  exerted  himvelf  Ptrennonsly  to  preserve  poace  with 
tlie  Western  Powers* ;  and  after 'the  war  had  broken  out  in  1854»  and  the  ill  success 
of  Russia  was  inanifest,  he  undoubtedly  strove  for  the  re-establishment  of  t)cace,aitd 
ior  the  asseuibling  of  a  congress  to  settle  all  disputes.  After  the  accession  of  Alex- 
ander II.  he  retired  from  the  direction  of  foreign  affairs,  and  was  sncceetied  in  that 
department  by  Prince  Alexander  Gortchakov,  but  retained  the  dignity  of  chaii- 
ceiior  of  the  empire,  and  a  seat  iu  the  mini:iterial  council.  He  died  at  St  Petersburg, 
28d  March  1362. 

NE'STOR,  according  to  ancient  Grecian  legend,  the  son  of  Nelens  and  Cliloris, 
born  iu  the  Messenian  Pylos,  escaped  destrnctiou  when  Hercules  slew  till  hlsbrotk- 
erfit  beine  then  a  dweller  among  the  Geronians,  with  whom  he  was  brought  np.  He 
married  Eurydice,  by  whom  he  became  t be  father  of  a  numerous  family*  In  bis 
youth  he  was  distinguitthed  for  valor  in  war  with  the  Arcuidians,  Eieiann,  and  tlie 
Centaurs,  and  in  his  advanced  age  for  wisdom.  Although  he  was  an  old  man  wiicii 
the  expedition  against  Troy  was  undertaken,  he  jointKiit  with  bis  Pylians  in  sixty 
ships.  Homer  make;*  him  the  !;reat  counsellor  of  liie  Grecian  chiefs,  and  extols  his 
eloquence  as  superior  even  to  that  of  Ulysses.  His  authority  was  even  Coitaidered 
equal  to  that  of  tiie  immortal  gods.  N.  returned  in  safety  to  his  own  dominions 
after  the  fall  of  Troy,  along  with  Meneiaas  and  Diomedes,  and  continued  for  long 
to  rule  over  tlie  p<ople  of  PylOs. 

NES  TO'RIANS,  n  sect  of  the  6th  C,  so-called  from  its  founder  KBSTomtJS, 
nuder  wliic  i  head  their  aisflnciive  doctrine,  as  well  as  their  history  up  to  the  time 
of  its  coudeMmation.  are  suftiiiiently  detailed.  Of  the  later  history  it  wiM  be  enough 
to  say  that,  oven  after  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  Nestorianism  prevailed  in  Assyria 
and  Poreila,  chiefly  tlirougli  the  influ  Mice  of  the  well-known  school  of  Edessa.  'AI- 
tliongh  vigorously  repressed  in  the  Roman  empire,  it  w&a  protected,  and  probably 
the  more  on  that  ucconut,  by  thePer^ians,  and  nlliniately  was  established  by  King 
Pherozes  as  the  national  church,  with  a  patriarch  resident  at  SeUncfa;  its 
fundamental  doctrine,  as  laid  down  in  the  synod  of  Seleucia  in  496,  being  the 
existence  of  two  distinct  per>on9  as  Christ,  united  solely  by  a  unity  of  will 
nnd  affection.  Under  the  rule  of  the  califs,  thi;  N.  enjoyed  considerable  pro- 
tection, and  throughout  the  countries  of  the  East  their  community  extended  itself. 
Of  their  condition  in  Central  Asia  dnrtnir  the  nudieval  period,  some  account 
will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Pbo^eb  John.  In  the  middle  of 
the  12tli  c,  their  cluirch  reckoned  no  fewer  than  9a  bishops  under  regular 
metropo'itans,  together  with  66  others,  whose  special  dependencies  are 
ttiiknown ;  bur  in  the  destructive  career  of  Tamejlaire,  tUvj  shared  the  common 
fate  of  all  the  repre.-entitives  of  the  eastern  civilisation.  In  the  16th  c.\  a  grent 
sehlsm  tooK  place  in  tliis  »)ody,  of  which  a  poi  tion  renounced  their  di.-^tincllve  doc- 
trine, aud  placed  tUemsblveft  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  to  wliom, 


Digitized  by 


Google 


1  OQ  NesMlrod* 

under  tl»e  title  of  Chnldenn  Christlant,  they  have  plnce  remninfsd  faittifiil.  Tb« 
others  etUI  iiiaiiitalu  their  oW  creed  and  their  ancient  orgyuisation.  Their  cliief 
Feat  is  iii-ihe  nionntain  ranges  of  Kurdif^tan.  They  are  at  pre!»ent  a  poor  and  llllter- 
»!•;  race,  Dambering  al)Oiit  140,000,  and  subject  to  a  patriarch  residing  at  Dis  (who  is 
ahviiys  choseD  from  the  same  fuiuily,  and  takes  invnriably  the  uamo  ot  Scliainnn, 
or  Simon)  nud  18l)i6hop5.  All  ilie?e  are  bound  to  ohserve  celibacy,  l>iii  marriajre  is 
p  rniititd  t«  the  priests  ai  d  inferior  clergy.  Their  litnrgical  books  recognis'e  seven 
hucrarac^s.  bnt  confession  is  iufreqiient,  if  not  altoj^ether  disused.  Marviaire  is 
dissoluble  by  the  sentence  of  the  patriarch;  communlou  is  aduiinistere<l  in  both 
kinds;  and  altliough  the  language  of  the  liturgy  plainly  iuiplitrsthe  Itelicf  of  transul)- 
siaiiiiatiou,  yet,  acconling  to  La\artl,  thai  doctrine  la  not  popularly  lieUt  among 
Ihein.  Tlic  fasis  arehtrict,  and  of  very  long  duration,  ainoiii'tiiig  to  vt-ry  nearly  one 
lialf  of  tlie entire  year.  They  pray  for  tlie  dead,  but  are  said  to  n-jecl  the  notion  of 
ijur^uory,  and  the  only  sacred  image  wlijch  tliey  use  or  reverence  is  that  of  the  cross. 
The  K.  t>f  Kurdistiiu,  like  the  Christians  of  tlie  Lebanon,  liave  snflei-ed  nuicli  from 
tinio  to  time  tliroagti  the  fanaticism  of  the  wild  ti  i))es  amotig  whom  Utey  reside.  In 
a  nins.«acre  in  1848,  and  again  in  1846,  many  fell  victims,  and  even  still  they  owe 
much  of  their  t^t^urit]^  tu  the  influeuce  cxi-rcised  iu  their  favor  by  the  foreign  repre- 
aeutjitives  at  theTurkisli  and  Persian  courts. 

Tliere  is  another  lx)dy  of  N.  who  iuivc  existed  in  ludia  from  tlie  period  rf  the 
early  mirations  of  the  sect,  and  who  are  called  by  the  name  of  Syrian  Chrir-i  ans, 
Tlieir  chief  seat  is  in  Travaucore,  where  ihey  cumber  about  HiO.OOO.  Among  both 
bodies  of  N.,  Buropean  missionaries,  Cntholic  and  Protestant,  have  of  late  yenra 
CI  doavored  to  eifect  an  entrance.  See  Perkins's  '*  Residence  of  Eight  Yejn-s  In 
pi  r?ia,  among  the  Nentorian  Cliristians"  (Andover,  1848);  ''Anderson's  Oriental 
Churches*'  (1S72} ;  and  Dcau  Stanley's  **  History  of  the  Eastern  Church." 

NESTO'RlUS,a  n:itjve  of  GermjMii(ia,a  cify  of  Northern  Syria,  iu  the  patriarch- 
ate of  Aiiiioch,  Mu<  probably  a  disciple  of  the  celebnited  Tlicodore  of  Mopsne^tia  ; 
and  having  received  i)rle6>t'8  ordi'rs  at  Antioch,  became  so  eminent  for  hif  flneucy, 
If  iiol  eloquence,  as  a  preacher,  and  lor  grave  demeanor  and  exemplary  life,  that  oi) 
occ:ision  of  a  dispute  about  th^  election  of  a  patriarch  at  Coustaniiuople  he  was 
Feivctcd  by  the  emperor,  in  428  A.D.,  to  fill  the  vacant  see.  Soon  after  his  conseaa- 
tioii  a  controversy  arose  as  to  the  divine  and  human  nntures  iSf  our  lx)rd.  In  whith 
>l.  took  a  leading  part  One  of  tlie  priesU',  who  followed  N.  to  Constantinopie. 
Aiiastasius,  having  iu  a  sermon,  wliieh  was  by  some  ascribed  to  N.  himself,  denied 
ihat-tiie  Virgin  Mary  could  be  truly  called  tlie  '*  AJoiher  of  God,"  being  only  iu 
tmth  the  moiher  of  ihe  man  Christ,  N.  wannly  defended  Anustiisius,  espousid  this 
view,  ,ai}d  elaborated  it  into  the  theory  wliich  has  since  been  known  by  his 
linnie,  and  which  t  quivalently,  if  not  ju  formal  terms,  ex:iggenit('d  the  distinction 
of  two  nutnres  hi  our  Lord  into  a  distinction  of  two  persons — tlie  hnuiau 
person  of  Chriht  and  the  Divine  Person  of  the  Word.  An  animated  coutro- 
vi-rsy  ensued,  wliich  extended  from  Couslantiuople  to  the  other  patriMrcliates,  and 
drew  fjom  Cyiil,  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  a  formal  co.demnation  of  the  doctrine  of 
>l..in  twelve  anathemas  still  preserved,  and  a  similar  condeiuualion.accomiwiied  by 
n  threat  of  deposition  and  excoinmunicatiDii,  from  Celesline,  blsliop  of  Rome, 
nnlebs  he  would  withdraw  tliu  obnoxious  doctrine.  N.  remaining  firm  iu  his  opin- 
ions, a  «reneral  council  wasconvened  at  Eplie^us  iu  481,  at  wliich  Cyril  took  Ihe  most 
lictive  and  prominent  part,  and  iu  which,  notwithstanding  the  absence  of  tlie  patri- 
arch of  Antioch  and  his  uishops,  N.  was  condemned  and  deposed.  Considerable 
op(K>9ition  was  offered  to  this  judgment  for  a  time,  but  ultimately  N.  was  confined 
iu  a  monasfery  u«  ar  ConstantlnopTe,  whence,  after  four  years,  siilfpersiKtlug  in  his 
vieyi'***  he  was  banis-hed  to  the  Greater  Oasis  in  Upper  Egypt,  and  after  several 
chaii£re>i  of  his  place  of  confinement,  died  in  exile.  'J'lie  account  uiveu  by  Evagelns, 
tlutt  his  death  was  caused  by  a  disease  iu  wii  ch  his  tongue  was  enteu  by  worms,  rents, 
attcording  to  Evagt^ns  himself,  on  a  single  andunmiuud  auihoiity.  .  'i'hemore  prob- 
a)>le  narratives  ahcribe  his  death  to  the  effects  of  a  full.  The  date  of  this  event  Is 
Biicenoiii.  It  was  after  489,  wlien  Socmtes  wrote  his  history  ('*  Hist.  Ecc."  VJi.  84), 
but  Hiere  is  little  doubt  that  he  was  already  dead  iu  460,  when  the  Eatychlau  coutro- 
Tvray  first  began  to  attract  notice. 

K^TS  (Lat  nidutt  Gael,  nead ;  allied  to  Ger.  ndhmy  Sax.  nutat^  LuU  neeUr$^ 


y  Google 


^etlwrlanda  190 

to  sew,  hind,  or  tie)  nr«  tl»«  j»trnctiircj«  which  auimnis  prepare  for  the  rcnrlngof  thdr 
yoniiK.  TlK'.y  ar.j  very  ditferent,  not  only  when  the  creaturus  which  rouMtmct  tirm 
l)elon«r  to  widaly  seimrjited  dJviHJons  of  thi;  liiiiniul  kin-  dom,  hut  oft«-ji  when  Ibc 
auim  ds  are  of  thelbaine  class,  t)r  i-ven  when  they  arc  Tic.irly  allied  ;  and  whilst  poiiw 
conhtruct  v^ry  wmple  no5t«,  and  thoi»<)  of  others  .nre  very  cnrioiip  and  e'a'v)ratt'ly 
frain:»d,  so.ne  raaka  no  u '^nt  Mt  al!.  Ami»n<r  Mammals,  the  on!y  nr.««t-bniUkr.-*  oro 
certain  rodents,  as  mice,  dormice,  squirrels.  «fcc  The  sirncturw  of  sonn;  cf  tl)« 
Bpecies  are  as  arttfi'ly  contrived  and  as  Vanf^fn'  as  the  nests  of  birds.  It  js-anioi:!j 
Birds  ihat  nest^making  Is  mostgener.d  ;  allhougli  there  are  not  a  tew  pp;'Cje«  which 
int^rely  scrape  a  hole  in  the  ground,  and  many  soa-fowls  l.»y  their  eggs  on  ledges  of 
naked  rock.  The  situations  chosen  by  birds  for  their  nest«  are  very  various,  oadi 
species  affecting  some  particular  kind  of  situation,  as  each  species  also  exhibits  a 
nnifurmity  in  ciioice  of  materials  and  in  form  and  mode  of 'structure ;  thest?  par- 
ticulars,  however,  being  all  liable  to  modification — within  certain  limits — ^siccordnig 
to  circumstiinces.  Souve  birds'  nest;*  consit?t  merely  of  a  few  stmws  or  leavca 
collected  together;  some,  of  such  materials  as  twigs,  straws,  moss,  hair,  &c., 
viM-y  nicely  interwoven,  and  often  wiib  a  lining  finer  than  the  framework ;  some, 
as  those  of  swallows,  are  made  of  clay  or  other  soft  material,  which  hardens  as 
it  dries.  Bjrds'  nests  are  generally  open  at  top,  but  some,  as  those  of  swailousi, 
are  so  placed  under  a  projection  of  rock  or  of  a  building,  as  to  l)e  covert.d,  aud 
have  tlie  opening  fit  the  side;  whilst  othfis  are  vaulted,  and  have  the  opening  at 
tlie  side.  Some  are  situated  in  holes  exciivated  in  clayey,  loamy,  or  sandy  banks. 
The  nests  of  trouplals,  baltimores,  wcaver-hii-ds,  &c.,  are  remarkable  for  the  inge- 
nious contrivance  displayed  in  them ;  and  a  very  singular  nest  is  that  of  llm 
tailor-bird,  made  by  sewhig  together  the  edges  of  leaves.  'J'hese  are  noticed  in  the 
articles  on  those  birds.  Many  birds  are  as  solitary  as  possible  in  their  nidlfi- 
cation ;  wliiit^t  others,  as  rookn  and  herons,  congregate  in  large  comnuuiities. 
No  l?BPTiLE8  are  known  to  construct  nests  ;  their  utmost  approach  to  it  bein^  lo 
mal^a  hole  for  their  eggs  in  sand,  or  in  sora-!  oth*y  sniiabJe  suuation. — The  nests 
of  FisHBS'hiive  recf-ntly  attracted  nmch  attention  of  nott)raliets.  It  is  supposed  that 
thi!  ancients  were  acquainted  with  the  nest  building  iiistrnct,  of  some  fishes:  hut  it 
was  inikiiown  to  nn  idem  naturillsts  till  1S38,  when  Mr  Edwards  discovered  itiu  a 
species  of  Stickleback  (q.  v.).  It  now  gives  interest  to  many  a  fresh-water  tiqnariuta. 
Not  many  fishes  are  yet  Icnown  as  nest-builders.  Among  them  are  gobies  and  the 
goramy.  Many  are  known  not  to  construct  nests.  The  SJihnon  and  otheis  exhibit 
an  approach  to  the  nest-building  habit,  in  n:aklng  a  place  for  their  eggs  in  the  saud 
or  jrravel  which  they  choose  for  a  spawning-bed.— Mdny. Insects— a  small  propor- 
tion, however,  of  the  whole  number,  and  mostly  Hj/vieiwpt^a—consirnct  nests,  as 
bees,  wasps,  and  auts.  The  nests  of  the  social  b^es  and  wasps  are  also  their  ordinary 
habitation?,  but  the  nests  of  solitary  l>ees  are  entirely  devoted  to  their  young.  A  fvn* 
insects,  not  hymenopteroiis,  as  some  weevils,  may  also  be  said  to  nuike  nests;  hat 
among  insects  provision  for  the  wants  of  the  young  is  usually  made  in  very  differei  t 
ways.  Certian  spidtirs,  amongst  which  may  l)e  inuned  the  water-spider,  cousimct 
nesisr- The  instinct  of  nest-nn«klng,  connected  as  It  is  with  the  Instinctive  care  for 
their  young  which  the  Creator  has  made  so  Important  a  p:irt  of  the  nature  of  so  many 
animals,  is  by  no  nieans  an  inde;c  either  of  that  care  or  of  the  affection  with  wlilch, 
In  many  cases,  it  is  conjoined;  and  some  of  the  animals  which  construct  no  nestsare 
among  tliose  in  which  affection  for  their  young  is  exhibited  in  the  highest  degree.— 
The  nest-making  instincts  of  aninmls  seem  to  be  a  yery  essential  pait  of  their  con- 
stitution ;  and  even  in  the  most  perfect  doujesticatlon  are  still  retained  and  exiiilnted; 
although  the  acconnnodation  to  circumstances  which  is  also  manifested  shews  souie- 
I  thing— and  that  not  inconsiderable— of  reason. 

)  NES'I'S,  edible,  an  important  article  of  commerce  between  the  Eastern  Islnuds 
i  and  Cliiua,  and  of  luxury  in  Cidna,  are  the  nests  of  several  species  of  Swallow  (q. 
V  ),  of  the  K(  nus  Collocalia.  The  best  known  of  these,  birds,  C.  esculentOj  is  about 
4X  inches  in  length,  U  inches  In  expanse  of  wing,  dusky  black  above,  pale  ash-color 
beneath.  The  nest  is  shaped  like  that  of  the  common  swallow,  and  adheres  to  a 
rock;  vast  numiiers  being  found  together— often  in  absolute  contiiruity— in  caves  of 
the  Eastern  Archljielago;  as  those  of  the  same  and  allied  species  are  in  other  i*«- 
hnidsof  the  East  Indies.  The  ueets  themselves  are  formed  of  grass,  seji-ww'd 
ioree,  small  leaves,  &c.,  and  are  attached  to  the  rOck  by  a  sort  of  bracket,  made  of  a 


y  Google  y 


i9r 


Nethe.  lands 

selatinoTiB  snbetance,  which  is  the  part  really  eaten.  This  was  fonnerly  thousrht  to 
be  mode  of  sea-weods,  bnt  Is  now  known  to  consi.nt  of  siillva,  which  the  swallow  ex- 
udeB  from  the  salivary  glands  under  the  tongue.  The  net*ts  jire  collected  by  means 
of  laddere,  and  often  by- means  of  ropes,  wnich  enable  the  gatherers  to  descend 
from  the  summit  of  a  precipice,  like  the  rock-fowlers  of  the  North.  The  gathering 
of  the  nests  takes  place  after  the  yonng  are  fledged,  thrice  in  a  yeai*.  In  the  Chl- 
i»eee  market  the  nests  are  sold  for  from  jC2  to  £7  per  lb.,  accoming  to  the  qualiiyy 
and  they  are  of  coarse  used  only  by  Uie  most  wealthy,  chiefly  for  thickening  rich 
sonps.  The  imi>ortK  at  Canton  are  reckoned  at  12<i0  picals,  or  168,000  lbs.,  repre- 
peutiug  ntx)ut  8,400,000  nest«.  The  nests  are  very  wholesome  and  nourishing,  bat 
qnite  devoid  ot  the  peculiar  properties  which  tl«e  Chinese  ascribe  to  tliem.  Five 
caverns  at  Caning  Bolloug.  in  Java,  contain  830.000  swallows,  and  yield  annually 
u>>oiit  500,000  nests.  The  Butch  export  them  to  China.  The  nests  weigh  about 
half  an  ounce  each. 

T^'THERLANDS,  The  Kingdom  of,  lies  between  60°  40'  and  W©  M'  n.  lat.,  and 
3°  22'  and  7°  16'  e.  long.,  is  bonnded  on  the  n.  by  the  North  Sea,  e.  by  Hanover  and' 
the  western  part  of  Piissia,  s.  by  Li6ge,  Belgian  Limburg,  Antwerp,  Eftst  and 
West  Flanders,  w.  hy  the  Nortii  Sea^  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  sonth  ia  195 
Bn^ish  mHes,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from  the  west,  on  tlie  North  Sea.  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  Overysseiy  on  the  east,  110  English  miles.  It  contains  12,597  sqnare 
miles.  Pop.,  including  the  grtmd  dncUy  of  Ltixembnrg,  8,836,111.  The  following 
table  gives  the  popniaiion,  Ist  Jannni^  1872,  the  area  of  the  provinces,  including  the 
reclaimed  Haarlem  Lake,  aiid  the  provhicial  capitals : 


Provinces. 


Kortii  Brabant. 

Gelderland 

South  Holland., 
Korth  Holland. 

Zeeland , 

Utrecht 

Friesland 

Overyssel....... 

Gronlngen.... 

Drenthe 

Limbni^ 


Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg., 
Total 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 

Pop.  1872, 

Pr<^ncial  Capitals. 

1900 

4.S5.262 

's  Hertogcnbosch. 

1949 

436  029 

Amhem. 
The  Hagtie. 

1162 

700,499 

1050 

691.83^ 

Haarlem. 

666 

181.5.Hi' 

Middelburg.      . 

632 

175,037 

Utrecht 

1253 

300  25. 

I^enwarden.     .■ 

1274 

256,68'i 

ZwoHe. 

896 

228,88H 

Oroningen. 

1017 

10.5,718 

A»!»en. 

840 

225  352 

Maastricht 

12.597 

3  687,583 

■n 

98T 

197,523 

Luxemburg. 

18,584 

^      8,835,111 

The  pop.  (Jan.  1, 1875)  had,  exchisive  of  Lnxembnrg,  increased  to  8,715,676. 
averaging  295  to  the  square  mile.  In  Drcnihe  it  is  105,  and  in  8.  and  N.  Holland 
nses  to  ^3  and  591 ;  Utreciit,  Limburji,  and  Zeeland  being  the  next  densely  peopled. 
In  1871,  the  births  amounted  to  128,306,  of  which  4599  were  illegitimate.  The  aver- 
age %va8  1  to 27 90.  In  N.  Brabant,  1  to  44*38;  Geld«»rland,  1  to  8004;  S.  Holland, 
1  to 22-78;  N.  H.-Hand,  1  to  24-28;  Zeeland,  1  to  2680;  Utrecht,  I  to  21 -48;  Fries- 
land,  1  to  36-24 ;  Overyssel,  1  to  4607 ;  Groningen,  1  to  22*54 ;  Drenthe,  1  to  82-03 ; 
Limhnrg,  1  to  87-44. 

The  leadin<4  places  are  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  Dordrecht,  Alkmaar,  Middel- 
burig,  Schiedam,  lieyden,  Delft.  Gronda,  Utrecht.  Anien«fort,  Gionifigen,  Meppel, 
Zwolle,  Kanipiii,  Deventer,  Arnhem,  Nymegen,  Tiel,  Gorinchem,  's  flertogenbosch, 
Tillmi-g,  a»id  Breda. 

Phyncal  J  «p<v.(.— The  land  is  generally  low,  much  of  it  being  under  the  level  of 
the  sea,  rivers,  and  canals,  especially  in  North  and  South  Hollfuid,  Zeeland,  the 
Sonthem  ]mrt  of  Gelderland,  and  Friesland.  Along  the  west  eouft,  iln-  low  lands 
are  prptectwl  from  the  sea  by  a  line  of  sand-hills  or  dn>i«'s;  and  wln-re  that  natural 
deftmce  is  wanting,  strong  dykes  have  been  cons: ructiil,  and  are  mniiituiued  at 

U.  K.,  X.,  7.  Di 


y  Google 


KethtrTandc 


192' 


grcflt  expense,  to  keep  Iwck  the  waters.  The  preatei»t  of  these  dykes  are  those  oi 
the  Uelder  and  of  West  Kapelle,  on  the  east  coust  of  Walchereu  (q.  v.),  whicli  re- 
qnire,  ench,  upwards  of  JUMOO  auuaally  to  keep  them  In  oitler.  Engineers,  called 
tlie  officers  of  the  Waterstnat,  take  special  charge  of  the  dykes  and  national 
bydraniic  works,  the  expense  of  which  is  reckoned  at  about  half  a  million  sterling. 
A  hilly  district  stretches  from  Prnssiu  through  Drenthe,  Overyssel,  the  Veluwe  or 
Arnhem  district  of  Gelderland,  the  eastern  part  of  Utrecht,  into  the  Betuwe  or 
country  between  the  Maas  and  the  Waal.  This  tract  of  country  has  many  pretty 
spots,  is  of  a  liffht  sandy  soil,  well  watered,  and  when  not  cnltirated,  is  covered 
with  heath  or  oak-coppice.  The  greatest  part  of  the  N.  is  very  fertile,  the  low  lands 
and  drained  hikes,  called  Polders  (q.  v.),  being  adapted  for  pastnring  cattle,  and  the 
light  soils  for  cereals  and  fruits ;  hnt  in  some  districts  there  are  sandy  heath-^lnd 
plains,  extensive  peat-lands,  and  uudrained  morasses,  which  industry  is  rapidly 
briiiging  under  cultivation. 

^landSf  RiverSt  Ctenate,  rfrc— The  islands  may  be  divided  into  two"  groups,  of 
which  the  southern,  formed  by  the  mouths  of  the  Schelde  and  Maas,  contains  Wal- 
cliercn,  South  and  North  Bevcland,  Schonwen,  Dniveland,  Tliolen,  St  Philii^iand. 
Qoeree,  Voorne,  Pntten,  Beyerland,  Yeselmonde,  Hozenbnrg,  and  the  island  of 
Dordrecht.  The  northern  group  contains  the  islands  at  the  entrance  of  the  Zuider 
Zee  and  along  the  coasts  ot  Groningcai  and  Friesland,  as  Wieriugcif,  Tf  xel,  Vliuland, 
Tert*chelling,  Ameland,  Schiermounikoog,  and  Kottum.  lu  the  Zuider  Zee  lurc 
Marken,  Urk,  and  Schokland. 

The  chief  rivers  are,  the  Rhine,  Maas,  and  Schelde.  Important  branches  of 
these  are  the  Wajil,  Lck,  Yt*sel,  Roer,  Ac. 

Water-ways  are  more  numerous  than  in  any  other  Enrox>ean  country,  the  \m» 
mense, tracts  of  raeadoyr-land  and  the  fertile  polders  beinz  girdled  by  lanre  canals,  and 
cut  in' all  directions  by  smaller  ones  for  orainage  ana  communication.  Those  of 
most  importance  to  the  national  trade  are,  tht;  North  Holland  Canal,  constructed 
1819—1825,  to  connect  the  port  of  Amsterdam  with  the  North  Sea;  the  Voorne 
Canal,  from  the  north  side  of  Voorne  to  Hellevoetsluis.  which  shortens  the  outlet 
from  Rotterdam;  the  South  Willemsvaart,  through  North  Brabant,  Dutch  and  Belgium 
Limburg,  from  's  Hei-togenbosch  to  Maastricht,  being  71)4  English  miles  in  length, 
and  having  24 locks.  Besides  these,  there  are  numerousimportant  canals,  connecting 
rivers,  ana  cutting  the  kingdom  into  a  net- work  of  water-courses.  To  improve  the 
entnuice  to  the  Maas,  the  Hoek  of  Holland  has  lately  been  cut.  *  A  new  canal 
through  the  Y  and  peninsula  of  Holland,  was  opened,  Nov.  1, 1876.  It  is  nowhere 
less  than  80  yards  broad,  with  sluices  nearly  400  feet  in  length,  and  a  depth  of  nearly 
23  feet.  This  has  reduced  the  distance  from  Amsterdam  to  the  sea  to  about  14 
miles,  and  provides  a  saf ;  way  for  large  ships.  The  harbor,  in  52°  29'  n.  hit,  and 
4°  36'  e.  long.,  is  formed  by  piers  of  concrete  l)nilt  into  the  North  Sea.  The  expense, 
including  the  recovery  of  ld,000  acres  of  laud  from  the  Y,  amounted  to  al)out  two 
millions  sterling. 

Railways  have  l)een  constructed  to  the  extent  of  abont  lOOS  milos,  forming  lines 
of  communication  between  the  principal  cities  of  the  N.,  and  with  Prnssia  to  Iho 
south-east,  and  Belgium  to  the  south-west.  The  receiptjj  of  the  three  main  lines  in 
18T2  amounted  to  je696,585.  These  belong  to  companies.  The  state  railways  real- 
ised i;445,966.  and  Ciirried  3,188,443  passengers.  The  two  oldest  companies  gave 
dividends  of  6)4  and  8^  per  cent. 

Clitnate,  Agric^Uture,  Prodticet  tkc. — ^Tho  climate  of  the  N.  is  variable,  chilly  colds 
often  closely  succeeding  high  temperatures,  indnciug  various  furms  of  fever  and 
ague,  and  requiring  peculiar  care  as  to  clothing,  &c-  In  summer,  the  thermometer 
sometimes  rises  above  80°,  and  even  to  90°  F.  in  the  shade,  and  a  winter  of 
great  severity  usually  occurs  every  fifth  year,  when  carriages  and  heavily-ladeu 
wagons  cross  the  rivers  and  the  Y  on  the  ice,  and  thousands  enjoy  the  national  past* 
time  of  skating. 

The  farms  are  generally  small  and  well  cultivated,  though  the  implements  are  old- 
fashioned  and  clumsy.  Aluch  progress  is  being  made  in  reclaiming  the  samly  wastes, 
in  Drenthe  and  Overyssel,  by  planting  them  with  flr  and  oak,  and  sowing  buck- 
wheat, oats,  and  rye.  Thfe  best,  implements  are  also  being  gnulnally  introdnced  from 
Eugluud,  and  the  steam-plough  was,  in  1862,  put  in  operation  on  the  lauds  of  tho 


y  Google 


193 


Netherlandi 


•drnlned  Tlnarlem  T^kS.    The  follmviiig^  table  shews  the  agricnltnral  products,  with 
their  vulues,  fur  1872,  accordiiig  iu  goverumeut  retorus: 

Wheat  to  the  value  of. iC2,848.500 

Rye 4,422,150 

Barley 1,092.883 

Oats 2,217,500 

Beans 650,250 

Pease 436,416 

Buckwheat 815,583 

Colza '. 676,666 

Potalo<w - 4,30»,»16 

Madder 277,583 

Cliicory 69,666 

Flax 903,0(0 

Hemp 46,883 

Beet 398,066 

Tobacco 169,153 

Vailoufl 21,849 


Total jei9,840,164 

Id  1874  the  total  value  of  agricnltnral  products  was  abont  ^£17,500,000.  In  1872, 
wheat  occupied  211,960  acres;  rye,  493,639  acres;  barley,  111,811  aci-es;  oatt>,  246,- 
651  acres ;  potatoes,  812,329  acres ;  flax,  46,846  acres. 

In  1872,  the  N.  poss»es9ed  247,000  horses,  1,377,000  head  of  cattle,  855,800  sheep, 
139,600  goats,  and  320,100  pigs.  The  leading  agricultural  products  of  Zeelaiid 
are  wheaji  and  madder;  iu  South  Holland,  madder,  hemp,  butter  and 
cheese;  in  North  ilollaud,  butter  and  cheese  are  extensively  made,  and 
cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs  reared  and  exported.  The  horses  of  Friesland, 
Zeelaud,  and  Gelderlaiid  are  of  firi»t-rate  quality,  'i'he  exporbition  of  butter 
from  Holland  and  Frieslund,  amLpf  Edam,  Leyden,  Oonda,  and  Frisian  cheese  is 
large;  in  1873  tlie  value  of  the  exports  of  cheese  was  jei,013.238,  of  butter,  Xl,453,- 
876.  Fruit  is  abundant,  and  In  several  provinces,  as  Geldcriiind,  Utrecht,  and 
Dreuthe,  much  attention  is  paid  to  bees.  In  Haarlem  and  neighborhood,  tulips  and 
hyacinths  are  mucli  cultivated,  realising  a  lar^e  annual  amount.  In  1874,  the  foreign 
trade  in  bulbs  reached,  in  tlie  district,  X37,500.  The  inland  sales  realised  jG47,833. 
Wild  ducks,  snipes,  plovers,  and  hares  are  plentiful ;  and  there  are  also  conies,  par- 
tridges, pheasants,  and  deer — ^game  forming  an  article  of  export. 

Geology^  Minetalogy^  «fe<5.— TIiq  N.  are  of  recent  formation,  and  consist  of  an 
alluvial  deposit,  chiefly  of  a  deep,  rich  clayey  soil,  snpenmposed  on  banks  of  sand, 
marine  shells,  aiid  beds  of  peat  and  clay.  It  appi-ars  tiiut  at  some  distant  period 
there  had  been  a  depression  of  the  land  below  its  fonner  level,  enabling  the  sea  to 
burst  throu>;h  its  saiid-banks,  submerge  the  landi  and  form  new  deposits.  The 
higher  districts  are  comi)Osed  of  sand-diift,  mingled  wiih  fertile  earths',  and  resting 
on  a  bed  of  clay.  Coal  is  worked  in  Limbnrg ;  and  a  soft  sandstone,  whicli  becomes 
fit  for 'building  purposes  alter  havhig  beeu  some  time  exposed  to  the  atmos- 
phere, is  quarried  in  the  southern  part  of  that  province,  which  has  also  pipe  and 
other  clays.  Valuable  clays  for  iK>ttei-y,  tile  and  brick  making,  abound  iu  t  he  various 
provinces. 

Manufactures,  Iiidustriea,  <fcc.— The  chief  manufactures  ai-e  linen,  woollen,  cot- 
ton, and  silk  fabrics ;  pap^r,  leather,  glass,  &c.  Leyden  and  Tilbni^  are  famed  for 
woollen  blankets,  wool-dyed  )>ilot,  mie  cloths,  and  friezes;  's  Hertogenbosch  for 
linens  and  rich  damasks;  calicoes,  shirtings,  drills,  tablerloths,  striped  dimities  are 
made  at  Almelo,  Amersfort,  and  in  the  leading  towns  of  Ovei-yssel.  Good  imitation 
Smyrna  and  Scotch  carpets,  and  carpets  ot  hair  and  wool,  are  manufactured  ni  Di>- 
veutcr,  Delfr,  Arnbem,  Hilversum,  Utiecht,  and  Breda ;  Tnrkey-red  yarns,  dyed 
silks,  and  silt  stuffs  at  Boerjnond,  Utrecht.  Haarlem,  &c.;  leather,  glass,  fireurmsj 
at  Maastricht  and  Delft;  iron-fouiding,  rolling  and  hammering  of  lead  and  copper, 
cauJion-founding  are  carried  on  at  the  Hague,  Ac;  and  powder-mills  at  Muiden  : 
Oudenkerk,  Mi<^d^•lbarg,  's  Herlogenbosch,  Amnterdam,  Nymegen,  &c.,  have  ir 
porlaut  breweries,  those  of  's  Hertogenbosch  and  Amsterdam  mauuiacturlng  v 


y  Google 


Nethei-Jands 


194 


large  quantities.  Wnalwyk,  Henpdon,  and  siirroundincr  districts,  mnDnfnctnro  bnnf a 
and  chues,  of  wliicli  Hennduu  Bends  to  Nortii  and  Huntti  Uoliaiid  1,000,000  pairs 
Yearly.  Gin  is  distilled  at  Scliiedaiii,  Dclfi,  Hotterdam,  aud  Wet'sp.  AmsterJnm 
has  the  largest  diamoud-cuitins:  trade  in  llie  world,  10,000  persons  depending  ou  that 
branch  of  ludastry.  Si]gar«refining  is  largely  carried  on  at  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam, 
and  Dordrecht,  from  all  of  whicii  sugar  is  exported  to  RusHia,  the  Levauf,  aud  coun- 
tries of  Europe.  Paper  is  chiefly  made  in  Uollnud  and  Gelderlaud.  The  leadiuj; 
letter-type  founders  are  at  Amsterdam  and  Haarlem.  Mauufuctures  of  every  kind 
are  beiug  rapidly  increased  in  number,  and  adding  to  the  material  prosperity  of  the 
Netherlands.  The  chief  motive  power  is  the  windmill,  which  forms  a  never-failing 
element  in  tlie  scenery ;  but  of  late  years,  steam  is  becoming  more  general.  lu  1S64, 
the  steam-t'ngines  employed  in  fact oii«B  were  464,  with  7980  horse-iwwer ;  and  iu 
1872,  they  amounted  to  1828,  of  2^,403  horse-power,  and  the  increase  lias  since  been 
going  on. 

Many  people  are  employed  in  the  immense  inland  shipping-trade  which  the  canal 
network  has  fostered,  there  being,  when  the  previous  census  was  taken,  6,CS4  ships 
inhabited  by  families,  or  one  inliabited  ship  to  81  houses.  The  houses  were  542,295 ; 
families,  668,911.  Pishhig,  not  only  in  the  inland  waters,  the  coasts,  and  bays  of  the 
Noi-th  Sea,  but  also  on  the  coast  of- Scotland,  is  vigorously  pursued.  In  18T3,  the  ioUd 
value  of  the  herrings  taken  in  the  North  Sea  was  jGI 27,660, 102  vessels  having  been 
employed;  on  the  N.  coasts, to  the  value  of  je77,784:  and  in  the  Zuider  Zee  and 
coasts  were  taken  87,331,950  herrings.  The  anchovy  take,  almost  excluavely  In  the 
Zuider  Zee,  amounted  to  30,030  ankers,  valued  at  about  £58,1)60.  There  are  produc- 
tive oyster  beds,  besides  extensive  fUhiugs  of  cod,  ling,  tiurbot  flounders,  boles, 
shrimps,  haddock,  &c;  and  from  the  rivers,  salmon,  eels,  perch,  &c. 

Exports,  Imports,  Shipping^  <fcc.— The  N.  ia  peculiarly  a  mercantile  as  wey  as 
agricultural  country ;  its  mercimnts  not  only  importing  and  expoitiug  the  producta 
of  their  colonies  and  the  surplus  of  their  own  country,  but  also  those  of  other  lauds. 
The  general  imports  (1875)  were  6,520,217  tons ;  ex|>ort8,  8,200,941  tons.  The  valuo 
of  goods  imported  for  use  wus  ^£59.320,520.  and  of  exports,  je44,9l4,242,  home  pro- 
duce; both  l&iS  than  in  1878.  The  leading  ejyyrtsare:  cheese,  butter,  roflued 
sugar,  flax,  cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  |^,  garancine^^cc;  the  imports,  manufactured 

goods,  unrefined  sugar,  ccrffee,  gram,  iron,  yams,  cotton,  rice,  goUl,  silver,  tin,  tea, 
idigo,  Hilk  and  woollen  fabrics.    The  trade  wiUi  Great  Britain  is  large  and  varied, 
and  carried  ou  chietty  by  steam  vessels. 

In  1875,  the  laden  ships  which  cleared  iu-^)Ouird  amounted  to  11,093,  bavins^  a 
tonnage  of  4,762,381 ;  those  in  ballast  1)eing  571  ships,  of  204,166  t<nis.  Ot  the  laden 
vespels,  2877  were  Dutch,  of  1,119,547  tons.  Cleared  out-bound,  laden,  8029  ships, 
o£  3,389,580  tonnage ;  iu  i)ullasi,  3779,  of  1.661,012  tons  burden.  The  trade  along  the 
riveiV,  by  Belgian  and  German  ships,  is  large.  In  1873,  the  goods  passing  up  the 
Rliine  amount^  to  844,191  tons,  4ind  from  Germany  down,  1.638,680.  This  trade 
cuu.-'ists  largely  of  grain,  timber,  and  coaU  Wheat  carried  up,  110,263  tons,  and  rye, 
116,774  tons ;  down,  4854  ions  of  wheat,  and  10.865 of  potatoes.  Timber,  upwards, 
66,042  tons ;  dowuwarda  56,037  totis.    Coal.  1.026.119 ;  and  iron,  81,119  ions. 

Religion,  Language,  Educatimiy  Ac.—Ai  the  last  census  (1869)  there  were  2,193,281 
Protestants,  1,313,052,  Roman  Catholics,  68,003  Jews,  and  6193  to  small  sectrf!  There 
were  (Jan.  1,  1876)  2034  Protestant  ministers,  of  whom  1698  were  Dutch  Reformed ; 
2062  Roman  Catholic  priest« ;  and  168  Jewish  congregations.  The  budget  of  1875 
contained  £118,979  for  the  Dutch  Reformed  Clmrch ;  for  the  Roman  Catholic,  X49.- 
879;  and  the  Jews,  £2966. 

'niere  are  Ave  dialects  spoken  respectively  in  Groningen,  Priesland,  Gelderlaud, 
Holland,  and  Zeeland.  These  differ  considerably  from  each  other,  and  the  Frisian 
is  not  at  all  understood  by  natives  of  the  other  provinces.  The  written  laugaage  is 
the  Dutch,  that  branch  of  the  great  Teutonic  stock  which  preserves  more  of  its 
original  character  than  the  rest  of  the  same  family.  It  possesses  numerous  wonis 
the  same  as  Lowland  Scoteh,  and  bears  a  stiong  aifluity  to  the  Old  Suxou  iBuglish, 
^  the  following  Dutch  proverb  shews: 

Als  de  wyn  is  in  den  man, 
Is  de  wysheid  in  de  kau. 

The  kingdom  of  the  N.  has  produced  many  great  names  In  all  branches  of  Utera* 


195 


Kethe.landi 


i_^ 


Inro  and  pcionce.  Coster  (q.  v.J,  nccorcliiig  to  his  conntrymen,  iiiTeiitpd  printiiifr, 
Leeuweiilioek  the  inici'oacope,  and  Huygeua  applied  the  pendulum.  Out  of  a  h)iiij 
liPt  of  distinguished  unmos,  luny  be  meiitioued  those  of  Erasinuf*.  Bailiger,  Hc!n- 
8iu8,  Hugo  de  Groot  (Grolius),  Hnygeus,  Leenweniiock.  Vitiinga.  Boerhave,  and  tlio 

B)et8  Hooft,  Voudel,  lind  Cuts;  whilst  the  writings  of  Van  der  Paiui,  Van  Ltuurp, 
es  Amorie  van  der  Howen.  Haafner,  Stuart,  Van  Kamp<-u,  and  tliose  of  tlie  poetri 
Biiderdyk,  Da  Costa,  De  Bull,  Van  den  Bvrg,  ter  Daar,  and  Hofdyk,  hlicw  tluit 
literature  is  uotwauing.  Exclusive  of  uewppapers,  there  are  i26  mjiguzlnes  m.d 
]MTiodical8 pnblislied  iu  tiie  N.,  of  whicli  67  are  religious.  42  on  art,  iHl.is-lettrf}*. 
and  general  lilerature,  and  T  on  antiquity,  liistory.  &c.  Loading  jminters  of  tlie  old 
Dutch  school  were  Kenibrandt,  Gerrit  (Gterard)  Dou,  Gabriel  Alelcn,  Jan  Sti'(i», 
Paul  Potter,  Rny»»ijial,  Viiu  der  Hdst;  and  among  those  of  the  present  century, 
Ary Scheffer,  Kuekkoek,  Sclielfhont,  Pienemun,  Kruseman,  Van  O.-,  Cnicyvangir, 
ten  Kate,  Isrueln,  Blus,  Louis  Meyer,  lioelolf,  iSpriugur,  4&c.,  have  distingui&Tuu 
themselves. 

There  are  universities  at  Leyden,  Utrecht,  and  Groningen  ;  athenceums  or  col- 
leges at  Amsterdam,  DeveUter,  and  Maastricht,  tlie  sludentw  uttfiiding  which  must 
be  exiuiiiued  for  degrees  at  one  of  the  uuiversilies.  Latin  sdiools  are  in  all  tlio 
leading  towns.  The  universities  and  athenaeums  hnve  faculties  of  tiieology,  mtdi- 
ciue,  pliilOB(^hy,  law,  and  letters.  There  are  also  tlie  Royal  Military  and  Navnl 
Academy  at  Breda,  and  that  for  engineers  and  the  India  civil  service  at  Delfi  ; 
seminaries  iu  several  places  for  the  training  of  the  Koman  Catholic  clergy;  ai<d 
otiters,  especially  iu  Auibterdam,  for  those  of  tlie  e^maller  Protestant  sects ;  and 
many  literary,  hcientific,  and  agricultural  iustitntes. 

Each  commiiuity  or  parish  must  must  have,  at  least,  one  elementary  school,  sup- 
ported from  the  local  public  funds,  in  which  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  history, 
geography,  &c,  are  taught  A  higher  class  of  schools  includes  mso  foreign  languages. 
All  are  under  government  inspectors,  and  the  teachers  must  undergo  stnugcnt  exaiu- 
inatlons  on  allthe  branches  before  obtaining  permission  to  teach.  Many  society  or 
subscription  schools  are  being  erected  all  over  the  land,  with  a  normal  school  at 
Nyinegen,  not  under  government  surveillance,  and  inclucJiug  religious  instruction, 
wmch  IS  excluded  from  the  national  public  schools.  1  he  members  of  these  societies 
pay  a  yearly  subscripticm  and  a  small  fee  for  each  pupil  sent  by  them  to  the  school,  a 
select  number  acting  as  managers.  There  are  national  nonnal  schools  at 's  Herto- 
genbosch,  Haarlem,  and  Gromngen,  the  pupil- teachers  boarding  themselves,  and  re- 
ceiving, at  *8  Hertogenbosch,  £21  a  year,  and  at  Haarlem,  £24.  The  attendance  at 
flchooTiB  about  1  to  8  of  the  population  iu  winter,  and  1  to  10  in  summer.  In  Janu- 
ary 1872,  253,489  boys  and  226,779  girls  ;  in  July.  237,685  boys  and  218,728  girls  were 
at  public  and  private  elementary  schools,  with  8838  male  and  2261  female  teachers. 

Amipy  Naoyj  c&c.— -The  strength  of  the  army,  in  Europe  (1878)  was  2060  ofHcers 
and  60,850  men ;  of  the  Indian  aimy,  1480  oflacers  and  87,800  men.  It  is  composed  of 
volunteers,  and  of  one  man  for  eveiy  600,  drawn  by  lot  for  five  years'  sei-vice.  There 
is  also  a  local  force,  caUed  the  Schuttery,  drawn  by  lot  from  those  between  25  and  34 
years  of  age.  to  assist  in  keeping  order  in  peace,  and  in  case  of  war,  to  act  us  a  mobile 
corps,  and  do  garrison  duty.  If  attacked  on  the  hmd-eide,  90,0(i0  men  are  required 
for  the  defences,  and  if  by  land  and  sea,  106,000.  The  firet,  or  Maas  line  of  defence, 
if  formed  by  Maastricht,  Venlo,  Grave,  's  Hertogenbosch,  Woudrichem,  Geertmiden- 
berg,  Willemstad,  Breda,  and  Bei-gen-op-Zoom.  The  second  line  is  formed  by  Nyme- 
gMi,  Ports  St  Andries  and  Loevestein  and  Gorinchem.  The  inner  line  of  Utrecht  is 
Sunned  by  various  forts  from  Naarden,  Utrecht  to  Gorinchem,  which,  by  inundations, 
can  make  the  provinces  of  North  and  South  Holland  into  an  island.  1  nere  are  many 
'other  forts,  batteries,  and  strengths  at  the  months  of  the  rivers  and  along  the  leading 
ways,  and  a  new  line  of  defence  was  agre^  upon  in  1874. 

The  royal  navy  consisted  (July  1, 1878)  of  99  steanu-rs  carrying  400  guns,  and  "16 
sailius  vessels  with  103.  The  sailors  and  marines  nnmlu-rfd  8470  officers  and  men, 
iuclaoing  701  native  East  Indians.  A  large  donble-tnrret  ship,  with  four  36-tou 
Aruastrong  guns,  warsiddud  in  1876  to  the  iron-clads.  Prince  Frederic,  uncle  of  the 
king,  is  admiral ;  the  Prince  of  Orange,  vice-admiral ;  and  liis  majesty  is  commauder- 
iu-cliief  of  the  hind  and  naval  forces. 

Revenue,  Eospenditure,  &c. — Th«  revenue  of  1878  was  estimated  at  ^8,589,630,  and 
tbe  ^^penditiire  at  je9.849,941,  the  difference  to  be  utbt  from  accumulated  surpluses 
.««&  the  regular  iiacreuse.    The  principal  receipts  arc  from  direct  taxes,  excise,  iu* 


Netherlands 


196 


direct  tiixep,  import  an(l  export  dne«.  Among  itein»  of  expendiinre  nre  jC383,300 
for  pnlTlic  workt),  chiefly  railways  ;  £2.250,0vi0  for  interest  of  the  naiiouul  debt;  uud 
^£333  300  to  improve  the  defences.  Tlie  India  reviuue  for  1878  wna  estimated  at 
jei2,000,47S ;  the  expenditure  eqiuUa  the  revenue.  The  East  ludia  colQuies,  whicii 
wcro  a  burden  iu  the  earlier  years  of  the  k'ngdom,  liave  lonjj  been  a  source  of  profit. 

From  1860  to  and  witlj  18T4.  there  lias  beitii  paid  off  ^25,376,218  from  tlie  uatioiial 
debt,  leBseuing  the  tinuual  interest  i>y  the  sum  of  jC784,709.  Ttie  interest  payable  on 
ttie  debt  amounted  in  1879  to  X2,226,000.  The  mutcrial  prosperity  of  the  N.  is 
rapidly  increasing,  and  a  sum  of  probably  not  less  than  300  uiilliun  pounds  is  in- 
vested by  N.  capitalists  in  the  fuudn  of  other  nations. 

The  chief  colonies  arc  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo,  Celebes,  the  Spice  Islands,  and 
Papua  or  new  Guinea,  in  the  East ;  and  Surinam.  Curacao,  and  lis  depcndiHicic!*,  in 
the  West  Indies',  with  factories  ou  the  coast  of  Guinea.  Uolouial  pop.  estimatca  at 
24,386,991. 

Gooernment,  Franchise,  rfcc— The  government  of  the  N.  is  a  limited  constitational 
monarchy,  hereditary  in  the  male  line,  and  by  default  of  that  in  the  feniale.  The 
crown-prince  bears  the  title  of  Prince  of  Orange,  and  attains  his  majority  at  18,  when 
he  takes  his  seat  iu  the  council  of  state.  The  executive  is  vested  iu  the  king,  with 
a  councU  of  state  composed  of  twelve  members,  nominated  by  his  majesty,  and  the 
ministers  of  the  Intenor,  Foreign  Affairs,  Finance,  War,  the  Colonies,  Marine,  and 
Justice,  the  last-named  taking  charge  of  ecclesiastical  amiirs  through  two  administra- 
tors, or  under-secretaries  of  state,  for  the  Protestant  and  liomau  Catholic  Churches. 
The  legislative  power  is  shared  by  the  king  and  the  two  chambers  of  the  Stato&^en- 
eral ;  the  first  chamber  having  89  members,  elected  for  nine  years,  by  the  provincial 
states,  one-third  of  their  number  retiring  every  three  years.  The  secdud  chamber 
has  80  members  chosen  by  electors  numbering,  in  1874, 10S,8!3,  above  23  years  of  age, 
who  pay  from  £\,  14m.  to  jCIS,  128.  of  direct  taxos,  according  to  the  si^e  and  import- 
ance of  the  electoral  district  These  are  elected  for  four  years,  one  half  of  the  chamber 
retiring  every  two  years.  For  members  of  the  town-councils,  the  electoi'al  qoallfica- 
tion  is  naif  the  above  sums.  The  members  of  both  chambers  must  be  30  years  of 
age  before  the  day  of  election,  and  those  eligible  for  the  first  chamber  are  the  nobility. 
This  exceedmglv  high  franchise,  which,  in  Amsterdam,  is  a  higher  direct  tax  than  the 
rental  qualification  of  Great  Britain,  makes  an  election  a  thing  of  no  interest  except 
to  a  few.  In  1871,  only  30*2  per  cent  of  the  electors  of  North  Holland  gave  their 
votes,  and  the  maximum  in  any  place  was  66  9  per  cent  iu  limburg,  62*5  iu  North 
Brabant,  the  average  being  4S'6. 

The  king  nominates  the  governors  of  provinces,  the  bargemcesters  of  every  city, 
town,  or  village,  and  a  host  of  other  oflicials.  The  cities,  towns,  and  rural  paristics 
are  governed  by  a  council,  burgemeester  (mayor  or  provost),  and  wethoui^ers  (alder- 
men or  bailies).  The  council  consists  of  from  7  to  39  members,  according  to  the 
population,  who  arc  chosen  for  six  years,  one-third  part  retiring  every  two  years. 
The  council  selects  out  of  their  number  from  S-to  4  wethouders  lor  six  years,  one- 
half  retiring  every  third  year.  These  with  the  burgemeester,  form  the  local  execu* 
tive.  The  law  departments  are  the  High  Council,  the  provincial  courts  of  justice, 
those  of  the  arroudissemeuts  and  cantons ;  appeal  iu  many  cases  being  open  from 
the  lower  to  the  higher  courts. 

Hiatory. — Nothing  is  knowu  regarding  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  N.;  but 
about  a  century  and  a  half  before  our  era,  the  people  known  ns  the  Batavi  came  out 
of  Hesse,  where  they  were  living  iu  hontility  with  their  neighbors,  and  settled  down 
between  the  Rhine  and  the  Waal.  At  this  time,  ttie  Frisians  occupied  the  country 
north  of  the  Khine  to  the  Elbe.  The  Batavi  and  Frisians  differed  little  in  appear* 
auce,  manner  of  life,  and  religion,  lliey  clothed  themselves  with  skins,  liv^  by' 
fishing,  hunting,  and  pasturmg  cattle,  possessing  horses,  cows,  and  sheep ;  were 
faithful,  open-hearted,  chaste,  and  hospiiuble.  The  songs  of  the  bards  coiupo3e(,l 
their  literature  and  history.  Warlike  and  brave,  they  selected  their  leader  for  bin 
courage  and  prowess,  were  armed  with  the  bow  and  a  short  spear.  They  worshipped 
the  sun  and  moon,  and  held  their  meetings  in  consecrated  woods. 

The  Homans  having  subdued  the  Belgae,  next  attacked  the  Frisians,  who  agreed  to 
pay  a  tribute  of  ox-Tiides  and  horns,  but  continued  restless  and  rebellions.  The 
Batavi  l>ecame  allies  of  Rome,  paying  no  tribute,  but  supplying  a  volunteer  contin- 
gent, chiefly  of  cavalry,  which  oecldeu  the  battle  of  Pharstuia  iu  fturor  ufCtesar,  au4 

Digitized  by  VjOO^, 


197 


lfether:aod« 


formed  a  gallaiit  band  of  the  Eoman  armies  in  all  parts  of  the  empire.  About 
70  A.D.,  Clandins  Civilis,  a  BataviaDj  whose  original  name  has  not  been  preserved, 
made  a  bold  effort  to  overthrow  the  Koman  power  in  Rhenish  or  Germanic  Gaul,  but 
he  was  finally  compelled  to  sue  for  peace.  Towards  the  close  of  the  8d  c  began  the 
inroads  of  the  Franks,  followed  by  the  Saxons  and  other  races ;  and  in  the  5th  c,  the 
Batavi  had  ceased  to  exist  as  a  distinct  people.  The  Franks  continued  to  spread, 
and  with  them  the  Christian  religion,  Dagobert  I.,  one  of  their  princes,  erecting  a 
church  at  Utrecht,  which,  695,  becam*  the  seat  of  a  bishopric.  The  Frisians 
were  opposed  to.  and  the  last  to  embrace,  Christianity,  to  which  they  were  forcibly 
converted  by  Charles  Martel.  At  the  end  of  the  8th  c,  all  the  Low  Countries 
submitted  to  Cbariemagne.  who  built  a  palace  at  Nym^en,  on  the  Waal.  The  feudal 
system  now  began  ta develop  itself  and  expand  into  mikedoms,  counties,  lordshlFS, 
and  bishoprics,  which  the  dukes,  counts,  and  bishops,  especially  the  counts  or 
Holland  and  bishops  of  Utrecht,  endeavored  to  enlai^e  and  to  rule  over  with  as  little 
submission  to  their  superior  ub  possible.  ITie  Crusades  weakened  the  power 
and  drained  the  resources  of  the  nobles  and  priesthood,  so  tliat,  during  the  middle 
ages,  cities  b^an  to  assume  Impoi'tance,  strengthen  themselves  with  walls,  choose 
their  own  rulers,  and  ap];)ear  in  the  state  meetings.  In  1384  the  county  of  Flanders 
passed,  through  marriage,  to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  whose  grandson,  Philip  the  Gocd, 
made  it  tiis  special  life-effort  to  form  the  N.  hito  a  powerful  kingdom.  He  bonght  Nu- 
«ur,  inherited^Brabant  with  Limburg,  and  compelled  Jacoba  of  Bavaria  to  i-esign  Hol- 
land and  Zeelaud.  Charles  V..  as  heir  of  the  house  of  Burgundy,  inherited  and  united 
the  N.  under  Ms  sceptre,  and  the  country  attained  to  prosperity,  through  the  encour- 
agements which  he  gave  to  commerce  and  shipping.  Philip  II.,  who  succeeded  his 
father,  1555,  by  his  harsh  government  and  i)ersecution  of  the  Reforihers.  excited  the 
N.  to  rebellion,  which,  after  a  struggle  of  80  years,  resulted  in  th«  fli-m  establishment 
of  the  Republic  of  the  United  Piovmces.  The  founder  of  the  independence  of  the  N. 
was  Wilham  of  Nassau,  Prince  of  Orange,  called  in  history  the  Silent,  who  freely 
sacrificed  his  own  property,  and  put  forth  every  effort  to  unite  the  discordant  states 
of  the  South  with  those  of  the  North  in  resisting  the  Spanish  yoke.  Retiring  to  Hol- 
land, and  banding  together  several  provinces  for  mutual  defence,  by  an  agreement 
made  at  Utrecht,  1579.  he  perseveilngly  opposed  the  efforts  of  Spain ;  and  in  1609, 
the  independency  of  tlie  United  Provmces  (the  boundaries  of  which  nearly  coincided 
v.ith  those  of  the  present  kingdom  of  the  N.),  was  virtually  acknowledged  by 
the  Spanish  king,  an  armistice  for  twelve  years  being  signed  at  Antwerp,  April  9  of 
that  year.  The  struggle  was  renewed  and  carried  on  tul  1648,  when  all  the  powers 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces  by  the  treaty  of  Munster, 
while  the  Bclgic  provinces,  divided  among  themselves,  remained  submissive  to  Spain 
and  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

'  Prince  William  the  Silent  did  not  live  to  see  his  efforts  for  freedom  crowned  vrith 
success.  Excited  by  religious  fanaticism,  and  the  hope  of  a  great  reward,  Balthazar 
Gerard  or  Guion,  1584,  shot  the  prince  in  his  house  at  Delft,  from  a  narrow  passage, 
as  he  was  stepping  from  the  dining-room  to  ascend  an  adjoining  stair  which  led  to 
the  second  floor.  With  the  17th  c,  the  United  Provinces  began  to  advance  in  power 
and  wealth,  their  ships  visiting  all  parts  of  the  world.  Meaji while,  the  contest 
between  the  Armininns  and  Calvinists  broke  out,  and  raged  with  fury  for  many 
years  J  Grotius  and  others  fleeing  to  other  lands,  and  the  statoeraan  Oldenbarneveld 
saffenhg  on  the  scaffold  at  the  age  of  72.  The  United  Provinces  were  presided  over 
by  the  Princes  of  Orange  till  the  troubles  at  the  end  of  the  18th  c.  began  the  long 
European  war,  which  the  battle  of  Waterloo  brought  to  a  close.  The  National  Con- 
vention of  France  having  declared  war  against  Great  Britain  and  the  Stadtholder  of 
Holland,  1793,  French  armies  overran  BeMum,  1794;  and  being  welcomed  by  the  so- 
called  patiiots  of  the  United  Provinces,  William  V.  and  his  family,  January,  1795, 
were  obliged  to  escape  from  Scheveniugen  to  England  in  a  llsliing  junk,  and  the 
French  rule  began.  The  United  Provinces  now  became  the  Batiiviau  Republic,  pay- 
ing eight  and  a  half  million*  sterling  for  a  French  array  of  25,000  men,  besides  giving 
up  important  parts  of  the  country  along  the  Belgian  frontier.  After  several  changes, 
Louis  Bonaparte,  5th  June,  1806,  was  appointed  king  of  Holland,  but,  four  years 
later,  was  obliged  to  resign  because  he  refused  to  be  a  mere  tool  in  the  hands  of  the 
French  emperor.  Holland  was  then  added  to  the  Empire,  and  formed  st'ven  dcpart- 
mmtB,    The  fall  of  Napoleon  I.,  and  dismemberment  of  the  French  Empire,  led ' 


y  Google 


ill 


K  otherTandt  .  1  AC 

the  recall  of  the  Orange  family,  and  the  formatioii^  of  the  Sonthem  and  Northern 

Provinces  into  the  iJl-aaeorted  Kingdom  of  the  N..  which  iu  1830  was  broken  up  by 
the  secession  of  Belgium.  In  1889,  jpeace  was  flimlly  concluded  with  Bel^nm ;  but 
almost  immediately  after,  national  discontent  with  the  government  siiewed  itself,  and 
William  I.,  in  1840,  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son.  The  N.  bdne  moved  by  the  revo- 
lutionary fever  of  1848,  King  Williaiu  11.  granted  a  new  consntntlon,  according  to 
which  new  chambers  were  chosen,  but  had  scarcely  met  when  he  died,  March  1849, 
and  the  present  long,  William  III.,  asceude4  the  throne.  The  nation  is  prosperous, 
and  on  the  11th  May  1874,  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  the  present  king  s  reigu 
was  celebrated  with  great  rejoicings. 

A  bill  for  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  in  the  N.  West  India  possessioDS  passed 
both  chambers,  8th  August  1862,  and  received  the  royal  afsent.  It  decreed  a  com- 
pensation of  800  guilders  for  each  slave,  except  those  of  the  island  of  St  Martin,  who 
were  to  be  compensated  for  at  SO  guilders  eacb.  The  freed  n^jroes  may  choose  the 
place  to  labor,  but  must  be  able  to  satisfy  the  government  ofBcers  that  they  are  em- 
ployed somewhere.  This  surveillance  to  contmne  during  ten  years.  The  law  came 
into  force  1st  July  1863,  tod  in  Surinam  and  all  the  other  colonies  the  day  passed 
quietly  over.  Those,  however,  interested  in  agriculture  have  sent  an  address  to  the 
minister  of  the  colonies,  protesting  against  the  nigh-wages  tariff  as  hostile  to  the  suc- 
cessful carrying  on  of  their  operations.  The  rate,  however,  is  not  higher  than  the 
flauters  in  the  neighboring  British  colony  of  British  Guiana  are  accustomed  to  pay* 
n  the  budget  for  1863,  provision  was  made  for  the  extraordmary  ^jxpenses  connected 
with  the  emancipation  to  the  amount  of  jei,065,366,  of  which  jeS6Z,000  as  compensa- 
tion for  the  slaves  of  Surinam,  and  je21,250  as  premiums  for  fi*ee  labor.  For  Curayao 
and  its  dependencies,  jei66,090  of  compensation  money,  fully  jei2,00J  being  for  vari- 
ous other  outlays  connected  with  the  change.  The  number  of  slaves  set  free  may  be 
stated  in  round  numbers  to  be  42,000,  of  whom  35.000  are  iu  Butch  Guiana. 

On  1 6th  July  1863,  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Brussels  by  all  the  naval  powers  for  the 
buying  up  of  the  toll  levied,  under  treaty  arrangementSj  by  the  king  of  tlie  N.,  on 
vessels  navigating  the  Schclde  (q.  v.),  the  king  of  Belgium  binding  himself  also  to 
reduce  the  harbi^r,  pilot,  and  other  charges  on  shipping  within  that  kingdom. 

The  N.  have  suffered  much  from  floods,  either  caused  by  the  breakhig  in  of  the 
»ea.  or  by  the  descent  of  masses  of  water  from  Gerinajiy,  while  the  rivere  of  the 
lihine  delta  were  blocked  up  with  ice.  The  Zuicler  Zee  (q.  v.)»  which  contains 
1365  square  miles,  was  of  trifling  extent  till  the  flood  of  All  Stints'  Bay,  1247,  when 
the  North  Sea  swallowed  up  a  large  tract  of  couutry.  In  12T7,  the  Bollart  Gulf,  iu 
Groniugen,  was  formed  at  tlje  mouth  of  the  Ems,  by  floods  in  the  spring  and 
antumi.  of  that  year,  which  destroyed  33  tillages  and  100,000  people.  The  immense 
waste  of  waters,  known  as  the  sunken  South  Holland  Waarde,  or  Blesbosch,  arose 
out  of  the  breaking  of  one  of  the  dyke*,  1421.  by  which  72  villages  were  laid  under 
water,  only  34  of  them  rertp|>eariug.  In  modern  times,  great  floods,  but  fortunately 
with  only  temporary  results,  have  occurred  in  1809,  lS2o,  and  1855.  That  of  1855, 
which  placed  the  town  of  V.-enentlaal,  in  Gulderland,  and  an  extensive  tract,  of  couu- 
try under  water,  was*  caused  by  a  rapid  thaw  in  tlie  high  lands  of  Germany  pouring 
down  torrents  of  wat<!r  into  the  N.  while  the  rivers  were  ice-locked  aftor  a  winter 
of  unusual  severity.— See  the  *' AUgomeene  Stati!»tiek  van  Noderland;"  *•  N(;d«uland- 
Geographisch-Historisch  Overzlgt,"  by  Luit.  L.G.  Beausar;  "SUiti.^tiek  Jaarboek" 
(Witkamp,  Amsterdam),  an  excellent  hook  of  reference,  which  is  published-yearly 
up  to  the  present  time ;  the  '*  Provincial  Annual  Reports,"  Ac 

NETHKRLANBS  TRADING  COMPANY,  a  chartered  joint-stock  assoeiotion, 
with  limited  liability,  formed  to  aid  in  developing  the  natural  resources  of  the 
Butch  East  Indian  possessions.  The  Company  possesses  peculiar  privilegjes,  acrhtg 
exclusively  as  the  commii^sjon-agents  of  the  Netherlands  government  in  imjjorting 
and  selling  the  produce  of  the  colonies,  as  well  as  doing  a  large  business  as  mer- 
ch  ints.  Private  enterprise  having  failed  to  develop  the  tnuie  of  Java,  after  that 
island  was  resiored  to  the  Netherlands,  King  William  I.  ♦»!  1824,  erected  the  Trading 
Company,  with  a  capital  of  npwards  of  3  millions  sterling,  not  only  becoming  a 
large  shareholder,  but  guaranteeing  an  interest  of  4  per  cent  on  the  paid-up  capital* 
The  early  transactions  were  luiprofitable,  and  in  1827  the  king  h:»d  to  pay  a  p«rt; 
and  In  1330  the  wholn  of  the  guaranteed  interest.  From  th:it  date^  it  has  prospered 
and  handed  over,  from  the  trade  ot  Java  (q.  v.),  large  surplus  balances  into  tha 


y  Google 


igO  ITetheiflanda " 

natloual  reTenne.  The  head  office  of  the  directors  is  at  Amsterdam,  witb  agents  at 
Hotierduin,Middelburg,  Dordrecht,  and  Schiedam ;  tlio  priucipul  fnctoiy  at  Batuvla, 
with  ageucies  at  tlie  chief  port.H  in  Java  and  the  other  I^i-tberiands  poeseesious  lu 
the  Eastern  Arcliipelago.  Formerly  the  company  »eut  large  quantities  of  goods  to 
the  coloniid  markets  for  the  account  of  tl.e  Dutch  government;  but  since  tlie  begin- 
ning of  1875,  the  bus«iue88  for  tlie  government  lias  l>een  confined  to  colonial  pro- 
duce, wliich  is  placed  1u  factories,  forwarded  to  Uoiland,  ai^.d  disposed  of  at  the 
company's  sales  in  A^nsterdam,  Rotterdam,  &c  In  1S76,  they  HoUi  for  the  govern- 
inent  T56,959  l)ales  of  coffee,  which  realised  jC4,3T8,2»2  ;  136,7C8  blocks  of  Banca  and 
2956  of  Billiton  tin,  at  jC3T6,548;  432  packages  of  cincliona  bark  and  powder  at 
JC5977.  Ou  the  company's  account,  colonial  produce  was  sold  to  the  value  of 
je761,267;  and  calicoes,  yams,  woollen  stuffs,  various^  goods,  precious  stones,  and 
money,  to  the  value  of  jC2l4.688,  were  sent  to  Netherlands-India,  Biusiapore,  British 
India,  China,  Japan,  and  Siiriiiam.  The  company  also  advance  money  to  planters 
«nd  mauufacturei-s  in  the  colonies,  who  bind  themselves  for  a  number  of  years  to 
consign  their  produce.  They  are  also  owners  of  a  large  sugar  plantation.  Resolutic, 
in  Surinam.  The  present  capital  is  86,140,000  guilders,  or  je3,0l  1 .066.  TUe  commih- 
eioii  paid  by  government  is  a  chief  source  of  profit.  For  1875,  the  net  gain  was 
jei80,354,  from  which  the  shareholders  received  6  4-5  per  cent.  'Jhe  result  would 
have  been  more  favorable  hnd  not  heavy  los-*  l>een  sustained  in  t*ie  Japan  trade. 

The  success  of  the  Trading  Company  de^ionds  mainly  on  tlie  culture  system, 
"which  was  introduced  into  Java  in  1830.  Under  the  native  rule,  ihe  land  belonged 
to  the  princes,  and  the  cultivators  paid  oue-flf  ih  of  the  protluce,  and  one-fiftJi  of  tljeir 
Jabor  as  ground-rent.  The  Dutch,  by  conquest,  are  now  the  propri^-tors  of  tlie 
greater  part  of  the  island,  and  exact  the  old  produce  rent,  relaxing  the  labor  to  one- 
seventh,  and  causing  the  holders  of  crown-lands  to  plant  one-fifth  of  their  cultivated 
fields  with  the  crop  l)est  adapted  for  the  soil  and  required  for  the  European  market. 
The  goviu-nment  also  has  supplietl,  free  of  interest,  enterprising  young  men  with  the 
capital  necessaiy  lo  erect  and  cany  on  woi'ks  for  the  preparation  of  the  raw  mate- 
rials, to  be  repaid  in  ten  yearly  instalments,  beginning  with  the  third  year.  The  lantl- 
iolders  of  a  ceitaiu  district  allotted  to  a  sugar-mill  were  bound  to  supply  a  fixed 
quantity,  receivino;  advances  upon  the  crop  lo  enable  them  to  bring  it  foi-ward.  1  ho 
rule  of  fixed  quantity  was  relaxed  in  1860,  and  has  caused  great  dlscontenJ  ment  among 
the  contractors.  Ihe  European  residents  and  their  asfistimts,  the  native  prince^, 
chiefs,  and  village  head-men,  receive  a  percentage  accoruing  to  the  qnantlty  which  is 
luanumctnred  from  the  produce  delivered,  so  that  all  are  interested  in  taking  care 
that  the  lands  are  cultivated  and  the  crops  cared  for.  Sugar,  tobacco,  and  tea  are 
prepared  hy  contractors ;  indigo,  cochineal,  coffi*e,  cinnamon,  and  pepi)er  by  the 
natives  under  European  surveillance,  all  passing  into  the  Trading  Company's  facto- 
ries for  shipment  to  the  Netherlands.  The  objections  to  the  system  are,  that  it  does 
not  leave  the  labor  of  the  nativ<  s  free,  and  that  the  pasi^ing  of  so  nmch  of  tjie  export 
and  import  ti-ade  through  one  favored  company  injures  the  general  merchant.  Ou 
the  other  hand,  it  nmst  be  said  that  the  Dutch  government  only  carries  out  the  old 
law.  and  it  is  therefore  not  regarded  by  the  peasantiyas  an  infringement  of  their 
rights ;  and  the  merchants  and  capitahsts  of  the  Neihorlands  did  not  of  tliemselven 
put  forth  sufficient  efforts  to  work  out  the  natural  capabilities  of  Java  when  it  returned 
under  Dutch  rule. 

NE'TLET,  Koyal  Victoria  Hospitiil  at,  is  a  superb  building,  on  the  shore  of  Soul)  - 
amptt;)n  Wat«r,  for  the  reception  of  invalids  from  the  army  on  foreign  service,  and 
from  amoilg  the  troops  serving  in  the  adjoining  military  districts.  In  times  of 
peace,  it  is  only  necessaiy  to  upe  a  portion  of  the  vjist  structure ;  but  in  the  event  of 
a  European  war,  in  which  the  British  army  should  take  part,  the  exigencies  of  ihu 
service  would  probably  tax  its  acconmiodation  to  the  utmost.  There  is  provision 
for  1000  patients,  with  power  to  increase  the  number  if  necessary.  Tlie  medical 
f taff  of  course  varies  in  proportion  to  the  work  to  be  done ;  but  at  present  it  consists 
of  a  governor*  an  adjutant,  a  paymaster,  an  assistant-connnarrdant,  and  medical 
officers,  and  officers  of  orderlies  of  various  ranks.  The  total  cost  of  the  constnic- 
tiou  of  this  hospital,  which  was  commenced  in  1855,  has  been  about  £350,000. 
Attached  is  the  Medical  School  for  candidates  for  the  army  medicjil  department,  the 
students  having  the  best  means  of  practical  instruction  in  the  wards  of  the  hospital. 
N.  is  also  the  I^adquarterB  of  the  female  nurses  of  the  army,  whx)  are  under  the  cou- 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


sr.t.  200 

trol  of  a  liidy  Btatloned  here  ns  sn{5?^rlnfendent  Complete  arrang^menta  bave  been 
made  for  the  lauding  of  wounded  men  in  front  of  the  hospital,  and  fur  couveyhig 
them  thither  wirh  I  ho  least  disturbance.  There  Is  no  doubt  as  to  the  convenience  of 
this  great  hospital  for  Us  purposes ;  bnt  eome  qaestious  have  been  raised,  uiidM* 
high  sanitary  authority,  as  to  the  salnbrily  of  the  site,  adjacent  as  it  is  to  the  wide 
banks  of  mud  which  Southampton  Water  uncovers  at  low  tide. 

NBTS  are  fabrics  in  which  the  threads  cross  each  other  at  right  anglep,  leaving  a 
comparatively  large  0|)en  space  between  them ;  the  threads  are  also  knotted  at  tiie 
intersections.  In  this  respect,  netting  differs  essentially  from  weaving,  wliere  the 
intersecting  threads  simply  cross  each  other.  The  open  spaces  in  nets  are  called 
meshes,  and  these  correspond  in  size  with  an  instrument  used  in  net-making,  con- 
sisting of  aflat  |>iece  of  wood  or  otiicr  hard  subs^tauce,  usually  abont  the  ^hal»u  and 
Biz'i  of  a  coratuon  paper-knife.  In  addition  to  this,  a  peculiar  kind  of  needle  is  used, 
upon  which  a  large  quantity  of  the  thread  is  placed,  by  winding  it  from  end  to  end 
between  the  forked  extremities ;  tlie  holes  are  used  to  insttrt  tlie  end  of  the  thread, 
to  prevent  it  slipping  ofE  at  the  cemmeucement  of  the  winding.  The  art  of  net- 
making  has  been  unictised  from  the  earliest  times  by  the  most  savage  as  well  as  the 
most  civilised  nations.  Bven  where  the  art  of  weaving  was  quit«  unknown,  as  iu 
some  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  when  first  discovered,  tlnit  of  netting  was  weU  under- 
fitood ;  and  it  is  eaity  to  see  that  the  human  race  could  not  help  learning  the  value  of 
this  art  from  beeiug  how  frc(]^uently  laud  and  water  animals  get  entangled  iu  the 
fihrubA  and  weeds  through  which  they  attempt  to  pass ;  hence  we  find  amongst  sav- 
age tribes,  almost  universally,  nets  are  used  not  only  for  fishing,  as  with  us,  but  also 
for  entrapping  land  animals.  We  have  ample  illustrations  ot  tbe  uses  of  nets  for 
both  purposes  in  the  bas-reliefs  of  Assyria,  Greece,  and  Hojue,  and  in  the  murut 
paintiuirs  of  Egypt 

Un in  recently,  nets  have  been  always  made  by  hand,  and  generally  the  thread 
has  been  a  more  or  less  thick  twine  of  hemp  or  flax,  the  thickne:4S  of  the  twine  and 
the  size  of  the  mesh  depending  upon  the  kind  of  fish  for  which  it  was  made; 
recently,  however,  great  improvements  have  been  made  iu  the  manufacture  of  nets, 
and  machinery  of  a  most  beautiful  automatic  kind  lias  been  introduced  by  Messrs 
Stuart  of  Musselburgh,  whose  manufactory  is  of  vast  extent  This  establishment 
commences  with  the  raw  materials,  which  are  hemp,  flax,  and  cotton,  the  last  hav- 
ing been  extensively  employed  for  herring  and  sprat  nets  of  late  years.  Hemp,  bow- 
ever,  is  the  chief  material  for  net-making  ;  and  iu  order  to  prepare  it,  it  is  first 
passed  iu  long  rolls  through  a  macliine  consisting  of  two  rollers  with  blunt  ridges, 
the  upper  of  which  is  kept  down  on  the  material  by  means  of  a  hanging  weight, 
consisting  of  a  loaded  box  suspended  to  a  chtdu  from  the  axle  of  the  rolh-r.  After 
the  fibre  has  passed  through  this,  it  is  much  more  supple  than  before,  and  is  then 
hackled;  this  process  is  also  done  by  machinery,  which  was  first  introduced  into 
tills  manufactory  for  hemp  hackling,  and  succee<l8  admirablv.  It  subsequently 
passes  tlirough  thecardiug,  roving,  and  S])inning  processes,  as  in  all  other  knids  of 
yarn,  and  is  fiually  twictted  into  threads  or  twines  of  the  required  ihickndss.  Messrs 
Siuart  have  in  oue  room  4000  spindles  at  work,  besides  the  carding  and  twist  ma- 
cliiues.  Of  their  uatent  loom  ihey  have  200  dt  work,  the  lai'gestof  which  makes  nets 
430  meshes  iu  width.  It  would  be  useless  to  attempt  to  describe  these  ingenious 
I'luoms,  which  are  worked  by  hand,  otherwise  than  by  sayiug  that  their  leading  fea- 
I  turus  are  like  the  stocking-frames ;  a  series  of  sinkers  push  forward,  pull  down,  and 
T  pass  in  and  out  the  thread,  wliich  i«  carried  from  one  side  of  the  web  to  the  other 
by  long  irou  needles,  whlqji  act  as  shuttles  passing  not  over-quickly  ffom  a  long 
box  on  each  side  of  the  loom.  This  simple  yet  most  effective  contrivance  is  worked 
by  wheels  and  jointed  rods,  and  might  be  advantageously  applied  to  many 
other  purposes.  After  the  net  comes  from  the  loom,  it  goes  to  the  finishers,  who, 
by  hand,  make  the  addition  of  a  kind  of  selvage,  consisting  of  several  thicknesses 
of  twine,  to  give  strength  to  the  edges.  The  nuts  are  then  ready  for  use,  and  are 
sent  iu  vast  numbers  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  Machine  net-making  is  now  becom- 
ing general. 

A  great  variety  of  nets  are  in  use  amongst  fishermen,  bnt  the  principal  are.  the 
Seine,  trawly  and  arift-neU.  The  seine  is  a  veiT^  long  bnt  not  very  wide  net,  one  side 
of  which  is  loaded  with  nieces  of  lead,  and  cousegnently  sinks ;  the  other,  or  upper, 
is  buoyed  with  pieces  ox  cork,  and  consequently  is  kept  up  to  tlie  surface.    Seiiiea 


y  Google 


201 


Net! 
Nettle 

nre  eomptimes  ns  mnch  as  190  fathoma  in  lonpth.  When  stretched  ont,  t1?ey  consti- 
tnte  walls  of  network  in  llie  water,  and  are  made  to  enclose  vast  shoale  of  flsli.  Tho 
trawl  is  dragged  along  the  bottom  by  the  fishing-btiat ;  and  the  drift-net  is  like  tho 
seine,  but  ie  not  loaded  with  lead  ;  it  is  nsually  employed  for  mackerel  fishing. 

Various  kinds  of  nets  are  used  iu  bird-catching,  one  of  which  is  noticed  in  tho 
nrticle  Clap-net.  Nets  are  n^ed  iu  catching  q^adl•n|)ed^,  chletly  for  the  purpose  of 
enclosing  spaces  within  winch  they  are,  but  Bumetimesalt^o  for  throwing  upou  them 
to  confuse  and  entangle  them. 

Nets  are  used  by  gardeners  to  protect  crops  from  birds;  also  to  protect  the  blos- 
Foms  of  trees  from  frest,  and  it  is  wonderful  how  well  this  object  is  accomplished, 
even  wheu  the  meshes  are  pretty  wide,  and  the  suu*si  rays  have  very  free  access. 

NETTING,  Naval.  A  hoarding-netting  is  formed  of  strong  rojK),  and  stretched 
alHJve  the  bulwarks  of  a  ship,  over  the  i)ort-holeH,  Ac,  to  a  considerable  height,  for 
the  purpose  of  ])revei:ting  the  entrance  of  boarders  from  hostile  boals.  In  positions 
where  I)oat  attacks  are  feasible,  ships  are  thus  protected  at  night,  and  ut  other  times 
when  attempts  at  boarding  are  anticipatd. 

The  /lammock-tutting  is  in  the  bulwarks  of  a  ship,  usually  in  the  waist,  and  its 
pnri)08e  is  to  keep  the  hammot  ks  of  the  crew  when  stowed  there  during  the  day ; 
thus  netted  together,  the  hammocks  form  a  valuable  barrier  against  bullets. 

Hatchway-nettings  are  of  inch  rope,  and  arc  placed  over  the  open  hatchways  dur- 
ing fine  weather,  to  prevent  persons  from  falling  tlirough. 

NfiTTLE  {Urtlca),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Urtieece^  having  uni- 
eexnal  flowers,  the  ra.-ile  and  female  on  the  «?ame  or  separate  plant* ;  the  male  flowers 
with  a  4-parted  perianth,  and  four  stamens;  the  female  flowers  with  a  2-parted 
perianth  and  a  tufted  stigma;  the  fruit  an  achcuium.  The  si>ecie8  are  hcrbacKons 
plants,  shrubs,  or  even  trees,  many  of  them  covered  with  stinging  hairs,  which  pierce 
the  skin  when  touched,  and  (!mit  an  acrid  juice,  often  causing  much  inflammation 
.ind  pain.  When  a  N.  is  grasped  in  such  a  way  as  to  press  the  hairs  to  the  btem,  no 
f  tinging  ensues;  but  the  slightest  itiadvertent  touch  of  some  of  the  species  produces 
\ery  severe  pain.  The  ftinging  of  the  native  nettles  of  Europe  is  trifling  in  com- 
parison with  that  of  some  East  Indian  species.  U.  erenulata  is  particularly  notable 
for  the  severity  of  the  pain  which  it  produces,  without  either  pustules  or  apparent 
inflammation.  The  first  sensation  is  merely  a  slight  tingling,  but  within  an  hour 
violent  pain  is  felt,  as  if  a  red-hOt  iron  were  continually  applied,  and  the  pain  ex- 
tends far  from  the  original  s|>ot,  continues  for  about  twenty-four  hours  and  then 
abates,  but  is  ready  to  return  in  its  original  intensity  on  the  application  of  cold 
water,  and  does  not  cease  for  fully  eight  days.  Cold  water  has  a  similar  effect  in 
incrcas'Ujg  opWenewing  the  pain  of  all  kinds  of  nettles.  Still  more  formidable  than 
this  species  is  U.  urentiaeinta,  the  DeviVa  Leaf  of  Timor^  Of  British  spt'cles,  the 
most  venomous,  but  the  most  rare,  is  the  Komam  N.  (IT.pilnlifera) ;  next  to  it  is  tho 
'  SatALj^  N.  (U.  uren8)t  frequent  about  towns  and  villages,  and  in  waste  and  cultivated 
ground  ;  whilst  the  least  venomous  is  the  most  common  and  only  perennial  species, 
the  Great  N.  {U.  dioica)^  everywhere  abundant,  but  ])ai1icularly  near  human  habi- 
tations, or  their  former  sites,  the  desolation  of  which  it  may  be  said  to  proclaim. 
The  roots  of  nettles,  boiled  with  alum,  afford  a  yellow  dye ;  and  the  juice  of  tho 
etalks  and  leaves  has  beejj  used  to  dye  woollen  stuffs  of  a  beautiful  and  permanent 
prtieii.  The  young  shoots  of  IT.  dioica  are  ust  d  in  some  parts  of  Scotland  and 
other  countries  as  greens,  and  their  peculiar  flavor  is  much  relished  by  some, 
although,  iu  general,  the  use  of  them  is  conflined  to  the  poor;  which,  however,  is 
probably  the  result  of  mere  prejudice.  Whatever  it  is  that  gives  nettles  their  sling- 
ing i>ower,  is  dissipated  by  boiling.  The  high  value  of  nettles  as  food  for  swiue 
is  well  known  to  the  peasantry  of  many  countries ;  the  Great  N.  is  cultivated  iu 
Sweden  for  fodder  of  aomestic  animals ;  nettles  are  also  highly  esteemed  as  food  for 
jjonltry,  particularly  for  turkevs.  The  seeds  are  extermely  nutritious  to  poultry  ; 
and  are  given  to  horses  by  jockeys,  in  order  to  make  them  lively  when  they  are  to 
be  offered  for  sale.  The  stalks  and  leaves  of  nettles  are  employed  iu  some  parts  of 
England,  for  the  manufacture  of  a  light  kind  of  beer,  calh  d  N.  beer,  which  may  be 
soen  advertised  at  stalls,  and  in  humble  shops  iu  Manchester  and  other  towns.  The 
bast  fibre  of  nettles  is  useful  for  textile  purposes.  Yarn  and  cloth,  both  of  the  coars- 
est and  finest  descriptions,  can  be  made  of  it.    The  fibre  of   U,  dioica  was  used  by 


y  Google 


Noufchatel  -'^-^ 

the  ancient  Egyptians,  nnd  is  etill  uped  in  Piedmont  nnd  other  conntrien.  When 
wanted  for  fibre,  the  plnntjs  cut  in  the  middle  of  summer,  and  treated  like  liemp. 
The  names  N.  Yarn  aiuKV.  Clotfl  iire,  however,  now  commonly  given  in  most  parts 
of  Enrope  to  i>arricnlar  linoti  and  cotton  fahrics.— 'i'he  fibre  of  V.  cnnnabfyia,  a 
native  Of  the  ponthof  Silwria  and  olber  middle  parts  of  Apia,  is  much  nstxl;  and 
from  that  of  U.  Whitlawi^  i>oth  fine  lace  and  strong  ropes  ctin  he  maim  facta  red.  The 
fibre  of  U.  Jajwnica  is  much  used  in  Jap.'iu,  and  that  of  U.  argentea  in  tht;  Sonth  Sen 
Islands;  that  of  (T.  CatiadeiuiA  is  u seel  in  Canada. — Tl»e  seeds  and  herba:^  of  V. 
vievibra'*iacea  are  used  in  Kg.vpt  as  enimenagogiie  and  aphrodisiac;  and  somewhat 
similar  properties  are  ascribed  to  V.  ditiica. — CLtuberosa  pnuyici's  tnbei-s,  which  are 
nutritious,  and  are  eaten  in  In'dia,  raw,  boiled,  or  roiV'«ted. — Australia  prodnces  a 
maijuificent  tree-nettle,  17.  gwan,  abundant  in  some  parrs  of  New  Sonth  Wales, 
ordinarily  from  25  to  50  feet  high,  but  sometimes  120  or  140  feet,  with  trnnlcof  great 
tliickness,  and  very  larse  green  leav«^s,  which,  when  young,  sting violejitly.  In  some 
places,  it  forms  scrub  forests, *und  its  stiugin;;  leaves  form  a  great  impediment  to 
the  travclU-r. 

NETTLE-RASH,  or  Urtica'ria  (Lat  urtica^  a  nettle),  is  the  term  applied  to  a 
common  form  of  ernption  on  the  skin.  The  eruption  consists  of  wheals,  or  liJtle 
B«ilid  eminences  of  iiTcgular  outline,  and  either  white  or  red,  or  most  commonly 
both  red  and  white,  there  being  a  white  centre  with  a  red  margin.  The  rash  la 
accompanied  with  irreat  heat,  itching,  and  irritation ;  the  appearance  on  the  skin 
and  the  sensation  being  very  much  like  the  appearance  and  feelmg  produced  by  the 
slinging  of  nettles;  and  hence  the  origin  of  its  names. 

The  disease  may  be  either  acnte  or  clironlc  In  the  acnte  form,  fevcrishness 
usually  preceded  the  rash  by  a  few  hoars,  although  sometimes  they  commence  to- 
gether. The  disorder  1b  always  connected  with  some  derangement  of  the  digestive 
organs,  and  it  may  often  be  traced  to  the  imperfect  digestion  of  special  articles  of 
food,  such  as  oatmeal,  tlie  kernels  of  fruit,  strawbcn'ies,  cucumbers,  mushrooms, 
and  especially  oysters,  mussels  and  crabs,  whicli  are  eaten  with  perfect  impunitj'  by 
most  persons.  An  hour  or  two  after  the  offending  substance  has  been  swallowed, 
there  i>*  a  feeling  of  nausea,  with  oppression  about  the  pit  of  the  stomach  ;  the 
patient  often  coinplaine  of  giddiness,  and  tiie  face  frequently  swells;  the  skin  thtm 
Degins  to  tingle,  and  the  eruption  breaks  fortli ;  vomiting  and  diarrhoea  often  super- 
vene, and  act  as  a  natural  cure ;  but  even  when  they  do  not  occur,  the  violence  of 
the  rash  usually  subsides  in  a  few  liours,  and  the  disorder  altogether  disappears  In  a 
day  or  two. 

The  chronic  form  is  often  very  troublesome,  and  frequontly  comes  on  ]>eriodIcally 
in  the  evening.  Cases  are  reported  in  which  persons  have  l)een  afflicted  for  t<*n 
years  continuously  !)y  this  form  of  the  disease.  Patients  have  left  off  all  their  cus- 
tomary articles  of  di«*t,  one  by  one,  without  in  all  cases  nieeting  with  relief;  and 
hence  it  may  be  infeiTed,  that  although  the  disease  depends  in  all  ca^es  on  adisor- 
di'ri*d  condition  of  the  digestive  organs,  it  is  not  always  ttie  consequence  of  some 
special  offending  article  having  been  swallowed.  * 

The  main  treatment  of  the  acnte  form  consists  in  expelliug  the  offending  matter 
by  an  emetic  and  by  purgatives,  and  the  cure  is  thus  usmilly  completed.  In  the 
chronic  form,  the  patient  slionld,  in  the  first  place,  determine  whether  the  rash  is 
caused  by  any  particular  article  of  diet,  and  if  this  seems  not  to  be  tlie  case,  an  at- 
tempt must  be  made  to  improve  the  state  of  tli«?  digestive  organs.  A  few  grains  of 
rhubarb  taken  daily,  just  before  breakfast  and  before  dinner,  will  sometimes  effect 
a  cure.  If  this  simple  remedy  fafls,  Dr  Watson  recommends  the  trial  of  a  dranglit 
coin|)Osed  of  the  Infusion  of  scrpent.aria  (about  an  ounce  and  a  half),  with  a  scruple 
each  of  the  carbonate  of  magnesia  and  soda.  He  adds,  that  although  external  n\)- 
plications  are  usually  of  little  avail,  he  has  found  that  ducting  the  itching  surface 
with  flour  sometimes  affords  temporary  relief ;  and  that  a  still  more  us-'ful  nppllcji- 
tion  Is  alotion  composed  of  a  drachm  of  the  carbonate  of  ammonia,  a  drachm  of  the 
acetate  of  lead,  half  an  ounce  of  Jandanum,  and  eight  ounces  of  rose-water. 

NETTLE-TREE  (CeUis)^  a  genus  of  decidnons  trees  of  the  natnral  order  Ulmaeeop, 
with  simple  and  generally  serrated  leaves,  considerably  resembUng  those  of  the  Com- 
mon Nettle,  but  not  stinging.    The  genus  is  distingnished  chiefly  by  its  fruit,  wliich  ' 
i.H  a  fl(»shy,  globose,  or  sun-globose  1 -celled  drupe.    1'he  Common  or  European  N.  T. 
<C  AiiMralis)  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  the  west  of  Asia,  and  the  north  of 


y  Google 


203 


Neofchatel 

Africa.  It  arrows  to  the  height  of  80—40  foot,  nnd  w  a  very  hnndsome  tree,  ofteii 
planted  along  public  walks  in  the  ponth  of  France  and  north  of  Itiily.  The  woc^l  is 
very  coir.ijact,  very  dnrable,  and  takes  a  high  {>o]i«th.  It  M-as  formerly  nnich  imported 
into  Britain  for  the  nse  of  coachniakers.  It  is  used  in  Italy  by  umsical-iuBtrnnicnt 
makers  for  flutes  and  pipes.  The  flowers  are  hiconspicnoiis.  axillary,  and  solittiry ; 
the  f mit  black,  resembling  a  small  \^ild  cheriy,  not  eatable  till  after  the  first  frosts, 
and  then  very  sweet.  The  kernel  jrields  a  useful  fixed  oil.  The  ti*ee  succcetls  wt-ll  in 
the  south  of  England. — C  occidentalia,  is  a  native  of  North  America  from  Canada  to 
Ciuolina.  sometimes  there  called  the  N.  'I\,  sometimes  the  Suoab  Berry.  Iti*  leaves 
are  much  broader  tlian  those  of  C.  AttstrcUis.  its  fruit  very  similar.  It  is  a  nmcli 
larger  tree,  attaimng  a  height  of  60—80  feet. — ^Another  American  speclep,  C.  crassi- 
/<>/?«,  often  called  Hackberrt  or  Haoberrt,  and  HoOP  Ash,  is  very  abundant  in 
the  basin  of  the  Ohio  and  westward  of  the  Mississippi.  It  grows  to  a  great  height, 
but  the  trunk  is  not  very  thick.  The  wood  is  not  much  valued,  but  is  said  to  make 
very  fine  charcoal-  The  fruit  is  black,  and  about  the  size  of  a  pea. — The  Inner  bark  of 
C.  orientalU,  consisting  of  reticulated  fibres,  fonns  a  kind  of  natural  cloth,  used  by 
some  tribes  of  India.— A  number  of  other  species  are  natives  of  the  warm  parts  of 
America  and  of  Asia. 

NEU-CHWATSG,  orTing-Tsze,  atown  of  the  ehine«»e  Empire,  in  Manchuria. 
It  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Liaou,  alwut  26  miles  from  \\»  moaili,  and  iu 
hit,  410  n.,  and  long.  i22o  30'  e.  The  Liaon,  which  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Llaou-tong, 
at  the  head  of  the  Yellow  Sea,  is  navigable  for  sea-going  vessels  to  N. ;  and  N.  is 
therefore  regarded  as  a  seaport,  and  Is  one  of  tho^e  opened  to  foreigh  trade  by  tho 
treaty  of  Tientj*in.  A  Bntish  consul  resides  here  ;  but  the  trade  is  as  yet  incon- 
Biderable,  and  only  to  Chinese  ports. 

NEU-BRA'NDENBURG,  a  town  of  Mecklenburg.  Strelitz.  the  prettiest  nnd,  after 
the  capital,  the  largest  in  tho  duchy,  is  situated  on  Lake  Tollens,  17  miles  north- 
north-east  of  Neu-Strelitz.  It  is  regularly  buJlt.  contains  two  churches,  a  castle, 
4fcc.,  is  the  centre  of  a  picturesque  district,  and  the  seat  of  considerable  industry. 
Pop.  (1871)  T245.— About  half  a  league  from  N.,  on  a  rock  overlooking  Lnko 
Tollens,  stands  the  ducal  pleasure-cast le  of  Belvedere,  commanding,  it  is  said,  the 
most  l>eautiful  prospect  in  Mecklenburg. 

NEU'BUT?G,  an  ancient  town  of  Bax-aria,  Is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  right 
bnnk  of  the  Dnnube,  29  miles  norih-north-east  of  Augshui-g.  It  coutjiins  a  hand- 
some pa'ace,  the  chftt-an  of  the  Dukes  of  Bavaria  of  the  line  of  Pfalz-Neuhurg,  who 
r«»sided  here  from  1596  to  1742.  The  pnlrce  contains  a  collection  of  ancient  armor. 
Br«-.ving  \m\6.  distilling  nrr  cnrrirdon,  and  there  is  a  considerable  commercial  trade 
on  the  Danube.    Vo\\  (1871)  6390. 

NETPCHATE'L,  or  Neuchatel,  known  also  as  Nenenhurffy  a  canton  in  the  west  of 
Switzerland,  between  liafee  Neufchatel  and  the  French  frontier,  in  lat  46°  62'— 47°  10' 
n.,  nnd  long.  6*^  26'— 7°  5'  e.  Area,  304  eq.  miles.  Population,  97,284,  at  the  close  of 
1870.  N.  Ues  in  the  midst  of  the  Jura  Mountains,  four  chains  of  which,  running 
from  north-east  to  Bouth-weet,  travei-se  the  canton,  and  are  separated  by  elevated 
longitudinal  valleys.  The  most  easterly  of  these  is  a  broken  chain,  running  parallel 
to  the  lake  of  Neufchatel,  on  whose  banks,  and  on  the  second  and  lower  ranges  be- 
yond It,  the  vine  is  carefullyVultivatcd.  This  second  chain  has  five  principal  passes, 
the  highest  of  which,  La  Toume,  has  an  elevation  of  about  4000  feet  'ITie  third  and 
fourth  ranges,  abutting  on  Prance,  consist  for  the  most  part  of  barren  hills,  separated 
by  elevated  valleys ;  but  here  and  there  these  h'gh  lands  are  well  wooded  and  fruitful, 
producing  com,  good  pasture,  fruits,  &c  The  greater  number  of  the  numerous 
streams  which  water  the  canton  flow  into  the  Rhine.  Among  these  mountain  tor- 
rents, the  principal  are  the  Reuse,  the  Seyon,  and  the  Seniere,  the  two  former  of 
which,  together  with  the  rivers  Orbe  and  Broie,  are  tlie  feeders  of  the  Lake  of  Neuf- 
<  hatel,  known  also  as  the  Lake  of  Yvei-dun.  The  Thiele  serves  as  its  outlet,  and  car- 
ries its  waters  into  the  neighboring  lake  of  Bienne,  and  into  the  river  Aar.  The  lake 
is  25  miles  long,  and  from  3  to  5}^  miles  wide.  Its  level  above  the  sea  is  14'J0  feet, 
and  it  has  a  depth  of  400  or  500  feet.  , 

The  natural  products  are  iron  ores,  coal,  asphnlt,  fruit,  including  grapes— from 
wl  icli  L'ood  r«'d  nnd  white  wines  are  made— timber  and  com,  although  the  lattt-r  is 
M>t  t;rowu  iu  sufficient  quantity  for  the  deinauds  of  the  home  consumption.     ine 


y  Google 


Hfettfchatef  OA  I 

Nearalgia  -^^^ 

roaring  of  cuttle  constitateft  an  important  branch  of  indnBtry.  and  large  qnantitiesof 
clieese  are  exported;  Wut  thu  specialty  of  the  caiituu  is  wjuch-inakiug,  wUicb  oci*a- 
))iea  from  18,000  to  20,000  persons,  and  is  prosecuted  in  detail  at  the  homes  of  th€t 
work-iieople  in  the  rural  districts,  where  some  families  manufacture  oidyspc'cial 
parts  of  the  nmchluerj',  while  others  are  entragetl  solely  in  puitinj;  t-oirether  the  sep- 
arate portions  that  have  been  manufactured  by  others ;  and  the  watches  thns  pre- 
pared are  exported  in  larijeqnantitiea  to  every  part  of  Europe  and  Americji.  Muslin 
])rinting  employs  upwards  of  10.000  persons,  and  lace  U  extensively  made  by  the 
country-women  ot  the  Val  ae  Tnivers. 

The  climate  of  N.  varies  greatly  wilh  the  locality,  beinj*  temperate  on  the  shores 
of  the  lake,  cooler  in  the  valleys,  and  severe  on  the  mountain-sides.  The  popula- 
tion, with  the  exception  of  between  9000  and  10,000  Catholics,  belongs  to  varioua 
Protestant  denominations. 

The  history  of  N.  was  identical  with  that  of  Bnrp:nndy  till  the  lltli  c;  and  after 
the  principality  had  l>«en  for  a  time  incorporated  wish  the  territories  of  thcConuts 
of  Chalou:*,  to  whom  it  had  been  granted  in  1238  by  Ri:do)pli  of  Hapsburg,  it  passed 
to  the  House  of  Loiigueville.  In  1707,  on  the  extinction  of  the  N.  branch  oCthe  lat- 
ter family,  16  claimants  came  forward  to  advance  niorejor  less  valid  pretensions  to 
the  N.  territory.  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia,  who  based  his  claim  to  the  princiiMiiity  of 
N.  on  the  ground  of  his  d.-scent  from  the  firj*t  Prince  of  Onuiffe,  a  descendant  of  the 
House  of  Ciialons,  was  the  successful  candidate ;  and  from  liis  time  it  continued 
associated  with  Prussia  till  1806,  when  Napoleon  bestowed  it  upon  General  Berthier ; 
but  in  1814,  it  was  restored  to  the  House  of  Brandenburg.  This  connection  with 
the  Prussian  monarchy  has  been  wholly  dissolved  since  1857,  and  N.  is  now  a  mem- 
bjr  of  the  Swiss  Confederation. 

NEUFCHATEL,  or  Nou'enburg,  is  the  chief  town  of  t!:o  canton,  and  occupies  a 
magnificent  sit-e  on  the  north-west  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Nenfchaiei,  and  is  noted  for 
iismauycliaritjibla  institutions,  and  tor  the  beauty  of  its  cjarmiugiy  situated  en- 
virons.   Pop.  (1870)  13,821. 

NEU'HAUS,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Nescharka,  about  70  miles  sonth-soath' 
cast  of  Prague.  Its  palace,  belonging  to  Count  Czerny,  is  a  sp)(>ndid  edifice.  Cloth* 
paper,  and  chemical  products  are  manufactared.    Pop.  (1869)  8620. 

NEU'HAUS  EL  (Hung.  Ersek-Ujpdri^  a  town  of  Hungaiy,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Neiitra,  74  miles  north-west  ot  Pesth,  by  the  Vienna  and  Pesth  Kailway.  It 
was  formerly  strongly  fortified,  and  played  an  important  pjirt  in  the  Turkish  wars. 
No  traces  of  ils  fortifications  now  remain.  Pop.  (1869)  9483,  chiefly  engaged  in  ag- 
riculture and  the  rearing  of  cattle. 

NEUILLY  (sometimes  cjilled  Neuillt-sur-Seine,  to  disttngnish  it^rom  several 
much  less  important  places  of  the  same  name),  a  town  of  France,  in  the  dep.  of 
SeiUL',  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Seine,  immediately  to  the  north  of  the  Bois  dc 
Boulogne.  N.  may  now  bo  regarde*!  as  a  suburb  of  Paris,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  several  streets,  or  roads,  lined  with  numerous  villas.  Here,  near  the  Seine,  and 
In  a  large  and  beautiful  park,  formerly  stood  the  Ctmteaa  de  Neuilly.  built  by  Louis 
XV.,  and  the  favorite  residence  of  Louis  Philippe,  which  was  bumea  at  the  revolu- 
tion in  1843.  The  i»ark  was  also  then  divided  into  lots  for  sale,  the  consequence  be- 
ing a  rapid  increase  of  the  number  of  houses  in  NeiiiHy.  N.  has  manufactures  of 
porcelain  and  starch,  chemical  works  and  distillerie.«?.  Pop.  (1872)  J5^466.  When 
Louis  Philippe  abdicated,  and  took  refuge  in  England,  he  assumed  the  title  of  Count 
de  Neuilly. 

NEU'MONSTER,  a  propperons  manufacturing  and  market  town  of  Holstein,  on 
the  Schwale,  one  of  the  head-waters  of  the  St^cr,  and  on  the  railway  between 
Altona  and  Kiel,  19  miles. S()uth-by-W(^st  from  Kiel.  Tiiere  are  large  woollen  and 
linen  factories,  tanneries,  dye-works,  and  breweries.    Pop.  (1875)  10,124, 

NEURA'LGIA  (Qr.  neuron,  a  nerve ;  aJffoa,  pain)  is  a  term  employed  to  desiprnate 
pain  of  a  purely  nervous  character,  usually  tiuaccompanied  by  infiatnmatioii,  fever, 
or  any  appreciable  change  of  structure.  The  pain,  which  occnra  in  paroxysms, 
nsujilly  followed  by  coini>lcte  remissions,  is  of  every  possible  degi*ce  and  character, 
bjing  descHbed  in  different  cashes  as  piercing,  tearing,  burning,  &c.  These  par- 
oxysms may  occur  at  intervals  of  a  few  second^  only,  or  they  may  lake  place  wtHy 


1 


y  Google 


OAK  Neufohatel 

^^^^  Neuralgia 

or  on  alternate  days,  or  they  may  be  separated  by  much  longer  intsu'vals,  which  are 
often,  bat.  by  no  n>eanB  alwayp,  of  a  regular  length.  With  the  paiu,  there  is  fro- 
5[ueutly8pa.«modic  twitching  of  tlie  adjacent  mubcle^.  The  duration  of  the  disease 
Is  very  uncertain.  The  patient  may  Inive  only  a  single  attack,  or  he  may  be  liable 
to  recurring  altacks  for  months,  years,  or  eveu  for  his  whole  life  ;  it  is,  however, 
very  seldom  that  the  disease  occurs  but  once.  Death  scarcely  ever  results*  directly 
from  this  affection,  but  the  pain  may,  by  its  severity  aud  persisteute,  gradually 
undermine  the  constitution. 

The  disease  may  attack  any  part  of  the  l>o4y  where  there  are  nerves  ;  but  in  no 
pan  does  It  occur  so  frequfintly  as  in  the  face,  when  it  is  po)>ularly  known  as  *»c 
£huloureux;  its  S'  at.  being  in  the  facial  braijches  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves  (tlie  irl- 
facial  nerves).  The  following  graplilc  de««crlptiou  of  the  ordinary  varieties  of  ibis 
form  of  neuralgia  is  borrowed  from  Dr  Watson's  **  Lectures  on  the  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Physic:"  "When  the  uppermost  branch  of  the  trifacinl  nerve  i«»  rlie 
seat  of  Ihe  con»plaint,  the  pain  generally  shoots  from  the  spot  where  iho  nerve 
ii<saes  through  the  superciliary  hole  ;  and  it  involves  the  parts  adjacent,  upon  which 
the  fibrils  of  the  nerve  are* distributed — the  forehead,  ihe  brow,  the  upix.r  lid, 
sometimes  the  eyeball  itself.  The  eye  is  usually  clo-ed  during  the  p.jroxysni,  and 
the  skin  of  the  forehead  on  that  side  corrugated.  The  neighboring  arteries  throh, 
and  a  copious  gush  of  tears  take  place.  In  some  instances,  the  eye  becomes  blo6d- 
shotten  ateach  attack;  and  when  the  attacks  are  frequently  repeated,  this  injection 
of  the  conjunctiva  may  become  permanent. 

"  When  the  pain  depends  uiK)n  a  morbid  condition  or  morbid  action  of  the  mid- 
dle branch  of  the  nerve,  it  is  somtimes  quite  sudden  in  its  accession,  and  sometimes 
comes  on  rather  more  gradually  ;  being  preceded  by  a  tickling  or  pricking  sensation 
of  the  cheek,  and  by  twitches  of  the  lower  eyelid.  These  symptoms  are  shortly 
followt^d  by  pain  at  the  infra-orbitary  foramen,  spreading  in  severe  flashes  (so  to 
speak)  over  the  cheek,  aff -cting  the  lower  eyelid,  ala  nasi,  and  upper  lip,  and  often 
teruiiuating  abruptly  at  tiie  mesial  line  of  the  face.  Sometimes  it  extends  to  the 
teeth,  the  antrum,  the  hard  and  soft  palate,  and  even  to  the  base  of  the  tongue,  aud 
induces  spar<modic  contractions  of  the  neighboring  muscles. 

'•  When  the  pain  is  referrible  to  the  inferior  or  maxillary  branch  of  the  fifth  pair 
of  nerves,  it  dai-rs  from  the  mental  foramen,  rauiaiing  to  the  lips,  tlie  alveolar  pro-^ 
ceases,  the  teeth,  the  chin,  and  to  the  side  of  the  tongue.  It  often  stops  exactly  at  the 
symphysis  of  the  chin.  Frequently  it  extends  in  the  other  direction,  to  the  whole 
cheek  and  to  the  ear.  Durhig  the  paroxysm,  the  features  are  liable  to  be  distort<d 
by  spasmodic  action  of  the  nniscles  of  the  jaw,  amounting  sometimes  to  tetanic 
rigidity,  aud  holding  the  jaw  fixed  and  immovable. 

"The  paroxysm^?  of  suffering  in  this  frightful  disease  are  apt  to  be  broueht  on  by 
apparently  trivial  causes — by  a  slight  touch,  by  a  current  of  air  blowing  upon  the 
face,  by  a  suddt-n  j  t  or  shake  of  the  bed  on  which  the  patient  is  lying,  by  a  knock 
at  the  door,  or  even  by  directing  the  patient's  attention  to  his  malady,  by  speaking 
ofitoraskinghimqHestiouBabout.it.  The  necessary  niovements  of  the  face  in 
6|>eaking  or  eating  are  often  snfilciont  tQ  provoke  or  renew  the  paroxysm.  At  the 
sajiie  time,  firm  pressure  made  upon  the  painfnl  part  frtiquont  y  givi's  relief,  and 
causes  a  sense  of  numbness  to  take  the  place  of  the  previous  agony  "  (vol.  i.  pp. 
723,  724). 

Tic  douloureux  is  the  form  of  severe  neuralgia  which  is  by  far  the  most  commonly 
met  with ;  the  reas«m  probably  being,  that  the  trifacial  nerve,  lying  supei-ficially,  and 
being  disMbuted  over  a  part  of  the  surface  whicli  is  usually  unprotected  by  any  arti- 
flcialcovering,  is  very  liable,  for  that  reason,  to  be  affected  by  exposure  to  atmos- 
pheric influences,  which  are  undoubtedly  to  be  im  luded  among  the  exciting  causes 
of  this  disease.  Amongst  oth<'r  seats  of  neuralgia  may  be  mentioned  the  arm, 
especially  the  forearm,  the  spaces  between  the  ribs,  especially  between  the  sixtli  and 
ninth,  and  the  lower  extremity,  where  it  most  frequently  affects  the  sciatic  jjerve, 
giving  rise  to  the  affecticm  known  as  Sciatica,  which,  however,  not  always  being 
pure  neuralgia,  will  be  noticed  in  a  separate  article. 

The  causes  of  neuralgia  are  various.  Excluding  inflammation  of  the  nervous 
trunk  Or  »i«trrti«,  the  pain  may  be  excited  by  a  tumor  pressing  on  the  nerve,  or  origi- 
nating in  its  substance;  or  by  roughness  of  a  bony  suitace  with  which  the  nerve  may 
!»  iu  contact,  as  when  it  passes  through  a  foramen ;  or  it  may  be  due  to  tumors 


y  Google 


ir.»ralBla  206 

witliiiA;ho  craiilnm.  or  a  morbid  state  of  the  epina!  cord.  Sometimes,  again,  irrita- 
tion applied  to  o»ie  nranch  of  a  uervu  will  give  ri'^e  to  paiu  at  the  extrei:iity  otcutother 
l)rauch  of  the  Bame  nerve,  the  seiisatiou  being  reflected  along  the  brunch  whicb  isuot 
directly  expoped  to  the  irritation.  In  this  way  we  may  explain  Iho  pain  in  tbe 
Bhonlder  which  often  accompanies  disease  of  ilie  liver;  the  pain  in  the  thigh,  wliich 
is  often  associated  with  irritation  of  the  kidney ;  tiie  i)aiu  in  the  left  arm,  wiiich  is 
often  coincident  with  disease  of  the  heart,  &c.  Persous  suffering  from  debility, 
aniemia,  aud  a  gouty  or  rheumatic  coustitutiou,  are  so  espi^ciaUy  liable  to  nenralgia, 
tliat  these  conditions — ^aa  also  exposure  to  malarious  iufluences— must  be  pkSt4 
tftuong  tlie  predisposing  causes.  Amongst  the  exciting  causes,  exposure  to  cold  aud 
wer,  or  to  a  cold  dry  east  wind,  is  tl»e  most  frequent ;  but  fatigue,  strong  mental 
emotions,  the  abuse  of  tea,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  alcoholic  drinks,  a  wound  or  bruise, 
the  retrocession  of  gout,  rheumatism,  or  cntaneous  ernptious,  &c.,  occasionally  8nf« 
fice  to  excite  the  disease. 

The  resources  of  tlie  materia  medica  have  been  exhausted  iu  searching  for  r«n- 
edies  for  this  cruel  disease.  Dr  Elliotson  believes  that  "  iu  all  cases  of  uenralgia, 
whether  exquisite  or  not,  nnaccon)paiiicd  by  inflammation,  or  ev.deut  existing 
cause,  iron  is  the  best  remedy ;"  and  tliere  can  be  no  doul)t  lliat  when  Uie  disease  is 
accompanied  witli  debility  and  paleness,  no  remedy  is  likely  t^  be  so  sei-viceable.  If 
the  digeftive  orpins  arc  out  of  order,  the  neuralgia  may  not  unlnqueutly  be 
removed  or  allevuited  by  correcting  their  mihealthy  state.  •* Dr  Rigby  tells  us  that 
having  suffered  iu  his  own  person  an  intense  attack  of  tic  doulouriux, 
which  opium  did  not  }u<8uage,  he  swallowed  some  carbonate  of  soda 
dissolved  in  water.  The  effect  was  almost  immediate;  ou-bouic  acid 
was  erucied,  and  the  pain  quickly  abated.  In  this  ca:<e,  the  pain  de- 
pended upou  the  mere  presence  of  acid  iu  the  stomach.  More  often  the  cause 
of  offence  appears  to  lie  iu  some  part  of  the  jntestinea  ^  *i"d  purgatives  do  good. 
Sir  Chades  Bell  achieved  the  eure  of  a  ])atieutQpou  whom  nmch  previous  treatment 
hiid  been  expended  in  vain,  by  some  pills  composed  of  cathartic  extract,  croton  oil, 
and  galbanum.  He  mixed  ono  or  two  drops  of  the  croton  oil  with  a  drachm  of  the 
compound  extract  of  colocynth ;  and  gave  Ave  grains  of  this  mass,  with  ten  grains 
of  the  compound  iralbauum  pill,  at  bedtime.  -Other  cnses  have  l>eeu  since  reported, 
both  by  Sir  Chaih^s  and  by  others  in  wliich  the  same  prescription  was  followed  by 
the  same  success." — Watson,  op.  cit.  p.  727. 

When  the  disease  occurs  in  a  rheumatic  person,  iodide  of  potassium  (from  three 
to  five  grains  taken  in  solution  three  times  a  day  before  meals)  sometimes  ^ivcs  groat 
relief.  When  the  paroxysms,  occur  periodically — as,  for  example,  with  an  interval  of 
24  or  4S  hours — sulphate  of  quinine  m  doses  of  from  10  to  20  grains  between  Vas 

Saroxysms,  will  usually  effect  a  cure ;  aud  if  the  disease  resist  comparatively  sniall 
OSes,  the  quantity  may  be  increased  to  half  a  drachm,  or  a  di'achm  if  necessary. 
Arsenic  acts  in  the  same  manner  :is  quinine  in  these  cases,  but  less  effectually. 

The  inhalation  of  chloroform  will  sometimes  give  permanent  relief ,  and  always 
gives  temporary  ease,  and  shortens  the  period  of  suffering. 

The  iujection  of  a  certain  quantity  of  a  solution  of  muriate  of  morphia,  by  means 
of  a  sharp-pointed  syringe,  into  the  cellular  tissue  benea^  the  skin  over  the  painful 
spot,  very  often  gives  immediate  relief.  For  the  discovery  of  this  mode  of  treating 
neuralgia,  we  are  indebted  to  Dr  Alexander  Wood  of  Edinburgh.  At  one  time — 
about  naif  a  centmy  ago— it  was  a  conmion  practice  to  divide  the  tiimk  of  the  pain- 
ful nerve,  with  the  object  of  cutting  off  the  communication  between  tlie  painful  spot 
aud  the  brain ;  but  in  many  instances  the  operation  signally  failed,  and  it  is 
now  never  resorted  to.  A  much  simpler  operation,  namely,  the  extraction  of 
a  canine  tooth,  has  often  been  found  to  give  permanent  relief  in  cases  of  facial  neu- 
ralgia, and  in  such  case  a  careful  examination  of  the  teeth  should  usually  be  made. 

Local  applications  can  be  of  no  permanent  service  in  cases  where  the  pain  results 
from  organic  change,  or  from  general  constitutioual  causes ;  they  will,  however, 
often  give  considerable  temporary  relief.  Amongst  the  most  important  local 
applications  may  be  mentioned  laudanum,  tincture  ofaconite  (or  aconituia  ointment, 
in  the  proportion  of  one  or  two  grains  to  a  drachm  of  simple  ointment  or  cerate), 
belladonna-plaster,  and  chloroform  (wliich  shoiUd  b6  applied  upon  a  piece  of  linen 
saturated  with  it,  and  covered  with  oiled  silk,  to  prevent  evaporation). 
<     Lastly,  utiui-algia  being  a  pmcly  ucrvuua  affection,  is  often  influenced  bj  means 


y  Google 


OA'r  Neuralgia 

calcnlntcd  to  mnke  a  Ptrong  Impreraioii  on  the  mind  of  the  pnlicnt;  and  hence  it  is 
tiiat  gaivnuic  rhigSf  (^U'Clric  chniu^,  mesmeric  p:i88ei>,  homoeopathic  globules,  nn<l 
other  iippUcatiouB,  which,  liiie  tbexc,  act  more  apou  the  luiiid  thtui  opou  the  body  of 
the  patient,  ocoueiouully  effect  a  cure. 

NETJRI'TIS  is  tlie  term  applietl  lo  Iiiflammatiou  of  the  nerves.  The  disease  is 
mre,  and  not  very  well  dcfliieU.  The  syuiptoms  closely  renenible  those  of  ueuiulgia. 
libeanmtism  seems,  in  most  ciises,  to  be  the  cuiitie  of  tl>e  disimse,  which  must  be 
treated  bv  bleeding,  lt;eching,  purging,  and  lo«vr  diet.  Anodynes  are  aUo  required 
for  the  relief  of  the  puiu ;  ana  of  tltese,  Dover's  Powder,  iu  tolerably  fall  dooes,  is 
perhaps  the  best. 

NEURO'PTBRA  (Gr.  nerve-winged),  an  onler  of  mandibnlnte  insects,  having 
four  nearly  equal  and  membranous  wings,  all  adapted  for  fliglit.  divided  by  th«ir 
nervures  into  a  delicate  net-wotk  of  little  sfmces,  and  not  covered  with  fine  scalen, 
us  in  the  Lepidoptera.  The  wings  are  often  extended  horizontally  when  at  rent, 
nearly  as  in  flight;  bat  the  nosiiion  Is  various.  The  lorm  of  the  wnig  is  ffeuenilly 
somewhat  elongated.  The  body  is  generally  much  elongated,  particnhirly  the  ab<lo- 
men.  The  bend  is  often  large,  the  compound  eyes  very  large,  and  there  are  ottiu 
also  simple  or  stenimatfc  eyes.  The  fiabiis  are  i)redaceo<i8,  at  least  In  llie  larva 
state;  often  also  iu  the  pupa  and  perfict  states,  the  food  consisting  of  other  in- 
sects, often  caught  on  the  wing.  The  power  of  fl:ght  is  accordingly  great  in  many. 
The  larvae  and  pu^oe  are  often  aquatic.  The  females  have  no  sting,  and  only  a  few 
liave  an  ovipositor.  The  mut;inior^)ho8is  is  complete  in  some,  iucomplete  in  others. 
Dragon-flies,  Muy-fllee,  scorpion-flies,  ant-lions,  ;iud  termites,  or  white  ants,  belong 
to  tills  order. 

NEU'SATZ  (also  Neoplanta  or  Uj-Videk),  a  town  of  the  Austrian  empire,  in  the 
Hungarian  province  of  Bdcs,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  opposite 
Peterwardein.  Its  origin  dates  from  the  year  1700,  and  by  the  year  1849  it  numbered 
nearly  20,000  inhabitants.  A  bridge,  840  ft^et  iu  length,  extends  between  N.  and 
the  w)wn  and  fortress  of  Peterwardein.  N.  fs  the  seal  of  the  Greek  nou-nniied 
Bishop  of  Bdcs.  On  the  11th  June  1849,  it  was  tnken  from  the  Bnngariau  iin-nr- 
ceuts  oy  the  imperial  troops,  and  was  almost  wholly  destroyed.  It  has  been  rebuilt 
fn  excellent  style.  N.  is  a  stiiriou  for  nte^miers  ou  the  Dauube,  and  carries  on  an 
important  and  active  trade.    Pop.  (1869)  19,119. 

NEUSE,  a  river  of  North  Carolina,  United  States  of  America,  rises  near  tJie 
middle  of  the  northern  boundary  of  the  state,  and.  after  a  south-easterly  course 
of  250  miles,  falls -by  a  broad  channel  into  Pamlico  Sound,  which  communicates 
by  several  inlets  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean.    It  forms  the  harbor  of  Newhem. 

NEU'SIEDL,  Lake  (Hung.  Ferto-tava)^  a  small  lake  ou  the  north- wes'  frontier  of 
Huugnry,  22  miles  south-east  of  Vienna.  It  is  23  miles  iu  length,  and  about  6  miles 
iu  average  breadth,  with  a  mean  depth  of  13  feet.  Its  waters  are  llehi-greeu  in  a}>- 
peanmce,  and  are  brackish  in  taste.  The  slopes  of  the  Leithu  Mountains  iu  the 
▼icinity  i)roduce  excellent  wine. 

NEU'SOHL  (Hung.  Beaztercze-BAaiya),  a  beautiful  and  thriving  town  of  Hungaiy, 
the  chief  place  of  the  richesit  mining  district  in  the  counti^,  is  situated  in  a  hill- 
enclosed  valley  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Gran,  about  85  miles  north  of  Pesth.  N., 
consisting,  as  it  does,  of  the  town  proper  and  five  suburbs,  contaius  a  population, 
iu  all.  of  (1869)  1],T80,  who  are  employed  iu  the  copper  and  iron  mines  of  the 
vicinity,  in  the  smelting  houses,  and  iu  the  manufacture  of  beet-root  sugar, 
paper,  colors,  dbc  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  contaius  a  beautiful  cathe- 
dral, a  bishop's  palace,  aud  two  evangelical  churches,  and  several  other  handsome 
edifices. 

NEU8S,  a  fortress  and  flourishing  manufacturing  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  near 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  the  river  Erft,  4  miles  south- 
west of  Dus^ldorf.  Its  church  of  St  Quirinas,  a  beautiful  edifice,  and  a  notable 
specimen  of  tiie  transition  from  the  round  to  tlie  pointed  style,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  bpilt  iu  1209.  N.  is  the  principal  grain-market  of  the  province,  aud  carries  on 
manulaciures  of  woollen  and  other  cloths,  ribbons,  hats,  vinegar,  &c.  It »»  supposed 
to  be  the  Hoomum  of  the  Romans,  sacked  by  Attili^  in  the  year  451.    Pop.  (isio) 


y  Google 


Nenstadl'  OAQ 

Neutra.»  ^^^ 

NEITSTABT  (Polish,  PrudnUz),  a  towu  of  PrnMian  Silesia,  29  miles  «)ntli-*Tcst 
of  Oppeln.  It  is  the  seat  of  cousidurabiu  uiaunfuctiiriug  iiidnmry,  woolleii  aiidiiiifu 
fabrics  beiuR  the  staple  goods  uinimfactiired.  Dainask- weaving  aloue  emplo/s  680 
bauds,  and  880  looms.    Pop.  (1875)  1«,615. 

NBU8TADT,  or  Wieuer-Nenstadt,  oue  of  the  most  beautiful  towns  of  Lower 
Austria,  called,  from  Its  loyalty,  **  the  ever-faithful  towu  "  {ewig  aetreue  Stadt).  is 
situated  28  miles  south  of  Yiuuiia,  oii  the  Vienna  and  Gloegniiz  lijHiway,  aud  is  also 
connected  with  the  capital  by  a  canul.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  broad  and  d|^p  ditch, 
and  by  a  fortified  wall  pierced  by  four  gates.  The  town  is  overlooked  by  the  large 
old  castle  of  the  Dukes  of  Babenber^,  now  a  military  academy  for  tlie  preparatoi-y 
iustructiou  of  officers  of  the  line.  It  accommodates  from  400  to  600  pupils.  The 
castle  contains  a  line  Gothic  chapel  (date,  1460},  rich  in  painted  wiudowo.  It  is  the 
burial-place  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  1.  On  the  14tb  September  1834,  tlie  whole 
town,  with  the  exception  of  fourteen  houses,  was  destroyed  by  a  dreadful  conflngrii- 
tiou,  which  involvea  tlie  loss  of  many  lives.  Tlie  new  town  has  been  hud  out  witli 
great  taste  and  regularity.  The  canal  (40  miles  in  length)  aud  the  railway  to  Vienna, 
aud  the  con ve);Kiug  roads  from  Styria  aud  Hungary,  are  the  sources  of  the  prosperity 
of  the  town.  In  N.  luachinery  is  extensively  constructed;  and  sugar-reHuing  ana 
manufactures  of  silk,  velvet,  and  cotton  fabrics,  fayeuce,  leather,  &c.,  are  carried  oo. 
Pop.  (1869)  18,070. 

NEUSTADT  AN  DER  HARDT,  a  small  town  of  Rhenish  Bavaria,  charmingly 
situated  on  the  Speyerbach,  at  the  foot  of  the  Hardt  Mountains,  12  miles  north  of 
Landau.  Its  church,  with  several  curious  monuments  of  tlie  Coimts  Palatine,  and 
with  some  ancient  fresco-paintings,  was  finished  in  the  14th  century.  It  carries  od. 
manufactures  of  paper,  clotii,  oil,  orandy,  &c    Pop.  (1875)  10,224^ 

NED'STADT-E'BERSWALDft  (since  1876  caUed  officially  Ebetuwalde  only),  a 
town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Brandenburg,  28  miles  north-east  of  Berlin.  It 
is  well  known  on  account  of  it«  mineral  springs,  and  cai'ries  on  extensive  uiauufac- 
tm*es  in  steel,  iron,  copper,  brass,  paper,  aud  porcelain.    Pop.  (1875)  10,069. 

NKU'STADTL  AN  DER  WAAG.  a  towu  near  the  north  west  frontier  of  Hun- 
gary, S3  miles  north-north-west  of  Neutra.  Here  excellent  red  wine  is  grown,  and 
there  is  a  good  trade  in  grain,  wool,  sheep- skins,  and  wax.  Pop.  (1S69)  5451,  uearly 
lialf  of  whom  are  Jews. 

NEUSTETTI'N,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Pomerania,  92  miles  south- 
west from  Danzig,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Vilm  Soe.  It  is  the  capital  of  a  circle, 
aud  a  place  of  some  importance.    Pop.  (1875)  697L 

NEU-S  TRE'LITZ,  the  capital  and  the  residence  of  the  court  of  the  grand  dncby 
of  Mecklenburg-Strehtz,  pleasantly  situated  in  a  hilly  district,  between  two  lakes,  60 
miles  north-north-west  of  Berlin.  It  was  founded  in  1733.  is  built  in  the  form  of  an 
eight-rayed  sttu*,  aud  oon  tains  the  diical  palace,  with  a  library  of  70,000  vols.,  and 
having  magnificent  gardens  attached.  Pop.  (1875)  8525,  support©!  chiefly  from  the 
expenditure  of  the  court,  and  by  brewing  and  distilling.  A  mile  south  of  tlie  town 
is  Alt-Strelita,  with  the  largest  horse-market  in  the  duchy. 

NEU'STRIA,  or  West  France  {Francia  Oecidentalis),  tlie  name  given  in  the 
imes  of  the  Merovingians  and  Carlovinglans  to  the  western  portion  of  the  Frank 
'*.'mpire,  after  the  quadruple  division  of  it  which  took  place  in  511.  N.  couttiincd 
l^three  of  these  divisions.  It  extend<d  orijjinally  from  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt  to  the 
Loire,  and  was  bounded  by  Aqultauia  on  the  s..  and  l>y  Burgundy  and  Auatnisia 
{Francia  Orientalis)  on  The  e.  The  principal  cities  were  Soistfong,  Paris,  Orleans,  aud 
'i'ours.  Bretagne  was  nlways  loosely  attached  to  Neuatria,  of  which  the  strr-ngth  lay 
in  the  Duchy  of  Franco.  After  the  cession  of  the  territory  afterwards  callea  Nor- 
mandy to  the  Normans  in  912,  the  name  Neastria  soon  fell  luio  disuse. 

NEU'TITSCHEIN,  a  small  manufacturing  towu  of  Moravia,  on  .the  Titpch,  80 
miles  north-east  of  BrQun.  It  contains  an  old  castle,  and  carries  ou'manufactnros 
uf  cloth  and  woollen  goods,  dyeing,  and  wagon-making.    Pop.  (1869)  8645, 

NEU'TRA,  a  town  of  Hungary,  the  capital  of  a  county  of  the  same  name,  oo  a 
river  of  the  same  name,  72  nules  north -north-west  from  Peath,  N.  is  a  very  old 
town,  having  been  the  residence  of  a  Moruviuu  prince  iu  Uio  tth  c./  before  Ura 


? 


Digitized  by 


Google 


QAQ  Neustadt 

-^VT7  Neutra.8 

Maj^yar  invasion.  Weftvinff  is  carried  on  to  some  extent^  and  N.  boing  not  far 
from'  the  Moravian  frontier,  has  a  couBitlerable  transit-trade.    Pop.  (ISOy)  10,683, 

NEU"I"RAL  AXIS,  tlie  name  given  to  an  inniirinary  line  through  any  l)ody 
which  is  being  snbjected  to  a  transverse  stmiu  ;  and  separating  tli«*  forces  of  exten- 
sion from  those  of  compression.'  If  the  ratio  of  resistances  to  extension 
end  impression  were  tlie  same  for  all  snbstanccs,  and  depei.ded  nterely 
on  the  form  of  tlie  body,  then  in  oil  bodies  of  the  same  form  f  lie  m-unal  axis 
woald  have  adt'flnitegeometricMl  position;  Imt  it  has  been  s.ilisfactoriiy  proveii, 
by  Mr  Eaton  Hodgkinson,  that  ti»is  ratio  has  a  separate  value  for  each  snl)s».ince. 
In  wood,  where  the  ratio  is  one  of  equality,  the  neutral  axis  in  a  beam  supported  nt 
both  enas,  whose  section  is  rectangular,  passes  lengthwise  through  the  ccntn*  of  tlie 
beam;  while  in  cast-iron,  in  whlcii  the  resistance  to  compression  is  greater  ilum 
that  to  extension,  it  is  a  little  above,  and  in  wrought  iron,  in  whii  h  the  contrary  is 
the  Ciiso,  it  18  a  little  below,  the  centre. 

NEUTRAL  SALTS.    See  Salts. 

NEUTRALS,  nations  who,  when  a  war  is  being  carried  on,  lake  no  part  in  the 
contej»l,  and  evince  lio  particular  friendship  for,  or  hostility  to.  any  of  the  Ixlliger- 
cnt-s.  As  a  general  rule,  neutrals  should  conduct  thems<?lve8  with  pei-fect  impar- 
tiality, and  do  nothing  which  can  be  considered  as  favoring  one  ])eiligerent  more 
than  another. 

The  duties  and  obligations  of  neutrals  at  sea  have  given  rise  to  many  complicated 
qn'jstions.  It  is  allowed  on  all  hands  tbat  a  neutral  state  forfeits  her  character  of 
nentrality  by  fiinushiug  to  either  belligerent  any  of  the  articles  that  come  under  the 
denonuuation  of  Contraband  of  War  (q.  v).  If  she  does  so,  the  other  belligerent  is 
warrant4?d  in  intercepting  the  succors,  and  confisc^iting  them  as  lawful  prize.  C'on- 
tralMind  of  war,  besides  warlike  stores,  has  sometimes  been  held  to  include  various 
tjther  articles,  a  supply  of  which  is  necessary  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war ;  and  it 
his  been  doubted  now  far,  income  circumstanceu,  com,  hay,  and  coal  may  not  come 
under  that  category. 

An  important  question  regarding  the  rights  of  neutrals  is,  whether  enemies'  goods 
not  contraband  of  war  may  be  lawfully  conveyed  in  neutral  bottoms.  The  principle 
that  free  ships  make  free  goods,  was  long  resisted  by  this  and  other  maritime  coun- 
tries, and  the  general  uuderstandii-g  has  been,  that  belligerents  have  a  right  of  visiting 
and  searching  neutral  vessels  for  the  purj>ose  of  ascertaming — 1st,  whether  the  ship 
is  really  neutral,  as  the  hoisting  of  a  neutral  flag  affords  no  absolute  security  that  It 
is  eo ;  2d,  whether  it  has  contraband  of  war  or  enemies'  property  on  board.  Neutral 
sliips  have  therefore  been  held  bound  to  provide  ttjemselves  with  passports  from  their 
government,  and  such  papei-s  as  are  necessary  to  prove  the  property  of  the  ship  and 
cargo,  and  it  is  their  duty  to  heave  to  when  summoned  by  the  cniisers  of  either  belli- 
gerent. It  has  been  considered  that  a  neutral  ship  which  seeks  to  avoid  search  by 
crowding  sail  or  by  open  force,  may  be  captured  and  confiscated.  When  a  merchant- 
ship  is  sailing  under  convoy  ot  a  vessel  of  wai*,  it  has  been  said  that  the  declara- 
tion of  the  officer  in  command  of  the  convoy  that  there  is  no  contraband  of  war  or 
belliger.  ut  property  on  board,  is  sufficient  to  bar  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  search. 

A  declaration  having  Imjiortanl  bearinirson  the  rights  of  neutrale",  was  adopttd  by 
the  plenipotentiaries  of  Great  Britain,  Austria,  France,  Prussia,  Ilnssia,  Sardinia, 
and  Tprkeyj  assembled  in  congress  at  Paris,  on  April  16.  1856.  By  its  provisions, 
1.  Privateenng  is  abolished.  2.  A  neutral  flag  covers  enenues'  goods,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  contraband  of  war.  3.  Neutral  goods,  with  the  exception  of  contraband 
of  war,  are  not  liable  to  capture  under  the  enemy's  flag.  4.  Blockades,  in  order  to 
l>o  binding,  must  he  effective,  that  is,  maintained  by  a  force  sufficient  really  to  pre- 
vent ac^^ess  to  the  coast  of  the  enemy. 

It  has  sometimes  been , propoped  ti)  exempt  private  property  at  sea  from  attack 
during  war — such  a  project,  however,  seems  inexpedient.  1'here  may  be  a  propriety 
in  resi»ecting  the  property  of  individuals  on  land,  in  a  time  of  war,  because  its  de- 
strncti<Hj,  lunvever  injurious  to  the  persons  Immediately  concerned,  can  have  little 
influence  o«i  the  decision  of  the  coiifest.  But  at  sea,  private  property  is  destroyed 
l»e«"aa>c  lliohc  from  whom  it  is  taken,  being  purveyors  or  carriers  for  the  community 
at  larjxe,  its  1o.ms  must  seriouply  affect  the  public,  and  have  no  small  influence  in 
bringing  the  contest  to  an  end.    See  Blockade,  Pbivateer. 


y  Google 


Nenwied  910 

New  Brunswiok  ^  l\j 

NEU'WIED,  a  town  of  Khenish  Prussia,  on  the  rijrhf  hank  of  the  "Rhift;.  S  miles 
bolow  Cobli  uz.  It  is  tli«  CMpitiil  of  the  priiiclpulity  of  Wied,  now  mediatised  «tid 
nttached  to  Prnssin,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  princes  of  Wied,  witli  a  beautifni  castle. 
It  was  founded  in  the  hesinuing  of  tlie  18tli  c.  by  Prince^  Alexander  of  W/ed-New- 
weid,  wlio.  offering  pi-rfect  loloration  in  religious  matters,  as  an  indunenient,  invited 
colonists  of  whatever  persuasion  to  settle  liere.  The  town  is  well  l)ailt,  with  wide, 
straight  streets,  running  at.  rlglit  angles  to  each  other,  and  contains*  the  chni-cin»s  of 
Protestants,  Catholics,  J<ws,  Hirrnhuters,  &c.  The  inhabitants  are  well  conditioned 
and  industrious.  Pop.  (1871)  8064,  who  carry  on  manufactures  of  hosiery,  woolieu 
and  cotton  fabrics,  iron-wares,  leather,  and  tobacco. 

NE'VA,  a  river  of  Russia,  In  the  government  of  St  Petersbui^,  flows  westward 
from  the  south-west  corner  of  Lake  Ladoga  to  the  Bay  of  Cronstadr,  in  tlie  Gulf  of 
Finland,  Its  length,  including  windings,  is  aboHt  40  miles,  9  miles  of  which  are 
within  the  limits  of  the  city  of  St  Petersburg;  and  in  some  places  it  is  2100  feej 
broad,  and  about  56  feet  deep;  although  at  Schiusselburg,  where  it  issues  fron*  ths 
lake,  and  at  St  Petersburg,  where  it  enters  ihe  sea  by  several  branches,  it  is  shallow. 
From  Cronstadt,  goods  are  brought  to  St  Petersburg  in  lighters  or  in  suiall  steatnen*. 
By  the  Ladoga  Canal,  the  N.  commuuicates  with  the  va^^t  water-system  of  the  VolgJi, 
and  thus  it  may  be  said  to  join  the  Baltic  with  the  Caspian  Sea.  Its  cnrix«nt  is  very 
nipid,  and  the  volume  of  its  waters  is  immense.  It  is  covered  by  drift-ice  for 
upwards  of  Ave  months— from  about  the  25lh  November  to  the  2Tth  April.  An  exten- 
sive trafBc  is  carried  on  on  its  waters,  both  from  the  interior  and  from  the  Baltic 

NEVA'DA,  one  of  the  states  of  North  America,  is  bound  on  the  w.  by  California ; 
on  the  s.  l)y  California  ar.d  Arizona;  im  the  e.  by  Utah  and  Arizona ;  and  ou  the 
n.  by  Oregon  and  Idaho.  Lht.  35°— 42°  n. ;  long.  1140—120°  w.  Ania,  104,125  square 
miles.  The  population  in  1870  was  42,491  (including  3152  Chinese),  besides  4000  tri- 
bal Indians.  Th6  chief  river  is  the  Humboldt,  The  pnucipal  lakes  are  the  Mnd 
Lakes,  Pyramid  Lakes,  and  the  Walker  and  Cars«jn  Lakes.  N.  is  the  centre  of  that 
elevated  basin  which  reaches  westward  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Sierra  Nt- 
vada,  at  a  mean  altitude  of  about  4000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Numerous 
mines,  of  either  gold  or  silver,  have  been  discovered.  The  whole  country  is  rich  in 
mineral  wealth.  Besides  gold  and  .silver,  quicksilver,  lead,  and  antimony  are  found. 
'J'he  territorial  capitid  is  Carson  City  (pop.  3042).  but  the  principal  town  is  Virginia 
City  (pop.  7048).  The  product  of  silver  lu  N.  during  the  decade  1859—1869  was  viUacd 
at  131382,000  dollars ;  in  1874  its  value  was  about  25,500,000  dollars. 

NEVERS,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  department  of  Nidvre,  and  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Nivernais,  is  built  on  a  hill  in  the  midst  of  fertile 

Plains,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Loire  and  theNidvre,  140  miles  south-south-east  of 
arls.  Highly  picturesque,  as  seen  from  a  distance,  its  interior  shews  steep,  wind- 
ing, and  badly  paved  streets.  It  contains  a  beautiful  cathedml  of  the  lOth  c,  and  % 
fine  public  gai-den  ;  the  lanre  cavalry  barrack,  the  fine  bridge  of  20  arches  over  the 
Loire,  and  the  triumphal  arch,  erected  in  1746,  to  commemorate  the  battle  of  Fonte- 
noy,  ar^  also  worthy  of  mention.  N.  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  contahis  a  public  li- 
brary, and  has  numerous  educational,  scientific,  and  benevolent  Institution?,  and  aa 
arsenal.  There  is  here  an  important  canon-foundiy,  aiMi  the  principal  manufactnr^ 
are  porcelain  and  eai'theuware,  glass,  brandy,  iron  cables  and  chains,  and  anvils. 
Pop.  (1872)  19,314. 

N.,  the  Noviodunum  of  the  Romans,  existed  prior  to  the  invasion  of  Qanl  by 
Julius  Csesar.  It  has  been  the  seat  of  a  bishop  since  the  Ixjginning  of  the  6th  c, 
when  it  was  called  Nevirnum,  became  a  county  in  the  10th  c,  and  was  erected  into 
a  duchy  by  Francis  L  iu  1538. 

NEVIA'NSK,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Perm,.  50  miles  north 
from  Ekaterinburg,  It  is  on  the  eastern  or  Siljerian  side  of  the  Ural  Mountains, 
and  stands  on  the  Neiva,  the  waters  of  which  flow  by  the  Tobol  and  the  Irtish  to 
the  Obi.  The  district  around  N.  is  famous  for  its  mineral  wealth,  particularly  for 
its  productiveness  of  gold,  copper,  and  platinum.  N.  has  a  mint,  the  tower  of  which 
ii  remarkable  as  leaning  even  more  than  the  celebrated  tower  of  Pisa.    Pop.  18,000. 

NE'VILLE'S  CROSS.    See  Bruce,  David. 

NE' VIS,  a  small  island  of  the  West  Indies,  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  forma  ons 


y  Google 


9 i  "I  Kccwed 

•^  -■■  -■-  New  Broitswiclc 

of  thegroopof  the  Lp99er  AntHkk  and  lies  immfti:nt»'y  ?*-n'!wasi  .f-  S:  Chri-fo- 
plier's,  from  which  it  b*  sepanttt^  by  at^niit  en  UVi  i,t«-  .V  ir»  •.•*.;  wu  :„  «-<  %\  iuf.  Ii  is 
circDciar  iD  ftMTii,  rif«i in  a  c  ntnit  it^sk  to  lh«-  }.i'i;jii?  of  ::)HM.i  i  •<>  ft-  t.  a»  •:  ■:%.•  hii  a:\^ 
of  20 8q oar? miles.  Pop.  ^ISTIM  1,735.  of  wliora  \e.y  fow  aiv  nw.!:  ■,  C:.  r.'-i  \»r, 
a  seaport,  wiih  a  tolerable  toaiL^tead.  simat^il  ou  tho^oni-wf^t  >li  .'t'of  xn<c  :>.hrd.  ::* 
the  seat  <»f  gnvfmni'-'nt,  consi^timr  of  a  jrovcruiuoui  toUiicii  aid  ^<  :i  rul  a?5  •.!.'»  y. 
The  goili?  lertilo,  and  the  priiicit»al  prodizct*  areMij^r,  u»  >".h--*<'^.  aud  ru:n.  I  *  !>•:.'> 
the  revenneof  N.  wasX10,0«Jl ;  atd  the  exp^i.n  turi\  Xi>;>i*i.  T".  •  !ir.]^»rs  tor  >  3 
were  vaJned  at  X52.293;  aud  the  esi>ons  at  je>3.j::i-5.  Thi  \-u:ne  ot  tL.  .-l^st'  :s;^ir'. .» 
was  ^£72^2,  more  tliaii  doubje  the  va'ue  of  the  year  Ik>^o.  ■  r.i  tr.ir  a'-v .:.»  aV..o> 
iiu^r*'  than  in  ISH-  The  touuage  of  v«i=eel8  eutenug  aiid  cicuriLi:  ki  1^73  auiouuud 
to  24,429. 

ISEW  AXBANT,  acity  in  Indiaaa,  V.  S.,  on  the  porth  hank  of  tl  o  Ohio  I??vpr  at 
the  foot  of  the  fallis  opposite  Ponlai.d,  a-Kt  2  n.iU-s  U'iow  Lon -vi:..-.  Kriit-xkv  ; 
a  finely  sitnatcd,  well  bailt  town,  haviuf;  22  iniVs  of  Ptrcei?*,  6  ^iij^yanl*,  6  Ittuiid- 
ries,  30  chnrtihe^,  and  is  the  site  ol  Ai*hnry  i'ollejre  ai*d  a  c«.»  leji-  r-  iti-iitute.  It  hns 
a  hinre  river-tra«ie  and  railway  connt^tions  with  Indiana  and  Kt-utncky.  .Pop.  tlSTo) 
16,396  ;  (1874)  22,24€u 

NEW  BE'DFORD,  a  seaport  city  of  Massachnscttsi,  F.  S.,  on  Bnr^rd's  Bny.  55 
miles  sonth  of  Boston.  Since  17I>5,  it  has  1)eeu  the  c\\t  centre  of  the  Amerieau 
whale  fii^heries.  The  valne  of  this iudo:«try  has  l>eeu  for  many  y»:irs  on  the  decliue. 
The  trade  was  at  its  height  in  1S.'.3 — 4,  when  there  were  in  tl»e  dis'trict  410  whalers*  of 
132,966  tons,  which  brongbt  home  44  923  barre's  of  stRrm  oil,  118,672  barrels  of 
whale  oil,  and  2,838  SWi  lb?,  of  whalebone.  In  1S73,  N.  B.  possessed  12S  wluders, 
wh  ch  broutrht  home  30,961  barrels  of  ^permoil,  25,729  barrels  of  whale  oil,  nnd  15t»,- 
59S  lbs.  of  whalelkone.  It  has  oil  ai»d  aiiidle  factories,  cotton  nulls,  iron  iidlls,  cop- 
per and  glass  works,  30  chnrehes.  6  bank*.  2  daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers,  a  |»uhhc 
Jibmry  of  30,000  volumes,  city-halL  custom-house  and  alms-house.  Pop.  (1870) 
21,320. 

•  NEW  BRITAIN,  a  mannfactnring  town  in  Connecticut,  United  Stales.  10  miles 
Bonth  of  Hartford,  engaged  in  the  production  of  stockinet  goods  locks,  jewelk  rj, 
hooks  and  eyes,  and  varioos  kinds  of  hardware.  It  has  six  chnrehes.  The  watt  r 
wipplyis  from  a  reservoir  of  175  acres,  with  a  head  of  200  feet,  supphin^  public 
fount aina  with  jets  of  140  feet,  and  dispensing  with  fire-engines.    Pop.  (18T0)  94^. 

NEW  BRITAIN,  the  name  of  one  principnl,  and  of  several  subsidiary  islands 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  lat.  )>etween  4°— 6°  30*  s.,  and  long,  lietween  14S«— 
152°  30'  eT.  The  principal  island,  300  miles  in  length,  and  having  an  area  of  12,000 
square  miles,  lies  eiist  of  <5ew  Guinea,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  Dampier'a 
Stniits.  The  vnrface  is  mountainous  in  the  interior,  with  active  volcanoes  in  the 
north,  but  along  the  coast  Are  fertile  plains.  Forests  abound  in  the  island,  and 
imhns,  sng!«r-c^ne,  breadfruit,  &c,  are  produced.  The  inhabitants,  the  number  of 
w  honi  is  nnknown,  are  described  as  a  tribe  of  "  oriental  negroes,"  and  are  well 
formed,  active,  and  of  a  very  dark  cotnplexion.  They  are  further  advanced  In 
civilisation  than  is  usual  among  the  Polynesians,  have  a  formal  religions  won^h: p. 
temples,  and  images  of  their  deities.  N.B-  was  first  seen  by  Le  Maire  and  Schontcu 
in  1616,  bat  Danipier,  at  a  Inter  dat^,  was  the  first  to  land. 

NEW  BRU'NSWICK,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  U.  S.,  is  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Raritan  River,  at  the  head  of  navigation,  15  miles  from  its  month.  80  miles  soutl;- 
west  of  New  York,  on  the  N«w  Jersey  Railway,  and  the  Delaware  and  Raritan 
Canal.  It  has  extensive  manufactures  of  cotton,  leather,  india-rubber,  pnper-hang- 
ings,  iron,  and  machinery,  17  churches,  2  banks,  and  4  newspapers.  Ii  is  the  seat  of 
Ruiger's  College  and  a  theological  semmary.    Pop.  (1860)  11,265 ;  (1870)  15,058. 

KEW  BRUNSWICK,  a  province  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  in  North  America, 
is  bounded  on  tlie  n.  w.  by  Canada  and  the  Bay  of  Chalenr,  on  the  n.  e.  hy  the 
Gnlf  of  St  Lawrence  and  thetStrait  of  Northnmberiand.  on  thes.  by  Nova  Scoiia 
iind  the  Bay  of  Fuudy,  and  on  the  s.  w.  by  the  State  of  Maine.  It  has  an  area  of 
27,710  sqnare  miles^  or  17,734.400  acres  (rather  more  than  the  area  of  Scotland),  and 
H  population,  in  1871,  of  285,694.  The  coast -line  is  600  miles  in  extent,  and  is  in- 
deut»Gl  by  spacious  buys,  inlets,  and  harbors,  which  afford  safe  and  commodious 


y  Google 


Now  B<  nnswiok  910 

New  Ool'ege  —  I  -/ 

anchorn','e  for  slilpp'ng.  Tho  oblef  nre  Fnndy,  Ohignecto,  nnd  Cnm'bcrlftii<l  Buys, 
t'»e  last  iwo  boiiij;  merely  extensions  of  the  fliBt;  Pnwpjnnaquoddy  Bay  in  the  sooth; 
Vcrte,  Sliertiac,  Oocuigne,  Richil)iicto,  nnd  Mirnmlchi  Bays  on  the  north-eas«t,  aud 
the  Bay  of  Chalciir,  SO  mllcH  lon^  by  27  broad,  In  the  nortti- west.  The  province  of 
N.  B.  ulKJiinds  in  riv  r.-*.  Tho  nnucipal  are  ihc  8t  John  and  the  St  Croix,  the  former 
iSO,  and  the  latter  100  miles  in  length,  and  both  falling  Into  the  Bay  of  Pnndy ;  and 
of  the  rivers  tliat  flow  eastward  into  tlie  Gulf  of  8t  iSwruuce,  the  Rlchit>iicto,  the 
Miniinichi,  and  the  Restigouche.  The  province  contains  numcrone  hikes,  one  of 
which,  Grand  Lake,  is  100  square  miles  in  area.  Most  of  the  others  are  mnch 
Binaller.  The  surface  is  for  the'most  part  flat  or  undulating.  With  tho  exception  of 
tn<!  district  in  the  north-west  bordering  on  Canada  and  the  river  Kestigonche,  nn 
portion  of  N.  B.  is  marked  by  any  cousiderabl'^  elevation.  Here,  however,  l  lie  coun- 
try is  beautifully  diversified  by  hills  of  from  500  to  800  feet  in  hoight.  These  eleva- 
tions, which  form  au  extension  of  the  Appalachian  rangt;,  are  intersperwd  with 
fertile  valleys  and  table-lands,  and  aru  clot  hod  almost  to  their  summits 
with  lofty  forest- trees.  In  this  district  tlie  seen -ry  is  remarkably  l>eanti- 
ful.  In  the  south  <rf  the  colony  the  surface  is  broken  up  by  great  ravines,  and  the 
coast  is  bold  and  rocky.  The  shores  on  the  east  coast,  and  for  twenty  miles  inland, 
are  flat  The  soil  is  deep  and  feitile.  Of  the  whole  acreage,  14,000,000  acres  are  set 
down  as  good  land,  and  3,600,000  acres  as  poor  land.  N.  B.  contains  a  riqh  and  ex- 
tmsive  wheat-producing  district ;  bat  the  inhabitants,  dividing  their  time  between 
farming,  lumbering,  flshing,  ship-building,  and  other  pursuit:*,  and  following  no 
regular  system  of  tillage,  nave  not  till  quite  recently  attempted  to  keep  pace  with 
modem  agricultural  improvement!?.  The  farming  has  not  been  judicious;  many 
p  irts  of  the  country  have  been  allowed  to  become  exhausted  ;  and,  althongli  -signs  of 
improvement  b^in  to  be  manifest,  still  there  is  prevalent  a  deplorable  lack  of  knowl- 
edge of  the  principles  of  scientific  agriculture.  Several  cheese-factories  have  \^e&i 
established  in  the  province  within  tho*  la-^t  few  years.  In  one  year,  one  of  these  has 
manufactured  as  much  as  25,000  lb<».  The  crown-lands  are  at  presetit  being  disposed 
of  under  the  Act  31  Vict  cap.  7, 18*iS.  This  act  provides  that  cert^-tln  portions  of 
eligible  land  shall  be  reserved  for  actual  settlers,  and  not  be  disposed  of  to  spcMjuUf- 
tors,  or  for  lumberimr  pm*pose»,  A  male  of  18  vears  of  age  or  upwards  may  obtalu 
100  acres,  either  by  payment,  in  advance,  of  20  dollars  (al)ont  je4,  3*.),  to  aid  in  the 
c^)nstruction  of  roaas  and  Imdges  in  the  vicinity  of  his  lo  ation ;  or  upon  his  per- 
forming labor  on  such  roads  and  bridge.-*,  to  the  value  of  10  dollars  a  year,  for  three 
years.  He  must  also,  within  two  ytmrs,  build  a  house  on  his  land  of  not  less  dimen- 
sions than  16  feet  by  20,  and  clear  two  acres.  After  a  residence  for  three  years  in 
succession,  he  receives  a  deed  of  grant,  if  he  has  p.iid  the  20  dollars  in  H<lvance,  or 
cultivated  10  -jcres.  The  receipts  of  th*  crown-lands  department  of  the  provincial 
government  for  the  year  ending  O -tobtir  31, 186S,  amounted  in  value  to  3,893,109 
dollars.  Daring  1870,  no  less  than  »2>  grants  of  land  were  issned.  The  climate  is 
remarkably  healthy,  and  the  autumn— and  especially  tlie  season  called  the  Indian 
HUiJimer— i*s  particularly  agreeable.  In  the  interior,  iho  heat  in  siimm  t  riaee  to  80°, 
and  sometimes  to  95°;  and  in  winter,  which  lasts  irom  the  middle  of  Deceralwr  lo 
the  middle  of  March,  the  mercury  sometimes  falls  as  low  as  40°  Mow  eera  At 
Prcdericton,  the  capital,  situated  on  St  John's  River,  63  miles  from  the  south,  «ud 
130  miles  from  the  north  coast,  the  temperature  ranges  from85<^  below  to  95°  above 
zero,  and  the  mean  is  about  42<^. 

The  north-western  portion  of  the  province  U  occupied  by  the  upper  Siliirijin  for- 
mal ion.    Next  are  two  belts  of  lower  Silurian.    Small  patch«;a  of  thtr  Devonian, 
Hiironian,  and  Laurentian  syst<Mns  ai'e  found  on  the  Bay  of  Pnndy.    A  large  part  of 
the  province  is  occupied  by  carboniferous  strata.    The  minora!  coni  is  for  the  most 
part  impure  or  in  (bin  seams,  and  is  hardly  worked:  but  the  80-c;illed  All>ortite  of 
Albert  county  is  tho  niost  v.duable  deposit  of  bituminous  matter  on  the  Americao 
I   continent    It  yields  100  gallons  of  crude  oihper  ton.    Gold  and  silver  occur  in  N. 
I   B. ;    copijer   and    iron   ore  of    excellent    quality  ,  abound ;     gypsum,    plumbago, 
f  and  limestone  are  very  abundant,  and  the  freestone  of  the  province,  unsurpassed  foi' 
s   beauty  and  durability,  commands  a  high  pfice  in  the  States.    Wild  animals  abound 
f    in  the  province ;  the  lakes  and  rivers  are  well  stocked  with  fish,  and  along  the  coasts, 
•.   cod,  haddocks,  salmon  and  other  fish  are  caui,'ht  in  great  plenty.    The  number  of 
schools  in  N.  B.  during  the  winter  ol   1869  was  828,  in  which  29,i54  pupils  were  eu- 


y  Google 


2J3 


New  Brunswick 
New  Ooilege 

rolled.  The  value  of  the  imports  for  1878-4  was  10,228.871  dollar?  ;  of  exiwrts.  6.604-, 
394!»donar9.  The  nnni»)er  of  veepela  entering  the  pons  was  2784,  of  775.638  tonn; 
clearinir,  2662,  of  799,266  touB.  The  uuinber  of  men  employed  iu  the  fiuberies  was 
6666;  iJnml>er  of  vcsseK  181,  of  2618  tons;  nnmbei*  of  boatn,  3361 :  value  of  catrh. 
2,685,795  dollars.  Iu  1871  the  total  valae  of  inauiifacinred  products  was  17,867,687 
dollars.  Iu  1874,  there  were  in  operation  466  miles  of  railway.  Around  llie  jcoasts 
and  aloug  the  banks  of  the  nvers  there  are  excellent  public  and  c^ach  roads.  Cliief 
towns,  the  city  of  St  John  and  Fredericlon,  the  political  capital. 

The  province  of  N.  B.,  together  with  that  of  Nova  Scotia,  originally  formed  oue 
French  colony,  called  Acadia,  or  New  France.  It  was  ceded  lo  the  English  in  1718, 
and  was  fii-st  settled  by  British  colonists  in  1764.  In  1784  it  was  scpjiratt^d  from 
Nova  Scotia,  and  erected  into  an  independent  colony.  It  joined  the  Dominion  of 
Cuuuda  ID  1867. 

NEW  CALEDO'NIA,  an  island  of  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  belonging  toFrancci 
and  lying  about  TM  miles  east-north-east  of  the  coast  of  Qnecnslaud,  in  Australia, 
iu  latitndo  aa"— 22°  30'  s.,  long.  164°— 167°  e.  It  is  al>out  200  miles  in  length,  80 
miles  in  breadth,  and  has  a  population  estimated  at  €0.00o.  It  is.  of  volcnnic  origin, 
!«  traversed  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  from  north-west  to  south-east,  by  a  raige 
of  uiouutains,  which  in  some  cases  reach  the  height  of  about  8000  feet,  and  is  sur- 
ronijdt*d  by  sand- banks  and  coral-reefs.  There  are  secure  hiirbors  at  Port  Balade 
and  Port  St  Vincent,  the  former  on  the  north-east,  the  latter  on  the  south-west  part 
of  t  lie  island-  In  the  valleys  the  soil  is  fruitful,  producing  the  cocoa-nut,  banana, 
luaiigo,  bi-ead-fruit,  &c.  Tlie  sugar-cane  is  cultivated,  and  the  vine  grows  wild. 
The  cojusis  support  considerable  tracts  of  forest,  but  the  mountains  are  barren. 
The  inhabitants,  who  resemble  the  Papuan  race,  consist  of  dlffereMt  tribes,  some  of 
M'liich  are  cannibals.  N.  C.  was  discovered  by  Captain  Cook  in  1774.  In  1858  the 
French  took  possession  of  it,  and  it  lias  since  1872  be<  n  ireed  by  t  lie  Fn  nch  aui  horities 
as  a  penal  settlement.  Missionaries  have  been  establinhed  on  the  island,  and  many 
of  the  natives  are  said  to  iiave  embraced  Christianity. 

NEW'CHURCH,  a  very  thriving  town  of  Lancashire,  England,  19  miles  north  from 
Munchoster,  in  Kosendale,  not  far  from  the  source  of  the  Irwell.  It  has  recently 
and  nipidly  ri.*«en  to  its  i)risent  importance.  'Ihcre  are  numerous  cotton  and  woollen 
manufactories,  employing  many  operuiives.  Coal  is  also  wrought  iu  the  neiglibor- 
Iioofl,  and  there  are  numerous  lartre  qujirries  of  excellent  freestone.  Pop.  al)out 
4/0O0     The  neighborhood  is  very  populous,  abounding  iu  manufactories  and  other 

Eublic  works.— Not  much  more  than  a  mile  to  the  west  of  N.,  is  Kawtenstall,  a 
irge  village,  now  almost  a  town,  and  rapidly  increasing. 
NEW  COLLEGE,  Oxford.  The  College  of  St  Mary  of  Winchester,  in  Oxford, 
commonly  called  New  College,  w  as  fouud(  d  by  Wil  inm  of  W  ykcham,  Bisl.cp  or 
Winchester  and  Lord  High  Chancellor  in  1386.  The  buildings  ore  magnificent,  j.Ld 
the  gardens  of  great  beauty.  The  most  remarkable  peculiaiTty  of  New  College  is  its 
connection  witli  Winchester  School,  another  noble  foundation  of  Wykeham.  After 
the  kin  of  the  founder  (to  whom  a  preitreiice  was  always  Liven),  the  fellows  wt  re  to 
be  taken  from  Winchester.  T!ie  late  practice  was  that  ''*two  founders,"  as  they 
were  called,  were  put  at  the  head  of  the  roll  for  Winchester,  and  two  others  at  the 
.  head  o:  the  roll  for  New  College.  In  1851,  the  college  consisted  of  a  warden  and  70 
f.-llows  (elect*  d  in  this  way  from  Winehest^-r),  10  chaplains.  3  clerks,  and  16  choris- 
ters. By  the  ordinances  under  17  and  18  Viet.  c.  81,  considerable  changes  were  iutrc- 
duced.  I)ut  the  coimection  of  the  college  with  .M  inchester  was  in  great  measure  pre- 
served. The  nnmtier  of  fellows  was  fixed  at  ?.0.  Of  these,  15  are  open  only  to  those 
who  have  been  educated  at  Winchester,  or  who  have  been  for  12  terms  members  of 
New  College.  'I  he  other  15  are  open  without  restriction.  The  value  of  the  fellow- 
sliips  is  not  to  be  moi-e  than  £200  ])er  annum,  so  long  as  their  number  is  less  thim  40. 
There  are  also  to  be  30  scholarships,  tenable  tor  five  years,  of  value  not  less  than  i.80 
per  annum,  inclusive  of  rooms,  to  l)e  appointed  by  the  warden  and  fellows  of  New 
College,  by  the  election  of  boys  receiving  education  at  Winchester  School.  No  con- 
ditions of  birth  are  to  be  regarded  in  the  election  either  of  fellows  or  scholars.  By  a 
subsequent  statute,  the  chaplains  are  made  3  in  number,  and  from  8  to  10  choral 
scholars  are  added,  to  be  upon  an  equality  with  the  other  scholars.  This  college  pr&- 
aentB  to  40  benefices,  and  elects  the  warden  of  Winchester  College. 


y  Google 


Hew  Eng  and  9  T  4. 

tfew  Hampshire  ^s/x-x 

NEW  E'NGLAND,  a  collective  name  given  to  the  six  easteru  states  of  the  Uuited 
Btates  of  America— Maiue,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Maaaachasetts.  libode 
Island,  and  Connecticut— including  an  area  of  05,000  square  miles.  The  people 
distinctively  known  as  Yankees,  and  mostly  descended  from  an  English  Puritan  and 
Scottish  aucestrj',  are  engaged  hi  comnnirce,  fisheries  and  manufactures,  and  are 
celebrated  for  industry  and  enterprise.  This  region  was  granted  by  James  1.  to 
the  i^ymouth  Company  in  1606,  under  the  title  of  North  Virgmia,  and  the  coast 
was  explored  by  Captain  John  Smith  in  1614.    See  accounte  of  the  several  States. 

NEW  BXJREST,  the  name  of  a  district  in  Hampshire  (q.  v.),  triangular  in  shape, 
at)d  bounded  on  the  w.  by  the  river  Avon,  on  the  s.  by  the  coast,  and  on  the  n.  e. 
by  a  line  running  from  the  borders  of  Wiltsliire  along  the  Southampton  Water.  Area 
hi:>out  64,000  acre.-*.  This  triangle  appears  to  have  been  a  great  wooded  district  from 
ihe  earliest  tiraef«.  and  its  present  n.ime  dates  from  the  Norman  Conquest,  when  it 
was  regularly  afc>i-i!!»ted.  Since  that  p3rlod  it  hj»  remained  uposses*«ion-of  the 
crown,  subject  I o  righw  of  "pannage,"  vert  (greenwood)  and  turf-cutting,  daimed 
by  various  estates  in  or  near  the  Forest,  During  Uie  »'piuinage  "  month,  which 
commences  at  the  end  of  September,  and  lasts  for  six  weeks,  the  borderers  drive  in 
h'rds  of  swme  to  feed  on  the  mast  in  the  Forest,  and  this  right  they  obtain  by  pay- 
ing a  small  annual  fee  in  the  Stewarts  Court  at  Lyudhurst,  which  is  considered  the 
capital  of  the  Forest.  Formerly,  this  district  was  the  haimt  of  numerous  **sqaai- 
tei-s,"  but  tJieir  huts  are  now  rarely  to  Iw  seen.  Gipsies,  liowever,  still  congregate 
here  in  considerable  numbers.  In  1854,  a  commission  was  appointed  to  exam  me  the 
extent  and  nature  of  tiie  rights  of  pannago,  &c.,  claimed  by  tl»e  foresters  and  bord- 
ereiis,  and  in  a  lai-ge  majority  of  cases  the  claims  were  confirmed.  The  principal 
trees  in  the  forest  are  the  oak  and  beech,  with  large  patclies  of  holly  as  underwood. 
The  oaks  have  been  much  used  as  timber  fv>r  the  British  navy.  Tracts  of  exquisite 
woodland  scenery  are  everywhere  to  be  met  with.  The  afEorestatiou  of,  this  district 
by  the  Conqueror,  enforced  by  savagely  severe  Forest  laws,  was  regarded  as  an  act 
of  tlie  greatest  cruelty,  and  the  violent  d  laths  met  by  both  of  his  sous.  Ricimixl  aiid 
William  Riif us— both  of  whom  were  killed  by  accidental  arrow-wounds  in  the  For- 
est—wei-e  looked  upon  as  special  judgments  of  Providence.  A  small  breed  of  pony 
lives  wild  under  its  shelter. 

NEW  GRANA'DA.  since  Sept.  1861,  has  been  offioi-dly  styled  The  V-v'tfid  Stnten 
of  Colombia.  This  federative  republic  was  formed  at  the  convemion  of  Bogota  at 
the  date  specified,  and  consists  of  nine  "  states,"  Panama,  Sanbinder,  Cauca.  Boyaci, 
Cundiuamarca,  Autioqiiia,  ToHma,  Bolivar,  Mairdalena.  It  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by 
the  Caribbeau  Sea ;  on  the  w.  by  Costa  Rica,  a  republic  of  Central  America,  and  by 
the  Pacific;  on  the  s.  by  Ecuador  and  Brazil;  and  ou  thee,  bv  Venezuela.  Area, 
513,783  square  miles  ;  pop.  (1S70)  2,894,992,  of  whom  nearly  a  half  are  of  Euro|)e;m 
descent.  By  a  coustltutiou  dated  May  1S63,  the  executive  authority  is  vested  in  a 
president  elc^cted  for  two  years,  while  the  legislative  power  rests  with  a  Senate  and 
a  House  ot  Representatives.  The  federal  army  of  this  republic  consists  of  3000  men 
on  the  peace  footing,  but  in  a  time  of  war  each  state  is  bound  to  furnish  n  coiiting  -dC 
of  one  m  a  hundred  oi'  it-*  population.  The  rt?venue  in  18T8  was  4.838  800  do'lai-s.  and 
the  expenditure  7,271,933.  Tin-  public  debt  in  rhe  same  vear  was  close  on  16.000,000 
dollars.  The  total  imports  in  187^7  had  a  value  of  6,709,109  dollars;  the  exports 
10,049,071.  Besides  the  railway  across  the  Isi  hmus  of  Panama,  there  is  auotlier  eliort 
line ;  and  about  1250  miles  of  telegraph  are  in  operation. 

The  country  is  intersected  by  three  gryat  ramres  of  the  Andes,  which  spread  out 
like  the  rays  of  an  open  hand  from  the  plateau  of  Pasto  and  Tuqi>errez  in  tlie  south 
(14,000  feet  hi}2;h),  and  are  knovm  as  the  Western,  Central,  and  Eastern  Cordillera. 
Between  these  chains  lie  the  lonjj  and  bca4tiful  valleys  of  the  Cauca  and  the  Mag- 
dalena.  The  Centra!  Cordillera  is  the  highest  chain,  rising  in  Nevada  de  Tolima  to 
a  height  of  18,020  feet,  and  from  one  of  its  peaks,  near  the  frontiers  of  Ecnador, 
called  Paramo  de  las  Papas,  descend  the  two  principal  rivers  of  N.  G.,  the  Ma^da- 
ieua  and  its  tributary  the  Cauca,  flowing  north  into  the  Caribbean  Sea,  besides 
several  affluents  of  the  Amazon  in  the  ea^t.  and  one  or  two  streams  flowing;,  west- 
ward into  the  Pacific.  The  Easteru  Cordillera  is  by  far  the  larirest  chain,  and  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  vast  table-lands,  cool  and  healthy,  where  the  white  race  fionri^eB 
OS  vigorously  as  iu  Europe    This  temperate  region  is  the  most  densely  peoplied 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC        ^  , 


'•-'«*>■ 


-^aO  NewHamp«hro 

~  • 

portion  of  the  Confederation,  being,  In  some  place?,  at  the  rate  of  2600  to  »he  Fqnare 
Iragne.  Bogota  (q-  v.)»  the  present  capital,  is  8iruflt«d  on  oi»e  of  these  plateuux,  at 
«ii  elevation  oJ  86»4  feet-  EaptWHrd  from  this  Cordillem  stn'tcheuormous  plains  as 
far  as  lii.-  Orino<'o.  the  greater  part  of  wliich  belongs  to  N.  G.,  and  tbronjin  which 
flow  the  Meta,  the  Qnnviare,  and  other  tribittjiries  of  tlie  Orinoco.  'Jlje  peolof  y  of 
the  conntry  is  very  extraordmary.  "  Everywhere,"  we  are  told,  *'  are  fouiid  traces 
of  >tupeiidon8  cataclysms,  and  a  disarrangment  ai  d  hiteiniixtnre  of  primitive  ai  d 
s<Hliim-ntary  rocks, -which  seem  to  pur.  all  cla$>sificaiioii  at  defijuice."  In  tl:e  course 
of  one  day's  jonniey,  the  traveller  may  experience  in  thin  country  iill  thecliujate*"  of 
the  world.  Perpctnat  snow  covers  the  piimuiils  of  the  Cordilleras  ;  while  the  rich 
vt-getation  of  the  tropics  covers  the  valleys.  Wiih  its  great  variety  of  levels  ard 
climates,  N.  G.  yiekte  natnrally  an  equally  great  variety  of  prodnctions:  cattle, 
horses,  wheat,  and  other  European  grains,  maize,  tobacco,  coffee.  plantaiue,cot;cn, 
cacao,  sngar,  cedar,  mahogany,  cinchona  bar^,  ipecacuanha,,  golu,  silver,  copper, 
iron,  and  lead,  coaly  emeralds,  pearls,  aid  rock-salt. 

By  the  constitntion,  complete  toleration  in  natters  of  religion  nnd  worship,  the 
freedom  of  the  press,  a  system  of  parish-schools,  with  grntnitous  primnry  educa- 
tion, and  many  other  inmortaul  \\el\m  to  civilisation  and  lilwrty  have  been  ehtabJi^hrd, 
The  ill hubiiant^^  rank  first  among  the  South  Americans  in  point  of  literary  and 
scientific  cnltnre.  There  are  at  presuit  jibont  1000  pnblic  schools  in  the  country, 
many  seminaries  and  colleges  for  higher  and  professional  instruction;  there  are 
printing  establishments,  periodicals,  and  iiunKroos  literary,  ecient.nc  and  be- 
nevolent iubtiiutions. 

The  chief  aborigines  of  the  country,  called  ChibchaJf  or  Mupttcas,  held  a  high 
rank  among  the  s'eini-civiliacd  nations  of  the  New  World.  1  hey  are  said  to  have 
been  frugal  and  industrious,  with  a  well-oigiinised  govern  men  i  and  a  very  passHhle 
rcfigion — for  heathens.  They  were  conquered  by  Xiroenes  de  Qnesado  (Ifi86-15ST), 
and  tlieir  descendants  are  now  "Christians,"  and  sneak  the  Spanisli  language. 
Several  of  the  other  tribes  still  mainiain  a  sflvi  ge  moae  of  life  ;'Tand  some,  as  the 
Mt-Siiyos,  are  even  said  to  be  cannibals.  In  1718,  N.  G.  was  erected  into  a  vic- 
royaltyby  Spain.  In  1819,  it  became  independent,  and  then  joined  with  Ecuador  nnd 
Venezuela  to  form  the  n  ])nbllc  of  Colonjbia;  hut  the  union  was  dissolved  in  1829- 
1830,  and  N.  G.  was  organised  as  a  sepamte  republic  in  1832.  After  several  chaiifjes 
in  the  constitution  (!n  1848,  1851,  1858),  a  complete  fundamental  change  was  nnide 
in  1858,  by  which  the  separate  "provinces  "  were  chaftged  into  *' states,"  associated 
nnder  a  federal  government  like  the  '*  United  States"  of  North  America,  but  self- 
governing  in  all  internal  affairs.  In  I860,  another  revo'uiion  broke  out,  nnd  for 
nu)re  thnn  two  years,  the  conntry  was  devastated  by  civil  war.  Finally,  on  the 
29th  September  1861,  a  conventioi'i  was  concluded  between  the  Conservatives,  or 
Pe<ieralistp,  and  the  "  Liberals,"  wWch  put  an  end  to  the  strife.  As  the  victory 
lay  with  the  latter,  certain  changes  h?!ve  again  been  mnde  in  the  constitution,  and 
the  conntry  is  now,  as  stated  ul)Ove,  ( ffieially  deHpnaied  the  "United  States  of 
Colombia."  The  flr^t  president  uiid<r  the  new  form  of  the  constitution  com- 
menced his  term  of  ofiSce  on  April  1, 1864. 

NEW  QUl'NEA.    See  Papua. 

NEW  HA'MPSHIRE,  one  of  the  original  thirteen  Unite<l  States  of  America,  In  ' 
Int.  4«o  4r--46o  n'  n.,  long.  70«*  40'~72o  28'  w..  is  176  milep  long,  and  on  an  average 
45  miles  wide,  havinjr  an  area  of  9'i80  sqnnre  nnles,  or  5,9S9  200  acres.  It  is  boni:ded 
n.  by  Canada,  e.  by  MMine  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  s.  by  Mc?sncliusetls,  nnd  w.  by 
Vermont,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Connecticut  River.  It  haf  ten  counties ; 
the  chief  towns  are  MnnchestiT,  Portsmouth.  Dover,  Nashua,  Keene,  and  Concord, 
the  capital.  ^The  population,  except  the  recent  influx  of  Irish  in  the  mannfocturing 
towns,  is  almost  entirely  descended  from  the  original  English  and  Scotiisli  settlers. 
Tt  has  18  miles  of  sea-coa?t,  and  one  seaport,  Portsmouth,  at  the  month  of  the  Pis- 
cataqna  River,  with  a  d<ep  and  commodious  harbor.  Its  other  chief  rivers  are  the 
Connecticut  and  the  Mernnvack.  It.  Is  a  state  of  mountains  and  lakes,  much  visited 
hv  tourists,  and  called  *' The  Gnmite  State."  and  'The  Switzerland  of  America." 
The  White  Monntnins  lie  in  the  north  central  region.  Their  highcbt  summits  are 
M*mnt  Washington,  6286  feet ;  and  Mount  Lafayette,  6.100  feet.  A  notch  in  the 
White  Mouniains,^  miles  long,  and  iu  the  narrowest  part  only  22  feet  wide,  afl-orda 


y  Google 


New  HaimoDf  o-f  A 

Ifew  Mexico  ^^^ 

pnesflge  to  a  road  tmfH  monntnin  stream,  and  !§  mnch  visited.  Tlie  lakes  and  rivers 
of  N,  H.  occnpv  in  nil  abont  1 10,000  acros.  Lake  Winiiepiseogee  i«  26  mile»  long  by 
1  to  10  inilea  wide  with  860  islands,  from  a  few  yards  to  nitiny  acres  in  areji,  mostly 
covered  with  ej^iigieeiia.  The  rocky  strata  consist  of  inetaraorphic  rocks,  mica  and 
trtlcoae  slates,  quartz,  ;j:raunlnr  limestoues,  granite,  gneiss,  and  contain  magnetic  and 
ppecular  iron  ores,  beryls,  tourmalins,  mica,  grapnite,  and  steatite  or  soap-stone. 
Tlie  soil,  except  in  the  fertile  valleys,  is  better  anapted  to  pasturage  than  cnltnre. 
The  winters  are  long  and  cold,  so  that  in  the  mouutainons  regions  mercury  some- 
limes  freezes.  In  the  forests  are  oak,  maple,  pine,  hemlock,  spruce,  &c.  Tiie  chief 
agricnltnral  products  are  maize,  rye,  oats,  apples,  potatoes,  and  products  of  the 
d.iiiy.  Numerous  waterfalls  give  motive*power  to  many  cotton  factories,  woollen, 
iron,  sind  p:iper  mills,  &c.  Tlie  state  has  916  miles  of  railway,  46  national  and  65^ 
savings  banks,  a  college  (at  Dartmouth),  700  churches,  50  nmvspapers,  an  excellent 
system  ot  free  schools,  and  government  and  judiciary  similar  to  all  the  AuiericaD 
states,  N.  H.  was  settled  in  1623  by  colonists  from  Hampshire  in  England,  who  suf- 
fered dnring  the  colonial  period  from  Indian  wars  and  depredations.  The  state  was 
orgnnised  in  1776.  It  ha^  furnished  a  multitude  of  emigrants  to  the  newer  and  more 
fertile  western  states.    P jp.  (1810)  214,360;  (1840)  284,674;  (1870)  318,300. 

NEW  HA'RMONY,  a  village  of  Indiana,  first  settled  in  1815  by  a  German  com- 
munity of  religious  socialists,  called  Harmonists,  under  the  leadership  of  Georjre 
Rapp.  In  1824,  the  village  and  domain  was  pnrchas<?d  by  Robert  Owen,  for  an  ex- 
perimental community  on  his  system.  After  the  speedy  failure  of  this  society,  the 
property  was  bought  by  Will 'am  Maclure  for  a  School  of  Industry.  It  is  dow  a 
floarishing  western  village,  of  (1870)  836  inhabitants. 

NEW  HA'VEN,  the  chl«!f  city  and  seaport  of  Connecticut,  U.  S.,  at  the  head  of 
a  bay,  4  miles  from  Long  Island  Sound,  76  miles  east-north-east  of  New  York.  Its 
broitd  streets  are  shnded  with  elms,  and  the  public  squares,  parks,  aiid  gulden?, 
with  its  handsome  public  and  private  edifices,  make  it  one  of  the  most  b<-autfal  of 
American  cities.  It  is  the  seat  of  Yale  College  (q.  v.),  which  lias  more  than  a  dozen 
large  buildinv;s  and  a  Gothic  library,  150  feet  long.  Tiiere  are  a  handsome  castoni- 
house,  State-house,  hospital,  61  churches,  academif'S  and  schools,  9  banks,  5  daily 
papers,  and  3  ornamental  cemeteries.  There  are  lan;e  manufactories  of  carriages, 
clocks,  and  leather,  iron  and  india-rubber  works.  It  has  railway  and  steam-boat 
connect  ion  \vith  New  York,  &c.    Pop.  (1870)  50,840. 

NEW  HE'BRIDES,  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  to  the  n.e.  of  ^ew 
Caledonia,  juid  to  thu  w.  of  the  Fijis,  in  s.  lat.  l>etween  14°  and  £0°,  and  in  e.  long, 
between  167°  and  170°.  Total  area  estimated  at  2600  sq.  m.  They  are  regarded  as  the 
most  easterly  point  of  the  Wi-stern  division  of  Polynesia.  The  group  embraces  Es- 
piritn  Santo  (65  miles  long  by  20  brond),  Mallicollo'(60  miles  long  by  28  broad),  Vatl 
AmbryTa,  Annatom,  Erromango.  and  Tanna,  with  an  active  volcano.  Aurora,  one 
of  the  most  fertile  of  the  group,  disappeared  m  1871,  leaving  no  trace.  Most  of  tli© 
group  are  hilly  and  well  wooded,  some  even  mountainous.  The  most  important 
Avoods  are  ebony  and  sandal ;  the  principal  edible  products,  yams,  bananas,  cucnni- 
bers,  cocoa-nuts,  and  sweet  potatoes;  and  the  only  animal  of  consequen<^  n 
diminutive  ppecies  ol  hog,  which,  when  full-grown,  is  no  bigj^er  than  a  rabl>it.  ~  The 
inhabitants,  wlio  number  about  200,000,  are  fierce,  out  excessively  dirty  and  nnintcl- 
liirent.  Erromango  is  a  well-known  name  in  missionary  liistoiy,  Iwing  the  scene 
of  the  barbarous  massacre  of  the  Rev  John  Williams— generally  caUed  the  Martyr 
of  Erromango. 

NEW  nO'LLAND,  the  former  name  for  Australia  (q.  v.). 

NEW  INN  HALL,  Oxford.  This  Hall,  with  certain  gardens  adjoining,  was  pre- 
sented to  the  warden  and  fellows  of  New  College,  by  William  of  Wykeham  in  1392. 
The  first  principal  on  record  occurs  in  1438.  During  the  Civil  War  it  was  used  as  9 
mint  for  Charles  I.  It  was  restored  to  the  purposes  of  instruction  by  Dr  Cramer, 
tlie  late  principal,  who  erected  a  handsome  building  for  the  use  of  the  students. 


east 


NEW  I'RELAND,  a  long  narrow  island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  Ijring  to  the  north- 
t  of  New  Britain  (q.  v.),  from  which  it  is  separated  by  St  George's  Channel ;  lat. 
20  4i)'_^o  52'  8.J  long.  150°  30'— 162°  50'  e.  Length  about  200  miles;  average  breadth, 
12  miles.  The  hills  rise  to  a  height  of  from  15(M)  to  2000  feet,  and  are  richly  wooded. 
The  principal  trees  are  cocoas  ou  the  coast,  and  in  the  interior  forests  of  areca-palm. . 

Google    "  .  J" 


Digitized  by  > 


217 


New  Harmonf 
New  Mexico 

The  chief  prodncts  are  sugar-cane,  hanai^^,  yams,  cocoa-nnts.  Dogs,  j)ig«,  and  tur- 
tles abound.  The  native.-*  are  apparently  of  tlie  same  race  as  the  inhabitants  of  Aus- 
tralia ;  but  our  information  about  them  is  extremely  scanty. 

NEW  JERSEY,  ontj  of  the  original  thirteen  U.  S.,  in  lat.  88«  66'— 41©  21'  n.,  and 
long.  78*»  58'— 750  29'  w.,  168  nii!e.-»  long,  with  a  breadth  which  varies  from  69  to  32 
miles,  containing  an  area  of  8320  square  miles,  or  6,824,800  acres;  boundt-d  n.  by 
New  York,  e.  by.  the  Hudson  River  and  the  Athmtic  Ocean,  s.  by  the  Ocean  and 
Delaware  Bay,  aiid  w.  by  Delaware  Bay  and  River,  whiclj  separate  it  front  Delaware 
and  Pennsylvania.  It  has  21  counties.  The  cldef  towns  are  Trenton  (the  capital}, 
Newark,  Faterson,  Jei-sey  City,  Elizabeth,  Camden,  Uoboken.  Its  coast- hne  is 
120  miles,  or,  including  bays, -640  miles.  Besides  its  bordering  rivers,  the  Hudson 
and  Del;iware.  its  principal  streams  are  the  Passaic,  HackensacK,  and  Rarittm.  'i'he 
northern  ixjrtion  of  the  state  is  hilly  and  nioantainous.  The  Palisades,  a  wall  of 
perpendicnlar  trap-rocks,  f  1  om  200  to  500  feet  high,  form  the  western  bank  of  the 
Hud!«on  River  for  ttfieen  miles,  and  one  of  the  grandest  features  of  its  scenery.  The 
central  portion  of  the  state  is  a  rolHugr  country,  and  the  southern  and  eastern  portion 
a  sandv  plain  declining  10  the  sea.  Five  geological  belts  cross  the  state,  containing 
a  sandy  pine  plain  with  b(^  iron  ore,  shelly  marls  used  for  manure,  glass  sand, 
green-sand  or  marl,  plastic  clay,  used  in  making  firebricks,  metamorphic  rocks,  ar- 
gillaceous red  sandstone,  copper  ores,  gneiss  with  specular  and  magnetic  iron  ores, 
red  oxide  of  sunc,  and  Frankliuite  iron.  Among  the  most  attractive  features  in  the 
scenery  are  the  Falls  of  the  Passaic,  the  Delaware  Waterl-Gnp,  and  Schooley's  Moun- 
tain. Atlantic  City,  a  bathing-place  on  the  sea-coast,  connected  by  railway  with 
Philadelphia,  is  a  fasiiionable  summer  resort  The  clinuite  is  mild,  the  soil  north  of 
the  pine  plains  fertile,  the  country  healthy,  except  the  malarious  river-bottoms.  The 
agricultural  products  of  the  state  are  wheat,  maize,  oats,  common  and  sweet  pota- 
toes, apples,  peaches,  plums,  grapes,  melons,  and  garden  vegetables  for  the  great 
neighboring  markets  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  There  ai-e  cotton  and  woellen 
factories,  iron-works,  extensive  manufactories  of  machinery,  locomotives,  car- 
riages, glass,  boots  and  shoer*,  &c.  The  state  draws  a  large  revenne  from  1323 
miles  of  railway,  and  several  important  canals,  connecting  New  York  and  the 
coal  regions  of  Pennsylvania.  There  are  4  colleges,  normal  and  free  schools,  numer- 
ous churches,  periodicals,  and  daily  papers.  The  government  is  similar  to  those  of 
all  the  slates. 

N.  J.  was  settled  in  1620  by  Dntch  and  Swedes.  Taken  by  the  Enelieh,  it  was 
ceded  by  Charles  II.  to  the  Duke  of  York;  ir  wat*  r.t^iken  by  tlie  Dutch  m  1673,  and 
afterwards  bought  by  William  Penn  ai.d  other  Friends,  who  have  here  numerous 
descendants.  It  was  the  scene  of  some  of  the  n)Ot*t  inii)ortant  mililai7  moveuicjits 
of  the  War  of  In  depend-  nee,  and  of  the  baitles  of  Trenton,  Princeton.  Monmouth, 
and  Germaniown.    Pop.  in  1840,  373,30tJ;  in  1860,  672,031 ;  in  1870,  906,096. 

NEW  JOnO'RE,  formerly  Tanjong  Putri.  a  Malay  settlement  on  the  southern 
extremffy  of  the  Malay  jKjninsnla.  IleVe  the  rajah  or  Tunmiongomr  of  Johore,  who 
is  an  inde{>endeut  sovereign,  occjisionally  resides.  The  climate  is  healthy;  laige 
quantities  of  gamlnr  and  iH'pj>erare  raised  in  I  he  vicinity ;  saw-mills  on  an  extensive 
Bcule  are  in  operation.  Vessels  of  the  largest  draught  can  approach  close  to 
the  shore.  The  valuable  timl)ers  of  these  innnanse  forests  are  yet  scarcely  known, 
but  must  find  their  way  to  the  Indian,  if  not  European  markets,  ere  long.  Popula- 
tion in  lhe<N.  J.  teiTitory  about  20,000,  chiefly  Chinese. 

NEW  LO'NDON,  a  city  and  port  of  entiy,  in  Connecticut,  U.  8.  of  America,  on 
the  right  l>ank  of  the  river  Thames,  3  miles  from  Long  Island  Sound,  40  miles,  s.e. 
of  New  Haven.  It  is  a  rich  and  handsouie  town,  with  a  custom-house,  11  churches, 
academy,  public  schools,  -a  daily  and  a  weekly  paper,  6  banks,  several  inm- 
foundries  and  steam  saw-mills,  a  niachine-manufactiu'ing  company,  a  deep  secure 
harbor,  protected  by  a  fort  of  80  guns,  with  20,000  tons  of  shipping,  much  of  it 
engaired  in  the  whale  fisheries,  and  railway  and  sieam-boat  coinnnmi<"atious.  Pop. 
(1870)  9676.  It  was  settled  In  1644,  and  in  1781  burned  by  General  Arnold. 
NEW  MA'LTON.    See  Malton. 

NEW  ME'XICO,  a  territory  belonging  to  the  U.  S.,  formerly  a  state  of  Mexico, 
in  lat.  Sio  22'— 370  n.,  long.  103°— 109^  9'  w.,  850  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  850 
£4jD0ftom  north  to  Boulh,  with  an  area  of  121,201  square  mUes ;  bounded  ji.  by 

■»»    -  Digitized  by  VjOOQLC 


New  Orleans  01ft 

New  South  Walca  ^lO 

the  Ptatc  of  Colorado;  c.  by  the  Lidian^territory  and  Texaa:  s.hy Texas  aiifl 
Mexico  ;  and  w.  by  Arizoua.  Its  chief  towus  are  Santa  F6,  Albaqiierqae,  Taos, 
Silver  City,  Mesilla.  Its  chief  rlveit*  are  the  Kio  Graude.  which  CrosHep  the  terri- 
tory from  north  to  south  ;  the  Pecos,  a  branch  of  tlie  Rio  Grande  ;  the  Colorado,  on 
the  California  boundary ;  ilie  Gila,  which  rises  in  tlie  Rocky  Monntaiu;ii,  and  flowi^ 
wentwards  into  the  Colorado.  These  rivers  and  their  branches  water  broad  and 
fertile  valleys,  and  supply  the  lack  of  raiu  by  irri»{atiou.  Two  great  chains  of  the 
Kocky  Mountains  or  Cordilleras  pass  throuj^li  the  eastern  portiou'of  the  territory 
from  north  to  south,  and  lesser  mountain-ranges  divernify  the  west,  rising  to  eleva- 
tions of  12,000  feet.  Tho  climate  is  cold  in  the  elevated  regions,  hat  in  the  ulain8, 
but  everywhere  dry  and  healthy.  Heavy  rains  fall  in  July  and  August,  but  the  r«*8t 
of  the  year  is  dry.  The  productions  are  wheat,  maize,  f raits,  and  tobac<-0,  witli 
abundant  pasturage.  There  are  numerous  mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron  and 
Bait.  Merchandise  is  trans])Oited  from  St  Louis  and  Texas  in  wagon  or  mule 
trains.  The  Indian  population  consists  of  26,268  who  sustain  tribal  relations,  and  1309 
out  of  these  relations-^-total,  26,677.  The  tribes  are  the  wild  and  predatoiy  Nava- 
joris.  Apaches,  Uttihs,  Comaiicbes,  &c.,  wlio  possess  large  herds  of  horses,  and 
make  perpetual  war  upon  the  neighboring  settlements.  Tills  teriitoiy  was  explored 
by  tiie  Spaniards  in  1637,  who  opened  mines,  established  missions  and  made  some 
progress  in  civilising  the  natives.  In  1846,  Santa  F6,  Xix&  capita],  was  taken  by  an 
American  expedition  under  General  Keai'ney.  At  the  close  oi  the  war  in  184S,  N. 
M.  was  ceded  to  the  United  Slates,  and  erected  into  a  territory  in  1860.  Wliitc  pop- 
ulation in  1870,  90,398. 

NEW  O'RLEANS,  capital  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Lonisiana,  U.  S.,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Mississippi  River.  100  miles  from  its  mouth,  lat.  29^^  68'  u.,  long.  90^  w. 
Tlie  city  is  built  on  the  alluvial  banks  of  the  river,  on  ground  lower  than  the  high- 
water  level,  protected  from  inundations  by  the  levee  or  embankments,  wliich  extend 
for  l/tiudreds  of  miles  on  both  banks  of  the  river.  The  streets  descend  from  the 
river  bank  to  the  swamps,  and  the  dralunge  is  by  canals  which  open  into  JLake  Pont- 
chartraiu,  which  is  on  a  level  with  tlie  Gmf  of  Mexico.  The  city  is  long  and  nar- 
row, extending  about  six  miles  alontr  the  river,  on  an  inner  and  outer  curve,  giving 
it  the  shape  of  the  letter  S.  The  older  portion,  extending  around  the  outer  curve, 
gave  it  the  name  of  "  the  Crescent  City."  N.  O.  is  the  great  port  of  traushipmunt 
For  a  lar>^e  p»ortiou  of  the  cotton  crop  of  the  sontliern  American  States,  the  sugar 
crop  of  Louisiana,  and  the  produce  of  the  vast  region  drained  by  the  Mississippi  and 
its  tributaries.  It  commands  10,000  miles  of  st«am-boat  navigation,  and  is  the 
natural  entrepot  of  one  of  tlie  richest  regions  of  the  world.  In  the  fiscal  year  eudt^ 
June  1874,  tlie  value  of  imports  into  N.  O.  was  14,633.864  doUars ;  of  exports, 
the  value  was  93  715,710  dollars.  The  sugar  product  m  1873  was  103.241,119 
lbs.,  value  8,122,676  dollars.  The  custom-house  is  one  of  tlie  largest  buildings 
in  America.  The  hotels,  theatres,  and  public  building**  are  on  a  inagiiiflceiit 
scale.  There  are  ft  branch  mint,  66  hospitnls,  inflrmtiHes,  and  asyl^nl^',  sevei-al 
colleges,  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  150  churches,  7  daily  iifewspapers,  extensive 
cotton-pres<es,  cotton  and  sugar  warehouses,  several  banks,  and  all  the  facilities  for 
avast  commerce.  Besides  the  great  river.  N.  O.  has  railways  connecting  it  with 
the  north,  east,  and  west.  It  is  a  beautiful,  and,  but  for  the  very  frequent  visits  of 
the  yellow  fever,  a  healthy  city.  The  vit-itation  of  this  dreaded  epidemic  in  the 
lower  Mississippi  vulley  in  1878,  was  one  of  tlie  most  terrible  on  reconl.  The  soil  is 
full  of  water,  so  that  no  excavjitions  can  l>e  madf*.  The  largest  buildings  have  no 
cellars*  below  the  surface ;  and  in  the  cemeterirts  there  are  no  graves,  bat  the  dead 
are  placed  in  tombs  or  "  ovens,"  above  ground.  N.  O.  was  settled  by  the  French  in 
1718;  with  Louisiana,  it  was  ti-ansf erred  to  Spain  in  1763;  soon  after  retianef erred  to 
France,  and  sold,  with  a  vast  territory  drained  by  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri,  by 
Napoleon  I.  to  the  United  States  in  1803.  In  1815  it  was  snccessfuliy  defeudcil 
a^nst  a  British  Army,  under  General  Ptickenhani,  by  General,  afterwards  President 
Jackson.  In  1860,  Louisiana  having  seceded  from  the  Union,  N.  O.  became  au  iiii- 
porbmt  centre  of  commercial  and  military  operations,  mid  was  clo^ely  blockaded  by 
a  Federal  tleet  Au  expedition  of  gun-boats,  uiulcr  Commander  Farragut,  forced 
the  defences  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  April  24, 1862;  the  city  was  conH>clled  to 
surrender,  and  occui)ied  by  General  Butler  as  military  governor.  In  1803,  on  itn  ces- 
lon  to  the  Union,  the  population  was  about  8000,  mostly  Freuck^uud  Spauisli ;  in. 

Digitized  by  VjOO^, 


'Ol  Q  New  Or'eans 

-^  ^  ^  New  Sonth  Wa.e« 

18S0  it  had  increased  to  27,000 ;  in  1860,  to  168,823,  and  consisted  of  Americaus, " 
French,  Creoles,  Irish,  ifcc. ;  in  1870,  it  was  191,418. 

NEW  RED  SANDSTONE.  A  large  8erie.M  of  reddish  colored  lonms,  shales,  and 
pai)d&tone»,  occnrriug  between  the  Carboniferous  Rocks  nnd  the  Lias,  weregroupt<l 
tc^ether  under  this  name,  in  coulradistiuciiou  to  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  group, 
which  lies  below  the  Coal-measures,  and  has  a  fimilur  mineral  structure.  Cony- 
beare  aud  Buckland  pro}>o8ed  the  title  Poikilitic  (Gr.  variegated)  for  the  same  strata, 
l>ecaii**e  »orae  of  the  most  characteristic  beds  are  viiriegated  with  spots  and  stn  aka 
of  liglit-blue,  green,  and  buff,  ou  a  red  base.  lu  the  progress  of  geology,  however, 
it  was  fonud  that  two  very  distiuct  periods  wers  included  under  tliese  uames;  and 
the  coui ail jed  fossils  of  each  group  were  found  to  be  so  remarkably  different,  that 
the  one  period  was  referred  to  the  Palaeozoic  series  under  the  name  Permian  (q.  v.), 
while  the  other,  known  as  the  Trias  (q.  v.),  was  determined  to  belong  to  the  Second- 
ary series. 

NEW  KOSS,  a  seaport  and  parliam en tai*y  borough  of  Ireland,  situated  on  the 
estnary  of  the  Barrow,  partly  in  the  county  of  Kilkenny,  but  chiefly  lu  that  of  Wex- 
ford, distant  84  miles  south-south-west  from  Dublin.  It  is  an  ancient  town,  having 
been  smrrounded  by  walls  aboutthe  middle  of  th|t  18th  century.  Before  the  union, 
it  returned  two  members  to  parliament,  of  whom  one  was  wiihdrawu  by  the  Act  of 
"UmoD.  Ii  is,  now  a  place  of  considerable  commerce,  and  the  modern  part  of  the 
town  ou  the  Wexford  side  is  built  wiih  great  regulaiity  aud  taste.  On  the  Kilkenny 
side  is  a  straggling  suburb  called  Rosl)eix;on,  connected  with  N.  R.  by  a  metal  bridife, 
erectxid  at  a  cost  of  je60,lS7,  which  has  a  swivel-plllnr  In  the  centre,  to  allow  vessels 
to  pass;  formerly,  the  connection  was  by  a  wooaen  bridge,  nearly  700  feet  in  length. 
The  port  is  approachable  at  spring-tides  by  ships  of  800  tons,  and  at  al'.  times  by 
ve8.-»eis  of  600  tons;  and  there  is  a  commimicalion  by  river  aud  canal  with  Dublin, 
aud  also  with  Limerick.  The  town  is  numaged  by  aboard  of  tweuiy-oue  commis- 
eiuuers.    It  possesses  no  manufactures  of  any  importance.    Pop.  in  1871,  6772. 

NEW  RUSSIA.    See  Russia. 

NEW  SHO'REHAM.    See  Shorbham. 

NEW  SIBE'RIA,  a  gronp  of  islands  in  ,the  Arctic  Ocean,  lying  north-nortlv-east  of 
the  mouth  of  the  River  J>Da,  in  Eastern  Siberia,  Lat.  73°  20'— 76°  12'  n.,  long.  135° 
«0' — 160^  20^  e. ;  area,  20,480  square  miles.  The  principal  are  Kotelnoi  (the  largest), 
liakov,  Fadievskoi,  and  New  Siberia.  The  coasts  are  in  general  rocky,  and  are  cov- 
ered all  the  year  round  with  snow.  The  islands  are  very  important,  on  account  of 
the  immense  multHude  of  bones  and  teeth  of  mammoths,  rhinoceroses,  buffaloes. 
Ac.,  which  are  found  in  the  soil.  They  are  now  uninhabited,  but  there  are  traces  of 
former  inhabitants.    Neither  bush  nor  tree  is  to  be  seen  anywhere. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  a  British  colony  in  the  south-east  of  Australia.  It  origi- 
nally comprised  all  the  Australian  settlements  east  of  the  185th  meridian,  but  the 
formation,  successively,  of  the  separate  colonies  of  South  Aupkalia  (1836),  Victoria 
(1851).  and  Oueensland  (1859),  has  reduced  it  to  more  moderate  dimensions.  It  is  now 
bounded  on  the  n.  by  a  line  which,  beginning  at  Point  Danger,  in  lat.  28P  8'  s.,  follows 
several  lines  of  heights  across  the  Di^diug  Range  till  it  meets  the  29tb  parallel,  which 
forms  the  rest  of  the  boundaiy  westward :  on  the  w.  by  the  141st  meridian  ;  on  thee. 
by  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  and  the  line  sepnrating  it  fi*om  victoria  on  the  s.  runs  from 
Cape  Howe,  at  the  south-east  of  the  island,  north-west  to  the  source  of  the  Murray 
(q.  v.),  aiid  then  along  that  stream,  in  a  direction  west  by  north,  to  the  western  bonn- 
dauy  of  the  two  colonies.  Area,  323,437  sq.  m.,  or  somewhat  less  than  four  times  that  of 
the  island  of  Great  Britain ;  pop.  (1871)  503,981,  of  whom  275,551  were  males,  an<l 
228,430  females ;  (!874)  584,278.  The  more  general  physical  character  of  the  country  is 
described  under  Australia.  Within  the  colony  of  N.  S.  W.  the  mountain-ranges 
which  girdles  nearly  the  whole  Island,  is  most  conthmous  and  elevated,  and  is  known 
as  the  Dividing  Range.  The  section  of  this  mountain  system  on  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  colony,  called  the  Australian  Alps,  rises  in  Mount 
Kosciusko  to  7308  feet.  Prom  this  the  range  extends  uorthwai-d,  the  water-sht^d 
b-faig  from  60  to  150  miles  disiant  from  the  e:»st  coast,  aud  thus  divides  the  colony 
Into  two  slopes,  with  two  distinct  water-systems.  The  rivers  on  the  eastern  side  de- 
1  witii  ip^  rapidity,  and  in  oblique  tortuous  courses,  their  channels  often  ft)nn- 


y  Google 


NewStf'e  00  A 

New  Swindon  ^^^ 

ing  deep  ravines.  Many  of  tWemi  are  navigable  in  tlieir  lower  conrse  for  Be»-ffoing 
steuiueis.  The  principal  are  the  Itichinondf  Clarence,  M'Leay,  Muuiiinjr,  Uuuter, 
Hawkesbnry,  and  Shoalhaven.  The  Hunter  River,  about  60  nuiee  north  of  Syduev, 
opens  up  ont'  of  tlie  luodt  feriile  and  deli^rhtful  districts  in  the  country.  The  Divid- 
iug  Range,  which,  opposite  to  Sydney  is  calKHi  the  Blue  Mountains,  being siiigolariy 
abrupt  and  rugged,  and  full  of  fritfhifuU  cliasuis.  long  presented  an  inipent  trab.j; 
baiTier  to  tlie  we^t  and  kept  the  colonists  shut  in  Iwtween  it  and  the  sea,  and  ufieriy 
ignorant  of  wlint  lay  beyond.  At  last,  in  1813,  whvn  the  cattle  were  likely  lo  peri^li 
in  one  of  thos*'  long  drou^llts  that  appear  to  visit  this  country  at  intervals  of  a  dozen 
years,  tliree  adventurous  individuals  scaled  the  formidable  barrier,  and  discovered 
those  downs  on  the  western  si. pe  which  now  form  tiie  great  sheep  ranges  of  Aus- 
tralia. A  practicable  line  of  road  was  immediately  constructed  by  convict  labor,  and 
the  tide  of  occupation  entered  on  the  new  and  limitless  expanse.  The  numeroua 
streams  that  rise  on  the  west  side  of  the  waternshed  within  the  colony,  all  converge 
and  empty  their  waters  into  the  sea  through  one  channel  witiiin  the  colony  of  Sooth 
Australia.  The  southern  and  main  branch  of  this  great  river-system  is  tiie  Murray. 
The  other  great  trunks  of  the  system  are  the  Murrumbidgee,  which  is  navigable ;  the 
Lachlan,  at  Umes  reduced  to  a  string  of  pouds ;  and  the  Darling.  The 
Macquarie  passing  through  the  rich  district  of  Bathorstr  (q.  v.),  is  a  lari^ 
tributary  of  the  Darling,  but  it  readies  it  only  in  the  rainy  seasons.  The 
coast-line  from  Cape  Howe  to  Point  Danger  is  upwards  of  TOO  miles  Jou^,  and  pre- 
sents numerous  good  harbors  formed  by  me  estuaries  of  the  rivers.  Owing  to  Uie 
great  extent  of  the  colony,  stretching  as  it  does  over  eleven  degrees  of  latitude,  the 
climate  is  veiy  varioos.  In  the  northern  districts,  wliich  are  tbe  warmest,  the  cli- 
mate is  tropical,  the  summer  heat  occasionally  rising  in  inland  districts  to  Wfi, 
while  on  the  high  table-lands,  weeks  of  severe  fi-ost  are  sometiineti  experienced.  At 
Sydney,  the  mean  temperature  of  tbe  year  is  about  ^^,  The  mean  beat  of  summer, 
which  lasts  here  from  the  beginning  of  December  to  tiie  end  of  Februtuy,  is  about 
80°,  but  it  is  much  modified  on  the  coast  by  the  refresliing  sea-breeze.  The  aiuioal 
fall  of  rtdn  is  about  50  inches.  Rain  sometimes  descends  m  continnoos  torrents,  and 
causes  the  rivers  to  rise  to  an  extraordinary  height.  Sometimes  the  r.iius  almost  fail 
for  two  or  three  yeara  in  succession  (see  Australia).  The  coast,  for  300  m.  from 
the  northern  boundary,  is  adapted  for  growing  cotton,  and  in  1808,  when  a  lar^> 
quantity  was  gi'own,  tne average  prodace  was  180  lbs.  per  acre;  bat  cottou-phtntiuit 
seems  now  to  have  been  abandoned.  Puitlier  south,  tlie  climate  is  more  temperate, 
and  is  fitted  to  produce  all  the  grain  products  of  Europe.  Immense  tracts  of  land, 
admirably  adapted  for  agriculture,  occar  in  the  south-western  interior;  while  in  the 
south-east  coast  districts,  the  soil  is  celebrated  for  its  richness  and  fertility.  In  the 
north,  the  cotton  and  t(Tbacco  plants,  the  vine,  and  sngar-Cime  are  grown,  and  pine- 
apples, bananas,  guavas,  l<tmous,  citrons,  and  other  tropical  fruits  are  produced.  lu 
the  cooler  regions  of  the  south,  peaches,  apricots,  nectarines,  oranges,  grapes,  peais, 
pomegranate.--,  melons,  and  all  the  British  fruits,  are  grown  in  t>erfectiou,  and  some- 
times in  such  abundance  that  the  pigs  are  fed  with  them.  Wheat,  barley,  oats, 
maize,  and  all  the  cereals  and  vegeUibles  of  Europe  are  also  grown. 

Agriculture  is  thus  increasing  in  imporUtnce,  though  the  predominating  interest 
is  still  pastoral.  In  1875-6,there  were  36.984  freeholdsirs  and  leaseholders  occupying 
13,525,497  acres  of  laud,  of  which  451,139  acres  were  under  cultivation,  7,771,068 
acres  inclosed  but  not  cultivated,  and  the  remainder  (5,803,290)  not  inclosed.  The 
largest  crops  were — wheat  (133,610  acres)  and  maize  (117,583  acres).  The  other 
crops  included  oats,  barley,  rye,  potatoes,  millet^  &c.  Considerable  attention  has 
been  bestowed  on  tlie  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  the  manufacture  of  whic.  The 
pi-oduce  in  1875-6  was  831,749  gallons  of  wine  and  2748  gallons  of  brandy,  besides 
t68  tons  of  grapes. 

The  great  pr<jdace  of  the  colony  is  wool,  the  exports  in  1876  amounting  to 
87,534,280  pounds,  valued  at  £3,651,643.  Sheep-farming  requires  a  large  capital, 
together  with  slci II  and  experience;  and  the  sheep-fanners  or  tequatters  form  the 
territorial  aristocracy  of  the  colony.  All  the  best  pasture-laud  has  long  been  fakou 
up  and  rented  (for  periods  of  10—15  years)  from  the  crown  under  certain  coinii- 
tiuns.  Stations,  or  the  rigiit  of  grazing,  with  the  stock  on  them,  are  coniiunally 
advertised  for-sale;  the  price  of  a  station  is  uccording  to  the  nnmliur  of  cattle  ur 
sheep  on  it.    The  question  of  the  rent  that  the  **  squatters  "  shpuld  pav  (which  used 


Digitized  by 


Lioogle 


<>0-f  NewStT'e 

-  -^  ^  New  S winder 

to  be  ahont.  jCIO),  nncl  of  the  tennro  hy  whicli  the  pnef nre-lands  shonid  be  held,  wns 
loui?  a  source  of  agitation  and  bitterness  iu  tliu  colony.  They  now  pay  about  b 
farf  hintr  »»  year  tor  each  sheep  the  mn  can  snpport.  Acconling  to  the  pr«m'Dt  regu- 
hitiouB,  arable  lands  are  disposed  of  by  two  disUnct  systems  of  sale:  one,  to  Wit 
highest  bidder  at  nnction  in  nnliraited  qnantities ;  the  other,  at  a  fixed  price  in  liini< 
ted  qnantities.  By  this  lost,  known  in  the  colony  as  •*  Free  8eIecHou  iK'fore  Snr- 
yey,"  tlte  intending  cultivator  can  first  select  for  hira'»elf,  and  then  secnre  in  f'^e- 
siinple  a  quantity  not  less  than  40,  and  not  more  than  820  acres,  at  the  rate  of  20«. 
XK-r  acre,  on  condition  of  residing  on  his  farm,  improving  a  )>ortiou  of  it,  and  not 
subletting  it. 

The  coal-flelds  of  N.  8.  W.  are  extensive,  and  the  seams  of  great  Ihickncss.  In 
18T5,  1.2.58  tf6  tons,  valued  lit  ^65,183.  were  raised.  Iron,  lead,  copper  and  oil- 
shale  are  abtlndant.  Gold  was  discovered  here  in  May  1851,  and  in  that  year  gold 
WUB  exported  to  the  amonnl  of  jC468,836.  This  amount  was  increased  to  X2,6€0  946 
III  1852,  but  subsequently,  owing  to  the  discovery  of  the  richer  ditrglngii  of  Vicioria. 
gold-miuing  in  this  colony  began  to  languish.  Since  1857,  however,  the  annnui 
amonnts  found  and  exported  nave  been  steadily  increasing;  that  for  1869  being 
8S4,382  oz.,  valued  at  jC886,T45»  ;  and  in  1876,  the  value  exported  was  £2,094,605, 
lienrly  all  coin.  lo  1876  there  were  in  the  colony  22.872,882  sheep,  2,856.099  cattle, 
and  S46,691  horses.  In  1871,  the  revenue  was  ^64, 709,0 10 ;  the  expenditure  X4,i  79,840 ; 
in  1S75,  llm  revenue  amounte<l  to  £4,126,803,  'and  I  he  expenditure  to  £3,345.632.  The 
exports  in  1875  amounted  to  £13,«71,5S0,  comprising  barley,  oats,  potitoes,  live-stock, 
preserved  meat,  leather,  wool,  tallow,  coal,  gold-dust,  and  sovereignn  :  the  imports, 
consisting  largely  of  articles  for  food  audclothing,  Ac,  were  £13,49!»,200.  The 
Sydney  oranch  of  the  Royal  Mint  was  Instituted  in  1866,  and  issues  larire  quantities 
ot  gold  iu  sovereignn  and  haJf-sovereigns.  There  were  in  1876  about  509  miles  of 
railway  already  open  in  the  colony,  while  alwnt  90i)  miles  additional  were  in  course 
of  construction.    There  is  telegraphic  communication  between  all  the  important 

S laces  m  the  colony,  and  also  with  other  colonies ;  length  of  wire  in  1876,  8012  nnles. 
f.  S.  W.  is  self-governed,  with  a  governor  appointed  by  the  Queen,  a  responsible 
ministry,  a  legislative  council  nominated  hy  the  crown,  and  a  House  of  Assembly 
clecte<l  by  permanent  residents.  As  i-ecards  religion,  all  sects  are  on  a  footing  of 
equality.  On  Jan.  1,  t876,  there  were  1089  regular  places  of  worship.  afEording  ac- 
commodation to  67,000  Episcopalians,  60.000  Komim  Catholics,  24.000  Presbyterians, 
44,000  Methotlists.  Ac.  The  numlwr  of  schools  under  the  Council  of  Education,  in 
18T5,  was  1042 ;  besides  these  there  are  644  private  schools.  There  were,  in  all, 
123,00  scholar."*.  For  the  higher  education,  see  Sydnbt.  The  capital  is  Sydney, 
with  a  pop.  of  154,49t;  and'the  other  chief  towns  are  Paramatta,  Bat  hurst  (q.  v.), 
Ooulbnru,  Maitiand,  Ne\>cat<thv  Grafton  and  Armidale,  with  populations  ranging 
from  3000  to  17,000. 

N.  S.  W.  took  its  origin  in  a  penal  establishment,  formed  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment, in  1788  at  Port  Jackt*on,  near  Botany  Bay  (latitude  34°).  The  prisoners,  after 
their  period  of  servitude,  or  on  being  purdmied,  became  settlers,  and  obtained  grants 
of  hmd;  and  these  **  emancipists  "  and  their  descendants,  together  with  free  emi- 
grants, constitute  the  present  inhabitants.  Transportation  to  N.  S.  W.  ceased 
m  1840,  and  np  to  that  date,  the  total  number  of  convicts  sent  thither  amounted 
to  60,7u0,  of  whom  only  8700  were  women.  Thev  were  assigned  as  bond-ser- 
vanta  to  the  free  settlerx.  who  were  obliged  to  furnish  them  with  a  fixed  allowance 
of  clothing  and  food.  In  1833,  there  wore  28,000  free  males  and  13.600  free  females, 
to  22.000  male  and  2700  female  convicts;  and  of  the  free  i>opulation,  above 
16.000  were  cmancipistij.  The  following  table  shews  the  recent  rate  of  increase  in 
tbu  population  :  ,v 

Males.  Females.  Total. 

1850 154,573  110,928  263.503 

1861 202,099  156,179  358.27S 

1871 ,     276,551  228,430  503,931 

The  increase  of  |)opulation  in  Sydney,  within  the  past  ten  or  twenty  years?,  has  been 
over  83-5  per  cent,;  and  in  the  suburban  districts  it  has  been  about  60  per  cent. 

NEW  STYLE     Sec  Calendar,  Datb. 

NBWSWI'NDON.    SccSwuiDON, 


k. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


New  York  ^^^ 

.  NEW-YEAR'S  DAY,  the  flrftt  day  of  the  year.  The  ftnatom  of  celehmtfng:  by 
some  relij^ons  observance,  geuoruUy  accompanied  by  fefttive  rejoicing,  the  flrrt  dny 
()f  the  Tear,  appears  to  have  prevailed  among  most  of  tlie  ancient  nations.  The 
JowH,  tne  Egyptians,  the  Chinese,  tlie  Rom  ms,  and  tlie  Mobanlraedaus,  altbongli 
differing  as  to  the  time  from  winch  they  reck  )ned  the  commencement  of  tlie  yc-ir, 
all  reirarded  it  as  a  day  of  special  interest.  In  Rome,  the  year  anciently  began  in 
MHrcli ;  and  when  Numa,  according  to  the  ancient  legend,  transferred  it  to  the  l^t 
of  January,  that  day  was  held  sacred  to  Jantu  Bi/i'on$,  who  was  thns  snppo(«ed  to 
turn  at  once  back  npon  the  old  year  and  fonvard  into  the  new.  On  the  «8ta1)li8h- 
ment  of  Christianity,  the  usage  of  a  solemn  mangnration  of  the  New  Year  wa«  re- 
tained :  bnt  considerable  variety  prevailed,  both  as  to  the  time  and  as  to  the  manner  of 
its  celebration.  Christmas  Day,  the  Annnnctetion  (25tli  March),  Easter  Bay,  and  Ist 
March,  have  all.  at  diflEerent  times  or  places,  shared  with  the  Ist  of  Jannary  the 
honor  of  opening  the  New  Year;  nor  was  it  till  late  in  the  16(h  c,  that  the  Ist  of 
Jannary  was  nniversally  accepted  iw  the  first  day  of  the  New  Year.  The.  early 
fatliers — Chrysostoni,  Ambrose,  Angustlne,  Peter  Clirysolojms,  and  others— in  re- 
probation of  the  iniinond  and  superstitions  observanous of  the  pagrau  festival,  pro- 
hibited In  Christian  nse  a:l  festive  celebration  ;  and,  on  the  coutrary,  directed  that 
the  Christian  year  should  l)e  opened  with  a  day  of  prayer,  fasting,  and  hnmiliation. 
The  mandate,  however,  was  but  partially  observed.  The  testal  character  of  the  day, 
generally  speaking,  was  pertinaciously  preserved,  bnt  the  day  was  also  observed  as 
a  day  of  prayer;  and  this  character  wan  the  more  readily  attached  to  it  when  the 
year  l)egan  with  the  Ist  of  Jannary,  as  that  day,  being  the  eighth  after  the  nativity 
of  our  Lord,  was  held  to  be  the  cotnmemoratibn  of  his  circumcision  (Luke  ii.  21). 

The  social  observances  of  the  first  day  of  the  New  Year  appear  to  have  been  in 
fluhstance  the  same  in  all  ages.  From  the  earliest  recorded  celebration,  we  find  notice 
of  feasting  and  the  interchange  of  presents  as  usages  of  the  day.  Suetonius  alludes 
to  the  bringing  of  presents  to  the  capitAl ;  and  Tacitus  makes  a  similar  reference  to 
trie  practice  of  gi^ing  and  receiving  New  Year's  gifts.  This  custom  was  continued  by 
the  Christian  kingdoms  into  which  the  Western  Empire  wjis  divided.  In  England  we 
find  many  exaiupTes  of  it.  even  as  a  part  of  the  public  expenditure  of  the  court,  so  far 
down  as  the  reign  of  Charles  II. ;  and,  as  all  our  antiquarian  writers  mention,  the 
custom  of  interchanging  presents  wa»  common  in  all  classes  of  society.  In  France 
and  England  it  still  snbiists,  although  eclipsed  in  the  latter  country  hy  the  still  ntore 
popular  practice  of  Christmas  gifts.  In  many  countries,  the  n'ght  of  New  Year's  Eve^ 
"  St  Sylvester's  Eve,"  was  celebrated  with  great  festivity,  which  was  prolonged  till 
after  12  o'clock,  when  the  New  Year  was  ushtTcd  in  with  congratulations,  comfit 
mentary  visits,  and  mutual  wishes  for  a  happy  New  Year.  Tliis  is  an  andent  Scot- 
tish custom,  which  also  prevails  in  many  parts  of  Germany,  whore  tKe  form  of  wish— 
"Pro88t(for  the  Lat,  »ro«tO-Neu-jahr" — '*May  the  New  Year  be  happy" — suflicl- 
ently  attests  the  antiquity  of  the  custom.  In  many  places  the  practice  of  tolling  Ijells 
at  midnight,  and  thus  "ringing  in  the  New  Year  "  is  still  observed.  Many  reugions 
CQmmnnionH  are  wont  to  celebrate  it  with  a  special  service.  In  the  Roman  CadioUc 
Ciinrch,  the  Te  Detim  is  still  sung  at  the  close  of  the  old  year;  and  New-Year's  Day  is 
a  holiday  of  strict  obligation. 

NEW  YORK,  one  of  tin;  thirteen  original  states  of  thoTJnlted  States  of  America, 
now  the  mosst  important  in  population  and  wealth,  occupies  an  irr«'gnlar  triangular 
area  from  the  Atlaiitl<-.  Ocean  to  the  great  lakes,  lat.  40°  29'  40"— 45^  0'  42"  n.,  long. 
710  4i'_79o  47'  25"  w.  The  state  is  412  miles  from  eas;  to  west,  311  from  north  to 
south,  with  an  area  of  47,000  square  m\\Q%  or  30.800.000  acres;  bounded  n.  b^  Lake 
Erie,  Lake  Ontjirio,  the  river  St  Lawrence,  and  Canada  ;  e.  by  LakeChamplain,  and 
tlie  states  of  Vermont,  Ma:»sachuj*etts,  and  Connecticut,  and  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean ; 
s.  by  the  ocean.  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania;  w.  by  Pv'nnsjivania,  the  Niagara 
River,  and  the  lakes  which  make  its  irregular  north-wei»teni  boundary.  Tlie  ntate 
has  60  counties.  Its  cUief  towns  are  New  York  City,  Albany  (the  capital).  Bnfitalo, 
Rochester,  Oswego,  Troy,  Hudson,  Syracuse,  Utica.  <fcc.  Pop.  (1870)  4,378,068,  of 
whom  1.000.000  artj  of  foreign  birth,  500,000  being  Irisli,  and  about  2»».000  Germans'. 
N.  Y.,  though  resting  only  one  corner  upon  the  Atlantic^  has  its  sea-coast  extended 
by  Long  Island,  Staten  Island,  <fec.,  to  246  miles  ;  wh  le  it  h.is  a  lake  cf>ast  ot  352 
inlley,  and  borders  for  281  mile!*  on  navitrable  rivers.  -  The  Hudson,  broad  and  deep, 
with  tides  flowing  150  miles,  joins  at  Albany  a  system  of  canals,  whh^b  counoct 


Digitized  by 


Google 


E 


-«^-«»  KewXok 

New  York  City  wljh  tke  grpat  «reH«rn  lakes  awd  the  river  St.  Lflvrrence.  'JTie  ntnte 
is  alfo  tr:iveiee(l  by  railwjiy  Hues  Iir  every  direction.  TUe  ceiiire  ifl  beaniifi -d  by 
many  pjctnresqne  lakfp,  and  its  iiorrli-e»urt«ni  portiuii  ai»d  the  tuiitke  of  thi!*Hiidi'oii 
by  the  nionntiifii  pci'iii-iy.  1'he  Bine  Ridge  of  ttie  AlleijrhauieflCurinM  the  HighbtndH, 
who{>e  penks  rise  1500  fi^et  from  the  HiidM>ii ;  north  of  IheM,  the  Kuti<k!ll:4  rine  to  :i 
bef^rht  of  3SO0  feet,  with  a  large  tiotel  for  finininer  vit)itx)ra  at  an  oh^vation  uf  iOCtt 
fi>i>t  ;  while  Mount  Hnrcy  ana  Mount  Anthony,  peaks  of  the  Adirondiick^,  in  the 
^-f!d  retrlon  we>«t  of  Lake  Chaniplaiu,  ar«>  fi837  and  0000  feet  liigh.  The 
cliicf  riverp.  besides  tlie  Ni:i);ara  and  St  Liiwreiuie,  ai*o  ihe  Hud'-on,  its 
cliiff  hrxncli  the  Mohawk,  the  Genesee,  and  the  Foui-ceB  of  the  Dohiware 
SnFqneiuinna.  nnfl  AUcjrimny.  Its  g<  olo^y  pri'fivsnfs  a  perie?  of  older  ro>  ks«,  from  I  ho 
AZ'icto  the  lower  membern  of  tlu:  Ciirhoniforou9.  Red  aandslone  of  tiie  Middli? 
Se<*<;ndi»ry  period  is  found  on  the  bordert*of  NewJernry;  drift  aiid  bonldcrs  iird 
ioniid  everywhere ;  the  ^reat  iSilnrian  ))elt  paraea  along  the  eastern  line,  and  granii0 
witli  iron  occurs  iu  the  uvriti-east,  'I'htre  Is  no  coal,Iint  rich  beds  of  luarhie  near 
New  Yo  k  City;  prodaciive  pult  ppriligs  in  Ihe  centre  of  the  ffate,  which  yiekh-d,  in 
1874,6,594,191  bushels:  and  petroleum  and  uaiaral  ^las.  enough  in  aou^e  cases  to 
light  large  villages,  in  the  west.  Among  the  uiipeml  flings,  thuae  of  Saratoga  and 
Baliston  have  h  wide  reputation.  'J  he  climate,  mikl  on  the  coast,  is  cx>ld  in  the 
iiorthenj  couDties.  The  soil,  parliculatly  of  the  western  aud  limestone  re<:ions,  fa 
v«ry  fertile,  producing  the  finest  wheat,  niais;*,  apples,  peaches,  melons,  grapiHi,  Ac., 
in  abnudauce.  In  18T0  N.  Y.  slate  produced  6,014,205  tons  of  hay,  12  I78.4<i2  l)UPhel» 
of  wheat,  85.293  625  of  Oits,  16,462.825  nf  inniz<S  i7,55S,ri8L  Ibft.  hops.  6,692.040  lbs. 
maple  su^ar,  22,769  964  lbs.  clieese,  10,599,225  Itts.  wool.  Among  the  Jintural 
cunoHties  are  the  Falls  of  Niagara ;  of  the  Gen*  see,  th|X!o  cascades  of  96,  26,  and  84 
f«et  in  2}i  miles;  of  the  Trenton,  which  falls  200  feet  in  5  ca.^cades;  (he  'I'aghanio 
Fallf,  of  230  feet;  and  the  oft-painted  F.illi  of  tlie  Ettaterskill,  175  and  85  feet,  iu  a 
zorL'e  of  the  Katskill  Mountains.  In  1870,  there  were  36,206  manufactnrinjr  eslai)- 
jishments, employing  351,800  persons,  and  acapitid  of  $366,094  320;  and  in  1875  tlu  re 
were  5442  n  ilea  of  railway  in  the  slate:  the  Erie  Canal  is 350  miles,  and  ti«e  Nev 
York  canals  together  856  ini  es ;  851  hai^ks  of  is.-je  have  a  capital  of  $124  689,000.  Iu 
1870,  tliere  were  6474  churches ;  11,678  puhllc  schools,  attended  by  719,  81  pupils; 
274  ciassicid,  professional,  and  technical  schoolSjlDcluding  7univerbitiis,  i'4  colleges, 
and  189  academies,  with  an  atteudanc«  of  43.^28  pupils;  and  1068  boiirding  and 
other  schools,  with  an  attendance  of  99,113  pupila.  In  1874,  the  <z{»end  ture  for 
teachers  and  sciiolars  was  $11,085,981,  and  the  total  number  of  children  at  school, 
1,224,321.  'J'he  uutulier  of  paupers  supported  during  tlie  year  ending  June  1,  1870, 
was  26,162,  at  a  cost  of  $2,661,386.  The  number  of  pers<iii6  convicted  of  crime 
during  the  »ime  peried  was  6478,  of  which  2000  were  foreign  born.  There  were 
836  u'jw>'pipers  and  other  periodical — S7  dally.  618  weekly,  163  monthlv,  19  Qiiar« 
terly ;  but  a  large  number  of  these  are  published  in  Ihe  city  of  New  York,  antf  cir- 
cnl.tted  over  the  Union.  The  number  of  copiiis  issued  annually  in  the  state  wa» 
471,741,744.    In  1874  there  were  1055  newspapers  and  periodicals. 

The  earliest  explorations  of  New  York  by  Europeans  were  in  16'^9  by  Hendrick 
HudFon,  who  took  popse^8ion  of  the  country  on  the  j-iver  which  bears  his  name  for 
thfi  Butch ;  and  by  Chaniplaiu.  a  Frenchman,  who  explored  I^ke  Chomplain  from 
Canada.  It  was  |.K)8aessed  bythe  Iriqnoi^,  or  Fiv<!  Nations,  and  the  Algonquins.  In 
1621  ihe  Dutch  made  a  settlement  on  Manhattan  Island,  which  they  bought  for  $24. 
and  founded  New  Amsterdam,  now  New  York.  In  1664,  N.Y.  was  taken  by  ihe 
Engiish.  In  the  War  of  Independence  (1776),  Washington  was  driven  from  Ne%v 
Tork  City,  which  was  held  by  the  British  till  the  end  of  the  war;  but  West|)Ointwas 
held,  and  Burgoyne,  after  two  sever  •  battles  near  Saratoga,  coni|>elled  to  suireuder. 
The  state  constitution  was  adopted  in  1777,  aud  has  since  been  rei)eatedly  amended. 
The  governor  is  elected  for  three  years,  32  sentttors  for  two  yejirs,  and  128  men>bers 
oi  Assembly  for  one  year.  In  1825,  the  opening  of  Ihe  Erie  Canal  gave  a  great  Im- 
petus to  trade.  Fop.  (1800)  636,756;  (1820}  1,372,812;  (1860,)  8,880.736;  (1670> 
4,382,759. 
I  *  NEW  YORK,  the  most  importiint  city  and  s^Slbil  of  tlie  U.  8.,  and  the  third  in 

1  the  «#4vill8<id  world,  is  situated  on  the  east  side  of  the  mouth  of  the  Hud.-on  HiVe: ,  at 

ita  confluence  with  a  nyrrrow  strait  called  E  .^t  Uiver,  which  op^ns  into  Long  J.-lHna 
I  Sound,  if!  the  State  of  New  York,  18  miles  froui  the  occau.  Lat.  40©  42' 43'  u.,  long. 

I  U.  K.,  X.,  8.  ^  I 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Ifrxr  Zealand 


224 


740  Qf  3"  ^v.  Tjie  cfty  comprised  the  Island  of  Man  hat  tan,  formod  by  the  Hnd.oon 
Kiver  aiul  the  Ejist  Kiver,  and  separtited*  from  the  inuinhnul  bjr  a  narrowr 
ptniit  diiled  Hariein  River,  on  thu  c.-^  and  on  tlie  w.  by  Spnyt^-u  Ihiyvel 
Creek  ;  incndcH  st^veral  snialier  islund^,  coutuiiiing  ihe  furtiflcalioub  in  the  li:irbor, 
ni)d  the  public  iuexitmions  in  tl)e£!i9t  liivnr;  nnd  a!80  |mrt  of  the  niuinlund  11.  of 
Manluiitiin  Island.  The  island  on  winch  the  city  is  built  is  13>^.nilles  long,  and  witli 
an  avtiaj;e  breadth  of  3-5t)t8  nt  a  mile,  comprri^ing  '22  sq.  ni.  A  rwky  rid^e  runs 
through  the  centre,  rising  at  Washington  Heijjhts, i!o8  ft-et.  The  comp-icily  bnilt  ciiy 
extends  five  miles  trom  the  **  battery  "  at  its  HOUtheru  point,  and  i«  hiid  oot  n*guUir!y 
into  141,486  lots.  Aveunes,  lOQ  feet  wide  and  8  miles  long,  in  siraighi  lsu«s, 
are  cTosied  at  riglit  angles  by  etn-eJs  from  60  to  100  feet  \vide,  extendiuij  fioui  river 
to  river.  The  ciiy  is  connected  witli  the  mainland  of  N.  Y.  by  bridgt'S  across  the 
Harlem  River,  with  Long  Island  by  a  flue  enspeu.-'ion  bridge,  and  with  N«w  Jers^-y, 
Long  Island,  and  i3taten  Island  by  numerous  t»team  fenies.  Several  railways  radi- 
ati;  from  the  city,  while  the  finest  pasaengiT  stennilK>ute  in  the  worid  pass  up  the 
Hudso'.i,  Long  Island  Sound,  and  down  the  Narrows,  through  the  lower  l>ay.  .  The 
harbor,  fornn-d  by  the  upper  and  smtiller  l)ay  with  ijs  two  arms,  which  almost  en- 
close the  city,  is  Olio  of  theflntst  in  the  world.  There  are  80  pit;rs  for  shipping  on 
the  west,  and  70  on  the  east  side  of  the  city.  The  harbor  is  defended  by  foiinceii 
forts,  mounting  1500  guns.  The  streets  are  traversetl  by  many  city  omnibuses  and 
tramways,  which  carry  millions  of  passtMigers  auunally. 

The  city  to  built  of  brick,  brown  sandstone,  and  white  marble.  Among  ita  finest 
edificts  are  the  City  Hall,  Custom-house,  Trinity  Chun-.h,  Grace  Church,  two  univer- 
sitiis,  cathedral.  Academy  of  Music,  Cooper  Institute,  and  the  uuinorous great 
hotels,  several  of  which  have  aecinnn^odatiun  for  inore  than  a  thousand  i)ersous. 
Of  331  churches,  72  are  Protest-ant  Episi-opal,  41  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  others  of 
all  denominations.  In  18T3  there  were  233  public  schools  and  17  corjnmite  schools, 
with  236,543  pupils,  and  the  College  t)f  the  Cty  of  New  York,  formerly  the  free 
academy.  Besides,  there  are  35  KoinuD  Catholic  schools,  and  colleges  and  aca<leiD!e8 
of  the  religions  orders.  Col u mbi-i  Colli-ge  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  the  country;  tlie 
University  of  the  City  of  New  York  has  been*  more  recently  establish'.-d.  Each  has 
departments  of  law  and  medicine,  ami  there  are  two  other  medical  coll:>g  'S,  several 
theological  semin  tries,  and  many  private  acatlemies.  The  hospitals  and  institutions 
of  charity  are  on  a  Iii)eral  scaJe ;  and  besides  legal  outdoor  relief,  the  poor. are 
visiU'd  and  cared  for  by  a  pu'>lic  society,  with  aj^ents  in  every  district.  Among  tlio 
charities  are  asylums  for  insane,  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  magdaleiis,  foiindliugs,  &c. 
The  Astor  Free  Libraty,  founded  by  John  Jacwb  Astor,  has  150.000  carefully 
selected  volumes;  the  Mercantile  Library,  150,00.)  voiumiis,  with  a  large 
rnuding-room;  Society  Library,  64,000;  Apprentices*  Library,  50,000,  with 
ricti  museums  of  antiquities;  the  Cooper  Institute,  a  present  to  tho 
city  by  Peter  Cooiier,  has  a  free  reading-roOm,  picturc-galfeiy,  artz-schools, 
Ac  Animal  art  exhibitions  are  given  by  the  National  Academy  of  desgn, 
Dnsseldoj-f,  and  International  Galleries.  The  Academy  of  Music,  or  Opera- 
house,  has  seats  for  4700  persons,  and  eight  or  ton  theatres  give  nightly  ei»t«r- 
tiiinment  to  20,000.  I'he  Central  Park,  laid  out  in  the  finest  style  of  landscape-gar- 
dening, is  two  and  a  half  miles  long  by  three-fifths  of  a  mile  wide.  Eighteen  smaller 
public  parks  are  scattered  over  the  city.  The  Croton  Aqueduct  brings  a  river  of  pure 
soft  w  ter  from  40  miles  distance,  which  is  receivt-d  in  reservoirs  of  a  capacity  of 
1,500  0>0,00j  gallons,  and  distributed  through  370  miles  of  pipes,  with  such  a  hoNdas 
to  supp:y  public  fountains  of  60  and  80  feet  j  •t,aud  the  upper  storit-s  of  most  build- 
ings. Eleven  markets  supply  annually  140,000,000  lbs.  betjf,  23,000  000  lbs.  mutton, 
63.000,000  lbs.  pork,  and  immense  quantities  of  poultry,  game,  fi.-h,  oysters,  fruits 
and  vegetables.    The  city  government  iscompo^tMl  of  a  mayor,  boards  of  aulermca 


health.  The  Coinmlssionera  of  Charity  and  Correction  have  direction  of  usyiunts, 
hospittils,  and  prisons.  Commissioners  of  Emigration  receive  and  attend  to  the 
wants  of  immigranti^  The  volunteer  brigade  ot  fii*emen  has  been  ivpln(^  by  a  paid 
fire  department,  which  is  found  to  be  imich  more  effective  for  the  protection  (^  pn>- 
perty.    It  couaista  of  upwards  of  700  men,  with  al)ove  40  steam  fire-eii^uciB,  uud  ft 


y  Google 


225 


Hew  Zea'and 


large  immher  of  tclegranli  PtatJona  N.  Y.  ia  the  great  centre  of  American  flnaiice 
and  commerce.  It  recefvea  66  per  cent  of  ail  im|K>rts,  ai>d  sends  OQt  66  |M?r  cent  of 
all  expo rtx.  The  totalj'uhie  of  imports  1u  187  (—4  wtu»  $S95,133.6SS;  of  cxporif*. 
$3(^993,732.  Vessels  entered,  6723,  of  5,049,618  tons ;  clt- art-il,  6103,  of  4,SS7,«18 
toii!^  Tbe  total  ninnl»er  <if  ves>el8  belonging  to  the  poit  of  N.  Y.  was  6630,  of 
2,318.523  tons.  'J'here  were,  in  1870,  7624  ninnnfactiirHig  establii^hnieuts.  employing^ 
129,577  hands,  the  cost  for  wagen  being  $^884,049,  and  ihe  value  of  |>rodii(-ti«  f332.- 
951,520.  The  assessed  vulue  of  real  and  perKXial  e<«t.tte  in  1875  was  ^1,^54^029,176. 
The  number  of  immigrants  that  axrived  in  N.  Y.  daripe  the  year  ending  JuueSU, 
1874,  WJ«  260,814. 

N.  Y.,  the  Nien  Amsterdam  of  the  Dutch,  was  fonnded  io  1621;  in  1664  it 
was  taken  by  the  English.  At  the  period  of  the  revolution,  it  was  smaller  than  Phila< 
delphia  or  Ifostou ;  bat  increased  m  importance,  especially  after  the  completiou  of 
tlie  £rie  Canal  had  opened  to  it  the  ooumierce  of  the  west  In  1789,  2086  persons 
died  of  yellow  fever;  iu  1832,  3513  of  «bolera;  in  1845,  a  Are  destroyed  a  large  portion 
Ckf  the.bnsinets  part  of  the  city,  with  a  1o6.h  c^  $18,000,<'00.  In  1741.  iu  couB«K)aence 
Of  a  snppoted  negro  plot  to  bum  tiie  city,  13  negrues  were  bamed  at  the  stake,  20 
hanged,  and  78  transported.  In  1863,  in  a  not  caused  by  the  conscription,  the  i>opa- 
lar  fury  again  tamed  against  the  nt^groes,  and  numbers  were  muKiered.  The  mor- 
tality of  ttie  city  is  1  in  85;  Intramaral  interments  are  f orbiddt»,  .'tud  large  cemeteries 
have  been  opened  on  Long  Island.  Pop.  (1S70)  922,531 ;  but,  if  the  neighboring 
^ties  of  Jersey  and  Brooklyn  be  included,  1,400,000 1  (1815)  about  2,«oa,«00. 

NEW  ZEA'LANl),  a  British  colony  in  thi'  South  Prtclflc  Ocean,  consist;*  of  three 
islands,  two  large  and  onemncli  smaller,  and  of  a  nninfoer  of  islets  scattered  round  the 
consta.  Theselslaiids.  which  are  named  resuectivelv  North.  Sonth  (sometimes  also 
Siiddle),  and  Stewart's  Island,  are  situated  aooat  HM)0  m.  w.  from  the  coast  of  South 
Ameriai.  and  about  1200  m.  s.  e.  of  Australia.  Tl»e  group  is  irrejiular  in  form,  but 
mny  l>e  paid  to  extend  from  the  south  in  a  north-norih  east  direction,  and,  like  the 
peuiusula  of  Iialy,  resembles  a  boot  iu  shape.  Noith  Island  is  r.OO  miles  long,  and 
200  miles  in  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  wtst;  Middle  tsbnd  is  5.50  miles  lon^,  and 
810  miles  in  gr(:ate(<t  breadth;  Stewart-s  Island  is  triangular  iu  sh:t|ie,  and  has  an 
area  of  about  906  square  miles.  Ar«a  of  the  three  inlands  ai)Oul  96,000  vqaare  miles. 
'ilie  North  is  separated  from  ttie  Middle  Island  by  Ck)ok's  Strait,  which  is  18  miles 
wide  at  its  eastern  and  90  miles  udde  at  its  western  end;  the  Middle  is  separated 
from  Stewart's  Island  by  Fovtanx  Strait,  which  averages  al)ont  20  miles  in  wiiitlu 
The  group  extendi  iu  lar.  from  34<^  15'  to  41°  80'  s.,  and  iu  long,  from  166^  to  179^ 
e. ;  being  thus  almoi't  the  antipodes  of  the  British  Isles. 

Coast  IAnt,—Oi  the  entire  coast  line  of  about  4000  miles,  nearly  1500  miles  is 
formed  by  the  shores  of  North  Island,  which  are  deeply  indented,  and  contain  many 
excellent  harbors.  Commencing  from  North  Cape,  and  going  south-east  round  the 
ishind,  the  chief  harbors  arc  If  onganui,  Wtmgtiroa,  the  Bay  of  Islands,  Auckland, 
Mercury,  and  Tanrai>ga  Bays,  and  the  ports  oi  Wellington,  Manukau,  and  Ho- 
kiauga.  On  the  north  and  south  coasts  of  Middle  Island,  wliich  aie  nmch  broken, 
the  harbors  are  numerous  and  excellent ;  on  the  eastern  coant,  the  principal  harbors 
are  Akaroa,  Victoria,  and  Dunedin.  Ou  the  coasts  of  Stewart's  Island,  there  uie 
also  good  ports. 

Sur/dce. — ^The  New  Zealand  Islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and  a  great  portion  of 
the  entire  urea  is  occupied  hy  montitaii.s,  anioi  g  which  are  nniny  exrinct  and  a  Tew 
active  volcanoes.  In  North  Island,  Mouut  liuapahu,  the  highest  summit  of  the  cen- 
tral range,  is  9000  feet  iu  heii»ht,  and  is  cai)ped  with  perpi  tual  snow.  In  the  same 
rauee  is  Tongariro,  au  active  volcano,  6000  feet  high.  A  continuous  range  of  nmun- 
taini'  runs  along  the  western  coast  of  Middle  Island,  and  assuuKS  the  form  of  table- 
landB  and  isolaUd  peaks  toward  tiie  east  This  range  rises  iu  Mount  Cook  to  about 
14,000  fei^t  In  Soutlifiii  Island,  the  greatest  elevation  is  about  8000  feet.  In  North 
Liiaud,  the  mountains  are  mostly  cioUied  withevergroeu.fort^i*tsof  luxuriant  growth, 
intorepersed  with  feni-clad  ran»;es,  and  occasionally  with  tnreless  grassy  plains  ;  ex- 
tensive and  rich  vidleys  and  shelteied  dales  abound ;  and  in  the  v»s\  of  Middle  Island 
there  aie  many  expansive  nlaius  of  rich  meadow-land,  admirably  adapted  either  for 
agriculture  or  cattle-breeaiug.  Water  and  waier-power  are  found  in  great  ubun- 
dauce  in  the  colony^  and  the  numerous  rivers  are  subject  to  sudden  floods  from  the 
melting  Of  the  liionutaiu  suows.    AS  a  rule,  however,  the  sueams  are  short,  a?' 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Ksw  Z«a'and  00  A 

Kewaw  --" 

mc  not  wavigaWe  for  more  tbaii  HO  mileB  above  their  nioulIn».  Tlie  chief  is  Wuikoto 
Kiver,  in  North  Isiiind,  which.  i^t^iihiL;  from  the  T:iiii><>  Lake  (30  miles  long  by  20 
btoiui),  ftowp  in  a  DOrthern  directiOo  for  200  milev,  aud  readies  the  ^ea  on  ihe  weet 
eoasr-  In  Middle  Island,  the  rfrers  Clnthn,  Mataura,  and  Waian,  all  flowing  south, 
arc  ainonjj  th(- cliief.  Aroand  Ltikes  Uotomahaim  and  Rotoma  are  a  uiuulxir  of 
grand  and  beautifal  geysers,  whicji  throw  np  water  heated  to  2°  above  the  l»oiIine- 
poiut.  The  geology  of  N.  Z.  is  remarkable  in  a  higli  degree.  'I'lie  monntains,  which 
arc  of  evury  variety  of  ontliue,  are  chiefly  composed  of  the  lower  slato-rock:^,  inter- 
sec!e<l  wUli  Inisalt,  aud  mixed  with  primary  sandslonelind  limestone.  Beds  of  coal 
and  lignlfH  exji»r,  and  the  fortner  bayo  been  to  soniu  extent  worketi 

Suil,  ClimcUe,  and  ProduetianH.—Ot  the  whole  snrface-exteut  of  N.  Z.  (nearly  TO,- 
©00.000  acres,  little  short  of  the  combned  area  of  Euglaiid  and  Wales,  Scotland  and 
Irelaiiil),  ooe-fonrth  is  estimated  to  consist  of  dense  forest  tracts,  one-half  of  taccel- 
Jeut  soil,  aud  the  remainder  of  waste  lauds,  scorisB-bills,  and  rugged  moontain 
r;gioiis.  Nearly  40,000.001)  acres  are  supposed  to  be  moi'e  or  less  saitnl>ie  f«r  agricui- 
ture  and  cattle-breeding.  The  soil,  although  often  chiyey,  hnsin  the  volcanic districis 
more  than  a  niedinm  fertility;  bat  the  mxarhmt  and  semi-troplciU  vegetation  is, 
perhaps,  as  much  dae  to  excellence  of  cliniat*!  as*  to  ricliness  of  soil.  '  Owing  to  th« 
prevelenceof  light  and  easily-worked  soils,  all  agricaltnrttIproce8»*e8  are  >--rf or metl 
with  nuusual  ease.  The  climate  of  N.  Z.  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  The 
country  contains  few  physical  sources  of  di^t^'ase;  the  average  temperatort:  is  remark- 
MMy  even  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  aud  the  atmosphere  is  continually  agitated  and  . 
freshened  by  winds  that  blow  over  an  immense  expanse  of  ocean.  In  a  word,  ttm 
climate  nmcti  retfembien  that  of  Biigland,  with  half  the  co  d  of  the  English  winter; 
while  tlie  sannner  is  longer  and  somewhat  warmer,  the  atmosphere  is  moi-e  breezv 
and  pair,  and  there  are  many  more  fine  days  throughout  the  year.  In  Nwth  Island, 
the  mean  annual  temperature  is  51°;  in  South  Island,  52^:  The  mean  tenipennur'j 
of  the  liotte>t  mouth  at  Ancklaud  is  69<3,  and  at  Otngo  5S°;  of  the  coldest  month,  51<> 
and  4iP,  The  air  is  very  humid,  and  the  fall  of  rain  is  gi-eater  than  in  England,  btit 
there  are  more  dry  days.  All  the  native  trees  and  plants  are  evergreens-  Forest?, 
shrubbeiies,  and  plains  are  clothed  in  green  throiij^boat  the  year,  the  results  of  whicii 
are,  that  cattle,  an  a  rule,  browse  ou'lheiierbageand  stirnbsof  the  open  country  all  th« 
year  roond,  thhs saving  great  expensa  to  the  cattle-breeder;  and  that  the  operations 
of  reclaiming  and  cult!  Vatiug  land  can  be  carried  on  at  all  seasons.  The  seasons  iu  N. 
Z.  are  the  rever^c^of  ours ;  January  is  their  hottest  month, and  Jnne  the  coldest.  All 
the  tnraius.  grasses,  fruit?,  and  vegetables  grown  in  England  are  cnltivated  in  this  conn- 
ti7  w.th  perfect  »ucteesj»,  being  excellent  in  quality,  and  heavy  in  yield ;  while,  besidoa 
these,  tlie  vine  i*  cnltivateil  in  the  op  -n  air,  and  nniizii,  th«;  taro,  and  the  sweet-potato 
are  cultivated  tonome  extent  in  the  ^«unny  valleys  of  North  Wand.  The  entire  acn-jigo 
nnder  ero)>  in  N.  Z.  in  1851  was  29,140 ;  in  1858,  it  was  141  0^7;  in  1876,  3,230,988 : 
wliile  in  1871  the  total  acreage  fenced  was  6,778,773.  Of  the  crops,  the  principiU 
were  whesit,  oats,  barley,  potatoes,  and  sown  grass,  which,  under  ortlinary  circum- 
stances, are  grown  to  great  advantage  in  New  Z.'alami.  Besides  a  few  hannle«i 
XKirds,  a  small  species  of  rat  is  the  only  indigenous  fohr-footed  animal  found  in 
either  of  the  gretit  inlands.  Ilawkn  are  numerous.  The  eonniry  is  destitute  of 
fiuikes,  and  possesst;s  no  insect  so  noxious  as  the  English  wasp.  The  pig,  intro- 
duced by  Cook,  runs  wild,  and  the  red  and  f:illow  deer,  the  pheasant,  partridg  -, 
Jnail,  &C-,  and  the  commoner  donie»(tic  nnimals  introduced  hv  colo:ii.«t!»,  thrive  well, 
n  March  1874,  th-i-e  were  iu  the  colony  99,859  horses,  4v)4,91 7  cattle,  II, 704,863  sheep, 
123  921  pigs,  and  1.058,198  heads  of  poultiy,  besides  mules,  asses,  and  goats.  Coal 
in  abundance,  and  of  good  quality,  as  weli^s  iron,  cold,  silver,  tin,  copj)er,  Ac,  are 
distributed  over  the  colony.  For  statistics  of  the  quantity  of  goiri  exported,  see 
arricle  Otaoo.  Valuable  timber  Is  in  great  almndatice.  In  1877,  the  revenue  (of  which 
the  source.-*  are  principally  custom.**,  receipts,  and  sale  of  crown  lands),  nmonin*'*! 
to  je3.790.54.')  ;  the  debt  of  the  general  government  to  .£20,691.111.  In  1875,  the  d:bfc 
wa.-*  uudv-r  £14,000,000.  The  exports,  consisting  principally  of  wool,  corn,  gnnu  in-e- 
terved  mea',  and  gold,  amounted  in  1877  to  ^£6. 329,2.51 ;  the  wool  of  that  jvar  being 
valued  at  jeS,l  12,4(59.  The  total  exports  of  gold  from  1857  to  1875  were  7,965,29 »  oat., 
in  value X80,i»84,78«.  The  imports,  consisting  of  British  mannfaci  ures.  &c,  amounfvu 
t»  je6,973,418  in  1877.    At  the  end  of  1877  there  were  720  miles  of  railways  ui  opci^i-  . 


y  Google 


227 


Kew  Zealand 

N«wak 

ttoi),  and  4i87  In  course  of  formatfon ;  there  were  nlso  7200  ni1Ie«  of  tel»»prapli!c  wJrca 
en-cted,  with  U2  HtatioiiB.    The  reveime  of  the  post-oftlct!  in  1876  w.ik  jC129,263. 

The  coloiiy  was  divided  into  the  followhij;  nineproviiici^p:  Ancl^lnud,  Turaiinkl, 
Weilintfton,  Hawkc's  Buy,  Nelson,  MarU)oronj:h,  Cumerhury.  OIj'l'O,  anu  W»*>tlni.d. 
The  provinces  were  ai>0li8hed  by  the  colonial  pa  rliainfnl  in  1ST6.  jiud  a  pj-sfeni  of 
couDtiee  >nbstituJed.  The  government  it*  udminiBtered  by  agovrmorap)>oiDted  by 
tliu  crown,  and  a  ministry,  n  LeKielative  Cmmcil  nominated  by  tlio  crown,  and  a 
HnuHe  of  Keprcseutatives  elecl»Hl  by  t)ie  people.  National  hcIiooIs— malntain«'d  hy 
a  aipitation  lax  of  IflMi.  per  child,  and  not  niont  than  je2  per  family — various  coil*  jje^*, 
and  n  oDiversity  in  Otago,  are  tlie  principal  educational  ins^ttintions.    A  very  lar^o 

{)roi)oriion  ot  the  p^pnlation  of  Earopeau  descent  can  read  and  write,  more  p'articu- 
arly  iu  Ot.i«;o.  Thc^rincipul  chnrciit-s  are  the  CImrcli  of  Kngland.  predominating 
in  CauUirhnry ;  the  Presbyterian  Chnrcli,  which  predominates  in  Otago  and  Soiitii- 
laiid;  the  Wesleyan  ;  and  thoRonmn  Catholic.  I  i  1876,  the  lmmivtranl«»  into  New 
Zealand  timoiuitcd  to31,T37  persons;  the  emi<;rant<«  fnjni  it,  to  646T:  leavin;r  n  l)ii|- 


anive  of  5i5.270  in  favor  of  immigration.  The  popuhition  in  1858  was  59  328;  in  1871 
256  26a  ;  and  iu  1876.  399,015.  Thi>  New  Zt^alauderi*,  or  Mauri>^  (q.  v.),  estimated,  in 
lSt!7.   at  88.540,  and  in  1875.  at  45,470,' are  mostly  located  In  North  NIand.     Tlie 


miiitaiy  and  civil  lorces  of  N.  Z.  are  il»o  volunteers,  nuinlwrin^r  6080  of  all  raukf,  and 
the  armed  constabalary,  consisting  of  728  men,  of  whom  64  are  mounted.  The  hos- 
pitals and  charitable  ini^titutioiHt  are  numerous. 

N.  Z,  was  discovered  by  Ttismau  in  1642,  and  was  repeatedly  visited  by  Captain 
Coolc,  who  surveyed  the  coast  in  IT70.  After  the  settlement  of  Port  Jacks-ou  in  New 
South  Wales,  the  English  and  American  whaling  ships  had  reconi-se  to  the  coasts  of 
N.  Z.  for  provisions  and  shelter.  N.  Z.  flax  came  also  to  be  an  article  of  traffic,  and 
individnai  Guglishinen  begun  to  settle  om  the  coasts,  and  intermarry  \vith  the  natives, 
aurl  acquire  land  in  right  of  their  wives  or  of  (jurchase.  Missionary  enterprise  began 
in  1814,  favored  by  various  chiefs,  and  tiie  inisaionaries  uot  only  laboroa  to  conveit 
ttie  natives,  but  introduced  improved  culture  anK>ng  them,  and  tried  to  protect  them 
from  tiie  injustice,  fraud,  and  oppression  of  the  Europeans  that  had  acquired  settle- 
ments. A  British  resident  or  consul  was  appointed  in  1833,  but  witliout  antiiority. 
To  put  an  end  to  the  state  of  anarchy  induce<l  by  a  desultory  colonisation,  ami  the 

{>urchase  of  lands  for  a  few  hatchets  or  muskets,  a  lieutenant-governor  was  appointed 
u  1840.  and  a  treaty  concluded  with  tlu^  native  cliiefs,  \%  hereby  the  8overei<!nty  ot  the 
islands  was  ceded  to  Britain,  while  the  chiefs  were  guaranteed  the  full  pos^'e&^iou  uf 
their  lands,  forests,  ^.,  so  long  as  they  dei<i red  to  retidn  litem;  the  ri^'ht  of  pre- 
emption, however,  was  resei^vod  for  the  crown,  if  they  wished  to  alienate  any  portion. 
Thus  N.  Z.  becafue  ti  regirtar  colonv,  the  seat  of  jrovemment  of  which  wa.*  nxed  on 
the  Bay  of  Waitemata,  and  callecl  Auckland,  i'he  previous  year  an  association, 
called  the  New  Zetdand  Company,  had  made  a  pretended  purchase  of  tracts  amoinit- 
ing  to  a  third  of  the  whole  isiands,  and  for  a  dozen  years  most  of  the  colonisaatiou  of 
N.  Z.  was  conducted  under  its  auspices.  The  conduct  of  the  company  is  cons^ldered 
to  have  b<?en  on  the  Whole  prejudicial  to  the  prosperity  of  the  colony;  and  after  a 
long  conflict  with  the  government,  they  resigned,  in  1852,  all  their  claims* — which  the 
gi>veninient  liad  never  confirmed— on  condition  of  receiving  jC268.000  as  compensa- 
tion lor  tliejr  outlay.  The  unscrupulous  way  in  which  the  Contpany  and  others 
often  took  possession  of  lands  iirouirht  on,  between  1843  flud  1847,  a  series  of  bloody 
c .mflidls  with  the  warlike  natives,  whose  hostility,  after  having  sub.-iilfcd  tor  some 
time,  in  1861  again  broke  out  in  a  -eries  of  intermittent  struggles.  These  continued 
nntii,  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  imperial  troops,  thecolonis  s,  from  their  know  ledtre  of 
bni»ti  life  and  inteni^ified  earne.-tnesis,  complt^tely  subdued  the  refractory  nativen.  \a  lib 
are  now  turning  tlieir  attention  to  avrricultnre  and  trade.  In  1852,  coustitntionul 
gf)veniincnt  was  estjiblished,  and  In  I8«i5  the  seat  of  government  wa«  translerred 
froai  :ft.uckland  to  Wellington,  tlie  present  capital. 

NEW  ZEALAND  FLAX.    See  Fi*ax,  New  Zealand. 

NBW^'ARK,  a  municipal  and  pailiamentary  horou>;I»  of  England,  in  the  county 
of  Notts,  on  The  Gre:it  Noriliem  and  Midland  Railway*,  and  on  a  navigable  branch 
of  the  river  Trent,  sixteen  miles  souih-west  of  Lincoln.  The  pariah  church,  a  large 
and  elegant  edifice,  though  often  rehuilt,  still  shews  traces  of  Its  original  Norman 
charjicUT.  N.  i^*  approached  Irom  the  north  by  a  causeway  a  mile  and  a  lialf  long, 
car.  i<^  over  th«  flat  island  formed  by  the  Trent  on  the  \v«!^t  and  the  Newark  braaich 
^m  tlie  ea»t.    The  castlo  of  Newark,  iu  which  King  John  died  iu  1210,  was  built 


ir«wark  OOQ 

Kewcastie  ^^^ 

early  in  the  13th  ceuttuy.  N.  is  Mid  to  1>e  the  greate«t  maUins  town  in  England: 
there  ure  flour-mills,  breweries,  aud  trade  in  coru,  ntnlt,  flour,  cartle,  wool,  and 
coal.  A  corn  excbaii^^tt  liaa  been  recently  erected.  N.  retaruB  two  members  lo 
pari.    Pop.  (18T1)  12,218. 

NEWARK,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  New  Jersey.  U.  8.,  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Passaic  Klver,  twelve  miles  from  New  York,  on  the  New  Jersey  Railway.  1\  is 
a  handsome  aud  induHtrious  citv ;  its  principal  street  is  two  miles  long,  120  ft-et 
wide,  shaded  by  great  elms,  and  ijordering  on  three  pnblic  parks.  It  contain:*  u  en— 
tom-housc  and  post-offlc«*,  95  charches,  uumerons  public  schools,  11  biiukn.  IT  iiews- 
)>apers,  and  extensive  mannfactories  of  leuthtr,  patent  leather,  enani'lleil  c=oih, 
carria.'cs,  saddles  and  luirness,  boots  and  shoes,  clothing,  hat*,  jeweHery — 1015 
eKtabiishments  producing  annually  75.000,000  dollars.  It  was  settled  in  16i56  by  a  . 
Puritan  colony  from  Connecticut.  N.  has  140  vessels  of  18,000  tons.  Pop.  iu  1S70, 
106,059. 

NE  W'BERN,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  North  Carolina,  U.  8.,  on  the  e.  bank  of 
the  Neuse  Rivvjr,  at  its  confluence  with  the  Trent,  80  miles  from  its  mouth  in  Pamhco 
Sound.  It  exports  tar,  tuipeutiue,  uaval  ai^ores,  flour,  aud  lumber.  Pop.  bi  ISIO, 
6849. 

NEWBURGH,  a  village  of  New  York,  U.  a,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson,  61 
miles  north  of  New  York,  amid  the  grand  scenery  of  tlie  highland  .  Its  handaoma 
ediflces,  villas,  and  gardens,  on  a  genUe  slope  from  the  river,  command  a  noble  pros- 
pect  It  contains  a  court-house,  five  foundries,  a  cotton  faictory,  breweries,  a  rail- 
way carriage  maimfactorv^  2  pianoforte  manufactories,  steam-boiler  work^,  5  sotip 
factories,  41,000  tons  of  shippmg,  a  large  lum»)ei-  trade,  23  churche**,  6  banks,  schoo  s, 
and  acade-.nies.  It  was  Wasbin^'toa^s  headquarters  during  a  critical  portion  of  tko 
War  of  Independence.    Pop.  in  1810, 17,014. 

NEWBURY,  a  municipal  borottghand  market-town  of  England,  Berkshire,  on 
both  banks  of  the  Kennat,  sevvjute  n  miles  west-south-west  of  Reading.  Tho 
church,  a  specimen  of  the  Perpendi<ular style,  was  built  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIL  ; 
but  the  tower  was  built  by  John  Wiuchcombe,  a  clothier  and  famous  citizen  of  N.  iu 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Since  1362,  an  annual  wool-market  has  b  en  hejil  here.  Iu 
1862,  a  new  corn  exchange  was  built.  N.  is  best  known  for  two  hard^onght  Imtti'.'S 
between  the  Royalists  and  Parliamentarian  forces  which  took  place — the  first  iu 
September  1643,  the  second  in  October  1644.  In  the  former,  victory  was  undecided ; 
In  the  latter,  the  advantage  was  on  the  side  of  the  Parliamentarians.    Pop.  ( !871)  COOi. 

NEWBURY  PORT,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Massachusetts,  U.  S.,  ou  tht» 
south  Imnk  of  tlie  Merrimack  River,  three  inile^  from  its  mouth,  34  miles  noitii-east 
of  Boston.  Lat.  42°  48'  30"  n.,  long.  70°  52'  3"  w.  It  is. a  pretty  town,  built  t)n  a 
swell  of  land  rising  100  leet  from  the  river.  High  Street,  three  miles  long,  sbtidinl 
witii  trees,  a  beautiful  Mall,  and  pond  of  six  ncret*.  are  it-*  chief  ornament*.  It^lK.a 
16  churches,  in  one  of  wliich  is  the  lon»b  of  Whitcfield.  who  died  here  (1770), 4  banks, 
4  inauiifactuiiiig  comp:mies,  making  16,000,000  yards  of  cloth  annually,  several  shiii- 
yards,  and  manufactories  of  macliineiy,  hats,  clothing.  Ac:  two  daily  pap;'rs,  <me  of 
which  was»  eatal>Ii8htd  in  1792 ;  a  free  high  school,  and  u  tree  library  of  10,000  vol- 
umes.   Pop.  iu  1870, 12,596. 

NEWCASTLE,  Duke  of,  Thomas  Polham  Holies,  minister  of  the  first  two 
Georges,  born  iu  1692,  and  representative  of  the  noble  familv  of  the  P.lhnns, 
played  a  prominent,  i)ut  by  no  m«  ana  illustrlims  part  in  the  political  hisstory  of  his 
time.  While  a  v»;ry  youuif  nnin,  he  succeeded  to  the  family  peerage  by  the  de.:th  of  his 
fatiier,Lord  Pelham,and  Q<;orgH  I.  rewarded  his  attachment  to  the  House  of  Brniii^ 
wick  bv  erecting  him  fli^t.  Earl  tif  Clare,  and  afterwards  Duke  of  Newcastle,  lie  was 
niade  Secretary  of  State  when  hut  thirty  years  old,  altiioiuih  the  kin<r  declared  that  ho 
was  n  t  fit  to  he  chamherlam  to  (he  simplest  court  in  Germany.  There  was  luucb  of. 
tiie  absurd  and  groti'S^ne  in  his  chanicier.  Macaulay  says  of  him,  tnut  **  hii^  ga^t 
was  a  shuflinig  troi ;  his  utterance  .a  rapid  stutter;  he  was  always  in  a  burrr;  he 
was  never  uj  time ;  he  abounded  iu  fulsome  can-sses,  aud  in  hyst<:rical  tears."  Yet 
this  man  waa  during  thirty  years  Secretary  of  State,  and  for  near  ten  yeans  Fi»»l 
Lord  of  the  Treasury!  lie  served  under  Sir  R.  Wal|K)le,  retained  his  eec^•lary«  . 
ship  iu  the  ** broad-bottomed  administration *'  iu  1744,  aud  iii4764  succeeded  bis 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC  •      . 


QQO  I7ewark 

^^"^  Newcaitit 

brottipr,  Mr  Pdhnin,  ns  IimmI  of  tlie  govoniment  In  1767,  he  was  compelled  to 
tik.?  the  first  William  Pitt  (iiftt  nvurds  E«rl  of  Charhinn)  Into  his  iniiiistrv,  mucI  to 
jrive  lifm  the  lead  in  tlie  House  of  Commons^  and  the  pnprerae  direction  or  the  war 
and  of  foreign  affairs.  A  i»nt'C»'Pbii)n  of  brilliant  victoiies  followed — N.  beinffoily 
ji  »minal  hcuS  of  1  lie  administration — and  the  jricat  commoner  had  almost  hronirl it 
th  •  war  to  a  snccespful  lenniuatlon.  wlien  tlie  acci  spion  of  (Inorce  III.  led  to  tho 
rv*;*i''iiation  of  Mr  Pitt,  and  the  replacfninit  of  N.,  in  May  1762.  oy  Lord  IJnte,  as 
head  of  the  minit'try.  N.  deolin«  d  a  proffered  peupion,  with  Iho  remark  that  if  ho 
conid  no  loni^vr  8«'rve  lie  woud  not  huhlen  hi?*  eountry.  In  tlie  Kockin  chain  niin- 
istry,  formod  in  1T65,  N.  fill -d  the  office  of  Privy  Seal.  He  di«d  Noveni1>er  17,  1768. 
His  tiih*  d«pcend.d  to  Henry,  91  h  Ea  I  of  Lincoln,  whoee  gr«  at-grandson, 

Hbnby  PblhaM-Clinton,  fifth  Duke  of  Newcaslb,  and  iwelfth  Earl  of  L'n- 
c»lii,  was  horn  1811,  an<l  « dncated  at  Ohrist-Chiirch,  Oxford.  He  repress  ntt  d  South 
Notts  in  parllamont  fronj  1832  to  1846,  wlun  he  was  oustul  by  the  influence  of  his 
father,  the  fonrth  duke,  for  suppovtiug  Sir  K.  Peil  in  his  free-trade  mt;a>ureB.  He 
adopted  politics  as  a  profession  ;  was  a  Lord  of  ilmTreasury  In  the  brief  Oinseiva- 
tive  ad  mi  nisi  ration  of  1884— 183.'>;  and  Firft  Commissioner  of  Woods*  ami  Forests  iu 
thePei-l  administration,  from  1841 — 1846.  He  was  then  made  chief  Secretary  to  the 
Lord-lieoteuant  of  Ireland,  but  went  out  of  ofilce  with  his  chief  a  few  months  af ti  r- 
'WardA.  Ue  succeeded  to  the  dukedom  iu  l8M,aiid  returned  to  oflBce  in  1852,  fill!  iijj:  tlie 
lK>st  of  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies  (wliich  formerly  incinded  the  denartnnnt 
of-war)  ill  the  Aberdeen  government.  The  war  with  Russia  brt>ke  out,  ana  in  June 
1854  it  was  found  necessary  to  create  a  Secretary  of  State  for  War,  and  the  new 
office  wa»  assigned  to  Newcastle.  The  *'  horrible  and  heart  rending  "  sufferings  of 
the  British  onny  before  Sebasto'pol  in  the  winter  uiontlis  of  1854  laiaed  a  storm  of 
popular  discontent,  and  when  the  House  of  Commons  determined  to  inquire  into 
the  conduct  of  the  war,  the  duke  resi^rned.  Yet,  a*  is  now  acknowledged,  no  blame 
was  attributable  either  to  the  Ministry  for  Wjir  or  his  subordinate,  Mr.  Sidney  Her- 
iKTt.  Tliey  were  called  upon  to  administer  a  vicious  system  of  military  orj^'anisa- 
I'on.  which  broke  down  under  tlie  strain  brought  to  bear  upon  it..  N.  was  re-a|>- 
iHjinted  Colonial  Secrctjiry  in  the  second  adniini^trati«  u  of  Lord  Palmerston,  and 
Jield  the  !*eals  with  general  approval  from  1869  to  the  year  of  his  death,  1864.  In 
3860,  as  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies,  be  accoiitpanied  the  youthful  Piince  of 
Tr'altTS  diiringatour  in  Canad^i  and  a  portion'of  the  Unit<  d  States,  and  on  his  return 
received  the  Order  of  the  Garter  from  the  Queen.    He  ditd  Oct.  1864. 

NEWCA'STLE-UNDEK-LYME,  a'parHnnientary  and  municipal  borough  of  Erg- 
land,  in  I  he  county  of  Stifford,  16  miles  north-norih-weHt  of  the  town  of  that  name. 
A  brancb-railw^  connects  it  with  the  North  Staffordshire  iiue^,  and  a  branch-canal 
with  the  Gmnd  Tru!)k  Navigation.  One  of  its  churches,  rebndt  early  in  last  cen- 
tury, has  H  very  old  square,  tower  of  red  sandstone.  'J'he  Free  Grammer  School  has 
an  :ucorae  of  al>6nt  jCIOO  a  year,  and  was  founded  in  1602.  Hats  are  the  p:  incipal 
hraiicit  of  manufacture,  and  silk,  cottun,  and  paper-mills  are  in  operation.  N.  is 
surrounded  by  famous  potteries,  and  cool-miues  are  worked  iu  the  vicinity.  Pop« 
<1S71)  15  949. 

NEWCASTLE-TJPON-TYNE  the  chief  town  of  Northumberland.  Lat  54°  58' 
n-C"  u.,  long.  1°  36'  3i>-5"  w.  It  has  the  privihges  of  a  county  of  itself.  Gates- 
head, which  staud.-«  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  though  in  a  dilFerei  t  county, 
and  having  a  separate  jurisdiction,  is  virtually  a  purt  of  Newcastle.  Accoidhig  to 
the  census  of  1871,  N.  contained  a  population  of  128,443,  Gateshead,  48,627 ;  making 
togetlif-r,  177,070  inhabitants.    N.  sends  two  members  to  parliament. 

The  Romans  hnd  a  stationary  camp  here,  call*  d  Pons  ^lii— one  cf  the  chain  of 
forts  by  which  the  Wall  of  Hadrian  was  foriifled.  On  the  withdrawal  of  the  Ronians. 
the  deserted  camp  l>ecame  the  residence  of  a  colony  of  monks,  and  the  town  was  called 
Monkqliester.  Robert,  eldest  son  of  the  Conqueror,  commenced  to  build  a  castle 
here  in  1079  or  1080.  H'-nce  the  nmdern  name  of  New  Cnsile.  William  Rufu«  built 
his  l»rother's  castle,  surrounded  the  town  with  a  wall,  and  gave  the  inhabitants 
pecalfar  privileges.  The  present  castle,  welch  displays  h«  tter  than  any  other  iu 
Sngiand  the  genius  of  Norman  military  architecture,  was  erected  by  Henry  IL  be- 
tVtf«ii  the  years  1172  and  1177.  N.  iKjinir  made  the  rendezvous  of  the  vast 
•  ItUfUUeiits  viiich  the  llrst  three  Edwards  led  into  Scotland,  il  was  iu  their  time 


y  Google 


Newfound'and  ^^^ 

piirroniided  with  new  walls  of  nnnraal  strength  nod  mngnltndc ;  portions  of  them 
yet  rem :j ill. 

The  town  stands  partly  npon  an  elevated  platform,  and  partly  upon  the  north 
htink  of  tlJe  rivor.  The  more  iiu<-l«'iit  houst^s  m  the  lowvr  p:irt  of  the  town  are  chit-fly 
built  of  thnhor ;  those  in  ihe  ciMJtro  of  tlio  town  are  mostly  of  ^-tone  ;  but  the  bouses 
g.uirtrnlly  are  of  hri  k.  Ciii<flv  through  the  insiiq^ieutality.of.oue  man  of  himihle 
oriisin-^llichard  Grainger— N.  fi.i».  in  inodi.rn  tiinej«,  received  thtt  additU>ii  of  many 
elegant  streets  sqinuTa,  and  public  buildings.  The  river  i*  crossed  by  tliree  briiigea 
— tlii  High-level  Bridge ;  the  Rejliieugh  Bddge ;  and  a  swinjp  luidge  (completed  in 
1ST4).  onvi  of  the  largest  structure*  of  tlu;  kind  in  the  worUi.  The  Iligli-lcvel 
Bridge  form:*  one  of  toe  engineering  trinmphs  of  Rotmrt  St  -pbi^nsou.  It  coni!*i«rs  of 
six  c  i!*t-iron  archej*.  supported  npon  piers  of  masonry.  Tne  length  of  the  vi.-iduct 
is  133T  fet-t,  and  the  height  of  th;  railway  above  higli-wiiier  mark,  112.  Ii  biu^a 
briMid  carria^«;-way,  by  wldch  the  ordinary  traffic  avoids  the  precipiton.H  stre«tj«  on 
both  aid -8  oftlie  river,  with  passengcr-patli  on  cacd  sidw,  and  the  mil  way  abow.  A 
quay,  at  which  the  d  pth  of  water  at  ebb-tide  is  22  feet,  ba-*  been  cou^truct  d  by  the 
c(>r|*>omiiun,  at  a  cost  of  over  a  quarter  of  a  million,  or  at  the  rate  of  al>out  £120  i)er 
lineal  yard. 

There  are  sixteen  churches  and  chapels  in  the  town  coinected  with  the  Kftab- 
iislied  Church,  aud  about  60  belonging  to  ottier  clastfes  of  worshipp<-nC  'Ibc 
moiher-church  (St  Nicholas)  is  a  uoble  edi flee,  chiefly  in  the  D  jcorutcd  Ktyle;  its 
steeple,  which  is  singul/irly  light  and  bold,  is  early  Perpendicular.  In  the  GnJUt 
H:dl. an  old  and  somenhat inconvenient  building, situated  beside  Ihe  river,  tbti  town 
assizert  are  opened,  aud  the  quarter  sessions  held.  Under  tne  Qnild  Hall  pro|MT 
there  is  an  exchange  for  the  merclniuts,  8lvipowuer<^,  and  brokei-s  of  the  qnay-*«ide. 
In  Ihe  Moot  Hall,  a  mod-.ni  and  very  hand&ome  Grecian  building  overlouking  ihts 
swing-bridge,  the  town  and  county  asalxes  are  held.  A  new  and  vvry  SjUirimis 
town-hall  was  built  about  twenty  year.**  ago  on  a  block  of  ground  facing  St  NicholaM» 
Churcii ;  associated  witii  it  are  a  corn-m.trket  aud  offlcres  for  the  transaction  of  tim 
town  business.  The  market  for  the  sale  of  butcher-meat  jind  vejjjetahleB  is  prob.4>ly 
the  most  sp.icious  aud  commodious  in  the  kingdom.  All  the  railways  enieriug  iha 
town,  lermiiuite  in  a  large  station  near  its  c.  ntre.  The  jail,  a  heavy  and  costly 
nia!«s  of  building,  occupies  a  low  and  confln/d  situation.  Tht;  central  police  station, 
police-court,  and  offices,  built  in  1S73,  are  comprisiHl  in  a  large  aud  handsome  struc- 
ture In  Pilgrim  Street.  The  new  |>osial  and  telegraph ,  office,  begun  In  18T3,  is  one 
of  the  largest  and  finest  of  the  public  buihiingff  In  th  ;  town.  There  are  two  theatr.-s 
— ^t'le  Royal  (ttie  groat  orinunent  of  Qrey  Street,  the  lmndi*otne«t  street  in  the  town), 
and  the  Tyne  Theatre  in  Westgate  Street.  N.  has  two  monuments— a  column,  j«nr- 
raonnted  by  a  statue  of  Earl  Orey,  to  coinmemerate  the  passing  of  the  Kuform  Bid, 
and  a  bronze  statue  to  George  Stephenson. 

The  corn -market  is  held  on  Tuesday  and  Saturday  ;  the  hay-market  and  the  cat> 
tie- market  on  Tuesday.  During  the  year  18t3,  81.635  fat  cattle,  9S0,63S  sheep  and 
lambs,  and  39,585  swine  were  brought  to  the  cattle-inarkei.  A  very  large  market 
is  held  every  Thursday  morning  for  the  sale  of  butter,  haebn,  chi-«-s«',  eg;rs,  ad 
other  articles  of  country  produce.  Satunlay  ii»  general,  market-day.  N.'  ii»  w«-ll 
supplli.d  with  surface  water,  the  chief  place  of  colleclion  being^Halliugton,  ul>out 
20  mik'H  north- we^t  of  the  town. 

The  tradi!  of  N.  consiitts  chit-fly  in  coal,  and  in  those  articles  in  the  production  of 
which  great  heat  is  reqiiirt?d.  Tlie  N.  coal-lrade  had  its  origin  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
Hi.  This  hrani'h  of  industryisnotnowconfi-ed  to  N  ,but  is  spread  ovim- the  gr<aler 
part  of  the  sea-board  of  Nort!nnnl>eiiand  and  the  whole  of  Durham.  Nearly  ili  rty- 
two  millions  of  tons  of  coal  and  coke  wire  ])roduce<i  in  the  northern  coal-field  in 
1876 ;  of  which  about  seven  million  tons  were  shipi)fd  to  foreign  )K)ris.  Tne  iiunib-r 
of  person"  employed  In  connection  with  liie  pits  may  he  computed  at  80,600.  Sinre 
t\n:  discovery  ol  the  Cleveland  ironstone,  the  manufacture  of  iron  ha;*  prutligioui'ly 
increased  in  the  district  embraced  by  tlic  liorthern  coal-Aeld.  Th^  make  in  18:76  was 
about  830,000  tons.  There  are  annually  produced  on  the  'i'yne  about  8000  tons  of 
steel.  Larire  quantities  of  lead,  the  proiiuce  of  the  mines  of  Alston  Moor  and  W(>ar- 
dale,  are  brought  to  N.  for  manufacture.  A  very  large  quaniily  of  unrefined  WmI  \a 
also  im|>ort4'd  from  Spain.  Having  t>een  r!'fln**d  ami  desiiverise<l,  the  lead  is  rolled 
into  sheets  aud  pip«»,  or  converted  into  shot,  litharge,  red  aud  whHe  lead.    Tho 


y.Google 


-^*  Newfoundland 

▼nine  of  fhe^e  importe  la  about  jCI.000,000  p»»r  nnnnm.  Copper,  to  the  extent  of 
£200,000  worth,  i«*  auunally  jrot  from  thecopi^r  pyriiea  nsetl  at  the  cheinicnl  works 
"of  thi-  Tyiie. 

At  N.  tii«  rallwny  ^vi»tem  had  its  origin.  H»tp,  an  mijjlit  be  expected,  locomolive 
and  «'ugii)ecrii»j;  eHt»bnj»hiueijtH  are  found  upon  n  gre:it  svtxU;  Tlic  ordnnnc  w<;ik« 
of  Sir  VV'lilinm  Ai*mMi-oiig  iit  Einwick,  tlio  wiereni  part  of  N.,  ure  well  known.  Iiou 
fiiili-buiidinir  buU  v.irions  l)r  nches  of  en^'ineernir  nn* «  xtennively  cinri<  d  on  npou 
\\u'  'ryn«.  N.  oecupie."*  iin  importfint  portion  in  'lie  mtinufuctiire  ol  P0<ln,  bl«  arliii  jf- 
powd*'r.  vitriol.  jokI  ot  tr  cht-inicnl  prodncis.  thf  annnal  vjiliie  of  wliiclj  ip  aiuiut 
jei.3C0,000.  Tliti-e  jtrcdi'eou»po*tHlin  thtf  djr'trict  200  000  tons  of  snli  ])cr  anninn. 
Ertrth»^nware  ii^  iargily  i»»annfMCture<l ;  window-gin  8»  ii  id  flint-glnt>B  Itnve  d  dined; 
iMiprej^std  izhi^»  is  largely  nuinnfiiftiireil,  and  p««tt -gl»F«  in  mmle.  Gl:l8^-!»tainlng 
hn.-*  atiained  grejit  pcrfectiou.  Tliefii*e«brick  irudf  ft*  a  ntw  industrv,  wljieli  Iujp  at- 
tained gipaiilic  proportion?.  Aljont  80.000,000  flre-ljrickj*  are  anniinlly  made,  i)e>'ide9 
g:iH-n  tons  and  hauitary  pipes,  whicli  are  ^eiii  «I1  over  the  world.  AI)oiH  100,000 
grind-stones  leave  the  N.  qtnirries  annually.  PoriJund  and  oilier  cemeuta  are  made 
to  the  extent  of  11,000  tons  in  a  yenr. 

The  river  Tyue,  front- the  pea  ti»  N.,  forms  a  natnrai  dock  tor  the  accommoda- 
tion of  slnDpina.  Three  aniflcinl  docks  Itave,  liowcver,  been  constrncted  at  a  cost 
Of  jC1.700.000.  Wit4iln  the  last  twenty  years,  improvements  npon  a  birge  scnie  iiave 
been  Hiade  l>y  tlje  Kiver  Tvue  (Donimisfien.  Tlie  entrance  to,  and  many  p-irts  of  tlie 
river  have  l)ren  de«  pened  l)y  dredging.  Tlie  depth  of  water  on  the  bar  lias  been  in- 
ert as«d  from  6  to  33  feet  at  low  wnler.  In  18T(J.  10,194  vessels,  r.f  2,871,700  lous, 
entered  tin;  lyne  i>orts  (N.with  Norih  and  South  Shields);  and  16,931  of  5,283,180 
tuns  cleared. 

Of  I  he  benevolent  Institutions  estjiblished  in  N.,  there  are  an  Infirmary,  a  dis- 
peiisjir3',  iif^lnms  f«>r  the  blind,  tlic  deaf  and  duml),  iind  two  orpliainges.  The 
Liierary  and  Fiillosophienl  Socictj*,  the  Society  of  AntJquHries,  the  NainrS  Hlstorv 
B'ciciy,  the  Wechatiica'  Institntion,  and  the  lusiitute  of  Mining  Engineers  (to  which 
has  been  recently  added  a  large  hall,  as  a  memorial  of  Nicholas  Wood,  an  endneer 
of  Celebrity)  sticees>=fnliy  ctililvnte  t  heir  several  fields  of  labor.  A  College  of  Physical 
Science,  witli  four  pruresforsliii)S  (geology,  expeiimental  plillosophy,  cliemistry, 
and  tiMitl-.ematicf'),  was  estai)liFhcd  in  1871,  in  connection  with  the  university  for 
Dnrhain ;  and  there  is  also  iu  N.,  assochited  with  the  same  university,  a  college  of 
medi -ine. 

Lords  Stowel,  EWon,  and  Collingwood,  Mark  Akenslde.  and  Button,  the  tnatho- 
matician.  were  natives  of  N.  Intimately  connected  with  it,  thongli  not  bom  In  it, 
were  Thomas  Bewick,  the  engraver;  KoSert  Morrison,  the  Chinese  scholar;  ana 
George  and  Kobert  Stephenson. 

NEWEL,  the  central  column  or  spindle  formed  by  the  ends  of  the  steps  ott  cir- 
cular staircr.s*!.  and  round  which  tiie  stak  wiuds.  In  :uiTct-stairS,  it  is  n  plain  roll ; 
but  in  Elizabethan  and  old  Scotch  castlei-,  there  are  frequent  examples  of  nandsome 
staircases  of  this  kind  with  ornamental  newels. 

NEWFO'UNDLANB,  an  isjand  and  province  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  lies  In 
the  Atlnutic  Ocean,  at  the  month  of  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence,  S(  parated  from  Lahra- 
doron  the  north  by  tlie  Straits  of  Belle  I':le  (about  12  miles  broad),  and  extending  in 
lat  from  46°  38'  to  SI©  87'  n.,  and  iu  long,  from  529  44'  to  69©  30'  w.  In  shajw  it  re- 
sembles an  equilnt^ral  triangle,  of  which  Cape  Banid  on  the  north.  Cape  Race  on  the 
south-east^  and  Cape  Kay  on  the  south-west,  form  the  angles.  It  Is  370  miles  in 
length,  290  miles  in  breadth,  alK>nt  1000  miles  in  circumference,  and  has  an  area  of 
40,2W  souare  miles.    Pop.  (1869)  146,536 ;  (1874)  161  486. 

The  I-hind,  as  seen  from  the  s^a,  presents  a  wild  and  sterile  appearnnce.  Its 
surface  \<^  d  versified  l)y  monntains,  m.irshep,  barrens,  ponds  and  liikc>«.  Tho 
monntjiins  in  tlie  Avnlon  Penlnsuhi  (stretehing  sonth-eaiit  from  tlie  mam  portion 
of  the  isljind,  and  connected  with  it  by  un  is-thmns  of  only  about  three  mihs  in 
widtli)  rise,  in  some  cases,  to  1400  feet  above  sea-level ;  whiu-,  bolli  in  re  and  aloi  g 
tlie  western  sliore,  the  height  of  1000  feet  is  frequently  nnched.  The  number  of 
the  lakes  and  *♦  jionds"  (the  latt»t  name  being  use<l  indiscriminately  for  a  liirg«'  or  a 
simill  lak'-)  is  remarkable,  aiid  it  has  been  estimated  that  u)>out  one-third  of  thit 
Wlwk  MirCACC  \»  covered  wllU  fresh  water.    The  "barrens"  occupy  the  tops  of 


y  Google 


Kewfoandland  9''V^ 

Kewman  ^O— 

liilK  The  coiiiMInc  is  everywhere  deeply  hidcntcd  with  baya  aud  cfttnarles,  mnny 
of  which  aro  spticiuna  euoagh  lo  coiitaiu  th(j  whole  British  navy.  Of  these  inlets, 
tljo  principal,  begiuning  from  Ihe  uortliem  extremity  of  tin;  island,  arc  Hcir^, 
While,  Nutre  Dame,  Boiiarisla,  Trlniiy,  Conception,  Sl  Mary's,  PJaceaitiji,  Fortune, 
St  George's  and  St  John's  Bays.  Tlieso  buys  vary  in  length  from  25  to  TU  miles,  nre 
of  great  breadth,  and  are  lined— as  indeed  the  wliole  coust  is—- witli  excellesit  har- 
bors. The  rivers,  none  of  wliich  are  navigable  for  any  distance,  communicite  1h> 
twuen  tlw  hikes  of  tlie  interior  aud  the  sliore,  and  arc  narrow  and  wiudinc.  Tlic 
main  streams  are  the  Exploit,  with  its  affluent,  the  Great  nuttlinir,  andJ^ite  iMunlief. 
The  soil  is  sterile  and  unprodm-tive,  although  there  is  considerable  cultivation  aEm?; 
the  6ea-i>oard  of  the  settlt-d  dintricis,  limUcd  principally  to  the  souths  ast  coast; 
and  a  hirge  {>ortion  of  the  laud  around  St  John's  (q.  v.)  is  under  cultivatio!).  T!te 
great  body  of  the  people  belna:  employed  either  in  tho  fisheries  or  in  cstablic'.imchta 
connected  with  them,  little  attention  used  to  be  paid  to  the  cuitnre  of  the  soil ;  hut 
xery  considerable  improvements  in  this  respect  have  latterly  been  made  l^y  the  eu- 
lerprising  Islanders,  In  1846,  the  ooly  crops  raised  were  oats  :u)d  bny  ;  but  within 
recent  years,  large  supplies  of  grain,  veg<;tal)le  and  garden  seods  have  been  inir 
ported;  and  now  about  600,000  busliels  of  pot;ito<;s  ant  produced  aunnalLy,  and  tur- 
nips, hay,  darroti*,  clover,  barley  and  oats  arc  culiivutcd  with  success.  The  island  is 
rich  in  useful  minerals,  among  which  are  silver,  copper,  galena,  marble,  limci^tunQ, 
gypsum.  rooftiig-slat«  and  coal— the  hu>t  found  only  in  small  quantities.  Lead,  sil- 
ver and  copper  iniuKs  are  worked,  though  mining  is  ttill  in  its  infancy  here.  Tnvs, 
of  whicli  tlie  chief  are  tlic  fir.  birch,  willow  and  mountain-ash,  flourish  and  reach 
their  natural  size  only  in  tlie  low  and  fertile  districts. 

The  fl!»hcries  are  of  two  kinds — the  '*  Shore  Fishery  "  and  the  *•  Bank  Fishery ; " 
the  former  comprises  the  shores  an«l  bays  of  N. ;  tlie  latter  comprisea  a  great  tract 
known  as  the  ^*  Banks"  of  N.,'from  60O  to  600  miles  in  length,  and  about  200  miles 
in  breadth.  The  Banks  form  the  greatest  submarine  plati-au  known;  the  dep:h  uf 
the  water  is  from  20  to  108  f.ithoms,  and  tlie  most  producilvo  **giouud''  is  sjiid  to 
extend  between  htt.  42°  aud  46^  n.  Great  variety  of  valuable  fisn  is  found  in  the 
waters  around  the  colony,  as  the  cod,  the  salmon,  he  rh)g,&c  The  principal  nrticlci) 
of  «-xport  are  fish — compru-iug  diy  cod,  herrinj^  and  8:>rmoii — ^and  cod-oil.  Of  dry 
cod,  910,116  quintals,  value  je3l0,W3,  were  exported  in  1870;  B593  tuns  of  nnicflued 
cod-oil,  value  jC10T,813;  404  of  refined  cod-oil,  value  X2l,068;  4982  of  seal-oil,  valuo 
X176,472  ;  mid  265,189  se:il-skini>,  value  ^£55,248.  The  imports  are  clricfly  iiroYisions, 
&•*  bread,  butter,  lea,  Ac— coidage  and  cables,  aud  njanuiactured  go<»ds.  Tho 
imports  and  exports  for  18T4  amounted  In  value  to  ^1,632,227  iim\  X  1,528.341  ro- 
f«pectively.  The  revenue  of  N.  in  18T5  was  jei97/28 : ;  the  expenditure,  X197,C94. 
Ill  1878,  the  total  tonnage  of  vessels  that  entered  and  cle^ired  the  pcrtd  was  412,024. 
N.  possessed  it-ielf  laOl  vessels  of  68,186  tons. 

The  seal  afford**  (me  of  the  most  importjint  fishing  interests  of  Newfoundland. 
Thls  in<lust.ry  may  commence  any  day  from  the  25th  of  Fel)ruary  t.j>  the  6lh  of  Mai-cii, 
according  to  the  winds— a  north-Hjast  wind  blocking  up  the  coast  with  ice,  which  tho 
first  strong  westerly  wind  clears  away.  At  the  l)egiUiiing  of  the  present  century, 
the  8eal-fi;4ning  w&f  carried  ou  with  vessels  of  from  SO  to  40  tonn,  inanued  by  8  or 
10  men.  Vessels  of  from  TO  to  180  toi.s,  manned  by  from  25  to  90  men,  were  sub- 
ftltuted  for  these,  the  luoxt  suitable  being  vessels  of, from  120  to  14Q  tons.  Al)OUt 
1866,  Meainers  were  introduced  into  the  Heal-flshin^,  and  they  luive  proved  bo  service- 
able that  it  is  probable  tinit  this  kind  of  vessel  will,  by  and  by,  he  used  exclusively 
in  these  fisheries.  In  proportion  to  the  population  of  N.,  its  reli^ons  institutions 
are  Minple,  while  educjition  is  within  reach  of  all  dosses,  goverh men l  grants  to  the 
district  schooI»  being  lll)e:'aU  ^ 

There  are  no  r.iihvays  in  the  Island,  and  its  pecnllnr  configuration  renders  even 
road  making  a  matter  of  great  difficulty.  1  here  are  no  roads  acroRs  tlie  island ; 
they  are  conRned  chiefiy  to  tlie  south-eastern  and  south-western  se.a-l>oard.  There 
is  weekly  communication  for  nine  months  in  llie  yi  ar  l)etwe«?n  N.  and  Europe.  lit 
the  colony  and  connected  with  It,  400  mile!<  of  lines  of  teleginiph  have  been  con- 
structed, stud  the  Atlantic  telegraph  has  ii»  we»«lerii  terminus  on  this  i^land. 

The  early  history  of  N.  if*  involved  in  oi  scuriiy.  It  was  discovered,  June  S4, 
1497,  *m  the  reign  of  Heniy  VII.,  by  John  Cabot;  and  the  event  is  n«»tic»'<l  l>y  the 
foUowljiig  entry  in  tlie  uccouut*  uf  the  prlvy-pursc  expeudituru :  "  149T,  Aug.  10.    Tl> 


Digitized  by 


Google 


2n  n  Kev^onndland 

f>*^  Newman 

!iym  tliat  found  tiro  ^Now  Isle,  jCIO."  It  was  visited  by  flie  Portngoew  iinvlgntor, 
0:i6par  lie  Cort^reiU,  iu  160*1 ;  mikI  witlilii  iwo  y«  ars  nfler  tluil  time,  regulur  flalueriHS 
hiu\  l)e<'ii  c't»1tti>1tHli(  a  on  ii^^liores  Ivy  tIik  ForingueHe,  BiHCHyali^,  and  Krcnch.  h\ 
15TS,  400  ve8$c'l:i,  uf  Which  60  were  Eii;ri1i>b.  Wf  re  engaged  iir  the  fltihery.  8ir  I^iiin- 
]>lircy  QHbert.  wiih  iiin  ill-fa-ed'^xpediiioii.  arrived  in  ot  John's  HaH>or,  Anga»r  I6S3, 
and  forniully  took  pomiKSiun  of  lUe  1f«tanu  in  the  uante  of  Queen  £li»il>ctb.  lu  the 
ftitirn  vuyajre,  the  expedition  wuh  Kaiiend  hy  a  etonn,  uml  the  couiniaDder  loct. 
Ill  1C:JI,  bir  Qeorgo  Culvert  (afterward-*  Lord  Baltiinure)  settled  iu  the  grewt  p«iiln- 
FOlii  in  the  eonrh-cnst,  and  nauied  it  the  Froviiice  v/  AvaUm.  Tlie  history  of  tlie  is- 
land dnring  tiie  17th  uud  p:irt  of  ttic  IStli  cent.iiriei»,  U  litlie  more  than  a  record  of 
riv.ih-ie»  and  fetidi»  between  the  Buglisli  and  Frencli  llHiierinen  ;  bnt  i>y  tlie  Treaty  of 
Vtredtt  (17i3)(  the  i!*land  was  ceded  wlioUy  toEuglaud;  tlie  Freuch,  however,  re- 
laiuiiig  the  p  ivilege  of  fl'hing  r.nd  drying  their  fi>h  on  certain  portions  of  the  coavt. 
A  governor  was  appoJuted  Iu  1788.  The  i^rcSitit  form  of  guverntneut,  estaliHohed  in 
lsS(,  consists  of  the  goveruor,  a  l^inlative  conucil  (appoinie<i  l)y  tiie  cn)Wn).  and  a 
l^eneral  assembly  (elected  by  ;ho  )»e«plo).  The  coast  of  LibrMd<ir  on  the  mainland, 
and  the  island  of  Anticosti.  nnve  beeu  iucioded,  siuoe  ISOV,  withiu  the  jarisdiciiou  of 
tlie  governor  of  Newlouudiand. 

NEWFOUNDLAND  IX)G,  one  of  the  most  sagacions  and  esteemed  of  the  lai^ 
kinds  of  dog.  It  is  suld  to  Imve  been  orljjiiuilly  d»  rived  from  NewfoQudlaud,  where 
It  is  used  chiefly  as  a  beast  of  draiiglit,  to  convey  light  loads  of  wood  or  provisions, 
on  sledges,  over  rugged  tracks.  Maltitndes  of  these  dog^,  iu  St  JqIiu's  and  else- 
wliere,  are  left  to  bh.ft  for '^Iiemsel/es  during  tiie  fiKhing  season  ;  and  are  again 
called  to  service  when  required  l)v  their  masters.  Ttiere  are  several  varieties  of  N. 
D.,  particularly  a  smooth  breeff,  with  rather  small  head,  white  ajid  s))Otted  with 
bl  .ck.  which  seems  now  to  be  extinct ;  a  vei  v  large  breed,  witli  broad  ninxzle,  head 
raised,  noble  expression,  waived  or  curlv  huir,  very  tliick  and  busliy  cnrved  tail, 
black  and  white  color;  and  a  smaller,  almost  black  breed.  Some  of  thebree<to 
Si'em  to  1)e  crossed  with  liouude  and  otiier  dogs.  The  N.  D.  Is  remarkable  for 
meniory,4nd  for  patience  and  forbearance  of  temper.  It  is,  liowever,  apt  to  become 
irascible  in  coufluement,  and  will  ttieii  bite  even  its  master.  Some  of  the  roost 
interesting  anecdotes  of  the  affection  and  sagacity  of  tlie  dog,  relate  to  tiie  New- 
foundland Dog.  No  dog  excels  it  as  a  water-dog.  Its  paws  are  half-webbed.  Its 
powers  of  eudarauce  in  swimming  is  very  great. 

NEWGATE,  a  celebrated  London  prison,  stands  at  the  western  extremity  of 
Newgate  Street^  opposite  tlie  Old  Bailey.  It  is  the  ciiief  criminal  prison  for  the 
eity  and  county.  The  exterior  presents  lii^li  dark  stone  walls,  without  windows, 
a:.d  with  entrances  from  the  side  next  the  Old  Bailey,  in  front  of  wliich  public  eze- 
cutiobS  take  place.  The  earliest  pilson  here  was  in  tlie  portal  of  the  new  gate  of  tlic 
city,  as  early  as  1218 ;  and  hence  the  name.  About  two  centuries  afterwards,  it  was 
rebuilt  by  tlie  executors  of  Sir  Richard  Whiltingion,  whose  statue  with  a  cat  stood 
iu  a  niche,  till  iis  destruction  by  the  great  Are  of  London  in  1666.  Shortly  after,  it 
vas  rcconstTncted,  from  which  lime,  till  1780,  the  date  of  the  erection  of  the  present 
(diflce,  its  condition  was,  in  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  horrilile.  Mr  Akernian,  one 
C'f  the  keepers,  in  his  evidence  tM'fore  the  House  of  Commons  in  1770,  stated,  as 
a  proof  of  this,  tliat  in  tlic  spring  of  1T60  tiie  jail  distemp»'r,  spreading  to  the  udjoin- 
iu&;  Sessions  House,  caused  the  death  of  **t\vo  of  the  judges,  tiie  lord  mayor,  and 
several  of  the  jury  and  others,  to  the  numlier  of  sixty  |>ers<ms  and  upwards."  The 
place,  liowever,  is  now  kept  in  the  cleanest  possible  condition.  The  cells  for  con- 
demned prisoners  are  at  t  he  nor!  h-east  corner,  next  to  Newgate  Street.  Tlie  •*  New- 
;ale  Calendar'' contains  biographical  notices  of  the  most  notorious  murderers, 
urglars,  thieves,  and  forgttrs  who  have  been  confined  within  Its  walls. 

NEWMAN.  John  Henrr,  D.D.,  was  bom  in  London,  February  21, 1801.  and  edu- 
cated at  the  scnool  of  Dr  Nicholas,  at  Ealing,  whence  lie  passed,  in  1816,  to  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  of  which  college  he  became  a  scholar  by  competitive  examination 
iu  1818.  Having  graduated  in  1880,  he  was  elected  Fellow  of  Oriel  College  in  1822, 
where  be  attracted  the  notice  of  Dr  Whately,  and  was  liy  him  employed  In  the  pre- 
iwratiou  for  publicatit)U  of  his  well-known  '*  Treatise  on  Logic,"  and  intro<lnced  to 
the  editor  of  the  ♦*  Eiicyciopfiedia  Metropolitana,"  to  which  he  became  a  coutrilm- 
tor.    Be  sras  oidaiBDd  Xu  1894;  and  in  the  following  year,  bis  friend  Dr  Whately 


g 


y  Google 


Newport  ^0± 

biiviiig  been  appointed  head  of  St  Albau's  HaU»  N.  Wfts  "by Mm  selected  a«  lifa  vice- 
priucipal ;  but  on  oeiujr  uaraecl  tutor  in  bis  own  college  in  182T,  a»  also  public  exum- 
iner,  he  reslKiied  tlie  vice-pviiicipalship.  In  1S28,  l>e  was  presented  to  ibe  vioarage 
of  St  MnryV,  Oxford,. in  wliicli  church  the  >ermoii8  whicli  lie  delivered  nl  a  l>if« 
period  lind  uu  i-ztraordiuury  influence  in  Iforwanriing  the  religions  movement  wirb 
vhich  his  name  is  permanently  uB$<ociated.  At  thin  period,  N.  wasan  earu&^t  iiirta^- 
oniat  of  th*  Roman  Ciitbolic  Cliurclu  lie  wat*  one  of  tliose  who  transierred  tb<;ir 
support  from  Sir  Rol)en  Poel  t(r  Sir  Robert  IngBs  on  occasion  of  tlic  former'e  iiitro- 
ducnij^  tlieRoraau  Cntholic  Relief  Bill ;  and  lie  wat»  one  of  tiiu  most  active  iti  com- 
niencing  and  carrying  on  the  so-called  Oxford  niovcm(?|iit— the  great  ol)j<5Ct  of  wiiich 
wui<  to  conntertict  as  well  tite  Romnnisini;  afl  the  diissebtJug  tenduucie»  of  tbo  tiui-, 
by' re.otoring  and  bringiiig  into  notice  what  N.  and  liis  iriends  believed  to  Ik;  tim 
catholic  character  of  the  Eiiglisli  Church.  With  tills  view,  be  commenced,  iu  1^3. 
tlie  m-riea  known  as  the  *•  Oxford  Tracts,"  to  which  he  was  Idmself  oimj  of  the-chiff 
contributors  r  and  in  183S,  he  also  became  editor  of  tlie  **  British  CriWc,"  wltich  was 
an  or^ran  ot  the  san^e  views,  and,  in  coniiiuction  wiUi  Drs  Pusey  imd  KeUie,  of  a 
♦*  Library  of  Translnlloiis  from  the  Greek  and  Latin  Fatliers."  He  contiuntfd  tliu 
publication  of  the  Tracts  up  to'the  90! h  Number",  which  was  written  by  him^e^f.  and 
the  tendency  of  which  wns  so  dist;istelui  to  the  Aiii;lican  authorities,  that  tlie  He:tda 
of  Houses  at  Oxford  condemned  the  Tract,  and  the  Bishop  of  Oxford  called  ou 
N.  to  diHcdntiuue  the  publication— a  request  with  whicii  he  at  once  complied. 
The  "Dritish  Clitic"  couti J! ued  for  some  time  longer  to  advocnte  the  same  upiu* 
ions;  but  ill  1843  that  publication  also  wms  discuntiimed;  and  N.,  wito  had  fi:r 
some  time  resided  at  Littlemorp,  near  Oxford,  engaged,  in  company  with  Huna  ot 
his  more  youthful  adherents,  in  study  and  ascetic  exercise  ^  thencef.-nvard  cutifiued 
himself  chiefly^)  his  Littli^more  resl<lence,  and  eventually,  in  Octolier  1845,  was  ad- 
mitted into  tlie  Roman  Cjitholic  Church,  a  step  wliicli  was  immediately  followed  l>y 
tile  pabiicntiou  of  a  work  ou  the  **  Development  of  Doctrine,"  whicli  was  iuteiid^ 
as  an  explanation  of  the  wocess  throngli  wlilch  the  writer's  own  mind  had  pa  si^d. 
Soon  iifterwards,  N.  reiinired  to  Rome,  where,  after  some  preparation,  lie  was  jid- 
mitte<i  to  orders  in  the  Jioman  CntholicChurcn ;  and  iu  184S,  on  hi^  return  to  Eng- 
land, he  estal>iish<  d  a  brancli  of  tlie  Congrej.Mition  of  the  Oratoiy  of  St  Philip  Nen, 
of  which  he  was  himself  appointed  the  superior.  In  18(62,  he  was  appointed  rector 
ot  the  Cathcilic  Uiiivm*sity  estaiilished  in  DuMin,  an  office  whicli  lie  held  for  five 
years,  afterwards  retHrnine  to  Birmingham,  where  be  still  resides,  and  in  connection 
with  which  he  has  established  a  school  of  higher  studies  for  the  youth  of  the  Roman 
i'Xtholic  religion.  Dr  N.,  hi  addition  to  the  large  share  whicli  he  bad  in  the  publica- 
tions already  named,  is  the  author  of  several  very  im|K)rtant  works,  written  as  wett 
before  as  after  his  witlidrawal  from  Anglicanism.  Of  the  former  t>eriod,  are  liis 
*•  History  of  the  Ariaus,"  "Prophetical  Office  of  the  Church,"  "The  Church  of  ttio 
Fathers,^'  an  "Essay  cm  Miracles,"  a  "'i'raushition  of  the  Trefitiseaof  St  Atha- 
nasius,"  witli  many  learned  Dissertations,  and  several  volumes  of  sermons.  To  tli« 
latter  period  belong  the  "Developmrut  of  Christiim  Doctrhie,"  "  Lectures  nn  Cath- 
olicism in  JEns^laiHl,"  **  ApoloMu  pro  Vitft  Suft,"  "  Letter  to  Dr  Pusey,"  '•  Essay  on 
Assent,"  and  •*  Letters  to  the  Duke  of  NorfolK  ou  Mr  Gladstone's  Expostulation  " 
(18T5).  N.  is  also  the  author  of  two  works  of  fiction,  "Loss  and  Gain,**  and 
"  Callista,"  a  classical  and  Christian  story  of  the  6th  c:  and  he  edited  it  aeries  ot 
"Lives  of  the  English  Saint-." 

NEWMAN,  Francis  William,  brother  of  tlie  preceding,  wns  bom  in  London 
in  1806,  and  educated  at  the  sctiool  of  Ealing.  Thence  he  passed  to  Worcester  Col- 
Je^'e,  Oxford,  where  he  obtained  first-class  honors  in  classics  and  mathematics  in 
J826,  and,  in  the  same  year,  a  fellowship  in  Baliol  College.  This  feliowsiiip,  how- 
ever, he  resign*^;  and  lie  withdrew  from  tlie  university  In  1880.  at  the  ap|>roacli  of 
liie  time  for  taking  the  degree  of  M.A.,  declining  the  subscription  to  the  Thiny- 
Jiine  Articles,  wliich  w:is  required  from  candidates  for  the  degree.  After  a  leiigtb- 
eu'd  tour  in  the  East,  he  was  appointed  classical  tutor  in  Bilstol  College.  Iffl4.  In 
1840,  lie  accepted  a  siudlar  professorship  in  Manchester  New  College,  and,  hi  184«, 
his  great  reputation  for  bcholarship,  and  his  general  accomplishments,  led  to  his 
being  nppointetl  to  the  chair  of  Luiln,  in  Uuivei-eity  College,  London,  which  be  held 
till  1863.  During  all  this  time,  he  has  not  only  been  an  active  contributor  to 
numerous  hterary  aud  Bcicutific  periodicals,  and  to  varioaa  brauchoe  of  aucieut  Mid 


Digitized  by  VjOQQ  IC     ^ 


^*>*^  K«wport 

modern  Hterntnre,  bnt  hft«  nl«o  tind  a  leadhtg  p«rt  In  fhe  cootroverpics  on  re)i(;ioii, 
ill  which  he  ha»  tnkeii  the  line  directly  opt>osiie  lo  that  ch08«ii  by  hit*  t-lder  biuth«r, 
btsiDg  no  less  arcleut  as  a  disciple  of  the  extreme  rarionalJHtlc  ^cliuoi  ibun  tlohu 
Henry  Newman  of  the  dogmaticul.  These  opiniuns  and  th«!  pysteni  fonuded  n|>ou 
tticin,  form  thi*  eiihJ3ctof  hJ«  well-known  wffrlc,  *'  Ptiasen  of  Faith,  or  Tasfaire^  from 
the  Hixtoryof  myOi-efd"  (1850);  and  of  nnuiy  essaj's  hi  tl.e  '•  Wcutiniusiei  Eck-cllc,^ 
andotiifr  Rifview^;  but  htMu  also  the  aathor  of  very  many  separate  publicatluu.o. 
Of  these,  several  rt^rd  tne  controversy  to  which  we  h.ivt;  rtjferred— as.  CathoUc 
Union;  ''Bssays  towards  a  Church  of  the  Fiitartr"  (1844);  *^A  State Chnrcli  not 
Defensible  "  (ld4«) ;  a  •«  History  of  the  Hebrew  Moiiuit;hy  "  (1847;  j  »♦  'i'he  Soul,  its 
Sorrows  and  Asi>imtiuits*'(1849).  Others  are  on  political  or  social  topic»— as,  *'  Kadical 
Keronns,  FiBuiicial  and  Orj^nic"  (1848>;  **The  Ciiines  of  the  IIouso  of  llapnbuiv'' 
(1851);  '•  Lectures  on  Political  JSconomy  "  (186T;;  •  Burtmv  of  the  Near  Future  "  (18il). 
A  large  i]niiii>er  ant  devote<i  to  historical,  classical,  and  scientific  nuhjects,  the  ulo^t 
imporiajit  of  which  are  **  (Contrasts of  Ancient  tiud  M(xlem  Hist<»ry  "  (184T) ;  *•  Kei;a| 
Rome"  tl86«);  traiiHlaiioiis  into  **nnrhynied  metre"  of  tlie  •♦Odes  of  Hor.ice'* 
(3853),  and  the  «' Iliad  of  Homer"  (1856);  a  treati«'o  ou  '*  Dimmlties  of  Elemeutairr 
Geography ;"  '•  Hainlbook  of  Arabic  "  (1866) ;  "  Orthoepy  "  (1869),  &c 

NBWMA'KKET,  a  in  rkot-town  of  England,  famous  for  its  horse-races,  is  sitn- 
aied  in  a  vallev  18  miles  eaHt-uorth-ea;(t  of  Cambridge,  and  is  partiv  in  tlie  county  of 
that  name  and  ptully  in  Suffolk.  It  contains  uiany  welUbuHt  and  eletrant  lionsi  s, 
the  residences  In  many  cases  of  gentlemen  who  are  drawn  hither  from  iheir  interept 
in  the  Tur/.  The  murket-house  nixl  the  famous  Jockey  Club  are  tlie  chief  edifices. 
Malt!'inaking  and  brt^wit  g  are  cnrried  ou  to  some  extent;  but  the  town  owes  its 
prosperity  to  the  horso-raa'S,  and  nearly  the  half  of  the  pronnlailon  are  jockeys, 
grooms,  trainers,  or  stablenieii.  The  race-course  oi  N.,  ownea  partly  by  the  Jockiy 
Club  aiid  imrtly  by  the  Duke  of  Rnthiud,  is  said  to  be  tbu  finest  in  the  work!,  and 
the  training-eronnd  Ijoars  a  similar  cliar.cter  for  excillence.  There  arc  seven  rac«;- 
iiieetings  UeM  here  auuually.  See  Hobsb-Racino.  The  popnlatiou  iu  1871  was 
4584. 

NEWPORT,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borongb,  mnrkct-town,  and  river- 
pori  of  Bngland.  chief  town  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  Kitaaied  uear  the  cmitrtjof  that 
Island,  ou  the  Medina,  which  is  navigable  up  to  tiiis  i)oint.  St  Thomases  Church, 
founded  in  1854.  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  structure  built  io  tbc  r  ign  of  Henry  1II.« 
Hi  a  haudsome  edifice,  aud  contains  a  momiment  erected  by  Her  Majesty  iu  memoir 
of  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Chark*  I.,  who  died  at  CaiishrookeCaslIo 
September  8, 1660.  Among  the  educational  est^iblisbments  of  N.  is  the  Free  Gram- 
mar School,  in  which  freqneut  meetings  aud  uo^otiations  Iwtween  Charles  I.  and 
the  Parliamentary  Commissioners  took  place.  Al>out  a  mile  north  of  N.  is  Caris. 
brdoke  Ca8tl&  wliere  the  king  vras  confined  under  the  guardianship  of  Colonel  Ham- 
mond for  twelve  mouths  (16«— 1648).  ThtitQ  are  several  important  institutions  iu 
tlie  vicinity^  as  the  Albany  Barracks,  the  House  of  Industry*  aud  the  Paiklmn<t 
Prison  for  juvenile  convicts.  Manufacture  of  lace  are  carried  ou  to  some  extent. 
Vessels  of  considerable  tounage  cau  ascend  to  the  quay  at  high  (idea.  Pop.  087 1> 
7966. 

NEWPORT,  a  thriving  mnrkct-town,  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough,  and 
river-port  of  England,  iu  thecoiintvof  Monmouth,  and  24  miles  south-pouth-west 
of  tlie  town  of  that  name,  ou  the  U^k,  and  nlK)nt  four  miles  from  ttie  mouth  of  that 
r'lver.  It  vras  anciently  the  port  of  the  city  ot  Caerleon,  about  three  miles  further 
up  tl»c  river;  but  during  the  present  ci'ntury,  it  has  Ixjcome  a  shipping  port  of 
consklerable  imiMirtauce,  being  tlie  outlet  of  the  produce  of  the  extensive  colllciieH, 
and  Iron  and  tin  works  of  the  neighborhood.  It  iKWsespss  a  nuiuber  of  receully- 
erecfed  public  buildings,  has  spacious  docks,  manufactures  nails  and  spikes  ex- 
ten»»ivoly,  exports  iron  and  coal  largely,  and  carries  ou  an  excellent  genenil  trade. 
In  187JL  10,248  vessels,  of  1,100.891  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  port.  V.  nniti » 
with  Moumoutb  and  Ui^k  in  seudiug  a  member  to  parliament.  The  remains  of 
Kcwpon  Castle  art?  now  used  as  a  breweiy.    Pop.  (18T1)  87,06». 

NEWPORT,  a  city  aud  port  of  entry,  and  seml-capitid  of  Rhode  Island,  D.  S.,<Mi 
the  we«t  shore  of  the  island  of  Rhode  Ishmd  in  Nturagausett  Bay,  6  niilej*  from  tiie 
Lai.  41«  89'  n.,  long.  Il«  \^  12"  w.    It  bas  a  deep,  txcelleut  l^dxbor,  de- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


New»pap«  ^"^^ 

fi^nded  by  Forts  Artnms  and  WoTcott  It  has  a  i»tate-Tion?»e,  caatom-honse,  mnrk?^ 
the  li  dwood  Librai7,  many  larjfe  hotels,  nnd  elejraut  vilhis;  is  renowned  for  fijto 
pc<3iiery  aud  fiea-bntbinir;  and  is  oii«  of  tho  most  fu^hioiiai)Ie  wutorin};- places  in 
Anieiiciu  The  town  also  contains  cotton  and  othor  nmuufaciures.  It  wa;*  settled, 
in  163S,  by  17  adhert»Dl«  of  Rojrer  Williams,  who  fdllowtd  hlnj  iu  his  banl-hment 
from  MaHsac.hasctts.  In  1814,  N.  had  135  s  tiling  and  steara  vessel'*,  of  80ik>  ions.  It 
w  as  for  a  time  the  i-esid>.'nce  of  Blauop  Berkeley.    Pop.  in  ISTo,  12,552. 

NEWPORT,  a  city  of  Kentucky,  U.  S.,  on  the  Ohio  River,  ojjposito  Cmcim»at% 
nndon  Ibeoaiw  side  of  the  mo  ith  of  tie  Licking  Kiver.  Oj)po«ite  Covlninou.  It 
contains  a  United  Statea  araenal,  aud  several  iron  foaudriea  uud  roiling  mill&  Pop. 
iu  1810, 15,0ST. 

NEW'PORT-PA'GNELL,  n  small  raarkot-town  of  England,  In  BncklnghameliirB,  ? 
on  the  OiiM,  50  miles  nonh-norlh-we.'^t  of  Loudan.    L:ice  is  niann  actanHlexteu- 
biv(^)y,  aud  there  is  a  good  trade  iu  coru,  coal  and  timber.    Pop.  io  1S71,  3355. 

NRW'RY,  a  seaport  and  pfirllnmonfary  borongh,  sftuatod  pirtly  in 
the  county  of  Arm  ijrh,  l)iit  principally  In  the  conntv  of  Down,  Iru- 
lanil,  distant  from  Dublin  63  mile:)  uorth,  aud  fro-.n  Belfast  8S  miles  Booth« 
t'onrii-west,  with  i>oth  which  placis  it  is  connected  by  a  brnncli-rjuhvay  conumi- 
uictitiug  with  the  Dubriu  aud  B  utiM.  Janction  Kailway.  The  town  u  nearly  cu  *-v:il 
with  the  Eu*4lisb  invasion,  h.vimr  grown  np  aroand  a  mouHi«icry  foanded  in  11S3, 
ai«l  a  caMle  HUhseqih-nlly  erectfd  by  Di  C  mrct-y.  This  cattle  was  the  scene  of 
s-n-enil  HtrugtrU'8.  a;id  iu  mo.otof  the  civil  wara  of  U  ster,  N.  saflfenrd  severely.  It 
wa-  Inco' jKjniird  tif»  a  b-n-oiiirfi,  with  a  corporation  and  two  mfiraber:*  of  parliament, 
by  Jaine-H  I.  Sine  •  tlie  Uui»>n,  It  rftnrns  but  one  member,  and  tlie  corporutiou  h«v- 
iiiv?»>ee..  al)oli-«hvd  '»y  ilie  Iris^b  Mnnidpal  Reform  Act.  t.ie  affairs  of  ihj  town  are 
DOW  adniini«f«*r<.!d  by  il  coiimia-iio'iers.  It  is"  travei*scd  by  a  river  of  the  sa^ike 
natne,  wiiich  f  tlif  ii<io  Carlit);^tot'd  L  >ug!u  a  <d  by  a  canal,  by  n  Inch  the  uavij^at ion 
i»  pr  ;io!ige<l  to  Long'i  N  -agi,  a  distance  of  Si  raiie"*.  A  commission  hjis  been  ap- 
pointed lor  itnpr.jVing  Carlingfo  d  LoiL,'h  aul  to  remove  tlie  bur;  tho  ea'imated 
co«»t  being X30.0J0,  Tlie  town  is  hjind--<omely  and  compactly  bnilt^  The  quays  are 
lined  with  spaciou-*  \v  ire!i0U"»ns,  aud  there  are  several  mill-*,  tanyards,  coach  aud  car 
maunfacrones,  and  ironfonutlrios.  Extensive  water-works  have  recently  btteii  con- 
structed. Linen,  cotton,  and  iron  maniifacturi.'S  are  carried  on.  The  income  of 
tl>e  port  is  iJCOOO  yearly.    Steam  vessels  ply  to  Liverpool  and  Glasgow  from  Wam-u- 

'  %  a  port  Ave  miles  distjint,  on  Cjirlin-^ford  Lough;  and  the  Novvryaud  Grecnoro 


liailw.iy,  connectiug  t!ie  N^swry  aud  AiiuagU  Liuc  with  Carliugford  Lough,  is  iu 
progress.    Pop.  (1871)  14,158. 

NEWSPAPER,  a  periodical  publication  printed  and  distribnted  for  pie  circulation 
of  uewB.  From  the  broadi«hect  relating  the  most  meagre  intelligeuce  witliont  com- 
ment  or  iufi-rence,  the  newspaper  has  gradually  grown  up  into  a  powerful  )K>litical, 
as  well  as  social  engine,  diifusmg  information  on  all  subjects  of  interest,  circnlattng 
advertisen^t'Uts,  and  acting  on  the  public  mind,  iu  times  of  excitement,  to  tm  vxteut 
that  has  led  it  to  be  ctilled  a  fourth  estate  of  the  realm. 

I'he  earliest  approach  to  the  newspaper  is  to  be  found  iu  the  *'Acta  Diaraa,"  or 
"Acta  Puhlica,"  of  ancient  Rome,  an  official  gazette,  which  iu  the  later  t  ines  of 
the  republic,  and  dnriUi;  the  emplr.',  appeared  daily  under  sanction  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  conteuts  of  these  '*Acta  "  consisted  of  an  enumia-ation  of  the  hirths  and 
deaths  in  Rome,  an  account  of  the  money  pn'd  into  the  treasury,  and  everything  re- 
lating to  the  supply  of  corn ;  extracts  from  the  '*Acta  Forensica,"  including  the 
edicts  of  magistrates,  the  testaments  of  distinguished  men,  repoits  of  triah*,  with 
the  names  of  the  acquitted  and  condemmned,  a  list  of  the  matdatrates  >vho  were 
elected ;  extracts  from  tha  **  Acta  Si^natu«,"  an  account  of  public  affairs  and  foreign 
wturs,  of  the  births,  deaths,  festivals,  and  movements  of  the  imperial  family ;  aud 
generally,  news  relating  to  pnl)lic  buildings,  funerals,  games,  fires,  sacrifices,  and 
miracl<«,  aa  well  as  amatory  stories.  The  *Acta"  s.-em  to  have  been  drawn  up 
undor  the  siiperintend<'nce  of  cen!«ors,  qntestors  and  other  magistrates,  bv  officers 
calltfd  o^euarit',  assisted  by  clerks  and  notArie^ ;  and  their  publication  con^^isted  in 
posting  them  in  some  public  place  in  the  city,  where  they  could  be  read  by  any 
one  vmo  pleased.    Tbey  ooutiuued  to  be  i^ued  tuitil  the  dowuful!  of  the  wesi^ 


y  Google 


2{l  *r  Newport 


Newspaper 

era  Empire,  but  there  se^ms  never  to  have  been  aiiytbing  correeponding  t«  them  at 
Constantinople. 

The  hc^inuiDsrs  of  the  newspnper  of  ni(fderii  Europe  are  tmceable  to  GormiMiy 
and  to  Venice.  Soon  afler  t)e  invtijilon  of  printing,  in  the  hitter  half  of  the  15rli  c., 
em  II  news-aliceis.  ell  U  **R  laiioiu  n  "  nuil  lUe  "New«  Zt'yiiiDjf,"  aprH'and  U\ 
Avi'i  hurg.  Vienna,  UumsIk>u,  m.d  Numbeig,  if  ucrally  ui  the  form  of  a  letter.  '1  h  ; 
cxianr  numb,  rs  cunuiln,  araoi  g  other  luattirs.  accounts  of  the  di.«covfrv  of 
A  ij-  ri-M,  of  the  cofijui'st!*  of  the  Turk,  o£.t  lie  French  Jiud  A'lgtnan  var  in  ftn'r, 
vff'i  9u  :i  locul  otuuireno  s  as  txecniione,  inni.dntioup,  (urthqunk  a,  butoiinys  ot  , 
uUch<'3,  and  child-iuu  (ler- ci)ni>.iittt'd  y  the  J  W8.  Mon*  imi»f>rtnnr, 'perl  ap"-, 
Av  re  lueofiici;'!  " N  *t.zi3  St-.iitJe," fifc^t  i  ."-nvtl  l)y  t  iv?  Venrtiim  jrovM-nnient  in  tlu» 
16  h  c.,  contaiuln:^  aecotni.'s  of  ihc  wars  carried  on  by  iho  lit  puHllc,  jind  otlureviMa 
ot  if  111  ral  iniere-t  .At  flr.-t  liny  wire  not  printed,  hut  were  to  be  8iH;n  in  var  oim 
pTi'>l  c  places  OD  paymeiit  of  a  entail  coin,  culled  uGazeta^  wheoce  the  name  **U:'Zett«'.'* 
ATier  lliey  were  allowed  l)y  the  govui-umoiit  to  be  printed,  they  obtained  ft  wide  cir- 
culation over  the  whole  of  Europe. 

The  earliest  £n«!Hsh  uewsiiap^TS,  or  news-letters^  belonar  to  the  reif?n  of  Jamea 
I.,  and  were  printed  in  the  form  of  bmall  quarto  pamnhleto.  Some  copies  of  a  sheer, 
call,  d  the  "English  Mercury"  purportinjf- to  be  puDli»*hcd  by  authority  of  QueeH 
£i!Ziil>eth  in  15S8,  the  period  of  tlie  Spaniel  Armada,  have  been  proved  by  Mt 
Wuttj*  of  tlie  Briiii^h  Museum  to  be  literary  iorjreries.  ez<cuted  nbnut  ITttti.  The  first 
Euirlish  irew^papei-s  appeared  at  o«c;i»»ionsil  asid  irr- gular  intervals— tlie  earliest  «»f 
th- m.  «)  far  asasccriiii'ied,  isen:itled  ''News  out  of  Holland,"  and  v»at«  pul)ll8hed 
for  M.  N«wl>ery  in  161tf.  In  16^2,  these  occasional  paniphK'ts  were  couverttd  into  the 
fii-s^tjwtJt/cdnew.'^paper,  entitled  "  The  Certaine  News  of  the  Present  Wefek,"  edit  «l  by 
N  .thaniel  Butter.  Al>out  thes:inie  time  appeared  the  **Loi  don  Weekly  Con» ant"  A. 
lar<^  number  of  publications,  hardly  deserving  the  name  of  news'aper,  w«r»'  circu- 
l.itd  during  the  civil  war,  with  ^nch  namiB  aa**EnKlandV  Memorable  Accidents" 
•♦Tli^Kinijdom's  Intelliijeucer,"  **  Merciirius  Aulicus,"  **Tlie  Scots  Iitelliijencer," 
The  Purliamem's  Scont,"  **  The  Parliament'.^  Scout's  Discovery,  or  Certain  Informa- 
tion," *The  Scots  Dove,"  "The  Parliament  Kite."  "llie  Secret  Owl,"  "MtiTuriu« 
Mastix,"  "  Mercurlus  Democriius,"  **Mc'rcuii«8  Achemnticus,  or  News  from  Hell," 
Ac,  The  arrangem<-nt  of  tite  news  is  pobr  in  the  extieme,  and  what  few  comments 
there  are,  are  of  tlie  most  vhnU-iit  description.  The  Long  Parllanunt  8nbje<ted  the 
iiewsj»Mp:r  press  to  a  censorship,  which  i).;came  mote  strict  under  diaries  II.  The 
first  Engii.^U  newep:ii>< r  which  coiild  pro|K'r!y  be  con^id^  red  a  v,  hide  of  netienil  in- 
formation, was  the  *•  Puulic  Intelligencer,"  establi^heil  by  Sir  Roger  L'Bst range  in 
1668 ;  it  was  dropped  on  the  appearance  of  "The  London  Gazette,"  the  first  number 
of  which  was  publi.«hcd  November  7,  16C5,  at  Oxford,  where  the  court  was  residing 
in  conscqn<'nce  of  the  plagne  l)eing  Uieu  in  London.  A  second  pa|)er,  eatlid  **Tho 
Oliservator,"  was  affa-rwai-ds  started  by  L'Eetrange,  who,  in  1680,  » xercised  his 
ftuthorrty  as  iic'-nccr  of  the  press  by  is.^-uiiig  a  pruclumation  "for  suppi'e.-s'injr  the 
])rinting  and  publishing  of  uulicencid  news-books  and  paniplets  of  newi*."  Small 
as  was  the  sheet,  a  difSculty  often  arose  how  to  fill  it  One  publisher  was  in  the 
way  of  snpplybitf  the  dearth  of  news  by  a  pa^page  from  the  Bible ;  another  an- 
nounced Uiut  "  blank  space  is  left  that  any  geullemau  may  write  his  own  private 
businesMs." 

Up  to  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  few  of  the  newspapers  aj^ared  oftener  than 
once  a  week.  From  the  interest  excited  by  Marlborough's  victories  arose  a  demand 
for  more  frequent  iiitclljgence,  and  besides  17  newHt)tu)ers  published  thnetimesa 
weik,  the  "Daily  Courat,"  established  in  1709,  was  issued  every  day  except  Sim- 
day.  Of  the  more  noted  London  new«pa|)er^',  the  **  London  Dally  Post  and  General 
Advertiser"  was  established  in  1726,  and  in  1753  became  the  "Public  Advertiser;"  a 
ce'ebrity  attiches  to  it  from  haviiig  lK>en  the  medium  in  which  "  Janins's  Letters" 
first  appeared.  The  "St  James's  Chrouiele "  arose  from  an  amalgamation  of  two 
.papers,  the  "  St  James's  Post "  and  *•  St  J  unes's  Evening  Post,"  iHjth  which  began  in 
1T15.  The  "North  Briton,"  ediied  by  Wilkes,  first  appeared  in  1762.  The  "Morn- 
ing Chronicle,"  discontinued  in  1862,  dates  from  1779 ;  the  "  Morning  Post,"  from 
1712;  the  now  defunct  "  Morning  Herald,"  from  1781 ;  the  "Times"  first  appeared 
in  1783,  as  a  continuation  of  the  "  Loudon  Daily  Universal  Kegister,"  eetublished 
three  years  curlit^r. 


y  Google 


Hewcpapcr  ^^R 

During  tho  roiffii  of  Qoorgi  TIL  pm^ecntloiw  were  rife  apralnst  newspaper  writr* 
ami  editors ;  tb«iir  r -snit,  jr  iferally.  was  to  ^ve  a  greatly  iucrejifled  currency  to  i'a-9 
doctriDcs  »9!*ailed,  niid  t-o  C(M)fer  a  fictitious  iinportattce  on  ttie  traders  jd  pdUtivte,  by 
whom  many  (rf  the  jquruate  were  cxMidncted.  The  first  attempt  at  parJiasnOTtary  r  — 
poitiDf?  woa  resented  bv^'ttte  Honse  of  Commons a-<  a  hrwicli  of  prlvik^c, bit tlic 
rosoIiitJonsand  tb<;  iinpt^tiioninettts  of  1771  all  eudediu  tlie  tacit  coiicecseiou  of  paUicity 
OfdMCUi^fon  whiih  hns  everfttiiceiii-evaned. 

'J'liti  newspapi^rs  of  Gnnif  Britain  havcf^vitbiii  tlii»  present  ceiitnry,  jyrejitly  increMSwl 
hi  8\ii  Murl  littprored  In  Hteniry  characfer.  In  both  i-espects  they  are  far  iu  advaiicj 
of  the  joiimils  of  any  othi^r  coinitr}-.  Bach  namber  of  rhe  **Tiin  s  "  now  con«isti»  hi 
genor.il  of  16  ptiges.  O(!ca»ioiiolly  24,  wud  contains  npwards  of  5000  advertiseinent-H. 
Tlie  !<act*«M  of  the  **  Titne:^ "  is  mainly  due  to  the cnttTpidse  of  its  original  pi-oaioter.  *: 
Mr  Walter,  wlio  first  introdaced  various  iniproveinenf^  in  the  ait  of  pnnrlng,  aad 
niailc  a  strong  effort  to  secure  the  b(wit  literary  taleut  attainable  in  i\)\  departmctitH  at 
his  jonmal.  One  of  the  most  notjible  incidents  In  the  history  of  the  *•  Timers'*  wa* 
the  •'Xposnre,  through  means  of  its  Paris  correspondent,  of  a  pi^ntic  scheme  of 
foi-g  -ry,  planned  in  France  in  1840— ;i  scheme  which  contemplated  the  almost  simul- 
laneoiH  presentation,  at  the  chief  l>unking-lionses  of  the  continent,  of  forjr^d  Leiterj 
of  Crrdit  from  Qlyn  and  COu  The  faihire  of  the  cons  »imcy  was  mainly  due  to  tim 
♦otwtiotis  made  by  the  "Tinitw."  Due  of  the  partial  implic^ited,  oronght  ati 
action  for  libel  asriinst  the  printer,  and  obttin'^d  a  verdict  of  one  farthing  dam-ige-*. 
A  public  snb.'criiitiou  wa?*  raid'd  to  defray  theexjKjnsea  incurred  in  deluding  the 
action ;  when  the  proprietors*  of  tiie  ** Tim  *?,"  declining  persona  ly  to  accept  the  sum 
snhsMrribt'd,  invested  it  hi  two  **  Time:* "  scholarship-*  in  connection  with  Clirisl'j 
Hospital  iind  tliM  City  of  London  dchocH,  for  the  b.^uefit  of  pupils  proceeding  tUoiica 
to  Oxford  or  Cambridj^e. 

Tlie  editing  Of  oaa  of  the  leading  London  newspapers  involves  an  immense  daily  ' 
expense,  and  tlie  co-operati<Mi  oi  a  nuinl>er  of  talented  writer*.  The  principal  editor, 
as  representative  of  the  proprietors- has  the  whole  over:»ight  and  responsibility  in- 
tnistra  to  him.  He  occiasionally  f nrnisbe!*  the  leading  aiUcle,  but  it  i.^  more  freqat-ntly 
composed  by  one  of  a  staff  of  lite  ary  contributors,  wlio  are  I>omid  on  the  shortest 
BOfice  to  write  ou  any  subject  which  the  editor  may  assign.  The  leader  is  in  lorm  a 
relic  of  the  time  when  the  newspaper  wa^  thenews-Iotter ;  it  is  itsprofes-ed  object  to 
'  analyse,  condense,  and  explain  public  transactions,  to  scmtinisewhat  is  donbtful  or 
suspicions  in  the  conduct  Of  pubfic  men,  and  to  exposn  pophist'y  andiuipostiu-ts 
Under  the  editor  are  various  sub-editor^*,  havinjr  the  !»uperint«ndt;nce  respect  iv<ily  of 
the  London,  the  provincial,  the  foreign,  the  literary,  the  itidustrlal  and  oth  m-  depart' 
ment-).  n»e  commercial  article  is  f  an dshed  every  cViiulue  by  a  contributor  in  the 
City.  There  are  twelve  to  sixteen  pariiamentary  .•-ho:  t-hand  r'epcirters,  whb  are  con- 
tinually relieving  one  another,  l>esides  reporters  attached  to  the  courts  of  law,  }ind 
corr(^pOn<)ent«i  who  farui«!i  accounts  of  public  meetings,  :ind  local  news  of  various 
kinds.  Tlie  foreign  intelligence*,  a  mo^t  important  departm<*nt  in  the  gr  »jit  L  >udoa 
journals,  is  furnished  by  con-t?«j)Ondents  hi  all  parts  of  the  world,  some  of  th^m,  par- 
ticularly tbos^f  employed  iu  tiuie  of  u'ur,  being  men  of  very  high  repaiatiou  lu  tlie 
literary  world. 

A  stauip-dttty  on  newspnpers  was  imposed  in  1713  by  10  Anne,  c.  19.  amonntin; 
to  one  ha!ii>etniy  on  "half  a  sheet  or  le.-<H,"  and  onj  penny  "  If  larger  than  half  i 
•hcet,  and  not  exc»«Tding  a  whole  -fn'et"  The  duty  was  raiseil  ^tfu  by  80  G  •<).  IL 
c  19;  smother  halfpenny  w:is  added  by  16  Geo.  III.  c.  34;  .«<till  anoth -r  by  29  Geo. 
II r.  c.  90;  and  a  fnrthe -  addition  of  'i}4d  was  made  hy  37  Geo.  IIL c.  90, amouiisuiC 
to  4d.  in  all.  Act  6  nnd  7  Will.  IV.  c.  76.  n-dnced  tlie  stamp-duty  to  Id.,  with  the 
ndditiuu  of  X^'  «r  '^^  when  the  sheet  contained  upwards  of  1550,  or  of  2296  square 
inc'itts  on  each  side.  An  additional  ^d.  was*  chargeable  on  a  ssipplem  ut.  Uy  ISaii.l 
19  Vict,  c.  27,  passed  in  19'>5,  the  newspaper  stamp  was  abolished,  a  chtui^'e  which 
0<;casioned  an  immense  increase  in  the  number  of  newspapers,  and  di.iiinutlou  oC 
ih -Ir  price,  though  many  of  the  ch<>ap  pai^-rs  then  j-tarted  were  of  very  bri.^f  d  ra. 
tiou.  The  repeal  of  the  paper-duty,  wfiich  took  eff.ct  on  Octob'r  1, 1861, also 
ad'led,  t'longh  to  a  much  less  cousid(;ruble  extent,  to  the  number  and  cheapness  of 
Mew*' »a per.".  Tlie  nnml>er  of  s  amp'^  i.>*>»ned  on  British  newspapers  was  'X  uiUlions 
iu  1763. 16  millions  in  ISOO.  nnd  65.741,271  in  1850. 

Itt  1S43,  the  number  of  iieMrBpaper^  publiahed  in  Loodoa  was  79 ;  In  1S77  it  ww  ' 


y  Google 


239 


Nttwsi  aper 


about  8%.  W  of  these  are  daily  papers,  «  of  them  pnbllshed  In  the  evening,  and  two 
out  of  the  «  mere  rcprlnw  of  the  morning  papers,' with  what  news  had  been  received 
during  the  day.  Of  these,  ihe  mont  fuflneutijij  for  40  ye-irs  bnck  has  been  tlie 
•*  Times,"  established  in  1T88,  of  which  nearly  70,000  copies  are  "printed  daily,  and  Ub 
circnIatJon  lias  been  larger  on  occasions  of  pubiic  iiit**re8t.  It  profe8.«*e8  lndc])cit- 
dence hi  politics.  The  "Daily  News,"  ''Pail  Mall  Gazetie"  (an  evening  paner\ 
'*  D.iily  Telegr.iph,"  and  "Morning  Post"  are  the  most.  Important  Libernl  chiMy 
papers,  the  ifti«t  named  being  also  the  organ  of  the  fai»hioiinDle  world,  while  llic 
•*  JStindard '*  and  "  Glolie  "  (Ttn  evening  paper),  represent  tlw  Conservative  party. 

The  price  of  tlie  dniiy  ])apers  varies  from  }^d.  to  3d.  Of  i  he  800  ucwsparers  not 
daily,  most  are  pablisiied  once,  some  twice,  t-ome  three  times,  one  four  limes  n  wct-k, 
Boineoncea  fortnight,  and  some  monthly.  TIjey  c<mipriHe  agricuitnral,  sporting, 
commercial,  and rauway  journals;  a  dozen  or  so  purely  literary,  or  literary  ana 
wientiflc;  nnlilary  and  naval,  musical  and  theatrical,  legal  anil  medical  joumalp. 
There  is  a  "  Court  Circnlar,"  mid  a  **  Coult.  Jonmal,"  a  Fr<  nch,  a  German,  an  Anu'lo- 
Aniericjiu,  and  a  Spanisli  weekly  paper.  There  are  a  few  pictorijil  and  about  half-a- 
dozen  humorous  papers.  Of  these  l:ist,  "Punch,"  which  has  be«u  In  exist*  nee 
bIuck  1841,  is  ably  condacted,  and  wields  no  small  Influence.  A  Iargc»  number  are  tlie 
organs  of  particular  religious  sects  or  parties.  The  bakers,  drapers,  grocerp, 
printers^  booksellers,  brewers,  &c.,  have  their  rcsijcctive  j'tnmnls:  the  builders  have 
six  ;  nnd  there  are  many  newspapei-s  with  a  purely  local  circulation,  some  confiied 
to  !|jo  obscurer  quartera  of  London.  The  price  of  the  weekly  i)apei-8  varies  from  6d. 
to  d,  or  Xd. 

'I'lie.  cnrliest  Enghsh  j  rovinclal  newspaper  is  heli^^ved  to  be  the  "Norwich  Poj»t- 
man,"  published  in  1706.  al  the  price  df  a  penny,  but  "a  htilfp^nny  not  refused." 
3t  w.iH  follow  8,  in  1714,  by  the  "  Norwicli  Courant.  or  Weekly  Packet."  A  "York 
Conrant,"  "  Leeds  Coumnt,"  and  "  York  Journal"  were  establish* d  about  1720;  the 
"Manchester  Gazette  "in  1730,  and  tlie"Oxfortl  JournnI  "  In  1740.  In  1848,  2!Sl 
newspapers  were  published  hi  provincial  towns  of  England,  and  8  In  Wal<  s.  Ti>o 
provincial  newspapers  of  Epgland  numbered  in  1877  about  980.  besides  §6  belonging 
to  Wales,  jind  20  to  the  iHl.iisds.  About  a  fifth  of  the  numbt  r  profest*  Conservntive, 
or  Lil)erHl-ConFen':itiv«*  principles,  a  haif  Lil>eral,  a  small  numl)er  perfect  indepen- 
dence* in  !  o  itlcs,  and  the  rest  are  avowedly  neutral.  Only  a  very  few  of  these  ?  ro 
condncted  with  anything  like  abiliiy.  Among  the  more  important  are  the  "Man - 
rh'Ster  Examiner,"  which  is  understood  to  have  a  circniation  of  35.000.  and  tl  e 
"Newcasile  Chronicle"  of  36  000,  and  ihe  **  \tanchi  ster  Guardian."  A  cnnracter- 
istic  feature  of  many  second-class  provincial  papei-s  hs  a  coluum  of  gossip  or  scan- 
dal, entitled  a  letter  *Proin  Our  London  Correspondent." 

The  newspiiper  i)re>8  of  Scotland  begjm  during  the  civil  wars  of  the  17th  century. 
A  pMrty  of  Cromwell's  troops,  who  arrived  at  Leitli  in  1652  t^  garrinon  the  citadel, 
brought  witli  them  a  printer  named  Christoplier  Higi!ins,  to;-eprint  the  London  ]m- 
per.  "-Mercnrius  Politicus."  Tlie  fir^'t  nuir\ber  was  isnued  on  the  26th  October  1653, 
and  In  November  1654  the  establishment  wjts  tinnsffi'nd  to  Edinburgh,  where  the 
reprinting  went  on  till  1660.  On  the  Slnt  December  1660.  the  first  number  was  pub- 
lished of  the  "  Mercurins  Cnledoniu««,"  which  professed  to  furnish  information  re- 
garding the  "  affairs  in  agitiition  in  Scotland,  with  a  survey  of  foreign  intelligence." 
tlivwMjnly  three  months,  and  wa«  succeeded  by  "The  Kingdom's  Intelligencer." 
The  "Edinbui-gh  Gaz«?tte,"  an  official  paper  published  by  authority,  was  e^tsib- 
lished  In  1669  bv  James  Watson,  a  printr  of  eminence  and  skill.  In  1702,  Wat- 
so'i  Jds4)  8rart<'d  the  "Edinbnrgli  Conrant,"  which  attained  its  216th  num- 
ber, and  in  106  the  "Scots  Couriint."  In  1718  the  town-couneil  of  Edinburgh 
gave  a  privilege  to  James  M'Laren  to  print  the  "Edinbui-^h  Evening  Conrant '' 
fiiree  times  a  week,  on  condition  that  before  publication,  he  should  give 
"  ane  coppie  of  his  print  to  the  magisstrates."  This  paoer  still  exists  as  tlie  "  Edin- 
burgh Counint,"  now  a  daily  paper,  and  the  pri'  cipaf  Conservative  journal  hi  3<"0t- 
huid.  The  "Caledonian  Mercury,"  now  defunct,  was  flrs^t  published  on  the  28th  of 
Af)ril  1720.  'J'he  *•  Scotsman,"  which  came  into  existence  in  181 T,  under  the  conduct 
of  Mr  Charles  Mjiclaren,  and  wa.s  for  a  shoi-t  time  edited  by  Mr  J.  R.  M'Cnlloch,  tha 
po'iiicnl econora!««t,  is  the  moat  influential  Liberal  jotnnal  in  Scotland,  and  isbeliuvtd 
to  liave  :i  circulation  of  55,«!00,  larger  than  that  of  any  dall>  paper  out  of  London. 
The  earlieat  Sc jitish  prgvbicial  newspaper  wa»  the  *'  iikwgow  Courant,"  ebtabUaUed 


fi 


y  Google 


N«w«pap«ni  ^240 


11 


in  1715.  The  **  Aberdeon  Journal  ^  was  foondcd  In  1746  by  Mr  James  Chnlmere;  th9 
first  niiinber  contained  an  account  of  the  b:ittle  of  Ciilloden.  The  nniuher  of  iiews- 
piipers  pub  Ished  in  Scoflund  In  1843  waf«  89;  it  is  now  164,  15  of  thfit  number  bo- 
ion::ii)g  to  Edinburirtu  A  few  of  th«  ieadiiig:  newspapers  of  Scoiland  contain  arlJcl-s 
littlH  int\*ri<M*  in  tnient  to  those  c)f  the  beat  BJuijIi-h  newsp:ip.-r«,  and  «•x.Jrl•^^o  ci>n?id- 
er.ible  political  influ -nee,  nt  least  in  matters  relatinL'  to  S«  ofhind.  Atxjut  a  score  of 
tlie  Scottish  p  ipers  are  retmrded  a?*  Couse  vative,  6<»-T0  Lih*'r  I.  aid  the  rt•^t  Imfe- 
pendent  or  neutral  in  politic*,  fikiinbur^h  has  in  .  11  12  newspalwr.-*.  inrlinlint^^  tbe 
Wi^eltly  issuesof  ihe4dailie-«;  Glasgow  ft  (with  6  d.nlies);  Ab  rclriMJ  3  in  aU;  Dii  .- 
de'4;  Pai-*l<y3.  Thu  price  of  most  of  the  daily  papers  i.>  Id.;  of  suiueiti.-^^. ; 
th;it  of  lb.'  weeklies  and  hi-weekll.?s  varie*  from  V^d,  to  4d. 

In  Ireland,  a  news-sheet,  called  "  Warranted  1  idings  from  Ireland,"  was  printed 
during  the  rebellion  of  1641;  but  the  first  Iilsh  newspaper,  properly  so  called,  was 
the  "Dublin  Newsletter,"  coinmeuced  in  1685.  **Pue'8  Occurrence?,*'  a  Dabliii, 
dally  paper,,  originated  in  1700,  was  contiuue<l  for  half  a  century.  It  was  followi-tl, 
in  1728,  by  anotber  daily  i>apt;r,  **  Faulkner's  Journal,"  establii^hed  by  George  Faulk- 
ner, '*  a  man  celebrated  tov  the  goodness  of  his  heart,  and  the  weakn-ss  of  hlsht-a«l.*» 
The  oldest  existing  Dublin  newspapers  are  "Saunders' (origin;illy  Esdaile's)  News- 
letter," begun  in  1746^  and  the  **  Evening  Post,"  instituted  in  1726.  The  ••  Limerick 
Chronicle.'^  tlie  oldest  Irish  provincial  paper,  dates  from  17C6.  Ireland  posstissed  T» 
newspapers  in  1843,  and  had  in  1877  about  150.  Most  of  them  are  characterised  by 
an  enemy  of  langu-ige,  and  a  str<'ngth  of  political  bias,  nnknnwn  In  the  other  parts 
of  the  ITnited  Kingdoin.  The  "  Irish  Times  "  and  the  "  Evening  Mail,"  publishedin 
Dutilia,  and  the  **  Belfast  News  L  tter,"  are  influential  djuly  papers. 

The  Isle  of  Mxui  supports  1  Conservative,  2  Lil>erMl,  and  1  neutral  journal,  Jor- 
scy  has  9  journals,  4  printed  in  French  and  6  in  English  ;  4  are  Libi^al,  1  C<»nset va- 
tive, 2  Lib;<ral-Conservative,  I  Independent,  and  1  neutral.  Gucrtjscy  has  an  oflSchil 
azette  printed  in  French,  which  is  Protestint  and  neutral,  besides  2  Liberal,  1 
/il>vtral-CoustMvative,  and  2  neutral  papers.  These  local  papers  are  conducted  wiHi 
a  gro^it  amount  of  spirit  and  success. 

In  the  British  colonies,  newspapers  are  numerous,  including  those  in  India,  printed 
in  the  Bengalee  and  other  native  languages.  "  liieldng's  Gazette,"  the  first  Aug^o- 
Indian  newspaper,  appeared  at  Calcutta  in  1781 ;  in  was  followed,  in  1784,  by  a  smnll 
oSlcial  sheet,  the  **  Calcutta  Gazette,  or  Oriental  Advertiser."  The  still  surviving 
"  Bengal  Hurkuru  "  was  established  m  179>.  In  the  earlier  times  of  Indian  newspft- 
pers,i;hough  there  was  no  direct  censorship,  exemplary  punishment  was  often  inflicted 
on  the  authors  of  offensive  paragraphs,  in  1794,  Mr  Ducane,  editor  of  the  "  World," 
was  transported  to  Europe  for  an  inflammatory  address  to  the  army  which  appear^ 
iu  his  papjr;  and  a  similar  result  followed,  in  1798.  to  another  editor,  who  madesoiM 
severe  observations  on  the  official  conduct  of  a  local  magistrate.  A  ceustjrshin, 
established  by  Lord  Wellesley  in  1799,  was  aboli.ohed  by  the  Marquis  of  Ha>ting8  iu 
1818;  but  a  licence,  revocable  at  pleasure,  was  reqnire<l  to  be  taken  ont  by  ev«ry 

Srinter  of  a  newspaper.  In  1832,  the  Indian  press  consisted  of  6  Euro))ean  and  5  u»* 
ve  journals.  The  licensing  system  waa  done  away  with  by  Lord  Metcalfe's  law  of 
1835,  a  step  disapproved  of  by  the  East  India  directors.  This  Iiiw  remained  in  force 
till  the  sepoy  mutiny,  since  which  event  there  has  been  a  return  lo  the  system  of 
licences.  Iu  1875,  there  were  iu  India  135  Eng.,  270  vernactllar,  and  65  mixed  Eng. 
and  vernacular  newspapers.— The  first  Australian  paper  was  the  "  Sydney  Gazette," 
founded  in  1803  by  George  Howe,  a  Creole  of  St  Kitts.  Hobart  Town  had  its  journal 
in  1804,  and  iu  1824  newspapers  began  to  multiply  in  the  Australian  colonic:.  'Ihe 
principal  are  now  the  "  Sjdney  Herald,"  the  "  Sydney  Mail.'*  the  "  Argus  "  of  Mel- 
bourne, and  the  "  South  Australian  Regist  r."  'i  he  materials  for  printing  this  last- 
named  paper  were  carried  out  by  the  original  South  Australian  coloniste,  the  fin* 
imml>er  having  been  previously  printed  in  England.  A  similar  course  was  adopted 
by  the  first  New  Zealand  colony  in  1839  iu  founding  their  '^New  Zealand  Gazette" 
and  "New  Zealand  Advertiser."  Tahiti  has,  since  1844,  had  its  **L'Oc6anie  Fran- 
saise."  There  is  also  the  "  Fiji  limes,"  the  "  Fiji  Giizette,"  and  the  •*  Cential  Poly^ 
uesian." 

France. — The  earliest  French  newspaper  is  said  to  have  been  est^iblished  byTliA^. 
phraste  Renaudot.  a  physician,  in  the  bcginnin^f  of  tl«c  17ih  century.  1  he  dirt 
uumbur  of  his  "  Gasette  "  appeared  iu  1631.    Iu  Uie  loliowing  year,  lUroujsh  intemt 


Digitized  by 


Google 


241 


Ifowspaporg 


of  Cardhinl  Bicfaelfen,  he  ol)talned  a  royal  privilege  for  IjIs  "Gazette;"  It  wns  con- 
tiim«  d  wet-kly  up  to  li62,  oud  tlu-n  Ix guu  U>  appear  i wice  In  tl>o  week,  niid  to  com- 
bine jidvertirn  nit  iits  wiih  public  news.  Coiiiiiu  relal  iiitelHjroiicc  was  added  In  17t6, 
an. J  ill  1792,  tiieatrical  aunoiiucem -nts.  In  1650  was  sturted  the ** Gnsette  BurlcpqUf," 
a  jomiml  in  vers^e.  edited  "by  the  poet  Jean  Loi-et,  devoted  In  a  pre.  t  iiicaenre  to  tlie 
ehionique  Hcatuialeiute  of  P{*riB;  uud  iii  1672,  tlie  *♦  Wercnre  G.ihint,"  u  political  and 
Irerary  journal,  which  afterwards  becnme  the  **M«*i-cnro  do  Frauie,"  nisd  was  cou- 
tiitned  during  the  Kevolutiun,  and  down  to  1815.  The  flrft  French  daily  n«WFpaper 
was  the  '■  Jwurnul  de  Paris,"  which  beg;iu  hi  1T7T,  and  was  di>conllnut  d  In  1819.  A 
laige  crop  of  journals  sprang  int obelise  with  the  RcToUiiion,orgun«  refp*  clivdy  of 
Kc-i-ubiicans,  Jaco bins. and  Koyaliitp,  but  moet  of  th<m  had  a  very  brhf  cxiPt- 
ence.  Under  tbe  first  Napoleon  the  freedom  of  the  press  >vas  nmch  rcstrk'.lt  d.  By 
one  of  his  earliest  ordinances  as  First  Consnl.  all  the  iieW8pap<>r8  were  supimsscd 
except  18,  and  under  tlie  Empire  the  lolerattd  journals  were  allowed  to  be  Hi  tie  more 
than  echoes  of  ilie  official- **Mouitenr.''  From  the  danger  which  attended  the 
handllntf  of  political  qnePtions  arose  the  practice  of  Ailing  a  large  ]»or- 
tioii  of  thp- sheet  with  the  *•  Feuilleton,"  consisting  of  a  sketch  or  lulc  by  a  popular 
writrr,  which  has  ever  since  been  a  cliaracteristlc  of  Fnnch  jonrnal:8nu 
Burini;  Hit*  Restoration  period,  the  press  being  again  less  fettered,  there  was  a  larjro 
Ibcreaee  In  the  number  of  newspapers.  In  1826  there  were  127,  and  In  18*29,  807 
newspapers  pnbilshcd  in  Paris.  Tlie  July  Kevolntion  at  first  added  still  furl  her  to 
their  number ;  but  the  restrictive  measures  of  1S84,  conhlsling  in  the  imposition  of 
a  stamp  duty,  and  of  an  ol>]igation  to  find  security  to  th\e  amount  of  84,<>00  francs, 
led  to  ine  collapi'e  cf  a  large  proportion  of  the  then  exioiing  journals.  1  ho  *'  Moni- 
teur,**  "D^haty,"  and  "Frest»e"  wore  In  possession  of  the  government,  nnd  for  a 
time  also  the  "  Const Itutionnel,"  and  every  slmde  of  political  opinion  had  lis  recog- 
liistd  or^an.  Eniile  de  Girardin's  scheme  of  widening  the  circulation  of  tl«e  govern- 
ment oi^nn,  the  **  Presse,"  by  brillgin^  down  the  subscription  price  from  80  to  40 
francs,  had  the  result  of  reducing  the  price  of  the  opposition  journalM  also.  Cheap 
iiewspiipers  l>eing  thas  esiablished,  it  soon  npiieared  that  with  the  class  among 
whom  they  circulated  most  widely  the  feuilletou  was  regarded  of  more  Importance 
tlmn  the  political  article*  and  it  thus  b.camu  the  policy  of  the  journalists  to  pay 
enonnons  sums  to  the  clevon-st  novelists  of  the  day,  m  order  to  reiaiu  them  in  thrfr 
service.  100.000  francs  paid  by  Dr  V6ron  of  the  "  Constitutionnd  "  to  Engdne  Sue 
for  biH**Jnit  Errant,*'  turned  out  as  profitable  a  specalaliou  lor  the  jomnalist  nH 
few  the  novelist. 

The  Revolution  of  1848,  like  the  revolutions  that  had  gone  before  it,  gave 
birtb  to  a  multitude  of  shori-Hved  journals.  There  were  89  diifercut  po- 
litical jonrmtls  started  into  ephemeral  existence  In  Paris  during  the  Into 
Commune,  from  March  19  to  the  27th  of  May,  1871.  When  the  late  Emperor  Na- 
pfjleoii  was  president  of  the  republic,  a  law  M-as  passed  obliging  the  author  of  every 
newspaper  article  to  affix  his  name  to  it.  In  F.  bruary  1852, Ihe  press  laws  were  iu- 
co:  poratcd,  with  increased  stringency,  into  a  Dieret  arganique  $ur  la  Presne,  Louis 
Kapoleon, during  the  empire,  rehixod  the  8lriiig<ncy  a  little.  The  republic  holds 
newspftpera  in  as  great  bondage  as  did  its  imperial  predecessor.  Among  the  most 
importaut  dally  papers  published  In  Paris  are  the  **R6pnb]iqne  Fransais<»,"  **  Pays," 
"Sidcle,"  "Pwsse,*'  •*D6bats,"  ♦*Bieu  Public,"  •♦France,"  "Journal  OfticieL» 
•*  Charivari,**  and  •*  Figaro." 

Belgium,— In  the  Low  Countries  an  illnstrat<jd  war  gaaette,  called  the  •*Niewctl- 
idingbe,"  was  first  published  In  1606 ;  It  was  the  precursor  of  the  "  Gazette  van  Ant- 
werpeo,"  which  survived  till  1805.  During  the  Spiuilsh  and  Austrian  rule,  each  town 
had  its  privileged  newspaper,  but  the  prcts  Mas  considerably  fettered  in  the  expies- 
Bion  of  political  opinion.  Under  the  French  rule,  most  of  these  journals  disapp<'arc»d 
or  sunk  into  insignificance.  The  '♦Annales  Poliiiques"  was  a  political  journal  of 
oouMiilerable  popularity  during  last  century.  Since  the  Revolnti<ni  of  1880,  the  press 
has  been  subject  to  few  restraints,  the  newspapers  have  been  numerous,  and  some 
few  of  thera  well  conducted.  Ilie  **  Ind^pendauce  Beige  "  has  a  large  circulation, 
and  exercises  considerable  political  Infiuence.  It  is  the  proiMjrtv  of  a  company  of 
tMukers,  and  is  onducted  by  a  Frenchman  of  talent  snd  lib*ral  sentiments.  The 
"Monltenr  Beige"  was  Instituted  as  the  official  organ  of  the  ministry  In  1830. 
**Le    Nord,"    a    Russhui    orgp       pabllshed    in    Brussels,    is    conducted    with 


y  Google 


N«wtpapera  2^2 

great  ability.  A  large  circulation  ta  enjoyed  by  the  ''Jonnml  d«  Bniz- 
elles,"  the  *•  Ein.inclpatioii."  and  !ho  ♦•Etoile  Beige"— all  papens  .in  the  hiieretit 
of  tiie  parti  pritre^  una  fiupp;.<d  with  correppoiidence  from  Kome.  The 
•*EcliO(le  Bruxelltts"  and  the  ''Joarnal  de  Belgiquc"  ar«  indepcndinr  pnpers. 
The  '•  Pi'6ciir8eiir  d'Auvoi-s,"  and  tlio  •*  E»caut "  of  Antwerp,  have  a  goodcircnlutioa 
— ilic  l:iiter  is  at  once  ultramontane  and  ntra-democratic. 

Holland.— Thi3  e:iriter  i^wspaper-^  of  Holland  were  in  some  re»pectf>»  particularly 
in  the  accuracy  of  their  inforniaiiou,  in  advance  of  tho^e  of  other  coiuilritts.  bnt 

giive  far  more  prominence  to  connnercial  than  to  political  intelligence.  Tiiey  all 
ore  the  name  of  **  Courant"  nppended  to  the  name  of  the  town  where  th<»y  were 
pablished.  Thungh  subject  to  no  ceni<or»htp  flute  T8;6.  it  was  not  till  1^1  riiat 
tiuiy  bt:gan  to  comment  on  political  occurrences.  At  present  the  principal  Bntcb 
jonrnalsare  the  **  Allgcnieene  Handelt»blad  "  of  Amsterdam,  and  **  Am*lte^^^mCo«^- 
nut:''•tho  •♦  Harlem  "die  Conrant;"  and  the  **Joamal  de  la  Haye,"  **De  Neder- 
lanasche  Stooinpo.>*t,"  and  "*  Staats  Conrant "— puhlished  at  the  Hague. 

Switzerland^ — Switaserland  being  a  coufederatiou  of  states,  each  with  its  own 
iustit  111  ions,  the  Swiss  newspapers  have  a  very  locti!  character;  but.  tbey  are 
nnmerons,  and  some  of  them  have  of  late  vears  gre:illy  improved  in  character.  The 
*'  Swiss  Times,"  published  in  Geneva,  and  printed  in  both  French  and  Bui^llBbf  is 
now  fri'qiiently  buotcd  in  all  countries. 

Gfcnnany.— Tliougli  in  Germany  the  "  Relatlonen  "  aliove  alluded  to,  were  in  some 
sort  the  precursors  of  newspapers,  yet  no  serial  newspaper,  proi»erly  t»o  called, 
seems  to  nave  existed  lill  tC15.  Frankfurt  was  the  first  town  that  possesstHl  its  jf>nr- 
nal ;  next  followed  Fulda.  Hildesheiin,  and  Herford.  The  ear}fe«t  Leipzig  news- 
paper was  instituted  in  1660.  Tlie  first  newspajwr  witli  a  staff  of  fort-ign  correiipoud- 
cuts  was  the  *'Hainbur*che  Correspondent;"  but  uoGertian  newspaper  can  be 
Slid  to  have  had  any  t>olitica]  weight  till  the  institution  of  tiie  ** Allpimciue 
Z  ;itnug,"  founded  by  Coua  in  1798,  now  pnblislied  at  Augsburg,  which  stiil  takes 
rank  as  the  first  paper  in  Germany.  During  Frcucii  atK^endency,  the  German 
papers  were  little  more  than  echoes  of  the  Parlsiiiu ;  but  a  number  of  iiuniialtttMf 
a  more  national  character  sprung  up  during  the  war  of  liberation.  The  abuse  oi  the 
liberty  of  the  press  after  1880,  led  to  tlie  impo)*ition  by  the  diet  of  restrictions  of  a 
somewhat  severe  character  on  newspapers.  Although  wltiiin  the  htst  twenty  y^^ars 
there  has  been  a  decided  ifnproveinent  in  the  literary  and  political  character  vt  tiie 
German  newspapers,  the  Socialist  Law  of  1878  is  a  severe  restriction  of  the  liberty 
of  the  press.  Auiong  the  princlp.-il  Berlin  daily  |)ap«Tsare  the  **  Vosslaclie  Zcitnm,* 
tlie  *'Norddent.«che  Allgemeiue  Zeitung  "  <seini>oflcial),  the  "Ncue  Prenssiai'ite 
Z  jitunsr "  (usually  known  asthe-^Kreuz  Z  itung,")  »*Post,"  <*Natk>iial-2eitnus,* 
and  *'  Volks-zaitung."  The  **  All^^emeine  Ztdtung,"  published  at  Augsburg,  is  a 
very  infiuentiai  ancTwell-conducted  journal. 

i4ti«trta.— The  Austriau  newspapers  have  partaken  of  the  advance  in  the  nAW«» 
paper  press  of  Germany.  The  most  Important  of  them  it  the  **  WfeiterZeitnn^,'* 
with  its  evening  reprint,  the  "Wiener  Abcndpo«t,"  not  iuslguiilbaut  either  Ins 
literary  or  political  point  of  view,  and  the  "Neue  Freie  Presse." 

Italff,—We  have  mentioned  the  early  "  Notiaie  Scrirte,"  or  gjiseites  of  Venks. 
The  news-sheets  which  followed  them  were  in  disfavor  with  the  set;  of  Rome;  and 
a  memorable  bull  denouncing  them  was  issued  by  Gregory  XIIL  Up  to  1847,  tbe 
newspapei-s  of  Itjily  were  small,  |)oliti(aliy  in*«)gnificant.  and  sut^t  to  a  strict  cen- 
sorship. Witii  the  accession  of  Pn)>e  Pins  IX.,  a  flood  of  tiolirical  journals  tnade 
their  appearance,  one  or  two  of  which  only  were  conducted  witl»  any  approach  to 
talent,  and  few  lasred  a)>ove  a  year.  In  the  Sardinian  dominions  thrrecoutiuue<)  to 
be  1)0  fewer  tlum  45  political  papers  published  in  186^,  4t  of  which  were  printed  in 
Italian  and  4  in  Frencli.  Of  that  numb  t  a  great  many  soon  afterwarrls  collapfied. 
Thii  removal  oittiie  former  restrictions  of  the  press  in  other  parts  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy  has  started  into  life  a  numb  r  of  newspapers.    Seventeen  ))olitical  ai|d  ten 

Saraally  political  papers  arc  now  published  in  the  dominions  of  Victor  Kmrnanuel, 
esides  31  periodicals,  many  of  which  answer  more  or  less  to  our  ideas  of  it  new»* 
pap  'x.  Few  of  these  newspaiwrs  are  as  yet  of  much  promise.  I'he  leaders  nm 
poor,  no  great  social  or  commercial  questions  are  discussed,  and  eacti  joiiripil  is  tl»s 
mere  adv<»cjite  of  one  or  other  of  the  political  parties.  Perliops  the  best  of  llwmt 
ou  the  whole,  are  *<  11  Diritto''  and  *•  Lt)piuioae,"  which  may  be  oompszod  to 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


243 


Nawtpaptti 


mmf  of  the  necond^rate  French  papers,  Tbo  **  Qazetta  rfBclalc  del  llcgiio  d'llnlla** 
J?«  the  miiii<«terial  oi%:id,  and  •*  L'lialie,**  i>nbl1flicd  iu  Frauco,  is  looked  upon  as 
Ihe  orgiiii  of  tiuidep;irrnieiii  of  Foieicn  Affaire.  Hinnornns  lu'wepapm-ii,  after  th  : 
tiiucTel  of  otir  **  Punch,"  are  ubuitoaut.  The  *'Voc«  dclla  Verita*'  fs  the  p:«|)er 
which  advocates  the  caiu<e  of  the  pope.  •*  lai  Liberru  "  and  **  II  Fanfnlla  **  are  puJv- 
H^hed  ill  R«)iue;  Genoa  iMiiies  its  "Cimiaro  Mercantile;"  Milan,  " La Persevcr- 
aiiza."  and  Naples,  the  **  Pnu^olo  "  and  **  Patiia." 

•  Spain.—  Sheets  called  "  Rehicioiies,"  giving  acconnts  of  important  occnrrences, 
uswl  to  uppejir  iu  Spnui  at  irreguUir  intervals  in  the  ITtli'c  ocoisionallr  in  the  fona 
of  romances ;  but  no  Spanish  newspaper,  properly  so  called,  existed  till  lai-t  ccntni y, 
and  fitty  yeara  ngo  Madrid  pot'sessed  but  one  jonrnal.  The  first  approach  to  politioil 
jooruulism  ioUowed  in  the  wake  of  the  Peninsalur  War  and  tiie  establishment  of  the 
Coites.  The  i:«>8s  licence  with  which  many  of  the  then  established  papers  were 
conducted,  led  iu  1824,  to  the  fiappression  of  all  except  the  **  Diai  io  "  and  *G  peta  "  of 
Madrid,  ilie  **  Gaseia  de  Bayona,"  and  a  few  which  were  put tly  commercial  or  scien- 
tific At  present,  about  40  journals  ar«  pubh^ht d  in  Marlrid,  politically  and  in  eY<  ry 
other  respect  veiy  unimportant ;  the  mo^t  read  is  the  "Espana."  The  pn-ss  i>f  Por- 
tugal is  as  insignificant  as  that  of  Sp;iiu:  tlie  official  organ  is.tiie  "Diario  du 
Govemo." 

Sweden  and  yortcay.  The  earliest  Swedish  newspaper  seems  to  have  been  the 
'*prdiuurie  Post  Tideudc,"  estiiblisbed  in  1643.  and  cont^nncd  till  1680.  It  was  fol- 
lowed  by  the  **  Relatioiies  Cnrioew  "  in  Latin  (1C82— 1701).  1'wo  French  papers^^he 
** Gazette  Franyaise  de  Stockholm  "  aud  the  *•  Mercure de Sn^e,"  existedin  Sweden 
In  the  fsecond  half  of  la>t  century.but  politically  the  newspaper  press  canm)t  be  said 
to  have  dad  any  influence  until  tlio  establish tnent  of  the  "Argos"  by  Johaussen  in 
1820.  For  a  imml)er  of  years  the  principnl  joni-nals  of  Sweden  were  the  **  FftdL-ra^'s-  . 
laudet,"  theoiv^anof  the  iX)yalists,  and  the  **  Aftonbtodet,"  that  of  the  ref  nners«. 
Thi*  latter,  on  King  Oscar's  accei^ion,  ceased  to  be  an  op|)Ositioii  journal.  The  official 
paper  ia  the  **  Po-t  och  InrikcsTlduingar."  Everj-  provincial  town  has  now  its  jonraal, 
aud  there  are  aboat  114  uewi'papers  in  all  published  in  Sweden.    Of  the  Norwegian 

gpers,  the  oldest  is  the  "Christiania  luteiligtniHSKller,"  founded  in  1768.    ♦•l)in 
ustittitiouelle "  is  the  government  journal,  and  "DeuMoigeublad"  theot^gau  of 
the  op)»o?ltiou. 

Diefmiark.'—lu  Denmaik  jonmaliam  is  still  more  recent  Up  to  1880  only  two 
Ucwrpapera  we4-e  publihhed  iu  Copenhaceii,  both  eiitii-ely  made  up  of  extracts  iroiii 
foreign  journals.  Since  1884,  there  has  l>een  an  iniprovement  in  the  charactt!!  aud 
hicreaaeiu  the  unmlH^r  of  the  Danish  journals.  They  mmibered  36  iu  1849.  The 
oldest  newspaper  now  existing  in  Denmaik  is  the  aemi-minit'terlal  ^^Berlingska 
Tidende,"  founded  iu  1749.  The  *<Ffidrelaudet"  is  Hie  jomiial  of  the  Scaudina- 
Tiau  popalar  party. 

iJt*«n*«.— The  rarllest  newsjwpei-s  in  Russia  were  published  under  the  p<^»^onal 
anrveiUaiice  of  Peter  the  Grrat,  firht  in  Mowow  and  afteiwards  in  Petersbnra.  to 
report  the  progress  of  the  war  with  Sw(  den.  Politicjd  jourualifui,  prppprlj-  fo 
called,  has,  however,  uevi  r  flourished  in  Russia,  and  hjts,  in  fact,  only  been  allowed 
in  important  political  crises— as  the  French  invasion  of  1812,  the  Polish  insurrecti(;Q 
of  188<»,  and  recently  during  the  Crimean  War,  when  the  journalists  were  allowed  to 
fxercise  their  ingennity  in  defending  the  ffovernment  policy.  The  largest  ciituilu- 
fjoii  was  jit  that  time  j.tJainrd  by  the  *'Sjewen»aja  PtschVta,"  or  "Northern  Bee," 
which  had  its  feuilleton.  Generally  speaking,  the  Rusi^ian  newsiMipcrs  occupy 
themselves  with  scientific  and  literary  subjects  rather  than  public  or  political  news. 
The  **  Jonrnal  de  Sf  PeterslKHirtr,"  in  French,  is  the  organ  of  the  court,  and  has 
eonf>idenil>le  circulation  out  of  Russia. 

TYtrfey.— The  fiist  newspaper  in  Turkey  was  founded,  iu  1795,  by  M.  Vcrm1nha<^ 
rnvoy-extraoidiimry  of 'the  French  government  to  the  conn  of  Silim  III.,  and 
printed  in  French  at  Peni.  A  Frenchman  of  the  name  of  Blacque  establislKd  at 
Smyrna,  in  1826,  the  ** Specfctteur  de  L'Orient,"  afteiwards  the  **Courrler  <le 
Smyriie."  which  4iad  considerable  political  influence  dnriiig  the  Greek  war.  The 
same  M.  Blacque  afterwards  edited  J he  official  journal  of  the  Porte,  called  the 
•' Moniteur  Ottoman."  which  has,  since  1832,  been  reprinted  in  Turkish  under  the 
^me  of  the  *•  Taqnlmi  Viiqfii."  Tlie  *♦  Taqutini "  was  till  lately  a  very  badly  printed 
aheet,  but  it  has  much  iuipiwred,  aud  now  miiSO  weejdy  instead  of  monthly,  soilie- 


y  Google 


Newton  ^^^ 

tl:nes  con talnfuj?  very  faff  Hterarynnd  polltfcal  arftcloK.  Bnt  the  itioet  important 
Tnrklsh  imiwr  is  the  **Djeridel  Havadis,''  founded  in  184«  by  Mr  Alfred  Ohnrcbillf 
jin  E:ig!i!*linmn  born  !u  Turkey.  It  eiubruces  n  great  variety  of  matter,  a  coDrt 
g  izuttti,  official  anpointinents,  liome  aud  foreiuni  new»,  advertis^eiuente,  prices  ot 
hrock:S  •••"'•  "  ffauittton.  Tbere  are  besidec  in  Oiumt'iutinople  two  new  and  poimhir 
pap  rss  called  tlie  **  Tergiinian  AhwuV'  or  *♦  Intenireter  of  Eveuta,"  pnblirthed  «hreo 
tiuiea  a  week,  and  tlie'*Taa  veeri  Evkiar,"  or  "  Mirror  of  Tboiig»it8,^  publlsbed 
twice  a  week.  The  latter  has  a  HCleniific  aud  literary  repute.  The  Tarktali  pat>eni 
hitve  no  leading  articleit,  and  from  the  conetitutiou  of  political  eociety  in  Ttirkej, 
tliere  can  be  no  avowed  oppoflition  to  tlie  policy  of  the  goveninifnt  The  **Cour- 
rier  de  Gon.Htantinoplu/'  in  Frenclit  19  one  of  the  principiil  jonrnala  of  tlie  capititl : 
here  appear  also  the  "Levant  Herald  "  and  the  **  Levant  Times  *'  In  Euglial).  And 
papers  in  French,  Italian,  Greek,  and  Armenian  are  publislied  in  varions  parts  of  the  ir^ 
euiplre. 

Gre«c«. —Vailons  newapapers  in  modern  Greek  appeared  at  Paris  and  Vienna  be- 
foi-e  Greece  obtttined  lier  independence  ;  bnt  the  firai  political  juurual  published  in 
Greece  was  the  "Hellfitiike  Salwigx,"  founded  in  18584,  and  ao(m  followed  hythe 
*•  Hellenika  Clironika  "  and  •'  tfHlenfkoa  TSIegraphoa  "  In  Mlosolongtil,  tbe  **niikw 
ton  notnoa"  at  Hydra,  the  **Eplieuieiides  Atuenaikai  *'  at  Athens,  and  the  officiml 
*^Genikd  ephdmeri^t^s  fielladoa"  published  at  Nanpiia,  with  its  opponent  the 
*•  Apolten,"  whicli  afterwards  liecanie  tlie  *' Atlifina.*'  Moet  of  these^i>er8  disap- 
peared in  1883  on  the  system  of  snreties  being  mtrodnced.  Tlie  **  Sot5r '»  was  es- 
tablished as  the  govemmeut  organ  in  1833.  Upwards  of  eighty  newspapers  are  now 
pnbliHiicd  in  Greece,  the  largest  number  of  them  In  Athens.  Of  tliese  sevenU  appear 
ni  French,  Itilian,  aud  English.  The  leadius  political  journal  of  Atheiis  is  thesemi- 
montiily  *'8u8cta(eur  d'Orient;"  bat  generally  speaking,  the  Greek  papers  make  no 
endtvivor  to  Wad  ihe  iNirties  in  the  state. 

United  StateH,—l\\  America,  the  earliest  newspaper  was  the  **  Boston  New- 
letter,''  tonnded  in  1704,  insigniflcant  in  size  and  conreiits,  and  conducted  by  J(4m 
Campbell,  the  |K)stma8ter  of  the  town.  A  rival  \o  it  ap^ieared,  in  1719,  in  the  ** Bos- 
ton Gag-tie,"  ^'published  by  authority.'*  The  "Boston  Newsleiter,"  howev^ 
throve  in  spite  of  opposl  Ion.  With  the  name  changed  to  the  **  Massachasetrs  Ga- 
B  tte  and  Bo!4ton  Newsletter,**  it  was  the  support  of  the  ^itish  rule  against  the 
desire  tor  in<lep 'udence,  and  ceased  to  appear  when  the  British  troops 
evacuated  Boston.  The  "New  Bnghind  Conrant,"  established  in  1721,  was  at 
first  printed  by  James  Franklin,  and  afterwards  edited  by  his  brotlier  tbn 
famons  statesman.  It  lasted  bnt  six  years,  bnt  a  snb«w*qnent  newspaperv 
entitled  the  ^*  Pennsylvania  Gazette,*'  was  started  bv  B  *njaraiu  Franklin  in  1729,  and 
continued  weekly  till  1746,  when  it  merged  in  the  ••North  American.'*  •'Bde's 
Boston  Gazette,''  bceun  in  1765,  was  for  a  long  time  the  ciiief  organ  of  the  popola^ 
party  ;  in  it  appeared  John  Adams's  ••  Letters  of  Novanglns."  The  ••Massachnsett* 
Spy"  was  another  paper  of  note  on  the  revolutionary  side.  It  was  aft«rwanls  w. 
moved  from  Boston  \jo  Worcester,  and  still  appears  as  the  **  Worcester  Spy.**  At 
the  revolution,  the  New  England  colonies  possessed  14  newspai^ers ;  Pennsjfvania, 
9;  New  York,  4;  and  the  middle  and  southern  colonies,  10.  All  save  the  seinl- 
, weekly  **  .Advertiswr"  of  Philadelphia  were  pnblished  weekly.  The  development  of 
tile  uews))aper  trade  Inis  kept  pace  with  the  advancing  prosperity  of  the  country.  In 
180  K  the  number  of  newspnpers  had  increased  to  200.  of  which  several  were  dailV 
papers.  In  1810,  there  were  859,  including  27  daily  sheets.  In  182S  ^^  papers  appeared 
in  1860,  no  less  tliat  2626;  while  in  ld70  there  were  6871  newspapers,  with  a  clVcnla- 
ti>m  of  20.S4-i.476,  and  a  yearly  Issue  of  1,608,260.  In  1874,  the  number  of  Weekly 
papers  had  reached  6544,  l)esides  tlie  weekly  if  sues  of  678  daily  pabei«.  Some  (rf  the 
New  York  weeklies  have  an  enormous  circulation,  the  "  Ledger '*^  having  Oi-casiou- 
ally  sent  out  upwards  of  400,000  copies.  The  Germans  publislrSlO  papers  in  their  o«vii 
tongue;  the  Scandinavians,  19;  Spaniards,  10;  Italians,  2;  Welah,  4:  Botiemiaus, 
6  ;  Polt!s,  2 ;  Poriujruwe,  1 ;  while  thore  Is  a  Chinese  newspaper  pttl>lisbe<l  at  San 
Francisco,  and  a  Cherokel  one  at  Tahleqnah  In  the  Indian  Territory.  About  215 
lieriodicaN,  with  a  supported  agsei-egate  circuhition  of  65^000,000  copies,  are  issued  tu 
the  United  States.  Among  the  leading  newspapers  of  New  York,  tlie  order  of  Im- 
p<»rt..nce,  l)oth  as  to  enterprise  and  circuiailou,  is  the  ^•New  York  Henddy"  Hm 
**  Trilmue,"  and  the  **  New  York  Times.** 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC  _ 


245 


KeM 
Newvton 

The  principal  re1!^oii9  paporB  published  in  New  York  nre  the  "Ob^rvorand 
Evaiiirelist,"  organs  of  the  Presbyterians ;  *'  lnd»'p»Ddt'iit  and  Chrlf»tinn  Union."  (n! 
th<*  Couffrfgatioualij't ;  the  "Clnirelinntn  "  id£piBco|*al;  th»  "  Cbrietiaii  Advocnte," 
MetHodist;  iindllic  **  Examiner,"  Baptist  The  •Unitarians  are  nprosciited  by  tins 
•*  JLiberal  Chri^tinn  ; "  the  Catholics  by  the  "  Tablet ; "  and  the  Swedeuboi-giaua  and 
Jews  have  also  their  piipem. 

All  th«  oth«»r  unmt  rons  jonrnals  of  the  American  Slntes  are,  compared  wUh 
tlio^e  of  New  York,  ncconutcd  nrovincinl,  but  mnny  ;ne.  iievertiivlfss.  vigorously 
coDdnctcd.  R-icii  county,  ronipri!<tng,  on  un  avt-ra^re,  860  sqinire  tniles,  ha^  g  n<  r- 
ally  two  xiT  tiuve  papers — oi>e  being  repithlican,  nnothcr  democratic,  and  if  tlnre  is 
"n  third,  it  is»  probMOly  the  organ  of  soiuh  relijiions  or  otiier  seit  The  prlnt<'ri«',  in 
most  cases,  the  editor,  and  the  village  lawyer  snpplies  load«;n»  seasoned  Ir  qucnily 
with  personal  attacks.  Some  of  thein  have  l»efeu  snccessfnily  Bturte<l  with  no  larger 
capitnl  ttian  ^100  of  borrow<?d  money. 

Tht're  is  an  innnenpe  collection  of  newspnpors  in  the  British  Mnsenm.  whicii 
belonged  in  part  to  the  library  of  Sir  Hans  8ioan«',  in  p;irt  to  that  of  Dr  Charles 
Burufy.  Sec  Andrews's  "  Qistory  of  British  Joumalifm  "  (London,  J859).  Gram's 
*-  I'he  Newspaper  Press ;  its  Origin,  Progress,  and  Present  Condition"  (Londou, 
ISTl). 

NEWT,  or  Eft  (Triton)^  a^cntis  of  batrachians  of  fhe  f arx^]y  Sm^awandn'dce, 
more  aquatic  ib  their  haoit^  iaui  the  snlnmander,  to  which,  in  form  and  characters, 
tilt  y  are  very  similar,  buN-ing  an  elongated  body  and  tail,  and  four  nmall  weak 
limbs.  Thtj  tail  is  vt-rtically  compresseti.  and  a  crest  is  often  developed  on  the  l>ack 
and  t{«l,  but  the  crest  is  ciiaracterihtic  of  tlie  males  in  the  breeding  season,  and  the 
tail  l>ecoiiies  rounded  wlien  the  aninnils leave  the  water,  as  they  often  do,  particu- 
larly iu  the  latter  part  of  hnmmer  or  in  autumn  ;  which,  alon^  with  other  vnriatio;  s 
app.-trently  d  pendent,  on  drcumstunces,  have  caused  no  little  mnltiplicaiion  of 

rcific  names.  'J  he  most  abundant  British  p])fcies  is  the  Common  N.,  or  Smooth 
{P,  punctatuSy  LissotrUon  punctnttu,  or  Ijophintm  punctahm),  wliicli  is  from  Z}4 
to  4  inches  long,  brownish  gray  above,  yellowisii  beiMiath,  spotted  with  black,  with  a 
soft,  smootli  skin,  and  two  oands  of  pores  on  tiie  liead  ;  a  well-known  inhabitant  of 
st^ignunt  i)ooIs  and  ditches,  often  found  also  under  stones  and  iu  other  damp  situa- 
tions. Tlie  Wartt  N.  (jP.  jHilutttriBy  or  eriatatvs),  also  pretty  common,  is  6  or  6 
inches  in  length,  blackish  brown  above  with  roni  d  spots  of  a  darker  tint,  bright 
cirange  or  orange-yellow  with  black  spots  on  the  under  parts,  the  sides  dotted 
Mrixh  white,  and  the  tail  often  exhibiting^  white  btiucl,  the  skin  rough  or 
warty,  and  with  many  pores.  The  dorsal  and  c;.udal  crests  of  the  Warty  N. 
are  separate;  those  of  the  Common  N.  are  united.  Many  other  species  occur  in 
other  parts  of  the  world.  They  all  feed  on  animal  food,  of  whicli  tadpole:*  and 
aquatic  insects  form  tlie  chief  portions.  They  deposit  their  e^jrs  on  the  leaves  of 
aqnatic  plants,  each  egg  separately,  twisting  or  folding  the  leaf  with  their  fet^t  f^o  as  to 
conceal  the  egg,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  viscous  substance,  so  that  the  leaf  is  re- 
tained in  this  form.  The  transformations  of  newts  are  noticed  in  the  article  Batra- 
ouiA.  They  very  frequently  change  their  skin.  They  possess,  in  an  extraordinary 
degree^  the  power  of  reproducing  lost  members — a  limb,  a  tail,  even  an  eye— in  every 
respect  perfect  Spallausani,  who  made  many  obs«  rvations  on  this  subject,  round 
that  the  same  member  could  be  reproduced  a  number  of  times  successively.  Newts 
are  also  capable  of  surviving,  aJthongh  long  fyozeu  up  in  ice,  and  return  to  activity 
Wnen  n  tliaw  ttikes  place.  A  strong  and  almost  universal  popular  prejudice  exists 
against  them  as  most  noxious  aninuds,  although  tiiey  are  not  in  the  slightest  degree 
venomous.  They  have  receiuly,  Ijowever,  bet^uu  to  be  more  favorably  regarded  in  con- 
sequence of  the  frequency  of  flqumia,  of  which  they  are  interesting  inmates.— It.  is  a 
curious  fact  that  Liinieeus,  contrary  to  his  usual  discrimiuuring  p<netration.  con- 
lonnded  newts  with  lizards,  wliicii  they  resemble  merely  in  torm,  differing  widely  iu 
the  most  important  characters.  That  tliey  are  often  confounded  by  ihe  unscientific 
is  not  wonderful. 

NEWTON,  Sir  Isaac,  the  most  remarable  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher 
«dC  his  own  or  perhaps  of 
iutiieyear  1642.    That] 
tlie  civii  war  between  < 


y  Google 


Newton 


246 


history  of  science  by  the  birth  of  N.  and  the  death  of  Gnllleo.  The  drcnmfltjuioef 
with  which  tlie  pnrtniit  of  triiih,  iu  scieHtific  niaiters,  was  ut  this  time  sarroandedla 
the  u«^8P'Ctive  coiiiiirics  of  iJjesegrfjii  philowpli* i^p,  were  not  more  diffrt-nt  than 
thi5  characters  of  tlie  pUiloJ»opitt'r^  themselves.  Qnlileo  died  a  prisoner,  ntidcr 
the  surveillance  of  tite  luqnisltlon,  "for  thinkiii};*  in  astronomy,"  as  Milton  *iiyw» 
**  otherwise  than  the  Franciscan  and  Domlnicun  lic<ns<'rs  tliouRlii."  In  Englnnd.j'C 
had  become  tlie  practice,  and  soon  t^ecaine  thefasiiion,  throuuh  ttie  infliu^nceof  B.-icun 
an(i  D  'scartes,  to  discard  lUtopetluir  Hie  dictates  of  authority  in  umiters  Of  science. 
Tl>e  dis{)Ositionx  of  the  two  philosopht^rs  were  happily  fnft<d  to  the  Mitojttions  in 
wliicl)  they  tlra;*  found  themselves.  Galileo's  was  a  mind  whose  strength  and  d:;tir- 
miiiatlon  grew  by  the  opposition  it  encountered.  The  disposition  of  N.,  on  the 
other  liand,  diffident  of  the  value  and  int.«  rest  of  his  own  labor.",  and  shrinkiiig 
from  tlie  encounter  of  even  scientiflb  controversy,  might  hnve  allowed  his  moat  r©- 
remarkable  discoveries  to  remain  in  obscurity,  Jind  it  not  been  for  tlic  ct»»istant  and 
nrg»nt  yolicitaiion  of  his  friends  th-it  they  should  He  pnbiisht'd  to  Ihe  worTd: 

N.  received  his  early  education  at  the  grammar  school  of  Grantham,  in  the  neig^ 
borbood  of  his  home,  at  Woolsthorpe.  On  the  5th  of  June  1661,  he  left  home  for 
Cambridge,  where  he  was  admitted  as  snbsizar  at  Trinity  College.  On  the  Stli^of 
July  following,  he  matriculated  as  sizar  of  the  same  collect*.  He  immediately  applivd 
himself  to  the  mathematicnl  studies  of  uhe  place,  and  within  a  veiy  few  years  iniist 
have  not  only  niade  himself  master  of  most  of  lhe\^rk8  of  any  value  on  supli  sub- 
jects titen  existing,  but  had  also  begun  to  make  some  progress  in  the  methods  fw 
extendi' ig  the  science.  In  the  year  1665,  he  committed  lo  writhig  his  first  discoverj 
on  fluxions ;  and  it  is  said  that  in  ihe  same  year,  the  fall  of  an  appe,  as  ha 
Bat  in  his  garden  at  Wooli'thoipe,  suggested  the  most  ma^ificent  of  hi.^  ?<ab- 
sequent  discovries — the  law  of  nniver?'al  gravitation.  0\\  his  first  atteuqit,. how- 
ever, by  means  of  the  law  ^o  seggested  to  his  mind,  to  explain  the  lunar  and 
planetary  motions,  he  imploycd  an  estimate  then  in  use  of  the  radius  of  the  earth, 
which  was,  so  eiT.meous  as  to  produce  a  discrap  lucy  between  the  real  furce  of 
gravity  and  that  requin-d  by  theory  to  explain  the  motions,  corresponding  to  Use 
respective  figures  16*1  and  139.  He  accordiujtly  abandoned  the  hypotlt^is 
for  otijer  studies.  Tlie.*e  other  pursuits  to  which  he  thus  bt:took  himst^lf 
consisted  chiefly  of  investigation  into  the  nature  of  ligltt,  and  the  constmctlon  of 
telencopes.  By  a  variety  of  ingenious  and  interesting  exp;  rimenta  upon  sunlight 
rt'/ractcd  through  a  prism  in  a  (larkeHcd  apartm -nt,  he  was  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
rays  of  light  which  differ  in  <o!oj,  dilf^r  also  in  refrangibility.  This  discovery  enabled 
him  to  explain  an  imperfection  of  the  telescope,  which  had  not  till  then  been  account.d 
for.  The  indistinctness  of  thelmage  formed  hy  the  object-glas!*  was  not  neci-ssarily 
due  to  any  imperfection  of  its  form,  but  to  the  fact  of  the  diflferent  colored  i-ays  (rf 
light  being  brought  to  a  focus  at  diiferent  distances.  lie  concluded  rightly  that  it 
was  impossible  tor  an  object-glass  consisting  of  a  single  lens  to  prod nce.ad:stiia^ 
image.  He  went  further,  and  too  hastily  concluding  from  a  single  experiment,  that 
the  dispersive  ytoyivr  of 'different  substances  was  proportional  to  tlieir  refractive 
power,  he  pronounced  it  impossible  to  produce  a  perfect  image  by  a  corabinaiion  of 
lenses.  This  conclusion— since  prov3«l  erroneous  by  the  discovery  of  the  uchron)ati^ 
telescope  by  Mr  Cliester  More  Hall,  of  More  Hall,  in  Ebs<:z,  about  1T29,  and  after- 
ward-, independently,  by  Mr  DoUond  in  1751— tunied  N.'s  attention  to  the  construc- 
tion of  reflecting  telescopes ;  and  the  form  devised  by  him  is  the  ttne  which,  at  later 
S;riods,  reached  such  perfection  in  the  hands  of  Sir  WiUiam  Uerachel  aud  Loid 
osse. 
It  was  on  the  11th  January  1671  that  N.  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Boyal  So- 
ciety, having  become  known  to  that  body  fr')m  his  reflecting  telescopes.  At  uhiit 
period  he  resumed  his  calculations  about  gravitation,  employing  tlie  ntore  comet 
measure  of  the  earth  obtained  by  Picard  in  1670,  dos  not  clearly  appear:  but  it  wits  ' 
in  the  year  1684  that  it  bccami;  known  to  Ilalley  that  he  was  in  possissjon  of  the 
whole  theory  and  its  dt-monstrjition.  It  was  on  the  urgent  solic  tutiou  of  Haliey 
that  he  was  induced  to  commit  to  a  systematic  treatise  th<  a.-  principles  aud  their 
demonstJ-ations.  The  principal  results  of  his  discoveries  were  Si-t  down  in  a^treotiso 
called  *'De  Motu  Corporoin,"  and  were  afterwards  more  completely  nnloUlHi  in  Ihq 
giHi.it  work  (rntii]>*d  '^Philosophise  Natiuratis  Priucipia  MaUtematica,"  wliick  waf 
fiuu.ly  published  about  midsummer  168Z,  * 


y  Google 


247 


Newton 


Shortly  before  the  **  Principia  **  was  given  to  the  pnhHc,  1^.  hud  been  called  to  take 
•1)  iictiv*;  prirt  iu  dcfcDdiup  the  right**  of  the  university  ngninet  th«  ilk*g:il  eiunmcli- 
nii'iibi  of  Janica  II.  llie  cuurpiciions  part  which  he  hud  taken  on  that  oc^a^<:on 
pi-cKTiir-i'd  liiui  a  f>eat  iu  the  Conveiitiuu  pHrliament,  in  whitb  he  i>:it  fruin  Jnnnary 
1689  to  its  dii«eolntion  in  1690.  In  1686,  ho  was  appohiteil  Was  den  of  liic  Mint,  and 
May  siftenviirds  promoted  to  the  office  of  Mnuter  of  the  Mint  In  16W.  an  office  which 
he  held  liU  the  end  of  h\»  life.  He  again  ttok  u  feat  in  parlianieut*  in  the  year  1701 « 
06  the  representative  of  hi»<  university.  Thus  engaged  in  the  public  B«'rvlce,  he  h:.d 
litle  time  left  for  mere  f>cieiitinc  aiudiea— ^r^nita  which  bo  aiwaTs  held  of  second- 
ary imiKntmice  to  the  public  duties  in  which  he  w:is  engaged.  In  the  interval  of 
1>nl)lic  duty,  however,  N.  shewed  that  he  1*1111  retiiiueil  the  scientific  |K)wer  by  which 
i\f  greut  di^coverie8  liud  tieen  made,  'i  his  waA  sliewii  in  his  solution  of  two  ccle> 
biatedprohleuisprouosetl,  iu  June  1696.  by  John  Bernouilli,  as  a  challenge  to  the 
maibentaticians  of  Eniope.  A  similar  iuatheniatical  feat  in  recorded  of  him  so  hite 
as  1716.  in  solving  a  problem  pronosed  by  Leibnitz,  for  the  purpose,  as  he  ex- 
pressetl  it,  of  feeling  the  pulne  of  the  English  analyst^'.  When  iu  iNiriiameut,  N. 
recommended  the  public  encouragement  of  the  invention  of  a  method  for  determin- 
h»g  the  longitude — the  first  leward  in  consequence  being  gained  by  John  Harriiron 
for  his  chronometer.  He  ym*  President  of  the  Royal  bocietv  from  ITOS  till  Ms 
death,  a  )ieriod  of  twenty-five  yta»*s.  being  each  yeiir  re-elecu  d.  In  liiis  |)Osiilon, 
and  enjoying  the  confioence  of  Prince  ueorge  of  Denmark,  he  had  much  in  his 
power  towards  the  advancement  of  ticieuce;  and  one  of  his  most  impor- 
tant works  during  this  time  was  the  superintendence  of  the  publication 
of    Flamsieod's    "^Greenwich    Ol'Servutlons "— u    ta»»k,     however,     not    accom- 

Slisbed  without  much  controveivy  snd  some  bitterness  between  himself  and 
ict  astronomer.  The  coutioversy  betweeu  N.  and  Leibnitz,  as  to  priority  of  dis- 
cwerj'  of  the  differential  calculus,  or  tlie  method  of  fluxions,  was  raised  rather 
through  the  partifanship  of  jealous  frit  nds,  than  thron^h  the  anxiety  of  the  phi- 
losoi-bersihemsehes,  u  ho  were,  however,  induced  to  enter  into  and  carry  on  the 
di>putew]Th  some  degree  of  bitti  mess  and  mntuah  recrimination.  The  verdict  of 
the  imparthii  hisiori.in  of  ^ience  nmst  be,  that  lh«r  methods  were  invented  quite  in- 
dependently, and  that,  although  N.  was  the  first  inventor,  a  greater  debt  is  owing 
by  later  aitalysts  to  Leihnilz,  on  ticcount  of  the  superior  facility  and  completenei^s 
of  his  method.  The  dettiils  of  these  controversies,  with  all  other  informati<m  of  the 
life  of  this  philosopher,  will  l)e  foimd  admirably  collected  in  the  **Life''  by  Sir  D. 
Bn  wster,  who  wntrs  with  not  only  t>n  intimate  acquaintance  with  N.'s  woiks,  but 
iu  the  po8ses«iioii  of  all  the  materials  colltctetl  iu  the  haids  of  his  family.  N.  died  on 
80th  March  1727,  and  bis  remains  received  a  restinjr-place  in  Westminster  A hlH>y, 
where  a  monument  was  erected  to  bis  memory  in  ItSi.  A  magnificent  full-length 
s*tatnt;  of  tite  philosopher,  executed  by  Koubiiliac,  was  erected  in  1755  in  the  ante- 
cfaapel  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  'ibis  work  was  af^sisted  by  a  cast  of  the  face 
taken  after  death,  w  Inch  is  preserved  in  the  university  library  at  Cambridge.  In 
16W,  N.  had  l»een  elected  a  foreign  a8.«ociale  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  nnd  iu 
1703.  he  received  the  honor  of  knighthood  from  Qneen  Anne.  Amomr  the  l)est « di- 
tionsof  N.'s  principal  works  ar<i  tlie  quarto  edition  of  the  **  Optics  "(Loud.  1704), 
and  the  quarto  edition  of  the>-  Principia,"  published  at  Cambridge  in  1713. 

NEWTON,  Thomas,  an  English  prelate  of  the  ISih  c,  wns  i»oni  at  Lichfield,  Jan- 
nary  1, 1704.  He  was  eductited  at  Westminster  S<hool,  and  afterwards  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  where  lie  to<  k  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1730.  in  which  year  al.-o  he 
was  ordained  priest.  After  holdiiig  several  minor  pr«'f erments,  he  wa?*  niaue  Bij'hop  of 
Bristol  in  1761,  and  died  '4th  of  February  1782.  Without  any  rcinarkahle  merit,  N. 
has,  one  caimot  well  say  how.  succeeded  in obtiiining  a  place  in  literary  history.  His 
t^o  pnjducticms,  whose  fortunes  have  surpassed  their  disserts,  are  an  edition  of 
*•  Milton's  Paradise  Lost"  (2  vols.  1749),  with  a  memoir  (if  tlie  poet,  and  critical  and 
exjilrmatory  nott^;  and  "  Dis?«ertatious  on  the  Prophecies  "  (3  vols.  1764— 1T6S).  Be- 
r'Hles  these,  be  wrote  occasional  sermons,  and  a  host  of  scriptural  dissertations,  the 
iheoloiry  of  which  is  reckoned  not  always  '*  orthodox." 

NEW'TON,  a  township  in  Maasachusetts,  United  States  of  America,  on  Charles 
Blver,  aigiit  miles  west  of  Boston.  It  contains  two  villages,  Upiwr  Falls  and  Low»;r 
Falls,  with  8  paper-milts,  8  cotton  nnd  hosiery  factories,  a  Bapttst  theological  semi- 
naiy,  and  18  churches.    Pop.  (1870)  19,852. 


y  Google 


Newt»li  O  1  Q 

Ngami  -^^O 

NEW'TON-A'BBOT,  ft  mark^  town  of  Biieland,  !d  the  county  of  DeTon, 
iKiiiiuifully  hituated  in  a  vale  on  the  riv«r  Lemon,  15  miles  soiitU-suutb-we»t  of  Ex- 
eter. The  porijou  of  the  town  called  Newton-Bushel  is  on  the  I  fi  side  of 
tiie  stream.  It  lias  »)eon  nndergiing  conyideruble  improvements  witlnn  n-cont  years. 
"William  of  O  an  ire,  utter  lanUinif  at  Torbay,  iu  1638,  made  his  first  public  declaratiou 
lierc^     Pop.  (1871)  0032. 

NEVV"ION-IN-M.\'KERFIELD,  a  thriving  man  tifacturinor  and  marltet  town  of 
EnL'laiid.  in  Lancashire.  15  :niles  west  of  Manchester,  on  the  Manchester aud  Liver- 
pool Hail  way.  Two  larijo  iron  foundriess  as  w.  11  as  pi'intiug,  paper  ami  sngar  . 
works,  an  oil-<1i8tilkM-y,  and  a  brick,  tile  and  pot  manufactory  are  in  tull  opention. 
'J'liere  is  a  beautifnl  lake  in  the  town  cal.lcd  Newlon  Mere,  whitrh  is  covered  dur- 
ing; the  sumnur  mouths  with  the  pleasure-boats  of  the  t<iwn?peopIe.  Horse-nu-ea 
are  lu-id  here^  iu  jTune,  and  horse  and  entile  fairs  iu  May  and  August  aunumly. 
Th«!  election  of  .M.P.'s  for  South  Lanctishire  takes  place  in  Newton.  Cotton 
and  flour  mills,  iron  foundries  and  glass-worl&s  are  iu  operation ;  aud  briciia 
are  made.    Pop.  (18T1)  8244. 

NEW  rON-UPON-AYR,  a  burgh  of  barony  and  parl.nh  of  Scotland,  in  the 
county  of  .^yr,  on  the  north  side  of  the  river  Ayr,  aud  united  with  tne  lowuof  ttiat 
name  by  three  bridges.  See  Atb.  Its  population  is  includetiiu  that  of  Ayr.  N.  Ims 
ship-buil(lin>r  docks,  roperies,  aud  irou  aud  brass  foundries.  It  exporta  100,QOO 
tuns  of  coal  anuually. 

NEWTON'S  RINGS.  In  Ids  invcstli?»tion«  of  the  colors  ^>roduced  by  thin 
nlates  of  any  material,  solid,  fluid,  or  gaseous,  Sir  Isaac  Newton  tiit  upon  tiie  fol- 
lowing mode  of  fxhibiting  the  colors  produce<l  by  a  film  of  air.  He  toolc  two 
lenses,  one  convexo-plune^  its  convex  side  having  a  radius  of  14  feet,  the  otiter 
eqni-convex,  wiih  tlie  radii  of  its  surfaces  5)  feet,  and  laid  tt*e  first  with  its  plane 
surface  downwards  on  the  ti»p  of  the  second,  thus  producing  a  thin  fllm  of  air  be- 
tween the  lem«es;  the  fi  ui  being  thinnest  near  the  centre,  aud  l>ecomiifg^gradually 
thicker  outwards.  Ou  sUnvly  pressing  tlie  upper  lens  against  tiie  under  one,  a  unm- 
her  of  concentric  colored  rings,  having  the  point  of  contact  of  the  lenses  for  their 
centre,  apt)C::red,  and  increased  in  size  when  the  presjiure  wis  increased.  These 
rings,  or  more  properly  systems  of  rings,  are  seven  in  number,  and  each  of  thetii  Is 
composed  of  a  uumber  (ranging  from  eight  in  the  fli-st  or  smallest  ring,  to  two  in 
t.ie  outermost)  ot  rings  of  <lifferent  colors,  the  colors,  tlnnigh  differeut  iu  each  of 
the  systems  of  rings,  prtiserviiig  the  same  arraugeintmtas  the  colors  of  the  spectrnui, 
of  which  tliey  seem  to  be  modifications;  thus,  in  the  second  ring  the  inside  color  is 
violet,  and  the  outside  scarlet  red.  The  colors  are  very  distinct  in  the  fl-^t  thret* 
systems  of  rings,  hat  become  gradually  coufu.sed  and  dull  towards  the  outside,  till 
they  almost  fade  away  iu  the  seventti  syst-ein.  The  cmtre  is  deep  black«  Tho 
tliiekHessof  the  air-film  at  the  centre  is  about  half  a  millionth  of  an  incli,  aud  iu- 
creases  gradually  to  nearly  1-130,000  of  an  inch,  when  the  colors  disap{>ear. 

NEW'TOWN,  a  modern  manufacturing  town  of  North  Walep,  in  the  county  of 
Montgomery,  8  iniles  south-west  of  the  town  of  that  name,  on  the  rljrht  l>auk  of  tbt» 
Severn,  and  on  the  Montgomery  Canal,  which,  connects  it  with  the  inland  navi«itiQn 
of  tliecouiitiy.  It  is  the  centi«' of  tiie  flannel  minitfaetures  of  the  couuty.  It  has 
40  factories,  employing  in  all  960  meu.    Poi».  (1811)  6744. 

NEWTOWNAKDS,  a  market-town  of  the  county  Down,  Ireland,  4il  miles  eaia 
from  B.*!fa8t  by  railway.  Pop.  (1871)  9562.  It  cont^iins  a  court-house,  a  town-hall, 
tiiid  a  nmrket-squai  c ;  a  Protestant  church,  a  Roman  Catholic  chapei,  seven  Presby- 
terian meeiing-houses,  numerous  schools,  and  a  union  workhouse.  It  is  a  neat  and 
well-built  town,  of  considerable  trade,  and  with  extensive  muslitijAax-spliining,  and 
weavi mi;  factories.  Since  tlie  Union,  it  has  ct-ased  lobe  a  parliamentary  boruugh. 
The  a(caii-8  of  the  town  are  administered  by  commissionei-s. 

NEWTOWN-LIMAVA'DY  (Ir.  Leim-a-madha,  ♦•The  Dog's  I/'ap"),  a  market- 
town  of  the  county  of  Londnndcriy,  Ireland,  and  16  miles  east-iurtti-oast  of  the  town 
of  Loinlo'ideriy.  Pop.  in  1871,  2762.  N.-ll,  in  the  i)erio<l  anterior  to  the  estihUsh- 
nient  of  English  rule,  was  the  seat  of  the  powerful  sept  of  the  O'Cahans.  orX)'Knues; 
and  duriut;  the  wars  of  the  R«.*volution  it  was  the  scene  Qf  more  than  one  rtrnggb 
between  the  followers  of  James  II.  aud  those  of  WLlliaui.    Its  cbief  iinporiaiioe  al 


Digitized  by 


Gobgle 


O  JO  Newton 

^-^^  Ngami 

present  !f>  118  a  c«n)tre  of  the  flax  trade,  once  the  staple  of  that  di!>trirt,  aiid  H^aiu 
riahig  in  importance.  It  po88e:«808  a  town-luill,  weaving  factory,  exteiiaive  floar- 
miilsi,  iitarketa,  and  brewery ;  un ion  workhouse,  Protestaut  chiii ch  aud  other  places 
of  woraihip.  and  two  comforiable  liotf  |j§. 

NEXT  FRIEND  is,  iu  English  Law,  tlie  name  given  to  the  person  in  who)*e 
namf,  or  rather  by  whone  agency,  an  infant — ^L  e.,  a  person  nnder  tlie  age  of  21 — 
saes  in  the  courts  of  law  and  equity.  The  object  is  clii«  fly  to  have  some  party  re- 
si>0D8i1>le  for  costs  in  cat^  the  infant  fails  in  the  action.  In  practice,  the  father,  if 
alive,  is  nsnally  the  next  friend,  bar  any  substantial  person  may  l)e.so.  In  the  Court 
of  ChauQery,  u  married  woman  sues  or  appears  by  the  luterveutiou  uf  a  next  friend, 
whore  she  is  personally  interested. 

NEY,  Michel,  a  celebrated  marshal  of  the  first  French  empire,  was  the  son  of  a 
cooper,  and  was  l)orn  at  Stiarlouis,  10th  January  1769.  He  wai*  a  non-commiKsiouetl 
officer  in  a  hiis^ar  regiment  wheu  the  Revolution  l>egan,  and  afterwards  rapidly  rose 
to  high  mihtary  rank.  For  the  capture  of  Manulieim  by  a  coup  de  main,  he  was 
made' a  general  of  division  in  1799.  lie  was  iutetim  commander  of  the  army  of  the 
Hhiue  for  ii  short  time,  during  which  he  friistoit^  by  a  bold  (Iiver^ion  an  imponant 
nmvemeut  of  tlie  Archduke  Charles  against  Massena  and  the  annv  of  Switzer- 
land. Alter  the  peace  of  Luueville,  Bonaparte,  anxious  to  win  N.,  wi'b 
other  republicans,  to  his  (larty,  brought  a>.)ont  iiis  marriage  wiih  a  young 
friend  of  H(»rrt*nse  Beauharnais,  and  ap|)ointed  liiin  ins{)ectoi>^euer:il  of  cavalry. 
On  tlie  establishment  of  the  empire,  Iih  was  iiia<le  a  marshal.  In  1805,  he  storied 
tlie  intrench luents  of  Elchiugen,  and  uas  created  Duke  of  Elchingen.  Hi*  after- 
wards remlereil  important  services  in  the  Tyrol ;  contributed  much  to  the  Frem  h 
succeeaes  of  180«  and  1807 ;  and  servi'd  in  Spain  with  jgreat  ability  iu  1808  and  1809. 
till  he  was  dismissed  by  Macu^ena,  thecoinmander-iu-chief.  on  a  dispute  alMiut  the  plan 
of  the  campaign.  Chagrineil  by  tnls,  and  dissatisfled  with  Napwieon's  de^iKitism,  he 
remained  for  some  lime  inactive;  I'UtinlSlil  received  the  command  of  the  thin  1 
corps  (Varm^  and  ^eatly  distiugui^Iled  himself  at  Smolensk  and  the  Moskw.i,  In 
consequence  of  which  he  was  crvateil  Pilnce  of  the  Moskwa.  He  al>o  displayed 
IH'eat  abliities  iu  the  iTrench  retreat.  He  liad  a  pdncipal  |>art  in  the  campait^us  of 
ISIS  and  1814.  but  after  the  cjipture  of  Paris,  he  urged  tlie  eniperor  to  abdicate,  and 
submitted  to  Louis  XVIIL.  Who  Ioade<l  him  with  favors.  Ou  NamileonV  return 
from  Elba,  N.  as^^nrt-d  the  kitig  of  his  fld<;lity.  and  was  sent  against  Napoleon  at  the 
liead  of  400J  men  ;  but  fliuiing  the  emperor  to  be  receiv*d  with  general  enthusiasm, 
and  Ills  own  soldiers  to  tie  favorable  to  his  cause,  N.  went  over  to  his  side.  In  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  he  commanded  the  centre,  and  had  five  horses  nhot  under  him. 
After  the  capitiihition  (>f  Paris,  he  yielded  to  tlie  entreaties  of  his  family  to  ntire  to 
Switzerland  ;  bat  a  costly  Egyptian  sabre,  the  giffof  Nnpoleon,  led  to  Ids  ix  ing  sus- 
pected by  an  official,  and  arn^sted.  He  was  condemned  to  death  for  high  treason, 
and  was  siiot  in  the  garden  of  the  Luxembourg  ou  7ih  December  1816.  lie  left  three 
Bons,  who  published  nis  **  M^molres  "  (2  vols.  Par.  1833). 

N'GA'MI,  Lake.  The  existence  of  lakes  in  the  interior  of  Africa  was  vaguely 
known  ai*  far  hack  as  the  days  of  Herodotus ;  jind  the  earliest  modem  niaps  sin  w  at 
least  half-a-dozeu  large  and  hmall,  one  of  whicti  is  about  the  siz<-,  and  very  lu  arly  in 
the  position  of  that  shallow  refl«  rvoir  of  surface  drainage  which  wa>»  dincoven  d.  or 
at  least  first  visited  by  a  European  in  1S49,  when  Dr  Uviu^tour  and  Mr  O&well.  who 
were  aware  of  its  existence  from  native  report,  reached  its  shores  by  a  circuitous 
route  from  the  Cape  Colou^'.  Although  since  a>certaiued  to  he  of  little  fmporiaucc  iu 
the  physical  geography  of  these  regions.  Lake  N.  was  at  first  suppost  d  to  no  iu  tome 
way  connectt:d  with  the  larger  inland  stas  of  Nyassa.  Victo  la  Nyanza,  and  Tanga- 
nyika. It  is  situated  between  the  20th  and  21st  parallels  of  s.  hit.,  and  between  the 
moridiiins  220  iq'  and  28©  8U'  e.  long.,  at  a  height  of  about  2500  ft-it  ab<A'u  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  is  conue(*ted  by  a  st-ries  of  sluggish  ana'^tomosing  ht reams  with  the 
river-sy:«tem  of  the  Zambezi ;  its  extent  as  well  as  depth  varies  with  the  fall  of  rain 
in  the  tonntry  to  the  north  of  it,  but  its  average  size  may  lie  taken  at  TO  miles  lon}:» 
by  a  breadth  of  20  nnd  a  depth  varviuir  from  8  to  28  feet.  In  1858,  Lake  N.  was 
reached  from  the  west  coast  i»ar  Walfish  Bay  by  the  traveller  An der><sou.  and  there 
is  now  a  well- beaten  route  for  traders  between  these  two  places,  and  a  considerable 
quantity  of  ivory  and  ostrich  feathers  are  annually  collected  iu  the  neighborhood 


Digitized  by 


Google 


-'-TITTl 


X  250 

the  lake.  The  principal  characterisiticg  of  the  re^on  are  rirorB,  with  Very  t>ings^8h 
current,  and  ofteu  flowing  in  diff.  rent  <)irectiou9  tuiiud  from  the  Inkc,  large  salt-paud 
nud  cxUMiflive  dry  flat^,  covered  with  dense  biisb,  the  liaQUt  of  eluphauta  and  otlit  r 
lar;re  animals. 

In  1S(KS  tlie  well-known  Hportsman  Hud  traveller,  F.  Green,  ascended  the  River 
Tonka,  which  flows  ijito  the  uorthwet  angle  of  L:ike  N., «»  far  north  as  the  town  of 
Lebfbt*,  in  18^  U'  lat.,  and  then  supposM  that  a  ooinmonicatiou  exij»ted  witU  th« 
waters  of  Ciianeue,  a  river  of  the  weet  coa^t*  If  such  is  the  case,  it  wonid  be  a 
curious  phenomenon  in  phjsictil  geiignfphy,  comnmuicatiug,  as  we  know  Lake  N. 
al^'O  does,  with  the  Zambezi,  a  river  oi  tlie  eaat  coast. 

NGAN-KINO,  a  large  and  wealthy  city  of  China,  the  capitjil  of  theproviMr« 
of  N};an-whi.  It  stands  on  the  left  fwnk  of  the  great  river  Yang-tz^.-Kiauir.  190 
mil '8  south-west  from  Nankin.  The  sarrotinding  country  is  highly  cultivated,  attd 
very  densely  peopled.  The  mineral  riches  of  the  neighborhood  are  conHidenib.'e. 
N.  is  a  pl.ico  of  busy  trade,  great  part  of  the  goods  Intended  for  Nankin  pasnirg 
through  the  hand.''  of  It^s  merchants.  The  trade  is  carried  on  by  means  of  veesela  ou 
the  river.    Porcelain  and  cloth  are  among  the  principal  articles  of  trade. 

NIA'QARA,  a  river  of  Norlh  Americtt,  which  flows  from  Lake  Erie  northwards 
into  Lake  Ontario.  It  is  about  35  miles  in  length,  and  its  desci.Mii  from  liie  level  of 
the  one  lake  to  ihut  of  the  other  is  a^toat  834  feet  Ou  issuing  from  Lake  Erie,  it  is 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  broad;  but  as  it  flows  on,  it  )»econies  sever:il  mile;*  wide, 
making  room  for  a  numl)er  of  islands,  the  lai^est  of  which,  Grand  Island,  is  13  niiks 
long,  and  from  3  to  7  broad.  At  the  foot  of  Grand  Island,  which  readies  within  \)4 
mile  of  the  Folia  of  N.,  the  river  is  coctracted  to  a  breadth  of  i}4  mile:>,  &ud  grox^'H 
narrowr  as  it  proct'eds.  By  this,  and  by  the  descent  in  the  ciiannel,  wliicti  is  aboafe 
60  feet  in  the  mile  above  the  Falls,  are  pt odmed  the  swift  currents  known  as  tlie 
JiapidSf  in  which  the  river,  notwithstanding  its  great  depth,  isperpetoally  white  with 
foam.  At  the  Falls  which  are  22  miles  from  Lake  Erie,  the  river  is  divided  by  au 
island  co>itainin«;  about  75  acres,  called  Goat  Island ;  but  iu  consequence  of  a  bend 
in  the  channel,  bj^  f.-tr  the  larger  portion  of  the  water  is  sent  down  by  the  Canadian 
side.  On  (jii.-t  side,  thei-efore,  is  the  grander  cataract  which  lias  l>e .n  naiaed  th« 
Horae^hoe  Fall^  bat  no  longer  bear.««the  name  appropriately,  as  the  precipice  has  Ixeu 
worn  from  a  cui-ved  into  a  somewhat  angular  8hai>e.  Tliis  pntci-ss  of  wearing  away 
eoes  on  gradually  siill,  a  large  projvictiim  on  the  Canadian  bank,  known  as  tlie  Table 
Kock,  Imving  partly  fallen  off  in  1863.  The  Ilor^etdtoe  Fall  is  above  600  yards  iu 
breadth,  and  uboiii  154  feet  in  heighi.  The  waterissodeep  that  it  nrtains  its  green  color 
for  some  dlstauctt  beow  the  brow  «  f  the  precipice ;  and  it  rushes  over  with  fuch  force, 
that  it  is  thrown  about  50  feet  from  the  foot  of  the  cliff.  Oue  nniy  thus,  havin^donm  d 
an  oil-skin  dress,  enter  two  or  three  yiuds  behind  the  curved  slieet  of  water ;  but  the 
spray  is  so  blinding,  the  din  so  deafening,  and  the  cuiTent  of  air  s  >  strong,  tliat  it 
requires  a  tolerably  calm  nerve  and  firm  foot.  The  sei)arat!on  caused  by  Got 
Island  leaves  a  lar«;e  wall  of  rock  l)etween  the  Canadian  and  American  Fall'>,  the  ^ 
latter  being  again  ctivided  by  an  islet  at  a  short  distance  from  Goat  Island,  lliis  fjiU 
is  from  eight  to  tsn  feet  higher  than  the  Horseshoe,  but  only  about  220  yard?*  ))roa<l. 
A  little  al)Ove  the  Fall,  ttie  channel  is  divided  by  Bath  Island,  which  is  coimected  by 
bridges  with  Goat  Island  and  the  American  shore.  A  small  tower,  approactied  from 
Goat  Island,  has  been  buili  ou  a  rock  over  the  brow  of  the  Horseshoe  Fall ;  and  from 
this  the  flni'St  view  ou  *.he  American  side  made  be  obtained,  the  Table  Rock  on  thu 
Canadian  side  giving  the  completest  view  of  the  entire  cat^jract.  The  Falls  can  also 
be  seen  from  below  on  both  sides,  and  every  facility  iu  given  for  viewinir  th.-m  from 
all  tlie  best  points,, while  magnificent  hotels,  Canadian  and  American,  off  r  their  in- 
ducements to  the  tourist  to  stay  till  he  hiS  received  the  full  inflaence  of  the  scenerv. 
The  river  is  crossed  about  200  or  30 »  yartls  below  the  Falls,  where  it  is  120!)  yards 
broad.  The  current  is  lessened  for  ab  mt  a  mile,  but  increases  again  as  ihe  cliaunel 
becomes  luuTOwer  »n<l  the  descent  great-r.  B  tween  three  and  lour  miles  Im-Iow' 
the  Falls,  a  stiatura  of  rock  runs  across  the  direct  course  of  the  river,  which,  after 
forming  a  vast  circular  basin,  with  an  impassablo-Avhirlpool,  is  forced  away  at 
riglit  anjle«»  to  its  old  channel.  The  celebrat  d  wirt?  sn^pension-bridge  for  the  Great 
Western  liailway,  wiMt  a  ix>ad  beneath  for  vehicles  and  foot-passengers,  croBses  tiie 


y  Google 


251  JJKiJ 


river  1}^  n^ile  below  the  Fhli ;  it  is  800  feet  long,  40  brond,  and  SOO  feet  above  the  ttnr- 
tufx  of  I  be  water. 

NIAGARA,  chief  town  of  Lincoln  Cnnntr,  In  the  Canndinn  province  of  Ontario, 
is  situated  on  Ljilce  Ontario,  at  tlie  month  of  the  river  Ni.Mtrnra.  HndiedieiaDt  bv  water 
from  Toronto  85  miles.  Burned  down  in  December  1813  by  the  American  General 
MH'lnre  on  hie  reirejit,  it  was  afterwards  reliniit,  iiud  prorai!*ed  to  be  a  flonriBhing 
town  ;  but  its  trade  hns  fallen  off  within  ihe  lust  few  years,  uud  its  popnlatiou  has 
decrea$>cd  to  nl>out  8000. 

HIAKE  {Bos  brachichero8),  the  wild  ox  or  bnffnlo  of  tropical  Western  Africa,  is 
in  size  and  weight  :ilM>nt  equal  to  the  simiHer  hreids  of  British  oxen,  hut  of  greater 
stre!igth.  The  head  is  rather  small,  the  muzzle  hluck,  the  tars  long  and  pointed, 
nitd  fringed  with  benntifnl  silky  hair,  several  inches  long.  The  iiornn  are  10  or  IS 
iui-hes  long,  curved  backwards,  and  sharply  pointed.  Tlie  animal  is  gracefully  nro- 
portioi>ed,  having  nothini;  of  the  clumsiuei*s  of  the  common  ht.ffalo.  The  body  is 
covered  w^ith  a  cout  of  thiii  red  hair.  The  tail  is  tufted  at  tiie  extremity  with  black 
bahr  several  inches  l«)ng.  Hcrd«i  of  these  oxen  were  nee n  bv  Dn  Chailla  In  the  open 
or  pr.iirie  lauds  to  the  Fouth  ot  the  mouth  of  the  Ogobal.  They  are  shy  and  fierce ; 
if  uoiindi'd,  they  turn  u\Kni  the  hunter  with  terrible  furj'.  No  attempt  seems  yet  to 
have  l>et.n  made  |o  domesticate  tliis  animal,  which  is  probably  very  capable  of  it,  and 
migiit  be  found  more  suitable  than  other  oxen  for  warm  climates. 

NIA'S,  an  important  ishmd  belonging  to  HoFand,  lies  to  the  west  of  Sumatra,  in 
Oo  18'  64"— 1°  'i.Vu.  lat.  and  Wo^-OS®  e.  long.,  and  has  an  area  of  about  1675  square 
miles.  In  1857,  when  the  Dutch  took  complete  possession  of  the  island,  ttie  popn* 
lation  was  reckom'd  at  170,000.  'I'hcre  are  sevenil  places  where  shi)Mi  can  anchor 
ai.d  take  in  provisions,  water,  &c.  On  the  east  coast  is  the  village  Nias,  and  on  the 
west,  Silorougting.  little  islands  and  cond  reefs  lie  here  and  there  on  the  coast, 
which  in  some  places  is  sieen,  while  mountain-chains  run  from  the  south-east  to  the 
north-west.  There  is  a  greater  breadth  of  excellent  farming  grounds  than  the  |)opu- 
lation,  reduced  bybiternal  war?  and  the  exportation  oi  t>laves,  can  properly  cultivate. 
Thev  grow  rice,  cocoa-nuts,  bananas,  tobacco,  susrar-canes,  &c.,  and  annually  about 
lip,00t  ibi*.  of  pep{)er.  Cattle  and  horses  have  becu  im{K>rted,  and  they  p%  great 
aaention  to  the  raising  cf  pigs  and  fowls.  Formerlv,  about  600  Niassera  were 
carriml  nway  annually  as  niaves  to  Batavia  and  other  places.  ai;d  thoagh  this  traffic 
has  been  in  a  g'  eat  measun?  suppressed,  it  is  still  to  some  extent  carried  on. 

'llie  NiaBsers  are  of  the  Malay  race,  but  fairer  than  the  Malavs  usually  are.  They 
are  gmtle,  »ober,  and  peaceful,  remarkably  ingenious  in  handicraft,  omanienting 
their  iionses  with  wood-carving-,  fbrgiug  arms,  &c  The  women  labor  in  the  fields, 
the  cl4hlren  wetive  ma<s,  while  the  men  Ior)k  after  the  live-stock,  and  hunt  the  deer 
and  wild  swine.  They  worship  a  SQ)>erior  deity,  and  fear  a  powerful  one,  who 
mirsnes  tliem  if  they  do  evil.  Polygamy  is  permitted,  but  is  rare.  The  rift  to  the 
britle's  family  is  from  60  to  600  dollars.  Divorce  is  not  allowed,  and  adultery  is 
ponished  1>y  the  death  of  both  parties.  Di!ud  bodies  are  placed  in  coffins  above  the 
ground,  and  creepers  and  flowering  shrubs  planted,  which  speedily  grow  up  and  cover 
tliem.  '1  rad'j  is  on  the  increa«e.--8ee  "  Ma'ayan  Miscellanies,*'  vol.  ii.;  **  Het  Eiland 
Xias,  door**  H.  J.  Domis;  Crawford's  "Descriptive  Dictionary"  (London,  1856); 
'*Tyd.-chrifl  voor  Ned.  Indifi,"  1854.  1860,  &c. 

NIBBY,  Antonio,  a  Roman  archajolocist  of  high  celebrity,  was  bom  in  1793.  He 
was  one  of  those  who,  following  in  the  »)0t8tcps  of  Wiuckelmanu,  made  an  elabor- 
I  ately  minute  investigation  of  the  remains  of  antiquitv  their  special  study.  The 
Ihrsi  work  that  made  him  known  was  his  translation  of  Pausanius.  with  antiquarian 
and  criiical  notea.  In  1820,  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Archseolc^y  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Rome.  In  the  same  year  appeared  his  edition  of  Nardini's  "  Koma  Antica ;" 
Slid  in  1837—1833,  his  learned  and  aamirable  ♦•  Analisi  Sioricotopognifico-ant  ()uaria 
^lla  carta  de  Contomi  di  Roma,"  to  wh'ch  was  added  (1S38— 1840)  a  description  of 
the  city  of  Rome  itsvlt  Among  Mis  other  writings,  nuiy  be  mentioned  liis  '^Le 
Mur:j  di  Roma  disegnate  da  W.  Geh,*'  and  a  larg«  numl>er  of  valuable  treatises  ou 
tiiefonn  and  arraiigement  of  thoearliest  Christian  rhmx^hes.  the  Circus  of  Caracalla, 
the  Temple  ^  Fortana  at  Praeueste,  the  graws  of  the  Horatii  and  the  Coriatii,  &o, 
K.  d.ed  »tfa  December  1880. 


y  Google 


A^ 


Nibr  angen!i«d  O  r\  O 

Nicaatro  -*^-' 

NI'BELUNGEXLTED,  or  "  Nihelnwre  Not,''  as  the  words  nre  wT^^ten  in  lh«  oM- 
C8t  iiiutinscript?,  isGiieuf  tlie  luosr  tiuislied  hpecimeu?  of  the  peimiDeepic  of  Ut-r- 
many  bekmgiu^  to  th6  midtlle  a«?«8.  Tliere  ex  ei  twenty  morn  or  less  pt»rfie«-t 
niHimscript  uipieii  of  tliis  cnriuus  poem,  the  earliest  of  which  belong  to  the  b^iu- 
iiing  of  tlie  l3tL  c,  fraiu  which  ptiiod  till  tlie  uiiddle  of  the  16th  c  it  enjoyed  the 
greatest  populnrity  amou^  Geniitins  of  nil  cla!«8eK  Notiiing  (^ert.-iiii  ii*  kiiuwii  of  th^ 
author  or  aathura  of  the  work  beyond  tlie  fact,  that  it.  was  put  into  its  preaeDt.  iorm 
by  u  wandering  niin8trol  in  Austria  al>out  or  prior,to  the  vear  1230,  which  is  tb^datts 
of  the  olde!«t  accredited  nianuiM;ripr.  Aceordiiijf  to  W.  Grimm  and  Lactini.-tuo^ 
critU;  il  analysis  of  the  poem,  it  is  in  itself  a  compilation  of  pre-existing  songs  and 
rhapsodies,  strung  tojrether  into  one  whole  uikjii  a  plan  remarkable  f<)r  Its  gmnA 
pimpiicity.  altbon^ti  less  skill  is  shewn  in  some  instances  in  tlie  nninner  hi  wbtdt 
the  several  parts  nre  connected.  In  the  more  anthentic  manuscripts  the  po^-m  oeo- 
fiisis  of  only  twenty  parts,  and  it  Is  conjectured  thiit  ilie  bitter  portions  ot  the  epic^ 
which  are  ^iven  only  in  some  of  the  texts*,  as  that  of  St  Gall,  are  the  compositiou«X 
later  compilers.  The  epic  cycle  embraced  in  the  N.  nniy  l»e  more  ^p.  dally  regj4i^«d  a« 
the  fusion  of  the  history  of  the  mythical  |)eople.,  called  In  the  pOi  ni  the  Nil>etnngeti« 
with  five  leading  groups  of  mytiis,  in  which  are  iucorpornti  d  the  adrentures  of  muti* 
Of  the  most  universally  popular  personages  belouijiugto  the  semi- historic  myths  Of 
medieval  German  folk-lore,  as,  for  instance,  the  hero  Siegfried  with  his  numlic 
of  invisibility,  and  the  lovely  Icelandic  heoriue  Bruuliilt ;  King  Gfintbcr 
of  Burjjundy,  and  his  fair  sister,  Kriemhiit,  the  wife  of  Siegfried ;  Hacoof  Nonieay, 
Dietrich  (Tlnodoric  the  Great,  king  of  the  Osfrogolhs)  oi  Berne  (V-irona),  and 
Brssel  (Attila),  king  of  the  Hun?',  'fhe  loves  and  feuds  aiidthe  t-tormy  live^  and 
violent  deaths  of  these  national  heroes  and  heroines,  are  skilfully  entwin<d  iu  tlie 
N.,  and  artistically  made  to  centre  rouu'l  ihe  niythical  treiu^ure  of  the  Nibilnuj^ea, 
which,  after  the  nnirdi?r  of  SiejfriiHl,  who  had  brought  it  from  the  far  Mortli,  !a 
secretly  buried  by  his  murderer  Huco  beneath  the  Ithine,  where  it  still  remains.    The 

Soem,  in  its  rude  but  strict  versification,  tells  the  tale  of  Kriemhilt's  vengeance  fer 
er  bus  >aiid's  death  with  a  passionate  earnestness  that  carries  the  sympathies  df 
the  reader  with  it,  until  the  interest  culminates  in  the  catastrophe  of  the  fierce  battle 
between  the  Burgundians  and  Huns  at  the  coui-t  of  Etzel,  whose  hand  Ericmldll  has 
accepttiid.  the  better  to  accomplish  lier  purposes  of  revenge.  The  tale  of  iioiTftt^ 
filly  clones  with  the  murder  of  Kricmhilt  herself,  after  she  baa  satisfied  her  vet»- 
g-ttiice  by  slaying  with  Siegfried's  sword  his  murderer  Haco.  This  tale,  whicl^seeuusd 
to  echo  back  tiie  clash  of  arms  and  strife  of  passion  which  characterised  the  en^ 
periods  of  German  history,  kept  a  firm  hold  on  tiie  imaginations  of  the  ncoptettU 
the  tjiste  for  polemic  writings  lostered,  if  not  created  at  the  period  of  the  It.-forina- 
tion,  caused  this  as  well  as  many  otiier  treasures  of  folk-lore  to  l>e  almost  lost  sijnit 
of  and  forgotten.  Attention  was,  however,  again  drawn  to  it  in  the  IStli  c,  ty 
the  publication  of  detached  portions  of  the  poem  by  Bodmer,  **  CbrlembtliieB- 
Rache"  (Zurich,  1T51),  and  by  Midler  in  his  ^^Sammlnng  deutscher  Oodichte  aaa 
dem  13— U  Jalirh."  (Berl.  1T82);  but  it  was  not  till  comparatively  nM»nt  times  that 
the  value  of  the  work  in  an  historical  and  philological  point  of  view  was  r<*cognis«d. 
Lachnmnu.  who  had  submitted  the  poem  to  acriticid  examination,  make  known  the 
result  of  hiK  investigations  in  an  edition  puhlished  at  Berlin,  1826.  and  again  In  )da 
treatise  *Zn  den  Nibelungen  und  zur  Klage"  (Berl.  1S36).  W.  Grimm  has'akK> 
given  a  comprehensive  ana  ysis  of  the  poem  in  bis  **  D<  utschen  Heldensajre  "  (GOlt. 
1829).  Among  the  various  trannlations  into  modem  GKirniMU,  those  of  SinmiCic 
(Berl.  1837)  and  Pfitzer  (Tfib.  1842)  are  the  bePt.  All  the  manusciipts  of  the  N. 
comprise  another  poem  under  the  title  of  **  Die  Klage."  which  treats  of  the  bnriiU  of 
the  heroes  who  fell  in  the  conflict  at  Etzel's  court,  and  the  laments  which  were  com- 
})Osed  in  commemoration  of  that  event.  It  is  of  greater  antiquity  than  the  N.,  aud, 
like  it,  the  work  of  an  unknown  author.  A  critical  analysis  ot  the  N.  will  be  fotUMl 
ilk  Cju-lyie's  "  Miscellaneous  Essays." 
NIC  JS'A.    See  Nice. 

NICARA'GUA.  a  republic  of  Central  AmerIca|1>onnded  im  then,  by  the  repn*^ 
of  Hwnlnras,  on  the  w,  by  the  Caribbean  Sen,  on  the  s.  by  the  republic  of  Cofta 
Kica,  and  on  the  e.  by  the  Pacific ;  hit.  ItP  46'~15o  „..  joug.  gso  80'— 8Io  8ft' ;  ar^-a, 
about  43,000  square  miles ;  .pop.  catiuiated  at  250,000,  of  whom  aboat  80,000  are 


vGooQle 


q;!:q  Kibelungen'ied 


Nicavtro 

wMte?.  10,000  negroes,  the  rpst  Indians  and  Mestizoefl.  N.  is  trnveraecl  by  two  mnges 
of  inoimtains — Uw  wusleru.  wbicu  fullows  the  dir<'Ctioii  of  the  co>i^t>lii)i>,  at  ii 
distance  of  from  10  to 20  inliee  from  the  Pnciflc  ;  and  Iho  e.-iPt+rii  (a  part  of  tli-  gi*'  at 
rjingo  of  the  Cordjllenip),  which  rans  yearly  pnhull*!  lo  it.  niid  Bends  oflf  wvend  f  juii*fl 


tow.irds  the  Cnrihbfaii  Se:i.    The  former  is  generally  high  and  volcnnic,  but  thinks  .it 

tieplniiiB.    Between  H»e  two  riinire»  lies  II  irreat  interior 

b:i?in   contaiitiiig  the  laken  of  ^.  (q.  v.)  and  Managua,    The  principal  rivers  nre  tlje 


Kio  Coco,  or  Segovia,  forininj:  parr  of  the  boundary  between  Honduras  and  N.;  tl«e 
Btfcoudido,  or  Blewflehls;  und  the  San  Jnan,  nil  of  which  flow  into  the  Uiiribhrun 
8eji.  The  eostern  ca^t  of  N.  is  c;illed  the  Mopqiiito  CoMs»t.  Tlie  country  If  in  many 
places  <leii8ely  wooded — the  most  vulu;  ble  ireea  being  mahogany,  logwood.  Nicar- 
ngtia  wo<id,  cedar,  and  Brazil  wood.  The  ])a9tare8  are  spleidid,  and  puppon  vjiht 
lierde  of  cattle.  The  chief  products*  are  pngar-caue  (softer  and  jiicier  than  the  Apintic 
variety),  cacao,  cotton,  ccjffee,  indigo,  tobacco,  niulse,  tind  rice,  with  nearly  all  lire 
fruits,  &c  of  the  tropics,  planiaiuf,  l/ananas,  tomatoes,  bread-frnil,  Hrro\v-n»ol,  di- 
rony,  oranges,  limes,  lemouH,  pine-apples,  gnavan,  &c.  The  chief  veff<table  exports 
are  snrsaparllla,  aloes,  ipecacuanha,  ginger,  copal,  Kaui-arHbic,  caoutcnonc,&c  Tli» 
itorthem  part  of  N.  is  rich  in  minerals,  gold,  silver,  copper,  Iron,  and  lead,  hat 
the  mines  are  not  so  caretuily  workid  now  as  nndi  r  the  Spaniards.  Tlie  ince>s:int 
political  distractions  of  the  country  Imve  nolorionsly  all  but  destroyed  the  material 
pi-osperlty  of  ihe  country^  The  trade  Is  chi«  fly  with  ^ireat  Britjiin.  In  18T8,  the  ex- 
]>orts  amounted  to  1,441,505  dollars;  the  hiiports  to  1.68«,080  dollars.  The  seat  of 
government  is  Managua,  with  SOOO  inhabitants;  the  largest  tov»n  and  former  capital 
fo  Si  Leon,  with  a  population  of  25.000.    The  town  of  N.  (q.  v.)  has  a  |»op.  of  8500. 

N.  was  discovered  in  1521  by  Gil  Goiizjiles  de  Avila,  and  conquered  hy  Pedro 
Arias  de  Avila,  the  governor  of  Panama  in  1528.  In  1821--lhe  great  year  of  revoln- 
liou  III  Central  America — It  threw  off  allejriance  to  Spain,  and  after  a  tlespijraie  and 
b:00<ly  strn^gle,  secured  its  independence  by  the  help  of  the  **  liberals  "  of  San  Sal- 
\ador.  N.  now  hecame  the  second  slate  in  the  federal  republic  i-f  Central  America, 
but  on  the  dissolutoii  of  the  union  In  1839,  became  an  tndenendt-nt  repnb'fc.  In 
1S4T — ^184S  a  dispute  broke  out  belween  N.  and  Great  Britain  aboni  the  Mo>qnito 
C<>itst,  whi(*h  leti  to  sonte  hostilities,  and  was  only  finally  settled  in  180(>.  Mean- 
while, in  1856,  a  civil  War  had  broken  out  between  tlie  so-called  "Conservatives'* 
and  **  Lil>ends,**  which  reunited  in  tlie  victory  of  the  latt^'r,  who  were,  however, 
obliged  to  call  in  the  lielp  of  the  since  notorious  Colonel  William  Walker  (t<ee  FiL- 

UBU8TEB8). 

By  the  constitution  of  19th  August  1858.  the  republic  of  N.  Is  governed  by  a 

? resident,  who  is  elected  by  uidversnl  suffrage,  and  holds  ofliee  for  four  yeius. 
'here  are  two  lejjislative  chaml)ers — Ihe  Senate  und  the  House  of  Representatives. 
Liberty  of  speech  and  of  the  press  exists,  but  Is  not  al>.«olufely  guaranteed.  The 
B'lman  Catholic  religion,  however,  is  the  only  one  publicly  tolerated,  but  the  ser- 
vices of  other  religions  bodies  may  be  privatety  performed. 

NICARAGUA.  Lakb  (native,  Coeiholca)^  a  sheet  of  fresh-water  in  the  republic  of 
the  same  name,  110  luiies  long,  and  from  30  to  50  broad.  Its  elevation  anove  the 
Pacific,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  low  range  of  bills — at  one  point  only  48  feet 
h'gher  than  the  lake  itself— is  little  niore  than  100  feet»  The  principal  river»  flowing 
into  it  are  the  Mayales  and  Malacoloj  i  on  the  north,  and  the  Frio  on  the  south ;  the 
only  one  flowing  out  is  the  San  Juan  (formerly  (fsoffnadero),  which  unites  it  with 
theCaribbeim  Sea.  Its  i-lands  are  numerons.  lying  mostly  in  groups;  the  principal 
are  Ometepec  Zapatero  (uninhabited, but  with  extensive  ruins  and  monolithic  Idols), 
Bahutanami,  and  the  Corales.  It  has  at  la^t  l)een  determined  to  cut  an  interoci  auic 
ship-canal  through  llie  state  of  Nicaragua,  the  route  being  by  way  of  the  San  Jiiau 
River  and  Lake  Nicaragua.  The  whole  distance  by  this  rouie  from  ocean  to  ocean 
is  1803^  miles ;  and.  full  advantsige  l>eing  taken  of  lake  and  river,  61X  miles  of  the 
total  length  will  fall  to  the  share  of  the  new  canal. 

NICARA'GUA,  or  Ri'vas,  a  tOAvn  of  the  republic  of  Nicaragua  (q.  v.),  Central 
America,  ou  the  western  shore  of  the  Lake  Nicaragua  (q.  v.),  85  miles  south-south- 
east from  Granada.  It  is  not  a  pkice  of  much  commerce,  the  commei-ce  of  tbe  lake 
^mg  chiefly  carried  ou  by  Granada.    Pop.  6500. 

NICA'STRO,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Calabria,  la  most  bean- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


!?'««••  254 

lifnlly  sliuatod  wpst  (vf  the  Apenninep,  on  the  inarjrin  of  the  coast  plains,  and  coni- 
maiioiiig  views  of  the  sea,  24  miles  south  of  Cosenza.  It  is  the  sec  of  uii  archbishop. 
There  are  hot  springs  in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  «tated  at  7000  and  10,200. 

NTOCOl.A  PISANO,  n  distingm>hfd  PCiil]>lor  of  Pisa,  to  llie  inflnence  of  whoM 
worlxs  the  riscor  resiorntion  of  seulpturo  in  Coiiu«'(tion  with  Gothic  archiffclure  is 
mainly  attributable.  There  is  no  n-rord  of  the  date  of  lus  hirtli,  but  from  a»i  iu- 
FCilption  on  a  relfhralcd  fountain  In  Perugia,  designed  by  him  and  txecntt-d  by  his 
son  Giovanni,  it  is  evidjiint  that  he  was  horn  at  the  b-ginning  of  the  13th  centurj*. 
His  earliest  work  is  8npi>os(?d  to  be  the  **  Deposition  "  Qver  one  of  the  doors  of  tljo 
fayade  of  tlie  catliedral  at  Lucca,  dated  1238.  He  woilted  on  tlie  prhiciple  of 
htiidying  natnre,  modift'd  or  corrected  by  the  ideal  of  antique  sculpture;  and  it  is 
said' that,  he  first  adopted  tiiis  principle  from  tiie  sculpture  on  an  ancient  aur- 
cophigus  brought  from  Greece  in  the  ships  of  Pisa;  but  liioHgh  most  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  Greek  sculpture  were  not  discovered  til  long  iifter  N.'s  time,  lie 
mu!'t  have  liad  i^\  opportunity  of  studying  many  important  remains  on  the  vari- 
ous classic  ruins  with  which  Italy  abounds.  Tliis  sculptor's  r  pufatiou  is  sup- 
ported by  tinee  important  works,  which  renmin  and  are  still  admired  for  tl»eir 
exciHcnce— the  pulpit  of  the  iMintistejy  at  Pisa,  the  **Arca"  or  slirine  of  St 
Dominic  for  the  church  of  tlnit  saint  at  Bologna,  and  th«  pulpit  of  the  cathedral  at 
Siena.  The  first  of  thesf  was  finished  in  1230.  and  is  reckoned  tlie  most  elc^nit 
pulpit  in  Italy.  It  is  df  white  marble,  six-sided,  supporied  by  seven  Corintliiaii 
columns,  and  adorned  with  five  has-reliefs  of  nuhjects  from  the  New  Testament. 
The  second  work,  the  *•  Area  "of  St  Dominic,  is  one  of  even  greater  cxr<nr. 
Ill*  composed  of  six  larg«  bas-reliets,  dellnoating  the  six  principal  events  in  tbe' 
legend  of  St  Dominic,  and  is  ornamented  with  statues  of  our  Saviour,  the  Virgin, 
and  the  four  doctore  of  tlie  chureli.  The  operculum  or  lid  was  added  about 200  year^ 
afierw.'irds.  The  subjects  on  the  pulpit  at  Siena,  tlie  third  of  these  works,  are  the 
same  as  those  on  that  at  Pisa,  with  ti>e  8ub?iituiion  of  the  "Flight  Into  Egypt"and 
the  **  MansHcre  of  the  Innocents  "  for  the  '•  Pre.«4eutatiou ; "  anathc  enI^L2:2£§incot  of 
the  concluding  composition,  the  "  L  ist  Judgment."  In  these  c^ m posit ion«^tf»*Wfei 
gre  t  lelieity  of  inventioi  and  grouping,  truth  of  expression,  and  grace  in  tlie  atti- 
tudes and  di^iperies ;  and  in  that  oi  the  "Last  Judirukenf  the  boldm^ss  displayed  in 
the  naked  figures,  twisted  and  contorted  into  every  imaginable  attitude,  is  wonder- 
ful and  evinces  the  skill  with  which  N.  dr>\v  on  the  antique  and  on  nature.  But  it 
must  be  admitted  thattherj  is  a  degree  of  confuhion  or  pvcrf ulness  in  thcgronniiig, 
and  that  the  heads  of  his  figures  are  often  large  in  proportion  to  the  badnm;  faults 
incidental  to  all  early  efforts.  In  this  last  work,  it  appears  by  the  contract  for  it^ 
execution,  that  N.  was  assisted  by  bU  scholars  Lapo  and  Aniolfo,  and  his  son  Gio- 
vanni; and  this  accounts  for  a  cert  lin  feebleness  that  may  be  observed  hi  portions 
of  it.  He  died  at  Pi^'a,  in  12T6  or  12T7,  and  was  buried  in  the  Oampo  Santo.  N.'s  iu- 
fluence  on  art  extended  widely ;  his  pupils  Arnolfo  and  Lapo  executetl  nnineroiia 
works  at  Rome.  Siena,  and  other  cities.  His  son  and  heir  in  reputation,  though  not 
his  equal  in  talent,  Giovanni  Pisano,  was  constantly  eng;iged  on  works  of  import- 
ance; in  Pisa,  where  the  Campo  Santo  (for  he  was  al.«o  an  architect)  w»is  ci-ected 
from  hisdesigu^*;  in  "Naples,  which  he  visited  on  the  invitation  of  Charles  I.  of  Au- 
joff ;  at  Ar(5zzo,  where  lie  executed  the  marble  shrine  of  Sr  Donato  for  the  cathrdra! ; 
at  Orvieto,  the  ba'«-rellefs  on  the  faeerata  of  the  Duomo,  by  many  ascribetl  to  N., 
being  by  him  ;  at  Pistoja.  where  lie  executed  the  pulpit,  &c.  Tin-  year  of  his  thinth 
is  not  ascertained  ;  it  was  probably  about  1320.  After  Giovjuini*s  death,  the  I'lstui 
school  split  into  two  principal  branches.  Florence  and  Siena ;  that  of  Naples  may 
also  be  reckoned  :i  branch,  from  the  influence  exercls<;d  over  it  by  GiovHiini.— 
,  Andrea  Pisano,  the  able^^t  of  Giovanni's  pupils,  was  called  to  Florence;  to  extK^uto 
In  marble  the  statues,  bas-relief^  &c.,  di-siirned  by  Giotto  in  ornamenting  Iheratb*'- 
dral  of  8.  Maria  del  Fiore.  then  in  course  of  erection.  The  talent  he  displayedcoon 
raised  him  to  a  high  position  and  important  employment.  He  executed  punierona 
statues  for  the  facade  of  the  cathedral,  and  a  bronze  u'ate  for  tlie  baptistery,  of  very 
great  excellence.  This  gate  still  exists,  along  with  the  lator  and  still  more  celebrated 
gates  of  Giiiberti.  Under  the  influence  of  Giotto's  genius,  be  became  eom}>Ict«4y 
Giottesque  in  thought  and  style ;  and  his  works  bear  so  distinctly  the  impr<»S!»  of  fhiA 
master-mind,  that  The  design  of  many  of  them,  and  particularly  the  baiitistei^  rate, 
jire  a^cilbed  to  Gioito.    He  died  in  1345,  aged  76.    See  Vasuri ;  **  Ghristiau  Axtp*  \aif 


Digitized  by 


Google- 


Lord  Lindsay;  Aglnconrt,  *'Davia  Moinorle  Istoriclie;"  Rofiini,  "Storia,  Ac;** 
Cicognara  (torn.  i.)i  "Mouumeutl  Sepolciall  dclla  Toscaua." 

NICCOLINI,  Giovanni  Batista,  a  distinguished  modern  poet,  was  born  in  1786, 
in  tlie  vicinity  of  Pipa,  of  a  noble  but  impoverished  family.  N.'s  first  literary  efforts 
were  full  of  bij^h  promise  of  the  classical  and  antique  beauties  wliicli  clianicterise 
his  finest  com))ositiou8,  and  in  ISIO  he  was  crowned  by  the  Cnisca  Aca<leiny. 
Througli  the  influence  of  the  oueeii  of  Ktruiia,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arti«,  wiierene  delivered  to  tho  youu;;  arristp  Irctuion  ou  histoiy 
and  mjtholOiiy;  but  on  the  fall  of  the  Bonaparte  sovereiijns,  this  post  wns  with- 
drawn from  the  poet.  In  1805,  the  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand  npi.oiiitod  him  lil)rariun 
in  the  Pitti  Palace,  an  office  he  resigned  in  oi-der  to  escaiie  the  servility  of  court  do- 
peudence.  By  the  death  of  a  relative,  he  acquired  wealth  and  the  pow^r  of  exclu- 
sively devoting  himself  to  literature,  and  published  several  niuch-admln*d  c^t•ay8 
and  I(*cture8;  and  in  1827  appeared  his  noble  work,  ^^AntonioFoscarini."  In  1S44,  N. 
pnl>lii*lied  anonymously  his  best  poem — "Arnoidoda  Brescia  "—and  nothing  finer  has 
been  written  in  modern  Italian,  whether  it  l>e  viewed  as  a  classical  creation,  full  of 
life  and  poctiy.  or  as  a  work  of  glowing  patriotism.  N.  lived  in  the  enjoyment  of 
fame  aud  honors  to  a  ripe  old  age,  and  died  at  Florence  in  1861. 

NICE,  or  Nic»a,  formerly  a  city  of  Bithynia,  in  Asia  Minor,  situated  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  Like  Aecania.  It  was  built,  or  rather  rebuilt  (for  an  older  town  had 
existed  on  its  site),  by  Antlgonus,  the  son  of  Philip  (816  B.C.),  and  recciv«'d  the 
name  of  Anti<;oneia,  which  Lysinmchus  changed  to  Niciea,  in  honor  of  his  wife.  It 
was  a  handsome  town,  aud  of  great  imi>ortance  in  tiio  time  of  the  Roman  aud  Byzan- 
tine emperore ;  all  the  streets  crossed  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  from  a  mag- 
nificent monument  In  the  centre  the  four,  gates  of  the  city  were  visible.  It  is  fa- 
mous in  ecclesiastical  history  for  two  Councils  held  in  it,  the  Firct  aud  Seventh 
Ecumenical  Councils.  The  First  Council  op  N.  was  held  326  a.d.,  and  was  con- 
vened by  the  Einoeror  Constantine,  in  concert,  according  to  Roman  Catholic  his- 
torians, with  the  Roman  pontiff,  for  the  purpose  of  defining  the  questions  raised  in 
the  Arian  (q.  v.)  controversy.  The  details  of  the  proce«iingB,  so  furasrecards 
Arius,  wiH  be  found  in  that  article.  The  supporters  of  Arias  at  first  are  said  to  have 
numbered  upwards  of  twenty :  but  ultinuitely  the  decree  condemning  him  was  sub- 
scril>ed  by  the  whole  Ijody  of  the  Council,  the  nnml)er  of  dissentients  being,  accord- 
ing to  the  highest  computation,  only  five,  while  the  most  probahle  account  retluces 
it  to  twa  The  Nicenb  Creed  adopted  in  this  Council  forms  the  subject  of  a  sepii- 
Tiite  article.  In  addition  to  the  Arian  question,  the  Council  of  N.  also  deliberated 
on  a  schism,  called  the  Meletian  Schism,  which  at  that  time  divided  the  church  of 
Ejzypt,  and  the  j>articalar8  of  whicli  have  formed  a  subject  of  recent  controv«'rsy. 
The  decree  of  N.  appears  to  have  been  founded  on  a  compromise,  but  did  not  effect- 
ually suppress  the  Bchi<«m.  The  decree  of  N.  on  the  celebration  of  Easter  was  of 
wider  application,  and  met  with  nnlvei*8al  acceptance,  the  few  recusants  bemg  hence- 
forward called  Quarto- deci mans  (q.  v.).  This  Council  nlso  enacted  twenty  canons 
of  di*cipline.  For  a  mhmie  and  j)iciuresque  description  of  this  council,  see  Denn 
Stanley's  "  HIetpry  of  the  Eastern  Church."— The  Second  Council  op  N.,  called 
also  the  Seventh  Ecumenical  Council,  was  assembled  under  the  Empress  Irene  (78T), 
who  was  regent  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Constantine,  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
conHideiing  the  subject  of  Images.  The  tenor  of  the  decree  on  Images  is  detailed 
under  that  head.  In  the  West,  the  question  of  the  acceptation  of  this  council  was 
the  subject  of  considerable  controvei-ay,  arising,  in  gi-eat  measure,  from  a  grossly 
erroneous  Latin  translation  of  the  acts,  which  for  a  time  obtained  extensive  circu- 
lation. 

NICE  (TtaL  Nizza),  chief  town,  since  1860,  of  the  department  of  the  Alpes  Mari- 
times.  France,  Ij*  bitu:>t(  d  on  Iwth  sides  of  the  river  Paglione,  100  miles  south-south- 
west of  Turin,  in  lat  43»  42'  n.,  and  long.  7°  1 7'  e.  Pop.  (1872)  42,863.  It  consists  of 
three  principal  paits — the  Quartier  de  la  Croix  de  Marhre^  or  New  Town  (on  the  right 
bank  of  tiie  Paglione),  tlie  Old  Toio^*,  and  the  Port,    The  first  of  these  is  much  fre- 

?iaentcd  by  foreigners,  particularly  English  (whence  its  name  of  "English  town  ")• 
I  is  clo8<;  upon  ttie  river,  has  a  handsome  quay  filled  with  gay  shops,  and  a  splendid 
SQuanr  called  tl>e  Jardin  Public.  Two  hridges  over  the  Paglione  connect  it  with  tlie 
Old  or  Up^wr  Town,  which  extends  buck  lo  the  foot  of  a  hill  called  the  Casllo  J 

U.  K.,  X.,  ».  Dgit.ed  by  GoOglC 


Nicene  OKA 

Nlchoai  ^O" 

The  Old  Towu  )8  exceMlvely  dirty,  and  lia9  narrow,  fttiiiking  streets,  witb  macnroat 
and  coufectiouary  Bliop9,  uroceTV  estHblishmeutf,  slaughter-houses,  Ac.  The  Port, 
almost  separated  from  it  by  the  Castle  Hill,  is  crowded  with  a  seafni-ing  popalatioii. 
Tiie  harbor  admits  vessels  drawing  flfteeii  feet  of  water,  but  is  difficult  or  eDtrance. 
Tlie  Castle  Hill,  an  isolated  mtUM  of  liinestoue  800  feet,  higl);  receiving  itsuame  from 
liaviug  beeu  formerly  crowned  by  a  strong  ensile,  uow  in  rains,  is  laid  out  in  public 
^iirdeiis,  aud  affords  an  extensive  and  splendid  prospect  out  to  sea.  The  ciiiex  pub- 
ic buildings  are  in  the  Corso,  or  iu  the  adjoining  streets,  in  one  of  which  there  is  an 
English  library  and  reading-room.  There  is  an  Bpiscopalian  and  also  a  Presbyterian 
church  iu  N.  and  an  Bngllsli  cemetery.  Tiie  most  attractive  promenade  in  the  Old 
Towu  is  tlie  TVrrooe,  from  15  to  20  f oet  high,  erected  as  a  protection  to  the  town 
against  a  stormy  sea.  Bur  the  mo.^t  agreeat>le  and  fasiiiouable  drive  and  proiueiiade 
U  the  Promenade  dee  AnglaU,  exr^-nding  for  a  mile  along  the  shore  from  the  right 
bank  of  the  Paglione,  and  skirted  on  one  side  by  eli^gant  villas  aud  hotels.  Beggani 
are  numerous,  owing,  doubtless,  to  the  great  influx  of  visitors.  Fine  as  the  ueaal 
winter  and  spring  weather  of  N.  is,  it  is  exposed  to  the  norths  wind,  or  if istral, 
which  during  these  seasons  often  brings  a  temi>eratare  which  in  England  woald  be 
considered  cool,  or  even  cold,  in  April  or  October.  The  Quartier  Carabaeel  is  the 
moflt  sheltered  pari  of  the  place,  and  therefore  the  best  for  an  iuvaiiU.  Dust  and 
bad  drainage  are  the  drawbacks  to  the  amenity  of  N.;  but  this  is  true  with  regiird 
to  most  of  the  places  of  winter  resort  In  tlie  south.  The  mean  January  aud  Pebm- 
ary  temperature  is  47°,  equal  to  that  of  Ai)ril  in  England ;  March  is  62® ;  ^pril  68°, 
about  the  same  a»  June  in  England,  or  July  in  Scotland. 

The  ancient  Lignrian  town  of  Nicaea,  founded,  it  is  said,  by  a  colony  af  Pho- 
cieans  from  Mupsalia  (Marseille),  became  subjtict  to  Rome  iu  the  2d  c.  b  c.    It 

Srobably  occupied  the  Castle  Hill,  rather  than  the  site  of  the  presnt  city. 
ubsequcutly  if  passed  Into  the  hands  of  the  Qjths,  Burgundiaus,  Visigoths,  kings 
and  cotnits  of  Aries,  the  Anjjevine  sovereigns  of  Naples,  and  the  Dakes  of  Savoj 
(1388),  in  whose  family  it  remained  till  1860,  wlieu  it  was  cedjd  to  France. 

NI'CENE  CREED,  n  detailed  statement  of  doctrine,  which  forms  part  of  the 
liturgy  of  the  Roman.  Oriental,  aud  Anglican  Churches,  and  is  also  received  asa 
formulaiy  by  many  or  the  other  Protestant  communions.  It  was  drawn  up  prin- 
cipally by  llosius  of  Corduba,  and  is  called  bv  the  name  of  the  Council  of  Nice,  al- 
though nsHily  one-half  of  its  present  clauses  formed  no  part  of  th  •  original  Niceue 
foi  inulary :  while,  on  the  other  hand,  that  document  contained  a  scries  of  anathemas 
coudemnatoi-y  of  specific  statements  of  Arius,  which  find  no  place  in  the  present  so- 
called  Niceue  creed.  The  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  creed  drawn  up  iu  the 
Council  was  the  word  Hmnoousios.  (See  IIomoousian.)  Its  clauses  correSDond 
(t;icept  in  a  few  verbal  details)  with  those  of  tlie  modem  formulary  as  far  as  the 
words  **  I  believe  iu  the  Holy  Ghost ;"  after  which  follow  the  anathemas  referred  to 
above.  The  remaining  clauses  of  them-esentcretHl,  although  thev  seem  to  have  been  ia 
public  u^  earlier,  were  formally  added  in  the  First  Council  of  Constantinople  (381), 
with  the  exception  of  the  clause.  "And  from  the  Son,"  which  was  introanced  iu 
various  churclies  of  the  West  in  the  6tli  aud  <Jth  centuries ;  and  ultimately  its  formal 
embodiment  in  the  creed,  has  continued  a  subject  of  controversy  with  the  Greeks 
to  the  present  day.  See  Greek  Church.  This  creed  appe-irs  to  have  been  used 
in  the  public  liturgy  from  the  latter  part  of  the  6ih  century.  Its  position  in  the 
liturgy  varies  in  the  different  rites.  In  the  Roman  liturgy  it  is  read  on  all  Sundays, 
feasts  of  our  Lord,  of  the  blessed  Vii-gin  Mary,  apostles' days,  aud  all  the  principal 
festivals,  but  not  on  week-days,  or  the  minor  saints'  days. 

Several  Arian  creeds,  in  opposition  to  that  of  Nice,  were  drawn  up  at  Srrminm 
aud  elHCwhere  (see  Libbrius),  but  none  of  them  met  with  general  acceptance. 

NICHE,  a  recess  formed  in  a  wall  to  contain  a  statue  or  someornameutalfignre. 
In  classic  architecture,  the  niches  are  generally  square  recesses  wit1»  canopies 
formed  by  small  pediments.  Iu  Gottiic  architecture,  the  niche  is  one  of  the  most 
frequent  and  characteristic  features;  the  doorways,  buttresses,  aud  every  part  of 
the  buildiiijfs  beiug  iu  many  iustauces  oruaiueuted  with  niches  aud  statues  iu 
cudhtsa  variety. 

NICHOLAS,  the  name  of  five  among  the  Roman  pontiffs,  of  wliom  the  follow- 
ing alouo  appear  to  call  for  separate  uotice.— N.  1.  was  born  of-4i  uoblc  iioman 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


0?;'7  N'rene 

^  -0<  Nichoaj 

fililiily,  ami  on  I  fie  death  <f  B(Mic<lict  III.,  in  858»  N.  wns  dr^ctcd  to  Purcceil  him,  and 
was  cousecnited  in  St  PctiT's  Cimrch,  In  tlie  pn-.-ence  of  Liulwii' II.,  cn»p- ror  of 
Germany.  Thceniliost  incident  of  iinjiort-anceof  bin  |>ontificalu  Ul\\a  conrticf  wirli 
Photiu8<q.  ▼.),  who  had  been  hitrnded  into  the  nei*  of  Congiiantinoplc  ufior  ihd 
deprivation  of  Ignatius.  N.  demanded  from  tlic  emperor  the  renloration  of  Igiia- 
tioR,  as  well  as  the  withdrawal  of  certain  nttempled  invasions  of  the 
jnri^(dictiou  of  the  West  On  the  refusal  of  iiis  demands,  N.  excom- 
municatod  Pliotins  (see  Gbbbk  Ohubgh),  and  th:it  patri..rch.  in  reiurPf 
ass-.mbled  a  council  at  Constantinople,  and  retorting  npon  his  rival  the  same 
sentence,  alleged  that  with  the  translation  of  the  mut  of  civil  noverriunty 
from  Rome  to  Conntantinople  the  ecclesiastical  pnpr«'raacy  was  likewise  trans- 
ferred. The  Emperor  Michael  snpportiug,Pliotins  in  his  claim,  N.  faile«i  to  conimiiiid 
stibmission  to  his  sentence ;  nor  was  it  tilT  tiie  following  reign,  that  of  Basil  the  Mace- 
duniau,  that  Photius  was  deposed,  and  Ignatius  restored  to  bis  see.  Meaiiwhil-, 
however,  N.  had  l)een  embroiled  with  the  EmiH'ror  Ludvig.  The  ])Op<r  hml  been 
a^tpealed  to  by  the  ttnjustly  divorced  wife  of  Ludvig's  yf>ui:gfr  brother,  Lothaire, 
kniif  of  Lorraine,  ai:d  had  appointed  legates  to  inqnire  into  and  report  upon  thecntif  ; 
and  the  legates  having  excetd»d  their  powers  by  giving  a  stntence  in  fjuor  ol  Lo- 
thnir*',  the  pope  declareil  their  sentence  null,  and  «.xcoramnnlcat«'d  them.  Lndvig 
CHpoosed  their  cause,  and  marched  his  troops  to  Rome,  in  order  to  enforce  satisfac- 
tion. After  some  hostile  demonstrations,  the  empt-ror,  terrified,  it  is  said,  by  J; is 
own  sodden  Ulness,  and  some  fat^ilitiea  which  befell  his  followers,  desisted  fix>m  tlu; 
enterprise,  and  withdrew  his  troops.  Loihaire  was  forced  to  make  submitttiion  ; 
the  Qt^ree  of  N.  was  enfr)rced,  and  Thentberga  was  fornndy  reinsfcited  in 
her  position  as  a  wife  and  queen.  N.  died  in  868— Nicholas  V.  was  originally 
called  Thomas  Parentucclli.  Bom  at  Pisa  in  1398,  he  wasedncated  at  Florence 
and  Bolc^na,  and  having  fixed  his  resi<leuce  in  the  latter  city,  he  was  eventually 
named  bisliop  of  that  see  by  the  pope,  Bugenins  IV.  Dnring  the  troubled  period 
Of  the  Councils  of  Basel  and  Florence,  and  in  the  difficult  negotiation?*  with 
the  German  and  other  churches  which  arose  therefrom,  he  conducted  himself 
with  such  ability  and  prudence,  that  on  the  death  of  En^enius  IV.  he  wus 
chosen  to  succeed  him  on  March  6,  1447.  At  this  time  the  anti-pope, 
Felix  v.,  still  maintained  himself,  although  supported  by  a  very  small  party;  But  N. 
prevaited  on  him  to  al)dicate,  ano  thus  re^tored  the  peace  of  the  church  in  1449.  lu 
tbe  judgment  of  the  literary  world,  however,  the  great  distinction  of  the  pondflcate 
of  N.  lies  in  the  eminent  service  which  he  rendered  to  that  revival  of  letters  which 
dates  from  his  age.  The  coniparative  repose  in  which  he  found  the  world  at  his 
accession,  enabl^  him  to  employ,  for  the  discovery  ifnd  collection  of  the  scatter*  d 
master-pieces  of  ancient  learning,  meapures  which  were  practically  beyond  the  rr- 
Bources  of  his  predecessors.  He  de.«patched  agents  to  all  the  great  ceuti'es.  l)otli  of 
the  East  and  of  the  West,  to  purchase  or  to  copy  every  important  Greek  and  Latin 
manuscript.  The  number  coHccted  by  him  was  above  6000.  He  enlarged  and  im- 
proved the  Roman  university.  He  remodelled,  and  may  almost  be  said  to  have 
founded,  tbe  Vatican  Library.  He  caused  translations  to  be  made  into  I^atin  of  mort 
of  the  important  Greek  classics,  sacred  and  profane.  He  invited  to  Home  the  mos-t 
,  eminent  scholars  of  the  world,  and  extended  his  especial  patronage  to  those  Greeks 
whom  tlie  troubles  of  their  native  country  drove  to  seek  a  new  home  in  the  West. 
Alarmed  by  the  pro^reps  of  the  Turkish  arms  in  Asia,  he  endeavored  to  arouse  the 
Christian  princes  of  Europe  to  the  duty  of  Kuccoring  their  brethren  of  the  East; 
but  the  aire  of  enthnsiai^in  was  past,  and  he  was  forc^  to  look  on  inactively  at  the 
fall  of  Constantinople  in  1463.  This  event,  by  forcing  a  lai^  unmt>er  of  learned 
Greeks  to  repair  to  Itjdy  and  other  countries  of  the  West,  contributed  jwwerfully  to 
that  progress  of  learning  which  N.  had  deeply  at  heart ;  but  he  scarcely  lived  to  en- 
joy this  result,  having  died  two  years  later,  in  1455,  at  the  comparatively  early  a^re  of 
67.  He  mu&t  not  be  confounded  with  an  anti-pope  of  the  same  name,  rcter  de  Cor- 
bario  who  was  set  up,  in  1828,  by  Ludvig  of  Bavaiia,  in  antagonism  to  John  XX4L 

(q.  ▼.). 

NICHOLAS  L,  more  properly  Nikolai  Paulovitch,  emperor  of  Russia,  was  the 
third  son  of  Paul  I.,  and  was  born  at  St  Petersburg,  7th  July  1796.  He  was  vtry 
carefully  educated  under  the  eye  of  his  motlu;r,  a  princess  of  wartemberjr,  and  snl>- 
Kqoeutlj  devoted  bis  atteutiou  to  military  studies  aiid  political  ecouoiny,  without, 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Nicholson 


258 


however,  gfvlnj?  evidence  of  any  natnr:il  capacity  for  these  subjects.  He  rfeited 
Eugltiud  and  other  Bnropean  countries  in  1816,  and  iu  the  sttine  year  made  a  tonr 
through  the  Ru^8ian  provinces.  On  13th  July  1817,  ho  raarrfed  Prederikn-Louisa/- 
Charlotte- Wilhelininn,  the  eldest  danghter  of  Frederic  William  III.  of  Prussia,  nnd 
lived  in  domestic  retirement  till  the  death  of  Alexander  I.  <Dec<Mul)er  1825),  when, 
owing  to  the  resignation  of  his  elder  brother  Conftaiitlne,  he  snccet'ded  to  the  throne 
of  Russia.  A  long-prc»])ftred  military  conspiracy  broke  out  immediately  after  his  no- 
cession,  wliich  he  suppressed  with  great  vi^r  and  cruelty.  Capital  punishment, 
wiiich  had  been  abolished  by  the  Empress  Elizabetli,  was  n^vived,  for  the  purpose  of 
inflicting  it  upon  ti»e  loaders  of  the  iusnnection.  The  rebels  were  hunted  down  -with 
merciless  energy,  and  in  no  case,  even  after  the  rebellion  ceased  to  be  in  the  leatst 
degree  dangerous,  was  their  punishment  commuted.  Instead  of  pursuing  the  course 
upon  which  Alexander  had  entered — cultivating  tlie  mind  of  the  nation,  so  as  to  base 
his  government  upon  education  and  intelligence— N.,  after  a  brief  ebullition  of  re- 
formatory zeal,  resrerted  to  the  ancient  policy  of  the  Czars,  absolute  despotism,  sup- 
ported liy  mere  militjiry  power.  His  first  great  mcMSure,  the  codification  of  Rnssian 
law,  was  commenced  in  1827,  and  com])leted  in  1846. 

Soon  after  his  acctession,  a  war  witli  Persia  commenced,  but  it  was  concluded  on 
28th  February  182S,  by  the  peace  of  Tiirknjanshai,  which  eave  a  considerabl*^.  ox- 
tent  of  territoiy  to  Russia.  In  the  same  year  be  entered  upon  a  war  with  Turkey, 
iu  which  victoiy,  though  at  enormous  cost,  constantly  attended  h!s  arms,  and  f  fte 
peace  of  Adriauople  (q.  v.)  obtain-'d  for  Russia  anoi tier  increase  of  territoiy.  the 
free  navigation  of  the  D.iuub  •,  with  the  light  of  free  passage  between  the  Black 
and  Mediten'anean  Seas.  The  politic.il  movements  of  188'),  in  the  west  of  Biiro|)e, 
were  followed  by  a  national  risnig  of  the  Poles,  which  was  suppressed  after  a  d^K>- 
lating  contest  of  nine  months,  in  which  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  whole  military  re- 
sources of  Russia  were  required.  N.  punished  the  rel)ellion  by  converting  the 
kingdom  of  Poland  into  a  mere  Russian  province,  and  strove  to  e^Mn^ii-h  tlie  Po- 
lish nationality.  This  policy,  however,  was  viewed  with  great  oBssatrsf action 
throughout  Europe,  and  the  vanquisthed  Poles  were  every  where  regarded  with  general 
sympathy.  Russia,  by  N.'s  mode  of  government,  became  more  and  more  supiiruted 
from  the  fellowship  of  the  western  nations.  Intellectual  activity  was,  as  far  as 
possible,  restrained  to  things  merely  practlciil,  education  limited  to  preparation  for 
the  public  service,  the  pross  was  placed  under  the  strictest  censorsh  p,  and  every 
means  used  to  bring  the  whole  mind  of  the  nation  under  official  guidance.  His  Pan- 
slavism  (q.  V.)  also  prompted  him  to  Russianise  as  much  as  possible  all  the  inhabi- 
rants  of  the  empire,  and  to  convert  Roman  Catholics  and  Proteshmts  to  the  Russian 
Greek  Church,  of  which  the  Czar  is  the  head.  The  indep^'udencc  of  the  moun- 
taineers of  the  Caucasus  was  inconsistent  with  his  schemes,  and  war  was 
consequently  waged  against  them  with  the  greatest  energy  and  pei-TOverance, 
although  with  little  success,  and  at  the  cost  of  immense  sacrifices  botli  of 
money  and  lives.  The  extension  of  British  inflaence  in  Central  Asia  vms  al.no 
viewed  by  him  with  alarm,  and  was  attempted  to  be  counteracted  by  various 
means,  amongst  which  was  the  expedition  for  the  conquest  of  Khiva  iu 
1839,  which  failed  so  signally  (see  Khiva).  Between  1844  and  1846,  he  visitetl  Eng- 
land, Austria,  and  It'ily.  During  the  political  storm  of  1848—1849  he  abstained 
from  interference,  watching,  however,  for  an  opportunity  of  doing  eo  with  advant- 
age to  Rus5»ian  interests.  The  opportuttity  was  at  last  found  in  the  request  of  the 
emp  ror  of  Austria  for  his  assistanc ;  to  quell  the  Hungarian  Insurrection.  Ttiia 
good  service  rendered  Austria,  as  he  thought,  a  faithful  ami  firm  ally.  He  sncceeiled 
at  the  same  time  iu  drawing  closer  the  bonds  of  aUiance  between  the  Russian  and 
Prussian  monarchies,  a  proceeding  fraught  with  the  most  mischievous  consequences 
to  the  hitter  power.  The  re-establishment  of  the  French  empire  still  further  teud"<l 
to  confirm  these  alliances,  and  led  N.  to  think  that  the  time  had  at  length  come  for 
carrying  into  effvjct  the  hereditary  Russian  scheme  for  the  absorption  of  'I'urkey; 
bat  theune^ected  opposition  of  Britain  and  France,  and  his  own  invincible  repng- 
naiice  to  give  up  his  fong-planned  scheme  of  conquest,  brought  on  the  Crimean  W.ir, 
during  the  course  of  whfcn  he  died  at  St  Petersburg,  march  2, 1866,  of  atrophy  (rf  the 
luuj^ ;  but  his  death  was  undoubtedly  hastened  by  chagrin  at  the  repeatetl  dt^ft^ta 
which  his  arms  sustained,  and  by  ovcr-anxicty  and  the  excessive  labor  4»e  underwent 
to  repair  his  losses.    He  was  remarkable  for  temperance,  £rngalitV|^  and  putrio" 


y  Google 


259 


Nicholson 


but  eqnally  eo  for  vanity  find  oatentation.  He  wa«  fanatically  beloved  by  lils  Rns^lnn 
BUltjecti*,  und  was  at  the  same  time  regarded  by  them  with  feelings  of  awe,  a  tribnte 
to  his  lof  iy  sUitiire  and  imperial  deportmeut,  which  gave  him  the  most  intense  ploaa- 
m-e.  lljis  extreme  vanity  seems,  to  some  extent,  lo  have  affected  his  mind,  and 
to  have  been  partly  the  cause  of  his  political  blundering  towards  the  close  of  his 
reign. 

NICHOLSON,  John,  British  general,  one  of  the  most  distingtiished  of  the  lat^r 
school  of  Indian  soldiers,  was  l>orn  in  Dnblhi,  11th  December  1821.  His  father,  a 
physiciau  of  considerable  lepntation  in  tliut  city,  died  when  the  boy  had  just  com- 
)>letod  his  8tli  year.  By  his  mother,  a  woman  of  strong  sense  and  much  practical 
i»iety,  he  was  carefully  educated ;  und  from  her  beseems  to  have  inherited  or  im- 
mb(>d  a  certain  religions  gnivity  and  enruestness  of  chtiracter  which  w&n  early  noted 
in  liim,  and  continued  to  distingnish  him  through  life.  Through  the  influence  other 
brother.  Sir  James  Weir  Hogg,  an  ludiitn  cadetship  was  obtauKni  for  him;  at  the 
uge  of  16,  he  arrived  iu  Calcutta,  and  was  soon  after  ported  to  the  21st  Native  Ben- 
gui  Infantry,  then  stationed  at  Firrozcpore.  In  1840,  his  regiuient  was  ordered  to 
Ghizui  iu  Afghanistan,  where  two  years  after,  in  tlie  disastrous  insurrection  which 
avenged  our  occupation  of  the  country,  it  was  compelled  to  surrender  to  the  enemy. 
After  a  time  of  miserable  cnntivity,  he  repained  his  liberty,  and  joined  the  relieving 
army  nud«;r  General  Pollock,  to  be  saodened  Imm'cdifttely  after  by  the  dejith,  iu 
siction,  of  his  brother  Alexander.  A  peiiotl  of  inactivity  envied,  during  which  he 
was  stationed  at  Meernt.  doing  duty  as  adjutant  of  his  regiment.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Sikh  war  iu  1845,  he  served  in  ttie  campaign  on  the  Sntlej,  aud  was  pre- 
sent at  the  battle  of  Fei-ozeshah,  though,  as  att^icbed  to  the  commissariat  depart- 
ment, without  special  opportuniJ;y  of  distiuguisbing  himself.  After  the  cessation  of 
tlie  war,  tiirough  the  recommendation  of  Colonel  (afterwards  Sir  Henry)  Liiwrence, 
N.,  now  a  lieutenant,  was  appointed  assistant  to  tiie  resideut  at  the  conquered  capi- 
Uil,  Lahore,  aud  tiuis  fairly  transferred  to  the  political  branch  of  the  service,  in  which 
most  of  Ilia  future  time  was  passed.  But  sliortly,  with  the  outl>rf  ak  of  the  Sikh  re- 
bellion in  1848,  there  came  an  interlude  of  militiiry  activity,  iu  wliich  he  greatly  dis- 
tingnishod  himself.  To  N.'s  daring  and  promptitude  was  due  the  preservation  to  us 
of  tlie  important  fortress  of  Attock ;  and  soon  after,  his  success  at  the  MarguUa 
r»  ._  ._  '.  ..  ^  ^^..,         ,         ^   "7of  the  iqsurgents.  brought  his  name 

e  struggle  which  followed,  he  rendered 

-     . ,  „     I  Chillian  walla  and  Qujerat  successively, 

lie  earned  the  special  approval  of  Lord  Gough,  to  whom  he  was  immediately 
attached. 

The  Punjab  having  Anally  become  a  British  province.  Captain  N.  was  appointed  a 
deputy-commissioner  under  the  Lahore  Boara,  of  which  Sir  H«  nry  Lawrence  was 
pie-nident.  Ho  had  now  been  nearly  ten  years  iu  India ;  his  stieugth  was  somewhat 
shaken  by-^rdnous  service,  and  various  illnesses  wiiich  from  time  to  time  had 
assailed  him;  aud  aboveall,  he  was  anxious  to  visit  and  console  his  widowed  mother, 
then  prostrated  by  the  death  in  India,  by  an  accideut,  of  William,  his  younger 
brother.  In  1860,  accordingly,  he  took  his  furlough,  and  n  turned  norae,  taking 
Constantinople  enrroute,  and  visiting,  with  an  eye  to  piofeselonal  instruction,  the 
capitals  of  all  the  great  milititry  powers  of  the  contireut.  On  his  retam  to  India,  he 
was  again  appointed  by  Lawrence  a  deputy-commissioner  in  the  Punjab,  aud  for 
five  years  subsequently  his  work  lay  among  the  savage  tribes  of  the  frontier.  His 
success  in  bringiug  them  under  thorough  sulijectiun  to  law  and  order,  was  some- 
thing marvellous;  and  such  were  the  impreesious  of  fenr  and  reverence  v^TOUght 
liy  the  force  aud  massive  personality  of  the  man,  that  he  became  among  these  rude 
populations,  under  the  title  of  '^Nikkul  Seyn,"  the  object  of  a  curious  kind  of  hero- 
worship.  So  far  was  this  carried,  that  a  sect  actually  arose,  of  Nikknl-Seynce!*,  who 
cousecrnted  him  as  their  Geru  (or  spiritual  guide),  and  xiersisted — tlespite  of  severe 
flosr^ngs  regularly  inflicted  by  the  worthy  man,  indisposed  to  accept  of  divine  honors 
—ill  falling  at  his  feet,  aud  making  him  an  object  of  express  adoration. 

With"  the  outbreak  of  the  great  mutiny  iu  1867  came  N.'s  supreme  opportunity, 
and  the  brief  career  of  glorious  achieveuieuts  iu  which  he  developed  in  the  eye  of 
tho  world  the  full  power  aud  splendor  of  his  military  genius.  In  the  saving  of  the 
Piuijal),  virtually  tudia  was  saved  tons;  and  nuder  Sir  John  Lawrence,  who  had 
^ocootKled  his  brother,  Sir  Ueury,  N.— though  not  without  noble. coadjutors  to 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


l;icoal  ^^^ 

Oivlde  with  him  the  honor— perhnpa  did  mor«  than  any  other  single  man  to  hold  firm 
our  grasp  of  the  Punjab.  He  it  was  who  suggested  the  foruiatiou  of  the  faiauus 
movtiDle  column,  by  whicli  niuiuly  the  work  was  done,  and  presided  over  its  org:iu- 
isatioii.  Shortly,  he  was  appointed  to  command  it;  and  in  his  de:iling8  with  the 
suspected  reghnents  of  Bepoy»,  lie  exhibited  a  particular  combinatiou  of  boldness 
witii  subtlety,  discretion,  and  astuteness,  scarcely  too  much  to  be  admin  d.  At 
Tinmmu  Ghaut,  on  the  I2th  and  14tli  of  July,  he  brought  to  I>ny,  and  nearty  utterly 
aimiliilatcd,  a  large  force  of  the  declared  rebel?.  Things  thus  made  fafe  belund  him, 
he  marched  to  reinforce  the  army  of  General  Wilson,  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Delhi, 
arriving  in  camp  ou  August  7.  His  presence  and  couui>els  gave  new  impulse  lo  the 
operations ;  and  in  every  way  he  strove,  with  fiery  and  impatient  energy,  to  expedite 
the  delayed  assault.  A  strong  bo<ly  of  the  enemy  having  tried  to  make  their  way 
into  the  British  rear,  to  N.  was  assigned  the  task  of  intercepting  and  brrug  them  to 
battle.  This  he  achieved  on  August  24,  near  Nnjuffghur— under  circumstances  oi; 
extreme  difficulty,  in  the  most  masterly  maimer  surmounted — obtaiaiu^a  moet 
brilliant  result  In  the  complete  ruin  and  dispersion  of  the  mutineers.  When  the 
as<:anlt  on  the  city  was  at  last  ordered.  General  N.  (for  to  tliis  rank  be  had  dow 
attained)  was  selected  for  the  post  of  honor ;  and  on  the  morning  of  September  14, 
he  led  the  first  column  of  attack.  After  the  troops  had  forced  their  wny  into  the  city, 
an  unforeseen  check  occurred,  and  N.,  ever  in  front,  exposed  himself  in  the  most  fear- 
less maimer  to  animate  his  men  to  advance.  Conspicuous  by  bis  towering  stature, 
he  became  t!ie  mark  of  the  enemy's  bullets,  and  fell,  shot  through  the  TOdy.  He 
lingered  for  some  time  in  great  suffering,  and  died  on  the  morning  of  the  23d.  Over 
the  whole  of  India  the  victory  was  saddened  by  his  death  ;  for  it  was  felt  that  in 
John  N.,  to  use  Lord  Canuhig's  expression,  "  a  tower  of  strength  "  had  fallen.  Dar- 
ing the  whole  war  of  the  mutiny,  though  it  claimed  many  noble  victims,  there  fell  no 
man  more  rfgretted  in  his  death  than  N.,  or  in  Ida  death  more  worthy  of  r^rer. 
Throughout  his  career  he  shone — as  oiH)ortunity  offered—a  veritable  "  king  of  men  ;" 
one  of  those  bom  to  command,  who  naturally  and  inevitably  rise  to  it,  and  however 
gi'eat  in  achievement,  seem  to  need  only  the  hap  of  ampler  opportunity  in  the  futnre, 
to  outj'oar  their  great  achievements  in  the  past.  No  one  ever  seems  to  have  come  fail  ly 
in  contact  with  him  without  being  strangely  imnressed  with  this  sense  of  a  magnificent 
reserve  of  poioer  in  him.  It  remains  only  to  add,  that  his  nature  was  on  the  one  side 
as  gentle,  tender,  and  affectionate,  as  on  the  other  it  was  strong  and  brave ;  and  thiU, 
by  all  who  had  intimate  relations  with  him,  he  was  not  less  bdovcd~for  his  mild  vir- 
tues, than  for  his  sterner  gifts  honored  and  admired.  To  Ids  memory  all  honor  was 
paid.  The  Queen  commanded  it  to  l)e  officially  announced  that,  had  be  lived,  he 
would  have  been  created  a  Knight  Commander  of  the  Bath ;  and  by  the  Eai^t  ludia 
Company,  a  special  grant  of  £^}0  a  year  was  voted  to  the  mother  who  survived  to 
mourn  for  him.  For  further  details  of  the  life  of  this  man  of  right  noble  and  heroic 
mould,  the  reader  is  referred  to  tlje  account  of  him—from  which  tliinlitUe  sk«itch  is 
redacted— given  in  Kaye*s  most  interesting  work  entitled  **  Lives  of  Indian-Officers  *' 
(2  vols.,  Lond.,  A.  Strahau  &  Co.,  1867). 

NI'CIAS,  a  famous  Athenian  statesman  and  general  during  the  Peloponnesian 
War,  was  the  son  of  Niceratup,  a  very  wealthy  citizen,  who  had  acquired  his  fortune 
by  working  the  silver-mines  ac  Laureium.  N.  belonged  to  the  aristocratic  party,  aud 
alter  the  death  of  Pcriclen,  presented  himself  as  the  op|)onent  of  Cleon,  the  great 
popular  or  demagogic  leader.  He  was  not  a  man  of  quick,  brilliant,  audacious 
genius,  like  Alcibiades ;  on  the  contrary,  lie  was  remarkably  wary  and  cautions, 
even  at  times  to  timidity.  Success  generally  accompanied  his  enterprises  agninst 
tin:  Spartans  and  their  allies.  In  427  B.C.,  he  captured  the  island  of  Minoa  ;  next  year 
he  ravaged  the  island  of  Melos  and  the  coasts  of  Locris;  the  year  following  that, 
he  obliged  the  SparUin  force  in  Sphacteria  to  purrender,  and  also  defeated  the  Corin- 
thians. In  424  BO.,  he  mrde  havoc  of  part  of  Laconia.  captured  the  island  Of  Cythera, 
and  achieved  several  other  successes.  After  the  death  of  Cleon,  he  brought  about  a 
peace  iHitween  the  Spartans  and  Athenians,  421  B.C.  Six  years  afterwards,  the 
Ath«-uittnH,  at  the  instigation  of  Alcibiades,  resolved  on  a  gi'eat  naval  ex)>edJtiou 
against  Sici  ly.  N.  was  appointed  one  of  the  commanders,  although  he  had  strongly 
protested  against  the  undertaking.  In  the  autumn  of  415  B.O.,  he  laid  siege  to  Syra* 
cuse  and  was  at  flr?t  succes.«»fnl,  nut  subsequently  experienced  a  series  of  dSsasfers; 
bis  fleet  was  destroyed,  uud  his  troops  began  a  retreat  .towai^^  the   iuteriot , 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


o/:»i  Nicia* 

-^Oi  Nlcoal 

of  S*cily.  They  were  speedily  forced  to  surreiider,  and  N.  wns  pot  to  death 
414  B.  a  See  Thii'lwall'B  aud  Grote's  *'  Histories  of  Greece,"  aud  Plutarch's  *^  Life 
of  Niclas." 

NICKEL  (symbol,  Nl ;  eqii!v.  29-6 — now  syetero,  69— -ep.  crav.  8*8)  is  a  grayish- 
white  glistening  metal,  capaole  of  receiving  a  high  ^lolish,  of  about  the  same  hard- 
ii*8S  as  iron,  and,  like  that  metal,  malleable  aT)d  ductile.  It  iias  about  the  same  f  iisi- 
bility  as  wrpnght  iron,  but  is  less  readily  oxidised  than  that  metal,  since  it  remfiius 
uuchauged 'for  a  long  time  in  a  moist  atmospliere,  and  is  very  Utile  aitackrdby  dilute 
acidH.  It  is  stroiigljr  magnetic,  but  loset*  this  property  wlien  heuied  to  660°.  It  dis- 
Bolvt'S  in  dydrochloric  and  dilute  sulphuric  add  with  a  development  of  hydrogen  gus, 
aud  is  very  readily  oxidised  in  niiric  acid. 

N.  only  occurs  in  tiie  native  8tnt«  in  meteoric  stones,  in  which  it  is  always  pres- 
ent in  associati(Vn  with  tlie  iron  which  forms  the  priucipal  part  of  those  niat^nes.  It 
J8  found  in  tolerable  abnudunce  in  Saxony,  WestphiiTia,  Hungary,  Sweden,  &c., 
where  it  occuna  in  the  form  of  kup/et-niekel  (so  called  from  it«  yellowish-red  color), 
whicb  is  a  combination  of  N.  and  araenicM  The  metal  is  obtained  on  tlie  huge  sc4ile 
(for  tiie  purpose  of  making  German  silver  (q.  v.)  and  other  alloys)  either  from  this 
compound  or  ftpeisSf  which  is  an  impure  arsenio-sulphide  of  N.,  formed  during  the 
manufacture  of  Smalt  (q.  v.)  by  somewhat  complicated  chemical  processes.  In  small 
quantities,  it  may  be  obtained  by  reducing  one  of  its  oxides  by  means  of  hydrogen  at 
a  high  tempeiiiture,  or  by  exposing  the  oxalate  to  a  very  high  temperature  in  acmci- 
ble  lined  with  charcoal. 

N.  forms  two  compounds  with  oxygen— viz.,  a  protoxide,  NiO,  and  a  sesqniox- 
ide,  NijOs,  which  is  not  basic,  and  may  be  passed  over  without  further  notice.  The 
protoxide  occurs  as  a  greenish-gray  powder,  which  exhibits  no  magnetic  properties, 
and  is  insoluble  in  water.  It  is  obtained  by  heating  the  carbonate  or  the  hydrated 
protoxide  in  a  closed  cmcible.  The  hydrnted  protoxice,  NiO,HO,  is  obtained  by 
prec-ipitation  from  a  solution  of  one  of  its  salts  by  potash.  The  salts  of  the  pro- 
toxide and  their  solutions  are  of  a  delicr.te,  very  characteristic  green  color;  but  in 
the  nnliydrouB  state  most  of  them  ore  yellow.  Tlie  neutral  salts,  soluble  in  walcr, 
plightly  redden  litmus,  have  a  sweetish  astringent  metallic  taste,  and  when  adminis- 
Icred  in  mo<lerate  doses,  excite  vomiting.  The  most  important  of  the  salts  is  tlie 
cnlphate  (NiO,8(>s+7Aq),  which  crystallises  in  beautiful  green  rhombic  prisms.  It 
is  obtained  by  dissolving  the  metal  or  its  oxide  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  ;  and  is  the 
fourcc  from  which  the  other  salts  of  N.,  the  cjirhonate,  oxalate,  Ac,  arc  obtained. 
Ilie  principal  use  of  N.  is  in  the  composition  of  various  alloys,  such  as  German 
Silver  (q.  v.). 

TJie  sulphate  of  N.  has  been  prescril>ed  successfully  by  Professor  Simpson  in 
cased  of  severe  headache. 

NI'COBAR  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  north-weet  of 
Sumatra,  and  forming,  with  the  Andamans  (q.  v.),  an  extension  of  the  groat  ipland 
chain  of  which  Java  and  Sumatra  are  the  principal  links.  Lat.  6°  40^— S*^  20'  n., 
Jong.  93°— 94°  e.  They  ai'e  divided  by  the  Sombrero  Chrmnel  into  two  groups,  of 
■which  the  principal  members  are  the  Great  N.  (area  about  260  square  miles),  and  the 
l^ittle  N.  (area  86  square  miles).  The  luhabitaiits,  who  are  not  numerous,  are  dis- 
tinct from  Malays  and  Burmese,  aud  are  said  to  resemble  the  hill-tribes  in  Formosa. 
The  Danes  made  a  settleinent  here  in  1754,  were  dispossessed  by  Great  Britain  from 
1807  to  ;1814,  and  Anally  withdrew  in  1848.  In  1869,  the  Indian  government  took 
I>os8essi«)n  of  these  islands,  and  aflSliated  a  new  settlement  at  Nancowiy  Harbor  to 
the  great  penal  colony  at  Port  Blair  in  the  Andaman  Islands.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and 
tlic  cocoa-nut  palra  grows  abundantly. 

NICOLAI,  Christoph  Friedr.,  a  celebrated  German  author,  bookseller,  and  pub- 
lisher, was  bom  18th  Miircli  173.%  at  Berlin,  where  his  father  was  also  a  bookseller. 
He  devot'd  liimself  very  eameptly  to  literary  and  philosophical  studies,  and  < arly 
disfingni shed  himself  by  his  *•  Briefe  ttber  den  jetzigen  Zustand  der  schOnen  Wip- 
seuRchaftcn  "  (Berl.  1756),  in  which  he  exposed  the  errors  of  both  Gottsched  and 
Bodmer,  then  carrying  on  a  controversy  which  was  agitating  the  literary  world  of 
Genuaiiy.  He  l>ecame  the  associate  of  Lessing  and  Moses  Mendelssolm.  Jointly 
witli  til?  latter,  h<r  edited  for  sometime  the  admirable  "Bibliothek  der  FchOiien 
Wissenschaf ten  "    (Lei p..  1757— 1758);  and   with   Lessing,   he  gave   to  the   wr 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Nicolai  OAO 

Niebuhr  -*-'-^ 

"  Briefe  dieneuesto  dent8cl»e  literaturbetreffend  (24  vols.  Berl.  1759— 176g.  By  this 
he  wasletl  to  conceive  the  plau  of  the  **  AUgemehie  deutwlie  BSbliotliek"  (106  voK 
1765 — 171>2>,  a  periodical  which  he  edited  for  mauy  years,  and  which  contribnted 
jnnch,  particularly  in  the  early  period  of  its  exieteuce,  to  the  progress  of  literature 
aud  improvemeut  of  taste  in  Germiiiiy,  but  was  too  frequently  chai*acteri*ed  by  an 
nndne  acerbity  of  tone.  N.'s  hostility  to  the  new  schools  of  literature  and  philos- 
ophy, which  enrangnpiii  G^irmany,  exposed  liiin  to  at  tie  Ics  from  the  pens  of  Herder, 
Goethe,  Scijiller,  liuvnt^^r,  and  Ficiite.    Hin  death  took  plnce  8ifi  Jrimianr  1811. 

Among  N.-s  works  may  be  mentioned  his  '*  Topogi-aphisch-bistoriecne  Beschrei- 
bung  von  Berlin  mid  Potsdam"  (Berl.  1769,  8d  edit,  1786);  ••  Ctiaractorigtis^cben 
Aucfdoteu  von  B'riedrich  II."  (Berl.  1788-1792),  both  of  pcnnancnt  valne;  sotne 
novels,  nshis  "  Leben  uud  Meinungen  des  Magl.-*ters  Sebaldus  Notlianker"  (4th  edit. 
Bt'i'l.  1799);  "  Ge^chichte  eines  dlcfeeu  Munnes."  a  Sharply  Ffttirical  performanct;  (2 
vols.  Berl.  1794);  "  Beschreibnng  einer  Reise  durch  Detitschland  niid  dieSchweiz" 
(Berl.  1781;  3d  edit.  12  vote.  I7t»-1796);  an  autobiograpby,  pnbli^hed  in  the  "Bild- 
nisse  jetzt  leliender  Berliner  Gelelntcn ;"  and  a  work  t  ntitli'd  '*  Uebcr  jueine  gelcbrte 
Bildnnj;,  ubermdneKeinitniss  der  Critischen  Philosopliie  and  metne  Schrif ten  dio- 
selbe  betreffend"  (Berl.  1799). 

NICOLAI,  Otto,  a  German  musical  composer  of  note,  bom  at  Konigsberg  in  1809. 
His  early  life  was  a  struggle  with  poverty  aud  difficulties.  He  studied  for  thn« 
years  in  Berlin  under  Kl.-iii ;  and  in  1835  went  to  Rome,  where  he  went  through  three 
more  years  of  study  under  BainL  After  tnivellnig  for  ten  or  twelve  years  over 
Europe,  he  became,  in  1847,  Kapellmeister  at  Berlin,  a  post  which  he  soon  resigiieil. 
He  appeared  as  n  composer  of  dramatic  music  as  early  as  1831 ;  but  his  first  woi  k  of 
importance  was  '*I1  Templario,"  founded  on  Scott's  romance  of  "  Ivnnhoe,"  which, 
produced  at  Turfn  in  1S41,  attained  a  high  and  permanent  reputation.  In  184S.  lie 
wrote  at  Berlin  "Die  Lustigen  Weiber  von  Windsor,"  on  whicli  his  renown  us  a 
musician  is  founded,  a  work  diarming  for  its  ch^r  design  and  lively  vigorous  tone, 
whose  overture  is  almost  worthy  of  Weber.  Two  mouths  after  the  prodactiou 
of  tills  his  chefiVaeuvre^  its  comi)06er  died  at  Berlin. 

NICOLAS,  St.,  a  higldy  popular  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  niul  rev- 
erenced with  still  greater  devotion  by  the  Rnssian  Churo»i,  which  regards  him  hs  a 
special  patron,  was  one  of  the  early  bishops  of  Myra  in  Lycia.  The  precise  date  of 
his  episcopate  is  a  subject  oC  much  controversy.  According  to  the  popular  accouut, 
he  was  a  confessor  of  tiie  faith  in  the  last  persecution  under  Maximinian,  and  having 
sumved  until  the  Council-  of  Nice,  was  one  of  tlie  bishops  who  took  part  in  that 
great  assembly.  This,  however,  seems  highly  improbable.  His  name  does  not  oocor 
aiuon^  the  signatures  to  the  decrees,  nor  is  he  mentioned  along  witti  the  other  dis- 
tinguished confessors  of  the  f.iith  who  were  present  at  the  council,  either  by  the  hta» 
torians,  or  wliat  is  more  iinpoitant,  by  St  Athanasius.  He  may,  with  more  prob- 
ability, be  referi'ed  to  a  later  period ;  but  he  certainly  lived  prior  to  the  reign  of  Jns- 
tinian,  in  whose  time  several  of  the  churches  of  Constantinople  were  dedicated  to 
St  Nicolas.  Of  his  personal  history  hardly  anything  is  certainly  known,  aud  the  &reat 
popularity  of  the  devotion  to  him  rests  mainly  on  the  traditions,  both  in  the  West 
and  in  tlie  East,  of  the  many  miracles  wrought  through  his  intercession.  He  is  re- 
garded, hi  Catliolic  countries,  as  the  especial  patron  of  the  young,  and  particularly 
of  scholars.  In  England,  his  feast  was  celebrated  in  ancient  times  with  great  so- 
lemnity in  tlie  public  schools,  Eton,Saruin,  Cathcdnd,  and  elsewhere ;  and  a  curioi^ 
practice,  founded  upon  this  characteristic  of  St.  N.,  still  subsists  in  some  countries, 
especially  in  Germany.  On  the  vigil  of  his  feast,  which  is  held  on  the  6th  December, 
a  person  in  the  appearance  and  co^^tunie  of  a  bishop  assembles  the  cliildrcn  of_a 
family  or  of  a  sciiool,  and  distributes  among  them,  to  the  good  children,  gilt  wnl?^ 
sweetmeats,  and  other  little  presents,  as  the  reward  of  good  <M)ndnct ;  to  the  naughty 
ones,  the  redoni)tHble  punishment  of  the  "  Klaubauf."  The  supposed  relies  of  St  N. 
were  conveyed  from  the  East  to  Bari,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  towards  the  close  of 
the  llth  c;  and  it  is  a  curioiis  fact  that  in  the  Russian  Church  the  anniversary  of 
this  translation,  9th  Miiy,  is  still  observed  as  a  festival. 

NICOME'DEIA,  the  capital  of  ancient  Bithjmia,  was  situated  at  the  north-eaetera 
angle  of  the  Gulf  of  Astacus,  in  the  Proponiis,  now  called  the  Bay  of  Ismid,  was 
built  about  264  A.D;  by  Nicomedes  I.,  who  madt;  it  the  capital  of  his  kingdom,  and 


y  Google 


2G3 


Nlcolal 
Niebnhr 

it.  900U  became  6iie  of  the  ©oat  iiia>niificent  and  flonrishing  dttefl  in  the  world,  and 
ponie  of  th<?  later  Komaii  emperorai  each  »h  Diuclctiau  and  Couplnutiiie  the  Gnat, 
Belectod  it  for  their  temporary  n-eidence.  It  suffered  greatiy  both  from  eartliqnalces 
aud  the  attacks  of  thi!  Goths.  Constautine  died  at  a  royal  vHia  In  the  imniediiite 
vicjnity.  Haiinibal  committed  snictdc  in  a  cattle  close  hy.  It  was  tlie  birlhnlace  of 
the  historian  Arrian.  Tlie  small  town  of  Ismid  or  Isuikmid  now  occupies  fts  site, 
and  contains  muny  relics  of  ancient  Nicomedeia. 

NICO'POLIS.  recently  a  Turkish  fortress,  l)«t  since  1878  a  city  of  the  newly  con- 
ptitut«d  principality  of  Bulffjiria,  is  on  the  Danul)e,  about  56  mil.  h  wc?t  of  Kupicliuk. 
The  fortifications,  tliongh  extiusive,  were  never  of  n.ndh  injporlancr,  and  tin?  Berlin 
Congress  of  1878  provided  for  their  demolition.  The  city  used  lo  b-  divided  into 
two-  portions ;  the  fortre-ss  and  Turkish  town,  defendetl  on  every  side  by  butteries 
and  rampiirts,  and  the  eastern  Quarter.  ( omprisin?  the  dweirms.'**  of  the  Bn!piriau>», 
Wallachs,  and  Jews.  N.  is  wiaely  biiilt,  most  of  the  houses  bein;;  surrounded  by 
gardens.  Tt  is  an  important  market  for  Wallachian  wur«'P,  but  oiliorwisc  is  not  a 
£^eat  centre  of  trade.    Wine  is  produced  in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  16,000. 

N.,  the  ancient  Xieopoliti  ad  letrtim.  was  founded  by  Trnjnn,  and  fnigments  of  the 
old  wall  still  remain.    Here  llif  Huujrarians,  under  thiir  km\:  iSi^s^mund,  \v%.'Vc  de- 
featid  by  the  Sultan  Bfljazet  L  in  1^96.     The  city  gives  title  to  a  Greek  archbis- 
hop and  to  a  Catholic  bishop.        » 
NICOTIA'NA.    See  Tobacco. 

NI'COTINE,  or  Nicoty'lia  (CaoHj4Na\  is  one  of , the  natural  volatile  oily  bases 
destitute  of  oxygen,  and  conetiiuies  the  active  principle  of  the  tobacco  nlaut,  in  tl:e 
leaves,  roots,  and  seeds  of  which  it  occurs  in  combhiation  with  nuilic  and  citric 
acids.  It  is  likewise  contained  in  the  smoke  of  tlje  burnln;^  leaves.  It  is  a  color- 
less, intensely  i)oi!»onou8  liquid,  of  specific  gravity  1-027  at  66«>,  whicli  boils  ut  480°, 
evolves  a  very  irritating  odor  of  tobacco,  ePiTecialiy  on  tlio  application  of  heat,  is  v«'iy 
inflammable,  and  burns  with  a  smoky  flame.  It  is  moderatel.v  soluble  in  wati'r,  and 
clissolves  readily  in  alcohol  and  ether.  If  exposed  to  the  air,  It  absorbs  oxyuen,  and 
l)ecomes  brown,  and  ultimately  solid.  The  quantity  of  N.  contained  in  tol)acco  vai  les 
from  2  to  8  per  cent.;  the  coarser  kinds  conlaiuiug  the  larger  quantity,  while  the 
best  Havannah  cigars  seldom  contain  more  than  2  per  cent,,  and  often  less. 

A  remarkable  case  of  |)oisoning  by  N. — that  of  the  Count  Bocarm^,  who  was  tried 
and  executed  in  Belgium  for  tlie.  murder  of  his  brother-in-law— is  recortle<l  in  the 
**Annalesd*Hygidne'*1851),  and  wasthe  occasion  of  Orflla's  publishing  his**M6- 
moire  snr  la  Nicotine.*'  A  distinguished  student  of  the  College  of  Chemistry  pub- 
aequently  employed  it  for  the  purpose  of  suicide.  The  deaths  that  have  taken  phico 
front  the  use  of  tobacco  in  the  form  of  inj-ction— of  which  several  cases  are  ou 
record— were  doubtless  due  to  the  action  of  this  Bu!)stance. 

NICOSl'A,  a  city  of  Sicily,  in  the  iwrovince  of  Catojiia,  70  miles  souih-west  from 
Hessiua.  It  is  situated  on  the  crest  of  a  steep  conical  hill  between  two  head-braDches 
of  the  Salso.  It  has  scarcely  any  manufactures,  but  carries  on  some  trade  In  com, 
wine,  oil,  and  cattle.'  Near  it  arc  beds  of  alum,  schist,  a  rich  mine  of  rock'Salt,  uhd 
springs  of  petroleum.    Pop.  14,250. 

KIEBUHR,  Karsten,  a  distinguished  geographer  and  traveller,  was  born  In  1733, 
iu  the  Hanoverian  territory  of  Uadeln,  ou  tlie  confines  of  Uolstein.  Buing  early 
thrown  on  his  own  resources,  he  spent  several  years  of  ids  youth  in  the  position  of  a 
day-laborer;  but  his  natural  energy  having  led  Idm  to  apply  himself  to  the  study  of 
geometry,  and  having  acquired  a  small  property,  he  went  to  Gottiugen,  whero  he 
atteiidecT  the  classes  at  the  university  until  his  resources  were  wholly  exhausted.  At 
tliis  period  he  entered  the  Danish  service,  and  in  1761  he  joined  the  scientific  expedi- 
tion which  King  Frederick  V.  sent  to  explore  certain  portions  of  Arabia,  wiili  a  view 
of  illustrating  some  passages  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  expedition  reached  Cairo 
at  the  close  of  the  year  1761,  and  after  having  carefully  explored  the  pyramids,  and 
crossed  the  desert  to  Mount  Sinai  and  SueK,  proceeded  to  Arabia  Felix.  Here,  how- 
ever, the  various  members  of  the  expedition,  which  included  tlie  eminent  naturalist 
ForskftI,  all  perished  with  the  exception  of  N.,  who  had  himself  suffered  severely 
from  fever.  Aft<'r  the  untimely  death  of  his  companions,  he  adopted  the  diet 
aud  dress  o£   the  nutive&<-a  measure  to  which  lie  was  probably  iitdebted  fo** 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Wiepco  -^^>'i 

the   gQod   health   which   ie    enjoyed    during  fiio  rest  of   the   travels,  which 
he  prosecutitd    with    extraordinary    lesolutioii    for  nioro   tluui   six  yearSi   Ho 
proceeded   as   far  as   India,  visiting   also   Persia  and  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  con- 
tinned  tlio  observations  and  researches  of  his  late  collragaes  in  addition  to  hisowa 
special  geographical  investigations.    On  his  return  to  Denmark,  in  1767,  N.  at  onco 
devoted  himself  to  the  task  of  publishing  the  results  of  liis  important  mission,  whicli 
appeared  in  German  under  tlic  foUowiug  titles,  **  Besfclireibung  von  Arabieu  "  (Co- 
peuh.  1772),  and  "  Reisebeschrei bung  von  Arabieu  nud  andem  nmliegendem  lin- 
dernr  (Copenh.  1774—1778,  2  vol?.) ;  the  publication  of  the  ttiird  volume  of  this  work 
was  unfortunately  delayed,  in  consequence  of  tl)e  pressure  of  numerous  other  engajre- 
ments  arising  from  his  professional  and  official  duties,  and  it  was  not  till  more  tlnin 
twenty  years  after  his  deatli  that  t!ie  book  made  Its  appearance  under  tlie  snpervi- 
sion  of  N.'s  daughter,  and  through  the  liberality  of  the  eminent,  bookseller  Perthes 
of  Hamburg.    In  addition  to  these  valuable  observations,  N.  edited  and  published  at 
his"  own  cost  the  natural-history  notes  of  hisdecejised  friend  and  fellow-traveller,  P. 
PorskSl  which  he  arranged  in  two  works,  **  Descriptiones  Animalinm,"  &c.  (Copenh. 
1775),  and  "  Flora  -^gyptiaco-Arabica "  (Copenh.  17T6).    The  accnnicy  of  detail, 
fidelity  of  delineation,  and  careful  avoidance  of  alt  exaggeration.  whIcJi  characterise 
N.^s  geographical  and  social  descriptions  of  Arabia  and  other  Asiatic  countries,  liave 
made  his  works  classical  text-books  for  all  who  wish  to  study  the  st)bject.    Although 
N.  accept^id,  in  1778,  a  civil  post,  which  fixed  his  fesidence  In  the  remote  provincial 
town  of  Meldorf^  in  the  Ditm.rsli  district  of  HolPtein,  where  he  devoted  himself  dur- 
ing the  rest  of  his  life  to  tlie  fulfilment  of  his  ofllcial  duties,  he  never  relinqnis-hed 
his  interest  in  scientific  inqnii-j^  and -contributed  several  valuable  papers  on  the  geo- 
grapliical  and  political  history  of  tlie  nations  of  the  east  to  the  "Deuisclie  Museum," 
and  other  periodicals.    He  died  in  1815,  leavinc:  a  character  of  being  at  once  one  of 
the  most  truthful  and  scientifically  exact  ti-aveliers  of  modern  times. 

NIEBUHR,  Barthold  Georg,  one  of  the  most  acute  historians,  critics  and 
ph  lologists  ot:  modern  times,  was  bom  Aucust  27, 1776,  at  Copenhagen,  where  h.'s 
fattier,  Karsten  Kiebnhr  (q.  v.)  tlieu  resided.  The  aptitude  for  learning  which  N. 
displayed  almost  from  infancy,  led  him  to  be  regarded  as  a  juvenile  prodig}',  and  un- 
like many  other  precocious  children,  his  powers  of  acquiring  knowledge  kept  pace 
with  liis  advandug  years.  After  a  carefully  conducted  preliinmary  education,  under 
tlie  superintendeuoe  of  his  father,  he  spent  a  session  at  GottinKen  studying;  law,  • 
and  from  thence  proceeded  in  his  19tli  year  to  Ikiinburgh,  where  he  devoted  himself 
more  especially  to  the  natural  sciences.  On  his  return  to  Denmark,  he  liecaine 
private  secretary  to  the  finance  ininlster,  Schimmelmann,  and  fiom  that  period  till 
1804  held  several  appointments  under  the  Danish  government,  which,  however,  he  < 
was  led  to  resign  in  consequencee  c^  his  strontrly  pronounced  political  teudcucies, 
which  made  him  enter  heart  and  soul  into  the  feeling  of  Iiatred  of  I^apoleon,  which 
was  at  that  time  agitating  the  minds  of  Germans.  In  accordance  with  these  views, 
N.  entered  the  Prussian  civil  service  m  1806,  and  during  the  three  succeeding  years 
he  shared  in  the  vicissitudes  which  befell  the  eovernmeut  of  his  chief,  (;onnt 
fiai-denbei-g,  after  the  disastrous  battle  of  Jena,  and  the  consequent  pressure  of  the 
Napoleonic  infiuence  on  tlie  management  of  the  state.  The  opening  of  the  university 
of  Berlin  in  1810  was  a  new  em  in  the  life  of  N.,  who,  with  the  view  of  promotine  the 
interests  of  the  new  institution,  gave  a  course  of  lectures  on  Roman  history,whicTi,  by 
making  known  the  results  of  the  new  and  criticid  theory  which  ho  had  applied  to  the 
elucidation  of  obscnire  historical  evidence,  established  hisptjsition  as  one  of  the  must 
original  and  philosophical  of  modern  historians.  Hisappomtment,  in  1816,  to  the  post 
of  Prussian  ambassador  at  the  papal  court,  where  he  remained  till  1823,  ^vu  him  un 
opportunity  of  testing  on  the  spot  the  accurocty  of  his  conjectures  in  regard  to  many 
questions  of  local  and  social  bearing.  On  his  return  fmm  Rome,  N.  took  up 
his  residence  at  Bonn,  where,  by  bis  admirable  lectures  and  expositions,  he  coiitri-  | 
buted  very  materially  to  the  development  of  classical  and  arclifeological  ]earniu«r.  I 
He  was  thus  employed  when  the  revolution  of  1830  roused  him  from  the  cairn  of 
his  liteiaiy  pui*8uitH.  N.'s  sensitive  nature,  unstrung  by  physical  debility,  led  him 
to  take  an  exaggerated  view  of  the  consequences  of  tins  movement,  and  to  anticipate 
a  recurrence  of  all  the  hori-ors  of  the  former  French  revolution,  and  the  result  waS  to 
brine  about  a  state  of  mental  depression  and  l)odily  prostration,  wiiich  eiichHl  in  UU 
4eatA  iu  January  1831.    N.'s  attoinmeuts  embraced  a  more  extensive  rauge  than 


y  Google 


205  gifpS" 

most  men  are  capable  of  grasping,  for  be  was  alike  dist  inguisliod  ae  a  shrewd  man 
of  buBiuesSf  an  aide  diplomatist,  an  accurate  scbolar,  and  u  man  of  original  geniut^ 
He  tiad  mastered  twenty  languages  before  tlie  a{;e  of  thirty,  while  the  mass  of  facts 
which  his  tenacious  memory  reuiined,  and  the  intuidve  SHgacity  that  enabled  him 
to  sift  true  from  false  historic  evidence,  and  often  to  supply  by  felicitous  conjecture 
the  link  wanting  in  some  imperfect  chain  of  evidence,  exhibit  tlie  extraord!n;>ry 
ecope  of  his  intellect.  It  is  not  lo  be  denied,  however,  thai  lie  is  often  arbitrary  and 
tmhistorical  in  his  coujectiurefi.  and  the  stricter  sort  of  sceptical  critics,  like  the  late 
Sir  Gleorge  Cornewall  Lewis,  even  go  so  far  as  lo  regard  his  rffort  to  construt't  a  cou- 
tinaoos  Koinau  history  out  of  such  legendary  uiaierials  as  we  possess  ne,  on  the 
whole,  a  failure.  Among  the  many  import4int  works  with  which  he  enriched  the 
literatnre  of  his  time,  the  following  are  some  of  the  most  noteworthy :  **  ROraische 
Geschichte »'  (3  Bde.  Berl.  181M^2:  2d  edit  1827-1842;  1838;  1863).  the  first  two 
volumes  have  been  translated  by  J.  C.  Hare  and  C.  'i'hirlwall,  and  the  third  by  Dr 
tV.  Smith  and  Dr  L.  Schmit«;  "  Grnudzti^e  fiir  die  Vei-fassung  Niedorlands"  (Berl. 
1S3'2) ;  **Griecb.  Heroengeschichte, "  iHambg.  1842),  written  for  his  son  Marcus ;  the 
"Kleiuen  historischen  nnd  philologischen  Scbrifren  "  (2  Bde.  Bonn,  1828-1848), 
couuiiu  his  introduclorv  lectures  on  Roman  history,  and  many  of  tiie  t'Hsays  which 
hud  appeared  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Berlin  Academy.  Beside  these,  and 
iiomerous  other  essays  on  philological,  historical,  and  archseological  questions,  N. 
co-operated  with  Bekker  and  other  learned  RUHotators  in  re-^iting  '*  Scriptores 
Instorise  Byzantinss ;"  he  also  discovered  hitherto  unprlnted  fragments  of  claspical 
authors,  as,  for  instance,  of  Cicero's  **  Orations  "  and  portions  of  Gains,  publislird 
the  "  Inscriptiones  Nubi^nses  "  (Rome  1821),  and  was  a  constant  contributor  to  the 
*'  Rheiuische  Museum  fiir  Pbilologie,"  and  other  literary  Journals  and  societies  of 
Germany. 

NIE'LLO-WORK,  a  method  of  ornamenting  metal  plates  by  engraving  the  sur- 
face, and  rubbing  in  a  black  or  coloiXMi  composition,  so  as  to  fill  up  the  Incised  lines, 
audgive  effect  to  the  intjaglio  picture.  It  is  by  no  m«nns  quite  certain  when  this  art 
wag  originated  ;  Byzantine  works  of  the  12ih  c.  still  exist  to  attest  its  early  cmploy- 
ployment  The  finest  works  of  this  kind  belong  to  the  former  half  of  the  15ib  r-., 
when  remarkable  excellence  in  drawing  and  grouping  minute  figures  in  these  motal 
pictures  w:is  attained  by  Maso  dl  Fini^erra,  an  eminent  painter,  and  student  of 
Ghiberti  and  Massjicio.  In  his  hands  it  gave  rise  to  copper-plate  engraving  (see 
Engbavino),  and  hence  much  interest  attaches  to  the  art  of  niello-cutting.  Gcnn- 
ine  specimens  of  this  :irt  are  rare,  some  of  those  by  PinigueiTn  are  veiy  beautiful 
and  c£Cective,  the  black  pigment  in  the  lines  giving  a  pleasinir  effect  to  the  snrfacvi 
of  the  metal,  which  is  usually  silver.  Those  of  nis  works  best  known  are  some 
elaborately  beautiful  pattines  wronght  by  him  for  the  church  of  San  Giovanni  at 
Florence,  one  of  which  is  in  the  UflBzia,  and  some  are  iu  various  private  collections. 
Ill  the  collection  of  Ornamental  Art  at  South  Kensington,  there  are  no  less  than  17 
Fpecimeus  of  this  art« 

NIE'MEN  (called  by  the  Germans  Memet),  a  river  in  Prussia,  rises  a  few  miles 
south  of  the  city  of  Minsk,  flows  westward  to  Grodno  180  miles,  noith  and  west 
nloDg  the  frontiers  of  the  Polish  province  of  Augustowo.  and  west  through  Kast 
Prussia  to  the  Kurische  Haff.  Entire  length,  640  miles.  It  is  navigable  for  large 
craft  at  Grodno,  400  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  is  free  of  ice  from  March  to  No- 
vember. Between  Grodno  and  Kovno  there  are  55  rapids  and  shallows,  and  pilots 
are  therefore  required  for  the  navigation  of  the  river.  At  Winge.  8  miles  below 
Tilsit,  the  N.  divides  Into  two  branches,  of  which  the  northern,  the  Russ,  reaches 
-the  Kurische  Haff  by  nine  mouths ;  and  the  southern,  the  Gilge,  by  seven  mouths. 
The  delta  is  traversed  by  numerous  canals.  The  N.  is  of  considerable  commercial 
^portance.  Large  barges  bring  down  the  produce  of  Lithnauia  and  of  a  portion  of 
Poland  to  Konigsberg  and  Memel.  Corn,  hemp,  flax,  hides,  and  bacon  are  the 
principal  articles  brought  from  the  interior.  Its  principal  affluent  is  the  Viliaon  tlic 
right 

NIEPCE  DE  ST  VICTOR,  Claude-Felix -Abel,  a  French  chemist  and  photo- 
prapher,  was  born  at  Saint  Cyr,  near  Chalou-sur-Saone,  26tli  July  1805.  He  served 
for  some  time  in  the  army ;  but  having  made  an  important  chemical  discovery  in 
coouection  with  dyeing,  he  was  permitted  to  exchange  into  the  municipal  guard  of 


y  Google 


Niger  ^^^ 

Pnrfs,  that  he  mlglil  i)arBne  hia  scientific  stadia's  with  more  facility.    Thl«  was  ill 

1846,  at  which  time  liia  attention  having  been  forcilily  attracted  to  the  important 
discoveries  in  photography  wliich  had  been  made  by  bienncle  Nloephore  Niepce  (sec 
PnoTOGRAPHY),  lie  resolved  to  devote  his  energies  to  this  subject.    He  was  led,  iu 

1847,  to  the  discovery  of  methods  for  obtaiuini?  imatres  on  glass,  coated  with  alba- 
men,  starch,  or  gelatin,  and  for  reproducing  designs  by  the  use  of  vapor  of  lodiiM*. 
His  investigations  were  for  a  time  interrupted  by  the  revolution  of  1848,  hot  he 
soon  resumed  them,  directing  his  attention  more  especially  to  the  obiaiiiiDg  of 
photographic  images  In  coloi*8 ;  and  before  the  close  of  1863,  he  had  socceedeu  iu 
obtaining  faithfully  coloi-ed  images  of  flowers,  natural  and  ariifical,  colored  eiigrav- 
ipgg,  j?oId  and  silver  lace.  Ac,  upon  silvered  plat-es  which  had  lieeu  sensitised  by  a 

•  chloride  of  copi>er.  In  obtaining  these  pictures,  both  phutographic  printing  and  tlie 
camera  were  employed ;  but  to  his  Intense  disappointment,  be  found  that  . 
the  colors  soon  began  to  lado,  and  after  a  time  disappeared.  This  process  he  named  ' 
*♦  Heliochromy."  His  third  and  most  imi)ortant  invention,  thntof  the  art  of  "  Hel.o- 
graphy,"  or  the  production  of  engraved  st<wl-platea  by  photogmphy,  was  first  com* 
uuinicated  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  May  1853.  He  does  not.  deserve  the  credit 
of  having  originated  the  Idea;  for  his  uncle,  previous  to  1839,'tiad  communicated  an 
imperfect  sketch  of  a  similar  invention  to  M.  Arago;  and  Mr  Tallwt  and  others  h:>d 
succeeded  by  a  similar  process  in  obtaining  images  of  simple  objects  on  steel-plates; 
but  to  N.  belongs  the  credit  of  having  removed  th*?  almost  insurmcontable  manipo* 
lative  difficulties,  and  rend  ircd  the  process  of  much  more  general  application,  tlios 
making  it  practically  sei-viceable.  He  afterwards  employed  himself  in  improviug 
and  perfecting  his  variouf*  discoveries. 

In  1855,  he  published  the  various  memoirs  iu  which  he  had  at  different  times 
communicated  his  three  great  diiscoveries  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  under  the 
title  of  **  Recherches  Photographigues,"  whidi  wa«  followed,  in  1856,  by  "  Trait6  Pra- 
tique de  Gravure  sur  Acieret  sur  Verre."  He  pi^esented  to  the  Academy  a  nf^mbor  of 
memoirs  on  the  action  of  light  on  a  variety  of  sal>fltaucep,  the  last  being  "  Sur  I'Ac- 
tion  de  la  Lnmidre  et  de  l'Electricit6  "  (February  1S60).  N.'s  edentlflc  studies  did  not 
interfere  wdth  his  military  promotion,  as  he  was  successively  appointed  chef-d'eacar 
dron,  and  (1854)  commandant  of  the  Louvre.    He  died  in  April  1870. 

NIE'RSTEIN,  a  market  village  (pop.  2C00)  of  Hessen-Darmst^dt,  iii  the  province 
of  Rheiu-Hessen,  and  9  miles  south-south-east  of  Maj[ence,  gives  name  to  a  wrll- 
kuown  and  highly-prized  variety  of  Rhenish  wine,  which  is  produced  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. 

NIETJ  WER  AMSTEL,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  iu  the  province  of  NoHh  Hol- 
land, five  miles  south-by-west  from  Amsterdam.  Pop.  8006.  A  few  inilcs  to  the  east 
of  it  is  the  village  of  Ouder  Am-tel,  with  about  8000  inhabitants,  on  the  Amstel,  one 
of  the  smaller  mouths  of  the  Rhine,  which  passes  through  the  city  of  Arosterilam, 
and  falls  into  the  Znlder  Zee. 

NIEU'WVELDT  MOUNTAINS,  a  portion  of  the  most  northerly  of  the  three 
ranges  of  mountains  in  Cai)e  Colony,  which  at  various  distances  from  the  souihera 
coast  all  run  parallel  to  it.  Of  these  three  rang>is,  the  most  northern  attaius 
the  greatest  altitude,  having  an  average  height  of  7000  feet.  The  portion  known  as 
the  N.  M.  extend  in  lat,  31°  40  to  82o  30  s.,  and  are  intersected  by  the  meridian  oj 
22°  e.  long.  From  their  southern  slopes,  the  Gamka  or  Lion  River  draws  it"  head 
waters;  and  from  their  northern,  the  Gariep  or  Orange  River  obtains  an  importaut 
tributary  in  the  upper  Zak, 

NifeVRE,  a  central  department  of  France,  occupies  a  portion  of  the  watershed 
between  the  Loire  and  the  Seine,  and  is  bonnded  on  the  west  by  the  rivers  AlHer 
and  Loire.  Area,  1.684,469 acres;  pop.  (1872)  389,917.  Mountiiins  occupy  the  eastern 
border,  and  extend  in  a  line  of  heights  from  south-east  to  north-west,  dividing  tlie 
department  into  two  great  declivities.  The  soil  is  generally  rocky  and  sandy,  cut 
up  by  ramifications,  almost  always  wooded,  of  the  mountains  of  Morwan.  There 
are  severa;  plateaux  more  or  les^s  fertile,  annmlier  of  hills  covered  with  vines,  atfa 
vallejrs  productive  in  pastures  ;  but  the  principal  wealth  of  the  department  consists 
in  its  forests  and  minerals.  The  Ni6vre,  whence  the  name  of  the  department,  is  an 
inconsiderable  affluent  of  the  Loire  from  the  right.  The  three  chM  river&-the 
AUier,  Loire,  and  Youue— are  navigable,  and  titp  Yoime,  which  belc»gH  to  the  tySf 


y  Google 


267  5;ir'» 

iem  of  the  Seine,  is  roimectpd  with  tfie  Loire  hy  a  canal  leadine  ncro58  the  wnUr- 
Bhed.  Of  the  eutire  :ire:i,  792.000  acres  were  iu  1864  iu  cahivable  laiid,  and  mora 
thau  a  third  oC  the  wliole  carf.tce  is  covered  with  fonstts,  Uie  timber  from  which, 
fnriuiug  one  of  the  priuci|)a)  eonrces  of  weuUh,  is  conveyed  hy  water  in  gr«>Ht  qnan- 
tilics  to  Paris,  &c  Abont  6,<K>0,000  eallons  of  wine  are  made  yearly.  Pnmi  tho 
mines  uf  N.,  iron  of  good  quaJity  is  obtained  in  ahnndancc ;  lead,  copper  aud  c>ilver 
arc  al^o  found;  and  there  are  coal  mine**,  and  quarries  of  marble  and  ^anite. 
Aroiidis6eiueut5,  Nevers,  Chaieaa-Chiuou,  Clamecy,  aud  Gosoe;  capital,  Kevers. 

NI'FLHEIM  (from  the  same  roots  as  L;»t.  itebula^  cloud,  and  Eug.  komf)^  menn- 
iug  the  abode  of  clouds,  was  one  of  the  nine  sepurtite  abodes  or  homes,  of  which 
the  old  Scandinavians  conceived  the  world  as  consisting  in  the  beginning  of  time. 
Itisth  k'Higdom  of  cold  and  darkness,  aud  is  separated  from  Mnspelslieim,  the 
kingdom  uf  light  and  heat,  by  a  ha^e  chasm  (Gninngagap,  yawning  gap).  Hni-e 
flow.'*  the  spring  Hvergeliuir,  watclied  by  the  dragon  Nidhngger;  this  spring  sends 
ont  twelve  ice-rivei-s,  from  tlie  drofis  of  whicii,  thawed  by  sparks  from  MnsixM- 
shcim;  sprang  the  ciiaotic  giant  Ymir  aud  the  cow  Audbnmbla.  N.  was  also  tho 
abode  of  HH  (q.  v.),  the  goddess  of  death,  who  here  received  all  who  died  of  sick- 
ness or  old  age. 

NIGK'LLA,  a  genua  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  RammcttJacece.  ha%ing  five 
colored  spreiidiug  sepals ;  five  or  ten  small  Iwo-lippid  mials,  whh  tubnl.ir  claw; 
tlie citrpels  more  or  le:*s  connected  togetlier,  many-stedea;  the  leaves  divided  into 
threadlike  segments,  the  flowers  solitiiry  nt  tlie  top  of  the  stem  or  branches.  They 
wre  annuals,  natives  chiefly  of  the  countries  near  the  Medilorranoan  and  tho 
warmer  temperate  parts  of  Asia.  Some  of  them,  occasionally  pcen  in  gardens  in 
Britain,  are  vulgarly  known  by  the  names  Devil-vi-a-bushm\d  Devil-in-a-ntut.  The 
seeds  are  aromatic,  and  somewhat  peppery.  Those  of  N.  tiotiva,  a  species  common 
in  cornfields  in  the  south  of  Europe,  are  supposed  lo  be  the  Black  Cummin  of  tlie 
ancienis,  and  perhaps  the  Cummin  of  the  Biole.  The  seeds  of  a  species  of  N.  are 
much  used  by  the  Afghans  fur  fliivoriug  curries. 

Nl'GER.  the  grt^ut  river  of  Westera  Africa.  ItsriamOj  according  to  Dr  Barlh,  is 
a  contracted  form  of  one  of  the  native  names,  A'-enh'trreti^  which,  as  well  as  all  the 
otlier  usinies,  Dhiulibd  {Joliha)^  MAvOy  Fsa^  Kwdra  (Qiwrra).  and  Bdki-n-ritwa^ 
means simp'lv  *•  the  river."  The  principal  head-wjster  rises  on  tlie  slojies  of  Mount 
Loma.  a  peak  of  the  Kong  Monutains.  in  a  barren,  desolate,  and  treeless  region,  in 
lat  »o  25'  11.  long.,  9°  45'  w.,  about  1600  feet  above  sea-level.  It  flows  north-east  to 
Timbuktu,  where  it  bends  «astwai'd,  and  after  flowing  in  that  direction  for  abont 
250  miles,  it  curves  toward  the  south,  and  proceeds  in  a  general  sonth-south-eaet 
course,  untal  arriving  at  the  head  of  iisdelta,  in  lat.  about  5o«0'  n.,  it  8et»arates  into 
many  branches,^  and  enters  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  between  the  Bight**  ot  Benin  and 
Biafra.  It  is  called  the  Timbri  for  the  first  70  miles  of  itacouise,  after  wliicli  it  re- 
ceives the  name  of  theJoiba,  or  nioi-e  correctly  D!ii6lil)&;  and  after  passing  Tim- 
buktu, it  is  knovw  princijially  as  the  Qnorra.  Little  in  known  of  its  course  uniil  it 
reaches  Sego  <Iat.  12°  30'  n.).  a  distance  of  350  miles  from  its  source,  but  from  that 
point  it  bjjs  been  explored  throughout  nearly  the  whole  of  its  course.  From  Scgo 
to  Tinibukru  it  flo.vs  through  a  fertile  country,  producing  rice,  maize,  and  vcgetji- 
bles.  unci  ahonnding  in  go(Kl  pasturage.  In  lat.  14<5 10'  n.  the  river  separates  into 
two  branches ;  the  western  is  called  iTie  Joliba  or  Mayo,  tho  eastern  the  Bara-Isa 
These,  as  ttiey  proceed,  are  known  as  the  White  and  Black  rivers  respectively ;  and 
they  unite  after  enclosing  the  island  of  Jimballn,  220  miles  in  length,  and  fron:  2  to 
20  miles  in  breadth.  The  river  again  bifurcat«i*  before  arriving  at  Timbuktu, 
and  after  passing  that  town,  the  two  branches,  on  one  of  which — the 
northern— Cabra,  the  port  of  Timbuktu  is  situated,  apain  nnit^.  lu 
the  district  of  union,  in  the  south-west  of  Timbuktu,  the  country  far  and  wide  is 
intersected  by  nnmberless  Ptreams,  forming  a  complicated  net-work  of  water- 
courses. The  river  then  flows  east,  sending  off  many  creeks  and  branches  to 
Bamba;  its  banks  here  are  low  and  marshy,  and  during  the  rainy  season  are  over- 
flowed. In  this  region,  rice,  tobacco,  wheat,  and  even  barley  are  grown.  The  river 
then  pjisses  the  town  of  Bnrrnm,  where  it  curves  to  the  south-east,  and  from  this 
pt*int— called  from  the  bend,  the  Kiiee  of  JJnrrvm~-~\\  bears  the  name  Kwara  or 
Qoonti  until  it  reaches  the  delta.    Immediately  below  Bui  rum,  the  N.  does  not  prc- 


y  Google 


Night  C)/>Q 

NlghUngale  ^OO  . 

s«j)t  ai?  iinposiDg  appearance.  Its  bed  resembles  a  "broad  marsliy  valley,  enclosed 
by  ridgctf  of  rock  or  higb  duuea,  thickly  overgrown  with  reeds  and  sedges,  and  cnt 
tip  by  uuinberjess  streams  and  creeks.  At  tbe  ferry  of  Burri  (lat.  15°  53"  n.),  the 
breadth  of  the  river  is  from  800  to  900  yards ;  and  liere  thH  whole  vnlley,  uboni  ten 
miles  l>road,  is  fniitf nl,  carefully  cnltiv.ited,  and  well  peopled.  Further  soiitli,  the 
towns  of  Garu  and  Sandii  are  p.issed,  and  here  the  bed  Is  rocky  and  the  uavigatiou 
dangerous.  At  the  town  of  Say,  the  N..  after  reaching  a  brtadth  of  from  2500 to 
8000  ptices,  is  narrowed  to  a  width  of  1000  paces,  flows  at  the  rate  of  three  miles  an 
hour,  and  is  enclosed  by  rocky  banks.  From  Suy  to  Wara,  the  counse  of  the  N.  re- 
mains still  Unknown.  From  Wara,  it  flows  eas^t-south-east  to  Rabba;  and  from 
this  town  to  Its  mouth,  the  coarse  of  the  river  is  comparatively  well  known.  lulaL 
lietween  8°  and  7®  80'  n.,  it  flows  round  the  eastern  shoulder  ot  the  Kong  Momjtjiii.a 
(2000  to  3000  feet  high),  and  here  the  banks  of  the  N.  are  extraordinarily  beawtifuL 
In  lat.  7**  40'  n.,  it  receives  the  Benne  from  tlie  east*  The  delta  consist*  of  an  iin- 
niense  mangrove  forest,  cut  up  into  islands  by  the  numerous  branclMS  (22  in  number) 
of  the  river.    The  principal  mouths  are  the  Bonny,  Mai-1,  and  Nun. 

The  existence  of  the  N.  seems  to  have  been  first  made  known  In  ancient  times 
by  travellers  from  the  southern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  who,  crossing  the  great 
desert,  came  upon  the  upper  course  of  a  great  river  flowing  toward  the  rising  soil 
Tliia  riv.'r  Herodotus  supposed  to  be  a  branch  of  the  Egyptian  Nile.  Pliny  speaks 
of  the  SigviB  of  Ethioi)ia,  bat  he  also  thought  that  it  flowed  into  the  Nile.  No 
definite  notion  of  the  liver  had  been  formed  until  it  was  visited  by  Mnngo  Park  in 
July,  1796,  when  this  traveller  explored  its  banks  for  a  distance  of  160  miles.  See 
Park,  Mungo.  Oaillid  explored  the  river  fr(»n  the  town  of  Jennee  to  1'imbnkin; 
and  the  English  expedition  of  1882,  under  Lander  and  Allen,  proved  that  the  Qnorra 
was  navigable  from  Bonssa  to  the  sea;  information,  however,  which  was  ol)taiued 
at  an  immense  cost  of  human  life  from  the  uuhenlthiness  of  the  climate.  Subseqneut 
expeditions  have  ended  with  similar  i-euults.  In  1854.  Dr  Btirth  followed  the  course 
of  the  river  from  Timbuktu  to  Say,  and  much  of  wlmt  is  now  known  about  the  N. 
is  due  to  his  labors.  The  entire  length  of  the  river  is  estimated  at  upwards  of  i500 
miles. — Barth's  '*  Travels  in  Central  Africa." 

NIGHT-HAWK  {Ckordeilea  Virrjtniamia)^  a  bird  of  the  Goatsncker  family  {Cap- 
rinuUgidae),  very  common  in  America,  from  the  Arctic  islands  to  the  West  Inciiet=. 
It  is  a  bird  of  passage,  visiting  the  north  in  summer.  It  is  about  nine  inches  in 
length,  and  23  inches  in  expanse  of  wing.  The  gape  is  destimte  of  bristles.  T\»e 
tjiil  is  slightly  forked.  The  general  color  is  brown,  but  it  is  much  mottled  and 
marked  with  white  ;  and  there  is  a  white  mark  on  the  throat,  in  shjipe  like  the  letter 
V.  The  N.  is  seen  pursuing  its  insect  prey  in  the  air,  cliiefly  a  little  before  suufl«t, 
and  before  dawn,  and  attracts  attention  by  its  rapid  repetition  of  a  almi-p  impatient 
cry,  which  has  gained  for  it  the  name  Pirannidig.  It  produces  also  in  its  flight  a 
remarkable  hollow  booming  sound,  '*  like  blowing  into  the  bung-hole  of  a  barrel,"  in 
the  moments  of  its  pei*pendicular  descent  through  the  air.  Its  movements  in  the 
air  are  extremely  beautiful  and  rapid.  When  fat  and  plump,  as  it  usually  is  ou  its 
southward  migration,  it  is  esteemed  for  the  table,  and  groat  numbers  are  shot, 

NIGHT  HERON^  {yf/cticm-ax),  a  genus  of  ArdeidoB  (see  Hbron\  intermediate  in 
form  between  bitterns  and  herons,  but  with  shorter  and  thicker  bill  than  either,  ar.d 
legs  shorter  than  in  herons.  The  Common  N.  H.  {2f.  Gardeni  or Europoptis)  is  fonud 
in  Europe.  Asia,  Africa,  and  North  America,  chiefly  in  the  warmer  temperate  re- 
gions. It  Is  most  abnuaant  in  America,  and  is  partly  a  bird  of  passage.  It  is  a  very 
rare  visitant  of  Britain.  Its  length,  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the  end  of  the  short 
tail,  is  fully  two  feet.  It  weighs  nearly  two  pounds.  Its  plumage  la  soft,  the 
general  color  ash-gray,  passing  into  blacK  on  the  neck  and  head,  and  into  white 
on  the  breast  and  belly.  The  back  of  the  head  is  adorned  with  three  very  long  wbl  e 
feathers,  which  hang  down  on  the  neck.  The  nests  are  built  in  trees,  and  in  general 
many  together  forming  a  heronry.  The  N.  H.  feeds  chiefly  by  twilight  or  at  night  i 
and  is  never  seen  standing  motionh'ss,  like  herons,  but  walks  about  in  search  of 
prey,  by  the  sides  of  ditches,  ponds,  &(%;  its  food  consisting  chiefly  of  fishes,  fro^ 
and  other  aquatic  animals.  Its  cry  is  very  loud  and  hoarse.-— Other  species  of  N.  !!• 
are  found  in  Africa  and  Australia. 

NIGHTINGALE,  Florence,  famed  for  her  labors  in  reforming  the  saoitaiy  oooc 


y  Google 


^*^fi  rii  J 


269  S.|£i 


Nightinga'o 

dition  of  the  British  nrmy.  is  the  dnnghter  of  Willinm  Shore  Nightingale  of  Erahly 
Park,  Uainpahire,  and  Leigh  Hurst,  Btrbyshire,  and  wap  born  at  Florence  In  1823. 
Highly  educated,  and  brilliantly  accomplished,  she  e^irly  exhibited  an  intense  devotion 
to  the  alleviation  of  suffering,  which.  In  1844«  led  her  to  give  attention  to  tbe  con- 
dition of  hospitals.  She  visil^  aiul  inspected  civil  and  military  hospitals  all  over  Bu* 
rope ;  studied  with  the  Sisters  of  Charity  in  Paris  the  system  of  nursing  and  inaoagc- 
ment  carried  out  in  the  hospitals  of  thjit  city ;  and,  in  1851,  went  into  training  as  a 
nnrse  in  the  institution  of  Protestant  Deaconesses  at  Kaieerswerth,  on  the  Khine. 
On  her  return  to  England,  she  put  into  thorough  working  order  the  Snnitorium  for 
Governesses  in  connection  with  the  London  institution.    Ten  years  was  the  term  of 
apprenticeship  tinis  served  in  preparation  for  the  work  of  her  life.    In  the  spring  of 
185i,  war  was  declared  M(itli  Russia,  and  a  British  army  of  S6,000  men  sailed  to  the 
East.    Alma  was  fought  on  the  20th  of  September,  and  the  wounded  fromihe  battle 
were  sent  down  to  the  hospitals  prepared  for  their  reception  on  the  banks  of  the 
Bosphorus.  These  hospitals  were  poon  crowded  with  sick  and  wotmded,  and  their 
uiibetUtby  condition  became  apparent  in  a  rate  of  mortahly  to  which  the  casuaitits  of 
the  fiercest  battle  were  as  noming.    In  this  crisis.  Miss  N.  offered  to  go  out  and 
oi^anise  a  nursing  department  at  Scutari.    The  late  Lord  Hcrl)ert,  then  at  the  war- 
office,  gladly  accepted,  and   within  a  week  from  the  date  of  the  offer— viz.,  on 
tlie  8lst  of  October— she  departed  with  her  nurses.     She  arrived  at  Constantino- 
ple on  the  4th  of  November,  the  eve  of  lukermann— the  beginning  c^f  the  terriblo 
winter  campaign — in  time  to  receive   tbe   wounded  from   tliat  second  battle  into 
wards  already  filled  with  2300  patients.    Her  devotion  to  the  snfferei-s  can  never 
be  forgotten.    She  has  stood  twenty  hours  at  a  stretch,  in  order  to  see  them  provided 
with  accommodation  and  all  the  requisites  of  their  condition.    But  she  saw  clearly 
in  the  bad  sanitary  arrangements  of  the  hospitals  the  causes  of  their  frightful  mor- 
tality, and  her  inceseant  Taljor  was  devoted  to  the  removal  of  these  causes,  as  well  as 
to  the  mitigation  of  their  effects.    In  the  spring  of  1855,  while  in  the  Crimea  organis- 
ing the  nnrsing-depai-tments  of  the  camp-hospitals,  she  was  prostrated  with  fever,  tho 
result  of  uniulennitting  toil  and  anxiety ;  yet  she  refused  to  leave  her  post,  and  on 
her  recovery  remjiined  at  Scutari  till  Turkey  was  evacuated  hy  the  Briiish,  July  28, 
186«.    She,  to  whom  many  a  soldier  owes  life  and  health,  had  expended  her  own 
health  in  the  physical  and  mental  strain  to  which  she  had  subjctcd  herself.    It  is 
known  tiiat  for  years  Mis^  N.  has  been  an  invalid.    It  is  not  so  well  known  that  her 
^k-room  has  been  the  scene  of  the  most  arduous  and  constant  labor  fcr  the  im- 
provement of  the  health  o^llie  soldier.    In  1«57,  she  fnmished  the  **  commissioners 
appointed  to  inquire  into  the  regulations  affecting  the  panitary  condition  of  the 
British  army"  with  a  pajier  of  written  evidence,  in  which  she  impiepscs,  with  the 
force  and  clearness  which  dittingnish  her  mind,  the  great  lesson  of  the  Crimean  War, 
which  she  characterises  as  a  sanitary  experiment  on  a  colossal  scale.  Her  experience 
hi  the  Crimea,  the  results  obtained  by  the  laboi-s  of  the  sanitary  commission,  results 
accumulated    under   her  own  eyes,  shewing  that   the  rate  of  niorialiiy  among 
t^oldiers  could    l)e   reduced   to    one-half   of   what   it  was    in    time  of   peace  at 
home,  turned  the  attention  of  Miss  N.  to  the  general  question  of  army  sanitary 
reform,   and   first   to   that   of   army   hosiiitals.     In   1858,   she   contributed    two 
piipers  to  the  National  As.*ociation  for  the  Promotion  of  Social  Science,  on  Hospital 
Constrnction  and  Arrangement,  afterwards  published,  along  with  her  evidence  be- 
fore the  commissionerf,  by  J.  W.  Parker  and  son.    The  "Notes  on  Hospitalp," 
from  their  clcnriiess  of  arrangement  and  minuteness  of  detjiil,  are  most  valuable  to 
the  architect,  the  engineer,  and  the  medical  oflicer.    In  1858,  she  published  her 
"  Notes  on  Nnr!?ing,"  a  little  volume  which  is  already  among  the  treasin*ed  text- 
books of  many  a  household.    At  the  close  of  the  Crimean  War  a  fund  was  snb- 
scrit)ed  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  her  to  fonn  an  institution  for  the  training  of 
nurses.    The  interest  of  the  fund  amounts  to  jC1400  per  annum ;  and  thongh  no  8<  p- 
ai-ate  institution  has  been  formed,  it  is  spent  in  training  a  superior  order  of  nurses 
in  connection  with  St  Thomas's  and  King's  College  Hospitals.    In  the  year  18G3  w.ia 
issued  the  Report  of  the  Conimissiou  on  the  Sanitary  Condition  of  the  Army  in 
Iiid'a.    The  complete  Report,  with  evidence,  occupies  two  folio  volumes  of  nearly 
1000  pages  each.    ^JMie  mcond  of  tliese  huge  folios  is  filled  with  reports  from  every 
station  in  India,  occnpietl  by  British  and  native  troops.    These  reports  were  sent  in 
manuscript  lo  Miss  N.,  and  at  page  34T  of  vol.  i.  are  inserted  her  observations  upon 


y  Google 


ITfghtinga'6  070 

Nijnl  -  *  ^' 

thiB  Immense  mass  of  evidence.  In  these  obwrvations,  the  facts  are  bronglit  t(v 
getherin  an  order,  und  witli  nn  incisive  force  of  siuteineut)  which  render  ii  one  jrf 
tlie  most  reraarkuDle  public  papers  ever  penued.  'J  liut  Rt'port  ia  likely  to  iiiaiiirumie 
a  new  era  in  the  government  of  India ;  for  the  views  of  Miss  N.  extend  not  di«iy  lo 
th«J  sanitary  reform  of  the  Biitish  array,  but  to  that  of  the  towns  of  India.  In  1811, 
Miss  N.  published  **  Notes  ou  LyiuK-in-Institutious,  together  with  a  propoHiii  for 
organising  an  Insritution  for  training  Midwives  and  Midwifery  Nurses."  In  the 
M?«y  number  of  "Frasei^'s  Magazine,"  1873,  she  published  an  article  entitled,  **  A 
'Note'  of  InteiTOgat  ion,"  which  attractod  a  good  deal  of  attention,  mainly  on  ao 
count  of  the  way  she  handles  religious  beliefs  and  life. 

NIGHTINGALE  (Philomela)^  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family  Sfftviadaty  np- 
])roacliing  in  character  to  the  MertUidae^  the  young  having  their  firet  phnniigj  mot- 
tled, as  in  the  thrushes,  and  the  legs  being  longer  than  in  the  fanvettes  and  otiier 
Sylviadce,  with  which  they  are  commonly  clos^.  The  bill  is  stniiglit,  slender,  not 
quite  as  long  as  the  head ;  the  winors  do  not  much  pass  beyond  the  base  of  the  tail; 
the  flr»t  qniU  is  very  short,  the  third  is  tlie  longest ;  the  fail  is  slightly  rounded.— 
Tlie  Common  N.  (P.  Umeinia)  is  well  known  as  the  finest  of  songsters.  It  is  rnxfu'V 
larger  than  the  hedge-sparrow,  with  about  the  same  proportionate  length  of  wiajis 
and  tall.  It  is  of  a  rich  brown  color  above,  the  rump  and  tjiil  reddish,  the  lower 
parts  grayish- white.  The  sexes  are  alike.  It  is  a  native  of  many  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  and  of  tiie  north  ot  Africa;  and  is  a  bird  of  past^iigi;,  extending  i?8  snni- 
mer  migrations  on  the  continent  of  Europe  as  far  north  as  the  south  of  Sweden,  l)Ut 
In  Britain  it  has  scarcely  ever  lieen  seen  furtiier  norili  than  Yorkshire.  It  is  pleiitl- 
fnl  in  some  parts  of  the  south  and  east  of  England,  but  does  not  extend 
to  the  western  counties,  and  never  appears  in  Ireland.  It  freqaeuis 
thickets  and  hedges,  and  1  <w  damp  meadows  near  streams.  The  exieu- 
sive  market-gardens  near  London  are  among  its  favorite  liannts.  It  feeds 
very  much  on  caterpillars  and  other  larvae.  .  It  arrives  in  Enghtnd  ab«»«t 
the  middle  of  April,  the  males  t«n  or  fourteen  days  l)efore  the  females.  It  is  at  this 
season,  and  before  pairing  has  taken  place,  that  bird-catchers  generally  pii»cure 
nightingales  for  cage-bit ds,  as  they  then  become  easily  reconcilctf  to  confinement, 
whilst,  if  taken  after  pniiing,  they  fret  and  pine  till  they  die.  The  N.  makes  its  nest 
generally  on  the  ground,  but  sometimes  on  a  low  fork  of  a  bush.  The  nest  is  loo<»'ly 
conatmctetl  of  dead  leaves,  rushes,  and  stalks  of  grass,  with  a  lining  of  fibrous  roots. 
The  eggs  are  four  or  five  in  number,  of  a  uniform  olive  brown.  The  song  of  the 
male  ceases  to  be  heard  as  soon  as  incubation  is  over.  In  captivity,  liowever,  it  is 
often  continued  through  a  more  coiisldcnible  period.  TheN.  usually  begins  its  song 
in  the  evening,  and  sings  with  brief  intervals  throughout  the  niglit.  The  variety, 
loudness,  anclrichness  of  its  notes  are  equ  illy  extraordinary ;  and  Its  lonjr  quiveriug 
strains  are  full  of  plaintiveness  as  weil  as  of  passionate  ecstasy.  The  N,  has  b^-en  a 
favorite  fiom  mo^t  ancient  times,  and  Is  often  mentioned  In  the  poetry  of  India  and 
Persia,  as  well  as  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The  loves  of  the  N.  2iud  the  rose  ar*;  a  f  .nicl- 
ful  theme  in  which  eastern  |K)et*  delight.  The  N.  nmch  resembles  the  redbreast  in 
manners,  and  is  equally  pngiiacious.  It  has  been  known  to  breed  with  the  redbreast 
in  captivity.— There  is  another  and  rather  larger  species  of  N.  in  the  east  of  Europe, 
faintly  mottled  on  the  breast. 

NIGHT-JAR.    See  Goatsucker. 

NI'GHTMARB  (Tncuhxia,  Ephialten)  consists  in  a  horrible  dream,  the  terror 
being  inspired  by  a  sen.se  of  weight  or  oppression  referrwl  to  the  prenynre  of  inuun- 
tains,  giants,  hags,  serpents,  upon  the  breast  It  is  attributed  to  acceleration  or 
irregularity  of  the  circulation  in  the  chest  or  in  the  brain.  It  has  bi-en  trace<l  Imck- 
wards  to  plethora,  postura,  heavy  suppers;  and  forwards  as  a  prognostic  of  heart 
disease  or  hydrothorax.  It  differs  from  ordinaiy  dreams  in  posseftt«ing  always  the 
sum  t  characteristic  of  fear  of  some  object  in  contact  with  the  bo<ly,  in  a  re<-ogniped 
inability  to  move  or  speak  while  there  is  a  strong  desire  to  do  both,  ami  in  llie 
presence  of  a  semi-consciousness  of  the  real  souice  of  tiio  apprehension.  Tlie  affec- 
tion is  recorded  to  have  l)een  epidemic;  and  modern  instances  have  occurred  where 
hirge  cominnnities  have  been  agitated  by  night  panics.  A  regiment  of  Fi-ench  sol* 
dit'r:*,  qinirtereil  in  a  ruined  monastery,  were  awakened,  at  the  same  hour  in  two 
successive  nights,  by  a  black  dog  leaping  ou  the  bi*eabt  of  each.    These  Tetemn 


y  Google 


2h"{  N  ghtingald 

«  1  Nijni 

warriors,  ionred  to  danerr,  ioacceralble  to  enperstitioiit  conkl  not  be  prevailed  upon 
to  make  u  third  trial.  Bitch  frightful  ImpresHioiiB  occnr  doriug  tho  day,  and  dnniig 
luere  aorauoIeDcy  or  drowaiueaa,  bat  more  gouerally  at  tho  moment  o'f  awakeulug 
dariDe  the  night.  The  time,  the  distinct  recollection  retained  of  the  circnm&tancc, 
and  the  bodily  pertarbatiou  which  remained  when  conscioaHneBs  was  re-eetabliahcKl. 
all  conspired  to  convert  tltese  visions  into  the  objective  hobgoblins,  the  omens  and 
saperoatoral  revelations  oi  past  ages :  atid  which  still  linger  as  matter  of  belief 
where  the  temperament  or  sitaation  of  the  individnal  resemble  those  of  onr  ances- 
tors. In  a  very  large  number  of  instauces  such  di-cums  represent,  or  are  continnn- 
tions  of,  the  previoas  waking  thon^hts  and  emotions.  They  tire  so  far  volnntary 
that  IndigestiDle  food  or  excess  may  induce  tliem.  Faseli,  for  artistic  purposes, 
created  '*  chimeras  du-e  "  in  sleep  by  supping  on  pork  chops. 

NIGHTSHADE,  the  English  name  of  certain  plants  of  the  natural  order  Solanaeem 
(q.  v.)»  possessing  the  narcotic  properties  frequently  developed  in  that  order.  Among 
them  aie  some  species  of  Soianum  (q.  v.),  particularly  the  Common  N.,  or  Black  N. 
{S.nigrurH),  an  annual  or  Inennlal,  with  erect  angular  srem,  ovate,  Biuuuto-dentuto 
Icttvea,  drooping  lateral  umbels  of  white  flowers,  and  globose  black  berries ;  a  fro- 
qnent  weed  in  waste  places  in  England  and  in  most  parts  of  the  world.  Few  plants 
are  more  widely  diffused.  It  is  only  slightly  narcotic.  The  leaves,  in  a  fresh  state, 
are  said  to  be  injurious  to  animals  which  eat  tliem,  but  seem  to  lose  almost  all  nar- 
cotic property  by  boiling,  and  are  used  as  spinach.  i)articutarly  in  warm  climatos. 
The  berries,  althougli  generally  dreaded  or  suspected,  may  also,  it  is  said,  be  eatt  n. 
at  least  in  motlerate  (jnantity  without  danger.  They  con  lain,  however,  the  alkaloiu 
Solaniney  found  also  m  the  shoots  of  the  potato. — ^For  Woody  N.,  see  Bittiwsweet. 
For  Deadly  N.,  see  Belladonna.    For  Enohanter's  N.,  see  CiuoiBA. 

NIJ'MEGEN,  NI'MKGITEN,  the  Noviomamtm  of  tho  Eonians  {magiim  or  magen 
being  a  Celtic  word  for  fixed  dwelling),  called  bv  Taciius  Batavmum  oppidum, 
in  tire  middle  a^esNuTnagayiathe  jnlnupal  city  of  the  district  ot  Niiniegen,  or  tho 
Betuwe,  in  the  Netherlands  province  of  Qclderland.  Pop.  23,098,  of  whom  ihree- 
fouiihs  are  Roman  Catholic.  It  is  pleasantly  situated,  9  miles  south  of  Aniheim, 
on  several  little  hills,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Waal.  Several  of  the  streets  are  steep 
and  narrow,  passing  up  the  noeuderl>erg  (Hmmerberg,  or  Hill  of  the  Huns),  on 
which  the  Romans  had  a  permanent  camp,  in  order  to  keep  in  subjection  the 
conutry  of  the  Bataviers,  which  lay  between  the  Rhine  and  ti«eWaal;  others  arc 
broad  and  well  built.  On  a  height  stood,  till  179T,  when  it  was  demolished  by  tho 
French,  the  Castle  of  Valkenburg,  said  to  have  been  built  by  Julius  C8e>ar.  Hero 
Charlemagne  built  a  pahice,  and  made  the  castle  his  residence.  I'he  site  is  now 
planted  with  trees,  and  forme  a  pleasant  public  walk  overlooking  the  river  and 
quay.  On  the  brow  of  the  hill  tliere  isahttle  sixteen-sided  cliapel  or  baptisteiy, 
which  some  think  was  originally  a  heathen  temple  of  the  Bataviers,  and  convertetl 
into  a  Christian  church  by  Pope  Leo  III.  in  799.  On  another  eminence,  where  the 
ch&teau  of  the  Duke  of  Alva  once  stood,  is  a  modern  tower  willed  Belvidere.  from 
the  summit  of  which  tliere  is  an  extensive  view,  including  the  rivers  which  branch 
off  at  the  delta  of  the  Rhine— viz.,  the  Rhine,  the  Waal,  and  the  YpscI,  with  the 
Maas  flowing  in  the  south.  N.  is  stront'ly  fortifit  d  and  well  garrisoned.  The 
town-house,  founded  in  1554,  is  beautifully  and  antiquely  fitted  up  within,  and 
exteruaUy  ornamented  by  several  statues  of  emperors  and  kings  of  the  Romans.  St 
Stephen^s,  or  the  Great  Church,  standing  on  the  liijrhest  part  of  the  city,  is  a  hand- 
M)ine  Gotiiic  edifice  in  tlie  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  and  before  the  Reformation 
contained  80  altars.  N.  is  a  large  market  for  cattle  and  agricultural  produce,  espe- 
cially grain.  Beer  is  extensively  brewed,  Eau  de  Cologne  distilled,  and  there  are 
factories  for  spinning  and  weaving  linen,  cotton,  and  silk. 

N.  is  celebrated  for  the  great  peace  congress  of  the  Euroi>enn  powers  which  was 
held  here,  and,  10th  August  1678,  concluded  a  treaty  between  Spam  and  France ;  on 
the  17th  September,  between  France  and  the  United  Netherlands  :  and  between  the 
German  Empire  and  France,  and  the  same  em]>ire  and  Sweden,  5th  Februai-y  1679. 
NI'JNI-NOVQORO'D,  an  important  government  in  the  east  of  Great  Russia, 
between  the  governments  of  Vlatllmir  on  the  west  and  Kazan  and  Simbirfk  on  the 
rast.  Area  (according  to  the  *'  Almanach  de  Gotha  "),  19.390  pqiiare  miles  ;  pop. 
(1S70)  1,371,51)4.    Thii  surface  is  divided  Into  two  dlsUuci  portions  by  the  Volga  with 


y  Google 


1 


its  tributary  t.lie  Oka.  Oir  the  left,  the  northern  bank  of  the  rirer,  the  mrfrtce  is 
flat;  ou  the  riebt  bauk  it  is  hillv.  As  the  soil  is  not  very  fertile,  nod  there  ure  few 
rich  meadow-lauds,  neither  agricaltnre  uor  cattle-breediug  is  piirsned  exteuoiveiy. 
The  inhabitants  art;  priucipaily  engaged  in  manufactnres.  The  chief  rivcr«  tire  tue  • 
Volga.  Oka,  aud  their  numerons  tiTbataries.  There  is  coinmnnicntion  by  wata 
with  24  govern  men  ts,  aud  witli  the  Baltic,  the  White,  aud  the  Gat^pian  Seas.  Tbe  , 
uortliern  districts  of  tlie  govenuneut  abound  in  forests,  aud  here  wood^i  ateitsib 
and  tools  are  mauDfactnred  for  the  adjoiuiug  tirovernments.  There  are  several  large 
iron-works,  aud  the  town  ot  Gk>rbatof  is  the  Sheffield  of  its  district.  Leather, 
especially  that  variety  called  Russian  leather,  is  largely  manufactured,  aud  siiet^p 
and  lamb  skin  dressing  is  a  staple  employment  On  the  right  bank  of  tbe  Oka 
are  several  ship-building  and  dock-yards.  The  towns  and  villa^res  are  filled  with  aii 
industrious  aud  thriving  mauofaccuriug  popalatiou.  Capital,  Nijui-Novgorod 
(q.  v.). 

NIJNI-NOVQOROD  (Lower  Novgorod),  a  famous  commercial  and  mannfactnr- 
ing  town  in  the  east  of  Oroat  Russia,  capital  of  tlic  government  of  tlie  same  name, 
is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Oka  with  the  Volga,  in  lat.  66°  20'  n.,  long.  U<> 
1'  e.,  715  miles  east-sontii-east  of  St  Petersburg,  with  which,  since  18t)2,  it  has  befu 
connected  by  railway.  Thu  fortified  portion  of  the  town  occupies  a  hill  ovtrkwkiag 
the  Vol^a,  and  Is  surrounded  with  a  wall.  It  contains  the  Krcml  or  citadel,  iwu 
cathedraKo,  the  palaces  of  the  governors,  and  an  obelisk  76  feet  high,  in  memory  of 
Winin  and  Pojai-»*ky,  the  deliverers  of  Moscow.  The  town  possesses  several  rope- 
walks,  dock-yards,  ironworks  for  building  steamers,  three  steel-cutlery  workj»,  Ac 
The  commercial  portion  of  N.  is  situated  on  a  projecting  point  of  laud  which  forina 
the  right  bank  of  tlie  Volga  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Oka.  It  has  an  area  of  350 
acres,  consists  of  60  ranges  of  brick  buildings,  is  surround*id  by  a  canal,  aud  con- 
tains 2520  shops,  a  Russian  cathedral,  an  Armenian  chuix;!!,  a  mosque,  a  temporary 
branch  of  the  state  bank,  counting-house,  post-office,  Ac  Here  the  great  annnu 
fair  is  held ;  but  the  commerce  of  N.  is  not  conflued  to  this  area.  Ou  the  fnrtbtT 
side  of  the  canal  are  ranges  of  wooden  erections,  containing  50UO  shops,  exclusive  of 
taverns,  bat  hs,  and  other  public  eHtabllsbments.  The  fair,  which  lasts  over  a  moiitb, 
is  officially  opened  on  the  27th  July ;  but  owing  to  the  tardy  arrival  of  tbe  Chinese  and 
Siberian  goo>ds,  a  day  or  two  generally  intervenes  before  it  actually  comniencca. 
With  the  opening  of  the  fair,  the  town  becomes  rapidly  filled  with  merchants  from 
every  country  and  climate— Europeans,  Bokhariaus,  Khivans,  Kirehizes,  Tartars 
Armenians,  Persians,  and  even  Chinese.  The  merchants  are  requirea  to  pay  nothing 
in  the  way  of  taxes  during  their  stay,  except,  indeed,  the  rent  of  the  shops  they 
occupy,  and  every  one  has  the  privilege  of  trading  freely  without  any  exaction  firoto 
the  crown.  The  fair  of  N.  is  of  gi'eat  commercial  Importance,  especially  with  respect 
to  the  eastern  and  central  provinces.  The  value  of  goods  disposed  of  during  the  fidr 
is  great,  and  seems  to  be  contiuujilly  on  the  increase.  In  1697,  the  value  of  the  goods 
sold  was  je  14,000;  in  1741,  ^1,000;  in  1790,  £5,000,000;  in  1857,  X14.000,000;  iu  1868, 
£  16,760,000 ;  in  1874  it  was  jC23,543,500.  The  goods  may  be  divided  Into  three  groups: 
1.  Russian  raw  and  manu^factured  goodn,  including  cottons,  linens,  wooll^as,  fore, 
Mietals,  com,  &c.  2.  Eurovean  and  colonial  goods,  including  mantuactured  good^ 
wines,  &c  3.  Asiatic  goods:  tea,  silk,  cotton,  &c  The  total  value  of  goods  brought 
to  the  fair  for  sale,  was  In  1874  estimated  at  £26,743,000.  For  the  convenience  of 
buyers  and  sellers,  an  enonnous  m.irket-house  has  been  built,  as  also  a  cathedral,  a 
mo2f>que,  an  Armenian  church,  and  60  blocks  of  buildings  for  booths,  containing  8390 
store-rooms ;  besides  3400  temporary  booths  of  wood,  which  are  taken  down  after 
the  fair. 

N.,  an  ancieut  town,  was  founded  in  1221  by  Prince  Ynry  Vsevolodovltch  as  a 
stronghold  against  the  invasions  of  the  Bulgarians  and  the  Mordva.  It  was  devu?^ 
tuted  on  several  occasions  by  the  Tartars :  and  in  1612,  during  the  civil  dissensions 
in  Russia,  when  it  was  on  the  point  of  falling  a  prey  to  Poland,  Minin,  the  fanioflii 
butcher  of  N.,  collected  an  armed  force  here,  wliich,  under  Prince  Pojarsky,  drove 
the  invaders  fron*  the  capital.  See  Moscow.  The  prosperity  of  this  town  date^ 
from  the  year  1817,  when  tlie  great  fair  was  removed  to  N.  from  Makarief,  ou  ac- 
count of  the  destructive  fire  which  broke  out  in  the  latter  place,  and  destroyed  the 
grenter  port'on  of  the  stores  and  magazines.  The  normal  population  of  the  towu  Is 
(1867^  42,742 ;  but  it  is  increased  to  upwards  of  200,000  during  the  fair.    N.,  so 


y  Google 


fftTorably  situated  for  purposes  of  commerce,  carries  ou  a  brl^k  trade  daring  Uio 
whole  season  of  navigation,  and  especiullj  in  spring  daring  full  water. 

NI'JNI-TAGI'LSK,  a  town  of  Russia,  In  the  government  of  Perm,  situated  on 
the  river  Tagil,  amid  the  Ural  Mountains,  150  miles  east  of  the  city  of  Perm.  It  i« 
me  of  the  most  iniportant  mining  towns  in  Rar=sia,  or  in  the  world.  The  soil  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  is  everywhere  rich  in  iron,  copper,  gold,  and  platina ;  not  far  off 
is  the  famous  m»guetic  mountain  Blagodat,  1422  feet  Inuh.  Akimfl  Dcniidoff  (q.  v.) 
established  the  flist  foundry  here  in  1728.  The  yield  Ijoth  of  iron  and  copper  is 
hnmpnsely  lai-ge."    Pop.  85,000. 

NIKOLAE'F,  a  town  of  Sonth  ilnssia,  in  the  government  of  Kherson,  and  40 
miles  north-west  of  the  towu  of  that  name,  stands  25  miles  above  the  moutli  of  the 
Bug,  and  at  tiie  confluence  of  that  river  with  the  Inpul.  It  wiis  founded  in  1790, 
aud  its  situation  was  found  so  convenient  for  sliip-huilding  purposes,  that  it  soon 
l)ecauie  the  centre  of  the  naval  administration  of  the  Black  Sen,  It  has  hrond 
Btraigttt  streets,  couttiins  several  harmcks,  a  cathedral,  schools  for  pllols,  hoppita's. 
an  ohservatory,  and  an  arsenal.  In  the  first  half  of  the  present  century,  about  10,000 
men  were  employed  at  N.  in  8hi}>-haildin^  and  other  naval  0|>eralions.  Since  the 
0|)enin^  of  tlie  railway  system,  by  which  it  has  connection  with  Moscow,  Ac,  the 
l>upulation  and  trade  has  givatly  increased.    Pop.  (1867)  67,972. 

NIKOLAE'VSK,  chief  town  of  the  Amur  territory,  in  Eastern  Sil>eria,  situnted 
on  a  well-wooded  plateau  on  the  left  t)ank  of  tlie  Amur,  and  22  miles  from  its  month, 
in  lat.  530  15'  n.,  long.  liO®  85'  e.,  6750  miles  cast  from  St  Pelei-sburg.  It  contains  a 
wooden  church  with  one  large  and  five  smaller  steeples,  the  town  residence  of  the 
governor,  and  the  storehouse  of  the  Amur  Company.  The  approaches  to  the  town 
are  defended  by  four  Imtterles,  whicli  command  the  upper  as  well  as  the  lower  part 
of  tlie  river.  The  Amur  is  here  a  mile  and  a  quarter  broad,  but  the  landiip-place  is 
Jivailable  only  for  small  craft,  all  large  vessels  bf  ing  comi>elled  to  lie  in  mid-stream. 
It  was  founded  in  1861 ;  in  1855,  it  ccmsistcd  of  150  houses,  and  in  1868,  of  249  houses. 
It  19  the  seat  of  naval  and  civil  administration,  and  the  centre  of  the  commercial 
activity  of  the  district.  Goods  from  the  Interior  of  Siberia  and  China  are  brought 
liitlier  and  shipped  in  foreign  (chiefly  American)  vessels;  and  Siberian  tradesmen 
Jiow  receive  and  despatch  their  goods  by  sea,  as  the  land  route  fonnerly  pursued  was 
both  tedious  and  expensive.  Kich  and  extensive  forests  clotiie  the  banks  of  the 
river,  and  the  abundant  pastures  offer  facilities  for  cattle-breeding.  'J'he  chief  hin- 
drniiceto  the  rapid  improvement  of  the  settlement  is  a  want  of  hands  and  capital, 
A  line  of  telegraph  already  extends  from  St  Petersburg  to  be3'ond  Irkutsk,  and  is  in 
process  of  extension  to  Nikolaevsk.  Mean  temperature  throughout  the  year,  S9°  42'. 
Pop.  (1867)  6814. 

NI'KOLSBURG,  or  Mi'kulov,  a  town  of  Austria,  in  the  south  of  Moravia,  2T 
miles  south  of  Brunn-Jies  at  the  foot  of  the  PoUaver  Hills,  famous  for  their  rich  red 
wines.  The  town  belongs  to  the  princely  family  of  Dietrichstein.  It  has  several 
Bteam-mills,  and  cotton  and  silk  factories.  In  th(!  middle  of  the  town,  upon  a  rock, 
stands  the  Castle  of  the  Dietrlchsteins,  v^fth  a  libraiy  of  20,000  volumes,  and  a  vat 
in  the  cellars  capable  of  containing  2000  einiers  (morp  than  80,000  gallons).  Pop. 
(1869)  7173,  of  whom  more  than  a  half  are  Jews. 

NIKO'POL.  a  thriving  town  of  Southern  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Ekaterin- 
oslav,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  about  200  miles  from  it«  mouth,  in  lat,  41° 
sy  n.  N.  is  the  centre  of  an  extensive  agricultural  district,  the  produce  of  which  is 
here  shipped  to  Odessa.  Between  N.  and  tiie  port  of  Odessa,  there  is  regular  com- 
inunication  by  steam-boat  The  natural  advantages  of  N.  promise  to  make  it  one  of 
the  principal  commercial  centi'es  ou  the  Dneiper.    Pop.  (1867)  8758. 

NILE  (ATiZtts),  called  by  the  Egyptians  Hapi  Mu  (the  genius  of  the  waters),  and 
by  the  Hebrews  St Aor  (the  black),  the  river  of  North-eastern  Africa  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  Balir-el-Abiad  (the  White  or  True  Nile)  and  the  Bahr-el-Azrek  (Blue 
Kile).  Captains  Speke  and  Grant  discovered  that  tfie  first  of  these,  the  true  Nile, 
flowed  out  of  the  lake  Victoria  Nyanza,  which  extends  from  al)out  b«t  0°  20'  n.,  to 
8°  50'  s.,  and  from  long,  81^  40'  to  35°  e.,  and  is  3800  feet  above  the  level  of  tlie  sea ; 
and  tbe  river  Shimiyu,  the  largest  tributary  of  this  lake,  flowing  into  its  southern  ex- 


y  Google 


HU« 


274 


trerait y,  imi«t  now  be  regarded  as  the  most  «oather1y  sonrce  of  the  Nile.    Ilw ' 
second,  the  Bine  Nile,  has  its  source  iu  AbysMinia,  in  lat  10°  59'  n.  and  long.  36<^dS'  e. 

The  White  Nile,  from  its.ouifall  from  the  Victoria  Nyauzaat  the  '•  Ripoii  Falls," 
lat.  0°  20'  n.,  long.  S3^  80'  e.,  flows  norlh-weat  and  west  for  about  230  miles,  till  it 
enters  the  lalce  Albert  Nyanza,  wltliin  30  miles  of  its  northern  extremity,  where  the 
river  again  emerges.  On  issniuj^  Irom  tlie  Victoria  Nyanza,  the  Nile  rushes  dowii 
due  north  like  a  mountain  torrent,  rminiu«;  off  at  la^t  into  long  flat-*,  and  cx|)aiidiug 
so  as  lo  form  what  is  called  Ibraiiini  Paslia  Lalve.  In  thi.-*  pait  of  its  course  tlie  river 
is  navigal)le,  and  continues  to  Iw  so  until  it  reaches  the  Karuina  Falls.  From  these 
falls  to  ihe  Murchi^on  Falln  (120  feet  iu  height),  nehr  the  Albert  Nyanza,  the  rh'cr 
forms  a  scries  of  rapids.  Between  tlie  two  Nyanzas  the  Nile  is  known  as  the  Vio 
torla  Nile,  or  Somerset  River. 

After  leaving  the  Albert  Nyanza,  the  Nile  be^ns  its  northward  course  to  the 
Mediterranean,  and  has  no  further  lake  expansion.  Bel  ween  the  Albert  Nyanza 
and  Goudokoro  (Ismailia),  iu  49  65'  n.  lat,  and  31°  51'  e.  long.,  1600  feet  above  the 
SMI,  the  Nile  River  descends  several  hundred  feet  iu  a  series  ot  rapids  and  cataracts. 
For  al)out  600  miles  after  Goudokoro,  the  Nile  flows  very  tortuously,  firet  in  a  north- 
westerly and  then  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  and  is  joined,  in  about  lat.  9°  15'  n., 
long.  3UO  e.,  by  its  first  great  affluent,  the  Bahr-el-Gazal,  which  joins  the  Nile  from 
the  west  with  hardly  auy  perceotlble  cuiTent.  The  second  tributary  is  the  Giraffe 
River,  about  one-third  the  volume  of  theNileat  its  point  of  jnnctj'on,  long.  31°  e. 
From  the  Babr-cl-Gazal  the  Nile  flows  in  a  due  easterly  direction  for  about  80  ujiks, 
then  south  for  30  miles,  when  it  is  joined  by  its  tliird  tributary,  the  Sobat  River, 
from  the  east.  The  Solmt  is  full  and  navigable.  Between  this  and  the  town  oC 
Khartoum,  a  distance  of  400  miles,  the  Nile  runs  iu  a  northerly  direction,  with  a 
wldtlj  of  trom  one  to  two  miles,  and  is  joined  by  severkl  streams  from  the  east 
side. 

Khartoum,  tlie  capital  of  Nubia,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Bahr-el-Asrdc 
(Blue  Nile)  and  the  Bahr-(;1-Abiad  (White  Nile),  1183  feet  above  tJie  sea-level,  ia 
lat.  150  35'  n.  long.,  32o  30'  e.  The  Bahr-el-Azrek,  long  supposed  to  be  the  inaiu 
branch  of  the  True  Nile,  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Abal  and  the  Blue  River. 
The  Abai  has  it«i  source  in  Abyssinia.  50  miles  from  Lake  Deml>ea,  which  it  enters 
from  the  south-west ;  emerging  on  the  south-east  of  tlie  lake,  it  flows  for  al)oai  W 
miles  in  that  direction,  when  it  describes  a  semicircle  round  the  peninsula  of  God- 
jam,  and  continues  north-westerly  for  about  150  miles.  It  is  here  joined  by  tlie 
Blue  River  from  the  south,  and  from  this  point  the  Blue  Nile  flows 
north-west  to  Khartoum,  receiving  from  the  east  two  birge  rivers  nmniiig 
nearly  parallel  to  each  other,  the  Dender  and  the  Raiiad  or  Shimfa.  From 
Khartoum,  the  united  stream  flows  north  for  about  00  miles,  passing  the. town  of 
Halfaia  and  the  niius  of  MeroS  to  the  first  catanict,  and  thence  north-east  yn^t 
Shendy  (q.  v.)  to  its  junction  with  the  Atbara,  which  enters  the  Nile  at  El  Bamer, 
lat.  170  45'  n..  lonsr.,  84°  e. 

The  Atbara,  al!»o  called  Bahr-el-Aswad,  or  Black  River,  because  It  carries  down 
with  it  the  greatest  amount  of  the  black  mud  and  slime  that  manures  and  fertili-<c8 
Egypt,  is  the  last  tributary  received  by  the  Nile.  The  Goiing  seems  to  be  the  direct 
source  of  the  Atbara.  It  rise^  in  the  heights  to  the  north  of  Lake  Dembt?a.  Ahont 
150  miles  from  its  sonrce  it  receives  the  Basalam  Rivei*?  and  alK)nt  30  miles  further 
on,  the  Tak«Z2e  or  Setit  River,  both  from  the  east  The  Takazzc  luis  a  fargnreater 
volume  of  water  than  either  of  the  preceding  rivers.  It  rises  In  the  Saraen  AConn- 
tains,  round  which  it  flows  fli-st  easterly,  then  north,  till  in  about  lat  13°  30'  n.,  long. 
33(>  50'  e.  it  turns  north-west,  and  then  almost  due  west,  joining  the  Atbara  at  right 
angles.    It  has  many  tributaries. 

From  its  junction  with  the  Atbara,  the  Nile  continues  to  flow  northerly  through 
the  populous  and  fertile  district  of  Berber,  full  of  village?,  and  then  enters  the  d«sert 
Turning  westwards,'  iu  lat  19°  n.,  it  forms  the  large  island  of  Mognit,  and  makes  a 
curve  to  the  south-westward  known  as  the  *' great  bend,"  in  which  there  are  two 
cataracts.  Entering  Nubia,  the  Nile  resumes  its  north-westerly  course,  with  ujirrow 
strips  of  cultivated  land  on  each  bank.  Here  it  forms  another  cataract,  and  bends 
round  to  the  north-east  with  a  fifth  cataract,  in  lat  21^  40'  u.  After  tlds  the  valley 
of  the  Nile  narrows,  and  at  Assouan,  iu  lat  24<^  10'  n.,  It  forms  tiie  last  cataract  ia 
lesceudiug. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


275 


miv 


'  From  Assouan  to  the  sea,  the  average  full  of  Hie  Nile  16  two  incites  to  a  mile,  and 
its  mean  velocity  about  three  miles  an  hour.  It  waters  and  fertilifies  the  whole 
If'iigth  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  The  ddta  of  the  Nile  fXtendH  from  lat  80°  10'  n.  to 
Sio  30'  u.,  and  has  a  base  ou  the  Mediterraueau  of  about  160  miles.  In  it  the 
Kile  spreads  oat  into  nmnerons  streams,  the  two  priucipal  being  those  of  Rosetla 
and  Damierta.  The  total  length  of  the  Nile,  from  its  exit  from  the  hike  to  the 
sea,  is  about  3900  milesj  measured  along  Its  course,  or  2200  miles  <jirect  distance. 

A  feature  peculiar  to  the  river  of  Egypt  is,  that  from  its  junction  with  the  Atbara 
to  its  mouth,  a  distunce  of  upwards  oi  1600  miles,  it  receives  no  affluent  wluitever, 
and  yet  it  is  able  to  contend  with  the  burning  sun,  and  scarcely  less  burning  Hands 
efNnbia.  With  the  ancient  Egyptians  tiie  river  was  held  sacretl :  the  goa  Nilus 
was  one-of  the  lesser  diviuitits.  Its  annual  overflow  is  one  of  the  greatest  marvels 
in  ihe  phy^ica^  geography  of  tite  globe,  for  it  has  risen  to  witliin  a  tew  hours  of  the 
same  tuae,  and  lo  within  a  few  inches  of  the  same  heig[hf,  year  after  year  for  un- 
kuown  nges.  At  Kliartoum  it  begins  to  increase  »arly  in  April,  but  in  Lower  Egypt 
tbti  imnidation  nsually  liegins  about  the  26tli  of  June,  and  attains  its  height  In  three 
nioutlis.  It  remains  stationary  al)ont  twelve  days,  ana  tlien  subsides.  The  cultivable 
soil  of  Egypt  is  wholly  di'pendent  on  the  rise  of  tlie  Nile,  and  its  failure  causes  a 
dearth;  for  virtually,  the  country  has  no  rain.  Continuous  south  wind  biings  a 
good,  and  north  wind  a  bad  year.  Dnriiig  a  good  inundation,  the  lise  is  about  40 
!•' It  ou  the  Tropic  of  Caiiricoru,  86  feet  at  Thebes,  and  4  ft;et  at  tlie  Damietta  and 
Rosetta  months  in  the  Delta.  If  at  Cairo  the  rise  is  only  18  or  20  feet,  there  is  a 
8<"arcity;  up  to  24  feet,  a  deficiency ;  25  to  27  feet  is  ^od :  more  tlian  that  causes  a 
fl'jod,  jind  fosters  plague  and  murrain.  'During  the  inundation  the  whole  vnlley  is 
covered  w.'th  water,  from  which  the  villages  rise  like  islands,  protected  by  dykes.  Of 
late  years  the  overflow  has  been  greater  than  the  average  of  many  centuries.  The 
rise  aud  fall  of  the  trunk  stream  of  the  lower  Nile  is  owing  to  the  periodicity  of  the 
rains  on  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia  and  in  the  basin  of  Lake  Nyanza,  where  on  the 
eiinator  it  rains  more  or  less  all  tlie  year  round,  most  copiously  during  tlie  equinoxes. 
The  banks  of  the  Nile  swarm  with  birds,  among  which  are  vultures,  cormorants, 
g«8e,  pelicans,  quails,  mid  the  white  ibis;  and  its  sweet,  soft  waters  teem  with  fish. 
Tlie  average  amount  of  alluvium  brought  down  by  the  river  is  tjstlniated  at  adepossit 
01  4)^  inches  in  a  century^by  some,  it  is  made  as  high  as  6  inches ;  the  greater  part 
of  it  is  brought  down  by  the  Atbara. 

The  question  of  the  source  of  the  Nile  is  at  once  the  oldest  and  the  most  recent 
of  geography.  That  the  sources  of  a  river,  at  whose  mouth  one  of  the  earliest  and 
most  cjvitised  peoples  was  established,  should  have  l)een  so  louj<  veiled  iu  obscurity, 
is  ouparnllelefl  in  geo»;raphical  research.  The  want  of  success  in  exploring  the  upper 
biisiu  of  tlie  Nile  may  be  attributed  to  the  great  length  of  the  river,  to  the  difiicultiis 
which  beset  the  traveller  hi  the  physical  nature  of  the  countries  he  must  pass  through, 
t'lrt  climate,  and  the  jealousy,  ignorahce,  and  barbarism  of  the  native  tribes.  This 
problem  of  centuries  may  now  be  regarded  as  satisfactorily  solved  ;  for  the  question 
whether  there  may  not  yet  be  found  important  feeders  of  tlie  White  Nile  canying 
back  its  source  to  a  still  greater  distance  in  the  interior,  is  practically  excluded  by 
Stanley's  exploration  of  Uie  Lualalm  or  Congo  basin.  Tlie  jounicys  of  Krapf  aid 
Rebmiutn  to  the  foot  of  Kilimandjaro  and  the  other  snowy  mountjiins  in  the  east  of 
Africa,  believed  by  thein  to  be  the  ancient  '*  Mountains  of  the  Moon."  and  the  ex- 
plorations of  the  White  Nile,  pointed  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  among  these 
inoniiiMns  that  the  sources  of  the  great  river  would  ultimately  be  discovered. 

There  was,  however,  another  theory.  Rumors  gathend  from  the  natives  pointed 
to  lakes  in  the  regions  south  of  the  equator,  as  the  true  sources*  of  the  nile.  To  ex- 
plore this  country,  the  distinguiflicd  traveller  Captain  Richard  Burton,  accompanied 
l^y  Captain  Speke,  started  from  the  Zanzibar  coast  in  185T.  'J'beir  enterprise  was  so 
f :ir Rticcessful  that  they  discovered  Lake  Tangan.yika,  in  lat  5°  s.,  long.  36°  e..  and  a 
lartre  crescent-shaped  mass  of  mountains,  qyernanging  the  nor;hern  half  of  the  lake  and 
10,000  f«et  high,  considered  by  Captain  Speke  to  be  the  true  Mountains  of  the  Moon. 
On  the  shores  of  Lake  Tanganyika,  Burton  was  laid  up  by  illness,  and  his  companion, 
after  surveying  the  northern  portion  of  the  lak(%  left  him  there  to  recruit  his  health, 
while  he  (Speke)  proceeded  northwards  to  discover  another  huge  "nyanza"  or 
lake,  of  the  existence  of  which  he  was  informed  by  the  natives.  This  lie  accoin- 
pUaUcd  ou  the  3d  of  August  1858,  when  lie  discovered  the  southern  end  of  the  Vic- 


y  Google 


Kilometer  0^7  A 

N.mcgaan  ^*^ 

toria  Nyanza  (q.  v.).  I"  his  jonmal  he  says  of  this  immense  sheet  of  water :  **  I  no 
longer  felt  any  doubt  th:it  Ibe  lake  at  my  feet  pave  birth  to  tUat  interesting  rivcr, 
the  sonrce  of  which  ha^  been  the  Habject  of  so  much  epeculatiou,  and  the  object  of 
80  many  explorers." 

lu  1861,  Captain  Speke,  taking  with  him  Captain  Grant,  returned  to  the  lake  re- 
gloa.  The  eXDcditiou  approaclied  tiie  Victoria  Nyaiiza  again  from  the  coa!<t  of 
Zanzibar;  and  the  first  place  from  wliich  they  obtained  a  view  of  it,  during  the  sec- 
ond expedition,  was  the  town  of  M;i8honde  on  its  western  side.  Thence  they  pnr- 
suod  tlieir  way  along  the  shore  nortliwai-ds.  Crossing  tlie  equator,  they  reached 
ptrearas  which  are  wiid  to  flow  out  of  the  lake,  and  further  on,  in  the  ceutr«  of  its 
nor! hern  coast,  what  they  considered  to  l>e  the  parent  stream  of  the  Nile,  160  yards 
in  breadth,  flowing  over  rocks  of  an  igneouR  character,  and  £  .rmiii^  fall»  12  feet 
hiffh,  wldch  Captain  Speke  christened  the  "Ripou  Falls,"  In  honor  ot  the  president 
of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  at  the  time  of  bis  stjirting  on  tlie  expedition. 

In  tlie  kingdom  of  Karagw6,  Captain  Speke  found  a  very  superior  negro  ract;, 
mucli  better  disposed  to  strangers  thnii  any  of  the  tribes  he  had  formerly  passed 
through.  The  country  occupied  by  this  race,  and  that  of  Uganda,  stretches  along 
the  Nyauza,  and  covtrs  half  of  its  western  and  northern  shores,  tlie  Uganda  being 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  main  stream  of  the  Nile.  North  of  it  lies  the  kingrlora 
of  Unyoro,  where  the  dialects  belon^ng  tf)  tlielaugnasjeof  South  Africa,  and  which 
up  to  this  point  are  used  by  the  various  tribes,  suddenly  cease,  and  give  place  to 
those  of  the  language  of  North  Africa. 

At  Goudokoro,  Speke  and  Grant  were  met  by  Mr  (now  Sir  Samud)  Baker,  who 
had  come  from  Cairo  to  their  relief.  Bakei*,  accompanied  by  his  heroic  wife,  ptislied 
still  southwards,  and  had  the  happiness  of  discovering,  in  1864,  another  great  lake, 
which  he  called  the  Albeit  Nyauza.  In  1800,  he  undertook  a  second  great  expi'dition, 
of  ft  military  character,  at  the  exponse  of  the  Pasiia  of  Egypt,  to  suppress  slavery  hi 
the  upper  regions  of  the  Nile ;  and  has  reduced  under  the  sway  of  that  ruler  the 
whole  valley  of  the  river  as  far  as  the  Victoria  Nyanza.  Sir  Samuel  retnrued  in  S€|>- 
tember  1873, 

Meanwhile,  Dr  Livingstone  had  been  working  for  many  years,  from  another  qnar- 
tcr,  at  the  solution  of  the  great  African  problem— the  true  source  of  the  Nile.  In  186<^ 
he  began  the  great  journey  from  whicli  be  was  destined  never  to  return.  Starting 
from  the  Rovuma  River,  in  the  far  south,  lie  passed  round  the  south  end  of  lake 
Nyassa,  proceeded  northward,  exploring  the  lakes  Baugweolo  and  Moero ;  and  in  1869 
reached  Lake  Tangnnyika,  now  Known  to  send  its  outflow  towards  the^ Congo,  but 
which  he  sought  in  vain  to  coimect  with  the  Victoria  Nyanza.  In  18T1,  he  was  found 
by  Mr  Stanley  at  Ujiji.  on  Lake  Tanganyika,  and  it  was  then  his  opinion  that  neither 
Tancanyika,  nor  the  Albert  Nyanza,  nor  the  Victoria  Nyanza  was  the  true  source  of 
the  Nile,  nor  any  of  the  feeders  of  these  lakes ;  but  that  it  was  to  be  sonL'ht  in  a  bashi 
Iving  westward  of  them,  through  which  flow  three  large  rivers,  all  called  Lualaba,  and 
which  unite  to  form  another  great  lake,  which  he  Civlled  Lincoln.  Out  of  this  a  rfv«r 
runs  northward,  which  he  conceived  to  i)e  the  main  branch  of  the  Nile.  Geographers 
at  home  generally  believed  that  Livingstone  was  mistaken,  and  had  struck  instead 
upon  the  source  of  the  Congo ;  but  the  death  of-  the  great  traveller  befoi'e  the  comple- 
tion of  his  explorations  left  the  problem  unsolved.  It  was  not  until  Mr  Stanley  in 
1876-7  followed  the  course  of  the  Lualaba  to  its  mouth  that  this  stream  was  definitively 
proved  to  be  identical  with  the  Congo.  Mr  Stanley's  explorations  in  1876,  ere  he 
struck  the  Lualaba,  have  given  us  more  accurate  information  as  to  the  size  and  stiape 
ot  the  Victoria  Nyauza  (see  Nyanza)  and  as  to  its  affluent  the  Shimyin. 

NILO'METER  (the  measurer  of  the  Nile),  the  name  of  two  buildings  existing  In 
Egypt,  one  in  the  island  of  Rhoda,  qpi)Osite  to  Cairo,  the  other  at  Elepliantnie, 
close  to  Assouan,  in  24°  5'  23"  n.  lar.  The  first  consists  of  a  square  well,  in  which 
is  placed  a  graduated  pillar  of  marble,  and  is  called  AmekkicM  or  measure ;  the  pili.'ir 
contains  24  de»aifcA«  or  cubits,  each  of  whlcli  measure  21 '886  inches,  or  according  to 
Greaves,  1*824  feet^  and  contains  24  digits ;  but  in  its  present  state,  it  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  intended  to  mark  a  rise  of  more  than  16  cubits*.  This  piUar  18 
exceedingly  slender.  Tiie  building  formerly  had  a  dome,  bearhig  a  Cuflc  iuscrlptiou, 
dated  84'rA.D.,  and  is  said  to  have  been  erected  by  the  Calif  Mamun,  or  his  Mcces- 
Bor  Wath(  k  Billdh.  The  first-mentioned  monarch  is  said  to  have  erected  another 
uilomclcr  at  the  village  of  Buubeuouda,  iu  the  Sueed,  and  to  have  repaired  aa  o2d 


y  Google 


277 


N  lometer 
N.megtien 

one  at  l^khmin.    The  Cnlif  Bl  Motawukkel  built  the  preseut  one.    The  mode  of 
CJilcalatiDg   the  Jiicrcjise  at  the  nilometer  is  rather  complex,  and  to  a  ceitftiii 
extc-ut  arbitrary,  iwlitfcal  and  financial  reasons  rendering  the  procei^s  a  mysieiy 
even    to    the    nntives.     At    the    present  day   the    Nile    is    irapposed    to    ha>e 
riseu    to  IS  cubits  when  the  cannls  iire  cut ;    this   is  the   heieht  of  the  lowest 
iuandatioii ;  19  cubits  are  considered  tolerable.  20  excellent,  «T  adequate,  and  22 
complete,  24  are  ruinous.    In  the  time  of  Edrlsi,  however,  16  cubits  were  consideiwl 
Piifflcient.     The  object  of  these  nllonieters  was  to  measure  the  amount  of  t^ixutioii 
to  be  imposed  on  the  country.    The  nilometer  ut  Cairo  is,  however,  much  more  re- 
f  cent  tbuu  tbat  existing  nt  Elephantine,  which  consists  of  a  staircase  between  two 
walls  descending  to  tue  Nile.    One  ot  thn^e  walls  has  engraved  on  it  a  series  of 
lines   at  proper  intervals  marking  the  different  elevatims  to  which  the  river  ropc 
under  the  Cfesar:*.    The  cubits  here  are  divided  into  14lh8  or  double  disits,  and 
measure  1  foot  8-626  inclies.    This  nilometer  is  described  by  Strabo.    The  proba- 
bility is,  that  many  nllonieters  existed  in  the  days  of  the  Pharaohs,  probably  one  iii 
each  city.    In  the  days  of  Woerie,  8  cubits  were  sufficient,  but  15  or  16  were  requin^i 
Su  tlte  tinie  of  Herodotus,  466  b.o.,  and  this  was  the  mean  under  the  Romans.    Ac- 
cording to  Pliny,  if  the  inundation  did  not  exceed  12  cubits  it  produced  a  famine, 
13  etai-ved  the  country,  14  njoiced  it,  15  was  safety,  and  16  delight,  and  this  number 
is  symboliCiilly  represented  by  the  number  of  children  playing  round  the  river  go<l 
on  Ktatues  of  the  Roman  period.    The  oldest  nilometer  appears  to  have  been  eretted 
at  Memphis,  and  it  was  transferred  by  Coustantine  to  a  church  in  the  vicinitv  of  the 
Serapelum ;  but  Julian  sent  it  back  to  this  temple,  where  it  remained  till  its  de- 
Btmction  by  Theodosins.    At  the  present  day,  the  rise  is  watched  for  with  anxiety, 
and  proclaimed  by  four  criers.— Her'wlotUH,  ii.  18:  Strabo,  lib.  xvii. ;  Wilkinson, 
**  Topogr.  of  Thebes,"  pp.  311— 81T.    Hekekyan  Bey,  "  Siriadic  Monuments  "  (Lon. 
1863),  p.  145. 

NI'MBUS,  in  Art,  especially  in  Sacred  Art,  is  the  name  given  to  the  disc  or  halo 
which  encircles  the  head  of  the  sacred  personage  who  is  represented.  Its  use  is  al- 
n>08t  universal  in  those  religions  of  which  we  possess  any  artistic  remains — the  lu' 
diafi,  the  Egyptian,  the  Etruscan,  the  Greek,  and  the  Roman.  In  the  Hebrew  scrip- 
tures, we  trace,  in  the  absence  of  representations,  the  same  symbolised  idea  in  the 
light  which  shone  upon  the  face  of  Moses  at  his  return  from  Sinai  (Exod.  xxxiv.  29 
— 86),  aud  in  the  light  with  which  the  Lord  is  clothed  as  with  a  garment,  Ps.  ciii.  1, 
Voig.  (civ.  1,  anth.  vers.) ;  and  in  the  New  Testament  in  the  trunt^figui  ation  of  our 
Lord  (Luke  jx.  31),  and  in  the  *' crowns"  of  the  just,  to  which  allusTun  is  so  often 
made  (2  Tim.  iv,  8;  1  Peter  v.  4;  Apoc.  iv.  4).  Nevertheless,  the  nimbus,  strictly  so 
called,  is  comparatively  recent  in  Christian  art,  appearing  first  towards  the  end  of 
the  5th  century.  Later  ii)  Christian  art,  it  became  almost  a  necessary  appendage  of 
all  representations  of  God  or  of  the  saints.  Its  ordinary  form  is  the  circular  or  .«»emi- 
circalur;  a  form,  indeed,  in  which  later  symbolists  discover  an  emblem  of  perfection, 
aud  of  eternity ;  but  the  nimbus  of  the  Eternal  Father  is  often  in  the  form  of  a  tri- 
angle, and  that  of  I  lie  Trinity  an  emanation  of  light,  the  rays  of  which  form  the  three 
armsof  across.  The  nimbus  of  the  Virgin  is  sometimes  a  simple  ring,  and  sometimes 
a  crown  or  diadems;  occtisionally  it  is  encircled  by  an  ornamental  border,  on  which 
twelve  stare  are  sometimes  represented.  Her  nimbus,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Divine 
PereoiiK,  is  commonly  of  gold ;  but  that  of  the  Virgin  Mary  is  occasionally  in  colore, 
as  blue,  red,  purple,  or  white.  The  nimbus  of  the  saints  is  ordinarily  the  semicircle 
or  lunula.  Dedron  mentions  the  curious  instance  of  a  i)iclure  of  the  traitor  Judas 
Vfith  a  hlaek  nimhvs  1  In  later  art,  the  nimbus  became  lighter  and  more  aSrial,  melt- 
ing, as  it  were,  into  the  picture  •  aud  in  Raphael's  saints  it  occasionally  fades  into  the 
veiy  faintest  indicatioti  of  a  golden  tinge  around  the  head.  In  connection  with  the 
nimbus  may  also  be  mentioned  two  analogous  forms— the  Aureole  aud  the  Olorp. 
The  former  is  an  illumination  surrounding,  not  the  head  only,  but  the  entire  figure. 
If  the  figure  be  upright,  the  aureole  is  commonly  oval,  when  it  is  called  the  vesica 
piacis,  and  is  snj)po8ed  to  contain  an  allusion  to  the  icthys.  With  a  seated  figure  it 
becomes  circular,  aud  is  occasionally  divided  by  radiating  bands,  in  the  form  of  a 
wheel ;  sometimts  it  takes  a  qiiatrefoil  form.  It  is  commonly  of  gold,  but  occasion- 
ally also  is  ill  colors.  Tlie  Glory  is  a  combination  of  the  ninibus  and  ilie  aureole,  and 
is  chiefly  seen  in  Byzantine  pictures,  aud  those  ot  the  early  South  German  school. 
,    NIMEGUEN.    SeeNiJMEQEN. 

-     _        *  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Nimes  O^Q 

Ninoa  ^ «  ^ 

NlMES  (luic  JVewi«ti««),  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  tbe  depertmeut  of  Garf, 
ptaucU  iu  a  ferlilo  i)laiii  Burrouiidcd  by  vine-clad  liiJI?,  80  miles  uorUMiaBtof  Mout- 
pellier,  with  wiiicli  it  is  coiiijOcted  by  railway.  It  coimititfi  uf  the  towu  proper  (ill  boiit 
and  dirty),  and  of  three  haiidBomo  anburbs.  Iu  the  viciuity  arc  the  beautiful  reuudus 
©f  the  Roman  aqueduct  called  the  PonX  du  Gard.  Tlie  cl:  ief  of  I  he  modem  edifices  aw 
the  PaUUs-de-JustfcA,  the  theatre,  and  the  hospitals.  The  OrandePlaee  is  omWUslied 
with  one  of  the  most  ma^uiflcent  fonntains  fu  France.  N.  contiiius  iiunieroos  aitd 
varions]y>constitiited  edncationnl  institutions,  au  important  public  library,  Mnria 
Theresa's  Mu»euni  (in  tlie  Maison  Civrrie)^  a  museum  of  natural  liistory,  &c.  Itis 
tlie  geuei*al  entxepOc  for  the  silks  produced  Iu  tliu  sontli  of  France,  and  its  uutanfac- 
tures  arc  principally  silk  and  cotton  fabdcs.  More  thau  10,000  looms  are  consta  Uy 
iu  opcratioiriu  the  city,  and  about  ^000  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  Shawls,  lunidlier- 
cliicfs.  lace,  brandy,  wines,  <S;c.,  are  made.  Wirliiu  the  town  are  unmei-oiis  aud 
beautiful  Homau  remains,  the  chief  of  wliich  01*0  the  ami)hitheatre ;  tlie  Mm^n 
Carrie.  (Square  House),  a  nue  specimen  of  Corintliian  architecture ;  a  teiaple  aitd 
fonntuin  consecrated  to  Diana :  La  Tour  Magne  (Groat  Tower) ;  the  baths,  aud  two 
Roman  gates.  Sue  Menard's  *'  Ilmtoire  des  Antiquites  de  la  Viliu  de  N.  et  duMS 
Environs  "  (1838).    P.  i).  (1872)  56.448. 

PrcvionaJy  to  the  Roman  Invasion,  N.— which  is  supposed  to  have  been  fonndwl 
by  a  colony  from  Massjlia  (Marsi'ille)— was  the  chief  city  of  tlie  Volcae  Areconiici.  It 
flourished  under  tlie  Romans,  and  was  one  of  the  Great  cities  of  Gaul.  It  surivudered 
to  the  rule  of  the  Visigoths  beiwecn  465  and  535,  jiud  afterwai-ds  to  that  of  ihc  Frante. 
fclnlwoqucntly,  it  became  a  possession  of  Araijon;  but  was  finally  restored  to  Fraoco 
in  1259  by  the  treaty  of  Corbeil.  The  inhabitants  adopted  Calvinism  in  the  16tli  c« 
and  on  many  occasions  suffered  severely  for  tiieir  rftligious  principles.  In  1791  aud 
1815,  bloody  rciigioos  and  i>oUiical  reactions  took  place  here. 

NI'MROD.    See  Babylon. 

NI'NEVEH,«r  Ni'ims,  a  very  ancient  and  fnmons  city,  the  capital  of  the  great 
Assyrian  empire,  said  iu  Scripture  (Gen.  x.  11)  to  have  l>een  founded  by  Niuiis  or 
"Nimrod.  It  was  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Ti^s,  opposite  to  ^  prt^t 
MosuL  According  to  the  accounts  of  the  classic  writers,  the  city  was  U 
vast  extent,  480  stadia,  or  more  than  60  miles  in  circumference.  Its  trrils 
were  100  feet  high,  broad  enough  for  three  chariots,  and  furnished  with  1500tow«8, 
each  200  feet  iu  height  In  the  "  Book  of  Jonah"  it  is  described  as  an  "  exceefitng 
great  city  of  tlirec  days'  jonrncy,"  and  one  **  wherein  are  more  than  sixscore  tftoo- 
sand  persons  that  cannot  discern  between  their  ri!<;ht  hand  aud  their  Jeft  band" 
(childi-en  or  infants  are  probiibly  meant).  After  having  been  for  many  centnriefl  the 
seat  of  empire,  it  was  taken  after  a  siege  of  several  years  and  destroyed  by  the 
knitted  armies  oftheMedes  under  Cyaxares,  aud  the  Babviouians  under  Nabopo- 
lassar,  about  625  b.c.  When  Herodotus,  not  quite  200  years  afterwwxi!*,  and 
Xenophon  visitt.-d  the  spot,  there  remained  only  ruins.  Tradition  cont'mued  to 
point  pretty  accurately  to  the  !«lte  of  N. ;  but  it  is  only  of  late  years  that  actual  ex- 
plorations have  been  made.    For  an  account  of  these,  see  Asstbia. 

NINGPO,  a  department  In  the  province  of  Chekiang,  China,  comprising  tbed^f 
of  that  name,  the  Cliusjm  group  of  islands,  and  the  cities  of  Tsike,  Fuuffhwa,  CbUf 
h.ii,  and  Tsiauj^'shan.  The  port  of  N.  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  two  small 
^<lreams,  in  lat.  29<^  59' n.,  lung.  121<^  22'  e.,  12  miles  from  the  sea,  on  an  alluvial  flat  of 
extreme  fertility,  inter^ect(?d  by  a  network  of  rivulets  aud  canals.  Its  walls  ar«:  five 
miles  in  circumference,  about  25  feet  high,  22  feet  wide  at  the  base,  and  13  at  tlie 
lopj  with  six  double  gates.  As  is  the  case  with  all  the  cities  in  this  part  of  China, 
N.  18  permeated  by  canals  communicating  with  a  , moat  nearly  surrounding  1  1m 
walls,  and  with  the  adjacent  country.  In  one  paii;  of  the  city  they  expaud  into 
basins,  and  receive  the  name  of  lakes— the  Sun  Liike  and  Moon  Lake.  In  die 
former,  is  an  island  devoted  to  temples,  and  accessible  by  bridges.  These  brWgrs 
— ijood  specimens  of  those  aSrial  stone  ediflces  which  adorn  this  part  of  China— are 
required  to  sustain  little  more  than  their  own  weight,  as  the  roads  here  are  all  mere 
footpaths,  and  no  wheeled  vehicles  are  found.  One  of  the  rivers  is  crossed  by  a 
bridge  of  boats,  200  yards  long.  The  entire  city  is  well  paved;  the  streets  aw 
wider  than  those  of  moMt  Chinese  cities,  and  the  displav  of  shops  is  Indicatlro  of 
wealth  aud  luxury.    Nowhere,  save  at  Ilanchau,  are  such  extensive  aud  beaotifnl 


y  Google 


279 


Ninon 

temples  to  l)c  found.    The  moat  eleeaut  and  costly  of  these  is  dedicated  to  the 

aacou  of  Heaven  ;  the  goddess  being  tie  daugliter  of  a  Fulikien  flshcnnaii,  the  peo- 
e  of  that  maritime  province  are  her  more  special  votaries.  Elaborate  stone  sculp- 
tnre,  cxqnisiti^ly  fine  wood  carving,  and  a  prof  iu«{on  of  );ilt  and  tinsel,  shew  that  uo 
expense  bos  t>ecu  spared  to  honor  tiie  popnlar  goddess. 

Ti^e  Centre  of  tlie  city  is  ornamented  with  an  elegant  seven-storied  hexagonal 
tower— the  li€aveii-t)epto\vetl  pagoda,  100  feet  in  height.  A  ppirnl  flight  of  stopa 
wjtbin  the  walls  of  the  tower  lead  to  the  summit,  from  which  tlie  gazer  beholds  a 
eplemiid  scene;  innmuenible  villages  dot  the  plain,  which  is  it  tic  ulat<'d  by  silvery 
water-coiirpes,  replete  with  evidence  of  snccessfnl  commerce  and  auricnlture.  The 
popalation  of  the  city  is  abont  300,000 ;  that  of  the  plain,  about  2.000,000.  On  many 
of  the  hills  whicli  environ  these  cities,  jjreeu  tea  is  snccessfally  cultivated  ;  while  the 
mull)erry,  the  tallow-tree,^ and  nuineronsother  stimulants  of  Industry  abound.  Two 
crops  of  rice  are  |>rocured  annually  from  the  fields ;  wiiile  tlie  fisheries  of  the  rivers 
aiMl  adjacent  coast  give  employment  to  a  unmeroas  class  of  the  population.  Ice- 
houses close  to  tlie  river  give  the  banks  a  picturesaiie  appearance ;  the  ice  is  used  for 
curing  flj»h.  N.  has  an  extensive  coasting  tiade;  out  no  considerable  foreign  trade 
l|jt8  been  develoiicd,  owing  mainly  to  porterages  on  the  inland  water-comnmnications 
and  to  tlie  proximity  of  Slinngtiai,  where  no  snch  obstructions  exist.    The  district 


city  of  Chinhai,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ningpo  Kiver,  is  also  a  port.  A  walled  town, 
coutaining  al)out  30,000  inhabitants,  10  mifi'S  to  the  east  of  Chinhai,  is  Eliigtang,  the 
nearest  of  the  Ohnsim  arch'pelago.    Tinghai,  is  the  disMict  city  of  the  island  of 


Chusan^  wliich  is  20  miles  long,  from  6  to  10  wide,  and  61  in  circumference.  It  is 
niouniainous,  with  fertile  valleys  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation.  It  has  an  excellent 
harlMW.  Tinghai  was  gairisonetl  several  years  by  Her  Majesty's  forces  from  1 841 ,  and 
wa«  agaiu  temiwraiily  occupied  by  the  allied  forces  in  I860,— Dr  Macgowan's  **  Lec- 
tores.'* 

NTNIAN,  St,  the  apostle  of  the  Picts,  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  4th  and  the 
begiuuing  of  the  5th  century.  Whether  Chritstianlly  had  been  introdticed  among 
tlie  Picts  before  the  time  of  N.,  has  been  a  subject  of  controversy ;  but  although  tlie 
details  of  the  legendary  a<-coant  are  uncertain,  it  seems,  l)eyond  all  ^[uestion,  that 
K)ine  Christians  were  to  l>e  found,  at  least  amonpr  tlic  Southern  Picts,  in  wtiat  is  now 
known  as  the  Lowlands  of  Scx)thind,  from  the  end  of  the  Sd  century.  Nevertheless, 
either tiieir  nnm)>er  was  originally  venr  small,  or  the  rising  church  had  fallen  away 
under  adverse  circumstances ;  and  it  is  certain  that  whenl^.  appeared  among  them, 
the  Picts  were  in  the  main  a  pagan  people.  He  was  a  Briton,  and  of  noble  birth ; 
but  had  been  educated  at  Rome,  and  there  ordained  a  bisiiop.  The  exact  time  of  liis 
preacliinjj  in  Scotland  is  unknown.  His  labors  appear  to  have  commenced  in  Ouui- 
"ria,  and  to  have  extended  over  the  greater  part  of  the  district  as  far  north  as  the 
Qrarapwn  Hills,  his  see  being  fixed  at  Candida  Casa,  or  Whithorn  in  the  modern 
Wietoushire.  His  death  is  placed  by  the  Bollaudists  in  432 ;  his  festival  is  the 
16tli  September.    - 

NINON  DE  LENCLOS,  a  celebrated  Frenchwoman,  one  of  those  characters  that 
could  have  appeared  only  In  the  Prench  Society  of  the  ITth  c,  was  bom  of  good 
family  at  Paris  in  1616.  Her  mother  tried  to  imbue  her  mind  with  a  love  of  the 
priudpies  of  religion  and  morality,  but  her  fatlier,  more  successfully,  with  a  taste 
for  pleasure.  Even  as  a  child  she  was  remarkable  for  her  beauty  and  the  exquisite 
grace  of  her  person.  She  was  carefully  educated,  spoke  several  foreign  languages, 
excelled  in  music  and  dancing,  and  had  a  great  fund  of  sharp  and  lively  wit.  At 
the  age  of  ten  she  read  Montaigne'^s  >*  Essays."  Six  years  later,  she  commenced  her 
long  career  of  licentious  gallantry  by  an  amonr  wiili  Gaspard  de  Coligny,  then 
Oomte  de  Chatillon.  To  Coligny  succeeded  innumerable  favorites,  but  never  more 
tlian  one  at  a  time.  Among  N.'s  lovers  we  may  mention  the  Marouis  de  Villar- 
ceanx.  the  Marquis  de  Sevigue,  the  Marquis  de  Gei-say,  the  great  Cond6,  the  Due  de 
Larochefoucauld,  Marshal  d'Albret,  Marshal  d'E«tr6es,  the  Abb6  d'Efliat,  Gourville, 
und  La  Chfitro.  She  had  two  sous,  but  never  shewed  in  regard  to  then  the  sliglHest 
ii«»thict  of  maternity.  The  fate  of  one  was  horrible.  Brought  up  in  ignorance  of 
nw  mother,  he  followed  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  conceived  a  passion  for  her. 
When  she  informed  him  of  tlie  Hilation  that  subsisted  between  them,  the  unhappy 
yQOlU  was  seized  with  horror,  and  blew  out  liis  brains  in  a  Ircuzy  ot  remorse.  Even 


y  Google 


Ninth  OQA 

Nirvana  -^0^ 

tlii9  culainity  did  not  ReriunslV  offectN.;  Bhe  was  too  well-bred  to  allow  it  to  do 
tliat  N.  was  uearly  as  c«;itibratt:d  for  her  mauuers  as  for  Uer  bt^inty. 
The  most  respectable  and  virtnous  women  sent  their  children  to  her  h 
house  to  acquire  taste,  style,  politeness.  So  great  was  her  repotation,  tluU 
when  Qaeen  Christina  of  Siveden  came  to  Paris,  she  said  she  wished  partial- 
larly  to  visit  tlie  Freiicli  Academy  and  Ninon  de  Leiiclos.  We  may  gather  some  idea 
of  lier  wit  an<l  sense  from  the  fact  that  Larochefoucaold  consnited  lier  m>ou  lii* 
maxims,  Mohdre'npou  his  comedies,  and  Scarrou  U|K)n  his  romances.  8lje  cued  17th 
Ociolier  1706«  at  the  age  of  90,  havinsc  preserved  some  remains  of  her  lM-aQ<7 
almost  to  the  la.«t. — See  Guyon  de  Sanliere's  **Vie  de  Ninon  d«  Lenclos;^  Saiut- 
Evremond's  "  (Eavres ; "  Douxmesuil's  ''M^moires  pour  servir  k  THistoire  de  AUIe 
de  Leiiclos." 

NINTH,  in  Mnsic,  the  next  interval  above  the  octave,  being  the  same  iuterra' 
which  an  octave  lower  is  termed  the  second.    See  JumtBYAL. 

NI'OBfi,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  daughter  of  Tantalus  and  (according  to  the 
most  popular  version  or  the  story)  the  sister  of  Pelops.  She  was  the  wife  of 
Amphiou,  king  of  Thebes,  and  bore  him  six  sons  and  six  daughters.  Prond  of  hef 
children,  she  despised  Leto  or  Latoua,  who  liad  only  two  children,  Apollo  aud 
Diana,  and  prevented  tlie  i)eopIe  from  the  worship  of  these  divinities :  whereuixMi 
Latona,  enraged,  moved  her  children  to  destroy  all  the  children  of  N.  ^ith  their 
arrows.  They  lay  nine  days  in  their  blood  nuburied,  when  Jupiter  changed  them  into 
stone,  and  on  tlie  tenth  clay  they  were  buried  by  th«<  gods  themselves.  N.  wandered 
about  in  distrces,  and  at  last  was  changed  into  stone  on  Mount  Sipylus,  betweeo 
Lydia  jind  Phrygia,  retaining,  however,  even  as  stone  a  sense  of  her  woe.  Sucb  l« 
the  Homeric  legend^  wliicli,  now«'ver,  was  afterwards  much  varied  and  enlarged.  N. 
was  a  favorite  subject  of  the  ancient  artists.  A  group  representing  N.  aud  Ikt 
children  was  discovered  at  Rome  in  15S3,  aud  is  now  in  Florence.  Some  of  tlie 
sculptures  are  veiy  beautiful.  Even  the  ancient  Romans  were  in  doubts  whether  tlie 
wurk  proceeded  from  Scopas  or  Praxiteles. 

NIO'BIUM  (symbol.  Nb)  is  a  rare  metal  discovered  by  H.  Rose  in  the  rainend 
Tantalite.  It  is  obtained  by  reducing  the  double  fluoride  of  niobium  aud  pota8!«iam 
with  sodium  ;  and  forms  a  black  powder  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  bat  readily  sohible 
in  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  hydrofluoric  acids.  With  oxygen  it  forms  twocompoaudt^ 
niobons  acid,  NIK),  and  niobic  acid,  NbO^ ;  .and  chloriu«>,  bromine,  flnorine,  and 
sulphur  compounds  cort*e8potidiDg  to  these  acids  have  l>eeo  preiiart^  and  ex- 
amined.  Neither  the  metal  itself  nor  any  of  its  compounds  are  of  any  practical 
importance. 

NIORT,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  department  of  Denx-Sdvros,  on  the 
Sftvre-Niortaise,  is  situated  in  an  agreeable  countiy,  occupying  the  slope  of  two  biito 
fiud  the  valley  which  intervenes.  110  miles  north  of  Bordeaux.  Its  pnuciiial  edifices 
ore  the  Church  of  Notre-Dame,  the  town-hall,  the  theatre,  and  the  old  castle.  Besides 
these,  the  beautiful  Fountain  du  Vivicr,  the  promenade's,  the  library,  and  thecollege 
are  worthy  of  notice.  The  dressing  of  chamois  and  the  mjtnufacture  of  gloves  are 
the  principal  branches  of  industry.  DyeAVorks  and  tanneries  are  in  operatr-n.  Poj^ 
(187-2)  17,470. 

N.  is  an  ancient  town.  In  the  14th  c  it  was  taken  by  the  English,  and  held  bf 
them  for  18  years. 

NIPA,  a  genus  of  etidogenous  plants  referred  by  some  botanists  to  the  order 
Pajidaitacece.  and  by  otheri?  to  Palms.  X  fruticanA  is  very  common  in  the  Eastern 
Archipelago,  aud  northwards  as  far  as  the  Mergui  River,  but  becomes  rare  furllicr 
north.  It  flourishes  with  the  mangrove  in  places  inundated  when  the  tide  rises.  It 
abounds  in  saccharine  sap,  from  which  a  kind  of  Palm  Wine  is  made,  and  altw 
excellent  sugar.  The  leaves  are  much  employed  for  roofing  houses,  aud  large  qoau- 
tities  are  sent  from  the  Tenesserlm  provinces  northward  for  this  use. 

NI'PADITES,  a  genus  ot  fossil  palm  fruits  found  in  the  Eocene  clays  of  tl»« 
Islau<l  of  Sheppey,  in  Kent,  They  are  referred  to  Nipa  as  their  nearest  living  alJT, 
and  are  considered  to  have  resembled  in  habit  that  geims,  and  to  liave  grown  on  the 
baiiks  of  an  immense  river  which  flowed  from  the  tropical  regions  of  a  cootiueiit 
\y\ng  to  the  southward,  aud  cutercd  the  sou  at  Sheppey,  where  it  deposited  (he  froiti 


y  Google 


281 


Nnth 
Nrvana 

and  leaves  boroe  down  with  the  current,  hy  the  Mde  of  the  stArfishcs  and  mollum^a 
which  iuhabited  the  estuary.    Some  18  differeut  kiuda  haye  been  described. 

NIPO'N,  or  Niphou,  the  largest  by  far  of  the  gronp  of  islands  forming  the 
empire  of  Japan  (q.  v.).  It  is  the  mainland — the  England  and  Wales— of  D&i  lfl|>on, 
or  Great  Nipon,  the  Japanese  name  for  the  empire  as  a  whole.  N.  is  iucluded  Iwtwecn 
33°  30'— 41°  30*  n.  lat.,  and  130°  50'— 142°  20'  e.  long.  The  inland  sea  of  Snonnda 
separates  it  from  the  islands  of  Kiusin  and  Sikopf,  and  the  Strait  of  Sangar  on  the 
north-east  from  the  Ishuid  of  Tesso.  On  tiie  n.  it  is  liounded  hy  the  Sea  of  Japan, 
and  oil  the  s.  and  e.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  length  of  M  i»  900  milcSf  and  its 
breadth  240;  and  it  has  an  estimated  area  of  42  000  nquare  miles.  Ycdo  (q.  v.)  or  'j'o- 
Kei,  the  capital  of  the  empire,  and  the  present  residence  of  the  Mik.ido  ;  Miako 
(q.  v.),  his  former  residence ;  and  Osaca  (q.  v.),  iire  tlie  largest  towns.  The  chief 
trfaty-p<rts  are  Uiogo,  llie  outlet  for  the  trade  of  Osaca,  Yokohama  (q.  v.)  nud 
Canaguwa  (q.  v.).  The  ports  of  Yedo  and  I^iegata,  in  the  northern  pari  of  the 
island,  on  the  Sea  of  Jupan,  the  official  capital  of  the  province  in  which  it  Is  situated, 
and  situated  near  the  great  mineral  region  of  Aidsu,  but  unfortunately  posses^iini;  a 
wretched  harbor.  Important  meteorological  observations,  which  give  a  good  i(T<.>a 
of  tlie  climate  of  the  country  generally,  were  made  by  Dr  Hepliurn  at  Kanagawa,  ll»e 
shipping  port  of  Yeddo,  in  1860.  These  are  exhibited  in  a  condensed  form  in  the 
following  table: 

Number  of 
Earthquake?. 


January. . . . 
Febrmiry. . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August..... 
Bt'ptember., 
Oc;ober...., 
November. . 
December. . 


Highest. 

Lowest. 

Rain  in 
Inches. 

Snow  in 
Inches. 

69°  F. 

180P. 

6S 

19 

H 

2 

60 

80 

6)4 

IX 

T6 

83 

^X 

80 

44 

16><^ 

8T 

64 

18% 

92 

63 

8X 

92 

69 

1  l-16th 

89 

62 

2K 

84 

60 

VA 

63 

S6 

5 

71 

22 

8X 

1 

1 
1 

8 

2 

11 

4 
2 


Bnjcing  sea-breezes  make  the  heat  of  summer  very  endurable.    Tiie  spring  ai.d 
auiomu  months  are  delightful. 

NIKUKTA,  or  '♦  Explanation,"  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  six  Veddngaa  (see  Veda) 
whicli  explains  difficult  Vedic  words*.  That  there  have  been  several  works  engaged 
in  such  a  task,  even  at  a  very  remote  period  of  Hindu  antiquity,  and  that  they  bore 
the  name  of  Nii-ukta  is  probable,  for  "  Nirukta  authors  "  are  quoted  either  generally 
or  by  name  in  several  Sanskrit  authoi-s;  but  the  work  which  is  emphatically  called 
"Nirukta.*'  and  which,  for  tluu)res»ent,  is  the  only  surviving  repnipentative  of  ihis  im- 
portant Vedftnga,  is  that  of  Yd»ka^  who  was  a  predeces*»or  of  Pan'ini  (q.  v.).  His 
work  consists  of  three  parts— the  haighan't'uka,  where,  for  the  most  part,  synony- 
r.ions  words  are  taught ;  the  Naigama^  which  contains  words  that  usually  occur  in 
the  Vedns  only ;  and  the  Daivata,  which  contains  words  chiefly  relating  to  deities  and 
eacriflcial  acts.  A  Comnientaiy  on  thjs  work  has  been  composed  by  the  same  YSska, 
and  it  likewso  bears  the  name  of  Nirukta.  In  tiie  latter,  Vedic  passages  are  quoted 
in  illustration  of  the  words  to  be  explained,  and  the  comment  given  by  Y&ska  on 
th(»5«e  jiassagos  is  the  oldest  Instance,  known  at  present  to  Sanskrit  philology,  of  a 
"Vedic  gloss.  Besides  the  great  importance  which  Vaska's  "  Nirukta  "  thus  possesses 
•  for  a  proper  understanding  of  the  Vedic  texts,  it  is  valuable  also  on  account  of 
several  discussions  which  it  raises  on  grammatical  and  other  questions,  and 
on  account  of  the  insight  it  affords  us  into  the  scientific  and  religious  condition  of 
Its  time.— Text  and  Commentary  of  **  Y&ska's  Nirukta  "  have  been  edited  by  Professor 
B.  Both  (QOttingen,  1862). 
w  NIRVANA  (from  the  Sanscrit  nir,  out,  and  vdna^  blown;  hence,  literally,  that 


y  Google 


N  seem)  O  Q  O 

Wtrato  ^^-^ 

which  is  blown  out  or  extingnislied)  Is,  In  Btiddhi:*tic  doctrine,  the  tenn  deDOtin^ 
the  final  (le)iverauceof  the  eoiil  from  trauamigratiou.  It  implies,  consequently,  tlie 
last  aim  of  Buddhistic  existence,  since  trausniisration  is  tint^unoant  to  a  relapec 
into  the  evils  or  miseries  of  Sansdra^  or  the  world.  But  as  Hinduism,  or  the  Brali- 
manical  doctrine,  professes  to  lead  to  the  same  end,  the  difilerence  between  yirmna 
and  Moksha,  Apavarga,  or  the  oiiier  terms  of  Brahmaism  desiirnatin^  eternal  b1!i<s, 
dnd  consequent  liberutiun  from  metempsychosis,  rests  on  the  difference  of  the  ideas 
wliich  both  doctrine?)  connect  with  the  condition  of  the  soul  after  that  libenitiou. 
Brahman,  according  to  tlie  Brahraanical  doctrine,  being  the  ezi^ting  and  everlasting 
cause  of  tliejiniverse,  eternal  happiness  is,  to  the  Bruhmanical  Hindu,  thcabsor|>- 
tion  of  the  human  soul  into  that  cause  whence  it  emanated,  never  to  depart  from  it 
again.  According  to  this  doctrine,  therefore,  tlie  liberation  of  the  hnnmn  soul 
from  transmigration  is  equivalent  to  that  state  of  felicity  which  religion  and  piiil- 
osopliy  attribute  to  that  Entity  (see  Ihdia— Religion).  As,  however,  the  ultimate 
cause  of  the  universe,  according  to  Buddhism,  is  the  Void  or  Non-entity,  the  delivtr- 
ahce  from  transmigration  is,  to  the  Buddhists,  the  return  to  non-entity,  or  the  abso- 
lute extinction  of  tlie  soul.  However  much,  then,  the  pious  phraseology  of  then: 
oldent  works  may  eml>ellish  the  state  of  Nirvana,  and  apparently  deceive  the  Ijeliewr 
on  its  real  character,  it  cannot  alter  this  fuudjimental  idea  inherent  in  it.  We  are 
told,  for  instance,  that  Nirvftua  is  quietude  and  id6nlity,  whereas  Sansfira  is  tormnil 
and  variety :  that  Nirvfina  is  freedom  from  all  conditions  of  existence,  whereas 
Sans^ra  is  birth,  disease,  d^^crepitude  and  death,  sin  and  pain,  merit  and  d*:inerit, 
virtue  and  vice  ;  that  Nirv&na  is  the  shore  of  salvation  for  those  who  are  in  dauber 
of  being  drowned  in  the  sea  of  Suni^ara ;  that  it  Is  the  free  port  ready  to  receive 
those  who  have  escaped  the  dungeou  of  existence,  the  medicine  which  cures  all  dis- 
eases, the  water  which  quenches  the  thiret  of  all  desires,  &c;  but  to  the  mind  of, 
the  orthodox  Buddhist,  all  thes^e  definitions  convey  but  the  one  Idea,  that  the  bless- 
ings promised  in  th^  condiijon  of  Nirvana  are  tantamount  to  the  absolute  "extinc- 
tion of  the  human  soul,"  after  it  has  obeyed,  in  this  life,  all  the  InjunctionBof  Bndd- 
Iiism,  und  l)ecome  convinced  of  all  its  tenets  oy  the  nature  of  the  woHd  and  the  final 
destination  of  the  soul. 

Althoujgh  this  is  the  orthodox  view  of  NirvAna,  according  to  the  oldest  Buddhistio 
doctrine,  it  is  necessary  to  point  out  two  categories  of  different  views  which  haw 
obscured  the  original  idea  of  NirvAna,  and  even  induced  some  modern  writers  to 
believe  that  the  final  biatitude  of  the  oldest  Buddhistic  doctrine  is  not  equivalent 
to  the  absolute  annihilation  of  the  souL 

Tlie  first  category  of  these  latter,  or,  as  we  may  call  them,  heterodox  views,  is 
that  which  confounds  with  NirvAna  the  preparatory  labor  of  the  mind  to  ariive  at 
that  end,  and  therefore  assumes  that  NirvAna  is  the  extinction  of  thought,  or  the 
cessation,  to  thought,  of  all  difference  between  subject  and  object,  vli-tue  and  vice, 
&c.,  or  certain  speculations  on  a  creative  cause,  the  conditions  of  ine  nniverse,  and 
so  on.  All  these  view  s  the  Buddha  himself  rejects,  as  appears  from  the  work  '*  Lau- 
kAvatara  (q.  v.),  where  relating  his  discourse  on  the  real  meaning  of  NirvAna,  t)efore 
the  Bodliisattwa  MahAmati.  The  erroneousness  of  those  views  i«  obviously  l>ased 
on  the  fact,  that  the  mind,  even  though  in  a  state  of  unconsciousness,  as  wbea 
ceasiug[  to  think,  or  when  sp-'culating,  is  still  within  the  pale  of  existence.  Thn^^, 
to  Obviate  the  mistaken  iKitiun  that  such  a  state  is  the  real  NirvAna,  Buddhistic 
works  sometimes  use  the  term  Nirupadhis  eaha  Nirvdna  or  ^'  the  NirvAna  teithout  a 
remainder  of  substratum"  (i.  e.,  without  a  rest  of  existence),  in  contratUstiuctiou 
to  the  *•  NirvAna  wi^A  a  remainder;"  meaning  by  the  latter  expression  that  condi- 
tion of  a  saint  wliich,  in  consequence  of  his  bodily  and  mental  austerities,  immedi- 
ately precedes  his  real  NirvAna,  but  in  which,  nevertheless,  he  is  still  an  occupant  of 
the  material  world. 

The  secoml  category  of  heterodox  views  on  the  NirvAna  is  that  which,  thomrh 
acknowledging  in  principle  the  original  notion  of  Buddhistic  salvation,  represent', 
as  it  were,  a  compromise  with  the  popular  mind.  It  belongs  to  a  later  period  of 
Buddhism,  when  this  religion.  In  extending  its  couonests  over  Asia,  Iwd  to  enconn- 
ter  creeds  which  abhorred  the  Idea  of  an  absolute  ninilism.  This  compromise  c<4u- 
cides  with  the  creation  of  a  Buddhistic  pantheon,  and  witli  the  classification 
of  Buddhist  saints  into  three  classes,  each  of  which  has  its  own  NirvAna; 
that  of  the   two  lower  degrees  coiisistiug  of  a  vu^  number  of  yeai-s,  at  the 


y  Google 


O  Q  Q  Nltocmi 

-^OO  N.trat* 

end  of  wliich, ,  however,  these  snlnts  are  born  a^n ;  while  the  abcolate 
Kirv^a  is  reserved  for  the  highest  cla88  of  eaints.  Hence  BnddliiHiic  salvatiuii  is 
then  spoken  of,  eithor  simply  as  Nirvdna^  or  the  lowest,  or  us  Parinirvdna^  tlie 
middle,,  or  as  Mahdparinirvdna^  or  the  highest  extinction  of  the  soul ;  and  tis 
those  who  have  not  yet  attained  to  the  highest  Nirv&nu  nin^t  live  in  the  heavens  of 
the  two  inferior  classes  of  saints  nntil  they  reappear  in  this  world,  their  condition 
of  NirvAna  is  assimilated  to  thai  state  of  more  or  less  material  happiness  which  is 
also  held  out  to  the  Brahmanical  Hinda  before  he  is  completej^r  absorbed  into 
Brahman.  , 

When,  in  its  large  stage,  Buddhism  is  driven  to  the  nssnmption  of  an  Adi,  or 
primitive,  Bnddha,  as  the  creator  of  the  iiniver>»e,  Nirvfina,  then  meaning  the  ah- 
BorptibD  into  him,  ceases  to  have  any  real  affinity  with  the  original  Buddhistic 
term.    See  Buddhism  and  Lamaism. 

NISCE'MI,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Caltanisetta,  10  miles  north-east 
from  Terrauova,  and  oo  the  rijrht  bank  of  the  river  Terranova.  In  1790,  this  town 
was  visited  by  an  earthquake,  and  dnring  seven  shocks  the  ground  gradually  tank, 
in  one  place  to  the  depth  of  80  fet!t.  Fissures  opened,  which  sent  forth  su'.phur,  pe- 
trolenm,  hot  water,  and  nrad.    Pop.  10,750. 

NISCH,  or  Nissa,  a  town  of  R(»nmelia,  European  Turkey,  122  miles  sonth-east 
from  Belgrade.  It  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Nissawa,  a  branch  of  the 
Worawn.  The  town  is  ill- bnilt,  but  many  new  houses  and  a  well-supplied  bazaar, 
attest  ita  present  prosperity.  .N.  has  long  been  noted  as  the  point  of  meeting  of 
Many  roads,  both  of  military  and  commercial  impoitauce.  It  seems  likely  to  acquire 
fresh  imiKjrtanc*  by  the  construction  of  a  railway  Irom  Belgitide  to  Constantinople 
and  The«<S]iIonica.  In  ancient  times,  N.  ))Ore  the  name  of  NaismSy  and  was  a  flourish- 
ing town  of  Upper  Moesia.  About  a  mile  from  it  is  a  tower  composed  of  human 
Fkulls,  erected  to  commemorate  a  victory  of  the  Turks  over  the  Sei-vlans;  and  not 
far  oft  is  the  hill  of  Woiuik,  or  Kriegsburg,  where,  in  1689,  the  Markgraf  Louis  of 
Baden,  with  17,000  men,  destroyed  a  l^rkish  army  of  40,000.    Pop.  18,000. 

NISHAPTJ'R,  or  NGsha^ur.  a  town  of  Persia,  province  of  Ehorassan,  68  miles 
west-south-west  of  Meshid,  is  situated  in  a  most  beautiful  and  fertile  valley.  Pop. 
about  8000.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  rampart  and  trench,  and  has  a  considerable  trade 
in  turquoises^  which  are  obtained  from  mines  in  its  vicinity. 

NISI  PRIUS  is  the  name  (l)orrowed  from  the  first  two  words  of  the  old  writ  which 
summoned  juries)  usually  idven  in  England  to  the  sittings  of  juries  in  civil  cases. 
Thus  a  judge  sitting  at  nxsipriuSy  means  a  judge  prusiolng  at  a  jury  ti*ial  in  a  civil 
cause',  and  the  nisipHxis  sittings  are  the  jury  sittings. 

NI'SIBIS,  the  capital  of  ancient  Mygdonia,  tlie  north-eastern  part  of  Mesopota- 
mia. It  was  situated  in  a  fertile  district,  and  was  of  importance,  DOth  as  a  place  of 
strength  and  as  an  emporium  of  the  trade  between  the  east  and  west.  N.  was  a  city 
of  very  great  antiquity,  but  of  its  remoter  history  nothing  is  known.  In  the  time 
of  the  Macedonio-Syrian  kings,  it  was  also  called  A  ntiochea  MpgdonicB.  It  was  twice 
taken  by  the  Romans  (under  Lucullus  and  Trajan),  and  again  given  up  by  them  to 
the  Annenians;  but  being  a  third  lime  taken  by  Lucius  Venis,  166  a.d  ,  it  remalu«  d 
the  chief  bulwark  of  the  Roman  empire  against  the  Pei-slaus,  till  it  was  surrendered 
to  them  by  Jovian  after  the  death  of  Julian  in  863.  The  name  Nisibin  is  retained  by 
a  smtUI  village  in  the  Turkish  ejalet  of  Diarbekr,  round  which  are  numerous  remaius 
of  the  ancient  city. 

NI'TI-GHAUT,  a  pass  of  the  Himalaya,  between  the  British  district  of  Knmaon 
and  Tiliet  It  takes  its  name  from  the  village  of  Niti,  in  Kumnon,  13  miles  Fonth  of 
the  pass,  in  lat.  80°  47'  n.,  and  long.  79°  66'  e.  The  pass  is  16,814  feet  above  the  level 
of  tlie  sea.  This  is  regai"ded  as  the  easiest  pass  between  Knmaon  and  Til>et,  and  is 
consequently  one  of  the  principal  channels  of  trade  between  Hiudustim  and  Chinese 
Tartary.  The  Bhotias  of  Niti  subsist  chiefly  by  the  carrying  of  goods  in  this  trade. 
The  aiticles  of  merchandise  are  conveyjkl  on  yaks,  goats,  and  even  sheep.  Travellers 
often  suffer  much  from  difficulty  of  i-espiration  ou  the  pass  of  Nisl-Qhaut,  on  account 
of  the  rarefaction  of  the  air. 
k    NI'TRATE  OP  POTASH.    SeeNiTRB. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


NITKATE  OF  SODA.    See  Nitrb. 

NITKE,  or  Saltpetre,  as  it  is  freqaently  called,  is  the  nitrate  of  potash 
{EO,NOb).  It  attaally  occurs  in  long,  colorless,  striated,  six-sided  prisms ;  its  taste 
is  cooliug,  and  very  saliue  ;  it  is  soluble  in  seven  times  its  weight  of  water  hi  60o, 
and  in  less  tliuu  one-third  of  its  weight  of  boiling  water,  bat  is  insoluble  in  alcohol. 
When  heated  to  about  660°,  it  fuses  without  decomposition  into  a  tliiu  Uqaid,  wbicb, 
when  cast  in  moulds,  solidifies  into  a  wltite,  fibrous,  translucent  mas8,  known  as 
8al  prunelle.  At  a  higher  temperature,  part  of  the  oxygen  is  evolved,  and  nitrate  of 
potash  is  formed.  Owing  to  the  facility  with  which  nitre  parts  with  its  oxygen,  it  is 
much  employed  as  an  oxidising  agent.  Mixtures  of  nitre  and  carbon,  or  of  nitre 
and  sulphur,  or  of  nitre,  carbon,  and  snlpliur,  deflagrate  on  the  application  of  heat 
with  great  euei^y ;  and  if  nitre  be  thrown  on  glowing  coals,  it  produces  a  bri^k 
pclntillation.  Touch-paper  is  formed  by  dipping  paper  in  a  solution  of  nitre,  aud 
drying  it. 

Nitre  occurs  as  a  natural  product  in  the  East  Indies,  Egypt,  Persia,  where  it  is 
found  sometimes  as  an  efflorescence  upon  the  soil,  and  sometimes  dist^emiimted 
through  its  upper  stratum.  The  crude  salt  is  obtained  by  lixiviating  the  soil,  aod 
allowing  the  solution  to  crystallise.  A  lar<re  quantitv  of  nitre  is  artificially  formed 
in  many  countries  of  Enro{)e,  by  imitating  the  conditions  under  which  it  isnatamlly 

f>roduced.  The  most  essential  of  tliese  conditions  seem  to  be  the  presence  of  decsiy- 
ng  organic  matter  whose  nitrogen  is  oxidised  by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  into 
nitric  acid,  which  combines  with  the  bases  (potash  aud  lime)  contained  in  the  soil 
"The  method  employed  in  the  artificial  production  of  nitre  cotisists  in  piiiciD<( 
animal  matters,  mingled  with  ashes  and  lime  rubbish,  in  loosely  aggregated  heaps, 
exposed  to  the  air,  but  sheltered  from  rain.  The  heaps  are  water^  from  time  to 
time  with  urine  or  stable  runnings ;  at  euifcible  intervals,  the  earth  is  lixiviated,  aud 
the  salt  crystallised.  Three  years  usually  elapse  before  the  nitre  bed  is  washed ; 
after  this  interval  a  cubic  foot  of  the  debris  should  yield  between  four  nud  flvo 
ounces  of  nitre.  As  there  is  always  a  considerable  qmmtity  of  the  nitrates  of  lime 
and  magnesia  present,  which  will  not  crystallise,  carbonate  of  potash,  in  the  shape 
of  wood-ashes,  is  added  so  long  as  any  precipitate  occurs.  The  nitrate  of  lime  is 
decomposed,  and  the  insoluble  carbonate  of  lime  separated : 

Carbonate  of   Nitrate  of    Carbonate  of   Nitrate  of 
^  Potash.  Lime.  Lime.  Potash. 

KO,COa  +  CaO,NO,  =  CaO,CO,  +  KO,NO, 
The  clear  liquor  is  then  evaporated  and  crystallised.  It  has  been  found  that  the 
earth  in  which  nitre  has  once  been  formed  furnishes  fresh  nitre  more  readily  tlmn  on 
the  first  occasion.  Care  Is  taken  that  the  nitre  plantations^  as  they  are  termed,  shaH 
rest  npon  an  impervious  flooring  of  clay,  po  that  the  liqnW  which  drains  away  from 
them  may  l>e  collected  and  preserved."— Miller's  "Elements  of  Chemistry,"  2d  ed. 
vol.  ii.  p.  359. 

Nitre  does  not  occur  in  any  living  members  of  the  animal  kingdom,  but  it  is 
found  in  the  juices  of  various  plants,  amongst  which  may  be  named  the  sunflower, 
nettle,  goose-foot,  borage,  tobacco,  barley,  &c. 

All  the  nitre  used  in  this  country  comes  from  the  East  Indies.  The  common 
varieties,  which  have  a  dirty  yellowish  appearance,  are  termed  rough  or  crude  foU' 
petre^  while  the  purer  kinds  are  called  East  India  refined.  The  purlflcatloii  or 
refinmg  of  nitre  is  efl'ected  by  dissolving  it  in  water,  boiling  tiie  solution,  reinowng 
the  scum,  straining  it  while  hot,  and  setting  it  aside  to  crystallise.  The  most  com- 
mon impurities  are  sulphate  of  potash,  cnloddes  of  soaiuni  and  pot:)8!>ium.  nod 
nitrate  of  lime.  Chloride  of  barium  will  detect  the  first  of  these  impurities,  nitrate 
of  silver  the  second,  and  oxalate  of  ammonia  the  third. 

Nitre  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid,  in  the  preparation  of 
nitric  acid,  as  an  oxidising  agent  in  numerous  cliemlcal  processes,  as  an  ingredient 
of  fireworks,  and  especially  In  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder.  It  is  exteusively 
used  in  medicine.  In  moderate  doses  (from  ten  grains  to  a  scruple)  it  acts  as  a  re- 
frigerent,  diuretic  aud  diaphoretic,  and  hence  its  use  is  indicated  when  we  wish  to 
diminish  abnormal  heat,  and  to  reduce  the  action  of  the  pulse,  as  in  febrile  disorders 
and  hemorrhages.  In  acute  rheumatism,  it  is  given  injarge  doses  with  great  benefit 
Some  physicians  prescribe  as  much  as  one,  two,  orrhi-ee  ounces,  largely dilotsd 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


OOK  Nitrate 

-oO  Hitrio 

vith  water,  to  be  given  In  the  conrse'of  twenty  houra;  bnt  as  Jn  several  caeea  a 
9fDgie  ouuce  has  proved  fatal  iu  a  fuw  hours,  the  effects  of  such  large  doses  should 
be  carefully  watched.  It  is  a  popular  remedy  iu  sore  throat,  either  lu  the  form  of 
nitre  balls,  or  powdered  aud  mixed  with  white  suear.  In  either  case,  the  reme<ly 
sliould  be  retatued  in  the  mouth  till  it  melts,  and  the  saliva  impresnated  with  ft 
gently  swallowed.  The  inhalation  of  the  fumes  produced  by  the  ignition  of  towh- 
paper  often  gives  speedy  relief  in  cases  of  spasmodic  asthma. 

Nitrate  of  potaA  is  sometimes  cjillcd  Prismatic  Nitre  or  Potash  Saltpetre,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  nitrate  of  soda,  which  is  known  in  commerce  as  Cubic  Nitre  or 
Soda  Saltpetre* 

Cubic  NUre,  or  Nitrate  of  Soda  (NaOjNOft),  occurs  abundantly  on  the  surface  of  the 
soil  in  Chili  and  Peru.  It  derives  its  name  from  its  crystallising  in  cube-like  rhom- 
bohedrons.  In  most  of  its  properties  it  resembles  ordinary  nitre,  but  in  consequence 
of  its  greater  deliquescence,  it  cannot  be  substituted  for  that  salt  in  the  preparation 
of  gunpowder.  Being  considerably  cheaper  than  the  potAsb-salt.  cubic  nitre  is  often 
eubetitated  for  it  iu  tlie  manufacture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acias ;  and  it  is  used  in 
agriculture  as  the  top-dresning  for  wheat  aud  oats.  Iu  several  experiments  it  has  been 
found  that  one  cwt.  per  acre  has  produced  an  increase  of  twelve  bushels  iu  the  wheat 
crop,  and  of  f  onr  or  Ave  sacks  in  the  oat  crop. 

NI'TRIC  ACID  is  the  most  important  of  the  five  comi)Onnd8  which  oxygen  forms 
with  Nitrogen  (q.  v.).  Until  1849,  it  was  only  known  lu  the  hydnitcdform  (the 
aqfia/ortis  of  the  older  chemists),  hut  in  that  year  Deville  shewed  that  Anhydrous 
Mtric  Acid,  or  Nf^tric  Anhydride  (NOj),  mljiht  be  obtained  in  transparent  colorless 
crystals  by  the  action  of  perfectly  dry  chlorine  cas  on  well<lried  crystals  of  nitrate  of 
^Iver,  the  reaction  being  exhibited  in  the  equation : 

Nitrate  of  Silver.    Chlorine.    Chloride  of  Silver.    Nitric  Anhydride.    Oxygen. 
AgO,NOft     +    CI  =  AgCl  +  NOfi         +         O 

It  is  a  very  unstable  compoiind,  and  sometimes  explodes  spontaneously.  It  dissolves 
in  water  with  evolution  of  much  heat,  and  forms  hydrated  nitric  acid. 

Eydrated  Nitric  Acid  ^symb.  HOjNOj,  equiv.  68,  sp.  jjr.  1*621),  when  perfectly 
pore  it>  a  colorless  limpid,  fuming,  powerfully  caustic  fluid,  possessing  an  intensely 
acid  reaction,  as  shewn  by  its  action  on  litmus.  It  boils  at  184°,  and  freezes  at 
about— 4<)<^.  It  parts  very  readily  with  a  porlioii  of  lis  oxygen  to  most  of  the  metals, 
and  hence  is  much  used  \\\  the  laboratory  a:*  an  oxidising  agent  Its  mode  of  action 
ou  the  metals  requires  a  few  remarks.  In  order  that  a  metal  should  unite  with 
nitric,  or  any  other  acid,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  in  the  form  of  an  oxide. 
This  oxidation  is,  however,  effected  at  the  same  tinv*  that  the  metal  and  nitric  acid 
are  brought  iu  contact,  by  one  portion  of  the  latter  becoming  decomposed  and  con- 
vurtiug  the  metal  into  an  oxide,  while  the  remaining  portion  combines  with  the 
oxide  thus  formed,  to  produce  a  nitrate.  The  exact  nature  of  the  decomposition 
varies  in  the  case  of  different  metals. 

Nitric  acid,  whether  iu  the  concentrated  or  in  a  more  dilute  form,  acts  energeti- 
cally ou  organic  matters.  As  examples  of  such  actions  we  may  refer  to  its  power  of 
decolorising  Indigo;  of  staining  the  skin  and  all  albuminous  tissues  of  a  bright- 
yellow  color ;  of  coagulating  fluid  albumen  ;  and  of  couvci-ting  cottou  fibre  into  an 
explorfve  substjuice.    See  Gun  Cotton. 

The  raonohydrated  acid  <I10,N05,)  is  by  no  means  a  stable  compound.  If  it  be 
exposed  to  the  action  of  light  it  is  decomposed  into  hyponitric  acid  (NO4)  (the 
peroxide  of  nitrogen  of  Graham)  and  oxyy:en  ;  aud  mere  distillation  produces  a 
•similar  effect.  When  it  is  mix<>d  with  water  it  emits  a  j^ensible  amount  ot  heat,  ow- 
ing to  the  formation  of  a  much  more  stable  hydrate,  HO.NOft, +3Aq.  which  distils 
at  250°  without  change,  and  is  unaffected  by  exposure  to  light.  Ita  spcciflc  gravity 
is  1*424;  and  it  is  fouud  that  a  weaker  acid  when  heated  part«  with  its  water,  and 
a  stronger  acid  with  its  acid,  till  each  arrives  at  this  densitv.  The  existence  of  this 
hydrate  has,  however,  been  recently  called  in  qnestion  l>y  Koscoe. 

The  so-called  Fuming  Nitric  Acid  Ib  merely  a  mixture  of  the  pure  acid  with 
hyponitiic  acid.  ,     ,      ^, 

Kitric  acid  does  not  occur  naturally  in  a  free  state ;  but  it  Is  found  tolerably 
abaudantin  conibinalion  with  potash,  soda,  lime,  and  nniguesia;  and  after  thnnd  r- 
aonas  traces  of  it,  in  combination  with  ammonia,  aro  fouud  iu  1  aiu  water.    It  may 


y  Google 


n 


Nitric  OQfi 

be  formed  In  small  qnantity  by  pasfting  a  sef^es  of  electric  sparks  throngh  a  mix- 
ture of  its  compoueut  gusee  iu  the  pr«st*uce  of  water,  which  is  a  mere  imitatioi), 
on  a  small  stale,  of  the  mode  in  which  it  is  produced  iii  the  atmosphere  by  a  sform. 
It  is  nsttttUy  prepared  iu  the  laboratory  by  the  application  of  heat  to  u  mixture  of 

*  equal  weights  of  powdered  uiti-e  (nitrate  of  potash)  and  oil  of  vitriol  (hydtated  5Ul- 
pliuric  acid)  placed  iu  a  retort.  A  combiuatiou  of  sulphuric  acid  aud  potash  re- 
mains in  the  retort,  while  the  nitric  iicid  distils  over,  and  is  condensed  hi  the 
receiver,  which  i»  kept  cool  ])y  the  application  of  a  wet  cloth.  The  reaction  is  ex- 
plained by  the  equation : 

Nitre.  Sulphuric       Nitric  Acid.        Bisulphate  of 

Acid.  Potash. 

KO,NOft    +    «(HO,803    =    HOjNOft    +    K0,H0,2S0j. 

Duiing  distillation  red  fumes  appear,  arising  from  tlie  decomposition  of  a  poi-taoa 
of  ilie  nitric  acid  and  a  formation  of  some  of  the  lower  oxides  of  nitrogen.  In  ihia 
operation  two  equivalents  of  oil  of  vitriol  are  taken  for  owe  of  nitre,  these  being  tht;  pro- 

•  portions  found  by  experience  to  be  most  suitable.  If  thev  are  taken,  equivalent  for 
equivalent,  a  very  impure  red  fuming  acid  is  the  result  In  the  manufacture  of  nitric 
acid  on  the  large  scale,  the  glass  retort  is  replaced  by  a  cast-iron  cylinder  coated 
with  fire-clay,  and  the  receiver  by  a  series  of  earthen  condensing  vessels  connected 
l)y  tubes ;  and  nitrate  of  soda,  found  native  in  Peru,  is  substittited  for  nitre  m 
consequence  of  its  being  a  cheaper  salt,  aud  of  Its  containing  •  per  cent,  more 
nitric  acid. 

Nitric  acid  combines  yrith  bases  to  form  nitrateSf  some  of  which,  as  those  of 
potash,  sodaj  oxide  of  ammonium,  silver,  &c.,  are  anhydrous,  while  others  coinbiiie 
witii  a  certam  number  (often  six)  equivalents  of  water  of  ciystallisation.  Most  of 
them  are  soluble  in  water,  cry stallisable,  and  readily  fusible  by  heat;  aud  at  an 
elevated  temperature  they  are  all  decomposed,  tisually  hniving  only  the  oxide  of  tl»e 
metal.  If  paper  be  soaked  iu  a  solution  of  a  nitrate,  allowed  to  dry,  and  iguit»!d,it 
burns  In  tne  smouldering  mode  characteristic  of  Unich-paper.  This  properly  is, 
however,  shared  by  a  few  other  salts. 

The  tests  for  this  acid  when  it  is  present  iu  small  quantities  are  less  satisftwtoiy 
tnan  titoseforthe  other  ordinary  mineral  acids.  All  its  compounds  are  so  wluble 
that  no  vrecipitant  for  this  acid  is  known.  The  best  metliod  for  its  detection  is  mix- 
ing the  nuid  to  be  tested  with  a  little  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  ponriiiga 
strong  solution  of  protosJulphate  of  iron  upon  it,  so  as  to  form  a  separate  hryer.  1* 
much  nitric  acid  be  present, a  black  color  is  produced;  if  only  a  small  quantity  1* 
present,  the  liquid  becomes  reddish-brown  or  purple ;  the  dark  color  being  due  to  the 
formation  of  nitric  oxide  by  the  deoxidising  action  of  a  portion  of  the  iron  salt  on  the 
nitric  acid. 

The  applications  of  this  acid  in  the  arts,  in  manufactures,  and  in  chemical  pro- 
cesses are  very  extensive. 

NITRIC  ACID,  The  medicinal  uses  of.  In  the  British  pharmacopoeia  there  is  both 
a  strong  and  a  dilnte  acid.  Tlie  strong  acid  has  a  specific  gravity  of  15,  and  is  repre- 
sented by  the  formula  8HO,2N06,  wliile  the  diluted  acid  is  prepared  by  mixing  two 
ounces  of  the  former  with  thirteen  of  distilled  water,  aud  nas  a  specific  gravity  of 
1-101. 

The  dilute  acid  is  used  internally  as  a  tonic  in  conjunction  with  bitt-er  hifasiona. 
In  many  cases  of  chronic  inflammation  of  the  liver,  and  in  syphilitic  cases  in  which 
the  employment  of  mercurials  is  inadmissible,  it  may  be  prescribed  with  great  l>ene- 
flt,  either  alone  or  in  conjuuction  with  hydrochloric  acid,  externally  as  a  bath  or 
lotion,  or  internally  in  doses  of  about  20  minims  properly  diluted.  The  strong  acid 
is  useful  as  an  escharotic ;  as  to  destroy  warts,  pome  kimls  of  polyi>i,  the  unhealthy 
tissue  in  sloughing  ulcers,  &c.,  and  as  an  appliotition  to  parts  bitten  by  rabid  or 
venomous  animals.  Largely  diluted,  as  50  or  60  drops  of  the  strong  acid  to  a  piut  or 
more  of  water,  it  forms  an  excellent  stimulative  application  to  torpid  ulcers. 

NI'TRO-BE'NZOL,  or  NitrO-Benzide  (CiaH6N04),  is  a  yellow  oily  fluid,  of  speci- 
fic gravity  1-2,  which  may  be  distilled  without  decomposition,  crystallises  in  needlw 
at  370,  and  boils  at  315o.  It  has  a  sweet  taste,  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  dl8tK)lve8 
freely  in  alcohol  and  ether.    Its  odor  is  very  simihir  to  that  of  oil  of  bitter. almoDdii 


y  Google 


287 


i 


Ntrle 
Niirog«tt 

which  had  led  to  Its  iine  in  pcrfnmery,  under  ttie  immc  of  Sssettee  qf  Ktrhane.  It  if 
obtained  by  treating  benzol  (CiaHe;  willi  wann  fuming  nitric  acid,  when  1  eanivA- 
lent  of  the  bydrogKn  is  rcpluctci  l)y  1  of  hyi>onitr!c  uc  d,  so  that  the  Ixiiiisol  (CitUjH) 
becomes  converted  into  nltro-benzol  (CigU^NOf). 

NI'TRO-BE'NZOL.  Tbis  substance  has  rec  ntly  taken  a  nrorainent  place 
ainoug««t  the  nnrcotic  poipou^  Under  tlie  narae  df  Est^enee  cf  Mirhane,  it  is  largely 
employed,  as  a  enb^-titnte,  in  perfumery  and  confectionery,  for  oil  of  bitter  almonds, 
which  it  closely  reS'^mbies  in  sraell,  unci  to  confectiouery  it  gives  the  smell,  btit  not 
the  agreeable  tasie  of  that  oil.  It  is  a  (xale,  leinon-coiored  liquid,  with  a  pungent, 
disii^reeiible  taste,  and  distinguishable  by  its  ocU)r  from  all  other  liquids,  except  oil 
of  bitter  almonds,  from  wbicli  it  differs  in  the  follo^^ing  reaction :  rour  a  few  drops 
of  each  ou  a  plate,  iind  add  a  drop  of  strong  sulphuric  acid.  The  od  of  almonds 
acquires  a  rich  crimson  color  with  a  yellow  lM>rder,  while  the  nitro-benzol  produces 
nu  such  color.  In  1S60,  Pnifessor  Casper  of  Berlin  published  an  Recount  of  tliit 
liquid  under  the  name  of  "A  New  Poison,"  and  descrilKjd  its  effects  on  dogs  and 
rabbits.  In  1862,  and  since  tliat  date,  vnriouH  canes  of  iiumnn  fwisouing  have  been 
pnbliolied.  twth  in  this  country  and  abroad.  Wenliall  briefly  notice  three  cases,  in 
two  of  which  the  patient  died,  after  swallowing  a  portion  of  the  fluid ;  wliile  in  the 
other,  the  inhalatitm  of  the  va|ior  proved  fatal.  A  hny,  ogal  IT.  wldle  drawing  off 
some  nitro-benzol  by  a  ^4phbn,  swallowed  a  iKiition  of  the  liquid.  Tliero  were 
no  iminedifite  symptoins*  but  he  soon  felt  sleepy,  and  when  at  dinner, 
ate  but  little,  ana^  stiici  lie  ^;lt  as  if  he  was  drunk.  This  wns  I>e- 
tween  two  and  three  hours  after  lie  had  swallowed  the  liquid.  Ue  fell  Into  a 
rtupor«  which  became  deeper  tind  deeper,  until  death  took  place,  uithniit  vomiting 
or  convnisions,  twelve  hours  after  the  iu:;estion  of  ttie  poison.  In  the  case  of  a 
luaii,  aged  43,  who  spliJed  a  quantity  of  nitro-benzol  over  his  clothes,  and  went 
almnt  for  sevtrral  hours  breathing  I  lie  vn|>or.  the  effects  were  nearly  the  same.  The 
i)mgre»«sof  each  of  these  cases,  both  of  wliirli  are  descril)€d  by  Dr  Let  heby  in  I  ho 
"Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  "  for  1868,  was  much  the  same  as  that  of  slow 
intoxication,  excepting  that  the  mind  was  perfectly  clear  until  the  connng  on  of 
tlie  fatal  stupor,  which  was  sudden,  as  in  a  fit  of  apoplexy.  From  thai  moment, 
there  was  no  return  of  consciousness  or  iKxiily  power ;  the  snffen  r  lay  as  in  a  deep 
sleep,  and  died  without  a  struyrgle.  The  duration  of  each  case  was  m  ftrly  the  same, 
alioutfonr  hours  intervening  between  the  swaUowing  or  inhaling  of  the  poison  and 
the  beginning  of  stupor  or  coma,  which  lasted  five  lumn*.  Nilro-henzol,  as  well  as 
aniline,  into  which  it  seems  to  have  lieen  partly  conveiled  In  the  body,  was  detected 
in  the  Drain  aiidi)tomach.  It  is  unnecessary  to  describe  the  Htei>s  to  be  taken  for 
the  detection  of  the  poison  in  all  these  cases :  no  one  hut  a  professed  toxT.oloeist 
should  be  intrusted  witii  an  Investigation  on  the  result  of  which  the  life  and  chantc- 
acter  of  a  human  being  may  depend.  It  is  satisfactory  to  read  Dr  Taylor's  opinion, 
that  "there  is  no  probahility  that  this  liquid  will  bo  Kuccessltilly  employed  for  the 
pnrpoKes  of  murder  without  the  certainty  of  detection."—**  Principles  and  Practice  of 
Medical  Jurinpnideuce,"  p.  811.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  vapor  of  this  sul)- 
Ptaiioe,  as  iPis  evolved  from  almond  glycerine  soap,  has  seriously  affcctetl  females; 
and  Dr  Taylor  mentions  the  cnneof  a  gentleman  who,  from  using  a  cake  of  the  soap 
in  tiking  a  warm  bath,  fainted  from  the  effects  of  the  vapor,  and  was  ill  for  some 
monibs  aftenvards.  'IHie  nuKle  of  treatment  that  should  l)e  adopted  in  poisoning  by 
this  substance,. is  essentially  the  same  as  tluit  which  should  bu  adopted  in  poison- 
lug  by  opium.    - 

NI'TROGEN  (symbol,  N;  equiv.  14;  spec  grav.  O-VTIS)  derives  its  name  from  the 
Greek  words  nitron,  nitre,  and  gen-,  to  produce,  in  consequence  of  its  being  an  es- 
seDthd  constituent  of  that  salt.  It  is  frequently  termed  azote  (Gr.  a,  priv.,  zoe.  life), 
especially  bv  the  French  chemists,  in  consequence  of  its  being  a  gas  incapable  of 
wipportlng  life,  and  for  the  saine  reason,  the  German  chemists  term  it  stickatof^ 
which  may  be  translated  choking  substance.  It  was  discovered  by  Rutherford  in 
1172;  bnt  for  its  name,  nitrogen,  we  are  indebted  to  (Jhaptal. 

Nitrogen  Is  a  colorless,  tasteless,  inodorous,  permanent  gas.  which  in  its  appear- 
•nee  in  no  way  differs  from  the  atmospheric  air,  of  which  u  is  the  main  ingredient. 
It  ISBomewhat  lighter  than  atmospheric  air,  100  cubic  Indies  at  60°  P.,  and  barom- 
eter 30  hiches,  weighing  80-119  grains,  wliile  the  same  volume  of  air  weighs  30-985 


V,  K.,  X.,  10. 


y  Google 


Hiiro 


288 


inches.  It  is  cliaracterised  rather  by  negative  than  byiKwitive  properties.  It  is  not 
coiiibastible.  nor  is  it  a  supporter  of  combustion  (:i  liented  taper  being  immediately 
cxtingoishea  if  immersed  in  this  gas) ;  it  is  not  respirable,  altbongh  it  if  notpositiTely 
poisonoui* ;  for  when  it  is  mixed  with  res»pirable  gases  (as  with  oxygen  m  atmos- 
pheric air)  it  may  be  breatiied  without  injury.  It  is  very  slightly  soinlile  in  wiiter, 
and  hence  may  l>e  collected  over  that  fluid.  Its  combining  powers  are  very  sirgitt, 
and  altliOHjgh  it  unites  with  oxygen,  hydrogen,  chloi-ine.  ana  many  other  substanc  s, 
the  union  is  never  effected  by  the  direct  action  of  the  elements  on  one  another,  but 
only  by  complicated  processes,  and  many  of  the  resulting  compounds  are  of  nu  t:x«  , 
ceedingly  nnsttible  nature. 

Nitrogen  is  one  of  the  most  widely  diffused  elementary  substances.  It  forms 
a1)Out  four-flfths  of  the  bulk  of  the  atmospheni ;  for  air,  after  having  beeji  f r-ed 
from  the  small  quantities  of  carbonic  acid  and  aqueous  vapor  which  it  contains, 
consists,  accordnig  to  the  experiments  of  Damns  and  Boussingault,  of  90*81  per 
cent,  of  oxygen  and  79*11>  per  cent  of  nitrogen  by  volume,  or  2301  of  oxygen  and 
76*99  of  nitrogen  by  weiglit;  the  two  gu^es  in  this  case  l)eiiig  uniformly  mixed,  bat 
not  in  chemioal  combination  witli  one  another.  It  occur?',  Iiowever,  in  comlMnatloii 
with  oxygen  in  tlie  form  of  nitric  acid  (HCNO^)  in  various  niirattts,  which  are 
found  as  natural  nroducts  in  many  part;^  of  tlio  glol>e.  In  combination  witli  hydn^t^ 
it  is  abundantly  found  as  ammonia,  and  combined  with  oxygen,  iiydrugeu  and  ctir* 
bon,  and  sometitnes  additioiiuUy  with  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  it  fonnn  the  most 
important  constituents  of  tlie  solids  and  fluids  of  tlie  aiiimal  l)ody,  and  occurs  in 
many  vegetable  products,  especially  in  tlie  alkaloids,  sucu  as  morpfata,  strycbuw, 
quinia,  &c. 

The  ordinary  methods  of  preparing  nud  exhibiting  this  gas  ai*e  bnsed  npon  the 
removal  of  tlie  oxysrtm  from  ntmosphoric  air.  This  may  bvj  done-(l)  By  setting  ftre 
to  a  small  piece  of  phosporus  plac -d in  a  capsule,  that  floats  on  the  watt-r  of  the 
pniMiinatic  trough,  and  by  inverting  a  glar'S  receiver  filed  with  air  ovor  it    The 

Sho?}K)rus  combiu-rs  with  the  oxygen  of  the  ar  to  form  phosphoric  acid,  which 
issoives  in  the  water,  while  the  nitrogen  is  left,  and  must  l)e  transferred  to  another 
vessek  (2)  By  placing  a  stick  of  phopphoius  in  a  jir  of  air  which  Is  standing  over 
wat«r.  In  two  or  three  d  ys  there  w  ill  he  the  sani';  result-*  as  in  the  former  exp«Ti- 
ment — viz.,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  ;  (3)  Or  by  passing  air  through  a  tube  con- 
taining healed  copper  filings,  which  absorb  the  oxygen.  In  the  al>ove  cases,  a 
little  carbonic  acid  is  present,  which  m.*y  be  removed  by  pjissing  the  gas  through  a 
solution  of  patasli.  Pure  nitrosreu  ma}' bo  directly  obtained  by  tlie^  action  of  chlo- 
rine gas  on  a  solution  of  the  nitrogenous  substance,  ammtmia. 

Nitrogen  forms  with  oxygen  no  less  than  five  distinct  compoimds,  containing, 
respectively,  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  6  equivalents  of  oxygen,  with  1  equivalent  <rf  niirogen. 
These  compounds  are  thus  named  and  cont*titut«  d  :  Pmtoxide  of  Nitrogen  (knowu 
also  as  Nitrous  Oxide  and  Laughing  Gns),  NO ;  Biuoxide  (or  Dentoxide)  of  Nitro- 
gen (known  also  as  Nitric  Oxide),  NOj;  Nitrous  Acid,  NO,;  Uypouitric  Acid 
(known  also  as  Peroxide  of  Nitrogen),  NO4 ;  Nitric  Acid,  NO5. 

Protoxide  of  Nitrogen  is  a  transparent,  co'orless  gas,  wiiii  a  sweetish  taste  and 
smell.  It  is  much  more  soluble  in  cold  than  in  hot  water,  and  tberefo^  shonld  be 
collected  over  the  latter.  Under  a  i»ressure  of  60  atmospheres  at  45°  it  Is  reduced  to 
a  colorless  liquid,  and  it  maybe  frozen  into  a  trannpuirent  nolid  at  about  —  150<). 
This  gas  is  about  half  as  heavy  again  as  atmospheric  air,  its  specific  gnivity  being 
1'527.  It  supports  the  combustion  of  niany  bodies,  nuch  as  carbon,  sulphur,  ph^is- 
pliorus,  andnon,  with  a  brilliancy  similar  to  that  which  they  exhibit  in  oxygen  ;  aud» 
like  oxygen,  when  mixed  with  liydrogen,  it  forms  a  mixture  which  explodes  on  the 
application  of  a  flame.  The  most  remarkable  property  of  the  gas  is  its  intosicntin:? 
power  on  the  animal  system.  It  may  be  respired  lor  a  short  time  if  quite  pure,  or  if 
only  mixed  with  atmospheric  air,  wltliout  danger  or  serious  inconvenience.  The 
intoxication  Is  frequently  accompanied  with  an  iiTeslstible  propensity  to  mnscnlar 
exertion,  and  usually  with  uncontrollable  bni-sts  of  laughter,  and  hence  the  gaa  has 
received  the  name  of  laugliiiig  gas.  It  is  best  obtain«*d  by  heating  solid  nitfate  of 
ammonia  in  a  glass  retorr,  when  it  is  converted  into  protoxide  of  nitmgen  and 
water.  It  has  recently  come  into  frequent  use  as  an  aniesthetic  in  donHstry  and 
si:nilar  cases.  It  is  less  suited  to  protracted  operations,  as  the  effects  are  trauaieut* 
**:  produces  qinch  less  disturbance  of  the  system  than  chlomforiu. 


y  Google 


289 


Kitro 


Binoacide  of  Nitrctfen  i«  a  colorless  gas,  very  sMehtly  soluble  In  wnti»r.  and  bar- 
ing u  spec :flc  gravity  of  l-OS*.  Itstaisteund  Miiiell  (rf  uuy)  are  nukuown,  ^ince,  in  th« 
pre!>eiicu  at  atin08pheric  air,  it.  insiantly  becomes  more  highly  oxidised,  and  fonns 
ydlowisli-red  fumes  of  hypouitric  acid.  Asir  is  of  iittlc  importuiice,  ii  is  iiuueces- 
Mrv  here  to  describe  tlie  mode  of  obiniuiug  it, 

"^itroita  Aetd,  or  Nitrous  Aniiydridej  is  a  substance  of  which,  in  Ita  uncomhiiied 
etato,  vei^  little  is  yet  known  fortlicr  th.-m  lliat  it  is  a  duikbiue,  very  volatile  fluid, 
wliicli  boils  at  ^29f  and  is  then  converted  intu  an  ortingo-red  gas. 

Mj^ponttrie  ilcid  presents  a  remarkable  example  of  a  body  within  comparatively 
small  tiuiitd  of  teniperatnre  occurring  in  a  holid,  a  fluid,  and  a  ^'nseons  form.  At  u 
teini>^'atare  of  —  4^  it  occnrs  in  t)ie  torm  of  colorless  prisntaiic  crvstals,  which  are 
converted  at  about  9°  into  a  fluid  which,  till  the  temperature  reaches  aixtut  3(P,  is 
rolorletM* ;  but  at  a  higher  temperature  becomes  yellow  and  orange,  and  ai  aiiiout  82^ 
boils,  and  is  converted  into  a  brownish-red  va|>or.  It  is  chiefly  ttie  vapor  of  hyponi- 
trtc  acid  that  forms  the  orange  fumes  that  are  produced  when  hinoxide  ul  nitrogen 
comes  in  contact  with  the  air.  It  possesses  a  very  disa^reenble  suffocating  odor,  i  nd 
actaoHtic  action,  and  colors  tbe  skin  yellow,  like  nitric  acid.  It  does  not  enter  into  cuin- 
bUiailou  with  bases,  but  is  immediately  decoin))Osed  by  them  into  nitric  and  nitrons 
&ci<ls:  and  it  is  in  consequence  of  its  not  possessing  this  essential  character  of  an 
ncid  that  Graham  has  given  it  the  name  of  peroxide  of  nitrogeUf  a  term  that  has 
eiuoe  tieen  adopted  by  Miller  and  other  chemists. 
yitric  Acid  is  described  in  a  special  article. 

Miti-og'U  combines  witli  hydrogen  in  four  proportions,  \m\  none  of  these  coni- 
ponuds  can  be  formed  by  tbe  direct  union  of  tbe  component  elements,  and  only  one 
of  tJiein,  viz.,  ammonia,  has  been  obtained  in  the  isolated  form.  Thev  are— 
ImidogeyLf  (NH),  Amidogen  (NU^),  Ammonia  (NHg),  and  ^mmontiim  (NH4).  Of 
these,  the  lirst  two  will,  lie  noticed  nnder  Oboamic  Bases,  while  the  last  two  are 
sufficiently  described  under  AmcoNi a. 

Nitrc^eu  combines  with  chlorine,  bromine,  and  iodine.  The  chlorine  ofnitropen 
is  a  heavy,  oily,  orange-colored  fluid,  insoluble  in  water,  and  evolving  a  vapor  of  a 
Idghly  irritating  nature.  It  is  one  of  the  most  daneerons  coiupounds  known  in 
cheroi>try,as  it  explodes  with  extreme  violence  Mben  brongiil  in  contact  with 
phufphoms,  arsenic,  putash,  amiikoiiia,  cauutchouc,  numerous  oily  matters,  &c.,  st 
ordinary  temperulnres,  and  spontaneously  when  heattd  to  above  ^00°.  It  has  occa- 
sioned so  many  serious  accidents  that  we  shall  omit  all  detnils  n^arding  its  mode 
of  preitaratiou.  Its  exiict  formula  Is  unknown.  Bromide  of  AUrogen  isanoily- 
iuoking  detonating  liquid,  resembling  the  chloride  in  appearance  and  properties. 
Iodide  of  Nitrogen  occurs  as  a  black  powder,  which,  when  dry,  explodes  upon  the 
sli^test  touch,  and  oft  en.  without,  any  assignable  cause. 

^  Nitrogen  enters  into  combination  with  vnriuus  metals,  as  merciir}',  copper, 
titanium,  molybdenum,  and  vanadium,  forming  a  class  of  compounds  to  whicn  the 
term  NUridai  is  applied.  Their  most  marked  characteristic  Is,  that,  like  the  preced- 
ing set  of  compounds,  thev  are  higlily  explosive,  revolving  theniselves  when  struck, 
or  at  a  higli  temperature,  into  their  constituent  elements. 

NrrRO-GLYCERINE  [C-HftNsOig,  or  C«H5(N04>,0.],  known  al?o  as  GUnioin 
or  CHonoin  OiL  is  a  compound  wnich  is  produced  by  me  action  of  a  mixture  of  strong 
nitiic  and  sulphuric  acids  on  glycerine  at  low  temneratures.  Two  methods  of  pre- 
iKiriiig  it  are  given  in  Watts's  •*  Dictionary  of  C'hemi!«try,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  890,  891,  to 
which  we  most  refer  the  reader  who  seeks  for  details  on  this  subject.  Accoi^ing  to 
whatever  method  itis  prepai'ed,  it  is  obtained  as  a  light  yellow  oily  liquid,  of  specific 
gravity  varying  from  1*625  to  1*6,  inodorous,  but  having  a  sweet  pungent  aromatic 
taiite;  a  single  drop,  however,  if  placed  on  tbe  back  of  the  tonene,  produces  head- 
ache and  pain  in  the  back,  wliich  last  for  many  hours.  It  is  only  slightly  holnble  in 
water,  but  dissolves  readily  in  ether,  alcohol,  and  methylated  spirits;  according  to 
Adrianj  (the  '*  Chemical  News  "  for  January  8, 1868).  it  does  not  inflame  or  exiwodo 
wni>n  touched  by  a  light;  but  regarding  its  inflammability  there  seems  a  difference 
ol  opinion,  for  Kichter  of  Freiberg,  in  a  recent  Memoir,  entitled  **  Experiments  with 
Niiro«glycCTlne,"  observes  that  it  does  not  take  flre  easily,  and  when  lighted,  burns, 
hut  does  not  explode,  and  goes  out  as  soon  as  the  flame  with  which  it  has  been 
broBgitt  in  contact  is  tiUcen  away.  On  this  very  important  point  fun  tier  experiments 
Me  required.     But  although  contact  with  flame  does  not  cause /it  toexplotle- 

y  Digitized  by  VjjOUJj 


Nttro 


290 


this  result  follows  If  it  \n  exposed  to  a  moderately  strong  Wow  or 
coiicQseion,  to  the  concussion  due  to  the  explosion  of  gnui>owaer.  to  con 
tact  with  red-hot  iron,  and  especially  to  the  action  of  detonating  mix- 
tures"  and  fulniiuntos;  it  likewise  explodes  on  exposure  to  a  hijjh  teui- 
perature  (see  below) ;  the  explosion,  however  it  is  produced,  beiu^  in  all  caa-a 
excessively  rapid,  and  unaccompanied  by  smoke.  It  is  this  explosive  power  that 
renders  this  componud  a  utHtfnl  ugeut  in  blasting.  According  to  Dr  Rudolf  WagDcr, 
the  distingnisiied  Bavarian  technologist,  it  ntay  oe  cooled  down  to4°wititoutbecom<  i 
ing  solid ;  but  this  statement  probably  refers  to  the  cheniicilly  pure  compound ;  for 
the  nitro-glyceriue  of  commerce,  which  has  been  patented  by  a  Oermau.  under  t!ie 
name  of  NobeVs  Patent  Blanting  Oil,  l)ecomea  solid  if  exposed  for  a  considerable 
time  to  a  temperature  of  46®,  crystallising  in  long  needles,  which  are  most  danger- 
ous to  handle,  since  thev  explode,  even  on  being  gently  broken,  ^iili  appalling  vio* 
leiice.  At  320°,  nitro-^rfycerine  begins  (according  to  Dr  AdrianI)  to  decompose,  giv- 
ing off  red  vapors ;  una  if  the  lient  oe  suddenly  applied,  or  slighrly  raised  above  this 
point,  the  substance  explodes  \dth  great  violence;  while,  according  to  other  obsenr- 
crs,  it  is  liable  to  explode  at  240°,  or  a  little  higher;  and  if  exposed  for^a  length  of 
time  to  half  that  temperature,  explosion  may  iSke  place  at  180o  or  less.  It  is  obvi- 
ous from  the  formula  for  nitro-glj'cerine  that  it  may  be  assumed  to  coitsisl  uf 
glycerine,  C«H.O«,  in  which  three  atoms  of  hydrogen  are  replaced  by  three  of  |>eroxide 
of  nitrogen,  NO4.  The  pit)ducts  of  the  complete  combustion  of  100  parts  of  pare 
nitro-glycerine  are — water,  20  parts ;  carbonic  acid,  58 ;  oxygen,S*5 ;  and  nitrotfen, 
18*5;  and  hence,  it  has  l)een  calcidated  that  one  volume  (say,  a  cubic  iiich)of  uiia 
cempoimd,  at  a  specfie  gravity  of  1*6,  yields,  on  combustion  or  explosion : 

Aqueous  vapor 654  volumes  (say,  cubic  inches) 

\    Carbonicacid 469       *«  •♦ 

»    Oxygen 89       "  •* 

,  Nitrogen 236       "  »♦ 

1298        »'  *♦ 

According  to  Nobel,  tliese  gases  expand,  on  explosion,  to  8  times  flieir  biilk?  in  which 
case,l  ciibic  measure  (say.  1  cubic  inch)  of  nitro-glycerine  will  yield  10,884  cnbjc 
measures  (say,  cubic  inches)  of  gases ;  while  1  cubic  measure  of  gunpowder  will  oulj 
yield  800  cubic  measures  of  gases.  Hence,  it  follows  that,  for  eqrnd  bulks,  nitro* 
glyceilne  is  13  times  as  strong  as  gimpowder,  wldle  for  equal  weights  it  is  8  times  as 
strong. 

The  danger  of  using  this  componnd  in  mining,  &c,  is  greatly  increased  by  its 
Instability.  Even  when  pure,  it  is  liable,  at  a  heat  of  70°  or  less,  to  undergo  slow  spon- 
taneous decomposition  into  glycerine,  oxalic  and  hydrocyanic  acids,  anunouia,  Ac., 
with  a  continuous  escape  of  gaseous  products,  which,  exerting  pre^'sure  on  the  liquid, 
renders  it  so  prone  to  explosion  that  even  a  slight  concussion  is  attended  with  dan- 
ger ;  and  the  impure  commercial  compound  decomposes  far  more  rapidly  than  the 
pure  nitro- glycerme :  indeed,  impure  nitro-glycerine  may,  from  this  cause,  lie  regarded 
us  "dangerously  self-explo(dve  even  while  standing  quietly"  (Adriani,  op.  eU.), 

Many  of  our  readers  doubtless  recollect  the  history  of  a  terrific  ezpio' 
sion  that  took  place  on  board  the  ship  Evropeati^  when  lying  in  harbor  ^ 
Colon,  Panama,  on  the  3d  of  April  1866.  Amongst  the  cargo  put  on  board 
at  Liverpool  were  TO  cases  of  nitro-glycerine,  and  one  case  containiug  TO,0(W 
percussion-caps.  At  T  a.m.  on  the  8d,  a  most  tremendous  explosion  occurred  in  tbo 
after-part  of  the  ship.  It  was  described  as  most  rapid,  without  smoke,  but  with  a 
great  flame,  and  the  ship  was  immediately  after  seen  to  be  on  fire.  The  whole  of  the 
deck  and  cabin  aft  were  carried  away,  and  the  side  of  the  ship  was  also  ranch  dam-  • 
aged,  the  plates  above  the  water-line  being  blown  away,  and  the  parts  below  it  being 
much  injm-ed.  For  fear  of  further  explosions,  the  ship  was  towed  into  the  bay, 
where  she  shortly  sunk.  Nor  was  the  injmry  confined  to  the  European ;  the  jetty  was 
nearly  blown  away,  and  a  vessel  lying  on  the  other  side  of  it  was  mnch  damaged. 
Houses  in  the  town  were  also  partially  destroyed,  the  floors  in  many  cases  being  torn 
up ;  and  altogether  al)OUt  50  lives  were  lost  When  the  bodies  wera  recovered,  tiiey 
presented  no  sign  of  smoke  nor  any  symptoms  of  scalding ;  and  hence  it  was  in- 
ferred that  the  explosion  could  not  have  been  produced  either  by  the  percassioii-ca|ii 


Digitized  by 


Google 


291 


Nitro 


or  hy  gtcoin.  On  these  and  other  crronndB,  the  concluFloii  was  irref  !9t1ble  that  the 
explosiou  was  due  to  the  uitro-glycerine.  -An  acHuu  was  (Augnt  1867)  biouglit;t 
Liverpool  by  the  owners  of  the  European  agaiuct  the  shippei-s  of  the  nitro-glycerine. 
on  the  ground  that  no  dae  notice  of  the  dantrerons  propeities  of  that  compound  had 
been  given ;  and  at  this  tr  al,  several  of  the  Imporiant  points  regarding  the  oxplopive 
properties  of  nitro-glycerine,  which  we  Iiave  noticed,  were  elidtud  Irom  Prof<  PFor 
Abel,  chemist  to  the  laboratory  at  Woolwich ;  Colonel  Boxer,  superintendent  of  the 
Woolwich  Laboratory;  and  Professor  Ro^coe,  who  appeared  as  scientiflc  witiie  pes*. 
To  give  some  definite,  idea  of  the  explosive  force  of  tlils  substance,  Profes'-or  Ko>cc.e 
stated  that  one  case  of  it  would  have  sufilced  for  the  destinction  of  the  F.uio).tan. 
It  is  used  to  a  coiisideruble  extent  in  the  slate^iiarries  in  Wales,  and  in  nduinir  op- 
erutions.  A  workman  at  one  of  tlio^'C  quarries  described  how  lie  had  been  set  to 
clean  a  wagon  which  had  held  some  of  ii,  which  he  did  by  scraping  it  with  a  piece 
of  slate ;  and  inadvertently  throwhtg  the  piece  of  slate  Inio  the  wti;:on  when  he  had 
finlslted,  the  percui^sion  cxplode<i  tlic  remnants  of  the  oil,  and  the  wagon  was  blown 
to  piect  a.  He  states  that  it  i^  regarded  as  ten  times  as  ))Owerfu]  an  <  xplosive  ngeut 
as  gunpowder. 

We  learn  from  a  number  of  the  "Nevada  Gazette"  (quoted  in  the  "Ch.  niiral 
News,"  Aug.  36, 1867),  that  this  '^ub^tance  has  been  advantageoiishr  employed  in  tho 
blasting  necessary  for  the  con^truction  of  tlie  summit  tmmel  on  the  Central  P.icittc 
Railway.  The  operation  is  said  to  nave  been  carried  on  'i6  pt^r  cent  faster  than  if 
powder  iiad  been  used.  The  small  holes  n  quired  fur  the  oil  can  probably  l>e  drilled 
m  less  than  one>thinl  the  time  requinnl  for  the  larger  ones  hecesfary  in  Ufing  pow- 
der. The  oil  does  much  more  execution  than  powder,  as  it  always  breaks  the  rock 
from  two  to  sixteen  inches  beyond  tbe  hole,  ana  also  throws  out  a  much  larger  bouy. 
The  oil  was  estimated  as  having,  in  hard. rock,  a  stivngth  five  times  greater  than 
powder.  It  was  made  upon  the  spot,  and  was  conf»idered  much  stronger  as  well  as 
safer  than  the  importea  compound.  After  having  been  used  for  several  months, 
there  had  been  no  accident,  nor  had  a  ^in<£le  bhisi  mis:«ed  fire  since  the  Chinamen 
commenced  filling  the  cartndges.  Colonel  Schaft'ncr  of  the  U.  S.  aruiv  published  an 
ofiSciul  Report  on  this  compound,  to  which  he  irives  the  name  of  **  nitroleum," 
which  confirms  the  fact  that  its  explosive  properties  are  ftu*  greater  than  those  of 
gunpowder.  PrOin  a  Re|>ort  on  the  same  subject  by  Captain  Grant,  R.  N.,  it  appears 
that  it  is  exploded  by  percttssion,  and  apparently,  under  ordinary  circnmstjtnces,  hy 
notliing  else— neither  by  friction  nor  fire.  Gtiierally  a  trifl.ng  blow  is  sufficient  to 
explode  it  Its  explosive  force  is  al)Out  ten  times  that  of  gunpowder.  It  has  all  the 
appearance  of  common  oil,  and  Is  usually  caiTied  in  tin  e^ses,  eacJi  of  which  holds 
86 11)9.  Each  can  is  packed  in  a  wooden  case  for  cariiage.  In  a  pai>er  on  this  snlw 
ject  by  M  Kopp,  that  chemist  holds  the  view  already  noticed,  that  accidents  are 
mainly  due  to  the  presence  of  impuriries.  He  states  that,  by  means  of  charges  of 
1500  or  2000  grammes  of  oil,  from  40  to  80  cubic  mdtres  of  a  hard  rock  may  be  de- 
tached. 

We  have  already  noticed  Richter*s  observations  on  the  slight  inflammability  of 
this  com|)onnd ;  and  as  the  emnloyment  of  this  explosive  agent  seems  to  ne  increas- 
ing, we  shall  give  his  other  chief  results,  so  ns  to  bring  up  onr  knowledge  to  the 
latest  possible  date.  The  shaft  in  which  the  experiments  were  made  was  being 
sunk  80  feet  long  by  8  feet  wide.  In  hard  gray  gneiss  with  occasional  joints,  which 
facilitsted  the  working.  Prom  these  experiments,  it  appeared  not  only  that 
its  power  was  four  or  live  times  greater  than  that  of  the  nrtrate-of-sorla  gunpowder 
conunonly  upcd  for  mining  i>urpost?s  in  Germany,  but  that  other  advantagen  a'-cnn  d 
from  its  use,  which  may  l^  summed  up  as  follows:  (1.)  Fewer  men  are  wanted  for 
working  out  a  certain-sized  piece  of  ground,  and  fewer  holes  have  to  be  bored  than 
at  present.  (2.)  Nirix>-glyciMine  does  not  take  fire  easily  (see  above).  (3.)  Tim 
anmunt  of  smoke  after  a  blast  is  small,  as  compared  with  that  of  powder;  ai.d 
workmen  can  return  at  once  to  the  spot  when  the  blast  has  taken  place.  (4.)  lioles 
that  have  missed,  or  only  partly  torn,  can  be  refamped  ami  shot  off,  which,  with  the 
present  arrangements,  is  impossible,  or  very  dangerous.  Against  these  advanrag<-a 
must  be  set  off  the  following  disjidvantages:  (1.)  The  gases  formed  durine  the  cx- 
piosiou  of  nitro-glycerine  have  an  injurions  effect  on  the  organs  of  siirht  a n <f  ret* pi i-a- 
tiou.    (2.)  Ntti'O-glyceriue  explodes  on  being  struck  smartly,  and  easily  freezes.    (3.) 


y  Google 


Nitroas  OOO 

N.x  ^''-^ 

Til 3  masses  of  rock  which  It  removes  are  mostly  very  large,  and  coiisideraWe  tiaife 
baa  to  be  spent  in  breakiiig  them  np. 

In  auother  set  of  expcriiiieDts,  the  relatlvo  cost  of  blasting  by  nitro-glycerine 
and  gunpowder  was  compured«  and  it  was  found  that  a  cubic  fntliom  of 
ground  could  be  removed  by  the  former  for  X4,  0«.  4d. ;  the  cost  smonnted  to- 
jGO,  0«.  9)id.  when  the  latter  was  used.  In  sinking  a  shaft  In  clay-slate  by  means  of 
nitio-glycerine,  the  cost  was  under  £B\)er  cubic  fathom.  For  further  details  regard- 
Inir  these  experiments,  the  reader  is  reterretl  to  the  "Chemical  News,"  November  15, 
18tf7,  which  contains  a  translation  of  Richter's  valuable  Memoir. 

In  the  "Times  "  for  December  10, 1867,  there  was  n  notice  of  a  serious  exptosion 
from  the  employment  of  this  agent  within  a  few  miles  of  the  city  of  New  York.  The 
accident  happened  in  the  Bergen  quarries.  Nine  persons  were  blown  to  pieces,  and 
ten  or  tifteen  wonnded,  while  the  groand  was  shaken  for  f uUy  a  mile  ronud,  ^ud 
several  houses  were  destroyed. 

A  very  serious  accident  took  place  on  Tuesday,  Decemt)er  17, 1867,  at  Newcastie. 
and  occasioned  the  loss  of  seven  lives.  The  editoi*  of  the  "Chemical  News," 
December  20,  1867,  remarks,  that  **  unless  means  are  taken  by  the  manufacturers 
to  prevent  explosions  causing  such  lamentable  results  as  these,  a  va.uable 
blasting  aeent  will  be  lost  to  miners  and  quarriers.  If  this  be  the  case,  however, 
the  manuFaciurers  of  it  will  have  themselves  to  blame,  for  explosions  of  uitrO" 
glycerine  during  transport  or  storage  ought  to  bj  unknown.  It  has  recently  been 
discovered  that  nitro-gfycerine  dissolved  in  two  or  three  times  itabulk  of  methylati'd 
spirit  is  quite  inexplo-^ive,  and  that,  when  required  for  use,  the  addition  of  water 
will  precipltite  the  oil,  the  layer  of  water  and  spirit  merely  requiring  decanting  off. 
Tlie  nitro-glycerine  separated  in  this  way  iwssasses  explosive  pro|»erties  quite  as 
active  as  the  original  oil,  which,  indetd,  is  frequently  rather  improved  than  other- 
wise by  the  treatment  Shipping  agents  and  railway  companies  uhould  refuse  to  re- 
ceive nitro-glycerine  nnles^s  protected  In  the  manner  indicate*!." 

It  will  Iwj  observed  that  all  these  terrible  accidents  are  of  recctit  date.  Although 
nitro-glycerine  was  discovered  abont  20  years  a<;o  by  Dr  Sobrero  (now  professor  at 
Turin),  it  remained  simply  an  object  of  scientific  interest,  till  glycerine  was  manu- 
factured on  a  large  scale— tinil  is  to  say,  till  eight  or  ten  years  ago.  We  believe 
that  It  Mas  at  the  close  of  1864  that  it  ilrst  became  an  article  of  commerce. 

[More  recently,  a  compound  of  nitro-glycerine  with  gnn-coiton,  the  conrtituents 
of  gunpowder,  infusorial  eartli,  and  one  or  two  other  substances,  forming  n  paste, 
has  been  invented  by  Professor  Engels  of  Cologne,  and  is  coming  into  extensive 
use  for  mining  and  other  purposes.  It  is  known  as  dynartiite  or  litho-fraetew 
(si one-breaker),  and  is  described  as  possessing  innnense  power.  Its  great  recotn- 
mendatlon.  however,  is  its  safety ;  it  can  be  explotled  only  by  a  percussion-cap.  It 
mjiy  l)elet  fall,  or  exposed  to  the  most  violent  concussion,  without  Ikune  affected: 
when  ignited  by  ordinary  fire,  as  a  cigar-fuse,  ft  merely  bums  away  wim  u  slight 
hissing  noise.] 

NI'TROUS  ETHER,  or  Nitrite  Oxide  of  Ethyl,  is  represented  by  the  formula 
C4ll60,NOs,  or  AeO,NO„  Ae  being  the  symbol  for  ethyl  (C^Ut).  It  is  a  pale 
yellow  fluul.  having  a  specific  gravity  of  0*947,  and  evolving  an  agreeable  odor 
of  apples.  On  evaporation,  it  produces  a  great  degree  of  cold,  it  boils  at  6-io.  and  it 
is  very  infliimmuble.  It  does  not  mix  with  water,  but  is  rea<lily  niiscible  with  alco- 
hol When  kept  in  contact  with  water,  it  soon  decomposes,  and  an  acid  mi xt are 
of  a  very  complic^ited  character  is  formed.  It  made  by  mixiu;;  1  part  of  starch  and 
10  of  nitric  acid  in  a  capacious  retort,  which  must  he  gently  healed,  'i'he  vajior  of 
nitrous  acid,  which  is  evolved  by  the  action  of  tlie  starch  on  the  nitric  acid,  is  con- 
ducted into  alcohol,  mixed  with  half  its  weight  ot  water,  contained  in  a  two-necked 
bottle,  which  is  to  be  plunged  into  cold  water.  The  second  neck  of  this  bottle  is 
connected  with  a  good  coouug  app.-iratu:? ;  and  the  vapor  combining  in  it^*  passage 
through  the  alcohol  with  tlie  oxide  of  ethyl,  forms  nitrous  ether,  winch  distils  in  a 
continuous  stream.  This,  which  is  known  as  Liebig^s  method,  is  the  liest  proci«8» 
but  it  is  usually  prepared  by  tlie  direct  action  of  nitric  acid  on  alcohol,  in  which 
case  the  nitric  acid  is  deoxidised  by  tlio  liydrogen  and  carbon  of  the  ethyl  of  part 
of  the  alchohol. 

The  Spirit  of  Nitroiia  Ether,  or  Sweet  Spirit  of  Nitre,  used  in  medicine,  is  a  mixture 
( nitrous  ether  with  about  four  times  its  volume  ot;  rectilledy^kit.    Its  speciiko 

Digitized  by  VjOO^, 


OQO  Nitroof 

gravity  shonld  not  exceed  0*85.  It  is  used,  in  conjimction  with  other  medicines,  as 
a  diuretic,  especially  iu  the  dro|)8y  wliicli  follows  scarlatiua :  and  it  is  employed,  iu 
combiiiartioii  with  aci-tate  of  ammonia  and  lartarised  antimony,  in  febrile  affection.*. 
The  dO'^e  iu  febrile  cases  is  from  half  a  drachm  to  a  couple  of  draclinip,  and  if  we 
wish  it  to  act  as  a  diuretic,  two  or  three  drachms  should  bo  given.  It  is  a  rather 
expensive  medicine,  and  consequently  is  extremely  liable  to  adulteration.  In  Ihc 
new  British  PharniMcopeeia,  it  Is  recommended  that  this  substsiucK  nhonld  bi-  directly 
obtiiiued  by  the  distillation  of  nitrite  of  ^oda  (five  ounces),  nulphnric  acid  (four  fluid 
ounces),  and  rectified  spirit  (two  pints)— a  pitKress  open  to  many  praclicid  objoc- 
tiou8. 

NITZSCH,Kar1Iramannol,onoof  the  most  distinenished  theologians  that  modern 
Germany  has  produced,  was  bom  September  21,  1787.  at  Bornau  He  studicl  for 
the  church  at  Wittenberg,  where  lie  took  his  degree  in  1810,  and  where,  in  1813.  he 
became  parish  minister.  Here  his  religious  opinions  underwent  a  great  modiilea- 
tion,  through  the  influence  of  Schleiermacher  and  Daub,  and  lie  awoke  to  a  clearer 
p«'rcep!ion  of  the  essence  of  religion.  From  this  time  forward  N.  is  to  be  regarded 
as  one  of  tliat  new  school— of  which  Neander  is  the  greatest  representative — who 
endeavored  to  reconcile  faith  and  science,  not  by  forced  and  unnatural  methods, 
but  by  pointing  out  their  distinctive  splieres,  and  by  exhibiting  in  their  own 
spiritual  life  that  union  of  reason  and  reverenct?  for  which  they  argued  In  iheir 
writings.  In  1822, 1?,  was  called  lo  Bonn  as  ordinnry  professor  of  theology  and 
univi^rsity  preachtr,  where  he  la»-ored  with  great  diligence  for  more  than  twenty 
yetir?,  not  only  in  theology,  but  in  all  matters  affecting  the  welfare  of  the  Prus  ism 
cliareh.  In  1847.  he  succeeded  Marheineke  at  Berlin,  and  as  professor,  university 
preacher,  and  upper  consistorial  councillor,  heexercit^  with  prudence  and  modera- 
tion a  wide  ecclesiastical  influence.  In  his  political  (perha|>8  al^o  in  his  religiou^) 
views  he  nmy  be  classed  with  the  late  Chevalier  Bunsen.  The  High  Lutln'ran  party 
having  denoimced  liberal  politics  as  irreligious,  N.  and  Bimsen  and  others  have  vindi- 
Ciited  them  on  the  ground  of  Clnistianity,  sot  without  ^success.  In  theolo^fv.  his 
poj»iiiou  will  be  best  understood  when  we  say  that  he  Kubordinated  dogma  to  ethics, 
or  r.ther  that  he  believed  liic  only  dogmas  which  can  hoi>e  to  permimently  nuiiutaiu 
themselves  are  those  that  result  fnnn  an  ethical  appreh  nsion  of  Cliristianity.  Be- 
sides nnmerous.«mallertreatise:«  on  Dogmatics,  tue  History  of  Do^nnut  and  Liturgies, 
tijree  larger  works  call  for  spc:cial  mention.  Tue^e  are  his  *•  System  der  Chrihtli- 
chen  Lehre"  (Bonn,  1829;  6th  tdil.  18.51);  his  "Praktipche  Theoloirie"  (Bonn, 
1847-1848) ;  and  his  "  Predi;:ten."  or  "  Sern^on^,"of  which  eeveral  colUctiouH  have 
appeared,  and  which  are  remarkable  for  their  extraordinary  richness  of  thought, 
lie  died  iu  1868. — Nitzsch,  Qbeoob  Wilhelm  (born  in  1790),  brother  of  the  pre- 
cc<iin<;,  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  philologist,  and  was  proft  ssor  of  archseology 
at  I>eipzig  till  his  death  in  1861.  He  was  considered  one  of  the  aiUest  opponents  of 
Wolf*  Homeric  theories.  Uls  chief  work  is  '*  Die  Sageupoesie  der  Griecheu " 
(Brunswick,  1862). 

NIVELLE8  (Flem.  Nyvel)^  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  Brabant,  18 
niiles  j«outh  of  Brussels.  It  has  a  fine  church,  called  the  Church  of  St  Gertrude 
(built  in  the  Romanesque  style  of  architecture.  1048  a.i>.),  which  claims  to  contain 
the  relics  of  St  Gertrude,  daughter  of  Pepin,  Maire  du  Palai-.  They  are  depof  ited 
in  a  Bhriue  placed  over  the  high-altar.  N.  has  manufactures  of  linen,  cotton,  lace, 
&c    Pop.  in  1870,  about  9300. 

NIVERNAIS,  formerly  a  province  iu  the  middle  of  France,  nearly  corresponding 
to  the  present  depm'tment  of  Nldvre.  It  was  divided  m to  eight  territorial  districts, 
■ad  its  towns  enjoyed  nmnicipal  privileges  at  a  veiy  early  i>eriod.  The  )>rincipai 
latidowiiers  were  the  counts,  afterwards  dukes,  of  Nevers,  who  held  under  their 
vastjalHge  more  than  1800  fiefs. 

NIX,  in  the  mtisculine.  and  nixe  in  the  feminine  (Old  High  GiT.  nihhusj  Anglo- 
8axou,  nicor  ;  Dutch,  mJtfc?r ;  Old  Norse,  nikr ;  Swe<l.  txak^iiek;  Dan.  nok.  nbk — 
whence  onr  name  for  the  devil,  A^tcifc,  not  as  some  absurdly  suppose,  from  Nicholas 
Wachiavelli),  the  common  name  for  all  water  spiiits  in  the  Teutonic  mythology. 
They  are  represented  as  of  human  form,  or  sometimes  as  passing  Into  that  of  a 
fish  or  of  a  horse,  ^hey  love  music  and  dances,  and  possess  the  gift  of  prn|)t>ecy, 
tike  Uie  Greek  Muies,  Sirens,  and  other  water  godd.    The  nix  timght,  iu  return  fur 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Nizam's  o(\A 

Ncb.l.tf  ^  ^^^  .. 

a  good  gift,  the  art  of  playing  on  a  etrlnjred  inptrnment ;  and  oft«n  in  the  cveiimg 
bunshhie  tlie  uixes,  combing  their  long  hair,  were  wont  to  mingle  in  the  dances  of 
mortalB;  but  their  com|)iiny  was  dangerous,  for»  thongh  flomctimcs  wtarijis;  a 
mild  npiK'araDC<%  they  were  more  frequently  crtjel  and  nmlign.mt. — The  water-kelpu 
of  Scotland  mu8t  l)e  reckond  a  member  of  the  genns  Nix,  but  in  him  tlie  evil  ele- 
ment alone  exists.  He  generally,  if  not  alwnye,  assumed  the  form  of  a  water-horse; 
frequented  fords  and  ferries,  esi>ccially  during  storms ;  allured  travellers  to  iiionut 
liiiu,  and  tiien  dnslu^d  furiously  with  them  Into  the  stream  which  ho  liad  flooded  by 
hi-s  devilish  power,  and  submerged  them  in  the  roaring  currents. 

NIZAM'S  DOMINIONS,  an  extensive  territory  in  the  interior  of  Southern  In- 
di.i,  iy  ng  to  the  north-west  of  the  Presidency  of  Madras,  m  lat.  15°  10'— 21°  42' n., 
and  long.  T4<^40'— 81°  32'  e.  Length  from  soutli-west  to  north-east  480  railes;  ex- 
trente  breadth,  840  miles.  Area,  90  000  sqnnre  miles,  und  population  estinuitad  at 
9  i  OO.OOO.  The  surface  is  a  sliirhtly-clcvated  tabh'-laud.  The  principal  rivers  are 
theOolavari  (Qodavery),  with  its  tribitjiries  the  Dudhna,  Maniera,  and  Pranhiia; 
and  ilic  Kistna  <Krielina).with  its  tributaries  the  Bimnh  and  Tungablmdro.  Tlie 
soil  is  uatumllv.very  fertile,  but  poorly  cultivated ;  yet,  wherever  it  receives  uioder- 
ate  attention,  ft  yields  hurvesis  all  the  year  roimd.  The  products  are  rice,  whe.1l. 
maize,  mustard,  castor-oil,  sogar-cane,  cotton,  indigo,  fruits  (including  grajKa  am 
melons),  and  all  kinds  of  kitchen  vegetables.  The  pjistnmgos  are  exleu^ive,  and 
slieep  and  homed  caltle  are  itumerons.  Marsli  and  jungle,  however,  occupy  a  great 
space,  and  originate,  fevers,  agues,  diseases  of  the  spleen,  &c.,  though  the  chmale 
is  quite  hetilthy  wliere  these  do  not  abound.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  capital, 
Hyderabad,  in  Jaimary  is  T4°  30'.  and  in  May  93°.  The  inhabitants  maunf.jctnrc 
ft>r  home  use  woollen  and  cotton  fabrics,  and  exi»ort  silk,  d-essed  hidee,  dye-stofc, 

Sims,  and  resins.  Good  military  ronds  traverse  tin*  territory.  The  revenue  of  the 
izam  Is  reckoned  at  jC1,550,o00  yearly.  The  ruler  is  a  Mohammedan,  but  his  sub- 
jects are  mostly  Hindus. 

In  1687,  the  tenitoiy,  now  known  afe  the  Nizam's  Dominions,  became  a  province 
of  the  Mogul  empire ;  but  in  1719,  the  governor  or  viceroy  of  the  Deccaii,  AJzof  Jab, 
made  himself  independent,  and  took  the  title  of  Nizam-ul-Mnlk  (Regnlatiw  of  tbe 
State).  After  his  death,  in  1748,  two  claimants  appeared  for  the  throne,  his  sou 
Nazir  Jung,  and  his  grandson  Mirzapha  Jung.  The  cause  of  the  former  was  es- 
poused by  the  East  Indi  i  Company,  and  that  of  the  latter  by  a  body  of  French  ad- 
venturers under  General  Dupleix.  Then  foUowed  a  period  of  strife  and  anarchy.  la 
17(>1,  Nizam  Ail  obtiiued  the  supreme  power,  and  after  some  vacillation  signed  a 
treaiy  of  alUance  with  the  English  in  1768.  He  aided  them  in  the  war  with  lippoo, 
sultan  of  Mysore,  and  at  the  termination  of  that  war,  in  1799,  a  new  treaty  waa 
formed,  by  which,  in  return  for  certain  territorial  concessions,  the  East  India  Com- 
)any  bound  itself  to  maintain  a  subsidiary  force  of  8000  men  for  the  defence  of  tlie 
Mizain's  dominions.  Tlie  Nizam  remained  faithful  to  the  British  during  the  matiuv 
of  1857— 18'.8.  The  territory  is  frequently  caUed  Hyderabad  or  Haidarabad.  A 
British  resident  advises  the  Nizam. 

NO'BIL^  OFFI'CIUM,  the  lerm  used  In  the  Law  of  Scotland  to  denote  the  b^ 
])rerogativo  right  of  the  Court  of  Session  to  exercise  jurisdiction  In  certain  cases— as, 
for  example,  to  appoint  a  jtidicial  factor  to  young  citildren  or  to  lunatics. 

NOBI'LITY,  that  distinction  of  rank  in  civil  society  which  raises  a  man  alx)ve 
the  condition  of  the  mass  of  the  people.  Society  has  a  tendency  to  inequality  of 
cimdition,  arising  from  tlie  natural  itxquality,  physical,  moral,  and  intellectnaU  of 
those  who  compose  it,  aided  by  the  diversity  of  external  advantages,  and  of  the  prin- 
ciples and  habits  imbibed  at  an  early  age.  This  inequality  is  apt  to  increase;  the 
8<m.  inheriting  the  facnltiea  of  his  fatht^r,  is  more  favorably  situated  than  his  father 
was  for  making  use  of  them ;  and  hence,  in  almost  everv  nation  in  even  the  very 
e  riy  stages  of  civilisation  we  And  something  like  a  hereditary  nobility.  Privileges 
originally  acquired  by  wealth  or  political  power,  are  secured  to  the  famfly  of  the  po»- 
sessor  of  them  ;  and  the  privileged  class  come  to  constiiute  an  order,  admission  mto 
whieh  requires  tl*.e  consent  of  soci<'ty  or  of  the  order  itself. 

'i'he  ancient  Romans  wei-e  divided  into  nobifM  and  ifpioMlea^  a  d'Sthiction  atflrst 
corrospondiuif  to  that  of  patricians  and  plebeijins.  A  new  nobility  afterwards 
sprung  out  of  the  plebeian  order,  and  obtained  ^336  B.c.)  the  right  to  ri»e  to  high 


N: 


y  Google 


^^.*^  Nob.l.tf, 

offices  in  tiie slate;  and  In  coarse  of  time  the  dcftcendantB  of  those  who  hail  H  led 
cnrole  maghitraciesiulierited  the  jus  iiuaginnnt,  or  rijiht  of  having  inuiges  of  their 
ancestors — a  privilege  which,  like  the  cimt-of-arniB  in  l«ter  ages,  was  considi-n-d  the 
criterion  of  nobility.  The  man  entitled  lo  have  his  o«-n  image  was  a  novxis  hmuo^ 
Willie  the  ignobilis  could  neither  have  lii.'<  ancestor'n  image  nor  liis  own. 

The  origin  of  the  feudal  aristocracy  of  Europe  is  in  part  connected  with  tiie  acci- 
dents which  influenced  the  division  or  conquered  lands  among  tlie  leaders  nnd  war- 
riors of  the  nations  that  overthrew  the  Rumen  empire.  Those  who  had  acquir*  d  a 
large  share  of  territorial  possession,  and  iheir  posterity  lo  wliom  itwastranKmitinU 
were  naturally  looked  on  as  the  fittest  persons  to  occnpy  tlie  great  offlceH  of  tlaio 
and  wield  political  ix>wer.  The  Franklsli  kingdom  in  Gaul  was  divided  into  govt-ru- 
ments,  each  under  the  authority  of  a  chiiltain  called  a  Count  or  Corner— n  desig- 
nation derived  from  the  eonies  ot  the  Roman  empire — whose  Teutonic  equivalent  was 
Graf.  A  higher  dignity,  and  more  expensive  jurisdiction,  was  conferred  qn  the 
Dhz  or  Duke,  a  term  also  of  Roman  origin,  and  implying  the  duty  of  leading  the 
armies  of  the  country.    In  the  Lombard  Kingdom  of  Italy,  the  same  term  wao  ttp- 

glied  to  the  great  officers  who  were  intrusted  with  tlie  military  and  civil  adrainistru- 
on  of  cities  and  their  surrounding  provinces.  The  Marquises  were  guardians  of  the 
frontier  marches.  In  the  suhinfcudations  of  the  gnat«r  nobility  originatid  a  stcon- 
danr  sort  of  nobility,  under  the  name  of  Vavasours,  Castellans,  and  lesser  barons ; 
and  a  third  order  below  ihem  compris^^d  vassals,  whos«?  tenure,  by  the  militar>'  ol>li- 
gatiou  known  in  England  as  knight's  service,  admitte<l  them  within  the  naiksoF  the 
aristocracy.  In  France,  the  allegiance  of  the  lesser  nobles  to  their  intennwiiary  lord 
long  contmued  a  reality ;  in  England,  on  the  other  hand,  William  the  Conqneror 
oUiged  not  only  his  bi.rons  who  he»d  in  chief  of  the  Crown,  but  their  vassals  aUo,  to 
take  an  oatfa^of  fealty  to  himself ;  r.nd  his  successors  altogether  aboUbhed  subinfeu- 
datioii.  ^ 

The  militarytenant,  who  held  but  a  portion  of  a  knight's  fee,  particii>ated  in  all 
the  privileiijes  of  nobility,  and  an  impassable  barrier  existed  between  his  order  and 
tlic  common  jteopie.  Over  contineutjii  Europe  in  general,  the  nobles,  greater  and 
lessor,  were  in  use,  after  the  10th  c,  to  assume  a  territorial  name  from  their  castles 
or  the  principal  town  or  village  on  th(iir  d<?mef^ne ;  hence  the  prefix  *♦  de,"  or  its 
Germjin  equivalent  "  von,"  still  Considered  over  a  great  part  of  the  continent  as  the 
critelion  of  nobility  or  gentility.  Britain  was,  to  a  great  extent,  an  exception  to  this 
rule,  many  of  the  most  disiinguislied  family  names  of  the  aristocracy  not  having  a 
territorial  origin.    See  NaMb. 

Under  the  feeble  sncc«*ssor8  of  Charlemagne,  the  dukes,  marquises,  and  counts  of 
the  empire  encroached  more  and  more  on  the  royal  autUority ;  and  in  course  of  time, 
many  of  them  openly  asserted  an  independence  aud  sovereignty  with  little  more 
than  a  nominal  reservation  of  snperiorily  to  the  king.  By  the  end  of  the  9th  c,  the 
Carioviugian  empire  had  been  parcelled  into  separate  and  inde|)endent  principalities, 
under  the  dominion  of  powerful  nobles,  against  whom,  in  Germany,  the  crown  never 
recovered  its  power.  In  France,  lioweveV,  the  royal  authority  gradually  revived  un- 
der Wic  Capetiau  race,  the  great  fiefs  of  the  higher  nobility  beii:g  one  by  one  absorbed 
by  the  crown.  In  EJnglaiid,  where  the  subjection  of  the  feudal  aristocracy  to  the 
crown  always  was,  and  continued  to  l)e  a  reality,  the  resistance  of  the  nobles  to  the 
royal  eucro.ichments  was  the  means  of  rearitic  the  great  fabric  of  ronstitutiomil 
lil)erty.  All  those  who.  after  the  Conquest,  held  incapite  fttoin  William  belonged 
to  the  nolnlitv.  Such  of  Ihem  as  held  by  barony  (thehighest  form  of  tenure)  are 
enumerated  in  **  Domesday."  Their  dignity  was  territorial,  not  personal,  having  no 
existence  apart  from  baronial  possession.  The  coines  was  a  baron  of  superior  dig- 
nity aud  greater  estates;  and  these  were  in  England  the  only  names  of  dignity  till 
the  time  of  Ilenry  III.  The  rest  of  the  landhoklers,  who  held  by  other  tenures  than 
barony,  also  belonged  to  the  nobility  or  gentry. 

After  the  introduction  of  Heraldry,  and  its  reduction  to  a  system,  the  possession 
of  a  coat-of-anus  was  a  recognised  distinction  between  the  noble  and  the  plebeian. 
Ill  the  words  of  Sir  James  Lawrence  ("  Nobility  of  the  British  Gentry  ") :  "  Any  in- 
dividual who  distinguishes  himself  may  be  said  to  ennoble  himself.  A  prince  judg- 
ing an  hidividnal  worthy  of  notice,  gave  him  patent  letters  of  nobility.  In  these  let- 
ters ^ere  blazoned  the  arms  that  were  to  distinguish  his  shield.  By  this  shield  he 
WAS  to  be  kuown  pr  noUlU.    A  plebeiau  hod  no  blazonry  ou  his  shield,  because  he 


y  Google 


Nobiuir  29G 

was  ignobiliSf  or  nnwortliy  of  DOfice.  Hence  arms  are  the  criterion  of  noMlity. 
Eviry  nobleman  uiUHt  imve  u  nhielti  of  amis.  Whoever  has  a  shield  of  arms  is  a 
iiobJeinan.  In  every  conntry  of  Kurope  wilhont  exceptioi),  a  graut  of  anna,  or  loi- 
ters of  nobility,  is  coufeiTed  on  ail  the  descendunis."  On  tlie  continent,  the  term 
noble  is  still  genmilly  used  in  thi-*  scupe ;  in  England,  it  is  now  more  common  lor- 
strict  tlie  wonis  noble  aud  nobiftty  to  the  five  ranlcs  of  the  peerage  coustitatiu*;  the 
^eater  nobility,  and  to  tlie  head  of  the  family,  to  whom  atone  tiie  title  lielongi^  O'n- 
tHily,  in  its  more  strict  sense,  corresponds  to  the  nobility  of  Sir  J.  Lawrence  niul  <i 
continer.lal  coiintriej*.  This  difference  of  usage  is  a  frequent  source  of  misanprc- 
heusiou  on  both  sides  of  tho  Clninnel ;  at  fiomc  of  the  minor  German  courts,  the  du- 
titled  mtMnber  of  an  English  family  of  undent  aud  distinguished  blood  and  lin&ige 
ha!<  sometimes  b;^en  postponed  to  a  nccntly-created  baron  or  *' Ilerr  von,"  w!io  Ii:i8 
received  th:it  title,  and  the  gentility  a<'.companying  it,  along  with  his  conmiis3iO!i  iu 
the  army.  If  tia«»  bv%n  taken  for  granted  that  the  hitter  l^Iougs  to  the"Adel''or 
nobil  ty,  and  not  the  former. 

The  oi'iginai  highiT  nobiH'y  of  Germany  cotisinted  of  the  dynasty  nobles,  i.e.,  the 
electoral  and  princey  bonnes  of  tlie  reiilm.  with  those  counts  and  barons  who  had  a 
seat  in  the  diet  or  eatat«s  of  the  re:ilm.  These  la^t  have,  f>ince  1815,  all  been  elevatwl 
to  higher  titles ;  most  of  tlie  counts,  in  recompense  for  iheir  acquiescence  iu  the 
aboluion  of  the  German  empire,  receiving  the  diploma  of  prince,  a  title  to  which  onr 
duker*.  marquises,  and  earljj  have  also  an  nndoubted  ri^ht.  Tlie  lower  German 
nobility,  corresponding  to  oar  gentry,  were  the  mendy  iitwiar  Counts  aud  Barona 
(1.  e.,  tho^e  who  had  no  seat  iu  the  Diet),  tlie  Edel-Jierreu  and  Banner-herren  (suiiie- 
thint?  like  onr  B  innerets),  the  Knights  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  the  "Edleuvoii" 
(who  now  lake  the  style  of  baron),  and  the  common  nobles  ciistingnif'hed  only  by 
the  prefix  •*  von."  Throughout  tlie  middle  ages,  the  lesser  nobility  of  BHtidii  pru- 
servfd  a  position  at>ove  that  of  most  contintiiital  countries,  being,  unlike  the  corres-' 
ponding  class  in  Germany,  alhiwed  to  intermarry  with  the  high  nobility,  aud  even 
with  tlie  blood-royal  of  their  country. 

The  higiier  nobihty.  or  nobility  in  the  exchisive  sense,  of  England,  consist  of  the 
five  temporal  ranks  of  the  peiTagi;— Duke,  Marquis,  Earl,  Viscount,  and  Barou  (in 
the  restricted  significuf.lon  of  the  word),  who  are/ members  of  the  Upper  Houwiof 
Parliament  Formerly,  all  the  barons  or  tenant^in-chief  of  the  sovereign  were 
bound  to  attend  his  councils ;  but  after  the  reij^n  of  Edward  I.,  only  a  select  numi>or 
of  th'.MU  were  summoned,  the  rest  appeared  l)y  representatives — the  fonricr  were 
considered  the  greater,  the  hitter  the  lesser  barons.  See  Minor  BabonS.  In  Scot- 
land the  whole  barons  Cvintinued  to  sit  iii  parliament  till  a  much  later  period;  aud 
after  the  minor  barons  attended  only  by  representatives  from  their  body,  these 
representatives  sat  in  the  same  hou^*e  witli  the  greater  nobility,  and  up  to  the 
Union,  their  votes  were  recorded  as  those  of  the  *•  small  barrounis."  By  the  Act  of 
Union  betwiKiii  England  and  Scotland,  the  Scotch  peers  elect  16  of  their  numlier  to 
represent  their  body  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  each  parliament.  The  peer^  of  Iit- 
land,  in  virtue  of  the  Irish  Act  of  Union,  elect  28  of  thtdr  number  to  sit  in  the  Uouj^o 
of  lAivd^  for  life.  Tiie  Act  of  Union  with  Scotland  has  been  understood  to  d  'Mr 
the  sovereign  from  creating  any  new  Scotch  peerages;  all  peers  created  iueiiln'r 
England  or  Scotland  between  that  date  aud  the  Union  witli  Ireland  are  prtcrs  of 
Gr  at  Britain  ;  and  peers  created  in  any  of  the  three  kiiijrtlosns  subsequently  to  th«» 
union  with  Ireland  are  peers  of  the  United  Kingdom,  with  this  exception  that  one 
ii'^w  peerajje  of  Ireland  may  be  created  on  the  extinction  of  three  existing  peengef. 
When  the  Irish  p  jers  are  reduced  to  100,  then,  on  the  extinction  of  one  peerage  an- 
other may  be  created.  All  peers  of  Great  Britain  or  of  the  United  Kingdoiu  imv*'  a 
seat  In  the  House  of  Lords.  A  Scotch  peer,  though  not  one  of  the  sixteen  rpr'- 
sentative  peers,  is  debarred  from  sitting  iu  the  House  of  Commons,  a  disubiliiy 
whicli  does  not  attach  to  Irish  peers.  The  peei*age  is,  from  time  to  time,  recrui'«d 
by  new  additions,  the  persons  selected  being  iu  general  peers  of  Scotland  or  Ire- 
land; younger  members  of  the  families  of  peer<;  per'ons  distingnishtd  for 
naval,  militar^r,  political,  or  diplomatic  services;  eminent  lawyers,  pro- 
moted to  high  judicial  appointmeuts ;  persons  of  large  property  and  anci'entfaniilyt 
noble  in  the  more  extended  sense ;  and  occaeioiially,  but  rarely,  persons  who  have 
by  commerce  acquired  large  fortunes  and  social  importance.  At  present,  the  peerage 
comprehends  about  555  individuals— the  number  of  peerage^titJes  being  much 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


297 


Nobllitf 


greater,  a^  sevei'al  titles  of  ten  merfire  in  one  person.  Five  royal  dnke?  nro  included 
lu  this  euumeiaiion,  as  ul?o  87  poera  of  Scotland,  and  183  of  Ireland.  Only  25  of  Tho 
pruaent  Scotch,  and  89  Irish  peern,  are  wiiiiout  Beat«  in  the  Hoat«e  of  Ixjidp,  in  con- 
sequence of  there  being,  besidefl  the  repreBental ive  peers,  40  peers  of  Scotland,  and 
80  of  Ireland,  wlio  are  at  the  same  time  |>eer8  either  of  England,  Great  Britain,  or  of 
the  United  Kiui,'doui.  Tlie  privil^ea  belonging  to  pet^^  tia  members  of  puriiunient 
will  be  explained  under  Pabuament  ;  as  j)eers  they  aLso  possesu  tite  followiue  im- 
munities :  They  can  only  be  tried  by  their  peers  for  felony,  treason,  or  uii»pr!t<ion 
"lole 


Tnie  privilege,  which  estenus  to  peeresses,  eitlur  lu  their  own  nght  or  by 
marriage,  is  in  Scotland  further  regulated  by  Act  6  Gea  IV.  d.  66.  A  peer  answera 
to  bills  in  Chancery  upon  liis  honor,  and  not  on  oath  ;  but  wlien  examined  as  a  wit- 
ness in  civil  or  criminal  cases,  or  in  parliament,  he  must  be  sworn.  He  cannot  be 
bon-.d  over  to'  keep  the  peace  elsewhere  than  in  the  Court  ot  Queen's  Bench  or  of 
Chancery.  Scandal  against  a  peer  is  *^Acandalum  woffnatum,"  a  more  heinous 
offence  than  slander  against  another  person,  and  subjects  the  offender  by  various 
English  acts  to  statutory  pnnislimcnts.  All  the  privileges  belonging  to  tlie  English 
peers,  except  the  riglit  of  sitting  in  the  House  of  Lords,  were  extended  to  the  peers 
of  Scotland  by  the  Treaty  of  Union.  A  peer  who  has  different  titles  in  the  peerage, 
takes  in  ortllnarv  parlance  his  hij^hest  title,  one  of  the  inferior  titles  being  given  iiy 
courtesy  to  his  eldest  son.  Certani  Courtesy  Titles  (q.  v.)  belong  also  to  the  daughters 
and  younger  sons  of  a  peer,  but  do  not  extend  to  their  children. 

In  France,  a  limited  body  of  the  higher  nobility,  styletl  the  peers,  were  in  the 
enjoyment  of  privileges  not  possessed  by  the  rest.  The  title  ol  Duke  was  subject  to 
strict  rule,  but  many  titles  of  Marquis  and  Count,  believed  to  be  pure  assumptions, 
were  recognised  hy  the  court«isy  of  society.  The  head  of  a  noble  family  often  assumed 
at  his  own  hand  the  title  of  marquis ;  and  if  an  estate  was  purchased  which  had  be- 
longed to  a  titled  family,  the  purchaser  was  in  the  habit  of  transferring  to  himself  the 
honors  possessed  by  his  predecessor— a  ]>ractice  to  which  Louis  XV.  put  a  slop.  Im- 
mediately before  the  Revolution,  80,000  families  claimed  nobility,  many  of  i  hem  of 
obscure  sttition,  and  less  than  3000  of  ancient  line^ige.  Nobles  and  clergy  together 
possessed  two  thirds  of  the  land.  Practically,  the  estimation  in  which  a  roeml)er  of 
the  French  nobility  was  held  depended  not  so  much  on  tlie  degree  of  his  tiile  as  on 
its  antiquity,  and  the  distinction  of  those  who  had  borne  it.  The  higher  titles  of 
nobility  w^ere  not  borne  by  all  members  of  a  family ;  each  son  assamea  a  title  from 
one  of  the  family  estates— a  custom  productive  of  no  small  confusion.  Unlike 
•*  roturier  "  lands,  which  divided  among  all  the  children  equally,  noble  fiefs  went  to 
the  eldest  son.  The  Revolution  overthrew  all  distinction  of  ranks.  On  18ih  Jui  e 
1790,  the  National  Assembly  decreed  that  hereditary  nobility  v^as  an  institution 
incompatible  with  a  free  st-ate,  and  that  titles,  arms,  and  liveries  should  be  abolished. 
Two  years  later,  the  records  of  the  nobility  were  burned.  A  new  nobility  was 
created  by  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I.  iu  1808,  w*ith  titles  descending  to  the  eldest  son. 
The  old  uobilft  V  was  again  revived  at  the  Restoration.  All  marquises  and  vi^conuts 
are  of  pre-revolution  titles,  none  having^  l^ecn  created  in  later  times. 

Commercial  pursuits  have  more  or  less  in  different  countries  been  considered  in- 
compatible with  nobility.  In  England,  this  was  less  the  case  tbau  in  France  and 
Germany,  where  for  long  a  gentleman  could  not  engage  iu  any  trade  without  losing 
his  rank.  A  sort  of  commercial  •*  Burger- Adel."  or  lialf-gentleman  class,  was  con- 
stituted out  of  the  patrician  families  of  some  of  tne  great  German  cities,  particularly 
Augsburg,  Niirnberg,  and  Frankf  ui-t,  on  whom  the  emperors  bestowed  coata-of-aims. 
In  semi-reudal  Italy,  there  was  on  the  whole  less  antagonism  between  nooility  and 
t»ade  than  north  ot  the  Alps.  The  aristocracy  of  Venice  had  its  origin  iu  commerce ; 
and  though  untitled,  they  were  among  the  most  distinguished  class  of  nobles  in 
Europe.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Florence,  in  the  14th  c,  under  a  constitution  purely 
mercantile, .nobility  became  a  disqualification  from  holding  any  office  of  the  state. 
In  order  to  the  enjoyment  of  civil  right,  the  nobleman  had  to  be  struck  off  the 
rolls  of  nobility;  and  an  unpopular  plebeian  was  sometimes  ennobled,  in  order  to 
disfranchise  him.  A  little  later,  there  grew  up,  side  by  side  with  the  old  nobility,  a 
race  of  plebeian  nobles— as  the  Kicci,  the  Medici— whose  pretenslona  were  originally 

Digitized  by  VjjOOQ  IC 


Nocera  OQQ 

Noctue  ^^^ 

derived  from  weallh,  and  who  eventnally  came  to  be  regarded  as  aristocrats  by  the 
democratic  party. 

Italian  nobility  has  this  pecnliarity,  that  ir  does  not,  for  the  most  pnrt,  flow  from 
the  BovereiLli,  but  from  the  municipal  anthoiitiea  of  ilie  towns  acting  in  eniire  inde-  * 
pondence  of  him.  The  mnnicipalilies  can  confer  nobility  on  wiiom  they  please,  by 
mscribin;^  his  name  in  tlieir  respective  Libri  cToro.  The  registers  of  nobility  of  | 
mo*t  of  tlie  Tuscan  town.-^  are  deposiited  in  the  Archivio  delta  yobiUOy  or  Herald's  ( 
Office  at  Florence— an  ln:*titution  created  by  the  firet  sovereiffn  of  the  House  of 
Lorraine.  The  municipalities  have,  iiowever,  no  pr)wer  to  confer  tiths,  thongh  at 
one  tim'i  several  |>er-»on8,  a  few  Englishmen  included,  on  the  strength  Of  their 
names  l>einff  in  the  Libro  d'oro  of  Fiesole,  ussuined  the  titles  of  marquis,  count  and 
baron — an  ;ibu«e  put  a  stop  to  i)y  the  late  grand  duke  of  Tuscany.  In  Rome,  there 
is  a  small  number  of  nobles — as  the  Colonuas,  Caetanis  and  Orsinis — who  hold  their 
fiefs  as  sovereign  princes  ;  the  rest  of  llie  nobility,  many  of  them  of  very  ancient 
lineage,  are  municipal,  the  power  of  cr(»ation  l)eing  vested  in  the  senator,  hinist-lf  a 
nominee  of  the  pontiff,  and  the  Co  user  vatorif  cUoaen  by  lot  from  the  Capitoline 
nobles.  In  last  century,  so  many  nndistingnlshed  i)ereou8  had  been  added  to  the  roll 
of  nobility,  that  Pop  >  Bene<lict  XIV.  found  it  necessary  to  prohibit  bv  a.  bull  the  ad- 
mls8i(m  of  any  oin;  whose  ancestors  had  not  filled  certain  high  office  in  the  state. 
The  same  decree  limited  the  number  of  noble  families  to  18T,  designed  the  FatrizU 
ato  R&matw,  out  of  whom  60  of  the  oldest  and  most  illustrious  were  chosen  as 
Nobili  Conaerittiy  otUerw'ise  called  the  Capitoline  nobles,  and  rostiicted  the  admis- 
sion to  the  patri^jialo  for  the  future  to  persons  who  had  rendered  important  services 
to  the  city,  and  whose  names  were  approved  by  the  Congregazione  arafdica,  an  ex- 
ception being  made  in  favor  of  members  of  the  reiguln<r  pontiffs  family.  As  tlio 
families  of  the  con-'crittl  became  extinct,  other  paLrici.m  families,  designated 
Kobili  Ascntti,  were  added  by  the  municipality  to  make  up  the  number. 

The  titles  at  present  boriie  by  the  Koman  nobility  are:  1.  Prince  or  Duke, 
gnnerally  so  called,  but  ofllci  lly  designed  **  Barone  Romano  "—a  title  acquired  by 
the  Borghesi,  Rospigliosi,  and  others  from  popes  of  their  respective  families;  In 
the  case  of  the  Colonnas,  Dorias,  Odescalclii,  &c,  from  royal  or  imperial  erection; 
and  in  other  instances— as  the  C  letani  and  Massimi^from  investiture  by  the  pope 
as  a  temporal  sovereign.  2.  Marquis  and  Count ;  many  of  tluse  aro  provincial 
nobles,  with  titles  generally  derived  from  small  feudal  tMuirrs,  of  which,  in  some 
instances,  it  would  by  difficult  to  shew  the  diploma,  or  point  out  thp  p^:riod  of  crea- 
tion. In  some  parts  of  the  Papal  States  it  is  understood  that  every  head  of  a  noble 
house  is  a  marquis ;  and  in  the  March  of  Ancona,  Sixtus  V.  conferred  the  right  Uk 
bear  the  title  of  count  on  all  who  were  of  noble  blood  at  the  period.  3.  Knights 
(Cavalierf)^  a  designation  given  to  all  who  wear  a  Roman  order,  to  Knights  of  Mmta, 
atid  genemlly  to  younger  sons  of  the  titled  nobility.  4.  Princes,  who,  with  the 
sanction  of  the  pope,  have  punrhased  honors  along  with  ancient  fiefs,  that  carried 
with  them  ducAl  or  princely  titles,  most  of  them  novi  hominesj  as  the  Torlonias. 
Titles  do  not  descend  to  the  younger  members  of  the  family :  it  is  the  geuei'al  usage 
for  the  head  of  the  house  to  bear  the  most  ancient  title,  while  the  eldest  son,  on  ms 
marriage,  assumes  the  second  in  point  of  antiquity.  The  title  is  sometimes  the 
family  name,  sometimes  the  name  of  a  feudal  posseiffeion.  The  proper  designation 
of  the  y  .unger  branches  of  titled  families  is  **  del  Priucipi,"  '•  dei  Duchi,^»  "  del 
Marches!,"  Ac. 

The  nobility  of  Spain  boasts  of  a  special  antiquity  and  purity  of  blood,  a  descent 
from  warriors  and  conquerors  alone,  without  the  infusion  ot  any  of  the  elements 
deiivcd  from  the  church,  law,  and  comnierce  that  are  to  be  foimd  m  other  countries. 
*'  Hidaliio  "  {hijo  d'algo.wm  of  somebody,  not//?tt«  nnllius)  is  a  terra  which  implies 
gentility  or  nobility.  The  hidalgo  alone  has  in  strictness  a  right  to  the  title  ''Don,** 
which,  like  *'  Sir  "  of  our  knights  and  baronets,  requires  the  fMJunct  of  the  Christian 
n.inie.  When  the  Christian  name  is  omittod,  the  title  "Sefior"  instead 
is  prefix  d  with  the  addition  of  "de."  '*  Don "  has  latterly  been  used 
by  persons  who  have  no  proper  claim  to  it  about  as  extensively  as 
"Esquire"  in  England.  Hidalguia,  till  recently,  conferred  important  privi- 
leges and  immunities.  The  higher  nobility  are  styled  Grandees ;  formerly  the 
title  was  "  ricohombre,  "  nnd  the  ceremonial  of  creation  consisted  in  granting  the 
right  of  assaniing  the  pennon  and  caldron  (pe^i  y  co^dera)— the  one  the  rallying 


y  Google 


i  OQQ  Noc«r« 

ensign  of  command,  t'le  other  of  maintenance  of  followers.  In  contradistfoction 
from  ihe  Knindeen,  tlie  class  of  uobiliiy  l)elow  them  are  C!»lled  Ion  TiUdadoB  ds 
CuiUilla.  Ked  blood  is  said  To  flow  iu  the  veins  of  the  bidalgo,  blue  in  that  of  the 
grandee.  Fonnerly  there  were  tiireo  classes  of  grandees,  whose  nnuk  of  distinction 
was  tins— tliat  a  grandee  of  tlie  first  class  was  entitled  to  pni  on  his  hat  iu  the  rcyal 
presence  before  the  king  spoke  to  him ;  ttie  second,  after  the  king  spoke  to  him ; 
the  third,  after  the  king  had  spoken  and  he  hud  replied.  The  st  cond  and  third 
chisses  are  now  absorb^  into  thefii-st.  Of  the  grandees,  Konie  bear  the  title  of 
duke,  some  of  marqnis,  some  of  count;  but  it  is  tne  ambition  of  every  grandee  to 
nuite  iu  himself  as  many  graudeeships,  or  have  as  many  haUy  as  tt)e  phrase  is,  aa 
he  can.  Tliis  is  effected  by  tlie  mariiage  of  heiresses  thr<  ugh  whom  grandezza  de- 
scends, and  whose  names  and  titles  are  assumed  by  their  huel>auds.  An  euormooff 
accumulation  of  titles  is  sometimes  found  in  the  person  of  one  gnindee.  Titles  as 
well  as  estates  go  only  to  heirs  of  entail.  The  titnlare  of  Castile  are  designed 
"  vaestra  senoiia ; "  in  common  parlance,  •*  ucia."  The  title  of  Baron  Is  little  used  in 
Spain.  Physically  and  mentally,  the  grandees  have  degenerated  from  their  auces- 
ton:,  and  they  have  not  the  influence  at  court  and  in  the  counirjr  which  landed  prop- 
erty ought  to  give  them.  Most  of  them  reside  at  Madrid,  cliuginj^  to  their  nominal 
rank  and  real  nullity,  while  they  are  practically  excluded  from  all  the  functions  of 
state. 

In  Bnssia,  what  nobility  existed  before  Peter  the  Great  was  of  a  patriarchal  nol 
a  feudal  kind ;  but  in  his  anxiety  to  assimilate  everything  to  a  western  standard,  the 
cz  ir  took  tlie  existing  aristocracies  of  slates  quite  differently  sitnated  as  the  model 
to  which  to  approximate  the  fortunate  of  his  own  subjects.  The  Rnssian  nobles 
have  ever  since  been  enlarging  their  privileges  by  encroachments  on  tliose  under 
them.  Before  Moscow  was  burned,  the  mass  of  the  nobles  connected  with  the  court 
lived  there  in  great  splendor,  and  along  with  their  domestic  serfs  constituted  half 
the  population  of  that  city. 

The  preser^'atlon  of  noble  blood,  untainted  by  plel)eian  Intermixture,  has  often 
been  reckoned  a  matter  af  much  moment.  In  Spain  most  of  all,  this  purity  of 
liaef^e  lias  been  jealously  guarded.  In  the  German  empire,  no  snccession  was 
allowed  to  fens  holding  immediately  of  the  emperor,  nnles  boih  parents  belonged  to 
the  higher  nobility.  In  Franco,  the  offspring  of  a  gentleman  by  a  plebeian  mother 
was  noble  ill  a  question  of  inheritance  or  exemption  from  tribute,  but  could  not  be 
Jweived  into  any  order  of  chivalry.  Letters  ot  nobility  were  sometimes  granted  to 
fKiusiate  persons  in  this  position.  It  is  in  Germany  still  important  for  many  pur- 
poses to  possess  eight  or  sixteen  quarterings,  i.  e.,  to  be  able  to  shew  purity  of  blood 
for  four  or  five  generations,  the  father  and  mother,  the  two  grandmothers,  the  four 
great-grandmothers ;  -and  also,  in  case  of  the  sixteen  quarteiings,  the  eight  great- 
great-grandmothers,  having  all  been  entitled  to  coat-armor.  Among  the  higher 
grades  of  the  peerage  in  England,  a  considerable  number  may  be  pointed  out  who 
00  not  possess  this  complete  nobility.  It  is  in  Scotland  more  usual  and  more  re- 
parded,  both  among  peers  and  entitled  gentry,  where  the  eight  or  sixteen  quarttr- 
iiigs  are  stil  in.  use  to  be  displayed  on  t  he  funeral  epcntcheon.  At  some  of  the  minor 
German  courts,  the  sixteen  quarter uigs  were  not  unfrequently  an  illusion,  diplomas 
being  granted  in  the  abi^ence  of  a  full  pedigree,  to  declare  the  parties  as  noble  as  if 
they  had  sixteen  ancestors. 

^  NOCE'RA,  or  Nocera  Dei  Paaja'nf,  a  town  of  South  Italy.  In  the  province 
of  Salerno,  eight  miles  north-west  of  the  town  of  Salerno,  and  on  the  highway 
fmm  that  town  to  Naples.  It  carries  on  linen  and  woollen  manufactures.  Pop. 
8519.  ^ 

NO'CTURN  (Lat,  tM)cf«m«w,  recited  "  by  night  ^ ).  Under  the  head  Breviary 
(q.  v.)  Ims  been  explained  the  general  order  of  the  services  of  the  canonical  honi-s, 
i"  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  service  of  Matins  on  Sundays  and  festivals 
J»»  divided  into  three  nocturns,  each  of  which  consists  of  three  (or  more)  psalms  imd 
tliree  kmim.  The  lessons  are  either  from  the  Scriptures,  from  the  life  of  a  saint,  or 
from  a  homily  of  some  Father.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  recitation  of  the 
serMce'*  by  night." 

NO'CITJLE  ( Vemertilio  noetula),  the  largest  British  species  of  Bat  (q.  v.),  being 
•eany  three  iuchea  long  without  the  tail,  which  is  fully  an  inch  and  a  half.    The  ears 


y  Google 


%^  800 

are  oval  trinngaltir,  shorter  than  the  head ;  the  mazdc  is  fthort  and  blnot.  The  N.  if 
oulyseeii  on  the  wiug  during  h  short  part  of  the  year,  retiring  eiirly  iu  aatuniii  to 
'  hollow  trees,  caves,  or  under  the  eaves  of  buiidings,  where  mauy  are  sometiiutas 
found  together. 

NODAL  POINTS,  Lines,  and  Sections.  When  a  string  or  metallic  cord,  nud'^ 
strong  tension,  is  miidu  to  vibrate,  we  hear,  besides  the  principal  bonnd,  several  sen- 
ondary  and  shriller  sounds ;  these  ar^i  denoiuinated  harmonic  s^onuds,  and  are  pru- 
duccd  each  by  a  ceriain  portion  of  the  cord  which  vibrates  independently.  Furtln  r 
iiivestigatiou  has  shewn  that  every  vibrating  string  is  divided  into  a  numi)er  of  por- 
tions aUernatelv  vibrating  in  op)>08ite  directions,  and  that  the  i>0!nt^  which  separate 
these  pfirtious  from  each  other  are  at  rest  These  points  are  icnown  a^  nodai}wrntSf 
and  Mieir  sitnutiou  may  bo  foim<l  by  placing  small  pieces  of  paper  on  an  exteiKled 
string,  apd  causing  it  to  vilJMte;  the  points  from  which  thepiec»#  of  paper  have 
not  been  diaplacetfare  the  nodiU  points.  If  a  plate  of  ^huss  or  metal  be  hefd  in  ttie 
hand,  .md  a  well-rosined  fiddle-bow  be  drawn  across  the  edge,  particles  of  fine  diut 
previously  placed  on  the  plate,  will  arrange  themselves  in  lines,  shewing  ttiat  aloD| 
these  lines  no  viliration  lias  taken  place ;  these  lines  are  nodal  tinea,  and  are  found 
in  most  cases  to  group  I hemseives  together  into  geometrical  flgnres,  and  occasion- 
ally to  present  the  most  beautiful  designs.  «  The  arrangement  of  the  nodal  lines  de- 
I lends  on  the  point  by  which  the  plate  is  held,  and  on  the  form  of  the  plate  itselt 
limilarly,  if  a  column  of  air  in  a  wholly  or  p^utiaily  closed  tube  be  acted  npou  by 
the  force  of  the  breatli  applied  throui^h  a  hole  at  any  point  in  its  length,  the  column 
vdl\  divide  itself  into  cylindrical  portions  each  in  a  state  of  vibration,  and  separated 
from  one  another  bv  transverse  sectional  portions  in  which  the  air  is  at  rest;  these 
latter  sections  are  known  as  nodal  sections, 

NODDY  {Meaaloptenia  or  Andm)j  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family  LaridoB,  differ- 
ing from  terns  in  huviiM^  tiie  bill  sligiitly  angular,  thus  exhibiting  an  approach  to 
gnll->,  and  the  tail  not  forked  but  Roinewiiat  wedge-sitaped.  Only  one  t^pecies  is 
KUOM'U  (Af.  or  A.  8toiidu4)i  a  bird  widely  diffused  botit  in  the  northern  and  sonthera 
liumit«phure9,  and  familiar  to  sailors,  not  only  as  often  seen  skimming  over  the  water 
in  qu -t^t  of  fisiies,  but  also  sa<  not  tiufrequently  ali^htin^  on  vessels,  and  particolftrly 
diu'ing  the  night,  suff'-rinir  itself  to  be  taken  by  the  hand.  At  its  breeding-places 
also,  where  not  accustomed  to  the  visits  of  man,  it  scarcely  gets  out  of  the  way, and 
tiie  female  sits  undisturbed  ou  the  nest,  Uence  it  commonly  i>hares  with  the  Boebj 
the  repniation  of  unusual  stupidity,  it  is  a  )Out  fifteen  or  sixteen  inches  long,  from 
the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  the  general  color  being  a  brownieh-DlncL 
The  N.  is  a  rare  visitaut  of  the  Briti.«h  shores,  but  is  very  abiinduut  iu  wanner  lati- 
tudes ;  and  ou  some  of  the  keu9  of  the  Wet<t  Indies,  and  other  islets  of  different 
parts  of  the  world,  it  breeds  in  immense  numbers.  Particular  islets  seem  to  be 
specially  selected  as  the  breeding-places  of  noddies ;  and  there  their  nests  are  some- 
times so  closely  placed  that  it  is  not  easy  to  w:ilk  among  them.  Each  nest  generally 
contains  three  Ci^gs,  about  two  inches  long,  which  are  veiy  good  to  eat,  and  are  in 
some  places  colfocted  in  great  numbers. 

NODBS,  in  Astronomy,  are  the  two  points  in  which  the  orbit  of  a  planet  Inter- 
tectd  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  the  one  throu^i  which  the  planet  passes  froin  the 
soath  to  the  north  side  of  the  ecliptic  being  called  the  ascending  node,  and  the 
other  the  descending  node.  As  all  the  bodies  of  the  solar  system,  whctlier 
planets  or  comets,  move  in  orbits  variously  inclined  to  the  ecliptic,  the  orbit  of  esch 
possesses  two  noties,  and  a  line  drawn  joining  these  two  points  is  called  the  line  of 
nodea^il  each  body.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add,  that  as  the  earth  mov<(S  iu  the 
plane  of  the  ecliptic  she  has  no  nodes. '  The  places  of  the  nodes  are  not  fixi'd  points 
on  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  but  are  in  a  constant  state  of  fluctuation,  sometime9  ad- 
vancing (eastward),  and  at  other  times  receding  (moving  west  waiti).  This  motion  is 
produced  by  the  mutual  attractions  of  the  planets,  which  tend  to^lraw  each  of  tliem 
out  of  the  plane  of  its  orbit ;  and  it  depends  upon  the  relative  pos>itions  of  the  planets 
with  rtfspect  to  another  planet  whether  that  planet's  nodes  shall  advance  or  rtn-ede. 
On  the  whole,  however,  the  majority  of  possible  '*  relative  positions,"  or  conJigwrOi' 
tione,  as  they  are  called,  is  !n  favor  of  a  retrograde  motion  ;  and  we  find  by  obnerva- 
tion.tiiat  in  an  average  of  many  revolutions  round  the  sun  a  constant  retrogradatioa 
of  the  node  Uket  place.    The  deternEUnatlon  of  this  retrogradatiou  in  the  c««e  <tf  the 


y  Google 


301  sn- 

piAnets  is  a  most  complicated  problem,  w  the  sepnrate  action  of  each  on  the  others 
na!*  to  be  taken  into  acconitt ;  bat  in  the  case  uf  the  moon'is  nodes,  the  iuimenfseTy 
preponderating  attraction  of  the  earth,  and  Its  great  relative  magnitude  as  compar<  d 
Avith  the  moon,  enable  us  to  throw  out  of  account  any  other  di»tnrbiiigii)flaenc«^  an<l 
at  the  9aaie  time  to  uzliibit  clearly  ttie  cain^e  of  this  mutiou  of  the  nodes.  SuppofM'  tlie 
luooh  to  have  attidued  her  greatest  north  Itititude,  and  to  be  descending  townrdn  the 
ecliptic,  and  tlie  earth  to  l)e  in  longitnde  between  her  and  her  pievFouij 
ditftceudingnode,  then  the earth*8  attraction  will  tend  to  depress  the  moou^s  <rbit, 
and  cause  ner  to  descend  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  sooner  than  she  would  other- 
wise have  done ;  in  this  case  we  have  a  retrogradation  of  the  node.  Again,  sui>- 
posing  the  moon  placed  as  before,  but  the  earth  in  advance  of  the  line  of  nodes,  then 
ihe  e^irtii's  attraction  will  tend  to  draw  the  moon  foi'ward  in  her  ori>it  so  as  to  meet 
the  ecliptic  in  apoiiitl)eyond  the  previous  descending  node  ;  in  this  case,  the  moon's 
node  has  advanced.  As  in  the  case  of  the  planet^*,  however,  the  retrograding  ten- 
dency preponderates.  The  average  annual  retrogradation  of  the  nodes  is  very 
small  in  th  >  case  of  the  planets,  but  considerable  in  that  of  the  moon.  See  Moon. 
In  calculatiug  the  courses  of  the  planets,  the  **  length  "of  the  ascending  nr)de,  or 
ii3  distance  m  longitude  from  the  vernal  equinox  is  a  most  important  element  See 
Okbit. 

NODES,  in  Botany.    See  Stem. 

NODES  are  swellings,  most  commonly  of  an  oblonsr  form,  which  occur  on  super- 
ficial bones,  such  as  the  tibia,  ulna,  clavicle,  and  frontal  bone,  and  are  due  to  a 
syphilitic  taint,  to  scrofula,  or  to  rheumatism.  Their  immediate  cause  is  the  Infil- 
tration of  lymph  or  serum  into  the  periosteum,  or  between  It  and  the  Iwne.  The 
treatment  depends  so  essentially  on  the  consritution  of  the  patient,  and  the  primary 
cuuse  of  the  swelling,  that  it  would  be  inexpedient  to  enter  into  any  detail  regarding 
it 

NODIITR,  Charles  E.,  an  eminent  French  liftferateur,  was  bom  at  BeJ»an$on,  29th 
April  1783 ;  other  authorities  g!ve  1780  and  1781.  His  father  was  a  distiugniched 
Liwyer,  who  warmly  embraced  the  t*ide  of  the  revolution,  and  brought  up  his  son  In 
the  same  piinciples.  At  the  age  of  12,  lie  was  a  member  of  the  mmous  society  of 
Arnia  de  la  Conatitutionj  and  hated  tyranny  Avitli  a  most  ideal  and  classical  hatred  ; 
but  he  soon  afterwards  became  a  royalist ;  then,  again  under  Napoleon,  a  republi- 
can ;  and  indeed  during  his  whole  career  shewed  a  want  of  that  robust  oinniunative- 
uess,  without  which  it  is  impoi^sible  for  a  nian  to  become  a  genuine  polilician. ,  He 
died— after  a  life  of  the  hardest  literary  work,  in  wliich  time,  and  even  adnn'rable 
•tttl'nts  wore  wasted  on  inferior  subjects — 27th  Januaiy  1844.  Besides  editions  of  the 
French  clasnics,  grammatical,  lexicographical,  and  poetical  works,  he  wrote  numer- 
ous tales  and  memoirs.  A  poi-tion  of  his  writings  was  collected  and  published  in  12 
vois.  at  Paris,  18S2— 1834,  under  the  incoiTect  title  of  "  (Euvres  Completes." 

NOE'tlANS.    Sec  Patripassians. 

NOGENT  LE  ROTROU,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Enre-et-Lolr, 
is  situated  in  a  pretty  vale  on  the  Huisne,  82  miles  west-south-west  of  Chartres.  It 
is  a  station  on  the  Great  Western  Railway  f ron»  Paris  to  Kennes  in  Brittany.  Pop. 
(1872)  6384.  N.  is  a  long,  well-built  town,  with  a  ruined  castle  iu  the  Gothic  style, 
tlie  rej*idence  of  the  great  Sully. 

NOGGING.  .  Brickwork  built  in  the  panels  of  a  timber-framed  house.  Nogging- 
piec«^  are  horizontal  timbers,  introduced  to  strengthen  the  brickwork. 

ISfOILS,  a  technical  term  employed  for  the  short  and  broken  hairs  which  are 
removed  from  wool  in  the  process  of  combing  and  preiwring  it  for  worsted  maim- 
factttres.  The  noils  arc  used  for  making  inferior  yarns,  and  are  valuable  for  feituig 
puriKwes,  iu  wliich  they  are  largely  employed. 

NO'LA,  an  episcopal  city  of  South  Italy,  in  the  province  pf  Casertn,  16  miles 
ea8t-north-eai»t  of  Naples,  is  built  on  the  site  of  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Campania. 
The  ancient  N.  was  founded  by  the  Ansonians.  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans 
in  theSamnite  war,  S13  B.c.  For  its  prptectloli,  ATarcdllus  in  the  second  Punic  war 
fonglit  iu  its  vicini'y  the  first  battles  iu  which  the '  Romans  were  victorious  over 
.  HauuihaL    Augustus  died  at  Nola,  14  a.d.     Tlie  fii-st  bells  for  Christian  churches 


y  Google 


If6l!  OAO 

Nominathre  ^^^ 

are  wid  to  have  been  cnst  here  \n  the  6th  ceiitnry.  See  Bell.  Nnraerons  coln^ 
aud  beantiful  viwefl  ifiade  of  a  pnUf-yellow  clay,  with  figures  painted  iii  criuw»<»u  ana 
ntaroon,  and  Buppost'd  to  Inive  been  inoiinfnctai^  liere  l)y  i>otterp  from  C!orinth» 
hive  been  found  In  the  vicinity.  N.  was  a  flonrishing  city  in  ttie  middle  aguts  a«<i 
has  (1871)  a  pop.  of  9128,  or  with  8ubnrb<<,  10.771. 

NO'LI  M£  TA'NQERfl,  a  popular  name  for  one  form  of  the  disease  which  his 
been  already  described  under  the  term  Lupus  (q.  v.). 

NO'LL^  PRO'SEQUI,  a  term  used  in  English  Law  to  denote  that  the  plaintiff 
does  not  intend  to  go  further  with  the  action,  or  part  of  the  action,  in  which  citn} 
he  enters^  or  files  a  memorandum,  CMlle<l  a  nolle  pro^<equi,  after  wliich  tlie  action,  or 
part  of  the  action,  is  at  an  end  on  that  point,  aud  tlie  defendant  is  entitled  to  his 
costs  tliereon. 

NOLLEKENS,  Joseph,  was  born  in  London  In  1737.  His  father,  who  was  from 
Antwerp,  and  by  profession  a  jminter,  died  when  lie  wa*»  youny;,  and  his  moilicr,  a 
Frenchwoman,  not  remaining  long  a  widow,  he  received  but  liitle  educiitiou.  Being 
placed  in  the  studio  of  Saieemakcrs  the  sculp  or,  in  Vine  Street,  Piccjidilly,  he 
worked  hard,  and  made  such  pi-Oicress,  that.  In  1759,  the  Society  of  Arts  :i warded  liim 
fifteen  guineas  for  a  group  in  clay;  in  1760,  tliirty  guineas  for  a  bas-relief;  uud 
during  Hie  same  year,  ten  gainea:^  for  a  model  in  clay  of  a  dancing  faun.  Soon 
after  this,  N.  set  out  for  Rome.  He  was  then  in  his  twent.y-third  year;  his  purse 
was  light,  he  had  no  patron  to  support  htm ;  but  he  was  indep  -ndent  in  spirit,  and 
had  been  trained  to  habits  of  economy.  A  bas-relief  he  carved  in  stone  l>rouglit 
him  ten  guineas  from  England,  and  tlie  Society  of  Arts  voted  him  fifty  guiuea"  fur 
his  group  in  marble  of  TImoclea  i).;tore  Alexander.  But  one  of  the  niO"?  important 
event-*  for  him,  after  settling  in  Rome,  was  his  meeting  (jarrick  in  the  Vatican,  who 
immediately  recognized  his  countryman  as  the  young  sculptor  to  whom  thcpri«ei 
had  be  n  aw;U"d  d  by  the  Society  of  Art^,  sat  to  him  for  nls  bust,  and  paid  him 
liandsomely  for  it.  This  wa^  the  first  bast  he  had  been  commissioned  to  nioiiel, 
aud  it  gave  him  the  opportunitv  of  provinj;  wliere  his  streugtli  liy.  lie 
also  also  exi;cuted  ,  in  Rome  a  bust  of  Sterne  in  terra  c  >tt.»,  which  add  hI 
greatly  to  his  reputation.  After  rasiding  ten  years  in  Rome,  lie  returtietl  lo 
London,  took  a  lease  of  extensive  premises  in  Mortimer  Stre^Jt,  where  he  s-t  up 
his  studio  ;  aud  the  repnttition  tie  had  acquired  in  Rome  was  such,  that  ite  immedi- 
ately had  full  employment,  and  within  a  year  after  (in  1771)  was  elected  an  Associate 
of  the  Academy,  and  a  Royal  Acadi^mician  the  following  year.  His  forte  was  in 
modelling  busts.  Into  these  he  infusv'd  much  truth  and  character,  and  he  has  hand  d 
down  the  likenessiss  of  most  of  the  important  |)ersoiia^es  who  figured  in  this  country  . 
in  the  end  of  the  last  and  at  the  commjncem'.mt  of  thi^c. — of  Samuel  Jolinson,  wiio 
was  Ills  friend  and  fre<juent  visitor— of  Pox,  Pitt,  and  other  political  chanicti'JS. 
George  IIL  also  sat  to  him  ;  and  his  manner,  which  exiiibited  pretty  ntronuly  \<\\txt 
is  popularly  sot  doNvn  as  blnnt  and  manly  English  character,  made  him  a  gr^iat  fa- 
vorite with  the  king.  Besides  buses,  N.  executed  numerous  commissions  for  public 
niounments  and  statues.  He  was  select-ed  by  the  Academy,  with  whom  the  choice 
la^,  to  execute  the  govc^'ument  commi.''sion  uf  a  monument  to  the  tliree  captains, 
Manners,  Bayne,  and  Blair,  who  fell  in  Rodney's  great  battle  of  April  12, 178i ;  but 
in  this  he  did  not  rise  above  the  alleeories  of  Neptnn  '■  and  his  Sea-horse,  and  Britati- 
nia  aud  iier  Lion.  His  statue  of  Pitt  fof  Cambridge  was  much  praised  at  the  time. 
He  also  executed,  either  in  ihe  course  of  his  studies,  or  to  meet  the  views*  of  tIio*e 
connoisseurs  wh<)  advocate  high  art,  a  considerable  number  of  classical  and  n»yiln)- 
loglcal  statues  and  groups,  a  faun,  a  Bacchus,  five  Venuses,  Cupid  and  Psyche, 
Paetnsand  Arria,  Ac.  He  died  in  London,  23d  Apiil  1823.  His  wife,  to  whom  he 
had  been  long  married,  and  who  liad  brought  him  some  fortune,  dred  a  few  year-* 
before  him.  He  had  no  children,  and  liis  great  wealth,  npwtu^s  of  jC200,0(W,  whs 
left  to  certahi  friends,  burdened  with  some  legacies  and  annuities  to  his  old  a:^ 
sistanta  und  servants. — See  Cunningham's  **  Lives  of  British  Artists,"  &c 


fixed  habitation,  but  move  about  for  convenience  of  pasture.    The  nomad  lri')e« 
are  of  a  higher  gmde  of  civilis'atiou  than  those  that  live  by  huntiiig  aud  fleblns,  bat 


NO'MADS  (Qr.  nemein,  to  tend  or  feed),  the  name  eivn  (originally  bv  the 
Greeks)  to  those  tribes  which,  depending  chiefly  on  their  fl<)ck8  and  nerds,  have  no 
^     J  !...-.._.._      ,    .  ...  -  .  .        .     ^^    The  nomad 

lilting  aud  flebl 

y  Google 


OfkO  Noll 

mnck  inferior  to  those  enifapred   in   agricitldiro   nnd   mainifactnrop.      They   nre 
very  jreiierally  addicted  to  robl)cry.  Mid  reudily  eiig:;ge  iu  jigereetjive  war,  bo  that 
they  have  in  qaeiitiy  become  conquerors  of  exfeusive  ctUtlvat^  coaiitiiev,  an  iu  the 
iuetanees  of  I  he  Hniis,  Arabs,  aua  Tarijiirs.    llieie  are  now  few  nomads  iu  £iiro|M*, 
and  the^e  ouly  in  the  ftepix«  u&ar  the  Black  Sea,  and  ihe  regions  of  tlie  utmoct 
north,  where  cultivation  is  impossible.    Almost  all  the  Fil^ll^h,  Mougoliiin.  and 
Turkish  tribes  and  the  tribes  formed  by  uiiztiA*e  of  these  racfP,  in  the  ^tt'ppcs  and  • 
deserts  of  Central  and  Northern  Asia  are  nomads,  also  the  Kurds  and  the  Bu<u<uins,  | 
inauy  of  tbo  tribes  of  Africa,  aud  the  Guuchos  aud  some  of  the  other  Indian  tribes  \ 
in  North  aud  South  America. 

NO'MBRfi  DE  DI'OS,  a  town  of  Mexico,  35  miles  south-east  from  Durango,  in 
amoaiitaiuoas  district.    Near  it  are  rich  silver  mines.    Pop.  TOGO. 

NO'MBRIL  1  OINT,  in  Heraldry.    See  Escutchbon. 

NOME,  a  term  nsed  iu  the  ancient  Greek  music  to  deuote  auy  melody  determined 
by  inviolaole  rules. 

NCMINALISM.  This  word  refers  to  a  celebrated  controversy  of  the  middle 
ages,  reniwcting  « he  nature  of  onr  general  or  abstract  ideas.  It  was  contt-nded  by 
some  that  abst-ractions — as  n  circle  hi  the  abstract,  Ix-anty,  right — had  a  real  existence 
apart  from  round  things,  beautiful  oi>iects,  right  actions.  This  was  called  Realism. 
Those  that  held  the  oiiposite  view  were  called  Nominalists,  because  they  malutaim-d 
that  there  is  nothing  general  but.  names;  the  name  '* circle  "  is  applied  to  everything 
that  is  round,  and  i»  a  general  name;  but  no  indt-peudent  fact  or  property  exit'is 
cwresponding  to  the  name.  There  is  nothing  in  a  general  name,  they  say,  but  a 
declaration  of  resemblance  among  a  nuuiber  of  things;  all  things  that  the  nan>e  is 
applied  to,  resemble  one  anotlier  in  some  point,  which  po.nt  of  resemblance  the 
mmd  can  consider  apart  from  the  ])oiuts  of  oifference;  this  act  of  i«>olated  c<  nsid- 
eraiiou  being  what  is  culk  d  the  power  of  abrifraelion.  We  can  be  engaged  in  think- 
ing of  the  smell  of  a  rose,  we  can  compare  it  with  other  sweet  Oflors,  and  spi  culate 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  nuilerial  that  gives  the  o<=or,  or  as  to  the  pleasure  that  we  de- 
rive from  it ;  till  this  is  a  process  of  abstract  thinking,  but  it  would  not  of  itself  suf- 
fice to  prove  that  Ihe  odor  has  a  separate  existence.  We  might  also  confine  our  at- 
tention to  the  mere  form,  or  outline  of  the  ros*-,  and  con. pare  it  with  other  forms; 
bat  we  should  be  still  less  able  to  affirm  the  indei>endent  existeuqc  of  this  particuhir 
form. 

Realism  nmst  be  traced  back  to  Plato's  system  of  Ideas,  or  the  eternal  and  inde- 
pendent existence  of  general  attrihuteH,  from  which  the  concrete  embodiments  were 
oerived.  There  existed  in  the  Divine  Mind,  accoi-ding  to  Plato,  patterns,  jnodels, 
or  archetypes,  according  to  which  individnals  were  lonned.  The  archetype  circle 
wastiie  origin  of  all  actual  round  things.  Aristotle  deni<  d  the  separate  existence  of 
ttwse  general  forms,  and  held  that  they  existed  only  in  connection  with  matter,  or 
with  ohjects  in  the  concrete.  The  Stoics  repudiated  unlversals  In  both  senses.  The 
Aristotelian  view  constituted  the  Scholastic  Realism,  and  prevailed  until 
the  11  c.,  when  a  re-action  took  place  in  favor  of  the  Stoical  doc- 
trine, headed  by  Rosceliu  of  Compidgne  and  John  the  Sophist,  This  was  tlio 
commencement  of  Nominalism.  The  celebrat*  d  Abelard  was  a  disciple  of  Roscelin, 
«ik1  induced  large  numbers  to  depart  from  the  Realistic  notions,  whicli  were  identi- 
fied at  the  time  with  religious  orthodoxy.  The  controversy  raged  with  gi*eat  violence 
,  through  the  IStli  centaiy.  Thomas  Aquinas  and  Duns  Scotns,  in  the  following 
•oJtary,  gave  their  powmul  adhesion  to  Realism.  In  the  14ih  c,  William  Occan«, 
to  Kuffliwi  Franciscin  friar,  and  a  pupil  of  Scotus,  revived  the  advocacy  of  Nominal- 
fan,  which  was  once  moreroainiamed  i)y  a  number  of  eminent  men,  in  spite  of  the 
"ostili^  of  the  church,  carried  the  length  of  penM^ution.  The  controversy  subsided 
W  the  Reformation. 

A  middle  view  between  Nominalism  and  Realism  was  held  by  a  few  persons 

when  the  contest  was  at  its  height ;  which  was,  that  although  geuerj.l  properties 

.     luive  no  separate  existence  in  nature,  they  can  be  conceived  in  the  mind  apait  from 

•ny  wmcrete  embodiment.    Thus  we  may  form  an  idea  of  a  circle,  irrespective  of 

■^hidividual  round  body.    This  view  is  spacious,  and  is  tacitly  implied  in  many 

;    Itpiuions  that  have  never  ceased  to  be  held.    See  Genbba libation. 

!       KOHINATIVB.    Sec  Dkclbksiom. 


Ifr:^;.-' 


y  Google 


TTon- Appearance  QH  1 

liOii.BMidfinca  0\/± 


1 


li  oa-Besidenco 

NON-APPEARANCE,  the  term  need  in  the  Law  of  England  to  denote  that  a 

))arly  at^titust  whom  an  action  or  suit  lius  been  commenced  iiaa  not  entered  an  ap* 

I)  aniuce,  which  is  the  wuy  by  which  he  comes  before  the  conrt  to  defend  liis  r^lit. 

In  many  cased,  if  lie  does  not  appear,  the  snit  will  go  on  iu  his  absence,  providea  lie 

.  was  duly  served  with  the  writ  of  summons  ur  bilL 

N0N-A8SU'MPSIT,  is  in  Eu.-lish  Lnv  the  nsual  pica  or  defence  to  an  action 
forbn;achof  a contnictnot  by  deed,  and  means  tliat  the  defendant  denies  that  lie 
broke  the  contnict,  or  that  lliat  there  was  any  contract. 

NON-COMMl'SSIONED  OFFICERS,  in  tlie  British  army,  con^ititnte  n  nnmeron* 
and  very  important  class  in  the  regimental  system  l>etween  the  commissioned  offi- 
cei-s  and  the  men.  As  the  former  are  not  |)ermitted  to  mix  with  the  private  sol- 
dier!*, Ie.4t  familiarity  Mioukl  diminlsti  the  sway  of  absolute  discipline,  it  is  necessnrjr 
to  liave  an  intermediate  class  touvt;rlouk  the  men  in  tlieir  bamicks  and  at  all  times 
when  off  the  parade.  None  are  so  sailed  for  this  duty  as  tl»e  best  conducted  of  the 
men  themselves,  who  are  promoted  by  selection  to  non-commissioned  rank,  aud 
hold  many-  privileges  aud  powers  unattainable  by  the  privates.  The  non-commis- 
sioned omcers  comprise  the  scrjoants-mijor,  all  the  Serjeants,  the  trumiH^erv 
drummers,  and  bnglers,  and,  in  the  life  Guards  and  Roval  Horse  G»and« 
only,  the  corporals*.  They  can  be  reduced  to  tlie  ranks  by  sentence  of  » 
court-martial,  or  by  their  colonel-commandant;  but  not  by  a  lifUfeiiHUt- 
colonel  nor  by  any  junior  officer.  Nou-commi«<sioned  officers  are  entitled  to 
qmiriers  for  their  wives,  or  lod^ng-moncy  in  lien  of  quarters.  Accustomed 
themselves  to  ol)ey,  the  non-com nnssioned  officers  are  admirable  assistants  in  pre- 
serving discipline;  veteranK,  to  whom  military  life  is  a  second  nature,  they  ar  •louki'd 
up  to  by  their  comrades  as  examples,  to  lead  in  battle  or  to  tejich  in  drill  The  nou- 
cummissioned  officers  liave  a  Mess  (q.  v.)  to  themselvs.  In  a  batttiliou  of  infauujr 
at  home,  there  were,  in  1874,  5S  non-commissioned  officers  to  690  rank  and  file;  iu 
India,  66  to  820 ;  but  the  rank  and  file  may  be  greatly  augmented  without  affecting 
the  numb -r  of  non-commit«sioned  officers.  In  the  whoL*  British  army  (Earopeaii) 
for  the  year  1874— TS75,  there  were  20,940  uou-commission<!d  officers.  Tlu-*  rank  is 
a  necei^sitv  in  all  armies ;  iu  France,  the  non-commissioned  officers  are  termed  ' 
officizrs  ;  m  Gennany,  unter-ojizieren, 

NONCONFO'RMISTS,  a  name  sometimes  given  generally  to  all  sectaries  who, 
at  any  period  in  English  history  since  the  establishment  of  Protestant i!*m,  linv«i 
refused  to  conform  to  the  doctrine  and  practices  of  the  Episcopal  Chnnh.  It  ip, 
however,  more  frequently  used  in  a  restricted  sense  to  denote  tlie  2000  clergymen 
who  iu  1662— two  years  after  the  Restoration— left  the  Churtih  of  England,  rattier 
than  submit  to  the  conditions  of  tlie  Act  of  Uniformity,  which  required  uf  every 
beneficed  minister,  every  fellow  of  a  college,  and  even  every  schoolmaster,  unfeigned 
assent  to  all  and  everything  conUiined  iii  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  The  ejected 
ministers  swelled  the  rank»(  of  the  Preshyieriaus  aud  Independents,  the  latter 
of  wliom  are  sometimes  called  Nonconformists. 

NON-  EFFE'CTIVB  (Fr.  noih-aeticiti),  is  the  term  applied  to  the  portion  of  the 
personnel  of  tiie  army  or  navy  not  on  active  service  or  in  immediate  readiue8i<f'-r 
active  service.  It  thus  comprises  all  officers  on  retired  or  holf-oay,  pensiuner!*,  aud 
su|)enmnuatt*d  officers.  In  a  iorce  liable  to  frequent  augmentations  aud  reductioiM, 
tiie  ncm-effective  charge  miwt  be  considerable,  and  a  large  retirement  is  necessary, 
ill  ordt-r  to  rapid  promotion.  The  great  French  war,  also,  witli  the  reductions  iol- 
lowing  it,  bequeathed  to  the  British  an  annual  non-effective  charge  of  several 
I  millions,  which  is  not  yet  wholly  expnmred.  In  1878-1879,  the  non-effective  charges 
ware  ^62,344,912  for  tlie  army,  and  ^61,887,671  for  the  navy,  bomg  upwards  of  16  IK r 
cent,  ou  tin.'  gross  cost  of  the  two  services. 

NON-ENTRY,  In  the  Law  of  Scotland,  means  that  stale  of  a  fendal  estate  when 
the  last  vassal  has  died,  and  his  successor  has  not  been  invested  or  seised  of  the  laiuU 
On  such  an  occasion,  the  superior  is  entitled  to  what  is  called  a  casualty  of  uou- 
entry,  which  consists  of  the  rent  of  the  feu. 

NON  EST  INVENTUS,  a  technical  term  nsed  in  that  pari  of  the  law  where,  afto-  j 
judgment,  the  sheriff  endeavors  to  arrest  a  party.  If  after  a  reasonable  searcli  be  j 
QftouQt  ftud  ihQ  debtor,  Uq  niafv-a  a  cctara  to  the  court  that  be  haa  not  been  ablu  to  , 


Digitized  by 


Google 


'>  f\  X  Non- Appearance 

*^^'^  .  Non-Res  denoe 

find  the  debtor,  which  ie  shortly  called  ft  retnrn  of  lum  est  inverUvs^  aud  hia  duty  is 
tlieu  dischui-ged  until  u  fresli  writ  Ib  iBsned  to  hlin. 

NONK  (LhL  lioiM,  "  uiuth  "),  one  of  tlie  lesser  Cnuonical  Houn  (q.  v.),  so  called 
from  its  i*ecitation  being  priiuitively  fixed  at  the  uinth  boar. 

NONEa    See  Calei^ds. 

NONFEA'SANCE,  iu  certain  paits  of  the  Law  of  England,  means  the  not  doit  g 
what  one  is  iKmud  to  do. 

NONJOI'NDER,  iu  Buglish  Law,  is  the  omitting  to  johi  all  the  parties  to  tlio 
action  or  suit. 

NONJU'RORS,  the  nnme  given  to  that  portion  of  the  Episcopal  clei^y  of  Englnnd 
wlio  at  the  coronation  of  William  aud  Mury  refused  to  t«ke  tlie  oath  of  ullcgiancf  to 
these  sovereigns,  believing  that  tbey  liad  unlawfully  pos«»ei'8ed  tbemsclvej*  of  tlie 
throne  a))dicated  by  James  II.  They  were  great  champions  of  the  doctrine  of  i>as- 
Five  ol)edieuce  on  the  part  of  subjects  towards  king? ;  and  as  tlie  triumph  of  tl>e  Prince 
of  Orange  was  obtained  fit  the  fxpeuse  of  that  doctrine,  it  was  imposfibie  that  they 
could,  consistently  with  their  antecedents,  acknowledt^e  him  as  their  rightful  king. 
TheHoa»eof  Common^  allowed  them  six  mouths  longer  than  laymen  to  make  up 
their  minds,  but  declined  to  adopt  the  amendment  of  the  Lords,  viiu.  that  the  oath 
should  not  he  imposed  on  the  clergy.  They  refused,  and  were  conseoaently  deprived 
of  their  fees  and  benefices.  The  nonjurors  comprised  Archbishop  Sancroft,  8  bish- 
ops, jjwd  about  400  of  the  inferior  clergy. 

NON-RE'8IDENCE.  the  name  given  in  Church  Law  to  the  offence  of  a  person 
h'llding  a  Spiritual  Benefice  wlio  absents  himself  without  If  gal  jnj«tificai  ion  from  the 
local  precincts  within  which  the  duties  attached  to  the  benefice  are  prescril>ed  to  be 
performed.  Jhe  obligation  of  residence  follows  clrarly  from  every  principle  of  law, 
and  from  the  constant  teedency  to  relaxation  on  the  part  of  the  clergy,  has  l)een  an 
niifaiiine  mihjvct  of  legislation,  ecclei^iastical  and  civil,  from  tiie  very  earlir^t 
tinies.  The  Council  of  Nice  iu  326.  of  Aniioch  in  882,  and  of  Carthage  iu  401  ;  the 
coustitutlons  of  the  popos  froi:\  the  earliest  genuine  document  of  that  clues,  the 
novelA  of  Justinian,  thu  capilularies  of  Charlemagne— nil  speak  the  same  language, 
and  enforce  it  by  the  same  pen.dtifs..  Duruig  the  medieval  period,  and  especially 
duiing  the  unhappy  contests  of  the  western  schism,  great  anuses  pravailed.  The 
whole  sabstauce  of  the  legislation  of  the  Roman  Church  ou  the  subject,  however,  is 
compressed  in  the  decrees  o(  the  Council  of  Trent,  which  are  mainly  contained  in 
the  dec-reee  of  the  XXII.  aud  following  sessions,  **0n  Beformaliou."  The  de- 
crees of  the  council  regard  all  church  dignitaries,  and  others  charged  with  the  cure 
of  souls.  Without  entering  into  the  details,  it  will  suffice  to  say,  that  for  all 
tl»e  penalty  of  absence  without  just  cause,  and  due  permission,  consists  in 
the  forfeiture  of  revenues,  In  a  proportion  partly  varying  with  the  nature 
of  the  benefice,  partly  adjusted  according  to  the  duration  of  the  absence. 
For  each  class,  moreover,  a  certain  time  is  fixed,  beyond  which,  during  twelve 
months,  absence  cannot  be  permitted.  The  duly  is  imposed  on  persons  named  in 
the  'aw  of  reporting  t-o  the  ecclesiastical  sujieriors  case b  of  prolonged  absence.  The 
s.-ime  legiialation  has  been  confirmed  by  most  of  the  receut  coucordats,  and  is  en- 
forced bv  the  civil  law  of  each  coutitry.  In  England,  the  peualties  for  non-residence 
lire  regulated  by  1  and  8  Vict,  c^  lOd.  Under  tlas  act,  an  incumbent  absenting  him- 
Bc'lf  without  the  bishop's  licence  for  a  period  exceeding  three,  and  not  exceeding  six 
nioDths,  forfeits  one-third  of  the  annual  income ;  if  tlie  absence  exceed  six,  and  does 
not  exceed  eight  months,  one-half  is  forfeited ;  and  if  it  be  of  the  whole  year,  three- 
fourlhdofthe  income  are  forfelt«'d.  The  persons  excused  flom  ttie  obiigulion  of 
regidence  by  the  canon  law  are  sick  persons,  persons  engaged  iu  leaching  the  theo- 
logical sciences  iu  api)roved  placi'S  of  study,  and  canons  m  immediate  attendaiice 
upon  the  bishop  (**  canonici  a  latere")^  who  ought  not  to  exceed  two  in  nnmbtr.  By 
tlie  aci  1  and  2  Vict,  c  106,  heads  of  colleges  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  the  wanlens 
of  Darliam  University,  and  the  head-masters  of  Eton,  Westminpter,  and  Winchester 
Schools  are  generally  exeinpU-d,  ami  temporary  exemptions  from  residence  are  re- 
c  guized  in  otlu-r  cur>e8,  which  it  would  be  tedious  to  detail.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
CUurcli,  besides  the  central  legislation,  most  of  the  orovincial  aud  dloceBuu  statutes 
coutaUi  Bi)ecial  provisions  on  iiie  subject  of  uou-rcBiaence. 


y  Google 


Non-Suit  V-  OCiCt 

Norfolk  ^^O 

NON-SUIT  is  a  legal  torm  in  England,  which  means,  that  where  a  plaintiff  in  a 
jnnr  trial  finds  ho  will  lose  his  case  owing  to  some  defect  or  accident,  he  is  allowed 
to  f)e  uon-enited,  instead  of  allowing  a  verdict  and  jndgineut  to  ge  for  tlie  de- 
fendant The  consequence  is,  thut  the  piaiiitifiE  has  topay  the  defeiidniit's  costs; 
bnt  he  can  bring  a  fresh  action,  if  he  can  get  over  the  difficnlty  that  rendered  a  nou- 
suit  necessary  or  expedient. 

NOOSSA.    See  Moluccas. 

NOO'TKA  DOG,  a  large  kind  of  dog,  common  in  a  domesticated  state  among 
the  natives  of  the  vicinity  of  Nootka  Sound.  It  has  erect,  pointed  ears.  It  is  chie^ 
rcniarksible  for  the  extreme  abundance  of  its  long  woolly  hair,  which,  wtien  shorn 
off,  holds  together  as  a  fleece,  and  is  spun  and  woven  into  garments.  The  intro- 
duction of  this  woQi-bearing  dog  into  other  countries  lias  been  suggested,  bat  not 
yet  attempted. 

NOOTKA  SOUND,  an  inlet  on  the  west  coast  of  Vancouver's  Island,  British 
North  America,  in  lat.  4S°  85^  u.,  long.  iW>  85'  w.  Its  entrance  is  protected  by  an 
iHland  of  the  same  name,  and  the  Sound  can  be  entered  on  both  sides  of  the  island. 
It  extends  inland  for  10  ndles  in  a  north-north-east  direction;  bnt  the  greatest 
breadth  of  water  is  not  more  than  600  yards.  Numerous  small  coves  and  inlets  are 
found  around  the  rocky  shores.    It  affords  good  anchorage. 

NORD,  the  most  northerly  dennrtment  in  France  (whence  its  name),  correspond- 
ing with  tiie  former  province  of  French  Flanders,  and  bordering  on  Belgium  and  the 
Strait  of  Dover.  Area,  2186  sq.  miles :  pop.  (1876)  1,619,586.  It  is  composed  of  two 
parts,  or  ut  least  narrows  near  the  middle  at  Armentj^res,  on  the  Lys,  almost  to  a 
Jim*.  It  is  watered  by  the  Scheldt  and  the  Sambre,  Mitii  their  amnent«i,  and  by 
numerous  canals.  Next  to  that  of  the  Seine,  it  is  the  most  densely  peopled  depart- 
ment in  Franc«\  The  soil  U  fertile,  well  cultivated,  and  yields  more  abnndaut 
harvests  than  any  other  part  of  the  coimtiy :  888.606  acres  are  arable.  The  prin- 
cipal products  are  wheat,  hemp,  beet-root,  vegetabh^s,  tobacco,  and  fruits.  Maun- 
factures  of  lace,  cambric,  linens,  and  beet-root  sugar  are  oxteusively  carried  on.  It 
has  a  nmch  larger  proportion  of  railways,  roads,  and  canals  than  any  of  the  other 
departments,  as  well  as  the  most  important  coal  and  iron  mines.  No  other  depart* 
ment  has  so  many  populous  to\i'ns  and  strong  fortresses  ;  none  adds  so  nmch  to  the 
national  revenue ;  in  none  are  the  people  so  mtelUsent,  so  suscepttiMe  of  cnltare.  or 
00  industriuui>.  In  respect  of  it^-edncaiional  and  benevolent  institutions,  as  well  as 
of  its  learned  societies,  it  ranks  next  to  the  department  of  the  Seine,  'fhc  arroii- 
dissements  are  Lille,  Douai,  Cainbrai,  Valenciennes,  Avesnes,  Haisebrouck,  and 
Dunkerque.    The  chief  town  is  Lille. 

NO'RDEN,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Hanover,  T2  miles  north-west 
from  Oldenbnrg.  and  a  few  miles  from  the  North  Sea,  with  which  it  is  connected  bj 
a  canal.    Pop.  (1871)  5952. 

NO'RDERNEY,  a  small  island  of  the  Prnssian  province  of  Hanover,  lies  three 
miles  off  the  coast  of  East  Friesland,  and  forms  one  of  a  string  of  islands  that  line 
that  coast.  Area  about  4  square  miles;  jpermancnt  pop.  ITTO.  It  has  enjoyed, 
since  1797,  a  great  reputation  qs  a  place  for  sea-bathing,  and  in  the  summer 
season  has  from  1600  to  2000  visitors.  The  little  village  at  the  west  end  <^  the 
island  has  a  very  tastefully-built  dmoersationa-Haus^  130  feet  long.  Trees  do  not 
grow  here. 

NO'RDHAUSEN,  a  flourishing  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  pleasantly  sitnated  at 
tfie  ponthern  base  of  the  Harz  Monntiiins,  on  the  Zorge,  88  miles  north-north-west  of 
Ei-furt.  The  surrounding  country  is  very  feitile  in  com,  and  in  the  vicinity  com- 
mences the  Goldene  ^u«  (Golden  Plain),  a  fertile  valley  watered  by  the  Helme.  It 
contains  u  ^miuisium,  numerous  churCnes,  one  of  which,  St  Blasius,  contains  two 
])ictnres  by  Luke  Cranach.  It  carries  on  a  thriving  general  trade,  is  the  depOt  from 
wliich  the  Harz  Mountains  are  supplied  with  neccisaiios,  and  has  most  extensive 
distilleries  and  considerable  manufactures  of  tobacco,  succory,  chemicals,  cloth, 
leather,  &c.  Its  spirit  distilleries,  of  which  there  are  sixty  in  almost  constant  opera- 
tion, produce  annually  for  export  upwards  of  100,000  hogsheads  of  com-bnuidy. 
Pop.  (1876)  23,676.  


y  Google 


307 


Non-SaU 
Norfolk 

NO'RDLINGEN.  a  town  in  the  wept  of  Bivaria,  Is  eitnatcd  on  the  river  Kger,  44 
iinlKS'  iiorih-wei*t  of  An^sbarg  by  tlie  Munich  »ud  NQmiit-rg  lailwtiy.  It  has  a 
Goihic  church,  with  a  high  tower  and  fine  oigun,  and  manufuctun  8  of  Tyrolese  car- 
ixti*,  liniDS,  and  woollens,  besides  a  hirge  trude  in  feathers.  Pop.  (1876)  7224.  N-  Is 
hl^lonca^ly  interepiing  as  tlie  scene  of  several  Imttles,  the  most  famous  of  which  was 
foavfht,«th  September,  1634,  between  24,000  Swedes  under  Count  Horn  aud  Duke 
BerufaHi-d  of  Saze-Weimar,  aud  45,000  ini|)erialists  under  King  Ferdinand.  The 
furuier  w^  defeated  with  tlie  loss  of  12,000  killed  aud  wounded,  800  baiiuers  and 
ctniidards,  80  cauuons,  aud  several  thousand  priBonei*s,  among  whom  was  Horu 
bim^lf. 

NORE  is  a  sandbank  in  the  estuary  of  the  river  Thames,  4  miles  north-east  of 
Sbeerness,  on  which  there  is  a  floating  light  called  the  Nore  hght,  in  lar.  51®  2»'  u., 
lung.  0°  48'  w.  The  name,  however,  Is  more  commonly  applied  to  the  portion  of 
the  estnury  in  the  viciuity  of  the  Nore  light  and  sand  bank, 

NO'RFOLK,  a  large  and  important  maritime  county  of  England,  bounded  on 
the  north  and  north  <ast  by  the  North  Sea,  and  on  the  sontli  by  I  he  couuty  of 
Suffolk.  Area,  1,356,173  acres;  pop.  (1871)488  511.  Its  c«  ast-line,  extending  from 
Tannouth,  on  the  east,  to  the  moutn  of  tiie  Nen  in  the  Wash,  is  about  100  miles  in 
length.  From  Tarmouth  to  Ilappishnrgh,  the  coast  is  lov  and  simdy  ;  from  Hap- 
pishurgh  to  W«'ybonrne,  it  is  skirted  by  low  cliffs;  aud  west  of  Weybonnie  to  the 
Wash,  where  the  banks  are  in  great  part  dry  at  low-water,  and  where  a  considerable 
t-xteut  of  laud  has  been  reclaimed  from  the  sea  (see  Wash),  it  is  low,  »:nd  covered 
with  sand  or  shingle, .  The  surface  of  tiie  county  is  level,  or  nearly  so,  none  of  the 
ri»ing-gronnds  bente  considered  worthy  of  being  cnlh  d  hills.  The  piincipal  rivers 
are  the  Ouse,  the  Yare,  with  its.  affluents  tlie  Went um  and  the  Wavcney,  aud  the 
Bare.  Couimunication  is  kept  up  by  the  navigable  rivei>-,  and  by  the  Gr.at  Easteru 
Hallway.  The  climate  is  affected  in  spring  particularly  by  cold  north-east  winds, 
but  the  air  is  in  general  dry  and  healthy,  'ine  i^oil  consists  chiefly  of  light  sands 
aud  toams,  and  comprises  a  great  extent  of  laud,  which,  though  naturally  not  fertile, 
has  been  made  so  by  judicious  management.  The  agricuhure  of  the  county  is  in  an 
odvanced  condition,  and  all  the  usual  crops  are  extensively  grown ;  while  that  of 
barley  is  especially  celebrated.  Half  the  acreage  is  devoted  to  rearing  food  for  cattle, 
and  thus  the  necessary  supply  of  manure  is  secured.  Geese  and  turkeys  are  exten- 
^ely  reared  for  the  London  market.  The  county  is  divid<  d  into  three  parts,  Norih, 
South,  aud  West  N.,  each  I'eturniug  two  members  to  the  House  of  Commons.  The 
capital  is  Norwich. 

NORFOLK,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Virginia,  U.  S.,  88  miles  south-east  of 
Richmond,  aud  82  miles  from  the  ocemi.  The  city  is  irregularly  built  on  low  ground, 
and  contains  a  city  hall,  militaiy  academy,  mechanics'  nail,  court-house,  jail,  cus- 
toin-house,  9  hanks,  26  churches.  Its  large  deep  harlM)r  is  del  ended  by  Fort  Cal- 
honu  and  Fortress  Monroe,  ihe  largest  fortress  in  America.  A  government  navy 
yard,  dry  dock,  and  marine  hospital  are  in  the  suburb  of  Qosport  N.  was  built  in 
1736;  hi  1776,  it  was  burned  by  order  of  Lord  Dunniore,  the  Britihh  colonial  govern 
nor.  Ill  1855,  a  large  number  of  the  inhabitants  died  of  yellow  fever.  In  1874,  the 
exports  of  N.  (including  Portsmouth)  amounted  in  value  to  8,906,818 dollars;  and,  in 
the  .«ame  yetir,  the  number  of  vessels  belonging  to  these  ports  was  376.  The  pop- 
tilation  in  1870  was  19,229. 

NORFOLK  ISLAND  lie?  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  1100  miles  east-north-east  of  Syd- 
ney in  Australia,  in  lat.  29°  10'  s.,  and  lonir.  167o  58'  e.  Length,  6  miles ;  breatii,  21^ 
miles;  area,  89fi0  acres.  It  is  the  largest  of  a  small  cluster  of  islands,  compiising  N., 
Nepean,  and  Philip  Islands,  together  with  several  rocky  islet«.  Tlie  coasts  areliigh 
and  stefp,  and  the  surface  generally  uneven,  lising  in  Mount  Pitt  to  upwards  of  1000 
f««t  hi  height.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  well  watered,  and  the  climate  heahhy.  In 
W26,  N.  I.  was  made  a  penal  settlement  by  the  British  government  for  the  worst 
class  of  convicts  8<;nt  out  to  New  South  Wales;  but  the  experiment  was  a  failure, 
Mid  the  establishment  was  broken  up  in  1855.  In  1856,  the  inhabitants  of  Pitcaim 
Inland  {q.  v.)— 194  in  number,  descendants  of  the  mutineers  of  the  "  Bounty  "—were 
hanrferred  hither  by  the  British  government.  In  1871,  the  pop.  waa  481,  thePit- 
titai  community  numbering  297.  ...  ., 


y  Google 


Noric  '  QAQ 

Normandy  ^vO 

NORIC  ALPS.    SeeALM. 

NO'iilUM  is  the  name  axsigned  by  SvaDberg  to  a  metaL  whose  earth  (oroxi^)  \s 
asKOciatt'd  with  zircoui  i  In  Ci^rtuin  varieties  of  the  ndneral  zircon,    hs  exi^uce  is   I 
not  as  yci  d  finitely  es^tabUshed. 

NOliMAIi  SCHOOLS,  iustitiitiouB  where  teachers  are  insrmcted  in  the  principles  '• 
of  their  prufesfion  and  trained  in  the  practice  of  it  The  name  of  Normal  Schoi  I  is 
of  French  origin  {Eco!e  SormaU^  f loiu  l^t  norma,  a  rule  or  model),  and  is  tliai  soi-  ■ 
er:iH>:' need  iu  Scotland;  such  iustitations,  in  Ent^land, areoftenercalliVi^Trainiiie  ' 
Colk-ges;"  and  in  Germany  '* Seniinuriep."  That  in  a'.quiring  knowledge  il»e  iniud 
follows  certain  processi-s,  and  that  any  one  imparting  knowlederc  sbou'd  do  sm  \n 
harmony  wirlj  tlifise  processes,  are  truths  which  s^em  sufiOicientiy  obvious.  It  is  odI/ 
recently,  however,  that  they  liave  secured  mnchattcntioii ;  and  they  are  even  at  tliw 
day  Ueiiburately  denied  by  Homu  men  of  thons^iit,  and  of  the  hitrhest  ediicatioital 
position.  The  recofrnitiou  of  tliestj  tnitluha^j  Ijowevt-r,  bui'U  suflSci.*ntly  t-xtensive 
to  secure  the  institution  in  Gri-at  Britain,  America,  France,  Goruiany,  and  Swiiaer- 
land,  of  schools  in  which  the  principles  of  leaching  form  the  subject  of  «tady,  and 
iu  wliicii  mo<lei  fpeciinims  of  the  art  are  Kiven,  Italy,  and  even  Knssia,  are  follow- 
ing iu  Mie  wake  of  the  countiitjs  nauu-d.  These  schools  ul!*o  afford  a  thorough  couwe 
of  instraction  in  the  subjects  which  arc  taught  in  elementary  Fchools.  The  only 
normal  sciioolfor  traiultfg  the  higher  chiss  of  teachers  for  colleges  and  academies 
exi-ts  in  Paris.  • 

One  of  the  earlie?»t,  if  not  the  oarliest,  normal  school  in  Great  Britain  was  tlie 
8v;8?«ional  School  of  Edinburgh  (1830).  afterwards  developed  into  the  "  General  Asseiii- 
bly'f*  Normal  Institution."  The  tirst  attempt  of  a  similar  kind  in  Entrlund  was  tiv»% 
of  th3  B  ittwrsea  Training  College,  instituted  by  iMr,  irfcerwards  Sir  J.  P.  K.  ShuttJe- 
worth,  a!id  Mr  Taffuell.  Sir  J.  P.  K.  Sliuttleworth  -subsequ-ntly,  acting  as  secretary 
to  th.;  Committee  of  Privy  Coain-il  on  Education,  sng<re.'*ted  measures  which  haw, 
r  -suited  in  the  iuntitntion  of  a>)ont  5 J  colleges  for  the  training  of  teachers  in  Gwtf 
Britain  ill  couuectiou  wiih  the  Establislied  and  Disrien ting  Churches.  These  tWtt 
out  hundreds  of  male  and  female  teachers  annually,  who  Laving,  after  a  two  yean^. 
course  ol  Lrainin<?,  recdved  government  certificates  of  "merit,  oecome  teachers  of 
elementary  schools, 

Thore  luw  been  for  some  years  a  renction  against  the  necessity  of  normal  scbooll^ 
and  their  mainlenauce  at  the  public  expense.  But  this  reaction  can  only  tie  tempo* 
rary,  and  the  great  facts  will  survive,  that  every  subject  cf  instrnctlon  is  b  sttei^^ 
according  to  a  cerlain  method,  and  that  all  methods  are  based  on  the  study  of  tb» 
human  mind.  Tliis  is  a  position  which  it  is  im|)Ossible  perm:inently  to  shake.  Tb» 
real  founders  of  normal  schools  are  those  men  who,  witii  more  or  less  cleurness  and 
width  of  view,  have  brought  prominently  forward  these  prindples.  Such  werePlafO 
and  Qulntilian.  in  ancient  times;  in  more  resent  year?*,  the  rar>si  prominent  names 
have  i)een  Comenins,  Pestalozzi,  Rousseau ;  and,  in  our  own  country,  A8Cuam,MiU«Jo, 
Locke,  Professor  Hllans,  and  Dr  Arnold. 

NORMAN  ARCHITECTCTRE.  As  its  name  implies,  this  style  was  oriiriiiated 
and  chiefly  used  by  the  Normans.  Soon  after  the!  conquest  of  th«  north  of  France, 
they  began  to  erect  churches  and  cjithedrals  in  memory  of  their  victories.  TtMdr 
conquest!;;  supplied  ihem  with  the  means  for  making  these  large  edifice-*.  Thpy  were 
not  contented  with  th«;  small  churches  then  common  in  France,  but  desired  to  ertct 
inouuments  worthy  of  their  gi*eat  conquests.  They  accordingly  expanded  the  «lin>e«- 
sions,  while  to  a  great  extent  retaining  the  style  of  the  buildings  they  found  iu  France, 
They  seem  also  to  have  borrowed  some  of  their  ideas  from  the  Rhine.    See  Goraic 

ABCHIT£CTUBB 

'I'ne  leading  characteristics  of  their  style  were  size  and  inassivenesa.  They 
adopted  the  OiC;L:»Tin  plan  (derived  from  the  Basilici)  of  central  and  side  aiah*; 
and  at  the  oast  end.  they  invariably  placed  a  semicircular  apse.  They  seized  on  t«ic 
tower  ai«  a  distinguishirjg  feature,  and  developed  it  as  their  style  progressed.  The 
ornaments  are  simple  and  of  great  variety;  but  the  mO!«t  common  and  distinctite 
are  I  he  z  ezMg.  billet,  clievron,  nail-hea<1.  &c.  The  windows  and  doors  are  simple, 
with  semicircular  arched  heads— the  former  without  tracery.  The  tympanal  of 
the  do»)r-arch  is  o<casionally  flll<d  with  sculpture. 

The  nave  urchud  are  curried  sometimes  on  single  pUlai-s,  bat  more  frcqiieQlil^Y 


y  Google    . 


OAQ  Norc 

pppedally  as  the  style  advaitced,  on  plere  with  ethaftfi.  The  nhnfts  nre  almo^^t  always 
reces<i>€d  in  nooks  or  (•*  nook  fshiift!* ").  Owing  to  the  greai  size  of  i\*.e  iHiildiogs,  the 
architects  were  anablo  at  first  to  v lalt  the  mifii  aisle,  w  lich,  accordiugly,  haU  usu- 
a  ly  Imd  a  wooden  roof,  the  side  aisles,  only  l>cing>Tanired. 

The  masonry  is  rude;  the  pints  being  large,  and  tiie  stones  generally  nnhewn. 
The  style  prevailed  from  about  >  lie  beginning  of  the  lOih  c  till  the  death  of  Wi  liani 
th-'  Conqneror,  near  the  end  o^  the  llth  centnry.  There  are  many  examples  in 
Normnnily,  the  churchcK  ai  Ca<*n  being  well-known  bnildingsof  iliedateof  William. 
Thii*  Htyle  of  architectnre  was  brought  into  England  by  itie  Normans  at  tin-  Con- 
qne.«*t,  1066.  They  tliere  extended  the  scale  of  the  bniidiug?,  as  they  had  done  in 
Normandy,  preserving,  however,  many  locjil  pecullaritie-*  of  the  Saxon  style,  whith 
tlH'y  found  in  the  conntry.  The  chapel  in  the  White  'I  ower  of  the  Tower  of  London 
i»  the  ejirliest  example  of  pure  Norman  work  in  Sngland.  There  are,  however, 
many  building?,  both  in  England  and  Scotland,  which  date  from  before  the  end  of 
the  12th  c,  when  the  pointecfstyle  began  to  be  used.  Darhani,  Liudi^farne,  Canter- 
bary,  Dnnferndiue  arc  jwirtially  Norman,  liesides  many  other  churches  and  casiU-s. 
The  Anglo  Norman  is  heavier  than  the  Fre'icb-Normtin,  the  cylindrical  nave  piers 
of  the  above  btuldin^  being  much  more  unissive  than  those  of  French  works.  To 
relieve  this  heaviness,'  the  chevron,  spiral,  and  other  groovings  were  cat  in  the  piers. 
ITie  mouldings  and  forms  of  doors,  windows,  &c,  are  the  same  as  those  of  Nor- 
mandy. There  U  one  remarkable  dlffei-ence  in  the  plans  of  the  Early  Norman 
churches  in  the  two  countries:  in  France,  theap^>e  at  tue  eaft  end  is  always  scmi- 
circnlar ;  in  England,  this  form  was  gradually  given  up ;  and  towards  the  end  of  the 
style,  the  square  e;*8t  end  was  aniver<<ally  adopted. 

NO'RMANDT  (Fr.  Normandie),  formerly  a  province  in  the  north  of  France, 
bordering  on  the  English  Cliannel;  now  divldea  into  the  de|>artments  of  Seiic' 
Inferieore,  Eure,  Oine,  Calvados  and  Manche.  It  is  in  general  a  very  fertile,  richly- 
cnitivated  land,  resembling  a  garden  in  many  districts.  Its  chief  argricull nral  pi-o- 
ducts  are  corn,  fl:ix  nnd  fruits  (from  which  cider  is  largely  made) ;  its  fisheries  and 
iwunifactures  of  ureal  importance,  and  its  horses  the  b  st  in  the  kingdom.  Tie 
uiliabirauis  are  for  the  most  part  decendants  of  the  old  Normans,  and  l>ear  the  stam]> 
of  their  ^lendid  ancestors.  They  are  Intelligent,  strongly  built,  and  of  a  noble  and 
energetic  charactiM- ;  warm-hearted  and  patriotic,  they  pi^oduce  the  boldest  sailors, 
the  most  skilful  fishermen,  agriculturists,  cattle-rearers  and  gardiiiers  in  all 
France.  In  the  north-eastern  and  more  level  part  (foi*merly  Upper  Normandy),  the 
principal  towns  are  Rouen.  iHeppe,  Havre-de-Grace,  Harfl.'ur,  Honfleur,  Lisieux. 
Evreux,  Yvi-tot ;  in  the  soutfi-western  or  hilly  part  {Lower  Komiandy),  the  principal 
towns  are  Caen,  Falaise,  St-Lo,  Bayeux,  Couiauces,  Avranches,  Balonue,  Alenpon, 
Cherbourg  and  Mont-St-Michel. 

In  the  rime  of  the  Romans,  the  country  bore  the  name  of  Oallia  LugdunenaialL 
Under  the  Fnuskish  monnrchs  it  formed  a  part  of  Neustiia,  and  was  first  called  N. 
after  Charles  the  Simple,  in  912,  had  given  it  to  Rolf  or  Rollo,  the  h  ader  of  a  baud 
of  Norse  rovers  (see  Normans),  to  be  held  by  him  and  Lis  posterity  as  a  fief  of 
the  French  crown.  From  Rolf  (baptized  into  Christianity  under  the  n-nmo  (jf 
Rol)ert)  and  Qisela,  the  daughter  of  Charles,  sprung  the  later  Dukes  of  N.,  of  whom 
Richnrd  I.,  g»ands»on  of  Roff,  vigorously  maintained  his  authority  agaiiK«t  his  liege 
lords,  Lf)iiia  IV.,  and  Lothaire.  William  II.,  son  of  Robert  II.,  became  Duke  of 
N.  in  1036;  and  In  106G.  established  a  Norman  dynasty  on  the  throne  of  Encland 
(see  William  the  Conqitbror),  thi*reby  poliiically  uniting  N.  with  the  Vaiter 
©•nutry.  In  107T,  his  eldest  sou,  Rob-rt,  wrested  N.  from  him.  but  it  was  again 
nnited  to  England  under  Henry  I.  in  1105.  With  this  monarch,  Rolfs  male  line  be- 
c«ine«rtinct  Henry  II.,  th«5  son  of  Henry  l.'s  daughter,  Matilda,  after  the  death 
of  Stephen  of  Blois,  obtmned  in  1154  the  government  of  England  and  N. ;  but  in 
tlw  reign  of  his  son,  John  Lackland,  it  was  conquered  by  Philippe  Angusie  (1203- 
1404).  It  remained  a  portion  of  the  French  monarchy  for'more  than  200  years;  but 
affiT  the  battle  of  Agincourt  (1416)  it  was  reconquered  by  the  English,  who  h<ld  it 
til!  1449,  wh.n  it  \^a8  finally  wrested  from  them  by  Charles  VIl.  See  Liqnei's 
**H=sroire  de  la  Normaudie*^  (*335):  Palgrave's  "History  of  N.  and  of  England" 
tl851-G4). 
NORMANDY,  Custoxxiary  Law  of  (Fr.  CoiUumier  de  Normandie),    The  ancie- ' 

*j    ^  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


NormaiM 


310 


provinces  of  France  were  governed  principally  by  a  pystem  of  laws  callrd  CouitmeSj 
which  hud  originated  iu  locnl  usages,  and  oeeii  in  theconrseof  timeretiuced  t<»  wrii- 
ing  and  forumlly  etinctioned  l)y  the  sovereign.  Cotitiime  was  distingnisiied  Iwta 
from  UH,  which  originated  with  tho  king,  and  from  tM,  or  usage  not  reduced  lo 
writing.  Of  the  codes  of  cnstomary  biw,  one  of  the  oldest  and  nior't  fami  a:i^  was 
tlie  Coutwniier  (U  Normandie,  It  was  divided  into  the  ancient  and  modem  cosioh  . 
The  former  was  first  reduced  to  a  written  form,  in  12*9,  under  St  Louis ;  tlie  iaitcr 
was  the  ancient  cotUumier^  modified  and  reformed  in  1585,  by  comndiS- 
sioners  appointed  by  Heniy  III.,  with  ilie  concurrence  of  the  tliree  es- 
tates of  the  nobiliryy  clei^,  and  people  of  Norma ntly.  The  {Micitnt 
coittumier  ir3at8  principally  of  the  duties  of  the  jadiciMl  officers^k  the  procyeil- 
fugs  m  tlie  diff.;reut  courts,  and  the  rights  and  obligations  of  the  kings  of  Fraucf, 
the  Dnked  of  Normandy,  tho  fcud'tl  Iord£>,  and  the  people.  In  the  modem  coutumier 
are  minute  regalations  regarding  the  transmission  of  j)roperty  bv  will  and  inherit- 
ance. Each  of  tho  twenty-two  vicouites,  into  which  N.  was  divided,  hatl  a  different. 
mode  of  devising  real  property.  The  law  by  which  tlie  Channel  Inlands  are  still  gov- 
erned is  hased  on  the  customary  law  of  Normandy.  The  chief  jiulge  in  Jerj»ey,  Gueru- 
sey,  and  Aldomey  retains  the  Noimau  name  ot  bailli  or  bailiff,  and  his  authority  is 
much  the  same  as  that  officer  i)osseS8ed  under  the  Norman  law.  One  of  the  most  re- 
markable remnants  ot  the  coutumier  still  subsisting  in  the  Channel  Islaudsisthe  Ca- 
mewr  de  Haro.  Any  onci  who  considers  that  his  rights  of  prop<;rty  are  infringed,  po- 
tests  in  the  presence  of  two  witnesses,  and  calling:  out  three  tnues  **  Ha'"0  "  (said  to  be 
away  of  invoking  Dnke  Rollo,  noted  for  his  justice),  summons  tlie  trespasser  to  de- 
sist. Hv!  then  applies  to  the  authorities,  relating  wiiat  he  has  done,  mid  proceeds  to 
the  Hecoi'd  Office,  where  note  is  taken  of  the  circumstances ;  all  which  ceremonial 
must  l)c  gone  through  before  bringing  an  action  of  trespass.  The  decision  is  gener- 
ally referred  to  une  vue  de  justice^  and  the  losing  party  is  fubj- cted  to  a  fine, 
and  liable  in  costs :  he  had  formerly  also  to  undergo  un  regard  de  cMteauy  or 
twenty-four  hours'  imprisonmeut,  for  having  imploi-ed  the  aid  of  the  prince  withoat 
cause. 

NO'RMANS  (I.  e.,  Northmen),  a  name  generally  limited  in  its  application  to  those 
Bea  rovers  who  established  themselves  in  tnat  part  of  France  called  after  them,  No^ 
mandy;  hut  sometimes  embracing  also  the  early  inhabitants  of  Korway.  Dnriu»( 
the  middle  ages,  the  name  Northmen,  or  Norsemen,  was  often  used  in  a  broadur 
sense,  to  denote  the  entire  population  of  Scandinavia,  and  still  mote  frequently, 
perhaps,  to  designate  the  Danes  and  Norwegians,  exclusive  of  the  Sweden 
The  OerinuBS  and  French  called  the  piratical  U4>rdcs  who  ravaged  their  slton« 
Normans  or  Northmen;  the  Saxons,  usually  Danes  or  Eastnien.  They  were 
also  distinguished  by  the  latter  as  Mark-  or  Maix;h-mcn  (from  Den-mari(;),  as^«i^inett 
(i.  e.,  men  of  the  as/ten-ships),  and  as  the  Heathen.  The  primary  cause  of  the  pion- 
aering  expeditious  southward  and  westward  across  the  seas,  undertaken  by  tlie  Nors«5 
Vikings  ivikingar^  meaning  dwellers  on  the  vies,  i.  e.,  bays  or  fiords),  as  they  called 
themselves,  under  leaders,  who  took  the  nan»e  of  "Sea- Kings,"  was  doubtless  the 
over-population  and  consequent  scarcity  of  food  in  their  native  homes ;  besides,  tite 
relish  for  a  life  of  warlike  adventure,  conjoined  with  tlie  hope  of  rich  booty,  stron^y 
attracted  them  ;  while — at  least  as  long  as  the  old  Scandinavian  religion  lasted  (i.e., 
till  about  tlie  end  of  the  10th  c.)— deatli  in  battle  was  not  a  thing  to  l>e  dreaded,  for 
the  slain  hero  passed  into  a  region  of  eternal  strife  In  the  Walhalla  of  Odin.  Finally, 
discontent  with  the  ever-increasing  power  of  the  greater  chiefs  or  kings,  iudaced 
many  of  the  nobles  with  their  followers  to  seek  new  homes. 

The  first  Danish  Norsemen  made  their  appearance  on  the  eastern  and  soutbem 
coasts  of  England  in  T8T.  After  832,  their  invasions  were  rttpeated  almost_ev«ry 
year.  To  one  of  these  belongs  the  legend  of  Kagnar  Lodbrok  (L  e.,  Raguar  of  the 
"  Shaggy  Brogues "),  who  is  said  to  have  been  taken  prisoner  by  Ella,  king  of 
Northumbria,  and  thrown  into  a  dungeon  filled  with  vipei's,  where,  while  expiring 
amid  horrible  torments,  he  sung  with  heroic  exultation  the  story  of  his  life.  The 
very  existence,  however,  of  such  a  pereon  as  Ragnar  Lodbrok  is  questioned  by 
many  Scandinavian  scholars.  In  861,  the  Norsemen  wintered  for  the  first  time  ia 
the  island,  and  after  8«6  obt  lined  firm  footing  there;  Tlie  Anglo-Saxon  Ethelred  1. 
fell  in  battle  against  litem  iu  S71.    His  brother  Alfred,  known  us  Alfi^ed  the  Qfeat 


y  Google 


311 


NonxuuDt 


(q.  v.),  after  a  long  and  donbtful  Ptmggle,  partially  reducod  them  to  subjection : 
uevt'itheless,  he  was  oompeliod  tx>  leave  tlieiu  in  pos«et<t<iou  of  Nortiiuiubiia  ana 
East  Anglia ;  and  liad  not  only  to  deCend  hiniBelf  a>;ain8t  a  n(*w  and  fierce  iuvasiuu 
led  by  the  famons  rover  Uastiu^^s  (q.  v.),  but  like  his  immediate  successors,  to  cou- 
U  nd  ngalupl  the  revolts  of  bis  Dano-Noi'muu  subjects.  A  iMjrial  of  external  ponce 
now  ensued;  but  in  991  tbe  invasions  of  tlie  Danes  and  Norwegians  lK>};Hn  anew. 
The  Saxon  king,  Elhdred  II.,  at  firet  sought  to  buy  them  off  by  paying  a  sort  of 
Iribnte-inoney,  called  Danegelt  (q.  v.) ;  bui  the  massacre  of  the  Danes  living  in  Eng- 
hisifl,  by  command  of  tbat  monarch,  IStli  November  1002,  was  avenged  by  four  ex- 
l»e«li!ioii9  nnder  tlie  Danish  king,  Swen,  wlio  frightfully  waited  the  country,  and 
finally  conquered  it  in  1013,  dying  the  following  year.  His  8<m  Knut,  or  Canute 
(q.  v.),  after  carrying  on  a  struggle  for  the  supreme  j)0\ver  witli  Ethelrcd  and  his 
hDccessor  Edmund  Ironside  (q.  v.),  at  length,  on  the  deutli  of  the  latter,  became  sole 
monarch  of  England,  which  now  reujained  nnder  Dani$:h  or  Nor^e  rulers  I  111  1042. 
The  government  of  the  country  then  reverted  into  the  Saxon  hands  of  Edward  the 
Confessor  (q.  v.),  who  was  sncceetted  in  1066  by  Harold  II.  (q.  v.),  son  of  the  power- 
fnl  Godwin,  Earl  of  Wei>aex  (q.  v.);  but  in  Ociolier  of  the  hame  year,  Ilaroid  lost 
his  life  and  crown  at  the  battle  of  Hastings,  and  William  the  Conqueror,  a  desceiid- 
antof  a  Norwegian  chief  who  had  settUd  In  Normandy,  once  more  established- a 
Norse  dynasty  on  the  tijrone  of  England,  but  one  greatly  refined  and  improved  by 
long  residence  in  a  comparaiively  civilir^ed  region. 

It  was  also  Danish  Nori<emen,  in  particular,  who  ravaged  the  western  coasts  of 
the  European  mainland,  from  the  £li>e  to  the  Garonne.  Ah  early  as  810,  the 
I)am>h  krn«r,  Gottfried,  had  overrun  Friesland;  bntthe  power  of  tlu;  great  Charle- 
magne was  too  much  for  these  uudiaciplined  barbarians,  and  they  were  (jverawed  and 
BuMned  for  a  lime.  Sc;on  after  his  death,  however,  they  recommenced  {circa  820) 
their  piratical  expeditions,  and  favQied  by  the  weakness'es  and  disj-ensions  of  the 
Carloviiiirian  rulers,  became,  dnring  the  9th  c,  the  terror  and  Fconrge  of  North- 
western Germany  and  France.  They  plundered  Hamburg  several  times,  raivaged 
tliccoastsof  the  Frisians  (which  then  extended  as  far  as  the  Scheldt),  and  in  643 
firmly  planted  tbem^elves  at  the  mouth  of  the  Loire.  But  ere  long  they  ceased  to 
be  ^U>fled  with  making  descents  and  settlements  on  the  coasts,  and  in  their  small 
piratical  craft  they  swarmed  up  the  gr«*at  rivers  into  the  Interior  of  the  country, 
which  they devasttited  far  and  wide.  Thus,  in  845,  they  ascenthd  the  Seine  aid 
pinndered  Paris— an  exploit  which  was  frequently  repeated.  In  886,  not  less  than 
40,000  of  these  Vikings  arc  said  to  have  ascended  the  river  from  Kouen  under  the 
leadership  of  one  Siegfried  in  TOO  vessels,  ami  besieged  the  cjipital  for  ten  months. 
It  was  only  saved  at  the  expense  of  Burgundy,  which  was  abandoned  to  their 
ravages.  In  881,  Louia  or  Lndwig  III.,  king  of  the  West  Franks,  inflicted  a  severe 
defeat  on  the  invaders  at  Vimeu,  near  Abbeville  in  Pica rdy,  the  memory  of  which 
lias  been  preserved  in  a  song  still  popular  among  the  country-people;  but  neither 
tliat,  nor  the  repulse  which  th<»y  snftained  from  the  brave  Gennan  monai-ch  Arnulf, 
near  Lonvaln  in  891,  could  hinder  them  fiora  making  fresli  inniptions.  In  892,  they 
«|^ared  l)efore  Bonn,  and  tradition  says  that  bands  of  Danish  lovcrs  petietrated 
even  into  Switzerland,  and  establisTietl  thtinselvcs  in  the  canton  of  Schwciz  and  the 
valtfof  Hasli.  From  their  stttlenn  nts  in  Aquiiania  they  proceeded  at  an  early  period 
to  Siiain,  plundered  the  coasts  of  Galicia  m  844,  and  subsequently  landtid  in  Au- 
dalasla,but  were  defeated  near  Seville  by  the  Moorish  prince  A bd-ur-Rahnnuu 
During  859—860,  they  forced  their  way  into  the  Medlterrsmean,  wasted  the  ehores 
of  Spam,  Africa,  and  the  Balearic  Isles,  penetrated  up  the  Rhone  as  far  as  Valence  : 
tbeu  turning  their  piratical  prows  in  the  direction  of  Ittdy,  entered  the  Tyr- 
rlioiie  Sea,  buriied  Pisa  and  Lucca,  and  actually  touched  the  distant  isU'S  of  Greece 
brfore  their  passion  for  destruction  was  satiated,  or  before  they  dreamed  of  re- 
toniing  west. 

.  Doubtless  Norw^ian  rovers  also  took  part  in  these  so-called  Danish  expeditions. 
We.  know  that  as  early  as  the  bi'ginning  of  the  9th  c.  they  made  voyages  to  the  north 
of  Ireland,  Scotland,  the  Hebrides,  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Isles;  and  the  increas- 
fag  power  of  Harald  Haarfager  in  the  9ih  and  10th  centuries,  exciting  great  discon- 
tait  amoug  the  smaller  chiefs,  great  emigrations  took  place,  and  these  islands 
wcame  ttie  new  homes  of  these  Norwegian  Vikings.  About  the  same  period, 
cotonies  were  settled  iu  the  FarOe  Isles  and  Iceland,  from  which  some  Vikinga 

-■  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


North  Oape  ^^'^ 

proceeded  westwards  across  the  North  Atlantic  to  Greenland  in  982,  and  thence,  in 
1002,  pouth  to  a  region  which  they  called  Vinland,  now  univtrr8aliy,believt^  to  be 
the  const  of  New  Eiighind,  thus  anticipating  the  dit»covery  of  Aincriwi  by  Colnmlios 
by  nearly  500  years.  From  Norway  also  ii^sucd  tUe  last  and  most  important  ex[)e- 
dition  against  the  comsI  of  France.  It  was  led  hy  llolf  or  Kollo,  who  had  b  -eu 
baui'^iied  by  Haruld  Uaarfagcr  on  acconnt  of  his  piracies.  Rolf  forced  Cbarlfs  the 
Simple  to  grant  him  possefnion  of  all  the  laud  in  tiic  valley  of  the  St'ine,  from  tlio 
Epte  and  Eare  to  the  sea.  l^y  the  time  of  Charles  the  Bald  the  invaders  had  fi  mly 
planted  themselves  in  the  country,  wliich  then  went  hy  the  name  of  NoruiaiHljr 
(q.  v.).  Tuey  and  their  descendants  are,  ntrictlv  speaking,  the  Normans  of  historv— 
M-arlike,  vigorous,  nnd  a  most  brilliant  nice.  Thev  rapidly  adopted  the  more  civi- 
lised form  of  life  that  prevailed  in  IheFrauklsh  kingdoui — its  religion,  langnagtt, 
and  manners,  bat  inspired  e¥erythliiff  they  borrowed  Hithjheir  own  splendid  viial- 
ity.  At  a  later  perioa  (the  12th  c.)  tney  even  developetl  ifgreat  school  of  narrative 
poetry,  whose  cu  tivatois,  the  Trouveura  or  Tronveres^  rivalled  *n  cell  brity  the 
lyricui  'I'roabadours  of  Southern  France.  Their  conquest  of  England,  in  1066.  gave 
tliat  country  an  energetic  race  of  kings  and  nobles,  on  the  whole  well  m  to 
rule  a  brave,  sturdy,  but  somewhat  torpid  people  like  the  Anglo-Saxons.  But  though 
the  Normans  had  acauir^  comparatively  settled  habits  in  France,  the  old  pisciuo 
for  adventnre  w.is  stiU  strong  in  tueir  blood ;  and  in  the  course  oi  th.?  Uih  c  ,  nisay 
nobles  with  their  followers l^took  liiemselves  to  Soathem  Itdy.  wber«  the  strifes 
of  the  native  princes.  Greeks  and  Arabs,  opened  np  a  fine  prospect  for  amlnduns 
designs.  In  10.59,  Robert  Guiscard,  one  of  the  ten  sous  of  the  Noripan  count. 
Tailored  de  Hauteville,  all  of  whom  had  gone  thither,  was  recogiiiscii  hy  Pope 
Nicholas  II.  as  Duke  of  Apulia  and  Calahrin,  and  in  1071  as  lord  of  all  Lower  Irai1^ 
His  l)rotherand  liegeman,  Koger,  conquered  Sicily,  1060— 10S9.  Roger  IL  of  Siciqr 
united  the  two  doiniiiioos  in  1 127 :  bar.  in  tiie  i>er8on  of  his  uraud;«on,  William  II.,  the 
Norman  dynasty  >>ecame  extinct,  and  the  kingdoui  pa8i>ed  into  the  hands  of  tho 
Hobenstaufifen  family. 

The  Swedish  Norsemen  directed  th  lir  expeditions  chiefly  against  ihi?  eastern 
coasts  of  the  Baltic — Courland.  Esthonia,  knd  Finnand,  where  they  made  tht4r 
appeamnce  in  the  9th  <% — the  very  time  when  their  Danish  and  Norwegian  brethroi 
were  roving  over  tlie  North  Sea,  the  English  Channel,  tho  Bay  of  Bi!»Ciiy,  and  w«-r* 
establishing  themselves  on  the  shores  of  Eiigl.nd  and  France.  According  to 
the  narrative  of  the  Russian  annalist,  Ne-tor,  they  appear  to  have  penetratodloto 
the  interior  as  far  as  Novgorod,  wheuc^j  they  were  quickly  banished  by  the  native 
Slavic  and  Finnish  inhabitiints,  out  w>re  as  quickly  solicit  d  to  r  turn  and  a.«aoaie' 
the  reins  of  government.  Hithtir.  consequently,  in  862.  accompanied  by  other  noted 
warriors,  came  three  Swedish  chiefs,  Rurik,  Sineiif,  and  Truwor,  sons  of  the  siliue 
father,  and  l>elonging  to  the  tri»>e  of  Ron  (whence  Rims  and  Rium'ans).  Rurik 
founded  one  kingdom  at  Novgorod,  which  stretched  northwards  &>*  far  as  the  Wnite 
Sea.  His  successor,  Oleg,  united  with  that  a*  second  established  hy  otiier  SwedisU 
adventurers  at  Kiev,  whidi  town  now  b'came  the  capital  of  the  wide-exteudod 
Russo-Swodish  kiugdoip.  Sae  Russia.  For  a  long  period  these  Norsemen,  wlio,  It 
appears,  became  compl  tely  identifi'.Hl  with  tlieir  Slavic-.*iKjak:ng  suhjecl>«  in  the  10th 
c,  were  danaerouM  enemies  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  whone  coasts  thev  reach»'d  tjjf 
way  of  the  Black  Sea.  and  wiiose  capital,  Constaniinople,  they  frequently  menaced, 
as,  for  instance,  in  941,  when  Igor  is  said  to  liave  appeared  before  the  city  with  up- 
wards of  1000  Hhip<»  or  boat-".  Earlier  hi  the  same  century,  the.se  Swedo-Russlaa 
warriors  had  found  their  way  into  the  Caspian  Sv!a,  aivd  actually  penetraietl  to  th« 
coasts  of  TartJiry  and  Persia.  Partly  from  them,  and  jMirtly  from  native  Scandlaa- 
viant»,  came  those  soldiers  who  from  the  9Jh  to  the  12th  c.  foi-med  the  bqdy-iroard  of 
the  Byzantine  emperors. — See  Deppings's  *'  Histoire  des  Expeditions  Maritimee  d* 
Normands  et  de  leur  Enabllsscment  en  France  an  lOme  Si6cle  "  (2  vols.  2d  edit 
1S43);  Wheato.i'8**  History  of  the  Northmen  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Ooa- 
<iuest  of  England"  (1831):  Worsaae's  •» Minder  om  de  Danske  og  Nonnfiudeiie 
j  England,  skotland,  og  Irlaud"  (1851);  Freeman *8  "History  of  the  NonM» 
Conquest"  (1867-1876). 

NO'RNiB,  the  ParccB  of  the  northern  mythology.  They  were  three  young  woto«»» 
by  name  Urd.  Verdaudi,  and  Skuld— i.  e..  Past,  Present,  and  Future.  They  sit  M 
the  Urdar-well  under  the  world-tree  Yggdrasil,  and  tho^e  detenhiue  the  fate  both  OK 


y  Google 


01  o  No  nn» 

*^  A  ^  North  Oape 

gods  ftnd  Tnen.  Every  Hay  tw*j  dmw  wnter  from  the  pprtiijr,  and  with  it  and  the 
ciny  that  Ilea  aroniid  th9wc1l8,  npiinkle  the  nnh-trtte  Y<;garu8il,  that  Its  braDchet»  mny 
not  rot  and  wither  awuy.  B  eidt'S  these  three  gresit  iiorae,  there  are  also  mniiy  lufe- 
ri.»r  ouee,  hoth  good  and  Imd ;  f6r.  t«aye  tlie  Pro*«e  £dd:i,  when  a  iimii  is  bom  th«'ro 
is  a  uoro  to  det^^nnine  hit*  fate ;  aud  the  Raine  nuthorily  tuUrt  ni*  that  ilie  niieqnal 
(ir^tiuiea  of  meu  in  the  worid  are  iittrilmtahle  to  the  different  diBpo!«itious  of  the 
iioi  Its.  These  h'fi«.-er  liorns  corresponded  to  tlie  genii  of  clanwo  my  thoK>gy .  Women 
who  poaaestied  the  power  of  prediction  or  magic  al»o  bore  this  name.  | 

NO'KRISTOWN,  aborongli  of  Peniipylvnuia,  U.  S.,  on  the  north  hank  of  tho    ( 
river  Schuylkill,  16  miles  uorfii-west  of  Philadelphia,  containing  cotton  and  woolU  n    j 
factories,  iroli  rolling-niills  and  fonndries.  mHChine-8hoi)8,  conrt-hoiise,  jail,  public    ] 
library,  bank.  13  rhurchef*,  ceniinaiy,  5  public  schools,  1  German  aud  7£ngliB0  uewtf- 
papei-8,  and  in  1870, 10.753  inhubiiiiuta. 

NO'RRKOPING,  the  Crst  nmnufacturlnsr  town  of  Sweden  after  Stockholm,  is 
the  chief  town  of  LinkCpin;;-Luu,  In  £a»t  Goti laud,  aud  is  Htnated  at  the  junction  of 
the  Mntala  with  the  Gulf  of  Bravike,  in  68°  30'  u.  hit.,  and  16°  16'  e.  long.  Pop.  iu 
1874,  26,3<S5.  It  Is  a  fine,  well-built  town,  with  broad  t^tnelp,  large  squares,  and 
DQuierons  churches  and  charitable  institutions.  The  rapid  river  Moiala,  which  is 
spanned  l)y  several  substantial  bridges  ami  lined  with  commodious  wh.-.rfH,  affords 
Vrry  conBiderable  water-power,  by  which  numerous  systems  of  machinery  are 
worked.  The  manufactures  are  cloths,  stockings,  starch,  tobacco,  soap,  Ac.,  uhile 
ill  the  neighborhood  are  the  extensive  ironworks  and  cannon  fou:. dries  of  Finspang. 
N.  is  a  good  salmon  station,  aud  is  the  principal  Swediab  port  for  the  imporiatiou 
of  wines  and  foreign  spirits. 

NORTH,  Fn.'deric,  Lord,  English  minister,  was  bom  April  18. 1782,  and  edncated 
at  Eton,  and  Trinity  Colhge.  Oxlord,     His  father,  Baron  Guilford,  a  descendant  of 
Bo»!er,  Baron  North  {temp.  Henry  VIII.),  was  created  an  tail  in  1762.    N.  entered 
the  House  of  Commons  at  an  early  age,  was  made  a  Lord  of  tlie  Treasury  in  1768, 
aud  inherited  the  Tory  politics  which,  in  the  day.s  of  Charles  IL,  had  plac^  his  an- 
cest  )r  in  the  highest  ranks  of  the  law  and  the  state.    It  was  bis  txxist  In  the  House 
of  Commons,  that  *^  since  he  had  had  a  scat  there  he  had  voted  against  all  popular, 
and  in  favor  of  all  unpopular  measures."    On  the  death  of  Charles  Townshend,  in 
17©,  he  was  made  CliHucefior  of  the  Excheqin  r  and  leader  of  the  Houfe  of  Com- 
mons, a  post  forwhicb  ho.  was  well  qualifiKl  by  his  eloquence,  good  humor,  wit,  and 
K8din)8S  of  resource.    His  folly  was,  however,  one  of  the  immediate  causes  of  the 
American  War.   Earl  Russell,  in  his  *•  Life  and  'JMines  of  C.  J.  Fox."  says  that  •*  for 
I   £100,000  a  year  of  revenue  George  Grenvtlle  provoked  America,  and  that  for  X16,000 
;   a  year  <rf  revenue  Lonl  North  lost  America."    Iu  1770,  he  succee*led  the  Duke  of 
;    Ontfton  as  prime-minister.    As  a  minister  he  was  loo  ready  to  surrender  his  own 
i    jndgment  to  that  of  George  III.,  who,  with  a  narrower  understanding,  had  a  stronger 
I    wilC  imil  was  determined  to  subdue  America.    N.  was  called  by  Horace  Walpole  the 
I    oitteurible  miuiiiter;  the  real  minister  was  the  king.    N.  had  to  encounter  an  ardent 
;    auil  |K)wer(nl  opposition,  led  by  C.  J.  Pox  and  supported  by  Bnike.    It  has  since  been 
;    proved  that  N.  *^soearl>  as  It 76  was  of  opinion  that  the  sj'Stem  he  was  pursuing 
I    wonid  end  in  ruin  to  the  king  and  to  the  country.'*    In  1778,  he  renounced  the  right 
'    ot  taxing  the  colonies.    In  1782,  it  bein^  impos^^'ible  to  carry  on  the  war  with  Ameri  a 
auy  longer,  N.  resigned.    **  A  more  anuable  man  never  livetl,"  says  Karl  Russell ;  **a 
wofaeniinister  never  since  the  Revolution  governed  this  country."    With  N.'s  re- 
tirement came  to  an  end  George  III.'s  scheme  of  governing  the  country  by  his  own 
win,  and  ruling  the  House  of  Commons  by  court  favor  andthinly  di^guised  corrup- 
tk)u.    N.  was  succeeded  by  the  Mnrquis  of  Rockingham,  on  whose  death  Lonl  Shel- 
bnrue  became  premier.    Fox's  di^'like  of  the  terms  of  peace  with  America  led  him  to 
enter  into  a  coiilitiou  with  N.,  whom  he  had  for  so  many  years  inveighed  against  as 
tmiuist«r  without  foresight,  treacherous,  vacillating,  and  incapable.    N.  ni.d  Fox 
took  office  under  the  Duke  of  Portland  in  1788,  but  the  coalition  destroyed  Fox's 
'Mpalnrity.  and  the  Portland  administration  only  lasted  a  few  months.    N.  was  af- 
mled  by  blindness  dming  the  last  five  years  of  liis  life.    He  succeedt  d  to  the  carl- 
40tt  of  Guilford,  in  1790,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  aud  died  iu  August  1792. 
KOBTll  BERWICK.    See  Berwick,  North. 
-)K)BTfl  CAPE.    See  MAttERO^.  ^  t 

Digitized  by  LjOOQ  IC 


No'th  Carolina  Q1  jf 

NoithBast  ^A"* 

NORTH  CAROLINA.    See  Cabouna. 

NORTH-EAST  and  NORTH- WEST  PASSAGES.  Tho^inmeroM  nmi  fmportaal 
diacnyeries  made  by  the  Portuguese  and  Spni^iards  in  the  Hontlitirn  1utitiide«  6l  A?b, 
and  the  reports  which,  ou  their  ret  am.  they  spread  of  the  fabaloiis  we:dtb  of  tboM 
rt^ioiia,  excited  the  atteiitiou  of  the  other  maritime  uatioiis  of  Ean)pe.  and  prunpu'd 
them  to  send  oat  expeditious  to  the  Eat*t  Indies  for  the  puipose  of  obtHining  a  Bitare 
in  the  lacrative  traffic  of  which  S|>aiu  hnd  hitlierto  pa^'sensed  tiie  monopoly.  Bat  tin) 
latter  power,  then  at  tlie  heiglit  of  lier  pi*ospc»-ity,  was  not  disposed  to  admit  oth  r 
nations  as  sliarers  of  her  good-fortnue,  and  dealt  *»o  summarily  witli  all  intinder,  < 
haying  at  that  time  ttie  complete  command  of  ttie  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oci'&qs,  ib.'t 
her  rivals  were  reluctantly  compelled  to  abandon  ull  thoughts  of  trndint;  in  tiiug>e  si-n*. 
Unwilling,  however,  to  lay  aside  their  desijgns  of  opening  a  trade  with  tiie  £ar-£aiiunl 
India  and  Cathay  (as  China  was  then  callfcf),  they  resohrud  to  aiitompt  to  reach  tiiuse 
regions  by  some  other  roate.  Two  plans  appeared  most  feiisible— the  one  to  n*»rl» 
Eastern  Asia  by  coasting  along  the  north  of  Enroiw  and  Asiii,  the  Xorth-J^id  Pah 
sage;  the  other  by  sailing  westward  across  the  Atlantic.  Tlie  latter  was  fl«t 
attempted  by  John  Cabot  in  1497,  but  he  found  his  progress  barred  by  the  AmericaD 
continent,  or,  at  least,  those  parts  of  it  known  as  Newfoundland  and  Labrador. 
Three  years  afterwards^  Gaspard  Cortereal  and  his  brother  iuade  three  stveral  voy- 
ages in  tlie  same  direction  ;  and  on  nuiciiing  NewfonndUind,  sailed  northwards,  but 
were  stopped  on  tlie  coast  of  Labrador,  in  lat.  60°  n.  Both  brothers  aftirwardp  pt^ 
ished,  with  all  their  followers.  Several  voyages  were  soon  nfter  made  to  discover  if 
a  passage  for  ships  existed  to  th?  nortli  of  America  (the  Norths  West  Pasttage)^  I>Bt 
withcmf  success ;  and  the  hardships  which  navigators  were  subjected  to  in  the^e  in- 
hospitable dimes,  caused  the  abandonment  for  the  time  of  all  farther  iuvestigatious 
inlhatdirecflon. 

North-East  Pcissage.— The  search  for  a  North-East  Passage  was  now  vigorously 
prosecuted,  and  Ent^land  had  the  honor  of  sending  out  the  first  expedition  for  thto 
purpose  in  166S.  It  consists  of  three  ships,  commanded  by  Sir  Hugh  Willouglibj, 
and  was  fitted  out  under  the  direction  of  the  celebrated  Sebastian  Cabot;  hot  oa 
rounding  the  North  Cape,  one  of  the  ships  wtis  separat.ed  from  the  others  during  a 
violent  uorm,  and  subsequently  entered  the  White  Sea,  then  unknown  to  western 
Europeans.  The  other  two,  under  Willoughby,  drifted  hither  and  thither  in  tiM 
vast  waste  of  water  surrounding  the  pole,  till  tne  navigators  sighted  Nova  Zemhla. 
Being  unable  to  land,  they  sail^  biick  alon:;  the  north  of  Russia,  and  took  up  their 
winter  quarters  on  the  coast  of  Russian  Lapland,  where  they  were  Bal)8eqaently 
found  frozen  to  death.  Savaral  other  expeditions  were,  at  different  times,  sent  wi 
by  the  English  and  Dutch,  but  none  of  them  evjr  succeeded  in  penetrating  further 
than  the  east  coast  of  Nova  Zembia,  thou^  they  rendered  good  service  to  geography  , 
by  making  accurate  surveys  of  Northern  Europe  and  the  adjacent  islands  of  Spits- 
bergen, Nova  Zembia,  Waygatz,  &c  It  was  for  a  long  time  believed  that  the  pro- 
montory which  forms  the  etistern  boundary  of  the  gulf  of  Obi  was  the  Tktba  of 
Pliny,  and  formed  the  north-east  corner  of  Asia ;  and  this  opinion,  wliich  recdved 
the  assent  of  the  celehrated  Gerard  Morcator,  tended  greatly  to  encourage  renewed 
explorations,  as,  according  to  it,  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia  was  not  m(ve  tbnu  400 
miles  from  Nova  Zembia.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  chief  expeditions  for  the 
discovery  of  the  North-East  Passage : 

Willoughby  and  Chancelor English 1«S 

Burroughs "    !»»« 

Pet  and  Jackman *»    15S0 

Barcniz,  William  (three  expeditions) Dijtch    . .1694— 169« 

WnHflA.,  Ti««.^.  /tirst  expedition English 1608 

Hudsou,Henr>,  Wond iBxptdition Dutch    160» 

Wood *♦        1676 

In  bis  third  expedition  Barentz  nearly  reached  Icy  Ci^,  about  long.  100^  e,  but  was, 
with  his  crew,  imprisoned  by  the  ice.  and  died  before  the  return  of  spring.  Vaiioua 
important  discoveries  were  made  dnring  this  expedition,  which  provt^  that  in  favor- 
able seasons  a  passage  could  be  found  to  the  eiistwand,  hut  after  the  ^nbeeqo^at 
failures  of  Hudson  and  Wood,  th«  attempt  was  abandon(Kl  in  despair.  The  Koasinn. 
government  now  took  up  the  search,  and  both  by  overland  expeditious,  and  by  veflttds 


yGooQie 


Q  -I  X  No  th  Oaro'lna 

^  '  ^  North  East 

Btartins:  from  various  points  on  the  nortb  and  ea^t  coasts  of  S!b.  ria,  songht  to  dip- 
cover  a  practicable  parange.  ITie  chief  of  these  ezpeditioijB  wtrc  those  of  B(^llri^&' 
iiilT4t,  which  started  from  P«lropaulov8ki,  and  was  st-opped  at  the  East  Cap-:  of 
Shalaroff ;  and  of  Billings.  In  1876,  and  a^u  in  1876.  Professor  NordenskiflM 
r^'ached  the  eastern  shoies  of  the  Gulf  of  Obi ;  and  in  July  1878  a  wvll-t'quippwl 
Swedish  exxjedition,  under  that  veteran  explorer,  attempted  once  more  the  n.  c.  |>a»- 
BJige.  The  party  8ucces.«fn]ly  rounded  Cixpe  Cbelynskin,  and  in  September  were  able 
to  start  from  ttie  mouths  of  the  Lena  for  Behrlni^'s  Strait 

North-Weat  Piis8age,—AB  was  formerly  mentioned,  Sebastian  Cal>ot  and  the 
brotliers  Cortereal  were  the  first  who  attempted  to  donl)lo  the  north  const  uf 
Aiiterica ;  Cabot liad  reached  as  far  north  as  lat.  67°  80',  in  tlie  strait  between  Gn'i  n- 
land  and  America,  but  the  coumge  of  his  ci-ew  failing,  he  was  compelled  to  ntnrw. 
Notwitlkstandintr  his  urjrent  representations,  he  was  unable  to  prevail  upon  the 
£i)giiBh  monarch  to  send  out  another  ex|>edition,  and  it  wns  not  till  after  sevefal 
unsuccessful  attempts  had  been  made  to  find  a  North-East  Passage  that  inver^lifpt- 
tionsof  the  north  C04i8t  of  America  were  resumed.  As  these  inve«»ti«:ations  were 
carried  on  till  within  the  last  few  years  solely  by  the  English,  their  prosecnilon  till 
a  definite  result  was  arrived  at  came  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  point  of  national  honor, 
and  repeated  expeditions  were  sent  out  long  after  it  had  been  clearly  shewn  thflt  a 
North-West  Passage,  when  found,  would  be  useless  in  a  mercantile  point  of  view, 
lu  all,  more  than  200  voyages  were  made  in  search  of  the  North- West  Passage,  so 
that  only  the  most  important  of  them  cj\n  l)e  eve»i  mentiowed.  'J'he  firpt  expedi- 
tion, after  that  of  Cabot^  was  s«>nt  out  in  1576,  under  Martin  Frobisher,  who  made 
a  second  and  tl»ii-d  voyage  in  the  iwo  following  years,  but  without  any  important 
discovery.  In  1586—1588,  northern  enterprise  received  an  impetus  from  the  suc- 
cessful expeditious  of  Cajstain  John  Davis.  This  navigator  sail*  d  up  the  strait  which 
bears  his  name,  as  far  as  hit.  72°  north,  and  reported  open  sea  still  further  north  ; 
he  then  surveyed  the  cast  and  west  sid<  sof  the  ntrait,  but  witliont  further  in5p(  rtant 
results.  Henry  Hudi«on  (q.  v.),  who  had  previously  atU^mptcd  the  North-East  Passage, 
followed  in  1610,  and  discovered  the  Hudson  Strait  and  Bay,  I  elleving  the  latter  to  be 
none  other  than  an  inlet  of  the  Pacific  0*-ean,  an  opinion  whicli  was  proved  errone- 
ous by  the  investigations  of  Button  in  1612;  the  latter,  however,  disseminated 
on  his  return  the  eqmilly  erroneous  opinion  thai  the  bay  was  closed  in  on  all  sides, 
with  the  exception  of  the  two  easiei-n  entrances.  Button's  account  was  not  univer- 
•ally  credited,  and  accordingly  in  1616,  Captain  Bvlot,  wlio  had  been  one  of  Hud- 
son's company,  M'as  sent  out,  accompanied  l)y  Bafin,  the  most,  skilful  navigator  a-  d 
Mientific  observer  of  the  time;  but  their  first  expedition,  which  was  to  Hudson's 
Bay,  was  devoid  of  results.  In  their  next  voyage  (1616),  ihey  sailed  up  Davis'  Strait, 
leaching  hit.  78°  n.,  and  satisfying  themselves  l>y  a  very  superficial  investigation  that 
there  was  no  northern  outlet,  the  bay  (as  if  was  then  believed  to  be)  was  named  in 
honor  of  its  explorer  Biiffin's  Bay.  On  their  retuni  southwards,  they  coasted  along 
the  west  side,  and  discovered  an  opening  to  tiio  west  which  they  named  Lancaster 
Sound,  but  believing  it.  to  be  only  an  inlet,  did  not  exp  ore  further.  On  his  return, 
BaflSn  gave  it  as  his  decided  opinion  that  no  outlet  to  the  west  existed  from  Baffin's 
Bay.  and  the  attention  of  explorers  was  again  directed  to  discover  an  outlet  from 
Hudson's  Bay.  In  1619,  the  solitai-y  attempt  by  foreign  \  owers  to  aid  in  tlie  search 
"was  Dudertaken  by  Jens  Munk.  a  Dane,  but  he  made  no  discoveries,  and  theattenipt 
waa  not  renewed.  The  expedition  of  Fox  and  James,  in  1681,  led  to  the  partial  ex- 
ploration of  the  channel  since  known  a»«  the  Fox  Channel,  which  forms  the  northern 
outlet  to  Hudson's  Bay,  and  from  this  time  the  spirit  of  discovei^  slninlM'red  till  1741. 
Between  tliis  dat«  and  1746,  several  <  xpeditions  were  sent  out  to  discover  an  ontl.  t 
from  the  north-west  corner  of  Hudson's  Buy.  but  their  united  researche-'  8}^ti^fJlC- 
torily  proved  that  no  such  outlet  exi?ted.  Owing  to  these  disappointments,  the 
search  for  a  North- West  Passage  was  discontiinfed  for  more  than  half  a  century, 
SUMwitlistandiyg  the  fact  of  the  British  parliament  hjiving  promised  a  icwntd  of 
X80,O(R)  to  the  rorttmate  discoverer.  In  1818.  the  Admiralty  tc^ok  np  the  peaith,  and 
sent  out  Captain  John  Rosp  and  Lieutenant  Parrj',  who  naih-d  np  Davis'  Strait,  and 
iscended  Lancaster  Sound  for  thirty  miles  ;  here  (Captain  Kosf  gave  hj)  the  f»«aich, 
.  considering  it  to  be  hoiieless.  But  this  opinion  was  by  no  means  e.oin- 
CWed  in  bv  Parry,  who  was  accordingly  sent  out  in  the  foUowimr  year,  and  six- 
Meded  iu  'far  outstripping  all  his  predecessors  in  the  career  of  northern    Uis- 


y  Google 


Northern  Q 1  i^ 

North  Sea  ^  A  ^ 

covery.  He  entered  Lancaster  Sonud  on  30rh  July,  and  a  few  djiys  aftftmards  discnv. 
ered  a  large  inlet,  thirty  miles  l)rond,  which  he  named  Priuce  Kegent  Inlet.  Aficr 
exploring  this  intet  for  80uie  diHiauce,  he  returned,  and  coiitinned  IiIh  coarse  wrnN 
ward,  US  the  ico  allowed  him,  pa.>«8iii<^  through  a  strait  which  he  numed  after  Sir 
John  B-irrow,  the  promoter  of  the  expedition.  Continuing:  his  weetward  cour»',.be 
reuchcd  lou«;.  110°  w.,  in  Melville  Sound,  where  he  was  stopped  by  the  ice;  diiA 
after  winternig  here,  and  giving  names  lo  the  onroerous  islands,  seas,  and  straits  lie 
had  disc  .vercd,  returned  to  Britain,  with  the  glory  of  liaviu^  advauci'dSOo  of  iontji- 
tude  fnrtiier  west  than  any  previous  explorer.  On  his  arrival,  he  was  wcIcobuhI 
with  the  utmost  enthu!*iasm,  and  his  '.liscoveries  imparted  renewed  energy  to  the 
hulf-dormaul  maritime  enterprise  of  the  British.  There  was  now  no  doubt  in  wliat 
direction  the  North- West  Passnge  was  to  be  sought,  bnt  Parry's  second  expeditiou 
(IS21— 1823)  was  for  the  purpose  of  determining  whether  the  Fox  Channel  was  con- 
nocted  with  the  Arctic  Sea  of  his  previons  voyage;  it  was,  however.  unsuccebt>f at. 
A  little  l)efore  this  time,  the  coast-line  of  North  America  from  Bebnng's  Strait  t« 
Point  Tnrnagain,  in  long.  109°  w.,  had  been  fully  traced,  so  that  it  only  remained  to 
flud  some  navigable  passage  from  Kegt*ntlidet  to  this  p<»iut,  and  the  long-wished-for 
result  would  be  attained.  For  this  purpose,  Captaii  John  Roes  Avas  eeut  out  witli 
an  expedition  in  1829,  and  after  a  laborloua  and  difficult  voyage  up  Prince  Regent 
Inlet,  renched  a  point  only  200  miles  from  Point  Tiirnagaiii.  It  was  dnd!:g  this 
voynge  that  he  discovered  the  magnetic  pole.  Dease  and  Sinjpson,  in  183S, 
extended  the  survey  of  the  Ameiican  coa^t  fronj  Point  Tama<raiu  to  wilhia 
90  miles  of  the  nnignctic  pok*,  but  the  hopes  of  a  channel  between  these  poinis 
were  daslied  by  the  discovery  nnide  by  Dr.  Jo!m  Hae,  in  1847,  that  Boothia 
(the  land  wiiich  bounds  Regent  Inlet  on  the  west)  is  a  peninsula  of  the  Ameri- 
can continent.  Wo  now  come  to  the  unfortunate  exi)edition  of  Sir  Jolia 
Franklin,  which,  it  was  fondly  hoped,  would  settle  the  question  of  a  NotMh 
West  Passage.  It  sailed  from  Englmd,  May  19,  1845,  and  was  last  seea  in 
Baffin's  Bay.  Franklin  is  bf'lieved  to  hav«  sailed  through  L:inca»ter  Sound, and 
ascended  Wtjllingtou  Channel  to  lat  77°  h.,  and  thence  returned  southwards,  croHsiu!; 
Barrow  Strait,  and  sailing  down  the  channel  (now  called  Fraukliu  Channel)  which 
separates  North  Somerset  and  Boothia  Felix  from  Prince  of  Wales  Island  to  the 
weMt,  where,  in  lat  70°  n,  long.  93°  30'  w.,  his  shins  w^'re  bos<«t.  with  ice.lStU 
SeptemlH^r  1846,  and  Franklin  died  11th  June  1847.  The  sm-vivors  abamioned  tlie 
vessels  20  miles  southwest  of  this  point,  and  porished  iu  the  attempt  to  reach  tlie 
American  nndnland.  Many  expedi'ions  were  sent  out  to  seiirch  for  the  missing 
voyagers,  and  one  of  thesH  expeditions,  under  Coilinson  and  M'Clnre,  sjuled  from 
Plymouth.  20th  Janu  «ry  1850i,  ami  reached  Behring's  Strait  in  August  the  saipeyenr. 


Sailing  ea«»tward  the  following  spring.  M'Clnre's  ship  became  fix  d  in  the  ice,  alxMit 
60  miles  west  of  Barrow  Si  rait,  and  the  crew  were  picked  up  l»y  Sir  Edwiird  Belclie-. 
who  had  been  sent  out  in  April  1832  to  their  assistance.  Belcher,  who  had  reacbwl 
Melville  Sound  by  the  eastern  pissasje  thiongli  Lancaster  Sound  and  Barrow  Strait, 
return*  d  the  same  way  ;  and  thus  "M'Clnre  and  his  conip  iny  enjoyed  the  enved 
honor  of  being  the  only  .chip's  crew  who  had  ever  j)enetrated  "from  Behring'*  Stndl 
to  Baffin's  Bay.  To  M'Clnre,  then,  belonsrs  the  honor  of  having  ftnally  set  at  n*t 
all  donhts  as  to  the  existence  of  a  North- West  P4is«a.re.  By  the  variou;*  Enjrli«*h  ana 
American  expeditions  (1848-1859)  sent  out  to  search  for  Sir  John  Franklin,  the  whole 
region  to  the  nfftth  of  the  American  mainland  as  far  as  lat  77°  n.,  and  long.  106* 
w.,  has  been  thoroughly  explored,  and  variou-*  channels  of  commniiic:ition  bt'twi^a 
Dnvis'  and  Behiing*s  Straits  have  been  discovered,  sncli  as  the  route  by  Hmlsnn'* 
Bay.  Fox  ChanntT,  Fury  and  Hecia  Si  rait  and  B.^llot  Strait,  into  Franklin  Ciiaiinel, 
and  thence  by  either  the  M'Clintock  or  the  Vieloria  Cliannel,  or  the  route*  by 
Lnncaster  Sound,  and  the  M'Clintock  Channel,  Prince  Regent  Inlet,  or  Prince  of 
W:d.!8  Strait,  to  the  open  sea  n.  of  Alaska,  but  all  laese  routes  are  useless  iu  a  mer- 
cantile point  of  view.    See  Polar  ExPSbiTiONs. 

NORTHERN  UGHT-H0USE8.  Commissioners  of,  the  body  corporate  which 
hns  under  its  management  the  whole  of  the  light-houses  of  Scotland  nnd  Islo  of 
Man.  The  hody  was  firat  constituted  by  act  of  ptrliament  26  Geo.  III.,  but  has  ' 
been  frequently  since  the  subject  of  legislation.  The  light-houses  of  the  Isle  OC 
Mjinwere  assigned  to  it  in  1815.  By  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act,  1854,  the  C^ 
missioners  are  so  far  limited  in  their  powers,  that  any  propo^l  for  a  new  1*'"*'^ 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


317 


No  th«  n 
Ho  th  Sea 

hoofle  mnsi:  receive  the  approval  of  the  Trinity  House.  London,  and  the  outlay  must 
lie  PHDCtioncd  by  the  Bourd  of  Tnide;  Hie  cosl.  howevt?r,  Is  borne  by  tlie  iropfrial 
]ight-hout«e  fund.  The  Comiiiisaioiiei-s  tict  wholly  in  virtue  of  office,  nnd  give  tlieir 
ftnrices  gratuitously.  The  body  con8i«»t«  of  the  Lord  Advocate,  SoHcilor-Gineral, 
Lord  Provo-'t  and  j?enior  Btiille  of  Edinburgh;  Lord  Provosi  and  senior  Baili»«  of 
Glasgow;  Lord  Provost  of  A}H*rdc«n  ;  provosiM  of  Invvnii'ss*.  Canii)b<Uon.  Dundee, 
and  Grocnock ;  t he  sheriffs  of  the  following  conntii'o — Aberdeen,  Argyle.  Ayr.  Ber-  ( 
wick,  Bute^aithneps  and  Sutherland,  Edinburgh,  Elein.  F.fe,  Forfar,  Haddington, 
Invenie!'*,  Kincardine,  Lanark,  Oi  kney  and  Shetland,  K«nfrfW.  KoS)",  VVigtown,  and 
Kirkcudbright.  The  biismesH  of  the  Con)mi^8ionfr8  is  conducted  at  au  office  in 
Eilinbureh,  with  the  a.ot>istance  of  a  secretary  and  cousuIiIul'  engineers.  In  1877, 
thfi  nnmber  of  light-houses  under  charge  of  the  comniisi^ion  was  60.  besidfp  buo^  s 
tiDd  beiicoiis.  'I'ne  Commissioners  own  a  steam-vessel,  the  *'  Pharos, ^^^p*  snp))lyiug 
stores  to  the  sevtTiil  light-houses,  and  perfonning  annual  visiis  of  ius^:ii<.n.  The 
wliolf  system  of  nortliern  lights  is  rennirkably  well  orgtiiUsi'd,  the  nieiit  of  which  is 
hiagn-at  ineai*ure  due  to  the  late  i  obert  Stevenson  (q.  v.).  A  Royal  Conimih'sioii 
a)i{>()lnted  some  years  ns:o  to  inquire  into  the  manitgement  of  ihe  Engiinh,  Irisli.  and 
ScottJsh  l:ght-hou.<«e8,  lia«  acknowledged  that  the '*  Scotch  li}:hi-hou8ts  arc  in  the 
bust  Hate  of  general  efficiency,  the  English  next,  and  the  Irish  third." 

NORTH  SEA  (ancient  Gemianicum  Mare ;  Ger.  Nord  See)^  that  nrm  of  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocetiu  which  separates  the  Brlii»»h  Islands  on  the  west  from  tlie  continent  on  tlie 
eair>t.  It  is  700  miles  in  extreme  length  ^froin  north  to  south;,  about  400  miles  in 
grentent  breadth,  and  has  an  are>i  of  not  less  than  140,000  square  miles.  The  great 
commercial  highAvays  f rom  the  N.  S.  to  the  AtlHiiiic  are  by  the  Pen'lund  Firth  and 
tl»e  Stmit  of  Dov*r;  v^hile  on  the  <  ast  it  communicates  with  the  Bailie  by  the  t^kag- 
rrrack,  the  Catfegat,  Sound,  and  Great  and  Little  Belt<«.  Along  its  south-eastern  and 
foiuhrtiTi  coasts  tlie  shores  iire  lOW^  and  are  skirted  by  sand-banks,  formed  l)y  the 
sand  depo^^its  carried  to  tlie  s*  a  bv  the  waters  of  the  El  lie,  Westr,  RInue  and  Scheldt, 
which  are  the  principal  rivers  that  flow  into  tliis  nca  from  the  cast  'I'he  shores  of 
Euglnnd,  especially  in  tlie  south,  are  also  low,  and  here  sand  has  also  accnmnl-  ted. 
tlion«rli  not  nearly  to  the  same  extent  as  on  tlu'.  continental  coasts.  The  chief 
Bdtish  rivers  that  fall  into  the  N.  S.  are  the  Thauien,  Onse,  Humber,  Tyne,  Tweed, 
Fortli,  and  Tay.  Besides  the  sand-banks  on  the  coast  already  referred  to, 
there  are  others  extending  to  the  middle  of  th<!  sca-b.  d,  similar  in  their  origin  to 
those  on  the  coasts,  and  occupying  altogether  al)Out  three-fourths  of  the  entire  area. 
Of  tbei'e,  the  principal  are  the  oanlc  running  nortii-easi  from  the  mouth  of  the  Firth 
of  Fortii  for  110  miles;  the  one  extending  north-west  from  the  mouth  of  the  EIl)e 
for  ai)out  the  same  disfbnce ;  the  D«guei-bank  (q.  v.)  &e.  These  sand-banks,  com- 
t^ned  with  the  storms  and  fogs  so  common  in  the  If.  S.,  render  its  navigation  unusu- 
ally  dangerous.  Another  peculiarity  of  the  bid  of  this  sea  is,  the  nuuiber  of  extra- 
ordinary "  holes"  which  have  hcen  found  in  it.  Of  tinsc  the  most  remaikable  are 
the  Little  Silver  Pitt  off  HoldernefS  in  Yorkshire,  and  the"Norlh-nortli-east  Hole,  8 
leagues  furiher  east.  Little  Silver  Piit  is  25  miles  in  length,  and  f  >  om  half  a  mile  to 
t*o  miles  in  width.  At  its  edsros  there  is  a  depth  of  from  50  to  80  feet  of  water,  but 
tlie  "hole"  has  a  depth  of  380  feet.  In  the  north,  along  tiic  Norwegian  coasts, 
tlie  shores  are  steep  and  ro<;ky,  and  i  here  is  a  depth  of  about  190  fai  horns.  The 
depth  (31  fathoms  on  an  average)  increases  from  south  to  north.  'ITie  currents  of 
this  ocean  are  extremely  various,  and  demand  the  greatest  caution  on  the  part  of 
the  navigator.  Owing  to  the  prevalence  of  south-went  winds,  the  currents  shew  a 
g'lieral  tendency  towards  the  north-east.  On  the  south-western  coast  of  Ireland, 
lUe  great  tidal  wave  of  the  Atlantic  is  broken  into  two  portions,  one  ot  which,  eonrs- 
hig  up  Uie  Channel,  pa6^es  (lirough  the  Strait  of  Dover;  whi'e  the  other,  sweeping 
iionh,  passes  round  thenorih  of  Scotland,  and  then  southward  along  the  east  coa^t 
of  Britain,  and  meets  the  souiherii  wave  off  the  coast  of  Essex.  The  northern  por- 
tion of  the  tidal  wave  spreads  over  the  whole  of  the  German  Ocean,  and  thougli  on 
its  entrance  into  the  N.  S.  it  is  only  12  feet  in  height,  it  risvs  in  its  pro^fies.**  south- 
Mard,  as  the  sea  Incomes  narrower,  in  the  s.ime  way  as  the  bore  (q.  v.)  is  formt  d  in 
a  coiitmcUiig  estuary.  In  the  estuary  of  the  Htimbcr  it  ris»'S  to  the  height  of  20  feet. 
Tliissi'a  yields  immense  quantities  of  fisli,  the  most  important  kinoH  being  cod, 
hake,  ling,  turbot,  sole,  mackerel,  and  herring,  also  lobsters.  The  ttsheries  employ 
T  thooaand  people.    On  all  available  pointa  of  the  coasts,  light-housea  have  been 


Digitized  by 


Google 


-TP' 


Norton  ^^^ 

erected,  and  there  are  nnmerons  floating  Uf^t-vesscls  moored  to  detached  hanks.  Tite 
truffle  uii  the  N.  S.  is  euuriuons.  It  is  surrounded  hy  a)Uiiiri  s  wh(Nse  iDlmiiitaiits 
httVe  from  the  earliest  timus  t)een  famous  on  tlu;  S(^as,  and  the  eHterprisr^  and 
national  bias  timt  formerly  cov«Ted  the  Scandinavian  waters  with  conquering  flfetu, 
may  now  be  traced  in  the  vast  commercial  intercourse  carried  on  on  the  Noitli  Sea. 

NORTH  WA'LSHAM,  a  small  maiket-towu  of  En)?laud,  in  the  county  of  Nor- 
folk, on  an  acclivity  on  the  riglit  baulc  of  the  Ant,  14  miles  uoith-nortli-eaAt  of  N<hv 
wicli.  Its  market-cross,  repaired  after  tliu  great  fire  in  1600,  by  wiiich  the  towu  waa 
almost «  utirely  burned  down,  dates  from  tlie  reign  of  Edward  IlL  Pop.  (1871)  2812. 

NORTH-WEST  PROVINCES,  a  great  poUtical  division  of  British  Ii»dia  (see 
India),  l>etweeu  Nepaul  and  Ondeon  tlie  nortli-ea^t,  and  Rajpootaua  and  theludore 
Agency  on  the  soutli-west.  consisting  of  seven  subordinate  aivi(«ion»— Meerut,  j^o- 
maon,  Rohileand,  Agra,  Jhansi.  Allaiiabad,  and  Benares.  Eacli  of  these  divisiaiis 
comprises  from  throe  to  six  districts.  They  are  treated  tmder  separate  articles.  'JTic 
area  of  the  North-Went  Provinces  is  81,403  square  ndles,  and  the  popalatiou  iu  187S 
amounted  to  30,781,204.    Tlie  capiUit  is  Allahabad. 

NORTH A'LLERTON,  capital  of  the  North  Riding  of  Torkshire,  a  market-town 
and  parliamentary  borough,  260  miles  north-north-west  of  London,  and  30  miles 
north-north-west  of  York  hy  railway.  It  stands  near  tne  left  hank  of  ttie  Wi<>ke. 
It  C(mtains  a  lar^e  number  of  public  schools  and  othbr  iustitutlondi.  Manufactures 
of  linen  and  leather,  brick-making,  and  malting  are  carried  ou  on  a  limited  scale. 
Pop.  (1871)  of  parliamentary  borou^'h,  4961,  who  send  a  member  to  the  House  of 
Commons.  The  battle  of  the  *'  Standard,"  i!<o  called  from  a  huge  standard  erected 
on  a  car  hy  the  English,  was  fought  liere,  August  22,  IISS,  Ixtween  the  Euglislr under 
tiie  Earls  of  Albemarle  and  Ferrers,  and  the  Scotch  under  King  David.  The  latter 
were  defeated,  and  forced  to  retreat  with  great  loss. 

NORTH A'MPTON,  a  village  of  Massachusetts,  IT.  S.,  1  mile  west  of  the  Connec- 
ticut River,  95  miles  went  of  Boston,  on  tiie  Connecticut  River  Railway.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  its  beautiful  scenery.  Mounts  Tom  and  Holyoke  riain;;  from  a  picturegqwe 
valley.  It  contains  many  elegant,  residences,  the  county  bnildii'g«»,  6  hanks,  sevml 
ncademle:*,  11  churches,  1  cotton  factory,  2  silk  f.-ictxjries,  S  paper-mills.  A  bridge, 
1080  feet  long,  connects  it  with  Hadley.    Pop.  (1870)  10,160. 

NOR  THAMPTON,  CApitnl  of  the  county  of  the  same  name,  a  market-town,  and 
parliamentary  and  municipal  borough,  ou  a  rising-ground  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Nen,  67  miles  north-west  of  London  by  railway.    In  the  centre  of  the  town  is  a  spa- 
ciou«  market-square.    The  principal  edifices  are  the  shire-hatl,  the  new  and  baud- 
some  town-hall,  the  corn  exchange,  the  numerous    churches,  several  of  which  are 
unusually  interesting,  as  St  Peter's,  a  recently  restored  and  beautiful  si>ecimen  of  en- 
riched Nornnin,  and  St  Sepulchre's,  much  improved  in  1866,  one  of  the  very  few 
round  churches  in  the  en)|)ire,  and  referred  to  the  12t!!  century.'   The  hospitals  of  St 
John  and  Si  Thomas  M-ere  religious  houses  prior  to  the  Reformation.   Boot  and  9boe- 
makiug,  whicli  affurds  employment  to  about  3000  persons,  is  the  principal  branch  (»f 
trade  carried  on  here.    Leather  is  made,  and  hosiery  and  lace  are  maunfnctared. 
Iron  and  brass  foundries  are  in  operation,  and  brewing  is  carried  (»n.    Two  mjukets 
are  held  here  weekly,  a  general  one  ou  Wednesdav.  ana  one  for  cattle  ou  Saturday. 
Pop.  (1871)  of  parliaiiit;ntary  borough,  44,871,  who  "return  two  members  to  parliaiuent 
N.,  a  very  ancient  town,  was  held  by  the  Danes  at  the  l>eginnlug  of  the  lOtli  c, 
and  was  burned  by  them  in  1010.     After  the  Conquest  it  was  !)estowed  on  Simon  de 
*  St  Liz.    Its  castle  was  heHJeged  by  the  barons  in  1215,  during  the  civil  wars  of  King 
'  Jolui.    It  was  the  scene  ot  a  great  battle  fought  (July  10,  1460)  during  the  Wars  w 
j  rhe  Roses,  between  the  rival  hoiuMiS,  in  which  the  Earls  of  March  and  Warwick  dc* 
:  feated  the  Lancastrians. 

NORTHAMPTONSHIRE,  a  central  county  of  England,  boonded  on  the  w.  hf 
the  ctmnties  of  Warwick,  Leicester  and  Rutland,  and  ou  the  b.  w.  by  Oxfordshire. 
Area,  620,912  acres ;  pop.  (1871)  243,891.  Its  surface  is  marked  by  gently  mululattog 
hills,  alt«rrnating  with  well-watered  vales.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Nenand  the  Wel- 
land,  both  of  which  flow  north-east,  and  fall  into  the  estuary  of  the  Wa^b.  Tte 
county  is  traversed  by  the  Loudon  and  North- Western,  the  Great  Northeru,  tli« 


y  Google 


Q 1  Q  No-  th  Wa'iham 

^^*^        \  Noiton 

Eastern  CaoiiHes,  and  other  lines  of  railway,  and  comnmnicntlon  by  water  is  mnin- 
tuiued  by  the  Union.  Gnmd  Junction,  and  uMier  canals,  ns  well  as  by  the  rivers.  The 
climate  of  the  county  is  mild  aud  healthy  ;  the  soil,  a  black  mould  in  the  fen  districts 
in  the  nortli-east,  and  a  brown  loam  on  ibe  nplands^  is  very  prodnctive.  White  and 
green  crops  »re  abnndjintly  produced,  and  on  the  lich  pa8tui*es  cattle  are  extensively 
retired  for  the  London  marlvet  Four  members  are  returned  to  the  House  of  Com* 
hkmis  For  the  county.  » 

NOIirilU'MBEULAND,  the  most  northern  count v  of  England,  is  bounded  on 
tlie  e.  by  the  North  Sua,  and  on  tiie  n.  \v.  by  the  Scottish  counties  of  Roxburgh  and 
Berwick.  Area,  1,290,312  sUitute  acres;  i»op.  (18TI)  386,646.  The  Piii-face  of  the 
connty  has  n  ruirged,  and  especially  in  the  west  aud  sonth-west  a  nakea  and  iwirrcu 
aspect.  Tho  Cheviots  run  along  ihe  western  border  of  the  conniy,  an<l  send  out 
Bpnrs  towaixi  the  east,  which,  gradually  di^cllninjt,  are  separated  by  fertile  valleys, 
that  widen  as  they  approach  the  coast  About  one-third  of  the  area  of  ihe  county 
is  occupied  by  moorland,  andalon^ihe  Cumberland  border  the  brokfn  and  bleak- 
looking  hills  arc  valuable  for  their  leatl-mines.  Allenheads,  the  centre  of  the  lead 
iniuing  district,  is  the  higlu-st  inhabited  spot  in  England,  being  1400  feet  above  sea- 
level.  The  inclination  of  the  surface  toward  the  east  is  indicated  by  the  direction  of 
the  rivers  Alne,  Coquet,  and  Nonh  Tyne,  which  with  the  Tyneand  Till  are  the  prin- 
cipal rivers  of  the  county.  The  Tweed  forms  the  boundary  of  the  county  on  the 
north  for  about  6  miles,  and  the  soutli  boundary  is  formed  in  part  by  the  Derwent 
and  Tyne.  The  climate  is  cold,  Imt  is  milder  on  the  coast  than  amid  the  hills,  which. 
Iiowever,  produce  sufficient  herbage  for  the  maintenance  of  large  flocks  of  "  Cheviot  " 
sheep.  The  principal  agricultural  tracts  occur  along  tlie  const,  and  inland  along  the 
river  valleys  for  several  miles.  In  these  districts,  the  soil,  for  the  most  part,  is  a 
strong  fertile  clayey  loam,  productive  iu  wheat,  barley,  beans,  and  clover. 
Agri  jiltnre  is  pursued  on  the  most  improved  methods,  and  cattle,  cliiefly  short - 
homed,  are  extensively  i-eared.  The  eouth-east  portion  of  the  county  forms  a  ]>nrt 
of  the  great  Northumberland  and  Durham  coal-field,  which  produces  about  26,00",0U0 
touiannnally.  There  are  upwards  of  100  pits  in  operation  in  the  county.  N.  is 
traversed  by  the  Newcastle  and  Carlisle,  Norlh-Eastern  and  Border  Counties  Rail- 
ways. The  county  returns  four  members  to  the  House  of  Commous;  the  county 
town  is  Alnwick  (q,  v.). 

NORTON,  Andrews,  Rev,  American  scholar  aud  theologian,  was  bom  at  Hing- 
hnm,  Massuchusetts,  I)ecember  81,  17S6.  Having  graduated  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege in  1804,  he  was  appointed,  in  1809,  a  tutor  of  Bowdoin  college,  and  in 
18il  mathematical  tutor  at  Harvard,  and  in  1813  librarian  of  the  univei-sity,  and  suc- 
cedeecl  Dr  Channing  as  lecturer  on  biblical  criticism  and  intei-pretalion.  In  1819,  he 
was  appointed  Dexter  Professor  of  Sacred  Literature,  which  office  he  rets.ined  until 
failing  health  compelled  his  retirement  in  1830.  Dr  Norton  was,  after  Dr  Channing, 
the  most  distinguished  exponent  of  Unitarian  theolotry,  a  clear  and  perspicuous  h'C- 
turer,  an  able  and  conservative  critic,  and  a  voluminous  writer.  Rejecting  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity,  and  protesting  against  Calvinism,  he  also  opposed  the  school  of 
Iheodore  Paricer  and  the  naluraTistic  theology.  Besides  his  contributions  to  the 
''General  Repository  and  Review,"  tne  *' North  American  Review,"  "Christian 
EXiiininer,"  he  published  (1833)  "A  Statement  of  Reasons  for  not  believing  iu  the 
Doctrine  of  the  I'rinity ;"  (1887)  "The  Genuineness  of  the Gosnels ;"  (1839)  " On  the 
Latest  Forms  of  Infidelity ;"  aud  left  some  poems  and  a  translation  of  the  gospels. 
He  died  at  Newport,  Rhode  Islaud,  8epteml)er  18, 1853. 

NORTON,  the  Hon  Caroline  Elizabeth  Sarah,  a  poetess  and  novelist  of  soir.n 
repntution, the  daughter  of  Thomas,  %nd  the  granddaughter  of  Richard  Biinshy 
Siieridan,  was  l)orn  in  1808.  Her  father  died  whut!  she  was  still  a  child,  and  her  edu- 
cation, which  eml)i'a<ed  an  unusually  varied  coui-se  of  studies,  was  superintended  by 
her  mother.  In  1827,  she  married  the  Hon  George  Chappel  Norton.  In  1831,  she 
first  met  Lord  Melbourne,  then  prime-minister,  and  4;he  intimacy  which  succeeded 
having  giveu  rise  to  some  scandalous  rumors,  Mr  Norton  brought  an  action  against 

wrt  Melbourae^  which  resuit'd  in  a  verdict  for  the  defendant    She  died  15th  June 
1877,  after  hjiving  been  for  some  months  the  wife  of  Sir  W.  Stirling  Maxwell.    Hrr 

chief  works  are  "The  Sorrows  of  Rosalie  "  (1829) ;  "The  Undying  One"(l!a30); 

'^fb»  Child  of  the  Islands  "  (1845) ;  **  Stuart  of  Duuleath,"  a  novel  (184n4  *•  English 

^        U.  K^  3L,  11.  Digitized  by  dOOg  IC 


320 


No-walk 
Norwaf 

Lawf  for  Women  in, the  Ninoteontb  Century"  (1854);  *«The  Lndy  of  Garaye" 
(1862);  "Lost  and  Saved,"  u  novel  (1863);  and  *-0!d  Sir  Douglns"  (1868).  Her 
prose  workSf  neveral  of  which  depict  the  wrongs  incident  to  the  position  of  worara, 
are  written  with  cousideruble  cievemess  aud  vigor ;  and  her  verse,  though  over- 
Btr.iined  and  stagy  in  seiitiinent,  has  immerons  admirera,  and  uianifests  some  de- 
gree of  that  brilliancy  for  which  the  Sheridans  have  been  so  fainons. 

NO'RWALK,  a  township  of  Connecticut,  U.  S.,  on  both  sides  of  the  monfli  of 
Norwallc  River  and  Long  Island  Sound,  on  the  New  Yorfe;  and  New  Haven  Ittilway, 
45  miles  north-east  of  New  York,  and  31  sonth-west  of  New  Haven.  It  hasianun- 
factories  of  iron,  machinery,  hats,  felt-cloth  (of  M'hich  two  companies  make 500,000 
yards  per  annum),  16  chmches,  &c    Pop.  (1870)  12,119. 

NO'RWAY  (Norweg.  Norge\  the  weptern  portion  of  the  Scandinavian  peniDsnlaj 
which,  togetlier  with  Sweden,  fonns  one  joint  kingdom,  is  sitnated  betweeu  5P5S' 
and  71**  lu'  n.  lat.,  and  between  5°  and  28°  e.  long.  It  is  bounded  to  the  e.  hy  Swiien 
and  Rupsia,  aud  on  every  other  side  is  surrounded  l)y  water,  having  the  Skagerrali  to 
the  s.,  the  German  O  ean  to  the  w.,  and  the  Arctic  Sea  to  the  n.  Its  length  is  alwnt 
llOO  miles,  and  its  j,ivat  ^t.  width  about  250  miles;  but  between  the  lats.  of  ei^aad 
683,  it  measures  liltU;  incr.:  than  25  miles  in  breadth.  Tlie  following  tabV?  siiews  the 
areas  and  popnlaiious  of  the  20  auater  into  which  N.  is  divided,  as  given  in  the  l»t 
census  of  January  1876 : 


Aextbb. 


Sniaaleueue , 

Akershuus 

Christiania , 

Hedemarkeu 

Christians 

Bnskernd 

Jarlsberg  and  Laurvik. 

Brataherg 

Nedeuses 

Lister  and  Mandal 

Stavanger 

S5ndre  Bergenhnus. . , . 

Bergen  (town  of) 

N.  Bergenliuus 

Romsdal 

8.  Trondbjem  

N.  Trondhjem 

Nordlaud 

Tromsd 

Finmarkeu 


Total. 


r      Area  in 

Fopiilatiuu 

Eng.  Sq.  Miles 

i£lST6. 

1.S48 

10T.6::9 

1,986 

mm 

2 

77,041 

10.034 

119,774 

9,670 

115^ 

5,659 

101.867 

861 

69,320 

6,70T 

83,986 

8,865 

76,9:9 

2,423 

77,306 

8421 

^i^lS 

6,854 

121.527 

1 

84  884 

7,045 

B&m 

5,650 

116  883 

7.(.S4 

116.814 

8.794 

8I.SS9 

l-i,6€0 

1(K6T9 

9,7  0 

''^'JS 

18,306 

24,232 

122,280 

1.817,237 

Of  tins  total,  only  332,§33  live  in  towns, 
the  population  was  1,(01,756. 


At  the  preceding  census  on  Bee.  St,  1865, 


The  Scandinavian  p  ninsula  consists  of  more  or  less  connected  mountain imifiw^ 
which,  in  the  soutliern  and  western  parts  of  N.,  constitute  ou«  continnotis  tract  of 
rocky  higlilands,  with  steep  declivities  dipping  into  the  sea,  and  only  here  aud  t&ere 
broken  by  narrow  strips  of  arable  land.  South  of  Trondhjem  (63*  n.  lat.),  tlieri^ 
expands  over  nearly  tlie  eniire  breadth  of  Norway.  The  northern  portions  (rf  tue 
range,  kuovm  as  ihe  KjOlleu  Fjelle,*  occupy  a  space  of  about  25  mites  in  widllu  and 
form,  as  far  north  as  69°,  the  boundary-fine  between  Sweden  and  Norway.  Soirfli 
of  63°  n.  lat,,  the  range  or  the  Scandinavian  mountains  is  known  as  the  NorskAf  « 
Dovre  Fjelle,  although  the  latter  name  belongs  |)i-operly  only  to  the  part  lmniodi»»v 
>i  contact  with  the  KjOUen.    ITie  general  elevation  of  the  Norska  Fjelle  does  BOtwO 


•  FjdLe  is  the  plural  of  fjdd^  a  mouutaiH-aid< 


^t)ogk,.^ 


321 


Honralk 
Nonraf 

above  the  line  of  perpetual  enow,  wfaofte  ayerage  height  in  these  latttodes  is  5000 
fwt ;  but  it  ranges  above  thnt  of  the  growth  of  trees,  Mriiicli  may  be  stated  to  lie 
1000  feet  lower.  Oniv  two  carriage-roads  traverse  the  Norska  Fjelle,  tlie  one  con- 
necting Christiania  ^itt»  Bergen,  and  the  other  with  Trondlijera.  'I'he  Jnetednl  gla- 
cier, iu  Bergen  amt,  is^  the  Im-gest  on  the  contiuent  of  Europe,  and  covers  an  area  of 
588  sq.  miU-8.  The  whole  of  the  west  coast  of  N.  is  dt'iisely  fringt-d  with  isliiiids 
and  insulated  rocky  ranssoB,  which,  north  of  68°,  in  the  Lofoden  (q.  v)  group,  assume 
larg-r  diiaensious,  anrl  form  extensive  insular  districts.  ITie  more  iniiK>rtant  «r« 
lliiidO  (867  sq.  n>.,  Rl^  inhabitants),  on  the  boixlers  of  Nordland  and  TronihS; 
LangO  (147  sq.  m.,  5812  inhab.) ;  KarraO  (only  21  i^q.  m.,  although  the  pop.  is  11,827) ; 
aod  8€ujen  (-^73  so.  uu,  with  8339  inhab.).  To  the  i-outh  of  the  Andeu  group,  neur 
tbe  little  islands,  Mosken  and  VseiO,  occurs  that  eddying  whirl  of  counter-currents 
known  to  us  as  ihe  MaelstiOm ;  but  with  this  and  a  frw  other  similar  ezce|)tiou>,  no 
Sfrious  obstticles  impede  navigation  along  the  numerous  channels  of  the  t-oasts. 
The  most  ini])Ortant  of  the  rivers  are  the  Glouimen  (360  miles  long,  with  a  basin  ot 
6657  sq.  miles^,  the  Dmms-elv,  of  less  than  half  the  length  «nd  basin,  Tanae,  Pasvi- 
kel,  Skiens,  Laagen,  and  Vomieu.  These  and  numerous  other  streams  are  of  more 
iin;)0rtance  for  floating  down  timber  to  Ihe  fjords  thnu  for  navigation.  The  fjords 
or  inlets  form  a  characteristic  feature  of  Norwegian  scenery,  and  give  a  coast-tine  of 
npwards  of  800  miles. 

The  most  considerable  of  the  lakes  of  N.  is  the  MjOsen,  ne«r  Cbristianin  ;  but 
even  this  lake,  which  in  some  places  is  more  than  1400  feet  deep,  is  scarcely  60  miles 
long,  and  has  an  area  of  less  than  200  sq.  miles.  Swamps  and  morasses,  which  oc- 
cnj>ya  lanjearea,  have  of  late  years  engaged  the  attention  of  the  government,  which 
is  endeavoring  to  drain  and  utilise  them  for  iigrlcaltural  purposes,  and  with  a  view 
of  converting  them  into  fields  of  turf  and  peat  for  fuel. 

C/iwiote,  Soil,  tbc.—The  peculiar  physical  character  of  N.  necessarily  gives  rise  lo 
groat  varieties  of  climate  in  differenC  parts  of  the  country.  The  influence  of  tlie  s«a 
and  (if  Ihe  Gulf  Stream,  and  the  penetration  into  the  interior  of  deep  inlets,  greatly 
modify  thesercrity  of  the  climat*',  nidre  especially  on  the  we*t  coast.  Thus,  whihi 
tbe  ineiin  annual  temperature  is  for  Chiistiania,  on  the  east  coast,  41<'.  it  is  46^'S 
Pahr.  for  Bergen  on  the  west  coast^  which  is  only  30'  fmther  north.  On  tbe  coast 
generally, rain  and  fogs  prevail;  while  in  the  regions  near  the  North  Cape,  storms 
are  almost  incessant.  In  the  interior,  the  j;ir  is  clear  and  drj',  and  the  winters  are 
culd  and  the  santmers  hot,  while  on  the  coasts  tlx'  opposite  conditions  prevail.  The 
lonjrestday,  which  in  the  south  is  18  hours,  tnny  be  said  to  be  neaily  three  months 
ill  the  lii|rh  latitudes  of  the  nortbera  districts,  where  the  longest  night  lasts  aln.ost 
«neqnal  length  of  time.  The  protract^id  winter  of  the  iiortiiern  regions  follows  al- 
most sudd  nly  on  the  disappearance  of  the  sun,  when  the  absence  of  solar  light  is 
conipensatrjd  for  by  the  frequent  appearance  of  the  aurora  borealis,  which  shines 
wltlj  sufficient  intensity  to  allow  of  the  prosecution  of  ordinary  occupations. 

It  is  estimated  that  l-38th  of  the  area  of  N.  lies  within  the  region  of  perpetual 
M)0\v,  while  elevations  exceeding  2000  feet  al)Ove  the  level  of  the  swa  are  unfitted  for 
humnn  habitations,  although  for  a  portion  of  the  brief  summers,  the  herdsmen  can 
occtipy  scetre  or  huts  at  elevations  of  3000  feet  and  upwards.  A  large  extent  of  tho 
iioinilain  districts  yields  no  produce  beyond  scanty  grasses,  mosses,  lichens,  and  a 
few  hardy  berry-yielding  plants.  Only  bircn  and  juniper  grow  north  of  67°,  which 
is  the  boundary  of  the  pine.  The  Scotch  Fir,  Pinvs  sylventrvt  (Norwegian,  Fum), 
and  Spruce,  /*.  abies  (Norwegian,  Gran),  cover  extensive  tract",  and  with  birch, 
constitute  the  principal  wealth  of  Norway.  The  hardier  fraits,  as  strawberries, 
gooseberries,  cherries,  and  raspberries,  are  abundant  and  excellent  of  their  kind, 
fleiup,  flax,  rye,  oats,  and  barley  are  growu  as  far  north  as  66°;  but  although  ai>ri- 
culfore  has  been  more  systematically  pursued  of  late  years,  the  cropslir.-  not  always 
snflacient  for  home  consumption,  and  nence  it  is  found  absolutely  necessary  annually 
to  iiupoit  considerable  quantities  of  corn  and  potatoes.  The  frugal  peasanti-y  do 
uot,  however,  rely  wholly  upon  importation,  bat  prepare  a  species  of  cake  or  bread 
froni  the  bark  of  tlje  pine  when  corn  is  scarce,  and  iu  plentiful  years  store  away 
some  of  the  produce  of  tlw  harvest  in  the  national  corn-magaziues,  which  are  esiab 
liishediu  every  part  of  N.  by  way  of  a  provision  for  an  unfavorable  season.  A 
cnlture  is  most  successfully  prosecuted  in  the  amts  of  Jarlsberg  and  Laurvik,  ai 
tl»e  south  generally  ;  while  iu  the  northern  parts,  iu  the  upp6r  vailevs.  the  leari 
cattle  coustitutea  an  important  branch  of  industry.    The  herds  and  ftocks  a.ija  j 

igi  ize     y  ^ 


Norway  32^ 

from  the  distant  farma  to  the  pnBtnre-^aiidB  hi  these  h!?h  monntafn  vaUeja,  knoim 
us  Sffiterdale,  where  they  reinuiii  till  the  nuproncli  of  cold  weather  obliges  the  herds- 
men to  retnm  with  their  charges  to  the  Bhelter  of  the  farms.  AJthouKh  the  catlle 
and  horses  are  small,  they  are  generally  strong  and  capable  of  bearing  much  b|u:d 
labor. 

PiodttctSf  <fcc.— Pish  are  caiiglit  in  almost  every  stream  and  lake  of  the  interior, 
as  well  as  in  the  fjords  of  the  coast,  and  in  the  bays  and  channels  wluch  encird-  the 
uuuieroos  islands  skirting  the  long  sea-line  of  Norway.  Salmon,  hemng,  and  cod 
are  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  toi^etlier  give  occupation  to  npwanls  of  60,000 
men,  wlio  pursue  tlie  herring  and  cod  fishing  iu  the  spring,  and  again  in  the  sniiuuer, 
while  cod  is  als'O  fished  in  the  winter-time.  'J'he  value  of  the  fish,  fresh  and  dried, 
exported  from  N.  in  18T0,  was  7,981,000  sp.  d.,*  although  tliat  year  was  unfavorable 
in  regard  to  the  returns  of  deep-water  fish.  Tlie  averatre  annnai  value  of  the  fish  and 
oil  produce  is  between  9  and  10  millions  of  sp.  d.  In  1869  tliere  were  38,000  men  cni- 
ployt* d  iu  the  herrinir  flslieries,  and  the  value  of  the  fish  for  thjit  year  was  250,000  ej). 
d.  In  the  same  ye^*  1 5  Nonvegian  sliips  were  ens^aged  in  the  Jan  Ma.\  en  (70°  n.  lat) 
seal  fisheries,  when  SS.OOO  young  and  29,000  old  seals  were  taken,  and  the  proflls  of 
tiie  captures  were  45,000  sp.  d.  Next  to  the  fisljeries*,  N.  derives  its  greatest  sources 
of  wealth  from  I  lie  produce  of  its  woods.  ,Li  1870  there  were  850,000  tons  weight  of 
tiral)er  (both  deals  and  unhewn  trunks)  exported,  of  the  net  value  of  7,000.000  sp.  d. 
Within  the  last  few  years  the  Nor>vegian  forests  have  yielded  a  new  proanct.oi  in- 
dustry, known  as  wood-paste,  extensively  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  for 
which  it  promises  to  serve  as  a  cheap  and  efficient  substitute  for  rags. 

The  fauna  of  N.  includes  the  bear,  wolf,  lynx,  elk,  otter,  reindeer,  red-deer,  seal, 
the  eidf r-duck,  and  many  other  kinds  of  sea-fowl,  blackcock,  capercailzie,  and  a 
great  vaiiety  of  small  game.  Accordinjr  to  the  census  of  1865,  there  were  in  N.  149,- 
167  horses,  953,036  horned  cattle,  1,705,394  sheep,  290,985  goats,  96,166  swine,  101,7C8 
reindi?er. 

The  mineral  products,  which  comprise  silver,  copper,  nickel,  cotmlt,  iron,  ©hrome 
ironstone,  &c.,  yield  a  large  annual  return.  The  value  of  the  metal  rxport^  w.ns,  in 
1870,  835,000  sj).  d.  for  raw  and  partially  worked  ores,  and  16.000  pp.  d.  for  wronglit 
metals.  The  richest  mines  are  situated  in  the  south,  and  cldefly  in  the  district  of  tlie 
Glommen,  as  the  celebrated  and  ancient  silver-works  of  Kongsbei*?,  the  copper 
mines  of  ItOrans,  Alteu,  and  Vigsnaes,  the  nickel  mines  of  Modum  and  Bamble,  awl 
the  cobalt-works  of  Buskt^rnd,  and  the  numerous  iron  nhafts  on  the  southern  decliri- 
ties  of  the  mountains  Ixitweeu  Eoiigsberg  and  the  Glommen.  Latterly,  however, 
some  pt  oductive  copi)er-work8  have  l^n  opened  iu  the  northern  districts  ik  Kaafjord 
in  Finmark. 

Ship-building  in  all  its  bi-anches  is  almost  the  only  industrial  art  that  is  extensively 
and  actively  pro8<!cnted.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  there  are  alwolniely  nospeclal 
t  ades,  the  inhabitants  of  the  small  fishing-ports,  lio  less  tl) an- the  inmates  of  (he 
widely  separated  farms,  employing  their  compulsory  h-ipure  during  the  long  winter 
]:i  weaving,  spinning,  and  making  the  articles  of  clothing  and  the  domestic  iiiiple- 
uients  required  in  their  households. 

Trcuie,  etc.— The  principal  seats  of  trade  are  Christiania,  Drammen,  Arendal,  Ber- 
gen, Stavanger,  and  Troudhjem.  The  merchant  fleet  nnmbtred, in  1874,  7447  vesft-lB 
of  1,220,000  tons,  manned  by  56,147  seamen.  In  1873  13.404  vessels  cU  ared  the  pons 
of  N.  The  exports,  which  consist  mainly  of  timber,  fish,  miinrals,  furs,  feathers, 
arid  down,  amounted  in  1873  to  33,987,000  sv.  d.,  or  ab<mt  X7,000.000;  while  tliehn- 
}>orts  for  the  same.year  were  45,859,000  sp. " d..  or  XIO.300,000  sterling.  Tlie  valoeof 
the  exports  to  Great  BriitUn  in  1877  was  £5,295.000,  the  importJ^  thence  beiug  viilned 
at  jei,728,000.  The  imports  consist  not  onlv  of  the  ordinary  colonijd  goods,  and  ob- 
jects of  luxufV,  but  in  a  large  proportion  of  the  mo-^t  necessary  articles  of  consnuip- 
tion,  lis  cereals  to  the  annual  amount  of  2,000.000  tons,  salt  in  nearly  half  that  qoan- 
tity,  fiesh  and  salted  meat,  i)uiter,  soap.  hemp,  and  flax,  sailcloth,  tow,  oil,  wiiw, 
tobacco,  and  manufactured  goods  of  all  descriptions.  The  most  impoiiaut  com- 
mercial relations  of  N.  are  with  Great  Britain  and  Gei-many.  Russia  audDcuiuark 
stand  next  in  order  as  importers  to  N.,  while  the  Catholic  countries  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean ai'c  the  principal  purchasers  of  the  smoked  and  mied  Norwegian  fish. 

•  The  specie  daler  is  worth  about  4«.  6<i. 

Digitized  by  V^jOOQIC 


O  0  O  WTorwajr 

Revmm,  dc— By  the  Imdg  tfor  1876-7T,  the  rovenno  was  eBtimatttl  at  39.200.000 
kroner  (tlie  hrmie^  worth  la.  l>j^d.,  Imving  lu  1S75  Pupersoded  the  old  speeie-daler).  or 
about  jC2,1*)0,420,  the  expejiditnre  Ijeing  pn-Mimed  to  equal  ibe  receipts.  The 
uatJoual  debt  of  N.  amounted  in  1875  to  48,307 ,6u0  kroner. 

Admhmtratioiiy  ike. — N.  i»  divided  into  20  uuile,  or  adminiptrntive  circles,  as 
given  ju  the  table  preceding.  These  circles  ure  enbdividid  into  56  fogdericr  (baili- 
wicks), each  presided  over  oy  a  rural  magielrate,  and  coutaininj*  iu  all  446  herrvd«'r, 
or  adminipti'ative  districts,  which  have  eimilarly  their  own  judicial  or  official  headi*. 
N.  Iiiis  a  representative  j<overumeut,  based  on  tl»e  constitution  which  was  esiub- 
lishcd  iu  1814,  and  ratified  at  Eidsvold.  The  Storthinur,  or  legislative  chambt-r, 
meuls  annually,  and  is  composed  o£  represeutalives  who  arc  eleetetl  by  deputies 
wlio have  bet-u  selected  for  the  puraose  of  uoniinatiue  the  members.  These  d»pn- 
ties  are  elected  by -a  system  of  almost  unrestrictea  universal  suffrage,  the  only 
qualifications  neces^aiy  being  the  attainment  of  tlie  age  of  25,  and  the  possession  uf 
properly  in  hnid  to  the  value  of  150  sp.  d.,  or  a  tive  y<ar8'  tenancy  of  such  proj)- 
eity.  The  election  of  the  deputies  tukes  place  every  third  year,  whtn  the  electors 
meet  in  their  respective  parish  churches,  and  choose  d<putie»i,  N\ho8e  number  is  in 
the  proponiou  of  1  to  50  voters  for  towns,  and  1  for  100  in  rural  districts.  The^Q 
dt^puiies  then  select  from  their  own  body,  orfiom  aixong  other  eligible  persoup, 
the  representatives  for  the  Storthing,  which  is  further  ^ubdividtd  into  two 
distinct  ciiambers,  the  Lngthiug  and  Odelsihing,  with  the  former  of  whom  rests 
tie  framing  of  legislative  and  flnuucial  meannrei',  aud  with  the  latter  the  i)Ower  of 
aa editing  or  rej.  cting  thetn,  and  the  richtof  taking  cognizance  of  the  conduct  of 
tJie  ministers,  judges,  and  other  officers  or  tl>e  slate.  "^I'he  m«nnl)er8  of  ll»e  Storthing 
receive  an  allowance  for  their  time  and  travelling  expenses  during  the  seesiou.  The 
Stortldng  votes  the  taxes,  which  arp  collected  l>y  officera  of  the  king  of  Sweden  an^ 
,N. ;  ii  proposes  law?*,  which  must  be  ratified  by  the  king ;  but  if  they  pass  the  Sior- 
tiilng  three  times,  they  acqiiire  validity  even  without  the  king's  sancjion.  Althougli 
N.  coustilntes  one  joint  kingdom  with  Sweden  iu  regard  to  succession,  external 
ix)licy,  and  diplonnicy,  it  is  in  all  other  respects  an  indcp<nid«it  state,  having  its  own 
government,  legislative  machinery,  finances,  army,  and  navy.  The  king  is  iude«d 
counnander-in-chief  of  all  the  forces  of  thecountiy,  whetbi^r  military  or  naval ;  l)ut 
lie  cau  neither  augment  or  decrease  their  number,  nor  proclaim  peace  or  war  with<  ut 
the  ascent  of  the  Norwegian  Council  of  State,  which  must  consist  of  ten  in«mbers, 
natives  of  the  country;  nor,  excepting  in  time  of  war,  can  he  bring  foreign  soldiers 
witliii!  the  frontiers,  or  send  native  troops  oiit  of  Norwaj'.  In  accordance  with  the 
constitnticm,  no  title  can  be  conferred  independently  of  the  tenure  of  office,  and  no 
onecauberalsed  t«  therank  of  a  noble;  while  with  the  d«'aih  of  the  members  of 
the  few  still  surviving  noble  families  who  were  born  before  1821.  all  pei*soual  honors, 
privileges,  and  distinctions  belonging  to  nobility  will  cease.  The  coni«titution  may 
tiierefore  be  regarded  as  purely  democratic  iu  its  character.  The  Council  of  State 
constitutes  the  highest  court  of  justice,  under  whose  jurisdn^tion  the  provincial 
magistrates  or  amtmaend  administer  justice,  in  conjunction  with  the  bailiffs  and 
soieiukriver  or  advocates,  who  preside  ovi  r  i>etty  rural  courts.  These  lower  courts 
are  conti-olled  by  the  Stift  or  Diocesan  Courts  of  Justice;  wliile  the  latter  are,  ui 
their  turn,  under  thtt  High  Court  of  Appeal,  or  HHieste  Het^  which  is  located  at  Chris- 
tian ia. 

Re'ig-ion^  ttc— -The  Lutheran  is  the  predominant  church,  to  which  all  pfrsons 
holdiiig  public  offices  of  trust  must  belong,  although  freedom  is  allowed  to  all  other 
Chrisrian  denominations  and  to  Jews.  The  church  is  under  the  administration  of 
nix  bishops,  whose  feees  are  Christiania,  Christiansand,  Trondhjem,  Bergen,  Haniar, 
and  TronisO.  There  are  80  deaneries,  437  higher  rectorl<>8.  and  960  punish  and  dis- 
trict, town  and  coimtry  churcl>eg  in  all.  There  were,  in  1870.  532  beneficed  clergymen, 
and  337  theological  candidates  wKhont  fixed  nreferment.  The  whole  number  of  dis- 
senters In  that  year  did  not  exceed  5M).  'J  he  clergy,  who  I'eceive  tithes,  exercise 
cojisiderable  influence  in  remote  country  districts,  where  they  frequently  are  called 
upon  to  settle  disputes,  and  exercise  various  judicial  functions.  Much  has  been 
done  of  late  years  In  Iff,  for  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  provisioN  is  now  made  to 
extend  educatlan  to  tl»e  inhabitants  of  the  most  inHCoessible  districts  by  means  of 
Itinerant  teachers,  a  certain  number  of  whom,  corresponding  to  the  numbetof  farms 
iu  ej»ch  parlrti,  are  uominated  to  the  office  of  BChooUnaster.  _  Thew  men  proceed 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


No/«ray  324 

from  housn  to  honpe,  boing  Bnppliod  with  n  pchoolroom,  and  fed  and  ontertained  '7 
each  householder  in  Puccuf^siou  for  the  number  of  days  at  which  the  farm  is  mulcted; 
and  by  the  aid  of  these  means,  education  is  so  niiiven>ally  diffused  that  it  Is  rnre  to 
meet  with  Norwegians  who  cannot  read  and  write.  In  1S69,  there  were  160  h^r 
poor  schools,  15  normal  schools  for  the  parish-school  teachers,  96  higher  private 
schools,  16  militaiy,  naval,  and  navigation  schools,  and  13  polytechnic  Iiistitutioua. 
The  expenses  incuired  for  education  were,  for  the  countiy  districts,  365,000  pp.  d., 
and  for  the  towns,  111,367  sp.  d.  'J'he  university  of  Christiaiiia  (q.  v.),  which  w;  s 
founded  in  1811,  has  47  professors,  and  is  attended  by  about  1000  students,  am<ra?3t 
whom  are  the  sous  of  many  of  the  peasant  laud-ownei's,  who  receive  a  university 
education  withont  intending  to  fpUow  the  learntd  professions. 

Army,  <fcc.— By  the  terms  of  the  laws  of  1866  and  1876,  tlie  array  of  N.  ia  com- 
posed of  troops  of  the  line,  the  military  train,  the  militia  or  Landevaem,  the  civic 
guards,  anrl  tiie  Landstorm.  or  final  war-levy.  In  1876,  the  troops  of  the  line  uum- 
oered  12,000  men  and  750  officers.  All  yonnp  men  above  twenty -one  years  of  ago 
are  liable  to  serve,  with  the  exception  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  three  northern  amtfl 
of  the  kingdonv  The  fleet  numbered,  in  1876, 123  vessels,  of  which  32  were  steani- 
ers,  canning  166  guns.  The  Jiavy  was  manned  by  2400  Bailor,-*,  but  the  number  <rf 
men  liable  by  law  to  bo  called  upon  for  naval  service  in  the  maritime  districta  of  N. 
exceeds  60,000.  Hort«n.  in  Chrii»tiania-Fjord,  is  tlie  priucipfil  naval  port.  The 
only  fortified  npots  are  Freclerickstcen  at  Frederickshald,  Frederiijkstad,  AkershiuiB, 
Bergcitshuus,  Mnnkholm,  and  VardOlnm?. 

The  popnlntion  of  N.  is  chiefly  rural,  only  about  11  per  cent,  living  in  towns. 
Christianhi,  the  principal  city,  has  77.00:}  inhal»itants,  wlnle  Bergen  and  Trondhjem 
have  respectively  only  34.000  and  22,500.  The  physical  character  and  conscqneiit 
climatic  relations  of  N.  leave  a  very  small  proportion  (according  to  some  wnters, 
only  about  2  per  cent.)  of  the  area  caprible  of  being  cultivated.  There  are  few  Tilla- 
ges, and  the  isolated  farmsteads  are  often  separated  from  one  another  by  many  milffl. 
H'he  cultivators  of  the  land  are  in  mos^t  instances  also  the  proprietors,  less  than  cue- 
third  of  the  whole  number  being  tenants  only.  Allodial  land,  known  as  Udal  or 
Odel.  docs  not  descend  to  the  eldest  son  unconditionally,  since  all  \\\<  relatives  have 
a  claim  upon  it,  and  if  it  should  be  sold,  have  the  right  of  buying  it  back  within  the 
term  of  five  years  at  the  sale-price.  4 

Eoadsi,  RaitwaySf  Ac. — The  public  roads  in  N.  are  oxcelJeut ;  and  travelling  is 
rendered  cheap  and  expeditions  by  the  system  established  and  regulated  by  law,  in 
accordance  with  which  carriages  and  horses  are  provided  at  fixed  rates  of  payment 
for  travellers  passing  through  the  rural  districts  of  the  country.  This  system,  which 
is  known  as  **  Skyds,"  is  completely  under  the  control  and  direction  of  the  authori- 
ties, by  whom  the  number  of  the  guest-honses  and  stations  are  regulated.  The 
length  of  the  railways  in  N.  in  1876  was  about  340  miles ;  the  length  of  the  telegraph- 
lines  was 4050  miles;  and  the  number  of  letters  that  passed  tlirough  the  {K)st  in 
1876  was  8,764.000. 

Race,  Language^  <fec.— With  the  exception  of  some  20.000  Lapps  and  Pinns,  living 
in  the  most  rumote  northern  regions,  the  iidiabitants  of  W.  are  generally  a  pure  Scan- 
dinavian race,  akin  to  the  Nortli  Germanic  nations  of  Aryan  descent.  The  geiiaiire 
Norwegians  arfe  of  middle  height,  with  strong,  well-knit,  muscular  frames,  of  h\T 
ekin,  with  light  flaxen  or  yellow  hair,  and  blue  eyes.  In  character,  they  may  be  said 
to  l)e  frank,  yet  cautious  and  reserved,  honest,  religious,  and  superstitions,  more 
from  an  inveterate  love  of  clinging  to  the  forms,  thoughts,  and  creed  of  their  ances- 
tors, than  from  fanaticism.  Their  love  of  couutiy,  juid  the  Irrepressible  fouduess 
for  the  sea,  by  the  very  anomaly  which  these  apparently  contradictory  propensiii«'9 
exhil)it,  shew  them  to  be  the  true  descendants  of  the  sea-roving  Northmen  of  old. 
Of  late  years,  emigration  has  contiimed  steadily  to  increase  at  a  rate  which  thrt-atena 
to  be  a  serious  evil  to  so  badly  populated  a  country  as  N.,  but  which  is  easily  ex- 
plained by  the  small  |>ortion  of  land  eapuble  of  cultivation.  The  general  diffnrion 
of  education,  and  the  perfect  equality  and  practical  independence  wliich  the^  have 
known  Ijow  to  secureand  retain  for  themselves,  notwithstanding  their  nominal  incor- 
poration with  the  other  Scandinavian  kiniidoms,  give  to  the  poorest  Norwegi.Jiis  a 
sense  of  self-respect  and  self-relmice  which  distinguish  them  favorably  from  tboeo 
of  the  same  class  in  other  countries.  The  peasints,  more  esp  "cially  in  theauits 
remote  fi»m  towns,  retain  thoir  aucieui  provincial  cu^stumes,  which  arc,  for  tliuino^t 


Digitized  by 


Google 


325  Worway 


part,  highly  pictnrepqne,  conpiatm'^,  nmo'tjr  the  women,  of  nmple  woollen  nkirts  nnd 

origh:ly-colored  knit  bodic*^»,  tneleiifd  and  adnmed  with  silver  or  brasfl  clusps  and 

f  bnckles.    Mneic  ia  much  cnltivated  by  till  classes  of  the  people,  and  the  nationiil 

•  Fongs  and  melodies  which  are  the  f avoiites,  are  for  the  most  part  of  a  melancholy 
character. 

Danish  is  the  lanennge  in  ordinary  n$*e  both  In  writing  and  speaking,  althongh 
dialects  nearer  akin  to  t.ie  old  Norse  are  ^•poken  by  the  daiet^men  and  mounrninwrs 
of  special  districts.  Since  the  separation  of  ilie  country  from  Denmark,  a  strongly 
•national  teiRlency  has  Imen  manifested  by  some  of  tlie  best  Norwegian  writers,  hi  d 
attempts  have  been  mode  to  reorganise  these  dialects  into  one  genernl  Norwegian 
langnagc,  and  tha:*,  in  fact,  to  revive  tiie  ancient  Norsf,  or  Icelandic,  which  hns 
b<?en  preserved  in  Iceland  In  aflmost  perfect  i)uiity  since  its  first  introdnction  to  i lie 
island  in  the  9th  c  by  colonists  from  the  Scandinavian  mother-lands.  Among  iho 
most  zealous  cnltivators  of  the  ancient  and  modern  liternture  and  history  of  N.,  we 
may  instance  Professor  P.  A.  Munch,  whose  able  expositions  of  the  laws  and  social 
conditions  of  bis  country  have  thrown  new  light  on  iis  history;  Keyser,  Unger,  and 
Hohnboe,  who  have  d<me  much  to  elucidate  the  Norse  tongue  and  litfrjstnre ;  A. 
Miuich,  Bjerreguard,  Hansen,  and  Welhaven  the  critic,  snccest'fnl  cnltivulors  of  the 
national  lyric;  J.  Moe  and  Asbj5rusen.  collectors  and  annotators  of  native  sagas; 
Ibsen  the  dramatist,  iuid  Bjornsen  the  dclineai or  of  national  ptasant  life.  In  the 
more  abstruse  departinems  of  mathematical  and  physical  science,  Norwegians  havfl 
gained  for  tliemselves  a  foremost  place,  as  is  f  nracieutiy  t««siifled  by  the  men  I  ion  of 
names  such  asN.  H.  Abel,  renowned  fw  his  discoveries  in  definite  integrals ;  C.  Hau' 
Ptcen,  the  astronomer:  and  Keilliau,  the  geologist. 

History. — The  larly  history  of  N.  is  comi)rij*ed  in  that  of  the  other  Scandinavian 
countries,  and  is,  like  theirs,  for  tlie  most  part  fabulous.  It  is  only  towards  the  close 
of  the  lOti)  c,  when  Chrisiianity  was  introduced  under  the  rule  of  Olaf  I.,  that  the 
mythical  ol>S(nirity  in  which  the  annals  of  the  kingdom  had  been  previously  plunged 
bt^hjs  to  give  place  to  the  light  of  tiistorical  truth. 

The  introduction  of  Christianity,  which  was  the  result  of  the  interconrpe  which 
the  Norwegians  had  with  the  more  civilised  parts  of  Eurox)e,  througli  their  maritime 
expeditions, destroyed  m^ch  of  the  old  nationality  of  the  p«  ople  with  the  heathenism 
whicli  they  had  hitherto  cherished,  although  the  sanguinary  fends  whicli  had  raged 
among  the  rival  chiefs  of  tlie  land  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  lost  their  ferocity 
mider  the  sway  of  a  milder  religion.  Olaf  II.,  or  the  Saint  (1015—1030),  wl»o  eeal- 
ously  prosecuted  the  conversion  of  his  conntrymen,  raised  himself  to  supreme  power 
in  the  land  by  the  subjection  of  tlie  small  kmgs  or  chieftains,  who  in  the  times  of 
heatlienism  had  subdivided  the  kingdom  among  them.  The  war  between  Olaf  and 
King  Kuud  the  Great  of  Denmark,  which  terminated  in  1080  with  the  battle  of 
Sticklestad,  in  which  the  former  was  slain,  brought  N.  under  the  sway  of  the  Danish 
conqueror;  but  at  his  death  in  1036,  Olaf's  son,  Magnus  I.,  recovered  possession  of 
the  throne,  and  thenceforth,  till  1319,  N.  cotitinued  to  be  governed  by  native  kings. 
The  death  in  that  year  of  Hakon  V.  without  male  lieirs,  ilirew  the  electi^  of  a  new 
king  into  the  hands  of  the  national  assembly,  who,  after  many  discns<«ions,  made 

•  choice  of  Magnus  VIIL  of  Sweden,  the  son  of  Bakon's  daughter.  He  was  in  torn 
succeeded  i>y  his  son  H^ikon.  and  his  grandf^on  Olaf  Iv.,  who  having  l)een 
elected  King  of  Denmark  in  1376.  became  ruler  of  the  sister  Scttndinavian 
kingdoms  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1380.  This  young  king,  who  ex- 
ercised only  a  nominal  sway  under  the  guidance  of  his  mother,  Queen 
Margaret,  the  only  child  of  Valdemar  III.  of  Denmark,  died  without  heirs 
in  1387.  MargBri't's  love  of  power  and  capacity  for  government  brought 
ahoat  her  election  to  the  triple  Uirone  of  the  Scai^inavian  lands,  and  from 
this  jieriotl  till  1814,  N.  continued  united  with  Denmark ;  but  while  it  shared  in  the 
general  fortunes  of  the  hittor  state,  it  retained  its  own  constitutional  mode  of  govern- 
ment, and  exercised  its  right  of  electing  to  the  throne,  until,  like  the  sister-kingdom, 
it  agreed  of  its  own  free  will  to  relinquis»h  this  privilege  in  favor  of  hereditary  succes- 
sion to  the  throne.  See  Denmabe,  Histoby  of.  The  Napoleonic  crij'is  may  be 
8:iid  to  have  severed  this  union,  which  had  existed  for  more  than  400  years,  for  Den- 
mark, after  having  given  imequi vocal  proofs  of  adtiesion  to  the  cause  of  Bonaparte, 
was  compelled,  after  the  disastrous  war  of  1813,  to  purchase  peace  at  the  cost  of  this 
long  anited  yanner  of  her  state.    Crippled  in  her  resomrces,  and  almost  a  bankrupt, 


Digitized  by 


Google 


gsif*      X-    "-      326  <     >   ••  ••  :// 

she  saw  herselt  cdiifitraine<1  to  flgtt  the  trenty  of  Kiel  iti  1814,  by  which  It  was  fitipn- 
lated  by  the  allied  powew  that^he  i^liould  tesigu  N.  to  Sweden*  recelviiie  In  retnrn, 
by  way  of  indemiifiy,  soiue  1[)oi^o)i  of  Swedish  Pomernnla  and  the  ielatid  of  Rfigeii, 
wiilch  were  Rnbaequently  e»ch«liged  with  Prussia  for  LaueiibtirK  on  the  payment  by 
that  state  of  two  million  rirdotinrs.  I'he  Norwefflans,  hnvitig  refused  to  admit 
the  validity  of  the  treaty  of  Kiel,  nominated  l*rliioe  Christian,  the  beiiM)r«- 
snmptive  to  the  throtie  of  Denmaric,  regent  and  subfleqneutlyltiiig  of  Nohr^.  This 
nomination  was  iniide  by  tlie  national  fiiet.  or  Btorthing,  which  met  at  Bjdsvold, 
where  they  drew  up  a  constitntion  Imum  d  on  the  FreiK5h  constitntion  of  1791. 
These  measnres  fonnd.  however,  neither  Buppoitcrs  nor  sympathisers  among  tlio 
other  nations:  and  with  the  sauvtion  of  the  gi'eat  allied  powern,  Cliarlos  John 
Bernadotte.  Crown-Prince  of  Sweden,  led  an  army  into  N.,  and  after  takiug 
Frederickstad  and  Prederickshald,  threatened  Christianiju  Denmark  being  unable 
to  support  the  cause  of  Prince  Clirisiian,  and  N.  being  utterly  desliiute  of  tlie  nieaus 
necepsary  for  propecnting  a  war,  rerfptance  was  of  no  avail,  and  the  Norw(;gia»8  In 
this  untoward  conjuncture  of  affairs,  were  glad  to  accept  the  proposals  made  to  them 
by  the  8wetl!i«h  king  for  auniou  with  8w<  den,  rm  tliennderstandmg  that  they  should 
retain  the  newly  promnlffatod  constitution,  and  enjoy  full  liberty  and  independence 
within  their  own  boundaries.  These  conditions  wi?re  agreed  to,  and  siricily  mnia- 
tuiued;  a  few  unimportant  alterations  in  the  confttitntion.  ueetSHltated  by  tiie 
altered  conditions  ot  the  new  union,  heing  the  only  ctnmges  introduced  in  the 
machinery  of  goveniment.  Charles  XIII.  was  declared  joint  king  of  Sweden  and 
N.  in  1818.  and  while  the  latter  has  liecome  an  almost  independent  state,  it  is 
questionable  whether  tlie  former  has  found  in  Its  nominal  acquisition  an  equivalent 
for  the  OSS  of  Finland,  whicli  was  the  price  exacte<l  for  it  by  the  allied  powrrs,  aud 
made  over  to  Russia.  Since  the  union,  N.  has  firmly  resisted  every  att^'Uipt  on  ilie 
part  of  the  Swedi»*h  monru'chst.o  infringe  upon  tlie  constitutional  prerogiUives  of  the 
nation  ;  and  duriugr  the  reign  of  the  lirst  of  the  Bernadotfe  dynasty,  the  relations  be- 
tween him  and  ins  Norwegian  suhj^ts  were  marked  by  jealousy  and  distrnrt 
on  both  sides;  but,  since  his  deatl),  the  people  genemlly  have  been  more  couieuted, 
aud  N.  has  continued  to  make  rapid  pixjirress  lowai-ds  a  state  of  politlcjil  security 
and  material  prosperity  far  great<?r  than  it  t^ver  enjoj'ed  under  the  Danish  doniiuioa. 
—See  T.  Thorlak,  •' Historia  rerum  Norvagicarnm »»  (Copenh.  ITU):  SchOning, 
"  Norges  Riges  Historic  "  O*^oroe,  1771) ;  Mnnclj,  *•  Det  Norske  Folk's  flistorie,"  Bd. 
IS  (Christ.  1852-1859) ;  **  Bidrag  til  Norges  Offlciela  Stalislik,"  1871. 

NORWAY  HADDOCK.    See  Bbeotlt. 

NO'RWICH,  a  city  of  England,  capital  of  the  county  of  Norfolk,  and  a  county 
in  itself,  on  tlie  Wcnsum,  immodiutely  at)Ove  its  confluence  witli  the  lare,  20  iniU« 
west  of  Yarmouth,  and  98  miles  north-north-east  of  London.  It  covers  an  area 
about  live  miles  in  circumference,  is  skirted  <m  its  north  and  east  side^  by  the  river, 
and  ou  tlie  west  and  south  it  was  formerly  surrounded  by  walls,  the  last  vestiges  of 
which  have  been  recently  removed  in  order  to  make  room  for  the  extenslou  of  the 
city.  The  market-place  (6()0  foetlong  by  840  feet  wide)  and  its  vicinity  contiia 
many  large  shops  aud  good  houses.  The  castle,  finely  situated  on  an  elevation  ue«r 
the  centre  of  the  town,  originally  covered,  with  its  works,  an  area  of  about  28  flcres. 
The  bridge  (160  feet  long)  over  the  ditch  has  one  of  the  largest  and  most  perfect 
Anglo-Norman  arches  remaining.  The  massive  qnadrangnlur  Norman  keep  is  now 
used  as  a  prison.  Tlie  cathedral,  almost  wholly  Norman  in  plan,  was  foand>d  in 
1094  by  Bishop  Herbert  Losinga.  It  is  411  feet  long,  191  feet  broad  at  the  tnmsepts. 
and  is  surrounded  by  a  spire  815  feet  high.  Near  the  cathednU  are  a  number  of 
ancient  and  interesting  structures  now  mere  or  less  in  ruins,  among  whicli  may  be 
mentioned  St  Ethelbert's  and  the  Erpingham  Gate,  the  former  in  Decorated  Eng- 
lish, the  latter  in  late  Perpendicular,  and  both  valuable  and  rich  specimens  of  tbt-Ir 
styles.  Besides  a  large  number  of  dissenting  chapels  and  other  places  of  worship.there 
are  about  40  churches,  of  wiiich  Si  Peter's  Mancroft,  a  handsome  cruciform  edifice  of 
the  15th  c,  with  a  remarkably  fine  peal  of  12  bells ;  St  Andrew's,  St  Clement'««,  St 
George's  St  Giles,  St  MichaePs,  and  others,  are  wortliy  of  mention.  The  Free 
Grammar  School,  with  an  endowment  of  al>ont  £200  a  year,  was  founded  by  Edward 
VI.,  and  the  other  edncarional  establishments  are  numerous  and  various  in  character. 
The  public  library  contiiius  20,000  volumes,  and  the  library  of  the  Norwich  Lilenury 


y  Google 


^  327  ,  :  SST' 

Institution,  15.000  yoUini^.  N.  is  the  ^nt  of  exteucive  and  flourit«hing  iiifinufno- 
tiires,  the  chief  of  vrliich  are  biindiAua.  bombasine?,  hliaw!?*,  crapeB,  gauses. 
diimas){i»,  canileti*,  and  muslins  ;  nUoemuking^  is  exiens^lvely  ctirricd  on  ;  vmh  and 
sillc  millfl  ai-e  in  opt'ratioti.  and  employ  many  bauds.  Iron-'tounding,  Innnlng,  dye- 
iiiir,  malting,  &c.,  and  agticHltural  implemeut-makiug,  are  also  curried  ou.  The 
trade,  which  is  Cucilitaled  by  a  canal  and  river  evBtem  of  communication  with  the 
B('u,  is  ciiiefly  in  agricultural  produce  aud  coaJ.  "K.  is  tho  see  of  a  bishop,  and  re- 
turn!* two  members  to  parliameut  Pop.  of  municipal  and  purliumeutary  borough 
in  1811, 80,386.  ^  ^ 

AImuu  liiree  miles  south  of  N.  is  Castor  Bt  Bdnmnds.  ^^iiich,  prior  to  the  Koman 
era,  was  called  Caister,  and  under  the  Uomans  received  in*»  nanie  6f  VeiUa  letnorum, 
N.,  which  occupies  a  place  iu  history  from  tlie  time  of  the  ^ailicr  Danish  iiivasioDt*. 
had  lis  origiu  in  tlie  cattle  erected  as  a  St ron^old  by  the  East  Anglian  kings,  au*^. 
resorted  to  as  a  pltite  of  safety  by  the  inhabitants  of  Yenta Icenorum,  w ho  g^Yjj  it 
the  name  of  Noril»-u  ic  or  nortliern  station  or  towp,  oil  ucci'Uni  of  its  relative  poai- 
tion  with  roppect  to  their  own  town.  The  bishopric  of  the  East  Angles  v^»»  removed 
hither  in  10M.  About  4000  Flemings  settled  at  liL  ill  the  reign  of  S'liEabetlk,  ana 
{rreatjy  increased  the  prosiierity  of  the  to^j^i  by  tW  branches  of  Hlhuufacture  whictk 
they  iiitroduccd.  '  ^ 

NORWICH,  a  city  of  Connecticut^  T^'§.,  at  the  head  of  "navigation  of  th«  ThamcR 
River,  18  miles  north  of  New  London,  and  88  sontU'^Rgt  of  Hartford.  Tl»e  chief 
portion  of  the  city  lies  On  an  eminence  that  rises  b«>tween  the  Yaniic  and  Slietucket 
rivers,  wliicli  here  nnite  to  form  the  Thames.  Tiiere  are  numerous  mannfactories  of 
cotton,  wool,  paper,  &c.,  which  are  supplied  vrkb  water-power  by  falls  of  60  feet  ou 
tlie  Yantic  river.  N.  contains  county  ouildVnos,'!  banks  1  daily  and  8  weekly  papers, 
16  ehurclies,  40  public  and  5  private  Bcbco!s»  and  a  free  aoatlemy.  N.  was  settled  in 
1659,  when  9  fq.  m.  were  bought  for  jGIO  of  TJucas,  an  Indian  chief,  whose  grave  is 
hi  the  city.    Pop.  (1870)  16,653,  -        .  . 

NORWICH  or  Mamma»Uei<>^  Crag,  a  serfes  of  highly  fossilifcrons  beds  of  sand, 
iwim,  and  gravel,  of  P*.ci;5roceue  age,  occurring  at  several  places  within  a  few  miles 
of  Norwich,  where  t'.^y  are  popularly  named  "Crag."  Tney  contain  a  mixture  of 
"winne  and  freeh-vf^iter  mollubca,  with  ichtiiyolit«'8  and  bones  of  nnunmalia.  They 
are  eyideni  jy  Dstaary  lieds,  the  most  common  shells  being  the  vei-y  species  now  abun- 
•  'i^Lf****^  isltuations  around  the  coasts  of  Britain ;  but  with  tliem  are  associated  a 
»ew  erZiBsa  species.  The  beds  rest  on  the  white  chalk,  the  surface  of  WliicU  U  fre- 
jneViily  -perforated  by  Pkolas  crittpata,  the  shell  still  remaining  at  the  bottom  of 
tho  cavity.  The  mammalian  bones  belong  to  species  of  elephant,  horse,' pig, 
^.<eer,  and  field-mouse.  With  them  are  occasionally  found  the  bopes  of  Mastodo^i 
ungwtideita  and  some  mollu^ca,  whicli  belong  to  the  Red  Cr»>Ht  TJ4PlV  OW'ttn^epet^ 
here  is  believed  to  have  arisen  from  their  htiving  ^^p  W^efe^^  QSt  p{  tge  ^e^  iu$d 
this,  the  Norwich  Crag.  -  -^     .- 

NCRWOOD,  Upper  and  Lower,  are  two  villages  in  Surrey,  England,  with  a  sta- 
tion on  the  London  and  Croydon  Railway,  6  miles  fouth  of  London.  1  he  public 
Pleasure-ground,  called  the  Benlah  8pn,  is  prettily  laid  out  around  a  mineral  sndng. 
The  villages  are  worthy  of  mention,  however,  chiefly  on  account  of  their  scnoo^s, 
among  which  are  a  district  scliool  for  the  pauper  children  of  Lambeth  parish,  and  u 
V.  ry  large  and  impprtant  educational  establishment  for  tlie  pauper  children  of  Loi;-^ 
don.    'i  he  district  parish  ol  N.  had,  in  1871,  a  i)opnlation  of  12,686.         ..  ^    -         g 

NOSE,  AND  THE  SENSE  OP  SMELL.  The  noJ»e  is  not  only  the  >,;J«„"If  smell 
bat  is  likewise  a  part  of  the  apparatus  of  respiration  and  voice.  Co-  .iri«,Vi|n°a,omical- 
ly,  it  may  \^  divided  into  an  external  pui-l-lhe  projeciii-- ,^,.. '"*\^o®!,^^^^^ 
now te  popularly  restricted;  and  an  internal. pi-^^  ^„K?i ^f  vl?^^  m  VriUr^^^ 
or  wow/ /(wseir,  separated  from  one  anorb--  '  . ....  C0UH8tm|  of  two  chief  catties, 
spongy  or  turbinated  Iwnes  pro^  "  -»'  '>y  ^  vertical  BepTum,  and  »ul>d>vlaea  hj 
i»caft«Mr,  with  which  vari'-'  ,-ouiig  from  the  Oi^'.^r  ^ftH  J«to  tl^'f^ P*»*/*J®^,li 
superior  maxlllanr  v  _u8  cells  or  ««nt/*>-  ^  jt^^  ethWPl^'t  PP^«^o*^  i}9^}^>  »»W 
,     The    isr*-        ,  ^onescomm"   •  — ^  ->-       t     \     .     .  ,     .  i 


,.catehy«»vr(>\vapertvre^;    :      -     r    :  ^,.j^,j|^hi3^, 
S"-^d    Whicir    •'..-.oa   Of    t^la  94ir^"%^^ie^f^rtnmed^        Aqv^^ 


Noa«  QOQ 

No.ologf  *5J0 

of  a  narrow  bridge,  formed  on  either  side  by  the  nnsal  bone,  and  tlie  nasal 
proces^s  of  tlie  8up«'rior  maxillary  l>one.  Jts  lower  part  presents  two  liorizoiital 
elliptical  openings,  tne  nontrils,  wliicli  overnunj?  the  inoatli,  and  are  separatetl  from 
one  another  by  a  yerticyl  Meptuin.  The  margins  of  tlie  nostrils  are  usually  provided 
with  auunil)er  of  stifiE  liairs  (vibrisAm).  wlticii  project  across  the  openings,  and  serve 
to  arrest  the  itassage  of  foreiiru  sub^taucen,  such  as  dust,  small  insects  &c.,  which 
might  otherwise  l)e  drawn  up  with  the  current  of  air  intended  for  respiration.  Tbe 
skeleton,  or  framework  of  the  nose,  is  partly  composed  of  the  bones  forming  tlie  top 
and  sides  of  the  bridge  and  ]>artly  of  cartilages,  there  I)eiug  on  eitiier  side  an  upper 
lateral  and  a  lower  lateraT cartilage,  to  the  latter  of  which  are  attached  thr.-e  or  four 
Biuall  cartilaKinons  plates,  termed  sesamoid  cariiinges ;  there  is  also  the  cartilage  of  the 
septum  whici)  separates  the  nostrils,  and  in  association  posteriorly  with  theperpeudic- 
,  uhir  plate  of  Uie  ethmoid,  and  with  the  vomer,  forms  a  complete  partition  betweeo 
-  the  right  $ud  left  nasal  fo?s«.  It  is  tlie  lower  lateral,  termed  by  some  writers  the 
alai:  cartilage,  which  by  its  flexibility  and  curved  shape  forms  the  dilatiible  clianiber 
just  within  the  nostril.  The  na-^al  cartilages  are  capable  of  being  sligiitly  moved,  and 
the  Dostrjla  of  being  dilated  or  contracted  by  various  small  muscles,  wliich  it  is  oii- 
necefluary  to  describe.  Tlie  integument  of  the  nose  is  studded  with  the  openings  of 
sebaceous  foliiclea,  whi^h  are  extremely  large  and  abundant  in  this  region.  The  olfr- 
aginous  secretion  of  these  follicles  often  becomes  of  a  dark  color  near  the  surface; 
and  hence  tbe  spotted  appearance  which  the  tip  and  lower  parts  of  the  sides,  oraltBt 
of  the  nose  fretjuently  present  On  firmly  compressing  or  pinching  the  skin  of  these 
parts,  the  iuspissat<>d  secretion  is  forced  out  of  the  follicles  in  the  form  of  miuate 
white  worms  with  black  heads. 

The  naml  fossce^  which  constitute  the  internal  part  of  the  nose,  are  lofty,  and  of 
considerable  depth.  They  open  in  front  by  tlie  nostrils,  and  behind  they  terminate 
by  a  vertical  slit  on  either  side  in  the  upper  part  of  the  pharynx,  above  the  soft 
palate,  and  near  the  orifices  of  the  eostachian  tubes,  which  proceed  to  the  tympanic 
caviiy  of  the  ear. 

The  mucous  membrane  lining  the  nose  and  its  cftvitie^  is  called  fntuUary  (Lai 
;n£u2^  slime,  rheum),  from  the  nature  of  its  secretion;  or  Schneidtriatiy  fxova^ 
Schneider,  tlie  first  anatomist  who  siiewed  ttmt  the  secretion  proceeded  from  the 
mucous  membrane,  and  not,  as  was  previously  iraaMued,  from  tne  bruin ;  it  is  coti- 
tinuons  with  tiie  skin  of  the  face  at  the  nostrils,  wr.h  the  macons  covering  of  tlie 
eye  through  the  lachrymal  duct  (see  Eye),  and  with  that  of  tlie  pharynx  and  middle 
ear  posteriorly.  This  membrane  varies  in  its  structure  in  different  parts  of  the  orsau. 
On  the  septum  and  spongy  hones  bounding  the  direct  passage  from  the  nostrifeto 
the  throat,  the  Iininj<;  membrane  is  comparatively  thick,  partly  in  consequence  of  a 
multitude  of  glands  being  disseminated  beneath  it,  and  opening  upon  it,  but  c&iefly, 
perhaps,  from  tiie  presence  of  ample  and  capacious  subnmcous  plexuses  of  bOUi 
arteries  and  veins,  of  which  the  latter  are  by  farthe  more  large  and  tortuous.  These 
plexuses,  lying  as  they  do  in  a  region  exposed  more  than  any  other  to  external  cock- 
ing influences,  appear  to  lie  designed  to  promote  the  warmth  of  the  part,  and  to 
elevate  the  temperature  of -the  air  on  its  passage  to  the  lungs.  They  also  serve  to 
explain  the  tendency  to  hemorrtia^e  from  the  nose  in  cases  of  general  or  local  pie- 
^  thora.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  nostrils,  the  mucous  membrane  exhibits  papiltoe and  a 
f.9caly  epithelium,  like  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  skin.  In  the  sinuses,  and  in  all 
I  the  lower  region  of  the  nose,  the  epithelium  is  of  extreme  delicacy,  being  of  the  col- 
T  nmnar  variety,  and  clothed  with  cilliu  In  the  upper  third  of  ttie  nose— wnicb,  as  the 
.  proper^^eat  of  the  sense  of  smell,  may  be  termed  the  olfactory  region — ^the  epitiielinai 
ceases  to  be  ciliated,  assumes  a  more  or  le.<s  rich  Meuna-brown  tint,  and  iu<»^eaBes 
remarkably  jn  thickness,  so  that  it  forms  an  opaque  soft  pulp  upon  the  surface.  It 
is  composed  of  AU  aggregation  of  nulcleated  particles,  of  nearly  uniform  appear- 
ance throughout,  except  that  the  lowest  ones  are  of  a  darker  color  than  the  rest, 
from  their  containing  a  brown  pl^fmeut  in  their  interior.  Dr  Todd  and  Mr  Bowman 
remark,  in  tlielr  **  I^iysiological  AnatoDiy,"  from  which  we  have  condeneed  the 
alx>ve  account  of  the  nasal  mucous  membrane,  th»t  the  olfactory  region  abotwdsfil 
glands,  apparently  identical  with  sweat  glands,  wlilcrt  dip  down  in  tbe  reoewes  of 
the  submucous  tissue  among  the  ramiflcatiQna  of  the  olfaciOrjF  U^rve. 

The  nerves  of  the  nose  are  the  first  pair  or  olfactory  which  are  apedally  ooft- 
nected  with  the  sense  of  smell,  brauchet  of  the  fiftn  pftlr  which  confer  omtivtfV^^ 


y  Google 


qoQ  NoM 

«'-^  Nawiogr 

Kbility  on  Ita  skin  and  mucons  memhrane,  nud  motor  filaments,  from  the  facial 
iierve,4o  the  miB&l  muscles.  The  olfttctoiy  nerve  on  each  pide  is  connected  wUh  the 
inferior  sarfcce  of  thtTBniin  (q.  v.)  by  an  external,  a  middle,  and  an  inierual  root, 
which  nnite  and  foiin  n  llat  i>and  (or,  more  coiivclly,  a  prism),  which,  on  reaching 
the  cribriform  plate  of  tlieetlunoid  bunc,  expands  into  an  oblong  mn?8  of  grayieb- 
white  Bubftauce,  the  olfacUrry  btUb.  From  the  low*  r  sorface  of  this  bulb,  are  given 
off  the  olfactory  filaments,  flfte  n  or  tw rnty  in  number,  which  pat»8  throvgii  the  crib- 
riform foramina,  and  are  distiibuted  to  the  mncoUH  membrane  of  the  olfactory  re- 
giuu.  These  filauient&  differ  essentially  from  llie  ordinary  cerebral  net  ves.  I'hey 
coiitHui  no  white  8nbi*tance  of  Schwann,  are  not  divisible  into  elementary  flbalse, 
and  resemlile  the  gelatinooa  fibres  In  l>eing  nucleated,  and  of  a  finely  graimlar  tex- 
ture. The  brandies  of  the  flftii  pair  (or  trifacial)  given  to  the  noj»e  are  the  na*«al 
nerve  (derived  from  the  ophtiiainuc  division),  which  ^npplie?  the  skin  and  mucotis 
membrane  in  the  vicinity  of  the  no>tril!',  and  the  uaso-palatine  nerve  (derived  from 
Meckel's  ganglion,  which  is  connected  with  the  superior  nnixillMry  division),  which 
snpplies  the  mucous  membrane  on  the  spongy  imnes  and  on  the  septum.  The  pe- 
cniiar  sensation  that  precedes  sneezing  is  an  affection  of  the  nasal  nerve,  and  the 
flow  of  tears  tliat  accompaniet*  a  severe  fit  of  sneering  is  explained  by  the  common 
socrceof  this  and  the  lachrymal  nerve;  while  the  common  sensil)iliiy  of  the  nose, 
genenHly,  is  due  totlie  branches  of  "this  atid  of  the  naso-palatine  nerve. 

The  nature  of  odorous  enmnations  i^  so  little  known,  that  it  is  impossible  to  givo 
A  definite  account  of  the  mode  in  which  ihey  protluce  sensory  impressions.  Prom 
the  fact  that  most  odorous  substances  arc  volatile,  and  vice  verids  it  may  be  presumed 
that  they  consist  of  part  idea  of  extreme  minuteness  dissolved  in  the  air;  yet  the 
most  delicate  experiments  have  failed  to  discover  any  loss  of  weight  in  musk,  and 
other  strongly  oaoroiis  substances,  after  they  have  been  freely  evolving  their  effluvia 
for  several  year^.  But  whatever  may  be  the  nnture  of  the  odorou*  matter,  it  i» 
iiecepsaiy  that  it  should  be  trnnaniitted  by  a  reppiratoi^  current  throtigh  the  nostrils 
to  the  true  olfactory  region,  whose  membrane  must  be' in  a  hvalthy  condition.  If  it 
i»  too  dry,  or  if  there  is  an  inordinate  excretion  of  fluid  from  its  surface  (both  of 
which  conditions  occur  In  catarrh  or  cold  in  the  head),  smell  is  impaired  or  lost,  in 
couBeqnence  of  the  necessary  penetration  of  the  stimulating  odor  to  the  nervous 
fil.nnents  being  prevented. 

The  acutenesa  of  the  sense  of  smell  is  far  greater  In  many  of  the  lower  animals 
(dogs,  for  example)  than  in  man,  and  they  employ  it  in  guiding  them  to  th«irfood,in 
warning  them  of  approaching  danger,  and  for  other  purposes.  To  civilised  man  its 
otility  is  comparatively  emaU ;  but  it  is  occjtsionaliy  much  increased  when  ether 
ieiises  are  deficient.  In  the  well-known  case  of  James  Mitchell,  who  was  deaf  and 
blind  from  his  birth,  it  was  the  principal  means  of  distinguishing  persons,  and  en- 
abled bim  at  once  to  |>erceive  the  approach  of  a  siranirer.  Amongst  many  sav- 
ate  tribes  the  swnse  i«  almost  as  acute  ai*  in  many  of  the  low«'r  mamma's.  For  exam- 
ple, the  Penivlan  Indians  are  able,  accoitling  to  Humb(»ldt,  to  dis'tinguisli  in  the 
middle  ol  the  night,  whether  an  approaching  stranger  is  a  Emopean,  American  In- 
dian, or  Negro. 

Althou<»li  all  poisonous  gases  are  not  odorous,  and  all  bad  odors  may  not  be  poH- 
tively  dflett^rious  to  tioalth,  tliere  can  be  no  doubt  that  one  of  the  principal  objects 
for  which  the  sense  of  smell  is  given  to  us  is  to  enable  us  to  delect  atmospheric 
imparities,  many  of  which  are  of  a  most  noxioiui  character,  and  give  rise  to  the 
most  serious  forms  of  fever. 

N055E-RING.    See  RiNO. 

NOSING,  the  projecting  edge  of  a  moulding,  such  as  the  bead  or  bottle  Jised  on 
the  edge  of  steps,  to  which  the  term  id  most  frequently  applied. 

NOSCyLOGY  (Gr.  7w5«<5«,  disease)  is  that  branch  of  the  science  of  medicine  which 
treats  of  the  disrribullon  and  Mrraugement  of  diseases  into  classes,  orders,  &c.  Many 
systems  of  nosology  have  at  different  times  been  adopted ;  some  of  whicli  have  been 
^>a»*xl  opou  the  naliu'e  of  the  ascertained  causes  of  diseases;  others  on  the  pjitho- 
logical  Slates  or  conditions  which  attend  diseases  ;  others  on  the  differences  between 
Hrnclnral  and  functional  diseases,  &c.  It  is  hard  to  say  which  is  the  most,  jierfect 
nwihod;  but  tliat  of  Dr  Parr,  otie  of  theniost  distinguished  living  medical  statists. 
j»  adopted  by  the  Kegistrar-Geueral  in  the  Reports  on  the  mort.  lity  of  Loudon  and 


y  Google 


Nostrils  *5^^ 

£iiglfliid,  and  ia  becoming  more  generally  adopted  than  any  other.  It  has  the  adran- 
tage  over  the  anriqaated  but  oitce  popular  pyatym  of  Culien  (1792)  of  nieetlug  the 
requiremeiite  of  niodcrii  ^cience,  and  (l)y  ilUietiating  great  question*  counocfed  with 
])Ublic  heiilth)  of  sliewing  those  causes  that  are  injmious*  or  fatal  to  life,  and  of  thns 
coiiTributinp  to  the  removal  of  those  evila  (bad  drainage,  imperfect  veniilatiou,  Ac) 
wldclj  tend  to  shorten  hnman  existence. 

We  append  Dr  Farr's  system  of  nosology,  which  is  arranged  iu  four  primary 
classes,  each  of  which  iiiclnde.'<  various  ord-'rs:  , 

Class  I.  Ztvotic  Diseasx^s  (Gr.  zymiy  a  ferment).— Diseases  that  are  either 
cpidianic,  endendc,  or  contagious,  and  that  are  induced  by  some  specific  hodj,  or  by 
want  of  fof»d  or  by  its  bad  quality.  Iu  this  class  there  are  four  order.*— viz.,  Order 
I.  Mi/cmnatifi  Diseases  (Qr.  niianmOi  a  stain),  such  as  small-pox,  measles,  ncarlet- 
fcver,  diphtheria,  typhus  and  typhoid  fevers,  cholera,  ague,  &c.  Order  II.  Eathdic 
Diseaf^'i  (Qr.  enUi4tos,  put  in  or  implanted),  such  as  syphilis,  gonorrhoea,  glanders, 
hydrophobia,  malignant  puptuie,  &c.  Order  III.  Dietic  IXxea^es  (Gr.  diaUa,  Way  of 
life  or  diet),  such  as  fauiin»s  fever  scurvy,  purpura,  riclcetf,  bronchocele,  deliriniu 
tremens,  &.  Order  IV.  Parasitic  DUaaseH^  sucli  as  j-cabies  (or  itch),  and  worm  dis- 
orders fr(»m  aninial  paiasites,  and  ring- worm,  scald-head,  &c.,  from  vegetable  para- 
sites or  fungi. 

Class  11.  Constitutional  Diseases.— Dissa^es  affecting  seveml  orgnns,  in 
which  new  morbid  products  are  often  deposited ;  sometimes  heriHiitary.  This  class 
coulains  two  ordera.  Order  I.  Diathetic  Diseases  (Gr.  diatMsis^  condition  or  consti- 
tution), iucludin<4  gout,  anaemia,  cancer,  melanosis,  hipus,  &c  Order  II.  Thibereu- 
lar  Diseases^  such  as  scrofula,  phthisis,  mesenteric  disease,  tubercular  meniugitis, 

4&C. 

Class  III.  Local  Diseases.— Diseases  in  which  the  fnnct ions  of  particular  oi^us 
or  systems  tn-e  disturbed  or  obliterated  with  or  without  inflamm^iou;  sometfmefl 
hereditary.  This  class  includes  eight  orders. '  Ordei*  I.  Brain  DiseoAes  (or  more  cor- 
rectly. Diseases  of  the  Nervovs  System),  such  as  apoplexy,  paralysis,  epilepsy,  chorea, 
hy.-*teiia,  mania,  &c.  Order  II.  Heart  Diseases  (or  more  correctly,  [Hseases  of  the  Cir- 
culatory System),  such  as  pericarditis,  eudocarditia,  aneurism,  angina  pectoris, 
atheroma,  phlebitis,  varicos«  veins.  &c.  Order  III.  Lmig  Diseases  (or  more  correctly, 
Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System),  such  as  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  pleuriifyj  aatlunii, 
empyema,  laryngitis,  &c.  Order  IV.  Bowel  Diseases  (or  more  correctly.  Tntteai^  of 
the  Digcs^ve  System),  such  as  stomatitis,  gastritis,  tnteritis,  peritonitis,  jaundice,  &c 
Order  V.  Kidiiey  Diseases,  such  as  Briirht's  disease,  nephritis,  ischuria,  dialietes, 
stone,  gravel,  &c.  Order  VI.  Genetic  Diseases  (or  Diseases  of  the  Geiieratioe  System), 
such  as  hydrocele,  ovarian  dropsy,  &c.  Order  VII.  Boiie  and  Muscle  Disease^^  snch 
as  caries,  necrosis,  exostosiJ*,  synovitis,  muscular  atrophy.  &c.  Order  VIII.  Skin 
Diseases,  siirh  as  uriicaria,  cczeuia.  herpe«,-i!np(»tigo,  acne,  lichen,  prurigo.  &c. 

Class  IV.  Developmental  Diseases. — Special  diseases,  the  incid  Mital  resnlt 
of  the  fpruiative,  reproductive,  and  nutritive  process<'s.  It  contains  four  onlei^ 
Order  I.  Developmental  Disear-ics  of  Children,  such  as  malformations,  idiocy,  teetlu«re, 
&c.  Order  II.  Devehpmetitiil  Diseases  of  Womsn,  such  as  amenorrhea,  childbirtii, 
change  of  life,  «fcc.  Order  III.  Developmental  Disease  of  Old  People,  such  as  old 
age,  and  its  concomitant  affections.  Order  IV.  Diseases  of  JftUritioHj  sacli  as 
atrophy,  debility,  &c. 

NOSSI-Bfc,  Nossi-Barin,  Variou-Be,  or  Helleville,  an  isUnd  on  the  north-west 
coast  of  Madagascar,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bay  of  Pasoandava,  and  separated  from 
the  mainland  by  a  narrow  chainiel.  It  is  about  74  sq.  m.  in  extent ;  its  coast-line  is 
very  much  indented ;  and  its  surface  much  diversified.  The  highest  hill  is  1700  f^et 
in  height,  and  is  clothed  to  thn  summit  with  nnigniflcent  trees;  but  much  of  t'«e 
island  has  a  bare  aspect^  the  forestahaving  been  cut  down  in  order  to  the  cultiviitioa 
of  rice.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  rice,  maize,  manioc,  bananas,  &c,  ara  pro- 
duced far  beyond  the  wantsfof  the  inhabitants.  The  soil  is  volcanic,  and  there  are 
several  old  craters  filled  with  water.  Nossi-Be  has  been  iu  the  hands  of  ths;  French 
T  since  1840,  and  is  regarded  by  them  as  tin  important  possession,  on  accouul  of  au 
old  claim  which  they  supi)ose  themselves  to  have  to  Madagascar.  There  is  on  tliis 
island  a  small  town  called  Helleville.  with  a  harbor  well  sheltered  from  the  nortii 
and  east  winds.  There  is  good  anchoi:age  also  at  several  other  parts  of  the  coaat 
The  pop.  of  the  island  is  aboat  6000. 


y  Google 


831 


Nonl 

Nostril! 

iroSSI-IBRAHIM)  or  Saintc  Marie,  on  idaud  o«  the  enrt  coaf  t  of  MadnpnBcar, 
and  separated  from  it  by  a  strait  of  ut>out  6  miles  in  width.  It  la  about  iU 
mWoB  in  length  from  north-noi  th-ejist  to  south-eouth-west,  but  only  a  few  miles  in 
breadth.  Itis  one  of  ihe  mach-prieed  po:«sessionfl  of  the  French  on  the  coast  of 
Madngasdir,  has  been  in  their  hands  nince  1750,  and  is  their  A.'bief  place  of  com- 
merce on  that  coast.  The  6oil  is  generally  arid,  and  the  climate  rnoict  nnd  ni>- 
healthy.  Rain  is  of  extrnine  frequency.  The  pop^  of  the  island  iw  about  60tt0.  It  ' 
couiaius  a  small  town  called  St  Louis— a  Be'-poil,  and  fortified.  All  the  French  pos- 
fe^sions  on  the  coast  of  Madnjiascnr  lyere  placed  by  an  iuipuriul  decree  of  1851  under 
one  goyemmait,  that  of  the  Comoro  Isles  (q.  v.).    , 

NO'STOC,  a  genus  of  plants  of  "the  natural  order  AltfOB,  suborder  Confervacem^ 
found  npon  moist  ground,  rocks  near  stseam?,  &c.,  and  consistine  of  a  somewhat 
gelatinous  hollow  tumid  rrond,  filled  Willi  simple  filaments  reseiiioling  strings  of 
bi^ads.  N.  e&mmune  is  frequtut  in  Britain,  sprinirlng  up  suddenly  on  gravel-walkH 
audpasture-grounds after  rain.  It  is  a  tremblinggelatlnous  inas.«,  often  called  Stab 
Jellt,  and  vulgarly  regarded,  owing  to  the  pnddenuess  with  which  it  makes  its*  a|>- 
peamuce,  an  having  fallen  from  ihe  ekies,  and  as  poB.«essed  of  important  medicinal 
virtui'S.    N.  edtjUe  is  employed  in  China  as  an  article  of  food. 

NOSTRADAMUS,  a  celebrated  astrologer  of  the  16th  c,  bom  14th  Dcc^mbiT 
1503,  ut  St  Remi,  in  Fi-ovence.  His  proper  name  was  Michel  N(»t  re-Dame,  and  he 
wjts  of  Jewish  descent.  He  studied  first  at  the  College  d'Aviguou,  where  he  ex- 
hibited remarkable  scientific  i)Owers,  and  subsequently  attended  the  celebrated 
school  of  medicine  at  Montpellier.  Here  ho  first  acquired  dictinctiou  during  an 
epidemic  tl>at  desolated  the^outh  of  France,  by  bis  liumane  attentions  to  tbo!-e 
Ftrickeu  by  the  pestilence.  After  taking  his  degree,  he  acted  for  some  time  as  in-o- 
fesRor,  but  was  induced  by  his  friend  J.  C.  Scaligi^r  to  settle  in  Agen  as  a  medical 
practitioner.  After  tiavellinp  for  pome  time,  he  flually  settled  at  Salon,  a  little  town 
situated  iu  the  environs  of  Aix.  about  1544.  Already  he  must  have  been  reckoned 
a  man  of  note,  for  in  the  following  year,  when  an  epidemic  was  raciuz  at  Lyon, 
he  was  feolemnly  invited  thither  by  the  civic  authorities,  and  is  "said  to  have 
rendered  immense  services.  He  first  fell  ni)on  his  prophetic  vein  about  the  year 
1547,  but  in  what  ligbt  he  himself  regarded  hi»  pr<  tensions,  it  is  now  irapossibCe  to 
say.  At  anyrate,  he  commeuc<d  to  write  hie  famous  ])redictions  (*' Prophetfes ") 
which  flr^t  appeared  at  Lyon  in  1555.  Those  predictions  were  in  rhynn>d  quatrains, 
di\ided  intt)  centuries,  of  which  there  were  sevm;  the  2d  ed.,  published  in  1668, 
contained  ten.  Astrology  was  then  the  fashion,  and  these  quatrains,  expressed  gen- 
erally iu  obscure  and  enigmatical  terms,  had  a  great  bucccsh.  Some,  indeed,  re- 
garded the  author  as  a  quack,  but  the  great  majority  as  a  ginuine  seer  or  predicter 
of  the  future.  He  was,  ron>=equently,  much  sought  after  by  all  sorts  of  people,  high 
and  low.  Catharine  de'  Mfcdicis  invited  him  to  visit  her  ut  Blois,  lo  draw  the  horo- 
scope of  her  son-,  and  on  his  departure  loaded  him  with  presents.  The  Duke  ;!nd 
Duchess  of  Savoy  went  to  Salon  expressly  to  see  him ;  and  when  Charles  IX.  became 
king,  he  appointed  N.  his  physician-in-ordinary  (1564).  He  died  at  Salon,  2d  July 
1566.  N.'s  pre<lictions  have  been  the  subject  of  an  immense  amount  of  iUusti*atlve 
and  controversial  literature.  He  also  wrote  an  Almanac,  which  served  as  the  model 
of  all  euhseqnent  ones,  contaiiiiug  predictions  about  the  weather. — See  Jaubert's 
"Vie  de  M.  Nostradamus,"  **Apo!o£rie  et  Histoire"  (Ainst.  1656) ;  Ast.iuc's  '^Me- 
nioires  pour  servir  h  I'Histoire  de  la  Pacull6  de  Montpellier  "  (Paris,  176T) ;  *'  Apolo- 
gie  pour  les  Grands  Hommes  Soui:qonn6s  de  Magle  *'  (Paris,  1826) ;  and  E.  Bareste's 
'*No8lradarans"  (Paris,  1842). 

NO'STRILS,  Diseases  of  the.  Acute  inflammation  of  the  nasal  mucous  mem- 
brane is  a  very  common  and  well-known  affeetion,  which  has  been  already  descrll)ed 
tinder  the  title  of  Catarrh  (q.  v.).  or  Cold  in  the  Head;  wliile  the  chronic  form  of 
inflammation  is  described  in  the  article  Ozcbna.  Hemorrhage  from  the  nostrils,  or 
Spigtaxis  (Or.  a  dropping),  is  by  far  the  commonisr  form  of  bleeding  from  a  mncous 
membrane.  It  may  lie  producetl  (1)  by  direct  injury,  as  by  a  blow  on  the  jiose,  or  a 
♦H'ntch  in  the  interior  of  the  nostrils ;  or  (2)  it  may  be  an  a,ctive  hemorrhag<*,  in 
J^llich  case  it  is  ofren  preceded  by  a  feeling  of  tension  and  heat  in  the  injstrils.  pain 
in  the  forehead,  giddiness,  buzzing  in  the  ears,  and  flushing  of  the  face  (these  symp-  i 
toms  are,  however,  seldom  all  present  In  the  same  case,  and  not  unfrequeutly  the 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Not  QQQ 

flow  of  blood  is  preceded  by  no  apparent  disorder) ;  or  (i)  it  may  be  of  a  panrivi 
character,  and  may  be  diio  either  to  a  morbid  condii  iou  of  the  blood,  as  in  multpiant 
scarlatina,  typhoid  aud  typhus  fevers,  aciirvy,  parpiira,  &c.,  or  to  oostraction  of  the 
circaintiOQ  by  disease  of  the  liver  ai)d  lieart 

If  the  hemorrhage  occur  in  a  flu-lied  plethoric  subject,  and  is  obviously  of  nn  ac- 
tive character,  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  salutarjr  effort  of  nature,  and  may  bs  left 
alone  till  it  ceases  spontaiieouHly ;  but  if  it  continues  so  long  as  materiaHr  lo 
weaken  the  patient,  or  if  it  be  of  the  pitssive  character,  or  if  it  arise  from  injarv, 
then  means  should  he  talcen  to  f top  it  with  tu)  little  delay  as  possible.  The  patient 
should  be  placed  in  the  sitting  posture  ut  an  open  window,  with  the  head  erect  or 
slightly  inclined  backwards  ;  and  amongst  the  fimpler  means  to  be  first  trli^,  nre 
conipresoiou  of  the  nostrils  by  the  Angers,  Uie  upplication  of  a  key  or  other  piece  of 
cold  metal  to  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  tfia  occasional  immersion  of  the  ftice  or 
whole  head  in  cold  water,  ospocially  if  accompanied  i)ya  draiwinjr-up  of  the  watiT 
into  the  nostrils ;  or  Dr  N^'grior's  plan  of  caiisim;  tiie  patient,  in  a  standing  positioa, 
snddtitnly  to  raise  his  arms  straight,  npwarU:^,  and  to  retidn  them  for  a  short  time  in 
this  posirion— a  rem^idy  wliich  he  states  to  have  always  Hiicceeded,  even  in  very  bnd 
cases,  when  other  miiann  had  failed.  Should  these  means  fail,  recourse  must  be  had 
to  astringent  injections  (for  example,  twenty  grains  of  alum  dissolved  in  an  ounce  of 
water)  thrown  up  the  nostrils  by  a  syringe,  or  to  astringent  powders  (as  finely-pow- 
dei'ed  gulls,  kino,  matico,  ulnm,  &c.)  blown  up  the  nostrils  by  means  of  a  qinll^ 
other  tube,  or  snuffed  up  by  the  patient.  As  a  final  resource,  direct  comprcssibii 
must  be  applied.  Abernethy  never  failed  in  stopping  the  bleeding  by  winding  a 
piece  of  moistened  lint  around  a  probe,  so  as  to  form  a  cylindrical  plug,  passing  ttiis 
along  the  floor  of  the  nose  for  its  entire  length,  th«i  carefully  wi«hd rawing  tho 
pro!>e,  aud  allowing  the  lint  to  reuniin  for  three  or  four  days.  .  Cases  occadonjilly 
occur  in  which  it  is  nece»sary  also  to  pln<;  the  posterior  oritices  of  the  nostrils  by  an 
operation,  into  the  details  of  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter. 

Polffpiis^  which  is  an  old  term  employed  to  signify  any  sort  of  pednncnlnted 
tumor  firmly  adheiing  (literally,  "  by  msiny  feet")  lo  a  mucous  sui-face,  is  of  coiu- 
m<m  occniTencu  in  the  nostrils  ;  it-s  most  usual  seat  of  attachment  being  one  of  the 
turbinated  bones.  The  ordin.iry  kind  is  of  the  consistence  of  jelly,  yellowish, 
streaked  with  blood-vessels,  and  of  a  pear-shaped  form.  The  patfent  has  a  constant 
feeling  of  fulness  in  the  nostril  (as  if  he  had  a  cold  in  the  head) ;  he  cannot  effec- 
tually olow  his  nose;  and  his  voicMs  sonetimes  rendered  mon;  or  less  thick  aud 
indistincL  If  he  force  his  breath  strongly  ihrou'^h  the  affected  nostnl,*aud  at  the 
same  time  compress  the  other,  and  close  the  mouth,  the  polypus  may  genendly  be 
brought  in  view.  The  best  treatment  is  to  seiz*  the  neck  or  pedtcle  with  the  for- 
ceps, and  twist  it  off.  The  coneequent  hemorrhage  may  be  readily  checked  by  the 
means  already  describefl. 

Foreign  bodies  nre  often  inserted  into  the  nostrils  by  children,  and  l>ecome  im- 
pacted. They  may  usually  be  exira<-icd  by  a  small  scoop  or  a  bent  prolKJ.  It  they 
cannot  be  removed  by  these  means,  they  must  be  poshed  back  into  the  throiit 
through  the  posterior  nari;s. 

Children  are  occasionally  bom  \vith  imperforated  nostrils.  This  congenital  mal- 
formation may,  however,  usually  be  remedied  by  surgical  a^nsi^tance. 

NOT  GUILTY  is  the  form  of  verdict  in  a  criminal  prosecution,  and  also  in  some 
civil  actions,  when  the  jury  find  in  favor  of  the  defendant  or  accused  party.  The 
verdict  is  conclusive,  aud  the  accused  cannot,  in  criminal  cases,  be  tried  a  second 
time. 

NOT  PROVjBN  is  a  form  of  verdict  used  in  Scotland  in  criminal  prosecations 
when  the  juiy  think  there  is  some  foundation  for  the  charge,  but  the  evidence  is  not 
strong  enough  against  the  prisoner  to  warrant  a  verdict  of  gnilty.  In  such  a  case, 
a  verdict  of  **  Not  Proven  "  is  substnntially  a  verdict  of  acqnittaL  The  prisoner 
cannot  be  tried  afterwards,  even  though  new  and  conclusive  cvideude  come  to  'igi*^ 
aft^erthc  verdict 

NO'TABLES,  the  name  formerly  given  in  France  to  persons  of  dislhiction  and 
political  im)>ortauce.  As  the  States  General  were  inconvenient  to  tiie  despotism  of 
the  monarchy,  the  kings  of  the  House  of  Valois  adopted  the  expedient  of  calling  in 
their  stead  Assemblies  0/  the  JSotables,  the  time  of  calling  tliem  and  the  compoainou 


y  Google 


Q  Q  Q  Not 

^^<^  Notation 

of  them  being  entirely  dependent  on  the  pleasure  of  tlie  crown,  fiy  which  also  their 
wholo  proceedhi^a  were  j;uided.  so  that  they  genenilly  tonMciitfil  at  once  to  what* 
ever  was  proposed  lo  them.  Tney  shewtKl  a  puitlcnhir  rciKiincM  in  gnmrmg  snhM- 
dies.  to  whicii  they  tlieniBelves,  as  beloiiginij  to  the  privileged  ciaj»Pe.«,  were  not  to 
coiitribnte.  An  Assembly  of  Notable:*,  convened  in  Paris  by  Ricbdi»n  in  1C26,  nnd 
presided  over  by  Gaston,  brother  of  TjOIus  XIII.,  consisted  of  only  85  members. 
For  niore  than  a  century  and  a  half  even  this  poor  acknowledgment  of  any  otln-r 
niind  or  wiH  in  the  nation  than  that  of  the  bovereigji  ceat-ed  lo  be  n.aae ;  but 
when  the  state  of  the  finances  bronght  the  monarcliy  into  difficulties  and  peiils, 
LomsXVI.,  at  the  instigation  of  the  minister  C 'lonne,  had  recourse  again  to  im 
Awmhly  of  Notable?,  wliich  met  22d  Pehniary  1787.  and  was  dist'Olved  26lh  May. 
It  coiisisied  of  137  members,  among  whom  were  7  princes  of  the  blooci,  9  dnlsestind 
peer?,  8  marshal.*,  11  archbishop.",  22  nobles,  8  councillors  of  stjite,  4  nahters  of  re- 
qut8t8.37  judges,  12  deputies  of  the  Pays  d'Etats,  tU«  civil  Ueutenattt,  and  SS  persons 
belonging  to  the  magistracy  of  different  cities  of  the  kinj.'doin.  Calonne's  represen- 
tations of  the  statoof  the  flni.nces  induced  the  Notables  to  adopt  many  reforms  in 
tlie  matter  of  taxation  ;  but  no  sooner  was  the  assembly  dit-solved,  than  many  of 
theui  joined  the  parliaments  in  opposition  to  regohitions  adverse  to  their  pdvate  in- 
terests, so  that  the  king  was  conipelle<l  to  determine  upon  ai-pembling  the  Stat* 
General.  Necker,  who  had  meanwhile  been  placed  nt  the  head  of  affairs.  a?»embled 
the  NoJahle*  again,  6th  N(ivember  1788,  to  coupult  them  conceniing  the  form  iu 
whicii  the  Suitea  G..:neral  should  be  convened,  and  particularly  concerning  the  num- 
ber of  members  of  the  third  estate  and  the  manner  of  voting.  The  Notables  de- 
clared against  every  innovation,  and  so  compelled  the  court  to  half  measures,  which 
helped  to  prepare  the  way  for  tlie  Revolution. 

NO'TARY-PUBLIC  is  an  officer  of  the  law^  whose  chief  function  is  to  act  as  a 
witness  of  any  solemn  or  formal  act,  and  to  give  a  ceriiflcate  of  the  same;  which 
certificiite, if  duly  authenticated,  is  accipted  all  the  world  over  as  good  evidence  of 
the  act  done  in  his  presence,  and  aitebted  by  him.  The  services  of  a  N.  are  chiefly 
available  where  hie  evidence  is  to  be  used  in  a  foreign  country.  Solicitors  are  some- 
times  notiuies-public,  but  in  England  there  are  fewer  uotiiries.  comparatively,  than 
hi  Scotland,  where  notarial  acts  and  certificates  are  more  largely  used. 

NOTA'TION,  the  method  of  representing  numbers  and  quantities  by  marks  or 
filgns.  The  representation  of  numberet  is  known  as  ^*  arithmetical,^' and  that  of 
qnautitiesas  "symbolical"  notation. 

Arithmbticai*  Notation. — The  invention  of  arithmeticnl  notation  must  have 
been  coeval  with  the  earliest  use  of  writing,  whether  hieroglyphic  or  otherwise,  and 
must  have  come  Into  use  about  the  time  when  it  was  felt  that  a  mound,  pile  of  stones, 
or  huge  misshapen  pillar,  was  insufficient  as  a  record  of  great  events,  and  required 
to  be  supplemented  by  some  means  which  would  suffice  to  hand  down  to  posterity 
the  requisite  information.  The  most  natural  method  undoubtedly  was  to  signify 
"nniiy  "  by  one  etioke,  "  two  "  by  two  strokes,  "three  "  hy  three  strokes,  &c.;  and, 
as  far  as  we  know,  this  was  the  method  adopted  by  most  of  those  nations  who  in- 
vented pyptems  of  notation  for  themselves.  It  is  shewn  on  the  earliest  Latin  and 
Greek  records,  and  is  the  basis  of  the  Roman,  Chinese,  and  other  systems.  We 
have  thus  a  convenient  division  of  the  different  notational  systems  into  the  natural 
and  artificial  groups,  the  lat  ter  including  the  pystems  of  those  nations  who  adopted 
cliBiinct  and  sepai:ate  symbols  for  at  least  each  of  the  nine  digits.  'l*tie  Roman  and 
Chinese  systems  are  the  most  important  of  the  former,  and  the  Hebrew,  mter  Greek, 
aud  'deeimal"  systems  of  the  latter  group. 

Roman  System.— 'the  system  adopted  by  the  Romans  was  most  probably  bor- 
rowed at  first  from  ihe  Greeks,  and  was  distinguished  equally  by  its  simplicity  and 
its  cumbrousness.  The  following  seems  to  be  the  most  pjobablo  theory  of  its  devel- 
opment A  simple  series  of  strokes  was  thtf  basis  of  the  system ;  but  the  labor  of 
writing  and  reaoing  large  numbers  in  this  way  would  soon  suggest  methods  of 
abbreirtaiion.    The  first  and  most  natural  step  was  the  division  of  the  strokes  into 

percete  of  tens,  thus,  JJ^HiftQ  [ttHttffl»  *  P^*^  which  produced  great  facility  in  the 

reading  of  numbers.    The  next  step  was  to  discard  these  parcels  of  ten  strokes  each. 


y  Google 


Notation  ^^4. 

retaliiiug  only  the  two  cro»i  strokes,  thus,  X  » *s  **»°  symbol  for  10.  Contiaidng 
the  Slime  method  as  larger  uumbers  came  to  b  j  n8ed,tii<>y  invented  a  second  new  sjmbol 
for  100,  thus,  Q  (which    was    at   first  probably   the   cunceiling   stroke  for  ten 

X  '^  In  ^he  same  way  as  X  ^vas  originally  the  cancelling  5troke  for  ten  units ) ;  and 
for  the  sake  of  facility  in  wnting,  siibseqnently  employ.-d  the  letter  C,  which  reseinWed 
it,  in  its  place.  The  circum^^taiice  that  C  was  the  initial  leter  of  Ihe  word  eentttm,t^ 
*<a  haudred,"  was  donbtlejss  an  additional  reuifou  for  its  snbstitatiun  iu  plxice  of  tlie 
original  symbol  for  100.    An  ezten;!sion  of  (h»  same  procosd  ];H*oduced  M,  tiie  qrmboi 

for  1000,  whicli  was  also  written  /tv* ^«  and  very  frequently  CIo     This  symbol 

wa»  probiibly  sngze^ted  by  the  circamntiince  tb:it  M  was  the  initial  letter  of  tlw  Latin 
word  mille,  signifying  a  tiion.«aud.  The  <^ar)y  Roman  system  went  no  higher.  Bot 
t^iougii  the  invention  of  these  three  symbols  had  greatly  faciiittted  tlie  labor  of 
wilting  down  and  reading   off   numbers,  furtlier   improvements   were  uigeutly 

required.  The  plan  of  **  bisection  of  symbols"  was  now  adopted;  X  was  divided 
into  two  parts,  and  cither  half,  \/  ^^  At  used  as  the  symbol  for  6*  P  was  simi- 
larly divided,  P   or  |     standing  for  50 ;  and    \  ,  CI,  or  lo,  was  obtained  iu  the 

same  manner,  and  made  the  representative  of  600.  The  resemblance  of  these  tbree 
new  symbols  to  the  letter.'*  V,  L,  and  D,  canned  the  substitution  of  the  latter  astfad 
numerical  syml>ols  for  5.  50,  and  500.  A  final  improvem'nit  wa^  the  substitution  of 
IV  for  4  (in  jrface  of  IIII),  IX  fi>r  0  (in  place  of  Villi).  XC  for  90  (instoiid 
of  LXXXX),  and  similarly  XL  for  40,  CD  for  40 ),  CM  for  900,  &c;  the  smaller  nnia- 
iHjr,  wlieu  in  front,  being  always  niulersttood  as  subtractive  f ro.n  the  larger  one  after 
it.  This  last  improvomeut  is  the  solo  departure  from  the  purely  additional  mode  of 
exprc-<sing  numbers;  and  if  the  8yml)ol8  for  4,  9,  90,  &c.,  b3  considered  nssio^ 
symbols,  wldch  they  practically  are,  the  deviatitm  may  be  looked  U|K)u  as  merely 
one  of  form.  In  later  times,  the  Bomau  notAliou  was  extended  by  a  multiplication 
of  the  symbol  for  1000.  thus  CCIoo  represented  10,000;  CCCI^OC)  reprenented  100,- 
000,  &c.:  and  llie  bisection  of  these  symbols  jjave  them  Iq^  and  I(VX>  ***  repres^- 
t^tlve  of  6000  and  5i),000  respectively.  Thi.«,  iu  all  probabulty,  is  the  mode  accord- 
iu«f  to  which  tl»e  Itotnan  system  of  notation  was  constructed.  To  found  a  srstein  of 
anthmetic  upon  this  notation  would  have  been  well-nigli  impoi*Mble;  and  so  little 
inventive  were  the  Romans,  that  the  attempt  seems  never  to  have  been  made.  They 
l)ei-formed  wlwit  few  calculations  they  required  by  the  aid  of  the  Abactu  (q.  v.). 

Chinese  System.-— TUi»  system  presents  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  former,  but 
is,  in  facility  of  expression,  nmch  superior  to  it  Like  the  Roman,  it  remius  the 
))rimitive  symbols  for  the  first  three  digits,  and  like  it  also  expresses  the  last  four  by 
prefixing  a  new  symbol  to  the  symbols  for  the  first  four,  and  the  analogy  iscoutiimea 
up  10  •*  twenty.'*  Prom  this  point  onwards,  tlie  Chinese  system  departs  from  the 
•*  additive"  principle,  as  20,  30,  Ac,  are  represented  not  as  m  the  Roman  system  by 
a  repetition  of  the  symbol  for  10,  but  by  affixing  to  the  symbol  for  10.  on  its  left  ride, 
the  symboN  for  2,  3,  (fee,  as  multiples.  Tiie  same  ihethod  is  adopted  with  tlie  uum- 
bers  200,  300.  Ac;  and  should  the  nnml)er  contain  units,  they  are  annexed  on  the 
right-hand  side.  For  small  niiinl)ers  up  to  20,  liie  Roman  notation  is  more  expedi- 
tious, on  account  of  the  greater  simplicity  of  its  clmracters ;  but  for  very  large  muui- 
bers,  the  Chinese  is  scarcely  more  cumlu-ous  than  our  own.  Some  nambere  which 
are  expressed  by  the  Chinese  with  14  diameters,  require  more  than  100  symbols  when 
expressed  in  the  Roman  notation. 

Previous  to  the  intercourse  of  the  Western  European  nations  with  Chini,  their 
notation  was  much  more  cumbrous  than  it  is  at  present ;  but  the  changes  sipce  made 
have  affected  merely  the  form  of  the  cliaracters,  without  altering  the  principle  of  the 
system. 

Artificial  Systems.— The  first  of  these,  in  point  of  date,  is  the  Hebrew;  but  as  the 
knowledge  we  possess  of  it  is  very  meagre,  and  as  its  princlpie  was  adopted  by  the 


y  Google 


335 


Notation 


Orcekftin  tbe  coiifttrncilon  of  their  luiproved  sygtein,  \i  will  bo  snffldent  to  deecrlbe 
the  latter. 

Greek  Si/steni,— The  Greeks  at  flrst  used  a  method  similar  to  the  Homaiin,  though 
nt  the  8a)i:«  time  they  appear  to  have  employed  the  Utters  of  tbe  alphabet  lo  deiiota 
thf  flrnt  24  nuinbers.  8urh  a  cnmbrous  system  w:i8  imlnrallv  dietupteful  to  so  fue- 
tuhoujj  a  rnce,  and  ibey  hii  ujK)u  the  happy  expedient  of  dividing  Ibeir  apbaibet  into 
three  prtious— neiuff  the  flri't  to  Byml)oli  e  the  9  digits,  th  Pecoud  the  9  tens,  and 
the  third  the  9  nuiidreds.  But  as  they  po«*se8S«d  only  24  htier.s  iljey  bad  lo  use 
thtw  additional  symbols ;  their  list  of  symhohi  of  notation  then  stood  as  follows : 


Units. 

Tens. 

Hundreds. 

a  represents 

P 

...    1 
...    5? 
...    8 

t  r^ 

K 
X 

V 

o  . 

epreseuts 

10 
io 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 

90 

?  reprcjjeuts 

/<  

100 

200 

V 

... 

800 
400 

d 

...    4 

r  •• 

e 

...     6 

600 
600 

5  (Uitroduced)  

...     6 
...    7 
..    6 

.... 

... 

.... 

Y    

C 

V : 

700 

V 

00 

800 
900 

Oor5 

..    9 

s 

or 

V 

(introduced) 

^.A  X    (lutTOduced) 

By  these  symbols,  only  nural>ers  under  1000  could  be  expressed,  but  by  putting  a 
mark,  called  tota,  under  any  symbol,  its  value  was  increased  a  thousand- fold,  thus 
a c=  1000,  n  =  20,000 ;  or  by  subscribing  the  letter  M,  the  value  of  a  symbol  was 

t&ised  ten-thousandfold,  thus,  n  =  ^0,000.    For  these  two  marks,  t^ingle  and  double 

M  ^ 

dots  placed  over  the  symbols  were  afterwards  substituted.  This  Improvement  en- 
abled them  to  express  with  facility  all  numbers  as  liigh  a**  9.990.000,  a  range  amply 
BDfflcieiit  for  all  ordinai-y  purposes.  Fun  her  Injpi-ovementM  were  n>ade  upon  this 
systpju  by  Apolloniui',  who  also  by  making  lO.c-OO  the  root  of  the  system,  and  thus 
(fividing  the  symbols  into  tetrads,  greatly  simi)lifled  tlic  ex|)rcPsion  of  very  large 
iinmb  rs.  Boih  Apollonius  and  Archimedes  had  to  a  certain  extent  dlhcovered  aud 
employed  tlie  principle  of  giving  to  symbols  vahus  depending  on  tlieir  position  and 
maltiplicHtlve  of  their  real  value,  hut  this  principle  was  applied  to  tetraas  or  periods 
of  foar  fi^nires  only,  and  the  nmltitude  of  symbols  f>eems  to  have  stood  in  llie  way  of 
fnrtber  improvement.  Had  Apollonius,  who  was  tlie  chief  improver  of  tlie  system, 
diicarded  ^1  but  the  flrHt  nine  symbols,  and  applied  tiie  same  principle  to  tbe  stngle 
>Tnihol8  which  he  applied  toUie  **  tetrad^'  groups,  he  would  have  anticipated  tlie  deci- 
mal notation. 

The  Greek  arithmetic,  founded  upon  such  a  sjstem  of  notation,  was  necessarily 
lepethy  atd  complicated  iu  its  operalious,  each  number  In  the  multiplicand  forming 
witli  each  number  in  the  multiplier  a  separate  product  (not  as  in  our  system,  where 
one  product  blends  with  another  l)y  the  process  of  **  carrying  "),  though  by  arrnng- 
iii}!  these  products  in  separate  columns,  according  as  they  amounted  to  units,  tens, 
handreds,  Ac.  the  process  was  somewhat  simplified.  But  when  fractions  formed 
partuf  the  multiplier  and  multiplicand,  the  Greek  arithmetic  ))ecame  almost  un- 
mnuagenble.  till  the  inveuticm  of  Sexagesimals  (q.  v.)  by  Ptolemy  superseded  it. 
After  holemy's  death,  all  improvement  was  arreted. 

Decimal  System.— 'Vh^^  decimal  system,  which  was  introduced  into  Europe  from  the 
^t (see  Numerals),  was  first  employed  by  the  Spaniaixls,  and  was  from  them  trans- 
mitted to  the  French  and  Germans,  through  whom  its  use  was  extended  over  Eu- 
rope. Tbe  modem  arithmetic  was  not  practised  in  England  till  about  the  middle 
of  the  16th  c,  aud  for  a  long  time  after  its  introduction  was  taught  only  iu  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Note '        -  Q  *>  A 

Nottingham  ^*^^ 

universities.  The  decimal  nystem,  possessing  only  9  symbols— viz.,  1,  2,  SJf,  6, 6^  T, 
8,  9  (called  tlie  nine  digiis)— ailopra  the  principhi  of  ginag  to  each  symbol  or 
**  fignie"  two  viilnos,  one  the  ahsolnte  valne,  and  tlie  other  a  vjilue  depending  npoa 
its  po^itiou.  The  Dunibers  from  ♦*oue"to  **uiue"  inclusive  are  expretssed  oylbe 
nine  digits ;  ten  is  expressed  by  writing  a  cipher  or  zero  aftor  1  (10),  thus  tbrowiug 
it  into  the  second  places,  and  giving  it  a  poi^itional  value  ten  time^  its  )tbi*oliite 
value.  From  the  principle  that  a  figure  thus  moved  one  place  to  the  left  is  held  to 
be  iucr  ased  in  valuta  ten  times,  thin  method  of  notation  isxalled  cf^ctTno/ notation 
(Lat.  decern^  ten)  and  ten  is  said  to  be  the  "  radix"  of  the  system.  The  unmberi} 
from  •♦eleven"  to  "nineteen  "  inclusive  are  expressed  by  tni^iug  the  symbol  lOaud 
putting  the  digits  from  "one"  to  'Miine"  Inclusive  in  place  of  the  zero— e.  g., 
twelve  is  written  12, 1  in  poHition  signifying  ten  units,  and  2,  two  additiooni  niiits 
On  the  same  priuclplc,  twenty  is  expressed  ny  puttinj'  2  in  the  second  position  (20), 
and  so  on  to  99.  To  express  a  hundred,  I  is  put  in  tiie  third  place  (100),  tUns  mak- 
ing its  value  ten  time!>  wliat  it  is  in  the  seconti  place,  or  ten, times  ten  units;  two 
hundred  is  similarly  expressed  by  200,  &c. ;  and  should  a  num))er  of  tens  and  units 
amounting  to  less  than  a  hundred  exist  in  the  number,  the  symbols  express! ug  them 
are  substituted  for  the  two  zeros.  This  process  can  be  similarly  coutiuuM  without 
limit. 

There  is  another  way  of  looking  at  this  notation,  which  Is  perhaps  simpler  and 
clearer.  In  such  a  number,  e.  g.,  as  333,  instead  of  attributing  different  vnlnes  to 
the  fiirure  3  in  the  different  positions,  we  may  consider  it  as  8yml>oliaing  the  same 
Munil)er throughout,  namely,  three;  but  Wnv^whatt  In  the  fir.-t  place,  it  sigiiiflea 
three  ones  or  units  (t^  g.,  three  single  pounds  or  sovereigns) ;  in  the  s^ond  place,  it 
still  sisjnifles  three,  but  now  it  is  three  *»  tens  "  or  decades  (Three  imrcels  of  teu 
sovereigns  each) ;  and  in  the  third  place,  it  still  signifies  three,  but  now  three  hun- 
dreds (three  parcels  of  a  hundred  each).  It  is  from  this  point  of  view  that  the  lirat 
place  to  the  right  is  called  the  place  of  unitSy  or  the  unite'  place;  the  second,  t bo 
place  of  tensy  and  so  on.  When  such  a  number  as  6473  is  analysed  on  tiiis  principle, 
It  is  seen  to  mean  6  x  1000  (6  tinies  1000)  4-4  x  100  +  7  x  10  +  8  x  1 ;  and  6004  b»> 
comes  6  X  1000  ■(•4x1.    In  this  latter  instance  the  peculiar  imporiaucc  of  thefii^are 

0  is ttcen  (see  Nothing).  Followini;  out  the  method,  tlie  general  formula  for  all 
numbers iso  x  lOn  +  6  x  lOn— i  +  c  x  lOn— 8  +  ,  -fm  x  lOS  +  n  x  10*  +p  x  10 
+  q.  where  a,  b,  c,  .»«.  m,  n,  p,  g,  stand  for  any  of  the  nine  digits  or  zero. 

The  special  advantages  of  such  a  system  are  manifold.  It  euables  us  to  expreaa 
small  numl)er8  with  the  greatest  easv,  and  as  the  smaller  numbers  arc  those  uioat 
commonly  usi*d,  this  is  a  great  point  in  favor  of  the  system,  it  also  gives  to  coiu- 
putiition  a  unity  which  could  never  under  any  circumstances  have  existed  in  the 
syst^Nus  of  notation  alK)vc  descrii)ed,  aiwl  the  most  ordinary,  juid  at  the  same  liuw 
elective,  illuHtratioi*  of  this  is  the  process  of  "  carrying  "  in  multiplication,  whereby 
one  product  is  blended  with  another,  and  much  time  and  trouble  m  the  sul)f)eqn«Dt 
addition  Ik  saved.  This  simplification,  however,  is  chiefly  due  to  the  introduction  of 
the  symbol  0,  which,  supplying  the  place  of  an  absent  digit,  preserves  to  those  flg- 
ures  on  the  left  of  it  their  true  positional  value.  Another  advantage  of  this systeaiTs 

1  he  ease  wit  h  which  computntions  involving  fractions  are  performed  (see  Fiuo- 
jTiONS,  Decimal).  The  use  of  the  number  10  m  radix,  is  universal  in  all  systems 
jof  notation  ;  but  it  has  been  often  doubted,  and  in  some  respects  with  good  reason, 
•  wliether  it  is  the  number  best  fitted  for  this  position,  and  many  have  proposed 
'to  substitute  12  for  it.  This  question  will  be  referred  to  under  Scalbs  of  No- 
tation. 

2.  Symbolical  Notation,  the  general  designation  of  those  symbols  which  are 
vised  by  mathematici.ins  to  express  ind(4nit«  quantities.    The  symlK)l8  are  gcn»- 
ally  taken  from  tiie  English,  Roman,  uud  Greek  alphabets,  and  are  apportiou<il  as 
follows :  algebraic  quantities  are  expressed  by  theSbglish  alphabet ;  tliose  which  are 
known,  by  the  earlier  letters  a,  2>.  e,......,  and  those  which  are  unknown,  by  the 

lat«r  ones,  u,  v,  v,  x.  y, In  Trigonometry,  the  letters  a.  b,  c, denote  meas- 
ures of  length,  and  A.  B,  C, nve  used  to  express  angles.    In  MecluuiicB  and 

Astronomy,  the  Greek  letters  are  generally  used  to  express  angles.  When  diSe^ 
ent  sets  of  quantities  are  similarly  related  among  themselves,  the  sets  are,  for  con- 
venience, expressed  by  the  same  li^tters :  and  to  preveUt  confusion,  each  set  baa 
a  peculiar  mai'k  attached  to  each  symbol,  tnus,  a,  6,  c, deuote  one  class ;  a't  ^t 

Digitized  by  VjiOOQ  IC 


337 


Kot« 
Nottiugham 

«•. .....  another  clnss ;  <t",  b'\  c" ......  a  tliird  class ;  and  so  on  ;  or  ai,  61,  c,, 

0),  &3f  0) &c. 

NO  TE,  Jn  Music,  n  character  which  hy  the  degree  it  occupies  on  the  staff  repre- 
penis  a  sound,  and  by  its  form  the  period  of  time  or  dunitiou  of  tlmt  sound.  Tli^ 
notes  commonly  in  use  in  modem  music  are  tiicsemibreve,  mining  crotcher.qnnver, 
Semiquaver,  demisemiquuver,  and  semi-deniisemiquaver.  Taklnp:  ih  ■  wmibn-ve  ua 
unity,  tlu!  minim  is  }i  its  dnrMtioti,  tlie  crotcliet  )^,  tlie  quaver  J^,  the  si-mi- 
qnavttr  1-16,  tlie  demisemiquavt^  1-82,  and  the  pemi-demi^emiqnaver  1-64.  No  •  s  of 
grrat^r  length  than  Ihe  semibreve  were  formerly  in  r»;— viz.,  the  breve,  twue  1  lie 
tloraiion  of  the  semlbreve;  tlie  long,  four  times ;  and  tlu;  large,  eijrht  timw  the  wml- 
breve.  Of  tliese  the  breve  is  still  sometimes  met  wiih  in  ecclesiastical  music— The 
term  note  is  often  u?<4  "*  synonynions  with  musical  sound. 

NOTHING,  in  Mathematical  language,  denotes  the  totjil  absence  of  quantity  or 
nnmJier,  as  when  equals  are  subtractecl  from  equals,  but  it  is  often  employed  (see 
Limits)  to  indicate  the  limit  to  which  a  constuitly  decreasing  posiiive  qu-.ntity 
approaches.  The  abpence  of  number  or  quantity  could  he  equally  w<ll  nignifled  by 
the  absence  of  any  symbol  whatt^vor,  but  the  presence  of  **0  "  shews  tliat  in  its  ulaco 
some  nnmlKjr  or  quantity  might,  and  undnr  otiier  circimistanc -s  woultl,  exist. 

In  Physics,  the  symbol  "0"  is  generally  denoininated  zero,  and  lia«  a  difif-'rent 
meaning.  Like  the  former,  it  is  the  starting-point  from  which  magnitud«;  is  reck- 
oned ;  nut  while  tlie  starting-point  in  the  former  ca^fe  was  absolute,  in  this  ca.*e  it  is 
conventional,  and  by  no  means  denotes  the  absence  of  all  quant  ty  or  mjignilnile. 
Thus  the  z»ro-point  of  the  tliermometermn.'^t  not  be  interpreted  to  j*i^iify  that  when 
the  mercury  has  fallen  to  this  point  atmospheric  heal  has  totally  vaui.'«hed,  but  must 
be  nuder»tood  as  a  mere  conventional  stjirting-point  for  graduation,  chopeii  for  con- 
venience, and  not  even  necessarily  representing  any  fixed  natural  degree  of  temper- 
aitire. 

NOTICE  TO  QUIT,  is  the  formal  notice  ^iven  by  a  landlord  to  a  tenant,  or  by  a 
tenuut  to  a  landlord,  that  the  tenant  ought  or  lutksuds  to  quit  at  a  future  day  named. 
See  Landlord  and  Tenant. 

NO'TO,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Syracuse,  and  1(J  miles  south-west  of 
the  city  of  that  name,  3  miles  from  the  sea.  It  is  of  the  highest  antiquity,  was*  a 
place  of  great  strength  under  the  Saracens,  and  held  out  again2>t  the  lnvadiu«r  North- 
men longer  than  any  other  town  of  Sicily.  It  isaveiy  nandhome  town,  contains 
rich  churches,  Ijeautifnl  palaces,  and  broad  and  etraight  streets.  Its  academy  has  a 
library  attachetl,  and  a  collection  of  antiquitieB.  A  good  trade  is  carried  on  in  corn, 
wine,  oil,  and  the  other  produce  of  the  vicinity.  Pop.  14,619.  N.  was  destroyed  by 
au  earthquake  in  1693,  and  rebuilt  alMiiit  4)4  miles  from  iw  former  site. 

NOTO'RNIS,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family  RallidcB^  nearly  allied  to  the  coots, 
althouirh  in  some  of  its  charaetcrs  it  resembles  the  Ostrich  family.  0i>e  living 
i«l»ecie8  only  is  known,  N.  ManUlLii,  a  native  of  New  Zealand.  It  is  particularly  in- 
teresting, Ivcause  tlie  genus  war*  crigiiiaMy  est.'iblished  and  the  species  char«ft<'ris«d 
by  Owen,  from  remains  found  along  with  those  of  Dinornis  and  other  large  bir  is  of 
the  Ostrich  family,  called  Moaa  by  the  New  Z-  alanders.  The  bird  was,  however,  as- 
certained in  1850  still  to  exist.  It  inhabits  some  of  the  most  nnfnquentrcl  part-*  of 
the  Middle  Island.  It  is  larger  than  the  other  coots,  but  small  in  comparison  wi'h 
thett-nemoaj'.  The  flvj^h  is  said  to  be  delicious.  It  seems  to  be  a  hiid  likd^  soon 
to  hecoiiie  extinct  unless  preserved  by  human  care,  and  of  which  tlie  domestication 
would  be  eas>  and  desirable. 

NOTRE  DAME,  i.  e.,  OurLadt/,  the  old  French  appellation  of  the  Virgin  Mnry, 
and  therefore  the  name  of  a  nnml>erof  churches  dednukted  to  the  Virgin  Maiy  iu 
different  parts  of  France,  and  particularly  of  the  great  catliedrnl  of  Faiis. 

NO'TTINGHAM,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  boroueh  of  England,  capital  of 
the  county  of  the  sjime  name,  and  a  county  in  itself,  on  the  Leon  at  it^  junction  with 
the  Trent,  130  miles  jiortli-north-west  of  Loudon.  Ii  is  built  pr  ncipjilly  (»n  the  slope 
and  at  the  foot  of  a  rocky  eminence,  and  in  an  architectural  sensi;  it  Inis  within  recent 
yt'ars  l)een  much  improved.  The  market-place  is  5)4  acres  in  extent,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  lofty  buildings.  The  Trent,  which  passes  al)our  a  mile  south  of  the 
town,  and  is  here  about  200  feet  wide,  is  crossed  by  railway  britlges,  and  by  an 


y  Google 


ai>clei)t  bridgre  of  19  nrchee.  The  exchange,  the  town  end  connty  halls,  the  House 
of  CorrtH:tiOD,  St  Mary's  Churcii.  tiie  Koinuii  Culholic  Chi^l,  aiul  I  lie  new  Free 
Grammar-school  ero<:te<l  in  1808,  Jire  cditlco9  worthy  of  ppeclal  menfiou.  The  Free 
Gr;mim«r-s*cliool,  with  an  income  from  endowment  of  nbont  £1000  a'year,  vns 
fuundod  in  1513.  A  fr«Mi  lihia-y  was  opent-d  in  April  1S6S.  There  are  nuinemns 
honptals  for  the  poor  and  intirau  Of  th  ;  maunfactnres,  which  are  v.irionsand  im- 
portant, the  princi|Mil  arc  bobbinuet  an<l  lace,  and  cotton  and  pilk  liositry.  Ck)tt«ii« 
pilii,  and  fl.ix  mills,  hieachin<;-worlv!5,  and  wire,  iron,  and  I)ra88  works  are  iu  opera- 
tion. N.,  v'hicii  pcnds  two  members  to  parliament,  is  on  the  Derby  and  Liucula 
Railway.    Pop.  (1871)  86.621. 

The  original  castle  of  N.  was  bniU  by  William  the  Conqueror ;  it  was  dismantled 
during  the  Profectorale,  and  replaced  by  the  present  edifice— a  castle  only  in  uainc. 

NOTTINGHAM,  an  inland  county  of  England,  betweerf  Lincolnshire  on  the 
east,  and  Yorkshire  and  Derbyshire  on  tlie  west  Area.  626,176  acres ;  pop.  (1871) 
81»,75S.  It  is  60  ni.  in  length  from  north  to  sontli,  and  20  miles  in  average  oreidih. 
The  meridian  of  1°  w.  falls  along  the  middle  of  the  county,  and  may  be  faid  to  di- 
vide it  into  two  nearly  equal  portions,  of  whicn  the  eastern,  comprising  th«r  valenf 
tlie  Trent,  is  level,  and  the  western  is  occupied  by  hills  at  no  great  elevatioii.  In 
the  south  of  the  county  are  wolds,  consisting  of  upland  moors  and  pastnre-laDris 
broken  up  by  many  fertile  hollows.  In  the  we-t  are  the  remains  of  the  royal forert 
of  Sherwood,  famous  as  the  chief  hanut  of  Robin  Hood.  The  pnnclp:il  rivers !ir«» 
the  Trent,  and  its  tributaries  Ihe.  Erewa-«h.  Mann,  and  Idle.  Tlie  Nottingham  and 
Grantham  Canal  in  the  south  connect-*  the  Trent  with  the  Witham,  and  liiese  two 
rivers  are  also  coimected  by  the  Fo^se  Dyke  Cnual,  which,  rtinning  uorth-we^t  from 
the  city  of  Linctdn,  joins  the  'I'rent  on  the  north-eastern  boundary  of  the  county. 
By  the  rivers,  canals,  and  the  North  Midland,  Sheffield  and  Lincoln,  and  Great  Nortb- 
fiTi  Railways,  there  is  direct  commimication  iu  evorjf  direction.  Tlie  climate,  «u 
pccially  in  the  east,  is  remark:ibly  dry.  The  soil  is  various ;  and,  with  regard  tc  pro- 
ductiveness, the  land  is  not  above  mediocrity.  The  nsnal  crops  are  raised ;  there  are 
many  hop-plantations,  and  mtich  laud  is  laid  out  in  markct-gardiftis.  ExteuslTe 
tract's  have  been  planted  recently.  Four  members  of  parliament  are  returned  for  the 
county. 

NOU'EHA.  a  town  of  Asiatic  Russia,  in  Trans-Cauca«ia,  is  built  on  the  southern 
slo|)e  of  tlie  Caucasus  Monntains,  80  iniies  south-west  of  Derbend,  iu  lat.  41°  12*  n., 
long.  47°  13'  e.  Pop.  (1867)  23,371,  consisting  of  native  Tartars  belonging  to  the  Mo- 
hammedan creed,  of  Armenians*  nnd  a  few  Rnssiatix,  chiefly  officials.  Breedinj;  the 
silk-worm  is  the  stable  branch  of  industry.  Th«  irative  breed  of  silk-worms  is  some- 
what coarse,  and  is  now  being  supplanted  by  the  Italian  breed. 

NOUN  Lat.  nomen,  a  name),  in  Gramnntr,  is  the  term  applied  to  thnt  class  of 
words  that  *'  name  "  or  designate  the  persons  and  things  spoken  atwnt.  Id  a  wide 
sense,  such  words  as  WcA,  tall,  are  nouns,  as  well  as  John,  man^  tree;  for  tl»ey  .ire 
names  npplicnble  to  all  ol)j.cta  possessing  those  attributes.  But  a*  words  like  JoIiDi 
man,  tree,  suffice  of  themselves  to  mark  out  or  designate  an  ohj  ci  or  a  defluitt;  class 
of  objects,  while  words  expressive  of  a  single  attribute,  like  Hch^  tally  can  be  usmI  only 
In  conjunction  with  such  a  word  as  vian  or  tree,  the  one  clasi«  are  called  Adjective 
Nouns,  or  simply  Adjectives  (q.  v.),  while  the  other  arecjilled  Substantive  Nonas,  or 
himply  Substantives  or  Nouns.  Nouns  or  Names,  in  this  narrower  t»eu8<',  may  be 
divided  into  classes  in  a  variety  of  ways,  according  to  the  ground  we  take  for 
(mr  division.  One  of  tlie  distinctions  commonly  made  by  grammarians  is  luto  Proper 
Nonns  and  Common  Nouns.  Aproper  noun  is  usually  dellned  to  be  *•  tht'  name  of  any 
individual  person,  or  place,"  as  John,  London ;  while  a  common  uonu  is  applicaWe 
to  every  mdividual  of  w-  class  of  objects,  as  prince^  city.  But  tliis  defini- 
tion fails  to  point  out  the  real  difference ;  for  thei-e  are  several  Lon- 
doiis,  and  there  are  more  Johns  than  prhices ;  other  tilings  also  have 
l)ropor  names,  besides  per.«ons  and  places,  as  ships  (the  Minotaur),  and  bells 
(Big  Ben).  Providence,  again,  although  applicable  to  only  One  Being  in  (he  uni- 
verse. Is  not  a  proper  noun.  Wherein,  then,  lies  the  difference?  In  ord«T 
to  answer  this  question,  we  must  advert  to  an  important  distinction  made  by  logi- 
cians with  regard  to  the  import  of  names.  A  word  is  said  to  denote  all  the  ob.|*^ 
to  wliich  it  i}*  applic{ible  as  a  name ;  thus  the  word  man  is  a  name  for  all  the  objoda 
kuowu  individually  as  James,  John,  Adam,  Ctesari  Ac,  and  therefore  denutes  Um 


y  Google 


QQA  Nottingham 

OOV  Woan 


Moan 

vhole human  race;  hnt  while thns  denoting  or  namincr  them,  it  nlso  ^muUos  some- 
thing concerning  Ihera ;  in  tl»e  hnigime«  of  logic,  ii  connotes  that  thry  p{)t»He>y  certiiin 
alffibuiee,  namely  (I)  a  certain  coiporejil  form,  known  u^  ihe  l)unian  form  ;  (2)  jiui- 
imillife;  (3)  rationality.  All  thl?,  at  leasi,  is  included  in  the  i»«.rwi«<7  or  conuota- 
tion  of  the  word  "mnn/'  Now,  if  we  consider  any  noun  of  the  cla8^  ciilU-d  com- 
mon, we  find  that  while  it  denote?,  or  nam<-B.  or  points  out  a  certain  oi>jt  ct.  «ir  cla^» 
of  objects,  it  also  conveys  or  implies  f«>me  qujililies  or  lactH  concerning  theui ;  In 
oiher  words,  all  fuch  names  are  c otitw^/a^ire,  or  have  a  nu-aning.  Noi  t-o  with  proper 
iionns.  To  say  that  a  man  is  called  John  JButler,  informs  us  of  no  quality  he  pos-, 
i«!»se.-,  or  of  any  fact  except  tlnit  eucli  is  his  name.  The  name  Itself  conve>>  uu  m«  an- " 
ii!g;  itlBtum-coniiolative.  And  this  is  what  retilly  constitute*  a  prop-r  name;  it  ia 
ainxed  to  an  object,  not  to  convey  any  fact  conceiiiiir^  it,  but  merely  to  enable  yon 
to  Hpeak  about  it.  Proper  names,  hideed,  aru  often  given  at  fin»t  on  acc«)unl  of  the 
oi^jtct  po8se?sing  certain  attribute  ;  but  once  given,  they  do  not  continue  to  connote 
those  attributes.  The  first  John  Baker  wan  probably  so  <ulled  because  he  exercised 
th(5  inide  of  baking;  but  his  censing  to  bake  would  not  have  n  ade  him  lose  the 
uume ;  and  liia  descendants  were  called  Baker,  regardless  of  I  heir  0(  cupation. 

Proper  names  are  thus  ■nieaninglesfi  viarks^  to  distiuguisli  one  individual  from 
aiJOther;  and  llie  A,  B,  C,  &c.,  which  a  gcomctiician  affixes  to  the  several  angles 
of  a  fi}?are,  are  as  much  proper  names  as  Tom,  Lawric,  &c.,  apjdied  to  the  imlividunl 
beildof  a  chime.  The  proper  contract,  then,  to  a  Pro|>er  Noun  is  not  a  Connnon 
Noun— meaning  by  that  a  name  common  to  a  class  of  objects— but  a  Significant 
Nona. 

Of  Significant  Nouns,  by  far  the  civater  number  are  Genernl  or  ClaFs  Names : 
Ihat  is,  they  can  be  applied  to  any  individual  of  a  class  of  objects,  iniplyine  that  all 
these .  indi^tialfl  have  certain  attributes  in  common— as  qtiadrujted,  book.  The 
qnadrnped  8|»oken  of  may  perhaps  l>o  a  Aor.s«,  and  here  we  have  anoUier  class-name, 
applicable  to  the  same  dlject,  but  of  less  generalitv  than  "quadruped."  Anfinal, 
9^a\u,  is  more  general  than  qnadrapcd,  being  appli'  able  to  a  far  wider  class.  But  ii 
la  important  to  observe,  that  as  the  number  of  objects  tiiat  the  terms  are  applied  to 
or  denote,  incri^ses,  the  number  of  attributes  they  imp  y— in  other  words,  the 
amount  of  their  meaning--diminit«hes.    To  call  an  object  an  *•  animal,"  merely  im- 

f»iieBihat  it  i8or":ani8ed  and  is  alive  (with  that  kind  of  life  called  animal  life);  to  call 
t:i  "  quadrupecf,"  impfies  all  this  and  a  nnniber  of  attributes  in  addition  ;  and  to 
call  it  a  •*  horse,"  implies  a  still  further  addition. 

It  is  to  this  class  of  words  that  the  term  Common  Nouus  is  properly  applicable ; 
wid  the  contrast  to  them  is  not  Proi>er  Noun-,  bni  what  might  be  called  Singular 
Nouns,  suvh  as  *'God,"  "providence,"  '-universe." 

Collective  Names  ure  »ncU  an  recnvie^it,  fleet,  senate,  nhoal.  They  form  n  subdivi- 
sion of  Cltfss  Names  or  Common  Nouns;  lor  regiment  is  applicable  to  all  collections 
Of  uiPii  oi"gauiped  in  a  particular  way. 

Nam4s  of  Materials,  are  such  as'wwi,  toater,  surjar,  wheat.  These  two 'classes 
apijcar  in  u>any  cases  to  merge  into  each  other.  In  both,  the  objects  named  consi.-t 
of  an  agjrre<;ation ;  but  in  collective  names,  the  parts  forming  the  coll  ction  an; 
thought  of  aslndividual  objects ;  as  the  «oWter8  of  a  regiment,  vaQfishett  composing 
a  slioal.  Snbsiances,  again,  like  iron,  gi>ld,  water,  are  not  made  up  of  definite-  indi- 
vidnal  parts  (at  least  to  our  senses) ;  and  in  such  as  wheat,  sand,  tlie  name  of  »he 
individual  visible  part  {grninof  wheat,  grain  of  sand)  is  derived  from  the  name  of  the 
HUI8S,  shewhig  that  tiie  idea  of  ttie  individual  is  swallowed  up  in  that  of  the  mass. 

A  convenient  tei-m  for  names  of  materials  or  substances  is  that  used  by  German 
grammarians— StnfE-uouris.  Sometimes  the  same  word  is  used  as  a  stuff-noun,  tnid 
also  as  a  cl:i8.>«-noun.  Thus:  "The  cow  eats  grrosa"  (stuff-noun) ;  *' The  botanist 
stndiestlie  grasses,  and  has  found  a  new  grass  "  (class-noun) ;  *'  They  hadyfs/i  (>«tuff- 
nonn)  for  dinner,  and  consumed  four  lurge  fishes  "  (class-noun). 

Nam(^  of  materials  are  not,  like  collective  nouns^a  subdivision  of  common  nouns ; 
fe«y  belong  to  the  contrasted  chiss  of  singular  nouns;  and,  when  the  substance  is 
simple  or  bivariable  in  composition,  cannot  be  used  in  the  plural ;  hsgold,  icater,  beef* 

Abstract  Nouns. — In  the  expression  "  hard  steel,"  or  "  the  steel  is  hard,"  the 
Word  feard  Implies  a  Certain  quality  or  attribute  as  belonging  lo  the  steel.  T'^is 
Qoality  ha"*  no  existence  apart  from  steel  oin?ome  other  substance;  but  I  can  with- 
araw  (aftAtmct)  my  thoughts  from  thn  steel  in  other  respects,  and  think  of  ih'B 
quality  as  if  it  had  au  independent  existence.    The  name  of  tLis  imaginary  cxist- 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Nova  '^i^'* 

ence  or  abstraction  is  Jiardnesa,  All  words  expressive  of  the  qnarftfee,  actions  or 
Btjites of  objects,  have  abstract  noaus  correspohdiuj^  lo  them;  a«  brave— braerry ; 
etrike-^troke ;  well — health.  In  opposition  to  ab."«tract  uouusi.  all  others  are  concreto 
Louiie— ihar  is,  the  attributes  imphed  in  them  arc  considered  as  imbodled  iu  (fionr 
ereU^  Lar.  growing  together)  tiie  actual  existenrtes  named. 

NOUREDDIN-MAHMOD.  Malek-al-Adel,  one  of  the  most  illnstrioap  men  of 
his  lime,  and  the  scoiir^^e  of  the  Christians  vviio  h  ^d  settled  in  Syria  and  Palestine, 
was  born  at  Daintu^cus,  21st  Fehriniry  1116.  Hi?  J:aihir,Oma<l-<dKl-u  Zengni,  orifri- 
nally  governor  of  Mosiul  and  Diarbelcir  on  behalf  of  the  8t;ljuk  s^ulttuis,  hadestib- 
li'*hed  liis  independence,  and  extended  his  authority  over  Northern  Syria,  includiui^ 
Hem.«,  Edessa,  Hamah,  and  Aleppo.  N.  succeeded  him  in  1145^aud  the  better  to 
carry  out  his  ambitious  (iea^igns,  Uiau^ed  the  seat  of  government  from  Moj^nl  to  Alep- 
po. Count  Joso^Iin  of  B<iessa.  thinking  the  accession  of  a  young  and  mexperieirciid 
sovereign  afforded  hi  in  a  favorable  opportnuity  of  regaining  his  territories,  niado 
an  inroad  at  the  head  of  a  large  force,  but  was  singularly  discomfitKi  under  the 
walla  of  Edessa.  his  army,  with  the  exception  of  10,000  men,  being  completely  an*»i- 
hilated.  The  report  of  N.'j^  success  l>eing  con  veyed  to  West  era  Europe,  gave  rise  to 
the  second  Crusade.  The  Crndsad  n*8  were,  however,  foiled  by  N.  before  Damascus, 
and  being  defeated  in  a  number  of  partial  conflicis,  abandoned  their  enterprise  in 
despair.  N.  next  conquered  Tiipoli-^  and  Antiocli,  tlie  prince  of  the  latter  territory 
being  defeated  and  shiin  in  a  bloody  conflict  near  Kugi.t  (29th  June  1149).  aitd 
l>ofore  1161  all  the  Christian  strongholds  iu  Syria  were  iu  his  possession. 
He  uext  cast  his  eyes  on  Egypt,  which  wa.<  iu  n  state  of  almost  com- 
plete airirchy  under  the  feeble  sway  of  the  now  effeminate  Falimiies  and, 
as  a  preliniinary  step,  he  took  posscssiou  of  Damascus  (which  till  this 
time  had  been  ruled  by  an  independiiit  Seljnk  prince)  in  1166;  bnt  a 
terrible  earthquake  which  at  this  lime  dcvastited  Syria,  levelling  large  por- 
tion •»  of  Autioch,  Tiipolis,  Him:ih,  Hem*,  and  other  towns,  put  a  stop  to  his 
eclieniefor  the  present,  and  compelhid  him  to  devote  all  hisfinergiea  to  the  reiuovnl 
of  the  traces  of  this  destruf^tive  visitation.  An  illness  which  prostraled  Itini  in  1158, 
enabled  tiie  Christians  to  recover  soniiof  their  lost  teiTitoiief,  and  N.,  in  attempting 
their  rc-subjugution.  was  totally  defeat  •<!  near  the  Lake  of  Genneftireth  byBald4la 
III.,  king  of  Jeru!»alem ;  but  undismayed  by  this  reverse,  he  resumed  the  offensive, 
defeated  the  Christian  princes  of  Tripolis  and  Antioch,  making  prisoners  of  l)oth, 
and  again  invaded  Palestine.  Meanwhile,  he  had  obtained  tlv<:  sanction  of  Uie  calif 
of  Bagdad  to  liis  projects  concerning  Egypt,  aiid  the  true  believers  flocking  tajils 
Btaudard  from  all  quartei-s,  a  large  army  was  soon  raised,  which,  nmler  his  licufcnai  t 
Shirkoh.  speedily  overran  Evrypt  Shirkoh  dying  soon  after,  was  succcecled  by  his 
nephew,  the  celebrated  Sa!ah-ed-<lin  (q.  v  ),  who  completin!  the  conqne.-t  of  tl»c 
country.  N..  becoming  jealou-*  of  his  able  young  lieutenant,  was  prepirtiig  to 
march  into  Egvpt  in  person,  when  he  died  at  Dam:iscn>=,  ]5ih  M.iy  1174.  I^.  is  one 
of  the  great  heroes  of  Moslem  history.  Broujzht  up  anion?  warriors  who  were 
sworn  to  shed  th'dr  blood  f  >r  the  cause  of  thv^  Prophet,  he  ret^iined  in  hisexait«*d 
BtarioM  all  the  austere  simplicity  of  the  first  califs.  He  was  not,  like  the  in.-.jority 
of  his  co-religionists,  a  mere  conqueror,  but  zejilonsly  piomoted  the  cultivation  <» 
the  sciences,  arts,  and  literature,  and  established  a  strict  administration  of  jasfico 
throtighout  his  extensive  dominions.  He  was  revered  by  his  subjects,  both  Moflein 
and  (JliKistian,  for  his  moderjition  and  clemency,  and  even  his  most  bitter  enemies 
among  the  Cin-istiau  princes  extolled  his  chivalrous  heroism  and  good  faith.  He 
possessed  In  an  emiuent  degree  the  faculty  of  impressing  his  own  fiery  zeal  fi>r  the 
enpnunacy  of  Islam  upon  his  subJ3ct-»,  and  their  descendants  at  the  present  day  hav« 
faithfully  presei*ved  both  his  name  and  principles. 

NO'VA  SCO'TIA,  a  province  of  tho  Dominion  of  Canada,  is  bounded  on  the  n.  w. 
by  New  Brunswick  and  the  Bay  fif  Pnndy,  on  the  n.  by  ihe  Straits  of  Northumbei^ 
laud  and  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence,  and  on  the  other  sides  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It 
jtsonsists  of  two  portions,  N.  S.  proper,  a  large  peninsula  connected  with  New  Brans- 
wick  by  an  isthmus  about  15  miles  in  widtTi,  and  the  island  of  Cape  Breton  (q.  V.).. 
The  peninsula,  about  280  miles  in  length,  and  from  60  to  100  miles  broitd,  extends  in 
an  east-north-east  and  wesr-south-west  direction.  Cape  Breton  lies  north-east  of 
N.  S.  propei:,  separated  from  it   by  a  nairow  stroll  c:dled  the  Gut  of  Causo»  16 


Digitized  by 


Google 


341 


Hoar«ddn 
Kora 

miles  long,  nnd  from  half  a  mile  to  2  mlle«  wide.  Sable  iHland,  which  is  «6  mile?  in 
leugth  by  IX  >"  bicadtb.  and  it*  surrounded  by  a  daugeroos,  widely-exteuded  saud- 
haiik,  is  situated  alK>at  90  miles  from  the  nearest  coast  of  N.  S.,  in  lut.  44°  u.,  and 
loDg.  C(K*  w.  It  ]»  formed  of  saud-liilb  thrown  up  l>y  ihe  sea,  some  of  them  being 
about  80  feet  in  height  The  island  is  covered  with  wild  grasBes,  which  support  ht-rd* 
of  wild  horse?;  known  as  Sable  Island  ponies.  It  lain  the  truck  of  vessels  truding 
between  America  and  Britain,  and  owing  to  the  unntber  of  wrecks  thai  take  plnce  on 
its  shores,  a  superintendent  and  several  men  are  stationed  here  for  thi>  pnr|>ose  of 
rescuing  and  aiding  shipwrecked  mariners.  Ttie  urea  of  the  province  is  18,600  eqiiore 
miles;  pop.  (1871)  887,800.  The  coasi-liue  is  about  1000  miles  in  length,  and  Ihu 
shore?,  whicii  are  much  indented,  abound  in  excellent  bays  and  harnors,  of  which 
the  chief  are  Chedabucto  Bay,  Halifax  Harbor,  St  Margaret's,  Mahon,  and  St  Mary's 
Bays,  Anmipolis.  Mines  and  Chignecto  Basins,  ana  Pictou  Harbor.  There  are 
uamerons  rivers,  out  few  of  them  are  over  60  miles  in  length ;  Ihe  most  important  are 
tlie  Avon,  the  Annapolis,  and  the  Shulienacudie.  N.  S.  contains  about  400 
lakes,  of  which  the  Bras  d'Or,  in  Cape  Breton,  covers  an  area  of  600 
Mjoare  miles,  or  about  one-sixth  of  the  entire  area  of  the  island.  Stretch- 
hie  along  the  Atlantic  sen-lward,  and  extending  inland  from  it  for  about  20 
milf b,  is  a  range  of  highlands,  and  about  60  miles  from  the  Atlantic  coast  are  the 
Cobcqnid  Mountains.  IKO  feet  in  height;  which  traverse  the  peninsula  from  the 
Biiy  of  Fundy  lo  the  Straits  of  Canso.  The  soil  in  the  vulleys  is  rich  and  fertile, 
nrodncing  all  the  fruits  of  tem;>er«te  climates;  and,  especially  in  the  north,  the  up- 
lands also  are  fertile.  The  climate  is  remarkably  healthy,  its  rfjior  being  modified  by 
the  fupulur  character  of  the  province,  and  by  the  influence  of  Ihe  Gulf  Stream.  Tho 
mean  (emjierature  for  the  year  is  42-09o  at  Pictou,  and  43 'C^  at  Windsor.  The  ex- 
treme limits  of  Ihe  thermometer  may  be  stated  at— 16°  Fahr.  in  winler,  and  W®  in 
the  shade  in  snmrher.  The  province  abounds  in  mineral  ricln  s,  including  gold,  coal, 
aud  iron.  Gold  was  first  discovered  in  the  colony  in  March  1861,  on  Tangier  River, 
about  40  miles  east  of  Halifax.  The  chief  diggings  are  along  the  Atlantic  coast, and 
gold  has  l)eeu''fonnd  in  nearly  100  different  localities.  An  act  of  the  legislature  reg- 
ulating the  disposal  of  claims  and  the  collection  of  revenue  from  the  gold-fields  was 
passed  in  March  1862.  The  gold  mines  have  been  worked  stejidily,  and  in  many 
cases  profitably.  In  1871,  the  yield  of  gold  was  19.227  oz..  in  value  about  365,700 
ddllars ;  in  1875,  the  yield  vras  11,208  oz.,  valued  at  201,756  dollars.  In  1875,  781,165 
tons  of  coal  and  4467  tons  of  iron  ore  were  raised  in  the  province.  Of  the  entire  ai-ea 
of  llie  colony,  10,000,000  acres  are  considered  good  land,  and  of  these  1,028,032  acres 
were  under  cultivation.  Three-fourths  of  tho  whole  area  are  comprised  in  the  nenin- 
Bola  of  N.  S.,  ai)d  the  remainder  in  Ihe  inland  of  Cape  Breton.  The  principal  ngri- 
cnltural  products  are  hay,  wheat,  barley,  buckwheat,  oats,  i-ye,  Indian  com,  potatoes, 
and  turnips.  The  waters  around  the  colony  abound  in  fish,  as  mackerel,  shad,  her- 
ring, salmon,  Ac,  and  the  fisheries  are  pursued  with  ardor  and  with  ever-increasing 
success.  In  1873 — 4,  the  number  of  men  employed  in  the  fisheries  was  21,031,  and 
the  total  value  of  the  fish  caught,  6.652,301  dollars.  In  1873—4,  the  imports  amounled 
to  £2,181,470,  the  exports  to  jCl,53l,300 ;  the  revenue  for  1873  to  jG134.500,  the  expen- 
diture to  £136,200.  The  number  of  vessels  that  arrived  in  N.  8.  during  the  year 
eutling  30th  June  1874,  was  4424,  of  959,114  tons,  and  the  number  that  departed  3752, 
of  881,263  tons.  There  are  in  the  colony  1150  miles  of  telegraph,  and  300  miles  of 
railway.  It  is  provided  with  6  colleges,  10  academies,  and  1700  grammar,  normal, 
8ud  other  schools. 

N.  8.  is  supposed  to  have  been  visited  and  **  discovered  "  by  the  Cabots  in  1497. 
Its  first  colonists  were  a  number  of  Frenchmen,  who  estiiblished  them»«elves  here  in 
1604,  but  were  afterwards  expelled  by  settlers  from  Virginia,  who  claimed  the  coun- 
try by  right  of  discovery.  Under  the  French  settlers  it  hore  the  name  of  Acadia 
(Acadie);  but  its  name  was  changed  for  its  present  one  in  1621,  when  a  gi'ant  of 
the  peninsula  was  obtained  from  James  I.  by  Sir  William  Alexander,  whofi«  inten- 
tion was  to  colonise  the  whole  country.  Having  found,  however,  that  the  localities 
they  had  fixed  upon  as  suitable  for  settiement  were  already  occupied,  the  colonists 
Returned  to  the  mother-country.  In  1654,  the  French,  who  had  regained  a  footing 
in  the  colony,  were  subdued  by  a  force  sent  out  by  Cromwell.  By  the  treaty  of 
Breda,  the  country  was  ceded  to  the  French  In  1667,  but  it  was  restored  to  the 
XngUdi  in  1718.    After  the  middle  of  the  18th  c,  Btreunou»  efforts  were  made  to  ad- 


y  Google 


Nora  oj^c) 

Wove*  '^^-^ 

vauce  toe  interests  of  the  colony.    Settlers  were  sent  ont  at  the  expense  of  the 
British  govemnieut.    The  French,  who  liad  joined  the  Indians  in  iios!itiiitie:«  against 
the  Eugiisli,  were  either  ezpcU^  or  completely  ma!«tered,  and  Cape  Breton,  wiiich 
nt  an  earlit*r  period  had  been  disunited  from  N.  8.,  was  reunited  to  it  under  the  &ume  \ 
provincial  government  in  1819.     N.  8.  was  incorporated  witli  tlie  Donilnioii  of  ' 
Canada  in  1367,  and  is  i^presented  in  the  Canadian  parliament  by  12  seuator^  audSS  « 
members  of  the  Lower  Honse.    It  has  also  its  own  local  legislature  and  lieutenant-  • 
governor;  the  le^j*lature  consisting  of  a  consicil  and  a  Hou-e  of  Assembly  elected  ^ 
)v  the  conntica— which  are  18  in  nnmber — ^iind  the  cities,  the  chief  of  which  are  ,' 
llaiifay,  Aimapolis,  Liverpool,  and  Picton. 

NO'VA  ZB'MBLA  (Russ.  Noieaja  Zemlja^  **New  LaBd^'),  the  name  given  to  a  \ 
chain  of  islands  lying  in  the  Arctic  Ocean  (lat,  l)etweeu  Z0°  30'  and  76°  BO*  n.,  and 
Jong,   lietweeu  5'^  66'  e.),  and  iiicUuled  wiHilu    the   government  of   ArcliaugeL 
li^ni^th  of  the  chain.  4T0  miles:  average  breadth,  56  miles.    The  most  Bomlieni  ^ 
island  is  8pe<ially  called  Nova  Zembla;  of  the  others,  the  principal  nre  Mattliew^  ' 
Xand  and  Liitke'a  Land.    They  were  discovered  in  1553,  and  are  wild,  rocky  aud  ^ 
desolate— the  Vfgatation  being  chiefly  mos.*,  Iicheni»,  and  a  few  shrabs.    Thetugliest  " 
point  in  the  chain  is  3476  feet  above  t'lc  level  of  the  wa.    Mean  lemperatnreia 
numiner,  at  the  southern  extremity,  35-51o;  in  winter,  3*2lo.    N.Z.  has  no  pa- 
mauent  inhabitant."*,  but  as  the  coasts  swarm  with  whales  and  walruses,  and  the 
interior  with  bears,  remdeers,  aud  foxes,  they  are  periodically  frequented  by  fislier-  ■ 
men  aud  huntern.  j; 

N0VALI8.    See  Hardenbebo. 

NOVA'RA,  a  town  of  Northern  Ityly,  and  capital  of  province  of  same  naiw.  i"* 
fdtuitted  in  a  fertile  district,  about  60  miles  ea.'»t-uorth-east  <>f  Tuj  hi.  Pop.  (1811) 
84,185.  It  commands  fine  .\lpiue  view^  from  its  auc'ent  dismantled  fortificatiou», 
And  ctiutains  several  notable  chnrchci>,  especially  the  cathedral,  witii  its  fine  frescoes 
find  sculptarcH,  and  grand  higii-altar.  Ou  ilie  23(1  of  March,  1840,  N«  was  Uitt  soeoe 
of  a  great  battle  between  the  Sardinian  forces  and  an  Austrian  army  commanded  by 
Kadetzky,  which  rersulted  in  the  complete  defexit  of  the  Italians,  aud  ultimately  ted 
to  the  aiMiicaiion  of  Charles  Albert  in  favor  of  his  son,  Victor  EoxmanueL 

NOVA'TIAN,  a  priest  of  the  Roman  Church  in  the  8d  c,  and  the  lender  of  a  sect  ■ 
called  after  his  name.  The  place  and  lime  of  his  birtii  are  not  ktK>wu  with  cer>  ' 
tainty.  N.  had  been  a  stoic  philosopher,  but  after  his  aiTival  in  Rome  was  converted  '■ 
to  Christianity,  and  bKing  seized  with  sudden  illness  was  still  a  catecbnmcn,  recelted  ' 
wiiat  was  called  clinical  uaptism;  tliat  is,  baptism  administered  ou  a  sick-bed,  nud  ^ 
\vith(jut  the  solemn  ceremonial.  Such  baptism  wan,  in  ordinary  circnmst^iuces,  au  lui-  ,^^ 
jwdlment  to  holy  orders.  Nutwiih:«taudmg  this  irregular  baptism,  N.  wtis promoti^  p 
to  order;*  by  Fabian  the  Roman  bishop ;  and  soon  afterwards  shewed  his  weakue^by  ' 
flyingduringa  persecution.  At  this  time  a  controversy  arose  about  the  mannerofdeal-  . 
ing  with  the  lapsed;  that  is,  those  who  fell  away  In  p^n*ecnlion.  N.  at  first  inclined  \ 
to  the  milder  side,  but  on  tlie  election  of  Cornelius  lo  the  Roimin  bishopric  to  which 
N.  had  aspired,  jmd  ou  Cornelius  taking  the.indulgent  course  towards  tlie  lapsed,  N., 
togetlur  with  Novatusand  some  other  discoutented  priests  of  Cart.harge.  op{>osed  Ids 


imthority,  and  eventually  N.  was  chosen  by  a  small  parly,  and  actually  ordal!i*^ 
bishop,  in  opposition  to  Oornelins.  The  party  who  espoust^d  his  cause  was  cnlled  by  his 
iwime.  IMiey  were  confined  mainly,  in  the  first  instance,  to  Rome  and  to  Carthage, 
where  a  kmdrwl  conflict  had  arisen.  They  held  that  in  the  grievous  crime  of  idolatry 
Ihroujjh  fear  of  persecution,  the  chnrch  had  no  power  to  alisolve  the  penitent;  and 
therefore,  although  it  does  nOt  appear  that  they  excluded  such  sinners  frr.ni  all  hope 
of  heaven,  yet  they  denied  the  lawful ue:»8  of  re-admitting  them  to  the  cominnuionof 
theclmrch.  1  his  doctrine  they  extended  at  a  later  period  to  all  grievous  sinNof 
whatever  character.  N.  may  thus  be  regarded  as  the  first  antipop^  The  chnirrhes 
throughout  Italy,  Africa,  and  the  East  adhered  to  Cornelins;  bnt  the  N.  party  set  np 
bishops  and  esiabllshed  chnrcJies  not  only  at  Carthage,  but  at.  Constant iiiople.  Atex- 
andna,  Nicomedia.  Phrygia,  Gaul,  Spain,  and  elsewhere.  They  claimed  for  theS> 
selves  a  character  of  espi^ial  pnrlty.  and  afsumed  the  appellation  of  Cath.irf  (Parf- 
!?"4V  X  ii'®  V™®  *"^  nuinner  of  the  death  of  N.  is  uncertain.  According  to  Socnit»« 
('•  Hist.  Ecc. '  iv.  28  •  V.  21 ;  vii.  6, 12,  25),  he  died  a  martyr  in  the  persecntiou  of  t*. 
leri»in,bnt  this  is  improbable.  He  was  a  man  of  oonslderable  leamios.  nod  Iht 
work  recently  discovered  iu  one  of  the  monasteries  of  Moaut  Atho?  and  f^ 


QJ.^  ^  Nova 

fished  by  Mr  Miller  at  Oxford  in  1861,  Bnder  the  title  of  "Origenifl  Philosoplui- 
mena,"  fe  by  eoiue  ttecrib«;d  to  him.  His  Beet  survived  loug  utter  his  doutlr.  An 
UDsacceBsfal  effort  Vfw  made  in  the  council  of  Nice  to  reunite  them  to  the  church ; 
and  traces  of  them  are  still  discoverable  iu  the  end  of  the  6th  century. 

NOVE'LDA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Alicante,  nnd  18  miles  wcpt 
from  Alicante,  on  the  railway  between  Madrid  nnd  Alicante.  There  are  corn  and 
Oil  mill?,  brandy  distilleries?,  and  nniniifactures  of  lace.    Pop.  8095. 

NOVJELLO,  Clara,  a  dipthignished  Vffealist,  dangliter  of  the  following,  was  horn 
in  1818,  Her  talent  Bhuwed  itself  very  early.  At  ttio  age  of  ten,  she  becanio  a 
pupil  t;f  the  French  Academy  of  Singing  for  Churcli-nmslc,  and  studied  in  Paii.«*lor 
several  year:?,  following  up  iier  stndlej*  in  after-years  in  Italy  and  Germany.  Both 
in  England  and  in  Italy,  sne  created  quite  n  furore  fron\  the  y  ar  1840  to  1P48  :  her 
fioging  has  indeed  hnitlly  ever  been  equalled  in  equality,  fleiibiUty,  and  exoculivo 
Bkill.  In  1848,  she  married  Connt  Gigliucci,  and  quitted  the  »tage,  returning  to  it, 
however,  for  a  time  from  1850  to  1860. 

NOVELLO,  Vincent,  an  eminent  musical  performer  and  coniposer,  wa^  born  iu 
London,  of  an  Italian  fathef  and  English  mother,  in  1781.  At  the  age  of  IC,  he  was 
organist  in  the  chapel  of  the  Portuguese  embassy;  and  even  then  had  attained  a 
large  measure  of  that  proficiency  on  tlie  organ  for  which  ho  was  celebrated  in  later 
life.  He  Mas  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Philharmonic  Society.  His  musical  com- 
positions, which  are  very  nnmeroup,  and  chiefly  eacred,  are  cousiden^d  lo  I  avo  con- 
tribnted  nmch  to  the  improvement  of  cathedral  music  As  a  pains-taking  e<litor  of 
unpublished  works  of  eminent  musicijiuSi  lie  lias  also  done  great  service  to  music;.! 
literature.    He  died  at' Nice  in  1861. 

.    NOVELLA.    See  Justinian. 

KOVELS.  The  novel  and  the  Bo-callod  romance,  inasmuch  as  they  constantly 
merge  in  one  another,  and  are  only  Bupi  rficially  distinguished  by  the  i)reponderan<o 
in  the  one  of  ordinary  and  familiar  incidents,  in  tl»c  otlier  of  Incident  more  or  Icps 
remote  and  marvellous,  may  conveniently  be  included  here  under  the  common  defi- 
nition of  prose  narrative  fiction.  Between  the  legendary  epic,  the  drama  into  whicli 
portions  of  its  available  material  from  fluent  become  crystallised,  and  the  wid<  r 
prose  fiction  or  novel,  into  which  this  again  exp.uKls  itself,  there  are  obvious  afllni- 
ties,  the  distinctions  being  rat  her  of  form  than  of  ei>fif  nee.  It  is  of  thn  later  devel- 
c^ment,  the  novel,  that  we  purpose  to  give  here  a  historical  sketch,  omitting,  I  o\v- 
ever,  any  consideration  of  the  remoter  and  bnt  slightly  known  specimens  prodiued 
m  Hindustan  and  Cliinn.  ^ 

L  Ancient  Classical  Fivse  Fiction. — ^The  eai^est  Greek  compositions  of  a  fictitious 
character,  of  whicli  we  poa^^es's  any  kuowledere,  are  the  "  Aliiesiac.i,"  or^Milchian 
Talcs,"  faid  to  have  been  written  chiefly  by  one  Arlstides.  The  Milesians  were  a 
colony  of  Ionic  Greeks  who  t?ettled  in  Asia  Minor,  j  nd  fell  nnder  the  dominion  of 
the  Persians,  494  b.  c  They  were  a  voluptuous,  brilliant,  and  inventive  nice,  and  are 
Bupposed  to  have cii ugh t  from  their  ea.«iern  mastery,  whom  they  somewhat  resem- 
bled, a  liking  for  that  particular! v  orientvil  species  of  literatni*e— the  imaginary  story 
or  narrative.  None  of  the  Milesian  Tales  are  extant,  either  in  the  original  Greek  or 
hi  the  Latin  version  made  by  Siseuua,  the  Eoinan  historian,  about  the  time 
of  Mariusand  Sulla;  but  we  have  some  forty  stories  by  Parthenius  Nicjeas,  which 
are  considered  to  be  to  a  certain  extetit  aday)tatioM8  from  them.  The  collection  of 
Parthenius  is  entitled  '*Peri  Erotikon  PatliematOn,  and  is  dedicated  to  Cornelius 
GalluSj  the  Latin  poet,  and  tiie  contemporary  and  friend  of  Virgil.  If  we  may  judge 
from  this  latep  set  of  fictions,  which  are  mainly  concerned  with  the  description  of  all 
ports  of  seduction,  of  crin'iinal  and  incestuous  passions,  and  of  deplorable  termina- 
tions to  wretched  lives,  we  have  little  cause,  either  morally  or  aesthetically,  to  regret 
the  loss  of  their  tnore  famous  prototypes.  In  Greece  Proper,  nothing  was  done,  so 
f'lrasweknow.in  the  way  of  novel  or  romance,  until  after  the  age  of  Alexander  the 
Great,    It  has  oeen  conj.'ctnred,  not  improbably,  that  his  Eastern  conquests  had  a 

Sotent  effect  in  giving  this  new  i>ent  to  the  fancy  of  his  cotmtrymen.  Clearchua,  a 
iscipteof  Aristotle,  wTote  a  history  of  fictitious  love-adventures,  and  is  thus,  per- 
haps, to  he  considered  the  first  Enrijpean  Greek  novelist,  and  the  first  of  the  Jong 
■erifsof  "Erotikoi,"  who  veath  down  tothe  13th  c.  after  Christ.  Not  long  after 
'  Wtiift  Atitoidns  Diogenes,  whf>se  romance,  in  24  books,  entitled  "  Ta  hyper  Ihoalcu 
Al^f  (Of  the  Incredible  Things  beyoud  Thule),  was  ^^^uded  on  ihQsjaj^t^y^s, 


Koyali 


344 


adventureg,  and  loves  of  Dinfaa  and  DercylHs.  It  appears  to  have  been  held  in  high 
esteem,  and  was  at  least  useful  as  a  piore-hoase,  wlieuce  later  writers,  sach  as 
Achilles  Tatius,  derived  miiterials  for  their  more  artistic  fictions.  The  work  has  not 
been  preserved,  bat  Fbotias  gives  au  oatltne  of  its  contents  in  his  **■  BibUotheca 
Cod." 

A  long  interval,  embracing,  indeed,  several  centuries,  now  elapses  before  we  come 
upon  another  Greek  novelist  or  romancist.  Be  the  cause  of  this  what  it  may,  the 
ever-increasing  luxury  and  depiavity  of  the  pagan  imiierial  world,  combined  to  de- 
velop and  intensify  that  morbid  ci'aving  for  horrible,  magical,  and  supernatoral  iuci- 
d.'Uts,  whick  in  jjeuenil  fill  the  pages  of  the  romancists  of  the  empire.  Tbe  flret 
jiumes  that  occur  m  the  new  series  are  Lucius  of  Patra  (Patreiisis)  and  JLiUcian(q.  v.), 
who  Aounshcd  in  the  2d  c  a.d.,  during  the  reign  of  Marcus  Antoninus:  but  as  tbe 
fornisr  simply  collected  accounts  of  magical  transformations  {Metamorphoses),  he  is 
perhaps  not  to  be  regarded  ns  a  novelist  proper  at  all ;  while  the  latter  was  really  a 
humorist,  satirist,  and  moralist  in  the  guise  of  a  story-teller— in  a  word,  a  clasdc 
Rabelais  and  Heine,  and  as  fur  as  possible  from  being  a  meml)er  of  the  wouder-lov- 
3nj?  school  of  Erotics,  with  whom  he  has  only  «n  accidental  connection  by  tiie  external 
form  of  some  of  hl.s  writinga.  The  first  of  tiie  new  series  of  romance  writers,  strictly 
BO  called,  is  properly  lambDchus  (not  the  Noo-Platonic  philosopher),  whose  *' Babylo- 
Tilca"  is,  indited,  no  longer  extant;  but  we  are  able  to  form  a  pretty  just  estimate  of  it 
from  the  epitome  of  Piiotiu*^.  The  next  notable  name  is  that  of  Heliodorus  (q.  v.)> 
Bislio;)  of  Trikka,  who  flourished  in  the  4tli  c.  a.d.  This  Christian  writer,  wliose 
"  Loves  of  Tlieagenes  and  Charlcleia"  is  really  the  oldes  extant  erotic  romance,  has 
far  exct'lled  all  his  predecessors  in  everything  that  can  render  a  story  interesting  or  ex- 
cellent^ and  his  charming  fiction  obtained  a  great  popularity  among  such  as  could  read. 
Some  imagine  that  they  see  in  ileliodorus  a  resemblance  to  the  minutely  dr.scriptive 
style  of  novel  introduced  into  England  by  Richardson ;  but  without  adopting  this 
rather  extreme  notion,  it  can  at  least  be  safely  asserted,  tliat  Acliilles  Tatius  and  all 
the  subsequent  Erotikm  deliberately  imitated  his  style  and  manner,  while  he  was  iiot 
less  cert;iinly  used  as  a  model  by  that  once  celebrated  but  dreadfully  tedious  pcliool  of 
heroic  romance  which  flourished  in  Finrnce  diunng  the  ITth  c,  and  wlios"  hcsl- 
rcmembered  representative  is  Mademoiselle  de  Scud^ri.  Tasso,  Guarini,  li*Ur:6, 
and  several  other  modern  writers,  have  drawn  many  pariiculari* — sometimes  hIuhmjI 
verbatim— trom  the  stories  in  the  "Theagenes  and  Charicleia."  Achilles  Tairiw 
(q.  v.),  probably  l)elOHging  to  the  5th  c,  ranks  next  to,  but  at  some  dist.iiice  froia. 
Hi'liodorus  in  point  of  merit.  His  romance,  entitied  **Ta  katji  LKnkipixHi  fc«l 
Eleitophonla,"  and  consisting  of  eight  books,  has  supplied  lucideuts  to  more  than 
one  Italian  and  French  writer. 

The  next  work  that  invites  our  attention  in  point  of  time,  the  "Daphnis  and 
Chloe  "  of  Longiis,  is  of  a  totjilly  different  character.  It  is  a  sin^ple  and  picturesque 
prose-pastorul,  with  no  poisouinsjrs.  murders,  magic,  snpernaturalism.  and  inipo:»- 
6il)le  exploits.  Over  the  whole  story  re^t  a  rural  peace  and  a  pmil«  of  cheerful  son- 
Bhine;  and,  in  spite  ofsom**  singularly  polluted  passages,  it  was,  for  its  time,  a  pure 
and  wholesome  fiction.  •*Daphni8  and  Chloe"  is  the  only  pastoral  romance  (rto- 
duced  by  imy  Byzantine  author.  Whether  or  not  it  exercised  any  influence  on  tl»e 
development  of  the  modem  pastoral  of  Italy  and  France,  cannot  be  proved,  i»ut  it 
has  been  noticed  thattiiere  is  no  slight  resemblance  between  it  and  the  stm-y  of  the 
"  Qenflcj  Shepljerd,"  which  we  know  was  suggested  to  Allan  I^mi'ay  by  a  classical 
friend,  who  may  h  ive  borrowed  from  the  Greek  the  sketch  which  he  gave  to  the 
poet.    It  has  also  been  very  closely  imitated  by  Gessner  in  his  idyll  of  "Daphni^" 

After Longns  comes  Chariton  (flor.  some  time  between  the  6th  and  9th  ceninries). 
whose  romance,  in  eight  books,  on  the  '*  Loves  of  Clujereas  and  CallirrhoS,"  is  not 
quite  complete,  but  nearly  so.  It  contains,  like  the  other  erotic  fictions,  plenty  of 
stirring  and  starllln"^  acfventures,  but  on  the  whole  these  are  less  improbnble  than 
what  we  encounter  hi  the  writines  of  his  predecessors.  Of  three  Xenoplnms,  sdsn 
not^d  among  the  "  Brotikol,"  and"  of  uncertain  date,  i  he  best  is  Xenophon  of  Ephf- 
sus,  whose  romance,  entitled  "  Ephesinci,  or  the  Loves  of  Anthin  and  Abrocomiu," 
is  in  ten  books,  and  has  all  the  sensatifjual  characteristics  of  the  school  to  wliich  it 
belongs.  It  is,  however,  perhaps  worth  mentioning,  that  in  the  romance  of  Xeno- 
phon we  meet  for  the  first  time  with  the  story  of  the  love-potion,  the  pretejided 
death,  and  the  mock-euiombmeut  of  the  heroine,  which  forms  the  leading  incident 


Digitized  by 


Google 


345 


iroT«Li 


in  Sliiskepeare's  "  Romeo  and  Jnliet,"  and  which,  it  is  tbon^bt,  reached  the  gicnt 
English  dramatist  at  becoud  or  third  hand,  throagU  the  Itaimu  uovelist,  Luigi  da 
Porta. 

Ajwin,  a  long  interval  ellipses  before  we  meet  with  another  love-flction  of  the 
old  pagan  sort.  During  this  period,  however,  a  work  made  its  iippeurance,  which 
was  e8;*eutia:ly  a  rom«uce,  and  M'ns  cbmposed  expressly  for  the  purpope  of  recom- 
mending thai  form  of  Chiisiian  life  which  was  tlie  favorite  in  early  times— the  aece- 
lic  and  recluse  form.  This  was  the  **  Barhiaiii  and  Josapliai  "  (q.  v.),  the  author  of 
which  is  unknown,  but  whose  popularity,  during  the  middle  ages,  may  be  estimated 
from  the  fact,  that  it  was  tmnslated  into  every  hmgnage  of  Christendom  from  l^or- 
way  to  Spain.  In  the  12Wi  c,  another  erotic  Eustuhius  or  Enniathius,  who  was 
properly  the  last  of  the  series,  published  his ''  Ismene  and  I»*meuias.*'  in  eleven  Itooka. 
This  romance  is,  in  truth,  a  feeble  pjt^rtormauce ;  the  expirinjr  flicker  of  a  bmp 
whose  oil  is  about  dohe.  It  is  puerile  in  its  delineation  of  character,  and  full  of 
plagiarisms;  yet  many  of  its  details  have  been  copied  by  later  occideutal  writers, 
sacn  as  D'Urfe  and  Montemayor. 

In  all  the  erotic  romanci»8.  ibe  adventures,  wliich  in  fact  constitute  the  story,  hove 
certain  common  characteristics.  The  hero  and  heroine  are  generally  carried  off  by 
robbers  or  pinites ;  or  they  fl^  from  hi»me,  and  are  accidentally  separated.  They  re- 
snlre  to  seek  each  other  throughout  the  world,  and  in  the  course  of  their  loving 
quest,  they  visit  the  remotest  regions,  cnccmnter  the  most  frightful  |)erils,  make  hair- 
breadth escapes  from  tragic  ends,  meet  again  in  most  unexpecied  and  miraculous 
wnyp,  and  geueruUy  close  their  career  in  iiappiness  and  splendid  prosperity — oiteu 
turning  out  to  l>e  the  offspring  of  far  greater  {MOple  than  they  fancied.  Copious  use 
is  made  of  poisons,  love-potious,  improbable  tricks,  magic  instruments,  Ac  ;  and 
one  can  esisily  see  that  the  stories  were  meant  to  tickle  and  stimulate  a  l.mguid,  cor- 
rupt, sensual,  and  credulous  people,  such  as  the  Greeks  of  the  Lower  Empire  un- 
doubtedly were. 

Before  touching  on  the  medieval  romance  of  Wei^tern  Europe,  we  may  in  a  few 
wonls  notice  such  specimens  of  classicid  fiction  as  exist,  or  are  known  to  have  ex- 
isted in  L:itin.  SVe  liave  already  stat<  d  that  the  Milesian  Tales  were  translated  into 
tliat  tongue  by  Sisenna,  who  derived  his  know  lodge  of  them  from  the  Sybarites,  a 
Greek  colony  of  Lower  Italy.  The  taste  for  sinular  stories  increased  during  the 
empire,  but  tiie  writers  in  general  cannot  have  displayed  nmch  genius  in  their  com- 
positions^ If  we  may  judge  tiom  the  contemptuous  hmgnage  used  by  the  Emperor 
iieverus  agsdnst  Clddius  Albiuus,  whose  flctltins  lie  desi<;nato8  Ituiicia  literaHa  and 
anilia  (old  wives'tales).  But  higher  praise  must  bt;  assigned  to  ihe  work  commonly 
attributed  to  Petronins  Arbiter  (q.  v.),  who  flourished  in  the  time  of  Nero,  and  whose 
'•  Saiyricon  "—incomplete — is  a  comic  novel  or  ronniuee,  and  (altliough  the  dii-tiest 
worlc  even  in  pagan  literature)  is  executed  with  skill,  vigor,  and  at  times  with  beauty. 
In  ihe2U  c  a.i>.,  AppiUeius  (q.  v.)  wrote  his  "Ass"  (called  from  its  excellence  the 
'•  Golden  A>8  '),  which  relates  the  adventures  of  a  young  man  who  had  the  misfortune 
to  l>e  accidentally  metamorphosed  into  that  animal,  while  sojourning  iu'Thessaly, 
retaining,  however,  his  human  consciousness.  The  miseries  which  he  suffers  at  the 
hands  of  rohl)er8,  eunuchs,  magistrates,  and  othir  persons  into  whose  hands  Ir.  falls, 
auUl  the  per'.otl  when  he  is  enabled  to  resume  his  former  figure,  are  portrayed  with 
a  wit,  knnior,  and  fancy  hardly  inferior  to  Lucian.  The  work  is  also  believed  to 
have  had,  like  the  writings  of  his  Greek  contemporary,  a  moral  and  satirical  aim.  It 
wag  iaiinensely  popular  in  the  middle  ages,  has  supplied  Boccaccio  with  some  of  his 
stori.'s,  and  tlie  autlior  of  '*Qil  Bias  "  with  the  picturesque  incidents  of  the  robbers' 
cave  in  the  early  part  of  his  romance,  and  contjiins  in  the  episode  of  Cupid  and 
P*ycy,  one  of  the  loveliest  allegoriwsof  classical  antiquity. 

1  Romantic  Fiction  in  Western  Enrop^.—TUe  first  thing  to  be  clearly  understood 
i»  counectiou  with  this  branch  of  lit»*rature  is.  that  it  is  »o<  a  continual  ion  of  the 
Grseco-Byzantiue  or  classical  fiction,  though,  curiously  enough,  it  l>egan  to  spring 
op  ill  the  West  just  as  the  (>ther  was  dying  out  in  the  East.  It  is  a  completely  new 
gruwib,  the  product  of  new  historical  circumstances,  which  were  but  very  slightlv  af- 
fected by  Byzantine  influences  of  any  kind ;  and  it  transports  us  into  a  world  of  ideas, 
Beuti men t-,  beliefs,  and  actions,  as  different  from  what  we  find  in  the '^Erotikoi  " 
aa  could  well  be  iiua^jiueJ.    In  the  latter,  the  principal*  characters  are  mere  lovers 


y  Google 


IToveU 


346 


forced  into  ndvcntnree  by  the rainifitera  of  fate;  lu  the  former,  they  nre  real  heroes, 
of  ihi;  old  Homeric  type,  and  mek  daugers  jrreedily  aud  joyously.  When  m'c  read  the 
*'  Eioiikoi,*'  we  are  reminded  in  many  ways  that  we  are  in  the  midst  of  a  corrmitaijd 
decaying  civilisation  ;  when  we  turn  to  tl»e  romances  of  chivalix  in  spite  of  ceriaiu 
Buperflcial  and  harharons  vices,  such  as  the  prevalence  of  bast-ardy,  and  tlie  indif- 
ference displayed  to  bioodshed,  we  feci  that  we  are  in  the  presence  of  a  yontbfnl, 
healthy,  vigoions  ami  growing  social  life.  That  tlieso  romanceSj  generally  from  be- 
ginning to  end,  consist  of  a  series  of  extraordinary  and  utterly  impossible  exploits, 
m  which  tlie  magic,  the  mystery,  jind  the  enchantments  of  the  "  Ambiau  Nights" 
arc  rivalled  or  outshone,  is  unquestionable ;  but  this  proves  no  more  than  that  the 
races  of  Western  Europe,  wlio  slowly,  dui  ing  the  dark  ages,  rose,  by  the  hdp  of  ll»e 
church,  out  of  baj-bitrism  into  feudalism— i  he  first  step  towards  the  civilisation  of  the 
modern  world— were  boundlessly  Ignorant,  credulous,  and  wonder-loving.  Their 
prodigious  vigor  and  vehemence  of  cliaracter  havinsruo  proper  intellectual  jMt&u/ttnt, 
was  forced  to  supi)ly  its  craving  for  a  kuowledije  wliicli  was  beyond  its  immedlnte 
attainment,  by  theex.iggeralions  of  a  fancy  that  was  without  law  or  limit.  We  need 
not  go  so  far  as  to  assert  that  in  the  medieval  romance,  everything  is  of  native  or 
**  Gothic  "  origin ;  Jhefact  is  very  muj^h  the  reverse.  Tnis  extreme  theory,  pro- 
pounded by  Mallet,  and  supported  by  Bishop  Percy  and  other  writers,  is  totally  hi- 
adequateto  account  for  all  that  is  contained  in  these  romances.  Not  less  inadeqaate 
is  another  theory,  first  suggested  by  Salmasius,  and  afterwards  elaborated  by 
Warton,  that  the  medieval  romance  is  mainly  of  Saracenic  origin,  aud  wa:*  probably 
introduced  by  the  Moorish  conquerors  into  Spain,  and  thence  propagated  into 
France  and  Britain*  while  a  third  theory,  whicu  has  al^o  found  supporters,  viz.» 
that  it  was  derived  from  the  classical  mythology  of  smcieut  Greece,  is  the  most 
inadequate  of  all.  The  true  explanation  of  the  matter  appviars  to  be,  that  medieval 
romance  had  its  root  and  foundation  iu  Chivalry  (q.  v.)— a  genuine  product  ot 
Wes^teni  Europe— and  although  the  machinery,  so  to  speak,  the  exploits  and  the 
intirveis,  may  Inive  often  been  derived  from  tlie  foreigji  sources  we  hive-meutioucd, 
yet  tlu!  spirit,  scenery,  sentiment,  and  life  of  the  legends  thoroughly  reflect  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  earlier  ages  of  feudalism.  The  notion  of  dragons,  giants,  magic 
rings,  enchaiiti'd  CJtstles,  are  probably  of  Saracenic  origin,  and  may  Inive  been  iniro- 
ducea  into  Europ  ^  by  tiie  horde  of  pilgrims  wlio  visited  the  East  in  the  time  of  the 
Crusades ;  sucli  incidents  as  the  detaining  of  a  knight  from  his  quest  by  the  enchant- 
ments of  a  sorceress,  may  have  JDeen  a  tradition  ofthe  ''Odyssey  "  of  Homer;  bat 
the  giUlantry,  the  courtesj',  the  romantic  valor,  the  tournanients,  the  noble  friend- 
ships of  brother-knight.*— all  that  distinguishes  the  romances  of  chivalry  fro  a 
Runic  legends  or  the  *'  Arabian  Nights,"  canuot  be  traced  to  any  other  source,  ihau 
the  new-born  chivjUry  of  Europe* 

'i'lie  medieval  romances  are  divisible  into  three  great  series :  1.  Those  relating  to 
Arthur  and  the  Knights  of  the  Hound  Table ;  2.  Tnose  relating  to  Charlemague  and 
kis  Paladins;  3.  Those  relating  to  Amadis  de  Gaul  and  his  descendants. 

The  Arthurian  si:rieg  is,  in  its  essence,  of  Welsh  and  Armoric  origin.  Its  geneds 
is  as  follows.  First  came  the  legendary  chronicles  composed  in  Wales  or  Brittany> 
such  as  the  "  De  Excidio  Britannise  "  of  Gildas  (q.  v.) ;  the  chronicle  of  Nennius, 
belonging  to  the  9th  c. ;  the  Armoric  collections  of  Walter  Calenius  or  Qaaltivr* 
Archdeacon  of  Oxford;  and  the  famous  '*Chronicon  sive  Histoiia  Britonum""* 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (q.  v.)— from  these,  and  from  the  multltade  of  floating  unre- 
corded traditions,  sprung  the  metrical^  which  in  turn  gave  birth  to,  and  were  niti- 
inately  superseded  by,  tlie  prose  romances.  It  is  with  the  latter  alone  we  have  here 
to  do.  They,  like  the  metrical  romances,  were  composed  by  Anglo-Norman  aftthora 
(whose  names  are  unknown)  during  the  13tii,  14th,  and  I5th  centuries,  who  took  «11 
the  more  willingly  to  the  old  British  legen4s,  that  in  these  the  •*  Saxons  "  were  tl»e 
objects  of  the  authoi-s'  hatred  and  detestation.  Thfi  principal  romances  of  the 
Arthurian  cycle  are  those  of  '♦  Meriin  "  (q.  v.).  the  enchanter ;  of  *'  Arthur"  (q.  v ); 
of  the  Sangreal  (see  Graal);  of  " Perceval ; "  of  "Lancelot  dq  Lac;"  of  the 
princes  of  Lyonnesse.  '•'  Meliadus  "  and  his  son  "  Tristan  ; "  and  of  "  Isaiele  Triste," 
th  •  Kon  of  Tristnn.  They  relate  the  marvellous  adveuturep,  exploits,  loves,  aud  m- 
laniries  of  the  Knights  Of  the  Round  Table,  and  are  probably  in  substance  the  ollest 
of  the  medieval  prose  romances.  The  scenes  are  g.^nernlly  laid  in  Wales,  Coriiwatti 
Brittany,  Ireland,  or  Scotland ;  only  In  quo  or  two  of  the  seritJS  are  we  takeii  as  ftr 


y  Google      .t 


347 


NoveU 


as  Ejrypt  or  mdla ;  nnd  thongh  Arthur  i8  slain  by  "  Snracenff  ^  who  finpported  hfa 
uephew,  Mordretl,  aud  a  ^ucnil  eastern  coloriug  iB  pruaeiit  in  the  cycle,  yet  it  Ib 
"Saxons "  who  are  ins  pnnclpal  foes. 

Tlie  series  of  Chnrieinagne  aud  his  Paladins  is  of  purely  French  origin,  and 
ori<nnated  in  a  soiucwliat  tiiniilnr  fashion  to  the  Artlinrian  cycle;  that  is  to  pay, 
there  W!u»  first  a  legeiuhiry  <'.l»ronicle  (in  verse,  nbwever),  entitUd  *'Historin  de  Vira 
Onroli  Magdi  et  Kolandi,''  erroueonsly  uttiibnted  to  Tnrpin  or  'i'ilpin.  Archbishop  of 
Rlieinis,  and  coiitemponiry  of  Chaiiemagne,  bnt  probably  execuied  in  the  11th  or 
12th  c;  then  came  a  series  of  tm'tricnl  romances,  strictly  so  calle<l.  which  were 
gmdnally  siipphmted  by  their  prose  conutei-parts.  the  anrliors  of  which  last,  how- 
eyer,  appear  to  have  diverged  more  from  the  mefricnl  originals,  and  to  have  been 
more  free  nnd  fnuciful  than  their  predecessoi*p  of  tlie  Artliuriuii  ( ycle.  Tlie  princi- 
pal are  "Hnon  of  Bordeaux"  (the  incidents  of  which  are  followed  by  Wieland  in  his 
"Oberou"),  "Gneriu  de  Monglave,  Gaylen  Rhetor6"  (in  wliich  Cliarleniague 
jiud  Ills  Pahidins  proceed  incognito  to  tlie  HolyTjind).  •*  Miles  aud  Ames,  Jonrdaiu 
de  Blaves,  Doolin  de  Mayence,  Ogier  le  Djin«)ih,"  nnd  "Maugis  tlie  Enchanter."  In 
tlii'SR  romances  we  arc,  in  some  respectn,  on  totally  different  gronnd  from  that  on 
wliich  we  find  ourselves  in  the  Arthurian  series.  We  are  trnn>ferred  to  the  East— to 
Africa,  Palestine,  Arabia,  Bagdad,  Constantinople,  Indiu^  Perj^ia.  the  Caspian  ft'a. 
&c  We  are  introduced  to  the  courts  of  Saracen  "princes,"  **8nlta«is,"  ana 
"•-mlrM;"  and  see  Mohainmtdan  maidens  of  peerless  beauty  falling  in  love  with 
Christian  knights,  and  for  their  sake  abindoning,  or  even  betraying  nither,  mother, 
brethren,  and  kinsmen.  Fairies,  who  figure  but  i>lightly  in  the  Aiihnrian  romances, 
play  a  frequent  and  an  important  part  in  these  ;  demons,  dervishes,  apes,  talismans, 
palnces  with  cupolas  and  gilded  roofs,  splen«lid  jewels,  diamonds,  Ac. — everything, 
in  fact,  shews  the  inflneiice  exercised  on  the  imagination  of  Wt'Stem  Europe  by  the 
glowing  pcenery,  the  brilliant  life,  and  the  gorgeously  fanciful  supurstitious  of 
oriental  Innds. 

The  series  relating  to  Amadis  de  Gaul  and  his  descendant ci  is  sufficiently  charac- 
terised nuiler  the  head  of  Ahabis  (q.  v).  We  may  only  obsei-ve,  as  a  proof  of  the 
comparative  lateness  of  their  composition,  that  the  "Saracens"  of  the  French  ro- 
mances here  rfve  place  to  '*  'J'urks ;"  and  as  the  eyes  of  Euro|)e  were  turned  towards 
the  tottering  Greek  empire,  many  of  the  scenes  of  warfare  are  laid  at  Constaniinople. 

Besides  the  three  distinct  peries  of  roumnce  above  mentioned,  a  fourth  perhaps 
deserves  mention,  in  which  the  heroes  Of  antiquity  are  grotepquely  tricked  out  in  the 
codtnme  of  metlieval  knights.  The  exact  date  of  their  composition  cannot  l>e  ascer- 
tained, but  they  were  probably  later  in  gem  ral  than  any  of  the  other  three  series ; 
and,  at  any  rate,  were  for  the  most  part  not  publishetl  tijl  the  end  of  the  16th  and  the 
bciiiuningof  the  16th  centuries.  The  principal  are  the  romance  of  **  Jason  and  Me- 
dea," of  ••  Hercules,"  of  "(EriipuSt"  and  of  '•  Alexander."  They  are  all  written  in 
French,  and  the  first  two  profess  to  be  the  woric  of  a  Raoul  le  Febre.  An  attempt  is 
made  to  adhere,  in  the  gcMieral  outline  of  tlie  sories,  to  the  ancient  myths,  but  most 
marvellous  e jabellishinents  are  added,  such  as  only  the  middle  ages  could  have  con- 
ceived ;  while  thfe  transformations  that  the  classical  personages  undergo  are  exceed- 
ingly ludicrous.  Jove  becomes  a  "king;"  Mercury  his  "sqidrt;"  the  Fates, 
'•duennas ;"  Cerberus  and  the  Sphinx,  '* giants ;"  Ac. 

Before  leaving  this  division  of  our  sulject,  we  would  observe  that,  though  tho 
romances  of  chivaliy  may  appear  infiniiely  tedious  and  absurd  to  a  modern  rjjader, 
they  were  immensely  relished  and  admired  during  the  atres  in  which  they  were  pro- 
duced, were  widely  dlssemhiated,  in  different  forms,  throughout  all  Christendom, 
and  were  highly  popular  with  later  ])oets.  The  infiuence  which  they  exercised  on 
Pnlci,  Bolardo,  Tusso,  Spenser,  Ac,  shews  the  strong  hold  that  they  must  have  had 
on  the  linaginatipn  of  Europe;  bnt  with  the  decline  of  chivalry,  the  spread  of  the 
more  rational  and  arilstic  fictions  of  the  Italian  novelists,  the  revival  of  letters,  and 
tne  general  advancement  in  civilisation  of  Christendom,  the  taste  for  the  romances 
of  cuivalry  alscrdecliued,  until  finally  Cervantes  laughed  them  out  of  literature,  and 
well-iiigij  out  of  memory,  in  the  beginning  of  the  ifth  centurv. 

8.  Developmeiit  and  Intlttence  of  Fiction  in  Italy.— The  Itiilians  originated  no  ro- 
mances of  the  kind  described  above.  This  resulted  from  various  causes,  the  prin- 
tt|»l  of  which  periiaps  are;  1st.  that  they  wer«  really  not  a  Gothic,  but  at  least  a 
Mmi.oIaiesic  people ;  2d,  that  they  were  more  polished  th»n  tlie  northern  nations: 
Md8^  that  instead  of  feudal  chivalrlc  inBtiiuiious,  the  most  characteristic  jTo^tticol 


Konl* 


848 


features  of  Italy,  daring  the  middle  ages,  were  mercantile  and  letten^  republics. 
Theie  was  what  may  be  roaglily  called  a  middle  class — of  merchauts — in  Italy,  when 
EHKlaud  and  France,  and  S|^dn,  contained  I'eally  little  more  tbau  nobles  and  serfs; 
and  these  were  really  the  oest  iustmcted  and  the  most  enlightened  portion  of  ti»e 
comniiiuity.  Hence  it  it  ia  but  natural  that  we  should  fine  a  style  of  fiction  mirror- 
iiiff  to  some  extent  this  more  civilised  and  sober  form  of  social  life.  Tiiai  tlie  classi- 
caT  romances  had  some  influence  on  the  development  of  Italian  fiction,  is 
probiil>le;  several  of -the  tales  recorded  in  ihe  love-letters  of  Aristenetus*,  and  in  the 
*'  Golden  Ass"  of  Appuleius,  wre  quite  like  what  we  read  in  Boccaccio  and  other*. 
The  fables  of  Piloai  or  Bidpai  (q.  v.),  translated  into  Latin  as  early  as  the  13tli  c, 
were  also  not  wiinont  a  certain  efEect ;  but  it  U  to  the  Arubi co-Indian  book  of  the 
•oven  counsellors  (better  known  jis ''The  Tales  of  the  Seven  Wise  Masters  ";,  stJU 
ujore  to  the  stories  of  Petrus  Alphonsus  (whose  work  is  entitled  *'  De  Olerica:e  Dia- 
cipliua  "),  and  the  *'  Gesta  Komanorum  "  (q.  v.),  a  grotesque  jumble  of  cluKical 
stories,  Arabian  apologues,  and  nionUish  legends,  m  the  disguise  of  romantic 
fiction ;  but  most  of  all  perhaps  to  the  "  Contes  "  and  "  Fabliaux"  (q.  v.)  of  the  French 
poets,  that  we  must  look  for  the  first  sources  of  those  aluiost  innumerable  tumlMx 
whicli  mark  the  earlier  literary  history  of  Italy. 

The  earliest  Ualian  woik  of  this  sort  is  tlie  "  Cento  Novelle  Antiche,"  commonly 
called  "  11  Noveilino."  It  is  a  compihition  by  different  hands— all  unknown— of 
stories  floating  about,  or  taken  with  modifications  from  the  sources  above  men- 
tioned, with  one  or  two  of  the  more  graceful  episodes  in  the  romances  of  chivalry, 
and  was  executed  towards  the  close  of  the  13(.h  century.  It  was  followed  iu  135S  by 
the  "  Decameron  "  of  Boccaccio  (q.  v.)— the  finest,  in  point  of  humor,  seutiuieuL 
and  style,  of  the  whole  set,  but  not  more  original  iu  the  umtter  of  story  than  "11 
Noveilino."  Its  influence  on  early  European  literature  was  prodigious.  Chaucer 
and  Shakspeare  in  England  have  been  in  particular  greatly  indebted  lo  it  for  mci- 
dents  and  plots;  while  in  France— from  whose  Trouv^res  he  had  himself  derived  .«o 
much— Boccaccio  had  a  number  of  distinguished  imitators.  In  his  own  country, hia 
influence  was  so  overwhelming,  that  for  some  centuries  Italian  nuvelist^)  could  do 
nothing  more  than  attempt  to  copy  him.  The  principal  of  these  imitators  are 
Franco  Sacchetti  (1335— UIO),  8er  Giovanni  (who  began  to  write  his 
novelletti  in  1378,  from  which  Moli^re  got  the  plot  of  his  "  Ecole  dea 
Fern  mas,''  and  Shakspeare  probahly  part  of  his  story  of  the  "  Merchant  of 
Venice" — though  the  story  of  the  bond  is  far  older,  and  is  of  Persian  origin- 
Chaucer  Is  also  indebted  to  this  Italian) ;  Massnccio  di  Salerno  (flor.  about  1470), 
more  original  than  most  of  the  post-Boccaccian  novelists  ;  Sabadino  delli  Arienti 
(flor.  about  1483) ;  Agnolo  Firenzuolo ;  Lulgi  da  Porfci ;  Molza,  awd  Giovanni  Brevio 
(flor.  at  the  close  of  t^e  15th,  and  in  the  flrst  half  of  the  16th  c.) ;  Girolamo  Parabosco 
(flor.  1560) ;  Marco  Cademoste  da  Lodi  (1544) ;  and  Giovanni  Qiraldi  Ciuthio  (died 
15 r3),  noted  particularly  for  his  extravagant  employment  of  Sanguinary  incidents, 
and  tlie  introduction  oi  scenes  of  incredible  atrocity  and  accunmlated  hprrors.  The 
seventlfof  his  third  decade  of  stories  contains  the  story  of  Othello,  the  Moor  of 
Venice;  thejilotof  *' Measure  for  Measure"  was  also  derived  indirectly  from  hita 
Cinihio  was,  in  fact,  the  greatest  favorite  of  all  the  Italian  novelists  with  the  Eltear 
l>etlian  dramatists.  Besides  these,  we  may  further  mention  Antonio  Francesco 
Grapszini  (died  1583) ;  Straparolo  (wrote  1554  et  «eg.)- from  whom  Moh^re,  and  also 
the  French  writers  of  fairy  tales,  derived  numerous  hints;  while  the  ludicrous  in- 
cident embodied  in  the  Scottish  song  of  **  The  barrin'  o'  our  door,"  forms  one  ot  tiie 
stories  of  this  writer;  Baitclello  (died  1555),  the  most  widely  known  and  read  (oat of 
Italy)  of  all  the  Italian  novelists  next  to  Boccaccio,  and  in  whom  we  find  the  original 
of  Massinger's  play  of  *'The  Picture,"  and  of  Sliaks|)eare's  **  Twelfth  Ni;Lht;'' 
Gra.incci  (published  15T4);  Malespini  (published  1609);  and  Cam peggi  (early  part  of 
ITth  century).— The  best  French  imitations  of  these  Italian  tales  are  the  **Out 
Nouvi'lles  Nouvel'es  "  (printed  1456,  and  translated  into  English  under  the  title  of 
the  "Hnndrcth  Mery  Tales,"  1567).  They  are  full  of  life,  i^aiety,  And  imaginatiOD* 
and  are  written  in  a  most  naive  and  agreeable  manner ;  and  the  **  H*  ptameron  "of 
Margaret.  Queen  of  Navarre,  from  which  Shirley,  the  EiigUsh  dramatist,  has  taaea 
the  plots  ot  two  of  his  comedies. 

A  few  words  may  also  be  devoted  here  In  passing  to  a  very  different  class  of  to- 
tlou-'the  **Spiritaiu  Komauce.''    It  origluatea,  without  d0ttbt,^in  the  bosom  of  tlie 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC   , 


^^' 


349 


Novels 


chtiith,  and  from  the  desire  to  edify,  hy  Ftories  of  relfgions  knight-errantry,  a  mdo 
and  igiioraiit  comnitiDity,  incapable  uf  iinderstAiuiiiig  oi  relishing  abstruct  doctrines, 
llie first  of  the  series  is  ••  Burlaain  and  Josapbat,"  Mlready  alluded  to;  but  by  far 
the  greatest  work  of  the  kind  produced  during  tlie  middle  iiges  is  the  »*Leg»nda 
Anrea,"  or  Golden  ]>gend  (q.  v.)— itself  believea  to  be  drawn  from  different  and  now 
partly  forgotten  sources.  Besides  these,  may  be  mentioned  a  hpecies  of  spiriinal 
tale— the  ''Contes  Devots,**  prevalent  in  France  during  tbe  12th  and  I81I1  ceniuries, 
aud  which  were  written  by  monks,  prOi>ably  with  the  view  of  counteracting  the.  witty 
and liccntions  stories  of  ihe  Trouveres;  but  curiously  enough,  in  these  piout"  fic- 
tions, the  liv-js  of  monks  and  nuns  are  represented  as  far  more  immoral  than  in  tho^e 
of  the  secular  saitirist»'.  The  tidngs,  too,  which  the  Virgin  Maiy  is  repres^ent.'  d  as 
doing  ai-e  most  astounding,  and  throw  a  strange  but  valuable  llgln  upon  the  religious 
notions  of  the  age.  In  one  story,  hlie  couceids*  the  shame  of  a  favorite  mm  ;  in  an- 
other, she  performs  the  part  of  n  procuress ;  in  a  third,  she  offlciales  as  midwife  to 
an  ahltess  wiio  bad  been  frail  and  imprudent ;  and  in  general,  she  performs  the  most 
degrading  oflBces  for  tiie  most  worthless  cliaractci-s. 

Romaiice  0/  the  16th  and  Uth  Centuries.— Dariu^  the  middle  nges,  the  universal 
sway  of  ttie  church  and  the  institutions  of  f«-udalism  gr.ve  a  certain  character  of 
iU)iforinity  to  the  modes  of  life,  and  thereby  to  the  social  literature  of  VVeftern 
Europe;  but  after  the  epoch  of  the  Iteforjnaiion,  and  even  earlier,  this  uniformity 
disap|)ears,  and  we  find  in  every  direction  a  tendency  to  the  opposite  extnune  of  in- 
dividualism. This  tendency  manifests  itself  espe<-ially  in  the  fiction  of  the  p-  riod, 
which,  vastiv  increasing  in  quantity  and  varying  in  quality,  becomen  difficult  to 
classify.  We  shall,  however,  endeavor  to  group  the  products  of  itiodern  prose  fic- 
tion works  imder  what  appears  to  us  a  convenient  chroilological  heading. 

Baring  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  four  different  kinds  of  romance  or  novel  were 
cultivated— 

1.  The  Comic  Romance;  2.  The  Political  Romance;  3.  The  Pastoral  Romance ; 
4.  The  Heroic  Romance.  ^ 

Com.it  Homance  substantially  begins  iu  modern  times  with  Dabelais  (q.  v.),  styled 
by  Sir  William  'J  emple  the  Father  of  Ridicule.  Others,  indeed,  had  precc  ded  him  iti 
tbe  same  path,  bnt  they  had  acquired  no  celebrity.  In  him  we  see  unmistakably 
one  form  of  the  modem  spirit — its  daring  fi-eedom  of  speculation,  criticism,  i>hd 
satire,  also  that  lack  of  reverence  exhibited  by  those  who,  at  the  period  of  the  Ki  for- 
mation, clearly  discerned  the  abuses  of  the  church,  but  had  not  faith  iu  the  p^l^si- 
biliiy  or  efflaicy  of  r^orins.  Thus,  Rabelais,  iu  hisinimiiable  burlesqm -rumance, 
scoffs  (with  the  tone  of  a  sceptic,  however)  at  the  vices  of  the  clerL'y,  the  crooked 
ways  of  politicians,  the  jargon  of « philosophers,  and  the  absurdities  of  the  coiites 
dicots,  and  of  the  metiieval  tales  generally,  'ihe  next  remarkable  romance  of  a 
comic  nature  is  the  "  Vita  di  Beitoldo  "  of  Julio  Cesare  Croce  (flor.  at  tlie  close  of 
the  16th  c),  a  work  recoimting  the  humorous  and  successful  exploits  of  a  clever  but 
ngly  peasant,  aud  regarding  wljich  we  are  told  that  for  two  centuries  it  was  as  popu- 
lar iu  Italy  as  "Robinson  Crusoe''  or  the  "Pilgrim's  Progress*'  in  England.  The 
substance  of  thesloi^  can  b«!  traced  back  to  an  oriental  source.  A  few  years  later 
appeared  *'Don  Qtuxote"  (see  Cervantes),  in  which  "war  to  the  knife''  was  pro- 
claimed against  the  romances  of  chivalry,  and  in  which,  perhaps,  we  see,  more  dis- 
tinctly t!.an  iu  any  other  fiction  of  the  period,  the  new  turn  that  the  mind  of  West- 
ern Europe  had  taken.  Almost  contemporaneous  with  "  Don  Quixote  "  was  another 
Spanish  rotnaijce— Mattco  Aleman's  **Life  of  Guzman  Alfarache,"  successively 
be<rgar,  swindler,  pander,  student,  and  galley-slave.  In  this  work,  as  in  others  of 
the  sa lire  sort,  we  find  several  indications  of  the  influence  of  the  Italian  novelists. 
It  has  been  supnosed  that  "Guzman  Alfarache"  suggested  to  Le  Sage  the  idta  of 
**Gil  Bias,"  ana  there  is  some  resemblance  between  the  two;  but,  at  any  rate,  it 
gave  hirth  to  a  host  of  Spanish  romances  with  beggars  and  scamps  for  herots.  of 
which  the  best  Is  tbe  "Laz..rillo  de  Tormes,"  by  Diego  de  Mendoza  (1586).  In  the 
following  century,  France  produced,  among  others.  Scarron's  "Roman  Comique," 
aad  Puretiere's  •'  Roman  Bourgeois."  En^and  and  Germany  have  nothing  to  shew 
in  this  department, 

Polttioai  Rvttiance  was  manifestly  8c^a:ested  pnrtlv  by  the  great  politico-ecclesi- 
astical changes  that  took  place  in  Europti  m  the  first  half  of  the  16th  c,  and  partly 
by  tlie  ImmeuBc  increase  lu  the  kuowludge  of  tbe  manners  and  customs  of  remut^ 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 

LjA .. 


Novels 


350 


nations,  occasioned  by  geogrnphical  discoveries  and  mercnntlle  adventure.  The 
curliest  of  the  series  is  the  "  Utopia "  of  Sir  Thomas  More :  next  comes  the 
**  Ai-gt^nis"  of  Biirclay,  published  in  1621  ;  aud  to  the  same  class  belong  a  variety  of 
Frfnch  romances  produced  about  tlie  close  of  tluj  17th  and  the  beginning  of  the  1^ 
c,  of  wliich  by  far  the  most  famous  is  the  *'  T616maque  "  of  Feuclon. 

Puatoral  Romance, — All  through  the  middle  ajrt-s,  the  fame  of  Vii^il  kept  up  .i 
certain  interest  in  compoi»itious  devoted  to  the  delineation  of  rustic  or  shepherd 
life.  We  even  flud  in  tne  poems  of  the  Troubjuiours  several  specimens  of  the  t-rotic 
pastoral ;  and  the  "  Ameto"  of  Boixaccio  furnishes  us  with  a  prose  llln8tr:itioii  of 
the  same.  But  it  was  after  the  revival  of  lettci*s  that  this  branch  of  flctiou,  so  essen- 
tially classical,  was  most  assiduously  cultivated  by  men  of  scholarly  genius;  Jiud 
thoui^h  their  works  have  not  retained  the  poi)nlarity  they  originally  enjoved,  they  ar^i 
still  interesting  nhd  valuable  from  an  historiod  point  of  view,  and  abound  in  de«:ri|»- 
tive  passages  of  great  beanty  and  sweetness.  The  pastoral  life  which  they  |>of- 
tray,  however,  never  existed  either  in  Greece  or  elsewhere.  Their  sl»eph<i"ds  and  fliep- 
herdesses  are  as  unreal  and  nnhistorical  behijrs  as  the  Icnignts  of  medieval  roin.-m  e. 
The  first  important  work  of  the  land  is  the  *' Arcadia"  of  Sanuazzaro,  written  in 
Italian,  about  Ihe  end  of  the  15th century.  It  was  followed  by  ilic  " Diana"  of  Mou- 
temayor,  written  in  Spanisn,  about  the  middl«  of  the  16th  c,  several  of  the  episodes 
of  whlcli  are  borrowed  from  the  Itwlian  uovelisis;  while  ohakspearc  has  in  torn 
directly  taken  from  it  the  plot  of  the  '*  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona,"  copying  ocanHi()U- 
ally  the  very  language,  as  well  as  some  of  the  mo>*t  amusiiig  incidents  m  his  "Mid- 
summer Nijiht's  Dream."  The  **  Diana  "was  inutated  in  French  by  Honorc  d'Urf^ 
whose  "  Astr6e"<1610— 1625)  was  for  a  long  while  held  in  the  highest  estt-em,  and  is 
really,  in  spite  of  iis  tedrousness,  a  work  of  great  leamin«f  and  considerahle  merit 
Twenty  years befoie  the  appearance  of  *' Astrfee,"  Sir  Philip  Sidney  wrote  aud  pub- 
lished his  "Arcadia,"  as  trrtsome,  and  in  its  subsfcuice  as  unreal,  as  any  ppodiictioa 
of  the  same  school,  but  in  stateliness  aitd  melody  of  languiige,  iu  luxury  of  fancy,  ia 
nobility  and  purity  of  !»entiment,  far  exceeding  them  all. 

Heroic  Romance  owed  its  origin  partly  to  the  immediate  antecedent  pastoral 
romance,  parlly  to  an  mcreased  acquaintance  with  classic  history,  produced  by  tliu 
translation  of  such  books  as  *' Plutarch's  Lives,"  and  partly  to  the  interest  excited  ia 
the  Moors  of  Granada  by  a  splendid  rom  inco  in  Spanish  (professing,  however,  to  Iw 
a  history),  entitled  *•  The  Dissensions  of  the  Zeirria  aud  the  Abencerrages,"  aud  was 
printed  at  Alcala  in  1604,  and  which  soon  became  extremely  popular,  especially  ia 
France.  It  was  In  the  latter  country  alone  that  tiie  "  Romans  de  Longue  Haleiiie  " 
(Long-winded  llomances),  as  they  have  been  happily  nicknamed,  were  cultivated. 
The  first  of  this  heavy  series  wa&  the  "  Polexandre"  of  Gomberville.  puhlisht'd  Ih 
1632,  in  which  the  influence  of  i he  early  Greek  romance**  Is  visible.  Ms  successor, 
Calprenede,  the  best  of  a  bad  lot.  wrote  "  Cleopatra,"  *' Cassandra,"  and ''l^'iara- 
mond."  Bnt  the  most  prolifle,  and  consequently  the  most  intolerable  of  the  school, 
is  Madame  de  Scud6ri.  whose  principal  rowiancesare  "Ibrahim  on  I'lllustre  Ba^a- 
**  Clelie,"  "  Uistoire  Romalne."  •*  Artam  nies  on  le  Grand  Cyrus,"  and  "  Ahualiidt!.'' 
The  pompous  dijrnity,  the  liyptT-polite  address,  the  dreadful  duiness,  and  the  hollow 
ceremonialism  of  these  ridiculous  performances,  admirably  (if  unintentionally)  lairror 
the  features  of  Frencn  court-life  during  the  time  of  the  Orand  Monarqtte.  The  heroic 
romances  did  not  long  retain  their  meretricious  reputation.  MoUcre,  and  still  mons 
Beileau  in  his  satire  "Les  U6ro8  de  Roman,  Dialogue,"  ridiculed  them  to  death,  aaa 
in  consequence,  Madame  de  Scudori  had  no  successor. 

Novels  and  Romances  of  the  18th  Century.— The  two  Euroiieau  nations 
,  that  most  brilliantly  distinguished  themselves  in  the  department  of  fiction  daring 
til  is  century  were  England  and  France,  aud  to  those  we  shall  chiefly  confiue  our 
attention. 

1.  English  Prose  FicWon.— During  t)ie  age  of  Elizabeth  and  her  immediat<^  bop- 
cessors,  the  iina'^inative  genius  of  England,  from  various  cause?,  had  taken  an  al- 
most exclusively  poetical  direction,  and  with  the  exception  of  Sidney's  pastoral 
of  "Arcadia,"  and  Banyan's  ♦*  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  we  meet  with  nothing  in  the 
shape  of  a  novel  or  a  romance  for  a  hundred  years.  The  17th  c  has  notliiugto 
shew  till  it  approaches  its  close.  This  is  doubtless  owing,  in  part  at  lea^t,  to  tho 
intensity  of  the  great  politiad  struggle  that  agitated  and  rent  England  during  the 
first  half  of  that  century,  aud  gave  au  austere  theological  bias  to  society.    ThePiui' 


y  Google 


851 


Noreit 


tans,  in  their  day  of  triumph,  wonld  not  tolerate  either  comic  or  heroic  romances. 
I'hey  eet  their  faces  *' like  flint"  against  nil  imaginative  fiction,  wliich  they  con- 
fide'red  aa  little  better  tlian  lying ;  and  even  to  this  day  that  class  of  people  com- 
moiily  described  as  "  the  rcMpons  portion  of  the  community,"  in  some  sense  the 
representatives  of  tiie  Puritans,  betray  the  legitimacy  of  their  fpirituail  descent  by 
their  aTcrsion  to  all  sorta  of  secplar  tales.    After  the  Restoration,  however,  au  ex- 
traordinary change.came  over  ihe  English  nation,  or  at  least  over  the  upper  and 
wealthier  clas»»e8.    These  rioted  in  the  excess  of  a  coarse  and  licentions  reaction 
against  the  rigorous  piety  and  fanaticism  of  the  Commonweal ih.    ThiSvturbld 
vici<»n8nes«  by  and  by  calmed  down,  but  it  left  a  certain  taint  of  sens^ualism  and 
materialism  in  the  habit:*  and  life  of  the  people,  wiiich,  in  the  opinion  of  somecom- 
peteiit   Clitics,   marks  them   to   this  day.    It  is  certain  that  at  the  betrinning 
'  of    the    18th    c.    England   was  entering  on   the   most  prosaic,  unimaginative, 
and      nnheroical    period    of    her    history.     Its     characteristics     are    ^ithfnlly 
leflected    in    most    of    her    novels,    which,    as     pictures    of    the    gross    <luTl 
life,  the  paltry  thoughts,  the  low  sentiments,  the  modii'h  manners,  and  the  loose 
morality  that  prevaTed,  possess  a  great  historical  value  apart  altotrether  from 
their  literary  merits.    The  first  name  that  occurs  is  thatof  the  notorious ^j7Ara/Je/m 
(q.  v.)»  the  greater  number  of  whose  novels,  of  which  *'  Oronoko  "  is  the  bent  known, 
api>eared  towards  Ihe  close  of  the  reign  of  Ciuirles  II.,  but  are  included  here  in  ihe 
litemture  of  the  18th  c,  as  they  belong  to  it  by  the  nature  of  their  contents,  and  not 
to  the  17th  c.  types  of  fiction.    She  was  imiUUed  by  Mrs  Hey  wood  (born  16»6,  died 
1768),  of  wliose  "  Love  in  Excess,"  *'  Tlie  British  Reclut'e,"  and  •*  The  Injured  Hus- 
band," it  has  l)een  remarked,  that  "  the  male  characters  are  in  the  highest  degree  li- 
centious, and  the  femtdes  as  impassioned  as  the  Saracen  princesses  in  the  Spani^h 
romances  of  chivalry."    A  later  work,   however,    "The  History  of  Mifs  Betf^y 
Thouglitless,"  is  of  a  iii^rher  stamp,  and  is  supposed  to  have  su]L,'gested  the  plan  of 
Miss  Buri»ey*s  "Evelina."    But  the  first  novelist  of  great  genius  belonging  to  the 
new  era  is  Daniel  De  Foe  (q.  v.),  the  father  of  mooern  Eiiglish  prose  licnou,  in 
whose  writings — " The  Adventures  of  Capt:iin  Singleton,"  "The  Fortunes  of  Moll 
Flanders,"  *' The  History  of  Colonel  Jack,"  Ac— the  coarse,  homely,  unpoetlcai,  but 
vigorous  realism  of  the  time  is  strikingly  apparent.     Perhaps  the  I^Minish  raga- 
muffin romances  may  have  furnishedhfm  with  some  hints.    '^  Kobinson  Crusoe  '^is 
the   finest  and  the  most  famous  of  all  that  class  of  fiction  which  was  exten- 
sively-cultivated l)oth  in  France  and  England  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  ISih 
c,  and  which  received,  in  the  former  conutiy,  the  name  of  Voya^  Inuummirea, 
To   the   same   class   (outwardly   at   least)   belong  Swift's  "  Gulliver's   'J'ravels," 
though  at  bottom  this  is  a  satirical  romance,  like  the  works  of  Ral>ehiif»,  and  the 
"Gaudentio  dl  Luccui,"  a  sort  of  politico-geographical  fiction,  generally  attnlmtcd  to 
Bishop  Berkeley.    After  De  Foe  comes  Richardson  (q.  v.),  very  unlike  any  of  the 
DOveUsts  of  ids  age — to  appearance.    His  Mu^e  is  a  most  decorous  prude,  micl  never 
utters  anything  rude,  or  vulgnr,  or  licentious ;  but  though  she  was  (nspiied  with  the 
best  intentions,  iier  notions  of  how  virtue  should  be  rewarded  indicate  the  coarpi*- 
ness  of   the   time,  hardly  less  than  the  debaucheries  and  seductions  of  Fielding 
and  Smollett.    The  principal  novels  of  Richardson  are,  "  Pamela,"  **  Sir  Charles 
Grandison,"  and  '' Clarissa  Harlowe."    Fielding  (q.  v.)  thought  Richardson  uinnie 
to  ujtture,  and  wrote  ids  first   novel  of  "Joseph  Andrews"  as  a   burlesque  on 
I  lie  style  of  his  predecessor.    Like  his  subsequent  performances,  "  Tom  Jones  "  and 
**  Amelia,"  it  represents  society  as  Fielding's  shari>er  eyes  s^aw  it.  on  the  whole,  grops. 
vnltrar.  and  impure.    Smollett  (q.  v.).  with  a  different  style  of  genius,  continues  to 

?ahit  m  the  same  si>irit.  His  chief  works  are,  **  Roderick  Random,"  "  Pei-egrino 
ickle,"  **nie  Adventures  of  Ferdinand  Count  Palhom,"  and  *  Humphry  Clinker." 
SteruQ  (q.  v.),  belonghig  to  the  same  period,  exhibits  a  genius  so  whimsical,  peculiar, 
»nd  original,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  class  him  with  any  of  his  contemporaries. 
His  ♦*  IVistram  Shandy  "  is  a  work  «ia  flfcnerw,  but  nowhere  is  the  coar.«e  juipnrity 
and  indelicacy  of  the  age  more  conspicuous.  Four  years  later,  appeared  Gold'-niith's 
*•  ViCiir  of  Wakefield."  in  which  a  change  for  the  better,  in  a  moral  point  of  view,  Is 
first  noticeable.  Witn  the  exception  of  Richardson,  all  the  novelists  above  nvntioned 
are  usually,  and  we  may  add  cori-ectly,  described  as  humorists.  Other  qualities  th-  y 
have  besides,  but  this  i»*  the  most  common  and  predominant.  Wh^n  tiiis  school  wns 
passfaig  away  al>out  1700-1770,  another  was  on  the  eve  of  being  born.    The  publica- 

C.  K.,  X.,  12.  ^  I 

*  Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


iroT*i< 


352 


lion  of  Percy's  **  BeKqoes  "  had  rd-ainr&keued  on  intercBt  in  the  nga  of  chirahy  and 
roiiiauce.  Keaclers  bad  become  tired  of  th«  long  prevalence  of-  pH'Suic  fictioD,  in 
spire  of  the  splendid  gen  ins  devoted  to  its  Itlnsrration.  It  had  done  its  work,  and 
could  create  no  more.  Theflrst  of  the  modem  rouiantic^chocl  was  Horace  Walpole, 
whose  "Castle  of  Otnin  to  "appeared  in  1769.  ItVas  foHowed  by  Clara  Reeve,  tho 
authoress  of  the  "Old  English  Baron,"  a  romance  that  every  school-boy,  we  hope, 
remembers  witli  the  der'pest  gratitude;  bnt  tlie  greatest  gen  ins  in  this  line  was  do- 
doubtedlyMrs  Radcliffe  (q.  v.),  whose  "Mysteries  of  l^olpbo"aud  otlier  works, 
though  now  almost  toi^otten,  were  once  greedily  devoured  and  abundantly  imitated. 
The  iihlest  of  lier  successors  were  Matthew  Gre^'0i7  Lewis,  author  of  "'i  he  Monk" 
(1796),  and  Matiirin,  author  of  "  Montorio "  (1808).  In  all  the  romanct«  of  this 
school,  the  Incidetits  are  of  the  most  startling,  terrible,  and  often  supeniatural  cliar- 
actcr,  and  the  scenery  is  in  keeping  with  the  incidents.  Fierce  barons,  mysterioiB 
bandits,  persecuted  maidens,  gloort>y -castles,  secret  passages,  deep  forests,  murders, 
ghosts,  haunted  chamber?,  &c. ;  everything  that  could  charm,  by  way  of  contrasr, 
and  pleasantly  horrify  the  languid,  malter-ot-fact,  sceptical  18th  c,  iB  to  be  found  in 
their  exaggerated  pages. 

A  few  novelists  remain  to  be  mentioned  who  are  inci^ble  Of  particular  classifl- 
cation.  TlKJSe  are  Dr  John  Mo(»rc  (q.  v.),  author  of  *'  Zelnco,"  Ac  ;  Gkxlwin  (q.  v.), 
nnthor  of  **  Caleb  Williams,"  *»  8t  Leon,"  Ac,  in  whom  the  free-tli inking  and  revoln- 
tioiiary  spirit  that  si  ized  many  minds  after  1789  is  conspicnous ;  nn  lucbbaid 
C*  Nature  and  Art,  A  Simple  Stoiy,"  &c) ;  Charlotte  Smith  (*'01d  Manor  Honsc," 
Ac);  Miss  Austen  (''Priae  and  Pj*ejudice,  Em iita,  Persuasion");  and  Maria  Edge* 
worth,  whose  sketches  of  Iiish  character  first  suggested  to  Walter  Scott  the  idea  of 
attempiing  for  Scotland  a  series  of  like  illustrations. 

2.  French  Prose  Fiction  in  the  \8th  Centwy. — It  is  not  easy— perhaps  notpossiWe 
— to  trace  the  causes  tliut  led  to  tlie  cultivation  of  the  difterent  kinds)  of  ficCionwiiich 
flourished  in  France  dnring  this  century,  and  particulnrlv  during  the  fii-st  half  of  it. 
The  natural  love  of  chan^'e— of  novelty  ;  the  accidentid  influences  of  foreign  lilen- 
ture;  the  dispo:»ition,  so  peculiarly  French,  to  satirise  prevalent  follies  and  vloes; 
the  wish,  ou  the  other  hand,  to  uumse  the  leisure  moments  of  a  luxurious,  supersti- 
tious and  profligate  society;  all  the»e  and  many  other  causes  unquestionably  fts- 
sisted  in  determining  its  diverse  development.  Four  kinds  have  bteu  distingaisbed: 
1.  *' Pseud o- historical  Rom:ince,"  the  literature  in  which  department,  ailhongh 
copious  enough,  neither  deserves  nor  requires  special  notice;  2.  ''^  Romance  in  which 
the  incidents,  though  natural,  are  purely  imaginary ;"  3.  ♦*  Satirico-moral  Romance;" 
4.  '*Fairy  Tales,"  to  which  may  be  associated  the  imitations  of  *' Oriental  Tales," 
and  the  *•  Voyajres  Inniginaires." 

2.  Romaiice  in  lohieh  the  incidents,  though  natural,  are  pttrdy  vnioffinary.'-lViB 
class  more  nearly  corre?<pond3  with  the  modern  conception  of  the  novel  than  any  of 
Its  piedecessors,  and  probably  had  its  prototype  in  •*La  Princesso  de  Clftves"  and 
**  Zaide,"  hy  the  C.)mte8se  de  Lafayette,  who  nourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  ITlh 
c. ;  but  the  first  gi*eat  name  that  adorns  it  is  that  of  Marivaux  (16S8— liO^,  wUose 
"  Vie  de  Mariamne  "  and  "Piiysan  Parvenu"  were  Icmg  In  hljrh  favor.  Thfy  haw 
this  in  common  with  the  contemporary  English  fiction,  that  everytiiing  in  theni  fc» 

{)roduced  bv  ordinary  means,  and  thelntere^tof  the  reader  is  sdugiit  to  Iw  awakened 
)y  the  vivid  nnd  powerful  portniitureof  natural  feelings,  while  the  incidents,  if  often 
hijjlily  romantic,  are  always  sufflcitmtly  probable  to  insure  the  cr«  denctt  of  the  in»- 
agmation.  Next  to  Marivaux  comes  the  Abl)6  Prevoi,  q.  v.  (1697—1763),  who  first 
**  carried  the  terrore  of  tragedy  into  the  novel."  He  was  a  most  voluminous  writer, 
but  tfie  work  by  which  he  is  now  chiefly  remembered  is  "  Manoii  L*Escaat,"  ri  count- 
ing the  adventures  of  a  kept- mistress  and  swindler,  the  purpose  of  which  appears  to 
b.- . •similar  to  that  of  **La  Dame  aux  Camell-xs"  of  Dumas  ;i/a— vHk.,  to  shew  bow 
noble,  true-hearted,  and  self-sacrificing  a  prostitute  may  bo  1  Other  writers  belong- 
ing more  or  less  strictly  to  the  same  divishm  are  Madame  Riccoboni  (ftor.  1760)  snd 
Rousseau  (q.  v.),  in  whos«e  "  Heluise"  we  b<'gin  to  see  the  dawn  of  tliat  fierce  naianil 
injpiire  ^)a^'Plon,  and  that  extnivagnnt  scorn  of  conventional  life,  that  cnlniinatrtl  in 
th  !  san^uinnry  ptiroxysms  of  the  Revolution. 

3.  HuitiorMtH-aiid  Satirical  Itornanee. — By  far  the  roost  celebrated  apeclmenfof 
this  kind  of  flection  produced  in  Fran<'.e  during  the  18|n  c.  are  the  *'Gil  Bias,"  the 
«'  Diable  Boiteux,"  and  "  Le  Bachelier  do  Salamauquc  "  of  Lc  Sage,  q.  v.  (1668-lT4(0i 


y  Google 


353 


Kovels 


all  of  wliich  wero  sfig^cpfed  hy  the  i^rollfic  comic  romancielB  of  Spain,  Juan  de 
Luna,  J^iievedo,  Cervaute?*,  Ei«j)inel,  Iroin  some  of  -whom  he  has  borrowed,  with 
hardly  auy  variation,  whole  hceiics  and  storietJ,  as  well  an  from  uiore  ancient  smircfS. 
Tlje  best  pirts»,  howt^ver,  are  his  own,  and  the  i*pirlt  of  the  work  is  thoroughly 
French  in  the g.iy  and  lightsome  vivacity  of  its  humor.  It  is  with  some  lu-siiaiion 
that  we  place  the  younger  Crebillon  (q.  v.)  in  the  same  category,  for  the  lici;ntioub- 
nej»8  of  liis  '*  Egarements  du  Coeur  et  <ie  rEppri',"  and  other  novels,  i.«  far  more  ap- 
mreut  than  their  natirc  or  humor.  Bastide  and  Diderot  <q.  v.)  boid  an  equally  donbt- 
ful  position  as  satirists  or  huniurist:^;  but  Voltaire  (q.  v.)  nmy  fa  riy  claim  to  rank 
among  the  former,  in  virtue  of  his  **Candidc,''  '*Zaalg,"  *  L'li'genii,"  **L!i  Prin- 
cessede  Babyloue,"  &c.,  iiiost.of  which  contain  covert  attacks  on  fupersth ion  and 
desiMKism,  under  the  forms  in  which  Voltan-e  best  knew  them.  Voltuire,  however, 
had  not  a  rich  imagination,  nnd,  in  consequence,  has  been  ohiiged  to  help  himself 
liberally  in  the  mutter  of  incident  from  older  writers.  > 

4.  Fairy  Talea^  <fke. — A  very  careful  )nq»iiry  might  probably  succeed  in  tracing 
back  this  kind  of  literature  to  the  early  intercourse  of  Christian  and  Mooriii^h  nn- 
liou^,  but  the  fii-stwoik  in  whicli  we  find  di finite exaniples  of  lairy  talcs  is  the 
**^Nigl»48"  of  the  Ifcilian  nove  isl  Stniparoisi,  t^^u^la^ed  into  Froncli  in  1585.  In  'his 
collection  are  found  at  least  the  outlines  of  Konie  of  the  bast-known  sioiics  of  tiie 
sort,  such  as  *'Le  Cliat  Bott6"  (Pussiii  Boots),  **  Prince MarciiMsin,"  "Blanche- 
belle,"  and  *•  Fortuuatus.  "  '1  h«  immedi;ite  foreinnncr  and  prototype,  howeveij  of 
the  French  faiiy  tales  was  the  "Pentamevone  "  of  Signor  Basile,  written  ir.  the  Nea- 
pcditau  patois,  and  pul)lislied  in  1672.  This  work  attracted  and  slimululud  tlie  fancy 
of  M. '  Charles  Perrault  (q.  v.),  whose  **Histoires  ou  Contes  du  Tem|)8  pa«»s6" 
appeared  in  1697,  and  is  iucomparably  the  most  naive  and  charming  of  all  the  col- 
lections of  fairy  tales.  Tlie  titles  of  some  of  his  coiiies  will  recall  many  a  literary 
feast  of  our  childhood—*'  La  Barbe  Bleue  "  (Bluebeard),  "  La  Belle  au  Bois  Dor- 
maut"  (The  Sleepiug  Beauty,  to  which,  by  the  by, 'JVnnysou  has  given  a  poetic 
immortality).  **Le  Chat  Bott6"  (Puss  lu  Boots),  " Riqiiet  lila  Houppe"  (Kiquet 
with  the  Toft ),  and"  Le  Petit  Chapei-on  Rouge  "  (Little  Red  Riding  Hood).  The 
priucipal  snccessoiB  of  Perrault  were  the  Comtesse  d'Aunoy  (see  Aunoy).  Madame 
Miu'ut,  and  Mademoiselle  de  la  Force ;  but  their  stories  are  much  moie  extravagant 
and  forced  tliaii  those  of  the  illu:sti-ious  academician.  The  tame  ceufiure,  however, 
is  not  applicable  to  *'Les  Contes*  Marines"  (1740),  by  Madame  Villenenve,  among 
whicli  occDi's  the  tale  entitled  "  La  Belle  et  la"  B6te  (Beauty  and  the  Beast),  »er- 
ka|M9  the  UKJSt  beautiful  creation  in  the  whole  circle  of  this  fantastic  form  of  fiction. 

Meauwhile,  the  translation  of  the  "Arabian  Nights'  Enteitainnaentfi"  (q.  v.)  by 
Galland,  1704 — 1717,  and  of  numerous  other  Arabic  and  Persian  works,  the  great 
encouragement  extended  to  the  literature  of  the  Ea^t  in  the  17th  and  78th 
centuries,  the  publication  of  the  *Bibliothdque  Orientale"  of  D'Herbelot,  &c., 
created  a  taste  for  the  brilliant  exaggerations  of  oriental  fiction,  and  a  variety  tf 
works  were  soon  in  the  fit^ld,  swarming  with  necromancers,  dervishes,  califs, 
baehaws,  viziers,  cadis,  eunuchs,  slaves.  The  moat  notable  of  these  are — *♦  Les  Mille 
et  un  Quart  d'Henre,  Contes  Taitares;"  "Les  Contes  Chinois,  on  lee  A  ventures 
Merveiileuse'^  du  Mandarin  Fum-hoam ;"  and  ''Les  Snitanes  de  Gurawitte,  Contes 
Mongols,"  of  M.  Gueulette.— Of  tite  class  of  fictions  known  as  "Voyages  I  inagin- 
aires,"  the  priucipal  are  the  "  Uistoire  Comique  des  Estats  et  Empires  de  la  Lune," 
and  the ''Estutset  Euipirej*  du  Soleil"  of  Cyiano  Be rgerac,  which  materially  in- 
fluenci'd  the  genius  of  Swift,  who  has,  in  fact,  borrowed  not  &  little  frosn  the  first  of 
these  in  his  "Gulliver's  Travels,"  and  which  were  themselves  partly  snggesti*d  by  the 
Spnuisb  romance  of  Dominico Gonzales,  entitled  "The  Man  in  tlie  Moon."  Such 
novels  as  the  "Paul  et  Virginie"  of  Bernardin  St  Pierre,  which  appeared  towaids 
the  eud  of  the  ISth  c,  do  not  come  under  any  of  the  four  heads,  but  may  most  con- 
veniently be  mentioned  liere. 

Pfose  Fictiofi  of  Germany  duriiig  the  ISth  and  19th  Centuries,— Tbc  limits  of  our 
space  will  not  permit  us  to  do  more  than  superficially  indicate  the  development  of 
this  branch  of  literatm*e  in  Germany,  which,  however,  is  the  less  to  be  regi-etted, 
as,  doruig  ibe  greater  part  of  the  18ih  c,  it  did  not  attain  much  distinction.  1  owards 
the  close  of  the  century,  |iowever,  writers  became  more  numerous,  and  as  the  literary 
activity  of  maay  of  them  continued  ou  till  the  fiist  or  second  quarter  of  the  19 ih  c, 


y  Google 


Kovels 


854 


It  win  be  most  conyenlent  and  nainra)  to  treat  both  centnrfes  together,  as.  they, 
properly  speaking,  furin  only  one  uren  iu  the  litc-rury  histury  of  that  Dtitioii. 

The  first  einineDt  Qermau  novelist  of  this  j>eri6d  was  Wieland  (q.  v.),  whOM 
Greek  romances.  **  Agathoii."  **  ArisiippO!*,''  '*  Socrates,"  Ac.,  are  erf  that  didactic 
aud  sceptical  chantcter  which  was  bc^^iiiiiing  to  mark  tlie  reflective  evnins  of  the 
contiiieiir,  and  wliich  has  siuce  pl^JdI]ced  such  immense  changes  in  aildepaitmeDts 
of  tliongiit.  Wielaud  was  followed  by  u  crowd  of  writers,  iu  wbone  product iouft  is 
more  or  less  distinct Iv  appari'uttlieinflaenci;  of  tlie  Ennish  no\'elisic,  pcrticnlaiiy 
of  BichardHon  aud  Ffcldlug,  who  had  been  tnuislated  and  carefnlly  stodted  in  Ofr* 
many,  wliere,  however,  tlie  **  novel  <rf  manners,"  whether  serious  or  comic,  denlt 
more  largely  In  the  representation  of  "family  life."  The  urincipal  names  are 
Angust  In  Fontaine.  Wetzel,  Mfdler  (whose  '•  Slejrfrietl  von  Iind«.uberg  "  is  still  re- 
meml>ered  aud  reacl).  Schulz,  aud  Hippel.  Almost  contemporary  with  thene  quiet 
and  somewhat  prosaic  novtdists,  there  flonristied  for  a  brief  period  (1180— 18Q«)  a 
school  of  an  entirely  op|>09ite  character,  whose  worlcn.  fiercely  and  ontrageonsly  ro- 
mantic, had  their  poetic  connterpart  iu  Schillt?r'8  **  Kobbers."  ITiey  re^einbte  in 
their  Htyle  oi  handling  the  fendul  ages,  the  Kngli^h  roinnnces  of  Mr«  Radcliffe  and 
others,  which  probabTy  snggested  them.  The  cliief  writers  of  this  **  tnri>nlent  school 
of  fiction,"  as  It  has  l)een  called,  are  Cramer,  Spiers,  Schlenkert,  and  Veit  Weber. 

Alone,  and  far  above  all  others  in  redandancy  and  origbiaHty  ol  faucy,  banu>r,»Dd 
patho!*,  towers  Jean  Panl  Ricliter  (q.  v.),  who  is  incnpaWe  of  classification,  aud  to 
whom,  therefore,  his  countrymen  linve  atfixed  the  epitliet  of  '*  I>Hr  Einxige  "  (The 
Uniqae).  Apart  from  all  schools— in  this  respeot,  but  iu  this  oidy,  like  Richter— 
stands  Johanu  Wolfgan<^  Goethe  (q.  v.),  wiiose  novels,  as  well  as  ids  poems,  are 
poetico-p'.iilo-'Opliic  efforts  to  represent,  perhaps  to  solve,  the  great  facts  and  prob* 
lems  of  inmian  life  and  destiny. 

The  reictiou  from  the  materialism  and  irrelianous  levity  of  French  thongiit^  fii^ 
shewed  it«elf  in  Germany  towards  tlie  close  of  the  I8th  c,  in  a  certain  earnest  love 
and  study  of  the  old,  simple,  sniierstitions,  and  poetical  beliefs  of  the  middle  ages. 
Hence  origin  I  ted  the;  exquisite  class  of  fictions  called  "  Volksmfthrcbeu  **  <l>opttl"' 
le/ends  or  tales),  in  which  the  G  mnaiw  have  never  beeu  equalled.  Tlie  most  lllns- 
trions  cultivator  of  this  ppecies  of  fiction  is  Ludwisj  Tieck  (q.  v  ),  for  Mtuneni*  (q.  v.), 
thou<;li  gifted  with  admirable  powers  of  narration,  is  marked  by  a  f>oepticul  humor 
and  U'oiiy,  not  altogether  comp:itrble  with  an  imaginative  conc^>tion  of  liis  sai'ject. 
Other  distinguished  names  are  tho^e  of  De  la  Motte  Fo6que  (q.  v.),  Chamis^)  (q.  v.). 
Heinrich  Steffens,  Achiiu  von  Amim  (q.  v.),  Clemens  Brentano  (q.  v.).  Zschokke,ana 
Hoffmann  (q.  v.).  More  recent  novelists  of  note  are  Auerbacli,  Pieytag,  aud  Paul 
Heyse.  The  tales  of  Fritz  Reuter,  written  in  the  PUUt  or  Low  German,  are  origiual 
and  delightful. 

Novels  and  Roicanoes  op  the  19th  CSbntubt.— These  have  boen  produced 
in  such  overwhelming  quantity,  that  volumes  would  bo  required  merely  to  classify 
and  characterise  them.  The  va*<t  and  rapid  increase  in  the  material  facilities  of  iiH 
tercourse  among  European  nations,  which  has  taken  place  during  tlie  hist  forty  year:*, 
has,  among  other  results,  tended  to  diffuse  through  each  country  the  literary  pn>- 
ducts  of  tul  the  others,  especially  those  of  an  entertiiningkind;  and  these  have  in 
turn  more  or  less  stimnlatt^  the  imaginaiion  of  native  genius,  so  that  at  pro«eiit 
there  is  hardly  a  people  In  Europe,  not  even  excluding  Turkey,  whicli  ha»  not  contri- 
buted PoraHthing  to  the  enormous  stock  of  fiction  belonging  to  the  l»th  cemury.  It 
would  be  altogether  out  of  the  qneHtion  to  attempt,  in  a  coinpendionx  work  tike  tiie 
present,  a  notice,  however  brief,  of  the  principal  novels  and  romances  of  every  Enm- 
peau  nation;  we  can  only  refer  to  the  histoiical  surveys  of  literature,  to  he  fuimd 
under  sncli  heads  as  Belgium,  Bohemia.  ilimOABY,  Netherlands,  Norway,  Po- 
land. Sweden,  Turkey,  &c.,  aud  to  individual  bioirrapliiei*  of  eminent  contineotiil 
novelists.  Even  in  regard  to  England  and  France,  we  can  do  little  more  tlian  cata^ 
logue  a  few  piominent  names. 

1.  Engtuh  F»c<*m.— Almost  "the  first  novelist  that  we  encoontmr  in  the  19«h  c. 
Sir  Walter  Scott  (q.  v.),  is  probably  the  greatest  that  England,  or  even  tbe  world,  has 
ever  seen.  Here,  however,  we  have  less  to  do  with  his  |)ersonaI  rank  iu  literature 
than  with  the  kind  of  fiction  that  he  cultivated.  In  a  qualified  aense,  be  may  be  re* 
eiirded  as  a  continuation  of  the  romantic  school,  but  it  Must  be  observed  tluit  be  is 
uee  from  all  their  moumrosities,  spasms,  tricks,  and  hornble  mac^ery.  Possened 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


355 


N<>T»:i 


at  once  of  far  ^ater  antlqnnrinii  lenmiiig.  Imaginative  genins.  Ronnd  sense,  antl 
iustinctive  taste,  thnii  any  of  hin  "romantic"  pr«id«ccssor]»»  iie  kpew  precisely  what 
to  sitnu  and  what  to  choose;  oud  though  hisFi-ndal  Age,  as  depicted  lo  ^^Ivanhoe," 
•»TI»e  Fair  Maid  of  Perth,"  Ac,  in  acoDJ»iderably  idrahscd  portJr»Ht  of  tlie  rngtred 
fiicts,  it  is  a  portrait,  and  nol  like  Horace  Walpoleaiid  MrsRadciiffe's  p<-rforniauces, 
a  fuhuiiB  cancatnre.  The  political  reaction  that  took  place  in  BrituiD,  after  the  san- 
guinary excepses  of  the  Frinch  Kevolntlou,  assuming  the  form  of  a  new  and  pas- 
eiouate  attachment  to  venerable  aud  time-honored  traditions,  shewed  itself  in 
literature  too.  and  Sir  Walter  Scott  was  its  grandeht  representative.  He  strove  to 
delineate  the  Past^  as  it  seemed  in  the  eyes  of  men  who  were  dnbions  of  the  Present, 
and  atraid  of  the  Falnre— iioble,  ntat4jly,  glittering,  and  gay,  with  the  pnlse  of 
life  ever  beating  to  heroic  measures.  'i"he  overpowering  .  gi'nins  of  Scott 
necj-asarily  but  nnliappily  (for  the  comfort  of  readers)  ltd  to  'Sndless 
iniitaiion,"  but  the  only  one  of  bin  followers  that  held  for  a  time  a 
tolerably  decent  popithm  In  literature  Is  G.  P.  R.  James  (q.  v.).  Gait  (q.  v.) 
ami  Wilfon  (q.  v.),  the  former  with  vulgar  but  racy  humor,  and  the  latter  with 
a  liigiily  beutimental  and  overdone  pathos,  portrayed  ap|)e(is  of  Scottish  life  which  ' 
tl»e  author  of  »*  Waverley  "  has  parsed  over.  Other  novelists,  fucIi  as  Loikhart  (q.  v.), 
Miw«  Ferrier  (q.  v.;,  and  Mrs  Johnstone,  do  not  call  for  special  notice;  neither  does 
llupe  (q.  v.),  though  his  **  Memoirs  of  Anat'ta^ins"  is  a  most  brilliant  and  power- 
ful bcuk;  nor  Moore  (a.  v.),  though  his  **  Epicurean"  h:.s  all  the  sparkling  and 
8n|>erficial  splendors  of  his  verse.  After  Scoir,  the  next  novelist  who  dis^tiuctly 
marfo*  a  new  ntago  in  the  development  of  fiction,  is  RirEthyard  Bulwer  Lyttoii  (q.  v.), 
iu  whope  earlier  works  at  hast  we  find  something  like  a  reflection  of  the  cold,  sneer- 
ing. selfi.«h,  and  seiisnal  spirit  that  marked  the  up^ier  clShSes  during'  the  period  of 
the  Regency;  but  the  versatile  g  nins  of  this  author,  «ind  the  different  fields  iu 
which  he  has  won  n;nown,  would  make  it  quite  unfair  to  define  him  as  a  merely 
"fashionable"  novelist,  thouirh  hisfiist  a"d  least  meritorious  dit^tinctions  were  ac- 
quired in  that  capacity,  and  stpdents  of  '*  S.  rtor  Reran ii#  "  are  apt  to  so  remember 
liim.  Of  lashiouable  novelists,  strictly  eo  called,  the  best  known  are  Mrs  Gore 
(q.  V.)  and  Theodore  Hook  (q.  v.».  This  class  was  succeeded  by  another 
hiftiiitely  worse  than  itself— the  ifewgatt  noveliats,  as  thev  have  l)een  well  termed, 
who  nought  for  their  ht-roes  among  highwaymen,  thievt^s,  desperadoes,  and 
murderers,  like  Jack  Sheppard,  Bineskin,  Dick  Turpin,  Claude  Duval,  &c., 
an«l,  flagitioin>ly  indifferent  alike  to  fact  and  morality,  labored  with  per- 
nicious piicx-eps  to  invest  the  lives  of  thtse  sc(mndr«ls  with  u  halo  of  romantic 
iatereftand  di:;nity.  The  chief  of  this  pchoi  1,  "by  merit  raised  to  that  bad  emi- 
iHMice,"  ia  William  Harrison  Ainsworth  (q.  v.).  During  tlie  last  thirty  yeare,  novels 
have  bvcn  multiplied  to  a  degree  w  hich  is  almost  alarming,  and  literally  incal- 
culahle.  The  grentent  nan.ies  are  ui.qncstionably  those  of  Dn  kens  (q.  v.),  Thack- 
eray (q.  v.),  and  Mi^s  Evans  (q.  v.}:  but  besides  these  mitiht  be  mentioned  a 
host  of  others,  who  have  attained  eiiiier  celebrity  or  popularity,  or  both.  Every 
mode  of  life,  and  every  kind  of  opinion,  social,  artistic,  sch  ntific,  pliilosophlcal,  and 
religious,  has  sought  to  recommend  itself  by  adoi  tii  g  I  his  fahcinatiug  garb.  We 
i>avf  the  nautical  novels  of  Marr^at  <q.  v.),  redolent,  like  Dibdin's  pongs,  of  the  briny 
deep;  the  politieal  novels  of  Dismeli  (q.  v.) ;  the  sporting  and  military  novels  of 
Lever  (q.  V.) ;  the  brilliant  **  nmscular  Christian"  novels  of  Kingsley  (q.  v.) ;  the 
'*governesp-novel}»,"  as  they  have  been  aptly  denominated,  of  Miss  Bront6  (q.  v.) ; 
the  »' pchool "  novels  of  Huirlies  and  Farrar ;  and  the  "sensational  "novels  ot  Wil- 
kie  Collins,  MIps  Bradd(m,  and  others.  Other  authors  not  less  eminent,  but  not  so 
fasily  classified,  are  Mrs  Gapkell,  Mrs  Norton,  Miss  Mulock  (now  Mrs  Cralk),  Mrs 
Olipfaant  (q.  v.).  Charles -Reade  (q.  v.),  George  Macdonald  ;  the  name  of  Whyte-Mel- 
vilfe,  McCarthy,  Blackmore,  *•  Ouida,"  are  well  known  in  various  departments  of  fic- 
tion; and  recently,  William  Bhick  has  shewn  himself  an  artist  of  a  high  class.  '  The 
extraordinary  increase  of  this  potent  and  therefore  perilous  branch  of  literature  can- 
not fail  to  excite  much  curious  reflection  in  thonglitful  minds. 

^—French  Fiet^m  during  the  19th  Ceiiturp. — A  few  words  are  all  that  we  can  de- 
vote to  this  part  of  our  subject,  though  it  is  far  from  unlntejesting  either  in  a  literary 
or  a  moral  point  of  view.  The  effect  of  the  Revolution  of  178»  on  literature  was  not 
immediately  beneficial,  but  the  reverse,  though  it  planted  the  germs  of  a  nmltltnde 
«  new  tboughti  aud  asylntions  in  the  mind  of  Cbrieteudom,  which  have  since 


y  Google 


November  q?l/> 

Novitiate  ,  *^^^ 

yu'.ided,  »>otli  in  France  and  elpewhere,  a  prolific  harvest  of  wheat  and— ^ares.  The 
lion  dec«potisni  of  Ntipoleoii  crnsbed  nearly  all  literary  expression  whatever.  His 
1)  itrod  of  *Mdealogue8  **  i*  \Vell  known,  but  rhe  novel  w«6  that  species  of  iUealogic 
composition  tliat  came  least  into  collision  with  the  principled  of  itu|>eriu]isin.  Eveu 
i7,  ho.vever,  could  hardly  bi  said  to  flourish  ;  and  the  only  to'ernbly  gifted  writer  of 
tiotion  who  figures  duriui^  the  First  Empire  is  Le  Brun.  and  he  was  reduced  to  the 
n  cespity  of  carica  wring  the  bourpeoisiej  to  which  Nai^oleon  had  no  particular  objec- 
tion, as  th«y  were  by  no  means  his  warmest  adoiirers.  Chateaubnaud  (q.v.)  and 
l^Iadame  de  Sta^l  (q.  v.)  are  insignificant  in  this  deimrtmeut,  and  Charles  Noriier, 
tliungh  voluminous,  wiia  not  an  original  novelist  After  the  return  of  tlie  Boiubons, 
and  especially  after  the  rev()lntion  of  1830,  France  began  to  display  a  wonderful  lite- 
rary activity,  and  in  particular,  its  long-repressed  faculty  of  iiuaginutiou  burst  iuto 
n  su(tden  blosiiom  of  i>oetry  and  fiction.  Even  Na{K^eon,  now  that  he  was  dead,  re- 
ceived a  peculiar  homage  fiom  the  class  to  whom  he  had  never  shewn  favor  or 
regard,  of  which  the  songs  of  B^ranger  and  **  Les Mis^rables  "  of  Victor  Hugo  afford 
n/spacimens.  Unhappily  for  the  purity  of  its  literature,  the  rfffiitieot  the  Kesto- 
ration,  which  followed  the  deliverance  of  France  from  a  military  deiipoti^ui,  was  ii- 
selt  a  base,  corruj)t,  and  profligate  thing.  Tlie  Bourbons  came  buck  only  to  re-enact 
the  follies  of  their  ancestors  in  the  previous  century,  and  the  nation  soon  canie  to 
d  ■spis(i,  detest,  and  disbelieve  them,  and  tlie  church  which  supported  them.  Heuce, 
a  certain  reckless  levity,  and  hollow  mocking  laughter,  as  of  heartless  scepticism, 
.p'rvadiug  those  fictions  which  profess  to  oelineate  the  realities  of  current  l»fe. 
Moreover,  the  sparkling  wit,  the  sunny  humor,  the  pathos,  often  exquisitely  tender 
and  refined,  the  delicate  or  deep  delineation  of  character,  the  occasional  fine  floBh 
of  sentimental  enthusiasm,  afld  tlie  pontic  witchery  of  a  religions  mysticism,  cannot 
blind  us  to  the  fact  that  tn6  substance  of  most  of  the  recent  Fivnch  fictions  is  iu- 
curahly  immoral.  Paul  de  Kock  (q.  v.),  Balzac  (q.  v.),  Dumas  (q.  v.),  father  and  84111, 
Sue  (q.  v.),  Madame  Dudcvant  (q.  v.)j  though  wholly  dissimilar  to  each  otiieriu  the 
qtialiiy  of  their  genius,  are  wofull}'  ahke  in  the  baser  element  of  the  national  fiction. . 
A^ctor  Hugo  (q.  v.)  and  Lamartine  (q.  v.)  are  indeed  morally  far  above  the  rest  of 
thuir  contemporaries,  but  they  are  perlmps  the  only  irreat  exceptions  that  can  be 
mentioned.  The  '•  Second  Empire  "  did  not  improve  the  tone  of  the  t^nch  novel, 
any  more  than  it  improved  the  totie  of  French  society ;  but  if  it  be  true  that  wheu 
tliin;,'s  have  reached  tlieir  woret  they  begin  to  mend,  the  country  that  has  produced 
**  La  Dame  aux  Camelias  "  is  perhaps,  as  regards  the  literature  of  fiction,  in  a  hope- 
ful condition.  The  tales  of  Messieurs  Erckmann-Chatriuu,  in  adJition  to  their  merits 
as  graphic  and  pictare^ue  delinaations  of  provinoial  life  in  Franco,  are  honorably 
distinguished  by  the  absence  of  all  prurient  sentimentality  and  indecent  passion. 

The  prose  fiction  of  Spain  and  Italy  during  the  19th  c.  scarcely  requires  notice,  as 
the  former  country  has  not  produced  a  single  work  that  has  forced  its  way  into  llie 
geneial  European  market,  while  the  latter  can  lx)ast  of  only  one  that  has  attained 
that  dignity,  the  *  Promessi  Sposi"  of  Mauzoui  (q.  v.) ;  but  in  a  comprehensive  sketch 
like  the  present,  it  would  be  a  blemish  to  omit  at  least  the  names  of  the  more  emi- 
nent Transat  antic  10  alists,  as  they  have  contributed  not  a  little  of  1  ito  years  to  tli« 
stock  of  English  prose  fiction.  Tlie  motit  notable  ai*e  Brockden  Browy  (q.  v.),  tlie 
American  Godwin;  Feuimore  Cooper  (q.v,),  from  whom  Europe  has  been  cou- 
tent,  on  the  whole  not  unwisely,  to  take  its  notions  of  the  forests,  the  prairie?,  awl 
tiie  red  men  of -the  West;  Washington  Irving  (q.  v.),  Edsar  Allan  Poe  (q.  v.), 
Nathaniel  Hawthorne  (q.  v.),  Mrs  Beecher  Stowe  (q.  v.),  Oliver  Wendell  Holini'S 
(q.  v.),  and  Bret  Harte,  in  all  of  w^hose  writings,  except  in  the  tales  of  Poo,  is  visible 
the  iuflurtnce  of  iha  life,  traditions,  scenery,  and  other  salient  characteristics  of  the 
New  World.  See  Dun  lop's  '' His^tory .  of  Fiction"  <Loiid.  1S14),  and  Wolffs 
*' AHgemeine  Geschichte  des  Romans"  (Jena,  1841,  2d  edit.  1850). 

NOVE'MBER  (Lat.  novem,  nine)  was  among  the  Romans  the  »th  raoath 
of  the  yt.ar,  at  the  time  when  the  year  consisted  of  10  months;  and  tlieu 
contained  30  d  lys.  It.  subsequently  was  m^de  to  contain  only  29,  hut  Julias 
Caesar  gave  it  31 ;  and  in  the  reign  of  Aiffiustus  the  number  was  restored  to 
80,  whi'ih  number  it,  has  since  retjuned.  November  was  one  of  the  nios't 
importimt  months  in  connection  with  the  religious  ritual  of  the  Romans,  and  con- 
tinues in  the  sa  ne  position,  though  for  other  reasons,  in  the  Roman  CatlK)lic  ritual 
It  was  known  among  the  Saxous  as  Blot-monathy  *^  blood-mouth,"  on  accoout  of  tho. 


y  Google 


357 


NoTombftf 

general  slaughter  of  cattJn  at  tlifa  Hme,  for  winter  provision  (knowD  for  a  long  time 
afterward?  as  Bfartinmas  beef)  isnd  for  aikcrifice.  This  cnstoin  Was  iiof  couflned  lo 
the  Saxous,  but  prevailed  iu  Northeru  Geniiauy,  and  t  veu  as  far  soutli  as  Spain. 

NOVGOROD,  an  importact  tov  n  of  European  Knsfla,  capital  of  the  govem- 
ment  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the  Volkiiof,  near  where  it  issues  from  Ltiko 
Ihnen,  122  nilks  south-south-east  of  St  Petcrsbiwe.  It  is  the  cradl*-  of  Russian  liis- 
torv.  Iu  862,  tbeNormtm  prince  Kurik,  of  the  tnhe  of  Variaeo-Ross  (whence  tlie 
name  Ruasia)^  wp.s  invited  hither  i>y  the  neighl)oring  tribes,  and  from  iilin  b<  glnn  the 
hihtory  of  tlie  country,  and  the  line  of  its  sovereigns.  A  niouuineiit.  couimcnior- 
ative  of  this  event,  was  erected  here,  with  great  pcmp.  in  Septmiber  1862.  In  tlie 
9th  c,  Ole^,  the  successor  of  Rurik,  transported  the  rnpital  lo  Kief;  but  bestowed 
n>nny  privileges  and  liberties  upon  N.,  and  from  that  time  ii  l>egan  to  piospct.  ihe 
grc -at  ucse  of  N.  provoked  the  jealousy  of  the  princes  of  Moscow,  and  in  1471. Uie 
czjir  Ivan  UL  nearly  destroyed  the  town,  bereft  it  of  its  iiberties,  and  exiled  ':lie 
nitjsi  influential  citizens.  During  the  time  of  its  prosperity,  the  town  was  called 
Novgorod  the  Great ;  and  had  ^,000  inhabitantf,  and  extended  its  sway  to  tlie 
White  Se4i  and  the  river  Petchora.  Its  goyernnient  was  a  sort  of  republic,  the 
prince  being  less  a  Bovereien  than  the  chief  commander  of  the  troops.  Its  great- 
ness was  due  to  its  vast  foreign  trade  alone,  and  when  Archanjp^el  was  opened  for 
Enelish  trading  vessels,  but  especially  after  the  foundation  of  St  Prtersburir,  its 
trade  fell  away,  and  tlie  town  rapidly  declined.  Of  the  existing  ancient  builain^s, 
the  most  remarkable  are  the  Church  of  St  Sophia,  founded  in  the  Uth  c,  nossessmg 
a  fine  old  library,  as  well  a**  some  remarkable  paintings  and  tombs ;  and  the  Krem^ 
in  the  steeple  of  wiiich  bung  the  famous  bell  u^cd  to  summon  the  citicens  for  the 
deliberation  of  state  affairs.    Pop.  (186T)  1C,T22. 

NOVGORO'D,  a  government  of  Great  Russia,  extends  immedintely  south-east  of 
tlie  vovernmeul  of  St  Petersburg.  Area,  48  780  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1870)  1,011,446.  The 
surface  is  gi-ntly  undubitin^%  with  the  Valdai  Hills  in  the  south,  which  rise  to  about 
800  feet,  and  may  be  said  to  form  the  water-slud  between  the  Baltic.  Caspian,  and 
White  Seas.  The goverai«ent  contains  many  lakes  and  rivers;  of  thefomur,  ihe 
lakes  Ilmen  and  Bieloe  ar.*  the  largest;  and  of  the  latter,  the  Wolchof,  Mi'ta, 
Szeksna,  and  Mologa  are  the  most  important.  The  livers  are  connected  by  canals, 
which  are  of  great  service  to  trade.  The  Foil,  especially  in  the  north-east,  Is  not  fer- 
tile, and  the  climate  is  severe ;  agriculture  and  cuttle-renrfng  are  cariied  on  only  to  a 
liu  ited  extent.  Forests  and  pasture-lands  are  numerous  and  e^ctensive,  and  the  tim- 
ber and  hay  sent  to  the  cnpital  reiilise  a  considtnahle  income.  Quarries  of  the  best 
stone  for  paving  occur  on  the  river  Tosua,  and  near  SUlra-Rui^sa  there  are  mineral 
and  saline  springs. 

NOVGORO'D-SSJEWE'RSK,or  Novgorod-Seversko'ie.  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the 
province  of  Tchemigov,  82  milt  s  north-east  from  .  chemigdv,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Desna,  a  branch  of  the  Dnie{M  r.  It  is  the  capital  of  a  distiict,  and  is  a  place  of 
considerable  trade  and  activity.    Pop.  (1867)  6801. 

NOVGRA'D-VOLY'NSKI,  a  town  of  European  Russ^,  in  the  government 
<rf  Volhynia,  62  miles  west -north- west  from  Jitomir.  It  is  the  capital  of  a  circle,  m.d 
is  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Slutch,  a  feeder  of  the  Pripet,  and  so  of  the  Dnieper. 
Pop.  (1867)  8068. 


NO' VI,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Genoa,  Is  a  station  on  the 
railway  from  Turin  to  Genoa,  and  is  33  miles  north-norlh-west  of  the  latter  city. 
It  presents  few  attractions,  with  the  exception  of  «  number  of  picturesque  old 


houses.    It'Carries  on  a  considerable  transit-trade;   and  the  silk  produced  iu  the 
vicinity  is  amongst  the  most  celebrated  in  Italy.    Pop.  11,446. 

NO'VIBAZA'R,  also  Jenibazar,  a  town  of  Bosnia.  European  Turkey,  situated  en 
the  river  Rashka,  an  affluent  of  the  Morava,  180  miles  south-east  of  Bopna-Sera=, 
Several  of  the  great  roads  of  the  country  cross  each  other  here.  N.  has  ceh  brnti  d 
fairs,  important  trade,  nnd  considerable  wealth,  but  the  houses  are  mostiv  of  mud. 
It  is  the  chief  point  of  communication  between  Bosnia  and  the  rest  of  Turkey.  Pop. 
estimated  at  15,000. 

NOVI'TIATE,  the  time  of  probation,  as  well  as  of  preparatory  training,  wV' 
In  all  religious  orders  precedes  the  solcmu  PRorBssioN  (q.  v.).    Uu4er  the  her 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


KoToarkhangheUik  ^58 

HoNAOHxsM  wUl  be  fotmd  tlie  geneml  princlpla?  by  wblch  the  training  for  the 
*•  reliidous '*  life  is  reeolated.  It  will  bo  enough  to  say  here,  that  the  jjowiate  ia 
all  ordure  must  continue  (Cone  Trid.  Sees*,  xxv.  c.  85.  *De  Regul.  nud  Mon.")at 
lea«t  one  yeiir.  In  most  orders  If  is  of  two,  and  in  .nevernl  of  ibree.  Any  attempt «) 
soleinnlAe  the  profesaion  Ix-fore  the  expiration  of  the  novitiate,  without  n  disjieD- 
aation,  is  invtilid.  Dnrini^  the  novitl.ite,  the  novices  are  inunediat*  ly  snbjecl  toa 
superior,  culled  Master  (or  Mistress)  of  Novices.  Tiey  are  not  permitted  to  <  ngJtge 
in  systematic  study,  their  whole  time  being  dcvot  d  to  pniyer,  and  to  nsceticniid 
liiurgic.il  training  During  the  novitiate,  the  novice  continues  free  to  writhdraw, nor 
is  lie  or  she  admitted  to  profession  at  the  close  of  the  novitiate,  except  after 
))ruof  given  of  fitness,  and  of  proper  dispoie^itions  for  the  particular  iustiinte 
H:j.»ired  to. 

NOVOARKHANGHE'LSK  (New  Archangel),  or  Sitka,  a  seaport  of  Alaska, 
fonnevly  centre  of  the  administration  of  the  Russo-American  Corapanv,  situated  on 
the  island  of  Sitka,  ou  the  n.  w.  coast  of  the  Amt^rican  continent  in  tat  57°  3'  i»., 
long,  about  135°  w.  It  h:\9  a  gootl  jxirt,  ami  was  the  entrepot  of  all  tb-.*  stores*  for  the 
other  Ruaso-American  colonic*',  and  of  their  produce,  of  which  furs  were  thei)riDd- 
pal  item.  There  are  at  N.  only  66  clear  days  in  the  year.  Me^m  temjierutnre 
throughout  the  year,  43°  45'  P.  "Pop.  (before  cession  of  Alaska  to  the  U.  8.)  1000, 
mostly  s;;rvaiits  of  tlie  company. 

NOVOMOSKO'VSK,  au  important  market-town  of  South  Russin,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Ekatcrinoslav,  and  20  miles  north-north-ejtst  of  the  town  of  that  name,  on 
the  Samara,  an  affluent  of  the  Dnieper.  Three  i^xtensive  fairs,  chiefly  for  the  8.ile  of 
cattle  and  hor.'*e!»,  arc  held herti  annually.  The  ♦*  remounting  "  officers  attend  thi-ee 
fairs  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  tlr^ir  regiments  with  horses.  Tanning  and  tallow- 
melting  are  carried  ou.    Pop.  (1831)  10,3T9. 

NOVOTCHERKA'SK  a  town  of  Southern  Rnrti»fa,  capital  of  the  territory  of  the 
Co38:icks  of  th  •  DoM,  on  the  Ak*at.  a  tributary  of  the  Don,  at  a  distance  of  12  niilefl 
from  Its  right  bank,  and  about  TO  miles  east-north-east  of  Taganrog.  The  central 
administration  f  the  territoty  wa»  transfc-rred  hither  from  T«herka8k  in  1804  l»y 
Coimt  Platoff,  commander-in-chief  of  the  Cossacks.  The  choiee  was  not  a  h.ippy 
one,  the  disttmce  of  the  town  from  the  Don,  the  great  commercial  artery,  beingmuch 
felt.  In  1855,  a  statue  was  erected  in  memory  ot  Count  Phitoff,  wlio  achieved  an  11- 
liistrlons  name  by  his  military  exp'oits  froiti  1770  till  1816,  and  especially  during  the 
French  invaaon  in  1812.  Pop,  (I86r)  27.918,  who  carry  on  trade  and  maunfactares, 
agricultiirv',  cattle-breeding,  fishing  and  wine-growing. 

NOWANAGA'lt,  or  Nowannggur,  a  sefiport  of  India,  in  the  peninsula  of  Katty- 
war,  Guzerat,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Magna,  a  small  liver  on  the  sontli  shore  of  the  Gulf 
of  Cutch,  160  miles  west-soiitU-west  from  Ahmedalwid,  and  in  n.  lat.  22°  28*  e.  long. 
70°  11'.  It  is  the  principal  place  of  the  district  of  Hallar,  tne  greater  part  of  which  is 
held  as  fijaijhire  by  the  chief  of  N.,  who  bears  the  title  of  the  Jam  of  Nowanagar. 
His  territory  comprises  540  villages,  and  a  pop.  of  about  290,000. ,  The  town  of  N.  i» 
large  and  populous,  nearly  four  miles  in  circuit  Itisaplaceof  very  active  trade, 
famous  for  the  fine  quality  of  the  cloth  which  it  produces,  and  for  the  brilliant  colora 
of  which  Its  fabrics  are  dyed.  In  the  adj;jcent  sea  lu-e  beds  of  pearl-oysters.  Cop- 
per ore  has  been  discovered  in  a  range  of  bills  behind  the  town. 

NOYAPES  (I.  e.,  **  Drownings,"  from  Fr.  noyer^  to  drown),  the  execution  of 
political  offenders  in  great  uuml>ers  at  once  by  drowning  them,  one  of  the  atrocities 
of  the  French  Revolution,  practised  at  Nantes  by  Carrier,  the  deputy  of  the  Conven- 
tion. S.  e  Caurieb.  Tills  mode  of  execution  was  also  called,  in  crael  sport,  Vertical 
Deportation. 

NOYAU.    See  Liqubub. 

NOYON,  a  town  of  France  in  the  department  of  Oise,  78  miles  nortb-nortb-eart  of 
Paris  by  the  nortb^n  railway.  It  has  a  fine  cathedral  of  the  12th  and  18th  ceiitnrle!«, 
in  the  Konninesque  style  of  architecture ;  an  episcopal  palace,  and  aome  Ihien  and 
cotton  manufactures.  Pop.  (1876)  5785.  N.  was  a  residence  of  Charlemagne,  ami 
the  place  where  Hugo  Canet  was  crown  ;d  king  of  France  iu  987.  It  is  also  uoted  afl 
tho  birthplace  of  Joliu  Calvin. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


,1 


3rQ  Novoerkharghf'sk 

OV  Nuba 

NtT'BTA,  the  modern  nppellntlon  nf  a  coantry  »ubjeot  to  the  Khedive  of  Kiryptt 
extendiiiK  from  Pliibe  to  the  Seouaar.  lot.  18^  p.,  bontided  on  ttie  v,  by  the  Arabitiu 
Golf,  n.  by  Ej/ypt,  p.  by  Abyssinia,  and  on  tlie  w.  by  ihe  Desert.  It  appeiirs  to  Jiuve 
been  ancientiV  known  as  Ethiopia.  The  ancients  gave  tlie  n»me  of  Ethiopia  to  tho 
west  bank  of  the  Nile  from  Merofi  to  the  bend  oft  he  Hvrr.  Thf  name  (Hen.e  to 
have  l)een  derived  from  the  Bgyptiau  and  Coptic  Noub^  or  Gold«  n  name  i=till  re- 
tained in  Wady  Ncuba^  wliich  extendH  from  the  frontier  of  DoUKOln,  north  of  tiie 
Wady  Seboua,  above  Derri.  The  truct  between  Beboiia  and  As^ounn  is  <. ailed  the 
Wady  KeiiOus.  Diocletian  removed  hither  a  Libytm  tribe,  called  Kotiniee,  to  the 
district  above  Syeiie,  to  oppose  the  Blenimye?,  who  inliai)ited  the  wes'e'u  de^rt, 
now  held  by  the  At>:ihde  and  Bishnrt-in  Arabf.  The  dominion  of  tiie  Piiarnohs, 
when  most  extended,  reached  to  the  tsle  of  Argo.  tiie  hist  place  where  the  nionn- 
ments  of  t  he  Egyptians  have  been  found.  Under  these  monai  chs  it  wiis  called  Cn^h, 
and  was  governed  by  a  royal  scribe,  entitled  Prince  of  Cnsii  or  Ethiopia,  till  the 
twentieth  dynasty,  when  it  appmrs  to  Imve  been  recovered  by  a  series  of  native 
mlnrs,  wlio  ultiniately  conqnereci  Kgypt ;  and  nltltongh  driven  buck,  finally  <  zttndcd 
tht'ir  rule  from  Merod  tct  Syeue,  tlic  most  eontheru  city  held  by  tlie  Euypilan  mon- 
archs,  the  PtoIemie»<,  and  the  Komans.  These  Ethiopians  adopted  the  civilisation 
Of  tlie  Egyptians,  and  the  nniiies  of  Fome  of  their  monarcls  hnve  be<n  pn  served. 
The  sniiseqnent  fortnnes  of  this  conntry  will  b«'  8e<n  m>der  Ethiopia.  The  modem 
inhabitants  consist-principally  of  Arabs,  who  invaded  the  country  after  the  rise  of 
Xobuuiined,  the  principal  tribes  being  the  Djowabere  and  El  Gharliye,  who  inhabit 
from  Assouan  lo  tho  Wady  Haifa;  tl;e  Ktnons,  Diaifire,  and  others,  a  l»ranch 
of  the  Koreish,  who  occupied  the  land  from  Esne  to  Assouan.  By  the 
aid  of  Bosnian  soldiers,  the  Djowabere  were  driven  into  Dongola  in  the 
reiun  of  Seliin,  and  tl:eir  descendants  still  flonrish  at  IbHin,  Assouan, 
and  Sai.  Lower  down,  iuliabit  a  lace  called  the  Berbers  or  Barabn.s ; 
Bontli  of  Cosseir  are  the  Ababde.  From  Dongola  and  .  Sennaar,  a  nei^ro 
state,  the  people  are  called  Noubas.  a  hardy  race,  differing  from  the  pure  black ^' ; 
hut  the  country  thronglxmt  is  inhabited  by  mixed  races  of  Arabian  and  Nipii  ic 
blood.  Another  trilie,  the  Shey^u,  east  of  Dongola — a  fine  black  race,  addicted  to 
horsenuuiship  and  war— are  stilnnore  intere»'ting.  The  Alialxle  Arabs  are  renowned 
as  tfQides  ana  camel  drivers:  the  l^isharein  are  supposed  by  some  lo  l)e  the  ancient 
Blemniyes,  a  tribe  living  on  flesh  and  milk,  but  without  the  oriental  jealousy  of  the 
Arabs;  the  Takas,  supposed  to  be  the  ancient  B'jahs,  dwell  in  the  monntains. 
l*hree  principal  hmpnages  are  spoken  by  thrse  v.irious  tribes— the  Nuba  by  the  Brr- 
bere,  who  entered  from  the  south-west ;  the  Kun^'ara,  a  NIpiitic  dialect,  by  the 
negroes  of  Dafur;  and  the  Bisharie.  said  to  exhibit  Aryan  alBiiities.  The  inl^abit- 
ants,  estimated  ut  almut  1,000,000,  althongh  less  in  stature  than  the  E^'yptians.  are  n 
fine  ronscniur  nice ;  the  women  are  pleasinjr,  but  not  be:iutiful ;  and  the  climate  is 
remarkably  healthy.  In  their  political  government  they  were  governed  l>y  their  own 
chietBf  maiks  ormalecha,  xil)  they  were  subdued  by  Ismael  Pasha,  in  1820,  to  the 
snay  of  Egypt,  and  the  civil  government  is  now  administered  by  the  'i'nrks. 
The  conytry  is  arid,  in  many  places  only  cultivable  at  the  sides  of  the  Kile, 
and  consists  of  granite  and  sandstone.  The  soil  raises  duiTa,  cotton,  and 
date  prilms.  It  T»  traversed  by  the  Bahr  el  Azrek,  or  Bine  Nile,  aid  tiic 
Hahr  el  Abiad.  or  White  Nile.  The  products  are  numerors,  comprising  maiz  , 
dates,  tamarinds,  gums,  aloes,  civet,  musk,  wax,  myrrh,  frankincense,  senna,  black 
wool,  hid*  s  both  of  the  elephant  and  rhinoceros,  and  their  ivory,  ostrich  feathers, 
e>)ony,  gold  dust,  saltpetre,  salt,  tolwicco,  coffee,  cotton,  wliich  are  carried  by  way 
of  commerce  to  Egypt.  The  taxes  are  rated  by  the  number  of  water-wheelt*  for  the 
irrigation  of  the  land.  There  being  no  native  currency,  the  coins  of  Egypt  and 
Europe,  especially  the  Spanish  dollar,  are  received,  but  glas-s-beads,  coral,  cloth,  tabs 
or  slililB,  and  cloth  (samoor)  also  pass  as  money.  In  Aordofan,  va'ue  is  reckoned 
by  cows.  The  most  primitive  inodt  s  of  measurement  are  in  use.  maize  being  sold 
by  the  handful  (selga).  18  of  which  go  to  a  moud;  and  cloth  being  measured  from  the 
elliowtothefingei-s^  Polygamy  Is  gineral,  and  a  wife  at  Keuoua  is  purchased  of 
her  i>arents  for  iSO  piastres;  amongst  the  Arabs  for  6 cameln,  8 of  which  are  returned 
to  the  bridegroom.  Some  of  the  trilies  are  jt  alons  of  their  women,  who  are  cele- 
brated by  travelU-rs  on  accoanUof  their  >irtue.  In  their  costnme.  they  use  turbons. 
li^en,  aad  woollen  garments,  and  are  armed  with  lance  And  shield,  the  latter  made  of 


y  Google 


the  hide  of  the  hippopotamus.  No  looms  oxl^t,  bnt  they  plait  nentJy.  Vheit  chief 
mnaical  instraineut  is  a  gnitar  of  five  stnii<r8,  with  sounding-boam  of  a  ga2e)iu'« 
hide.  Tliey  are  generally  averse  to  commerce,  eat  little  auimal  food,  and  are  Mo- 
hammodana.  Their  houses  are  low  hats  of  mnd  or  stone.  Tl«e  chief  attrMCtiou  o< 
thij?  country  to  travellers  is  the  nnmerous  temples  and  other  ancient  remains  of  tlw 
Esryptiaus,  extending  from  Philae  to  the  island  of  Argo.  Tlie^e  consist  of  the  temple 
of  Isis,  in  the  isle  of  Philae,  funnded  by  Jieciaiiebo  I.,  and  ooutluued  by  the  Ftolc- 
m\e^ ;  the  temple  of  Debund,  built  in  honor  of  Amen  Ka,  l)y  Atarameu.  and  cootin* 
ned  by  the  Romans;  Tufa  or  Taphis,  the  modern  Kaluh«he,  built  by  Barneses  II.; 
tlio  rock  temi)le  of  B  it  e  Welly,  recording  the  conquests  of  the  same  ro<»arch  } 
W.uly  Haifa,  bnilt  by  OserteSeu  I.;  the  rocic  temple  of  Jbsamboul,  bniU  by  Rameeefl 
IL;  Gibol  A<ldeli,  built  by  Horns  of  ihe  eighteenth  dynasty  ;  It)rim,  Imilt  by  Ann i»- 
ophes  II.;  Amadi,  founded  l)y  Tin  thmes  lU.:  Ghersbeh,  Sebona,  and  1>« rrl,  built 
l^  Raine!<es  II.;  Dakktih,  the  ancient  Pselcis,  built  by  Bruamenes ;  and  the  Colos- 
sus of  the  isle  of  Argo ;  the  Pymmids  of  Merofi  ana  Tanquaaai.— Barckliitnit, 
♦•Travels;"  Champollion  le  Jeuue,  "Lettres  iicrites,"  p.  101,  and  foil.;  Lei»iQ«, 
*'Reise,"  p.  lOT,  and  -foil. 

NUCLEOBRANCHIA'TA,  or  Heteropo<ln,  an  order  of  ga.«teropod8  havinjc  the 
Sexes  distinct;  the  locomotive  organ  fin-like,  single,  and  Viniral;  the  gills  packed  in 
small  compas^d  along  with  the  heart.  They  are  all  marine,  and  uitnally  swim  with 
the  back  downwards  ami  the  fin-shaped  foot  npv\  Rrds.  'J'hey  adhere  to  sea-weed.* by 
a  small  sucker  pbiced  on  the  fin.  Sonjo  of  thorn,  as  ylftowto,  have  a  shell  lame 
enough  to  protect  the  body  ;  some,  as  Carinaria^  have  a  snmll  »hell  covering  Ibe 
gills  and  heart  only  ;  and  some,  as  Fiiula,  have  no  shell  ut  ulL 

NU'CLEUS.    See  Cells. 

NUDIBRANCHIATA  (Naked-gills),  an  order  of  gaeteropods,  hermaphrodite 
destiiuteof  shell,  and  liuving  the  gills  exposed  on  the  sm-faco  of  tiie  body,  'ilxs 
gills  are  differently  ^itualed  in  different  genera.  The  genua  Voru  (q.  v.)  is  i^ 
ex.impK;  of  this  order. 

NUE'CES,  a  river  of  Texas,  United  States  of  Amorica,  rises  in  Sonth-we?trm 
Texfts,  lat.  SO**,  long.  101  w..  and  after  a  south-easterly  course  of  800  miles,  flows  iulo 
Corpus  Christi  Bay,  and  through  tiie  Pass  of  th  •  same  name  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

NU'CHA,  or  Nukha,  a  town  of  Ru!*sia ;  after  Tiflis  and  Shemacha,  the  most 
important  town  of  'Jranscaucasia,  and  the  only  town  of  the  former  khanat  of  N.  or 
Shelsi,  in  the  north-wCst  of  Shirwan.  It  is  120  m.  c.  s.  e.  from  llfiis,  and  stJtlitls 
at  tiie  southern  l)asd  of  C:uicasu8  in  the  valley  of  the  Ki^h-Tshai,  an  a^ncnt  of  Hie 
Alasan,  which  itself  is  a  branch  of  the  Kur.  Pop.  (186T)  23,371.  The  town  is  enr- 
rounded  by  mnlb.rry  groves  and  fruit-gardens,  extending  to  a  distance  of  several 
miles.  It  has  long  been  famous  for  the  rearing  of  silk-worms,  silk-epiuuiug,  aud 
the  manufacture  of  silken  goods. 

NUGGI'NA,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the  district  of  Bijnnr.  division  of  RoUil- 
cund,  Nonh-west  Provinces.  It  is  43  miles  north-north-west  irom  Mor^labid.oii 
the  route  from  Moradal)ad  to  Hurdwar.  N.  is  the  Birmingham  of  Upper  ludia.  nad 
is  famous  in  modern  times  for  the  maimfactnre  not  only  of  gun-burrcla  but  of  per- 
cussion-locks.   Pop.  (1872)  19,076. 

NUPSANCE  is  a  legal  term  used  .to  denote  whatever  is  an  annoyance  to  omc'.h 
neighbors,  or  in  a  geuer.d  sense  lo  the  public  at  large,  in  the  exercise  of  their  riirbts 
of  property.  The  whole  doctrin*-  of  nuisance  Is  founded  on  the  theory  that  every 
pjrson  is  entitled  to  have  the  full  use  and  enjoyment  of  his  properly,  and  of  the 
right  of  passing  to  and  fro  on  the  highway  without  being  interfered  with  or  iaipiKl'tl 
by  others,  and  whatever  .«o  impedes  this  full  enjoyment  of  one's  property  and  riglit 
of  passage  ou  the  highway  is  a  nuisance.  Nuisances  arc  thus  capable  of  bcins: 
divided  mto  two  kinds— private  and  public.  Thus,  if  a  neighl)or  leave  a  heap  of 
rubbish  emitting  noxious  smells  close  to  A*8  windows,  or  make  loud  noises  in  lii* 
liouse,  these  may  be  said  to  be  private  nuisances, for  they  annoy  A  in  the  enjcyineut 
of  the  fresh  air  and  quiet  which  are  part  of  his  right  of  property.  On  the  ntl»er 
Land,  if  at)methiug  is  put  of  the  same  kind  ou  a  public  highway,  or  so  as  to  nimay 
slivers.  i)«ople  equally  and  in  the  same  manner,  tben  it  is  called  a  putilic  nnistiiifv. 
Que  of    the  leading   incidents    of   ji   miisauCo    is,    that    tlae  jxirty  auttoyed 


y  Google 


by  ft  cnn  In  many  caips,  especially  where  the  xiaiiwofle  fe  Jnjnrioae  to  henltii, 
or  life,  take  the  law  hito  his  own  hands  and  ab:ite  (he  nnioauce  withont  rn- 
portlng  to  a  cotti-t  of  law.  The  reason  Is,  thnt  the  matter  is  of  too  nrgent 
importance  to  await  tlie  slow  pn>grei«8  of  a  pnit  nt  law,  and  mischief  may  be  done  in 
tl»e  meantime  wldch  woald  be  oft«n  irreparable  owing  to  the  delay.  Another  im- 
portnnt  qaaliflcalion  of  tlie  right  of  abating  a  tmi^nncu  i$i>,tl)at  the  Duisancc  munt  bo 
sncii  that,  tinless  it  is  abated  at  once  tlie  party  cannot  exercij^e  his  legal  rights  ;  and 
hence  if  the  niiisanoe  is  of  such  a  kind  thatitdoei*  not  directly  interfere  with  the 
comfort  or  enjoyment  of  one's  legal  right»  at  the  time,  lie  has  no  tight  to  abate  it, 
but  in  that  case  is  bound  to  resort  to  a  coart  of  law.  This  is  best  illustrated  in  tho* 
case  of  a  b6is:inc«  oA  the  highway,  which  is  the  class  of  cases  in  whi<  h  the  nlirat'e 
a  common  nnisance  is  most  »imiliarly  known.  Thus,  if  while  A  is  riding  or  driving 
along  the  highway  his  progress  is  internipted  by  a  fence  or  gate  which  nobody  has  a 
legalrljiht  to  put  there,  it  is  obvious  that  nnleSA  A  can  knoclc  down  or  demolish  at 
once  this  obstractiou,  he  cannot  proceed  in  the  exercise  of  his  lepii  right  of  usiiit/ 
the  highway.  Tn  such  a  case  he  has  a  right  to  demoli^h  the  pte  and  abate  the 
nuisance,  for  it  dir<-ctly  interferes  witli  his  own  legal  right  But  If  instead,  a  gate,  a 
booth,  or  tent  had  been  erected,  not  across  the  highway,  but  merely  on  one  side  of 
it,  so  OS  to  leave  room  for  passengers  to  pass,  then  tliovgh  sucii  tent  or  booth  would 
l)c  as  undoubted  a  uuisiuice  us  in  the  other  ctu»i',  yet  Inasmuch  as  A  can  pass  without 
direct  interference,  he  has  no  rii;ht  to  abate  the  nuisance  by  destroying  the  tent.  Ho 
must,  in  this  latter  case,  resort  to  the  legal  remedy  only.  The  same  rule  applies  to 
all*  kiiidsi  of  ludsauces. 

Another  rule  Is,  that  in  abating  a  nuisance  the  party  Is  not  to  do  unnecessary 
damapre  to  property,  L  e.,  more  than  simply  abate  '.he  nuisance  to  such  an  extent  us 
to  enable  himself  to  exercise  his  legal  right,  and  no  further.  If  he  go  be\oud  the 
Immediate  occasion,  and  cause  nnnecessary  destruction  to  property,  tlien  he  sul>- 
iects  himself  to  au  action  of  damages.  Hence  it  is  often  a  difficult  tiling  to 
know  when  one  is  justified  in  abating  a  nuisance  and  taking  the  law  into  his 
own  hands. 

Where  the  nuisance  Is  sought  to  be  removtd  by  legal  means,  then  the  remedy  is 
in  some  case^  two-fold,  and  in  some  cases  not  sa  Where  the  nuisance  is  of  a  pri- 
vate nature,  an  action  of  damages  is  in  general  the  only  remedy  given  by  the  com- 
mon law.  But  where  the  nuisuuce  is  public,  and  aff<-cts  ail  the  pui)lic  equally,  or 
nearly  so,  then  in  gent  ral  eitlier  an  action  may  l)e  brought,  or  an  indictment  will 
lie.  Thus  in  case  of  a  nuisance  on  a  highway,  as  ihis  affects  all  tlie  lieges  alike,  an 
indictment  is  the  proper  remeily,  thougli  if  an  individual  suffered  special  dam<igo 
over  and  above  what  he  suffers  as  one  of  the  public,  tlieu  he  may  bring  an  action. 
In  Scotland,  instead  of  an  indictment,  an  action  in  tlie  nature  ot  a  public  action  is 
raised,  which  is  substantially  similar  in  its  results  to  au  Indictment. 

As  will  be  seen  from  what  has  precedeil,  the  legal  remedy  in  casts  of  nuisances 
lias  long  been  felt  to  be  insufflcent.  To  add  to  the  other  defects,  tliere  is gnal  diffi- 
culty iu  determining  whether  a  particular  mode  of  using  one's  pren;i6es  is  in  the 
nature  of  a  nuisimcc  or  not;  for  if  tlie  line  is  drawn  too  narrowly,  the  ri;;ht8  of  prop-. 
erty  and  the  natural  freedom  of  tlie  subjtHit  may  be  interfered  with.  On  the  other 
hand,  tilings  which  formerly  were  considered  no  nuisjinces  are  now  tre.ited  as  such, 
oW'Mg  to  tlie  spread  of  more  eidightt^ned  views  of  public  health  and  habits  of  cleanli- 
ness. These  considerations  recently  induced  the  legislature  to  alter  the  common 
law  in  an  important  degree,  and  subsfiture  a  new  cod<i  under  the  name  of  the  Pni>- 
lic  Health  and  Nuisances  Kemoval  Acts,  Hand  12  Vict.  c.  63 ;  18  and  19  Vict. c.  115; 
S6  and  86  Vict.  c.  T9.  The  general  scheme  of  these  acts  is  to  enable  districts  lo  ap- 
point locid  boards,  with  extensive  powers  of  self-government,  and  lo  undertake  and 
rxecnte  sanitary  improvementi«,  such  as  drainage  and  water  supply  on  a  large  scule, 
paying  for  the  expense  thereof  by  a  local  rate  or  ussessinent. 

As  r^ards  the  power  of  removing  nuisance.-*,  a  statute  was  passed  In  1855  f»-r 
England,  called  the  Nuisances  Removal  Act,  which  has  been  amended  by  two  s-ulise- 
quent  acte.  By  these  acts,  some  sanitary  autliority,  calhd  rural  or  urban,  under  35 
and  36  Vict.  c.  79.  is  appointed  the  local  authority  for  carrying  out  the  provisions  of 
the  act,  and  these  are  of  an  extensive  kind.  The  act  defines  a  nuisance  to  include 
any  premises  in  such  a  state  as^  to  be  a  nuisance  or  injurious  to  healtli ;  any  pool, 
ditdi,  gutter,  water-com-se,- privy,  miual,  cess-pool,  di-ain,  or  a:?hpit,  so  foul  as  to  bj 


y  Google 


Numbers  862 

a  unisance  or  Injtiiloiui  to  health ;  aiiy  animal  so  kept  as  to  be  a  nnlsance,  or  injuri- 
ous to  health:  and  any  accnmnlutioii  or  deposit,  overcroMdiug,  foal  conditioDf  o^ 
smoke.  The  local  antiiority  li*  to  ap|)oliit  u  sanitary  iu8pector  ut  a  proper  Bulkrj. 
Any  oersuu  asgriered  may  stve  lumce  to  the  local  board)  or  the  saiiitaty  iuepectof 
may  ao  »o.  The  local  buaixThas  cxisiisive  powers ;  it  can  aatiiohse  its  inspector,  oo 
re:i80Uiible  comtilaint,  todemand  an  entrance  iuto  tiny  private  premises  so  as  to  in- 
spect iheir  c  maitioD,  antl  muy  order  the  remoyal  of  naisanc<!8  round  to  exist  tberci 
Tlio  local  "board,  611  flndtug  a  nnistiuce  ezlsta,  direct  their  officer  to  go  before  a  jn»- 
tice  of  tlie  p  iaco  nnd  procure  an  order  dli'ectiug  ihe  private  party  to  abate  the 
iiuisaiic  •.  If  he  refuses  to  do  i«o,  the  local  l>oard  mny  n!nioYe  the  nniSiince  at 
t!ie  expense  of  the  pany  on  whose  premises  it  exit^ti*,  and  sue  him  for  snch 
cxpttnses.  If  any  candle-hoas  %  ineltiiiir-hoti!«e,  soap-houne,  slHOghter-honsj  or 
])lace  for  boilitrg  ofbtl.  bloo<l)  bones,  Ac^  I>e  certified  by  tht;  medical  officer, 
or  any  two  ntedical  iiractitioner^,  to  Iw  a  miisance,  or  injurious  to  tlie  healtii  of  the 
inliab  tints  of  the  nciglil)orho<Kt,  the  locjil  Iward  may  can^e  the  person  cirryltig  on 
such  trade  to  appear  oefore  a  insiice  of  the  peace,  and  if  it  is  not  satirfactw  ly 

})rovod  that  he  does  not  use  the  be«  pr'icticahle  means  forpreventing  or  cotiiitemct- 
ng  the  effluvia,  he  is  fined.  So  if  houss  are  overcrowcred,  tlils  may  lie  plopped- 
Provisions  are  also  enacted  with  a  view  to  pn^vent  the  s^irejid  of  diseaj^-s  inti»w« if 
epidemics,  and  to  prevent  common  lodging-houses  being  kept  in  a  fool  ^fcite.  An- 
other important  provision  relates  to  the  seizure  of  di^^eased  njeat  and  provisions  ex- 
posed to  sale,  and  the  niirdical  officer  of  health,  or  inspector  of  imisanccs,  has  at  all 
times  power  to  inspect  any  animal,  carcai^e,  meat,  iionhry,  game,  fli'Sh.  fl^ib,  fruit, 
vegetables,  corn,  hread.  or  flour;  and  if  found  nnflt  foi^food,  or  diseased,  or  nn- 
sound,  they  may  be  cai  ned  away  then  and  there  and  deatroyed,  and  the  shopkeeper 
fined.  The  local  authority  may  also  order  owners  of  honses  to  supply  proper  waser- 
closets,  and  to  cleanse  gutters  and  ce^s-poola  which  are  foul.  Besides  the  ab-'ve 
provisions  as  to  nuisances  generally,  tliere  are  separate  statutes  which  prolribit 
smoke  nuisance  in  the  Bnglisli  metro|)olis  and  the  river  Thames.  'Jbu!*  all  tie 
furnaces  in  mills,  factories,  printing-houses,  dye-houses,  distilleries,  glass-boa0e^ 
bake-houses,  Ac.,'withii"t  the  metro;>olis,  must  be  so  cotistructi-d  as  to  consume  ihc-ir 
own  smoke,  and  also  any  noxious  or  offensive  effluvia  ad -ing  from  any  trade  is 
prohibited.  These  statutes  are  the  16  and  17  Vict.  c.  188.  and  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  107. 
In  Scotland,  a  Nuisances  Remoyal  Statute  was  parsed  in  1856,  and  was  re-ennded 
by  the  Public  Health  Act,  1867, 80  and  31  Vict  c.  101.  By  that  act  the  town  connciL 
or  police  commis^'ioners  of  the  place,  are  constituted  the  local  authority  foreiiforo* 
ing  the  act,  and  in  other  places  the  parochial  iK>ard.  Besides  dealing  with  the  8ani« 
class  of  uuisauces  as  the  English  act,  the  Scotch  act  provided  for  checking  all  trades 
and  businesses  offensive  and  injur  oos  to  the  health  of  tlie  iiei}rhl)orliooa.  Similar 
powers  were  given  to  the  local  board  to  enter  private  houses  and  explore  the  canses 
of  nuisances.  Diseased ,aiid  unwholesome  meat  and  provisions  may  also  1)e  seis'd. 
Common  lodging-houses  were  tol)e  registered,  and  to  he  subject  to  rtiles  and  regob- 
tions  to  be  made  by  the  local  authority.  With  regard  to  towns  in  Scotland,  au  ex- 
tensive code  of  polictt  laws  was  enacted  in  the  General  Polic.:am(  ImproY«9nent  Ads, 
26  and  26  Vict  c  101,  31  and  32  Vict  c.  102.  ITie  nets  may  !«  adopted  hy  biHglwj 
and  vlllaires  above  700  of  population  may.  by  vote  of  householders,  lie  converted 
into  burghs  for  this  purpose.  A  Smoke  Nnisatice  Act  for  Scotland  was  passi^i^ 
plicalile  to  all  burghs,  20  and  21  Vict,  c  73;  24  Vict  c.  17 ;  28  and  29  Vict,  c  102. 

The  above  is  the  usual  legal  acceptation  of  ih^  term  nuisance,  but  tlie  word  i» 
sometimes  used  iiopnlarly  to  denote  that  class  of  nuisimces,  c^iu-ed  by  disorderly 
houses  or  brotliels,  which  are  familiarly  de0cr.l)ed  as  common  nuisances.  In  the  law 
of  Engbind  those  wiio  keep  a  Itrothel  are  liable  to  be  indicted  for  a  misdemeanor, 
hut  as  there  was  oftn  a  difficulty  in  setting  the  law  in  motion  in  such  cases,  a  st.-itnie 
of  25  Geo.  II.  c.  36.  enacted  that  if  any  two  Inhabitiuits  should  give  notice  toacoa- 
stable  of  such  a  house  being  kept,  it  i^honld  then  l>e  the  duty  of  the  constiWe  under 
a  peuahy,  to  go  with  such  inhabitants  before  a  justice  and  engage  to  pros»  cute  the 


keeper,  and  their  expenses  are  paid  by  the  parish  out  of  the  poor-rates.    The  same 
net  provided  that  whoever  in,  point  01  fact  acted  as  the  mn?ter  or  mistress  of  the 
,-  »^  .,  ...        .....  -  ..      .  The  punlshmei" ''*"" 

MJvict  a  landlor 
\»,  and  rufoses 

y  Google 


house,  should  be  taken  to  be  the  keeper  of  the  house.  The  punishment  is  line 
and  imprisonment.  Of  late  an  attem))t  has  been  made  to  convict  a  landlord  nodcr 
thia  statute  when  be  knows  of  (lie  churacter  of  his  tcuanta,  and  rufoses  to  gHe 


tikem  notiee  to  quit ;  but  the  courts  baye  Iield  that  the  mere  tact  of*  the  Bnidlord  re> 
fv^^toff^  to  eive  notice  to  qait«  and  00  to  eject  auch  teaaul8%  was  set  eupa};li  to  niake 
lum  Q}i))U)  m any  crhninul  puQif>bment.  lu  Scotlaud.  the  offeiice  of  koepiufi  a  brothel 
Is  jmnt^bable  in  a  aimilar  muuuer.  But  apiirt  from  the  keepiiiff  of  a  brotiiei,  there  is 
DO  criuuuai  offence  comioittedia  this  coaiitry  by  thone  who  frequent  snch  housed 
for  the  porposes  of  proetit  utioM  niilet<s  where  the  circoinstauces  umouut to  Rape  (q.  v.) 
or  Abduction  (q.  v.),  or  an  aggravated  assault 

KU*LL A  BO'NA,  a  le^ral  phrase  hi  England,  descriptive  of  the  return  made  to  a 
itbcriff,  who  iu  ezecntins  i)roceM  ugainst  a  d-.bior  finas  lie  has  uo  goods. 

NULLIFIUA'TION,  In  American  politicks  the  d«»ctrlue  »»f  the  extreme  states' 
rights  p:irty,of  the  right  of  n  state  todeclnre  a  l»wof  Congress  uncouMiinii-nat  and 
void,  and  if  the  F*-deral  giivernnieiit  attcnipt'-d  to  enforce  it,  to  witiidniw  from  ihu 
Union.  In  ISSt,  during  the  presWency  of  Qeueriil  Jxckpou,  (q«  v.)»  the  free  ir»<le 
nud  stiitcs*  rights  party  In  Son? h  Carolhni  (q.  v.),  under  the  Kudorphip  of  John  C» 
Cal'ioiui  (q.  V.})  Iier  senutor  In  Gongresfi,  assertid  the  doctrine  of  Kulfiflcatlon  iu  h 
»t:ite  conviMit ion  which  declared  the  fnrlS  acts  of  that  year  tiuconsfliailonal,  and 
therefore  nnit  and  void;  tliat  the  duties  should  not  be  pnkf;  mid  that  any  attempt  ^\\ 
the  parr  oC  the  <reu(!ntt  governuifnt  to  enforce  th^.lr  paymf  ut>  vrouhl  cnn:>e  ihc  witii- 
lirawal  of  South  Cur  Una  frpm  tlie  UnioiH  and  the  estublihliinent  Of  an  iiidi)>ciid('nt 

f:ov»riinifiit.  Pi«j»ident  Jack-K)!!  nut thi* declaration  witli  a vlgorcm!*  proclamation^ 
u  which  be  dtt^larcd  tliatthu  lawn  must  be  executed;  and  lltat  **  tlie  Union  miibt 
nud  sliall  lie  pr(«crvtd.»*  South  Carolina,  standing  aione.  roceiled  from  h«-r  |K»'iiiou 
under  protest,  and  n  **  Coniproniiso  Bill,'*  Introdnci^d  by  HeUrv  Clay  (q.  v.)  in  1883, 
providing  for  a  gradual  reduction  of  duties,  for  the  time  settled  Uio  controversy. 

NU'MA  POMPI'LIUS,  in  the  mythic  history  of  Rome,  was  the  snecessor  of 
Konialus,  tlie  founder  of  tiie  ciiy.  He  was  n  native  of  Cures  in  tiie  S.ibine  country, 
and  was  nniversjilly  reverenced  for  bis  wisdom  and  piety.  Unanimously  electea 
king  by  the  Roman  people,  he  soon  justifl-d  by  his  conduct  the  wiMlom  of  tlieir 
choice.  After  dividing  tiie  lands  whicli  Romulus  liad  conquered,  he  proceeded, 
witii  tlie  a«8iatauco  of  tlie  sacred  nympli  Egeiia,  to  draw  up  religious  instiiiit ions  for 
his  snbjccts,  and  thus  stands  out  in  tlie  priinitive  ie^*nd  as  tlie  author  of  tlie  Roman 
cerftnioninl  law.  His  reign  ktsttd  for  89  years,  mid  was  a goldfii  age  of  peace  and 
happincse.  Ttie  only  feature  in  the  myth  of  N.  P.  which  we  can  regnnl  as  probably 
liistoricaU  is  tl^t  which  indicates  tlie  imfnsiou  of  a  Sabine  religions  element  into 
Roman  history  at  some  remote  period. 

NUMA'NTIA,  the  chief  town  of  the  Celtiberlan  people  called  Arevsci  in  ancient 
8i>aiu,  was  sitnaled  on  the  Doui-o  (Dnrius),  iu  the  neVhborhood  ot  the  present  Soria 
In  Old  Castile.  The  site  is  prof)ably  markid  by  the  present  Pnente  de  Gnanay.  N. 
is  celebrated  for  the  heroic  ret^^staiice  which  it  made  to  the  liomans,  from  168  B.C., 
when  its citis^is flrsi.  met  a  Roman  army  in  bittle,  to  134 b.o  ,  wht>n  it  was  tak<>ii 
and  destroyed  by  Scipio  the  younger,  aftir  a  siegMjf  15  mouths,  in  (he  course  of 
whicli  famine  and  the  sword  had  left  alive  veiy  few  of  its  8000  brave  defenders.  The 
t>esiegiuar  force  under  Scipio  amounted  to  60,ii00. 

KUMBBRS.  Theory  of,  the  most  subtle  and  Intrlciite,  and  at  the  same  time  one 
of  the  most  cxtcnsivi-,  biimclies  of  matheiiiaih-al  analysis.  It  treatjf  primarily  of  the 
forms  of  unml>ers,  and  of  the  projienies  at  once  deducible  from  these  forms;  but  its 
principal  field  is  the  tlieory  of  equations,  in  as  far  us  equations  are  soluble  in  whole 
numbers  orrational  fractions,  and  more  purtlcularlv  that  branch  known  as  Indeter- 
minate Bqnntions.  Clo-'cly  allied  tot  Ills  branch  are  those  problems  wliich  are  usually 
groupcHl  under  the  Diopliantine  Analysis  (q.  v  ),  a  class  of  problems  alike  interesting 
anddifHcult;  and  of  which  the  following  nre  examples:  1.  ff^ini  the  numbers  the 
9um  qfwhofte  tiquares  thall  be  a  sdtears  uuwber;  n  condition  satisflnd  by  5  and  12,  8 
and  16,  9  and  4Q,  Ac..  2.  Find  thre^  square  nunibere  in  arithmetical  progression; 
Answer,'!,  25.  and  49 ;  4, 100, 195,  &c. 

Forms  <^ Numbers  are  certain  algebraic  formulas,  which,  by  assigning  to  the  let- 
ters S(x;ces.-<ive  numerical  values  from  0  npwartls,  are  capable  of  producing  all  nnm- 
bera  without  exception,  e.  g.,  by  giving  to  m  the  successive  values  0, 1, 2, 3,  «c.,  in  any 
of  the  following  gronp<<  of  formulas :  2i»,  2m  + 1 ;  Km,  8m  +  1,  Si?^  4-  2 ;  4m,  4m  +  1, 
iM  +  2, 4<n-  +  3|  Wi  can  produce  the  natural  aeries  of  numbers.    The0e  formulas  are 


y  Google 


I<ranib«rf  Qt!  I 

Numeal^        .  OO-t  ^ 

baiicti  on  the  pelf-eddent  prfiicfpio,  that  the  reraaftrder  nftef  ditlMOn  la  leas  fhaii  lh« 
divisor,  and  that,  consieqaently f  etery  unmber  can  be  represented  lu  the  form  of  dW 
product  of  two  faetons  4-  a  rrmnbef  Jew  than  the  bihaUei  factor.'  - 

By  mean8  of  ibeso  formntas.  mniiy  properties  of  nnnibers  can  l)c  demoustnited 
wlthont  difllcnlty.  Togire  a  few  exaniplee.  (1.)  The  product  €/ two  cotueeiUivS 
ntimibers  {$  divisible  by  Jj  Let  2w  be  one  nouiber^  then  the  other 
is  either  2w  ♦  1  or  fw*  —  1,  and  the  product  2m(27»»  ±  1)  con- 
tains 2  38  a  fnctor,  and  is  thnft  divlsilTle  by  2.  Th&ffrodnot  of  three  eonnectUiu  n»m< 
bersi^  dioimble  by  6  J  Lcr  %m  be  one  of  tlie  Dora!>ere  (as  hi  every  triad  of  coiii«ecntivo 
numb  rs  one  most  be  a  nm  tiple  of  8),  then  the  ot tiers  jire  eitJier  8/n  —  2,9m  —  l"? 
8m  — 1. 3  w»  +  1 ;  or  3»<  +  l,-3jn  +  2.  In  tlie  flret  and  tliird  cases,  the  prtjposition 
is  maijife.-'f,  as  4|*^'t  — '2)(3n«  —  1),  and  (8w  4-  IH3»t  +  2>.  arc.eacli  divisible  by  2, 
and  tbtfrefore  their  product  into  hm  is  divisible  by  6  (a  1.2.9).  In  tlie  secimd  case 
the  prodmifadmQim  — 1)(3/»  +  I),  or 3m(9j/tS  —  i).  wlierc  »iaa factor,  and  tt li< nec- 
essary to  tliew  tliat  vi{9m*  —  I)  is  divisible  l)y  2 ;  if  th  bu  even,  the  thing  is  proved; 
but  if  odtl,  then  m*  is  odd,  9m*  is  odd,  Mnd9/u»  —  I  Is  even ;  hence,  in  tliis  case  ulw 
t he  proposition  is  iruf.  It  cjui  siinihnly  be  proved  tliat  the  product  of  tour co:)8e<Q- 
tivc  numbers'  is  divisible  by  24  (=  1.2.3.1),  of  6  coiiSHJcntlve  numliera  by  120 
(=  1.2  3.4&)^  and  so  ou  generally*  These  proi>osition^  fonu  the  basis  for  proof  of 
many  properties  of  numbers,  such  as  that  the  difference  of  fbe  squares  of  nii^  two 
Otid  nuraliers  Is  divisible  l>y  8.  The  difference  lx;tween  a  non»!)er  and  Its  cnbe  is  tlio 
prothict  of  tin'ee  eonsi'Ciitive  »nmi>en?,and  is  consiooently  (set*  above)  always  divis- 
ible by  ft.  Any  prime  uttiuber,  whicli,  tviien  dlvidedTby  4,  leaves  a  remainder  unity, 
is  tlie  sum  of  two  pquare  numbers  J  thus,  41  «  2&  -f  16  as  5»  -I-  4»,  233  =s  le»  -f  Ma 
13»  +  8»,  Ac 

Besides  them^  there  are  a  ^e»t  many  Interesting  properfies  of  nnmhers  which 
defy  classification  ;  such  as,  that  the  sum  of  tlie  odd  nnniiwrs  beginning  with  unity 
is  a  square  number  (the  square  of  the  naniber  of  terms  addeil),  i.  e.,  1  4-  8  -f  6  =  i> 
:=8>,  l-i'3-f5'»'74'9  =  25  =  &8,  &c, ;  and,  tlie  suui  Of  the  cnbes  of  the  iiatnml 
numl>ers  is  tlie  square  of  tlie  sum  of  the  numbers,!.  e.,lf,  -f^^-fStsI-hS-h 
27  =  86  =  (1  +  2  +  3)«,  1»  +2»  +  38  X  4»  =  100  «  (1  +  2  +  8  +  4)»,  4C- 

VVe  shall  close  this  article  with  a  few  general  remai^  on  numbers  tbeioselven, 
^uml)ers  are  divided  into  prime  and  composite — prime  nambi-rs  being  those  wbicti 
contain  no  factor  greater  than  unity  «  composite  numbers,  those  whicu  are  the  pro- 
duct of  two  (not  reckoning  unity)  or  more  factors.  The  number  <Jf  primes  is  nii- 
liinited,  :ud  so  consequently  are  the  others.  The  product  of  any  number  of  coiiseciH 
tive  numbers  is  even,  as  also  are  the  squares  of  all  even  numbers;  while  the  product 
of  two  odd  numbtirs,  or  the  squares  of  odd  nnml>ers,  are  odd.  Bvt- ry  cora|K)sito 
number  can  be  put  under  the  form  of  a  product  of  powers  of  numbers;  thus,  U4sb 
24  +  311,  or  generaHy,  ns»  aP'  W*  c^»  where  a,  b,  and  e  are-  prime  numbers,  and  the 
number  of  flie  divisorM  of  sudi  acomijoi^ite  nuiniMu:  is  equal  to  the  product  (p  +  1) 
(q  +  1)  (r  +  1)«  unity  and  the  nnmber  itself  being  included.  .  In  the  ca!*e  of  144.  the 
number  of  divisors  would  l)e  (4  +  1)  (2  +  1),  or  5  x  8,  or  16.  whicu' we  AihI  by  trial  to 
be  the  case.  Perfect  numbers  are  those  which  are  equal  to  the  sum  of  their  divisort 
(tilt*  number  itself  being  of  course  excepted);  thus,  6  =  1  +2  +  8,  28  =  1+  2  +  4 
+  7  +  14,  and  496,  ar<5  i>erfect  numbers.  Avyicable  wttm&€/-«  are  pairs  of  uumlieiv, 
cither  one  of  the  pair  being  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  divisors  of  the  other;  iluii?,  220 
(=  1  +  2  +  4  +  5  +  10  +  11  +  20  +  22  +  44  +  55  +  110  -  2S4),  and  284  (-  1+8 
-f  4  +  71  4-  142  >•  220),  are  amicable  numbers.  For  other  series  of  uumliers,  see 
FiGUBATS  Numbers. 

The  most  ancient  writer  On  the  theory  of  numbers  was  IMophantus,  who  floor- 
ished  ill  the  8(1  c,  and  the  snuject  received  no  further  development  till  the  time  of 
Vieta  and  Fcruiat.  (the  latter  being  the  author  of  several  celebrated  ilu-oi^nis,  a  di.^ 
cussion  of  which,  however,  is  quite  unsuiled. to  this  work),  who  greatly  exieiidod 
it.  Kuler  n<txt  added  his  quota,  and  was  followed  by  Liigrange,  Legendre,  ntid 
Gauss,  who  in  turn  saccesstully  applied  themselves  to  the  stmly  of  nunilwi-i*.  aud 
brought  the  theory  to  its  present  state.  Cauchy,  Libri  and  Gill  (in  Aniei'ica)  have 
also  devoted  themselves  to  it  with  succe«s.  The  chief  authorities  down  to  tue  pr*^ 
ei it  century  are  Barlow's  "  Theory  of  Nnmlwrs  **  (1811),  Legeudre's  »'E^saiPurla 
Th6orie  dea  Nombrea  "  (third  ed.  Paris,  1830),  and  Gau^8'8  '*  Disqulsitiouea  Antn- 


y  Google 


oax  Numbe  « 

OOJ  Numerals 

metit "  (Brnnswick,  1801 ;  Pr.  trniiplatlon,  1807) ;  nnd  for  the  latest,  discoveries,  tlio 
truii^ctiuiiB  of  the  various  I euriied  socieiloa  may  be  coiiBulteU. 

NUMBERS  (LXX.  Arithmoi;  Heb.  BamiJbar),  the  fourth  l)OOk  of  the  Ponta- 
teacb,  consists  of  36  chaptere,  erabraciiig  ilie  history  of  fhe  march  of  the  Isr.ielifes 
through  the  Desert,  tojiether  with  Uie  special  luws  given  during  tliis  period  as  com- 
plcmciitsiry  to  the  SiSaiiic  legislation.  Beginning  with  the  census  of  the  peojile 
(wlieuce  theiiniue  of  tlie  book),  and  tl«e  assigning  of  the  special  places  \o  each  tiihe 
with  reference  to  the  sunctaary,  tlie  whole  people  is  classifit'd,  and  llie  tribe  of  Levi 
epecially  singled  out.  Ordinances  on  liie  pnriry  to  Ik;  maintained  in  tlie  camp,  the 
functions  of  tlie  priests,  and  u  description  of  the  passover,  follow.  1'lie  i^econc  por- 
tion of  the  book  de8crib<;s  tlie  journey  from  Sinai  to  the  borders  of  Caiman,  the 
miracnlous  sustenance  of  the  iteople,  their  dlssatisl action  and  consequent  rcjttttion, 
together  with  va-ious  special  laws  rchpccling  sacrifices,  &c,  and  the  epifode  of 
Korali.  The  tlrird part  embraces  the  fir.'»t  ten  months  of  the  fortieth  year  of  the 
^vaudering — an  epoch  hurried  over  with  remurkabie  swiftness  by  the  hiMorian.    In 

auick  enccession.  the  renewed  strife  of  the  p'-ople  with  their  leaders,  the  m«-SMige  to 
u;  king  of  Moab,  the  death  of  Aaron,  the  defeat  of  the  king  of  Arad,  ttie  punish-- 
ment  of  the  people  by  serpents,  the  march  from  Hor  to  Pif«na,  and  ttie  vIciorioHS 
battle  against  the  kings  of  8ihon  and  Og.  are  rw^oanted,  and  the  extraordinary  ep- 
isode of  Balaam  follows.  The  furtlier  wiles  employed  by  the  alarmed  Mo:ibiles  and 
Midiaiiites  to  avert  the  threatening  invasion,  and  their  result,  together  with  the  sec- 
ond censas,  are  narrated.  Moses  is  WR rued  of  his  death,  and  tlie  vitil  qufHtlon  of 
his  saccession  is  settled.  Further  laws  nnd  ordinances  re8pe<'liiig  sacrifices  und 
vows,  the  conquest  of  the  Midianites,  and  the  partition  of  the  country  eaj^t  of  Ihe 
Jordan  among  certain  tril)es,  a  recapitulation  ot  the  encampments  in  the  Desert,  a 
detailed  specification  of  the  manner  in  which  the  promise<l  land  should  be  divi(le<l 
after  its  conquest,  and  the  final  ordinance  of  the  marriages  of  heiresses  amonsr  their 
own  tril>e  only,  so  as  to  preserve  the  integrity  of  landed  property,  make  up  the  i-e- 
inainder  of  the  book. 

The  Book  of  Nmnbcrs  is.  like  the  rest  of  the  Pentateuch,  supposed  by  the  greater 
part  of  modern  critics  to  onnist  of  several  documents  written  by  ELohisU  vmaJeho- 
vists  respecfiviOy.    See  Genesis,  I^entateuch. 

NU'MERALS,  the  general  name  given  to  figures  or  symbols  by  means  of  which 
unnibcrs  are  expressed  (for  Uoman  and  Greek  numeral'*,  see  Notation)  ;  the  dis- 
tinctive name  or  Arabic  Numerals  l)eing  given  to  the  nine  fi;rures  or  di«riis  and  li.e 
zero,  that  are  now  in  almost  universal  use  among  civilised  nations  for  this  purpose. 
Both  the  origin  of  these  figures,  and  the  period  at  which  they  became  known  in 
£aro|>e,  have  l)eeu  made  subjects  of  laborious  inVesti;iation  ;  and  it  seems  to  be  now 
pi-oved  beyond  a  doubt  that  they  are  of  Indian  not  Arabic  origin,  and  wire 
invoiitcd  by  the  Brahmins  some  time  b.o.  Bui  the  more  important  inquiry  as  to 
the  lime  of  their  introduction  into  Europe  has  hitherto  baffled  all  research.  The 
Bimple  and  convenient  theory,  that  they  were  introduced  into  Spain  by  the 
conquering  Anvbs,  and  from  that  country,  tlien  a  great  seat  of  learning,  a  knowl- 
edge of  them  was  disseminated  throughout  Enrope,  ix  contradicted  by  the 
fact  that  the  eastern  Arabs  themselve»«  had  no  knowledge  of  them  previous 
to  the  time  of  the  Calif  Al-Mamun  (813— 83S),  while  a  knowledge  of  them  existed  in 
'Enrope  from  a  considerably  ^arHt'r  date.  The  most  iffobahle  theor}' is  that  they 
Ware  brought  from  India,  probably  by  the  Noo-Pythagoreaus,  and  introduced  into 
Italy.  Whcncirthey  became  known  to  a  few  of  the  l.-arued  men  of  Eastern  £uro|)e. 
We' have,  however,  every  re:ison  to  suppose  that  the  figures  then  known  were  totally 
different  in  form  ii*om  those  now  used.  These  latter,  called  Go^mr  by  the  Arabs, 
muy  have  been  brought  to  Bag.lad  during  the  reign  of  Al-Mausor  (T60),  or  his  imme- 
diate successors,  and  certainly  not  later  than  the  time  of  Al-Mamun.  During  the 
hitler  reign  we  know  the  present  system  of  arithmetic  was  introduct  d  into  Persia 
from  India,  and  most  probably  a  knowledge  of  the  Gobar  figures  at  the  same  tiute. 
Thence  the  system  of  arithmetic  was  brought  to  north-westcfrn  Africa  and  Spain, 
and  doubtless  the  figures  along  with  it,  about  the  end  of  the  10th  or  iHginnin^ 
Of  the  1  Itli  century,  nnd  from  Spain  a  knowledge  of  both  was  speedily  communicated 
to  the  rest  of  Europe,  the  Gobar  figures  siiperseding  those  forms  of  Eastern  figures 
which  hud  previously  bueu  employed.     The  knowledge  of  the  figures  however 


y  Google 


Nnmerst'on  Q/^/J 

Namsxoatics  OUl> 

spread,  us  was  uatunn,  mnch  more  rapidlj  than  the  notation  and  aritlinw^e  of 
which  they  were  the  foniidutioii,  and  we  consequently  find  in  wiitiujrs 
and  iuscripiions  of  the  middle  ag^  tb«  Gobar  fl<;iires  tMiitly  siibstitntcd  for,  and 
mixed  np  with,  the  Roinuii  uuiueiiUs;  its,  for  iiietaiu'e,  AXX2,  for  82;  X4,  for  14) 
&c. ;  Mild  occasionally  such  <  xpre8s<ioiis  us  802,  803,  for  82  and  83.  'i  be  enr!iest  work 
on  modern  aritliinctlc  wju*  puhlished  in  Germany  in  1890 1  it  explained  the  deciiunl 
Dotntiuu.  and  exemplified  the  <  iementary  rnies.  Tl:«  Arabic  iinnierals  were  not  eeii* 
eially  intioducod  into  England  till  the  commencement  of  ihelTtli  c,  and  it  wus  long 
after  that  ti mi;  before  the  dtrcimal  anthnu'tic  became  eenerul.  See  a  dii'sertatiOD 
**  Sar  le»  Chiffres  Indieus,"  by  M.  Wuepke,  in  the  Asiatic  joarnal. 

IfUMERATION,  tlie  rendine  oflf  of  nnmbcrsthut  are  expressed  by  fl^ren.  As 
shewn  in  Notation  ((].  v.),  the  first  figure  ou  the  right  hand  expresses  units ;  tlie 
next,  tens;  the  thiul,  bundredH;  uikI  followin>r  the  same  nomenclature  witli  tlie 
next  three  fignn  s,  we  have  the  fourth  expresshig  Quits  of  thousands;  the  fifth,  tens 
of  thouetands;  the  sixth,  hundreds  of  thousands.  The  seventh  fijfnre,  in  like  man- 
ner, expresses  units  of  niillionn ;  the  eighth^  tens  of  millions ;  and  the  ninth,  hundreds 
of  millions.  When  this  method  is  Consistently  followed  out  as  is  the  case  with 
Prunch  and  other  continental  arithmeticians,  the  fourth  period,  or  group  rf  three 

Scores,  is  denominated  billions,  the  first  figure  of  it  (the  tenth  from  the  extreme 
ght)  being  units  of  hi  lions ;  tne  next,  tens  of  billions ;  &c  Read  in  this  way.  tlie 
fl-inre?  56,084,763.204,604  express  fifty-six  trllliouH,  eighty-fonr  billions,  aeven-linii- 
dred-aud-fi>ixty-three  mi  lions,  two-huudred-and-four  thousiinds,  flve-handrpd-aod- 
fonr  units.  In  Britain,  tbere  is  a  slight  variation  in  the  mode*  the  only  effect  <f 
which  is  to  render  it  a  little  moi'e  complicated :  thus,  after  ouits  of  miliions.  cOnie 
tens  and  hundreds  of  millions,  but  then  instead  of  billions  we  have,  siccorain^tu 
the  current  usage,  thousands  of  millions ;  after  this,  tens  of  thoustinds  of  niilhons 
and  hnndreds  of  thousands  of  millions,  and  then  billions,  which  occupy  the  18th 
figure  from  the  right,  and  are  reckoned  in  the  same  way  as  millions,  so  that  tlie 
next  unit  or  trillioiia  does  not  come  in  till  the  19th  fignr*'.  The  above  nnmlxr,  ac- 
cording to  the  British  mode,  would  l)e  read  fifty-six  billions, eighty-f our-thons,md- 
Bevcii-hundred-and-sixty-three  raMlionSj  two  hundred-and-four  thousands,  flv«>him- 
dred-  and-fonr  units.  The  first  mf  thod  is  perfectly  symmetrical,  keeping  ibronghonr 
to  divisions  of  three  figuns;  the  s<'Cond  only  keeps  to  this  division  up  to  hnndr  ils 
of  millions,  when  it  changes  it  for  a  divi.>i(m  into  parcels  of  six  figures,  which  are 
named  from  units  up  to  hundr*  ds  of  thousands  of  units.  The  latter  mode  is,  huw 
ever,  gradually  falling  into  dl-use. 

NUMI'DIA  (Gr.  Nomadia.  the  land  of  Nomads),  the  name  given  by  the  Romans 
to  a  part  of  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  coiTespondiiigto  some  extent  witJi  the  mo<lem 
Algiers.  Tt  was  bounded  on  the  w.  by  the  river  Mnlucha  (now  Moluya)^  which  sen.ir- 
nted  it  from  Mauritania;  on  thee,  by  the  rivt-r  Tusca  (now  Wadi^^l-liether)^  which 
separated  it  from  the  territory  of  Carthage,  the  Afiiea  Ptopt-ia  of  the  Romuiis ;  on 
the  south,  it  reached  to  the  chains  of  Mount  Athis  and  the  Liicns  Tritonis,  whirh 
separ  ited  it  frot.^  the  land  of  the  Gaetuliaiis  and  Interior  Liiiya.  The  chief  rivers 
were  the  Rubricatus  and  the  Ampsaga.  The  ixhabitants  of  N.,  as  of  Mauritania,  be- 
longed to  the  race  from  which  the  modem  Bertier  are  d«-S('.ended.  They  were  a  war- 
like race,  and  excelled  a^  horsemen  ;  but,  like  most  barbarians,  were  faithless  and 
nnscrupnloiis.  Of  their  tribes,  the  Massyli  in  the  east,  and  the  Mai»*auyliiu  the 
west,  Wf-re  the  most  powerful.  In  the  grand  struggle  bet  wet  n  ihe  Carthaginians  ami 
the  Romans,  th«y  at  firsi't  fought  on  the  side  of  the  former,  but  subsequently  the  king 
of  the  Eastern  Numidians,  Massinissa,  joined  the  Romans,  and  rendered  them  eff^-c- 
tual  service  in  the  war  with  Hannibal.  Favored  by  the  conquerors,  he  united  all  N. 
under  his  sway.  Ot  his  successors  in  this  kingdom,  Jiignrtlni  and  Julm  are  tiiemost 
famous.  After  the  victory  of  Caet-ar  over  Juba  L,  In  the*  African  war,  N.  l»ecame  a 
Hoiiiau  province  (46  b,o.)  ;  but  Augustus  afterwards  gave  the  western  partr-^rom  the 
river  Amptaga,  now  Wadi-el-Kil)bir— with  Mauritania,  to  Juba  IL,  and  the  name  N. 
became  ifraitca  to  the  eastern  part ;  and  wlien  Maurilauhi  became  a  Roman  province, 
the  western  part  was  callid  Mauritania  Caesarieui'ls.  Among  the  Roman  eeltmieK 
were  Hippo  Regius,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Rubricatus  ;  Cirta  (the  residence 
of  the  Numidian  kings),  afterwards  called  Constantino,  a  name  still  preserved  fai 
Convtantiue  ;  Si^i,  and  ftusicada.    For  the  modern  hii<tory  of  N.  see  Aiaikxs. 


y  Google 


/  '4  A  7  Nnmcration 

'^^*  IvamUmatcs 

NXTMISMATICS  (Lat  nnmmwi  and  nicn^itimia,  nonoy;  Or.  v(rmi>tma,  from 
nonivef  law,  a  medium  of  excliuige  e8tal>U8hed  by  law),  the  science  which  treats  ot 
coins  aud  medals.  A  roiu  ie^  a  piece  of  meiDl  of  a  fixed  weiRht  t-tampeti  by  anthoi  ilv 
of  irovernmentf  and  employed  as  a  circalutiug  medium.  A  medal  is  n  piece  Htmck 
to  coinniemorate  an  event  The  study  <  f  numisiratlcs  hns  an  importuut  bt  arin^;  on 
histoi-y*  Coins  have  been  the  means  of  a^^certainiiig  i  he  names  of  forgotten  conn- 
tries  and  (dties,  their  piisiriun,  their  chronology,  the  sncrc«>6ion  of  their  \iUi\;yy  their 
adages,  civil,  mirtary,  and  religionst  )!nd  the  style  ot  their  art.  Ou  their  reppertlw 
coins  wo  CiU)  look  on  undoubtedly  ticcurate  n■pre^eut^l lions  of  Mithridates,  Julius 
Ctesar,  Augustus,  Nero,  Caracall.i,  and  read  their  chnmcter  isnd  feainr«  s. 

Tlie  meinlf ,  which  hiive  generally  been  use<l  for  coinage  nre  ^rold.  silver,  and  cop' 
per.  In  each  ciass  is  c<»mpri!'ed  the  ailov  occasionally  «>uD6titnt<  d  for  it,  as  electrinn 
j(an  alloy  of  gold  and  silver)  for  K<>I<It  billoti  for  silver,  bronze  for  copper,  nnrl  noiin 
(ai>  alloy  softer  than  billon)  for  silver  and  coi)per.  The  side  of  n  coin  which  iKurH 
the  most  important  device  or  iu.«cripfion  Is  called  the  obverse^  the  other  i*ide  the  re- 
verse. The  words  or  letters  on  a  coin  are  called  its  int'crlption  ;  an  Ini^crlptioii  Mir- 
ronnding  the  border  is  called  the  legend*  Wh«n  the  lower  part  of  the  reverse  i^  dis- 
tinctly separated  from  the  main  device,  it  Is  called  the  exergtie  (Gr.  ex  ergou.  without 
the  work),  and  often  bears  n  se*  ondary  inscription,  with  the  date  or  place  of  mint- 
age. Mlie  field  is  the  spuce  on  thesunaceof  the  coin  unoccupied  by  the  principal 
davice  or  inscription. 

The  use  of  coined  money  cannot  be  tmced  further  back  than  the  9th  c.  B.C. 
Money,  however,  att  a  in*  dinm  of  exchange,  existed  much  earlier,  and  when  of  metal 
it  ptissed  by  weij^ht,  uo  piece  l>einjr  udjitsttd  to  any  pncise  weight,  and  all  nion«  y 
being  weiuhed  when  exchanged.  Eurlv  mi'tallic  money  wao  in  the  form  of  ban«, 
spikt!ti,  and  rings;  the  ring  money  could  be  opened,  closed  and  linked  In  a  chain  lor 
convenience  of  can  Inge. 

The  LydiauH  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  people  whf)  used  coined  mom  y, 
nlK>ut  700  or  800  years  before  the  Christian  era;  and  their  example  \sa»  fouu 
after  followed  by  the  different  Ftatet<  of  Greece,  the  earliest  Greek  coins  l>cing  tho^e 
of  iBgiua.  In  its  early  stages  the  process  of  coining  consist*  d  in  pla<  ing 
a  Inmp  of  metal  of  a  fixed  weight,  and  approaching  to  a  globular  form, 
over  a-a':e.  on  which  was  engraved  the  religious  or  national  ^ymbol  lo  be  impressod. 
A  wedge  or  punch  placeu  at  the  back  of  the  metal  wni*  held  steiulily  with 
one  hand,  and  struck  hy  a  hammer  with  the  other,  till  the  metal  was  snificientiy 
fixed  in  the  die  to  receive  a  good  impression.  The  impression  was  a  guarantee 
of  the  weight  of  the  piece.  From  the  nature  of  the  i)rocePs,  the  earliest 
coins  had  a  lumpish  appeaian«e,  and  on  their  reverse  was  a  rou<rh,  irregular, 
hollow  square,  corresponding  to  a  similar  pquare  on  the  punch,  devised  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  the  com  steady  when  struck  hy  the  coining  hammer.  The 
original  coins  ot  Asia  Minor  were  of  gold,  those  of  Greece  of  silver.  The  earliest 
coins  bear  emblems  of  a  sacred  character,  often  embodying  some  leeend  rcfrarding 
the  foundation  of  the  i^tatc,  as  the  phoca  or  seal  on  the  coins  of  the  Fhocians,  wli  en 
allndes  to  the  shoal  of  seals  said  to  have  followed  the  fleet  dnrinu  tlie  em'gration  of 
the  people.  Then^s  a  very  early  double  stater  of  Miletus,  in  Ionia,  of  which  the 
type  is  the  lion's  head,  derived  from  Persia  and  Assyria,  and  associated  with  the 
worship  of  Cybele,  a  symbol  which  is  continued  in  the  Inter  coinage  of  Miletus. 
Types  of  this  kind  were  succeetled  hy  portraits  of  proteciing  deities.  The  earrnrft 
coins  of  Athens  have  the  owl,  as  type  of  the  goddess  Athene;  at  a  'ater  period,  the 
head  of  the  goddess  herself  takes  its  place,  tlie  owl  afterwards  re-nppi  arinj:  on  the 
reverse.  The  punch-mark,  at  first  a  rudely-roughed  square,  soon  assumed  the  more 
siglitly  form  of  deep,  wedge-like  indents,  which  in  later  speclinens  become  n:oro 
regular,  till  they  form  themselves  into  a  tolerably  symmetrical  sqinire.  In  the  next 
BtMge,  the  indents  liecome  shallower,  and  consist  of  four  squares  forming  one  largo 
oue.  The  surrounding  of  the  pmich-mark  with  a  band  bearing  a  name,  and  the 
introdiictk>ii  of  a  lieaa  in  its  centre,  gradually  led  to  the  perfect  reverse,  'there  is  u 
remarkable  series  of  so-cjilled  *♦  encased  "  coins  struck  in  Magna  Graecia,  of  which 
the  reverse  is  an  exact  rejietition  in  concave  of  the  relief  of  the  obverse.  These 
coins  are  thin,  flat,  sharp  in  relief,  and  heantlfnlly  executed. 

Th»  leading  coin  of  Greece  i>nd  the  Greek  <k>Ionie8  was  the  stater,  so  called  be- 
caose  fomided  ou  a  ataudaid  of  weight  generally  receired  before  the  introductiou  of 


y  Google 


Nam  gmatics 


368 


coined  mouey.    There  were  double  Btaters,  and  Imlf,  third,  and  qnarter  staters,  I 
th«  staler  was  equivalent  lu  value  to  six  of  the  silver  pieces  calUid  drachina.    ' 
o)>olu8  was  one-sixth  of  tlie  drachma,  at  first  struck  lu  silver,  iu  later  liuw 
copper. 

The  iiiacriptiotis  on  tlie  earliest  Greek  coins  consist  of  a  single  letter,  the  initial, 
of  the  city  where  they  were  struck.  The  remaining  letters,  or  a  portion  of  theju.'' 
were  afterwaids  added,  the  name,  when  iu  full,  being  in  the  geuiiive  case.  Mono-* 
jrrams  sometimes  occur  in  addition  to  the  name,  or  "part  name,  of  the  place.  Tli« 
first  coin  bearing  the  name  of  a  king  is  the  tetradraolim  (or  piece  of  four  dcachmc)  • 
of  Alexander  I.  of  Macedon.  • 

Amoug  the  early  coins  of  Asia,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  is  the  stater  Daricns, 
or  Diric,  named  from  Darius  Hystaspes.    It  liad  for  symbol  an  archer  kueeling  on ^ 
one  Icnee,  and  seems  to  have  l)eiMi  coined  for  tlie  Greek  colonies  of  AM  i  by  tiicir', 
Porsian  conquerors,    lu  the  reign  of  Plnlip  o£  Macedon,  the  coinage  of  Greece  Itnd' 
attained  its  full  development,  having  a  perfect  reverse.    One  of  the  earlient  spxi-i 
mens  of  the  complete  coin  is  a  beautiful  medal  struck  at  Syracuse,  with  ilie  heudi.f| 
Proserpine  accompanied  by  dolphins,  ajid  for  reverse  a  victor  in  the  Olympic  gam.s»' 
in  a  chariot  receiving  a  %\Teath  from  Victory — a  lyjje  which  is  also  found  on  the  re-., 
verse  of  tl»e  staters  of  Philip  of  Macodon,  known  as  Philips,  and  larj^dy  imiiateil  br 
otlic^r  states.    Coins  of  Alexander  the  Gre;it  are  abundant,  many  bavmg  been  stnick 
after  his  conque.<*ts  in  the  Greek  towns  of  Asia.    A  rose  distinguishes  those  struck  ' 
ut  Rhodes,  a  i>ee  those  ntruck  at  Eplie^^us,  &c  ;  these  are  all  types  generally  accoai-  ' 
panyiug  the  fi^jure  of  Z  m»  on  the  reverse ;  on  the  ohverse  is  the  liead  of  Hercnl<s«. 
which  has  sOMietimes  been  supposed  to  be  that  of  Alexander  himself.    It  woiild 
rather  seem,  however,  that  the  conqueror's  immediate  successors  were  the  fir:<t  w-io 
plac  ;d  their  portrait  on  the  coins,  and  that  und.;r  a  shallow  pretence  of  delQcatiou, 
Ly:«imachus  as  a  dv^sceudant  of  Bacchus,  and  Seleucus  of  Apollo,  clothed  in  the  at- 
tributes of  thefie  deities.    Two  mo:«t  betiutifnl  and  import.ant  s.n-ies  of  Gr^^ek  couis 
are  those  of  the  Svileucid®,  in  Asia,  of  silver,  and  of  the  L  igidee  or  Ptolemies,  ia 
E^ypt,  of  gold. 

In  Palestine  there  is  an  iotereating  series  of  coins  founded  on  the  religious  hirftorr 
of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  assigni^l  to  Simon  MaccalxBUS.  They  are  shekeU  tiuii 
lialf-shekels,  equivalent  to  two  Attic  drachnne  and  one  drachma  respectively.  Ttie 
shekels*  bear  on  the  obverse  the  pot  of  raaima,  wit  i  the  inscription  *'  Schekel  IsTml" 
(the  Sliekt.I  of  Israel);  on  the  reverse  U  Aaron's  rod  with  three  flowers,  and  tli-? 
legend  "  lerouschalim  kedOi*chah  "  (Jerusalem  the  Holy),  'nie  inscriptions  ar  •  in 
the  Samaritan  character.  The  successors  of  Simon  assumed  tiie  title  of  king,  aitd 
placed  their  portraits  on  the  coins,  with  inscriptions  in  Greek  as  well  as  in  Hebrew. 

HomuM  coins  belong  to  three  different  series,  kuowu  as  the  Kupnblican,  the  Faut-  • 
ily,  aud  the  Imperial. 

The  so-called  Republican,  the  earliest  coinage,  began  at  an  early  y^riod  of  Romjti 
history,  aud  subsisted  till  about  80  B.C.    Its  stanclard  m(;tal  was  copper,  or  wther  i^*  ■ 
or  hronzo,  an  alloy  of  copper.    The  standard  unit  was  the  pfmudweight  divided  hiio  | 
twelve  ounces.    Tlie  ceti  or  a«,  or  pound  of  bnmze,  is  said  to  Imve  rec<Mved  a  etaic 
impress    as   early    as    the    rei^n  of    Servius   Tulhus,   678   B.C.     This  gigi»ni.«!  ; 
piece    was    oblong    like    a    brick,    and    stamped    with    tl>e    represenlaiiou   «fj 
an  ox  or  sheep,  whence  the  word  pecunia,  from  pecu*^  cattle.     The  full  pom  tl  ■ 
of  the  as  was  gradually  reduced,  always  retaining  the  twelve  (nominally)  uncial  ^n^>* 
divisions,  till  its  actual  weight  came  to  be  no  more  than  a  quarter  of  au  ounc  •.  , 
About  the  time  when  the  as  had  diminished  to  nine  ounces,  the  square  form  wa>« 
exchanged  for  the  circular.    This  large  coppei  coin,  called  the  **  as  grave,"  was  not  i 
struck  with  the  punch,  but  cast,  and  exhibited  on  the  obverse  the  Jauns  bif rOus ;  ■ 
and  on  the  reverse,  the  prow  of  a  shin,  with  tlie  numenU  I     Of  the  fracliorta  of  . 
the  as,  the  sextans,  or  sixt  h  part,  generally  bears  the  head  of  Mercury,  and  the  uucia,  ' 
or  ounce  piece,  that  of  Minerva ;  these  pieces  bi'ing;  further  distiuiruish  d  by  dots  or 
knobs,  one  for  each  ounce.    There  w.;re  circular  pieces  as  high  as  the  decu»-si8,  or 
piece  of  twelve  at^ses,  presenting  a  head  of  Roma  (or  Minerva),  l»ut  UiMie  are  knowu 
to  have  been  coined  till  the  weight  of  the  as  had  diminished  to  four  ounceft.    The  ; 
Roman  uncial  coinajje  extended  to  the  other  suites  of  Italy,  where  a  varielyof  typos  ' 
were  iutro<luced,  including  mytholoi'ical  heads  and  animals.    Iu  the  re^n  of  Au}!ii»-  | 
tus,  the  as  was  virtually  superseded  by  the  eeetei-tias,  called  by  uum&matiM4  Ihe  r 


y  Google 


369 


nnmltmcUM 


first  bronze,  about  the  size  of  onr  prnny,  which  wns  at  first  of  the  Talne  of  2V(«  after- 
wards of  4  aftses.  The  sestertins  derivi  d  its  valne  from  tlie  sliver  denarius,  of 
"Wliich  it  was  \he  fonrth.  The  half  of  the  sestertius  was  Hie  dnpoudins  (kiiowu  as 
the  second  bronze),  and  thelinlf  of  the  du|>ondius  vyas  called  the  assarinir,  aii  old 
name  of  the  as.    The  assariiim  is  known  to  nninjsmatists  >is  the  third  bronze. 

Silver  was  flret  coined  at  Rome  about  281  B.C.,  the  stMiidjird  h'-lng  fonudcd  on  the 
Greek  drachma,  then  equiYnlent  in  vulne  to  ten  ass*s;  the  new  coin  wns  therefore 
called  adenarias,  or  piece  of  ten  asses.  The  earliest  silver  coined  at  Home  lias  on 
tlie  obverse  the  head  of  Roma  (difE«'ring  from  Minei-va  by  havinir  winjrs  ntiached  to 
the  helmet) ;  on  the  reverse  is  a  quudrijja  or  bii?ji,  or  the  Dioscuri.  Among  vnrious 
other  types  whieb  occur  in  the  silver  of  the  Italian  town^  subject  to  Rome  arc  the 
horse's  head  and  jrailoping  horse,  both  very  beaulifnl.  Durinj?  the  social  war,  the 
revolted  stntes  coined  money  iiidei)emlently  of  Rome,  and  used  various  devices  to 
distingiii.-h  it  as  Italian  and  not  i^onian  money« 

'i  he  earliest  jrold  coins  seem  to  have  I)een  issued  nl)ont  91  B  o.,  and  cont-ij^t^'d  of 
the  .''crnpiilum,  equivalent,  to  20  sestertii,  and  tlio  double  and  trible  S(  rnpnium. 
These  pieces  bear  Ihi?  head  of  Mars  on  t!;e  obverse,  and  on  the  reverse  an  eagle 
st'Uidius;  on  athnnderbolt,  with  the  insciiutiou  "Roma"  on  tl  ei  xergne.  The  large 
early  republican  coins  were  cast,  not.  struck. 

The  Family  Coin*  begin  Jibout  170  B.C.,  and  about  60  B.C.  thev  rmirely  supersede 
the  coins  first  descrilied.  Those  families  who  successively  held  offlces  ccmnected 
with  the  public  mint  acquired  the  right  first  to  im-crll  e  tlieir  names  ou  ihe  numey, 
afterwards  to  introduce  symbols  of  events  in  their  own  family  "liis'ioiy.  These 
ty|)e:<  gitulojilly  superseded  the  natural  ones  ;  the  portrait  of  an  ancestor  followed  ; 
aud  then  the  portrait  of  a  livin*;  citi2<  n,  Julius  CiEsar. 

Under  tlie  empire,  the  copper  sesterilus,  wbicii  had  displaced  the  as,  cont'nued 
the  monetary  standanl.  A  magnificent  series  exists  of  the  first  bronze-^  of  the  em- 
perors from  Ao'^nsiuB  to  Gallienns.  While  it  was  the  privihge  of  the  emperors  to 
coin  gold  and  ^iTver,  copper  could  only  be  coined  ex  HcnatustwiU'Ultitf  which  from  tho 
time  of  Augnstus  was  expi'essed  on  the  coins  l>y  the  letters  S.C,  or  KX  S.C.  The 
ohters*!  of  tho  imperial  coins  bears  the  por'raits  of  tlie  successive  emperors,  some- 
llines  of  the  empress  or  other  members  of  the  imperial  family ;  and  the  reverse  rep- 
resents some  event,  military  or  social,  of  Ihe  emperorV  n?ign.  sometimes  allegorinejl. 
The  emiieror's  name  and  title  are  inscribed  on  the  obverse,  and  someiimes  parily 
continued  on  the  rever.-e ;  the  inscription  on  the  reverse  generally  relates  to  the  nib- 
yict  delineated ;  Jiud  towards  the  clo.'^e  of  the  8d  c  the  exerjrue  of  the  reverse  is 
o«'cn;»ied  by  th«'  name  of  the  town  where  the  coin  is  struck.  'I'lie  coins  of  Augustus 
and  those  of  Livia,  Antonia,  and  Agrippina  the  Elder  have  much  artistic  merit.  The 
workmai.ship  of  Nero's  se»terfii  is  very  beauiiful.  The  coins  <,t  Vespasian  and 
Titos  commemorate  the  conquest  of  Judaea.  Tlie  Coloss  uin  appears  on  a  sestertius 
of  Vespasian. ,  The  coins  ot  Trajan  arc  noted  for  their  archit«  ctural  types.  Ha- 
drian's coins  commemorate  his  jonmeys.  The  coins  and  medals  of  Amonine,  Marcus 
Aarelins,  and  the  two  Paustinie  are  well  executed  ;  as  are  alfo  thOf»e  of  Comnodiis, 
of  wliom  a  remarkable  medallion  rehites  to  the  conquest  of  Britain.  There  is  a 
r«pid  fading  off  in  design  after  the  time  of  Commodui*,  and  base  silver  comes  ex- 
tensively into  ose  in  tiie  reign  of  Caracalla.  Gallienus  intioduced  the  pi-aciice  of 
coining  money  of  copptT  washed  with  silver. 

The  colonial  and  provincial  money  of  this  period  was  very  inferior  to  that  coined 
In  Rome.  In  the  coins  of  the  provinces  which  had  been  formed  out  of  the  Greek 
empire,  the  obverse  l>ear8  the  emperor's  head,  aud  the  reveise  generally  the  chief 
temple  of  the  gods  in  the  city  of  coinage;  the  inscriptions  are  in  Gretk.  In  the 
irapj-rial  coins  of  Alexandria  ap|>car  such  characteristic  devices  as  ihe  heads  of 
jQpiter  Amnion,  Isis,  and  Canopns,  the  sphinx,  Jhe  serpent,  ihe  lotus,  jind  tho 
wheat-ear.  Colonial  coins  were  at;  first  distlnjrniFhed  by  a  icam  of  oxen,  afterwards 
by  banners,  the  nnml>er  of  which  indicated  the  uunil)er  of  legions  from  which  the 
colony  had  been  drawn. 

•After  the  lime  of  Gallienus,  the  colonial  money  and  the  Greek  imperial  money, 

.  OEcept  that  of  Alexaudrhi,  ceased,  and  much  of  the  Roman  coinage  was  «  xecuted  iii 

the  provinces,  tho  name  of  the  town  of  issue  appearlnjr  ou  the  exergue.    Diocletian 

introduced  a  new  piece  of  money,  called  the  follis,  whiph  became  the  chief  coin  of 

(be  lower  empire.    The  first  bronze  has  disappeared  after  Gtillienus,  aud  the  second 


Digitized  by 


Google 


KtbBifmatiM 


870 


d{!*app6ar8  after  I>iocletiain  tlie  third  bronee  dliniiilsliing  to  1-20th  of  ftn  mM, 
With  the  establishment  of  Chrl»tiAiiity  uuder  Coustantiiie,  a  few  Cbrifttian  typeR  an 
introiliiced.  The  third  bronee  of  tlmi;  emperor  bus  ibe  Labarum  (q.  v.)»  with  the 
monogram  IHS.  Large  medallions,  called  eontomiati^  encircled  with  a  deep  groora^ 
belong  to  tills  period,  and  seem  to  fia'V^  iieen  piiees  for  distribation  at  tbepobKc. 

fsuK'S.  Pa<raii  types  recur  on  tWe  coins  of  Julian ;  and  after  his  time  tbu  tbiifi^ 
roiire  disappear.*. 
'I'lie  jnouey  of  tbe  Byxautlne  empire  forms  a  link  Ijetween  the  subject  of  ancie^ 
and  tbat  of  niodem  coins.  Tbe  portnflt  of  tlie  emi»eior  (m  the  obverse  Is  af  er  tte 
lOih  c.  supported  by  some  protecting  ?aint.  Tbe  reverse  has  at  fti-st  sncb  types  as 
Victory  with  a  cross,  afterwards  a  represent:! tiou  of  the  Saviour  or  tiMj  Virgfti ;  it 
some  in5«tances,  tl)e  Virgin  snppoitlnu  tbe  walls  of  Constantinople.  L'ltin  is  gmidii- 
ally  snpercjeded  by  Greek  in  the  inscriptions,  and  wlioUy  di!«uppears  by  the  liim*  of 
Alexius  I.  The  chief  gol«l  pie<te  was  tiie  solidas  or  nomisuia,  w  iiicb  was  long  famed 
in  commerce  for  its  purity^  and  cir(AiIated  largely  in  tiie  west  as  well  as  the  east  aC 
Euro|)e. 

or  the  coins  of  the  middle  ages,  tbe  most  imnnrtant  is  the  silver  denier  or  penny, 
d  rived  from  the  Latin  deiiarlt|s.  Irs  half  was  the  obole,  first  of  siv.r,  jtfterwar(l:»o( 
billon.  Coinsof  this  <le^cription  Were  fssuetl  in  the  Oerman  e.npire,  France,  fiogj 
land,  and  the  Scandinavian  states,  and  in  many  oases  by  ecclesiastical  piinces  and 
feudal  loixls  as  w  11  as  8ovei*eitfns.  Th"  obverin'  of  the  regal  coin  of  tbe  early  itiidtlla 
ages  is  generally  the  bust  of  the  sovereign,  and  the  revi  rse  a  Gr«*ek  cnjBs  acconn 
panied  by  tbe  royal  name  or  tiile^-ttiid  the  place  «tf  ndnt  ge  or  the  moneyer  i^ 
IfiNT).  The  arms  of  tbe  country  were  introduced  in  the  I2i  h  c,  in  ctnijunction  with 
the  cross,  and  afterwards  snptTdeded  It  In  the  18th  and  14th  centnrles,  coinn  l>eirM 
to  be  issn<'d  by  free  imperial  cities  or  corporations  of  towns;  and  there  prevsiitod 
exiensivfly  tlirougbout  Germany  and  other  parts  of  Europe  a  tbin  pia-e  CHi*t«d  a 
bracteate,  in  relief  on  <nie  side,  au(^  boHowon  tbe  other,  often  not  l»enring  a  rfngte 
letter,  and  rarely  a  fu  1  inscription."  Down  to  tlie  14th  c,  tbe  relief  of  the  mcdieral 
coins  is  very  incoti'^iderable,  ihtrpipces  thin,  and  the  art  |K)or. 

Britain  received  the  Roman  money  oii  its  subjugation.  Constantino  st^ems  to 
have  had  a  mint  in  London,  and  tl)e  Roman  curreiicv  continued  to  circuiate  for  s 
time  alter  the  departure  of  the  conquerors,  Tlie  first  indei>en(lent  coinns;e,  howeveij 
shews  hardly  a  trace  of  the  induence  oMiome ;  It  consists  of  two  small colns^ca&tl 
th  t  skeatta  and  stycij  the  former  of  silv.r,  the  latter  of  copper.  Bo:h  seem  iobek>i« 
S()l<-ly  to  the  Saxon  kui;;dom  of  Nortbumbria  ;  they  are  witnout  inscriptious;  a  ••irOj 
a  rude  proflls,  and  several  nnintelligihie  ^ymbols  appe  .r  on  them,  and  their  nx\  is  vi 
the  most  deb  ised  kind.  In  the  otiter  kingdoms  of  ilie  h  ptarchy  silver  peniik«  were 
coiu'd,  first  intended  to  l>e  1-240tb  of  a  pound  wtMebt ;  on  tbe  disappearance  of 
skeiltse  and  stycse,  they  form,  with  the  occasional  addition  of  halfpennies,  the  sole 
currency  of  Bugiaud  down  to  tne  reign  of  Edward  III.  The  pennies  of  the  bei>tar- 
cliy  l>earthe  name  of  the  kingorof  tliemon<yer ;  a  cross  sometimes  appears  after  tlie 
introduction  of  Clirisiljinity,  and  in  later  limes  a  rude  bead  of  tbe  king  or  queen.  The 
penni  's  of  the  Saxon  and  Danish  sole  monarchs  of  England,  have  a  somewhat  similar 
character.  Alln^'s  earlier  coins  have  at'rote  que-lookmg  portrait,  and  on  the  reverie 
a  monogram  of  London ;  in  bis  later  coins  the  head  disjippears,  and  a  cross  and  cir- 
cle take  its  place.  A  cross,  variously  ornamented  with  three  pellets  in  e:icliini^le, 
continues  to  be  the  usual  rever-e  of  the  Saxon,  Norman,  and  Plantjigenet  corns. 
The  coins  of  Edward  III.  are  a  great  artistic  advance  on  those  tbat  pn'C»?d«d  tliem. 
The  silver  coinage  of  thai  king  consisted  not  only  of  pennies,^  halfjienni'  s,  and  farth- 
inirs,  but  also  of  gsoats  and  half-Croats.  The  obverse  of  the  jrroat  bears  a  t:onven> 
tioiial  crowui'd  hea<l  within  a  flowered  circle  of  nine  arches,  tbe  words  ••  D  -i  Gratia*' 
and  the  tiile  »♦  Rex  Francife  "  appearing  for  tbe  first  lime  in  the  legend.  The  reverse 
has  the  motto  **  Posni  Deu  n  adjutorem  meum,"  which  contiimcd  on  the  coiuitee  tlfl 
the  time  of  Edward  V.  But  the  prreat  numismatic  feature  of  Edward  IILV  rflim  is 
the  issus  of  gold  nobles,  worth  six  shillinjrs  and  eightpence.  Tbe  obverse  of  tlKMa 
beautiful  coins  represent  the  king  in  a  ship,  a  sw(mxI  in  his  right  hand,  in  hts  left* 
shield  with  the  quartered  arms  of  France  and  England.  Tbe  reverse  is  a  rich  croM 
flory  within  a  circle  of  eight  arches,  and  a  lion  nnc^r  a  crown  in  each  augle  of  Iba 
cross,  the  legend  being  **Ihesns  autem  transiens  per  medium  illorum  ilrat."  JMt 
and  quarter  uoUea  were  also  colaed.    The  uoUie  having  iucrsMed  iu  value*  %  cofai 


y  Google 


an 


Knrn'MBstlM 


c«ned  an  ouffel,  of  the  former  ralne  of  a  noble,  was  iisned  by  Henry  VI.  and 
Edward  IV.  TThe  obverse  represented  St  Hicbael  transfixing  a  dragou ;  the  reverse 
a  eliip,  with  a  cross  for  the  masU 

As  we  approach  the  period  of  the  Keformation,  the  coinage  ffradnnlly  t>ecomes 
more  ornate.  The  iiot)lei*  coined  by  Edward  IV,,  after  the  value  of  tliat  coin 
bad  b8t;n  ilxed  at  ten  shilllugs,  were  called  riiile  (a  name  deriv<d  from  a  French 
coin),  and  the  donble  rial  or  sovereign  was  first  coined  by  Henry  VII.  The  obverse 
ba?«  the  king  on  his  thi-oue  with  scentre  and  orb,  and  on  tlie  reverse.  In  the  ci'ntre  of 
a  heraldic  fall-:)!own  rose,  is  a  shield  with  the  arms  of  Fiance  and  England.  The 
te.«toou,  or  *»hilling,  valued. at  twelve  pence,  also  first  appt^Ai'ed  In  thin  reljjjn,  with  tfio 
royal  profile  crowntfd  on  the  obverse,  and  the  royal  arms  qnurtered  by  the  cross  on 
t'l^  reverse.  A  gr»at  debasement  of  the  coinage  look  jtl^ce  in  the  reign  of  Heniy 
VIII.  The  reverse  of  the  farthin-.'s  of  that  monarch  l>ean»  a  iwricullis,  that  of  the 
Bliilliiij^s a  i-ogt^  snmionuted  hy  a  crown,  and  of  the  Bov»relirns,  thi*  royal  nrnis  hiip- 
portcil  i>y  a  lion  and  dragon.  A  noble  was  coined  with  St  George  and  ll»e  dragon  on 
the  obvn-se,  and  on  tne  reverse  a  ship  with  three  crosses  for  inat^t-,  and  a  rose  on  the 
cenire  mast.  On  the  coins  of  Henry  VIII.  the  tile  *'  H.h.  nii«e  Rex  "  firsr  appe  ired, 
foruur  kinijs  having  only  styled  themselves  '*  Dominus  Hibi  n.iae,"  Ireland  not  heing 
accounted  a  kinffdom.  Under  Edward  VI..  the  silver  coins  called  crowns  and  halt- 
crowns  appear,  having  fqr  devi  e  the  king  crowned  on  horseback  in  the  armor  of  the 
peritnl.  Tin  y  derjv>  d  tlieir  nam'*  from  coins  circulating  on  the  continent,  which  h  d 
for  devici-  a  crown.  The  royal  arms  in  an  oval  shield  without  the  cioss  irt-e  iutru- 
doct-dastlie  rev«rse  of  the  Kinlliiiir.  From  this  ])erio<t  there  is  a  very  obviou?*  de- 
cline ill  the  artistic  fieliiiir  of  the  English  coins.  On  some  of  the  shillinv'H  «)f  Maty, 
bi-r  bust  and  that  or  Piillip  face  eiicTi  other,  the  in>iKula  of  Spain  and  England  iin- 
palt-d  occnjjying  the  Inverse ;  afterwards  the  king's  head  occupies  one  side  of  tiie 
colli,  «nd  the  queen's  the  otfier.  Half-sovereign?,  or  rials,  and  angels  were  coini  d 
of  the  old  type  of  Edwai^d  IV.  The  great  event  in  the  coinage  of  Elizabeth's  rei^n 
wastbeteniporary  introduction  Of  the  mill  and  screw,  instead  of  the  hamm»  r  and 
puDcli.  prodiicing  coins  of  a  more  regular  and  woikmanlike  appearance.  The  profile 
nnst  of  Jame:<  I.,  crowned  and  in  armor,  appeal's  on  his  shillin .  s  and  smaller  plece^  ; 
on  Ilia  crowns  and  half-crowns  he  is  represented  on  horseba*  k ;  on  the  reverse 
are  the  quart<^rcd  nrms  of  the  three  kingdoms  (the  hurp  of  Ireland  app  ariug  lor  the 
firrt  lime  on  the  coinage),  with  the  motto  **  Que  I)eu8  conjniixit  nemo  separei." 
Gojipi'rf.irthings^  with  crown,  sceptre,  and  sword  on  the  obverse,  i.ud  a  Imrp  on  the 
n'Verse,  were  coined  for  Etigland  as  well  as  Ireland,  the  first  copper  money  issued 
in  England  since  the  styca.  Private  tokens  of  copper,  isj'ued  by  tradesmen  and 
otht-rs,  had.  however,  been  in  circnlation  l)efore,  and  came  again  into  nfe  to  a  large 
extent  at  a  later  period.  Charles^;,  coined  ten  and  twenty  shTUiDi^  pieces  of  fiiver, 
the  former  a  vei7  noble  coin,  with  a  representation  of  the  king  on  horeebnck. 
A  crown,  struck  ait  Oxford,  Dears  on  the  obverse  the  king  on  horseback,  witli 
a ri|Mvsentati  n  of  the  town,  and  on  the  reverse  the  heads  of  the  Oxford  drclar- 
atioH.  The  guinea,  fir.*t  coined  in  this  reign,  was  so  called  from  the  metal  being 
lirocured  from  the  eoa-^t  of  Guinea  ;  its  original  value  was  but  twenty  shilling!*. 

The  coins  of  the  Commonwealth  exhibit  n  shield  with  the  cro^s  of  St  George 
Mrrounded  by  n  palm  and  olive  branch,  and  Itave  for  legend  "The  Coinmonwealth 
of  England."  On  the  reverse  are  two  shields  nccoll6e,  with  the  cross  of  St  Georj^je 
and  the  harp  of  Ireland,  and  the  motto  **God  with  us."  C  ins  far  superior  in  char- 
acter were  executed  by  Cromwell,  with  his  laureate*!  bust  a  id  title  as  Profett<»r, 
and  on  the  reverse  a  crowned  ?hield  quartering  the  cro?s  of  Si  George,  of  St  Andrew 
and  The  fiarp,  with  the  Protector's  paternal  arms  in  snrtout ;  but  few  of  these  were 
i'*''ned.  In  the  e.irly  coins  of  Charl  s  II.,  that  monarch  is  crowTied,  and  in  the 
dress*  of  the  time;  In  his  later  money  he  is  in  conventionalis-ed  Roman  drapery, 
with  the  head  turned  to  the  left,  and  from  that  time  it  has  l)eeu  the  practice  to  turn 
evefy  king's  head  the  reverse  way  from  th:tt.  of  his  predecessor,  'i'he  four  shields 
Wi  the  nveise  are  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  cross  (an  arrangement  which 
Continued  liU  the  reign  of  George  II.),  and  on  the  edge  of  the  crowns  and  half- 
crowns  is  the  legend  **Decus  et  tntameu."  Charles  II.  issued  a  copper  coinage  of 
half|)ennies  and  farthings ;  on  the  former  appears  the  device  of  Britannia,  tal<eu 
from  the  Roman  coins  r^ating  to  Britain.  Pennies  were  not  coined  till  George 
QLVft^    Tlie  coins  of  WuUam  and  Mary  have  the  pix^Ues  of  the  king  and 


y  Google 


tranliaatldf 


373 


qneeii  one  over  Ihe  other,  and  tlie  shields  of  the  tlfree  kingdoms  In  the  ?orm  Of  I  ' 
\;ioss  on  the  leverae,  with  Nassau  in  the  centre.  .The  colniigo  of  Willinin  alone, 
ufter  tl»e  death  of  ^ary,  Is  of  somewhat  improved'deslgpa.  8ir  Isaac  Newton  bciag 
then  Master  of  tlie  Mint.  Little  change  in  the  general  design  of  the  coin  occurs  In  the 
reigns  of  Anne  and  Qeorjje  I.  On  the  accession  of  the  Honse  of  Hanover,  the  Hed- 
overian  arms  are  place  d  m  the  fourth  shield,  and  George  IV.  substituted  a  qnartered 
shield  witli  Nassau  en  suitout  for  the  four  sliields  on  the  reverse  of  his  gold  coii«. 
During  the  greater  part  of  Geoi-ge  III.'s  reign  tlie  coinage  was  utterly  mgleded, 
and  the  silver  pieces  in  circulation  were  worn  perfectly  smooth.  When  coins  wete 
at  last  issued,  the  Roman  conventionalism  of  the  previous  rel^nS  gave  way  to  anow 
fashionable  Greek  conventionalism.  'I'he  quartered  shield  supplanted  the  four 
shields,  and  on  the  reverse  of  the  crown  api>eared  a  Greclanised  8r  George  and  «h« 
dragon.  George  IV. 's  bust  is  taken  fro»n  Chantrey's  statue  ;  the  rose,  thistle,  nad 
shamrock,  united  under  a  crown,  appear  on  the  rovei-se  of  his  siiilliug.  Silvergroats 
were  issued  in  Ihe  reign  of  William  IV.  The  ensigns  of  Hanover  disappeared  at 
the  begiiming  of  the  present  reign  ;  the  reverse  of  the  shillinir  is  even  poorer  tlian 
that  otGcor^u*  IV.,  the  words '-'One  shilling,"  occupy  the  field,  suiroundtul  by  ail 
o  ik  branch  and  a  laurel  branch  ;  silver  pieces  of  tiiroep -nee  have  been  introdii -ed. 
But  the  principal  monetary  event  is  thu  issue  of  the  sih'er  florin,  in  value  equivaleut 
to  I  wo  shillings,  looked  on  as  a  step  towards  the  institution  of  a  decimal  coinage.  It 
I'tjpresents  the  head  of  the  ^ueen  crowned,  with  the  legend  in  old  Eoj^lish  ch::racttf, 
and  for  reverse  the  four  sidelds  are  once  more  placed  in  the  form  of  a  cross. 

No  native  Scottish  cofnajie  existed  earlier  than  the  llth  century.  Coins  arc  ex- 
tant of  Son)erIed,  prince  of  the  Isles  of  that  century,  and  of  AloXandor  I.  of  the 
century  following.  The  silver  pennies  of  William  the  Lion,  and  Alexander  H.  and 
III.,  are  like  contemporary  English  money,  but  ruder,  and  bear  the  names  of  the 
luoneyers  and  place  of  mintage,  generally  Edinburgh,  Perth,  or  Berwick.  Th« 
profiles  on  the  coins  of  John  Baliol,  Kobert  Bruc«,  and  David-  II.  are  attempts  «t 
portraiture.  A  remarkable  gold  piece,  first  coined  by  Kobert  If.,  is  the  St  Andrew, 
with  the  arms  of  8c  »tland  on  the  obverse,  and  St  Andrew  on  his  cross  on  the  re- 
verse. In  the  four  succeeding  reigns  t  he  weight  of  the  silver  coins  rapidly  decreased, 
and  coins  of  billon,  or  base  metal,  were  issued,  nominally  pennies,  but  three  and  » 
half  of  which  eventually  passed  for  a  silver  penny.  The  evil  increased,  and  baser 
and  baser  alloy  was  used.  Groats  of  billon,  known  as  placks  jmd  halC-placks,  were 
coined  by  James  III.  James  IV.'s  coins  hive  a  characteristic  portrait,  and  a  good 
deal  of  artistic  feeling.  James  III.  and  IV.  issued  well-executed  gol<l  pieces,  oiUeil 
unicorns  and  riders,  the  type  of  the  one  being  the  unicorn,  of  tlieotht  r  the  kinguft 
horseback.  A  still  more  beautiful  coin  was  the  gold  Ixmnet  piece  of  James  V.,  to 
called  from  the  cap  in  the  king's  jjortrait.  Of  Mary,  there  are  a  great  varieiy  (rf 
interesting  pieces.  The  portrait  is.  sometimes  crowned,  sometimes  uncrowned,  af»d 
on  the  coin  issued  soon  after  Francis's  death,  has  a  widow's  cap  and  high-frillcil 
dress.  The  types  in  James  VI. 's  reign  are  also  very  various.  On  his  accession  to 
the  English  throne,  the  relative  value  of  English  and  Scottish  c«<in8  was d<?clarid to 
hi  as  l54  to  1,  The  coins  afterwards  issued  from  the  Scottish  mint  differed  from  the 
English,  chiefly  in  having  Scotland  iii  the  flist  quarter  in  the  royal  sliieW. 
The  last  Scottisli  gold  coinage  consisted  of  pistoles  and  half-pistoles  of  Darien 
gold,  about  the  size  of  a  guinea  and  half-guinea,  struck  by  William  HI. ;  the  pistule 
disiinguished  by  aiising  sun  under  the  bust  of  the  king. 

The  coinage  of  Ireland  is  scanty  and  uninteresting  compared  with  that  of  Scot- 
land. The  coins  of  English  inonarchs  struck  in  Dublin  resemble  much  those  current 
in  England.    Henry  VIII.  flrst  placed  a  harp  on  the  Irish  coins. 

In  France,  the  earliest  coins  are  those  ot  the  Merovingian  kings,  rude  iraflalions 
of  the  late  Ruman  and  early  Byzantiue  money,  and  mosi^of  gold.  Under  the  Car- 
lovinglau  dynasty,  deniers  and  oboles  are  the  prevailing  coinage,  remarkably  rude  in 
fabric,  without  portrait,  and  bearing  the  name  of  the  kuig  and  place  of  minfagc. 
•Some  coins  of  Charlemagne,  struck^at  Rome,  are  of  better  workmanship.  Tn^ 
C(mtaiu  one  letter  of  "Koma"at  each  extremity  of  the  cross,  with  the  Ic^^eod 
"Carolus  IP.''  The  coinage  improved  under  the  Capetian  kings;. the  flenr-ae-lte 
apt)earsin  addition  to  the  cross.  luthe  13th  c.  gold  pieces  were  issued,  and  In  the 
time  of  Philip  VI.  both  the  d  -sign  and  the  execution  of  i  he  coins  are  beantifnt.  The 
coins  of  Louis  XII.  are  the  flrat  that  bear  the  royal  portrait.    The  uoodera  coimc? 


y  Google 


373 


Nnmi'inatict 


may  be  siiid  to  begin  under  Henry  ll.,  whose  portmit  la  good.  Tlie  selguorinl  coins 
of  France  in  tbe  middle  ages  are  uf  coiisiderablo  iniportuuce,  and  the  nndalH  uf 
Lunis  XIV.  and  Napoh:ou  1.  ai-e  luach  more  interesting  Uiau  tlie  niudern  coins. 

The  niedievabcoinjige  of  Italy  is  of  great  interest  Tlie  money  of  tlie  Lombard  kings 
of  Italy  and  Dukea  ot  Benevealo,  is  little  inferior  to  that  of  the  Greek  emiieror*». 
There  is  a  beantiful  series  of  gold  and  silver  pieces  belonging  to  Venice,  l}eariiig 
the  names  of  the  doges,  and  having  generally  tor  type  tlie  doge  receiving  the  gon- 
falon, or  standard  of  St  Mark.  Tlie  gold  florins  of  Florence,  with  the  lily  for  de- 
vice, are  no  less  celebrated,  and  were  iiuitatod  by  other  stales.    Florence  had  also  a 

Y  reinnrkabl&  series  of  medals,  with  admirable  portraits  of  persons  of  note.    The 

'  coins  of  the  po|)es,  from  Hadrian  I.  down  to  the  14ih  c,  bear  the  name  of  the  nopii 
and  emperor  of  the  west ;  those  of  later  date  are  heaiitifnl  in  execution,  and  have 
ecjited  portraits  of  the  poutitfs,  with  the  crofs-keys  and  tnllre  for  reverse.  A  re- 
markable series  of  medal:«  comnit-morates  the  chief  events  of  each  roigu.  one  of 
\rhich,  strnck  after  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew,  has  for  type  an  anjrel  slaying 
th.:  Hngaenots,  and  the  inscription  '*Ugonottorum  strages."  The  coins  of  the 
Norman  princes  of  Naples  struck  in  Sicily,  have  the  legends  partly  or  wholly  in 
Arabic*    Malta  ha-*  a  series,  with  the  arms  and  eftigies  of  the  grand-masters. 

The  medieval  money  of  Germany  comprises  coins  of  the  emperors,  the  electors,  the 
smaller  princes,  the  religious  houses,  and  the  towns.  The  imperial  series  is  extensive 
imd  veiy  interesting,  though,  till  near  the  close  of  the  middle  ages,  it  is  rather  back- 
ward in  its  art.  About  the  Iteformation  period,  however,  there  are  vigorous  i)or- 
tniits  l>otli  on  its  current  coins  and  on  the  medals,  and  those  double  dollars  which  are 
Tirtujilly  medals.  The  coins  of  the  Dukes  of  Saxony,  with  their  portraits,  are 
equally  remarkable.  The  coins  of  the  archbishops  of  Cologne,  Mainz,  and  Treves 
form  a  very  interesting  series,  the  first  more  especially,  with  a  repi-esentatiou  of  the 
cathedraL 

'  The  coins  of  the  Low  Countries  resemble  those  of  France  and  Germany.  The 
Dutch  medals  are  of  interest,  more  especially  those  struck  in  commemoration  of 
events  in  the  war  with  Spain.  '^ 

The  coins  of  the  Swiss  cantons  and  towns  dnrlne  Ihe  early  period  of  Swiss  iude- 

i  pendence  bore  the  heraldic  shield  of  each,  drawn  with  vigorous  grotes>quene^s.  There 
are  also  pieces  struck  by  ecclesiastical  lords,  and  by  different  families  who  had  a 

■     riglii  of  coinage. 

1  The  coins  of  Spain  begin  with  those  of  the  Gothic  princes,  which  are  chiefly  of 
gold,  and  on  Uie  model  of  the  trientcs  and  semisses  of  the  lower  empire.  Some  of 
the.early  pieces  have  a  rude  head  of  ilic  monarch  on  one  side,  and  of  the  emperor  on 
the  other.  Afterwards,  the  obverse  bears  the  profile  of  the  monarch,  and  the  re- 
verse a  cross  of  some  description,  with  the  name  of  the  place  of  mintage,  and  the 
void  "Puis"  for  legend.  In  later  times,  there  are  two  intei-esting  series  of 
Cuius  belonging  to  tho  kingdom  of  Aragou  and  to  the  kingdom  of  Castile  and 
Leon. 

Tbe  coinages  of  Norway  and  Sweden  at  first  resembled  the  British,  and  nfter- 
Wttids  the  German  type.  From  the  lOlh  to  the  14rh  c,  bracteales  were  issued  by  the 
ecclesiastics.  The  coinage  of  Hungary  begins  in  the  llth  c,  and  has  the  portraits 
of  the  mouarchs.  The  Russian  coinage  is  Byzantine  in  character,  and  rude  in  its 
art  The  earliest  pieces  are  the  silver  darga  of  the  14th  c,  of  an  oblong  shape,  with 
r.  presentations  of  tbe  prince  on  horseback,  and  various  legendary  subjects.    Peter 


tlie 'Great  introduced  the  usual  European  type.  Tiiere  is  aii  important  series  of 
bronze  coins  of  the  Crusadei's,  beginning  with  Tancred,  and  coming  down  to  the 
eiMl  of  the  15rh  c,  including  money  of  the  kings  of  Cyprus  and  Jerusalem,  and  other 


liriuct-s  eHtabli^hed  in  the  cast. 

In  India,  the  succession  of  the  kings  of  Bactria,  the  remotest  of  the  dynasties 
founded  on  the  ruins  of  Alexander's  empiie,  has  only  become  known  through  their 
tecently-diKCOvered  coins.  There  are  early  rude  Hindu  coins  of  the  Gupta  line,  with 
figures  of  the  Brahminical  divinities  of  a  type  still  in  use. 

V  Of  the  coins  of  the  Mohamnie<lan  princes,  the  oldest  gold  pieces  are  the  bilingual 
eoinsof  cities  of  Syria  ai  d  Palestine,  of  the  middle  of  the  7th  c.  (a.h.  78).  barbarous 
imitaiiona  of  tbe  latest  Byzantine  money  of  Alexandria.  Most  of  the  Mohammedan 
coins  are  covered  exclusively  by  inscriptions  expressive  of  the  elemeutaiy  principles 
Q(  H^Mubaoiittedau  faith. .  For  kQuaa  centuries,  no  s^vvreigu  except  the  calif  was 


y  Google 


Naxnmnit«  ^74. 

Nurnberg  <>4t: 

allowed  to  iiiscribo  Iris  nnme  oti  the  coin.    Large  gold  coins  of  great  pnritjr  wei«' 
issued  by  the  Moflem  kiugs  of  Qruiiadti  iu  Spain. 

TUe  high  prices  given  for  ancU-nt  coins  have  led  to  nnmeroiu*  forgeries  from  thft 
16th  c.  downwards.  Against  such  imitations,  coUectorit  require- to  be  on  tii^ 
guard. 

Amon«j  the  l)eflt  works  on  nunilaniatics  are  Eekhe*,  *'Doctrina  Nnraoram 
Veterum"  (Vienna,  1792— 1T98);  Heuuin,  **  Manuel  de  Nuursniatique  Anciuuue" 
(Paris,  1880) ;  Grassit,  *' Handbuch  der  alten  Nuraismatik  "  (Loipslc,  185i— 1SB8); 
Leake,  **NnniIdniata  Uellenic.i"  (Lotidou,  1854) ;  Kudiug's  "Annals  of  tJie  Cuiuaw 
of  Great  Britain  (London,  1840);  LindsayV  **  View  of  the  CoiuaKo  of  Scotl  imT^ 
(Cork,  1845) ;  Leblnnc,  "Tmite  Historique  des  Monnnids  de  France"  (Paris,  IflW); 
Cappe,  "  Die  M&uzen  der  Deutsclien  Ktiiaer  und  Krniijre  des  Mit.telallei>  "  (Dresdcu, 
1843—1860) ;  Marsden,  **Nunusinata  Oricntidiji  Illa>traia  (London,  18iJ3— 1826). 

NC'MMULITE  LIMESTONE,  nn  inrportiint  member  of  tlie  Middle  Eocctic 
peiiod,  consisting  of  a  limestone  comijosed  of  nununuliies  held  together  by  a  ma- 
trix formed  of  the  cumniiiint  d  piiriicle«>  of  their  sliells,  and  of  smaller  foramuiifent 
It  forms  immense  masses  of  the  strata  which  are  raised  np  oh  the  aidi^  ot  ihe  AI{S 
and  Himalayas,  and  may  l>etrnced  an  .i  broad  band  often  1800  miles  in  breadtli.  »u(l 
frequently  of  enormous  thickness,  from  the  Atlantic  f  liorcs  of  EnixJpo  and  Afiitai 
titroui^h  Western  As>a,  to  Northern  India  and  China.  It  is  known  also  to  cover  vait 
areas  \u  North  Americiu 

NUMMULITES.  or  Nuramulinn  (Gr.  money-fossil),  a  jrenus  of  fossil  foramial" 
fera.  the  sliells  of  wh'ch  form  immense  masses  of  rock  of  Eocene  age.  See  Nummd* 
LiTB  LiMBSTONB.  UpwaixLs  of  60  specii'S  have  been  <le-4cribed.  They  are  circular 
bodies  of  a  lenticular  shape,  varying  in  magnitude  from  the  nterest  |)ofnt  to  ihciss 
ot  a  crown-piece.  The  shell  is  composed  of  a  series  of  small  chaml)ers  arranged  in 
a  concentric  manner.  The  fi:rowth  of  the  shell  does  not  tuke  |»lace  only  around  the 
circamference,  but  each  whorl  invests  all  the  preceding  whorls,  so  as  tu  for.n  aoow 
la^rer  over  the  i  ntire  surface  of  the  disk,  thus  adding  to  the  tliickness  as  well  a<  ths 
bnadth,  ami  giving  the  fossil  it«  lenticular  form.  A  thin  intervening  space  »epaf 
rates  each  layer  from  the  one  which  it  covers,  and  this  space  at  the  mai^in  swells 
out  to  form  the  chamber.,  All  the  internal  caviiit^,  how<  ver,  seem  to  have  iieen  oc* 
cnpied  with  the  living  sarcode,  and  an  intimate  connection  was  maintained  bctweoi 
them  by  means  of  innumerable  par.illel  tubali,  which  everywhere  pass  from  uae 
surface  to  auoiher,  and  which  permitted  the  pass  ge  of  the  sarcode  as  freely  as  do 
the  minute  pores  (»r  foramina  of  the  living  toraminifera. 

The  name  is  given  to  them  from  their  resemblance  to  coins.  In  Egypt, irtMf^ 
the  whole  of  the  Mokkadam  Mountains,  from  the  stone  of  which  the  pyra- 
mids were  built,  is  formed  of  then),  they  are  called  by  the  natives  *'  Fhanu)h^ 
Pence." 

NUN,  a  member  of  a  religions  order  of  women.  The  etymology  of  this  name  is 
a  subject  of  some  controvertsy,  but  ihere  seems  every  retison  to  l>elteve  that  it  is  from 
a  Coptic  or  Egyptian  root,  which  signiftrs  •'  virgin."  It  is  found  in  use  as  a  I^tls 
word  as  early  sis  th<'  tlnie  of  St  Jrrome  ("*  Ep.  to  Enstachius,"  p.  22,  c.  6).  The  go- 
eral  characteristics  of  the  religious  orders  will  be  found  under  the  head  Monaohisi 
(q.  v.).  and  under  those  of  the  sevenil  orders.  It  is  only  ntcessary  here  to  siHHtify  a 
f»\v  particulars  pecnliar  to  the  religious  ord-rs  of  females.  Of  these  the  mojt  sink- 
ing perhaps  is  the  strictness  in  the  regularly  auiiiorised  orders  of  nuns  of  Ih*' 
**  cloister,"  or  enclosure,  which  no  extrrn  is  ever  p»rmittd  to  enter,  and  Iwyond 
which  the  imns  are  never  permitted  to  pas«,  wit  hour  express  leave  of  tiicbhtlKH>> 
The  superiors  of  convents  of  nuns  are  called  by  the  names  Abbess.  Prioress,  and,  in 
general.  Mother  Su{>erior.  They  are,  ordinarily  speaking,  elected  by  chapters -f 
their  own  body,  with  the  approval  of  the  bishop,  unless  the  convent  be  one  of  tiie 
class  called  exempt  houses',  which  are  immediately  subject  to  the  authority  of  tlie 
Holy  See.  The  ceremony  of  the  solemn  blessing  or  inau<;nration  of  the  abbess  Is 
reserved  to  the  bishop,  or  lo  a  priest  delegati'd  by  the  bishop.  The  authority  of  tbo 
abbess  over  her  nuns  is  very  comprehensive,  but  a  precise  line  is  drawn  between  hrr 
powers  and  those  of  the  priestly  office,  from  which  she  is  strictly  debarred.  The 
name  of  nan  is  given  in  general  to  the  sisters  of  all  religious  cOngregntioiui  of 
famulotwlio  liv«  in  i«tireineiit  mihI  ar9  bowid  by  rule;  botU  it  jfokwmi^ t$d 


y  Google 


3h  X  Kammu'lU 

•  *>  NumUrg 

bioperly  applicable  only  to  sisters  of  the  religfons  orders  strlctlj  BO-caUed.    See 

MONACHISIC. 

NUNC  DIMI'TTIS,  the  uame  gfveo  to  the  canticle  of  Simeon  (Lake  ».  »— 82), 
which  forms  imrt  of  the  compline  oiBc<;  of  tlie  Komaii  Breviary,  and  is  retained  iu 
the  evening  service  of  the  Anglican  Chnrch  when  It  follows  the  second  lesson. 
Oil  the  great  festivals  in  Lent,  llie  music  of  this  canticle  is  especially  grand  and 
imposing. 

NU'NCIO  (Ttal.  nunzio,  Lat.  tmncitw,  a  messenger),  tlie  name  given  to  the  sn" 
peiior  ginde  of  tiie  ambassadors  sent  by  the  pope  to  foreign  conrts,  who  are  al* 
culled  by  the  j^enernl  name  or 'Leciatb  (a.  v.).  A  nnnoio !;« an  amltassador  to  the  conrt 
of  an  emperor  or  kinjr.  'llie  Mmbassaaor  to  a  repablic,  or  lo  the  court  of  a  minor 
sovereign,  is  called  Intbbkuncio. 

NUNCU'PATIVE  WILL  is  a  will  made  by  word  of  month.  As  a  general  mle^  no 
will  is  valid  unless  it  is  in  willing  and  signed  by  tlie  testator ;  but  In  cases  of  soldiers 
and  stiilors,  a  verbal  or  nuncupative  will  is  held  to  be  good,  on  the  ground  that  tliure 
is  often  no  time  to  draw  up  a  formal  will  in  writing. 

NUNEA'TON.  a  small  market-town  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Warwick,  and 
18  miles  north-east  of  the  town  of  that  name.  It  contains  a  small  parish  clmich  in 
Oothic,and  its  Free  Grammar  School,  founded  by  Edward  VL  In  1553,  has  an  annual 
income  from  eudowinent  of  about  X800.  Manufactures  of  ribbons  and  cotton  goods 
are  carri*>d  on.    Pop.  (iSTl)  TOOO. 

NU'Ni^UAM  INDB'BITA'rUS,  In  English  Law,  means  a  plea  or  defence  to  an 
artion  for  a  debt  that  the  defendant  never  was  indebted  ;  in  other  words,  that  no 
debt  is  due. 

NURAOHE,  the  name  of  certain  structures,  of  conical  shape,  in  the  inland  of 
Sardinia,  rising  80  or  40  feet  above  the  ground,  viith  two  or  three  stories  of  domod 
chambers  connected  by  a  spiral  staircase.  Some  are  raised  on  basements  of  masonry, 
orplutfonns  of  eurih.  They  are  made  of  granite  limesione,  basalt^  porphyry,  stiiid- 
stoue^  and  schist.  Their  (-ntrances  are  small  and  low,  and  when  they  have  chanibeis 
of  two  Modes,  the  upper  chamlter  is  reached  by  the  spiral  staircase  which  has  loo|)- 
boles  to  admit  the  iTglit>.  Theto[Msare  supposed  to  have  had  a  terrace.  Aitliongh 
8000  of  them  exist,  none  are  perfect.  Their  masonry  is  irregular,  but  not  )>olyg(>ual, 
and  resembles  the  stvleof  work  called  Asiatic.  Like  the  ronncl  towers  of  Ireland, 
and  other  uninscdbed  monnments,  their  ol>ject  snd  antionity  are  enveloped  in  nuich 
doubt  They  have  l>een  supposed  lo  be  the  work  of  the  Pelnsgl,  the  Plioeuiciiins,  or 
Cartliaginians,  and  to  have  been  ancient  sepulchres,  Tholi  or  Imedaliaf  consti'iicted 
ill  heroic  times.  Skeletons,  and  other  funeral  paraphernalia,  have  been  found  in 
them.  They  have  many  points  of  resemblance  to  the  •*  Burghs  "  or  **  Duns  "  on  the 
northern  shores  of  Scotland,  of  which  the  Biii-gh  of  Monsa,  iu  Shetland,  is  perhaps 
tlie  best  exaujple.— D«?  la  Marmora,  "Voyage  en  Sardaiimc,"  tom.  ii. ;  Petit  Radel, 
"Niiraghes "  (Paris,  182ft— 1828) ;  Micali,  "Ant.  Pop.  Ital."  ii.  p.  43 ;  Dennis,  "Cities 
aud  Ceiii.  of  Etniria,"  iL  p.  161. 

fiV'Rl^BERQ  {Norimberga,  Nmiea,)  a  fortified  city  of  the  Bavarian  province  of 
Middle  Franconia,  situated  in  49°  28'  n.  lat.,  and  11°  6'  e.  lonjr.  Pop.  (1871)  80,00« ; 
(1876)  91,017.  N.  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  int(restlnjr  citien  of  Germany, 
on  taconnt  of  the  nnmerons  remains  of  medieval  architecture  which  it  presents  in 
its  pictnresaiie  streets,  witli  their  gabletl  lionses,  stone  balconies,  and  quaint  carv- 
ings. No  city  retains  a  stronger  impres.^  of  the  characteristics  wliich  distliiirnislied^ 
tlie  wealthy  bnrgher-clas^es  in  the  middle  ages.  ^^  Idle  Its  double  lines  of  fortified 
walls,  separated  from  each  other  by  pnblic  walks  aitd  gardens,  and  pnai-ded  by  70 
towers,  together  with  the  numerous  bridges  which  SfMin  the  Pegnits,  on  wliose 
hunks  the  city  is  bnilt,  give  it  distinct  ve  featnresof  its  own.  Among  the  most 
remarkable  of  its  numerous  public  buildings  are >he  old  palace  or  castle,  command- 
ing, from  its  lil^'li  position,  a  glorious  view  of  the  surrounding  country,  and 
interesting  for  its  antiquity,  and  for  its  gallery  of  paintings,  rich  in  gems  of  early 
German  art ;  the  town-hall,  wliicb  ranks  amongst  the  noblest  of  its  kind  in  Germany, 
and  Is  adorned  with  works  of  Albeit  Dfirer,  and  Gabriel  Weyher;  the 
noble  Goiliic  fountain  opposite  the  cathedial  by  Schonhofer.  with  I»8 
finmerous   groups   of    figures,    beautifully    restored   iu    modem    limes;    and 


y  Google 


Nutation  «^  <  ^ 

many  other  fountains  tl(»8erving  notice.  0£  tlie  numerous  churches  ri 
N.,  the  loUowiiie  are  tlie  lno^^t  remarkable:  St  Lawrence,  built  betweea 
1*270 — 1478,  with  its  beanliful  paiutcd-g1a»s  windows,  Its  noble  towers  and  doorway, 
and  the  celebrated  stone  pyx,  completed  in  1500,  by  Adam  Kraft,  after  ilvc  jmr 
n«8idnoufl  labor ;  and  the  exquisite  wood-carvings  of  Veit  Stosa;  St  Sebald's,  witi 
its  numerous  lino  glas'S-paiutrng:*  and  frescoes  by  Peter  Vlsscher  and  other  Gcrmtn 
ma.«ters :  the  cathedral,  or  Our  Lady's,  built  in  1631,  similurly  enriched.  N.  is  well 
provided  with  educational  estai>lit(hments,  and  besides  a  good  gymnasinm  and 
polytechnic  institution,  has  good  schools  of  art,  nonnai  t.nd  oilier  truiuing  coII^-f, 
a  public  library  of  60,000  vols.,  galleries  of  art  col^ction;',  inuseiims,  Ac  ;  wldleitw 
numerous  institutions  of  bi'uevolence  are  lil>erally  endowed  and  well  maintaiiKd.' 
Although  the  glory  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  N.  maybe  said  to  hovo  l)ocn  long 
extinct,  its  home  trade,  which  is  still  of  considerable  im|>orrai:ci»,  i^lndes  iho 
specialties  of  nn  tal,  wood  and  bone  carving.-,  and  ctiildren's  toys  and  doll?,  wMdi 
find  a  ready  sale  in  every  nart  of  Euro|)ej  and  are  largely  exported  to  America  iukI 
the  East.  In  addition  to  ifci  own  indubtrial  comniercti,  is  the  seat  of  a  lari;e  tj-ao^fcr 
and  exchange  bu.*ineps,  which  owes  much  of  ii»  importance  to  the  facilities  of  iuer- 
communicatioii  afforded  by  the  net- work  of  railway  lines  ^itli  which  the  city  la 
coMuected. 

N.  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  free  imperial  city  by  the  Emperor  Henry  V.,  it 
1219.  previous  to  which  time,  Henry  IV.  had  ennobled  38  of  the  principal  burgher 


and  manorial  rights  to  the  magistracy  of  the  city.  This  measure  put  a  stop  to  the 
feuds  which  InuY  hitherto  raged  l)etween  the  bnrggrafs  and  the mnuicipality,  and  for 
a  time  N.  cantinue<l  to  grow  rich  vidth  tlie  fruits  of  the  great  internal  tntdie,  wliieh 
It  had  long  maintained  ]>etween  the  traders  of  the  East  and  the  other  JSuroiraun  iiitfts 
of  commerce.  Tlie  discovery  of  the  passage  by  the  Oape  of  Good  Hope  by  openifig 
new  channels  of  communication  between  Asia  and  Enro|»e,  deprived  N.  of  its  tat- 
cient  monopoly.  The  Thirty  Years'  War  completed  the  decay  of  the  city,  which 
suffered  severely  from  lK>th  parties  in  tuni.  The  ancient  reputation  of  N.  as  a  wealthy 
and  loyal  city  of  Germany  secured  to  it,  however,  special  consideration  ;  and  in  iMi 
when  the  imperial  commissioners  reorganised  some  of  the  dismembered  parts  of  ttw 
old  empire,  it  was  allowed  to  retain  its  independence,  with  a  territory  of  4S3  sqnaro 
miles,  containing  <0,000  inhabitants,  and  drawing  a  revenue  of  800,000  guldens;  hat 
in  consequence  of  the  disputes  in  which  the  free  city  became  involved  with  ihc  king 
of  Prussia,  who  had  some  hereditary  claim  on  the  ancient  burggraviaie.  N.,  ^jurmed 
at  the  prospect  of  stiH  greater  emban'HSHinente,  entered  into  the  Rhenish  Con- 
federation, and  as  the  result  of  this  alliance,  was  transferred,  iu  1806,  with 
the  surrender  of  its  entire  domain  and  uU  rights  of  sovereigutyf  to  ttie  kin^  oC 
Bavaria. 

NUiiSB,  Military.  In  continents  armies,  the  *•  sisters  of  charity"  nsnaDr carry 
their  mission  of  mercy  into  the  militsuy  hospitals.  Pi-otcstant  England  having  no 
such  organisation  to  fall  back  upon,  tiie  soldiers  have  beeu  dependent  on  the  r^olar 
male  hospital  attendants  for  their  care  during  sicknei'S,  or  when  snflteiiiig  from 
wounds.  The  Crimean  campaign,  however,  disclosed  so  melancholy  a  picture  vt  the 
want  of  women's  co-operation,  that  a  band  of  seif-Siicrific  ng  Itulies,  headed  by  Miss 
Kightingale  (q.  v.)«  pr  lejded  to  Turkey,  ai.dwere^oonacknowlcilged  asnMSSt'ngers 
of  health  ana  life  by  the  unfortunate  wc.uiKUd.  Ttie  example  thus  set  has  not  lieen 
without  effect.  In  the  Franco-German  war  of  18T0— 1871,  lady-nnrses  of  varlOBa 
nations  ministered  in  all  the  military  hospitals,  tending  impartially  the  nameroos 
wounded  of  both  sides. 

NU'RSERY,  a  garden  or  portion  of  a  garden  devoted  to  the  raising  of  young 

filants,  to  be  afterwards  planted  elsewhei-e.  The  ripening  of  garden  seids  for  sate 
s  eeuerally  also  an  important  part  of  the  trade  of  the  public  uu^ryman.  Many 
culinary  vegetables  are  very  commonly  raised  from  seed  in  public  nurseries,  and  wmL 
as  young  plants;  the  trouble  of  raising  them  in  small  {gardens  being  found  too 
^'reat.  although,  when  there  is  no  public  nursery  at  hand,  even  the  co:tage-gardi*ner 
may  be  compelled  to  undertake  this  trouble  for  himself,  in  order  to  procord  ik 


y  Google 


^  •  <  Nutat.on 

upply  of  yonng  kale,  cabbage,  cjinliflower,  &c.,  lu  fresh  nud  henlth- 
nl  CDiiditiou.  Many  floweriiiif  plauls,  as  wallflower,  Btock,  swcet-williain, 
fee.,  are  also  raised  aud  sold  by  unrseryuien.  Another  great  use  of  tho 
iursery  is  the  rearing  of  frait-trees.  In  the  nursery,  the  stocks  are 
^lised  from  seed,  the  craftiDg  is  perfonned,  nud  the  tmining  of  the  young 
ree,  whetlier  for  standard,  espaliff,  or  wall-tree,  is  begnii.  As,  witl>  ngard  to  fniil- 
recs,  the  selectlou  of  grafts  is  of  the  utmost  Importance,  the  reputiitiou  of  the  iiur- 
s  ryinan  is  particularly  to  be  considered  by  the  purchaser;  nor  is  then*  any  trade  In 
ivlilch  this  is  more  generally  necessary,  montlis,  or  sometimt'S  yvarr*  elapsing  before 
he  qnalJty  of  tlie goods  purchased  can  be  experimentally  ascoriained.  The  prlnci- 
uUand  manv  of  the  smaller  towns  of  Britain  are  well  supplied  with  pnblic  nnr- 
t-ries,  which  Is  the  case  also  iu  many  countries  of  contineuiul  Europe  and  in  NorUi 

Kmerlca.  Some  of  these  nurseries  are  on  a  very  p rent  scale,  an  those  of  Messrs 
ttddi^e  of  London,  Lawsou  of  Edinburgh,  and  Booth  of  Hamburg.  The  larires't 
inrsenes,  however,  are  veiy  much  devoted  to  tlie  rearing  of  ornumenial  shrubs 
lud  rreep,  nnd  of  forest-trees.  Plantations  of  forest-trees,  even  when  very  extensive, 
ire  now  generally,  altiiongh  not  always,  made  with  plants  obtained  from  pulilic 
inrseries.  Tlie  exertions  nale  by  nnrserymeu  to  obtain  new  plants  from  forelȣn 
gantries,  have  contributed  much,  not  only  to  the  advancement  of  gardening  in  its 
r.irious  departments,  and  of  arboriculture,  but  also  of  botany.— Much  beneflr  also 
•esults  from  the  exchange  of  the  produce  of  the  tmrseries  of  different  countries, 
ruas,  hullwus  roots  are  oitmght  to  Britain  from  Holland,  from  what  n:ny  be  de- 
scribed as  nurseries  spcciaUy  devoted  to  them ;  roses  and  orange-trees  are  import ( d 
from  the  nurseries  of  PraiiCH,  Ac.  It  often  happens  tliat  seeds  imported  from  cli- 
iuate.<«  more  thoroUi^hly  adapted  to  tho  plants,  produce  better cro^m  than  tliose  raised 
iu  a  colder  climate  or  under  a  clondisr  sky. 

NUT,  In  popular  language,  is  the  name  given  to  all  those  fruits  which  Inive  the 
peed  cyclosed  iu  a  bony,  woody,  or  leathyy  pericarp,  not  opening  when  ripe. 
Amongst  the  best  known  aud  most  valuable  nuts  are  tlie  Hazel-nut,  Brazil-nut, 
Walnut,  Chestimt,  and  Cocoa-nut,  all  of  which  are  edible.  Other  nuts  are  usid  in 
lUiidicine,  and  for  pur|)Ose8  connected  with  the  arts.  Some  of  the  edible  nuts  abound 
Ju  a  bland  oil,  which  is  us<Ki  for  various  purposes.  In  Bolany,  the  terra  nut  {mtx) 
isnsed  to  designate  a  one-celled  frait,  with  a  hardened  |>ericarp,  containing,  whi'n 
iiialure,  only  one  seed.  Tlie  Aeheniuni,  (q.  v.)  wjis  by  the  older  botanists  g«ner.illy 
iiicladed  iu  this  term.  Some  of  the  fruits  to  which  it  is  popularly  applied  scarcely 
receive  it  as  their  popular  d(^siguatioii.  The  haz  l-nnt  is  an  excelitMit  exami>l(r  of 
tlie  true  not  of  botanists.  The  name  nut,  without  distinctive  prefix,  is  popularly 
given  in  Britain  to  the  ha7<e]-unt,  but  iu  many  parts  of  Europe  to  the  walnut 

Many  nuts  have  a  considerable  commercial  value,  from  their  Ixsing  favorite 
:irUelesof  food:  these  are  the  Hand-nut  and  its  varieties,  tho  Bhuk  Spanish,  the 
Barc^ua,  the  Smyrna,  the  Jerusalem  fill)ert,  and  the  common  flilK-rt;  the  Walnut, 
Cliestmit,  Hickory,  and  Pecan  ;  the  Souari,  the  Cocoa  or  Coker  nuts,  and  the  Brazil 
ur  Para  nut. 


Tlie  Barcelona  and  Black  Spanish,  as  their  names  imply,  are  from  Spaifi;   the 

iriuer  is  tfi.e  commonest  nut  of  o  ir  shops.   About  120,000  bags,  averaging  1}£  bushel 

-icli,  or  150,000  bushels,  are  annually  imi>oited  into  Great  Biiiaia.     The  import 

value  is  about  33s.  per  bag.     They  are  always  kiln-dried  when  we  receive  them. 


value  is  about  33s.  per  bag.  They  are  always  kiln-dried  when  we  receive  them. 
Tills  is  not  the  case  with  tne  black  Spanish,  of  which  tmly  about  12,600  three-bushel 
bags,  or  alK>ut  37,000  bushels,  are  Imp<)rtea  in  the  beginning  of  the  season,  when 
tlieir  value  is  about  Us.  per  bushel.  From  the  Black  Se.-i  we  receive  annually  al>out 
68,000  bushels  of  hazel-nuts,  worth  lOs.  }>er  bushel,  with  from  600  to  1000  bags  of  the 
so-called  Jerusalem  anti  Mount  Atlas  filbeits.  Of  che*tnut8  from  Leghorn,  Maples, 
Spain,  France  aud  Portugtil,  we  receive  annually  about  20,000  bushels.  The  trade  iu 
walnuts  is  very  uncertain,  and  probably  never  exceeds  6000  bushels.  Of  the  curious 
tiiree-comerea  or  Brazil  nut  from  Para  and  Marnnh.-im,  the  importation  is  also  verv 
irregular,  varying  from  800  to  loOO  tons,  or  1200  to  4000  bushels  j)er  annum.  About 
two  millions  of  cocoa-unts  are  also  imported.  Tiie  other  kinds  of  nuts  are  too  irreg- 
ular in  their  importations  to  supply  any  reliable  statistics.  The  tmuutd  value  of 
all  the  nuts  imported  for  use  as  fruit  is  computed  at  about  jei63,000. 
^  ^NUTA'TIONis  a  Blight  oscillatory  movement  of  the  earth's  axis,  which  disturb*  , 


Digitized  by 


Google 


.Wat  Q'TQ 

Nut  Itlon  *5  (  O 

the  otherwise  circular  path  described  by  the  pole  of  the  earth  ronnd  that  of  tb« 
ecliptic,  known  tt«  the  '•precessiou  of  the  equinoxes."  Iti.s  prodiiCiul  by  thseame 
causes,  viz.,  ihe  atlractiou  of  the  son,  moon,  and  planets  (the  altraction  of  the  last 
mentioned  being  so  ttniall  as  to  be  quite  imperceptible)  upon  the  bulging  zoneaboot 
the  earth's  equator,  thoutrh  in  this  case  it  is  the  mouu  alone  that  is  the  effeciivo 
agent.  It  al.-o,  for  reasons  wlilcii  need  not  be  ^ven  here,  depends,  fur  the  most  part, 
uutupon  the  pmitionof  the  moon  in  her  orbit,  out  of  the  moon's  node.  If  there  was 
no  prece>si(m  of  the  equinoxes,  -nutation  would  appear  as  a  small  elliptical  motio& 
of  the  earth's  axis,  performed  in  Ihe  same  time  as  Ihe  moon's  nodes  take  to  com- 
plete II  revolution,  the  axis  of  the  ellipse  >)eing  respectively  13"  5  and  13'''7,  thelongft 
axis  being  directed  towards  the  |>ole  of  the  ecliptic.  Bui  this  motion,  when  com- 
bined witii  the  more  rapid  one  of  precessi(m,  causes  the  pole  of  the  eaith's  axis  to 
describe  a  wavy  line  round  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic. 

The  effect  of  nutation,  when  referred  to  the  eqnator  and  ecliptic,  is  to  prodocea 
periodical  cliange  in  the  onllquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  In  tlie  velocity  of  retrogradaiiou 
of  the  equinocitial  point:*.  It  tlios  gives' rise  to  the  distinction  of  **  apparent"  from 
**  uiean"  right  ascension  and  declination,  the  former  involving,  and  the  hitter  beiae 
f reid  from  Ihe  fluctuations  arising  from  nutation.  This  motion  is  common  to  m 
the  planets. 

NU  r-CRACKEK  {Ntiei/raga  or  Caryoeataetes),  a  genns  of  birds  of  the  famf^ 
CarvidcBy  with  a  sti'aigbt  conical  bill,  both  mandibles  terminating  iu  an  obtuse poiii^ 
and  tail  nearly  square  at  the  end.  The  form  and  characters  are  nearly  siuiikr  to 
thost;  of  crows,  t)ut  the  habit«  are  rather  those  of  jays,  and  in  some  ret'pects  indi- 
cate an  approach  to  woodpeckers.  One  species  (A'.  caryocatactM  or  C.  nnof/ro^is 
occtisionally  seen  in  BritSHi,  and  is  not  uncommon  in  many  parts  of  Europe  aud  of 
Asia, puiticularly  in  mountainous  re«;lons  covered  with  pines.  It  is  about  the  Bi«e 
of  a  jackdaw,  but  has  a  longer  tail.  The  plumf^e  is  light  brown,  specklt^  with 
white,  except  on  the  wings,  rump,  and'tidl,  which  are  nearly  black.  The  N.  fre- 
quents the  tops  of  high  pines,  and  is  a  shy  bird.^ 

NUT-HATCIl  {Sitta),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family  Certhiadat^  having  a  straight 
conical  or  prismatic  hill,  short  legs,  the  hind-toe  very  strong.  They  run  upland  Uown 
trees  with  great  agility,  moving  with  ec^ual  case  in  either  direction,  and  witUonft 
hopping,  so  that  the  motion  is  rather  hke  that  of  a  mouse  than  of  a  buxl.  They 
feed  on  insects,  in  pursuit  of  which  they  examine  the  crevices,  and  remove  the 
scales  of  the  bark ;  also  ou  seeds,  as  those  of  p>nes,  and  the  kernels  of  nuts  to  ob* 
tain  which  they  fasten  theuntfirmlv  in  some  crevice  of  bark  or  othir  such  sitna- 
tiou,  and  peck  at  it  until  the  shell  is  broken,  so  placing  themselves  that  thev  sway 
not  merely  the  head,  but  the  whole  body,  to  give  force  to  the  stroke.  The  Knijli^ 
name  is  said  to  have  been  originally  Nut-hack.  One  species,  the  £vbopean  Ih.  (S, 
Europtxa),  is  common  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  found  In  most  of  the  wooded 
districts  of  England.  Its  whole  length  is  about  six  inches.  If  taken  youiig,  it  is  , 
easily  tamed,  and  becomes  very  familiar  and  amusing ;  but  an  old  bird  caugtit  and 
put  into  a  cage,  is  apt  to  kill  itself  by  violently  pecking  to  force  a  way  out.  It  soon 
destioys'the  wood  of  a  cai?e.— Other  ^y;)ecles  are  found  in  the  East  and  in  North 
America,  where  the  genus  is  particularly  abundant.  Birds  nearly  allied  arc  found 
iu  Au.^tialia. 

NUTMEQ.  This  well-known  and  favorite  spice  is  the  kernel— mostJy  consist hig 
of  Ihe  albumen— of  the  fruit  of  several  species  of  MyrUHoa.  This  genus  belongs  lo 
u  natural  order  of  exogens  called  Myriaticaceast  which  contains  about  forty  s^tedes, 
all  ti-opical  trees  or  shrubs,  natives  of  Asia,  Madaffuscar.  and  America.  Tiiey  jiener- 
ally  have  red  juice,  or  a  juice  which  becomes  red  on  exposure  to  air.  Tlie  order  ia 
aUied  to  Lauracece.  The  leaves  are  alternate  and  without  stipules.  The  flowers  are 
unirtexual,  the  perianth  generally  irifid,  the  filaments  united  into  a  column.  The . 
fruit  is  succulent.,  yet  opens  like  a  capsule  by  two  valves.  The  seed  is  not-like,  cor- 
ered  with  a  laciniated  fleshy  aril,  and  has  an  albumen  penetrated  l>y  its  meiubrtnoos 
covering.  The  species  of  this  order  are  generally  more  or  less  aromatic  in  all  tlidr 
parts ;  their  juice  is  stvptic  and  somewhat  acrid ;  the  albumen  and  aril  contain  both 
a  fixed  and  on  essentir.l  oil,  and  those  of  some  species  are  used  as  spiccs.  The  geaas 
Myt-istica  has  the  anthers  united  in  a  cylindrical  column,  and  the  cotyledons  folded. 
The  species  which  furnishes  the  greater  part  of  the  untmega  of  commerce  Is  M,Jnm  ' 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


379 


Nut 
Nat  ition 

grafu  or'mowftato ;  hnf  the  long  N.  {M.  fahta),  from  the  BaDda  TsW,  l«»  now  not  nu- 
Oumiiiou  ill  oar  luurket^.  The  cumit.ou  N-ltt^  ].<«  about  26  feet  in  heiKlit,  uUli  obloiie 
Icave^i,  nud  axllhiry  few-flowered  raceiues ;  the  fruit  is  of  the  oize  miQ  npp^araiice  of 
a  roiiudi^li  pear,  g()ldeii  yellow  in  color  when  ripe,  'ilie  flesliy  part  of  the  frait  is 
rather  htu-a,  and  is  of  a  pvcniiar  coimistence,  resembling  candied  fruit;  it  is 
often  preserved  a»  d  ejiten  as  a  sweetmeat.    Wirhin  is  ilie  uuf,  enveloped  lu  the 


cnrioQS   yellowisli- red  aril,  the  Jfoce  (q.  v.),  under  which  is  a  thin  shinine  brown 

^  ^  -  -. ^  of  the  mace,  and  within  i»  the  k^rud  c 

"^  tne  possei 
vended  the  N.  from  l>eing  cirried  iii  a  living  state  to  any  other  pUice ;  bat  during'tlie 


shell,  elighrly  grooved  by  the  pressure  ot  the  mace,  and  within  !»  the  k^rud  or  nut- 
tfp  to  179ft,  tlie  Dutch  hein^  the  po^«6ess«*r8  of  the  Banda  Isles,  jejilonsly  pre- 


coiiquest  and  retention  of  the  inlands  by  tiie  British,  care  was  tnki'u  to  spr>ad  the 
cultnre  of  this  vnlunble  spice,  and  plants  were  sent  to  Penmig,  Indin,  and  othi r 
plabes,  where  they  are  now  successfully  cultivated;  indee<l,  they  liave  now  l»ecouie 
established  in  the  West  India  IsiJandi^,  and  both  Jainaicti  »nd  Trinidnd  produce  ex« 
cellent  nutmegs.  Brazil  is  also  found  fuvoruble  to  their  culture.  'IheN.  is  very 
liable  to  the  aiiaok  of  a  beetl>>,  which  is  very  destructive,  and  it  is  a  common  prac- 
tice to  give  tiiem  a  coating  of  lime  before  shipping  tlicm  to  Kurooe,  in  order  to  pro- 
tct  them  from  its  ravages.  Tlic  Butch  or  Bniavian  nutmegs  are  nearly  always 
liuM'd,  but  those  from  Penang  are  wot,  and  are  cons"  qnent.y  of  a  jrreater  valui*.  The 
N.  yieldp,  by  expression,  a  peculiar  yellow  f;it,  caihd  oil  of  mace,  becaufe,  from  Its 
color  aiul  flavor,  it  was  generally  supposed  to  l)e  derived  from  mace ;  and  l)y  diHtilla- 
tiou  is  obtained  an  almost  colorless  essential  oil,  which  has  very  fully  tlie  flavor  of 
the  nutmeg.  Her  own  settlements  now  furuifih  Great  Britaiii  with  the  greater  por- 
tion of  this  spice,  but  some  lots  of  B-itavian  also  come  into  the  market.  The  (Quan- 
tity imported  may  be  stated  as  800,000  poimds'  weight,  worth,  in  round  numoers, 
£10,000. 

Nutmegs  are  chiefly  ns»rd  ns  a  spice;  but  medicinally  tlioy  arc  ptmulant  and 
carmiuntive.  'Ibey  po'sens  narcotic  pro|)ertiep,  and  in  large  dosep  ))roduce stupefac- 
tion and  delirium,  po  that  they  ought  not  to  be  ut^ed  where  affections  of  tiie  brain 
exist  or  are  auprelieuded. 

Otht;r  spech'S  of  Myristiea^  Iwsides  those  rlrcady  named,  yield  nutmegs  somc- 
timies  used,  but  of  very  inferior  quality. — The  fruits  of  several  species  of  Lanracecu 
also  re*emDlrt  luitmejjrs  in  tlieir  aromatic  and  other  properties  ;  as  th«!  cotyledons  of 
Keetandra  Puchurpf  the  Pichurim  Beans  of  Commerce,  and  the  irult  of ' J cJodiWi- 
dtuin  camara,  a  tree  of  Guiana,  the  Camara  or  Ackawai  nutmeg.  The  clove  nut- 
megs of  Ma<higa8car  are  the  fruit  of  Aaathophyllutti  aromaticumy  and  the  RrazillAn 
nutmegs  of  Cryptncarya  moHchata.  All  these  belong  to  the  order  Latirncecf..  'Ihe 
CaJal)asir  .N.  is  ilie  fruit  of  Monodora  myristieaf  of  the  natural  order  Aiumacecu, 

NU'TRIA.    See  Coypu  and  Kacoomda. 

NUTIU'TION.  The  blood  which  is  carried  by  the  capillaries  to  the  several  tis- 
Bnes  of  the  body  Is  the  source  from  whence  alt  the  organs  derive  the  materials  of 
their  growth  aiitf  development ;  and  it  is  found  that  there  is  direct  proportion  be- 
tween the  vascularity  of  any  part  and  the  activity  of  the  nutrient  operations  which 
take  place  in  it.  Tlius,  in  nervous  ti-sue  and  mm*clc,  in  mucous  membrane  and  in 
skin,  a  rapid  decay  and  renovation  of  ti3>ue  are  constantly  going  on,  and  thrse  are 
part-  in  which,  the  capillarits  are  the  most  abundant ;  while  in  cartilage  and  bone, 
tendon  and  ligament,  the  disintegration  of  tissue  is  comparatively  slow,  and  the 
cnpillaries  are  much  less  abundant.  Each  elementary  cell  or  particle  of  a  tissue 
seeuis  !o  imve  nsO!tof  gland-like  power  not  only  of  attracting  materials  from  the 
bIO(Ml,  but  of  cmissing  them  to  assume  its  structure,  and  participate  in  its  properties. 
Tlius,  from  the  same  common  source,  nerves  form  nervous  tisc ue,  nmscles  muscu- 
lar ^nlwt:mce,  and  even  morbid  growths,  such  as  cancer,  have  an  assimilating 
power. 

Before  entering  further  into  the  subject  of  nutrition,  it  is  necessary  to  understand 
bow  it  differs  from  the  allied  processes  of  development  and  growth.  All  theye  pro- 
ccisses  are  tlie  results  of  the  phistic  or  assimilative  force  by  which  living  bodies  are 
able  to  form  tiiemselves  from  dissimilar  materials  (as  when  an  animal  snbFi^tB  on 
Vegetables,  or  when  a  plant  grows  by  appropriating  th^  elementa  of  water,  carbonic 
acid,  aud  ammonia) ;  bat  tEey  are  the  resolts  of  this  force  acting  under  different 
coiK&tionB. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Development  Is  f  lie  process  by  wblcli  each  tissne  or  organ  of  a  livlug  bocl^  is  first 
formed,  or  by  which  one,  Ueiujf  already  incompletely  lonned,  is  so  changed  lu  shape 
and  composition,  us  to  be  fined  for  a  fiinciioii  of  a  hi^^ber  kind,  or  finally  is  udvauctd 
to  the  state  hi  which  it  exists  in  tlie  niOst  perfect  condition  of  the  spjecies. 

Growth,  wliich  commonly  concurs  with  d -velopment,  and  continues  after  It,  is 
properly  mere  increase  of  a  part  by  tlie  in-ei-tion  or  snpei-additiou  of  materials  similar 
to  1  hose  of  which  it  already  consists.  In  growth,  projXTly  so  called,  no  change  of 
form  or  composition  occuM ;  parts  only  incienHe  in  weight,  and  n-^nally  in  size;  and 
if  they  acquire  more  power,  it  is  only  more  power  of  the  same  kind  as  tbut  which 
they  l)efore  enjoyed. 

Nutrition,  on  the  other  band,  is  the  process  by  which  tbe  varlons  parts  are 
maintaiued  in  Ihe  samj?  general  ccmditions  of  form,  pize  and  composition,  which 
they  have  already  by  developinent  and  urowtb  attained.  It  is  by  this  process  that 
an  adult  person  iu  liealih  maintains  for  a  considerable  number  of  years  the  saunj 
general  outline  of  featun^p,  and  nearly  tbe  same  size  and  weigbt,  altliongli  during 
all  this  time  the  several  tissues  of  his  hotly  are  undergoing  perpetual  decay  and  reu- 
ov  ifiou.  In  many  parts,  this  removal  and  renewal  of  the  p  irtieles  iS  evident.  In  the 
glands— the  Kidneys  (q.  v.),  for  example— the  cells  of  which  they  are  main'y  com- 
posed aro  b3ing  cou=>tantly  cast  off ;  yet  each  gland  maintains  its  form  and  proper 
composition,  because  for  every  cell  tliat  is  thrown  off,  a  new  one  is  produced.  In 
tlie  epidi^rmis.of  the  skin,  a  similar  process  is  pei-pelnally  going  on  before  onr  eyea. 
In  the  muscles,  a  similar  chanjre  may  be  readily  traced,  for,  witbiii  certain  Ihuits,  an 
increased  amount  of  exercise  is  directly  ff)llowed  by  an  increased  excretion  of  tbe 
ordinary  products  of  the  decomposition  of  the  nitrogenous  tissues — viz.,  urea,  car- 
bonic acid,  and  water.  Again,  after  prolonged  mental  exertion,  there  is  oft«}  a 
very  marked  increase  in  tbe  amount  of  alkaline  ]^>bospbates  lu  tlie  urine,  which 
seems  to  shew  that  in  tliese  cases  tliere  is  an  excessive  oxidation  of  the  phosphoms 
of  the  brain;  and' yet,  iu  consequence  of  the  activity  of  the  reparative proce:!«, 
neither  the  muscles  nor  tbe  brain  diminish  iu  size. 

It  may  be  regarded  as  an  c'8ta»)llshed  fact  in  physiology,  that  every  imrticle  of  4lie 
body  is  formed  for  a  certain  period  of  existence  iu  the  ordinary  conuitious  of  active 
life,  at  the  end  of  which  period,  if  not  previously  destroyed  l)y  excessive  exercise,  it 
is  absorbed  or  dies,  and  is  cast  off.  (The  hair  and  deciduous  or  milk  teeth  afford 
good  illustrations  of  tliis  law.)  Tlie  less  a  part  is  exercised,  the  longer  its  cout- 
pon  nt  pnrticlss  appear  to  live.  Thus,  Mr  Pa<;et  found  that,  if  the  general  devfloiv 
meut  of  the  tadpole  bj  retarded  by  keeping  ft,  in  a  cold,  dark  place,  und  if  hereby 
the  functions  of  the  blood  coipuscles  be  slowly  and  imperfectly  discharged,  the 
animal  will  retain  its  embryonic  state  for  several  weeks  longer  than  usual,  and  tbe 
development  of  the  second  set  of  corpuscles  will  be  proportionally  postponed,  while 
the  individual  life  of  the  corpuscles  of  the  flfe-t  set  will  be,  by  llie  Bamc  time, 
prolonged. 

For  the  due  performance  of  tlie  function  of  nutrition,  certain  conditfous  are 
necessary,  of  which  the  most  important  are— 1,  a  ri«flit  ptate  and  composition  of  tbe 
blood,  Irom  which  tbe  materials  of  nutrition  are  (hrived;  2,  a  regular  and  not  far 
distant  supply  of  such  blood ;  S,  a  certain  influence  of  tlie  nervous  system;  aud4,  a 
iiutuial  state  of  the  part  to  b3  nourished.   • 

1.  There  must  be  a  certain  adaptation  peculiar  to  each  individual  between  tlie 
blood  and  the  tissues.  Such  an  adaptation  is  dettTinined  in  its  flr-t  formation,  i.nd 
is  maintained  in  the  concurrent  development  and  increase  of  both  blood  andtissae& 
This  maintenance  of  the  sameness  of  the  blood  is  well  illustrated  by  the  action  of 
vaccine  matter.  By  the  insertion  of  the  most  minute  portion  of  the  vims  In'o  tlio 
{  system,  the  blood  undergoes  an  alteration  which,  although  it  must  be  inconceivaUy 
sliirht,  is  maintained  for  several  years;  for  even  very  long  after  a  successful  vacci- 
nation, a  second  insertion  of  the  virus  may  have  iro  effect,  because  the  new  blood 
•  formed  after  tbe  vaccination  continues  to  be  made  similar  to  the  blood  as  altered  by 
the  vaccine  matter.  So,  in  all  probability,  are  maintained  the  morbid  states  of  tbe 
blood  which  exist  in  syphilis  and  many  other  chronic  diseases*  the  blood  once  in- 
oculated, retaining  for  veurs  the  taint  which  it  onco  received.  The  power  of  assfail- 
lation  which  the  blood  exercises  iu  these  cases  is  exactly  comparablt-  with  tJial  <rf 
maintenance  by  nutririon  in  tbe  tissues;  and  evidence  of  the  adaptation  b?*tweenthe 
^blood  and  the  tissues,  and  of  tho  delicacy  of  the  adjustment  by  whidi  it  i3  i^iiUk 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


381 


^ax 


iained,  is  afforded  by  the  plicnomona  of  eymmetrical  dipeaset*  (ftJ^pecLilIy  of  tlic  ekin 
»ud  boner),  iu  which,  in  conseqaeiice  of  some  morbid  condition  of  the  blood,  a 
change  of  btrucfure  aiffccts  in  :in  exactly  einjilar  way  i lie  precisely  corresponding 
parts  on  the  two  sidts  of  the  body,  and  no  other  parts  of  even  the  same  tipgnr. 
'i'hese  phenomeim  (of  which  nnnierons  examples  are  given  in  two  papers  by  Dr  W. 
Bi>d<1  and  Mr  Paget  in  the  26th  volume  of  the  **  Metlico-chlrurgical  Tranfactions'") 
can  only  be  explained  on  the  a«sun)ptlon— let,  of  tlie  complete  and  peculiar  identity 
in  composition  in  corresponding  parts  of  opposite  sides  of  the  bo<ly ;  and2dly,  of  ^o 
precise  and  complete  an  adaptation  between  the  blood  and  the  several  parts  of  tacli 
tissue,  that  a  morbid  material  being  present  in  the  blood,  may  destroy  Its  fitness  for 
the  nutrition  of  one  or  two  portions  of  a  tissue,  without  afFccting  its  fitness  for 
the  maintenance  of  tlie  other  portions  of  t  lie  same  ticsnc.  If,  then,  the  l)lood  ciin 
ho  fit  for  the  maintenance  of  one  p.irt,  and  unfit  for  the  maintenance  of  anothtr  part 
of  the  same  tigyuo  (as  the  skiii  or  bone),  how  precise  must  be  that  adaptation  of  the 
blood  to  the  wholo  body,  Ij^vhicli  in  liealth  it  is  always  capable  of  maint^iiuing  all 
the  diff.Tent  partn  of  the  numerous  organs  and  tissues  iu  a  statirof  integrity. 

2.  The  necessity  of  an  adequate  supply  of  appropriate  blood  in  or  near  the  part 
to  be  nourished,  is  shewn  in  the  frequent  examples  of  atrophy  of  parts  to  wliicU 
too  little  blO(  d  is  sent,  of  mortificutiou  when  the  supply  of  blood  Is  entirely  cut  ofi", 
and  of  defective  nutrition  When  the  blood  is  stagnant  in  a  part.  The  blood-vessels 
themselves  take  no  share  in  tlw  process,  except  as  the  caiTiers  of  the  nutritive 
matter ;  and  provided  they  come  so  near  that  tite  latter  may  pass  by  imbibition,  it  is 
comparatively  unimportant wliether  they  ramify  within  the  substance  of  the  tispue, 
or  <as  in  the  case  of  the  non-vascular  tissues,  such  as  the  epidcrmi?",  cornea,  ^c)  are 
Uisiribnted  only  over  its  surface  or  border. 

3.  Numerous  cases  of  various  kinds  might  be  readily  adduced  to  prove  that  a  cer- 
tain influence  of  the  nervous  system  is  essential  to  healthy  nutrition.  Injmnes  of 
the  spinal  cord  are  n/ot  nnfroquently  followed  by  mortification  of  portions  of  the 
jwral^sed  parts;  and  both  experiments  and  clinical  cases  shew  thtit  the  repair  of 
iujanes  takes  place  less  completely  in  parts  paralysed  by  lesion  of  the  spii'al  cord 
than  in  ordinary  cashes.   Division  of  the  trunk  of  the  trifacial  nerve  has  been  follow(  d 

■  hy  incomfilete  nutrition  of  the  corresponding  side  of  tlie  ftice,  and  ulceration  of  the 
Gomea  is  a  frequent  consequence  of  the  opiration. 

4.  The  fourth  condition  is  so  obvious  aa  to  require  no  special  illnstration. 

For  further  information  on  this  most  important  department  of  physiology,  tho 
reader  is  refen^d  to  Mr  Paget's  •*  Surgical  Pathology,"  or  to  his  on^^mal-  lectures  on 
Nntjrition,  Hyixjrtrophy,  and  Atrophy  (publihhed  in  volume  39  <  f  **The  Medic:.!  Ga- 
zette"), or  to  thecltapter  on  ''Nutrition  and  Growth,"  in  Kirkis's  "Hai  dbook  of 
Physiologv,"  which  confcjins  an  exc»jlUntabs^tract  of  Mr  Paget's  views,  and  to  which 
we  are  indebted  for  the  greater  part  of  this  article. 

NUX  VO'MICA  is  the  pharmacopceial  name  of  tlie  seed  of  Strychnoa  Ntix 
Vomica^  or  Poiaon  Nut,  The  following  are  the  characters  of  these  seeds,  which  are 
imported  from  the  East  Indies :  "  Nearly  circular  and  flat^  auout  an  inch  in  diameter, 
ninbiiicated  and  slightly  convex  on  one  side,  externally  of  an  ash-gray  color,  thickly 
Covered  with  short  satiny  hairs,  internally  translncent,  tou^'h  and  horny,  taste  in- 
tensely bitter,  inodorous."—**  The  British  Pharmacopceia,"  p.  99, 

For  the  genuine  charactei-s,  see  the  article  Stkychnosi.— The  N.  V.  tree  is  a 
native  of  Coromandel,  Ceylon,  and  other  parts  ot  the  East  Indies.  It  is  a  tree  of 
moderate  size,  with  roundish-olJlong.  stalktd,  ^'mooth  leaves,  and  t^  rininal  corymbs. 
The  fmit  is  a  globular  berry,  about  as  large  as  a  small  orange,  one-celled,  with  a  brit- 
tle shell,  and  several  seeds  lodged  in  a  white  gelatinous  pulp.— The  bark  is  known  as 
False  Angostura  Bark,  Inivinj;  been  confounded  witls  Angostura  Bark,  in  consequence 
of  a  commercial  fratid,  about  the  beginning  of  the  present  c;  but  its  properties  are 
very  dlffei-ent,  as  ft  is  very  iioisonons. 

Tbe  seeds  coiitiUn  (in  addition  to  inert  matters,  such  as  gum,  starch,  woody  fibre 
&c)  three  alkaloids  closely  related  to  each  other,  which  act  as  powerful  poisons  on 
the  animal  frame,  and  speedily  occasion  violei  t  tetanic  convulsions  and  death. 
These  alkaloids  or  bases  are  named  Strychnia^  Brueiay  and  JgoMtria^  and  exist  in  the 
?»«l8  in  combination  with  Utctio  and  strychnic  (or  igasuric)  acid.  For  a  good 
method  of  obbiining  pure  strychnia,  which  is  bvfar  the  most  important  of  the  three 
basciB,  the  reader  is  referred  to  p.  328  of  '*  TheBriliBU  Pimrmacopcela." 


y  Google 


gj??."  383      ^ 

Strychnia  {O^^n'^mO^  ocean  !u  ^  right  nqnare  octahedrons  or  prisms,  coloriea 
and  iuodoruiiB,  8c«rceTy  solnble  in  water,  but  easUj  soluble  in  boiUug  r«$ctiliisd 
spirit,  iu  etber,  und  in  chluroform.  Pare  suipbaric  ncid  forms  with  it  a  colorletf 
polntion,  which,  on  the  addition  of  bicbroinnt^  of  potasii,  ucqnireftan  intensely  vio* 
let  hue,  speedily  })us8iiig;  tlirough  red  to  vellow."— Op.  ciL  Iu  nitric  acid,  it  onglit, 
if  pare,  to  form  a  colorleM  solatlou ;  if  the  solution  is  reditish,  it  is  a  sijni  tbat 
briiciu  is  niso  present  Strychnia  combines  with  nnmHrons  acid;*,  und  forma 
well-marked  salts,  whicli  are  ainenable  to  the  same  tests  as  the  base  itself. 

Brueia  {Oa^U^^^^O^mS  Aq)  is  insoluble  iuetlier,  but  more  soluble  in  water  and 
in  stron<;  alcoliol  than  strychnia;  und  it  is  the  most  abundant  of  the  three  alkaloids 
in  nox  vomica.  It  acts  on  the  animil  (economy  similarly  to,  bnt  mncli  letfs  active^ 
than  stryclniia,  from  which  it  may  be  disiinmiished  not  only  by  it«  different  sold- 
bility,  l)at  by  tl»e  red  color  which  is  imparled  lo  it  by  nitric  acid,  and  which  chaiigos 
to  u  fine  violet  ou  the  addition  of  protociiloride  of  tin.  Like  strychnia,  it  fomu 
uamerous  polts.  ^ 

Jgasitria  seems  qjosely  to  resemble  brueia  in  most  respects.  Little  is^knowo  r»* 
gardiug  Igasurie  Acid, 

Slrycliniti,  l)rucia,  and  izasuria  occur  not  only  in  nuz  vomica  bat  in  the  seeds  of 
StrychnoH  ignatii  (8r  Ignatfus's  b-.mns),  and  In  tlie  seedn  and  otlier  parts  o^  sevewl 
plants  of  tlie  {^enus  Strychnos.  The  amount  of  strychnia  present  in  these  substauces 
varies  from  0-5  to  1  6  per  cent. 

Niix  vomica,  according  to  the  experiments  of  Mnrcet,  acts  on  vegetables  as  a  poi- 
son. His  exneriraents  wvre,  however,  confined  to  the  haricot  t)erin  and  the  lilac  It 
is  poisonous  In  u  greater  or  lesser  degree  to  most  animals,  though  larger  qnantitie;! 
are  required  to  kill  herbivorous  than  camivorons  animals.  Thus,  a  few  grains  vitt 
kill  a  00''.  bnt  some  ounces  are  require*!  to  destroy  a  horse.  Ills  believed,  however, 
tliatthe  bii-d  called  Bitceroa  Rhinoceros  eats  the  unts  with  Impunity ;  and  a  pecnlitf 
kind  of  Aeanu  lives  and  thrives  in  the  extnict  of  tiie  nuts.  Dr  Pereira  describes 
tinee  dejrroe'*  of  the  op  jraticm  of  this  substance  on  man.  1.  In  very  snmH  doses, 
its  effects  are  tonic  and  diuretic,  an  I  often  slightly  aperient.  2.  In  lar>;er  doMi, 
there  is  a  disordered  state  of  the  muscular  sysfem;  the  limbs  tremble;  a  sllglit 
rigidity  or  stiffness  is  feit  when  an  attempt  is  nuide  to  put  tiie  muscles  In  action ;  tiid, 
the  patient  experiences  a  difficulty  in  ke  ping  the  erect  poaturo.  If  the  use  <rf' 
tlie  medicine  bj  coutiuued,  tliese  effects  increase  in  intensity,  and  the  voluntary  niiis» 
clesure  thrown  into  a  convulsed  state  by  very  slight  reuses*,  as,  for  example,  by  in- 
spiring more  dee|)ly  than  usual,  or  even  by  tnrnnig:  in  l)ed.  It  is  remarkable  that 
in  paralysis  the  effects  are  most  marked  in  the  paralysed  pnrts.  8.  In  poisonoos 
doses,  the  sy:nptoms  are  tetanus  and  am)hyxia,  follow  d  by  deaths  After  swaUow- 
ing  a  large  dose  of  strychnia  (on  which  the  poisonous  effects  of  nux  vomica  essenti- 
alhr  depend),  tlie  following  phenomena  occurred  in  a  case  recorded  by  Taylor  iu  his 
••  Medical  Jurisprudenci; :"  **  A  yonnsr  inan,  aged  seventeen,  swallowed  forty  grains  of 
strychnia.  The  symptoms  came  on  m  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour;  k>rk-]aw  and 
spasmodic  contraction  of  all  the  muscles  speedily  set  in,  the  whole  l>ody  beconiingss 
stiff  as  a  l)oai*d ;  the  lower  extremities  were  extended  and  stiff,  and  tlie  soles  of  the 
feet  concave.  The  skin  became  livid,  the  eyebnlls  prominent^  and  the  papU)*  diliied 
and  insensible ;  the  patient  lay  for  a  few  minutes  without  consciousness,  and  in  a 
state  of  universal  tetanus.  A  remission  occurred,  but  the  symptoms  became  aggra- 
vated, and  the  patient  died  asphyxiated  from  the  spasm  of  the  chest  inaboat  an  lit«iir 
and  a  half  after  taking  the  poison."  It  is  difficult  to  say  what  is  the  emailed  dose 
that  would  prove  fatal  to  an  adult.  Thirty  graips  of  the  powdered  nuts,  given  by 
mistake  to  a  patient,  destroyed  life.  Three  grams  of  the  extract  have  proved  fatal: 
and  in  a  case  quoted  by  Taylor  (op.  eit),  half  a  grain  of  sulphate  of  strychnia  caused 
deatii  in  l4  minutes. 

The  preparations  of  nux  vomica  are  the  powdered  nuts,  the  extracts,  the  tincture, 
and  strychnia;  the  alkaloid  l>ehig  usually  preferable,  in^ consequence  of  its  more 
constant  strength.  In  various  ^rms  of  paralysis,  especially  where  there  is  no 
apparent  lesion  of  structure,  nux  vomica  is  a  most  successful  remedy;  althoo^ 
there  are  caacs  in  which  it  is  nosiiively  injurious.  It  is  also  ef  service  in  variooi 
affectitms  of  the  stomach,  such  as  dyspepsia,  gastrodynia,  and  pyrosis.  The  average 
dose  of  the  powder  is  two  or  three  grama,  gradually  Increased;  that  of  the  tinctur**, 
^0  or  15  minims ;  and  that  of  the  extract  half  a  grain,  gradually  increased  to  two  or 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ-IC 


283  Jftj^y^ 

three  grains  Th«  <J(mw  of  ^trjrcliuin,  when  given  In  rano*  of  (mrfllyplA,  fg  at  Ui« 
Cuiumfuceiii^nt  one-tweiitl'  th  of  a  gniin  thr(?e  tiin<««  a  «liiy.  the  doae  b-'iiig  gradnuUf 
iiicrea?<»<l,  till  eliijht  mnvctiliir  twitching*  ute.  obeervfH,  For  gastric  <^^(Xt)e^B,  » 
still  smaller  doee  is  iiniuJIy  anffli  lent,  4i»,  for  ixaiupK*,  oncvfortieili  of  a  grsiii. 

NTA'NZA,  Victoria,  n  great  frei»U-\vat«r  lak<!  in  Ooiitrnl  Africa, discovered  hy 
Cm>tiiiii  Si>eke  in  1858,  explored  by  Spike  and  Grant  in  1862.  The  nKjt<t  anthentk 
iiiforination  that  we  h;»v«  alH>ut  the  v.  N.  is.  how«ver,  derived  from  the  expiORitioo 
and  circmnnavigaiion  of  it  by  Stanley  in  1875.  The  native  name,  Nyanza,  signiflti 
*tlic  water."  lt«  sonthpm  point  is  In  lat.  2°  44'  p.,  long.  33®  e.  Its  northern  shore 
runs  ut'ariy  parallel  to  the  equator,  and  is  iibont  i'^  nulcs  to  the  north  of  it.  It  Ui 
et-tiinatod  to  l)e  about  220  miles  in  h'.ngth,  and  180  in  hro.  dth.  It  is  of  no  ureal 
depth ;  the  ^nrface  ib  abolit  SSOCfeet  above  sca-leveL  Tliere art:  a  narobrr  of  ismndM 
iiejir  its  Biiores,  the  chief  of  which  are  Ukerewe  iu  the  Bontb-east,  and  Saese  in  tli« 
iiortb-west.  At  its  nortlneaft  extremity.  Lake  Baringo,  described  by  the  natives  aa 
a  long  narrow  ba^ln,  seems  to  Ixj  connected  witli  the  V.  N.  by  a  nanow  chaoncL 
The  countries  on  the  west  shores  of  tlie  lake  <njoy  a  mild  and  goiial  climate,  and 
the  rainfall  is  below  that  of  many  parts  of  Britain,  being  oiilv  £i  inches.  Mtcsa, 
king  of  Uganda,  seems  to  l)e  tlie  most  powerful  monarch  on  tlie  hhoret  of  the  hike, 
bis  8wny  extending  over  a  large  portion  of  the  northera  and  western  coast «.  Hhi 
pnbjccts  possess  a  considerable  degree  of  civilisation.  The  most  con^iderable  trihn- 
tary  of  the  V.  N.  is  the  Shimiya  (pee  Nile),  which  flows  into  its  B0uth«m 
extremity  in  long.  Sd9  83'  c  'The  Nile  emerges  from  the  north  end  of  th« 
V.  N.,  at  Napoleon  Bay,  preclpitatinir  Itself  over  the  RIpon  Faills.  North-west  fn)ra 
Lake  N.  lies  what  Speke  calli*d  L6ta  N'Ziv'6  Lake,  whinh  was  descrilxd  as  a  narrow 
roiiervoir  abont  230  miles  long,  through  the  northep  end  of  which  the  Nile  passes. 
This  hike  is  now  known  as  the  Albert  Nyanza  (q.^v.). 

NTA'SSA,  or  Nyanja  {apparentlv  identical  with  name  N*ynnz').  another  lake  in 
the  interior  of  Africa,  which  Dr  Livingstone  diRCovi-nd  in  1861  ny  a«:endi»'«j  tlm 
river  8hir6  (q.  v.).  'i'he  t»onthern  end  of  the  NynesM,  or  .star  Lake,  is  in  lat.  14®  25* 
».,  and  its  northern  end  extends  to  the  parallel  of  Qo  50'  s.  'i'he  lake  i:<  upwards  of 
800  miles  long,  it«»  average  breadth  ^eine  26,  and  is  l.'JOO  fe<*t  abi've  «ca-lev«'L  The 
first  representatives  of  a  rait'Sion  on  N.,Tonnd*d  in  honor  of  Dr  Livingstone,  earned 
with  them  in  sections  a  sfeanaer  of  stm'l  plate?,  which  w.is  puccephfully  launched  on 
the  lake  in  1875.  None  of  the  rivers  flowinv  into  N.  siC  navigable.  Tlie  lake  in  in 
most  parts  very  deep— in  many  placee  over  100  fathoms.  To  the  e&st  is  a  range  of 
monntains  100  miles  long,  and  ranging  from  10,000  to  12,000  feet  al>ove  the  hiki-. 
The  scenery  of  N.  is  dcscril^ed  as  grand  in  the  extreme,  thongli  much  ot  the  land 
snrrouiidingit  is  low  and  marshy.  The  population  <  f  its  short?f»,  once  den!»e,  h:is 
born  sorely  scourged  by  the  slave-trade.  Something  liad  previimply  been  knuwii 
ahont  this  lake  nndfr  the  name  of  tlie  Maravl ;  but  the  accounts  were  to  vague  that  lat- 
terly it  was  omitted  from  the  maps  of  Africa. 

NYAYA  (from  the  Sanscrit  ni.  Into,  and  dya^  going,  a  derivative  from  i.  to  go; 
hence  littr;illy  •*enleiinjr,"  and  flgunttively,  *'lnv<8llL'ating  analytically"),  Is  the 
name  of  tl)e  second  of  the  three  great  systems  of  ancient  Hindu  philosophy  ;  and  it 
is  api-urenily  k>  called  because  it  tre.its*  analyticajly,  an  it  were,  of  the  objects  of  liu- 
inau  knowledge.  botl»  material  and  H|>iritual,  distributed  by  it  under  different  heads 
or  topics ;  unlike,  therefore,  the  Veddnta  (q.  v.)  and  Sdnkhya  (q.  v.)y  which  follow  a 
Fyothctic  niethO<l  of  rea>oniiiir,  the  former  of  tiiese  sytn|)tonib  being  chicflj' cojj- 
cenied  in  fpiritnal  and  divine  matters,  and  the  latter  In  Hnbj,!Cts  rdntiugto  the  mate- 
rial world  and  Uian.  The  N)'aytt  con.-lst-,  like  the  two  other  great  systems  of  Hindu 
philosophy  (pee  MhfANSA  and  Sankhya),  of  two  divii*ionp.  The  former  is  called 
NtatA  (inx)p<'i),  and  will  be  exelnsivi  ly  considered  in  this  article;  the  other  is 
known  nnd<*r  the  name  of  Vaip'kshika  (q.  v  ).  With  the  otln;r  systems  of  philo- 
so]>by,  itcx>nrursin  promiPiKg  beatimde.  that  is,  final  deliverance  of  the  soul  froni 
re-birth  or  transinigration,  to  those  who  acquire  tnith,  which,  in  the  case  of 
the  Nj'Aya,  means  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  principles  taught  ny  this  particular 
pyatem. 

-  The  topics  treated  of  bv  the  NvRya  are  brieflv  the  following:  1.  The  prauian'a^ 
or  inptmments  of  right  liotiou.    They  are:  a.  Knowlcd;;e  ivhidx  has  arisen  from 
u.K.,x.l3.  n  ] 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Hjctag'Bjcea  S8-i 

1!ie  contact  of  a  ponse  with  ite  object ;  b.  Inference  of  three  sorti*  (d  priori,  dpoUer" 
tori,  niKl  from  iin.ilogy) ;  e.  Coiuj);irisou ;  auii  (L  KuowKdgu,  verl)aliy  coiiuimnicat- 
c(l,  which  may  be  knoWletljje  of  *  that  wiiereof  Hie  iiiutter  ia  f».:eii,*'  auid  kaowledjM 
of  "  that  whereof  the  matter  is  nii.^eeu  *'  (revelation).  2.  The  objects  or  inatiew 
&boat  which  the  iirqniry  is  conci^rued  (pramtfia).  Th  ty  aru :  a.  Tua  Soul  (<if»»wn). 
It  is  the  site  of  kuowlec^^e  or  BtMiiiinciit,  (iiffi*reiit  for  i-acli  individnal  coe::i$teiit 
jMjrsoii,  iuflnite,  eternal,  &c.  Souis  are  tb-refore  unmeroup,  but  the  suprcind  Mul 
)s  one;  it  is  demonstrated  as  tlie  creator  of  ail  things,  h.  Body  {n'arira).  It  fs  tlu; 
pite  of  action,  of  the  organs  of  sc^usatiou,  and  of  the  sentiments  of  pain  or  i>leasare. 
It  is  composed  of  parts,  a  framed  subst-mce,  not  inchoative,  aiid  not  ccm8i.«ting  i)t 
the  tiiree  elements,  earth,  water,  and  fire,  as  some  ^say,  iior  of  fnilr  or 
all  the  five  elements  (viz.  air  and  ctii  -r  in  addition  to  tiie  former),  as  others 
maintain,  but  merely  earihy.  e.  Organs  <tf  aenmtion  {indriya) ;  from  the  ele* 
luenti),  earth,  water,  light,  air,  aiid  ether,  they  arc  smell,  taste,  siglit,  touch, 
and  hearing,  d.  Their  objects  (artha).  They  arc  the  qnalities  of  earth.  &c— 
\\z.  odor,  savor,  color,  tan<?ibiliiy,  and^  sound,  e.  UnSerHtaiiding  (froddAi) 
or  apprehension  {upalabdhf)  or  conception  (jndna).  terms  whicii  are  usi-d  syiioay- 
jnously.  It  is  not  eternal,  as  the  S&nkhya  mainttms,  but  transitory,  /.  The  organ 
of  imagination  and  volition  {manas).  Iisproporty  is  not  the  giving  rii«e  simnltaue- 
onslyto  more  notions  than  one.  g.  Activity  (pravr'itti)*  or  that  whieU  originates  tlie 
ntterances  of  the  voice,  the  cogniiious  of  the  miderstanding,  and  thoercsturesof  tlie 
body.  It  is  therefore  or.jl.  uuiit:)|,  or  corjioreal,  and  the  reason  of  ail  worldly  pro- 
ceeding-*, h.  Faults  or  failings  {dosfia),  width  caH^e  activity— viz.  uffectiou,  nvcr- 
sion,  and  bewilderm  -nt.  i.  Transmigration  (pretyabhdva.  literally,  the  bccpuiing 
bom  aft-r  havim;  df«?d),  or  the  re«r«!n<'ration  of  the  sonl,  which  commences  wiiU 
one's  first  birth,  and  curls  only  with  final  emancipatioil.  It  does  not  belong  to  the 
body,  b.;cau:«e  the  latter  is  difft^rent  in  successive  birth*,  but  to  tuc  soul,  becjinse  It 
is  eternal.  *.  Fruit  or  retribution  {phala),  or  that  wldcli  accrues  from  activity  awd 
fillings.  It  is  the  conscionsnetts  of  plea.enre  or  of  pain.  I.  Pain  {duli'kfui)^  or  that 
whicii  has  the  characteristic  mark  ot  causin<r  vexation.  It  is  defined  as  ^Mheocciir* 
rence  of  birtli,'*  or  tlie  originating  of  *•  body,"  since  body  is  associated  wiiii  variom 
kinds  of  distress.  Pleasure  is  not  dtnied  to  exist,  but,  according  to  the  N,\&ya,  it 
diiserves  little  consideratJoiu  since  it  Is  ever  closely  connect  d  witn  pain.  vi.  Abso- 
lute deliveraiuse  or  emancipation  {apavarga).  It  is  anuHiihitiOu  of  pain,  or  absolhte 
cesioatiuu  of  one's  tronl)le9  once  for  all. 

After  (I)  "  iiistrmnent:4  of  right  notion,"  and  (2)  ** the  objects  of  Inquiry,"  tl»e 
NyAya  proceeds  to  the  investiguloa  of  the  following  topics. 

8.  Dimbt  (sam's'aya).  It  arises  from  unsteadiness  in  the  recognition  or  non- 
recognition  of  some  nmrk,  wliich,  if  we  \yore  sni-eofjts  presence  or  absence,  would 
determine  tho  subj;jct  to  be  so  or  so,  or  not  to  be  so  or  so ;  but  it  may  also  aiiM 
from  confiicting  testimony.  4.  Bfotive  (prayojana).  or  that  by  which  a  person  is 
moved  to  action.  5.  A  familiar  case  (dr'ish'tanta),  or  that  in  ri-gard  to  which  a  uitu 
of  an  ordinary  and  a  man  of  a  superior  intellect  entertain  the  same  opinion.  & 
Tenet  or  dogma  {ttiddhdnta).  It  is  eiih.ir  '^ateueto.f  all  schools,"  i.  e.  nnivt-rj=aDy 
acktiowledgc^d,  or  "a  tenet  pjculiar  to  fome  scliool,"  i.e.  partially  acknowK*djr«l; 
or  "a  hypotliyticd  dogma,"  i.  e.  one  wliich  resrs  on  the  supposed  truth  of  aiiutUer 
dogma;  or  '*aii  implied  dogma,"  1.  o^  one  tlie  correctness  of  which  is  not  exprewly 
proved,  but  tacitly  admirted  by  the  Nya.va.  T.  The  d iff- -rent  meml)ers  {acayavt^) 
of  a  regular  ai-giiment  or  syllogism  (nydya).  8.  Confutution  or  reductiou  to  al>- 
snrdity  (tarka).  It  consists*  in  directing  a  i>erson  who  do<'a  not  apprehend  the  force 
of  the  argument  as  ftr^t  pntsentt^d  to  liim,  to  look  at  it  from  an  op|K)site  point  of 
view.  9.  Ascertainment  (nirn'aya).  It  is  the  determination  of  a  question  by  hear- 
ing both  what  is  to  be  fi>ld  tor  and  against  it,  after  having  bee"  in  donbt  Thetjiree 
inxt  topics*  ri'late  to  the  topic  of  controversy,  viz.  .10.  DiscnsHion  (Mtte), 
M'hich  is  defined  as  consisring  in  the  defending  by  proofs  on  the  part  of  the  one 
disputant,  and  the  controverting  it  by  obj  ctions  on  the  part  of  "the  other, 
witliout  discordance  in  respect  of  tiie  principle.^  on  which  the  conc)ii!4ou 
is  to  depend ;  it  is.  in  short,  an  honest  sort  of  (bscussion,  such,  for  instjiuce,  as 
takes  place  between  a  preceptor  and  his  pupil,  and  where  the  debate  is  condoOrd 
without  ambition  of  victory.  11.  Wrangling  (Jalpa)^  consisting  iu  tlie  deftaiccor 
attack  of  a  propositiou  by  means  of  tricks,  futilities,  aud  saca  like  moans;  it  is 


y  Google 


385* 


KfCtaglnyoMB 


therefore  a  kind  of  di0cn8i*ion  where  the  dinpntants  are  merely  desirons  of  victor?-, 
instead  of  l>eiiig  desirous  of  trnih.  12.  CavtUing  (^itan'd'd),  when  u  iimn  does  not 
atteiHDt  to  e8ta!>llBh  the  oppoMte  side  of  tlie  questiou,  bat  coufiiiea  biniscif  to  ca'i>- 
ing  diaiugeu^on^ly  at  I  ho  arirnnieDts  of  tlie  other  party.  18.  FaUacxcA 
or  semblauces  of  rca-^ous  {ketvdb!idisa)y  five  sorts  of  which  are  ditttiii- 
euished.  viz.  tha  erratic,  iha  coutradictury,  tlte  eqnally  av^Inblc  on 
both  sides,  tliat  wiiich,  standing  itself  iu  the  notd  of  proof,  docs 
not  differ  from  that  wliicli  is  to  l)e  proved,  and  tliat  which  is  adduc-d 
when  tlie  time  is  not  tliat  when  it  nii«;hl  have  avi.iled.  14.  Triek*^  or  nufair- 
ness  in  disputation  {cMiala)^  or  flic  opposing  of  a  uropO'^ition  by  nieuns  of  afsuniiug 
a  different  8(?nse  from  that  which  the  objecior  well  knows  the  proponnder  intmdeil 
to  convey  by  his  tvrms.  It  I."*  dtt*tlnguished  as  verbal  roisconbtrnin^  of  what  is  am- 
bignons,  as  perverting,  in  a  literal  senses  wliatls  said  in  njinetaphorical  one,  and  as 
generalining  what  is  i>arl  iculur.  15.  FutiU  ohjectiona  (Jdti)^  of  which  twenty-fonr 
sorts  are  enninerated;  and,  16.  Failure  in  argument  or  reason  of  deieat  (n^a/xa- 
gthd*ta)t  of  which  twenty-two  distinctions  are  ppecifie<]. 

The  great  proniiut-nco  givi  u  hy  theNyiiya  to  the  7nethodf  by  means  of  wliich  troth 
might  be  ascertained,  has  soiniMinies  misled  European  wriu  rsinto  the  belief,  thatit  is 
merely. a  syttteni  of  formal  logic,  not  engaged  in  nu't:iphysical  investigations.  But 
though  the  foregoing  enunieration  of  the  tOpics  treated  by  it  could  only  touch  npoii 
the  main  points  which  form  the  subject  matter  of  the  Nvflya,  It  will  sufficiently 
shew  that  the  NjAya  intended  to  bi;  a  complete  system  of  'philosophical  investiga- 
tion ;  and  some  questions,  such  ns  tlic  nature  of  intellect,  ariicnlatcd  sound,  &c.,  or 
those  of  genus,  variety,  and  individual,  it  has  dealt  with  in  a  masterly  manner,  well 
deserving  the  notice  of  wt'«»tern  ppeculatiot*.  That  the  ntomls'lic  theory  has  been 
dcvolvca  from  it,  will  be  seen  nncW  the  article  Vais'eshika.  On  account  of  the 
|»rominent  position,  however,  wliich  <he  method  of  dbcnsyhni  holds  In  thin  system 
and  the  freq^uentailusioa  made;  l)y  European  writers  to  n  Hindu  syllogism,  it  will  be 
expedient  to  explain  how  the  NyHya  d  flues  the  *'  different  member:^  of  a  syllogism" 
under  its  seventh  topic.  A  regular  argument  consists,  according  lo  it,  of  five  mem- 
bers—v:z.  a.  the  proposition  ipratijm)^  or  the  declaration  of  what  is  to  \\e  es!al>lish«Kl ; 
h,  the  reason  (hetu)^  or  *'  the  means  for  tlie  establishinu  of  whjit  is  to  be  estabiislied ;" 
e.  the  example  (uc2aAaran'a),  i.  e.  some  familiar  aise  illustrating  the  fact  to  be  estab- 
lished, or  inversely,  some  familiar  case  illustrating  the  iinpossioility  of  the  contrary 
.  fact;  d.  the  application  (upanaya)^  or  ** re-statement  of  that  in  respect  of  which 
flojnetiiing  is  to  be  es.ablished ; "  and  e.  the  conclusion  (nigamana),  or  ^Hlierc-stating 
of  the  propopitiou  because  of  the  mention  of  the  reason."  An  iuptance  of  such  a 
^yl;ogism  would  run  accordingly  thus:  a.  This  hill  is  fiery,  b.  for  it  smokes,  e.  is  a 
culinary  hearth,  or  (inversely)  not  as  a  laka^from  which  vapor  is  seen  arising, 
vapor  not  being  smoke,  because  a  lake  is  invariably  devoid  of  fire ;  d.  accordingly, 
the  liill  is  smoKine ;  e.  therefore,  it  is  fiery. 

The  founder  of  the  NyAya  system  is  reputed  under  the  name  of  Ootama^  or,  as  it 
also  occur.<>,  Gautama  (whicii  wou'd  mean  a  descendant  of  Ootaina).  There  is,  how- 
ever, nothing  as  yet  known  as  to  the  history  of  thi:^  personage  or  the  time  when  he 
lived,  though  it  is  probable  that  the  work  attrihuted>to  him  Is,  in  its  present  sha|)e, 
later  than  the  work  of  the  great  grammarian  P&n'ini.  It  consists  of  five  books  or 
Adhudwis,  eacli  divided  Into  two  •*day!«,"  or  diurnal  les-^ons,  whieh  are  again  sub- 
divided into  sections  or  topics,  each  of  wliich  contains  several  aphorisms,  or  S{Ui  as, 
St'eS^TBA.  like  the  text- l)ooks  of  other  sciences  among  the  ilindns,  it  has  been 
explained  or  annotated  by  a  triple  set  of  commentarieH,  which,  in  their  turn,  have 
become  the  source  of  more  popular  or  elemenlnry  theatises. — The  Saupcilt  text  of 
tlie  Sfltras  of  Gotuma,  with  a  commentary  by  Vi/wandtha,  has  bt^enediied  at  Calcut- 
ta (1828) ;  and  the  firt^t  four  liooks,  and  part  of  the  fifth,  of  the  text,  with  an  English 
version,  an  English  commentary,  and  extracts  from  the  Sanscrit  commentary  of 
Vis'wanathn,  by  the  late  Dr  J.  K.  Ballantyne  (Allahabad,  1850—1854).  This  excel- 
lent English  version  and;^ommentary,  and  the  celebrated  Essay  on  the  Ny&^'Tt,  by 
H.  T.  Coleb'Ot'ke  ('"J'ransiacMon*  of  thelloyal  Asiatic  Society,"  voT.  i.  t,ondoii,  1827; 
and  reprinted  in  tlie  *'^li:ceIlaneou8Ess:iys,"  vol.  i.  Lo::d'»n,  1837).  are  the  be^t 
gaide  for  the  Etiropeaii  student,  \«hu.  without  a  knowledge  of  Sanscrit,  would  wisU 
to  fa  miliar  t>e  him.  elf  with  the  NySya  sysieni. 
i       NYCTAGINA'CE^  u  natural  order  of  exog>uous  plants,  consi^tlug  pailly 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


Wycterba  qQ/> 

Ny«tadt  •^OD 

lierbaceons  plantfl,  both  nnnnal  nnd  nerennlal,  and  partly  of  sbrabs  and  trees.  Dnd*  I 
ley  rankr*  them  in  bi?  CIienap<xial  Alliance.  The  flowers  are  either  clustered  or  iK)U>  , 
tary,  nud  eitlier  the  cluster  or  the  floM'er  often  has,au  involucre,  wbfcli  is  often  ^r  ' 
colored.  Tlie  perianth  is  tnl)nlar,  plaited  in  Jmil,  colored :  the  limb  eutireor  toothed,  ' 
deciduons.  Tlie  stamens  are  equul  in  unmber  to  the  lobes  of  the  pcriaiiih.  Thu  ^ 
OTrtry  is  superior,  with  outs  ovule  and  one  style.  The  finit  isa  tliin  caryopsM,  i-Dclo-M-d 
within  tlie  fnlarirtMi  and  indunit^d  base  of  th«i  perianth.— There  are  about  100  known  ' 
specie-',  nntive-^of  warmcoantries.  Same  have  flowers  of  considerable  beauty,  as  tlu'W  • 
of  the  genus  MirabiliSt  *  *  '  ' 

I  Jalapa,  was  at  on 

,  are  flealiy,  pnrjjali     , 
of  ipecacuanha  both  iu  Quiauauud  in  Java. 

NYCTERI'BI  A,  an  extremely  cnrlon«»  genns  of  insects,  ranked  in  the  order  Dip-  • 
'  tera,  althonjrh  very  different  Trom  most  of  that  order,  and  having  neitiier  win^  nor  | 
balancers.  Its  nearet^t  alliance  is  with  HippoboseidcB  (sHse  FoBStiT  FtY  and  Shbbp  , 
Tick),  which  it  resembles*  parriculnrly  in  parasitic  habits,  and  in  the  retention  of  tiie  ■ 
ejTi^s  within  tlie  abdomen  of  tliie  female,  ontil  ttiey  have  not  only  been  hatclicd^  l*ut 
Iinve  passed  from  th«i  larva  into  the  puna  state.  The  form,  lu>wever,  is  sospidsr-  •! 
like,  that  these  insects  were  at  firat  ranked  among  the  Arctehnida.  The  few  specifS  I 
known  are  all  pnrasitic  on  bats,  on  which  they  mn  about  with  grent  activity.  The  ^ 
head  is  very  small,  cnriou?>ly  affixed  to  the  back  of  the  thorax,  and  when  the  creature  j 
sucks  the  blood  of  the  bat,  upon  which  it  lives,  it  pkict-s  itstilf  iu  a  reversed  positiuu. 

NYIREGYHA'ZA,  a  town  of  Hungary,  In  the  county  of  Szabolcs,  on  the  railway  ■ 
betwt;en  Debreczin  and  Tokay,  The  tratle  in  at^ricnltm^  produce  is  considenibk  ■ 
N.  has  salt,  soda,  and  saltpetre  works.  There  are  mineral  spiings  in  the  neigiibOT'  J 
bood.    Pop.  (1869)  21,896. 

NY'KERK,  orNienwkerk,  on  the  Veliiwe,  is  n  very  flonrisbing  nnd  weH-baHt  ^ 
town,  near  the  Zoider  Zee,  in  the  pmvince  of  Cklderlaud,  Netherlands,  25 milt^  ■ 
north-west  of  Arnbeim.  Pop.  8000.  It  has  a  good  harbor,  which  is  connectt^  with 
the  sea  by  a  wide  canal  of  1^  miles  in  leniyth.  In  the  neighborhood  are  fine  rieli  > 
moadow-iwstures  and  Unds  i*nited  for  all  Icinds  of  ^raiu,  tobacco,  potiitO(*s,  iK,  , 
Tobacco  is  exten:!iively  i^own ;  many  cattle  are  raised ;  and  a  brisk  tnide  carried  on  " 
both  witl)  the  surrounding  country  and  Amsterdam,  the  niarket  to  which  tlie  cattK  i 
tobacco,  dairy,  and  other  agricultural  ])rodace,  together  with  mnch  firewood,  ire  I 
Kent.  N.  has  a  liand!<ome  Reformed  church,  a  Roman  Catholic  chapjl,  a  sym^^e,  ^ 
orplian-hoiise,  and  good  8cho(^:>.  There  are  several  manufactures  carried  on,  which  ^ 
also  give  employment  to  the  people.  In  Netherlands'  chnrch  history,  N.  i*«  famed  ■ 
as  tlie  place  where  a  great  religious  movement  began  at  the  middle  of  last  ceo- 1 
tiiry.  The  history  ofihe  movement,  which  spread  inronghout  the  land,  contaiua  all  H 
I  lie  marks  of  the  later  revivals  in  America,  Scotlnnd,  and  Ireland.  See  Ypey  and  ^ 
I>et'moat's  *•  Gescbiedenis  der  Nederd.  Her.  Kerk,"  vol.  iv. 

NY'K(>PTNG,  a  seaport  of  Sweden,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  Baltic,  In  Iflt  W* 
45'  n.  long.  IT^  e.,  about  60  miles  south-west  of  Stockholm.  It  connmses  among 
its  inannMctnring  product*  cotton  goods,  otockings,  tobacco,  &c,  and  has  good  ship* 
yards,  mills,  and  manufactories  for  machinery,  while  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town  arc 
fxtenaive  papier-mills.  The  mined  old  casfle  of  N.,  nearly  destroyed  bv  fire  in  1665, 
and  which  ninked  in  point  of  strength  next  to  those  of  Stockholm  an<C  Calraar,  has 
♦•X|)erienced  many  eventful  vicissitudes  of  fortune.  King  VaUlemnr  of  8we<len,  after 
Ills  dethronement  In  12S8,  wns  inipris  iied  here  till  his  deafh  in  1302;  but  the  most 
tragic  incident  connected  with  N.  Castle  was  the  horrible  death  within  its  wiill*  of 
the  Dukes  Eric  and  Vahlemar,  who,  after  being  entrapped  by  th«'ir  pusillanitnonB 
brother.  King  Birger.  in  1317,  were  left  to  perish  of  hunger  in  i\  dnngeon,  the  keys 
of  which  the  kins^  threw  into  the  sen  before  he  left  the  cnstle.  The  horror  of  till* 
di!ed  roused  tht?  indignation  of  the  pfeple.  who  seized  upon  the  castle,  racked  it, 
and  demolished  it^  keep  and  donjons.  In  1719,  the  town  was  takoD  and  dismantlitl 
by  the  Rus-^lans;  and  since  then  It  has  ceased  to  bo  the  scene  of  any  events*  of 
ilstoiical  interest.  It  is  nobnl  for  tlie  pure  Swedish  spok(»i  by  its  iuhahitants. 
I'op.  4825.  ^  J 

.  NYlrGHAU  {AiUUoiper  pieta,  or  Pvrtax  traffoeamelm)y  &  wgeciea  of  tntetopSi 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


I  OQt?  Nycter'bla 

OOi  Kjstadt 

with  Bomewliat  ox-like  head  and  body,  but  with  long  slender  llnibp,  niid  of  groat 
rctivity  aixl  fl.:c(ues8.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  uiilelopet*,  and  is  more  iliun  lonr 
fc«t  bigh  at  the  slJonltR^r.  The  horns  ol  thcMiiale  are  about  js  lonj;  as  tlie  cnrp, 
emootb,  black,  i)oiuted,  brightly  cui-ved  forwiud-*.  The  feuiule  has  no  horns.  The 
neck  is  deep  and  coniprr^Hed,  not  ronndi-d  !»s  in  mo^t  of  the  anttlopcs.  A  8lig:ht 
imme  runs  alt.i  g  the  neck  and  part  of  the  buck,  nnd  the  breast  is  udorned  with  a 
Jong  hiiuging  tuft  of  hair.  ThebUck  is  nhnost  elevate^  into  a  hump  bel ween  the 
bhouldora.  Tlie  N.  iniiabits  the  den-e  fore^tsof  India  and  Persin,  where  it  has  long 
been  i-egjirdcrd  a-^  one  of  tire  noblest  kinds  of  game.  It  is  often  taken,  like  oilier 
large  animals,  by  the  cucloging  of  a  largo  space  with  nets,  and  by  great  numbers  of 
pt'ople.  It  .is  a  spirited  anima ,  and  dangerons  to  a  rash  assailant.  It  is  capable  of 
domestication,  but  is  said  to  manifest  an  irritalile  and  capricious  tempi-r. 
I  NYMPHiEA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  growii  g  in  lakes, 
ponds,  ditcli(!»,  and  slow  rivers,  where  their  fliishy  rootstocks  are  prostrate  in  tlie 
land  at  the  bottom ;  and  tlieir  large,  lontr-stalked,  heart-Hhaped,  or  peltafe  leaves 
float  on  tl>c  sui'face  of  the  water.  Their  flowers  al^o  either  float,  or  are  niis<;d  on 
tlieir  stalks  a  little  above  the  water.  'J  he  flowers  are  large,  and  often  very  beautiful, 
u(k1  fragrant.  There  are  nsuuUy  four  sepals,  and  numerous  p('t:)ls  and  stamens, 
often  pai^sjn;  gradually  into  one  another.  The  ovary  is  numy-celled,  with  ridiaiii  g 
Btignuu*.  and  very  numerous  ovules,  and  is  more  or  hss  surrounded  l)y  a  large 
fleshy  disc  The  seeils  have  a  farinaceous  albumen.  More  than  fifty  ppeciei*  are 
kiiOwn^  mostly  natives  of  warm  and  temperate  r«gious.  The  rootstocks  of  some  of 
tliein  are  used  as  food,  and  tiie  seeds  of  many.— See  Watbr-lilt,  Lotus.  Victo- 
BiA.  »n>d  EuBTALB. — Very  nearly  allied  to  N.  are  Nelumbiacece.    See  Nelumbo. 

NYMPHS,  in  Classic  Mythology,  female  divinities  of  inferior  rank,  inhabiting 
the  sea,  st^citms,  gr^)vrs.  nteadows  and  pastures,  grot  loes,  fountains,  hills,  gkns, 
trees.  <&e.  Among  the  N.,  different  cla!*ses  were  distingnlslied,  particularly  the 
Ooeiimides,  daughters  of  Oceanus  (N.  of  the  great  ocean  which  flows  around  the 
earth),  the  Neieids,  daughters  of  Nereus  (N.  of  the  inner  depths  of  the  sea.  or  of  the 
Inner  Se.-.-^the  MediteiTanean),  Potameiden  (River  N.),  Xai'ads  (N.  of  tountains, 
lidtes,  brook«,  wells),  Oreades  (Mountain  li.\  Dryads  or  Hamadryads  (Forest  N., 
who  were  b  lieved  to  die  with  the  trees  in  which  Ihey  dwelt).  'J  hey  were  the  god- 
dess*^ of  fertilising  moisture,  and  were  repr- sented  as  taking  an  interest  in  the 
Donrishment  and  growth  of  infants,  and  ns  beiitg  addicted  to  the  chase  (companions 
ot  the  divin«  huntress  Diana),  to  female  occupations,  and  to  dancing.  Tliey  are 
among  the  mout  beautiful  conceptions  of  the  plastic  and  reverent  (if  credulous)  fancy 
of  the  ancient  Qrceks,  who.  in  the  various  phenomena  of  nature — the  rush  of  sea- 
waves,  the  bivbble  of  hr.joks,  the  play  of  sunbeams,  the  rustle  of  leaves,  and  the 
Bileiiceof  caves— felt,  with  a  poetic  vividness  that  our  modern  science  will  hardly 
permit  us  to  Realise,  the  presence  of  unseen  joyous  powers. 

NY'SSA.    See  Tupelo. 

NY'STAI>1\  a  town  of  Finland,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia, 
BO  miles  south  of  Biorueborg.  Here,  in  1721,  a  treaty  was  agreed  to,  between 
RuPBlaand  Sweden,  by  virtue  of  which  all  the  conqiiei-ts  of  Peter  the  Wreat  along 
the  coasts  of  the  Qulf  of  Finland  were  annexed  to  Kussia.    Pop.  (1667)  3258. 


L_ 


y  Google 


§*  388 


n 


Oik 


o 


O,  the  fifteenth  letter  In  the  En«:1Ish  and  In  modt  western  Ali>habef8,  is  one  Qf  tbe 
five  simple  vowel  »\enB  of  the  Biii^lish  hiuu:iiage.  As  ihe  ian^tiko  Js  at  present  pro- 
nonnceif^  it  stands  for  at  least  ronr  distmct  soundo.  heard  iu  the  wonis  note,  ndr, 
(ii&t),  movt^  9tyn,  The  priinarv  and  simple  sound  of  O  is  that  lieiird  long  hi  ndr.nm 
siiort  in  ndt,  t6p,     f^he  soand  given  to  it  in  sucli  wui-ds  as  noUf  go,  is  really  a  diph* 

thong— a  long  o  terrainuting  in  a  slight  u  or  oo  sonndl  q_^  1.     The   corresponding 


letter  in  the  Hebrew  and  Plicenidan  Alphal)et  (q.  v.}  was  called  Ayn,  i.  e.,  ^cye;" 
and  accordingly  t lie  primitive  form  of  the  Phoeuician  letter  was  a  rongli  picture  of  «n 
eye.  wliich  natarally  became  a  circle  witli  a  dot  iu  the  centr«»— still  to  oe seen  iu  stuns 
ancient  inscriptions — and  then  a  simple  cii-cle. 

O*,  a  prefix  in  many  Irish  family  names,  serves  to  form  a  patronymic,  lik«  Ute 
in  Gaelic  names;  as  O'Brien,  a  descendant  of  Brien.  By  some  it  is  coiisidered 
to  be  derived  from  of;  but  ft  is  more  likely  from  Ir.  no,  Gael,  offha,  a  gnuiduoa. 
In  the  Lowhind  Scoitish,  the  word  oe  is  used  for  grandson,  and  in  some  locality  for 
nephew. 

OA'HU,  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  (q.  v.). 

OAJA'CO,  Oazaca,  or  Gnaznca,  a  city  of  Mexico,  cspltied  of  a  state  of  tlie  same 
name,  stands  on  tlie  river  Rio  Verae,  210  miles  south-sonthrt^ast  of  Mexica  Rcor* 
ers  an  area  2  miles  in  length  by  1}^  in  breadth,  is  well  l>nilt,  with  open  streets,  iBte^ 
B|>er8ed  with  plantations,  on  whicli  the  cociiiueal  insect  feeds,  and  has  about  2S,UM 
inhabitants.    Bilk,  cotton,  sugar,  and  chocolate  are  niannfactnred. 

OAK  {Quereiui),  a  .efenns  of  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  natnral  onler  Ctq^ifir^t 
haviuyr  a  three-celled  ovary,  and  a  nrand  (not  anguLir)  nut— which  is  called  uu  two** 
^placed  iu  a  scaly  trnii&ited  cup,  tlie  lower  part  of  it  invested  by  the  enp.  1%o 
species  are  very  numeruns,  natives  of  temperate  and  tropical  conntries.  A  few 
yuecies  are  found  in  Burope.  Nortli  America  produces  many ;  and  many  are  i* 
tives  of  mQuniainous  regions  in  the  torrid  zone;  some  are  fonnd  at  low  elevations  in 
the  vuUiys  of  the  Himalaya,  some  even  at  the  level  of  the  sea  in  the  Mailay  penhi^ols 
and  Indian  ishindf.  But  iu  the  peninsula  of  India  and  in  Ceylon,  none  are  looud ; 
and  none  in  tropical  Africa,  In  Australia,  or  In  South  America.  The  oaks  have1ilt»- 
nate  simple  leaves ;  which  are  entire  in  some,  but  in  the  greater  numbi-r  variowljr 
lo  >ed  and  slnuated  or  cut ;  evergreen  in  some,  but  more  generally  deciduons.  Mw>y 
af  them  are  trees  «»f  great  size,  famous  for  tlie  hirenjjth  and  durability  of  their  tim- 
ber, as  well  as  for  ihe  ranjesty  of  their  appearance,  and  their  great  longevity.— 
Thiou^^hout  all  parts  of  Europe,  except  the  extivme  north,  two  8i>ecie»  are  fonnd, 
3r  varieties  of  one  species,  the  Common  Oak  (Q.  robur) ;  one  (Q.  ptdunculata)  havinsf 
the  acorns  on  louglsh  stitlks.  the  other  (Q.  ttefwiliJUtta)  having  them  ai- 
most  without  stalks.  Other  diiferences  have  been  pointed  out;  but  tby 
are  regaided  by  some  of  the  most  eminent  an:l  careful  botanists  as 
merely  accidentil,  and  not  coincident  with  th*-^;  while,  as  to  the  length 
of  the  frnit-stnlk»,  every  iuterimdiaie  gradation  occum.  Both  varietie*' occur  la 
Britain,  the  firet  bein^  the  most  urcvatent,  as  it  is  generally  in  the  north  of  Biiropf*; 
the  second  beinjj;  more  abnndant  ni  more  8ontlieru  conntriei*.  The  stiort-i*taikcd  onk 
is  sometimes  called  Durmast  Oak  iu  EngUuid.    It  has  bueu  much  disputed  wiiick 


y  Google 


889  8.; 

Irwitltlod  to bfl considftpd  thctme  Biitisli  oik;  ftod  mnch  nliirm  lias  occaBloiinlly 
been  t  xpirscfdleBl  now  phmtntions  Hlionid  be  made  of  the  >vruii}(  kiiiil ;  wliilei  llie 
most  contradictory  Ptiitemeiitg  hav«  b<'fii  made  as  to  ihc  comimTailve  virine  and 
cliaracteruof  ihe  limber.  The  ojik  fiicceetls  best  In  loamy  t^oils,  and  eepechilly  in 
ibose  tliat  are  pomt^whar  calcnreons.  It  caniot  endm-e  Btagiiant  water.  It  gncce-ods 
w 'lion  soils  too  poor  fur  a.*'h  or  dm ;  bnt  deiiendK  nmch  on  the  depth  of  the  ^oiI, 
its  nmtfi  p(ni'ti*Hting  mon*  dc<'ply  than  tlH)»e  of  mo^t  other  treef.  Noble  Hixfcimena 
of  oak  imes,  and  some  of  them  historically  celebr.itcd,  exist  In  almost  all  parti*  of 
Brirain ;  hut  are  mnch  more  in  qiient  in  Enulaud  than  in  Scotland.  The  former 
txt^tence  of  great  oak  fovet^ts  is  Hltet>ted  by  the  hufre  trunks  (if ten  f<  nnd  in  ho^s. 
The  oak  attains  a  height  c^  from  60  to  100  or  even  160  or  180  feet :  the  trunk  l>eliig 
fonr,  >ix,  or  even  eigiit  foet  In  diameter.  It  sometlim-H  giows  tall  imd  stately,  hiit 
often  rattier  exbibiti^  great  thickness  of  bole  and  magnitude  of  branches.  It  reaches 
its  greatest  magnitude  in  iMTJod»  v:.i7ing  from  1»>  to  400  years,  bat  lives  to 
the  age  of  600,  or  even  1000.  The  rimber  is  very  solid,  durable,  pecnlinrly 
unsusceptible  of  the  infliicnce  of  moisture,  and  therefore  eminently  adapted 
for  ship-lmiidiiig.  It  is  also  employed  in  carpentry,  mill-work,  Ac—The 
hark  alwunds  in  tannin;  it  also  contains  a  peculiar  bitter  principle  called 
(^tereine,  and  is  nsed  in  medicine,  chi«  fly  in  gargles,  Ac.  on  account  of 
its  astringeucy.  pometiraes  also  as  a  tonic;  it  !»  used  along  witii  gall-nuts  in  the 
iiiannfacture  of  ink ;  but  most  of  all  for  tanning  (see  Bakk).  and  on  tnis  account  the 
oak  is  often  pinnted  as  co|)^ie-wood  (see  Copse)  in  situations  where  ii  cannot  be  ex- 
piated to  attain  to  great  size  as  a  tree.  The  timber  of  cop^e  oak  is  excellent  Are- 
wood.  The  oak  is  particularly  fitted  for  copse-wood,  by  the  readiness  with  which  it 
BpriDgs  again  from  the  stools  after  it  has  been  cut.— Acorns  are  very  nourishing  food 
for  swinu,  and  in  times «  f  scarcity  have  lieen  oiten  nsed  for  human  food,  as,  ind<  ed, 
they  comt)ionly  are  in  some  very  poor  countries,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  meal. 
The  bitteiiiess  which  makes  tiiem  disagreeable  is  said  to  be  in  part  removed  by 
buryii'g  tiiem  for  a  time  in  the  earth.  The  acorns  of  some  trees  nre  also  much  loss 
bitter  tlian  others,  and  oaks  of  the  common  i«i>ecies  occur  which  produce  acorns  ixU 
iweet  as  chestnuts.  Other  varieties  of  the  common  oak  are  assiduounly  pronagati  d 
by  iiiu'servmen  as  cnrions  and  ornamental,  jmrticnlarly  one  with  pendulous  branch- 
lets  (rhe  Weeping  Oak),  and  one  with  bninches  growing  np  clove  to  the  stem,  as  in 
fomuldndsof  popl-<r.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  oak  was  sacri;d  to  Zt!us 
or  Jwpiter;  and  it  has  I>een  connected  with  the  religiouf^  observances  of  niimy  nations, 
a.-*  of  the  ancientCclt*  and  Germans.— The  Turkey  Oak  or  Adriatic  Oak  ($.  cerritt), 
now  very  fn*queiitly  pianjcd  in  Britain,  is  a  large  and  valuable  tree,  very  comn.oii 
ia  the  south-csist  of  Euiop<*.  and  in  some  jmuIs  of  Asia.  The  timber  is  in  ported  in 
cims  denibte  qiniutity  into  Britain  for  Phii>-bnildiiig  and  other  purposes.  1  lie  leaves 
differ  from  those  of  the  common  oak  in  tlieir  acute  lobes,  and  the  cups  of  the  acoi  ns 
t  re  i/to8K^,  i.  e.,  have  long,  loose,  acute  8<'ales.  Similar  to  this,  in  loth  these  re- 
Bpecis,  are  the  Austrian  Oak  (Q.  AvHtriaca),  abundant  near  Vienna,  and  ihd 
^PAK18H  Oak  (Q.  Hi)*paniea).—'Y\\H  Cork  Oak  or  Cokk-'J'ree  (Q.  Suhev)  is  no- 
ticed in  the  article  Cork;  the  Hoim  Oak  or  Evergreen  Oak  (Q.  ilex),  another  of 
tliesiiecies  fomid  in  the  sontli  of  Kur«)pe,  in  the  article  Jlex.— Ot  the  North  Ameri- 
can oaks,  some  nre  very  valuable  as  timber  trees.  PerlKips  the  most  important  is 
the  White  Oak  or  Quebec  Oak  {Q.  alba),  a  large  tree,  the  leaves  of  which  have  a 
f'-w  rounded  lolHiS.  It  is«  foui-d  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Canada;  and  in  some 
idacesforms  the  chief  part  of  I  he  forest.  The  timl)er  is  less  compact  than  that  of 
the  British  oak ;  that  of  young  trees  is  very  elastic.- '1  he  Overcup  Oak  (Q.  lyrata)* 
n  m.'ijistic  tree,  highly  esteemed  for  its  timber,  and  having  its  acorns  alinoht  covered 
by  their  globnlar  cup,  grows  chieflv  in  land**  liable  to  inundation  in  the  8ontln  ru 
States.— The  ChBstnut-leaved  White  Oak  {Q.  pnnvs)  is  also  a  much-et'teenK  d 
tiiuber  tree  of  the  Southern  States.- The  Swamp  ^^  kite  Oak  {Q.  bicolor),  a  closely 
airatl  sp<-cies,  extends  farther  luntli. — 'I'he  Live  Oak  {Q.  virois, ,  an  evergreen  species 
Mi^h  entire  leatheiy  leiives,  is  i-egnrded  as  a  tree  of  the  fir^'t  importance  in  the  Unitt  d 
Slates,  fi'om  tlie  ekcellence  of  iis  timber  anditu  value  for  shiji-building,  so  that  efforts 
have  been  made  by  thegove^'nnient  to  protect  it  and  to  i)romote  the  planting  of  its 
acorw^B.  Yet  it  is  not  a  very  large  tree,  l)eiug  ^eldonl  more  than  fort^-flve  feet  in 
height,  with  a  trunk  of  two  feet  in  diameter.  It  grows  on  the  coasts  ol  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  as  far  north  as  Vii^inia.    It  once  abounded  on  the  Sea  Islands,  now  so 


L- 


y  Google 


8:?„  890 

colebraiod  for  their  cotton.— The  Red  Oak  (Q.  rteftra),  a  Hirjie  free,  with  idnnntfd 
Ru<\  lob  d  l«^vo!<,  rlie  lobes  toothe*!  and  briMtle-ixnnt"  d,  yU'Uln  pre.it  part  of  the  liei 
Oak  i7rtO(M  exporind  tvnm  C  m.ida  Jiiid  the  nor:li  of  t\u-  Uiiiifd  St:itt  a  to  Hie  Wes^ 
Imllos;  but.  Ited  Ocik  Staven  are  al?o  pro<luccd  in  tf»  •  Middir  »m«I  SonHiern  State? by 
tli<»-SGA.RLBT  Oak  {Q.  coccine  ),  a  very  hiniilar  j'pticiep.  byjhe  Black  Oak  or  i^tnsB* 
CITRON  Oak  (Q.  Unctona).  anotlit-r  8p«'C«e»  wirb  tti«  lobes  of  the  Ivavc^  briHlle- 
|>  ihited.  b  tt  ;r  known  for  the  dye-stnff  which  »!8  t»jirk  yield**  (w«  Queroitbon),  and 
by  Hie  VVillo  V  Oik  {Q. pheUos),  a  lai^e  tree  with  laneeolat^  leaves  :iiid  a  %villow4ikf 
aspect.  The  timber  or  all  these  f|>ecie8  in  of  vei7  iufeiior  qu«liry.  Tliefe  are  the 
American  oaks  of  greatest  economic^]  and  connnerviai  iinuortjuice,  bm  Wit-re  are 
iiomerotis  other  spi-cies,  some  of  tiu'm  Iret^p,  some  uiere  ►hriibe,  of  which  nonie 

grow  on  poorsoilo,  and  cover  tbeni  in  conipuet  niaf>(M>s;  repeinWint  in  tlilfl  ii  *»iugi« 
luropean  specie:*  (Q.  viminalU).  a  native  of  the  Vo-iees.  6^S  fe(*t  ht^h,  with  alen^ 
toagh  brauchns,  which  makes  exceilent  hedges. — The  Black  Jack  (Q.  nigra)  is«n 
Ainerlcan  oak,  chiefly  notable  for  the  abnndance  in  which  it  ^iowm  od  sc)mK  of 
the  poorest  soils.  It  U  a  small  tree,  mid  its  timber  of  little  Talue.  TIm 
bark  is  black.— Some  of  the  Nepaatese  oaks  are  lanre  and  v:iln»b)e 
trees,  as  are  some  of  those  of  Cliina  and  Ja|itt|},  of  Java,  of  Mexico, 
Ac  The  oak'«  of  Java  and  the  other  Inditm  islands  have  peofrally  ilie 
leaves  quite  entire. — The  bark  of  most  of  the  species  of  oak  is  capable  <yf  l>*'iDflrn(^ 
for  taniiinjc.  and  is  nsed  in  difftircnt  cx)nntries.  The  caps  and  acorns  ctf  tlie  Vau>- 
MiA  Oak  {Q.  jEftUops)  are  exported  from  the  Morca  and  oth**r  parts  of  tb«*  Levanr, 
ill  ^reit  qnaiitities.  for  this  purpose,  under  the  name  of  Valtmi<u  See  Leathkb. 
The  tri*e  i*e!«emble«  the  Turkey  O.ik,  and  has  v«?ry  large  hemispherical  mo-sy  caps. 
The  cups  are  oaid  to  contain  more  tannin  than  any  otiier  veget^ibh*  snhttt.aiiC'*.-' 
Galls  (q.  v.)  or  Gall-nuts  are  in  gruat  p  rt  obbiincd  fro  n  the  oak  tiierefore,call«'dtlie 
Gall-oak  Q.  it\f^toria>^  a  scrubby  hush,  a  native  of  Afia  Minor,  .with  l>limtly  I'er- 
ratt^d,  ovate-oblong  leav  s.— The  Kermbs  Oak  (Q.  cocci/eia)^  on  the  li^aves  of  wliicli 
the  Kermes  (q.  v.)  insect  »8  found,  is  a  low  bu!*b.  wit li  evergi een  npinods  leaves,  umch 
reseiiiblin};  a  holly,  a  native  of  the  soiuh-eact  in  Riiro))e.— Of  oaks  witii  sw^t  and 
edible  acorns,  may  be  mentioned  liie  Ballote  Oak  (Q.  BaUota  or  Gramuntia),  an 
evergreen  with  round  >'piny-toothed  lejivos,  a  native  of  t4»e  north  lof  Africa,  the 
acorns  of  which  are  regularly  brouL^it  to  market  in  Altreria  and  in  Spidii.  ami  are 
long  and  cylindrical;  the  Italian  Oak  Q.  J^hcuIwi)^  closely  allied  to  the coinaion 
oak;  and  tie  Dwarf  Chestnut  Oak  (O  ehinqiutpin  or  ptinoideit>  of  North  Am*^^ 
ica,  a  small  sliriibbv  specie^*,  which  h.is  bevji  specially  recommended  to  cnltivaifoa 
on  this  acooiint.  Other  North  American  specie.",  and  some  of  the  Biinalayau  S|N^- 
cie",  also  produce  eilible  acorns.  From  the  :icoriis  of  some  npecie?*,  oil  is  made  iu 
considerable  quantity  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  nsed  iu  cookery.— Tlie 
leaves  of  the  Manna  Oak  (Q.  ruanni/era) — a  native  of  the  mountains  of  Knnii-taii. 
linving  oblon^;,  bhint-lobed  leaves — s  -crete  in  hot  weather  a  kind  nf  manna,  a  sweet 
mncilaginons  substance,  which  is  made  into  sweetmeats,  and  very  highly  es- 
teeiMed. 

The  name  Oak  is  sometimes  popularly  applied  to  timber  trees  of  very  diif'»reHt 
genera.  Thus,  African  Oak  is  another^name  of  African  Teak.  See  I^eak.  Soaie 
of  the  speci'-s  of  CoMnarina  (q.  v.)  are  called  Oak  iu  Anstnilia.  The  Stone  Oak 
{fjithocai'ptui  JaveneimH)  of  Java,  so  named  from  the  extreme  hartlness  of  its  timber, 
is  a  tree  of  the  same  family  with  the  true  oaks. 

OAK  BEAUTY  {Bt'stmi  prodroniaria\  a  moth  of  the  family  Geometrido'j  a  native 
of  Eu^lnnd,  al)out  an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  inches  in  expanse  of  wint?s;  tlie  upp  r 
Mings  with  two  brown  curved  bands,  and  margined  wilh  black,  the  lower  wings  with 
ouei)  own  band.    The  caterpillar  feeds  on  the  oak. 

OA'KIIAM.  the  county-town  of  Rntlandi'hire,  England,  in  the  vale  of  Catiiios, 
25  mill's  west-noilii-wcst  of  Peterborough.  It  is  a  station  on  the  Systou  and  Pctei*- 
boroujjli  branch  of  t»»e  Midland  Railway.  Iu  former  times,  there  was  a  castle  here; 
it  is  now  iu  ruins,  with  the  exception  of  the  portion  nsi-d  up  the  coiiuty-hall.  Tlio 
church,  the  interior  of  which  was  beautifully  reston^  in  1858,  is  an  edifice  In  the 
perpendicular  stj^le,  and  has  a  fine  tower  ai.d  spire.  The  Pre*  Graminar-  school,  with 
an  endowment  of  about  £700  a  year,  was  founded  in  1681.    Pop.  (18T1)  2911. 

OA'KUM,  a  tangled  mass  of  tarred  hempen  flbros,  is  made  iroin  old  rope  by  niH 


yGoogle^ 


391 


^^  »■    -^ 


Oak 
Oases 

twifttfng  tlie  Btrands  mid  rnbbfng  the  fibres  free  from  each  other.  Its  principal  neo 
ishj  Oiinfkli)}^  Cq.  v.)  the  Beams  between  plunks,  the  space  rooiid  rivets,  bolts,  &c.^ 
for  the  parpose  of  preventing  water  from  pene) rating. 

CANNES,  the  name  of  n  Babylonian  god,  who,  in  tlio  flrpt  3'enr  of  the  foundn- 
tiou  of  B.-ibyion,  is  SMid  to  have  come  out  of  tiie  Persian  Gnlf,  or  the  old  Eryihitenn 
Siu,  adjoining  Babylon.  He  is  described  ns  having  the  head  and  body  of  n  flj»h, 
to  wliicb  were  added  a  htiman  head  and  feet  wnd«T  the  fl*»]j'j»  hend  ai  d  at  the  tail.  , 
He  lived  amongst  men  during  the  day'ime,  witiiont,  iiowcvcr,  taking  any  food,  ai  d 
retired  ut;fc=nns<t  to  the  pea,  from  wiiicli  he  had  unerged.  O.  had  a  btiman  voice, 
audinslmcled  men  in  the  use  of  letters',  and  in  all  the  principal  nrts  and  sciences 
of  civilisation,  which  he  communicated  to  them.  Such  is  tlte  ncconnt  of  liim  pre- 
served by  Berosus  and  ApoUodonis.  Five  sncli  monsters  are  said  to  have  come  out 
of  the  Ptrsian  Gnlf;  one,  called  A  nedotos  or  Motion,  in  the  reign  of  Amenon,  tlic 
fourtli  king  of  Babylon ;  another  in  that  of  the  fifth  king ;  and  the  last  ^called  Oda- 
cou  (or  Iio  Dagon),  appanntly  the  Phoenician  Dagon,  under  the  Hixth.  Many 
figures  of  C,  resembling  that  of  a  Triton,  having  tlic  upper  part  of  a  man,  and  the 
lower  of  a  fiwh,  or  as*  a  man  covered  with  a  fl^h'n  body,  have  been  found  in  the 
>culptnres  of  Kouynujik  and  Kliorpabad,  as  well  &n  on  many  cylinders  and  gems. 
0.  is  supposed  to  have  ^ynil>olised  the  conqne>'t  of  Babylonia  by  n  more  civilised 
nation  coming  in  ghips  W  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates :  hnt  he  is  apparently  a  water- 
god,  resembling  in  type  and  character  the  Fhoeuician  Bagon,  and  the  Greek  Proteus 
and'Tritf>n. 

Helhidins  **  Apnd  Phot  Cod."  279,  pp.  535,  84 ;  Richter,  *♦  De  Beroso ;"  Cory, 
"Anc.  Fragm.*'  p.  SO ;  1  Sam.  v.  4;  Bunsen,  "Egypt'e  Place,"  vol.  i.  r.  106;  Layaid, 
"Nineyoh,"p.  343. 

OAR,  a  wooden  iostrnment  by  which  a  person  pitting  in  a  boat  propels  it  through 
the  water.  The  oar  rests  on  ti.e  row-lock.,  and  in  manv  cases  some  device  is  resorted 
to,  to  retain  tii«  oar  from  slipping  outwards.  In  the  Thames,  a  leattiem  stop,  called 
a  button,  isiised;  sometimes  a  pin  in  the  gunwale  of  the  boat  passes  through  the 
oar  (but  this  weakens  the  oar.  and  precludes  feathetivg) ;  al  other  tiinep~ihe  oar  is 
fastended  to  the  pin  by  a  leathern  tl  ong.  Tiie  action  of  an  oar  in  movii  g  a  boat  is 
that  of  a  lever,  the  rower's  hand  beinjr  the  power,  the  water  the  fulcrum,  i  gainst. 
whi< h  the  Oar  pressis,  and  the  row-lock  the  point  at  which  the  opposition  cauFcd 
by  the  weight  of  the  boat  and  Its  cargo  is  felt.  Feathering  an  oar  consis's  in  tnmine 
St^  immedatt  ly  on  leaving  the  water,  so  tliat  the  flat  blade  of  the  oar  is  horizontal, 
-and  hi  prestrving  this  t>osition  until  just  before  the  fre^-h  dip,  wh«n  of  ccvurse  the 
vertical  position  must  be  resumed.  Feathering  diminishes  the  resistance  off*  red  by 
jUr,  wind,  and  hraall  waves ;  it  also  adds  creatly  to  the  b<auty  and  grace  of  rowing. 

The  best  o:.rs  are  of  Norway  fir,  tiiough  some  are  made  of  asli  and  beech. 
"  CASES,  certain  cultivated  spots  in  the  Libyan  desert  (called  also  A-iiasis.  (hiagia, 
or  UoaMx)  which  produce  vegetation,  owii  g  to  the  presence  of  springs  issuing  from 
the  srround.  The  principal  oases  are  those  lying  to  tlie  west  of  Egypt,  a  few  days' 
lonrney  from  tlie  Nile,  and  known  to  the  ancients  by  the  name  of  the  Greater  and 
Lesser  Oases,  and  tlu«t'of  Ammon.  It  is  supposed  that  they  were  known,  to- the 
£gy;>tians  during  the  12th  dvnasty  under  the  name  of  Sute7i-Khenn,  but  noeVidence 
of  their  occupation  by  tlie  Egyptians  earlier  than  Darius  has  been  found  in  situ.  By 
some  of  the  ancients  they  were  called  the  Islands  of  the  Bless^ed,  or  compared  to  the 
spots  on  a  pjinther^s  skin.  Their  name  is  supposed  to  be  the  Coptic  Oimhi  (Inhal)- 
Ited  Place).  They  are  first,  mentioned  by  Herodotus  in  his  account  of  the  desij-uc- 
tion  of  the  army  of  Cambyse.s  by  the  storm  of  sand,  or  simoon.  Eonally  celebrate<l 
is  the  visit  of  Alexander  the  Great  to  the  oasis,  which  he  successfully  accoinpli>'hed 
after  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  and  passed  through  the  desert  a  nine  days'  jounny  be- 
fore Ite  reached  the  Temple  of  Ammon,  the  priests  of  which  dec'ar*  d  him  the  son  of 
that  eod,  ami  the  future  conqueror  of  the  entire  world.  Herodotus  descrilx»s  that 
Of  El  Wah,  or  the  Oasis  Magna  of  the  Romans,  which  eontained  the  oracle  of 
Animon,iind  which  lies  seven  days'  journey  west  of  TI«eb<'B.  If  appear**  to  have 
"b^eM  anciently  frequented  by  caravans  going  to  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  S  rjtbo 
m-ntloiH  three  oases :  t.l»«'fir.>=t  sev  n  days'  journey  west  of  Abydos ;  the  second  wi-^t 
of  the  LakeXop  is ;  the  third,  near  the  oracle  of  Ammon.  Pliny  mentions  two  oases ; 
•o  does  Piolemy,  who  eaito  tbem-the  Lesser  aud  Qreatur.  Under  the  Koumu  emuire. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


o«t 


892 


they  were  iwed  for  temporary  baiilBbmeiit  of  crimfaiite  of  state,  and  the  poet  Jnr^ 
mil  wa^  eeji(  there.  Olyiitpiodoniii.  a  imtive  uf  the  Thehaid,  s^ivee  a  glowing  de- 
script  ic^  of  them  in  the  diiyo  uf  Theodoviiis  the  ToODj^er.  Under  the  BTStiiithie 
emueroTH.  the  emuerore  banishet^  there  the  heiidn  of  the  C:itl)olic  p:irty,  at  the  iiif'ti- 
eillon  6/ the  Ar!aii9,  in  the  4lh  c,  und  AtlianiuainB  hiniMlf  \»  eiii^oscd  to  have 
FalccH  Fi'fuge  in  thewi.  In  the  ■'>th  c,  Nesfoilus,  the  Bieiboi>  of  Oods. autiuople,  was 
buiiished  ihcre.  He  wa»  rescued  by  an  excursion  of  tlie  Biemyes,  but  expired  ifwra 
after  iii^ arrival  at  the  Nile.  The  oases  were  then  a  place  of  dcsoUition  and  lu)m»r, 
occ:»8ioually  nlnndered  by  Bednina.  They  fell.  M3  A.D.,  into  the  power  of-ttie  An«lN$i^ 
after  having  ooen  held  by  the  Egyptian  nionarchiji  and  their  Pttccensors  litl  that  pe- 
riod ;  and  ttiey  are  described  by  JBdrisi  (1150  a.t>  )  as  aninhahiied ;  by  Abnlf'-da  (ISM 
A.D.)  and  »)y  Leo  Africanas  (1513  ad.),  as  inlial)ited  and  cultivated,  and  quite  Sodi^ 
pendent,  bavine  three  (ortreHSOH.  The  first  mo^iern  traveller  vvtio  visited  tiiem  is 
supposed  to  have  been  Poncet  (109S  a.d.}.<  Subsequently,  in  ITiH,  Browne  cliscov- 
erect  the  oasis  of  Amnion  at  Bl  Siwah  ;  ai)d  ft  was  vidtm  in  1798  by  Hornemann, 
and  in  1819  by  Callliand.  It  lies  in  29«  12'  2ti"  u.  lat,  and  ^W>  6'  9"  q.  long.  Drovetti 
aud  Mii^atoli  also  vislt'/d  the  same  »\>oi. 

These  oases  are  now  held  l)y  Muggrebi  Arabs,  a  powerfol  rac«  f u  the  Desert, 
capai)le  of  raising  30.000  men,  who  supply  camels  and  guides  to  travellers.  The 
prmciiMl  oas(f8  are :  1.  £1  Ktiarifeh,  or  the  Oasis  Magua,  the  Qrcater  Oasis  of 
Ptolemy;;  2.  El  Kasr,  or.Ousis  Parva,  the  Lesser  Oiiflifi;  8.  Siwah,  or  theOa^isof 
AnimoDf  the  most  northerly;  4.  The  Western  Oasis,  or  Dnkkel,  mcntioiiefl  by 
Qiympiodorus,  and  vis'ted  by  Sir  Archi])ald  Bdmonstoneiu  1819,  and  Rohlfsin  1874 
Of  £1  Khargeh.  full  particulars  have  1>eeii  given  by  M.  Hoakints  who  diiK;overed  it 
lying  about  1^5  miles  west  of  the  Nile,  having  a  stream  of  water  rising  near  the 
village  of  Oenah,  on  the  north-west  of  the  oasis,  and  lost  iu  the  sand.    It  is  1>oaiir*ea 

the  cjASt  by  Hatiel-bel-Badah.  North  of  £l  Qem  lies  tlie  metropolis^  El  Khnrgeh, 
wivch  consistH  of  a  series  of  covered  streets  and  optm  bazaars.  The  ttunple  lies  twd 
liours'  juuniey  from  it,  in  a  flue  situation  ;  the  eekos  haa  a  vestibule  of  600  feet,  with 
)>ylons,  or  gateways,  the  flr<t  of  which  has  a  decree  in  Greek,  dated  in  the  ivign  of 
Galba  (68  a.d.),  against  forcing  p.'rsons  to  fiinn  the  revenne,  preventing  imi>risoit- 
nient  for  debt,  preserving  Uie  dowiies  of  women,  and  limiting  the  offl4.*e  of  8tr»tegoa 
for  three  yejirs.  The  temple  has  other  decrees  preventing  tlie  oQcers  of  goveruiueiit 
fnmi  smngglmg.  It  has  an  averiue  of  sphinxes  and  three  pyions;  on  the  third, 
Daiins  ^is  n^presented  offeriug  to  Amen  Ra,  Osiris,  and  Isis ;  while  Nekht-her-bcbi 
(N  ctabes)  continued  the  oruamenls  of  the  temple  about  414--340  b.  o.  Thesekot 
U 140  feet  long,  and  ri'presents  Darius  offering  to  Amen  lia,  or  Klinuni<s,  tite  nun- 
headtid'  god,  aud  Osiris ;  while  iu  the  accompanying  scenes  are  seeu  Aitta,.  or 
Anaitis,  Kaspu,  or  Resepii.  In  the  vicinity  is  a  magnificent  necroDOtis 
of  150  i^ulchres,  of  a  la^e  ix'riod,  with  Doric  aud  Corlntloan  ca|Htals.  'J'here 
are  sevaval  temples  at  other  spots  of  thti  oases.  2.  £1  Kaar.  the  Oasis  Pain's, 
lies  four  or  five  days'  journey  south-east  from  Siwah,  called  the  Wah-el-Bahuasn,  or 
Wah-el-Menesheh,  contains  no  monumentii  older  than  the  Roman,  consisting  of  a 
triiuiiphai  arch,  sabtarraneou!*  and  other  aqueducts,  several  hot  springs,  a  necrotx^ 
and  Cliristian  church.- Thi>i  oasis  ua^  firxt  conquered  by  the  Arabs ;  and  iu  its  viCJB* 
ity  is  another  oasis  called  WadyZerzoora,  with  others  adjoiidnsy  of  inferior  interest. 
8.  Siwah,  or  the  Oisis  of  Amnion— one  of  th;  first  diseovtred,  aud  i%peatettly  vis- 
ited, Itas.  unfortunately,  not  been  seen  t>y  any  one  acquainted  with  hierogiypiUcs^ 
lies  west  of  the  Natroi'i  Lakes.  It  would  appuar  from  Miuaioil  that  the  temple  was 
built  by  Nekht-her-hebi,  or  Neciabes  I.,  in  honor  of  the  god  Khnom,  Ammoa 
Klfuumis  or  Chnebls,  who,  as  the  deity  of  water,  presided  over  the  water  from  which 
the  oasis  originated.  The  oasis  is  nine  miles  broad  &iu\  two  long,  con  tains  Bi  Oarfih 
Oharmy,  and  Menchyeh,  has  a  population  of  about  8000  iuhanitjints,  possesses  data 
and  other  trees,  grows  cerealx,  and  has  sulphurous  springs,  u  salt  lake  at  Aracltit^h, 
and  many  ruiuocfteinples,  a  necropolis,  and  other  renmins.  The  orac!e  of  Annuon 
is  snpiK):^*^  to  have  be-u  at  a  place  calied  Om-Btrydah,  or  »he  temple  of  Neklii-h<'i>- 
hel>i.  JFroni  tin's,  it  would  netsin  tlmi  the  oasis  d  d  not  fall  into  the  |>ower  of  -Egy^tt 
until  about  Mte  Stli  o.  b.  o.  The  eel  braied  Finuitain  of  the  Sun  is  at  Siuaili  SUar- 
uieh.  It  is 3)  pacj^«  hxig,  20  hroud, ««iz  falho.iis  deep,  witU  bubbles  cotistnntly  rUiu^ 
to  ihesarfac>snt«'amiui(in  the  morn  ug.  and  warmer  at  night.  Clos<t  to  it,;tn»  |lft9 
.i«m«iu«,Qf 'ti>0  ttVtM^Vary  of  Auuuou.  >.  ^DakJ^el,  or  ihtf.  WesjlvrO;  f3^iii%  X^ 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


393^ 


dat 


•bmit  79  mile*  ionthw^>.  of  ^<?!ont.    Tho.  principal  rnin  nt  Dar-rl-TIndjnr  consists  of 
u  Hiuttll  ttjrnpic,  d  ill  atert  to  jfehuumis  by  the  Tlv>Minn  emperor:*.  N  ro  ap«T  1"itiiH.  At 


II.  282. 


OAT^  or  Oats  (Aviiia)^  a  Brnna  of  granmw  contnining  mnny  siiccirs,  nranng  wbich 
lire  8Dn»e  vtilii^ble  for  the  ffTMu  which  tU<  y  produce,  and  Bomo  UAefnl  forh;iy.  The 
Liiinasau  gemu  Avena,  lens  UMlurnI  tlinu  luontof  the  L!iiii8e:iii  ireiicra,bat»bccD  much 
brokeu  ii|>.  The  genn'*,  ns  uow  restrict fd,  bus  the  ppikelctn  in  loose  )NiiiicU*s,  the 
glame^  a.s  long  ns  the  florets,  and  cout'iiiiiiig  two  or  more  florets ;  the  pule^ro  firm  mid 
:>Iino^'*t  cartilaginous,  the  outer  puifu  of  eucn  floret,  or  of  oite  or  more  of  tiie  florets, 
bcjirliii?  on  the  back  a  knce-jointeti  awu,  whicli  is  twii«tfd  nt^the  base.  The  awu, 
however,  tends  to  disa-penr,  and  olten  wholly  diwippcars  In.culiivntioii.  Those 
ppecie:*  which  arc  cnUivated  as  corfj-phmts  have  comparjiiivcly  large  splktlets  and 
Feeds,  the  spikelets— jit  least  after  flowering— ptndnioup.  The  nntivo  coui.'try  of  the 
cu1tivatt*d  onts  is  mikum%'ii.  althouj^b  most  probably  it  in  Ccntn»l  Ai'la.  Thert'  Is  j:o 
reference,  how*'ver,  to  the  oat  in  the  Old  Testament ;  au<l  althougli  it  was  known  to 
the  Gret'ks.  who  called  it  Drwmm,  and  to  the  Uomnns.  it  is  prot>able  that  they  de- 
rived their  knowtedg<;  Of  it  from  the  Celtj«,  Germans,  and  otinr  northern  nations.  It 
isagrain  b-tter  snitrd  to  moi^t  than  lo  diy,  and  to  cold  than  to  warm  climates, 
although  it  does  not  extend  ft)  far  north  as  the  coai-s«j  kinds  of  iMwley.  'I'be  grain  is 
cither  ascd  in  the  form  of  Groats  (q.  v.)  or  made  into  meal.  Oatmeal  cakes  and  por- 
ridge form  great  part  of  the  food  of  the  peasimtry  of  Scotland  and  of  some  other 
conntritts.  No  gi-ain  is  so  much  estee mea  for  feeding  boi'ses.  Besides  a  hirtfe  qaan- 
tity  of  starch— about  G5  ]>  -r  cent.— and  some  sugar,  gum,  and  oil,  the  gmiu 
of  oats  contains  almost  20  ))i^r  cent,  of  nitrogenous  princi|>le!i,  or  Piotilne  (q.  v.) 
componudx,  of  wliich  at>out  16  or  17  parts  are  Avenitie,  a  BuhsJance  vcry^simil.ir  lo 
Catititu  (q.  v.),  and  two  or  three  parts  gluten,  the  remainder  albuuien.  The  hubk  of 
oats  i!«  aUo  nutritions,  and  is*  mixed  with  other  food  for  horses,  oxen,  and  vheep. 
From  the  starchy  paiticles  adhering  to  the  busk  or  wedt  after  the  separation  of  the 
grain,  a  light  dish,  oa  led  mwar,K„  is  m-ide  in  Scotland  by  means  of  boiling  water, 
was  once  very  popular,  and  is  very  suii:ible  for  weak  stomachs.  The  grain  is  some- 
times mixed  wiiii  barley  for  distillation.  The  Unssitin  beverage  calhd  quasa  is 
mode  from  oats.  Tlie  straw  of  oats  is  very  useful  as  fodder,  bringing  a  higher  price 
tlinn  aiiT  other  kind  of  straw.-rThe  varieties  of  oats  in  cultivation  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  soinm  highly  esteemed  varieties  are  of  recent  and  well-known  origin.  It  is 
donntfnl  if  they  really  belong  to  more  than  one  species ;  but  the  following  are  very 
generally  dit*tinguished  a8ti^)ecies :  1.  Common  Oat  (^1.  mtiva)^  having  a  very  loos^e 
piinlele,  which  spreads  on  all  sides,  and  two  or  three  fertile  florets  in  each  spikelet, 
the  paleae  quit*,  smooth,  not  nmre  than  one  floret  awned ;  «.  Tartarian  Oat  (A. 
orimto/vi),  also  called  Hungarian  Oat  and  Siberian  Oat,  ditilingnisiM  d  chiefly  by 
having  the  imnicle  much  more  contracted,  and  all  turned  to  one  side  :  8.  Naked  Oat 
(A.  ntftto),  differing  from  ttie  Tartarian  Oat  chiefly  in  having  the  palraB  very  sligl  tly 
ndherent  to  tlie  seeds,  which,  therefore,  fall  readily  out  of  them,  whilst  in  the  other 
kindtt  they  adhere  closdy ;  4.  Chinese  Oat  {A.  chinetisia),  which  agrees  with  the  last 
in  the  cliaracters  of  the  paiese  and  seeds,  Imt  is  more  like  the  Common  Oatni  itsptmi- 
rle,  aiMl  lias  more  numerous  florets,  4— 8,  in  the  spikelet ;  6.  Short  Oat  {A.  bi-eviif)y 
which  has  a  close  pauicle  tume<l  to  one  side,  the  spikelets  contniuiug  only  one  or  two 
floret*,  eacSi  flon-t  awned,  the  grains  short.  Almost  all  the  varieties  of  oat  in  culti- 
vation belong  to  the  flrst  and  second  of  these  ep -cies.  The  NaktKl  Oat  is  cultivated 
in  Austria.  »>ut  is  not  much  esteenit  d.  The  Chm^se  Oat,  said  to  have  ibecn  brought 
by  the  Russians  from  ihe  north  of  China,  is  prolific,  bui  the  grain  Is^i^sily  nhaken 
OQt  hf  winds.  The  Short  Oat  ia  cultivated  as  a  CTaiu-crop  on  poor  eoili  at  high  ele- 
vations lu  tlie  moiintaineus  |>art«  of  Fiance  andSp.^in,  ripening  where^ther  Kinds 
do  not;  it  is  aUo  cultivatt>d  in  some  parts  of  Europe  as  a  forage  plant— Besides 
tliese,  there  Is  another  kind  of  oaf,  the  Bristle-pointed  Oat  {A.Hn'ffom),  regarded 
bv  pomej[)otaufsts  as  belonging  even  to  a  dii'^tinct  genus,  DaHtJumia,  because  the 
lower  \m\e&  is  much  prt)kmged,gand  instead  of  merely  being  bifid  at  the  point,  as  in 
.<tlM  Other  <i«tSi  U  diviaecl  Into  Ivcq  long  teeth,  extending  into  bristles.    The  panicle  ii» 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Oath  <^^* 

Incliiiad  to  one  rfde,  vpry  15ttl<»  brjinchod ;  tlic  florets  Sor  8  in  a  ^pikelet,  nD  awnrd, 
th^prraiuj'jv! her  small.  This  plnut  Is  conunow  In  conifijld  s  is  caliivat4-d  in  iiwuT 
coriitrie!*,  bnt  chi<fly  on  poor  soil-,  and  was  ai  oiic*  time  much  rnltivnted  in  Second, 
htuis  now  i«c{ircely  to  l>«  Heiii  as  a  crop.— Not  nuliki;  iliis.  Uut  with  tlie  p«iicle 
pjuvadin^  oqartUy  ou  a\\  side*,  ilie- outer  iiilcM  mcn^ly  hlfld,  a'ud  long  hairs  at  the  base 
of  tlia  gfumea.  Js  ihe  WiLi»  Oat  {A.  fatvut)^  \\Ui>  frt^uant  iii  cornflcld-,  nod  a  varidy 
of  v^hic  I  is  cultivated  iu  some  northern  countries  for  meal,  hut  whicli  is  more  ten* 
erally  rejTMrded  hy  farmers  as  a  wetd  lobe  exrirpat»d,  bpiiuirinjr  np  so  abuiKluitly iu 
some  districts  as  to  choice  crops  of  1)etter  grain.  lis  awns  Imve  much  of  tiie  liy;:ro- 
inetrical  property  which  ^ains  for  A.  sUrUts,  a  specie.'*  foiiud  iu  tlie  sontli  of  Europe 
the  uame  of  tl»e  Animal  Oat,  because  the  peeds  when  ripe  and  fallen  on  tlte  groand 
rese'mble  insects,  and  move  about  in  an  extraordinary  manner  throo^h  tlie  twistii^ 
nnd  untwisting  of  theawns.  The  seed  of  the  Wild  Oat  has  l>een  sometluies  obm 
ini^tead  of  an  ariiflcial  fly  for  catching  trout,— Amongst  the  species  of  oat  nsefol  uot 
for  their  grain  bnt  for  fodder  are  the  Downy  Oat-grass  (a.  pnhescens)  and  Yel- 
low Oat-obass  {A.  flaoescfins),  both  refeiTed  by  some  liotanists  to  the  g^'un^  Tri»' 
ciwm— the  short  awn  l'>eing  like  a  mi<ldle  looth  iu  the  bifid  i)alea— and  t>otirBativ«.«of 
Britain,  the  former  growing  on  light  eroinid  and  dry  hills,  especially  where  the  soil 
is  calcareous,  the  latter  onlight  meadow  lands.— Other  species  are  found  In  Brifciin, 
cdntluental  Europe,  North  America,  Anstralia,  &c  In  some  p.iri8  of  the  Sahara  are 
bottoms  of  rSiTines  richly  productive  of  a  species  of  oat-grass  (A.  Forfkaiii)  mncli 
relished  by  camels. 

Far  more  ground  is  occupied  mth  oata  in  Scot1and.'tliAn  wfrh  any  otlier  grain. 
Iu  ail  the  higher  districts,  it  IS  aimO'it  the  only  kind  of  grain  which  is  cultivated. 
Throughout  Scotland,  it  is  the  crop  that  is  chiefly  sown  aft^r  land  has  bfcn  Iu  pas- 
ture for  ont?  or  more  years.  The  seed  is  generally  sown  broadcast  over  the  ploughed 
land,  which  is  afterwatds  well  harrowed  and  pulverised.  It  is  of  the  uiniost  im- 
portance to  have  the  latter  operations  well  done,  as  it  jireveut*  the  attacks  of  iDM<4 
larvce.  On  soils  that  are  infested  with  annual  w««ds.  such  as  ctiarlock,  it  iscouniKm 
to  drill  the  seed,  which  permits  the  land  to  be  hana-lioed  ami  thoroughly  cleaned. 
Oats  thrive  b  st  tipon  deep  and  rich  soils,  and  yield  but  jjoorly  ou  thin  sai.dy  soila, 
wliere  they  suffer  sooner  from  drought  than  hurley,  rye,  or  wheat.  On  good  soils,  it 
is  common  to  dress  oats  with  2  to  8  cwts.  of  guano  to  the  acre.  The  plant  is  not 
easily  injured  by  large  application:^  of  heterogeneous  mauores.  The  Potato  Oat  is  i 
variety  generally  ciiltivatetl  in  the  l>est  soils  and  climates!  It  is  nn  early  and  proclnc- 
tlve  variety.  The  Hot>etonn  O.it  is  also  mu«h  sown  in  the  earliest,  district-*.  Tlic 
Sandy  Oat  is  still  more  largely  sown,  more  jmrticularlj'  when  the  climate  is  iuferi<>r 
and  wet.  It  is  uot  liable  to  be  lodged  with  rains,  and  the  straw  is  of  fine  qnalihrfor 
fodder.  All  these  are  varieties  of  the  Common  Oat.  The  White  and  ^lack  Tar. 
tirian  are  much  cultivated  in  some  districts.  They  are  very  productive.— Ou  thtjcon- 
tiuent  of  Euro|)e,  this  grain  is  seldom  seen  of  quality  cqiril  to  what  is  produced  In 
Scotland ;  and  even  in  most  parts  of  England,  the  climate  is  less  suitable  lo  it«  and 
it  is  less  plump  and  rich. 

OATES  {alias  Ambrose),  Titus,  was  tiie  son  of  a  ribbon  weaver,  who,  having 
first  bacoma  an  Anabaptist  minister  under  Cromwell,  took  orders  im«i  a  Iwueflce  in 
the  English  Church  after  the  Restoration.  Titus  appears  to  have  been  bcni about 
lAiO  in  London.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Merchant  Taylors'  School,  whence  he  f)ass<-d  to 
1'riniiy  College,  Cambridge,  took  orders,  ami  received  a  small  living  from  theDoke 
of  Norfolk.  This  position,  liowever,  he  forfeited,  in  consequence  of  a  malicious 
pro-'Cfiit  on.  in  widch  he  narrowly  esca|>ed  conviction  for  perjury ;  and  having  !>«» 
afterwards  appointed  to  the  chaplaincy  of  one  of  the  kiiig's  shi|is,  h«  wasexpelW 
from  it  ott  a  charge  still  more  dissracefnl.  In  this  ejctremlty,  he  conformed  to  tb« 
Koinnn  Catbolic  Church,  and  was  admitted  as  a  scholar  of  the  Jesuits' CoHege  at 
Valladolid  ;  but  wjls  expelld  for  mir'conduct,  after  a  trial  of  a  few  months.  He  was 
again  received  hy  the  Jesuits,  on  his  earnest  protestations  of  repentance,  at  St  Oin^r, 
\vnere  lie  was  no  less  nuHuccessful,  and  wjis  flmilly  dismissed  hy  fhemin  thecaii/ 
,pirt  of  lara.  He  now,  as  a  mere  vagabond  adventurer,  set  himself  to  live  byliii 
'Wits,  in  the  evil  exercise  of  wlilch  he  devised,  about  this  titne,  the  atrocious  scbeiiw 
;witli  which  his  name  is  identified  in  history.    Just.  then,  great.  excitem<»nt  nud  akina 

Eervaded  the  Prote!*tani  parly  in  England.    It  was  well  known  that  Charles  was* 
eart  a  Roujau  Catholic ;  tuid  liis  brother,  the  Duke  of  Yoilc,  afterwards  Jam«0  U« 


Digitized  by 


Google 


395 


Oatk 

was  an  active  mid  avowed  zenlot  on  the  Bama  idde.  Tlie  ffrow]ng  coiifid<*DCO  of  lira 
Homiui  Ctitliotics  was  niicoiicealed  ;  oiul  with  or  without  fiiHtaut  reafion,  thu  cry  t^ 
ofteu  »ijf)c«  heard  aroB«',  and  was  everywhere  re-echoe<l,  thaf  th^  **Prote»t- 
cait  religion  was  iu  dai>g(  r."  In  tbiei  fevered  tftato  of  g<-uerail  feeling,  O. 
taSy  his  opix)rtuuity,  uud  dexteronnly  aiul  lK>ldiy  avaiiled  7iini»6lf  of  it.  Bo 
conimuiiicated  vo  the  nutlioritiea  -tlie  detaiia  uf  a  pretended  plot,  the  Ih,'* 
imsut  of  his  own  brain,  tlie  niHiu'  elements  of  whlc'i  w<re  a  riring  of  tba 
Ci^iolic  party,  a  general  niutfsacre  of  PrOt  stai.tis  tlm  bnrningof  tlx^  city  of  London, 
the  as8:)58inution  of  the  king,  and  the  invanion  of  Ireland  by  a  Fniich  amy.  In 
cerbdu  of  its  items,  the  fiction  was  devised  with  ccHisidertible  ingconity  to  catch  the 
popalnr  belief.  By  the  strangest  cufucidfucc,  moreover,  there  just  tiieu  occarrcd  in 
old  of  it  a  seiies  of  events  which  seemed  conclusively  to  attest  its  geuuineoess.    A 


correspondence,  tlie  object  of  which  was  the  propagation  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
rejigioji,  came  to  light  between  the  secretary  of  llie  Dnke  of  York  and  Pere 
L:i  Chaise,  the  confessor  and  confident  of  Lonit*  XIV.    Dunby,  the  prime  minister,  it 


Lau^< 


also  appeared,  had  baen  busy  with  intrigues  iu  tlie  wiino  mnirti'r.  Fiiiallv,  Godfrey, 
tlie  eealons  magistrate  throngh  whom  publicity  was  first  given  to  *Uie  plot," 
was  found  mysteriously  murdtred.  After  this,  could  reasonawe  doubt  exist?  Was 
not  the  English  St  Bartholomew  already  begun?  All  London  wvnt  wild  with 
feur  and  rage;  and  it  seemed  at  one  time  likely  tliat  a  massacre  of  Roman 
Catholics  would  l)e  sitbstituted  for  the  dreaded  exit  rniiiiatiou  of  the  Protestants. 
The  parliament,  wliicb  might  have  done  sonirthiug  to-allay  the  excitement,  was  Itself 
swept  headlong  away  by  it.  The  king  alone,  whose  life  Wjis  threatmed,  but  who, 
dissolute  and  indolent  as  he  wap,  wanted  neither conrage  nor  shrewdntss,  much  to 
bi«»  honor,  scornfully  insisted  that  the  plot  was  merely  home  insane  delni*ion,  and 
tried,  so  far  as  he  could,  to  control  tlie  excesi^es  which  followed.  Too  probablv,  his 
Interference  was  of  the  char.-icteristlcally  cas\s  iuitouciant  kinii ;  in  any  ca'-e„it  did 
not  avail  The  story  of  O.  was  universally  beiiev<  d  ;  and  be  became  the  |x>pular 
hero  of  the  day.  A  pension  of  X900  a  ycisr  was  urnnted  him ;  a  nuite  of  apm-tmenta 
in  the  p^ace  at  Whitehall  waseet  apart  as  sacred  to  hifl  use ;  and  wherever  he  wcut^ 
the  Protestant  public  wildly  cheered  him  as  their  saviour.  With  the  aid  of  a  set  of 
suborned  ruffians,  only  one  degree  less  foul  than  hiinstlf,  convictions  of  hifi  victims 
were  rcjidily  obtained,  judges  and  jurors  vying  with  each  other  in  their  unquestion- 
ing reception  iu  evidence  of  the  grossest  and  most  manifcHt  perjuries;  and  many 
innocent  Roman  CathoUc  gentlemen  diiti  ti*e  death  of  traitors  at  tlie  block.  Over 
tlie  space  of  two  years,  the  base  success  of  O.  was  nigualiscd  by  a  series  of  ludicial 
murders.  Naturally,  however,  as  leASQo  resumed  its  sway,  doubts  l)egan  to  i)e  felt ; 
aitd  on  the  execnnon  of  a  venefable  and  I'espectcd  nobleman,  Viscount  Stafford, 
with  a  strong  shock  of  pity  and  remorse,  public  suspicion  awoke,  and  a  violent  re- 
action set  m.  It  was  only,  however,  on  the  accesi^ion  of  James  II.  in  1685  that 
retribution  overtook  the  nialefactofl  Active  steps  against  him  were  then  taken. 
He  was  tried  before  the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  convictetl  of  iierjury,  and  sentenced 
to  be  pilloried,  whipped  at  the  carl *s  toil,  and  afterwards  imprisoned  tor  life.  We 
might  wonder  a  little  at  the  leniency  of  tlie  sentence,  were  it  not  thns  to  be  ex- 
plained: it  was  intended  that  the  severity  of  the  first  two  items  of  punishment 
should  render  ihe  lust  one  su|>e' fluoni*,  and  that  the  wretch  should  die  under  the  lash 
of  the  executioner.  But  the  hide  of  O.  was  beyond  calculation  tough ;  and  l.orribly 
lacerated,  yet  living,  his  carcass  was  conveyi  d  to  the  prison,  fiom  which  it  was 
meafit  never  more  to  issue.  Veiy  strangely,  however,  the  next  luni  of  the  political 
wheel  brought  back  tlie  monster  to  the  lignt  of  day  and  to  prosperity.  When  the 
revolution  of  1683  placed  William  on  the  throne,  the  Protestant  influence  triumphed 
once  more.  Iu  the  outburst  of  enthusiasm  which  eusue<l,  v^hat  more  natural  than 
that  O.  should  be  glorified  as  a  Protestant  martyr?  Parliament  ►olemnly  declared 
his  trial  an  ill^al  one;  he  was  pardoned,  and  obtained  his  liberty;  and  iu  order  to 
his  perfect  enjoyment  of  it,  a  pension  of  £300  a  year  was  granted  him.  He  was, 
however,  no  more  heard  of ;  he  passed  his  seventeen  remaining  years  in  obscurity, 
and  dii^  ill  1705  at  the  good  old  age  of  eighty-six. 

OATH  (Ang.-Sax.  ath,  Ger.  e?(f),  in  the  religious  use  of  the  word,  may  be  defined 
an  expressed  or  implied  calling  upon  the  Almighty  to  witness  the  ti*uth  of  an  as- 
severatioiuorttie  good  faith  of  a  promise;  with  whicli  is  ordinarily  conjoined  an 
imin^ecation  of  his  vengeauce,  or  a  rcnuuciation  of  his  favor,  in  case  the  aesevera- 


y  Google 


/ 


Oafft 


896 


tloii  BbouM  be  falfp,  or  the  pronifpe  sbould  l>e  l»roken.  This  ^ctide  fias  prevailed, 
ill  t>oine  form  or  other,  iu  almost  allthe  religioue  of  tlie  aiicieut,  as  w,dla8<if^ 
jnodeni  world.    It.  8iii)pot«eH,  however,  a  beheC  of  the  existence  of  u  provident  8ii- 

Jreine  Being,  in, order  to  iti>  morn!  cffioacj  a;*  a  B.-ifegQard  of  troth.  Among  ti^ 
cvrs,  we  flud  iuetauces  iu  Geu.  xiv.  22*  x:^i.  24,  xlvii.  31,  i.  5,  conArined  even  by 
the  example  of  God  himself,  Numb.  xiv.  28,  Jerein.  xllv.  2(>,  Is.d.  Ixii.  8.  It  v«» 
strictly  forbidden  to  the  Jew*  to  svyoar  by. false  gods  (Amos  viii.  14.  Jerein.  xi:.  16). 
The  form  of  oath  was  piobably  variable,  eitlier  a  dinct  ndjnration,  nB"'n»»!  Lord 
liveth,"  ornu  imprecation,  '*Tlio  hovti  do  sp  to  me;"  but  in  ail  ca-^es,  thd  stjroiigcst 
denunciations  are  held  ont  aL'ainst  the  false  swean-r  <Exod.  xx.  7,  Levit,  xlx.  12). 


Oaths  were  employed,  both  judicially  ond  extrujndicially,  by  the  ancient  E^rvptiaut, 
Assyrians,  Medes,  and  Persians,  as  well  as  by  tue  Greeki*,  and  alj^o  by  the  li(Muans. 
The  forms  were  very  various — one  of  the  most  solemn  consisting  iu  the  act  ofphic- 
ing  the  hand  on  the  altar  of  the  deity  who  was  invoked  as  witness..  Jn  the  jucficlal 
proceedings  of  both  the  last-named  nations,  o  iths  were  employed,  but  not  unlverscilly ; 
aud  hj  examples  of  their  extrnjtidiclal  use,  the  literatures,  of  both  abound.  In  the 
Cliristian  dispensation,  the  solemnity  of  an  oath  is  enhanced  by  the  elevated  idea  of 
lUe  sanctity  and  perfection  of  the  DiJity. 

The  lawfulness  and  fitness  of  the  practice,  under  circumstances  of  due  BOlemnity, 
are  commonly  recognised  by  Christians.  Some  communions,  of  which  .the  most  i»- 
markable  are  the  Morjivians  and  the  Society  of  Friends,  applying  literally  the  wortB 
of  Christ  (Mat.  v.  84)^  regard  ail  oaths  as  unlawful.  But  other  communions  generally 
restrict  this  prohii)ition  to  ordinary  and  pilvato  di^^ourse,  and  find  in  Rom.  i.  ».S 
Cor.  xl.  21,  Gal.  i.  20,  Phil.  i.  8,  aud  1  Thessal.  ii.  5,  full  warrant  for  the  lawfulness  of. 
oaths  m  judicial  aud  other  solemn  use.  From  some  passages  of  the  Fathers,  it 
might  seem  that  they  shared  thp  difficulties  of  the  Quakers  and  Moravians  on  the 
subject  of  the  lawfulness  of  swearing ;  but  tiiese  FatUers  for  tlie  most  part  referred 
to  the  oaths  required  of  Christians  by  the  pagans,  which  generally  involved  a  rew^ 
nition  of  particular  pagan  divinities ;  and  they  coudemntd  these  p:igan  oaths,  ratlier 
as  involving  or  even  directly  confaining  a  profession  of  the  ])opular  paiganisiu,  tlwa 
as  unlawful  in  themselves.  The  Christians  of  the  later  ages  may  perhaps  be  s:iid 
to  hav3  multiplied  in  an  opposite  degree  the  occasions  of  oaths;  especiallr 
Df  what  were  calKd  "purgatorial"  oaths,  in  wliich  a  party  diaurgea 
witli  a  crime  justified  himself  by  swearing  his  innocence.  These  oatliB 
were  commonly  accompanied  by  some  imprecatory  form  or  ceremonial,  and  yr^-rt 
often  expected  to  bo  followed  by  immediate  manifestations  of  the  divine  vengeimce 
upon  the  perjurer.  The  common  instrument  of  attestation  on  oath  was  the  BlMe 
or  some  portion  of  it;  but  oaths  were  sometimes  sworn  on  the  relics  of  saints,  or 
other  sacred  objects;  sometimes  simply  by  raising  the  hand  to  heaVen,  or  by  layhig 
it  upon  the  breast  or  the  head.  In  canonical  processes,  the  oath  was  often  admlii!* 
Istered  to  the  party  kneeling.  The  forms  varied  very  much  ;  the  most  genendl)dug 
that  which  the  English  oath  still  rejidns  {Sic  meDeue  a^§vvet).  Divines  commonly 
require,  i]i  order  to  the  lau'fulness  of  an  oath,  three  conditions  (founded  uiiou  Jereiti. 
iv.  2),  viz.,  truths  jtiatice,  nudjudgvient—\hi\i  is  to  say  (t),  that  the  asseveration,  tf 
the  oath  be  assertive,  shall  be  true,  and  that  the  promise,  if  tiie  oath  be  promissory. 
shall  bj  made  and  shall  be  kept  in  good  faith;  (2),  that  the  thing  promised  shall  he 
•  le^-iively  lawful  and  good;  (3),  that  the  oath  shall  not  be  sworn  without  due  dia* 
cretion  and  deliberation,  and  without  satisfactory  reasons  founded  ou  necessi^j,  or 
at  lea.*t  on  grave  and  manifest  utility. 

The  Mohammedans  do  not  employ  oaths  in  their  judicial  proceedings ;  but  tbcy 
regard  deliberate  perjury,  even  when  extrajudicially  committed,  as  snifnl,  and  da- 
serving  of  God's  vengeance.  For  this,  however,  tliey  require  that  tlie  oath  should 
be  an  express  adjuration  of  God  himself  by  some  one  of  his  well-known  holy 
names;  that  the  iurant  should  be  of  full  age  and  inlellfgonce;  aud  that  Uieoati 
Bhould  l)e  swoni  deliberately,  and  with  the  intention  of  8we:iring. 

OATH,  in  point  of  law,  is  that  kind  of  solemn  dechiratloii  wliich  is  necessary  af 
a  condition  to  the  filling  of  some  office  more  or  less  public,  or  of  giving  evidence  in 
a  court  of  justice.  Kearly  all  the  groat  public  offices  of  the  state  ui  tiiis  coantry can 
only  be  filled  by  personn  who  are  willing  to  tike  an  oath  before  actinj^  in  such 
office.  The  most  important  office  of  all-^hat  of  king  or  queen  of  Great  Britain--- 
Iroquhrcs  a  Coronation  Oath  <q.  v.).    Meiii)>ers  of  parlUmeut  alao  rcqnirv  to  ta&e  tM 


yGoOgk 


397 


OtAh 


oath  <^  fidelily  and  trne  allegifltiee,  and  prondeing  to  maintnln  the  tnccessIOD,  In  a 
fall  lioacce,  Wore  taking  their  places  (2»  and  80  Vict  c.  19).  QQakers  unci  otiiers 
may  makeao  uffirmiHion  to  tb«  same  ieffect.  In  1868  and  -1871,  jjrt'at  changes  were 
itinde  as  io  oaths.  The  outh  of  ullceiauce  and  the  official]  oath  niQft  now  be  ti>keii 
by  th«*  grent  officer*  of  state,  such  as  the  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer,  Lord  Ch:mc«'ll(>r,  Secl•etarie^s  of  State,  &c.,  iu^Eiie  ai  d.  In  Scotland 
the  same  are  takt-n  by  the  Lord  Keeper  of  ihe  Gn  at  Seal  and  Pnvy  Seal,  Lord  Clerk 
Kegiet'T,  Lord  Advocate,  ahd  Lord  Justice-Clerk;  so  in  Ireland  by  the  L<  rd  Lieu- 
teiiniit.  Lord  Chancellor,  and  two  oihers.  The  oiUh  of  allegiawce  and  the  judicial 
oath  are  taken  by  the  superior  judges  in  cacli  kiujjdoni,  juflices  of  the  peace,  and 
ScQtcl)  fherifts.  No  otin  rs,  except  under  the  Clerical  and  Parliann  ntiry  Oathd 
Acio-,  are  to  take  the  oatlii«  of  allegiance,  supremacy,  and  abiuratiou,  or  any  rath 
aubftiinled  for  tliese.  AH  others  who  used  formerly  to  take  oath*  now  make  declara- 
lioiii*  of  fldelily  in  their  office,  and  in  some  cases  also  one  of  secrecy. 

,  Ttie  most  important  oatlis  ufEectifig  tFie  general  public  are  those  which  are  rc- 
qdired  to  cnforctf  the  truth  from  wijnesi»<  s  in  court**  of  justice.  It  may  be  stated 
tliat  jnrymen,  where  they  are  called  upon  to  exercise  their  functions,  are  aU«o  required 
to  take  an  oath.  The  oath  is  read  Jo  the  juror  thus — **  You  shall  well  and  truly 
try  the  i8J«ue  between  the  parties,  and  a  true  verdict  give,  accordinir  to  the  evidence, 
po  help  you  God  ;  '*  and  the  juror  kinses  the  new  l«  stament.  Wiinc-ses  who  are 
csilled  to  «;ive  evidence  must  ail  be  firat  sworn  In  a  similar  manner,  the  words  I>eing, 
^  The  evidence  you  stiall  give  sliall  be  the  truth,  the  whole  truth;  and  nothing  but: 
the  truth,  eo  help  you  God."  Hence,  the  person  u  ho  is  a  witness  must  have  Kuffl- 
eicnt  understanding  to  know  the  nature  and  obligations  of  an  oath ;  and  on  this 
ground,  young  cliddren  are  incompetent  to  be  witnesses.  Another  condition  or 
qualification  required  in  the  party  who  lake>»  an  oath  as  a  witiuss  is,  tlimt  he  has  a 
competent  sense  of  religion,  in  other  words,  he  niust  not  only  have  some  religious 
knowledge,  but  some  religious  belief.  He  must,  in  substance,  believe  in  the  exist- 
ence ot  a  God,  and  in  the  moral  ;:overnment  of  the  world  ;  and  thou^'h  he  cannot 
be  euestioned  minutely  ns  to  his  particular  reli};ious  opinionn,  yet,  if  it  appear  that 
he  doea  not  believe  in  a  God  and  future  st'ite,  be  will  not  be  allowed  to  give  his 
evidence,  for  it  is  assumed,  that  without  the  religions  sanction,  his  iet«timony  cannot 
be  relied  upon.  So  lon^,  however,  as  a  witness  ap))ear8  to  possess  competent  re- 
ligions l)elief,  the  mere  form  of  theo;>th  is  not  material.  The  usual  pnictice  in  Bng- 
l.iud  and  Ireland  is,  for  the  witness,  after  he:  ring  the  oath  repeated  i>y  the  officer  of 
court,  to  kiss  the  four  gOHpels  by  way  cf  assent;  and  in  Scotland,  the  witness  re-  . 
peats  siaular  words  after  the  judge,  st  nding  and  holding  up  his  right  hand,  **  swear- 
ing by  Almighty  God,  as  he  shalT  answer  to  God  at  the  Great  Day  of  Judgment," 
but  without  Kissing  any  book.  Jews  are  sworn  on  the  Pentateueli,  keeping;  on  their 
hats,  and  the  oath  ends  with  the  words,  "  so  help  you  Jehovah.*'  A  Mohammedan 
is  sworn  on  the  Koran ;  a  Chinese  witness  has  been  sworn  by  kneeline  and  break- 
ins;  a  china  saucer  against  the  witness-box.  Thus,  the  mere  form  of  taking  the  oath 
is  unmnteriul ;  the  witness  is  allowed  to  take  the  outh  in  whatever  form  he  considers 
most  binding  upon  his  own  conseience— the  essential  thing  being,  however,  that  the 
witness  ackuou'ledge  some  binding  effect  derived  from  his  belief  in  a  God  or  a 
future  state. 

The  policy  of  insisting  upon  the  religions  formalities  attending  the  taking  of  an 
onth,  has  been  much  discussed  of  late  years,  and  it  has  l)een  disputed  whether  athe- 
ists, who  avow  an  entire  absence  of  all  religions  belief,  should  be  entirely  rejected  as 
witnesses  (as  is  sometimes  the  cas  •),  and  justice  be  thereby  frustrated.  The  objec- 
tions of  Quakers,  M  ravians,  and  Separatists  to  taking. an  oath  have  long  been 
respecti'd  as  not  being  fundamentdly  at  variance  witli  a  due  sense  of  religious  feel- 
ing, and  hence  they  have  'ly  statute  been  allowed  to  mnke  an  affirmation  instead  of 
taking  the  oath.  In  1S64  another  concession  u  as  made  to  those  who,  not  bi-iug 
Quakers,  yet  n-fuse  to  tnke  the  oath  from  sincei-e  consci<-ntious  motives,  and  these 
are  now  aj*o  allowed  to  nffirni  instead  of  swear.  But  the  law  remains  as  lief  ore,  that 
aiheisis  and  persons  wiio  admit  that  thiy  have  no  religious  beliif  whatever,  ace 
exchuled  from  giving  evidence  in  courts  of  justice. 

When  a  witness,  alter  beinjfdnly  swofn,  gives  false  wvidence  in  a  cotirt  of  justice 
or  in  a  judicial  proceinling,  and  hi.^  evidence  ho  lalsely  giv  n  is  material.  i»e  commits 
th^ofS  uco  Kjtpeijury;  but  4  iauecess.  ly,  in  Eujilaud,  not  only  tluil  two  wilutssea 


y  Google 


Oath  QQC 

Obedience  «>*^0 

ihnll  bt»  nWe  to  prove  the  falflity  of  pnch  evidencp,  hut  also  that  the  parfy  shonldlie 
|>roceeded  fi}r&io»<t,  in  tise  fin»t  instance,  before  a  justice  of  the  |»eacc,  or  by  order  of  a 
judgi^or  theattoniey-ireueral.  ir  beiii^  found  that  frivoloni*  and  nnfonnded  indirt- 
Bieottf  were  often  preferred  ngainat  witneei^B  l.y  difappointed  or  hostile  ptmlef.  As 
«  general  mlc^  piM-}iiry  cnnuot  be  cofznniiiti'd  ezct'pt  in  some  jaduri.-il  proceeding,  or 
Turher  the  ^Tiiig  of  f  I l^e  evidence  rannot  be  panii<hed  except  itiias  been  gireu  in 
tome  jiidieial  proceeding.  The  pniciice  fonneriy  existt'd  of  persons  volnntaiily  tak- 
ing onths  in  varions  m;itters>  not  connected  with  any  jtidiclal  proceeding;  and  cr«-dit- 
on*  often  in  this  manner  ftomrht  to  athi  t)  otiier  ^cnriiies  by  ii}&h>tin:;  on  a  formal 
oath  before  a  jnfiticu  ci  tlie  iie:ice,  in  some  isolated  m:il  ter  of  fnct.  This  pmctioe  wn« 
pot  an  end  to  l>y  the  stattite  &  iind  6  Will.  lY.  c.  &l,  by  which  jnsticfs  of  the  peare 
Win;  prohibited  from  odniinifiteriug  or  receiving  Knch  ontiis  tonching  any  matter  <*r  ^ 
thing  whcrt  of  snch  jitst  ice  has  not  jiiiisdiction  or  cc^iJcance  by  some  sttitnie.  It  if 
left  to  9ome  extent  lo  the  discretion  of  the  ^tistice  whether  the  pnrticihir  matter  is 
one  as  to  irfaich  it  is  proper  to  administer  an  oath  ;  but  when  it  is  considered  proper, 
the  dechi ration  may  i>e  mado  iM  the  form  given  hy  tlmtfdninte  ;*and  if  toepnrty 
make  a  false  declaration,  he  commits  a  misdemeanor.  Unliwf n)  oaths  generally 
mt^an  oaths  taken  by  meml>ers  of  secret  and  illegal  societies  of  a  tn^axonabie  de^erip- 
iion ;  and  statntealaug  agoptiased  to  inflict  i>enaitie»  on  all  who  t(K>kor  atUuinistered 
anch  oaths. 

OATH  OF  CaXUMNY,  in  Scotch  Law,  mean?  an  oatii  taken  by  a  pjirty  at  the 
instance  of  his  opponent,  that  the  allepitions  were  well  fooudecL  Oaths  of  verity 
And  cre«Iality  are  oaths  thut  a  debt  or  claim  is  well  foanded. 

OATHS,  Military.  The  taking  of  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  government  and 
obedience  to  superior  offiOers  wan,  among  ancient  armiet>,  a  very  Sdlenin  affair.  A 
Whole  corps  took  the  oath  together,  sometimes  an  entire  army.  In  modem  times, 
when  so  many  other  cliecks  are  ased  for  maintaining  discipliiie.  the  oath  has  become 
little  more  than  a  form.  Li  tlie  United  Kingdom,  a  recruit  eiilistinir  into  the  nniiy 
(Mr  militia,  or  u  vol nntet^r  enrolling  hhnself,  swears  to  be  faithful  to  the  sovereigOf 
and  obedient  to  all  or  any  of  hi:*  superior  offi  -ers ;  nlso  to  divnige  any  facts  roimiig 
tt9  his  knowledge  wliidi  might  affect  the  i>af4*ty  of  his  sovereign,  or  the  stability  (if 
that  sovereign's*  government.  The  members  of  a  corart-inartial  take  an  oath  to  try 
the  ca^^es  brought  helore  ihem  justly,  occordiig  to  tlie  evidence,  to  ki*ep  secret  the 
Ending  antil  conflniied  by  the  crown,  and  to  keep  secret  alway?«  the  opiuicHis  givi-n 
-by  thu  memlxirs  iiidividaully.  The  only  otlier  militaiy  oath  is  the  commoln  o:.Ui  of 
a  witness  before  a  conrt-mamal  to  tell  the  trath,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but 
the  truth. 

OB,  or  Obf,  the  ^eat  river  of  Western  Siberi^i,  rises  in  two  branches,  the  Ha  and 
the  Kattine  or  Katunga,  both  of  wbich  have  thefr  origin  in  the  Altai  Moantaias, 
Wirhin  the  frontier  of  the  Chhiei>e  douiinion$>,  almnt  lat.  49^  n.,  and  lou^.  MP  u. 
These  branches,  flowing  in  t»  north-west  din>ction,  unite  to  form  the  Ob  at  toe  towu 
of  Biisk  in  hit.  699  SO'ii.,  long.  85^ e.  Parsning  a  winding  coarscv  wi4h  s  general 
fiorth-west  direction,  the  Ob  regche*»  the  meridian  of  76<^fc,  when  it  tuiiis  west,  mid 
maintains  that  direction  to  its  confluence  with  the  Irtish,  the  greatest  of  its  tribata- 
yies.  It  then  flows  north-west,  north,  and  noi-th-eaHt,  to  its  month  in  the  Gnlf  <»f 
Ob,  which  it  reaches  after  a  course  of  8000  miles.  lt»  chief  affluents  on  the  right  «re 
the  Tom— a  swifter  stream  than  the  Ob,  400  miles  in  lenjrth,  and  navigable  for  the 
J  ist  280  mi'ei»  from  the  be^'inning  of  May  till  July— the  Tchnlim,  and  the  Ket  Hie 
principal  afilnent  on  the  left  is  the  Irti>h,  which,  rising  within  the  frontier  of  ttie 
<?hiiiete  t  rritorie?,  traver«ies  the  Altai  Moantains.  ami  after  a  conrse  longer  than 
that  of  the  Ob  itself,  joins  that  river  250  miles  below  Tobolsk.  The  trade  of  tlielrti!<h, 
of  %Thich  the  centre  is  Tobolsk,  is  impoi  fcnit.  The  principal  towns  on  tlie  bai  ks  of 
tlie  Oh  are  Narira,  Snt^nt,  Berezow,  and  Obdorslc—Tlie  Gnlf  of  Ob  is  a  long  hilet  of 
t!«e  Arctic  Oceiin,  460  miles  in  length  by  al)ont  100  miles  in  breiidi  li.  At  present,  onhr 
a  few  steamers  ply  on  the  great  water-sy»tem  Of  the  Ob;  "bat  that  system,  coininunf- 
cartng  as  it  does  between  Siberia,  the  t^hinese  territories,  and  European  Russia,  iP, 
without  donbt,  destined  to  become  a  gi  eat  comimrciHl  thoronsrhfare.  This  river  is 
one  of  the  richest  in  flsli,  of  nil  the  riven*  b<>longiiig  to  the  KnsHian  empire.  Iti* 
Waters  are  swt'lled  in  May  by  the  meliing  of  the  snows  of  ilm  plahi-*,  and  again  in 
Jtuie  and  Jnly  by  the  mettixi;;  of  the  uioantalo  snows.    Below  its  joactiou  with  ths 


y  Google..  _^ 


QQQ  Oath 

Irtish,  It  divides  itself  into  seyernl  parallel  atreams;  and  in  the  flood  8ea!>on  it  innn- 
fiittee  great  rracts  of  cotintry,  tind  presents  the  appearance  of  n  waste  of  waters,  fts 
(Wolate  nni^ormjiy  broken  only  by  the  occafiional  iree-iops  that  ri>«  ahore  the  hot- 
fnce.  At  OI)dori«k,  abont  20  miles  south  of  the  8(inth(  m  l)order  of  the  Gnlf  of  Ob,  the 
river  freezes  iu  the  middle  of  October,  and  breaks  np  about  the  ntid(Ue  of  May. 

OBADI'AH,  one  of  the  •*  minor  prophets  "  of  the  Old  Testament,  regarding  whom 
absointely  notiiiu^r  is  known.  His  l)ook  or  *'  vision  "-—the  phorlest  uf  the  Jewish 
Scriptures — appears,  from  internal  evidence,  to  have  l>eeii  comirofed  after  the  de^trnc- 
tion  of  Jcsrosalem  by  tne  Ctialdcean?,  588  B.O.,  and  cons^istf*  of  two  |)art^*.  The  first  is 
aproi>liecy  of  The  downfall  of  Edoin.  Ti»c  second  foretells  the  fnture  redemption 
and  glory  of  tlie  lionse  of  Jacob,  in  which  Edom— for  his  uubrothcrly  coudnct— shall 
not  share,  but,  on  tlie  contraiy,  be  bui-ued  up  as  *♦  stubble." 

O'BAN,  a  parliamentary  burgh  and  seaport,  Argylesliire,  Scotland,  on  a  b:iy  of 
the  same  naroo,  20  miles  (in  direct  line)  uortli-wet>t  of  Inviraray.  The  bay  is  pro- 
tected from  every  wind  by  the  island  of  Kerrera  on  the  wett,  and  by  the  hiirli  shores 
of  the  niainbind,  aiid  is  overlooked  on  the  norih  l)y  the  ]>ictnreeque  ruins  of  Dnnoliy 
Cattle.  It  is  from  12  to  24  fatiionts  dee]>,  and  although  tiie  giidle  of  hills  that  seems 
to  surround  it  gives  it  the  appearance  of  a  lake,  it  is  easily  accessible,  and  could  af- 
ford anchorage  to  300  sail.  O.  is  the  jjreat  rendezvous  for  tourists  in  the  West 
Highlands.  It^  importance  dates  chiefly  from  the  beginning  of  the  present  centniy. 
Thi>  bnr;;h  now  contains  a  number  of  churches,  seveml  hotels  and  inns,  schools, 
l>anki<.  &C.  Within  three  mileH  of  O.  is  Dimstaffnage  Castle,  wliich  is  saia  to  have 
Im-cu  the  seat  of  the  Scottish  niouari  liy  ))revionKly  to  its  transference  to  Scone.  The 
Stone  of  Destiny,  which  now  8up|)orls  the  coronation  chair  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
and  was  carried  thither  from  Scone  by  Edward  L,  was  obtained,  in  tlie  fii-st  instance, 
accordiinr  to  tradition,  from  DmiKtaffuage  CaPile.  Pop.  «f  parli.imeutary  burgh 
(whicli  is  one  of  the  Ayr  (q.  v.)  group)  was  1940  iu  1861 ;  in  1871,  2426. 

OBlS,  or  Obi  (etymology  unknown),  the  name  given  to  the  magical  arts  or  witch- 
craft practised  by  a  class" of  pcr.-ons  among  the  negroes  of  the  Weft  Indies.  The 
prsctiser  is  called  an  Obcah-man  or  Obeah-wovian.  It  diff«'rs  in  no  essential  respi  ct 
frotu  the  corresponding  suiK-rstitions  all  ttie  world  over.  See  Magio,  Witchcivajt. 
OBEDIENCE,  iu  Canon  Ljuv,  means  the  duty  by  which  the  various  <rmdations  in 
cccle!>iast  cnl  organisation  are  held  subject,  in  all  things  consintent  with  the  law  of 
God  or  of  the  church,  to  the  several  superiors"  placed  immedintoly  above  each,  resi>ec- 
tivply,  In  the  hierarchical  scale.  Thus  priests  and  inferior  clergy  owe  canonical 
olK?dieuce  to  tlie  bishop,  and  priests  are  bound  tliereto  by  a  solemn  promise  atlininis- 
tered  at  ordination.  'I'he  bishop  primitively  took  a  nimiiar  oatli  to  the  ra(^tropolitan ; 
but  by  the  modern  law,  tlie  jmrisdiction  (»f  tlie  metropolitan  is  confined  to  tlie  oc^a- 
sionsuf  his  holding  a  visitation,  or  presiding  in  tlie  provincial  synod.  Bishops,  by 
tlie  prc-ent  law. of  the  Koiuan  Catholic  Cliurc'',  tike  an  oath  of  obedience  to  the 
pope..  This  obedienc*',  however,  is  strictly  limited  by  the  canons*,  and  is  only  held 
t')  Wnd  in  ihiugs  consistent  wiih  tl  e  divine  and  natural  law.  In  ecclesiastical  liisiory 
tlie  word  Obfdieuc«  ha«  a  s|).«cial  signification,  and  is  applied  to  th^  several  jMirties 
in  the  church,  which,  during  the  great  Westeru  Bchism-^qi  v.),  adhered  to  the  rival 
p<)peR.  Tlius  we  read  of  the  •* Roman  Obedience,"  which  included  all  who  recog- 
Dised  tlie  pope  chosen  at  Rome,  and  the  *•  Avignon  Obedience."  whicli  meant  the 
M|»porter^  of  the  Avignon  pope.  So,  agrain,  historians  speak  of  "  the  Obedience  of 
Gr^-gory  XII.,"  and  **  the  0!)edience  of  Benedict  XITI.,"  &c.  Applied  to  the  mo- 
iiasiic  institute,  oln'dience  means  the  voluntary  submission  which  all  members  of 
rei«dou8  orders  vow,  at  the  reliirious  profession,  to  their  immediate  su|>eriors,  of 
whatever  grade  hi  the.order,  as  well  as  to  the  8ui)erior  general,  an<l  still  more  to  the 
mlfS  and  con^titntion-'  of  the  order.  Thi  forms  in  alt  orders  one  of  the  essential 
vows.  It  is.  however,  expressly  confined  lo  lawful  thinjrs;  j:nd  although  it  is  held 
tliat  a  superior  can  command  certjiin  things  under  pain  of  sin,  yat  Koman  Catholics 
repwlhite  the  notion  that  the  command  of  a  superior  can  render  lawf-il,  much  less 
pood,  a  thintr  which  is  of  its  o«n  narure,  or  hy  the  law  of  God,  sinful  or  ba<l.  Th« 
iiuineObedi  nee  is  sometimefi  given  to  the  writti  n  precept  or  other  formal  Instrn- 
nieiit  hy  which  a  sujH^rior  in  a  reliirious  order  communicates  io  one  of  his  subj  -eis 
auy  siM-cial  precept  or  Instruction— as,  for  example,  to  undi-rtake  a  certiiin  iflico,  lo 
procc-tfd  npou  a  particular  miMlou,  to  ruttu^uiaU  a  certain  appoiutuieut,  Ae.    Iha 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Otwltek 


400 


iustrncUon,  or  tbe  InBtrnraenl  containing;  it,  i»  collecl  an  obedience,  beeaoae  it  ish«Ii 
to  bind  in  yirtae  of  religious  obedience. 

CHBELISK,  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek  obeloaaiid  oheliskos^  ^i^lfying  arpit, 
applied  to  pri8inatic  monninetitB  of  ptoiie  iind  other  -material^*,  tcnniiiatlng  witk  « 

f>yr:inud:il  or  pointed  top.  'lliesc  monaineulp,  ctiUcd  tekhen^  were  p1:icc0iipouha»f 
)crore  gateway?  of  the  princiiml  temples  in  E^^yptt  ono  on  etich  side  of  the  door. 
They  •ervcd  in  Ej^^tian  art  Tor  the  8:ira«  pnr|M)&e3  as  The  steisB  of  the  Greeks  ai4 
columns  of  the  Koinaii«s  uudapp.ar  to  have  been  erected  to  record  the  lionoraor 
timn»ph8  of  the  monafcli.  Th<'y  hiive  four  f aces',  are  cut  out  of  one  piece,  tiid  arc 
broader  at  tlie  l>ape  than  at  tlie  top,  at  a  short  distance  from  which  the  sides  form 
the  1>a8e  of  a  pyramidlon  tn  whicli  the  obelit>k  terminates.  Th  y  were  placed  upon 
a  cubical  inise  of  tlie  same  m>iteria1,  which  slightly  surpasned  the  breadth  of  tlidr 
bast\  Eiich  woe  of  the  oImjHsIc  at  the  bahc  measures  1-1 0th  of  the  height <rf  tlie 
Bliaft,  from  the  base  lino  to  tliat  where  the  cap,  or  pyrnm'dion  commends.  The 
cap  is  alffo  l-lOth  of  the  same  height  Their  sides  are  slightly  concjivo.  to  iucieaw 
their  apparent  height.  Their  height  varies  from,  upwards  of  100  feet  to  a  fc\* 
inches,  the  tallest  Imowu  beinij  that  of  Karunk,  which  rioes  to  106  fM  7 
inches.  Tlie  sides  are  generally  scnlptnrt  d  with  hieroglyplis  anrl  rq;>reselltalioQ^ 
r(*cording  the  names  and  titles  of  kinjrs,  ireuerallyin  one  line  of  deeply-cni  iiii-ro- 
glyphs  down  each  Bide.  The  pyramid  of  o')elisks  was  sometiuus  deecn*' 
ati-d  Willi  sulMtjects.  The  mode  by  which  thry  were  made  appears  to  hnve  been 
10  hew  them  first  in  the  rouirh  out  of  a  solid  piece  in  the  qnaniep,  and  one  nnfinishcd 
specimen  thus  prepared  still  remains  in  the  quarries  of  Syeue.  They  were  iraafr 
portt.d  down  tiie  Nile  during  the  inundation,  on  ratta  to  the  spot  whtri 
they  were  intended  to  be  plactd,  and  raised  from  their  horizuntal  po« 
sition  by  inclined  planes,  aid  d  by  machinery.  Some  obeliskis  before  tMf 
erection,  had  their  pyramid  capped  with  bronze  gild(Hi,  or  gold,  the  marks  of  sneh 
•  covering  still  being  evident  on  their  snifaces.  Under  the  Ronum  empire,  they  were 
raisci  by  pulleys  and  heavy  tackle.  'J'he  difficulty  of  erecting  the  fallen  ones  in  the 
ages  of  the  renaissance,  as  also  the  mi^chanioil  appliances  for  the  lowering  from  iti 
ori}di>al  site  the  obelink  of  Luxor  in  1881,  and  erecting  it  in  the  Place  de  la  Con«-onle 
ill  1888  by  L3  Ban,  shew  the  difficultiea  ex|>erlenced  by  the  ancient;*.  The  i»e  of  obe- 
lisks is  as  old  as  the  aiipeaittnce  of  art  itself  in  Eurypi ;  thest^  grand,  simple,  aixi  geo* 
metric  forms  lieing  used  in  the  4th  dynasty,  ana  continued  tiil  the  time  of  the  no- 
mans.  Their  object  is  enveloped  iu- great  obscurity.  A>  the  time  of  the  I81I1  dy- 
nasty,  it  appears  that  religions  ceremonii  s  and  obkitions  were  offered  to  tbe  olio- 
lisks,  which  were  treated  as  divinities.  Their  sepulchral  use  is  evinced  liv  their 
discovery  in  the  tombs  of  the  4:h  dvnasty,  and  the  vignettes  of  ear^  pa- 
pyrL  No  large  obelisk  is  older  than  that  of  Matarich  or  Heliopoti^, 
erected  by  O^rteseu  L  about  1900  b.c.  ;  and  that  of  Beggig  or  CrocodilupoUs 
is,  ill  reality,  only  a  atele.  Thoihraes  I.  placed  two  of  largfe  stao  before  the 
granite  sanctmiry  of  Karnak,  and  his  daugnter  Hatasn,  two  .oth«»  of  alwve  W 
feet  high,  before  the  second  propylceon.  Adaitional  sculptures  were  ibade  on  these 
obeliskH  by  Setbos  I.,  who  rest ore<l  th  m.  Thothmes  III.  appeai-s  to  hoveerectt-d 
many  obelisks.  'J'he  oldent  is  that  of  the  Atmeilan  or  Hiii^iKMirome  of  Constauli- 
Dople,  erected  to  record  his  conquest  of  Naharania  or  Mesopotamia.  Two  other^ 
which  formerly  stood  at  Ueliopoiis,  were  subsequently  re-ei^fcted  by  Rameseff  IL  u 
Alexandria.  One  of  these  still  remains  erect,  and  is  x>opntariy  known  as  Cleo* 
patra's  Needle,  the  other  lies  prostrate.  Both  have  greatly  suffered  from  the 
eff<'Cts  of  sea  breezes.  The  highest  of  all  obelii>ks,  tha^of  St  John  of  the 
Lateran,  apitears  to  have  been  removed  from  Thebes,  and  set  np  by  Thothmes 
IV.  85  years  after  the  death  of  Thothmes  III.  A  small  obeli^k  of  AmenopliisIlM 
faU\  to  have  been  found  in  the  Thebaid,  apparently  from  £3ephantiiic,  U  In  the 
cotloction  of  the  Duke  of  Northumbi  rland  at  Sloii.  Si^thos  j.  commenced  tlie 
Flaminian  obelisk,  subsequiiitly  comphted  by  Rames<s  II.,  aud  plaiMHl  at  tlic 
temple  of  Heliopoli(«.  It  was  ramoyed  to  Rome  by  Conr'tantius,  aun  found  It)  fn:t 
umlt^r  the  surface  in  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  XIl I.,  and  ore<!t<*<l  in  tflat  of 
Sextns  V.  by  tlie  archite<t  Fonr^imu  The  other  obelisks  of  Kara-wM  IL  sre,  llie 
one  ut  the  Luxor  quart(>r  of  TheheB.  theconipan'on  t>f  which  was  remov  d  to  lie 
Place  de  l:i  Ctincorde  at  PariR  in  1833 ;  tlie  two  obelisks  of  San  or  lani**;  that  of  the 
Boboll  GurdttuB  of  Flurcuve,  U*au^ported  from  the  circus  u^  Flora  at  Rome;  ti»t 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC"        ^. 


401 


Obe'Uk 


obelisk  of  the  Rotonfla  at  Borne,  rivc'cd  by  Clpinont  XIT.,  ITll  a.b.  j  nod  that  of 
tiu^  Villa  Miitfei,  wlilcli  decorated  the  Am  Cire:l  of  th«*  Capitol.  A  fragment  of  an- 
other i>t)e)it>k  wofl  ill  tin:  Oolhgio  Komaiio.  No  obeli-ka  are  kuuwii  of  otlicr 
iiiouarchs  till  tlie  26tli  dyii«}*ty.  Thnt  of  tlie,  Monte  Citono  at  Borne,  erectrd  by 
P^aniiiieiichuell.  at  Uelitipolii*, waiv.triiiisportecl  bv  Ani^aftuetotlieCmnpUBMHrtini*! 
h-wmg  hHeu  fzhuraed  li4S  a.d..  and  erected  by  the  urcliitect  Antinori  iu  ihnt 
of  Pin*  VI.  Two  oiUt^r  obelisks  of  simill  sire,  mttde  of  black  Imim^I,  de<licnt4>d  l»y 
}^ekiitberliel>i  or  Nectinebes  11.  nt  Herni'opolK  roniinonly  known  ai>  the  obeli>ks  of 
Cairo,  arelii  the  BritiAli  Hiiseiiui.  Ptolemy  PbilndeJphas  is  said  lo  iiavc  erected  in 
tlie  Ar^iuoeiim  at  Alexandria  a  plain  olxdittk  of  80  cubiti*.  cat  in  the  qaarrifs  by 
Nectiibis,  It  waa  »et  up  by  the  architect  Satyrns.  Two  olielisks,  enctetl  by  Ptolemy 
Snei^etes  IL  and  hi**  wife  01eof>atra,  stood  before  the  temple  of  Philae,  one  of 
Wliich  W2I8  removed  to  Corfe  Cuslle  by  Mr  Baukes.  The  so-called  Punipliiliauo 
obelisk  at  Rome,  erected  by  E.  Bernln  In  165t,  in  the  Piacsti  Ifavona,  nuder  the 
pontificate  of  Innocent  X.^  was  rt^moved  from  the  Circn^  of  Mazentlns,  iiavinsr,  as 
their  hieroglyph  leal  legeudA  testify,  been  originally  erected  by  Boroitinn  before  the 
Sorapenm  at  Rome.  The  last  of  tite  Roman  olielisks  was  the  Barberiiii,  which  was 
fi>attd  ill  1(188  on  the  site  of  the  Clrca:>  of  Aurelian,  and  finally  erected  in  1828  on 
the  Monte  Piudo.  It  was  placed  by  the  Buiperor  Hadrian  l)efore  the  m&nsoleuni  or 
cenotijph  either  of  himself  or  Antinonn,  l>etweeii  132—188  a.d.  Barbarous  hiero- 
glyphs,  fomid  on  the  Salluj'tian  ob  disk,  are  copied  from  the  Flamiiiian  obelisk.    It  . 


Wnita  del  Monte.  It  has  been  seen  how,  on  the  reuaixr'aiiue  of  theartt*,  the  obo- 
liitks  were  restored  and  applied  to  the  ctnl)ellishmeiits  of  tnodini  Rome,  either  as 
columiis  in  the  centres  of  piazzas  or  squares,  or  vine  as  ilie  ornaments  of  fonutain^: 
one  ol)el!sk  lieing  set  np  alone  in  tht^  centre  of  the  piazzas  and  places  of  Italy  and 
Prauce,  while  in  antiquity  they  always  ptood  in  pairn  hefore  the  Pylons. 

Two  small  o(>elit*k:*,  and  the  apex  of  a  third,  have  been  found  in  Assyria,  in 
fhtL\)e  of  truncated  prisms,  the  apices  step-shaped.  1'he  most  iuterestiiig  is  that  of 
tlie  uorth-weyt  p:ilace  of  NimrntI,  of  black  marble,  is  6  feet  9  inches  hieh.  Kacli 
side  has  fivvi  comiwrtments  of  bas-reliefs,  representing  thetribute  and  offerings  made 
to  tlie  Sliulinuna'*er.  It  U  covered  with  a  caueiforni  inaeiipi ion,  recording  the  annals 
of  the  king's  reign,  from  his  1st  to  IiIh  31st  year.  On  it  is  repres^ented  the  tribute  of 
J  -ha,  kfng  of  Ismel.  A  second  oi)elisk,  ol  wtiite  marble,  measures  8  feet  2  inches 
hii^li,  i:i  covered  with  bas-leliefs,  representing  scenes  of  war  and  tributes,  winding 
ruiind  it  like  thor*e  of  a  Roman  triuinphaf  column.  On  it  is  an  inscription  of 
8hanias-PuL  The  broken  apex  of  the  tliird  has  u  dedication  from  Ashnr-izir'-pnl  II. 
Ad  ob.'iisk  of  S-.Mniramis  at  Babylon  is  mentioned  by  Diodorus,  and  another  of  Ari- 
c.inu  was  interpreted  by  Democritns.  Under  the  Roman  empire,  obelisks  were 
Qiied  as  gnomoii.>*,  placed  in  the  public  spaces,  or  erected  in  the  spina  of  the  circi. 
The  first  removed  of  ol)eli8kB  to  Rome  took  place  in  tlie  reign  of  Augnf>tas,  who 
placed  one  in  the  circns,  sn;d  to  have  been  originally  erected  in  the  reign  of  Semen- 
psertens,  853^  feet  high;  and  another  of  9  feet  i<  ss,  in  the  Campus  Martlu!>,  and  had 
it  adjusted  as  a  gnomon  by  the  mathematician  faenndus  Novus;  a  third  o1)elisk  was 
erecied  in  the  Circus  of  Caligula  and  Nero  in  the  Vatican,  and  originally  dedicated  lo 
tlie  son  by  Nnncorens,  tlie  sou  of  Sesosis,  on  the  recovery  of  his  sight  Two  other 
small  obeli!<k8,  which  decorated  the  mausoleum  of  Aue^istui*,  and  were  erected  by 
Claudius  or  Vespu$<ian  and  hie  sons,  have  been  found.  Other  oI)elisk8  are  kiiowii  to 
have  been  vemoved  by  Constantius,  354  a.d.  P.  Victor,  in  his  description  of  The 
quarters  of  ancient  Rome,  reckons  6  of  the  largest  size  and  42  otli.'rs.  The  Romans 
added  tp  them  brazen  spheres  and  other  decorations.  8ome  were  removed  to  Con- 
stantinople by  lliomlosius  the  younger,  and  Vulentinian,  890  a.d.  The  translation  of 
the  iiiscriptiou  oi  one  of  the  Roman  ohelihks  made  by  »  Greek  or  Ej.'yi-tlan,  named 
"'         *  n,  has  btien   pre8erv(!d  by  Aminianns   Ma'rcellinus. — Kirclur,  •*  CEdipu 


Hermapion,  has  been  preservc^d  by  Aminianns  Ma'rcellinus. — Kirclier,  **  CEdipus 
iEgyptiacus"  (:om.  iil.  Rom.  1652— 1<J54) ;  Zoega,  **  De  Origine  et  U.-«u  Obeliscorum  " 
<£o.  Kom.  179T):  Cipriani,  ♦Sul  Bodici  Ol>elisci  di  Romii^(fo.  Rom.  1828) ;  L'lIOie, 
"Notice  Historique  sur  les  OW.i.-'ques  Egxptieus "  (8vo,  Paris,  1886);  Bireh,  *•  Notes 
npou  Obelittks,  iu  the  Mutteaiu  of  Classical  Antiquities''  (8vo,  Loud.  1868),  pp.  r** 


y  Google 


Obit  ^^'^ 

239 ;  LnjTird,  **  Ninevoh  aii^  ifo  Remniiu",''  vol.  i  p.  844  *  Sir  H.  Rawlinsom  *•  A  Com- 
muiitary  on  the  Ouiicitonii  Iu^cr;|itio..»"  (l2iiio,  Loud.  1860). 

O BERLIN,  Joliaim  Friedrich,  diaiinjrnislu'd  for  lils  active  beiievoleace  and  nw- 
fuln 'S.*,  was  horn  ui  Stms»hurg.  8l!*t  Auffasrl740;  and  in  Uff^T  became  Protectant 
pmtorof  Waldbach,  hv  t  lie  Ban  d«  la  Uocfic  or  Stein  thai,  a  wild  moiiutalnous  district 
of  AlBjice.  Hoit-he  spent  the  remaludor  of  his  lifi-,  corabiuing  au  afCecilonaie  dili- 
gence in  the  ordihnry  duiit^ft  of  the  pastorntev  with  wise  and  c^imeeEt  endeavor* to 
J)roniote  the  education  and  general  prosperity  of  the  people.  The  diPtrict  bad  siif- 
ered  teiTibly  in  the  Thirty  Years*  War.  and  the  scanty  iK)pulation  which  re«»aiiied 
was  sonic  in  poverty  and  ignorance.  O.  introdnced  better  metiiods  of  cultivniiiig 
the  soil,  and  yarirtns  branches  of  nianufjicture.  The  popalation,  which  was  scnrceiy 
60Q  when  he  entered  on  his  labors,  had  incriased  to 6000  at  the  close  of  the  century. 
Yet,  though  auimated  in  all  his  actions  by  the  most  pure  and  disinterested  |>ieiy. » 
may  be  questioned  if  he  did  not  carry  his  moral  t^upei-vision  to«)  far  wheu  he  kept  a 
register  of  the  moral  character  of  Ids  parishioners,  and  searched  with  ihB  uibiataii<n 
though  not  the  motives  of  an  inquisitor,  into  tlie  most  insignificant  detiiils  of  their 
private  life.  O.  was  ably  as»isted  in  Ids  reformatory  labor*  l)y  Ids  pious  lioiwe- 
k"«eper.  Luise  Scliepler,  who  survived  her  master  eleven  veara.  He  died  Ist  Jone 
18li,  Notwithstanding  the  hnmble  sphere  in  wldch  his  days  were  spent,  his  fame 
as  a  philanthropist  has  extended  over  tiie  world,  and  his  example  hasstimuiii^'daiid 
guidtMi  many.  See  "Brief  Memorials  of  0»»erlin,"  by  the  Rev  T.  Sims,  M.A. 
(Lond.  1830),  and  also  "Memoirs  of  Oberlin,  with  a  short  notice  of  Louisa  SchetJtjr'' 
(Lond.  1838  and  1862). 

O'BERON,  tlie  king  of  the  Elves  or  Fairies,  and  the  linsband  of  Titania.  The 
name  is  derived  by  a  change  of  spelling  from  Auheronj  more  anciently  Albei-on,aitd 
that  from  the  German  Aiberich,  i.  c,  king  of  tlie  Elves.  O.  is  first  meiitjoiied 
as  "Roi  dn  royaUme  de  la  f6erie"  in  the  old  French  poem  of  *'  Hnon  de  Bordeaox, 
pair  de  France,"  which  was  afterwards  made  tlie  basis  of  a  popular  prose  rouiaaoe. 
From  the  French,  O.  was  bo  rowi'd  by  the  English  poets,  Chaucer,  Spenser,  and 
others,  but  he  is  most  familiarly  known  from  his  appearance  in  SlnU(speare's  "Mid- 
summer Night's*  Drejim."  From  old  Freucli  sources,  also,  Wielaiid  derived  part  of  • 
the  materials  of  his  i)oem  of  *•  Obcrou." 

OBE'SITY,  or  Corpulence,  may  be  defined  to  be  ♦*  an  accumulation  of  fat  nndof 
the  integuments  or  in  the  al)domen,  or  in  both  situations,  to  such  an  amount 
as  to  envbarrassthe  several  voluntary  functions."  A  certaii  degree  of  fatn«-ss1s  not 
onty  quite  compatible  with  health,  but,  as  has  been  shewn  m  the  article  Pat^ 
Animal,  the  fatty  tissue  is  of  cons«iderable  use  in  the  animal  body,  partly  in  conse- 
quence of  its  physical,  and  partly  In  consequence  of  its  chemical  pro- 
perties; and  it  is  only  when  the  fatness  l)egins  to  interfere  with  tlie 
discharge  of  any  of  the  vitjvl  powers,  that  it  can  be  regarded  as  a  morlnd 
condition.  Obesity  may  occur  at  any  period  of  life,  but  it  is  most  commonly  after 
the  fortieth  year  that  the  tendency  to  an  inordinate  accumulation  of  fat  b*>gin8  to 
shew  itself.  After  thnt  time,  in  the  case  of  men,  t.l>e  plejwures  of  the  taWe  are 
usually  more  attraefive  than  in  ear  ier  life,  and  mmh  less  muscular  exercise  is  taken; 
while  In  women,  tlie  cessation  of  the  power  of  child-bearing  induces  changes  which 
tend  remarkal>ly  to  tiie  deposition  of  faf.  The  extent  to  which  fat  may  accrtmdlate 
in  the  human  body  Is  enormous.  Daniel  Lambert,  who  died  at  the  age  of  forty  yea^^ 
weighed  T39  lbs. ;  his  exact  height  is  not  recorded,  but,  according  to  the  investiga- 
tions of  the  late  Dr  Hutchinson  (the  invent^>r  of  the  spirometer),  the  uonnal  weight 
of  a  man  six  feet  high  should  not  exceed  178  lbs.  DrElliotsoii  lias  recorded  the 
case  of  a  female  child,  a  year  old,  wiio  weiglied  60  lbs ;  and  those  who  are  inicresU-d 
in  the  subject  will  find  a  large  collection  of  cases  of  obesity  in  Wadd*B  ** Corsoiy 
Remarks  on  Corpulence."  " 

The  predisposing  causes  of  obesity  are  a  peculiar  habit  of  body,  hereditnrily 
transmitted;  inactivity;  sedentary  occupations.  &c.;  while  the  more  immediate  or 
exciting  causes  area  rich  diet,  including  fatty  matters,  and  mattera  convertible  in 
the  body  Into  fats,  such  as*  saccharine  and  starchy  foods,  and  tlie  partnJui^  of  socn 
a  di't  to  a  greater  extent  than  is  necessary  for  Imlancins  the  daily  waste  of  the  tissnes. 
**Pat  me/its,  butter,  oily  vetretable  8nl>stances,  milk,  sacdiarln**  and  f«rin«cron*f»h- 
stances  are  the  most  fattening  articles  of  food ;  ^viiilst  malt  liquors,  partteakirty  n^ 


y  Google. 


■403  ,       §^V»» 

•  and  ?\rept  al<»  arW,  of  nil  bovftrngcs,  the  mot^t  coiidncive  in  promofing  obCTitj'.  The 
fattening  eflect  of  figs*  jiiicl  jir.-ipea,  and  of  ilie  8u;r:ir-cAi»e,  upou  tlie  untivet*  of 
t^  countries  wliero  tljese  are  abiniduin,  is  well  ki  o\mk  In  vnriftut*  coiuiiriea 
in, Africa  anrt  tlic  East,  Where  obeMty  18  nnioh  admlivd  in  female?,  warm  b:ith?,  in- 
dc^ence,  and  livhig  upon  Paccharine  nud  furJnaceons  Jirticl«»',  upon  date?,  the  nuts 
firom  which  palm-oil  i»  obiuiJK'ci,  jud  ninm  vaii»u»«  oily  seed?,  are  the  tnenns  uamilly 
emplojred  to  produce  this  effect."— Cophind's  "Dictiouury  of  M*'diclne,"  nrilcla 
"Obesity."  Tlie  knowledge  of  the  nitan!*  (»f  induciue  oneclry  jifforda  us  the  be»t 
clue  to  the  rutioinil  treatnieut  of  this  aflf«ctiou.  It  is  a  popular  belief  that  the 
adniiiiis'ti'arion  of  acids— vinejrar,  for  (ixamplft.  or  one  of  the  mineral  acids- 
will  check  the  deposition  of  fat ;  but  if  tlie  dt-sired  effect  Ih  produced,  it  i^  only  at 
the  co«t  of  serions  injai^r  to  the  digestive,  and  often  to  the  nrinaiy  organs.  The  era- 
ployxnent  of  soap  and  alkulics,  as  advocated  a  century  aco  by  Dr  Flemyng  (**  A  DIs- 
conr!»e  on  the  Nature,  Cauii^us,  and  Cure  of  Corpulency,"  ITW),  ii«  less  objectionable 
th«u  tUat  of  acld^  but  the  prolonged  Use  evm  (»f  these  i?  n-ually  prejudhial.  The 
effica^of  oneof  our  comnmneH  pea-wecda,  fjea-wrack  (fwcfia  tJ««ic«/o«tt«),  in  tliid 
affection  hiis  alw  l>een  ftrongiy  advoaitcd.  It  is  preti«crib  d  in  the  form  of  au 
extract,  and  its  value  i;*  probaiHy  dependent  on  tlm  iodine  contained  in  it 

A  veryiutei-estiug  "Letter  ou  Corpulence,*'  publi>!i('«f  in  1863  by  Mr  Banting,  in 
wbi^hbe  records  the  effuct  of  diet  in  his  otrn  rase,  afier  all  medicinal  tr<*atnient  nad 
failed,  i:<  well  worthy  of  the  attention  of  thope  who  are  pufferinu  from  the  nffeciiou 
of  which  this  article  treat.-*.  Tlie  followins;  ai-e  the  lending  points  In  his  case.  Ho 
was  66  years  of  ajre,  about  6  feet  5  inches  in  stature  (and  therefore,  according  to  Dr 
-Hut^'hiuson**  calcuhitions,  oujjlit  to  have  Weighed  142  lb«.),  and  in  August  186J 
Weijrhed  203  lbs.  **  Pew  men,"  he  obsei-ves,  **  have  kd  a  more  active  life  .... 
80  that  my  corpulence  and  snl>«ec[neut  obesity  were  not  through  neglect  of  uecespary 
"bodily  activity,  nor  from  excessive  eatinir,  drinking,  or  self-indulgence  of  any  knuf. 
except  that!  parioQk  of  the«iniple-alimeuts  of  bread,  milk,  batter,  l)eer,  sugar,  ana 

potatoes^  more  freely  than  my  aged  nature  required I  could  not  >toop  to 

tieniyslioe^  nor  attend  to  the  little  offlce!>  huinnniiy  requirpg  without  considerable 
p»iu  and  difficulty;  I  have  be«n  compelled  to  go  down  stairs  slowly  backwamt*,  to 
save  the  jar  of  increased  weight  upon  the  ankle  and  knee  joints,  and  been  obliged 
to  puff  and  blow  with  evei-y  slWlit  exertion"  (pp.  10  and  14). 

By  the  2idvice<^  amedlral  friend,  he  adopted  the  following  plan  of  diet:  *'For 
breakfast  I  take  four  or  five  ounces  of  l)eef,  mutti^n,  kidiieys,T)roilcd  fish,  bacon,  or 
cold  ^neat  of  any  kind  except  pork ;  a  lar^re  cup  of  tea  (without  milk  or  pnjrar),;  a 
Httle  biscuit,  or  one  ounce  of  dry  toast.  Vot  dinner,  Ave  or  six  ounces  of  any  fish 
except  salmon,  any  meat  except  pork,  any  vciretable  except  potato,  one  ounce  of 
diy  toast,  fruit  out  of  a  pudding,  any  kind  of  {KXiltiyor  game,  aid  two  or  three 

f  hisses  of  good  claret,  sherry,  or  Madeira ;  champagne,  port,  and  beer  forbidden, 
'or  tea,  two  or  three  ounces  of  fruit,  a  rusk  or  two,  and  a  cnp  of  tea  without  milk 
or  sugar.  For  snt>per,  three  or  four  ounces  of  meat  or  fish,  similar  to  dinner,  with  a 
class  or  two  of  claret  (p.  18).  I  breakfast  between  eight  and  nine  o'clock;  dine 
Between  one  and  two ;  tiike  ray  slight  tea  mcjil  between  five  and  six ;  and  tup  at 
Bine"  (p.  40).  Under  this  treatment  he  lost  in  litth*  more  ihan  a  year  (h.  tween  the 
«6th  of  AugUJ^t  1862  and  the  l»th  of  Septeml>er  1868)  46  lbs.  of  his  bodily  wt  ieht, 
while  his  girth  round  the  waist  was  reduced  12j^  inches.     He  reported  himself  us 

.  restored  to  iMfalth,  as  able  to  walk  up  an<l  down  stiiirs  like  other  men ;  to  stoop  with 
ease  and  freedom;  and  safely  to  leave  off  knec-l»andages,  which  he  \mdnece»mrilff 
worn  for  twenty  years  i»a8t.  He  made  his  own  casc^  widely  known  by  the  circulation 
of  his  pamphlet  (which  has  passed  througli  several  editions);  and  "numerous 
ireiwits  sent  with  thanks  by  strangi^rs  as  well  as  friends,"  shew  that  (to  use  his  own 
words)  *•  the  system  is  a  srreat  success ; "  and  that  it  is  to  we  do  not  doubt,  for  it  is 
based  on  sound  physiolo^cal  principles. 

O'BIT  (Lat.  obKus,  a  **  going  down."  "  death  "),  literally  means  the  decease  of  an 
individual.  But  as  a  certain  ecclesiastical  service  was  fixed  to  be  celebrated  on  the 
day  of  death  (in  dieobituff).  the  name  came  to  be  appli«d  to  the  sei-viee  itself.      Obit 

"  therefore  siguifief",  in  old  church  langna<re,  the  service  perfornnd  for  the  depart«*d. 
It  (ousisted.  in  4he  Roman  Church,  of  those  ijorlitfns  of  the  OMcium  D^unctorum 

i  y^iichwo  called  Matins  and  X^aud^,  followed  by  a  Mass  of  ihe  Dead,  chanted,  or  oc- 
cadonaliy  read.    Similar  services  are  held  oa  the  day  of  tliu  funeral,  and  on  the  30th 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Object  -  10  A 

day.  and  the  amilvereary  •  and  aUhoti^  the  nnrtie  obit  wag  primitively 'aj^pM  orif 
to  the  flr^t,  it  lias  come  to  bd  umkI  of  them  all  indiscriniiuately. 

OBJ  KG  r,  i»  the  huignage  of  Metaphyj^cs,  Is  that  of  which  any  tWtikliijjbciDffOf 
Subfect can  liecomo  cognizant.  Tiiis  subject  itse  f.  ho\»ever,  Is  capablt^  oriroiisnm- 
tation  into  an  Objcjct,  for  oiio  may  tlihik  :jt>oat  bis  thinkjujr  fuculty.  To  conai^tnte 
u  met-irhy»fcal  oitjjcl,  ttctaal  exiaiteiine Jg  md  uece^nry ;  it  is  enough  that  it  Ucow 
ccived  by  tiie  etibj  cU  Nevertheloes,  it  l^cn?toniary  to  employ  tlie  term  obj  "Ctive 
as  syiionymoua  wUh  real,  eo  that  a  thing  is  said  to  he  ♦*  objectively  "  considered 
when  rcg'irded  in  itself,  and  according  to  its  nature  and  propcriie.-*,  and  to  be  "^t^^• 
jectively  "  considered,  when  it  is  presented  in  its  relitioii  to  ua,  or  as  it  phapesjtself 
**  in  our  apprehension.  Scei»ticii«m  deides  the  possibility  of  objvsctive  knowledgt? ;  1. 64 
it  denies  tliat  we  cau  ever  become  certain  tliatour  cojoiition  of  an  object  correaiKjiid? 
with  the  actmil  nature  of  that  object.  The  verlwl  antithesis  of  objective  and  sfthjec- 
tiverepreseniatioii  U  also  largely  employed  in  the  fine  arts,  bat  even  hti'e,  thotu^ 
the  terms  may  be  convenient,  the  difference  expressed  by  them  is  only  one  of  CK> 
gree,  and  not  of  kind.  When  a  poem  or  a  novel,  for  example,  obtrndes  the  pecalitf 
genius  of  the  author  at  the  ex|>en8e  of  a  clear  and  distinct  representation  of  tlie  in' 
cident  and  ciiaracter  appropriate  to  itself,  we  say  it  Is  a  subjective  work :  when,  on 
on  the  contrary,  the  pei-sonalily  of  the  author  retires  into  the  backffruund,  or  dfc^aj)- 
pear.4  altm^etiier,  we  ca  1  it  objectiv<*.  The  poems  of  Shelley  and  BSron ;  the  vowB 
of  Jean  Rinl  Rlchter,  Buhver  Lytton,  and  Victor  Hugo ;  and  tlie  paintings  of  tlie 
Pro-Raphaelites  belong  .essdntially  to  the  former  class;  the  dramas  of  Shak^eare, 
the  noveJs  of  Scott,  and  the  poems  of  Goethe,  to  the  latter. .  • 

OBJKC  r-GLAS8,  tlie  glass  in  a  Telescope  (q.  v.>  or  Microscope  (q.  v.),  which  Is 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  tube  nearest  the  object,  ana  first  receives  the  rays  of  Uglit 
reflected  from  it. 

O'BL ATES  (Lat.  ohlatus,  ohlata,  *'  offered  up  ")»  fbe  name  of  a  class  of  rcligjoiw 
bodies  in  tlie  Rouinn  Catholic  Church,  which  differ  from  tlie  religions  orders 
strictly  so  culled,  in  mtt  being  bound  by  the  solemn  vows  of  the  reli^ons  professkn. 
The  institute  of  oblates  was  one  of  the  many  reforms  introdnced  m  the  diocese  of 
Milan  by  St  Chmles  Borroineo,  towards  the  close  of  tin;  l«th  century.  The  mem- 
bers censisted  of  .-^ecular  priesis  who  lived  in  community,  and  were  merely  iKWiid 
by  a  promise  to  the  bl!*nop  to  devote  themselves  to  any  service  which  he  shoaW 
consider  desirable  for  the  interest  of  religion.  St  Charles  made  nsepf  their  sendees 
chiefly  in  the  wild  and  Inaccessible  Alpine  districts  of  his  diocese.  This  institute 
still  exists,  and  has  been  recently  intrtKlnced  into  Entdand.  Still  more  modern  are 
the  **  Oblates  of  the  blessed  Virgin  Mary,"  a  body  of  French  oriein,  which  afose  in 
the  proseiit  century,  and  has  been  *'ery  widely  extended;  and  whose  chief  object  ii» 
to  assist  the  parochial  clergy,  by  holding  missions  for  the  ixdidons  iustrnciiou  of 
the  peophiin  any  di.-trlct  to  which  thi-y  may  be  invited.  This  oody  ate«  has  been 
established  in  England  and  in  Ireland.  Other  similar  iiistltntes  might  be  ett1UD^ 
rated,  but  the  constitution  of  all  is  nearly  the  same.  There  is  also  a  female  iiiBtitol« 
of  oblates,  which  was  established  in  Rome,  about  1440,  by  St  Prancisca of  Roim% and 
which  consists  of  ladies  associated  for  charitable  and  ruligious  objects,  and  livhiiE 
ill  community,  but  bound  only  by  promise,  and  not  by  vaw. 

OBLIGA'TION  is  a  terhi  a8'*d  in  Scotch  Law  to  denote  the  binding  effect  of  an/ 
legal  contract,  and  is  often  used  syuouymously  with  coutraci  or  promise.  An  obli- 
gation is  said  to  bo  imre  when  it  may  iHi  instiintly  demanded  (called  hi  England  an 
absolute  contract).  An  oi)ligtttion  is  conditional  when  It  de|>endu-«,  for  i\»  legm  effect, 
on  some  event  Which  may  or  may  not  happen.  Obligations  are  also  divided  into 
yerbal  and  written. 

OBLIGA'TO,  in  Mnsic  When  a  musical  composition  is  constrncled  in  more 
tlian  one  part,  any  part  is  said  to  be  oblignto  wnicli  is  not  merely  enmloyed  to 
Btrengthen  the  others,  but  is  ncjcessary  to  the  melodic  perfection  of  the  whole.  An 
accompaniment  is  said  to  be  obligato  which  doea  not  CQuaist  of  mere  chords, bat haa 
its  own  melody. 

O'BOE.    See  HAUtBOT. 
J      O'BOLUS  iQu  QliQlQH  or  abelea,  a  spit),  the  Bmallest  of  the  four  commoii  QMk 


y  Google 


lAR  Object 

cofnfl  and  wdghtii,  was  orfgfnaHy,  m  is  seiierally  mippoeed,  a  small  pWce  of  Iron  or 
copper,  similar  in  focm  to  the  head  of  a  apit,  or  epeur  bead^  whence  its  name.  lu 
this  fonn  it  was  need  as  a  coin,  and  a  handfal  of  **oTK)Ii"  waA  oqnivnleiit  to  a 
Drachma  (q.  v.).  It  was  ^nb««eqnently  coined  oi  silver,  and  in  the  ordinary  round 
fonn.  but  still  r  ttiined  its  original  uaine ;  its  valae,  both  as  a  coin  and  u  weight,  was 
now  fixed  as  the  l-6fh  part  of  a  drachnm.  so  that  In  tl>e  Att^c  pvf>tehk  it  was  «qniva- 
leut  to  1«^d.  and  15  2-6  Troy  grains  res|)ectivi!ly :  while  tlite  iEginebm  oholus  was 
wtw-th  iXd.  as  a  coin,  and  25?^  Troy  grains  as  a  weight.  MitltiploH  and  Hnbinnltiplcs 
of  tys  coin  wen?  «i-o  nswl,  and  pit  ces  of  tlie  vqlne  of  6,  4.  3.  2, 11^  ohoU,  and  of  Xi 
Xi  Hy  "ud  X  of  an  oboins  respectively,  are  to  be  foaud  in  collfctlons  of  coins'. 

O'BRIEN,  WiiHam  Smith,  bom  In  1S03,  was  tlie  8**cond  son  of  the  bite  Sir 
Edwsird  O-'Biien,  Bart,  of  Dromoland,  in  the  connty  of  Clare,  Ireland,  and  ancle  of 
the  present  Lonl  lochlqiiin;  fluil  ancient  Iwwouy  haviuK  recei  tly  passid  to  tho 
Dromoland  O'Briens  on  the  failure  of  the  elder  )>ranch.  W.  8.  O.  was  edHcated  at 
Ilartow  School,  whence  he  passed  to  IMntty  College,  Cambridge.  He  entend  par- 
liament for  theborongh  of  Enuis  in  1826,  and  was  a  warm  supporter  of  Catholic 
emancipition.  In  1836,  he  was  returned  on  adysincod  lib<>raj  principles  for  the 
coimty  of  Limericlc,  and  for  sev  ral  years  strongly  advocated  the  ciaimo  of  Ireland 
to  a  strictly  eqnal  itistfce  with  England,  In  leglsTarive  as  well  as  ezeeatlve  measwris. 
Profeftsinjj  his  Inability  to  effect  this  in  the  united  leglpkitnre,  and  having  embroiled 
himself  with  the  Sp(*aker  by  refnsini;  to  serve  on  committees  (i'or  which  refusal  he 
was  cOmmiit>  d  to  prison  in  the  House  by  the  Speaker's  order),  he  withdrew  from 
attendance  in  parliament  in  1841,  and  joined  actively  with  Daniel  O'Conneli  (q.  v.)  in 
the  agitation  for  a  repeal  o^  the  le^slaiive  union  between  England  and  Ii-e'and.  In 
tliejnrugress  of  that  agitation,  a  division  having  aris(  n  on  the  question  of  moral  as 
against  j>Ay«ca//orceDetween  O'Conneli  and  the  paity  known  as  *'  Young  Ireland," 
O.  rided  with  the  latter;  and  when  the  pbliticai  crisis  of  1848 even tnat^  in  a  re- 
coarse  to  arms,  he  took  part  In  au  attempt  at  rebellion  in  the  ^outli  of  In  land,  which 
iu  a  few  days  came  to  an  almost  ludicrous  cfmclnsion.  He  was  in  <  ons<  qneuce 
arrested,  and  having  i>een  convicted,  was  sentenced  to  death.  The  sentence,  how-* 
ever^  was  commuted  to  trun>:port:ition  for  life;  and  after  the  restoration  of  tranquil- 
lity in  Uie  public  ipiud  in  Ireland,  he.  In  common  with  the  other  political  exiles, 
was  pennltted  to  return  to  his  native  countiy.  From  that  date  (1856)  iie  spent 
much  of  his  time  in  foreign  travel ;  and  although  he  wrote  more  thnn  once 
in  b^rms  oi  strong  disapproval  of  the  existinsr  state  of  things,  he  invariably  nb- 
stained  from  all  active  share  iu  the  political  proceedings  of  any  party.  He  died 
Jane  1864.  »~  *- 

OBSCE'NE  PRINTS,  Books  or  Pictures,  exhibited  In  public  render  the  person  so 
doing  liable  to  \ye  indicted  for  a  inisideraoanoi-.  Persons  exposing  them  in  streets, 
roads,  or  public  places,  are  a'so  liable  to  be  punished  as  rogues  and  vagahonds  with 
hurdial)or.  Au  imi>ortant  change  in  tlmlaw  wns  effected  by  Lord  CampbeU'i*  Act 
(20  and  21  Vict.  c.  83),  which  was  passed  to  suppress  the  trafBc  In  obscene  books, 
pictures,  prints,  and  other  articles.  Any^two  justices  of  the  p- act;,  or  any  police 
laagii^trjite,  upon  complaint  made  before  hfi^  on  oativ  that  such  books,  &c^  are  kept 
iu  any  house,  shop,  room,  or  other  place,  for  the  purpose  of  sale,  or  distribution, 
or  exhibition  for  gain  or  on  hire,  and  that  such  thin^  have  been  sold,  &c..  may 
authorise  a  constable  to  enter  in  the  daytime,  and,  if  necessary,  use  force  by 
breakiug  oi^en  door:*,  or  otlu  rwlse  to  search  for  and  seize  such  Dooks,  &c.,  and 
carry  them  b«fore  the  magistnite  or  jnsllci'S,  who  nwy,  after  giving  due  notice  to 
tlie  occupier  of  the  house,  and  being  satisfied  as  to  the  nature  and  object  of  keeping 
the  articles,  cause  them  to  be  destroy-ed. 

OBSCURA'NTISTS.  the  name  given,  originally  In  derision,  to  a  party  who  are 
Bnpiw^-ed  to  look  with  {llsllKe  nnd  ai>|M'ehensioii  on  the  progn  ss  of  knowl<  dge,  aiid 
to  regard  ItH  g«'iieral  diffusion  anioiu;  men.  t  k- n  as  they  are  ordinarily  toni  d,  :;8 
prejudicial  to  tlnir  relisriou«  welfare,  and  posuib'y  injurions  to  th«ir  material  int-r- 
ests.  Of  tl»o«e  who  avow  such  a  <io;'trine,  and  have  written  to  expla  u  and  defeiul 
it,  it  |j»  only  just  te  say  that  they  profess  eame^ tly  to  dewic  the  progress  (»f  all  true 
kuvwledg^j'aa  a  thing  j^ood  iu  itself ;  but  they  regard. the  attempt  tu  diffuse  it  among 


L_ 


y  Google 


OlNicrvantrsU  A(\f\ 

Observatory  t\J\J 

men,  iiidlscrimlnntely,  as  pcrilonB.  and  often  hnrtfnl,  by  producing  pTCBomptloii  And 
discouteut    'Ihey  piofesH  but  to  n  dace  to  praclice  the  ntottu — 

A  littlo  Icuruing  is  a  dangerous  thing. 

It  cannof  be  donbtcd,  however,  that  there  are  fanatics  of  ignorance  as  well  u 
fanatics  of  scieuce. 

OBSE'RVANIISTS.  or  Observant  Franciscans.  Under  the  bead  Fbanoiscaks 
(q.  V.)  has  bueii  d  taiictl  tlie  earlier  history  6t  the  controvei-sies  in  that  ord^r  uu  tuc 
interpretation  of  the  original  rule  and  practic«  estahlished  by  JSt  Francis  fot  il»c 
brethren,  and  of  the  sepamte  org.i nidation  of  the  two  parties  at  the  time  of  Leo  X. 
The  advocates  of  the  pri mill vv;  rigor  were  culled  ObttervanteSj  or  Strictioria  Ob«er9- 
antics,  but  botli  bodies  were  still  reputed  subject,  althou;;h  each  fre.;  to  prnctise  ii« 
own  rule  in  its  own  separate  house?,  to  the  general  adnuuistrator  of  the  ord«:r,  wfto, 
as  the  rigorists  were  by  far  the  more  uumerons^  was  a  member  of  that  school.  By 
degree*!,  a  second  reform  arose  among  a  party  m  the  ordei:,  whose  steal  the  ritOT  of 
the  O.  was  insufficient  to  satisfy,  and  Cleiufnt  VII.  p  -rmlttcd  two  Spanish  frinns 
Stephen  Mo'ena  and  Martin  Gazman,  to  carry  out  in  Spain  these  views  in  a  distiurt 
brancli  of  tiie  order,  who  take  the  n:imeof  Jj^e/ormati,  or  Seformed.  'I'his  l)0dy  lias 
in  Inter  limes  been  incorporated  with  the  6.  Uiider  one  head.  Before  the  FrencU 
Revolution,  thi-y  are  said  to  have  i  umbered  above  70,000.  distributed  over  uioro  thtu 
8000  convents.  Since  that  time,  their  number  has.  of  course,  been  much  diminished-; 
but  they  still  are  a  very  numerous  and  widespread  body,  as  well  in  Europe  as  ij«  U»e 
New  World,  and  in  the  missionary  districts  of  the  East.  lu  Ireland  and  England, 
and  for  a  considerable  time  in  Scotland,  they  nuiintaiucd  themselvt-s  throughout  uU 
the  rigor  of  the  penal  times.  Several  communities  are  still  found  in  the  two  firafc- 
named  kingdoms. 

OBSERVA'TION  and  EXPE'RIMENT  are  the  It^ing  features  of  modem  sci- 
ence, as  contrasted  witli  the  philosophy  of  the  ancients.  They  are  indispfUwWc  ttS 
the  bases  of  all  human  kuowledgti,  and  no  true  i)liilosophy  has  ever  made  ,*ro}:re«i 
without  them,  either  consciously  or  unconsciously  exercised.  Thus,  by  Socratei, 
Plato,  and  Ari.^totle.  no  less  than*  by  Archimiides  and  the  ancient  astronomers,  oV 
servation  and  experiment  are  ext<msively  though  not  prominently  or  always  obri- 
ously  employed ;  and  it  was  i>y  losing  this  clue  to  the  spirit  of  tlieir  mast -rs*  t-.-a^ 
ing,  that  the  later  disciples  in   thiSD  schools  of  philosopliy  missed  the  patii  of  reti 

?»rogrcss  in  the  ndvnucemcnt  of  knowledjre.  Ir  was  in  tlie  latter  halt  of  the  l«th  c 
liat  the  minds  of  philosophers  were  first  conscii/uAly  awakencHl  to  the  imporianceof 
observation  and  expednient,  as  opposed  to  autliority  and  abstract  rensoniuff.  TldS 
Result  was  first  occasioned  by  the  discoveries  and  controversies  of  G  dileoin  Fl(»i^ 
ence;  and  to  the  same  end  were  contributed  the  slmidtaneouB  efforts  of  a  number  of 

{)hilosophers  whose  minds  were  turned  in  the  same  direction — Tycho  Brahe  lu  Hol- 
aud,  Kepler  in  G^'rmany,  William  Gilbert,  in  England,  who  were  shortly  afterward* 
followed  by  a  crowd  of  kindred  spirits.  The  powerful  mind  of  Francis  Bacon  lent  its^ 
to  describe  the  newly- awakened  spirit  of  scientific  investijration,  and  though  hei;!noit^ 
or  affected  to  despise  the  results  achieved  by  the  great  philosophers  just  meutioiied, 
he  learued  from  them  enough  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  philosophy  of  inductive 
science,  which,  if  we  look  at  the  course  of  scientific  progress  since  his  day,  seeiiis  to 
have  been  almost  prophetic  The  difference  between  observation  and  eii)erifti«nt 
may  be  sjdd  to  consist  in  this,  that  by  observation  we  note  and  record  the  pheiioni- 
ena  of  nature  as  they  are  presented  to  us  in  her  ordinary  course;  whereas  byexp*^ 
ment  we  note  phenomena  present(?d  under  circumstances  artificially  arranged  for 
thii!  purpose.  Experiment  is  thus  the  moi'e  poweif  ni  engine  for  discovery,  sincetiM 
judiciously  conducted  experiment  may  provide  the  data  which  couid  only  result  froia 
a  long  course  of  obsei-vaiions.  « 

OBSE'RVATORY,  an  institution  supplied  with  instruments  for  the  rcfrnlar  ob- 
servation of  natural  phenomena,  wIrtJtIuM-  astronomical,  mi  teorolojrical,  or  nineu'tl- 
cal.  In  some  observatories  all  tliree  classes  of  observation  are  carried  on.  hot  in 
most  cases  special  attention  is  paid  to  astronomy  alone,  and  oidy  such  nieteorulogi- 
cal  observaticms  are  ttiken  as  are  requirctl  for  the  calcula'ion  of  the  effect  of  atniot- 
pherio  refraction  on  the  position  of  a  heavenly  body;  there  are.  however,  a  f««ol^ 
gervatories  which  are  devot«d  wqUIj  to  tueieorological  or  jaaguetlcal  obbMrvatiiiati 


yGOO^      .;   r 


407 


Obsenranfhrti 
Obaerva.ory 

Confining  onr  attontroH  fo  afitroiiomical  obi5enratorieff.it.  will  be  cODvenieDt  to  dividtf 
tliem  ijjio  two  cla8»e!«- public  and  private  ob?ervatone«" — tl»efori*er  l>eii)g  (Ifvoied 
to  ilioHc  obst-Tvuii  lus  which  fron>  tlieir  Ui'ture  require  lo  be  cuiitiDiicd  (inlhe  same 
Fj>tein  for  long  periods  of  time,  whilst  llie  U.tter  are  iiKually  foandid  for  fonie  Bpe- 
cial  object,  vvbicU  may  be  atiuined  with  a  coinpnrutively  uiuatl  expenditure  of  tune 
ami  labor. 

The  most  5tiii>ortant  work  which  \»  carried  out  hi  public  observatories  is  the  de- 
tarniiuatioii  of  the  movetnents  of  the  eun,  tuooii,  and  planets  among  the  sttire;  uud, 
88  a  corollary  to  tills,  the  relative  positions  of  the  stars  to  which  the  other  hi^avenly 
bodies  are  referred.  In  early  times  the  Grei*lc  at^tronoiners  fixed  these  iTOsitiuns  by 
iiienns  of  ariuillary  spheres  and  a^-trolabes,  haviDg  concentric  tP'^duated  circles,  on 
which  th«  latitudes  aud  longitudes  could  be  read  off.  when  u  pair  ox  sight*  was  pointed, 
to  the  heavenly  body.  Ptolemy  made  use  of  a  quadrant.,  with  winch  he  measured  zen- 
ith (ristauces  ou  ihe  meridian  ;  aud  matiy  ccnturi«  s  after,  Tycho  Bi  ali6  converted  this 
form  of  iustnimeut  into  an  altazimnth  by  mounting  in  on  a  verticuJ  axis  in  connec- 
tion with  a  horizontal  or  azimuth  circle.  With  this  instrument  Tycho  Brab6  made 
a  long  series  of  obsei-vatious  of  the  altitudes  and  azimuths  of  the  heavenly  bodies  at 
the  ob^ervatgry  which  the  king  of  Denmark  erected  for  him.  and  he  nlj*o  measured 
with  great  assiduity  their  aut?tUar  distances  from  each  other  by  nteans  of  a  8<;xtant, 
a  method  of  ol)servation  witich  Fhimsteed  afterwards  euiployed  with  a  much  inn 
proved  form  of  the  instrument,  and  which  is  now  exiennively  used  with  the  reflecting 
sextant,  for  finding  the  longitude  at  ^qn.  It  was  not  till  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury that  the  improvement  of  the  cluck  by  Graham  enabled  astronomers  to  rely  on  it 
for  the  determiuatiou  of  right  ascensions  by  the  times  of  passage  acrofs  the 
meridian,  instead  of  by  measuring  them  with  a  graduated  « ircle.  The  quadrant  was 
then  fixed  in  the  meridian,  and  being  attached  to  a  massive  wall,  its  dimensions  were 
increased,  and  greatei*  accuracy  thereby  secured  in  the  determination  of  meridian 
z^jiith  distances.  Two  such  instruments  pointing  res|)ectively  north  and  south  were 
erected  ut  the  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  and  used  hy  Brtidley  and  hi:^  suctes- 
sors  from  1750  till  they  were  displaced  by  the  mural  circle  (see  Circle,  Mural),  an 
insinnnentvastly  su)>erioriupiinciple,  sincethetronble*^omeerrors'Of  centreing  of  the 
qoadraiit  were  got  nd  of  by  combinhjg  the  readings  of  opposite  pait§.c»f  a  graduated 
circle,  whilst  the  effect  of  division  errors  wasunich  reduced  by  tjikiiig  Ihe  mean  of  tlie 
readingsatsixor  eight  equidistant  points  of  The  circle.  At  the  eame  time,  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  readings  was  greatly  increased  by  the  invention  of  the  tnicronieter- 
micro.-'copiv  which  made  it  poevible  lo  measuiw  spaces  to  1-I00,ti00  of  an  inch. 
Neither  the  quadrant  nor  the  mural  circle,  however,  could  be  relied  upon  for  accurate 
motiou  in  the  plane  of  Ihe  meridian,  but  KOiner  remedied  this  defect  by  inventing  a 
soparsite  instrument,  the  Transit  (q.  v.),  which  enabled  astronomers  to  o!»8ei-ve  tlie 
times  of  meridian  passage  or  transit  wi^-h  great  accuracy,  and  thus  to  determine  the 
dilfereiices  of  right  ascension  of  the  heavciiiy  bodies  by  means  of  the  apparent  diurnal 
movement.  With  the  transit  and  quadrant  Bradley  connnei  ced  that  series  of  obserya- 
tiaiisof  the  positions  of  the  sun,  inoon,  and  phuiets,  and  of  stars' for  n-ference,  which 
have  been  continued  ever  since  at  Gre«iiwich,  and  on  which,  in  comb'natJon  with  less 
exteuadve  series  at  Paris  and  KOnigsberg,  all  our  tables  of  the  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  are  founded.  In  modern  observatories,  the  transit  and  mural  circle  are  com- 
bined into  one  instrument,  the  transit -circle,  a  change  which  has  been  rendered  pos- 
sible cl«i«  fiy  by  the  improvement  in  graduated  circles  since  the  invention  of  Trongh- 
tfii'sdividing  engine,  the  unwieldy  size  of  the  old  quadrants  and  mural  circles  ne- 
cessitating an  attachment  lo  a  massive  wall.  Although  Seicheubach  made  transit- 
cirelesat  ihebeginning  of  this  centuiy  for  several  foreign  oLservatories,  includingihat 
ofDoruit,  the  lightness  of  their  structure  and  th<'ir  want  of  stability  prevented  their 
iKiing  mtroduced  g«nerally,  and  the  mural  circle  held  its  place  in  the  prine-pal  obser- 
vatories till  Sir  Georsre  Airy  designed  the  Greenwich  transit-circle  in  1851,  an  in- 
strument of  a  most  massive  character,  which  has  serve^l  as  model  for  nearly  all  that 
have  been  constructed  in  recent  years.  The  main  features  of  the  modern  transit- 
circle  are:  (1)  that  it  is  not  n^versible,  its  collimation  error  being  ditermined 
by  means  of  two  coUinniturs,  or  reversed  telescopes  pointing  at  each  other  and  at 
the  transit  telest-ope,  north  and  south  respectively  ;  (2)  that  a  spirit-level  is  not  used, 
tli«  level  error  beUig  found  by  means  of  the  reflectitm  of  the  wires  from  the  horizon- 
tal mnfibce  of  mercary.  These  two  uegadre  characteristics,  while  admitting  of  great 


Digitized  by 


Google 


-^ 


gS^iST"  408 

ina*«>«iveneP8  In  conBtrucHon  (»he  Green  wicii  ln«trnme*iit  weighs  more  than  a  ton), 
liav*;  rvMiioved  three  trooblesoine  sourci-8  of  en  or — nequality  in  thti  p.vo's.  Ijiieril 
fi'xure  t)f  the  telesttrt)!  in  tlu*  proceMS  of  r«;vorsrfoM,  Jind  the  effects  (»I  cnrrenlpof 
hontecl  air  on  n  spirit-level.  An  inportant  auxiliary  to  tiie  ti  an  sit -circle  is  «lif  cliro- 
nograph.  an  Amtiricnn  invention,  which,  in  vari  jus  forin8,is  now  found  in  »il  wdl- 
.cquipj);*aot>8i*rvatone-*.  the  principle  in  all  cases  beiuj:  the  sauie — viz.,  thereiristfi- 
tiou  on  a  revolving  cylinder  of  papir  of  the  times  of  transit  across  the  j'ysltmcf 
spider-lines  of  tlie  trtniHit-circl  •,  as  well  as  of  the  seen  ids  of  tlie  sidereal  cimk,  bj 
meant*  of  electric  currents,  which  pass  througli  electro-magnets,  when  the  circuit  i«  . 
closed  either  by  the  ob:<erver  or  the  clock,  thns  caa^lng  a  momentary  attractioQ.of 
a  piece  of  noft  iron,  and  producing  a  correst>ondiiig  mark  on  the  pa]^ 
either  with  a  |)en  or  a  steel  puint.  This  eystenii  while  improving  some- 
what  the  accaracy  of  the  Individnal  obscrvaiions,  admits  of  a  large  vnm- 
ber  being  made  at  intervals  of  ttvo  or  three  seconds,  and  leaves  the  olNserver  Cm 
to  make  several  ob-ervaf ions  of  zenith  distance  dnring  tlie  passage  of  a  staracnw 
the  flold  of  v\ew.  Allusion  has  b..-eD  mad.?  to  theini))ortance  of  the  sidereal  clock  in 
modem  astronomy.  Considerable  improvements  have  been  made  in  Its  constrncUon 
since  Orainim's  times,  tlu:  original  gridiron  iienduiuin  having  Ivien  replaced  fuco*- 
Bively  by  the  mercurial  and  the  zinc  and  steel,  and  the  de.id*beat  e«aM>eineDt  ^ 
Denuisoirs  gravltv  and  A  Iry 's  detached  escapement.  Recentiv  «n  apparatus  dept^nd" 
ing  on  the  attractfo  i  of  a  movai>le  magnet  <-oniic(Ued  witha'floatin  a  syphon  boruiQ- 
ct  -r  ha-*  been  applied  by  Sir  George  Airy  to  the  sidereal  clock  at  Greenwich,  to  cor- 
rect for  the  effect  of  variations  In  the  atmospheric  pi-essurc  on  the  motion  of  tfie 
pendutuin.  This  clock  Ih  placed  in  a  basement  which  is  kept  at  a  nearly  anifona 
innpeniture,  an  important  condition,  which  has  contributed  to  make  Its  perfonnanoe 
very  far  superior  to  that  of  any  other  clock  hiihcrto  constructed,  and  fnlly  eqtialiO 
the  requirements  of  the  methods  gf  observation  now  in  n>*e.  With  iuHtrumentsnicb 
as  iuivejust  l)een  d>  scribed,  regular  olK-ervntions  of  the  snn,  moon,  and  phiucts, ud 
of  funduineutil  stars,  are  made  at  Greenwich,  Paris,  Washington,  and  Oxford,  rap* 
plenient''d  at  the  first-named  observatory  by  extra-meridian  observations  of  tiie 
moon  with  a  m:iB4ve  altazimuth,  which  can  be  emnloyeil  when  the  moon  Is  too  near 
new  moon  to  b.t  seen  on  the  meridian  in  full  daylight,  and  which  is  in  fact  aiM^to 
secure  an  observation  on  every  night  when  the  moon  is  visible.  The  ob-ervaliw 
of  s>t  irs  at  these  four  observatories  are  directed  to  the  most  accurate  deienninatioa 
of  the  places  of  a  limited  nnml>er,  and  the  dodnction  of  their  pro|>er  motiuus  l^ 
comparison  with  the  residis  obtained  by  Bradley,  Piazsl  (with  an  altaciinnth  by 
Kunsdenat  Palermo),  and  Grooinbridg^ ;  but  at  other  observatories  differential  of 
zane  observations  of  large  nnmb.*rs  of  stars  have  been  nntde,  with  tlie 
object     of     making     a    complete     and     tolerably     accurate     survey    of    tha 


h  'aveiis,  the  rhomb  or  ring  micrometer  bemg  used  for  thu  pnipoee. 
Amoiiflr  those  who  have  devoted  themselves  to  thU  work  may  Ikj  meiitioDed 
L.-.caille   at   the  Cape    of    Good    Ho|)c,   L'llande  at    Paris,    Bessel    at  Kdalgs* 


berg,  and  Argelfftider  at  Bonn.  J'hese  zone-observations  are  now  being  rB» 
)»«'ated  with  the  trtmsit -circle  at  a  nnmber  of  observatories,  associated  tojrether  fortb« 
jmrpose  of  gettin<;  far  more  accui  ate  placi'S  than  was  i»osslble  with  i  he eqnatorlnL  A 
lariro  number  of  observatories,  chiefly  in  Germany  and  America,  are  devoted  to  a 
verv  different  class  of  observations — viz.,  differential  (/b>erv;itions  with  the  Eqna- 
torial  (q.  v.)  of  comets  and  small  planet.**  as  refeired  to  comparison-stars,  and  tli« 
search  for  such  objects;  whilst  at  other  observatories,  among  whicn tliat  of  Pal- 
kowa  may  be  mentioned,  the  measurement  of  doni)le  stars  with  the  micrometer  is 
laid  down  tis  the  chief  object  Of  late  vears  two  new  -ubjecfc*  have  been  lutrodaced 
in  the  routine  of  ob-^ervattu'y  work-r-photography  and  spectroscopy.  The  fonuel 
was  cariied  on  for  many  yeai-s  at  Kew  Observatory  under  Mr  I)e  La  Kue's  ausi^ce-s 
and  at  his  private  observatory  at  Cranford,  and  I  lie  work  Is  now  being  contiuaed  at 
Greenwicli;  the  latter  has  been  taken  up  at  a  number  of  Italian  observatories, and 

Sirticn'arly  at  Home  by  P.  Secchi,  and  it  now  forms  puii;  of  the  regular  system  il 
reenwicin  whilst  the  observatories  at  Paris,  Berlin,  and  Vienna  are  equip;>ed  foi 
tliese  physical  ol)9ervation8,  and  in  America  and  Austmlla  they  are  vigorquslj 
canied  on  at  several  observatopies^Mel bourne,  In  parl.cuhir,  being  provided  with* 
four-feet  eqiiatorial  refloct or  for  this  purpose,  as  weli  as  for  the  examination  (rf 
uebnlaa.    Ulio  mosc  impoitaut  work  of  an  observatory,  however,  contiBtii  not  ti 


Digitized  by 


Google 


409 


Oba'diaa 
Occam 

jnalciDg  observations  which  are  eaiily  multiplied,  but  in  redacinfCRnd  pnhlighing  them 
— a  ta8k  of  far  gi-eater  hibor,  and  requiring  far  higher  quulifiuattions.  However 
various  may  be  ihe  oli^ervatiouBt  the  method  of  eliminatiDg  their  eriori^  \»  ihe  route 
in  hi  caset*,  and  similar  mailiematical  coni>iderationt»  apply  to  tli<ir  rcdnctioii, 
wlu'tlier  they  ha  meridian  ob>«t'rv:itioi»*«,  mfcronieti  r  meaeurej*,  muaiturep  of  pholo- 
grapbn,  or  j*|>ectro»'Copic  ob.-ervaiioup ;  and  it  is  wlien  •'ucli  ireatuunt  is  required  m 
any  inquiry  that  itHhonld  ne  undertaken  at  a  pul)Iic  obserxatorv,  where  this  rigoiouA 
U)eiho<i  will  be  applied. 

The  wurk  of  private  obnervntories  harclly  admits  of  b  ing  ppecifled,  thongh  its 
general  character  has  already  I>eeu  indicated;  it  may  suffice  to  iiientiou the  ob^cr- 
vnttous  of  double  nturs  and  nebulee  by  the  two  Uerschels  GroombridtieV  caialoyue 
of  circum-pohir  stars,  Sinyth'c»  doubU-stiir  mea^ urt^s,  CarringtonV  R«  dhillcutaloguu 
and  Holai  observations,  the  ntl)filar  ul>8erv}Hioiis  of  Lord  Ropfe  and  Mr  LnKt«ell.  Do 
La  Kue'^  long  series  uf  photographs,  and  the  spectroscopic  observations  of  Hnggind 
and  Lockycr. 

In  addition  to  regular  nstroiiomieul  obs<»iTntionj»  of  all  kindp,  national  obser- 
Tntories'  are  u^miUy  chained  with  the  distribution  of  time  tignalB,  and  the  nttiug  of 
chrouomettTS  for  the  navy — matters  of  great  practical  inip(»'taiic<',  et>necially  in  tliia 
country,  wlierc  Groeuwlch  lime  is  communicated  directly  by  telegrapii  to  more  than 
Biz  hnuured  towni^. 

OBSl'DIAN,  a  mineral  accurately  dencribed  by  Pliny  under  the  name  which  it 
^11  Iteara.  It  is  a  true  kind  of  native  glass,  com)H.sed  of  silica  (from  70  to  80  jht 
cent.),  alumina,  lime,  stKia,  potash,  and  oxide  of  iron.  It  is  hard  and  brittle,  with 
remkrkly  vitreous  lustre,  and  perfectly  conclioiilal  fracture,  t  lie  edges  of  the  fnJc- 
turea  very  sliarp  and  cutting  like  glass.  It  varies  from  semitransparency  to  trans- 
Incency  only  oir  tlie  e<1ges.  It  is  often  block,  or  very  dark  gray  ;  sometimes  green, 
r*-d,  brown,  striped,  or  spotted  ;  and  sometifiies  chatoyant  or  avanturin^  It  occurs 
lb  volcanic  citaations,  and  (>ften  in  close  connection  with  pumice,  in  roundisii  com- 
pact pieces,  in  gniius  and  in  fibres.  It  is  capable  of  being  polished,  but  is  apt  to 
oretik  in  the  process.  It  is  made  into  boxes,  buttons,  ear*drO|>8,  and  otln  r  onm- 
mental  articles;  and  before  the  uses  of  the  metals  were  well  kKOwi?,  it  was  em- 
ploy^, in  different  p'irts  of  the  world,  for  making  arrow  and  spear  heads,  knives, 
&c  It  iH  found  in  Iceland,  the  LIpari  Isles,  Vesuvius,  Sartlluia,  Hunjra'y,  Spain, 
Teneriffe,  Mexico,  Sonth  America,  Madagascjir,  Siberia,  Ac.  Black  O.  was  used 
by  the  uncicjits  for  making  mirrors,  and  ftr  this  jurpose  was  brought  to  Kome  from 
^liiopia.  It  was  used  for  the  same  purpose  in  Peru  and  Mexico.  Mirrors  of  Black 
O.  lire  indeed  still  eini>loyed  by  artist**.  Ciiatoyant  or  Avanlnrine  O.  is  very  beatiti- 
fid  wlieh  cut  and  polished,  and  ornaments  made  of  it  are  sold  at  a  comparatively 
high  price, 

(ySVERSE,  or  face,  the  8!de  of  a  coin  or  medal  which  contains  the  principal  dc- 
vlCf  or  inscription,  the  other  side  being  in  contradistinction  called  the  reverse.  See 
KuxiaxATios. 

OC^CAM,  Wlllinm  of;  surnamed  Doctor  Singwlaris  et  InvindhilU^  a  famous  school- 
man, was  lK>rn  in  Bngland,  at  the  village  of  Ockuin,  in  tiie  county  of  Surrey,  about 
the  year  1270.  We  do  not  possess  any  proz-lse  or  satl.^factory  knowledge  of  his  early 
Mfe.  He  is  said  to  htive  l)eeu  edncMte<l  at  Merton  Colleye^  Oxford,  and  to  have  in  Id 
several  benefices  in  his  native  country,  bnt  soon  after  resigned  them  on  enterin«:  tho 
Franciscan  order.  Early  in  the  14th  c,  it  Is  supposed  he  proceeded  to  Paris,  where 
\v&  attended  the  lectures  of  Duns  Scotns,  of  whope  philosophy  ho  was  after^val(l8 
tfie  most  formidable  opponent.  Hero  ho  soon  became  prominent  by  the  boldness 
of  bis  ecclesinstical  views.  Philippe.  U  Bel.  king  of  France,  having  forbidrlen  Pope 
Bouifac.!!  VIII.  to  levy  contributions  in  his  dominions,  Ihe  latter,  by  way  of  ret  .li::- 
tion,  excommunicated  him.  O.  rushed  to  the  defence  of  Ihe  inonMr«b,  ai  d  in  his 
•*  Disputatio  inter  Clericuin  et  Militem.  super  Potentate  pi-selatis'  Eccle.-ias  nqne  I'r  n- 
cipibu-s  Terraniin  Oonmiisi^a,"  denies  thnt  tlie  popes  havo  any  juthoiity  in 
temporal  afi'au's.  and  boldly  declai-es  that  all  who  iavored  sneh  a  doetrinis  ought  to  be 
expelled  rr<jm  the  chmch  as  heretics.  Meanwhile,  from  beinir  a  listener,  lur  lad  be- 
come a  lecturer  in  philosophy.  Tiie  system  which  he  Htlvoc.ite<l— f  or  ho  was  not  prop- 
erly  its  orlsrinator^is  known  by  the  nam-t  of  JN'omni/i/imri  (q.  v.),  but  it  had  lu  ver 
beloro  received  so  rigorously  logical  and  rational  a  treatment;  hence  his  epithet  of 


y  Google 


Occas'onal  sm  /11  A 

Oce.ot  ^  ■»  V 

Inpincibilia,  The  work  In  which  his  views  are  set  forth  la  entitlea  ••  Expopltio  An- 
rea,  et  admodain  ntilis  8ii|>er  totaiii  Artcm  Vetereni.^'  It  contains  a  senus  of  coiii- 
nieutaiicH  ui>ou  the  "  Isauoge  "  of  Porphyry,  ami  on  the  *'  Cntfgories"  and  "Inier- 
pretatioii  of  Aristotle,  with  a  speclnl  treatise  hcadfd  "Tiaciatus  Commwnitatuja 
rorphyrii,"  and  a  llu^loj^lcal  opnsciflum  on  Prede«itination.  It  is  intended  ns  a 
demoiitiou  of  the  modurns— i.  e.,  the  hCholaniics — aiid  shews  that  in  their  method 
they  have  completely  dviparted  from  «he  principlwa  and  methods  of  the  ureat  8ta{r)T- 
ite,  for  whom,  like  every  soun*!  nud  solid  thinker,  he  shews  the  dHe|>est  respect  and 
admiration.  About  13'2U  or  1321,  he  ag.iin  plunged  into  ecclesiastical  controversy.  A 
certain  Nar!>ones(e  priest,  b:ivini<  affirmed  ihat  J^isus  Chri&t  and  hi^  apostles  beld 
everything  in  common,  and  that  ev<*y  ecclesiastical  posiiession  is  a  inoilern  ahuj*e, 
was  pounced  upon  by  the  inquisiitors,  anil  defended  by  a  certain  Berenger  Talon,  a 
Franciscan  monk  of  Perpignaiw  But  Berenger's  defence  of  at)09roli(tal  poverty  wiw 
uaturally  enough  very  dis  igreeable  to  the-i>ope,  John  XXII.,who  thercforecondeiniieil 
It.  Bereiiger  was,  however,  vigorously  supported  by  his  order,  and  amonjr  others  by  Mi- 
chael de  Oesena,  the  general-superior,  BOnagratin  of  Bergamo,  and  William  of  Occaui, 
who  attacked  the  pope  with  great  vehenionce  and  trenchant  logic.  8hori  ly  after  tbvy 
were  arrested  as  ftiyorers  of  iieresy,  nud  imprisoned  in  Aviirnoii.  But  while  their  trial 
was  proceeding,  Michael  de  Cescnn  and  O.,  knowing  what  little  n»ercy  or  justice  ll»^ 
had  to  expect  from  their  accusers  and  judges,  made  iheir  escape  to  the  Mediteminean. 
and  were  received  at  a  little  distance  oft  Hliore  on  board  a  galley  of  Ludwig,  king  of 
iBavarin,  the  patron  of  the  Franciscan  nuti-t>ope,  Peter  of  Corbaras,  and  one  of  liia 
most  powerful  sovei-eigns  in  Eiiropo.  Tlie  remaituler  of  O.'s  life  wa«*  epent  at  Ma- 
uicli,  where,  safe  from  the  machinations  of  bis  enemies,  he  continued  to  aps:tJl  at 
once  the  errors  of  papistry  in  religion,  and  of  realism  in  philosophy.  He  d  ed  7th 
April  1347.  It  is  impossible  to  praise  O.  too  highly.  Ho  was  thtf  first  l(>v:ician,  and 
the  most  rational  philosopher  among  lite  whole  iKjdy  of  schoolmen.  We  are  oftea 
reminded  by  his  clear  and  vigorous  common  sense  and  wholesome  increduliiv,  Um 
iie  was  the  coantrvman  of  Locke  and  Hobbes.  and  that  he  came  of  a  people  ever 
Jtoted  for  the  solidity  of  their  understanding.  Be:«ides  lite  works  alrettdy  menaoued, 
O.'s  principal  writings  are — ^'Dialogns  in  tres  Partes  distinctas,  qnarum  )»rima  de 
Hsereticis,  secunda  de  Erroribu^  Joannis  XXil.,  tartia  de  Poteslate  Paps,  Condlio* 
ramet  Imperatoris;"  *'Opus  Nonaginta  Digram  contra  Errores  Joannis  XXn.]" 
*^  Compendiam  Errornm  Joannis  Papse  XXIL  ;''  ^'DecisioneaOcto  QiiSBttiioiiuuiae 
Potestate  summi  Poutiflces;"  ^'Sii|)er  Quatiior  Lihros  Sententiarum  BabtUiasiiMB 
(^use^tioues  earumque  Decisiones  "  (based  on  Peter  the  Lombard's  famous  "  Seuten- 
tiie,"  and  containing  neiu'ly  the  entire  theology  of  Occam.  'Jhese  **  Decisione:* "  w<a» 
long  almost  as  renowned  as  the  *■*  SiMitentise,''  which  gave  them  birth) ;  ^*AntUoqainm 
Theologicum ;"  *'  Snmma  Logices  ad  Adamum ;"  and  "  Major  SuminaLc»fices«."— See 
Luke  Wadding's  "  Script  ores  Ordiuis  Minorum"  (1650);  Cousin's  »*  flistoire  dc  la 
Philosophic  "  (M  ed.  1S40) ;  and  B.  Haureau's  •*  De  la  Philosophie  Scholastlque  "(1843). 
OOCA'SIONALISM,  or  the  doctrine  of  Occasional  Causes  (see  Cause),  is  the 
name  given  to  the  philosophical  system  devised  by  Descartes  and  liis  school,  for  the 
purpose  of  explaining  the  action  of  mind  upon  matter,  or,  to  spenk  more  correctly, 
the  combined,  or  at  least  the  synchronous  action  of  both.  It  ix  a  palpable  factttiat 
certain  actions  or  modifications  of  the  body  are  accompanied  by  coiTespondiug  ads 
of  mind,  and  vice  vcrsd.  This  fact,  although  it  presents  no  difllculty  to  the  popnlar 
conception,  aC'-oi"ding  to  wlilch  each  Is  supposed  to  act  directly  upon  theother— 
body  upon  mind,  and  mind  npoti  body-^has  long  furnished  to  j)hilosophers a POhitift' 
of  much  speculation.  But  ott  th?  other  linnd,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  the  jiossihuiiy 
of  any  direct  nmtnal  interaction  of  substances  so  dissimilar,  or  rather  so  di^-iwrali'. 
And  more  than  one  system  nas  betm  d«*vls  d  for  the  explanation  of  the  probleiii,»i 
to  the  relations  which  snh.«»lst  between  the  mind  and  the  body,  in  ref .  r  nc<»  to  tlioas 
operations,  which  are  clearly  atiribjjtable  to  them  both.  Acconling  to  D.-scaries 
and  the  Occasionalist.^,  t  le  action  of  th*  mind  is  not,  nnd  cannf>t  \y3  the  eattse  of  the 
corresponding  action  of  the  body.  But  they  hold  tuat  whenever  jiuy  action  of  ll»e 
mind  takes  place,  God  directly  product;**,  in  connection  with  it,  and  by  rea^^oo  of  iti 
a  coiTosp(maiiig  action  of  the  body  ;  arid  in  like  manner  convereely,  they  exiiJ^in  tba 
coitJci<lent  or  Mynchnmou-*  actions  of  the  body  and  the  mind.  It  wan  in  oppositiott 
to  this  VI-  w  that  Leilniitz.  l>elieving  the  Carte!«ian  system  to  be  open  to  nearv  lOtwl 
difflcaltiea  with  that  of  the  direct  action,  devwed  his  system  of  Pre-MtdbttdUi  Wth 


y  Google  ^ 


A^'\  OccssionaMun 

^  1  A  Oce  ot 

mony.  ~  See  Leibnitz.  His  real  objection  to  Ibe  OocaMonolipt  bypotheeis  If>,  that  it 
f>npi>08cd  n  perpetual  iictiou  of  God  upon  creatarea,  aud^iu  fact,  la  but  a  modiiOication 
of  the  system  of  *'  direct  aHsistaiice." 

OCCULT A'TIONS  (Lnt.  oecultatio^  a  concealinont)  nre  neither  more  nor  lesstiian 
'*eciip6e8;"bnttlie  laltrr  term  iscoiifliicd  by  uBtige  to  the  obsciimtfon  of  tiie  Pun 
l)y  the  moon,  and  of  the  moon  by  the  eartli's  ehnclow,  while  the  for_neri8  restrkled 
to  the  eclipses  of  etJirs  or  planets  by  the  moon.  Occullatious  arc  pbcnomruu  of  fre- 
quent occurrence;  they  nrecoutlncxl  to  a  belt  of  the  Iieavv:n8  about  10°  \1)4'  wide, 
sitnated  parallel  to,  aud  on  both  Pidcs  of  the  cqnir.oxial,  and  extruding  to  equal 
dishiuces  north  and  south  of  it,  bebig  the  belt  within  which  the  moou's  orbit  lies. 
These  phenoiuttua^rve  as  data  for  the  meaHuremcnt  of  the  moon's  parallax;  and 
they  nre  also  occasionally  employed  in  the  calculation  of  louciiudcs.  As  the  moon 
moves  hi  her  orbit  from  west  to  east,  the  occultjilion  of  a  star  ia  made  at  the  moon's 
eastern  limb,  and  tlie  star  emerges  oti  the  western  limb.  When  a  star  is  occulted 
by  the  d'lrk  umb  of  the  moon  (a  phenomenon  which  can  only  occnr  between  new 
inoou  and  full  moon),  it  appetii-s  to  an  ol)server  as  if  it  were  suddfuly  eziin{;uishid, 
and  this  apnearance  i.s  mo.-t  deceptive  when  the  moon  is  oulv  a  few  days  old.  When 
an  occnltation  occurs  between  full  moon  and  new  moon,  too  reapi>earance  of  the 
Ptarat  the  ontef  t{<ige  of  the  dark  limb  produces  an  equally  startling  elftct.  *'It 
lias  often  been  remarked,"  sjiys  Herschel,  **that  when  a  sar  is  being  occulted  by 
the  moon,  it  ap|>earH  to  advance  actually  upon  and  within  the  edge  of  the  disc  before 
it  disappears,  and  that  sometimes  to  a  considerable  depth."  1'his  phenomenon  he 
considers  to  be  an  optical  illnBion,thoni;h  he^admitsthe  {mssibility  of  its  being  caused 
by  the  existence  of  deep  fissnres  in  the  moon's  sn1)stance.  Occultations  of  stars  by 
plauets  aud  their  satellites  are  of  rarer  occurrence  than  Imiar  occnliations,  and  still 
uiore  Dufn^qnent  are  the  occultations  of  one  plaiwl  by  another.  Occultations  are 
cnlcuhttedin  the  same  way  aseclii)8<s,  bnttheealculatiot)  is  simpHiled  in  the  case 
of  the  fixed  stars,  on  accomit  of  Uieir  having  neither  seusible  motion,  semi-diameler, 
iior  par.dl  .x. 

OCEAN,  a  tenn  which,  like  Sba,  in  its  general  acceptation,  denotes  the  body  of 
rait  water  tliat  si;parates  continent  frow  continent,  and  is  the  receptacle  for  the 
watirs  of  rivers.  The  Kur face  of  the  ocean  is  al)OUt  three-fifths  of  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  earth.  Although  no  portion  of  it  is  completely  detaclieil  from  the  rest, 
tlie  lnt**rvening  continents  and  inlands  mark  it  off  into  divisions,  which  geographers 
have  distinguished  by  spvcial  ininiet):  the  Atlantic  Ocean  (q.  v.),  between  America 
«jid  Europe  and  Africa;  the  Pacific  Ocean  (q.  v.),  between  America  and  Afia;  the 
Indian  Ocean  (q.  v.),  lyin|j  south  of  Asia,  and  limited  on  the  eat-'t  and  west  by 
Australasia'and  South  Africa ;  tlie  Arctic  Ocean  (q.  v.),  surrounding  the  north  pole; 
wul  the  Antarctic  Ocean  (q.  v.),  t^urronndin^  the  south  i>ole.  The  general  features 
aud  characteristics  of  the  ocean  will  be  described  under  Sea. 

OCEA'NTA*  the  name  given  to  the  fifth  division  of  the  glol)e,  comprising  all  the 
island:*  which  istervenu  between  the  south-eastern  shores  of  the  continent  of  Asia 
and  the  western  shores*  of  the  Americau  continent.  It  naturally  divides  Itself  into 
three  great  sections — ^Malay  Archipelago  (q.  v.),  Australasia  (  q.  v.),  or  Melanesia  and 
Polynesia  (q.  v.). 

O'CELOT,  the  name  of  several  species  of  Felidae^  natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of 
South  America,  allied  to  the  leopard  by  flexil)Iiity  of  body,  length  of  tail,  and  othet 
characters,  but  of  njuch  smaller  size.  They  art  usually  included  in  the  genus  Leopar- 
diu  by  thoi»e  who  divide  tlie  Felidae  into  a  number  of  genera.  They  are  inhabitants 
of  forests,  and  very  expert  in  climbing  trees.  Their  prey  consists  in  great  part  of 
birds.  They  an?  lM»autifully  marked  and  colored.  The  best  known  ppecief,  or  Com- 
mon 0.  (F<pim  pardalitt),  a  native  of  the  warm  pnrts  of  America,  from  Mexicp  to 
Brazil,  is  from  two  leet  nint  inches  to  ftmr  feet  lonjr,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  ia 
from  eleven  to  fifteen  inches,  and  nearly  of  unifurm  Ihirkness.  The  ears  are  thin, 
Bhort,  atid  pointed.  The  muzzle  is  raiher  elongated.  The  colors  vary  considerably, 
hut  the  ground  tint  is  always  a  ricli  re*l  or  tawaiy  color,  blending  finely  with  the  dark 
brown  on  the  mar^ns  of  tlie  otien  spots,  of  which  tliere  are  chains  along  the  sides ; 
tl«e head,  neck,  and  legs  being  al^o  variously  ppott<d  or  b ,rred  with  dark  brown  or 
black.  The  O.  is  easily  tamed,  and  is  vei7  gentle  and  playful,  but  pxce^slvely  rais- 
Cbie?008.    It  may  be  fed  on  porridge  aud  milk,  or.other  aach  lood,  aud  is  said  to  be 

I  Digitized  by  Google 


9^^  41  ^ 

Octagon  *xiu 

tbeu  more  gentle  than  If  permitted  to  iiidnlge*!n  cnrnlvorons  rtppotit«8.— Very  rimi- 
lar  to  the  Common  O.  are  stiveral  otiier  Amr-ricju  spcieH,  as  th-t  LiNKBi)  0. 
(F,  catenata^^  the  LoNO-TAitED  O.  (K  viacrounis).  the  Cuati  (/•'.  wittu),  &c  llie. 
similarity  extends  to  iiahii»  and  di.s|i09ition,  as  well  as  form. 

O'CnrL  HILLS,  a  hilly  ran^e  in  Scothiud.  occupying  jKirts  of  the  conuliee  of 
Perth,  Ciaciclianiiau,  Stirlhig,  Kinross,  and  Fife,  and  oxtondiitg  from  the  vicmiryof 
Stirling  nortli-east  to  the  Firth  of  Tay.  The  range  is  24  miles  in  lenjtth,  aiid  about 
12  miled  in  bretutth.  The  highest  summit  is  Boncleu^h  (2352  leet),  near  the  ttuatb- 
west  extremity.  The  hills,  wnicli  are  formetl  chiefly  of  greei:stoue  and  l)a8alt,coft- 
tain  silver,  copper,  and  iruu  ores,  and  uiford  excellent  pasturage. 

OCHNA'CEoE,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  phint^*,  containing  not  qnite  100 
known  sp-cie.-*,  natives  of  tropical  and  suStropicHl  countries.  Home  of  tbem  are 
trees,  mo -it  of  them  nuder-shrubs  ;  all  are  remarktible  for  their  snioothuess  in  nil 
parts.  Bitter  and  tonic  qaalities  prevail  in  ihi-  order,  and  some  k>p  cies  are uiedldit- 
aliy  used  in  their  native  countries.  The  seeds  of  Oomphia  jabotapita  yieKl  wioil, 
which  is  used  in  salads  in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America. 

O'CHRES,  the  name  nsnally  applied  to  clays  colored  with  the  oxld»s  of  iron  in 
various  proportions,  giving  to  the  clay  a  lighter  or  deeper  color.  Strictly  spakiiig, 
the  term  belon<;s  only  to  a  combinaiion  of  |>eroxideof  iron  with  wirter.  Froraiiumy 
mines  large  qnaniities  of  water  charged  with  ferruginous  mud  are  being  contiDUally 
pumped  up,  and  from  this  water  the  colored  mud  or  ochre  settles.  In  this  waylay 
qoantities  are  procured  from  the  tin  mines  of  Cornwall,  and  the  lead  and  cow^ 
mines  of  Nortli  Wales  and  the  Isle  of  Man.  Ochres  occur  also  ready  formed,  lu  neda 
Several  feet  thicic,  in  the  various  g(?t)logical  formations,  and  aire  occaMonally  worked. 
ns  at  Shotover  Hill,  Oxford,  in  Holland,  and  many  other  places  in  Europe  and 
America.  Vt-nr  remartcable  betis  are  work  d  in  Canada.  The  ochres  so  oblaitied 
aru'  either  calcined  for  use  or  not,  according  to  the  tint  wanted.  The  opened 
adds  much  to  the  deptti  of  color,  by  increasiu>x  the  degree  of  oxidation  of  the  con- 
tained Iron.  The  most  remarkable  varinties  (»f  ochre  are  the  Siena  Earth  (Tent  di 
Siena)  from  Italy ;  the  so-cidlcd  red  chalk,  with  which  sheep  on*  marked;  Dotdi 
Ochre ;  Armenian  Bole  or  Leninian  Earth  ;  JTallan  Rouge,  and  Bitry  Oclire.  Thej 
vary  ill  color  from  an  IsaDelline  yellow,  through  almost  every  shade  of  brown,  np  to 
a  tolerably  cood  red.  The  flneat  kinds  are  used  by  painters,  the  coanseBt  bycoipdi- 
tttrs  for  marking  out  their  work,  by  farmers  i!or  mailing  cattle,  &c 

O'CHRO.    See  HiBiscirs. 

OCKMU'LQEE,  a  river  in  Georgia,  U.  S.,  which  rises  In  the  northern  centre  of 
the  state  by  three  liranches.  and  after  a  course  of  200  miles  eontb-sonth^cnst,  j^ 
the  Oconee,  to  form  the  Altamaha.  It  is  navigable  to  Macen,  130  miles  above  iu 
month. 

OCO'NBB,  a  river  of  Georgia.  U.  S.,  rises  in  the  north-east  part  of  the  Btflte.tnd 
flows  soutlierly  850  miles,  where  it  unites  with  the  Ockmolgee  to  form  the  Altamjibft; 
it  is  navigable  to  Milledgeville,  100  miles. 

O'CONNELL,  Daniel,  eldest  wm  of  Mr  Moi^an  O'Gonnell  of  Darrfiinne,  new 
Cahircivoen.  in  the  county  of  Kerrv,  Ireland,  was  bora  August  9,  I7I6.  Histanuly 
was  ancient,  but  straitened  in  circumstances.  O'C.  nci-ived  his  first  edacatiou 
from  a  hedire-school master,  and  after  a  further  tralnuig  under  a  Catholic  priert 
In  the  county  of  Cork,  w^  sent  in  1T90  to  the  English  College  at  StOmer.  Hl» 
school  reputation  was  very  high ;  but  he  was  driven  houje  prematurely  by  tfee 
outbreak  of  t!ie  Revolution,  and  in  1794,  e^ttered  as  a  law-smdent  at  LiuootD's 
Inn.  In  1793,  he  was  cnllt^d  lo  the  bar;  and  it  was  the  boast  of  his  later  can* 
as  an  advocate  of  the  Repeal  of  the  Union  with  England,  tliat  his  first  pdbiic 
speech  was  delivered  at  a  meriting  in  Dublin,  convened  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
testing against  tliat  projected  measure.  He  devotid  Idmstlf  assiduonsly,  lioty* 
ever,  to  ihe  practice  of  his  profession,  in  which  he  rose  steadily.  By  th"gri«JS 
tiie  Roman  Catholic  pirty  having  begun  to  rally  from  the  prostratiou  ioto 
whicti  they  had  bden  thrown  through  the  rebellion  of  1793  and  its  coo- 
sequonces,  O'C  was  drawn  Into  public  pollticail  life.  In  nil  tlie  iwet- 
ings  of  his  co-religlonistii  for  the  prosecution  of  their  claims,  he  took  • 
part,  aud  his  uiiqucBtluned  ability  soou  made  liim  u  leader.    Ue  was  m  atctfie 


y  Google 


^'^' 


f.. 


A -to  OchM 

*±  LO  Ocugon 

member  of  all  the  roccc«»p1ve  asMKlations  wliicl»,  under  the  variona  namca  of  '•  Cutli- 
olicBoaicl,"'**Catbolic  ConiimttuV' "C»tliolic  As*i«)ciaU<»ii.'*  Ac,  were  organised 
ior  lilt*  purpose  of  proi  nrin^  ilie  rc()c:il  of  the  civil  diAabilitiea  of  the  Catholic  liody. 
Oltlie  Ou:holic  Arsociiition  lie  was  himself  the  orieiDiitor;  and  ailthocgh  his  supre- 
iiuicy  iu  its  couiiciia  was  oecnBionally  chsilieiijrcd  hy  some  aspirin.:  af^^ociJ^t«'S,  ho 
cotitiiined  all  hut  siipreine  do\vii  to  it>«  fliinl  dif^olufiou.  Hy  menus  of  this  asso- 
ciatiou,  and  tjje  '*Catliolic  Kent"  wiiiih  it  was  enubied  to  rai«e,  he  created  fo 
fpniiidahie  ant^iganisatiuii  throagboai  Ireland,  that  it  L^radually  became  appurt  nt 
th.it  the  defirrd  meafme  of  nlief  could  not  longer  be  safely  withheld  ;  and  tlie  ciif-is 
was  predpitaifd  by  the  bold  expedieut  adopted  oy'O  0..  of  procuiing  liim*«elf  to  bj 
elect' d  nienibc-r  ot  piirliameut  for  Clare  iu  1828,  DOiivithstundini;  his  wei!-kuo>\n 
legal  incapacity  to  ^erve  iu  parliament,  in  conxi  qacnce  of- his  beiug  obliged  to  refuse 
tM  prescribed  oaths  of  abjuration  ana  saprenmcy,  which  then  formed  the  grunnd  oi 
the  exclosion  of  Komau  Cathorics  Irdui  tliu  legislature.  This  deciaive  step  towards 
tbestttlemeutof  the  quest iou,  although  it  failed  to  (>rocure  for  O'C  aduiission  to 
parliament,  led  to  diecust«ioB8  withiu  the  House,  aud  to  ai^itntioDs  outside,  so  for- 
niidahle.  that  Iti  the  beginning  of  the  year  1S29,  the  Duke  of  Welliugton  and  Sir 
"Roii&rt  Feel  found  it  expedient  to  give  way ;  and*  dsserting  their  former  party,  they 
iutrodnced  and  cariled  titroiigh,  iulhespnngof  that  year,  tlie  will-known  measure 
Of  Catholic  Einancipatiou.  O'C.  was  at  ouce  re-elected,  and  took  his  seat  for  Clure^ 
aod  frian  that  date  until  his  death  contiuued  tn  sit  in  )iarliament.  He  wai<  elected  ior 
his  native  county  In  1830.  for  tlie  city  of  Dublin  in  1S86,  for  the  town  of  Kilkenny  in 
1886  (haying  been  unseated  for  Duhlin  on  petition)*  for  Dublin  again  in  1837,  aud  for 
the  county  uf  Cork  iu  1841.  During  all  these  years,  having  entirely  rehnquished  his 
practice  for  the  purpose  of  devoting  himself  to  niildic  affairs,  he  received, 
by  means  of .  an  organist  d  annual  suhj-idy,  a  large  y.  arly  income  from 
tlie  voluntary  contributions  of  the  people,  by  whom  he  was  idolised  as 
tlieir  "Liberator;"  and  who  I'oined  with  him  in  all  the  succedsive  ngi- 
tatious  aizahist  the  act  of  Union,  against  tiie  Frotestant  Church  establlsh- 
nieni,  and  iu  favor  of  reform,  in  which  he  ciigagcd.  Iu  the  progress  of 
more  Ihaii  one  of  these  political  agitations,  his  associ.tions  were  suppressed  hy  the 
governmeitt ;  and  the  agitation  for  a Itepeal  of  the  Union,*r«conimenced in  1841,  and 
carr'h  d  on  hy  "monster  meetings"  throuL'hout  Inland,  at  which  O'C.  hiiuself  wj:8 
Ifie chief  speaker,  assumed  proimrtions  eo  lonnidable,  that  he,  in  common  with 
several  others,  was  indicted  for  a  seditious  coiK«piracy,  and  after  a  long  and  meni- 
orabl'!  trial,  was  convicted,  and  sentenced  to  a  yearV  imprisuninent,  with  a  fine  of 
X*H)0.  This  judgment  was  reversed  by  the  House  of  LordH ;  and  O'C  on  Ids  di?^ 
ditirge,  resnined l^a  career;  hut  his  health  had  t-uffered  from  confiuemeut,  and  still 
liiore  from  dissensions  and  opposition  iu  the  councils  of  ids  pnny ;  and  as,  on  the 
retnrn  of  the  Whigs  lo  i>ower  in  1846,  he  consented  to  support  tlieir  government,  the 
malcouieutA  of  the  Repeal  Assochition  openly  ^eparnttd  liiMn  him,  and  a  biit  r  feud 
between  "Young"  and  *»01d"  Irchmd  ensued.  In  this  qnarnl,  O'C.  steadfastly 
lanhitained  his  favoiit^  precept  of  "  moral  force,"  and  x^as  supported  hy  the  great 
body  of  the  Catholic  bishops  and  clergy;  hut  Ins  lie:  1th  gave  way  in  the  striig^'lo. 
He  was  ordered  to  try  a  milder  climate;  and  on  his  ^uniey  lo  Itoine  in  the  tpring  of 
184T,  lie  was  suddenly  seiz.  d  witli  paralysis,  aud  died  at  Genoa  on  the  15th  Mav  of 
that  year.  His  emiutence  as  a  public  speaker,  and  e(*|)ecially  as  a  ma.-ter  of  i)opular 
cloouence,  is  universally  admitted.  Into  the  controvernics  as  to  his  puhiic  and  poli- 
licsil  character,  it  is  not  oiir  place  to  ent(?r  here.  His  speeches  unfortunately  were 
for  the  most  iMirt  extempore,  and  exist  hut  in  the  reports  (imcorrecled  by  himself) 
taken  at  the  time.  Be  published  Imt  a  single  volume,  "A  Memoir  of  Ireland,  Native 
mid  Snxoii."  and  a  few  pamphlets ;  the  most  important  of  which,  as  ilhistraiiug  hia 
iwreoiiai  history  and  character,  is  "  A  Letter  to  the  Earl  of  8hrewshury."— See  "Life 
and  Times  of  Daniel  O'Conuell,"  hy  hi-^  sou,  John  O'Conuell;  also  "  hecollectious 
of  Dauiel  O'ConneJ,"  hy  John  O'Neill  Daniel;  Fagan's  "Life  of  Daniel  O'Conuell;" 
and  "The  Liberator."  by  L.  P.  Cusack  (1872). 

O'CTAGON,  a  plane  closetl  figure  of  eight  sides.  When  the  sides  are  equal,  and 
alwthe  angles,  the  figure  is  called  a  "regular  octagon  ;"  In  this  case,  each  angle  is 
1B5^.  or  equal  to  three  half  right  angles.  If  the  alternate  corners  of  a  reemlar  octagon 
be  joined,  a  eqtiare  is  constructed;  and  ae  the  angle  contoiued  between  the  aides  ot 


y  Google 


-^ 


Ootahedi-on  4 1  ^  ■ 


Odd 


the  sqiinre  niid  of  the  octagon  in  ooc-fonrtU  of  a  rij^lit  angle,  the  octagon  mny  easily 
be  coii8tract  d  troin  the  ^qn>lrc  n»  n  ba^is. 

OCTAHE'DRON,  (Gr.  okto,  ttJght,  lusdia,  haw)  \n  a  eolid  flOTre bonnclea by  eiglil 
tiiniij^les.  aii'l  hjiviiig  twelve  e<\^es  and  pix  niijfleff.  Aregtuar  ochuifdrou  has  its 
ciglit  iriangnlnr  face;*  all  eqailateral,  and  may,  for  convenience,  be  dt-fiiiecl  »» 
a  flgiire  coinpos-'d  of  two  fqiiul  and  t>initlar  aquaro  p>rainida  wfili  equHaleral 
triangles  for  rbeir  fide.'*  placed  nase  to  base.  Tiiii*  f*oiid  is  Kymmetrical  roiiiKl  tuy 
angle,  and  is  one  of  Plato's  five  rc^guhir  solids.  Tlie  octahedroii  appears  in  iiatan:  as 
.  one  of  tbe  lorins  of  crysbils  of  enlpbitr. 

O'CTAVE  (Lot  octavu^y^  eighth),  tbe  Ji  ten-al  betn-een  any  mneicai  noteai»dHi 
most  p'.;rfe<'.t  concoi-d,  wliicli  is  donbb!  itis  pitch,  and  occnpies  tlie  position  of 
tlie  eiglith  note  from  it  on  tlie  diatonic  acale.  The  name  octave  is  often  givi-n  to  ibo 
cightl)  note  itself  as  well  aa  to  the  iiilurval.  There  ifl  l)et\vcen  n  nottt  aira  its  octave 
a  far  clo.^:*  relation  than  between  any  other  two  nottrs;  they  go  to<£other  almort  I8 
one  niosical  soand.  In  combinatiun,  they  are  hardly  diatiugnisbnblc  from  one 
another,  and  tlieir  hariiioDics  agree  iuvariablyi  a  coinddence  which  occurs  in  the 
case  of  no  other  interval. 

OCTA'VIA,  the  «lster  of  the  Roman  emperor  Anqnptai*,  and  wffe  of  Mart 
Antony.  She  was  distingnislied  for  her  bcanty,  her  noble  disposition,  and  won  anly 
virtues.  Her  first  hndband  was  C.  Marcellns,  to  whom  she  was  married  iW  B.C. 
He  died  41  B.C.,  shortly  after  which  she  consented  to  marry  Antony,  to  make  wcnra 
the  reconciliation  between  liim  and  her  brother.  The  event  was  imBMJftUlMB^^ 
all  classes.  In  a  few  years,  Anion  v  became  tired  of  his  gentle  and  virf  nous  ^>u«C| 
and  forso)k  tier  for  Cleopatra.  Wh«»n  the  Parthian  War  broke  out,  O.  ranted  ta 
accompany  her  husband,  and  ncfually  went  as  far  as  Corcyra,  whence  Antony  nut  • 
her  home,  that  she  ntlght  not  iuterrnpt  his  gnilty  ititerconri?e  with  the  Btryptiao 
cjneeu.  In  35  B.C.,  O.  made  an  iffoit  to  rehcue  him  from  a  degradation  that  ««• 
indifferent  even  to  the  honor  of  the  Roman  arms,  and  sailed  from  Italy  with  win* 
forcementa;  but  a  mes.«aire  r«achod  her  at  Athens  ordering  her  to  retnmliome. 
She  proudly  ob;;yed,  hut,  with  a  magnanimity  that  reminds  us  of  the  Koinati  dinr* 
aoter  iu  e  irlier  and  better  days,  she  forwarded  tlte  supports  to  her  husband.  Hff 
brotlier,  Octavlan,  was  iudignant  at  tbe  treatment  she  received,  and  would  have  had 
her  quit  her  hu8ban<l's  house,  and  come  and  live  with  him ;  but  slie  refused.  In  Jl 
B.C.,  war,  long  inevitable,  broke  out  between  Antony  and  Octavian  ;  and  the  former 
crow'ueci  his  nisults  by  sending  O.  a  bill  of  divorcement  But  no  injury  was  too 
gr.at  to  be  forgiven  by  this  ♦'^patient  Grizel"  of  the  ancient  world;  and  after  h<f 
nusband's  death,  she  brought  u|>  with  niaicrnal  care  not  only  her  own  cliildreu, but 
also  Cleopatra's  bastards.    Her  death  took  place  11  B.C. 

OCTO'BER  (Lat,  octo,  eight)  was  the  eighth  month  of  the  so-caHed  **year  of  Ito- 
miilns,"  but  bec^ime  the  teuth  when  (according  to  tradition)  Numa  changed  tiM 
commencement  of  the  year  to  the  first  of  Jaitimry.  though  it  retaiiied  its  original 
name.  It.  has  shice  maiiitalne<l  its  position  as  the  t«mth  month  of  the  year,  and  l»»«8l 
days.  October  preserved  its  ancient  nanw  notwithsttinding  the  attempts  made  by 
the  Rom  tu  Sr^nate,  and  tlie  empi'rors  Commodus  and  Domitiaii,  who  Huhstituted  for 
a  time  the  t^^rms  b'austiuus.  Invictus,  Domitiauus.  Manv  Roman  and  Greek  f«jti\-ala 
fell  to  l)e  celebrated  in  this  mouth,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  was  the  sacriflca 
at  Rome  of  a  horse  (which  was  called  October)  to  the  god  Mars.  The  otlier  («••• 
,  tivals  were  chiefly  bacchanalian.  Among  the  Saxons,  it  was  styled  Wyn%tumeth(X 
the  wine  mouth. 

OCTO'POD  A  (Gr.  eight-footed),  a  s^-ctlon  of  dihranchlate  cephalopoda  (see  Ctpba- 
jiOPODA),  having  tlie  body  in  general  very  short,  the  head  very  distinct ;  eight  armSi 
not  very  unequal,  furnished  with  simple  suckers ;  with  or  without  a  shelly  coTCrlug. 
To  this  section  l)elotig  Argoimuts,  Poulpes,  &c. 

OCTO'PUS.     See  Poulpb. 

O'C  rOSTYLE,  the  name  given  in  classic  architectore  to  a  portico  composed  of 
eight  colutnns  In  front..  , 

OCTROI  (Lat.  axuitoritasy  authority),  a  tenn  which  originlUly  mffant  any  ord- 
nance autUorhied  by  the  sovereign,  and  thence  came  to  be  restrictivety  appti«a  to  • 


y  Google 


.        .  415  8dd*«^ 

••I 
ton  or  tnx  In  kind  levied  f  roni  a  very  early  period  in  Frflnco  and  otlier  countries  <Sf 
Northern  Enrope,  on  nrticlea  of  food  which  parsed  the  barrier  or  eutrnncu  of  a  town. 
Tlie  right  to  levy  this  toll  was  often  del^ated  to  puhjccis,  nnd  in  oi-dcr  to  increase 
its  amonnf,  a  device  was  resorted  to  of  raising  tlic  weight  of  the  pound  in  which  tho 
octroi  was  taken.  'I'lje  lar^e  pound,  an  ounce  heavier  than  tliat  in  oi-dlnary  use, 
wnsci\]\eA  the  liv re  d^oatroif  wlifnceMhaexprcpwon  poinid  trey.  The  octroi  cams 
^veutnally  to  bo  levied  \u  nioi'oy,  and  was  aboliphcd  in  France  nt  I  lie  Revolution. 
In  1793,  it  was  ri'-estahlislicd,  under  the  prett'xt  that  it  was  required  for  purpoeea  of 
oliarity  and  callcfl  the  octroi  de  bicfi/aisavce,  and  it  has  been  reorganised  in  1816, 184S, 
and  1852.  Of  the  octroi  duty  which  is  nt  pn  sent  Icvi-  d  at  the  gates  of  the  FreucQ 
towns,  one-tentii  |.'Oes  to  the  national  treasury,  and  the  i-est  to  n>cal  expenses.  The 
(Kitroi  officers  are  entitled  to  searcli  all  carrlajrcs  nnil  indivinuals  entering  the  gates 
'»f  a  town.  From  t!»e  oc'h)ltt  of  P-iris,  governnieut  derived,  a  few  years  ago,  a 
revenue  of  56  million  francs.  In  1860,  tlio  iielgiuu  govcmnient  acquired  popularity 
by  abolishing  the  octroi. 

Tlie  epitiiet  octroyi  is  applied  by  continental  politicians  to  a  constitution  granted 
by  aprinc<',  in  contradistiuctioii  to  one  wliich  is  the  result  of  a  paction  between  the 
Sovereign  and  the  representatives  of  th<5  people.  Anv  public  comimny  possessing 
an  authorised  monopoly  like  that  held  by  the  East  India  Company,  ia  said  to  be 
oetToyL 

OD  (from  the  same  root  as  Odin,  nnd  supposed,  to  mean  nll-perAading),  tlie  name 
givnu  by  Barou  Reichenbach  (q.  v.)  to  a  peculiar  physical  force  which  he  thought  he 
haddii^covcrecL  This  force,  according  to  liim,  )>ervades  all  nature,  and  nianifesia 
itself  as  a  flickering  flame  or  luminous  appearance  at  the  poles  of  magnets,  at  the 
poles  of  crys^tals,  and  wlu-rever  chemicitl  action  is  goitig.on.  This  would  account 
for  the  luminous  figures  said  to  be  sometimes  seen  over  rect-nt  graves.  The  o<l  force 
lias  positive  and  negative  poh^s,  like  majrnetism.  The  hunniu  bwly  Is  od-posii.ivo  on 
the  left  siiie,  au<l  o<l-negative  on  the  right.  Certain  i)crsous.  called  ^^ sensitives," 
can  8te  tlie  <k1ic  radiation  like  a  luminous  vapor  in  the  dark,  and  can  feel  it  by  the 
lonch  like  a  breath.  As  the  meeting  of  like  odic  poles  cau  es  a  disagn-eable  seusa- 
tiun,  while  the  pairing  of  unlike  poles  caus'es  a  pleasant  sensation,  we  have  thus  a 
ftnfiieient  cause  for  those  likings  and  antipathies  hitlierto  held  unaccountable.  Some 
Reusitive  persons  cannot  sleep  on  their  left  side  (in  the  northern  hemi^pllere),  be- 
caosc  the  nortii  iiole  of  the  earth,  which  is  od-negattve,  affects  unpleasantly  the  oil- 
negaiive  left  side.  All  moiion  generates  od  ;  why,  then,  nniy  not  a  stream  i*unuing 
underground  affect  a  sensitive  water-finder,  so  that  th<!  divming-rod  in  his  or  lur 
hand  shall  move  without,  it  may  be,  any  cc.necious  effort  of  will?  All  the  pheno- 
mena of  mesmerism  are  ascribed  to  the  workings  of  thisod-force.  Reichenbach 
does  not  pretend  to  have  had  tlie  eNidence  of  his  own  senses  for  any  of  those  mani- 
festattous  of  his  assumed  od-force ;  the  wliole  theory  rests  on  the  revelations  made 
to  him  by  "  sensitives."  It  may  be  added,  that  few  if  any  really  scientific  men  have 
^  any  belief  in  the  existence  of  such  a  force.— Those  curious  in  hucli  matters  ar«  re- 
ferred for  the  details  of  the  subject  to  Reichcnt>ach'8  lar^jework,  translated  into 
English  by  Dr  Ashbnmer,  under  the  title  of  •*  The  Dynamics  of  Magnetism,"  or  to 
a  briefer  account  in  his  '*  Odisch-Magnetische  Brief e"  (Stutt.  1852). 

O'DAL  or  Udal  Right  (Celtic  od,  property),  a  tenure  of  land  which  was  absolute, 
and  not  dep^ndent  on  a8ui)erior,  and  prevailed  throughout  Northern  Europe  b<;fore 
the  rise  of  feudalism.  It  was  f  onnded  on  the  tie  of  blood  which  connected  f  reenuui 
with  freeman,  and  not  on  the  tie  of  sei-vice.  It  was  the  policy  of  the  sovereign  au- 
thority everywhere  to  make  it  advantageous  for  the  freemen  to  exchange!  the  otlal  tie 
for  the  tie  of  service— a  change  wliich  paved  the  way  for  the  feudal  system.  Tho.  odal* 
len*  of  Orkney  wt  re  allowed  to  retain  or  resume  their  ancient  privileges  on  paying  a 
large  contribution  to  the  erection  of  St  Magnus's  Cat  hf-dral  at  Kirkwall ;  and  the  Odal 
tenure  prevails  to  this  day  to  a  large  extent  iu  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Islands,  the 
right  to  land  Iwing  completed  without  writing  by  undisturbed  possession  proved  by 
witnesses  b^-fore  an  inquest. 

ODD-FELLOWS,  the  name  assumed  by  one  of  the  most  extensive  self-governed 

f»rovideut  associations  in  tlie  world.  The  institution  was  originated  in  Manchester 
»  1812,  aithougij  isolated  "lodges  "  had  existed  in  various  parts  of  the  country  for 
;  some  time  previously.  These  latter  were  generally  secret  fraternities,  humble  imi- 
j  U.K.,x.,li,  _  _  ^ 

Digitized  by  LiOOgle 


Odessa  *^" 

tjilioua  of  Freemasonry— adopting  a  similar  system  of  initintory  rite««,  piiraseology, 
and  orgiiuisation — instituted  for  Hocial  uud  convivial  {)ar))08oa,  and  only  occa^unully 
cxtuD4iiig  chacita1)le  assistance  to  members.  On  its  iu^titnlion  in  Mancbebier,  tlie 
wain  purpose  of  Odd-fellowship  Was  declared  by  its  l^ws  lo  be,  **  to  render  assistai.cc 
to  every  bro'lier  wlio  may  apply  tin-ough  sickness,  -distress,  or  otlicrwis<?,  il  he  be 
\Viilt  attacliedio  the  Queen  and  government,  andrfaitlifnl  to  the  order;"  anil  this  aui- 
linnes  to  l>e  tlie  I)a8is  of  all  its  opt'ration>.  It  still,  however,  retains  some  of  tlit'ciiar- 
acteristics  of  Freema:<onry,'  in  possessing  pass-words  and  peculiar  '•  grips,"  wiiereby 
ftnumberscan  recognlso  one  another,  'i  he  headquarters  of  the  society  are  at  Maii- 
«iicster,  where  the  Grand  Master  and  Board  of  Directors  meet  quarterly  to  hearain 
peiils,  and  transact  the  general  l)u?'i nest*  of  the  order.  In  January  1S52,  the  total 
number  of  members  was  224,441;  in  January  1873.  the  number  was  410,043;  awd 
Sduring  1872,  34,699  new  members  joined.  The  lodges  niunber4^3.  spread  over  4S 
ilistricts;  the  an  mid  income^  being  about  X595  ODO,  with  an  expenditure  of  ui-nrly 
^9G,00v).  Should  any  lodge' fail  to  meet  its  l«-^iiiiuate  obligations,  the  dl-tri^tbw 
comes  liable  ;  failing  the  district,  the  leFponsiliility  falls  upon  the  entire  Unity.  Tbo 
order  is  widely  spread  over  the  whole  of  England  and  Scotland.  It  exists  iutJejieii' 
dently  in  Anjerica,  Australia,  New  Z  aland,  and  the  West  Indies;  but  tlierw  tfd 
**lod^e^"in  Piuladelpliia,  New  York,  in  all  theBiitish  colonies,  and  one  in  Cuustaa* 
tiuople  (originated  in  1862),  vvliich  are  affiliated  to  and  in  connection  with  the  Main 
cliester  Board.  Tliese  wide-spread  ramiflc;itioiis  of  tli is  society  euabic  emipiint 
memi>ers  to  be  at  once  received  into  fellowsidp  in  those  conutries.  In  the  Aniencaa 
sates,  Odd-fellowship  is  said  to  exercise  coiisidt-rable  political  influence.  A  qiwr* 
terly  i)eriodioal,  called  the  •*  Odd-f6llo  ws'  Magazine, 'i  devoted  to  its  interests,  is  pnb* 
lishecl  iu  Manchester.  In  an  early  number  of  this  publication,  an  Oddfellow  li 
described  as  "  like  a  lox  lor  cunning,  a  dove  for  tameuese,  a  lamb  for  inuoceno^  l 
lion  for  boldness,  a  buo  for  industiy,  and  a  shcip  for  ust fujiess.'* 

ODE  (Or.  a  song)  oiiginally  meant  any  lyrical  piece  ndnpt^^d  to  Tie  snng.  In  ft» 
mod  rn  USM  of  thi  word,  odes  are  distingnisiicd  from  songs  by  not  being  ne'cssai^ 
in  a  form  to  be  sung,  and  by  embodying  loTiier  conceptions  ar.d  more  int'mse  tm 
l)a38ioMaie  emotions.  The  language  of  the  ode  is  therefore  abrupt,  concise,  and  en- 
ergetic ;  and  tha  liighest  art  of  the  poet  is  called  into  reqnisiiion  in  adapting  ll« 
meires  and  cadnices  to  the  vai^in^  tlionghts  and  emotions.  Hence  the  chaage* of 
metre  and  ver.-iiflcation  tliat  occur  ni  many  odes.  Tlie  rapt  state  of  iiij-pinitiou  III* 
gives  birth  to  the  ode,  leads  the  poet  to  conceive  all  imtun?  as  animated  and  co»* 
scious.  and,  instead  of  speaking  about  persons  and  objects,  to  address  tbem  » 
present. 

Among  the  highest  examples  of  the  ode  are  the  **  SOng  of  Moses"  and  several  w 
the  p<alins.  Dryden's  *♦  Alexander's  Feast "  is  reckoned  one  of  the  first  odes  in  ti* 
English  language.  Wo  may  mention,  as  additional  specimens.  Gr.jy's  **Bard,"  Cf^ 
lins's  "  Ode  to  the  Passions,"  Burns's  •*  Scots  wha  ha'c,"  Colendgc's  "  Ode  to  tb« 
D.;p:irting  Year  and  Dejection,"  Shelley's  **  Ode  to  the  Skylark,"  and  Woi-dswoitli^ 
**  Od  J  on  the  Recollections  of  Immortality  in  Cliildhood." 

O'DENKIRCHEN,  a  town  of  Rheni-h  Prussia,  15  miles  west-sonth-weSt  frBjn 
J)asseldorf,  near  tlie  right  l)ank  of  ti>e  Niera  It  has  manufactures  of  velvets.  paj^Ti 
ieatlier,  &c..  and  like  many  of  tlie  other  manufacturing  towns  in  th<^  saiue  district 
has  recently  much  increased  iu  size  and  jYopulation.    Pwp.  (1871)  7631. 

O'DENSEE  (anciently  known  as  Odjn's-Ey,  or  Odin's  Oe  (!.  e.,  Odin^"  I^laa^ 
Me  chief  town  of  the  Danij*h  island  of  Fiinen,  and  tlie  oldest  city  of  the  kintrdon',** 
ituated  in  the  amt  or  district  of  the  same  name,  in  55o  26'  n.  lat..ai:d  10° 20' e.  l«>nj^ 
Pop.  (1870)  16,970.  O.,  which  is  the  seat  of  the  governor  of  the  ishiid  and  the  secat 
u  bisliop,  has  a  gymnasium,  several  literaiy  soch'ties,  and  is  an  active,  thriving,  1*^ 
vincial  town.  A  bishopric  was  founded  here  in  OSS.  prior  to  which  timeO.  boitw 
r  'ptitation  of  b  ^ing  the  first  city  established  by  Odin  and  his  followers.  The  catlj* 
dral,  foundetl  in  1U86  by  St.  Kniid,'  whOf*e  remains,  like  f  hos*?  of  several  of  the  e^V 
Danish  kings,  were  dep08ite<l  here,  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the  early  simple  GojMo 
style.  The  lay  convent  or  college  for  ladies  contains  an  extensive  library,  f""'^**f* 
witli  copies  of  all  printed  Danish  works.  At  O.  a  diet  was  held  in  1527,  iu  wliicU  tm 
Reformed  or  Lutherau  doctrines  were  declared  to  be  tiic  established  creed  erf  J)*^ 


y  Google 


41  r 


Ot*e 
Odessa 

mark,  nnd  equality  of  riglita  wns  gpantcd  to  ProtP^tanta;  while  another  dlot  l-.elcl 
;>erc  in  1539  pi-oiiiuigutcd  the  laws  ri^gnlutiug  the  affairs  of  the  Beformed  Church. 

O'DENWALD.    Sec  Hvsse-Dabmstadt. 

O'DER  (L:it  Vvidrua,  Sluron.  Vjodr)^  oiio  of  the  principal  rlvero  of  Oermanr, 
rlsM'8  in  tlie  Lest-lberj^  on  ihe  tiible-laiid  of  Moravia,  more  titan  1000  feet  abtivo  ilso 
Kvel  of  the  sea,  ami  enters  Prnssian  Silesia  at  Odcreherg,  after  a  ctmrso  of  iome  60 
inih'8.  After  truvorsiue  Bniiidonlmr«j  in  a  iiorth-weat  direction,  it  cro!»s«  s  Ponnni- 
iiia.  and  empties  itself  Into  the  Stcttiner  Hntf,  from  whence  It  paKsef*  Into  the  Baltic 
by  tlie  triple  arms  of  the  Dicvenow,  Peeiie,  and  Swine,  Which  encUise  the  iplaiid^  of 
Woiliu  and  Usedom.  The  O.  ban  a  course  of  more  titan  500  miles,  and  a  river>btisin 
of  50,000  square  miles.  The  rapid  flow  of  tids  rivir,  induced  by  Its  very  cousidera* 
lilt'  fall,  is  accelerated  by  (iic  affluence  of  several  imi>ortant  monntain-etreams,  and 
tlins  con  tributes,  tcgt  titer  with  the  silting  at  the  embouchures  of  these  etrcums,  to 
render  the  navigation  diittcult;  great  expenpe  and  labor  being,  moreover,  necessary 
to  Iceip  the  embaukmeula  in  onfer,  and  prOvent  the  overflowing  of  the  river.  Tho 
0.  has  numerous  secondary  streams,  the  most  importaiit  of  which  are  the  Oppa, 
Nt!l?se,  Oitlau,  Klodnilz,  Bartsch,  Warte,  and  tho  Ihna;  and  is  conne<ted  with  ilio 
Havi'l  and  thence  with  the  Elbe  by  tlie  Finow  Cnnal,  and  with  the  Spree  by  tho 
Frif'dricli-Wilhelms  Canal.  The  chii*f  tratliiii?  port  of  the  O.  is  Swliiemundi',  which 
cous  itnies  an  itnpoi-tant  centre  for  tho  tn«nsfi?r  of  colonial  and  other  foreign  good.H 
toNortliera  Germany  and  Poland.  At  Ratihor,  17  luWv^  below  Odeiberg,  the  river 
ht  comes  navigable,  and  is  upwards  of  100  feet  in  In^eadtli ;  at  Oppelii,  in  PinssiMi 
Silesia,  it  has  a  breadth  of  238  feet.  As  a  bonnd:iry  rlv<r,  it  is  of  tmnHidi-rable  in;- 
l)ortaace  in  a  military  point  of  view,  and  is  well  defended  by  the  lortressesof  Ko8<  1, 
Grwpglogau,  Kiistrin,  and  Stettin. 

ODE'SSA,  an  important  seaport  and  commercial  city  of  South  Russia,  In  the 
povemmeiit  of  Khrrson,  stands  on  an  acclivity  sloping  to  tho  hhore,  on  the  north- 
west roast  of  the  Black  Sea,  82  miles  north-CMSt  of  tin;  mouth  of  the  Diiicht  r.  Lat. 
4«3  20*  11.,  long.  80°  44'  e.  The  Inirbor  is  formed  by  two  large  moles  defended  Iw 
ftroiiij  work,  and  is  capnble  of  containing  2«<0  ve^sels.  The  bjiy  is  deep  <u<jng:i 
even  c!o!»e  in  shore,  to  adndt  the  approach  of  the  hirgest  men-of-war,  and  is  frozou 
ouljr  ill  the  severest  wmters.  and  then  only  for  r.  shun  time.  The  promeni.dc  along 
the  face  of  the  cliff,  descending  to  the  shore  by  abroad  Ptone  stair  of  2i'4  steps.  U  thv) 
fjivorittjwnlk  of  thelnhabitaijfs.  Her.;  tili'O  stands  tlio  monument  of  thu  Due  do 
Kichclieu,  to  whom  in  great  part  Ihe  town  is  indebted  for  its  prosperity.  In  tlio 
pedestal  of  Ihe  monument  is  preprrvfd  tho  ball  by  which  he  was  bhot  during  th-t 
o-miJwrdment  of  the  town  by  the  idlied  fleet  in  ia'54.  The  university  of  C,  founded 
i'l  1855,  had,  h)  187T,  48  professors  and  252  ptudeuta  ;  a»id  the  library  possessed  ov«r 
150.000  volumes.  The  city  eoutinns  many  fine  edifices,  as  the  Cathednd  of  St 
NIeholris,  the  Admiralty,  the  Cnsloni-house,  &c.  Owjng  to  the  Intensity  of  the  litut 
in  Buinmer  (rising  ocaisionally  to  120<3),  :>nd  the  dryness  of  the  soil,  vegetation  in  thu 
vieinity  of  O.  is  very  i)t)or.  Jn  the  neighborliood  are  quarries  of  soft  stone,  which  Iti 
n^'d  for  building  pun)o>es  iit  O.  and  in  the  surrounding  towns.  One  of  the  great 
deficiencies  of  O.  used  to  Ikj  its  want  of  good  water  ;  but  works  for  securing  an 
ample  supply  from  the  Dniester  were  completed  in  1873.  Gsis  was  first  usid  in  O. 
ii  1S61 ;  and  tlie  theatre,  the  hotels,  rind  all  the  Istrger  houses  now  use  this  handiefet 
<  f  the  mtillelal  lights.  A  railway,  onened  in  1S72,  has  addetl  <'norinouslv  to  the  con> 
iiiunial  success  and  iniportsincc  of  O..  as  it  connects  It,  and  of  cour.-e  Kherson,  wlt'.i 
I  I'-  irovet-nmentH  nortit  and  ertst  of  it  in  Russjh.  TItc  estiAiated  value  of  the  various 
qmnitities  of  I'rain,  wool,  hides,  tallow,  and  oilier  ai  tides  of  e35)ort  for  the  year  1871, 
was  4:7.110,000,  of  which  amount,  the  value  of  goods  shinped  to  thii  United  Klni.'- 
do'ii  and  iis  colonies,  or  for  oiher  pints  of  Eiiro|>e,  in  Biitis'h  vessels,  was jG2.372.G0;) 
—about  a  third  of  the  whole  outward  triide.  The  rapid  strides  O.  has  made  in  <  oni- 
in;;rcrt  withiti  the  l-ist  few  years,  will  be  soon  when  this  latter  sum  is  compared 
with  the  correB|>onding  ones  of  1S58  and  1809  ;  the  former  your  shewing  the  sum  of 
£670,000 ;  nnd  the  lattt  r  exhibiting  a  fall  down  to  X405,000.  Tho  population  of  O.  iii 
1867  was  121,335. 

hi  ancient  times  O.  (CJr.  OdfHMift)  wns  inhabited  by  a  Ore(  k  colony,  an<l  later  by 
Tariar  tril)es.  In  the  beginning  of  tlie  15th  ^ ,  the  Turks  C(jn.«<tructed  a  fortress  here, 
Which  was  takeu  by  the  Kussiaus  iu  178?     In  \79J-  u  Kussiaii  fortress  was  built 


y  Google 


g22r?'  418 


Odoaoer 


fbelfed    1 


'  here,  aiid  became  the  nnclens  of  a  town  and  port,  which  two  years  after  rebdred 
the  name  of  Odea-^a.  The  Dae  de  RIcheliun,  a  Fre.  cii  euiignuit  hi  the  Riisaiaii  at- 
vice,  waa  appointed  governor  here  in  1803,  and  during  the  eleven  years  of  his  wit* 
administratioii,  the  town  prospered  rapidly.  fc$hiee  1823,  the  city  hnM  formed  part  of 
the  general  goveruorfitiip  of  South  RiiHsia ;  is  the  seat  of  its  uduiinistrutiou,  and  is 
the  residence  of  the  governor-general  and  of  uu.  arch-bishop.  The  advantugroiis 
commercial  position  of  the  city,  and  the  privileges  granted  to  it  by  goveniineiit,  Imt , 
chiefly  the  privileges  of  a  free  port.  I)etween  1817  and  18.'>S  (in  place  of  which  it  w\r : 
receives  an  annual  subsidy)  have  developed  this  city  from  a  mere  Tiuldsh  fortresia 
into  the  chief  commercial  town  of  the  Russian  empire  after  St  Petersburg  and  Rigi. 
On  the  outbreak  of  ttie  Crimean  War,  April  1S54,  tlie  British  Pteamer  Fnriou*  wnit 
to  O.  for  the  purpose  of  hrin«;iiig  away  ttie  BritlKli  coupuI.  While  under  a  flag  of 
truce,  she  was  fired  up.ni  by  the  batteries  of  the  city.  On  the  failiure  of  a  tvriueu 
message  from  the  adiniruls  in  command  of  the  fleet  to  obtain  explanations,  twelve 
war-steamers  invested  O..  22d  April,  and  in  u  few  hours  destroj'cd  the  fortificaUmu, 
and  took  a  number  of  Russian  vessels* 

ODEYPOO'R,  Oodypore,  or  Udaipur,  tlie  name  of  several  territories  in  Indta,— 
1.  The  principal  is  a  Rajpout  state,  also  calfed  Mey wai ;  area  about  ll,ft)0  eq.  ml, 
aiid  pop.  (1871)  1,160,000.-2.  A  tributaty  state  in  Chota  Nag])ore,  with  an  area  of 
1051  sq.  m. ;  pop.  27,703.-3.  Chota  O.  is  a  tribntaiy  state  in  Uujerat ;  area  650  m.; 
pop.  6^,913. 

O'DIN,  the  chief  god  of  Northern  Mythology.  According  to  the  saga?,  0.  and 
his  brothers,  Vile  and  Ve,  the  sons  of  jDoer^  or  the  first-l>om,  slew  Yraeror  Cliaos, 
and  from  his  body  Created  the  world,  converting  his  flesh  into  dry  laud ;.  his  blood, 
which  at  flrst  occasioned  a  flood,  into  the  sea;  his  bones  into  monutaius:  hiaskali 
into  the  vault  of  heaven ;  and  his  brows  into  the  spot  known  as  MidgaartL,  the  mid* 
die  part  of  the  earth,  intended  for  the  habitation  of  the  sous  of  raen.    O.,  as  tlie 


highest  of  the  gods,  the  Al/ader,  rules  heaven  and  earth,  and  is  omniscient  Aa 
ruler  of  heaven,  his  seat  is  Valaskjalf,  from  whence  his  two  black  ravens,  Hasina 
(Thought)  and  Mnninn  (Memory),  fly  daily  forth  to  gather  tidings  of  all  that  is  hmg 


done  tiiroughont  the  worid.  As  god  of  war,  he  holds  his  court  in  Valhalla,  whitber 
come  all  brave  warriors  after  death  to  revel  in  the  tumultuous  joys  in  which  tbey 
took  most  pleasure  while  on  earth.  His  greatest  treasures  are  his  eight-fooied  steel 
Sleipner,  his  spear  Gungner,  and  his  rmg  Dranpner.  As  the  concentration  and 
source  of  all  greatness,  excellence,  and  activity,  O.  bears  numerous  different  naowN 
By  drinking  from  Mimir's  fountain,  he  became  the  wisest  of  gods  and  men,  bailio 
purchased  the  disti  taction  at  the  cost  of  one  eye.  He  is  the  greatest  of  sorcerers, 
and  imparts  a  knowledge  of  his  wondrous  arts  to  his  favorites.  Frigga  is  his  queen, 
and  the  mother  of  Baldur,  the  Scandinavian  Apollo;  but  he  has  other  wives  aod 
favorites,  and  a  numerous  progeny  of  sons  and  daughters.  Although  ti»e  worrfiipof 
O.  extended  over  all  the  Scandinavian  lands,  it  found  its  most  zeaUous  followers  la 
Denmark,  where  he  still  rides  abroad  as  the  wild  huntsman,  rushing  over  laud  aud 
water  in  the  storm-beaten  sides  of  winter. 

The  historical  interpretation  of  this  myth,  as  given  by  Snorre  Sturleson,  thecotn- 
piler  of  the  •*  Helmskringla,  or  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Norway  prior  to'  the  Intro- 
<lnction  of  Chrlstiauity,"  and  followed  in  recent  times  hv  the  historian  Snhm,  i^  H««* 
O.  was  a  chief  of  the  (Esir,  a  Scjthian  tribe,  who,  fleeing  betore  the  nithlei*s  agjjn-^ 
eions  of  the  Romans,  passed  through  Oermauy  to  Scandinavia,  whore,  'hj  their  noW« 
appearance,  superior  prowess,  and  higher  intelligence,  they  easily  vanqnishejl  tl"' 
interior  races  of  tliose  lands,  and  persuaded  them  that  they  were  of  godlike  origin. 
According  to  one  tradition.  O.  conquered  the  country  of  the  Saxons  on  his  way;  aud 
leaving  one  of  liis  sons  to  rule  there,  and  introduced  a  new  religion,  in  which  he,  astlH* 
chi of  god  Wuotan,  received  divine  honor.^,  advanced  on  Ids  victorious  course,  and 
making  himself  master  of  Denmark,  placed  another  son.  Skjold,  to  reign  over  the 
laud,  from  whom  descended  the  royal  dynasty  of  the  Skjoldingar.  He  next  entered 
3w«;den,  where  the  king,  Gylfl,  accepted  his  new  rellL'ion,  and  with  the  whole  natinu 
worshipped  him  as  a  divinity,  aud  received  his  son  Yngni  as  their  supreme  lord  and 
LSgh-priest,  from  whom  descended  the  royal  race  of  the  rbglingnrs,  who  long  reijrn** 
fi  Sweden.  In  like  nmnner  he  fonndetl,  tbipngh  his  son  SiBimng,  a  new  dynasty  « 
^piorway ;  aud  besides  these,  many  sovereign  families  of  Northern  Qerirauy,  iaclM* 


y  Google 


A-{(\  Oderpoor 

•X  i  */  Odoactr 

Ingonrown  Baxon  pHncca,  troced  their clceceiit  to  Odir.  A«»  it  hnn  been  fonnd  ini- 
posiiihle  to  refer  to  oue  itidividiial  nil  the  luythicni  atul  hi^tor.Cill  el>  inents  wiii<  h 
gTDup  themselves  arooiid  the  nnine  of  O..  Wodiu,  or  Wnol:»u.  it  has  btn-u  eujrgoftt  d 
by  SaUin  and  other  hie>toriaii9,  that  there  miiy  havo  been  two  or  tluv  e  uucieiit  uorth<  rii 
heroes  of  the  name;  but  notwilhsinndiiiL'  the  couji'ctures  which  have  been  advnuctd 
since  the  very  duwii  of  the  historical  period  in  the  north  in  regard  to  the  orij^iii  and 
iiutive  coanlry  of  the  ussiiincd  O.,  or  even  the  time  at  uiik-h  lie  lived,  all  that  rehites 
to  hint  is  sliroaded  in  complete  oopcurity.  It  is  much  more  probable,  howcvtr.  that 
the  myth  of  O.  originated  in  uature-worship.    Sec  Scandinavian  Mythology. 

ODOA'OER  (also  Odovacer,  Odobagar,  Odovacbar,  Otacliar,  Ac,  and,  accoidi'  g 
to  St  Martin,  the  pame  as  Otti)Chur,  a  name  frequent  hi  Germany  durh  g  ilnj 
middle  ages),  the  ruler  of  Italy  from  the  year  476  to  493,  was  the  son  of  Edecon.  a 
Becretnry  of  Attila,  and  one  of  his  ambassadors  to  the  court  of  Constantinople. 
Tliia  Edecon  was  also  captain  of  the  ^k•yni,  who  formed  the  hodyj^-nard  of  the  kins 
of  the  IIuDS.  After  the  dt»tth  of  AtiUa,  he  remained  faitlifid  to  the  family  of  his 
master,  bntperished  nl>ont  463  iu  an  nn<qnal  struggle  with  the  Or^lrogotiis.  Ih;  left 
two  sons,  Onulf  and  Odoacer,  the  fornur  ol  whom  went  to  peek  hin  fortune  iu  fho 
Eai't;  while  O.,  after  leading  for  pome  time  the  life  of  a  bandit  chief  among  the 
Noric  Alps,  determined  to  iroieed  to  ItiOy,  whither  barbarian  adveniurerp  were 
flocking  from  alt  Euro|>e.  According  to  a  monkish  legend,  a  jiions  h«  rmit,  St  Seve- 
rinn.",  whoni  he  went  to  vipit  before  his  departure,  prophesied  his  fuiure  greatneps. 
0.  eutered  the  militaiy  sc  rvlce  of  the  Weptern  Konran  Empire,  and  rapidly  rope  to 
eminence.  He  took  part  in  i  ho  revolution  by  which  Orcptes  (475)  drove  the  femperor 
Jalius  Nepo:*  from  the  throne,  and  confi  rred  on  his  son  Ronmlup  the  title  of 
Augustus,  which  tlie  {leople  scofflngly  change  d  into  Angnstulus.  He  soon  |)erceived 
the  weakness  of  the  new  ruler,  and  r«holved  to  proIU  by  it.  He  had  little  difH- 
culty  iu  |)ersuadirig  the  barbaiian  ^oldicivj  mIio  had  iffectid  the  revolution, 
that  Italy  lieionged  to  thens  and  iu  their  name  demanded  of  Oiestes  the 
third  part  of  ihe  land,  as  the  reward  of  Iheir  help.  This  Orestes  re- 
fused; and  O.,  at  the  head  of  his  Hemlianp.  Rugiaiis,  TnrciliugiauB,  and 
Scyrri,  marchtxl  against  Pavia,  whicli  Orestes  had  garrisoned,  stormed  the  city, 
and  put  his  opponent  to  death  (476).  Bonmlus  abdicated,  atid  withdrew  into 
obpcnriiy.  What  l)ecame  of  him,  is  not  known.  Thus  perishc  d  the  Boman  em- 
pire.  ().  shewed  himself  to  be  a  wise,  modenite.  and  ))Olitic  ruler,  quite  unlike  our 
general  notion  of  a  barbarian.  In  order  not  to  offend  the  Byzimtiue  emperor .Zino, 
he  took  the  title  of  king  only,  and  caused  the  senate  to  despatch  to  ConptantinopU*a 
fluttering  letter,  in  which  it  declared  one  emperor  to  be  enough  for  both  East  and 
West ;  renounced  its  right  of  appoiutine  the  emperors,  expressed  its  confidence  iu 
the  civil  and  niilitaiv  talents  of  O.,  and  iH'gged  Zeno  to  confer  upon  him  the  admin- 
istraiiouof  Itily.  After  some  hesitation,  the  Byzantine  emperor  yielded  to  the  en- 
treaties of  the  senate,  and  O.  receive<l  the  title  of  Patrieius,  He  fixed  his  re^^idence 
nt  Ravenna.  Acconling  to  his  promise,  he  divided  among  bis  comiianions  the  thii^ 
p:wt  of  the  lund^of  Itidy— a  measure  far  less  unjust  than  at  first  signt  may  seem,  f<5r 
the  peninsula  was  then  almost  de]>opulated,  and  many  domains  were  lying  waste  and 
owmrless.  This  barbarhm  ruler  did  everytliing  in  his  power  to  lift  Italy  out  of  the  de- 
plonible  condition  into  which  she  had  sunk,  and  to  breathe  fresh  life  into  her 
nmuidpal  institutions — those  venerable  relics  of  nobler  days  I  He  even  re-t-stablished 
the  consulate,  which  was  held  by  eleven  of  the  most  illustrions  senators  in  pncession. 
maintniued  peace  tbroi^hout  the  |>eninsnla,  overawed  the  Gauls  and  Germans,  una 
r»-c<j|iquere<l  Dulmaiia  aud  Noricum.  In  religion,  though  an  Arian  himself,  lie  acted 
with  a  kingly  impartiality  that  more  orthodox  monarehs  have  rarely  exhibited.  Gib- 
lK>n  rohiarkH,  with  his  usual  }>oiuted  sarcasm,  that  tin*  silence  of  the  Catholics  attests 
tii»-'  toleration  wITn-h  ibey  enjoye<l.  The  valor,  wisdom,  and  success  of  O.  appear  to 
have  exc.ited  the  jealousy  and  alarm  of  Zeno.  who  encouraged  Theodoric,  king  of 
the  0-trogotliP,  a  still  greater  warrior  and  soven'igu  than  O.  himself,  to  undertake 
an  expeiliiion  against  Italy.  The  first  battle  was  fought  on  the  banks  of  ihelsoniius 
(tnoU.  iHonzo),  28th  August  489.  O.  was  beaten,  and  retreated.  During  his  retreat, 
he  hazarded  another  battle  at  Verona,  and  was  again  beaten.  He  now  hastened  to 
RoniH  to  lonae  the  inhabitants,  but  the  gales  of  the  city  were  closed  against  him. 

IRetiirnini;  northwards  to  his  capital,  Rjivenna,  he  rejissmibled  the  wrecks  of  his 
iinuy,  aud  iu  490  ouce  more  marched  against  the  Ostrogoths,  whose  advance-guard 
Digitized  by  Google 


Odomet«r  AOfi 

Oedema  ^--^ 

he  defeated  and  pnrsned  to  the  walls  of  Pavin.  Another  grefti  bnttlo  now  took  place 
on  the  hanks  of  the  Adda,  when  O.  was  vnnqulfhed  for  the  tWrd  lime.  lIeuowj«liut 
himself  np  in  Raveuna,  where  Theodoiic  oeBieijed  liitn  for  thr«-e years.  O.  then 
cnpitnluted,  on  cOMdition  that  the  king<lom  of  Italy  should  ho  shared  between  him 
and  Tlieodorlc  This  agreement  was  solemnly  sworn  lo  by  l)Oth  parties,  2Tih  Febra- 
ary  498  ;  hut  on  the  6tli  of  March,  O.  was  assassinated  at  ii  feast,  either  by  Theodoric 
himself,  or  by  his  con)m:ind* 

ODO'METER  (Gr.  odoa,  a  road,  mitrdn^  a  measure),  also  cnllecl  Perambtdator^or 
survey ing-wheely  is  an  instrumout  attached  to  a  carriage  or  other  yehicle.  Tor  ttie 
purpose  of  registering  the  distance  it  has  tnwelled.  Such  niuchines  have  been  iu 
use  fro'.n  an  wirly  peiiod,  and  one  is  descrilxjjjl  by  Vitruvius  hi  ilmt  part  of  his  work 
*'De  Architectnm"  which  is  devot(^d  to  machines.  'J'he  instrument,  as  coinmoQiy 
employed,  consists  of  a  train  of  wheel-work,  which  comhmnicates  motion  from  the 
axle  of  the  parriaije  wlieel  to  an  index  which  moves  round  the  circumference  of  a 
dial  fixed  in  one  .^ide  of  the  carriage  over  the  axle.  The  wheel-work  is  an-anged  m 
as  to  produce  a  great  diminution  of  the. velocity  impressed  by  the  axle  of  the  vehi- 
cle, and  the  dialis  ^o  graduated  that  the  index  can  shew  t!»e  uumlier  of  miles,  far- 
longs,  yards,  &c^,  traversed.  The  instrument  is  also  constructed  to  worl^  independ- 
ently, being  in  Ihis  case  provided  with  wheels  and  an  axle  of  Its  own  ;  when  this  is 
done,  the  wheel  is  made  of  such  a  siZi?  that  its  circumference  is  an  aliquot  part  of  a 
mile,  an  arrangement  whicli  greatly  simplifies  the  calculation  of  the  distance  traversed. 
The  complete  odometer  can  then  be  drawn  along  by  a  man  on  foot,  or  attached  bo 
hind  a  carriage.    See  Peoometeb. 

O'DONNELL,  Leopold,  Duke  of  Tetnan,  Marshal  of  Spain,  l>orn  iii  1809,  was  de- 
scended from  an  ancient  Irish  family.  He  entered  the  Spanish  army  wheo  yoniig, 
and  bravely  esponsed  the  cause  of  i\\4  infant  Queen  Isivbella  against  lier  nncle,  D«>a 
Carlos,  when  th^;  Carlists  were  overthrown,  he  was  created  Count  of  Lucena,  made 
General  of  Brigade,  and  Chief  of  the  Staff  to  Espartero.  He  look  ihe  side  of  tl»9 
Qu»'en-mother  in  1*40 ;  'emigrated  with  her  to  Prance.  at<the  time  when  her  auM 
seemed  desperate ;  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Orleans,  whert;  he  planned  injmy  of 
the  political  risings  and  disturoances  which  look  place  under  the  rule  of  Esp;irtcra. 
He  headed  in  person  a  revolt  of  the  Nav:irrese  against  the  minister,  but  on  iis  fuiinrs 
returned  to  France.  In  1843.  his  intrigues  agalnnt  E»partero  (q,  v.)  were  snccews- 
ful;  and  he  was  rewarded  by  the  governor-generalship  of  Cuba,  where  Ite 
anuissed  a  large  fortune  by  favoring  the  inquitnus  trade  in  slaves.  Wlien 
ho  returned  to  Spiiii  (1845)  he  intrigued  against  Bravo  Mnrillo  and 
Narvaez;  and  when  the  latter  was  succeeded  by  Sartorins,  O'D.,  proscribed 
by  tiie  government,  headed  a  military  insurrection.  Defente<l.  and  driven 
Into  Andalusia  in  1854,  he  issued  a  libeial  manifesto.  The  profligacy,  of  tlie 
court,  and  the  despotism  of  the  government,  favoretl  the  app<*ul;  and  when 
!^partero  gave  in  his  adhesion,  the  Spaniards  rose  tn  mastte^  and  repliiccd 
ti^  ex- regent  at  the  helm.  Espart(>ro  revei-sed  the  confiscation  against  0*D.,  nnd 
made  him  a  marshal  and  minister  of  war.  O'D.  again  plotte<I  againt^t  Iiis  old  oeno- 
fjictor,  and  in  July  1866,  supplanted  hha  bj  ncoup  d^etat.  Blood  was  shed  in  tl»e 
streets  of  Madrid,  but  O'D.  remained  president  of  the  conncll.  He  was  in  thrw 
mouths*  time  succeeded  by  Narvaez;  but  in  1868  he  returned  to  ])Ower  again  ;  and  in 
186^,  while  siill  holding  the  poj^itiou  of  prime  minister,  he  assumed  the  command  of 
the  army  sent  to  Morocco.  The  campaign  continued  for  many  inonlhs,  withoni  lend- 
ing either  to  reverses  or  glory.  The  Moors  dlnphiyi'd  an  entire  ab«ei.ce  of  military 
qualities;  and  O'D..  though  (successful  Tn  obncnre  skirmishes,  occupied  three  inoiiti»s 
in  tile  march  f  rum  Ceuta  to  Tel  nan.  A  battle  took  phice,  February  4,  1800;  O'D. 
gained  a  complete  victory,  took  the  Moorish  camp,  and  the  city  of  Tetnan  snrren- 
dered  to  the  Spaniards.  The  Emperor  of  Morocco  submitted  to  a  loss  of  territoiT, 
and  O'D.  was  raised  to  the  first  rank  of  the  Spanish  nobles  as  Duke  of  Tetaan.  »« 
remained  prime  minister  till  1866,  when  hiscubinet  was  npset  by  Narvaez.  He  then 
re<jeived  leave  of  absence — that  in  to  s;iy,  was  exiled,  and  spent  the  most  of  histline 
in  Paris.  He  died  at  Biarritz  in  1S67.  *  The  O'D.  ministiy  improved  the  fluauccs, 
army,  and  administration  of  Spain. 

(ECOLAMPADIUS,  Joanin»s— i  name  Litlni*«ed,  according  to  the  fashion  of 
the  age,   from  the  Germau  Johann    Hausscue.n— ouo  of  the  most  emhieutuf 


yGQogle 


■T?r 


A  01  Odometer 

**^^  ^dema 

the  coadjutors  of  Zwingll  In  the  Swi  s  Refonnatiou,  Dom  hi  1482  at  Weinsberg,  ia 
Swal)iji.  llis  fatliii-  de8tined  him  for  the  pioru^sioii  of  the  law,  aud  he  ttadicd for 
it  in  HeideHjerir  and  Bolojjna;  but  yielding  to  Ids  own  strong  inclination,  he  relin- 
quisht^  >thi»  etady  for  that  of  theology,  which  he  prosecuted  at  Heidelberg.  He 
ttien  became  tutor  to  the  sons  of  the  Mector  Palatine,  and  Bubscqiienily  pieaclier  iu 
Weinslierg.  ITjis  office  he  resigurd  in  order  to  htudy  the  Greek  langaajge  under 
Keuchlin  at  StuttguiL  He  also  learned  Hebrew  from  a  SpuuiKh  phy.-ician,  Mat- 
thew Adrian.  Being  appointed  preacher  at  Basd,  he  fornifd  the  acquaint :uice  of 
Erasmus,  who  highly  appreciated  nis  clasc'ical  attaiumruts,  aud  employed  hi?  nspis- 
taiice  iu  his  edition  of  the  New  Testament  In  1516,  (E.  left  Basel  for  Augsburg, 
where  also  he  filled  the  office  of  preacher,  aud  where  he  entered  into  a  convent.  But 
LotherV  publications  exercised  so  great  an  influeuce  on  him  that  he  left  the  con- 
vent, and  became  chaplain  to  Franz  Von  Sickingen,  after  whose  death  he  returned 
to  Basel  in  l.>22.  and  in  the  cap.icity  of  preachrr  aud  ijrofessor  of  theology,  com- 
nunced  his  career  as  a  reformer.  He  held  disjiutatious  with  supporters  of  the 
Clinrch  of  Rome  in  Baden  in  1626,  and  in  Bern  in  1528.  In  the  controvei-sy  con- 
cerning I  he  Lord's  8ui»per,  he  gi-jidually  ado|>ted  more  aud  more  tlio  views  of  Zwtngli, 
audat  last  mainfaiined  them  in  1525,  in  a  treatise,  to  which  flie  Swabian  mlnihters 
replied  in  the  •*  Synirramma  Snevicnm."  In  1529  he  disputed  with  Luther  iu  the 
conference  at  Marburg,  lie  died  at  Basel,  23d  November  15H1,  not  long  after  the 
death  cf  his  friend  Zaiugli.  He  was  renuirkable  for  his  gejitlenessof  eharacier. 
His  treatise,  *-DeRHU  Pjischnli,"  and  his  "Epistola  Canoiiicornm  Indoctornm  ad 
Eccinm,"  are  the  most  iioied  of  his  work;*.— See  Herzog,  ''Das  Lebeu  des  Joh. 
CEioianipadius"  (1848) ;  aud  Hagenbach's  "(Ecolampadins  (18o9). 

(ECUME'NICAL  (Gr.  oikmunenike,  "  of,  or  belonging  to,  the  mkoximeney"  **  the 
world ")»  the  name  given  to  councils  of  the  entire  church,  and  synonymous  with 
thi  more  ordinary  name  ^'general.*'  See  Council.  The  conditions  necessary  to 
constitute  an  oeeumenical  council  are  a  subject  of  Uinch  controversy.  As  the  hub- 
JHit  is  of  less  importance  in  Protestant  divinity,  it  will  be  enough  to  explain  here 
that  a  council  U  t^aid  by  Rounin  Catholic  divines  to  be  cBcumenical  in<.tliree  difler- 
ciit  ways :  viz.,  in  convocation,  in  eulebration,  and  iu  acceptjition.  For  the  first,  the 
fnnnuous  of  the  pope,  director  indirect,  is  held  to  i)e  necessary;  this  summons 
imist  be  addressed  to  all  the  bishops  of  lln'!  entire  church.  To  the  second,  it  is 
ii::'cespary  ihat  bishops  from  all  parts  of  the  churcb  should  be  present,  and  in  suffi- 
ci  lit  numbers  to  constitute  a  reaily  representaiive  aj^s-embly :  they  nmst  be  pre- 
H<led  over  by  the  |>op;%  or  a  delegate  or  dt^lcgntes  of  tl:e  pope ;  and  they  must  enj  -y 
lihsriy  of  discussion  and  of  speech.  For  the  third,  the  decrees  of  the  council  must 
b"  accepted  by  Mie  pope,  and  by  ibe  body  of  the  bisb()i)8  throughout  the  churcli,  at 
I'ast  tacitly.  The  last  of  these  conditions  is  ab-olutely  required  to  entitle  the  de- 
crei-s  of  a  council  to  the  character  of  oecnmetiical ;  and  even  tht;  decrees  of  jjrovin- 
c  al  or  national  councils  so  accepted,  may  acquire  all  the  weight  of  infallible  deci- 
sions, iu  the  eyes  of  Roman  Catholics. 

(EDE'MA  {Qt.  a  swellitw)  is  the  term  applied  in  Medicine  to  the  swelling  occa- 
Fsoned  by  ihe  effusion  or  ipftltration  of  serum  into  cellular  or  areolar  stmclures. 
The  subcutaneous  cellular  tissue  is  the  most  common,  but  is  not  the  only  seat  of 
t'.iis  affection.  It  is  occasionally  ob^'erved  iu  the  submuc  »us  and  subserous  cellular 
tissue,  and  in  the  cellular  tissue  of  the  parenchymatous  viscera ;  aud  in  some  of 
tli«'8<;  cases,  it  gives  rise  to  syniptojns  which  admit  of  easy  recognition  during  life. 
Thus  oedema  of  the  glottis  (see  Labynx)  and  oedema  of  the  lungs  constitute  well- 
marked  and  serious  forms  of  disease;  while  oedema  of  the  brain,  thouirh  not  easily 
recognised  during  life,  is  not  uncommonly  met  witli  iu  \he  pottt-iutnt&m  examinatiou 
of  msane  patients. 

(Edema  may  be  either  passive  or  active,  the  former  being  by  far  the  most  com- 
mon.   PoHxive  (Edema  aiist;s  from  impeded  venous  circulation  (as  from  obstruction 
or  obliteration  of  one  or  more  veins;  from  varicose  veins;  from  standing  conthiu- 
oiisly  for  long  periods*,  till  the  force  of  the  circulation  in  pnrtly  overcome  by 
[      the  physical  action  of  gi-avitation  ;  from  deficiency  in  the  rction  of  tbe  adjacent  muv- 
I      cles,  which  in  health  materially  aids  the  vimons  circulation,  &c.) ;  from  too  weak 
I      action  of  tiie  lieart  (as  in  dilatation  or  certain  forms  of  valvuhir  disease  of  that 
I      organ).;  or  from  a  too  watery  or  otherwise  dificubed  state  of  the  bluod  (as  iu  chlorosis, 

M       *    rf 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Oedenbn-g  AOO 

GBhlenschlager  ^-^'^ 

Bcnrvy,  Bright's  diaeaso,  Ac).  By  means  of  the  kllo^vlodge  dcriverl  from  pathologl- 
cjU  auatomy,  we  can  often  infertile  cause  from  the  sesit  of  tlie  Hwelling;  for  examiifc, 
cedemaof  the  face,  nsually  coinineiicing  with  the  eyelids,  is  commonly  c-jusedby 
obsrrnction  to  the  circulation  through  the  left  side  of  tlie  heart,  or  by  the  di>e.i8ed 
state  of  the  blood  in  Bright's  disease ;  and  cedema  of  tlie  lower  cxtremitiia  moe^cora- 
mou!y  ari.oes  from  obstruction  in  the  right  side  of  the  hcait,  ntiles."*  it  can  bii  trjcod 
to  the  pressure  of  the  gravid  ulerus,  or  of  accumulated  faeces  in  the  colcu],  or 
To  pome  otlier  local  cause. 

Active  (Edema  is  associated  with  an  inflammatory  action  of  the  cellular  tiwo'', 
and  u  most  uiarked  in  certain  forms  of  ei-ysipelas.  "It  is  firmer  to  the  touch,  and 
pressure  with  the  finger  produces  loss  pitting  tnau  in  tlie  pansive  fonn. 

From  the  preceding  remarks,  it  will  be  seen  that  oedema  is  not  a  disease,  bnt  a 
symptom,  and  often  a  "ymptim  indicatimr  great  danger  to  life.  The  means  of 
removing  it  must  be  directed  to  the  morbid  condition  or  i-ause  of  whidi  it  is  the 
symptom. 

OE'DENBURG  (Hung.  Sovrony:  anc  Sempronium),  a  town  of  Hungary,  capi- 
tal of  a  county  of  the  t*ame  name,  situated  iii  an  extensive  jplaiu,  about  two  irales 
west  from  tlie  Neusiedler  Seo,  t)n  the  Ilkva,  a  branch  of  the  Kanb.  It  is  connected 
by  railway  with  Vicnu.u  O.  is  one  of  the  most  l>eautif ul  towns  In  Hunj^ary.  It  has 
manufactures  of  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  potash,  nitre,  tobacco,  sugar,  eiutheii* 
ware,  glass,  cutlery,  &c;  and  a  considerable  trade  in  wme,  com,  tobacco,  w^ix, 
honey,  and  cattle,  the  products  of  the  neighborhood,  which  is  ricu  and  well  cclii* 
vated.  The  wine  of  Rnst«  a  small  town  eight  miles  north  of  O.,  on  hills  sloping  to  the 
Neusiedler  See,  is  one  of  the  bt*8t  wines  of  Hungary,  and  inferior  on  y  to  Tokay. 
The  Roman  station  of  (S«wpro»ittm  was  one  of  cousider.nble  importance;  and  iin- 
merous  Roman  remains  are  found  near  Oedeuburg.  The  iuhabitanis  of  0.  ar« 
mostly  of  Q:!nnan  race.    Pop.  (1869)  21,108. 

(E'DTPUS  (Qr.  Oidipous)^  the  heroof  a  celebrated  legend,  which,  though  of  a  most 
'    ■'     "  ■  ..   ,.     .    ™    •  .,  . .,     .  ^^  the  sob- 

vneniUy  n> 
te;  bo      * 
fatlier  ha viuiT  conMiltd  the  oracle  to  asccrtiin  whether  he  should  have  any  i 
wa««  informed  that  his  wife  would  bring  lortli  a  sou,  by  wbom  he  (Laiu;*)  should  ol- 

.  timately  l)e  slain.  Determined  to  avert  so  terrible  an  omen,  Lnius  ordered  the  »oa 
which  Jociste  ')ave  him  to  have  his  foet  pierced  throuirh.  and  to  be  exposed  to-per- 
i!»h  on  Mount  Cithaeron.  In  this  ho'pless  condition.  CE.  was  discovered  by  a  herds- 
man, and  conveyed  to  the  court  of  Polybus.  king  of  Corinth,  who,  in  allusion  to  the 
swollen  feet  of  the  child,  named  him  CKdipiis  (from  oideo^  to  KWell,  and  pons,  tlie 
foot) ;  and  along  with  his  wife  M«rope,  brought  him  up  as  bis  own  son.  Ilavhig 
come  to  man's  estate,  CE.  was  oin-  day  taunted  with  the  obscurity  of  his  osigiii,  and 
in  cons'-queiice  proceeded  to  Delphi,  lo  consult  the  oracle.  The  response  which  he 
received  was,  that  he  would  slay  his  father,  and  commit  incest  with  hia 
mother.  To  escape  this  fate,  he  avoided  returning  to  Corinth,  and  pro« 
ceeded  to  Thebe.*,  on  approaching  which  he  encountered  the  chariot  of  h)B 
father;  and  the  charioteer  ordering  him  out  of  the  way,  a  ciuarrt'l  ensnnl, 
in  which  OS.  iffiiorantly  slew  Laius,  and  thus  unconsciously  fulfllied  the  first 
part  of  the  oracle.  The  famoii!*  Sphinx  (q.  v.)  now  ai>peai*ed  near  Thebes,  nud  se»t« 
insr  herself  ou  a  rock,  proiwundod  a  riddle  to  every  one  who  pass^ed  by,  pnttius  10 
death  all  who  failed  to  solve  it.  The  terror  of  the  Thebans  was  extreme,  and  in  de- 
spair they  offi^red  the  kingdom,  together  with  the  hand  of  the  queen,  to  the  pewoa 

•  who  should  be  successful  in  delivering  4t  from  the  monster.  GE.  came  forwani ;  ih« 
Sphinx  asked  him,  "  What  b'-inir  has  four  feet,  two  feet,  and  three  feei;  only  one 
voice ;  but  whose  feet  vary,  and  when  it  has  most,  is  weakest?"  CE.  replied  that  it 
was  ''  Man  ;"  whereupon  the  Sphinx  throw  itself  headlong  from  the  i-ock-  (E.  mow 
bjcanife  king,  and  husband  of  his  mother,  Jocaste.  From  thoJr  incestuous  nnlott 
sprung  Eteoeles,  Polyidces,  Antigone,  and  Ismene.  A  mysterious  plague  now  devas- 
tated the  conntiy,  and  wIkmi  the  oracle  declared'  that  before  it  could  be  stayed,  the 
raunlei-er  of  Laius  should  be  banished  from  the  country,  (E.  was  told  by  the  pro(rfi«i 
Tiresia.s  that  he  him.^elf  had  lioth  murdered  his  father  and  committed  incest  witt 
his  mother.  In  his  horror  he  put  out  his  own  eyes,  that  he  might  no  more  look 
upon  his  fellow-creatures,  while  Jocaste  himged  herselt.    Diiveu  from  his  tbroiMi  6iy 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


revoltini:  nature  in  itself,  has  supiiliud  both  Jluripides  and  Sophocie.-*  wnu  the  sob- 
ject-matter  of  some  of  their  most  celebrated  tras^dies.  The  stoi-y,  as  gonenilly  re- 
lated, 18  as  follows:  CE.  was  ihe  son  of  Laius,  king  of  Thebes,  by  Jocaste;  hot  las 


423 


0«denbn'g 
Qih  ensch'ager 


his  sons  and  his  brothor-in-lftw,  Creon,  GE.  wandered  toward**  Atticn,  ncconipanied 
by  Antigone,  and  took  rt-fu^e  in  the  grove  of  tiie  £iiinenide«>,  who  charitably  removed 
him  fronf  earth ;  bnt  the  latter  part  of  his  life  is  differently  told. 

CBHLEN8CH LAGER,  Adam  GotfJob,  the  gn-atest  poet  of  Northern  Enrope.  was 
horn  in  17T9  at  Copenhagen.  His  t'nrly  yeam  were  ppent  at  the  palace  of  Prcdericks- 
horg,  in  the  neigliborliood  of  the  Danisth  capital,  wivre  liis  ftitherwns  employed, 
first  «8  organist,  and  afterAvards  as  steward  or  bniliff.  Dnring  the  aba<'nce  of  tlie 
royal  family  in  the  winter,  (E.  and  his  slstt-r  amused  themselves  in  roaming  over  tho 
palace,  and  examining  the  paintings  andwoik^of  art  which  it  contiiined,  and  in 
improvising  private  theatricals,  for  wl»ich  h«i  itupplied  original  piecen.  After  au 
irreiiular  nnid  desultory  conrse  of  cdncittion,  CE.'s  love  of  tlie  drama  led  him  to  offer 
his  services  to  tl»e  manager  of  the  Coi>enbagen  theatre ;  but  dlncovering  soon  that  he 
had  no  chance  of  rising  above  the  rank  of  a  mere  eupemnmerary,  he  enfcred  tho 
aiiiversity  of  Copenhagen  as  a  student  of  law.  For  a  time,  he  seems  to  ln>ve  pursued 
his  studies  with  tolerable  as<«idniiy,  uude[;tlie  directif>n  of  his  friend,  A.  8.  Oersted, 
wlio,  together  witli  his  distinguished  brotlier,  II.  C.  Oersted  (q.  v.)  had  cemented  a 
lifelong  friendship  with  bim.  CE.'s  sindieswere  interrupted  in  1801.  when,  on  the 
bombardment  of  Copenliagen  by  Nelson  and  Parker,  he  and  his  friends  <«rvcd  in 
the  student-corps  of  vohmteers.  After  this  event,  which  roused  the  dormant  patriot- 
ism of  the  nation,  (E.  found  the  study  of  law  too  irksomi ,  and  devoted  all  his  ener- 
gies to  the  cultivation  of  the  history  and  mythology  of  liis  own  conntry.  In 
18<^,  appeared  bis  first  collection  of  poems,  including  one  longer  dramatic  piece, 
"St  Hans  Af ten -Spil,"  which  attracted  favorable  notice  for  the  hvely  fancy  with 
wfiich  national  habits  and  local  cliaracterij^tics  were  nortrayed.  The  '*  Vnnhmders 
Saga"  in  the  "Poetiske  Skrifter,"  published  in  1805, *and  his  "Aladdin's  forui.der~ 
lige  Lampe,*'  completed  his  success,  and  raised  bim  to  the  rank  of  the  first  of  living 
Danish  poets ;  the  former  of  these  works  having  shewn  a  mni-vellous  capacity  for 
reflecting  the  dark  and  stem  coloiing  of  the  old  northern  Sngas,  while  the  fatter 

gave  evidence  of  a^rich  and  genial  poetic  fancy.  These  early  fSoYtB  were  rewarded 
y  the  acquisition  of  a  travelling  pension,  which  enabled  liim  to  spend  some  yeare 
in  visitfaig  various  parts  of  the  continent,  and  becoming  acquainted  with  the  great 
literary  celebrities  of  the  day,  such  as  the  Weimar  circle  of  whom  Goethe  was  the 
head.  Dnring  this  period,  (B.  wrote  his  *'Hakon  Jarl,'*  the  first  of  his  long  series 
of  northern  tragedies,  &t  Halle  (1807;  Eng.  trans,  by  F.  C.  Lascellen,  1875),  and 
his  '» Correggio,"  Jit  Rome  (1809;  Eng.  trans,  by  Theodore  Martin,  1854).  In 
1810,  (E.  retunietl  to  Dennnnk,  wliere  he  was  hailed  with  acclamation 
as  the  u^eate^^t  tragic  poet  Denmark  had  ever  known ;  and  bnving  soon  after- 
wards obtained  the  chair  of  asstluitica  at  the  university,  and  receive<l  various 
substantial  proofs  of  royal  favor,  he  manled,  and  settled  in  the  capi- 
t«il,  whrre  nis  p<mee  was,  however,  rudely  disturbed  by  a  literaiy  feud 
with  Baggesen,  the  Disnish  poet  and  ciitic,  who^e  poetical  supn-macy  had  been  su- 
persedi^d  i)y  that  of  (Ehlenschlfiger.  In  1819  appeared  one  of  CE.'s  most  masterly 
productiona,  "NordensGuder,"  and  this  and  the  numerous  dramatic  compositions 
writt'U  about  the  same  period,  shew  that  the  severe  criticism  to  which  his  writings 
had  been  exposed  dnring  the  celebrate*!  Bajjgesen  quarrel,  had  corrected  some  of 
tl»  faults,  and  lessened  the  self-conceit  which  had  characterised  his  earlier  works. 
His  reputation  spread  with  his  increasing  years  both  aliroad  and  at  liome ;  and  after 
having  repeatedly  visited  the  more  southern  parts  of  Eun)pe,  he  went  in  1829  to 
Sweden,  where  his  arrival  was  welcomed  by  a  public  ovation  ;  and  after  having  ^e- 
ceived  repeated  marics  of  friendship  from  various  sovereigns,  he  was  honoi*ed  in  his 
own  country  by  the  celeln-ation,  in  1849,  of  a  grand  pul)lic  festival  held  in  tiie  palace 
at  Copenhagen.  But  this  ovation  was  unfortunately  followed  in  less  than  two 
months  by  his  death,  which  took  place  in  January,  1850.  His  funeral  was  kept  as  a 
national  solenmity,  and  he  was  followed  to  the  grave  by  a  civic  procession,  which 
indnded  members  of  oveiy  class  of  society,  from  princes  to  artisans.  The  fame  of  (E. 
will  rest  principally  on  his  tragedies,  of  which  he  wrot«  24, 19  of  the  number  being  on 
northern  subjects.  These  were  all  composed  onginally  in  Danish,  and  re-written  by 
himself  iu  German.  Besides  those  already  referred  to,  the  best  art!  *•  Knud  den 
Store,"  "Palnntoko,"  *' Axel  og  Walborg,"  "  Voeringei-ne  i  Miklagord."  His  poems 
are  for  the  most  part  indifferent,  and  hisnnmerous  prr>8e  writings  deserve  little 
;  fiodce.    His  Danish  and  German  works  amount  in  all  to  62  volumes,  to  which  mus* 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Oesel  •  ^-^ 

be  lidded  4  vol  nines  of  his  *' ErindriDger,*' or  **  Antobiographical  RecollectiOM," 
published  altt  r  liiri  deatli. 

CEIL  DE  BCEUF,  a  French  term  literally  signifying  ox's  eye,  'applied  in  archi- 
tecture to  U108C  fiuall  roniid  or  OVal  openings  in  the  frieze  or  roof  of  large  Imild- 
ingi*,  wiiicli'  j^ervc;  to  give  light  !<►  !*pacea  otherwise  dark.  The  most  famous  is  that 
in  the  .mtoroouj  (where  the  couniere  waited)  of  llie  ro^al  chamber  at  Vt-rs-dlk^, 
.  wliich  'juve  name  to  the  Mpartiueut.  Hence  the  expression,  Les  Faates  de  I'Qiil-de- 
lioevf—\.  (!.,  the  liistory  of  the  courtiers  of  the  Grand  Monarque,  and  by  exteusiou, 
of  courtiers  in  general. 

(E'LAND,  a  long  and  narrow  island  in  the  Bnltjo,  lying  off  the  eastern  coast  of 
Sweden,  op]>ot«ite  to,  and  forming  part  of.  tlie  Van  of  Kaloiar,  and  at  a  distance  of 
from  4  10  17  miles  from  the  shore.  It  is  85  miles  in  lengtii,  aod  frona  2  to  8  uiilesiu 
breadtl).  The  area  ij«  588  square  miles,  and  the  pop.  46,000.  'J'he  island.  whitJi  w 
scarcely  more  than  a  lime  cIifE.  is  scantily  covered  With  noil,  bnt  in  some  parts  it  i« 
well  wooded,  and  lias  good  pasture-ground,  which  is  fumed  to  accouDt  by  tlie 
island  'ra,  wlio  rear  cattle,  horses  and  nheep.  In  favorable  sea^Kms.  barley,  oaui 
and  flax  yield  good  crops.  Tht3  Ashing  is  excellent  all  rpoud  the  coasts.  There  are 
lar^'e  ainm-worka  on  the  island,  and  an  extem^ive  line  of  wind-mills  along  theraoge 
of  the  Alwar  Hills,  near  which  stands  Borgholm  (pop.  829),  the  only  town  00  tiie 
island,  the  first  fcmndations  of  which  were  laid  in  181T.  To  the  north  of  the  iulwul 
lies  tlie  steep  but  wooded  island-cliff,  the  Jnngfmen,  or  Blaaknlla,  which  bears  tite 
mythical  reputation  of  having  been  tne  scene  of  various  deeds  of  witchcraft,  and  liie 
favorite  resort  of  wizards  and  witches. 

OELS,  a  small  town  of  Prus>'Ian  Silesia,  stands  on  a  plain  on  the  Oelsa,  or  OdJ^ 
16  milet*  east-north-east  of  Breslan.  Its  castle,  bjiilt  in  1568,  is  snrronmiea 
by  ruinj)arts  and  ditches.  It  coiiiains  a  gymnasium,  several  churches,  and  oUitt 
public  edifices.  Pop.  (18TI)  8124,  who  carry  on  manufactures  of  linens  and  cloth 
goods. 

(ENANTHY'LIC  ACID  (C,4H„Os,HO)  is  one  of  the  volatile  fatty  acids  of  die 

f general  formula  C^nU^nO^.  It  is  a  colorless  oily  fluid,  with  an  aromatic  nd<>r. 
ighter  than  water,  and  insolubU*  in  that  fluid,  but  dissolving  retidily  in  alcoliol  aul 
either.  According  to  Miller  (  *  Organic  Chomisiry,"  2d  ed.  p.  355),  it  may  beexposed 
to  a  cold  of  Qo  without  l>etoniiug  solid ;  while  it  boils  and  may  l)e  distilled 
(with  partial  decomposition)  at  298^.  It  Is  (like  nnmy  of  the  allied  fatry  acids) 
one  or  the  products  of  the  oxidation  of  Oleic  Acid  (q.  v.)  by  nit  ic  acid,  aud  is 
likewise  yielded  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  castor  oil.  wax,  and  varioas  fats. 
Its  most  ciiaracteristic  salt  is  the  cenanthylate  of  copper,  wnicii  crysluilises  in  beauti- 
ful green  needles. 

(ENOTHE'UA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Onacircuiem  (q.  v.),  having 
four  petals  and  eight  btainens,  the  calyx-limb  4-cleff,  the  segments  reflexed ;  thi- cap- 
sule 4-valved,  with  many  naked  seeds.  The  Evening  Pbimbose  (<K.  biennin).  a  native 
of  Virginia.. Ints  been  known  in  Europe  since  1614,  and  is  now  natnraHs«*d  in  nuny 
parts  of  Ifinrope  and  in  some  parts  of  Britain,  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  in  thickets,  on 
sandy  groniids,  &c.  It  is  a  biennial  plant,  and  produces  in'tb^  first  year  clli|»tlc  or 
obovate  obtuse  leaves,  and  in  the  second  yearastehi  of  1}^ — 4  feet  high,  which  »»e^"W 
at  it§  summit  numerous  yellow  flowers  in  a  leafy  spike.  The  flowers  are  framiui'  '•» 
the  evening.  The  root  somewhat  resembhs  a  carrot  in  shape,  bnt  is  sliort ;  if  » 
usually  red,  fleshy,  and  tender;  it  is  eafeiHn  salads  or  in  soups,  and  as  a  boiled  vege- 
table. The  plant  is  often  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  Iftrge  yellow  flowers.  Severil 
other  species  of  (Enotheta,  natives  of  North  America,  are  occasionally  cultivated  lu 
our  gardtms,  and  have  eatable  and  pleasant  roots. 

OERE'BRO,  an  inland  town  of  Sweden,  capital  of  a  Ian  of  tlie  same  narae,i*  siij- 
ated  ac  the  entrance  of  the  Swart-Elf  into  the  Heiimar  Lake,  100  ndles  wt*i&  (n 
Stockholm.  Pop.  al>out  10,000.  The  town  still  retains  many  memorials  of  its  e*™^ 
prosperity,  when  it  was  frequently  the  residence  of  the  Swedish  rulers,  who  fonnd 
its  central  iiositlou  in  the  more  fertile  southern  portion  of  the  kingdom  favur»W« 
both  in  regard  to  safety  aud  pleasantness  of  site.  The  old  castle  was  built  by  Bettg 
Jarl  in  the  18th  c.  and  was  in  after-times  frequently  chosen  as  the  seat  <«f  •■• 
national  diets.    O.  has  manufactories  of  waxclotli,  earpeti«/woollen  goods,  sto** 

DigitizSd  by  V:  " 


s 


425  2^. 

ings,  ginip.  and  mirrorp;  aud  these  iiidiiPtrial  prod  iicte.  togt-t  her  with  the  inDernle 
obtiiim^d  from  the  iiei-hhoriiig  silver,  copiMT.  and  iiou  luiuei*,  are  conveyed  lo  Goili- 
ciibors;  and  Stocktiolin  by  ineuiis  of  tite  extendi  ^re  &yi>teui  of  cuu;;l8  which  cuuuectp 
the  hikes  of  the  interior  witli  the  raaritiiue  ports. 

OEKS  TED,  llaus  Christlaij,  one  of  the  most  distinjrwished  bcieiitiflc  di^'cover(  rs 
and  pirysicists  of  iiiodem  tiiirep,  wtin  horn  in  177T  ai  kudkjubiiitr;  on  llie  Dtini^h 
island  Qf  Laugeland}  where  his  father  practised,  as  aii  apothecary.  lu  17^4  he  eu* 
tered  the  inrversity  of  Copcnhajreu,  where  he  took  tht- degree  of  doctor  of  pliilo- 
BOi)hy  ill  1799,  and  soon  aft«'rwar(li»  became absiftiiit  to  theprofcHeor  of  metlieine,  in  . 
wliich  capacity  he  gave  lectures  on  cheu»isti*y  and  initura!  puiloeopliy.  In  1806,  afn-r 
liaving  enjoyed  a  trnvelliug  Hcholarship  for  several  ye^irs,  and  visited  Holland,  the 
greater  part  of  Gennauy  aud  Paris,  he  was  ap}H)iiited  extraordinary  iirt»fest*or  of 
iiutnral  philosojiliy  in  the  university  of  Copeniuigeu.  lu  1812  lie  aiaiu  vising  Ger- 
many and  France,  lifter  having  published  a  niannal  nnder  the  title  of  ♦*  Videut<knben 
our  Naturen's  Almiiidelige  Love,"  and  **  FOrste  IndUdning  tilden  Almindelige 
Natnrlaere*'  (1811).  Duilnghis  residence  at  Berlin,  he  wrote  his  fainons  cbsay  on  the 
identity  of  chemical  and  electrical  force.-,  in  which  he  fl  si  developed  tlie  idejis  on 
which  werelMu-ted  his  «ri*eat  discovery  of  tlie  intimate  conn<  ction  existing  between 
magnetism  and  electricity  and  galvanism— a  treatise  which,  during  his  residence  in 
Paris,  he  transla;ed  into  Frenrh,  in  conjnnclion  with  Miircel  de^*aTe^».  In  1819,  he 
made  known  these  important  trntiis  in  a  Latin  essay  <'ltiiiled  "Experimenta 
circa  Effic.iciam  Conflicinx  Electiici  in  acum  Ma(?nelic.im, "  which  he  ad- 
dressed to  all  tiie  scientific  societies  and  the  leading  suvans  of  Europe  and  America, 
and  thus  niadt;  ^ood  JiIh  claim  to  be  legarded  asthe  originator  ot  the  new  science  of 
elect ro-ranjinetisui.  This  discovery,  which  formed  one  of  the  mo.*»t  important 
eras  ill  the  hi?loi-y  of  modem  physical  science,  obtained  for  O.  the  Copley  Medal 
from  the  Royal  Society  of  EuKland.  and  the  principal-nnithonniticjiliHize  in  the  ^ft 
of  the  Institnte  of  Paris.  IMie  original  and  leading  idea  of  this  great  discovery 
had  beeti  in  his  mind  since  1800,  when  the  discovery  of  tiie  galvanic 
battery  by  Volta  iiad  first  led  him  to  enter  upon  a  course  of  experiments  on 
the  prodnction  of  galvanic  electricity.  The  enunciation  of  bis  theory  of  electro- 
magnetism  was  followed  by  many  important  experiments  in  regard  to  the  compres- 
sion of  water,  and  by  numerous  other  chemical  discoveries,  amon^  which  we  may 
instance  his  demons'tratiou  of  the  existence  •£  the  metal  ahimininm  in  alumina. 
Tlie  influence  which  O.  exerted  on  th«  science  of  the  day  by  Ids  discoveriei*.  was 
recognised  by  the  learned  in  every  country,  and  honors  increased  upon  him  wiili  in- 
creai»ing  years.  He  was  correspond iuir  member  of  tiie  French  Institute,  p-rpetual 
secretary  to  the  Koyal  Society  of  Sciences  in  Copenhagen,  a  kniuht  of  the  Pnissian 
Order  of  Merit,  of  the  French  Legion  of  Honor,  ana  of  the  Danit^h  Order  of  the 
Dannebrog,  and  a  councillor  of  state.  O.'s  great  object  through  life  was  to  make 
science  popular  among  all  classes,  in  furtii^rance  of  wliich  lie  wrote  numerous 
works,  contributed  scientific  papers  to  the  ni-wspapers  and  magazines  of  his  own 
country  and  Gennauy.  and  in  addition  to  his  regular  prelections  in  the  univerf'ity, 
gave  eoni'ses  of  popular  scientific  lectures  to  the  public  mclndlng  ladies.  Among  the 
works  specially  written  to  promote  the  diffusion  of  sclent ifiu  knowl*  dge,  those  best 
known  are  '*Aanden  i  Naturen "  (Kop.  1845),  and  "Natur-laeren's  Mcchanische 
Deel  "  (Kop.  1847),  both  of  which  have  oeen  translated  into  ^everal  otiier  European 
Iringuages.  The  majority  of  his  more  im|)ortant  physical  and  chemical  papers  are 
contiuued  in  Poggendorff's  *"Annalen,"  and  were  written  by  him  in  German  or 
French,  both  of  wliich  he  wrote  with  the  same  facility  as  his  own  language.  At  the 
clo.'^e  ot  185Q,  a  national  jubilee  was  held  in  honor  of  the  50th  anniversary  of  IiIm  con- 
nection with  the  university  of  Coi)enhagen — a  festival  which  he  diu  not  long  hurvive, 
as  tiis  death  occuti\d  at  Copenhagen  9lh  March  1851.  A  public  funeral,  attended  by 
all  persons  tlistinguished  by  rank  or  leitrning  in  the  Danish  capital,  bore  testimony 
to  th»;  respvCt  and  esteem  wiih  which  he  was  re^rded  by  his  f(!llow-cii  izms.  among 
whom  hi^  memory  is  cherished,  not  merely  as  one  of  the  greatest  scientific  benefac- 
t  'rs  of  his  limes,  but  as  a  man  who  contributed  largely,  by  his  eloquent  and  earnest 
advocacy  of  liberal  principles,  to  the  attainment  of  the  high  degree  of  toustitutional 
freetlom*  which  Denmark  now  enjoys. 

OE'SEL,  an  island  of  Russia,  in  the  Baltic,  belonging  to  the  government  of  Li- 
touia,  and  lying  acroiis  the  mouth  of  the  Golf  of  liiga.    It  U  about^^ies  in 


■^^rn 


length  from  nortb-eagt  to  eowth-west,  and  a'lont  40  miles  in  greatest  breadth,  bnt 
the  soulh-westeni  end  couaistB  of  a  comparatively  narrow  jpeuiusuUi.  A  narrow 
Btrait  separMtt'S  the  north-eastern  end  from  the  Island  of  JJago.  'I'he  Horface  ifl 
imdnlatinir,  broken  by  low  hills,  mnrsliy,  waterctl  by  numerous  small  stn-ume,  aud  ■ 
well  wooded.  The  coast  is  generally  formed  by  high  cliff:*.  The  climate  is  niildet 
tlian  that  of  the  neiglihoring  contlneiit;il  dletrictsi.  The  rocks  are  generally  calcare*  ! 
ous,  and  the  coil  is  in  many  places, gravelly ;  tlieciiief  crops  are  wheat,  oate,  rye,  i 
barley,  and  peas.  The  i-earing  <jf  cattle,  hor^^es,  and  slieep,  au<l  fi«»hing,  are,  bow- 
ever,  the  principal  occupations  of  the  Juhabittmts.  The  seal-fishoiics  are  of  some 
iniporcauce.  Po^).  46,000,  mostiy  Lntheratu  The  only  town  is  Arensburg,  on  ih.i 
south-east  coast,  wiili  a  pop.  (1867)  ot  3266.  Many  of  the  Inhabitants  of  ArcnpbnnJ 
are  of  German  descent,  mi*  ar>i  the  nobles  and  clergy  of  the  island ;  but  tlie  peasjiutry 
are  Esthouian.  The  ishiuders  of  O.  weie  in  early  times  noted  as  pirates.  The 
Danish  king  Waldonmr  conquered  the  island  in  the  beginning  of  tie  13ih  century. 
All)ert  vou  BuxhOvd^u,  BiSiiop  of  Leal  in  Livonia,  obfciined  it  from  Demark  In 
122T,  in  order  that  lie  might  reduce  it-s  inhabitants  to  snbjectiou,  and  convert  tliein 
to  Christianity.  Being  partly  snbduetl  by  tlie  Teutonic  Knighis,  it  remaiue«l  for 
more  thiin  300  years  under  its  bishops,  the  st-at  of  V.ie  bishopric  being  tnmsferrt'd  lo 
the  island.  The  last  bishop  sold  it  to  Denmark  in  lfi69.  It  renndned  a  Danisbpro' 
vince  till  1645,  when  it  was  given  up  to  Sweden,  aud  in  HSl,  fell  into  ttie  hands  (A 
Russia.  • 

(ESO'PHAGUS  (Gr.  oio,  to  convey,  nxidphagein,  to  eat),  or  Gullet^  a  meinbra* 
jions  canal,  about  nine  inches  in  length,  extending  from  the  pharynx  to  the  stoiuach, 
and  thus  forming  a  part  of  the  alimentary  canal.  It  commences  at  the  lower  b<»i^er 
of  the  cricoid  caitilaare  of  the  larynx,  descends  in  a  nearly  vertical  direction  along;, 
tlie  front  of  the  spine,  passes  through  an  oi)enin<4  in  the  diaphragm,  and  thus  enters 
the  abdomen,  and  tenniinites  In  the  cardiac  orifice  of  tlie  stomach  opposite  the  nintli 
dorsal  vertebra.  It  has  three  coats— viz..  an  external  or  muscular  coat  (cousistfaig 
of  two  strata  of  fibres  of  considerable  tlrlckness— an  external,  lon^tudiual,  aud  an 
iuteiiiai,  circular) ;  an  internal  or  mucous  coat,  which  is  cohered  witii  a  thick  layer 
of  squamous  epithelium ;  and  an  hitermedlate  cellular  coat,  uniting  ihe  mnscnlair 
and  nmcous  coats.  In  this  tissue  are  a  large  nninl>er  of  oesophageaf  glands,  which 
oiHjn  upon  the  surface  by  a  long  excretory  duct,  and  are  most  numerous  round  the 
cardiac  orifice,  where  they  form  a  complete  ring. 

The  oesophagus  is  liable  to  a  considerable  number  of  morbid  changes,  none  of 
which  are,  however,  of  veiy  common  occurrence. 

The  most  pix)minent  sym])tom  of  (Eso^hagitis,  or  Inflammation  of  the  (Btwpha* 
gtis.  is  i>ain  between  the  shouldt^rs,  or  behind  the  trachea  or  sternum,  angineuted  in 
deglutition,  which  is  usually  more  or  less  difiicnit,  and  sometimes  impossible,  Tli6 
altection  is  regarded  as  a  very  rare  one,  unless  when  it  originutes  from  the  direct  ap- 

filication  of  irritating  or  very  hot  substances,  or  from  mechanical  violence— as,  for 
nstAiice,  from  the  unskilful  application  of  the  stomach-pump- or  probaug.  Dr  Cop' 
land,  however,  is  of  opinitm  that  it  is  not  unfroquent  in  children,  particularly  during 
infancy,  and  observes  that '* when  the  milk  is  thrown  up  unchanged,  we  should 
always  suspect  the  existence  of  inflammation  of  theoesophiigus."  The  orjlinaiy 
treatment  employed  in  inflammatory  diseases  mupt  be  adopted ;  and  if  inability  to 
swallow  exists,  nourishing  liquids,  such  as  strong  beef-tea,  must  be  injected  iuto  the 
lower  bowel. 

Spasm  of  the  (E8opha{fU&-'&  morbid  muscular  contraction  of  the  hibc,  prodncing 
more  or  less  difficulty  of  swallowing— is  a  much  more  common  affection  thau  in- 
fliminatlon.  The  spasm  generally  comes  on  suddenly  during  a  meal.  Upon  an  at- 
tempt to  swallow,  the  focw  is  arrested,  and  is  either  immediately  rejected  with  con- 
siderable force,  or  is  retained  for  a  time,  and  then  brought  up  by  regnrgitaticm ;  the 
former  happening  when  the  contraction  takes  place  in  the  upper  part  of  the  canal, 
and  the  latter  when  it  is  near  the  lower  part.  In  some  cases,  solids  can  be  swallowed, 
while  liquids  excite  spasm;  while  in  otiier  cases  the  opposite  is  observed;  bnt  in 
general  either  solids  or  liquids  suffice  to  excite  the  contraction,  virfaen  a  predisposi- 
tion to  it  exists.  The  predisposition  usually  consists  in  an  excitable  state  of  the 
nervous  system,  such  as  existn  in  hi'steiia,  hypochondriasis,  and  generally  in  a  de- 
bilitated condition  of  the  body.  An  attack  may  consist  of  a  single  paroxywH, 
lasting  only  u  few  boar«,  or  it  may  bo  more  or  less  persisieuLlor  months  or  «f«» 

Digitized  by  VjOO^, 


'±^  i  Offa's 

yearn.  The  trentment  must  be  directed  t^  the  e«tal)liplimoi>t  of  the  gcueral  health, 
by  tiie  ndintiiitttrntioii  ot  tonicfi  and  aiiti-ftpn^niodici*,  hy  attentiun  to  the  bowels  mm 
tlic  various  secretionis  by  exercise  in  the  ©iwii  air,  the  shower-bath,  n  Dntritioiis  diet, 
&c  :  and  by  the  avoidance  of  tite  excessive  n^e  of  strong  tea,  coffee,  and  tobacco. 
Care  mnst  also  be  taken  not  to  swaliow  anything  fniperfectlv  masticated  or  too  liot ; 
sind  Uie  occasional  passage  of  a  l)onipe  is  recommended.  Brodie  relates  a  case  tliat 
ceawd  spontaneoasiy  on  tlie  removal  of  buying  i)ile8.  Strychnia  is  deserving  of  a 
trial  wlien  other  means  fail ;  and  if  the  affection  assuine  a  decidedly  periodic  form, 
qoinia  will  nsnally  prove  an  effectual  remedy. 

ParalynH  qftM  (Etiopfuigits  is  present  in  certain  forms  of  organic  disease  of  the 
brniu  or  npinal  cord,  which  are  seldom  anieua1>le  to  frfatmenl,  and  is  often  a  very 
iin])orlant  part  of  the  palsy  that  so  frequently  occurs  in  the  most  severe  and 
chronic  cases  of  insanity.  lu  this  affection  there  is  inability  to  swallow,  but  no  pain 
or  other  symptom  of  si)asm ;  and  a  l>ongle  may  l)e  i)a88ed  witltoiit  obstruction,  rhe 
patient  mu:«t  be  fed  by  tlie  stomach-pumo,  and  nutrient  injections  of  strong  beef- 
tea  should  l)e  thrown  Into  tlie  lower  bowel. 

PermanetU  or  Organic  Stricture  of  the  (Kaophagns  may  arise  from  inflammatory 
thickening  and  induration  of  its  coats,  or  from  scirrhous  and  other  formations, 
situated  eitlier  in  the  walls  of  or  external  to  the  tube.  The  most  common  seat  of 
this  affection  is  at  its  upper  part.  The  symittoins  are  persistent  and  gradually  in- 
creasing difficalty  of  swallowing,  occasionally  aggravated  by  fits  of  spasm ;  and  a 
boogie,  when  passed,  always  meets  with  resistance  at  I  he  same  spot  When  the 
contraction  is  due  to  inflammatory  thickening,  it  may  arise  from  the  aimse  of 
alcoholic  drinks,  or  from  swaliowing  l>oiling  or  corrosive  fluids ;  and  it  is  said 
that  it  lias  l>eeu  induced  i)y  violent  retching  in  sea-sickness.  If  unrelieved,  the 
disi'sse  must  prove  fatal,  either  by  ulceration  of  the  tnl)e  around  the  seat  of  tiie 
stricture,  or  by  sheer  starvation.  When  the  affection  originates  in  inflammation, 
some  advantage  may  be  derived  from  a  mild  course  of  mercury,  occasional  leeching, 
.nud  narcotics ;  and  especially  from  the  occasional  passage  of  a  iMingie,  of  a  halt- 
probang  (an  ivory  bail  attaclied  to  a  piece  of  whalebone),  or  of  a  piece  of  sponge 
mdisteued  with  a  weak  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  If  it  is  dependent  upon  malig- 
nant disc]ise,  and  tlie  tissues  have  b<>come  softened  by  the  infiltration  of  the  morbid 
deposit,  the  botigie  mnst  be  directed  with  Ibe  greatest  care  thronph  the  stricture,  as 
a  false  passage  nniy  be  easily  nnide  into  important  adjacent  cavities. 

Foreign  bodies  not  very  nnftequently  )>ass  into  the  cesophagus,  and  become  im- 
pacted there,  giving  rise  to  a  sense  of  clioking  and  fits  of  suffocative  cough,  especi- 
ally when  they  are  sealed  in  its  up|)er  i>art.  They  may  not  only  cause  immediate 
death  by  exciting  siMism  of  the  glottis,  Imt  if  allowed  to  remain,  may  excite  ulcer- 
ation of  the  parts,  and  thus  oiiise  death  by  exhaustion.  If  the  body  Is  small  and 
sharp  (a  fi8h-l)one,  for  example),  it  may  often  l)e  got  rid  of  by  inaldng  the  patient 
swallow  a  laricc  mouthful  of  bread ;  if  It  is  large  and  soft  (such  as  too  large  a  mouth- 
ful of  meat),  u  may  generally  l)e  i)ushed  down  into  the  stomach  with  tlteprobang; 
while  large  hard  bodies  (such  as  pieces  of  bone)  should  be  brought  up  either  by  the 
tiction  ofau  emetic,  or  by  long  curved  forceps.  If  the  offending  body  can  neither 
be  brought  up  nor  pushed  down,  it  must  he  extnicted  by  the  operation  of  QSsophago- 
/omy—au  operation  which  can  only  be  perfoi-med  when  the  im|Micted  body  iauot 
very  low  down,  and  wUich  it  is  uniieoessary  to  describe  in  tliese  pages. 

(E'STRED-dE,  a  family  of  dipterous  insects,  haviuL'  a  mere  rudimentary  proboscis 
or  none,  the  palpi  also  sometimes  wanting,  and  the  mouth  reduced  t.o  three  tubercles ; 
the  antennie  short  and  enclostni  in  a  cavity  in  the  forepart  of  the  head ;  thealxlomen 
lari'e.  Tiiey  are  generally  very  haiiy,  the  hair  often  colored  in  iing<».  They  resem- 
ble flesh  flie^i  in  their  general  appearance,  and  are  nearly  allied  to  Mitaciace.  'I'he 
l>erfect  insect  is  very  short  lived.  The  females  deposit  their  e^gs  on  different  8p<icieH 
of  herbivorous  mammalia,  each  insect  being  limited  to  a  particular  kind  of  quadri  • 
ped,  and  seh*ctlug  for  its  eggs  a  sitnalion  on  the  animal  (suitable  to  the  habits  of  the 
larva,  which  are  diff^Tt-nt  in  different  species,  alihougli  tiie  larvfeof  all  the  species  are 
piirasites  of  herbivorous  quadrupeds,  'i'iie  characters  and  habits  of  some  of  ti;c 
must  notable  spec  es  are  described  in  the  article  Box.  Animals  seem  generally  to 
liave  a  strong  instinctivu  dread  of  the  O.  which  infest  them. 

0'PPA»S  DYKE,  a  remarkable  relic  of  antiquity,  nn  entrenchment  extendh>i^ 
oloug  tlM  whole  border  of  JBoglaad  oud  Walea,  from  the  uorth  coast  of  Fllnt64i|^, 


Offenbaeh  AOQ 

Oflac6r«  *-0 

on  the  estuaiT  of  the  Dee,  tlirongh  the  counties  of  Denbigh,  Montgomery,  Sa'op, 
Itadnor,  and  Hereford,  into  Glouccgtereshin.*,  where  its  eoutiieru  t^tuiiiatiou  is  near 
tlie  mouth  of  the  Wye,  in  the  grouuUs  of  Sydbuiy  Park,  wiiich  overlook  the  estoaiy 
of  the  Severn.  In  some  places,  it  \s  nearly  obliterated  by  cultivation  ;  in  othera,  it 
in  of  con8lderal)le  height,  alihoni.'h  it8  appearance  nowhere  indicates  that  it  can  ever 
have  been  of  much  value  as  a  rampart.  It  is  therefore  generally  supposed  to  have 
been  chiefly  intended  as  a  line  of  demarcation.  Nearly  parallel  with  it,  Imt  atft 
distance  vaiyin^  from  a  few  hundred  yards  to  three  miles,  on  the  eastern  or  J^^eh 
side  of  it,  is  WaWs  Dyke^  a  similar  relic  of  antiquity,  which,  however,  seems  never  to 
liuve  been  so  great  a  work,  and  is  now  in  many  places  much  obliterated.  It  h&B 
been  conjectured  that  the  space  between  them  was  neutral  ground  where  the  Ando- 
Saxons  and  Wel!»h  met  for  trading  or  ot  her  purposes.  The  principal  dyke  is  uscrioed 
l)y  tradition  to  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  who  reigned  in  the  8th  c. ;  bat  this  isiBalteritf 
tradition,  and  not  of  histoiy. 

OFFENBACH,  Jacques,  a  composer  of  dramatic  music,  who  enjoys  high  popu- 
larity over  the  continent,  of  German  hirth,  but  a  naturalised  Frenchman.  He  was 
born  in  1819,  became  chef  d'oickestre  in  the  'l«h6Atre  Fran9ais  in  Paris  in  1847,  awd 
afterwards  manager  of  the  Theatre  des  Bouffes-Parisiens.  He  has  composed  a  vast 
number  of  ligl>t,  lively  operetta*,  **Le  Manage  aux  Lanterues,"  **La  Fille  d'Ele- 
Bondo,"  &c.,  i)erfect  as  musical  trifles ;  but  tlie  productio;is  by  wiiich  be  is  best 
known  are  a  series  of  bottfonneries  mtmcalsa,  or  burlesque 'opera?,  inelndii^ 
"Orph6e  aux  Enfers,"  "L.-^  Belle  H61dne,"  ♦•La  Barbe  Bleu,"  "La  Grande 
Duchess'-,"  *' Genevieve  de  Brabant,"  and  "Roi  Carotte,"  composed  with  theratlior 
i^uestiouahle  aiu)  of  fiarodyinjj  tnusic  of  a  more  sewous  description.  The  high  pub- 
lic favor  accorded  to  his  works  lias  of  late  yeai-s  extended  to  England. 

O'FFENBACH,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Hesse-Darmstadt^,  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  river  Main,  within  the  domains  of  the  Princes  of  If«enDurg-Birstcin,  4  miles 
south-east  of  Frankfurt.  Pop.  (18T0)  22,691.  O.  is  pleasantly  situated  in  one  of  tlie 
richest  parts  of  the  valley  of  the  Main,  and  is  one  of  the  most  importaut  niaunfaic* 
turing  towns  in  the  provmce.  Among  the  industrial  products,  its  carriages  have  ac- 
quired a  pre-eminent  character  for  excellence;  and  next  to  these,  stand  its  book- 
bindings, articles  of  jewellery,  gold  and  silver  goods  carpets,  and  silk  fahrics.  It 
lias  also  good  manufactories  of  wax -cloth,  papler-macho  simlf-boxes,  tin-lackered 
wares,  umbrellas  and  pnra sols,  wax- candles,  leather,  hats,  tobacco,  sugar,  and  ginera>- 
bread  and  spiced  cakes.  O.  has  several  churches,  and  a  Jewish  synagogue.  Tlic 
palace  is  the  winter  residence  of  the  Isenbursr-Birstein  family,  to  whom  the  old  castle, 
now  in  ruin?,  also  belongs.  A  pontoon-bridge  across  the  river,  and  a  railway  to 
Frankfurt,  facilitate  intercomnmnication,  and  tend  materially  toward^s  the  maiute- 
nance  of  its  active  trade. 

OFFENCES  AGAINS  r  RELIGION,  Public  Peace,  &c.  See  Religion,  Pbaci, 
&c 

OFFER  AND  ACCEPTANCE  is  oue  mode  of  entering  into  a  contract  of  sale. 
At  an  auction,  tlie  highest  offer  is  geni'rally  accepted  as  a  matter  of  course;  and 
when  accepted,  the  contract  is  completed.  An  offer  is  often  made  by  letter  from  W 
merchant  to  another  to  buy  or  sell  goods.  In  such  a  case,  the  party  offering  is  botUM 
to  wait  until  he  sets  an  aiiswer  by  return  of  post  or  messenger;  for  uuiil  then  the 
offer  is  supposed  to  be  continuously  made.  Bat  if  A  offer  to  B  periionally  to  flell, 
and  B  ask  time  to  consider  for  a  day,  or  any  given  time,  A  is  not  l)Ouud  to  wait  a 
single  moment,  according  to  English  law,  and  may  withdraw  at  any  time  from  tbe 
offer,  because  iie  had  no  legal  cousidei*aiion  for  waiting;  whereas,  in  Scotlnud«ut 
the  same  circumst^iuces,  A  would  be  hound  to  wait  tlie  time  agreed  npou.  ^ 

OFFERING.  Under  the  head  First-feuits  (q.  v.)  have  l)cen  described^  vari- 
ous offerings  prescribed  in  the  Jewish  law.  We  shall  have  occasion  to  cousid«^ 
under  the  head  of  Sacrifice  (q.  v.),  nome  further  questions  connected  withtlie  «»«>- 
iect  of  offerings  111  pnhlic  worship.  In  the  Cliristian  community  there  appears  tu 
have  existed,  from  the  (earliest  times,  a  practicii  of  making  voluntary  offerings,  for 
purposes  not  directly  connected  with  pubic  worship.    See  Offertory. 

O'FFERTORY  (Lat.  o^^-^onwm,  from  ofero,  1  offer)  is  the  name  given  to  that 

E)rtiou  of  the  public  lituriiy  of  the  Roman  Cafholic  Church  with  which  the  eocbar- 
tic  service,  strictly  so  called,  commences.   In  the  Romuu  Litui^pr,  it  cousisti  <tf  OOi 


y  Google 


429 


Oiiimbach 
Office  m 

or  two  verres  from  J»ome  book  of  Scripture,  generally  from  the  Old  TesUiineiit,  but . 
eoiiietunea  also  from  the  Einsiled.    In  tho  Aiiibroeian  Liturgy  U  consists  of  a  prayer, ' 
similar  iu  form  to  the  eoUect  or  secret  of  tlie  inut>8 :  niui  in  both,  this  recital  is  fol- 
lowed by  lite  preparatory  ofEeriug  up  uf  the  bread  and  wiue,  accompanied  by  certain 
cerenioiiips  ond  fomw  of  pniyer. 

.  This  oSeHiig  ot  the  bi-eiia  and  wine  in  tlie  public  !«enrice  became,  from  a  v<»ry 
early  perio<l,, the  occasion  of  a  voluntaiy  offering.  On  the  part  of  the  faitiifnl;  orljr- 
iii.'iliy.  it  'would  seem,  of  the  bread  and  wine  designed  tor  tlie  encharistic  celebration 
and  for  tbe  commimfou  of  the  priest  and  tbe  congregation,  sometimes  even  includ- 
ing the  nbsent  meml>erB,  nud  also  for  the  (Agape,  or  iH>mniou  sacred  feast,  wliich  ac- 
companied it.  Tliat  portion  of  the  ofEerii.gs  wliich  remnined  In  excess  of  what  wt^s 
requisite  for  these  pnrposes  was  applied  to  tlie  relief  of  tlie  poor,  and  to  the  snpiiort 
of  the  clergy.  These  offerings  were  ordinarily  made  by  the  faithful  in  person,  and 
were  laid  upon  the  altar;  and  the  Ambros'an  rile  still  preserves  thi**  ns^age  in  a  cer- 
emuuiul  which  may  tte  witnessed  in  the  chtliedral  of  Milan.  By  degrees,  other  gifts 
wert\  superadded  to  those  of  brejid  and  wine— as  of  corn,  oil,  wax,  noi  ey,  eggs,  but- 
tOT,  fruit  8,  la  nibs,  fowl,  and  other  ammals;  and  eventually  of  eqiiivaleuts  iu  money 
or  other  objects  of  value.  The  hist-nanied  class  of  offerings,  however,  was  not  so 
commonly  made  upon  the  altar  and  during  the  public  liturgy,  as  in  the  form  of  free 
g^fts  pi'esented  on  the  occasion  of  oiher  ministerial  services,  as  of  baptism,  mar- 
riages, funerals,  Jkc;  and  from  this  has  arit^eu  the  practice  in  the  Koman  Catholic 
Church  of  the  mas.^-offering,  or  hmwrarinm^  which  is  given  to  a  priest  with  the  un- 
derstanding that  he  shall  offer  the  maw  for  the  intention  (whence  the  honorarium 
itself  is  often  called  an  "  intention  ">  of  the  offereut  In  some  places,  however,  and 
among*  them  in  some  part*  of  Ireland,  offerings  "in  kind"  are  still  in  use,  not 
indeed  in  the  form  of  the  ancient  offertory,  hut  in  the  shape  of  contributions  of  corn, 
bay,  &c,  at  stated  seasons,  for  the  use  of  the  parochial  clergy.  At  weddiiigs  also, 
and  in  some  places  at  funerals,  off  rings  in  money  are  made  by  ibe  relations  and 
friends  of  the  newly  married  or  of  the  deceased.  In  the  Liturgy  of  the  English 
Clini-ch  allusion  is  made  to  the  practice  of  oblations,  and  some  of  the  recent  coiitro- 
versies  have  turned  upon  the  revival  of  the  *•  offertory,"  which  h:is  found  some  ad- 
vocates. 

OFFICE,  The  Divine  (LaL  offlcittm,  duty),  is  the  name  popularly  given  to  the 
Canonical  Hours  (q.  v.)  prescribed  to  hi-  ri-ad  each  day  by  bif-hops,  prio.«ta. 
deacons,  and  sub-deacons  iu  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Under  the  head  Brk- 
viARY  will  be  found  a  general  description  of  the  contents  and  the  arraigement  of 
that  great  service-book.  The  spet-ial  portionr*  n>8igne<iL.for  any  particular  day  con- 
stiinte  what  is  called  the  divine  office  tor  that  day ;  and  each  person  who  is  bound  in 
virtue  of  his  order  to  recite  the  Breviary,  is  obliged,  undei;  pain  of  sin,  to  rea'.l,  not 
merely  with  the  eye,  but  with  distinct,  although  it  niay  be  j^ilent,  articulation,  each 
and  all  these  pori ions.  The  adjuptmeni  of  the  portions  of  the  oflflce  of  ei.ch  day, 
the  combination  of  the  "ordinary  "  poiiions  which  are  read  every  day  in  common, 
with  the  parts  '*  proper  "  for  each  particular  day.  is  a  matter  of  considerable  diffi- 
culty, and  is  regulated  by  a  complicated  system  of  Rubrics  (q.  v.). 

OFFICE,  Holy,  Congregation  of  the.  In  tie  article  Inquisition  (q.  v.)  it  has  been 
explained  that  that  tribunal  is  sometimes  called  by  the  name  Holy  Office.  That  title, 
howtver,  properly  beloniirs  to  the  "Congregation  "  at  Rome,  to  wliich  the  direction 
of  the  tribunal  ot  the  inquisition  at  Rome  is  subject.  This  Conirregation  was  eslab- 
llslied  by  Paul  III.  in  1542,  and  its  organisation  was  completed  By  Sxtus  V.  Itcon- 
sisisof  twelve  cardinals,  a  commissary,  ccnsnlters,  and  qualifiers,  whose  duly  it  is 
'  to  examine  and  report  on  each  case  for  the  information  of  tlie  ciirdinals.  in  the 
most  solemn  sessions  of  the  Holy  Office  the  pope  himself  presides  iu  iwrsou.  The 
Holy  Office  ilecides  qtiestions  of  heresy,  inquires  into  crimes  against  faith,  nud  judges 
ecclcfiasfical  offences,  especially  in  the  adiidnlstraiicm  of  the  sacraments.  In  the 
present  condifion  of  the  papal  court,  the  action  of  the  H.  O.  is  much  restricted. 

OFFICE  COPY  is  a  copy  made  of  a  document  by  some  offlc<!r  of  a  court  in 
whose  custody  the  docnmeiit  is  ;  and  in  general  such  copies  ai*e  receivaide  iu  evi- 
dence, without  further  proof  in  the  same  court,  but  not  iii  other  courts,  unless  some 
statute  makes  them  evidence. 

OFFICERS,  Military  and  li^iwa].— Military  Offi-cera  are  combatant  and  non-com 
b&tant,  the  iatlev  term  iiicludiug  paymasters,  medical  officers,  commissariat,  and 


y  Google 


480 


Official 
Oghama 

other  civil  officers.  The  went  divisions  of  rank  arc  commissioned,  warrant,  and  dob- 
commissioned  officers.  Commissioned  officers  are  those  holdiue  commisffiousfrom 
the  crown,  or  a  lord-Iienteuaut,  and  comprise  all  holding  the  rank  of  ensign,  or  toe- 
responding  or  superior  rank.  Divided  by  daties,  tliey  are  Staff  Officers  (sec  Statf), 
or  Regimental  Officers  (eee  Beoivent)  ;  divided  by  rank.  General  Officcn^  (q.  v.), 
Field-Officers  (q.  v.),  and  troop  or  company  officers.  The  last  are  captain?,  lieufcu- 
ants,  and  snb-uentenants,  and,  except,  in  the  cavalry,  are  unmounted.  The  dil&»tttt 
systems  of  promotion  for  officers,  and  especially  the  intricacies  of  the  l^ite  jmrcb^w 
system,  will  be  explained  nnUer  FnoMOTWN,  Abxy,  and  Purchase  Ststim.  The 
only  warrtmt  officers  in  the  army  are  Ma»ter-gnnuers  (see  Gunner)  and  Schoolman 
ters.    Non-commissioned  officem  are  described  nnder  that  heading. 

OffieerSf  Naval,  are  commissioned,  warrant,  and  pt'tiy  offictMS.  Comraiswoiifd 
officers  are  admirals,  captains,  conimunder?,  iientenanti>,  and  sub-lientenant?,  de- 
scribed under  their  respective  titles.  Warrant  OfflceiWq.  v.)  are  boatswains,  carpn- 
turs,  gunner:*,  and  one  class  of  en^neer?.  Pi-tiy  officers  will  be  descrilied  nndet 
that  tieading,  and  constitute  a  very  importantportion  of  the  management  iu  a  atiip* 
of-war.  , 

OPFI'CIAL  ASSIGNEE',  !n  English  Law,  is  nn  officer  of  the  Bankniptcy  C!onrt, 
in  whom,  a  bankrupt's  estate  vests  tlie  moment  an  adjudic^itiun  of  bankruptcy  fe 
made.  He  is  tlie  manager  of  the  property,  and  can  sell  t  he  estate  under  tlie  directJeni 
of  tije  wmrt  iu  nrfrent  cases,  such  as  where  the  goods  are  perishable ;  Imt  iu  goieral, 
he  is  asijisted  in  the  man^entent  by  the  creditors'  assignees,  who  ai-e  selected  from 
tlie  body  of  creditors  by  the  otiier  cre<litors'  votes.  The  official  assignee  is  appointed 
by  the  Lord  Ciiancellor,  l)eing  seltcted  from  tlie  body  of  merchants,  brokere,  or «e- 
countants.  He  is  bound  to  nnd  security  lo  the  extent  of  JC6000.  fie  is  prohibited 
from  carrying  on  tnide  on  his  own  account    The  stdary  is  XIOOO. 

OFFICI'NAL  PLANTS  (Lat.  oj?lci*wi,  a  Hliop)  «re  those  medicinal  plautewiiich 
hnvu  a  place  in  tlie  pharnnicoiXBias  of  different  countries,  and  vehich  are  therefote 
sold — or  some  of  their  products  or  preparations  of  them — by  apothecaries  and  drug- 
gi!4ts.  The  medicinal  plants  cultivated  to  any  considerable  extent  arc  all  offlcinal,lwt 
many  are  alfO  officinal  which  are  not  cultivated.    See  Medicinal  Plants. 

OFFSETS.  LetAEF. B..i;...D 0  be  a  field  with  vers  irregular  sidea; 


yGoO^     . 


4  »>  1  Official 

r^o  L  Ogham« 

take  the  points  A,  O,  M,  C  at  or  as  nenr  the  cornerp  as  convenient,  the  object  being 
to  enclo!^  as  mnch  of  tlie  field  >i8{K)!«sible  within  the qnadrilatiral  AOMC;  and  for 
tbiM  pnrpose  it  Is  sometimes  necessary,  as  in  tho  present  cufe,  toii\p]ude  a  corner  (tis 
SR^  which  is  onti>idu  the  tield*    Tiie  area  AOCD  is  fonnd  by  means  of  the  dtagou.il 

AM.  and  tlie  perpendicnlars  on  it  from  C  and  O.    The  area  AEFG BL  is  foni  d 

by  dividing  ii  into  triangles  and  trapezoids  by  means  of  perpendiculars  (to  wliicK 
the  t«'rin  q^aeta  was  orieinaliy  ap]Nied,  though  it  now  denotes  tlie  irregnlnr  area 
before  mentioned)  fn>m  tlie  corners  E,  G,  H.  &c.  (^ee  1  rianglb  and  Trapezoid) 
and  adding  together  the  areas  of  tlie  sen;. rate  fi^inres  AEF,  FO^,  Gtighj  &c.  ahu) 
larly  the  mens  ot  OLN. . .  .D  and  MDU W  are  found.  To  the  sum  of  t  hepe  must  ho 
added  the  areas  of  the  triangles  ATS,  QPC,  diminished  by  the  area  of  SliQ.  and  the 
result  is  the  whole  area  of  the  field.    Ifthe  offset  liave  no  distinct  comers,  as  (fig.  2) 


ABLMN OK,  then  the  base  AK  is  divided  Into  eqnal  parts  by  perpendiculars 

ABii,  Mm,  Nn,  &c,  and  the  area  of  the  offset  is  fonnd  approximately  as  IoHowh: 
the  wliole  offort  =  ABLi  -i-  L^Mw  +  MmNn  +  «S;c.+  FpOK  -  AlXX  (AB  +  LI)  -\- 
Im  X  X  {U  +  Mm)  -^mnxH ,(Mm -f Nn)  +....-[- pKx)i  (pP  +  OK)=  (since  the 
divisions  of  tiie  1»ase  are  equal)  AlxH  (AB  +  2LI  +  2Mm  -f  2N«  +....  +  2pP  +0K) 

{AB  +  OK 
+  LZ  +  Mm  +  Nn  +  —  +  Pp) ;  L  e.,  the  area  of  an  offset  is 
2 
round  approximately  t)v  adding  the  intermediate  perpendiculars  to  the  »eini-sum  of 
the  first  and  last,  and  multiplying  the  sum  total  by  the  length  of  a  division  of  the 
base,  the  divisions  l)eing  equal ;  and  the  greater  the  number  of  perpendiculars,  the 
nearer  the  revnlt  is  to  the  true  area. 

OFFSET,  or  Set-Off,  th(i  splay  or  sloping  part  of  a  wall,  Ac,  joining  parallel 
snrfrtces  when  tlie  upper  face  recedes  from  tije  lower.  Tliis  frequently  occurs  on 
buttresses.  The  O.  is  usually  protected  with  dressed  stones,  liaving  a  projection  or 
drip  on  the  lower  edge  to  prevent  the  rain  from  running  down  the  wall. 

OFFSETS,  a  term  used  by  gardeners  to  designate  the  young  bulbs,  which  spring* 
ing  from  the  axils  of  the  scales  of  a  bulb  (q.  v.),  grow  beside  it,  exhausting  itB 
strength,  but  which  serve  for  the  i»*opagation  of  the  plant.  A  crop  of  shallots,  or  of 
potato  onions,  consists  entirely  of  the  onsets  of  tlie  bulbs  planted  in  sprang ;  although 
the  term  is  not  commonly  used  except  as  to  bulbous-rooted  plants  prized  for  the 
beauty  of  their  flowers. 

O'GDENSBURG,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in  New  York,  U.S.,  on  the  south  bank 
of  tlie  river  St  Lawrence,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Osvvegatchie,  210  miles  north-west  of 
Albany,  and  at  the  western  terminus  of  the  N()i*thern  Railway.  It  has  a  large  lake 
Olid  river  trade,  mills  and  factories,  custom-house,  town-hall,  &c.,  and  a  steam-ferry 
to  Prescott,  Canada.    Pop.  in  1360,  7410 ;  in  1870, 10,076. 

OGEE',  a  moulding  consisting  of  two  curves,  one  concnve  and  the  other  convex. 
It  is  called  (In  Classic  Architecture)  Cymatium,  or  Cyma  Reversa  (see  Moulding). 
The  c^ee  is  also  much  used  in  Gothic  architecture.  An  arch  having  each  side 
formed  with  two  contrasted  curves  is  called  au  ogee  arch. 

O'GHAMS.  the  name  given  to  the  letters  or  signs  of  a  secret  ali)habet  long  in  use 
Mnone  the  Irish  and  some  other  Celtic  nations.  Neither  the  origin  nor  the  mean- 
ing ot  thR  name  has  been  satisfactorily  explained. 

The  alphabet  itself  is  called  Bethluisnin^  or  Bethluia,  from  Its  first  two  letters, 
"b,"  called  "'beith'^  (birch),  and  "/,"  called  "Zwts"  (quicken).  Its  characters  are 
Uaeu,  or  groups  of  lines,  deriving  their  siguificauco  from  their  position  on  u  single 


y  Google 


Ogives  Apo 

»tem  or  chief  line— over,  nnder,  or  through  wliich  they  nre  drawn  eittier  Btraight  or 
oblique.  In  POiue^ca!«es,  ihe  edge  of  the  etone  or  other  Rubatauce  ou  which  the  Og- 
hams* are  incised,  serves  the  purpose  of  tlie  stem  or  chief  line.  About  eighty  drfferent 
forms  of  the  alphulxit  arc  known.  The  sign  for  tlie  diphthong  **  ea  "  is  Siiid  to  bo 
the  only  one  whicli  has  been  observed  on  ancient  monnmeur^.  It  is  added  thai  the 
sign  for  **  ui "  sometimes  stands  for  "  y,"  that  tlie  sign  for  "  ia  "  sometimes  ^i.ind:* 
for  *'p,"  and  that  the  sign  for  *'ae"  stands  also  for  ♦*»,"  for  "ccj"  for  *'cA,"  for 
'•  ack^^*  and  tor  *'  uch." 

OiTlnim  inscriptieus  genendly  begin  from  tl»e  iMJttora,  nnd  are  read  upwards  from 
left  to  rijjlit  to  tlie  top,  when  they  are  carried  over,  and  run  d(  wn  »notlier  side  or 
angle.  Mo.-t  of  those  which  have  been  reail  give  merely  a  proper  name  with  its 
patiouyinic,  both  in  tlie  geniti\^^J  cjisc.  The  stones  on  which  Oghams  arc  cut  would 
seem,  for  the  most  part,  to  have  becji  sepulchral.  Oghams  ans  of  most  fn  qiieut 
occurrence  in  Ireland,  wl.ere  they  arc  found  bclh  written  on  books  and  inscribed  ou 
stones,  metals,' or  bones.  The  Oghnnis  on  stones  are  most  numerous  hi  the  coun- 
ties of  Kerry  and  Cork.  A  few  Ogham  inscriptions  on  stones  havo  been  discovered 
in  Wales — as  at  St  Dogmael*s,  in  Pembrokeshire;  near  Margam,  in  GlHmoi^n- 
shire;  and  near  Crickhowel,  in  Brtjcknockshire.  There  are  a  l4;w  in  Scotlauil,  as 
ou  the  Newton  Stone  and  the  Logie  Stone  In  Aberduen>hire,  on  the  Golspie  Stone 
in  Sutherland,  and  on  the  Bressay  Siono  in  Shetland.  One  has  been  found  in  Eng- 
land— ^at  Fardel,  in  Devonshire.  Oghams  have  been  observed  on  an  ancient  MS.  of 
Priscian,  which  belonged  to  the  famous  Swiss  monastery  foundt'd  in  the  7th  c  by 
the  Irish  missionary,  St  Gall  (q.v.). 

The  difficulties  of  deciphering  Ogham  inscriptions  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  m 
yet  altogether  overcome.  It  is  confessed  by  the  most  learned  and  judicious  of  0;:ham 
scholars,  the  Rev.  Charles  Graves, D. D.,  of  Trinity  Colhgc,  Dublin,  that  the nain^eof 
the  character  is  such  that  it  does  not  at  once  ap)>ear  wliTch,  of  four  different  w:iy»of 
reading,  is  the  right  one;  that  the  words  bein^  written  continuously,  as  hi  Mucii-nl 
MSS.,  there  is  great  chance  of  error  in  dividing  them  ;  and  ttnit  the  Ci'ltic  names 
inscribed  are  generally  Latinised  in  such  a  maun  r  as  not  rradily  to  be  recognised. 

The  old  school  of  Irish  antiquaries  contended  that  the  Oghams  wc^re  of  Persian 
or  Phoenician  origin,  and  were  in  use  in  Ireland  long  b  fort;  the  itftnutnction  of 
Christianity.  But  this  theory  is  now  generally  discarded,  as  not  only  uiHuppoited 
but  as  contradicted  by  fact^.  A  comparison  of  the  Ogham  illphabot,  with  thealplis> 
bets  of  Persepoli^  una  Carthage,  shews  that  there  is  no  likeness  l>eiween  theuu  The 
great  majority  of  0;rh:ini  monuments,  it  has  been  observed,  be^r  more  or  less  dla> 
linct  marks  of  Christian  hands.  Several  arc  inscribed  with  crosses,  as  old,  to  ail 
appearance,  as  the  Oghams  themselves.  Many  stand  in  Christian  bmying-grunnds, 
or  beside  Christian  cells  or  oratories.  Some  still  t.ear  the  names  of  primitive s:tliits. 
At  least  one  is  inscribed  with  a  Christian  name;  and  some  of  tlie  iuscriptiona  l>e- 
tray  on  undeniable  knowledge  of  Latin.  At  the  same  tim«*.  it  has  bet^n  argued  if 
one  of  the  most  learned  of  Celtic  philologists,  Mr  Whitley  Stokes,  that  "the  circain- 
stance  that  genuine  .Ogham  inscriptions  exist  both  in  Ireland  and  iu  Wales  whicli 

E resent  grammatical  forms  agreeing  with  those  of  theGatilisli  lingnistJc  inonaiiients, 
;  eiiongu  to  shew  that  some  of  tlie  Celts  of  these  islands  wrote  their  language  bi'fore 
the  5i.h  c,  the  time  at  which  Ctiristianity  is  supposed  to  have  l>een  introduced  Uitu 
Ireland."  It  'las  been  observed  by  Dr  Gmves.  on  the  othetjiaud,  that  there  are  uiany 
points  of  resemblance  between  the  Oghams  of  the  Celts  and  the  Runes  of  the  Norse- 
men ;  and,  indeed,  one  Irish  MS.  asserts  that  the  Oghams  came  to  Irehiud  trom 
Scandinavia : 

I  "  Hitlier  was  brought,  in  the  sword  sheath  of  Lochlan's  king. 

The  Ogham  across  the  sea.    It  was  his  own  hand  that  cut  it.** 

The  Ogham  is  said  to  have  been  in  use  so  recently  as  the  middle  of  tlie  17tb  Cj,  when 
it  was  employed  iu  the  correspondence  between  King  Cliarles  I.  aud  the  Earl  of 
Ghimorgan. 

Thi'  l)e8t  account  of  OjhaiMS  is  iu  the  papers  in  the  "  Tniusartlons  of  tlie  Boyal 
Irish  Academy,"  by  Dr  Graves,  imw  bishop  of  Limerick,  vol.  Iv.  pp.  70, 175, 183, 
254;  vol.  V.  pp.  234.  401 ;  vol.  vl.  pp.  71,  209, 248,  where  also  are  some  paj>ers  of  value 
on  the  same  subject  by  Mr  Simuel  Pergn-son  ;  and  the  •*  Catalogue  of  the  MufrBio 
of  the  Royal  Irish  Aiademy,"  i»p.  154-141);  aud  iu  Mr  Whiiley  Stok.s's  "'ITiree 


y  Google 


.     A^^  Ogiv«« 

^^^  Ogygta 

Irish  GloPBariep,"  pp.  65—67.  compared  with  Thomas  Iimca's  "  Critical  Essay  on 
the  Ancient  Inhabit;iut«  of  Scollnud,"  vol.  il.  pp.  440 — *C6.  Tho  render  may  nl^o 
couBuU  with  ndvsmiagG  AhiIc'b  **Orlj;^n  t/t\d  Progrops  of  Writiiig,"  Petrie's  •♦  Eppay 
on  the  Ronnd  Towers  of  In^land,"  John  Stuart'rt  "  Sculptm-eU  Stoues  of  Scotland," 
and  Wjire'i*  •*  Aniiqnities  of  Irehmd."  Ogham  iDdcriptious  may  be  seen  in  the  Mn- 
pGum  of  the  Royal  Irihh  Academy  at  Dnhliii,  in  the  Miisenm  of  the  Society  of  Auti- 
quaries  of  Scotland  at  Edinhijrgh,  and  in  the  British  Museum  at  London. 

(VGIVES,  the  arches  in  pointed  Gothic  vaulting  which  cross  the  vault  diagonally 
from  one  angle  to  another. 

O'GOBAI,  a  largo  river  of  Western  Africa,  wliich  falls  into  the  sea  by  many 
months,  between  s.  lat.  (F  40'  and  1°  20'.  Its  delta  is  very  lai-go.  and  forms  a  most 
Ctnnplicated  network  of  rivers,  flowing  amidst  a  donse  forcist.  Tho  most  nortliern 
mouth  of  the  O.  has  long  been  Icnowu  as  tlie  river  Nazareth,  and  falls  into  a  hay  of 
tiie  Atlantic,  on  the  north  of  Cnpe  Lopez.  Another  principal  mouth,  td  the  south  of 
that  far- projec  ing  <'ape,  is  Icuown  «•  the  Mixian  ;  and  the  southornmopt,  which 
seems  to  be  the  largest  of  all,  is  iUo.  river  Fernand  Vas.  TIjcsc  were  reirardcd  as 
distinct  and  large  mers,  tiil  the  explorations  of  Du  Chailln  revealed  their  rfl.diou 
to  each  other,  and  to  tho  main  river  Ogobai.  The  extent  of  the  basin  of  the  O., 
its  sonrces,  and  the  length  of  its  conr.-e,  arc  yet  unknown,  but  it  may  bt^  deemed 
certiin  that  it  is  by  far  the  largest  river  of  Western  Africa  between  tho  Niger 
and  the  Congo.  For  almost  all  our  knowledge  of  the  O.,  and  the  country 
through  which  it  flows,  wo  are  indebted  to  J>u  Chailln,  althongh,  in  the  in- 
terval between  his  first  and  second  visits,  the  lower  part  of  its  coui-se  was 
partially  explored  by  two  French  expeditions.  Not  far  Iroui  its  moutli,  the  Fer- 
nand Vae  is  joined  by  the  Kembo,  also  a  large  river,  altlioagh  much  inferior 
in  size  to  the  O.,  which,  after  flowing  in  a  ^outh- westerly  course  from  the 
interior,  bends  northward,  and  pursues  a  course  nearly  parallel  to  the  coast  for 
at>ont  fifty  miles,  tlie  narrow  peninsfula  between  the  river  and  the  sea  being  a 
sandr  and  grassy  prairie,  with  scattered  grou))S  of  fine  tre«;s,  frequented 
by  herds  of  tiie  Niare  (q.  v.),  or  wild  ox  of  Western  Africa  and  of  an- 
telopes. Tlie  dense  forests  of  the  O.  are  the  main  liannts  of  the  Gorilla  (q.  v.),  and 
of  several  other  anthropoid  ap^s,  dis»covend  by  Du  Chailln,  among  which  are 
theNest-bnilding  Apes  (q.  v.).  Prodigious  flocks  of  marabouts  also  come  to  lay  their 
e^'gs  on  these  praines,  and  in  the  wet  season,  numerous  pools  are  formed,  which 
teem  with  fish.  The  forest-rejjlons  produce  few  of  the  mammalia,  herbivorous  and 
camivorons,  so  ahundmit  in  other  parts  of  Africa ;  and  even  birds  are  few.  About 
160  miles  from  the  month  of  tho  O  ,  the  nniin  stream  is  formed  by  the  junction  of 
two  rivers,  the  Okanda  and  the  Ngouyai— the  former,  wljich  is  said  to  be  the  larjrer 
of  the  two,  coming  from  the  north  cast ;  the  latter,  which  alone  was  explored  by  Du 
Chaillu,  from  the  i«outh-east.  This  river,  after  a  long  course  throu^'h  the  table-lauds 
of  the  interior,  bursts  through  the  mountaiu-ran^e  which  separates  them  from 
the  Tevel  country  of  the  coast ;  the  possibility  of  navigation  being  here  cut  off  by  a 
magnificent  fall,  and  still  more  magnificent  rai)id,  in  which  the  river  rushes  down  a 
steep  declivity  tlirough  a  rocky  chasm.  JJolh  above  and  below  the  fall,  however,  it 
is  quite  suitable  for  navigation  by  steamers  ;  but  a  gnat  inip<  diimnit  to  commerce, 
when  commerce  shall  spring  up  in  that  r<gion,  will  be  found  in  the  difficult  bar  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Fernand  Vas.  The  rainfall  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  O.  is  supposed 
to  he  very  great.  The  observations  of  Speke  and  Burton  on  the  eastern  side  of 
tropicid  Africa,  and  of  Du  Chnillu  on  the  western,  concur  in  shewing  that  this  niu^t 
l>e  the  case.  Rain^  and  dry  seasons  alternate  on  both  coasts,  but  as  the  traveller 
proceed-*  inland,  ram  l)ecomes  more  frequent,  falling  almost  every  day,  audit  would  . 
seem  at  all  seasons  alike.  7 

OGY'GES,  the  earliest  king  of  Attica  and  BoBotia  named  in  Greek  legend.  In 
his  time  (according  to  Larcher,  about  1759  b.c.)  a  great  flood  took  place,  called  the 
Ogyjrian  Flood,  which  desolated  all  the  lower  districts  of  both  countries,  and  de- 
stroyed their  inha<>itantx.  'JTie  different  legends  lead  to  the  supp()s;tion  that  ui.der 
O.  an  Egyptian  colony  came  to  Boeotia,  and  thence  to  Attica.  From  him  Boeotia 
took  ttie  name  oi  Ogygia. 

OGY'GIA,  a  geous  of  Trilobites  peculiar  to  the  Llandeilo  flags  of  the  Lower 
Silurian  period.    Six  si)ecle8  have  been  described. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Oidinm  tturr 

OHI'O,  one  of  tlie  United  States  of  America,  lies  between  lat  2S°  IT'— 41©  54'  n., 
and  long.  80°  34'— 84°  40'  w.;  225  miles  in  extent  from  ea«t  to  west,  and  nenrly  200 
miles  from  north  to  eoatli ;  containing  89,964  sqnare  mile?,  or  25,676.960  acres; 
1)onnded  n.  by  Michigan  and  Lake  Erie,  e.  b}' Pennsylvania  and  Virginiat  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  tlie  Ohio  Riyer,  which  alfo  forms  its  sontheni  boundary,  seonrating 
it  from  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  and  w.  by  Indiana.  Tlie  Ohio  River  forms  its 
boundary  for  436  miles,  and  its  lake  shore  is  230  miles.  The  higli  table-lands  hilly, 
and  in  parts  mounttdnou^  regions  of  O.,  are  drained  by  numerous  rivers,  anioug 
which  are  the  Great  and  Little  Miami,  Sciota,  and  Mnj«kinjfum,  affiuenis  of  the 
Oiiio ;  and  the  M.mtnee,  Sandusky,  Huron,  Vermillion,  Cuyahoga,  and  Ashtabula, 
which  empty  into  Lake  Erie.  Drift  formations  prevail  in  the  north,  alluvium  in 
the  south,  with  extensive  coal-measures,  and  limestone  strata,  shales,  mails, 
and  gypsum,  giving  the  whole  state  a  wonderful  fertility.  The  coal-beds 
of  Eastern  Ohio  cover  10,000  square  miles,  with  abundant  deposits  of 
iron  ore.  In  the  north  are  valuable  deposits  of  buhrstoue,  a  fo*siliferou9 
flinry  quartz,  used  for  millstones.  The  salt  produced  in  1873  was  reported  at  4,164,- 
187  bushels.  Oil  wells  have  also  been  opened,  and  1,815,660  barrels  of  oil  were  re- 
fined in  the  state  in  1873.  The  soil,  rich  everywhere,  is  so  fertile  in  the  river  lx)i- 
toms  as  to  have  borne  heavy  cereal  cropn  fifty  successive  years  without  manuring; 
the  climate  is  temperate,  with  a  liability  to  a  cold  in  winter  reaching  sometimes  lo 
5J0^  below  zero.  It  !s  healthy,  except  lowlands  liable  to  fever  and  ague.  The  for- 
ests are  rich  in  oak,  black  walnut,  maple,  Ac;  the  chief  agricultural  productions  are 
Indian  corn,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  hay,  sorghum,  tobacco,  hemp,  peaches,  apples, 
grapes,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  the  latter  being  one  of  its  chief  exports.  The  chief 
iinmufactures  are  iron,  clothing,  furniture,  spirits,  \^'iue8,  cotton,  and  woollen.  The 
wine  called  Catxiwba,  produced  upon  the  fioutheni  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  comitares 
very  favorably  with  the  similar  wines  of  the  Khlne.  Farms  occupy  21,712  420  acres, 
with  an  average  size  of  111  acres.  A  larjre  commerce  is  carri^  on  b^  the  Ohio 
River,  the  lakes,  canals,  and  nnmerons  railways.  The  suite  is  organised  in  88  conn- 
ties.  The  chief  towns  are  Cincinnati,  Cleveland.  Ci)lumbus  (the  capital),  Sandusky, 
Zanesville,  &c.  In  1874,  there  Wi^re  17U  national  and  243  private  and  other  banks. 
The  state  revenue  in  the  year  ending  Nov.  15, 1874,  amounted  to  5.768,789 dollars. 
Among  the  state  institutions  nr^!  4  Umatic  asyluiiis.  asylums^or  de^if  and  duin% 
blind,  idiots,  penitentiarv,  reformatories.  &c.  In  1870,  there  were  11,952  establish- 
ments for  education,  including  9  universities,  33  colleges,  U  theoloLnral  institutions, 
10  medical,  and  11,468  public  schools.  The  total  attendance  was  790,795.  The  state 
possesses  many  extensive  libraries,  and  has  395  newspapers.  In  1874,  4374  miles  <^ 
railway  were  open  for  traffic. 

O.  was  orsranised  and  admitted  as  a  sbite  in  1803.  The  i)opnlation  in  1800  was 
45,365;  (1820)  531,434;  (1840)  1.519,467;  (I860)  2.339,599.  of  whom  111,257  were  Ger- 
mans, 51,562  Irish.  36,0  ^0  Eiighsh  and  Scotch  ;  vl87U^  2,675,468. 

OHIO,  a  river  of  the  United  States  of  America,  cidb'd  by  the  French  explorers, 
after  its  Indian  name,  la  Belle  RioUre^  next  to  the  Missouri,  the  largest  afflm^ul  of 
the  Missi8!«ippi.  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongah<>la,  at  the 
western  foot  oi  the  Alleghanies.  at  Pitisbnrgh.  in  Pennsylvania,  and  flow*  west- 
south-west.  975  miles,  with  a  breadth  of  1200  to  3000  feet,  draining,  with  its  tributaries, 
an  area  of  214,000  square  miles.  In  its  course  it  separates  the  northern  states  of 
Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois  from  the  southern  sbite.-*  of  Virginia,  and  Kentucky.  Tlie 
principal  towns  upon  it«  banks  are  Cincinnati,  Louisville  (where  ther^  are  rapids  oi 
22  feet  in  a  mile,  with  a  steam-boat  canal),  Wheeling,  Maysville,  aiid  Pittsburgh  and 
Cairo  at  its  source  and  mouth.  It  is  navigable  from  Wheelin*/,  100  iniW  below 
Pittsl)ui*gh.  The  banks  of  th-;  O.  are  geneniUy  high  and  terrac«'d.  It  is  ofteu  shal- 
low and  scarcely  navigable,  seinetimes  froz'^n,  aiuf  subject  to  floods  of  50  or  60  feet 
above  low-water.  ^Bordered  by  a  rich  conntry,  and  great  deposits  of  coal  and  iron, 
it  is  the  channel  of  a  vast  commerce,  which  it  shares  with  its  chief  tomches,  the 
Tennessee,  Cumberland,  Wabash,  Green,  &c. 

O'HLAU,  Olau,  or  Olawa,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  17  miles,  sonfh-enst  from 
Breslan,  on  the  riglit  bank  of  the  Ohlan,  a  branch  of  the  Oder.  O.  is  a  statk>D  on  the 
railway  which  connects  Brcslan  and  the  north  with  Vienna.  It  is  an  andeat  town, 
«'  ith  a  njyal  palace  and  an  old  castle.    At  the  present  day^  it  is  il  place  of.coftaldBB« 


Digitized  by 


Google 


AOX  Ohio 

*^«^  O.dium 

able  indoAtrial  activity.  Bciug  tbc  capital  of  a  circle,  it  has  uumeroos  district  courts 
andolBcen.     Fop.  (1875)  7963. 

Ol'DIUM,  nil  important  ffeniis  of  mliiate  fiinjrl  of  the  section  Hi/phovipcetes^ 
prowine  ou  diseased  aiiimjiY  and  vegetable  snbBtanci  8.  They  coimist  of  minute 
tubular  threads,  formiii}^  flocks,  while  in  some  si)eclcp,  hiijrhtly  colored  in  others, 
simple  or  im-gularly  bianchrd.  iiHsntnlnff  iu  their  upper  part  the  fcnn  of  strings  ot 
beads,  which  finally  break  np  nito  elliptic  spores.  IMie  speclfs  actually  existine  are 
probably  much  more  uumcrons  than  those  which  have  been  fully  m-certained. 
Aiuoiig  the  most  important  of  the  vegetable  ))ar.-tsiie8  of  man  is  O.  albitianny  wliich 
ii^foniidon  the  epithelium  in  the  month  nnd  tliroat  in  the  disease  called  aphthm,  or 
thrush,  and  ou  tliat  of  the  throat  in  diphtheria,  ulho  sometimes  in  tin;  nostrils,  stonnich, 
and  intestiut^,  on  the  nails,  the  nipples,  ana  other  i  Inces.  It  is  more  (omnion  iu 
children  and  in  aged  persona, -than  in  those  who  are  in  the  prime  of  life.  It  occurs 
frequently  in  the  last  stages  of  many  diseases,  when  the  mucous  membniue  is  covered 
with  nitrogenaas  de<'omiK)8able  matter.  Indeed,  it  would  seem  tliat  whatever  may 
be  the  case  as  to  ottier  vegetable  p:iraslt<'8,  no  sjiecies  of  O.  begin-*  its  attack  upon  a 
pCTfiiCtly  healthy  surface,  either  animal  or  vegetable ;  a  diseased  state  of  the  tissue 
being  to  these  fungi  a  I'lecessary  condition  of  vegetation,  •*  just  as  the  veast-plnnt 
will  not  vegetate  save  in  a  fermentable  fluid,  that  is,  in  a  solution  wliiih,  in  addition 
to  sugar,  contains  some  decomposable  albuminous  matter."  O.  alhiemut  appears  to 
the  naked  eye  as  a  white  pasty  substance,  sli;:htly  elevated  al)Ove  tiie  nmcous  m(*m- 
braue  to  which  it  adheres;  but  under  the  microscope,  its  filamentous  structure  is 
eusily  ]>ercelved.  Its  seat  is  at  first  on  the  upper  surfiiceof  the  epithelial  cell?*,  but 
its  filament?^  soon  iwnet  rate  dcei)ly  l)etwe<^n  them,  and  the  npi>er  epii  helial  Iwyers 
are  soon  worn  our.  and  thrown  off  by  the  rapid  crrowth  from  l)elow.  However  in- 
ciipable  the  0.  albicatis  may  be  of  attacking  a  he.ulhy  surface,  there  cjui  be  no  donl)t 
that  it  greatly  contributes  to  the  exten^ion  ot  disease,  and  that  it  is  very  readily 
commnnicated  from  one  patient  to  another  when  there  is  cai an h  or  other  inflam- 
matory affection  of  the  mucous  membrane. 

Another  species  of  O.  which  has  attracted  great  attention  is  O.  Ti(cke7%  regarded 
by  many  as  producing  the  grape  disea?e,  which,  several  years  ago,  injured  the  vine- 
yards of  many  parts  of  the  world,  but  in  accordance  with  the  views  already  ex- 
pressed, iwrhajw  rather  lobe  reg:uded  as  merely  accompanying  and  extending  the 
disease.  It  may  probnbly  be  tlje  cast?  tliat  over-cnllivalion  of  particular  varieties  of 
gnipe,  and  too  long  continued  cultivation  on  the  same  gnmnd,  nave  so  imjiaired  the 
viifor  and  healthfuTness  of  the  plants,  as  to  make  them  liable  to  the  attacks  of  this 
l«rasite.  0.  Tuckeri  mrikes  its  appearance  at  first  in  the  form  of  a  mycelium  of 
webt)y,  creeping,  Immcliing  filaments,  which  send  out  upright  or  decumbent  jointed 
stems.  Tlie  bsad-IIke  joints  of  the  stems  become  successively  filled  with  spores, 
which  are  flinilly  dls*charged  in  little  clouds  for  the  nmltiplication  of  the  species.  The 
gnqje  disease  was  first  observed  in  Kent,  England,  in  the  spring  of  1845,  on  vines  in 
tlie  vinery  of  Mr  Tucker.  The  ends  of  the  young  shoots  assumed  a  crispy  appear- 
ance, began  to  wither,  and  then  drii'd  up.  The  unripe  grapes  were  next  attacked, 
becoming  covered  wlih  a  grayish  white  bfoon),  the  skin  of  the  grapes  being  destroyed, 
and  they  rotted  and  dried  up.  The  disease  rapidly  spread  ov^  other  £&gli>h  vine- 
ries ;  was  observed  about  the  same  time  in  the  vineries  of  Paris,  and  soon  in  the  vine- 
yards of  almo-t  all  paiis  of  Prance,  Italy,  Greece,  'i'yrol,  and  Hungary ;  finally,  and 
in  a  Bligliter  degree,  affecting  the;  vi^iieyards  of  the  Rhine.  Its  ravages  extended  to 
Algeria,  Syria,  Asia-Minor,  and  many  other  countries,  among  which  is  particularly 
to  be  noticed  the  island  of  Madeira,  where  it  proved  almost  completely  destruc- 
tive to  the  grai>cF,  and  nearly  put  an  (Mid  to  the  ])rodnction  of  the  celebrate<l  Madeira 
wiue.  The  importation  of  M.ideira  wine  to  Britain  in  1831  am(Mnited  to  209.127  gal- 
lons; and  in  1861,  only  to  28.749  gallons.  It  Is  probable  that  the  complete  isolation 
of  the  Madeira  vineyards  made  the  progress  of  the  disease  more  rapid,  and  its  results 
more  coin])I«'te  than  elsewhere,  by  causing  a  prevalence  of  the  conditions  favorable 
for  it  No  kind  of  vine  escjiped.  The  grap  •  dir^ense  is  first  i>erceived  in  the  leaves, 
which  1)ecome  wliitiah,  in  consequence  of  a  mycelium  spreading  over  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  leaf.  The  leaves  sometimes  curl  np,  or  they  hecome  black  at  the  centre, 
the  blackness  extending  towards  the  circumference,  and  finally  they  drop  off.  The 
plant,  through  loss  of  its  leaves,  now  becomes  more  unhealthy ;  the  shoots  are 
attacked  bjf  the  disease,  the  stalks  of  the  bunches  of  grapes,  and  the  gran^J"  ~ 


L   anacKed 


Oil  Oake  AOf^  . 

OH  Palm  *^0 

B<?Ives.  The  parnsU«  penetrates  into  the  young  wood,  the  shoots  $re  covered  with 
ppots  jiud  blotclies  of  n  reddish  brown,  or  <!veii  black  coior,  aud  look  as  if  a  red-hot 
iron  had  been  npplie^  to  them.  Sometimes  tfiey  secrete  a  clanimy  iuodoroaH  fluid 
all  over  their  surface :  aud  in  many  cases  they  wither  from  the  top  down  half  thdr 
leugth.  The  aftected  grapes  very  often  first  exhibit  the  disetise  lu  a  single  whitwli 
spoi  on  a  single  grape  of  a  buiach,  which  enlai-gea  by  mdioting  irregularly.  If  iu  a 
buiicli  there  ifl  one  abortive  grape,  it  often  shews  signs  of  the  disejise,  wliilst  the  rest 
rcMuuiu  free.  The  creeping  l)ranciiea  of  the  mycelium  are  fixed  Qpou  the  skin  of 
the  grape  by  rootlets,  which  do  not  penetrate  into  the  juicy  pulp.  The  myccliaiu 
sends  up  verlical  fert  le  branches  of  nearly  equal  height,  densely  i^regiited,  Hiid 
f  trining  a  velvet-like  mads.  The  extremities  of  these  become  beadeoT  and  nt  last 
the  uppermost  cell  or  bead  increases  in  volume,  becomes  detaclied,  and  is  carried  off 
by  some  slight  breatli  of  air,  to  multiuly  tlie  Hpecicfl  by  the  dieperslou  of  its  spona. 
The  other  be.id-like  cells  follow  iu  succession. 

Various  means  were  resorted  to  for  the  prevention  aud  cure  of  the  grape  disease. 
•^  The  application  of  pulverised  sulphur  was  found  useful,  the  fungus.witheriug  and 
drying  up  when  brought  into  couiact  with  a  minuti  particle  of  suTphnr.  The  appli- 
cation of  sulpliur  must  be  freqtient.^  as  portions  of  the  mj'celium  andsome  of  tite 
spores  ahviiys  escape.  The  use  of  sulphur  was  the  chief  means  of  checking  Ibe 
spread  of  O.  in  French  aud  other  European  vineyards;  it  became  general  iu  the 
south  of  Fraiice  aud  in  Italy;  and  inconsequence  of  Its  national  importance,  tlie 
duty  ou  sulphur  was  reduced  by  the  French  government.  Hydrosulphide  of  lime 
was  also  applied  to  vines  with'  very  b^uvftcial  effect.  It  is  prepared  l)y  thoronghly 
mixing 68  ounces  of  flowers  of  sulphur  with  the  same  quantity  of  slaked  lime,  adding 
thr  e  or  four  quarts  of  wat;r,  boiling  for  about  ton  minutes,  allowing  it  lo  settle, 
and  decanting  the  clear  liquor.  When  it;  is  to  be  used,  oue  quart  is  mixed  with  100 
quarts  of  water,  and  it  is  poured  over  thj  vines. 

OII^CAKE.  the  cake  which  remains  in  the  press,  when  seeds  are  crushed  to  ex- 
press the  oil  wliich  they  contain.  Oil-cake  still  retains  a  portion  of  the  oil  of  the 
seed,  along  with  almost  all  its  other  constituents,  and  is  valual)le  either  for  fe«dii.g 
cuttle  or  for  manure.  Linseed-caks  is  so  much  more  largely  used  in  Britain  than  any 
other  kind,  that  the  name  oil-cake  is  iu  general  cxclusiveo'  appropriated  to  it,  the 
other  kinas  being  known  as  Rape-cakz^  Poppy-cake^  Uemp-cake^  ColzcL-eake^  Ac, 
according  to  the  plant  from  the  se.  d  of  which  tht;y  are  produced.  The  use  of  oil- 
cake for  feeding  cattle  has  very  much  increased  of  late  years,  and  it  ifi  an  article  of 
coiumercial  importance.  Ltirire  quantities  are  imported  into  Britain  from  different 
parts  of  the  continent  of  Kuidpe,  and  from  Nortli  America.  But  EnglUh  LiiMeed- 
caA;<j— cake  mude  at  oil-mills  iu  England,  mostly  from  imported  seed— ie  preft  rred  to 
any  other,  because  he;it  not  being  so  freely  applied  during  the  expression  of  tiie  oil, 
more  oil  is  left  in  the  cake,  and  al-o  bacause  foreign  cake  often  suffers  from  damp- 
ness both  before  and  during  the  sea  passage.  Besides  the  oil  which  nmiains  in  it, 
linseed-cake  contains  from  24  to  33  per  cent,  of  nitrogenous  sulwtances  or  protein 
compounds,  which  make  it  very  valuable  l)oth  for  feeding  cattle  and  for  manure. 
The  value  of  linsecd-cake  for  feeding  is  greater  than  that  of  any  kind  of  grain  or 
pn\sQ.— Rape- cake  is,  uextto  linseed-cake,  the  kind  of  oi'-cjike  best  known  in  Brit- 
ain. It  is  nmch  cheaper  than  linseed-cake,  but  is  not  relished  by  cattle,  having  a  hot 
taste,  and  a  tendency  to  become  rancid.  Sljeep,  however,  eat  it  readily,  aud  it  is 
often  employed  for  fattening  them.  It  is  also  often  ground  to  a  coarse  powder  (»-o;)«- 
rf'M^.  and  used  as  a.  manure.  Its  fertilising  power  is  great,  and  it  is  used  by  the 
'  Flemish  farmers  as  guano  now  is  by  those  of  Britain. — Cotton.  Seed-cake  is  nmch  ustd 
tt''  a  manure  in  soin.!  parts  of  Noi'th  America. — Cocoa-ntit-cake  is  used  in  the  south 
of  India,  both  for  feeding  cattle  and  L»r  manure.— Otlrer  kinds  of  cake  are  noticed, 
if  sufficiently  iniportant,  under  the  plants  from  which  they  are  derived.  Their  pro- 
perti.v- are  generally  similar  to  those  of  1  nseed-cake,  although  the  pungency  of  some, 
as  Mv>ntara-cake,  renders  them  unsuitable  for  feeding  cattle.    See  Oils. 

OIL-FUEL.  A  great  incentive  has  been  given  by  the  ditcovery  of  copious  wellsof 
petroleuai  (see  Oil- wells  and  OiL-fBADE)  to  the  invention  of  some  mode  of  uuug 
o  I  as  a  fuel  for  furnaces  and  stoves.  Sucii  attempts  h:id  often  been  made  lx'for« ; 
but  they  assume  a  new  aspect  now  that  oil  has  become  so  much  cheapened.  Nearly 
liulf  the  carry  ng  c.ipucity  of  Europeau  steam-8h4>S}  and  more  iliuu  half  in  tUui»e 


Digitized  by 


Google 


437 


0  1' Cake 
OU  Fa  m 

which  make  Ion?  voyagps,  is  Uxken  np  with  the  stownge  of  coal.  Petroleum  (q.  v.). 
^if  wholly  bnnied,  und  all  the  biai  aiilised,  gives  out  much  more  heat  thuu  uu  eqaal 
height  of  nnthraclte  or  steam  coal. 

Mr  Ricliardaon  made  eoine  txperinieiits  for  the  government  at  Woolwich  in  1866. 
His  iri-att;  cou.-'i»ted  of  two  iron  boxef,  one  within  the  oth«r ;  the  inner  contained  oil, 
and  the  space  l)etween  the  two  boxes  contained  water.  When  the  water  boilid  by  the 
application  of  heat,  and  the  oil  began  to  arise  in  vapor,  a  jet  of  f^teani  wan  adinlttcd 
tu  mix  with  the  vapor.  The  steam  was  fonnd  to  assist  the  ]>erlect  C(>ml>ae>lioii,  so  us 
to  avt)lcl  the  proonction  of  smoke.  One  object  wan,  to  ascertain  whether  the 
refuse  of  the  stills,  resiiUing  from  the  distillation  of  shale  oil,  could  be  made  avail- 
able as  furnace  fael.  The  government  published  a  Report  of  the  Expi  rimeuts,  with 
dhigi-ams,  in  1866.  It  was  considered  that  petroleqm,  nsid  instead  of  coal  as  fuel, 
(1)  raises  steam  more  rapidly;  (2)  requires  asmtiUer  furnace  und  boiler;  (8)  main- 
tsi.us  »  more  continuous  fire  and  heat ;  (4)  affords  means  of  varying  the  intensity  of 
the  fire  more  quickly  ;  (5)  is  extinguished  instantly  by  tmiiin^  off  the  oil  and  kec]^ 
iugon  the  stt'um  ;  ;6)  produces  no  smoke,  ash,  or  dust;  (7)  dicpensos  with  some  oi 
the  staff  of  coalers  and  stokers ;  (8)  economises  spojce  for  coal-ounkors ;  (9)  reduces 
the  dead-weight  carried  by  the  ship  ;  (10)  occasions  Ho  loss  of  heat  by  opening  tur- 
nace-doors;  (11)  keeps  tlu'  engine-room  cloau  and  comparatively  cool ;  and  (12)  ad- 
mits of  the  furnace-tires  being  lighted  much  more  quickly.  A  modified  form  of  oil- 
furnace  was  tried  at  Wcorwichnv  Mr  Richardson,  in  1867.  not  only  with  refined 
petroleaxn,  but  with  the  same  oil  in  its  crude  form,  shale-oil,  uaphtbaliue,  creosote, 
grease,  and  residmim  tar. 

Experiments  have  been  conducted  with  the  same  object  in  America.  Mr  Isher- 
wood,  chief  of  the  bureau  of  steam-en«rineering  in  the  United  States  navy,  conducted 
a  series  of  experiments  in  1867,  on  Colonel  Foote's  furnace  for  burning  petroleum- 
and  fitted  np  the  iron  gunboat  Palos  for  this  purpose,  under  the  direction  of  n  boara 
of  engineering  oflicers.  Most  of  the  advantages  claimed  for  Richardson 's^apparat us 
seem  to  be  eqally  applicable  to  this  of  Foote. 

There  is  a  jjerrolenm  furnace  by  Mej^srs  Wise  and  Field,  patented  in  1867,  in 
which  the  oil  isinjectid  into  the  fnmace  by  the  pressure  of  superheat  d  steam. 
There  are  many  other foi*ms  of  oil-furnace  by  Hill,  Stevens,  Sim,  Barft,  t he  Ameri- 
can Petroleum  Li^M  Company,  &c. 

Many  of  the  advantages  of  oil-fueL  already  mentioned  are  pretty  generally  con- 
ceded ;  but  the  quct<tionsof  safety  and  cheapnettB  are  not  yet  settled. 

OILLE'TS,  or  (Eillets.  small  openingei,  often  circular,  used  in  medieval  buldings 
for  discharging  arrows,  &c.,  through. 
OIL  MILL.    See  Oils. 

OIL  PAIiM  {E  ceis),  a  genus  of  palms,  of  the  same  trilie  with  the  cocoa-nut  palm. 
The  best  known  species,  the  O.  P.  of  tropical  Africa,  sometimes  attains  tiie  height 
of  60 — 80  feet.  The  stems  are  thickest  in  the  middle,  tapering  chiefly  upwiiitls. 
The  leaves  are  pinnate,  their  footstalks  i=pinv.  The  flowers  have  a  strong  peculiar 
smell,  like  that  of  anise  or  cliervil.  The  nult  forms  an  immense  head,  like  a  j^reat 
pine-appl  >,  consisting  of  a  great  number  of  bright  orange-colored  drutu  s,  having  a 
thin  skin,  an  oilv  pulp,  and  a  hard  stone.  The  pulp  of  the  drupes,  forming  about 
three-fourths  of  their  whole  bulk,  yields,  by  bruising  and  boiling,  an  oil,  which 
when  fresh  has  n  phasant  odor  of  violets^  and  when  iHiuiovcd  into  colder  regions  ac- 
quires the  consistency  of  butter.  This  oil  is  now  very  largely  inipoi  ted  from  tropical 
Africa  into  Briiain,  and  is  much  used  for  many  purposes,  as  for  making  candles, 
toilet  soaps,  Ac,  and  for  lubricating  machineiy  and  the  wlu-els  of  railway  carriages. 
When  fresh,  it  is  eaten  like  butter.  See  Oils.  l*he  nut  was  formerly  rejected  as 
useless  after  tiie  oil  had  been  ohtained  from  the  fruit ;  but  from  its  kernel  a  fixed  oil 
is  now  extracted,  called  Palm-nut  Oil;  which  is  clear  and  limpid,  and  has  become 
to  some  extent  an  article  of  commerce.  The  O.  P.  abounds  in  mangrove  swamps, 
bnt  is  also  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the  landscape  on  sandy  coasts  in  the  tropical 
pai-ts  of  Western  Aflica.  It  yields  from  its  trunk  abundance  of  a  pteasant  and 
harndess  beverage,  which,  however,  becomes  intoxicating  in  a  few  hours ;  c;dled  - 
Ma'ooa  in  Angola,  and  much  used  there  as  an  alcoholic  stimulant.  The  unripe  nuts 
of  the  O.  P.  are  used  ia  some  parts  of  Africa  for  making  au  excellent  kind  of  soup.^ 


Digitized  by 


Google 


The  O.  P.  has  been  iutrodaced  iuto  some  ports  of  America,  and  is  now  abnndant  in 
them. 

OIL-KEFINTNG.  Several  oJIp,  from  the  mode  of  their  extraction,  are  necesfsarily 
impure,  and  various  means  ure  taken  for  refining  or  pnrifjring  them  :  thns,  llie  so- 
called  jiah'OiU-'Xhfxt  is,  whale.  8«al,  cod,  &c — are  clarified  either  by  mixing  th«!iii 
with  a  chemical  solatioii,  or  l>y  passiing  steam  throngh  them  and  filtering  tiironL'li 
coarse  charcoal.  The  chemical  solutions  employed  are  various*.  One  method  is,  to 
use  a  strong  solntion  of  oak  bark,  the  tannic  aci<t  in  which  combine's  witl)  the  allia- 
minoDS  matters  present  in  tho  oil,  and  precipitates  tliem;  another  plan  is,  to  agitate 
bleacliing-p«)wder,  formed  into  a  milk  with  water,  wiih  the  oil;  and  ttien,  after  sub- 
sidence of  Ihe  cliloiide  of  lime  and  water,  to  wapl»  tlieoil  witli  water,  or  jets  of  steam 
passed  throngh  it.  A  more  simple  and  very  effective  plan,  invented  by  Mr  Dnnii,  is 
to  apply  a  eiteam  heat  not  exceeding  200°  F.,  and  then  pa^s  a  cirrcnt  of  air  of  li»e 
same  temperatnru  throngh  it  continuously  for  some  time :  tins  effectually  bleaches 
tlie  oil. 

^  Olive,  and  some  other  vegetable  oils,  are  refined  by  agitating  ttiem  with  a  salo- 
rated  solution  of  caustic  soda.  This  renders  the  whole  soapy ;  but  after  a  time  the 
oil  precipitates  a  sai)onaceonn  deposit,  and'tlie  remainder  l)ecomes  quite  clear  md 
pure,  and  is  then  poured  off.  The  value  of  sevenil  ot  the  most  important  oils  if 
commerce  is  so  greatly  increased  by  refining,  that  this  art  has  now  become  a  very 
Important  brau(%  of  bu(*iness,  and  is  carried  out  on  a  large  scale. 

OILS  (inclnding  Fats).  Tlie  fats  and  fixed  oils  constitute  an  important  and  well- 
marked  group  of  or;;anic  compounds,  wliicii  exist  abundantly  both  in  the  aiiinialaDd 
vegetable  kingdoms.  They  are  not  simple  ori^anic  compounds  but  each  of  them 
is  a  mixture  of  sevenil  such  compound-*  to  whicli  the  term  glyceridcK  is  applied ;  and 
the  glyceride*  which  by  their  mixture  in  various  proportions  from  the  numerous fji«8 
and  oils  are  mainly  those  of  palmitic,  stearic,  and  oleic  acids— if  we  adopt  the  nnxiit 
view  that  M^irgaric  Acid  (q.  v.)  has  no  independent  existence—and  to  a  less  extent 
those  of  ^ther  fatty  acids,  which  wiil  be  presently  noticed,  such  as  butyric,  caproir, 
capi-ylic.  and  capric  acids,  which  are  obtitlnod  from  butter ;  myristfc  acid,  which  i^ 
obtained  from  cocoa-nnt  oil,  &c.  The  memb'.;r.-«  of  this  group  maybe  80lid  and  hard, 
lik:'  ouet ;'  semi-solid  and  soft,  like  butter  and  lard ;  or  fluid,  like  the  oils.  The  solid 
and  semi-solid  are,  however,  generally  placed  together  and  termed  fats,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  fluid  dis.  The  most  solid  fats  are  readily  fusible,  and  l)ecorae  re- 
duced to  a  fluid  or  oily  state  at  a  temp-irature  lower  than  that  of  the  hoiUu},'- 
poi:it  of  water.  They  are  not  volatile,  or,  in  other  words,  they  Cimnot  be  dif*till<'d 
without  decomposition,  ami  it  is  not  until  a  temperature  of  between  6<K)°  and  600°  is 
reached  that  thV;y  begin  nearly  simultaneously  to  l)oil  and  to  imdergo  decomposition, 
giving  off  acroleino  (an  acrid  product  of  the  di>»tlllation  of  glycerine)  and  other 
componuds.  In  consequence  of  this  property,  these  oils  are  termed  fixed  ot78,ia 
contradistinction  to  a  perfectly  separate  group  of  oily  matteijs,  on  which  the  odotif- 
erous  prO{>ertics  of  plants  depend,  and  which,  from  their  being  able  to  be:ir 
distillation  without  chamre,  are  known  as  volatile  oils.  These,  which  are  also  known 
nBesaenticel  or  etIiereeU  oiln,  differ  intoto  in  (heir  cliemical  composition  from  tho 
compounds  we  are  now  considering,  and  will.be  separat-ely  notic»'a  in  tlie  latter  part 
of  this  article.  All  the  fats  and  oils  arn  lighter  than  water,  and  are  perfectly  ii»- 
soluble  in  that  fluid.  Their  specific  gravity  ranges  from  about  0-91  to  OiW.  They 
dissolve  in  ether,  oil  of  turpentine  (one  of  the  volatile  oils),  benzol,  and  to  a  certaia 
extent  in  alcohol ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  they  act  as  solvents  for  snlphnr,  phos- 
phorus, <fec  If  a  fatty  matt-er  be  shaken  w:th  a  watery  solution  of  albumen,  gn in, 
or  some  other  sul)stance  that  increases  the  density  of  the  water,  and  renders  it 
viscid,  the  mixture  assumes  a  nulky  ap]>earanc(>,  in  consequence  of  the  hospension 
of  the  fat  or  oil  in  thw  form  of  microscopic  glol)nles.  and  is  termed  an  emulsion. 
These  bodies  possess  the  property  of  penetratmg  pai)er  and  other  fabrics,  rei»d«riu? 
them  transpirent,  and  pro<lncintj  wlnit  is  well  Known  as  a  greasy  stain.  They  are 
not  readily  inflammable  uide<s  with  the  ^ency  of  a  wick,  when  they  l>arn  wiili  a 
bright  flame.  In  a  pure  and  fresh  state  they  are  devoid  of  taste  and  smell,  hut  oa 
exposure  to  »he  air  they  become  oxidised  and  acid,  assume  ri.  deeper  color,  evolve* 
«disairreeable  odor  and  are  acrid  to  the  taste  ;  or.  In  popular  language,  they  become 
randd.    The  rapidity  with  wliich  tliis  change  occurs  is  considerably  increased  by 


y  Google 


'■-  439  %'{.^'^l'* 

the  nrlSence  of  mucilnginohfi  or  nIbnminonB  bodies.  The  rancJdIty  may  be  removed 
by  sbakiiig  the  oil  in  hot  water  hi  which  a  little  hydrnted  iim};ii(^8ia  Is  8UH})eiicle(l. 

The  geueral  diffni»iou  of  f:iti  and  oils  in  the  mil  inal  kiugdoin  has  been  already 
descril>ed.  (Soo  Fats,  Animal.)  Iu  the  vegetable  kingdom  tliey  nre  equally  widely 
di«tributcd,  tijore  being  scarcely  any  tiusue  of  any  plant  iu  whlcli  traces  of  them  may 
liot  be  detected  ;  bnt  they  are  S|>ecially  abundant  In  the  8(*e<l».  1'he  seeds  of  tlie 
atici/ercB  aro  remarkably  rich  in  oil;  linseed  yielding  fnlly  20  per  cent.,  and  rape- 
seed  abont  40  ))er  cent  of  oil ;  and  some  froits,  us  those  of  the  olive  and  oii-pulm, 
yield  an  abuudtince  of  oil. 

Tlie  uses  of  .the  (His  and  fats  are  uumerons.  and  highly  Important,  various  mem- 
bers of  this  group  Inung  extensively  cmployca  as  arHclos  of  food,  us  medicines,  as 
lnl)ricat)ng  agenti*.  in  ttie  prepanitfon  ot  soa|>s,  plasters,  ointments,  varnishes,  pig- 
ments, candles  and  otlier  means  of  illumination,  for  th«  purpose  of  dressing  leather, 
Ac    The  following  are  the  most  important  meml>ers  of  tlie  group : 

1.  Vegetable  Fats.— The  chief  t*olid  fats  of  vt*getable  origin  arc  cocoa-nut  oil,  tnt- 
ineg  bntter,  and  palm  oil.  The  fluid  vegetable  lats  or  oils  are  divisible  into  tlieiiwi- 
dryiiig  and  thii  dryiiig  oils  ;  the  hxtte.T  \)iimg  6\stUig\\]Bhcd  from  the  former  by  their 
becoming  di7  and  solid  wlieu  exposed  in  thin  layei-s  to  the  air,  in  oonsequence  of 
oxygenation ;  while  the  former  do  not  nl)sorb  oxygen,  bnt  are  converted  l)y  hyponi- 
tric  acid  or  sub-oxide  of  mertniry  intoeiaidinc  (as  deserilu'd  In  the  article  Oleinb), 
a  reaction  which  is  not  exhibited  by  tlie  drjiug  oils.  8ome  of  the  drying  oils,  cppe- 
cially  linseed  oil,  when  mixed  with  cotton,  wool,  or  tow,  absorb  oxygen  so  rapidly, 
and  consequently  become  so  healed  as  to  take  fire,  and  many  ca^'es  ot  the  spontane- 
ous combustion  of  hea|)s.of  oily  nuiterials  that  have  l)een  enipioyed'in  cleaning  ma- 
chluenr  haA'e  l)eot)  recoi-ded.  'i  he  drying  propei  ty  may  be  much  increased  hy  treating 
the  oils  with  a  little  litharge  or  oxide  of  mangancpc,  and  linseed  <  il  thus  treated  is 
then  known  unboiled  oil.  The  chief  non-drying  oils  are  olive  oil,  almond  oil,  and 
colza  oil;  while  the  mo«t  important  drying  oils  are  those  of  linsef>d,  hemp,  poppy, 
nnd  walnut;  castor  oil  seems  to  form  a  link  Ivtween  tlicse  two  clueses  of  oils,  since 
it  gradually  becomes  hard  by  long  exposure  to  the  air. 

%.  Aninml  Fats.— The  chief  solid  fats  are  suet,  lai*d,  butter,  gooso  grease,  &c. ; 
while  among  the  fluid  fats  or  oilt*,  sperm  oil,  ordinary  whale  o  1,  cod-hvi-r  oil,  and 
neat's-foot  oil  n)ay  bt!  especially  mentioned.  In  many  of  their  charaeters,  sperma- 
ceti and  bees-wax  re8<Mnble  tins  solid  fain,  but,  as  will. be  shewn  in  the  articles  on 
these  subjects,  they  are  not  plycerides.  As  a  general  rule,  steariuo  and  palmithie, 
both  of  which  have  comparatively  high  fufitig  points  (between  15'.°  and  114^),  pre- 
ponderate in  the  solid  fats ;  while  oluhie,  which  is  fluid  at  82°,  is  tlio  chief  constitu- 
ent of  the  oils. 

One  or  two  of  the  most  important  of  the  decompositions  of  the  fats  must  !)« 
noticed.  When  any  of  these  bodies  arc  heated  with  the  hy(h-ated  alkalies*,  they  un- 
dergo a  change  wliieh  has  long  lieen  known  as  Sapoiiiflcatiou,  or  conversion  into 
eoap  (q.  v.),  in  which  t'.ie  fatty  acid  combines  witii  the  alkali  to  form  a  soap,  while 
the  sweet  viscid  liquid  glycerine  is  simultaneously  lormed.  The  combination  of  a 
fatty  acid  witli  oxide  of  lead  forms  u  plaster.  For  furthex  details  on  these  points, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  tlie  articles  Soap  and  Plastebs. 

'ITie  process  of  saponification  affords  a  ready  means  of  isolating  the  fatty  acids, 
as  the  stearic  or  oleic  acids  may  beat  once  separated  from  an  alkaline  stcaratc  or 
oleate  by  the  addition  of  hydrochloric  or  tarMric  acid.  Wlien  the  tatty  acids  are, 
however,  required  on  a  largo  scjile,  a«  for  the  manufacture  of  tlie  so-called  steariue 
cindles,  which  in  reality  coiipi^t  mainly  of  stearic  and  palmitic  acids,  sulphuric 
aci«l  and  the  oil  or  fat  are  mad«t  to  act  upon  each  other  at  n  high  ten>peniturc.  See 
Candle.  The  fatty  acids  may  alfo  '>e  procured  in  a  very  pun;  form  by  the  injection 
of  superheated  steam  at  a  tenmeraiure  of  between  500°  and  600°  into  lieated  fat— a 
process  which,  according  t<)  Professor  Miller,  *♦  from  its  simplicity  and  from  the 
'  purity  of  the  products  which  it  yields,  bids  fair  to  supersede  t  liose  previously  em- 
ployed in  the  preparation  of  the  fatty  acids  for  illuminating  puri)OS<is." 

Ilie  only  fatty  acids  which  have  been  specially  mentioned  in  tliis  article  are  those 
which  occur  fn  natural  glycerides,  such  as  stearic,  palmitic,  and  oleic  acids.  'i*he 
tern-i  fatty  acid  has,  however,  in  Chemistiy  a  wide  signifleatioii,  and  in  applied  to 
many  acids  homologous  to  stearic  acid,  but  not  occurring  in  any  natural  fats  or  oils. 
Thus  stearic  acid  may  be  tiil^cu  as  the  type  of  a  group  of  acids  (of  which  seventeen 


y  Google 


^oii.  440 


■^!9wn 


are  alinady  known)  reprpfWHted  b^  the  general  formula.  C^nU^nO^,  commpxicuie 
with  formic  ucid  (C3Ha04),  iucUiding  acetic,  propiouk:,  miiyric,  vaieric  (or  valen- 
aiiic),  caproic,  cenautnyiic,  caprylic,  |»elargonic,  capric,  laiuic,  luyrisUc,  paiiuitic, 
stearic,  aracliidic,  niid  corotic  acids,  and  termiuatiu:.'  with  nieli8:«ic  acid  (Ceol!j,04i. 
Tlie-^tt  are  divided  into  tli«  voluiile  and  the  true  (or  solid)  fatty  acidrf ;  t.11;  vol:iti!e 
acids '^eing  tl»o#e  from  formic  to  capric  acid,  wliilc  the  remainder,  begiuniiig  with 
laiiric  acict,  are  the  trnu  fatty  acids.  The  volatile  fatty  acids  are  fluid,  and  for-  lit-  m^t 
part  ody  at  ordinary  temperatines,  maybe  disti-loii  without  change,  pofses.-' a  pun- 
gent odor,  and  are  acrid  to  the  taste,  an<l  tlu;ireol«itioii8reddeulltim««j  paper  strongly. 
The  tniejatty  ocidH,  ou  the  orher  himd,  are  .-olid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  are  de- 
void of  taste  and  smell,  cannot  he  distilled  excei)t  in  vactiOy  witlsout  decompoMiiou, 
aud  oiilv^xcrta  slight  action  on  lltmns.  The  ^latile  acids  occur  in  the  unnnaland 
veg^tJ»ble  kingdoms  ((ormic  acid,  for  example,  in  red  antSj  aud  valine  at  id,  in  the 
root  of  valeriau).  ami  th  iy  are  likewise  prodncid  by  the  oxida'.ion  and  spouiaiieons 
decomno.-'ition  of  nu;ii«rotts  animal  and  vegetable  products.  The  entire  MT.es.  up 
to  capric  acid,  may  be  obtained  by  oxidisinjj  oleic  acid  w.th  nitric  add.  Tlic  irueor 
solid  acids  onlv  »)ccur  as  const  iturnts  of  animal  and  ve;j:eiable  fati<. 

Professor  Miller  makes  a  seroud  group  of  fatty  acid^^i  of  whicli  oleic  acid  is  the 
typ;;,  and  which  have  the  general  formula  C^nti^n-^O^;  but  as  oleic  acid  is  the 
only  member  of  tJds  group  which  i:*  of  any  [iraeiical  importauc^j,  it  is  eufficieat 
to  refer  the  reader  to  tue  special  article  on  that  acid. 

A  complete  list  of  even  the  chief  fats  and  fixed  oils  would  take  up  far  more 
spjce  than  wj  can  command.  In  the  article  "Fixed  Oils,"  in  **Tbe  English Cy- 
ciopseUia,"  the  reader  will  find  64  of  the  most  important  of  these  sub.^tauces  men- 
tioned, with  in  m  )St.  cas.^s  a  brief  notice  of  the  origin  and  projHirties  of  each. 
The  British  pharmacopoeia  contains  ht>gVlard,  nmtton  suet,  cod-aver  oil,  coi:crete 
oil  (or  butter)  of  nutmeg,  aud  almond,  castor,  crotou,  linseed,  aud  olive  oils,  bo> 
8ide,«  the  closely  alli^l  nubslances  spernniceti  and  waS. 

The  Volatile  (»r  Estiential  Oils  exist,  in  uu)>t  instances,  ready  fonned  in  plantii 
and  are  helievid  to  coustituie  tindr  odorou-*  principles.  They- form  an  exiremelT 
numerous  class,  of  which  most  of  the  members  are  fluid;  a  few  (oil  of  auiseecu 
for  txample)  b.dng  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  all  of  them  arc  Ciipableof 
biing  disti  1  id  without  under^'oiu»  change.  They  resemble  the  fixed  oils  in  their 
iiirt.inimability,  in  their  solubility  iu  the  same  fluids,  and  in  their  cununuuicjitiiig 
a  uroa.->y  stain  10  pap  n-  or  any  other  fabric;  but  tlie  stain  iu  this  case  hooii  disw 
ap.Kiars,  and  they  further  differ  in  coinmuniciiiuir  a  rough  and  harsh  ndherthan 
ail  unctuous  f»eliiig  10  the  skin.  Their  boiling  points  are  in  almost  all  cas:'8  far 
higher  than  that  of  water,  but  when  heated  with  water,  they  ]»ass  off  with  the 
stiam— a  property  on  wiiich  one  of  the  chief  uu)d»;8  of  ol)iamiDg  tlu-m  dciwiids. 
HiQ  Perfumery.  The  oils  have  characteristic  peuetrutiug  odors,  whicii  are  sel- 
dom so  pleasant  as  those  of  the  plants- from  which  they  arc  obCajutnl,  au'l  iheir 
taste  is  hot  and  irrit'Uing.  They  vary  in  tlu;ir  specific  gravity,  but  most  of  them 
aro  lighter  than  wat^r,  and  refract  light  strongly.  Most  of  thtin  are  marly  color- 
less when  fresh,  but  daiken  on  exposure  to  light  and  air;  but  a  fiw  an*  green, 
and  two  or  three  of  a  blue  co  or.  By  prolonged  exposure  they  absorb  oxygen, 
and  b.;come  conv-rtcd  iuio  resins. 

iiy  far  the  greater  niunber  of  them  are  products  of  tbe  vitjil  activity  of  plautS;  ill 
which  most  of  tham  exist  ready  forau;d,  Deing  enclosed  in  minute  cjivities,  which 
are  oUtMi  vi-ible  to  ihe  naked  eye.  Although  diffused  through  almost  evny  jmrtof 
a  plant,  the  oil  is  especially  abundant  in  particular  organs  of  certauj  familie'Of 
plant-*.  In  the  [Tinbelliferce^  it  is  most  abundant  in  the  seeds;  in  t he /iowt-yo'.  iu 
the  petals  of  the  flowers;  in  the  Myt'tucece  and  JjabiaUv,  in  the  leav^-s;  in  tlie 
Anranliacecu,  in  the  rind  of  the  fmit.  As  iu  the  case  of  the  animal  and  vcjclahle 
fats  and  tlxed  oils,  so  most  of  the  essential  oils  occurriug  in  plants  are  mixture* of 
two  01  more  distinct clKMuical  compounds,  one  of  wliichu!*nally  comains  nooxygeu, 
while  the  others  are  oxidised.  Of  ihestt,  the  former,  which  is  a  jjuro  hydiOc.irlK.'«i, 
is  the  more  volatile,  and  acts  as  a  solvent  for  the  otijci's.  Mo-t  of  these  oils,  when 
cooled,  8  .parate  into  a  solid  and  a  fluid  portion,  to  which  the  terms  Uteaioptett  and 
JSlcenpteiihtive  been  applie  I. 

In  the  comparatively  few  co6r>s  in  which  the  oils  are  not  fonned  naturally,  tlicf 
are  produc«'d  by  a  Hj)i:clefi  of  fermentation,  as  in  the  case  of  Oil  of  BiHer  A.»noiM» 
aud  Oil  of  Mustard  (q.  v.),  while  otiiers  are  thj  product  of  the  dry  distiiiaiiuuiflrof 


Digitized  by 


Google 


441 


or  a 


the  pntrefnction  of  manv  vegetable  bodies.  Some  of  the  natural  oils,  as  those  of 
diiDamou,  ppirsea,  aud  witittr-greeii,  have  also  betrii  artificially  pioducid. 

ITic  essential  (»ils  are  innch  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  Perfumevy  (q.  v.),  for 
the  purpose  of  flavoring  liqweurn,  coiif<'CtioDary,  &«.-.,for  various  purposes  in  the  arts 
(as  ill  silvering  miiTors).  and  in  medicine.  The  special  uses  of  the  most  important 
ot  these  oils  in  medicine  will  l)e  noticed  pnb!»equiiitly. 

The  members  of  ISiis  group,  which  is  an  extremely  numerous  one  (more  than  140 
essential  oils  being  noticed  in  theurficleou  ihuts..l)ject  in"  The  English  Cyclopsediji)," 
admitof  arrangement  under  four  lieadH.  1.  Pure  Uydrotarbons;  2.  Oxygenous  K^- 
B-ntial  Oilp;  3.  Sulphurous  Essential  Oils;  4  Essential  Oils  obtained  by  Fenmu- 
tiitioii.  Dry  Distillation,  &c. 

1.  The  Pwre  Hydrocarbons  are  for  the  most  part  fluid,  and  have  a  lower  specific 
gravity,  a  lower  boiling  point,  aud  a  higher  refraciive  powt-r  tlian  the  oxygenous 
oils.  They  absorb  oxygen,  and  are  converted  into  oxygenous  oils  and  resins.  'l"h<  y 
luay  he  separated  from  oxygenous  oil-,  with  which  they  .re  n.-ually  associated,  by 
fractional  distillation.  They  include  oil  of  turpentine  (CaoHn),  and  the  oils  of  ber- 
gainot  birch,  chamomile,  caraway,  cloves,  elemi,  hop,  juniijer,  lemons,  oraisge, 
parsley,  savine,  and  valerian,  most  or  all  of  which  contain  the  san.e  hydrocarbon  as 
Oil  of  Turpentine  (q.  v.),  an<l  in  addition  to  it  an  oxidised  compound ;  oil  of  copaiva 
(^80^*4)'  i«t'»»*  of  roses  (<'ieTIie),  «Sfc. 

2.  1  Ue  Oxfigcnoiis  Emeutiat  Vila  may  be  either  fluid  or  solid,  the  latter  being 
also  termed  Camphora.  A  stearopten  eeparat«-8  from  most  of  the  fluid  oils  on  cool- 
iiig.  They  are  more  «olubloin  water  and  spirit  of  wine  than  the  pure  hydrocarbons. 
Tliey  may  l)e  divided  into  (1)  those  which  are  fluid  at  ordinnry  temperalures,  such  as 
those  of  aniseed,  chamomiU;,*  cajepnt,  caraway,*  cinnamon,  clovt-s,*  fennel,  laven- 
der, peppermint,  rue,  spinea,  thyme,*  winter-green,  &c.  Those  marked  with  a  (*) 
are  associated  with  the  pure  hyilrocarbons  already  described.  (2)  The  camphors, 
such  us  ordinary  camphor  {C^qMi^O^),  Borneo  camphor  (CjoliieOa),  &c. 

3.  The  SulphurouH  Efse^t^iai  Oils  are  chiefly  obtained  from  ihe  CruHferm.  They 
probably  all  contain  th<i  radical  (nUyl  ^CeHg).  The  oils  of  garlic  and  mustard  of  (both 
of  which  liave  been  destribcd  in  special  article^),  and  those  of  horse-radish,  scurvy- 
grass  and  asafcBtida,  are  the  best  illustrative  of  this  division. 

4.  AinoDgst  the  esseniial  oils  obtained  byftrmentation,  dry  distillation,  &c.,  may 
be  mentioned  the  oils  of  bitter  almonds  and  of  black  mustard,  the  oils  of  milfoil, 
plantain,  centaury,  &c.  (whoso  leaves  have  no  smell  until  they  have  been  moistened 
for  some  time  with  water^  when  a  kind  of  fermentation  is  set  up,  aud  oil  i%  yielded 
in  abundance),  Fnrfuramido  (q.  v.),  &c. 

The  Bdtish  pharmacopoeia  contains  the  es8<U)tial  oils  of  nnise,  cajepnt,  caraway, 
chamomile,  cinnanton,  cloves,  copaiva,  coriander,  cubebs,  dill,  juniper,  lavend<r, 
lemori,  nutmeg,  peppermint^  pimento,  rosemary,  rue,8avine,  spearmint,  and  turpen- 
tine. Ot  these,  the  odsof  anise,  cajeput,  caraway,  chamomile,  coriander,  dill,  pepper- 
mint, pimento,  and  spearmint  are  us<  d  as  stimulants  and  antispasmodics  in  cases  oC 
flatulence,  griping,  &c. ;  and  to  disguise  the  nauseous  taste  of  various  medicines. 
The  oils  of  cajepnt,  cinnamon,  and  rue  act  similarly  but  more  powerfully.  The  oils 
of  copaiva  and  cubelis  act  in  the  same  manner  as  the  substances  from  which  they 
are  rh'rived ;  oil  of  juniper  is  a  ])Owerful  diuretic,  and  oil  of  savine  (and  to  a  less  ex- 
tent oil  of  rue)  an  emmenagogue.  The  oils  of  lavender  and  lemon  are  used  to  con- 
ceal the  smell  of  sulphur  ointment,  and  to  give  an  agreeal)le  odor  to  lotions^,  &c.  'ihe 
oil  of  rosemary  is  chi«  fly  employed  as  a  siimulating  liniineut,  especially  in  cases  of 
•I)aldne88;  ai.d  the  oil  of  nutmeg  is  seldom  given  medicinally  except  in  the  form  of 
aromjitic  spirit  of  ammonia,  into  the  composition  of  which  it  enters. 

A  very  admiral)le  paper  on  the  essential  oils,  was  read  by  Dr  Gladstone  before 
the  Chemical  Society,  ii\  tho  month  of  December  1863;  and  the  reader  who  is 
aiixioas  to  pursue  the  subject  further  will  find  it  advantageous  to  refer  to  this 
excellent  production. 

Bland  oils—such,  for  example,  as  olive  oil— were  much  used  by  the  ancients  as 
eatcrual  applications  in  various  forms  of  disease.  Celsus  repeatedly  speaks  of  tluj 
nso  of  oil  applied,  externally  with  friction  in  fevers,  and  in  various  oi her  diseases. 
Pliny  says  that  olive  oil  warms  the  body  and  at  the  same  time  cools  the  head,  and 
thai  it  was  used  with  these  objects  previously  to  taking  cold  batlis.  Aretseus  rt  com- 
ffieads  a  sitz-bathjof  oil  in  cases  of  r<»nal  calculi,  and  Josenhus  relates  that  a  similar 
moae'  of  treatment  was  employed  in  tho  case  of  Herod,    Galen  prescribed  "  oil  and 


y  Google 


oils 


442 


wine  '*  for  wownds  In  the  lieaft ;  and  t])e  parable  of  the  good  Samaritan  affords  addi- 
tional evidewce  thaf  tliis  w;«8  a  coiumon  mode  of  treating  woiincli".  .  The  nae  of  m\ 
prt'pamtory  to  athletic  exercises  is  referred  to  by  minieroos  Greek  and  Latiu 
writers. 

As  a  cosmetic— rthat  is  to  say,  as  a  means  of  giving  to  the  skin  and  hair  a  smooth 
and  graceful  a^penraiue — its  use  has  befii  prevalent  in  hot  clijiiates  from  the  earlies't 
tiniei*.  There  is  abnndant  i)i^torical  evidence  of  this  nsage  of  oil  amongst  the  £g}^ 
tiaus,  the  Jews,  the  Qreeks,  and  the  Romans ;  and  Pliny's  stnteiuent  that  bntter  is 
«s<'d  by  the  iieKi'oes,  and  the  lower  class  of  Arabs,  for  the  puipose  of  anointing.  Is  | 
confirmed  by  the  observation  of  all  recent  African  travt-llen*.  In  hot  climates,  tisere 
Is  doubtless  a  practical  as  well  as  an  ses'tJietic  object  in  anointing.  The  oil,  bein?  a 
bad  conductor  of  heat,  affords  a  certain  ainount  of  protection  against  tl«e  dinwt 
action  of  the  solar  heat ;  it  is  likewisii  serviceable  as  a  protection  against  the  attacks 
of  insects,  and  as  a  means  of  checking  excessive  pc.'rspi ration.  The  frtct  of  oily 
and  fatty  mfttt^rs  being  bad  conductors  of  heat,  serves  also  to  explain  why  the 
E.«qniniaux  and  other  dwellers  in  Arctic  regions  have  reconrse  to  the  innncdOD  of 
the  blubber,  &c.  lu  their  case  the  oily  investment  serves  lo  prevent  the  escape  of 
the  bodily  heat. 

The  Qreeks  and  Romans  not  only  employed  oil  for  the  purpo8t»s  already  men- 
tioned, bnt  in  their  fmiereal  rites;  the  bodies  of  their  dead  t)eiug  anointed  with  oil, 
with  the  view  proh.ibly  of  postponing  incipient  decomposition.  A  similar  practice 
existed  amongst  the  Jews,  and  in  the  Gospels  we  find  various  passiiges  in  winch  oar 
Lord  refeiTcd  to  his  own  body  being  anointed  by  anticipation.  It  appears  from  tlie 
evidence  of  S.  Chrysostoui,  and  other  wdters,  tliat  this  ancient  nsiige  of  ;inoinring 
the  bodies  of  the  dead  was  long  retained  iu  the  Ciiristiau  Chnrch.  See  Ukctiok  ; 
ExTREKE  Unction. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  remark  that  the  ancient  syBt^m  of  anointing,  as  a  means 
of  medical  treatment,  has  to  a  certain  extent  bt:en  revived  in  modern  times.  Many 
physicians  of  tlie  present  dav  combine  the  inunction  of  co<i-liver  oil  with  its  inteni.-il 
adininisti-atioii,  a  copibinalion  fir^t  recommended  by  Professor  Simpson  of  EdUi- 
burgh;  and  Sir  H«ni7  Holland  advocates  the  practice  of  anointing  the  harshidrjr 
skin  of  dyspeptic  patients  witli  warm  oils.  There  can,  we  think,  be  little  donbt  that 
there  are  many  forms  of  disease  in  which  the  local  application  of  medicinal  oiia 
wonld  prove  advantageous;  but  the  great  drawback  to  their  use  is,  that  the  tiinere- 
qnired  for  properly  rubbing  tliem  into  the  skut  is  more  than  most  patients  aire  will- 
ing to  concede.  For  much  curious  information  on  the  subject  of  this  article,  the 
reader  ift  referred  to  a  very  intei-estlng  paper  by  Mr  Hnater,  '^Ou  the  External  Ap- 
plication of  Oils,"  in  the  second  volume  of  '•  The  Etlinburgh  Medical  and  Surgical 
JournaL"  / 

Oils  in  their  CoMMEBCiAii  Relations.— The  solid  animal  oils  found  in  com- 
merce  are  butter  and  lard,  tallow,  mares' grease,  goose  grease,  ncatsfoot  oil,  aid 
nnn  fined  volkof  egg  oils.  The  two  fii-st  are  fully  tlescribt^d  under  their  names'.  See 
Butter,  Lard.  Tallow  is  the  fat  of  oxen  and  sheep,  bnt  more  especially  the  fat 
which  envtilops  the  kidneys  and  other  parts  of  the  viscera,  rendered  down  or 
melted.  Tlie  qunlities  of  this  solid  oil  render  it  particularly  well  adapted  for  making 
candles,  and  until  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  present  century,  candia  for 
ordinary  use  were  almost  wholly  made  of  it,  the  high  price  of  wax  and  spermac^^'ti 
pr«*venting  their  employment  except  by  the  most  wealthy  and  for  ecclesiastical  pur- 
poses. Besides  its  use  in  making  amdles,  tallow  is  most  extensively  used  »»» JJho 
manufacture  t)f  soap,  and  for  the  puriiose  of  preserving  machinttry  from  m.-t  Tho^ 
trade  iu  tallow  with  Russia,  which  produces  the  l>est,  and  with  North  and  Soutii 
America,  and  even  with  India  and  other  countrie!',  is  very  considerable;  bnt  it  is 
decliniiiir,  owing  of  course  to  the  ext^sion  of  gas  and  the  enormous  development 
of  the  PJiraffin  and  Petroleum  Oils  <q.  v.),  and  other  light-giving  materiiUa.    Th^ 

Jiuautities  of  tallow  and  stearine  imported  in  five  recent  years  into  Britain  were  as 
ollows : 

Tons. 

1871 1,24T,064    Value  jC2,996,858 

1872 1,832,144         "        2,7W,$70 

1873 l,tJ27.32l  »*        S.847,271 

1874 1,155,243         *<        4.172,118 

18T5 96T,39«        **       4»888,1W 


Digitized  by 


Google 


443  °"» 

The  chief  nsc  of  tallow  in  tliis  coniitry  is  now  In  the  mannfnctnre  of  Sonp  (q.  v.), 
and  even  in  this  it  h.'is  yield«ii  in  iniporlance  to  pulin  and  co<o:i-nnt  oils. 

Mares'  GreaBo  is  not  nearly  po  solid  as  tullow,  it  is  u  yellowi«h-bro\vn  gi-enpc,  im- 
,  ported  extensively  from  Montevideo  and  Baenos  Ayree,  wlu-re  va^t  nuuibei-b  uf 
horBes  are  stangliterrd  for  their  liides,  bones,  and  gnase  ;  it  is  particularly  valuably 
as  a  lubi-icant  for  machinery,  and  is  frequently  enipK)yed  for  that  purpose  :»ftfr  nincli 
of  ltd  stearin e  has  been  i-emoved  for  candle-making.  The  reason  this  material  is 
callfd  mares'  j;rea^,  is  said  to  l>e  from  the  circumstance,  that  in  Soutji  Ami  rica 
horties  are  chiefly  used  alive,  and  mares  are  slauijhtered  as  comparatively  u?*"')!'.- 8. 
Gof>pe  Grease  is  another  poft  fat,  mncli  valued  by  housewives  for  many  pnrposj.'S, 
bat  excepting  that  it  is  sold  in  some  districts  as  a  remedial  a^ent,  it  has  no  com- 
nifi-cial  importance.  Neats-foot  Oil  is  a  soft  fai  procured  in  the  pn  paration  of  the 
feet,  and  intestines  of  oxen  for  food  as  sold  in  the  tripe-shops.  The  quantiiy  til)- 
taiued  is  not  ver^'  great,  but  it  is  in  much  request  by  cnriiers  for  dressing  leather. 
Yolk  of  E«rg  Oil  is  a  hard  oi'»  which,  though  lit  lie  known  in  Britain,  is  extensively 
used  in  oilier  countries  where  eggs  are  clu  aper.  In  Itussia,  for  instjince.  it  is  man- 
ufactured on  so  larjje  a  scalojjs  to  snpp.y  Fome  of  the  larjrest  makers  of  fancy  soajjs, 
aitd  it  forms  the  principal  material  in  the  celebrated  Kazan  Soap;  and  certain  po- 
mades are  m;ide  of  it  which  have  a  great  reputation,  and  realise  very  high  prices. 
The  oil  is  not  unlike  palm  oil  in  «;olor  and  consistency;  but  wlien  reftnetl  is  liquid, 
and  huB  a  reddish-yellow  color.    Its  price  at  Mofcow  is  as  high  as  8«.  i>cr  pound. 

The  liquid  animal  oils  are  morennm*  rous,  Miid,exce))tiug  tallow,  are  far  more  im- 
portjint,  the  so-called  fish-oils  being  the  piiucipal.  These  are  whale,  poi-p*  iw,  seal, 
cod,  hening,  sharkj  &c.  The  whales  which  are  pnrsued  for  their  oil  are:  (l.)  The 
Sperm  Whale.  "  Tins  huge  creature  is  from  60  to  70  feet  in  length,  and  yields  gener- 
ally from  5000  to  6000  gallonsof  oil.  The  flne^t  oil  is  taken  from  the  great  reservoir 
on  the  luad.  The  oil  of  this  species  is  all  of  a  quality  snjHJrior  to  others,  and  is 
known  as  sperm  oil.  For  the  metluxl  of  procuring  thin  oil,  see  Caoholot.  (2.)  The 
Right  Whale,  which  yields  by  far  the  largest  proiwriion  of  whale  oil.  This,  with 
that  yielded  by  otlier  less  important  species,  is  n^^al!y  calUd  train  oil.  The  term 
train  \s  suppotited  to  be  n  cotrnption  of  dram,  and  applies  to  the  cinnmstance  of 
the  oil  being  drained  out  of  the  blubber;  and  in  this  sent-e  it  is  also  appii<'d  to  sperm 
oil  from  the  blnbl)er  of  the  cacholot,  in  contrjidij'tiucticm  to  the  finer  oil  from  the 
head  matter.  The  Right  Whale  forms  the  chief  object  of  the  northern  fisheries,  but 
other  8i>e(:ies  of  Baltense  arc  purhued  in  different  parts  of  the  world  for  the  sake  of 
their  oil.    See  Whalb. 

Amongst  the  smaller  Cetaceans,  the  porpoises —called  alf^o  dolphins  <**pnffydun- 
ters''  on  tite  east  coast  of  Scotland) — and  grampuses  yield  an  excellent  oil,  ^ecol•.d 
only  ill  value  to  that  of  regular  oil  whales ;  and  to  obtain  it,  large  numbers  are  occa- 
Bionally  kllUKi  in  the  British  seas.  The  price  of  sperm  oil  rai^ges  from  jCSO  to  £95 
per  tun,  and  tliat  of  ordinary  trnin  oil  from  £40  to  45  per  Inn  of  262  gallons*.  Tho 
imports  ami  consumption  of  the  various  kinds  of  whale  oil  for  the  five  years  1871— 
1875  were  as  follows : 

Tuns. 

1871 24C79  Value  £1,087,734 

1872 ]8.719         *»  855,690 

1873 17.6S6         ♦'  766.927 

1874 17051         "  751  3ii9 

1875 ; 19,359         "  917,701 

A  large  quantity  of  very  valuable  oil  is  obtained  from  Seals,  and  the  scal-llshery, 
as  a  means  of  obtaining  o.l,  is  only  second  in  importance  to  tiiat  of  the  whale.  It  is 
cjirried  on  chiefly  on  the  shores  of  Newloundland,  Greenland,  and  Labrador.  Like 
tlie  whales,  the  seals  have  a  thick  layer  of  blublH-r,  in  which  the  oil  is  contained. 
See  Seal.  The  fltst  draining  from  the  blubber  is  of  a  fine  clear  pale-straw  color  ; 
the  next,  yellow  or  tinged  :  and  the  last  is  brown  or  dark.  The  price  ranges  in  our 
roarkets  at  about  £85  to  £40  per  tun  for  pale,  £30  to  £35  for  yellow,  and  £28  to  £30 
for  brown.  The  whah;  and  tho  seal  oils  are  nearly  all  used  for  burning  in  lampn,  and 
for  this  purpose  tliey  are  admiiably  adapted  by  their  great  illuminating  power.  They 
a^  also  the  best  lubricanta  for  machinery. 

Of  the  true  fish  oils,  that  from  the  cod  is  most  in  importance,  more  especially 
eiiu:e  ita  medicinal  properties  were  discovered.    It  is  made  only  from  the  liver  of  the 


Digitized  by 


Google 


■Tf^ 


Oils 


444 


fl.<h;  and  the  nttempt  which  waa  made  to  induce  a  populnr  belief  th-it  the  so-called 
cod-liver  oil  w:i8  different  from  the  ordinary  cod  oil  of  couiinerce,  was  rtn.plya 
elieat;  no  difEeroucn  exists,  and  tlie  oil  is  obtained  jsjst  as  good  frouj  the  oil  mer- 
chant, at  a  motlerafe  price  per  gallon,  as  from  tiie  eniinric  at  an  exorbitant  price  per 
pint.  ludced,  tin;  purer  I  he  oile-an  be  got,  Hu;  berier  it  id  in  a  remedial  ;>oiut  of  view,  • 
notwifhstn tiding  the  efforts  made  to  convince  the  public  that  a  certain  color  is  better 
than  :niy  other. 

Fn.^rond  of  the  ol«l  and  somewhat  rnde  methods  of  preparing  the  oil  (<«oe  Coo- 
liver  Oil),  muili  inoreconipl  -te  and  efficient  arrangements  are  now  adopied.  Tin 
liver.-*,  wlien  taken  from  tlie  fish  are  all  examined,  wash^^d  in  clean  w  .t«?r  an«lp!ac'^l 
in  f^icves  to  dry.  Thence  Uwy  are  transferreii  to  pans  heated  with  sieani,  mul  i\t\t 
bikini;  exposttd  to  n  gentle  licat  for  about  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  the  lieatisdis- 
coniiiueii ;  and  when  cold,  the  oil  wh.ch  has  separated  is  skimmi.-d  off.  andsirainel 
tlnough  flannel  ba.'S  into  tub-".  Here  cerUiin  impurities  subside,  and  the  clear  oil 
is  poiirod  off  from  tlie  dr^s,  and  tlie  contents  of  numerous  tulw  are  transfurrwl  to 
galvaiised  iron  cisteriis  in  which  a  further  setthiment  tjikcs  place.  The  oil  isuow 
ready  for  the  filters,  which  are  made  of  the  strong  cloth  calK*d  mole- kin,  tlironsh 
whi'.-.l!  it  is  forced  by  atiuo-'pheric  pressure  into  tlie  store-tanks,  which  are  also  of 
galvanised  iron.  Ilenc«'  it  is  pumped  into  the  casks  for  exi>ort^  whicli  arc  ttsnnlly 
iiogsheads,  tierces;  and  barrels.  The  value  of  co<l-liver  oil  is  alK>ut  i;34  to  jG40  per 
tu!i.  Tli(!  imports  vary  much  according  to  the  success  of  tbulifhery;  they  iiavc 
reached  nearly  1000  tuns  iwr  annum.  Besides  its  consumption  in  himp.s  and  for  me- 
dicinal purposes,  cod  oil  is  used  in  making  some  kinds  of  soap.  Oil  is  occasionally 
mad.!  from  tlie  herring,  but  not  in  very  gr«!at  quantities;  it,  liowcvcr.  forms  acoio- 
uiercial  article.  It  is  inade  from  the  wliole  of  the  fish,  the  smell  of  which  it  retaiiw 
to  a  very  disagreeable  extejit. 

Tlie  liijhresi  of  all  tlie  fixed  oils  Is  made  from  the  liver  of  the  common  shait; 
it  rang(!S  from  specific  gravity  0  S65  to  0'86T.  Ihis,  and  the  oil  made  from  I  he  liveM 
of  the  Cominon  Steate  (liaia  batis)y  the  Thoiuback  (iJ,  claouta)^  and  the  White 
Skate  {WiinobattmcernicuAis),  are  olten  8ub.-titutcd  for  the  cod-liver  oil  used  me- 
dicinally, butiiave  not  its  valuable  properties. 

Under  the  name  of  lard  oil.  large  (^uan titles  of  theoleineof  lard  Ifave  been  im- 
ported of  late  years  from  America.  It  is  a  secondary  product,  arising  from  the  gn^at 
manufacture  of  lard  siearine  for  candle-inaking  winch  has  arisen  in  that  conntry. 
Lard  oil  is  worth  about  i;45  to  £53  per  tun,  and  is  jiriucipally  n>ed  as  a  lubdcant  fur 
machinery. 

The  solid  vegetable  fixed  oils  which  find  a  place  in  commerce  are  imlm  oil,  cocon- 
uut  oil.  kokum  or  vegetable  tallow,  and  carapa  or  carap  <jil.  The  palm  oil  is  an  oil 
of  a  bright  orange-yidlow  color  and  an  agreeable  vjoiet  odor  :  it  is  obudned  fruiu 
tlie  not  very  thick  covering  of  the  hard  seeds  of  the  Oil-palm  (q.  v.).  Thefrnlis, 
when  pjathered.  are  shaken  out  of  theclusti-rs,  and  are  laid  iu  heaps  in  the  fuu  t«ir  a 
short  time,  after  wiiich  the  natives  boil  tiiein  slowly  iu  water,  when  the  oil  separates 
and  is  skimmed  off  the  surface,  and  carried  in  small  quantities  to  the  depots  of  ilio 
traders^  who  transfer  it  to  casks  which  are  preparetlio  receive  it  on  Iward  ibesUips 
The  quantitv  tliu-i  collected  is  enormous.  The  imports  into  Britain  a^one  for  the 
five  years  ISTl— lvS75  were  as  foliows,.in  tons  weight:  (1 871 )  52,3»4 ;  (1872)  50.325; 
(1873)  5),897  ,  (1874)  53,383;  (1815)  46,328.  Previous  to  1840,  the  chief  use  of  paliu 
oil  was  in  uniking  soap,  but  it  was  about  that  time  found  that  the  palinithic  or  fat 
acid  of  this  oil  was  a<lmlrably  adapted  fur  the  manufacture  of  Caudles  (q.v.);  ami 
since  then  it  has  become  of  much  great«!r  impoi*t-»nce. 

Cocoa-nut  Oil  is  a  whit«i  fat,  wiiJi  the  p.-culiar  smell  of  the  kernel ;  it  Is  made  hy 
grinding  or  pounding  the  kernel  of  the  cocoa  nut.  After  It  has  been  boiled  in  water 
for  a  short  time,  the  paste  is  submitted  to  great  pressure,  und  a  large  quantity  "f 
milky  juice  is  obtained  ;  this  Is  slowly  boiled,  and  the  oil  separates  and  rises  to  tluj 
surface  in  considerable  quantity,  and  is  skimmed  off.  Twenty  ordiuary-pizt'd  iinis 
will  yield  as  much  as  two  quarts  of  oil.  This  oil  is  now  very  la'gely  importtJd,  :ii'd, 
tJ^aied  in  the  game  way  as  palm  oil,  forms  a  Bt«arine,  which  greatly  improve*?  lli«t 
of  palm  oil  when  mixed  with  it  in  proper  proportions  ;  neither  does  so  well  Be|M>r- 
ately,  and  the  consunii)tion  of  cocoa-nut  oil  has  conseqinntljr  very  greatly  increast^. 
Most  of  it  comes  from  Ceylon,  where  the  tree  is  larg(dy  cultivated  on  purpose.  THo 
imports  hi  1870  were  9930  tons;  iu  1872,  81,469  tons;  und  iu  187{k,  10,967  tous.    By 


y  Google 


445 


Oili 


far  the  greater  projMJitfon  of  this  vast  quantity  is  need  by  the  cnpdle  mannfacturens. 
ami  the  tern  inder  in  in:: king  connnuu  Boap,  its  disa^reeatjle  smell  pruveiitiiig  it 
bdlixtjmployetl  for  the  In-tter  kiiuis. 

V«}i:et;il)le  Tallow,  or  Koknni  Oil,  is  also  n:*t»d  by  the  candle-makers  ;  only  small 
qiuiutiti(^8,  liowev.r,  are  itnportod.  It  comes  from  Slugnpore,  and  is  produced 
from  the  wed  of  Gatcinia  purjmrea,  a  spt-cies  of  the  same  genus  with  the  maniros- 
ten.  Anoiiier  kind  of  Vvge*uble  tidlow  is  made  in  Chinn,  from  the  seeds  of  Sti7- 
litigia  sebifera. 

Canipji,  (Jrjrap,  Crab,  or  Andiroba  Oil,  is  very  extensively  made  in  BritiMi  Guiana 
niid  the  Weet  Indies,  hut  it  is  nearly  all  used  there,  either  as  a  i)oniad«'  for  pnscrving 
iho  hair,  or  as  an  nnj^uent  for  rlieiimntinm  and  neuralgic  pain;?,  lor  which  pur|)0^h, 
iti."  naid  to  be  very  Uf<etul.    See  Uakapa. 

The  Ba"»si«  Oil  is  beginning  t«)  aitr.-ict  attention,  and  several  importations  hhve 
tuken  place  from  India,  ami  some  nif her  large  qnantities  have  leaclud  Liverpool 
from  Bomliay,  under.the  name  of  Muoh\v:k  Oil.  This  oil  is  of  a  sofi  butter-liki-  cou- 
H.-tfiice,  ami  yellowisli-grecn  co'.or,  and  is  well  adapted  for  soai)-making  and  for 
luadniiury  grca!»e.    S.-e  Bassia. 

Iliu  Hquid  ve^^etjible  oilsar^f  very  numerous,  and  pevoral  are  of  great  commercial 
iinportiinc -.  Firr*t  In  rank  is  Oiivf  Oil,  made  IVom  the  ripo  fruit  of  the  C-onut.on 
Oiivi!  {Olea  EuKrjma).  Wlun  ^^ood  and  fresh,  ir  is  of  a  pale  j:reenish-ycllow  color, 
with  Hcarcely  any  Mnoll  or  taMe,  txcept  a  hwcitifh  nuity  flavor,  much  esteeimd  by 
those  who  Ureil.  The  flne>'t  quiliiics  art!  tin-  Provence  Oil  (rarelv  feen  in  Britain), 
Floriiice  O.I,  and  Lucca  Oil.  Th«  scare  all  U6e<l  for  haiadt^  and  for  cookinjr.  'i  he 
G«:iioa  is  U8e<l on  the  continent  for  the  name  purposes;  and  GaT*t)0li,  which  is  In- 
ferior, cunsli  lutes  the  great  bulk  of  what  is  received  in  this  country  for  doth  dress- 
iug, 'inrkey-red  dyciiij;,  and  other  purpohes;  the  coniinental  eoap-umkert*  nlso  em- 
ploy itexte»«*iv  -ly.  Tne  hi^ih  price  of  the  best  qualities  leuds  to  much  adulters  I  ion 
witii  |»oppy  and  other  oil»«,  but  it  is*  general ^y  preity  rafe  when  in  the  orijrinal  flat'ks 
a:*imitoried.  The  motle  of  ob  alning  th-  flnes-t  kjucls  is  by  «:entle  prephurc  of  the 
fruit.  The  cake  Is  jifierwards  treated  with  hot  water,  fronjthe  surface  of  which  an 
inferior  quality  is  skimmed.  The  Gfilipoii  oil  is  ohtilued  by  allowing  the  olives  to 
l.-nnentin  heaps,  and  then  to  press  tliem  in  powerful  oil-presses ;  the  cake  or  tnare 
i>  I  hen  treuted  with  water  once  or  twice,  until  all  the  oil  is  reniov«d  ;  this  inferior 
oil  is  darker  in  color,  being  a  yellowish  or  br()^\ni^h  green.  We  receive  the  finest 
Iroin  Italy,  and  tlje  coum.oiier  qu:.Iiti<'P  fron»  the  L«'v:int,  Mogxdor,  Spain,  Poriugal, 
!uid  Sicilv.  The  present  value?*  range  froui  £4i  to  X54  (or  common  kinds,  and  ihe 
fiiiesl  Lucca  is  £1  tiie  half  cher^t,  or  nearly  jt85  per  inn  measure.  '!  he  total  quantity 
iiUported  during  the  f«)nrycttrs  1ST2-18T5  was  as  follows:  (1872)33,1)64  tuns;  (1813) 
35,121  tuns;  (1874)  22,720  tuns;  (187.))  85  453  tuns. 

Nearly  all  the  other  liquid  vegetable  oils  of  this  cla^^sarc  obtained  from  seeds,  and 
a*  they  are  most  of  tlu  m  treated  in  the  same  way,  one  (lescrl|.iion  will  suffice.  First, 
the  seeds  are  ground— and  this  in  Britain  i8  always  done  by  vertit  al  stones— into  a 
kind  of  coiirse  meal,  which  is  first  warmed  in  pans,  and  then  put  in  certain  portions 
in  wooll-n  cloths  or  bags,  po  arranged  as  to  be  of  uuilorm  lhitkne^s;  these  are  again 
wrai)ped  in  horse-hair  clo:iis,  and  each  parcel  is  plac<d  bei ween  two  flat  bcmrds 
siigtiily  fluted  on  their  inui-r  sides,  and  then  placed  in  the  wedge-press.  In  this  are 
two  flaunel  bags  flited  with  the  meal  and  enclosecl  in  horse-hair  hags,  each  flattened  be- 
tween the  flat  boards.  They  are  set  upright,  t>etween  the  pre8^i^Jr-pla^e8,  one  at  each 
eiid  of  the  press-frame,  which  in  made  of  great  stren;;th,  and  often  of  caft  iron. 
Kext  is  placed  the  wedge;  the  other  wedge  is  then  suspended  by  a  cord  ;  the  main 
Wedge  is  lastly  inserted,  and  Ihe  press  is  ready  for  action.  The  (.|>ewition  is  very 
fimple;  a  heavy  wooden  stamper,  from  500  totKK)  pounds-weight,  is rait-ed  by  ma- 
ch  aery  alwnt  two  feet,  and  allowed  to  fall  upon  the  wedge.  This  tightens  all  the  other 
uotlges  and  pressing-plaitj^,  and  exerts  a  pressure  of  al>out  60  ions  on  fach  bag  when 
fnily  driven  hoiue.  The  pressiuir-plates  are  pierced  with  holes;  and  through  these 
holes  the  oil  trickles  and  passes  away  by  the  pipe. 

One  of  Ihe  chief  seed  oils  is  that  of  linseed  (q.  v.).  Very  little  linseed  oil  is  iin- 
l)oricd  into  Britain  ;  ihe  improved  machinery,  and  the  great  dema^jd  for  the  oil-cake 
(*iHJ  Oil-Oakb),  catise  it  tc  be  numufactured'ai  home,  an<l  at  pnisent  it  is  exported  iu 
tfjusiderable  qnantities;  ttms,  from  Hull  alOJio  there  was  ('xported  in  1ST5,  of  seed- 
oil,  ejipressed  chiefly  from  foreign  seed,  no  less  than  6,846,726  gallons,  and  over 


y  Google 


OU.WeII« 


446 


iiuiii  netru  iiiipuruai  iruw 

ade  is  sprijigiDg  op  in  this 

9omu\ferum^  mivelj  im- 

imivelj  sabsti total  for  il, 


10,000  tons  of  oil-cake ;  and  from  I^ondon  and  Liverpool  tos:etli«r  ab<^nt  the  raine 
quautit}'.  Tlie  lotal  production  of  Grent  Britiiin  fur  1S68  was  estininted  at  ^,W 
totif;  fur  1S69,  61,000  tons;  for  1S71.  69,000  tons;  uiid  for  1872,  67,000  ton.".  In 
1S76,  15,628.tl6  gallons  of  seed-oil  were  exi>orie<l.  It  is  worth  about  £36  pfiim. 
liape  or  Colza  Oil  is  a  name  which  coveis  the  product  of  Bcveral  cruciferous  t^eds, 
as  rape,  turnip  nnd  oilier  spiiciea  of  Bras»ica.  nidi-h,  iSiiiapin  iorta,  OoUl  of  Pleas- 
ure. &c.  The  oil  is  clear  brown  and  usually  8we;t,  but  with  a  nuistard-lilve  flavor; 
its  iilnminatmg  |>ower8  are  excellent,  juid  it  is  al80  well  udapted  for  wool-drt^oiii)!. 
Verv  large  quantities  are  made  in  Great  BrltnTn.  chiefly  from  Sifiapis  tot-ia  and  othit 
Indian  nmsiard  seeds,  wliich  are  imported  uuaw  the  nante  of  »orze«  iieed.  Tbe 
imports  of  these  needs  are  occasionally  as  much  as  60,000  quarters  per  uuiiQin. 
Ueinp  Si.>ed  yields  a  green  oil  wh'ich  is  much  used  iu  mnlwing  soft  boap,  especially  io 
Holland.  In  Russia  it  is  eaten  with  various  kinds  of  food,  and  is  greatly  liked  by 
all  classes. 

The  following  are  tlie  nfliucs  of  a  nuin1)er  of  oils  which  are  more  or  less  used  i» 
this  country:  Cotton-seed  Oil.  Palm-nut  Oil,  a  clear  limpid  oil  from  the  hard  unt 
of  the  oil-palm  ;  this  nut  was  formerly  rejected  as  useless  after  the  oil  had  bsen  ob- 
tained from  the  fruit  Safll  >wer-seed  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  CartkarMM  ttneinriw, 
it  constitutes  the  real  Makassar  OiL    Snnflower-sei^d  Oil,  from  seed  imported  fro« 

the  Black  Sva  pioviuccs  of  Russia;  a  rapidly  increasing  trade  is  spring* *■  *'••" 

excellent  oiL  Poppy-seed  Oil,  from  the  seul  of  Papaver  ton 
ported  from  India ;  it  Has  sweet  as  olive  oil,  and  is  extensiv  . 
e^eciailjr  in  Prance,  wh  -re  it  is  also  very  largely  cultivated.  Gingelli-seiHi  Oil,  from 
t;ie  seed  of  Sesamum  orieiUaU,  an  iin)H>rtant  Indian  stajile  of  whicii  w<*  are  laig« 
consumers;  the  oil  is  much  used  for  wool  dressing,  &c  Gronnd-nut  Oil,  from  tlu? 
aeedd  of  Arachia  hypitgcea^  \u}\}orU'A  from  \V<  stem  Afiica  and  India;  this  oil  is 
particularly  ad  ipted  for  fine  m.-ichin  »rj',  a^  it  is  not  affected  by  cold.  Nigi-r,  Til, 
or  Teel-seed  Oil,  from  the  seed-"  of  Ouizotia  olei/eray  much  imported  from  Bombay. 
Crotoii  Oil,  from  the  se«Mi-»  of  JatropJia  cnrena,  largely  ustd  in  wool  dressing.  The 
Croton  Oil  used  in  nuHlicine  is  trom  Cvoton  UfiUutnf  of  which  only  small  quautilies 
are  imported  ;  whereas  of  the  other  1200  or  14'i0  tun«i,  1)eside8  a  quantity  of  the  seed, 
often  r.-acit  us  in  on<?  year.  Anolher  highly  vaiwaijlc  medicinal  oil,  Castor  Oil  (Q.T.), 
if  of  great  commercial  importance.    Alaioud  Oil,  chiefly  used  for  perfumery  ptm- 

JK)8CS,  Is  made  from  the  kernels  of  the  suev  t  and  bltti  r  almond ;  it  is  the  most  free 
rom  flavor  and  odor  of  any  oil  in  use,  notwithstanding  that  the  essenli:d  oil  of  bitter 
almonds  is  so  strongly  flavored. 

Oils  made  from  the  seeds  of  the  following  plants  have  poine  commercial  valaein 
other  count  lies:  Madia  saliva ;  Argemone  mexicana;  various  species  of  Gonnlp; 
Garden  Cress  (fjemdium  sativum) ;  tobacco,  now  cxteiitsively  used  in  Southern  Riifr- 
sia,  Turkey,  and  Austria:  hazel-nuts;  walnuts;  nuts  of  stone  pine;  pistachio  nnt; 
tea-seed;  this  in  Chin i  is  a  common  painter's  oil;  the  grape,  from  theses  or 
stones,  as  they  are  called,  saved  from  the  wine-presses,  nsed  in  Italy;  Brazil-nots 
(Bertholetia  excelsa);  Catophylluni  tnop%Wt*w,  called  Piunacotlay  Oil  iu  India; 
Jlf«/m  az«(f/ra/;/i^,  called  in  Ir.dia  by  the  names  Neem  and  MargosaOil;  Alertrita 
tnVoba,  called  in  India,  Country  Almond  Oil,  and  much  used  for  burning  in  lampi 
and  torches ;  Psoralea  corylifolia,  called  B.iw-cheivsced  Oil.  The  seed  is  sometimftJ 
imported  to  this  country  for  pressing.  Ben-«»e('ds  (Muringa  Pteri/goffperma!);  Boo- 
duc-nuts,  the  seeds  of  GuUamlina  hon^iie  and  Q.  botidueella. 

The  following  oils,  now  to  Europ^^an  commei-ce,  were  shewii  in  flie  Internationa! 
Exhibition  of  1S62.  India. — Tcorah  Oil,  lixim  the  seeds  of  Brassica  emeantnim; 
Capala  Oil,  from  the  see<ls  of  Rottlera  tlrxctoria;  Cardamom  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of 

""''"'  -      - -  .  -      -  AiMcardiwn  ocei- 

i-seed  Oil:  Chaal- 
igee  Oil,  troni  t'le 
seeds  of  Btichatiania  lati/olia;  Cueminarum  Oil,  from  theseedsof  J47noororofcrtltJfcrt; 
C;rcn8sian-bean  Oil.  from  the  seeds  of  AdeiiaittJiera  pavonina ;  Hoorhoorj'a  Oil. 
from  the  seeds  of  Po/a?MWaico«a7uira;  Custard  Apple-8«'ed  Oil,  from  the  seedj!  of 
Anona  nqtuvmona;  Exil''  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Ceibera  TJtecetia  ;  Monela-graiu  Oil, 
from  the  needs  of  Dolichos  vnijtontJt ;  Kanari  Oil.  from  the  seeds  of  Cananum  com- 
mune;  Khaiiziri  Oil,  fro:n  the  seeds  of  V&rnonia  Anthehnintira ;  Malknntaimi"? 
Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  C^lasti  us  panunUcttus ;  Bakul  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Miuxv^ 


\  E  eftaria  Cardamovium ;  Illdglee  Badhnm  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  AiMcardiwn  occi- 
1  (fcn^rfe,  or  Cashew-nut,  now  largely  cultivated  In  India:  Cassia-seed  Oil:  Chaal- 
!   iiiooiira  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Hy'dnocarpm   odorata;    Cheerongee  Oil,  from  t'le 


y  Google 


:  -viF< 


447 


on.Wti!«  * 


sopselengi;  Rann  Oil,  from  tlie  wod*  of  Mimvjmpn  Kaki;  MoodoO'ja  or  Pnlas  Oil, 
from  Thir  5rei»d8  of  Ihitea  frtf^dom  ;  Nahor  or  Nugenhur  Oil,  fnmi  the  pet'ils  of  Mesiia 
/erox;  Hoiie-seeil  Oil,  from  seeds  of  CafCfihffUtnn  r-alaba ;  Fuonga,  Caroii,  or  Kurr- 
mijr  Oil.  froiH  thu  8ei-<lt«  of  Pottgaviia  glabra;  Viippanlcy  Oil,  from  needB  of  Wrightim 
antidyitetitei'ica  ;  Babool  Oil,  frora  seed:*  of  Acaciu  Aralnca;  Gamboge  Oil,  from 
^•1"^^  of  tbt'  Gainboj?e-tn*e  {Garcinia  pietttria) ;  Ooodiii  OH^  from  the  8ee<l8  of  SUr- 
ciilia  foptida ;  KIknel  Oil,  from  the  sc^ed  of  Saltiuiorea  jternca ;  Marotty,  Surrutr,  or 
JJeerudimootoo  Oil,  from  f lie  seeds  of  Uydnocarpua  itiebriaiiH  ;  aud  Fundi-kul  Oil, 
troin  the  mitmegs  of  Mfpistica  tmaUtbarica. 

From  Brazil. — Oils  from  tlie  Seeds  of  Feuiella  cardifoliay  F.  wono^tperrna.  AnU 
MSpettna,  pattsijlora.  Cncurbita^  citrtUluH,  Mabea^  JUtuLigtra^  Anda  ginn«sii\  Myria' 
UcAi  hicuhiha^  Carpotroche,  Bravilie^mn^  Diptenx  odorata,  Theobroma  cacao.  Jwo- 
amiia  nelero  carj^.  Nectandra  cynibarum^  aud  from  the  fat  of  tiie  AlHjiator  aud 
tlie  Tapir,  all  for  mediclMnl  and  perfumery  purjM)se8;  aud  oils  from  the  seeds  of 
(Knooai-pu*  Bacdba^  (Ji.pataud,  OoLryoca  Branilienais,  and  Evtei-j)e  edtUi«j  used  for 
culinary  and  lightiti^  purpo^>e8. 

FroinBii'ttHh  tftMaita.— Oil  drawn  from  the  s( em  of  Oreodaphne  opf/era  ;  itropem- 
bles  reflutd  tur{)outiue,  aud  is  snggestid  an  a  solveut  for  india-rubber.  Walluba  Oil, 
from  the  wood  of  the  Wallaba-tree  {Kperera  falcata)f  medidual. 

The  prt-paruiioii  of  the  essential  oils  it«  treated  of  nuder  Ferfcmert. 

The  iiu|)ortaiice  of  the  niaunfacture  of  oils  is  very  great ;  in  1875  tbe  value  of  the 
imports  of  the  leadiug  staples  of  this  trade— viz..  fij»h.  paim,  cocoa,  and  olive  oils — 
M.1S  iro  less  than  X4,U12,90..  The  aggregate  of  1  he  other  kinds  was  £^,471,590.  In 
addition,  oil  seeds  to  tlie  value  oi  over  je6,500,000  are  imported  for  crtisbkig  iu 
Oret«t  Britalu ;  whilst  the  exports  of  oil  amount  In  value  to  aDnntXl,600,000.  Thus, 
it  will  be  seen  that  this  trade  represents  a  capital  of  above  jeU.OOO.OUO  sterling. 

OIL-WELLS  andOILTKADB.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  trades,  suddenly 
ppnmg  up  into  iraportanpe  iu  modem  times,  is^hat  iu  oil  obtained  from  subterru- 
iiean  sources.    See  NaPhta. 

It  is  now  known  tliat  oil-bearing  mineiiil  l)ed8  exist  in  various  parts  of  America,  as 
well  as  iu  the  older  continent ;  hut  tbe  richest  deposit  hitherto  discovered  is  in  tJic 
Unitx'd  States,  in  Venango  county,  at  a  spot  in  l4nn?ylvanfa  not  far  from  tho  point 
of  junction  c^  that  state  and  New  York  state  with  Lake  Erie.  O  1  had  for  many 
years  been  seen  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water  of  a  well  n«ar  Titusvllle;  it  was 
taiken  up  by  absorption  by  means  of  flflnnel,  and  applied  to  medicinal  purposes. 
Dr  Brewer,  in  1853,  hugsrest^d  that  it  mightpoB8ii»ly  be  used  for  lubricating  and  fur 
illniuination ;  aud  iu  the  following  j'ertr  was  formed  the  Pennsylvania  k(»ck-oll 
Compauy.  This  Conti):iuy  languished  until  1858,  when  i'olonel  Drake,  managt  r  of 
the  CoHi|iany,  and  Mr  Bow dit^ih,  resolved  to  ^*ink  a  well  purposely  for  oil.  They 
were  antply  rewarded,  for  oil  was  pumped  up  nl  a  rate  varymj:  from  4liO  to  1000  gal- 
lons daily.  TUv  news  i>eiug  spread  abroad,  adventurers  quickly  came  to  ihe  district, 
which  obtained  the  names  of  Oil  Creek  and  P«trolia;  and  tiny  txptriejiced  eveiy 
degree  of  fortune  from  utt«r  failure  to  splendid  sncc«HP,  according  to  the  spot  at 
which  they  happened  to  sink  their  wells.  So  rapidly  did  the  works  proceed,  that  by 
1860,  it  was  ki»own  that  oil  exis^ted  l)eiieath  100  square  miles  of  country,  at  a  depth 
vaiyiug  from  70  to  500  feet.  In  1861,  the  first  large  ylf>irt»M7  well  was  sliuck— that  is. 
a  well  up  which  the  oil  rose  so  profusely  as  to  flow  over  the  surface,  y.elding  1000 
barrels  (of  40  gallons  each)  per  day  ;  and  another  that  yielded  2500  barrels.  This 
newKood  fortune  increased  the  excitement  and  the  well-egging. 

The  uncertainty  in  this  trade  is  aoiuething  extraordinary.  On  one  occasion,  a 
well  was  bored  with  the  u.«ualcentrebilto  a  considerable  d<  pi  h  without  any  oil  l)eing 
found.  On  withdrawing  the  bit.  aud  putting  in  the  rimer  or  rimmer  to  widen  tho 
hole,  a  vtin  was  struck  at  the  side.  The  bit  had  just  mi!*wd  the  vein,  and  the  well 
Would  have  been  a  failure  had  not  the  orifice  been  enlarged.  This  incident  givies 
meaning  to  a  phrase  much  used  in  A n^erica— that  of  "j-triking  oil."  On  another 
occasion,  a  well  was  bored  which  promised  to  be  very  productive,  a  large  amount  of 
oil  flowing;  the  owner  of  the  well  not  being  ready  to  collect  it,  a  plug  was  diiveu 
into  the  pme;  but  upon  the  removal  of  this  plug,  when  tanks  bad  been  bnilt,  tho 
oil  had  altogether  disappeared.  The  deepest  well  sunk  in  the  district,  more  than 
1000  feet,  j^eTde(li)o  oil  whatever;  and  altogether  only  16  per  cent,  of  the  borintra 
were  succeesfal.    Very  often,  there  was  Iwice  as  much  water  a«  oil  in  the  liquid 

D.K.,X.,15.  D  git  zed  by  Google 


8^  448 

pumped  up;  mid  in  ffome  instanct'S,  the  rafxcd  oil  and  water  wti^  pndcfeiily ««> 
cecUcd  by  water  nlouf,  thereby  pulling  a  eUtp  to  any  Turtlier  i)rofitable  oiieniUoiis. 

When  the  oil  bo^jran  to  be  geut  in  larKe^quiuitity  to  New  York  and  other  Ioml^ 
the  cheapne.'^w  of  price  led  to  it«  jipplicutfou  as  lainp-oll.  as  fnt^l  to  beconvertedinin 
g  i«.  jnid  iu  many  other  ways :  this  led  to  a  constantly  increusiut;  demand  ;  Ik  tl*^ 
lUHnd  brought  tho  price  up  ajrain  to  a  reasonable  figure  at  Petrolia ;  and  the  price 
Intlnced  tl»«^  Hinking  of  new  weljg.  CouKiderine  that  the  produce  of  the  di«iri't 
r 'ached  20,(K)0.000  grdlons  in  186*,  it  can  l)e  easily  uiidenttood  that  commercial  a'- 
nnig.fineiitB  mu!tipJie<l  rapidly.  Small  viH.«ge8  ro?e  into  large  towns,  with  bank', 
hotel*,  and  wealthy  people,  all,  however,  bt-j^rimed  with  oIL  Titusville,  wln'cit  Im 
S^t3  inhabitant'<  iu  1S56,  rose  to  nearly  10,000  in  1S66.  Another  place,  called  Oil  Citv. 
has  its  two  n«!\v^p!ip«tr8  devoted  mainly  to^oil-news,  and  transacted  basinesatnthe 
ainonnt  of  jC<.00(J,000  per  annum.  By  the  end  of  1866,  it  was  estimatttd  that  Ih^r 
had  boen  90  OOO.OOO  dollars  invfstcd  ultogetlu'r  in  tltis  and  other  parts  of  the  Uii!i'-<1 
Hiates ;  and  that  the  average  prio;  at  tiie  well's  mouth  had  settled  down  at  ai)uullO 
doll  An?  per  barrel,  or  a  shilling  a  irallon. 

Ill  July,  1350,  oil  wa«  discovere  1  in  the  state  of  Oliio,  and  within  six  moiiMis  50 
well*  were  sunk  thnre.  At  Sandy  Valley  in  Kentucky  Perry  County  in  Indiniia,  G«t- 
diner  in  Illinois.  Yates  County  in  New  York,  and  Chattmoogu  in  Tenne&««'e,  tlie 
oil -wells  have  attracted  some  attention.  I'he  Canadian  de|K>sit  is  a  rt:mark.i>i>e 
o  le.  Njnr  a  villa;;e,  now'a  lar^e  town,  called  Oil  Springs,  in  lniiii«k!lleii  contiiy. 
at  tlie  Southern  end  ot  Lake  Haron,  a  busy  coinnmnity  has  sprung  na  Iu  1S6I. 
while  sinking  a  wel:  at  rhi.s  spot,  in  a  fon  si  where  niucli  8enu-^<olld  tar-like  luattt-r 
had  often  been  found,  the  nn-n  were  surprised  by  a  sudden  npburst  of  nil.  This 
discoveiy  set  enterprising  adventurers  to  work  :'aj.'dl)y  tiie  year  1868  there  bad  been 
morethan  200  wells  ;»unk,  within  an  area  of  onlv  [\n>  miles  by  one.  At  first  the  oil 
flowed  fr(un  mo-*t  of  these  wells;  bat  the  lev.  I  gradually  sank,  and  the  oil  coaW 
only  V* obtained  by  pumping.  At  the  en<l  of  fbc  six  year.**,  oue-imlf  of  tb«  weDs  liad 
cnaseil  altogether  to  flow;  and  the  w^Jls  since  dug  have  l)een  still  more  nuo-rtalu  Iu 
tlieir.Vield.  The  oil  apjie  irs  to  lie  iu  fiH.«'Uivs  iti  the  liin(«<tone;  but  the  welJ-boi^TS 
have  not  yet  sncceedea  in  finding  symptouiH  whether  a  particular  spot  will  yield  \m4t- 
ably  or  not  at  all.  Oi>ep.irticiilar  well  j'ave  35,600  barrels  iu  10  niMnth*',  and  by  lh:rt  time 
had  exhausted  itself.  The  r«  cognised  rental  b-caine,  700  dolini*s  dowi»  per  ::cre,  and 
one-third  of  the  oil.  The  oi!  req  nre-^i  refiniuir,  to  remove  the  tai",  t lie  volatile  t"*- 
8litU(>nts,  and  the  offensive  odor.  The  Canada  oil  appt^ar;*  to  he  more  dis:tgn-eaHle 
than  that  of  the  United  States,  and  to  l)e  less'in  lavor  in  conAcqneuce.  The  average 
produce  per  well  in  Penn.-'ylvania  and  Canada  cannot  be  t*tafe<l,  on  accoHMi  ol  ibe 
extremn  fluctinuioiis.  In  1861,  there  was  an  cetimite  that  100  w.  Us  iu  Totrolia 
Yielded  15  barrels  per  dny  eacu.  The  total  Aiper  can — that  is.  v'uoadi  Jiud  di*'!'. 
States—product  in  1S68  was 3,695,000 :  in  lS6»;4.7n.OOO;  and  in  1S70,  (>,5iW,tiO^  Ws ; 
and  in  I'i  years,  from  1859  to  ISTO,  W,388,M«)  7>bls.  of  c  ude  petMltuin.  nie  price  nl 
New  York  bus  ranged  between  the  very  wide  liuiils  of  0  to  6.5  cent-  |>rr  gaiioufur 
crud(j  oil,  and  19  to  I'iO  cents  for  refined.  The  oil  was  flr:*t  importwl  hitoGrct 
Britain  in  1S61.  nince  which  ye:ir  the  import  hiis  steadily  and  greatly  incr»;:^«l, 
amannting  in  1875  to  77,651  tun.-*,  valne  je7Sl,982. 

In  1866,  a  Hhale.was  discovered  in  New  Sou  h  Wales,  similar  to  the  B(^bea(l  «*oaJ 
or  Torl)anehill  mineral  of  Scotland,  but  riclivsr  in  oil,  and  more  free  from  Miipiair. 
When  distilled  at  Sydney,  from  100  to  160  gallons  of  oil  were  obtained  from  one  ton 
of  shule^  Tl>e  seam  In  Hartley  dibirict  is  !*X  feet  thick.  Efficient  dthtJlliu;;  api»i'- 
ratus  has  heeu  sent  out  fnim  England ;  :ind  the  fhnte  is  cither  distilled  fur  oil  or  lor 
gas,  according  to  circumstances.    See  Naphtha  and  Shale. 

OIRIR-QAEL,  a  name  which,  iu  ttie  early  times  of  Scottinh  hi«tOT»  was  8ppii«l 
to  tue  Gaels  of  the  coa^ls,  in  contradisiiijciion  Irom  the  (Jall-Gael  or  i8le^nJW'• 
'i'liere  was  long  a  struggle  for  superiority  between  these  two  races.  ivim'9cut«'«l 
respectively  by  Somerleu  of  the  Isles  and  ihe  later  kings  Of  Man,  in  which  ilfC 
Matter  were  eventually  successful,  uniting  under  one  liead  the  dominion  uf  Argylc 
and  the  l-les. 

0I8E,  a  river  of  France,  one  of  the  chief  affluent^  of  tho  SeJn«»,  rises  in  the  vicin* 
Ity  of  Hooroy,  in  the  north  of  the  dep  irtment  of  Ardennes,  and  flows  8(»tit»i-wrt, 
icduiug  the  Seine  at  Couflaus  Sainto-liouorind,  after  a  coarse  of  190  ndh.'S,  tor  tbe 


y  Google  I 


A  AC)  OlHr 

last  75  of  whidi  it  fs  navigable.  The  fall  of  the  rlrer  Is  very  gradual,  and  U^  conrso 
]■■<  eitrt'inely  siunona.  It  is  coimected  l>y  ciiuala  witli  the  Somme,  the  Saiulm^  and 
tlie  Hclit'idt,  and  lorms  one  of  the  chief  commercial  roates  between  Belgiuut  und 
Paris.    It  l)ecomes  navigable  at  Chauny. 

OISE,  a  department  in  the  north  of  France,  is  bounded  on  the  e.  by  tlie  dcpini- 
meiJt  ol  Aisue,  and  on  tlie  w.  chit'fly  by  Unit  of  Stinc-Inf6iieme,  which  IntM-vcnrs 
between  ir  and  th<^  English  Channel.  Ar  a.  ],44H,869  Kngllah  acrec^,  of  whrcb^  0,i;00 
acre**  an?  iu  arable  land;  pop.  (1^2  3u6,804.  Tlie  priui  ipal  rivers  an*  the  OiM — 
from  which  the  dcpHrtmeui  d«'nvt'fi  in*  name — and  its  ttibntarica  the  Ai»nc  and 
Tlierain.  The  department  is  alino^*!  wnohy  iucludcij  in  the  basin  of  the  Olj*e  ;  ami 
us  th«  couwrt  of  that  river  indicntes,  the  ^-nrfact- — ( oueisiiu;.'  for  the  niOAt  paH  of  <  x- 
toiisivo  plains* — ha,^  :i  ireuenjl  fjlop.'  io\V.ir«l  the  pouth-woifit.  The  soil  i«  in  gon«'ral  fer- 
tile, and  agriculture  is  wAl  advanced.  Thf  producta  are  the  usual  graiu-cron^,  with 
:\a  immense qnantity  of  Vf'gouibk'H,  «h:c>»  nw  w^nt  to  ihe  markftnof  tht'inctroi»or.8. 
Ilie  dcpartnj»-nt  is  divided  into  th«'  four  an oiidis^M^nienth  of  Jieauvais,  Clermont, 
Coinpi^ifiie,  Senlis ;  capitil,  Beauvai!'. 

OITI  {Mitquilei  toTnentoHa)j  a  I  roe  of  the  natural  order  Chryaohalanacect—'hy 
m:iiiy  b()lani^t8  reg.irded  a«  a  suhord'r  of  RoHacem  (q.  v.)— a  native  of  the  north 
of  Brazil,  and  valuable  on  accoinit  of  its  timber,  which  is  very  good  for  ship- 
building. 

O'KA,  au  IniportHnt  conunerclal  river  of  Central  Kuj^sia,  the  principal  affluent  of 
tlie  Volga  from  the  south,  rises  iu  ttie  L'overniiient  of  Ort;l,  and  flows  in  a  generally 
iiorth-ea?t  direction,  forralngn  ciminionboundarv  betwern  tin;  govrrunienti*  of  Tnla, 
Kn!ng:t.  mul  Moscow;  and  afterward-'  flowing  uirongti  the  governments  of  Kiaza'i, 
Vladnnir.  and  Nijni-Novirorod.  It  jjoins  the  Volga  at  the  ciiy  of  Nijnl-iNovgoro«l, 
after  a  course  of  8S7  miles.  Its  baMn,  estimated  at  127,Oi>n  square  miles  in  extent, 
Cdmprisi'S  therieh«*8t  aud  uio>t  fertile  region  of  Russia.  The  principal  towns  on  Its 
banks  are  Orel,  BeK-ff  or  Bielev.  Kaluga,  Rlaj!:m.  and  Murom  ;  the  most  iln^)ortant 
«fltui!ut«»  arc  the  rivers  Mo^cow,  Kliasma,  aud  Tziia.  During  spring,  the  Oka  Is  nav- 
igable Inixw  Orel  to  the  Volga;  bftt  in  sumujer  ibe  navig.:ti<tn  1^  obstruc!e<l  by 
».-tndt>ankH.  It  communicates  with  the  ports  ou  the  Italtic.  Caspian,  and  Whitu 
Sett-* ;  luiil  the  cargoes  annually  ehlpp€d  down  the  river  amount  in  value  to  several 
iniilioii  pounds  .sterling. 

O-KKiv-CHO'-BEE,  a  lake  bordering  on  the  Evergkdes  of  Southern  Florida 
{9*-^  Florida),  about  120  utiles  iu  circuit,  receiving  several  small  rivers,  and  having 
for  itrt  outlet  the  liver  Caloo-sa-ha tehee,  which  flows  westerly  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 

OKEN"  (originally  Oekenfusp),  Loreiiz,  a  celebrated  German  naturalist,  wnn 
l»oni  at  Bolilsljach,  in  Wurlemberg,  August  1,  1T79.  He  sttuiied  at  WQizbui^.  and 
OOitingen;  becauje  extra-ordinary  pru^-ss-or  of  medicine  at  Jena  in  1S07»  where 
liiB  lectures  ou  nataral  philosophj',  natural  history,  zoology,  comparative  rin&tomy, 
v»Kei:>bIe  and  aninml  physioiogy.  ittlracted  unich  notice.  In  1812,  he  was  ap- 
pointed ordinary  professor  of  natural  science;  and  in  181C,  commenced  the  publi- 
cation of  a  3  urniU  pttrtiy  scieniific  at»d  partly  politic;  1,  called  "  Iris,''  which 
continued  to  a|:peur  till  1848.  The  opinions  pron>u'gated  in  the  **Ins'*  led  to 
government  iutet-ference,  and  O.  rtfsigned  hi";  ch:dr,  and  became  a  private  tutor,  de- 
votin<^  his  leihureto  tiie  composition  of  works  on  natural  histniy.  In  18^,  he  ob- 
t:iiiied  a  professorship  iu  tke  newly-esiahlistn'd  luiiversityof  Munich;  hut  in  1832, 
exchanged  it  for  another  at  Ziirich,  wliere  he  died,  11th  August  1861.  O.  aim<^d  at 
constructing  all  knowledge  fijiwjon',  and  thus  setting  forth  the  system  of  nature 
iu  its  nnivtfrsal  relations.  Tlie  two  principal  works  in  which  this  idea  is  developed 
are  hia  **Lelirbuch  der  NatJirphi!o}K)phie "  <J«'na,  1808—1811),  and  his  "Lehr- 
btich  der  Naturgeschichte "  (3  vols.  Leip^  1813-1827).  The  former  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  and  publishe*!  hy  the  Ray  Society  under  the  title  of  **  Elements 
of  PIty>*io-philosophy."  AsO.'s  philosophic  system  of  nature  was  very  peculnir, 
and  quite  unlike  anything  that  had  preceded  it,  O.  invented  a  nomenclature  of  his 
own,  which,  however,  in  many  cades  is  forced  and  pretentions,  composed  for  tlie 
iwo^i  part  of  new-coined  words,  aud  difllcuh  to  remember.  It  therefore  fountl  lit  tie 
Cavor,  und  O.  was  long  regarded— particularly  by  Freuch  aud  English  sa vans— as  a 


y  Google 


g!'^*'*  450 

mere  dreamer  and  transcendental  theorist;  nor  can  It  be  denied  that  he  Is  Hugely 
im<"h,  inff^ctefl  with  the  worst  vices  of  the  ^cliuol  of  Scheiliuir,  to  which  he  belonged; 
but  eome  of  hfs  "intuitions"— -if  we  may  so  term  liis  scientific  sngirestrous— were 
roninrkably  felicitous,  and  lu  the  hands  of  r^rous  deraoustraiors,  have  led  to  grtst^ 
ret«ult«.  In  liis  worlc  **  Di  Zeni;ao«;  "  (On  Geueraiion,  Bamb.  1805),  he  first  t^uggested 
tl»at  all  animals  are  built  of  vesicles  or  celb*:  in  hi«  *'Beitrage  zorverglefcTutDden 
Zoologie^  Antitomie  und  Physdoloi^ie '*  (1806)  lie  pointed  out  XUe  origin  of  the  iutcs* 
tines  in  the  nnibilical  vesicle;  and  in  the  same  year  U^rhted  accidentally  Q}>oti  the 
idea,  since  bo  prolific  «f  results,  that  the  bones  of  the  skull  tire  modified  vertehne. 
On  accoQut  of  this  diBCovury,  h«  has  been  termed  "the  f.tthi-r  of  morpho ojrical 
•cience.*'  Tliat  O..  and  Hot  Qftthe.  was  tiie  originHl  discoverer  of  the  vertelTjl 
relations  of  the  skull,  lias  been  conclusively  sUewn.by  Oweu,  lii  a  vuluuble  notice  of 
O.  in  the  ^*BDcyclO|)tedia  Britaunica." 

OKHO'TSK,  Sea  of,  an  extensive  inlet  of  the  Nortli  Pacific  Oceftn,  on  tlieeart 
coast  of  HuBsian  Siberia.  It  Is  bounded  on  the  u.  by  the  wastes  of  Sibt-ria,  on  the  c 
by  the  peninsula  of  Kamtchatka,  and  is  parthilJy  eucl03e<l  by  the  Kurile  island?  on 
the  8.,  and  by  the  island  of  Sashalien  on  the  w.  It  is  1000  miles  in  l<*ugth,  and  560 
miles  in  breadth.  The  river  Ud,  which  enttsrs  it  on  ilic  north,  is  400  miles  in  lengtlu 
Owing  to  climate  and  position,  the  Sea  of  O.  is  unlikely  ever  to  l>ecoHU'  the  scene  of 
much  commerce*.  On  its  norihoni  shore,  at  tlie  nioutli  of  the  Okhota — ^froni  which 
it'derives  its  name— is  the  small  seaport  of  Okhotsk,  lat.  51°  21'  n.,  long.  143*'  U'  c 
This  town  has  only  836  inhabit^uits,  and  has  ueen  entirely  superseded  l>y  tiiepoits 
of  Ayan  and  Nikolayevsk. 

OLAP,  ttie  Saint,  one  of  the  most  revered  of  the  early  Norwtiirian  king?*,  waplvm 
in  006;  and  after  having  di.'^tingniihi-d  himstlf  t)y  his  gallant  exploits,  and  u)-<do  iiia 
name  a  terror  in  several  warl:k-«xpeditions  on  the  coasis  of  Normandy  and  Enir- 
Imd,  sucjcecd  d,  in  1015,  in  wresting  the  throne  of  Norway  from  Eric  and  Sveiid 
Jarl.  The  cruel  eieverity  wlJh  which  he  endeavort-d  to  exterminate;  ptig:iidsm  l)yfire 
and  sword,  alienatt'd  the  affection  of  hi-*  subjjcts,  nuuiy  of  whom  sought' »*ecHri(y 
from  his  per.-ecutiou  in  the  territories  of  Kuut  or  Canute  the  Great,  knig  of  D«'ii- 
mark;  and  ir  was  only  throuirh  th<!  pow»;rful  aid  of  bin  hrother-in-liw,  the  Stt'edi>h 
Anund  Jacob,  that  his  authority  could  l)e  upheld.  O.'s  hot-headed  zfai,  bow.vtv, 
after  a  time  exhausted  the  patience  of  the  pttople,  who  hast'  ned  to  tender  their  :il- 
Ic^ance  to  Knut,  on  his  landinir  in  Norway  In  1028,  when  O.  fl  'd  to  the  court  of  hi* 
brother-in-1 1  w,  Jaroslav  of  Russia,  who  gave  him  a  band  of  4000  men,  at  the  heail  of 
whom  be  returned,  in  1030,  and  gjive  Knut  battle  at  Stiklestail,  whii-e  O.  wnsd- 
feated  hv  the  aid  of  hi?  own  subjects,  and  slain.  The  hody  of  thekiirg  which  hadbW 
left  on  the  field  of  batths  A^'d  buried  on  ihesi)Ot  by  u  }>Hasant.  having  b-'^nn  to  work 
miracles,  his  ronniins  w«-re  car.'fnlly  removud  to  the  cathedral  of  Trondhjeiu.  wliem 
the  fame  of  their  miraculous  powj'r  spread  far  and  wide,  attracting  p  Igriins  from 
all  parts  of  t lie  Scandinavian  peninsula.  O.  was  solemnly  pmelnimed  pairon  wihit 
of  Norway,  in  the  succcedinir  century  ;  and  from  that  p»'nod  to  the  Keformaii<Mi, 
hecontinn  d  tog: ither  round  him  a  rich  tieritage  of  mythie.d  legends  and  uopnlar 
sasras,  the  m<unory  of  which  still  lingers  In  the  folk-lore  »>f  Norway.  In  1S4T.  the 
order  of  Olaf  was  created.  In  honor  of  the.  Saint,  by  King  Oscar  L  of  Sweden  aaO 
Norway. 

OLliEUS,  H.'inrleli  Wllhehn  Mithias,  nceleJmited  German  phvsidnn  and  astron- 
om  -r,  was  l.o'n  at  Arberj;en,  :i  snuill  village  of  Brenvn,  October  11, 1758.  He  >tudir'(l 
m  dicine  atCaO^tlngen  from  ITTT  till  1780,  and  subse^ueivtly  commenc^fl  iopn«ctt!=e 
at  Bremen,  u  here,  l)0'h  as  a  physician  and  as  a  man,  he  wa.«  higldy  esieemed  hr  hi« 
f.'llow-citiziins.  In  ISlt,  he  w:is  a  snccessful  cojni^titor  for  th«'  jfrifie  |M"«)|M»Ked  b/ 
Napoleon  for  the  best  " Menudr  on  the  Cri.up."  O.  wrote  little  on  me<n«:il  ^^nijictt^ 
for,  fronj  ITTO.  all  the  leisure  time  which  he  ct)uld  abstract  from   professional  twcii- 

(jntions  wt>s  d.'voted  to  the  enthusiastic  stwly  of  astronomy.  Ttie  fli>«  thhiir  whi«h 
>rought  him  into  notice,  was  his  calculation  of  tlie  orbit  of  the  C'>mel  of  1770,  \vld«li 
was  perforuied  by  him  while  watching  by  th«  l)edBide  Of  a  sick  patient,  and  wa^  found 
tol>every  accurate.  Comets  were  the  chief  ol)iect«  of  his  investigation,  and  he 
seems  to  have  be*  n  seixed  with  aw  i»T<»sistible  pn  dilection  for  these  vajruhoiiai*  of  the 
solr  system,  which  his  two  importmt  discoveries  of  the  phineti*  Pallaf  (180-f)  »ud 
Ycatd  (1S07)  coold  not  diuiiulsh.    lu  1781,  he  had  the  huuur  of  Ami  re-dkcovecbig 


y  Google 


AK-l  Okhotsk 

"±01  Old 

the  plnDCt  Uraimj*,  which  hud  previouBly  l>eeii  unpposp^^l,  even  hj  HerAcbel  himself, 
to  be  a  comet,  and  which  had  been  HOJiijlit  for  In  vain.  He  also  dipcovcred  Ave 
coiMeta,  in  1798.  1804,  1804.  1816,  and  1821,  all  of  whicii,  with  the  excei>tion  of  that 
of  1816  (hence  called  Olbera*  co'tnet)^  hud  been  some  d:ijn  previoaeiy  ob> 
t»iTVfd  «t  Paris.  His  pbcervnt.onR,  calculations,  and  iiotlci's  of  various 
coineti«,  -which  are  of  inestimable  valne  to  tistrononiers,  were  pnblished  in  the 
"AiMniaireof  Botle"  (1782— 182»),  in  the  "Annnniro  of  Encke^' (1888),  and  lu 
thriie  collectious  hy  tlie  Baron  de  Ziich.  Most  of  those  calculations  weiu 
made  after  a  new  metliod,  discovered  by  himself,  lor  deterntinin^  the  orbit  of  a 
comet  from  three  ohmTvations ;  a  nietliod  which,  for  facility  and  accmacy,  he  con- 
sider.d  as  greatly  preferable  to  those  then  hk  nse.  A  detiil  of  it  ni>pciired  in  a  jour- 
nal pnblished  at  Weimar  (1197),  and  m  new  etiiiion  hy  Encko  In  1841.  O.  was  one  of 
titiit  ftmall  band  of  tislronoiners  wli  ch  included  also  S(  hrOter,  Guuss,  Pitizzi,  Bode, 
Harding.  &c,  who  iii  the  fii*8t  ten  years  ol  tlie  19th  c.  devoted  tlicir  energies  to  the 
obKcr\ntion  of  ihose  p'anets  whicU  were  coming  to  1  ght  between  Mars  and  Jupitir. 
As sl)ove  s'tated,  two  of  thira,  ibe  second  an<l  foiirtli  in  order  of  discovery,  were 
detected  by  O.  Iiin^self ;  and  tlie  general  equality  of  the  elements  of  tlie  four  plane- 
toids. Kd  Idm  to  proDOund  the  well-known  tlnK)ry  that  these,  and  the  other  plane- 
toids (q.  v.)  sincf  discovertd,  are  bat  frngnients  of  some  lai'ge  planet  which  formerly 
revolviKi  round  the  hun  at  a  distance  equal  to  tfie  mean  of  the  aistances  of  the  plane- 
toid?  from  tlie  same  luminary.  It  was  tins  theory  which  led  him,  after  the  discovery 
of  Paiias,  to  seek  for  ni(»re  fragments  of  the  supposed  planet,  a  search  resulting  in 
the  discovery  ot  Vestju  O.  also  made  some  important  researches  on  the  prohSble 
lunar  ori<;in  of  ujeteoric  stones,  and  iiiventedti  method  for  calculating  the  velocity 
•f  falling  stars.  O.  died  at  Bremen,  2d  March  184(» ;  and  In  1860,  his  fellow-citizens 
erectetl  a  marble  statue  in  honor  of  him.  O.,  as  a  writer,  possessed  great  powers  of 
tluMight,  ctnnb  ned  with  eqnal  clearness  and  elt  giince  of  expression.  The  disserta- 
tions with  which  he  enriciied  the  various  branches  of  astronomy  are  scattered 
through  varitws  coUectiouh,  journals,  and  other  iwriodicals. 

OLD  POINT  COMFORT,  a  village  and  watering-place  in  Virginia,  U.  S.,  at  the 
eiiii'knre  (.f  Hampton  Roads  and  James  Uiv(!r,  12  miles*  from  Norfolk,  and  the  site 
of  Foi-tress  Monro  •,  the  fargi!.«t  njilitary  work  in  tlie  United  States. 

OLD  RED  SANDSTONE,  (he  name  given  to  a  large  seiiesof  Palseozoic  rocks,  of 
wUicii  red  s:lU(]sioile^^  are  the  most  conspicuous  portions,  but  which  cont4iius  also 
while,  yellow,  or  green  sandstones,  us  well  as  I>ed8  of  clay  and  limestone.  The 
group  \\i'»  below  the  Carboniferous  strata,  and  was  called  '*  Old"  to  distinguish  it; 
from  H  newer  seri.-s  of  similar  beds  which  occur  above  the  Coal  Measures.  The 
discovery  that  the  highly  fossiliferous  calcareous  rocks  of  Devonshire  and  the  con- 
tiu«'nt  occupieil  the  same  geological  horizon,  shewed  tliat  the  name  was  very  far 
from  being  descriptive  of  all  the  de|K)sits  of  the  period, :  ud  suggested  to  Murchison 
and  ScHlgewick  the  desirableness  of  giving  them  a  new  designation.  They  eon s*-- 
QU'Miliy  proposed  Devonian,  which. has  been  extensively  a(loj>ied  ;  but  it  is  liable  to 
the  same  objection  as  that  urged  against  the  nam*^  it  was  int-i'nded  to  s«pplant,  in- 
nsmuch  a»  ii  inconectly  limits  geograpliically  what  the  other  limits  litnolo>:lcaliy. 
Many  names  used  by  geologists  are  similarly  at  fault ;  there  is  therefore  no  irood 
reason  why  the  old  haino  shouhl  be  given  up,  especially  as  it  has  been  rendered  chs- 
fical  by  |he  labors  and  writings  of  Hugh  Miller,  the  original  monographer  of  tiiese 
rocks*. 

Tiie  jwsition  of  the  O.  R.  S.  series  is  easily  determined,  though  the  sequence  of 
the  various  beds  whitfli  form  it.  is  somewhat  obscure.  All  the  rocks  are  situated  b.  - 
tweeu  the  beds  of  the  Silurian  and  Carboniferous  periods.  In  Wales,  Scotland,  and 
Irelaiid  it  has  been  ol>served  that  there  is  an  old  series  of  red  sandstones  which  aie 
more  or  less  conforninible  \^ith  the  underlying  Silurian  and  a  newer  series 
iincr»nformable  with  the  older  strata,  but  conformable  with  the  overlying  d  r- 
bonifeious  rocks.  The  great  interval  r-  presented  by  ihls  break  has  been  believed 
to  be  that  during  whicli  tUe  Calcareous  Devonian  rocks  were  deposited.  1'he  recent 
researches,  howVver,  of  Mr  Salter  shew  that  the  one  set  of  beds  do  not  alternate  with 
the  other,  but  that  they  are  really  cOntemporaueons — the  coarse  shallow  water  de- 
BO'^its  of  conglomerate  aiid  sandstone  having  been  formed  on  the  shores  of  that  sea 
lu  whose  depths  the  deposits  of  thicker  mass,  finer  grain,  and  lighter  color,  fall  oT 
WMi'lue  shells  and  corals,  were  at  the  same  time  beiuij  aggregated.      ^  , 

Digitized 'by  VjOOQIC 


O'dbury  at^c) 

Tjio  strata  of  the  pcrioil  have  been  arranged  in  fonr  gronpj*.  1.  Upper  Old  Rrf 
8auclbtoiie,  iitciadiUg  tht«  Marwood  and  Petherwiu  jrronpjj.  2.  Middh;Oid  Red  Saiid- 
f*(uiie,  iucUiding  ibe  liartnioath  and  Plymouth  groups.  8.  Lower  Old  Red  Saod- 
stuiic,  including  tba  Nortlt  Foreland  and  Toibay  groups.  4.  Tilestones  or  Ledbory 
Shales. 

1.  Tlie  Upper  Old  Red  Sandstones  ai*e  conformable  with  the  inferior  strata  of  tbe 
Coal  Measures',  and  differ  j»o  IHtle  petroloj;lcally,  or  eveu  paleeontologically  f i*oni  tiMwn,  ' 
that  tboy  have  been  considered  as  the  bascHteiit  series  of  that  period.  'IMiey  consist 
of  yellon-ish  au<i  lii;ht-colored  sandstones,  which  are  at  Dura  Den,  in  Fife:diirc.  re- 
markably rich  in  fom-^  of  their  layei-s  in  the  remains  of  Holoptychiu?,  Pterictlus, 
Dendrodns.  &c  In  the  f^outii  of  Ireland,  and  atDuuse,  siiuitnr  beds  cont^iiii  n  fresh- 
water shell  very  like  the  modern  Anodon,  and  fiagnients  Of  a  fern  enilcd  Cyciopterit 
Hibernicut.  Mr  Salter  has  stiewu,  from  the  hitorcidatiou  of  the  marine  I>ed8  wit  i 
the  red  Siinl^tone,  and  fromth*  ideuiitv  of  the  fos>il3,  that  the  Devonian  rcpr.a'i  • 
utivcs  ot  thus?  Djfls  ur»!  the  Marwood  and  Petherwiu  groups*.  'JMiese  ions\"t  u£ 
durk-colored  caUareous  and  argillaceous  be<l!«,  and  irray  ana  reddi&h  BandfctoiM*. 
Tlui  fo-sila  found  in  tht-m  are  sholla  and  land-plantii,  many  of  them  beloni'iiij?  ip 
the  Pame  g  nera.  but  ditft^ent  ep.'cie**  to  those  which  are  found  in  the  Carbtmi- 
feroud  8ys*tcm.  The  little  crustacean  Cypridina  and  Clymt* uia  are  so  chttra«ieri>tlc 
of  thiM  divi.oton,  ili  .t  in  Germany  the  strata  aru  known  as  the  Cypridiuieu  SchioiEer 
and  Clymenien  Kalk. 

2.  The  Middl  •  Old  Re<l  Sandittone  is  represented  in  tiie  north  of  Scotland  by  the 
Oaithnees  fUig:*.  a  siMlef*  of  dark-gray  bilnminous  schists,  slightly  micaceoos  ur  cal- 
ctir^ous,  remarkably  tough  ami  durable.  Throughout  their  wnohj  rhlckneS"  they . -ire 
chargrd  with  fo-'Bilfl  h  and  ob-cnre  vcg«ttal>le  ivniain*.  The  characteiistic  flfi««« 
¥  ilong  to  the  g.-nera  Ooi-coHteu"*,  AsterolFpis,  and  Dipterns.  The  cori-espoudlnj^bfdH 
in  Devonshici  are  the  Dartmouth  and  Fiymouth  groups,  ^'hich  conMsf  oi  t-xteuMve 
deposits  of  Ibn<!rttonas  and  schists,  all  of  them  ab  »uudiu^  in  the  r.-maiua  of  comK 
trilohires,  and  shellH.  In  the  German  equivalent,  the  ElfeT,Limest.on«*,  hut  especially 
in  the  Russian,  tbe  characteristic  invert  ihrate  fossils  of  the  D  ivonshire  caloareoaa 
beds  have  b6e«  found  a^sociaied  with  the  remains  of  Corcosteus,  shewing  bi'yiMiil 
doubt  the  idtaitiiy  of  these  various  beds.  Tite  Cjidceola  Schieffi^rof  G»'riu«n  geol<»- 
gists  b  lonjfs  to  the  Mirldle  Old  Red ;  it  receives  its  name  from  the  abHuda.ice  iu  it 
of  a  singular  braohfopod  {CcUeeola Ha-ndnlina). 

.S.  Tiie  LovvtM- Old  R  hI  Sandstone  consists  of  strata  of  red  shale  and  &mdstone, 
with  l>t>ds  of  impure  arenaceous  limestone  (cornstone),  and  frtnjnently  ni  the  Imiw 
great  d.^pos-ts  of  r-d  conglomerate.  The  fosflll.«*  |)ecuiiar  to  this  division  are  the  rt-- 
niarkitble  fl  ^^  Cephauispis,  and  thtthnge  Crustacea  of  the  genus  Pterygotn«,  be^Hes 
a  few  shells.  To  ib«^  .«onth  of  the  Grampians,  th»j  si  rata- consist  of  a  gray  priV.fg- 
f  tone  and  c.«ars<*  rootlng-slate.  The  Devonian  reprisetttaiives  of  tlds  s«riiou  ur<'  tb«^ 
sandstiin  sand  slates  of  tlie  North  Foreland,  LlntoUjand  Torbay,  and  the  series  of 
slaty  beds  and  quarts;  ore  sandstones  developed  on  the  banks  of  the  Rfdiie  near  Coh- 
leniz.  The  CJephalaspis,  so  characteiistic  of  the  cornstones,  -ints  been  found  in  the 
Rheni>li  iH-d-. 

4.  The  Tilesiones  or  Ltnlbury  Shales  consist  of  finely  lamimited  reddish  «nd 
green  micaceons  sandstones,  wliich  have  been  noticed  untlorlyini:  the  Old  Reil  on  y 
on  its  western  l>orders  in  Herefordshire.  The  fo^sils  of  thos.  Intds  hhew  a  Silnrn.u 
fauna  with  a  numbeiof  Old  Red  forms;  the  TiK*stones  are  cousequentty  refurnd 
Bometimes  to  the  oue  period,  and  sometimes  to  ihe  other. 

Tbe  O.  It  S.  oexjuples  a  considerable  portion  of  Ihe  surface  pf  Great  Britain.  In 
the  north,-  it  forms  tbe  bouiidary  lands  of  tlie  Moray  Flith;  lieginniug  eveu  ivf^  fa' 
north  as  the  Shetlauds  and  Orkneys,  it  covers  the  whole  of  Callbnoss,  and  iu  nior« 
or  less  brokt'n  trict«  ti»e  east  of  Suihcrlaiid,  Ross,  and  Cromarty,  and  the  north  oi 
Inverness.  N:i.rn,  and  Elgin.  In  the  great  central  valley  of  Scotlaud  it  is  ilw 
setting  in  wiiicU  the  coal  measures  are  placed,  stretching  acros»  tl»e  cooiitry  on 
the  one  margin  from  Forfar  to  Dumbarton,  and  occurriug  on  the  other  in  si-pamted 
tracts  In  Lanu'k  and  Berwick.  In  the  southern  division  of  the  island  it  is  limiied 
to  a  larg.!  uiangular  district  in  the  south-west.  The  :»pex  of  the  trian;rle  Is  ut  Wen- 
lo<-.k,  in  Shropshire  ;  a  line  thence  to  Start  Poln»,  In  Devon,  would  limit  It  on  the 
east,  and  a  secotid  to  Milford  Haven  would  do  so  on  the  west.  Tbe  Bristol  Chann«l 
bkisecLB  it.    Adcprcssiou  iu  the  Welsh  poriiou  is  occupied  with  South  Wales  coal- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


A  XQ  OVbTT 

^  »>0  O  denbu  g 

fluid ;  and  in  a  pimilaV  dcproRnlon  in  Devon,  the  cnlnvVd«  nre  fitnofed.  In  Irel;ind, 
strata  of  this  ag-i  are  limnd  iu  the  counties  of  Kilk»?uiiy,  Wiiterio.'d,  Cork,  himI 
Kerry.  Tlie  Devonian  rock:?  have  been  carefnlly  6fndii*d  in  Belginm  and  Hu-  Kbine 
district,  and  alKO  in  Rnssiu,  where  they  lOver  a  iarjrer  dij*trict  in  the  north  of 
the  empire.  The  Ami^rican  rupreiieutatives  of  tliis  period  are  exten>iv(ly  dtveUipcd 
in  New  York,  Penimylvaiiia,  and  Canada.  The  invertebrate  animairt  fonnd  in  the 
Old  Red  do  notdiffiT  uuich  from  those  of  tlie  Upper  Silurian.  Corals  are  n-mark- 
ably  ubHMd.-int  and  beantifal  iu  the  Devonian  limcMoofs.  Gonial ites  and  ('iynvnia 
nuikc  thi-ir  flrsl  api)earauce  )U  this  period,  with  eevt-rnl  fonne  of  >ow»r  nollu><a. 
TriiobitC'*  are  etill  nunierone.  But  tlie  n»oHt  htn:iiig  feature  in  th  iwiod  is  the 
abniniance  i>f  flsh  of  ciiriouH  forma,  strongly  protected  outside  by  liard  liony  cuhci^, 
or  by  a  dense  arniur  of  ganoid  ecalea, 

0'LDBURY,a!i  iniporfant  manufacturing  town  of  England,  in  tlie  county  of 
Worce."*ter,  29  mile^  nonh-nortb-cast  of  ttie  cTiy  of  tbat  name,  on  tiu;  riA-er  T.inie.  It 
rtJHtainrt  nuineronn  chnreh«  s,  nieeting-honscK,  and  scliools.  Owing  to  the  exteusi«»u 
of  the  iron-tnide,  O.  has  gn-atly  increased  in  cize  and  prosperity  wltliin  recent  years. 
There  are  conl  and  iron  niiin^s  iu  the  neigbborliood ;  and  iu  t:ie  town,  iron.  i»teel, 
iM-oiiiOMve  engine?,  ulII^,  edg<;-t(^)ls,  dr!uning-i)ipes,  &('..  are  made  and  conHtnici«'d. 
Til  ^  Stonr  Valley  Railway  passea  clo^e  by  the  town,  and  there  is  a  Btatiou  here.  Pop. 

OLDCASI'LE.  Sir  Johii,  once  popal.irly  known  as  the  "good  Lord  Cobham,'' 
who-e  claim  to  disJiuctiOn  is,  that  Hi;  was  tlie  first  autlior  and  the  fiini  innytyr  among 
the  English  nobility,  Wius  bonj  in  llie  re  gii  of  Etiward  III.;  the  exact  fear  is  not 
kiionii.  He  iicqtiired  the  title  of  Lord  Coohani  by  marriairi-.  and  signalised  himself 
by  tlie  ardor  of  his  altachme  tlothe  doctrines  of  Wickliffe.  At  that  time,  there 
was  a  party  asnoug  the  E:igli8li  nobles  jind  g«aitry  sincerely,  and  even  strongly  de- 
siroua  of  eccle8iii.-tical  reform — the  leailer  of  which  was  *'  old  John  of  Gimut — time- 
honored  Lanc-.sier."  O.  M'us  active  in  the  same  c:mse,  and  took  part  in. the  presen- 
tation of  a  remonstrance  to  the  English  Commons  on  th*?  subK*'t  of  the  cornip- 
tloiis  of  the  church.  At  his  own  expense,  he  got  the  works  of  Wickliffe  transcribed, 
and  widey  diss«'ininated  among  the  people,  and  paid  a  large  btidy  of  pi^aclieis  to 
pnipagate  the  views  of  the  reformer  xhrotighout  the  country.  During  the  reign  of 
il  Miry  IV.,  he  commanded  an  English  army  in  Prance,  and  forced  the  Duke  of  Or- 
Jeand  to  r.iise  t'le  sieue  of  Paris;  but  in  the  reign  of  Henry  V.  he  w;.8  aecnseil.of 
Jsen^y,  ;iiid  having,  in  a  disputation  with  his  son ereign,  d«ciared  that '"assure  as 
God's  word  is  true,  the  pope  is  the  great  Antichrist  foretold  in  Holy  Writ,"  he  was 
tlirown  iuto  tlie  Tmver,  whence^  after  some  time,  he  escaped,  and  concealed  himself 
iu  W.d  's.  A  bill  of  attainder  was  passed  against  him.  and  lOCO  marks  sot  uiwii  his 
In-al.  After  four  years' hiding,  he  wa^*  Cu4>furrd,  brought  to  London,  and— l)e.ing 
reckoned  a  traitor  as  well  as  a  heretic — he  was  hungup  in  chains  alivenpona  gal- 
lows, and  tire  Iwiing  ]>ut  under  him,  wa»  burned  to  iieath,  December  1417.  O.  wrote 
*•  Twelve  Conclusions  aildressed  to  the  Parliament  of  England,"  seveial  moiikish 
rhymes  aL'a.nst  "  fi -hhlye  livei-s  "  among  the  clergy,  religious  discourses,  &c. — See 
*'  Life  ot  Ohic.istle,"  by  Qiipiu. 

O'LDENBURG,  a  gratid-dnchy  of  Northern  Germany,  consisting  of  three  distinct 
and  wid-.ly  separated  territories,  viz.,  Oldenburg  Proper,  the  principality  of  LQbeck, 
ajid  tire  principality  of  Birkenf.-ki.  The  colieclive  an^a  of  these  district*  is  now  2401 
square  miles.  •  Pop.  in  IBiS,  319,314.  Oldenburg  Proper,  which  comprises  %rh8  of 
this  area,  aiid  4-5th8  of  the  entire  popnlation,  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  the  Gennau 
Ocean,  on  the  e..  s.,  and  w.  by  the  kingdom  of  Hanover.  The  principal  rivers  of  O. 
are  the,  Wesi-r,  tae  Jahde,  and  the  liaase,  Veiuie,  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Ems. 
The  crand-ducby  of  Oldenburg  Proper  is  dividend  iuto  eigiit  circles.  The  country  is 
fli'.r,  i)ul  ngingto  the  great  sandy  plain  of  N«>r'hcrn  Germany,  and  consists  for  the 
most  pari  of  moors,  heaths,  marsli  or  fens,  and  uncultivated  sandy  tracts;  but  hero 
and  thtr  ,  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  (he  uniform  level  is  broken  by  eentle  accllv- 
it.es.  coverefl  with  wood,  or  by  picturesqtie  lakes  suiTonnded  by  fraltfni  pasture- 
lands.  Agriculture  a^id  the  rearing  ^>f  cattle  con(»ritute  the  chief  sonrc>  s  of  w<altli. 
The  horse-<  and  cjitHe  raised  iu  th  •  marsh-lnnds  are  excellent  of  their  kind,  and  iu 
ereat  reijuest;  tlie  'iiors(»-marketH-at  OkVtMihurg,  .•»nd  the  r,Httle-.«Hles  at  OvelgOiine,  be- 
ing frequented  by  purchasci's  from  every  pari  of  Germany.    The  scarcity  of  woo*^ 


y  Google 


.  :>:  '■ 


OMenburg  A^X 

for  fnel,  and  the  absence  of  conl,  are  compoii»ated  for  by  tlip  existence  of  tnrf-fcefls 
of  enormous  exti;ut«  With  the  exception  of  8onie  liiieu  utid  slocking  looms,  aud  a 
few  tobncco-woiics,  thei-e  are  no  m  aiuf  ictorien.  Thej'e  are,  however,  naineroiu 
distilleries,  brewerief^  nud  tan-yarde  in  all  pnit^  of  th«:  ducUy. 

The  trade  is  principally  a  coa-ttlng-trade,  carried  on  in  sniall  veJ»8el*»,  from  SO  to40 
louss  which  c;iu  thread  their  way  akiug  the  shallow  chunuels  connecting  the  lai^ 
rivers. 

The  exports  are  horses,  cattle,  linens,  tliread,  hides,  and  mga,  whidh  And  their 
way  chiefly  to  Holland  and  the  Hanscatic  ciiies;  while  the  im]>orts  include  the  ordi- 
nary colonial  goods,  a>id  manufactures  of  numeroux  kinds. 

The  receipt.**  for  the  collect  iv«?  graud-dnchy  werv,  in  the  budget  for  1975,  7,104,160 
marks,  and  the  exp  nditure,  7.546,380.  The  public  debt,  at  the  close  of  1ST4,  was 
34.575,942  marks.  ». 

The  principality  of  L&beck,  consisting  of  the  secnlariscd  territories  of  the  fonnftr 
hishopiic  of'tiie  ^ame  name,  is  surroundttd  by  the  duchy  of  llolstei«i>  and  i*  siinatitl 
on  the  banks  of  Mie  rivers  ScliwarUui  anrl  Tmv.  It  contr;but*f.l»i»  square  miles  to 
the  general  ai  a  of  the  giwuUluchy.  and  34,tJ85  inhabit  »nts  to  the  collective  pfipula- 
tioii.  It  is  di\  lid  into  tour  admliiistritivc  districts.  If  ha.-*  8<veral  large  lakfS,  as 
tiiO-*eof  PiO  1  — iiotid  for  its  pictiir'Sqaj  l>eauty— Killer.  Ukloi,  and  Gro^s-Entln: 
wliiie  in  regard  to  climate,  soil,  and  naiural  proflicts,  It  participates  in  the  general 
physical  characlt'ri sties  of  HoUiein.  The  cliief  town  is  Entin  (pop.,  in  1871.  3700), 
})leasantly  situated  on  the  lake  Ot  the  same  uamc,  with  a  tine  castle  surrouudud  by  a 
ma«:niflcent  park. 

The  pricipality  of  Birkenfeld,  lying  sonth-west  of  the  Rhine,  among,  the  Hud'I- 
sruck  MounlAins,  and  Iwtween  Rh.nish  Pru8'«ia  and  LIchtenbei-g,  i.«*  an  untiring 
ti'rritory,  situated  in  lat  49°  3»' — 19°  52'  u.,  and  in  long.  70—7°  30'  e.  Its  an  a  »« 
192  square  miles,  and  its  p.>p.  37,093.  The  soil  of  Berkenleld  is  not  generally  |W'»- 
ductive;  but  in  thi-  lowi-r  taul  more  sludiered  valleys,  it  yields  wheat,  flax,  an  I 
hiJiap.  Wood  is  abundant.  The  mineral  products,  which  are  of  considerahl  *  im- 
portance, com  pri.sn  iron,  copper,  leitd,  co:i I,  and  building-stoue ;  wliile  in  addiUoa 
to  the  rearing  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  the  polishing  of  stones,  mor>'  esptiiliy 
a;;ates,  constitutes  tlui  principal  source  o£ industry.  The  princip,dily  is  dividt-d  into 
three  governmental  disirictf. 

O.  is  a  constitutional  ducal  monarchy,  hereditary  in  th«  inale  line  of  the  reigiiliig 
family.  The  constitution^  which  is  based  upon  that  of  1849^  reviSi.'d  in  185i,  « 
couimou  to  lite  three  provmces,  which  are  represented  in  one  joint  chamber,  com- 
posed of  33  membera,  chosen  by  free  voters.  Each  principality  liaa,  however,  il3 
special  provincial  council,  the  memlMjrs  of  which*ai*e  likewise  elected  by  vylw; 
wliile  each  governmental  aistrict  within  the  provinces  has  its  locrd  board  of  couii- 
cillors,  and  its  several  courts  of  law,  police,  finance,  Ac,  alihou>rh  the  highest  jadi- 
cial  court,  of  appeal,  and  the  ecclesiastical  and  miuisieriul  offices,  are  located  at 
Oldenburg. 

Perfect  lil>erty  of  conscience  was  guaranteed  by  the  constitution  of  1849.  The 
Lutheran  is  the  predominant  church,  upwards  of  200.000  of  the  popnl.ition  belonglug 
to  that  denomination ;  while  about  70,00J  persons  profess  the  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligion. 

*rhere  are  two  gymnasia,  one  highi^r  provincial  college,  several  seeondary,  ni'd 
600  eltnnentary  schools ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  scarcity  of  vill  'ges  in  tiie  ducliy, 
and  the  i!«ola led  position  of  many  of  the  houses  of  the  peasantry,  school:*  aren<>t 
common  in  the  country  di.siricts.  and  the  standard  of  t-dneation  of  the  lower  classes 
is,  from  these  causes,  sc-ircely  equal  to  that  exie«ling  in  other  parts  of  Northeni  Gcr- 
m:i  y.  The  military  forces  of  O.— above  2000  men  on  the  pejice  footing— fona  » 
poiiion  of  the  Prussian  army.  The  merchant  navy  in  18  5  c<»usisted  of  861  ve-f^elfl 
of  53,167  tons.  O.  is  represented  in  the  Bundesrath  or  BVderal  Onnm  il  of  the  G«r- 
man  Emp'ro  by  1  meml)er,  and  in  the  Reichstag  or  Diet  by  8  memlwrs. 

Wntorff. — The  territory  now  included  in  the  erand-duchy  of  O  ,  wis  in  ancieirt 
times  occupied  by  tlie  Teutonic  race  of  the  Chanci,  wiio  were  sul»sequeiitlyMiKirged 
with  the  more  generally  known  Fjisii,  or  Frisians:  and  the  land,  uud  r  tlie  luimrt 
of  Ammergau  and  Lerigau,  was  for  a  lonyr  period  included  among  thedoiniBlonsof 
ttie  Dukes  of  Saxony.    In  1180,  the  Counts- of  O.  and  Dulmt;iikorst  succeeded  Ib 


y  Google 


455  Olderttere 

epfiiih1isl)it)|^  Sndenondent  states  from  the  torritorii?  of  Henry  the  Lion,  which  fell 
into H eouditiou  of  diHorganwntiou  after  hi-  dowufuU. 

This  family  has  continiietl  to  rule  O.  to  the  preei  nt  day.  giving,  moreovei*,  nc\r 
dynastie8.to  the  kingdom  of  Denmnrk,  the  empirvM<f  BneHiti.  anuthc^  khigdom  of 
Sw'^h'n.  See  OuiENBUno,  Uoubb  of.  On  the  deiith,  in  1W7,  of  Count  Anihciiy 
GuiiihiT,  the  wiyefiit  ai  d  b  st  of  thi?  O.  rnlerp,  liin  dominion>,  in  defaun  of  n- an-r 
heir  ,  fill  to  the  Dtr»!s!i  rei|»i.iiig  family,  and  continued  for  a  century  to  Ix;  ruled  by 
vie  royi*  nominated  i>y  the  K:ng-«  <»f  Denmark.  This  nnlon  wa?.  however,  bw  red 
jii  1773,  when,  by  a  family  coii'.pact,  Ciri&ti«n  VII.  niadn  over  his  O.  tenltoiica  to 
tie  Grand  Duke  Paul  of  KuMia,  who  rfprcri-nied  th«  Holsfein-Gottorp  brniuh  of 
tliefaniiiy.  Paul  having  ritiounce«i  i lie  joint  couirti»hlps  of  D-limnihofSt  and  O.  in 
fnvor  of  his  cou>in,  Fn  derick  Anfustus,  of  the  youngi-r  or  Kiel  line.of  the  Iioll^e 
of  0.»  who  was  Prine4>bi»bop  of  Labeck,thtt  empt-ror  raiPed  the  unit'd  O.  ti-rritotii-s 
to  tlm  rank  *  f  a  duchy.  The  prvsent  reigning  family  is  dest-ended  from  Duke  Peter 
Friedrlch  Lndwig,  cousin  to  the  Prince-l^i^'hol),  Frtderick  Au^n8t^l^'.  For  n  \U\\r.  tl;e 
Duke  was  a  nieml>«r  of  N.-iiwIeon's  Kbenich  Confederation  :  nut  French  trooi  p  hnv- 
hig,  in  spite  of  this  bond  of  ulliunce,  taken  forcible  posf«ei»Pion  of  the  dnchy  in  1811, 
Hud  incorporated  it  with  the  French  empire,  the  tjected  prince  joinrd  the  mi  k.<  of 
tiie  allies.  In  recognitttm  of  this  iidheMon,  the  Congress  of  Vienna  trnnsfcrred 
CJTtain  portions" o£  territory,  with  5000  Hanoverians  and  20,000  inhabtaiits  of 
tlie  quondam  French  district  of  the  Bniir,  to  tl»e  O.  allegiance.  From  these 
new  a*  quis  tions  were  organised  the  di^tri<t  Amme,  and  the  princjpi.lity  of 
Birkeiifeld;  whih^  O.  was  raised  to  the  dijrnity  of  «  grand-dnchy.  The  revolmion- 
«ry  movement  of  1848  was  quite  as  productive  of  violent  and  compulsory  polilicnl 
changes  in  this  as  in  otlnr  CJ^jnuan  stntes ;  ai.din  1849,  after  hnvinjr  existe<l  for  cen- 
turies without  even  a  show  of  const itntional  or  legislative  fiv  dom,  it  cnten-d  sud- 
denly into  posses-ion  of  the  most  exireme  of  lil)eral  constitutionp.  The  reaction  iu 
favor  of  absolutism,  "Which  the  licence  and  want  of  purpose  of  the  populiir  pnsiy 
n;jlura'ly  iiuluced  all  over  Germany,  led  in  1852  tf)  a  revision  and  modifiration  of  the 
Constitution,  whicJi,  however,  in  its  present  form  contains  lhee!=6enti;j|piinc']>Us  of 
popuhkr  hherty  and  8«H*.nrity,  ihougli  it  must  be  confessed  this  in  more  veHml  than 
renl.  In  the  ijennau-Itallan  war,  O.  i«id  d  with  Prossia,  and  afierwtrrds  jomed  the 
North  G  ruian  CoultKlernnon.  The  duchy  concltided,  in  1866,  a  tnaty  with  Pnissi.-i, 
by  which  thn  Qrand-Duk»!  renounced  his  chiinis  to  the  Holstein  succession,  for  th»* 
Cr'ssion  to  him  of  a  snitill  portion  of  Holstein  t^'niiory,  and  an  indemnity  of  1,000,000 
thalt  rs.    O.  isi  now  included  in  tlie  German  £mpii'e. 

OLDENBUEG,  capitnl  of  the  grnnd-duchy  of  the  same  name,  Is  pleasantly  situ- 
ated on  thebaiik-of  ihenavig.MhIe  river  Uiuit*-,  25  uiiles  w-  st-north-went  of  Bremei:. 
Pop.  (1S71)  13,514.  O.  in  the  seat  of  the  udinlni'-lnitive  doi)irt ments,  and  the  focus 
of  ttie  literary,  scientific,  and  conimereial  activity  nf  the  duchy.  It  hasanonmd 
school,  a  military  academy,  a  public  library  of  86,0. 0  vol?.,  a  picture-gallery,  m«- 
scum,  &c  Tin;  grand-ducal  i^aiacc  is  worthy  of  jsotu  for  its  fine  gardens,  its  valuable 
pictures,  and  other  art  coll(!c»ione,  and  it;«  library.  The  principal  church  is  St  Litm- 
ben's  containing  the  bnrying-vanlts  of  the  reigning  family.  O.  is  the  seat  (  f  an 
active  river-trad^',  and  is  noted  for  its  excellent  stnds,  and  the  great  cattle  and  ho:8e 
fairs  wliich  are  annually  held  here  in  the  months  of  June  and  August. 

OLDENBURG,  Thft  House  of,  which  lays  just  claim  to  l>eing  one  of  the  oldest 
reigning  families  of  Europe,  has  been  rendered  still  more  illustrious  by  various 
vuitriuipniai  alliajicos,  which,  in  the  course  of  agep,  have  successively  been  the 
means  of  creating  new  royal  dynasties.  Thus^  for  instance,  in  1448,  a  pcion  of  this 
Bouse  l>eing  elected  king  of  Denmark,  under  the  title  of  Christian  I.,  became  the 
progcBiior  of  the  Daniijth  Honseof  Oldenburg,  the  imperial  House  of  Russia,  the  late 
ro^ul  ^unily  of  Sweden,  and  the  collaterjil  an<l  jiniior  Danish  lines  of  Augnstenburg, 
Kiel,  and  Sonderbui^-Gluck^burg.  Christian  owed  hie  election  to  the  recommen- 
chitiou  of  his  maternal  uncle,  Duke  Adolph  of  Slesrig,  who,  when  the  throne  was 
offerefl  to  him  on  the  sudden  death  of  King  Christopher,  refused,  on  the  ground  of 
s^e,  and  proposed  Christian  of  Oldenburg,  who,  as  the  direct  descendant  of  Eric 
6Upphig*8  daughter,  Princess  liichissa,  was  a  IJed  to  the  old  extinct  Houh(j 
of  Denmark.  The  death,  in  146»,  of  Adolph,  Duke  of  Slcsvig  and  C^ount 
o£     fiolstoin,    without     mule    beirt»,    opened     the    question    of    eucces^iou    to 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


^^r 


Otdham  ak(\ 

OldjM  ^*^^ 

tb09e  states,  which  has  since  become  one  of  snch  yexntions  import.  The 
ancient  law  of  Donmurk  recogiiis.'d  hereditary  fiefs  only  In  exceptional  cases; 
ctt)wn  fiefs*  Iwing  ^mierally  held  for  life  or  merely  for  u  time  ad  grcUutm.  Snch  be- 
ing the  cast*,  Sieavig  miriit,  on  the  deaJh  of  Adolph,  have  been  taken  by  the  crown 
as  a  lapsed  ten  11  re;  but  Holstxfin,  b -ing  held  under  the  empire,  would  have  been 
separated  from  it.  Adolph  and  his  subjects  were  alike  aiiidoudtiiat  Slesrlgand 
Holsteiu  phonid  cnntinne  united  ;  but  although  the  Slesvig  es'tates,  at  the  wish  of  &« 
Duke  Adolpb,  had  recogJiised  Cliristian  as  succ-essor  to  the  duchy  before  his  accee* 
sion  to  the  tJirone  of  D  'nmark.  the  Holstein  Chrtmhers  were  divided  on  the  qae^tien 
of  succession,  the  mnjority  siiewing  a  preference  for  the  claims  of  the  counts  of 
Sch.-i«tiubHr<{,  who  were  descended  from  nta/e  aguat^es  of  the  Uolstein  floaK. 
Chrii^tiMU,  tn  his  eagerness  to  secure  both  states,  was  willing  to  sacrifice  his  rights 
in  Slesvig  to  his  sclienics  in  recard  to  Holstein  ;  and  liaving  i)ongtit  over  the  Hoi- 
steiti  nobles  by  bribes  and  f:»Tr  promises,  he  was  elected.  Duko  of  Slesvig  and 
Count  of  Holstein  at  Ril>e  in  1400,  wher^^  lie  -signed  a  deed,  alike  derogutoiy  to 
thrt  interests  and  unwortliy  the  dignity  of  his  crown.  In  this  compact,  "by 
which  he  bartered  away  thn  just  prerogatives  aiid  independence  of  himi^tf  auU 
his  successors,  for  the  sake  of  nominal  present  gain,  he  pledged  his  word  for  hit«- 
solf  aud  his  heirs,  that  the  two  provinces  should  alw«ys  remain  undivided, 
^'•eicig  bliber^  tdosanteiide  ungedeelt "  iiiid  not  be  disn)eml)ered  by  diVlsicD 
or  heritjige.  This  document,  which  remained  for  ages  uuknowu  or  for- 
gotten, w:»8  discovered  by  the  historian  Dahlmaun  amid  the  negl  cti^  p-ipers 
of  thn  Holstein  state  archives  at  Preeta,  aud  proclaimed  in  1848  by  that  ardent 
admirer  of  Gtermauy  as  the  unchangeable  fundameulal  law  of  the  Slcsv^- 
Hoistcin  provinces.  The  confusion,  dissension,  aud  ill-will  to  which  this  fauil 
deed  has  given  rise,  are  the  fruits  whicli  Christian's  nnscrapulons  desire  to  secore 
power  at  any  cost  has  produced  for  bis  descendants,  whose  complicate^  claims  on 
the  duchies  resulted,  In  1864,  in  a  war  which  cost  Denmark  a  large  puniou  of  her 
territorial  possession.  From  Christian  I.  descend  two  distinct  braucnes  of  tlieOWt'il- 
burg  line :  1.  The  royal  dynasty,  extinct  in  the  male  line  in  Frederick  Vil„  late  king 
of  Denmark,  and  tbe  collateral  blanches  of  Sonderbui^  Augusten burg,  and Sondcp- 
buig-Glucks!>«rg ;  2.  The  ducal  Holstein-Gotlorp  line,  descended  from  Dnke  Adolpli, 
wiio  died  in  1586,  and  was  the  second  son  of  King  Frederick  I.  This  prince  had  re- 
ceived, during  his  father's  lifetime,  a  portion  of  tlie  Slesvig  and  Holstein  lands.  wbH^h 
he  was  permitted,  on  the  accession  of  his  elder  brother,  Christian  IIL,  to  retah«  for 
himself  and  his  Jieirs.  Tliisvline  l)ecame  illustn6us  bv  the  marriage  of  Prince  Karl 
Friedricli,  tlie  son  of  H^dwig-Sofiii,  eldest  sister  of  Cfharlea  Xtl.  of  Sweden  (adir«t 
descendant  of  Duke  Adolph)  with  the  Grand-duchess  Anna,  daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great,  and  thus  gave  to  Russia  the  dynasty  which  still  occupies  tiie  imjierlaltlirone; 
wliiie  Adolph-Friedrich,  a  cousiu  of  Prince  Karl  Friedrich,  by  his  election  to  ih* 
throne  of  Sweden  in  1751,  added  another  crown  to  those  already  held  by  the  House 
of  Oldeni>iirg.  The  conduct  <  f  his  descendants  rendered  the  n?w  dignity  short-lived, 
for  with  the  abdication  of  Gu.stavus  IV.,  in  1809,  the  Holsteiu-Gottorp  dynasty  becanw 
extinct  in  Sweden. 

The  complicated  relations  of  the  Hotise  of  O.  in  regard  to  the  Danish  succession, 
after  givhig  rise  to  much  angry  discussion  among  the  princes  interested  in  theqnt*- 
tiou,  anil  the  Danish  people  tUemsflves,  led  the  great  powers  to  enter  into  a  treaty, 
known  as  the  Loudon  Treaiy  of  1852,  for  settling  the  question  of  successlou,  ou  the 
ground  that  the  integrity  of  the  Daui-^h  monardiy  was  Intliyately  connected  with 
the  maintenance  of  the  balance  of  power  and  the  cause  of  |>eace  in  EnrO}>e.  ^g- 
liind,  France,  Ausiri.i,  Pru.-^sia,  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  were  parnee  to  tUss 
treaty,  in  the  first  aiticle  of  which  it  was  provided,  that  on  the  extinction  of  the  male 
line  of  the  Royal  House,  Prince  Christian  of  Slesvlg-Holstein-Sonderbnre-GKiCta- 
bnrt:,  and  his  male  heirs,  according  to  the  order  of  primogeniture,  should  8|icceed 
to  all  the  dominions,  then  united  under  the  sway  of  the  king  of  Denmark.  The  rights 
of  succession,  whicu  re.-^ted  with  the  Augustenbnrg  family,  were  forfeited  by  acoii»- 
pact  which  the  Dnke  (♦f  August  en  l)iirg  entered  Into  f.>r  the  surrender  of  his  claims  in 
consideration  of  a  sum  of  nioney  paid  to  him  by  Denmark.  The  Duke's  morgaBaiic 
marriage,  and  his  subsequent  rebellion.  In  1648,  against  the  Danish  king,  were  tbe 
causer'  which  led  to  the  arrangement  of  this  famifv  compact  on  f  lie  existing  terais. 
This  treaty,  kuowu  as  tbe  Loudou  Protocol  of  May  1S5S,  was  followed  in  Ociobtir  U 


Digitized  by 


Google 


467 


Oldhmn 
OldjB 

thewme  yenrhy  tbe  pubMcntion  of  aenpplomontarydiatipe,  which  stipaluled,  that 
ontiie  extiuctiuii  of  tlie  lie)i>-ui:«le  of  Prince  Cliriatiau  of  Slesvig-HolHteiii-Souder- 
bnig;-G!uck8biirg,  tlieUolfeiehj-Gottorp.  or  imperial  Hufphiu  lincHhoiild  Hucuucd  to  ibe 
Daiiihh  doiuiiiiouH.  This  iir tide,  even  inoretiinu  the  oiij^iual  clauBes  of  thetn-iity,  met 
witii  tho  BtroDgest  oppoHtiou  among  the  Duiies^  and  afi-ei*  being  twice  rejected  in 
llie  Laudsthinjj,  tl>e  London  Treaty  was  only  ratified  after  a  new  election  of  mem- 
bers, and  04I  the  aasuraiice  of  thek^ng  tiiat  in  excUidiue  all  female  connate  liu<'8  from 
the  BocceKsion.  there  was  no  definite  intention  of  adv.inciug  the  claims  of  Rufuin. 
King  Fre<lerick'8  de^ith,  Su  1868,  brought  on  tlie  crisin  of  the  much- vexed  auc!*tion  of 
the  I)ainsb  euccession ;  and  altliongh  tl»e  London  Treaty  \\a»  bo  far  foil' wed  that 
Prince  Chriaiiau  t<ucc<'«^lcd  as  kingot  Dennuirk,  theevila  Uiat  were  anticipated  from 
the  measure  were  in  IS&l  in.-(de  painfully  manifest ;  for  the  Duke  of  Auguntenhurg, 
i>otwitlii>tanding  the  rcnnuciattou  by  his  family  of  all  claims  to  the  MicceBsion, 
appealed  to  the  fedcrel  diet  for  the  recognition  of  his  rights  on  Ilobtciu  ;  and  llm 
tiennaii  powers,  glad  of  a  pretext  to  extemi  their  infiueuce  beyond  the  Eidor,  occu- 
pied I  he  8lej?vi}^-HolHtein  (q.  v.)  territory,  and  succeeded,  by  force  of  superior  nuni- 
wrs,  iu  udvancuig  the  lioundary  of  Germany  to  tl)e  borders  of  Jutland.  'I'hia  led, 
however,  to  grave  results  affeciine  the  whole  of  Europe.  Pru>sla  and  Auftrla  took 
jK.t^sess'ion  of  the  conqueMs  in  their  own  names,  'i  he  former  power  offered  the 
latter  p.  cuniary  compi-nsation  for  their  assistance  in  the  war,  while  indicating  a  de- 
termination to  annex  the  ducliies  to  its  own  aomiuious.  Austiia  refused,  and  this 
led  to  the  disastrous  battle  of  Kouiggratz. 

O'LDHAM-,  a  t^arliamentary  borough  and  flourishing  mannfacturiug  town  of 
En^add,  iu  the  county  of  Lancasliire,  st^iDds  on  the  Mediock,  six  miics  north-east 
of  MaDciiei^ter.  It  owes  its  rapid  iucreawe  iu  population  and  hi  wealth  to  tlic  exten- 
sive coal  mines  in  the  vicinity,  and  to  its  cotiou  manufactures,  which  have  increased 
remarkably  withlii  hpte  years.  It  is  not  only  the  great  centre  of  the  hat  matiiifac- 
tnre.  but  is  also<jelebruted  for  its  manufactures  of  tustiaus,  velveteens,  corcls,  cotton, 
woollen,  and.  silk  goods.  Numerous  silk  mills,  brass  and  iron  foundries,  machine 
slio|)e,  tanuerifs,  rope  works,  &c,  are  in  operation.  The  parish  church,  the  town- 
hall,  the  Blue-coat  aiiduiie  Oinimiimr-schools,  are  the  chief  edifices.  Pop.  in  1871  of 
munjcipal  l>orough,  82,629 ;  of  porliameutary  borough  (wliich  returns  two  members 
to  pariiament),  118,100. 

OLDHA'MIA,  a  genus  of  fossil  zoophytes,  dedicated  by  Forbes  to  Professor  Old- 
ham, who  was  their  discoverer.  Only  t\vo.8p<u*.lea  are  known,  but  they  are  of  |)ecu- 
liar  interest,  because,  M'lth  their  a.s^ociated  worm-tracks  and  burrow's,  they  are  flie 
first  distinct  evIdeMce  of  life  on  the  gloi^e.  Tbty  exist  as  mere  tracings  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  liimiiife  of  metamori)liOHea  shales,  all  remains  of  the  substance  of  the 
organism  having  entirely  disappeared.  The  rorm  of  t he  hard  polj'pidom  Is  preserved, 
and  8he\vs  a  jointed  main  stem,  giving  off  at  each  joint,  in  the  one  species,  a  circli!  of 
simple  niys,  and  in  the  of  her  a  fan-shaped  group.  Forbes  pointed  out  their  affinities 
iu  !«<»ine  respects  to  the  Hydiozoa,  and  in  others  to  the  Polyzoa.  Kimihan,  who  de- 
scribed the  genus  at  some  length,  considers  them  to  hnve  been  Hydrozoa  allied  to 
Seilularia;  while  Huxiey  places  them  among  the  Polyzou. 

OLDY8,  William,  a  most  erudite  and  induf-trious  bibliographer,  was  a  natural 
son  of  Dr  William  Oldyt*,  Chancellor  of  Lincoln,  and  advocate  of  the  Admiralty 
Court,  and  was  born  in  1637.  Hegnrdiug  his  curly  life,  little  is  known.  His  father 
dying  in  ITtid,  left  him  a  small  propei-ty,  whicli  O.  squandered  as  soon  as  h(;  got  it 
iutoTiis  own  hands.  The  must  of  hin  life  was  spent  as  a  booksviller's  back.  He 
drairk  hard ;  and  was  so  scandalously  f<md  of  low  company,  that  he  prefeiTed  to  live 
within  the  "rules"  of  the  Fleet  Prison  to  any  more  respectable  place.  As  mtiy 
enBily  i)e  snpiwsed  from  his  habits,  the  dissolute  old  bookworm  was  ofteii  iu  ex- 
tremely necessitous  circumstances,  and  when  he  died  (April  15, 1761),  he  left  hardly 
enough  to  decently  bury  him.  It  is  hut  fair  to  add  that  O.  had  some  sterling  merits. 
Capttiiu  Grose,  who  knew  him,  prais(»)  hi**  good-nature,  honor,  and  integrity  »s  a 
hietoiian,  and  says  that  "nothing  would  ever  have  biassed  him  \x>  insert  any  fact  iu 
his  writings  which  he  did  not  l>elieve,  or  to  suppress  any  he  did."  For  about  ten 
yenrs.  O.  acted  as  librarian  to  the  Kiirl  of  Oxford,  whose  valuable  collection  of  books 
aiid  W8S.  he  arranged  and  catalogued.  His  chief  works  an;  *'  The  British  Librarian, 
exbil^ttpg  a  Compendious  Itcview  of  all  Unpublished  aud  Valuable  Books  iu  all 


y  Google 


§&  458 

Sciences"  (London,  173T.  auonymonrtv) ;  a  •*  Life  of  Sir  Walter  Ralcijrh,"  prefiied  <» 
Rttleigh'fl  *' History  of  the  World'*  (1138) ;  a  tmualutloii  of  Camden's  "Briiamiia" 
(3  vols.) ;  **  The  Hnrjeiaii  Miscellany,  or  a  Collection  of  Scaice,  Cnrioiif,  aiul  Enter- 
tiiiiiliisr  Tracte  "  (S  vols.  Loud.  1753).  Besides  tlies^,  O.  wrote  a  g^ent  variety  uf  mi>«- 
cellanr-ous  lit»»rai*y  nnd  blbliotrranhical  *•  articies "  for  his  frkuds  the  booksellerB, 
wblch  it  would  l»e  tedious  to  meution. 

OLEA'CEiE,  a  natural  order  of  exogrenons  plants,  consf^tfn^  of  trees  and  slinil)*! 
with  opposite  leaves, and  flowers  In  mci-nics  or  panicles^  The  calyx  is  in  0!ici^«n> 
divided,  persistent.;  the  corolla  is  hypogynons,  generally  4-cleft,  sometimes  w  four 

f)etals,  sometimes  wnntlne;  thtjre  are  gen«tr;dly  two,  nirdy  four  st-imens;  the  ovary 
fi  free,  2-celled.  the  cclh  2-wfeded  ;  tiie  fruit  is  a  drupe,  a  cap.-m'e,  or  a  sanihra  (w* 
these  h<'ads) ;  the  cotyledons  are  follaceons.  Nearlv  150  speci.iH  are  known,  luo-tty 
natives, of  tempemte  cfuintries.  Amoii^  tnem  are  thu  olive,  ash.  lllnc,  privrt,pliil- 
lyrea,  frinjre  tree,  &c.  Between  sonte  of  ih«se  there  is  a  srreat  dissimilarity,  eo  tbnt 
this  order  is  apt  to  1)e  regarded  as  a  vi'ry  hetcro<;eijeous  group ;  but  the  reid  affinity 
of  the  species  coinposini,'  it  is  manifested  by  tlie  tnet,  tinit  even  thoso  which  sera 
most  unlike  can  bs*  grafted  one  upon  another,  as  the  lilac  or  the  olive  on  tlie  tab. 
Bitter,  astringent,  and  tonic  properties  are  prevalent  in  this  order. 

OLEA'NDEK  (A'ermm),  a  ir<*uu!*  of  plants  o!  the  natural  order  Apoeynacece.  har- 
intf  a  6-part(  d  calyx,  set  round  on  the  inside  at  the  Imse  with  many  tooth-like 
points  or  glands,  a  i«alver-8haped  5-cleft  conJIa,  in  the  throat  <  f  which  is  a  S-parted 
and  toothed  or  lacerated  corona,  five  stamens,  the  antbera  aditenng  to  th«V stigiua, 
the  fruit  comnosed  of  two  follicles.  The  specitw  are  evoryn^eu  shru  s  with  leath- 
ery leaves,  which  are  opposite,  or  in.  threes;  the  flowers  in  falr^e  umbels,  terminal  or 
axillary.  Thb  Comhon  O.  {S.  oleander^  a  native  of  the  south  of  Buroj>e,  the  north  of 
Africa,  and  many  of  the  warmer  temperate  pan«  of  Asia,  is  frequency  planted  in 
many  countries  as  an  oruam<utal  shrub,  and  is  not  unconunon  in  Britani  as H  wii|- 
dow-p'ant  It  has  beautiful  r«^d,  or  sometimes  white,  flowers.  The  English  call  it 
KosB  Bat,  and  the  French  Rose  Laurel  {Laurier  Hose).  It  attAlns  aheiirlit  of 
eii^ht  or  ten  feet.  Its  flowers  jrive  a  sp  endid  >i|)pearanoe  to  many  niins  in  the  soalh 
of  Italy.  It  delights  in  moint  situations,  and  is  often  found  near  htreains.  AH 
parts  of  it  contain  a  bitter  and  narcotic-acrid  juice,  poisonous  to  men  stid  cattle, 
which  flows  out  as  a  white  milk  when  yonnt<  twigs  are  broken  off.  C:ise8  of  |)0i- 
Bouing  have  occurred  by  children  eating  It*  flowers,  and  even  by  the  use  of  tlie  wood 
for  suits  or  skewers  in  ro;isting  meat.  Its  exhalations  ai-e  injuHons  to  those  who 
remain  long  under  their  influence,  particularly  to  Ihoj'e  who  sleep  under  it.  A  de- 
coction of  the  leaves  or  bark  is  much  nf»ed  in  the  south  of  France  as  a  wash  to  cure 
cutaneous  maladies. -r-A'.  odoratum.  an  Indian  species,  has  larger  flowers,  which  are 
very  frngrant. — N.  pwcidiunb  (or  Ef^chalUivi  pwcidium)  a  pt^reunial  climlwr,  a  na- 
tive of  tlie  Kasya  Uilis,  has  a  very  fibrous  bark,  the  fll)re  of  which  ia  used  iu  India 
as  hemp.    'J'he  steeping  of  the  stems  in  ponds  kills  flsh. 

OLEA'STEEL    See  El^bagkus. 

O'LEPIANT  GAS  (C4H4^  is  transparent  and  colorless,  poasesses  a  disagreeable 
nHiaceous  odor,  and  acts  as  a  poison  wheji  breathed.  Its  specific  gnivity  is  0-981.  It 
takes  fire  when  brought  in  contact  >^i  h  a  flame,  and  bums  ivith  a  brighl  clear  light 
*Wlien  this  gas  is  mixed  with  oxygen  or  atmospheric  air  in  the  proiwnion  of  1  vol- 
ume witti  3  volumes  of  oxyiren,  or  with  15  volimies  of  otmosptieric  air,  it  forms  a 
powerfully  explosive  mixture.  It  is  more  soluble  in  cold  than  in  l»ot  water— W 
volumea  of  water  at  32°  absorbing  26*5  volumes  of  the  gas,  while  at  68«  tliey  only 
absorb  14  volumes.  It  was  Hquened  by  Faraday,  under  jrreat  pn^sure,  but  remained 
unfrozen  at  — 166*».  If  it  be  conducted  through  strongly  luxated  tnlws,  or  if  a  con- 
tuiuoufl  series  of  electric  sparks  \ye  passed  through  it,  ir.  is  decomposed  into  a  v^ 
dense  black  carbon,  and  double  Ita  own  volume  of  hydroiren ;  and  if  it  is  sniijected 
to  a  less  intense  heat,  the  products  of  decomposition  are  carbon  and  light  carbnrct- 
ted  hydrogen  or  marsh  gas  (C3H4>.    Chlorine  acts  upon  this  gas  iu  a  very  remark- 


able manner.  When  the  two  gases  are  mixed  in  equal  voumes,  they  coniWwe  n» 
form  a  heavy  oily  liquid,  to  which  the  term  chloride  of  olefiant  gas.  or  Dutch  LIqoid 
._  -.»   ,__,-.._     ,.__, .. ,.  _      .,       ,,    .  ..     .  '^n<  was  origin-*' 

iztores  that  aca 

y  Google 


(a.  v.),  is  given.    It  is  from  this  reaction  that  the  term  ofe^n<  was  originally  «p-y 
plied  to  this  gas. 

Olefiant  gas  is  a  conetituent  of  the  gaseous  explosive  adnilztores  that  acamnilito 


In  coal-pits,  and  of  the  gaBeons  prodiictfl  yielded  hy  thedUtlllationof  wood,  repinons 
tnaitws,  iiiidcoal;  and  the  hri^'btnest*  of  the  flame  of  ordiDurj' gas  is  iii  agreui 
mc:i0iire  dfpeudeirt  upon  the  quautity  of  olefiuut  gtt«  that  \»  present. 

This  gat*  is  most  rc^uiily  obiaiiifd  ity  the  aciioti  of  oil  of  vitriol  on  alcohol ;  tbo 
reiictioiiB  thai  eumie  an?  too  coiiiplioTiied  to  be  deiscribcd  iu  tiiese  (Nigea. 

O'LEIC  ACID  (CssH^sOstHO),  at  tfm|)crntnrefi al)ove  67«,  exlati*  ai*  a  colorlcra 
liiupid  fluid,  of  au  oily  coiisihttiic*',  »le\oid  of  sineJI  aiirt  taitte,  and  (if  il  baa  uot  bt'en 
oxpt»8«'d  to  air)  ♦•Hurting  no  action  on  ve}^« -table  colore.  At40o.lt  hOlidifles  iuto  a 
firm,  whiti-,  ciyst:tl!ine  niaB.«,  aud  in  thir*  Btatc  it  undergo«'w  no  change  iu  the  air;  but 
vrh»iii  fluid,  it  rfadiiy  aht*ori)S  oxygen,  bccomuP  y«'llo\v  and  ran<id,  and  exhibits  » 
ptrong  add  re<ic:ion  with  litimiH  {wwrl  It  in  not  a  volatile  acid,  and  ou  the  nppH- 
cjition  of  a  btrongbeat,  it  l)realt8upinro  several  pul>8taiiccs,  ench  as caprolc,  caprylic, 
ar  d  febacicacids-thelaHt-Danied  l>eing  the  most  chiirarterihtic  nrodnct  of  the  dis- 
til {at  ion.  If  oleic  acid  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  hy|M>uitric  acid  (NO4),  it  l8  con- 
▼ortetl  into  au  isomeric,  solid,  fatty  acid,  t»Tin«-d  elaidic  add,  A  very  small  quantity 
of  hyponitric  add  (1  VMirt  to  200  of  oleic  acid)  is  sufHcietit  to  eff«  ct  tliis  reinarbublu 
change,  the  tianirc  or  wliich  is  TuiknoMrn.  When  distilled  wit  11  inoderalely  strong 
iiitiic  acid,  i>  if«  ox  di-ed  Into  a  Inr^'e  nnini'f^r  of  products,  including  all  the  volatile 
fatJy  acids  represeuieti  by  the  forinubi  (.■tttH5«04,  from  formic  acid  (CjUa04)  to 
capric  acul  ((^45nngo04>,  with  six  fixe<l  dibafic  acids  of  the  fonnula  CaHHa»-,08, 
V  •/..,  succinic  acid,  iipic  acid,  adipic  acid,  pimclic  acid,  sulwric  aciii,  and  ancuoic  (or 
k'pargj'lic)  nci<l.  When  boated  with  hydrated  iwtash,  it  breaks  up  iuto  palmitic  and 
acetic  ucid^)  as  shcwu  iu  the  equation : 

Oleic  Acid.    Hydrated  Potash. 

'CjTw*^    +  ^2(^,110)  = 
Palniitatoof  Potash.    Acetate  of  PobiMi. 


<^83UsiO«>KC)    +    C^UtOg  KO  +  2U 

These  drcomposif ions  an«l  disintegratinne  seem  to  iilnatratc  the  facility  with  which, 
by  tije  mere  process  of  oxidation,  which  is  perjKttiully  at  work  Iu  living  structure?, 
one  org:inic  acid  can  i)e  convert  d  if  to  others. 

Oleic  cid  is  a  constituent  of  Oleine  (ql  v.t^  which  exists  in  most  of  the  fats  and 
fntty  oils  of  the  aninuil  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  and  most  abundantly  in  the  liauid 
felts  or  oils,  and  lience  iis  name  is  derived.  It  is  veiy  difficult  to  ohtaiu  the  acid  in  a 
state;  of  puriiy,  in  consequence  of  the  r  adiuess  with  which  it  oxidises;  and  wesliall 
not  ent^r  into  details  regarding  the  method  of  its  preparation.  Il  is  obtained  in  a 
crude  form,  as  a  secondary  prc^nct,  in  the  mauufacturc  of  stenriue  candles;  but  al- 
utond  oil  is  generally  employed  when  the  pure  aci<l  is  required. 

Oleic  acid  forms  normal  (or  neuiral)  and  acid  salts ;  but  the  only  componnda 
of  this  class  that  require  notice  are  the  normal  salts  of  the  alkalies.  Tliese  are  all 
soluble,  and  by  the  evaporation  of  their  aqueous  solution,  form  Boapa.  Oleate 
•f  potash  forms  a  soft  soap,  which  is  the  chief  ingredient  iu  Naples  soap ;  vrhile 
•leate  of  soda  Is  a  hard  soap,  which  eutera  largely  Into  the  composiiiou  of  Mar> 
eeille  soap. 

/  The  oleates  of  the  alkallea  occur  iu  the  animal  lK)dy,  in  the  blood,  chyle,  Ivmpli, 
'•nd  bile ;  they  liave  also  be*m  found  in  pus,  in  pulmonary  tubercles,  and  in  the 
excrements,  after  4bc  admini^tnltiou  of  purgatives. 

O'LEINE  (C„4Hio40„)  is  proved  by  the  researches  of  Berthelot,  to  be  a  trigly- 
ceride of  oleic  acid,  bee  Glycerins.  Pure  oieinc  is  a  colorless  and  inodorous' 
oiU  which  solidifies  into  acicniar  crytals  at  aliout  28*^,  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  only 
•lightly  soluble  in  cold  alcohol,  but  dissolves  iu  ether  iu  all  proportions.  By  expos* 
nrc  to  the  air,  it  darkens  iu  color,  b«*coinos  acid  and  raticid,  (from  the  gradual  de- 
composition of  the  oleic  acid),  and  flMally  assuuies  a  resinoid  a])p'*erance.  Ilypoid- 
toic  acid  converts  it  into  an  isomeric,  white,  solid  fat,  named  elaidine— the  glycerido 
of  the  elaidic  acid  de6cril)ed  iu  the  preceding  article. 

Pure  oleine  is  ol)t:dned  by  cooling  olive  oil  to  32°.  wliich  orcasiotis  the  separation 
of  the  stearine  aud  palmitine  in  a  solid  form.  The  fluid  iwrtiou  is  then  dissolv^-d  iu 
•toohol,  wblcii,  ou  being  cooled  to  <«•,  deposits  in  a  solid  form  evei7thing  but  oleine. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Oleometer  A(\C\ 

Oiphant  ^^^ 

wUIcU  18  obtained  iii  a  pure  etate  by  driving  off  by  beat  the  alcohol  from  the  de- 
cant jd  orillteied  eolutiou. 

'iMie  (lining  oiii,  Bucli  as  those  of  lineeed,  hemp,  walnnt,  poppy,  &c.f  contain  a 
Yariijty  of  oldnc,  wbicU  is  not  converted  into  elaidiue  by  the  action  of  liyponitric 
acid,  or  of  enbuUrate  of  mercury,  which,  whcii.  prepared  without  the  aid  of  heat, 
contains  enough  of  the  acid  to  produce  a  similar  effect  Hence,  these  subftonees 
may  be  ns<d  to  detect  fraudulent  adulterations  of  olite  or  almond  oil  with  poppy 
and  other  clicap  drying  oils, 

OLlCO'jMETKR,  or  EluSoraeter,  an  instrument  for  ascertaining  the  densitiea  of 
fixed  oil*.  It  consists  of  a  very  delicate  thermoraetor-tube,  tlie  bulb  being  large  iu 
projwrtio.n  to  the  stem.  It  is  aivided  into  fifty  degrees,  and  floats  at  zero  in*  pure 
oil  of  poppy-seed,  at  88°  to  88>40  in  pure  oil  of  almonds,  and  at  60°  in  pure  olive  oil^ 

O'LEOPHOSPHO'IIIC  ACID  is  a  yellow  viscid  substAuce,  whidi  is  insoluble  m 
wnter  and  cold  alcohol,  luit  dissolves  readily  in  boiling  alcohol  and  in  ether.  When 
boiled  for  a  long  lime  with  watei*  or  with  alcoliol,  or  when  treated  with  an  acid,  it 
resolves  itself  into  oleine  and  phosphoric  acid;  while  alkalies  decompose  it  into 
pliosphoric  acid,  oleates,  and  glycerine.  It  exis»ts,  accordiug  to  Premy  aud  other 
cliemists,  in  the  brain,  spinal  coi-d,  kidu^'ys,  and  liver, 

OL^RON,  Isle  of  (anc.  Uliartm),  an  island  of  France,  forming  a  portion  crfthede- 
partmentof  Chnrente-Iuferieure,  lies  off  the  west  coast  of  France,  opposite  the 
uio^ith  of  the  river  Cliarenle.  It  is  19  mile-*  long,  and  about  6  miles  broad,  and  is 
unu.-«uafly  fertile,  producing  abundantly  all  the  crops  grown  in  the  department  to 
which  it  belongs.  See  CHARBNTB-lNEfoiiEURB.  At  its  northern  extremity,  is  the 
light-house  of  Cliassiron.  In  tlie  Seaport  of  Oldron;  distilleries,  rope-walks,  aud 
ship  building  yardf*  are  in  operation.  The  toyrn  of  Sainte-PlelTe-d'016rou  (pop. 
1575)  stands  near  the  centre  of  the  island.    The  pop  of  tlie  island  is  given  at  10,000. 

OLltRON,  Xi^wa  of,  or  Jugements  d'Ololon,  a  celebrated  code  of  maritin'ie  law 
compiled  iu  France  iu  the  reign  of  St  Louis,  and  so  named  from  a  gi-oundless  storjr, 
that  it  was  enacted  l)y  Richard  I.  of  England  during  the  time  that  his  expedition  to 
Palestine  lay  at  anchor  at  that  island.  The  real  origin  of  these  laws  was  a  \vrittea 
code,  called  *' II  Consolato  del  Mare,"  of  about  the  middle  of  tlie  13th  c.  compiled 
either  at  Barcelona  or  at  Pisa,  formi^ig  the  csUibHshed  usages  of  Venice  aud  the  other 
Mediterranean  states,  and  acceded  to  l)y  the  kings  ot  France  and  connt»  of  Provence. 
Besides  containing  regulations  sim])ly  mercantile,  this  system  defined  the  nintaat 
rigltts  of  belligerent  aud  neutral  vessels,  as  they  have  been  since  understood  iu 
modern  interuutioual  law.  The  so-called  laws  of  ploron  were  a  code  of  regulatioas 
borrowM  from  the  *^  Oousolato,"  which  for  several  ceutitries  were  adopted  as  tlie 
basis  of  their  maritime  law  by  all  the  nations  of  Europe.  Copies  of  the  **  Jugewenifr 
d'Ol^i'on  "are  appended  to  some  ancient  editions  of  the  "  Coutumier  do  Normaudie." 
fcjee  Normandy,  Customary  Law  of.  * 

OLGA,  St,  a  saint  of  the  Russian  Church,  wife  of  the  Duke  Igor  of  Kiev, who,  hav- 
ing undertakeu  an  expedition  against  Constantinople,  which  proved  ira^nccessf  iil,  wa-s 
slain  (m  his  return  to  his  owu  dominions.  His  widow  O.  avenged  his  death,  assnuied 
the  govemmeui  iH  his  stead,  and  for  many  years  govcnied  with  much  prudence  and  ^ 
success.  Having  resigned  the  government  to  her  son  Vratielaf  about  the  year  958, 
she  repnired  to  Constantinople,  wliere  she  was  baptized,  by  the  patriarch  Theoplii-  : 
laktes,  and  rweived  into  the  clmrcli,  assuming  at  baptism  the  name  of  Helena,  in  ) 
nouorof  St  Helena,  mother  of  Constantino.  She  returned  to  RuBsia,  aud  labimHl' 
with  much  zeal  for  the  propagation  of  her  new  creed ;  but  siie  fidled  in  her  attemi)l 
to  induc(i  her  sou,  SwSntoslav,  to  embrace  Christian!^.  Her  grandson,  Yliidintir, 
having  married  Chrysol>ergH,  tJie  sister  of  the  emperors  of  Constintluople,  Basil 
and  Conytantine,  was  biiptized  in  tlie  year  988;  but  his  grandmother  did  not  live  to 
enjoy  this  gratification,  iiaving  died  in  918,  or,  according  to  otlier  uuthoriti(«,  ai 
eailv  as  9T0.  She  is  held  in  iiigh  veneration  in  the  Russian  Church.  Her  festival  is 
held  on  July  21,  nnd  the  i)ractice  of  venerating  her  appears  to.d^f roin  fbe  early 
p-oriod  of  the  Russian  Church,  before  the  schism  between  the  Eastern  «id  Western 
churches.  > 

OLHAO',  a  town  of  Portugal,  on  the  sea-coast,  near  Cape  da's!  Maria,  and  five 
miOefl^ast  from  Faro.    i*op.  Ib26, 


y  Google 


AA^i  Ooomtlir 

*^A  O.ipiiaut 

OU'BANUM,  a  eum-reeln,  which  flowB  from  incisions  made  in  Bottwellia  teiratay 
&  tree  found  in  pome  parte  of  th«'  East  Sen  Boswellia.  It  i»  tlw  LebotMh  of  tho 
Hebrews,  Libanm  or  Libaiwtos  of  the  Grt^kp,  Thus  of  the  Bomaus,  of  all  which 
terms  the  ordinary  English  translation  is  Frankincense  (q.  v.).  It  occurs  in  comiue:  ce 
in  eenu-tran8|wrent  yellowi.-li  tears  and  masses;  has  a  l)ltter  nanseons  taPte ;  is 
hard,  brittle,  and  capable  of  being  pulverised  ;  and  diffuses  u  strong  aromatic  odor 
when  bnrn«jd.  It  was  formerly  need  in  medicine,  chiefly  to  restrain  excessive 
nmcous  discharges ;  but  its  use  for  such  pnrposes  isnowmitt.  It  sometimes  enters 
as  an  ingredient  into  stinuilating  plasters.  It  is  chiefly  employed  for  fumigation, 
and  is  used  as  incense  in  Roman  Catljolic  churches.  It  is  sometimes  distinctively 
Cidied  Indian  0. ;  a  similar  substance,  in  smaller  tears,  called  African  O.,  being 
prtHluced  by  Bostoellia  papyriferay  a  tree  found  growing  on  bare  limestone  roclcs  in 
the  east  of  Abys>in:a,  and  sending  its  roots  to  ai  great  depth  into  the  crevices  of  tin* 
rock.  T  be  middle  layers  of  the  bark  are  of  flue  texture,  and  are  used  instead  of 
paper  for  writing. 

O'LIFANl^S  RIVER.  Two  considerable  sti-eama  of  this  name  are  found  in  the 
Cape  Colony,  'i'lie  Olifaut's  River  West  rises  in  the  Winterhoek  Mountains,  and 
enters  the  Atlantic  in  hit.  31°  40',  after  a  course  of  150  miles,  and  a  basin  of  dndnage 
of  25,000  square  miles.— The  Olifant's  Rrvi-r  East  drahis  a  great  part  of  the  dij*tr£t 
of  George,  and  joins  the  Quuritz  Rivr  60  miles  ai)ove  tlie  euii-ance  of  that  river  into 
thi!  sea.  Its  course  is  upwards  of  150  miles  in  length,  and  it  is  more  available  for 
irrigation  than  jdmost  any  other  Cape  river. 

O'LIQARCHY  {oligcta,  few,  and  archoj  to  govern),  a  term  applied  by  Greek 
political  writers  to  that  perversion  of  an  aristocracy  in  wliich  the  rule  ot  the 
duminunt  part  of  the  comnmnity  ceases  to  be  the  exponent  of  the  general  interests 
of  the  state,  owing  to  the  cessation  of  those  sul»stautijd  grounds  of  pre  eminence 
in  which  an  aristocracy  originated.  The  governing  power  in  tin  se  circumstances 
hecomea  a  faction,  whose  t-fforrs  are  chielly  ^devoted  to  their  own  aggrandisemint 
and  the  extension  of  their  power  and  privileges. 

OLl'NDA,  tt  city  of  Brazil,  in  the  province  of  Pemnmbuco,  and  four  miles  north- 
east from  PernambucQ,  It  was  fornierly  the  capital  of  the  province,  and  there  were 
bloody  contests  between  Spain  and  Holland  for  the  piissession  of  ir.  If  is  ttill  a 
bishopV  seat,  Permiml)UL'0  being  inchidtni  in  the  diocese.  The  whole  aspect  of  lite 
town  is  that  of  a  place  half  deserted.    Poi>.  8000. 

OLINDA,  a  snburl)  of  PernjimUuco  (q.  v.). 

OLIPHANT,  Mrs  Margfuet  (,n^e  Wilson),  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  our 
living  fcnuile  novelists.  wj«s  1)f)rn  about  the  yeartS20.  The  prevalent  impressiou 
that  she  is  a  .Scotchwoman,  naturally  enough  derived  from  the  obvloie  fondness 
with  which  in  her  earlier  works  she  hafeln^ftted  Scottish  cl'.aracter  aud  incident,  is 
nor  strictly  correct.  She  is  a  native  of  Ijveipool ;  her  mother  was,  however,  a 
Scotchwoman  of  a  somewhat  remarkable  typo,  strongly  attached  to  old  traditions. 
In  1849,  Mrs  O.  published  l»er  first  work,  "Passjiges  in  the  Life  of  Mrs  Mar^- 
ret  Mairhind  of  Siumysiihr,"  which  infltantly  won  attention  and  approval.  Its 
most  distinctive  ciiarm  is  the  tender  humor  and  insight  which  regulate  its  • 
exquisite  delineation  of  Scottisli  life  and  character  at  once  in  their  higher  and  lower 
leveK  Tills  work  was  followed  by  "  Merlcland  "  (1851) ;  "  Adam  Graeme  of  Moss- 
gray  "(1852);  »»Harrv  Muir"(1858);  "Magdalen  Hepburn"  (1854);  ♦' LiUiesleaf " 
(1855);  and  snbseqiently  by  **Zaidee,"  "Katie  Stewart,"  and  "Tlie  Quiet  Heart," 
which  originally  appeared  in  su(c<fSsion  in  "  Blackwood's  Magazine."  Thotiah  thtise 
are  of  somewhat  varions  merit j  in  allof  tl>emthe  peculiar  talent  of  the  writer  is 
marked.  They  are  rich  in  the  minute  dettiil  which  is  dear  to  the  womanly  mind  ; 
have, nice  and  subtle  insights  into  character,  a  flavor  of  quiet  humor,  and  freouent 
traits  of  delicacy  and  pathos  in  the  trojitment  of  the  gentler  emotions.  It  is,  how- 
ever, on  the  "  Chronicles  of  ■Carlingford  "  that  her  re\)ntAt.ion  a»a  novelist  was  first 
secuied.  In  the  first  of  the  two  sections  separately  published,  apart  from  its  other 
merits,  which  are  great,  the  character  of  little  Netty,  the  heroine,  vivlfii^  the  whole 
work,  and  may  rank  as  an  »  riginal  creation.  The  other.  "Salem  Chapif,"  pcrhapH 
indicates  a  wider  and  more  vigorous  grasp  than  is  to  be  toniid  in  any  other  work  of 
Um  anthorevi.    Certain  of  the  tmloveller  features  of  Eagtish  dissent,  aa  exhibited  iu 


y  Google 


ft-BTnall  proviiicinl  community,  ftr<j  here  grnphically  sketched,  and  Adapted  with  t4- 
iiilr  .bJe  skill  to  tUe  purposes  of  flctfbn.  Tue  i^itrueion,  however,  in  nome  porffou 
of  the  work  of  a  **  senmtional  **  eU*m«Tit,  as 't  i«  termed,  though  it  sabserves  luleiidty 
of  iiitert'Rt,  mnet  be  iJ0t«d  u»  a  little  defedire  in  art  In  18T0,  she  pilbtiehed  '*  Tbn-e 
Brotliers ;"  in  18T1,  "Squiro  Ardeu  ;"  in  1872,  the  mo  t  eiibfly  thouglit  and  grocp- 
fullv  written  of  all  ner  novel?,  "Oinhra  ;"  in  18T4,  *'  A  Rose  in  Jouf;"  «nd  In  1S76, 
"  Phoebe  Junior.  Mrs  O.  hafl  al>-o  published  *•  Life  of  Edward  Irvl»|r ;"  "  8t  Franc.s 
of  Astfifti;"  "Memoir  of  the  Comte  d«  Montalembeit ;"  and  **The  Maters  of 
Floi-encc." 

OLIVATIEZ,  Don  Gnsparo  de  Guzman,  Count  of,  Duke  of  San  Lncar,  and  prime- 
minister  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  M'ae  born  on  January  0. 1587,  at  Itoa  e,  where  I.  8 
fiih  rwaa  jinibassador.  He  belonged  to  a  di.«tini.'iiislie«l  l>ut  impoveri«ncdfauii!v, 
received  a  l«arnt*d  edncatiun,  became  the  friend  of  Philip  IV.,  his  coufidintt  in  1>18 
a.nours,  and  afterward-*  lii«»  prime-iniuiaier.  In  whirh  cjipjicity  he  exerci«k'd  n)u;(w;t 
unlimited  power  lor  twcniy-twoyearj*.  O.  shew.d  ability  for  governmenl,  biit  Ma 
conr'tant  endeavor  was  to  wring  nioney  from  the  country  that  he  might  cwrryoo 
-  wars.  His  opprep»ive  meas»nrea  cammed  insurrections  in  Catalou'a  and  Audaliis'ia, 
and  roused  th'^  Port ugnepe  to  shake  uS  the  Spanish  yoke  in  164t),  and  nwiketlic 
Buke  of  Braganza  th«  ir  king,  an  event  which  U.  reported  to  Philip  with  sr.tirfaciioiu 
an  it  etiabled  him  to  conflbcate  the  xlnke'e  great  estat  s  in  Spain.  But  the  anas  of 
Spain  being  unsuccessful,  the  kitg  was  obliged  todism-B'*  the  minister  in  1643.  JIj 
Would  probably  have  l»eeii  recalled  to  the  head  of  afEah-s,  bnt  for  a  piiblicatiou  ia 
wlilch  he  gave  off <•  nee  to  many  pcrsofjs  of  influence.  He  was  ordcr-d  to  retin?  to 
I'nro.  HI  Ml  confine  himself  to  that  place,  where  he  died,  12iU  July  1645.  (CeaiKdeP, 
"  Hist.  De  Felipe  IV.") 

OLIVE  (Olea),  a  geims  of  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Oleaeea* ;  having 
opposite,  evergreen,  leatliery  leaves,  which  Ure  irenerally  entii-e,pmootIi,and  uiiuiitely 
soaly ;  sninll  flowers  in  compound  axillary  racemes,  or  in  thyrsi  \X  the  end  of  th«! 
twigs  ;  a  nmall  4-toothed  calyx,  a  4-cleft  coi'oUa,  two  staniens.  a  2-cleft stigma;  the 
fruit  a  drui)e.  The  ppcwifS  are  wiilely  dit«tribiited  in  the  warmer  temperate  p;irt«  of 
the  g  obo.  The  Common  O.  (0.  Europmi),  a  native,  of  Syria  and  oihcr  Ariitic 
cominits,  and  perhai-s  also  of  the  south  of  Europ,',  although  probably  it  is  tii^re 
rather  naturalis.-d  than  indigenous,  is  in  its  \vW\  state  a  thorny  shml)  or  small  ln''*f 
bill  throuiih  cultivation  becomes  a  tre  ■  of  20 — 40  ft:et  liigh,  di^stitnt«  of  spiia*.  It 
atUiins  a  prodigious  aire.  The  culiivateil  varieties  are  very  ninneron.«,  differiugia 
the  hnadth  of  the  leaves,  and  in  other  ch-racters.  The  leaves  n-sembletho^e  erf  a 
wil'ow,  are  lanceolate,  entire,  of  a  dull  dark-gi-eeu  color  abov*-,  scaly  and  whitwh- 
grny  beneath;  the  flowers  small  and  white,  in  shoFt  dense  racemes;  the  fmit 
j:r  enieh,  whitir«h,  violtt,  or  evtu  black,  never  lai-gor  than  a  i)igeon's  eorg,  generaily 
oval,  sometimes  globular,  or  obovate,  tir  acuminate.  The  frait  is  prodhwd  ia  v«pt 
]>iofn!'ion,  so  that  an  oM  o  ivii-tree  becnnvs  very  valuable  to  its  owner.  It  is 
chii'fly  from  the  pericarp  that  olive .(dl  is  obtained,  »n*)t  from  the  seed,  contrary  tn  the 
general  rule  of  the  v^eia'de  kiuir«lom.  Oil  vt- oil  is  much  nj^d  as  an  articleof  foodw 
t!ie  countries  in  which  it  is  prt)dnced.  and  to  a  smsller  i-xtent  in  other  comttri-  ^  'o 
which  it  is  exported  also  f  r  med'cinal  ai-.d  other  uses  (-e<»  On.**).  Olives^  pahend 
before  they  are  quite  ripe,  turv!  pickl  d  in  v.-irious  ways,  being  nsimlly  first  stei-ped  in 
ljme7water,by  which  they  are  rendered  softer  and  milder  in  ta^t*-.  They  are  wHI 
known  as  a  restonitive  of  the  palate,  and  are  also  said  to  |u*omt)te  dtgesrioii.  Di-^ 
agreeable  as  they  g  nerally  are  at  first,  they  ure  soon  greatly  rel  shed,  and  in  t<e 
south  of  Europe  are  even  a  consklerable  article  of  food.  Drierl  olives  are  there  alfO 
u*m1.  as  well  as  p'ckled  olives.— The  wood  of  ihe  olive-tree  t,-ike'*  a  »»eantlfnl  ^>olisli» 
and  has  black  cloudy  spot^  and  veins  on  a  gret!nish-yellow:gro'4J:d  ;  it  is  priacii^lly 
us<d  for  the  finest  prnposes  by  cabinet-m.'^f^rs  and  tiu'ners.  The  wood  of  iheri'Oj 
is  m  rked  in  a  |)eculiarly  beantif  nl  manner,  and  is  used  for  making  snuff-boxes  «••» 
small  ornamental  ari-cks.  The  baik  of  the  tree  is  bitter  and  astrinifent ;  and  both 
it  aid  the  leaves  have  febrif  age  properties.  A  gum  resin  exudes  from  old  steww 
whieh  much  resembles  storax,  has  an  odor  like  vanilla,  and  is  used  in  »dl  part*  of 
If:»ly  for  pi^rfnmery.  -Among  the  Greeks  the  O.  ^vas  sacred  to  Pallas  Atht-iw 
(>'inerva),  who  was  honored  as  the  be»to«er  of  it ;  it  was  also  t  he  emblem  of  cbnSiltT. 
A  crown  of  olive- twigs  was  the  highest  distiucticHi  of  a  cltisi  n  who  had  tueritwl  w«A 

Digitized  by  VjOQQIC  • 


of  hi?  country,  and  the  highest,  priae  of  the  rictnr  in  the  Olympic  games.  An  olive 
1>r&iich  was  a!^o  th^  pymbol  of  jwace  (corapnre  Qtui.  vJii.  11);  luul  the  vanqnished, 
wbo  came  tosnppUcate for  peace,  bon;  olive-bmnchcs  in  their  huiidH.—'J'he  O.  has 
bi^iMi  cultivated  in  Syria,  Pnle8iiiie.  ujid  uther  part'*  of  the  ea.>-t,  from  the  earliest  timef. 
ItAcaltivqrion  extends  tionthwardB  as  far  as  Cairo,  and  northwards  to  tlio  middle  of 
France.  It  ia  veiy  generally  propacattid  by  eiickcre.  but  wh»»regre«t  c;iro  is-bc- 
¥UiW<'6  on  it,  inarcliing  in  practiced.  It  grows  from  cuttings.  The clirmite  of  Eng- 
land is  too  cold  for  the  O.,  yet  m  Devonshire  it  ripenj*  it?  frnit  on  a  »«onth  wall.-- 
Oha  itvniiliH  and  several  o  her  species  are  useful  trees  of  Sou'h  Africa,  yielding  a 
very  hard  and  extremely  dura4)le  wood.  Some  of  them  l)ear  the  name  of  Ironwood 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  Americano.  (0.  ^wi«fncana)  is  also  remarkable 
for  the  hurdne-8«  of  its  wood.  It  i»  found  as  fur  north  as  Virginia.  It  Is  a  tn-e  of 
80 — 35  feet  l»ighr  with  much  broader  leaves  than  the  Common  Olive.  Itn  fruit  i?  fit 
for  use.  Its  flowei-s  are  fragrant.  .The  Fragrant  O.  (O.  fraffrarnt  or  OrnnanthuH 
ftagiatis)  of  China  and  Japan  has  extiemely  fragrant  Howeri*,  which  are  used  by  tie 
Chinese  for  flavoring  tea. 

O'LIVENITE,  a  mineral,  consisting  chirflv  of  arsenic  ncid  and  protoxide  of  coi>- 
pT,  with  a  little  phosphoric  acid  and  a  liiile  water.  Itis  generally  of  t-ome  dark 
sh.ide  of  green,  sometimes  brown  or  vellow.  It  is  found  along  with  different  ores  of 
coppv'r  in  Cornwall  and  elsewhere.  It  is  oftelj  co'Stallit^ed  in  obliqnc  four-sided 
prisms,  of  wiiic-.h  the  extremities  are  acntely  bevelled,  and  the  obtuse  lateral  edges 
s«rtnetimes  truncated,  or  in  acute  double  four-sided  pyramids;  it  is  soutetimes  abo 
sjihei-ical,  kid iiey -shaped,  cohuunar,  or  flhrous. 

OLIVE'NZA,  n  town  of  Spain,  near  the  Portngnose  frontier,  19  miles  pouth-hy- 
Wi'st  from  Ba<lajoz.  on  a  small  river  which  flows  into  the  Gnadlana.  The  chief 
brioches  of  industry  are  the  expressing  of  oil,  weaving,  and  the  making  (  f  earthen- 
ware. From  t'.e  treaty  lor  the  cession  of  O.  by  Portugal  to  Spain  in  1801,  Godoy 
acquir  d  his  title  of  Prince  of  thu  Pejice.     Pop.  10,000. 

O'LIVES.  Mount  of.  called  also.Monur  O  ivet,  an  iDConsiderJible  ridge  lying  on 
the  east  side  of  Jerusaloni,  from  which  it  is  <mly  separated  by  the  narrow  Valley  of 
Jehosaphat  It  is  call*  d  t)y  the  modern  Arabs  Jebel-el-Tnr,  and  tjikes  its  familiar 
name  from  a  magnificent  grove  of  olive-trees  which  once  stood  on  its  western 
flank,  hut  has  now  In  great  part  d'sa])i>eared.  The  road  to  Mount  Olivet  is  through 
St  Stephen's*  Gate,  and  leads  *  y  a  t-tone  bridge  ov  -r  the  now  almost  waterless  brook 
C<?<lron.  Immediately  beyond,  at  the  foot  of  the  bridge,  lies  the  Garden  of  Gefhse- 
luane;  and  the  road  hen'  parts  into  two  branches,  northwards  towards  Galil<fe,  a  d 
ea-'twartlsro  Jericho.  The  ridgi- rises  in  three  peaks,  the  central  (me  of  which  is 
255B  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sL-a,  and  416  feet  al>ove  the  Valley  of  Jehosaphat  The 
soutbeni  snmiuit  is  now  railed  "  The  Mount  of  Oflfgnj-e,"  and  was  the  scene  of  the 
ido la troH.* worship  established  by  Solomcm  tor  hi*  forcig  :  w  vcs  and  C(mcnbin<'S.  The 
nortliern  peak  is  the  supposed  scei  e  of  tlie  appe.vrance  of  the  angels  to  the  disciples 
after  the  resurrection,  and  is  remarkable  in  Jewish  history  as  the  place  in  which 
Titns  formed  iiia  encampment  in  the  ex|)editi(m  against  the  fated  city  of  Jerusalem. 
But  it  is  around  the  central  peak,  which  is  tbeM».unl  of  O.  properly  so  called,  that 
all  the  most  sacred  associations  of  Christian  history  converge.  On  th<' snmiiiit 
Ktauytls  the  Church  of  the  Ascei  sion,  built  originally  by  St  Helen,  the  i  odem  church 
bf*ing  now  in  the  bands  of  the  Armenian  commimity  ;  and  near  it  are  shewn  the  v  - 
rioos  places  whei  e.  according  to  trjidition,  our  Lord  \ve]>t  over  Jerusalem,  where  the 
aposues  composed  the  apostles'  creed,  where  our  Lo'-d  fjaight  them  the  Lord's 
Ptaye^t  Ac  Niiir  the  Church  of  the  Ascension  is  a  mosque  and  t!  e  tomb  of  a  Mo- 
lnimmedaii  saint.  In  the  Garden  of  Grthsemane,  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  is  shewn 
the  scene  of  our  Lord's  ngonjr.  The  northern  peak  spreads  out  into  a  plain  of  cot  - 
sidera  hie  extent,  which  is  painfully  notable  in  JewiMi  history  as  the  place  where, 
alter  the  Jews  on  occasion  of  the  revolt  under  Bar-Kochehah,  were  debarred  by  Adrian 
from  entering  Jerusalem,  they  were  wont  to  tissiinble  animally  on  the  anniversary 
of  the  burning  of  the  Temple  to  celebrate  this  monrrifnl  anniversary,  and  to  take  a 
distant  look  at  their  l>eh)ved  Jenisalem.  IMie  scene  ia  betiutifnlly  described,  »iiid 
with  much  dramatic  feeling,  by  St  Jerome.— "Com.  in  Sophoniam,"  t.  iii.  p.  1665. 

OLIVlITA'tfS,  a  religious  order  of  the  Hotnau  Catholic  Church,  one  of  ih<!  many 
remarkable  prodacts  of  that  well-knowu  spirltaal  movement  which  characterised  the 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Olivine  AiXA 

Ofmpiad  *^* 

12th  aud  13th  ceutnfios.  The  O.,  or  Brelhrt*n  of  Onr  Lndy  of  Mount  OllvfiU  are  an 
offshoot  ol  lli^;  great  BiUjedlctiiie  Order  ^q.  v.^  tuid  dorivo  TlieU-  orijjiu  from  John 
Toloinei,  a  native  of  Si«'na.  boru  in  Hie  year  liTi.  Toloni«i  had  heeu a disttiigubhed 
profcesoi-  of  plillo&opliy  in  the  nuiversiiy  of  his  n:i live  city ;  bnt  his  career  wjis  end* 
diMdy  internipled  hy  the  lot's  of  his  wght.  Ahhtmgh  lie  was  curt-^  of  his  blindness 
(and,  jif  he  himself  believed,  nnrttciuously),  tliip  visitation  convinced  him  of  the 
vanity  of  eartJily  things;  aud  in  company  with  hO  ne  friends  he  wJ'hdrevv  to  a  soii- 
tary  place  near  Sleiia,  where  he  devoted  l.inifelf  lo  prayer. and  i'eligions  exercU^es. 
By  tli«  direction  of  the  pop»t,  John  XXH.,  the  new  bretliren  adopted  the  Beuedictii»B 
rule;  bHt  tliey  clu)be  a»*  fheir  especial  province  the  cnltivation  of  sacred  science,  ai.d 
the  duty  of  teachiiij;.  In  the  year  1319.  Toloni.i  wiischotfcu  a^  the  first  general;  aud 
even  in  his  lifetime  the  institute  nnide  rapid  progrt-ss,  especially  iu  Italy.  It  nuiii- 
bert'd  at  one  time  eighty  houses,  but  at  present  the  numl)er  is  reduced  to  four— 
namely,  tbu  parent  hou*t%  SO  called,  of  Monte  Oliv^to,  in  thedlDceHeof  Arezzoin 
Tuscany,  on^  at  Rdiu:*,  onoar  Genoa,  and  one  at  Palermo.  The  O.  order  has  pro- 
duced many  distinguished  .ecclesiastics. 

OLIVINE.    See  Chrysolite. 

O'LLA  PODKI'DA  (literally,  putrid  pot) j  a  Spanish  term,  origipally  signifying  an 
accumulation  of  remains  of  llesh,  veg-  tables,  &c.,  thrown  togemer  into  a  pot,  out 
generally  employed  to  designate  a  favorite  national  dish  of  the  Spaniards,  cou^Ibi- 
ing  of  a  mix! are  of  different  kinds  of  nieat  and  vegetables  stowed  together,  it  hM 
al.-*o  come  to  be  figuratively  app  led  to  literary  productions  of  very  mlscellaueous 
contents.  ITie  French  ecjnivalent  \»  pot-pourriy  aud  the  Scotch  hotch-potch,  both  of 
which,  bnt  especially  the'former,  are  also  employed  in  a  figuiative  sense, 

OLMtjTZ,  the  chief  fori resa  of  Mor-via,  Austria,  is  the-capiial  of  adistrict  of 
the  !»ame  name,  and  is  sitiiated  in  lat.49°3(>'  u.,  and  in  long.  l7oi6''e.,  on  aii  island 
of  the  river  Morava.  which,  by  means  of  sluices,  can  be  opened  Into  the  moats,  aiid 
thus  made  available  for  pmpos'is  of  defence.  O.  is  the  s*ee  of  an  arcbbi.^^hop,  nomi- 
Lated  by  the  cliapter,  and  is  the  chief  sent  of  the  admlnisinitive  deimitmenti*.  It 
bar*  a  uuiver-ity,  founded  in  1581,  dissolved  in  1T78,  and  reorganised  in  1827;  a  li- 
brary of  50j000  vols.;  good  natural  hist^>ry.phy»icul,  and  otlier  museums;  a  gymnasiaai, 
an  ai-chiepiscopal  seminary,  artillery  aud  infauiry  acjidemies,  polytechnic  and  other 
schools,  a  ho."«f)it.a  ,  an  asyluni  for  widows  and  orphans,&c.  The  most  noteworthy  (»fit» 
cliurclies  are  the  cati.edrat,  a  fine  old  building,  ami  the  chni-chof  St  Maurirnts  com- 
pleted in  141"2,  with  its  celebrateti  oi^an,  having  48  stops,  and.  mf)re  than  «000  pipet*. 
The  noble  town-hall,  with  its  complicated  clock-work,  set  up  in  1674,  and  the  bifty 
column  on  tlie  Ol)erriug,  with  several  fine  fountuiiis  in  the  squares,  and  the  splend  d 
arch i episcopal  palace  and  chapter-house,  all  contribute  towards  the  picturesque 
asiHJct  for  which  O.  is  dislin«?uished.  The  deficiency  in  public  gardens  has  of  Into 
years  been  in  pari,  supplied  by  the  draining  and  planting  of  sonve  of  the  inuermoat.*, 
aud  the  converr'ion  of  some  portions  of  the  fortifications  into  pleasure-grounds.  A 
mile  from  the  city  li  s  the  monastery  of  the  Premonstratensians  at  Hradl8ch,foouded 
in  1074,  now  a  nnliiary  hospital.  O.  has  a  few  manufactories  of  kerseymere,  cloth, 
linen,  aud  porci^lain.  a=  <l  is  the  seat  of  an  extensive  traile  in  cattle  from  Poland  aim 
Moldavia.  Pop.  (1809)  15,231.  Prior  to  1777.  when  O.  w»ia  raised  Into  an  archbisb- 
opric,  its  bishops  had  long  been  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  rank  of  princes  of  I h« 
empire.  The  city  suffered  severely  during  tlie  Thirty  Years'  War.  and  again  hi  the 
Seven  Years'  War  of  Silesia,  when  It  inoie  than  once  fell  into  the  bauds  of  the  Prus- 
sians. In  1848.  Ferdinand  1.  signed  liis  abdication  here  in  favor  of  his  nephew, 
Franz-Jnseph  I. ;  wliile  in  185n,  O.  was  chosen  as  the  place  of  conference  between 
the  Prussian,  Austrian,  and  Russian  plenipotentiaries,  lor  tlie  adjustment  of  tbecoii- 
flicting  differences  which  had  aris-n  in  the  Geirman  slates  genemlly,  as  the  rtisultof 
the  revoftttionary  movement  of  1848. 

OLONE'TZ,  a  government  in  tin*  north  of  Russia,  bounded  on  the  w.  by  Finlatid, 
and  on  thee,  and  u.  e.  by  Archangel,  Area,  exclusive  of  water,  49.104  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  (1870)  296,392.  Large  lakes  abon  d  m  this  government,  the  chief,  after  Lake 
Onega  (q,  v.),  being  Lakes  Wygo  ind  Sego.  The  surface  is  in  geneial  elevated,  and. 
about  four-fifths  of  it  are  coveretl  w  ith  wood.  The  soil  is  sterile,  aud  tfie  climate  is 
cold  and  damp.  The  w^^alth  of  the  government  consists  princiiMilJy  in  Its  minerals. 
Its  li-ou-miues  gnpply  th^  ironworks  of  Petrasowodfik}  and  from  itsquaniesxttirhieii 


y  Google 


A  ax  Olviiia 

^""  0)ini.ial 

arc  pent  to  St  PetcT»hnr?.  The  priiicipiil  eniployinents  of  the  Inliabitaiit^.  w!io  are 
priiit-ipaliy  KuMiauB  and  FiDUr«,  aiicl  beluug  to  tUe  Greek  CIrarcb,  are  camn^  in 
woo<i,  ficshing  und  hnutiug.  Many  uf  tbeni  also  are  eiiipluycd  iu  tbc  irouworke  uud 
quarries.  The  women  weave  and  »p\n.  The  govern nieul  derfres  iiH  luinie  from 
tlie  small  bat  ancient  town  of  Olonvtc.  Fctrasowodt^k  iu  the  centre  of  admiuiBtra> 
tion. 

OLORON,  or  Oloron-Saiutti-Marie,  a  town  of  France,  in  tlie  department  of" 
Ba8:»e8-Pyr6n6e«,  on  tlie  Gave  d'Oloron,  15  miles  sontli-webt  of  Pan.  The  CImrch 
of  St  Marie  i«  in  the  transition  btyle  from  Koniaues:que  to  Gothic  Tiic  principal 
articles  of  manufacture  are  the  chequered  liundkerchiefs  which  form  the  favorite 
head- dresses  of  the  pousantry  of  Aragou  and  Guscony,  and  also  the  "barrets  "or 
caps  of  the  Bearnati?.    Pop.  (1872)  7176.  , 

O'LOT,  a  town  of  Spain,  iu  the  province  of  Geroua,  and  22  miles  north-west  frviit) 
Gerona,  near  the  base  of  the  Pyrenees,  on  tlie  Fluvia.  There  are  14  volcanic  cones 
close  to  the  town ;  tlie  crater  of  tbe  largest  is  a  mile  iu  circumference  and  44>  feet  in 
depth.  The  whf)le  district  h»  volcanic.  In  many  places,  and  even  in  the  town  itself, 
currents  of  air  blow  coutinually  irom  the  jxirous  Java.  These  are  called  Bv/adores 
and  Sapliidores,  and  some  of  ttiem  aie  conducted  beneath  houses,  and  used  us  ret ri- 

ii;erutories  In  tiot  weather.  They  n)aintain  tlie  temi)eratnre  of  ai)ont  63°  F.  both  iu 
iot  and  cold  weather,  but  the  jznst  of  air  is  strongest  in  hot  weather.  O.  was 
almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1421,  but  was  soon  rebuilt.    Pop.  12,070. 

OLY'MPIA>  the  sceue  of  the  celebrati^d  Olympic  Games  (q.  v.),  is  a  beautiful  val- 
ley iu  Eli:*,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  through  which  runs  the  river  Alpneus.  As  a  na<- 
tional  sanctuary  of  tlie  Greeks,  O.  contained  within  a  small  space,  many  of  the 
choicest  treasures  of  Grecian  art  belonging  to  all  peiiods  and  states,  huch  as  i^Muples, 
mcamments,  altars,  theatres,  and  muhiiiKles  of  Images,  statues,  and  votive-ofEering, 
of  brass  and  marble.  In  the  time  of  ihe  elder  Pliny,  there  still  stood  here  al)ont  3000 
statues.  The  Sacred  Grove  (called  the  AUis)  of  Olyuipi:!,  enclosed  a  level  space  about 
40OO  feet  long  by  nearly  2000  broad,  containing  both  the  si>ot  appropriated  to  the 
games  and  the  sanctuaiios  connected  with  them.  It  was  fluely  wooded,  and  in  lis 
centre  stood  a  clump  of  sycamores.  The  Altis  was  crossed  from  west  to  east  by  a 
road  called  the  "Pompic  Way,*' ah»ng  which  all  the  processions  passed.  The  Al- 
phens  bounded  it  on  the  south,  ihe  Cladens,  a  tributary  of  the  former,  on  the  west, 
and  rocky  but  gently  swelling  hills  on  tlie  north ;  westward  il  looked  towards  the 
loniuQ  Sea.  The  most-  celebratwl  building  was  the  Oiympieium,  or  Otynipiunt^ 
dedicated  to  Olymplau  Zens.  It  wasde^'igned  by  the  architect  Lii)Ou  of  JSIis  in  the 
6ili  c.  ?^o.,  but  was  not  completed  for  more  than  a  century.  It  contained  a  colossal 
statno  of  the  god,  the  nnister-piece  ot  Ihe  sculptor  Phidias,  and  many  other  splendid 
figures ;  its  paintings  were  the  work  ot  Panaenus,  a  relative  of  Plitdian.  Next  to  the 
Olyiiipieinm  ranked  the  Hermnih  <ledicated  to  Uera,  the  wife  of  Zeus,  and  the  Queen 
of  Heaven,  containing  the  table  on  which  were  placed  the  garlands  prepared  fur  the 
victors  iu  the  games;  the /Woptuw,  the  JWetroum,  the  ten  Tfiesami  or  Treasuries, 
biiUt'for  the  reception  of  the  dedicatory  ofEerings  of  the  Greek  cities,  the  tem))]es  of 
Etleithyia  mid  Apiirodite  also  deserve  mention;  the  iStodium  and  the  Hippodromcy 
where  the  contests  took  place,  stood  at  the  eai<tem  end  of  the  Altis.  The  plongh- 
share  now  passes  throutrh  the  scene  of  these  contests,  but  many  ruins  still  attest  the 
ancient  inagniflt  ence  of  the  buildings.  In  1876  exi>lorfltlous,  at  the  exiiense  of  the 
German  government,  were  undertaken  at  O.,  and  already  several  important  *'linds  " - 
have  l>«en  made.         •  .  .  ' 

OLY'MPIAD  (Gr.  olympiaa),  the  name  given  to  the  period  of  four  years  that 
ela|>8ed  between  two  successive  celebrations  of  the  Olympwc  Games  (q.  v.) ;  a  mode 
of  reckoning  which  forms  tlie  most  celebrated  chronological  era  among  the  Greeks. 
The  first  recorded  olympiad  dates  from  the  2l8t  or  22d  of  July  776  B.c.,  aud  is  fre- 
quently referred  to  as  the  Olympiad  of  Coioebns ;  for  historians,  instead  of  referring 
to  the  olympiad  by  its  number,  frequently  designate  it  b^  the  name  of  the  winner  of 
tlie  foot-race  iu  the  Olympic  games  belonging  to  that  period,  though  at  titnes  both 
the  iinmber  and  the  name  of  the  conqueror  are  given.    A  slight  indeflniteuess  is  Ire- 

SiCDtly  introduced  into  Greek  chronology,  from  the  custom  of  mentioning  only  the 
ynipiad,  n<'glectang  to  specily  in  which  year  of  the  olympiad  a  certain  event  hap- 
p^tecL  As  thM  era  commenced  iu  7T6B.C.,  the  first  year  of  oar  present  era  (1  a.]>.}  cor- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


responded  to  the  laat  half  of  the  fonrt  h  year  of  the  19ith  with  the  firet  half  of  the  flrrt 
year  ot  the  195th  olympiad,  and  »94  a.u.  con\ fpond-  to  the  8ect>nd  year  of  tlie  298d 
olympiad,  at  which  time  reckoning  by  olympiads  t-enniuated.  Tk\i»  eraiv  ased  oiily 
1  y  writci-p,  and  U  never  found  on  coins,  and  very  schloni  on  iu8criplioni«.  Anoiber 
Olympic  fia,  known  a.-  tliu  '*  New  Olympic  Era,"  was  coiiiniuuced  by  th«  Roman 
em]>c.  OFP.  aP'l  dates  from  1^  a.d.;  icisfouud  both  iu  writings,  public  docnuieutiS 
and  inscriiJious. 

OLY'MPIAS,  tiie  wife  of  Philip  TI.,  king  of  Macedon,  and  mother  of  Alesai|^ 
the  Great  Sl>e  was  tlio  diUightcr  of  Ncoptolenjue  I.,  kinj;  of  Epirq».  She  |K>!«el»ed 
a  viguruud  luulcratanding,  (Tut  was  of  a  most  pufinionate,  jetilottt*,  and  anibirions 
cliara( t'!r.  Pliilij)  having,  on  account  of  di:«agr.;enieutB.  stjKirattMl  from  her  and 
iu:irried  Cleopatra,  niece  -of  A  trains  (337  B.C.),  she  went  to  reside  with  her  brofbi-r 
Alexander,  king  of  Epirus,  Avhere  she  inceisstintly  fomented  intrigues  agauist  her 
former  inisband.  and  isbilievid  tt  have  taken  jjart  iu  his  assassiuatirtn  oy  Paasa- 
nias  337  b.C.  On  the  aecesnion  of  l>cr  sou  Alexander  to  the  throne,  slie  retariit-d  to 
Macedonia,  wlure  eho  contributed  to  bring  about  the  nvnrder  of  Cleopatra  and  her 
dau<rhter.  Alexander  was  filU^l  with  iudlj^naiion,  but  O.  ^^'as  ids  mother,  and  lie 
could  not  ob:y  the  dictates  ot  justice.  During  his  brief  but  niaguificeut  cjir«!er  be 
always  treated  her  x^  ith  the  i^tmost  revereuce  and  esteem,  tliongh  he  never  nllijwed 
her  to  meddle  with  his  politicjil  schemes.  Alter  his  deatii  nhe  endeavored  to  get 
possession  of  the  vacaut  throne,  nud  obtaiue<l  the  support  of  PolyspcJichon  iu  her 
designs.  In  317,  the  two  def-ated  ArrhidaBua,  tJic  w^aik-minded  step-l>rother  and 
Buccessor  of  Alexander,  and  his  wife  Ear3'dK.e,  whom  she  caused  to  be  pot  to  death  iu 
the  same  year.  She  now.  began  to  glut  her  revenge  on  siicli  of  the  Macedeuiau 
noble*  as  hail  shewn  thern8.elvci5  hostile  to  her;  but  her  cruelties  soon  alienated  she 
ininds  of  the  people  from  h6r,  €^en  thoujrh  she  was  the  motiier  of  Iheir  heroic  king, 
wlierenpoii  Ca8sand<;r  (^.  v.),  her  principal  adVersaiy,  marcheil  north  from  ihe.Pelo- 
l)onne.su8,  b^-sieged  her  in  Pydna,  and  fore  'd  her  to  surrejider  in  the  spring  of  316 
B.C.  She  wjis  immediately  afterwards  put  to  death.  O.  was  a  womau  of  heroic 
spirit,  but  of  fierce  and  nncoI^trollMb^e  passions,  and  in  the  piupetration  of  crime, 
wheu  she  reckoned  it  necessary,  displayed  an  ituscrupulousnese  p  cuKarly  feoiiuioe. 

OLY'MPIC  GAMES,  the  most  splendid  naiiond  festival  of  the  ancient  GreckB, 
were  celebrated  every  ttfth  year  in  honor  of  Z-u-",  the  father  of  the  gods,  on  the 
plain  of  Olympia  (q.  v).  Their  oriudii  goes  back  into  prehistoric  ages.  Accordtng 
to  the  myth  elaborati  d  or  pr.-servt^d  by  tiie  Eiean  priests,  lh«;y  were  inaiitnted  by  tl»e 
Idasau  Ueraklea  iu  tlie  time  of  Kronos,  father  of  Zeui^ ;  according  to  others,  by  the 
later  Herakles,  son  of  Zeus  and  ATkntene;  while  Strabo,  rejecting  the  older  and 
more  incredible  legends,  attributes  their  origin  to  the  Herakluldte  after  their  conqtwet 
of  the  Piloponnestis.  But  the  first  glimpse  of  anything  hpproacliing  to hi^toricfiict 
iu  copncjction  with  the  gamtis  is  their  eo-adled  revival  by  Iphitos,  king  of  Ells,  with 
the  as.><istance  of  the  Spartan  law-givCT,  Lycurgus,  about  85i4  b c,  or,  according  to  ( 
others,  about  828  b  c,  an  event  commemorated  by  an  inscription  on  a  disc  kept  in 
the  HeroBum  at  Olynipia,  which  Pausauias  (flor.'2d  o.  a.b.)  saw.  Thai  festire 
games  were  celebrat ed  here,  iu  otiier  words,  that  Olympia  was  a  sacred  sjiot,  \<m% 
before  the  time  of  Iphitos,  can  indeed  h  irdly  I)e  doubted;  the  universal  trjiditioa 
that  the  Eleau  king  had  only  ''revived"  the  games  proves  tlus;  bat 
nothing  whatever  can  be  historically  ascertained  concerning'  their  od|^i>, 
character,  or  froquency  in  this  remoter  time.  Iphitos  may,  tlierefcjtr, 
be  regarded  as  tlnir  founder,  yet  the  reckoidng  of  time  i>y  Olympi- 
ads, (q.  V.)  — the  real  dawn  of  the  historicid  iwriod  in  Greek  history- 
did  not  tieglu  till  more  thau  a  ctmtury  later.  At  first.  It  is  conjt^tnredj  onlyPelo- 
ptmnesians  resorted  to  the  Olympic  games,  but  L^radually  the  other  Greek  states 
were  at tract,ed  t^  them,  and  th  •  festival  becjtme  f*ixn- Hellenic.  Originally,  and  for* 
louir  time,  none  were,  allowed  to  cont<md  except  those  of  pure  Htnleidc  blood;  bot 


after  the  conquest  of  Greece  by  the  Romans,  the  latter  sought  and  obtained  tUl« 
honor,  and  both  Tiberius  nnd  Nero  figure  in  the  list  of  Komait  victors.    Women— 

i  forbidden  to  b 
)ck.  Th  i  gaiiK 
Ml  <our  July— A 
rest  of  Greece,  1 

y  Google 


with  (me  exception,  the  jmesiess  of  Demeter  CInunyne— w«'re  forbidden  tol)epn»- 
eni,  on  |>ain  of  behig  thrown  Inwdlong  from  the  'I  viwean  Rock.  Th  *  games  were 
held  from  the  11th  to  the  16th  of  the  Attic  m(mth  Hnkatombeteon  <our  July— Aognsf), 
during  which,  first  throughout  £lis,  and  Uiun  throughuut  the  rest  of  Greece,  huraldi 


mO'rmplas 
Oyxnpos 

procIainiGd  the  ct^AMtfoD  of  nil  intestine  hortilMief;  wliile  the  territory  of  Ellf  it>plf 
way  tit-dared  inviolulile.  The  com'mtnute  wi  re  reqnired  to  niideigo  a  prt-punitoiy 
training  fcr  ten  months  in  tliegyimiueiiim  ut  Elih,  aDdduriiiirthe  lat*l  of  these  inontiis 
the  ^iiiuusinui  Wiis  aliHOSt  iii»  iiiiinei'OUHly  utl^^uded  a^  the  giiineH  themMvf-B. 
}\ifnch  iii](:ert;iiiily  prwaitu  us  to  the  iiiHiiuer  in  uhich  the  ci>iitesth  were  diei ribiit»'d 
over  the  diffen  ni  days.  Knnise  {Ofyvtpia^  p.  106)  BUggchts  tbe  follow  hig  order :  Ou 
Ihe  first  day  the  grtnt  init'aiory  bacrificcs  were  off«r  d,  ufter  which  the  competitors 
were  properly  cla.-sed  and  arr.mged  l»y  the  judjres,  and  the  contests  of  the  trumpeters 
took  place;  the  second  day  wan  fvt  aynul  for  the  boys  who  competed  with  each 
ot.lier  in  foot-raccp,  wrej'tling,  hoxing,  iiie  iHjntathlon.  tlie  pankrntiuii,  horse-races; 
the  third  and  principal  day  was  devoied  lo  ihe  coiitesfe*  of  men  in  foot-races  of  «lif- 
iff  rem  kiiidsi  (jis.  for  oxanipio,  the  sinjple  race,  om-e  over  the  courne ;  the  diauloH^  in 
which  the  conipi^titor^  had  to  mn  the  distiince  twici*  ^  and  tho  do'ichoa^  in  which  tliey 
Imd  to  run  it  s^ven  or  twelve  timt■^) ,  wrc:<tling,  i>oxinjr.  the  pankratvm  (in  which  all 
the  powers*  nnd  t-kill  of  the  coinhatttntn  wire  exiiituted),  nnd  ihf  raci-  of  hoplites,  or 
meu  in  henvy  armor;  on  the  fourth  day  cnnie  off  the  peitfathloii  (conleel  of  five 
ffuines — ^viz.  leaping,  running,  throwing  tlie  discus,  throwing  the  FjMJiir  and  wrest- 
HD^Ot  ♦he  chariot  and  liorse  racvs,  nnd  pcrlmps  the  cont  stf'  of  the  heralds;  the  fifth 
day  was  set  apai-t.  for  professions,  sacrifice-,  and  banquets  to  the  victors  (called 
Oljpupimiikoi).  who  were  crowne<l  witli  »  garlaml  of  wild  olive  twigs  cut  frotn  a 
MM;rt4  tree  which  grew  in  th«  Alti»*  (see  Olympia),  and  prt;5euted  to  tin-  assembled 
people,  eadi  wit.h  a  pahn  hranch  in  hi:*  hand,  wl:ile  the  heralds  proclaimed  his  name, 
and  that  of  his  father  and  countiy.  Ou  IiIh  return  home,  he  was  received  with  ex- 
traordiunry  distinction  ;  M)ng8  were  sung  in  hie  praise  (14  of  PiudnrV  extant  lyrics 
are  d^wjted  to  Oly^npimiikoi) ;  s«atneB  were  erected  to  liim,  both  in  the  Altis  aud  in 
bis  uativ4{  city;  a  place  of  honor  was  given  him  at  .-.li  public  spectacles;  he  was  in 
general  exempt  d  from  public  taxes,  and  at  Athens  was  boarded  at  the  expense  of 
Hie  state  in  the  Pi'ylaneioti. 

The  regulation  of  the  games  belonged  to  the  Elcnns,  from  whcm  were  cho'*eii  the 
heifanodikai.  or  judges,  whose  number  viiritd.  At  flrbt  there  were  only  two,  but  as 
tbe  gymes^bciame  more  and  more  national,  an<l  con^equ•  ntly  more  numerous,  they 
were  gradually  iucreas<id  to  ten,  sometimes  iv«  n  to  twelve.  They  were  in st rue tul 
in  their  duties  for  ten  nionths  beforchaud  at  Eli-,  and  held  their  ofiice  only  for  uvm 
year.  The  oflJcers  who  executetl  their  eominiH.ds  were  called  «/yte«,  and  x^ere 
under  the  presidency  ot  an  afytarch.— See  Kraiisc's  *•  Olympia  oder  Darstellang  der 
grossen  Olympischeu  spiele  (Wien,  1888). 

OLYMPIODO'RUS,  one  of  the  latest  of  the  Alexaudrtim  Neoplatonists,  floniisbed 
in  tl)efli*8t  half  of  the  6:h  c.  alter  Clirist,  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Justinian. 
Regarding  his  life  nothing  is  known.  Ot  hij*  wrttings,  we  posses)*  a  '^Life  of  Plato," 
witii  Cfunmentaries  or  scholia  on  several  of  his  dlah)gues,  the  "Gorgias,"  **PhiU?- 
hns,**  "  Plisedo,"'  and  "  Alcihiades  I."  In  these  he  ai)pears  as  an  acute  and  vig(irons 
thinker,  and  as  a  man  of  great  enidition.  O.'s  "  Life  of  Plato  "  was  pnhlished  by 
Wetstein  (1692),  El  wall  (Lt;nd.  1771),  and  Fischer  (Leips.  lT88j;  the  best  fcdit ion  ot 
the  scholia  is  that  of  Mystoxldes  and  Schiims  (Venice,  1816). 

OLY'MPUS,  the  ancient  name  of  several  mom  tains  or  chains  of  mountains — e. 
g-,  of  the  north-west'-m  continuation  of  Taurus  in  Mysia,  of  a  mountain  in  tho 
islaudof  Cyprus,  of  one  in  Lycia.  of  another  in  Elis.  of  one  on  the  lx)rders  of  La- 
couia  and  Arcadia,  aud  of  another  on  tiie  frontiers  of  Thes^aly  and  Macedonia.  Of 
these,  the  last-motioned  (now  called  Elyjttbo)  is  the  m<>st  famous.  Its  eastern  side, 
which  fronts  the  sea,  la  compos<d  of  a  lint;  of  vast  ivrecipices,  cleft  by  ravities,  filled 
with  forest-trees.  Oak,  chestnut,  l)eech,  plane  tree,  are  scattered  almndantly  along 
Its  bsise,  and  high'^r  up  awpear  great  forests  of  pine,  as  in  the  days  of  tlie  old  poets 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  with  Euripides,  it  \s  pohidendros  Olympos;  yvWU  VirL'il, 
frondosus  OlyiiipfM ;  aud  with  Horace,  opoctw  0/ym;>w«.  Its  Jiighest  peak  is  P754 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  s<a,  and  is  covered  with  snow  for  al>ont  nine  months  ut 
the  year.  It  was  regar<led  by  the  ancient  Greeksas  the  chief  abode  of  the  gods,  and 
ttic  palace  of  Zeus  was  supposed  to  be  upon  its  broad  summit.  According  to  Greek 
legend,  it  was  formerly  connected  with  OsKa,  but  was  separated  from  it  by  an  eartii- 
5pi0ke,  allowUJg  a  passage  for  the  Peueius  through  the  uairow  vale  of  Tempe  to  the 


y  Google 


Om 


468 


Beiu    T!ie  philosophers  afterwards  transferred  the  abode  of  the  eods  to  the  plan*, 
tary  splieres,  to  which  they  likewise  transferred  tire  name  of  Olympup. 

OM  is  a  Sanscrit  wonl  whicli,  ou  account  of  the  mysticiil  notions  that  even  at  an 
early  date  of  Hindu  civilisation  were  connected  with  it,  acquired  nmcli  importance 
in  the  development  of  liindu  religion.  Its  original  sense  js  that  of  emprmlic  or 
solemn,  affirmation  or  assent  Tlius,  when  in  tiVe  White- Yujur- Veda  (see  Veda)  tlie 
sacriflcer  invites  the  gods  to  rejoice  in  iiis  sacrifice,  tlie  god  Savitr'i  assents  to  his 
summons  by  saying:  **  Om  (i.e.,  be  it  so) ;  proceed!"  Or,  when  in  tlie  Br'ibnd- 
irinyuka-Upanishad,  Piajapati,  tlie  father  of  gods,  men,  and  demons,  askstb.;gofls 
whether  titey  have  understood  his  instruction  ;  he  expresses  his  sat-isfaction  with  ti»eir 
affirmative  reply,  in  these  words :  '*  Om  you  have  fnliy  comprehended  it ;  "  and,  in  the 
same  Upauislmd,  Piav&han'a  auswerHthe  question  of  S'we^aketu,  as  to  whether  bis 
father  has  Instructed  him,  by  utterintrthe  \voi=d  ^^Onit"  i.  e.,  "forsooth  (I  am)."  A  por- 
tion of  the  R'igveda,  called  the  Aitareya-BrAhman'a,  where  de^'cribinga  religious  cere- 
mony at  which  verst^sfrom  the  R'igvwla,  as  well  as  songs  called  Giltii^  Were  reated 
by  the  priest  called  Hotr'i,  and  responses  given  by  ano  her  priest,  the  AdliM'aryn.  sjij'b: 
^•Om  isthe  response  of  the  Adhwaryu  to  the  li'igveda  VfrtfeH  (rect'd  by  the  JJotr  i),aiid 
likewise  tot/ki  (i.  e.,  thus)  his  resjjouse  to  the  Gathdj*,  for  Oin  is  (the  term  of  as&ent) 
used  hy  the  gods,  wheniss  tathd  i^  (the  term  of  as'sent)  used  by  men  ''  (the  R'ig\rtla 
vei*ses  b  'ing,  to,the  orthodox  Hindu,  of  divine,  and  the  Gfi,  ha-*  of  human,  author^liip). 
In  this,  the  original  sense  of  tlie  word,  it  is  little  tioubiful  that  ont  is  but  an  ftlderjiud 
contracted  form  of  the  common  Sanscrit  word  evam,  "  thus."  which,  coming  fronv 
the  pronominal  base  *'a" — in  some  derivations  changed  to  **e" — may  have  at  one 
time  occurred  in  the  form  auaru,  when,  by  the  elision  of  the  vowel  following  i?— for 
which  tliere  are  numerous  analogies  in  Sanscrit — aram  wouW  become  aum^  and 
hence,  according  to  the  ordinary  phonetic  laws  ot  tlie  language,  mn.  This  etymolo^ 
of  the  word,  however,  seems  to  have  been  lost  even  at  an  early  period  of .tJauscnt 
lifer  iture;  for  another  ir<  met  with  in  the  ancient  giammarians,  enabling  us  to  ac- 
count foi"  the  mysticism  which  many  religious  and  theological  works  of  ancient  and 
medieval  India  8npiK)S8  to  inhere  in  it.  According  to  this  latter  etymology,  nik 
would  come  f  ro  ii  a  radic  il  ao  by  mems  of  an  affix  vian,  when  otu  woidd  be  a  cur- 
tailed form  of  aoman  or  ottiaii;  and  as  av  implies  the  notion  of  *'  protectj  prtsei^ve, 
save,"  om  woidd  Ik?  a  term  implying  "  protection  or  salvation ;  "  its  mywtieal  prop- 
erties and  its  sanctity  bein<j  inferred  from  its  occurrence  in  the  Vedic  wriili'gs,  and 
in  connection  with  sacrificial  acts,  such"  as  are  alluded  to  before. 

Hence  Om  became  the  auspicious  word  with  which  the  sphitnal  teaclier  h.id  to 
begin,  and  the  pupil  ha«l  to  end  each  lesson  of  his  reading  of  tlie  Veda.  "  Let  tliis 
syfiable,"  the  existing  I'r&tis'Akhya,  or  grammar  of  the  R'ittved:»,  cuiolns,  '*  be  tlie 
head  of  the  reading  of  the  Veda,  for  alifee  to  the  teacher  and  the  pupil,  il  is  the  eo- 
premeBrahm:m,  the  gate  of  heaven."  And  Manu  (q.  v.)  ordains :  "  A  Brahmau,  at 
the  beginning  and  end  (of  a  lesson  on  the  Venln),  must  always  i^ronouucethesyllaMe 
Om;  for  unless  Om  precede,  his  learning  will  slip  away  from  him ;  and  unless  it  fol- 
low, nothing  will  be  long  retained."  At  the  time  when  another  class  of  writings 
the  Puran'as  (q.  v.),  were  ad. led  to  the  inspired  code  of  IliudulBin,  for  a  siniunr 
reason,  Om  is  t/teiV  introductory  word. 

That  the  mysterious  power  whichj  as  the  foregoing  quotation  from  the  law-hook 
of  Msiuu  shews,  was  attritmted  to  this  word,  must  Imve  been  the  sulnect  of  early 
speculation,  is  obvious  enough.  A  reason  assigned  for  it  is  given  by  Mann  himself. 
"  Brahmft,"  he  says,  *'  extracted  from  the  three  Vedas  the  letter  o,  the  letter  «,  and 
the  letter  m  (which  combined  result  in  Om),  together  with  the  (mysterious)  words, 
Bh&h'  (earth),  Jihuvah'  (?»kv),  and  Swah'  (heaven);  "  and  in  another  verse  :  *'  Those 
three  great immutjible  wonls,  preceded  by  the  syllable  Om,  and  (the  sacred  R'lgveda 
verse,  called)  Gayatrt,  consisting  of  three  lines,  must  be  considered  as  the  mouth  (or 
entrance)  of  Brahmau  (the  V^da) " — or,  as  the  commentators  obsei-ve— the  means  of 
att^iiuing final  emancipation  ;  and  **■  The  syllable  Om  is  the  supreme  Brahman,  (three) 
regulated  breathinus  (accompanied  with  the  mental  recitation  of  Om,  the  three  mys- 
terious words  BhCih',  Bhuvah',  Swah',  and  the  Gfiyatii),  are  the  highest  devotion.  . . 
All  rites  ordaiu«d  in  the  Veda,  such  as  burnt  and  other  sacrifices,  pjiss  away;  bat  the 
syllable  OiH  must  I)e  considered  as  imperishable,  for  it  is  (a  symbol  of)  Brahman 
(the  supreme  Spirit)  himself,  the  Lord  of  Creation."  In  these  specnJatlous,  Mautt 
qpai's  oat,,  and  is  borne  out  by,  several  Upauishads.    See  Vssa.    Iu  the  JTow 


y  Google 


4G0 


Om 


Upanisliady  fot  in«tnnro,  Fawrt,  tlio  god  of  dcnth,  In  replying  to  a  qnestion  of 
Nnchikrtas,  8ay8:  "The  won!  which  all  the  Ved.is  record,  wiiicb  all  the  modt^s  of 
peuaiice  procliwm,  of  wiUcli  depirou.*  the  rtli«;iou«  studeiitJ*  perform  their  duties, 
Jhia  word  I  wiJl  briefly  tell  thee,  it  is  Om.  This  syllable  menus  the  (inferior)  Brah- 
man and  the  enpreme  (Brahman).  Whoever  kiiowr'  this  syllable,  obtnins  whatever  l»6 
wlphe»."  And  in  the  Pras'narlTpaniahad,  the  saint  PippalSda  says  to  Satyak&ma: 
"The  supreme  and  the  inferior  Bmhm;in  are  both  the  worn  Om ;  hence  the  wise  ft)l- 
lows  by  this  siippiirt  the  one  or  the  other  of  the  two.  If  he  meditjites  upon  it*  one  letter 
(a)  only,  he  iy  quickly  bom  on  the  earth  ;  him  cm  ry  the  verses  of  the  R'igvedn  to  the 
world  of  man :  and  if  he  is  devoted  there  to  anfterity,  the  duties  of  a  religious  student, 
and  faith,  he  enj  »y8  ffreiitness.  But,  if  he  mediintes  in  bin  mind  on  its  two  letters  (a 
and  tt),  he  is  elevated  by  the  verses  of  the  Yajnr-Vcda  to  the  intermediate  region  ;  he 
couies  to  the  world  of  t.ie  moon,  and  haxang  enjoyed  there  power,  returns  again  (to 
the  world  of  man).  If,  however,  he  meditates  on  the  snpreme  Spirit  by  means  of  it« 
three  letters  (a.  ii,  and  m),  he  in  produced  in  light  in  the  snn  ;  as  the  snake  Is  liber- 
ated from  its  skin,  so  he  1?*  in)eratcd  from  sin."  According  to  the  Mftn'd'flkya-Un- 
aniehad,  the  nature  of  tln^  soul  is  summarised  in  the  three  letier;^  a,  u.  andm,  lu 
their  isoluted  and  combined  form — a  being  Vais'wfinara,  or  that  form  of  Brahman 
which  represents  the  soul  in  lis  waking  condition  ;  n,  'laiiapa,  or  that  form  of  Brah- 
man which  represents  it  in  its  dreanjlng  state;  and  tu,  PrHjn:»,  or  that  foi-m  of  Brah- 
man which  represents  it  In  its  state  of  profound  eleei)  (or  that  slate  lu  which  it  is 
temuornrily  unite<l  nith  the  8upi*eme  Spirit) ;  while  a,  u,  w  combined,  i.  e..  Om, 
represent  the  fourth  or  hijrhest  condition  of  Bnihman,  **  which  is  unacconntabl<\  in 
which  all  manifentations  have  ceased,  which  is  l)lis!>ful  and  without  duality.  Om, 
therefore,  i««  sonl ;  and  by  this  ponl.  he  wh)  knows  it  enters  into  (the  supreme)  soul." 
Pussaijes  like  these  may  be  considered  as  the  key  to  tiie  more  enigmatic  expresnions 
used,  for  instance,  by  tiic  nu'hor  of  the  "  Yo«:a"  (q.  v.)  philosopny,  where, in  thren 
short  sentences,  he  says :  *'  His  (tim  snpreme  Lonl's  name)  is  Pran'ava  (i.  e.,  Om) ; 
its  mattcriug  (should  b*!  madi )  and  rcnection  on  its  signification;  thence  comes  the 
knowledge  of  the  trauhcnndentjil  spirit",  and -the  absence  of  the  obstacles"  (such  afl 
sickueHS,  iaugor,  dout>t,  &c^  which  obstruct  the  mind  of  an  ascetic).  But  they  indi- 
cate, at  the  same  time^  the  further  course  which  supM.'rstition  took  in  enlarging  upon 
the  mysticism  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Upanishadfi.  For  as  soon  as  every  letier  of 
which  the  word  Oni  consists  was  fancied  to  embody  a  separate  idea,  it  is  inteUi|!ible 
tint  other  sectarinn  exolnnations  were  grafted  on  tliem,  to  serve  their  special  pnr- 
poseR.  Thus,  while  S'ankara,  the  great  theologian  and  commentator  on  the 
Upanistiads,  is  still  content' d  with  an  et^tnologicul  punning,  by  men i  ft 
of  wliicli  he  transforms  '*a"  (or  rather  *^a")  into  an  abhroviation  of  djtti 
<|)erva(liu«5),  since  soe<clj  is  pervaded  by  Vais'wAnarn:  "u"  into  nn  abbre- 
viation of  utkarfiha  <8np<?riority),  since  Taijas^a  is  superior  to  Vais'wftuara ; 
and  **-»»"  into  an  abbreviation  of  m*<t' (destruction),  Vais'wfinara  and  Taijisa,  at 
the  destrnction  and  regcncnitiou  of  the  world,  being,  as  it  were,  absorbed  into 
Pi-ajua— the  Purfin'as  (q.  v.)  m,:ke  of  *•  a  "  a  name  of  vishn'n  ;  of  **n,"a  name  of 
his  consort  S^ri;  and  of  ^  nrn."  a  designation  of  their  joinr-woi'shipper ;  or  they  see  in 
a.  «,  w  the  Triad,  Brahm&,  Vis'm'u,  and  S'lva;  the  first  being  rei»resented  by  "a," 
the  8»'Cond  by  "t*,"and  the  third  by  **w" — each  sect,  of  cours*',  identifying  the 
comiiination  of  these  letters,  or  Om,  with  their  supreme  deity.  Thus,  also,  in  the 
Bhngavadgiffi,  ivhicli  is  devoted  to  the  worship  of  Vishn'u  in  his  incarnation  as 
Kr'iHhn'a.  ihaui;)i  it  is  essenthdiy  a  poem  of  philosophical  tendencies,  bn^ed  on  tliu 
doctrine  of  ttie  Voga.  Kr'isbn'a  in  one  passage  says  of  himself  that  he  is  Otn  ;  while 
in  another  passage,  he  qualifies  the  latter  as  the  supreme  Spirit — A  common  desi*.'- 
nation  of  the  word  Ow— -for  instance,  in  ttie  last-named  passages  of  the  Bhagavud- 
gtta— is  the  word  Pran'ava,  which  comes  from  a  so-caled  radical  nw,  "praise," 
with  tJ»e  prefix  era,  am(mt.'st  other  meanings,  implying  emphasis,  and  therefore 
literally  means  "euloginm,  emphatic  praise."  Although  Om,  in  its  original  pense, 
a-*  Ji  word  of  solemn  or  emphatic  assent,  is,  prop<!rly  speaking,  restricted  to  the 
Vedic  lltemture,  it  deserves  injiice  that  it  Is  now-a-days  often  used  by  the  natives  of 
India  in  the  sense  of  '*ye8,"  without,  of  course,  any  allusion  to  the  niystical  proper- 
tics  which  are  ascribed  to  it  iu  the  religious  works.  See  also  the  article  Om  Man'i 
Pai>xb  HtM'. 

That  thero  exists  no  connection  whatever,  as  has  been  supposed  by  some  writers 


y  Google 


gSa,  470 

to  be  the  ewe,  betw'eem  Oin  nnd  Anien,  roqiiirea  scarcely  any  remnrk,  ntif^  t\i9 
c^yiuoio^Cl*^  explanations  triveiwiUovri ;  iMir  itmayiio;  bdXvilhoin  hjr«t.-8t  toi.bwrve 
tliur,  tiioagti  Uie  d'*nvj»tl6ii  of  Om,  as  a  curtailnumt  of  av^tnan^  frma  ao,  **pnv 
tfcr,  save,"  is  probjtbly  inerely  nrtificinl,  and,  as  stated  before,  inventtKl  to  ex|iwin 
tli«!  iJiler  mystical  uc»e  of  tin;  Vedic  wonl,  it  deenio  more  Kitir»factory  to  compare  the 
Latin  «'H«n  with  a  SMii-crit  aojuan, '•|""Otection,"  as  derived  by  the  gnimmarianH 
from  dv  <iutbe  Latin  dve-o),  than  to  explain  it  in  the  fae>hion  of  tbe  ifoinan  eiy* 
inologi!«ts:  "Ouien,  quod  er  oi^j  priuium  elaiuni  est,  opraeu  dictum;"  or,  ''Omtii 
veliit  orenien,  qnovl  fit  ore  nu«;uriiiin,  qiiod  ncui  «vib|it!i  aliove  modo  fit."  And  hinon 
pra-nt.iva^  froia  Sanscrit  nw,  *•  praise,"  i.-,  like  Om,  U!«fd  in  tlie  wnseof  **ti»«!  dt'i(>," 
jt  is  iik«-wise  probable  iliit  nuuteti  do  s  not  «on»«,  a."  in  jireiieraJly  l)elieved,  froia 
Latin  nU'{ere)y  '^  uoil,"  but  from  a  radical  corre.'^ ponding  with  the  Sali^crit  aw, 
*'pr.iiae." 

OM  MAN'I  PADME  BUM  M»«  the**  formnla  of  six  pylla  bios  "which  has  acqnlTfd 
niuclj  c  1  brity  Irotn  tlie  con.-plcuous  part  which  it  plays  in  the  relijfiou  of  the  iimid- 
liisis,  au«l  tjspecially  in  that  form  of  it  called  LamnUm  (q.  v.).  It  is  the  flr-<:  giib- 
ject  which  the  llbt^tans  and  Mongoln  teach  tlieir  children,  and  it  is  the  last  pn-^'er 
which  i.«<  mHttcred  by  tlie  dyinir  man  ;  the  traveller  re|>ejita  this  formula  oii  his»  jour- 
ney, the  shepherd  when  attending  his  flock,  tlie  honetewife  when  perfonnlng  h»  r  do. 
mestic  dntier*,  the  monk  when  al)8orl)ed  in  religious  meditation,  &c  It  is  met  with 
everywhere;  o  .  fliii^s.  rocks,  trees,  walls,  columns,  8tone-monumenti«,  domesric^itu- 
plements,  skulls,  skeletons,  &c.  It  is  looked  vlyow  as  the  ej^sence  of  all  religion  and 
wisdom,  and  the  means  of  altaiulng  eternal  bliss.  "These  six  syllables,"  it  is  said. 
*•  coucewtrate  in  themselves  the  favor  of  all  tlw  Buddhas,  and  they  are  the  root  oi 
the  whole  doctrine  .  .  .  . ;  they  lead  the  Iwliever  to  re-birth  as  a  higher  being,  ai»d 
are  the  door  which  bars  from  him  inferior  births ;  they  are  the  torch  which  iiiniui- 
nates  darkness,  the  conqueror  of  the  five  evils,"  &c  'iliey  are  likewise  the  tiymM 
of  trausmiijration ;  eaeh  syllable  successively  corresponding  with,  and  rele:jsing«rom 
one  of  the  six  worlds  in  which  men  are  re-bom ;  or  mey  are  tiie  mys^tica!  di'signatitm  of 
the  six  tiauscoiidental  virtues,  each  successive  syllable  implying  self-offering («*««), 
enduninci'  (kHhdnti),  chastity  {s'Ha),  contempiation  {dhydna),  menial  energy  (Ktr.v«)i 
and  r-li^'ious  wisdom  {prajn'd}.  The  reputed  author  of  thisforumlais  the  Dliyani-Htod- 
htsartwa,  or  d-dtl  d  saint,  .-I  oalokiteu'wara,  or,  as  the  Tibetans  call  him,  P(uluiapdit*i 
<l.  e.,  the  lotns-handed).  It  wou'd  not  l)elon«r,  accordingly,  to  the  earliest  stage- <rf 
Bud  Ihism,  nor  is  it  found  in  the  okler«t  Buddhistic  works  of  the  north  of  India  or  of 
Ceylon.  Its  orlidiml  sense  is  rather  obscure.  Some  suppose  that  it  nieans  0  !  (^m), 
the  jewel  (man't)  in  the  lotus  {pa'lme),  amen  {h&m) :  "  the  jewel  "  l)eiug  an  alhisioH 
to  the  saint  Avalokites'wani  himself,  and  the  word*'pad/»t«,  or  in  the  loiiis."  io4lie 
b -lief  Ihai  he  wjis  horn  fro  n  a  lotn^  It  is  probably,  however,  more  correct  toiuter- 
pre'  the  formula  thus:  "Salvation  (oiu)  [is]  in  the  jewel-lotus  {nian'i-putdnie).  slmcu 
(hum');"  whin  ti  e  compound  word  ''jewel-lotus"  would  mean  the  saint  and  Um> 
flower  whence  lie  arose.  If  this  Interpretation  be  correct,  the  formula  would  be 
oiijjinally  nothiu:;  more  than  a  salutation  addrjased  to  Avalokites'waru  or  Padina- 
pAu'i ;  and  the  mystical  inteipretatidn  put  upon  each  syll  jble  of  it,  would  then  be 
analogous  to  that  which  imparted  a  transcendental  sense  to  each  of  the  letters  of  the 
svllable  On  (q.  v.).  Dv  Emil  Schlagint  w<dt,  iu  his  valuable  work  on  "  BuddblBin  in 
Tibet "  (L  dpziir,  1863),  relates  (p.  1*20)  that  '*  in  a  prayer-cylinder  which  he  bad  the 
oi>p/)rtttfiity  of  opening,  he  f(mnd  Wia  fornmla  printed  in  six  lines,  and  repeat  d 
i:inum  rabUj  times  upon  a  leaf  49  f-et  long  and  4  inches  broad.  When  Baron  Schil- 
ling de  C  instadt  paid  a  vist  to  the  temple  Snnulin,  iu  Siberia,  the  Lamas  were  jwi 
(>ccupi«'d  witti  pr«'|)nring  100,0'»0.000  of  copies  of  this  jirayer  to  »)e  put  into  a  prayer- 
•ylinder;  his  offer  to  have  the  ne«'.essary  number  executed  at  8t  Pnershnnr  was 
most  readily  acceiited,  and  he  was  presented,  in  retiKii  for  the  160.000,000  of  copies  he 
forward  d  to  them,  with  an  edition  of  the  Kairjur,  the  sheets  of  which  auunn»t  to 
about  40,iM)0.  »  When  adorning  the  head  of  rrllgions  books,  or  when  engraved  apon 
the  slab-*  resting  on  the  prayer-walls,  the  letters  of  tlie  formula  are  often  so  coinhined 
us  to  f()r!n  an  anai^am.  The  longitudinal  lines  o<'-curring  in  the  letters  "tnoni 
padme  hiiiti' "  are  traced  clcfe«e  to  each  other,  and  to  the  outer  lonifi- 
tudinal  liu«  at  the  left  are  appended  the  curved  lines.  The  letter 
*♦♦»»"  is  re]>laced  by  a  symholicid  sign  above  the  anagram,  sbewiag 
ft   half^moon   shrmoauted   by   a  disc    ludlcatiDg   the  suii,  from  whick  iiBiKf 


y  Google 


4T1  ^"* 

~  •  '^  Oniar 

A  fliTne.  Sncb  a  combinntion  of  the  I<*tt<*r9  is  can<d  \n  'ni)etan  nam  dm 
tuitgdan,  **  tbe  t<'ii  entirely  puutTfui  (viz.,  chunicUTs,  wx  of  v.bicJ)  :iro  coueumaiui^. 
jiud  f our  v;>u t!lji) :"  nud  the  poworuf  tUisfncrwl  B>-utouctt  i? biippO)*i-d  lo  be  iucu'ub  <l 
Hy  it-*  Inking  written  in  tliie  fonii,  Tlie«»e  kind  of  niiagraiutf  nro  always  bor- 
dered by  a  point  d  fnuue  indicating  \\w  Iraf  of  a  fig-tnt*. — See  jil^o  E.  Bnrnouf, 
'•  iiiirodncJion  h  I'HIsfolre  du  Buddl>i:*m«!  Indien "  (Paris,  1M4  ;  C.  F.  Kjuii>- 
lh;ii,  -Die  Religiou  dca  Buddhu"  (B«rUiJ,  1S«»— i869>;  and  the  worlds  quoted  by 
ilic-e  authors. 

OMA'GH  (IriBii,  Oighvtoffh^  **8»'at  of  tiuj  chiefs  ").  an  ancient  town,  cnpital  of 
t'l  •  conniy  of  'J'yrom;  in  IreJai.d,  8itua:e<l  onilie  river  Sirnle,  distant  84  niilc:*  mutU  " 
Ironi  Loiidouderry.  and  110  ndlon  nort!l-ll0^til-\ve^t  from  Dublin,  with  Imlh  \vlii<:i 
ctic**  V  is  coniHiCied  by  railway.  O.  k»^w  n!>  .Mroitnd  :.n  at»b<!y  foiutdt-d  in  tlie  y  ar 
T9i.  but  is  first  lieaml  of  sm  a  fortre^'K  of  .'Vrt  O'Nfal  ni  the  end"  of  tho  IStli  c  Hl)ont 
wjiicb  time  it  was  forced  to  suiTender  to  the  Enjriisii,  altliougli  its  )K>^.^88lon  long 
cont  nacd  to  altcruaie  tx'tween  Irish  nud  En^lit^li  Itands.  Ii  lorin<(^  part  of  Janien 
I.'s  "  Plyulatlou  "  grsuts,  and  was  sro;  gjv  i/arrls«»ned  by  Moumjoy.  On  lit*  In'hig 
<v:u*uato«l  by  the  troop**  of  James  II.  in  i6SU,  it.  ^x^^»  partially  biim«tl,  and  a  Hccond 
fir.;  iu  1743  conii)lete<l  its  dohiruciion.  Bnt  ii.  has  bjtin  well  re-built,  and  is  now  a 
neat  and  prospt-rous  town.  P«'p.  (1S7U  8724.  O.  cotiUdu!*  av  ry  handsome  conrt- 
liousf,  wiiere  the  asi'izesior  Connty  Tyrone  ure  held,  wveral  neat,  churches  (Roman 
C'attioiic,  Rpiscopcd,  and  Presbyttrbui),  a  <:t>nveut,  several  partially  eutlowed  and 
Jiuiioual  school-',  a  dli*trict  luijailc  asylum,  and  the  workhouse  of  the  I'oor-Law  Un- 
ion of  w  hich  it  is  the  centre.  There  is  alpo  a  Iwrrack  staiiou — it  being  within  th« 
Belfast  military  district.  lis  tnide  is  chiefly  iu  browu  lineus,  corn,  and^  :;gricnltai*al 
produce. 

O'MAITA  CITY,  the  chief  city  of  the  state  of  Nebraska,  V.  S.,  is  on  th^-  right 
bank  of  the  Miseouri,  opjioste  Council  BhifFs,  and  20  mile?'  north  (»f  lh<'  nionlli  of 
the  N»-I>ra>ka  liivcr.  Be>  d«-8  the  government  <;fliees,  it  Ims  a  large  trade  by  tho 
rivers,  and  across  the  j)rnirics,  and  is  tin?  easlern  terminus  of  the  I'ulon  Pacific 
Railway,  and  also  of  th«-  O.i.aba  m  d  North-w-  fttm,  and  the  Oiuaha  and  Soulh- 
w«steni  litioi*.    Pop.  iu  ISO),  Ittii;  in  1870,  16,083. 

OMA'N.  the  most  eastrn  ]K)rtion  of  Arabia,  a  slrip  Of  maritimf'  tonitory,  ex- 
tciid.ng  i)Ctween  Ba-ei-»Jllioiil  and  Kas-el-fSad,  Ixnn  d  d  on  th>-  north-east  hy  the 
Gulf  of  Oman,  and  on  Jin*  M)nlli-\vt  st  by  the  tl^^«rta  of  \iu-  interior,  li  is  al  out  370 
mite.-*  if  I  length;  its  greatest  l>ri'adth  is*  liOmihs.  At  a  distance  of  fnnn  iO  to  40 
iiiiles  fnmi  ibe  roast,  a  chain  of  monnlains  luns  pjirallel  to  it,  which  rc.-.clu-s  in  its 
Jijghesr  ridge,  call' d  Gcbel  AcMar  ("Great  Mountain  ");  ""  eliv;ition  of  CoOo  feet; 
the  nveraL'e  height  i- 4U00  feet.  There  are  a  few  not  incoiiMderablc  sireanis,  and 
pome  richly  fi-rtlle  tncts  in  lliis  region,  but  tho  greater  part  if  a  waste  of  ^and,  witl» 
h  re  and  there  a  small  oasis,  w-liere,  however,  the  vegetation  is  most  luxuriant. 
Grovfa  of  almond,  fig,  and  walDtt-irecs,  tower  to  an  enormous  hei^ld,  ovei>h«dow- 
ing  the  c.  ^nge  and  eitryii  trees,  but  nr  •  themselves  overtopped  by  the  splendid  date- 
IMilms.    The  mot  |)Owerful  stat^e  of  O.  is  Mtu*cat  (q.  v.). 

OMAR,  Abfl-Hai«a-ibn-al-Kbeitab,  the  second  calif  of  the  M(M»lems,  was  bori\ 
«i>out  581.  His  early  history  is  Utile  known,  hui  niovious  to  his  conversion  he  was 
ao  ard.'nL.<j)ersecutor  of  Mohammed  and  his  followci*.  AfUT  his  converj'ion  ho 
becanie  as  ZK  lous  mi  apostle  as  be  had  formerly  been  a  persiecutor,  and  rendered 
viluable  :dd  to  the  prophet  iu  all  bis  warlike  expeditions.  After  Mohaninied's 
ilcitSi.  he  c^iu^ed  Abii-bekr  to  be  proehdmed  calf,  and  was  idntt>elf  appoint- d 
Jixiijeb^  or  jjrlme-ministir.  Though  of  a  liery  and  entbnsiasiic  tenii>erameut,  he 
provrd  a  sagacious  adviser,  and  it  was  at  his  euggehtiou  th.it  the  c;dlf  put  (low  u 
with  ail  iron  hand  the  many  disr>misions  which  had  arinen  among  tlieAi-ai>salter  11  e 
proplu'tV  decease,  and  re.«*o|v»d  to  sireiigtheii  and  co  soliihite  their  n<\v-borii 
uational  spirit,  as  w«Il  as  propagate  the  docirines  of  Islum.  by  engaging  tlieiii 
ill  cont  uual  aggressive  wars.  On  the  deatli  of  Abii-l)ekr,  O.  sncceeded  as  cidif, 
a*  cl  pushed  on  the  wars  of  conquest  with  increii»>ed  vigor.  He  was  summoned 
1i»  Jerusalem  in  637,  to  receive  the  k«V8  of  that  ciiy,  and  before  leaving  s.ave 
orri,-rs  to  build  a  mosque,  now  ealh-d  i>y  hif«  nann^,  on  the  s'te  of  tiie  tempi » 
of  Soloiuon.  O.  now  look  tl»«  cf>miu»nd  •  f  a  porHou  of  tbeMrno'.aud  ndneed  tha 
utber  chief  cities  of  Pulcetine.    ijle  tucu  plauucd  au  Juvasiou  of  Persia,  wnidi 


y  Google 


Omar  a*jo 


^ 


I 


was  commenced  the  same  year,  niid  by  642  tlie  whole  of  what  is  now  knom 
118  Peram  was  subdued.  Jn  the  iiieaurime  thu  war  in  Syria  was  vig- 
orously prosecnted,  and  the  Byzaatine  annies*,  repeatedly  defei'ited,  at  len^tk 
g:ive  np  the  couieat.  In  689,  Annti,  one  of  his  generals,  had  iuvaded  Egypt 
with  a  considerable  foi-ce;  hut  i*uch  was  the  prestige  of  the  Aralx*.  or 
the  incapacity  or*  the  lieutouants  of  tlie  fin^peror  Hi-racliti}*,  tluitthis  valuable  coiiii- 
try,  with  irs  six  millions  of  people,  was  rednced  nnder  ihe  cjilif's  anthority  wilhoat 
a  r^mgle  contest,  and  only  two  townf,  Misr  sind  Alexandria,  were  even  attempted  to 
be  defended.  (For  the  story  which  was  till  lately  lielieved  concemiDg  ihe  c^e^tmc- 
tJon  of  the  Alexandrian  Library,  see  Albxandriam  Library.)  Barca  and  Trijioli 
W(Te  uexr  subdaed  by  Amru.  On  the  north,  Arni<«uia  was  overrnn  iu  641,  and  Ibo 
cdif  8  authority  now  reacli  d  from  the  Desert  of  Khiva  to  the  Syrtis»,  an  enormoos 
exteni«ioii  iu  ten  years.  In  644  0.  was  assassiuak-d  iu  tl^i  mo^qne  of  Medina  bja 
Pvnyian  slave  from  motives  of  ri*v«'iiy:e.  He  lal)gui^hed  five  days  after  receiving  the 
wound,  but  refused  to  appoint  a  successor,  nud  nanied  Six  commissioners  who  wtffe 
to  choose  one  for  thoraselves.  He  was  buried  iu  the  niOHque  of  Medina,  uear  tiw 
prophet  and  Abu-hv-kr,  and  hi»  tomb  is  still  visited  by  pilgrinjs. 

O.  may  be  called  iha  louiid<;r  of  the  Mohammedan  power,,  as  from  a  mere  sect  he 
raised  it  to  the  rank  of  a  conqtiering  nation,  and  left  to  his  successor  an  empire 
which  Alexander  the  Qn-at  mighti  havecnvii  d.  I«i  him  wivfi'id  a  rare  conibinKtiua 
of  qualities,  the  ardent  zeal  of  the  aposile  si<le  by  side  with  the  cautious  foresiglil 
j!ij(l  cilm  r«'solution  of  the  monarclj.  His  gro;it  military  talcutn,  and  sev»'r.iy  to 
*'  ob!»tinate  uubelicvcrs,"  rendered  him  formidahie  to  his  enemies,  and  his  iiiexor!;blc 
justice  rendered  him  no  less  obuoxious  to  the  more  jKJwcrfnl  of  4iis  eubjecis,  and 
;ive  rise  to  many  attempts  at  his  assassination.  O.  was  the  foundi^r  of  m  .uy  excel- 
jnt  institutions;  he  assigned  a  regular  pay  to  his  soldiers,  establislied  a  night-poUce 
iu  towns,  and  made  sonte  excellent  regulations  for  the  more  lenient  treiitmeitt  of 
Hiaves.  He  also  originated  the  practicts  of  dating  from  the  era  of  the  Hedjia]*  (q.  ?.). 
He  assumed  the  title  of  Eniir-aUrtiwnienin  0*  Commander  of  tne  Faithful  ")  in  pre- 
ference to  thjit  of  ir/*a.'7/aA-r(Woit/t-//a/it,  the  ordinary  designation  ;  and  to  the* pre- 
sent day  his  uanie  is  held  in  the  greatest  veneration  by  the  orthodox  or  tiiuit  sect  of 
Moslems. 

OMAR  PASHA,  a  celebrated  Turkish  gcnend,  ^\^a8  born  at  Pladki,  an  Ansirian 
villjige  in  the  Croatian  Military  Frontier,  in  1806  (accordiuir  to  some  autliorititn*,  in 
1811).  His  real  nam  ;  was  Mikail  Lait.as,  and  his  father  being  an  officer  in  the  Aus- 
trian .-irmy,  Mikail  was  c'ducated  at  the  military  school  of  Thurn,  ne;ir  Carlstadt, 
wliere  he  greatly  distinguished  himself.  He  afterwards  joined  one  of  tlie  frontier 
ri'gimenta  as  a  cadet,  and  was  employed  as  secretary  by  the  military  inspector  of 
roads  and  bridges;  but  having  by  soino  breach  of  dibcipliue  nuidered  himaelf 
amenable  to  punishment,  he  flju  to  Bosnia,  where  he  became  i)ook-keeper  toaTork- 
!!?!»  merchant,  and  enil)raced  Mohammedanism.  He  was  next  employed  by  Hofisein 
Pa.^ha,  the  guve.rnor  of  Widin,  as  tutor  to  his  sons;  and  in  1834  was  sent  iu  cltai^ 
of  them  to  Constantinople,  where  his  beautiful  cali«rrai)liy  gained  for  hira  tht"*  poetof 
wrlting-mahter  in  the  military  school.  Omar  Eff end i  <a8  he  was  now  called)  was 
noxt(  appointed  writing-master  to  Abdul-Medjid,  the  heir  to  the  tlirone,  and  received 
the  honorarjr  rank  of  captain  iu  the  Turkish  army,  and  the  hand  of  a  rich  heiresp. 
On  his  pupil's  accession  in  1839,  O.  was  raisetl  to  the  rank  of  colohd,  «tMi 
sent  to  Syria  to  aid  in  the  suppression  of  disturbances  which  had  broken  oat  in 
that  province,  and  in  1842  he  was  appointed  military  governor  of  the  Lebnnoa 
district.  The  severity  of  his  nile  did  not  hinder  the  Alaronttes  from  de«4rlii^  to 
have  him  as  chief  of  the  Mountain  ;  but  in  the  following  year  he  was  recalled,  ro- 
c  -ived  the  title  of  pasha,  atid  was  sent,  along  with  Uedschid  Pasha,  against  the  n^ 
voited  Albanians.  The  skill  and  energy  witir  which  lie  suppressed  this  insarrecrlon, 
MS  well  as  otliers  in  Bosnia  and  Kurdistan,  raisi^d  him  high  iu  favor  with  tiieniHan. 
Towards  the  end  of  1852  he  opened  the  campaign  against  the  Moittenegriiis.  who 
were  being  rapidly  subdued,  when  Austria  interfered  and  compelled  a  treaty.  «»u 
the  invasion  of  the  Principalities  l)y  the  Russj.-ms  (July  1868),  O.  collected  at  St-bnmla 
an  finny  of  CU,iH)0  nun  to  Ctirver  Constantinople  ;  but  l>eing  no  less  a  )»olitic!ai)  than 
a  so'divjr.  he  soon  divined  ihatth«;  Kuswans  would  not  immediately  cross  t he Dnuohe, 
»n;d  accoiflingiy  pushed  on  to  Widin.  where  ho  erosse^l  tlie  rvver  iu  preseitcturf  th« 
enciuy  juid  mircuched  himself  at  Kalafat.    Another  jwrt  of   the  Tarkish  aruqr 


Digitized  by 


Google 


^-^^J 


*♦<•>  O'MMra 

mored  down  tbe  Dantilie  to  Tnrtukai,  near  SiliotHa,  crowed  tho  river  nt  Hint  place, 
aud  inireDclicd  tlieiuselveH til  OltenitzH.  On  Novenil)ei-4,  Hie  latter  diviMoii  \v*r»: «t- 
ticked  bj'  9000  KiiBsiuiis,  whom  tlu-y  totUly  defeated  wUh  a  loaa  of  nearly  4WH) 
men  luid  aliiioet  all  their  tjlficers.  The  Russians  al.«o  received  two  hevere 
checks  at  Kalufat,  on  Januaiy  6  and  March  16, 1865.  O.  kept  ap  the  spirit  of  hia 
troops  by  occasioiml  t»ncce88ful  skirniisliet*  with  the  RussianM,  and  threw  a  garrif>ou 
of  SiKH)  in*'n  into  Siiistriiu  In  the  following  spring  tlie  RiiBsianB  parsed  the  Danube 
at  two  points,  and  laid  biege  to  iSilistiia  (q.  v.)-.'  bat  their  asuHulte  were  invariably  n> 
puliM'd  with  ttevere  loss.  'I'lie  Ru:«8iunB  tlimi  Mrithdi-ew  Irom  the  Priuclmiliiicp,  and 
O.  enfored  Bachure^t  in  triampli  in  Atl}!:u»t  1S64.  On  9ih  Fehrnary  1856,  he  embarked 
for  Eap.-itoria,  wherr,  on  the  tiih  of  t  he  vainc  month,  ht- was  suddenly  attacked  by  40,- 
0>)0  l{ii.'*>ian8.  who  were  repaired  with  great  loss.  He  was  hoon  alterwards  (October 
B.  1S55)  sent  to  rdifvc  Kniv,  i>ut  arrived  tuo  latt*,  and  the  arndstice  which  followtd 
(Fcbruury  29,  1856)  put  a  81  op  to  his  ndliian' c^irei'r.  lie  waa  snbK'qneutly  made 
gttvei-iiur  of  B.'i^dad;  I  ut  having  been  acciiscd  of  muladminiifttri  tion,  wui*  bani^t•(■d 
to  Kaiujiort  in  1859.  IIh  wat*  recjilled  in  the  following  year,  jind  in  Hi'pt  ikber  1S<51 
was  sent  to  {lacify  Bosnia  and  llerzog(»v1n:i,  wnicli  were  again  in  insu'reciion.  1  h.M 
twing  accomplished,  he  attackid  the  Monteuegrinf,  ctiptiutd  their  chiif  town  of 
Cetiuji,  and  overnm  the  connfry  in  1862.  O.  held  the  Grand-crotss  of  the  L«-gion  i»f 
Honor,  aud  wa."  a  Knigiit  of  the  Rnssiuu  Order  of  St  Anne.  He  censed  to  take  part 
ill  pnblic  life  in  1869,  being  tl)ereatter  regarded  as  a  minister  witliout  portfolio;  and 
died  in  1871. 

OMBA'Y,  or  Maloewa  (Malnwn),  an  island  between  Celebes  and  the  north-we.«»t 
coaf«tof  Austiaba,  llesio  the  north  of  Timor,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Strait  of  O.nbay,  Int.  8' 8'— 8°  28'  p.,  long.  I240  17'— 125°  T' e.  Area,  961  hqimre 
miles.  The  popiUation  amounts  to  al>out  li«3,8oO.  Tlie  hills  of  O.  are  volcanic,  und 
the  coasts  steep  and  difHcnlt  to  approach.  The  inlia»)itants  are  dark  brown,  have 
thick  lips,  fl:it  nose,  and  woolly  hair;  appearing  to  be  of  mixed  Negro  and  Malay 
origin.  'J'lj«y  are  armed  with  the  bow,  sinar,  and  creese,  and  live  on  the  produce  (if 
the  cbaee.  with  fish,  cocoa-iiUt»«.  rice,  iind  hom-y.  A  poition  of  the  islai  d  formerly 
belonged  to  the  Portutrufse,  Init  since  Anj.'nst'6.  1851,  it  is  entirely  a  N«*ther!aiids 
po8S*:s8ion.  The  Dntch  por'tholder  resides  at  the  vilhiL-e  of  A  lor.  to  whicli  iron  wares, 
cotiou  goods,  i&c,  are  brought  from  Timor,  and  exchango<l  tor  wax,  edil)le  nests, 
provisions,  and  iither  native  prodncts.  O.  bus  oxen,  hwine,  goatr-.  &c.,  and  |iro- 
duces  maize,  coiton,  and  peppt-r.  AmlMjr  is  also  found,  and  1  In-  Boepinese  of  Celeb<*s 
import  Knropcaii  and  IndL-m  fabrics,  exchanging  them  for  ttiC  produce  of  the  island, 
wliich  they  cjirry  to  Siutapure. 

0*MEARA,  Barry  lixi ward,  was  borir  in  Ireland  in  ihe  year  1786.  Otherwise 
without  cl.iiin  to  be  reme.i.lvred,  his  name  ren»ninsnol:il»lelroin  h:sronuetti(»ii  with 
tlie  first  N«poleon.  whom  lie  acctnnpauied  to  St  lie!  ni  as  household  physic);. n.  At 
4kieageof  18  Iw  ent-rcMl  the  Britisli  army  aP  assist.int-i«urgei.ii.  In  18t»8.  being  sta- 
tioned at  Messina,  lie  biM-ame  concerned  in  a  dnel  as  s>  coi.d.  nnd*  r  Cinnnistnnces 
wliicli  must  more  or  less  have  been  held  discreditable,  as  Ids  disniissnl  liom  the  ser- 
vice by  sentence  of  ccmrt-nwirtlal  was  the  result.  Aflerwartls  lie  succeeded  in  pro- 
curing an  a  pointnteutassargeon  in  tin*  n.-ivy.  and  as  hu;  h  for  some  years  isceriifiid 
to  have  discharged  his  duties  wiih  zeal  and  •  fticiency.  As  it  clumced,  he  WhS  serving 
with  Cap  atn  M  litland  in  the  Bnllerophon  when  the  Emp«  ror  Napoleon  (q.  v.)  sur- 
rendered himself  to  that  oftioer.-  Dtiring  the  voyage  fnmi  Kochefort  10  Piynujuth  I  e 
was  iniro<lueed  to  Napoleon,  on  whom  the  inlpr^s^ion  lie  produced  was  favorable, 
leading  10  a  proposal  that  he  should  ac<  ompuny  the  eni)>eior  into  exile  as  private 
>ltysk'.lan,  an  arrangement  to  which  he  acceded.  sti|)nlating  that  he  should  retain 
lis  rank  in  the  navjr.  nn<l  bepermitttnl  to  return  toitai  pleasure.  By  Na])Oleon,  with 
wt)Oin  be  rennuiied  in  dally  intercom'se  at  8t  Helena  lor  aboiii  tliree  years,  hu  seen.s 
to  have  b;'en  admitted  to  something  more  or  less  like  iutin  acy ;  and  occasionally  it 
loiKhtwell  be,  as  he  says,  that  the  givat  captive  would  kill  the  creeping  hours*  by 
loose  talk  Willi  his  attendant  over  the  evvnts  of  his  strange  life.  Of  these  couveisjj- 
tioiis  O'AL  naturally  enough  took  note--,  which  he  afterwards  published.  Meantime 
he  became  involved  in  the  interest  of  Napoleon,  in  the  series  of  miserable  and  pt  ily 
e<]anbhle8  which  he  waged  with  tlie  irovernor,  Sir  Hudson  Lowe  (q.  v.).  The  result 
or  these,  nn  regards  O'M.,  was  that  in  18 18.  after  a  violent  alitPiation  wiih  Sir 
Sadiun,  ha  was  comuuKed  to  close  arrest,  aud  was  authorised  by  the  emperor  to 


Kl 


y  Google 


T^™ 


Om«et  4Hi 

Ommiades  ^  *  ^ 

resign  hie  iK>pt  On  his  return  to  England.  h«  addresved  a  letter  to  the  Admfnlt/, 
in  which,  iiinonij:  utiier  thiii«;t),  he  accns»;<l  Sir  llndson  Lo\v<-  of  intentions  agrriiiiit  the 
lifu  of  his  captive,  and  (!V<hi  of  having,  by  dark  liiutH  to  tdniself,  iusinnHti-d  adt^ire 
for  his  Borvlces  an  secret  a}*8as«in.  For  this  he  was  instantly  dismissed  the  servii-e. 
Tlie  accus.ition  was  plainly  inoustrons  and  incredible.  In  1822,  after  Naiwleon's 
death,  O'M.  pnhlislied  •*  Napoleon  in  Kxile,"  by  which  book  a  one  he  is  now  nmieiit- 
bered.  As  convoying  to  the  world  the  firnt  aathentic  details  of  the  prisoD-lifc  of  the 
great  deceased,  it  inndtt  on  its  apttearance  an  itnnteue  sensation,  and — tbon«rli  fi»r 
obvions  reasons  evi^rywlicre  to  he  acct^pted,  if  at  all,  with  CautiOD^t  is  gilllnut 
utterly  withontinttTf St.  The  l.ist  years  of  O'M.'s  life  were  passed  in  obscnriiy  iu 
the  neight)orhood  of  London,  whciv,  in  1836,  bo  died. 

O'MEIJET,  or  Omelette,  French,  a  dish  chiefly  composed  of  eggs.  Tliese  are 
broken,  and  their  contents  put  inio  a  projier  vessel,  in  which  thev  are  whipptii 
into  n  froth,  which  is  poured  Into  a  very  clcjiii  and  dry  frying-pan,  with  the  addiina 
of  lard  or  butter  to  prevent  sticking,  and  then  fried  careluUy^  so  that  the  out.«ide  is 
nicely  browned.  Bofore  frying,  one  of  a  number  of  ingredients  loay  l)C  added  to 
vary  the  omelette,  sncli  as  choppt^d  snvoiy  her!>s,  minced  ham  or  bacon.  salJ-tiali, 
sln'll-ftsh,  game,  <fcc.  Or  sweet  omeletti'S  may  be  mnrle  by  plncing  pre^ervifl  frons 
upon  them  when  quite  or  nearly  cooked-  'I'he  omelette  Is  an  excelleut  dish,  and, 
simple  though  it  be,  it  requires  much  skiJI  to  prepare  it  successfully. 

O'MEN  (for  the  duriv.,  see  Om),  or  Prodigy  (genersUly  sa'd  to  lie  from  pro  aiid 
dico,  but  more  probably  from  pro  and  offo,  to  lead ;  hence  anything  conspicnoos,  or 
ej;^raordinary),  the  name  given  by  the  lionians  to  signs  by  which  approachht^  t'ood 
orbiul  fortune  was  8Uppo8e<l  to  l)e  indicated.  The  term.s  pmen  and  Frodipywen 
not,  however,  exactly  syuonymons;  the  former  being  app'i<d  rathei*  to  signs  r*- 
ceivftd  by  the  ear,  and  partieularh  to  spoken  words;  the  latter  to  pheuomeiiuand 
occtirrences,  such  as  moustroiiM  births,  the  ii])pearauce  of  snakes.  Iocumi.-,  Ac,  the 
striking;  of  the  foot  against  a  stone  or  llie  like,  the  brejiking  of  a  shoe  tie,  atid  ffu 
sneezln;,'.  &c.  If  an  om<Mi  or  prodigjr  was  piomiS'd  oii  the  prtrt  of  a  gml.  It  \V:i!»  to 
be  interpr  ite:!  accordinir  to  tlu  promise  ;  but  otherwis  •,  tiie  Interpret  ition  wns  ei- 
tremey  arliitraiy.  It  was  snp,  osed  that  evil  indicated  .ms  approaching  ndL'bt  hi 
avi-rt  «l  by  var  ous  means,  us  by  s.icrillcos,  or  by  tlie  utterance  of  certnin  m.ietc 
forniulns;or  by  an  extempore  felir.ity  of  inti^rpretation,  as  when  Cae-ar,  liaviti^ 
f.ilicn  to  tl>e  gr  and  on  Itmding  in  Alrica.  rxclainv  d  :  '•  I  t.ike  misses-iou  of  lluv, 
Afticri."  Occasionally,  it  is  true.  wi«  read  of  a  reckless  d  sn-giiilof  om  'Us;  as, for 
c'xanij)!o.  when  P.  Claujliti",  in  the  First  Pniiic  War,  cause.d  tlie  8acri»il  chirk<m"«, 
who  would  not  lenve  their  »-ng«s  to  bt*  pitched  into  the  sea,  saying :  **  If  they  wont 
cat,  th'-y  n>ust  drink."  i*till  th'!  be  i(^  in  them  was  nniverwil,  :tnd  in  gfeiieml  tlie 
gr.Mte.«t  care  was  taken  to.-ivoid  nnfavorubh'  o:ueus.  The  h  ads  of  the  s  criflcial 
priest**  were  covercil.  so  that  nothiii;;  distrjictirrg  might c:«tch  rlanr  eyes;  silence traa 
enjoined  at.  the  comm  ncemejit  of  every  s^icred  nifdert  iking,  and  at  the 
openl^l»J  of  the  Liuii.  Ji  lore  every  sacrificial  processiun  mu  the  heral«K 
calling  on  t'.se  p(»ople  to  **pfty  resjHiet  to  it,"  and  admonishing  th«-m  to 
cea8(!  working  until  tt  slioni'l  bav.^  pass^'d,  that  the  priests  might  not  li««ar  nnfrtVOf- 
able  sounds.  .M  th«^  b-LMnning  of  a  sner.flce,  the  bystanders  were  addreas«l  hi  »he 
woids  Faveie  Litujim  (♦*  S|K;;ik  no  word  of  evil  Impiurt ").  and  llie  aid  of  nmsic  wai 
sought  10  drown  wlmtiver  ii:»isc3  might  prove  nnpropi.lons.  Compare  AirauBiw 
and  Auspices,  and  Divination.  See  also  Fallati,  **  Ueber  BegrifE  und  Weseii  des 
llom.Oinen"  (T&b.  183G). 

The;  belief  in  omens  bus  existed  in  all  ages  and  countries,  afid  traces  of  it  liiig"f 
even  yet  in  the  most  civilised  communities;  in  the  <}read,  for  instance.  Uiat  Diany 
entertain  at  silting  down  to  table  in  a  party  of  thirteen.  Not  a  little  of  »h4 
philosophy  of  om"ns  ia  contained  iu  the  8c«»ttish  proverb :  •♦  Them  who  follow  freits, 
Ireiis  fnllow;'*  meaning,  tiial  a  tatalisiic  beliet  in  iiupeuding  evii  paralyses  tli* 
endeavor  thtU  might  prevtmt  if. 

OMK'NTlJAf.    Sei'  FBmTONBnir. 

OMMI'ADES  (Omaiades,  or  Ommeyadesj,  ft  dynasty  (deriving  its  name  from  an 
a'cstor,  Oinineyah)  which  ^u^•eceded  to  the  Arabian  califate  on  tlie  death  uf  AH, 
♦he  fotirlh  calif  after  Mohamm  'd,  and  possessed  it  till  superseded  by  the  Abb«sidt« 
(q.  V.)  Ui  750.    MoawiyaJi,  the  fuuudev  of  the  dynasty,  was  the  sou  of  Aha-SoAMW 


y  Google 


475 


OmeLat 
Ommiadei 

Wlro  detfH\e<\  Moliamnicd  at  B«*der,  and  hi»»  mother  was  the  Dotorions  Hiiida.  Afier 
the  deufli  of  Othniaii,  the  third  calif.  Moawiyah,  who  wusi  hi8  cousin,  d;i fined 
the  tbnmo,  and  dnriii^f  tb«!  wliole  of  All's  i*e1gii,  ruled  over  the  wcB'em  provinces  of 
Syria  nud  K^^jpt ;  but  \i  wi\s  not  till  the  dfatit  ol  il>at  culif,  ai.d  the  abdicutiun  (;f  his 
Bon  Hassan  in  661,  tluit  Moawitah's  authority  was  fnlly  reccguised.  lii  that 
year  he  traiisfenvd  ll»e  seat  of  the  caiifafe  to  Daniascus;  Knfa  having  Ix-en  thr  resi- 
dence of  All,  and  Medina  of  the  fir»»l  lliree  cahfs.  'I  he  Arabs*  coutrnucd  to  4Ztend 
their  conqiifsts  durini^  bis  reij^i ;  The  Tiirk«  in  Ehoras»an  were  subdned.  'I  nrk- 
estan  invaded,  and  several  imporiaut  acqnisitious  mrtde  in  Asia  Mirtor.  But  b<>id«  s 
ag^randifin*;  his  empire,  thecalit  neglected  no  meaus  of  coiipolidutiiip  ii,  and  ^)art!y 
for  this  reapou  he  made  the  ttncctfHiou  hereditary,  and  cnnsed  his  son  ^Ezix> 
(080-6.S3)  to  Ikj  recognjped  as  his  heir.  The  riit;ns  of  Yezid  and  his  puc^e^^^)rs. 
MoAWiYAH  II.  (033)  and  MerwIn  1.,  formerly  the  iralloi-ows  secn'taiy  of  the  calif 
Othnian  (683-685),  are  devoid  ot  importance,  iifl  their  sway  extended  only  over  Syria 
and  Palestine.  Abdulhelek  (6S5-T05),  an  able  and  warlike  prince,  after  n  long 
aud  varying  strngj^Ie  of  eigiit  yeary,  sue  ceeded  in  rendering  hlnist-lf  \v.  disputed  ruler 
of  the  Alohamuieclan  world  (692).  but  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  was  mncli  disturbed 
by  rebtrllions  in  the  eastern  pruviut'es.  He  was  the  first  calif  who  interested  hims'^lf 
in  the  promotion  of.  liberal  knowledge,  by  causing  the  most  ceUbrattd  pottical  and 
other  works  of  the  Persians  to  l>e  translated  into  Arabic ;  and  nndcr  bis  reign  coined 
money  w:is  tlrst  introduced.  It  was  to  this  prince  that  his  courl-fool  related  the 
celeorated  fabulous  conversation  b^'twe^^n  the  owl  of  Bassorn  at  d  that  of  Mo.-ul. 
Four  of  his  scais,  Walid  I.  (70{>-716),  Suliman  (716-717),  Ye«id  II.  (720-728),  and 
Ubsbam  (7123-742),  succ  -ssively  oe<upied  the  throne,  and  a  fifth  son,  Mosslemah, 
was,  from  hi*  great  military  abilities  and  Jiealous  devotion  to  the  interests  of  his 
brutliers,  the  terror  of  all  their  eneini«*s.  both  domestic  and  fort  ign.  Under  Walid, 
thi'Oinmiadecalifate  reached  the  suinudt  of  its  powerand  grandtur ;  Northern  Africa 
(7W)  aud  Spain  ulSO,  'I  uikestan  (107).  and  Galatia  (710^  were  coitquere<l;  while 
towards  the  close  of  his  reign,  his  empire  was  extende<l  even  to  the  Indus.  'I  he 
aleuder  structure  of  the  mlnaf<-t  was  now  for  the  first  time  Introduced  into  mosque 
architecture.  Guar  II.  (7li-720\,  who,  in  the  justice  and  mildness  of  his  goveru- 
luent,  snri»a#ped  the  whole  of  the  mce  of  Ommeyah,  was  appointed  to  succeed 
Kaliinaii ;  but  h  ving  excited  discontent  ami>njr  his  relaiWes.  by  sisjiprcssin^f  the 
forninla  of  mal  diction,  which  ha«l  hitherto  ^een  rcj:ular!y  pmut.ut.ced  at  rll  public 
ceremonit*»  ajraiusi  Ali  ^nd  his  d  scemlants,  lie  was  j»oisoned.  During  his  fPig", 
>los.*<len)ab  had  completed  the  coi  q^nesl  of  Asia  Minor,  a<  d  even  compelled  ihc  £m- 
p*'ror  Le.»  to  submit  to  the  humiliation  of  walking  beside  his  hors*-  throjijrh  the  prin- 
cijial  8«rc«'ts  of  Constantinople  it'^elf,  and  paying  a  :arj.'e  ransom  {>_  quivalentlo  i-.lx  ut 
X140,0(M))  for  his  c:ipita).  UesbAm,  though  "like  his  immediate  pred  cesor,  fund  of 
piettt*nre,  i>«>sst  ssed  all  the  qualities  n«  cessary  for  a  sovereign.  1  he  (ire-  ks,  who  still 
strove  for  the  possession  of  Asia  Minor,  were  n»peatedly  defeated  ;  the  fierce  'I  urks 
of  Northeni  Persia  and  Turkesran,  were  k«  pt  in  stem  subjeciion  ;  liUd  thecivil  af- 
fairi*  of  the  empire  carefully  and  strictly  administered.  1  he  d«  ath  ui  Mosslemah, 
thi!  champion  of  the  Otnmiade  dynasty,  seems  1o  have  been  the  signal  for  insurrec- 
tion ;  the  desciiidnnts  of  Ali  raised  the  standaid  of  revolt,  at  d  no  sooner  wen*  they 
Mbdiied  than-  Ibrahim,  the  fourth  in  direct  descent  from  Abbas  ihr  uncle  of 
Moh.tmmed,  solemnly  investeil  the  celebrated  Abu-Mosslem  (stnted  to  be  a 
desceudant  of  Koderz,  one  of  the  tnost  distingitished  heroes  of  Fiidnsi's  ad- 
mired work  the  "Shah-nameh")  with  the  arduous  duty  of  enforcing  his  long- 
agitated  claims  to  the  throne.  During  this  reign  the  progress  of  Arab  con- 
quest in  Western  £uro;)e  was  checked  by  Charles  Mavtel,  who  inflicted 
n|M>n  the  Arabs  a  severe  defeat  at  Tours  (732),  and  jihnost  annihilated  their 
arniy  at  Narbonne  (786).  The  reigns  of  Walid  IT.  (743—743).  Yezid  lil.  (74.S— 744), 
and  iBJfAHiM  (744).  though  of  epliemeral  dunition,  wt^re  long  enough  to  produce  a 
complete  dlsorgaidsatiou  of  the  empire;  m\a  though  MerwAn  II.  (744— 760),  the 
next  and  last  calif  ot  the  hons<;  of  Ommeyah.  was  both  an  able  and  politic  ruler, aud 
a  skilful  warrior,  the  declining  fortune  of  his  family  was  beyond  rem«  dy.  Ab»j- 
lllO'Rlem.  who  hud  published  the  claims  of  the  Abbaeides  amidst  the  ruins  of  Meru 
in  T47,  took  the  field  at  the  head  of  a  small  hut  zealous  hand,  and  carried  the  black 
lias;  of  the  Ab'msides  from  victory  to  victory,  till  before  the  close  of  tlie  followjin; 
year  the  whole  of  Khorussaii  acknowledged  his  authority.   Ituk  was  subdaeU  iu  749 ; 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Omnlbnt  A^  t\ 

Onagracea  **  *  ' ' 

and  thongh  Ibrahim  tfto  Abbaside  claimant  was  seized  by  Merwfin,  and  execnfed  !i 
tlie  same  year,  his  brotht>r  Abnl-Abba«  eaccceded  to  hie  claims,  and  the  unfortauati; 
calif,  defeated  in  two  eDgagemcjits,  flu<l  to  Eeypt  (750),  whitlier  iie  was  pnr«ued  aud 
slain.  Abdullah,  the  uncle  of  the  pnrceKsful  cluimHiit,  treacherouRly  invited  tte  rp- 
muinlug  mombors  of  the  house  oi  Ommeyah  to  a  conference,  and  ordered  a  general 
niussiicreof  tliem.  Two  only  e8cap<;d  :  the  one  to  tiio  ponth-east  of  Arabia,  where 
lio  was  recognised  as  calif,  and  h\»  desccud.-ints  reigned  till  tlie  16Jth  c-eutmy;  the 
other,  Abderrahman,  to  Spain,  where  he  founded  th«*  oahfate  of  Cordova. 

0MMIADE3  OP  $PAIN.— Abdehrauman  I.  (155— 7S(),  Oil  accepting  the  Sput:i>h 
tlirone  wlilch  was  otter.'d  him  by  the  Arab  chlelf,  assumed  tlie.  titles  of  Oi/?/aud 
^mzr-a/-7/m)7t€/im,  and' in  spite  of  unmcrous  revolt:),  srrengiheneii  aud  exteudul 
his  power  iu  Sptiiu,  till,  wltli  the  exc  -piion  of  A-^turias  and  thg  country  no:  tit  of  tlie 
Ebro,  his  nutliority  was  every wlieru  ackuowledgtnl.  Hi»»  defeat'  of  CIjar.emM«(uc  at 
Roncesvalles  (,q.  v.)  ifl  too  widely  knovvn  to  require  further  uoiic^\  lit-  divid.d  his 
kingdom  into  !»ix  provinces,  whose  ruli.'r!*.  with  the  tvaiis  of  tlie  tw.*lve  principal 
towHS,  forme<l  a  sort  of  nutirmal  d'u'X^  His  succe  noit*,  IIe-uam  I.  (7sT— 196)  tuid 
Al-IIakrh  f.  (793 — S21),  Wi*r<;  miicli  troubled  witli  internal  revolt!*,  undercover  of 
which  lUe  ChristianH  in  the  north-east  establishetl  the  state  known  as  the  '•Spanis!! 
March."  Abder^hmam  II.  (821—852)  re-established  iulejuul  quiet,  and  occup»«l 
his  Bubj  "Cts  with  incej»*«ant  wars  against  the  Christians.  These  conHicU*  develop*-*! 
among  the  Arabs  that  chivalrous  heroism  which  is  found  novvh»!re  elwj  iu  the  Mo- 
hammedan world.  Abderraliman,  liimself  a  man  of  learning,  gnmily  encouraged 
the  arts  and  sciences,  and  diffused  information  among  lii.>«  p«-ople;  heaino  attempted, 
by  regulating  the  laws  of  succi^ssiou  to  property,  to  constituie  his  kingdom  oo  t 
l»asis  analogous  to  that  of  other  European  nations.  Daring  his  reign  Mi»lmmu.ed 
Spain  was  the  best  governed  country  in  Em'opc.  li;a.<«ucC'-8sorj>,  MouammedL 
(852— S80).  Monohab  (8^0—882),  and  Abdallah  (882—912),  followed  iu  his  foot- 
steps. Abubrbauuan  III.  (»12— 961),  after  suppressing  some  dangerous  revolt!* 
which  had  gatliered  head  dut*ing  his  minority,  conquered  th;  kingdom  of  Fez  trotu 
tlieKdi'isites.  and  brouglit  a  long  and  exliaiisting  war  »vith  the  powers  of  Asturiasand 
L'.'on  10  a  victorious  conclusion.  Tliis  |)eriod  Is  justly  ternied  the  golden  aue  of  the 
Arab  domination  in  Spain,  for  at  no  period  was  their  p«Wer  so  conaolitlated  ai»d 
their  prosperity  so  flourishing.  Abaerrahm.iu.  like  hi-  predecessors,  was  n'/rcat 
encourager  of  learning,  and  a  |>oet  of  no  mean  ability.  Hefoundtjid  schools  whirhfur 
eurpasso<i  those  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  Ilinsim,  Al-uarbm  II.  (961—976),  wtD'  id 
every  way  worthy  to  be  his  successor,  but  his  prematur^Mle^U h  \\%a  the  cause  of  ihf 
downfall  of  the  Omntiades  in  Hpain.  Hesham  II.  (976— about  1013),  a  child  of  eieitt 
years,  now  occupietl  the  throne  ;  but  fortunately  Ids  mother,  Sob«'iha.  postM^scd  Ni-' 
abilities  necessary  for  such  an  emerg  'ucy,  and  tti>j)ointed  as  her  sou's  viai>r 
Moitannucd  ben  Abdallali,  surnamed  Al-Mausor,  wlto  had'  originally  i)euu  a 
peasant.  This  renunkahle  man  gained  the  affections  of  all  raul^  by  hi* 
pleading  manners  and  great  abilities  ;  his  administration  was  equallv  just  aud  judi- 
cious, a!)d  hi"*  encouragement,  of  literature,  scienci*,  and  art  alike  lilHsr-il  iu»d 
discrimfinuuig.  But-  it  is  as  a  warrior  tlutt  lie  is  chiefly  remeuil>en-d ;  b* 
had  avowed  eternal  enmity  to  the  Christiana,  and  iu  all  his  numerous  expfdti^aai 
fortune  seemed  chahied  to  his  standard.  The  lost  provinces  were  recovered;  Cas- 
tjle,  L'on,  .ind  Baralona  were  conquered;  and  Navarre  was  on  the  point  of  sliariiifT 
the  same  fate^  when  a  rebellion  iu  Fez  compelled  him  to  detach  a  portion  of  hM 
f-jrcefor  sei-vice  in  Afric.i,  jumI  the  combined  annios  of  the  four  Christian  iiiO|!- 
archies.  seizing  tliis  opportunity,  iuflicte<l  upon  the  Arabs  a  sanguinary  defe-it  iu 
1001.  Mohammed's  spirit  was  completely  broken  by  this  blow,  aud  he  died  a  f^-w 
days  afterwards.  With  him  the  star  of  the  house  of  Ommeyah  set  for  ever.  'Vhe 
rest  of  llesham's  reign  was  a  scene  of  disorder  and  civil  war.  Pretenders  to  tb" 
califate  arose,  while  the  "  walls  "  of  the  various  provinces  set  up  as  iiidept-udent 
rulers,  and  the  invasioi.s  of  the  Christians  added  to  the  confusion.  Hosham  ftaal  T 
res'igne^l  the  throne  about  1013;  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  brief  reiga  of 
Uesuam  III.  (1027— ICSl),  from  this  time  th-?  family  of  Ommayah,  which  had  for 
moiv  llian  two  centuries  so  happily  and  brilliantly  governed  the  gresiter  |»ft' t  of 
Simit),  disappear*  from  history.  One  remarkable  feature  of  their  rule  da'*er7i*  a»fc"- 
tiou,  Hi  it  controBtfi  them  so  favorably  with  the  coutcmporur)'  and  subsequent  ruler* 


y  Google 


4^r^  >j  Omnfbat 

<  •  Onag  acMi 

of  Spain,  even  to  the  present  time,  and  that  is  their  nnivcrsal  toleration  iu  rolitioue 
iitaiters. 

•O'MNIBUH  (I^t  omnifttw,  *•  for  all »'),  fniuiliarly  contnicted  into 'M)nf«,»»  is  the 
lar«.'e8t  kind  of  public  street  conveyunce,  smcl  is  jippoiimd  to  iruvcl  hHweeii  two 
fixed  BUiiioiis«,  starting  at  cet^ahi  fixed  lionrp,  und  taking  np  or  Betting  dou  ii  ])apsi<ii- 
jferx  at  JiDY  point  in  its  route.  Vehicle*  of  tliia  sort  wcru  first  atarlod  in  Paris*  in  16<52, 
when  it  was*decree<l,  by  a  royal  edict  of  Louir*  XIV.,  tliat  a  line-  of- earomffen  d  cinq  ttoiis 
(*•  iwopence-halfpenny  ouinibuaes  "),  eacli  containing  right  places,  sliould  l)e  e^tl»b- 
lii<hed  tor  the  benefit  of  the  intirni,  or  thi  s«?  who,  reqiiiring  j*prcdy  convi'yance  from 
one  part  of  tiie  town  to  another,  were  iniablo  lo  afford  a  hired  caiTia^;"*  for  theni- 
Hflveff;  tnese  "c.iro8t«efi''  were  bound  to  run  ar  fixed  houra  from  on^-  station  to 
anotlier,  whether  full  or  empty.  The  public  inau^'uratiou  t)f  the  new  ccuveyauccs 
took  j)lace  Manh  18,  16^2,  and  wan  the  ocr^urfou  ot  a  grand  tfite  ;  and  ihe  uoveliy 
l«H>k  fo  wtlPwiih  ti;e  Parlj^fant*,  that  the  i^nmiUnses  were  for  soHJCtnne  monopo- 
lim-d  by  the  wtaiihier  clai«i*e»».  Horn  ver,  wlien  the  rnj;e  for  tlum  ditd  away,  it  was 
lound  tluit  tljo.-«e  for  whoHe  npecial  benefit  they  were  iuislituted  inrde  no  uhc  of 
tluni,  and  they,  \u  conm qiu;nce.  gradually  disappeared.  The  omnibup  was  not 
revived  iu  FiiristiJt  1827,  when  it  wns  ^'tJ^ied  in  ii>«  present  forn;,  earrying  from 
15  to  18  passengers  inside,  with  only  the  driver  above  and  the  conductor  behind ; 
a:td  OM  July  4,  1829,  th«y  wi'ce  introduced  into  l.oiidon  by  a  Mr  Sliillibeer. 
bhinit>eerV  'conveyances,  whieh  for  Bome  tinn'  r.lterwanls  were  kiown  as 
thilliheerx  (an  epitliet  biill  in  common  use  in  New  Yoik),  were  of  l;:r«rer  gize  than  the 
French  ones,  cari7ing  22  par's*  ngcrs  inside,  and  were  drawn  by  three  horses  abreast. 
The  oniuit)U8  was  iutrndu'-ed  into  Amsterdam  in  1889,  and  >ince  that  time  its  nee  has 
been  extendul  lo  all  large  cillen  and  towns  lu  the  civilised  world.  The  seats  of  the 
onmibn?  are  generally  placed  lengthwise,  and  the  door  behind.  The  oumibuB  is 
mauHgeil  by  a  driver  *and  a  condnctor.  In  New  York,  omnibu>e8  are  drawn  on 
street-railways;  liud  this  practice  is  now  being  extennively  employed  lu  the  chief 
towu«  of  Great  Britain,  where  tlie  omuibuees  are  called  tramway  cars,  and  the  rail- 
way a  tramway. 

O'MNIUM,  a  termed  used  at  the  Stock  Ezchnnge  toexprefRthe  aggregate  value  of 
the  diff«:rent  stocks  in  ^hich  a  loau  is  funded.  See  M'Calloch's  ^^JDictiouary  of 
Coianierec.-' 

OMSK,  a  town  of  the  Bnsslan  province  of  Central  Asia,  in  the  government  of 
AkmoiUtisk,  stand?*  at  the  confluence  of  the  On^ — n  river  upwards  of  200  miles  iu 
let  gtli— wiih  the  Irtish;  '^22.5  miles  fix>m  St  Pciernhnrg.  l^t.  64°  59'  u.,  long.  73° 
30'  e.  It  was  built  in  1716,  as  a  defence  against  the  Khirghiz;  hut,  is  now  of  no  ln»- 
)H)rtance  as  a  forttiB^s.  It  was  till  a  recent  date  t  he  c«'ntre  ol  povenonent  tor  Western 
Siberja,  theeenireot  the  administration  of  the  J^ibir  an  "Khirghiz,  the  sial  of  th« 
eoiirtf*  of  justice,  and  of  tin?  Siberian  corps,  of  cadets.  It  eontains  jni.nnfactoriesand 
mining  wo:ks.  Hitherto  its  commerce  has  been  limited  to  a  ti-ade  with  the  Khirghiz, 
H-bo  diive  up  their  cattie  to  this  place;  but  its  a<ivnnlagrous  pos>tion  cm  the  great 
jMjst-road  and  commercial  Hue  of  irafllc  from  Europe  acros.-  ilie  wi:ole  of  Siberia  to 
the  Chinese  frontier,  makes  it  prol>ahle  that  it  will  some  <h>y  Ix-come  au  intermediatt 
st^itiou  for  extensive  commercial  exchanges.    P(»p.  (1867)  26,722. 

OMUL  (.Sa/mo  mif/rcxtoriits),  a  flah  of  the  salmon  and  trout  tribe,  abounding  in 
L-ike  Baikal  and  other  waters  of  the  cast  of  Sineria,  from  whit  h  great  quantilieb  are 
Bent  salted  to  all  the  western  parte  of  that  country.  In  size  it  is  rarely  niore  than  15 
or  16  inches  long.  Its  flesh  is  very  white  and  tender.  It  uijcends  rivers  iu  shoals  for 
tie  pnrpose  of  spinvning. 

O'NAGBR.    SehAss. 

ONAGER.    See  Balista. 

ONAGRA'CK/E,  Onagrarlje,  or  (Enothera'cere,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
|»lai)tf«,  consisting  c^iiefly  of  In  rbac«ouH  plants,  but  including  also  a  ftAvshnib.s;  with 
e;n«plo  leaves:  axillarv  or  terminal  flowers;  the  calyx  superior,  tubular,  sometinj? ■ 
colored,  its  limb  usually  4-lobe<^ ;  t'"-  petals  inserted  into  the  tiiroat  of  tlie  ailyx, 
jfeneraliy  equal  in  numlM'r  to  its  segnjents;  the  stamens  generally  four  or  elgl.t, 
rrtroly  one  or  two.  Inserted  along  with  the.  ])etals  ;  th'^  ovary  generally  4-cei;cd,  somo- 
tioies  a-celicd;  tiie  ttylc  threadlike,  the  truit  a  cap.>ule  or  a  berry.    There  are  abo 


y  Google 


Oncocarpa«  J-Tk 


Onoznacritus 

450  known  species,  Datives  chlofly  of  temper.ito  climatop,  amung  which  are  boim 
rnucli  cnl:ivat«'d  for  the  l)eauty  of  ttieir  fl«iwen».  pnrricnlarly  those  of  the  geutn 
Fitchsiii.  (Knothera  (EveiiiM«f  PriuiroHC),  (Jtatkia,  and  Gttdetia,  The  Briti-h  gi-atr* 
are  Epilcbium  (Willow  herb)  and  Cirea:a  (Eiichantor'a  NigliWuule).  A  f  w  s'p««le)» 
pro<luc«i  edihie  bHi-riefl.  and  Ihu  root  not  ou«  or  t^co  arc  eatahlc;  Imt  Muue.-neof 
economical  iiiiportauce.  'I'he  root  of  Isimrda  altemi folia.  loHnd  iu  Uu*  ni.ir.«*lht«  trf 
Ctiroiiii  I,  and  called  liowman^a  Jioot^  is  einuiic.  Some  e>|ieciea  of  Jvtmijea  are  used 
in  dyt'in<;  iu  Brazd. 

OXCOCA'KPUS,  a  genina  of  tree**  of  the  natural  ord-^r  Anacardiaceer.  One  of 
the  fMO-it  rcin:irkahle  trees  of  the  Fiji  Islands  is  O.  atra^  or  O.  viticiunM,  u  tree  ahont 
f»ixty  fiH!t  hl«;h,  with  large  oblong  Icavea  and  a  corky  fruit,  sonu'whtit  re»«emi»ring 
thf.  8  I'd  of  a  walnut ;  the  wip  ot  wld<di,  if  it  coiues  into  contact  with  the  skin,  prv- 
diicea  a  pain  lik--  that  cjiUHed  l)y  red-hot  iron.  The  wo-  d  is  oftea  called  Tteh-wotKi, 
b  c.iUf*o  of  the  eff  CI  prmluced  on  perstma  who  itoiorantly  or  incautiou-ly  hnrK  it 
whilst  the  Hap  Ih  fr-sh,  even  the  exhalations  cunsiug  an  intolerahle  itcbiui;  nnd  in* 
iiuiuerahle  pustules,  witli  exc»*«8ive  irritJili^n  for  sevenil  day^s,  wliilst  the  t-aect* 
continue  to  be  anpleasantly  fe.t  even  for  montlis. 

ONE'GA,  a  anndl  town  and  seaport  in  the  tiorth  of  Russia,  In  the  poveruin«"t 
of  Archaug'l,  and  90  miles  south-west  of  the  city  of  that  name.  It  stands  at  llie 
mouth  of  a  river,  and  on  the  f hore  of  a  itulf  of  the  sami*  nauu^ :  the  hitti:r  a  braiich 
of  the  White  Sea.  Lnt  63^  64'  n..  long.  3S«  V  e.  Pop.  (18«7)  2209,  employitl  in 
connection  with  the  saw-mills  of  the  **Oa«rga  Trading  Wood  Company."  Iu  tliiye 
mills,  wlifru  nuMierons  men  are  at  work,  an  Eiigiisii  steam-engine  lias  b<^ 
ere<*t  d.  About  RO  shins  1  -ave  Uie  port  aimually  for  England,  with  cargoes  of  deaii 
and  timber  to  the  value  of  X87,000. 

ONEGA,  Lake,  an  extensive  lake  in  the  north  of  Russii,  ^vernment  of  0^^ 
netz.  and,  aft<r  Ladoga,  Itie  largest  lake  in  Europe,  is  59  mil-.>s  in  ffie&tesi  bre:id>h, 
and  about  15)  miles  In  leng  h.  Art^  8720  K^oare  miles.  It  is  F<'d  by  nunic^s 
rivc'rs,  and  rectives  through  tl«e  river  Wa-Ho  the  waters  of  the  lake  of  that  nmnn. 
Its  only  outlet  is  the  river  Swir,  which  flows  south-west  into  Lake  L:idogH.  By 
mt-aus  of  tlic  Mariiuskv  system  of  communication,  L-ik<?  O.  eommunicat  s  with  l*'" 
Vol'/a.  and  thence  with  tlie  ('aspiaii  Sea  on  the  sou' h,  and  with  the  Dwina.  jind 
thence  wltn  tlie  Whites  8ea  on  the  north.  The  ch-ar  and  b  'auiifiil  waters*  of  thl*  t;tk« 
are  rich  in  fl-'h,  and  emhniee  many  islands.  Thede|>th  ranges  fr  »in  550  to  TOOfAt. 
Tlie  navi'.'ation  of  the  lake  is  dango  ous,  ai)d  commerce  is  chi- tty  couftned  to  th« 
Oai'gi  C.iiiaU  \yhich  extends  from  the  town  of  Vytegra  on  the  riv^irof  thatnaaie 
to  tlie  river  Hwir. 

ONE'GLIA,  a  town  of  North  Ifcily,  iu  tlie  province  of  Porto'  Maunzio,  on  «he 
Gulf  of  Genoa,  40  miles  east-north-east  from  Nice  at  the.  numth  of  the  I.iipero. 
a  sra.iH  river  which  rushes  down  from  the  Apeniiinc.-*.    The  Inirbor  is  not  good.    Hie 

Krincipal  article  of  export  is  oiL    Andrea  Doria,  the  great  Genoese  admiral,  wa?  bora 
eie.     Pop.  ahoiu  800<». 

O'NEROUS  CAUSE,  in  Scotch  Law,  means  a  pecuniary  or  vnlnaWe  considcrn- 

tion. 

O'NIOX  (Pr.  oi/jnonj  from  Lat.  i*n?o,  a  pearl,  but  found  in  ColamHla,  siguifyittif 
a  kind  of  ouion),  the  name  given  to  a  few  specie.*  of  the  genus  ^Wattm(q»  v.),  mxi 
pariicniarly  to  A.  repa  (i^it.  c«;)a).  a  biennial  bulboiis-rooted  plant,  w:rh  a  swell- 
fiig  stem,  leafy  at  th»?  b  ise.  tapering  fistular  leaves,  a  reflexed  spaiiie,  a  large  trlol>o»«» 
nmh.1,  usinilly  not  buibiferous,  the  lobes  of  the  perianth  obtuse  and  hoJKJed,  not 
half  as  long  as  the  stamens.  The  bidb  is  sim])Ie — not  composeil  of  cJoves,  like  timt 
of  garlic;  and  in  the  common  variety  is  solitary,  shewing  little  tendimoy  to  nrodnce 
1  itoral  hnlbs.  The  native  countrv  of  iheO.  is  not  cert.dnljL known,  son  esupposiuj; it 
to  be  India  and  some  Egypt,  in  W)!»i  of  which  It  ha*»  be<»n  caJtiv.ite<l  Irom  the  most 
re;not.*  antiquity.  The  part  clnefty  used  is  tl»e  bnlb,  but  the  young  leaves  are  alw 
ns.-d,  and  young  se<'dlii»g.-*dr:iwn  from  onion  b<Hls  are  a  very  comniOti  iu^frodi  nt  m 
B  »nps  and  sjinctts  in  the  h-.j-iuning  of  «*nmmer.  These  are  known  in  S  -otlaml  ae*jrft»«» 
<evid  ntly  another  form  of  the  word  Cibol).  In  warmer  cliimites,tl»eO.  produce** 
larirer  leilh  an.i  vrenerally  of  m(»re  delicate  flavor,  than  in  Britain;  and  is  more  el- 
tensivwly  uocU  an  uu  wticle  of  food,  being  wrth  us,  whether  irvsh  or  pickled,  geuer- 


y  Google 


A*7(\  Oncoca"pTi» 

*  •  *^  Onomacr.tat 

aHy  ratTier  a  condiment.  In  Spain  and  Portugnl,  a  raw  O.  Is  oft«u  eaten 
like  ail  apple,  and  often  with  a  piece  of  bread  foniis  the  dinner  of  u  working- 
man.  The  O.  is,  however,  yery  iiatritious.  It  oontaius  a  U\rg<i  qniiutlty  of 
nitrogenons  matter,  and  of  uncrystallisable  sagar;  with  an  acrid  vohulle  «ilptinr- 
ous  oil,  resembling  oil  of  girlie  Th«  oil  of  the  O.  is  di8»ipat<d  by  l)Ollii»g, 
80  that  boiled  onions  are  mach  niildfr  than  ruw  onions.  In  Britain,  onions 
are  6»own  either  in  epiiug  or  in  August-  Groat  fields  of  them,  i.\a  of  other 
favorite  vegetablety  are  cultivated  for  tae  London  mnrket;  and  htr«^u  qniintities 
of  onions  ar«  also  inipoited  from  more  soathetn  n-gions.  The  BermudJis  are  ceK*- 
bnitt^d  for  their  onions.  Tlie  O.  loves  a  ricli  lijrht  soil  and  a  dry  feub^jiL  The 
traui^pl-ubtiug  of  ou ions Ja  often  piaclit«ed,  ehpt^ally  of  onions  ^nwn  in  antumn, 
which  iiTv.  ti:anspltiuted  in  spring,  and  when  thcne  aie  placed  so  that  liie  sniMll  i)uil*s 
are  oil  ttie  mu-face  of  tlte  ground,  and  saitx>unded  with  decaved  nianuix>,  very  lur;;o 
bul*)8  are  obtained.  The  fieoaent  stirring  of  tiieaoil  i«  of  grent  advantage.  Tlie 
bulbs  are  taken  up  when  the  leaves  deoiy,  and  aftt  r  l)eing  drltd  in  the  0|>eu  air  or 
in  u  loft,  inay  be  kept  for  a  coubidei^ble  time.— Tiie  Potato  O..  also  called  the 
JEarF-rxAM  or  QkounuO.,  Is  a  i»erennial  variety  which  produces  offset  buH»8  at  thd 
root,  like  tlie  shallot;  but  the  baibsarc  much  buger  than  tliose  of  tlie  sliallot,  and 
bave  le«8  of  the  flavcr  of  garlict  allliongh  f>tTon|rer  than  tliose  of  the  conunon  oi  ion. 
It  la  Bometimes  said  to  liave  been  introdnct^  into  Britain  from  iC^^ypt  by  th'  hn'tiKh 
army  in  180S,  bnl  erix>neottsly,  as  it  was  cultivated  in  Kjme  parts  of  Britain  U  i  ^  hf  • 
fore.  It  10  in  very  general  cultivation  anK>ug  the  neasnutry  in  some  pnrts  oi  iSeot^ 
land. — ^I'be  PeablO.  is  a  similar  vaiiety,  with  mtfch  smaller  bnlbs.-^l'he  Tree  O. 
is  nlao  generally  regarde<1  aea  vadt^ty  of  the  i«mmon  ooion.  II  produces  hnlbs  at 
the  top  of  the  stent,  the  umbels  becoming  vivipaix)ns.— Onione  are  simihurto  Gtirlie 
<q.  v.)  in  medicimil  properties,  but  milder.  As  a  condiment  or  article  of  food,  tin  j 
ngree  well  M'itli  some  stomachs  and  stimulate  dige^tiou,  bnt  ate  intuh^i^able  to 
othei-«iL.  Roasted  onions  with  oil  make  ii  useful  emollient  and  stimulating  poultice 
for  eupparating  tutnors.  The  ntse  of  onions  etinuilates  the  secreting  oipms.— The 
CiBOX.  or  VVblshQ.  ( A .  ^^oZtwum),  a  native  of  Sibeiia^  cultivated  in  Bi'itaiu,  but 
iiiori-  gciieraJlj  m  Geiinany.  Imsa  jierennial  fibrous  root^  with  no  bulb,  very  fistnlar 
leaTeSy  utwl  a  3-comer«d  ovaiy.  It  is  useful  as  ««ui)|))yni£:  tender  green  lesivcs  for 
cnliiiaiy  use  in  the  l)eginuiiM;  of  spiin^,  like  the  citive,  and  somewhat  earlier  in  the 
eeasou.     It  la  much  hiigei-  t&in  the  chjve,  but  its  use  is  ^imila£. 

ONT8CU8.    See  WooDZiOUSs. 

O'NKELOS,  tlie  snpiiosed  j«uthor  of  an  Arnmafc  TPrrion  (Tafpum)  of  the  Penta- 
teuclt.  Ttie  name  feeems  a  coriuptioii  (row  tliat  of  AldUis.  one  of  tlie  Greek  Irans- 
lntor«  of  the  Old  Testament  (see  Vsssioks).  llie  translation,  said  to  be  by  O.,  is, 
ill  its  nresent  shape  at  least,  probably  the  work  of  the  Babylonian,  8c1kx>1s  of  the  8d 
fliid  4tn  centnries  A.n.  At  first  orally  transmitted,  varioas  poitious  of  it  began  to 
i>e  collected  and  writtiti  down  in  the  2d  c,  and  were  finally  redacted  about  the  time 
tt)etitioii(«U  Tlic  histoj-y  of  theoi-^inand  growtli  of  Aramaic  versions  in  general 
will  be  treated  nmler  Ttirgrcm  (Veiisiohs).  llie  idiom  of  O.  closely  resembles  that 
^f  JB^eraand  Danifd.  The  trjni  slat  Ion  itself  isexceotedin  accoixlanoe  witJi  a  sober 
aiul  clear,  though  Mota^lnvish  exegesis,  and  keeps  closely  to  its  t^^xt  In  most  in- 
etatices.  In  some  cases,  however,  wliere  the  meaning  is  not  clear,  it  expands  into  a 
l>rief  ex^rfanatloM  or  paraph  i-ase,  uniting  the  latter  sometimes  with  Hagiiadlstic  by- 
-vvork^  <;hosen  with  tact  and  taste,  so  ns  to  please  the  people  and  not  to  offend  the  dig- 
it i  i  y  of  thesntjject  Not  nnf requently  it  dnfets  entirely  lixjm  the  original,  as  far,  e. 
^.,  as  anttiropomoTphisms  and  antlirojiopaihies — anything,  in  fact,  which  mijilitset  ra 
d<'rogatorv  to  the  Deity—ate  conccinied.  Further  may  lie  noticed  a  renuEUanee  to 
Itrittg  th<'  Divine  Beint?  Into  too  close  contact,  as  it  were,  with  man,  by  the  Interpo.'-i- 
tioii  of  a  klndof  spiritual  barrier  (the  '*  Word,"  **  Shechinah,"  **  Glory")  whtn  a 
4i*o  1 1  vernation,  or  the  like,  is  reported  between  Goci  and  man.  Its  tine  lies  partly  in  a 
liognlrtic,  partly  in  a  theological  direction  ;  but  little  has  been  done  for  its  study  ».s 
yet.  No  withstanding  tJie  numtirons  MiSS.  of  it  extant  in  almost  nil  tlie  larger  liora- 
ri«*  of  Buioj>e,  and  in  spite  <if  the  grossly  incorrect  state  of  our  current  printed  edl- 
tiotis,  no  critical  edition  has  evar  been  attempted. 
ONOBRycniS.  see  Saimtfoim. 
ONOMA'CRITUS,  a  celebrated  rergious  poet  of  ancient  Greece,  litf^d  at  Alheus 

V.  K.,  X.,  16.  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Onom.topa,i.  480 

in  the  time  of  the  Peisistratida.  He  collected  and  expounded— according  to  Hero- 
dotas— the  prophecies  or  oracles  of  Musseas  (q.  v.)*  bat  is  suid  to  have  been  baiiislied 
from  the  city  by  Hipparchus,  about  516  bc,  on  account  of  iuteipolatiug  somethiug 
of  his  own  iu  these  oracles.  He  then,  we  are  told,  followed  ihe  PeisiMraiids  iuio 
Persia,  aud  while  there  was  employed  by  them  in  a  very  dishonorable  way.  Tbt/ 
got  him  to  repeat  to  Xerxes  all  the  ancient  sayings  that  seemed  to  favor  his  medi- 
tated luvasion  of  Greece.  Some  critics,  among  whom  is  Aristotle,  have  iiifem'd 
from  a  passage  in  Piinsanias  that  O.  is  the  am  nor  of  most  of  the  so-called  Orphie 
hymns. .  More  certain,  however,  is  the  view  which  represents  him  as  the  iuventor  of 
the  great  Orpliic  myth  of  Dionyeus  Zagreus,  and  the  founder  of  Orphic  religioM 
societies  and  theology.  Pausanias  states  that  **  Onomacritus  estHblished  orgies  io 
honor  of  Dionysus,  nn'd  in  his  poems  represented  tlie  Titans  as  the  anthorpof  the 
8nfferingi*of  Dionysus."  See  Mailer's  "Geschiclite  der  Griech.  Literatur  bis  aof 
das  Z  italter  Alexander's  "  (Bre»lau,  1841) ;  Grote's  *•  History  of  Greece,"  Ac 

ONOMATOPCE'IA.  the  Latiu  form  of  theGi'eek  word  onomatopoila  means  Kter- 
ally  tlie  nnikiug  or  invention  of  names,  and  is  used  iu  philology  to  denote  the  f<vma< 
tlou  of  words  in  imilation  of  natural  rounds,  as  in  cuckoo,  "Uk.  eueu  Ous);  peMrit, 
Scan,  pee-weip^  Dutch,  kiewit;  cock;  elaah,  rap,  tap,  qtutck,  rumble,  whizz,  ehmg. 
Such  words  are  sometimes  called  onomatopceuus ;  more  properly  they^re  (Hiouwto- 
pceian,  or  formed  by  onomatopoeia. 

In  a  more  bxt<!ndod  sense,  the  term  is  applied  to  the  rhetorical  artifice  by  whidi 
writers  (chiefly  poets)  seek  through  the  choice  and  arrangement  of  words  to  make 
the  •*  sound  "  throughout  whole  phrases  and  sentences,  ♦*  an  echo  to  the  senw,''  «s 
in  Homer's  well-known  polnphlatsboio  thalassemia  expressive  of  the  breakii^ of  waves 
upon  the  seashore ;  or  wliei-e  Tennyson  makes  the  sea 

Roar  rock-thwarted  under  l)ellowing  caves. 

Tlie  occurrence  of  so  many  obviously  onomatopoeian  words  in  aX\  known  Im- 
gnages,  suggests  the  question,  whether  the  same  principle  may  not  have  been  eoo- 
cerned  in  producing  the  original  germs  or  roots  of  the  great  bulk  of  words.  There  is 
little  hope  that  the  question  will  ever  be  conclusively  settled  either  way ;  for  the 
changes  of  time  have  made  it,  iu  most  cases  at  least,  impossible  to  say  wiiat  the  flivt 
form  and  signification  of  a  root  were ;  but  the  Imlauce  of  urguments  seemi^  iu  favor 
of  the  afiArmative  answer.  **  The  action  of  the  mind,"  as  it  has  been  expreswd, 
**  produced  language  by  a  spontAueous  re)>ercas8iou  of  the  impressions  received.** 
Now,  the  articulate  sound  first  affixed  in  this  way  to  an  object  or  an  action  &.<•  its 
sign  cannot  be  conceived  as  arbitrary ;  nor  is  there  any  mysterious  and  inherent  cor- 
respondence between  any  one  conc(;ption  of  the  mind,  and  a  particular  articulate 
sound.  The  soimd  uttered  must  have  been  suggested  by  something  coun«i:led  wi'l» 
the  ohject  or  action  itself ;  and  by  what  more  nnturally  than  by  the  iiiartlcDlate 
sound  whicii  tlie  object  or  action  itself  emits? 

The  chief  objection  to  this  theory  is.  that  if  the  first  words  were  merely  reprodndioni 
of  natural  sounds*,  the  same  natural  objects  would  liave  had  the  same  namcH  uil  the 
world  over.  To  which  it  is  answered,  that  tlie  mind  iu  its  first  efforts  at  namiiijr  did 
not  s-'ck  an  exact  reproduction  of  the  sound,  but  a  i*ugge8tive  imitatiou ;  priiultive 
words  were  not  echoes,  but  "  artistic  representations."  Now,  the  sounds  of  uawre 
are  not  simple,  but  composite.  Like  other  concrete  pluniomeua,  they  preeent  a 
variety  of  aspects ;  and  according  as  one  or  another  aspect  seemed  the  most  protni- 
n(mt  to  tlie  observer,  a  different  vocal  sound  would  suggest  itself  as  the  apprcawiaie 
symbol.  Thus,  when  Profes'sor  Max  Muller  argues  (* 'Science  of  Limgnage," Lond. 
1881)  that  if  tlie  *•  bow-wow  "  theory,  as  lie  nicknames  it,  were  true,  men  would  linve 
evervwherc  spoken  of  a  vioo,  as  is  done  in  the  nursery,  and  not  of  a  cow:  it  set-ms 
a  valid  answer  lo  say,  that  the  Indian  gu,  tiie  Teut  kuh  (Eng.  eoto),  and  the  Gneco- 

.  Lat.  bon;  are  reallv  as  suggestive  imitations  of  the  animal's  actual  voice  a*  woo. 

i  To  take  a  more  striking  instance :  few  words  differ  more  in  sound  and  aspect  tusa 
the  Eiiij.  thunder  (Ger.  donner,  Lat  tonitru,  Pr.  tonnire)  does  from  the  M  xlcau 

'■  name  for  the  same  thing.  Uatlatnitzel,  and  yet  it  would  be  difiic*nlt  to  say  which  to 
the  more  snmjestive  of  the  natural  sound. 

It  Is  no  dr>Hbt  true  that  the  great  bulk  of  names  are  derived  from  roots  haviiif  » 
general  pre<licative  power;  bni  this  hy  no  meano  excludes  the  principle  of  onoiiurt«»- 
pceia.    Thus,  to  take  one  of  the  iustmices  adduced  by  Professor  MQUer  him^eif,  tUt 

vGooQle 


4  01  OnomatopoBf  a 

of  raven  or  crow  (Suup.  kdrara.  Lat.  corvus,  Gr.  korone);  ih's  5s  derived'from 
the  root  ru  or  kru.  which  mean.x  to  cry  or  call,  nnd  tiie  bird  wjis  culled  a  k&rava,  or 
crow,  not  iu  imiiatiou  of  bis  voice,  but  becHus»«  he  wn»  '*  a  sliouter,  acalhsr,  a  crier. 
The  uame  might  liave  been  ap|>lied  to  many  birds,  bnt  it  l)e<*anie  thi;  tradltiomil  unci 
recognised  uame  of  the  crow."  •  Bat  how  came  the  articulalioD  ru  or  kru  to  bo 
chosen  to  convey  ihe  geuenil  niejiniiijr  <jf  crying  or  calllntj;  may  we  not  Piipposij 
that  it  was  suygested  by  the  voice  of  biixln  of  th<'.  crow  kind,  whose  notes  are  most 
markedly  cries  or  calls  to  their  fellows,  as  distinguished  from  pinginir?  Onco 
adopted  In  thit*  particular  case,  it  would  nalumlly  be  extended  to  any  find  of  cry  or 
call,  from  the  harshest  to  the  softest 

ON1*A'RI0,  the  easteramost  and  gmallept  of  the  five  groat  lakes  of  North  America, 
lies  in  43°  10'— 44°  8'  ii.  lut,  and  76°  80'— 80^  w.  lojur.  At  its  ponth-west  comer  it 
receives  the  waters  of  the  upper  lakes  by  the  Niagara,  and  at  its  nortii-etist  corner  It 
issues  into  the  St  Lawrence  ;  which  for  t^ome  dislsmce  below  is  called  the  Lake  of 
the  Thousand  Isles.  Its  surface,  whicli  varit  s  a  f<w  feet  wi!h  the  seascjns,  is  about 
830  fe«t  below  tliai;  of  Lake  Erie  and  i34  fett  above  tide-water.  Its  lK)ttom,  there- 
fore, mnst  be  con8iderai)ly  lower  than  the  level  of  the  Atlantic,  as  it  is  in  eon»e 
places  600  feet  deep.  It  is  190  mili  s  long,  55  in  its  widest  parr,  and  about  480  in 
circnmfei-ence.  Sufficiently  deep  throughout  for  vessels  of  the  largest  tonnage,  it 
has  many  convenient  and  thriving  ports,  of  which  the  chief  are  Kingston,  Port 
Hope,  Coboursf,  Toronto,  Hamilton,  on  the  Canadian  shoi-e,  and  Oswego,  Sackett's 
Harbor,  Port  Genessee  in  the  United  States.  Its  navigation  has  been  facilitated  by 
the  erection  of  16  light-houses  on  the  American  side,  and  18  on  the  Ounadian;  while 
it  is  connected  with  Lake  Erie  by  the  Welland  Canal,  with  the  Erie  Canal  and  New 
York  by  the  Oswego  Canal,  and  by  the  Rideau  Canal  with  the  Ottawa.  Lake  O.  is 
Bubiect  to  violent  storms,  and  it  is  probably  owing  chiefly  to  the  constant  agitation 
of  its  waters  that  it  freezes  only  for  a  few  mil«  s  from  the  shore.  The  shores'of  Lake 
O.  are  generally  very  flit,  but  the  Bay  of  Qninte,  a  long  crooked  arm  of  the  lake, 
which  stretches  about  50  in.,  possesses  some  attmciive  scenery.  Burlington  Bay, 
on  which  Hamilton  lies,  is  a  largo  basin,  almost  inclosed  by  a  natural,  but  strangely 
accunmlated  bank  of  sand«  which  forms  a  beautiful  drive. 

dNTA'RIO,  the  province.    See  Canada. 

ONTENII5'N'l';6,  atown  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Valonela,  45  miles  south- 
by-west  from  Valencia,  on  the  right  bank  or  the  CInriano.  and  near  the  niilvvny 
whicli  connects  Valencia  M'irh  Madrid.  Linen  ami  woollen  fabrics  are  manufactured 
here ;'  I  here  are  also  nuunrous  oil-mills.    Pop,  9508. 

ONTO'LOQY.    See  Metaphtsics. 

O'NUS  PROBA'NDI,  i.e.,  the  burdon  of  proof,  is  often  a  difficult  question  iu 
li ligation  ;  bnt  as  a  general  rule,  the  plaintiff  who  institutes  the  suii  is  hound  to 
g^vvj  proof  of  the  all«*gntions  on  which  he  relies.  There  are  many  nice  nnd  technical 
rules  on  the  subject,  both  in  suits*and  actions,  which  are  too  minute  to  be  lier« 
Btated. 

O'NYX,  an  agate  formed  of  alternating  white  and  black,  or  white  and  d:irk- 
brown  stri]>es  of  chalcedony.  More  nirely,  a  third  color  of  stripes  occurs.  'J'he 
finest  specimens  are  brought  from  Indiji.  O.  is  in  nnieh  esteem  forornamentiil  \mr- 
pQses.  The  ancients  value<l  it  very  higlily,  and  used  it  nnich  for  cameos.  Many  of 
the  finest  cameos  in  existence  »re  of  onyx.  The  name  O.,  however,  api)ears  ti)  have 
been  applied  by  the  ancients  more  cxten-ively  thnn  it  now  is,  and  even  to  striped 
calcareous  alabaster,  such  as  is  now  cr.lled  Onyx  Marble,  'i  he  Sardonyx  of  the 
ancients  is  a  variety  of  O.,  in  which  white  stripes  alternate  with  stripes  of  a  dark- 
red  v.iriety  of  caraelian,  c.illed  eard  or  sarda.  It  is  one  of  the  rarest  and  must 
beautiful  kinds  »f  O.,  and  is  more  valued  than  carnelian. 

ONYX  MARBLE,  a  very  beautiful  material,  which  first  came  into  general  notice 
in  thia  country  iu  1862.  when  the  B^-ench  made  a  large  display  of  it  in  the  Inter- 
national fixtiibition.  It  is  a  stalaymitic  formation,  which  was  discovered  by  the 
French  in  making  roads  in  the  province  of  Oran  in  Algiers.  It  is  a  tnnisluctnt 
limestone,  containing  traces  of  magnesia  and  carbonate  of  iron  ;  its  sp  ciftc  gi-aviiy 
\a  2-T30.    The  quarries  are  worked  by  a  company,  and  tlie  artistic  workmen  of 


y  Google 


i 


8?f.?  482 

France  nre  turning  It  to  good  acconut,  in  the  manufacture  of  very  beautiful  onia- 
uieutal  workti. 

OOJEI'N.    See  Ujbin. 

O'OLITE  (Gr.  eirg-stone),  a  Tariety  of  limegtone,  often  veiy  p-ro  crtlcanons 
Pl)ar.  distingnisilied  by  its  peculiar  sOructniv,  being  conipot»ed  of  grains  counec?cd 
togctlier  by  a  calcareou.-*  cement ;  the  whole  much  resembling  tlie  roe  of  a  fi*«h.  The 
gniiue  are  not  unlrequtntly  hollow.  Many  oollteB,  as  in  the  south  of  EngJaud, are 
excellent  building-stones.  There  is  no  imporfcint  mineralogic.»l  difference  between 
O.  and  Pisolite,  or  Pea-stone.  O.,  as  a  geological  term,  is  extended  far  Ix^ywid  its 
mfneraloglcal  and  original  signification. 

OOLITE  or  Jurassic  Group  (in  Geology),  an  extensive  and  important  serie*  of 
strata  of  S<'condary  j»pe,  underlying  the  Chullc  foimation,  and  ri'Stlug  uirtheTiia-. 
In  Britain  they  received  the  name  Oolite,  because  in  the  district  where  they  were  flrrt 
examined  and  described  by  Dr  W.  Smith,  the  limestones  contained  in  tliem  had  an 
oolitic  structure  (see  foregoing  article).  J'he  name  Jurassic  has  been  given  to  them 
on  the  continent,  because  the  range  of  the  Jura  Mountains  in  tlie  north-west  of  Switr- 
eriand  is  almost  entirely  conipjsed  of  them.  The  strata  of  the  group  have  beeii 
arranged  in  the  following  order,  a  he  maximum  thickuuss  of  each  divbiou  i3  givca 
in  feet: 

Upper  Oolitb. 

Pent. 

1.  PnrbeckBeds £00 

2.  PoiUnml  Beds : ITO 

8.  Kimmcridgc  Clay 600 

Kiddle  Oolite. 

4.  CornlRag 190 

6.  Oxford  Clay GOO 

;90 

Lower  Oolite. 

6.  Cornbrash  and  Forest  Marble 80 

7.  Qi-eat  Oolite  and  Sionetsflild  Slate 150 

8.  Fuller's  Erirth .'. 155) 

9.  Inferior  Oolite '250 

OO     . 

Lias. 

10.  Upper  Lias 300 

11.  Marlstone SOO 

12.  Lower  lias ^ «00 

1100 

Total S480 

It  is  apparent  from  this  table  that  the  Oolitic  rocks  consist  of  three  txtensiveclflT 
depoi^its,  each  of  which  forms  the  basis  t.f  a  smaller  and  variable  i^et  of  sands  nial 
limestones ;  the  Up|)er  Oolites  resting  on  the  Kimmeridgu  Clay,  the  Coral  Kagon  ll<e 
Oxford  Clav.  and  tin;  Lower  Oolite  on  the  Lias. 

1.  The  Purbeck  h«Mls,  unlike  tlie  other  oolitic  rocks,  are  chiefly  freshwater  de- 
posits. Though  lithologically  they  are  very  similar  throirguout,  the  |!«culittriti<sof 
the  confaitjed  fossils  have  caused  them  to  be  grouped  into  three  series — the  Ui>i>»'T. 
Middle,  and  Lower.  The  Upptn*  Pnrbeeks  are  purely  freshwat(!r,  containing  b  df 
of  limestone  and  sbale,  which  abomid  in  shells  of  *lak«  and  river  mollnsca  a»»l 
cyprides.  TIih  stone  called  Purl»eck  Marble,  formerly  so  extaisively  i^'d  in 
the  ornamental  architecture  of  English  churches  and  other  buildings,  Ix^longs  to  this 
divitiion  ;  it  consists  of  tlie  shells  of  Palndiuse,  held  togetlter  by  a  somewhat  aiyiHa- 
ceouj*  paste.  The  Middle  Purbecks  nre  partly  freshwater,  and  partir  brmldith 
or  mariue.  The  *♦  cinder-i)ed,"  ton»pos«l  of  a  vast  accumulation  of  ah^fa  of  (Mnfi 
4istorUnt  occurs  in  this  section,  and  near  it  is  the  narrow  layer  from  wlilcklir 


Digitized  by 


Google 


483 


L 


^5^ 


Ooie'n 
Oolte 

B'T.bVs  recently  obtained  the  remaine  of  8;;veml  mammalin.  The  Lower  Pnr1»eckj»  ore 
cUi  fly  fre^hwutt-r,  with  sotiu;  iutercniated  brsickinli  or  iimrine  beds,  ami  one  or  two 
old  vegetable POilB  iHlltd  by  the  qujirrymcii  "dirt-bede,"  which  coiitiiii  the  slems  of 
Cycatlaceous  nod  Coniftvoiis  plant?.  2.  The  Porrhiiid  beds  coithiat  of  ooh'llc  and 
other  lime^toneRintvrHtnitified  \villi  duyp,  und  piisoiug  twiow  into  Btinds  and  pand- 
8tone9,  from  which  the  well-known  build injr-st one  Is  obtaim-d,  of  which  St  Pani's 
and  niauy  of  the  priucip.il  bnildings  In  London  ai-e  built.  8.  Tlie  Khnmeridtre  Clay 
is  generally  a  dark-gray  bituminous  shale,  with  intercalated  beds  of  pand,  calcareous 
grit,  and  layer*  of  nephiria.  I'he  dark  shale  in  some  places  piu-ses  into  an  impure 
brown  shaly  coal.  4.  The  Coral  Rag  conlain>',  as  its  name  imj)liej»,  an  abundance  of 
corah",  in  bluish  linitstoue  l>ed»  mix.d  wiih  layers  of  calcarcons*  grit.  The  Solenho- 
fi-n  lithographic.  8tone,wltli  Its  beauiifully  prepervcd  and  varied  fossil  remains,  belongs 
to  tills*  division.  5.  Ti.c  Oxford  Clay  is  a  dark-blue  or  blackiph  clnv  wilhont  coraln, 
hut  haying  a  larg<!  number  of  benntifully  ]n*e8ervi(l  A  mnionftes  and  Belemnit*  s.  Bi-dn 
of  calcareous  saiid.«-tone,  called  Kelloway  Kock,  occur  in  its  lower  poriion.  6.  The 
Corn  brash  consistti  of  thin  beds  of  cream-colored  limestone,  with  sandstones  and  clayn, 
nud  the  Forest  Marble  (}«o  named  from  Wycliwood  Forest)  is  conii)08(Ml  of  an  arglll:!- 
ceous  limestone,  with  numerous  marine  fossils,  bine  marls  and  slmUs,  andydlow  sili- 
cious  pand.  At  Bradford,  Wiltshire,  the  Forest  Marble  is  replacetl  by  a  considerable 
thickness  of  blue  unctuone  clay.  7.  The  great  Oolite  Is  composed  of  slielly  limestones, 
siuidHtones,  and  shelly  calcareous  sandstones,  and  the  Stonesfleld  Slate  is  a  shvhtly 
oolitic  shelly  limestone,  which  splits  into  vei7  thin  Klabs,  errimcously  called  **  slates ;" 
it  is  remarkable  for  the  remains  of  terrestrial  ivptiles  and  maunnals  fbnnd  in  it.  The 
Bath  Oolite,  a  celebrated  bulldinir-stone,  l)elongs  to  this  division.  8.  The  Fuller's 
Earth  gronp  Is  a  local  deposit  found  near  Batn  ;  it  coufisls  of  a  scries  of  blue  and 
yellow  thai  s  and  marls,  some  of  which  have  properties  lilting  them  for  the  use  of 
the  fuller.  9.  The  Inferior  Oolite  is  composed  of  a  series  of  i)e<Is  of  pisolitic  and 
shelly  limestones,  brown  marl,  and  brown  sandy  limestone,  all  abounding  in  fossils. 
10.  The  Lias  (^.  v.)  is  a  great  clay  deposit.  It  is  divided  into  the  Upper  and 
Low<r  Lins.  which' consist  of  thin  beds  of  limestone  soattcri-d  through  a  great 
thickness  of  blue  clay,  and  separating  these  two  groups,  the  MarliMone,  or  calca- 
reous or  ferruginous  sandSt  on.-.    The  Has  abounds  m  l>eautifu!ly  jjreserved  fossils. 

Th<?  o<»lite  occupies,  in  England,  a  zone  nearly  thirty  miles  in  breadth, 
extending  across  the  country  Ironi  York -hire  •  to  Dorsetshire.  In  Scotland, 
p-ttche.-*  of  lias  and  Oxford  clay  occur  in  the  ishuids  of  Mu!l  and  Skye, 
and  on  the  western  shores  of  ihe  mainland,  and  beds  belonging  to  the  lower 
oolite  are  fomid  at  Brora,  on  the  east  coast  of  Sutherland,  which  contain  an  impure 
coaL  The  only  oolite  rocks  in  Ireland  are  a  few  isolated  patches  in  Antrim,  wliich 
abound  with  the  fossils  of  the  lower  lias.  On  the  continent,  rocks  of  this  age  oc- 
cur in  Germany  and  Prance,  bnt  they  Inive  l>een  most  extensively  studied  ii)  the  Jiirar 
Mountains,  which,  though  having  a  height  of  6000  feet,  are  entirely  composed  of 
oolite  and  cretaceous  rocks.  The  strata  are  greatly  b<"nt  and  contorted,  and  as  they 
approach  the  Swiss  Alps,  the  great  mass  of  wTilch  is  also  formed  of  oolite,  they  be- 
come completely  metasnorphosed  into  clay  slate?,  nuca  schi^^ts,  gntiis?*,  and  crystal- 
line lim«'Stones.  Beds  of  oolite  have  been  noticed  in  Cuich,  in  India.  In  Ausirali.-v 
similar  beds  occur  on  the  w'estern  coast,  and  probtibly  some  of  the  coal-beds  of  New 
South  Wales,  Victoria,  and  Tasmania  belong  to  the  oolite.  In  both  North  and  South 
America,  fossils,  a]»i)arently  of  oolitic  age,  have  been  found ;  but  these  deposits  re- 
quire t<»  be  more  exactly  exatnined. 

The  oolite  is  remarkable  for  the  abundance  of  its  fossils,  and  is  in  this  ropect  in 
Btrlking  contrast  to  the  immediately  preceding  Trlass'c  and  Pcrndan  iieriods.  '!  ho 
several  freshwater  d<*.posits,  and  the  ancient  vegetable  surfaces,  contidn  the  remain.H 
of  a  considerabie  number  of  plants.  Ferns  siil!  abound,  an<l  with  them  are  asho- 
ciated  species  that  are  evidently  related  to  the  living  genera  Cup^reMtw,  ^raucana 
and  Zamia, 

Corals  aboiuid  in  several  of  the  beds.  The  lirachiopods  are  tlie  only  division  of 
the  inollusca  that  is  not  largely  represented.  The  conchifers  and  gasteropods  shew 
a  great  number  and  variety  of  new  genera,  which  are  nciirer  the  forms  of  the  pres- 
ent day  than  those  that  preceded  them.  But  the  remarkable  feature  of  molluscjui 
life  is  the  enormonB  development  of  the  cephalopods.  Whole  beds  are  almost  en- 
tirely made  up  of  their  shells.  No  less  than  600  species  of  ammonites  have  been 
described,  chiefly  Irom  the  rocks  of  this  period,  and  the  belemnites  were  also  wy 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


^- 


Oomrawutti  AQl 

Open  ^Oi 

iminerons.  Th©  crinoida  have  become  scarce,  but  are  replaced  by  Btar-flplies  and 
sea-iircbliiB.  Tlie  freehwater  l)eds  contoiii  the  reinaiua  of  many  insect  forms.  The 
heterocercul-tttiled  fish  give  way  to  tlie  more  modern  tiomocercals,  and  the,  tnw 
sharks  and  rays  make  their  appearance,  though  the  old  cci^tracioiits  are  still  n-pre- 
sented  by  some  survivors.  The  characteristic  featnre  of  •  the  oolitic  {leriod  Wjj?  its 
reptiles.  The  laud,  the  t^ea,  and  the  air  had  each  their  fitting  inhaoitants  of  this 
class.  The  various  species  of  ptei*odactyIeS)  some  not  larger  ttian  tlie  bat,  others 
surpassing,  in  the  stretch  of  iheir  membranous  '*  wiu^,"  the  size  of  the  lai^est  liviug 
bird,  were  the  terrors  of  the  air;  wliile  their  allies,  the  monster  ichthyositnra  anJl 

f)leslosaurs,  held  the  mastery  of  the  waters ;  and  the  huge  megalosaur.^,  some  uot 
esa  than  80  feet  in  length,  trod  the  earth.  The  few  mammalian  renniins  liitberto 
found,  have  a  special  interest  from  their  autiqnity,  l)eing  the  first  evidence  of  thin 
liigh  order  of  animals  on  the  globe.  They  belong,  apparently,  to  marsaplnl  ani- 
mals; one  sptfciesis,  however,  supposed  by  Oweu  to  have  been  a  houfed  and  berb- 
JTorous  placental  mammal. 

OOMRAWU'TTI.  or  Amrawati,  an  important  comniercial  town  of  British  India, 
in  t  he  province  of  Berar,  86  miles  west-by-south  from  Nagpore,  on  one  of  the  head- 
waters of  the  Puma,  a  bnuich  of  the  TaptL  The  district  which  contains  it  was  ceded 
by  the  Nizam  to  tlie  British  government ;  and  transit-duties,  which  formerly  mnch 
interfered  with  the  commerce  of  the  town,  haw  been  abolished.  Several  consider- 
able business  firms  are  established  here ;  and  the  chief  merchant**  of  Upper  ludiH 
and  of  Bombay  have  agents,  who  often  make  advances  to  the  cotton  cultivator?  of 
the  surrounding  country,  on  security  of  their  crop.  There  are  large  cotton  ware- 
houses at  Oomrawuttl.    P0[).  23,410. 

OONALA'SKA.    See  Unalasuka. 
:     OOHA'LSK.    See  Uralsk. 
f     OO'RFA.    SeeURFA. 

OO'RGA.    SeeUROA. 

OO'RI  or  Lim|)opo  River,  an  importimt  river  system  of  Sonth-Eastefn  Africa, 
rising  in  hit.  2u°  s.  in  the  high  plaieim  called  the  Magaliealierg,  which  l>oauds  the 
basin  of  the  Orang<:  River  to  the  north,  and  with  itadfSereut  branchc«,  the  Miiriqaiii 
Kgoimme,  Lipalnla,  &c.,  draining  the  regions  now  known  as  the  Transvaal  Republic 
Flowing  fii-sl  to  the  north,  tl««  O.  irradually  turns  to  thecast,  and  issup})Osed  to  reach 
the  Indian  Ocean  at  Imhambanc  in  lat.  24°,  aft^M-  a  course  of  950  nn'les,  and  driiu- 
ing  a  basin  of  not  less  than  250,000  .square  miles,  yet,  like  other  South  African  rfvirs, 
It  IS  not  navigable,  and  the  very  position  of  its  embt)ucliure  is  not  yet  very  satisfac- 
torily ascertained.  The  barin  of  tliis  river  occupies  the  depression  which  exists  1)©- 
twe<Mi  th«i  watershed  of  I  he  Orange  River  qu  the  south,  and  the  south  tribntaiies  of 
'theZamb.si  on  the  north. 

OOROOME'YAH,  town  and  lake.    S.^e  Uritmeyah. 

OO'STERIIOUT,  a  flourishing  town  in  the  Netherlands,  province  of  North  Bra- 
bant, six  miles  north-north-east  from  Breda,  is  sitnati'd  in  a  well-wo(tded,  ffrtile 
district  of  country.  Pop.  (18TI)  8T55,  of  who.n  8425  belougi«d  to  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church.  Much  businea&  is  dune  in  the  grain  and  c:ittle  mnrkf>t«.  There  am 
14  t any ardr",  several  flourishing  l)eer-brewing  eftablisUments,  6  potleriei*,  and  4 
brick-works.  O.  has  a  grammar-^chool,  and  a  numiery,  the  innuit«s  of  which 
employ  themsflves  in  teaclving  the  chihhvn  of  the  poor.  The  haudsotne  town-hoose 
ana  gr»at  Roman  Cathol.c  Church  stand  on  the  market-place,  which  Is  shaded  with 
iiuden-trt'es. 

Near  O.  is  an  extensive  wood,  where  nrt^  the  mins  of  the  honse  of  SiiTeii  or 
Oosterhout,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  Counts  of  Stryeu,  under  whose  jiirisdicticn 
were  not  only  the  town  and  barony  of  Breda,  but  also  the  marqaisate  of  Bergen-op- 
Zooin.  * 

OOTACAMU'ND,  the  chief  town  In  the  Neilgherry  Hills,  andthegnmt  sauatoHam 
of  Southern  India.  These  hills  are  situated  between  lio— 12o  n.  lat,  and  7«°— 17°  ••. 
long.  The  *'levatlon  of  O.  is  7400  feet  above  the  sea;  the  mean  teinperatore  hHnic 
about  49®,  the  maximum  77°,  and  the  inininmni  88°.  The  average  rainfall  » 
46  inches.    Its  distauce  ia  only  about  360  miles  from  Madras,  aiid  it  ia  ea^  at  a 


y  Google 


485  g^n"*""* 

as  the  railway  now  conveyt  the  traveller  to  the  foot  of  the  Hills.  The  other  stations 
,  on  the  Neilgherries  are  Coonoor,  Kottagherry,  and  Jackatalla,  or  Wellington.  In 
the  lust  place,  there  is  a  flue  range  of  barracks  for  £uro{)eun  troops.  The  iiamber 
of  European  settlers  ou  these  hills  is  increaeiog.  There  are  tliriving  plaututions  of 
tea  and  coffee,  and  the  cinchona  or  quinine  plant    Pop.  (1872)  99S2. 

OO'TRUM,  an  Indian  fibre,  derived  from  the  stem  of  Dcemia  extefua^  a  plant  of 
the  natnral  order  A nclepiadiacece,  nhuo^imt  in  many  parts  of  Hindustan.  The 
fibre  is  soft,  white,  silky,  and  strong,  and  is  regarded  as  a  promising  subi^titutc  for 
flax. 

O 'PAH,  or  King-fish  (Irampris  auttatua  ovL.luna)^&  fish  of  the  Dory  (q.  v.) 
family  (2fe*(to«),  occitsioually  fonnd  in  the  Brttii«h  seas,  bnt  inon*  cuinniou  in  more 
northern  regions,  and  fonnd  not  only  in  the  Atlantic  and  Arctic  Ocians,  but  alwo  in 
tlie  Pacific,  as  on  the  coa-tsof  China  and  Japan.  It  is  ot  an  oval  form,  greatly 
i-ora|)ressea,  with  small  thin  scales,  the  month  small  and  destitute  of  teeth,  a  single 
dorsal  fiu  much  elevated  in  front  and  extending  ahnot^t  to  the  tail,  ^i'his  fish  attanis 
a  lar«e  sisse,  being  soraetinios  five  feet  long  and  160  ponnds  in  weight.  It  Is  bril- 
liantly colored ;  the  upper  jmrt  of  the  bacE  and  sides  rich  green,  reflecling  pnrple 
and  gold  iu  different  lights,  the  lower  parts  yellowish-green,  ronnd  yellowinh-whlte 
spotcc  above  and  below  t lie  lateral  line;  all  the  fins  bright  vermilion.  The  flesh  is 
mnch  esteemed ;  it  ib  red  like  salmon,  and  is  said  to  resemble  it  in  flavor. 

O'PAL,  a  mineral  which  differs  from  quartz  in  containing  from  5  to  13  pt-r  cent, 
of  water,  its  only  other  epst-ntial  C(juslitucnt  beii;^'  silica,  althongh  a  Utile 
alumina,  oxide  of  iron,  ifcc,  is  often  pre-ent.  It  is  never  found  crys- 
tallls«'d,  and  does  not  exhibit  a  ciystalline  structure  like  quartz.  It  has  a  con- 
choidul  Jncture,  and  is  v.*ry  easily  broken.  There  are  many  varieties,  which  pass 
into  one  another,  so  that  Iheir  precise  limits  cauwot  l>e  defined,  from  which  has  arisen 
no  little  confusion  of  namea  The  finest  kind  is  called  Precious  0.  or  Noble  0.,  and  ' 
sometimes  OriefUal  Opal.  It  is  semitransparent  or  translucent,  usually  of  a  bluish 
or  yellowish  white  color,  yellow  by  transmitted  I'ght,  and  exhibits  a  beantifnl  play 
of  brilliant  colors,  owing  to  minute  fissures  which  refract  the  light.  It  is  much 
valned  for  setting  in  tings,  brooches,  Ac,  and  is  polished  with  a  ccmvex  surface, 
never  cut  into  fticets.  both  because  of  its  brittleness,  and  l)ecause  its  play  of  colors 
18  thus  liest  exhibited.  The  ancients  valued  opals  very  highly.  The  Homan  senator 
Nonius  preferred  exile  to  giving  up  an  O.  to  Mark  Antony.  This  O.  was  still  to  bo 
seen  iu  th<;  days  of  Pliny,  who  ascribes  to  it  a  value  equal  to  more  than  X10(>,000 
sterling.  The  imperial  cabmet  of  Vienna  contains  the  most  celeimitcd  O.  now  known 
to  exist.  It  is  five  inches  by  two  inches  and  a  half.  The  finest  opals  are  almost  till 
brought  from  Kaschau  iuHnngai^,  wlicre  they  are  found  disseminated  inatrachytic 
congfomerate.  They  are  mostly  very  small^  but  even  a  very  small  O.,  if  really  l>eanti- 
ful,  is  worth  four  Or  five  ponnds ;  and  th<r  pnce  increases  very  rapidly  with  increase  of 
size.  Precious  O.  is  found  also  in  Saxony,  in  South  America,  &c  When  the  colors  jire 
not  equally  difftiiaed.  but  in  detiiche<l  spot.>»,  Jewell  rs  call  it  Harlequin  Opal.  There 
is  a  dark  or  blackish  v.iriety,  appjirently  tinged  by  oxide  of  iron,  which  occasionally 
exhibits  very  beautiful  reflections,  and  is  then  much  prized.  Oirasol  (q.  v.)  and 
Cacholtmg  (q.  v.)  are  varieties  of  0]yaL  Wiiat  lapidhries  call  Prime  WO}>al  is  clay- 
porpliyiy,  or  other  stone  containing  many  sn^all  irrains  of  opal.  It  is  cut  into  8lab>-, 
and  made  into  boxes  aii^d  other  ornam«  ntal  articles;  the  stone  which  contains  the 
oi>als  iMjiug  often  artificially  blackened  by  boiling  in  oil,  and  afterwards  exposing  to 
a  HKMierate  heat. — Common  O.  is  HemitrauHparent,  white,  yellow,  grwn,  red,  or 
brown,  and  does  not  exhibit  any  play  of  v.olors.  It  is  not  a  rare  mineral,  and  is 
chk'fly  found  in  clay- porphyry.  Sevti-trpal  is  more  opaque.  Wood  O.  is  a  petrifac- 
tion, and  exhibits  the  form  and  ctructure  of  wood,  ttie  place  of  which  has  been 
taken  by  the  siliceous  mineral.    Hyalite  and  Menilite  are  varieties  of  oi>al. 

OPEN-BILL  (i4»uwtorm«j),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  Heron  family  (-irdctdte), 
natives  of  the  East  Indies  and  of  Africa,  remarkable  for  the  structure  of  the 
bill,  tlif.  mandibles  being  in  contact  only  at  the  base  and  tip,  with  a  wide  interval 
l>etwcen  their  edges  in  the  middle.  They  frequent  the  sea-coast  and  rivers,  and 
prey  on  fish  and  reptiles.  One  species  is  well  known  iu  India  as  the  Coromandi  1 
HeroT!. 

OA'iSN  DOOBS,  Letters  of,  iu  Scolch  Law,  mean  a  writ  authorieiuga  messenger 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Of^  486 

to  poiud  or  nelze  snoods  In  lockfast-placet),  and  to  break  open  the  locked  doors  ii 
order  to  effect  the  seizure.    See  House. 

0'PERA,ainiistcnldramn,  in  wliicli  nmsic  forms  an  eseentiul  part,  andnotsmon 
accessory  Hccompaiiiineut.  As  in  Ibe  higher  dnima,  poetry  snpersedes  the  pro^  of  or- 
dinary life,  »o  111  the  opera,  with  perhaps  as  gr<;at  artistic  riffht,  the  hingnugeof  mnslc 
Is  introduced  tit  a  considerable  sacrifice  of  probability.  The  libretto  or  words  art, 
in  the  niuderu  opera,  a  peg  on  which  to  hang  ttie  music,  rather  than  the  masic  nu 
iuceseory  to  tl»e  written  drama.  The  coniitoneut  p'trts  of  nu  opera  are  rocitatiTee, 
duets,  trios,  quarletts,  choruses,  nud  finales,  accompniiied  throughout  by  un  orchei«- 
tra,  aud  the  wholn  is  pnceded  by  an  instrument ul  Overture  (q.  v).  Kecltiitiveis 
declautation,  which,  iu  its  succesaiou  of  musiud  sounds  and  rliythu),t*trivestoafi8!iii- 
ilate  itself  as  much  as  pot.9ible  to  the  accent'*  of  spi-ech,  and  therefore  does  not 
entirely  conform  to  nm<*ical  rhythm.  T\v  accessorie.<«  of  fcenic  representation  ire 
also  present-,  and  a  Biillet  (q.  v.)  is  aNo  frequently  introduced.  Ii>  ^onie  of  tiie  Ger- 
man 0|)era8,  and  in  the  French  ojtera  ctymiqtiet  apokeu  dialogue  withoat  mosictjikes 
the  p'ace  of  irecitiitive.  Among  the  different  Tarieties  of  the  optfra  eunmerated  are 
the  great  opera  or  opera  aeria,  of  a  dignified  character ;  the  romantic  opera,  eiubrxc- 
Ing  an  admixture  of  the  grave  and  lively ;  the  oomic  opera  or  opera  huffa;  as  wd! 
as  many  intermediate  variotiiS. 

The  idea  of  the  opera  may  uv  part  have  arisen  from  tho  Qreek  drama,  wirich  pos- 
sessed,  to  a  considerable  extent,  the  op<^ratic  character;  the  chond  parts  were  enog, 
and  the  dialogue  was  delivered  in  a  sustained  k^-y,  probably  resemblinjf  operatic  n-ci- 
tative  more  than  ordinary  speech,  i  he  earliest  extant  example  of  any  i  oniporiticm 
resembling  the  lyric  drama  of  the  modems  is  Adam  de  hi  Hale's  comic  (•pera  of  "U 
gieus  (le  jeu)  de  Robin  et  de  Marian,"  compose<l  in  the  13th  c.,  the  music  of  which  i» 
wonderful  for  its  date.  Ttie  n«xt  appearance  of  anything  like  opera  is  in  the  Wth 
century,  when  various  musical  dr.innis  were  compOf«ed  In  t  lie  madrlgalesque  style.  Au 
opera  composed  by  Zarlino  is  said  to  have  been  performed  at  Venice  when  Henry  III. 
ptissed  through  that  city  on  his  way  front  Poland  to  France.  About  the  »une  tiax*, 
a  pastoral  caUed  "Dafne,'  written*  by  the  i)Oer  Rhmcci,  was  set  to  music  by  Peri; 
and  the  stime  poet  and  musician  conjointly  pix)duced  the  lyric  tragedy  of  **  La  Mortu 
di  Enridice,"  which  was  represented  at  tlie  theatre  of  Florence  in  1600.  Cl«odio 
Monteverde,  one  of  a  society  of  amateui's.  known  as  the  "  Florentine  Acadeiny,"wlJ0 
devoted  themselves  avowedly  to  the  t«tu  iy  and  revival  of  Greek  mnsic,  soon  after- 
'wards  produced  his  "  Orfeo,''a  "  favola  di  nm»*ica,"iu  whose  performance  an  ordies- 
tra  of  no  fewer  than  36  performers  was  cidled  into  requisition,  most  of  tlie  iiiatrti- 
inents  beine,  however,  only  used  in  twos  or  threes,  and  never  more  than  ten  at  a  time. 
From  these  oeginnings,  the  opera  advanced  into  one  of  the  permanent  institationf  of 
Italy— a  development  of  nmslc  at  first  strongly  opposed  in  diameter  and  style  to  tlie 
music  of  the  church.  With  the  progress  of  music,  and  the  perfecting  of  the  mnsicnl 
instruments  which  went  to  form  the  orchestra,  the  lyric  drama4)e^au,  towards  the 
middle  of  last  century,  to  approach  its  present  character.  Of  the  mnumeral)le Ital- 
ian operas  of  last  centuiy,  only  Cimarosa's  "  Matrimonio  Segreto"  ret^uu!*  its  place 
on  the  stace.  Cherubim,  the  tirst  of  the  juoro  modern  school,  after  prododnflr  UI« 
"Quinto  Fabio"  at  Milan,  became  naturalised  in  France:  Rossini,  who  sncceediHl 
him  in  Italy,  is  the  greatest  name  in  the  Italian  opera.  Nothing  can  exceed  ihede- 
liciously  fresh  character  of  ihe  bept  known  operar<  of  this  truly  irreat  mupician,  ''H 
Barbieredi  Siviglia,"  " Otello,"  "La  Qtizza Ladra," "  Semirjin^de,"  and  '  GuiiluBine 
Tell."  Next  to  them  rank  the  eqnally  well-known  works  of  BeUiul.  *•  Norma,"  '*L» 
8onnaml)ula,"  and  **  I  Puritan!;"  •*  Lncia  di  Lamniermoor,"  "LucrexJa  Boreli.'* 
and  "L'Elisir  d'Amore,"  the  three  chefsd'ceuvre  of  D<mix(tti,  alone  livalling  wHin 
in  public  estimation.  A  newer  hcluol  of  opera  has  recently  sprung  up  iu  I«nly> 
more  grand  if  less  fresh,  of  which  tlie  chief  master  Is  Verdi,  whose  **  Kruani,"  **  Sfr-  i 
buchodonosof,"  "I  Lombardi,"  "Otello,"  "  R!«'oletto,"  "  II  lYovatore,"  *»LaTni-  1 
viata,"  and  others  haive  attained  immense  popuKirity  in  Italy,  and  wherever  the  Ital- 
ian opera  has  been  naturalised. 

From  Italy  the  opera  was  Introduced  into  Germany,  where,  more  scieutiflc  aud 
less  aetisuons  than  in  Italy,  ft  flourished  in  opposition  to  national  as  well  as  ecdesl* 
astical  nnisic  Gtermany  divides  with  Italy  the  honor  of  perfecting  orchestral  mn^lc 
and  the  opera.  Glflck,  educat.eil  in  Italy,  produced  hip  ''Or'a  > "  in  Vieuna.  a«idtlH'Q 
went  to  Paris,  where  the  French  .-.doptcd  him  lUi  we  did  llaudcl.    Mosiri  waa  Ui© 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


487  •*>*" 

first  composer  of  operqj*  for  the  modern  orchestra :  **  Ifiomeneo,"  *•  II  Seraglio," 
"Le  NozEo  di  Figaro,"  "Don  Giovmuii,"  and  *'Zai»bcrfl6te"  are  Ills  principal 
operatic  works,  nufurpaesed  by  any  thing  that  has  sncceeded  them.  The  moj't  Im- 
portant Gkirman  operas  composed  since  their  date  are  **  Fidello  "  by  Beethoven  ; 
*'Der  Freischutv'  "Enryauthe,"  and  •*OI)erou  "  by  Weber;  **  Fani»t"  by  Snohr ; 
and  the  goi-geous  operas  of  Meyerbeer,  ''Robt-rt  le  DJable,"  **Les  Huguenots,"  and 
'•LeProphdte,"  jind  *'  L'Etoile  da  Nord."  "  Les  Huguenots,"  notwithstanding  its  in- 
volving ejiormouB  difficulties  in  representation,  keeps  its  place  in  every  operatic 
theatre  in  Europe.  Wagner^  the  chief  exponent  of  a  more  recent  school,  generally 
known  as  that  of  tiie  **  music  of  the  future,"  haa  produced  the  operas  of  **  Tann- 
bfiuser,"  *•  Loliengrin,"  Ac,  which  enjoy  at  present  a  large  share  of  public  favor  in 
Germany,  and  have  »^o  become  known  in  Enjfland. 

In  France,  the  earliest  operatic  representalion  of  which  we  have  any  record  was 
in  1582.  About  16W,  llio-Ablwt  Pernn  obtained  from  .Louis  XTV  the  privilege  of 
establishins:  an  opera  in  the  French  language  at  Paris,  and  in  1672  the  privilege  was 
transferred  to  Liilli,  who  may  be  considered  the  founder  of  the  French  lyrical  drama. 
Lulli's  po]>ulMrity  continued  during  a  long  i)eriod,  and  was  only  put  an  end  to  by  the 
rise  of  the  German  G  uck,who,  naturalised  in  Paris,  produced  there  his  '^Iphigdnie 
in  Aniide  **  and  '*  Alceste."  It  is  greatly  through  Glfick'sinflnetice  th^t  tlie  modern 
French  opera  Ims  t>ccome  what  it  is,  a  composite  work  combining  French,  German, 
and  Italian  elements.  Its  best-known  productions  include  M^hul's  "  Joseph." 
Hai^vy's  "  Jnive,"  Auber's  **  Masaniello,"  "  Fra  DiavoU)."  and  "  Diamans  de  la 
Couronne,"  and  Gounod's  recent  opera  of  ♦*Fauet."  The  Italian  opera,  introducd 
in  Paris  in  1646  by  Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  superseded  in  1670,  was  revived  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  present  century,  and  has  since  flourisiied  side  by  side  with  the  national 
opera  of  France. 

The  possibility  of  a  national  English  opera  seems  first  to  have  Ijeen  shewn  ]yy 
Pmrcell,  who,  through  Humphreys,  had  learned  much  from  Lnlii.  His  music  to 
Dryden's  "  King  Arthur  "  is  very  beautiful,  thouijh  kept  throughout  subordinate  to 
the  btisineFS  of  the  drama.  '*  The  Bcjrgar's  Opera,"  as  set  to  music  by  Dr  Pepusch, 
was  a  selection  of  the  ail's  most  popular  at  the  time.  It  has  retained  its  place  on 
tiie  staee,  as  also  has  Dr  Anie's  ^^  Artaxerxes."  a  translation  from  Metastasio 
adaptecVto  music  rich  in  melody.  I^ie  importatiou  of  the  Italian  oi>era  putt)  stop, 
for  a  time  at  least,  to  the  further  deve1opin(>iit  of  an  opera  in  England.  In  1706, 
"ArainoS,"  with  Eugtisli  words  adapted  to  Italian  airs,  was  performed  at  Drmy 
Lane.  In  1710,  "Aimahide,"  wliolly  in  Italian,  was  i>erformed  exclusively  by 
Italian  aingera  at  the  Haymarket  'iMieatre;  and  a  succession  of  attempts  of  tin-  kind 
ended  in  the  permanent  establishment  of  the  Italian  op<  ra.  The  arrival  of  Ilnndel 
In  Sugland  decided  the  future  prepress  of  the  opera.  That  great  nul^ter  >vas  during 
the  grreater  part  of  his  life  an  opera  composer  and  opera  maniiger.  He  coinposed 
for  the  London  stage  no  fewer  than  44  operas.  German,  Italian,  and  English.  These 
now  forg(»tteii  operas  were  of  course  not  the  complex  compositions  of  a  later  i)eriod, 
wbicli  could  MOt  have  been  perfonned  in  the  then  imperfect,  state  of  orchestral  iu- 
strnments.  A  recitative  was  set  to  music  nearly  as  fast  as  the  composer  could  put 
notes  on  paper,  and  the  songs  were  accompanied  in  general  by  only  one  violin  aiid 
bass,  the  compcmer  sitting  at  the  liarpsichord,  and  supplying  what  was  wanting. 
Ftom  Handel's  time  onwards,  the  opera  flourished  as  an  exotic  in  Biitbin,  the  sing- 
ers being'foreign,  and  the  works  performed  being  either  Italian  or  occasionally  Ger- 
man or  French.  Attempts  crowned  with  some  measure  of  success  have  latterly 
teen  made  to  est^iblish  an  opera  of  a  natioua)  character  in  England.  Balfe's  *'  Bo- 
bemi.ini  Girl"  and  "Rose  of  Castile,"  are  the  best  works  wliich  this  school  has 
produced,  and  have  attained  with  other  operas  by  Balfe,  Wallace,  and  Macfarren,  a 
considerable  measure  of  popularity.  See  Hogarth's  •'Memoirs  of  tlie  Opera "^ 
(London,  1851). 

OPERA-GLASS  fPr.  lorgnsjUeQer.  theater-perepectiv).  This  is  a  double  telescope, 
whick  is  used  for  looking  at  objects  that  require  to  be  clearly  seen  rather  than  greatly 
tnag^iified,  such  as  adjoining  scenery  and  buildingSy  the  performers  of  a  theatre  or 
opem,  Ac  ^  It  is  from  fta  use  at  an  opera  that  it  derives  its  name.  The  opera-«lass 
is  shdrt  iind  light,  and  can  be  easily  managed  with  one  baud.  Its  small  nuignifying- 
pqurMrfCromltoSatthd^nidftXi  atid  the  lai|^  amonut  of  light  adihltted  by  the 


ODi^:tpglaa»,  ^nabk  it  to'preteut  a  brigiit  and  pleasing  pictuxf ,  ikq  that  the  ey& 

"  Digitized  by  Vj.OOQIC 


Ope  cuTum  JQQ 

tOphlcleide  ^^^ 

is  not  Htniiued  to  mnlco  rtut  dctnlls.  n»  in  t4-leJ»cop'»!«  of  crpfltfr  power,  which  gener 
ally  8ljew  a  highly  lu.-iirninfd  hut  faint  picture,  li  allows  the  tint*  t>f  »>oiii  e^M 
which  givtiH  to  the  si)'rtai()r  the  (limbic  advantn«re,  not  possi'ssfed  by  rtnjjle  Telescoixf. 
of  not  requiring  to  k  ■««p  one  cy.^  sluit,  a  ttoniewhat  annatnral  way  of  hKiklnjr,  nnd  of 
eeoing  tlihms  htand  out  !*t«ieo>c  ipiraliy  na  in  ordinary  vision.  The  opcrn-gia.-8  \»  m 
conj^eqnence  the  mo^t  i)Opalnr  of  lileecojKiM,  and  requires  alniosi  no  art  itt  it^  ase. 

ITie  operi-glnsa  i.s  the  same  in  principle  as  the  t-lescop*-  invented  hy  OalilfO.  It 
consists  of  two  lenses,  an  obj(i«t-l»ii9  and  an  eye-lens.  The  object-l<  iis  is  couvcx, 
and  the  eye-lens  concave.  T.i»*y  are  placed  nenrly  at  th?  distjince  of  the  different.! 
of  their  focnl  leugtlis  from  one  another.  Pig.  1  represents  tlie  action  of  ti»'! 
telescope;  o  is  the  object-lens,  and  e  tlie  eye-lens,  and  oe  is  the  axis  of  tlieinrt  u- 
meut    The  object-lens  would  form  au  image,  cab^  of  the  object  looked  at  at  or 


B 


r^^,... 


Ti^nr  its  forn*,  l»nt  tlie  ey  »-l(!ii<<  intervenlujr»  cnfiverts  the  Ught  conTei^g  ti 
cab  to*  light,  diverging  app;.rently  from  an  o>'ject  in  front,  CAB.  Tosbewmori 
clearly  the  changes  which  ttic  lii^ht  undergoes,  the  conrseOf  a  pencil  of  raysproM«* 
iug  from  tlie  top  of  an  obj.fct  is  traced.  Th«!  ray  proceeding  from  the  top  of  the  o^ect 
to  the  centTi;  of  tlie  Ions,  o,  makes  an  angle,  roA,  with  the  axis.  This  is  the  saiae  m 
the  angle  006 ;  and  either  of  thene  angles  gives  half  the  angle  Under  which  tlie  object 
is  seen  to  the  nnai<ied  eye.  The  three  extreme  rays,  r,  r^r,  of  the  pencil  appear  in 
the  flgnre  nearly  parallel,  although  they  come  from  a  ponit.  The  oDJect  is  at  •  w^f 
8i(leral)le  di  tauce  from  the  obj  ct-glnss  or  eye,  so  that  li  is  not  possible  in  soliinitM 
a  ilgure  to  shew  their  divergrence.  After  passing  thr(mgl)  the^  object-lens,  the  thws 
rays  pi-oceed  to  the  point  b,  In  the  iuiage  which  thf  obiect-lens  wenid  form  at  w,tf 
no  eye-lens  were  there.  This  Image,  iu«  shewn  in  the  figure,  is  Inverted,  and  woild 
be  seen  as  snch  if  the  eye  were  placed  at>otit  ten  Iticnes  (tlie.  distaitce  of  distinct 
vision)  behind  it.  The  three  rays  in  question  do  not  reach  the  point  b  in  dbnseqofcoe 
of  the  eye-lens  intervening,  and  their  course  Onwards  to  that  point,  after  pasidiffitfce 
eye-lens,  Is  shewn  by  dotttd  lines.  The  actual  course,  after  ptissing  the  sepnodieiis 
is  shewn  again  by  the  full  lines,  r,  r,  r,  which  to  the  eye  phiced  immediaCely  bf^>iij 
tlie  eytvleus  ap|)ear  to  proceed  from  tiie  point  B  in  front.  As  the  light  eontesfrMi 
B  in  tlie  same  airection  as  it  comes  fnim  the  actual  point  in  tlie  object,  tlie  iiii.^g«  • 
is  erect  What  holds  for  the  point  B,  holds  for  every  point  in  the  image  and  i>bject 
To  find  the  magnifying  power,  ii  is  necessary  to  jom  B«,  and  C«,  and  produce  lh« 
lines  thus  formed  to  o^aiul  e.  As  tim  eve  is  placed  iimuedlMoly  iTehiod  tlie  f9e- 
lens,  the  angle  nuder  which  the  magnilTed  object  is  seen  is  the  an^  BsC,  wlndt 
is    equal    to    oeb,    Kow,    the    angle   under    which    the   object    itself    Is   seen 


at  o  or  at  e—for  the  Blight  difference  has  no  effect  at  tl»Q  distance  nt  which  ol^ 
require  to  be  seen  by  a  telescope — is  twice  the  angle  fo A,  or  which  is  the  samo 
thmg,  the  angle  cob.  The  ratio  Of  the  angle  ceb  to  the  fuigle  eob,  which  la  the  u^ 
nif  vTug  power,  is  eustljr  seen  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  th«  aue  tfo  to  the  Utie  m»"  9* 
«a  IS  tUe  focal  leugth  of  'the  object-glass,  and  ae  is  the  foeul  length  of  tiw  r^ 


y  Google 


AQQ  -  Opercn'uni 

^OV  Ophicleide 

BO  that,  the  magnifying  power  of  the  Jnstramcnt  Is  the  ntiinber  of  times  the  focal 
length  of  the  eyt^glass  U  coutahied  in  that  of  the  object-gla.«8.  The  longer,  there- 
fore, the  focal  length  of  the  ol)j©ct-len6,  or  the  shorter  the  focnl  length  of  the  eye-  ^ 
lens,  tlie  greater  the  uiJignif)  iiMf  power.  This  may  be  practically  expressed  thns; 
tlie  flatter  the  object-lens,  and  the  hollowcr  the  eye-lens,  the  more  are  objects  mag- 
nified by  the  glafs.  The  magnifying  power  niny  be  found  wilh  sufficient  accmacv 
by  looking  at  an  object  with  one  eye  throueh  the  tube  and  the  other  eye  unaided, 
and  60  handling  the  glass  that  ihc  magnified  imajjc  seen  by  the  one  eye  issupirpoBcd 
ou  the  object  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  wlien  a  comimiisou  of  their  relativ«*  sizes  can 
'  l)e  easily  made.  For  greJit  maguinbation,  the  inj-tmment  requires  to  be  greatly 
'  Icngtlieiied— a  condition  inconsistent  wit  h  its  use  as  an  opei-a-glass.  In  addition,  a  liigh 
niflgiiifyiiig  power  is  attend*  d  with  the  disadvantage  that  the  field  of  view,  or  amonnt 
of  obj  ct  or  oi>jects  see»f,  l)econ>es  too  limited.  Ou  ^crewing  o>jt  the  instmment, 
it  will  be  seen  tliat  objects  increase  in  fll^e  as  the  insthiment  is  lengthened,  but  that 
the  picture  becomes  more  and  n)ore  lindied,  shewing  that  a  large  powi  r  and  a  largo 
field  are  incompatible.  The  oiwra-elass  ne»  d  not  be  set  lo  the  same  precise  point  us 
is  nrceaeary  wilh  ordinary  leri-estrial  telescopes,  as  the  lengthening  or  shortening  of 
tlie  insti'nmeut  does  not  produce  so  decided  an  t-ffect  ou  tl:e  di\HTgunc»*  of  the  light ; 
the  change  of  divergence,  caused  hyr  screwing  the  onera-glass  out  or  in.  Is  so  slight 
as  not  much  to  overstp  tlie  power  of  adjustment,  of  the  eye,  so  that  an  object  does 
not  lose  all  '\t»  distinctness  at  any  point  within  the  ra»ge  of  the  instrument.  Th<;re 
is,  however,  a  particular  point  at  which  an  ol»j»  ct  at  a  certain  distance  i?  bept  seen. 

Opt^ra-ghisees  have  now  come  in:o  such  demand,  tluit  they  form  an  imporiant 
articie  of  manufacture,  of  which  Paris  is  the  great  scat  So  largely  and  chojtply  are 
they  produced  in  Paris,  that  it  has  nearly  a  monopoly  of  the  trade,  'ihey  may  bo 
had  from  28.  6d.  to  £6  or  £7,  The  cheapest  opera-glOsj-es  consist  of  single  lenses, 
those  of  the  better  class  have  compound  achromatic  lens.  A  very  oidinnry  construc- 
tion for  a  medium  price  is  to  have  an  achromaiic  object-lens,  consisting  of  two  lenses 
and  a  single  eye-lens.  In  the  finest  class  of  operM-glaspes,  which  are  called  field- 
glasses^  both  eyt?-lenses  and  object-lenses  are  achromatic.  FlOs'sl's  celebrated  field- 
glasses  (Ger.  Feldstecher)  have  twelve  lenses,  each  objcct-lcus  and  eye-lens  being 
composed  uf  tm*ee  separate  lenses. 

OPE'RCULUM  (Lat  n  lid),  a  term  used  in  botany  chiefly  to  designate  the  lid  or 
coveriitg  of  the  mouth  of  the  nm  or  cap^ule  {tJieca)  wtiich  contains  the  spores 
of  musses.  Before  the  ripening  of  the  spores,  the  operculum  is  generally 
concealed  by  the  co/jwtra;  but  after  the  c«lyi>tra  has  been  thrown  off,  the  0|)ercu- 
Inm  itself  also  geneiuily  falls  off,  leaving  the  peristome  visible,  and  the  month  of  the 
nni  open.    In  some  caces  the  operculum  does  not  fall  off,  and  the  urn  opens  by  valves. 

In  Zoology,  the  term  operculum  is  chit^y  employ<d  to  ilenote  the  covering  which 
many  gasici*opod  molluscs  form  for  the  mouth  of  their  shell.  It  is  attached  to  the 
back  of  the  foot  of  the  mollusc  In  some  it  is  calcareous,  forming  a  shelly  plate ;  in 
somfe  it  is  horn^  ^  whilst  gasteropods  very  nearly  allied  to  those  which  possess  it, 
are  destitute  ot  jt  aliogetfier.    'i  he  operculnm  increases  in  various  ways,  fo  as  to 

i>T*f*iui  m  different  genera  great  diveitity  of  structure,  concentric,  spiral,  unguicu- 
ii<e,  &c, 

OPHICE'PHALUS,  a  genus  of  fishes,  of  the  family  Anabasidoe  (q.  v.),  some- 
times i-egjirded  as  constimtinjr  a  distinct  f.imily  O^^Atcep^Wrfo*,  because  there  is  a 
mere  cavity  for  retaininc  water  to  S'lpply  the  gills,  and  no  pharyngeal  laminae,  and 
bednuse  of  the  long  eel-like  form  and  the  flattened  head,  which  is  covered  with  lanre 
PCiiles.  Some  of  tnem  ure  common  in  Ihe  fresh  waters  of  the  East  Indies,  are  often 
fonnd  among  wet  grups,  often  travel  from  one  pool  to  another,  and  are  capable  of 
subsisting  for  a  long  time  in  half-dried  mud,  descending  into  it  when  tlte  jwols  dry 
up.  The  Cora-mota  or  Gachua  of  India  (O.  gachva)  is  much  used  for  food  by  the 
natives,  although  gtintjrally  rejected  by  Europt-ans  on  account  of  il«  very  snake-like 
ap?>earance.  It  is  very  tenaciouH  of  life,  and  is  not  only  brought  to  the  Indian  mar- 
kefs  alive,  but  is  cut  to  pieces  whilst  still  living  for  the  convenience  of  buyers. 

O'PHICLEIDE  (Qr.  ojjhia.  serpent,  jmd  kleis^  key),  a  musical  wind-instrument 
of  brass  or  copper,  inventcn  to  ?upe.rse(le  the  Seri>ent  (q.  v.)  in  the  orcheBtra  and 
military;  bauds.  It  consists  of  a  conical  tube,  terminatiui;  in  a  l)ell  like  that  of  the 
bom,  with  a  mouthpiece  similar  to  that  of  the  serpent,  and  ten  veutagosiii*  holes,  all 

Digitized  by  VjiOOQ  IC 


OphtHalmia  ««^v 

stopped  by  keys  like  thoee  of  the  bnggoon,  but  of  larger  ^izc.  Opbicleidesareof  tut) 
kinds*,  tli«  bass  and  the  alio.  The  bass  ophlcleide  oflf  rs  ^rreat  resoarcegi  for  raaiu- 
taiuiug  the  low  part  of  masses  of  harmouy.  Mnsic  for  it.  is  written  in  the  haw  clef, 
aud  the  compass  of  tlie  iustrnraeut  is  from  B,  the  third  space  below  the  baas  st^iff, 
to  C,  theilfth  added  space  above  including  all  the  iuterveulng  chromatic  hiterralsi 
The  alt6  ophicleVde  is  an  iiistrnmetit  of  very  inferior  quality,  and  less  nsed.  Its 
compass  is  abo  three  octaves  and  one  note.  The  music  for  it  Is  written  in  the  treWe 
citff,  and  an  octave  iiigher  tl)an  it  i»  played.  I>onble  bass  or  monster  opUicl* ides 
have  sometiine»  been  lised  in  large  orchestras,  but  the  amount  of  breath  wbich  is 
required  to  play  tliem  iias  prevented  their  comipg  into  general  use. 

OPHI'DIA.    See  Seupents. 

OPHIOGLO'SSEiE,  a  suboi-der  of  jPt7ice8  or  Feins  (q.  v.),  conrfsting  of  a  few 
rather  elegant  lii tie  plants  with  au  erect  or  pendulous  steiw,  wliich  has  a  caviiy  Id- 
siead  of  pith,  leaves  with  nett^  veins,  and  the  t«pore-ca8eS  {thecct)  collected  iiu>» 
si>ike  fomied  at  the  edges  of  an  altered  leaf,  2-valved,  and  viithout  any  trace  (rf  an 
elastic  iin>;.  They  are  found  in  warm  and  temperate  ccmntries,  but  abound  most  of 
all  in  the  islands  of  tropical  Asia.  Several  species  are  Bui  oi^ean,  and  two  are  British, 
the  Botrffchium  (q.  v.)  lunaria^  or  MoonwoTt,  and  the  Common  AdderVtougae. 
{OphiogU>89um  vn^fatum)^  which  waa  at  one  time  suppo.«ed  to  poetess  magical  vir- 
tues, and  was  also  used  as  a  vuluerary,  although  it  seem:}  to  poi-^ess  only  a  mnci- 
laginous  quality;  on  account  of  whicli  some  of  the  other  species  have  been  em- 
ployed in  broths.  It  is  a  very  common  plant  in  England,  its  abundance  in  wuie 
places  mtteii  injuring  pastures. 

O'PHIR.  a  region  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  from  which 
the  ships  or  Solomon,  fitted  out  in  the  harbors  of  Edom,  broui^ht  gold,  precious 
stones,  sandal-wood,  &c  The  voyage  occupied  three  yt^rs.  Where  Ophir  was  sit- 
uated, has  been  a  much,  in  fact,  a  superfluously  disputed  questicm.  It  was  probaWj 
either  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa  about  Sofida,  or  in  Arabia,  or  in  India,  but  in  which 
of  the  three  countries  is  doubtful.  Huet,  Bnice  (the  traveller),  the  historian  Kohai- 
Bon,  M.  Qiiatremdre,  &c.,  are  in  favor  of  Africa ;  Michaelia,  Niel)uhr  (the  traveller), 
Gosellin,  Vincent,  Winer,  F&rst,  Kuobel,  Forster,  Crawfurd,  and  Kalisch,  of  Ara- 
lua ;  Vitringa,  Relsnid,  Lassen,  liitter,  Bertheau,  and  Ewald,  of  India.  Josephosi 
however,  it  snonld  be  said,  |>Jact'dO.  in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  aud  his  very  i*- 
8p''Ctable  opinion  has  been  adopted  by  Sir  J.  fimeraon  Tenuent  in  his  work  ou  tVy- 
lou.  For  a  complete  discussion  of  the  point,  see  Karl  Ritter's  **Erdkande"(voL 
xiv.  1848),  80  octavo  pages  of  which  are  devoted  to  Ophir.  According  to  Ritter,who 
acct^Ms  the  view  of  Lassen,  O.  was  situated  at  tt>e  mouth  of  the  Indus. 

OPHIR,  called  by  the  Malays,  Gnnons:  Pasaman,  a  volcanic  mountain  in  the 
highland!*  of  Padang  island  of  Sumatra,  lies  in  0°  4'  58"  n.  lat,  and  99°  56'  e.  k)nt; 
the  eAftern  p«'ak,  called  Telannm,  attains  the  Inijrht  of  9939  feet  above  the  sea.  Ine 
wej«teni  peak  is  called  Pasaman.  The  numerous  inhabitants  have  cleared  off  forest 
and  brouirlii  under  cultivation  large  tracts  of  laud  ou  the  stopt*?  of  0.»  and  itsba^i* 
studded  with  villages.  The  O.  districts  are  mo.-t  beautiful,  and  the  lofty  waterfaUs* 
contrasting  with  the  bright-green  fohage  of  the  mountain,  highly  pictor^ue. 

OPHISU'RUS.    See  Snakb-eel. 

O'PHITES  (Gr.  ophitai,  "serpent- brethren."  from  ophis^a  serpent),  a  s^t  of 
Gnostics  (q.  v.).  who  while  they  shared  the  general  lielief  of  dualism,  the  coufiict  fA 
matter  and  spirit,  the  emaiuiliiins,  the  Dcmmrgos,  and  other  notions  common  totte 
many  snlxiivisions  of  this  extraordinary  school,  were  distinguished  from  all  hy  their 
peculiar  doctrine  and  worshij)  connected  with  their  ophU  or  serpent,  TheC,  like 
most  Gnostics,  regarded  the  Demiurg(>s,.or  the  Jehovah  of  the  Old  Testimcnt,  with 
great  abhorrence,  l)ut  they  pursnea  thl»*  notion  into  a  veiy  curious  develojiuieuL 
Regarding  the  emancipation  of  man  from  the  power  and  control  of  the  Demiui^gos 
as  a  most  importunt  end,  they  considered  the  serpent  who  tempted  Eve,  and  intro- 
,  d need  into  the  world  *' knowledge"  and  revolt  against  Jehovah,  to  h:«ve  l>een  tiw 
groat  benefactor  of  the  human  race.  Hence  their  worship  of  the  serp<'nr.  Someof 
the  details  of  tlieir  systt?m  were  very  strange.  We  n>:iy  instance  their  singnlur 
attempt  to  engraft  '*  Oi)hl!»m  "  on  Christianity ;-  their  seeking,  as  it  were,  to  impart 
to  the  Christian  Eucharisl  an  Ophite  character,  by  causing  tlie  bread  dcaigued  for 


y  Google 


*«^*  Ophthalmia 

Che  Euchapistic  Kicrlflce  to  be  WkedL  hy  a  mrpent,  which  was  kept  in  a  cave  for  the 
nnrtioee,  agd  wiiich  the  coinmuiiicauts  kisfted  after  receiving  the  Eucharist  (Epiph. 
Hor,  3T,  K  5).  Ouriiiforiimtioii,  how«;vcr,  r^ardiug  them  is  very  lucagie,  mid  comes 
chit'fl>  from  autAffoiilBtic  eources.  Ilie  O.  oi  jgiutned  iu  Ej^y pt,  pi-ol)aJ>ly  I rom  foiuo 
relation  to  I  lie  Egyptian  serpent-wordiii).  and  spread  theiiCttXnto  Syria  lUidAfiia 
JULloor.    Offshoots  of  this  eect  are  the  Camit^tt.    See  Cajn  and  usthites. 

OPHTHA'LMIA  (derived  from  the  Greek  woitl  QnfUhainuM,  the  eye)  wns  origi- 
nally aud  8ti11  ie  sometimes  used  to  di^note  inanimation  of  the  eye  generally^  bnt  it  is 
ut  (he  pre.xeiit time  usually  r  stncted  to  designate  iiiflammatory  affecilous  of  the 
mucous  coat  of  tite  eye,  termed  the  wiijnnotiva. 

There  are  several  hniMjrtant  iind  di&tiuct  varieties  of  ophtltahnia  0n  the  rc^stricted  - 
sen 81-  of  the  \void)  which  requiresp't'cial  noiioe. 

Catarrhal  OphJOmlmia.-^\is  leaaing  symptoms  are  redness  of  the  sui-face  of  the 
^  eye  (the  redue^8  beijigsupi'rficial,  ol  a  bright  scarlet  color,  and  n!*nally  diffused  in 
'p;ttclke>,  seusations  of  uneasiuess,  stlftuet=8and  dryness,  with  sllglit  pain,  es|>*H:ially 
wht-n  t!ie  eye  isei:|)Oscd  to  the  tight;  an  iucreai^ed  discharge,  uotof  tears,  except  at 
the  beginning  of  the  attack,  but  of  mucus  which  at  first  is  thin,  bnt  eoo»  becomes 
oiMtque,  yellow,  and  thicker;  pus  (or  niaiter,  as  it  is  |)opularly  termed)  i^eingseen  at 
the  corner  of  the  eye,  or  betweeu  the  eyelashes  along  the  otlges  of  tlie  lids,  which  it 
glues  together  during  the  nigjit.  The  dis<asc  rt'snlts  inmost  cases  from  exposure 
to  cold  and  damp,  and  is  very  apt  to  be  excited  by  exposm*e  to  a  draught  of  wr,  es- 
pecially during  slei  p.  It  is  i)oi)ularly  known  as  a  cola  or  a  blight  iu  the  eye.  Willi 
regard  to  treat nnnt,  tiie patient  should-remain  in  rooms  of  a  uniform  temperature, 
and  should  at  once  take  about  five  grains  of  calomel,  followecl  by  a  blaelc  dJ*aught. 
The  eye  should  be  freqirently  i»athed  witii  jjoppy  decoction,  lukewarm  or  c  Id  as  tlio 
patient  prefei-s.  If  the  affection  does  not  n^adify  viehl  to  1  hese  measures,  a  drop  of 
a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  (four  grains  of  the  nitrate  to  an  ounce  of  distillcti  water) 
should  be  let  fall  into  the  eye  twice  or  thrice  a  day.  It  usually  causes  a  smarting 
sensatiou  for  abont  ten  minutes,  after  which  the  t  ye  feels  much  easier,  than  it  did 
before  thn  drop  was  applied.  The  adhesion  of  the  eyelids  in  the  njoniin^  may  be 
avoided  by  smearing  their  edges  at  bedtime  with  a  little  spermaceti  ointm.ent. 

Purulent  op  Jit  Jtalviia  differs  from  catarrhal  opiithalmia  in  the  seveiity  of  its 
symptoms,  and  in  its  exciting  causes.  It  is  a  violent  form  of  inflammatioti  of  the 
coujunctivA;  is  accompanied  with  a  thick  purulent  dischai-ge  on  the  first  or  S(?cond 
day  of  its  CQinmeneement,  and  is  very  apt  to  ocCiision  loss  of  vision.  There  arc 
three  remarkable  varieties  of  this  affection,  called  respectively  (1)  purulent  ophthal- 
mia of  adults,  or  Egyptian  ophthalmia,  or  contagious  ophthalmia;  {'i)  gonorrheal 
oplithalmjji ;  and  (3)  purulent  ophthalamia  of  newly-born  children.  (1)  Purulent 
ophtfialviia  of  adultH  begins  with  the  same  symptoms  as  caianlial  ophthalmia,  but 
ilia  very  exaggerated  form.  The  conjunctiva  rapidly  l)ecoines  intensely  red,  and 
soon  appears  niised  from  the  scleroti':  i)y  the  effusion  of  sci-uui  between  them,  pro- 
jtH^-ting  around  ihecoraea,  which  i-emains  buried,  as  it  were,  in  a  pit.  Similar  effu- 
sion takes  place  beneath  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the  eyelids,  cjuisiug  them  to 
project  frfi-wanls  iu  lai-ge  livid  convex  masses,  which  often  entirely  conceal  the  globe 
of  the  eye.  These  symptoms  are  accompanied  by  severe  liurning  pain,  great  head- 
ache, fever,  and  pi-ostratien.  When  the  disease  is  unoliecked,  it  is  liable  to  produce 
ulceration  or  sUmghing  of  the  cornea,  with  the  escape  of  the  aqueous  humor  and 
protrusion  of  the  iris;  and  even  when  these  results  do  not  follow,  vision  is  often  de- 
stroyed by  |)ermanent  oiiacity  of  the  cornea.  It  is  a  common  disease  in  India, 
Persia,  and  Esrypt;  and  in  consequence  of  its  having  been  imported  from 
the  last  named  country  into  England  by  our  troops  iu  the  beginning  of 
tlic  present  century,  it  iiot  the  name  of  Ecryptian  ophthalmia.  Some  idea 
of  its  prevRlence  aud  of  its  danger  may  be  formed  from  the  facts  (1) 
that  two- thirds  of  the  French  array  in  Egypt  were  laboring  under  it  at  the  same 
time,  and  (2)  that  in  the  mihiary  hoi^pitals  a't  Chelsea  and  Kilmainham  there  were, 
in  Deceml)er  1810,  no  fewer  tJian  2317  soldiers  who  Iwd  lost  the  sight  of  both  eyes 
from  this  disesise.  Until  after  the  war  in  Egypt,  the  disejise  was  ui  known  in  Eu- 
i-opH.  Since  that  time  it  has  not  unfreqnently  broken  out  in  this  country— not  only  , 
an  one  fi-oops,  but  iu  schools,  asylums,  &c.  The  disease  ie  unquestionably  couta- 
j»iOus,  Dut  th<'re  are  good  reasoivs  forlielieving  that  it  often  arises,  independently  of 
coiiiagiou,  fix>iu  severe  catarrhal  ophthalmia  under  unfavorable  atmospheric  au*' 


i    .^-    V 


y  Google 


OphthalmoMope  4.09 


Opitz 

of  her  conditions ;  and  that  having  so  orighiated,  it  possesses  contagions  properties. 
Gonorrheal  ophthalmia  urisen  frOin  the  iipplicatiou  of  gonorrheal  discharge  or  matter 
ti)  he  surface  of  the  eye ;  and  hence  is  inor  common  tu  persons  suffering  from  the 
disease  from  which  this  variety  obtniiis  its  specific  name.  It  is,  moreover,  not  nn- 
i'requeiitly  occasioned  by  the  common  bnt  diAgastingprnctice,  adopted  by  the  poorer 
classes,  of  bathing  ttft  eyes  in  human  nriue,  under  the  idea  that  oy  this  procedoie 
they  sti-engtheu  the  sight.  In  its  symptoms,  it  is  almost  identical  with  ordinary  pa- 
mieutoplithalmia.  The  purulent  ojjhthalmia  0/  children  usually  begins  to  appear 
about  the  third  day  ufter  oirth-  It  is  a  very  common  affection,  and  its  importance 
is  apt  to  be  overlooked  until  it.  litis  made  cuudderable  progress.  If  the  edges  of  the 
lids  ap|>eur  red  and  glued  togetlier,  and  if  the  eye,  when  ihe  lids  are  separated,  shews 
redness  and  swelling  of  the  conjunctiva,  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  nature  of  the  dis* 
ease,  whicli,  if  not  checked,  progresses  in  nnich  the  same  way  as  iuTaduIts.  It  is. 
however,  much  more  amenaitle  to  treatment,  and  with  proper  care  the  sense  m 
sight  is  seldom  impaired,  provided  the  dii«ease  has  not  extended  to  the  cornea  before  • 
medical  aid  is  :*onghi.  Of  the  treatment  of  purulent  ophthalmia  in  these  varioos 
forms,  we  shall  say  nothing  more  than  tiiat  it  mu^t  be  left  excliisivcly  to  theniedicai 
practitioner,  whoi^e  advice  should  l>c  sought  as  soon  as.  there  is  the  slightest  sobia- 
cion  of  tl»e  nature  of  the  case. 

There  is  one  more  form  of  this  disease  which  is  of  very  common  occurrence,  and 
has  received  the  various  named  of  strumous  (or  serofiUmm),  postuloTy  and  phlyctewular 
ophthalmia.  It  is  intimately  coonectid  with  the  scrofnlous  constirntiun,  and  is 
most  prevalent  in  children  from  four  to  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age.  The  most 
prominent  symptom  is  extreme  intolerance  of  light,  the  lids  being  kept  spasmodi- 
cally closed.  When  they  are  forcib  y  i«ep  irated,  a  slight  vascplarity,  usually  stopping 
at  the  edge  of  the  cornea,  is  observed,  and  at  or  about  the  Ime  of  separation  beiweea 
the  cornea  and  scler 'tic  small  opaque  pimples  or  pustules  apiiear.  The  treatment 
consists  (1)  in  improving  the  general  health  by  due  attention  to  the  secretions,  and 
the  subsequent  admln^tration  of  tonic-)  (such  as  qttinia  and  cod-liver  oil),  and 
change  of  air;  and  (2)  iij  local  appll&itioiis,  such  us  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  or 
wine  of  opium,  drop|>ed  into  the  eye.  or  stimulating  ointments  (such  as  dilute  citriue 
ointment)  smeared  over  the  edges  of  tlie  lids  at  b^time.  This  form  of  disease^  be- 
ing dependent  on  constitutional  causes,  is  often  very  obstinate,  and  is  always  liable 
Xii  recur.  It  is  not  nnfrequentiy  attended  with  the  aunc^ng  complication  of  a  skia 
disease,  known  as  crasta  /actea,i3n  the  cheeks,  in  consequence  of  the  irritaiioa 
caused  by  the  fiow  of  iKaldins  tears.  The  crusts  or  scabs  are  easily  removed  by  a 
poultice  or  warm-water  dressing,  after  which  the  part  must  be  bathed  by  a  lotion, 
ctmsisting  of  a  drachm  of  oxide  of  ziuc  in  four  ounces  of  eitlier  pump  or  rose 
water. 

OPHTHA'LMOSCOPE,  The,  is  nn  instrument  recently  invented  for  the  purpose 
of  examining  the  deep-seated  structures  of  tlie  eye,  and  for  detecting  disease  in 
them.  In  its  simpkst  form,  it  is  merely  a  concave  circular  mirror,  of  about  10  inches 
focus,  made  of  silvered  gla^s  or  polished  steel,  and  having  a  hole  in  tlie  centre;  and 
with  it  there  is  supplied,  as  a  separate  piece  of  apparatn^s  a  convex  lens  aiiJncb  and 
a  half  in  diameter,  with  a  focal  length  of  about  two  and  a  half  incites,  set  iu  a  com- 
mon cyo-glass  frame,  with  a  handle  3  inches  long.  '\\\e  patient  (his  pupil  having 
been  previously  dikted  by  the  application  of  a  drop  of  solntion  of  atropine)  is  wade 
to  Mt  by  a  table  in  a  dark  room,  with  a  sliding  argand  lamp  placed  by  the  bide  of  bis 
h(!ad,  with  the  flame  on  a  level  with  the  eye,  from  which  it  is  screened  by  a  little  flat 
])late  of  metal  attached  to  the  burner.  The  following  description  of  the  mode  of  us- 
nig  the  instrument,  and  of  the  parts  'nought  Into  view  by  it,  is  Iwrrowed  from  the 
article  on  this*  subject  contributed  by  Atr  Haynes  Walton  to  the  last  edition  of  Drnifs 
"  l^urgeon's  Vad6  Mecuin :"  **  The  op«!rator  sits  directly  in  front,  and  holding  the  in- 
strument close  to  his  eye,  and  a  little  obliquely  to  catch  the  light  from  the  lamft  he 
commences,  at  the  disttmce  of  about  18  inches  from  the  patient,  to  direct  the  reflec- 
tion on  the  eye.  When  this  is  got,  the  convex  lens  must  he  held  at  a  distance  of  two 
and  a  half  inches  from  the  eye,  ami  the  focusing  commenced  by  moving  it  slowly  ■ 
backwards  and  forwards.  Whcai  thvj  light  fairly  enters  the  eye,  a  re<Idii'h  iflare  ap- 
pears; and  as  it  is  focused,  an  Orange-red  or  orange-yellow  is  seen;  then  the  bkKM- 
veesels  of  the  retina  come  into  view.  The  retina  Itself  presents  a  whltinb  aspectv- 
through  which  the  choroid  is  more  or  k'ss  discernible.    The  entrance  of  the  uptiB 


y  Google 


493        '  Oph.ha:mo«oo 

nerve  phonld  now  Iks  songlit.  Tlio  way  to  discern  it  is  to  mnfie  the  patient  look  in 
ward.  It  apiieurs  aa  u  white  cii-cular  spot,  in  tlie  cwitre  of  wliich  are  the  c<ntral  vein 
and  nrtery  of  t lie  retina,  giving  off  six  or  el;;ht  brunches."  This  optic  disc  is  tlio 
most  inrportant  part  to  be  observed;  but  a  tiioron^rh  ophtlialmoscopic  ezaniination 
"wiiJ  reveal  etuctnral  differences,  not  only  fn  it,  bnr  in  the  reiinu,  clioroi(l,and  vitreous 
brnuor,  and  will  reveal  cataract  in  its  early  #tagc.  In  short,  the  ophthalmoscop-.) 
is  now  as  essential  in  the  diagnosis  of  diseases  of  the  deei>-seated  parts  of  the  eye  as 
the  stethoscope  is  in  the  diagnosis  of  thoracic  diseases. 

OPIE,  John,  R.A.,  was  born  at  the  village  of  St  Agnes,  seven  miles  from  Tmro, 
Coruwull.hi  May  1761.  His  father,  a  master  carpenter,  wished  him  to  follow  the 
same  trade,  but  his  bias  for  art  was  strong;  and  his  atteinjits  at  portrait-painting 
having  attiacted  thi;  notict-  of  l)r  Wolcot,  afterwards  ci'lebratcd  as  Peter  Pindar,  ho 
huti  the  advuutiige  uf  his  tidvice  in  the  practice  of  the  art,  and  his  exertions  in  pro- 
cnring  lilnKenjpIoyment.  And  at  length,  in  1780,  ho  was  talcen  to  London  by  Di* 
Wolcot,  and  ijnmediali^ly  came  to  be  acknowledged  by  the  fashioinible  world  as  tho 
♦•  Cornish  Wonder."  This  tide  of  good  fortune  8<  on  ebbed,  but  not  l)efore  O.  had 
.  realised  a  moderate  comi>etency.  The  loss  of  popular  favor,  liowever,  only  served 
to  bring  out  more  ttrongly  those  points  in  0.*8  character  on  which  his  reputation 
mainly  rests,  viz.,  manly  independence  and  strong  love  of  art.  He  6tO(jped  to  no 
device  to  retain  fas=hiouabIe  patronage,  but  calmly  and  unremittingly  entered  on  tliat 
department  of  painting  which,  according  to  ttie  notions  of  Ids  time,  was  the  only 
style  of  high  art,  viz.,  historical  or  Fcriptnral  subjects,  executed  on  a  large  scale. 
His  pencil  was  employed  by  Boydoll  in  his  well-meant  and  magniliceut 
scheme  to  elevate  Biitish  art;  ho  also  painted  a  number  of  works  in 
the  illnstration  of  Bowyer's  English  Histofy,  Macklin'e  Poe^  and  Biblical 
Gallery,  and  other  sinnlar  undeitakings.  His  pictures  of  the  "Mni-der  of 
James  I.  of  Scotland,"  "The  Slaughter  of  Rizzlo,"  "Jephtha's  Vow,"  "Prt- 
Bens:itlon  In  the  Temple,"  **Arthnr  and  Hubert,"  *'Bellsaiiu8  and  Jul. et  in  the 
Garden,"  are  his  most  noted  works.  O.  was  elected  an  A>sociate  of  the  Rovnl 
Academy  in  1786,  and  Acatlemician  in  the  following"  year.  He  devoted  part  of  hia 
time  to  various  literary  -efforts  tending  to  the  illustration  of  art ;  these  were 
chiefly  the  '"Life  of  Reynolds"  in  Dr  Wolcot's edition  of  Pilkerton's  •* Dictionary 
of  Painters;"  a  letter  in  the  *♦  North  Briton."  n-eommi  tiding  the  formation  of  a 
National  Gal  U-ry,  reprinle<l  as  "An  Inquiry  into  ihe  Requisite  Cultivation  of  the 
Fine  Arts  in  Britjiln;"  lictnres  on  art,  delivered  at  tho  Royal  Institution,  which, 
though  listened  to  with  great  attention  by  a  select  and  fashionable  audience,  do 
not  seem  to.  have  been  satisfactory  to  himself,  as  he  d^'clined  to  continue  them. 


When  Fnseif,  on  l>eing  appointed  keeper,  resigned  the  professorship  of  painting, 
O.  was  apjwinti  d  to  that  office  •  and  the  fonr  lectures  which  he  delivered— he  dii-a 
before  completing  the  conrse— War  the  stamp  of  practtcad  experience  and  shrewcd 
observation.  -  O.  was  twice  married.  Ho  obtahied  a  divorce  from  hit*  first  wife;  but 
iiis  second,  wrell  known  as  onb  of  the  most  popular  novelists  of  the  day,  appreciated 
hia  high  character,  which  she  set  forth,  aftel-  his  death,  in  a  memoir  published 
along  with  his  lectnres.  He  died  somwhat  suddenly  in  his  hou«e.  St  Bernard 
Street,  Oxford  Street,  April  9, 1807,  and  was  bmied  in  tho  crypt  of  St  Paul's,  near 
.  the  grAve  of  Reyimlds. 

GPI'NICUS,  one  of  the  fabulous  creatures  known  in  Heraldry,  with  the  head 
and  neck  of  an  eagle,  the  body  of  a  lion,  wings,  and  a  short  tail  like  that  of  a 
cami'l.  Such  a  monster,  with  wings  endorsed  or,  was  the  crest  of  the  company  of 
barber-snrsreons  of  London. 

OPINION  OF  COUNSEL  is  the  technical  name  for  tho  advice  given  by  a  barris- 
ter or  advocate.  The  atlorn<!y  or  solicitor  writes  a  statement  of  facts,  called  "  a 
case  "in  England,  and  *•  a  memorial  "  in  St  otland,  which  ends  by  asking  certain 
queries,.and  the  answer  written  by  the  coun&el  is  his  opinion.  A  counsel  is  not 
liable  for  any  damages  caused  by  his  giving  a  wrong  opinion  though  the  result  of 
grosa  ignorance,  this  being  one  of  the  privileges  of  counsel.  / 

OPITZ,  Martin,  a  famous  German  poet,  was  born  December  23, 1597,  atBunzlau, 
in  Silesia.  He  received  an  education  of  ttie  highest  Idnd ;  and  after  some  time 
spent  at  the  court  of  the  Duke  of  Liegnitz,  he  accepted,  in  1622,  an  invitation  by 
Betbieu  Gubor,  Prince  of  Transylvania,  to  teaoh  Philosophy  and  the  Humaniora  at 


L^. 


y  Google 


'-^-:;^ 


Opfam  ^Cj^ 


Woipseiihnnr ;  bnt  <Ii>IfkIn<?  the  rncf(»iK?«8  o|  the  conntry,  hn  soon  rofnmed  tofbe 
court  of  llieDukeot'  Liti«jiii=z.  In  1624,  hi^  flrnt  }M>en»i«  were  pnbUslied,  awl  hi  the 
eum^  y<*>»r  his  \rork  **  Voii  der  deutsclx^n  Poottrei."  in  which  he  laid  the  funudatiou 
oriiHysteirt  of  G.^nimii  pojiicn.  li»  lft25,  be  went  to  Vienna,  where,  on  account  of 
an  elejify  tm  th<i  deatli  of  mij  jirclidiike.  bo  received  a  laurel  croww  fioin  the  haiute  of 
tlie  eii»ix'ror.  F^irdmand  II.  Iii  Iditfi,  lie  bt'caiiie  secretary,  aitljoweh  a  Protectant,  \o 
the  Barg^Mt,  K-iri  IIaDi>i!):iI  of  Dohuu,  a  (1i8tiii<:iii8hed  Bomaii  Catholic  and  iiiipe- 
rittlist,  niid  wa.-<  cin|/!c^<-(l  it)  vaiious  tmutiactJOiis  with  foreign  courts*  In  1629,  the 
eniperor  raised  Iiiin  to  the  r.iiik  of  iioljilily.  After  the  deaih  of  the  Bor^jnTjf  of 
Dohun,  in  IfiSl,  lie  returned  to  the  courts  of  Lieguitx  and  Brieg.  About  thig  firae  be 
publish'  d  '*  Vosuv/'  a  di(hiclic  pcxMO,  and  his  *'Tro6ti'edicht  iu  Widenvartiirkt^itdes 
Kri  ■^,''  the  he<r  of  his  poeujs,  which  were  followedl^an  opera  called  ''Judith,"  * 
translation  of  the  *^*^  Antigone"  of  Soi)hocle-,  and  a  translation  of  the  Panlins.  lo 
1633,  he  was  ai>iK)infed  Secretnry  and  Historiograplier  to  Ladialaas  IT,  of  Pohmd. 
But  in  theuiidst  of  liisduvs,  ami  wlieu  l>e  had  attahied  tofmno  andprOBper:ty,be  «rn» 
cut  off  by  the  phigue  at  Jmuzih.  August  20,  ltf39.  O.  was  more  honort  d  by  bis  ecu- 
temporaries  than  alnioei  any  other  p>oet  ever  was.  German  poetry,  which  lioil  l)eou 
neglected  and  (lespiseil,  began  again  to  he  esteemed  and  caltifated.  Tlie  popularity 
of  O.^and  his  re?i>fioos  with  the  chiefs  of  he  Roman  Cathoiic  pjirty,  led  to  the  adop- 
tion, throiigliont  the  whole  of  G  -nnauy,  of  the  form  given  to  the  C^rniau  languagw 
by  Lnther,  which  had  previously  obtaimd  general  aceepfciuce  only  in  the  Protestant 
states.  His  i)oetry  is  characterised  by  caretnl  attenfion  to  langiuige  and  metre,  and 
by  reflection  rather  than  by  iMilllant  fancy  or  deep  feeling.  There  aresevenil  edi- 
tions of  bi»  works,  but  none  is  (piite  complete  (8  vols.  Breslan,  1690 ;  3  vols.  Aiiist 
1«46;  and  3  vols.  Fnnkfuit  and  Leipzig,  1124). 

CPIUM,  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  medicines,  is  the  dried  jnice  of  the  lutripe 
capsules  of  a  spedes  of  Poppy  (ft.  v.).  Pttpctver  gcnrvnifemm,  (>ometinies  called  the 
Common  Poppy,  and  som=!tiuif8  tlie  WWte  Poppy,  althourfi  the  latter  name  is  renlly 
approi>riate  only  to  one  of  its  varieties.  Tlij*  plant  is  probobly  a  native  of  some  of 
the  wanner  piirts of  Asin^aUlKUighit  i-*  now  common  in  cultivated  and  waste  proonds 
throughout  all  the  sotiitiand  n>idd3e  of  £tirope,  and  Is  occasionally  found  in  Britain. 
It  is  an  annual,  varylne  in  h3ij:ht  fro  n  one  to  -^xx  feet;  erect,  bmnclied.  of  aglaa- 
cous  green  color,  with  ovjite-oi^ting  sessile  hraves,  the  stem  and  leaves  gMierHlIf 
puiootn,  the  bciwiches  terminat-d  by  Tai*g3  flowers  on  long  stalks,  the  capnles  gto- 
hose  ori'oundisli-ovate  and  smooth,  rTliere  ar»<  two  prin.cipal  varieties  cottivateafor 
the  opium  whiclt  t'ley  yield,  whidi  have  been  regarded  t^  some  botanteisns  distinct 
Bpecies;  the  one  (Papawcr  <w/f»/»</%J*t«)j.>  having  generally  red  or  violet-coloied  llow- 
ei-s,  numerous  flower-stalks  risii^  together,  globose  CH|>8nles  opening  by  n  circle  nf 
pores  under  the  persistent  stigma,  and  Mack  seeds;  tl»e  other  {P.  ojfieinale)  baring 
white  flowers,  solit^iry  flower-stalks,  tlie  cap-ulea  somcm-hat  ovatt*,  the  circle  of 
pores  almost  wanting,  the  seeds  white.  Tlie fonmrvarfetv  isgeneranvcnltiviriedin 
the  mountainous  parts  of  the  north  of  India,  tiie  latteirin  tm*  piafB  of  ^jg>il.«het« 
the  poppy-fields  are  described  by  Dr  Hooker  as  resembling  trre«'i!  lakes  Ptnddetlwitli 
v/hite  wat«;r-lilies.  The  cultivatioi»  of  tlie  poppy  for  the  sako  of  opfwn^  is  carrietf"  on 
ill  inajiy  parts  of  India,  all  hough  tiie  diief  opinm  dfstricfis  a  lar^  tract  on  the  Gan- 
ges, a1)out  600  miles  iu  length  and  200  miles  in  breadth,  which  wa«  divided  by  the 
East  Ii>dia  Company  into. two  nf/encieit,  that  of  Bt^harand  that  of  Bcnar«s.  the  ceo-, 
tral  factorv  of  the  formjr  b.^ini;  at  Pamu,  and  that  of  the  latter  at  Ghassecpore.  The 
.  popj>y  is  al^o  <-xt'Mi.<ivcly  cultivated  for  opinm  in  fte  Avfatic  provinces  of  Tnrk«n, 
In  Egypt,  and  in  Persia.  Opium  of  very  good  qunBty  is  also  prodnced-  a'thoajjb  not 
to  any- con8ldera!>le  amount,  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  and  even  in  Britsi'rr.  li  i» 
Bometnnes  alleired  that  a  umch  warmer  climate  than  that  rtf  Britain  is  r*»qniRiTo  for 
the  profiutble  production  of  opium,  but  the  chief  fault  of  the  climate  seems  mther  to 
be  the  Jrequency  of  wet  weather.  Very  flue  specimens  of  opium  have  been  prodttcpfl. 
and  the  produce  per  acre  has  been  found  amply  remunerative;  hnt  a  great  difficttfiy 
fs  experienced  in  obtaining  labor  at  a  moderate  rate  for  a  few  dav>  only  at  a  time, 
and  when  the  experiment  is  conducted  on  a  small  scale,  only  for  a  few  honrs  daily. 
Thhj  diflicidty  wju*  mneh  felt  in  an  experiment,  otherwise  most  snccessfnt.  which 
was  mad(?  at  Edinburgh,  by  Mr  Young,  a  surgeon,  who  abont  the  year  1880  oWaiwd 
66  lbs.  of  opium  from  one  acie  of  poppies,  and  sold  it  at  86».  a  lb.  It  waaof  or*^ 
lent  quality.    Hia  mode  of  cultivation  was  similar  to  that  uioal  iu  Induu    Tlte  i 


y  Google 


495  ^P'"" 

being  powii  In  spring  on  a  rich  soil,  tlie  plants  were  kept  clear  of  weeds,  and  when 
they  had  flowered  and  produced  capsule*',  inciBions  were  inatlu  in  the  capsules,  and 
the  exuilcd  jaioe  collected  us  des«cribed  below.  The  cnp8uU;s  vary  from  iTie  size  of  a 
hen's  egg:  to  that  of  the  fltt  In  India,  the  poppy  flowers  in  the  end  of  January  and 
beghinnig  of  Febrnary. 

'I'he  p<t)ppy  requhvs  for  its  profitable  cnltivation  a  rich  poll,  and  iu  India  is  genrr- 
ally  sown  in  the  neighborhood  of  villay:es  where  manure  cm  be  easily  ol>iaiuccn  The 
soil  oughi  to  l>e  fine  and  loose  when  the  seed  Is  sown.  The  subscqiu-nt  cultivation 
consists  chiefly  in  tiiinning  and  weeding.  Irrigation  is  practis*  d.  Mild  moist  wea- 
ther, witli  ni^'ht-dews,  ii*  deemed  most  favornhU'  during  the  time  of  the  collection  of 
the  opium.  Very  dry  weather  dimiui^he8  ihe  flow  oi  the  3nic.,and  much  rain  is 
injurious. 

The  opium  poppy  is  cultivated  for  other  purposes  besides  the  production  of 
opiiin^^  conc^jrniug  which  see  Poppy. 

Opium,  as  a  oommercial  article,  is  of  great  importance,  exceeding  indeed  that  of 
any  otiier  druj^  in  use,  and  the  cultivation  of  theopinm  poppy  {Papaver  novini/i  rum) 
"in  Briiisli  India  forms  a  most  extensive  brancii  of  agriculture,  and  the  collet  tioii 
and  preparation  of  tlie  dnijr  itself  employs  a  large  number  of  persons  in  the  Pntna, 
Malwa,  and  Benares  diftricts  of  Bengal.  Indtad  during  tlie  whole  existence  of  the 
East  India  Company,  the  pitxltiction  of  lliis  drug  was  of  the  first  importance;  its 
employment  as  a' habitual  narcotic,  as  well  as  a  medicine  amongst  all  the  eastern 
nations,  demands  an  enormous  supply.  The  seed  is  sown  iu  India  in  the  beKinuing  of 
Koveniber ;  it  flowjers  in  the  end  of  January,  or  a  Utile  later;  and  in  three  or  four  weeks 
after,  the  capsules  or  poppy-heads  are  about  the  size  of  hens'  eggs,  ami  are  ready  for 
operating  upon.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  collectors  each  take  a  little  iron  instru- 
meut  called  a  nuahtur^  it  is  made  of  three  or  four  small  plates  of  iron,  narrow  at  one 
end  and  wider  at  the  other,  which  is  also  notched  like  a  saw;  with  these  instru- 
ments they  wound  each  full-yrown  pojjpv-head  as  they  make  their  way  through  the 
plantain  tlie  field.  This  is  always  done  early  in  the  morning,  before  i  he  heat 
of  the  sun  is  felt;  during  the  day  the  milky  juice  of  the  plant  ooz«  s  out,  and  early  on 
the  following  morning  it  is  Collected  by  hcrapingitoff  wiih  a  kind  of  scoop,  called  a 
gittooha,  and  transferred  to  an  earthen  vessel,  called  txkurrace^  hanging  at  the  side 
of  the  collector.  "When  tliis  is  full,  it  is  carried  home  and  transferri  a  to  a  shallow 
open  brass  dish,  called  a  ?Aa//f^,  and  left  lor  a  time  tilted  on  its  side,  so  that  anv 
\\atery  fluid  may  drain  out ;  this  wateiy  fluid  is  called ;M^«ferroA.  and  is  very  detif- 
nientul  to  the  opium  unless  removed.  It  now  requires  daily  attendance,  and  has  to 
be  turned  fn  qnently,  so  that  the  air  may  dry  it  equally,  until  it  acquires  a  tolerable 
consi.'*tency,  whidi  requires  three  or  four  weeks ;  it  is  then  packed  in  small  earthen 
jurR,  and  taken  t(^  tin;  (jmlowns  or  fnctorit  «;  h<re  tl  e  contents  of  each  jir  are  turned 
out,  and  carelully  wefglled,  tested,  valiud  ai  d  credited  to  the  cultivator.  Theopinm 
;  is  then  thrown  into  vast  vats,  which  hold  the  accumulat  om*  of  whole  diptincls,  and 
tlie  mass  being  kneaded,  is  again  taken  out  and  made  into  balls  or  cakes  for  the 
market. 

This*  is  tt  verv  important  operation,  and  is  conducted  m  long  rooms,  the  work- 
men rittinu:  in  ro^irs,  closely  watclu  d  by  tlie  overseers  to  insure  the  work  being  care- 
fnlly  performed.  Befor*?  ea(h  workman  Is  a  tray,  and  wlihin  easy  reach  is  placed 
the  tagar^  a  tin  vei^sel  for  holding  as  much  opium  as  will  make  three  or  five  balls.  Ou 
the  tray  is  anothef  basin  contHiuing  water,  ar.d  a  smaller  tray ;  bn  this  trav  stands 
a  brass  cnp,  into  ^^hieh  tlic  ball  or  cake  is  moulded,  alpo  a  supply  of  thin  layers  of 
poppy  pet^s,  formed  by  laying  them  out  overlapping  each  other,  and  pressincr  them 
npon  one  another:  these  are  prepar«*d  by  women  in  the  popper-fields,  and  with  these 
i«  a  cnp  flli'Hl  ti^it^n  sticky  fluid  calh'd  lewah,  made  from  opium  of  inferior  quality. 
Tlie  operator  beg^is  his  work  by  taking  the  brass  cu])  and  placing  on  its  bottom  one 
of  the  cnkeS'Of  yf<v^  petals,  which  lie  smears  over  with  the  letoah;  then  adds  other 
dikes  of  petals  to^overiap  and  adhere  t«  the  first,  until  the  cup  is  lined  and  a  coat 
of  petais  is  thns  formed  f6r  the  opium,  of  which  he  takes  the  exact  quantity  as  n<«ar 
as  he  can  guess-  'WOi-k«  it  ^nlo  a  ball,  and  ])laces  it  in  the  bapin,  so  that  the  lining  of 
l»etals  encloses  ri  aJid  stick--  to  It,  in  consequence  of  Wieleimh  smeared  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  thin  **uilces  of  petals.  Other  petals  are  put  on  the  nppi^r  part  of  the  ball, 
aitd  the  whole  g;iihered  "fttwnd  It,  formilig  a  cnse  alK)ut  as  tnick  as  a  bank-note. 
Such  inau'fl  work  i^  the  4ti7  lakept  bj  itoeift  oud  »£t«r  httvins  bevu  daly  r^stered, 

j  .  ^  Digitized  by  Google 


Opium  ^gg 

is  lakfn  to  a  vast  drylne-room,  whero  the  baKs  are  placed  in  tiers  on  lattico-work 
racks,  >ttn\  ar«  continuulljr tamed  and  exatiiiiied  by  boyy,  to  keep  them  from  ii»>cct« 
and  other  injuries.  After  being  fully  dried,  these  bjills*  are  packed  in  chests  for  the 
market. 

The  mannfactnre  of  opium  ia  carried  on  to  the  greatest  extent  in  India,  but  large 

?nautities  are  also  mmle  in  Turkey,  and  this  latter  is  considored  tlie  best  in  qualify, 
t  is*  also  made  at  Tri-bizond  in  Persia,  and  in  Egypt ;  occusionaHy  it  has  bet u  pro- 
duced in  Germany,  France,  and  England.  Of  the  Indian  opium  there  ure  several 
quMlitics,  as  Bengal,  Patna  or  Benares  opium.  Garden  Pntna,  Malwa,  fine  ]Hai\va, 
Cutch,  imd  Kandeish  opium. 

Tlje  net  opium  revenue  for  India  in  18Tt— 18T2  was  XT,667,213.  The  numberof 
chests  sold  was  49,693,  at  X139  per  ciiest,  or  jC26  nigher  tlian  the  previous  year's  ayiT< 
agi^.  The  net  profit  was  ^£90  per  chesr..  Tlie  are»  under  caltivation  in  Bengal  aad 
Bombay  wtis  560,608  acres.  In  1873-4,  94.746  chests  of  opium,  valued  at  jei,195  693, 
were  exported.  Next  to  China/ the  largest  cousumpiion  of  Indian  opium  i:*  by  tlie 
Burmese  and  the  natives  of  the  Malacca  Straits,  who  take  annually  to  tbevaiae<rf 
nearly  a  million  sterling. 

In  Europe,  with  very  slight  exceptions,  opium  is  used  for  medicinal  ptirposiv 
only,  ani  large  quantities  of  it  undergo  a  still  further  stage  of  manufacture,  in  order 
to  separate  from  it  the  active  principles  morphine,  narcottue,  &c.  In  Great  Britaini 
the  ciiicf  nninufacture  of  these  salts  of  opium  is  carried  on  in  Edinburgh,  where  two 
firni!*,  Messrs  T.  and  H.  Smith,  and  J.  F.  Macfarlaiie  &  Co.,  have  attained  great  repu- 
tatiuu,  and  manufacture  these  products  upon  an  immense  scale,  supplying  probaUy 
a  fifth  of  tlie  whole  (Quantity  manufactured. 

Chmmeal  aivd  Medici)ial  Properties.— The  only  variety  recogiiised.in  the  British 
pharmacopoeia  is  the  Turkey  opium.  The  chemical  composition  of  opium  has  been 
8tudie<l  by  vaHous  chemists,  jimongst  whom  mni>t  be  especially  meiition<.>d  ProfesMr 
Mulder  of  Utrecht,  and  Professor  Andei-sou  of  Glasgow.  The  following  coustilii- 
euts  occur  in  most  kinds  of  opium : 

Mecouic  Acid,  SHOCivIIOj,,  from  4  to  8  per  cent 

.    .  fMorphia t\^ U 19  NO,,  from  4  to  12  *» 

wS-o     Codeia C38  ^ai  NO.,  less  than  1  " 

|«ojThebaia CaelisjNO,.         •*  ** 

g>  *  «  I  Papaverine C^o '  J  3 1  NOg,        '*  ** 

Offi^     NiFcotine C^a a 35 NO,.,  from  6  to  10  »* 

"^  LNarceia C^giUgNOja,  from6  to  13  '* 

Meconine t-'ao^io^b^       less  than  1  *' 

Resinous  Matter..,.  from  2  to  4  ** 

Caoutchopc from  4  to  6  " 

^^Ss.^.""!'.  .''.".^. !f !"!?!'.?}  ^^'O'"  40  to  60  " 

In  addition  to  the  six  alkaloids  named  in  this  tiible,  a  seventh,  named  opinnioe,hai 
been  found  in  Egyptian  opium,  but  in  no  other  varieties. 

Some  of  the  most  important  and  characteristic  of  these  constituents,  as  meconic 

facid,  morphia,  and  narcotine,  are  noticed  in  special  articles.  The  only  isolated 
constituents  of  opii^m  whicli  are  now  used  in  medicine  are  Codeia  (so  called  from  tbe 
Greek  word  kodeia,  a  poppy-head),  which  has  been  asserted  by  Mageudie  and  otberi 
to  act  in  the  same  manner  as,  although  less  powerfully  than,  roorplHa,  but  which  is 
now  seldom  prescribed,  as  it  is  not  a  pharmacopoeial  preparation;  and  J/orp^t^ 
which  has  already  been  dencribi^d. 

The  only  rest  given  in  the  British  pharmaconceia  for  the  purity  of  opium  Is  the 
determlnafi^n  of  its  percentage  of  morphia,  which  is  a  process  requtrlng  a  conoder' 
able  amount  of  chemical  skill. 

Following  the  arrangement  adopted  by  PereJra  ("Elements  of  Materia  Medlca"  4th 
ed.),  we  have  just  quoted,  we  shall  consider  (1)  the  effects  Of  one  or  a  few  doses  of 
opium  employed  medicinally  or  as  a  poison ;  (2)  the  effect«  of  the  babitnal  employ- 
ment of  opium,  either  by  chewing  or  smoking  it ;  ^md  (3>  its  good  and  iMdenecti 
on  the  different  systems  of  organs. 

1.  In  ttmall  doses.,  as  ftt>m  a  quarter  of  a  grain  to  a  grain,  11  a^  as  aft  agreetbls 
Btimnlaut,  this  effect  being  followed  by  a  desire  to  sleep>  acoompiuked  hf  di7Mi»« 


Digitized  by 


Google 


497 


(^nxn 


the  inowth  and  throat,  thirst,  and  slight  constipation.  When  it  to  given  In  a  full 
iiiedieinat  do«e{i\Bimm  two  to  four  graiuB),  the  plage  of  excitement  is  eoon  fol- 
lowed by  -weH-marked  depressioi)  or  torpor,  both  of  the  bodily  and  mental  orgaiiB, 
and  an  almost  irreristible  eleepineBd;  ihese  effects  being  nsaaily  succeeded  by  con- 
BtipatiuD,  1 1  aa>ea,  furred  tongue,  headitche,  and  liettleeeneBS.  when  it  1b  adminis- 
tered 111  a  dangerous  or  poisouona  dot«e,  the  p«ynrt)tom8,  iis  aunuued  up  by  Dr  Chris- 
tison  ill  his  work  ^*Ou  Poisous,"  bt^gin  with  gidaim*»f»  and  8tui>orf  generally  without 
any  prfviou?  stimulus*.  The  stupor  nipldly  increasing,  the  person  becomei?  motion- 
le>e,  and  insensiblti  to  external  impre8^»ioll8 ;  lie  breathes  very  slowly,  generally  lies 
qiiito  still,  with  his  eyes  shut,  and  tlie  pupils  contracted  ;  and  the  whole  expression 
of  the  coiiiiteuauce  is  that  of  deep  and  perfect  repose.  As  the  poisoning  rdvances, 
thi!  features  become  ghastly,  the  pulse  fve!)le  and  imperceptible,  the  muscles  excei  d- 
ingly  relaxed,  and,  unless ^ussisttince  is  speedily  procHred,  death  ensues.  If  the 
pejaon  recOvets,  the  in- ens!  bill  I  y  is  succeeded  by  prolonued  sleep,  which  commonly 
end*  ill  tw»nty-four  or  thirtyHsix  hours,  and  is  followed  ny  ntinsea,  vomiting,  gddi- 
ne.ss,  and  loathing  of  food. 

2.  The  habitual  use  o/opium^  whether  the  <lrug  he  eaten  or  smoked,  is  undoubt- 
edly ill  most  cases  injurious  to  the  constitution,  although  probably  not  to  the  extent 
tliat  Bonie  eastern  travellers  assert  Sir  11.  Christison  and  other  eminent  physicians 
have  ehewn  that  in  numerous  cases  vt-ry  large  quantities  of  this  drug  may  be  regu- 


larly t4ikeu  with  im}iunity;  and  Dr  Chapman  ('Elennnts  of  Therapeutics,"  vol.  ii. 
pu  199)  i?elate8  two  i*ernaikabe  cases  of  this  kind— om*  in  which  a  wineglas^ful  of 
laad  unm  was  taken  several  times  in  the  tw^nly-four  hours,  nud  another  (a  case  (  f 


cancer  of  the  uterus)  in  which  the  qujintity  of  laudanum  was  gradually  incrtast d  lo 
three  pints  daily,  a  considerable  quantity  of  solid  opium  being  also  taken  in  the  same 
period- 

Opiunt'S^ncking  is  a  luibit  that  is  chieflv  confined  to  China  aiid  ti>e  islands  of  the 
Indiau  An-hipela!.-o.  An  extract,  called  ckatidooy  is  made  into  i)ills  about  the  size  ('f 
a  pea.  The  following  is  the  account  given  by  M.-rsden  in  his-"  History  of  Sumatra," 
(rf  the  process  employed  :  **Oneof  this 5  pills  l)eing  |)Ut  into  the  small  tuheihai  pro- 
jeeti*  frouj  the  side  of  the  opium  ])ipe,  tlial  tube  is  ai>plied  to  a  lamp,  and  tho  pill 
being  light*  d,  is  consnraea  at  one  whifE  or  inflation  of  the  lungs,  attended  with  a 
whitntling  noise.  The  smoke  is  never  emitted  by  the  mouth,  l>nt  usually  receives 
vent  through  the. nostrils."  Although  the  iramodenite  practice  of  opium-smoking  is 
most  destructive  to  thnso  who  live  in  poverty  and  distress,  yet  fiouj  the  evidence  of 
Mr  Smith,  a  surgeon  resident  at  Pulo  Penang,  imd  of  Dr  Eaiwell,  who  pj.ssed  three 
years  in  China,  it  does  not  t^iwar  that  the  Chinese  in  easy  cireumstnnces,  and  who 
liave  the  comforts  of  life  about  them,  are  materially  affvcteil  in  respect  to  longevity 
by  addiction  to  this  habit. 

3.  As  the  discussion  of  the  physiological  action  of  opium  on  the  different  organs 
xvonld,  iu  its  most  condensed  form,  occupy  too  much  space.,  we  shall  confine  our  re- 
marks to  the  practical  conclusions  at  which  pliysiologists  and  physicians  have  arrived 
rtfsi>ectiug  the  utility  and  the  danger  of  prescribing  this  drug  iu  vurious  couditious  of 
the  principal  vitjil  orirnns.       •■ 

«•.  Cerfbro-Hpinal  %«terw. —Under  iiroper  regulations  it  is  a  remedy  which  may  be 
used  to  st.imnlatu  the  circulation  within  the  craninm,  to  promote  sleep,  to  diminish 
abnormal  or  increasetj  sensibility,  and  to  allay  pain  generally;  while  it  is  conti'a- 
iHdicate(\  in  apoplexy,  cerebral  inflanunation.  pjirfHysis,  and  hysteria.  Dr  Pereira 
relates  a  case  in  which  one  grainol  opium,  tidministv  r  "d  to  ai  hysterical  young  woman, 
proved  fatal. 

b.  Digestive  Susteni,—^^  Vmler  proper  regulatious,"  says  Pereira,  "opium  is  an 
admissible  r«medy  for  the  following  nurposes:  to  diminish  excessive  hunger;  to 
al'ay  |>aiu,  when  unaccompanied  by  intinmination ;  to  tliminish  the  sensibility  of  the 
digestive  organs  iu  ciises  of  acrid  poisoning,  and  in  the  passage  of  biliary  calculi ;  to 
l»rodace  relaxation  of  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  alimentary  canal  in  colic,  and  of  the 
gall-dflctsia  the  passage  of  calculi,  and  to  diminish  excessive  secretion  from  the  in- 
testinal canal  in  diarrhoea;"  while  it  is  contra-indicated  **in  diminished  secretion  from 
the  gastro-intestiual  membrane,  iu  <'xtreme  thirst,  in  loss  of  appeiite  and  weak  diges- 
tion, in  obstinate  coat iveness,  and  in  diminished  excretion  of  l)ile." 

c.  Vtmeule^r  System. — In  vascular  excitenJ«l^t  witli  great  diminution  of  power,  as 
after  Iwmonhage,  opium  is  often  serviceable  ;  but  wlu  u  the  pulse  is  strong  us  well 


y  Google 


Opobalsamum  498 

ftH  qnickt  or  when  there  is  BimaUnneonsly  a  teudency  to  abnormal  eleepfnetty  it  II 
coiitra-iiidicated. 

d.  Respiratory  Spstem.—^*  Opium,  undor  proper  regnlations,  may  be  nwfnl  to 
dimmish  the  coutractility  of  the  muscles  of  respiration,  or  of  the  mnecniai'  fibres  of 
the  air-tnbep,  afl  m  ppasniodic  jisthma;  to  dimiiils'h  the  sensibility  of  the  brouchiain 
the  second  stage  of  cataiTh,  aud  the?feby  to  allay  cough  by  loei8(4iing  the  iuflnencecrf 
the  cold  air ;  nud,  lastly,  to  conntovact  excessive  hroiicliial  secretion ;  *'  while  it  ia 
contra-iiidicatedlu  difficulty  of  breathing,  arising  from  a  deficient  supp'y  of  uervoos 
ennigy,  as  in  apoplectic  cases;  in-casRSin  whicli  the  venous  is  imperfectly  converted 
into  arterial  blood;  and  in  th«  first  stage  of  catarrli  nod  pueunionia,  i)oth  from  its 
checking  secretion,  and  from  its  tendency  to  impede  the  due  arteriidisatiOD  of  the 
blood. 

e.  Urinary  System, — Opium  is  a  valuable  remt^dy  to  itllay  the  pain  in  thekidnpy 
and  adjacent  parts  in  cases  of  reual  calculi,  and  also  to  produce  relaxation  of  the 
ureters  wlien  the  calculi  are  passing  along  t^ese  tubes ;  it  is  also  of  great  service  iu 
certain  forma  of  irritable  bladder. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  essential  and  primary  operation  of  opium  is  on 
tlie  nervous  system,  the  other  effu-cts  lieing  for  the  most  partsecondaiy. 

Opium  is  undoubtedly  the  most  valuable  remedy  of  tne  whole  materia  medlca. 
'* For  other  medicine9,"'says Dr  Pereira,  "we  have  one  or  more  substitutes;  bnt 
for  opium,  none — at  least  in  the  large  majority  of  cases  hi  which  its  peculiar  a»^ 
benencial  influence  is  required."  We  not  oiily  exhibit  it  to  mitigate  pain,  to  allay 
spasm,  to  promote  sleep,  to  relieve  nervous  restlessness,  to  produce  perspiration,  nud 
to  check  profuse  discharges  from  the  bronchial  tubes  and  intestiual  cawal :  bof  we 
also  find  it  capable  of  relieving  some  diseases  in  which  none  of  the  above  Indica- 
tions can  be  always  distinctly  perceived.  In  combination  with  tartar  emetic  it  baa 
been  strongly  recommended  in  fev  -r  with  much  cen^bral  disturbance ;  in  associa^ 
tion  with  calomel.  iVisthe  mo«Jl  trutworthy  remedy  in  cases  of  iuflamtnatloii  of 
meml)ranon8  parts ;  iu  -insatiity,  its  value  cannot  be  overestimated  ;  it  is  the  remedy 
chiefly  trust'd  to  in  d  'lirium  treinens ;  it  is  more  serviceable  than  any  otlier  medi- 
cine iu  diabetes;  and  to  conclude  with  a  more  common  and  less  seilous  affection, 
its  efficiency,  when  administered  in  small  doses  (as  ten  or  fifteen  di-ops  of  laiidanom 
three  times  a  day),  in  promoting  the*  healing  of  ulcers  iu  which  granulaliou  pro- 
ceeds too  slowly  is  very  marked. 

In  addition  to  the  solution  of  Muriate  of  Moi-phia  (q.  v.),  which,  on  the  whole,  fe 
the  bust  preparation  of  opium  for  internal  use  in  the  majority  of  cases,  tJie  British 
])harmHC(H>ceia  ccmtains  an  opium  pill  (containing  one  part  of  opium  iu  five  of  the 
pill) ;  a  pill  of  lead  and  opium  (cliiefly  used  in  pulmonary  liemorrlii^e) ;  au  aromatic 
powder  of  chalk  and  opium  (containing  one  part  of  opium  in  forty  of  the  powder); 
powder  of  ipecacuan  aud  opium  (or  Dover*s  Powder  [q.  v.],  containing  one  iiart  of 
opium  in  ten  of  tlie  powder);  powder  of  kino  and  opium  (conttiining  one  part  of 
opium  in  twenty  of  the  powder,  and,  like  the  aronmtic  powdfer,  chiefly  used  in  diar- 
rhoea) ;  tincture  (see  Laudanum),  and  campiiorated  tincture  of  opium  (coinraouly 
known  as  Paregoric  Elixir,  aud  much  used  in  chronic  <!5ngh — containing  twogralus 
of  opium  in  the  fluid  ounce) ;  in  addition  to  an  enema;  a  wine  (used  chiefly  as  J 
local  application  to  the  eye  in  cases  of  ophthalmia);  an  ointment  of  galls  and 
opium  (used  as  an  external  application  to'pi'es) ;  aud  a  liniment  and  a  plaster,  vrMca 
are  applied  to  remove  local  superficial  pains. 

Iu  a  case  of  poisoning  by  opium,  the  first  and  most  essential  point  is  the  ©▼^ca- 
ation  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach.  The  stomach-pump,  if  it  can  be  procarcd, 
should  be  employed,  and  strong  coffee  should  then  be  pumped  into  the  stomach 
after  the  removal  of  its  contents.  The  next  best  remedy  is  an  emetic  of  sulphate  of 
zinc  (about  a  scruple),  and  if  this  is  not  at  hand,  a  dessert-spoonful  of  flonr  of 
mustard,  stirred  up  iu  a  tumbler  of  wairni  water,  will  usually  produce  the  desirm 
.effect.  The  patient  must,  if  possible,  be  prevented  from  falling  asleep,  and  for  tins 
purpose  he  should  be  kept  constantly  walking  between  two  sH*ong  men,  while  ft 
third  person  in  the  rear  should,  at  short  intervals,  flick  him  sharply  with  a  nuign 
wet  towel,  or  (If  procurable)  a  good  birch  rod.  Cold  water  should  also  h« 
occMs ionally  dashed  over  the  head  and  cheet.  In  a  few  apparently  hopless  cases, 
death  lias  been  averted  by  artiflcial  respiration,  aud  by  the  application  of  electro- 
magnetism. 


y  Google 


^QQ  Opobalsamnm 


Opot.o 

OPOBA'LSAMTJM.    See  Balsum  and  Gum. 

OPODE'LDOC  is  «  popalnr  eynoiiyine  for  Soap  Liniment  (q.  v.).  The  origin  of 
the  term,  which  was  apparently  applied  hy  Paracelsua  to  various  forms  of  lini^ncnrs 
or  local  applicatioiip,  in  not  known.-  The  ojw  is  the  same  as  the  opo  of  opoyonax^ 
opobalsanium,  Ac.,  nud  is  doubtless  derive<l  from  the  Greek  ^«,  juice.  It  lias 
hi.vm  Biiggepted  by  an  eminent  Anglo-Saxon  scholar  that  the  original  word  wjjs 
opotWte,  and  thnt  doc  or  dock  was  added  merely  as  a  ploes  to  ditla—a  view 
that  is  confirmed  hy  the  fact,  that  in  ^Ifric's  '*Gl08*«ury,"d»7i  {dilla)  is  Englished 
by  dock. 

OPO'PONAX,  a  gnm  resin  obtained  by  purctnrinw  the  roots  of  a  species  of  pars- 
tip  {PfUtinaca  Opfmonax).  The  chief  interest  iu  this  material  is  the  great  import- 
iince  which  the  ancf«nl  physicians  attached  to  it  ns  an  auti^>pJlt>modic  medicine.  It 
wa'*  employed  by  Hippocmtee,  Theophmsins,  and  Dioscorides,  who  have  each  left 
descriptions  of  it.  The  plant  gVows  generally  throughout  SuuUieni  Euroiie,  and  the 
gnm  iti  still  collected,  but  is  not  much  used. 

OPO'RTO  (Portug.  O  Poito,  the  ]  ort),  a  city  of  Portuirnl,  and,  after  Lisbon,  the 
most  important  seaport  of  the  countrv,  in  the  province  of  "Minho,  on  the  ri«:ht  bank, 
and  two  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Douro,  in  lat,  41°  9'  n.,  long.  8°  3T'  w. ;  and  is 
195  mil^s  nort'.i-north-east  of  Lisbon.  Thoujih  ])0»i8eBfing  few  in>po8iug  edifices,  the 
town.  Been  from  a  distance  with  its  irregular  outline  marked  with  many  towers,  its 
whitewashed  houses  jjrieaming  among  trees  and  terraced  gardens,  has  a  flue 
picturesque  effi'Ct-    Its  picture>'quenes8,  however,  has  iK-eu  secured  at  tlje  cost  to  a 

r\t  extent  of  comfort,  as  many  of  its  streets  are  narrow,  dirty,  and  so  fteep  as  to 
impassable  for  carriages.  Of  the  old  walls  that  punounded  the  ancient  town, 
remains  are  still  to  be  seen.  The  principal  sireet  Is  the  Jiita  JS'ova  dos  Inglezes^  a 
spacious,  handsonie,  modem  thorouj-hfare,  from  which  a  trood  view  of  the  Bisliop's 
Palace,  which  seems  to  be  hung  hiuh  in  ihe  air,  is  obtained.  Here  is  situated  one  of 
the  finest  edifices  in  O.,  the  English  Factory  Ilou!*e.  a  building  of  white  granite 
with  a  beautllul  facade,  and  comprising  on  a  magnificent  scale  all  the  appur- 
tenances of  a  club-house,  as  ball-i'oom,  library,  refreshment-room,  &c.  1'he 
houses  in  the  Riia  Nova  de  S.  Joao^  the  most  regular  street  in  the  city,  are  lolty,  and 
are  faced  with  gaily  painted  and  gilt  ba'conies.  Of  the  11  squares,  the  greatest  is  the 
Pracade  S.  Ovidio  on  a  height,  the  appearance  ot  which  is  cuhMuced  by  beautiful 
buildings  and  a  terrace,  with  a  fine  seaward  view,  planted  with  trees.  On  the  high 
rocks^  on  the  sontheru  bank  of  tiie  river,  stand-'  the  convent  of  d-i  Serra,  which  at 
one  time  was  extraordinarily  rich.  The  most  beautiful  of  the  convents  was  that  of 
S.  BentOy  now  converted  into  barracks.  The  cath(  dral,  which  nust  originally  have 
been  a  noble  edifice,  but  has  been  infamously  modernised,  staids  near  tlu!  Bishop's 
Palace.  The  Tone  dos  CleHgoa  (Tower  of  the  Clergy),  said  to  be  the  highest  iu 
Portuiral,  wa6  built  in  1748.  Formerly,  there  were  in  all  80  convents  and  chapels  in 
the  city.  Of  existing  institutions,  there  are  four  hospitals,  and  numerous  educa- 
tional and^  benevolent  establishments.  O.  is  the  principal  industrial  seat  in  the 
ceuiitry.  It  carries  on  manufactures  of  linen,  silk,  cotton,  and  woollen  fabrics,  cloth 
of  gold,  silk  and  cotton  hosiery,  lace,  buttons,  gold  and  silver  wire,  cutlery  and 
hardware,  excellent  furniture,  pottery,  tlass,  leathta*,  paper,  hats,  sails,  and  the  arti- 
cles required  on  ship-board..  Royal  tobacco  and  soap-works,  two  iron-foundries, 
and  several  sugar-refineries  are  aT^o  In  oiieration.  The  entrance  to  the  Douro  is 
rendered  highly  dangerous  by  a  shiftinir  bar  of  sand ;  but  yet  the  commercial  traffic 
on  the  river  is  considerable.  The  exports  of  wine  were  larger  in  1874  than  in  any 
former  ydar,  amounting  to  301,310  hectolitres,  of  which  seven-elevenths  was  shipped 
for  England.  In  1871  O.  imported  cotton  goods  from  England  to  the  value  of 
^29,488;  woollen  goods.  je69,413— more  than  in  any  former  year.  O.  builds  vei-y 
fast-sailing  ships.  In  1875  the  port  owned  137  ships  of  38,540  tons.  Pop.  of  O, 
76,000. 

In  ancient  times  the  site  of  O.  was  occupied  by  the  harbor-town  Portus  CdUj  after- 
wards Porto  Cale^  from  which  has  been  derived  the  name  of  the  kingdom,  Portugal. 
It  was  an  important  city  during  the  supremacy  of  the  Moors,  was  destroyed  in  820 
bv  Almansor  of  Cordova,  but  was  restored  and  iwopled  by  a  colony  of  Gascons  and 
French  iu  999.  It  was  famous  for  the  strength  of  its  fortifications  dnnng  the  niid- 
dle  ages,  its  waJls  being  3000  paces  in  circumference,  80  feet  iu  height,  and  flanked 


Digitized  by 


Google 


ssisr  500 


Optical 

with  towers,  ^rom  fne  ITth  to  the  present  cenlnry,  O.,  baa  been  the  scene  of  aa 
nrtasual  u limber  of  popular  insurrections.  In  180S,  it  wa«j  taken  by  the  French; 
but  in  the  following  year  it  was  retaken  by  an  Auglo-Ponugese  "force  nnder 
Wellington.  In  1832,  Dom  Pedro,  the  cx-Emperor  of  Brazil,  was  uusncceBsf  oily  be- 
sieged m  this  city  by  the  forces  of  Dom  Miguel.    * 

OPCSSUM  (Didelphvi),  a^enns  of  Marsupia/ta,  haviHjr  ten  cutting  teeth  in  the 
nppijr  jaw,  and  eight  in  thelowtT,  one  cauino  tooih  on  each  side  in  each  jaw,  thr«e 
compressed  pne molars,  and  four  sharplv-tuberculated  molars  on  each  side— fifty, 
teeth  in  all;  tlie  tongue  bristly ;  the  tail  long,  prehensile,  and  in  part  scaly ;  tiiefeet 
l)lautigrade ;  five  toes  on  each  foot,  their  claws  long  and  slmrp ;  but  the  inner  uoe  of 
the  right  foot  converted  into  a  thumb,  destitnte  of  a  claw,  and  opposable  to  theotlier 
digits ;  the  muzzle  longand pointed,  the  mouth  very  wide,  tiieears  large atid destitute 
of  hair.  The  nn webbed  feet  and  non-aquatic  hal)it9  disiijfguish  tliis  genus  from 
Cheifoiectes  (q.  v.),  also  belonging  to  the  family  JHdelphid<ib.  But  the  gtuns  DiM- 
phis    itself    is     divided    by   some   naturalists   into   several  genera;   and  there 

are  differences  not  unimportant,  particularly  iu  the  wdl-developed  pouch 
of  some  species,  and  tlie  merely  rudimentary  pouch  or  abdoroinal  folds 
of  others.  All  the  existing  species  are  American,  but  fossil-  species  are  found 
in  other  parts  of  tlie  world.  Tlie  opossums  were  the  flret  marsupial  aiii- 
iinals  Icnowii,  and  are  noticed  as  very  wonderful  creatures  by  some  of 
Die  earliest  wrirers  on  America.  Some  of  thrt  smaller  species  much  resemble 
rats  and  mice,  except  in  their  long  and  pointed  muzzle;  othere  greatly  rcwmble 
shrews ;  the  largest  known  species  are  scarcely  equal  in  size  to  a  large  cat  It  is 
in  some  of  the  smaller  species  that  the  pouch  is  rudimentary  ;  all  the  larger  specirt 
have  a  well-developed  |)Ouch,  In  which  the  yonng  are  carried,  and  to  whi  h,  even 
aft^ir  beginning  to  venture  forth  from  it,  they  retreat^n  the  approach  of  danger.  The 
young  of  the  species  which  have  a  m  -rely  nidimontary  pouch,  alsO  remain  attached 
to  the  nipple  of  th;  motlier  for  a  time;aud  afterwaros  tor  a  tiino  are  carried  on 
her  back,  iiitwining  their  prehensi!-:!  tails  with  hers,  and.  cliuirlng  to  the  fur  of 
her  back.— The  Virginian  O.  (Z>.  Virg^iniana)  is  ouo  of  the  largest  specie-*.  It 
aiiouuds  in  the  warmer  parts  of  North  Ajuerica,  and  its  range  extends  considerably 
to  I  he  north  of  Virginia.  Its  form  is  robust,  its  head  very  large,  it*  color  dull  white; 
its  Inr  long,  fine,  and  woolly,  tliickly  interspersed  with  longer  coarstf  white  hair?, 
except  on  the  head  and  soiue  of  the  upper  parts,  where  the  hair  Is  short  and  cIoi<e. 
'i  he  tail  is  not  quite  so  long  as  the  body.  The  Virginian  O.  lives  much  in  forests  and 
among  the  branches  of  trees,  to  whicli  it  usually  retreats  to  devour  Its  prey,  twining 
its  tail  around  a  brjmch  for  secuiity.  Its  food  consists  of  small  quadrupeds  and  rep- 
tiles, birds'  eggs,  and  insects ;  also  in  part  of  fruits  ahd  the  juicy  stalks  of  plants. 
It  often  visits  pouUry-yards,  and  di^^plays  much  cunning  in  its  stealthy  quest  of 
prey  ;  although  otherwise  it  seeiu-,  like  tln^  other  Marmipiata^  to  be.  very  low  iu  the 
scale  of  intelligence.  It  seeks  to  c.-eape  Ironi  enemies  by  rnnninclo  tho  woods  mi 
asceiullng  a  t.r<e ;  but  if  escape  is  impossible,  it  feigns  deutb,  and  maintains  the  im- 
posture ill  very  trying  circumstances,  however  it  may  be  kicked  and  Ijenten ;  bnt 
the  true  state  of  the  case  may  be  ascertained  by  throwing  it  into  water.  The  American 
word  ^possumiiw  makes  a  figurative  application  of  this  part  of  the  natural  history  of 
the  opossiun.  The  female  sometimes  protluces  sixteen  young  at  a  birth  ;  the  yonng 
when  born  are  blind,  naked,  and  shapeless,  nnd*veigh»  scarcely  more  thana^rain 
each  ;  they  do  not  b?gln  to  leave  the  poucli  mull  they  have  attained  about  thesiee  of 
a  mouse.  'I'he  female  O.  shews  a  very  strong  attiichment  to  her  young.  The  0.  is 
verv  easily  tamed,  but  its  strong  odor  makes  it  an  unpleasant  i)et.  The  fle^h  of  the 
O.  is  said  to  lie  good.  The  hair  is  woven  into  garters  and  girdles  by  the  Indian  wo- 
m«n.— Other  specie*  of  O.  are  foimd  in  the  more  southern  parts  of  America.  Of 
these,  one  of  the  largest  is  the  Crab-eating  O.  (D.  cancrioora)  of  Guiana  and 
B/azil ;  which  is  nearly  as  large  as  tlie  Virginian  O.,  lives  chiefly  iu  marshy  plac*^ 
and  feeds  much  on  crahs.  The  smaller  species  are  numerous  in  the  tropical  paiia  of 
A  nerlca.--The  name  p.  is  often  given  in  Australia  to  the  Phalangers  (q.  v.). 

.  O'PPENHBIM,  a  town  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  in  the  province 
of  lihenish  Hesse,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Khlue,  10  miles  south-by-east  from  May- 
ence,  and  on  the  railway  between  Mayeuee  and  Spires.  Jt  siauds  on  the  »teep8lot»» 
of  a  hill  ubounding  In  vineyards,  and  carries  on  a  pretty  active  trade  in  wii«.   0. 


y  Google 


501  gP?^" 

occnpiofi  the  fitc  of  the  Rom?m  rnfitle  of  Bancoiila,  anft  wap  mado  a  royal  imlutimito 
uiKler  the  Car]oviugiaji<«.  It  nfti-rward?  iHv-uiue  one  of  tlio  moat  iinuortaiit  free 
towns  of  the  empire.  Ir  was  taken  in  1218  by  Archbishop  Adalt)err  of  Mayenoe.  in 
1620  by  the  Spaniards,  iu  1631  by  the  Swedes  nnder  Qnstavus  Adolphn^,  aud  in  1634 
by  the  inipenalixiH,  eufferinjr  much  upoD  all  the^e  occaKioii!*.  1ik1689,  the  French 
Ttiuler  Mc.fac  almost  enliivly  de8trove<l  it.  Tlie  church  of  St  Cnlhariue,  a  flue  speci- 
men of  theGcrmau  architeciuru  of  1269 — 1317,  u  kind  of  uilniaiure  of  the  Cologne 
cathedral,  lies  yi  t  In  a  ruinotis  conditiou,  except  the  eastern  purl,  which  waa  re- 
Btorcd  iu  1838— 1F48.    Pop.  (18T1)  3085. 

O'PPELN,  a  town  of  Pruss'ian  Silesia,  capital  of  the  govcminpnt  rlfstilct  of  the 
aame  name,  on  the  Oder,  61  miles  so'ith>eati>i  of  Breelan.-  Since  1816.  when  it  was 
erect  d  into  an  especial  seat  of  yoverument  for  Upper  Silesia,  the  town  has  been 
much  beautified  botli  with  new  editices  and  with  parks  and  gardens.  It  contains 
four  churches— one  of  wliich,  Adell>ert's  Church,  wns  fonnded  in  99S — an  old  caetle 
on  the  island  Pascheku  in  the  channel  of  the  Oder,  a  town-house,  ai*.d  theatre.  Pop. 
(1871)  11,879,  who  carry  on  a  coucider^ble  trahsit-tradu  in  timber,  zinc,  lead,  hard- 
ware, cattle,  and  wines;  and  manufacture  ribbons,  linen  goods,  leather,  and  pottery. 

OPPOSI'TION,  the  party  iu  either  Honse  of  the  Britit^h  parliament  who  are  op> 

Sosed  to  the  existing  government,  and  who  would  probably  come  Into  power  on  its 
ietplacement.  The  existence  of  a  fiiir  and  temperate  opposition,  keeping  a  watch 
over  thoaclsof  themini»trv,  is  nndeniably  conducive  to  good  govern nieui ;  while, 
on  thit)  other  hand,  the  conduct  of  public  affairs  nniy  be  seriously  embarrassed  by  an 
opi>osiiiou  wliose  proceedings  are  conducted  in  a  f\ctious  or  obstructive  spirit.  Th« 
name  Opposition  is  not  generally  appl'ed  to  a  party,  merely  because  opposed  to  the 
exiHtingadminiHiration,  If  therelsuolikeiihooa  of  their  succeeding  to  power  on  a 
change  of  government. 

OPnC  NERVB.    See  Eye. 

O'PTIOAL  ILLUSION.  Of  all  the  ftenaes  nohe  is  more  deceptive  than  the  senpe 
of  sight ;  it  often  deceives  us  as  to  the  distance,  size,  shape,  and  color  of  objects;  it 
frequently  makes  them  ap|)ear  as  if  in  Mtuations  where  their  existence  is  impossible; 
and  often  makes  lis  think  them  movable  whon  they  are  not  f  o,  and  viixvetsd.  An 
v6bject  appears  to  us  as  large  or  small,  near  or  distant,  according  as  the  rays  from  its 
'  opposite  borders  meeting  at  the  eye  form  9  large  or  a  small  angle  :  when  the  angle 
is  mrge,  the  object  is  either  lii-go  or  near;  when  small,  the  object  must  be  small  or 
distant.  Practice  alone  enables  tta  to  decide  M'hether  an  obj(  ct  of  large  apparent 
siee  is  so  on  account  of  its  real  fikc,  or  of  lis  proximity ;  and  our  decinion  is  :.rrlved 
at  by  a  comparison  of  theo' jecf  in  position,  with  other  common  objects,  such  as 
trees,  houses,  &c.,  which  may  chance  to  be  mar  it,  and  of  which  we  have  by  expe- 
rience come  to  form  a  coiTect  ideti.  1  he  same  in,  of  conrs<*,  tme  of  apparently  small 
objects.  But  when  all  means  for  comparison  are  removed,  as  when  we  see  a  distant 
object  floating  on  an  extendi ve  sheet  of  water,  or  erect  in  an  apparently  boundless 
Bandy  plain,  where  no  other  object  meet-s  the  eye,  then  our  judgment  is  completely 
nt  fault.  Imiierfe<t1(n)  in  the  acquired  pen  eptions  of  ►ight,  nslt  is  called,  produces 
mjiny  other  il.in*iou8;  it  leads  ns  to  consider  sphirical  solids  at  a  distance  as  fit 
discs*,  and  deceives  ns  yarding  the  eize  of  objtrctp,  by  their  color ;  the  sun  ap|K-ars 
i  larger  than  he  would  if  Illumined  by  a  fainter  light,  and  a  man  In  a  white  habit 
fM'cins  larger  than  he  would  if  he  wore  a  dark  dresn.  Illupions  are  also  pr<  dnced  by 
external  causes ;  and  instances  of  this  sort  aa*  given  under  Mirage,  Reflection, 
and  Refraction. 

The  property  which  the  eye  possenses  of  retaining  nn  Imprespion  for  a  very  brh  f, 
though  sensible  perio<l  of  t nne  (about  one  quarter  of  a  second),  after  tlie  object 
\i  hicli  produced  the  impression  has  been  removed,  produces  a  third  class  of  illusions. 
Common  exaihples  of  this  are  the  illuminated  circle  formed  by  the  rapid  revolution 
of  an  ignited  carbon  point,  piece  of  red-hot  iron,  or  other  luniinous  body,  and  (he 
fiery  curve  produced  by  a  red-hot  shot  projected  from  a  cannon. 

Another  fonn  of  Illusion  is  produced  to  a  person  who  is  s<'ated  in  a  vehicle  in 

motion,  aud  it  is  verv  deceptive  when  the  motion  is  so  equable  as  not  to  be  felt  by 

the  persoD  himself.    The  illusion  is  moflt  complete  when  tbe  attention  is  riveted  on 

iiM  object  aereral  yards  off;  this  object  then  appears  as  a  ceutre  round  which  all  the 

.  WtkiK  ol^Jects  Mem  to  revolve,  thoee  between  the  obierver  and  the  object  moving 


Digitized  by 


Google 


optic*  KAQ 

Optmlsro  ^^'^ 

backwards,  and  those  l)eyoud  Jhe  obje  t  moving  fnrwnrds.    Tlrie  IllnPioD  occnrs  on 
a  lar_'er  hc.jK;  in  the  apparent  niotiou  of  the  heavenly  l)odiefi. 

Other  illusions  arise  Iroiii  a  dii>ordoi'ed  state  of  the  orpine  of  vision  ;  enrh  arc 
the  seeing  of  things  double  or  luovablo  <if  they  are  not  so),  or  of  a  coloi  different 
from  the  true  one ;  tlie  uppeurauce  as  of  insects  crawlhig  over  a  body  at  whicli  the 
eye  is  directed,  <fcc. 

O'PTICS  is  the  science  whose  object  is  the  Investigation  of  the  laws  that  rcgalnto 
the  phenomena  of  li^'ht  and  vision.  Tiie  nature  of  Uglit  will  \ye  found  txa^h^  of 
niuU^r  Light,  and  its  various  properties nndcr  Cubohatics.  Difpractioh.  Imtbb- 
PERBNOB.  Lens,  Polarisation,  kefleCtion,  Kefraction,  Spectrum,  «c  ;  an«l  . 
we  shall  confine  om*seJves  in  this  article  to  a  historical  sketch  of  the  rise  and  progress 
of  the  science. 

Optics,  as  a  science,  is  entirely  of  modern  growth,  for  though  the  Gre<'ks  nnd 
their  disciples  the  Arab-*  had  made  some  progress  in  mathematical  optics,  ili  Ir 
k'no'.vh'dge  was  confined  to  the  law  bf  »eflection  ai'd  its  more  immediati:  coiiet*- 
Quences.    Buclid.  Aristotle,  Archimede-*,  Hero,  and  Ptolemy  w«Te  acquainted  witli 
the  fact  that  light  is  transmitted  in  straight  Hi  es.  but  with  the  important  exception 
of  Aristotle,  and  some  of  his  followers,  the  ancit^nt  pliilosophers  believed  that  rays 
proceeded //om  the  eye  to  the  object,  insti^ad  of  in  the  contrary  direction.    Ptolemy 
was  well  acquainted  witl»  atmosplieric  refra' tlon.    Alliacen  (1070)  and  Vitcllio  tlic 
Pole  (1^60)  were  almost  the  only  culiivaiors  of  this  science  dudng  the  middle  agts, 
and  tlu'ir  additions  to  it  were  unimportant.    The  hns,  though  &own  from  early 
antiquity,  was  not  applied  Jis  .in  aid  iod«*fective  e^reeiglit  till  after  the  time  of  Roger 
Bacon.    Jansen,  Molms,  and  Galileo  septirately  invented  the  telescope  abont  tne 
beginning  of  tlie  ITth  c;  and  the  last  mentioned  philos(n)lier,  by  its  means,  rondo 
various  important  astronomical  discoveries.    Kepler,  a  short  time  after,  gjive  the 
true  theory  of  the  t«*lescope,  explaine<l  the  method  of  finding  tlie  focal  lenuth  of 
h-nses,  and  applied  it  to  find  the  magnifying  powt'r  of  ihe  telesco]>e,  b  sules  lointing 
oat  the  mode  of  constructing  an  instrumenb  letter  adapted  for  asironvjuical  pur- 
l)t>se8  than  that  of  Galileo;  he  also  made  samo  nsefnl  experiments  on  the  untnrc  of 
color."*,  and  shewed  that  i  magtiS  formed  on  the  retina  of  ttie  eye  are  inverte<l,  a  fact  pre- 
viously discovered  by  Maurolycusof  Mussina.    From  thisperiodthe  scienceof  optics 
steadily  advanced,  and  its  treasury  of  facts  r.ceiviHl  numerous  additions  through  the' 
labors  of  De  Dominis,  Suell  (the  discov«'/er  of  the  law  of  refraction  in  1621),  Des- 
cartes, Fermat,  Barrow,  Mariotte,  and  Boyle.    Up  to  the  lime  of  Nc\vt(m  it  was 
generally  believed  that  color  was  ^loduced   by  i-efraction,  but  tluvt  phllosophtr 
shewt'd  by  a  b«rautiful  scries  of  experiment!*  that  refraction  on Iv  separates  the  colors 
already  existing  in  white  light.    In   his  hands  the  theory  aixf  construction  of  the 
telescope  underwent  many  valu.ablo  improvement**,  and  in  1612  I  lie  description  of 
his  rejlectinp  t-lescope  was  »  ibniitted  to  the  Royal  Society.    Gregory  had  con- 
structed an  iiistruMient  on  similar  principles  some 'years  before.    About  the  same 
t?mp,  Griinaldl  made  his  interestimr  series  of  i'X|)eriinents  on  the  effects  of  diffrac- 
tion,   and    noticed    the    remarkable    fact   of    the   interference    of    one    i>enri| 
of  liirht  wiih  the  action  of  another.     The  c-ompleie  theory  of  t»»e  rainbow,  with 
an  elegant  analysis  of  the  colors  of  thin   plate-*,  and   the  hypothesis  concerning 
the  nature  and  propagation  of  light,  now  known  as  the  "corpn-ciilar"  theory, 
completed  Newton's  coutribntions  to  the  science.    The  important  Ber\ice.s  of  tlie 
ingenious  but  eccentric  Hooke  cannot  bo  easily  stated  in  such  a  brief  absimrt. 
-  as    lie    discovered   a  little    of    everythiiiL',   completed    nothing,    and    occupifd 
himself    to   a   largo    extent    in    combating   fanlty    points    in    the    theories  of 
h  •*  contemporaries.     It   must  not,  however.  I»e  forpott«n   that  he  has  as  iimcli 
r  z'lt  as  lluygheiis  to  tlie  credit  of  originiting  the  ntidulatory  tlieory,  which  is  the 
1   vorite  one  at  present.    The  double  refraction  of  Iceland  spar  wi-  discovered  (16C9) 
by  Bartholin,  nnd  fully  explaiind  in  1690  by  Huygheus.  the  proponnder  of  thenndn- 
latory  theory,  who  also  aided  the  progress  of  maihematiral  optics  to  a  ronsiderstblc 
extent.    The  velocity  of  light  was  discovered  by  R0mer^1675).  and  in  1T80  ibe  aber- 
ration of  the  fixed  stars  and  its  c^nsd  were  made  known  by  Bradley,  who  likewise 
determined  with  accuracy  the  amonutof  atmosplieric  refraCMon,    tiongner.  Porter- 
field,  Buler,  aud  Lami)ert  rendered  wsential  service  to  ptayaical  optics;  tfaes»ine 
was  done  for  the  maUientatioai  thttMVT  by  Dollond  (the  Inventor  qt  the  ncmnoniatie 
telescope),  Chilraiit,  DftleuiWrt,  Bo<covich,  Ac;  wWle  In  later  tiiMt  tlw  \ 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


. '^■':-  503  "  OpiimUm 

v 

ments  of  Deiavai  on  Uie  colors  produced  brreflectloD  and  refraction ;  the  discaBsion 
of  the  pheuomeua  ailsing  from  uunsual  reflectiou  or  refraction,  carried  on  by  Viiice. 
WollasroH,  Biot,  Mouge,  and  others ;  tlie  discovei-y  of  polarisadou  of  light  by  Mahis 
(180S).  and  its  iuvesthjation  by  Brewster^  Blot,  and  8eel)eck  ;  of  depolarization  by 
Arago  (1811),  and  of  the  optical  proper!  ios  as  connected  with  tb«  axes  of  crystals 
(1818)  by  Bre\v8ter;  and  the  explanation  of  Miese  and  otlier  optical  phenomena,  in 
:iccord:ince  With  tlie  undulatory  bypotUeais  by  Young — tlie  diecoveivr  of  the  Inter- 
ference (q.  V.)  of  rays — and  Fressnei,  went  far  to  give  opticr^  a  widJh  of  scope  and 
syiHJueti*y  whicli  is  possessed  by  few  other  I'ciences.  The  dcyelopnient  of  the  undn- 
latory  theory  and  of  optical  science  generally  has  been  cariied  on  in  the  present 
ceniury  by  Lloyd,  Airy,  Cauchy,  and  others  :  and  more  recently  important  discove-- 
ii*8  in  couiiectiou  with  the  phy:»ical  modifications  and  chemical  properties  of  lig  t 
have  been  niade  (the  latter  chn-fly,  as  far  as  ihe  spectrum  i8Concfmctl,by  Kirchhotl). 
for  »  notice  of  which,  and  otlier  discoveries,  see  Photography,  Spectrum,  and 
other  a»ticl.3?». 

O'^PTIMISM  (Lat.  optinnia,  best),  the  name  given  to  the  doctrine  of  those  philoso- 
phers and  divines  who  hold  that  the  existing  order  of  things,  whatever  may  be  its 
But:iniuK  impeilections  of  detail,  is  neTerthelr»«,  as  a  wtiole,  the  most  perfect  or  the 
best  which  could  liave  been  created,  or  which  it  is  possible  to  conceive.  Some  of 
the  advocates   of  optimism   conte  t  themselves  witli    maintaining   the   ahsoluto 

i)osition,  that  althoogh  God  was  not  by  any  menns  bound  to  create  the  most  per- 
ect  order  of  thh)gft,  yet  the  existing  order  is  de  facto  the  best ;  others  coi  tend,  in 
fld*lit!on,  that  tlie  perfection  and  wisdom  of  Almighty  God  nec(?8s«rily  rtquirw  that 
His  creation  should  be  the  most  perfect  whicli  it  is  possible  to  conceive.    The  philo- 
sophical discussions  of  which  this  controversy  is  the  devtlopmaiit  are  as  old  as  phi- 
losophy itself,  and  form  the  gronndwork  of  all  the  systems,  physical  as  well  as  mornl, 
whether  of  the  Oriental  or  of  the  Gi-eek  philosophy ;  of  Dualism,  Parsism,  and  ot 
the  Christian  Gnosticism  and  Manicheism  in  the  east;  and  in  the  west,  of  tin*  Ionian, 
the   Eleatic,  the  Atomistic;  no  less  than   of  the  later  and  more  familiar,  Sloic, 
Peripatetic,  and  Plutonistic  Schools.    In  the  pUilosophical  writings  of  the  fathers,  of 
Origcn,   Clement  of  Alcximdna,  and  above  all  of  Augustine,  the  problem  of  the 
eeeniing  mixture  of  good  and  evil  in  the  world  is  the  great  subject  of  inquiry,  and 
through  all  the  subtleties  of  the  medieval  schools  it  coutinned  to  hold  an  nn|)ortant 
^nd  prominent  place.    But  the  full  devilopmeut  of  the  optimistic  theory  as  a  philo- 
sophical system  was  reserved  for  the  celebrated  Leibnitz,  (q.  v.).    It  forms  the  subject 
of  his  most  elal>orate  work,  entitled  "  Theodicea,"  the  main  thesis  of  which  may  be 
briefly  stated  to  be — ^that  among  all  the  systems  which  presented  themselves  to  the 
infinite  intelligence  of  God,  as  possible,  God  selected  and  crented,  in  the  existing 
universe,  the  best  and  most  perfect,  physically  jis  well  as  morally.    The  "ITieocli- 
cea"  published  in  1700,  was  designed  to  meet  the  sceptical  theories  of  Bayle,  by 
shcAving  not  only  that  the  existence  of  evil,  moral  and  physical,  is  not  incompaiible 
with  the  general  perfection  of  the  created  universe,  but  'that  God,  as  all-wise,  all- 
I>owerful,  and  all-perfect,  has  chosen  out  of  all  j  ossible  crciitious  the  best  and  most 
perfect;  that  had  another  more  perfect  creation  been  present  to  the  divine  intelli- 
gence, God's  wisdom  wouid  have  r-  quired  of  Him  to  select  it;  imdthat  if  an  otlier, 
even  c^iually  perfect,  had  been  possible,  there  would  not  have  been  any  sufficient  deter- 
minhig  motive  for  the  creation  of  the  present  world.    The  details  of  the  controver- 
Bial  part  of  the  system  would  l)e  oi:t  of  place  in  this  work.    It  will  be  enough  to  say 
that  the  existence  of  evil,  both  moral  and  physical,  is  explained  as  a  necessary  con- 
sequence of  the  finitenessof  created  being's;  and  it  is  contended  that  in  the  bal- 
anc,e  of  good  and  e\il  in  the  existing  constitntiou  of  things,  the  preponderance  of 
the  foi-mer  is  greater  than  in  any  other  conceivable  creation.    The  great  argument 
of  the  optimists  is  the  following :  If  the  present  miivei-se  be  not  the  best  that  is  i>o8si- 
ble^  it  must  be  either  because  God  did  not  know  of  the  (supposed)  better  universe,  or 
because  God  was  not  able  to  create  that  better  one,  or  was  not  willing  to  create  it. 
I'Tpw  every  one  of  these  hypotheses  is  in-econcllablis  with  the  attributes  of  Gk)d;  the 
ftrst,  with  His  omniscience;  the  second,  with  His  omnipotence  ;  and  the  third,  with 
His  goodness.    See   Leibnitz,    •*  Iheodicea;''    Bauraeister's   *'Historla  de  Mundo 
Optimo."    The  view  of  tiie  miiverse  diametrioAlly   opposed  to  O.   is  Pressimism 
(pcitritntis.  wr»rst),  and  ha»  of  Jate  been  fi'eqii^iutly  inaiutaiued ;  see  Sally's  •'  Pes- 
ftimibm"  (167T). 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


Opnntia  KAJ. 


Oracle 

OPU'NTIA.    See  Pbioklt  Pbab.  '  _ 

O'PUS  OPERA'NTIS  (Lat  literally  «*  the  work  of  the  woiter"),  a  well-luiowii 
theological  pltra^e,  inteuded  to  convey  that  the  effect  of  a  particular  miiiistration  or 
rite  is  primarily  aiid  directly  due,  not  to  the  rite  itaelf  (opiu),  bat  to  the  dl^ioeitious 
of  tlie  recipient  (operans).  Thus,  in  the  act  of  kissing  or  praying  before  a  cracifix, 
of  sprinkling  one's  self  with  holy  water,  of  telling  the  prayers  of  the  rosary  npou 
bles!«ed  beuds,  the  fervor  and  personal  piety  of  the  supplicaut,  and  not  the  material 
object  of  the  religions  nse,  is  held  to  be  the  efficient  cause  of  the  grace  which  is 
thereby  imparted.  The  term  is  used  chiefly  by  writers  of  the  Roman  Catholic  schools, 
iu  wliose  system,  liowever,  the  sacramental  ntes  are  held  to  differ  from  all  others  in 
this  respect.    See  Opus  Operatum. 

OPUS  OPERATUM  (Lat.  literally  "  the  work  wrought ")  is  the  phrase  employed 
in  the  Catholic  theological  schools  to  describe  the  manner  of  the  supposed  operaiiou 
of  the  Hacramental  rites  in  the  production  of  Grace  (q.  v.).  It  is  intended  to  huply 
that  the  ministration  of  tlie  rite  (apiut)  is  in  itself,  through  the  institution  of  Chritit, 
an  efficient  cause  of  grace,  and  that,  although  its  operation  is  not  in&llible,  but  re^ 

auires  and  presupposes  certain  dispositions  on  the  part  of  the  recipient,  yet  these 
ispositions  are  but  eonditiones  8ine  qua  turn,  and  do  not  of  themselves  produce  the 
grace;  and  hence,  when  the  sacraments  are  administered  to  dying  persons  iu  a  state 
of  appai'ent  insensihiiity,  this  is  done  in  the  hope  and  on  the  presumption  that  the 
dying  person  may,  thou^^h  seemingly  unconscious,  be  nevertheless  really  disposed  to 
receive  the  sacrament ;  but  it  is  by  no  means  held  that  iC  these  disposlti<ms  be  want- 
ing, the  Siicranient  will  itsi'lf  justify  him.  It  is  a  mistake,  therefore,  to  snpiMMNs,  as 
is  often  done  in  popular  c(mtroversy,  that  Catholics  ascrii>e  to  the  sacramental  ntes 
such  magical  or  talismanic  power  tliat  they  can  sanctify  even  an  nnrepcDtast  slnuer. 
Their  eflacacious  operation  preauppoaeit  as  cmuiiUona  the  repentance  qnd  other  moral 
dispositions  of  the  recipient,  although  the  grace  which  they  give  is  due^  not  to  thm^ 
dispo8itian$^  but  to  the  sacrarMnta  as  received  with  the  diapoBiUcnA. 

OR,  in  Heraldry,  the  metal  gold,  represented  in  heraldic  engravings  by  an  miliin- 
ited  numb  ;r  of  dots. 

O'RACHE  (Atriplex),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Clienopodiacea^ 
having  male,  lemale,  ajid  .hermaphrodite  flowers;  the  male  and  hermaphrodite 
flowers  with  a  3— 5-partite  calyx,  and  S— 6  stamens;  the  female  flowers  with  a 
compressed  and  2-lobed  or  2-partite  calyx.  The  species  are  numerous.  JSoine  of 
them  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  waste  places,  and  as  weeds  in  gardens  iu  Britain 
and  throu;;hout  Europe.  Gabden  O.  (^1.  iMrtensia)^  also  culled  Mountain  Spinach, 
was  formerly  much  cultivated  iu  England,  and  is  still  cultivatxxi  iu  some  parts  (^ 
Europe  as  a  substitute  for  spinach.  It  is  a  native  of  Tartary.  an  annual,  with  a 
stem  about  three  feet  high,  and  cordate-triangular  leaves,  which  are  thick  and 
glaucous,  and  have  a  slightly  acid  flavor.  The  leaves  are  sometimes  greenish, 
sometimes  reddish,  which  is  the  case  also  in  other  species,  and  the  flowers  resemble 
the  leaves  in  color.— The  leaves  of  the  Sea  O.  {A.  littoralis\  a  native  of  the  British 
coasts,  are  used  in  the  same  manner,  and  those  of  the  common  garden-weeds,  A^ 
patula  and  A.  angustifolia.  are  excellent  substitutes  for  spinach. — It  is  mentioned  iii 
Keu)y  and  Bieuchley's  "Journey  to  the  Salt  Luke  City,"  that  an  ornche,  wiih  jwile 
pink  leaves  and  a  suit  tas«te,  is  cultivated  by  the  Indians  on  tne  Ilumbiildt  River  for 
it«  seed,  which  resembles  that  of  C^inou  (q.  v.),  and  is  used  like  it  for  making  por- 
ridge and  bread. 

O'RACLE,  the  response  delivered  by  a  deity  or  supernatural  lieing  to  a  worship- 
per or  inquirer;  also  the  place  where  the  response  wjis  dflivered.  '  These  retipoii^^a 
were  supposed  to  be  given  by  a  certain  divine  afflatus,  either  through  means  of  iiimu- 
kind,  ay  in  the  orgasms  of  the  Pythia,  and  the  dreams  of  the  worshipper  in  tlie 
temples;  or  l)y  its  effect  on  certain  objects,  as  the  tinkling  of  the  caldrons  nt  Do. 
dona,  the  rustling  ot  the  sacred  laurel,  the  murmuring;  of  the  streams;  or  by  the 
actions  of  sacred  animals,  as  exemplified  in  the  Apis  or  sacred  bull  of  Memphis,  and 
the  feeding  of  holv  chickens  of  the  Romans.  This  arose,  in  fact,  from  the  idea  that 
the  deity  signifiid  his  intentions  to  men  by  signs  or  inspirations,  which,  however, 
had  always  lo  l)e  interpreted  to  the  inquirer  by  the  i>riesibood.  Such  responses  wer«u 
however,  closely  allied  to  augury,  which  differed  in  this  respect  that  auguries  ooQld 


y  Google 


505  asc":* 

be  tak«»n  anywhei*,  while  the  oracnlar  8|X>t^  were  denned  and  limited.  Oracle  datos 
.from  ihe  highest  aiftiqoitv,  and  fluiirished  In  lh«  inoe't  remolp  ages,  and  gradually 
declined  with  the  increasing  know  edtre  of  mankind.  Among  tiie  £^'vptiai)R  ait  the 
temples  were  probabiy  oracui.ir,  altliongh  only  a  few  are  nitntioned  by  Herodotup. 
as  the  oi-acle  of  Latona,  in  the  city  of  Bnto  ;  those  of  Herculef.  Mare,  Thebes,  ai  a 
Meroe.  In  the  hieroglvpliic  texts  tlie  gods  n>eak  conhtantly  in  an  oracuiar  manner, 
and  tlieir  consultation  by  tlie  Phnraolis  i»  occasionall^r  mentioned.  In  later  dayn  tlie 
ino$>t  renowned  of  tliese  onich-s  was  that  of  Amnion,  in  tlie  Oasis  (q.  v.),  where  or- 
acular responses  were  rendered  either  l>y  the  shaking  of  the  statue  of  the  god,  or  by 
his  appearance  in  a  certain  manner.  Oracles  were  also  used  by  the  Hebrews,  as  in 
the  consultation  of  the  Urim  and  Thnmmiin  by  the  high  pri<si,  and  the  unlawful 
useofTeraphims,  and  consultations  of  I  he  go<is  of  Plioenicia  aiTd  Samaria.  The 
Hebrew  oracles  were  by  word  of  mouth,  as  the  speech  of  God  to  Moses,  dreams, 
•  Tisious,  aud  prophetical  dennuciatioiis;  besides  wliicli,  there  were  onicles  in  Phceni- 
cia,  as  that  of  Belzebnb  and  others  of  the  BattUm.  They  were  also  in  use  throughout 
Babylonia  and  Ctialdsea,  wiiere  tlie  responses  were  delivered  by  dreams  given  to  the 
priestesses,  who  slept  alone  in  the  teniple.<«  as  concubines  of  the  gods.  &o  numerous 
were  tliey  in  the  ancient  world,  that  300  are  said  to  have  been  in  existence. 

Tlic  most  celebrat(>d  oracles  of  Asia  Minor  were  those  of  Telmissns  in  Caria  or 
L>cia,  which  gave  responses  by  dreams,  and  that  of  Apollo  at  Patani;  but  the 
Grecian  oracleiB  enjoyed  tlie  highest  reputation  for  tmilifn]nt^t>,  and  the  most 
celebrated  of  these  were  the  D(>aonean,  the  Delphic,  and  that  of  Trophonius  and 
Amphiarans.  The  Dodoueaii  (see  Dodoma)  was  the  only  orncle  in  Greece  whicli 
was  given  by  Jupiter;  the  other:*  were  either  those  of  Apollo,  or  of  certain  sooth- 
sayers, to  whom  that  god  liad  imparted  the  gift  of  propliecy,  or  of  other  jrods.  The 
most  renowned  of  all  was  ihe  Delphic  oracle  (see  Dblpbi),  and  was  Panhellenic  or 
open  to  all  Greece,  consulted  for  public  pun)Oses.  au<i  occupying  a  position  re- 
sembling in  some  respects  that  of  the  papacy  in  the  middle  ages  in  Europi*.  The 
name  of  the  first  priestess  who  ^ave  oracles  was  Phemonoe.  The  con^nliaiions  were 
generally  in  the  Delphic  montii,  Byaios  oil  April,  and  once  a  day  on  other  inontlis; 
and   the  precedence  of   consulting  the   oracle  was  determined    by  l(;t,  but  ri(  h 

8 resents  obtained  for  Croesus  and  the  Lydians  the  privilege  of  first  eonsultatiou. 
acriflces  were  offered  by  the  iiiquir<'i*9,  who  walk«d  with  laurel  ciowis  on  their 
hetids,  and  delivered  in  sealed  questions  ;  the  responte  was  deemed  infallible,  and 
was  iisaally  dictated  by  justice,  sound  sense,  ai:d  rejieon,  till  the  grovi'iiig  political 
importance  of  the  shrine  rondi^rrd  tlve  guardians  of  it  fearful  4o  offend,  when 
tliey  framed  the  answt  rs  in  ainbi*ruouH  terms,  or  allo\^ed  Ihe  influence  of  gold 
and  presents  to  corrupt  the  inspiralioiiH,  'J  he  other  oracles  ot  Apollo  were 
at  Aha  in  Phocis;  at  Ptciun,  where  a  man  pioplnsied,  which  was  destroyed  in 
tJie  days  of  Alexander  tne  Oi-ear  ;  and  at  Ismenus,  south  of  'Jhebes, 
Hysia,  Tesryra,  aud  Eutrearfs.  In  A^ia  >1iin)r  the  most  celebrated  was  that  of 
Brauchida*,  elosc  to  Miietns,  celebraled  in  Eirypt,  Gryneum,  and  Delos.  Besides 
that  of  Dodona,  Zeus  had  another  at  Olympia;  aud  tho.-e  of  various  ot  In  r  deities 
existed  elsewhere.  A  secoiKlary  class  of  oracles  of  heroic  or  iiropheiic  peif  ons  e;c- 
isted  in  Greece,  the  two  mo'*t  cel-'brated  of  which  where  those  of  Aniphiarans  and 
Trophonius.  The  first  nieutioned  was  oim  of  the  five  great  oracles  in  the  days  of 
Crcesus,  and  Vvas  situate  atOrDpns,  in  Attica,  being  the  shrine  of  a  deified  magician, 
or  inteipreter  of  dream-,  haviii'^  a  fountain  do-e  to  it.  'iliosie  who  consulted  it, 
faste<l  a  whole  day,  abstain  d  from  wine,  sacrificed  a  ram  to  An-pliiaraus,  and  slept 
on  the  skin  in  the  temple,  where  their  destiny  was  revealed  by  dreams.  That  of 
Trophonius  was  at  Lebadea.  in  Ecetia,  and  owed  ir-  origin  to  a  deified  seer.  It  was 
giveu  in  a  CHve,  into  which  the  votary  desc<n<ied,  bathed,  mid  anointed,  holding  a 
noneye(i  cake.  He  obtained  a  knowledge  of  futurity  by  what  he  saw  or  heard,  and 
returned  dejected  from  the  cavern.  Then,  seated  upon  the  seat  of  Mnemosyne,  he 
gave  an  account  of  what  he  had  heard,  and  conducted  to  the  chapel  of  Good  Fortni  e 
pr  Goo<l  Genius,  recovered  his  usual  composure.  There  were  some  ottier  omclea  of 
minor  importance.  Besides  these  oracles,  Written  ones  ex  sted  of  the  prophecies 
of  celebrated  seers,  as  Bacis  and  Mnseens,  which  were  collected  by  the  Pisisti  atidie. 
and  kept  in  the  Acropolis  of  Athens.  Tiiose  of  the  Euclus,  Panolmus,  and 
Lycns  were  also  celebrnted.  Others  of  tiie  Sibvls  or  prophetic  women,  dnii^'h- 
ters  of  S^euA  aud   Lamia,   were  popular,   aud  ut  a  later  period  (see  Uibilb), 


Digitized  by 


Google 


SSSg.  506 

Atluniuis  nnd  otbew,  prophesied   in   the  days   of  the  Seiencidie.    Amongst  the 
the  oriental  nations*,,  as  the  Arabs  and  other*^,  divination  wae  and  is*  exfenaivelyi 

Sractised,  bnt  there  nre  no  set  onicleB.  The  Celtic  Dmids  are  siud  lo  have 
Biivered  responses,  and  the  oracle  of  the  Celtic  god  Beleniis  or  Abi-lio,  in  the  Isle de 
Sein,  was  celebrated.  Herodot,  "Hist."  v.  89,  vili.  82;  Ciirtius,  iv.  7;  Har»e, 
♦'  Ancient  Greeks"  (12  mo.  Loud.  1836,  p.  141) :  Bos,  **  Autiquiilesof  Greece " (18-23, 
p.  31). 

ORA'N  (Arab.  Waran),  a  thriving  municipal  town  and  seaport  of  Algeria,  capi- 
tal of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  stinuls  nt  the  inner  extremity  of  tlie  Gulf  of 
Oran,  220  miles  west-pouth-wegit  of  Algiers.  The  province  of  Oran,  sonjetiiWHs  called 
the  province  of  the  West,  from  the  fact  of  its  forming  the  western  fi-outierof  the 
country,  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  tlie  Mediterraneau,  on  the  e.  by  the  province  of  Al- 
giers, Oil  the  w.  by  the  empire  of  Morocco,  and  on  the  s.  by  the  d^ert.  Area  alx>nt 
100,000  sq.  milep,  of  wiiich  13,514  belong  to  the  Tell  (q.  v.),  and  a  large  portion  to  the 
Sahara.  Fop.  (1872)  513,492,  four-fifths  of  whom  were  Arabs.  The  town  of  0.  \»  the 
seat  of  the  government  offices — the  prefecture,  the  civil,  criminal,  coimuercial  Iribu- 
unls,  &c.  It  also  contains  a  college,  primary  and  native  schools,  Protestant  and  other 
churches ;  synagogues ;  mo-iques ;  a  branch  of  the  bank  of  Algeria ;  exchequer,  popt, 
and  telegraph  offices ;  three  great  barracks*,  St  Philippe,  le  Chatean-Neaf,  and  te 
Chateaii-vieux ;  a  military  hospital,  with  accommodatioM  for  1400  l>eds  (jm  Immense 
new  building,  whibh  overtops  all  sun-ounding  edtficos),  and  various  splendidly  ap- 
pointed  magjizlnes  and  government  stores.  -  The  town,  whicli  is  girt  by  walls, 
and  defended  by  strongly  armed  forts,  is  seated  at  the  foot  of  a  high  mountain, 
crowned  by  the  forts  Santa- Cruz  and  Saint-Gregoiro.  Tlie  port  does  not  offer  safe 
anchorage,  although  it  has  been  muchimpnived  within  recent  years.  Larire  vessels, 
hpwever,  have  still  to  find  shelter  in  the  roadstead  of  Mers-el-Kebir,  three  miles  dis- 
tant. The  streets  and  promenades  of  O.  are  generally  spacious,  tlie  hoiista  elegant 
and  airy.  The  principal  edifices  art*  the  Ch&teaii-Nenf,  the  residence  of  the  general 
of  division ;  the  Hotel  d'  la  Prefecture;  tiie  great  mosque  de  la  Rw.  Philippe;  tlie 
C  itholic  clinrch  ;  and  the  baiTacks.  Pop.  of  commune,  com]>rising  the  three  i^aburb^ 
Mers-el-Kebir,  La  Seiiia,  and  Ain-el-Turk  (1872)  40,674.  The  country  in  the  vi  iuity 
is  l)are  and  arid,  although  the  land  is  not  st'rile.  To  tlie  south  of  the  town  the 
country  is  uncultivated,  but  towards  the  south-east  highly  cultivated  lands  are  seen. 
In  the  vicinity  there  arc  a  great,  mauy  farms,  cultivated  with  the  greatest  c-ire,  and 
most  of  them  furnished  wiln  buildings  necessary  to  their  efficiency.  Catileare  reared, 
and  grain,  tobacco,  and  cotton  are  grown.  The  vine  already  covers  largo  traciB  of 
land,  and  its  cultivation  is  annually  extending.  It  is  cultivated  with  the  most  com- 
plete success,  and  the  wines  are  of  good  quaiitv. 

Besides  the  coiimune  of  O.,  thvjre  ar.!  in  thi*  province  the  communes*  of  Swli-ljd- 
Abb6s  (q.  v.),  of  Mostaganem  (pop.  11,950),  of  Mascara  (pop.  8629),  and  of  Tletncen 
(q.  v.). 

The  town  of  O.  was  built  by  the  Moors.  It  was  taki'H  by  the  Spaniards  in  ISW. 
by  the  Turks  in  1708,  and  again  by  (he  Spiiniards  in  1732.  Iii*1791  it  was  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake,  and  shortly  after  it  was  altosrether  abandcned  by  the  Spaniard*. 
O.  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1831,  has  since  remained  in  their  Inmds,  and  h;i!»  hy 
them  been  developed  into  a  lai^e  and  prosperous  town.  Vessel**  witli  an  aL^rrep'trf 
tonnage  of  65,000  Ions  enter  and  clear  the  port  yt^arlv.  Th>*  annual  imports  ;n»ioiii!t 
to  about  £1,307,700,  and  the  exports  to  X26«>,990.  A  bishopric  was  established  at  0. 
in  the  year  1867. 

OKA'NG,  or  Ora'ng-Onta'ng  (Siinia  aatynm^  or  Pifhecits  Bntyrus,  or  P.  AheU^ 
aspeciesof  ape  found  in  the  forests  of  Malacca,  Cochin- China.  and«»omPcf  ih' 
islands  of  that  pa»"t  of  tlie  world.  The  name  is  som-tim's  extf'uded  in  sigiiificitio", 
80  as  to  include  all  species  uf  the  restricted  genus  Simia  or  Pithecus,  a  genus  wiiidi 
Qxists  only  in  the  south-east  of  Asia  and  the  Eastern  Archlptdago ;  and  «a-  also  till 
of  late  extended  even  to  the  African  apes  now  forming  the  genus  Troglodyte,  »lie 
species  which  is  the  subject  oif  this  aittele  being  distinctively  called  the  KedO.,  when 
it  and  the  Chimpanzee  were  the  only  anthropoid  apes  known.  The  name  oraitg  Is 
Malayan,  and  signifies  man  or  ratioiuil  beina;  ontang  signifies  tciUL  or  o/thi  tooodi. 
The  genus  Simia  or  PitheoiM  differs  from  Ti'oglodytM  (the  Chimpanzee  and  (Jorilla) 
2u  the  moro  lengthened  muazlo— the  lower  pait  of  the  face  pi-ojeciing  suddcnliyaudW' 


y  Google 


507 


W 


Oran 

Orange 

markabjy;  in  tire  very  larcje  cnniiie  teeth;  In  the  great  brondlh  of  the  centn;!  in- 
cisors ;  and  Id  the  gnat  lengtli  of  the  anne,  which  are  eo  loug  that  I  lie  fingers  can 
touch  the  groaud  when  the  animal  etauds  erect  The  ears  are  als'O  pnniJI,  and  Ho 
clo8«  to  the  head,  llie  eyes  are  close  together;  the  noae  is  Ihiie  elevated  ;  the  lips 
are  scarcely  visible  wlien  ihe  month  Is  slint.  The  .Mpes  of  thi?  eenns  are  arhon'al  in. 
their  habits,  and  not  tri'efrarioas.  They  are  ill  adapted  for  wtukiiig  on  the  grouud, 
and  ill  a  wild  state  probably  almost  never  asHiime  an  erect  postnre.  and  although  ihcy 
can  be  langht  to  do  it  in  confiiienuMit,  they  mniutaiu  it  with  difficnlty,  and  only  when 
standjng  snll ;  even  then  often  seeking. to  adjust  the  halance  of  the  body  bv  raising 
the  arms  above  and  behind  the  head.  In  climbing  and  swinging  among  Uie  hranches 
of  trees,  the  hands  of  the  hinder  extremities  are  used  as  readily  as  those  of  the  an- 
tniior,  aiid  the  great  length  of  the.  arras  is  useful  in  enabling  them  to  take  hold  of 
distant  branches.    Tlie  fingers  of  all  the  extremities  are  Vfi7  long. 

Some  of  the  most  Iniportant  distinctions  between  the  anatomy  of  the  anthropoid 
apes  and  that  of  man,  are  noticed  in  the  article  Chimpanzee.  The  O.  and  its  con- 
geners are  vigarded  as  differing  more  widely  from  man  in  their  anatomical  charac- 
ters thuu  t.ie  chimpanzee  and  gorilla ;  although  the  number  of  ribs  is  the  same  as 
iu  man,  and  there  are  a  few  other  particulars  in  whicli  the  O.  more  marly 
resembles  a  liuman  being  than  any  of  the  African  apes  do.  The  projecting  muzzle 
is  much  loss  notable  in  the  young  than  in  the  adult  O.,  and  the  aspect  of  the 
adult  males  is  further  rendered  hideous  by  great  callosities  on  the  cheeks.  In 
the  adult  state,  the  lidg^s  of  the  skull  also  greatly  increase  in  thickness  and 
prominence. 

The  si>ecies  of  this  genus  exhibit  in  a  much  greater  degree  than  those  of  Tro- 
glodytes an  anatomical  character  common  also  to  many  otiier  apes  and  monkeys,  a 
pouch  in  the  throat,  opening  from  the  windpipe,  and  capable  of  being  dilated  with 
air  at  the  pleasure  of  the  animal.  In  the  O.,  it  branches  into  several  subordinate 
|)0uches,  wtiich  are  situated  amonjr  the  muscles  ol  the  throat.  The  use  ol  this  organ 
18  not  known.  It  does  not  appear  to  havo  any  connection  with  tiie  voice  ;  and  has 
been  8uppO!*ed,  not  veiy  probably,  to  be  of  some  Service  iu  leaping,  by  diminishing 
the  spi  cific  gravity  of  ihe  animal. 

There  are  at  least  two  other  t-pecies  of  the  genus  besides  that  best  known  as  the 
O.,  one  of  these  being  the  groat  rongo  (q.  v.  of  Borneo  {B.  or  P.  IFwwt&n),  and  ilie 
other  (S.  or  P.  worio)^  also  a  native  of  Borneo,  of  comparatively  small  size.  The 
natural  hist oiy  of  these  apes  has  not  be«  n  ilioroughly  investigated;  and,  until  re- 
cently, it  was  supposed  that  the  ^^pecies  first  known  might  be  identical  with  the  great 
ape  believed  lo  exist  in  tl>e  wood-,  and  that  the  differences  of  size  and  other  charac- 
ters miirht  depend  merely  on  age.  The  O.  is  about  three  feet  iu  length  from  the 
heel  to  the  crown  of  the  head.  It  is  covered  with  brownish-red  hair,  which,  on  the 
back  and  arms,  is  five  or  six  inches'long,  but  very  short  on  the  backs  of  the  hands 
and  feet.  Tliei-e  is  little  hair  on  the  face,  and  none  on  the  palms  of  the  hands. 
When  taken  young,  it  is  easily  tamed,  and  becomes  sufficiently  fan  iliar.  It  displays 
considerable  sagacity,  and  some  playfulness*  and  love  of  njischief,  but  is  not  so 
frolicsome  as  many  of  the  monkey  tribe.  Young  specimens  have  f^ometimes  been 
brought  to  Europe,  but  none  have  Jived  Jonff.  The  temper  is  believed  to  change 
very  much  to  the  worse,  when  the  animal  reaches  maturity. 

ORANGE,  Ihe  name  of  one  or  more  species  of  Citrus  (q.  v.),  of  which  the  frnit 
is  much  ])rized.  Botanists  generally  regard  all  the  orang«'Sas  of  one  species.  Citrus 
auraiUruvL,  but  some  follow  Risso  in  making  the  Sweet  Q.,  the  Bitter  O.,  the  Bcr- 
gamot  O.,  Ac,  distinct  species.  The  wild  state  of  the  O.  is  not  certainly  known, 
although  its  characters  may  be^jretty  confidently  inferred  from  the  degeneration  of 
cultlvat<*d  varieties;  and  no  cultivated  plant  shews  a  greater  liability  lo  degeneraie, 
so  that  seedliifg  oranges  are  aJmont  always  worthhss.  Nor  is  its  native  countiy  mqru 
certain,  although  there  is  much  reason  to  believe  that  all  th<!  kinds  have  spread  over 
the  world  from  the  warmer  central  and  eastern  parts  of  Asia.  It  has  been  alleged 
that  theO.  is  a  native  of  Norih  America,  near  the  Gnlf  of  Mexico  ;  but  the  proha- 
bility  rather*se<'nt8  to  be  that  it  has  l)eeu  introduced,  and  has  become  naturalised. 

The  Common  O.,  or  Sweet  O.  (Citrus  aurantittm.  of  Risso),  is  an  evergreen  tree 
of  moderate  size,  with  greenish-brown  bark  ;  the  leaves  oblong,  acute,  sometimes 
minutely  serrated,  the  haf-stiUks  more  or  less  winged,  the  flowers  white,  the  frnit 
roondisb,  the  oil-cysts  of  the  riud  convex,  the  juice  sweet  uudacld.    It  is  cultivated 


y  Google 


o«ng.  508 


^ 


in  almost  evory  part  of  the  world  of  which  the  cl'imate  is  warm  enou^,  bnt 
Bucccfcld  \>e»t  ill  the  warmer  temperate  or  enlvtropical  climatee,  a«  in  the 
south  of  Earope,  where  it  is  very  exteusively  coltivated,  as  fur  north  aA 
tlie  souti)  of  France.  The  O.  does  not  8eem  to  have  been  known  to 
.  the  Greeks  or  Homniis,  hut  waa  probably  brought  to  Europe  hy  Uie 
Hoors,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  into  Italy  so  recently  as  the  I4tk 
c,  fully  1000  years  alter  the  citron.  lu  the  north  of  Italy,  oranges  are  Boinetiiiie* 
grown  in  conservatories,  but  often  iu  tlie  open  air,  except  aurinsr  winter,  wlien  tbey 
are  covered  with  temporary  liouses  of  boards.  In  the  soiith  of  Eugland,  they  are 
sometimes  in  like  mtinuer  grown  in  tht;  open  air,  with  a  shelter  of  boards  or  mattiDg 
in  winter,  but  trained  againt>t  a  south  wtil) :  attaining  a  large  sise,  and  yiddhi^  guod 
fruit  The  abundant  iniport*ition  of  the  fruit,  however,  renders  the  coltiviitiOD  of 
the  O.  in  Britain  nnneces^<ar^ ;  and,  in  general,  only  small  plants  are  to  be  «>ef n  ie 
green-houses  or  conservatories,  as  mere  objects  of  interest.  In  former  times,  wheu 
tlie  evergreen  shrubs  in  cultivation  were  mucli  fewer  than  now,  O.  trees  were*very 
commomy  cultivated  in  pots,  both  in  green-houses  and  in  windows  of  npiutuieots  iQ 
Bi-itain.  as  is  still  the  ca^e  in  the  northern  parts  of  Oerniany.  The  O.  >oves  a  lich 
soil,  and  succeeds  well  in  a  strong  clay.  There  are  m^ny  varieties  iu  cultiT&dcNi, 
which  are  perpetuated  by  grafting  npou  seedling  O.  8t<>c^  and  by  layers. 

Of  the  varieties  of  the  Sweet  O.,  perhaps  the  most  deserving  of  notice  are  the  ' 
PoRTUOAL  or  Lisbon  O.,  the  most  common  of  all,  having  the  fruit  generally  roRDd 
or  nearly  so,  and  a  thick  rind ;  the  China  O.,  said  to  have  Injen  bronght  by  tlie  Por- 
tuguese from  China,  and  now  much  cultivated  iu  the  south  of  Europe,  hHviii|  a 
smooth  thin  rind  and  very  abundant  juice ;  the  Maltese  or  Bix>oi)  O..  remarkable 
for  the  blood-red  color  of  its  pulp ;  the  Ego  O.,  having  trait  of  an  oval  shape;  aiid 
the  Tangerine  O.,  having  a  sinall  flat  fruit,  with  a  pleasant  odor  and  finely  iLtvored 

£u!p.    The  St  Michael's  O.  appears  to-be  a  snbvariety  of  tl»e  China  Orange.   The 
Lajorga  O.  is  seedless,  resembling  in  this  certain  caltivat«d  varieties  of  otiier  fndta 


spiny,  which  is  rarely  the  case  with  the  Sweet  Orange."  ITie  varieties  in  cultivation 
are  numerous.  The  Bitter  O.  was  extensively  cultivated  by  the  Moors  iu  Spaiis 
probably  for  medicinal  pun)08e8.  The  nnd  is  more  bitteT  tliau  that  of  the  Sweet  0., 
and  is  used  as  a  stomachic  and  tonic.  Its  chief  use,  however,  is  for  flavoriug  pud- 
dings, cakes,  &c.,  and  for  nniking  marmalade. 

The  Beroamot  O.  (C.  Bergamia)  is  noticed  in  a  senarate  article. 

The  Mandarin  O.,  or  Clove  O.  (C  nobilin),  recently  introduced  from  CWra, 
has  fruit  much  broader  than  long,  with  a  thick  rind,  very  loosely  attaclied  to  tie 
flesh,  so  that  there  is  often  a  space  between  them.  The  leaves  are  smaller  ttiuH 
those  of  any  other  kind  of  orange. 

O.  leaves  are  feebly  bitter,  and  contain  a  fragrant  volatile  oil,  which  isohtaiin^ 
by  distilling  them  with  water^  and  is  known  in  the  shops  as  Esaenee  de  Petit  Graii^ 
O.  flowers  yield,  wlien  distilled  with  water,  a  fragrant  volatile  oil,  called  Oil  «f 
Neroli^  which  is  used,  in  making  Eau  de  Cologne,  and  for  other  purposes  of  per- 
fumery. The  flowers  both  of  the  Sweet  O.  and  of  the  Bitter  O.  yli'ld  it^  bnttho^ 
of  the  Bitt  r  O.  are  preferred.  Dried  O.  flowers,  to  bo  distilled  for  this  oil,  iire  an 
article  of  t'xport  from  the  south  of  Europe.  Tliey  aie  paked  In  barrels,  aud 
inix(>d  with  salt  The  dried  flowers  have  a  yellowish  color;  tlie  fresh 
flowers  are  white  and  very  fragrant.  The  use  of  them  as  au  orua- 
ment  in  the  head-dress  of  brides  is  common  throughout  great  part  of 
the  woUd. — The  small  green  oranges,  from  the  sise  of  a  pea  to  tte 
sizo  of  a  cheriy,  whicii  fall  from  the  trees,  both  of  the  Sweet  O.  and  the  Bitter  0., 
\Vhen  the  cropis  tooffi'eatto  bo  brmghr.  to  maturity,  are  carefully  gathered  and 
dried,  and  are  tlie  0.  berries  ot  tlie  shops.  They  ai-e  used  iu  m-ikiii);  Cura^oa.  They 
also  yield  a  frtigraut  oil  on  distillation,  the  original  eMenee  de  petit  grain;  and  tht^ 
are  smoothed  In  a  turning-lathe,  and  employed  as  i^tme  jpease;;  not  readily 
acquiring  a  fetid  odor,  as  pea>*<i  do  when  employt^  for  this  purpose.— The^rit^  aud 
candied  rind  of  the  ripe  Bitter O.,  well  known  as Orangs-pee/,  is  used  as  a  sioniacMe, 
and  very  hirgely  for  favoring  piiddinirs  and  articles  of  confi'Ctiouury.  Tlie  rtud  oC 
the  Sweet  O.  is  sometimes  employed  lu  the  sumo  way,  bat  li  iuferior.    A  IragraHt 


y  Google  i 


609  °^^ 


essential  oil  Is  obtained  from  the  rind  of  tlie  O.  by  dlstillafion  with  wnter,  and  ifl 
Fold  by  perfumera  as  Oil  of  Sweet  O.,  or  Oil  of  Bitter  0.,  accordine  as  It  is  obtaiued 
from  the  one  or  tha  other,  altiioaeh  the  two  kinds  of  oil  are  very  siniilnr.  Tiie  rind 
of  the  O.  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  a  fine  lioneur  called  O,  Rosoglio,  wliicii  is  an 
an  article  of  export  from  some  parts  of  Italy.  Besides  the  use  of  ti^e  Sweet  O.  as  a 
dessert  fruit,  and  as  a  refrigerant  in  cases  of  sickness,  its  juice  is  extensively  used 
im  a  refrigerant  beverage,  and  is  particularly  valuable  in  febrile  and  inflammatory 
complaints. 

O.  trees  are  often  extremely  fruitful,  so  that  a  tree  twenty  feet  high,  and  occnpy- 
iug  a  space  of  little  more  than  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  sometimes  yields  from  8000 
to  4000  oranges  in  a  year.  The  O.  tree  attains  an  age  Of  at  least  100  to  160  years. 
Toai}g  ti*ees  are  less  productive  than  old  ones,  and  the  fruit  is  also  less  juicy,  has  a 
tliickur  rind,  and  more  numerous  seeds. 

The  wood  of  the  O.  tree  is  yellowish  white  and  close-grained.  It  is  used  for  in- 
laying and  for  turnery. 

The  fruit  of  the  O.  tree  is  of  great  commercial  importance,  for  not  only  is  it  one 
of  the  most  delicious  and  wholesome  of  fruits,  Imt  fortunately  it  is  also  the  most 
eac^lly  kept  tmd  carried  from  place  to  place.  No  fresli  fruit  possesses  in  the  same 
degree  as  the  O.,  and  its  congeners,  the  lemon,  citron,  lime.  &e.,  the  property  of 
bem^  easily  packed  in  boxes,  when  nearly  ripe,  and  being  in  tnnt  state  able  to  stand 
the  close  confinement  of  a  ship's  hold  dnring  a  voyage  of  two  or  three  weeks.    The 


6.  is  mnch  cultivated  in  the  Azores,  Malta,  Sicily,  Spain,  and  Port«igal,  and  it  is 
from  these  localities  that  Britain  receives  its  supply.  Those  from  St  Miclirfel's,  one 
of  the  AKores,  and  from  Mnlta,  are  the  best  varieties  in  our  markets :  but  the  Man- 


darin O.  of  China  and  the  Navel  O.  of  South  America  are  much  superior.  The  lattir 
occasionally  reach  this  country  in  small  quantities  from  Brnzil;  they  are  ue»irly 
double  tlie  ^ize  of  the  ordinary  O.,  and  have  a  peculiar  navel-like  formation  on  tlie 
top  of  t he  fruit,  wljich  is  somewiiat  oval  in  shape.  The  very  small  O.,  now  often 
mien  hi  our  shops,  witli  an  extremely  aromatic  rind,  is  the  Tangerine  O.,  of  which 
there  are  two  varieties — the  greater  and  lesser.  The  latter  is  hardly  an  incli  in  dia- 
meter, but  the  fiesii  is  sweet,  and  the  rhid  deliciously  fragrant.  The  larger  variety 
is  about  half  the  size  of  a  common  O.,  and  is  the  one  generally  seen. 
-  The  Bitter. O.  is  called  the  Seville  O.  in  consequence  of  large  plantations,  which 
tlie  Moors  planted  round  the  city  of  Seville,  having  ^r  a  long  time  furnished  the 
chief  i>art  of  those  used  in  this  country  ;  but  it  also  has  severalvarieties,  which  are 
all  remarkable  for  the  bitterness  of  the  rind,  and  the  not  vei-y  pleasant  sharpness  of 
the  juice.  Tlieir  chief  use  is  for  makinsr  i lie  well-known  confection  called  Orange 
Marmalade,  and  for  this  the  true  Large-fruited  variety  is  the  best,  Imt  it  is  now  souje- 
wimt  scarce. 

'  Or.aiges,  when  gathered  for  exi>ort,  must  not  l)e  quite  ripe ;  those  fully  formed, 
and  with  the  color  just  turning  from  gieen  to  yellow,  are  chosen.  Each  is  wrapped 
iu  a  piece  of  paper,  or  in  the  nn^k  of  Indian  com,  and  they  ai-e  packed  in  boxes  and 
Italf-Doxes,  chet^ts  and  half-chests — the  former  are  the  Sicilian  packnges,  the  hitter 
are  St  Michael's,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese.    A  box  contains  about  250,  a  chest  al)oiit 


1000  oranges;  and  liie  price  ranges  from  15s.  to  80s.  per  box,  and  from  30«.  to  60s.  a 

chest.    The  crop  btfgiys  to  aixive  early  in  November,  and  the  ships  continue  to  bring 

^  them  until  the  spring.    The  quantity  consumed  iu  Grejit  Britain  alone  is  enormous; 


and  since  tlie  duty  was  removed,  lias  readied  nearly  two  millions  of  busliels 
aimually. 

Onmge-peel,  or  the  rind  of  tlie  O.,  is  used  both  in  medicine  ai)d  in  confectionary 
— ^for  llie  former  purpose,  it  is  merely  cut  into  long  strips,  and  dri<'d ;  for  the  latter, 
it  is  carefully  se])aratcd,  either  iu  halvtH  or  quarlers,  from  tin?  frnii,  and  after  lying 
in  salt  water  for  a  tinie^  is  washed  in  clear  water,  and  then  boiled  in  syrup  of  sugar. 
or  candied,  aiid  is  sold^  extensively  as  candied  peel.  The  rinds  of  the  citron  and 
lemou  are  ti'cated  in  t\\e  same  manner. 

OKANQE  (the  ancient  Arawiio)^  an  ill-built,  decaying,  and  dirty,  but  also  an  in- 
teresting town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Vancluse,  stands  in  a  betiutiful  plain 
on  tlie  left  l)ank  of  the  Aigue,  16  miles  by  railway  north  of  Avignon.  Its  chief  man- 
ufactures are  silks, 'mnsnns,  serges,  Ac;  and  lhor«!  are  numerous  oilworks,  dye- 
works,,  and  tanneries.  It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  wine,  spirits,  oils,  trufiles, 
salErou,  hoiley,  madder,  uud  esseuces.    Pop.  (18T2)  6290. 


y  Google 


Orange  K1 A 

Orangeman  t/  x  v 

O.  was  the  capTral  of  a  small  independeut  principaHlr  of  the  same  name  (now 
comprised  in  the  department  of  Vaucluse),  which  was  ruleil  by  its  own  sovereign? 
from  the  llth  to  the  16th  ceutniy.  The  lustof  these  sovereigns,  PUIlibert  de  Chnlous, 
died  ill  1531,  without  issue.  His  sister,  however,  Imd  niariied  a  Connt  of  Nassao. 
and  to  that  House  the  estates  and  titles  passed.  The  Count  of  Nassan  wiio  obfainca 
the  principality  of  O.  was  William,  the  father  of  William  I.,  the  Stadtholder  of  the 
United  Provinces  (see  William,  Prince  of  Q.).  William  III.,  P4nce  of  Oi-ang« 
and  Idng  of  England,  havingdied  in  li02  without  issue,  theie  began  a  long-coutinued 
controversy  as  to  the  succession  betwei-n  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia  (as  grandson  of  one 
of  the  last  princes  of  O.),  the  representative  of  tlie  older  branch  of  the  hoiine  of  Niis- 
Siui  (q.  v.),  and  the  head  of  the  younger  line.  At  the  peace  of  Utrecht  (1713)  tlie 
king  of  Prussia  took  the  settlement  into  his  own  hands,  so  far'as  the  territory  of  0. 
was  concerned,  by  making  it  over,  for  certain  equivalents,  lo  thtt  king  of  Fianc. 
The  title.  Prince  of  O.,  remained  with  the  younger  Nassau  line,  afterwards  king?  of 
the  Netherlands,  and  is  now  borne  by  the  heir-presumptive  lo  the  Dutch  throue. 

In  the  vicinity  of  O.  are  several  notable  Roman  remains.  The  triumphal  areb,  60 
feet  high,  is  celebrated  for  the  Ix-auty  of  its  archite<'.turf,  and  for  its  richly  scnlptnred 
bassirrilievi.  Of  the  theatre,  the  i-emalns  are  sufficiently  entire  to  give  a  good  Idea 
of  the  aiTungements  of  this  mstitutlon  as  it  existerl  among  the  Uomans. 

O'RANGE,  a  township  in  New  Jersey.  U.  S.,  four  miles  north-west  of  Newark, 
continuing  three  villages.  Orange,  North  Orange,  and  South  Orange.  Orange  Mona- 
tain  coinniMuds  a  noble  view  of  New  Y(n"k  City  and  B:iy,  and  its  slope  U  laid  out  in 
beautiful  parks,  and  ornamented  with  villas.  It  is  the  site  of  a  Roman  Catljolic 
College  and  a  Water-cure  establishment.    Pop.  in  1870,  9348. 

ORANGE  COLORS,  for  painters'  use,  are  various  shades  of  alteration  prodnced 
on  chrome  yellow  (sj*e  Yellow),  by  acting  on  it  either  with  diaeetate  of  leader* 
weak  alkaline  lye,  both  of  which  redden  the  otherwi-e  pure  yellow,  and  give  it  aa 
orange  tint. — For  dyers,  a  beautiful  orange  red  is  obtained  from  8affl»wr:aiid 
orange  yellows  are  nrnde  by  mixing,  In  proper  proportions,  any  of  thtf  i-ed  with  Wjj 
yellow  (lyes. 

ORANGE  RIVER.    See  Gariep. 

ORANGE  RIVER  FREE  STATE.  The  Orange  River  Free  State  is  the  uarae 
assumed  by  the  republic  of  Dutch  hoers,  who,  after  retiring  from  Natal  wheu  declare-l 
a  British  colony,  eatablisthed  thenni'lves  in  the  country  lying  between  the  I  wo  great 
branches  of  the  Orange  River,  the  Ky  Gariep  and  the  Gariep,  known  to  the  colo- 
nists as  the  Vaal  and  Orange  Rivers,  and  seiKirated  from  the  coast  region  by  the 
great  chain  of  the  Quathlamoa,  Maluti,  and  Drachenberg  mountains. 

The  Orange  River  Free  State  forms  a  sort  of  coimecting-link  between  the  Cape 
Colony,  the  Transvaal  Territory,  and  Natal.  It  consist*  chiefly  of  vast  nndalating 
plains;  which  slope  down  from  the  Maluti  Mountains  to  tin;  Vaal  River,  dott«^  ovrt 
here  and  there  with  rocky  hills,  locally  called  "Kopjies,"  although  in  the  uortbera  • 
part  hundreds  of  square  miles  are  found  with  hardly  a  break  on  the  hocizoii.  It 
comprises  an  area  of  abovn  50,000  square  miles. 

Wiien  the  einigranr.  Dutch  boers  took  possession  of  this  country,  it  was  inbabitpd 
by  different  tribes  of  Befjouanas  and  Corannas,  all  of  whom  have  been  dispersed, 
except  the  powerful  Basuto  tribe,  under  the  chief  Moshesh,  who  still  maintain  th-ra- 
selves  in  the  fastnesses  of  the  Maluti  Mountains,  and  a  few  Batclapl  and  otU'T  Bef- 
jouanas, who  dwell  round  the  Wesleyan  mission  Rtation  of  Thab*  Unchu  andMera- 
metsu. 

All  the  rivers  of  this  region  are  affluents  of  either  of  the  branches  of  the  Gariep; 
amougst  them  may  be  named  the  Modder,  Valsch,  Great  and  Little  Vet,  wliicli  iiin 
into  the  Ky  Garieo  or  Vaal  River,  and  the  Caledon,  a  considerable  stream,  which 
joins  the  Orange  River  after  draining  the  Basntu  coimtiy. 

This  region  is  a  vrt»t  plateau,  rising  from  8000  lo  5000  feet  above  the  pea-le^fl, 
with  very  little  wood,  except  along  the  lines  of  the  water-couives  that  ti-avfn»e  it. 
IVavellers  crossing  this  state  from  the  Cape  Colony  to  Natal  an'ive  at  the  top  of  the 
passes  leading  to  the  latter  colony  without  a  mountain  being  in  sight,  and  thiu  fl»d 
themselves  suddenly  on  tlie  edge  of  an  immense  mountjiin-chain',  with  the  oust 
region  p('v<Mal  thousand  feet  below  th»Mn,  extendln«r  to  the  Indian  Oci-an.  lanneiiM 
herds  vt  the  larger  antelopes  formerly  tenanted  these  vast  plain:;,  and  are  vividly 


y  Google 


Fvl  1  Orange 

*^  I  ^  Orangeman 

de^crlbod  by  Captain  Hnrrls,  Gordon  Cuinming.  nnd  others;  tlicy  wre  now  fust 
dlj«nj)penriii«r.  The  dinmoiid-flchls  recently  discovend  lie  in  this  atute,  and  in 
Giiqiia  Lnnd,  a  narrow  etno  of  tciritory  Itoncding  it  on  the  \ve?t. 

The  Free  State  is  divided  into  the  followinj^  disrricts:  Bloem  Fontefn  (chief 
towns,  Bloein  Konteia  the  capital,  Boshof) ;  Whiburj-  (chief  towns,  Winbnrg,  Cron- 
stadt);  Sniithfield  (chief  town,  Sniithfleld);  Uanismith  (chief  town,  H>irrts»inlth) : 
Fauresmith  (chief  town,  Faun'^mith)-  ITie  chief  lown  Bloeni  Fontrfn  i?  sltnnted 
about  150  miles  north-west  of  Colusberjr,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Moddir  River,  in  lat. 
290  8'  8.  It  contains  al)onl  260  houi*es;  a  Dutch.  Ei»'iscopal,  and  Roman  Catholic 
Church ;  has  two  local  hanks,  and  \»  ihe  seat  of  :.n  Epipcopal  see  of  the  Church  (»f 
England.  It  is  distant  about  800  miles  overland  from  Capo  Town,  and  ha.'*  a  post 
twice  a  week  with  it.  The  other  n  ilh'ges  or  small  towns  are  all  increasing  und  flour- 
ishing, bnt  do  not  present  aitytlHug  remai'kahle. 

By  the  latest  returns  (1S68)  the  i>opnlatiou  of  the  Free  State  was  37,000  whites,  of 
■whom  about  2000  were  English.  In  18T5— 1876,  the  revenue,  priudpally  derived 
from  local  taxation  and  quit-rt  nts  of  lanns,  was  X108,091. 

The  history  of  the  countiy  forming  Ihe  Free  State  may  be  summed  np  in  a  few 
words.  Captain  Hani**  dt  hcribes  it^  before  1886,  as  a  howling  wildemePH,  inhabited 
by  wandering  hordes  of  Bu^'hmen  and  broketj  tribes  of  Betjouana  and  Zulu  refugees 
from  the  armies  of  the  gr-  at  Zulu  tyrants,  Chaka,  Dingaan.  and  Mapelikuise.  After 
the  KaflSr  war  of  1S35— 1836,  a  spirit  of  dippatisfaction  arising  in  the  minds  of  many 
of  the  frontier  boers,  an  extensive  emigration  took  place  along  the  north-ea»»t  fron- 
tier of  the  Cape  Colony;  the  n»ojorfty  of  the  emigrants,  however,  havine  Natal  as 
their  ultimate  goal.  However,  after  the  Biitish  yovernment  had  declared  it  an  Enjr- 
lish  colony  in  1843,  the  boers  I'gain  fell  hack  on  this  region,  and  by  degrees  declar- 
ing their  independence  of  the  British  crown,  and  fonnlnj?  a  sort  of  Abatia  on  our 
very  borders,  after  son»e  opposition,  and  one  or  two  conflicts  with  our  troops,  the 
country  was  annexed  hy  Sir  H.  Smith  to  the  British  empire,  under  the  name  of  tl'u 
Orange  River  Sovereign'ty  J  a«'d  continued  so  until  1864,  when  Sir  G.  Clerk  formally 
gave  it  up,  and  allowed  the  inhabitants  to  form  a  irovernment  according  to  tlieh'Ow  n 
wishes.  The  poveniment  is  now  in  the  hands  of  a  president,  freely  elected  hy  the 
landroBt  and  heemraden  in  the  several  districts;  while  the  volksraad,  or  people's 
council,  exercise  legislative  functions.  This  state  labors  muler  the  vei*y  serious  dis- 
advantugo  of  being,  like  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  entirely  inland,  and  has  no  port  on 
the  ocean  at  whicli  customs  dues  can  l)e  collected ;  thus  throwing  the  whole  of  the 
expense  of  government  on  local  taxation. 

About  the  vear  1862,  a  large  number  of  Griquas— a  tribe  of  Bastard  Hottentots, 
who  inimbite<f  the  south  part  of  the  stj\te— sold  their  farms  to  Ihe  Free  State  govern- 
ment, and  migrated  In  a  body  to  tlie  coast  side  of  the  mountains  in  Ii  deptndenr. 
Kaffraria,  occupying  a  large  tract  of  conntiy  there  known  by  the  name  of  No  JVian'a 
Land. 

In  1866,  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  Moshesh,  chief  of  the  Basutos,  Ivv  which  a 
portion  of  the  territory  known  as  BaFuto  Land  was  cedid  to  the  O.  R.  F.  S,  The 
Doundaries  agreed  on  by  this  treaty  were,  however,  somewhat  modified  by  Ihe  gov- 
ernor of  Cape  Colony  in  1869— a  sij^nificant  fact. 

The  Dutch  boers  ]>rof ess  the  Dutch  Ri'formed  faith,  and  speak  a  dialect  of  Dutch, 
corrupted  with  Hottentot  and  Enelish  words.  They  marry  young^  and  keep  up,  to 
some  extent,  nomadic  habits.  The  roads  and  internal  communication  are  pood. 
Lime  and  timber  are  rati'.er  scarce,  but  building  stone  and  thatch  uhunc  ant. 
Woolled  sheep  have  increaj*ed  amazingly  within  the  last  few  years  ;  and  farms  that 
ten  years  ago  would  hardly  fetch  jC60,  now  sell  at  from  jG2(J00  to  XSOOO.  The  value 
of  imports  in  1875  was  je6»7,026  ;  of  exports,  Xl ,530,883. 

O'RANGEMAN,  one  of  the  unhappy  party  designations  which  contributed  K-r 
nearly  a  centnry  to  create  and  keep  alive  religions  and  political  divisions  of  the  wor.-< 
character  throughout  the  British  empire,  butespecially  m  Ireland.  The  Orange  01  gan- 
Jsiitiou  had  its  origin  In  the  animosities  which  had  subsisted  between  ProteptjintH  aid 
Catholic^  in  Ireland  from  the  Reformation  downwards,  bat  which  reached  their  fu  1 
development  after  the  Revolution  of  1680,  and  rhe  wholesale  confisc-Mtions  of  Cutholic 
property  by  which  that  event  was  followed.  From  that  time,  the  Catholics  of  Ireiai»d 
may  be  said  legally  to  have  lost  all  social,  political,  and  religious  status  in  Ireland. 
Some  attempts  which  were  made  in  the  latter  j>art  of  the  18th  c.  to  ameliorate  th^ 

u.  K.  X.,  IT.  ^  g.^,^^^  ^y  Google 


Orange  ^jg 

condition,  excitrdj  especially  in  the  nortli,  the  alarm  of  the  Protestant  party,  who 
regarded  the  traditionary  "Protestant  ascendency  "  as  endangered.  Act«  of  vio- 
lence iK^caine  of  freqnent  occurrence,  and,  as  commonly  liappm?,  conibiuntions  for 
aggressive  and  defensive  purposes  were  formed,  not  alone  by  the  Protealunts,  but 
also  by  their  Catholic  antagonists.  The  members  of  tlie  Protestant  associatioD? ap- 
pear ui  first  to  have  been  Icuownby  the  name  of  •*  Pee|)-of -day  Boys,"  from  ihe  time  at 
whicli  tlieir  violei.ces  were  commonly  perpetrated;  the  Catholics  who  asi^ociated  to- 
getlier  for  self-defence  beinir  called  "  Defenders."  Collisions  between  armed  bodies 
of  these  parties  became  of  frequent  occurrence.  In  17S5,  a  pilclied  lmttl«',  afl-iided 
with  much  blood-hed,  was  lojight  in  tlie  county  of  Arm»j;:h.  Tlie  steps  taken  to 
repress  these  disorders  were  at  once  insufficient  in  tl'Mnselves  to  pi-eveutopen 
violence,  and  had  the  effect  of  divrtinir  the  current  into  the  still  mor- djingerons 
channel  of  secret  associations.  Tlie  rude  and  illiterate  mob  of  Peep-of-d.iy  Boys 
made  way  for  tho  rich  and  influential  orgaulsalion  of  the  Orange  Society,  which, 
having  its  first  or.gin  in  the  siuue  obscure  district  which  had  so  long  been  the  sceue 
of  airrarian  violence,  l>y  degrees  extended  its  ramifications  info  every  portion  of  ihe 
British  empire,^  and  into  every  grade  of  society  from  the  hovel  to  tl»e  very  sf'jffl  of 
the  throne.  The  n  ime  of  the  Orange  associaiion  Is  talsen  from  timt  of  the  Prince 
of  Oran.:,'e,  William  III.,  and  was  assumed  in  honor  of  that  prince,  who,  hi  Irelaiul, 
has  been  popularly  identifl^Ml  with  the  establish ineiit  of  that  Protestant  a?ceiid('»cy 
which  it  was  llie  object  of  the  Orange  association  tonusiain.  The  first  "Orange 
Lodge"  was  founded  in  the  village  of  Loughga II,  county  Armagh,  September  21, 
1795.  'I'he  imn)ediate  occa>ion  of  t:ie  crisis  was  a  seiies  of  ontragi^by  wliicli Ciitlio- 
lics  were  forcibly  ejected  from  their  houses  and  farms,  12 or  14  houses  bein^ some- 
times, according  to  n  disinterested  witness,  wrecked  in  a  single  night ;  terraniatJKg, 
September  1T95,  in  an  engagement,  called  from  the  place  where  it  occurred,  the  BiittltJ 
of  the  Diamond.  The  association  which  l)egan  among  the  ignorant  |)eaHiuitry  ^oon 
worlved  its  way  upwards.  The  general  disaffection  towards  Eiiglish  ri  le,  winch  at  iii«t 
time  pervaded  Ireland,  and  in  which  the  Catholics,  as  anaturnl  eon.-equiuce  of  their 
oppressed  condition,  largely  participated,  tended  much  to  id<niify  in  th'  mind  oC 
Protestiuits  the  cause  of  disloyally  with  that  of  popery;  and  the  rei>  liion  of  1T9S 
inseparably  combined  the  religious  with  the  political  untipatliies.  In  Noveniljtr  of 
that  year,  the  Orange  Society  had  already  reached  the  dignity  of  a  grand  lodge  of 
Ireland,  wiih  agrand  master,  a  grand  secretary,  and  a  formal  establislnnent  i««  the 
metropolis;  and  in  the  following  years,  the  oigauisatipn  extended  over  i  be  entire 
province  of  ulster,  and  had  its  rnnnflcations  in  all  the  cenlres  of  l-*rotestantisra  in  tiie 
other  provinces  or  Ireland.  In  1803,  it  extended  to  England.  A  grand  lodge  was 
founded  at  Manchester,  from  which  warrants  were  issued  for  tin;  entire  kiiii,'dom. 
The  seat  of  the  grand  odge  was  transferred  to  London  in  1821.  The  subject  more 
than  once  was  brought  under  the  notice  of  parlianieuf,  especially  in  1813;  and,  in 
consequence,  the  grand  lodge  of  Ireland  was  dissolved  ;  but  its  functions  in  issulus; 
warrants,  &c.j  were  discharged  vicariously  throuirh  the  English  lodge.  The  ums^t 
memorable  cnsis,  h>wevir,  in  the  history  of  the  Orange  Society  was  the  election  of 
a  roy.l  duke  (Cnniberland)  in  1827  asgrand  master  lorEngland  ;  and  on  tl«ero-«st:l>- 
lishmcnt  of  the  Irlslj  gi-und  lodge  in  1S28  us  imperial  grand  ma.ster.  The  Catiiolic 
llelief  Act  of  the  following  year  stirr;  d  up  all  the  elumbering  antipathies  of  creed 
and  race,  and  the  Or.inge  associaiion  was  propajjated  more  vigorously  than  ivor. 
Emissaries  weie  sent  out  tor  the  purpose  of  organising  lodges,  not  alone  in  W.iies 
and  Scotland,  but  also  in  Canada,  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  In  tlie  other  coloiiles. 
But  the  mo>t  formidable  part  of  this  zealous  propagandsm  was  its  iLtrodnction  into 
the  army.  As  early  as  1824,  traces  of  this  are  discoverable,  and  again  in  18.6.  No 
fewer  than  32  regiments  were  proved  to  have  received  warrants  for  holding  lodges 
in  Ireland,  and  the  English  grand  lodge  had  issued  37  warrants  for  the  same 
purpose. 

Tue  organisation  of  this  strange  association  was  most  complete  and  mos*  extfn- 
sive.  Subject  to  the  central  »;rand  lodge,  were  three  classes — connty,  di.«trict,  and 
private  lodges— each  of  which  corresponded,  and  made  returns  and  contributions  to 
Its  own  immediate  superior,  by  whom  they  were  transmitted  to  the  gramllodge. 
Each  lodge  had  a  master,  deputy-nmster,  secretary,  committee,  and  chaplain.  ll«c 
only  condition  of  raeml)ership  was,  tinit  the  party  should  be  Protestant,  and  18years 
of  age.    The  election  of  members  was  by  ballot,  and  each  lodge  also  amiuaMj 


y  Google 


513  ^^^* 

ejected  its  o^^'u  officers  and  committee.  The  geiienil  government  of  the  a^Bociation 
was  VL-eted  in  the  gtand  lodjje,  which  cousi8te<l  of  ail  the  grej»tdigiiitnrict<,  t.  c;:rand 
masters  of  counties,  and  the  membere  of  anoiher  l-ody  callt-d  the  jiniiid  commiitec. 
Th!s  KkI_'h  metiu'ice  eucli  year,  in  mny  and  on  Novemlwr  i — the  day  prej^nant 
Mini  aiM*t>ciaii()U8  caicuiaied  lo  kefp  alive  the  Protretent  nntipnihies  of  the  hody. 
All  the  dignitaries  of  the  socieiy,  a;*  well  an  it.-*  various  connnittetrs  and  cxeeijiivo 
bodJui?,  Wire  t^ubiect  lo  annual  re-election.  In  1&35,  thf  assucialion  nuiubcrul  20 
gi and  lodges*,  80  dis'tiict  lodges,  1500  private  h.dgey,  and  troin  200,000  to  220,003 
memheri*.  Tiie  woit^t  result  of  the  Orange  Association  was  the  conntan^  iuceniivti 
it  supplied  to  party  animosities  and  dee<ls  of  violence.  '1  he  spirit  of  fraternity  whic)|f 
pervad'-a  its  nienil>ers  wasa  standing  obstacle  to  the  udminlHtratou  of  the  law;  and 
all  confidence  in  the  local  admiuistiation  of  justice  by  inagii^tralfB  wat*  dehlroyed. 
An  alleged  Orange  conspiracy  to  aher  the  succession  to  the  crown  iu  favor  of  the 
Dukif  of  Cumberland,  led  to  a  protractt  d  p.-irliameutary  inquiry  iu  1835  ;  and  this  in- 
quiry, as  well  as  a  shocking  outrage  pi  ipetrate<l  soon  alt«  iwards  by  an  armed  b  dy 
ol  Orangemen,  ou  occasion  of  a  prucession  in  Ireland,  so  discredited  the  ii8.<ociatioD, 
and  aw;ik.ued  the  public  mind  lo  a  8eu^e  of  its  follv  and  wickedness,  tlnit  its  re- 
specrability  has  since  that  time  gnsdually  diiniulshecl.  For  several  years  the  Lord 
Chancel  or  laid  down  a  rule,  by  which  no  ineml)«i'  of  the  Orange  Association  was 
ndniitted  to  the  commission  of  the  pence  ;  and  the  associ.-itiiu  became compirjitively 
without  influence,  except  among  I  he  very  lowest  chisses  i:i  the  north  ot  Ireland.  Of 
tiie  colonial  offshoot^  of  the  Orange  Association,  those  of  Canada  have  at  nil  times 
l)een  the  most  active,  carrying  with  theni  all  the  bitterncs'S  of  the  donn  sUc  feud  with 
th**  Konian  Catholics.  Outrages  against  Catholic  cinnches  and  convents  were  of  not 
Dnfri-queut  occurrence  until  recently  ;  and  on  occasion  of  the  visit  of  the  Prince  of 
"Wales  to  Canada,  an  attempt  was  made  to  force  from  his  Royal  Highness  a  recogni- 
ti(/n  of  the  association,  which  was  only  defeated  by  hi«*  own  firmness,  and  by  the 
judicious  and  moderate  counsels  of  iiis  advisers.  In  1861  the  Orange  As.«ocialion  of 
the  United  States  had  in  connection  with  it  1200  lodget*,  and  about  150^000  members. 
—See  **  Reports  on  the  Orange  Association,"  present*  d  lo  })arliajnent  m  1835. 

The  Orajijre  Association  iu  Ireland,  winch  had  l>eyun  to  fall  into  general  disre- 
pate.  received  an  iinpul.«e  among  the  working-classes  from  a  series  of  Siuiguinary 
conflicts  with  Roman  Catliolics  ou  occasion  of  the  annivt  i-sary  celebrations  of  tlie 
society;  and  even  still,  the  iM'ace  of  inany  dis«tncts  in  the  north  of  Ireland  is  ou'y 
preserv«'d  on  such  occasions  by  the  presence  of  an  overpowering  force  of  miliiaiy 
and  constabulary.  Tne  repeal  of  the  Processions  Act  has  failed,  up  to  the  present 
time,  to  put  an  end  to  the  traditional  collisions  of  the  parties. 

OUA'l O'RIO  (Itah  oiutorioy  chapel  or  oratory,  the  place  where  these  compositions 
were  first  pi;rforuied),  a  kind  of  sacnd  nmsiial  con»po8ition,  either  purely  dnimatic 
or  partaking  hoth  of  the  drama  and  the  epic,  in  which  the  text  is  illu>trativeof  some 
riiigjous  subject,  sometimes  tak(U  din cily  from  Scripture;  and  the  nmslo  consists 
of  recitative:*,  ah'S,  duer.-,  trios,  quartetts,  choruses,  accomp-iniwl  by  an  orchestra, 
sometimes  also  l)y  an  organ,  and  iutroducetl  by  an  instrumental  overture.  The  ora- 
torio is  not  intended  for  scenic  representation. 

St  Ftlippo  Neri,  lorn  in  1515,  has  bei  n  considered  the  founder  of  tl»e  oratorio. 
lie  engagi'd  poets  and  composi-rs  to  produce  tlialogues,  on  sub.ects  from  scriptural 
and  legendary  history,  iu  \erse  and  ec^.  to  n.usic,  which  were  perfonned  in  hischapil 
or  oratory  on  Sundays  and  church  fistivals.  The  subjects  w(!re  *'Job  and  his 
Friends,"  **  1  he  Pr.digal  Son,"  "The  Ai:gel  Gabriel  with  the  Virgin,"  and  **The 
Mystery  of  the  Incarnation."  Strad'jlla  composed  various  oratorio;-,  of  whicli  "San 
Gfovanni  Ba!il.<-ta,"  i)!0tlucpd  m  IGTO,  is"  praised  by  J)r  Burney.  A  number  of  ora- 
ttjrio-S  or  azioni  ttacre^  by  Apostt)Io  Zeno  anil  }^Ie:a^taHio,  were  set  to  nm-ic  by  Cal- 
dara  in  t!ie  beginning  of  1  .>»t  euitnry.  Soha.-tiau  Buch's  "Pa8^*ious-Alusik"  wan  a 
specie-*  of  ()rat(jno,  ori-^inally  performed  dming  the  service  of  the  church,  the  con- 
rcg.iliou  joining  iu  the  c!)orales.  Its  form  arost;  outoi  the  practice  prevalent  in  the 
_jntlieran  Churcn.  of  liaving  tl>e  gospels  for  the  day  rei)eateil  on  Good  Friclay,  and 
soiJie  other  fesllvals,  by  (hffjront  portons  in  a  recita;ive  and  dialogue  style.  By 
far  the  greatest  nia.-ter  of  oratorio  was  Handel,  who  perfected  luat  species  of 
comp'./sition,  and  was  the  i\n\.  to  introduce  it  inlo  England,  At  tlie  age 
of  iJO,  when  «n  a  vist  to  Jt.:!}',  be  produced  his  oratorio  of  *'La  Kes- 
urreziouc"   ut  liume.      "Esther,"   the  first  oratorio  written   by  him  in  £iig- 


iL^ 


y  Google 


Oratorinm  KM 

Oratorf  ^"»  OX'±  > 

land,  was  composed  for  the  chapel  of  his  patron,  the  Dnke  of  Chai'dos,  in  1T20,  the 
M'ord.-s  altered  from  Rnciiie.  It  was  performed  piivutely  at  Canuona  iu  the  same  year, 
but  hiid  aside,  and  not  produced  in  public  till  1782.  Au  oratorio  wan  then  bo  com* 
plete  a  novelty  iu  Eiiglaiul,  that  it  wa»  deemed  necessary  to  give  the  following  expla- 
nation In  advertising  it:  "By  His  Majesty's  command,  at  the  King's  Theatre'in  tlie 
Haymark't,  on  Tnesday,  the  2d  May,  will"  be  piTformed  the  sacrea  Story  of  Esther, 
im»^ratt)rio  in  Enijlifli,  composed  by  Mr  Handel,  and  to  be  pejforraed  by  a  great 
number  of  voices  and  mntruments. — N.  B. — There  will  be  no  acting  on  the  stage,  but 
tlie  house  will  bo  fitted  up  in  a  decent  manner  for  the  audience."  For  many  years 
after  the  appeanince  of  "  Es^ther,"  no  more  oratorios  were  produced  by  Handel,  who 
^devoted  himself  to  operas  and  other  secular  music;  and  it  was  only  after  the  tein- 
porniy  failure  of  his  health,  that  at  the  ripe  age  of  53  he  resumed  the  coniposiliouof 
oratorios.  The  great  oratorios  which  have  made  his  name  immortal  were  all  pro- 
duced iu  the  d(K:line  of  life,  so.ne  of  them  after  he  was  afflicted  with  blindness,  aad 
they  were  performed  for  the  most  part  iu  the  old  Hay  market  Theatre.  *•  Deborah" 
was  first  performed  in  1733;  "Athaliah, "  iu  1734;  "Israel  iu  Eirypt,"  iu  1138; 
"The  Messiah,"  in  1741;  "Samson,"  iu  1742;  "Judas  MaccabiEQV'  >" 
1746;  "Joshua,"  in  1747;  "Solomon,"  !n  1749;  ^id  *♦  Jephtha."  in  1T5I.  The 
two  crowning  works  were  '* Israel  iu  Egypt"  and  "The  Messiah  "—the  former 
ranks  highet«t  of  all  compositions  Of  the  oratorio  class.  *•  The  Messiah"— 
which,  in  consequejice  of  its  text  being  taken  entirely  from  Scripture,  waa 
called  oy  Handel  '*  The  Sacred  Oratorio  " — ranks  very  near  it  in  point  of  musical  merit, 
and  has  attained  an  even  more  universal  popularity ;  -from  th*time  wheu  it  was  firet 
brought  out,  ilowu  to  the  present  day,  it  has  been  performed  for  the  benefit  of  neariy 
every  im|>ortant  charitable  institution  in  Britain.  '*  Judas  Maccabsns  "  is  perliaps 
best  known  from  the  flowing  and  martial  grace  of  that  unrivalled  military  marcK 
**  See  the  Conquering  Hero  Comes; "  and  "Saul"  is  associated  iu  every  one's  mind 
with  the  most  solemn  of  all  funeral  marches.  The  orchestra  was  bat  imperfectly 
developed  iu  Handel's  tim%  aud  his  oratorios  had  therefore  originally  but  meagre 
iustrumental  accompaniments;  they  have  since  been  generallv  performed  with 
additional  accompaniments  written  by  Mozart  From  Hansel's  time  down- 
wards, It  was  the  practice  in  London  to  have  oratorios  performed  twice  a  week 
during  Lent  in  the  various  theatref«,  which  were  only  given  up  on  the  institatiou 
of  the  oratorio  performances  at  Exeter  Hall.  Haydn  composed  tlin-e 
oratorios— "  The  Keturn  of  Tobias,"  "The  Se\e  i  Last  Vv'ords,"  and 
•'The  Creation."  "The  Seven  Last  Words,"  a  work  full  of  sweetness 
and  of  energy,  hardly  answers  to  the  common  conditions  of  au  oratorio; 
it  is  rather  a  series  of  symphonies,  iut^uded  to  follow  as  many  short 
sermons  on  the  sentences  uttered  by  our  Lord  on  the  cross,  the  text  being  a  sabse* 
quent  addition  by  the  composer's  brother.  Michaol  Haydn.  "  The  Creation  "  origi- 
nated in  a  visit  of  Haydn  to  Loudon,  In  1791,  when  he  hea^-d  for  the  first  time  gome 
of  the  works  of  Handel,  none  of  which  were  then  knciwu  in  Germany.  Though 
less  grand  than  the  oratorios  of  Handel,  it  is  full  of  fresh  lovely  soHgs,  brigi-t 
choruses,  picturesque  recitatives,  and  exquisite  instrumentation.  Becthoveu's  sole 
oratorio,  "  I'lie  Mount  of  Olives,"  is  a  pure  drama,  rather  than  the  mixed  composi- 
tion generally  known  under  tite  name.  Spohr's  "  Last  Judgment,  produc»-d  ia 
1825.  contJiius  some  grand  music,  particularly  in  the  choruaes.  Costa's  "Eli" 
d(!i»erves  mention  among  modern  oratorios.  But  since  the  time  of  Handel  no  other 
writer  of  oratorios  has  approached  Mendelssohn.    The  greatest  works  of  that  cnia- 

Soser  are  his  oratorios  of  "  St  Paul "  and  "  Elijah ";  the  former  was  first  pro- 
need  at  DQsseldorf  in  1836,  the  latter  at  Birmingham  in  1846;  and  at  the  time  of 
his  doath  he  was  engaged  in  a  third  oratorio,  called  "Chiistus,"  which  he  expected 
would  be  his  srreatest,  and  of  which  but  a  few  fragments  have  been  piiblish<-d.  Th«* 
oratorios  of  Mendelssohn  have  tended  groatly  to  revive  the  popuhurity  of  thiskiud  «»f 
composition  in  Britain.  At  Exeter  Hall  in  London,  and  at  the  musical  festivals 
tMro'itrhont  England,  oratorios  are  perforn»ed  on  a  large  scale,  aud  with  a  powfr,* 
])reci8ion,  and  a  p(^rfecfion  unknown  elsewhere.  The  choruses  at  the  provlucia!  fe«- 
tiv',1^  an-,  foe  the  most  part,  supplied  by  Birmingham,  Manchester,  Leeds,  and  ti»6 
«»t'i('r  large  towns.  The  gr-'atest  oratorio  ix^rformmces  are  now  tho8«?  of  the  Trien- 
nial Fcstiva'ft  at  the  Sydenham  Crystal  Palace.  At  the  festival  of  1874,  thechoras 
amounted  to  *z972  voices,  aud  there  was  au  orchestra  of  455  p**-'— 


y  Google 


R  1  K  Oratorinm 

«^  J  *^  Oratory 

ORATO'RirM  (Lat  '*  oratory,"  called  in  Greek  mXrtrrfon  or  proseukt^on),  na 
coiitratlisliugiiislied  Irom  eccleaicif  "  a  church,"  is  the  luunc-  jrivt-ii  to  sin  jip.nrtmnit 
or  building  de^iglu•d  for  wors-hip  of  a  private  or  domestic  character.  From  the 
e:irlic8t  timt-p,  the  use  of  oratorio  is  traceable  in  the  history  of  iheclinrch;  aid 
before  the  regular  or^iii««tioii  of  parishej?.  they  had  prol>ably  a  coiislderahio  plaoo 
5iJ  the  common,  aJtlK)iigh  not  in  the  public  wor.-hip.  At  a  later  jwriod,  onitorio 
became  e  common  appendage  of  the  castles  and  residenc:  a  of  the  nobility,  jii  d 
were  of  two  kinds ;  the  firet,  simply  for  private  or  fumi  y  pn»y«-f  iukI  ott:er  devotion  ; 
tbe  second,  for  the  celebration  of  mass.  The  hitter  fell  prop«-rly  fn-d  r  the  jurjedit- 
tioM  of  the  bishop  t)r  the  parochitil  clergy,  and  mjiny  j jalousies  and  dipput«'8  grew 
out  of  their  establis-hraent  or  direction.  The  Council  of  Trent  ^Sos-,  xxii.,  "Be  llc- 
formationO  placed  them  under  very  stringent  regulations,  which  have  been  eiiforci  d 
and  developed  by  later  popes,  eb|)ecjally  by  Benedict  XIV. 

O'RATORY,  Congregation  of  the.  The  origin  of  this  learned  Congregation,  nnd 
its  early  history,  have  been  detailed  under  the  lund  of  St  Philip  Neri  (q.  v.).  It  is 
remarlmble,  however,  that  this  extnu^rdinary  man,  unlike  mo^t  oth<r  lounderscf 
religious  bodies  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  hiid  never  ccunmittcd  to  wr  ling  any 
dffinite  body  of  rules  for  the  government  and  dinciion  of  the  brt-thron.  Even  hin 
pcattered  pnpers,  from  which  his  plans  and  intentions  might  have  been  colK-cted, 
liad  been  burned  by  his  orders  a  short  time  before  his  death.  Soon  afi<r  that  event, 
the  Fathers,  at  the  instance  of  Burouius,  compiled  from  tiic  existing  practices  aiul 
from  meraorjaruleforthe  Congiearation,  framed  fo  as  to  embotly  the  spirit  of  St 
Philip.  Thisrule  was  approved  of  by  Paul  V.  on  February  21.  1612.  The  Fatliers 
of  the  Congregatiou  area  body  of  priests  living  in  community,  but  without  vows,  and 
nnder  a  constitution  of  a  highly  democratical  character.  They  are  at  Iib«'rty  to  with- 
draw at  any  time,  and  to  resume  possession  of  the  pro|M'rly  which  thi-y  had  brough.t 
With  them  at  entrance;  and  even  during  their  association,  each  member  manages  his 
own  financial  concerns,  only  contributing  a  flxtd  sum  I o« the  common  exiwnses  of 
the  community.  There  is  no  superior-general,  as  in  other  orders.  Each  house  U 
dstiiict  and  iiidependent.  In  each,  the  su|>erior  is  elccicd  only  for  three  years,  and 
his  position  does  not  give  him  any  personal  ])re-cminencc  whatever.  The  members 
lake  their  places  according  t^)  seniorit}'.  not  nccording  to  oflicial  runk,  and  the  Buj»e- 
rior  is  compelled  to  take  his  tuni  in  all  the  duties,  even  down  to  the  Mini-menial  offlt  e 
of  serving  in  the  refectory.  The  main  occupations  of  the  Fathers,  Ivyond  tl.osijof  al- 
t-iidiiiir  to  the  public  senice  of  the  church,  and  the  duties  of  l\w  jmipitand  the  con- 
ffsslonal,  lie  in  the  cultivation  of  theological  and  oilier  sacred  studies,  of  which 
*•  conferences"  for  the  discussion,  in  common,  of  theoloj-'iciil  que.<tions,  form  a  prin- 
cipal feature.  *J'he  Congregation  has  produced  many  men  of  givat  emiiK  net;  iu 
pucred  science,  among  whom  have  been  already  uamecl  the  great,  church  historian. 
Cardinal  Baronius,  and  his  continuators.  To  these  may  be  add<  d  the  c-Ubrated  ex- 
plorers of  the  Roman  catacombs,  Bosio,  Severani,  and  Aringhi ;  and  the  no  less 
eminent  patristical  scholar,  Gallandi.  Tbe  houses  of  the  Oratory  in  Italy  before  the 
RevolutiQU  were  numerous,  and  in  high  repute.  Few  towns  of  any  iu  portance  were 
•withouf  a  house  of  the  Oratory.  The  Congregation  was  early  established  in  France 
by  the  celebrated  Pierre  (afterwards  Cardinal)  de  Beralle,  in  common  with  two 
Italian  Fathers,  and  from  France  it  extended  to  the  Low  Countries.  One  imporiant 
difference,  however,  is  noticeable  between  the  French  Oratory  and  the  Roman  origi- 
nal. In  liie  former,  all  the  houses  of  the  country  are  subject  to  a  single  superior- 
general.  In  France,  also,  the  Oratorians  took  charge  of  seminaries  and  of  theological 
teaching.  The  French  Oratoiy,  as  well  as  tlie  Italian,  reckons  manyillustiious  niem- 
bere ;  but  the  fame  and  ntllity  of  the  French  Congregation  w<re  much  marred  by  the 
nnhappy  controversy  about  Jansenism.  In  the  year  1847,  this  Congregation  was  in- 
tr(/duced  into  England  by  Dr  John  Henry  Newman  (q.  v.).  So(ui  after  his  secession 
from  Anglicanism,  he  established  a  house,  the  members  of  which  were  for  the  most 
part  ex-Anjrlicans  like  himsilf,  near,  and  finally  at  Birminirhani ;  and  soon  after- 
wards, a  second  at  London,  which  has  since  been  trantferred  to  Biomptou. 

O'RBIS  PI'CTUS  (the  Pictured  World),  the  title  of  the  fir^^t  picture-book  or  illns- 
trnf  ed  manual  of  instruction  for  the  y  ung,  by  thv  celebrated  educationist,  Comenins, 
publish«d  at  Nftrnberg  in  165T.  It  was  long  a  great  favorite  with  the  youth  of  Gtr- 
jix&ujt  and  continued  to  be  reprinted,  in  vuiiuus  modified  forms,  down  to  recent 


y  Google 


Orbit  tit* 

Orchard  ^  ^^  ^ 

limes.  Comeuius,  witli  the  instinct  of  a  great  teacher,  felt  that  to  pive  words  with- 
out things  to  the  pupil  was  not  Riii!i>ly  to  retard  his  projrress,  but  to  lay  tlie fouudatioii 
of  vague  «ud  inaccurate  eonceptioneC  Hence  his  introduction  of  the  picture  of  tbiiigs 
into  the  work  al)ove  named,  which,  among  other  things,  w.-ih  intended  for  thosi; 
beginning  the  study  of  Latin,  the  connecting  of  tiie  word  with  the  picture  tendini:  to 
give  the  pupil  a  flriner  hold  or  a  quicker  perception  of  l>otli  word  and  tliinsr.  The 
great  and  di!»tiuguishing  merit  of  Comenius'e  book  it»,  tliat  it  brought  distinctly  into 
notice  the  necessity  ot  giving  children  in  the  earliest  stages  of  their  education,  not 
simply  a  word,  but  the  form  of  the  thing  of  which  the  word  whs  the  symbol.  A 
further  advance  on  this  idea  was  made  by  Pestalozzi,  who  ainied  at  presenting  to 
the  eye  of  the  child  tlie  thing  itself,  whenever  it  was  practicable  to  do  so;  and  he 
regarded  this  as  essential  to  the  right  education  of  the  human  faculties  in  their  in- 
fancy. Prom  this,  again,  flowed  tlie  excellent  custom  of  giving  Object  Lessons  in 
Infant  Schools. 

O'RBIT,  in  Astronomy,  is  the  path  described  in  space  by  a  heavenljr  body  in  its 
revolution  round  its  primiry.*  Tlie  path  so  described  is  of  an  elliptic  foi'ai.  nad 
would  b^^  accurately  an  ellipse,  were  it  not  for  tlie  disturbing  influence  of  the  other 
lieavenly  bodi  s.  See  Perturbations.  The  compK  te  determination  of  a  |>lanet'8 
orbit  is  of  the  last  importance  to  astronomers,  as  it  enai)les  them  to  predict  the 
planet's  place  In  the  heavens  at  any  period,  and  thus  determine  the  exact  date  of 
eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon,  of  transits  and  occulations  of  tho  planets,  and  of  the 
appearances  and  dis.ippearances  of  coniets.  For  the  determination  of  a  planet's 
orbit,  it  is  necessery  to  know  three  things:  1.  The  situation  of  the  plane  of  the 
orbit  in  space ;  2.  The  position  of  the  orbit  in  this  plane;  and  3.  The  situation  at  a 
given  epoch,  and  rate  of  motion,  of  the  planet  in  its  orbit.  Since  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic  is  for  convenience  t  .ken  as  the  reference  i)lane,  the  position  of  the  plaue  of 
a  planet's  orbit  is  known  when  its  inclination  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  (l)j  and 
the  line  of  intersection  of  the  two  planes  (2>,  are  known.  Since  the  sun,  winch  is 
the  focus  of  the  planet ar/ orbits,  lies  in  this  line  of  intersection,  the  orbit  cannot 
lie  wholly  above  or  below  the  plane  of  tlie  ecliptic,  but  must  cut  it  in 
two  points  called  Ifoden  (q.  v.),  and  tlje  position  of  the  line  of  hit»-r- 
Bection,  or  line  of  nodes,  is  generally  ^jriven  in  terms  of  the  longi- 
tude (or  angular  distance)  of  the  asct-nding  node,  reckoning  from  lii« 
equinox.  The  situation  of  a  planet's  orbit  in  it^i  plane  is  determined  when  we  know 
its  form  (3),  size  (4),  and  the  position  of  its  major  axis  or  line  of  apsides  (5).  The 
size  and  form  of  the  orbit  di?pend  upon  tli3  length  of  its  major  luid  mii»or  axes,  bat 
astronomers  pi-efer  to  employ  the  maj.)r  axis  and  eccentricity  (see  Ellipse);  ami 
the  position  of  the  major  axis  is  known  by  determining  the  heliocentric  longitnde 
of  its  perihelion  (i.  e.,  the  extremity  of  it  which  is  nearest  the  sun).  To  conipleie 
our  knowledge  of  a  planet's  motion,  all  we  now  require  are  the  epoch  of  itsappejir- 
ance  at  somi  detjrminate*  point,  of  its  orb  t^  '•ay,  at  th.s  perihelion  (6),  and  the 
velocity  of  its  motion  in  its  orbit  (7),  for  when  this  last  is  knowti.  the  law  of  area?, 
as  given  in  lii-pler's  second  law,  enables  us  to  determiuo  th«?  position  oi  the  plan<t 
in  its  orbit  at  any  future  period.  These  s  -Vftj  facts,  the  possession  of  which  givi'S 
us  a  coraplet.^  clue  to  a  planet's  motion,  are  calU'd  the  seven  **  elements  of  a  planet'8 
orbit."  What  has  been  here  stated  concerning  the  planetaiy  orldts,  is  equally  iruo 
of  the  orhits  of  tlie  comets  and  safel  ites,  tliongh,  In  the  caa.;  of  the  latter,  tl»o 
effect  of  disturbing  forces  is  so  great  as  to  produce  a  considerable  change  of  the 
elements  in  one  r.'volutioa. 

O'ROHARD  (Goth,  aurtigards^  Middle  IJieh  Ger.  tourzgartej  Ang.-Sax.  vyrtgeard, 
ortgeard^  a  y  ird  or  garden  for  worts  or  vcget}il)!es),  a  piece  of  ground  specially  devo- 
ted to  th3  growth  of  frnit-tre  -s,  and  in  whicii  thete  are  planted  as  near  to  each  oiherae 
their  protl!al)le  cultivation  will  admit  of,  no  ep.ice  being  left  for  culinai^  vegetables', 
as  in  I  he  fniit-garden.  The  introduction  of  such  ciopM  to  any  cousideralile  extent  is 
hijurious  10  the  trees  of  an  orchard,  by  exhausting  the  soil,  and  tlie  v^clublos  pro- 
duced are  not  good.  In  some  orchards,  tlie  soil  is  regularly  digged,  and  manure 
preity  freely  supplied,  the  trees  being  divarf  standards,  iruhied  to  a  low  and  bus»hy 
form,  in  rows  about  twelve  feet  apart,  witii  rows  o(  gooseberries,  curr.mtfi,  or  ni.«*|>- 

•  The  sun  is  the  primaiy  of  the  planets  and  comets,  and  each  planet  is  iho  pri- 
mary of  its  satelliteti  (secondtuy  planets). 

Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


517 


O  bit 
Oichaid 

berries  between  them.  Snch  orchards  are  often  very  productive,  and  are  not  liable 
to  suffer  much  from  winds,  whilst  the  trees  alj»o  protect  eiicli  other  from  frosts  in 
spring.  Other  orchards  are  formed  in  old  pasiures,  the  turf  being  replaced  when  the 
trees  are  planted,  or,  if  they  ai*e  formed  on  hnul  that  has  l)een  under  the  plough,  it 
is  sown  down  with  grass.  In  these,  also,  manure  is  occasionally  given.  In  many 
cases,  the  grass  of  orchards  is  employed  lor  piistnnng  cattle  or  sheep,  the  frees  being 
standards  or  half-standards^  wiih  stems  eo  tall  that  tlieir  hrancbi  s  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  animals,  and  in  tins  way  the  grass  produced  hy  the  soil  Is  returned  to  it 
in  the  form  of  manure.  In  forming  orcliaixls  of  tliis  kind,  it  is  not  nnusnal  to  plant 
the  titockSy  upon  which  the  proper  grafts  or  buds  are  afterwards  inserted.  Great  or- 
chards of  this  kind  exibt  in  iJevonshire,  Herefordshire,  and  some  other  southern 
counties  of  Enu'laiid,  devoted  to  the  growth  of  apples  for  the  production  of  cider, 
and  to  a  smaller  extent,  of  pears  for  tlie  prodnciion  of  perry.  Orchards  are  not  so 
common  in  Scotland  as  in  England,  where  they  are  not  only  frequent  api>endages  of 
t!te  m.-Mior-house,  bul  even  of  the  farm-hou*  .  Apples,  pears,  plums,  and  cherries, 
not  of  tlie  finest  kinds,  are  the  fruits  chiefly  produced  in  British  orchards,  aitbongli 
some  in  England  also  yield  wjdiuts,  cheat  in  ts,  medlars,  mulherriefi,  quinces.  Ac, 
and  there  are  even  a  few  small  fig-orchards  in  tlio  most  southern  parts.  Fig  and 
peach  otehanis  are  very'common  in  the  more  southern  parts  of  Europe ;  and  oranges, 
lemons.  &c„  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranejin. 

An  orchard  requires  a  dry  soil,  which  ought  also  to  t)e  free  and  oi>en,  not  a  stub- 
boni  clay.  A  gentle  slO{)e,  exposing  it  to  the  sun,  is  preferable  to  perf«  ctly  level 
ground.  Protection  from  prevalent  winds,  especially  in  Biitain  from  the  south- 
west winds  which  often  b'ow  strongly  in  anlumii,  is  very  nec«  tsary  ;  but  it  is  not 
Kss  injporiant  tlmt  ihere  should  \ye  a  tree  circulation  of  air,  in  default  of  which  the 
trees  become  covered  with  lichens  and  n.osses,  and  cease  to  be  productive.  An 
oi-chard  is  often  surrounded  hy  a  h^:^^  thorn  hedge,  but  a  small  orchard  must  not 
have  a  very  hi^h  hedge.  Forest  trees  ore  often  |»lanted  as  a  screen,  but  must  not 
be  too  near.  vVh'  re  Wiiluut  and  chestnut  trees  will  ripen  their  fruit,  they  are  often 
|;hinted,  on  the  side  mubi  (xposed  to  wiids,  for  i-heltcr. 

In  laying  out  the  ground  for  an  orchaid,  it  is  not  unusual  to  form  ft  into  ridges, 
CD  the  crown  of  which  the  tiees  are  planted.  But,  however  this  may  be,  the  trees 
v.re  planted  in  rows  running  north  and  eouth,  so  that  the  rays  of  the  sun  may  pene- 
trate among  them  somewhat  equally.  In  planting  the  trees,  their  roots  are  spread 
out  as  mucii  as  pos^fl)le,  as  it  is  found  desirable  to  encourage  tliem  to  extend  near 
the  surface,  rather  than  to  p<  net  rate  deep  into  the  ground,  particularly  where  no 
digrging  or  cropping  i.s  intended.  The-Ten)arks  on  soil  and  manures  in  the  aiticle 
Fkuit-Garden  are  applicable  al^o  to  orchards. 

'J  he  districts  of  Scotland  mos*  celebrated  for  their  orchards  ore  a  portion  of 
Clydesdale  (I^narkshire)  and  the  Carso  of  Cowrie  (Peithshire),  in  both  of  which  the 
apple-orchards  are  of  veiy  considerable  economical  importance. 

ORCHARD-HOUSE,  a  structure  Adapted  to  the  cidtivation  of  fruits,  of  finer  kinds 
than  <Jan  be  produced  in  the  open  air,  or  in  greater  perfection,  without  the  aid  of 
artifiehd  heat  Ii  is  the  invention  vi  ]Mr  Rivers  of  London,  and  is  a  *' glass-roofed 
shed,"  the  front  of  which  is  lower  than  the  back,  so  that  the  roof  slopt  s  towards  the 
son.  The  merit  of  the  invention,  however,  consists  not  so  much  m  the  structure 
ita^elf,  or  in  the  protecting  of  fruii-trees  and  admitting  of  the  sun's  rays  by  glass,  as 
ill  the  mode  of  their  tr<'atment,  by  which  a  limited  space  can  be  made  to  produce  a 
prodigious  quiintity  of  fine  fruit.  The  trees  are  planted  in  pots,  are  never  allowed 
to  attain  a  considerable  s.ze.  and  are  so  taained  and  pruiud  as  to  have  the  greatest 

Sosbible  amount  of  fruitful  wood  within  tie  hmalhst  possible  compass.    '1  he  pots 
ave  a  large  hole  in  tiie  l)0ttoin,  through  which,  the  routs  may  pass;  and  are  placcJ 


apou  a  border  carefully  prei)are(l  for  tlum,  of  loose  and  open  materials,  such  as 
cinders,  lime-rubbish,  and  broken  bricks,  enriche<l  by  manure.  After  the  f^uit  is 
guiher^,  the  roots  are  cut  throusrli  at  the  bottotn  of  the  pot,  and  the  trees  arc  set 


aside  to  rest  for  the  winter;  and  this  treatment  is  repeated  from  year  to  year.  The 
orchard-house  is  generally  a  very  low  structure,  so  that  the  foUage  and  fruit  are  very 
near  the  glass ;  its  back  being  only  7  feet  high,  and  its  front  oulv  2j4  feet,  for  awidt  li 
of  12  feet.  A  path  is  excavated  as  a  trench  of  2  feet  deep,  and  i)^  feet  wide,  through 
the  middle  of  it.  For  de^tailsas  to  glazing,  ventilation,  Ac,  we  lefer  to  Mr  Rivers's 
pamphlet,  **  The  Orchard-house,"  and  to  Chambers's  •*  Information  for  the  People," 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Orehest  a  ^1  Q 

i.  pp.  591-2  (new  ed.).  Plmitf  for  orchnrd-honscB  mny  dow^k;  pnrchnBed  in  nnreeriea. 
Ill  the  paihpiilet  of  Mr  Rivers,  iiislmctions  will  be  fuaiid  an  to  the  truiiiing  and 
treatment  of  different  kinds  of  trec5. 

O'RCHESTRA  (Or.  orehifttra,  from  wrcheomai,  I  dance),  in  the  Greek  theatre^ 
the  place  allotted  to  the  cbonis  of  d.»iicer«;  in  modem  theatres,  the  part  oi  the 
building  assigned  to  the  instrumentalists ;  and  In  the  modem  concert-room,  the 
place  occupied  by  the  lustmuieutiil  and  voc^  performers.  The  word  orchestra  is 
also  nsed  to  denote  the  innsiclaiis  collectively. 

A  complete  orchestra  consist <«  of  stiiuged  and  wind  instraments,  and  instmments 
of  percassiou.  The  employment  of  stringed  and  wind  insfrnmenta  together  was 
long  deemed  a  barbarism.  Gl&ck  was  among  the  first  compos<;rs  who  shewed  that 
they  could  bti  eflEectlvely  com!)ini(l,  and  his  ideas  were  more  fully  developed  by  puc- 
cee^ing  composers.  The  perfecting  of  the  o'd  instruments,  and  the  introduction  of 
now  ones,  formerly  confined  to  military  binds,  luivt;  addtd  immensely  to  the  power 
and  resources  of  the  modern  orchestr.i,  whose  captictties,  however,  have  sometimes 
beed  misnsed. 

Tbe  proper  strength  of  an  orchestra  must  depend  on  considerations  connected 
with  the  locality.  I'he  stringed  instruments  should  in  all  case-s  greatly  outnnmbiT 
the  wind  instruments;  and  those  lattrfr,  the  in-'iruraents  of  pt-rcussion.  The 
stringed  instruments  as  in  gen«^ral  use  aro  the  violin,  viola,  violoncello,  and  double- 
bass,  and  their  force  often  amounts  to  as  many  as  fifty,  while  even  in  a  large  oi'ches- 
tra  there  are  seldom  more  Antes,  hautl)oys,  or  ba-soons  than  two  of  eaih.  The 
horn,  trampet,  and  ophlcleide  or  seipent,  the  other  wind  iostrumentH  admitted  into 
the  orchestra,  are  used  as  spinngly;  and  of  instru  nents  of  peivns^ion,  a  pair  of 
kettle-drums  is  often  considered  sufficient,  though  cymbals  and  triangles  are  occa- 
sionally added.  In  a  smdl  orchestra,  trumpets,  trombones,  the  seqwnt,  and 
the  kettle-drum  should  be  avoided  as  b-ing  too  noisy.  By  far  the  gre  itest  part  of 
the  work  falls  t*>  the  sliare  of  the  stringed  instruments,  tht?  purts  for  which  form  >i 
complete  quartett  for  first  violin,  second  vimlin,  vii)la,  and  violoncello,  which  should 
be  perfect  within  itself,  independently  of  th?  parts  for  the  wind  in 'train 'nts.  Tae 
object  of  the  dojible-hass  is  to  ontoi*C'.'  the  vlolo'icello  part.  Tliis  fullxiuartoit  is 
occasionally  interrupted  by  harmony  in  two  or  three  parts,  or.  p|assa*;es  in  unisons 
or  octaves.  The  success  of  the  combination  of  wind  and  stringed  instruments 
depends  on  the  skill  and  judgment  of  the  composer.  The  liassoon.  honi,  or  Ante 
may  double  any  glv^n  part  or  the  stringed  in.^traraent  quartetr,  so  as  to  produce  an 
effect  of  reinforcement,  or  it  m:»y  have  its  own  distinctive  melody.  An  occasional 
variety  la  produced  by  tlie  entire  sensation  of  stringed  instruments  for  a  short 
period,  letting  the  wind  instruments  be  heard  alone. 

The  orchestra  of  a  concert-room  should  be  so  airanged  that  the  front  is  alx>iitflve 
feet  above  the  level  i)f  thi-  floor,  and  it  should  rise  gi-adually  in  stops  fbwards  the  end 
wall,  whose  angles  ought  to  be  rounded  off  so  as  to  enable  the  whole  i>ody  of  soaiid 
to  be  reflected.  Reverberation  is  essential  to  tiie  proper  effect  of  mnsic  From  the 
exigencies  of  dramatic  representation,  a  theatiical  orchestra  must  necessarily  bo 
much  inferior  to  a  concert  orchestra;  the  instrumentalists,  brought  together  in  the 
lowest  part  of  a  theati*e  on  a  horizontal  plape  between  the  sp-.'Ciators  and  the  stage, 
are  deprived  of  most  of  the  advantages  arising  from  a  proper  arrangement. 

ORCHI'DE^,  or  Orchida'ceie,  oft«'ii  popularly  called  Orchids,  a  raturnl  order  of 
endogenous  plants,  remarkal)le  for  the  structure  of  their  flowers,  which  sire  also  (ȣ 
great  beauty  and  exquisite  fragrance.  The  perianth  sonnMlines  exhibits  much 
variety  of  forms,  even  In  the  same  species ;  but  is  always  irregular,  its  sejrmeiiia 
differing  much  from  each  other.  There  are  usually  six  segments,  arranged  in  two 
rows  {calyx  and  corolla) ;  although  som^;  of  the  most  extraordinary  forms  of  orchid-  . 
eons  flowers  are  prodnc  d  by  tha  combination  of  certain  segments  in*o  one  pi»«c^. 
Spurs  ^nd  other  appendages  of  some  of  the  segments  are  also  ommon.  The  inner 
segments  are  often  beautifully  colored.  The  inferior  segment  of  the  corolla  is  cilled 
tlie  lip  {lahellum)^  and  is  often  lobed,  spurred,  or  furnished  wth  curious  appendages 
of  different  kind**.  The  stamens  are  united  with  the  style  into  a  single  central  col- 
umn ;  the  distinctive  character  of  the  Linnsean  class  Oymmdna,  of  which  the  O. 
form  the  chief  part  There  is  usually  only  one  anther,  w:th  a  tubercle  on  '-ach  side 
of  it,  the  tnl>ercles  being  abortive  anthers;  but  Pom<'times  the  two  latral  anthf-rs 
ure  perfect,  and  the  central  one  is  abortive;  and  veiy  raivly  all  iiie  three  uutben 


y  Google 


519 


Ocfaeitra 
O.  chomenos 

are  perfect  The  anthers  are  nsnally  two-celled;  the  prnlnB  of  pollen  cohering 
in  two  or  more  masses.  1'he  ovary  is  inferior,  one-celled;  the  ptigma  uenal  y 
a  mere  hollow  in  front  of  the  colnnm.  The  fruit  is  usnully  a  capsule,  opening 
with  six  valves,  three  of  which  have  placentse;  the  seeds  numerons  and  very  enjall. 
lu  a  few  cases,  the  fruit  i*  fleshy.  The  O.  arts  generally  hertaceons  perennials ;  but 
some  of  those  found  in  warm  climates  are  shriiDs,  and  Home  of  these,  as  Vanilla,  are 
climbers.  Thf  root  is  usually  composed  of  simple,  cylindrical  flbrts,  which  are  orten 
acc(MMpanie(J  with  one  or  two  fleshy  tubercles,  a  tubercle  dyhig  and  a  new  one  being 
prodnccti  annually.  The  leaves  are  always  simple,  alternate,  often  sheathing  at  the 
iNise,  often  leathery,  sometimes  arising,  in  tropical  species,  not  dir<  clly  from  the 
stem,  but  from  fleshy  bulb-like  excre>cences  of  it— Q  he  spe cit  >»  of  O.  an;  very  nu- 
merous, about  SOiK)  having  Deeu  described.  They  are  founcl  In  all  parts  of  I  he  \^  orld, 
except  the  coldest  and  the  most  arid  regions;  but  are  most  numerous  in  the  humid  , 
forests  of  the  torrid  z  >ne,  and  particularly  iu  America.  Many  of  them  are  epi])liyles, 
adorning  the  bouglis  of  trees  with  splendid  flowers.  This  is  chiefly  the  c»he  with 
tropical  ^pecies,  those  of  colder  climates  n.ostly  growing  on  the  ground.  Only  about 
thirijM-ight  species  are  reckoned  in  the  British  flora.— Salep  (q.  v.),  a  delicate  and 
nutntious  article  of  food,  is  obtained  from  the  root-tuberclei»  of  a  number  of  species. 
The  only  other  product  of  the  Older,  which  is  of  anv  commercial  importance,  is 
Vanilla  (9.  v.).  The  fragrant  Faam  (q.  v.)  leaves  are  the  leaves  of  an  orchid.  Scv- 
enU  species  are  kuowu  to  possess  tonic,  stimolaut,  and  antispasmodic  piopiniee,  but 
none  are  of  much  importance  iu  medicine. 

Orchids  have  of  late  been  much  cultivated  on  account  of  their  flowers,  and  many 
tropical  species  are  amongst  our  most  esteemed  hothouse  ulauts;  kotises  beii  g 
someiimes  si)ecially  devoteA  to  them.  Many  of  the  epiphytal  kinds  may  he  planted 
in  pots  filled  witii  loose  fibrous  peat,  the  roots  of  others  are  plact  d  In  bat>kets,  or  are 
fastened  to  blocks  of  wood,  with  a  little  moss  or  some  such  thing  around  tbcm,  to 
keep  them  from  becoming  too  dry,  and  are  thus  placed  on  the  shelvee,  or  si>f  jended 
from  the  roof  of  the  house.  Carefrl  attention  to  temperature  is  iiecef sary,  and  alfo  ' 
to  ventihitiou;  and  although  much  heat  and  moisture  are  rtqnisite,  the  atmosphere 
most  not  be  constantly  veiy  hot  and  humid,  but  seasons  of  rest  must  bo  given  to  the 
plants,  whieh  in  their  native  clin.ates  liave  generally  a  vet  and  a  dry  st  ason,  the  lat- 
ter being  to  them  in  many  respects  what  the  winter  is  to  ph.nts  of  teniperate  re- 
gions. 

'  Lindley  bai  particalarly  signalised  himself  in  the  study  of  this  interestiiig  order 
of  plants. 

O'RCHIL  AND  ORCHE'LLA  WEED.    See  Abohil. 

O'BCHIS  is  a  genus  of  Chchidece^  to  which,  as  now  restricted,  eleven  of  the  Brit- 
ish species  are.  referred,  borne  of  them  are  among  the  most  common  of  British 
Orchidece^  adorning  meadows  and  pastures  with  their  flowers  in  summer.  The  loots 
of  tome  of  the  species  yield  salt  p.  The /ip  of  ihaflower  in  this  genus  has  a  f-pur. 
The  flowers  of  the  Ej«rly  Purple  O.  (0.  mascula).  one  of  themost  common  fpeci( s, 
are  sometimes  fragrant ;  but  those  of  the  Lizard  O.  (0.  hircina)^  found  in  chalky 
districts  in  the  south  of  England,  are  remarkable  for  their  disagreeable  goat-like  or 
lizard-like  smeU. 

ORCHO'MENOS,  a  famous  and  very  ancient  city  cf  Bceotia,  the  capitvl  of  the 
once  independent  kingdom  of  the  Minyse,  j  nd  hence  called  Idinycan  O.,  to  distin- 
gnisli  it  from  another  O.  in  Arcadia.  It  was  situated  noithward  from  the  Lake  Co-  i 
paf9,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cephissus,  and  extended  from  the  n  arshy  edges  of  the  * 
lake  up  the  face  of  a  steep  rocky  hill,  on  which  stood  the  Acropolis.  In  the  earliet^t 
times,  its  dominions  extended  to  the  sea.  Homer  compares  its  treasures  to  thoee  of 
Egyptian  Thebes,  and  tells  us  that  it  sent  80  ships  to  the  Trojan  war.  Some  time 
after  this  event,  it  became  a  member  of  the  Boeotian  confederacy.  During  the  Per- 
sian war,  like  the  other  towns  of  Boeotia,  it  abandoned  the  national  cause.  Its  gov- 
ernment was  tiioronglilyhriE^cratie,  and  after  the  Peloponneslan  war,  when  Thebes 
b(K:ame  a  democracy,  O.  took  part  with  Sparta,  and  shared  in  its  first  triumph  over 
Thebes :  bat  the  vi«tory  of  Epaminpndas  at  Leuctra  (8T1  B.C.)  placed  O.  at  the  mercy 
of  the  Thebans,  who  soon  after  destroyed  it  by  fire,  and  sold  its  inhabitants  is 
slaves.  It  was  again  rebuilt  during  the  Phocian  var,  hut  a  second  tim?  destioy<  d 
in  th*  reign  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  who,  however,  once  more  rebuilt  it;  but  it  ne\ 
again  t>ecame  promiueut  iu  histoiy.    O.  was  f amoaa  for  its  great  musical  ft  etival 


ffl,  520 

houor  of  the  Graces,  when  poets  and  ninsicians  assemhleO  from  all  qunrters  to  com- 
pt^te  for  piiz<'H.  Th<^  ruins  of  O.  arii  etJll  to  \ye  seen  niur  the  modern  village  of 
8kri;)6. -See  K.  O.  Muliei'.«*  *'Or(;h()menos  und  die  Minyer,"  Leake's  "Northern 
Greece,"  und  Mnre's  "  'J  our  in  Greece." 

O'RCIN  AND  OKCEIN  are  colorinir  mnttt-rs obtained  from  lichens.  Orcin  {C^^U, 
04+2Aq)  may  be  obtained  l)y  boiling  cerfjiiii  species  of  Roccella  or  Lfcaiwm  wiiii 
lime  for  some  hours,  removing  llie  nme,  by  a  cnrrt'nt  of  carbonic  acid,  evaporafii)? 
and  extracting  with  bc/flln^r  alcohol,  from  which  the  orcin  separates  in  red  crystals. 
With  chloride  of  lime,  it  givexa  purple  red  color,  which  quickly  changes  to  a  deep 
yellow.  Orcin  i."  ihe  true  color-.producing  sub>'tance  or  chroniogen  of  ihi;w»  licllell^ 
Jn  riie  presi-nce  of  ammonia,  it  absorbs  oxygen,  and  is  couverteil  into  orcein  (C,4H, 
NO,^,  a  nitrogenou?*  com|H)Uud  of  strong  tinctoriai  power.  When  isolated,  orueiu 
forms  a  red  flooeulent  powder,  wliicli  is  m»ely  soluble  in  alcohol,  forming  a  ecarid 
fluid.  Potafli  and  ammonia  dissolve  it  readily,  forming  a  splendid  pnnile  color,  which 
Is  the  basis  of  the  ordiuai-y  archil  of  commerce.  With  metallic  salts,  its  alkaline 
solutions  yield  beautiful  purple  lakes. 

O'RDEAL  (An2lo-S:ixon,  ordaal;  from  oVf  primitive,  and  deutl,  judgment;  Qer. 
Urtheil^  jiidgineni),  a  practice  which  has  prevailed  largely  among  various  widely- 
separated  nations,  of  referring  disputed  questions,  pjtilicularly  sucn  a*  relate  to  tli« 
guilt  or  innocence  of  an  individual,  to  the  judgement  of  God,  determiued  either  by 
lot,  or  by  ihe  suc^eKS  of  cerain  experiments.  Of  its  existence  among  the  aiicifiit 
Jews,  we  have  an  instance  in-Numbers  v.,  where  a  Hebrew,  woman,  accnsed  of  adiil- 
teiy,  is  required  to  drink  the  watei-s  of  jealousy  as  a  ti»t  t)f  innocence;  a  similar 
ordeal  for  incontinence  is  in  use  among  the  natives  dE  the.  Gold  Coast  of  Africa. 
Compni-gatiOM  of  jtccused  persons  by  fire,  as  existing  among  the  Greeks,  is  referred 
to  in  Sophocle.-^'s  ♦•Antigone."  Among  the  Ilindns,  the  ordeal  has*  been  in  a^ 
to  be  practised  in  nine  difEerent  ways — by  the  balaneey  bv  fire,  by  water,  by  poiMm, 
by  the  cosJta  or  drinking  water,  in  which  images  of  the  sun  'and  other  deities 
had  been  washed,  by  cheuntig-rice,  by  hot  oil,  by  rednhot  iron,  and  by  drawing  two 
images  out  of  a  jar  into  which  they  iiad  been  thrown.  (^*  Asiatic  Besearcbes,"  ruL 
i.  p.  3S9.) 

The  ordi'al  seems  to  be  prevalent  throughout  Africa.  "  When  a  man."  says  Dr 
Livingstone,  "suspi«jts  that  any  of  his  wives  have  bewitched  him.  he  sends  for  tho 
witch-doctor,  and  all  the  wives  go  forth  into  the  fiild,  and  remain  fasting  till  thnt 
person  has  made  an  infusion  of  the  plant  (ciilled  "goho  ").  They  all  drink  it,  each 
one  holding  up  her  iumd  to  heaven  in  attestation  of  her  innocency.  Those  who 
vomit  it  are  considered  innocent,  while  those  whom  it  purges  are  pronounced  guilty, 
and  put  to  death  by  burning.  The  innocent  return  to  their  homes,  and  slaughters 
cock  as  a  thank-onering  to  their  guardian  spirits.  The  pi-actice  of  ordeal  is  cdto- 
inon  among  all  the  negro  nations  north  of  the  Zambesi."  The  women  themselves 
eagerly  desire  the  test  on  the  slightest  provocation  ;  each  is  conscious  of  her  own  in- 
nocence, and  has  the  fullest  faith  in  the  fnuatri  (the  orde.-d)  clearing  all  but  the  guilty. 
There  iu*e  varieties  of  procedure  among  the  different  tribes.  The  Barotse  pour  the 
medicine  down  the  throat  of  a  cock  or  dog,  and  judge  of  the  innocence  or  guilt  of  the 
person  accused  by  the  vomiting  or  purging  of  the  animal. 

[      Throughout  Europe  in  the  dark  ages  the  ordeal  existed  under  tlie  sanction  of  law. 

J  and  of  the  clergy.  The  mor«t  prevalent  kinds  of  ordeal  were  those  of /Sr«,  water,  aud 
the  wctger  of  battle.  Fire  ordea/ w.is  only  alluweri  to  persons  of  high  ranic  The  accused 
had  to  carry  a  piece  of  red-hot  iron  far  somt;  distance  in  his  hand,  or  to  walk  nine 
feet  barefoot  and  blindfolded  ovt:r  red-hot  ploughshares.  The  hand  or  foot  wasbouud 
up  and  inspected  three  dnys  afterwai-ds;  if  the  accnsed  had  e8cai>ed  nnhnrt,  he  was 
pronounced  innocent ;  if  otherwise,  guilty.  Under  such  a  judicial  system,  there 
were  prohably  few  acquittals ;  hut  it  is  believed  that  In  the  severer  kinds  of  ordeal, 
precautions  were  sometimes  taken  by  the  clergy  to  protect  those  whom  they  wislM-d 
to  clear  from  suspicion.  Queen  Emma,  mother  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  when  wis- 
pected  of  a  criminal  intrigue  with  Alwyn,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  is  said  to  have  tri- 
umphantly vindicated  her  character  by  walking  unhurt  over  red-hot  ploughshares. 
Water  ordeal  was  the  usual  mode  of  trial  allowed  to  bondsmen  and  rustics,  and  was 
of  two  kinds — the  ordeal  of  boiling  toater  &ii^  of  cold  water.  The  ordeal  of  boilwff 
water,  according  to  the  laws  of  Athelstaue,  consisted iu taking  aiekneoat of  boUiog 

Digitized  by  VjOOS  " 


tn 


:^ 


.;   Ordn 
Ordar ■ 

water,  where  the  hand  hnd  to  "be  fnflcrted  xis  deep  as  the  wHst ;  what  was  called  the 
triple  ordenl,  deeixfurd  the  w.itcr  lo  the  elbow.  The  person  Hllowed  the  ordeal  of  co/d 
water  ((he  usual  mode  of  trial  for  wifclu mfi),  waf»  flunir  hito  a  rivt;r  or  i)Oud  ;  if  he 
floated  without  any  apiHjarauce  of  swiiumiu.:,  he  was  judtjed  guilty— while  it  he  sank, 
he  was  .-icquitted. 

The  wager  of  baWe  was  a  natural  accoinpnnlmeul  of  a  state  of  society  which 
allowed  men  to  tnko  tiie  law  into  their  own  lumds.  The  challenger  faced  the  west, 
the  chrill'-nged  person  the  east ;  the  defeated  party,  if  he  craved  las  life,  was  allowed 
t"  live  IIS  a  '•  r  cr.-ant ;  "  that  is,  ou  reiraciiUg'  tUc  perjury  which  he  had  sworu  to. 
See  Battel,  'I'bial  by. 

Otlnr  kiuds  of  ordeal  Avere  praelis<'d  In  {uirticular  circuuistinces  in  different  parts 
of  Euidih;.  In  tne  ordeal  of  the  bier,  a  f  upi)Osed  murderer  was  required  lo  toucn  the 
b«Kiy  of  tne  murdered  prrson,  and  pronounced  guilty  if  the  blood  flowed  from  his 
wounds.  The  ordeal  uf  the  EucJiarvit  was  in  use  among  the  clergy  :  the  accused 
party  took  tl»e  sacrament  in  attestation  of  innoc  nee,  it  Wmg  believed,  that,  if  guilty, 
he  i\  aiild  Ikj  inunetlintely  visit-.d  with  tlivine  punishment  for  the  paerileire.  A  some- 
what simihir  ortleal  was  that  of  the  cormied^  or  consecnited  bread  and  cheese  ;  if  the 
accused  f*wallowed  it  frcrly,  he  was  pronounetd  innocent;  if  it  stuck  in  his  throat, 
h"  was  presumed  to  be  guilty.  Godwin,  Earl  of  Kent,  in  the  reign  of  Edwurd  the 
Confessor,  wIkmi  accused  of  the  muuler  of  the  king's  brother,  is  said  to  have  appealed 
to  the  ordeal  of  the  corsned,  and  Ixuui  choked  by  it.  An  early  f«»rm  of  ordeal,  j;bol- 
ished  by  Louis  L'  Debunnairein  816,  wa«<  that  of  the  croHs:  tlie  accuser  and  accused 
stood  tipriirht  before  a  cross,  and  he  who  first  fell,  or  sliifted  his  position,  was  pro- 
ijouncetl  guilty.  It  was  done  away  with,  as  being  irreverent  towards  the  myslerj  of 
the  cros.  Besides  thes<».  there  wa-*  the  ordeal  by  lot,  dependent  ou  tlic  throw  of  a 
pair  of  dice,  one  n)arkid  with  a  cross,  the  other  plain. 

'J'rial  by  ovdejil  at  first  carried  with  it  the  sanction  of  lh«!  priests,  as  well  as  of  the 
civil  ])  )wer,  though  tin?  cleriiv  in  the  course  of  time  came  to  disconntenance  it.  In 
Engl  nd  it  seems  to  have  b  en  continued  till  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
On  ttie  continent  it  was,  gen  rally  speaking,  abolished  rather  earlier,  althouifh  as 
late  as  149S  we  find  the  irnth  of  Sa'voinirola's  doctrine  put  to  tlie  test,  by  a  challenge 
between  on^of  his  discip'es  and  a  Franciscan  friar,  to  walk  through  a  hunting  pile. 
In  Scotland,  in  1180,  we  find  David  I.  euattinp,  in  one  of  the  asseuTblii  s  of  the  frank 
tenantry  of  tho  kingdom,  wliich  were  tlie  germ  of  parliaments,  that  no  one  was  to 
hold  ;  n  ordinary  court  of  jnsiice,  or  a  court  of  orneal,  whether  of  battle,  iron,  or 
water,  except  in  jjre^ence  of  tiie  slwiiff  or  one  of  his  sergeants; -though  if  that 
official  failed  to  attend  aft-r  being  duly  summoned,  the  C(urt  mijjlit  be  held  in  his 
ab-eiMte.  The  first  step  townrch  the  abolition  of  this  form  of  trial  in  Saion  and 
Celtic  countries,  seems  to  liave  been  the  snhstitntion  of  compurgation  by  witnesses 
for  compurgation  by  ordeal.  The  near  relatives  of  an  accused  party  were  exp(jcted 
to  come  forw;>rd  lo  swear  to  his  Innocence.  The  number  of  compurgators  varied, 
according  to  the  importance  of  the  case  ;  ami  jndizment  went  against  the  party  whose 
kin  refused  to  come  forward,  or  who  failed  lo  obtain  the  necessary  nummr  of  com- 
purgators. To  repel  an  accusation,  it  was  often  held  necessary  to  have  double  tlic 
number  of  compurgators  who  supported  it,  till  at  length  the  most  numerous  body  of 
compMP/aiors  carried  the  day. 

OIIDER.  In  Classic  Architecture,  the  Order  or  ordonnance  comprises  the  colunm 
with  its  base  and  capital  and  th«!  entablature.  There  are  five  orders :  (1)  Tuscan,  (2) 
l>orle,  (3)  Ionic,  (4)  Corintlnau,  (5)  Composite.  The  first  and  fifth  are  Komnn  ordei-s, 
and  arc  simp'y  modific-itions  of  the  others.  The  remaining  three  arc  the  Greek 
orders.    S  e  Colu^in,  Greek  Architecture,  Roman  Architecture. 

ORDER,  in  Natural  History,  a  group  constituted  for  the  purpose  of  classification, 
iT>ferior  to  cfass  and  sub-class,  but  superior  to  family^  tribe,  genus^  &c.  The  term 
Natural  Order  is  used  in  botany  to  designate  an  order  beloijging  to  tlfe  natural 
system  of  classification,  in  contradistinction  to  one  of  an  artificial  system  devised 
for  mere  convenience  of  the  slndt-nt,  and  siLiiifies  that  the  limits  of  the  order  agree 
with  the  truth  of  nature,  and  that  it  thus  exhibits  aflinities  r<ally  existing.  In  all 
branches  of  natural  history,  classification  now  jiroceods  on  this  principle. 
\  ORDER.  This  word  is  applied  to  an  aggregat(?  of  conventual  communities  com- 
prehended under  one  rulj,  or  to  the  eocieties',  half  military,  half  religious,  out  of 


y  Google 


vrhici)  the  iDStltntion  of  kitightbood  sprang.  Betlglons  orders  aro  generallj  dapfli- 
fled  aH  monastic,  inilituiy,  and  inetidkant. 

Tlic  earliest  compreheu>«ion  of  monastic  societies  n!id<"r  one  mle  was  effccfcd  hy 
St  Basil,  ArcUbidhop  of  Cses  iroa,  who  united  iht;  lieriuils  and  coenobiies  in  hi^  dic- 
cese,  and  prescribed  for  them  a  uniform  constitution,  reconnneudin^  at  the  same 
time  a  vow  of  celibacy.  .I'he  Basilian  rule  snbsistM  to  tiie  present  day  in  the  Ej»fetern 
Church.  Next  in  order  of  time  was  tlie  Bcnediciine  order,  founded  by  St  Beuedia 
of  Niirsia,  wlio  considered  a  mild  discipline  pr.  titrable  to  excessive  austerity.  The 
ofEshoot?  from  the  Beneflictine  order  include  some  of  the  most  impoit-mt  orders  in 
ecclesiastical  history,  among  others  the  Carthusians,  Cisteiciant^,  and1*neinou- 
st rants.  The  order  of  Augusiiuians  professed  to  dmw  tlieir  rule  from  the  writings 
of  St  Augustine ;  they  were  the  first  order  who  were  not  entirely  composed  of  lay- 
men, but  of  ordained  priests,  or  persons  destined  to  the  clerical  profesj«ion. 

The  military  ordei-s,  of  which  the  meuiliers  united  the  military  with  the  religions 
profession,  arose  from  the  necessity  under  which  the  niouks  lay  of  defendliig  the 
possessions  wliich  they  had  accumulated,  and  the  supposed  duty  of  recovering  Pnle?- 
"'     "  .     X,  ,  ^       '    |ofn.    The  most  famous  orders  of 

John  of  Jerusalem,  tlie  Kni'ilits 
military  ordei-s  existed,  and  not  * 
few  continue  to  exist,  paiticularly  in  Spain  and  Poringal.  The  phraseology  of  the 
old  nulitary  orders  if*  preserved  in  the  orders  of  knighthood  of  modern  times,  info 
which  individuals  are  admitted  in  reward  for  merit  of  different  kinds,  military  aud 
civil. 

The  three  mendicant  orders  of  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  and  Carmelites  were 
instituted  in  the  13th  century.  Their  principal  purpose  was  to  put  down  the  opposi- 
tion to  tlic  church,  which  had  bt^un  to  shew  itself,  and  also  to  reform  the  cburcli 
by  example  and  precept.    At  a  mter  period  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  was  founded, 


witli  the  object  of  increasing  the  power  of  the  church,  and  putting  down  hertsy.— 
Notices  of  the  more  important  orders,  monaslio,  militaiy,  and  mendicoul,  will  be 
found  under  separate  articles.    See  also  Kniqhts  aud  Monachism. 


ORDE'RICUS,  Vitalis,  a  medieval  historian,  bom  at  Atcham,  ntaf  Shrew&bary, 
in  1075,  was  taken  to  France  at  the  age  of  five,  and  educated  for  the  monastic  life 
in  the  abbey  of  Onche,  at  Lisieux.  He  became  a  priest  in  1107,  and  died,  it  is 
thought,  about  1143.  O.  is  the  author  of  a  so-called  Church  Hictoiy  (*' Historic 
Ecclesiasticaj  **),  in  13  vo's.  It  is  a  clironicle  of  events  from  the  birth  of  Christ 
down  to  his  own  time.  Books  3—6  give  an  account  of  the  Norman  wars  in  Englaud, 
France,  and  Apulia  do\^'n  to  the  deatn  of  William  the  Conqueror.  The  last  half  of 
the  book  I«  the  most  valnab  e,  being  a  record  of  the  history  of  the  auihor's  owa 
times.  The  first  edition  of  » iie  "  JlislorisB  Ecclesiasticse  "  was  published  by  Duchesue, 
in  his  **  Hist,  Norm.  Scrip."  (161»).  It  has  also  l)een  printed  by  the  French  Hislo;!- 
cai  Society  (2  vols.  184U},  aud  was  translated  into  French  by  Dubois  (4  voks  IS'iS 
—1827). 

O'RDERLIES  are  soldiers  or  sergeants  appointed  to  wait  upon  generals  and  othrr 
commanding  oflScers.  to  communicate  tlieir  orders,  and  to  carry  messages.  Th.' 
Orderly  Officer^  or  officer  of  tiie  day,  is  tlie  officer  of  a  corps  or  reginienf,  whose 
turn  it  is  to  nuperintend  its  interior  economy,  as  cleanliness,  the  goodness  of  the 
food,  &c.  Orderly  Non-coiyvmisftioned  Officers  are.  the  set^eants  in  each  com|)aiiy 
who  are  *'ord<rly."  or  on  duty  for  the  week.  On  the  drum  beating  for  orders,  tht-y 
proceed  to  the  Orderly  Room,  tike  down  the  general  or  regimental  orders  affecting 
their  respective  companies,  shew  them  to  the  company  officen*,  and  warn  the  neces- 
sary men  for  any  duties  specified  In  those  orders.  An  Orderly  Book  Is  provldi-d  by 
the  captain  of  each  troop  or  company  in  a  regiment  for  the  msertion  of  general  or 
regimental  orders  from  time  to  time  ivsued. 

ORDERS,  Army,  are  general,  divisional,  brigade,  or  regimentifl.  General  orders 
are  issued  by  the  commander-in-chief  of  an  army,  and  affect  the  whole  of  his 
«•  force.  The  others  emanate  from  generals  of  division  or  brigade,  or  from  officers 
commanding  regiments,  and  severally  affect  their  respective  commands. 

ORDERS  IN  COUNCIL,  ordera  by  tin-  sovereign  with  the  advice  of  the  privy 
council.  The  privy  conucil  of  Gntat  Britain  has  no  power  to  legislate,  «xcept  so  far 
as  authorised  to  do  so  by  parliament ;  but  in  periods  of  emergency,  it  hasuevertho- 


y  Google 


..^J 


50  Q'^  DrderloBt 

less  occnsionally  issued  and  enforced  orders  of  n  IcgisbHv©  kind ;  those  who  were 
coiiccrued  iu  p^issiuj;,  ^romuJi^auii;:,  or  t^uforciujj  \he  onlcrs,  trusting  to  parlianjcn- 
ta:y  protection,  and  lukug  on  tUemscIv*  s  ihc  pcrj*oual  re^uou^j^^iUly  of  the  proceed-- 
inp.  Iu  such  ca.-cs,  an  uot  <;£  judcmniiy  aftcru  unit*  pasned  has  relieved  from  liability 
those  who  advised  1  ho  ordir  or  acted  under  it,  mid  given  compeusotion  to  jill  who 
suffered  by  its  enforcement.  This  cchusq  was  adopted  iu  1766  with  rejraid  to  an 
embarj^o  on  the  exportation  of  corn,  issued  in  ronsiquinco  of  a  deficient  harvest 
and  prosi)ect  of  famine.  An  imporiant  constitutional  qm^tiou  wan  raised  by  the 
famous  Orders  in  C(juncjl  issued  ^)y  Great  Britain  iu  k07  au»llS09,  in  reprisal  fwr 
Napoloon'.s  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees.  The  Berlin  decrt  e,  jssnul  on  th.:  2l6t  of 
November  1806,  declared  the  whole  of  the  British  islauds  to  be  in  a  state  of  b'ockade. 
and  all  vcs-els  trading  to  them  to  be  liable  to  capture  hy  Fnnch  f  hips.  Jt  also  that 
out  all  British  vessels  and  produce  ))Otli  from  France  and  from  all  the  other  countries 
which  gave  obedience  to  tlu;  French.  A  subsequent  decree,  issued  soon  afterwards, 
obliged  all  neutral  vessels  to  carry  letters  or  ceriiflcates  of  origin  — tliat  is.  attesta- 
tions by  the  French  cone^uls  of  the  ports  fiom  which  they  had  sai.ed.  that  no  part  of 
the  cargo  was  British.  In  retaliation  for  the  Berlin  decree,  the  Britisli  government 
Issued,  on  the  7th  Jannai-y  1807,  an  Orderin  Council, snbjviciing  to  seirureell  neutral 
vessels  trading  from  one  ho.-tilo  poit  in  Europe  to  another  with  property  belongii  g 
to  an  enemy.  This  order  was  at  first  extensively  evaded,  while  the  French  made 
vigorous  efforts  to  enforce  the  Berlin  decree ;  the  result  was,  that  new  Oixlers 
were  issued  by  the  British  government  on  the  11th  and  21st  of  Novem- 
ber 1807,  declaring  Franco  and  all  states  subject  to  the  French  to  bo 
in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  all  vessels  liable  to  peizure  which  were  found 
to  have  certificates  of  origin  on  board,  or  which  should  attempt  to  trade  with 
any  of  the  ports  of  the  world  thus  blockaded.  Neutnd  veeuels  intended  for 
France,  or  any  other  hostile  country,  were  ordered,  in  all  cases,  to  touch  firet  at  some 
British  port,  and  to  pay  cnstoni-honse  dues  there,  after  which  tliey  were  In  certain 
cases  to  be  allowed  to  depxrt  for  their  destination  ;  and  vessels  clearing  from  a  hos- 
tile couutnr  were  siniilarly  10  toncli  at  a  Biitish  port  before  proceeding  on  their 
voyage.  On  the  27th  of  December  1807,  Napoleon's  Milan  decree  was  i6^ued,  which 
declared  the  whole  British  dominions  lo  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  all  countries 
were  prohibited  from  trading  with  each  other  in  any  ari ides  of  Biitish  produce  or 
manufacture.  The  Americans,  and  those  of  the  jiuhlic  of  Great  Britain  who  were  ii- 
tercsted  in  the  export  trade,  exclaimed  loudly  against  the  edicts  of  borh  povveri-, 
and  the  legality  as  well  as  the  expediency  of  the  Orders  in  Council  were  calKd  iu 
question  ni  parliament.  Tlie  result  was,  that  an  inquiiy  was  instituted  into  the 
effect  of  the  orders,  from  which  no  direct  reeuit  follow,  d.  But^  in  the  meant'nie,  on 
the  26th  April  1808,  a  new  Order  in  Council  wat*  issued,  liimring  the  blockade  to 
France,  Holland,  a  part  of  Germany,  and  the  north  of  Italy,  and  tl>e  order  which 
condemned  vessels  whi'-h  had  certiflc;»tes  of  origin  on  bomd  was  rescinded.  Subse- 
quent orders  intjo<luc(  d  a  system  of  funiiehiug  licences  to  vessels  to  proceed  to  hos- 
tile ports  after  having  first  touched  and  paid  cuftom-house  dues  at  a  Britiy^h  port; 
no  fewer  than  16,000  of  these  licences  arc*  wiid  to  have  been  L'ranted.  The  legality  of 
these  Orders  has  been  called  in  question,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  more  of  a 
legislative  than  an  executive  chanicter,  in  so  far  as  a  fictitious  blocktide,  wheiv  there 
is  no  blockading  force  jiresent,  is  contmry  to  the  law  of  nations;  it  has  l)een  de- 
fended on  tlie  ground  that  they  were  issued  in  execuiion  of  the  royal  pivrogative  of 
djiplaring  and  conducting  war.  They  are  generally  believed  to  have  added  to  the 
generiU  distre>»s.  and  the  check  on  the  progress  of  mannfactures  produced  by  Napo- 
1eon*s  decrees ;  but.  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  maintained  that  they  were  etsen- 
tlal  to  the  effective  prosecution  of  the  war. 

There  are  various  matters  connected  with  trade  and  the  revenue  as  to  which 
Orders  in  Council  have  been  auihorlsed  by  st.itute;  parliament,  in  fact,  delegating 
its  legislative  authority  to  the  Queen  in  Council.  For  example,  the  Internet ionnl 
Copjrriglit  Act,  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  12.  contains  a  provision  for  empowering  th<! 
£rownn>y  Order  in  Council,  lo  extend  the  privileges  of  British  copyright  to  works 
fli-st  ])nblished  iu  any  ctate  which  gives  a  like  privilege  to  the  productions  of  this 
c  -untry. 

ORDERS,  Holv,  an  Institution  regarded  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches  a^ 
ft  Sacrament,  by  which  ministers  are  specially  set  apart  for  the  service  of  religioi 


OrdlnaJ   ,  AQl 

Ofdinary  '  ^^."^ 

and  are  regnnlod  as  recetving  a  certain  relijrions  consecration,  or,  at  lefti«t,  deslj?- 
iiation  for  tlieir  office.-  While  some  of  the  rvforracd  chnrcbes  altogether  deny  the 
disHiiciioi)  of  ranks  in  the  niinistns  noiu?  of  rhein  sidrastd  more  than  three  mnke,  of 
bishopt  priesr,  and  deacon.  But  in  the  Romnn  and  Greek  cliurdiep,  u  fnrther  clarMsi- 
finition  exists.  In  the  Roman  Churdi.  a  distinction  is-made  I)et\veen  the  major  (or 
holy)  orders  and  the  minor  orders.  Of  ilie  iimjor  orders  three  have  l)een  described 
in  gojieral  terms,  under  the  head  Hierarchy  (q.  v.),  viz.,  the  classes  of  bishoos, 
piiest*,  and  deacons.  A  fourth  rank  of  wub-deacoiis  Is  generally  ri'garded  as  one  of  the 
mijor  orders,  but  its  functions  closely  rosemi)le  in  their  nature  and  their  de^Tie  tlic»se 
of  the  deacon.  The  minor  orders  in  the  Roman  Church  are  four  in  nr.ml>er — those  of 
door-keeper,  reader,  exorcist,  and  acolyte.  To  uone  of  these  orders  is  any  vow  of 
celibacy  annexed.  Some  of  their  functions  had  their  origin  in  the  |>ecniiar  religions 
condition  of  the  early  church.  The  duties  of  door-keeper  arose  chiilly  out  of  ti«e 
discipline  in  regard  to  tlie  |>enitents  and  catechnmens  ;  bnt  although  these  fnnctiuiis 
And  no  room  in  the  motiern  discipline  of  the  Roman  Church,  tne  door- keeper  of 
the  modern  diurch  is  held  to  succeed  to  other  functions  of  his  ancient  prototype  iu 
relation  to  tlie  catechetical  itt^truction  of  children  and  of  the  pONOr  and  ignorant. 
Preparatory  to  the  receiving  of  these  orders,  candidates  are  initiated  in  what  is 
called  the  Tonsure,  which  consists  in  the  cutting  off  of  the  hair,  as  a  symlx)!  of  sep- 
aration from  the  world  and  its  vanities — a  rite  which  appears  also  as  one  of  the 
ceremonies  of  the  religions  profession.  Tousnre,  however,  is  not  reckoned  as  an! 
order;  it  is  l)nt  a  distinguishing  characterisiic  of  a  class.  In  the  Roman  Church,  the 
sacrament  of  orders  is  held  to  produce  an  indelible  character,  and  therefore  to  be 
incapable  of  being  forfeited  and  of  boing  validly  repeated,  'i'his,  however,  applies 
only  to  the  holy  orders.  The  Qre(;k  Church  has  the  distinction  of  major  and  minor 
orders,  in  common  with  the  Roman.  Bnt  the  Greeks  commonly  exclude  snb-dea- 
conship  from  the  major  orders,  and  all  the  functions  of  the  fotir  minor  orders  of  the 
Roman  Church  are  imited  by  tne  Greelcs  iu  one  single  order,  that  of  reader 
(anagnl^atea). 

In  the  Anglican  and  oth^r  Reformed  Episcopal  Chnrches.  the  three  hi.'her  orders 
of  bishop,  priest,  and  deacon  are  alone  retained.  An  A  nt^lican  clergyman  may  ba 
deprived  of  his  benefice,  or  suspended  by  his  bishop  for  various  ecclesiastical  of- 
fences; and  the  right  of  the  Court  of  Arches  to  prononncc  sentence  of  deprivation 
has  also  betMi  recognised.  But  in  the  nsu  d  case  of  deprivation,  the  clergyman  does 
not  forfeit  his  status  of  priest  or  du'a(?on,  which  can  only  be  lost  by  deposition  or 
degradation.  St^itnte  28,  Hen.  VIII..  c.  1.  s.  6,  reserves  to  the  ordinary  the  i>owerof 
deumdingclerks  convicted  of  treason,  p  tit.  trea -.on,  nmnler,  and  certain  other  fel- 
onies before  judg  nent.  A  bishop  niaybn  deprived  of  hia^sttt;  by  his  nietropoliran, 
with  or  witliout  the  co-operation  of  a  synod  of  the  bishops  of  the  province,  but  it 
has  been  questioned  whether  he  can  be  lawfully  d<'prived  of  his  orders  as  bishop. 
A  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Enghind  and  Ireland  cannot  become  a  memb-r  of  ihe 
House  of  Commons.  In  the  Presbyterian  and  other  non-Episcopal  chnrches,  the 
ceremony  of  ordination  is  not  held  to  impai-t  any  indelible  character.  A  minister 
found  guilty  of  heresy  or  immorality,  is  depiived  of  his  office  by  depoHtion^  by  which 
liis  clerical  status  i-«  forfeited.  His  removal  from  hischai*ge,  however,  in  any  other 
way,  does  not  affect  his  office  as  a  minister ;  and  a  minister  removed  from  one 
charge  to  another,  oi-,  after  a  tiim,  Inducted  into  a  new  charge,  is  not  re-ordained. 
A  minister  having;  no  charge  or  flock,  may  yet  dispense  the  sacr-imenls,  if  duly- 
called  upon.  A  minister  deposed  ceases  altogether  to  be  a  minister,  and  is  no  more 
capable  of  any  of  the  functions  of  the  offlca,  than  if  he  had  never  l)een  ordained.  • 

The  ceremony  of  imposition  of  hands  is  uRed  in  almost  all  Protestant  chnrciies  in 
the  ordination  of  ministers,  the  ordaining  bishop  or  presbyters  placinsr  the  right 
hand  nn  the  head  of  the  person  ordained  ;  ahd  is  always  accom|>anied  with  prayer. 
It  is  deemed  a  proper  and  Scriptural  form  (1  Tim.  iv.  14),  bnt  not  essential 

In  the  Church  of  Scotland  and  other  Presbyterian  churches,  when  an  already  or- 
dained minister  is  inducted  into  a  new  charge,  no  iniposltiou  of  hands  takes  place. 
In  tlie  Scottish  and  American  Presbyterian  chnrches,  candidates  for  the  ministry  are 
licenatd  to  preach  thegofq>el  before  being  called  to  any  particular  charge,  and  are  then 
styled  licentiates  or  probationers.  They  are  licensed  according  to  an  old  phrase,  "for 
"lal  of  their  gifts,"  but  are  not  entitled  to  dispense  the  sacraments. 

There  is  nothing  to  prevent  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  or  any  Pre»- 

boQle 


tQX  Ordr?l 

OZiO  Ord-nary 

byterian  or  Indepniideiit  chnrclj,  from  being  a  inemfDer  of  the  British  Hou»e  of  Com- 
mons. 

O'RDIMAL,  the  Bervico  used  in  Ein!»copal  churchoB  for  tho  ordination  of  n»in- 
isters.  Tlu'  En^ish  onlinul  win*  drjiMii  up  by  m  coininiKfioii  appo  nn*d  In  ww  third 
year  of  Edward  VI.  (1650),  and  added  lo  llie  "  Book  of  Common  Pi.ay<  r."  It  w:.s 
t*ni;!»tly  modiflpd  in  Hie  n-ipn  (<f  EhKnbcth,  and  wiHa-iain  -eviscd  by  thi'Coiivocjition 
of  1661.  The  EnirliRh  ordinal,  in  its  general  strnctuic,  resenibles  Ih'*-  .-.ncient  H-rvicea 
used  for  that  pu  I  pose,  biif  i)088es8et»  much  greater  simplicity,  .lud  hat>i»oine  featnr  k 
— e.  g.,  the  numerous  quesiions  addres-B^Mi  to  the  CMudidate:' — p-cnliar  to  it(»e!f. 
Tlierc  are  seprmue  service.^  for  Ihe  *♦  making  of  desicona"  and  the  "ordaring  of 
priests,"  bur  these  are  practically  joined  in  one,  and  used  on  the  same  day.  'J  he 
service  for  the  consecration  of  bisliops  is  altogether  distinct. 

The  ordination  takes  place  at  one  of  the  ISmber  poahons,  and  dtuing  the  pnb'ic 
eervii*',  aftf'r  morning  piiiyer  and  a  i-ernK)n  on  the  stibj  ct,  and  begins  w  th  'he  pr  - 
seut'ition  of  the  candidates  by  the  arclideacon.  The  bishop  inqures  as  to  ilieir  fit- 
ness, and  commends  theni  to  the  prayers  of  the  congre«:atiou.  'I  he  litany  is  then  i-aid 
with  special  peiitions  for  the  canclidates  lor  each  ord«-r.  and  the  cominuniin  serNice 
commences  with  a  special  collect,  epistle,  and  go^pel.  Between  the  epistle  and  gos- 
pel, the  oatli  of  supremaey  is  administered,  and  the  candid.ites  for  deacons'  orders 
are  questioned  by  tl»e  bishop  und  ordained.  TIk!  gosp«*l  is  r«  ad  by  one  of  Hie  newly- 
ei-damed  deacons.  The  candidjites  tor  prie.^ts'  orders  are  then  solemnly  cxhoited 
and  interrogated,  and  the  prayers  of  all  present  are  asked  for  tin*  divine  blessii  g 
upon  theni.  For  this  pnrnose  a  pause  is  nmde  in  the  service  f«»r  silent  prayer.  After 
tiiis  the  hymn,  Veni  Creator  Spiritm  (Come,  Holy  Ghost,  our  Souls  Inspire)— a  coni- 
])09itiou  of  great  antiquity,  supposed  lo  he  as  old  as  the  4Mi  c— is  sung,  and  the 
canddates  Kneeling  before  the  bishop,  he  and  the  a^^istJlnt  presbyters  Iny  their 
bands  upon  the  head  of  each,  with  the  words,  "Keceive  the  Holy  Ghost  for  the 
office  and  work  of  a  priest  in  the  Church  of  God,"  &c. 

The  only  other  ceremony  is  the  pre-*entiition  of  each  candidate  with  the  Bible  in 
token  of  authority  lo  preach;  as  the  deacons  had  iHjeu  l>ef  ore  presented  with  the 
"New  Testament  with  authority  to  read  the  gospel.  The  sei-vice  concludes  wilh  the 
administration  of  the  sacrjinumt  of  the  Lord's  8upi)er. 

The  consecration  of  bishops  is  performed  by  au  archbishop,  or  some  bishop  np- 
pofnteil  in  his  place,  and  two  or  more  of  his  suffragans,  jind  miiy  take  place  on  any 
Sunday  or  holy  day.  The  service  is  very  similar  to  tliat  for  the  ordination  of 
priest-. 

O'RDINARIES,  or  Ilonorable  Ordinaries,  in  Heraldry,  certain  charges  com- 
posed of  straight  lines,  and  in  very  common  use.  to  which  writers  on  henildiy 
inid  assigned  abstruse  symbolical  meanings,  but  whose  n  al  chief  peculiarity  seems 
to  be  lliat  they  driginally  represented  the  woooen  or  met-td  fast<nings  of  the  shields 
in  use  in  actual' warfare.  The  ordinaries  are  usually  accounted  nine— the  Chief, 
Pale,  Fess,  Bar,  Bend,  Bend  Sinister^  Clieveron,  Saltire,  and  Cross.  Heralds  vary  a 
littie  in  their  enumeration,  some  taking  in  the  Tile  in  place  of  the  Bur.  Each  is 
lioticed  under  a  separate  article. 

ORDINAKY,  a  term  used  in  the  British  nnvy  in  two  senses  First,  as  regards 
ships,  vessels  in  ordinary  are  those  out  of  aett:al  use,  commonly  dismasted,  and  oc- 
casionally roofed  over,  to  protect  them  from  the  weather.  They  are  congregated 
near  the  several  dock-yards,  where  their  masts  and  gear  lie  ready  for  their  innnedi- 
afe  fitting  for  sen  wlien  required.  A  few  men  have  charge  of  each  vessel ;  a  cei-iaiii 
number  of  vessels  constitute  a  division,  with  a  lieutenant  in  command  ;  and  a  hne- 
pf-battle-ship,  called  a  **  guard-ship  of  ordinary,"  is  responsible  for  the  different 
divisions  at  each  porfe  The  ships  «re  moored  in  safe  places,  as  up  the  Medway,  in 
the  recesses  of  Portsmouth  and  Plymouth  harlwrs,  &c. 

As  regards  men,  an  ordinary  seaman  is  one  capable  of  the  commoner  duties,  but 
wlio  has  not  served  long  c>nou«;h  at  sea  to  be  rated  as  an  Able  Seaman  (q.  v).  His 
pay  is  llrf.  a  day  on  entering,  and  15W.  a  day  on  promotion  lo  the  firtt  class,  or  1«. 
and  \s  M,  if  enirage«l  for  continuous  service. 

ORDINARY  (Lat  ordin-Lrius)  is  the  name  commonly  given  to  a  person,  who,  in 
■virtue  of  his  office,  and  in  his  own  consequent  right,  Is  competent  to  do  cert^iiu  acta 
or  to  decide  ceitaiu  caused.    lu  this  sensei  there  arc  many  f  ouctioi^ries  whp  may  be  - 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Ordnance  t>^D  ^ 

called  by  the  name  ordiuarv.  But  the  word  in  canon  law,  when  nsed  witlioat 
other  additions,  is  anderatood  to  mean  llie  bishop,  who  is  the  ordinary  of  his  own 
diocese,  and  is  competent  of  himself  to  do  every  act  necessary  for  its  government, 
and  for  tht:  ordering  of  the  splrftutU  concerns  of  his  flock.  Tiie  jurisdiction  of*  tlie 
ordinary  is  called  by  that  name,  in  contradistinction  to  **  extra-ordinaiy  jarisdic- 
lion,"  which  arises  from  some  abnprmal  circumstances,  and  from  '*  delegated  ** 
jiiriscHctiou,  which  is  imparted  by  the  ordiuarjf  to  auotlier  person  to  be  exercUed 
vicnrionsly. 

In  English  Law,  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  which  was  formerly  vested  in 
l-'i  hop^  and  tlieir  offleerit  relating  to  wills  and  marriage?,  was  recently  abolished;  and 
traiisrerred  to  a  new  judge,  called  the  Judge  Ordinary,  who  is  entirely  disconnected 
with  tlie  church.  Tlie  bmhops  still  retain  their  jurisdiction  in  matters  of  discipline 
as  rvjgards  tne  clergy.— In  Scotland,  the  Judge  Ordinary  generally  means  the  sheriff 
depnt  ?  or  substituie.  who  hiis  ordinary  jurisdictiou  in  the  county.  Lord  Ordinary  is 
the  name  given  to  certain  judges  of  the  Outer  House  in  the  Court  of  Sei<sion. 

ORDINARY  OP  ARMS,  in  Heraldry,  an  index  or  dictionaiy  of  armorial  coats, 
arrangeil,  not  accordiu-;  to  names,  lllie  an  armory,  but  accoi-ding  lo  the  leading 
charges  ni  the  respt^ctive  shields,  80  as  to  enable  any  one  conversant  with  heraidic 
language,  on  seeing  a  shield  of  arms,  to  tell  to  whom  it  belonged.  A  very  imperfect 
ordinary  for  England  is  appended  to  Edmonson^H  **  Heraldry  " :  afar  more  coim>lete 
and  elaborate  work  of  the  same  kind,  Papworth'a  ♦*  Oixliuary  of  British  Armorials," 
partly  edited  by  Alfred  Morant,  was  pabllshed  in  1874. 

ORDINA'TION,  the  rit*?  or  ceremony  by  which  ministers  of  the  Christian  Church 
are  dedicated  to  their  sacred  offl;je.  The  use  of  a  ceremonial  for  such  puri)08e8  is  trace- 
able among  die  Jews  (E.'cod.  xxix.  21,  Levit.  xxi.  10,  Num.  iii.  3) ;  and  the  New  Tes- 
tament contains  frequent  reference  to  the  specific  ceremonial  of  **  imposition  of 
hand*"  (Acts  vi.  1—7,  xlii.  1—4,  xiv.  23;  1  Tim.  iv.  U.  v.  22;  2  Tim;  i.  6).  In  i*.m 
Roman,  the  Greek,  and  the  other  Eastern  Chnrches,  this  rite  ot  ordination  is  hddto 
b.{  sacramental,  aud  it  U  reserved,  at  least  t\a  regards  the  major  orders  (see  Oboers, 
Holt),  exclusively  to  bishops.  lu  extraordinary  cas-^s  it  was  permitted  to  cardinals 
and  to  certain  abbots  to  confer  the  minor  orders.  Considerable  controversy  exists 
among  Catholic  writers  as  to  what  are  the  essential  portions  {Materia  Saeramenti)  of 
the  rite  of  ordination.  Someplace  it  in  thi  ^Mmpjsitiou  of  hands,"  some  in  the 
**  presentation  of  the  instruments"  symbolical  of  ench  order.  The  controversy  de- 
rives some  importance  from  the  divereity  which  exists  between  the  Greek  and  Roman 
ceremonial;  but  on  i  bin  head  Roman  Catholics  maintain  that  the  essential  rites  are 
contained  alike  in  both  ceremonials.  As  rejrards  tlie  validity  of  the  rite  of  ordination, 
the  mere  fact  of  its  beiiii;  conferred  by  a  bishop  suffices;  but  there  is  not  any  part  of 
the  Roman  discipline  whicli  is  more  jealously  guarded  b^r  laws  than  tlie  administra- 
tion of  orders.  The  candidate  can  only  be  iaw/tiUy  ordained  by  **  ftis  own  bishop  " 
{proprius  episcoptis),  or  with  tlie  authority  of  iiis  own  bishoi),  whicli  mast  be  cora- 
inunicatt^  to  (he  ordaining  bishop  by  what  are  called  diinissoiial  letters.  The  candi- 
date may  b  •  claimed  by  a  bishop  as  by  "  hi-*  own  l^shop  "  under  any  of  four  titles — 
of  birth,  of  domicUe,  of  benefice,  or  of  connection  by  pergonal  service;  and  if  an  or- 
dination be  attempted  without  some  one  of  these  titles,  heavy  ecclej«iaf»tical  penalties 
are  incnrri^  as  well  by  the  onlaiuer  as  by  the  ordained.  On  the  part  of  the  caudi- 
d}i4e  hinnelf,  certain  qualifications  are  reqtiired  ;  tmd  certain  disqualifications  created 
or  propounded  by  tlie  canon  law,  called  in-effulantiea,  are  held  to  render  an  ordina- 
tion in  some  cases  invalid,  aud  in  all  unlawful. 

In  the  Church  of  England  and  other  Reformed  Episcopal  churches,  the  rules  of 
the  ancient  canon-law  are  retained,  by  which  no  one  could  be  ordained  without  j>r«- 
vious  examination  of  hiii  fitness,  or  who  was  disqualified  by  bodily  infirmity,  illegiti- 
macy, immorality,  or  simony,  or  who  wa"*  unpi-ovided  with  a  title  (i.  e  ,  an  app<nn^ 
ment  to  serve  ill  some  church)  which  should  provide  him  with  a  maintenance  ;  or  wlso, 
being  a  cantlldate  for  deacon's  ordere,  was  undt»r  20,  and  for  priest's,  under  24  yi'ais 
of  age;  but  the  a-ze  for  admission  to  deacon's  orders  is  changed  t^  23.  A  college 
Fellowship  is  admitted  as  a  title.  (For  the  c-remony  of  Ordfuaiion  s«e  Ordinal  ) 
A  person  can  only  be  ordained  by  the  bishop  in  whose  diocese  he  is  to  servi-,  excipt 
on  Utters  di»miHHory  from  that  bisliop  to  another. 

La  other  Relormed  charchea  ordination  is  performed  by  the  presbytery,  or  by 


et)»7  Odnay 

y^  •  Ordnance 

one  or  more  ordinary  niinisterg.  Some  Binail  Protestant  denomiuutions  have  no 
ceremony  of  ordination  whatever. 

O'RDNANCE  {ordinajice,  primarily,  any  disposition,  nrraugement,  or  equipment ; 
and  then  applied  incidentally  to  a  particnlar  part  of  the  equipment  or  apparatus  of 
war),  a  name  applied  to  the  gnns  and  munitions  of  an  army  generally,  and  in  j)articu- 
lar  to  the  great  guns.  Descriptions  of  the  various*  sorts  of  ordnance  will  he  found 
under  Cannon.  Tirbarms,  Gun,  Howitzer,  Mortar,  Rifled  Ordnance. 

ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT,  one  of  the  oldest  departments  under  the  crown, 
was  alxjlif'hed  by  an  Order  in  Council  of  ihe  261  h  May  18o5,  after  an  existence  of  at 
least 400  years.  Its  constitution,  its  important  functions,  and  the  causes  which  led 
to  its  dissolution  will  be  found  under  Board  op  Ordnance.  The  early  hisiory  of 
ihc  department  is  lost  in  the  middle  ages  ;  nut  it  appt  ars  to  have  risen  grndi  ally 
under  the  Lancastrian  kings.  A  master  of  the  On. nance  is  mentioned  iii  tlie  time 
of  Richaitl  III. ;  hut  we  n-ad  of  John  Louth  b«iiig  Cleik  of  the  Ordnance  as  early  as 
1418.  JLItniy  VIII.  constituted  the  Board,  adding  a  Lieutenant,  a  Sun'eyor.  and  a 
Storekeeper,  to  whom  a  Clerk  of  the  Cheque  was  subseqm  utiy  joined.  With  the 
exce[»tlon  of  the  last,  whose  office  wa.«*  abolished  in  tbf  beginning  of  thd  present 
century,  this  organls-.tion  was  nniiutained  until  the  aholitlon  of  the  whole,  in  1604, 
James  I.  dignified  the  Master  and  Lieutenant  with  the  respectivee  title  of  Mast<r-gen- 
eral  and  Lieutenant-general.  l"he  history  of  the  Ordnance  Office  is  of  importance  in 
British  history,  as  in  all  wars-it  has  bren  r<'sponfil>le  not  only  for  the  management 
of  the  viateriel  of  the  armies,  but  aleo  for  the  diiection  of  the  j>ersonnel  of  the  artil- 
lery and  engineei-s.  By  an  0»-der  in  C<-uncll  of  June  '23,  1870,  the  Departnnnt  of 
Ordnance  in  a  very  modified  lorm  was  I'cvived  und' rthe  Surveyor-general  of  the 
Ordnance,  as  a  section  of  the  War  Office,  responsible  for  all  supplies  and  mateiiel 
of  war. 

ORDNANCE  SELECT  COMMITTEE  was,  until  1870  a  committee  composed  of 
scientific  officers,  to  udvise  the  Secretary  of  Siati-  for  War  on  all  invi  ntions  in  war 
materie'.  .It  had itj*  offices  at  W'oolwich,  in  the  n»idst  of  Ihe  manufactories  of  the 
Ko>al  Arsenal,  and  near  the  h*  j  dquarters  of  tl  e  loyal  artillery,  by  whom  most  of 
the  designs  had  to  I  e  practlc.*! lly  tested.  I'lie  president  of  the  commitiee  was  usu- 
ally a  geMieral  officer  of  ariilleiy;  and  a  cai  tain  in  the  royal  navy  served  as  vice- 
l)reBideni,  Since  1870,  these  functions  have  been  fulfilled  l)y  officers  of  the  Depart- 
m<*nt  of  the  DIrviCtor  of  Artillery  and  Stores,  who  has  hie  headquarters  at  the  War 
Office. 

O'RDNANCE  SU'TIVEY.  By  this  term  is  understood  the  various  operationB 
undertaki  n  by  the  Ordnance  dei)aitnu  ut  of  the  British  government  for  preparing 
maj>s  and  plans  of  the  whole  kingdom  and  its  parts.  The  idea  of  a  genrral  map  of 
the  country  to  be  executed  by  the  government  was  first  j)roi)osed  after  the  rebellion 
in  174%  when  the  want  of  any  relianle  map  of  the  northern  parts  of  Scotland  was 
much  felt  by  the  officers  in  command  of  the  royal  tn«  ps.  Its  execution  was  in- 
trusted to  Lieutenant-general  Watson,  the  deputy  quarter-masrter  of  North  Britain  ; 
but  it  was  mostly  carried  out  by  Major-general  Roy,  an  officer  of  engineers.  The 
dniwing,  on  a  scale  of  one  inch  and  three-fourths  to  the  mik*.  was  completed  in  1755 ; 
but  in  consequence  of  the  war  which  broke  out  in  that  vear,  was  never  published.  In 
1768  It  was  i)roposed  to  extend  the  survey  to  the  whole  kingdom  ;  but  the  first  steps 
to  effect  tins  were  taken  only  in  1784,  vhen  Major-generalRoy  commenced  measur- 
ing a  base-line  on  Hounslow  Heath,  near  London.  This  principal  triangulation  was 
designed  partly  for  astronomical  purposes,  and  partly  as  a  basis  for  a  map  on  a  small 
scale.  The  l>ase-line  was  remeasured  with  great  care  in  1791 ;  and  detail  plans  were 
commenced  by  officers  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  partly  for  practising  them  in  military 
drawing,  and  partly  for  the  purpose  of  fonning  plans  of  some  poitions  of  Kent  for 
the  use  of  the  Ordnance.  The  prinripal  object  was,  however,  the  instruction  of  a. 
corps  of  militaiy  surveyors  and  draughtsmen,  the  plans  tbemselves  being  regarded 
as  of  secondary  importance.  In  1794,  Ihe  survey  for  the  one-inch  map  was  begun, 
and  some  sheets  were  published  in  17' 6.  As  the  series  of  principal  tnangles  were 
extended  westwards  toward-*  the  Land'.-  End.  it  was  thought  right  to  measure  another 
base,  for  verification,  on  Salishnry  Plain  in  1794 ;  and  two  otlier  base-lines  were  sul)^ 
veqneutly  measnred-xjue  iu  1801  at  Mistonon  Ourr.  and  the  other  in  1S06 on  Rnddlan 
MatBk.    TiioogU  first  iuieudcd  chi^y  as  h  militiuy  map,  the  publication  of  the  sorvey 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Ordnance 


628 


Boon  created  a  dertre  on  the  part  of  the  public  for  better  maps,  aiid  survoyor?  were 
then  hired  to  hasten  its  i>i()jr,e«s.  This,  however,  was  very  slow,  the  map  l)eing  at 
one  time  entirely  suspended  dnrino;  the  war  In  the  bojjinniug  of  this*  CvUtnry,  and 
oven  the  partn  which  wt-re  executed,  havinji;  been  done  by  con 'met,  were  fouml  very 
inaccurate.  lu  this  condition  the  survey  of  England  continued  during  the  flrst  quar- 
ter of  the  present  century,  sonietinies  delayed  by  the  govern nieut  fiom  motive^  of 
economy,  at  other  times  urged  oil  by  the  county  geutlemeu,  who  wished  the  map 
either  a-*  a  hunting-map  or  for  local  improvements. 

In  Scotland,  the  princi|):il  triangulation  was  begun  in  1809,  but  was  discontinued 
in  the  following  year,  to  enable  the  p:a"sons  who  had  been  employed  there  to  cany 
forw.ird  tlie  subordinate  triangulation  required  for  coustructmg  th  •  detail  maps  in 
England.  In  1S13  it  was  resnnied,  and  coutinned  sieudilv  up  to  1S19:  a  new  base- 
line having  been  measured  on  Belhelvie  Linlis,  near  Aberdem,  in  '18i7,  and  tlie 
great  se.tor  used  at  various  stations,  both  oji  the  mainland  and  in  the  islands.  In 
1820  it  was  again  siispend'd,  was  resumed  in  1821  and  1822,  and  anew  broken  off  iu 
182S,  the  lai^e  theodolite  being  wanted  in  order  to  proceed  with  the  priiicipal  trian- 
gulation in  South  Britain.  In  1824  tlie  survey  of  Ireland  was  begun,  and  nothing 
more  was  done  in  Scotland  till  1838,  except  that  some  detail  surveying  tor  a  one-iucli 
map  was  continued  for  a  few  years  in  the  southern  counties.  The  Hiief  strength  of 
the  surveying  corps  was  now  transferred  to  Ireland.  A  map  of  that  country  was 
re(jniied  for  the  purpose  of  malcing  a  valuatiou  which  phould  form  the  basis  of  cer- 
tain d^c  il  arrangements  and  other  nnproveaients  which  the  social  evils  and  anon)a- 
lies  of  Ireland  urgently  demanded.  For  this  map  a  scale  of  six  inches  to  the  mile 
was  aduptcd,  as  bt-st  suited  for  the  purno^es  in  view.  On  this  scale  the  whole  map 
was  ccnnpieted,  and  published  in  1845,  though  the  fir-t  portions  were  in  an  imp^i-fect 
form,  and  m-eding  revision,  which  was  proc-^eded  with  in  18T.^.. 

In  1838  tlie  trianiiulation  of  Scotland  was  resumed;  and  the  survey  of  Ireland^ 
having  i>cen  tlnished  in  1840,  surveys  for  a  six-inch  map  were  begun  for  the  northern 
l»ortions  of  England  which  had  not  been  mapped  on  the  one-hjch  scale.  Jn  connec- 
tion with  this  map,  tin?  base-line  on  Sah«*bnry  Plain  was  remeasured  with  great  ac- 
curacy in  1849,  an<l  its  lengtii  found  36677-8581  feet  In  1841>  some  secotdaiy  oi>era- 
t.ons  for  a  map  of  Scotland,  also  on  a  six-inch  scale,  were  begun ;  but  prdceetled 
80  slowly,  that  iu  18.50  only  the  map  of  Wigtownshire  and  some  parts  of  Lewis  were 
completed.  Much  dissatisfaction  Iniving  l)efn  expressed  in  Scotland  by  the  press 
and  public  bodies,  us  to  the  slow  process  of  the  map  and  the  six-inch  scale  on  which 
only  it  was  published,  a  commiitae  of  the  House  of  Commons  (Lord  E'cho's)  recom- 
m.^ndfd  the  six-inch  maps  to  b.;  stopped,  and  the  one-inch  map  completed  us  speed- 
ily as  possible.  This  change  produced  nmch  discussion  as  to  the  relative  value  of 
tlie  one-inch  and  six-iuch  scales  then  in  use,  and  the  expediency  of  adopting  a  etill 
larger  scjile  as  more  valuable  to  the  public.  Circulars  were  issued,  asking  the  opin- 
ion of  various  public  bodit-s,  and  of  scientific  and  practictd  men,  as  to  the  proper 
scale  for  a  great  national  survey.  The  great  preponderance  of  opinion  was  in  favor 
of  a  scale  of  1-2500  of  nature,  or  nearly  one  nich  to  the  acre.  This  scale  was  there- 
fore ordered  by  a  treasury  minute  of  18ih  May  1865  (Lord  Falmerston's),  and  thongti 
subsequently  stopped,  in  consequence  of  a  motion  by  Sir  Denhain  Norreys  iu  the 
Hou.-'e  t>f  C(Mnmons  in  June  1857,  was  again  recommended  by  a  royal  commission 
I (Deeemb.-r  1857),  audoi-dered  to  be  resumed  by  anotiier  treasury  minute  (Uth  Sep- 
I  teniber  1858).  In  IStJl  a  select  committee  was  again  appoiniid,  and  reported  that  it 
is  d  S!rai)le  that  the  cadastriU  survey  on  the  scales  directed  by  the  treasury  minute  of 
the  18th  May  1855  be  extended  to  those  portions  of  the  United  Kingdom  that  have 
been  surveyed  on  the  scale  of  one-inch  to  the  mile  only.  This  recommendation  haa 
now  be-n  adopted  by  the  government,  and  the  survey  is  at  present  proceeding  on 
the  following  scales ;  Towns  having  4()00  or  more  inltabitautsare  surveyed  on  a  scale 
of  1  50J  of  the  liuear  measurement,  which  is  equivalent  to  126*72  inches  to  a  mile,  or 
4l7^  feet  to  an  inch  ;  Parishes  (iu  cultivated  districts)  1-2500  of  the  linear  mea^cu'e- 
ment,  equal  to  25'344  inch  -s  to  a  mile,  or  one  square  inch  to  an  acre;  ConnticS  on  a 
scale  of  six  inches  to  a  mile  j  Kingdom,  a  general  map  one  inch  to  a  mile. 

'i'he  sheets  of  the  one-ineii  map  ioiu  together,  so  as  to  form  a  complete  map  of 
the  whole  kingdom.  This  is  true  also  of  the  sheets  of  each  county  on  the  six-inch 
scale,  and  of  each  parish  on  the  1-2500  scale,  but  the  sheets  of  difEei'ent  counties  and 
parishea  are  not  connected.    The  1-2500  scale  olao  applies  only  to  cnlliivattid,  popa*- 


y  Google 


529 


Ordnano0 


Ions  and  mlnernl  dipfiictis ;  ,thfi  Hlglilnmle  of  Scotland,  mid  other  extenwve  moor- 
land mid  uncultivated  trjicts,  being  only  »*nrvtj}ed  on  tho  t?lx-incli  scale,  and  pub- 
lished on  theone-jncli  scale 

In  ihe  report  on  the  progress  of  th«'  Ordmince  Survey,  it  is  8tnt«  d  that  in  Enpland, 
np  to  the  end  of  1875,  an  jina  of  27.491  square  miles  (the  area  of  England  b  in>:  68,- 
(iO^q.  HI.)  hatl  been  Hirvcyed,  (if  which  PS6  ^q.  nj.  w»re  survi  y«  d  u  18;6.  Since 
1S54,  when  the  survey  on  the  scale  of  1-2500  h  began,  tiie  Englis*i  connfi. .-  (ha:  h.id 
ben  snrveyed  were  Du»hMin,  WestiiK-rtland.  Nonhnninevland,  Cun.l>erla' d,  Mid- 
(IJesex,  Kent,  Essex,  Suiiey,  Hnnips*hire,  Jind  Su»^ex,  also  (it  hav.ug  b«en  de«  idtd 
that  ihe  iniuerul  districts  should  takw  precedence  of  Ihe  rest  of  the  kinjj;dom)  Che- 
shire, Flintshire,  and  D«nbighshire,  wirh  portions  of  8<'veral  other  counties. 

In  Scotland,  up  to  th«i  end  of  18.5,  29,297  square  miles  (out  of  a  total  «rea  of  80,- 
000  pq.  m.)  had  been  survey,  d,  of  which  1186  sq.  m.  were  done  in  1975.  Aftet  18T6' 
the  Shetlands  alone  remained  to  he  done.  At  the  et  d  of  1875,  maps  on  the  1-2500 
scah!  had  been  published  for  an  urea  of  11.107  sq^  miles.  On  the  cix-inch  sca.e,  au 
urea  of  21,832  sq.  miles  had  been  published.  15.950  ^q.  m.  ol  the  one-inch  mnp  have 
bet  n  completed  and  published  with  hills. — In  Ireland,  as  stated,  the  six-incli  maps 
have  been  long  publisind,  and  are  now  it)  process  of  revision.  A  one-Inch  map  of  ' 
the  whole  in  outline  has  been  published,  and  is  being  completed  by  the  addition  of 
hills.  The  engraving  of  hilb  m  the  r<  niaind*  r  is  aI.«o  being  pr<  ceeded  with.  In  all 
the  three  kingdoms,  plans  of  many  of  the  towns  on  the  10  and  6  feet  scale  are  also 
pnblibhed. 

'I  he  sketch  now  giveti  of  the  history  of  this  great  national  undertaking  will  shew 
that  it  has  been  conducted  at  different  times  on  different  scales  and  plans,  and  that 
-  the  system  now  pursued  was  only  adopted  after  much  discussion  both  In  parliament 
and  out  of  doors.  The  map  was  originally  begun  as  a  military  map,  and  the  scale  ( f 
one  inch  to  the  mile  chosen,  without  considering  whether  .«»ome  other  scah'  would  not 
offer  greanT  advantages.  Alany  now  think  that  a  scale  a  Utile  larger,  aiid  an  aliquot 
.  part  of  nature,  such  as  1-50,000,  or  ab<»ut  1^  inch  to  the  mile,  would  have  been 
•  preferable  for  the  small  nuip ;  in  which  case  a  scale  of  1-10.000  of  iniiu:e,  or  about  6X 
inches,  might  have  been  chosen  for  the  int»'rmediate,  in6t4'ad  ol  the  Jix-inch  tcale 
Bi'lected  at  first  for  mere  local  purposes  in  Ireland.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  ar^:uin<  nts 
in  favor  of  the  one-inch  map  are,  that  it  is  the  most  convenient  both  as  a  general  and 
travelling  map.  For  general  views  of  the  structure  of  a  counfr}\  the  dis'tnbmion  and 
relations  of  its  mountains,  plains,  valley.*,  and  rivers,  the  one-inch  is  admitted  u)  be 
superior  to  the  six-inch,  and  thus  bitter  adapted  in  the  first  instance  for  laying  out 
roads,  railways,  or  Lthcr  extensive  public  works,  or  for  the  piihlicat  on  of  a  g<  neral 
geoh^ical  f^urvey.  Such  a  map,  on  the  othtr  hand,  is  on  too  small  a  pcale  to 
admit  of  correct  measurements  of  small  distances;  it  is  in  ^ome  respects  a 
generalis/d  picture,  and  not  a  correct  plan.  The  six-Inch  majw  wei"  Ht 
first  selected  in  Ireland  as  Ihe  smallest  f-lze  on  which  corrtct  n  ea^nrrments  of 
-distances  and  areas  cond  be  made.  On  them  every  houae  and  field,  and  almost 
t  very.tree  or  busi',  mi>:bt  be  laid  down.  Hfucc  they  are  j-uperi'-r  for  woikii  y;  out 
details,  as  in  minute  suiTcys  of  railways  or  roads,  vr  the  complex  g  oloj:ical  f'trnc- 
ture  of  rich  mineral  districts.  On  such  hhe(  ts,  »oo,  a  propriet(»r  or  tanner  may  find 
every  field  laid  down,  and  the  n  lalive  heights  indicated  by  contour  lines,  and  may 
llietrfore  use  them  for  drainajrc  and  other  improvements.  It  has  also  been  proposed 
tQ  UH*-  these  six-Inch  maps  v.s  a  record  of  sales  or  eiicnn  brance.-'Of  la'  d,  thus  h  ssen- 
inir  the  cost  and  simplifying  the  transft r  of  property.  On  the  other  hand,  tluir  size 
.unfits  them  for  i;  oH  of  the  pnrpos  s  for  which  the  one-inch  map  is  usefid.  an<l  the 
contom*  lines  give  a  far  less  vivid  and  correct  impression  of  the  physical  features  of 
a  country  than  the  hUl  sketching  of  the  oni-inch  map.  Most  of  the  purposes  of  ti.e 
eix  inch  plans  are  attain<d  in  a  still  more  perfect  manner  from  the  25-inch  plans  or 
cadastraTsiirvey.  This  last  name  is  taken  from  Ihe  French  cadcwtre  (a  register  of 
lands),  and  is  defln«Hl  (ip  the  Becneil  des  Z/ots,  &c.)  as  a  plan  from  which  the  area  of 
l.'iid  may  l>e  computed,  and  fioin  which  its  revenue  may  be  valued.  The  purposes 
to  which  these  large  plans  may  he  applied  are.  as  estate  plans,  lor  managing,  drain- 
ing, and  otherwise  improving'  land,  for  facilitating  its  transfer  by  registering  hales  or 
encumbrances;  and  as  public  maps,  according  to  which  local  or  general  taxes  may 
be  raised,  and  roads,  railways,  camds,  and  otiier  public  works,  laid  out  and  executi  d. 
Nearly  all  the  stales  of  Europe  have  produced  irlgonometricai  suryoye,  many  of 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


gjf?*^  530 


Orel 

them  of  great  excellence  n»  ?rlcnt1flc  works.    AH  of  fhese  have  been  pnbliehed,  or 

are  in  course  of  publication,  on  convenient  s-cali^s  ;  generally  smaller  than  one  inch 

to  a  statute  mile.    Tho  most  iniport'nt  of  Ihesi?  are: 

AnetrJa  and  Northern  Italy,  scale  1-80,000  or  4-5ths  of  an  Inch  to  a  mile. 

Bavaria,  Biiden,  Wurtehjlierg,  and  the  He.^ben  territories  1-80,000  or  4-5ths  of  au 

inch  to  a  mile. 
Belgium,  1-80.000  or  4-5ihs  of  au  iuch  to  a  mile. 
Deiunark,  survt^y  map  in  preparation. 

'  ,  Iceland,  sui"veyed  nnd  published  on  different  scales. 

Fmnct',  1-80,000  or  4-6th8  of  an  inch  to  a  mile;  and  a  reduction  tol-S20,000  or  5 

miles  to  au  inch.  ^ 

Great  Briuiin,  1  inch,  6  inches,  and,  in  the  lowland  district*,  25  inches  to  a  mile; 

and  the  coast  survey,  general  charts,  2}^  milus  to  au  iuch;  harbors  and  bays', 

from  2  inches  to  12  inches  to  a  mile. 
Hanover  and  East  Pru^'siJ^,  1-100  000  or  7-lltlis  of  an  inch  to  a  mile. 
Italy  (see  Sardmia,  Tui*canr,  &e.),  8urv«'y  maps  of  Naples,  Rome,  &c,  in  progress, 
Greece  (French  survey),  1-^88,000  or  4  6-11  miltis  to  an  inch. 
Netherlands,  1-5  LOOO  "or  1  3  11  inches  to  a  mile. 
Prassia,  1-100,000  or  7-llths  of  an  inch  to  a  mile,  and  many  smaller. 
BusBia.  sui*vey  map  in  progress. 
Sardinia,  1-250,000  or  i^th  of  au  inch  to  a  mile. 
Saxony,  1-67,000  or  1-9  niches  to  a  mile. 
Swilzerlaad,  1-100,000  or  7-11  tns  of  an  incb  to  a  mile. 
Spain  and  Ponugal,  surveys  commenced. 
Sweden  and  Norway,  surveys  in  progress. 
Tuscany,  1-200.000  or  ahout  3  miles  lo  au  iuch. 

The  greatest  extra  European  work  of  the  kind  is  the  "Trigonometrical  Survey  of 
India,"  which  was  bejruu  70  years  ago,  and  has  been  conducted  with  great  ability. 
The  work  is  drawing  to  a  close,  but  will  still  occupy  several  yeare.  The  maps  are 
])ublished  on  a  scale  of  1-250,000  or  ^th  of  an  inch  to  a  mile.  lu  America,  the  cwist 
Survey  of  the  United  States,  a  map  of  great  accuracy  and  minute  detail,  has  b«-en 
going  on  for  mauy  yea»-s.  The  general  charts  are  published  on  a  scale  of  1-80,000  or 
4-5ths  of  an  inch  to  a  mile;  the  harbors  and  ports,  1-20,000  or  3  V5th  of  an  inch  lo 
a  mile.  No  systematic  survey  has  yet  beeu  undertaken  for  the  interior  of  the 
countiy. 

No  portion  of  Sonth  America  has  been  trigonometrically  surveyed,  except  the 
republics  of  Peru  and  Chili,  which  are  in  progress. 

Tlie  Geological  Survey,  though  under  a  different  department  of  goverament 
(Science  and  Art),  may  be  shortly  noticed  here.  The  English  survey  waslwgii  n  in  June, 
1835,  and  has  now  been  completed,  with  the  exception  of  Cumberland,  Yorkshire, 
Norfolk  and  Cambridge.  The  Irish  survey  was  begun  in  1840,  but  was  subse- 
quently suspended  till  1845.  It  is  now  comjileted  in  the  counties  of  Dublin,  Meath, 
Westmeath,  Tx)ngford.  Kildare.  Queen's  County,  King's  coitnty.  Carlow,  Wicklow, 
Wexford,  Kilkenny, Waterford,  Cork,  Tipperary,  Keriy,  Limericli,  and  Clai-e.  In  1854, 
the  sni*vey  was  extended  to  Scotland,  and  now  extends  over  the  counties  of  E<lin- 
burgh,  Haddington,  Fife,  Kinross.  Linlithgow.  Peebles,  Lanark,  Ayr,  Renfrew, 
Dumbarton,  Stirling,  Perth,  Wigton,  Kirkcudbnght,  Dumfries,  Selkirk.  Benviek 
and  Roxburgh.  The  surveys  are  made  on  the  six-inch  maps  in  the  parts  of  the- 
country  where  these  exist,  but  the  results  are  published  on  the  one-inch  scale  only, 
except  some  of  the  coal-fields,  which  are  issued  also  on  the  six-inch  scale.  Besides 
the  maps,  sheets  of  sections,  horizontiil  and  vertical,  with  valuable  memoirs,  are  also 
published. 

O'REGON,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in  lat  420-46°  n.,  long.  116o, 
40' — 124°  25'  w.,  bomided  n.  and  e.  by  Washington,  from  which  it  is  chiefly  separ- 
ated by  Columbia  River ;  e.  by  Idaho,  the  L<-'wis  or  Snake  Riv^r  intervening ;  s.  by 
Nevada  and  California  ;  and  w.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean  ;  i-eing  850  miles  from  east  to 
west,  by  275  from  north  to  south,  with  an  area  of  95.274  sq  m.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Columbia,  and  its  branches— the  Willamette.  Fall  River,  Snake  River,  and  the 
Owyhee.  The  Columbia  is  a  large  river,  navigable  9r»  miles  to  the  Cascade  Mountains, 
through  which  it  passes,  but  the  entrance  is  difficult.  The  Willamette  drains  a  lai^e 
and  fertile  yallcy  between  the  mountains  and  the  ocean.    The  Cascade  Hountaiuf^ 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


531  8lF~ 

\^!ch  have  extinct  volcanic  peaks  of  4  00  to  10,000  foot  high,  rnii  north  niul  sonth» 
dividing  tl'e  ^^tatt;  into  two  nneqiuil  rcj;ions.  Ilie  weetoin  third  of  tin*  i^tino,  boid  r- 
iusr  the  Pncific,  Iihs  a  mild,  equahie,  and  mo'pt  clin^^t(•.  witl>  vjdiey-  of  gunt  fertility, 
wliere  piD(  s  grow  troni  260  to  300  feet  h  i,M«,  and  fiip  fr-.m  4  to  10  ftet  iu  dianu'tor. 
The  raJufall  at  Astoria,  mouih  of  tlieCohnnb  a  RivtT,  i?-  S6  ijicliff».  East  ol  tlic  monii- 
tains,  tl»e  ciiinate  is  dry  and  variable,  and  tiie  soil  li'ss  fertile.  Gold  and  s  her  nre 
fonnd  in  tlie  Casanlf  Mountains,  with  copper,  ph»tinnni,iridiuiTi.  and  «)finiium.  Co:.l 
bat*  bt't  n  di.-coven-d  on  Coa«e  Hay.  Tlie  chief  agricuhural  productions  arc  wlicnt,  (uits, 
poiat(  es,  sind :  ppl.  b.  Tl;e  great  forests  .-bound  with  tht*  gris'y  and  black  be.ir,  pan;  iitT, 
wild-cat,  elk,  deer,  anteloiM? ;  among  the  bird?  are  the  California  vulture,  golden 
eagle,  American  swan,  Canadian  goose,  &c. ;  while  the  rivers  swarm  with  s.ibnon. 
Tlnre  were,  in  1810,  22  organised  counties.  Most  of  the  setilemenls  are  on  tlie  Co- 
lumbia Kiver  and  in  the  Willamette  VaUey.  The  chief  towns  nrc — Sal<  m,  the  ca^itnl, 
on  the  Willamette  River,  pop.  4000;  Portland,  10,000;  and  Ore<!on  Ciiy,  about  VOO  '. 
Within  the  state  are  about  10,000  Indians  imd  2000  Chine>e.  Four  coileg«  m  liave 
been  founded,  1  mt'dical  school,  numercus  acjidfmi<'s,  common  schools,  aaily  and 
w<  ckly  papers,  and  churches  of  several  denominations.  O.  was  flie  name  formcr.y 
given  to  tlie  whole  temtory  west  of  ibeRtcky  Mountains,  claimed  by  tin;  Iniied 
States,  as  far  north  as  Int.  64°  40'  n.  This  claim  uas  resihted  by  the  British  govern- 
jncnl,  which  asserted  .-i  right  to  the  entire  territory,  t>nd  in  1818  a  treay  wns  made, 


and  rinewed  iu  1827,  giving  joint  occupation,  which  was  terniinated  in  1846  by 
notice  from  the  United  Slates  govern n.ent,  and  the  que>^iion  seemed  lik<lv  to  in- 
volve the  two  countries  in  war,  when  a  cotnpromise  was  offered  hv  Loid  Aberdee 

XI J.  ,^    .1--  T»..s.:_i.   . •.     „-_j t t  1...    *i.,.t    ^c   «K,.    1T..:*»^ 


on  the  part  of  the  British  govemnient,  and  accepted  by  that  of  the  United  Siat<s, 
hy  which  the  boundary  was  settled  on  t!;e  49ih  parallel.  Th«'  norlhern  portion  is 
now  Washington,  and  the  eastern  Idaho  'I'enitory.  The  coast  was  discovered,  and 
Columbia  River  entered.  In  1792  by  Captain  Gmy  of  Boston.  It  was  explored  in 
1804  and  1805  by  Captains  Lewis  and  Clarke,  U.  S.  army.  In  1811,  John  Jacoi*  Astor 
founded  Astoria  as  a  trading  d6p6t  of  the  American  Fur  Company,  but  sold  out 
afterwards  to  the  North-west  Fur  Company.  In  1845,  the  gift  of  320  acres  of  land 
to  each  married  couj>Ie  of  settlers  caused  a  large  emigriation.  'I'he  territorial  goveru- 
•^eut  was  organised  iu  1848,  and  iu  1859  it  was  admitted  as  a  state.  Pop.  in  1860, 
52,464;  in  1870,  90,776. 

OREIDE,  a  itew  alloy  lately  introduced  by  the  French  asasubstitute  for  ormolu, 
which  it.  excels  in  its  gold-like  character.  There  are  two  formulas  for  composing 
it.  In  the  first  the  nigredients  are:  copper,  100  0 ;  tin,  17'0:  magnesia,  6*0;  sal 
ammoniac,  36 ;  qnicklinie,  1*80 ;  argols,  or  unrefined  tartar,  9-0.  In  the  second,  zinc 
is  substituted  for  the  tin.  The  latter  does  not  possess  the  satne  brilliaicy  at<  the 
former.  The  metals  an-  first  melted,  and  the  other  ingredients,  after  being  thorotighly 
incorporated  togetiier  by  powdering  and  mixing,  are  slowly  added,  and  the  whole  is 
keptln  a  state  of  fusion  for  about  an  hour,  and  the  scum  removed  from  time  to  time. 

OREL,  a  government  in  the  south-west  of  Central  Russia,  bounded  on  the  w. 
hv  Little  Russia  and  the  government  of  Smolen^k.  Area,  17.951  square  miles ;  pop. 
(1S70)  1,596,8S1.  The  surfji<yi  is  flat,  with  rising  gi-onndsin  tlve  vicinity  of  the  towns 
of  Kromy  and  Malo-Arcbangelsk,  from  which  the  Oka  and  Sosua  resp'^ctively  take 
tl>  -ir  rise.  The  government  is  drained  by  the  Desna  on  the  west,  an  affluent  of  the 
Dnieper;  the  Oka  on  the  north,  :in  ;  fflnent  of  the  Volga;  and  the  Sosna  on  the 
east,  an  rflfluent  of  the  Don.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  climate  mild.  The  wof^tr- 
ern.part  of  the  government  alwmnds  in  woods.  In  the  district  of  Briansk,  in  the 
north-west  tlnre  are  a  nnniber  of  imn  mines.  Agriculture  and  the  cultivation  and 
pri'paration  of  hemp  are  the  chief  employments  of  the  people.  Corn  is  very  exten- 
sively jrrown.  and  ffreat  quantities  are  sent  to  St  Petersburg,  Riga,  and  Hie  Black 
Sea|)*orls  .or  export  The  principal  article  of  export  is  wheat,  in  grain  ai  d  in  flour. 
Sailcloth,  rope  and  hemp-yarn  manufsictures  are  carried  on  ;  glass  and  iron  works 
are  numerou.s.  The  hemp  of  O.  is  reckoned  the  best  in  Russia ;  and  the  oil  o'naiiied 
from  hemp-seed,  aud  used  in  Russia  as  an  article  of  food,  is  exti-acted  at  2000  tnills. 
The  rearing  of  cattle  and  horses  is  much  attended  to;  al^no^t  all  the  considerable 
landowners  keep  studs. 

ORE'Tj,  a  thriving  town  of  Great  Russia,  capital  of  tbo  govornment  of  the  same 

...     , .,      ^,-.     _*:*. d j*i.    *!.„   /^..:i,     o.,.i    -uiles    bOUtll-iSOU*"' 

)ytli00gle 


OreUi  p-on 

Ores  •J^^ 

west  of  Moscow,  nnd  678  miles  sonth-oonth-enst  of  St  P;^tcr^'6nr2'.  It  wnsfonnded  in  . 
1586,  as  a  stronghoUl  in  defence  of  wiiut  wastheu  the  Kusslau  frontier,  {jgainst  the 
inroada  of  tlie  Tartar  tribes  of  tlio  Crimea.  Ii.s  iuiporranco  asi  lortrei<8  ceased  after 
the  aiiui'xatiou  of  Little  Russia,  and  it  tlien  hec.im.i  a  commercial  town.  Tlie  town 
o.vesmiKh  to  its  advantareous*  position  on  a  uiivijjMblc.  river  in  the  midst  of  the 
most  fertile  province;^  of  Rnssi  i.  Th<!  railwiiy  Iroui  Moscow  to  Odessa,  on  the  Black 
Sen,  passes  ihrouijrli  O.,  aiul  the  Vit-b?'k  line  affords  it  direct  railway  coranjnnicjJtiou 
with  the  port  of  Rig.i,  and  thus  its  expo  t  tade  has  been  greatly  pmuioted.  It  is 
^  the  aciit  of  a  bishop,  and  contains  numerous  churches;  its  houses  are  fori  he  most 
part  constructed  of  wo  -d.  Tiiere  is  nn  imporrant  ferry  here  over  i  ho  Olia.  The  cliief 
lunnnfaetunn".'  establishments  in  th*"  town  nre  yarn  and  rope  f  ictories.  The  princi- 
l)al  articles  of  export  are  cer<wls  and  hemp.  On  ihe  7th  June  iS4S.  O.  saffCi  ed  severely 
from  a  great  fire,  winch  destroyed  1237  honscs,  fonr  bridges,  and  a  number  of 
grauari;!s.     Pop.  (1867)  43,575. 

ORELLT.  Jobann  Kaspar,  an  eminent  philologist  and  critic,  was  born  at  Zurich, 
13th  February  1787.  His  father  was  long  the  handvogt  of  WadenschweiL  He  stu- 
died in  the  Carolinuni  at  Zurich,  and  l)etook  hiaiself  enthusiastically  to  the  study  of 
the  ancient  and  of  modern  languages  and  literature.  In  1806,  he  "wa3  ordiined  as 
a  cleri^ynuwi.  He  8i>ent  some  years  as  a  tutor  jit  Bergamo  ;  and  while  there,  pnb- 
lisiied,  in  1810,  two  p;irts  of  a  work  entitled  "  Beitra_'e  znr  Geschichte  der  Jtal. 
Poesie."  In  1813,  he  became  a  teacher  in  the  cantonal  school  at  Ctnir;  in  1819, 
Professor  of  Eloquence  and  Hermeneutlcs  in  Z&rich  ;  and  jifier  the  fonndation  of 
the  Zfirich  High  School,  in  which  he  took  an  atrtivo  part,  he  was  one  of  iis  chief  or- 
naments. There  never  was  a  man  more  zealous  in  the  cause  of  education.  It  was 
during  this  latter  and  most  distinguished  period  of  his  career  that  he  produced  most 
of  his  learned  works,  and  traineil  to  a  correi  t  knowledge  of  antiquity  a  Dumerous 
b:ind  of  scholars.  His  political  sympathies  and  opinions  were  not,  howtver,  <  on- 
fin  d  to  the  ancient  world  ;  \w  took  the  liveliest  interest  in  the  Btruggl<-8  of  Greece 
for  freedom,  and  in  the  political  reformaticm  of  his  native  country.  He  died  6tii 
January  1S49.  Q.  edited  many  classical  authors  with  great  learning,  taate,  and  acute 
discrimination  ;  in  pirticular,  hisedi'ionsof  Horace (2  vols*  Zur.  1837—1833),  'iacitus 
(2  vols.  Zur.  1843—1847)  and  Cicero  (4  vols.  Zur.  1826—1831)  deseiTC  meniioti ;  also 
an  "Onoinisiicon  Tullianum"  (Svols.  Zur.  1836—1835),  executed  in  association  willi 
Baiter,  and  an  ''Inscriptionum  Latinarum  Seleciarum  CoUectio"  (2  vol-.  Zur.  1S2S). 

O'RENBURG,  a  Russian  government  in  the  Ural  region,  lies  paniy  in  Europe 
and  pirtly  in  Asia,  and  extends  between  the  governments  of  Tobolsk  on  the  n.  e. 
and  Siuiai-aon  the  s.  w.  Area  of  the  govemnient,  73.600  square  miles ;  pop.  (1870) 
900,547.  'i'lie  government  is  divided  iu to  four  districts— Orenburg,  Verchni-,  Urait'k, 
OvsU,  and  Proitsk  and  Tciielabinsk.  Capital,  Orenburir  (q.  v.>.  Till  1865,  O.  com- 
prised w;  lin  iis  at-ea  tlie  whole  of  what  is  now  the  distinct  government  of  Ufa 
(q.  V.) ;  hut  in  that  year  the  p  irt  of  O.  lying  to  the  north-west  of  the  Ural  mount^iin 
range  was  organised  into  the  new  government.  The  papulations,  the  surface,  Boiln, 
flora,  and  fauna  of  this  extensive  country  are  of  the  most  various  kinds.  The  gov- 
ernment is  one  of  the  most  elevated  in  the  empire;  but  it  also  contains  extensive 
low-lying  tracts  and  step  es.  It  is  traversed  by  numerous  navigable  rivers,  by  means 
of  which  and  by  canals  it  is  iu  conn imnicat ion  with  the  Caspian  and  Baltic  Seas,  and 
with  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  maii'j  streams  are  the  Bielaia  (running  into  the  Kama, 
a  Iribut^u'y  of  the  Volga),  the  'J'obol  and  the  Ural.  As  many  as  2300  lanrcr 
and  smaller  lakes  lie  with.n  the  frontiers.  Of  the  whole  aiea,  about 
three-tent'is  are  forest,  a  half  is  waste  land,  and  only  about  a  twetitieth. 
part  i.-?  cultivated.  The  hill  country  has  much  pleasant  scenery,  but  great  - 
tracts  of  the  steppe  regions  are  utterly  bari('n  and  desolate.  Tlie  Inhabiianta 
are  made  up  of  Russians,  Bashkir,  Tart-r,  and  Kirghis  tribes,  Kal- 
mucks and  certain  Finnish  peoples,  with  a  few  Germans.  Tl»e  trade  is  chiefly  with 
Bokh  tra,  Khiva,  Tashkend,  and  the  Kirghis ;  the  exports  ars  gold,  silver,  and  other 
metals,  corn,  skins,  and  manufactured  goods;  the  imports,  cattle,  cotton — tlie  de- 
maud  for  and  supply  of  which  have  greatly  increased  since  the  comtnencenient'  of 
the  American  war— and  the  other  articles  of  Asiatic  trade.  The  im|)orts  are  either 
disposed  of  to  Russian  merchants  in  the  custom-house  on  the  frontier,  or  are  carried 
by  Ajsiatic  traders  iuto  Russia,  and  sold  at  ttie  great  national  mark^  of  ^ijui-If OT- 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


533  8« 

goroo.  There  are  in  the  province  nnraerona  iron  and  copper  ^orks,  as  well  a^  vahi- 
ttl)li'  gold  diL'L'iiiffs,  boih  beloDj^injf  to  the  crown  and  to  private  individnal^.  TlnB.iIt 
mines  are  vjilnuble.  Thero  is  a  pmnll-anns  factory  on  a  larjro  scale,  and  a  few  othor 
factories.  Cattle-breeding  is  very  i-xtcusively  carried  on.  'J'he  iinnil)  r  of  hor.-e8  in 
O.  is  larjicr  than  in  any  other  Uussian  government.  The  ponthein  frontiers  are  de- 
fended, at  intervals  of  12  or  16  miles,  by  fortified  pettlementt*,  inhabited  by  Cos»*aekf ; 
those  on  a  larger  scale  being  surrounded  by  a  bulwark  and  a  mont-  This  line  of 
forts  extends  over  a  frontier  of  2000  miles  eat«tward  to  the  boundaries  of  China ;  the 
series  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ural  to  the  ToboL  occupied  by  upwards  of  242,000  ITral 
and  Oreulmrg  Cossacks,  bt^ng  known  as  the  Oreiilmr«r  line.  The  region  of  which 
O.  forms  part  was  orisinally  called  Bashkir-land,  and  became  subject  to  the  CKar  of 
Moscow  in  1556.  Besides  the  towns  giviig  uamc  to  the  governmental  districts,  the 
only  other  place  of  consequence  is  Mijask. 

ORENBURG,  a  town  on  the  ea-stern  frontier  of  European  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  same  name,  on  the  river  Ural,  1393  miles  sontli-eastof  8c  Petersburg,  Jat. 
61  o  45'  t.,  long.  88°  C  e.  Tlu;  foundation  of  the  fortress  and  town  were  laid  here  in 
1742.  Pop.  (1S67)  83,431.  Jt  is  the  centre  of  the  governor-generalship  of  the  jrov- 
ernment  of  the  same  name,  has  an  excellent  cnstom-ho«'=e,  and  carries  on  nn  exten- 
sive trade  with  Khirghiz  and  other  Asiatic  Iribe-^.  It  imports  cotton,  silk-stuff?,  and 
shawlsvfrom  Bokhara,  Khiva,  and  Tashkent;  lea  (brought  mostly  on  came!s)rfrom 
China;  and  sheep  and  cattle  from  the  Koasacksand  Khirffhiz.  The  sheep  :.re  killed 
In  autumn  for  the  fat  and  skins,  which  arc  purchased  by  Knssian  merchants.  Corn, 
skins,  and  metals  are  the  principal  exports.  In  the  neighborhood  is  the  very  rich 
rock-salt  mine  of  Iletsk.    At  O.  the  Ural  is  frozen  from  October  till  March. 

ORE'NSE  (anc  Aquce  calidce  Ciliorum.  or  AqtuB  On'ginis),  a  city  of  Spain,  the 
capital  of  the  jwoviuce  of  Onuise,  In  Galicia,  near  I  he  frontier  of  Portuyal,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Minho.  O.  contains  a  number  o(  iuleresting  ecelesiasti(;al  edifices. 
It  is  highly  reputed  for  its  hot  sulphurous  springs,  called  Las  Burgos,  which  i.«8ue— 
three  in  numl)er-— almost  boiling  from  a  granite  rock  in  the  western  part  of  the  town." 
The  baths  of  O.  were  known  to  the  Romans,  and  were  in  much  repute  among  the 
Goths.  O.  carries  on  manufactures  of  linen,  leather,  and  chocolate.  It  has  a  lai-ge 
trade  in  hams,  which  are  in  great  repute  throughout  Spain.    Pop.  10,775. 

OREOD.\'PHNE,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  La«ra<»cp,  soine'lmes 
called  Mountain  Laubel.  The  fruit  is  succulent,  partly  immermd  in  a  d<ep  thick 
cup  formed  of  the  lube  of  the  calyx.  O.apifei-a  is  a  native  of  the  countries  on  the 
low(;r  part  of  the  Amazon.  A  volatile  oil  obtained  from  the  bark  is  used  as  a  lini- 
ment, and  when  kept  lor  a  short  time  deposits  a  great  quantity  of  camphor.— 0. 
cvpulan's  is  a  very  lai^'o  tree  with  strong-st-en ted  wood,  the  bark  of  which  yields 
the  cinnamon  of  Mauritius.  It  prows  also  in  Bourl)on  and  Madagascar. — O.  foeteuM^ 
a  native  of  the  Canari(;s,  has  wood  {Til-wood)  of  a  most  disagreeable  odor.  O.  hullata^ 
found  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is  also  remarkable  for  the  disagreeable  odor  of  its 
wood,  the  Stink-tDOod  of  the  colonists ;  but  it  is  hard,  durable,  beautiful,  lakes  an 
excellent  polish,  and  is  used  in  ship-building. 

ORES.  Any  minenil  or  combination  of  minerals  containing  as  much  metal  as  to 
l>e  profitably  extracted,  is  reckoned  by  miners  an  ore.  The  propoition  necessary  for 
this  purpose  is.  of  couree,  vei-y  various,  according  to  the  value  of  the  particular  metal 


and  the  facility  or  difl^culty  of  reducing  the  ore.  A  rock  containing  only  1  per  cent, 
of  iron  is  never  called  an  ore ;  one  containing  the  same  proportion  of  gold  is  a  veiy 
rich  ore.    Metals  rarely  exist  in  ores  in  a  pure  or  native  f>tiite;   they  are  almost  al- 


ways chemically  combined  with  oxygen,  sulphur,  or  other  elements. 

Ores  present  themselves  in  a  multiplicity  of  forms  and  positions  in  the  solid  crust 
of  the  earth.  Sometimes  they  are  sprinkled  through  the  whole  mass  of  the  rocks  in 
which  they  occur,  as  is  often  the  case  with  gold,  tin  ore,  and  magnetic  iron  ore. 
Sometimes  they  are  deposited  in  regular  parallel  beds  between  the  strata  of  other 
rocks,  as  in  the  case  of  many  iron-stones  and  of  cupreous  schist.  At  other  times, 
they  occur  in  irre^lar  lumps  or  concretions;  or  they  fill  up  the  fissures  of  other 
rocks,  forming  veins,  particularly  silver,  copper,  and  lead  or^;  or  lastly,  they  are 
'    "    f  alluv' 


found  in  detritus,  gravel,  sand,  and  other  alluviul  deposits.  This  last  term  is  evi- 
dently the  result  of  disturbance  and  transport  from  some  of  the  other  positions  a)>ove 
^;>ecined.   Aud  as  the  metallic  parts  of  the  mineral  masses  or  rocks  so  disturbed  and 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Oifila  KOI 

Organ  *^*^^  ^ 

trau^*pol•ted  afethe  heaviest,  aud'are  insoluble  in  water,  t!ry  are  mora  concentrated 
in  tlu'Se  <l«p<)sit9  than  in  their  origiual  i^jsitiou.  and  can  thcrelnre  be  extract<jd  with 
greater  advantage.  Such  deposits  ai'e  called  washitign^  from  tlje  nietal  being  sep- 
arated from  the  oiher  debris  by  the  process  of  washing.  Gold  nnd  platinum  are 
niostly  got  in  tills  way  in  the  Ural  and  Alt;ii  Mountainf-,  and  gold  in  Guiaua,  Cali- 
foruiii,  and  Australia.  Tin  ore  is  also  found  in  alluvial  deposits  in  Cornwall  and 
India.  The  redaction  of  ores  Is  treated  of  auder  METALLURaY  and  the  names  of 
the  several  metals. 

OUFILA,  Mateo  Jos6  Bonnventnra,  a  colcbrafed  jAy^ician  and  chemist,  and  the 
recognised  founder  of  the  science  of  toxicology,  w:is  horn  jit  Mahou  in  Minorca,  24th 
Aprfl  1787.  His  father,  who  was  a  merchant,  intended  tiiat  his  sou  should  follow  the 
same  pnrsnit ;  hut  younj?  O.  shewed  so  strong  a  }>redileclion  for  the  study  of  mcdi- 
cin.',  that  all  thoughts  of  a  mercnntile  career  for  him  were  dismissed,  and  he  was 
sent  to  the  medical  schools  of  Valencia  and  Barcelona.  In  tho  latter  of  these  sem- 
inaries, he  so  dii'tingnisiied  himself,  that  the  jtma  of  the  province  i*e.<olved  to  defray 
the  expense  of  his  further  educntion  in  Paris*,  on  condition  of  his  returifiu^  to  Bar- 
celona to  fill  one  of  the  chairs  in  Iheir  rapdicjil  school;  and  accordingly  O.  departed 
for  Paris  in  180T.  The  junta  were  prcventi^d  from  fulfilling  the  agreemeni  hy  liie  out- 
break of  war  with  France :  but  O.,  who  iia«l  now  made  many  friends  in  Paris,  was 
unable  to  continue  his  studies.  In  October  1811,  heri^ceived  the  degree  of  Doctor  tf 
Medicine,  and  immedifitely  commenced  a  private  course  of  lectures  on  cliomisfry. 
botany,  aid  anatomy,  which  was  largelv  attended,  and,  along  with  his  successful 
practic',  soon  rendered  him  famous.  In  1813  appeaivd  the  first  edition  of  his 
Cf'lebrated  work  on  poisons,  entitled  *•  Traitd  des  Poi.^ons  tir6s  des  Rdgues  Mineral 
V6getal.  et  Aninnil,  or  Toxicologie  Gendrale"  (P.iris).  The  work  was  commended 
by  tne  Iu>«iitute,  and  r.ipidly  passed  through  a  numlxr  of  editions.  In  1S16,  on  the 
occasion  of  a  short  visit  to  Minorca,  he  m  t  witn  an  enthusiastic  rcc  ption  ;  and  on 
his  return  to  Paris,  became  court  phy-*icum.  In  1819,  he  was  create*!  a  citizen  uf 
Franci',  and  i)ecame  professor  of  jurisprudence;  and  in  1823,  was  transferred t» the 
chair  of  chemisiry.  to  winch,  in  1S31,  was  added  tlie  deauship  of  the  faculty.  His 
jn'osperity  was  now  at  the  full ;  his  lectures  were  more  popular  than  ever;  his  works 
were  reckoned  as  master-pieces;  and  he  himself,  by  the  geniality  of  his  dispoBitioii 
and  his  many  accomplishments,  was  a  universal  favorite  m  society.  In  all  cases  of 
puspected  poisoning,  he  was  a  most  important  witness.  From  1834,  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council  of  public  instruction,  and  procured  the  passing  of  many  useful 
measures,  such  as  the  creation  of  secondary  medical  schools,  and  the  ronltiplicatioti 
of  means  of  instruclion  and  observation.  He  also  org  luised  the  clinical  hospiitd, 
founded  a  new  botanic  gainien,  and  a  museum  of  comparative  anatomy,  which  ia 
now  known  by  his  name.  Qn  the  outbreak  of  t;he  revolution  of  1848,  he  was  deprived 
of  his  place  in  the  medical  faculty  on  account  of  his  conservative  opinions,  but  re- 
tained his  professorship}.  He  died  at  l^ris,  March  12, 1853.  His  great  work  on  toxi- 
cology has  gained  for  him  undying  fame;  it  is  a  vast  mine  of  information,  the  result 
of  the  author's  solitary  indefatfgahle  researohes  ;  and  includes  symptoms  of  poison- 
ing of  all  kinds,  the  appearances  in  the  body  to  which  poisons  ^ive  rise,  their  action, 
and  the  means  for  their  detection.  It  is  well  written,  and  exhibits  the  accuracy  or 
laniiuage  equally  with  the  soutid  judgment  of  its  author.  His  other  works  are  not 
nearly  so  fanious,  partaking  more  of  the  character  of  compilations  ;  the  chief  of 
th(Mn  are-^*'  ElAmens  de  Chimie  appliques  h  la  MMeclne  "  (Paris,  1817 ;  8th  edition, 
1851) ;  '*Trait6  de  Medecine  Legale''  (1823— 1825 ;  4th  edition.  184T) ;  -^Memoires  sur 
Plusieurs  Questions  Modico-16gales "  (Paris,  1839> ;  and  •*  Recherdies  sur  I'em- 
poisonuemetit  par  I'Acide  Arsenieux,"  &c,  (Pari.-,  1841).  He  also  contributed  largely 
to  various  journals,  dictionaries,  encyclopaedias,  and  othttr  periodicals.  He  has  left 
a  number  of  Memoirs,  which  have  not  yet  been  published. 

OROSZHAZA  (pronounced  Oro«/ui*a),  a  thriving  town  of  Hungary,  In  the  county 
of  B^kd^  Csanad,  31  miles  northeast  from  Szegedin.    Pop.  (1869)  14,554. 

ORGAN  (Gr.  organon^  a  contrivance  requiring. skill  on  the  part  of  the  user  of  it), 
a  musical  instrument  played  by  finger-keys,  andlii  general  partly  also  by  foot-keye, 
and  consisting  of  a  large  numbsr  of  pipes  of  metal  and  wood  made  to  sound  by  a 
magazine  of  wind  accumulated  by  bellows,  and  admitted  at  will  by  the  player.  The 
lollowiug  description  is  necessarily  restricted  to  the  moat  faudameutalumingementu 


y  Google 


5  OK  Orfi'a 

*>t^  O  gan 

of  this  very  compHcatcd  instrnment.  As  met  with  in  caffiedrals  and  large  churctiee, 
tbe  oreau  coiuprised  four  departments,  encli  in  inoHt  n-BprcfH  a  separate  iii>-lnimeur, 
wlrhiteown  niecbuniBin,  called  rePiK-ctively  I  he  great-organ,  the  choir  organ,  U,q 
sivell  organ,  and  the  pedal-organ.  Each  h-u?  its  own  clavier  or  key-board,  but  tlio 
different  claviers  are  bron»rbt  into  juxtaposition,  so  as  to  be  nnder  tlie  com  rol  of  one 
performer.  Claviers  played  by  the  bands  are  called  mant/o/^ ;  l>y  tbe  f«<'t,  p«ffa/«. 
'ilirce  roaimais,  belonging  to  the  choir,  great,  luui  swell  organs  respectively,  rise 
above  each  other  like  step-,  iu  front  of  where  tlie  i)erforn»er  sits ;  while  the  pedal- 
board  by  which  tbe  pedal-organ  is  played  is  placed  on  a  level  with  his  feet.  Tbe 
condensed  air  sapplied  by  the  bellows  is  conveyed  throngb  wood  in  tubes  or  trunks  to 
boxes,  called  vnna-ohests.  one  of  which  belongs  to  each  department  of  the  orjian.  At- 
tached to  the  npperpartof  each  wind-chest  is  a  sound-board,  an  ingenious  contrivance 
for  conveying  the  wind  at  pleasure  to  any  individual  pipe,  or  pipes,  exclusively  of  the 
rest  It  consists  of  two  parts,  an  upper  board  and  an  undr  board.  On  the  ujjper 
board  rest  the  pipes^  of  which  a  number  of  different  qnality,  rai  ged  I)enind 
each  •  other,  belong  to  each  note.  In  tbe  nnder  board  is  a  row  6f  parallel 
grooves,  running  horizontally  backwards,  correspt;nding  each  to  one  of  the  keys  of 
the  clavier.  On  any  of  the  keys  being  pressed  down,  a  valve  is  opened  which  sup- 
irites  wind  to  tbe  groove  belonging  to  it.  The  various  pipes  of  each  key  stand  in  a 
line  directly  ai)Ove  its  groove,  and  tbe  upper  surface  of  the  grovove  is  perforated  with 
holes  Ijored  upwards  to  them.  Were  thi!«  tbe  whole  mechanism  of  the  t-ound  board, 
the  wind,  on  entering  any  groove,  would  permeat"  all  the  pipes  of  that  groove ;  tl»«re 
is,  however,  in  tbe  upper  board,  another  series  of  horizontal  grooves  at  right  angles 
to  those  of  tlie  lower  l>oard,  supplied  with  sliders,  which  can,  to  a  small  exti  nt,  be 
drawn  out  or  pushed  in  at  pleasure  by  a  mecbauism  worked  by  tbe  draw-ntopH  plan d 
witbiir  the  player's  reach.  Each  slider  is  perforated  with  boles,  which,  when  it  is 
drawn  out^TOinplet^  tbe  comninnication  1)etween  the  wind-chest  and  the  pipes:  the 
communieaiion  with  the  pipes  immediately  above  any  slider  being,  on  the  oi  her  hand, 
closed  up  when  the  slider  is  pnshed  In.  The  pipes  al>ove  each  slider  form  a  continu- 
ous set  of  one  particuhir  qinility,  and  each  set  of  pip<>s  is  called  a  ntop.  Each  depart- 
ment of  tbe  organ  is  supplied  with  a  number  of  stop?,  producing  sounds  of  differt-ut 
auality.  Tbe  great-organ,  some  of  whos<^  pipes  appear  as  show-pipes  in  front  of 
le  instrument,  contains  the  main  body  and  lorce  of  the  organ.  Behind  it  st-inds  the 
chdr-orgem,  wiiose  tones  are  less  powerful,  and  more  fitted  to  accoukpany  the 
voice.  Above  the  choir-organ  is  the  stcell-organt  whose  piiHis  are  enclo-^ed  in  a 
wooden  box  with  a  front  of  louvre-boards  like  Venetian  blinds,  which  may  l>e  m.td  ! 
to  open  and  shut  by  a  i)edal,  with  a  view  of  producing  crescendo  and  diminuendo 
effects.  Tbe  pcda^orgran  is  sometimes  placed  in  an  entire  ttate  behind  the  cboir- 
orgau,  and  sometimes  divided,  and  a  part  arr.mged  on  each  side.  Tbe  most  usual 
compass  of  the  manuals  is  fiom  C  on  the  second  hue  below  the  biss  staff,  to  D  on 
^e  third  space  above  the  treble  staff;  and  the  compass  of  the  pedals  is  from  the 
same  C  to  the  D  l>etween  the  bass  and  treble  staves.  The  real  compass  of  notes  is, 
as  will  be  seen,  mnch  greater. 

Organ-pipes  vary  much  in  form  and  material,  but  belong  1o  two  great  classes, 
known  as  mouth-pipes  (or  flute-pipes)  and  recdpipes.  Tbe  essential  parts  of  tb*! 
mouth-pipe  are  the  foot,  the'body,  and  a  flat  plate,  called  tbe  language,  extending 
nearly  across  the  pipe  at  the  point  of  junction  of  foot  and  body.  There  is  an  open- 
ing in  tbe  pipe,  at  the  spot  where  the  language  is  discontinuous.  Tbe  wind  admit  led 
into  tbe  foot  rushes  through  the  narrow  slit,  and,  iu  impinging,  imparts  a  vibratory 
motion  to  the  column  of  air  in  the  pipe,  tbe  result  of  which  is  a  musical 
note  dependent  for  its  pitch  on  the  length  of  that  column  of  air,  and  conse- 
quently on  tbe  length  of  the  body  of  tbe  pli>e:  by  doubling  tbe  leiigth 
of  tbe  pipe,  we  obtain  a  note  of  half  the  pitch,  or  lower  by  an  octave.  Such 
is  the  general  prbiciple  of  all  moutb-pipes,  whether  of  wood  or  of  metal,  subject  to 
considerable  diversities  of  det'id.  Metal  iwpes  have  generally  a  cylindrical  section  ; 
wooden  pipes,  a  square  or  oblong  section.  A  moutn-pipe  may  l>e  stopped  at  Ibe 
upper  end  bv  a  plutr  called  a  tompion.  the  effect  of  which  is  to  lower  the  pitch  an 
octjivc,  the  vibiating  colunm  of  air  being  doubled  in  length,  as  it  has  to  traverse  the 
pi|>o  twice  before  makine  its  exit.  Pipes  are  sometimes  naif-stopped,  Inivlug  a  kind 
of  cbimnev  at  the  top.  The  reed-pipe  consists  of  a  reed  placed  inside  a  metallic,  or 
occasionally  a  wooden  pipe.    This  reed  is  a  tube  of  metal,  with  the  front  pait  cut 


y  Google 


Organ  koA 

Organic  OOD 

away,  and  a  tongue  or  spring  put  in  its  place.  The  lower  end  of  tiie  spring  is  free, 
the  upper  end  attached  lo  the  top  of  the  reed ;  by  the  admission  of  air  into  the  pi^e, 
the  t^pi  iiig  is  made  to  vibrate,  and  in  striking  either  the  edge  of  tlie  reed  or  the  :iir, 
produ.'S  a  nftisical  nofo,  dependent  for  its  pitch  on  the  length  of  the  spring,  its  qual- 
ity l>eing  (lelermined  to  a  great  extent  by  the  length  and  form  of  the  pipe  or  bell 
wiiliin  which  tlie  reed  is  placed.  When  the  vibrating  spring  does  not  strike  the  edge 
of  tlie  reed.  l)iit  the  air,  we  have  what  is  called  the/ree  reed,  similar  to  what  is  in  n^e 
in  the  Harmonium  (q.  v.).  To  describe  the  pitch  of  an  ofgan-pipe,  terms  are  used 
derived  from  the  standard  lengtli  of  an  open  month-pipe  ot  that  pitch.  The  largest 
j«ipe  in  use  is  tlie  32-leet  C,  which  is  an  octave  below  the  lowest  C  of  the  modem 
pianoforte,  or  two  octaves  l)elow  the  lowest  Con  the  manuals  and  pedal  of  the  organ : 
any  pipe  inoducing  this  note  is  called  a  32-f  eet  C  pipe,  whatever  itǤctual  length  may 
be.  By  a  32-feet  or  16-feet  stop,  we  mean  that  the  pipe  which  speaks  on  the  lowest 
C  on  whicli  tliat  stop  appears,  has  a  32-feet  or  a  16-feet  tone. 

'I'hi;  stops  of  an  organ  do  not  always  produce  the  note  properly  belonging  to  the 
key  struck ;  sometimes  they  give  a  note  an  octave,  or,  in  ttie  pcdnl-orgtiii,  even  two 
octav(^s  lower,  and  sometimes  one  of  the  harmonics  higlier  in  pitch.  Compound  or 
mixtnrc  slops,  have  several  pipes  to  each  key,  corresponding  to  the  different  harmo- 
nic!* of  the  grouud-ioue.  There  is  an  endless  variety  in  the  number  and  kinds  of 
stopa  ill  different  organs  ;  some  are,  and  some  are  not  continued  tlirough  the  whole 
ranire  of  mnnua!  or  pedal.  Some  of  the  more  important  stops  get  the  name  of  open 
or  stopped  diapaj<on  (a  term  which  implies  that  they  extend  throughout  the  whole 
c  juipa-^s  of  the  chivicr) ;  they  are  for  the  most  part  16-feet,  sometimes  32-feet  stops ; 
llie  open  diapason  chiefly  of  meial,  the  close  chiefly  of  wood.  The  dnlciana  is  an  8- 
feet  manual  stop,  of  small  diameter,  so  called  froni  the  sweetness  of  its  tone.  Among 
the  rend-stops  are  the  clarion,  oboe,  bassoo-n.  and  vox  kumanu,  deriving  their  names 
from  real  or  fancied  reseinbhiuces  to  these  instruments  and  to  the  human  voice.  Of 
tlie  compound-stops,  the  most  prevalent  in  Britain  is  the  sesquialtera^  coiirtsting  of 
four  or  Ave  ranks  of  open  metal  pit)es,  often  a  ITth,  19th,  22d,  26th,  and  29tl»  from 
the  ground-lone.  Tlio  resources  of  the  orgrm  are  further  increased  by  appliaucea 
called  couplers,  by  which  a  second  clavier  and  it«  stops  cnn  be  brought  into  play,  or 
the  8am«!  clavier  can  be  united  to  itself  in  the  octave  below  or  above. 

Organs  are  now  generally  tuned  on  the  equal  temperament.  See  Temperament. 
The  notation  lor  the  organ  is  the  same  as  tor  the  pianoforte,  in  two  stnvrs  in  the 
treble  ai.d  bass  clefs;  but  in  old  compositions,  the  soprano,  tenor,  and  alto  clefs  are 
used. 

Instruraonts  of  a  rude  descnption,  comprising  more  or  less  of  the  principle  of  the 
organ,  seem  to  have  existed  early.  Vitruvius  makes  mention  of  a  hydraulic  organ, 
but  his  description  is  not  very  intelligible.  The  orjran  is  sjiid  to  have  been  first  in- 
troduced into  cliurch  music  by  Pope  Vitaliau  I.  in  666.  In  75T,  a  ureat  organ  wan 
sent  as  a  present  to  Pepin  by  ihc  Byzantine  emperor,  Constantine  Copronymus,  and 
placed  in  the  church  of  St  Ooi-neil-e  at  Uorapidgne.  Soon  after Charlemagn's time, 
organs  became  common.  In  the  11th  c,  a  mcmk  named  Theophilus  wrote  a  curions 
treatise  on  organ-building.  But  it  was  not  till  the  15lh  c.  that  the  organ  began  to  Iks 
anyihinj^  like  the  noble  instrument  wiiicli  it  now  is.  The  family  of  the  Antignati, 
in  Brescia,  had  a  great  name  as  organ -builders  in  tlie  15th  and  16tli  ceutiirit'S.  Tho 
oriians  of  Entrland  were  also  in  hiLih  reimte,  but  the  puritan  ism  of  the  civil  war 
doomed  most  of  them  to  destruction;  and  whtm  they  had  to  be  replaced  after  tlie 
Itesroraiion,  it  was  found  that  there  was  no  longer  a  snflSciency  of  huildere  in  the 
country.  Foreign  organ-builders  were  therefore  invited  to  settle  in  England,  the 
most  remarkai)le  of  whom  wen?  Bfrnliard  Schmidt  (geiHTally  called  Father  Smith) 
anil  his  nephew,  and  Renatus  Harris.  Cluistopher  Schrekler,  Stietzler,  aiiid  Byfi«"ld 
succeeded  them;  and  at  a  later  period.  Green  and  Avery,  fonie  of  whose  organs 
have  never  been  surpassed  in  tone.  The  lart'est  English  oi"gans  arc  those  of  York 
Cathedral,  Biri'^iugham  Town  Hall,  Christ  Church,  London  ;  and  a  ji'gantic  :'.nd  ex- 
C'-ediuijIy  p  rfeci  iiisrrament,  completed  in  1876  for  the  Hall,  Primrose  Hill.  London. 
The  latter  surpasses  in  size  the  famous  Haarlem  organ,  long  reckoned  the  largrst  in 
the  world,  which  Is  103  feet  hijrh  and  5ft  bro.-id.  The  German  organs  are  remarkable 
for  preserving  the  balance?  of  power  well  amoui;  tin?  various  masses,  but  in  meclmni- 
cal  contrivances  tney  are  su  passed  by  tlios«?  (  f  England. 

For  a  lull  account  of  tUu  structure  of  the  organ,  see  Hopkins  aud  Rimbault, 


y  Google 


n»^  Orccn 


Ooi 


O;  gauio 


*'Thn  Orjrnn,  its  History  nnd  Conptrurtiou  "  (Lonil.  1555).    Kiuk'H  "P^ukti^cho 
Oi-gelscUule,"  Leipzig,  v.  y.,  is  th«  best  work  on  organ  pinyiutj. 

O'RGAN,  Orgn'nic,  0'rg:mism.  *  Tlie  word  organ  is  derived  from  tJie  Gitek 
orgaiwiiy  \\\\  instrument,  and  is  son>€tiniea  employed  almo-^t  in  its  bri;^inal  stnsf. 
Bai  it  lias  rect?ived  a  sipiiflcation  more  pccnliarly  its  own,  and  willi  wldch  ulouo  tiie 
word  organi^nti  is  connt'cled,  as  tlie  designation  of  any  of  the  parts  or  molnber^  of 
a  living  body,  the  organism  being  the  livinir  whole,  aniihal  or  vegetable,  which  llieg*! 
organs  compose.  Tl»e  idea  of  an  organism  or  of  oriranibaiion  is  almost  a?  much 
involved  in  obscuiity  and  difficnlty  a.-  that  «»f  /»/«,  with  which  it  !>*  so  closely  con- 
nected. Bnt  it  is  observable  that  a  living  iKxIy  is  enliiely  com|>o^ed  of  organs,  and 
these  themselves  of  other  organ.-,  until  we  con»eio  elementary  ceils;  and  also,  thai  all 
the  parts  are  mutually  depend«-nt  onejich  other;  and  therefore  an  orjianismhas  been 
deflned  as  a  natnral  whole,  in  which  all  the  paits  jire  muiuaily  to  each  other  means 
and  end  'J'he  juice  which  nourishes  a  plant  ih eluboiaied  by  the  plapt  itselt,  although 
tlie  MU)plies  are  dniwii  from  without.  The  leaves  of  a  plant  ate  produced  by  the 
ftem,  butre-jict  upon  the  stem  in  promoting  itj*  growth.  This  miitufl  dependence 
of  parts  strongly  distingtiishes  an  orgjiniMn  from  a  machine,  in  which  the  parts  con- 
cur for  a  common  end.  to  which  each  contiibntes  in  its  own  way^  but  in  which 
each  does  not  contribute  to  the  support  of  all  or  any  oi  the  rest.  In  organ- 
isms, moreover,  besides  this  support  and  maintetiance  of  the  iiiffer*  nt  parts 
or  organs^  there  is  a  i>rovision  for  the  prodnction  of  n<'w  oiganisms  of 
the  saiiie  kind,  the  reproduction  or  jn-op.igaiion  of  the  speci<  s,  to  which  there  is  noth- 
ing analogous  beyond  the  sphei-e  of  organic  life.  Amongst  organic  beings,  as  we 
ascend  in -the  scale  from  the  lowest  kinds  of  plants  and  jminnils  to  the  highest,  we 
observe  an  increasing  number  of  organs  and  of  functions  of  oryans.  In  the  animnl 
kingdom,  oiganic  life  anpears  as  posses«'<l  of  sensation  and  FjKjntjneous  motion ; 
whilft  plants  are  limited  to  growth,  assimilation,  and  propagation.  The  qu«'Stion  as 
to  the  nature  of  organic  procei^ses  connects  itself  witli  a  most  difficult  question  sis  to 
the  relation  of  chemical  processes  with  psychical  functions,  chemical  processes  l)eing 
certainly  cairied  on,  but  singularly  inodifled  or  directed  by  the  living  i-owers  of  the 
organh;  being. — The  term  organic  is  frequently  applied  to  thofe  things  in  which  an 
analogy  is  traced  to  living  creatures,  in  the  mutual  dependence  of  parts.  Such  an 
analogy  may  l)e  traced  in  y^ocial  life  :ind  in  polit'cal  life ;  and  the  more  jHTfectly  this 
relati(m  of  mutual  d*'pendence  or  mutual  usefuIlle^s  iy  *  stablished,  the  better  is  the 
state  of  thintrs,  f^ocial  or  political.  It  is  also  the  highest  pniise^f  a  work  of  art,  that 
il  suggests  this  idea  of  an  organic  relation  of  its  parts  to  each  other,  and  to  the  whole. 
— (hganic  Laics  are  those  wliich  are  fundamental  or  most  essential  to  the  system  to 
wliicTi  Ihey  belong. 

OKGA'NTC  ANALYSIS.  When  a  complex  organic  substance  is  submitted  to 
chemical  examination,  the  first  point  is  to  determine  its  proximate  cohsMtueuri^,  or, 
in  otiier  words,  the  several  dt  finite  comi>oun(!s  of  which  it  is  nn.de  up.  Opium,  for 
exanij)le,  is  thus  found  to  have  as  itn  proximate  cosisiituents  nieconic  acid,  morphia, 
codeia,  and  some  ten  or  twelve  other  suht^tances.  The  n.odes  by  which  thesi-  prox- 
imate constituents  are  separated  are  various;  the  chief  beii.g  the  action  of  certain 
solvents,  such  as  ether,  alcohol,  and  water,  which  extract  some  (;f  the  ir.aterials  and 
leav<;  others  undissolved.  '1  bus  etlter  is  the  special  solv<-nt  of  fatty  and  waxy  matters, 
resins,  and  camphors;  alcohol  diesolves  the  >ame  Fubstances  with  1«  ss  f.;cility,  hut 
on  the  other  ha.nd  takes  up  many  substances  which  are  insohille  in  etiK  r;  while 
water,  which  scarcely  acts  upon  the  above-named  matters,  dis olves  saccharine, 
gummy,  and  starchy  matters,  and  salts  of  organic  acids.  The  proximate  constilu- 
entM  being  thus  determined,  the  next  point  is  to  determine  their  qualitative  and 
quantitative  (or  ultimat')  composition;  and  it  is  to  tiiese  processes — especially  the 
last — that  the  term  organic  analysis  is  lor  tlie  most  part  rcptrictd. 

Qnaiitative  Analffsv<.—1\  }!*  iyhewix  in  the  article  Obqanio  Compounds,  that  the 
ordinary  ingreclients  for  which  we  mur^t  seek  are  carbon,  hydrogen,  ONygen,  i  iiro- 
gen,  and  suipbur.  Carbon  jind  hydrogen  may  be  simultaneously  d<tecte(rby  bmuing 
the  compound  (which  must  be  previcm-Iy  w<  Jl  dri<d)  in  a  gla^s-tul)e  in  coiknct  wiiii 
oxide  of  copper,  which  readily  yields  up  its  oxyi/en.  'J'he  carbon  is  thus  conveitid 
into  carbonic  acid,  wl'ich  if  naHs<d  into  baryta  water  loi-mHaVhite  pre<-ipit:itc  of 
carbonate  of  baryta,  and  the  hydi'ogen  into  water,  which  collects  iu  drops  iu  a  siuaU 


y  Google 


Organic  535 

cooled  receiver  attached  to  tlio  tube.  Carbon  may  also  be  usually  recognised  by  <he 
black  residue  which  uliuost  always  remains  on.  burning  an  orjrauic  matter,  especially 
in  a  narrow  test-tube  in  which  there  is  little  air.  The  presence  of  nitrogen,  may  in 
most  cases  be  readily  ascertained  by  heating  a  portion  of  the  substance  in  a  test-tube 
with  an  excess  of  hydrate  of  potash,  when  a  distinct  odor  of  ammonia  is  perceived. 
Sulphur  is  detected  by  igniting  tlie  compound  with  hydrate  of  potasli  ai-.d  nitre, 
wliereby  sulphuric  acid  is  formed;  nnd  pho.<phoru8  and  arsenic  may  be  detected  by 
the  same  means.  The  presence  of  oxygen  c.mnot,  as  a  genertd  rule,  be  directly  de- 
termined. 

Quantitative  Analysis.— T\\e  first  attempts  to  determine  the  quantitative  composi- 
tion of  organic  bodies  were  made,  more  than  half  a  centuiy  ago,  by  Gay  Lussacand 
Thenard.  The  process  originally  proposed  by  them  lias  been  modified  and  improved 
by  various  chemists,  especially  by  Berzelius,  Prout,  and  Liebig,  and  it  is  mainly 
owing  to  the  grWit  simplifications  introduced  by  the  last-named  chemist,  and  to  the 
consequently  mcreased  facility  of  conducting  an  ultimate  analj'sis,  that  onr*no\vI- 
cdge  of  the  composition  of  organic  bodies  has  so  vastly  enlarged  during  the  last 
twenty  years. 

The  operation  is  always  effected  by  causing  complete  combustion  of  a  known 
weight  of  the  body  to  be  analysed,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  carbonic  acid  and  wa- 
ter which  are  formed  in  the  process  shall  be  collected,  and  their  quantities  deter- 
mined, from  which,  of  course,  the  carl)Oii  and  hydrogen  they  respectively  contain 
mjiy  De  readily  calculated.  The  apparatus  required  for  the  analysis  of  n  compound 
containing  carbon,  hydrojren,  and  oxygen  only,  consists  of  (1)  a  combustion  tube^ 
composed  of  hard  white  Bohemian  glass,  having  a  diameter  of  half  an  iifch  or  lers, 
and  a  length  of  from  14  to  18  inches.  One  end  is  drawn  out  in  a  point  and  closed, 
M  hile  tlie  edges  of  the  other  (or  open)  end  are  made  smooth  by  fusion  in  the  blow- 
pipe flame.  <2.)  A  thin  sheet-iron  furnace,  in  which  the  tube  is  placed  and  supported 
during  combustion.  (3.)  A  small  light  tube  (which  may  be  either  a  bulb-tube,  or  a 
TJ-tube),  which  is  filled  with  fragments  of  si)ongy  chU)ride  of  calcium  to  absorb  the 
watery  vapor  that  is  driven  through  it;  and  (4)  Liebig's  bulb-apparatus,  containing 
a  solution  of  potash  of  specific  gravity  1-27,  for  the  purpose  of  absorbing  the  car- 
l)onic  acid.  The  chloride-of-caTclum  tube  is  connected  by  a  well-dried  perforated 
cork  to  the  open  extremity  of  the  combustion  tube,  and  by  a  little  tube  of  flexible 
caoutchouc,  secured  by  silk  cord  to  the  pofash  apparatus. 

In  performing  an  analysis  a  little  freshly  prepared  oxide  of  copper  is  first  intro- 
duced into  the  combustion  tube,  then  a  mixture  of  about  5  grains  of  the  siil>stance 
to  be  analysed,  with  an  excess  of  the  oxide,  while  the  tube  is  lastly  filled  to  within 
an  inch  of  its  open  mouth  with  the  oxide  alone.  The  tube  Is  then  placed  in  the  fur- 
nace, which  may  be  heated  with  charcoal  or  gas.  (Hofmann's  gas  furnace,  in  which 
is  a  peculiar  form  of  burner  called  the  at-mopyrey  is  the  best.  It  is  described  In  vol.  xi. 
of  *'  The  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society.")  Ked-hot  charcoal  is  now  placed  round 
the  anterior  part  of  the  tube,  containing  tlie  pure  oxide  of  copper;  and  when  this  is 
red-hot,  the  fire  is  slowlv  extended  towards  the  further  extremity  by  shifting  a 
movable  screen.  When  the  tube  has  been  comrriet/'ly  heated  from  end  to  etid.  and 
no  more  gas  is  disengaged,  the  charcoal  is  gradually  removed  frin  the  further  ex- 
tremity or  the  tube,  and  the  point  of  the  latter  broken  ofl" ;  after  which  a  little  air  is 
drawn  through  the  whole  apparatus,  so  as  to  secure  any  remaining  carbonic  acid  and 
watery  vapor.  The  parts  are  then  detached,  and  the  increase  of  weight  of  the  chlo- 
ride-of-calci  urn  tube  and  potash  apparatus  is  determined  by  an  accurate  balance. 
The  following  account  of  an  actual  analysis  of  ciystallised  cane-sugar  (borrowed 
from  Fowues's  "  Chemistry")  will  serve  to  ill ustratei  the  preceding  remarks : 

Gniins. 

Quantity  of  sugar  employed 4*750 

Potash  apparatus,  after  experiment 781*13 

**  *'       ,  before  experiment 77382 

Carbonic  arid ..^ 731 

Chloridc-of-ealcium  tube,  -ifter  experiment 22G*C5 

"  **    •      **       ,  before  exiMirimeut 223*30 

Water ^. 2  75 

Digittzed  by  VjOOQIC 


539  °'S"^° 

7'31  grains  carbonic  acid  =  1*994  grains  carbon ;  and  2*75  grains  wntor  =  0-305G  grains 
liydrogen:  or  in  100  parts  of  sugar,  Carbon,  41-98;  liydrugen,  643;  oxygen  by  dif- 
ftr^'Dce,  51 -S^. 

For  the  methods  of  determining  other  elements  quantitatively,  such  as  nitrogen, 
chlorine,  snlphuu,  phopphorns,  &C.J  we  muet  rcfrr  to  tho  varions  works  tlu't  have 
b  'CM  published  on  oi^anic  analysis,  amcfegst  which  those  of  Licbig,  Prcsenius,  and 
Ko.^e  deserve  special  mention. 

ORGANIC  BASES.  Tlie  present  remarks  must  be  regarded  as  supplementary  to 
the  article  Alkaloids.  Tlicy  refer  (1)  lo  tlio  classification  of  organic  bases  and  (2) 
to  tlieir  formation. 

(1)  From  llie  fact  that  nearly  all  nrtlflcial  organic  bases  are  (as  will  be  afterwards 
hhewn)  actually  constructed  from  ammonia,  and  that»  whether  artificially  or  naturally 
foriuod,  they  exhibit  the  property  (if  basicity,  which  is  the  leading  characteristic  of 
iimmouia,  chemists  have  liecn  led  to  refer  organic  bases  generally  to  the  typical  body 
ammonia,  and  have  succeeded  in  demonstratin«jr  that  they  are  constructed  upon  or 
dodved  fiom  the  simple  type  NHs.  Berzelius  believed  that  all  the  alkaloids  actually 
contained  ammona  as  an  ingredient  of  I  lieir  composition,  a  view  which  is  now  unten- 
able ;  and  it  is  to  Liebig  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  idea  that  they  are  derivatives 
of  ammonia,  or.  in  other  words,  amidogen  bases  or  ammonia  in  whicli  an  equiva- 
lent of  liydrojren  is  replaced  by  an  organic  radical.  The  subject  lias  been  thor- 
ou;rhly  worked  out  by  Dr  Hofmann,  who  originally  proposed  to  classify  these  bodies 
under  the  heads  of  aruidcgen^  imidogen^  nitrite,  and  arnwonmm  bases ;  but  after- 
wards adopted  the  terms  primary  amines,  secondary  aviinea,  and  tertiary 
amines,  in  preference  to  amidogen,^  imidogen,  and  nitrile  bases — the  word 
mnines  being  aj)plied  to  all  organic  bases  that  nro  derived  from  ammonia 
(NII3).  The,  amines  may  be  (1)  nconamines,  (2)  diamines,  (3)  tHaminea,  (4) 
tetramiines,  or  (5)  pentamines,  according  as  they  bo  cont^tructed  upon  a  single, 
double,  treble,  duadruple,  or  quintuple  atom  of  NH3.  We  shall  confine  our 
illustrations  of  the  meaning  of  these  terms  to  the  mon amines,  both  because  they 
foi-m  the  most  important  group  and  because  they  are  much  more  readily  elucidut(!d 
than  the  other  groups,  which  are  extremely  complicated  in  their  composit  ion.  Mona- 
Tiiines  iwe  constructed  upon  the  single  atom  of  ammonia,  HjN.  In  primary  mona- 
vnines  one  of  the  atoms  of  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  an  organic  radicah  R ;  and  hence 
their  general  formula  is  RII3N.  Ethyl-amine  or  ethylia  (C4H5)HaN,  or  C4II7N,  is 
an  example.  In  secondary  monamines  two  of  the  atoms  of  hydrogen  are  replaced 
by  two  atoms  of  either  the  same  or  of  different  radicals.  Hence  tlieir  general  lortnula 
is  Rli'IlN.  where  R  and  R'  may  be  the  t=ame  or  different  radicals.  Diethylia  (C4ll6)a 
UN,  or  CsUiiN,  and  n1Cth^l-e•.hyl-alnine,  or  methyl-ethy  ia  (C2ll3)(C4H6)HN,  or 
C^llpN,  aro  trxamples.    In  tertiary  monamines  the  three  atoms  ot  hydrogen  are  re- 

S laced  by  three  atoms  of  the  same  or  different  radicals;  their  formula  tlierefore  is 
;R'R"N,  when  R,  R',  R"  may  or  may  not  differ  from  one  another.  Trimethyhi- 
mine  or  trimethylia  (C2H8)8N.  or  C^II^N,  and  methyl-ethyl-phenyl-amine  or  methyl- 
ethyl-p^ionylia  (CaH3)(04llB)(Ci2Tl5)N,  or  O^Hijlsr,  afford  examples  of  the  radicals 
bi'ing  all  the  same  and  of  their  being  all  diftoieut.  'IMiis  last  example  affords  a  ^ood 
illustration  of  the  fact,  tliat  althougti  the  modem  nomenclature  of  organic  chemistry 
includes  long  and  apparently  cominex  worcis,  thes^e  words  to  a  great  degree  iv  pre- 
8  -nt  the  composition  of  t'le  substance  they  are  used  to  indicate ;  mei  hyi  (Callg),  ethyl 
(C4IIB),  and  phenyl  (CiaHg),  mainly  conrributing  to  form  nnt  .yl-ethyl-phenylia. 

(2.)  Although  all  at:empts  at  forming  in  the  laboratory  those  alkaloids  that 
naturally  exist  in  plants,  such  as  morphia,  quinia,  and  strychnia,  have  hitherto 
failed,  a  large  number  of  organic  bases  have  been  prepared  by  artificial  means,  such 
as  :  a.  By  the  destructive  distillation  of  organic  bo<lie8  <:outaining  nitrogen.  Thus, 
in  Ihe  preparation  of  coal-gas,  four  at  least  of  these  compounds  are  obtained — viz., 
aniline,  picoline,  lenkol  (or  qninoline),  and  pyridine,  h.  By  the  distillation  of  cer- 
t.iin  nitrogenous  compounds  with  caustio-potafh.  In  this  way  aniline  is  obtained 
from  indigo,  c.  By  the  combination  of  ammonia  with  fhe  aldehyds  and  with  cer- 
t'lin  volatile  oils  which  possess  tho  )>roi>eities  of  aldehyds.  'J'hus  acetic  aldehyd 
yields  dimetbyli*!,  and  oil  of  mustard  yield^i  ihyoslnamine.  d.  By  the  substitution 
(by  the  action  of  strouL'  nitric  acid)  of  one  aiorii  of  ni»ron«  acid  (NO4)  for  one  atom 
of  liydrogeu  in  certain  hydrocurbuna.     e.  By  the  processes  of  fermentation  and 


y  Google 


gJISo"'  540 


Organo 

putrefaction.    Thus  wheaten  flour  yields  by  putrefaction  trimetbylia^  ethylia,  and 

umylia. 

ORGANIC  COMPOUNDS.  It  was  formerly  believed  that  th^  compounds  to 
which  tlio  torni  ortjanic  is  applied  could  only  be  produced  by  a  vital  force  actiug  in  a 
mora  or  loss  conipl  "X  nniiual  or  ve^etaUle  orguuiem.  It  is,  however,  now  known 
that  this  view  i»  altogether  initeuuble,  and  that  many  substances  which  are  products 
of  animal  or  vogatable  organisms  m»y  also  be  formed  artificially  iu  tlie  laborat-ory. 
'J'hus  urea,  tlie  chief  and  moj*t  characteristic  organic  constituent  of  urine,  may  l)e 
formed  by  the  direct  union  of  chlorine  and  carbonic  acid  (which  form  phottgene  ga>i) 
wii  li  ammonia ;  and  irlycose  or  grape-sugar  may  be  artificially  produced  from  starch, 
woody  fibre,  paper,  linen,  &c  AUiJOugh  sucb  cases  as  that  of  urea,  in  wiiich  a 
comj. lex  organic  product  (C2H402Nfi)  is  produced  by  the  direct  union  of  three 
inorganic  substances  (and  many  otiier  cases  of  tlie  same  nature  might  he  adduced), 
shew  that  there  is  no  definite  line  of  demarcation  lielween  organic  and  inorganic 
products,  it  is  useful,  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  to  classify  chemical  compounds, 
according  to  their  natural  origin. 

The  following  are  the  leading  characteristics  of  organic  compounds :  ThoRC  which 
occur  naturally  rarely  consist  o?  more  than  four  elements — y\z.,  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  and  oxygen — ^although  a  few  contain  sulphur,  and  possibly  vbut  this  is 
donbtlul)  pliospliorus.  By  artificial  means,  however,  organic  coi^pounds  can  be 
formed  conttiinin^  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  selenium,  teUurium,  and  many  of  the 
met  lis.-  Carbon  is  universally  present  both  in  natural  and  artificial  organic  com- 
pounds. The  uuml)er  of  equivalents  entering  into  the  compossition  of  organic  coni- 
pound84s  usually  higher  than  in  the  case  of  inorganic  coinpouuds.  There  is  no 
organic  compound  inio  which  less  than  two  equivalents  of  carl)on  eiiter,  and,  accord- 
ing to  soi.ie  chemists,  both  oxyg«n  and  sulphur  only  enter  these  compounds  in 
doublcj  equivalents.  Melissic  acid,  for  example  (one  or  the  constituents  of  wax),  is 
ropresenteu  by  CeoHeo^*  »  tl^^t  is  to  say,  eacli  equivalent  of  the  acid  is  composed  of 
124  equivalents  of  the  elements  entering  into  its  ccmiposition  ;  and  each  equivalent 
of  the  solid  fat,  commonly  known  as  stearine,  contains  114  equivalents  of  carbon, 
110  of  hydrogen,  and  12  of  oxygeu.  No  instance  is  known  in  whicii  an  organic 
compound  lias  been  formed  by  the  direct  union  of  its  elements  in  a  free  state,  aa 
many  sulphides,  chlorides,  and  oxides  (for  example)  are  formed  in  inorganic  chemis- 
try. Their  extreme  readiness  to  decompose  under  the  influence  of  heat,  fermentation, 
putrefaction,  «fcc.,  is  another  characteristic  of  organic  compounds,  although  some 
aitlflcially  pi"ep;»,red  inorganic  compounds— as,  for  example,  chloride  of  nitrogen— are 
also  very  unstable. 

The  following  scheme  may  serve  to  elucidate  the  arrangement  of  the  elementq 
in  organic  compounds.  Such  compounds  may  be  composed  of  carbon  and  oxygen, 
as  carbonic  oxide.  CgOg ;  or  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  us  oil  of  turpentine,  CjoOie ; 
or  of  carbon  and  nino^eu,  as  cyanogen,  CgN  ;  or  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  ami  oxygen; 
as  grape-suzar.  CialliaOja;  or  of  carbon,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  as  anhvUr<>ii3 
cyanic  acid,  CgNO;  or  oi  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  as  nicotine,  CjoHuNa; 
or  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  sulplinr,  as  od  of  garlic,  CeHjS;  or  of  carbon. -by dro- 
gou,  nitiogen,  and  oxygen,  as  caffeine,  €^1110^404;  or  of  carbon,  hydroireii, 
n  [.ro.!?ii,  an  I  sulphur,  aa  oil  of  mu:?tird,  CgJg.NS, ;  or  finally,  of  carbon,  hydro- 
gun,  nitrogen,  o.^ygen,  and  sulphur,  as  taurine,  C4II7NOJS2.  Hence  or^janic  com- 
pounds nuiy  be  binary,  ternary,  quaternary,  or  quinary  in  iiieir  compo.sitiou- 

ORGANIC  RADICAT.S.  Under  the  term  Organic  or  Compound  Radicals  (ot 
Radicles,  as  some  cin-mistr*  write  the  word)  ar;)  includt^d  a  number  of  groups  of  ela> 
ments,  of  which  carbon  is  alwnys  one,  which  comport  themselves  chemically  like 
Fimi)le  elem'ut-uy  bodies.  The  careful  study  of  organic  conipoandn  led  chem- 
ist'* to  perceive  that  many  of  these  contained  as  a  proximate  constituent  a  more  or 
lens  complex  atomic  group,  which  in  its  combining  relations  behaves  precisely  like 
the  elementary  .'^nbstances,  and  which,  like  tliem,  may  l)e  transferred  irom  one  com- 
pound to  anoiher;  and  hence  the  inference  wa-*  drawn,  that  all  organic  com|»ound8 
were  combinations  of  organic  radi<'als  with  oxygen,  8uH»hur,  hydrogen,  or  01  her  ele- 
ments, or  of  (me  organic  radical  with  another.  In  accordance  with  this  vU-w, 
liebig  defined  oraganic  chemisiry  as  *'  The  Chemistry  of  Oi-ganic  Rjulical:*.*'  lo 
Q(der  to  shew  how  much  the  theory  of  organic  radicals  serves  to  elucidate  the  com* 


y  Google 


541  Organio 

tJ-tx  Organo 

popitlon  of  organtc  compnnnds,  and  to  rcdnco  the  laws  of  organic  to  those  of  inor- 
ganic cheini»Try,  we  will  point  ont  HOine  of  th»^  chemical  analogies  between  the  lad- 
wa]  ethyl  (C^U^)  t.n6.  the  nietal  potassium  (K),  and  beiwoen  therndiciil  cyanogen 
(CaN)  and  tue  halogen  chlorine  (CI).  Ae  is  the  symbol  for  ethyl,  and  Cy  for  cyan- 
ogen. 

KO        =  Oxide  of  potassium,  or  potash,    AeO        =  Oxide  of  ethyl  or  ether, 
KO,HO  =  Hydrated  potash.  AeO,HO  =  Ilydrattd  oxide  of  ethyl  ot 

alcohol. 
KO.SO,  =  Snlphnte  of  potash.  AeO,S03  =  Snpliate  of  oxide  of  ethyl. 

KCl        =  (-hloride  of  potassium.  AeCl         =  Chloride  of  etliyl. 

KS  =  Sulphide  of  potassium.  AeS  =  Sulphide  of  ethyl. 

HCl     ^  =  Hydrochloric  add.  HCy  =  Hydrocynnic  acid. 

KCl         =  Chloride  of  potassium.  KCy  —  Cyanide  of  potassium. 

NH4CI    —  Chloride  of  aninioninm.  NH^Cy  —  Cyanide  of  autinouium. 

HgCl      =»  Clilodde  of  mercury.  HgCy  —  Cynnide  of  mercury. 
&c.           &c.  &c.  &c. 

Again,  if  under  certain  conditions  chloride  of  ethyl  is  brought  into  contact  with 
hydrated  pottish,  the  reaction  expressed  in  the  following  equation  occurs : 

Chloride  of    Hydrated  ai«,.i,«i     Chloride  of  Pol  as- 

Ethyl.  Potash.  AIcoHoI.  gj„jj,_ 

AeCKl     +     K0,K0     -    AeO.HO        +        KCl 
which  shews  that  the  ethyl  and  the  pota!>siuni  may  mntually  repl.-ice  one  another  in 
compounds ;  and  the  saine  might  be  similarly  shewn  of  cyanogen  and  clilorim*. 

Comparatively  few  organic  radicals  have  been  obtdued  in  an  isoLi'ed  i<tate  ;  and 
in  mo-'t  cases  the  existence  of  any  special  radical  is  only  infi-rred  from  the  ttcf ,  that 
the  group  of  atoms  of  which  it  is  supposed  to  be  compo?ed  can  be  transferred  from 
one  elementary  substance  to  another^  and  can  be  made  to  enter  into  conibiuHiion 
with  other  organic  radicals.  The  existence  of  ethyl  was  thU'«  Inferred  long  before 
the  SI! Iwfance  itself  was  isolated,  and  the  radical  benzoyl.  C,4H603  (s\  mhol.  Bz)t 
whichexistsinthe  oil  of  bitter  almonds,  and  on  which  LicU  g  specially  bases  his 
wIioIm  tlteory  of  organic  radicals,  has  never  bi-en  isolated.  The  simplicity  obtained 
by  adopting  th<*  radical  theory  in  place  of  wing  merely  empirical  formulas,  is  wt-ll 
shewn  in  the  two  contrasted  modes  of  symbolically  repreisenting  the  compounds 
which  are  obtained  from  this  oil : 

Empirical  Formula.  "Rntional  Formula  (Bz  =C24H60a). 

Oil  of  bitter  almonds,  CiiHgOa       =        B^jH,  Hydride  of  benzoyl, 
lienzoic  acid,  Ci4Hg08,ilO  ~       BzO,  HO,  Hydrated  oxide  of  benzoyl. 

Chlorine-com|>ound,  Ci^MsOaCl   =        BzCI,  Chloride  of  benzoyl. 
Sulpl'.ur-coniponnd,  CJ4H6O2S       =        BzS,  Su'phid**  of  benzoyl. 
Cyanogen-componnd,  CiatJgOaN    =        BzCy,  Cyanide  of  bi?nzoyl. 
The  organic  radicals  are  either  binary  or  ternary  in  their  composition.    Many  of 
them — as,  for  example,  ethyl — consist  of  airbon  and  hydrogen;  oiliei*8.  as  caibonyl 
(or  carbonic  oxide),  of  carbon  and  oxj'gen  ;  others,  as  cyanogen,  of  carbon  and  ni- 
trogen; and  othei-s  again,  like  benzoyl,  of  carton,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.    Into  u 
few  radicals  a  metallic  element  enters;  these  are  termed  organo-metaliic  radicals* 
and  cacodyl,  which  contains  arsenic,  and  is  represented  by  the  formula  As(CaH8)a 
is  the  l)esf  example  of  this  class.     All  r<  c^nt  works  on  organic  chemistry  an- based 
either  on  the  theory  of  organic  radicals  or  on  the  more  cojuplicated  theory  of  types, 
wliich  will  be  noticed  in  a  special  article. 

ORGANI'STA,  the  common  name  of  a  nnml>er  of  small  South  American  birdsi 
allied  to  wrens,  and  remarkable  for  the  sweetness  of  their  eong.  The  Peruvian  O. 
{Troglodytefi  leitoophryu  ot  Tschudi)  has  a  modest,  cinnamon-brown  plumage,  with 
beiwl  and  neck  of  dark  olive.  '*  The  tender  melancholy  strains,  and  ihe  singular  dear- 
DeSH  of  the  innumerable  modulafions,  charm  the  ear  of  the asionished  traveller,  who, 
as  if  arrested  by  an  invisible  power,  stops  to  listen." — Tschudi's  "Travels." 

O'RGANO-META'LLIC  BODIES.  Under  this  term  ai-e  included  a  large  numbt^r 
of  ctiemicul  compounds  iu  which  organic  rudiciils,  such  as  methyl  (CgUs),  ethyl 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Org'in-Poiiit  KAO 

Origenea  t^^-* 

([C4Hp).  «fec.,  nre  nn!tc<1  to  molnl"  In  thn  pniii'^  wny^n**  clilorino  Js  comhlned  wiJli  Tnnc, 
lonnmg  cliloriile  of  ziuc  If,  for  iii-*iM">co.  i»  r.h'oiide  of  zinc  (ZuCI)  wc  rel)l:IC^'  ilui 
clilorine  by  ethyl,  we  produc  •  ou  •  of  fhe  b(Ml  C3  htilongin-  to  lliis  cl.-i.'^s — viz.,  zinc- 
ethyl,  Zn(C^H6>.  Iliis  fnbstMHf«'  (which  w  •  tak«'  as  n  gf>od  ezaoiplt^  of  the  cUitfS) 
is  ol)tain('d  by  digestlujr  a  mixtmv  of  eqii.il  voUimes  of  iodide  of  ethel  siiul  et.h«r 
with  irranulati'd  zinc,  nt  n  temperature  ot  n^our  260°,  for  s -veral  hon^.  Subsequent 
disti  l.ilion  jrlv-s  a  mixture  of  zinc-ethyl  aud  eilier.  from  which  the  former  niny  ^e 
obtaiiii'd  pure  by  rectificatioD,  in  the  form  of  a  colorless,  rrausnire'it,  mooile  liquid. 
whicli  refracts  light  strongly,  has  apowerfiiJbut  not  diSMgrei^able  odor,  and  is  ratluT 
heavier  than  water,  its  specific  gravity  being  1*182  at  64°.  With  the  excepiion  of 
cac  >dyl.  A8(C2Hg)s,  these  bodies  are  the  cr'^ation  of  the  last,  ten  or  twelve  yejir  , 
dnriu^  which  period  numerous  compounds  of  organic  radicals  with  zinc,  cadmium, 
magnesium,  antimony,  arsenic,  bismuth,  mercury,  lead,  Bodiuui,  and  potassium  have 
been  di^covered. 

For  further  information  on  this  subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  an  article  hy 
Dr  Fi"ankiand  (who  has  most  successfully  devoted  lii-*  attention  to  this  class  of  com- 
pounds) in  the  18th  volume  of  ''The  Quarterly  Jounnd  of  the  Chemical  8oc  ety," 
and  to  !Ui  elaborate  article  on  *•  Organo-iMotallic  Bodies"  (by  rhe  same  chen»i.-t)  iu 
*'  The  Englisii  Oyclopjedia. 

ORGAN-POINT,  or  Pednl-Point,  in  Music,  a  bass  note  sustained  through  a  series 
of  chords,  with  only  the  first  aud  last  of  which  it  is  in  l)arm(>ny.  The  sustjiinwl 
note  may  bo  the  dominant  or  tonic,  and  eonu-times  occupies  an  upper  part  instead 
of  the  bass. 

ORGA'NZINE,  a  name  applied  to  silic  which  after  having  l)een  first  wound  off 
from  the  cocoons  into  hanks,  is  then  placed  on  a  winding  maehine,  which  reels  olf 
tlie  hanks  on  to  woodi-n  reels.  These  are  then  placed  on  spindlei*,  and  the  fibn-n 
of  each  are  made  to  pass  through  a  minute  orifice  and  small  brush,  which  tog*ther 
clean  the  thread  aud  remove  any  knots  or  projections  from  it^  throwing  it  at  thesani! 
time  into  hanks  again.  Then  the  thnadsof  two  hanks  aro  taken,  aud  again  reele  I 
off,  this  time  on  to  oive  hank,  being  twisted  tog"ther  (o  the  left;  then  two  of  theee 
doul>led  reels  are  tiiken,  and  tlie  ends  being  laid  t«jg  -thei,  are  twisted  to  the  riglU. 
These  operations,  consisting  of  winding,  cleaning,  tinowing,  and  twice  twisting  and 
doubling,  constitute  organzme  silk.    See  Silk. 

O'RGEAT,  a  kind  of  culimiry  preparation,  which  is  both  ns«'d  as  an  ajrreeablo 
syrup  to  mix  in  crtain  drinks,  or  medicinally  as  a  mild  d  Munlcent.  It  is  prej>ared  by 
making  an  emulsion  of  almonds,  which  ar.;  bbincli'd  for  the  purpose,  ai  d  beateu 
into  a  paste  in  a  mort  ir  and  then  rubbed  up  wirh  barley-water.  The  proponiima 
are— 1  lb.  of  sweet  and  I  oz.  of  bitt-r  almonds,  to  a  quart  of  barley-water.  To  this 
emulsion  are  added  2  lb-",  of  powdered  loaf-sugar,  and  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of 
orange-flower  water.  There  are  other  modes  of  making  ir.  bur  tl»is  Is  the  simplest 
aud  best.    It  is  nmch  used  in  France  under  the  name  of  Sirup  d- Orgeat, 

O'RGIES  (probably  from  Gr.  erdo^  in  th  •  perfect,  e(»rgiu  to  sacrifice),  or  Mysteries, 
secret  lites  or  customs  connected  with  the  worship  oi  some  of  the  pagan  deities; 
asthe  secret  worship  of  Cer's(q  v.),  and  ihe  festival  of  Bncchus,  which  was  ac- 
companied with  mystical  customs  and  drunken  revelry.  Tlie  name  is  now  applied 
to  scenes  of  drimkenness  and  debauchery. 

,  ORGUES  are  thick,  long,  wood-n  b  "amx,  point(;d  and  shod  with  iron,  hung 
veriicaUy  by  separate  ropes  in  tlie  gat< -way  of  and  ovtr  the  entrance  to  a  fortified 

8!ac  •.  They  answer  the  purpose  ol  a  portcullis  or  door,  and  are  <iropped  into  jwsi- 
on  by  cutting  the  ropes  from  which  they  hang.  Their  descent  is  inevitable,  in 
wiiich  they  possess  an  advantage  over  the  porrcuHis,  which  may  be  hold  up  by  rhtj 
enemy  or  blown  in  by  petards,  whereas  p-tards  have  little  effect  ou  orgues,  for  if  one 
beam  be  destroyed,  another  can  be  dropped  to  fill  up  the  gap. 

O'RIEL  COLLEGE.  In  1324,  Adam  de  Brom,  almoner  of  Edward  II.,  procured 
from  the  sovereign  a  charter  of  in  orporation  for  a  college  under  the  name  of  St 
Mary's  House,  in  Oxford.  The  origin  of  the  name  ** Oriel  College"  is  uncert^iin. 
It  consisted  originally  of  a  provost  and  10  fellows.  The  nnml)er  of  fellows  was  by 
subsequent  benefactions  raised  to  18,  and  several  exhibitioiiB  and  scholarships  wc!r«i 
also  founded  at  vaiious  times.  By  the  commissiouers  uudcr.  17  and  18  Vict,  c  81, 
all  the  fellowships  are  thrown  open,  bat  two  are  iu  the  moautime  suspended  for  iho 


Digitized  by 


Google 


K  lo  OrgBU- Point 

0'±f>  OrigOTie* 

pnrpos?  of  Jncrrnslii!?  the  nnmlwr  mid  vnlnfi  of  the  flo.holwf»li1p«»,  and  of  uitgiuentins 
the  nalrtiy  of  the  profe;»««or  of  modern  history.  By  the  estnie  anthoritylhu  Hcbolnrs 
nre  placed  on  the  foiiudatiou  of  the  college,  a  |>Ov<iUion  they  did  uot  before  enjoy ;  the 
8clio!ar:>hip8  are  mad  ■  ten  in  number,  tenable  for  five  yeaie.  of  value  X80  per  nuunm, 
wiih  roo»n*»  fne.  This  coIh>^c  wa«  one  of  the  first  to  throw  op»'n  snch  of  its  fellow- 
sliipe  as  it  could  to  competition,  and  hence  tiie  f«llo\v8  of  Orie!  bnve  long  beeq 
among  the  most  distiniiuishod  men  iu  the  univerpity.  For  several  years  back,  bow- 
ever,  Its  undiMgniduaies  have  done  little  in  the  schools*  Tl»e  fellows  divide  up- 
wards of  jG200  a  year,  in  addition  to  allowances;  and  the  income  of  the  ptx)T0st8bin» 
to  which  is  annexed  a  living  in  Essex  and  a  canonry  in  Itochepter  Cathedral,  in  esti- 
mated at  jC20U0  a  year.    lliiTe  are  thirtetsn  Ix^nefices  in  the  gift  of  this  college. 

OKIBL  WINDOW,  a  projecting  window  having  mc^re  eides  than  one,  usually 
three,  and  commonly  divided  into  nays  by  muHions.  It  Is  one  of  the  most  pictur- 
i-nque  features  in  medieval  ai^d  £^abethau  domestic  arctiitecturet  and  adds  much  to 
the  conv*'niKnce  of  the  interior.  Tlie  word  oriel  (Med.  Lat.  oriolum^  prolwhly  dim. 
from  OH.  ori9^  as  if  a  small  oi>ening  or  recess)  formerly  ineant  a  ohamUer  or  apart* 
nient^  and  a  \vindo\v  is  so  called  wnicb  makes  a  small  apartmenf,  as  it  were,  off  4 
large  room.    Oriels  are  also  called  Bay  or  Bow  Windows  (q.  v.). 

ORIBNTA'TION.  As  Christians  from  an  early  peric^  turned  their  faces  east- 
waril  wlien  praying,  so  Christian  churches  for  the  most  part  were  placed  eant  and 
west,  ill  order  that  the  worshippers,  as  they  looked  towards  the  altar,  might  al>a 
look  towards  the  eaf  t.  Motlem  ohsi  rvation,  ho\vev»  r,  luis  fomd  that  few  chnrchefl 
stand  exactly  east  and  west,  the  groat  nuijority  inclininira  little  either  to  the  north 
or  to  the  south.  Thus,  of  tnroe  ancient  churches  in  EdiiiUurgh,  it  was  ascertained 
tliat  oiie  (t>t  Margaret's  Cbrywl  in  the  Custle)  pointed  e.s.e ;  another  (8i  GiU-s'H 
Cathedral),  e.-hy-8.>^s.;  a  tuird  (Trinity  College  Cbnicb,  now  <!estroye<IJ,  e-X*"- 
This  deviation  from  the  ti-ue  east  has  received,  among  ^glish  ccck'SiologistH,  tli  1 
name  df  "Orientation."  Its  ori«rin  or  cause  has  not  been  satisfactorily  explained. 
8omei4aye  snp(K>sed  that  tlie  church  was  turntx!  not  to  the  true  I'usi,  but  to  the  poinl; 
at  which  the  .•■un  rose  on  the  morning  of  the  feast  of  the  patron  paint.  Bnt,  unfor- 
tunately for  this  theoiy,  iieighl)orln«:  chnrchcs,  dedicated  in  honor  of  the  same  saint, 
havedraEereiitorientat  ons.  Thus,  All  Saints'  at  West  Beckham,  in  Noifolk,i)Oint.i 
duee.igi:  while  All  SaintJ*' at  Thwaite,  also  in  Norfolk,  is  8°  to  the  north  of  east, 
'ihcre  are  instances,  too,  in  which  different  parts  of  the  H:ime  church  have  different 
orientations;  that  is  to  say,  tlie  chancel  and  the  nave  have  not  been  built  in  exactly 
tlie  same  Hue.  This  is  the  case  in  York  Minsterand  in  Lichfield  CathedraL  Another 
theory  is,  that  oiientation  "  myHtically  represents  the  l)o\*iug  of  our  Saviour's  head 
In  death,  which  C;»tliolic  tradition  neserts  to  have  bei  n  to  the  right  [or  iiorMiJ  side." 
Bnt  this  theory  is  gainsaid  by  the  fact,  that  the  orient.-itioii  is  as  often  to  the  south 
unto  the  north,  t^itil  some  better  explanation  is  offerM,  it  may,  (lerhaps,  be  al- 
lowed to  hold,  that  orientulion  has  hinA  no  graver  origin  than  carele.*^ness,  ignorance, 
or  indifference. 

O'RIFLAMME,  or  Auriflamnie  (Lat.  auri  fiamma,  flame  of  gold),  a  banner 
which  originally  m'longedto  the  Abbey  of  St.  Deuin,  and  was  borne  by  the  Counts 
of  Vexin,  patrons  of  that  church,  but  which,  after  the  county  of  Vexin  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  French  crown,  became  the  priucip.-il  banner  Of  the  kingdom.  It  was 
diargt^  with  a  saltire  wavy  or,  with  rays  issuing  from  the  centre  crossways.  In 
later  times  the  oriflamme  became  the  insitruia  of  the  French  infantry.  The  name 
se<!ms  al5«o  to  have  been  given  to  other  flags ;  according  to  Sir  N.  H.  Nicolas,  the 
oriflamme  borne  at  Aginconrt  was  an  oblong  red  flag  split  into  Ave  parts. 

ORI'GENES  (Oriobn),  ailled  A  damantifW9  or  ChaUhe/nUzos—hoth  epithets  ex- 
precsivi'  of  his  firuuicsx  of  pm^pose  and  iron  assiduity— one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
the  early  Oiristian  writers,  "  the  fatherof  biblical  criticism  and  exegesis  in  Cltristen- 
Moni,'*  was  born  185  A.D.,  at  Alexandria,  where  his  father,  Leonidas,  seem>*  to  have 
held  soine  superior  ofllce  in  ine  church.  O.  received  a  most  lilwral  education. 
Whih'.  on  the  one  hand,  he  was  initiated  at  an  earlv  age  into  Hellenic  Mcience  and 
art^  the  teachings  of  Christinnity  were  instilled  into  his  mind  l)y  men  like  Pantaenus 
and  Clemens  of  Alexandria.  During  the  pereecntions  against  the  Christians,  insti- 
tuted by  Sept  Siiverus,  hi-  father  d.ed  the  death  of  a  martj^r,  and  O.,  then  17  years  of  • 
Kge,  would  h  *ve  shared  it  of  his  own  free  will,  hud  not  his  mother,  left  unnupport' 

U.  K.,  X.,  18.  Dgit.ed  by  GoOglC 


Original  544 

with  pJx  childroD,  pmvrnted  him.  After  a  phort  timebip  zeal  aixl  emdltioii  procnred 
I'lr  him  the  ortJ«*e  «f  caiechlst  in  the  Alexaiiidrinn  chnrch ;  hnt  no  Biilary  h«  iiig 
uffixed  to  it,  he  was  faiu  to  fli^pose  of  ht«  much-loved  coll«ction  of  cliiPSicul  autliord 
for  adaily  stipend  of  four  oHoli  (2(i.)  for  pevertil  ^ear>?.  His  want*  were  oxtreiuclj 
limited,  and  hi«  a9cerlci!«m  led  him  even  to  peH-maiilntion  (in  accordance  with  Hid 
<i^w  he  took  of  Matt.  xix.  1«) :  au  act  for  whidi  he  afterwards  ezprespe<l  the  deciicst 
porrow,  and  whicii  1)ecnine  a  diingerons  weapon  in  the  liand^  of  his  antngouipt^. 
Not  a  few  of  IiIh  h«'>irers  being  nuisten*  of  Qr^ek  (Neoplaionic)  pbiiostiphy, 
O.,  in  order  to  ward  oflf  more  snccepsfiilly  their  attaclcs  upon  liis  doctnneH,  nnd  to 
cbmlMt  them  on  their  own  ground,  applied  himself  {mrticularly  to  this  science,  and 
Ammonind  Sticois  liimtfolf  is  xaid  to  liave  heen  liis  leaclier.  From  this 
period  also  may  be  dated  O.'s  tranpition  from  nucon^cions  to  conncioiiis  belief,  llo 
exiinuned  ^nceforth,  with  ai*  little  prejadice  as  pfVasil^e.  all  the  different  srstemp  of 
haman  apecnlaticms  that  canie  under  his  notice  dhring  tli«  many  jonrueys  be  nndi-r- 
look,  proceeding  on  th»'  principle.**  that  we  are  not,  nnder  the  pn  fence  of  piety,  to 
pin  oarfa!th  on  that  which  is  held  by  the  mn  titnde,  and  which  therefore  alone 
seems  to  st-Hid  on  high  authority,  bnt  on  tiiat  which  n>f>nits  tbron<rli  examination 
and  logical  coucltisious  from  establislied  aud  admitted  trnths."  This  UlM^rality  of 
Ills  mind  and  do<^trine8  could  not  fail,  on  the  one  hand,  to  biing  abont  m^ny  con- 

.  verMons  to  ih>!  fciith,  at*  he  taught  it,  l)oth  among  *•*•  pagans  '*  and  **  heretic**,"  the 
latter  chiefly  of  the  Gnostic  sectts;  im<l  on  thooli't-r  h.-.n<!,  to  miwwaxi  outcjry  aumug 
lesp  iiheral  professcKS  aud  teachers  of  the  faith,  who  had  not  been  00  successful  iu 
their  labori*.  What  gave  the  greatest  offence  i«»  his  teachin«rs  was  his  way  of  ex- 
plaining, after  the  maimer  of  %e  Midnish,  known  to  him  through  the  Jewish  masters 
(from  wi)om,  at  an  advanced  age.  hu  liad  also  learm  d  Hebrew),  allq^orically  and 
syml>oIicaI]y  tb^it  wliich  in  the  Scripture  warred  with  the  common  bnmun  under- 
standing, or  seemed  repngnant  in  uuinner  or  matter.  Furthcrroore,^whiIc  it|>)ioIdinGr 
all  the  etliioil  portions  of  the  Bible,  he  rej  'Cted  a  srreat  deal  of  iisyitppoBed  historic:)! 
and  legal  contents  fur  a]l  pnrposes.  save,  p  >rhapi,  as  ptailinir-nointB  ^or  bomiletic^. 
"  What  ediflcatitm,'*  he  says,  "  could  we  find  in  ijlerally  interpreting  the  story  of 
AhnUmm'd  jRr;«l  telling  Abimelech  a  li<-,  and  then,  with  Sarah's  consent,  handing  her 
over  to  him  amV  prosutotiiig  her  ?'*  As  to  the  dipcir)xincie8  in  tbe  different  gospels 
n-8i>cctiug  tiie life  of  Christ,  he  says:  "  One  of  twaonly  i»  )x>s8ible.  Eitber  these 
tilings  are  true  iu  amintual  sense  only,  or  as  long  as  the  discrepancies  are  not  (Bat- 
irfaclorily  explained  away,  we  cannot  believe  in  tUn  goppeis  l)«fvg  dictated  by  ll»e 
Holy  Ohost/aud  redacted  under  the  influence  of  hisinspiration.'* 

In  2I1  he  went  to  Rome,  but.  soon  afterwards,  at  the  wish  of  Bishop  Bemetrin^ 
be  r»tumed  to  AlHX:indria,wJiiclu  however,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  precipitately, 
and  fo  .-eek  refuge  fron.  certain  popular  tumults  in  Palestine.  Here  tlie  hishops  re- 
cedvt^  bim  wit|i  great  honor:*,  and  desired  him  to  institute  public  Udurcs,  in  whicli 
they  theinselv\«  became  hearers.  Ri:calle<l  again  by  llie  Alexandrian  bishop,  be  was 
sent  to  Achaila  t>  combat  certain  heresies  that  had  broken  out  there.  The  wrath 
tfaat  bad  silently  been  gathering  asrahist  him  found  its  fir^t  vent  when,  in  SfiS,  the 
bishops  assembleti  in  Cwsarea  m  l^alijstiiiti  com«fcratcd  lilm  presbyter.  Tbe  Blfbop 
of  Atexiandr^  took  umbrage  at  ibis  outnige.  as  he  called  it.  on  his  authority.  Two 
onnnctla  wen»  convoked,  and  iu  289, 0.  was  neprived  of  bis  priestly  ofllce,  and  cxcouv- 
municated,  the  princtpaf  heresy  chanjed  against  him  being  Tils  denial  of  eternal  pmi- 
iffiiment.  Yet  the  churches  of  th«»  Eist  remained  fait hf iil  to  him.  Palestine;,  Arabia, 
Phoenicia,  nod  Actfaia  remained  in  constant  cohminnication  with  him ;  and  men  like 
Gn'goi-y  Thaamatnraus  (q.  v.),  Atlienodoros,  aAd  others  remained  or  became  his 
fiiithfnl  disci plos  ever  after,  while  the  Bishop  of  Caeatirea  allowed  him  openly  to  ex- 
pound tbe  Scrinture  in  bis  church.  'J'be  persecutions  nnder  Maximinns  ajraiu  forc«*«l 
111 m  to  seek  refuge  for  two  years  hi  Oappadocia.  Returning  under  Gordianns,  he 
resumed  his  labord  and  journeys,  until,  when  I>e«tins  ascended  the  throne,  he  was 
seizi-d,  imprisoned,  and  tortured  for  his  faith.  lie  did  not  snrvive  his  sufferings 
long,  but  tli<'d,  in  264,  at  Tyre,  where  bis  tomb,  near  the  high-altar  of  the  cathedntl« 
was  fri^ewii  for  many  centuries,  until  it  wa*  drstroyi-d  dnring  the  Criisatles. 

The  number  of  bis  works  is  stated  by  Epiphanins  and  Rtifinns  to  have  exceeded 
6OGO,  and  alttojiigii  this  is  probably  only  meant  as  an  exagtremted  round  number, 
vet  the  amount  of  writings  ttir»t  issued  from  hisjilways  busy  oniin  and  bands  ctmnoi 

_  but  imve  i>eeu  euorniOUH.    Seven  sjcretaries  and  seven  copyists,  aided  hy  au  aucec 


Digitized. by 


Google 


545  °'^^^ 

taiu  u umber  of  youTig  girl».  are  6y  Eusebias  r«)|)orfed  to  have  been  ahvuys  at  woik 
tor  him.  The  jireat  balk  of  his  works  is  lost ;  but  among  those  that  have  sni-vivcd, 
the  mo(*t  important  by  far  are  tiis  two  editions  of  the  Old  Testament,  culled  ri-!*pec- 
tjvefy  " Tetraplu"  (/ottrfold)  and  *'  Hexapla  "  (sirfoid).  See  Hexapla.  ITie  lab(.r 
bestowed  np«>ij  this  work  most  have  been  immense,  aud  no  less  than  twenlv-eight 
years  is  O.  supposed  to  have  been  ei  gag<>d  upou  it.  Ou  its  Importance  for  Ulbllcul 
criticism  it  is  needless  to  eniai^e  hen*.  Fragiuonts  only  have  come  down  to  us,  the 
original  having  been  tost  duriijg  the  siege  and  capture  of  Ctenarea  by  the  Aruba; 
ana  the  Greek  as  well  as  the  Roman  clergy  having  aimo^^t  laid  an  interdict  upon  the 
copying  of  any  of  O.'s  nmcii  susp<'ctcd  writings.  Montfaucou  hjia  coUcciod  imd 
c<li ted  these  fnigments  (•*Hexaptonim  Origenis  quffi  supersunt,"  2  Vols.  fol.  Paris, 
17UJ,  which  were  re-edited  by  O.  F.  Balirdt  (17<»— 1770).  Of  lis  otlu^r  piirliy  cxttint, 
pjirily  lost  works,  the  chief  are  hia  Iwoks  ♦*  On  the  Resurrection,"  •*  On  Blyrtyrdoni," 
"Eight  Books  against  t'elsus,"  "Ou  l*i"ayer,'*  besides  Epistles,  &c.  Hts  fnrttier  re- 
vised and  enlarged  Philo's  Lexicon  of  Hebrew  Nauies  O^Hel)ruia)raju  Npmiuum  S; 
Scripturse  et  Mensnrarum  Inter{)retatio  '0,  whence  it  lias  ofttui,  togeiHer  with  many- 
other  spurious  works,  been  ascribed  to  him  exclusively.  Little  also  tias  survived  of 
his  mans  ex^cticul  writings,  commentaries,  l)rief  notes,  and  homoUes  on  lK)th  Testa^ 
ments.  The  uest  editions  of  his  collected  works  are  by  De  la  Rue  (Rmlens),  (Paiis, 
173S— 1759,  4  vols,  fol.) ;  by  01)ei-thlir  (Wurssbnnr,  1785—1794, 16  vols.);  aud  by  Lon^ 
watzsch,  which  is  critical  and  moru  complete  (Berlin,  1881),  &c. 

ORrOINAL  SIN.  Accoi-ding  to  this  theological  tenet,  when  stated  in  its  eXf- 
'  tremest  f urm,  men  come  into  the  world  with  the  reason  and  will  aM^rly  cormnt. 
This  corruption  originated  in  the  fall  of  Adam,  tmd  bus  been  inheritil  (•qnaUy  ojr 
alt  his  pOhierity,  so  that  the  natural  muu  is  not  only  iucat)iU>le  of  knowing  and 
loving  God  ul^goodnc^s,  but-  Is  inclined  to  contemn  God  and  pursue  evil;  on. 
wliicti  account  the  miger  of  God  iias  subjected  liim  to  tein))oral  diath,  and  dei^tim'd 
him  to  everlasting  punishment  in  hell.  The  doctrine  is  tounded  on  tlieacctmjit  ot 
the  fall  given  in  Genesis,  aud  on  mmie  pasi^agi  s  in  puul's  Bpistle  to  the  Galut'runs,  and 
in  that  to  ^lie  Ronians  ;  wliicti  passuges,  however,  are  iield  by  others  to  contain 
no  such  doctrine;  aud  indcetf  nearly  every  point  in  the  history  ot  the  doctriutt 
is  the  subject  of  as  much  oontroverry  as  ttie  details  of  tlie  dociriniv  itself.  Tho 
eariy  ctiurcli,  it  U  maintained  by  one  8eh(K)l,  was  unacquainted  viitia  it;  and 
the  mcst  orthodox  admit  that  tlie  docirina  iuid  not  at  that  time  been  fully 
developed.  Tlie  Christiuji  fatherp,  Justin  Mariyr,  Clemens  Alexaudrfnut;, 
Irenaeu^,  ami  others',  a^criby  to  the  natural  man  a  ccrtahi  abilttv  to^-know 
God  and  clioor<e  tlie  good,  they  are  said  to  rjcct  distincitly  all  propaga- 
tion of  sill  aud  guilt,  and  even  to  refi  r  human  mortality  not  (o  Adan.'n 
sin,  but  soiely  to  th3  constituriou  of  the  Xwdy.  Oriu'en,  ou  the  other  hand, 
in  opi>o>itiou  to  tlie  Gnostics  aud  Manieiiees.  who  groun<k<]  the  einfuinet's  of  nieit 
ou  the  coni.ecticm  of  the  soul  with  a  naterial  body,  asscried  ilnit  the  sinfulnei*H  \\&9 
in  existence  at  birtlu  but  ascrilK-d  Ihe  devehipmcnt  of  actual  sins  and  tlieirconsc* 
queuces  nut  to  iMopagaMou,  l)ut  to  !he  moral  operatiun  of  pi-eceptaudexampk.  Hh 
accordingly  found  ttie  cause  of  sin  to  be  in  the  freedom  of  tlie  will,  the  abuse  of 
which  be  explained  |»artly  by  the  otieration  of  evil  jiowtrs,  partly  by  the  predomi- 
nance of  the  sensuous  part  of  man's  nature  over  the  rational  mind.  The  orlliddox 
teachers  of  the  Greek  Ctiurcli,  again,  b<  Id  tliat  Adam,  iiy  the  fall,  reud^nd  iiinueelf 
and  all  his  po8te|'ity  mortal,  but,  according  to  the  less  rigid  si'hcols,  they  lo'oktd  for 
the  orl<rin  ot  shi  in  the  freedom  of  the  willacted  upon  by  the  flesh,  and  by  demonia- 
cal Influences,  and  ascribed  to  limu  the  power  of  resistii>g  every  evil  if  he  chos<'. 
These  vieivH,  it  is  alleijed,  continued  to  be  iield,  in  substance,  l)y  the  Christiau 
teachers  iu  the  east,  and  were  fully  developed  by  Clir>'Sostom ;  but  Catholic  writers 
maintain  that  iu  all  this  Chi^sostom  and  the  other  Greek  fathers  are  epeaking  net 
of  the  natural  powers  of  the  will,  but  of  the  will  as  assisted  by  divine  gnice. 

The  doctrine  took  another  ciiape  iu  the  irfitiu  Ciuirch.  TertpUiau,  following  up 
his  dogma  of  Tradueianlpm,  ace-ording  to  which  the  child  derivo«  ti(M;  oilly  4t&b  dy, 
but  its  soul  from  its  pantuts,  maintained  that  siufulneHS  had  been  prop  tgat^,  along 
with  mortality,  from  Adiuu  to  »M  mankind;  he  thus  defended  an  ora^vnis  vi'^'mn, 
without  couceiviue;  it  t\^  actual  siii  and  denying  all  capacity  for  good  in  man.  This 
vittw  was  followed  by  Cyprian,  Ambrose,  and  even  by  AugUHtiue  in  his  earlier  writ- 
ings.   It  vvaa  only  -iurjng  his  controversy  with  Peiagius  aud  Cielesiiufl  that  AU};Ui?- 


y  Google 


OrihnaJfi  ^\li\ 

Orinoco  •#-tu 

tine  came  to  dovolop  the  doctrine  of  origiiiul  Pin  into  tho  full  form  given  nhove. 
His  greiit  inflnenee  in  the  western  cliurche*  procured  the  condeuniulion  of  his  oppo- 
ncnttn,  the  Pelagians  (q.  V;),  ns  her.  tics  nl  tlie  Councils  of  Cartlia«'e  (412,  41i),  4  8), 
ulthoagh  the  CouncUs  of  JernB;ilen)  and  Diosipolis  (415)  decided  in  tlielr  favor. 
BOitd  ng  upon  tiie  foundation  of  Tradncianisni,  Angustnie  laid  down  tiwit  e\'ery 
iiarural  man  Is  In  tl»e  power  of  tlie  deviL  and  upheld  the  justice  of  this  as  a  pnnisli- 
ment  fbrtiie  shltre  wliicii  the  individual  had  in  Adam's  trausgressiou  :  for  as  uU  men 
existed  in  the  loins  of  Adam,  all  sinned  with  him.  Pela^us,  on  the  otUer  hand, 
who  rejected  the  Tr-.iduclan  tlieory,  denied  that  sin  is  propagated  physlciilly,'  or  timt 
the  fall  of  Adam  has  exertii-ed  any  prejudicial  influence  ou  the  moral  constitution 
of  his  posterity ;  and  maintained  that  all  men  are  horn  in  a  siatt?  of  innocence, 
possess  the  power  of  fj'eewiil,  and  may  thi'refore  live  without  sin.  He  and  his  fol- 
lowei*»  ohjected  to  Angusflne,  tiiat  liis  doctrine  was  in  direct  coutradictiou  to  cle  j* 
passages  of  Scripture,  and  that  it  made  Qod  the  originator  of  evil  and  an  unrighteous 
jud^e. 

Great  as  wa^  the  respect  for  Augtistine,  the  liarshness  of  his  doctrine  was  too 
shocking  to  the  natural  sentiment"  to  m  -et  with  lasting  acceptance.  lu  ihe  eastt-ru 
chnrch  it  never  gained  a  footing,  and  even  in  ^!ie  west  It  met  with  oi)p^itiou.  In 
Gaul,  John  Cassian,  Faustns.  Arnobius.  and  other.-,  took  up  a  view  midwatV  i>etwei-a 
the  views  of  A«gu-t  ue  and  Pelagms,  from  wlilch  tliey  were  calltul  Semipelaiiian:*. 
They  attributed  to  man  a  ciipacltv  for  good  wliich  makes  It  possible  for  hini,  not 
ind  -ed  lo  merit  the  favor  of  God.  but  to  niake  himself  capiible  of  receiving  it ;  an<l 
maiuuiin;*d  that  itis  only  a  certain  inl>oru  weakness  that  men  inherit  from  the  fii-.^t 
pair.  'rhe-Semip<;lagiaii  doctrine  found  accentance  es{mcial]y  among  the  monks  (in 
]iarticiriiur  among  the  Pr:iuci«c?ms),  oontinnmi  to  pr.^vail  dm^n^  the  middle  ages,  and 
among  tlie  SRlvHantics  found  p:u*i isans  hi  the  Scosists.  Augnstme's  views  hlso fonnd 
advocates  amonir  tiie  schoUtsiic  philosophers,  who,  however,  addeil  to  it  many  lim — 
tatiouF<  and  <-xplftn  ttjons.  liegardinir  the  way  in  which  orlg.ual  sin  Is  ))ropa^iled, 
many  hold  by  the  Tradnciati  th.-ory,  while  others  couceiv«'d  it  to  be  a  sort  ot  nife<'.- 
tion  of  the  soul  by  t\\e  defiled  hod>,  or  an  in^puiat  on  of  guilt  to  all  i>artaker8  of  \\\t 
huntan  u;itni*e.  Pftrus  Lon)bardn<i  adiier  d  to  Angustinu  Aiiseira'  of  C.mterhury 
conceived  original  sin  to  be  a  want  of  requisite  riirnteonsuess,  aiKl  thoiisrht  that  thid 
want  WH^  imputed  to  all  tlie  noiterity  of  Adam,  altlioii"?  »  not  in  the  aixmi  degree  as 
if  tiiey  had  themselves  sinned.  Ansehn's  view  was  adopted  by  Dnns  Seotns^  while 
Bonnveninra  and  Thomas  Aquinas  sought  to  conbine  ihe  opifkions  ot  Au^<el  :i  and 
Augustine.  AnseUn  had  thooi^ht  that  his  theory  affoi'ded  a  better  explanation  of 
tile  sinless  birth  of  Christ ;  and  about  the  12th  c.  it  began  to  bo  maiutziuied  that 
Mary  aiso  was  conceived  without  s'n. 

'l^e  reformei-s  of  the  XH  c  evei^where  made  original  sin  a  leading  doctrine,  and 
thus  were  enablv'd  to  combat  eff<ctively  the  Homan  Catholic  doctnne  of  the  mtrit 
of  works;  while  the  Ca  holic  Church,  in  the  fifth  sea^ion  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
stamped  what  the  Calvini.st  school  wonldcaUdemipelagianism  as  the  orthodox  doc- 
trhiu.  The  reformed  churches  aareetl  with  the  Lat.ln'i-aii  on  the  |M)lnt  of  original 
sin.  In  this  thev  foilowt^d  Calvin  rath(;r  than  Zwingli,  who  looke<l  upon  !t  as  an 
evil  <Mr<llsea-«,  and  as  becoming  sin  only  when  a  commandment  is  trausgr»»*"d. 
'ihe  Arminians  and  Socinians,  on  the  other  hand,  denfel  the  doctrine  of  hereditary 
sin  ui  the  ecoIesia^tica>  sense.  The  M'Miiionites  spoke  of  a  loss  of  the  divine  im:i<^(^ 
in  ctmxequence  of  fhe  fall  of  Adam,  but  still  asserted  the  fr<rewill  of  man.  The 
Quakers  i*jeeted  the  name  »f  original  sin  altogether ;  they  held  that  there  is  a  germ 
ot  sin  in  man,  from  whi<-h  imputable  sin  spring-*,  and  that,  however  corrupt  lie 
lias  still  the  susceptibility- of  l)eing  awakened  to  the  inward  light.  The  wiiole  Pr<w 
testant  Church  held,  Ixtsides,  that  Jesus  alotie  was  fmm  sin,  l)oth  origiu-tl  and 
aotnal.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  ascril>ed  this  attribute  also  to  Mary,  though 
no  pubHcand  distinct  dechiration  on  the  point  was  givea  by  the  Council  of  'IV  ni. 
See  H3»MAOiri*ATB  Conoepi«iqn, 

Tha  harshness  of  the  Angnstinlan  dogma  led,  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  to 
keen  oontr  rvemies;  Erasmus  disputed  the  point,  with  Lnther,  and  would  only  admit 
a  weakn"s-«  of  tl»e  freewill  asisinflf  irom  original  sin,  and  by  ik>  means  a  ctmipif^to 
aunihilaiton  of  it.  From  that  time  ihe  doctrine  in  Gcrinnny  continued  to  bo  vari- 
ously attacked  ami  defendt'd.  It  has  Ixjen  discussed  by  the  schools  of  philosophy. 
Kant  shewed  the  moral  insignificalion  of  the  dogma,  and  made  out  original  sin  to  be* 
a  propeuaity  to  evil  mhereut  iu  man.    Tue  ScUelling-Uegel  school,  ag8du»  explaiued 


y  Google 


rci^  Oribnela 

«^~t  <  Orinoco 

Jt  jiH  tlw  fluite  nature  with  which  the  indivichinl  ii«  ix>ni.  In  Tftctiut  timet*,  the  tlioo- 
loeiniiP  of  tlift  old  LuUierau  iukI  etrittly  orthodox  tendencies,  Biich  ub  OlBhautK  n, 
Tnoluck,  Uengsteiibfi^,  and  othiM-g,  liuvo  come  forward  at*  >  dhereut&and  defendcrn 
of  tiie  Anguptuijan  doctriue;  while  the  nun-e  lil>erul  theologiuuft  modify  it  in  ViiiiouB 
wnys,  uot  ailmiltin^r  nny  moi-al  inborn  corruption  urigiug  from  the  fall,  but  oiily  a 
weakliest  in  man^s  nulnre  for  t  lie  kuowle^lge  and  performnucc  of  goocL  How  far, 
and  with  wliat  (tifftm>.nce)',  the  extronic  An>;uf>tiiiiau  view  i»  lifld  hy  the  chnrchoF  t.f 
Enj;land  Jind  Scotland,  will  be  seen  front  the  foUowhi^  extnictB  from  the  *'  'J  hirSy- 
uin«'  Articles  "  and  the  *'  Westminster  ConfepBiou  of  Puith." 

From  Art  ix.  of  the  *' Thirty-nine  Articles*:  "  ** Original  Bin  Btandeth  not  in  iha 
following  of  Adam(aBlhe  Pclngiuii8  do  vainly  talk);  but  it  is  the  fault  and  c«.r- 
rnntion  of  the  iiatijre  of  every  man,  that  imtundly  is  engendi-rot!  of  th"  offBjM  Jul'  (;f 
Achim,  *  whereby  man  is  very  fHr  gone  froni  orit'inal  riirhtcowBM€i»j»,'  atid  is  of  his 
own  nature  incliiie<l  to  evil.  >o  that  ilie  fttsh  Insteth  alwnyB  conti'ary  to  the  flpirit ; 
and  therefore  lu  every  pirsou  born  into  the  world,  it  dcserveih  Gfixl's  wrath  Jina 
damtiiitiou." 

From  chap.  vi.  of  the  **  WestralnsttT  Confession:"  *'BythlBp!n"  (i.  e.,  the 
enling  of  the  forbuldeji  fruit),  **ihey"  (i.  c,  our  flrsi  parent?)  **fell  from  their 
Ori^riual  righteoupness  and  communion  witii  God,  and  so  ^became  dead  in  sin,  and. 
wholly  defiltd  in  nil  the  i^acnlties  and  pans  of  soul  and  body.'  They  being  the  root 
of  all  nnnikind,  the  guilt  of  this  sin  wiis  imputed,  and  the  same  death  in  sin  and 
corrupted  nature  conveyed  to  all  their  posterity,  descending  trom  them  by  ordi- 
nary generation.  From  this  original  connptioi!,  *  wliereby  we  are  utterly  indis- 
posed, disabled,  and  made  opposite  to  all  good,  and  wholly  ujclined  to  all  eril,'  do 
proceed  all  actual  transgress(pns." 

O'RIHUE'LA,  an  ancient  town  of  Spain  in  the  modem  province  of  Alicante,  nnd 
86  miles  south-west  of  the  city  of  that  name,  stands  on  the  banks  of  the  Segura,  in  :i 
)ila!n  remarkable  alike  for  Its  bi^anty  and  its  fertility.  It  Is  long  and  straggling, 
while  Its  palm-trees,  square  to\v«rs,  and  donies  give  It  an  oriental  appearance.  It 
coniains  a  cathedral,  numerous  churches  and  convents,  bairacks,  &c  The  manu- 
factures are  linen  goods  tinti  hats,  and  mitny  corn  and  oil  mills  an^  tanneries  are  in 
Ojieraiion.  Olive  oil  i-!  veiy  extensively  made.  iV?  vegetation  here  is  gigantic ;  ihe 
olcai'ders  are  jictnal  trees.  O.  Imsbeen  possessed  by  CarthaginiauB,  Romans,  Mooi-s, 
and  Spaniards  in  turn.    Pop.  24,000. 

OKI'LLON,  in  Foitification.  and  especially  in  the  earlier  systems,  is  a  pemlclrcu- 
hir  projection  at  the  shoulder  of  a  hjistion.  intended  to  cover  from  the  observation  of 
the  enemy  the  giti  8  «nd'defenders  on  the  tiank.  which,  with  such  ;•  coustrmtioi.,  is 
sonnjwhat  retired  or  thrown  back.  Tl»e  flmk  thu"  protected  Is  held  by  many  diftiu- 
gnished  engineers  to  be  most  valuable  in  the  defence  of  the  d.ich,  in  clearing  it  from 
an  attiickirig  psirty,  or  from  hostile  mliu-rs.  1  he  retired  flank  is  ."Ometunef  straigJjt, 
at  others  curved.  The  orillon  is  as  old  tiB  the  bastion,  aud  is  found  in  the  works  of 
Pa^u  a.id  8i)eckle. 

ORINO'CO,  a.  great  river  of  South  America,  flows  through  Guiana  and  VeneEneki, 
and  reaches  the  Atlnntic  Ocean  south  of  Trinid>id.  in  lat  8^40'  n.  Tliecomitry  in 
which  It  takes  its  rine  Is  inhabited  I'y  aJi  aborijrn'al  race  called  tta  Guaicas,  who 
have  hitherto  prevented  all  access  by  foi-eiLTiers  t<>  its  Boucces;  but  it  ifi  known  to 
rise  in  the  Sierra  Parime,  one  of  the  chief  mountain  chaiits  of  Guiana,  near  hit  8° 
4h'  n.,  long.  64°  30'  w.  It  has  been  explored  by  IliimlK)ldt  to  the  village  of  Esmeral- 
da* (hit.  3"  8'  n..  long.  66°  5'  w.),  and  by  Schomburgk  to  within  30  miles  of  its  source. 
After  flowing  west-south -west  20  miles  past  Esmeraldas  the  river  bifurcates,  and 
tht!  southern  branch,  theCassiquinii  (q.  v.),  flowing  8t)uth- west,  joins  the  Rio  Negro, 
an  aflluent  of  the  Aunizon.  From  this  point  th**  O.  flows  north-west  to  its  junction 
with  the  Guavijire,  then  north-north-east  to  its  junction  with. the  Apnre,  after  which 
it  flows  In  an  eastward  direction  to  its  mouth.  Length  o(  course,  1960  miles.  The 
hejid  of  imiuterrupted  navigaiion  is  nt  the  confluence  of  ttie  O.  with  the  Apure,  T77 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Above  thi»«  t>oint  the  course  of  the  river  is  int-er- 
rupttdby  '*  ramialn"  or  cataract?',  of  which  those  of  Maypures  and  Atm-es  are  the. 
mos't  celebrated.  Its  prinitipal  affluents  from  the  left,  are  the  Guaviare,  the  Vichada, 
the  Hcta,  and  the  Apure ;  from  the  right. '  he  Ventuare,  Canra,  and  Caroni.  The  O,, 
which  if  joined  by  436  rivrs.  and  upwards  of  20i)0  streams,  drains  an  ai-ea  (usuallv 
.  Stated  at  260,000  bquaie  miles)  which,  according  to  Wapp&u's  **  Kepublikeu  von  SU 


Digitized  by 


Google 


gji^:  548 

Amor!lr:i,**  w»ay  be  estiinoti'd  at  650,000  sqnare  miles.  It  hegf lie  to  form-  its  delta  130 
mhos  from  ita  month,  by  throwing  off  a  branch  which  .flows  northwaitl  Into  tliu  ^t- 
laniic  Several  of  the  mouths  are  navigable,  and  the  miifi)  stream,  the  Boca  de  Navfot*, 
ifl  divided  by  a  line  of  islands  into  two  ch.inneis,  encli  two  miles  in  width.  Bolivar,  a 
to>vtt  upwards  of  i50  niileafrom  themoutli  of  the  river,  marks  the  head  of  tide-w.nter, 
and  here  the  river  is  4  miles  wide  and  89a  feet  deep.  Below  the  junction  df  tiii> 
A  pure  the  charnctcr  of  the  scenery  seems  to  be  uniform— forests  ou  the  right  bank, 
and  liaiios  on  tlie  left 

O'KIOLB  Oiiolua),  a  eenus  of  birds  of  the  Thrush  family  {MenUidtK  or  Turdnlcp). 
having  an  elongated  conical  beak,  broad  at  the  bai»e  ^  the  upper  m  ludible  rid:;od 
above,  and  uotcli<-d  at  the  point;  wings  of  moderaie  siz({,  the  nrt*l  feather  very  Hliurt, 
the  third  the  luiii^est;  the  tail  of  inud(^rate  Ieu<;th,  aiul  rounded;  the  tarmis  not 
longer  than  the  middle  toe;  the~outer  too  joined  at  its.  base  to  the  middle  toe:  clnws 
sti-oui;  and  curved.  The  specic^s  are  uumerouis  all  nuiives  of  the  Old  World,  and 
chiofly  of  the  warmer  parts  of  it;  the  adult  males  generally  of  much  brightiT  ])lu- 
ma>4e  than  the  females  and  young  male^,  t  he  prevalent  color  yellow.  Only  one  >pecie8 
\»  fonud  iu  Enrone,  the  Golden  O.  (0.  gaibula).  pretty  common  in  Italy  and  eoMie 
other  parts  of  Europe,  bat  a  rare  suanner  visitant  of  Euglnud,  and  never  seen  iu 
Scotland.  jiUhongh  It  occasionally  breeds  in  the  soutii  of  Swtulen.— 'Ihe  name  O.  i« 
fiiiill  very  commonly  given  totlie  Balfimoro  Bird  (q.  v.),  and  other  American  birds  of 
the  Stttrling  family,  the  chief  re:M;mblance  of  which  to  the  true  orioles  is  iu  color. 

ORFON,  in  Oret^  Mytliology,  was  agigautic  hunter,  and  reonttd  thehandsomi*9t 
mrm  in  the  world.  His  parent^e  is  dif^rently  given.  According  to  the  commonly 
roceiviMl  myth,  he  was  the  son  of  Ilyrieu^  of  Ily.ia,  iiuj^»ii:s  and  was  caIUhI  in  bis 
own  country  K:indaon.  Anoth«;r  ;icconnt  maken  hiiu  a  sou  of  Poseidcm  and  Bnryule, 
while  some  state  thsu  he  was  Autoehthotios^  or  '* earth-born."  So  immen!«e  wai*  his 
size,  that  when  he  waded  through  the  dei-pt^t  fea^  he  was  still  a  head  and  shouldcrH 
above  the  w.iter ;  and  when  he  walked  ou  dry  land,  his  otature  reiichcd  the  clouds. 
Once  on  a  time  he  came  to  Chios,  in  the  ^gcau  Siui,  wliere  Iu;  fell  in  love  wilii  JEvo 
or  Meropc,  daughter  of  GSuopion.  lie  cleared  the  isle  of  wild  beasts,  and  brouglit 
tih-ir  skins  iih  presents  to  his  sweetheart ;  but  lier  faihur  always  put  off  ilieir  marrvige ; 
whereupon  O..  one  day  givimr  wiiy  lo  passion  (when  under  the  influence  of  wine), 
sought  to  .take  tlie  maiden  by  force.  (Euopion  now  called  upon  Dionysus  (Bacchus)  for 
help,  who  put  out  the  eyes  of  the  inebriate  lover.  O.,  however,  recovered  his  pight  iu 
Lmiuiios,  by  following  thtj  advice  of  an  oracle,  and  returned  to  Chios  to  take  veii- 
foance  ou  (Euopion.  Not  flndinir  him,  lie  went  to  Crete,  whttre  he  8{>ent  the  rest  of  his 
ite  bunting  in  company  with  Artemis  (Diana).  The  cause  and  manner  of  his  dcni  U 
are  diffttrently  related.  Artemis,  say  some,  slew  him  with  an  arrow,  because  Eos, 
inflamed  by  his  beauty,  had  carrj(^  him  off  to  Ortygia,  and  thereby  offended  tlie  god?*. 
Others  aver  that  Arttnnie,  virgin-goddess  though  fhe  was,  cherished  an  affection  for 
hini,  that  made  lier  brother  A^llo  fiercely  indignant.  One  day,  |>ointing  out  to  her 
at  sea  a  black  object  floating  in  the  water,  he  told  her  that  he  did  not  believft^sbe 
could  hit  it.  Artemis,  not  recogtiiaing  her  favorite,  drew  lier  bow,  and  pierced  bim 
through  the  head ;  a  third  myth  makes  him  find  hi^  dtrttth  from  tlie  siing  of  a  scor- 
pion. Asklepios  (.^iicnlapins)  wished  to  restore  him  to  life,  but  was  sUdn  by  a  ixilt 
of  Z«^us.  After  his  death,  O.  was  placed  with  liis  tiound  among  the  stars,  where,  lu 
this  day,  the  most  >'pleudid  consteflatiou  in  the  heavens  beara  his  name. 

ORT'SSA,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Hindustan,  the  anlheutic  history  of  which  goes 
baek^to  478  A. D.,  extended  from  Bengal — a  part  of  which  !t  included— on  the  n.,  to 
tin?  banks  of  the  Qodavarl  on  the  p.,  and  from  the  coast  on  the  ^.  to  the  river  Oond- 
waiia  on  the  w.  From  Ua  remains  of  sculptures,  inscription?.  &c.,  we  may  infer  that 
iSB  earliest  civilisation  was  high.  The  temple  of  the  suu  at  EanArek— <recti;d  about 
the  12th  c— exhibits  eArvings  representing  the  planets,  sculptured  figures  of  animal^, 
&c.,  which  shew  that  at  that  date  the  p!a?«tic  and  m(H;hanicaI  aris  w«'re  in  a  more  ad- 
vanced s^ate  in  O.  than  they  were  in  England.  It  muinmined  its  pos'ltion  as  an  in* 
dependent  monarchy  till  155S,  when,  its  rOyal  line  hnviiig  b^K'ome extinct,  it  became 
an  outlyiiig  province  ot  the  empire  of  the  Great  Mogul.  On  the  breaking  up  of  thia 
empir«,  the  more  valuable  portions  of  O.  were  seized  by  the  NiEam  or  Hydmhad. 
Tlu'  Froiieh,  who  hid  taken  iKWseHsion  of  a  part  of  the  country  long  known  as  the 
Northern  Ciicarr«,  attempted  to  drive  the  Eugiish  (who  h;id  al^-o  formed  commercial 


f! 


y  Google 


549  gj^:: 

i«ettlementii  ob  th«  cnnst)  ont  of  India.  Tiie  result  of  the  roiilf^  f«)r  pttprcmticy  in 
ludin  betw<!ei»  the  Frt'iich  und  Bnglish  i?  wol!  ki)U\vii.  The  MahnitfiiH.  who  luid 
B«i««»d  a  iKMtioii  of  O.  in  1T40,  were  forced  to  surreiider  it  to  the  Eiiplixh  in  1803. 
The  «tokIien»  of  tlie  Bust  India  Ooinpjiny  were  niarclied  into  O.  at  the  connnencenient 
of  tiie  present  oentnry,  and  nu  enguyentcnt  was  Pubvei^nentJy  ontcrcil  into  betwet  n 
the  CotnpaBy  and ttie  native  c1defi»  and  i>riBc*P,  hy  winch  the  forimr  honnd  tliem- 
eelvra  to  perform  certain  f^ervicea  for  the  country  (ax  mnintnining  the  river-hankein 
e(»od  reitair).  while  tJic  latter  engneed  to  |»»y  n  yearly  tribute.  Of  i  he  many  prineipal- 
it.es  into  wlilch  O.  was  dividt^d,  a  large  number  got  into  arrears  with  tlie  government, 
iittd  the  result  was  tiiat  nnmherrt  of  the  estates  wem  sod,  and  tlie  government,  as  a 
rule,  ik-canie  tlic  pnrchiiper.  Much  of  the  territory  orii^ually  forming  a  portion  df 
tills  kingdom  thus  fell  into  the  hands  of  tl»e  Britisit.  Tlie  ancient  O.,  which  existed 
IIS  an  iiide|ieudeDt  monarchy  for  four  centuries,  and  fliMirishfd  as  a  priitclpatity  of  ' 
tbeM<  gul  empire  after  l5lM^  is  now  hardly  to  he  recognised  In  tl>e  Br^ilf>h  commti*- 
sioncrstiip  of  O.,  with  an  area  of  %8,90l  sq.  m..  and  a  ])Op.  of  <18T2)  4,817,iN»9.  This 
<onntry  was  dot^imatud  by  faniin<*  in  1808— <!9 ;  and  caiefiil  surveys  of  Its  coiist  were 
made  in  1870.  O.  is  traversid  l)y  a  bnincli  of  the  Eact^'ni  Gliants  mnning  )Mirai)ei 
Avith  the  coat^t.  The  Iiill>di(*tricts,  which  nowliere  present  an  elevation  cif  more  than 
8000  feet,  are  inhal>ited  by  the  Oowts.  the  Koles,  the  Sourah$*,  and  the  Khoiidi*.  Ilie 
Khonds  occupie<l  aii  area  extending  from  north  of  the  Mnhanaddi,  soutti  to  the 
lyniks  of  tlie  Godavari.  Their  monutaln-l:aunts  are  admirably  enited  for  <:»'fcnr«'. 
as  the  dii'trlcts  which  they  In hti hit  areahnost  inaccehSible :  and  although  thfy  do  not 
yet  appear  to  have  adopted  firearms,  they  manage  their  battle-axes  and  bows  and 
arniws  with  iin  adroitness  and  courage  tlia^  make  them  fonnJdMble  ene- 
mies. Tiie  Khonds  an^  a  totally  distinct  race  from  the  hihabitantf>  of  the 
Slains,  and  there  is  but  little  rtrsemhfance  l>etween  them  and  the  other  hill-lrii>cs,  the 
londs  and  Sonrahi*.  The  chief  peciilinrities  of  the  Khonds  are,  th»t  their  language, 
which  is  quite  distinct  from  tliose  of  the  neighboring  tribes,  Is  not  in  the  U-aM  un- 
dor:«tood  hv  the  Inhabitants  of  the  plains;  and  that  linman  Pticriflce  formed,  till 
within  the  last  few  year?,  one  of  the  distinguishing  features  of  their  religion.  'I  liey 
do  not  barter  or  traffic,  and  nil  commercial  ir:inf*action8i  are  managed  forthejKhond^ 
by  tlie  Panus,  Domp,  &<•.,  re;;arde<l  by  their  employers  at*  inferior  nices.  There  are, 
however,  no  caste  prejudicos  among  the  Khonds  fudi  as  generally  pre^iiil  through- 
out the  plains  of  Ii'dia.  Agrienitnrc  and  war  are  the  onlv  enii)loTnieMis..  The  re- 
volting custom  of  human  sacrifice  prevailed  un-ong  the  khoi^ds  from  the  earliest 
times,  although  it  was  not  till  1836  tuat  the  attention  of  the  trovernment  wasspcciallv 
culled  to  the  sui'jcci,  at  the  conciusion  ol  an  in^'Uirection,  in  the  course* of  whk'h 
British  officers  had  Ix-en  brought  into  contact  wiih  the  Hill  trilHJs.  The  Klio^nd  vic- 
tims, call  d  Meriali,  were  always  iMmght  wiih  a  price,  sometimes  fronj  families  of 
their" own  trilje**,  who  had  fallen  into  poverty,  but  generally  kidnapfted  from  the 
p'aius  by  mlHcreants  of  the  Panit  race.  The  Meiiah  victims  were  of  l)oth  sexes,  and 
of  every  agtj;  tlionifh  adults  were  held  in  llu;  highejit  esteem.  b«*cj:use,  btring  the 
nio>t  co:*iIy,  tliey  vn'.re  snppos<ed  to  lie  more  acciplable  to  the  deity.  'J he  object  of 
th<;  Hscrifloe  was  to  |>n>pitlate  the  earth^od;  and  abftndant  crops,  recurllv  from 
oilamity,  and  a  general  prosperity  were  suppoMrd  to  be  insured  to  any  one  who  had 
cut  off  a  iKirtion  of  the  flenh  of  the  human  victim,  and  buried  it  in  his 
farm.  I'he consummation  of  ihe  Meriah  sacrifice  was  often  attended  with  circnm- 
ftauces  of  the  most  mvolti»ig  sihI  dismsting  cruelty.  lu  some  cases  the  event  was 
preceded  by  a  month's  feasting,  intoxicaitfon,  and  dancing  round  the  Meriah.  On 
the  dtiy  i)efore  the  sacrifice,  the  priest  thus  addn'ssed  the  victim  :  **  We  liave  liought 
ytm  with  a  price,  and  dki  not  seize  von ;  now  we  sacrifkse  you  according  to  custom, 
and  no  siu  rests  with  us."  On  the  following  day  the  victim  was  made  senseless  from 
intoxication,  and  then  snffocat<'d ;  afttfr  which  the  officiating  priest  cut  a  nortion  of 
tin*  flesh  from  the  body,  and  buried  it  as  an  offering  to  the  eartli-god.  Tne  people 
following  his  example,  hewed  the  flesh  from  the  bon****,  and  carried  tlie  bloody  tro- 
phy to  their  distant  villages,  where  it  was  hari«  d.  In  many  cases  the  victim  was 
not  intoxi^ated  before  sacrifice ;  but  the  joints  of  his  arms  and  leers  were  broken 
with  a  hatcliet,  iu  order  to  iirevent  the  possibility  of  resistance.  In  1887,  General 
(then  Captain)  Oampl>ell  was  appointed  asBi8tant-colit>cior  in  Gan}am,the  adjoining 
district  in  the  plains,  and  with  v.-iried  st)cce»«<  <levotc>d  much  of  his  time  to  endeavor- 
ing to  suppress  the  rite.    He  was  succecilcd  in  184>  by  Major  (tlien  Lieut rnunt) 


Digitized  by 


Google 


It; 


Ori«tano  pi  x  A 

OrlMos  ^''^^ 

Macph«reon.  C.B.  Enconrngcd  by  tlie  fincceas  of  Ms  l.Hl>ors.  \he  government  In 
1845  (•Htablirtied,  nndfr  Mncphifreoh,  li  eeparatu  fm^iicy  for  ttie  f>nppre!*8ion  of  Mi- 
Hiili  f»:»cilflceft  hi  the  Hill  tracts  of  O..  iu  which  he  wji«»  Piiccoetled  in  1847,  by  Major- 
geiioral  Campbell,  who  cairied  on,  with  nudiiniuishtid  Bucced(>,  the  good  work  cora- 
mtMicod  by  M.^trphordoii,  pushing  hia  inquiries  and  exerting;  his  nathority  nmoni< 
tril)es  unvisit'-d  by  bis  prcditcexsor ;  and  reports  have  lM)«n  sent  iu  front  all  part«  of 
thecMinti-y,  8tatiit)f.that  tors*veral  years  Inndly  any  Meriali  sacrUlces  have  taken 
jitice  iu  \h.'.  jrr«at  Hill  tract  of  Ori«»i»a.  In  tl»e  year  1862—1853,  all  victims  retalm^d 
jor  sacrifice  were  demandetU  and  iu  only  one  instauct;  had  the  demand  tx)  be  followed 
up  >»y  force.  Tlie  practice  of  female  infauticid  ,  in  this  district  »r  oae  time  dread- 
fully c(numon,  to  wliicli  attention  was  first  called  by  Major  Macijherson,  has  now 
also  bi'conio  almost  wholly  snppn-ssed.  " 

8«e  *'  K.'poi-t  by  Lieutenant  M'Pherson,"  1841 ;  *»  An  Account  of  the  Religion  of 
'thf?  Khoud:*  in  6rissa»  iileip  In  ihe  Tnins.  of  Awat  Hocietief,  *  1851 ;  Caniplieil'rf 
"P-rs<mal  Narrative  of  service  amongst  the  Wild  'J'ribes  of  KLondistan,"  1864; 
'■'  C  ilcutt:i  Revi.w."  Nos.  fX.,  XI.,  XV.,  and  XX  ;  Kaye's  ••  History  of  the  Ad- 
ministration of  theE.  I.  Coy.,'' 1853;  *  Memoir:  Adnilnistnition  of  India  during 
Lant  thirty  Years,"  1858;  **  ludhin  liecord**— History  of  the  rise  sndJ*rogrcss  of  the 
Opcrnlioiis  for  the  Suppi-es^dou  of  Human  Sacrifice  and  Female  Infanticide  in  the  Hill 
Tracts  of  Orissa,"  (18>4) ;  and  **Oris8a,"  by  W.  W.  Hunter,  Dnector-geueral  of  the 
Stati8!ical  burv  y  of  India,  (1872). 

ORISTA'NO,  a  town,  and  Infeilor  river  port  on  the  west  co:ust  of  Sardinia,  56 
ndlos  north-west  of  Cagllari.  It  stands  in  n  fruitful,  well-cultiv;.ted  plain,  about  a 
mile  from  the  left  bank  of  tlie  Tiroo  or  Oristano,  and  3  mllfS  Irom  its  niontli  iu  tlnj 
Gulf  of  Oristano,  which  is  a')ont  10  miles  in  length,  with  a  breadth  of  6  miles.  It  is 
BHrround€d  by  ancient  walls  flinked  with  towors;  contains  a  cathedral  with  a  great 
clock  tower,  tliu  mo8t  conspicuous  object  in  the  town ;  an  archbishoiVs  palace, 
college,  :md  neveral  churches  ju^l  cotivents.  It  carries  on  manufactures  of  ironware, 
cutlery,  and  agrlciiltnral  ijnplement*,  aiul  a  niimbsr  of  its  inhjibitants  are  engaged 
in  the  tniuiy  nsbery  on  the  coast.  Corn,  salt  fish,  and  the  wine  of  Vcruaccia  are  ex- 
ported. In  winter  the  towu  is  busy  and  lively  ;  btit  iu  summer  it  is  iiuhetUthy,  and 
during  that  season  all  who  can  :iiford  to  do  so,  leave  it    Pop.  2.500. 

ORIZA'BA,  a  town  of  Mexico,  in  the  state  of  Vera  Cmz,  TO  miles  wcst-sonth- 
we!*t  of  the  town  of  that  name,  and  25  miles  soutli  of  tlie  voteano  of  Orlxiba.  The 
vicinity  is  unusually  feiiile,  and  is  covcrd  with  forests.  The  town  contains 
uumeron?  churches,  a  hij^li  school,  and  atj  extensive  cotton  spuming  factory.  Coarse 
cloths  and  tobacco  arc  largely  manufactured,  and  there  is  much  general  Industry. 
Pop.  16,000. 

O'RKNEY  ISLANDS,  which,  with  Shetland,  form  one  county,  separated  from 
Caithness  by  the  Pentland  Firth  (g.  v.),  lie  between  58°  41'  24"  ancl  69°  23'  2"  n*  lat., 
and  between  2°  22'  2"  and  8°  25'  10"  w.  lou'j. ;  and  are  73  in  nnml>er  at  low-watrr, 
of  which  2S,  iKisidtss  Pomona,  or  the  Mainland,  are  inhabited.  The  area  of  th"  O.  I. 
is  610  square  miles,  or  800,147  imperial  acres.  The  surface  is  very  irregnter,  and  the 
land  it*  indtented  by  numerous  arms  of  theses.  TIte.  highest  hlH  is  ttie  Ward  of 
Hoy,  1655  fe^  The  rocks  are  of  the  old  reii  sandstone  formation,  except  a  small 
granitic  district  near  Htromuess.  Prevlons  to  the  middle  of  last  ceulnrr,  the  :»gricol- 
turo  of  Orkney  was,  in  more  than  an  ordinary  degree  tor  tlie  time,  in  a  prfinHivo 
state.  There  was  little  communication  then  witli  the  mainliuid,  and  improvements 
were  slowly  adopted.  The  spinning-wheel,  for  instance,  was  not  introduced  there 
for  half  a  cetittiry  aft«r  it  wtis  in  use  elsewhere.  Until  towards  the  end  of  last  cen- 
tury, little  advance  seems  to  have  hoen  made  in  the  nnuitieeinent  of  the  Itmd,  tin*  in- 
habitants deeming  it  more  important  and  profittible  to  direct  their  attention  to  the 
manufacture  of  kelp.  The  p(>()ple  used  to  suffer  ])eriodically  from  had  seasons  and 
violent  storms,  when  1«b-»  liclp  could  be  affordtxl  to  them  fronv  without.  Iu  1778.  a 
great  Imrricaneof  four  honrs' duration  drove  the  sea-j* pray  over  the  islands.  The 
grain  crop  was  in  conB(M]nencH  wa-git«te±,  mid  rendered  almost  worthless,  and  there 
required  to  he  im)>orted  18,000  boils  of  meal  and  bere,  besides  other  art  ides,  costing? 
^15.000,  or  mwrly  twice  tlie  gross  rentd  of  the  county.  Orkney  was  formeriy  divW***! 
iitto  32  parishes,  having  8  parl»«h  ministers.  It  ::ow  coniains  22  {Hirishes,  forming  S 
presbyteries  and  1  synod,    'i'here  arc  also  at)oiit  80  congregations  belonging  to  lt»e 


y  Google 


XXA  Oriitano 

«^*^J-  Oi>an» 

Free  ana  Uuited  Predbytermn  Cbnrche?,  bceides  3  Independeut,  aud  one  or  two 
othei-8. 

The  tein])enitnre  of  Orkney  U  comparatively  mild,  conRiderfn^  Its  iiortheni  Intl- 
tude.  Til's  arisi^spnrtly  from  if»  beiiijj  Burroniidcd  by  the  eea,  butjghlefly  from  the 
iuMghhorhood  of  the  Gnlf  Strenni  t«»  tlie  we^teni  bIioics.  For  the  ^8  years  eudimr  1869, 
the  moa»  animal  teraperai  uro  wai*46°  ;  the  moau  temperature  of  January  and  Fybru- 
ary,  the  coldest  rnonthn.  89°;  and  that  of  July.  65°.  The  annual  rainfall  VaricB 
^rom  about  2S  iuchtts  on  the  east  side  of  tli«-  I^'es  to  87  incins  on  the  we^t 

The  can7in«;-trade  and  nierchauilJBe  of  Orku«  y  have  ureatly  incnaMd  of  late 
yt-ars.  The  exports  rojue  from  jG4»,808  in  1S48  to  XI 81,483  iij  1861.  Accordiuj^  to  a 
carefully  prepared  returh  in  conmction  with  a  Piers' Bill,  thevalu*;  of  export.-,  in 
18T1,  exceeded  je250,p00.  The  exports  are  chiefly  of  fish  aud  agricultural  produce, 
of  which  cattle  are  tab  principal. 

The  total  acreasje  in  18T5  uudor  all  kinds  of  crops,  bare  fallow,  and  grass,  was 
93,616;  harley  and  here,  6601  acres;  oats,  29,649  acres;  turnips,.  12,201  aires;  pota- 
toes. 3151  acres.  The  number  of  horses  in  1876  way  6614 ;  eiittle,  26,762;  sheep, 
«.  ^^  >->-     rpj.^  number  of  occupants  of  h.nd  was  3147. 

are,  KIrkAvall   (q.  v.>,  the  capital  (nitaated  in  Pomona),  and 


81,898  ;  swine,  4156.    The  number  of  occupants  of  h.nd  was  3147. 

The  chief  towns  are,  KirkAvall   (q.  v.>,  the  capital  (nitaated 

Btromness.  in  which  Iht're  are  3  dietilleiics,  protludnK  upwards  of  20.000  irallons  of 

M'hisky  annually ;  but  Kirkwall  is  the  only  royal  biu^h  in  the  shire,    'liie  vahied 


rent  of  the  O.  I.  in  1653  was  £6T,149  Scot*,  or  X4763  t«terliug.  Tlie  valuation  (ex- 
clut«ive  of  the*bin-gh  of  Kirkwall)  iu  1875-76  was  X60,284.  lu  1871,  inhabited  hou.«*e8 
in  the  O.  I.,  6283;  pop.  31.274.  Constituency  returning  u  member  of  parliament, 
with  Shetlafid,  in  1876-76,  1281. 

The  Orkneys,  under  the  name  Orc^den  [whence  the  modern  adjective,  Orradi.nn], 
are  raentioMtd  by  the  ancient  jie*  praphers,  Pliny,  Ptolemy,  Mela,  and  by  other  clas- 
sical wriiers,  but  of  thrir  iidtabitauts  we  know  alnu.st  uotDiug  till  the  dawn  of  the 
ididdle  Ages.  They  were  niost  probahly  of  tne  same  stock  as  the  British  Celts. 
From  an  early  ]>erii)d,  howciver,  the  Nor.-emen  resorted  to  tliese  is'lands,  as  a  oon- 
venii  nt  Bpot  from  which  to  mtike  a  d<  scent  on  the  Scotch  and  Bu<rlish  coasts.  In 
876,  Harald  Ilaarfagercoi.quered  both  them  and  the  Hel>rides.  Dnriug  the  gr<!ater 
pnrt  of  the  lOrh  c,  they  were  raletl  by  independeni  Scandinavian  jarls  (earls)^  but 
in  1098  they  l)ecame  lo  nially  suhject  to  the  Norwegian  cn»wn.  Thus  they  remained 
till  1468,  when  tliey  were  given  to  James  Jll.  of  Scotlwnd  as  a  security  for  tlie  dowry 
of  hitf  wife,  Margaret  of  Denmark.  The  islands  were  never  ndeen»ed  from  this 
pledge;  and  ni  1590,  un  the  marriage  of  James  1.  with  the  Danish  Princcps  Anne, 
l)ennna'k  formally  resigned  all  pretensions  to  the  «ov«  reijjrity  of  the  Orkneys. 
Durlnjj  their  long  connection,  however,  with  Norway  and  Denmark,  all  trac«'B  of  the 
primitive  population  disappeared.  'J  he  present  proprieioitJ  of  land  are  chiefly  of 
Scotch  descent ;  and  the  inhabitants  generally  are  a  mixed  race  of  Scaudiuavlau  aud 
Scotch  descent. 

ORLE,  in  Heraldry,  one  of  the  charges  known  under  the  name  of  snb- ordinaries, 
said  to  be  the  diminutive  of  a  Bordure  (q.  v.),  but  differing  from  it  iu  beinir  detached 
from  tlie  sides  of  the  shield.    It  may  be  the  sole  charge  in  a  shield.    Or,  an  orle 


coui)ed,  distilling  diops  of  l)lood  proper,  thereof)  a  bonnet  composed  of  bay  and 
holy  leaves  all  proper,  within  an  orle  of  «ight  martlets  sable. 

.ORLEANS,  an  importan^commei^ial  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  department 
Of  Loiret,  aud  formerly  capital  of  the  old  province  of  Orleannais,  which  now  forms  tho 
greater  part  of  the  departmcMits  of  Loiret,  Eure-et-Loir.  atid  Loir-et-Cher.  is  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ix)ire,  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  9  arches,  and  is  76 V4 
niiles  south-sontti-west  of  Paris  by  rsiihvay.  Close  to  the  city  is  the  Frn-est  of  O.. 
one  of  the  largest  iu  the  country,  consisting  of  94,000  acres,  planted  with  oak  nn«l 
other  valuable  trees.  O.  stands  on  the  verge  of  a  magnificent  ])lain  sloping  toward 
the  Loire,  atid  watered  l)y  the  Loire  and  Loiret,  and  is  surrounded  on  tlie  land-side 
by  a  wall  aud  dry  ditcher,  on  either  side  of  which  there  are  pleasantly  sliaded  boule- 
v.-irdsl  Around  it  are  eight  prosiierous  and  itopnlocs  suburb.*.  Among  its  principal 
UiaildiUtti^  t^i^  ^Uu  calUvdrai,  with  two  lofty  aud  tlegaui  towers,  one  of  tha  finest 


yGoOgI 


e 


Gtothic  e^ficttH  til  the  cotiutry  :  tlie  to\vt«r;  hiBliop's  residulice;  the  honSHa  of  Joan 
of  Arc,  of  Agiie«  Sorrel,  of  Diane  iU  l*oitl<T8,  of  Pratipois  I.,  ol  Porliier ;  the 
churches  and  hot»pitnls,  which  are  iiuinenms;  the  inuaie^  tliecitre,  Jtc.  The  town 
contains  thrc«*  8tatue8  of  Joan  of  Arc,  of  which  tiie  e:|ii(^triau  one  was  inungnrated 
In  1855.  'Die  (itTtiariou  of  tlio  town  hu«  many  commercial  actvaiitasoH,  arising  fron\ 
its  posiiion  on  a  navigable  river,  on  liutfs  of  railway  which  connectlt  with  Paris  and 
the  great  tradiujr  towns  in  tlie  ttouth  of  Franci^,  and  on  the  canal  which  connrcts  tiie 
Loire  with  the  Seine.  Hosiery,  cotttm  and  linen  goods,  refined  pngar,  vin<^ar, 
bleached  wax,  leather,  &c.,  are  muimfactured  ;  and  the  trade  is  chiefly  in  stockhigi*, 
sheepskins,  wine,  brandy,  corn,  and  suglr.     Pop»  (1872)  46.S05. 

0.,  orignially  called  uenabtmi,  afterwards  Aureliani  (proltably  from  tlie  Empornr 
Aurelianj,  of  whicli  the  modern  name  is  only  a  corruption,  waa  Ijeisieaed  by  A^tilu 
in  451,  but  relieved  by  the  Romant*,  who  here  defeated  Attala.  It  afterwards  imsi'ed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Franks,  was  taken  by  the  Northmen  in  666.  and  a^raiu  \u  865. 
In  1423,  it  was  1>esieged  by  the  English  under  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  but  was  d<  liv- 
ered  from  the  I)e8ieger8  by  the  inspiriting  ezertious  of  Joan  of  Arc  (q.  v.)t  who  on 
thit*  iiccount  is  alfo  named  the  Maid  of  Orle-ius.  During  the  religioas  wars  of  the 
16tli  c,  O.  suffered  severely,  as  also  during  the  war  1870-41. 

OKLfiANS,  House  of.    See  Boubbon. 

ORLEANS,  Jean  Bnptiete  Gaston,  Dnc  d*,  third  son  of  Henry  IV.  of  Prance  and 
Marie  dc'  Medici ;  was  born  at  Fontainebleau,  26th  April  Itm,  Hepos»9»8ed  ioieia- 
bte  abilities,  but  lii^  education  was  neglected.  On  his  marriage  with  Marie  of  Bour- 
bon, DrtrChess  of  Montpcurfer,  irt  1626,  tie  received  the  duchy  of  Orleans  as  appnuage. 
His  wif<^  soon  died,  leaving  one  daughter,  the  celebrated  Mademoiselle  de  Montpen- 
sler.  Hisbrotiier,  Louis  XIII.,  reirarded  him  with  disiike  as  lieir-presumptive  to  the 
thnnie,  tlu*  queen  h«vin«j  no  children ;  and  the  trejiiment  which  he  rccilved  at  the 
hands  (>f  the  kintj:  and  ofRichelieii  led  him  to  join  with  his  mother  In  Httemptingihc 
overthrow  of  that  minfater.  He  Irft  th<;  court  with  a  nunttier  of  other  grear  nobiifii 
in  Febrnary  1681 ;  simght  the  Bnpi>ort  of  the  Duke  of  Loh-atne,  \yhOi(e  slater  Im* 
married  ;  and  raised  in  tiie  Spanish  Netherland:*  a  colp^i  of  2000  men,  at  the  liead  of 
which  he  crossed  the  French  frontier,  nsi^uming  the  title  of  Lient(^nniit-geuera)  of 
tli«  Kbigdfmi;  but  was  completely  defea.ed  by  Mar.'thf  I  Schoniberg  at  Ca.*telmin- 
dnry,  and  fled  to  the  Duke  of  LoiTaine,  whom  he  thereby  involved  in  ruin.  In  163*^ 
howov  r,  he  returned  to  th?  French  court.  Kicl>elieu  sousht  to  have  his  marruigv? 
¥dth  Mai'garet  of  Lf>rr.iin<!  djclared  invalid,  b  it  after  a  long  struggle,  and  much  ili^- 
puting  among  juriKts  afid  theologian!",  its  valid. ty  was  sustained.  The  duke  was, 
howev«'r,  again  oiiUgtHito  leave  Prance  in  consequence  of  fresh  intrigues  against 
KtchelieiL  After  Richelitni's  death,  a  reconcitiatio!i  was  eff«^ctud  between  him  and 
his  brother,  tin;  king,  by  the  ministers  Mazarin  and  Ohaviguy :  and  Louis  XI FT.  ap> 
poiuttut  him  Lieutentiut-general  of  the  kingdom  during  the  minority  of  Louis  XI  v. 
Mazarni  and  the  qneeu-mother.  Anue  of  Austria,  attempting  to  assume  all  power  to 
tliem^elves.  the  duke  ))laced  himself  at  the  he.id  of  thu  Fror^le  (q.  v.) ;  but  with  his 
usual  vacillating  weakness  and  selflnh  sacrifice  of  bis  friends,  soon  made  termi« 
again  with  the  court  Yet,  when  Mazarin  retunii^  from  bani8limiMit<.  in  165i,  tae 
duke  agidu  assembled  troops  for  the  Prince  of  Cond  ,  U|>ou  whicii  account,  after 
the  disturbances  were  ended,  he  wii»  confined  to  his  Cjixtle  of  Bloi:*,  where  he  died 
ou  2d  February  1660.    He  left  three  danglitcrs  by  his  secoud  luarriage. 

ORLEANS,  New.    See  New  Oslbahs. 

ORLEANS,  Philippe,  Due  d*  regent  of  Fi-auce  during  the  tnino*  ity  Of  Louis  XV., 
was  tlie  son  of  Pliiliiipe,  Due  d'Orleans,  and  the  grandiE^n  of  Louis  Xlll.,  and  wan 
b'irn  4th  August  1674.  He  possessed excelK^ut  talentis  and  made  unusual  attainments 
both  in  sciencH  and  belles  lettres;  but  his  tutor,  Cardinal  Dubois  (q.  v.),  did  not 
Bc**npie  to  minister  to  the  strong  passions  of  the  young  primte,  and  exercised  a  most 
p'Miiicious influence  over  him.  He  gave  him:«e1f  up  to  debauchery.  Thn  king  nnn- 
]> -lied  him  to  marry  Mademoiselle  de  Bloi£,  his  daughter  by  Madame  de  Monteepan. 
He  nstouidhed  and  alarmed  the  court  by  protestmg  againet  his  exclusion  by  tlie  tes- 
tuuieiit  of  Charles  II.  from  all  rl«;htof  succ's»tioii  to  the  throhe  of  Spain,  and  l>y  the 
att^'utiun  which  he  iinmodiafely  began  to  give  to  ndiiiary  aiid  political  affairs.  His 
iiiilit  try  talenl8,  however,  led  to  his  employment  in  the  wars  in  Itidy  and  in  Spain : 
bat  h\»  yr^aciice  iu  MudrUi  after  his  victories  was  regai*dud  witu  mtpreheHfliou  both 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


553 


OrltaiM 


by  Philip  V.  and  by  T^ouis  XIV,  Ho  had,  iiiderd,  formert"  tlie  deoifrn  of  tiikiug  pos- 
tti!<i*ioii  of  tlio  Spaiiisli  throno  for  liirns»«lt.  In  cons*  queiice  of  tbii«,  lie  lived  f«T 
hoinc  vear«  in  coniplute  fxile  froui  tlie  court,  iind  uiucU  dreaded  by  it;  iipeudiDi;  liis 
tinu!  both  in  vitit)aa  excesaei^,  and  in  tlic  cultivatiou  of  the  flue  area  and  the 
htudy  of  chemistry.  This  »t'idy  afforded  a  urctext  to  M<idame  de  Maintenoa 
and  her  party  for  nccueiing  )iim  of  pobouiug  the  daupidu  ni)d  other^t  of 
tJjc  royal  family,  wlio  died  suddenly,  in  nipid  aiiccession,  of  muliguant  fever, 
)!i  1711.  I'hu  king  refnat-d  an  invest igatiou  wiiicli  tiie  duke  den^andcd.  Loiiiiit,  hav- 
ing legitimised  his  sous,  the  Duke  of  Maine  and  the  Coirat  of  Toulouse,  apitointed 
t  iH  Duke  of  Orleans  only  oresident  of  the  regency  and  noi  regent,  giving  the  guardinn- 
pbip  of  his  youthful  heir  and  the  coiumand  of  the  iiouscliold  ti-oops  to  the  Duke 
of  Maine ;  but  all  this  was  set  aside  at  his  death,  and  the  Duke  of  Orleans  became 
hOle  regent.  He  was  popular,  and  his  first  measures  inert  ased  his  popularity ;  but 
till!  financial  affairs  of  the  kingdom  were  perplexing,  and  the  regeni's  adoption  of 
tlii^  scltemes  ot  Law  (q.  v.)  led  to  disastrous  results.  Meauwitile, on  tlie  26th  August 
1718,  he  hfld  tlie  coleiinUnl  Lit  de  jtuttieef  in  which  iie  pmbibited  the  parlianitnit 
of  Riris  from  n^eddliug  with  tinauciul  or  political  affaii-p,aiid  declai-cd  the  legit indsed 
t^uns  of  Louis  XIV.  incapable  of  succeeding  to  tbe  throne.  Dubois,  who  still  poi<- 
se^st•d  un  unbai^py  influence  over  liis  toriner  pupil,  became  prlme-mini-ter.  and 
eventually  ruler  of  France ;  tlie  regent,  who  was  nnHy  a  man  of  far  biglicr  abilities, 
i:eg!e«tiMg  all  duties,  and  pursuing  a  court^e  of  profliuacv  almost  aneqiiall«d  in  the 
worst  instances  ot  antiquity.  His  eldest  daiigliter,  the  Duchess  de  Berry,  followed 
bis  ejcampie,  and  brought  hersclito  an  early  grave.  Dubois,  wishing  to  l)e  made  a 
cardinal,  persuaded  the  regent  to  sacrifice  the  Jansenists,  and  to  compel  the  parlia- 
ment in  1722  to  recognise  tlie  hull  •*  Unigeidtus"  (q.  v.).  After  the  king's  corona- 
tion, 16th  February  1728,  and  \)i«  dentb  of  D<ibois  in  August,  tlie  Duke  of  Orleans, 
although  disliking  public  affairs,  consented  to  liecome  primewinietrr;  but  died  ou 
the  2d  December  of  the  same  year,  physically  exlitMisted  by  Ids  incessant  delMiiichery. 
'J'iic  influence  of  his  religious  and  other  opinions,  and  the  example  of  his  inunor- 
alitiet<,  p<»wcrfiilly  tended  to  promote/ that  state  of  things  whicii  eventually  produced 
the  horrors  of  the  French  lievolution. 

ORLEANS,  Lotiis  Philippe  Josepli,  Due  d',  bom  April  13, 1T47,  was  the  great- 
grandson  of  tlie  pnHjetling.  He  possessed  very  good  atdiitfes;  hut  early  ffll  into  the 
grossest  debnucherii'S,  in  which  be  continued  to  the  end  of  hi«  caner.  IjOuIs  XVI. 
(lisliktxl  hira  on  account  of  hU  delmswi  character,  and  the  "qucHrii  for  his  oblnisive- 
net^  He  became  gradually  estrangt  d  from  the  court,  souglit  |>opularity  ando>>tain(-d 
it,  and  enibract-d  the  cau^e  of  Ajnerican  independence.  In  the  «8s«mbly  of  Nota- 
bles in  1787  hu  declared  against  1lieminii<terial  )>roi>osal8;  and  whfn  the  king  sought 
to  overcome  t!«e  rcsistai;ceof  tin?  parliament  by  a  IM  de  jitsttce,hK  protested  against 
the  prticcrding.  On  the  assenibly.of  the  St^ittfs-General,  he  took  the  popniar  aide, 
and  voted  with  the  extreme  left  in  the  National  Assembly;  seeking  at  the  same 
time  to)*lea8e  the  populacn  by  profusie  exiienditnre,  witli  the  ho)>e  of  being  mada 
Liuiilenant-general  of  the  Kingdom,  or  ))erhaps  of  qpening  for  himself  a  way  to  tiie 
throne.  VVlu-n  tlie  iusurivclionary  movements  began  in  Paris  in  1789.  he  promoted 
them. by  arcret  agents  and  momy.  The  court  sent  him  on  an  ostensibly  diplomatic 
niissTon  tolEngland,  from  which  lie  n^turacd  after  more  than  six  nnmths*  absence,  in 
July  1790,  and  nnscnipulonsly  engag«»d  in  new  intrigues  hostile  to  the  king.  But  he 
b  gaii  to  find  that  he  nimself  tvaifTmade  the  nn-re  tool  of  a  l>«rty,  ^* lio  availid  Hiem- 
8<'lv\:s  of  his  influence  and  w<Hdtii  for  their  own  purfioses,  and  this  di^'covery  cooled 
Ills  revolutionary  fervor.  He  witbdn'wfrom  the  Jacobin  Club,  was  reconciled  to  the 
kingj^aiid  appeared  at  court;  but  was  treated  with  such  disrespect  by  the  cour- 
tiers, tiuu  he  turned  away,  and  fwim  that  time  followed  in  blind  rage  the  stream 
of  the  revolution.  He  joined  Dantqn'a  party,  was  concerned  in  insurreciions,  dis- 
clainM!(l  all  pretcn!<ioi;s  to  the  throne,  renounced  his  titles,  assuqied  the  natiie  of 
Piiilipi>e  Hyalite,  was  addressed  as  Citizen  Egalit^,  and  was  returned  by  the  depart- 
ment of  Seiiie  and  MUtriie  to  Mie  National  Convi'iition,  in  which  he  took  his  place 
among  the  Mountain  party.  He  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  bein|^  it  is  said, 
himself  ttu-eateuetl  with  death  by  the  Jacobins  if  lie  should  do  otherwise,  but  alleg- 
ing his  sense  of  duty  and  his  oellef  that  every  one  who  did  anything  contrary  to  the 
sovereignty  of  the  peci)le  d<Meived  death.  The  vote  was  recelve<l  with  a  cry  of  dis- 
gust, and  by  no  means  increased  the  safety  of  liis  own  position.    '1  he  Mouutuin  party 


y  Google 


cleans  RM 

Ormuzd  kf'j-t 

were  di85«Mtl.«fi<»d  wit!i  bftn,  Iwrntise  he  <l!d  not  give  np  the  whoh*  of  hJs  iramttse 
wealtlj  for  pnty  purpop^??.  Affair  th«  desertion  of  hin  b'>u,  the  Duke  de  Charir<'^ 
(flee  I.ouis  PHnLTPPE),  ihe  decreefor  the  imprisontiieDt  of  nil  the  BoarlK)iiH  was  ni»- 
p1e<l  to  him.  He  \\s\tf  thro^aii  into  prison  with  li»»  faiully  in  Mnraeille,  iind  was 
bronjrht  before  f.iie  trihniml  of  the  dei>artin(Mit  of  Bonches*  de  i:U6n<!  on  a  clinrse  of 
lujfh  I  reason.  He  wtis  acquitted,  iMit  the  Committee  of  Pahtic  Safety  I  inmedhitely 
hrou!r»il  l»ini  he;fore  tlie  RevohiiioinuV  Tribunal  in  Paris ;  and  ou  ihe  6ih  of  Novem- 
b  T  179S  he  wnBcoJidenmed,  and  ou  the  p;nne  day  executed  amidst  the  execratiotie  of 
the  ninltittide  wliicl)  had  so  olten  applnndcd  him. 

OKLKANS  CLOTH,  a  kind  of  ntuff  madt?  forlaAies'  dr^sep,  in  which  the  warp 
i.^  of  cotton  and  tlie  Wi-ft  of  worsted.  It  in  so  call  d  from  having  b^-en  first  nnide 
HI  Orleans  in  Fraucci  bat  it  ia  now  extensively  manufactured  at  Bmdford  in  York- 
aiiiri'. 

ORLOFF,  or  Ortov,  a  Russian  fan^tly  that  first  rose  to  eminence  during  the  reign 
of  PhuI  riT.,  when  on«'  of  its  menilwrs.  Count  Gi-egori  O.,  attracted  the  notice  of 
the  Orand  Dncliess  Cailierhie,  afterward*  the  Emprew  Cath<'rine  II ,  and  succeodeil 
PonJntoNveki  ais  Iter  favorlt*?.  It  \v«w  Greijori  wlio  planned  the  murder  of  Pet»^r  III., 
and  his  bmtliftr  Alexis  who  conimltteil  the  deed,  and  both  received  high  honors  and 
rich  re\va!-d8  for  thin  and  otiier  services.  Tlie  flonrisiing  family  nf  the  Counts 
Bobrinski  re«<nlted  from  (ire^rori's  intercourse  with  itie  empress.  The  legitimate  lino 
of  O.  soo^i  became  extlnet ;  but  Feodor,  a  brother  of  (iit^fori  and  Alexel,  lelt  four  . 
illeiritiiiiate  sons,  one  of  whom,  Mikail,  distinguished  hiihself  in  the  campaign  of 
1814;  and  another  was  Count  Alexei  O..  th*^  celobrate*!  dlplomMist.  Count  Alexci 
was  born  in  178T,  KigtraHsed  himself  by  courage  and  ra'Ihary  talents  during  tho 
Freitch  war*,  negotiated  the  treatiesof  AdHanuple  (18»)  and  Unklart^kel»W!«i  (1838), 
and  represented  Russia  at  the  London  conference  of  1833  on  Uie  affairM  of  Belgium 
and  HoUiOMl.  In  1844.  he  was  pfac<!d  at  the  head  oP  the  secret  police ;  and  the 
ability  and  energy  .with  which  he  directed  its  vant  nnichinery., rendered  him  the  most 
dreaded  official  in  Rnsi^  He  was  high  in  the  favor  of  the  Einiteror  Nicholas,  wliu 
employed  him  in  tlie  n*gotiationa  with  Autria  previous  to  the  Crimean  war.  lu 
1866,  he  sat  in  the  congress  of  Paris  as  the  r(^presentutiye  of  Russia,  and  on  his  re- 
turn was  made  president  oi  the  grand  couucil  of  the  empire.  Ue  died  at  St  Peters- 
burg, 20th  May  1861. 

O'RLOP  (Dutch,  owr7oop.  that  which  mns  over,  or  covers),  in  ships  of  war,  fs 
the  lowest  deck,  immediately  above  the  hold.  It  contains  the  magazine,  bre;id>room, 
and  various  store-rooms;  and  is  used  in  tlihe  of  action  for  the  reception  and  tresii- 
metit  of  the  wounded,  as,  from  being  below  tli«  water-line,  it  is  the  safest  part  of  tlie 
ship. 

ORME'S  HEAD,  Great,  a  headland  in  the  north-east  of  Caemanronshirc,  Noi^h 
Wales,  five  miles  north-north-west  of  Conwav,  is  an  enormons  mass  of  limestone 
rock,  surmounted  by  a  light-house,  and  forming  the  extreme  point  of  the  western 
shore  of  Orme's  Bay.  L  »t.  53°  20'  n.,  long.  8°  61'  w.— Little  OrUie's  Head  forms  tlie 
eastern  extremity  of  the  same  bay. 

O'RMOLU  is  a  variety  of  brass,  consisting  of  zinc  26  narts,  and  copper  T5  part?», 
which  has  a  nearer  resemblance  in  color  to  gold  than  ordinary  Brass  (q.  v.).  It  is 
oxteneiveiy  used  for  castings  of  (>iiiaineat»  for  furniture,  ainqslahrns,  and  such  ar- 
ticles. Wlien  the  casting  is  made,  its  color  is  brought  out  by  a  pickle  i.t  dilate  sul- 
pliuric  acid,  after  which  i  he  add  is  removed  by  water,  and  a  liquor  varulah  is  put  on 
to  keep  it  from  tarnisldng. 

ORMOND,  Jame«  Butler,  Duke  of,  wns  the  first  of  tiie  ancient  Anglo-Irish  faitiily 
of  Butler  on  whmn  the  ducal  title  whs  conferred.  Tl»e  fmniiy  was  of  illustrions  an- 
tiquity. Genealogical  legend  carried  it  back  to  the  dukes  of  Normandy  before  the 
Conquest,  and  it  is  certain  that  at  Mie  dawn  of  tiie  18th  c.,  it  held  the  hereditary 
office  of  rojral  cup-beah;r  or  bfttler.  whence  the  family  ninne.— The  subject  of  the 
present  article  was  iKjrn  in  London  in  1610.  HIa  fattier,  the  son  of  tl»e  celebrated 
Walter,  Barl  of  Ormond,  was  drownwl  in  crossing  the  Channel ;  and  the  old  eiirl  hav- 
ing incuire*!  the  displeasure  of  the  king,  James  I.,  and  l>eing  thrown' into  prison, 
Jrimes.  who  on  his  father's  death  beaime,  as  Viscount  Thnrles,  the  heir  of  tlie  title, 
was  seized  as  a  royal  ward,  and  placed  under  the  gaurdiauship  of  the  Archbiaboift  of 


Digitized  by 


Google 


X  KX  Orleans 

^«'^  Ormuzd 

Canterhirry.  Oil  tb'^  rostorntioii  of  Ms  prnndfutlier  to  liberty,  be  nleo'was  relejiseci ; 
jiud  in  lih*  twentieth  yunr  h>'  nuirritd  bis  vouBin,  L-idy  Elizabeth  Preston,  and  in  1682 
puci^eded,  u]K)U  his  grandfjither*i»  deiiib,  to  the  eijrUlora  »Bd  estates  c»f  Oruiond. 
During  rtie  Strafford  admi I lietration  in  Inilnnd,  O.  di^tUIgui$hed  himself  po  inuch, 
th.iton  Straff oi*d'B  recall  he  recomnleiuU  d  O.  to  the  king;  and  in  the  rebellion  in 
1640,  O.  was  appointed  tu  the  cldef  conmuuid  of  the  army,  Dnring  the  troubled 
llmt'fl  which  followed,  he  coiiducted  himself  with  audoubtt-d  ability,  although,  u8  a 
necessary  consequence  of  tlie  nnnilwrless  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  party  whioli 
tlii-n  prevailed  in  Ireland,  he  failed  to  saiisfy  any  one  of  I  he  conflicting  sections ;  and 
wh'.Mi,  in  1643,  he  concluded  an  armistice,  his  policy  was  loudly  CouOtMnned  as  well 
by  the  friends  as  by  the  enemies  of  the  royalist  p.iity  in  England.  During  the  lonjj 
C()nt(  St  of  Charles  with  the  p..rliainent,  O.  couilnued  to  uphold  the  royal  futeif-st  in 
hi^  Irish  government;  and  when  the  last  crisisof  the  king'?  fortunes  came,  he  r©- 
s'gned  liis  Irish  coujmand,  and  reiinxl  to  France,  from  whifch  country  he  again 
r  turned  to  li^eland  with  the  all  Imt  desperate  design  of  restoring  the  royal  authority, 
and  after  a  gMllant  hut  unequal  strugjrle,  was  compelled,  in  1C60,  to  return  once  more 
to  France.  His  sei-vices  to  tl»e  royal  cnnsc  contimuMi  unremitting  during  his  exile : 
and  at  the  restomfion  he  accompanied  Charles  II.  on  his  return,  and  was  rewarded 
for  his  fidelity  by  the  ducal  tiile  of  Ormond.  Hi»  after-life  was  less  eventful,  al- 
though he  twice  auain  reurnod  to  the  {xovernment  of  Ireland.  It"  was  in  1679  that 
the  well-known  attempt  was  mrde  by  the  notorious  Colon«;l  Blood  (q.  v.)  upon  the 
life  of  Ormond.  As  he  was  returning  from  a  civic  festival,  he  was  attacked  by 
Blood  and  a  party  of  ruffians,  and  was  drajrged  from  his  coach  with  the  intenticm  of 
his  behig  hangtd  at  Tybuni.  The  attempt  drew  additional  interest  from  its  l>eing 
connnonly  supposed  to  have  been  insfgaled  by  the  profligate  Duke  of  Buckingham, 
O  '8  invetenite  foe.  He  «eeai)cd  rninjurcd.  and  lived  till  the  year  1688,  His  httera 
and  other  pjipers  are  full  of  deep  lilstorical  interest.    See  Carttr's  '*  Life  of  Ormond." 

O'RMSKIKK,  a  market  town  of  England,  in  Lancashire,  in  the  centre  of  a 
rich  and  iwpnlous  agricnltnr:il  disirict.  12  miles  north  of  Liverpool  by  the  Laueaehire 
and  Yorkshire  railway.  The  parish  church  has  both  a  tower  and  spire.  Its  gram- 
mar-school has  an  annoal  income  from  endowment  of  jG160.  Silk-weaving,  ro|)e- 
making,  basket -uniking,  and  brewing  are  the  principal  braucbesof  industry.  There 
are  large  collieries  in  the  vicinity.    Poj).  (1871)  612T. 

O'BMUZ,  or  Hormnz,  a  small  island  in  the  strait  of  the  same  name,  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  within  ten  miles  of  the  Persian  coast.    It  is  about . 
twelve  miles  in  circumferenc<',  and  belongtd  to  the  Imanm  of  Muscat  till  1854.    In  ' 
the  16th  c  it  was  laker,  by  the  Portuguese,  and  beinjj  made  by  them  an  entrepot  fur  • 
gO'jds  fiou)  India,  Pereia,  and  Turklstan,  it  becanie  important,  and  the  town  of  the 
Same  name  ro^e  in  population  until  it  had  40,000  inhabitants.    The  town  was  de- 
molished, in  1622,  by  Shah  AbLas,  assisted  by  the  EngliBli,and  its  trade  was  removed 
to  Gombroon  (q.  v.),  . 

ORMUZD  (Ahnnnard,  Auramazda.  Hormazd.  Ormazd),  corrupted  from  Ahiirfi- 
Msizdad,  i.  e.,  that  Ahura  (Ve<lic  Asura)  or  •*  Spiritual  Beinjr,"  wlio  is  called  Ma»la6 
(i,  e,  Vedic  Medhfts)  =*  *'  Creator  of  all  things :"  the  nome  of  the  supreme  deity  d 
the  ancient  Persians,  and  of  tUeir  descendants  the  Gnebres  and  Parsoes.  It  was  at 
flrst  emphatically  einployed  in  this  sense  by  Zoroaster,  or  Zaruthustni  Spitama.  O, 
4s,  according  to  Zioroaster's  original  doctrine,  the  creator  Qf  the  earthly  and  spiritual 
life,  the  lora  of  tlic  whole  universe,  in  whose  hands  ai-e  all  creaturea.  He  is  the  light 
and  t lie  source  of  liglit,  the  wisdom  and  the  intelhKJt,  ai  d  is  in  the  possessiou  of  all 
goq^  things,. such  as  »•  the  good  mind,"  "immortality,"  "  wholesopieness,"  "the 
best  truth?' "  abnudance."  &c.;  which  gifta  be  bestows  upon  the  pure  in  thoughts, 
deeds,  aud  words,  while  the  wicked  are  punished  by  him  acc(»rding  to  th<'ir  wickid- 
ness.  (**F«r  then  art  through  jiurity,  the  holy  over  the  wicked,  tlie  ruler  over  all, 
the  heavenly,  tlie  friend  of  l)Otli  worlds,  Mazda  I  ,  .  .  .  Father  of  the  pure 
creatures  at  the  l)eginning,  who  liath  created  the  way  of  the  srin,  of  the  stare,  who 
«2in«eth  the  mo<m  to  wax  and  to  wane.    ....    He  lioldeth  t'le  <'arth  and  the  un- 


support-ed  [heavenly  liodies?],  the  waters  and  the  trees,  aud  gdveth  swifmess  to  the 
wind  and  the  doitds.  ,  ,  .  .  The  creator oC  the  j/ood  mind,  the  working  good, 
bath  inade  lii(ht  as  well  as  darkm  ss,  sleep  and  waking,  the  morning  dawns,  the 
noons,  J  he  niglits,"  &c— *•  y  azna,"  43,)    Sprung  from  Zarvau-Akarana  (the  bound- 

~    '  Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Ornameatat  im  ?:  r^  (\ 


Ornithology 

bw  timely  L  c,  being  from  eternity,  Pclf-Qxiating,  iic'tlicr  bot-ii  nor  created,  licanites 
within  htmeelf — ^nsiloea  man  and  everytJiiug  else  existing^ — tlie  twoimmeval  ]>rinciple8 
of  good  and  evil,  the  Ci»ento-injiinyu8— L  e.,  the  white,  lioly  spirit ;  and  Hits  AncrO- 
nintnyus  (corrupted  Into  Ahriinan)— the  dark  apirit.  Thirt  Zoroaf^trinu  conception 
of  the  tw  »  Hide*  of  the  divine  being— itself  one  and  Indivisible — iias,  however,  in  tlie 
course  of  time,  partly  through  misunderstandings  and  wilfully  false  interpretations, 
uhdergone  Important  changes.  Wliile  the  Zervau-Akaraua  was  transformed  by  the 
Magi  -  in  opposition  to  tlie  Zendiks— into  the  Supreme  Being  itself,  the  philosophical 
no\ion  of  a  duality  in  O.  became  the  tiieological  dogma  of  god  and  devil,  jealous.of 
each  other's  power,  bent  upon  the  destruction  of  each  other's  works,  and  conse- 
quently in  constant  war  with  each  other,  they  and  their  armies.  Botli  are— accord- 
ing to  tbijs  corrupted  view  of  later  times,  bv  means  of  which  the  genuine^  one  hats, 
been  forgotten  np  to  our  day — supreme  rulers;  both  liave  their  fixed  number  tfi. 
councillor^  (sprung  from  an  egg,  Piut.  Isis  and  0«in«),  who  ore  the  actual  governors'' 
of  tlie  vyiiole  universe,  e;ich  in  liis  stM^cial  province;  which  councillors,  however,  are 
nbither  more  nor  Iet*s  than  certiin  abstract  ideas  of  Zoroaster.  One  personal  arcli- 
angel  alon«:  is  assumed  t>y  the  latter,  viz.,  Sraosha  (Serosli,  cf.  Samcr.  8hmti),  i.  e., 
headuff,  tradition.  He  is  vest<^d  with  v.:ry  high  powers,  and  stands  between  O.  and 
man  ;  he  is  tlie  teacher  of  good  religipn  ;  lie  shews  the  way  to  lieaven,  and  pro- 
nounces judgment  ovcrhnnnui  actions  after  deatlu  He  is  the  persouiflcation  of  the 
T^hoh)  divlue  worship  and  its  ontWiird  mtinifestations,  the  symbols,  prayers,  sacri- 
ftf'.es.  rites.. &c.,  and  the  chief  combatant  of  the  influence  of  the  Devas;  M'ho  stand 
synibollcally  for  the  Brahmanic  religion.  O.  i-*  represented  as  Fitting  upon  a  throne 
of  ^ight,  as  ^venetJible  man,  or  seated  upon  a  bull,  &c.— For  furtlier  i>articulars  about 
ttie  seasons  and  tlie  manner  of  his  worship,  as  well  as  the  general  relations  between 
his  and  the  Bmhuianic  religion  (bath  the  result  of  a  prahl(«toric  conflict  between  tho 
Iianians  and  those  Arian  Droth«r-tril>es  who  immigrated  Into  Hindustan  Proper), 
we  must  refer  to  Parsebs,  Persia,  and  Zoroaster. 

ORNAMENTA'TION,  or  Decoration,  in  Architecture,  applies  to  something 
whion  ii^  added  to  the  simple  constructive  fe.-itiirea,  or  to  the  form  given  to  thosu 
ft^arnres,  for  the  purpose  of  making  them  beautiful  or  elegant.  iHius,  the  Doric 
shaft;  wtiilQnnswerii>g  the  constructlvo  pnn>0908  of  a  simple  square  or  round  i^er, 
is  onramciited  with  fluting ;  and  itaca])itah  with  its  beautifully  pro))ort.ioned  echinus 
and  alMicup,  supports  as  a  plain  slal)  would  do  the  wtM^htof  the  entablature.  Tiio 
other  cMsic  orders  illustrate  this  iu  a  riciier  manner.  Tims,  the  Corinthian  colnnif, 
with  its  fluted  ami  elegant  slmfr,  n  siingon  an  ornamented  base,  and  cro^vued  by  an 
prnamtuiied  capital,  take;*  the  place  of  what  might  have  been,  had  utility  alone  been 
consulted,*  a  plain  pier  of  rubble>work,  with  a  rough  stone  to  rest  upon,  and  another 
on  th»  top  ^  receive  the  load." 

Iu  classic  iirohitecture,  as  in  every  good  style,  the  same  principle  pervades  all  the 
oVnauit'.utat  f  'a'ui'cs — ^viz.,  UuU  theyai'e  cowttruuioe  feature*  ornaniaUed  in  a  vian- 
net  imitable  to  their  use  ;  for  instance,  a  cohnnn  being  a  member  for  supi>ort,  nhould 
be  of  such  a  form  as  to  denote  this— the  constructive  tise  of  a  cornice  Iwiug  to  iiro- 
tect  the  t^\}  of  the  wall,  and  to  shield  the  front  of  it  from  the  rain  and  sun,  it  should 
be  madi;  of  such  a  form  as  to  do  this,  and  also  to  look  as  if  it  did  it— to  express  iia 
j>nrpo??e.  In  classic  architecture,  the  cornice  contiHts  of  several  meinher.<*,  in  wliich 
the  constructive  decoration  is  well  seeu ;  the  mntnles  and  modillions  beautifully  in- 
dicating in  an  omam"ntiil  manner  their  original  use,  while  the  h;af  enrichmeiita  of 
the  snnill  mouldings  give  life  and  animation  to  tho  building.  In  medieval  art  the  same 
principle  prevails  in  a  ranch  greater  dt^ee,  and  over  a  more  complex  qrstem  of 
const rttctlon.  The  shafts,  mi  h  tl»eir  «rcgant  and  pnrpose-Hke  bases  £uid  cap**, 
are  amniged  so  that  each  supports  a  separate  member  of  the  vaulting.  Tlie  areh 
mouldings  are  dividitd  so  as  to  indicate  the  rings  of  their  constructive  formation. 
'  The  bnttri'Sses.  so  eleirant  in  outline,  express  tlie  part  tliey  B<*i-ve  in  supporting  the 
vaulting;  the  pinnacles,  with  their  ornamental  finhirs,are  ttu' d*  corated  aead-weTghta 
Which  r'teady  the  i)uttrej'se9.  The  foliage  and  smaller  ornament  is  aiao  iMuatifnlly 
and  suitnbly  applied,  as  the  growth  and  vigor  of  the  supporting  capitals  and  corliels, 
and  the  nmning  foliage  of  tlie  string-courses,  nrch-muiildings,  Ac,  fully  iUnetrate. 
•  There  are,  no  doubt.,  many  styUs  of  art  to  wliich  these  remarks  can  hardly  be^ai(l 
to  apply,  as,  for  exanipl*,  the  Assyrian,  Egyptian,  and  Hindu  stvi^s  wliere  we  find 
many  features  npp.icd  in  a  manner  meant  to  bi*  ornamental,  ahbough  actually  con* 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


y  rv  ^  7  Ornam«atatioa 

•>Oi  Ornitholofr 

traryto  their  cdnstrnctiTe  nfte.  In  th«««  fttylen  (niid  nli>o  in  Greek  architediire). 
bniimii  figures,  balls,  nud  otlim*  iiniintdn  are  placed  as  coliimni>  to  c«rr>  the  w-ei);ht  of 
a  snperiiKJUiuiHfnt  muss.  Tliici  is  evidently  wroDg  in  principle,  except  when  the  flff> 
lire  IS  placed  in  au  attitode  tu  indicate  thai  he  is  snp]x>rting  a  weight,  as  the  Greek 
Atlantes  do ;  bat  iu  the  former  cases  religion^*  notions  scent  to  have  oYeicome  tmo 
artistic  feeling.  There  are  also  many  fonns  of  ornament  nsod  in  all  styles,  the  origin 
of  which  is  ooscare,  and  rheir  advantage  donhtlul;  snch  aretite  sigzu;;,  chevron, 
billet.  &c,  so  common  in  early  medieval  »ri,  and  the  scrolls  of  Ionic  and  Indian  ait, 
and  the  complications  of  the  Interlacing  work  of  the  Norih  iu  the  middle  ages.  Snch 
tilings  maybe  admissii>Ie  in  colored  decoration,  snrh  as  the  confused  patterns  of 
Saracenic  art,  and  the slicll-pattf ms  of  buriau  art ;  bat  whore  ornam<ntai  fmrm  is 
w:inted,  unless  the  rtH)nirem«'nts  of  the  construction  are  carefully  followed  as  the 
guide  to  the  decomtion,  all  nrlnriple  is  lost,  and  the  ornament  runs  wild.  This  has 
frequently  occurred  in  the  history  of  art,  and  iu  no  case  more  markedly  than  in  the 
art  i>f  the  Reuaissauce. 

The  material  in  use  must  also  have  an  influenoe  on  the  form  and  style  of  the  or* 
nanient  Thus,  stone-carving  uud  metal- work  mnst  evidently  r<*quire  different 
treatment  Fuc-slmile  laaves  might  be  formed  in  iron,  bat  could  Jiot  be  so  carved  in  . 
stoue.  This  constructive  element  should  be  carefully  attended  to  in  desigiiinff.  AH 
imituive  art  must  be  to  some  extent  convuntiouaL  Nattu*al  objects,  such  asTeaves, 
flowors,  &c.,  cannot  l>e  copied  ahsolhtfly  literally ;  ami  in  suiting  the  couventioual 
treatment  to  the  nature  of  the  material  us(4.  Wets  tlie  great  skill  o|  the  artist 

ORNE,  a  department  of  France  forjued,  out  of  the  old  provii»ces  of  Normandy 
and  Perche,  is  seuarated  on  the  north  from  the  English  Channel  (La  Manclie}  by  the 
department  of  Calvadoft.  Arcn.  1,606,787  acres,  more  than  one-half  of  which  is  cul- 
tivable laud ;  pop.  (1873)  393,250.  A  rangi;  of  wooded  IiIIIh,  nowhere  rising  above 
1870  feet,  extends  across  the  south  of  the  d«  partnienf  from  east  to  west.  Nortli  of 
this  range  the  surface  slopes  toward  the  English  Channel ;  south  of  if,  toward  Uie 
Alnntic.  The  principal  rivers  are  the'Orn<«  (which  givOsnunie  to. the  department), 
the  Kille,  the  Stirthe,  and  Hulsne.  'i'he  climate  is  dump,  though  in  general  temper- 
ate, and  the  winters  ar<f  severe.  The  soil  Is  fertile,  but  agrknltm'e  is  not  iu  an  ad- 
A'jmt'ed  state.  The  Inhabltauts  consume  one-tliird  more  grain  pr<>duc<;  than  Is  growu 
on  the  land.  There  are  several  millions  nf  apple  and  p<ar  trees  planted  along  the 
roads,  &c.,  and  cider  is  •  xtensively  made.  Cattle,  and  horses  of  the  purest  Norijian 
breed,  are  reared.  Mining  Is  an  impoetant  branch  of  industrt;  the  chief  prodncta 
are  iron  and  copt>er;  nmrble,  granit<s  and  oth-r  stones  for  nuildlng.are  quarried. 
The  departMvnit  is  divided  into  four  arrondi;<semeut8,  Aleusou,  Ai^utau,  Dom- 
front,  and  Mortagne ;  capital,  Alengon. 

ORNITIKyLOGY  (Or.  or/i<8,  a  bini,  and  /oaos,  a  discourse),  tliat  branch  of  jbooI- 
ojnr  of  which  the  subject  is  binls.  By  Aristotle,  Pliny,  and  others  of  the  ancient-, 
t  hi*  study  was  prosecuted  to  some  extent,  along  with  other  parts  of  natural  history?  but 
it  is  only  iu  modem  times  that  ornitbulogy  luis assumed  the  rank  of  a  distincr  branch 
ofHcit'Uce.  The  first  modern  an  I  horf^  attempt  a  scientific  classification  of  birds 
sei'uis  to  hnvelM'en  Pierre  Belftn,  noted  also  as  an  ichthyologist,  whose  **  Hirtoria 
Avium  "  was  pabllshod  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century.  Some  of  his  classes  are 
very  heterogeneous  assemblages;  hqt  the  first  three,  viz.,  Birds  of  Prey,  Web- 
footed  Birds,  and  Orallo'^  are  so  iniinrnl  as  to  have  Uen  ackuo\vle<1ged,  with  some 
modification  of  their  limits,  in  all  subsequent  systems.  In  the  17ih  c.  much  progress 
was*  made  iu  the  observation  and  dt^scripilon  of  speeh  s,  not  only  of  the  blrtls  of  En- 
rope,  but  of  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  latt«!r  part  of  the  century,  attention  b»- 
gan  to  l)e  given  to  the  auatomv  of  birds.  An  ornlthol<)gical  syi'tiMn,  more  perfect 
than  tliat  of  Belon,  was  proiK)-etl  by  Wilhi«:hby  al>ont  16*^$,  and  afterwards  nmtund 
and  Improved  by  Ray.  On  this  system  that  of  Linn6  \ti\%  founded.  Dniing  the  18: h 
c,  the  progiess  of  ornithology  was  very  rapid,  'i'he  blrd»  of  many  countries  wei*e 
describiHl  in  works  sp.>ciHlly  dev«)trd  to  iheni,  and  the  habits  of  buds  began  to  l)e 
eai-ef ally  observetl ;  but  the  sy^rem  of  Linne,  as  framed  by  him  before  the  middle  of  the 
c;!ntury,  continued  to  |>revail  almost  unmodified  till  tlie  imblieatlon  of  CuvierV  **  Regne 
Aninial"in  1817.  Litham,  Lacepdde,Illijrer,Temminck, and  others,  liad  hideed  pre- 
viou.'«}y  proitotk-d  systems  more  or  less  different  from  it;  and  systems  have  since  l>eeu 
piopos«{d  J^  othtHS  particularly  by  Mr  Vigors  and  Mr  tSwuinsoi^  who  have  endea- 
vored to  accommodate  the  clausiflcation  to  .certain  first  principles  which  they  sup-' 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


OmitborbfnchiM  r;,\Q 

OrpheoB  OOO 

posed  to  pervade  natnro,  hut  wliicli  other  iiatnralistH  iji  general  regjird  nn  fnnclfal. 
The  system  of  Ctivier  is  now  jieneitilly  received  hy  c)^^!hologf^'tp,  ns  that  of  Liiiii6 
formerly  w«8  ;  not,  liowcver  without  luodificatioiiH,  by  which  it  has  Ueen  BOi^ght  to 
accommodate  it  to  the  prosrrcs:*  of  science,  and  some  of  tJie  iiainej*  introdMCi-d  hy 
Othfiranthore  have  obtaineti  very  ireneral  accept aii(.e.  Tire  system  of  Liim6  divided 
birds  inro  six or^en—AecipitrM,  Picat,  Anseres,  QrcUltm.  CMbince,  and  Pcumeres.  That 
of  Ctivier  also  divided  them  into  six  orders — Birds  of  J*rey  (the  Accipitres  of  LiDu6. 
^  now  ottcu  called.  HmptoreH)^  Paaserirui  Birds  (Ptisserinai.  now  more  j?enerally  callofl 
JtiseSMoresor  Perchinrj  Birds,  inclndiii^?  most  of  theLiuuenn  Passer'es^  and  part  of 
RicfK),  Climbers  {Seennsores,  part  of  the  Llnuean  Picas,  ai)d  often  designated  Zygod- 
cuityli  or  ZyqodactyUms  Birdff)^  GaUinttceous  Birds  (now  often  called  ifowrc*.  the 
Liunenn  GalCinoe^  but  including  al>«o  the  pigcjon^  or  Coluvihidce,  wliich  Linn6  placed 
nmoni;  Passeres)^  Stilt-birds^  ofUm  called  Waders  {OrcUlatores,  the  Linnenii 
Grallece)^  and  Web-fo6ted  Birds  (Palmipede^y  novv  also  known  as  Natatoresqt  Swiitt- 
vierff).  These  orders  are  noticed  in  separate  articles.  Perhaps  the  most  iuiportjuit 
luodificatiou  of  Oiivier*8  syet'»m  which  Ijas  been  proposed,  is  the  separation  of  the 
Brevipennes  or  S1r:ithioits  Birds  from  Graltat^  and  their  formation  Into  a  di>tinct 
order,  ^ometime^  called  Cftrsores  or  Runners;  and  next  to  this  niay  be  mentioned  the 
IHOiKwed  separation  of  Columbidce  from G.iUinaceous Birds. — The  progjresaof  ornith- 
ology since  tlie  commencement  of  the  19rh  c  Iihs  been  very  rapid ;  every  d»partr- 
r.ient  of  it  has  l>eeii  asBidtiou<4ly  cultivated,  and  many  of  the  works  published  have 
btM^n  not  only  of  ^re»t  mefit,  bat  very  snnjptuons  and  beautif til.  The  woito  of  Aa- 
duboii  and  Qotildperiiaps  merit  partkalar  notice, 

ORNITHORHy'NCHITS.    See  Duck-bill. 

OROBA'NCHEiEl,  or  Orobancha'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  eiogenons  plants,  all 
lierbac(!Ousi  and  destitnte  of  true  leaves,  hut  liaving  their  t»tems  coverwl  with  brown 
or  colorless  PCiiles.  They  nil  grow  parasiticriDy  ai>on  the  roots  of  other  plant.-*.  The 
calyx  i9  divided,  persistent,  uiferior;  the  corolla  inonopetalou;^,  hy|)Ogynous,  and 
irregular.  The  stamens  are  four,  two  long  and  two  nltort ;  the  ovary  1-oe'rIed.  seated 
in  a  fteshy  di-^c.  com|)osed  of  two  carpels,  wi'h  one  ntyle.  The  fruit  is  capsular,  en- 
Olosetl  within  the  withered  corolla,  l-celled.  2-valved.  The  seedn  are  numemas,  and 
Very  miiitite.  There  avQ  about  120  known  species,  natives  chiefly  of  temperate  cli- 
mates, and  generally  charac.teri.^ed  by  astrln^eucy  and  bitternees,  njwn  account  of 
which  some  of  them  have  been  used  in  medicine  (see  Cancer  Root).  Eleven  S|»ecie« 
are  natives  of  Britain,  chiefly  b(»longiue  to  the  gentis  Orobanchey  or  Bboom-bafs  ; To 
some  of  which  important,  medicinal  ^rtses  wore  once  erroneously  ascribed.  The 
enlarged  ha.se  or  rootstock  of  a  species  of  Orobanche  is  cooked  or  dried,  and  euteu  by 
the  Indians  of  the  north-western  parts  of  America. 

CROBCJS.  agent/sof  plants  of  the  natm*al  order  Leffuminnftagj  suborder  PapiU 
ionacecB,  alilea  to  Vetches,  :iud  sometimes  called  Bitter  Vetch  ;  the  style  linear, 
downy  beneath  the  stigma;  the  calyx  obtuse  at  the  base  and  obliaoo  at  the  mpoth; 
iti»  upper  segments  deeper  and  shorter;  the  pod  l-celled,  3-valyeu;  the  leaves. {an- 
nate, withoiit  teudrilfi.  The  spfciert  are  perennial  herbacewis  plants,  chie8y  natives 
of  Europe.  They  afford  good  food  for  cattle.  Two  are  nai ives  of  Britiiin,  of  whic&  - 
the  most  common  in  0.  iuberostis,  wbor^e  racemes  of  purple  flowen*  often  adorn 
heaihs  and  bushv  places,  especially  in  hilly  districts.  The  .<«teni  is  nnhranched,  erect, 
about  a  foot  high,  with  narrow  u^embranouH  wiuga;  the  leaflets  in  2 — 4  pairs;  the 
pod.''  l()u>;,  cjrliudrlca],  black ;  the  root  creeping  and  swelling  ont  into  tubet  s  at  irreg- 
ular uit<'rvale.  The  tabers  have  a  8W(«t  t^isU^,  resembling  t  liat  of  liquorice,  and  are 
sought  after  by  children ;  tht^y  are  al-o  bruised  and  .ntefeivd  in  water  in  some  parts 
of  the  Highlands  of  Scottand  to  make  a  fermented  liquor,  and  a  kind  of  liquor  is 
made  hy  steeplna:  them  in  whisky  ;  they  are  well-flavored  and  nutritious  when  l>oiled 
or  roasf^ted,  and  arc  used  in  thht  way  in  the  Iligblauda  of  Scotland,  in  Holland,  Bel- 
gium, and  other  countries. 

OKO'NTl^S,  the  aijcient  nan>e  of  a  river  in  Syria,  now  called  NaHr-et-Asu  It 
risos  in  the  biglieKt  p:irt  of  Cosle-Syrla,  near  Baalbek,  flows  northward  betwe^i*  the 
monntains  oi  LilNumd  and  Anti-LtbanoB,  as  far  as  the  ciiy  of  Antioch,  and  then  west- 
ward lo  the  Modlt'i'raneun  Sea,  after  a  course  of  240  miles,  pttashig  by  a  cross  valh'y, 
throusrh  the  monntains  of  the  Svrian  coast.  Its  1ow«t  <*ours<}  is  remarkably  l»eaatl- 
f  ul,  «aciMU«iBg  evDiTtUiiig  tflso  that  can  be  seeu  in  Syria.    Us  rocky  bunks  are  SOO 


y  Google 


f\  Tv  a  Oniithorbyncku* 

^^^  Orpheua 

f'^et  Uiahf  «nd  the  windhige  of  tl»e  river  show  tliem  off  to  tim  ccentept  ndvautiigf*. 
MyrrU'-nn-hce,  laiirelp,  figs,  wild  vineH,  arbutus,  dwart-oatcB,  and  eycnmores  {Acer 
pxtxtdo-platanim)  aro  8carter«'d  about  in  i)ictiire.«(|im  (>oiifiu>iou.  Here  aud  tlierti  th« 
« ye  cahhet*  a  glimpse  of  some  ciivern  nionih  or  ivy-matted  precipice,  wl»11e  from  tl»e 
abyj^s  beii'  ath  a^celid8  for  ever  the  roar  of  tlie  impntient  ftreani.  The  coiiutry  through 
which  it  flows  is  of  great  fertiliiy,  and  in  inany  p:ui8  is  riciily  cultivated. 

OJ^O'SIUS,  PjiuIus,  a  spanii^h  pr- sbyter  jiud  historian,  was  bom  at  Tnrrajrona,^ 
ai;<l  fioiirit'hcd  in  theearljr  part  of  the  Rth  century.  He  went  to  Africaabout  413  a. d., 
wini>.*  he  ra  i(le  the  ncqnain  lance  of  St  AugU}*lin*».  and  tlionce  to  Pakstine,  to  >liidy 
under  St  Jerome,  then  living  ut  Bethlclieni.  He  flnnlly  pettlid  in  Africa,  but  the 
date  of  hi.-*  death  is  unknowu.  Hiscliief  work,  tlie  **Hisforiarnw  adver.-as  Paga- 
no}<  Llbii  I."  btgiue  with  the « reation  and  goes  down  lo  417  a.d.  It  is  apologetic  in 
d<  »'ign.  I>eing  intended  to  refute  the  notion  then  euiTcut  among  the  pagans,  thut  liie 
mJsfortnncs  of  the  Korean  Empire  and  the  wretchedness  of  the  great  ma-srs  were  * 
owin^  to  the  auger  of  the  gods  ut  the  ubctudoninent  of  their  worship,  aud  the  |)ro- 
fauaiTon  of  tiieir  ahars.  The  work  is  a  trivial,  inaccurate  uncritical  miscellany 
of  factj*,  culied  from  sm-h  second-iatc  antiiorities  as  Justin  and  Eutropins; 
tl«e  style  is  elegant,  but  also,  as  Bacon  says,  "watery."  Yet  it  has  ol)- 
tained  a  place  in  literature  from  IwiuL'  a  favojite  tex»-t)Ook  of  nnivewsil  his- 
tory during  the  middle  agen^and  Imd  the  honor  of  l)eing  transl;ited  into  Anglo-Saxon 
by  our  own  Alfrwl.  Some  manuscripts  bear  the  puzzlinir  title  of  "Horme^ta"or 
♦'OrmiPta,"  eon)»ctnre<lby  some  to  lie  «  corruption  of  Or.  M.  int.;  that  is.  "Orosii 
Muiidi  Historin "  (Oro.-ius's  Uiston-  of  tb*?  World).  The*  ditio  princei>s  of  the  w  rk 
ap|)eiiri  d  at  Vienna  in  1471;  tlie  best  edition  is  that  of  Huvercami)  (Lug.  Bat.  4to, 
1738). "  Other  writings  of  0.**<  are  *'  Liber  Apologeticus  de  Arbifrii  Lit>ert:Mte,"  an 
auti-Pelagian  tixatiho,  "Coramonitoiiuro  ad  August inum,"  an  exjilaiu'iion  wt  the 
state  of  religious  parties  in  Spain  in  his  tim«\  See  MOmer's  "Be  Orosii  Vita  ejui-que 
Hlstoriarum  Libris  Septeni  adversus  Paganos"  (Berl.  1844). 

OiiOTA'VA,  a  tow!»  on  the  north  coast  of  Tmeriffe,  one  oT  the  Canary  Islnndf, 
i  *  situ.ited  l)e!ow  the  Peak,  io  one  of  tlie  most  fertile,  pleasant,  and  healthy  districts 
hi  the  uorid.  It  contains  several  t)eautlful  ehurches.  the  residence  of  the  ^pvem«>r 
and  the  ciiadt'l.  Fishing  is  curried  on  to  some  extent,  and  there  is  a  trade  lu  wine. 
Pop.  al>ont  »eoo. 

O'RPliEUS  (supposed  to  l>e  the  Vedic  Hibliu  or  Arbhu,  an  epithet  both  of  Indra 
and  the  Sun),  a  semi-mylhic  name  of  frequent  ocx;urrence  in  ancient  Oreek  lore. 
The  earlv legends  cull  him  a  t^ou  of  Apollo  and  the  muse  Culliop  ,  or  of  Olcagius and 
Clio,  or  Polymnia,  His  native  country  is  Thr;ici<i,  where  many  <liffennt  localities 
were  poitrt^d  out  as  his  birth  pi.:  ce—snch  a.**  the  Mc^unts  of  Olympus,  and  Pantrfiens, 
the  river  Eitipeu-",  the  promontory  of  Serrhlu in.  and  several  citi  ••».  Apollo  bestows 
upon  him  the  Ivre.  which  Hermes  invented,  and  by  i  8  aid  O.  moves  men  and  beasts, 
the  biros  in  the  air,  the  fishes  in  the  deep,  the  tretfs.  and  the  rocks.  He  an  comnaniea 
the  Argonauts  in  tlieir  expediti<  u,  and  the  power  of  b'S  music  wards  off  all  mishaps 
BuddiHjtsters.  rockicg  leonsters  to  pleepand  slopping  cliifs  in  their  downward  xwAu 
His  wife,  Eurvdice  (?»■  Sanscr.  Urn,  Dawn)  is  bitten  by  a  serpent  (?  =  Night),  and 
dies.  O.  follows  her  into  the  infernal  regions;  and  so  powerful  are  his  ."golden 
tones,"  that  evi-n  stern  Pluto  and  Proseipina  are  moved  to  pity  ;  while  Tantalus' for- 
gets his  thirst,  Ixion's  wl'e«'l  ceas«'S  to  revolve,  and  the  Danaides  stop  in  their  weari- 
some ta?k.  He  is  allowed  to  take  h«y  back  into  the  ♦*  light  of  heaven,"  but  he  must 
not  look  around  while  they  ascend.  Love  or  donbt.  however,  draw  his  eyes  towards 
h.r,  and  she  i-*  lost  to  hlni  for  ever  (?  —  first  rays  of  the  sun  gleaming  at  the  dawn 
make  it  disappear  or  melt  into  day).  His  death  is  sudden  and  violent.  According 
to  some  accotmts,  it  is  the  ihunderlK)lt  of  Zeus  that  cuts  him  off,  because  he  reveals 
the  divine  mysteries;  according  to  others,  it  is  Dionysius,  who,  angry  at  his  re- 
fusing to  worship  him,  Ciuises  the  Mentides  to  tear  him  to  pieces,  which  i)i«ce.K  are 
collected  and  buri'  d  by  the  Mupes  in  tearful  piety  at  Leibethra,  at  the  foot  of  Olym- 
pus, where  a  nightingale  ^nga  over  his  grave.  Others,  again,  make  the  Thracian 
women  divides  his  Hmlw*  between  them,  either  frinn  excessive  madness  ot  uurequfled 
love,  or  from  ang«u"  at  his  drawing  their  husbands  away  from  them.  Thus  far  legend 
and  ar».  in  manifold  hues  and  varieties  a;id  sbaiKJs,  treat  of  O.  the  fabulous.  The 
ftdu^  glimmer  ^  kiat^ical  trutU  lii4dai  l^ueaili  ibese  myth«  bQC0Bi«4  cleiurcr  in 


y  Google 


§JS?*"  500 

tboM  reeords  which  spenk  of  O.  w  n  divine  bnrd  or  nrloftt  in  the  service  of  Zngrene, 
the  Thr.neiau  Dioiiysiiis,  niitl  foiiudor  of  the  Mysteries  (q.  v.) ;  as  tlib  first  ma.«!ciau, 
the  first  iiiaiigurator  of  tin;  rites  of  expiaMou  and  of  tlie  Mantle  art,  the  iuTeuior  of 
letters  and  the  heroic  metre;  of  evervihin^r^  in  fact,  that  was  8np|K)Med  10  have  con- 
tribated  to  the  civiHsution  and  initiation  into  a  more  hnmane  wornhip  of  the  deity^ 
among  the  primidvi;  inhabitants  of  1  kracia  and  all  Qreecn :  a  task  to  which  O.  wa.4 
^apposed  to  huve  devoted  his  life  aftt'r  hi:$  return  with  th«  Ar^onante.  A  kind  of 
monastic  order  pprung  np  in  later  tiine!>,  calling  itiMilf  aft<-r  him,  which  combine<l 
wi^li  u  sort  of  enthncmsiic  crt-ed  about  the  migration  of  »oul8  auid  other  mystic  doc> 
trines  a  semi- ascetic  life.  Abstinence  from  meat  (|iot  from  wine),  fr'eqtieht  puriflcn- 
tion-*  ami  other  expiatory  rites,  incantutions,  the  wearing  of  white  garments  and 
siinilar  things— not  aulike  some  of  the  Es^enic  manners  and  cost oms— were  amonfl; 
their  fiindumentiil  rales  and  ceremonies.  But  after  abdef  dniiition  tliebrotliRrhocHi, 
having  first,  duriut;  the  Inst  dnyt^  of  tlie  Roman  empire,  pansed'  tbroos^h  the  ^tage  of 
coiiscTons  aud  very  profit'ibie  jngtrleiy,  sunk  into  oulivioii,  together  witli  ttieir 
^*orpheoteli.«tic"  formnlas  and  sacrifices,  and  together  with  the  joys  of  the  upper, 
and  the  iiever«ending  pani«hmenta  of  the  infernal  regions  which  they  held  out  to 
their  rich  dnpe« :  according  to  the  snms  they  grudged  or  bMtowed  npon  them. 

O.  has  alro  given  the  imme  to  a  s|)ecial  literatore  called  the  Orphic,  the  real  origfii 
of  which,  however,  is  (according  to  Otifried  Ikf  filler),  like  Orpliens's  own  liistorj'. 
'tjinqnestional)Iy  tiie  darkest  point  in  the  entire  history  of  early  Greek  po.  try." 
Like  Olen,  Linnet,  Philammon,  Enmolpns,  Mnsseiis,  and  other  k^eudary  singers  of 
prehistoric  Greece,  Q.  is  supposed  to  liave  been  '*  the  papil  of  Apollo  and  the  Hnses,^* 
and  to  have  firstt  composed  certain  hymnr<  and  sones  used  in  the  worship  of  a  Diouy* 
sins,  dwelling  in  the  infernal  regiouis  and  in  the  initiations  into  the  Alensfniau  mys- 
teries. A  mure  **  al>!»traction,"  as  it  were,  he  was  called  the  M$t  poet  of  the  hero'c 
atre,  and  thongh  not  mentione<l  before  Ii>ycns,  Pindar,  Helianicos,  and  the  Athenian 
trailed ians,  he  was  yet  placed  anterior  to  both  Homer  and  Hcslod.  Tiie  fragments 
current  under  his  name  were  first  collected  at  tho  time  of  the  Pisit»tratid«e,  chi«fly  hj 
Ouoinacritua,  and  these  fragments  grew  nnder  the  hands  of  the  Orphic  brotheihliooir, 
aided  by  the  Pytliagoreans,  to  a  va^'t  literatura  of  sucred  mythological  songs  sung  at 
the  pablic  games,  chanted  by  the  priests  at  their  service,  worked  out  for  dramatic 
and  pantomimic  purposex  l)y  the  drumati$>ta,  commented  npon,  phlloMOphiBcd  npon, 
and  ^'improved "  by  grammarians,  philosophers,  and  theologians.  Although  au- 
thorities like  Herodotus  and  Aristotle  had  already  combated  the  supposed  antiquity 
of  the  so-calk;d  Orphic  myths  and  songs  of  their  day,  yet  the  entire  euormona 
Orphic  literature  which  had  grown  oat  of  them  retained  its  **  ancient "  authority, 
not  only  with  l>oth  the  Hellenists  and  the  church  fathers  of  the  8d  and  4th  jceiitnries 
A.D.  (who,  for  their  individual,  albeit  opposite  pur|)0se8,  referred  to  it  as  tl>6  most 
authentic  primitive  source  of  Greek  religion,  from  which  Pythae:oras,  Heraddtnfs 
Plato  had  drawn  their  theological  philosophy),  but  down  almosit  to  the  last  genera- 
tion, when  it  wa"  irrefutably  proved  to  be  lu  its  main  bulk,  as  fara:*  it  has  surtived, 
the  production  of  those  very  tlih-d  and  fourth  centuries  a.d.,  raised  upon  a  few 
scanty,  primitive  snatches  The  most  remarkable  part  of  the  Orphic  literature  fs  its 
Theogony,  which  is  ba^ed  mainly  on  that  of  Hesiod,  with  allegorising  and  sya.lK)!- 
ising  tendencies,  and  with  a  desire  to  simplify  tlie  huge  Olympic  population  by 
compressing  several  deities  into  a  single  one.  See  Thbooont.  Yet  tnere  is  one 
figure  whicli  st-mds  out  here  prominently — viz.,  Zagrens,  the  honied  child  of  Zcua 
by  Ilia  own  daughter  Persephone,  who,  killed  by  the  Titans  at  the  bidding  of  Here, 
is  reborn  by  Semele  as  DionyHins. 

Besides  the  fnigmeuts  of  the  ITieogonr  whicli  have  survived,  Imbedded  chiefly  in 
the  writings  of  tlio  Neoplatmist?,  are  to  00  mentioned  the  •*  Argonuntica.'*  a  poem 
of  the  Byzantine  ))eriod,  consisting  of  1384  hexameters;  farther,  a  collection  of  87 
orSS  litnrgical  hymns;  a  work  on  the  virtues  of  stones,  culled  '*Lythica,"  Ac 
Other  poems  belonging  to  the  Orphic  Cycle,  of  whicli.  however,  only  names  have 
survived  in  mo6t  Instances,  are  "Sacred  Ltigends,"  ascribed  to  Ceroops;  a  Poem  on 
Nature,  calleil  "Physica,**  probably  by  Brontinus;  "Bacchica,"  supposed 'to  ho 
written  by  Avignota,  the  daughter  of  Pvthagoras;  **Minya^•»  or  Otph«as*s  descent 
into  the  Hades ;  and  other  iwetictd  productions  by  Zopyrus,  Timocles,  Nicios,  Per- 
sinus,  Prodlcns,  &c.  The  nest  etHtlon  of  the  Orphic  rragmeuts  is  that  of  G.  >Herr- 
mauxL  (Leipstg,  1806),    Tlte  byiiius  havtr  repeatedly  been  tmudated  iatoSngH^  br 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


561  Sr'ir"' 

T.  1'aj^or  and  otiior?.    Tlin  cbief  aathority  on  the  Orphic  literature  Btiil  rvumius 
Lubcck'ii  **  Agluoplminnei.'* 

O'RPIMBNT.    S«>eAB8BKic. 

OIIRGRY,  a  machine  coimtmcted  for  the  pnrpoee  of  exlilbiting  thn  motions  o^ 
the  planets  round  the  snn,  and  of  the  satellites  ronnd  their  primarief ,  wliich  ^vas  In 
higl)  rcpnte  durine  the  18th  and  beginning  of  the  19th  centuries,  ttiongh  now  re- 
srnrded  as  a  mere  toy.  It  was  a  combination  of  the  old  Platietarium  (q.  v.),  with  - 
other  macliines  vhich  shewed  the  motions  of  the  earth,  moon,  and  planetarv  satel- 
lites. Though  tlie  construction  of  a  machine  which  would  exhibit  accurately  the 
motions,  distances,  and  magnitudes  of  the  planets  is  impossible,  yet  an  orrery  is  in 
some  degree  useful  as  giving  a  general  notion  c^  the  way  in  which  the  pitinetary  mo- 
tions are  performed.  As  it  was  a  favorite  machine  at  one  time,  a  descrintion  of  it 
mav  not  he  uninteresting.  A  number  of  iron  tubes  equal  in  numl>er  to  the  planers,  i 
and  of  different  dimensions,  are  placed  one  within  tlie  other;  their  leugthn  beinir 
nrrau}^  so  that  the  innermost  tube  pro;  xts  at  lx>th  ends  beyond  tlie  one  next  to  it^ 
that  one  similarly  projects  beyond  tiie  tliird,  and  so  on.  At  one  end  of  each  tube  a 
rod  is  fixed  at  right  anclei't  and  a  ball  or  lamp  attached  to  its  end ;  tlie  lengths  of  tliu 
rods  beine  proportional  (or  at  least  snppo^  to  be  so)  to  the  radii  of  the  planetary 
orbits.  The  other  ends  of  the  tubes  form  tlie  axes  of  toothed  wheels,  which  urc 
connected  either  directly,  or  by  means  of  combinations  of  toothed  wheels,  with  a 
Avincli.  The  several  combinations  of  wheels  are  so  adjusted  that  tlie  velocity  of  re\'o- 
liition  of  the  rods  is  proportional  to  the  times  of  revolution  of  the  planets.  On 
taming  the  winch  tlie  whole  ^>paratus  is  set  in  motion,  and  the  balls  or  lamps  (rep- 
resentmg  tlie  planets)  revolve  round  the  centre,  which  is  a  fixed  lamp  (representing 
the  sun),  at  different  distances,  and  with  vaiying  velocities.  ITiere  are  many  nice 
arrangements,  such  as  fur  producing  elliptic  motion,  but  these  need  not  be  de- 
scribe 

O'RRIS  ROOT  (probably  a  corruption  of  JrU  Root),  the  rootstock  (rhizome)  of 
certain  species  of  Iria  (q.  v.),  natives  of  the  south  of  Kurope,  l)e:ongiug  to  the  di- 
vision of  the  genus  having  beard'd  flowers,  sword-shnped  leaves,  and  scapes  taller 
than  the  leaves ;  viz.  /.  Fibrentiiui^  a  sj^ecies  with  white  flowers;  J.wUliaa^  which 
has  pale  flowers ;  and  i.  Oermanica^  which  has  deep  purple  flowers.  The  flowers  of 
.  all  these  species  are  fragrant.  /.  Germaniea  extends  fnrtiier  north  than  the  other 
species,  and  its  root  is  sometimes  said  to  l)e  more  acrid.  O.  R.  was  fonnerlv  used 
in  muny  medicinal  preparations  as  a  stimulant,  but  is  now  almost  entirely  disused. 
It  is  sometimes  chewed  to  sweeten  an  offensive  breath.  Its  chiief  use  Is  in  per- 
fumery. It  has  a  pltMisant  smell  of  violets,  which  it  acquires  in  drying.  Hair  and 
tooth  powders,  and  oils,  are  often  scented  with  it.  A  tincture  of  it  is  also  used  as  a 
scent,  and  is  often  sold  us  Essence  qf  Violets, 

OR8INI,  PeMce,  an  Italian  revolutionist,  who  is  destined  to  be  remembered  for 
Ms  atrocious  attempt  on  the  life  of  the  French  emperor,  Napoleon  III.,  was  Iwm  at 
Meldola,  in  the  Srates  of  the  Church,  in  1819.  The  son  of  a  conspirator,  O.  nt  an 
early  age  was  Initiated  into  secret  societies,  and  before  he  had  reached  his  twentieth 
year,  he  w»i8  thrown  into  prison,  and  condemned  to  the  galleys  for  life.  The  amnesty 
of  Plus  IX  (1846)  restored  him  to  liberty,  but  he  was  soon  after  again  imprisoned 
for  participation  in  political  plots.  When  the  revolution  of  1848  broke  out,  O.  was 
elected  as  a  deputy  to  the  Romnn  Constituent  Assembly.  He  was  invested  with  ex- 
traordinary powers,  and  sept  to  Ancona  and  Ascoll  to  suppress  brigandage.  He  ' 
signalised  himself  by  the  violence  with  which  he  executed  his  commission.  He  also 
took  part  in  the  defence'of  Rome  and  Venice;  agitated  in  Oenoa  and  the  Duchv  of 
Hodena ;  and  in  1853  was  shipped  for  Bngland  by  the  Surdhiitin  government,  where 
he  formed  close  relatiohs  with  MnKziui.  Furnished  with  money  by  the  leaders  of  the 
revolutionary  party,  lie  appeared  at  Parma  In  1854.  and  afterwards  at  Milan,  Trieste, 
Vienna,  everywhere  agitating  in  the  interest  of  insurretiion  ;  until  at  last  he  was  ar- 
rested and  confbicd  in  the  fortress  of  Mnntna.  In  1856  he  succeeded  in  making  his 
escape,  and  found  refuge  in  Bnt!land,  where  lie  supported  himself  by;public  lecturinff, 
and  wrote  a  book  eiitithsd  •*  Tlie  Austrian  Dungeons  in  Italy  "  (Lom\r.  185«).  Towards 
the  end  of  186T  he  repaired  to  Paris,  witli  the  Intention  of  assassinating  Louis  Nap«.- 
leon,  whom  he  reckoned  the  great  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  revolution  in  Italy.  His 


y  Google 


Qrtova  ft/»g 

Ortona    .  *^^^ 

associates  in  this  diabolical  design  were  persons  named  Pier!,  Rnbio,  and  Qomoz. 
Providing  themselves  witli  bombs,  they  took  np  ilicir  station  in  a  house  close  by  tlia 
opera,  and  ou  the  evening  of  the  I4ih  January  1853,  just  as  the  carriage'  contatuiug 
tho  emperor  and  empress  were  drawing  ii|>,  they  threw  three  of  tlie  deadly  missiles 
under  the  carriage.  An  explosion  tooK  place,  and  sevenil  people  were  wounded,  one 
or  two  mortally,  out  their  majesties  remnlned  unhurt.  The  assassins  were  arresti  d. 
tried,  nnd  sentenced ;  Orsiui,  Pied,  and  Rnbio  to  c«i)ital  punishment,  Goniez  to  hard 
labor  for  life.  Rubio's  life  was  spared  at  tl»e  intercession  of  the  empress,  but  l*ieri 
andOrsini  were  beheaded  ou  March  13. 

CRSOVA,  the  name  of  two  towns  at  Ihe  iron  gixte  of  the  Danube  (q.  v.).  Oi*o 
O.,  a  Hungarian  place,  is  on  an  island,  nn«i  is  a  station  for  the  Dannlie  steamers. 
Pop.  1200.— Nbw  O.,  on  the  Servian  side,  is  a  fortified  town  of  SOOO  iuhai>itauta. 

ORItIEZ,  a  smalltown  of  France  in  the  department  of  Baases-Pyr^n^es,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Gave  de  P:m,  3T  m!l«'S  east  of  Bayonue.  Pop.  (1873)4137.  The 
ca-tle  of  Moncadn,  now  rednred  to  a  few  riiiiied  walls,  overtopped  by  one  stately 
tower,  was  Imilr  her6  in  1240  by  Gaston  de  Foil.  •  In  tlie  immediate  vicinity  of  tiie 
town,  tlie  Bfitish,  und-r  Wellifjgton,  gained  a  graud  and  decisive  victory  OTor  the 
French  under  Soulr,  February  27, 1814. 

O'RTins  (Gr.  straight),  a  larcro  g  nus  of  fossil  brachlopodous  mollusca,  found  in 
tho  Palscozoic  rocks,  must  abundinily  in  the  Silurian  rocks, but  ranging  upwards  to 
the  Permiau  serivMS.    Tlie  genus  contains  upwards  of  100  species. 

ORTHO'CERAS  (Gr.  straight  Iioru),  an  cxteu^ve  genus  of  cephalopodons  mxA^ 
lOBca,  found  in  tiie  palseozoic  rocks,  from  the  Lower  Silurian  to  the  Trias.  It 
is  nearly  allied  to  the  Nautilus,  and  is  iuUeed,  in  its  simplest  fomu*,  nothing  more 
than  an  nnrolled  and  straigbteued  nautilus.  Ttie  shell  is  straight,  tlte  sipbnncle  cen- 
tral, and  the  body  chamber  small.  The  members  of  the  genus  are  the  most  widely 
dist.ribul.ed,  and  the  most  abuutlant  of  any  ot  the  palaeozoic  fossils.  IJeai'ly  200  spe- 
cies have  been  desciil)ed,  but  a  consldeiable  number  of  these  have  l>een  sep-aratcd 
into  8ul>-genera,  characterised  chiefly  by  the  form  and  size  of  the  sipltuucle. 

O'RTHODOXY  (Gr.  oHkos,  right,  smd  doxa,  an  opinion),  a  name  given  by  theolo- 
gians to  religious  opinions  in  agreement  with  Scripture,  or  rather  with  the  view  of 
Scripture  entertiunt^d  either  Ijy  ihe  church  in  general,  or  by  the  Established  Church 
of  any  particular  nation.  Jts  antithesis  is  Hktsroooxt  (Gr.  heteros,  auetiter,  lueau- 
iug  *•  wrong,"  and  doajti,  opinion). 

O'RTHOEPY  (Gr.  correctness  or  propriety  of  speech),  a  braacli  of  grammer  that 
treats  of  the  right  pronunciation  of  the  words  of  a  laugaage. 

ORTHO'GRAPHY  (Gf.  correct  writinir),  a  branch  of  grammar  that  treats  of  the 
elementary  sounds  of  a  language,  the  signs  or  letters  by  wiilch  they  are  represeutcd 
in  writing,  and  the  combinations  of  these  sig^is  to  represent  words ;  it  also  iuchides  . 
the  right  dividing  of  woitls  into  syllables  (as  when  a  word  luuB  to  be  divided  at  the 
end  of  a  line),  and  punctuation.  In  a  more  restricted  sense,  orthography  is  synony- 
mous with  the  art  of  correct  spelling.  No  part,pf  grammar  Is  less  satisfactory  than 
this.  All  alphabets  were  from  the  first  both^'fiefective  and  redundant,  and  there- 
fore inadequate  to  represent  exactly  the  elemeptaiy  sounds  of  the  languages  to 
whih  they  were  applied  (see  Alphabet,  Lbttebs  and  Abtioulate  Sounds). 
'iMie  fii'si  actampts  then  at  writing  any  laugaage  most  have  exhibited  great  diversity 
of  spoiling.  Whir^ver  an  extensive  literature  has  sprang,  ui)  among  a  people,  ana 
language  been  made  a  study  of-  itself,  there  a  greiUer  or  less  uuiformity  of  spellings 
has,  hy  tacit  convention  or  otherwise,  become  established  for  a  time.  Such  was  tbo 
case  with  I^tin  in  Uie  time  of  the  Caesars,  with  HighGkmn^l  about  the  12th  and 
13th  centuries,  and  with  Snglisti  (Anglo-Si^xon)  fu  and  for  some  tinoe  after  the  days 
of  Alfr(>d.  But  although  language,  nn  depicted  to  the  eye,  may  be  fixed  for  a  time, 
the  spoken  tongue,  being  a  living  orgimisni,  cannot  be  thus  petrified.  A  written  lit- 
erature may  modify,  and  in  some  degree  retard,  but  cannot  altogether  arrest  that 
incessant  change  -mrd  evoiatiou  to  wMch  all  spoken  tongues  are  sabject.  Tho 
breakhig  up  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  in  its  transition  into  modern  English,  brought  nec- 
essarily a  period  ot  orthographic  chaos.  Never  was  the  lawlessness  agrater  than 
during  one  of  the  brightest  peiio<ls  of  the  literature,  namely,  tiie  Elizabethan 
period.    Then,  and  for   a   long  time   after,  all  perception   of  the  real  powers 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Kpo  Osova 

OOO  Ortoria 

of  the  letters  seems  to  hnre  lieon  lost,  nnd  notliiinf  hut  caprice  ruled. 
Not  only  were  words  ppeilcd  d.fEeremly  by  different  ]»ei*8(>n8.  but  even 
onionpr  the  best  cdnculed  chisses,  thu  eaiire  |)erson  would  ptpi'll  the  ptime 
word  (even  bia  or  ber  own  name)  half-HHlozeu  wuyt*  in  the  hame  page.  Antony 
the  classic  wrik-ra  of  tb<!  Qiiuen-Aiiiio  ]M;i'iod,  eoiue  dt-gree  of  nnilorraity 
bc^an  10  est^iblipb  iteelf,  andthiu  \\M  afterwards  hii'fbi  r  coiiflrnu'd  and  fixed  by  the 
puTjication  of  Johneou's  Dictionary,  since  which  time  tb«;  altti-Mtioiis  hiive  been 
comparatively  tidfliug.  Tho  ntodera  M)i!lllug  thus  eptiibli8h<?d,  coiifonned  itself  only 
partially  to  the  cliang.'S  the  S|>oIc«'U  iangu:ii;e  had  undeii^ouo.  Of  i ho  letters  1  hat 
had  become  silent  throngh  the  wearing  away  and  collapne  of  the  spoken  word«, 
some  were  omitted  and  others  retained,  wiili  Jlltle  uttention  to  consistency,  or  lo 
any  principle  now  di^cernil)le.  Hence,  in  the  En;;h'sh  hmguagc  as  now  written  aM<l 
si>olven,  there  is  in  general  so  iinpeitect  a  corre8i)ondeuce  bcuveen  ihenoundof  n 
word,  and  tlie  sounds  of  the  si;veral  letters  that  jire  written  to  rei)ie8ent  if,  that  the 
speliit'gof  each  individual  woi*d  ha?,  In  a  manner,  to  be  lejirnecl  by  itself.  By  no 
possible  rules  can  a  learner  be  taught  when  he  PCes  the  gT(>nj)8  of  letters  n-o-w^ 
p-l-o-n-g-h,  e^n-o-n-g-h^  to  make  out  the  sounds  ov  spoken  words  that  these  groups 
actually  represent;  or,  conven-ely,  when  he  itears  the  words  spoken,  to  find  out  wliat 
letters  they  are  to  \\q  represented  by.  This  circumstance  presents  gn  at  difHculty  lo 
foreigners  in  the  acquisition  of  English;  which,  in  otjier  res|)ectB,  isi  one  of  the 
sImpTust  and  most  easily  learned  langu.-iges  in  the  world.  The  orthography  of  Eng- 
lish is  only  to  l>e  acquird  by  observation  and  practice.  There  are  no  ruleaAii  tiie 
propiT  seiise  of  the  word;  the  only  efEiCtive  assistance  tlnit  can  be  given  in  this 
uiattor  is  to  bring  together,  under  some  kind  of  classiflctition,  tiie  words  that  are 
most  frequputly  misspelled.    »e«  Phonbtio  Writing. 

ORTHO'P'rBRA  (Qr.  stralgljt-wlnged).  an  o»der  of  n^andilnilafe  insects,  in  many 
respects  resembling  the  Ooiwptera  (c,  v.),  but  having  the  wing^  covers  softer  and  gen- 
eruhy  leathery  and  flexible*  Th«  wine^-eovers  also  often  ovurtap  on  the  back  whvn  nt 
rest,  or  meet  at  an  anjj^e  like  the  roof  of  a  liouse.  The  wings  are  brojidcr  than  t,he 
wing-covers,  and  fold  in  a  fan-like  manner.  >  A  few  species  are  wingless.  The  body 
irgenerally  elongated.  The  antennw  are  almost  always  filiform  and  many-jointed. 
/J'he  eyes  are  usually  very  large,  and  there  are  also  in  most  sp<xies  two  or  three  steut- 
inaiic  eyes.  The  month  much  resembles  that  of  il>e  Coleoptera,  but  the  imizillK  are 
t<'nninated  by  a  horny  denticulated  piece,  and  covered  by  a  <7a/««;  and  the  intA.*rlor 
of  the  mouth  exhibits  a  distinct  fl'shy  plec^,  which  some  r^aird  as  a  kind  of  tongue, 
llie  O.  undergo  only  a  semi-complete  metamorpliosis,  the  larva  and  papa  mncit  I'e- 
sembliufl  tlie  perfect  insect,  except  in  the  want  of  wings ;  which,  however,  bt  gin  to 
be  dHveK)ped  m  the  pnpa.  The  Earwig  family  differs  so  much  from  ti»e  other  O.  as 
to  have  been  constituted  by  some  entomologists  into  a  distinct  order.  See  Eabwio. 
The  O.  are  divided  into  two  sections,  Curmria  and  Saltatoria;  the  first  with  ]egs 
adapted  for  running,  as  the  Mantis  family,  Spectre  Insects,  Walking  Sticks,  Leaf 
Insects.  Ac;  the  second  having  the  hinder  legs  very  lar^e  and  strong,  generally 
adapted  for  leapijig,  as  Grasshoppers,  Locusts,  Crickets,  £c 

OR'TOLAN  {Xmbei'iza  kortutana),  a  species  of  Bunting  (q.  v.),  much  resembling  • 
the  Yellow  iiammer,  and  not  quite  equal  to  it  in  size.  The  adult  male  bnsthe  back 
reddish  brown,  tiie  wings  dusky  black  and  rufous  brOwn  ;  the  tail  dusky  l)]aclc,  some 
of  the  outer  taii-featliers  with  a  patch  of  wliite  on  the  broad  inner  wvb ;  the  chin, 
throat,  and  upper  part  of  the  breast  yellowish-green :  the  other  under  part»  i-eudisli* 
buff-color.  The  plumage  of  the  female  is  of  less  vivid  hues.  The  O.  occurs  in  great 
ffocks  \ii  the  sonm  of  Europe  and  nort1»  Of  Africa.  Even  in  the  south  of  Em^i^e  it  is 
a  summei' bird  of  passage,  hut  its  migrations  extend  as  far  north  as  Lapland,  al- 
though in  Britain  it  is  a  very  iiire  mrd,  and  only  of  accidental  occnrrei.ce.  It  bus 
.no  song,  l>ut  merely  a  monotonous  chirpint:  note.  It  frequents  bushy  places,  but 
often  makeff  its  nest  on  the  ground  in  cornneRls,  particnlarly  wliere  th«'  soil  is  sjindy. 
No  bird  is  so  highly  esteemew  by  epicures,  and  vast  numl)ers  are  used  for  the  table. 
ItiM  taken  chiefly  by  nets,  with  tlie  aid  of  decov-bii"ds,  and  after  being  taken  is  fat- 
tened on  millet  and  oats,  m  rooms  dindy  lighted  by  lamps.  Thus  treated,  it  liecomcs 
excessively  fat,  sometimes  so  as  I o  die  of  obesity;  and  attains  a  Weiifht  of  three 
ounces.    Qreht  nunibei-s  of  ortolans,  pdtted  and  pickled,  aie  exported  from  Cj'prus. 

OHi'O'NAi  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  on  the  Adriatic,  in  the  province  of  Chieti,  14  iniles 
e.  of  the  town  of  that  name,  and  8  miles  n.  of  LancianO.    "  "' 


uiO.    It  gives  title  to  a  bishr- 

y  Google 


olSJia  564 

Hjnd  contains  a  cathedral  and  other  r  llgions  edifices.  Tr«  port  litis  censed  to  exist, 
uiid  vessels  are  now  uhliirvd  to  aiiclior  al>ont  a  mile  frum  the  town  iu  nusiieltonxi 
roads,  where,  Uowtjver,  the  water  is  deep  and  the  l)ottuin  good.  Wine  is  extennlvfly 
grown,  and  lias  a  local  reputation  as  ihe  lient  iu  this  part  of  Italy.    Pop.  about  7000. 

O'RTYX.    See  ViBaiNiAN  Quail. 

ORU'RO.  or,  in  ttie  complete  form  pf  the  name,  San  Felipe  de  Aaturia.  de  Oriero, 
a  town  of  Bolivia,  t)ie  capital  of  the  d«p.  of  Oruro.  It  is  sltttjitud  about  nine  miles 
<'a»t  from  D^'sagmmero,  and  82  mVcA  north  from  the  nortiieru  extremity  of  the  salt 
lake  of  De.'«a!;uadero,  on  an  affluent  of  the  river  of  the  same  name  which  fails  into 
t^at  hike  It  is  12,015  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  at  the  base  of  a  veiy  higli 
mountain  ;  but  on  the  other  side  of  the  town  is  a  large  plain,  often  <  overed  with 
paline  efflorencences.  The  soil  of  the  wliole  dijpjirtment  is  saline,  and  far  from  bi*- 
iiig  fertile,  but  its  mineral  wealth  is  great.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  tin.  lion,  fead,  and 
antimony  are  among  its  pi'oducts.  O.  was  fuundt*d  in  1690,  in  couseinence  of  the 
discovery  of  silver  mines,  which  proved  more  productive  than  any  in  Lolivia,  except 
tho-e  of  Potosi.  It  soon  beaime  a  wealthy  and  flourishing  city  with  70,000  inhul)i- 
tunts;  but  in  consequence  of  the  diminished  productivunet*8  of  its  mines,  and  of  tlie 
anarchy  prevailiutr  iu  the  country  after  the  Revolution,  it^s  population  declined,  and 
is  now  only  7930.  It  has  recently  been  made  the  seat  of  the  Bolivian  governmeutt 
and  the  place  of  meeting  of  congress. 

ORVIK'TO,  a  city  in  tlie  province  of  Umbria  (Perugia),  wliich  was  included  ia 
the  former  Papal  States,  but  now  forms  part  of  the  kiutrdom  of  Italy,  stands  on  the 
right  l)ank  of  the  Paglta,  8  miles  uortii-east  of  Lake  Bolseua,  aud  60  miles  north- 
north-west  of  Rome.  It  occupies  a  strong  position  on  a  steep  hill,  is  well  built,  and 
is  surrounded  with  walls.  It  has  been  the  seat  of  a  bishop  since  609  A.D.  The 
cathedral,  a  lieautiful  specimen  of  tiie  Italian  Gothic,  and  one  of  tiie  most  richly- 
decorated  edifices  in  Italy,  is  built  of  black  and  white  marl>Ie,  was  begun  in  1290, 
aud  conipleied  al)Out  tlie  middle  of  the  Utii  ceutury.  The  fagade  is  nnsuriiassed  in 
rich'uess  of  material,  and  iu  the  beauty  of  its  mosaics,  sculptures,  and  elaborate 
omamentatiou.  The  interior  is  also  magnificently  decorated  with  s^ulptnreH  and 
paiutiug;<.  The  other  chief  buildings  ar««  St  Patrick's  Well,  and  seventl  palaoes. 
Pop.  7600,  who  trade  in  com,  cuttle,  and  silk,  aud  a  delicate  white  wiue,  which  is 
highly  esteemed  at  Home. 

O.,  caUcd  in  the  time  of  the  Longobard^^  Urba  .Fetu«— of  which  its  present  name 
is  a  corraption— has  l>eeu  the  place  of  renidenct)  aud  retreat  iu  turbuieut  times  of 
nplvards  of  80  popes.  The  city  is  evidently  of  Etruscan  origiu,  but  of  its  early  hi»- 
tory  uotliing  is  known. 

-  O'RYX,  the  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  a  species  of  antelope,  a  native  of  the 
north  of  Africa.  It  is  often  represented  on  the  iiionuments  of  Egypt,  and  tts  these 
representations  are  almost  always  in  profile,  it  is  generally  made  to  appear  as  having 
only  (me  horn,  thus  probably  Cdutribntiug  to  the  f aide  of  the  unicorn ;  and,  indeed, 
all  the  older  figures  of  the  unicorn  exiiibit  a  considerable  resemblance  to  this  kind  of 
aut(!lope.  Tlie  name  AntUope  oryx  was  given  by  Pallas  to  the  Gems-boc  (q.  v.).  an 
aiiteli>pe  certainly  much  resembling  the  O.,  but  found  only  in  South  Africa:  and  It  is 
now  generally  believed  liiat  the  true  O.  ot  the  aneientBis  a  species  also  known  as 
the  AbOAZBL  {Aiitiiope  Oaxella,  or  Oryx  begoarUea)^  common  iu  the  north  of  Africa^ 

ORY'ZA.    SeeRicB.  '4 

OSA'CA.  or  Ozaka,  a  dty  in  Japan,  in  n.  Lat,  35<^  5',  about  90  miles  from  its  I 
seaport  of  Uiogo,  is  situated  on  a  large  river  on  the  south-east  coast  of  Ui«  main 
inland,  iu  the  most  central  and  populous  jmrt  of  the  empire,  and  surrounded  by  the 
great  tea  distticts.  O.  is  oue  of  the  three  impu'rial  cities  of  Japau,  and  ia  a  great  cen- 
tre of  trade :  espechUly  since  1863,  when  it  became  possible  for  foreigners  to  settle. 
Tlie  town,  dean  and  regularly  built,  is  hiter^tcdby  utunerous  streams,  spanued  by 
hundreds  of  wooden  and  iron  bridges.  Some  of  the  public  buildings  are  imposing 
s^'uctures,  such  as  the  municipal  hall  and  tiie  new  mint.  The  latter  is  equipped 
with  the  finest  obtainable  apparatus  ;  tmd  of  late  much  foreign  machinery  has  been 
introduced  into  U.,  to  the  great  advancement  of  its  manufactures.  Brides  very 
niinierons  Buddhist  and  other  temples,  there  are  iu  O.  two  Christian  churches,  a  gov^ 
crnment  college,  an  aciuiemy,  and  72  public  schools.    The  town  is  connected  by 


y  Google 


railway  mitli  Hiogo  and  with  Kioto  {«ee  Miako),  «7  inilee  fnrther  iiilaud.  Pop.  (1872) 
873f(A0.  Ih  1873,  tiie  foreign  itupotts  were  vulued  at  £84,76U;  the  exports  at  £184,- 
7M. 

OSAGE  ORANGE  {Madura  aurantiaca\  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Moraceoi,  a 
native  of  Nortii  America.  It  attuiiis  a  height  varying,  ticcurdiug  to  soil  and  eitiiu- 
tion,  from  twenty  to  nixty  feet.  It  la  of  the  same  genui»  witii  Fustic  (q.  v.),  and  it« 
wood,  whicli  is  bright  yellow,  might  probably  l>d  uised  fur  dyiiug.    Tlie  wood  is  flnt- 

f grained  and  very  elut<tic.  and  U  much  oped  by  the  North  American  Indians  for  mnkiutf 
)OWf>.  Tiie  O.  O.  has  been  sutxecisfully  introduced  into  Britain  vis  a  hedge  pianf 
Iti*  frd^t  is  a!K>nt  the  size  of  ;i  larire  oran{;e,  ilias  a  ttil)ercu.aieri  surface  of  a  goldui 
color,  and  is  filled  Internally  with  radiating  somewhat  woody  fibres,  and  with  a 
yellow  milky  juice,  the  odor  of  whicli  is  generally  disliked,  so  that  the  fruit,  al- 
thouifh  not  unwholesome.  Is  seldom  eattn. 

O'SBORNB  or  St  Helen's  Beds  are  a  series  of  strata  of  the  Middle  Eocene  period, 
oecurriny;  in  ttie  Isle  of  Wight.  Tiny  have  been  divided  into  two  gronns:  1.  llie 
8t  Ht*len*8  Sands,  consisting  of  layers  of  white,  green,  and  yellow  sands,  interstrati- 
fled  with  blue,  white,  and  yellowish  clays  and  maris,  with  a  maximum  thickness  of 
66  feet;  and,  S.  the  Nettlentoiie  Gilts,  composed  of  yellow  limestone  and  marl,  and 
a  shellv  freetttone.  which  is  much  used  for  onilding,  having  a  maximniu  thickness 
of  aO  feet.  The  fossils  of  the  Osboi-ne  Beds  are  S}>ecies  of  Palndina  and  Cyuils,  and 
the  spirally  senl)>tnred  spore-cases  of  Chara.  The  group  is  of  fresh  and  brackish 
water  ori)^,  ami  is  very  variable  in  mineral  character  and  thickness. 

OSCAR  I.,  Joseph-Francis,  king  of  Swi  den  and  Norway,  was  bom  at  Paris  July 
4,  1799,  and  was  the  only  ixKuu  of  the  nuirriage  of  Charles  XIV.  (q.  v.),  formerly 
lUarshal  B<rnadotte,  with  Desir6c  Clary,  the  daughter  of  aMarseillais  merchant,  and 
si8t4-r  of  Madame  Joseph  Bonaparte.  After  the  election  of  his  father  as  crown-prince 
of  Sweden,  O.  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Sudermauia,  and  was  placed  undi^r  the 
tutelage  of  the  poet  Atterbom,  for  the  purpose  ol  acqairing  the  Swedish  languaire. 
Li  1818  he  entered  the  nnivernlty  of  Upsala,  where  his  edocatiou  was  comoieted. 
The  effects  of  the  thorough  training  he  received  were  seen  in  his  remarkable  pro- 
ficiency In  science,  literature,  and  tispe<ially  the  fine  arts.  For  some  time  he  gave 
himself  up  almost  entirely  to  the  Study  of  music,  and  comik>sed  various  pieces,  iir-  . 
eluding  an  0|>ern,  and  8<veral  waltzi  s,  marches  &c. ;  he  is  also  the  author  of  several 
soiii;s  and  hymns  some  of  wiii'-h  are  still  poiiular.  He  also  published  memoirs  oil 
E<1u(ation  and  Peinil  Eiitahlishmeuts.  What  is  of  more  cons^uence,  he  l)ecanu$ 
thoroughly  imbued  with  the  national  sentiments,  and  after  his  admission  to  a  share 
in  the  adiiunistration,  opposed,  though  with  becoming  filial  respect,  the  pro-Russian 
polic>v  of  his  father.  Tins  course  of  conduct  rendei-ed  him  immensely  popular,  and 
on  March  8, 1844.  his  accession  to  the  throne  was  hailed  with  rapture  uy  the  great 
majority  of  his  subjects.  His  rule  was  distinguished  for  its  lll)erality  and  justice; 
and  many  liberal  measures,  such  as  those  for  Uie  removal  of  Jewish  disabilities, 
freedom  of  mannfactun  s  and  comu>rro«,  and  parliamentary  reform  (tiie  last-men* 
tioned  being  vigorously  opposed  by  the  nobihty),  were  laid  betore  the  Riksdag  by 
his  or^ert*.  He  introduced  these  changes  with  caution  and  gent leness,  and  had  the 
gratiflcatiou  of  seeing,  in  most  uises,  liis  prudence  cn>wnedwith  success.  His  for- 
eign policy  was  of  an  independent  and  auii-Russlaii  character,  and  during  the 
Crimean  war  he  joine«l  (November  8i,  1S65)  the  king  of  Denmark  in  a  declaration  of 
armed  neutrality,  which  gradually  assumed  a  more  hostile  attitude  to  Riinsia,  and 
woiihl  have  inevitably  l«d  to  war,  had  not  the  Parif  treaty  so  rapidly  succeeded.  His 
aHitnde  at  this  tim«  eained  htiii  general  favor  and  res|)ect  throughout  Europe.  On 
July  19.  1828,  he  marrT«>d  Josf-phine  Beauharnais,  the  granddaughter  ctf  the  Bnlpre^s 
Josephine,  by  whom  he  bad  five  children,  the  eldest  of  whom,  on  account  ot  his 
father's  failing^ health,  was  appointed  regent,  Septcml>er  25,  1867,  and  succeeded  to 
the  throne  as  Charies  XV.,  on  the  death  of  O.,  July  8, 1869.  Charles  XV.  died  18ih 
September  1872.  and  was  ^ncceeded  by  his  brother  as  Oscar  II. 

OSCEO'LA  (Seminole,  Aa-^'hoAar),  a  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Seminole  Indians  in 
Florida,  U.  S.,  was  born  about  1803.  He  was  the  son  of  an  English  trader,  n.mied 
Powell,  and  the  daughter  of  a  Seminole  chief.  In  1836  the  wife  of  O.,  a  chief's 
dangliter,  wan  claimed  and  seizi  d  as  a  sla^e  by  the  owner  of  her  mother.  The  out- 
liig^  husband  threatened  revenue,  and  for  his  threats  was  imprlsoMed  six  d;iys  in 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


irou.4  by  Gciicral  'JlioinpHoii, .  Lying  in  wnit,  a  f<tw  days  afterwardB  he  kiUtj^  tlie 
geiicraf  and  iour  othera.  Tliis  \> ae  lue  bei^uuiug  tUe  second  SiMiiiiioIe  wnr.  Layiue 
a'l  anibnsli  soon  after,  be  killed  M/rjor  Dale  and  a  small  duiaclimou^  of  soldiers,  and 
taking  to  the  almoHt  impenetrable  Evei-gladei*.  with  two  or  three  hundred  tollowera, 
he  fought  fora  year  wiih  great  energy  and  pklll  ibe  suiK-Mior  uunibera  seut  agaiu^t 
liini.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  l;ist  by  General  Jissnp,  while  holding  a  conference 
under  a  flag  of  truce,  an  act  of  inexcusj»l)le  treachei-y,  though  represented  as  one  of 
retaliation,  and  confined  in  Port  Moultrie  until  his  death  in  January  1838. 

O'SCHERSLEBEN,  or'  (Jross-Osehert^lebt'n,  a  town  of  Prussian  Stpcony, 
on  the  leit  bank  of  the  B  de,ji  brunch  of  the  Suale,  22  miles  west-80Uth>westfrum 
Magdeburg.    Pop.    (18T5)  7»27.  * 

O'SCI,  originally  Opsci  (rendered  by  Mommsen,  "  laborers, **  froraoptM.  a  work), 
in  Greek  always  0)>1koi,  the  name  of  an  Italian  |)eople.  who  at  an  early  period  oc- 
cupied Campania,  and  were  eiiher  closely  allied  to,  or  tlte  same  ra<re  as  the  Auvodi  a. 
Sub.-equentfy  (about  423  b^  )  Sanuiites  from  tJie  hilly  di  trictsj  to  the  north  overrun 
the  counti-y.  and  amalgaunited  with  the  inhabitants  whom  they  had  subjugated,  it 
U  coijjectiired  that  the  conquerors  were  few  in  iiunil)erH,  as  (like  the  Norinaim  in 
English  history)  the^  adoj»ted  in  time  the  language  of  the  conquered,  but  whet  her 
they  modified  the  original  Oscan  lauKuaire,  and  if  so,  to  what  extent,  cannot  now  !« 
ascei'taimd.  As  it  was  the^e  Samnitic  Oscansor  Camponians  who  formed  that  Sam- 
.  nttic  pt!Ople  with  whom  both  the  Greeks  of  Lower  Italy  and  the  Romans  first  came 
into  contact,  the  names  Onci  and  Oscan  langvage  were  subsequently  applied  to  all  the 
other  races  and  dialect*  wljose  oij^in  was  nearly  or  wholly  the  same.  Tlie  O^cah 
language  was  not  subj^tantially  difterent  from  th.j  liatin,  but  only  a  ruder  and  more 
prindtive  form  of  the  sam.r  central  Itnlic  tongue.  Tlie  territory  where  It  was 
pj)ok(;n  comprised  tlie  countries  of  the  Samnites,  Prcntani,  Northern  Apdlians, 
Hlr|)inl,  Campani,  Lucani,  Brutiii,  and  Mamertiul,  whose  dialects  only 
slightly  differed  from  each  oHier;  besides  the  entire  Samnitic  races,  whence  ilio 
language  is  someiimes  called  Samnitic  or  Safinic.  The  races  situated 
north  of  the  Sllarus  were  purely  Samnitic ;  those  south  of  it,  and  ev«-n  of  the  regioji 
round  the  Gulf  of  Naples,  were  Gneco-Sanmitic.  The  use  of  ihe  national  Samnitic 
alphabet  was  confined  to  the  former.  By  the  victories  of  the  Romans  over  the 
Samuites.  and  the  conferring  of  the  eiviUiA  on  all4he  Italians  (88  B.C.),  an  end  was 
put  to  the  ofl!cial  use  of  the  Oscan  tongue;  nevertheless,  in  the  time  of  Varro  (Ist 
c.  B.C.)  it  was  still  used  by  the  people,  and  as  late  as  the  destruction  of  Hercnlaneum 
and  Pompeii  was  si)Oken  l>y  a  few  indlvidunls.  During  its  most  flourishinjr  i)eriod 
it  was  something  more  than  a  country  paUns;  it  is  even  |)Ossible  that  the  Oscans Jiad 
a  literature  and  art  of  their  own,  which  may  not  Imve  be<m  without  iuflueijce  on  the 
early  Oalabrian  |>oets,  Eunius  and  Pacuvins,  and  the  Campanian  Lncilius.  At  any 
rate,  we  certainly  know  of  a  poetic  creatit  n  peculiar  to  the  Cainpanlaus,  a  kind  of 
unwritten,  regular,  probably  improvised  farce,  with  fixed  parts  and  changing  situa- 
tions, which  were  transplanted  to  Rome  about  304  B.C.,  but  was  imitated  there  not 
in  Oscan  but  in  Latin.  See  Atbllan^.  Besides  a  consideratile  number  of  coins 
witii  Oscan  Icgemls.  there  ai-e. still  extant  a  numl>er  of  inscriptions  in  the  Oscau 
tongue,  among  which  the  most  important  for  linguistic  purposes  are,l«t,  the  Tabula 
Bantiim^ti  luoiize  tablet  found  in  the  ae'ghborliood  of  Bantia  (on  thebord-n*  of 
Lncania  and  Apulia),  referring  to  the  mnnleipal  affairs  of  that  town ;  2d,  the  Cipjmn 
Abella7iu8^  or  Sifiue  of  Ai>ella  (in  Campania);  and  S(f,  a  bronze  t^iblet  found  n«ar. 
Airnone,  m  Northern  Samninm.  See  Mommseii*8  "Oskisciie  Stndien"  (Berlin, 
tS4fi),  and  "Die  Unteritalischen  Dialekte"  (Leii).  1850) ;  also  FriedlSuder's  "Die 
0*k8chen  MaiiB.n"  (Leip.  186i»),  Kirchhoff's  •* Das  Stadiiechtvon  Banthi »» (BerL 
]853)f  and  Donaldson's  "  Varronianus  "  (pp.  104-138). 

OSCULA'TION,  AND  O'SCULATING  CIKCLE  (Lid.  osculari,  to  kiss).  One 
curve  is  said  to  osculate  another  when  several  points  are  common-to  it  with  the  otlier, 
and  the  degree  of  osculation  is  said  to  be  high  or  low  accoi"ding  as  the  nnmber  of 
points  in  contact  are  many  or  few.  The  numner  of  possible  points  of  contact  is  de- 
tei-miiH  d  by  the  numl)er  of  constants  contained  in  the  equation  to  the-  tangent  cm  ve 
(stippo»-ing  the  numlwr  of  constants  in  the  equation  to  the  curve  whicli  is  touched  to 
be  grearer).  Th<'  sjiine  is  true  of  a  straiirht  line  and  a  curve.  Tlie  equation  to 
u  itraiglit  line  being  of  the  form  apc^b,  coutaiss  two  ccustuuts,  a  and  o»  heuce  a 


y  Google 


o67 


Oschersleben 
Osier 

rtrnijrht  Wne  cth  coincide  with  a  curve  !n  two  coDngpona  points,  nnd  the  coKtart  is 
BHul  to  be  of  the ^r»t  order.  This  straight  line  is  the  tangent  :it  the  point 'f  con- 
tact When  a  straight  line,  not  a  tangent,  meets  a  curve,  there  is  no  *'  contact  "  hnt 
*-8tK5tion,"  as  in  that  case  only  one  point  is  common  to  the  ptraight  line  and  llie 
cnrve.  'J'he  eqnation  to  a  circle  contains  tl>ree  constants,  and  therefore  a  circle  can 
have  tftree  consecutive  points  in  common  \rith  a  curve,  and  the  cont^ict  is  then  of 
the  second  order.  This  circle  is  knOM«  as  the  •*  circle  of  curvature,"  or  tl>e  osculat- 
ing circle  (see  article  Curvatuhb),  and  ima  for  its  radius  the  radinf  of  cnrvatnre 
of  tliat  portion  of  the  curve  witli  ividch  the  circle  is  In  contact.  No  other  circle  can 
have  so  iiigh  a  degree  of  contact  ivith  a  curve  at  anj  point  as  tlie  osculating  circle  at 
that  point.  ' 

O'SHKOSH,  a  town  in  Wisconsin,  U.  S.,  on  both  sides  of  the  Pox  Rivtr,  at  its 
entrance  to  Lake  Winnebago,  90  miles  north-novth-eust  of  Madipou.  It  has  a  large 
Imnber  trade,  saW-mills,  planing-mills,  Pteam-l>oats,  &c.    Pop.  (18T0)  12,M3. 

OSIANDEE,  Andreas,  one  of  the- most  learned  and  zealous  of  the  German  re- 
foimers,  was  bom  in  1498,  at  Guuzeuhansen,  near  NQmberg.  His  father  wai^  n 
black^raitli,  called  Hosemann,  out  of  wiiich  name  his  son,  after  the  fashion  of  his 
time,  manufactured  tlie  classic-looking  Osiander.  O.  was  edncated  at  Ingolstadt  and 
W^ittenberg ;  and  after  completing  his  course  of  studj*,  became  a  preacher  at  NQm- 
l)erg,  vvheie  he  was  Qont-picuonply  active  in  introducing  the  Befornmiiou  (1(22).  He 
arttenti^  advocated  the  views  of  Luther  in  his  controversy  witli  the  Swiss  reformer 
Zwingh,  on  the  question  of  the  Ix>id'8  Supper.  He  took  pan  in  the  conference  held 
at  MartMin;  1529.,  and  was  present  at  the  cliet  of  Angnbnrg  (1630).  In  1648  he  was 
depiived  vf  liUoffice  as  preacher  at  N&ml>erg,  becanae  he  would  not  agree  to  the 
Augsburg  Interim;  but  was  immediately  after wuitls  invit«*d  by  Albreclit,  Duke  of 
Prussia,  to  become  the  head  of  the  theological  faculty  in  the  newly-established  nni- 
vereity  of  KOni^sberg.  He  was  hanlly  settled  here  when  he  became  entangled  in  a 
theological  stril^  that  imbittei*ed  his  naturally  inip«:riou8  and  arroirant  temper.  In 
a  trcaiise,  '*De  Lege  et  Evan^ello  "  (*0n  the  Liw  and  the  Gonpel"),  O.  asserted 
that  the  nghteousmss  by  which  sinners  are  justitied,  is  not  to  h'  conceived  as  a  mere 
justificatory  or  imputative  act  on  tlie  part  of  God,  hut  as  something  Inward  and  snb- 
3(  ctive,  as  ihe  impartatioii  of  a  real  righteoutnese,  springing  in  a  mystical  way  from 
the  union  of  Christ  with  man.  The  most  notable  of  his  o]>ponents  wa>»  Martin 
ChQm'nit;;  (q.  v.i.  A  seemingly  amicable  arrangement  l>etweeii  the  disputants  yrvs 
bronght  about  by  Duke  AJbrecht  In  1561 ;  but  the  strife  was  soon  nrconimenced,  hy 
O.  publishiiig  some  new  writings  in  which  he  attacked  Melanchthon  ;  nor  did  his 
death  in  the  following  year  put  a  stop  to  the  war  of  woi-ds».  It  was  con- 
tinued by  his  follmrers,  called  O&iandnsta,  who  were  finally  exiingnished  by  tlie 
**Corpn8  DoctrinsB  Pnitenioum  "  <ln  1667),  which  cansrd  their  banishment  from 
all  parts  of  Prussia.  See  Wilken,  '*  Andr.  Osiandv  r's  Leben,  Lehre  und  Schrifteu  " 
(Strals.  1844). 

O'StER  (Fr.  probably  of  Celtic  orfgin),  the  popnlar  name  of  those  species  of  Wil- 
low (q.  v.),  whiclj  are  chiefly  used  for  ha^kdt-niaking  and  other  wick«  r-work.  Q'luy 
are  of  low  hu^hy  growth,  few  of  them  ever  Ixjcoming  trees,  their  brancln^s  long  aid 
slender;  and  they  are  I  lie  more  valuable  in  proportion  to  the  lengtli,  slenderness, 
suppleness,  and  toughness  of  their  branches.  Their  leaves  are  long  and  narrow, 
lanceolafe,  or  nearly  so,  obscurely  notched  on  thenmrgin,  almost  always  smooth  on 
the  upper  side,  but  gemrully  white  and  downy  beneath.  The  Common  O.  {Salix 
vhnirwliH)^  a  common  nntive  of  wet  alluvial  grounds  in  Britain  and  many  parts  of 
Europe,  is  one  of.  those  which  ?-omeiime«  become  trees,  although  when  cultivated 
for  basket-making,  it  is  not  permitted  to  do  so.  It  has  two  distinct  stamens  in  the 
flowers  of  the  male  catkins ;  and  the  stigmas  of  the  female  catkins  are  long  and  slen- 
der. It  is  often  planted  to  prevent  the  banks  of  rivers  from  being  washed  away.  Its 
branches  are  used  for  making  hoops  and  coarse  baskets.  Thein;  are  several  varieties 
in  cnltiyation,  not  easily  distinguished  except  by  u  very  practised  eye,  hut  much 
more  useful  than  the  original  or  wild  kind,  wni'*h  is  apt  to  break,  and  therefore  of 
little  valne.  More  suitable  for  the  finer  kinds  of  basket-making  are  Salix  Foryaiict^ 
sometimes  called  the  Finb  Basket  O.,  and  S.  rubra,  known  near  London  as  the 
Gbeen-leaved  O.  or  Obnabd  ;  S.  triandra,  a  rriandious  species,  known  to  English 
osfer-cultivators  and  basket-makers  as  the  Spasiahd  Kod  ;  whilst  iS.  vitellifia,  a 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Oairia 


568 


iMiitaiidroas  roecies,  fiomotimeB  becoming  a  tree,  is4hn  GoiiDETr  O^  or  Gol(1<*n  Wfl- 
l.uw,  reiiiurkahle  for  tlu:  brighl-yeltow  color  of  \U  bniiicheB,  us  well  as  fur  tiieir  pli- 
uiicy  nud  tougboet^  Tlutre  are  oilier  apeciety  not  iiufiveti  of  Britnin,  which  are  nlsto 
valuable ;  but  tliu  06ien«  chiefly  cultivaiud  l>olojig  to.-tliot»e  wUicli  have  beeu  liaraed, 
or  arc  vi^ry  nearly  allied  to  tlieni. 

Otficrs  :iro  very  extfiinively  caltirated  in  Holland,  Belginin,  and  France,  on  alJu- 
vial  soils,  eHi>ecially  ue.ir  the  inoaihs  of  rivqrs ;  and  from  tbem  countries  great 
qiiantitius  of  *'rods"  are  iuiported  into  Britain,  lliey  are  cultivated  also  to  n  con- 
8i(l  arable  czteiit  in  Fome  |>airts  of  EuKlaud,  DarticuUirly  on  the  banks  of  the  Thani'-a 
and  the  Severn,  and  in  the  level  distiicts  ox  (^anibridKeshire,  Uaniingdoushirtf,  &c 
They  are  nowhere  extensively  cultivated  in  Scotland.  Istlets  in  thtrThauies  and  other 
rivi^rD,  entirely  planted  with  onieis,  arc  called  O.  hcflUh  Osiers  grow  particaiarly 
well  ou  grouuhs  flood  hI  bv  the  tide.  Much  depends  on  the  clo^enera  Qf  plantius  of  O. 
grounds;  as  when  space  is  too  abundant,  tliiK  shouts  of  many  of  the  kinds  do  not 
;rrow  up  so  long,  sleiider,  and  unbiiiiichea  as  is  desirabFe.  The  Prench  cultivators', 
wlien  tney  wisii  osiers  f«>r  the  flnest  kinds  of  basket-work,  cut  brancbes  into  little 
blU  with  a  bud  or  eye  In  each,  and  plan;  thu««e  pretty  clo^^e  together,  s<»  to*  to  ob- 
tain weak  but  flue  shoots;  but  g;mera1ly  cm  tings  (rf  fifteen  or  sixteen  hiohes  iu 
length  are  used,  and  of  tolerably  thick  branches;  and  these  are  p-aced  in  rows, 
from  IS  inches  to  2  feet  ajmrt,  and  at  distances*  of  15  to  18  inches  in  tiie  row. 
O.  plantations  in  light  soil*  cmtliine  productive  for  15  or  9»  years,  and  much  lunger 
ill  ric.i  alluvial  soils.  Osiers  succeed  liest  in  ritii  soils,  but  not  in  clays.  lio 
en Itivation  is  required  after  planting:  t)ut  the  shoots  are  cut  oiic^a  year,  at  any  . 
time  between  th.r  fall  of  the  leaf  aud  the  rising  of  the  sap  In  spring.  After  cutting, 
they  are  sorted;  and  those  intended  for  brown  baskets  are  carefully  dried  and 
8tacked,caru  being  taken  that  they  do  not  heat,  to  which  they  are  liable,  like  boy, 
and  by  which  they  would  be  rotted  and  rendered  worthless.  The  stacks  must  be 
cjirefuHj  protected  from  rain.  The  osiers  iiit<jndt;d  for  white  baskets  CJinnot  at  once 
l)e  peeled;  but  after  being  sorted,  «hey  are  placed  npright  in  wide  shallow  trenches, 
in  whicti  there  is  water  to  the  depth  of  about  four  inches,  or  in  rivulets,  being  kept 
secure  in  their  upright  position  by  posts  and  r  sils;  and  thus  they  remain  till  th;  y 
l)egin  to  bud  and  blosisom  in  spring,  which  they  do  as  if  they  remained  on  thc]>aretit 
plant,  sending  forth  small  roots  at  the  same  time  into  the  water.  They  are  th'*n,  iu 
onlinary  seasons,  easily  peeled  by  drawing  them  through  an  instrument  Q«iUt-d  a 
bteeUe^  but  in  cold  spring^it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  lay  them  for  a  while  under  a 
qiiautiiy  of  litter.    After  being  peeled,  they  are  stacked,  preparatory  to  sale. 

It  is  im|io:M»ibIe  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  gitaniity  produced  in  Great  Britain, 
but  our  im|K>rts  amount  annually  to  jibont  800,000  btiudles :  nearty  one-half  are  from 
Holland,  and  the  remainder  from  the  Hanso  Towns,  Belgium,  and  Fnmcc 

OSI'UIS,  according  to  others,  J.«tVi»,  or  Hysiria  ("  Mar.y-eyed  "),  a  celebrated 
KgyP'^^^ii  deity,  whose  worship  was  uuivert<al  iliroughout  Egypt.  This  name  ap- 
pears in  tlie  liieroglypliic  texts  as  early  as  the,  4th  dynasty,  and  is  expressed  by  a 
throne  aud  eye ;  at  a  later  period,  that  of  the  19ih,  a  palanquin  is  substitnt«'d  for  a 
throne ;  and  under  the  Romans,  the  pupil  of  the  eye  for  the  eye  itself.  0.  dues  not 
indeed  appear  to  have  been  universally  honore<l  till  the  time  of  the  11th  and  12' h 
dynasties,  or  about  1800  B.O.,  when  Abydos,  ^firhich  was  reputed  to  be  bis  biurial* 
placi;,  rose  into  importance.  In  the  moDumenis  of  this  age  ne  is  called  grejit  god, 
eternal  ruler,  dwelling  in  the  west,  and  lord  of  Abut  or  Abydos.  Even  at  the  most  rh- 
mote  periotl,  individuals  after  death  were  supposed  to  liecome  an  0.sii"is ;  and  all  the 
prayers  and  ceremonies  performed  or  addressed  to  them  were  in  this  character,  re- 
ferring to  their  future  lire  and  resurrection.  At  the  time  of  the  ISili  dynasty,  this 
title  of  Osiris  w:i8  prefixed  to  ttieir  names,  and  continued  to  be  so  till  the  time  of 
th  •  Romans  and  full  of  pagani:«m. 

In  the  ritual  and  other  inscriptions.  O.  Is  paid  to  be  the  son  of  Scb  dr  Satnm, 
and  born  of  Nu  or  Rhea ;  to  be  the  faihcT  of  Horns  by  Isis,  of  Anubii*,  and  of  the 
four  g.ndi  of  the  d>«d.  Many  mystic  notions  were  i-onnected  with  O. ;  he  was  some- 
times thonzht  to  be  the  son  of  Ra,  the  Sun.  or  of  Atnni,  the  setting  Snn,  and  the 
B>3ininor  Phcenix;  also  to  Ihj  uiicreate,  or  8<*ir-engendered,  and  he  is  identifltd  in 
some  instances  with  the  Sun  or  the  Creator,  and  the  Pluto  or  .Tudge  of  Hades.  O. 
Win*  l)orn  on  the  first  of  the  Kpagfmtente.  or  live  additional  days  of  the  year.  .When* 
born,  Chrunos  or  Saturn  is  said  to  have  given  him  in  charge  lo  Paiiiyle» ,  liaving  be^ 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


509 


Osi  is 


come  king  of  Egypt,  lie  \»  »Uit(n\  to  have  civilised  nie  E^ptluuB,  and  especliilly  to 
have  tuugiit  them  aKi'iciilrtire,  ihe  culture  of  the  vine,  and  the  art  of  makitig  l>ccr ; 
he  afterw'urfla  travelled  over  the  eurth,  aud  couquered  the  people  everywhere  hv  hit 
IiersiiAHlou.  Dnrhiff  IiIb  abeeiice,  his  kingdom  was  couflued  to  Iste,  who  gnaraed  it 
strictly,  and  Set  orTyphon,  the  brother  of O.  (who  was  bom  on  the  8d  of  {lie  Enag- 
oineutt),  was  nimble  lo  revolt  against  him.  I'yphoii  had,  however,  persuadea  ?2 
other  perK>u8,  aud  Aao,  the  qneen  of  Ethlophi,  to  join  him  In  a  coneplr.jcy  ;  and 
having  tikeu  the  measure  of  O.,  he  luid  a  chest  made  of  the  same  dimensions,  richly 
tirnamcnt*  d  and  carved,  aud  produced  it  at  a  banquet,  where  he  promised  to  give  It  tu 
whomsoever  it  should  fit ;  aiid  when  all  h:id  lain  down  and  tri(  d  it,  aud  it  suited  none,  O. 
^  at  la»>t  l:iid  liinist'lf  dowu  iu  it,  and  was  immediately  covered  over  by  the  coiifpirntoif , 
'  wlio  placed  ilie  lid  upon  it,  and  fastened  it  with  nails  and  molten  lead.  Ttie  chef^t 
was  then  hurled  into  tlie  Nile,  and  flouted  do>x'n  the  Tanuitic  moutli  into  the  sen. 
Tills  liappeufd  on  the  17th  (if  t4ie  mouth  Atiiyr.  in  the  SStli  year  of  Ihe  reign  or  ogi> 
of  Osiris.  Kheni  or  Pan,  aud  his  attendant  deitios,  di&cov»  red  the  \ws  ot  the  g04i ; 
I-is  ImmediatHy  cut  otf  a  lock  of  hiiir  and  w<nt  into  inoiirning,  and  proct-edt d  in 
search  of  Auubis,  the  child  of  her  sister  Ncphthys  by  O. ;  and  having:  found  him, 
bnMight  him  up.  The  chest  having  floated  to  Byblos,  had  Io<lged  in  a  tamarisk,  and 
became  enclosed  in  the  tree,  which  was  cut  down  by  the  king,  and  the  frank,  t  on- 
ttiining  the  chest  and  the  body  of  the  god,  converted  into  a  piliiir  to  support  the  roof 
of  the  palace.  The  goddess  ])roce<ded  to  Byblos.  and  ingratiated  herself  with  iho 
Queeu's  women  by  plaitiug  tiieir  hair  aud  imparting  to  it  an  ambrosial  sinell,  so  thjit 
tlie  monuich,  whose  name  was  Melcurlhns,  and  hh)  wife,  Saosis  or  Nomanoun,  in- 
vited her  to  court  to  take  care  of  the  royal  child.  8he  endeavored  to  confer  immor- 
tality  upon  him  by  phiciug  him  on  a  fire,  and  changing  herself  into  a  swallow,  flew 
rtmud  the  pillar  and  iMinioancd  her  fate.  The  queen  became  ahurmed  at  the  danger 
of  her  child ;  Isis  rftveali  d  hurpelf,  and  asked  for  the  pillar  of  tamaidsk  wood,  wludi 
Mas  given  her.  She  then  cut  it  (^'%  aud  took  out  ihe  chest,  making  great  luinc)> 
tutions,  and  subseqneuiljr  snilcd  for  Egypt,  with  the  eldest  of  the  kiug's  sons.  The 
goddess,  intending  to  vi^it  Ilorus  h<'rson  at  Buto,  deposited  the  chest  in  an  uiifi4>- 
qiieuit^spot;  biilTyphou  discovered  it  bv  the  light  of  the  moon,  tore  it  into  14 
pieces,  aud  distributed  each  to  a  noine  or  district.  Ibis  recovered  all  by  passing  the 
iharshes  iu  a  boat  of  papyina ;  all  <  xccpt  the  phallus,  which  bud  been  eaten  by  the 
LepidotuB,  the  Phagrus.  and  Oxyrhynchns  flsh.  Subsequentiy,  a  ImCtle  took  place 
between  Horus  and  Typhon  or  Set,  which  hibUd  three  days,  and  ended  by  TypVou 
having  fetters  placed  upon  him.  Isls,  however,  lil)erated  Typhon,  which  so  enraged 
Horns  that  he  tore  off  her  diadem,  hut  'J  eti  or  Tl  oih  placed  on  her  the  head  of  a 
cow  iustead.  Typhon  flmilly  accuseil  Boms  of  illegitimacy ;  but  the  (^uestiou  was 
decided  lietwecu  tliem  by  Tetl  or  Thotli  ami  the  gods.  Prom  O.,  after  Ins  d«ath.  and 
Isis  sprung  Ilarpoi-rates.  St»e  Harpocbatks.  O. »e<ms to  have Ikhu  finiUIv  revived, 
and  to  have  become  the  iud^e  of  Ihe  Karueter  or  lladi:s,  presiding  at  the  final  judg- 
ment of  souls  in  the  Hall  of  the  two  Truths,  with  the  42  demons  who  presidetl  ov>  r 
the  capital  sins,  and  awarding  to  the  soul  its  final  jlestiiiy.  Tlioih  or  Hennes 
record  d  the  judgment,  and  jiistifled  the  deceased  against  his  accusers,  as  he  had 
formerly  done  for  Osiris. 

Ckwsiderable  diversity  of  opinion  exihtrd  amorgstthe  rucients  themfelvesas  to 
the  menning  of  the  myth  of  O.-iris.  He  repreB<Mite<n  according  to  Plu»an:h,  the  in- 
nndalloii  of  the  Nile;  Isis,  the  irrigated  hind;  Horns,  the  vapors;  Buto,  tho 
marshes  ;  Nephthys,  the  tdge  of  the  desert ;  Annhis,  ihe  barren  soil;  Typhon,  was 
the  Sea  ;  the  conspirators,  the  drought ;  the  chest,  the  river's  banks.  The  Tanaltic 
branch  was  the  one  which  overflowed  nnprofltably ;  the  88  years,  the  nninber  of 
cubits  which  the  Nile  rose  at  Elephantine  ;  Harpocrates,  the  first  shootings  of  the 
com.  Huch  are  the  naturalistic  interpretations  of  Plutarch  ;  but  there  appears  in  it 
the  dualistic  principle  of  good  and  evil,  representt'd  by  O.  and  Set  or  I'yphon, 
or  again  paraTleled  by  tiie  contest  of.  Ra  or  the  Snn,  and  Apopliis  or  l>arknesi'. 
The  difliculty  of  interpretation  increased  from  the  form  of  O.  having  beeomo  blended 
or  identified  wiih  tliat  of  otber  deities,  esp<!eially  I'tnli-Soteharls,  the  pigmy  of  Mem- 
phis; and  the  hull  Hapls  or  Apis,  the  avatar  of  Ptah.  Osiris  was  the  liead  of  :i 
tetrad  of  deities,  whose  local  worship  \^as  at  Ahydos,  but  wlio  were  the 
hist  rem^tltlon  of  the  goi.ls  of  the  otiur  luniu  s  of  Egy|)t,  and  who  had 
asBtuncd    an   heroic    or    mortal    tyiK'.      In    form,   O,   ia    always    repreteuted 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Osmazome  ^\^f\ 

Osnabruck  u  I  v 

Bwnthed  or  mnmnifed  lu  aIlui>io»  to  his  cmbnlmmom ;  a  net-work,  t>ngjr^fivo 
of  tij«  net  by  which  his  remnius  were  li^hed  out  of  tho  Nile,  coven*  this  cl^.-pa; 
on  hi*  heatl  he  weurn  the  ctip  at/,  hiivinjj  at  euph  side  the  ft^ntner  of  tmth, 
of  'wiiich  he  wan  the  lonl.  Thin  is  plact-d  on  the  liorns  of  a  goat.  His 
handd  ho!d  the  crook  and  wiiip,  to  indicate  his  governing  una  directii!g 
power;  and  his  feet  are  tmstd  on  the  cnbit  of  truth;  a  puulln'r'B  f>kin 
ou  a  pole  is  often  placed  before  him,  and  fe^toona  of  grapes  hnny:  over  his  Biirin<% 
connecting  him  with  Diony.^os.  As  "tha  good  being,"  or  Onnophrin  tlic  lucek 
hearted,  the  celestial  or  king  of  heaven,  he  wears  tho  white  cwr  upi)er  crown. 
Another  and  rarer  typa  of  liira  represents  him  us  the  TVit,  or  emblem  of  staliility, 
wearing  the  crown  of  the  two  Truths  upon  iiis  head.  Ilis  wort«hi|>.  at  a  hiter  time, 
was  extended  over  Asia  Minor,  Oncce,  and  liomc,  and  at  an  early  age  hud  pone- * 
trated  into  Plioeuicia,  tnires  of  it  1>eing  iouud  on  the  coinsof  Ma'ta  and  oilier  places, 
lie  became  introduced  along  with  the  I-iac  worship  into  Home,  and  had  vutaric» 
iimler  ihe  Roman  empire.  But  tiic  attacks  of  tl»e  pliilofiopliers.  and  tlie  rise  of 
C'hiistianlty,  overthrew  these  exolic  deities,  who  were  never  popular  with  the  more 
cultivated  |>ortiou  of  the  Hoinau  world. 

Herodotus,  ii.  40-42;  Plutarch.  ""De  Iside;"  Tibtdlus,  i.  T;  Diodorns,  L25; 
Hicliard,  ^' Mytliology,"  p.  208;  Wilkinson,  *^  Man.  and  Oust."  iv.  814;  Bouscn, 
*'E^'ypt's  Place,"  i.  414. 

O'SMAZOME,  a  name  given  by  Thenard  to  the  spint-extract  of  flesh,  on  which, 
ns  he  supposed,  ita  agreeable  taste,  when  cooked,  depended.  The  term  is  now 
abandcmea  by  chemists. 

O'SMIUM  («ymb.  0«;  old  equiv.  100;  new  eq.^OO ;  8i>ec.  grav.  10)  is  one  of  the 
noble  metals  wldch  occurs  in  ass  ^elation  with  idatiunm  in  the  form  of  an  alloy 
with  iridium.  It  may  be  obt^ilned  in  ih«  metidllc  condition  l>y  several  processes 
wldch  yield  it  eUher  in  thin,  dark-jmiy  gHstenhig  scales,  or  as  a  dense  Iron-black 
mass.  It  is  the  least  fusible  of  all  the  metals ;  the  oxyhydrogen  jet  volatilisiug,  but 
nut  fusing  it. 

Five  oxides  of  O.  are  known— viz.,  the  protoxide  (OsO),  which  Is  of  n  dark-preen 
color,  anil  forms  gr>ien  salts  when  dissolvecf  in  acids ;  the  6e><quvtxide  (O^gOs),  which 
lias  not  been  isolated ;  tue  hinoxide  (OsOn), which  is  black  ;  the  teroxide  (OsOg), 
widcb  possesses  the  ciiaracieis  of  a  weak  aud,  but  has  nut  been  Isolated ;  and  otmiie 
acid  (OSO4).  which  occurs  hi  c<»lorless,  glistening,  acieular  crystals,  freely  soluble 
in  water,  and  very  volatile.  At  about  220°,  this  cuinpoaiid  gives  oflf  an  extremehr 
irritating  and  in'e8pirat)le  vapor ;  and  hence  the  name  of  Ihe  metal  (fron  thcGreefe 
word  OHini  odor).  It  pioduces  a  p-.-rmancnt  black  stain  ui>ou  the  skin,  i.Dd  gives  a 
blue  nrecipit ate  with  tincture  of  galls.  O.  also  forms  four  chlorides  which  coi  re- 
spond in  composition  to  the  first  f<jar  oxides.  This  metal  waii  discovered  by  Ten- 
nan  t  in  1S03. 

O'SMOSE ;  DIA'LYSTS.  The  earlier  discoveries  of  Dntroobot  nrd  Graham  have 
been  briefly  described  in  the  article  on  DiPFirsiON  (q.  v.).  The  subject  has,  how- 
ever, bjeii  much  ext.Mided  ri*cently,  princip  illy  by  Ihe  invest igai ions  of  Qraham;  and 
a-*  the  whole  phenoiMeii  t  are  exci''diii}rlv  interesting  and  important,  since  8ecn*tion, 
ah  orption,  and  various  other  oij^anie  ]>rocee8es  are  to  a  great  extent  d«pendcnt  on 
them,  soine  further  deiail,  e'tpecmhy  of  iliese  later  facts,  may  hre  l>e  given. 

Wiien  two  diff.jrent  liquuN  ar  *  s^  unrated  by  a  bladd'  r  c»r  other  membrane,  or  a 
piece  of  ailico  coated  w.th  co  iirulaf'^d  albumen,  there  is  always  a  more  or  less  rap'd 
transferenre  of  the  iwo  liquids  in  opposite  dire<'tioi»8  through  the  diaphragm.  In 
c  rtaiii  ca-«es.  the  explanatioM  given  in  the  article  referre<l  to  is  c.omplet*-,  bat  in 
others  it  app3ar8  to  be  InsiifUciGnt.  Qraham  has  made  an  exteitslve  serle;*  of  experi- 
ments upon  osmose.  wii<re  distilled  water  wa-»  on  one  side  of  the  diaphragm,  and 
various  liquids  and  solutions  on  the  other,  and  has  arrived  at  many  sr«'neral  results 
of  which  the  following  are  tlie  more  important.  The  osmose  is  considere*!  a»3Mttih've 
when  more  of  the  water  passes  throu4;h  the  di.-i)>hragm  th.m  of  the  other  liqtiid. 
Such  suhstanc  -8  as  gum,  gelatine,  Ac.,  produce  scarcely  any  eifact.  Solutions'  of 
neutral  salts.  .<n:ch  as  coininon  salt.  Eosom  salts,  Ac.,  follow  the  ordinary  Jaw  of 
diffusion,  as  if  no  diaphragm  had  been  mternosed.  Acid  salis  in  solution,  and  dilute 
acids,  pas."*  rapidly  Into  the  water — or  the  osiuohc  is  negative;  whil«i  alkaline  solu- 
tions give.  In  general,  a  strong  positive  effect.         ' 

In  uU  the  cases  in  which  an  osmotic  action  occurs  which  cannot  be  ex^dained  by 


y  Google 


r  7  1  Osmazoiae 

*Ji  ^  '  Csuabiuck 

cnpillnry  forces,  tlicre  is  chemicil  action  on  the  clUtphrn{;m ;  and  coiivorsi^lyf  ench 
os*mo2ie  ciuiuot  be  produced  if  tliu  umu.*riui  of  Uie  diupunigui  be  uot  uctcd  on  L>>  tuo 
liquids  in  contact  witli  it. 

But  the  nios>t  reumrkable  resnli  s  of  Gniham^s  later  iuvestigatioiis  arc  those  n  Int  m^ 
to  Diuljvds — i.  e.,  to  the  sepurutiou  of  tlie'cx>u8ritiient8  of  uiixtures,  and  even  U^  dc- 
coin|>08itiozi  of  chemical  coiuponud^  by  oi«n)Ot*e.  'I'he  rosnlts  of  his  earlier  investi- 
gations, al>ove  given,  sliew  a  runiaricuble  di£(;rcnce  iM'twei'U  two  rlusses  of  bodies ; 
gum,  gelatine,  &c.y  which  form  viscous  ^ohitious,  on  the  one  hand  ;  nnd  aalts,  acidi:, 
and  :iTkali(>i>,  on  tiie  other.  Tlie  flrht  class  he  has  called  Colloids;  the  pecoud, 
Cryatalloids,  The  former  are  extremely  ^luggi8b,  the  hitler  conipuraUrely  rajjid  in 
their  action.  Tlius,  of  common  salt  and  albumen,  under  precisely  similar  circnm- 
Btauces,  there  pass  throuch  the  diaphni};m  in  a  given  time  quantities  which  are  as  26 
to  1  by  weigtit.  Hence,  if  a  solution  containing  both  classes  of  Bnb(>tancc'S  be  op- 
posed to  pure  water,  the  crystalloids  will  puss  ra|)ldly  tlirougii  the  diaphragm,  aiid 
the  colloids  slowly.  Tliis  process  promises  to  be  of  very  great  value  in  medical 
jurisprudence,  as,  without  introducing  any  new  substance  (except  the  diaphi*a|rm 
and  distiUed  water),  we  have  the  means  of  Fepur::ting  from  the  generally  colloidal 
contents  of  uulmal  viscera  such  poiii>onous  crystalloTds  us  wliitc  arsenic,  TcgetalUe 
Alkaloidt>,  &C.,  which  by  the  old  tnethods  was  in  general  at  tended  with  great  difficulty, 
and  often  uncertainty.  These  methods  are  still  in  their  infancy,  but  enough  is 
already  known  to  shew  how  valuable  they  must  soon  become  to  the  chemist  and  the 
toxicologist.  One  economical  anplicatiuu  has  been  pn^no^ed,  and  shewn  to  be  prac- 
ticable. When  a  bladder  is  filled  with  the  li-ine  of  salt  i)ecf,  and  ensiKnidetl  in  iresh 
water,  the  salt  after  a  time  nearly  all  disappear?,  and  there  remains  lu  the  bladder  a 
rich  extract  of  meat  fit  for  making  soup. 

For  a  brief  notice  of  the  speculations  which  (jirabam's  researches  have  led  him  to 
f(N:m  as  to  the  nature  of  Hatter,  we  refer  to  tlie  article  on  that  subject. 

OSMU'NDA,  a  genus  of  Fem^,  distinguished  by  sporo-cnses  in  branched,  stalkcnl 
masses.  Tlje  Osmund-rotal.  Royal,  or  Floweiuno  Feen  (0.  regalis).  if*  the 
noblest  and  roost  striking  of  British  fern.»».  It  is  very  frequent  in  ttie  districts  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland  mo^t  reumrkable  for  the  moisture  of  their  climate,  growing  in 
bopgy  places  and  the  wet  margins  of  woods.  It  has  Inpinnate  fronds  and  panieh  d 
spore-cases  upon  altered  fronds,  whi  h  ai^p-ar  a«  stalks  distinct  from  the  fronds, 
and  assimilate  the  general  appearance  to  that  of  a  phanerogjiinous  plant.  If  sonu- 
times  riS'.'S  to  11  feet  in  height.  It  is  found  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  Norili 
America.  It  possessea  tonic  Jind  styptic  properties,  and  il«  root-j^tocks  were  forme  ly 
employed  in  scrofula.  The  root-stocks  abound  in  a  nnicilaginous  substance,  which. 
being  extracted  by  boiling  them  in  water,  i:»  used  in  tie  north  of  Europe  instead  of 
starch. 

O'SNABBCCK,  or  Osnabur^,  a  territory  occui)^lng  the  w^est^'m  portion  of  the 
Prnssian  province  of  Utmover,  and  embracing  the  pHncinality  of  O.,  the  eouitehips 
of  Lingen  and  of  Bentiieim,  and  tin?  duchy  of  Aren^berg-Meppeu  and  tiie  lordship  of 
Papenburg.    Area,  2408  square  miles ;  pop.  (1876)  about  ^O.OtX). 

OSNABRCCK,  the  chief  town  of  th'?  territory,  lies  in  the  midst  of  the  extended 
and  fruitful  valley  of  tluj  Iljiae,  80  inilt-s  west-south-weHt  of  Hanover  by  railway. 
It  ft\\\  ranks  ns  the  tlrird  commercial  city  of  Hanover,  altlnaigh  it  cannot  boa^t  <  f 
the  important  trade  which  it  eujoyctl  before  the  establishment  of  theexistii  g  system 
of  the  Prussian  Zollverein.  Pop.  (1875)  29.850.  O.  has  thri\ing  mannfaciories  (  f 
cigars  and  tobacco,  pfiper-l»anpings,  and  cotton  nnd  woollen  goods,  and  extensiv*^ 
works^or  the  prepjtrjitlon  of  mfiieral  dyes  and  cement,  bof^idcs  iron,  machinery,  ai  d 
crirrinire  manufactories.  Aecording  to  the  opinion  of  antiquarians,  O.  stands  on  the 
site  of  tbe  ancient  Wittekin^  sburi',  which  was  raised  to  a  bishopric  in  783  by  Char- 
lemagne, some  relics  of  wliom,  together  with  tbe  pretended  b<»nes  of  the  martyrs 
CH^pinnsand  CrispinlaM«<,  are  pres<*rved  in  'he  cathedral — a  fine  specimen  of  the 
Byzantine  stvie  of  architecture  of  the  19tli  eenturv.  I'he  Church  of  St  Mary,  a  nc- 
ble  Gothic  buildlnir.  was  ei-ected  by  the  bu»gli«'ra  of  O.  in  the  14th  c.  during  their 
contentions  with  their  ha  ugh  tv  ecclesiastical  rnlers.  and  contains  the  grave  of  MO©  , 
in  whose  honor  a  statue  was  placed  In  the  square  of  the  ciithedral  in  183«.  'I  heslgniig 
of  the  peace  of  Westphalbi  in  1648.  in  nn  apartment  of  the  town-hall,  is  conimemo- 
wted  by  the  preservation  of  the  p<»rtniitM  of  all  the  ambassadors  who  took  part  in  th** 
trea^.  It  v/m  decreed  in  this  ti-eaty  that  the  uncicut  bi»hoprIc  of  p^should  thcuc 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Ossification  •^  <  - 


Ossification 

forth  be  occupied  alternately  by  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate  and  a  Protestaut^EKcalar 
priuco  of  the  Uotise  of  Briuiawick-Lunebnrg ;  ^ud  after  havhig^  been  lu»t  held  by. 
Frederick,  Duke  of  York,  the  district  of  O.  was  ceded  to  Hanover  in  1803,  and  Uie 
chaste)'  filially  dissolved. 

O'SPREY  {Pandion)^  a  genn?  of  Fatconidir,  of  wliich  only  one  ppecles  is  known 
{P.  haliaetita),  also  culled  the  Pishing  Uawk  or  Fishcno^  Eaole,  and  i«oin6tiu)es 
the  Baud  Buzzabs.  It  Is  singular  among  the  FaldonidiB  in  iHreying  exclusively  on 
fl<«h  ;  and  to  this  its  whole  structure  &\\1  liabitA  are  adapted.  Its  whole  lengtli  is 
a>)out  twenty-two  Inches ;  it  is  of  a  dark-bi-own  color,  Vjiriegated  with  black,  graj', 
and  white.  The  uiidiT  jmrrs  are  white,  except  a  light-brown  band  across  the  cliest. 
The  bill  is  short,  Htrong,  roniide;!,  and  broad.  The  toil  is  rather  long,  the  wings  are 
very  long,  extending  beyond  the  tail;  the  under  surface  of  the  toes  reniarkul)iy 
rough,  covered  with  small  pointed  scales,  suited  for  the  mjcuring  of  slippery  prty ; 
the  claws  not  grooved  beneath,*  as  in  most  of  ilie  Faleonidce.  Theffathers  are  desti- 
tute of  the  snpplementary  plume,  which  is  considerably  developetl  in  most  of  the 
Faleonidm.  The  Iniestlne  differs  from  that  of  the  other  Falconidai  in  being  very 
slender  and  of  great  len^rh. 

The  O.  is  chiefly  to  be  seen  near  the  sea,  lakes,  and  large  rivers.  No  bird  is 
more  widely  diffused ;  it  is  fonud  in  all  quarters  of  the  world ;  its  geo^^'aphical 
Tiinge  including  Europe,  Aslsu  Africa,  North  and  South  America,  and  Anstnilia,  and 
both  very  warm  and  very  cold  climates.  It  is  eveiywhere  n  bird  of  passage,  retiring 
from  high  norf.iiern  l:ititul3"«  ou  tlie  appeirance  of  frost.  It.  oc<Mns  on  many 
parts  of  the  Bdtish  coasts,  and  is  sometimes  found  in  inland  dii*trictt«,  but  is  no- 
where abundant  in  Britain.  In  some  places  In  Scotland,  it  still  breeds  year  after 
year,  ou  the  highest  summit  of  a  ruined  building,  ortlie  top  of  an  old  tree.  It  is 
very  plentiful  hi  some  parts  of  North  America;  and  its  return  in  the  beginning  of 
sprim;  is  hulled  with  jay  by  flKhermen,  as  indicative  of  the  appearance  of  tish.  The 
n"Stisa  huge  structare  of  rotton  sticks,  in  the  outer  inteivtices  of  which  smalKr 
birds  somefiint'S  make  their  nest«;  for  the  O.  never  preys  ou  birds,  and  is  not 
dreaded  by  them.  It  is,  indei'd,  of  a  pacific  and  timorous  di^;K>sitiou,  and  readily 
almudouH  its  pruy  to  the  White-headed  Kaele  (or  Erne,  q.  v.).  In  the  days  of  fal- 
conry, the  O.,  being  very  docile,  was  sometCnes  trained  and  us<  d  for  catching  fish. 

O'SSA,  the  ancient  name  of  a  mountain  on  the  east  side  of  Thessalv,  near  Pelio»», 
and  separated  from  Olympus  by  the  vale  of  Tempe.  It;  is  now  called  KifSavo.  Th« 
conical  ^iummlt  is  covered  with  snow  during  the  greater  part  of  ilie  year.  Th«? 
ancients  placed  the  seat  of  tlie  Centaurs  and  Giants  in  the  ueigborhood  of  Pelioii 
and  Ossa. 

O'SSEIN.  This  term  is  applied  bjr  chemists  to  the  substance  in  the  ti^'8ne  of  tho 
bouKS  which  yields  gluten.  It  is  obtained  by  the  prolonged  wtioii  of  dilute  liydro- 
chloiic  acid  on  bone,  which  dissolves  all  the  earthy  uiutt«'r.  The  material  tlius  pro- 
cured retains  the  form  of  the  bone  without  its  liurdness,  and  must  l>e  rt'peatedly 
washed  with  water,  and  treated  with  alcohol  and  eth«/to  remove  traces  of  salts,  far, 
&c.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  is  converted  into  gluten  (one  of  the  foms  of  g«*l«- 
tine)  by  the  action  of  boiling  water— a  transformation  wliich  is  much  facilitat49d  if  u 
little  acid  be  present.  The  ossein  jielded  by  different  kinds  of  animals  reqniruB 
differ<?nt  times  for  its  conversion  into  gluten  ;  and  that  of  young  animals  chaug*^ 
more  rapidly  than  thnt  of  adults  of  tiie  s:inie  spich-s.  It  appears  to  exist  in  the 
bones  in  a  state  of  freedom— that  is  to  say,  not  in  combination  with  any  of  the  salts 
of  lime.  Fremy's  analyses  sliew  that  tlie  amount  of  gluten  is  precisely  tlie  haine  ua 
that  of  the  ossein  which  yields  it,  and  that  the  two  sulistances  are  isomeric. 

O'SSIAN,  Poems  of.  Ossian.  or  Oisin  (a  word  which  is  interprft*«d  the  "little 
fawn  "),  a  Celtic  warrior-poot,  is  said  to  iiave  liv<id  in  tlin  8.1  c,  and  to  have  l>e«*M 
the  son  of  Fins;al  or  Finn  MacCumhaiU.  The  poems  which  are  as<-ril>ed  to  Idni  in 
manuscripts  of  any  antiquity,  are  few  and  short,  and  of  no  remarkable  merit.  Bnt 
ill  17«0— 1T63,  a  Highland  schoolmaster,  James  Macpherson  (q.  v.»,  publlslicd  two 
epics,  **  Ping.d  "  and  *'  Teniora,"  and  seviv  al  smaller  pieces  and  fragniiiits,  which  he 
ttfltirmed  to  lie  iranshitlons  into  Kugllsli  prose  of  Gmdic  poems  written  by  0.,  and 
preserved  by  oral  tradition  in  tht^  Scottish  Hii:idai  ds.  'I'lu*ir  success  was  woridHrfnl. 
They  were  received  with  admiration  in  almost  «*Vfry  country  o«  Europi>,  and  were 
translated  not  only  into  French  and  Italian,  bnt  into  Dunisu  and  Polish.    Bnt  their 


Digitized  by 


Google 


;^'-o  Ospref 

•'  <  '-^  OssiJicatioii 

iintheiit!c4ty  wns  cballenged  nInioFt  &»  soon  as  tbey  f>aw  the  WshU  and  a  long  and 
angry  com roverfv  follow,  d.  'J'liat  riu-y  were  what  they  claimed  to  be,  was  imiiii- 
tained  by  Dr  Blair,  Lord  Kam<p,  the  poet  Gray,  and  Sir  Jolm  Sinclair.  Tliat  tli«  y 
were  more  or  lees  the  fabrication  of  Itf  acpherpon  hintnelf,  was  maintained  by  Dr 
•Johnson,  David  Hnnie,  MaUolm  Laing,  and  John  Pinkcrton.  While  this  con- 
troversy still  raei'd,  anotlier  sprang  up  scarcely  less  augry  or  protracttd. 
!Macpherson  made  O.  a  Scotclr  Hfirhlander,  bnt  tiiv  IrisTi  claimed  him  as  . 
an  Irisliman.  Tiie  fact  Is  h6  was  1)oth :  for  in  tliose  early  times,  tlie  north-eant 
of  Ireland  and  the  west  coast  of  Scotland  were  ])ractically  one  country  ;  the  people 
ispoke  one  langnage.  tliey  wore  nf  one  bkK>d;  ancl  the  narrow  strip  of  pea  lliat 
divided  tliem  Si-rved  not  as  a  wall  of  sepanition,  bnt  ratlier  as  an  e&fv  imerage 
of  conmmnication  by  means  of  bOMts.  As  to  tlie  real  nnihorpliio  of  the 
poems,  as  the  original  mauupcripts  which  Macpherson  used  have  never  bet^n  pro- 
duced, there  will  always  remain  doubts:  one  thing  only  we  know,  tliat  he  did  urns 
materials  of  the  sanje  nature  as  tlie  Osnianic  traditioire  that  may  be  picke<l  up  from 
tlie  mouth  of  the  people  in  many  parts  of  Ireland  and  the  Highlands  at  the  pre«»cut 
day  ;  but  how  far  under  Macphfi-son's  lianda  they  were  remodelled  remains  a  seen  t. 
The  recent  contribution  to  thin  question  made  1)y  J.  F.  Camplxdl  in  his  '^Lealihavna 
Peinne"— a  digest  of  aU  the  Oasiunlc  l)ailad4  eiiher  published  by  others  or  collected 
by  Mr  Cainpbull  himself— has  not  tended  much  to  clear  up  the  matter.  No  trace  of 
Mncphersoirs  two  large  {loems  lias  l)eeu  recovered.  On  one  point  all  Gaelic  scholarH 
seem  agreed— that  Macpherson  did  not,  and  could  not  h»ve  written  the  Gaelic. 
Poems  ascribed  to  O..  committed  to  writing  in  ihe  Highlands  in  the  first  half  of  the 
16th  d,  are  printed  in  the  '*  Dean  of  Lismore's  Book  "^Edin.  1862),  with  translations 
info  Knglish  and  into  nnKlern  Gaelic  The  poems  ascribed  to  O.,  pripe^v«d  in  Ire- 
land, were  Dublislied'l>y  tlie  Ossianic  Society  in  six  volumes  (Duolin,  1S64— 1861). 
8tudetit.s  or  the  Os^anic  poems  will  find  nmch  assist. mce  from  consulting  the  edition 
of  the  Gaelic  with  a  iiew  iranstation  by  Dr  Clerk  of  Kilniallie  (Edin.  1870).  In  1876 
the  O.  controversy  was  again  agitated,  but  came  to  noihii:g. 

OSSIPICA'TION,  or  the  formation  of  bone,  is  a  prfwess  to  which  pliysiologists 
liave  paid  much  attention,  but  regarding  which  there  is  still  considerable  difference 
of  ophiion.  On  wie  point,  liotvever,  there  is  a  general  agreenmnt— viz.,  that  llie 
bones  are  not  in  any  instance  a  primaa-y  formation,  but  always  result  fron»  the 
'  transformation  and  earthy  impregnatjon  of  some  pre-ezlsiting  tissue,  wliieh  is  most 
commonly  either  cartilaj^o  or  a  mt;mbrane  containing  ceil-nnclel.  At  a  very  early 
peri<Ml  of  embryimic  lii^,  as  soon,  iudetd,  as  any  structural  differences  can  l>e 
detect -d,  the  material  froui  wliich  the  iKMicts  are  to  l)e  formed  l)econies  mappe^l  out 
as  a  8<»f  I  gelatinoiip*  sulwtatice,  wiiich  may  be  distinguished  from  the  other  tissues  by 
being  ratnor  lo!<8  transparent^  and  soon  becoming  uecidtdly  op«qHe.  From  this  be- 
ginning tlte  IM/Ues  are,  formed. in  two  ways ;  eiiher  the  tissue  just  descr;l>ed  Iw-'comes 
« onveriwl  into  cartilage,  whiqh  is  afterwards  replaced  by  bone,  or  a  gerniiiml  mem- 
'  ]>i-ane  is  formed,  in  which  the  ossifying  process  takes  place.  The  latter  is  tl»e  most 
wiupie  and  rapid  mode  of  forming  bone.  When  ossification  commendcs,  the  mem- 
brane I  econies  more  opaque,  and  exhibits  a  decided  fibrous  character,  the  fibres 
Iv'ing  arrangeil  more  or  hiSs  in  a  reticiiiated  manner.  These  fibres  become  more 
distinct  and  granular  from  impretmation  with  lime  salts,  and  are  converted  into 
incipient  l>one,  while  the  c§lls  which  are  scattered  among  them  shoot  onl  into  the 
l>on<'.  corpuscles,  from  which  the  cainilkuli  are  extended  prol)ably  l>y  resorption. 
'ihe  facial  and  cranial  lM)i>es,  with  the  exception  of  those  at  the  base  of  the  skull,  are 
thurt  formed  without  the  intervention  of  any  airiilage. 

The  process  of  ossification  in  Ciirtilage  ^q.  v.)  is  too  complex  and  diflScult  to  fol- 
low in  these  pages.  Some  physiologists  hold  that  when  OKsitication  is  carried  on  in 
cartilage,  a  complete  molecular  replacement  of  one  substance  by  the  other  takes 
plare;  while  others  believe  that  more  or  less  of  the  c:irtilaginons  matrix  remains, 
and  beeomes  impregnatt^d  w^ith  earthy  matter,  »t  the  same  time  that  gluten  \h  sub- 
stituted for  chondrtne  (cliondrine  being  the  variety  of  gelatine  that  is  yielded  by 
ossein  or  Ixiiie-cartilage  before  ossification,  while  gluten  is  >itld<d  after  tliat  proec  ss 
i^  esrablisheti).  All  the  lioiies  of  tlie  body,  exc^^nting  those  of  the  head  and  face 
fllr»*fldy  mentioned,  are  at  first  fornnid,  in  part  at  all  events,  from  cartilage. 

The  time  at  which  osf<iftciition  commences  does  not  lit  «il  follow  the  order  in 
wh.cli  the  primordial  cartiluge  is  laid  down.    Thus  the  cartilage  of  the  vertebiw  aj)- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


t)«tad«  ,  X7« 

Osteologf  u  i-± 

peru-s  before  there  is  nny  trace  of  that  of  the  clavicle,  yet  at  birth  the  osplflcatf on  of  the 
liittcr  w  almost  complete,  while  that  of  the  former  \b  v«*ry  iui|)ei-fcct  for  inimy  yearg. 
We  will  briefly  trace  the  procej»8  of  ossification  as  it  oc<-ni-8  in  the  hniiiaii  femnr  or 
thls^h-bon-'.  O.^sificition  conim  'uces  in  the  interior  of  t  le  cariila«Xtf  at  deterniinate 
poSnts,  which  ai*«;  hrnce  termed  poinU or  centreti of  osHifictition.  From  tlu-Be  potntr'  the 
pro  •ess  advances  into  ihe  snrronndiug  sub.-tancu.  In  the  8.  coud  inontli  of  fecial  life, 
one  of  the*!!  ceutres  shews  itself  uboat  tht?  middle  of  the  shaft,  and  from  this  |)Oiut 


OHsiflcHtiou  rapidly  ext(Mid?  upwards  and  dK»wnward8  along  the  whole  length  of  the 
sTuitt.  Thu  upper  and  lower  ends  remain  cartilaginous,  «nd  it  is  not  till  tlie  last 
month  of  roefal  life  that  a  second  centrt  appears  al  the  lower  *-nd.    Tliethlitl  centre. 


from  which  the  upper  end  of  the  bone  is  ossified,  does  not  appear  till  about  a  y^ar 
after  birth.  Th  •  l>one  now  cousisti  of  two  extremities  or  epiphyses,  with  au  Inter- 
nV'diate  shaft  or  rf»ap/iy8»«;  and  the  superior  i^piphysis  is  not  ossified  to  the  shaft 
uniil  al)out  the  eighteenih,  and.  the  infeiior  until  after  the  twentieth  year.  At  nbinit 
the  fifth  year,  a  fourth  onsiftc  centre  is  developed  in  the  cartilage  of  the  greater 
trochanter,  and  a  fifth  centre  appears  lu  the  lesser  trochanter  at  about  the  fourleenih 
ye-jr.  These  osseous  processes,  thus  developed  from  specf&l  ossific  centres,  aretermwl 
apophysen.  Most  of  the  loni^  bones  are  developed  in  a  corresponding  wa3'.  It  is  a 
curious  fact  (which  is  of  sucn  general  occurnince  that  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  law) 
that  in  the  skeletons  both  of  nmn  and  of  tl>e  lower  animals,  tlie  union  of  the  varloua 
apophyses  to  the  epiphyses,  and  of  the  epiphyses  to  the  diaphysis  or  shaft,  taken 
place  fu  the  inverse  order  to  that  in  wltich  their  o^^sification  b»gan.  The  advantages 
d'Tivt^  from  this  8ul)di vision  of  the  long  bones  into  st^ments,  with  interposed  car- 
til;igin'm-«  plates,  are  obvious.  Besides  tlie  greater  facilities  for  growth  thus  afforded, 
tlic  fl'xibllity  of  the  bony  framework  is  thereby  greatly  increased,  and  Its  escape 
from  injury  during  the  many  falls  incidentjil  to  tlii^  period  of  lift*  is  in  no  small  degree 
attributable  totiiis  cause.    See  Humphry  "On  the  Human   Skeleton,"  pp.  83 — 15. 

True  Ot^mfication  sometimes  occurs  as  a  niorbid  v^ocess;  but  In  many  cases  ths 
term  is  Incorrectly  used  (especially  In  the  case  of  blood-vessels)  to  designate  a  hard 
calcareous  deposit,  in  Nvhich  the  characteristic  microscopic  appearances  of  true  bone 
are  altogetlier  absent 

In  one  sense,  the  osseous  tissue  that  is  formed  in  regeneration  of  destroyed  or 
f Pictured  bones,  may  Imj  n-garded  as  due  to  a  niorbl<l,  lilth<mgh  a  restorative  notion. 
Hypertropliy  of  bone  is  by  no  means  rare,  bein^  sometimes  local,  forming  a  protu- 
berance on  the  external  surface,  in  which  case  it  is  termed  an  exostons;  and  som  - 
times  extending  over  the  whole  l>one  or  over  several  l)ones,  gi\1ng  rise  to  the  condi- 
tion known  as  hypermtogifi.  Again,  true  osseous  tissue  occasi(midly  occurs  in  parts 
in  which,  iii  the  normal  condition,  no  bone  existed,  mb  in  the  dura  mater,  in  the 
so-called  permanent  cartilas:(!S  (as  those  of  the  larynx,  rib«,  &c.),  in  the  tendons  of 
certain  muscle",  and  in  certain  tumors.  The  peculiar  causes  of  the  osseous  forma- 
tions which  are  uncounect*Ki  with  lione,  are  not  known. 

Calc  ireous  d<*posits  or  concretions  not  exld»>itlng  the  microscopical  character  of 
lione,  but  often  falsely  termed  ossifications,  are  of  no  unfrequent  occurrence.  Ana- 
lyses of  such  concrt.'tions  occirrliig  In  pus.  in  the  valves  of  the  heart,  in  the 
musi'.les,  and  in  the  lungs,  are  given  by  Vo^^el  in  his  "  Pathological  Anatomy  of  the 
Hutuau  Body;"  and  in  some  of  these  concretions,  the  phosphate  and  carbonate  of 
lime  occ6r  in  yearly  the  same  p?rcentiges  as  those  in  which  they  are  fonml  in 
bone.  The  diseased  condition  usually  hnt  incoiTectly  called  ossification  of  the 
arteries,  is  of  sufficient  imp  rtance  to  require  a  brief  notice.  In  conseqaenoe  of  the 
deposition  of  earthy  or  calcareous  matter  in  iha  middle  coat  of  the  arferv,  the  vessel 
loses  al!  Its  ela^tIcity,  and  becomes  a  rW^.  unyielding  tube.  All  parts  «  the  arterial 
system  are  llnt^lt!  to  this  change;  hn\  it  is  more  frequently  met  with  iu  the  ascend- 
ing portion  and  arch  of  the  aorta,  than  in  any  other  part  of  that  vessel,  and  is  more 
common  in  the  lower  extronities  than  the  >?})per.  The  aff Ttion  is  usually  partial- 
l>ut  occasionally  it  appears  to  be  almost  nniversal.  Thus,  Dr  Adams  has  recorded 
a  cjse.  in  the  Dublin  Hospital  Reports,  in  which  no  pulsation  could  be  felt  in  any 
p  irt  of  the  body,  and  even  the  heart  offered  no  other  sign  of  action  than  a  slight 
nndnlating  sound.    Old  age  strongly  predisposes  to  this  diseased  condition,  and 

t)rob;il>ly  tew  very  aged  persons  are  alti;gether  exempt  from  it.  There  is  also  reason 
o  l>;^liev«  that  g<mt  and  rheumatism  favor  these  calcareous  depositit.  This  condition 
Oi  the  arteries  may  give  rise  to  mieurism,  to  gangrene  of  the  cxtremiiieii  iu  aged 


Digitized  by 


Google 


575 


Octad« 
Osteology 

persons,  and  to  atrophy,  and  conseqnent  feebleness  of  the  brain  and  heart  (The 
coronary  arteries,  which  8ii])ply  the  heart  with  the  artei-inl  bluod  n<coa?aiy  for  it^ 
ow9nutrition,  are  vt-ry  often,  nUhough  iiot  always,  os^ifiod  fn  anpina  pfclorit«.) 
Mori'ovor,  this*  condition  of  the  vessds  very  materially  iuctcases  tUe  iit-k  from 
severe  accidents  and  Burgioil  operations. 

OSTADfi,  Adrian  van,  a  ceh'brnted  painter  and  engraver  of  the  Dntch  Pchool, 
was  bom  at  Lfibeck,  in  North  Germany, in  1610.  His  teachern  \v(  re  Franz  Hal?  and 
Rembrandt.  He  followed  his  art  at  Haarlem,  till  ihe  French  army  of  Louis  XIV. 
Ihreatwied  Holland,  when  he  removed  to  Amsterdam,  where  Iw.  spent  the  remain- 
der of  Ms  life.  He  died  in  1685.  Country  daucii  g-greens,  farm-yards,  PlaWes.  the 
Interiors  of  nistic  hovels  and  benr-shops,  are  the  i)hKU8  whieh  he  loven  to  p.-dnt;  and 
bis  persons  are  for  the  most  part  cx)arRe  peasant  carle,  drunken  tobacco-smokers,  or 
peasant  women  employed  in  country  work.  In  everything  he  diti  there  ie«  a  l)rigi.t 
and  vivid  naturalness.  Not  equal  to  Tcuiere  in  oiiginaliiy  and  quiet  humor,  he  sur- 
passes him  in  the  force  and  fineness  of  his  execution,  though  he  is  not  free  from 
triviality  and  re{)etitionR,  and  inaccuracies  in  drawing.  Ht!  was  a  prolific  painter, 
and  his  works  are  to  be  found  in  all  thenmseuinsaud  coUeciionsof  the  Ntrtherlauds, 
Germany,  France,  and  Eujiland.  They  have  been  well  engraved  by  ViselK^r.  Suj-- 
deroef,  and  himself. — ^Isaao  van  Ost a db,  brother  of  Adnan.  alno  a  painter,  was 
born  at  LQl)eck  in  1612,  and  died  at  Amstei-daui  iu  1671.  He  did  not  equal  bis 
brother,  whose  style  he  labored  to  imitate. 

OSTASHKO'FF,  a  maiwfactnring  district  town  of  Great  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  IVer,  Ptands  on  the  pouth-east  shore  of  Lak  •  Seliguer;  hrt.  6T°  10'  n.,  lor.;?. 
830  Qf ,..  i^ijg  gyyj  settlements  on  this  site  are  said  fo  have  taken  place  in  1*2S0.  Pop. 
(1867)  9288.  Skin-dressing,  boot-making,  and  fishing  in  the  nei«?liboriiig  lakes  are 
the  principal  employments  of  the  inhabitants.  The  woocfcs  in  the  viciilty  farni.  h 
bark  for  tanning  purposes,  and  chai  coal  for  the  blacksmiths'  shops.  There  are  in  O. 
87  tanyards,  in  which  skins  are  dressed,  and  Rns.'-lan  leather  prepan^d  to  the  amount 
of  i£9p,000  annually.  The  leather  prep:ired  at  Saviues  tanyard  is  ki  own  in  England. 
Austria,  Italy,  and  North  America.  280.000  jmins  of  boots  are  made  annna'ly,  aid 
400  men  and  lOOO  women  are  eng.-jged  in  the  manufacture.  Mauufa<'tnr  s  (f  hatch- 
ets and  scythes  are  also  cairied  on.  The  comnjerce  of  O.  is  small,  however,  owing 
to  its  remote  distance  from  important  lines  of  communication. 

OSTE'NDE,  a  strongly  fortified  town  of  the  Belgian  province  of  West  Flandei-s, 
on  the  German  Ocean,  at  the  opening  of  the  Oetendt  and  Brpges  Caivil,  in  51°  14'  n. 
lat.,  and  2^  55'  e.  long.  Pop.  17,351.  Nolwithstandmg  its  proximity  to  the  sea, 
tlie  shallowness  of  the  narbor  prevents  lai-ge  ships  frou)  entering  the  port  «'xcept  at 
liigh  tide.  It  ranks,  however,  as  the  second  seaiiort  of  the  kingdom,  Antwerp  be- 
ing the  first,  and  is  fortified  with  walls  and  bi-oad  ditches.  It  has  some  good  manu- 
factories for  linens,  sailcloths,  and  tobacco,  and  seveml  sugar,  sa't.  and  eandle 
works.  From  its  position  as  a  station  for  the  steam<  rs  plying  daily  between  Lon- 
don, Dover,  and  the  continent,  and  as  the  terminus  of  various  branches  of  railwiiy 
in  connection  with  the  great  French  and  Gorman  lines,  it  is  a  lively  and  active  placw 
of  transi)ort  traffic,  ana  is  resorted  to  in  the  summer  as  a  bathing-place  by  12,000 
persons  from  all  parts  of  the  continent.  It  is,  moreover,  an  imjwrtant  station  for 
oj'ster,  cod,  and  herring  fishing;  has  a  good  naval  school,  some  shipyards,  an  efli- 
rient  staff  of  pilots,  and  is  lh<?  seat  of  a  commercial  tribunal  and  a  chamber  of  cus- 
toms. Its  imports  in  1878  amounted  to  16,000,000  francs;  its  exports  to  16,000,000 
francs.  The  harbor  is  fuvni.-'hed  with  a  light-h«)use,  and  is  provided  with  an  admir- 
ably constructed  stone  promenade  for  the  accommoda^tion  of  thepui>llc.  O.  is  mem- 
omble  for  the  protracted  siege  which  it  undorMont  from  1601  to  1604,  tenninating  iu 
the  surrender  of  the  Dutch  and  Flemish  garrison  to  the  Spanish  commander, 
Spinola. 

OS  I'EOCO'LA,  a  kind  of  siz<f  or  glue  made  by  removing  the  mineral  matter  from 
bones,  and  dissolving  the  gelatine.    lis  common  name  is  btme-ghie. 

OSTEOLE'PIS  (Gr.  bone-scale),  a  irenus  of  fossil  ganoid  fish  peculiar  to  the  Old 
Red  Sandstone.  It  is  separated  from  its  allies  by  having  th-  two  anal  and  two  doital 
fiuB  alternating  with  each  other.    SevtMj  ei)ecie8  have  b^n  described. 

OSTEO'LOGY  (Gr.  oateat  the  bones)  is  tiiat  department  of  tmatomy  which  treats 


U.  s.,  z.,  la 

Digitized  by 


Google 


Ostrich  ^  «  " 

of  the  chemical  anft  physi'^al  propertios  of  the  os^eoiifl  tissnef  and  of  the  phnpe,  de- 
velopment and  i.Muw(h.  articiilatiout-,  &c.,  of  Ihe  various  boues  of  which  the  skfl^^ton 
if  composed.    See  Bone,  Ossification,  Skeleton,  Ac 

OSTERO'Dfi,  a  pmall  town  of  Hanov«r,  in  the  piiucipnlity  of  Grubenbagen,  >itn- 
atc'd  at  the  western  ba.«'e  of  ilie  Hara  Mountains,  on  the  SOne,  nn  affluent  of  the 
LciiieT  20  miles  north-east  of  GOttingi*n.  It  contains  large  grain  sl-ores,  from  which 
the  miners  of  the  negliboriioud  and  their  friniilies  are  KUpplied  with  grain  at  a  low 
ii'id  fixed  rate.  Cotton,  woollen,  and  ]in«>n  fabtics  iind  bofiiery  are exteusivdy  mau- 
ufacturcd,  also  lend  and  copper.    Pop,  (1875)  6(i68. 

O'STIA,  a  city  of  Latinui.  at  the  month  of  tlie  Tilier,  abont  16  miles  from  Rome. 
It  is  said  to  have  l>ern  founded  by  Aucns  Mnrtiin*,  and  was  rcgardi-d  as  the  oldest 
Koman  colony.  It  first  ncqnired  ImiKjrtauce  from  itt«  mtlt-workH,  the  establishment 
of  which  is  attributed  to  Anons  Martins,  and  .ifterwards  a-  the  port  where  the  Sici- 
lian, Sardinian,  and  African  corn  shipped  for  Rome  was  laud<>aj  y(a  its  name  first 
occurs  during  the  second  Punic  war.  It  was  lonir,  too,  the  principal  station  of  the 
Koman  navy  ;  but  its  harbor  was  exceedingly  bad.  siud  gradually  the  entrance  be- 
came silted  up  with  alluvial  deposits,  so  that  vessels  could  no  longer  approacli  It, 
but  were  compelled  to  ride  at  nnchor  in  the  open  roadstead,  :ind  to  disembaik  tht-ir 
cargoes  there.  At  length  tiie  Bmi)er<)r  Claudius  dug  a  new  harl>or  or  basin  two  miles 
north  of  O..  »nd  connected  it  witli  the  Til)*»r  by  a  canal.  It  was  uani"d  \he  Porttis 
AuquHU\  and  nrouudit  soon  spning  up  a  new  town  calle<l  Portun  Ontiensis.  Parttut 
UrhUi^  Portus  Ronue,  and  often  simply  Portiis.  Yet  It  was  not  till  nmrly  the  cloaj 
of  Ihe  lioman  empire  that  the  po>«perity  of  O.  as  a  city  l)egan  to  decline.  Its  det-iy, 
.  however,  was  rapid,  and  in  the  8th  lu  il  wa-^  a  mere  rain.  During  the  middle  ag  s, 
a  village — the  modern  O. — ^was  l)U'ltal)Out  Indf  a  mile  above  the  ancient  one;  but  it  ' 
has  not  more  than  one  hundred  permanent  inhabitants, who  still  carry  on  the  maiiufat  - 
tureof  salt,  established  in  tlie  pre-lii.«tonc  limes  of  ancient  Rome.  The  ruJn»«  if  O. 
extend  for  a  mile  and  a  half  along  the  hanks  of  the  Tiher,  an^  are  nearly  a  mile  in 
breadth.    See  Nihby's  "  Dintorni  di  Roma  "  (vol.  ii .). 

OSTRA'CION,  a  geims,  and  Ostbacionid^.  a  family  of  fishes  of  the  ord«T 
PUctognathi.  They  are  remarkably  distinguinhed  by  having:  the  whole  iKKly  cover,  d 
with  an  inflt?xible  lub.'.rculated  coat  of  mail,  formed  of  six-sided  bony  scales  or 
plates  combined  in  a  tesselated  qnlncu  cial  manner ;  the,  fleshy  ISjw,  the  fins,  and  the 
tall  protnrding  throtiirh  hohs  in  ihe  armor.  The  gill-op -nliig  ap|)i!ars  in  the  armor 
a^  a  mere  slit,  borderec^  with  a  skinny  edge,  hui  there  is  a  tiue  gill-cov»r  within. 
There  are  no  veniral  fins.  The  vertebrae  are  generally  coaltsc^-nf.  There  is  littln 
muscular  substance,  and  in  some  siv-cies  it  is  reputed  ix)isonoin>;  but  the  liver  is 
hu'ge,  and  yields  nmeh  oi .  Some  of  the  sp:*cie8  are  known  by  the  names  of  I^unk- 
FisH  and  Coffer-fish.  They  are  mostly  found  in  the  Indian  and  American  seaa. 
Noi»e  are  British. 

O'STRACISM,  a  right  exorcised  by  the  people  of  Athens  of  banishing  for  a  time 
any  person  whose  services,  ratik,  or  wealth  apjM'ared  to  be  dangerous  \6  the  Hl)eriy 
of  his  fellow-citizens,  or  incon.^istent  with  their  politicjd  equality.  It  was  not  ai 
punishment  for  any  part  icnlar  crime,  but  rather,  as  h.is  been  ohst-rved,  a  pncaution- 
ary  measure  to  remove  such  lenders  ap  were  obviously  ex»*rcising  a  dangerous  as- 
cendency in  the  state.  Os*  racism  was  introduced  by  Cleisthenes  about  tht?  b<'gin- 
niiig  of  the  6th  c  b.c,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  R«lsi>»tratldre.  Tiic  people  were 
annually  asked  by  the  Prytanes  if  they  wished  to  exercis*?  this  right,  and  if  they  did, 
a  public  assembly  was  held,'and  each  citizen  had  oi)portnnity  of  depositing,  in  a 
p'ace  appointed  for  the  purpose,  a  potsherd  (pstiahm^  or  small  earthen  tabu  t,  on 
which  was  written  the  name  of  the  pers^on  for  whose  banishment  he  voted.  Six 
thousand  votes  were  m-c  'ssai y  for  the  banishment  of  any  person ;  hut  th<!  jgr«'!nte8t 
men  of  Athens — Miltiadts,  'i'hemistocles,  CImon.  AUibiades,  &c.— were  subj-cted  :o 
this  treatment  The  bani.-liment  was  at  first  for  ten  years,  but  the  p.'rlod  was  aft«T- 
warls  restricted  to  five.  Projierty  and  civil  rights  or  honors  remained  unaffected  by  it. 
Alcihiadea  succeeded  in  obtiiining  the  final  abolition  of  ostmcisin,  of  which,  lM)wever, 
Plutarch  nn<l  Aristotle  speak  as  a  necessary  political  expedient,  and  its  ntdlty  has 
boon  very  a!»ly  defended  in  modern  times  by  Mr  Grote  (''History  of  Greece,"  vol.  iv. 
pp.  200f^.scg.). 

O'STRICH  (SiiutAw),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  order  Grallatores^  and   ir.bo 


p\^>7  Osterode 

•^*  «  Ostrich 

^revfpn}nfft  (q.  v.),  in  Cuvior's  pypfeui — tlie  order  Cnrsores  (or  Rnniiere)  of  t-oum 
ornjt  ologiPiB.  In  this  gi.'iiu«  lio  bill  is  of  jnodeiule  length,  bioiui,  flattened, 
rounded  at  the  lip,  the  numdibles  flexible ;  ihe  head  Pimill ;  tin-  neck  long ;  the  legs 
long  (botli  tibiu  ami  tarsns)  nud  very  robust,  the  lower  pnrt  of  tie  ribia.  as  well  aa 
the  tarsus,  naked ;  the  feel  have  only  two  toes,  of  which  the  inui  r  is  the  largest,  and 
has  a  short  claw,  Ihe  outer  has  no  claw  ;  the  wings  are  loo  yhort  to  be  ns<'d  (or  flight, 
but  are  useful  to  aid  iu  running ;  tlie  plumage  is  lax  and  flexibW* ;  the  wings  and  tail 
have  long  soft  drooping  plumes.  Only  one  species  is  known  {S.  cainelvs),  a  native 
of  the  sandy  des;  rtsot  Africaand  Arahia  ;  the  South  An».*ric»n  ostriches,  orNandus 
(q.  V.)  constituting  a  distinct  genus.  The  O.  is  the  largest  of  all  birds  now  existing, 
being  from  six  to  eight  feet  in  height  to  the  top  of  its  head,  and  an  adult  male 
weighing  from  two  to  three  hundnd  poni.ds.  The  male  is  rather  larger  than  the 
fennile.  The  hi-ad  and  upper  part  of  the  neck  are  scantily  covered  with  a  thin  down, 
thiough  which  the  ekin  is"  visible.  Tl»e  young  have  the  head  and  neck  clothed  witli 
fi'athers.  Tl»e  general  plumage  is  i:lo>*sy  l»lack  in  the  adult  malt',  dark  gray  in  the 
female  and  young,  with  a  slight  sprinkling  of  whitt;  fi-aihers ;  the  long  plumes  of  the 
\ving8  and  tail  are  white,  occasionally  uiarked  with  black.  On  each  wing  are  tuo 
plumeless  sliaJts,  not  unlike  j>orcupiue'8  quills.  The  inner  toe  is  very  large,  about 
seven  inches  long,  and  its  claw  hoof -like.  Whilst  the  sternum  is  destitute  of  a  keel, 
and  the  muscles  which  move  the  wings  are  comparatively  weak,  those  which  move 
the  legs  are  of  prodigious  strength,  so  that  the  O.  is  not  only  capjible  of  ranuii^ 
with  great  speed,  l)ut  of  striking  such  a  blow  with  its  foot  as  to  make  it  too  formida- 
ble for  the  leopard  and  other  large  beasts  of  prey  to  assail  ir.  It  has  l>een  often 
known  to  lip  o))eu  a  dog  by  a  siuglt;  stroke,  and  a  man  is  recorded  to  have 
Buffered  the  same  fate.  1'he  eyes  of  the  O.  are  lai-ge,  and  the  lids  are  furnished  with 
lashes.  Its  sight  is  keen,  so  that  it  descries  objects  at  a  great  distance  in  the  open 
desert. 

The  O.  shuns  the  presence  of  man,  but  is  often  to  be  seen  in  near  proximity  to 
herds  of  zebras,  qnaggas,  giraffes,  antelopes,  and  other  quadrui)ed8.  It  is  grega- 
rious, although  the  flocks  of  os»truhesare  notgeneinilly  vei-y  large.  It  is  polygamous, 
one  maletifually  appropiiating  to  himself,  when  hu  can,  fiom  two  to  seven  females, 
which  seem  to  make  their  nest  in  common,  scooping  a  mere  hole  in  the'  sand  for  this 
purpose.  Etvch  fennile  is  suppos^ed  to  kiv  about  ten  egsrs.  The  ego^s  are  all  placed  on 
end  iu  the-nest,  which  often  contains  a'farge  number,  whilet  around  it  eggs  are  gen- 
erally to  be  found  scattered  on  the  eand.  Concerning  these,  it  has  been  supposed 
,  tliaithey  are  Intended  for  the  food  of  the  young  birds  before  they  are  able  to  go  in 
quest  of  other  food  ;  an  improbabfe  notion,  not  supported  by  evidence.  Itseenis 
at  least  as  likely  that  these  scattered  eggs  are  laid  by  females  waiting  whilst  the  j\e^t 
is  occupied  by  another,  and  that  they  are  lost  to  tlie  ostriches,  and  no  more  regarded. 
Contrary  to  a  very  generally  received  opinion,  the  O.  does  not  leave  her  eggs  to  be 
hatched  euth-ely  by  the  heat  of  the  sun;  or,  if  this  be  the  case  in  the  warmest 
regions,  it  is  otherwi-e  in  the  more  northern  and  southern  countries  in  which 
this  bird  la  found,  and  by  a  remarkable  instinct,  the  O.  sits  upon  the  eggs  by  nightj 
when  the  cold  would  be  loo  great  for  them,  and  leaves  iheni  to  the  sun's  heat  during 
the  day. 

The  O.  feeds  exclusively  on  vegetable  substances,  its  food  coijsisting  in  great  part 
of  gmsses  and  their  seeds;  so  that  its  vis^its  are  much  dreaded  by  the  cnltivuto>-s  of 
the  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  its  haunts,  a  iock  of  ostriches  soon  nuiking  terriWe  devas- 
tation of  a  fl(?ld  of  corn.  The  O.  has  a  very  hirge  crop,  a  strong  gizzard,  au<l  a  pretty 
large  proventn'culu.s  between  the  crop  a.ml  the  giiszaid  :  the  intesiiuos  are  volumin- 
ous, and  the  coeca  long,  with  a  remarkable  spiral  valve.  Tliere  is  a  receptacle  iu 
which  the  urine  accumulattis,  as  in  a  bladder^  a  thing  very  uncommon  in  b.rds. 

The  O.  swallows  large  stoi.es,  a«  small  birds  swallow  grains  of  sand,  to  aid  the 
gizzard  in  the  trituration  of  the  food;  and  in  confinement.,  has  often  been  known  to 
swallow  vt  ry  iudlscriniiuately  whatever  came  in  the  way,  pieces  of  iron,  bricks,  ghias, 
old  shoes,  copper  coins,  &c.  Its  instincts  do  not  suffice  to  prevent  it  from  swallow- 
ing very  unsuitable  things ;  copper  coius  were  fatal  jw  one  instance,  and  a  piece  of 
a  parasol  In  another. 

The  O.  is  very  patient  of  thirst,  or  is  capable  of  subsisting  for  a  long  time  with- 
out water.    It  often  supplies  the  want  of  water  by  eating  the  gourds  or  melons  of  the 
dtisert,  to  whicn  even  the  lion  ir  said  to  resort  on  the  sjune  account. 
^-  ^  The  speed  of  the  O.,  when  it  firet  sets  out,  is  supposed  to  be  uot^s^ba^l^milcs 


^i 


Ortrich  FifTQ 

0«w«try  •^  <  <^ 

an  hour ;  bnt  it  does  not  seem  to  be  capal)le  of  keeping  up  this  speed  for  a  long  tfrae. 
It  is  Buccesefully  huiitt'd  by  men  ou  lioi-sulmck,  wtio  tttke  ndvautige.  of  itn  habit  of 
ranning  in  ii  cui-ve,  insteju!  of  a  Btmiglit  Utie,  bo  that  the  liiinter  knows  how  to  pro- 
ceed iii  onlertoiue  t  it  and  jret  within  shot  It  is  often  killed  in  Sonth  Afncu  by 
men  who  envelop  themst; Ives  in  ostiixih  pkins,  and  admimbly  imitating  the  raannei-s 
of  the  O.,  approach  it  near  enough  for  their  psiipo^e,  without  exciting  its  alarm,  and 
toniotinii'B  kill  one  after  another  with  tlieir  poisoned  arrows. 

ThQ  strenijth  of  the  O.  is  encli  thiit  It  can  easily  carry  two  men  on  its  bock. 

The  voice  of  the  O.  is  deep  and  hollow,  not  easily  distingnislu  d,  except  by  a 
practised  ear,  from  the  ronr  of  the  lion.  It  also  more  freqneuily  makes  a  kind  of 
cackling ;  and  when  enraged  and  striking  violently  at  uu  adversary,  hisses  very 
londly.  _ 

The  flesh  of  the  O.  is  not  nnpalatable  when  it  is  young,  nut  rank  and  tough  when 
old.  It  is  generally  believed  to  nave  Iwcn  im)hil);ted  ns  nncleau  to  the  Jews  (Lev. 
xl.  16),  although  the  name  is  tmnslated  owl  in  the  English  Bible.  There  are  frequent 
references  to  it  in  the  Old  Testament. 

The  eggs  of  the  O.  are  mucli  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food  byth^  rude  natives 
of  Aftrica,  and  are  acceptable  even  to  European  travellers  and  colonists.  Each  egg 
weighs  about  thifee  pounds,  and  is*  thus  equal  to  al>out  two  dozen  onlinary  hen's 
egijjs.  The  egg  is  usually  dressed  by  being  8<'t  upright  on  a  fii-e,  and  stirred  al>out  with 
a  forked  stick,  insertecl  through  a  hole  in  the  up|>er  end.  The  t'sick  and  strong  shell 
is  applied  to  many  ut«es,  but  pa.*ticnhirly  is  much  employed  by  the  South  African 
tril>e8  for  water- vessels.  Tlie  reader  will  probably  recolU-.ct  the  interesting  piate  in 
Liviui^stoue's  ** Travels**  of  women  filling  ostrich  shells  with  water.  In  taking 
ostrich  eggs  from  the  nes»t.  the  South  African  is  careful  not  to  tonch  any  with  the 
hand,  hut  uses  a  long  ptick  to  draw  them  out,  tbar.  the  birds  may  not  'detect  the 
smell  of  the  inirnd.  r,  in  u  hich  cate  they  would  forsake  the  ne^t ;  whilst  otherwise,  they 
will  return,  and  lay  more  eggs. 

OSTRICH-FARMING.  Attetnpts  are  being  made  to  increase  the  supply  Of 
ostrich  feathers,  or  to  facilitate  the  procuriitg  of  thenj,  by  establishing  farms — en- 
closures where  the  birds  can  grow  and  breed  in  lamones^.  In  1858,  the  Bulletin  of 
the  SocJei6  d'Acclimatation  contained  a  note  from  DrVavassenr,  discussing  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  osftrich  of  Sonth  America,  the  Nandu  (q.  v.)  or  BheUy  can  be  accli- 
matised in  Prance.  When  c.iught,  they  are  easily  lamed  ;  and  this  is  the  circum- 
stance whiclj  has  pugije^ted  the  idea  of  natnndisation.  They  mus't  not  be  placed  in 
cages,  l)at  must  have  tree  range  to  walk  a)x)ut,  secured  simply  >)y  a  leg-^nard.  Dr 
Vavast'eur  exprei<setl  an  opinion  "that  the  South  American  ostrich  could  live  without 
diffii  u!ty  in  the  north  of  France ;  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in  domesticating  it;  and 
that,  it  will  feed  on  almo^-^t  anything  that  is  given  lo  it,  however  coarse." 

At  a  meeting  of  tl»e  Cape  Agricultural  Society  of  Cape  Town  m  1864,  Mr  L.  von 
Maltitz  gave  an  account  of  his  experience  in  ostrich-farming  at  CoU-sb-rg.  Towards 
the  end  of  18dS  he  purchased  seventeen  young  ostriches  of  three  or  four  montlia  old, 
and  placed  them  in  an  enclosure  of  300  acres,  over  which  they  had  free  run.  Tlu'y 
subsisted  wholly  ou  the  herbjige  of  the  enclosnr^,  save  a  little  gndn  given  to  them 
now  and  then.  Tlie  opinion  he  formed  irom  many  months'  observatiou 
was.  that35ostri«  hcs  might  find  sufficient  sustejiance  nponSuO  acres  of  trood  graaing- 
ground.  In  April  1864.  he  had  the  wings  of  the  birds  cut  at  the  point  where  tl»e 
well-known  ostrich  feathers  grow ;  and  ttiey  were  fit  again  lo  cut  six  mcmtlis  later. 
The  birds  were  to  tame  that,  they  allowed  'themselves  to  be  handled,  and  their  plu- 
mage minutely  examined.  Having  caused  the  birds an<l  the  feathers  to  be  examine<l 
by  experienced  dealers,  he  found  that  thelai-gest  feathei-s,  of  which  there  are  tweniy- 
foiu'  on  the  wing  of  each  male  bird,  were  woith  £25  per  lb. ;  and  that  one  plucking 
of  his  seventeen  birds  would  yield  £10  each  on  an  average.  The  birds  co«t  him  about 
£o  each.  Since  this  experiment  of  Mr  Von  Maltitz,  O.-P.  has  become  a  recc^niseii 
form  of  industry  at  the  Cape.  The  price  of  a  healthy  bird  a  week  old  is  jEIO;  at  six 
months,  £30.  The  feathers  may  1^  plucked  when  the  bird  is  a  year  old,  and  each 
crop  is  w  orth  about  £1  a  bird.  The  price  of  the  feathers  ranges,  according  to  quality, 
from  a  few  shillings  per  II).  to  £40  or  £50.  In  1875  there  were  32,247  domestictitiHt 
ostriches  in  Cape  Colony.  It  is  found  that  600  acres  of  grass  are  reqiUred  to  feed  80 
birds;  and  when  the  j;ras8  is  poor,  the  ostriches  are  fed  on  snpplie»of  Bhmbs  and 
occaBioually  ou  ludiau  com.    The  adult  bhrds  reqi^re  to  be  kept  in  separate  pad- 


679  gSJS^ 

docbe,  whfch  are  j2r<>nernTy  pnnronndid  by  wlrc-frnclug.  The  ess  of  the  ostrich, 
though  con rse.  is  nasoujil>Iy  ^'ood  f oihI  ;  but  tUe  nuiur  lisiatiou  oi  the  bird  deriviB 
in(»t«t  of  ita  profjH  c.tive  iin|K)rt]iUcc  trom  the  feitthers,  for  which  tlitre  i»  at  all  tiiuts 
a  large  <Ieiiitiiid  lu  tlie  chief  Earopt-au  comitiies. 

Th^  long  piamcs  of  tiio  O.  hav«  been  highly  vulncd  for  ornamental  pnrposep  from 
verj'  early  OmeK.  and  continue  to  be  a  cont'ideral)le  article  of  coiniuenv-,  fur  the  buke 
of  which  the  O.  i»  purmted  iu  its  native  wildo.    See  08TBIoh-Farmim6. 

The  O.  in  often  to  he  seen  in  Britain  in  conflnemfui,  and  nadlly  hecomes  anite 
tame  and  faniiiiar,  ulthongh  still  apt  to  be  violent  towsirds  ntrangi-rii.  Great  nnmncrs 
were  exliibiti-d  in  the  pablic  spectacles  by  some  of  tliu  Kunian  empt'rois;  and  the 
brains  of  many  ostriclies  wei-e  someiimes  presented  in  a  single  disli,  as  at  tiie  table 
(rf  Helioga')ulU!«. 

OSTRICH  FEATHERS  are  occasionally  borne  as  a  heraldic  charge,  and  nhvnya 
rcprest'nttKl  drooping.  Three  white  ostrich  feathers  an;  the  wel]-)kjio\vn  badge  of 
the  Princ«-  of  Wa'ep.  Accoixlint;  {o  common  tradition,  they  were  uf^nmed  in  i  oin»e- 
qiieuce  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince  haviig  pincked  a  plume  of  ostrich  feathers*  from 
tnu  Cji^que  of  John  of  Luxemburg,  king  of  Bohemia,  who  fell  by  ma  hand  at  Creey. 
There  is,  however,  no  doubt  that  oat lich  f  atherswere  previoiit*  to  that  time  a  cogui- 
zaiice  of  the  Plautagenets.  Prince  Heniy,  eldest  son  of  Jamea  I.,  fir«t  established 
the  pretHrnt  arrang'-ment  of  the  three  octrich  fcjathei-s  within  a  princess  coronet. 

OSTRO'G,  a  small  district  town  of  We#«t  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Volhynta, 
100  niilea  west  of  Ji  omir.  Here,  in  the  reign  uf  Ck>uptantiue4i^  Of^trog,  a  school 
ai.d  typography  were  estublihhed,  and  the  flitit  SUkvonic  Biblt^priiited  in.  1666,  Pop. 
(1867)8314.  "^ 

OSTROGOTHS.    See  Goths. 

OSTU'NT,  a  city  of  South  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Lecce,  22  miles  we8t-iiorth« 
wert  from  Briudit^i.  on  tho  raiiw.iy  betw<»en  Ancona  and  Briudisi.  It  stiinds  on 
n  j«t<;ep  hill.  A  considerable  tratle  ia  carried  on,  chit  fly  In  the  produce  Of  the  ueigh- 
boiHiOijd,  imd  the  ciiy  is  a  flourishing  one.    Pop.  (1871)  14,422. 

OSU'NA,  a  town  of  Spain  in  the  province  of  Seville,  and  48  milefl^east-sonlb-east 
of  the  city  that  name,  stands  in  a  fertile  plain,  and  on  a  triangular  mil  cn>\vn<  d  by 
a  castle  ami  the  coile^riate  church.  It  standa  in  the  midst  of  a  higbly  fertile  plain, 
prodiiciivcin  grain,  olives,  alniondi*,  &c.  A  >  extensi.e  pancM'amic  view  is  obtained 
f!om  the  ca«*t:e.  The  colletjiate  chnrch.  in  the  niix«  d  Gothic  and  cinigne-cento  style, 
Was  built  in  16S4.  It  was  pillaged  by  Soult  of  6  cwt.  of  ancient  church  pl.iti*,  and 
ivas  couv«^rted  by  him  into  a  c  tailcl  and  magaz  ue.  Pop.  16,600,  wlo  are  engaged 
iji  agriculture  and  in  the  menufucture  of  linen  goodH,  ai.d  iron  and  earthenware. 

OSWE'QO,  a  city  nud  port  of  entry,  in  New  York,  U.  S.,  is  situated  at  the  month 
of  Oswego  River,  on  Lake  Ontario,  at  the  extremity  of  the  Os»\\ego  Canai,  a  branch 
of  the  Erie,  and  is  a  station  on  ^eveI•al  rallwuyn.  It  is  a  han<l»>ome  c  ty.  with  streets 
100  feet  wide,  crossing  at  right  angle?,  with  costly  govcrumeut  bulldlng»»,  custom- 
house, court- ho  ns<;,  post-office,  city  haU,  ho8pitJ»l,(^rphana^<ylunl, library,  Idchurches, 
2  daily  and  2  weekly  new-^papi-r*,  excellent  s'cliool}',  &o.  It  h.ia  a  large  trade  with 
the  lake  country  :  nd  Canada,  and  exiiorts  about  12.000.000  dollars  |>er  annum.  On 
the  river  are  14  flour-milln,  making  600,000  barrel^  of  flcur  :i  day,  with  11  elevators  for 
unloading  vet^sels  for  46,000  bushels  :n  hour.  Amoni?  the  manufactures  is  that  of 
13,000.000  lbs.  of  what  is  known  as  0.««wei:o  flour,  made  from  Indinn  corn.  Tli© 
Innibrr  received  in  1874  measured  2^0,814,573  feet,  hes1d<  s  47,608,063  shingles, 
8,654,126  pieces  of  heading,  &c.  There  are  a  fort  and  a  nuvy-yard,  and  and  an  excel- 
lent harbor  recently  constructed.    Pop.  (1870)  20,910. 

0SWE(30  TEA.  a  name  given  to  several  specices  of  3^?Jarrfa,  p.irticularly  Jf. 
purpurea^  M.  didyma,  and  M.  kalmiana*  natives  of  North  America,  because  of  the 
occasional  use  of  an  infusion  of  the  dried  leaves  a»  a  beverage.  They  helong  to  ibe 
natural  order  LabiaUe,  somewhat  resemble  mints  In  at>pearance,  and  have  an  agree- 
nble  (Klor.  Thu  infusion  is  said  to  be  useful  in  intenuiitents,  and  as  a  l^tomachic. 
Some  other  spedus  of  Mionarda  are  n^^ed  in  ilie  sami?  way. 

P'SWBSTRY,  a  thriving  market  town  and  municipal  borough  of  England,  in  the 
comity  of  Salop,  18  miles  north-west  of  Shrewsbury.    TUe  stone  pillars  of  ita  au<- 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


§2^*'"'  580 

cient  gateways  sHll  stand  \n  the  streets.  There  are  also  scantjr  remains  of  a  cattle* 
said  to  have  been  the  aucestrul  seat  of  Walter  Firzrtlan,  progenitor  of  the  royal  Hou»tf 
of  Stuart,  who,  during  the  troubles  of  the  reign  of  King  Stephen,  fled  hence  to  Scot- 
laud,  and  become  steward  to  David  I.,  king  of  Scotiand.  O.  is  the  centre  of  an  ex- 
tensive agricultural  district :  It  has  extensive  market-places,  and  its  weekly 
market  for  agricultural  produce  aud  cattle  is  vi-ry  Largely  attended.  There 
are  corn  inills  and  coal-mines  in  the  vicinity.  O.  contains  the  offices  and 
works  of  the  Cambrian  Company,  and  is  favoral)]y  situated  as  a  i-uilway 
centre.  Pop.  (1871)  of  municipal  borough,  T806.  O.  is  said  to  derive  it«  name 
from  Oswald,  king  of  Northumbria,  slain  here  in  642.  Near  tlie  town  is  Oswald's 
Well,  a  fine  spring  of  water ;  aud  *'  Old  O."  an  ancient  encampment. 

OSYMA'NDYAS,  the  name  of  a  crcatking  of  Egypl,  mentioned  by  Diodoms  and 
Strabo,  who  reigned,  according  to  these  authors,  as  the  27th  successor  of  Sesosiris. 
H(!  distinguished  himself,  according  to  these  authors,  by  his  victories,  and  invaded  At^ia 
with  an  army  of  400,000  men  and  20,000  cavalry,  aud  conquered  the  Bactrians.  who  ha<l 
been  rendered  tributary  to  Bgypt  by  Sesosiris.  In  honor  of  tuii«  exploit,  he  is  said 
by  Hccataeus  to  have  erected  a  monument  which  was  at  once  a  palace  aud  a  tomb, 
aud  which,  under  the  name  of  Osymandeionj  was  renowned  for  its  size  aud  splendor 
iu  later  times.  It  was  said  to  be  situated  in  tlie  necropolis  of  Thebes,  or  atQonrnah, 
aud  close  to  the  sepulchres  of  the  concnbiues  of  the  god  Ameu  Ra.  The  Osymun- 
deion  is  geuernlly  f>elieved  to  be  represented  by  the  extant  ruins  of  the  luUace  of 
Kameses  III.  at  Mediuet  Haboo,  though  great  cufflculty  has  been  felt  in  reconciling 
the  descriptions  of  ijs  maguidcence  in  ancient  writers  with  the  dimensions  of  thj 
modem  relic;  and  Letronne,  in  his  '*  Tombeau  d'Osymandyas "  (Par.  1831),  has 
even  ventured  to  supposed  that  it  was  an  imu<i:inary  edifice  invented  bv  the  Greeks 
from  their  acquaintance  with  the  stent  pal-ices  of  Thel)e«,  but  this  scepticism  is  con- 
sidered extrenie.  The  name  of  O.  is  difUcult  to  recognise  amongst  the  Eoj^ptlaii 
kiu^,  the  nearest  approach  to  it  being  one  of  the  Setis^,  either  the  1st  or  2d,  called 
after  death,  Asirt-Meueptah.  Others  consider  O.  the  l8»m«ndes  of  Strabo,  or  the 
Mendes  of  Herodotus.  The  name  of  Anieuophis  may  also  lie  concealed  iu  his  name, 
BO  much  ambiguity  pervades  the  aabjuct 

Diodoms,  i.  48  to  60;  Strabo,  xvii.  p.  8,  11—16;  Juvenal,  xv.  88;  Letronnf*, 
"Mem.  de  I'lnst."  ix.  p.  321;  Cliami>ollion,  •*  Lettres  Ecrites,"  p.  260,  803;  Cham- 
poll  ion -Pigeac,  "  LrEgypte,"  69,  291,  813—315. 

OTA'GO,  one  of  the  most  recent  seitlemeutp,  but,  at  the  same  time,  the  mo?t 
prosperous,  populous,  aud  likely  to  become  the  most  influential  province  of  New 
Zealand  (q.  v.).  Since  the  relncoi-poration  of  Southland- a  iwrtlon  of  Its  terriiory 
which,  in  1861,  was  parted  from  O.  and  raised  into  a  small  sepanite  province,  an  ex«. 
periment  which  failed  in  a  short  time— it  is  now  the  most  southern  pi-ovince  of  SontU 
Island  (see  New  Zealand).  O.  is  bounded  on  the  north  hy  the  province  of  Canter- 
bury, aud  on  the  west,  east,  and  south  by  the  Pacific  Oci-an  ;  is  in  length  200  miles. 
160  miles  in  breadth,  and  possesses  an  invaluable  line  of  coast  which  measures  400 
miles.  The  entire  area  is  about  15,5fid,000  acres — over  24,000  sqaare  miles.  Pop.  iu 
1871,  69,600 :  in  1877,  estimated  at  116,630.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Waitaki,  the 
Olutha,  and  the  Mataura,  all  of  which  flow  south-south-east,  and  are  navigable 
to  a  greater  or  less  exUnt.  The  westeru  regions  of  O.  remain  unsurveyed, 
but  are  known  to  be  covered  with  high,  and  in  many  cases  snow-capped 
monntaius,  stretching  along  the  whole  line  of  coast,  and  extending  inland  for  npwanis 
of  60  miles.  East  and  norm-east  from  the  Mataura  River  to  tho  shore  the  surface  is 
well  known,  and  consists  of  mountain-ranges  lUternating  with  valleys,  and  extending 
paralh;!  to  the  si'a  and  to  each  other  as  far  inland  as  the  valley  of  the  Manuiierikia, 
one  of  the  first  affluents  of  the  Glut  ha.  The  climate  of  O.  is  exceedingly  healthy 
aud  invigorating ;  frost  and  snow  are  unknown  except  iu  the  higher  ranges,  aud 
rain,  though  sufftciently  abundant  to  answer  the  demands  of  agriculture,  does  not 
interfere  with  outdoor  occupations.  All  the  English  fruits  aud  flowers,  with  somo 
trlfliug  exceptions,  are  ^rown  here  to  perfection.  The  northern  aud  interior  districts 
of  the  province  are  emmently  adapted,  as  r^irds  both  soil  and  climate,  for  agricul- 
ture as  well  us  cattle-breeding.  The  westeru  districts  are  rugged,  and  covered 
Mrith  forests;  but  In  the  eastern  regions  are  many  fertile  and  well- watered  tracts,. 
admiral>ly  suited  for  tlie  production  of  corn,  aud  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  sheep.  Iu 
mineral  wealth  the  proviuce  of  O.  ia  remarkably  rich.    Coal|  ircp^  cooim^  silver. 


1 


581  §2?r'"™ 

lead,^  Ac,  haye  been  found,  and  useful  eartha  and  ciaye  arc  abundant.  Gold  has  been 
found  iu  small  quantities  in 'Other  provinces  of  New  Zealand,  as  in  Auckland  and 
Nelson  Province;  but  by  far  the  most  important  gold-fields  of  tbe  colony  are  in 
the  province  of  Otago.  Gold  whs  first  discovered  here  by  Mr  Gabriel  Read  in  Jnne 
'  1861,  in  a  gully,  since  called  Gabriel's  Gully,  on  the  Tuapeka,  an  afflnent  of  the 
Clutha,  in  a  direct  iina  3T  miles  west  of  Dunedin.  Read  placed  his  discpvery  in 
the  hands  of  government,  and  was  presented  by  the  Provinci.il  Council  With  £500 
as  a  reward.  In  less  than  two  months  from  the  discoveiy  of  gold,  3000  people  were 
at  work  in  the  Tuapeka  valley,  and  were  obiaiuinir  6000  oz.  a  \v«ek.  Froin 
this  time  gold-mining  becjime  a^taple  employment  A  **  rush  "  was  mad(!  from 
Australia;  Dunedin,  forn»erly  ihe  village  capital  of  the  province,  now  rapidly  in- 
creased in  size  and  trad  •,  new  fields  were  discovered,  and  the  iininigration-lifcit«  weie 
immensely  swelled.  From  June  1861  to  Jime  1863, 700,000  oz.,  worth  nearly  i:3,000,000, 
were  obtained.  The  most  productive  gold-field  hitherto  discovered  is  the  Arrow 
River  District,  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Wakatip.  This  district  was  made  known  in 
November  1862,  and  from  that  time  to  the  end  of  October  1863,  237,655  oz.— value 
je956,620— were  forwarded  to  Dunedin  by  escort  The  value  of  thr  gold  exported 
from  O.  up  to  the  end  of  18T6  was  X18,602,266 ;  in  1876  it  was  je4S7,682.  In  1874  tlie 
imports  amounted  in  value  to  X2,^,334 ;  the  exports  to  £2.004,322.  Gold,  wool, 
timber,  and  agricultural  produce  are  th(!  principal  articles  of  export.  In  agriculture, 
the  chief  growths  are  wlieat,  oats,  barley,  potitoes.  and  hny.  In  1875  the  extent  of 
land  under  cultivation,  and  the  amount  of  these  jiroducta  of  the  farm,  were  reported 
to  be  as  follows:  wheat,  28,116  acres,  supplying  980,1*28  bushels;  oats,  80,788  acres, 
8,-018,148  bushels ;  barley,  5055  acres,  168,437  bushels ;  potatoes,  3342  acres,  18,420 
tons ;  hay,  7592  acres,  11,899  tons.  The  first  band  of  settlers  reached  the  shores  of 
O.  in  the  spring  of  1848.  The  capital  is  Dunedin  (q.  v.).  Tbe  lopulation  of  this 
city  and  its  suburbs,  Roslyn  and  Caversham,  was,  in  l*^71,  21,511.  O.  was  originally 
A  class  colony  connected  with  the  Free  Chni^h  of  Scotland ;  but  the  influx  of  immi- 
grants consequent  on  the  discovery  of  gold  has  obliterated  its  distinctive  character. 

Ol^AHEPTE.    See  Tahiti. 

OTA'LGIA  (GrT.  ot-f  the  ear,  and  algos,  pain)  is  neuralgia  of  the  ear.  It  occurs 
In  fits  of  excruciating  pain,  shooting  over  the  head  and  face,  but  it  is  not  accom- 
panied by  fever,  nor  usually  by  any  sensation  of  tlirobbing.  Its  causes  and  treat- 
Dient  are  those  of  neuralgia  generally,  but  it  is  particularly  caused  by  caries  of  the 
teeth,  which  should  always  be  careftilly  examined  by  a  dentist  in  these  oases.  When 
patients  complain  of  earacJie.  the  pain  is  far  more  commonly  due  to  oWt/s,  or  inflam- 
mation of  the  tympanic  portion  of  the  ear,  a  much  more  serious  afifection. 

O'TARY  (Otaria),  a  genus  of  the  Seal  family  {Phoddcm),  distinguished  from  the 
rest  of  the  family  by  a  projecting  auricle  or  auditory  conch  (often  popularly  ctilled 
"external  ear"),  and  by  a  very  remarkable  character,  a  double  cutting  edge  in  the 
four  middle  upper  incisors.  The  membrane  which  unile.^  the  toes  of  thehiud-feet  is 
prolonged  into  a  flap  beyond  each  toe.  The  fore-legs,  as  if  int  nded  exclusively  for 
swimming,  are  placed  further  back  in  the  body  than  in  the  true  seals,  giving  the 
otarJes  the  appearance  of  having  a  longer  neck.  The  hind-legs  are  more  like  the 
fore-legs  than  in  the  true  seals.— ^'he  Sea  Lion  (0.  juhata  or  0.  Stelleri)  of  the 
noilJiem  seas  is  about  15  feet  in  length,  and  weighs  about  16  cwt.  It  inhabits  the 
eastern  siiores  of  Kamtchatka,  the  Kurile  Islands,  &c.,  and  is  in  j-ome  places 
exiremely  abundant.  It  is  partially  migratoiy,  removing  from  its  most 
northern  quarters  on  the  approach  of  winter.  It  is  to  be  found  chiefly 
on  rocky  cotists  and  islet  rocks,  on  the  ledges  of  which  it  climbs,  and  its 
roaring  18  sometimes  useful  in  warning  sailors  of  danger.  It  is  much  addicted  lo 
roaring,  which,  as  much  as  the  mane  of  the  old  males,  has  obtained  lor  it  ti;e  name 
of  sea  lion.  ITie  head  of  this  animal  is  large;  the  eyes  very  large  ;  the  eyebrows 
bushy  ;  the  hide  thick ;  the  hair  coarse,  and  reddish ;  a  heavy  mass  of  stiff,  curly, 
crisp  hair  on  the  neck  and  shoulders.  The  old  males  have  a  fierce  aspect,  yet  they 
flee  in  great  precipitation  from  man;  but  if  driven  to  extremities,  4  liey  fight  furi- 
ously. Sea  lions  are  capable  of  being  tamed,  and  become  very  familiar  with  man. 
They  are  polygamous,  but  a  male  generally  appropriates  t^  himself  only  two  or  tliree 
•  females.  Thi^y  feed  on  fish  and  the  Mnaller  seals. — The  sea  lion  of  the  southern  Hvas^ 
once  supposed  to  be  ttic  same,  is  now  generally  believed  to  l)t!  a  disthict  species,  and 
Indettd,  more  tliau  one  species  ai'e  sui^posed  to  inhabit  the  soutUe^jj^lseas^-WIhe  V 


Othol  •  ^O-s 

CINE  Sbal,  XJftsms  O..  or  Sea  Bear  (O.  ursina),  is  nn  fiihabfhint  of  the  Kortbem 

Pacific.  It  is  BCttrcely  8  fet't  long.  The  liindor  limbs  befiig  betttn- dcvelop'^dtlmn  in 
fnostof  the  sealn,  it  ctiti  stni'd  and  walk  almost  like  a  1  md  qnadrnixKl.  Tim  muExIe 
U  proniirieiit,  tlio  luo.ilh'Hmill,  t!ic  lips  tumid,  tlie  wniskcMs  long;  the  tip  of  the 
foii'jiio  is  bifurcjited.  t'te  <y«'8  are  larjje,  the  skin  is  lliick.  the  hair  !ou^,  erect,  and 
thick,  M'itli  n  Bifft  nnderclothintj  ol  wool.  The  food  cou)*ist9  of  sea  otters,  snia!! 
B  'als,uiid  fish.  Tlh?  nr>iuo  s-.-ai  is  pol>Vainon^,  a  8lron<j  mah»  ^ppropHalinir  tohini- 
Belf  from  eiglit  to  fifty  female.'*.  It  nwinm  wi 111  great  swiftness  Ir  i.-:  fliTCt;  aud 
courageous.  Its  skin  Is  much  p-iz  'd  for  clotliing  in  tlie  r«'glous  in  wliich  it  uboinuls. 
As  ill  the  cns.j  of  tlie  8«!a  liou,  it  is*  doubtful  if  th'  gfo  raphic;:!  ran^'e  ot  the  .-e;i  In-ar 
extends  to  th(5  soui  InTn  s«is  or  if  it  i^  ri-pri'siMited  there  by  a  similar  sp  cies.  S  -vend 
other  sp(;cle8  of  O.  arc  liih  ibitanta  of  tho  Pacific  and  Soutlicrn  Octians.  The  Pur 
Seal  (O.  Falklandica)  \*  ojie  of  thew.  It  is  louml  on  li«e  PalklamI  Inland?,  8on«h 
Slietland,  &c.  It  is  of  a  loug  and  sleuder  form,  Aviih  broad  iiejid,  and  dotluHl  wit  i 
soft,  coiiip  jct,  grayIj<h-bro\vn  liair,  amongst  which  i:<  a  very  fofi,  bi-ownish  fur.  It 
is  gregarious  and  p:)lyg:nnous.  When  Suutli  Shetland  w:ih  first  vlHlied,  its  st-als  had 
no  approlicDsioti  of  dant'cr,  and  nnsnapcctiugly  remained  whilst  tln-ir  fellows 
were  slain  and  »kinncd  ;  Viut  they  have  cince  liar'ncd  to  b;  uiion  their  guard.  The 
skin  of  the  fur  seal  is  in  eri-at  demand,  chi<»fly  for  ladifrt'  mantles,  and  was  muc  i 
usttd  for  making  a  kind  of  soft  far  cap,  wi»ich  was  very  commou  tUiily  or  fo  1/ 
yeurs  ago. 

OTCHAKOV,  a  small  townand  sfttp')rt  of  South  Rn^.-ia.  in  the  govfrnmrnt  of 
Kherson,  surrotmded  011  all  sidis  by  aharr  n  Hiep;M?,  st  lUtlsat  tlio  w«'st.'.!rn » xtriMuit*. 
and  on  ilie  uorth  *<hore  of  the  eifuary  of  the  l)iiit!|K'r,  4'J  n»ih;s  uaHt-uorth-  a-t  of 
Odessa.  It  tnices  its  foundation  to  tlia'very  eariic-t  times,  and  is  supposed  by  soiuj 
to  be  the  spot  wh<^re  stool  the  Uri-cian  colony  Olbia;  by  other.-,  to  ho  Tojui.  l!io 
scene  of  Ovid's  imidshm<mt  At  the  end  of  tlie  i5th  c,  th-  klian  of  the  Crmet  hu  it 
here  a  stroig  fortn'ss.  Its  pr-^'^e  t  namo  occurs  for  ili '.  fir^^t  time  In  1557.  Dnri;.g 
th<«  Rua.'*ian  wars  with  Tuik  -y  in  t!ie  13lli  c,  O.  \^a^  alieru  .tely  tiic  prop  rty  of  t  a<h, 
nnril  it  was  taken  by  Por"iMkin  in  1T8^,  and  d  flsii^  ly  ann*  xeil  t>  the  Kns  ian  do- 
minions.  The  ySciniiy  of  Odes-a  is  latil  to  tlhs  d  xelopinen*  of  foreign  comuie  c» 
at  its  port.  Poo.  (18t>,')  .5140,  the  gn^ater  part  of  whom  are  Jews,  and  are  employed 
in  salting  fish  for  tran-p^rt  to  Little  Uu8;*ia. 

OTHMAN  IBN  AFFAN.  third  calif  of  tlm  Moslem*,  was  bom  about  674.  He 
bslonged  to  the  fa  nilv  ot  the  prophet,  and  was  cousln-g.irman  of  Abu  Soflan.  Ono 
of  the  earijV  converts  to  Islam,  he  was  o.ie  of  it-*  mo-tz  mou^  supporters,  and  link  J:l 
liimself  still  more  strougly  lo  Mohani.nsd  ny  becominir  his  bon  in-law  and  privatd 
secretary.  He  was  elect  d  to  succiJud  0:uar  in  t  le  califate  in  D  c  'nib  r  W4,  and  i 
most  unworthy  succ  'ss  ir  he  proved  to  he.  Th  ?  Moslem  empire,  liowi-vcr,  coiitiiiu  d 
tp  extend  itself  on  all  sidv!«  till  the  insane  nepotism  of  O.  gave  it-  progress  a  sudden 
check.  The  able  and  energetic  leaders  who  had  been  app  antjfliiy  Omar  were  su- 
per-erled  by  members  of  his  own  family,  and  oft'iatof  AbnSof!;m;  au.llhncon- 
B«iqUHiices  were  wh  »t  might  h  ive  b  hmi  exp  jcted.  E.'ypt  revolted,  and  the.  calif  wa^ 
co.np-lled  to  re.nstate  Amru  in  the  g[overumeiit  of  that  country,  ai  d  « -voral  other 
rebellions  werr  only  quell. 'd  by  a  similar  restoration  of  the  previou8gov«-niors. 
Z  -alous  Mostem-*  de.^py  deplored  the  follj'  of  their  chief,  and  wer*^  indignant  :it  see- 
ing the  chair  of  the  p  ophet  occupied  by  O.,  Avhilo  Abu-hekr,  and^evon  Omar,  wero 
accustomed  to  se  it  Ihemsnlve^  two  stop  «  bol  >w  it.  Em»>oldeiied  l\v  the  knowleilge  of 
his  vacillilinij  and  cowardly  dispO"»ition.  they  f»how<r»d  uik)'i  htm  r-proachos*  and 
menaces;  hut  lhel)earer  or  their  remousirauces  havinir  b -en  h.isiiuadO''d  by  O.'.-* 
order,  a  general  revolt  enr*ued.  O.  averted  the  crisis  by  imeondiiional  -ubinis-ion  ; 
but  haviuiT  so  >n  after  attempted  10  tmt  to  death  Mohamn^ed,  the.  son  of  thoCdif 
Ab'.i-b  -kr,  the  latter  made  his  appeaiancii  at  Medina  .at  the  h«'ad  of  a  troop  of  mal- 
conientt*,  and  forcing  his  way  to  the  presence  of  O  ,  stabbed  hbn  to  tlie  heart.  O. 
w  IS  O'  a  mild  aud  p  icific  disposition,  but  he  was  at  the  same  time  most  ambitions  of 
power,  though  after  Ids  acces.siou  to  supreme  authority,  he  shewed  hi:nH'lf  to  b  , 
eith  r  from  are  or  natural  imbecility,  d  plorably  difliientin  Iho-e  (mergetic  viriue«s 
without,  which  tha  control  of  a  warlike  people  and  the  niaiiawment  of  a  mighty  t  ni- 
pire  Huc'i  as  that  of  the  Moslem^  wene  utterly  impossible  O.  was  the  first  to  cause 
aa  uuUieuUc  copy  of  tho  Koran  to  be  composocL  ^-^ 

Digitized  by  VjjOOQIC 


R  Q  O  OtchakoT 

•'O.)  Olio  I 

OTHMAN,  Ofhoman,  or  O^mnn  I.,  ^nrnnmed  Alghazi  (*'tlie  conqneroi"),  the 
foniider  of  the  'rtiikiali  powtM.  w.ts  btii'ii  in  Bitlivniu  in  12o9.  Ills  fuiitei,  Oithogrnl, 
tile  cliief  of  a.  i<>tuall  tril)e  uf  O^A/Jun  Turlvfif  had  enter*  d  the  tHtivice  of  Alla-cd-diu 
Kaikob:id,  the  SeijiikHuItnn  of  Iconium,  and  Imd  reidcnd  int|.ori2int  Hervices  to 
liiat  uitJiiarch  und  hi:*  t>iica«!8>*urfi  in  their  w&tn  uitii  tlie  ByKiiirtiue;*  aDd  Miugolf*. 
Orthogml  dylug  in  1289,  after  a  rule  of  u  ore  Ihali  li.-.lf  a  c<  iiniry,  Ids  tribe  cliope  bis 
80n  O-niati  O*'"*  tlie  "youn^  btmturd,")  ns  Ills  puccewor.  O.  trod  in  liin  latl'tra 
footrt  ps:  and  on  thedestructiunof  tin-Hi  tanateof  Iconiirtniu  I'iWby  Hi.  Mon^oln, 
Boci-eed  a  in  obiaiuiug  pOB'^esrlou  of  a  portion  ot  Bithytiiti.  Ue  badpievit  u^iypnI)- 
jiigaied  many  of  Hie  neigiiboring  O^ruaiMu  cldi^fs,  mid  tbie>  htM  accc£>8ict)  of  lernlory 
rendered  him  powerfnl  enotlgb  to  attack  tIteByEnn lines  uiihhUCCfBf.  In  July  1299,  be 
forced  the  pusses  of  Olynipns,  and  took  )K>S6e8sion  of  the  uliole  teiTilo  y  of  Nicoco, 
with  tlie  Polo  exception  of  the  town  of  that  name,  wbicb  r«effct»d  iiie  tffortn  for  five 
ye-irs  Jon^er.  In  loOl.  he  defeated  the  Emperor  AndroniciiH  II.  at  B.-phueou ;  in 
1307,  he  incorporated  the  province  of  Marmuru  in  his  dominione;  aijd  continni  d  till 
liii*  death,  in  1S26)  steadily  lo  pursue'  his  plans  of  conquest.  '^Oihinnu/'  says 
Knolle^  "was  wise,  politic,  valiant)  ami  fortunate,  but  full  ot  die^in  ultitiou,  tii.d 
aminiious  ai>ov«  meabun* ;  not  rjish  in  bis  attempt,",  and  yet  veiy  rcbolule;  to  all 
men  be  w.ih  boantifai  and  liberal,  e.»pedally  to  hin  nien  of  \var  and  t>'  Hie  poor.  Of 
a  {>oor  lordsliip,  he  left  a  great  kingdoni  (I'hrygia.  Bitliynia.  and  the  n*iglbonig 
di8tri(A«),  having  sabdnetl  a  great  part  of  At ia  Minor,  and  is  worthily  nwonuitd  ihe 
first  founder  of  the  Turks' great  kingdom  and  empire."  O.  nhpnine<i  ibe  title  of 
suit  iU  (thougfi  this  is  denli>d  by  many  liifftorians)  on  the  cxtim  tion  of  the  Iionium 
sultanate  in  li»9,  held  his  court  at  Kara-His.^ar.  and  struck  money  in  bis  own  i.ame. 
Krotu  him  are  diti-ived  the  terms  OttomauH,  Otbomauf',  and  Osnanli  or  Osmuuidt 
widch  are  employed  as  tynonynions  witli  Turks.    See  Ottoman  I<  mpirb. 

O'THO,  Marcus  S.ilvlns,  Roman  emperor,  was  d<  pc(  nd(  d  of  an  ancient  EtniFCon 
family,  and  was  l>orn  32  A.D.  He  wap  a  favodie  companion  of  Nero,  who  api)oiiiiod 
Iiim  eovemor  of  Lusllani.i,  in  which  office  he  acquitted  himself  creditably.  Cn  the 
revolt  of  Galba  a;;ain8t  Nero,  O.  joined  himself  to  ibe  forner;  bni  btjng  dip.-p- 
poiuted  in  his  boi>e  of  being  proclaimed  6alV>a'&  succi  s^or,  lie  nuiit  bed  at  the  bend 
of  a  sinatl  band  ot  soldiers  to  the  forum,  where  he  wa^  pro<:lainied  (mperor,  »nd 
Oalbii  wa»  slain,  69  a.d.  O.  wan  recognis*  d  as  emperor  over  all  the  Boman  posses- 
sions, with  the  txception  of  Germany,  where  a  Iai|re  army  was  sta:ion<.d  uidej: 
Vitcllius.  The  flr««t  few  weelcs  «  f  his  reipn  were  mailed  by  an  iudnlgenee  towards 
Ids  iiersoual  enenues,  and  a  devotion  to  biieinesf,  which,  tbongli  at  total  variance 
with  bis  usual  babit^.  excited  In  the  minds  of  bis  Mibjeeti*  the  mort  favoiablc  ho)>es. 
Bur  the  tide  of  relhllion  raised  in  Geimany  by  Vulees  and  CKcina  dming  the  rei^-n 
of  G.dbii  had  tty  this  time  gathered  htreugth,  and  IhefeC  commanders  having  jirevaiird 
upon  Vitellins,  who  had  become  a  mere  good-hun  ond  glut!on.  to  join  his  forces  to 
tbeirs,  the  Combined  army  poured  into  It-ily.  O.  fortunately  iioese-sstd  several  able 
eeuerals,  who  repeatedly  defeated  the  reb<4s ;  bur  the  prudence  of  some  among  them 
111  restrainin«ir  the  enthusiasm  of  their  troops,  wlio  wielud  further  to  follow  up  their 
victories,  was  unfortunately  com-J<lered  as  cowardice  or  treason,  aind  product  d  dis- 
sensions in  O.'s  camp.  This  state  of  muttiirs  becoming  known  to  the  uenerals  of 
VitelliuR,  encouraged  them  to  unite  their  armies,  aiul  fall  upon  the  ft  rces  of  Oti.o. 
Au  obstinate  engagement  took  place  near  the  junction  of  the  Adda  and  the  Po,  in 
wtiicli  the  rirmy  of  O.  was  completely  routed,  and  the  relicn  of  it  went  over  on  the 
following  day  to  the  side  of  the  victor.  O.,  though  by  no  means  reduced  to  extrem- 
ity, re.«olved  to  make  no  further  resistance  ;  settled  ids  affairs  with  the  utmost  de- 
ilberation  ;  and  then  stabbed  himself,  on  the  15th  of  April  69  a.d. 

OTHO  I.,  or  the  Great,  pon  of  the  Emperor  Henry  I.  of  Germany,  was  born  in 
912,  and  after  having  iHjeu  early  recognised  as  bis  successor,  was,  on  the  di  aib  at  his 
father  in  936,  formally  crowned  king  of  the  Germans.  His  reign  was  one  j^necession 
of  eventful  and  gen-ndly  tiiuinpbant  war?,  in  the  coui-S(?  of  wliich  he  i)rougbtmany 
turbulent  tri!)?s  under  aubiu-ction,  acqiiiivd  and  raaintidned  almost  supreme  power 
in  Italy,  where  be  imposed  lawi*  with  equal  s>n(  cess  on  tnc  kings  of  Lombardy  and 
the  popes  at  Itomts  consolidated  th<'  dit^jointed  power  of  the  German  emperors,  and 
estawlsbed  Obristiauity  At  many  different  points  in  the  Scandinavian  and  Slavonic 
lands,  which  lay  beyond  the  circuit  of  bis  owu  jurisdiction.  His  earQeet  acfaie^e- 
Bient  wwi  a anccoifsfnl  war  agalAst  the  Bohemiai)  Dalc«  Boleslas,  whom  he  redP'*"' 


y  Google 


OthoII  P\Q±  ^ 

OthoIII  '^^^ 

to  snbjectloH,  and  forcibly  converted  to  Clirlatiimity;  nert  the  Bakes  of  BavnrfA 
and  Fruncoi) ill  were  C(»nii)elK;d  to  succnnib  to  his  power;  tlic  former  paying  the 
penalty  of  his  opposition  to  O.  by  defeat  nnd  death  In  battle,  and  the  hitrer  by 
the  coDftscatiou  of  Ids  territorte?,  which,  together  with  the  other  la^ised  .-.nd  recov- 
ered flefs  of  the  em  pi  re,  vfere  l)ei«towed  on  near  and  devored  relatives  of  tlie  conqueror. 
After  subdniiig  tlie  S!avi  of  ih"  Oderjind  Spree,  for  who8<^.  Christian  re'.'eneraiiou 
he  founded  the  bislioprics  of  Havell)nrg  and  BraDd<;nbn"rg,  driving  tlie  Dunes  be- 
yond tlie  Eyder,  compelling  tlieir  defeated  king  to  return  to  the  OlirTstian  faith  and 
do  homai;e  to  bitns.-lf ;  and  after  founding,  at  the  suggestion  of  his  motlier's 
formi-r  cliaplain,  Adeldaj*,  the  bishoprics  of  Aarhun?.  Ribe,  and  Slesvig,  whtcli  ho 
decr.-ed  Were  for  ever  to  »e  free  from  all  burdens  »uid  lnu>osts,  he  turned  Ids  atten- 
tion to  the  affairs  of  Italy.  Here  iio  prepented  himself  as  tlie  champion  of  the  beautifol 
Adelheidt,  the  widow  of  the  murdered  King  Lothaire;  and  having  defeated  her  impor- 
tunate Muitor,  Bercng.ir  II.  (q.  v.),  married  her,  and  assumed  suprtnne  power  over  the 
north  of  Italv  in  951.  The  wars  to  which  this  measure  gave  rise,  obliged  O.  frequently 
to  cross  the  Alps ;  but  at  length,  after  a  great  victoi-y  gained  over  t;ie  Huns  in  956,  and 
the  defeat  and  capture  of  Berengar,  O.  was  acknowkagcd  king  of  Italy  by  arfi'-t  held 
at  Milan ;  and  after  beimr  crowned  with  the  iron  crown  of  Lombard^,  was,  in  962,  re- 
cognised by  Pope  Jolm  XII.  as  the  Hacce8.«?or  of  Charlemagne,  and  crowned  Emperor 
of  the  West  at  Rome.  O.  lost  no  time  in  asserting  his  imperial  prerogatives;  and 
having  called  a  council,  effected  the  deposition  of  John,  whose  licentiousness  had 
b»!come  a  burdbn  to  Italy  and  a  scandal  to  Christendom,  nnd  caused  Leo 
VIIL  to  be  elected  in  his  place.  Fresh  wars  were  the  result  of  this  step. 
Po|)e8  and  anti-po|ies  distracted  the  peace  of  Rome;  but  tlirou>:h  all 
these  disorders  O.  maintained  the  euprennicy  which  he  claimed  as 
£mperor  of  the  West,  in  regard  to  the  election  of  popes  and  the  temporal 
concerns  of  the  Roman  territories.  His  later  yeai-s  wen^  disturbed  by  domestic  dif- 
ferences ;  for  his  elder  son,  Ludolpli,  and  his  t'on- in-law,  Konradof  Lomrine,  having 
risen  in  rebellion  against  him,  through  jealousy  of  his  younger  so;i  and  intended 
.successor,  Otho,  the  empire  was  distracted  by  civil  w.r.  Although  tlie  war  termi- 
nated in  the  defeat  of  the  rebels,  and  the  recognition  of  young  Oiho  as  king  of  tlie 
Germans,  and  his  coronation  at  Rome,  in  967,  as  joint-emperor  with  his  father,  O.'s 
favodte  scheme  of  uniting  the  richly-dowried  Greek  urmccss,  Theophauia*  witU 
the  young  prince,  met  with  such  contempt  from  the  Greek  emperor,  that  his  out- 
r.rged  pride  soon  again  plungbd  him  into  war.  His  inroads  into  Apulia  and  Calabria, 
however,  proved  convincing  arguments  in  favor  of  the  nntrriage,  and  Thecmhania 
became  tlie  wife  of  younj5  Olho,  with  Calabria  and  Apulia  for  iier  dowry.  O.  died 
ar  Minsleben,  inThuriiigia,  iu  978,  and  was  buried  at  Magdeburg,  leavint;  the  char- 
acter of  a  great  and  just  ruler,  who  had  extended  the  limits  of  t<ic  empire,  and  re- 
stored the  presiii^e  of  the  imperial  power  more  nearly  to  the  stand  whicn  it  occupied 
under  CharlemagneMhan  any  other  emperor.  He  created  the  duchy  of  Carinthia, 
and  the  inarkgrafdoms  of  East  and  North  Saxony;  a|>pointed  counts-palatine; 
founded  cities  and  bishoprics ;  and  did  good  serviC"  to  the  empire,  iu  reorganising 
the  shaken  foundations  of  its  power  iu  Europe.  Bee  Vehse's  **Leben  Kaiser  O.'s 
dod  Grosseu  "  (Dresd.  1827). 

OTIIO  II.,  surnamed  JJu/tw,  *'tlie  Red,"  son  of  Otho  I.,  was  bom  in  965,  anil 
succeeded  his  father  in  973.  For  a  time,  O.  was  content  to  rule  under  the  regency  of 
his  mother,  the  Einj)res»s  Adelheid;  but  differences  having  arisen  l)etwee!i  them, 
through  the  headstrong  and  ambitious  inclinations  of  the  y(miig  monarch,  his  motluT 
withdrew  from  all  siiare  in  the  administration,  and  left  him  to  the  exercise  of  his 
own  will,  which  soon  brought  him  into  coilit^ion  with  the  great  vassals  of  the  crown. 
Civil  wai'  broke  out  under  the  leadership  of  Henry  II.  of  Bavaria,  who  fonned  a 
pecret  alliance  against  the  young  emperor  with  Harald,  king  of  Dennnirk,  and  Mic!- 
slav  of  Poland,  and  for  a  time  fortune  inclined  to  the  side  of  the  rebels ;  but  O.'a 
astuteness  circumvented  their  designs,  and  after  defeating  Heni7  aiid  depriving  bini 
of  his  duchy,  he  inarched  against  the  Danish  king,  who  had  been  making  successful 
iueursions  into  Saxony.  O.'s  first  attack  on  the  Dannevirke  having  proved  of  no 
avail,  he  retired,  vowing  that  he  would  return  before  another  year  and  foix»  every 
Dane  to  forswear  paganism.  O.  kept  his  promise,  returning  to  the  attack  the  fol- 
lowing year,  when,  according  to  the  old  chroniclers,  acting  by  the  advice  of  his  ally. 
Olaf   Trygvesen   of  JSorway,   ho   caused   lai-go  quuutiiica   of  trjcs,    bnishwood 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


OCfO  '  OtholII 

kud  Btnbble  to  be  piled  tip  against  the  DaDaevirke  and  Kt  ou  fire,  aud 
this  drove  away  the  defenders  and  destroyed  their  fortifications,  'i'he  de- 
feated Harold  was  soon  oveipowered  by  the  superior  numbers  of  the  Gtermuus, 
nod  conipeJied  to  receive  baptism,  as  ibe  badge  of  his  defeat,  'ihe  next  scene  of 
war  wasXorraine,  which  the  French  king,  Lothaire,  had  seized  aa  a  former  appan- 
age of  his  crowu ;  but  here,  after  a  nam al  defeat,  O.  succeeded  in  reasserting  his 
power;  and  not  content  with  this  aavautage,  devast.-iled  Champagne,  pursued  and 
captured  Lothnire,  and  advanced  upon  Paris,  one  of  the  BUborbts  of  whicn  he  burucd. 
Scarcely  was  this  war  ended,  when  the  dij*tnrbed  condition  of  Italy  called  O.  across 
tl»e  Alps.  His  presence  put  a  stop  to  the  InsuiTection  at  Milan  and  Rome,  where  he 
re-established  order;  and  having  sid\^ijced  into  Lower  Italy,  I »e  defeated  the  Sara- 
Cons,  drove  hack  tlie  Greek?,  and  liavins?  re-cftablif'hed  his  8Ui)rcmacyin  Apulia  and 
Caiamia,  which  he  cJaiined  in  right  of  his  wife,  Tlieophania,  made  himself  master  of 
Naples  and  Salerno.  ;ind  finally  of  'I'arentuni,  in  982.  The  Gre<k  emperor,  alarmed  at 
ttie  succest'ful  ambition  of  0.,  called  the  Saracens  again  into  Italy,  who  gave  him  battle 
with  overwlielming  numbers.  The  result  was  the  total  defeat  of  the  emperor,  who 
only  escaped  from  the  hands  of  the  victors  by  phmginL'  with  his  horse  into  the  sea,  and 
swimming,  ut  the  risk  of  his  life,  to  a  ship.  Unluckily,  It  was  a  Greek  ship,  and  O. 
was  virtually  a  prisoner;  hut  as  Ihe  vessel  nearcd  Rossano,  a  friendly  port,  he  con- 
trived to  escape  by  a  cunning  stratagem.  O.  now  hastened  to  Verona,  where  a  diet 
was  held,  which  was  numeron.«ly  attended  by  the  princes  of  Germany  and  Italy,  and 
at  which  his  infant  son,  Otho,  wa-*  recognised  as  his  successor,  'i'his  dii;t  is  cliiefly 
memorable  for  the  confirmation  by  O.  of  the  franchises  and  privileges  of  the  repub- 
lic of  Venice,  and  the  enactment  of  many  new:  laws,  which  were  added  to  th(!  cele- 
brated Longobard  code.  O.'a  death  at  Rome,  at  the  close  of  the  same  year,  983,  ar- 
rested the  execution  of  the  vast  preparations  against  the  Greeks  and  Saracens,  which 
had  been  planned  at  tlie  diet  of  V  rona,  and  left  tin*  empire  embroiled  in  wars  and 
internal  disturbances.  See  Giosobrecht's  *•  JahrbCkcher  des  Deulschen  Reichs  unter 
der  Herrschalt,  Kaiser  O.'s  II."  (Berl.  1840). 

OTHO  IIL,  who  was  only  three  years  old  at  his  fa'her's  dejith,  was  at  once 
crowned  king  of  the  Germans  at  Aix-lu-ChapeUe  in  98S,  from  which  period  till  996, 
when  he  received  the  Imperial  crown  at  Rome,  the  government  was  administered 
with  oxtraordlniry  skill  and  discretion  by  ihretj  feniale  relatives  of  the  boy-king— 
vie.,  his  mother,  Theophania;  his  grandmother,  Adelheid;  and  his  aunt,  Matilda, 
Abbess  of  ^uedUngburg,  who,  in  conjunction  with  ti.e  leaiivd  Willegis,  Archbishop 
of  Mainz,  directed  ^his  education.  Ihe.  princes  of  the  imperial  family  disputed  Ihe 
right  of  these  royal  ladies  to  the  custody  of  the  youne  king ;  and  Henry  ot  Bavaria, 
the  nearest  agnate,  having  sejzed  the  person  of  C,  irTed  to  usurp  the  supreme 
power ;  but  opposed  by  the  majority  of  the  other  princes  of  the  empire,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  releai<e  hi^n.  in  consideration,  of  receiving  back  his  forfeited  ducliy.  O. 
early  shewed  that  he  had  inherited  the  great  gnalities  of  his  forefather!*,  and  when 
scarcely  fifteen  yenrs  of  age,  at  the  head  of  his  army,  defeated  ^Jw  troops  of  the  na- 
Irician  Crct»centius,  the  self  styled  consul  of  Rome,  and  ^,\ii8  rest <  red  ord<  r 
hi  the  Roman  lerritories.  In  996,  he  was  crowned  emperor  by  l^is  relative, 
Gregory  V. ;  and  having  settled  tlie  aifaii-s  of  Italy,  returned  to  Germany,  where 
h&  defeated  llie  Slaves,  who  had  long  carried  on  war  against  the  empire;  and 
having  forced  Micislav,  Duke  of  Poland,  to  ('o  him  homage,  he  subse- 
quently raised  the  Polish  terriloriea^  to  the  rank  of  a  Ijingdom,  in  favor 
of  Micislav's  successor.  Boleslas.  The  renewed  rebellion  of  Cr<  Fcentius,  who  drove 
Gr  gory  from  tlie  papal  throne,  compelled  O.  to  return  t«i  Italy,  where  success,  as 
Usual,  attended  his  measures.  Cresceniins,  wiso  had  thrown  liimself  into  St  Angelo, 
was  seized  and  beheaded,  together  with  twelve  of  his  chief  adherents ;  ihc  anti-i)ope, 
John  XVI.,  imprisoned;  Gregory  restf»r<d;  and  on  the  speedy  d.-ath'Of  the  latter, 
O.'s  old  tuior,  Gherbert,  Archbishop  of  Ravenna,  raised  to  the  papacy  under  the  title 
of  Sylvester  II.  O.,  elated  with  his  success,  took  up  bin  residence  in  Rome,  where  he 
organised  the  government,  erected  new  bnildJngM,  and  shewed  cvei^  disposition, 
notwithstandine  the  ill-concealed  dissatitsfact  ion  of  the  Romann,  tw  tonvi  rl  their 
city  into  the  caiMtal  of  the  western  empire.  The  near  approach  of  the  year  1000,  to 
which  so  many  alarming  pro])hesies  were  then  believed  to  point  as  the  end  of  the 
world,  induced  O.  to  undertake  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Lund,  where  lie  f(mnd<d  an 
archbishopric.    On  his  i-eturu,  after  visiting  Charlemagne's  gmve  at  Aix-la-Chai)elle, 


Digitized^by  VjOOQIC 


Ofbat  i  fcCfA 

Otraxrto  OOO 

and  remorliig  fhe  ecmseerated  crass,  BtippeticTod  frotn  th©©mt>eror*8iiecfc,  lie  asata 
repaired  to  liome,  to  consolidate  hJs  w;hcuu?8  ot*  establishing  a  Koman  empire. ,  The 
iMsarrectioii  of  iho  Romnns  iru^trat  d  his  plaur*,  and  cscnnln'^  irom  Uonjc  at  the  risk 
of  his  life,  lie  Witbdn'W  to  R.ivcnnarto  awair  the  arrival  of  powerful  reinforcements 
f rom (Jemiany ;  bat  before  Ihcy  htul  croswd  the  Alpa,  O.  died  in  1002.  nt  Ihc  njre  of 
22.  ap  )nrenfely  from  poison,  wh'ich  was  ^aid  to  have  Ijet-n  adininiptered  to  Itim  by  »he 
wdow  of  Crescent  1118,  who,  ft  i ^  said.  Iiad dvil-bt-rateiy  net  her3<;If  to  win  h's  uff  ciions 
tlMt  fh'i  might  tnive  an  opportnuity  of  aveiigins  the  death  of  her  lui^bHi  d;  and  with 
him  Hie  ni'le  branch  of  the  Saxon  imp<ii.-iTHi>UJ*(!  bwann^  c:ctinc^  Se  V/ilintta's 
*'  Jahrbuchcr  des  Deutscheu  R  iclts  iiutir  Kaiser  Otio  IIL"  (BerL  1846). 

OTIIO  I.,  second  poii  of  Ludwig,  king  of  Bavaria,  was  born  :.t  Salzburg,  Ist  June 
1S1.>,  and  ou  she  erxtion  of  Gru-ecu  into  a  kingdom  in  1S3?.  wa-*  upiwiufd  by  tha 
pr.)t -cling  pow.ra  king  of  Greece.  Till  lie  attained  his  niaj  rify.  tli'-  govt  rninciitwas 
i.itriist  d  to  a  rejgencv,  whicli  was  un  il>Ie  to  nup^ire.^s  inieni ;!  disorder,  or  con-  t.  r- 
a^tthediploinaiJciiitriL'iieaof  foreign powe is.  Oa  aa^niniiijrthegovc^mnient  in  1835, 
O.  transferred  the  court  f:om  NaupMa  loAtiions,  and  passed  hito  law  8<veral  iin;  or- 
tant  maasure^,  whieli  afforded  the  most.  liv;dv  satisfaction  to  li:s  snhj  cis.  During 
a  visit  to  Ger.nany  in  1^33,  hi;  married  the  Princes'*  Araah'e  of  Oldenburg.  A  mone- 
tary crisis,  provol<ed  partly  l)y  falss  administrative  measures,  and  parily  by  t<iO 
prompt  demands  f  >r  repayment  on  tie  part  of  the  protecting  powers,  threw  tl  e 
affairs  of  Greece  into  cosifn^io  »,  and  materially  weaken<<t  tln^  king's  i  opul-rlly.  A 
national  reaction  against  the  Ger  nanising  tendencies  of  the  coini  followed,  and  re- 
sulted in  18i3  in  a  military  rovolution,  which  was  suppressed.  O.  now  attempted  to 
soothe  the  general  discontent  by  taking  the  oath  to  the  new  constiintion  of  March 
80,  1344,  but  his  efforts  were  only  i)a»*tlally  successful.  Though  th^  Bavarian  ininiH- 
ters  wore  dismissed,  tWe  king  and  his  Greek  advisers  shewed  the  most  reacti  nary 
tendencies,  and  ai tempted  m  various  ways  to  curiail  the  pdvilegos  which  the  new 
constituthm  had  conferred  on  the  peonle.  The  equivocal  position  in  which  he  wub 
plac  d,  in  lS59^.l)etw  en  the  alii  h1  poweson  the  cne  hand,  and  his  subjjcis,  whose 
i^mpatliies  w^e. strongly  in  favor  of  Russia,  on  the  other,  greatly  increased  the 
difficnlties  of  his  sit  nation.  The  occupation  of  the  Piraeus  by  Anglo-FnncU 
troops  enabled  him  to  restrnn  the  enthusiasm  of  his  subjects  ;  but  aft  r  their  with- 
drawal in  1S57,  ho  was  oblij^ed  to  adopt  severe  raeaRurea  against  the  frontier 
brigands.  His  council,  too.  was  composed  of  men  nn-ible  or  unM-illing  to  suppi.rt 
him,  and   his  positon  b-jcaine  year  by  year  more  and  more  diffleitlt.    The  strong 

{)ro-Rassianis*ii  of  the  queen  rendered  her  for  some  lime  a  tavoriie;  but  thcVli-  f 
hat  O.'s  al)solute  uiftasnres  were  due  to  her  instigation,  turned  the  tide  of  popular 
hatred  so  strongly  against  her,  thar  attempts  were  mad<' on  her  life.  The  general 
discontent  at  Ia.'«t  found  vent  in  insurrections  at  Nauplla  and  Syra  in  18tt2, 
which  wereiBoon  snppr 's««'id.  A  more  formidable  insurrection  in  ih  •  distiicts  i>f 
Missolonghl,  Acarnanfti,  Ells,  and  Messenia,  having  for  itsobjct  the  expulsion  of 
the  reigninc  dyi3#*Wty,  broke  out  in  October  of  the  same  year,  s.nd  in  a  few  days  <  x- 
teuded  lo  the  wffc^e  of  Greece.  O.  and  his  queen  fled  io  SalamlP,  fi-om  %vhich  placi* 
he  issued  J  pj^clamatiou  declaring  that  ho  quitt«.'d  Greece  to  aVoid  the  effusion  of 
blood,  auff  a  proviei-mal  government  wn«  then  esta'diHln  d.  This  jroveniineui,  in 
Fe'iruaiy  1863,  resigne<l  its  executive  power  to  th^  National  Asnembly,  w  ich  con- 
firmed lis  act«»  and  d^-creed  that  Prhice  Alfred  of  England  had  been  duly. elected 
klmjr  of  Gre  'ce.  On  the  refusal  of  this  prince  to  accept  fiu^  thi-one,  their  choice  f*ll 
on  Prince  William  of  Slesvig-Hol^teln-Sonderbm-g-Glnckshnrg,  the  se«  ond  ♦••m  of 
Ciristinn  IX,  king  oif  De  »mrirk,  w'»o,  under  the  title  of  Ge'»rgc  I.,  Mng  of  the 
Hellenes,  in  »«ptembjr  1833,  assumed  the  functions  of  royalty.  O.  died  July  26, 
186T. 

OTI'TIS,  or  infl  iramation  of  the  tj'mpanic  cavity  of  the  car,  may  l>e  either  acute 
or  chronic,  and  it  may  come  on  durln-r  the  couMe  of  certain  febni.'  affftio  s,  es- 
pecially scarlatina,  or  in  cons  queue-;  of  a  scrofulous,  rh  ■umatic,  or  gouy  const'tn- 
tion  ;  or  It  tnay  be  i*x<'ite<l  by  direct  cans  s,  as  exposure  to  currents  of  co'd  air, 
violent  syringing  or  probing,  Ac.  The  symptoms  of  the  acute  form  are  sudden  ■-  nd 
intensepain  in  the  ear,  increased  by  coughing,  sue  zing,  or  swallowing,  tinrntua 
auriurru  or  singing  or  buzzinu  noises  heard  by  the  ])at!ent,  and  mor«!  or  less  deaf- 
ness. If  the  disease  goes  on  unchecked,  suppuration  ttike^  place,  and  the  menilM-ane 
of  the  tympanum  ulcerates,  and  allows  of  the  disicharge  of  pus.  Or  inflamniatfoo  of 
UMi  dora  mater  ana  absCttreea  iu  tue  U4iu  may  ba  itlak>rie0Qd.   Ig  1^  ee««M  casctf 

Digitized  by  VZ 


58? 


Othol 
Otranto 
y 

there  Is  asiiAllv  a  cou0ldera1)l6  amount  of  persistent  dnmnge^  atxl  an  obstinate  dis- 
<diattre  df  nmtter  {otorrhcea)  is>  a  froqaeut  et^queuce  of  thcd>sou8e» 

THe  treatment  of  so  seriotut  au  tiaoctiou  mast  be  K-ft  Ktleiy  iu  tto  bands  of  the 
XB«^<oal  pi-aclittiOBer. 

Thci  eyniptome  of  tbe  cljfbnic  and  lc6s»cnte  varieties  of  otitis  are  unfortnnnlelv 
90  sHj^bT)  That  tliey  are  often  nefflccted,  mitit  the  patient  find;*  the  penm^  of  hearing  iu 
one  or  both  ears  almost  completely  g<>n>.  In  \  he«e  mi  Ider  fornij*  of  otiti*.  the  gen- 
eral indiciitions  of  troiitment  are  to  combat  tli'»diaihei«lft  on  which  they  frcqnently 
depend,  apd  to  improve  tbe  general  liealih.  Very  pmnll  dop<'B  of  meix;i:i7  continncd 
for  a  consideniblo  time  (sncli  us  one  jrrain  of  gniy  powd<'r  night  ^md  morning),  and 
small  bli-tors  occasionally  applied  to  tbe  luipe  of  the  neck  tt  to  tl\  •  mastoid  proct'ss*. 
are  often  of  atTvlco  in  very  chronic  cases.  If  there  i!«any  discharge,  tl.'o  our  slioiild 
be  gently  syringed  onco  or  t\r  cc  a  day  with  waim  wat«  r,  aft-  r  whiclj  a  tepid  eo'n- 
tiou  of  Rnlphateof  zinc  (onegraln  toan  onnceof  watei)  may  be  dropped  into  ibo 
meatus,  and  allowed  to  remain  there  two  or  three  ininntet*. 

O'TLEY,  a  small  mnrket  town  of  Enghmd,  iu  tin?  West  Hiding  of  Yorkshire,  on 
the  right  bank  of  tlio  Wharfe»  29  miU-H  west-f-outh-west  of  York.  Its  p.iris'h  chutch 
was  builr  in  150T.  Extensive  cattle  and  grain  markets  jiro  held  here,  wor^l'  d  spin- 
ning and  weaving^  machinc-m.ikiug.  and  tic  nmuutuctnro  of  luali,  bricks,  and 
leather,  are  the  jnaiu  occnpaljon^».    Pop.  (1871)  5855. 

OTO'UTUrS,  a  genns  of  H-hes  of  the  family  Seimwdn  (q.  v.),  hflvimr  a  percli- 
llke  form,  a  convex  head,  with  cellular  bones,  feeble  anal  epin<  s,  no  biirbels,  long 
curved  te^  th  or  caninen  among  ilie  other  teeth.  A  valnable  fxtenie^  of  thin  genns  m 
the  WXAX-Pisa,  or  S<)ubtsaous  (0.  regalia),  which  is  common  on  t  lie  eastern  coasts 
of  North  Americn,  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Gnll  of  St  Lawrence,  and  attiins 
a  len<!th  of  two  feet  It  appejirs  on  the  coas's  only  In  tlie  warmer  part  of  the  year. 
It  swims  in  shoals  near  the  anrtaco,  tiikes  bait  greedily  and  may  t)e  rendilv  taken 
by  any  soft  bait.  It  enters  the  moutlts  of  rivers  w  Inie  the  water  is  brackish.  The 
flesh  is  pleasant,  but  soon  gel«  soft.  Excellent  ixiTglaes  ip  mnde  of  the  air-bladder. 
—A  number  of  spcios  of  O.  nre  found  in  tlic  East  Indian  sens,  »»ome  of  which  are 
valuable  for  the  isinglass  which  is  made  irom  their  air-bladder,  and  some  are  much 
used  as  food,  both  f  resii  ami  dried. 

OTORRH<E*A  signifies  a  purulent  or  mwco-pnrolcnt  discharge  from  the  external 
ear.  It  may  b«i  due  to  various  c:iuses,  of  whicli  the  most  frequent  is  catjirrhal  in- 
flammation of  thu  lining  membraneof  the  meatus,  and  the  next  in  frequency  is  Otitis 
(q.  v.>Jn  its  various  forms.  If  the  dischrrpe  is  vej-y  fetid,  a  weak  solution  of  chlo- 
Hde  of  lime,  or  of  Condy's  Disinfectant  Fluid,  n.ay  1h»  used,  in  place  of  tlie  solutioi» 
of  sulphate  of  ainc  recommended  in  article  Otitis  ;  and  in  obstinate  cases  of  catar- 
rhal inflammation  of  the  linini;  meml>rane,  tlie  tiiecliargfi. may  often  Ixieheckeil  by 
pencilling  the  whole  interior  of  the  mea  us  with  a  «olutiuii  of  five  grains  of  nitrate 
of  silver  in  an  ounce  of  wa.er. 

OTRA'NTO,  Terra  di,  now  c  died  Lecce,  the  extreme  south-eastern  province  of 
Italy,  forming  the  lu«l  of  the  Itnlij.n  t)Oot,  is  ix  midod  on  tbe  n.  w.  by  the  provinces 
of  Bari  and  BMSillcata  and  suiTOunded  on  nil  other  sides  t)y  the  sea.  Area,  ^293  pq. 
m. ;  pop.  (18TI)  493  268.  It  occupies  the  ancient  I  pj^'ian  or  MessMpian  peninnulii, 
and  is  108  miles  in  length,  and  from  25  to  £5  miles  in  breadth.  Three  parts  f)f  its 
surface  are  cover  d  with  iiilK,  effects  from  the  Apennines  of  Basilieata.  AH  the 
rivers  are  fil^Drt.  many  of  them  biing  lost  in  the  marshes  of  tlie  interior;  but  abund- 
ant iprinsrs  and  heavy  dews  render  the  soil  suiprisingly  fertile.  Good  posture 
lands  and  dense  forests  occur.  The  climate  ispUaMtnt  and  l«e»slil>y,  except  al<  ns 
the  chores,  l)Oth  0»)  the  etist  and  w«st  coast-,  and  in  tin- vieinlty  of  the  marshes,  which 
In  summer  genemte  malaria.  An  nbundanee  of  the  best  wine,  with  com  and  olivt  - 
oil,  are  pwwuced ;  tobnceo  (ihel)cst  jrrown  in  Italy),  cotton,  and  figs,  almonds, 
cwanges,  ^^,  lire  also  produced.    The  ctipital  is  Lecco  (q.  v.). 

OTRANTO  (the  ancient  H^mn/t*»i),  a  small  town  <m  the  WJOth-cast  coast  of 
the  province  of  the  same  uanns  24  mih-s  Fonth-east  of  Lecce.  During  the  l;itt«»r  pe- 
riod of  the  Roman  empire,  and  all  through  the  middle  ages,  it  was  tbe  chief  port  of 
Italy  on  the  Adriatic,  whence  passengers  took  ship  for  Or*  ece— having  in  this  r»- 
i^ect  supplanted  the  fiunons  BrundurJinm  or  earlier  lin<«».  In  1460  ii  was  tnken  by 
tMtTttfks,  and  attktittime  it  wasa  flom.ishingxity  fl^flO,00(>iiih:il>itnnts  i  but  it  hat 
la&g  bMn  in  a  dee^ying  oOudit  iou,  ptiucipaliy  oil  account  of  muluria.    O.  poCtelfe» 


Digitized  by 


Google 


gSr*  588 

a  castle  and  a  cathedral.    Its  harbor  is  nnsnfe.    In  clear  woatlier,  the  coast  of  Al- 
bania is  visible  trora  Otrnnto.    Pop.  about  2000. 

O'TTAWA.  One  of  the  lai-gest  rivers  of  Britipli  North  America,  rises  in  lat.  48<» 
80'  n.,  long.  76®  w.,  in  tlie  watenshed  ou  tlie  opposite  i^ide  of  whicli  rise  tlie  St  Mau- 
rice and  Sagileitay.,  After  a  course  of  above  000  iniJes^  it  fails  into  the  St  Lawr^ce 
by  two  inouthi.  wliich  form  the  isbmd  of  MontrenJ ;  and  the  entire  region,  dniined 
by  it  and  its  trlbntaries,  meaeures  about  SOjOOO  square  miles  (**  G<K)l.JRep."  for  1946 — 
1846,  p.  18).  Puring  its  course,  it  widens  into  numerous  lakes  of  considerable  siee. 
and  18  fed  by  many  impprt^iut  tributaries,  such  as  the  Mattawa,  Mtssisfippi, 
Madawasca.  and  Kideau  *  ojn  the  right,  the  Oatiue:iu  and  the  itividres  du 
Moine  nnd  dU  Li^vre  on  the  left  side.  Thef^e,  with  ll»e  O.  itaelf,  form 
tlie  means  of  transit  for  perhaps  the  largest  lumber,  trade  in  the  wurid, 
while  the  clearances  of  the  lainljerer  liave  opened  the  country  for  several  thriving 
a^icultural  settlemenis.  The  navigation  has  been  greatly  improved,  es*i)eciaily  for 
timber,  by  the  construction  of  dnms  and  slides,  to  facilitate  its  passage  overfalls 
and  rapids.  The  O.  is  already  connected  with  Lake  Ontario  at  Kingston  by  the 
Ridean  Canal:  and  there  is  every  prospect  of  its  becoming,  before  many  yeai-s,  the 
great  liiglnvay  from  the  north-wesrern  States  to  the  ocean  by  being  connected  with 
the  Geoi^gian  Bay  in  Lake  Huroii  through  tlie  French  River,  Lake  Nipissing.  and  the 
Mattawa.  Thisgreat  engineering  achievement,  for  which  capital  will  undoubtedly 
be  soon  forthcomlug,  would  place  the  western  lake  ports  by  water  760  miles  n«;Mrer 
to  Liverpool  by  Montreal  than  by  New  York  through  the  Erie  Canal,  and  would  save 
nearly  a  week  in  time,  while  it  wonid  lessen  considerably  insuranre  and  freight 
charges.— The  O.  possesses  one  of  tho  few  literary  associations  of  Canada.  Ai  St 
Ann's,  a  few  miles  above  its  mouth,  the  house  is  )K>inted  out  where  Moore,  wrote  the 
Canadian  Boat^soug. 

OTTAWA,  the  capital  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  is  situated  87  miles  above  the 
confluence  of  the  river  Ottawa  with  the  St  Lawrence,  126  miles  from  Montreal,  95 
from  Kingston,  and  460  from  New  York.  Originally  called  Bytown,  after  Colonel 
By,  who  in  1827  was  commissioned  to  consirnct  thellideau  Canal,  it  was  incorpora- 
ted as  a  city,  and  received  the  name  which  it  now  bears  in  1864.  At  the  west  end  of 
the  city,  the  Ortawa  rushes  over  the  magniflceut  cataract  known  as  the  Chandi^re 
Palls,  and  at  the  north-east  end  there  are  other  two  catai-acts,  over  whicli  theKidean 
tumbles  into  the  Ottawa.  The  scenery  around  O.  al>6  is  scaicelj^  surpassed  by  any  in 
Canada.  The  immense  water-power  at  the  city  is  made  use. of  in  several  saw-mi  Is, 
which  give  O.  its  principal  trade,  and  issue  almost  incalculable  quantities  of  sawn 
timber.  A  suspension-bridge  hangs  over  the  Chaudidre  Falls,  connecting  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada.  The  city  is  in  communicatiou  by  steamer  ou  the  Ottawa  with  Mon- 
treal ;  on  the  Rideau  Canal  with  Lake  Outario  at  Kingston ;  and  with  the  principal 
points  of  the  province  by  means  of  the  St  Lawrence  and  Ottawa  and  the  Canada 
Central  lin<;s.  in  the  year  ejiding  June  80,  18<4,  the  imports  amounted  to  iJSOO.OOO, 
and  the  exports  to  i:336,600.  In  1858,  the  Queen  select^ul  O.  as  the  mjat  of  govv  rn- 
raent  of  the  then  province  of  Canada ;  and  in  1860  was  commenced  the  erection  of 
magnificent  parliamentai-y  offices,  of  which  the  Prince  of  Wales  laid  the  fouiKlation  in 
September  tlit!  same  year.  They  are  among  tlie  finest  architectural  strncturcs  on  the 
American  continent.  Pop.  (1871)21.545.  O.  returns  two  memljers  to  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  one  to  the  provincial  parliament. 

OTTER  {Lufra),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the  Weased  family  (MuatelicJce),  dif- 
fering widely  from  the  rest  of  the  family  in  their  acqnaiic  habits?,  end  in  a  ccnformaT; 
tion  adapted  to  these  habits,  and  in  some  respects  approaching  to  t  hat  of  seals,  llie* 
body,  which  is  long  and  flexible,  as  in  the  otlier  MtiMelidon,  is  c(>neiderably  flattened ; 
the  head  is  broad  andjlat;  the  eyes  are  small,  and  famished  with  a  nietitatinff  ntem- 
brwie;  the  ears  ara  very  small ;  the  h-gsare  short  and  powerful ;  the  feet,  which  have 
each  five  tocs,  are  completely  webbed  ;  the  claws  are  not  retractile ;  the  t:iil  is  stout 
and  muscular  at  its  base,  long,  tapering^  and  horizontally  flattened  j  t  he  dentitiou  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  weasels ;  six  incisors  and  two  canine  toeth  in  each  jaw,  with 
five  molars  on  each  side  in  the  upper,  and  five  or  six  in  the  lower  jaw ;  tlie  teeth  very 
strong,  and  the  tubercles  of  the  molars  very  pointed,  an  evident  adaptatjou  for  seiz- 
ing and  holding  slippery  prey.  The  tongue  is  rough,  but  not  so  much  so  as  in  the 
weasels.    The  fui'  is  very   smooth,   and    cousisis  of    two    kinds  of    haliv--ail 


y  Google 


589 


Ottawa 
Otto 

inner  fur  very  denee  and  soft,  intermixed  witli  Jongcr,  coarser,  and  glossy 
hair.  The  species  are  nnmeroiis,  and  are  found  botli  iu  warm  ana  cold 
climutes.— The  Common  O.  {L.  vulgaris)  is  a  well-knowu  British  animal, 
rarei"  tl|au  it  ouce  was  in  most  districts,  but  still  found  in  almost  every  part 
of  the  BriiiRh  Islands,  and  common  also  throughout  the  continent  of  Europe,  and 
in  some  parts  of  Asia.  It  often  attains  a  w«'ight  of  20  to  24  lbs.  Its  length  is  fully 
2  feet,  ejtclusive  of  the  tail,  which  is  about  16  inches  long.  The  color  is  a  bright 
rich  brown  on  the  upper  parts  ami  the  ontj<ide  of  the  legs,  l»eing  the  color  of  The 
tips  of  the  long  hairs,  Avhich  ar^  gray  at  the  base  ;  the  tips  of  the  hairs  in  the  soft 
ii)n«*r  fur  are  also  brown,  the  babe  whltish-giay ;  the  throat,  cheeks,  breast,  belly, 
and  inner  pans  of  the  legs  are  brownish-gray,  sometimes  whitish,  and  individmils 
Bomertiues,  but  rarely,  occur  with  whitish  ^pot8  over  the  whole  body ;'  the  whiskers 
are  very  thick  and  strong;  the  eyes  are  ?)lack.  'J'he  O.  frequents  rivers  and  lakes, in- 
habiting some  hole  in  their  banks,  generally  choosing  one  which  already  exists,  and 
seldom,  if  ever,  burrowing  for  itself.  It  also  inhabits  the  sea-shore  iu  many  places, 
and  swims  to  a  considerable  distance  frojn  the  shore  in  pursuit  of  prey.  Its  move- 
ments iu  the  water  are  extremely  graceful ;  it  swims  with  great  rapdity  in-  a  nearly 
horizontal  position  ;  and  turns  and  diveB  with  wonderful  agility.  Its  prey  consists 
chiefly  of  fish,  and,  like  the  other  Muatelidce,  it  seems  to  take  pleasure  in  pui-suing 
and  killing  far  more  than  it  is  able  to  eat ;  and  in  this  case  it  daintily  feeds  on  the 
choicest  part,  beginning  behind  the  head  of  the  fish,  and  leavin|j  the  liend  and  often 
much  of  tlie  tail  part.  The  O.,  however,  when  fis^h  cannot  readily  l>e  obtained,  satis- 
fies the  cravings  of  hunger  with  other  food,  even  snails  and  worms,  and  attacks 
small  animals  of  any  kind,  sometimes  making  depredations  iu  places  far  from  any 
considerable  stream.  The  O.  produces  from  two  to  five  young  ones  at  a  birth.  The 
flesh  of  the  O.  has  a  rank  flshy  taste,  on  which  account,  perhaps,  it  is  sometime 
nsfd  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  as  finhy  by  thosi'  who^e  luUs  forbid  them  the 
use  of  flesh.— O.. hunting  lias  long  been  i)ractisetl  in  Brlttiin,  although  now  chiefly 
confined  to  Wales  and  Gotland.  Hounds  of  a  particular  breed— O.  hounds  are  pre- 
ffrn  d  for  ii^— 'J'he  O.  defends  itself  with  great  vigor  against  assailantn.  The  O.  can 
iHi  easily  domesticateil,  and  trained  to  catch  flfh  lor  its  master.  In  India,  tame 
otters — probably,  however,  of  another  species  to  be  afterwards  noticed — are  not 
unfrequeutly  used  both  for  catching  flsh,  which  tliey  bring  asliore  in  their  teeth, and 
for  driving  shoals  of  fish  into  net*. — The  fur  of  tiie  O.  is  m  some  request,  but  moro 
on  the  continent  of  Europe  than  iu  Britain.— The  Amebican  O.  or  Canada  O. 
(L.  Canade^isiH)  is  very  like  the  Common  0.,  but  considerably  larger.  1'he  tail  is  also 
shorter,  and  the  fur  ot  the  belly  is  ahnost  of  the  same  shining  brown  color  with  that 
of  the  back.  'I'his  species  is  plentiful  iu  the  norlhera  parts  of  North  America.  Its 
skin  is  a  considerable  article  of  commerce,  and  after  being  imported  into  England, 
is  often  exported  again  to  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  usually  taken  by  a  steel- 
trap,  placed  at  the  mouth  of  its  burrow.  Its  habits  are  very  similar  to  thcise  of  the 
O.  of  Europe. — The  Indian  O.  (L.  iVatr)  has  a  deep  chestimt-colorcd  fur,  and  yel- 
lowish-whiie  spots  above  the  eyes.— The  Brazilian  O.  {L.  Braziliensis)  is  said  to  be 
greirarious.— Somewhat  diflEerent  from  the  true  otters  is  the  Sea  O.  or  Kalan  (L. 
vnarina^  or  Enhydral  ittsis)^  an  animal  twice  the  size  of  the  Common  0.,  a  native  of 
Behring's  Straits  and  the  neighboring  regions,  frequenting  sea-washed  rocks.  There 
are,  at  least  iu  the  adult,  on^fyur  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  ears  are  set 
lower  in  the  head  than  iu  the  true  otters,  below,  not  above,  tlie  eyes.  The  tail  is  also 
much  short<;r.  The  molar  teeth  are  broad,  and  well  adapted  for  breaking  the  shells 
ol  molluscs  and  crustaceans.  The  hind-feet  have  a  membrane  skirting  the  outride  of 
the  exterior  toes.  The  sea  O.  is  much  valued  for  its  fur,  the  general  liuo  of  wliich  is 
a  rich  black,  tinged  witli  brown  above,  and  passing  into  lighter  colors  below.  The 
head  is  sometimes  almost  white.  The  skins  of  sea  otters  were  formerly  in  very  great 
request  in  China,  so  that  a  price  of  from  £B5  to  iJSO  could  be  obtained  for  each ;  but 
the  attention  of  European  traders  and  hunters  having  been  directed  to  them— in  con- 
sequence chiefly  of  a  passage  in  "  Cook's  Voyages  " — they  were  carried  to  China  in 
such  numbei-s  as  greatly  to  reduce  the  price. 

O'TTERBURN,  B.ittle  of.    Sec  Chevy  Chase. 

OTTO  (or  at(ar)  OF  HOSES  is  tiio  volatile  oi!  or  otto  (sec  PEiiruMEBY)  of  the 
petals  of  some  tpecies  of  rose,  obtained  by  distillation,  and  highly  prized  as  u  per- 


y  Google 


Ottoman 


590 


fume.  It  is  a  uenrly  colorless  or  light  yellow  crystalline  solid,  at  temperatures  Fk>- 
low  80°  P.,  li(iu^?fyii)g  a  little  ubova  tiuit  temperature.  It  is  imported  from  the  East, 
where  iu  Syria,  PcrsM,  ludia.  nud  Turkey,  rose.^  are  cnltivated  to  a  cousid^-able  ex- 
tent for  its  s^uke.  It  ia  probable  t hilt  iho  ornMital  ott  >  is  the  m'oduce  of  more  than 
one  specicH  of  rose;  aud  it  is  uncert'iiu  what  S}>e(ie8  U  enltiv.ited  in  somo  of  the 
localiiie!*  mo-t  celebrated  for  it ;  hut  Rosa  Daniaticena  is  known  to  be  so  eiuployed 
in  the  iiortlj  of  In  lia,  ami  a  kind  of  oito  is  sometimes  obtaiiit-d  by  iheTSlakcrsof 
ro^^e-y^'ixtQvtvOM  Rosacenti/olia  in  England.  8eff  KosE.  Gbnziporei  near  Benares, 
is  celebrated  for  its  rose-gai'dens,  which  surround  tlie  town,  and  are  iu  reidity  fields 
occnpied  by  rows  of  low  rosc-biishes,  wliicb  in  the  flowering  reason  are  red  with 
blossoms  in  the  morning,  but  the  blossoms  are  all  gal hered  ^f ore  midday.'  Cash- 
mere is  noted  for  its  extensive  manufacture  of  otto,  as  are  also  the  neighborhoods 
of  8hir:iz  aud  Damascus.  To  prociu'e  the  otto,  the  rose  petals  are  usually  distilled 
with  al)out  twice  their  weigiit  of  water,  and  the  produce  exposed  to  the  cool  night- 
iiir  iu  open  vessels,  from  which  the  thin  fihn  of  otto  is  ikinmicd  with  afeath^'inihe 
morning.  Twenty  thousand  flowers  are  required  to  yield  otto  equal  to  the  weigiit 
of  one  rupee,  which  even  in  India  is  worth  about  100  rupees,  or  jGIO  sterling.  Otto 
is  said  to  have  been  first  procured  hy  what  may  be  called  an  accidental  distillatioii 
of  roso-petids  exposed  with  water  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  to  have  hean  found 
fluatin<r  on  the  surface  of  the  water;  and  it  is  still  sometimes  obtained 
in  India  by  such  a  process.  It  is  said  to  be  also  obt,uined  by  dry  distil- 
lation of  rose-petals  at  a  low  temperature.  Daring  the  distillauon  of  rose- 
petals  a  small  quantity  of  a  solid  volatile  oil  comes  over  (Solid  Oil  of 
Koses,  see  -below),  which  crystallises  and  floats  on  the  water  in  the 
recidver,  and  wliich  is  soiuetimes  called  English  Oil  of  Mortem.  -  Otto  of  roees  is 
not  unfrequently  adulterated  with  sandalwood  oil,  oil  of  ihodiiim.  Ac.  It  is  much 
n-ed  for  making  hair-oi!,a  drop  of  itlwing  enough  to  Imp.-.ri  a  ple.isai»t  odor  to  a 
coiididerable  quantity.  It  is  al^o  used  ^l  making  lavender-watei'  aud  other  perfumes. 
The  odor  of  otto  itself  is  too  powerful  to  be  altogether  pleasant.  Another  method 
of  obtaining  the  seent  of  ro<i!«  is  descriljcd  in  the  article  FBBFtTMERT.  Otto  of 
roses  is  a  mixture  of  two  volatile  or  et>80utial  oils;  the  one  solid  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures, and  the  other  liquid.  The  solid  oil  of  roses  (rose  camphor,  si6aropt toe 
of  oil  of  DS/s)  exists  separately  in  crystalline  phites,  rndts  or  fn-es  at  208°  P.,  aud 
boils  at  abotJt  59^.  It  possesses  of  itself  very  little  odor,  is  insoluble  in  alcohol, 
but  solni>le  in  ether.  It  is  con)p(»ed  of  carbon  and  hydrogen.  The  liquid  oil  oi 
rosea  (el6opt6ne  of  oil  of  roses)  is  a  very  fragraut  liquid,  to  which  the  otto  of 
roses  is  indehied  for  its  delicious  perfume,  and  appears  to  consist  ot  carbon,  hyilro- 
gen,  and  oxygen  ;  thouirh  Its  composition  and  properties  have  not  been  attentively 
studied.  The  otto  of  roses  may  l>e  rtigarded  as  a  solution  of  one  part  of  the  solid  oil 
in  two  parts  of  the  liquid.  To  sen  uate  these  oils,  the  otto  is  frozen  at  a  temijera- 
turo  below  80°  F.,  and  the  congealed  raa^:^  press  -d  botwe-  u  fold:*  of  blotting- ptvper, 
which  absorbs  the  liquid  oil  of  roses,  and  leaves  the  solid.  Another  process  which 
may  be  resorted  to  is  to  treat,  the  frozen  otto  with  alcoliol,  which  dissolves  the  liqtiid 
oil.  and  leaves  behind  tlie  solid.  The  otto  of  roses  has  a  specific  grarity  of  832, 
water  i)eing  1000;  it  is  combustible;  and  when  it 3  vapor  is  diffused  through  oxy- 

fen,  and  set  tire  to,  a  violent  explosion  takes  place:  1000  part-^  of  alcohol  dissolve 
parts  of  the  otio  iu  the  cold,  and 33  parts  when  sl/irhtly  l>eated.  The  principal  use 
to  which  otto  of  roses  is  put  is  as  a  p  :rfume.  Milk  of  ros  s  and  Javender-water  owe 
their  fragrance  to  the  presence  of  theoito.  A  ^'ood  receipt  for  oil  lor  the  hair  is 
olive  oil,  colored  by  alkanet,  and  sceuti  d  by  a  few  drops  of  otto,  and  this  is  very 

fenerally  sold  under  the  luirao  of  otto  of  roses.    Medcines  are  occasionally  per- 
umed  by  otto  of  roses,  and  it  is  sometimes  added  to  ungneirfs  aud  sfiirit-wasfaes. 

O'TTOMAN  EMPIRE,  or  **  Empire  of  the  Osmaidis/  comprehends  all  the  coun- 
tries which  are  more  or  less  under  the  authority  of  the  Turkish  sultan,  and  includes, 
besides  Turkey  iu  Asia,  and  that  part  of  Turkey  in  Ettrope  which  i»  under  his  im- 
mediate boverelgnty,  the  vassal  principalities  of  Moldavia  and  Walachia  (i.e., 
l^oumania),  Servia,  and  Montenegro,  in  Europe;  Egypt  with  Nubia,  Tripoli,  and 
'J'uuis,  in  Africa ;  aud  a  part  of  Arabia,  iududlng  the  holy  cities  of  Meccji  and 
Medina,  in  Asia.  Tije  special  description,  topographv,  history,  &c,  of  th«MJe  conn- 
tries  will  be  found  under  tlieir  own  heads,  and  this  article  will  Gousist  solely  (tf  a 
brief  liketch  of  the  origin,  growth,  and  present  statu  of  ihe  Ottoman  Empire. 


y  Google 


591 


Ottoman 


The  OttonHins,  or  OemaisHe,  to  wliom  the  j.*cncric  cpUb?  t  of  Turks  is  bv  commou 
lUKigo  uow  confined,  «rc  tho  dcpccndunts  of  tI:o  0;j(lsiaii  TurUs,  a  tribe  of  I  he 
great  Turki^s'.i  uarlon,  which  in  the  13th  c.  lu'iabitod  Iho  ptcppcj*  cast  of  the  Cas- 
pian Sen.  The  tide  of  Montjol  invtssiou  wUuli  wan  then  ii.itti«g  in  from  tlio 
uoilli-east,  SMfpl  the  Ogtlzcs  before  it,  nnd  they,  to  tl>o  number  oi  53,<X0,  under 
iJicir  chief,  Siilinian,  fled  we  twanl  to  ibo  niouniainoua  reijion  of  Ainjeni:i> 
After  the  cWef's  death,  the  majority  of  tlie  tribe  bcc.une  ecattired  ovtrMesopu- 
taniia:  bnt  a  few  thon.-ands  under  Ortho'^nel,  his  youngest  con,  marched  west- 
ward to  aid  the  Seljiik  Bultaii  of  Konieh  against  the  Khaureziftians  iiud  Mongols, 
and  received  from  the  grateful  monarcli  a  grant  of  land  in  Phrygin.— -His  fon, 
Othman  (q.  V.)  (1289—1826),  laid  the  foundation  of  the  independmt  power  of 
'•"    '  nd    '^  •         •  '  ^  " 


llie  'Jurks;  and  Othmau's  son  and  Buccessor,  Orkhan  (1826--I859)  con- 
tinned  the  same  aggressive  policy,  and  gained  a  footing  in  Europe  by  the 
taking  of  Gallipoli,  Koiridicattron,  and  otIieF  foitreAca  on  the  const.  The  Greeks, 
with  the  usual  contempt  of  civillsatiou  for  barl)ari8ni,  made  liglit  of  these  losses. 
Baying  tliat  tlie  Turks  liad  only  tafcen  from  them  a  **  liog's  sty  "  and  a  **  nottle  of  wine,'* 


Baying  tnai  ine  'lurisa  iiaa  only  taisen  from  tliem  a  *•  liog's  sty  "  and  a  *•  nottJe  of  wme," 
in  allusion  to  tlio  magazines  and  cellars  built  by  Jusiinian  at  Gallipoli ;  l)nt,  us  tho 
historian  KnoUea  quaintly  remarks,  **  by  takini;  of  such  hogsties  and  pottks  of  wine, 
the  Turks  had  eone  eo  far  into  Thracia,  that  Anunath,  a  f«;w  y<ars  later,  placed  his 
royal  seat  at  Aarianople.'*  Sultan  Oi^han,  perceiving  the  advantage  of  i>osFessing  a 
force  tiained  exchiaively  for  war,  oi^uiiscd  the  body  of  troops  known  as  Janizaries 
(q.  v.),  and  td  these  his  f-uccessor  added  the  Spahis  (q.v.)  and  the  Zanis. — Amttbath  I. 
<t35»— 1390).  the  successor  of  Orklian,  rapidly  reduced  the  Fvzantine  empire  within 
the  limits  of  CJonslantinople  and  some  mlgh  boring  districts  In  Thrace  ai;d  JJtrlgaria. 
A  formidable  confederacy  of  the  Slavonian  trihi  s  of  the  Tpp  r  Danube  was  formed 
ajjaiust  him,  and,  tupponed  by  multitudes  of  wardors  Ironi  Hungary  and  Italv, 
they  advanced  into  Servia  to  give  him  battle;  but  their  army,  nmcuuting,  it  is  said, 
to  500,0p0  men,  was  defeated  with  dreadful  slau^rhter  at  Ko.^sova  (1890) ;  and 
though  the  sultan  was  assassinated  on  the  we  of  the  batt'e,  his  eon,  Bajazkt  L 
(q.  V.)  (1390--1402),  followed  up  this  vicfoiy  by  nivaging  Servia  and  Walachia.  Mol- 
davia was  also  overrun,  ana  a  second  crnsadinir  aimy,  under  the  king  of  Hnn- 
cary,  totally  ronttd  at  Nicopolis  (1896);  but  the  defeat  and  capture  of  ti.e  stiltan  by 
I'imur  (q.  v.),  gave  Constantinople  a  respite  for  half  a  century,  by  rai-'Jng  up 
numerous  cl  imnnts  for  the  Turkish  throne;  and  it  was  not  till  34. 8  that  Bajuzet's 
youngest  son,  Mohammed  I.  (1418—1422),  establisl.ed  his  claim  to  the  sceptre.  A 
war  which  broke  out  with  the  Venetian  n public  at.  this  time  produced  the  most  dis- 
astrous (.onscgnences  to  the  mercantile  and  maritime  interests  of  the  Turks,  and 
internal  disorders  prevented  any  atreresBions  on  their  neighbors.— Amtraxh  II.  (1423 
— 1450),  a  prince  01  considerable  abmry,  completed  the  conquest  oi  tlie  Greek  em- 

{>ire  by  reducing  Macedonia  and  Greece  Proper;  and  finding  that  the  Hungarians 
»ad  concluded  a  secret  ti*eaty  of  oflEence  and  defence  with  the  Turkish  sultan  of 
Caramania  against  Jiim,  he  attacked  the  former,  but  was  defeated  by  Hunyady 
(q.  v.),  and  compelled  to  retreat  Disheartened  at  his  ill  success,  he  resigned  the 
throne;  but  on  receiving  news  of  a  formidable  invasion  by  the  army  of  the  papal 
crusade,  res-nmed  the  direction  of  affairs,  and  totally  difiated  the  invaders,  with 
whom  werci  Hunyady  (q.  v.)  and  Scnnderbeg  (q.  v.)i  at  Varna  (1444).— Mohammed  II. 
(q.  V.)  (1460—1481),  the  sworn  foe  of  Christianity,  greatly  enlarged  the  Turkish  terri- 
toiie-.  It  was  lie  who  stormed  Constantinople  in  1453.  and  destroyed  the  last  relic  of 
the  enipirc  of  the  Caesars.— His  son,  Bajazet  11.(1481—1612),  extended  his  do- 
mlniona  to  the  nreeent  limits  of  the  Turkish  empire  in  Asi.i  and  Europe,  including, 
however,  also  ine  c  untiy  to  the  north  of  the  Black  Sea,  aa  far  east  as  the  mouth  or 
the  Don,  portions  of  Dalmatia,  and  Otranto  in  Italy.  Bojazet  was  the  first  to  fed 
the  evil  effects  of  the  military  organisatioii  of  Sulian  Orkhan.  but  all  his  attempts 
to  get  lid  of  his  formidable  eodiery  were  unertcceasful.  He  attempted  the  in- 
vasion of  Egypt,  but  was  totally  defeated  by  the  Mameluke  sultan  at  ArlH?!a  (1493).— 
His  succebsors,  Selim  I.  (q.  v.)  (1512—1520),  and  Soltman  I.  (q.  v.),  (1620— 156C), 
raised  the  O.  B.  to  the  height  of  its  power  and  splendor.  Dniing  their  rt*igns,  no 
ship  belonging  to  n  nation  liostile  t()  the  Turks  dared  then  navigate  the  Mediterra- 
uean,  so  completely  did  their  fleets  comnuind  that  sea.— Selih  II.  (16<$6— 1674),  a 
padflc  prince,  put  an  end  to  a  war  with  Austria,  which  had  been  commenced  in  the 
previooB  rvign,  by  a  peace  iu  which  it  wai  atiptilated  that  the  Emperor  MaxiinlUau  H. 


y  Google 


Ottoman 


592 


phoiild  pay  a  tribut<*  of  30,000  dncats  unnnally  for  the  posscssiot)  of  Hniiffnry,  and 
that  each  iitttion  ahouki  retaiu  its  conquests.  Diuiug  his  rfiirii  occniTeuthe  fii-Pt 
collision  of  the  Turks  with  the  Kus^siaus.  It  had  occurred  to  Solim  that  the  conuec- 
tiun  of  the  Don  and  Volga  l)y  a  canal  would,  by  allowiue  the  pufsage  of  ships  from 
the  Black  Sea  into  the  Caspian,  be  a  vtiltiable  aid  to  both  military  and  commercial 
enteiTjrise,  and  accordinirfy  he  sent  50U0  workmen  to  cut  tlie  canal,  and  an  army  of 
80,000  men  to  aid  and  protect  them.  But,  unluckily,  the  possession  of  Astrakhau 
formed  part  of  the  piograu\me.  and  the  attack  of  this  town  brought  down  on  the 


MtHduvia.— His  eon,  Amubath  III.  (1574—1595),  such  wus  then  the  prestige  of  the 
Turks,  dictated  to  the  Poles  that  they  should  ciioo>e  as  their  kiny,  Stei)heu  Baihory, 
Woiwode  of  Transylvania ;  aud  received  the  fii-st  English  embassy  t  >  Turkey  in  15S9, 
the  object  of  the  emba-^^sy  being  to  conclude  an  alliance  against  Philip  II.  of  Spain. 
To  this  the  sultan  agrt?ed;  but  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  Arnuida  podu  after 
renderedhis  'nterferenceinmecessnry.  After  an  exhausting  though  succes'sful  war 
with  Persia,  succeeded  a  long  contest  with  Austria,  in  which  the  Turks  at  first  ol>- 
tained  the  most  brilliant  success,  penetrating  lo  within  40  miles  of  Vienna,  but 
afterwai-ds  suffered  such  terrible  reverses,  tliat  tliuy  were  compelled  to  evacuate 
all  Hungary  and  Transylvania  (hitherto  a  feudatory),  and  were  only  saved 
from  destruction  by  the  PoIjs,  who  entered  Moldavia,  and  drove  out  the  Trau- 
sylvanians  and  Hungarian  ,  thus  affording  the  Turks  an  oppoitnnity  of  rallying, 
and  even  recovering  soju-j  of  their  losses.  Tlie  latter  part  of  this  war  happentxl 
during  the  reign  of  Mohammed  III.  ^1595— 1604).  and  afforded  unmistakable  symp- 
toms of  the  decline  of  Turkish  prowess;  and  a  rebellion  of  the  Paslia  of  Caramauia, 
in  Asia,  which  wa-x  quelled  not  as  a  Mwhammcd  II.  or  a  Bujazot  I.  would  havequelletl 
it,  but  by  yielding  to  the  pa"«ha'8  diunaud^,  afforded  an  equally  convincing  nroof  of  the 
growing  wcaknec's  of  thi^  ceutral  administration,  and  set  an  example  to  all  ainbitioua 
t^ubjectt*  in  future.  Duiing  the  reigns  of  Achmet  I.  (llJ04— 161T),  Mustafa  (ItJlT — 
16 1 1,  1622— 1623),  Otuman  11.  (I6li— 1622).  and  Amukatu  IV.  (IC23— 1640;,  Turkey 
was  convulsed  by  mterual  dissensions,  nevertheless,  a  successful  war  was  waged  with 
Austria  for  the  possession  of  Hungary;  but  this  success  was  more  than  counter- 
balanced in  the  East,  where  Shah  Al)bas  the  Great  conquered  Mesopotamia,  Kurdis- 
tan, and  Armenia;  and  in  the  noilh,  where  the  Poles  look  possession  of  80i:\e  of  the 
frontier  fortrc-Hes.  While  Amurath  was  recoveiing  his  lost,  provinces  in  the  East, 
the  Khan  of  the  Crimea,  countenanced  by  the  Poles  and  liussians,  threw  off  his 
allegiance.  Mustafa,  the  grand  vizier,  a  man  of  great  ability  and  integrily,  continued 
to  direct  the  helm  of  government  under  Ibrahim  (1640— 164S) ;  took  from  the 
Poles  their  conquests;  and  in  a  war  with  the  Venetians  (1645),  obtained  Caiidia  and 
almost  all  the  Venetian  strongholds  in  the"  iEgean  Sea,  though  with  the  loss  o^ 
some  towns  in  Dalniatla.— Momammbd  IV.  (1646— 16S7)  connneuced  his  reign 
under  the  most  unfavorable  auspices;  he  was  only  ^^even  years  or  age,  and  tho 
whole  power  was  vested  in  the  Janizjiries  and  their  i)arti8an.s,  who  used  it  to  accom- 
plish their  own  ends;  but  luckily  for  Turkey,  an  iudividu.d  of  obscure  birth, 
named  Mohammed  Koprili,  snppos-d  to  b«!  of  French  d»'..vceut,  was,  when  over 
seventy  years  of  age,  apuointed  vizier;  and  tiu;  extraordinary  talents  of  this 
man  proved  to  be  the  salvation  of  Turkey  at  this  Critical  juncture.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded (1661)  in  office  by  his  pon  ^Achmet.  a  man  of  equal  ability,  and  under  his 
guidance  the  central  administration  recovered  its  control  over  even  the  most  disUmt 
pioviuces;  a  formidable  war  with  Germany,  though  unsuccessfully  carrietl  on 
(1603),  was  concluded  by  a  peace  advantageous  to  the  Turks;  Crete  was  wholly 
subdued,  and  Podolla  wrested  from  the  Poled ;  though,  shortly  afterwards,  much 
of  this  last  acquisition  was  recoiMjuered  by  John  Sobleski  (q.v.).  Achraet's 
successor  overran  the  Austrian  territories,  and  laid  siege  toVieuua;  but  the  siege 
was  raised,  and  his  army  defeated,  by  a  combined  army  under  the  Duke  Ciiarles  of 
LoiTaine,  aud  John  Sobleski,  king  of  Poland.  The  Austrians  followed  up  this 
victory  by  repossessing  themselves  of  Hungary,  inflicting  upon  the  Turks  a 
bloody  defeat  at  Mohacz  (1687) ;  but  the  fortunate  appointment  of  a  third 
Koprili  as  grand  vizier  by  Solyman  II.  (16S7— 1691),  was  the  means  of . restor- 
ing glory  and  fortune  to  the  Turkish  arms.— The  reigns  of  ACHMETlI.  (1691—1695), 


y  Google 


m 


Ottoman 


and  MxTSTArA  II.  (1695—1702),  were  occupied  with  wars  agniiist  Austria; 
but  with  the  death  of  KOprili  (1691)  forinue  deserted  the  Turks,  and  the 
peace  of  Carlowiiz  (16  9)  tor  ever  put  an  end  to  Turkish  domination  in 
IJungary.— ACHMET  III.  (1702— 1780)  was  forced  by  the  intriffues  of  Cliarles  XIT. 
(q.  V.)  of  Sweden,  while' reniding  at  Bender,  into  a  war  \\ith  Knssia  ;  a  step  which 
was  imraediiitelv  followed  by  an  invasion  of  Moldavia  by  the  Czar  Peter,  'i'he  Czar, 
imprudently  relying  on  the  aid  of  the  Woiwode  of  'Moldavia,  found  himself  in 
ereat  straits,  from  which  he  was  rescued  by  the  genius  of  his  queen,  aftei-wards 
Cathaiine  I.  The  recovery  of  the  Morea  from  the  Venetians,  and  the  loss  of  Bel- 
grade and  parts  of  Servia  and  Walawhia,  whicli  were,  however,  recovered  durhig 
ttie  subsequent  reign  of  Mahmud  I.  (1730^1754);  and  the  commencement  of  a  long 
war  with  Persia  (sen  Nadir  Shah),  were  the  oi  her  prominent  occurrences  of  Ach- 
met^s  reign.  In  1736.  tht;  career  of  Uussian  a^'gression  commenced  with  thp seizing 
of  Azof.  Oczakof,  and  other  injportant  fortresses ;  but  a  scheme  for  thi^  partition  of 
Turkey  l)etwe«n  Au!*tiia  and  llussia  was  foiled  by  the  continued  series  of  disgraeo 
fui  defeats  inflicted  upon  ilie  Ausirian  armies  by  the  Turks;  the  Russians,  on  tJfe 
other  hand,  were  unifonnly  succcBsful:  but  ilu-  Czarina  becoming  very  desirous  of 
peace,  resigued  hi-r  contjuests  in  Moldavia,  and  concluded  a  treaty  at  Belgrade. 
Among  the  benefits  conferred  by  Suitan  Mahmud  on  Ids  suhj  cts,  not.  thtih-abt  was 
the  iniroduction  of  the  art  of  printing.— His  successor,  Othman  III.  (1764—1767), 
Boon  gave  place  to  Mustafa  III.  (1767—1774),  undvr  whom  the  empire  enjoyed  pro- 
found tranquillity;  but  after  his  dcatli,  the  Bussians,  in  violation  of  the  treaty  of 
Belgrad*",  invaded  Moldavia.— The  war  wiil»  Knssia  continued  during  the  succeeding 
reign  of  Abdul-Hamid  (1774—1789) ;  the  fortresses  on  the  Danube  fell ;  and 
tlie  main  army  of  the  Turks  was  totally  defeated  at  Shumla.  The  campaign  was 
ended  10th  July  1774,  by  the  ceUbrated  treaty  of  Kutshouk-Kainardji.  In  defiance 
of  its  provisions,  the  Czaiina  took  possession  of  the  Crimea,  »ind  the  whole  country 
eastward  to  the  Caspian.  'J  be  suhan  was  compelled,  by  his  indignant  subjects,  to 
lake  lip  arms  in  1787.  In  1788,  Austria  made  an otlier 'foolish  attempt  to  arrange 
with  Russia  a  partition  of  'J'urkey  ;  but,  as  i)efore,  llie  Austrian  forces  were  com- 
pletely routed.  The  Russians,  howevi'r,  with  their  usual  success,  had  overrun  the 
northern  provinces,  taken  all  the  principal  fortresses,  and  captnivd  or  destroyed  the 
Tui'kish  fleet— The  accession  of  Selim  III.  (q.  v.)  (1789—1807)  was  inaugtirated  by 
renewed  vigor  in  the  prosecution  of  the  war ;  but  t  lie  Anstrians  had  again  joined  the 
Russiiins.  Belgrade  surrendered  to  the  Austrian?,  while  the  Russians  took  Buchar- 
est, Bender,  Akerman,  and  Ismail  (see SuvoROF) ;  but  the  critical  aspect  of  affairs 
in  WesteiTi  Europe  nnule  it  advisable  for  Russia  to  terminate  the  war,  and  a  treaty 
of  peace  was  accordingly  signed  at  Jassy,  9tli  Jannai-y  1792.  By  this  treaty  the  pro- 
visions of  that  of  Kainardji  were  confirmed  ;  the  Dniester  was  made  the  boujidary- 
line,  the  cession  of  the  Crimea  and  tlie  Kuban  was  confirmed,  and  Bel«:rade  was  re- 
stored to  the  sulfaUk  Numbeiless  reforms  were  now  i)rojected  for  the  better  admin- 
istration of  the  empire.  The  people  were,  however,  hardly  prepared  for  so  many 
changes,  and  the  sultan's  projects  cost  him  his  thrttne  and  life.  The  occupation  of 
Egypt  by  the  French  brought  on  a  war  between  tliem  aiKl  the  TurkSj  in  which  the 
latter,  by  the  aid  of  the  British,  were  successful  in  regauimg  their  lost 
territories.  In  revenge  for  the  defeat  of  his  Egyptian  ex|>edition.  Napoleon  con- 
trived to  entrap  tin;  sultan  into  a  war  with  Russia  and  Britain,  which  was  confined  to 
a  struggle  in  Egypt,  in  which  the  British  were  wor8t«*d.— A fter  the  ephemeral  reign 
of  Mustafa  Iv.  (ISOT— 1808),  the  able  and  energetic  Mahmud  II.  (q.  v.)  (1^03—1839) 
ascended  the  throne  ;  and  though  his  dominions  were  curtailed  by  the  lot's  of  Greece, 
which  established  its  independence,  and  of  the  country  between  the  Dniester  ami 
the  Ptuth,  which,  by  the  treaty  of  Bucharest  in  1812.  was  surrendered  to  Rust^ia, 
the  reformation  he  effected  in  all  dnpartmeuts  of  the  administration  checke<l  the 
decline  of  the  O.  E.  Egypt,  during  his  rdgn,  attempted  unsnccessliully  to  throw  off 
the  authority  of  tlie  sultan  (see  Mehkmet  Au,  Ibrahim  Pasha).— His  sou,  Abdul- 
Medjid  (1839—1861),  continued  the  reforms  commenced  in  the  previous  reij^n  ;  bat 
the  Czar,  thinking  that  the  dissolution  of  the  O.  E.  was  at  hand,  constantly  tried  to 
wring  from  the  sultan  sojne  aclcnowledgnu'nt  of  a  ri^ht  of  interference  with  the 
internal  affairs  of  the  country.  It  was  an  attempt  of  this  sort  to  obtain  the  exclusive 
protect  orate  of  the  members  of  the  Greek  church  in  Turk^',  that  brought  on  the 
••TTfmea^  Wai***  6f  wro-^1865,  in  whi<^lhe*'l^"kswQj'©.»ette«tively  supported  by 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


»  694 

England,  France,  and  Sardhtia.  The  treaty  of  Paris  (185^  resiored  to-  Turkey  tfie 
cominand  of  both  sides  of  the  lower  Danube)  excluded  tlie  Gear  from  hi!>  as>anied 
protectorate  over  tlie  BaDubinn  priiici|)Hlitii-8,  and  closed  t lie  Black  Sea  ogain-tail 
shiiiR  of  war.  'I'he  Purte,  app»»rently  adopted  into  the  fatuity  of  Enrop  au  n«tioii.«, 
made  proclamation  of  equal  civil  rijjlits  to  all  the  races  ftud  crerds  of  the  TuI*kl^h  do- 
iiiiiiioiis.  But  a  niassticre  of  CiiriHiians  In  Lebanon  and  at  Danvscu:^  provoktd 
Avestem  Intervention  iii  i860.— A btlul-Medjid,  wliose  Inst  years  were  dl^gr.ical  by 
irrational  proftiseuefis  of  espeiuiJ^ur  •,  wasi  si;ccueded  by  hh^  brother  Abdul- 
Aziz  in  1661.  Neauwhileihe  nomina  iy  subject  peoples  of  Moldavia  ami  \V:tla<-lii:i 
Vi'ntnred  lo  unite  tnemselves  into  the  one  state  of  Kumania;  and  in  18C6,  ih-  Em- 
pire becoaiing  more  and  mure  enfeebled  through  its  cr)rrnpt  adniliiistralion,  had 
to  look  ou  whlie  the  Knmanians  expelled  their  ruler,  and,  in  tite  ho|>e  of  seciiiing 
w»*sierii  support,  chose  Prince  Charles  of  Uohciizoliem  to  be  hereditary  nilnco 
{doQinu)  of  the  united  piincipalities.  The  rebellion  of  <.rete  in  1866  tlireatened  a  ^o- 
vurc  blow  to  tlie  infe^gi  ity  of  the  enipire,  but.  was  tiltimat-ly  suppr^sfed  in  186S— iu 
spite  of  aciive  help  from  Greece.  Servia.  already  autonomous  within  her  owji  fron- 
tiers, deuntuded  the  removal  of  tl)e  Turkish  garrisons  ntill  maintained  in  c  rr.in 
Servian  fortresses;  and  iu  186T  Turkey  saw  liers  ;lf  compelh^d  to  make  this  c-  nees- 
sion.  In  the  same  year  the  snlnu  distiMguished  tiie  Vali  of  Eg>'pt  hy  erant.n<;  t^>  liim 
the  unique  title  of  Khedive  (q.  v.).  Tne  vass;d  king  drew  down  tTiewraihcf  his 
siizeraiu  in  18T0  i>y  negotiating  directly  wiih  forei;rn  eotirts.  and  was  conipe'ltd  to 
give  formal  tokens  of  vassaia;^e.  ^  But  later  concessions  have  nn.dc  the  Khedive 
virtually  an  ind  DHndeni  soverefjyn.  The  Unssian  gov  mnient  tot)k  the  oppori unity 
of  war  'H;tween  Germany  ami  Fiance  to  d'Clare,  in  1871,  that  it  felt  I  i  self  no  longer 
b  )nud  by  tlnit  provision  of  the  Parb*  ri*eaty  which  fori»ade  Knesiu  to  have  a  fl  et  in 
the  Black  Sea ;  aed  a  London  conference  Hanctioned"  this  stroke  of  Bufsij  n 
diplomiicy.  Between  1854  and  18T1  the  Turkish  d^ht  had  incriatH-'d  l»y 
more  than  £116,000  000;  and  in  1875  the  I'orfe  was  driven  to  i)or:dl 
repudiation    of    its    debts.    An    inrarrection     in     Herze^)vina     in     the     lart.  r 

f)art  of  1874  marked  tlie  beginning  of  a  very  eventtul  and  critical  pent  d 
u  the  history  ot  the  O.  E.  The  m-urrect  on  smouldered  qn  through  1875  atid  part 
of  1876,  and  excited  all  the  neighboring  Slavonic  peoples.  A  threatened  revo  t  iu 
Bulgaria  in  May  1815  wa'*  repressed  will i  much  blooilshed  :  and  the  merciless  cruelty 
displayed  b^' the  Bashl-Bazoiiks  or  Turkish  irregular:*  alienated  foreign  sy  p::ti  y 
from  thegovinmnt.— In  May  Ahdul-Azzwas  deposed:  and  his  nephew  Murad 
v.,  sou  of  Ahdul-Medjid,  wlio  succeeded  him,  was  destined  In  turn  to  make  way  for 
his  brother  Abdul  Hamid  II.  iu  August  of  the  «:inio  year.  In  June  Servia  declared 
war,  and  Moni<M.c;rro  foUowid  h<r  ex  nnple.  Before  the  cikI  of  the  year  the  Ser- 
vians were  utterly  defeated,  in  f'lnte  of  the  help  of  many  Hussian  vohmteer- ;  but  the 
stjite  of  affair.-  in  the  I  urkish  provinces  seemed  to  call  for  a  conference  of  the  great 
poweta  at  Constantinople.  The  proposals  then  nnide  for  the  better  gove  nment  of 
the  Christian  subjects  of  Turkey  were  rejeced  by  the  Turkish  autlioi  i.ies,  who  had, 
during  the  conferenee,  t;iken  the  extraordinary  step  of  bestowing  a  pjirlianientary 
cousiituti(ni  on  ihe  O.  E.  Russia  took  upon  he' sell  to  enforce  on  Turkey  the  eng- 
gesiions  of  the  Conference,  and  on  24th  April  1877  declared  war.  Both  in  Armenia 
and  Bulgaria  the  opening  of  Ihe  campaign  was  favorable  to  Hussian  arms,  hut  * 
later  Ihe  Turks  rallied  and  seriously  checked  the  hitherto  triumphant  progress 
of  the  invaders.  Even  after  lh«<  Knssian  forces  had  been  greatly  augment*  d 
the  Turks  resisted eneijeeiically.  Kirs,  besieged  forseverid  mourns, resistetl  till  the 
ndddie  of  November :  Erz/ronm  did  not  surrender  uiitil  after  the  annistic^  had  be«  ti 
concluded.  Osman  P.is  a.  who  <  stablislied  idinselE  in  Plevna  early  in  July,  rep  lie*! 
Willi  brilliant  succes-  repeated  and  determined  assaults  from  a  besieging  am  y  of 
•  u-^siaiis  and  Kufnaniaus :  and  h  •  bad  so  stri-ugthenc  d  the  fortifteationsas  lob-  utilti 
to 'lOld  out  until  the  10th  D  c 'inb  r,  when  he  surrend  n-d.  Despe«i  e  figtiting  iu 
the  Shipka  Pas-^  had  failed  lo  ex|K'l  the  Russians  trom their  posit  on  in  the  Balkans; 
and  wlthiii  a  month  of  the  fall  of  Plevn  ,  the  Russians  captnrt  d  the  whole  Turkif^h  . 
army  that  wa"  iruardinir  the  Suipka  Pass,  aJid  tlun  easily  overran  Rimun'lia.  'I  h  ^ 
vicrorions  Muscovites  occupied  A(lrianople  in  January  1878.  on  Ihe  last  day  of  that 
month  an  arm'sticrf  was  concluded  ;  aiid  in  March  the  '^pr-  limiuary  t.r-aty  "  of  Sau 
Stefano  was  signed.    After  grave  diplomatic  difficulties,  owing  chiefly  to  the  appa- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC   ^ 


696  §S3r 

atBerlln,  nnd  nUlmntely  ngreed  to  thnt  ■oltitfon  of  tb<»  *•  EaPtem  Qne«tioB,"  diB- 
cnesed  under  the  nrticlo  Tubkbt,  wlilcU  biui  bo  seriouely  affected  ihe  area  um\ 
^tuirdiug  of  the  O.  E. 

OTWAY,  Thomas,  aii  BuifUsh  dramntiBt,  wn«  born  Mnrch  8. 1651)  at  Trotton, 
iipai*  Mtdhnr>r,  Sussex.  He  lefr  Oxford  wittioat  t-jiking  a  dei^rec.  and  W( nt  to 
London  iu  eeai-cli  of  fcirtniie  ill  1671.  He  npfieured  on  the  Btagt',  but  made  a  piLii.tl 
f  lilui-i; ;  ahd  next  lie  applied  himself  todi-amatlc  com|K>sit*on.  Iii  1675,  **  Alcihiiidex." 
I  is  lirsH  nagt'dy,  was  printed ;  and  in  the  following  year  lie  produced  **  Dol^  C.irlo.^,'' 
a  ;)1aywliicii  wu?*  extrenn'ly  popular,  aud  **  got  more  money  than  any  preu-d^ig 
UKuieru  Irnjredv."  Hi«  fir»*t  comeily,  ♦♦FriendHhip  iu  Fa^*hi(>n,"  appi-ur-d  In  36Th, 
a  kI,  I)  in<4  suQi  iently  inimotnl  to  please  tiie  lasie  of  the  a'.'e.  met  with  g<  uei.-il 
appr-  liutidu.  In  1677  O  received  a  cornel's  coninii98ioii  iu  a  rej/inienl,  which,  how- 
«  V  r,  ua!»  dis'inuded  in  1678.  and  O.  rtBuming  liif<  former  occui«itloii,  i»roduced  ilio 
1r:«'jv'dy  of  *'  Cniu-^  Marina"  in  16S0.  In  the  siime  year  •*Tl!e  Orphan  "  met  with  nil 
extraordinary,  and.  in  B:)me  renpeefc^,  a  dv;H»rv«'d  me«Mir«'  of  ^Rce*  b».  In  1681,  **  Tlie 
Soldier  of  lAnnino,"  and  ill  the  iuilowing  year,  the  flne.-t  of  all  hl^*  plays,  '•  V.  nice 
Pr  SiMVid,"  wereproducrd.  From  this  lime  till  his  d«atl«,  the  poet  had  miieh  to 
rndurti  from  poverty  ;iiid  neirlect.  D  bts  accumulating  u|Km  him,  he  ntired  lo  an 
ob^curi"  public-bouse  ou  Tower  Hill,  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  his  creditor.",  and 
h-M-r,  at  the  ])remature  age  of  34,  he  die«l,  Apiil  14,  1686.  Although  O.  achievei:  a 
hrJIii  nit  t  puia'iou  d<iriu;^  hi-*lif<tim<s  alti:ougli  he  Is  dej?cril>ed  by  X)iyden  as  pos- 
f  P!«i!  g  a  pdwi'r  of  niovluir  the  passions  whieh  he  liitnself  did  not  poss  Vs,  j.nd  later 
by  Sir  AV  he:  Scott  as  htlng  Shaksp  are's  •  qu.-.l,  if  not  his  superior,  in  depiclin.:  the 
p!)  V  r  of  :iffection;  yet  liid  p  ots  are  artifici.il,  and  bis  Uuigua;;e  is  Witiiout  fancy, 
melody,  or  p  lish. 

OUDE,  or  Audi,  a  province  of  British  India.  Favir.ded  on  the  north  from  Nc- 
p;uil  by  ihe  lower  rai-g  s  of  th-?  llimulaya,  wli' nc  •  it  gnidually  flop'-s  lo  the  Ganges, 
which  form-'  its  boundary  on  the  Houlh'jiiid  souih-w  st.  Extreme  length  from  nor  h- 
V'Sttos  uth-e:^^t  2T0  niile";  breadth,  16);  ar  a,  2&,992  square  mihs.  Popniallon 
(I  69)  ll,2:ii0.232,  or  468  to  the  square  mile.  O.  is  one  great  plain,  the  slopo  oi  wlihli 
fio.n  north-\v  ^t  to  south-east  indicntes  also  tlie  direction  of  Ine  princlp  I  rivers. 
'J  he-*e  are  tiie  Qumti,  thf  G  apra  (Gliojrra),  aid  'he  Bapt',  whiel.  swarm  with  all.jitt- 
tor-*.  The  norther  i  jtart,  on  t..e  edire  of  the  Hit:  alay;*,  \t^  not  verj  well  know  u.  It 
fonns  a  poriiu<iof  tteT-rai.  avast  nnluMi  thy  tract  str  tchlng  aloi.i:  ti»e  borders 
of  NtpaiH,  nud  covt-rcd  with  impa^<^*al»le  fore»»t>*,  The  clinnite  of  O.  is  cool  and 
p'e  IS  ut  from  November  to  March  ;  durinjr  the  next  four  niontl-s  it  is  hot  and  pultry, 
after  wh  ch  lol!ow>  th  r  long  rainy  heason.  but  in  general  it  is  considered  tie  liealii!- 
i  si  alo  g  tiieM'hble  valley  of  ihe  Gan/es.  Tln^  j^oilis  liglit,  and  exempt  small  nodules 
of  cbaik  and  oolite  cnlled  kanhara^  there  in  hardly  a  l(M>8e  stone  to  be  se*'n.  O.  was 
lor:iie  ly  mor-;  copiou  ly  water  d  than  it  isnow.  the  clearing  of  tlie  jnngli'S  having 
^'reaJly  decivas-d  the  moisture  cf  th  •  land.  The  chief  crops  ar.  whent,  ba  ley,  grjim, 
mas  ir  >,  n»u  tard.  re-  (of  the  ft  est  qunlity),  millet,  mnize,  joar.  b  jra,  yar  on- kii5d-« 
of  puis  •  and  <i  l-seedn,  sii-rar  cane,  lobarcb.  indiiro.  hemp,  and  cotton.  Th  munn- 
facturiiig  ii'dus'ry  of  O.  is  not  itnportaii;  soda,  Halt|)etri ,  and  s.dt  are  the  oily 
urticle--^  of  wiiieh  more  is  pro<luced  tlian  is  requisite  for  home-cosiSun.pt  Gun- 
)>i)wd«T,  and  all  kinds  of  military  weapons,  guns,  swords,  spear;*,  shields,  and  itnvs 
of  hani1>oo,  or Ln<know  steel,  are,  however, also  mnde,  Insid  s  some  wooll-  n  i^oods, 

1»api'r,  Ac.  Biids:t*«  are  few,  if  any,  and  the  roiids  In  general  bad.  The  piinci|>al  is 
he  rnmoua  military  r>ad  from  Cawnpore  to  Luckuow,  which  runs  in  a  uorth-ei.sterly 
din'Ciion. 

Tin'  peopl"  are  of  n  decidedly  wj^rlike  disposition.  The  hulk  of  the  inhnbiianfs 
fl'-e  Hhidii'*, 'hough  the  dominant  ia<-e  for  centuries  ha<  l>e<  n  Moiiammed  n.  'i  ho 
Br  ilimanr*  "are  iin-  most  numerous  chiss,  but  there  are  £9  diff'-renl  ii  j  ut  tr  bos.  It 
is  these  two  c'as^^  8  tlint  mainly  nupplied  the  famous  (or  infamous)  sepoys  of  the 
B  iigal  army.    Tho  language  npwken  is  Hindu>tnni. 

I  tie  nu).-t  char:!Cterlstic  t\a«ue  in  tlui  social  economy  of  O.  isit;*  vUlage-Bfistaw , 
for  a  desc'iption  of  which  see  India.  The  ryots,  or  cultivators  of  the  soil,  cling- to 
tb<' hind  which  their  fathers  have  tilled  for  aaes,  with  extraordniary  affection,  and 
tliorou.'h'y  bcl  eve  t'lat  they  have  a  right  of  property  in  it ;  Mid,  in  general,  we  h  •- 
Ucvti  iti^  are  actiuUlg  tbc  uwnets  of  ilieir  farms,  biit  iu  m^.ny  cueea  \hcy  havebccu 


y  Google 


o2i«titi  6y6 

di8po»8e8«ed  by  a  class  of  tax-gatherers  (resembling  the  Homan  puhlieani)  called 
taliikdara,  who  farmed  from  the  Mo^ul,  and  tuterwurds  from  the  king  of  O.,  the 
revenues  of  a  collection  of  villages  culled  a  talukah,  and  by  their  ext^rrious  so  im- 
poverished the  ryota,  or  pensant-proprietow,  that  tlie  latter  were  often  forced  to  exe- 
cute deeds  trniisferriug  their  property  to  the  talakdars.  Many  of  the  more  spirited 
would  not  snbndt  to  become  tenantti,  and  takiug  to  tiie  juuj^lfS,  waged  war  od  the 
new  occnpants  of  their  uncevtral  lands,  uutil  }n*a<inally  ihey  t«ank  into cUio^i^,  or  pro- 
fessional robbei-s.  The  uxtortio:is  of  the  talukdui-s  ouurinned  till  the  annexation  of 
the  counti-y  in  1856,  and  the  country  sufft^rcd  severely  from  the  retalintory  raids 
of  the  dispossessed  ryofs.  The  East  India  Company  reinstated  the  ryots  in  their 
property,  where  the  ralukdars  could  not  shi^w  nudispnted  por'Sesslon  for  18 
years — a  proceeding  which  gave  gvv^at  offence  lo  the  latter,  wlio,  in  couaequencr, 
assumed  a  co'dly  hostile  attitude  to  the  British  during  the  great  mutiny  of  the 
following  year. 

ThP  principal  towns  are  Lnckuow  (q.  v.)i  Fya  Omd,  Oude,  or  Ayodha,  Roy  Bareily, 
and  Shahai>aa. 

O.  is  believed,  by  Sanscrit  scholars,  to  be  the  jincient  Kosalo,  the  oldest  seat  of 
civilisation  in  India.  The  country  was  conquered  l>y  a  Mohammedan  army  in  1195, 
and  made  a  province  of  the  M:)gul  empire.  In  1753,  the  vizier  of  O.,  Saffdar  Jung, 
rebelled  ngainsl  his  inii)erial  nnuster,  Ahmed  Si»:ih,  and  forced  the  latter  to  make  the 
governorship  hereditary  In  his  family.  His  son,  Sujah-ud-Dowlah,  became  entirely 
independent,  and  founded  a  dynasty  which  ru.ed  the  country,  generally  In  a  most 
deplorable  manner,  until,  in  the  Interests  of  the  wretched  inhabitant-*,  the  East  India 
Comi»any  was  forc<5d  to  adopt  thu  extreme  measure  of  umicxalioii.  Februsiry  7.  1856. 
The  necessity  f«»r  this  higii-handed  but  most  i>eneflcent  act  will  !>(•  better  und-rstood 
if  we  r«'ad  the  statistics  of  crime  in  O.  during  the  last  years  of  its  iu<lependenc:' :  one 
item  will  suffice — from  1848  to  1854,  there  were,  on  an  average,  no  fewer  than  T8  vil- 
lages burned  and  plundered  eviM-y  year,  wnilo  mui-ders,  robberies,  abductions,  and 
extortions  were  everyday  occurrences.  A  feeble  king,  a  blackguard  soldiery,  and  a 
lawless  peasantry  had  brought  about  a  most  helpless  and  ruinous  anarchy.  When 
the  mutmy  of  1857  broke  out,  O.  became  one  of  the  great  centres  of  n^bellion.  Upon 
this,  the  confiscation  of  all  the  estates  of  the  Uilukdara  was  proclaimed  by  Lord  Can- 
ning; but  when  the  country  was  subdued  by  force  of  British  arms,  the  estates  of  nil 
sach  as  laid  down  their  arms  and  swore  fealty  to  tlie  British  government  were  re- 
stored. The  forts  oi  the  |>etty  chiefs,  however,  were  disniantl'^.and  the  inhabitants 
disarmed.  1'he  province  U  now  administered  by  a  chief  commissioner.  The  chief 
feature  of  the  present  condition  of  affairs  in  O.  is  the  preservation  in  their  integrity 
of  the  estates  of  the  t-ulukdars.  The  amount  of  government  revenue  paid  by  tiie 
talukdars  is  about  jei,O00,O0O. 

OUDE,  or  Awadhh,  one  of  the  principal  towns  of  the  province  Oude  (q.  v.), 
stands  amid  ruins  on  a  Inlly  site  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Snrayft  or  Gojrgra  Kiver, 
80  miles  east  of  Lucknow.  It  is  also  called  Hanumangd'dhi^  on  account  of  a  temple 
erected  there  in  honor  of  Hanumat  (q.  v.),  tlie  fabled  monkey-ally  of  BAma,  an  in- 
carnation of  the  god  Vish'nu.  The  name  O.  is  a  coiTUption  of  the  SanRKrit  Ayodhud 
(from  a,  not,  and  yodhya,  conquerable,  hence  *Mhe  Invincible"  city);  but  tlio 
ancient  city  of  that  name  was  situated  opposite  the  modern  O.,  where  it«  ruins  n)ay 
still  be  seen.  AyodhyA  was  one  of  the  oldest  seats  of  civilisation  in  India;  it  was 
the  residence  of  tl»e  solar  dynasty,  or  one  of  the  two  oldest  dynasties  of  India, 
deriving  its  descent  from  the  sun,  but  it  obtained  special  renown  throuL'h  H&mny 
the  son  of  Das'aratha,  a  kin<r  of  that  dynasty.  Its  great  beau'y  and  immense  size 
are  dwelt  upon  in  sevend  of  the  Pnrftnas  and  tnoderu  |)oema,  but  more  especially  in 
the  "  R&mftyan'a  "  (q.  v.).  the  flr-t  and  last  books  of  which  contain  a  description  of 
it  According  to  some  PurAnas  (q.  v.),  AyodhyA  was  one  of  tlie  seven  sacred  cities, 
the  livini;  at  which  was  supposed  to  free  a  man  from  all  sin,  and  the  dying  nt 
which,  to  secure  eternal  bliss.  It  was  ali»o  called  Sftketn,  Kos'aiA,  and  Uttara- 
kos'alL    See  Goldst ucker's  "Sandcrit  Dictionary,"  under  Ayodhta. 

OUDENA'RDE,  a  town  in  the  province  of  East  Flanders.  Belgium,  is  situated 
chiefly  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Scheldt,  16  miles  south-by-east  from  Ghent,  It  has 
a  population  of  8000,  and  possesses  a  fine  Gothic  council-house,  important  manu- 
tactoies  of  linen  and  cotton  fabrics,  and  many  czteusivG  tanneries.    The  town  waa 


y  Google 


597 


Oade 
OaistlU 

taken  by  the  French,  aided  by  nn  Knglifrh  fowe,  in  1688;  it  wa8  again  bewe^d  iii 
in  16T4,  by  the  etadtholder,  William  (111.  of  England)  of  Ornnge;  and  in  1706,  it  was 
tiiken  by  MarlboroiiKlr.  An  attempt  made  by  tlie  French  to  retake  it,  brought  on 
ttie  famons  buttle  of  Oadenarde,  one  of  Marlborough'^  most  celebrated  victories, 
wljich  was  gained,  on  the  11th  Jnly  1T03,  with  the  aid  of  Prince  Euirtne.  over  a 
French  army  under  the  Dake  of  Burgundy  and  Mareiiul  Villars.  After  this  battle, 
the  French  king  made  offt-ra  of  peace,  which  were  not  accepted. 

OUDINOT,  Cliarles  NIcoIas.  Duke  of  Reggio,  and  Mai«hal  of  France,  was  bom 
at  Bar'le-Duc,  in  the  department  of  Mense,  France,  25th  April  1TG7.  At  th^wgeof 
17  he  entered  the  army,  hut  reinrned  home  after  tliree  years'  service.  Having  dis- 
^  tingnished  himeelf  iu  1 790  by  suppressing  a  popular  insurrection  in  his  native  dis- 
trict, he  wa.«,  after  some  voUmteer  service,  IS ovenlbir  1798,  raised  to  the  rank  of 
cliief  of  brigade,  in  tiie  fourth  regiment  of  the  line,  and  distinguished  himself  in  Ta- 
rions  actions  with  tlie  Prussians  and  Auf  trians.  He  was  wounded  and  taken  pris- 
oner liefore  Mannlielm,  by  the  Anstrians.  but  was  soon  exchangetl,  and  served  in  the 
armies  of  tlie  Rhine  nnder  Morean,  and  in  that  of  Switzerland  under  Massena.  He 
was  promoted  to-be  general  of  division  (12th  Aiiril  1799),  and  for  a  daring  capture 
of  tt  battery  at  Pozzola,  was  presented  by  the  First  Consul  with  a  sabre  of  honor  and 
the  cannon  which  he  had  taken.  In  1805  he  received  the  Grand  Cross  of  the  Legiou 
of  Honor,  and  about  the  same  time  received  the  comnwind  of  ten  battalions  of  the 
reserve,  afterwards  known  as  the  '*  grenadiers  Ondinot.'*  At  the  head  of  this  corps, 
be  did  good  service  in  the  Austrian  campaign.  He  was  present  at  Ansterlitz  and 
Jena,  and  gained  tlie  Imttle  of  Ostrolinka  (16tTi  February  1807,  for  which  he  was  re- 
warded with  the  title  of  Count,  and  a  large  sum  of  money.  He  greatly  contributed  to 
the  success  of  the  French  at  Fi'^edland,  an<l  was  presented  by  Napoleon 
to  the  Czar  Alexander  as  the  "Bayard  x)t  the  French  army,  the  kniglit 
saiM  peur  et  aana  reprocke.^^  He  sustained  his  now  brilliant  repntation  in  the 
secoiul  Austrian  campuii;n  of  1809,  and  on  the  12th  of  July  was  created  Marshal 
of  France,  and  on  15th  of  August.  Duke  of  Reggio.  In  1810,  he  was  charged 
with  the  occupation  of  Hollmd,  and  by  his  unswei-vinvr  probity  and  attractive  per- 
sonal qualities,  drew  the  esteem  of  all  classes.  He  was  engaged  in  the  disastrous 
Russian  campuiyn,  and  subsequently  took  part  in  the  various  battles  of  1813  between 
the  French  and  the  Russians  and  Austrians.  He  was  one  of  the  last  to  abandon 
Napoleon,  but  he  did  so  tor  ever,  Jiud  spent  the  period  known  as  the  **  Hundred 
Days  *'  on  his  own  estates.  At  the  second  restoration  he  became  a  minister  of  state, 
comnnrnder-in-chief  of  the  royal  LMiard  and  of  the  natioinil  guard,  and  wms  created  a 
peer  of  France,  Gravjid  Cross  of  St  Louis,  &c.  In  1823,  he  commanded  the  first 
division  of  the  army  of  Spain,  and  was  for  some  time  governor  of  Madrid.  Aft(  r 
the  revolution  of  July  1830,  O.  retired  to  his  estates,  and  only  at  rare  intervals  pre- 
sented hiiaself  in  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  He  became  Grand  Chancellor  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  in  May  1839,  succeeded"  Marshal  Moncey  as  governor  of  the  Invalides  in 
October  1842,  and  died  at  Paris  13th  September  1847.  A  statue  was  erected  in  his 
honor  at  Bar,  29th  September  1850.— His  son,  Charles  N icolas- Victor  Oudinot, 
Duke  of  Reggio  (bom  3d  November  1791).  was  a  general  in  the  French  army.  Ho 
first  distinguished  himself  in  Al«£cria,  and  iu  ihe  Revolutiim  of  1848 — Iniving  pre- 
viously distinguished  himself  as'jt  deputy  (1842—1846)  by  his  admirable  talent  for 
dealing  with  questions  affecting  the  comfort  and  discipline  of  the  soldiery — he  was 
chosen  commander-in-chief  or  the  army  of  the  Alps.  In  April  1849,  he  was  ap- 
pointed general  of  the  French  expedition  agafnst  Rome,  and  forced  the  city  to  sur- 
rtiiider  unconditionally  on  the  1st  of  July,  in  spite  of  the  heroic  resistance  of  the 
republican  triumvirs— Garibaldi,  Mnzzini,  and  Saffi.  He  was,  however,  not  a  Napo-"*" 
Iconist,  and  at  the  coup  d^itat,  2d  December  1851,  shared  the  fate  of  every  eminent 
general  who  would  not  violate  his  oath  to  obey  the  constitution— i.  e.,  he  was  arrested 
and  imprisoned.  He  was  soon  set  at  liberty,  and  lived  iu  retirement  until  his  death 
in  1863.    O.  wrote  several  books  of  militai-y  matters. 

OUGREE,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  Li6ge,  three  miles  sonth-sonth- 
west  from  Liege,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Meuse.  It  has  iron-works,  a  cannon- 
foundiy,  and  oil  and  flomr  mills.  The  neighborhood  produces  coal.  Pop.  (1870) 
6200. 

OUISTITI.    Sec  Marmoset. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


8S^  f>»8 

OUNCE.  Tlio  Latin  uncia  (cterired  by  VatTO  from  unm)  wop  the  nnme  of  the 
twelftli  part  of  Mio  ow  or  libra  (ix)und),  mid  also  waa  applied  to  the  twelfth  part  of 
any  magnitude,  whether  ot  h-iigih,  surface,  or  capacity.  Heuce  vteh.  the  twelfth 
part  of  a  foot.    The  miKlem  ounce  is  a  divi^ion  of  the  ponnd-weighk.    Sec  Pound. 

OUNCE  {Felts  Uncia,  or  Leopardus  Uncia),  a  l:«rge  feline  animal,  nearly  re- 
Bemhliiig  ilie  let)nard,  but  having  naich  rougher  and  longer  h:  Ir,  a  longer  and  much 
more  bushv  tnil;  ihe  general  color  la  til^o  paler,  tiie  ro?  tte-liko  8|.ot8  are  lea 
Bhaiply  defljuHl.  and  ther- 1"*  a  black  spot  belilnd  tlie  eare.  Litllu  Is  known  of  the 
O. ;  It  is  dc8cribf4  by  Bnffou,  but  uaturalis^ta  v/ere  for  eonie  lime  gt-nerally  in- 
clined to  regai-d  it  ub  iclentical  with  the  leopa: d,  and  its  name  has  bteu  transferred 
lu  South  America  to  the  Jaguar.  It  is  a  native  of  Asia,  and  probably  of  mountain- 
ous districts. 

OU'KARI.    SeeCuRARt. 

OU'RO  PRE'lK)  (hhick  gold),  a  city  of  BMzil,  capital  of  the  province  of  Miuaa 
Geraes,  stflud:*  among  barren  moimtnins,  4000  teet  above  sea-h'vel,  and  2<)0  miles 
north-nori  h-wcst  of  Kio  Janeiro.  It  contains  the  governor's  renid*  nee  and  a  college, 
and  coneists  mainly  of  n»rrow  and-  irregular  aireeta.  Although  the  neighboring 
mountains  are  very  auriferous,  and  althoutrli  the  mines  were  once  theiiche*'t  in  the 
kinirdom.  the  mining  is  now  reduced  to  comparativtly  nnprottiable  wa.«hing-.  A 
good  traidc  in  coffee,  &c.,ls  carnetl  on  with  Rfo  Janeiro,  hut  is  relarde*!  by  thew.nnt 
of  gofld  roads.  Tne  journey  from  O.  P.  to  the  capital  of  the  empire  Is  ptrformed  by 
horses  and  mules  only,  and"oi*dfnarily  requires  15  days.    Pop.  about  4000. 

OUSE,  called  also  for  the  sake  of  disfincsion,  the  Northern  otTorkshibb 
OusBf  a  river  of  England,  is  fprnied  by  the  union  of  the  Swale  and  the  Ure  in  the 
immeiliate  vicinity  of  the  village  of  Borough britlge,  and  flows  south-east  p.':8t  York, 
Seli»y,  and  Gooie,  About  eight  miles  b<'low  the  last  town,  it  joins  the  i  n;nf,  and 
forms  the  estii  .i-y  of  tin?  Humber.  The  length  of  its  course  frmn  B«)rougnl>ridge  is 
60  miles,  for  the  last  45  of  which  (frOm  the  city  of  Y.)rk)  it  is  navigaljle  for  large 
ve-'sels.  Its  principal  affluents  arc  the  Whaif  and  the  Ain-  from  the  west,  and  tuo 
Dervventfrom  the  north-east.  The  hasin  of  the  O  ,  or  the  Vale  of  York,  commences 
fitmi  the  northern  boundary  of  the  county  near  the  river  Tees,  from  wliose  liasin  it 
is  separated  bv  a  low  ridge  of  hills,  and  extends  sootliward,  including  almost  the 
whole  of  the  county.    See  Yorkshire. 

OUSE,  Great,  a  river  of  England,  rist-s  close  to  the  town  of  Bracldey.  in  the  sonth 
of  Northamptonshire,  and  flows  norih-east  thrwugh  tlie  conmies  of  Buckingiiam, 
Bedfonl,  Huniimrdou.  Cambridge,  and  Noi-folk,  and  falls  Into  the  Wa^h  2X  milea 
b.'low  King's  Lynn,  It  is  160  miles  in  entire  leu'^th,  and  is  navigable  for  uliont  50 
niMes.    It  receives  from  the  east  and  south  the  Ivel,'  Cam,  Lark,  and  Little  Ouse. 

OU'TCROP,  a  term  applied  in  Geology  to  the  e<lge  of  an  inclined  bed  at  Ihe  placo 
whei-H  it  ris  s  ro  the  surface.  The  line  of  the  outcrop  iscalltid  the  strike,  whicli  is 
always  at  right  angles  to  the  dip. 

OUTER  UOUSE.    See  Court  of  Session. 

OUTFIT  ALLOWANCE,  in  the  Briiish  Arm}',  is  a  sum  of  X150  for  the  cavalry, 
and  jCIOO  for  the  infantry,  granted  to  uon-commisaionrd  officers  promoicd  to  com- 
missions, toenahk'  Ihem  «o  meet  the  heavy  charges  for  uniform  and  equipments. 
The  larger  sum  is  given  in  the  cavalry,  because  the  new  ly-coinmitwioued  officer  lias 
to  purchase  hia  charger. 

OU'TLAWjlY,  in  EnsHsh  Law,  means  pnfting  one  out  of  the  protection  of  tlie 
law,  for  contempt  in  wilfullv  avoiding  ex»cut'on  of  legal  prot ess.  Formerly,  iu  the 
common  law  courts,  If  the  defender  would  not  enter  an  Hpjwa ranee,  certain  ))roeecd- 
ings  were  taken  to  outlaw  him,  so  as  to  allow  th««  action  to  goon  withont  lii^  appejir- 
ance.  Thesv-  proceedings,  however,  are  now  abolished,  and,  in  the  niajority  ot  cmpps, 
it  is  immaterial  as  regards  the  action  w  hether  the  defendant  appear  or  not,  provldetl 
he  was  projierly  served  with  the  original  writ  of  summons.  Aftr  judgment,  he  may 
still  be  outlawed,  as  a  preliminary  to  se  zing  and  selling  his  properly.  In  criniinrd 
proceedings,  outlawry  still  exists  as  part  of  the  ordinary  practice  to  compi'l  a  person 
against  whom  a  bill  of  indictment  for  felony  or  misdemeanor  has  l)ce4i  found,  but 
who  will  not  come  forwdi-d  to  take  his  trial,  and  who  has  not  been  arretted.   Iu  mcU 


y  Google, 


^QQ  Ounce 

OVV  OvnAm 

A  case,  process  of  ontlawry  against  him  is  awarded,  which  Is  a  kind  of  temporary 
jiidginent;  and  while  thisi  process  exists,  he  is  out  of  the  protecilmi  of  the  law,  and 
forft'its  fki\  Ills  propeitx .  The  courts  will  not  listeu  to  any  complaint  or  attend  to  his 
fuit  till  he  levcrse  the  outlawry,  which  is  geHerally  done  as  a  ranltrr  of  conrHe.— lu 
Sttotlend,  outlawry  or  fogitatioii  is  a  similar  proce-ss,  and  the  defender  must  first  bo 
repontd  jsgainst  the  peuteuce  of  outlawry  before  hi?*  trial  con  tnke  piace. 

OU'TPOSTS  are  bodies,  commonly  small,  of  troops  stationed  ai  a  grentor  or  lees 
distance bi'vond  the  limits  of  n  caraj) or  main  army,  for  th«  pnrjwee of  prevtnliu^  nn 
enemy  n))proaching  without  notice,  and  al*o  to  offer  opposition  to  his  progros?', 
while  the  jnain  force  prepares  for  resislanc«*.  Otitirnards  marcli  <»fif  to  their  position 
silrutly,  and  pay  no  compliments  of  any  kind  to  oflBcers  or  others.  As  soon  as  ilie 
officer  commnuding  an  outpost  arriv«-s  on  his  p-ound,  he  proceeds  to  carcfnllv  ex- 
amine the  cnyirous.  noiin?  all  heights  within  ndt'-range,  roadi*  and  patiis  by  which 
an  enemy  may  appro:ich,  &c  H»>  also  takes  such  impromptn  means  of  str(>ngtht>n- 
ing  his  |K).''ition  as  occur  to  him — felling  a  tree  here,  cutting  brushwood  there,  block 
ing  a  )»nth  in  another  pi jich,  and  resorifiig  to  any  expedi«'nt  whida  may  serve  lo  de?ay 
t>v:foeat  point-blank  range — an  ohject  of  importance,  as  a  stoppage  at  such  a  point 
is  known  to  act  as  a  great  discourajiement  to  advancing  troops. 

OUTRAM,  Sir  James,  LieuteDant-ircneral,  G.C.B.,  Indian  soldier  and  statesman* 
was  born  1803,  at  Butterlt  y  Hall,  Derbyshire,  the  re^i;lence  of  his  father,  Mr  Beiija- 
min  OuU'am,  a  civil-engineer  of  note.  His  mother,  the  daughter  of  James  Anderson 
of  Moiinie,  AberdeensLire,  was  descendefl  from  Sir  VV.  Seton.  Lord  Pitnndd' n.  O.  was 
educated  atUdney,  Al)erdeenshire,  nnder  the  Rev,  Dr  Bisset,  and  afterwards  went  to 
Marisclial  College,  Aberdeen.  He  was  sent  to  India  as  a  cadet  in'  1819,  and  was 
made  lieutenant  and  adjutant  of  the  23d  Bombay  Native  Infantry.  He  then  tock 
command  of  and  disciplined  the  wild  Bheels  of  Caudeish,  and  sncccsslnlly  led  them 
aj^ainsi  tin?  Daung  tribes.  From  1835  to  1838,  he  was  (mgaged  in  re-establfshlng  order 
in  the  Mahi  Kanta.  He  went  with  the  invadinj?  army  under  Lord  Eeane  into  Afglsan- 
istin  as  aid.'-d  -catnp;  and  hi-  ride  from  KheTal,  through  tlie  dangers  of  the  Boinn 
Pa<4,  will  long  1)e  famous  in  Iiidiun  annas.  He  Ivecame  political  aL'ent  at  6u2'-rat, 
and  commissioner  in  Sinde,  wliere  he  mudea  bold  and  onrnest  defrnce  of  tlur  Ameers 
aifaiiist  the  airgressive  policy  of  General  Sir  Charles  James  Napier.  He  was  after- 
wards resident  at  Sattara  and  Baroda,  and  upon  the  annexation  of  Onde,  was  made 
resident  and  commissioner  bv  Lord  Dalhonsie.  His  health  failir  g,  he  retnrned  to 
BngTand  in  1856 :  bnt  when  the  war  with  Persia  broke  out,  and  it  became  necessary 
to  send  an  ex|)edition  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  O.  accompanied  the  forces,  with  diplo- 
matic powers  as  commissioner.  Hi* conducted  several  brilliant  nud  8ucces.«-fnl  opera- 
tions ;  the  Ciitnpnign  was  short  and  di-cisive ;  and  the  objects  of  the  expedition  having 
been  triumphantly  attained,  he  rotunnd  to  India.  Landing  at  Bombay  in  Julv  1867.  lie 
went  to  Calcutta  to  receive  Lord  Cannini''s  instructions,  and  was  cbnnnissicmed  to 
takech.nrgeof  the  forces  advancing  to  the  relief  of  Lnckuow.  HechivalMusIy  waived 
the  command  in  favor  of  his  old  lieutenant,  Havelock  (q.  v.),  who  had  fotight  eiglt 
victorious  battles  with  the  rebels,  and,  taking  up  onl^'  his  civil  appoinlmein,  as  chief- 
commissioner  of  Onde,  tended  his  military  services  to  Havelock  as  a  voIuntc»  r. 
Lucknow  was  relieved,  and  O.  took  the  command,  but  only  to  be  in  turn  besieged. 
He  held  the  Alumbagh  alrain^t  almost  overwhelming  forces,  until  Lord  Clyde  ad- 
vanced to  his  relief.  He  then  made  a  skilful  movenient  up  the  left  bank  of  lie 
Gumti,  which  led  to  a  fiind  and  ecmiplete  victory  over  the  infrurgi  nts.  He  was  n:ade 
cbief-commif'sioiier  of  Oude;  and  tliough  lie  had  6tron«rly  opposed  its  ai.nexation, 
!ie  was  the  man  who  did  most  to  restor.' British  rnl  •,  and  attach  the  peoi)le  to  it. 
For  his  emiin»nt  8<»rviees,  he  was  prompted  to  tin*  rank  of  lieulenant-L'eneral  in  1858, 
and  received  the  thanks  of  parliament  in  1860.  He  took  his  scat  a.=  a  memi»er  of  the 
Snpreme  Council  of  India,  nut  sank  nnder  the  climate,  and  retnrned  to  Eug'and  in 
,1860,  already  siricken  by  the  hand  of  death.  Tlie  communities  of  India  voted  him  a 
Ftat ue  at  Calcutta,  founded  an  institution  to  his  honor,  and  presented  him  with  com- 
memorative gifts.  A  banquet  was  given  to  hini  and  his  chief  and  companion-in- 
nrms,  Lord  Clyde,  by  the  city  of  London.  His  English  admirers  dt^termined  to 
erect  a  statue  to  his  honor  in  London,  and  gave  hVm  a  v.-dnable  dess«ri -service 
in  silver.  He  spent  th<*  winter  of  1861—1862  in  Egypt ;  aid  aft  r  a  short  residence 
in  the  soqth  of  France,  expired  at  Paris,  March  11,  18C.8.  O.  was  styled  li.v  Sir 
Cliariee  Napier  the  "Bayard  of  India."    Than  his,  there  is  no  more  gallant  naai' 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


in  the  whole  list  of  distin<;ui9hed  ludlnii  eokliers.  His  Bervices  in  the  East  as  s 
Boldier  and  a  diplomatist  extended  over  tlie  period  of  forty  years.  Ha  was  ever  the 
gouerous  jfrotoctor  of  the  dark-ski  uued  races  among  whom  his  lot  was  tlirown,  and 
9(jt  a  bright  example  to  all  future  administrators  uf  i^oderatlon,  conciliation,  ba- 
maiiity,  and  practical  Christianity  in  all  his  dealings  with  the  natives  of  India. 

OU'TRIGGER,  in  Its  proper  Fensc,  is  a  beam  or  ppnr  fastened  horizontally  to  the 
cro?ft-tree8  or  otherwise,  for  tlie  purpose  of  extending  f nrtlitu-  trom  the  mast  or  top- 
mast the  backstay  or  other  rope  by  which  tliat  mast  or  topmast  Is  supported.  Tlic 
powtT  of  tiie  stay  is  tlms  increased.  The  term  is  ait<o  uw^a  improperly — because  no 
**rig;>;!ng"  is  In  question — to  denote  the  apparatus  for  increasing  the  leverage  of  «n 
oar,  by  removing  the  resistance,  a«  represented  by  the  side  of  ihc  boat  (see  Oa^), 
farther  from  tiie  power  represented  by  the  rower^s  hand.  This  is  effected  by  fixing 
an  iron  bmcket  to  tlie  boat's  side,  ihe  row-lock  beinj'  at  the  bracket^s  extremity. 
The  necessary  leverage  is  thus  obtained  without  adding  to  the  width  of  the  boat 
itself.  ^ 

OUTWORKS,  in  Fortification,  are  minor  defences  constmcted  beyond  Ihe  main 
body  of  a  work,  for  the  pnrpo^tt  of  keepinfi:tlie  enemy  at  a  distance,  or  commanding 
certain  salient  points  whicli  it  is  undesirable  tliat  hesltould  occupy.  Such  works  arc 
ravelins,  lunettes,  hornworks,  crown-works,  de:i:i-lnnes,  tenailles,  &c.  They  occur 
in  certain  necessary  order,  as  a  ravelin  before  the  curtain  and  teuaille,  a  homwork 
before  a  raveliii,  and  so  on. 

OUZEL,  or  Ousel  (Old  Fr.  oisel,  bird),  an  old  name  of  the  black-bird,  as  is  c\i- 
deut  from  tiie  deseriptive  lines  of  Bottom's  song  In  *'  Midsummer  Night's  Dream :  " 

"  The  ousel  cock,  so  black  of  hue, 
With  orjoige  tawny  bilL" 

It  is  also  applied  to  other  birds,  chiefly  of  tlie  thrnsh  family.  Thus,  one  British 
thrnsli  is  called  tlie  Riutr  Ouzel.  Tlie  Dipper  (g.  v.)  is  very  generally  known  a-*  the 
Water  Ouzel;  and  the  Kbse-colored  Pastor  is  also  called  the  Ko>e-colored  OuzeL 

OVAL,  the  name  given  to  the  figure  presented  by  a  lon«4;itndinaI  section  of  an 
egg  througli  its  centre.  Tlie  oval  has  a  general  resemblance  to  the  ellipse;  unlike 
the  latter,  however,  it  is  not  symmetrical,  but  is  thicker  at  one  end  than  the  other, 
and  at  the  thin  end,  narrows  almost  to  anoints  The  term  '*^ovnl"  in  also  used  indis- 
criminately with '^nodus,"  *Moop."  to  denote  the  figure  formed  by  a  curve  wnich 
cither  returns  upon  itself,  as  the  leinuisicata,  &c.,  or  the  loops  of  the  cubical  and 
pemi-cuhical  parabolai^  and  other  curves.  In  pcienific  language  it  is  specially  di^- 
tiii^shed  from  the  term  *"  clliplical,"  with  which,  in  comihuu  parlunce,  it  is  u.^u- 
aily  confounded. 

OVA'MPOS  AND  OVAMPOLAND.  The  Ovampos  or  01  jiherero  are  a  tribe,  seem- 
ingly a  connecting  link  l)ei  ween  the  Kafiir  and  Negro  races,  who  inhabit  the  regiv  ii 
norih  of  Great  Namaqualand,  in  South  Africa,  exti^nding  north  to  tlie  CnaiK-ne 
Kiver,  and  south  to  the  parallel  of  23°  s.  lat.  The  Ovainpo  tribes  are  described  by 
And<'rs.-on  as  of  a  very  dark  complexion,  tall  and  robu!*t,  out  remarkjibly  ugly.  Ho 
found  them,  however,  lionesi,  industrious,  and  hospitable.  They  are  not  i-ntinrly 
pastoral,  but  cuUivttte  much  corn.  Living  in  the  saiiii^  country  are  the  Cnttle  I>a- 
maras,  with  still  mf)ie  of  tiie  Negro  type,  a  hi  out,  athletic  pi  op!e,  very  dirty  in  their 
habit!*,  ami  generally  arine<I  wiiii  the  bo^v  and  arn.w.  Th.y  live  in  a  state  of  c<m- 
ptant  warfaiv-  with  the  Glioiuhmnup,  or  Hill  Dauiaias,  a  nearly  pure  N« gro  r;!C<',  on 
the  one  hand, and  the  Namaqua  Ilolteutots,  who  live  nouth  of  them,  on  the  other. 

Ovampoland  is  a  more  IVrtile  rearion  than  Namaqnalaiul.  from  which  it  js  fv<pa- 
ratt'd  by  a  wide  l)elt  of  d^Misely-bushed  coiiimy.  It  has  hut  few  rivers,  and  these 
not  of  a  perennial  nature.  About  50  miles  from  the  coast,  tho  country  n9<*8  to  a 
table-land  about  COOO  ieet  above  the  pea-level,  and  then  declines  to  the  south  and 
cast  into  the  deceits  of  the  Kalihnrij  and  the  region  of  Lake  Ngami.  Many  strong 
indications  of  cr>pper-0!e  ar«  found  in  various  phiees.  The  principal  riversj  or  rather 
water  courses,  are  the  Swakop,  KuSip,  and  their  branches,  which  enter  the  Atlantic 
a  few  miles  north  of  Walftsh  Bay.  The  other  rlvei-s  in  the  Interior  seem  to  lof^e 
tliemselves  in  the  sand",  'the  climate  is  healthy,  except  iit^ar  th«*  coast,  where  fev«T 
iu  fiomo  seasons  prevails.    It  seldom  rains  in  the  coast,  region,  which  is  a  very  duso- 


y  Google 


"^  *-  Ovaries 

Inte  one,  and  almost  devoid  of  wafer.  Tlinnder-stomiB  are  very  violent  in  the  Fum- 
mer  stasoii.  All  tlia  larj'e  m.imiiuxlia  are  found,  nu)ie  or  less  plentiful,  according  as 
water  may  be  foand  at  the  different  di'iukiug-places.  Elephanits  rliiuocerosep, 
eiftnOfS  and  other  larjrc  anlniais  driven  from  the  sonth  by  the  m.McU  of  civilisation 
tik«  refnt^  in  the  deeurt  r;j.aou  lying  east  of  Ovnmpoluud,  where  sportsmen  like 
Green  and  Andersson  have  b  e;i  known  to  kill  as  many  as  twelve  clepliants  in  a  day. 
The  country  was  first  describi'd  by  Sir  J.  Alexander,  who  visited  its  south  border. 
Mr  Galt-m  afterward:*  penetrated  much  further  north ;  and  Mr  C.  J.  Andi-ronon  has 
sltjce  fully  explored  it  nearly  a.**  fnrnorth  as  the  Cnanene.  Large  numbers  of  horned 
cattle  are  annually  collecied  by  traders  from  the  Cape  in  the^e  regions,  and  whales 
abound  on  the  coast.  The  tradj  in  ostrich-ffatliers  audivory  is  of  increasing  impor- 
tance, and  sevin-al  tradmg-stations  are  established  for  the  collection  of  native  pro- 
divtsl  Sohxe  elementary  works  have  be«n  piinted  in  the  Otjiherero  dialect  by  the 
German  missionaries ;  two  appear  in  Sir  G.  Grey 'a  catalogue, 

O'VAR,  a  town  of  Portuca!,  in  the  i)rovinceof  Beira,  17  miles  north  from  Aveiro, 
at  I  he  month  of  the  small  river  Ovar,  and  at  the  hesd  of  one  of  the  braucln.'s  of  tho 
curious  lagoon  or  bay  Call  d  Kia  d'Avcho.  See  Aveiro.  It  is  a  prosperous  and 
rapidly  increasing  town,  and  carries  on  an  extensive  fishery  and  a  considerable  trade. 
Pop.  (1864)  10,314. 

O'VARIES  are  organs  pecnliar  to  the  female,  Tand  'are  analogous  to  the  testa  in 
the  male.  They  are  two  oblong  flattened  bodies  (about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length, 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  wiilth,  and  nearly  half  an  inch  thick  in  the  human  »ul>- 
j  ct),  Mtnated  on  either  fUle  of  the  uterus,  to  which  they  are  connected  by  ligaments 
and  by  the  Fallopian  tube.  On  making  sections  of  an  ovury,  numerous  ves  cii  s  are 
Sfi'n.  Th<!se  are  the  ovisacs  of  the  future  ova  orgernis,  and  are  tern.ed  the  Graafian 
vesicles.  Before  impregnation,  they  vary  in  number  from  ten  lo  twenty,  and  from 
the  tsizQ  of  a  pin's  head  to  that  of  a  pea  ;  but  microj^Cipic  examination  rtveals  the 
presence  of  young  vesicles  in  large  numbers.  At  each  monthly  jjerlod  a  ripe  Graa- 
fian vesicle  bursts,  and  the  ovum  contained  in  it  make?*  its  way  by  ciliary  motion 
nlong  the  Fallopian  tube  to  the  uterus,  where,  if  it  is  not  impreguat«d,  it  is  dlsluto- 
grated  and  absorbed. 

Solid  tumors  or  cysts,  containing  hair  and  teeth,  are  developed  in  these  organ?*, 
but  tht'ir  principal  disease  is  that  to  which  the  name  of  Ovarian  Tumor  is  applied. 
Thi.s  tumor  may  be  described  as  consisting  of  an  enormous  rnlariiem(nit  of  <me  or 
more  of  the  Gnujfian  vesicles  into  a  mill's  which  may  weigh  80  or  100  iiounds.  or  even 
more;  and  it  may  be  cither  simple  (that  is  to  say,  conijosed  of  natural  structures 
much  hypertrophied)  or  caneerons.  The  walls  of  the  cysts  (or  euimgefl  Graafiiin 
vesicles)  may  be  thin  and  flexible,  or  thick  and  cartil.-iginons  ;  and  the  fluid  they  con- 
tain may  l)e  clear  and  liinpid.  or  thick  and  ropy,  or  grun»ou.s  and  opaque.  The  only 
disease  with  which  it  can  be  confounded  is  oVdiiuiry  abdominal  drop.-y,  or  Aftcites^ 
and  when  its  nature  is  clearly  determined,  ihreo  modes  of  treatment  are  open  for 
adoption  :  these  are  (1)  tapping,  (2)  variou;*  surgical  and  medical  means  of  produc- 
ing atrophy  of  the  tumor,  ;:nd  (3)  extirpation  of  the  or-zan.  or  ovariotomy. 

1.  Tapi)lng  is  the  simplest  mwleof  relieving  the  patient;  bul  the  cystsoon  refills, 
and  the  operation  must  be  ofr«  n  r '.p 'ated.  "Cases  are  «-xiaDt  in  one  of  wliich  tho 
patient  live<l  to  be  t'ipi»ed  66  limes  at  intervals  of  about  a  n.onth,  and  In  jinother, 
128  timfes  at  intervals  of  six  weeks ;  but,  taken  as  a  general  rule,  \\  may  be  aftiiincd 
that  few  patients  survive  more  tlian  four  years  flft<!r  the  first  tapping,  a  period 
passed  in  the  greatest  misery  and  suffering." — Druet's  *'  Surgeon's  Vude-mccuni,"  p. 
498. 

2.  Under  this  head  are  included  both  numerous  operations  for  causing  the  tu- 
mor to  waste,  fiCnd  its  internal  walls  to  adhere,  and  the  internal  adnunistration  of  ab- 
sorbent medicines,  with  the  view  of  producing  atrophy  and  absorption  of  the  tumor. 
The  injection  of  tincture  of  iodine  into  the  previously  emptied  cyst,  is  sometimes 
fol  owed  with  good  results,  as  in  the  case  of  Hydrocele  (q.  v.). 

3.  Ovariot^imy,  or  total  extirpation  of  tne  morbid  mas^t,  is  an  operation  regarding 
which  there  has  of  late  years  been  nnich  discussion.  Its  opponents  urge  (1)  the  di^ 
Acuity  of  diagnosis ;  (2)  the  frequency  of  adhesion  of  the  tumor  to  adjacent  narts— 
A  point  which  can  often  not  be  ascertained  till  the  al)domen  has  beeu  opened ;  and 
(^yXhQ  great  mortality  that  follows  it ;  while  in  favor  of  the  operation  It  is  urged  (1) 


y  Google 


Overbanr  6^7w 


Overbiurf 

that  tlie  mortality  is  not  grenter  than  iVom  aomo  otlior  pnrglcnl  open  tlons  which  are 
ivgurded  a&  juaititiable ;  (2)  tUtit  no  ot)ior  plan  of  troMtmeni  cj;u  effect  a  radical  cure ; 
(3)  that  if  tlie  surgeon,  in  order  to  cotnpletf  his  diu-^iioeia,  fliHt  mabe.-«  a  Huiall  im-ia- 
ion,  to  Piial)Ie  hitn  to  ascertain  the  existeiue  of  adUerfoiis",  and  ciOi«es  it  again  with 
siuure,  if  he  finds  this  t«)  be  the  c  isc,  no  ^vv.at  harm  is  likely  to  res»nlt;  aiid  (4)  that 
consiaerujg  the  niisserable  lives  the^e  patients  lead  during  a  course  t>f  tapping.  &c., 
it  i!«thJ  most  merciful  course  to  adopt  in  patit-n  s  who  are  young  mid  otherwise 
healthy.  For  a  description  of  the  mode  of  perl'orming  the  oi>eration,  and  of  tho 
caul  ions  lo  be  obsen'ed,  we  may  refer  to  a  series  of  pip.*rsoii  Ovariotomy  by  Mr 
Spencer  Wells  in  " The  Medical  Times  and  Gazette "  for  1853  and  1855. 

OVARY,  in  Botany.    See  Gbrmbn. 

OVA'TION.    See  Triumph. 

OVEN,  Field  or  Barmck,  is  a  necessary  opparatna  in  military  economy  to  pre- 
8  rve  the  health  of  troops,  by  enabling  iliein,  at  a  comparatively  small  ex|)endi»uro 
of  fuel,  to  cook  many  rations  together.  In  tlie  British  army,  liitL;  attention  was 
paid  to  such  subj  cts,  until,  in  1853,  the  inquires  of  Mr  Sidney  Herbert  (afterwards 
JvOrd  Herbert)  brought  to  light  th^j  excessive  mortality  among  soldiers,  which  was 
p  irtly — !ind,  as  the  event  has  shewn,  justly — attributed  to  the  bad  cookery  of  their 
food.  Captain  Qraitt  has  btistowed  much  attenticni  to  army  cookery,  and  has  in- 
vented ovens  for  barrack  use  and  for  the  field.  While  great,  improvements  on  the 
pj'stem-or  want  of  syste.n — which  preceded  them,  these  ovens  are  still  admitted  to 
be  lar  from  perfect  in  their  arraiieements. 

For  baling  meat,  Ac,  in  the  C'ld,  detached  cylinders  are  employed,  which,  when 
empty,  join  and  floor  over  for  use  as  pontoons;  when  in  use  they  are  I'.uiied  croe-s- 
wis ',  one  in  the  middl-;  serving  for  a  chimney.  One  or  more  empty  baiTel* can  be 
attached  for  stiiaming  potatoes,  and  the  roasting  of  coffee  is  performed,  thongti  not 
altogether  snccessinlly.  in  aiiolher  cylind^^r  maue  to  revolve  over  the  chinmey.  Up 
to  the  pre8<'nt  time,  other  sy''t(Mns  h we  been  p. irtially  resorted  to;  but  none  has  as 
yet  been  definitiveely  adopted  to  the  exclusion  of  others. 

OVEN-BIRD  [FurnariiiH),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family  CerthiadfB  (q.  v.), 
natives  of  tlie  son! hern  puts  of  Sou;ii  Ain<':ica,  interesting  on  aeconni.  of  the  re- 
m  \rkahle  nei^ts  which  they  construet.  Tiiey  aro  small  bi;ds,  with  short  wiuL'S  and 
feeble  power  of  flight-  One  sfiijcies,  F.  albogularis,  or  F.  rufiiH.  is  found  near 
liui-nos  Ayivs;  another,  F.  /lUijinosuH,  inhabis  the  M.doulne  lolauds.  It  is  a  fear- 
less little  bird,  regardiuir  the  pn-Svince  of  )nan  so  little  that  it  may  b '  easily  struck 
down  with  a  switcli.  Both  sex3s  t.iko  part  in  the  construction  of  the  nest,  which  is 
generally  in  an  exposed  situ;tiou,  remarkably  large,  and  of  the  shaiMj  of  a  dOiue, 
with  a  8  nail  entrrmce  On  one  side,  so  as  lo  hav.;  much  rescinblMUce  to  a  rude  oven. 
Ii  is  made  of  cl  ly,  grass,  &  ■.,  w«ll  plastered  together,  and  becomes  quite  Armas  the 
clay  dries  in  tlie  sun.  Internally,  it  is  divided  into  two  chambers  by  a  partition 
r  a-hiug  nearly  to  the  roof,  the  eggi»  Iwing  placed  in  the  Inner  chami)er 
on  a  b.;d  of  soft  grass  a^d  feathiu-s,  i'he  outer  chamber  seems  to  be  Intended 
fur  the  male. 

O'VEK  DA'RWEN  is  a  very  flnurisliing  \ovn^  of  La"oashipe,  situated  amid  moor- 
land hills,  3X  luih^s  south  of  BlackDurn,  and  ]9)4  miles  noi  th-west  oi  Manchester, 
with  which  towns  it  is  connected  by  the  L-ncashire  and  Yoiki»hird  Railway.  It  h:us 
risitn  into  wealth  piincinally  by  a  tradt*  with  India  and  Chimi  in  calicoes.  At  present, 
iherrf  are  about  ^250,000  spindles  and  15.0i  0  looms,  contained  in  upwards  of  40  mills 
and  m.inufactoies.  at  work  in  it.  The  ''India  Mill,"  erected  to  contain  100,(M)0 
spindles,  is  in  ev -ry  resp  .'ct  out;  of  the  finest  in  the  country.  It  is  a  first-class  stone 
')nildini.' in  the  Italian  style,  with  euL'ine-liouse.  chimney,  ^c.  highly  ornamentei!,  is 
loo  feet  liigh,  and  covers  an  area  of  31.00  )  square  feet.  The  town  also  contains  tho 
mo-t  extensive  papi^r-staining  work.s  in  England.  5  paper  raaimfaciorles,  1  calico- 
printing  establlsliment,  as  well  as  works  for  the  nianufacture  of  flre-brickf»,  tiles, 
a'td  sinitary  tu'ie^,  iron  and  brass  foundluL',  bleaching,  machine  and  reed  makhig. 
C  >:d-inines  and  stOD'^  quarries  also  find  employment  for  a  considerable  uumlwr  of 
:  I  •  inhabitants.  The  places  of  worship  are— 4  churches,  E  Independent  chapel* ;  a 
tiiptiHt.  Wesleyan,  Pnmitive,  Methodist  Free  Church,  and  Roman  Catholic  chap*;!. 
'J'h  re  are  large  and  commodious  schools  for  eletnentary  education.  The  town  pes. 
Bosses  a  covered  market,  public  baths,  and  a  valuable  frse  library.    The  ccmral  siorea 


yLiOOgle 


fJAo  Ovary 

Of  thelndnptrlal  Co-oporn»ive  Society,  erected  In  186T.  at  a  coet  of  £10,000,  contain  a 
pablic  Iinll  to  »ccojoii»o<Iu1«!  1500  piopU^  This  so=  iety  iJUinbtre  2i00  membtTS.  has 
6  brniiches  with  jCoO^ijOO  capita),  ana  raaiiitaine  a  library  of  2500  volnniee,  BCieuce 
classes,  and  well  supplied  newp-roouiH,  free  to  ineinbiM-s  and  ihi-ir  fainilit-s.  Pop. 
(1861)  11,T02;  (1861)  16,492;  (1871)  21,278;  and  at  the  close  of  1873,  the  estimate,  on 
£jood  jiuthority.  is  given  at  25,000. 

OVBRBECK,  Fiiedricli,  born  at  Lubeck,  Jnly  8,  1789,  a  distingtiished  painter,  to 
-whom  is  jnwtly  awarded  a  large  nhare  of  tht;  nu  rit  uf  ihe  movenu'jit  hi  thi;  early  part  - 
ot  tills  century,  from  which  arose  the  modem  GKiruian  school  of  art.  Hecomniciictd 
his  stadie;*  as  an  artist  at  Vienna  iu  1S06 ;  but  having  adopted. and  continu<d  lo  p  r- 
0i»t  in  carrying  out  certain  no  ions  on  art,  and  tbe  mode  of  studying  it,  essentially 
different  from  ihose  inculcated  in  the  academy,  he  was  rxpelled  along  with  ci  itain 
other  students  who  entertained  the  samu  views,  and  in  1809  set  out  for  liome.  Hei-e 
he  was  soon  afterwards  joined  by  Conielius  on<l  Pchadow  ;  and  these  throe,  ani- 
mated with  similar  ideas,  and  mutually  encouraging  one  another,  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  a  school  that  now  holds  a  liiirh  rank,  and  has*  in  no  small  decree  influenced 
tbe  taste  for  art  in  Europe  ^f  the  present  time.  A  picture  of  the  Madonna,  whicii  O. 
nain«X}/"  M  Kome  in  1811,  brought  him  lino  marked  ucitice.  He  was  n«'xt  employed 
ttioi.g-  with  Cornelius  and  others,  by  the  Prussian  consul.  General  Bartloldi,  to  exe- 
cute ceiiain  frescoes  illustrating  the  history  of  Joseph,  the  *•  Selling  of  Juseph  "  and 
thej'*  Seven  lean  Years  "  being  the  suhjects  assigned  to  him.  Alter  toiupletiug  these, 
hepaitted  in  fresco,  in  the  the  villa  of  the  Mu.ihefe  Massimi.  five  large  compoi^i- 
tious  from  Tasso's  *♦  Jerusalem  Delivered."  In  1814.  along  with  Fome  of  his  artistic 
brethren,  he  abjured  Lutheranism.  ai.d  embraced  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  O.'s 
chlei  work  is  a  fresco  at  Ahsisi,  **  The  Miracle  of  Kosts  of  St  Francis."  Hia  oil 
pictures  ai'e  inferior  to  Ida  frescoes,  being  dry  and  w»ak  in  color.  His  great  picture, 
"The  Influence  of  Religion  on  Art,"  pret*ei-ved  in  the  St^idel  Institute  at  Frankfurt, 
and  well  known  from  the  engraving,  is  an  ndmirable  composition,  and  is  indeed  ilie 
most  favorable  epccin»en  of  hit*  powers  as  a  painter  in  oil  colors.  He  executed  a  j^eat 
many  drawings  remarkable  for  liigh  feeling,  most  of  which  have  been  engraved. 
One  of  his  l:i!«t  undertakings,  a  series  of  designs  from  the  Evan<rclisis,  delicately  en- 
gi-aved  in  tlie  line  manner, is  a  work  of  high  excellence.  O.  adhered  closely  to  those 
Ideas  of  art  which  he  i^tarted  with— namely,  entire  devotion  to  the  style  of  the  Italian 
artists  prior  to  the  period  of  the  renaissance,  particularly  Fra  Aneelico  <b.  1887- d. 
1455),  and  a  strong  impres-sion  that  form  or  oiawiug  in  tiie  style  of  Grcels  or  classic 
«r  >  is  inadmissible  iu  works  embodyin;;  religious  subjects  ;  although  mauv  of  his 
compatriots — Cornelius,  for  iM:*tanc»! — have  modiflcd,  or  perhaps  enlarjred  these 
.  Kl:*as,  and  study  the  works  of  Michael  AngBlo  and  those  of  Kaffa<  I's  later  style  exe- 
cuted under  the  influence  oC  classic  arr.  O.  resided  iu  Rome  from  the  time  he  went 
tbsra  as  a  student.    Ue  died  November  1S69. 

OVERBURY,  Sir  Thomas,  an  English  author  and  courtier,  who)»e  myiterious 
death  has  given  a  peculiar  interest  lo  his  history,  was  the  son  of  Nicbo'as  Overbiny, 
a  Gloucestershire  squire,  and  was  born  at  Compion  Scorfen,  Warwickshire,  the  re>i- 
deuceof  his  matenial  grandfather  in  I5SI.  At  the  age  of  fourtetn  he  entered 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  where  he  highlv  distinguished  himself  in  lofic  and  philo- 
SODhy,  and  where  he  took  the  degree  of 'b. A.  in  159'».  Me  then  joined  the  Middle 
'I'emple,  but  soon  after  set  out  for  th(5  c«)ntiuent,  from  which  he  returned  with  the 
i-er»utatioii  of  being  a  finished  gentleman.  While  on  a  vi.xit  to  Scotl.-md  in  1601,  he 
oiet  tor  the  first  time  with  his  future  nm'xlerer,  Robert  Carr  (properly  Ker).  then  a 
page  in  the  service  of  the  Earl  of  Dunbar.  An  iniinmcy  nntortunatelj'  ^prung  up 
nttween  tlu*  two,  and  C:ur — a  iiandsome  ignoramus,  seuhual  and  unprincipled— fol- 
iOwed  his  scholarly  friend  to  London.  On  the  accession  of  James  to  the  English 
tnrone  (160B),  Carr  rose  rapidly  into  royal  favor,  and  was  created  Viscount  Rocheo- 
ter.  Throiitfh  his  influence,  O.  was  knighted  in  1608,  and  his  father  appointed  a 
indge  for  Wales.  In  return,  O.  gave  his  patron  the  benefit  of  his  wit  and  judgment, 
both  of  which  were  singularly  excellent;  and,  according  to  Hume,  it  was  owing  to 
O.  that  Carr  enjoyed  for  a  time  the  tiighest  favor  of  the  prince  without  being  hated 
by  the  people.  The  circumstances  that  led  to  the  rupture  of  ti.eir  intimacy,  and 
turned  tlie  earl  into  O.'s  secret  and  relentless  cnemv.  form  one  of  the  m(jst  flagrant 
scandals  In  tbe  history  of  the  English  court.  A  brief  outline  of  these  circumstances 
la  aU  that  can  be  given  here.  ^,g.^,^^^  ^^  GoOglc 


Overland  AH  J. 

Overseen  UV^-t 

* 
At  the  nge  of  th^rteenf  Fraiicee  Howard,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Suffolk,  was 
manied  (1606)  to  the  Earl  of  Essex,  himself  only  a  year  older.  <  hi  account  of  their 
youth,  it  was  reckoned  advi.sable  by  thek  friends  that  they  should  uot  live  togetbt^r 
for  some  time.  The  boy-husbuud  went  away  on  iiis  travels,  and  the  wedded  girl  to 
her  mother.  After  the  lap^e  of  nearly  five  year*,  Essex  came  home,  and  found  his 
wife,  now  a  splendid  beauty  of  eighteen,  the  idol  of  alKtlie  court  gullaiit^  But 
there  was  not  a  touch  of  virtue  or  goodness  in  her  whole  soul.  She  had  the  disposi- 
tion of  a  Messulina  (q.  v.)  or  a  BrinvilUera  (q.  v.).  For  her  hnsband  she  sliewed  the 
freat«*stavt'rdion,  and  only  consented  to  live  in  his  bouse  at  ihe  commana  of  th^ 
JMff.  It  was  well  known  that  she  had  had  intrigues  with  more  than  one  lover,  but  in 
particular  with  Rochester,  for  whom  she  now  cherished  a  fierce  passion.  O.  had  l^een 
insrrnun-iital  in  bringing  about  their  guilty  inJercoursc,  and  was  now  to  reap 
tiie  reward  due  to  a  pander.  Rochester  liaving  told  him  that  he  purposed  to  get 
Lady  E*st;x  divorced  from  her  husband,  and  then  to  marry  lier.  O.  strongly  depre- 
cated the  idi-a,  and  declared  that  it  would  be  disgracefnl  to  form  a  uuiou 
Mitli  80  depraved  a  creat  ure — she  mi.cht  ilo  for  a  mistress,  but  not  for  a  wife  I  The  earl 
tolil  Lady  Es^ex  what  O.  had  said  of  her;  she  l)ecame  furious  for  revenge, 
and  offered  Sir  David  Wood  (between  whom  and«»0.  there  was  a  Btandiiig 
quarrel)  jCIOOO  to  assassinate  him,  which  that  canny  Scot  declined  to  do.  Rochester 
liimself  was  now  persuaded  by  his  mistress  to  jom  privately  in  &  plot  against  O., 
who  on  a  most  trivial  and  illegal  pretext  wis  thrown  into  the  Tower,  AprU  21,  1618. 
It  was  some  time  before  ht!  could  bring  himself  to  l>elieve  that  his  friend  and  patron 
was  the  cause  of  his  imprisonment;  but  wlien  he  had  assured  himself  of  Rochester'a 
treachery,  he  threatened  lo  divulge  certain  se<;retB  in  his  possession,  whereuiMJn  it 
was  determined  by  the  earl  and  his  mistress  that  he  should  1)6  poisoned,  lliis,  after 
sever.d  trials,  was  successfully  accomplisiied,  and  O.  expired  on  tlie  16th  of  Sejrfem- 
ber.  Rochester  (now  created  Earl  of  Soraersel),  and  Ids  paramour  were  manied  ou 
the  26th  of  December  with  great  pomp,  the  Iwazen-faced  beauty  wearing  her  hair 
"ft«  a  virgin,"  and  the  whole  affair  was  soon  to  appearance  forgotten;  but  after 
George  Villi,  rs  iiad  supplanted  the  earl  in  the  royal  favor,  an  Inquiry  was  institated ; 
Somerset  and  his  wife  were  tried  and  found  guilty  of  poisoning,  but  were,  by  an 
amazing  and  infamous  stretch  of  tlio  royal  prerogative,  pardoned.  The  motive  for 
James's  extraordinary  clemency  has  never  been  ascertained;  but  the  prevailing 
opinion  is.  that  it  was  to  prevent  the  disclosure  of  some  discreditable,  if  uot  crim- 
iuai,  incidents  in  the  private  life  of  that  monarch. 

O.  wrote  several  works,  all  of  which  were  posthumously  pnblislied.  The  princi- 
pal are,  •♦'I'lie  Wif.?"  (16U),  a  did;ictic  poem;  *' Characters "  (1614),  tlie  wit.  ingeuu- 
itv,  precision,  and  force  of  which  have  lona  been  admitted;  **Crumms  Palleu  froia 
King  James's  Table "  (1715).  The  latest  edition  of  O.'s  works  is  that  by  E.  F.  Rim- 
bauftwitb  Life  (1866). 

O  VERLAND  ROUTE  to  India,  the  route  generally  chosen  by  those  to  whom  time 
is  a  more  important  consideration  than  expense.  Tne  maiuigemeut  of  the  route  Is 
in  the  hands  of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Steam  Company,  who  nresent  the  trav- 
ellrwiih  a  choice  of  Hues  of  route  to  Alexandria  in  Egypt  He  may  sail  from 
Southampton  via  Gibraltar  and  Malta,  reaching  Alexandria  in  IS  days,  a  very  c(m'- 
venieeit  route  for  those  who  have  much  luggige,  as  no  shifting  is  required  till  Alex- 
andria is  reached ;  or  he  may  travel  overland  by  railway  and  steamer  to  either  of  the 
ports  of  Marseille  or  Trieste,  'i  he  shortett  route  from  London  to  the  former  is  via 
Dover,  Calais,  and  Paris,  Alexandria  being  reached  in  11  days  (including  the  neces« 
sary  stoppag -s  at  different  points  on  the  route) ;  and  to  the  latter,  via  Dover,  Calais, 
Paris,  Turin,  and  Venice.  The  shoriesl  route  to  India  at  present,  after  reaching 
•  Paris,  is  vid  Lyon,  the  Mont  Cenls  Tunnel,  Mod«'nn,  to  Biindisi ;  from  that  Adriatic 
?  port  by  st^-amer  to  Port  Said,  thence  through  the  Suez  Canal  and  tiie  Red  Sea  to 
Bombay,  &c.  Passengers  may  still  be  conveyed  from  Alexandria  by  rail  to  Suez, 
where  they  again  embark  onboard  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company's  steamers, 
and  are  conveved  to  Bombay,  Madras,  &c.  The  time  occupied  iu  travelling  from 
Alexandria  to  Bombay  is  18  days,  to  Madras  84  days,  and  to  Calcutta  20  days.  Thus 
a  traveller  can  reach  Calcutta  from  London  in  40  days;  at  ati  tjxpenae,  however,  of 
more  than  ^ClOO.  The  lon^  sea-route  round  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  cannot  be 
accomplished  by  steamer  in  less  than  94  days,  »id  by  sailing  vessels  it  takes  more 
than  four  mouths,  but  the  coisl  is  much  less. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


605 


OT«rland 
Or«rsMrs 


CVVERSEERS  are  offirers  appointed  anntially  in  all  the  parishes  in  England  and 
Wales,  whose  primary  dniy  it  is  to  rate  the  inhabitantj*  to  tlie  poor-rate,  collect  the 
same,  and  apply  it  townrdi*  giviiie  relief  to  the  poor.  These  omcers  occupy  an  im- 
port4iut  position  in  all  English  palishes.  Tliey  were  firat  ordered  to  be  appointed  in 
each  pnrlfh  by  the  statnte  of  43  Eliz.  c.  2,  the  leading  Poor-law  Act,  which  directed 
fonr,  three,  or  two  snletaLtiai  liouseholders  in  the  parish  to  be  nominated  yearly, 
and  a  later  statnte  fixed  the  time  of  nomination  to  be  25ih  March,  or  a  fortnight 
thereafter,  'i'he  courts  liave  held  thai  not  more  than  fonr,  nor  less  than  two,  can  Ixs 
aopointed,  the  object  1>eiDg,  probably,  that  so  much  responsibility  should  not  be 
thrown  on  any  one  individual.  Tiiough  it  is  usual  for  the.  vestry  of  the  parish  to 
nominate  two  persons  to  be  overseers,  still  those  who  really  appoint  them  are  the 
justices  of  the  peace,  who  are  not  bound  to  regard  the  wishes  of  the  vestry  iu  tliis 
respect.  It  is  only  householders  in  Ae  parish  who  are  qualified  for  the  office,  and 
tlioush  it  is  not  necessary  that  they  hliould  actually  reside  in  the  parish,  still  th*:y  / 
must  occupy  or  rent  a  house  th*  re.  Several  classes  of  persons  arc  ex<'nipt  from  ' 
serving  the  office,  such  as  peers,  members  of  parliam^ut,  clergymen,  disseutjuir  min- 
isters, barristers^  attorneys,  doctors,  officers  of  tlie  urmy  and  navy,  &c.  But  all  who 
ai-e  not  specially  exempted  by  some  stJitiite  are  liable  to  sei-ve  the  office,  and  evi-n 
women  may  be  appointed,  though  they  scarcely  ever  are  so  in  practice.  The  office 
is  compulsory,  and  eutir  ly  gratuitous;  and  so  necessary  is  it  that  some  one  slnill  fill 
the  office,  that  it  is  an  indictable  misdemeanor  to  refuse,  without  cause,  to  serve 
when  duly  appointed,  'i'hough  overse«r8  are  the  proper  managers  of  tliepoor  for 
each  parish,  yet  some  parishes,  especially  in  large  overgrown  towns,  have  been  reg- 
ulated by  local  acts,  and  truardians  of  the  poor  provided;  and  otiier  parishes  are 
under  wliat  is  called  a  select  vestry.  In  such  cases,  the  overseers,  tiiongh  still  ap- 
pointed, are  only  alloW(  d  to  give  relief  to  ]>aupers  in  certain  uri^ent  and  exceptional 
cases,  the  ordinaiy  regulation  of  poor-law  affairs  being  confined  to  the  guardians  or 
the  select  vestry.  'I  he  primary  duty  of  the  overseeis  consists  in  making,  collecting, 
and  applying  the  poor-rate  fortiie  reli«'f  of  the  poor  of  iho  i)arish,  but,  as  will  be  seen, 
advantage  has  been  taken  by  the  legislature  ot  the  existence  of  thene  officers  always 
representing  the  parish,  to  throw  upon  them  various  miscellaneous  duties  which  are- 
wot  directly  connected  with  poor-law  affairs. 

1.  Of  the  dnties  conuected  with  the  management  of  the  poor.  The  overseers 
along  with  the  church-wardens  are  to  make  a  rate  once  or  twice  a  year ;  i.  e.,  a  list 
of  all  the  occupiei-s  of  lauds  and  houses  in  the  parish,  specifying  their  names  and  the 
propertpr  cccnpied  by  each,  and  ihe  ratable  value  and  amount  due  by  each.  The 
next  thing  to  he  done  is  to  go  before  two  justices  of  the  peace,  and  get  the  rate  al- 
lowed— i.  e.,  signed  hy  them— and  then  it  is  publish*  d  on  the  church-door  on  the 
following  Sunday.  The  overseers  must  collect  the  rate  also ;  but  in  all  large  jiarishes 
there  is  a  collector  of  poor-rates  who  is  specially  appointed  and  paid  tor  the  purpose 
of  collecting  it.  If  u  p  rty  refuses  to  pay  the  rate,  the  overseers  must  take  proceed- 
ings before  justices  to  compel  payment,  which  is  done  by  distraining  the  good-*  of 
the  party,  or,  if  there  are  no  sufficient  goods,  by  getting  a  warrant  to  imprison  him. 
The  party  may,  however,  appeal  against  the  rate  to  the  Court  of  Quarter  Sessions. 
When  the  money  is  collected,  the  over8e<'rs  have  to  apply  it  towards  the  relief  of  the 
poor,  and  many  other  purposes  of  a  kindred  nature.  Kelief  must  be  given  to  all  the 
poor  in  the  parish  who  are  in  a  destitute  slate;  but  it  is  the  duty  of  the  overseers, 
when  the  paupc^r  has  not  a  settlement  in  the  parish,  to  ol>tain  an  order  of  removal,  i. 
e.,  to  get  an  order  of  justices,  under  which  the  pauper  is  tak<'n  by  force,  and  sent  to 
the  parish  where  he  has  a  setrlemeut.  See  Kbwoval  op  the  Poor.  Relief  is  given, 
in  general,  only  in  the  worknouse.  and  according  to  certain  rulfs  and  conditions. 
Where  the  parish  is  included  in  a  poor-law  union,  as  is  now  g.  neraly  the  case,  then 
the  duty  of  overset  rs  in  giving  relief  is  entirely  confined  to  certain  urgent  cases; 
for  the  guardians  of  the  union  administer  the  ordinary  business  of  the  workhouse, 
and  of  relief  generally.  Another  duty  incident  to  overseers  of  a  parislj  in  a  union  is 
the  duty  of  making  out  valuation  lists-— i.  e.,  a  new  valuation  of  the  property  in  the 
parish — which  list  is  ordered  by  the  guardians  with  a  view  to  produce  some  uni- 
formity iu  lu-sessing  the  burdens  on  the  various  occupiers.  Formerly,  the  mo<le  of 
valuing  property  for  the  i)nrp08''S  of  the  poor-rate  was  not  suhjectto  any  uniform 
rule,  and  in  some  parish-  s  tin;  valuers  made  a  larg -r  d4'duciiou  from  the  actual  va'ne 
than  iu  others ;  but  iu  1862,  a  statute  passed,  culTcd  the  Union  AssesBmeut  Act,  tiio 


Digitized  by 


Google 


object  of  which  wn8  to  enable  new  vnlimtioiiB  to  bo  made  on  a  uuiform  plaa,  till  the 
ocpupiuro  iu  all  the  parishes  are  treated  nlike.  At  the  eDd  of  the  year  of  office.  \h9 
acconuts  of  the  overseers  of  parishes  in  nnions  are  audited  by  a  poor-law  anditor, 
wiio  is  a  paid  officer,  aiid  who  exainiDes  the  vouchers,  aiid  sees  that  no  illegal  pay- 
ments have  he«'ii  made. 

a.  The  niiscellaneons  datics  now  imposed  by  statnte  on  overseers,  over  and  above 
their  original  duty  of  relieviug  the  prior,  are  ninnwona.  Th«  -most  prominent,  per- 
hups,  Is  that  of  making  out  tlie  list  of  voters  for  meml)er8  of  parlianicnt.  Tliis  onty 
is  done  in  obedience  to  certain  j.rect'pts  issufd  by  the  clerk  of  the  pe&ce  each  year, 
who  gives  the  overseeri*  full  instructions  how  tu  make  out  the  lists,  and  what  claims 
and  objections  to  receive,  and  how  to  deal  with  them.  The  overseers  mus^t  also  at- 
tend the  court  of  the  revishiK  barrister,  when  he  revises  the  lists,  and  disposca  ot 
legal  objections.  Another  duty  of  the  overseei-s  is  to  make  out  the  list  of  persons  in 
the  parisli  qualified  to  8e»'V(?  a"  jurors.*  So  thoy  must  make  out  the  burgess  lists  when 
tlie  parisli  is  situated  within  a  l>orough.  TIn'y  must  also  make  out  the  list  of  per- 
sons qn:ilifled  to  serve  as  parish  constables.  They  are  al?o  bound  to  appoint  persons 
to  entorcctiie  Vaccination  Acts;  i hey  must  ji^ive  notice  to  justices  of  all  lunatics 
within  the  parish,  and  pan)>er  lunatics  are  removed  to  the  county  asylum.  They 
must  also  collect  and  enforce  payment  of  the  rates  levied  to  pay  the  expenses  of 
8cliool-l)oard8.  I'hc  overKecr:*  must  also  )»erform  certain  duties  as  to  the  election  of 
guardians  for  the  union.  They  nmst  also  bury  the  dead  iKxlies  of  persons  cast  on 
shore,  and  of  all  paupers  who  die  in  the  parish,  'i'hey  also  are  the  proper  parties  to 
protect  village  greens  from  nul:jances;  and  in  general,  where  there  is  no  local  Board 
of  Health,  the  overseers  aie  tlie  parties  bound  to  act  in  cari-ying  out  the  Nuisances 
Removal  Acts  (see  Nuisanor)  within  the  parish,  which  of  itself  is  an  onerous  duty. 
In  general,  whenever  overseers  are  bound  to  do  iniHcellaneous  duties  of  this  kiua, 
they  are  authorised  to  pay  the  necessary  exp:niS(>s  and  disbursements  out  of  the  poor- 
rale ;  but,  as  already  st.'tt«'d,  their  servict  s  are  giatuitous.  The  duties  which  in  £ug« 
laud  are  performed  by  overseer?*,  devolve,  in  Scotland,  upon  the  parochial  board, 
the  sheriff-clerk  of  the  county,  session-clerk,  and  oth-.TS. 

OVERSEER.  Assistant.  An  assistant  overseer  is  a  paid  officer,  whose  servicea 
have  ginerally  been  found  necessary  in  the  larger  parishes,  in  order  to  relieve  tho 
annual  overseers  of  their  burdensome  office  to  some  extent  Accordingly,  the  rate^ 
payers,  in  vestry  assembled,  appoint  u  person  as  assistant  overseer  with  a  salary,  wlio 
performs  most  of  the  same  duties  as  the  overseers.  In  mtyiy  cases,  however,  a  col- 
lector of  poor-rates  has  been  appointed,  who  is  also  paid  by  salary,  and  in  such  a  case 
he  discharges  like  duiies.  Both  theas»i:*tant  overseerand  thecoU'ectwfof  poor-rates 
are  boimd  to  find  security  for  the  faithful  discharge  of  their  duties,  and  for  duly  ae< 
counting  for  moneys  in  their  hands. 

OVERSTONE,  Samuel  Jones  Loyd,  Lord,  one  of  the  most  skilful  political  econ- 
omists, and  the  ablest  writer  on  hairkiui;  and  financial  suhjccts  that  this  country  has 
produced.  He  was  bom  iu  1.96,  being  the  only  son  of  Mr  I<ewis  Loyd,  descended 
from  a  respectable  Welr«hy  family,  and  a  leading  partner  in  the  eminent  banking 
house  of  Jones,  Loyd.  and  Co.  of  London  and  Manchester.  Having  gone  through  a 
regular  course  of  iusfruction  at  Eton,  young  Loyd  was  sent  to  Trinity  College,  Ciira- 
bridj^e,  where  he  had  Dr  Bloinfleld,  late  Bishop  of  London,  for  tutor,  and  where  ha 
acann-ed  a  very  extensive  acquainttmce  with  classical  literature,  and  with  the  history 
and  literature  of  his  own  country  and  of  Europe  generally.  On  leaving  Cambridge, 
Loyd  entered  the  banking-house  as  a  partner  along  with  his  father,  and  on  tho  retii"6- 
ment  of  the  latter,  he  became  its  heiid.  He  distmguishcd  himseli  highly  in  liis  ca- 
pacity of  banker.  He  had  a  profound  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  banking^-aiid 
these  he  applied  on  all  oecjiHionsin  coiiductinj;  the  business  in  which  he  was  engaged. 
Far-sighted  and  sagacious,  he  was  seldom  deaeived  by  appearances  or  pretentions, 
liowever  specious.  Perhaps,  if  anything,  lie  was  loo  cautions:  but  he  was  neither 
timid  nor  Irresolute.  He  was  eminently  successful  in  the  employment  of  the  very 
lai:ge  d<^posits  at  his  command,  and  while  he  eschewed  hazardous  transactions,  lie 
dicT  not  shrink  from  engaging  in  very  extensive  openitions  when  he  believed  f  liey 
could  be  undertaken  with  a  due  re  ^ard  to  that  safety  which  should  always  be  the  first 
consideration  in  the  etMlmation  (»f  a  banker. 

Loyd  entered  jiarlianient  in  1819  as  member  fpr  Hytlie,  which  he  continued  to  re- 
piesent  till  id26.    He  made  several  good  8i>eeches  in  the  House ;  and  was  one  of  a 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


ipmaU  mlDority  that  votod  for  the  toropowil  to  mnk«  bnnkert  ieenliig  not  eft  give 
Sicnrity  for  iheir  paynu'ut.  Thongn  opposed  to  ail  chaDgi-e  ot  o daugei'oiis  or  revo- 
liitionHry  charact«?r,  Loyd  has  been  alwjiys  a  consistent  libeniL  H;iv&g  oirber  with- 
drawn, or  being  od  the  eve  of  withdrawing  from  buft-ne^^  Loyd  wim  raised  to  tho 
peerage  in  1850,  by  tlie  title  of  Baroii  Ovcrftoueaud  Fothennghny,  connty  Norihamp- 
toii ;  and  if  greiit  wealth,  con.*umn»ate  intelllgen<-e  in  regard  to  matters  of  great 
jmblic  importance,  and  tlie  bighest  degree  of  integrity  and  independence,  l}e  qualifi- 
cations for  a  seat  in  tlie  Lords,  few  peers  liaye  had  a  better  title  to  be  enrolled  iu 
that  august  assembly. 
i  The  first  of  Lord  O.'s  famous  tracts  on  the  manageraent  of  the  Bank  of  Englanc]^ 
and  tlie  state  of  the  cniTincy  was  pulilisiud  in  1837,  and  was  followed  by  otbci's 
l>etween  that  period  and  186T.  The  proposal  for  making  a  complete  lEsq^aration  l)e- 
tueen  the  banking  and  Issue^dopartments  of  the  Bank  of  Buglaxtd^ 4utroduc<}d  by 
Sir  Robert  Peel  into  the  act  of  1844,  was  first  brought  forward  in  these  iractn,  and 
its  adoption  has  been  the  greatest  improvement  hith  rto  effected  in  oiu*  bankiug 
system.  Hayingbeeu  collected,  these  tracts  were  published  in  1857  with  ezti-act* 
from  evidence  giv.ii  by  Lord  O.  before  committees  of  the  Lords  and  Commons.  And 
It  wonld  not  be  easy  to  exaggerate  tiio  valne  of  this  volnmu.  Lord  O.  has  also  re- 
printed, at  his  own  ex|)eu!>e,  four  volnmes  of  scarce  and  valinible  tracts  i>u  metallic 
and  paper  money,  commerce,  the  fnuding  system,  Ac,  which  be  has  extensively 
distributed. 

An  inquiry  took  place  before  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  In  1S5T 
hi  to  the  )>ractical  working  of  the  act  of  1844,  and  liOrd  O.  was  tho  principal  witness 
who  can^  forward  in  defence  of  the  act;  but  several  leading  iminbers  <>f  the  com- 
mittee being  hostile  to  it,  exerted  themselves  to  overthrow  nis  k>rd:^hii)*s  theories 
and  opinions,  and  subjected  him  to  a  severe  cross-oxaminut ion;  whieh  gave  Lord 
O.  the  opportunity  of  sncccssfully  vindicating  the  principles  and  |)r.kct.c:u  working 
of  the  act.    This  evidence  was  pnblishod  in  a  separate  vol  nine  in  1857. 

Lord  O.  does  iioi  often  speak  in  the  Hons<^  of  Lords.  His  speech  on  the  com- 
mercial tretity  with  France  18  probably  the  best  of  his  parliamentary  appearances. 
He  has  also  been  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  principle  of  limited  liability.  He  was  a 
leading  member  of  the  commission  appointed  lo  inqnire  int )  tho  pro|K)sal  for  thja 
iutroductiou  of  a  decimal  system  of  aritlimetlc,  and  powerfully  advocated  the 
opinion  that  it  would  be  injurious  rather  than  benetlciiil. 

All  who  have  the  privi!eg<!or  knowing  Lord  O.  regard  him  as  one  of  the  most 
honorable,  high-mind-d,  and  upright  men  in  the  empire.  Bnt  liis  ngid  adherence 
to  principle  in  hisTwritings,  his  dejillngs,  and  his  convci-satiou,  and  his  undiKgtiised 
contempt  for  twaddle  and  ])ietension  of  all  sorts,  have  nnide  him  be  generally 
looked  ujHju  as  austere  and  without  sympathy.  Such,  bowt.ve.r,  Is  not  Uw.  fact. 
When  jwoper  cases  for  the  display  of  sympathetic  and  generous  feelingn  arc  brought 
b  fore  him,  none  evince  them  more  strongly.  We  may  add  that  his  conversational 
talent!*  are  of  the  highest  order. 

O'VERTURE  (Irom  Fr.  ovverticre,  opening),  a  musieal  comporftio'.i  for  a  full  In- 
Ptnimental  band,  introductory  to  an  opera,  oratorio,  cantata,  or  ballet.  It  originated 
ill  Fr-mce,  and  received  its  settled  form  at  the  hands  of  Lulh.  Being  of  the  nature 
of  a  prolourue,  it  ought  to  be  in  keeping  with  the  i)i"co  which  it  ushers  in,  so  as  t© 
l)ropnre  the  atidience  f<tr  the  sort  of  emotions  which  the  author  wishes  lo  excite, 
Sncb  is  to  a  great  extent  the  character  of  the  be.-uitifnl  overtures  byM(Zut  lo 
*' ZauberflOte  "  and  "Doii  Giovanni,"  by  Weber  to  *' Freischntz,"  and  by  Mendels- 
sohn to  bis  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  which  are  euiiehed  by  snatches  of  the 
more  prominent  airs  in  these  operas.  In  th«?  end  of  last  century,  overtures  wtro 
Avritten  by  Haydn,  Pley el,  and  orlier  comnosei-s,  as  indepudent  pieces  to  be  played  iu 
the  concert  room  ;  this  sort  of  overture  nein^',  in  fact,  the  early  form  of  what  wzis 
afterwards  developed  into  the  Symphony  (q.  v.).  The  overture,  as  well  as  the 
symphony,  is  designated  by  the  name  ainfonia  in  Italian. 

OVERY'SSEI^  a  province  of  the  Netherlands,  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  Friesland 
and  Drenthe;  o.  by  Hanover  and  Westphalia;  s.  and  s.  w.  «>y  Oelderland;  and  w.  by 
1  he  i5u1der  Zee.  It  has  an  area  of  12T4  square  miles;  and  (1814)  a  population  ot 
2(58,008.  The  soil  is  sandy,  with  clay  lands  by  the  Yssel,  rich  pastures  along  the 
ZuiderZae  and  rivers,  tracts  of  peat-land  in  various  parts,  and  extensive  lieatiwi 
which  are  grjiduaTly  being  brought  into  cultivatiou.    From  south  lo  z      '    '     "" 

U.K.,X.,20.  Digitized  by  ^ 


]^m^w 


§:&•  608 

-viucr*  \s  Intersected  hytai  nnbroken  cfiaiii  of  sand-blll?.  Tlie  chief  dHee  are  Zfrolle, 
DcvL'Uter,  iind  Kaiiipeo  ;  important  inanufaclurltig  townt*  of  l«-8i'  note  being  Aliue lo, 
Avtjreest,  Dalfaen,  Uiiakiib  rgeii.  Huidenbertft  HeiTeiidorn,  Louueker,  Los^er.  K:inlte, 
Staphorstj  8tet:iiwyker»wold,  Tubbergen,  Weei-Kiilo,  VVierdi'ii,  Z\vollerker8|><«l,  &c. 
ITie  principal  einpiuyments  iiro — eigricaliure,ni}^uufuctui'eRof  varionskud?,  fishiuj;, 
niakius:  pHat,  shipping  and  ln»!^chaudi^e.  In  1862,  of  V-i8,709)^  acres  nnder  cii1tiva> 
tion,  65,526  were  in  ryu,  84,453  in  pottitoes,  18  367  in  buckwheat,  763  *^  in  oatt>,  4460 
ill  birley ;  wlieat,  colza,  b<'aus,  flax.  CMToti«,  &<\,  occ>npying  sm.'ilter  breadths.  The 
l-tock  consisted  of  16,682  horses,  117,067  liorued  cattie,  80,852  sheep,  22,818  Bwiue, 
and  8265  grmtt^r 

iltZ\%olle,  DeTenter,  Eampen,  Alinelo,  and  Steenwyk,  besides  the  ground  prodaco, 
were  sold  3,008.0i)0  jhs.  of  otitttT,  of  17^  oz.  avoirdni>oi8  per  lb.  In  O.  331,000 
acns  are  still  wa«te,  262,000 iu  pnsture, and  7400 in  wood. 

Caipeta  are  inannfiictured  at  Deventer  and  Kampen,  leather  at  Blokzyl,  calicoes' 
and  other  cotton  fabrics  at  Kampen,  Almek),  D^lfnen,  Ommon,  and  many  other 
towns.  There  are  extensive  brick-works  at  Iiy.«sen,  Zwoliurkrrspel,  Mtirkelo,  and 
Diepcuveeu,  producing  a  yeirlj  ngL^regnte  of  43,760,000.  8bi)>-bnildlng is  cnnied  on 
at  Zwartslnii^,  Vollenhov  •,  Steenwykerwold,  Avereej«t,  &c  There  are  74  Dutch  R«- 
formed  clergymen,  93  Roman  Catholic  priests,  »nd  a  few  charches  belonging  to 
f>nialler.Protestai)t  sects.  Tiie  attenduuce  at  school  is  abont  1  to  9  of  the  popniaiiou. 
In  1862,  the  births  amounted  to  7318,  of  which  206  were  illpgitimate,  or  about  1  to 
35X ;  the  de  :ths  were  5678,  or  42  to  the  1000  of  the  popiiintiou. 

The  piinctpiil  rivers  are  the  Yssel,  into  whicli  ll»e  Schipl>eek  rnn«,  and  the  Ovcr- 
ypsel^clie  Vecht,  whicli  fulls  into  the  Black  Water.  Other  iinpoitant  water-ways*  are 
the  Dedem^-Vaartaiid  the  Willems-Vnart  canal?.  There  were,  in  1873,  109  miles  of 
railways  in  the  province.  The  island  of  Schokland,  iu  the  Zuider  Zje,  belongs  to 
Ovcry^sel. 

O'VID  (Pnblins  Ovidiiifl  Naso),  the  descendant  of  nn  old  equestrian  family,  wns 
bom  on  the  20tlr  March  48  B.c  ,  at  Snlino,  in  the  country  of  the  Peligni.  He  was 
educated  for  the  bar,  and  under  his  masters,  Arcllins  Fuscus  and  Porcins  Latro,  he 
became  highly  proficient  in  the  nrt  of  declamtition.  Hisgenius,  however,  was  es-en- 
ti.-illy  tliat  of  the  poet  and  the  writing  of  verseti  began  to  absorb  the  time  tbat  should 
liave  been  spent  in  the  study  of  jttnsprnduncc.    His  fntlicr,  having  but  a  scanty 

1>atrimony  to  divide  between  two  sons,  discouraged  this  tendency  in  the  younger, 
)ut  in  vain.  By  the  death  of  his  elder  brother,  O.  inherited  all  his  father's  property, 
and  went,  for  the  coinpletion  of  his  education,  to   Athens,  where  be  acquired  a 

Serfect  inasteiy  of  the  Greek  language.  He  afterwards  made  a  tour  in  Asia  and 
icily  along  wifh  the  poet  Mucer.  It  i^  uncertain  whether,  on  liis  retum  to  Rome,  lie 
ever  practised  as  advocate.  Although  by  birth  entitled  to  aspire  to  the  dignit}', 
he  iKtver  entered  the  senate;  liis  weakness  of  body  and  indolence  of  liaint  prevented 
him  from  ever  rising  higher  I  lian  from  tlie  position  of  triumvir  capitali:*  to  tliat  of  a 
decemvir,  who  convened  and  presided  over  the  court  of  the  centumviri.  While 
his  public  life  was  ntiiraportant,  Ids  private  was  that  of  a  gav  and  licentious  man  of 
leiters.  The  realm int  of  the  matrimonial  tie  was  alw.iys  distasteful  to  him ;  twice 
maiTiert  in  early  life,  ho  soon  divorced  each  of  his  wives ;  while  he  carried  on  nn 
intrigue  with  a  ludy  whom  he  celebrated  as  Corinna,  and  who  is  l>elieved  4o  havo 
been  no  otiier  than  Jnlia,  the  nccoinplished  (laughter  of  Angustns.  Before  his  thir- 
lietli  year,  he  married  a  third  time  and  became  the  father  ef  Perilla,  of  whom  he  was 

t  Rome,  in  a  house  near 
His  society  was  much 
_, _„ „ »d  Augustus  and  the  im- 
perial family.  By  an  edict  of  the  emperor,  however,  he  wai»,  in  9^a.d..  commanded 
to  leave  Rome  for  Toml,  a  to^vn  near  the  delta  of  the  Danul^e,  and  on  the  very  ]iii>it 
of  the  empire.  The  sentence  did  not  condemn  him  to  an  exsUixivi,  but  to  a  relegatio 
—or  in  other  words,  ho  did  not  lose  his  citizenship,  nor  was  he  cut  oS  from  all  hope 
of  return.  The  cause  of  this  sudden  lianishment  has  long  divided  the  opinion  of 
scJiolars,  since  the  one  mentioned  in  the  edic— the  nublicauon  of  his  Ars  Amatoria 
— was  a  mere  pretext,  the  poem  having  been  in  circulation  for  ten  years  before. 
His  intrigue  with  Julia,  or  With  Jnlia's  dangliter,  and  the  consequent  displeasure  of 
Augustus  or  of  Livia,  have  been  adduced  with  various  degrees  of  plausibility,  as  tho 


tenderiy  foid.  Up  till  his  fiftieth  year,  he  resided  chiefly  at  Rome,  in  a  house  nejir 
the  Capitol,  and  occasionally  visited  his  Peiignan  estate.  His  society  was  much 
courted,  and  his  large  circle  of  distinguished  friends  included  Augustus  and  the  im- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


609 


Orid 
OTi*do 

cause  of  a  sentence  to  which  O-  hlinpdf  ouly  lyystfirlonely  ref<Tf..  Tlie  mleeiy  «  f 
We  life  ou  the  inhospitable  and  barbarons  shore  of  the  Eiixintf  iscommeuioiaiod  by 
the Doeins  iu  the  coiiipo!<itioi4  of  which  lie  ^ouud  his  uolaci'-  He  Ij^cumea  favorite 
wlttt  the  Toinit«,  wliose  language  be  lennicd,  and  l>ef(*re  whom  hv  pciblicly  ret  itc<l 
some  poemttin  honor  ot  AngasttuL  But  hisdevotioii  to  the  en)peiX)r,  iiiul  the  (Utrcji-  . 
ties  liddressed  to  the  imperiul  coart  by  hhu«elf  and  h"m  fricmls.  laiUd  to  fl.orlcn  Mk) 
term,  or  to  change  the  scene  of  his  bnnishmeut ;  so  lie  died,  an  lionort  d  citizi  ii  <jf 
Tomi,  18  A.D.,  in  iiie  eixlietli  year.  His  works  wiiich  hav*'  come  ddwii  to  up,  eitlier 
111  whole  or  in  part,  appeared  iu  tlie  following  owler:  I.  •*  Ainmuni  Libri  III.,"  a  n- 
vised  and  abridged  edition  of  an  early  neries.    2.  Twenty-one  **  Epi^toite  Hei  oidiini." 

8.  'l'he"Ar9  Ainatoria."  4.  **R«  media  Amorie."  6.  '^Nux/'the  n  inous: mme  of 
a  nut-tree  apahipt  t lie  ill-trentment  it  rtceives  from  the  wayfanr.  and  even  from  its 
owuer.  6.  **  Metamorphopeoii  Libi-1  XV."  ThiB  is  de-^ervedly  0.*s  b<*i?t^kbc)wn  work. 
It  seems  to  have  been  wriJten  betwteu  the  poet's  fortieth  and  fiftieth  years,  aud  con- 
sists (ff  all  the  transroruiations  recorded  iu  legend  from  the  crcalJon  down  to  tho 
time  of  Julius  Caesar,  whot»o  change  iuto  a  star  forms  the  last  of  the  seiics.  T. 
*♦  Pastornm  Libri  XII.,"  the  first  six  of  which  are  all  that  remain.  The  poem  is  a 
Boman  calendar  versified,  and  describes  the  appropriate  festivals  and  mythic  hgends 
from  materials  supplied  by  the  old  annalists,  8.  " Tristium' Libri  V.,*»  written  in 
elegiac  metre,  dnrini^  the  first  four  years  of  the  poet's  banishment  niey  are  mainly 
descriptive  of  his  miserabie  fate,  and  are  full  of  appeals  to  the  clemency  of  Augn^tuR. 

9.  *•  Epistolarnm  ox  Poiito  Libri  IV.,"  also  written  iu  elegiac  metre,  and  similar  in 
substance  to  the  ♦*  'J'ristia."  10.  **  Ibis,"  a  short  satire  against  some  ti-adacer  of  tho 
poet's.  11.  "Conpolatio  ad  Li\'iam  August  am,"  held  spurious  l>y  some  critics.  12. 
**Medicamina  Faciei "  and  *'  Halieuticon,"  dubiously  genuine,  and  of  which  we  pos- 
sess but  fragments.  Several  of  his  works  are  entirely  lost,  the  oue  best  known  to  au- 
tiquiiy  being  "Medea,"  a  tragedy. 

The  poetical  genius  of  O.  lias  always  been  admired.  A  masterly  facility  of  com- 
position, a  faucy  vigorous  and  rarely  at  fault,  a  fine  eye  for  color,  and  a  verslficailou 
very  musical  in  its  fl«iw,  are  the  merits  which  have  made  him  a  favorite  ol  poets 
from  Milton  dowuwards,  in  spite  of  his  occasional  slovenliness  and  falsity  of  thought. 
The  best  editions  of  O.'s  entire  works  are  Burmann's  (Amsterdam,  1727),  and  the 
recent  oue  of  Merkel;  while  excellent  commentaries  on  one  or  other  of  iu»  poems 
have  been  published  by  Haupt,  Kamsay,  and  Paley.  A  good  translation  of  hii» 
'*  Metamoiphoses  "  is  that  edited  by  Garth,  with  the  assistance  of  Dryden,  Addison, 
Congreve,  and  others ;  whiles  special  passages  of  the  same  poem  h»ve  beeu  admira- 
ily  rendered  by  Mr  D'Arcy  Thompson. 

OVLK'DO,  a  pleasant  and  healthy  city  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  modem  province  of 
the  same  name  (the  ancient  Asturias,  q.  v,).  stards  on  a  plain  between  the  rivers 
Kalon  and  Nora,  61  miles  Morth-north-west  of  Loon,  and  28  miles  tonth  south-west 
Of  Gijon,  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  In  tiic  centre  of  the  city  is  a  handsome  sqnarc,  from 
which  four  principal  streets,  terminating  in  alamcdas  or  jpromenades,  oranch  off 
toward  the  north,  south,  east,  and  west,  reppi'ctively.  These  main  streets  are 
connected  by  others,  and  all  are  clean  and  well-paved.  Pure  water  is  abui  dantly 
supplied  by  mean:?  of  a  long  aqueduct,  and  is  delivered  in  the  city  by  eleven  public 
fountains.  The  cathedral,  a  beautiful  cruciform  specimen  of  Gothic,  the  ornamen- 
tation of  which  is  as  rich  as  it  is  elegant,  contains  (in  the  Chapel  of  the  Virgin)  tie 
remains  of  many  of  the  early  kings  and  princes  of  Astnrias,  and  has  a  fli.e  old 
librdry.  Some  curious,  but  eminently  questionable  relics,  are  to  be  found  in  the 
church  of  San  Miguel,  which  is  the  second  oldest  Christian  building  after  the  Moor- 
ish invasion.  In  tlie  immediate  vicinity  of  the  city  there  are  o«her  churches  in  tho 
early  Saxon  Style,  which  are  among  the  oldes^t  churches  in  the  peninsula.  The  con- 
vent of  San  Vinceirte,  founded  in  1291,  has  been  seenl.irifed,  and  is  now  occupied  by 
government  offices,  &c.  Linens,  woollens,  liat«>,  and  firearms  are  manafaciured. 
Fop.  25,460. 

O.  was  Known  during  the  middle  ages  as  dvilan  EpUcojwrwm,  becanse  many  of 
the  SpaniKli  prelates  who  had  l>een  diepoPFespe<l  of  th*  ir  sees  by  the  Moors,  look 
refuge  here.  This  city,  whicli  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  was  twice  plundered  of  itsec- 
clesiastieol  and  other  treasures  during  the  war  of  indcpuudcnce ;  fir^t  by  Soolt,  and 
sab&equently  by  Bonnet. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


ZS£'  610 

O VI EDO  ^  VAI^DES,  Gonzalo  For.  De,  a  Spatilab  chrotifcler,  horn  fit  MmlrM 
h)  1418,  was  83nt  by  Ferdinand  to  St  Doininjjo,  iu  tlio  Went  ludiee.  in  1614,  as  iu- 
loiidanr.  and  iu8pecYor-«;ei)0rul  of  the  trade  of  tlie  New  World.  Dnriug  ln»  long 
rcBldeuce  in  St  Doiningu,  lie  spt- nt  his  U-ibure  in  acquiring^  mi  oxten&ive  kiiowledao 
of  the  Went  Indies;  and  after  his  retnrn  to  Spain  piihl  sik'd  at  Toledo,  in  1626,"  a 
'*  Sinnniario  do  la  HL«»toria  General  y  Natnral  de  las  Indins  Occidentnles,'*  wliicli 
he  dedicated  to  Charles  V.  U^i  afterwanls  made  somo  additions  to  the  work,  wiiicli 
Wiis  repnblished  at  Seville  in  1535.  in  2|  vols.,  nnder  the  tith;  of  *^La  Hit<toria 
Gtenerafy  Natnral  de  las  Indias  Occiden tales.**  Hi*  left  other  i9  books  in  man- 
script.  A  comi>Iete  edition  is  now  l)eing  prepared  at  Miulrid.  O.  died  at  Vallndoritl 
in  165T,  Besides  his  **  History  of  ihe  West  Indies,"  he  wrote  "  Las*  Quinqiiairena*,'* 
a  valuable.  gosHipinc^,  and  anecdotical  ncconnt  of  all  the  principal  peri^onagus  of 
lk>a{u  in  his  time,  which  sti'.l  remains  in  MS.  in  tlie  royalnbrary  at  Madrid;  ami 
chronicles  of  Ferdinand,  I.-abella,  and  Charles  V.  A.  life  of  Caidiual  Xin)*iue:)  is 
also  artributed  to  hlin. 

OVI'PAROITS,  a  term  applie<l  to  animals  in  which  reprodnction  tabes  place  by 
eggs  iovu).  Except  tlie  raaininalhi,  nil  animals  are  either  Oviparous  or  Ovovivlpa- 
IOU8  (q.  v.);  the  larter  mode— which  is  not  ei^scntially  different  from  the  former — 
teing  comp:iratively  nire.  Bven.  those  invertebnite  animals  which  jniUtipIy  by  gem- 
matlun  and  division,  have  also  a  trae  reproduction  by  ova.    See  Ego  aiul  KepbO' 

l^irOTION. 

O' VOLO,  a  convex  nionlding  roach  nsed  in  cIa.«Btc  architecture.  See  Mouldino. 
In  Uomim  architect  are.  the  ovolo  is  an  exact  qnarter  of  a  circle ;  iu  Greek  arch^ 
tectnre,  the  curve  is  sharper  at  the  top  and  quirked.  It  is  sometimes  ust.d  iu 
Decorated  Gothic 

OVO  VI  VITA  ROUS,  a  term  applied  to  animals  of  which  the  e?g  is  liatched  with- 
in the  body  of  the  mother,  so  that  the  yomig  is  excluded  alive,  although  the  foetns 
hart  l>een  enclosed  in  an  egg  almost  to  the  tune  of  parmrition.  It  is  probable  that 
ilio  egg  is  often  broken  in  partarition  itself.  Some  fishes  are  ovovivipaion-'^,  and 
some  reptiles;  also  the  Motwtrenuiia.  The  Common  Lizard  and  the  Viviparoiw 
Lizard,  ooth  natives  of  Britain,  are  illustrations  of  the  near  resemblance  wWch  nniy 
•ubsiHt  between  ovipnrous  and  ovoviviparons  animals.  The  dietincliou  is  much  ty^a 
Imporfcint  than  might  be  supposed. 

O'VULE  <Lat.  a  little  ogg),  in  Botany^  the  mdimcntiiry  seed.  TheQ*?rmen  (q.  v.) 
or  ovary  sometimes  contam.^  only  one  ovule,  sometimes  a  small  definite  number, 
sometimes  a  large  indefinite  nnmljer.  Ovules  are  to  bo  regarde<l  as  metamorphoBed 
buds.  "The  single  orulc  contained  in  the  ovaries  of  Composffae  and  Qni«8»;s  may 
■fee  called  a  terminal  bud,  snrroanded  by  a  whorl  of  adherinG^  leaves  or  carpel!',  in  the 
axil  of  one  of  which  it  is  prodna-d."— Balfour,  '•  Manual  otBolany."  Tim  ovule  ia 
not  always  contained  iu  an  ovary.  In  Gymnogens  (q.  v.)  it  is  wanting,  and  the  ovule 
fs  naked  ;  but  the  plant!*  |K)sse8sing  this  ch:n-act(.>r  are  comparatively  &w.  'IMie  ovuht 
b attached  to  the  Plttcenta  (q.  v.),  and  by  it  to  the  Carpd  (g.  v.),  from  wb!<ih  it  Is 
4eTeIop«'d.  The  attiichment  to  the  placenta  is  either  imm-di-it(',  when  the  ovnle  la 
•slid  to  be  swaiV*,  or  by  me:uis  of  an  umbilical  cord  {ftim'cnlnH),  wbicii  sometimes 
elongates  very  much  «f ter  fecinidation.  The  ovuh;  is,  in  general,  essentially  formed 
of  a  cellular  mtcletts  enclosed  by  fwo  membi-anes,  the  outer  of  which  is  called  the 
primine^aud  the  famer  tliH  W4nindine.  At  one  end  of  Ihe  nucleus  there  is  an  oiienini; 
of  both  membranes — the  foramen — thnmgh  which  the  access  of  the  pollen  in  Fecuu- 
diition  <q.  v.)  tiikes  place.  The  CluUaza  (q.  v.)  unites  the  nucleus  and  thi>se  ntem- 
branes  at  the  base.  When  the  ovule  is  ho  developed  that  tin;  chalaza  is  at  tlie  base, 
and  the  foramen  at  the  apex,  it  is  ^aid  to  be  arthofropal  (Gr.  orthos.  straight,  iropo^ 
a  mode).  When  the  ovule  U  bent,  so  that  the  foramen  i«  brought  near  to  the  bus**, 
it  is  called  oampylotropal  (Gr.  kampylon^  cm*ved).  When  by  increasiMg  on  one  r^ide 
more  rapidly  than  on  the  other,  the  ovule  has  it-*  foniUK-n  clbsi*  to  the  b-iw,  the  c»ta- 
hiZri  being  cturied  round  to  the  oppositi;  extr«*mi'y,  the  ovule  is  aiuUropal  <Qr.  ana- 
trepo.  to  turn  upsitle  down).  AnatroiMil  ovnl<«8  ai-e  very  common.  Wb<^  i  the  ovule 
is  utr.-iched  to  the  piacentit,  so  timt  the  foramen  and  chalaza  are  at  oi>])OBit«>  ends.  thi> 
ttasQ  being  in  ihe  middle,  :l  is  called  antphitropal  (Gr.  ampin,  around).  Wlien  the 
OToItt  arises  from  the  base  of  the  germeu,  it  is  said  to  be  erect;  when  it  hobgs  fix^ 


y  Google 


611 


Ovljdo 
Owen 

the  npex  of  the  cavity  of  the  germen,  it  is  pendidotts  ;  when  ft  arises  from  the  side  of 
the  gi-rmeii  al>ove  the  l)ase,  it  is  CLWcnding ;  whei'  it  hangs  from  tlic  side  of  the  gir- 
M»eu  l)elow  the  apex,  it  Is*  siMpended.  When  twt»  or  moin;  ovules  are  fonnd,  not  ouly 
ill  the  8*iii:e  owry,  but  hi  llie  Hame  cell,  they  uenerullv  exhibit  different  modes  of 
attachment.  8eo  Chalaza,  Embryo,  Fecundation,  ^ervbn.  Placenta.  Seeb. 
OWEN,  Dr  John,  an  eminent  NonconformiHt  divine,  depcendel  from  an  ancient 
Wels'h  famiiy,  was  tlie  son  of  ihe  Itev.  U<'nry  Owi  ii.  vie  ir  of  StuUiam,  in  Oxford- 
shire, and  was  Iwrn  Ht  the  vicaragtt  in  16i6.  In  his  12th  yej.r  he  waa entered  I'f 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  whei-e  he  worlced  with  amuziiig  diligeuci'*  for  years  taking 
no  more  than  four  houre' sleep  a  nii-ht  In  1635  he  "couimeiici  a  "  M.A.  At  tliSs 
period  (if  his  own  stjitement  tioes  not  exae^eraie)  his  great  ambition  was  to  acquire 
celebriiy  either  in  cliurcli  orptute,  he  didn't  iJiirticniarly  care  which  ;  and  he  jifflruis 
the  irreiijiiousuess  and  worJdlintiss  of  his  motives  with  entire  fn!nkne^!».  Yet  he 
appears,  for  all  tliat,  to  have  been   af»iiated  even  during  Ids  j-tndent-life  by  the 

SuaiHtioneH  vexatceot  ecclesiastical  poSitlcs,  and  niade  himpelf  ^o  couFpicnons  by  his 
tnti-Laudiauiam,  tliat  he  wjim  forced  to  leave  Oxford.  In  fact,  hi."  Pmit&nir^m  bad 
heconie  so  decided,  tliat  mont  of  his  former  friends  had  abandoned  his  society. 
The  next  five  or  six  yJ  ars  Of  his  life  were  F|)ent.  n.'eukinjr  generally,  in  a  ftate  of 
aiixions  and  melancnoly  introspection.  When  the  civil  war  finally  broke  out,  O. 
was  living  as  cfaapluiu  with  Lord  Lovelace  of  HnrUy,  in  Beikshirt*.  HislordsJlp 
was  a  royalist,  and  went  to  join  the  king's  army,  whither  O ,  who  had  warmly 
(^spoused  the  cause  of  the  pailiament,  could  not  accompany  him.  Abont 
the  «ime  time,  his  uncle,  a  jrentleman  of  property  in  Wales,  .who,  havii  g 
no  children  of  his  own,  meant  to  have  made  O.  his  heir,  indignant  at  He 
z<'alou.^  Puritanism  of  his  n«phew,  setihd  bin  estate  upon  another,  aid 
died  without  leaving  him  a  farthing.  The  almost  friendh  ss  Fcjiolar  nowremtjvtd 
to  London,  wh«re  a  casual  sermon,  preachid  by  a  strnngir  in  Calamy's  church, 
hati  the  effect  of  impartinir  to  liis  soul  the  peace  he  po  ardently  desired.  In  1642,  ho 
published  his  ** Display  of  Armiuiauism,"  a  work  that  proved  very  acceptable  to  the 
jPnritan  l)arty,  and  drew  upon  him  the  favorable  regards  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
Soon  after,  the  '*  Connnittee  for  Purging  the  Church  of  Saindalous  Ministers"  pre- 
sented him  with  the  livin«j;  of  Fordl'.am.in  Esst-x.  Bin  ministrations  were  exc  ed- 
ingjv  pf  pular,  people  eominjr  from  great  distJinces  to  hear  lilui  preach.  While  residing 
at  Fordham  he  married  a  lady  named  Kooki-,  1>y  whom  he  had  sev(  ral  children.  Hot 
long  after  he  removed  to  Cogtro^h-dl,  where  his  views  of  church  povennnent  under- 
went a  modification.  Up  to  this  point  he  luid  been  a  Pn^bytenan,  bnt  he  now  be- 
came a  moderate  Independent  or  Congre}:ation:il:t-t.  It  is  almost  superfluous 
to  add  that  the  Presbyieilan  ministers — intolerant,  doumuticai,  and  acrimonious 
to  H  degree  that  Is  scarcely  cr«diblc — fell  upon  him  at  once  for  his  apostasy, 
iMit  failed  to  perturb  his  sober  temper.  At  Cogtreslmll  he  wrote  his '•  Salus  Elec- 
tornm.  Sanguis  Jesn  "  (*'The  Blood  of  Jesuf,  the  Salvation  of  the  Elect"),  a  work 
the  result  of  seven  years*  st  udy,  and  of  which  he  htms<lf  said  that  '*hH  did  not 
believe  he  should  live  to  see  a  ^olid  answer  given  to  it."  His  fame  ptill  increafin[r, 
he  was  sent  for  in  1646  to  preach  befoie  the  parliament.  'J  0  his  dipcourpe,  entitled 
"A  Vision  of  Free  Mercy,"  ho  added  an  Api^udlx,  in  which  he  pleads  for  liberty 
of  conscience  in  matters  of  religion.  He  was  again  chosen  to  preach  before  the 
House  of  Commons  the  day  after  the  execution  of  King  Charles  I.  (Janu- 
ary El,  1649),  but  discreetly  avoichd  a  vindication  of  the  act.  About  this  time 
Cromwell  made  his  acquaintance,  and  thought  fo  highly  both  of  his  preaching 
and  character,  that  he  insisted  on  O.  accompanying  him  to  Irelmd.  where  the  latter 
remained  alK>nt  half  a  year.  In  1650,  he  went  with  Cromwell  to  Scotland,  and  re- 
Bided  in  Edinburgh  for  several  months ;  in  1661,  the  Hon^e  of  Con.mor>s  :ippoint<  d 
him  dean  of  Chri>t  Church,  Oxford  ;  and  in  1652,  when  only  in  his  86th  year,  he  was 
admirled  vice-clwmcelk)r  of  the  university.  The  manner  in  which  he  dischargeil  hm 
duties  reflects  tlje  highest  credit  on  the  impartiality  Of  his  disposition.  Though  hin>- 
nelf  an  Indepundeui.  aiid  owing  his  honors  directlv  to  the  Ind«  ptndeut  party,  O.  never 
ahew.  d  Idmself  a  partlsau.  Afost  of  the  vacant  livings  in  his  pjitri^iiL'e  were  t>e- 
stowed  on  Presl^ytertt.ns ;  and  Ep'scopalians  were  allowed  to  celebrate  divine 
woi-slMp  in  their  own  way,  nor  could  the  vice-chancellor  ever  be  induced  to 
Offer  them  the  sUfihtest  moleatatioiL    While  at  Oxford,  the  "  Atluf  of  ludepear-. 


y  Google 


Owtn 


612 


dency,"  as  Wood  grandiloquently  dnbs  O.,  wrote  his  "  Diatrfba  do  Dirina 
JastUia."  hia  "Doctrine  of  the  Saiuts  PeiBevoriinoe,"  hiii  ••  Viudidte  Evaii- 
^elicfle  "— agftiuBt  Biddle  (q.  v.)  ami  tiie  Sociniaus— ^tid  his  *' Moriifica:ioii  of  Biu 
in  Believers."  He  wa«  one  of  the  well-known  "tryers"  uppoiuted  to  "purge" 
^lie  chui'cit  of  "  Bcaudalous  "  (I.  e.,  royalist)  "  raiuiMiers,"  jind  iu  this  capacity  slg- 
ualided  himself  by  his  friendly  offices  on  behuif  of  men  of  learning  and  merits 
among  whom  may  be  mentioned  the  celel)rated  Dr  Edward  Pococke,  profes'8<»r  of 
Arabic.  A  coldness  now  appears  to  have  sprnng  up  between  hiui  and  Ci-oiii- 
welL  O.  is  said  to  have  been  opposed  to  what  many  people  call  tl»e  **ainbitiou«i'» 
designs  of  the  Protector,  and  in  1657  he  was  succeeded  as  vice-chancellor  of  the  uni- 
versity by  Dr  Conunt.  The  year  after  Cromwell's  death,  he  was  ejected  frum  his 
deanery,  and  retired  to  Stadham,  in  Oxfordshire,  where  he  had  purchastrd  an  estate, 
and  where  he  formed  a  congregation,  to  which  he  ministered  uutil  his  removal  lo 
London  shortly  after  the  Restoration.  The  writings  belongiue  to  this  period  of  re- 
tirement, if  we  may  so  call  it,  are,  ** Commnniou  with  Uod  ;  "  ''On The  Diviue  Origi- 
nal, Authority,  Self-Evidencing  Light  and  Power  of  the  Sciiptuies;  *  *•  'ITieolojjon- 
inena,  or  Do  Natura,  Ortu,  Progressu,  et  Studio  veiie  Tlxeologiae ; "  and  an  uncritical, 
Irreflective,  and  unscholarly  diatribe  against  Walton's  '*  Pol.vglott,"  iu  which  the 
different  readings}  of  Scripture  were  learnedly  set  forth.  In  16Wy  he  published 
*^ Animadversions  to  Fiat  Lux,"  a  treatise  written  by  a  Fianciscau  friar  in  the  inifr- 
est^s  of  Koman  Catholi(d8m.  It  was  followed  by  works  on  '*  ludwelllng  Sin,"  on  the 
130th  Psalm,  and  on  **The  Epi.^tle  to  the  Hebr^iw^,"  the  last  of  which  Degan  tu  ap- 
pear iu  1668,  and  is  usually  reckoned  O.'s  Magnum  Opus,  In  1669  he  published 
**  Truth  and  Innocence  Vindicated,"  a  reply  to  Samuel  (aiterwards  Bishop)  Parkfi-'s 
"Discourse  on  Ecclesiastical  Policy,"  and  in  1673  became  pastor  of  a  large  coiigre- 

gition  in  Leadenhall  Street.  His  last  publications  of  importance  were  a  *^  Di^ourao 
onceming  the  Holy  Spirit"  (1674) ;  *•  Doctrine  of  Justiflcatiou  by  Faith  "  (1677).  a 
treatise  still  much  admired  by  many ;  and  '*  Christoiogia,  or  Glorious  Mystery  of 
the  Person  of  Christ." 

O.ln  his  later  years  was  held  In  the  highest  esteem  by  many  of  the  moat  influential 
pereona^es  in  the  land,  such  as  the  Earl  of  Oirery,  the  ^^"^1  of  Anglesea,  Lord 
Willough by,  Lord  Berkley,  Sir  John  Trevor.,  When  drinking  the  waters  at  Tun- 
bridge,  eveu  tiie  Duke  ot  York  and  Charles  II.  paid  him  particular  attention,  and 
had  long  conversations  wilh  him  on  the  subject  of  Nonconformity.  O.  <lied  at  KaJ- 
ing,  24th  August  16S3.  and  was  buried  in  Bunhill  Fields.  His  funeral  was  attendeti  by 
no  less  than  sixty  noblemen.  O.  w^as  the  most  volumiuouf,  but  by  no  means  the 
most  powerful  writer  among  the  Purit4jn  divines.  His  prolix  and  i)assiouIe8s  dis- 
quisitions, hifidull,  tedious,  audexiiaustingargumentaiions,  hin  lack  of  subtle  spirit  unl 
perception,  his  ponderous  and  lumbering  style,  make  his  writings  the  reverse?  of 
interesting;  and  one  can  almost  pardon  the  irreverent  criticism  of  Kobert  Hall,  who 
iff  said  to  have  pronounced  them  a  **  coutin<!Ut  of  nnid."  Yet  O.  deserves  i*especT  for 
his  learning  and  moderation.  The  best  edition  of  Ids  works  was  published  at£dtu- 
burgh  ( 1856,  et  teq.), 

OWEN,  Richard,  was  bom  at  Lancaster,  July  20, 1804.  Having  received  his  ele- 
mentary education  at  the  grammar-school  of  tiiat  town,  lie  became,  at  the  age  of  20, 
a  student  iu  Edinburgh  University.  Uuder  the  guidance  of  the  tliii*d  Monro,  AlLson, 
Jameson,  and  Hope  in  the  universit}',  and  of  Barclay  in  the  outdoor  school,  his 
natural  talents  early  d-veloped  themselves.  He  was  an  active  student,  and  with 
others  of   kindred  spirit,  formed  tlie  Huuterian  iocicty,  of  which  he  was  liioseu 

S resident  in  1825.  In  1826,  he  removed  to  Loudon,  joinfaig  the  medical  school  of  St 
anholomew's  Hoi«pital ;  and  to  the  Medical  Society  of  this  Institution  he  com- 
municated ids  earliest  published  paper:  **An'Acc6unt  of  the  Dissection  of  iho 
Parts  c(mcernod  iu  the  Aneurism,  for  the  Cure  of  which  Dr  Stevens  tied  the  Inter- 
nal iliac  Artery."  which  appeared  in  the  **Medico-Chirin^.cal  Transactions "  for 
1830.  It  was  doubted  whether  so  deep-seated  an  artery  could  have  been  reached,  but 
he  shewed  that  the  1  gature  had  been  applied  to  the  internal  iliac,  and  the  auedrisui 
had  in  this  way  been  obliteraicd. 

It  had  been  his  intention  to  enter  the  navy;  but  when  he  fiulshed  his  educaliort, 
he  accei>ted  an  appointment  as  assistai.t  to  Mr  ClUt,  the  Curator  of  the  Museum  of 
the  lloyal  College  of  Surgeons,  and  helped  him  in  the" preparation  of  his  cutalognas 
of  ** Pathological  Specimens"  (1830),  ^'Moustera  aud  MaUormatious"  (1881),  but 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


613  ^^ 

chlcflTOf  the  "Specimens  of  Katnrnl  Hfpforvin  Spirits"  (1880).  He  hnd,  abont 
thi-  ttiiio,  the  fortunii  to  i>btAlii  a  vpedmen  of  IfantiLuspompUnM,  an  animal  nimosf. 
unknown,  and  of  great  Iwipoitance  not  only  in  itself,  but  also  Jiml  chlffly  because  of 
its  uunirrona  fossil  alliep.  The  rp»<tilf8  of  his  ctireful  dissection  of  tliia  speciniou 
were  published  in  a\i  elaborate  Memoir,  which  at  once  gave  him  a  higii  po5>itiou 
amongst  natnraiistp,  for  the  adyanced  views  on  stracture  and  aflSnities  it  contained. 

The  continued  examination  of  Hunter's  extensive  collections  in  tlie  Coilcy^e  of 
Surgeons'  Mii!*eum  was  his  gteat  work.  'IMiis  resulted  in  the  enlargement  and  nr- 
raugonientof  the  collections,  and  in  the  publication  of  his  "Descriptive  and  Illns- 
trated  Catalogue  of  the  Phywoloirical  Series  of  Comparative  Anatomy,"  which  was 
i»su<'d  in  sections  dnrhig  1833—1840 ;  of  his  •*  Paleeontological  Catalogne,"  of  which 
the  MammaliD  and  Birfle  were  published  in  1846.  anrl  the  Reptiles  and  Fishes  in  1864 ; 
and  of  Ilia  **  Catalogue  of  Receiit  Oi«teology  "  (1854),  in  which  he  describes  69M 
specimens.  The  collections,  which  in  1828  were  contained  in  one  small  badlv-Ifgli fed 
room,  in  1856,  when  O.'s  connection  with  tUein  terminated,  filled  ten  times  the 
original  space — three  hirge  galleries  having  been  specially  erected  to  contain  them. 

O.'s  position  as  curator  of  the  Hunterian  Museum,  to  which  he  succeeded  on  the 
death  c>f  Clift,  awakened  in  him  *&  special  interest  in  its  famous  founder.  In  1887, 
he  published  a  new  edition  of  Hunter's  "  Animal  Economy,"  wUling  to  it  all  the 
known  published  papers  of  its  author;  and  giving  in  the  preface,  for  the  fir£>t  time, 
ft  descriptive  narrative  of  Huuter'd  real  discoveries.  He  afterwards  edited  two  Vot- 
nmes  of  *' Epsays  and  Observations  on  Natural  History,  Anatom]L  &c./by  John 
Huuier"  (1861).  which  had  been  paved  from  Home's  unprincipled  anu  barbarons  do- 
Btrnctiou  of  Banter's  manuncripts,  by  having  l>eou  transcribed  by  Clift,  who  was  the 
lai»t  articled  apprentice  of  Hunter.  In  the  preface  to  these  volumes,  O.  shewed  the 
advanced  views  which  Hunter  entertained  in  Geology  and  Palaeontology. 

The  flret  appointment  of  O.  as  public  lecturer  was  to  the  chair  of  Comparative 
Anatomy  in  St  Bartliolomew's  Hospital  in  1834.  Two  years  afterwards,  he  suc- 
ceeded Sir  Charles  Bell  as  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology  in  the  Cc^lege  of 
Surgeons,  and  was  in  the  same  year  appointed  by  the  College  as  first  ^^Hunteriau 
Piofessor."  For  twenty  years  he  coutinned  to  illustrate  the  recent  and  fossil  treas- 
ures of  tlie  museum,  until,  in  1856,  he  was  appointed  Superintendent  of  the  Natural 
Hiatoiy  IX^partment  of  the  British  Museum,  when  his  connection  with  the  College  of 
Surgeons  ceased. 

We  have  not  space  to  record  even  the  principal  of  O.'s  numerous  published  pa- 
pers. His  earliest  communications  to  the  Rj)yal  Society  were  pap<?rs  on  the  gener- 
ation of  the  ornithorhynchns  and  of  the  kangaroo.  In  numerous  Memoirs  between 
1836  and  1862,  he  expounded  the  structure  and  aflBnities  of  the  higher  quadrumana ; 
and  in  tlieee  and  other  i>ape}rs,  he  proposed  the  use  of  the  brain-structure,  as  an  im- 
portant element  in  classifleatiou.  It.  has-  been  objected,  that  the  particular  parts  to 
which  he  referred  in  characterising  his  highest  class,  are  found  in  tiie  lower  clafS(>B; 
but  the  objectors  forget  tinit  he  does  not  use  the  existepce  of  the  parts  as  his  char- 
acters, but  only  their  remarkable  development.  A  similar  objection  may  be  urged 
against  eveiy  system  of  clapsificatlim,  for  no  decided  line  can  be  drawn  around  any 
gi'oup,  the  whole  animal  world  being  united  by  a  graduation  of  fcitrncture. 

His  exposition  of  the  recent  and  fossil  birds  of  New  Zealand  is  well  known.  He 
flist  published  two  elaborate  papers  on  the  anjitoniy  of  the  Apteryx,  and  then 
followed  at  intervals  seven  or  eight  monographs  on  the  gigantic  strntliious  Birds 
which  once  existed  in  these  distiiiit  islands.  His  descriptions  and  restorations  of 
extinct  animals  are  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  liis  labors?.  He  has  published 
a  monograph  of  the  British  Fossil  Mammalia  and  Birds,  and  six  parts  of  an  elwlxj- 
rate  systematic  history  of  British  fossil  Reptile?.  In  describing  the  fragmentary  fos- 
sil relics  brought  home  by  Darwin  from  South  America,  he  esiablishtd  many 
rcnmrkable  forma  from  very  scanty  mat.rials,  and  shewed  that  there  existed  iu 
America,  during  the  'i'ertiary  period,  a  mammalian  Fauna,  the  individuals  of  which 
were,  for  the  most  part,  of  gigantic  size,  yet  similar  in  type  to  the  existing  animals 
of  that  continent.  Subsequently,  he  cleariy  expounded  the  various  genera  of  hnge 
sloths  from  the  same  region,  whose  remains  were  previously  conf<mnded  or  mii'nn- 
derstood.  A  series  of  fOKsils  from  Australia  revealed  to  him  a  remarkable  group  of 
gigantic  maisupials,  resembling  in  type  the  pj-esent  tenants  of  that  island-continent. 
His  Uitestpulsoutological  paper  is  his  elaborate  Memoir  ou  the  singular  long-tailed 


y  Google 


tilrd  Hroro  8o'teniiotoi,  in  wttlcli  be  for  the  first  lime  fxponnclec!  the  ftmctore  fmd 
afi&Qiti'SOf  timt  Hiiomalotie  crentari'.  But  wo  cannot  uv  n  recoM  the  titles  of  lus 
mu  titndinou*  researches  on  cxrinct  nniinjils,  nnd  i^ugt  refer  onr  readoi'fi,  for  a  ean*- 
irtary  of  tlipin,  to  liis  work,  "  P«lieontolO}j;y  '■  (Kdi- .  B^ack,  1861). 

Ilis  grciit  work  oiijhe  intci-o.^copic  stnictur  *  of  tli  •  toi*Th  yinst  be  named.  The 
"OdmtOijniphy,"  pnbliHiied  in  1840— 1S45,  contains  descriptions  and  exquisite 
drawings  of  the  ininutH  t*tructrire  of  a  veiy  ixtensive  smcs  <7f  the  teeth  of  every 
cl  is-<  of  animals,  and  form:*  an  iiilmeuse  storc-hoiitH;  of  infonmitiou  alike  to  the 
auatoiuist  and  i^u*.  geolou'ist. 

H«  has  published  origintd  papers  on  every  branch  of  the  animal  kingdom,  living 
nnd  fossil ;  anrl  it  ha-*  b.ten  jiisily  said  of  him.  that.  *♦  f rom  tlie  Hiwnge  to  man.  he  has 
thrown  liirlit  over  every  snbject  he  haa  touched."  Souk^  idea  of  the  maguitnde  of 
his  labors  may  be  formed  from  the  t:ict  tliat  his  pnb!is«livd  productions  amount  to 
more  than  300  different  papers  and  works,  mauy  of  them  being  of  the  most  volum- 
iuoiH  and  laborious  ciiaracter. 

O.,  in  183.'),  married  Uie  only  daughter  of  Clifr,  his  colleague  at  the  CoUepe  o£ 
8uig30ns.  In  1858,  he  resumed  his  position  as  Fullerian  Prot>JHSOr  of  Pbyf*iolO!iy  in 
ths  Royal  Institution  of  Britain,  wnich,  some  20  ymvti  before,  Iw  had  filled  for  two 
8(!asiou:* :"  ami  in  the  following  year  h«  was  appoiutt^d  Retide  Lecturer  by  the  Uuh'cr- 
sity  of  Caml>ridnre,  but  lias  now  re!*ignetl  these  offic-s.  He  i**  a  Fellow  and  aciivo 
member  of  most  of  thi  raL'tr.moIitau  scientific  societies,  one  of  the  eight  forei|ni 
associates  of  the  Institute  of  France,  a:»d  im  houorary  meml)erof  numy  foreign 
societies.  Fr(im  France  he  also  received  the  order  of  the  Legion  of  Honor;  from 
Prussia,  the  Ordre  pour  le  Merite;  and  fro.n  Italy,  tlie  Order  of  St  Haarice  and  St 
Lazare.    He  was  made  a  companion  of  the  Bath  in  1S73- 

OWEN,  Robert,  a  social  theorist  and  schemer,  was  bora  on  the  14th  of  May  ITTl, 
at  Newton,  in  Montgomeryshire.  IL>  does  not  appe  ir  to  have  had  any  more  than  ai 
merely  commerchd  education  to  fit  him  for  ommon  imsines^.  Tl»e  point  from 
which  his  peculiar  destiny  in  life  may  be  said  to  have  started,  was  iiis  marriagne  in 
1T99  to  the  d;mghter  of  David  D  de,  tlie  owner  of  the  celebrated  cotton  mills  at  New 
Lanark,  on  tlie  Clyde.  This  eatabli?'hnient  \vi\9  very  suceessfnl  as  a  money  i»p  *cnla- 
tlou,  and  it  is  curious  that  Jeremy  Bentham  made  a^aiiiall  fortune  by  investing  in  it. 
Mr  Dale  was  known  to  l>e  a  thorough  man  of  business*,  but  whether  C,  by  his  pecu- 
liar faculties  for  organisation,  contributed  to  the  prosperity  of  "the  establisbmeut  in 
it-*  <'arly  sttisces,  is  u  doubtful  que.Htlon,  It  is  certain  that  as  his  larger  schemes  de- 
velop'^d  themselves*,  h«  whh  fi-lt  to  be  a  dang<Tous  partner  in  a  good  business,  and  he 
was  gnidoally  elbowed  out  of  any  voice  in  the,mam»gement,  and  he  finally  dispOij»ed 
of  his  share  in  the  properly. 

It  should  be  remembered^  however,  of  a  man  whose  lif-  will  go  down  to  posterity 
as  one  long  absm'dity,  that  in  his  counection  with  New  Lanark  Mills  he  did  rt-al 
practical  good  ou  a  sc.ile  by  no  means  limitt'd.  He  was  naturally  active  and  iiiter- 
feiiiig.  and  being  a  humatie  man,  it  struck  hira  that  much  degradation,  Aice, 
and  suffeiiug  arose  from  the  disoriranised  manner  in  which  the  proi»re8.^  of  ma- 
chinery and  mauufacbures  was  Imddling  the  manufacturing  population  together. 
He  introduced  into  the  New  Lanark  c«>mmnnlty  education,  sanitary  reform,  and 
various  civilising  agencie-,  which  philanthropists  at  the  present  day  are  but  Jmper- 
fectly  accompiis'hiug  in  the  great  manufacturing  districts.  The  mills  l>ecame  a 
c«ntre  of  attraction.  They  wei-e  daily  visited  by  every  iIiu!«trioas  travcDer  in 
BiiUun,  from  crowned  heads  downwards,  and  it  was  d<ilightfnl  not  only  to  see  the 
decency  and  order  of  everything,  but  to  hear  the  bland  pei-suasive  eloquence  of  l!»e 
garrulous  and  l)enevol3ut  organiser. 

A  factory  was,  however,  far  too  limited  a  sphere  for  his  amblt.ron.  He  wanted 
to  organis.5  the  world  ;  and  that  thei-e  might  be  no  want  Of  an  excuse  for  his  inter- 
vention, he  ser.  alx)nL  proving  that  it  was  in  all  its  institutions— the  prevailing  re- 
ligion iucluded—in  as  wr»tched  a  condition  as  any  dirty  demoralised  man nfactn ring 
village.  &uch  was  the  sclieme  with  which  he  came  out  on  the  astonished  \rorkl  iu 
18l«,  in  his  "New  Views  of  Societv,  or  Essays  on  the  Formation  of  t hie  Human 
Ciiaracter;"  and  he  continued,  in  books,  pamphlet.^  lecturtfs,  and  other  available 
foiins,  to  keep  up  the  stream  of  excitation  till  it  was  stopjifedby  his  death.  He  had 
ai  least  three  grand  opportunities  of  setting  np  limir«»d  cftm'muiiities  oh  his  owii 
priucipteft— one  at  ttonauey,  iu  America;  a  second  at  Orbittou,  iu  Lauarkah&ie;  tbe 


y  Google 


615  tr 

third  at  Hiirinony  Hall,  lii  Hamp^hirerso  li\tc\y  ns  the  year  1844.  Th^y  were,  of 
course,  nil  failnree,  and  O.  attribure<l  their  failnre  to  their  not  being  snfBciently  |)er- 
fecied  on  his  priuciples.  His  life  was  a  reumrkable  pheDOinenoDj  from  the  pi-eter- 
Dutmal  sangninenesB  of  temperament  which,  in  the  face  of  faiiurep,  and  a  world 
evergrowing  more  hostile,  made  him  be'lieve  to  tlu;  Inst  tliar  nil  liin  projects  were 
jnst  on  the  eve  of  sac  esj».  lu  the  revolution  of  1848hewent  lo  Paris,  with  hopes 
of  course  on  the  highest  stretch  ;  but  his  voice  wjis  not  loud  enoiigh  lo  be  heard  lu 
that  great  turmoil.  Ue  appeared  at  the  meeting  of  the  Social  Science  Associution 
at  Liverpool  in  the  autumn  of  1858,  witli  all  his  schemes  as  fresh  as  ever.  He  died 
a  few  weeks  afterward?',  on  17th  Novemi)er  1868.  A  life  ot  O.  by  A.  J.  Booth  aj)- 
pcared  in  1869  (Trubner). 

OWL,  a  numerous  and  extremely  well-defined  group  of  birds,  constituting  the 
Linnfean  g^nn8  Strix^  now  the  family  Strigidce^  the  whole  of  the  hocturvai  seciion 
of  Birds  of  Prey.  The  aspect  of  tlie  owls  at  once  diptingushes  them  from  nil  of  her 
birds,  being  rendered  vt^ry  peculiar  by  the  huge  size  of  their  heads,  juld  by  their 
great  eyes,  directed  forwards',  and  surroumitd  uilh  more  or  less  perfect  c^iscf  of 
feather.^  radiating  outwards,  whilst  th<'  pmall  Lof)ked  bill  is  half  concealed  by  the 
feaihers  of  these  discs  a»»d  by  bristly  feathers  which  grow  at  its  buse.  The  bill  is 
curved  ahnost  from  its  base;  the  upper  maiidibh?  not  notched,  hut  much  hooked  at 
the  tip.  Th«  claws  are  shai-p  and  cui-ved,  but,  like  the  bill,  less  powerful 
than  in  the  Falconidce,  The  outer  toe  is  generally  reversible  at  pleut^ure,  so 
that  the  toe*  eau  be  opposed  two  and  two,  to  give  greater  security  of  grai-p. 
The  wiijffs,  although  generally  long,  are  less  adapted  for  rapid  and  sus- 
tained fliglit  than  .  those  of  the  aiurnal  birds  of  prey,  and  the  bony 
framework  by  which  they  are  supported  and  the  muscles  which  move 
th«m,  are  less  powerful ;  the  owls  in  gt  neral  taking  their  prey,  not  by  pursuit,  hut 
by  surprise,  to  which  there  is  a  beautiful  adaptation  m  the  softness  of  their  plumage, 
and  their  consequently  noiseless  flight ;  the  feathers  even  of  the  wings  being  downy, 
and  not  offering  a  firm  resis^ting  surface  to  the  air,  as  in  falcons.  The  soft  and  loose 
plumage  adds  umch  to  the  apparent  size  of  the  body,  and  also  of  the  head ;  but  the 
head  owes  its  really  laree  size  to  large  cavities  in  the  skull  between  its  outer  and 
inner  ables  or  Ijony  layers,  which  cavities  communicate  with  the  ear,  and  are  sup- 
posed to  add  to  the  acutenese  of  the  sense  of  hearing.  This  sense  is  certainly  very 
acute,  and  the  ear  is,  in  nntny  of  the  species,  very  large.  It  is  furnished  with  an  ex- 
ternal conch,  which  is  found  in  no  other  birds.  It  is,  however,  concealed' by  the 
feathers,  being  situated  on  the  outside  of  the  disc  which  surrounds  the  eye;  but  the 
featliers  Immediately  surrounding  the  ear  are  arranjred  in  a  kiud  of  cone,  serving  a 
purpose  like  that  of  on  ear-trnmpet.  In  some  species,  the  ear  is  furnished  with  a 
remarkable  lid  or  operculum,  which  the  bird  baa  the  power  of  opening  ai»d  shutting 
at  pleasure.  The  disc  which  surrounds  the  eye  serves  to  collect  rays  of  light  and 
throw  them  on  the  pupil ;  and  owls  can  see  well  in  twilight  or  moonlight,  but  are 
generally  incapable  of  snstjiiniug  the  glare  of  day,  many  of  them  becoming  cinite  he- 
wildered  when  exposed  to  it.  and  evichntly  suffering  pain,  which  they  instinctively 
seek  to  relieve  by  frequent  motion  of  the  third  eyelid  or  nictitating  memlhane  of  the 
eye.  'J'he  legs  and  feet  of  owls  are  feathered  to  the  toes,  and  in  many  species  even 
to  the  claws. 

The  digestive  organs  much  resemble  those  of  the  Falconidse,  but  there  IS  no 
crop,  and  the  siomacn  is  more  muscular.  The  gullet  is  very  w'de  throughout,  and 
owls  swallow  their  prey  either  entire  or  in  very  large  morsels.  The  larges't 
species  feed  on  hare:«,  fawns,  the  largest  gallinaceous  birds,  &c. ;  others  on  small 
inammalia,  reptiles,  birds,  and  sometimes  fishes;  some  feed  partly  or  chiefly  on'' 
largrt  insects. 

The  owl  has  from  early  time  been  deemed  a  bird  of  evil  omen,  and  has  been  an 
object  <rf  dislike  and  dread  to  the  sup  rstitious.  This  is  perhapis  partly  to  be  a**'- 
-cribed  to  the  nuinner  with  which  it  is  olten  seen  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  to  flit 
l)y  whet)  the  twilight  is  deepening  into  wlirht;  partly  to  the  fact,  that  ffome  of  the 
be)*t-kuown  species  frequent  niined  buildings,  whilst  others  hauiit  the  deepest  soli- 
tudes lif  woods ;  hut  UQ  doubt,  chiefly  to  the  cry  of  some  of  the  species,  hollow  and 
lognbrions,  but  loud  and  startling,  heard  during  the  hours  of  darkness,  and  often  by 
the  lonely  wanderer.  It  is  evidently  from  this  cry  that  the  name  of  owl  is  deriv<'d, »« 
W«ii  as  mittty  o£  its  syiionjmes  iu  other  Uuj;uaKee,  and  of  the  names  lu^opriAted  iu 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


different  conntiiesto  partictilar  Bpeciee,  in  most  of  which  the  sound  Oo  or  Oi0.1s 
predomiuuitt,  with  grettt  varieiy  of  accomp:uiying  consonaute.  Mufiy  of  the  owls 
Aave  also  another  and  very  difitereut  cry,  which  liax  gained  for  one  of  tltem  the  up» 
pellation  screech  owl,  and  to  whiclj,  i>rohahly,  tbe  Lutiu  name  strias  and  some  other 
names  are  to  be  r(*ferred. 

'  Some  of  the  owls  have  the  discs  of  the  face  imperfect  above  the  eyes,  the  whole 
aspect  sotnewhar  apfiroaeliing  to  that  uf  falcons ;  the  coiichs  of  the  ears  ainali.  aud 
the  habits  less  nocturnal  than  the  rest  of  this  family.  These  oHustitiite  oneol  tiM 
tltrce  gtnierally  received  divisions  in  which  tlie  spedes  are  arranged.  Auotlter.divlsicm 
with  more  perfect  discs  aroand  the  eyes,  is  chiiracteriiied  hy  tlie  p^s^euce  o|  two 
fojithery  mfts  on  the  head,  popularly  called  horns,  or  eaia,  mid  sometimes  egi-eta  or 
aigrotlc!*.  The  third  division  is  destitute  of  these  tufts,  the  discs  of  the  face  ar<>  pttr- 
fect.  and* the  ears  are  very  large.  On  these  dislinctionsi,  aud  on  the  feathered  or  un- 
ftatherv'd  toes,  and  other  points  not  of  great  importance,  are  founded  the  genera  iuio 
which  the  Linnaean  genus  Stnx  baa  J)eeu  broken  down  by  recent  ornithologists. 
See,  for  example,  the  characters  of  Bubo  in  the  article  Ejiole  OwIj. 

Owls  are  fomid  iii  all  mirts  of  the  world,  aud  iu  all  climates.  Ten  species  are 
jcckoned  88  natives  of  the  Britisli  Islands,  some  of  whichj  however,  are  very  ran*, 
and  about  ftfteeli  are  natives  of  Europe.  Some  of  the  .species  have  a  very  wide  geo- 
fiTHphical  ranj^e.  One  of  tlie  mont  plentiful  British  species  is  the  White  Owl,  or 
Barn  Owl.  or  Sobeboh  Owl  {Strix  Jlammea)^  one  of  those  haviug  perfect  discs 
around  the  eyet*,  and  no  aigrettes.  It  is  iiboutfourteen  inches  in  its  whole  Ingtb.  The 
t:iili8,  asin  most  of  the  owls,  rather  t^hort  aud  rounded;  the  vnugsreadimther  beyond 
the  tjiil.  The  toes  are  not  feathered.  The  head  and  npper  pjuts  are  of  a  pale  oritugo 
color,   marked   hv   a   multitude  of   small,   scattered  chestnut -colored   spots,  and 

f;ray  and  brown  ziz-zag  lines ;  the  face  and  throat  white.  This  owl  very  generally 
reqneiits  old  buildings  and  outho«iset».  It  destroys  great  uumhei-s  of  rats  aud  mice, 
and  deserves  the  protection  of  the  farmer.  The  voracity  of  owls  is  woud  rful,  and 
they  kill,  if  possib'e,  more  than  they  need,  storins?  it  up  fG»r  future  use.  The  baru 
mvl  Is  ea.^'ily  tamed  if  taken  young.  When  irritated,  it  lias,  like  some  other — per- 
Ji:i.p!«  all — owl;^,  a  habit  of  hissing  and  snapping  its  mandibles  together.  It  almost 
never  leaves  its  retreat  by  day,  unless  driven  out;  aud  when  this  is  the  case,  all  the 
Jit  tie  birds  of  the  neighborhood  ctmgrogate  about,  it  as  an  enemy  whieh  may  then  bo 
BaJely  annoyed,  aud  tiie  grimaces  of  the  poor  owl,  blinded  by  the  too  strong  light,  are 
v*vry  grotesque  aud  iiinu!«ing.  This  species  has  been  saitl  to  l)e  an  inhabitant  of  almost 
fill  pans  of  the  world,  but  tlu're  is  reason  to  think  that  similar  species  have  been  con- 
f ouiuled.— The  Tawnt  Owl,  Brown  Owl,  or  Ivr  Owl  ( Strix,  or  ^yrnium^  s^idula, 
or  aluco)  is  another  of  the  n»05*t  common  British  owls,  a  species  alwut  the  size  of 
the  barn  owl,  or  mther  larger,  with  rather  longer  tail,  and  comparatively  short  winga, 
the  feet  feathered  to  t  he  claws ;  the  upper  parts  mostly  ash-gray  mottle<l  witli  browa, 
the  under  parts  grayish-white  an«l  mottled.— The  Lono-eared  Owl  (5«na;  o<te«,  or 
OtHS  vulgaris  I  and  the  Short-bared  Owl  {S.  or  0.  bracki/otoa),  species  with 
aigrettes,  are  not  unfreqa.Mit  Bririssh  bird*.  Tbe  Eagle  Owl  (q.  v.)  occurs,  but  is 
rare.— Or  the  species  witu  imperfect  discs  around  the  eyes  and  more  falcon-like  as- 
pect, the  mo.«t  interesting  in  the  British  fauna  is  the  Snowy  Owl  {StriXy  or  Stimiia. 
n^ctea),  the  Harfang  of  the  Swede?,  a  species  occasionally  Feen  in  the  Shetland 
Islands,  and  very  rarely  iu  ujore  southern  regions  In  winter,  but  well  known  in  all 
the  very  northern  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  from  22  to  2T  inche?  In  lengWj,  feeds  on 
every  kind  of  animal  footl  which  it  can  oi)tain,  and  has  white  plumage  spotted  and 
barred  with  brown,  the  legsd  .nsely  feachered  to  the  claws. — Of  owls  not  natlvt-s  of 
Britain,  one  of  the  most  interesting  is  the  Burrowing  Owl  {Strix,  or  Atkem,  cuni' 
eulat-ia).  a  North  American  species,  which,  when  necessary,  excavates  a  burrow  for 
itself,  but  prefers  to  take  possession  of  tliose  of  the  marmot,  cjilled  the  Prairie  l>o^ 
(q.  v.).  It  is  not  the  only  opecies  of  owl  which  inhabits  holes  in  the  ground. — TIhj 
BooBOOK  or  BooKSOOK  of  Australia  (.Stiix^  or  Xoctjta:,  Boointok)  is  a  Bp*'Ci«'8  of  owl. 
wliich  frequiiutly  repeats  duriug  the  ni^lit  tiie  cry  rnpr*  sented  by  jis  name,  :is  if  ii 
were  a  nocturuiU  cuckoo.  Some  of  the  npecies  of  owl  are  small  bird?' ;  amon«^'  ilio 
rarer  Britisr-h  species  are  one  of  8>^  Indies,  and  one  scarcely  more  than  T  iiiche*  lontj. 
8om<'  owls  are  at  least  partially  birds  of. passage,  of  which,'atuoug  Btlti^h  iBpocleB, 
the  short-eared  owl  is  ail  example, 

^   OWLGILASS   (Ger,   EutSNSPlEaxL),    Tyll,   the  prototype  of  all  tbe  kaavteh 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


617  gr"^ 

**  fools  *♦  of  later  time,  Is  said  to  liavn  been  boro  In  the  Tillage  of  KneflHngen.  in 
Brunswick.  Hit»  facliHi*  wnn  called  Klttiis  EnlenspiegeU  mid  his  mother  Anna  Wort* 
Wk.  lu  youth,  we  are  told,  be  waiidoivd  out  into  the  wcu'Ul,  and  pluveduil  nmuner 
'ot  tricks  on  thi*  i»eo;>le  Wiioni  lit:  nict  with.  His  tomb  i»  shewn  8t  Mdllu,  alx>iit  fonr 
leau'Hos  from  Lubeckj  whiTctfHdit Ion  niakc!*  him  die  nbout  185U;  but  the  Kihnbi- 
f:uiU  of  Damme,  in  Belvrium,  ithio  boa^t  of  having  his  hones  in  their  churchyard,  and 

tilace  his  death  in  I801«  ik)  tliat  ceveral  critics  regard  Rulunspiegel  ns  an  alto|;etiicr 
nuiginary  person,  a  mere  nonttiiiH  unibra  affixed  lo  a  cycle  of  medievul  tricks  uud 
adventures.  'J'he  opinion,  hoWttver,  considered  most  probable  in  that  Sulen^picgoJ 
Is  not  a  myth,  but  that  there  were  two  historical  individuals  of  thntname^  faihjerand 
pon.  of  whom  the  former  died  at  Damme,  and  the  latter  at  MOUu.  Tlie  stories  that 
cironlate  in  Germany  under  £ufenspiegel*s  name  were  not  collected,  ns  the  book 
containing  tliem  itself  lut'orms  ns,  till  after  KnIenspieecrB  deaih,  and  witliont  doubt 
were  origm  tily  written  in  the  Low  (ieruian  tongue;  from  Low  German,  tbuy  were 
translated  into  Higli  Gernnin  l>y  the  Franciscan  Tiiom.  Munier,  and  this  trattttlatiou 
wa?  followed  in  all  the  old  High  Qurinun  editions  ot  the  work.  At  a  later  period,  it 
underwent  cousidenibie  alterations,  at  the  hands  of  both  Protestints  and  Catholic!*, 
who  uiiide  it  a  vehicle  for  the  expression  of  their  owni  likings  and  dislikings.  Tiie 
okluat  known  edition  is*  tlnitj>i-inted  at  Straahurg  in  1519.  'J'he  verdict.  oF  modem 
limes  has  been  unfavorable,  not  only  to  the  test hetic,  but  to  the  moral  value  ot  the 
book ;  yet  although  indeceucieH  may  be  lound  abundantly  in  it,  they  may  pcrliajMi 
jn  lar$;e  measure  be  uttributrd  to  the  age  in  which  £uU-nsp:egwl  or  the  author  of 
Eulcnspiejrel  Jived.  For  centuries  it  has  l)een  a  favorite  people's  l>ook,  not  only  in 
Gernniny, l>nt  in  ninny  other  countries.  Translations  of  it  exist  in  Bohemian,  Po- 
lisili,  Italian.  Engliah  (as  a  "  Miracle  Play  ")t  Dutch,  Danish,  French,  and  Ltitin  ;  it 
lias  been  frequently  imitated,  and  reprinted  times  without  number  down  to  the  most 
recent  years.  Max  Mi'iUer,  in  his  '*  Lectnrc$>  on  the  Science  of  Language  "  points 
out  that  Bulen««pieifel  is  the  origin  of  the  French  word  eapiegUy  waggisli.  When  tl.e 
steries  about  Eulenspiegel  were  translated  into  French,  he  was  called  tJlespi^irle, 
'^  which  name  coutracted  afterwards  into  JSupiegUy  became  a  general  name  for  every 
wag." 

OWNERSHIP  is  not  a  legal  term,  though  it  is  used  frequently  in  law  to  denote 
the  highest  degree  or  kind  of  property  which  one  can  have  in  anyttiing.  Owner  is 
often  used  in  tliis  sense  as  contradistinguislied  from  an  occupier,  who  has  only  a 
temporary  interest  in  the  property'.  Thus  a  freeholder,  or  one  who  holds  a  frec^hold 
estate  in  land,  is  an  owner;  thonglt,  in  comnton  ])arlance,  it  is  not  unusual  al.-o  to 
de!»cribe  as  owner  any  one  who  has  a  long  lease  of  the  property.  When  a  person  is 
Owner  in  fee  of  land,  he  has  certain  rights  more  or  less  absolute  ns  incidental  there- 
to; for  example,  he  may  build  on  his  Jand  ns  high  as  lie  pleases,  subject  only  to 
doing  no  dhvct  injury  to  his  neighbor,  such  as  darkening  his  windows;  and  hemny 
dig  as  deep  as  he  pleases,  or,  as  it  is  said,  to  the  centre  of  the  earth.  There  are 
certain  things  which  are  said  to  be  incapable  of  ownership,  such  as  the  air,  the  sea, 
and  the  water  of  navigable  rivers,  as  to  each  of  whicli  every  individual  member  of 
the  public  has  the  right  merely  of  using  it,  but  no  one  has  the  ownership— i.  e.,  the 
exclusive  right  of  property  as  well  as  possession  thereof.  As  to  things  wild,  such  as 
birds,  beasts,  fishes,  the  rule  is  that  he  who  first  catches  the  animal  becomes  the 
owner  thereof,  and  acquires  such  a  proi)erty  in  it,  that  any  one  who  takes  it  from 
him  ag-ainst  his  will  commits  larceny.  But  though  the  pei-son  who  first  aitches  a 
wild  animal  is  entitled  to  It,  penalties  are  sometimes  Imposed  upon  the  pei*8ou 
catching  it,  as  to  which  see  Game,  Poaching.  In  regard  to  lost  property— i.e., 
property  which  had  once  been  appropii.ited  and  possessed  by  some  one,  but  who 
has  casually  lost  or  abandoned  it— tlie  rule  Is  that  he  who  finds  it  is  entitled  to  keep 
It,  providtxl  at  the  time  of  finding  it  he  had  no  means  of  ascertaining  the  owner. 
But  the  true  owner,  if  he  discover  and  can  identify  the  property,  can  always  in 
general  reclaim  it  from  the  finder.    See  Lost  Property. 

OX  {Bos  tottrtM),  a  ruminant  quadruped  of  the  fatnily  BovidcB  (q.  v.),  the  most 
usetul  to  man  of  all  domesticated  animals.  The  8])ecies  is  distingnislied  by  a  flat 
forehead^  longer  than  broad ;  and  by  smooth  and  round  tapering  horns,  rising  from 
the  extremities  of  the  frontal  ridge.  But  among  the  many  varieties  or  breeds  which 
exists  there  are  ^'roat  diversities  in  the  ion^th  and  curvature  of  the  horns,  and  some 
ar^  hornless.    It  is  probable  th.it  the  ox  is  a  native  both  of  Asia  and  of  Europe,  per- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


*«  618 


iMips  al-o  ot  Africa ;  nt^d  not  fitipmbable  that  Jt  mny  have  hecn  domwtlcatod  at  flif- 
feitiut  timop  aud  in  different  C'tiiitiiea.  It  ( jiiinot  be  confldeully  uRSiit  d  tlml  itiiow 
exists  nnywlierc  hi  ti  iruly  wild  i^tnle  ;  wild  oxen  are  iiowhcnr  i«o;»l)nud;iiit.  us  on  tne 
i);Mnpaj»  or  grrul  irrossy  plains  ot  South  AirhTiau  where  it  is  ceitain  tlml  they  iii-e  not 
"  nid  g^noii-*;  nu«-]  it  Lh  not  impo-sible  that  the  wild  ox.-ii  still  o.xie^tiiig  in  the  parks  of 
«  £»i\v  noblemen  In  Uiitain  ui  y  '>«  alao  descended  fiQni  dojues'ticatt'd  aniiuals. 
Whether  or  not  the  Unus,  described  by  ancient  auiliurs  ns  uu  inhabitant  of  CVntral 
Eu:Oi.»e,  wua  the  o  iijinal  of  the  doinestic  ox,  will  be  considered  iu  the  article  Urns. 
Tuo  very  eiirly  domestication  of  the  ox  is  attested  by  the  mention  made  of  It  in  the 
writinjTS  of  Mo^^ea,  uud  by  the  worship  of  it  iu  Kgvpt,  A\hich  the  Israehtea  ireitated 
iu  mailing  Ih^ir  golden  calf  at  Mount  Sinui.  Yet  oxen  do  uot  upi^ear  to  kave 
formed  nay  part,  of  the  w.alth  of  the  patriarchs.  The  ox  wau  prol)al»ly 
used  as  a  beast  of  burden  or  drmight  before  it  was  valued  for  its  milk.  It  is  men- 
tioQi'd  by  Caesar  as  the  principal  pat  t  of  the  we;Uth  of  the  BritoDS  at  the  tliue  of  the 
Kouuin  iuvasiOD. 

'i'he  ox  is  more  frequently  employed  as  a  lieast  of  bnrdeu  and  of  dmnght  in  some 

{tnrtn  of  the  coutineut  of  Europe  than  in  Britain.  From  the  earliest  historic  times, 
he  horse  lias  beeu  more  generally  thus  cn^iloyed  Iu  Britain,  and  has  now  almost 
rutirely  stiinrseded  the  ox.  Tlu;  gait  of  the  ox  is  flow  and  plodding,  hat  its  strength 
euablus  it  to  peiforin  a  great  amount  of  worlc,  aud  it  is  not  easily  exhausted.  It 
iioetls,  however,  intervals  of  rest  inconvenient  for  the  farujer ;  uud  it  is  not  capable 
Of  exertion  at  all  eqnal  to  that  of  the  horse  on  any  occasion  of  emer«jency. — The  ox 
ia  chiefly  valuable  for  it-*  fl  'sh  and  Its  millc ;  but  almost  every  part  of  the  animal  is 
useful— the  fat,  skfn.  hair,  hornn,  inte»=tine8. 

'ilie  period  of  gestation  of  the  ox  Is  niiJe  months,  or  270  days.  It  rarely  prodncea 
more  than  one  calf  at  a  birth.  It.  attains  maturity  in  two  or  three  years,  becomes 
evidently  aged  at  ten,  and  seldom  lives  more  than  fourteen.  Cows  are  seldom  k'pt 
for  the  dairy  after  they  are  seven  or  eight  years  old,  as  after  that  age  they  yield  loes 
milk  and  of  Inferior  quality.  Modern  husbandry  has  also  found  means  lo  fatfc-ii 
catilefortlte  market  at  an  earlier  ji;;e  than  was  formerly  usual;  and  although  tho 
beef  is  not  quite  so  good  in  quality,  the  profit  is  great,  both  to  the  farmer  aud  to  tho 
connnunliy,  through  the  increased  pioductiveness  of  the  laud. 

The  ox  is  gregarious,  aud  where  circumstances  permit,  as  in  the  South  American 
plains,  asHoclates  in  vei-^  large  herds.  Herds  of  oxen  defend  theniselves  with  great 
vigor  against  tlie  large  ^line  animals  aud  other  assailants,  the  yonuger  and  weaker 
anim.-ils  being  placed  in  the  middle,  whilst  the  bulls  iu  the  outer  rank  confrout  tho 
adversary  with  their  horns. 

Th  5  varieties  or  bree<l:S  differ  very  much  in  size.  Among  tliosc  which  occur  In 
the  British  Islands,  the  Shetland  breed  is  not  much  larger  than  a  calf  of  some  of  the 
others.  Som»»  of  the  breeds  of  tiie  torrid  zone  are  iHso  very  small ;  but  the  f.itiy 
liump  on  th'i  back  may  probably  be  regirded  us  indicating  a  connection  with  the  In- 
dian ox  or  Ziibu  (q  v.),  which,  although  it  hns  been  general  y  regarded  as  a  xlktiety 
of  the  common  ox,  is  jierhaps  a  distinct  species.— The  "  wild  ox,"  now  existing  only 
in  a  few  parks,  us  at  Chillingliam  and  Hamilton,  seems,  whatever  its  origin,  to  have 
been  formerly  an  inhabitant  of  m:iny  forest  disiricts  in  Britain,  j)articii1arly  in  the 
north  of  England  und  south  of  Scotland.  The  Chillingham  wild  oxen  are  of  a 
creamy  whita  color,  much  smaller  than  many  of  the  domestic  breeds,  of  a  graceful 
form,  with  sharp  homs,  whicij  are  not  very  long,  and  not  very  much  curved.  The 
uniform  white  color  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  care  taken  to  destroy  every  calf  which 
Is  uot  perfect  in  this  resp-!ct.  Tlie  habits  of  these  wild  oxen  are  very  similar  to  those 
of  the  domestic  races.— The  WeM  Highland  breed,  or  Kyloe,  differs  very  little  f  rpin 
the  Chlllin«rhlimor  Hamilton  wild  ox,  except  in  being  generally  black.  It  has  ah')rt 
muscular  Ihnbs,  a  wide  an'l  deep  chest,  well-arched  ribs,  aud  a  strsdght  back;  the 
horns  are  often  somewhat  lon;r;  the  muzzle  is  abort,  but  not  broad;  the  skin  ia 
closely  covered  with  shaggy  hair.  The  milk  is  very  rich,  but  the  quantity 
is  so  small,  that  this  breed  is  very  unsuitable  for  daiiy  farming,  liie 
1)eef,  however,  is  of  the  finest  quality,  aud  great  numbers  of  cat- 
tle, reaYed  iu  the  Highlands  nnd  Hebriiles,  are  annually  conveyed  to  other 
parts  of  the  country,  to  be  fatten  ul  on  rich  pastures.  The  breed  is  a  very 
hardv  one.  an»l  peculiarly  suited  to  the  rfgion  iir  which  it  preraila.— The  O^Ufteay 
breed  b  very  like  tho  prucediug,  bat  larger  and  destitute  oi  boma ;  aud  mmny  cattle 


Digitized  by 


Google 


619 


Ox 


KAred  in  the  liilly  pnrta  of  Galloway  are  fattenfA  on  English  pnetnres  for*  the 
Luhdoii  market. — 'The  Fentbroke  nud  other  Weli»h  >>rcf<to  arc  uut  unlike  the  Wcet 
Highland ;  but  the  cows  yield  milk  more  nhuiidautly.— The  djraiuutive  Sh^land 
breed  is  very  hnrtly,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  fine  qiiuliiy  of  its  beef.  The  Stietlacd 
ox  Is  capily  fatfeut-d,  even  on  scanty  pastiiraee.  The  niilk  which  the  cowB  jleld  is 
also  remarkably  abimdaut  in  proportjon  to  their  entail  size. — The  Affrshire  breed  is 
particularly  ceUbrated  for  the  abundance  auti  excellence  of  its  milk,  but  the  be«!f  is 
of  inferior  qnality,  and  the  animal  is  not  easily  fait-ued.  Great  care  haw  been  be- 
stowed on  this  breed  in  Ayrshire  and  ueigiiboring  count iee,  where  d  hy  fnrming  is 
macli  practised.  The  boms  are  t*maller  than  tho.^i^  of  the  Weet  Highland  breed,  the 
faair.mnch  smoother^  and  thecoh)r  chiefly  blt>wui^h-rl'd,  with  hir^e  patches  of  white. 
— Tlie  A  Iderueff  bve^il  unwh  resembles  ll»e  Ayrslilr*',  but  the  n.llk  is  comparatively 
«mall  ivqnautity,  and  remarkable  for  tlie  richiie.'^s  of  ttie  cream,  on  which  account  Al- 
deruey  cows  are  often  kipt  for  the  nnpply  of  private  dairie.-.  1  he  milk  of  «n  Alderney 
«ow,  mixed  with  that  of  a  dozen  other  cow^s  will  sensibly  improve  the  quality  of  ilio 
butter.  Bat  this  breed  is  woithle.-s  for  the  purposes  of  tht*  grjizier.— The  Suffolk 
i>tt»t  is  a  tw^/ed  or  hornless  breed,  of  clumsy  forif).  and  of  little  value  to  tjie  grazier, 
but  yieUilng  a  v  ry  large  quiintiiy  of  milk,  on  wliich  fiC(  onnt  8uffolk  huH  long  bccu 
Colehr.ited  lor  its  dairy  produce,— Tlie  Xirth  Devon  Ih  a  pretiy  la i-ge  breed,  with 
rather  phort  honip,  vei-y  nmiKCular  and  jiowerful,  and  also  vety  gentle  and  docile,  so 
that  it  is  |>articularljr  adapted  for  draught;  and  much  agiicniiural  lnl)or  Is  still  pcr- 
form«-d  ill  Devon.-^hire  by  teams  of  oxen  of  this  breed.  1  heKoith  Devon  breed,  how- 
ever, is  surpassed  by  others,  both  for  the  puiposes  of  the  daii-^  farmer  and  of  the 
grazier. — The  Hereford  breed,  of  stouter  form  than  the  Avrfhire,  but  in  some  re- 
spects not  unlike  it,  has  long  been  in  great  repute  lioth  for  its  Ixef  ai  d  its  milk :  but 
in  the  distiicts  where  it  once  prevailed,  it  is  now  giving  place  to  the  Short-horn 
breed,  one  of  the  new  breeds  wliich  are  the  result  of  can;  jind  attention.  The  Short- 
liorn  breed,  so  called  iKJcause  the  horns  are  shorter  than  in  almost  nnv  other,  oiigi- 
oated  about  the  lieginning  of  the  19th  c.  on  the  bankn  of  the  Tecs,  and  has  s)iread 
very  wklely  both  in  England  and  in  Scotland,  in  the  districts  of  lichest  pasturage. 
The  color  varies  from  pure  white  to  bright  red;  the  head  is  !»horf  and  very  broad; 
the  chest  is  wide,  dvep,  and  projecting;  the  foi^egn  are  short,  the  back  straight, 
and  not  very  long,  the  *' barrel"  full  The  eaee  with  whi<*h  oxen  of  this  breed 
are  fattened  is  one  of  its  great  f'ecommendaiions.  The  heef  is  al.^  of  excellent 
quality.  For  daii->-  piir|)«8c>s.  the  Short-horn  is  snrpasst  d  by  some  other-breeds ;  but 
a  croes  between  a  S  ori-hom  bull  and  an  Ayi-sbire  cow  is  found  u.««<*ful  lioth  for  beef 
and  milk.  The  Short-horn  breed  is  now  cherished  in  Britain  with  peculiar  care; 
genealogies  ai"?  registered,  and  prodigious  pi  ices  are  given  for  flrnt-rate  animals.  It 
fo  also  in  great  esteem  in  many  paits  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  in  America. — 
The  Long-hoyn  breed,  long  prevalent  in  the  midland  countries  of  Enyland.  and  still 
preval<^t  in  Ireland,  was  bi-ought  to  great  perfection  by  Bakewell,  one  of  the  fii-8»t  to 
shew  what  could  bt:  done  in  the  improvement  of  cattle;  but  is  rjipidly  giving  place 
to  the  Short-horn,  by  which  it  is  much  excelled.  The  length  of  the  iiorus  in  this 
breed  i!«  very  remarkable. 

Of  foreign  races  of  oxen,  one  of  the  most  notable,  on  account  of  its  large  size. 
Is  that  in  possession  of  the  Kalmnck  Tartars;  another  is  that  prevalent  in  the 
Kom:iii  states,  generally  of  a  b!uish-a<4h  color,. with  reiiiurkahly  hu^e  and  spreading 
liora^.  A  hii^e  white  breid  WJis*  long  kept  In  Egypt ;  and  a  similar  bree<l,  without 
the  hump  characteristic  of  tlie  Indian  C)x,  is  found  in  South  Africa,  where,  how- 
ever, it  has  become  {lartially  intermixed  with  Enro|>ean  bree<ls.  Oxen  are  much 
employeciJiy  the  Kaffirs  as  beasts  of  burden;  they  were  al»-'0  formerly  trained  by 
the  Hottentots  to  ai<i  them  in  liattle.  Peter  Eolben,  iii  bis  account  of  the  Ctipeof 
Good  Hope,  written  in  1TU5,  gives  an  interefiiing  description  of  these  trained  figlit- 
hig  oxen,  which,  he  says,  are  called  BaekeUyers.  "  In  the  wars  of  the  Hottentots 
with  one  aiioiker."  he  says,  "these  Iwckeleyers  make  very  teriible  impressions. 
They  gore,  and  kick,  and  trample  to  death  with  incredible  fury.**  He  ascribes  to 
thfemaiso  great  docility,  and  stales  that  they  know  every  inhabitant  of  tlie  kraal, 
and  are  perfectly  inoffeiisivn  towards  them,  but  ready  to  run  with  fury  at  strangers. 
TIUj  readinert  witli  which  the  draught  oxen  of  Soutli  Africa  observe  the  words  of 
the  driver,  is  said  to  be  almost,  if  not  qoit^  oqnal  to  tliat  of  the  dog.  In  the  train- 
ing of  them,  howevet^  severs  moarmret  are  tiiften  requisite,  and  parUcnUurl^  l>y  a 


y  Google 


ey>au«  g.30 

hoolc^d  atick  lapsrtpd  tliron?li  flic  cartilnjre  which  8<!pai-at«i  the  n6?tfn«,  ns  tralli 
tre  i-inged  when  Bcnt  to  exlubtious  or  fettle  in  Biituin.  Trained  oxen  are  jiIsq 
employed  In  tbe  trniniog  of  their  younger iellow?.  lu  some  parts  of  Afrjcii  the  ox  U 
used  for  ritling  o«  well  jis  for  dranirht.  Tlio  boniA,  which  arc  very  long,  ure  split 
Jnto  ribbo»)p,  or  cnnred  Jii  various  oirectione,  to  prevent  their  points  from  coniiug 
Jn  contact,  by  any  accident,  with  the  person  of  tlie  rider.  The  pace  of  the  ox 
aciirct^y  exceed-*  fonr  or  Are  mile*  an  lionr. 

A  VC17  remarkable  confornuitiou  of  skull  occnrs  in  some  of  4he  herds  of  Sontb 
Amedcan  oxen,  the  bont-s  of  the  nose  and  the  jaw-bones  l)eing  very  mnch  sljort- 
ened ;  yet  there  is  no  qnestion  that  this  is  a  mere  accidental  variation,  which  has  be- 
come ])crpetnated  as  one  of  race.  Importance  has  been  attached  to  it  iu  the  discus- 
sions regarding  speetM.  , 

The  cow  has  iH'en  for  asres  tended  by  man  on  account  of  the  agreeable  and  hlglily 
nutritions  fluid  which  is  obfnint'd  from  it.  Milk  Is  maiinfnctnred  into  cheese  and 
butter,  wliich  ar»  capable  of  being  pwservcd  for  a  considerable  time.  The  processes 
by  which  these  are  (Aitained  are  descti»>ed  under  the  ai-ticle  Daibt.  Cows^  under 
our  modern  systems  of  agriculture,  are  selected  either  for  their  properties  of  giving 
l.nge  qnautlties  of  milk,  or  for  raising  stock  which  are  well  suited  for  gnueing  and 
fattening.  For  milking  properties,  the  Ayrshire  breed  stands  undoubtedly  at  toe 
head  of  theli-jt.  In  comparison  with  some  of  the  other  breed-*,  the  Ayrsliire  is 
rather  deficient  in  size,  with  the  fl  !sl>  spread  thinly  over  itshodjr.  In  the  male  ani- 
mals these  characteristics  are  all  tlio  more  prominent,  and  for  this  reason  the  breed 
28  not  much  liked  by  graziers.  It  is  captibie,  liowover,  of  thriving  on  secondanr  or 
even  inferior  iiaatured.  Wlierevcr,  therefore,  it  Is  found  most  profitable  to  follow 
dairy  husbandry  in  8cotland,  the  Aryshire  cow  is  preferred.  A  considerable  variety 
of  breeds  are  cnliivated  both  for  mllklne  and  grazing  in  the  western  parts  of  Eng- 
land, the  principal  of  which  are  the  Herrtords  and  Devons.  In  the  eastern  counties, 
again,  where  arable  culture  and  the  rearing  and  feeding  of  cattle  are  chii  fly  followed, 
the  Ayrshire  g'ves  ))Iace  to  the  Al>erdecu,  the  Angus,  and  the  Teeswater.  The  cow 
is  there  selected  for  its  massive  and  square-built  flame,  soft  skin,  and  meat-prodnc- 
iuir  qualities.  For  more  than  a  century  vast  care  has  been  bestowed  on  the  improve- 
ment of  the  short-horns.  In  this  breed  the  )>edigrees  of  the  sire  and  the  dam  are 
traced  back  for  many  genenitions,  and  purity  of  olood  is  quite  essential  in  herds  of 
any  pretensions.  The  large  sums  which  particular  cows  and  bulls  of  this  breed 
realise,  attest  the  value  which  modern  breeders  set  up(m  animals  whicli  are  con*»id- 
crod  to  approach  perfection  in  their  form  and  style.  In  no  department  of  British 
agriculture  are  the  results  of  care  and  attention  more  strongly  marked  than  in  the 
noble  fljjureof  the  short-horned  cow  or  bull. 

The  rearing  and  fattening  of  the  ox  is  one  of  the  most  important  l)ranches  of 
asrriculture.  Since  the  prices  of  butcher-meat  have  become  so  mucli  higher  rela- 
tively to  com  in  tills  country,  the  breeding  and  feeding  of  cattle  have  receiv  d  a  gnat 
iinpetns.  Fifty  years  ago,  many  of  our  old  brec<ls  of  cattle  were  kept  till  thoy  were! 
four  or  five  years  old  l>efore  they  were  sent  fat  to  the  butcher.  The  demand  for 
meat  was  so  limited  then  in  the  north,  tliat  most  of  the  cattle  were  sent  south  lean, 
to  be  fattened  on  the  pastures  and  turnips  of  the  eastern  counties  of  England.  The 
Introduction  of  steam-shipping,  followed  by  railways,  has  givau  the  Scotch  breeder 
and  feeder  great  facilities  for  dispasing  of  fatted  cattle,  and  now  there  ^re  no  lean 
cattle  sent  to  the  south.  Indeed,  the  extension  of  green  crops  in  Scotland  has  been 
so  great,  that  larure  numlx^rs  of  lean  cattle  are  imported  from  England,  as  well  as 
Ireland,  to  be  fed  in  ttie  stalls  and  courts  during  winter.  This  I4)pues  to  the  arable 
41sti-iets,  where  the  laud  does  not  remain  more  than  one  year  iu  grass.  Im  Al>erdeen- 
shire,  where  the  land  rests  from  three  to  four  years  in  grass,  more  cattle  are  bred 
and  turned  out  fat,  which  is  by  far  the  most  profitable  system,  seeing  the  breeder 
often  gets  a  larger  share  of  the  profits  than  the  feeder.  The  sliort-horned  blood  is  in 
great  request  to  cross  with  the  native  breeds,  rendering  the  progeny  much  easier 
lattened,  as  we!l  as  causing  them  to  crow  to  a  larger  size.  It  is  now  the  most  a|>- 
)>roved  method  to  feed  the  calf  from  the  time  it  is  dropped  till  it  la  sent  to  the  butchir. 
Oil-cake  Is  generally  considered  the  best  and  most  healthy  auxiliary  food  for  stock, 
whether  old  or  young.  In  the  pastoral  districts  of  England,  where  little  of  the  land 
Is  cultivated,  the  rearing  of  cattle  to  be  s-nt  into  the  arai)le  districts  is  ctirried  oat. 
The  young  animals  are  fed  with  hay  in  whiter  instead  of  struw  and  turnips.    Larce 


y  Google 


621 


Ozalio 


snmbers  tit  cattle  are  fattened  on  tnruips  and  mansfo^d  in  wint-er  in  Norfolk  and 
eastern  counties.  Large  allowances  of  cake  and  com  are  there  given  iu  addition  to 
tUe  roots. 

OXA'LIC  ACID  (C4,0«,8H04>4Aq)  occnrs  iu  coIorleM,  transparent,  obliqne. 
rhombic  prisms,  which  nave  uu  intensely  sonr  taste,  aixi  are  soluble  in  nine  parts  of 
cold  water,  and  much  more  freely  in  boiliit{f  wutc-r.  When  heated  to  213°,  the  crystals 
lose  their  four  equivalents  (or  28*5  per  cent)  of  water,  and  the  residue,  consisting  of 
the  liydrated  acid  (C40.,2HO),  becomes  opaqut*;  these  two  equivalents  of  water 
contained  iu  the  bydrated  acid,  cannot  be  expelled  by  mer«  heat,  althougli  they  can 
be  displaced  by  an  equivulent  auiountof  a  met'illicoxide.  When  tlie  cryttulliited 
acid  is  rapidly  ueuted  to  ubout  800^,  it  is  decomposed  into  a  final  mixture  of  carboni<'. 
acid,  carbonic  oxide,  and  water ;  formic  acid  being  produced  and  again  decomposed 
in  the  process. 

Crystallised  -      Carbonic 

Oxalic  Acid.  Acid.         Water.       Formic  Acitl 

04H,Oe  +  4HO    -    200,    +    4HO    -f    C,UO„HO; 

WAt«»r   Carlwnic 
water,     q^j^^^ 

and  formic  acid  when  heated  yields  2U0  +  200.    When  wanned  with  strong  fift- 

glniric  acid,  it  is  decomposed  into  equal  volnuies  of  carbonic  acid,  and  curbouic  ox- 
le  gases,  and  into  water ;  according  to  the  equation : 
Hydrated      Carbonic    Carbonic 
.Oxalic  Acid;     Acid.         Oxidt-.        Water. 

^U^  -    C^  +    CjOj    +  ''mo' 

"  This  reaction  affords  one  of  the  best  tneans  of  obtaining  carbonic  oxide  for  ns^ 
in  the  Inbonitory.  Oxidising  ajfents.  such  as  binoxide  pf  nnuiganese,  peroxide  of 
lead, nitric  acid,  &c.,  convert  oxalic  into  carbonic  acid,  and  on  tbm  property  is  I>a8<d 
a  good  method  of  deteiininhig  the  commercial  value  of  the  black  oxide  of  mau'* 
ganese. 

Oxalic  add  is  ore  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  organic  acids,  and  expels  carbonic 
acid  and  many  other  acids  from  tne;r  salts.  The  jicid  lU-elf,  and  its  soluble  saliJi 
are  poisonous.  This  acid  is  very  widily  diffuse<l  throughout  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
Sometimes  it  occnrs  in  a  frtw  state  (as  in  Boletus  sulphurettti),  but  much  more  fre- 
quently us  a  salt,  either  of  potash,  as  iu  the  different  species  of  Oxalit  (from  which 
genus  the  acid  was  oilginally  ol>t;iined  and  derives  its  name),  and  of  ^umex  ;  or  of 
soda,  as  in  various  B|>ecies  of  ScUicornia  and  ScUaola  ;  or  of  lime,  as  in  Hhubatb  imd 
many  Liotieus.  In  the  animal  kingdom,  it  never  occurs  except  in  minuie  quantity 
and  in  combination  with  lime.  Oxalate  of  lime  is  found  iu  a.crystalline  shaiMJ,  botli 
in  healthy  and  morbid  urine.  In  the  latter^  it  constitutes  the  k'ading  symptom  of 
rhe  affection  termed  Oxalubia  (q.  v.),  while  in  the  former  it  0ccui*8  after  the  use  of 
wines  and  beer  containing  much  carbonic  ncid,  of  sorrel,  rhubarb-stalks,  &c.  and 
aft«r  the  admin islr.tiou  of  tite  alkaline  blcarbonatcis;  It  is  the  constituent  of  the  uri- 
nary calculus,  known  from  its  ront:h  exterior  as  the  mulberry  calculus.  Ciystals  of 
oxalate  of  lime  have  also  I)eeu  i'oun(i.  in  the  mucus  of  the  ^ail-bladdei',  on  thu 
nnicous  membrane  of  the  Inipre«:nated  uterus,  and  in  morbid  blood.  They  havo 
likewise  been  detected  in  the  biliary  vei-Kels  and  <  xcrements  of  caterpillars.  In  tb<9 
minei-aJ  kingdom  these  crystals  have  been  detected  in  assccianou  with  crystals  of 
calcareous  ppar. 

Oxalic  acid  is  produced  by  the  action  of  either  hydrate  of  pt  tash  or  of  nitric  acid 
npon  mo8t  organic  compounds  of  natural  occurrence.  lb*  niost  common  mode  of 
preparation  is  by  the  oxiaution  of  starch  or  supar  by  nitric  acid.  Tlio  ortianic  com- 
pound and  the  nitric  acid  are  heated  in  a  flask  til]  all  <  ffervef ccnce  has  cenhed,  after 
which  the  solution  is  evaporated,  and  tlie  ox:ilic  acid  separates  in  crystals  on  cool- 
ing. 

This  acid  forms  three  series  of  salts,  viz.,  neutrsl,  acid,  and  supcr-actd,  which,, if 
M  represents  the  metal  entering  into  the  salt,  may  be  repreBouicd  by  thu  lormule: 


y  Google 


OaaitiTia  v*-^ 

Neatrol  Salt*        Acid  Stilt.  Sapernicid  Suit. 


I   aaiCC^O,,      H0,M0,C40,,    aud    8HO,MO,iJC40„ 

the  Iniit  !)efng  n  compound  of  the  acfd  itait  ntid  the  acid.  Oxalate  of  lime  (2CaO,C40« 
•f  4Aq)  and  ordinary  (neatral)  oxalute  of  nmmoiiiu  (2T<H40.C40<  4-  2A4}  are  ex< 
amplets  of  the  fivpt ;  biuoxaltite of  potaeb,  or  Sfilt  of  sorrel  (KO,HO,C40c  -(•  2Aq)  ia 
All  exainpte  of  the  necond;  wlille  the  9  .It  ustmlly  termed  qiiaclroxnlnte  of  imingh 
<EO,3l  J0.8C40«  -f-  4Aq>  is  sii  example  of  the  third  clneo.  Of  the  nniueroas  oxalates. 
tlie  inoBt  tinportunt  are  ihe  oxalate  of  liine  (fii  conseqiieiice  of  its  pliyaiologk-al  u\h{ 
|MU)iOlo<^I  relatjoiio) ;  the  ueatnit  oxalute  of  nmmoula,  whU-b  is  the  bef^t  teat  for 
11m  detection  of  ]imi»  in  sulotioii  (in  cotiitcqneiice  of  the  extreme  iiisolability  of  the 
xomliiiiff  OKuIate  of  lime) ;  and  the  add  oxalate  of  potiish,  which  is  cotitaiued  in  ttie 
jaii'ea  of  ooMlis  and  rumex,  and  is  employed  in  viirioa**  ninuttfactnriug  proc«»P€S- 

The  best  test  for  tbia  add  is  the  production  of.n  white  predpltnte  (of  oxalate  of 
Iin}e),  oil  the  addition  of  any  polnbie  s:i!t  of  citlciani.  Tlie  precipitate  is  in^olahle  in 
Water,  in  solntion  of  pota.'^b,  and  in  acetic  acidt  htit  dissolves  in  tlte  miueral  acid^). 
A  solntion  of  nitrate  of  fiiver  al^o  gives  a  white  precipitate  of  oxalate  of  silver, 
which  explodes  wlien  faeated. 

In  conseqneuce  of  its  employment  in  C4>tton  printing,  bleaching  straw,  &c.,  oxalic 
add  is  more  accossible  to  the  general  public  than  many  other  poi^oll9  ;  and  on  this 
account  instances  of  snicide  from  the  swallowing  ot  this  acid  are  by  no  means  un<p 
common.  Cases  of  accidental  poisoning,  moreover,  sometluK-.s  occnr  by  ita  Mug 
•old  by  misiabe  for  E^t^ioin  salts.  Ljiive  6osvs  destroy  Hfe  very  rapiiily.  Dr  A, 
Taylor  mentions  a  case  in  which  a  man  died  in  80  miuutt^s  after  takii.g  two  ritinces 
of  the  acid.  Dr  i  'bnsti>*on  records  a  case  in  which  an  onnce  kill«'d  a  girl  in  30  miu« 
ntes,  and  another  case  in  which  the  same  qnantity  destroyed  life  in  ten  miimies ; 
and.  as  a  general  mie  (I^a^'^  ^o  exceptions),  when  the  duse  is  half  an  ounce  or  up- 
wards. Hea&k  commonly  takes  plaoe  within  the  lioiir.  Tlie  symptoms  are  a  iiot  or 
baniing  acid  tiste,  with  a  sense  of  constriction  or  snffocation ;  vomiting,  ^reut  paiu 
ill  tlie  region  of  the  stoinacli,  convnlsiotis,  cold  per^<|)iTHti(ms  and  general  coliapso 
n^dily  follow ;  and  respiration  sliortly  before  (ti^ath  Ixcome^  slow  and  smismoaic. 
With  the  view  of  converting  the  fn^e  acid  in  the  stomach  into  an  'in8oni!>Ie  autl 
inert  salt,  chalk,  winrhnr,  or  llm*-W]iter,  wirli  fall  drunetits  of  milk,  should  ba 
administered  with  tile  least  possible  delay.  Bait  of  sorrel  &  almost  aspoisouuos  a^ 
the  pure  add. 

OXMA'NSJEj  or  Qxallda'ceiB,  a  natural  order  of  exogeiions  pfauts,  allieil  to 
Oeramae^ct;  including  herbaceoii<«  plimis.  slinibs,  and  trees;  with  gitiH'rally  cora- 
potnid  aiteniate  leaves;  calyx  of  five  equal  persintent  sepjijs;  ccH-olIa  of  five  eaual 
ttngnibiTlate  petals  ST>inilly  twisted  in  bod  ;  t'o  stamenSr  nsnally  more  or  leas  aniled 
^y  ttoc  fliaments,  in  two  rows;  the  ovary  nsnally  5-ceII<d,  with  five  styles;  the  fm.t 
a  eaiMmie  opening  by  as  many  or  twice  as  nnmy  valVHM  nn  ii  has  cclls^or  more 
nuTidy  a  ^nj  ;  the  seeds  few,  attached  t o  1  be  axis.  There  are  npwrirda  of  800  know  u 
species,  natives  of  warm  and  temperate  climates.  They  are  partirnlnrly  abnudant 
fo  North  Americ.*!  ^nd  at  the  C<iueof  Good  Hope.  T\n\  flora  of  Britain  includes 
only  two  small  sjiecies*  of  OxeUis.  An  acid  jnici!  is*  very  characteristic  of  this  order. 
Some  of  Hie  tropical  specie^  j)roduce  a9ree:jl>le  ncid  fruits,  as  the  Carumbola  (q.  v.). 
—The  geims  OxalU  has  a  caiMular  fruit,  and  the  !<eedt«  have  an  elastic  iufegnmt  nt^ 
which  at  last  bnrsts  0()eii  and  iiroject^i  the  seed  to  a  distance.  The  ppecies  are 
MKMtly  iK'rbticeous  plants  with  teninte  or  dijritate — nirely  simirfe  or  pinnate— leave** ; 
a  few  are  slirfibs.  The  stems  and  leaves  generally  contain  a  notabk?  qnantity  of 
JHnoxa'ate  0/ PoCaskftand  have  therefore  a  sonr  tistc.— The  CojoiOM  Wood-Sorrei. 
(O.  aeeUnella).  very  abnnd.int  in  sht.dy  woocIh  and  groves  in  Britain  nml  niot«l  parta 
of  Europe,  a  native  also  of  North  America,  is  a  l>eantifnl  little  plant,  often  covering 
the  gronnd  with  its  green  leaves,  amidst  whicii  the  white  or  slijrhtly  roseate  flowcn* 
app<'ar.  Its  leaver  all  ;rrow  from  the  root,  a  long  loaf-i^Jalk  l)eariiig  three  olnjvate 
Waltets ;  the  scape  bears  a  Mn>r!e  flower.  Tnere  is  a  8ni>ierran<'an  scniy  root-Bt4«ck. 
On  acconnt  of  the?r  gnitefui  add  taste,  the  leaves  are  nsed  in  salads  and  Siiaca^. 
'1T»  plant  Is  extrenu'ly  abnmbuil  in  Lapland,  and  is  mnch  naed  by  tha 
I^pliDders.  It  is  antiscorbutic  mnl  r<'friL'eranr,  and  an  infusion  of  it  is  a  prutc- 
fu  MA  itt  f«v«n#«     BHwxtUaU   </  jpofav/t    is  wbiaincd  from   the  leaven  by. 


y  Google 


ftcyo  OxaUdea 

O^O  Oxalana 

cxpre«riiig  the  ialcc»  and  crystal  Using,  and  is  eold  not  only  iindpr  the  name  of  Salt 
qf  Sorrel,  hut  also  of  B6«ential  Salt  oif  Lemmis,  and  is  used  fur  extnu-tine  ^pois,  ni:d 

{mrticniarly  iron -marks,  from  linen,  nnd  for  other  pnrpopcs.  Much  of  it  Is  now, 
jowever.  obtniued  from  a  very  different  source.  See  Oif  auc  Acid.— 0.  comiculata, 
rare  In  Britain,  and  ulinost  confined  to  the  south  of  En^Umd,  but  a  plnnt  of  very  ex- 
tensive distribution,  l)eing  found  in  Europe,  Nortli  America.  India,  Japan,  Snd  some 
of  the  African  island;*,  has  a  In-auched  stem,  with  decunilwut  brandies,  leaves  very  . 
pi  mi  lar  to  those  of  the  common  wood- sorrel,  and  yellow  flowei  s.  Its  properties 
agree  with  those  of  the  common  wood- sorreL  Many  other  species  nmch  resemhlo 
tiiese  in  their  g^'neral  appearance  and  propertiec.  Some  of  the  species  exhibit  an 
irritability  like  that  of  the  Sensitive  Plant;  generally,  as  in  the  two  British  species, 
in  a  8%lit  degree,  and  notably  only  in  hot  sunshine;  but  O.  sensitiva,  an  East  In- 
dian specie?",  with  pinnate  leaves,  possess^es  tl»is  properly  in  a  high  degree.  Some 
Sjjecies  of  Oxalu.  as  O.  c&rnua,  a  native  of  South  Africa,  are  remarkunle  for  pro- 
ducing larjge  l)ulbil8  in  the  axils  of  the  lower  leaves.  Several  species  have  tuberous 
roots,  and  are  cultivated  on  account  of  tlieir  tubers ;  as  O.  crenata  and  O.  tuberosaj 
natives  of  Pern  and  Bolivia,  where  thev  are  much  esteemed,  ami  botii  receive  tiie 
mime  Oca.  'i'he  tubers,  when  cooked,  become  mealy  like  potatoes.  They  liave  a 
slightly  acid  taste.  0.  crenata  has  been  cultivated  in  gardens  in  Biitahi  for  about 
thirty  yfeais,  but  continues  to  l>e  almost  exclusively  an  object  of  curiosity,  being  too 
lender  for  the  climate,  and  its  produce  very  inconsiderable  in  quantity.  Its  tubers 
are  yellow  in  size,  alid  shape'like  .«mall  potatoes.  The  succulent  stalks  of  the  'eaves 
abound  In  a  pleasant  acid  juice,  and  make  excellent  tarts  and  prei^erves.  0.  tuherot^a 
produces  numerous  small  iul)eis.  The  Bolivians  often  expose  them  for  a  long  lime 
to  tlie  sun,  by  winch  they  lose  their  acidity,  become  saccharine,  and  acquire  a  taste 
and  consistence  like  dried  figs.  0.  Devpei  isa  Mexi<  an  species,  with  a  root  sonu.'- 
wliat  like  a  small  parsnij).  guit«  free  or  acidity.  If  is  much  cultivated  in  its  native 
country,  and  snccceds  weU  in  the  southern  parts  of  EnglAud.  O.  tetraphylla  and  O. 
crasiiicaulis,  natives  of  Mexico,  and  0.  enneaphyVa,  a  native  of  tlie  Falkland  r>*lauds, 
ako  have  eatable  roots.  Many  species  of  OxuUis  are  much  esteemed  us  ornaments 
of  gardens  and  green-houst  s. 

OXALU'KIA,  or 'i'lie  Oxa'llc  Acid  Dia'ihesis.  isa  mot  hid  condition  of  the  system, 
in  wldch  one  of  t  lie  most  prominent  symptoms  is  the  persistent  occurrence  of  cr^rptals 
of  oxalate  of  lime  in  the  urine.  Tlieec  crystjils  most  connnoiily  occur  as  very  miimte 
tnujsparent  octoliedra,  but  sometimes  in  tlu;  fonn  of  duml>-bells;  in  order  to  detect 
them,  the  urine,  which  usually  in  these  eases  pre^ents  a  mucous  cloud,  sliould  be  al- 
lowed to  stand  for  some  hours  in  a  emiical  glass,  and  after  the  crystals  have  gradually 
subsided,  the  greater  part  of  the  fluid  should- be  pwind  .'way,  and  the  drops  remain- 
ing at  the  bottom  examined  with  a  power  of  not  less  than  200  diameters.  Tlmso 
crystals,  which  are  insoluble  in  acetic  aeid,  may  <  ccur  either  in  acid  or  in  alkaline 
unne.  Pei*sons  who  secrete  this  form  of  urine  are  usnully  dyspeptic,  hypochondri- 
acal, and  liable  to  attacks  of  boils,  cutaneotji*  eruptions,  and  neuralgia.  The  oxalic 
acid,  in  these  case?,  is  not  introduced  into  the  system  with  the  food,  l>ut  isa  product 
of  tlie  disintegration  of  the  tissues,  and  is  due  to  the  inii>erfect  oxidation  of  com- 
pounds, which  should  normally  have  been  converted  into  carbonic  acid.  (An- 
nydroUs  oxalic  acid,  C4OJ,  obviously  p  quires  Seqiuvalents  of  oxygen  to  he  con- 
verted into  CiU'bonic  acid.  C40g,  or  400,.  Hence,  if  these  twoequi%alent«  of  oxy- 
gen are  wanting  in  the  system  in  couseqiience  of  imi)erffct  oxygenation  ol  the 
blood,  oxahcac-.d,  in  combination  with  lime,  appears  as  a  final  excretion  In  ])la'e 
of  carbonic  acid.)  'J'he  occurrence  of  oxalic  actd  a*  a  persistent  sediment  in  the 
nrine,  is  not  only  an  ii:dication  ot  an  existing  morbid  condition  of  the  system,  but 
may  give  rise  to  two  Vcfcclly  distinct  daiigerous  complications;  (1)  a  eoncretion 
of  oxalate  of  lime  (mulberry  calculus)  may  be  fortn<  d  either  in  the  kidney  or  the 
Middftr;  and  (2)  bad  consequences  may  arise  from  the  poisonous  action  of* the  ox- 
alic acid  on  the  (lige>>jive  organs,  on  the  heart,  and  on  the  nervous  system. 

The  tr<atment  is  simple.  Care  must  b«  tuken  that  the  patient  should  avoid 
artieies  of  diet  eojitaiiiing  oxalic  acid  (!«nch  as  sorrel,  rhuharb,  tonnitoes,  &o.>,  or 
rendily  coBvertiul  into,  it  (siieh  as  sugar),  and  all  drinks  c^ntaiiduL^  much  carbonic 
acd;  while  he  should  take  plenty  of  exercise  in  the  ciwn  air,  without  fatiguing 
bim^e^f ;  should  use  the  shower-bath,  unless  he  feels  chilled  and  depressed  «fM>r  its 
application,  in  whicii  caao  he  £lu>uld  rub.  the  body  all  otcv  daily  with  a  kurav-Uair 


y  Google 


glove ;  and  8hoal4  employ  as  n  tonic  medicine  either  a  Tittie  nitro-mtiriatfc  iicid  \v  » 
Bitter  iufnsioii  (30  miuim^  of  tlio  acid  in  an  onuce  and  a  half  of  lufasiou  of  C^^f- 
ntta),  or  five  gains  of  citrate  of  iron  and  quinine  tliree  times  daily.  Uiidorfhis 
treatmv;ut,  the  oxalates  luually  almost  entirely  disappear  from  the  uriue  iu  two  or 
three  weeks. 

OXENSTIBRNA,  Axel,  Connt^  an  illnstriona  Swedish  statesman,  was  1)oru  at 
PanO,  in  Uphiud,  16tli  June  1593.  He  was  originally  educated  for  the  church,  and 
studied  theology  as  well  as  jurisprudence  at  Rostock,  Jena,  and  Wittenberg,  in  the 
last  of  which  universities  he  iook  his  degrees.  Altiiouirh  he  afterwords  devotetl  him- 
self to  public  affairs,  he  continued  all  bis  life  to  tuk<;  a  deep  personal  interest  iu  relig- 
ious  questions,  and  lalwred  zealously  for  ihe  extension  of  the  Protestant  doctrines. 
After  leaving  the  university,  he  visited  most  of  the  German  courts,  but.  retnrmd  to 
Sweden  in  \W%  and  soon  afterwards  entered  the  service  of  Charles  IX.', 
who.  In  1606,  despatched  hiui  tis  ambassador  to  rho  court  of  Mecklenburg.  He 
became  a  senator  in  1608— a  dignity  which  hail  been  enjc^yed  l>y  thirteen  of  liis  pre- 
decessors in  uninterrupted  succession.  Having  displayed  great  pnidence  and  wis- 
dom in  the  settlement  of  certain  disputes  between  the  Livonian  nobles  and  the  town 
of  Reval,  he  was  appointed  by  Charles— now  inftrm  from  age— guai-dian  of  the  royal  ■ 
family,  and  head  of  the  regency.  On  the  accession  of  Gustavus  Adolplms  (q.  v.),  iu 
1611,  O.  was  ui.ide  chancellor;  and  in  1613,  act«d  us  niinister-pleuipoteniiary  in  the 
negotiations  for  peace  between  Sweden  and  Denmark.,  In  tlie following  year  he  ac- 
comp:mied  hia  sovereign  to  Poland,  and  by  the  peace  of  Stolbova,  in  161T,  terminated* 
hostilities  between  S\v(^eti  and  Russia.  His  political  sagaqity  was  not  less  con- 
spicuously shewn  in  his  succehsfnl  efforts  to  prevent  Gustuvus' from  marrying  Ebba 
Brahe,  a  Swedish  beauty,  and  in  bringing  al>out  a  match  between  his  master  and  the 
Princess  Maria-Eleonora  of  Brandenburg.  In  1621,  on  the  departure  of  the  king  for 
the  Polish  war,  he  was  chargtsd  with  the  administration  of  affairs  at  home,  which  he 
con^ncted  with  his  invariable  felicity ;  subsequently,  he  was  appointed  irovemor- 
general  of  the  conquered  districts ;  and  in  1629,  concluded  peace  with  the  Poles  on 
highly  favorable  conditions.  For  a  while  O.  strongly  opposed  the  desire  of  Gnstavus 
to  take  part  in  the  **  Thirty  Years'  War ;"  his  hope  being  to  see  the  latter  arbitt-r  of 
thenorth  of  Europe;  but  when  he  found  that  the  Prote.>tJint  sympathies  of  the  king 
were  irreprejisible,  he  set  about  collecting  money  and  troops  for  the  perilous  enter- 
prise, with  all  the  quiet .btit  wonderful  activity  and  persistency  that  so  i"emarkably 
characterised  hinu  Af  tiir  Gu-*tAvu8  had  fairly  ent-ri'd  on  the  blojuly  struggle,  0#  jolUed 
him,  and  conducted  mosi  of  the  extensive  and  complicated  diplomacy  wiilch' the 
course  of  events  entailed  on  Sweden.  The  death  of  Gnstavus  for  a  «»omeut  paralysed 
him,  but  he  instantly  recovered,  aiid  heroically  resolved  to  continue  the  contest  with 
tiie  imiMriulists,  in  spite  of  the  visible  disaffection  of  many  of  the  G  rman  Protest- 
ant princes,  amoug  others,  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  The  will  of  the  dead 
monarch  was  sent  to  Stockholm ;  according  to  its  conditions,  tlie  government— - 
during  the  minority  of  Christina  (q.  v.)— was  intrusted  to  five  nobles,  who  em- 
powered the  chaiwellor  to  prosecute  the  war.  His  difficult  les  were  enorinou.*,  y^t 
oy  indefatigable  efforts  he  managed  p:irily  to  allay  the  discontents;^  jealousies,  and 
rivalries  of  the  Protestant  Uiadirrs.  The  disastrous  defeat  of  the  Swedes  at  Nord- 
lingen  in  1634,  and  the  perplexities  which  followed  it,  would  have  stupi fled  mont 
men  in  the  position  Of  O.,  out  it  only  called  out  more  energetically  his  splendid 
dii>lotnatic  genius.  Transferring  the  leadershi))  of  the  Protestant  forces  to  Duke 
Bernhafd  (q.  v.)  of  Weimar,  he  proceed»*d.  in  1636,  to  France  and  Holland,  and 
formed  alliances  with  these  countries.  Returning  to  German}',  he  assisted  iu  quell- 
ing a  mutiny  among  the  Swedish  troops  at  Magdeburg;  put  Pomeranhi  iu  a  state 
of  defence,  to  ret^ist  the  meditated  attack  of  the  Elector  of  Brandinhurg;  renewed 
the  treaty  with  Poland;  and  leaving  Baner  in  command  of  the  Swedes,  returned  to 
Stockholm  in  163  J,  where  he  wa>«  received  \vith  the  liveliest^enthusiasm.  H©  stUl 
continued,  however,  to  direct  ably  the  policy  of  the  Protestants  in  Germany,  till 
the  peace  of  Westphalia,  in  1643,.  put  an  end  to  the  war.  O.'s  son  was  one  of  tli«» 
Sweditth  envoys  who  signed  the  treaty,  and  it  is  in  a  letter  to  him  that  the  fainons 
gunt'Mice  of  the  statesman  occurs,  Nesis,  mi Jlti,  quaniilla. prudent^  homituft  «-•-> 
ptin^r— (*-you  do  not  ytit  knov^'.  my  son,  witli  how  little  wisdom  men  ar« 
governed*^).  Christlnui  who  had  t>een  deelared  of  age  in  1641,  did  not  shcjw  a 
proper  respect  for  the  advice  of  O.;  and  after  she  itud^through  mert  feminine 


y  Google 


6  OR  Ozenstiema 

-^y  Oxford 

wilfnlnws—ahdlcatcd  in  ppltfl  of  all  IiIh  protestations  he  withdrew  from  pnbl'c 
life,  and  dJed'28th  August  1654,  shortly  aft.«r  ehe  had  leit  Sweden.  He  eutertained. 
a  <;eiiuine  affection  fur  the  dan&rhter  of  Ids  iioblK  mustei'f  and  is  his  last  inoments 
her  name  wtiB  upon  bis  lip!«.  Souie  treatise?  and  historical  frngments  are  nttribnt^xl 
tb  lijin.  and  his  V  Jounial"  has  been  published  in  Mie  •*  Stockholm  Mng.izine."  S  ;e 
Lundbfad's  •*Sven-k  Phitarch"  (2  vols.  Stock.  1824) ;  Fryxell'a  ♦•  History  of  Gostevns 
Adolphus;  "  and  Geijer's  •*  History  of  Sweden." 

OX-EYJE.    See  Chrysanthbmuii. 

O'XFORD,  an  ancient  and  famous  city  and  seat  of  leaniingin  England,  the  chief 
town  of  the  coauty  of  Oxford,  is  situuted  on  the  uorth-east  bank  of  tlie  Isi!«,  a  tiilm- 
tai-y  of  the  Thumen,  a  little  above  the  point  where  it  in  mot  by  the  Chorwell.  Both 
Ktreams  are  crossed  by  numerous  biidges,  of  which  tlie  finest  are  Folly  Bridge  over 
the  Isia,  and  Magdalen  Bridge  over  the  Cbei-well.  Lat.  of  the  city,  61<)  46^  56"  n., 
long,  lo  15'  29"  w.  Distance  irom  London,  65  miles  west-north-west  Pop.  (18T1) 
84,432.  O.  occapies  an  nndnlutiug  site,  is  surrounded  by  rich  and  wooded  meadows, 
and  presents  to  the  eye  of  the  approaching  vii>itor  a  scene  of  nneqnallcd  architecin- 
•  ral  magnificence — spires,  and  towers  and  aomea  rising  as  thickly  as  chimney-stalks 
in  the  manufacturinir  towns  of  Lancashire  or  Yorkshire.  The  four  main  streets  of 
O.  meet  at  right  angles  near  the  centre  of  the  town,  at  a  place  still  called  Carfax,  A 
corruption  ot  Quatre  vmes.  and  which  appears  in  Agas's  map  (temp.  £lizat)etl))  as. 
Cater  vops.  'I'liese  are— Commarket  Street,  leading  into  St  Giles's,  and  running 
due  north ;  Queen  Street,  leading  to  the  rai]way->tations,  and  running  west;  St 
Al<Iate'8  Street,  leading  to  the  1b:s.  and  rnnning  dne  fonth ;  and  High  Street,  which 
is  the  chief  street  of  the  city,  gracefully  curviu*;  in  an  easterly  direction,  and  con- 
ducting to  the  river  Cherwell,  a  smaller  river  joining  the  Isis  soon  after  it  has  passed 
Oxford. 

The  we-^tern  half  of  the  town  is  the  most  nninteresting ;  and  it  is  a  mipfortnne 
that  the  railway-stations  are  placed  here,  as  travellers,  on  arriving,  are  introduced  to 
the  meanest  parts  of  the  city  first.  Tlie  county  courts  and  j  lil,  and  the  remains  of 
the  castle,  from  which  the  Empress  Maud  ei«caped  while  it  was  l)esieged  by  King 
Stephen,  will  be  ob8ei*vcd  in  passing.  There  is  one  good  street  in  this  pait— viz., 
Beaumont  Street,  huUt  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Beaumont  Palace,  in  which  Bich- 
ardLwasboni.  At  the  end  of  this  street  is  Worcester  College.  Passtiig  to  the 
north  from  Carfax,  along  the  Commarket,  the  old  tower  of  St  Michael's  Chtirch  is 
seen,  ai^ainst  which  stood  formerly  the  north  gate  of  the  city;  next  St  Mary  Mag- 
dalen Church  ;  tlien  the  Martyr's  Memorial,  >vith  the  Taylor  Buildings  and  Rai:dolph 
Hold  on  the  left,  and  part  of  Balliol  College  and  St  John's  College  on  the  right  St 
Giles's  Church  is  at  the  north  end  of  this  street,  which  is  very  wide,  and  has  a  row 
of  ehn-trees  on  each  side,  forming  a  picturesque  avenue  like  a  foreign  bmUevarcL 
Beyond  this,  to  the  north,  is  the  Kadciiffe  Observatory  and  Infirmary.  The  High 
8tie«!t  is  about  1000  yards  in  leiieth ;  it  is  reckoned  one  of  the  noblest 
streets — ^archit*  cturally  considered— in  Europe,  and  contains,  among  other  edifices. 

Fart  of  the  buildings  of  Mag<Ialen  College,  Queen's  College,  All-Souls'  CoW 
•ge,  University  College,  and  St  Mtiry's  and  All-Saints'  Ciiurche4i.  Parallel  to 
it  is  Broad  Street,  in  which  are  situated  Balliol,  Triidty,  and  Exeter 
Colhees,  the  Ashinolean  Museum,  the  Clarendoti  Rooms,  the  Sheldonian  Theatre, 
and  close  by  an?  the  A<"adeinical  Schools,  the  Bodleian  Library,  and  the  Picture  Gal- 
lery. In  StAldate's  Sireet,  wliich  forms  the  southern  part  of  the  series  of  streets 
already  mei]|tloned  as  forming  one  line,  and  runidng  north  and  south,  is  Christ 
Chunrh  College  (ihe  entrance  tower  of  which  contains  the  great  bell  **Tom  of  Ox- 
ford," weightng  ppwards  of  17,000  lbs.)  and  St  Aldate's  Church.  The  other  coUe^res 
and  imtM>rt'int  nnildiiigs  coimected  with  the  University  of  O.  lie  back  frotn  the  prin- 
cifial  street".  To  attempt  particularising^  the  architectural  characteristics  of  eachof 
these  edifices  is  impossible  within  our  limits.  It  raaysufi9ceto  say,  that  though  there  is 
nothing  extraordinarily  fine  al>out  the  architecture  of  the  colleges,  regarded  Individ u- 
n  Wy,  yet  the  vast  number  of  tlie  structures  and  variety  of  styles  present  a  tout  etiBembfe 
that  is  altogether  sublime.  UTie  effect  is  wonderfully  heightened  by  the  interspersion 
of  gardens,  meadows,  and  venerable  trees— old  as  the  buildings  that  tower  above  them. 
Christ  Church  U  celebrated  for  its  mngtiificetit  hall,  picture  gaHerj'.  and  library,  ns 
ueil  as  for  its  exteni*ive  crounds ;  its  clispsi,  the  cathedral  church  of  O.,  is  Normatt 
ill  style,  but  is  Inferior,  bo: b  in  Sijbo  and  beauty,  to  most  English  cathedrals.    Mciv 


y  Google 


Oxford 


626 


-ton  Coll(>g«  Ifl  eitnated  a  lllUcr  to  the  rotrth  of  tlio  High  Street^  and  pffll  fotaf«i«<h« 
ori^iurjl  cnapel  and  part  of  Hie  otli  r  buildings  erected  b\  VV.ilivr  de  Mertuiiiotlie 
18th  ociitiii-v.  Muijdiilen  Oollog  •  rt)tains  iu  ccicbnited  cloir'ter  and  rower  of  the  15th 
c,  and  !h?bnilding"«h«re  nre-tlie  nnwt  completo  of  uny  college  in' Oxford.  Oryel 
Coll.^g  s  a  Cviinpiraiivcly  iiiodijni  structarc,  is  very  picturesque,  butfur  from  cltasite 
in  lt8djf*ign;  Now  College  ranks  among  Mm  noblest  bullatng«  iu  tife  city-***  the 
cliap(!l,  the  hill,  thit  cloiaiers.  the  jrrolnvd  gateway b,  and  even  some  original  doora 
and  windows  remniB,  in  their  exterior  at  least,  ae  they  came  from  the  ttand  of  their 
ln.•l^*ter  architect,"  William  of  Wykeham,  SOOyearu  ago ;  t^ueen**  College  is  built  in 
1113  Grecian  style  of  architectur..',  wirh  a  epaciona  and  handsome  chapel  and  a  flue 
library;  ho  is  Triuity  Co'lcgc;  Univei'sity  Collcgif  i^*  a  not  nnploasinj?  mixture  of 
OothicandltaJlaii;  Exeter  College  has  a  splendid  frontitgn  on  the  \reet,  and  its 
rlnipiil  (bnilt  1857-1858),  in  the  Gothic  rtyle,  is  the  tlni-st  modoni  Imilding  iu  the 
city  ;  it  i»as  ql.-*©  an  excellent  hall,  and  a  beautiful  library ;  Balliol  College  ii«8  a  re- 
inarkably  ftuo  chapel,  built  only  a  few  years  ag(».  Among  the  other  churches  in  O., 
bat«i<leB  tlie  cathedral  church  and  the  co'legu  chapels,  are— 8t  Mary's,  which  is  at- 
t  Midcd  by  the  members  of  the  university;  St  Martin's,  t  iC  church  of  the  corpora- 
poration  of  O. ;  St  Peter'n-in-the-East,  with  a  Normau  ci-ypt;  St  J^ichael's, 
with  a  Saxon  tower;  and  St  Aldare's.  The  chief  buildiugs  conne<ted  with  the 
•nniver-ity,  besides  the  Bodleian  and  the  Ashmolean  Mu.«eain  already  mentioned. 
«re  the  Radcliffj  Library,  a  circular  structure,  adorned  with  Corintliian  colamtrsana 
surmounted  by  a  dome;  the  Radcliffe  Ob-'ervatory,  crowned  by  an  octagono4  tower, 
in  imitotlou  of  th3  Temple  of  th  i  Wimls  at  Athena;  the  Univensity  Printing- 
office,  and  th!  Taylor  Institution,  founded  *-for  the  teach! m:  tlie  Buro0ea«  lan- 
guages," an  excoedhi;;]y  handsome  and  extensive  range  of  buildings.  Tiie  BotMuic 
Gardens  are  situated  not.  far  fro  n  the  Cherwell,  and  nearly  opposite  Magdalen  Col- 
l  '^e.  Other  notable  buHdiugs,  not  connoctt-d  with  the  universiiy,  are^Ue  Town 
Hall,  the  Radcliffe  Infirmary,  the  County  GaoU  and  one  or  two  dl^sentiug  places  of 
\vor3hip,  such  as  the  We^leyan  Chapel  in  New  Inn  Hall  Lane,  and  the  Ind<Sjpendent 
Chapslin  G  ;org3  Lane.— Tne  city  of  O.  is  a  mart  for  tJie-disiTosal  of  the  ogfricultnral 
roauce  of  the  neighboring  countr}',  but  h.-is  little  trade  of  its  own,  and  iadop<^i>dent 
or  its  prosperity  Chi- fly  on  the. university.  It  is  a  municipal  and  irarHimeMtary 
boi-onjrlt.  and  governe i  by  a  mayor,  nine  aldermen,  and  thirty  councillors,  whose 
Jurisdiction,  however,  does  not  embrace  the  university.  Both  the  city  and  tue  uni- 
versity send  two  members  to  parlianumt. 

O.,  by  the  Saxons  allied  Oxnaford,  and  in  the  *-Domo8d»y  Book,"  Oxeneford 
<i)rol)ab  y  from  its  having  b  ien  orirfually  a  ford  for  the  passage  of  oxi-n),  is«  a  place 
of  great  antiquity.  The  date  of  its  origin  is  unknown,  but  as  early  as  the  8th  c. 
there  was  a  nunnery  established  here ;  and  in  802,  an  act  of  couflrmation  by  Pope 
Martin  IL  describes  it  as  an  ancient  seat  of  learning.  It  is  said  lO  have  been  a 
ri-sidence  of  King  Alfred,  and  also  of  Canute,  who  held  8(;veral  parliaments  within 
its  walls.  The  townsmen  Closed  their  gates  against  William  the  Conqueror,  who 
stormed  the  town  in  106T,  and  gave  it  to  ono  of  his  follower.s,  Robert  d'Oyley,  who 
built  a  castle  here  to  overawe  the  disaffected  Saxons,  some  ruins  of  which  are  stiU 
to  be  seen.  The  paction  that  terminated  the  strife  between  Stephen  and  Henry  II. 
w  IS  drawn  up  at  Oxford.  In  the  rci_'n  of  Edward  III.,  the  iireaching  of  Wicklifte 
excited  great  commotion  among  the  students,  and  th'-eatened  wt  ll-nigh  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  university.  In  the  rf  ign  of  the  *'  Bloody  Mary,"  it  witnessed  the  martyr- 
doms of  Ridley,  Latimer,  atwl  Cranmer;  and  during  th«  great  civil  war  of  the  itih 
c,  it  was  for  a  while  the  head-quarters  of  tl«e  loyalist  forces,  and  was  cou^picuoua 
for  its  adherence  to  Charles  I.  Ever  since  that  period  the  city— or,  at  any  rate,  the 
university— hjis  been  in  general  characterised  by  an  extreme  devotion  to  the 
*' church  "  and  the  *■  king." 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  King  Alfred.  With- 
pnt  claiming  for  .t  an  origin  quite  so  ancient,  it  Is  certain  that  from  very  early  times 
BtudentB  resorted  to  Oxford  in  order  to  attend  lecturt'S  there  delivered  br  learned 
men,  and  that  they  lived  In  the  houses  of  the  townspeople^  In  some  cases  thej  coni- 
blm'd  together,  so  as  to  secure  the  service  of  a  common  t-acher,  with  whom  they 
lived  iu  a  larirc  tencnu^nt  called  an  inn.  hostel,  or  hall.  For  a  longtime,  however, 
the  gre-at  majority  of  the  «tudent«  lodged  in  rooms  hked  from  the  citi«eu«  ;  and  as 
lato  us  the  year  1513,  regulations  ^*re  made  for  the  goveiiiauce  of  such  BtQdcDte. 


?; 


y  Google 


627 


Oxford 


AsthefmnmWrs  Increased,  the  halle  were  multiplied.  Antlmny  Wood  ftatcw  that 
h»':could>«h«  w  the  uaineB  and  plnco!«  Of  more  than  u  himdred.-  A  jn'eiit  diinitintiou 
ill  the  imnibtT:*  of  thu  «tudi*i)»«  took  place  abont  tlie  inkklle  of  tl»o  16ih  century. 
This*  aiiiou<r  otiier  causep,  le<l  to  the  gradual  disuppciuniice  of  tlie  hulls,  which  weio 
htjuiiht  lip  hy  tlie  wettUhier  college's.  Oiil^  five  of  ihe  halls  now  exist,  which  differ 
froih  the  coliejres  only  lu  that  they  are  uiiiiicoi-poi-ated,  ami  have  little  or  no  cndow- 
ivieiitH.  Residence  iu  prfvute  lodgiiiRs  had  also  fullcu  into  disuse;  and  by  the  time 
of  Qaecii  Elixabc'th,  It  had  l)ecome  a  coiopul^oiy  rule  thiit  all  uDdeignidnateBehonld 
ri*ide  in  some  college  or  hall,  at  leapt  for  the  firpt  twelve  tt-rmB  of  reeideuce.  Now, 
liuwi'ver,  unclufi^raduates  may  iu  uiOBt  Colleges  live  in  lodgings  from  the  l)egiiiuing 
of  their  coarse. 

The  colleges  were  fouDded  at  varlotis  periods,  from  the  end  of  the  18lh  c.  to  the 
beginning  of  tlie  18th.  Fourteen  out  of  the  20  were  fcrtiiuhd  before  the  Refonnn- 
titffi.  Thdr  object  origina.ly  was  to  support  limited  societies  of  students,  who  were 
to^evote  their  lives  to  study — by  no  meanSr  a«  at  present,  to  educate  lai^e  classes  of 
th%  counnnuity,  8tu<lentB,  other  than  those  on  the  foundation,  seem  not  to  have 
b6en  regarded  by  the  founders  as  an  essential  part  of  the  college.  The  colleges 
arose,  as  has  been  already  s.iid,  partly  instead  of  the  old  halls,  and  were  partly  at 
first  cofinected  "With  the  niouasteriis,  it  being  by  means  of  these  institutions  that 
Iwnevoleiit  persons  were  enaV)led  to  give  permanent  support  to  poor  secular  scholars. 
University  and  Balliol,  which  now  rnnk  as  the  oldest  collrges,  were  in  point  of  fact 
h»\\H  snpj[>erted  by  endowments  held  in  trust  for  tlie  maintenance  of  their  students. 
Tlie  originator  of  the  collogiato  system,  in  anything  like  its  present  form,  was  Wal- 
ter de  Meitoui  who,  besides  having  founded  Meiton  College,  is  entitled  to  the  honor 
of  having  mamly  contrlbutecl  to  nx  the  univer.««ity  in  its  present  site.  All  those 
On  the  foundation  of  the  collegeti  before  the  Keforinatiou  were  called  Clerici.  The 
great  majopity  of  the  ft  Hows  were  required  to  take  priest's  ordi-rs  within  a  ceitaiu 
fiefiod  aft«r  their  election.  This  requirement/of  course  involved  celibacy,  which, 
b  sides,  was  expressly  iim>osed  in  some  colleges;  and  practically,  iu  old  t<ines  as 
now,  was  enforced  by  t  he  rule  of  life  and  the  oiilijratiou  •  of  residence.  W  ithiu  the 
last  fitWye.trs,  in  some  of  the  colleges  Ihe  restriction  of  celibacy  has  been,  nnder 
certain  conditions,  remitted  in  the  case  of  fellows  engaged  in  college  work. 

Under  a  siatine  passed  in  1S68,  any  person  may  now  become  a  member  of  the 
nniversity,  without  l>ecoming  a  member  of  a  colU  ge  or  hall,  provided  he  satisfies 
certain  disciplinary  requirement^.  For  such  purposes  these  unattached  students  are 
nnder  the  control  of  a  l)oa«l  of  delegates ;  but  no  special  piovision  is  made  for  their 
instmction.  In  1871,  the  new  foundation  of  Keble  Colletie,  built  in  mt:mory  of 
John  Keble,  was  admitted  to  enjoy  ilie  same  privileges  isave  as  regards  the  acade- 
mical status  of  Its  head)  as  are  posses-n-d  by  the  exis'ing  colleges  and  halls. 

Previous  to  the  statute  17  and  18  Vict,  c'  81,  theionsiitution  of  the  university  was 
as  follows:  1.  The  Hel>domadal  Board,  or  Weekly  Meeiiiij:,  consisting  of  the  Heads 
of  Houses  and  the  two  Proctore.  which  body  exercised  the  cliief  share  of  the  admin- 
istration of  the  university,  and  possessed  the  exclusive  power  of  initiating  legislation ; 
2.  Congregation,  consisting  of  certain  university  dijmita.rles,  which  met  merely  lor 
t  he  ]mrnos«  of  conferring  degrees ;  8.  Convocation,  consisting  of  all  Masters  of  Art", 
«  body  whose  consent  was  necessary  before  any  of  the  mi  asnres  proposed  by  the  Hib- 
domadal  Board  could  become  law,  which  elected  the  chancellor,  the  two  representa- 
tives Of  the  university  in  parliament,  several  of  the  professors,  and  uispensed  the  ec- 
cU^iastlcal  patronage  of  the  university.  The  stat  ute  refeiTed  to  introduced  imiiortant 
changes.  Tiie  Hebdonnidal  Boant  has  been  changed  into  the  Helidojaadal  Council, 
c-m.'isiiugof  the  chancellor,  the  vice-chanC4^1lor,  the  proctors,  six  heads  of  houses, 
six  ptxjfessors,  and  six  memliers  of  convocation  of  not  less  that  tive  > ears'  standing 
— such  heads,  pi-ofessors,  and  members  of  convocation  l>eiug  elected  by  congrega- 
t'Oii,  and  holding  office  for  six  years.  Congregation,  again,  now  consists  of  t^tl  tne 
jrre.-it  ofiicei*s  of  the  university,  the  pirofesaors,  the  iiubiic  examiners,  and  all  resi- 
dent tnasiers;  and  on  this  body  is  now  bestowed  the  power  o(  .accepting  or  reject- 
ing and  of  amending  any  statute  framed  hy  the  Hebdomadal  Council.  The  compo- 
sition and  powers  of  Convocation  remain  unchanired.  'J'he  students  not  on  the 
fonndjiticHi  are  for  the  most  part  commoners.  In  Worcester  College  anci  tne  halls 
t  here  is  still  a  class  of  f«!l low-common ors.  who^ay  lai^er  fees,  and  enjoy  certain 
privilagos.    They  mainly  oousist  of  nieu  above  the  ordinary  age  of  uudci^gr|iduate8, 


y  Google 


Oxford 


62« 


who  wish  to  tinre  tlie  intellectual  ndvantasres  of  the  unWcrrtty  wltliont  l>eiiiff  «i^- 
j^clcul  to  thecommou  routine  of  dittciptiue.  All  other  formal  disiiuctious  ilne  to 
wealtli  or  iwvcrtyare  almost  eutirely  ubollriied ;  each  as  the  ppecial  priyile^epof 
p  'Hrs,  Olid  tDB  regard  had  to  tlio  fioverty  of  candidate**  iu  the  case  of  oertaiu  scholar- 
ships. It  in  very  difAcnlt  to  asccrtiiiii  the  actual  iinmber  of  stndeuts  at  any  buti  time 
in  Oxford,  hut  now  ir  is  probal)ly  seldom  above  1600. 

'I'herft  are  four  terms  iii  ejicU  year— v»se.,  Michaelmas  Term,  which  begins  on  the 
lOth  of  Octob  n-and  ends  on  the  1 7tli  of  December ;  Hilary  Term,  which  b%in«  on  tbe 
Uth  ot  January  and  sikIh  the  day  before  Palm  Sunday ;  Easter  Term,  wiilch  begins 


on  the  Wednesday  in  Baster>weuk,  and  uiuis  on  the  Friday  before  Wliitsmiaav; 
Trinity  T«rni,  which  l>eglns  ,on  the  Saturday  l>efore  Whitsnuday  and  ends  on  the 
8  iturdar  after  the  first  Tiiesday  h)  July.    Fall  Term,  as  tt  iw:alied,  does  not  bet^in 


till  tlie  first  day  of  the  week  after  the  first  con  ji^ga  lion  is  held.  By  uude^ruduatesi  / 
Michaelmas  and  Hilary  Terms  are  kept  by  six  wetiks' resklence,  and  faster  ai>4* 
Trinity  Terms  by  tijree  weeks  each  ;  bnl  more  than  this  is  required  by  most  of  tbe 
colleges.  Twenty-six  weeks  may  be  talceu  as  the  ordinary  length  qf  tht  ttoademi$ 
pear.  Twelve  terms  of  residence  are  required  for  tbe  degree  of  B.A.  from  alL  The 
degree  of  M.A.  is  obtainable  in  the  twenty-seventh  term  after  inatriculatlnn.  By  a 
stjitttt«  passed  in  1850,  the  following  examinations  were  made  necessary  for  a  degree 
in  arts;  but  their  natni;e  has  been  considerably  changed  by  the  new  statntea  which 
como  into  effect  1873— 18T4 :  1.  Responsions,  called  •*  Little  Go  ^  or  **  Smalls  "  iu.the 
familiar  langtiage  of  undergraduates,  are  obligatoi7  n))0u  all.  The  university  does  not» 
as  to  this  or  any  other  piss  examination,  fix  a  limit  of  time  within  which  they  mnst 


First  Public  Bxaminatiou,  or  Moderations,  is  also  obligatory  upon  all.  Candidates 
must  liuve  entered  upon  their  fonrrh'  term.  Subjects :  the  Four  Gospels  iu  Greek 
(except  in  the  ct\f*e  of  persons  not  members  ot  the  Church  of  England,  when  some 
one  Greek  author  is  to  l)e  substituttd);  one  Greek  and  one  Latin  author ;  iK»t  the  same 
as  those  offored  for  resno'tsions,  and  one  mnst  be  a  poet,  the  otiier  an  orator;  a 

1>iece  of  Rnglish  into  Latin,  and  a  paper  of  grammatical  questions;  logic,  or  Euclid 
IL  and  IV.,  1—9,  atnl  algebra.  Honors  are  awardt^l  at  thi^s  examiitatiou  bnth  ia 
classi«'S  and  pure  mathematics.  Candidates  are  recommended  to  tjike  up  especially 
po.?tA  and  orators.  Verses,  as  well  as  Greek  and  JLatin  prose-writing,  and  a  paper 
of  grammatical  and  philological  qneftions,  at:e  set.  In  the  mathematical  school^ 
which  in  this  examination  exists  as  a  separate  school  for  honors  only,  candidates 
ar>!  t^x  imined  in  pure  mathematics  up  to  the  Integral  Calculus  and  the  Calculus  of 
Finite  DiffiTenct'S  inclusive.  8.  The  Second  Public  Examination  held  twice  a  year, 
to  be  jMM^^ef  not  earlier  than  the  12th  term,  and  for  honors  not  later  than  tbe  16ta 
term  of  standing;  nuless  the  candidate  lias  been  classed  in  some  other  school  of  the 
Second  Public  Examination,  in  which  case  he  may  be  admitted  up  to  the  20th  teim 
inclu!«ive.  This  examination  consists  of  three  parts :  (1.)  an  examination  in  the 
rudiments  of  faith  and  religion,  or  in  the  case  of  those  who  (or  whose  gnar- 
dian.<*)  object  to  such  examination,  certain  substituted  books  or  subjects;  (2.)  an 
examination  of  those  who  do  not  seek  honors;  and  (3.)  an  examination  for 
those  who  do  seek  honors.  In  this  last  there  are,  in  Oxford,  phraseology,  six 
schools:  Lit-ene  Hnmaniores,  Mathematics,  Natural  Science,  Jurisprudence,  Mod- 
ern Ilisiorj',  'l'heol(^y.  Candidates  are  entitled  to  a  degree  of  B.A.  wlio,  hav- 
ing passed  the  two  previous  examinations,  also  passed  the  examination  appointed 
for  those  who  do  not  seek  honors,  or  wno  obtain  honors  in  any  one  of  the  six 
honor-sirhools.  But  every  candidate,  except  he  has  obtained  honors  in  the  Theology 
School,  mnst  have  satisfied  in  tiie  rudiments  of  faith  and  religion  or  the  substitnUi. 
By  theae  rudiments  are  undi^rstood  the  Old  and  New  Testauncnts  (GN>spels  and  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  in  the  orijrinal  Gre«k) ;  and  the  89  articles.  'J'he  pass  examination 
embraces  anbjects  cliossn  trom  at  letist  two  ont  of  the  three  foUowhig  groups:  (n) 
Greek  and  Roman  history  and  philosophy ;  (6)  Etiglisii,  tnodern  lungnuges,  polit'cal 
economy,  and  law ;  (c)  geometry,  mechanics,  chemistry,  and  phyaic'*.  Ont  of  t^i'So 
the  candidates  must  select  three  subjects,  one  of  whicu  must  l>e  either  ^1)  ancieut 


yGoogk 


629 


OzfoM 


philosophy  and  history  (in  tiie  ori^anl  Greeks  or  Greek  and  Latin)  ?  or  (2)  a  modem 
language  (FreiiCli  or  German).  The  chisaicai  books  lunst  Ih;  uthor  than  those  offered 
for  Ket«pousiou8  and  Moderations.  Candidutes  for  honors  may  strlect  any  one, 
or  uior<«  than  one  of  tiie  six  schools.  The  mo^t  popnlar  and  infinential  of  tiiese 
is  the  school  of  Dterse  Huntauiores.  The  examination  in  this  school  includes  (1) 
the  Greek  and  Liitiii  language!*! ;  (S)  the  histories  of  ancient  Greece  and  Kouse;  (3) 
Ic^ic  and  tlie  outlines  of  moral  and  i)olitical  philosophy.  Candidates  may  also 
offer  certain  spi^cial  subjects  in  any  of  these  three  defKurtments.  The  republic  of 
Pluto  and  Uie  ethics  ot  Aristotle  lorm  tlis  basis  for  pTiiloi»o|)liical  stndv,  thongh 
they  are  every  yejir  more  largely  snpplemcntt-d  by  modern  pliilosophy.  Next  in  the 
f  uttml>ersof  its  cnndidaiea  is  the  school  of  Modem  History,  winch  includes  (1)  the 
continuous  history  of  England;  (2)  general  history  during  some  }>eriod.  selwted  by 
Ihe  candidate,  from  periods  to  he  niimed  from  time  to  time  by  the  Board  of  Studies ; 
(3)  a  special  portion  of  history,  or  a  special  liistoriciil  subject,  carefully  studied  with 
reference  to  original  authorities.  The  School  of  Jurisprudence  includes  (1)  general 
jurisprudence ;  <2)  the  history  of  English  law :  (8)  souie  department  of  Roman,  and 
It  nuiy  be,  of  English  law ;  (4>  international  law,  or  a  sp<ciflcd  department  of  it. 
The  School  of  Mathematics  embrnces  pure  and  mixed  mathumntLcs  (algebra,  trigo- 
nometry, calculus,  mechanics,  optics,  astronomy).  The  School  of  Natural  Science 
has  a  double  exiiminaliou  for  honors — a  preliminary  uud  a  flual.  The  pretiminnvy 
exantination,  incumbent  upon  all,  is  restiicted  to  the  elementtiry  parts  of  mechanic.'', 
physics,  and  chemistry.  In  tliu  linal  exaiuination,  the  candidate  may  offer  hims<  If. 
for  examination  in  one  or  njore  of  the  thiee  general  subjects  of  physics,  chemiJ»tiT, 
and  biology.  The  examination  in  the  Honor  Scliool  of  Thecilo'^y  includes  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  dogmatic  and  symbolic  theology,  eccjesinsticiil  hij*twy  nud  the  fathers, 
the  evidences  of  religion,  liturgies,  sncred  criticism,  and  the  an^heeology  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testiunents.  A  kuo« ledge  ot Htbrew  will  have  weight  in  the  distribution 
of  honors.  The  organisation  of  these  hChools  is  at  present  the  main  function  of  Ihe 
university,  as  distinct  from  the  colleges.  Professoiial  teaching  on  its  own  account 
only  tjxists  to  a  very  limited  extent  In  the  main,  the  tenching  power  of  the  colleges 
is  devoted  to  prepann^;  thei^r  undergraduate  members  for  these  various  examinations. 

Examinations  »lso  take  place  for  degrees  in  law,  medicine,  divinity,  and  tnnsic  ; 
but  these  are  in  great  measure  formal.  The  examinations  for  degrees  in  arts  itre 
the  proper  work  of  the  university. 

Besides  these  honors,  vi^rious  distiuctions  are  conferred  by  the  university.  There 
are  several  university  scholarships,  more  particularly  the  Vinerian  law  felowshiis 
and  scholarships;  the  Eldou  law  scholarship;  one  Sanscrit  and  two  Hebrew  ^etlolur- 
ehips  yearly;  two  matheinaiicul  scholarthips ;  the  Hertfoid  schohuhhip,  for  tlte  en- 
•  couragement  of  the  study  of  Latin,  and  the  Ireland  and  Craven  scholarship.*,  for  the 
eucountgement  of  the  study  of  clasi^ics.  There  is  also  the  Newdi^te  prise  tor  Ihe 
best  composition  in  English  verse;  and  the  three  chancellor's  prizes  for  tiie  het>t 
compositions  in  Latin  verse,  Latin  prose,  and  English  prohe ;  the  Gaisford  prizes  for 
Greelc  composition ;  and  Uie  Arnold,  Staniiope,  tiud  Marquis  of  Lothian's  pri2KiS  for 
the  best  e>say8  on  an  histbiicjil  subject-  B4it  ttie  great  priKi^  are  the  scholarships 
and  the  fellowships.  By  the  commissioners  under  17  and  1 8  Vict.  c.  81,  these  havo  been 
for  the  most  part  thrown  open,  and  are  now  awarded  after  examination  without  re- 
strictions as  to  kin  or  place  of  birth.  At  All-Sou!s,  and  also  at  St  John's  College, 
since  tlie  laboi-s  of  the  commissioners,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  keep  up  the 
former  exclnsiveness.  The  scholarships,  which  are  so  numerous  us  to  be  williin  the 
rea/'.h  of  any  young  man  of  ability,  range  from  £60  to  jESO  a  year,  with  rooms  tree, 
which  would  go  a  considerable  way  towards  defraying  the  expense  of  a  university 
education.  At  the  close  of  this  education  come  the  fellowships ;  and  it  has  been 
calculated  that  wiu?n  the  arrangements  of  the  commissioners  are  complete,  there  will 
be  between- 20  and  30  fellowships,  mostly  about  £BLO  per  annum,  open  yearly  lo 
con)i)eiition. 

Oxford  is,  of  course,  chiefly  fed  fi^om  the  great  English  schools.  A  close  con- 
nection subsists,  by  the  terms  of  the  foundation,  betwocn  Winchester  and  New  Col- 
lege, between  Westminster  and  Christ  Churcii,  and  between  Merchant  Taylors'  and 
.8i  John's.  For  the  nature  of  this  connection,  see  undej:  the^e  coll  ges.  A  student 
denirous  of  going  to  Oxford,  must  apply  to  the  Head  of  the  College  to  whieh  he 
wifches  Lo  belong.    Application  in  former  timos  had  to  be  uiadu  eariy,  an  aU  the  good 


y  Google 


OxidM  ^^^ 

ooll^s  were  filled  ap  for  several  yenre  io  adtance.  I^nt  now  that  niid^rgradu^tes 
are  allowed  by  mort  colk-geB  to  live  in  lodgings  ffom  tl»e  ftitt,  a  candidate  cm  have 
no  difflcnlty  In  secnriiig  miraiKfion  even  to  a  diBtinguishcd  college  at  abort  notice. 
There  is  no  university  examination  at  matricolation  ;  but  nil  the  good  colIe^eA  bav.: 
each  an  ex:nniuaiion  before  tliey  receive  any  one— the  standard  of  tlieezanii nation, 
of  conrae,  varying  with  the  colU-ge.  After  being  received  into  the  college,  the  under- 
graduate is  fonienmus  asspigned  to  a  college  tutor,  who  exercises  a  special  control 
over  his  reading;  but  he  also  attends  the  Insti action  of  the  other  collepe  tutoi*8  nr 
lecturer?,  a:*  the  coarse  of  his  studi<s  ^nay  require.  'ITie  cost  «»f  tuition  varicR  at  dif- 
fifrent  colleges,  bat  an  average  of  jC65  may  be  given  as  paid  by  the  undergraduate 
daring  his  whole  career.  Thw  ])ayinent  Is  at  some  colleges  dii*tributed  over  ttiree, 
at  others  over  four  years.  Besidus^  thl?,  almost  every  undereraduMte  finds  it  neces- 
sary, at  some  perioii,  before  taking  his  di'gree,  to  read  with  a  private  tutor,  whom 
be  ehooses  for  himself.  Private  tuition  has  grown  to  be  qjiife  sn  institation  in  Ox- 
ford, thougli  not  formally  recojrnised.  Many  of  the  ablest  young  men.  after  taking 
their  degree,  remain  in  Oxford  for  a  year  or  two,  ttikiiig  private  pupils.  In  this 
way,  an  undei-graduate,  even  of  a  badly-taught  college,  could  secure  Jtie  advauta«re3 
ofthe  best  tuition.  But  during  tlie  last  few  years,  the  lecturers  in  different  colleger 
have  more  and  more  combined  and  sysrematised  tiieirwork;  and  tims  to  a  $}ight 
extent  obviated  the  need  for  private  tuition.  Much  di.»cai<s  on  has  taken  place  on 
the  merits  and  faults  of  this  system ;  but,  on  the  whole,  it  must  be  allow.-d 
.  to  be  asefol  for  the  tutor,  ns  clearing  np  and  concentrjitlng  his  knowledge,  while,  at 
least  to  undergraduntes  who  read  for  lionoi-s  (with  a  few  rai-e  exceptions),  it  may  l»e 
considered  as  absolutely  ne<  ensary.  Private  tutors  usually  chai-ge  XIO  a  fc  rni  for 
three  hoars  a  weeh;.  Previous  to  1862,  the  professoriate  of  Oxford  was  strictly  orna- 
mental. A  great  effort  was  then  made  to  stir  it  into  life,  which  has  l)e«n  pJtrtialW 
luccasefnl.  New  professoralilpswere  created,  and  the  endowments  of  old  ones  weio 
increased  by  the  commisi«lonerf«,  under  IT  and  18  Vict.,  c.  81.  But  the  former  of 
these  nwasnres,  at  least,  whatever  it  may  h:ive  done  for  the  intere^ts-of  science,  ha^ 
produced  but  little  effect  on  the  undergraduates.  They  srlll  limit  their  ra:  ge  of 
studies  by  the  requii-ements  of  the  exanunations  of  the  schools,  and  it  were  hard  to 
ex|>ect  them  to  do  otherwise.  Btit  profe^s  rial  teaching  has  undoubtetlly  l)ee«)u»o 
more  popular  in  the  ordinary  branches  of  study.  Lectures  by  the  professors  o/  Lj«w 
and  Modern  History,  of  MomI  Philosophy,  Logic,  Greek,  and  Liitiu,  are  felt  to  bo 
useful,  and  are  therefore  well  attended.  Witn  regard  to  the  expenses  of  Oxford,  it 
is  difficult  to  say  anything  very  definite.  They  vary  at  different  colleges,  not  only 
indirectly  from  the  tone  or  the  society,  but  even  directly  from  the  charges  nnidi^  for 
uecessaiies.  A  man  should  be  excceiliugly  comfortable  at  Oxford  with  je200  a  yt  ar ; 
on  jCISO,  he  can  manage  with  economy.  Many  young  men  could  not  with  prodenc', 
be  exposed  to  the  difficulties  of  living  in  Oxford  on  less  than  the  latter  snin.  There 
have  indeed  been  iuHtanci^s  of  men  passing  creditably  through  the  university  c«»nrsa 
on  jetOO  a  year.  The  'neeestiary  expenses  do  not  exceed  that  sum;  the  habits  of  the 
young  men  themselves  cause  a  gr»'at  part  of  the  exi)en8es.  Returns  procured  by  tlio 
delegates  for  unattached  students  shew  that  some  studenta  cover  their  board,  loilg- 
ing,  and  tuition  for  about  X45  a  year.  Discipline  inside  the  coUejre  is  maintained  by 
the  head  of  the  house  and  the  tuior:» ;  in  the  town  and  its  neiojhlwrhood,  by  the  proc- 
tors, who  are  university  officers  invested  with  crent  authoritv.  As  a  rule,  thlK  utt- 
thority  is  well  exercised.  Accordltig  to  the  "Universities  Oommission  Report" 
(1874),  the  revenue  of  the  colleges  and  wiiversity  in  1871  was*  jC413,000. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  colleges  and  halls  as  they  rank  in  the  university ; 
an  account  of  each  will  be  found  in  its  alphabetical  place;  University,  Balllol,  Mer- 
ton.  Exeter,  Oriel,  Queen's,  New  College,  Lincoln,  All  Souls,  Magdalen,  Bm8enos<% 
Corpus  Cliristi,  Christ  Church.  Trinitv,  St  Joliu's,  Jesus,  Wadham,  Pembroke.  Wor- 
cester, Keble,  St  Mary  Hall,  St  Magdalen  Hall,  New  Inn  Hall,  St  Albatf  Hall,  St  E  I- 
mnud  Hall.  To  thene  may  tie  a<ldea  Chnr^iley's  Hail,  being  a  private  Itjdl  undi-r  the  , 
mastership  of  W.  H.  Charsley,  in  virtue  of  a  statute  pufsed  in  1854,  emiiowerlng  any 
M.A.  of  a  certain  stamliug  to  open  a  pdvate  hall  on  his  obtaining  a  licenc  *  from  the 
vioe-cliancellor.  The  Uintttached  titudents  now  numlier  upwards  of  100;  bui  4ho 
present  system  of  university  teaching  is  not  very  favorable  eitlrer  to  th^-  inereaf e  ur 
progress. 

Among  tbd  booka  whicb  may  be  cooBolted  with  regard  to  Oxford  aie-^AytiSe>« 


Digitized  by 


Google 


f>01     ,  Oxford 

^"^^  Ojtid*« 

"History  of  Oxford."  Wood's  "  AnnaK**  the  •*  TJnWe«iUT  CJaleDdnr,"  and,  above  all, 
the  ••  Ittiport  of  the  Royal  Commisfiouers  for  1852." 

OXTORD  BLUES.    See  Horse  Guards,  Royal. 

OXFORD  CLAY,  thf  piiiuMi)al  member  of  the  Middle  Oolite  scries,  is  a  bed  of 
stiff  djiik-biue  or  blackish  clHy,  ecjmetiraes  rfacbing  a  tlii<kues8  of  COOfeer.  There 
c  «cur  in  Its  lower  portion  iu  some  places  layers  of  toueli  calcanou-s  sandstone, 
CM  lied  K^Ilouay  Rock,  from  a  ]>lace  In  Wiltshire,  wliero  it  is  quarried.  TheO.  C. 
li«s  bi iieath  the  plain  on  which  Oxford  is  bnilt,  and  ext*:nds  south-west  and  nortli- 
ei>»t  from  the  shore  at  Weymouth  to  tine  fi;n  lands  south  of  the  Was-h,  thence  it  may 
be  traced  through  Lincoln  into  Yorkshire,  until  it  fll?ai)|>ears  under  the  soa  at  Scar- 
lM)rongli.  The  close  packing  of  the  fossils  in  the  flue  compact  clay  has  cau!*<>d  them 
4o  he  b;;aatifully  pre^ei-ved  ;  tlie  shells  frequently  retain  their  iridescence,  and  evi  u 
tl«e  softer  parts  oi  the  cephalonods  have  sometimes  left  witli  tolerably  clear  deflni- 
t  on  their  form  iu  the  clay.  The  foj«sil8  are,  however,  often  filled  with  iron  ])yritfe8, 
whii  h,  (jn  exposure  to  tlie  atmosphere,  readily  decomposes  and  destroys  nil  traces  of 
the  bejmtiful  orgtinism.  The  remains  of  chambered  shells  of  the  genera  belemniiea 
Rud  ammonites  are  very  abundant,  and  with  tin  m  are  associated  other  shells,  inters 
CHiing  Crustacea,  and  the  species  of  fishes  and  reptiles  which  are  characteristic  of 
the  oolite. 

OXFORDSHIRE,  an  inland  county  of  England,  bounded  on  the  s.  by  tlie  river 
Tliames,  on  the  e.  by  Bucks,  and  on  the  w.  by  Glouc.et«tvrshire.  Area,  472,T1T 
acres.  Fop.  (1871)  177,975.  The  surface,  where  it  is  not  level,  is  undulating.  In 
the  north-west  tl»e  hills  rise  in  Broom  Hill  to  836  feet  above  sea-level,  and  in  il»e 
south-east  of  the  county  are  the  Chiltm-n  Hills  (q,  v.).  rising  near  Nutft<'ld  to  820 
fei't  in  height.  It  is  watered  alwijg  its  southern  border  by  thex  hames,  and  tlie  other 
ciief  rivei-s  are  the  Wiudrush,  Evcnlode,  Cherwell.  and  Thnme,  affluents  of  tlie 
Thames.  By  means  of  the  Oxford  Canal,  which  joins  the  'I  haraes  at  Oxford,  the 
towns  and  districts  lower  down  the  river  (Abingdon,  Wallingford,  Ac),  are  supplied 
"With  coal  from  the  Leicestershire  coal-fields.  The  soil  is  fertile ;  the  state  of  agri- 
culture is  advanced,  414^663  acres  beinjr  under  crops,  fallow,  or  grass,  in  1S76 ;  tmd 
the  county  may  be  considered  one  of  the  most  productive  in  the  country.  Three 
inem1>ers  are  returned  to  the  House  of  Commons  for  the  county. 

.  OXIDA'TION  is  tho  term  applied  to  the  union  of  any  body  with  oxygen,  the  body 
being  then  said  to  be  oojtd^sed,  and  the  nsulting  compound  being  tenned  an  axide. 
Many  fiodies  poasess  the  property  of  entering  into  several  distinct  combinations  with 
oxygen.  For  example,  nmiiiranese  (Mil)  forniM  no  less  than  six  such  compoHiuls— 
viz..  Mno,  MiisO,,  Mnt04,  MnO,,  MuOs,  IA.\\^0^,  which  represent  different  stages  of 
oxidation. 

O'XIDKS,  Metallic,  are  the  most  important  of  nil  the  compounds  of  the  metals, 
and  in  many  cas^s  occur  naturally  as  abundant  and  valuable  ores.  They  are  divided 
by  choniists  into  three  classes — viz.,  <l)  basic  oxi<le»  or  bases.  (2)  saline  or  indifferent 
oxides,  and  (3)  acid  oxides  or  metallic  acids.  'J'be  different  oxides  of  the  same  metal 
n  iially  afford  llhistrutions  of  two,  and  not  nufroquently  of  all  three  of  these  classes. 
Thus  (to  take  the  case  of  manffanese  refeiTed  to  iu  the  last  aiticle)  tho  prot(^ide 
(MnO)  is  a  powerful  base,  the  red  oxide  (Mn504)  is  a  saline  or  indifferent  oxWe, 
shewing  little  tendency  to  combine  either  ^vith  acids  or  alkalies,  while  permanganic 
rcid  (M113O7)  presents  all  The  properties  of  aii  acid.  •'  As  n  generuiaule,  the  greater 
tiie  nnml>er  of  atoms  of  oxygen  which  an  oxide  contain,-*,  the  less  it  is  disposed  to 
iruito  with  the  acids;  on  the  contrary,  it  frequently  possesses  acid  properties,  and 
tiien  uniieswiih  bases  tofonn  salts.  Protoxides  genei  ally  are  strong  salifiable  bases; 
tliey  reqiiirc  one  equivalent  of  a  monobasic  acid  to  form  neutral  salts.  Sesquioxides 
are  weaker  bases;  their  salts  are  usually  unstable;  they  require  three  atoms  or 
equivMlents  of  a  monobasic  acid  to  form  a  salt  which  is  neutral  in  composition, 
tl«)ugh  it  may  not  be  neutral  to  test-paper;  and  in  general,  all  oxides  n  quire  as 
many  eanivuleuts  Of  acid  as  they  contain  atoms  of  oxy«£eii  in  their  composition. 
fetQiiie  01  the  metallic  acids,  iike  the  stannic  and  titanic,  contain  two  atoms  of  oxygen 
to  one  atom  of  metal,  but  most  of  them  contain  thrtrc  atoms  of  oxygen — such,  for 
example,  as  tiie  manganic,  feme,  chromic,  tungstic,  molybdic,  and  vanadic  aci<l8; 
Whilst  in  ft  few  0A8eBf«ach  as  the  arsenic,  autimonio,  and  permanganic,  the  pro- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


^^  -    683 

portion  of  orygen  in  rtlU  higbcr."— Miller's  *'  Iiiotf  iniic  Cbemiftiy,"  M  odih  p.  114. 
Of  t!iO  basic  oxldce.  wbiclt  form  by  t.r  ilio  iiiosft  iuiiiorttuit  cituis,  it  may  be  uImutt.  d 
th.it  titey  nro  devoid  of  all  inetullic  appourancei  ainl  pn-seut  tlie  cbaraciero  ol  eiiriby 
mutters,  nud  that  six  only  of  tbom  are  soluble  in  waier  t  >  uny  coiiBitlcrui)le  exteui— 
viz.,  t  :e  three  jillinlifP,  and  baryta,  etroutia.  and  lime.  All  the  oxides  are  solid  at, 
ordinary  temperatnrea,  and  as«  a  general  rale,  the  addition  of  oxygen  to  a  metal  rcui 
dcrs  it  much  lesn  fusi  bie  |md  soluble;  the  protoxide  of  iron,  the  pesquioxide  of 
chromium,  aud  molybdic  acid  being  the  only  oxides  that  inclt  more  readily  tliun 
the  molal. 

OXLEY'A,  a  genua  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  Cedrelacece,  of  which  one  species, 
O.  xanthoxyla,  the  Yellow  Wood  of  Eastern  Australia,  ia  a  very  lar^e  tree,  loo  feet 
high,  valuable  for  its  limber. 

O'XUS,  the  ancient  name  of  a  srreat  river  in  Central  Asia*  which  is  called  by  the 
Turks  aud  Persians  Jiut)N,  and  AmO  or  AmO-Dabia  bv  the  natives  of  the  couutiy 
througli  which  it  flows.  The  O.j'lses  in  Laki;  Sari-lcol,  m  tiie  elevated  plateau  which 
Bcimraies  Enstorn  and  Wt^stern  rurkestau.  It  flowti  through  Buddakslmn.  Bokhara, 
and  Khivu,  and  empties  itself  by  several  mouths  into  the  Sea  of  Aral.  lu  the  fimt 
part  of  its  course,  its  volume  in  increased  by  uumerons  uffloeuts,  but  it  receives  no 
tributaries  aft<s'r  enterius  Khiva,  from  which  point  itacodrtse  id  wholly  throngh  adry 
sandy  desert.  Its  totalkngth  is  about  1150  milts.  The  v;Uue  of  theOxat*  for  the 
purpose  of  water  communication,  is  said  by  r.ceut  Kassiau  geographers  to  have  been 
much  overrated  iu  Euroi)e;  and  they  add  that,  in  summer,  vessels  of  even  slight 
drau<<:ht  could  only  be  got  upon  the  etreatu  by  shutting  off  the  irrigation  canals,  and 
risking  the  desolation  of  ihe  country  Uepntdeut  on  them  for  it's  crops.  The  true 
value  of  (he  Oxu:it  liesiu  the  means  it  will  supply  of  irrigating  the  sterile  aUuvial 
w  istos  through  which  it.  runs.  Before  the  Christian  era,  it  is  believed  that  the  Oxus 
flowed  into  the  Ca-'pian.  and  ih  it  since  GOO  a.d.  it  has  twice  changed  its  course  (see 
Aral).  A  great  pari  of  the  old  bed  of  the  Oxus  Iiae  recently  been  explored  by  M. 
Stebiiutzki  ("Bulletin  de  la  Soc.  de  GSogr^de  Pari*,"  April  ISTI),  who  has  ascer- 
tained that  It  has  a  fall  towards  the  Caspian,  from  wliich  lie  infers  that  its  course  was 
not  changed  by  an  upheaval  of  the  Turcoman  d^'sert,  but  by  the  simple  accid  -nts  of 
fluvial  action  on  an  alluvial  soil.  In  his  address  to  tlie  London  Oeographical  Society 
in  May  1872,  Sir  Henry  Kawlinsou  said  the  rci^toratiou  of  the  Oxus  to  its  old  bed  was 
thttii  under  tlie  serious  consideration  of  the  liu^siau  government,  that  it  was  a  work 
of  no  engineering  difficulty  whatever,  and  would  as-^uredly  be  accomplished  as  aooii 
as  the  neutrality  of  Kbiva  was  s  !cured. — See  "A  Journ^^y  to  Ihe  Source  of  the  Oxus," 
by  John  Wood,  with  E^say  of  the  Ghio^jraphy  of  the  Oxns  Vallev  by  Colonel  Yale, 
18T3,  aud  paper  read  by  Colonel  Gordon  l)efoi'e  the  British  Association  in  1875. 

OXYA'CIDS.  When  Lnvoi-^ier,  in  1739,  gave  the  name  Of  oxygen  to  the  Dephlo- 
aUtictUed  Air.  discovered,  in  lt74,  by  Priestley,  he  believed  that  the  pre^^ence  ot  that 
body  was  essential  to  the  existence  of  an  acid,  and  this  view  was  supported  by  the 
composition  of  the  principal  acids  which  were  thtm  known,  such  as  sulphuric,  nitr'c, 
carbonic,  and  phosphoric  acids.  But,  by  de^ees,  adds  were  discovered  into  which 
110  oxygen  entered,  hut  which  always  conrained  hydrojren,  and  hence  acids  were 
divided  into  two  i.aeat  classes,  the  cxyaaidn  tLX\(\  tlie  A|/dracid«  ;  oxygen  being  8ai>- 
|)Osed  to  l)e  the  acidifying  principle  in  the  former,  and  hytiro^ren  in  the  latter.  At 
the  present  day,  scientiflc  chemists  usually  restrict  the  ttTin  add  to  compounds  into 
which  hydrogen  entei*R,  and  the  acids  are  regarded  as  siilts  of  the  last-named  ele- 
ment; thus,  sulphuric  acid  (HO  SOg)  and  nitric  acid  (H0,N05)  ^"^  ^^^^'  sulphate  and 
nitrate  of  oxide  of  hydrogen  ;  tiydroctiloric  acid  (HCI)  is  chloride  of  hydrogen,  <fcc. 

OXYCHLO'RIDES,  chemical  compounds  containing  both  chlorine  and  oxyg«-u 
in  combination  with  some  otlier  element  or  radical.  Cmoride  of  lime  (CaOCl),  chlo- 
ride of  potash  (KOCl),  oxychlorlde  pf  lead  or  Turner's  yellow  iPbCl,7PbO)  belong  to 
this  class. 

O'XYQEN  (symb.  O,  equlv.  8;  new  system,  16— see  Chexistbt— sp.  ^, 
1'1056)  is  a  colorless,  inodorous,  tasteless  gas,  which  has  never  been  re- 
duced to  a  liquid  or  solid  conditioo.  Its  chemical  affinities  for  other  elementary 
eabsiances  are  very  powerful ;  with  most  of  tliem  it  is  found  in  ooiubiualiou,  or  may 
be  made  to  combine,  in  more  than  one  pi-oportiou ;  tyith  several  in  4,  6,  or  tt  pi-opor- 


y  Google 


633  ^^ 

Hone:  and  there  Is  only  one  element  (fltiorine)  with  which  ft  does  not  enter  into  tmy 
combiuatiou.    Owm^  to  tlieluteusity  with  which  many  of  these  coiubinatious  tti^o 

glace,  this  gas  has  the  power  of  supporting  Combustion  (q.  v.)  in  an  emiuent  de^jrec. 
f  aU  kuowu  substances,  it  exerts  the  smallest  refract iuir  power  on  the  rays  of  li^flit. 
It  itosfesses  weak  but  decided  ma<;netic  properties,  like  those  of  iron,  and  like  ibis 
BUDstance,  its  Kusceptibility  to  magnetisation  is  diminished  or  eveu  suspended  by  a 
certain  elevation  of  temperature.  It  is  only  slightly  soluble  In  water;  100  cubic 
inches  of  that  liquid  dissolving  441  cubic  inches  of  gas  at  32<^,  and  only  299  inches 
at  69°. 

.  Oxygen  gas  is  not  only  respirable,  but  is  essential  to  the  support  of  animal  life : 
and  lM*nce  it  was  termed  vital  air  by  some  of  the  older  cheiniRtS.  A  small  auinial 
placed  in  a  l)ell-e;lass  containing  pure  oxygen  will  not  be  suffocated  so  soon  as  if  it 
were  placed  in  the  same  glass  fHled  with  atmospheric  air.  For  further  details  on  this 
property  of  oxygen,  the  reader  Is  referred  to  tne  article  Bebpiration. 

Oxygen  is  the  most  abundant  and  the  most  widely  distributed  of  all  the  elements. 
In  its  free  state  {mixed  but  not  combined  with  nitrogen),  it  constitutes  about  a  flff  h 
of  the  bulk,  and  cousidenibly  more  than  a  fifth  of  tlie  weight  of  the  atmosphei-e.  lu 
combination  with  hydrogen,  it  forms  eight-ninths  of  all  the  water  on  tlie  globe:  and 
in  combination  with  silicon,  calcium,  ammininm,  &c.,  it  enters  largely  into  all  the 
solid  constituents  of  the  earth's  cnist;  silica  in  its  various  forms  of  sand,  comniou 
quartz  flint,  &c.—H:halk,  limestone,  and  marble — and  all  the  varieties  of  clay,  con- 
taining about  half  their  weight  of  oxygen.  It  is,  moreover,  found  In  the  tifsnes  and 
fluids  of  all  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life,  none  of  which  can  support  existence 
iudei)eudently  of  this  element. 

liiere  are  various  modes  of  obtaining  oxygen,  the  simplest  of  which  consists  lu 
the  ex|)Osure  of  certain  metallic  oxides  to  a  high  temperature.  It  was  originally  ob- 
tained by  its  discoverer,  Dr  Prjestley,  from  the  red  oxide  of  mei-cury,  widely  when 
heated  to  about  750<*,  resolves  itself  into  metallic  n«ercui7  and  oxgen  gas.  It  may 
be  similarly  obtained  from  red  oxide  and  peroxide  of  lead,  the  resuiting  products  in 
these  cases  being  protoxide  of  lead  and  oxygen.  The  following  are  the  chief  methods 
now  employed :  (1.)  The  black  oxide  (or  binoxide)  of  manganese  (MuOj)  is  much 
employed  as  a  source  of  this  gas.  The  mineral  is  reduced  to  small  pieces  of  about 
the  size  of  a  pea,  and  introduced  into  au  iron  bottle,  with  a  pipe  through  which  the 
gas  may  escape.  When  the  ))0itle  is  placed  in  a  furnace,  and  attains  a  read  heat,  the 
mineral  parts  with  one-third  of  its  oxytren,  and  the  red  oxide  of  manganese 
(MnOjMuaOs)  remains  behind ;  the  reaction  being  explained  by  the  equation : 

Black  oxide        Red  oxide        Oxy-' 
of  Manganese,    of  Manganese,    gen. 
SMuOa    -    MnO,MnaO,    +    20 

(2.)  A  very  pure  and  abundant  supply  of  oxygen  may  be  obtained  by  beating 
chlorate  of  potash  (K0,C10ft),  which  yields  up  all  its  oxj'gen  (amonniing  to  39'16  per 
cent.),  and  leaves  a  residue  of  chloriae  of  potassium.  One  ounce  of  this  salt  yields 
nearly  two  gallons  of  oxygen  gas.  It  is  found  by  experiment,  that  if  the  cliloraie  of 
potash  is  mixed  with  about  n  fourth  of  its  w<ight  of  black  oxide  of  copper,  or  of 
binoxide  of  manganese,  the  evolution  of  the  gas  is  greatly  facilitated,  alihongh  the 
oxides  do  not  seem  to  tmdergo  any  change  during  the  process.  (3.)  OxyL'on  is 
readily  obtained  by  heating  strong  sulphuric  acid  wjih  about  half  its  weight,  of  pow. 
dered  black  oxide  of  manganese,  or  chlorate  of  potash,  in  a  glass  retort ;  the  reac- 
tion ill  the  former  case  being  expressed  by  the  equation : 

Black  oxide 

of  Manganese.    Sulphuric  acid. 
JfluOj    -H    HO,SOa       ^ 

Sulphate 
of  Manj»anese.    Water.    Oxvgen. 
MuO.SO,    +.  HO    +    6 

and  In  tlie  latter  case,  l)eing  of  a  more  complicated  character.  (4.)  Various  processei 
tuLTO  been  proposed  for  obtaining  the  gas  ou  a  large  scale,  of  which  the  following, 


y  Google 


recommpn«l«(1  by  St  tntifre  Dt*v!no  «nd  Debrar,  Is  pertiaps  the  beet. :  The  "vapor  of 

liydntted  BiUplmric  acid  is  i>as8ud  ovm-  rod-liot  platiituni,  1)y  which  H  is  decoiupoaod 
iiito  oxygen  and  i>uli>hiirou9  acid,  the  latter  of  whirh  nmy  easily  be  9eparnt«<i  (aiid 
made  available  for  the  fonimtioii  of  i*alj>UileR)  by  its  solnhility  in  water  or  ulkaliiia 
BOliitioiiy.  It  bas  been  calculated  lipit  a  cubic  m^tre  (35-375  cuWip  feet)  of  axygeu 
co-ts  Ss,  4J.  when  obt  dutd  from  chlorate  of  potAt^li ;  nearly  4*.  Id.  wiieu  obtaiitod 
from  inagnaiiese ;  ttnd  ouly  10(t.  when  obtained  from  sulphuric  acid. 

Of  the  compounds  of  ozy<rei),  it  is  unnecessary  to  speak  here,  as  they  are  de- 
scrll)fd  in  the  iiriicles  on  the  other  chemical  element^. 

OxygiMi  wtis  dL^covered  almost  8imulttuieow?ly,  in  the  year  17T4^  by  Priei»tley 
and  by  Sch  ele,  the  Suglish  clii'niis't  havinj;  the  prec«*deuce  by  a  few  wcok«. 
Priestley  i^ave  it  tlie  name  of  Hephligint-U-ated  Air;  Scheelo  termed  it  Ettvpyi'Ml  Air; 
C'r)udorcer shortly  ufterwanis  eut{j{est«*d  VitfiU  Air^  as  its  most  appropntUt)  dcfsiifUJi- 
tiou  ;  and  in  1X89,  Lavoisier,  who,  by  a  series  of  can-fully  Qoudacted  and  very  in- 
gonions  experiments,  proved  that  the  combustion  of  bodies  in  the  air  consisted 
fssentiidly  m  their  chemical  combiiiatiim  with  oxygen,  and  thas  overrhrt-w  tho 
Phlogiston  (q.  v.)  theory,  ^ave  it  the  name  which  it  now  retaiu?,  in  c<M)3i><|iiencH  of 
bis  (ernnuiotisly)  bclioving  tiiut  it  possessed  a  certain  property  which  is  dei»cribed  m 
the  article  OxT acids. 

OXYHY'iyROGKN  MICROSCO PE.    See  Solab  Micboscopb. 

OXTRHY'NCIIUS,  tl»e  name  of  a  relebratt'd  Eiryptlau  fl-«h,  said  to  be  revt-r- 
encud  Jljronijliout  Egypt,  and  sacred  to  the  goddess  Athor.  Its  name  m  Ej^yptian  is 
JfcAa,  and  the  fish  in  the  hieroglyphs  was  used  for  this  Bvllable,  aod  particularly  fx^ 
pressed  the  idea  of  the  bodv.  In  the  ritnal»  the  decea-^ed  parricula»"ly  stated  that  h3 
hai  not  caughT  this  fish.  T  he  name  appears  to  have  comprised  the  genus  Mormoru^ 
dlstingni»hed  by  its  pointed  nose  and  lomr  dorsal  tin.  TIk^  fl»h  was  worsidpped  ia 
one  orihe  nomes,  which  w;isca;led  after  it,  and  the  inhabitants  held  it  in  sncii  rev- 
erence that  they  would  not  touch  any  fl^h  captured  bra  hook.  When  the  portions 
of  the  body  of  Osiris  were  flung  into  the  Nile,  this  ft.-fi  alone  ate  one  portion  of  ids 
body.  The  O.  was  not  eaten  in  KsrypN  except  by  th;  native-' of  tho  Cynonopolites 
Nomos.  Its  modern  name  is  Mizeleh,  which  seems  retained  in  the  Coptic  Pemgrt, 
the  nanie  of  the  city  of  Oxyrhynchu.%.  It  Is  represented  both  in  the  »=culptnres  nnl 
on  the  coins  of  the  Nome,  and  w  is  anciemlv  embalmed.— The  city  of  Oxyrhynchm 
is  the  modern  Behneseh,  lying  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile,  in  Lower  Ei^ypt,  near 
tlie  Bahr-el-Jusnf. 

OXYU'l^IS  VERMrCULAUIS  is  the  name  now  assisned  by  most  jEooiogi^fc^  to 
the  iuiestiuaV  worm  described  as  At'caris  (q.  v.)  vefrtiienlarvi,  yet  it  is  the  original 
and  true  Ascnris.  For  tlie  mode  of  recognising  tlio  presence  of  this  worm,  and 
treating  patients  suffering  from  its  presence,  iTie  reader  is  referred  to  the  articles 
YzRHiFUQEs  and  Worms. 

O'YER  AND  TE'RMINEIl  (Fr.  otilr,  to  hear;  temiinery  to  determine).  A  com- 
mission of  oyer  and  terndntrr  is  granted  by  the  ci-own  to  ail  tlie  judges  and  other*  to 
hear  and  determine  all  treasons,  felonies,  and  trespasses;  and  it  is  liy  virtue  of  this 
commission  tliat  the  judges  on  circuit  dispose  of  criminal  cases  in  the  var^on-*  cir- 
cuits. Sometimes  a  spocial  commission  of  the  same  kind  is  issued,  authorising  the 
judges  to  go  and  tiy  prisoners  at  other  than  the  ordinary  times. 

OTTSTER  {Ostrea\'a  genus  of  lame]]  branchiate  mollusc*,  of  tho  eoctlon  with  a 
pingle  adductor  nmscle.  See  Laurixibranchiata.  'Vn^^  shell  consists  of  two  un- 
equal and  somewhat  irregularly  shaped  valves,  of  laminat-  d  and  coarsdy  foliated 
structure;  and  the  .linge  is  without  tooth  or  ridg.i,  the  valves  being  held  together  by 
a  ligament  lodired^  in  a  little  civityiu  each.  Tlie  animd  is,  In  lis  organisation, 
among  tho  lowest  and  simple-t  of  lamallibranohiate  mollusc:*.  It  has  no  foot;  nnd> 
except  when  veiy  young,  no  power  of  locomotivm,  or  organ  of  any  kind  adap  ed  to 
that  purpose.  Its  footl  consists  of  animalcules,  and  al.-o  of  mintite  vegetable  parti- 
cles, brouelit  to  it  by  tho  water,  a  contimial  enri'entQf  which  is  directed  towards 
the  mouth  oy  the  action  of  the  gills.  The  gilia  are  seen  in  four  rows  when  the  Talves 
of  the  shell  are  separated,  a  little  within  the  frins^ed  edir«  of  the  mnntle.  In  the  most 
central  p»rt  is  the  adductor  mn-cle;  towards  th'»  hing<»  is  tho  Hre«-,  wltich  la 
large;  and  bet\Tecu  the  adductor  uuscla  uud  iIm  Uver  h»  tho  ktturt,  whioU  laay  b« 


y  Google 


go  5  a^hydrog«ii 

recognised  by  the  brown  color  of  Jts  irarlde.  Tie  mouth— for»  as  in  the  other 
lamellibrnitchlnta,  there  is  no  heud— ift  sitnated  1)eiicHth  a  kind  of  hood,  fornit  d 
by  the  nnion  of  the  two  edges  of  the  mantle  ne«r  the  hfuge.  It  Is  jawless^md  tooth- 
less*. The  ovaries  are  very  large  dniing  the  season  of  reproduction,  which  ex- 
tends over  certain  months  in  snninier,  when  ojfters  are  ont  of  season  for  tne 
table.  Oysters  are  Iterniaphrodite.  'I'luy  produce  vaKt  numbers  of  young.  L(  en- 
weuhoek  calculated  that  from  3000  to  4000  exist  within  nn  O.  at  once  when  "pick," 
**  milky  "  or  full  of  spawn  ;  and  accordtnjj  to  Poll,  one  O.  produces  about  1,200,000 
eggs.  The  eggs  are  hatched  within  the  shell  and  mnutle  of  the  parent.  andtheyr)uiig 
are  to  be  seen  swimming  ►'lowly  in  a  whitish  and  nmcons  or  creamy  fluid  surronud- 


iujr  the -gills,  which  becomes  darker  and  of  a  muddy  upjHarance  when  iliey  are  about' 
to  be  expelled.  Each  young  O.  is  then  about  1-1 20th  of  an  inch  in  leneth,  and  abuiit 
two  millions  arc  capable  of  oeing  closely  packed  in  the  vpace  of  n  cubic  ineh.  When 


the  pai*ent  O.  expels  the  younf?,  and  this  is  done  simultaneously  by  multitudes  on  an 
oyster-lwnk,  tlie  water  l)rcomes  filh  d  ns  with  a  thick  cloud,  and  tlie  spawn—called 
»po<  by  fishermen— IS  waft^'d  away  by  currents;  the  greater  part,  of  course,  to  be 
generally  lost,  by  beinjr  diiven  to  unsuitsible  situations,  as  exposed  rocks,  muddy 
ground,  or  sand  to  which  it  cannot  adhere,  or  to  l)e  devuuretl  by  fishes  and  other 
marine  animals,  but  some  to  find  ati  object  to  which  it  can  attacli'liself  for  life.  Tlie 
young  come  forth  lumished  with  a  temporary  or<?an  for  swimming,  ciliated,  and  pro- 
Tided  with  powtrful  muscles  for  extending  it  beyond  the  valves  and  with  drawing 
it  at  pleasure:  and  when  the  O.  has  become  fixed  in  it«*  permanent  place  of  ahode, 
this  organ,  being  no  kmger  of  any  u^e,  hasbetn  supposed  to  dropoff,  or  gradually  to 
dwindle  aM-ay  and  disappear.  Btit  Dr  F.  Bnckland  has  recently  expressed  the 
opinion,  th  t  th<?  swimming  organ  of  the  young  oyster  is  the  "lungs,"  and  remaii  s 
as  the  **  hm^s  "  in  the  mature  oyster.  In  very  favorable  situations,  oysters  grow 
rapidly,  so  that  the  Common  O.  is  ready  for  the  table  In  a  year  and  a  half  or 
two  years ;  but  in  otlnr  places,  a  lon^jer  time  is  n  quired,  often  about  five  years. 

The  species  of  O.  are  nmucrons,  and  are  found  in  the  seas  of  all  warm  and  tem- 
perate climates.  None  have  been  found  in  the  coldtst  parts  of  the  world.  The 
CouHON  O.  (0.  edulis)  is  the  only  Bdlish  species.  Like  it,  the  other  species  arc 
eenerally  found  where  the  water  is  of  no  jrreat  depth ;  and  some  of  them,  also  like 
it,  are  very  abundant  in  estuai-ies.  where  the  water  is  not  very  s-  It.  The  mangrove 
swamps  of  warm  climates  olttii  abound  In  oysters  of  excellent  flavor  (0.  parof^Uica^ 
&c.)  adhering  to  the  roots  and  brandies  of  the  trees,  within  the  reach  of  the  tide. 
Borne  of  the  spt-cies  dilf  r  from  the  common  O.  not  a  little  in  form,  as  the  Loko- 
BiNGSB  O.  (O.  Canadenttift)  of  North  America,  which  is  very  elongated ;  and  some  of 
them  far  exceed  it  in  size.  Sir  J.  E.  Tennent  states  that  he  measured  the  shell  of 
an  edible  O.  in  Ceylon,  and  foun<l  it  a  litilf  more  than  U  inches  in  length  by  half  as 
mmiy  in  breadth ;  "  thus  unexi)ectedly  attestinjr  the  correctness  of  dtie  of  the  t-tones 
related  by  the  historians  of  Alexander's  expedition,  that  in  India  they  had  found 
oysters  a  foot  long."  Some  species  of  O.  have.the  valves  plaited  with  strong  longi- 
tudinal plaits.— For  the  descriptions  here  given,  we  are  indebted  to  the  kinaness  of 
thoedltorof  the  "Field." 

Young  oysters  reudily  attach  themselves  to  the  shells  of  old  ones,  and  thus.  In 
favorable  circumstances,  oyster-banks  increase  rapidlv,  so  as  to  fill  up  shallow  parts 
of  the  sea,  and  to  form  walls  which  effectually  resist  tne  waves  and  tide.  This  is 
very  reinart:abiy  the  case  on  the  alluvial  shores  of  Georgia  and  some  other  ])ari8  of 
North  America,  where  these  banks  are  called  Racoon  J?an*i,  because  the  racoon, 
anrongother  animals,  visits  them  to  feed  upon  the  oystei-s.  Marshy  land  extends 
inwants  fi'om  12  to  18  miles  from  the  sea,  with  tidal  rivers  meandering  through  it, 
and  these  rivers  are  kept  pretty  constant  to  their  rhaiiuels  by  the  walls  of  living  oys- 
ters on  both  sides.  Large  bunches  of  oysters  may  even  be  found  among  the  long 
grass.  It  is  not  unuSualfor  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighborhood  to  light  a  fire,  and 
roast  a  bunch  of  ovsters  on  tlio  spot.  So  abundant  are  the  oysters  in  many  p?ace^, 
that  a  vessel  of  100  tons  might  l>e  loaded  wlihin  three  times  her  own  length.  Amer- 
ican oysters,  which  are  Of  excellent  flavor,  ate  an  impf>rtHit  article  of  commerce  in 
America,  and  Imve  iM'gun  to  be  import  d  (alive)  into  Britain. 

Notwitlistandinir  the  prodiirious  fecundity  of  the  O.,  however,  the  beds  or  banks 
which  yield  it  for  the  mark«'ts  of  Btltain  and  other  Enropeari  countrtes  ar-'  nor  suf- 
ficiently productive  to  satisfy  the  demand,  and  it  is  not  to  much  an  article  of  ordinary 


y  Google 


07.t«  ggg 


food  for  all  clasM^K,  as  ft  laxnry  of  the  wealthy.  The  n^nnl  mode  of  taking  ojsUm 
by  dredging  in  deatrucfive,  although,  for  oyeter-beds»  which  an;  at  all  etaie?  of  the 
tide  covered  with  a  con::'idi!rable  dtiptii  of  wuTer,  uothhiy;  better  has  hetai  devijtd, 
jiiid  the  anxiety  of  fislienneii  to  make  the  ino:*t  of  the  present  opporrunlty  liu 
caused  mauy  beds  to  be  almost  ruined  by  ovei-dredgiug.  But  tiie  artltlcial  fornia' 
tion  of  oyster-beds  has  been  resorted  to  witli  great  proiuise  of  success".  It  i«  iu<ieed 
no  novelty,  havlug  l)eeu  practiced  by  the  Houians-.  Pliny  says  that  "the  first  per^ 
sou  who  formed  artificial  oyster-beds  was  Sergius  Grata,  wl»o  established  them  at 

Baise This  was  done  by  liim,  not  for  the  gratification  of  gluttonyt  but  f(H' 

the  sake  of  gtiiu.  us  he  contrived  to  wake  a  large  hicoine  by  the  exercise  of  his 
ingenuity.''  Sergius  Orata  lived  iu  the  time  of  Augnstu?.  Among  \hevivaiiaot 
later  emperors  and  other  ^veaithy  Koiulius  were  onttetiriay  specially  dtrvott-d  to 
oysters;  and  oyi'ter-cnlture  has  never  ct^ased  to  be  practised  in  Italy,  aithough  to  au 
inconsiderable  extent,  and  particularly  in  Luke  Pasaro,  the  Acheron  of  Vir^dl,  i 
muddy  salt-water  pond,  nowhere  more  than  two  yards  deep.  In  Britain,  it  has  aho 
long  been  pi*actised  to  t<ome  extent,  particolariy  on  the  coasts  of  K«.ut  and  E^^ex,  for 
the  supply  of  the  London  market 

In  1864  an  act  of  parliament  wast  passed,  giving  exclnsive  rights  to  ft  Ooinpaity 
called  the  "  flerue  Bay,  Hampton,  and  Recuiver  Oyster  Fishing  Company,"  over  a 
certain  portion  of  the  shore  at  Heme  Bay,  extending  ubotit  six  miles  in  Icngih  by 
1)4  iu  breadth.  The  oyster-beds  fished  by  tlie  public  had,  till  tlien,  yielded  a  vefy 
small  eai)ply,  and  it  was  urged  that  this  supply  could  l>e  largely  increased  by  a  well 
managed  Company.  In  order  that  the  public  should  not  be  injured  by  this  legisla- 
tion, It  was  declared  by  one  of  the  clauses  of  the  Act  that  **  If  the  Company  fail  to 
maintain  and  cultivate  the  beds,  or  to  produce  well-fed  oysters  fit  for  the  public  mar- 
ket in  such  quantities  as  to  Imj  of  public  advantii<;e,  all  the  privileges  conferred  on 
the  Coutpany  would  be  \vithdrawu,  and  the  dredging  of  the  beds,  as  f Onnerly,  thrown 
open  to  the  public  to  fish.'' 

In  1869,  the  Board  of  Trade  comnilssioned  Mr  Pinwell,  Inspector  of  Oyster  n«*h- 
eries,  to  visit  tl>e  oyster-culture  grounds  of  France,  iu  order  to  ascettaln  whether  we 
could  eather  any  useful  hints  therefrom.  In  his  Report  he  explalne<l  that  the  Eng- 
lish plan,  as  conducted  at  Hi*rne  Bay,  Reeulver,  Whitstable,  Ltuigston  Harbor,  iite 
Isle  of  Wight,  and  other  localities,  de|>ends  on  the  provision  of  salt-water  tanks  or 
pouds,  in  which  tlie  oystera  are  kept  for  a  certain  time.  In  France,  the  system  is 
much  more  elal)oraie.  He  found  that  the  coast  is  paited  off  into  divisions  or  dis- 
tricts, each  of  whicli  is  placed  under  a  maritime  prefect.  Each  <iist4-ict  is  divided 
audsulKiivided  into  smaller  portions,  man&ged  by  commissioners,  1n!>pectors,  syndics, 
and  watchmen.    The  determination  of  *' close- time,"  when  oyster-lishing  is  totally 

{prohibited ;  the  decision  how  much  to  tish  Jip,  and  how  much  to  reservefor  re-stock- 
nj^;  tlie  discrimination  between  pnldic  oylter-beds  and  those  which  are  made  over 
to  individuals  by  •* concessions ;"  the  control  of  the  fore-shore;  the  mnintenauce  of 
oyster-breeding  farnts;  the  prevention  of  pouching  by  fishers  not  belonginfr  to  lh»» 
respective  districts — occupy  quite  an  army  of  officmls.  Mr  Pinwell  recommended 
the  adontioii  of  some  matter.^  of  detail  from  the  French  system,  but  not  an  imitatiou 
of  I  he  eIal>orate  ofiicial  machinerv. 

In  1872,  the  enhanced  price  of  ovsters  In  France  attracted  much  public  attention. 
Close  observers  arrived  at  an  opinion  that  it  was  due  to  three  causes— the  inipover- 
ishmeutof  some  of  the  beds  by  injudicious  dredging;  a  greatly  increased  demand 
for  the  supply  of  Gerinauy  and  Russia;  and  a  private  understanding  between  many 
of  the  French  Companies,  loading  to  sontething  very  !Ike  a  monopoly.  'Jhe ''  Econ- 
omiste  Fraup.iis"  orew  a  couiparison  between  various  dates,  in  regiird  to  the  number 
of  oysters  ctiusumed  iu  Paris,  and  the  price  per  100.  C(msidering  price  alone,  we 
find  that  it  was  1*20  francs  pttr  100  in  1840.  2-8S  francs  iu  18:>6,  4-5S  francs  iu 
1860,  T-20  francs  in  1868,  aud  no  less  than  ll'20franca  in  1872.  Of  course,  the  price 
charged  to  foreign  consumers  augmented  iu  somewhat  the  same  proportions. 

In  1874  the  free  flsliers  aud  tue  imblic  of  Heme  Bay  complained  that  the  Oyster 
Coinpatiy  in  that  locality,  above  adverted  to,  htul  notfultiihd  the  iHinired  coitdi- 
tions.  The  Company,  on  the  other  hand,  declart^l  that  they  had  siient  £100  000  in 
teu  years,  and  were  fairly  uttendlug  tu  their  engagement.  The  Board  of  Trndo 
thereupon  sent  down  Mr  Speucer  Walpole,  an  Inspector  of  Fisheries,  to  hold  a  C<*urt 
of  luqoiiy  at  Heme  Bay.    He  deciduu  ou  a  compromiso,  by  which  a  certain  puriioa 


Digitized  by 


Google 


637 


Oyvt^m 


of  the  i^ronnd  wa«  to  be  rs-tratJ5»ferped  to  the  pnbllc  or  free  flsliers ;  the  remainder 
htthi;;  left  iu  the  poSi*e«sioii  uf  the  Coiupan y,  win  wonld  hold  the  exclusive  ris;ht 
of  ftshiug  tiiercon  as  loiij?  aa  thijy  coutinneti  to  in:)iut-;im  and  f»)j«rer  the  IkhK— It  is 
frriitifving  to  find  ihHt  "oy-Jter-ciilture  U  rHceivin«'  much  arteDtioii  hi  An^trnlia. 
Oyeter-farins  were  e«tablieiied  l>oth  in  New  itouth  Wales  and  in  Victoria  in  1872. 

Crater*  live  eqnally  well  iu  t'itaaiiona  where  tht-y  are  couBt.-mtiy  under  water,  and 
ill  tlH)8e  wliich  are  left  dry  by  the  reiiring  tide.  In  the  latter  kind  of  fitualione,  Ih^y 
instinctively  keep  their  valves  cloaod  when  the  water  deserts  them.  It  is  in  pnch  sitn- 
fltions  that  oyster-caltnre  can  be  niosr  easily  and  prufitablv  carried  on.  Onr  space 
will  not  admit  of  details,  which  we  would  gladly  give.  Vaiions  methods  nre  adopted 
of  prepariuj;  the  artiflda]  oyster-bed,  by  providing  snitable  solid  objects  for  the  oys- 
tiirs  10  attach  themselyQS  to.  Stones  are  piled  together,  and  in  such  a  way  that  thei  e 
are  many  open  spaces  among  them;  stakes  are  diiven  into  the  innd  or  sand ;  bun- 
dles of  smaU  sticks  are  fastened  to  stones  or  stakes;  floors  of  planks  are  formed,  at 
a  little  height  above  ttie  bottom,  with  alleys  between  them,  the  under  surface  of  the 
planks  being  rou<;henedby  the  adze ;  and  tiles  are  arranged  iu  various  ways,  so  as  to 
lurn  to  account  the  wiMrie  space  at  the  disposal  of  the  oyster-cnitivator  as  bi^h  at*  the 
x>rdinai7  tides  reach.  The  method  mut^t  l)e  viuried  in  accordance  with  the  sitmition, 
and  the  probable  violence  of  winds  and  waves ;  but  shelt(>red  situations  are  best  in 
all  respects ;  and  experience  in  Fntuce  seems  to  prove  that  tiles  covered  with  cement 
are  preferable  to  everything  that  has  yet  l)een  tried,  as  convenient  for  the  cuHivutor, 
presenting  a  surface  to  whkh  oysters  readily  attach  themselves,  and  from  which  they 
can  easily  be  removed,  whilst  the  larger  seiiweeds  do  not  grow  on  it  so  readily  as«  on 
stones  Or  wood.  By  the  use  of  tiles,  covered  with  cement,  tiie  cultivator  i'<  also  abhi 
easily  to  remove  young  oysters  from  hrecding-tTonnds  to  feeding-grounds;  the  be^t 
breeding-grounds  being  by  no  means  those  in  which  the  oyster  most  nipidly  attains 
it:<  greatest  size,  and  that  greenish  tinge  which  Parisian  epicures  so  much  desire  to 
see,  and  which  is  owing  to  the  ahnndanr  confervas  and  green  monads  of  quiet  muddy 
waters. — It  has  been  long  known  that  the  oj'sters  of  particular  localities  are  finvr 
thsn  those  produced  elsewhere.  Nowhere,  perhaps,  arcfinec  oysters  produced  than 
nil  some  part^ii  of  ttie  British  coasts.  Those  of  Kiitupicess,  now  Kichl>orou^,  in 
Kent,  were  highly  esteemed  by  the  Romans,  whose  epicurism  In  oysters  exceeded 
that  of  modem  nations. 

Of  the  culinary  uses  of  oysters,  it  is  unnecessary  to  say  anything.  Raw  oysters, 
however,  are  gLuerally  believed  to  be  niore  nutritious  and  more  easily  digested,  as  to 
many  they  aie  more  delicious,  tl«an  oysters  cooked  in  any  way;  and  it  does  not  ap- 
pear tliat  any  such  evil  consequences  ever  ensue  from  eating  ihem,  as  are  knovra  to 
ensue  from  eating  other  kinds  of  uncooked  food.  Probably  no  parasite  capable  of 
developing  into  any  form  injurious  to  the  human  being  exii'ts  iu  the  oyster. 

The  genus  Ostre^x  gives  iis  name  in  some  zoological  systems  to  a  family  Oatreadce. 
The  fossil  species  are  more  numerous  Ihau  the  recent 

The  name  O.  is  popularly  extended  to. many  molluscs  not  included  among  the 
OitreadcBt  as  the  Pearl-oy*»ter  (q.  v.). 

Oyster:*  rjiised  in  artificial  beds  are  called '*  natives."  and. are  considered  very 
superior  to  those  which  are  dredged  from  the  natural  beds  ;  although  to  these  last 
the  name  of  '*  native"  would  seem  more  appropriate  than  to  the  other.  Some  years 
ago.  it  was  estinmted  that  500.000,000  oyster-  were  consumed  annually  in  London 
.1  lone,  at  a  cost  of  X100,000;  but  the  supply  has  since  lessened,  and  the  pi  ice  per 
100  greatly  increased.  A  large  trade  in  oysters  has  sprung  up  in  the  United  States ; 
that  of  New  York  alone  being  estimated  at  $25,000,000  ainmally. 

Fossil  Oysters.— A  single  species  occurs  iu  the  Carboniferous  Limestone,  and  as 
we  rise  in  the  crust  of  the  earth,  the  genus  becomes  more  and  more  common,  no  less 
than  200  species  having  been  recorded,  many  of  them  scarcely  distinguishable  from 
the  living  species,  'J  he  snlvgenus  Gryphiea  was  a  free  shell,  with  a  lai*ee  thick  left 
valve  and  small  concave  right  valve.  Thirty  species  have  been  founa  in  beds  of 
the  Oolite  aud  Chalk  )>eriods.  Iu  the  same  beds  tliere  occurs  another  form  of  Os- 
trca  with  subspiral  reversed  umbones,  to  which  the  subgeueiic  name  Exogyra  has 
been  given.    Forty  species  of  this  form  have  been  described. 

OYSTERS,  Law  as  to.  The  rule  is,  that  he  who  has  the  right  of  property  in  the 
soil  or  sea-shore  is  entitled  to  catch  or  keep  aud  breed  oysters  there.  But  the  shor- 
below  the  medium  line  of  the  tide:!  belongs  to  the  crown,  and  not  to  any  ludivid*^ 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


^z^  688 

And  It  is  ODlyDyvlrine  of  some  grant  from  the  crown  that  an  indivkliial  or  a  corporation 
cnn  estHblissli  un  t'xclu:jive  title  to  the  seu-ebore,  and  in  t^ucli  a  caiie  i^  exchi^ively  en- 
titled to  any  oyster- t>eds  there.  It  is  thus  nlways  by  virtue  of  a  grniit  ir<Sh\  the  ci*own 
that  oyrtter-ttah  -ries  ju-e  clriiined  as  the  ))ropyriy  of  au  individnal  or  of  a  corpuration. 
The  act  31  and  3=2  Vicl.  c.  45,  however,  n  w  enables  tUt-  Board  of  Tra<le  to  grant  parts 
of  the  sea-shore  of  Great  Britain  to  individiinb  for  breedin-^  oysters  and  nju«»el8,and 
liiiH  given  new  remedies  for  tho  protection  of  this  pro^wrty.  The  general  law  is  as 
follows :  Whoever  steals  oyster.-*  or  oyster- brood  from  an  oyster-bed  which  is  private 
property,  is  gnilly  of  felony;  and  whoever  unlawfully  or  wilfully  uses  any  dredge, 
uet  or  instrument  within  tiie  limits  of  a  private  oyster-bed,  for  the  purpo.se  of  takmg 
oysters,  though  none  are  actually  taken,  is  guilty  qf  a  misdemeanor,  and  in  liable  to 
Iw  imprisoned  for  three  mouths.  But  persons  are  not  prevenied  from  flshiui;  for 
floating  fish  within  the  limits  of  an  oyster-fishery,  if  fliey  n^e  nets  adaptc'd 
for  flouting  fish.  Certain  statcrtes  as  old  as  the  time  of  Richard  II.  were  parsed  to 
protect  oyster-brood,  but  these  were  recently  repealed  by  the  Sea  Fisheries  Act,  1868 
(Patersou's  "  Fishery  Laws  of  the  United  Kingdom  ")•  Under  the  c<mveiitiou  )>etween 
England  and  France,  confirmed  by  the  statute  31  and  82  Vict.  c.  46,  a  close  reason  is 

Srescril)ed  for  oyster-fish iiiij  in  the  seas  between  EngUmd  uuu  France,  from  15th 
UMe  to  Ist  September,  dnrHig  which  time  oysler-fij*Uing  boats  may  be  boarded  by 
officers  of  the  coast-gnard  or  liavy ;  and  oysters  ilh;gally  caught  may  be  seized  and 
destroyed,  and  the  master  is  liable  to  a  penallv.  In  1S77  an  Act  was  p-isscd  appoint- 
ing 15tli  June  to  4th  August  as  a  close  time  for  fisliiug  deep-sea  oysters,  and  from 
34th  May  to  4th  August  for  other  kinds,  in  the  British  seas;  It  also  grants  power  to 

f>rohibit  the  fishing  in  any  locality  for  not  more  tluin  a  year.  The  law  fts^o «ystf*rs 
ft  Scotland  is  substantially  the  same  as  in  England.  As  to  Ireland,  the  Irish  Fisli- 
ery  Acts  give  power  to  the  Irish  Fishery  lu-peciors  to  grant  a  licence  to  individaai?, 
as  is  now  done  in  England,  to  appropriate  a  certain  tract  of  the  shore  for  the  i»ur- 
poae  of  forming  oyster-beds,  aud  thereupon  the  bi*d»  become  private  property  (Pat- 
orson's  *' Fishery  Laws ''  (p.  25T).  There  is  also  a  close  season  in  Irelaud  for 
oysters,  like  what  is  establisJied  uuder  the  couveuiion  with  France. 

OYSTER  BAY,  a  favorite  watering-place  on  the  north  co.nst  of  Long  Island, 
New  York,  U.  S.,  on  a  deep  sheltered  b:iy,  op<'nin?  into  Long  Island  Sound,  25  ni4les 
north-east  of  New  York  city.  It  abounds  in  handsom.t  residences  and  fine  scenery, 
and  offers  facilities  tor  fishing, bathing,  &c.    Pop.  in  1870, 10,595. 

OYSTER-CATCHER  {Hceniatopna),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family  CharadH- 
adce  (q.  v.),  chiefly  inhabiting  sea-coasts  wliere  they  feed  on  molluscs,  crnstaceans. 


f 


annelids,  and  other  marine  animals — sometinies  even  on  small  fishes.  Their  lees 
are  of  moderate  length,  like  those  of  the  plovers,  and,  like  them,  they  have  no  hind- 
toe.  The  most  remarkable  generic  distinction  is  found  in  the  h|l»,  which  i*  long, 
strong,  straight,  much  comprv^ssed  and  wed^e-like  toward"  the  point.  They  aro 
generally  said  to  make  us«»  of  the  bill  for  opening  the  sh(!l*8  of  oysters  and  other 
xnol1u8c%:  but  the  late  Mr  Jnmes  Wilson  expresses  a  vei-y  reasonable  doubt  on  this 
point.  The  habits  of  the  British  species  (ff.  Oiftrafegua)^  so  far  as  they  have  been 
accnrately  observed,  agree  with  those  of  the  American.  It  fs  the  only  Enropcau 
species,  aud  is  common  on  all  purts  of  the  British  coasts,  on  those  of  coniiiientjtl 
Europe,  the  north  of  Africa,  and  of  the  nortfi  of  Asia.  Its  whole  length  is  about  16 
inches.  Its  fiuely-contrasted  bl.ick  and  white  colors  have  gained  It  the  name  of 
Sea  Pib.  It  Is  most  abundant  on  the  sea-coast,  but  often  visits  inland  rejiions,  aud 
sometimes  breeds  in  them.  It  does  not  make  a  nest,  but  lays  its  oggs — usually  four 
—on  the  shingly  beach  or  bare  ground.  On  some  of  the  saudy  fl.-it  coast  of  Lincoln- 
shire, the  O.  is  so  abundant,  that  a  Inishel  of  the  eggs  have  been  collected  in  a  morn- 
ing  by  a  single  fisherman.  The  American  O.  is  a  bird  of  passage,  deserting  the 
northern  regions  iu  winter.  It  is  rather  larger  than  tiie  European  speci«iS,  and  dif- 
fers from  it  in  colors,  and  in  greater  length  and  slenderness  ox  bill. 

OZiE'NA  (from  the  Qr.  ozu^  I  smell)  signifltis  a  di.scharge  of  foBtid,  purulent,  or 
sanions  matter  from  the  nostrils.  It  is  a  symptom  rather  tliaii  n  disease,  and  mty  ■ 
arise  fro-u  ulceration  of  the  membrane  lining  the  nostrils,  or  from  caries  of  the  mI- 
jacent  bones,  and  may  accompany  syphilitic,  scorbutic,  scrofulous,  or  cancerous  af- 
fections of  those  or  adjacent  part"*.  A  slighter  form  of  ozsena  sometimes  folhi^ 
chronic  coryza  (or  cold  in  the  head),  malignaut  scariatiua,  and  erysipelas  of  the  face. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


639 


Ofstw 
Ozo&« 

>Tlie  dlschor^e  1b  seldom  accompniifed  \)v  ncnte  pain.  niire>»8  when'canspd  by  causer, 
BoniHtiiiie?,  however,  iui  acbiiijr  i."  comphiiiii'd  ot.  Tlu'  prognosis  muer  depend  npou 
the  nature  of  the  diBease,  of  which  tlu'  dincliargt?  Is  u  pympiom.  The  irejii  nu-ut  may 
be  4>vided  iirto  the  general  or  coustitniionnJ,  jind  the  loc.il.  The  general  treatment 
pfioaldconssist  of  tonics  combined  wirh  uUeraiives.  as  the  |»reparation8  of  bnrk  with 
thcalkaliep.  or  witli  the  mineral  acids;  a  dry,  bracing  air,  or  a  tcmpoiary  removal 
'to  t lie  seaside, is  also  nsnaily  of  service.  If  the  discmii-ge  nris<B  from  syphihs  or 
scurvy,  the  treatment  ^nitable  to  those  di8ea>eB  should  be  prescribed.  The  local 
treatment  co\\»\»\»  \\i  the  inlialation,  onc'«or  twice  a  day,  of  the  .«te:im  of  boiling 
water,  to  which  a  little  creosote  or  carliolic  Jicid  has  been  addt  d;  and  iu  more  severe 
■  cases,  in  the  thorough  syrinjriiig  of  the  not?ti-ili«,  bo  as  to  wjisb  away  a'l  collections  of 
matter  with  a  copious  stream  or  warm  water,  to  which  a  little  chloride  of  sine  hfts 
been  added  (about  30  minims  of  Buruea'6  Kiln  lion  to  half  a  pint  of  wat«r). 

OZIE'RI,  a  town  of  the  island  of  Sardinia.  In  the  province  of  Sassarl,  26  miles 
ea8t-8outh-ea>»t  from  Sassari,  amongst  tho  mountains  which  occupy  the  centre  of  the 
island.  It  stands  in  a  deep  valley.  op<n  only  to  the  north,  and  is  therefore  peculiarly 
exposed  to  cold  winds.    l*op.  (1871)  T966. 

O'ZONE  (Qr.  ozo,  I  smell).  It  was  remarked  long  ago  that  a  pernllar  odor  was 
produced  by  thu  w<rkiug  of  an  electrical  machine.  vau-Marum  found  that  when 
electric  sparks  were  passed  through  a  tub  ?  <t(»ntjdnlng  oxygen,  the  gas  became 
.powerfully  inmrej;nate(l  with  this  odor — which  he  therefore  « ailed  the  '*sniellof 
electricity."  Sabseqiient  wi-iters  i-ttrihiUed  tlie  phenomenon  to  tlie  for  i  ation  of 
nitiic  acid,  dne  to  a  trace  of  nitrogen  mix<-d  wiih  the  oxygt  u ;  especially  as  the  gas 
was  found  ^o  act  enei-geiically  upon  mercury.  Thus  8itppc«ed  to  be  explained,  thehO 
curious  resqlta  were  soon  forgt)tten.  But  in  1840,  SchOnSein  (q.  v.)  with  remarkable 
acutene-s,  made  acloser  inTustiiralion  of  the  qu^'^tion,  and  arrived  at  nmny  most 
curious  result**,  all  of  wliich  have  not  evm  yet  been  sati^factOl'^ly  accounted  for. 
The  problem  rennilns,  in  fact^  one  of  the  most  {)crplexiug,  as  well  as  interesting, 
quehtioMS  imperfectly  resolvetl  in  chemistry. 
'  The  earlier  results  of  SchOnbein  w«  ro  as  follow:  (1.)  When  water  is  decom- 
posed by  the  voltiic  current,  the  electrodes  l)eing  of  gold  (M*])lHiinun>.  the  oxygen 
:  (which  appears  at  the  positive  pole)  possesses  iu  a  high  degree  the  sm<  11  and  the 
oxidising  power  developed  by  Vaii-Marum  by  means  of  fnction-electriclty.  (2.) 
When  the  positive  electn>de  is  formed  of  an  oxidisable  metal,  these  results  are  not 
observed,  but  the  electrode  is  rapidly  oxidised.  (8.)  The  oxygen  collected  at  a  plati- 
jiUin  electrode  retains  these  properti<s  fur  an  indefinite  period,  if  kept  in  a  closed 
vessel;  but  lo-esthem  by  heating,  by  I  he  c(mtact  of  an  oxidisahle  sub-tanoe,  and 
even  by  cotitact  with  such,  bodies  as  charcoal  and  oxide  of  innui^am  sc.  To  the  sub- 
ptance,  whatever  it  may  be,  which  possesses  such  powerful  chemical  afllnities, 
SchOnhein  gave  the  name  ozone,  from  its  peculiar  smell. 

In  1846,  he  shewed  that  the  same  substance  can  be  produced  by  the  action 
of  phosphorus  ou  moist  air;  and  suggested  that  it  might  be  a  higher  oxide  of  hy- 
drc^en. 

De  la  Rive  at)d  Marigmtc  shortly  rft' nvai*ds,  repeating  the  experiments  of  Van- 
Marum,  shewed  that  ele«-.tric  Pi)arks  produce  ozo'eevtu  in  pure,  and  dry  oxygen; 
and  came  to  the  conclusion,  that  ozone  is  oxygen  iu  an  allotropio  btate,  its  diamond 
is  a  form  of  coke  or  cliarcoaU 

Banmert,  in  1863,  endeavored  to  shew  that  theriv  are  two  kinds  of  ozone— one 
formed  from  pure  oxygen  by  electric  spjuks.  which  he  allowed  to  be  allotropic 
oxygen;  the  other  formed  In  the  voltjd'- deeompositiim  of  water,  which  he  endea- 
vored to  prove  to  be  a  teroxide  of  hydrogen  (HO,).  But  Andrews,  in  1856,  completely 
refut  d  tills  view,  b)^  sln^win^  ihai  no  such  oxide  of  hydrogen  (at  least  in  a  gaseous 
fornO  i>*  produced  in  tlie  eiect'olysis  of  water;  and  ib.it  ozone,  from  whatever 
8<nirCe  obtained,  is  the  same  body  ;  and  is  not  a  compound,  but  an  allotropic  form 
of  oxygMi. 

In  1860,  Andrews  and  Tait  published  the  results  of  a  series  of  vnlumetrie  <x- 
perimeuts  ou  this  snhj  ct,  which  l«-d  to  some  renmrkahle  conclu -ions— anionic 
which  are  the  followin.L' :  When  the  electric  discharge  is  passed  throngh  pure 
oxyeeuy  U  covtracta.  Ifo^onebe  oxygen  in  an  allotropic  form,  it  must  therefoi-e 
be  denser  than  oxygen.    It  was  found  also  that  a  mucli  greater  amount  of  controc- 

u.  K.,  X.,  21.  r^        ] 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


?^'  640 

tfon,  and  a  con*eppon(Tijig1y  grenter  qnauiity  of  ozone,  were  prodnced  }>y  a  silent 
discU»i'j;e  of  eleciricity  betwt'.u  ttue  iK>iuis,  tliiin  by  a  brilliant  serieH  of  ppjirks.  The 
contract ioD  due  to  the  formation  of  the  ozQiie  is  entirely  removed  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  ozone  by  iieut ;  and  this  process  can  be  repeated  indefinitely  ou  the 
same  portion  of  oxygen. 

In  littempting  to  determine  the  density  of  ozone,  tiiey  used  various  lK>diesto 
take  up  the  ozone  from  the  oxvgen  containing  it;  and  met  with  many  very  cniious 
results.  Thns,  if  mercury  be  inircrduced,  it  J**  immediately  attacked  and  oxidised, 
and  yet  the  oxygen  iticreases  m  volnme.  If  iodine  be  employed,  it  i^  immediately 
oxidised,  and  no  chanae  of  volume  wns  obserrt^d,  though  the  app  iratns  would 
havie  at  once  renderedi  visible  a  chjinge  to  tlie  amount  of  l-60000th  of  the 
bulk  of  tlie  oxygen.  By  measurin;:  tlio  contraction  produced  by  electricity 
in  the  oxygen,  then  the  effect  of  introducing  a  solution  of  iodide  of 
potassium,  and  determining  the  amount  of  oxygen  taken  up  from  the 
quantity  of  iodine  set  free,  Andrews  and  Tait  ^hewed  that  tl»e  densitv  of  ozone, 
if  it  be  allotropic  oxygen,  must  be  practically  t«<)!7M'to—i.  e.,  that  ozone  niuf>t  have  tbe 
dcu'fity  of  a  liquid  or  &  solid  at  least,  aitbuugli  txit»ting  in  the  gaseous  form.  This 
conclusion  is,  tney  say,  inevitable,  imless  we  make  the  very  improliable  astanmption, 
tluit  when  iod^ie,  &c.,  are  exposed  to  ozone,  oiie  portion  of  the  ozone  (of  volume,  as 
oxygen,  egual  to  the  volume  of  the  whole  ozone)  combines  with  the  iodine,  and  the 
other  portion  is  restored  to  the  form  of  oxygen.  The  paper  from  wliose  statements 
Xve  have  quoted  concludes  with  the  snggirstion  tiiat  it  is  possible  that,  in  the  forma- 
tion of  ozone,  oxygen  may  be  decom|)09ed.  Iliie  is,  of  course,  contrary  to  all  the 
received  notiouK  of  chemistry— but  t<ucli  a  supposition  would  at  once  reconcile  all  the 
apparently  contradictory  facts  connected  with  tids  singular  l)ody.  Soret  and  Von 
Baho  have  recently  repeated  aiKi  vorifletl  a  few  of  ihi*se  ref«uhs,  and  the  former,  by 
Ubing  turpentine  a.^  an  alx^orbing  sul)stanc<.s  and  also  by  measuring  its  diffusion 
rate,  has  endeavored  to  shew  that  the  density  of  ozone  is*50  per  cent,  greater  than 
that  of  oxygen — a  result  on  the  whole  consistent  with  the  recrent  experiments  of 
Brodie.  Andrews  has  lately  shewn  that  ozone  is  rapidly  destroyed  whi^i  sh«k«-n  np 
with  rii*y  fragments  of  glass,  &<%  He  has  also  proved  that  the  eftect  which  is  (almost 
invariably,  and  sometimes  m  fine  weather  powerfully)  prodnce<l  by  the  air  on  what 
are  called  ozone-test  papers— paper  steeptiil  in  iodide  of  potassium  <aud  gen- 
erally spoiled  by  the  addition  ^f  starch)  which  are  Hindered  brown  (or  blue) 
by  the  liberation  of  iodine — is  really  due  to  ozone.  He  did  t^o  by  sirewing  that  it 
acts  upon  mercury  as  ozone  does,  and  that  it  is  destroyed  \yy  lieat  at  the  same  tem- 
perature. This  action  is  more  strongly  manifested  in  the  air  of  ilie  open  country  than 
iu  that  of  towns;  mihI  its  absence  would  seem  to  imply  vitiation  of  the  atmospliere. 


y  Google 


g  11  Ozone 


Face 


P,  the  sixteenth  letter  of  the  EnffHsh  alpliabet,  wne  in  Helirew  cnlle^  P«,  I.  e., 
mouth,  most,  probably  fioiii  its  original  form.  P.  is  il\,e  thin  letter  of  the  Inbiul 
serlfB  (p,  6,/,  »),  und  in  hitfrcluiiige>ible  witli  tlie  otiier  loiters  of  tlie  serie*'.  P,  in 
Sanscrit.  iiiieelcjiiHl  Latin,  is  replacnd  by  fUi  th«  Teutonic  tongues.  Sec  P.  Words 
befjinning  with  p  in  English,  aud  Its  kindred  Tentouic  ton^^nes.  are  almost  all  of 
foreign  origin  <81»vic,  Celtic,  Latin),  as  pain  (Fr.  peifief  hat.  poena)^  plough  (Pol. 
plug),  pit  (Lat.  puteus,  a  well).  The  Greek  prep,  apo  (Sans,  apu)  became  in  Lat.  ab  ; 
Gr.  hupo,  Lat.  i(t<6;  Sana,  upa,  Liit.  ob;  but  before  sluirp  letittrs,  as  t  aud  »,  the  ori- 
ginal p  was  rctiiined  in  prunuuciatioii,  as  is  shewi}  by  iuacriptious  {aptitxdit^  optinmi). 
There  are  remarkable  interchanges  of  p  with  a  sharp  guttural  k  or  q.  Thns,  lor 
Lat  guw.  quody  qtiani^  the  Gscau  dialect  htid  pi*,  pod,  pavt ;  L:»t.  equua,  eoquo.  cor- 
responded to  Gr.  hippos  {Mo\.  hikkos),  pepo;  similarly,  Gaelic  mac  (son),  eeathair 
(Lat  qucUum-^  four),  coig  (Lat  qui^fique^  Ave),  correspond  to  Welsh  map^  peditar 
<Gr.  pettores), pump  (Gr.  pente or peinpe).  In  Gr.  p  is  sometimes nphiced  by  t  as 
ti»,  tessares^  lor  pt«,  petlor^i.  In  such  words  n»  redewption^  eon9umptionn  p  lias 
been  introfluced  as  an  intermediary  between  the  incompatible  sounds  «t  and  t.  Tho 
initialp  of  Latin  words  bus  for  the  most  0art  passed  into  French  amdiered;  in  other 
positions,  p  has  become  0 ;  thus,  Fr.  ^ique^  eheveu^  dicevoir,  pauvre,  from  Lat.  epii^ 
eopuH,  eapilliut,  decipere,  pauper, 

PA'CA  yCoelogenys),  a  genus  of  rmlent  quadrupeds,  allied  to  Ihe  agoutis,  cavl*  s, 
and  capybara,  and  hihabithig  Brazil,  Gniana,  and  some  of  tho  Wet»t  India  Islands. 
Tlie  dentition  very  nearly  rvsombles  that  of  the  agoutis.  The  cheek- boues  are  pro- 
digiously developed,  in  a  way  of  which  no  example  exists  tn  any  other  maramaliau 
amniaL,  so  that  tlie  Zygomatic  arches  enclose  a  large  hollow  space,  whilst  the  bono 
ali^o  descends  to  an  iinnsnal  depth  from  the  arch,  even  below  the  lower  jaw-bone. 
Within  this  structure,  which  i^ives  an  extraordinary  breadth  and  peculiar  asix^ct  to 
the  face,  is  a  sac  in  each  cheek,  opening  in  iront,  .-ind  lined  with  a  fold  of  the  skiu 
of  the  face.  The  whole  of  this  seems  to  be  intended  to  preserve  the  true  cheek- 
poucties  from  external  shocks.  'J'he  cheek-pouches  open  from  the  mouih  in  tho 
vtaxixxl  way,  and  are  capable  of  very  great  distention.  Tin*  lip  is  cloven ;  the  ears  aro 
small ;  the  eyes  are  large  and  full ;  the  neck  is  siiort ;  the  tail  is  a  mere  tubercle ;  the 
feet  have  each  five  toes  ;  the  legs  are  thick;  the  back  is  rounded.  The  form  and 
gait  are  clnmsyj  yet  the  P.  (Clpaea)  is  very  quick  and  active.  It  lives  in  moi^t 
grounds,  burrowing  like  the  rabbit,  but  not  so  deeply ;  its  burrow,  however,  Is  always 
provided  with  three  openings.  It  feeds  on  vegetable  substances,  and  often  does 
great  damage  to  p'.an I atioiiH  of  sugar-cane.    It  is  one  of  the  largest  rodents,  being 


about  two  feet  long.  It  is  geueralTy  of  a  dark  brown  color,  with  four  rows  of  while 
spots  ahmg  the  sides,  the  throat  and  belly  white.  A  lighter-colored  species  has  been 
described,  out  Is  perhaps  a  mere  variety.    The  flesh  of  the  P.  is  much  esteemed,  aud 


is  very  fat 

PACAY  {ProwpiH  dulcit),  a  tree  'of  the  natural  order  Leguminoace^  sub-order 
Mimosece;  a  native  of  Peru,  of  rather  large  size,  with  a  broad  head ;  producing  pods 
from  twenty  inches  to  two  feet  long,  whi<'li  contain  black  seeds  iinbeddtd  iii  a  sweet 
flaky  solistance  as  white  as  snow.  Tills  flaky  substance  U  used  as  au  article  of  food 
aud  much  relished  by  the  Peruvians. 

PACB  (Lat  pan8wt)f  in  ita  modern  acceptation,  is  the  distance,  when  the  legs  aro 


y  Google 


PaohomliM  (•ac) 

Paciflo  v)4J 

extendKl  in  wnTlctng,  between  the  heel  of  one  foot  and  that  of  the  other.  Amone 
di<tcipliiie(1  m^n  the  {mck  becomi'S  of  coufirant  length,  and  ns  such  is  of  the  ntnio^ 
vahie  In  diU'rmiMluu  niilitui-y  movtimcnrs,  the  nmtive  disttinces  of  corpe  and  men 
being  fixed  by  the  inimher  of  paceit  murched,  jiud  fo  on.  The  p.iee  In  tlu?  British 
army  i»  83^  **'♦'*  ^^^  onlinary  marching,  ynd  8  f«  et  for  '*donhl©.qnick"  or  mnnintf 
time. — With  the  Romans,  the  jmre  tiid  «  difffrenr  Bijjnlfiintion,  «ih1  it  iaimt  ortant 
to  bear  the  distinction  in  nilnd,whvu  reading  of  distancen  in  l.atiu  works;  Ihe  sing!o 
extension  of  the  Irg.-*  wat^  not  with  tlieni  n  pace,  (pa*mt»),  bnt  a  fitep  iffradus');  their 
puce  ipasstm)  t)eing  tl>e  interval  ))etween  the  mark  of  a  la-el  and  ilie  next  mark  of  ibd 
tavie  iieel,  or  a  double  »»tep.  'J'hi:*  pace  was  *  qiiivaieut  to  4*84  English  feet.  The  jwce 
was  the  Roman  nnit  in  iiiuerary  mea^^nre ;  thu  rail-  beluL'  lOOn  pace?*,  or  6000  Ruinan 
feet^  eqnal  to  -917  (rf  an  En^lisli  mile.  See  Mut.  Wlifther  nteasniementg  were 
effrcted  by  acinally  comiting  the  paces,  or  by  the  time  or:cnpied,  is  not  clear ;  bnt 
eltlier  method  wonld,  with  diJcipllnid  troops,  give  a  safe  rtjpulf. 

In  tlie  middle  ages*,  writers  confuse  acconiiis  of  di-tj«ncesby  allaslon  to  a  geometri- 
cal pace,  a  measure  wliich  varied  with  different  authors. 

PACHO'MIUS.  an  Egv|>tlnn  monk  of  tlH'4th  c,  is  held  in  higk  eptimatlon  by 
the  Roman  Catholic  church,  a>*  birinir  tiu?  fli*8tto  snb!»titnte  for  the  freejtFceiicifm  of 
the  solitary  n-clnse.  a  re^nlar  coenobitic  systt-m*  Ht^  was  horn,  towards  the  close  of 
the  3d  c,  was  bronirht  up  as  n  pu*riin.  bnt  converted  to  ChriHtian-ty  hy  the  kindness 
of  ct-naln  Chri?iiaiis  whom  h«  eh<onntered  at.  Tuebes. .  About  340a.i>.,  ntTalienua, 
an  island  in  the  Nile,  he  founded  Ihe  first  monastic  institntion.  The  memb<*rB 
agreed  lo  follow  certain  rules  of  life  and  conduct  drawn  up  by  P.,  ni'd  to  subject 
themselves  to  his  control  and  visitation.  He  alfo  e^iatilislied  the  flrst  convent  for 
nuns,  which  was  under  the  pre^idoncy  of  his  sisJer,  and  labored  witli  so  mnch  dili- 
genceand  zeal,  that  at  his  dtfatb,  acconiing  to  Palladin»',  not  fewer  lliau  TOUO  monks 
and  nuns  wer- under  his  inspection.  The  varion-*  iMHin^s  extant  nnder  the  name 
of  P.  an^-**  Reirulaj  Mona*ti<  86"  <of  doubtful  irtntilneiiess),  **Monita,  SS.  PP.  Pa- 
cliomll  et  Theodori,"  *•  Epistolse  ot  Verba  Mystica"  (a  farrat'O  of  unintelligible  alle- 
gory), and  **  Prajcepta  S.  Pachomll."    See  '*  Acta  Sanctorum,"  vol.  lii. 

PACHYDE'RMATA  (Gr.  thick-pkins),  in  the  system  of  Cuvier,  an  order  of  Mam- 
malia, including  part  of  the  JirtUa  (Ridnocero<,  E  epiiaut)  and  alL  the  Bellum. 
(Horse,  Hippopotamns,  'I'apir,  Hog,  Ac.)  of  Liimsen&t,  l>eslde9  one  genns  {Hyrax  or 
Daman)  of  the  Linnsean  Qhres.  It  has  been  often  dcscnbcd  as  lc?8  uatnral  tlian  any 
otiter  of  Cuvier's  mamnialiun  orders,  as  itcon^ists  of  animals  among  which  there  are' 
wide  diversities,  and  the  associating  characters  are  rather  negative  than  positive; 
but  it  i»*  now  tmlversally  received  by  naturilisfsas  indicatin«r  a  real,  thongh  not  a 
close  afllnity  ;  and  when  we  extend  our  view  from  exisiinjr  to  fossil  specie.*,  nnmer- 
0118  connecting  links  present  themselves.  :  As  defined  hyCnvier,  the  order  consists 
of  those  hoofed  mammalia  {UngulaUi)  wliic!;  are  not  mmin.ints:  all  of  which  pos- 
sess, as  a  more  positive  characier,  a  remark  ihle  thickness  of  skin.  This  order  lie 
divides  into  three  sections— (I.)  Pi-oboscidea^  having  a  prolonged  suont  or  proboscis, 
throu*;h  which  the  nostrils  pass  as  tdongut' d  tube?',  a  |)Owerful  oi^gan  of  prehen- 
sion, and  a  delicate  organ  of  touch,  and  h.sviiiL'  aNo  five  toes  on  each  foot,  enclosed 
in  a  very  firm  horny  skin ;  (2.)  Ordinaria.  desiitule  of  proboscis,  althongh  in  soim* 
(Tapirs),  tin  re  is  snch  an  elongation  of  the  upper  lip  and  nostrils  as  approximates 
to  It;  and  the  nose  is  employed  by  hogs,  &c.,  in  seeking.'  their  food,  not  oidy  a.«  an 
organ  of  smell,  but  as  an  in^lrnment  lor  tnnnng  up  the  ground,  and  as  an  ok'an  ».f 
touch;  the  number  of  toes  varies,  four,  three,  or  two  on  each  foot;  ihos^e  with  an 
even  numl)erof  loes,  having  in  the  cleft  foot  ar«!semblanceto  the  Ruminantia;  and 
(8.)  Solidnnfjula^  ill  which  the  foot  has  but  one  apparent  toe,  enclosd  in  i  lH)Of.  ' 
Some  naturalists  have  tbonglit  it  better  to  sepnrate  the  Solidvnffitla  or  Eqvidm 
(q.  V.)  from  the  P.  as  a  distinct  order  ;  whilst  others  have  ei  liir>red  in«tejid  of  r.  - 
stricting  the  limiu  of  the  order,  by  adding,  as  a  fourth  section,  the  HwMwwotia 


Those  P.  which  liave  a  nnmber  of  toes  differ  completely  ftom  the  mamnmlia 
hayitiK  claws  {Unguiculata)  in  their  inability  to  l>eiid  their  toes  in  order  to  seise  any . 
object.    Some  of  i he  ^irl^fti/ato  have  very  large  hoof-like  claws,  but  thia  diffeniico 
still  subsists.    The  foi-e-liaibs  of  the  P.  are  also  incapable  of  any  rotatory  motion, 
vrving  for  support  and  locomotion  only,  not  at  uU  for  preheueioii ;  tho  metauup* 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


G4a  ^j^- 

Bal  nnd  mctncarpal  hon&t  l)o!n«j  confiolidated  aslii  the  HuminanHa,  and  they  have  no 
clavlclef. 

The  largest  terrestrial  iiiammalia  holonc:  to  this  order.  Most  of  tlie  P.  are  of  Inree 
eize^  altlioiigh  the  damaun  are  a  reinarkuluu  exception,  nnd  Bome  of  the  hog  family 
are  also  comparatively  small.  Most  of  them  have  a  clumsy  form,  with  alMowaua 
awkward  gait ;  but  they  are  capalile  of  activity  beyond  what  might  oe  snpposed,  and 
sometimes  move  at  a  pretty  rai)ld  pace.  Grucefuliiess  nnd  fleetiiess  are  charactvr- 
itftics  of  tlie  olhei-wiso  exceptional  Solidungnla.  The  P,  Ordinaria  have  jrencrally 
great  strength,  and  tbejarger  ones  push  their  way  througii  the  entauglcd  thickets  i<t 
tropical  forests,  bending  or  breaking  the  lianas,  small  trees,  and  branches  which  op- 
pose their  progress,  their  thick  hides  resisting  the  spines  and  broken  branches  by 
which  the  skins  of  other  animals  would  be  piercedT  The  hprse  and  otlier  Soiia- 
unqula  nr^  not  inhabitants  of  forests  and  jungles,  but  generally  of  grassy  nUiins, 
and  their  hides  are  mach  less  thick  and  hard  than  those  of  most  of  the  Pacliyder- 
mata. 

The  physiognomy  of  Ihf  P.  In  genernl  is  rather  dnlKand  nnexpressive,  the  eyes 
being  small,  and  having  that  chanscter  of  which  a  familiar  example  is  fonnd  In  tho 
common  bog.  When  enraged,  liowevci',  thoy  manifest  tlieir  fli-rceness  in  their  eyes ; 
and  althongh,  In  general,  mild  and  gculle,  tliey  are  capable  of  being  aroused  to  great 
fury.  ,  ' 

The  skeleton  of  the  P.  Ordinaria  and  Probosciden  is  strong  and  massive ;  tho  neck 
short,  the  processes  of  its  vertebne  stroiiL'iy  dtv  loped ;  the  skull  affoi-ding  a  large 
surface  for  the  muscles  which  support  and  move  it  • 

Tl'.e  P.  generally  feed  on  vegetable  substances.  Some  are  omnivorons.  The 
digestive  organs  are  more  simple  than  in  the  Rummantia,  but  exhibit  considerable 
diversity.  The  stomach  Is  simple  in  sonie,  and  in  others  is  more  or  less  completely 
dividt^d  into  sacs,  approaching  to  one  of  the  most  remarkable  characters  of  the  BU' 
minantia.  The  intestines  are  L'en<  rally  longer  tl'inn  in  the  Jtnminantia.  Tho 
dentition  exhibits  considerable  divt  rsiiy ;  the  adapUition  to  ve^'etablc  food  being  tho 
most  prevalent  chamcter.  The  most  important  peenliarities  of  the  dentition  aud 
digestive  oi-gans  are  noticed  in  the  aiiicles  on  particulai*  families  and  genera. 

PACI'PIC  OCEAN,  the  largest  of  the  five  great  Oceans  (see  Ocean),  lies  between 
Amercaon  the  east,  and  Asia,  Mal.ilfia,  and  Australasia  on  the  west.  The  name 
••^  Pacific,"  j.'iven  to  it  by  Magellan,  the  first  European  navisrntor  who  traversed 
its  wide  expanse,  is  doubtless  v-M-y  api)ropriafe  to  certain  portions  of  this  ocean  ; 
but,  as  a  whole,  its  special  claims  to  the  epithet  are  at  the  least  doubtful,  though  tho 
name  has  by  long  usage  become  too  well  established  to  be  easily  supplanted  by  any 
other. 

The  greatest  length  of  the  P.  O.  from  th(!  Arctic  (at  Behring*s  Strait)  to  .the 
Antarcllc  circles  is  9200  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth,  along  the  ]iarallel  of  latitude 
6°  u.,  about  H),3':0  miles* ;  while  its  area  nniy  be  roughly  estimated  ai,80,0(M),000  Eng- 
lish square  miles,  or  ahont  2-5t.hs  of  tlie  whole  surface  of  the  earth.  Its  form  la 
rhomhoidal,  with  one  comer  incomplete  (at  tho  south),  and  its  surftice  is  studded  with 
i»un)berles8  islands,  either  scattered  or  in  groups  ;  these.,  however,  are  chiefly  con-  . 
fined  to  the  western  side.  Alon^  the  whole  eastern  sid<?,  there  is  a  belt  of  seti  of 
varying  width,  which,  witli  a  very  few  exceptions,  in  wlioUv  free  from  islands.  The 
deenest  sounding  yi*t  fonnd  (in  n.  lat.  II"  5J4',  ••.  long.  1430  16')  in  the  P.  O.  is  26,- 
85<>  feet,  or  above  6  miles — nearly  equ.il  to  the  height  ol  the  highest  mountain  ouibe 
glo'x!. 

The  coasts  of  the  P.  O.  present  a  general  resemblMiice  to  those  of  the  Atlantic, 
and  the  similarity  in  the  outline  of  the  westeni  coasts  of  each  is  even  strikinL', 
especially  north  of  the  equator;  bat  the  shores  of  the  former,  nnlik^  those  of  tho 
latter,  are  sinuous,  and.  excepting  the  north-east  coast  of  Asia,  little  indented 
witli  inlets.  Tlie  shore  on  the  American  side  is  bold  and  rocky,  while  that  of  Aaia 
varies  much  In  character. 

Though  the  P.  O.  is  by  far  the  larsjest  of  the  five  grc»a^ocean&  being  al>ont  equal 
to  the  other  four  in  extent,  the  proportion  of  land  drahied  into  it  is  compan»tiv<  ly 
insignificant.  Its  basin  iuelndos  only  the  narrow  strip  of  the  American  continent  to 
the  west  of  flie  Andes  and  liocky  Mountains;  Melant^ia  (with  the  exception  of  nUi 
moat  the  whole  of  Australia)*  which  coutaina  few  rivers,  and  none  of  them  of  lar^a 


y  Google 


J^ackhorte  '^'*"* 

size ;  tlie  Indo-ChlneBe  BtateSt  Cliina  Proper,  with  the  east  part  of  Mongolfa,  anct 
Manchuria  in  tbe  Asiatic  coutinenr. 

Winds.— Thi.'.  trade-winds  of  the  Pacific  have  certain  pecnliarities,  Which  have  only 
lately  been  discovert-d.  In  general,  they  are  not  found  to  preserve  tiieir  i>ecu)iar 
characteristics  except  within  certttin  limits,  thus,  the  sontb>e»Bt  trades  are  found  to 
blow  steadily  only  between  92°  and  140°  of  wej«t  longitude;  while  the  norrb-eaot 
trades  are  similarly  fluctuating,  except,  between  long.  115°  w.  and  214°  w.  Be>t>ud 
tlie<*e1iniitis  thfir  action  is  in  whole  or  in  part  neutralised  by  the  monsoons  and  otliet 
-  p«?riodicnl  winds  peculiar  to  the  tropical  regions  of  the  Pacific.  In  Polynesia,  es- 
pecially near  the  New  Hebrides  group,  linrrTcanes  are  of  frequent  occurrence  from 
November  to  April,  l»ut  they  exhibit  few  of  the  tenable  characteristics  w4iich  dis- 
tinguish the  harrlcsmes  of  the  West  Indies  and  Indhin  Oceam.  North  and  south  of 
the  tropic  il  zone,  the  winds  exhibit  little  periodicity,  iHjing  found  to  blow  from  ail 
parts  of  the  compass  at  any  given  season  of  the  year,  though  a  general  westerly  di- 
rection is  most  frequent  among  \hv\\\.  On  the  const  of  Patagonia  and  at  Cape  Horn, 
west  winds  prevail  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  while  in  the  Sen  of  Okhotsk 
tlity  are  oi  rare  occurrt-nce.  'I'lie  frightful  Typhoon  <q.  v.)  is  the  terror  of  mariners 
in  tlie  Cliiuene  8ea.«,  and  may  occur  at  all  nelsons  of  the  year.  There  are  many  other 
winds  aiKi  storm**,  such  as  wliite  squalls,  cyclones,  •*  tempest'ides,"  &c.,  which  are 
confined  to  particular  localities,  and  will  be  fotmd  noticed  under  other  head:<,  and 
also  under  Storms. 

Currents.— Thti  currepts  of  the  P.  O.,  though  less  marked  in  charactec  and  effects 
than  tho.-e  of  the  Atlantic,  are  yet  of  sufficient  importance  to  require  a  brief  notice. 
The  Southern  Pacific  current  takes  its  rise  south  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  flows 
eastward  at  the  rate  of  half  a  mtle  per  hour,  dividing  into  two  branches  al)Out  hmg, 
9S°  w.,  the  northern  branch  or  Current  ofiientor  turning  northward,  and  gradaaliy 
losing  itself  in  the  counter  equatorial  current ;  the  sourhern  brancii  coutinninft  its 
eastward  course  till  It  is  sulHlivided  by  tlie  opposition  of  Ca|)e  Horn  into  two  brancliesu 
one  of  wliich,  the  cold  Current  of  Peru  or  Huniboldt's  current^  advances  northward 
along  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  becoming  finally  absorbed  in  the  eqimtorial 
current;  the  otiier  wastiing  the  coast  of  Biitzil,  and  becoming  un  Atlantic  current. 
The  P.  O.,  like  the  Atlantic,  also  possesses  its  equatorial  cuirent,  separated  into  ji 
northern  and  southern  current  by  the  equatorial  counter-current.  It  sweeps  across 
the  whole  ocean  from  east  to  west  Two  suMivisfiuns  of  the  southern  current,  called 
respectively  the  *' current  of  Kossel "  and  the  *'  warm  current  of  Australia,"  flow,  tho 
one  tlirough  the  Polynesian  Archipelago  to  New  Qninea,  and  the  other  aloug  the 
east  coast  of  Atistralia.  The  northern  equatoiial  current,  after  reaching  the  const 
of  Asia,  tarns  north-east,  washing  tlie  shorer<  of  China  and  Japan,  under  the  name 
of  the  Blctck  or  Japan  current;  it  then  sends  off  a  brancli  along  tlie  coast  of  Kamt- 
chatka,  and  advances  eastward  till  it  becomes  los^t  on  the  north-west  coast  of  North 
America.  There  are  other  minor  currents,  the  most  remarkable  of  whicii  is  that  of 
Flenrieu,  which  describes  a  kind  of  irregular  circle  with  a  radius  of  about  240  miles. 
It  i?  Hitu  ited  in  lat.  250—^0°  n.,  and  long.  133°— 165°  w.  All  these  currents  have 
their  corresponding  counter-currents. 

There  are  two  "sargassos"  or  weedy  seas  of  considerable  extent  in  the  P.  O., 
one  lyin^  150 etist-south-east  of  New  Zealand;  the  other,  and  by  far  the  la-ger, 
about  150  west  of  gun  Francisco  in  California.  There  is  also  a  large  region  lyinjj 
nearly  half  way  between  Cape  Horn  and  New  Zealand,  which  seems  to  correBi>ond  lo 
the  d  sorts  on  land,  as  mariners  report  it  almost  wholly  destitute  of  any  signs  of 
life  either  in  s«ea  or  air. 

HiHt^ll.—'V\\Q  existence  of  this  ocean  first  became  known  to  Europeans  throngh 
Colnmbu^,  who  had  received  accounts  of  it  from  some  of  the  natives  of  Alnerica, 
tlion^h  it  was  ftri»t  seen  by  Balboa,  September  29,  1518,  and  first  traversed  by  Magel- 
lan ci^ht  years  afterwards;  but  Its  t'lze,  limits,  and  the  numl>er  and  position  of  Its 
Islaucls!,  &c.,  were  little  known  till  long  afterwards.  Captain  Cook  deserves  tlie  first 
place' among  the  investigntors  of  the  P.  O. ;  and  after  him  come  Anson,  the  two 
Bougainvilles,  La  Peron^,  Carteret,  Yansonver,  KnuEenstem,  Eotzebue,  &c  Bat 
the  most  thoroughly  scientific  examination  of  its  physical  condition  is  that  acconk- 
pushed  by  the  '*  Challenger  "  Expedition  of  1873-T0. 

PACI'NIAN  CORPUSCLES  are  very  remarkable  structures  appended  to  the 
nerves.    In  LUe  human  sabjcctj  they  are  found  in  great  numbers  iu  conuectlou  witti 


Digitized  by 


Google 


D  (s  Paoinisir 

040  Padkhom 

the  nerves  of  tho  hand  nnd  foot,  and  pparliigly  on  olhcr  spinnl  netrw,  «nd  on  the 
plexu-es  of  the  sympathetic,  bur.  never  on  nerves  of  motion.  They  nhviiys  present  a 
proximal  etid,  at'tuched  to  the  nerves  by  a  st^ilk  of  flbrons  tissue proltiu^red  from  the 
neurilemma,  and  occasionally  one-tenth  of  an  inch  lone :  and  a  aistal  eitd,  l.ving  free, 
in  the  connective  or  areolar  tissue.  In  the  human  suTyeet.  the  corpuscles  vary  in 
length  from  one-tweutietl»  to  one-tentli  of  an  inch.  Tiny  are  us-uaily  seen  very 
readily  in  the  mesentery  of  the  cat,  appearing  as  pi-Uiicid  oval  grains,  rather  smaller 
than  heni|>8eed.  The  microscopic  examination  of  these  bodits  discloses  an  internal 
structure  of  a  very  remarlcable  kind.  'J'hey  consist,  flrpt.  of  a  series  of  membranoua 
capsules,  from  thirty  to  sixty  or  more  in  numl)er,  enclosed  ont;  withir.  the  other  ;  and 
secondly,  of  a  single  nervous  fibre,  of  the  tiibuhu' kind,  enclosed  in  the  stalk,  and 
advancing  to  the  central  capsule,  which  it  traverses  from  beginning  to  end,  and  where 
it  finally  terminates  in  a  fixed  swollen  extremity.  The  ten  or  fifteen  Innermost  cap- 
sules are  in  C(jntaci  with  one  another,  while  the  rest  are  separated  by  a  clear  space  con- 
taining fluid,  which  is  so  abnndunt  as  to  constitute  far  the  largest  ))ortion  of  the  bulk 
of  tlie  entire  corpuscle.  Such  are  the  views  of  Pacini  (as  givfn  in  his  '*  Nuovi  Organi 
Scoperte  nel  Corpo  Unaano,"  1840),  who  is  usually  regarded  as  their  discoverer, 
although  they  bad  been  noticed  |ind  roughly  descri'jed  nearly  a  century  before  by 
Vater,  of  Henle,  and  of  Todd  and  Bowman  ;  but  later  observations  made  by  Huxley, 
Leydig,  KOIIiker,  and  others,  sl»ew  that  the  question  of  their  true  nature  is  still  an 
open  one.  Huxley  asserts  thJit  their  cential  portion  is  solid,  and  not  hollow;  that 
In  birds,  and  in  the  human  hand  there  is  no  fluid  between  the  lamina — and  indeed,  that 
thelanana;  themselves  have  no  real  existence — tlie  Pacinian  corpnsde  Iwing  merely 
a  solid  mass  of  connective  tis^sue  (a  thickened  process  of  the  neurilemma  of  the 
nerve  to  which  it  is  attached),  whose  apparent  lamination  depends  on  the  regular 
disposition  of  Its  elastic  elements.  If  Pacini's  dew  of  these  structures  be  coiTect, 
there  is  probably  some  general  analogy  between  tlie  electric  organs  of  the  torpedo 
and  thesti  corpuscles ;  at  present,  we  know  not Idng  with  certainty  regarding  their  ■ 
office. 

PACKFCNG,  or  Peto'ng,  a  Chinese  alloy  or  white  metal,  consisting  of  arsenic 
and  copper.  It  is  formed  tiy  putting  two  parts  of  arsenic  in  a  crucible  with  five 
parts  of  copper  turnings,  or  finely  divided  copper';  the  arsenic  and  coppi'r  require  to 
oe  placed  in  alternate  layeis,  and  the  whole  is  revered  with  a  layer  oi  common  bait, 
and  piessed  down.  When  malted,  the  alloy  contains  nearly  the  whole  of  thewsenic, 
and  is  yellowish- white  in  color  when  in  the  rough  state,  but  takes  a  fine  white  ])oiieh 
resembling  silver.  It  is  n^t  very  duct ilcr  and  cannot  be  fused  without  decomposi- 
tion, as  the  arsenic  is  easily  dissipated.  It  was  formerly  much  nsed  in  this  cocntrj', 
as  well  as  China  and  India,  for  making  tlie  pans  of  small  scales,  dial-plutcs,  anda 
variety  of  other  articles  requiring  nicety  of  make,  such  as  graduated  scales  for 
philosophical  instrument*.  It  is  probably  never  imported  now,  the  nickel  alloys  of 
Europe  having  quite  superseded  its  use  ;  in  China,  however,  it  is  still  extensively 
employed. 

PA'CKHORSE,  a  horse  employed  in  tlie  carriage  of  goods,  which  are  either 
fastened  on  its  back  in  bundles,  or,  if  weighty,  are  placed  in  panniers,  slung  one  on 
each  side  across  the  horse's  back.  The  saddle  to  which  the  bundles  were  fastened 
consisted  of  two  pieces  of  wood,  curved  so  as  to  fit  the  horse's  back,  and  joined 
together  at  the  ends  by  other  two  straiglit  pieces.  This  frame  was  well  padded 
underneath,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  horse's  back,  and  was  firmly  fastened  by  a  girth. 
To  each  side  of  the  saddle,  a  strong  hook  was  attached,  for  the  jiui-pose  of  carrying 
packasres,  jmnniers,  &c.  Panniers  were  sometimes  simply  slung  across  tiie  hoive's 
back  with  a  pad  under  the  band.  The  panniers  were  wicker  ba^eis,  and  of  vm-ious 
shapes,  according  to  the  nature  of  their  usual  contents,  being  sometimes  long  and 
narrow,  but  most  generally  having  a  length  of  three  feet  or  upwards,  a  depth  of 
about  two-thirds  of  the  length,  and  av^idtii  of  from  one  to  two  feet.  'I'he  packhorse 
with  panniers  was  at  one  time  in  general  use  for  carrying  merchandise,  and  for  those 
ngiicultiirai  operations  for  which  the  horse  and  CArt  are  now  employed ;  and  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  Spain  and  Anstiia,  and  in  otiier  jiaits  of  the  world,  it  still 
forms  the  sole  medium  for  transport;  though  the  mule  has,  especially  in  Europe, 
been  substituted  for  the  horse. 

Ab  army  requires  to  be  accompanied  by  several  thonsund  puck-nulmals.  sr 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ISSJT'    .  646 

times  hor.«e8.  l)nt  preferablymnles ;  aud  In  Asia,  commonly  camels,  or  evenel^ 
pliauta.  Pacfc-saddlcarare  variously  fitted,  hccoidiuj^  to  ilie  objects  to  be  carried: 
eome  for  provii^iousft  or  ammauitiuii ;  otiiett}  for  carrying:  wounded  men,  tents,  and 
.in  nionntaiii-warfitre,  ieven  small  caniiou.  In  b.-ittle/i  he  immediate  reserves  of  small- 
arm  annimuition  are  borne  in  the  rear  of  divisions  hy  pack-animals;  the  heavy  re- 
serves being  ic  wagons  between  tlie  army  aud  iip  base  of  operations. 

PACOURY-UVA,  a  sweet  and  delicious  Brazilian  fruit,  a  large  berry,  produced 
by  the  Piato^iiainHvjnia^  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Clusiacece.  Tlie  seeds  have  the 
tastv^  of  ahnonds. 

PAC  I  O'LUS,  anciditly  the  name  of  a  small  brook  of  Lydia,  in  Awa  Minor,  which 
rises  on  the  nortluun  slope  of  Mount  Tmolus  (modem  litiz  Dagh)^  flews  north  past 
Sardis  {Sart)^  and  empties  iiself  into  the  Uernius  {Kodua),  It  is  never  more  than  ten 
fe;  t  broad,  and  ohtifoot  deep.  Tlie  sands  or  mud  of  P.  were  long  famous  in  antiquity 
for  tlie  particles  of  gold  dust  wliich  they  coutn.ned,  and  which  ai"e  supposed  to  have 
b(!i'n  earned  down  by  its  waters  from  thv  bosom  of  Tmolus — a  hill  Ticli  in  niet-als. 

/J'he  eoJlt^ciion  of  these  particles,  according  to  1  gencl,  was  the  source  ot  Crcesus*s 
vast  wuatli.    But  as  early  even  as  the  time  of  Strabo,  P.  had  ceased  to  yield  any  of 

.the  preciotia  du.-'t.    The  brook  is  now  called  5ttrak<^ 

PA'C  rilM  ILLl'CirUM  is,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  a  contract  or  agr<»]fiment  for 
POfiie  illegal  puipose,  i.  e.,  a  puipose  either  expressly  prohibited  by  statute,  or  hy 
the  gen.  r  I  policy  (*f  the  law.  'J'hns,  an  immoral  contract  In-tween  a  man  nud 
V  onjail  would  be  held  void  <jn  the  ground  that  the  law  discou'itenauc^s  practices  cmiti  a 
boiioH  viorea.  A  contract  i.)etween  a  client  and  agent,  call,  d  a  pactum  de  quota  iitin^ 
wliero1)y  a  share  of  the  property  whicli  is  the  subject,  ot  litigation  is  given  to  tie 
agent  instead  of  his  Usual  feis,  is  void  in  most  cases;  though  it  is  often  diffitnlt  to 
dotermine  what  contiiicts  fall  within  this  rule.  'I'he  eourti»,  iiowever.  iinve  constmeJ 
very  jealously  every  con triict  which  tends  to  c<?nnpl  the  administration  of  the  law, 
ami  hence  an  j'greemeni  lutween  a  town  and  country  agent  to  divide  the  profits  has 
bei'ii  held  a  pactu7ii  illicitum.  So  agreements  hy  a  clieni  to  trive  an  excessive  sum  to 
his  law-asxent  as  a  gift  have  l)eeii  often  set  aside. — In  England,  similar  doctrincH 

1)revnil.  though  the  phnise  jmctum  illicitum ,  winch  was  borrowed  from  the.iioman 
aw,  is  not  used,  contracts  of  this  doi^riptiou  being  technically  de8cril)ed  as  iliegai 
contracts. 

PABA'NG,  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  povernroent  of  the  west  coast  of  Sumatra, 
is  situated  in  0°  59'  80"  s.  lat.,  and  100°  20'  80"  e.  long.,  and  has  abont  12,000  inhabi- 
tanis.  The  Padang  fl(>ws  through  the  town,  but  is  only  navigable  for  small  vessels, 
the  larirf^r  requiring-to  anchor  in  the  roadstead,  abont  three  miles  distant.  On  the 
left  bank,  stand  the  houses  of  the  natives,  unsijrhtly  bamboo  er  ctions,  eh'vat  fl 
about  eight  feet  from  the  ground  by  posts  of  the  cocoa-nut  tree,  and  covered  with 
leaves.  The  government  btilldings,  houses  of  the  Enropeans  and  Chinese^  &c,  are 
on  the  rif^ht^  and  mostly  built  of  wood  or  stone,  and  roofed  with  tile.  P.  is  pictur- 
esquely enclosed  by  a  semicircle  of  mountains,  inhii  d  which  rises  a  loftier  chain, 
two  being  volcanoes.  There  are  a  Protestant  church,  a  Roman  Catholic  church, 
flonl-ishing  schools,  a  fort,  ^nilitary  hospittil,  government  workshops,  large  ware- 
houses, &c.  All  agent  of  the  Netheriands  Trading  Company  (q.  v.)  resides  at  Pa- 
d;ing.  Being  the  centre  of  tlie  expoits  and  itnports  of  Sumatra's  west  coast,  P.  has 
a  lively  trade,  not  otily  witii  Java,  the  other  iskinds  of  the  Eiisteru  Archipelago,  and 
Europe,  but  also  with  the  iivterior  of  th«?  Island. 

The  climati*  is  considered  heaUhy,  although  the  iient  is  great.  Colonel  Nahnys 
founrl  the  thermometer  range  frora  70°  to  80°  at  6  a.m.,  from  82°  to  88°  at  noon,  840 
to  90°  at  2  P.M..  78?  to  84°  nt  6  p.m.,  and  from  1'2P  to  80°  at  10  in  the  evening. 

'I'he  governor  resides  at  a  countiy-house  about  two  aud  a  I'alf  railes  al>ove  P., 
and  rules  over  a  territory  stretching,  from  the  Residency  of  B  ^ncooleu  (which  has  a 
population  of  112,000  souls,  and  stands  immediately  under  tlie  government  at  Bata- 
via),  north-west  over  seven  degrees  of  latitude.  It  is  divided  into  the  residencies  of 
Lower  Padang,  Upper  Padang,  and  Tapanoell  ( Papanuli) ;  the  popiUation  in  1810 
being  1,600,730  natives,  2178 -Europeans,  and  nearly  8000  Chinese. 

Lower  Padang  was  the  first  district  of  the  west  coast  of  Sumatra  which  sn}>- 
mltted  to  the  Dutch,  who  liad  formed  a  settlement  at  Padang  as  early  as  166^, 
aud  by  repeated  wars,  gradoally  extended  their  territory. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


^647  ftatS^ 


-  TTpP'»r  Padang  lies  to  tber'nortb-weet  of  the  lower  provlnco  ^S-ora  whldi  It  is 
separated  by  a  chain  of  lofty  uiouufains,  t«Oine  of  whiclivas  the  Singiihuig,  Monijue, 
ai)d  Sa^o,  allaiii  to  nearly  10,(iOO  feet  in  height;  M«rapie  beinj;  an  active  volcano, 
the  last  eruptions  of  which  v^'^re  in  1846  ana  1855,' tlfongh  it  sent  forHi  volnmeH  or 
smoke  in  1361.  This  residency  possesseH  the  most  lovely  disti-icts  of  tht^  island,  or  of 
any  tropic  land,  the  mountain  slopes  beinjr  pttidd«d  with  vi!lng«p,  rict'-fields,  cocOa- 
imt  and  coflfee-tree?,  of  which  last,  it  is  calcnlated  that  thtri-  are  82,00  ;,000  in  Upper 
pHdang.  In  addition  to  the  cofEee-culiure,  ^'uttibier,  casfia,  p«*pper,  ratans*,  in<iigo, 
caontcSouc,  &c.,  are  hivgely  produced.  >ind  gold,  irorJ,  copper,  lend,  and  qnick>Uvi>r 
■ave  found.  In  the  district  of  Tanah  Dut  arts  the  town  of  Paggeroejong,  foinn  rly 
the  capital  of  the  poweiful  kin{rd<»m  of  Minangkal)0»  an<l  the  icsidence  pi  the  kin^. 

Tapanoeli,  tlie  remainii  g  residt*ncy  under  the  government  of  Sumatra's  \v<  st 
'coast,  lies  north-west  from  Upper  Pndang.  The  iiideptndent  spirit  of  the  inland 
natives  I  as  cause<l  the  Netherlanders  much  trouble,  but  e.'.ch  fre.-h  outbreak  only 
extt^nds  their  teriltory  and  power  further  into  the  interior,  and  towards  the  nor  tv- 
west  of  the  island. 

PADDLE,  probably  the  precurFor  of  the  Oar  (q.  v.),  and  Fti^'  its*  8nl)stitnte  amoi  g 
barbarous  nations,  is  a  wo<<den  implement,  consisting  «jf  a  wide  lint  blade  with  u 
short  handle,  by  means  of  wliich  the  o\>erator  spoov^n  tht'  wator  towards  him.  In 
canoes  for  only  one  rttter,  a  double  paddle  i**  geneiaUy  used,  which  is  dipped  altt'r« 
nateiy  on  either  side:  the  inhabitants  of  Grecnlancf  are  especially  skiliu!  in  this 
operation.  The  actioir  of  the  paddle  is  liie  same  us  that  i^f  tiie  oar.  The  piiddli-  ha<", 
iiowever,  one  adyantage — viz.,  that  the  rower  laces  the  how  of  his  boat,  aiul  thtiv^ 
fore  sees  what  is  before  him.  In  threading  narrow  streunts,  &u.,  this  is  an  appn-r 
cial)le  gain. 

4*ADDLE-WHEEL— one  of  the  ap])liancefr  in  stenm-vesscls  by  which  the  ])owrr 
of  the  engine  is  made  to  act  upon  the  water  and  produce  locomotion— is  a  skoli!?.  n 
wheel  of  iron,  on  the  outer  portion  of  «  hose  radii  flat  boards,  called  floats  or  p.-.d- 
dles,  are  fixed,  which  heat  upon  the  water,  and  prodnce,  continuonsly,  the  Paine  if- 
feci  as  is  given,  in  aii  lnt«  riiiitient  manner,  by  the  blades  of  oars.  'J'he  use  of  pndr 
die-wheels  in  <-onjnnctSon  with  steam  as  a  inotivc-powtT  dales  from  about  the  « oin- 
mencement  of  the  present  centui-j'*  I'Ut  the  employment  of  the  paddle-wIn  el  iisflf  is 
ns  ancient  as  tlie  time  of  the  Egyptians.  A  specimen  is  alfcO  tnown  to  have  been 
tried  in  Spain  in  the  16th  century. 

A  certain  loss  of  power  is  involved,  ns  the  full  force  of  the  engine  on  the  wafer  is 
only  experienced  when  the  float  is  virtical,  and  as  on  enteriiig  and  leaving  tlie  waiter 
the  power  is  mainly  employed  in  depressing  or  lifting  the  particles  of  water.  Thlli 
objection  has  great  fore*;  at  the  moment  of  starting,  or  wli^h  proiiress  li  very  slow, 
asisillustiated  by  tlie  small  power  a  paddle  ttearaer  evinijos  when  trying  to  tug  a 
St  nmded  vessel  off  a  sandbank;  but  when  in  full  progress,  the  action  is  less  im- 
pedt^l  by  tliis  circumst.ince,  the  water  in  front  of  th«  wheel  being  depressed,  and 
that  abaft  being  thrown  into  th^  form  of  a  wave.  The  extent  of  the  immersion 
much  influences  the  economy  of  power,  as  will  he  readily  underetood  if  the  c«  ns(^- 
quencfs  of  immersion  up  t«  the  centre  of  the  wheel  b(?  imagined.  An  iuimer- 
sion  somewhat  over  tlie  top  of  the  loMest  float  is  about  tlu!  most  advantageous,  tind 
in  order  that  the  floats  may  b(>  as  nearly  as  possible  vertical  when  they  str  ke  the 
water,  it  Is  advisable  to  jBive  the  wheel  as  large  a  diameter  as  possible,  and  to  placo 
the  axis  at  the  hisihest  available  point  in  the  vessel 

To  overcome  the  drawl)acks  to  tlie  radial  Wl^eel,  Elijah  Galloway  patented,  in  1829, 
the  Featheiing  Paddle-wheel^  in  which  the  floats  aie  mounted  on  axi  s,  and  are  C(  iir 
nected  hy  rods  with  a  common  centre,  which  revolves  upon  a  pin  placed  eccentrical  y 
to  the  axis  of  the  paddlewheel.  By  this  method,  the  floats  are  kept,  while  Immersed, 
at  right  angles  to  the  suiface  of  the  water.  So  long  as  the  water  is  smooth  tlie  ^ain 
is  great,  consequently  feathered  floats  are  much  used  in  river-steamers;  but  for 
ocean-steamers  the  liability  to  derangement,  perhaps  at  a  ci  itical  period,  is  a  great 
objection  to  their  use.  .  . 

The  paddle-wheel,  in  revolving,  imparts  both  a  forward  velocity  to  the  vessel  and 
-A  backward  velocity  to  the  water.  The  latter  is  called  the  nlip.  and  sometlmea  belirs 
a  veiT  large  and  wasteful  proportion  to  the  former.  The  aosolnte  velocity  of  ttie 
paddle  ao«il«  is  equil  to  the  sum  of  ^tbe  slip  twd  tlte  forward  motion  of  tbe  ihip,  so 
that  the  wheel  idways  revolves  fasier  than  the  ship  mokes  way* 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


PaduL  ^-^^ 

PADDY,  or  Paddle,  thd  n.ime  pomraoaly  applied  lu  Itidfa  to  riw  In  tlie  htisk*  It 
Is  the  Tumul  aud  the  Malay  uume.    See  KicB. 

PADB'LLA  (Ttal.  a  fryiiij^-pati ;  plar.  padelle),  a  shnllow  voesel  of  metal  or  earth* 
enware  nsed  in  illiitiiinfttioiis.  The  illnmination  of  Si  Peter's  at  Roini*}  and  other 
lartre  bnlldin^  iu  Italy,  is  cff«-cted  l)V  the  ruslefiU  arrangement  of  large  numbers  uf 
these  little  pans,  which  are  convened  in tu  hinipH  I)y  partly  filling  ihetn  with  tallow  or 
other  grease,  and  plachig  s\  wick  in  r.lie  ceiitri'.  'Ihls  mode  of  ulninination  was  first 
adopted  on  a  larjre  fcale  iu  Great  Brit^iiu  on  i  he  octasion  of  tlie  nrirriage  of  ihe  Prince 
of  Walee  with  tliePriucei^i^  Alexiindni,  when  the  inhabitants  of  Bdiubargh  produced 
by  this  inejin»  a  uiost  uiaguificent  ilitiminatioo  of  their  city. 

PA'DERBORN,  the  chief  town  of  a  district  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Weet- 
nhalia,  sitiiattd  in  6P  43'  n.  hit.,  tuid  S**  46' e.  long.,  iu  a  pleasaui  and  fruitfnl district, 
is  built  at  tlu' source  of  the  Pader.  which  bursts  forth  from  below  the  cathedral  with 
sufficient  force  to  drive  miIi.-«  within  20  paces  of  il§  point,  of  exit.  Pop.  (1871)  18,727. 
P.  has"  narrow,  dark,  old-fashioned  stri-eis,  presenting  no  special  attractiont<,  al- 
though it  has iK>me  interesting  buildings,  as,  tor  instance,  the  finaod cathedral,  com- 
pleted in  1143,  with  its  two  nni<;iiiflceut  fajrides*,  and  coutjiining  tlie  silver  coiOHu  in 
which  are  deposited  the  remiiins  of  8t  Liborius.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and  chap- 
ter, and  of  an  administnitlTe  court.  The  maunfActures  of  P.,  which  are  not  very 
considerable,  inciudii  tobacco,  starch,  h;its,  and  wax^cloths,  and  tnere  are  several 
breweries,  di.-'till'Ti-s,  and  sugar- reftneiies  -iu  the  ^towu^  which  carries  on  a  consid- 
erable trade  iu  cattle.  C(u*n,  ai;d  oiN.  P.  is  on;  of  the  important  stations  on  the 
Great  Westphalia  Railway.  P.,  which  ranked  till  1803  as  a  fne  imperial  hi!<hopric. 
owes  its  foundation  to  Charlemagin*,  who  nominated  Ihu  first  bii<h<>p  iu  790.  Several 
diets  were  held  ditring  the  middle  ages  at  P.,  which  at  that  |)eriod  ranked  as  oue  of 
the  ino^t  flourishing  of  the  Hani«eatic  Ciiies.  while  it  wa.<^  alito  numliered  among  the 
Free  IinporlAi  Cities.  Iu  1604,  it  was  forcibljr  deprived  by  the  priuce-hishop,  Theo- 
dor  of  FOrBtenbuig,  of  many  of  the  special  rights  ai.d  pi'erogai  Ives  which  it  had  en- 
joyed since  its  foundatio:!,  aud  comp-iK<l  to  ackiiow:e<ige  me  Ronmn  Catholic  as 
the  predominant  cliurcii,  iu  the  place  of  ProtuHtautism,  which  had  been  establi><lied 
faring  the  time  of  Luther.  In  1808,  P.  wa^  attarlred  as  an  hereditiiry  priucipality  to 
Prus.Mia,  and  after  lieins;  for  a  time  incorporated  Iu  the  knigdoiu  of  Westphalia,  waa 
restored  to  Prussia  iu  1813,  and  incorporated  iu  the  Weslphalian  circle  of  Mindeu. 

PA'DIHAM,  a  large  chapelry  and  township,  in  the  higher  divi!=ion  of  the  hnn- 
dnul  of  Blackburn,  seated  on  au  eminence  springing  fron»  the  north  bank  of  the 
Calder,  and  reached  by  the  R<)se  GroV'i  station  of  the  Ljincashire  and  Yorkshire 
Railway,  and  also  by  "the  Leeds  aud  Liverpool  Canal  It  is  about  9  miles  norih-ea.st 
of  Blackburn.  The  cotton  trade  employs  a  great  propoit.ion  of  the  po;inlation — 
(1871)  6676— but  coal-minei'  and  extensive  quarr  es  aK-o  add  to  industrial  activity  and 
the  pro!4i>erity  of  P. ;  which  has  been  greatly  improved  in  appe:urauce  recently  by 
several  new  streets. 

PADILLA,  Juan  de,  one  of  the  most  popular  heroes  in  Spanish  history,  waa  a 
scion  of  a  Tolcdan  family,  and  was  appointed  by  the  £mp  ror  Charles  V.  milittuy 
commandant  of  Sanigos^li.  While  he  wa.**  e^o  employed,  a  formidalrie  reh.  liiou, 
caused  by  the  excessive  iaxe:»  winch  the  emperor  ijnpos^d on  the  Spaniards,  to  dtfmy 
the  cost  of  his  various  wars  iu  Italy.  Germany,  and  ihe  Low  Countries,  broku  out ' 
among  the  towiis  {ooMtnimidddes)  of  CaHtile,  aud  the  nUels,  wlio  were  known  as 
covimnneros,  calletl  upon  P.  to  put  himself  at  their  head.  The  'lutrodnction  of  the 
religious  element  into  the  quarrel  tended  gi'eatiy  to  strengthen  the  inj'nrgeuts,  and 
for  au  iustaut  P.  was  the  rnler  of  Spain,  and  formed  a  new  jut«tii  to  carry  on  the 
government.  Ue  w«is  8uccit<!*ful  in  a  number  of  eulerpriaes  undertaken  agmust 
the  royalist  party  ;  hut  on  23(1  April  1521,  was  completely  beaten  by  the  royaii^t'^  at 
Villaios^  This  confiict  decided  the  tale  of  the  rebellion  and  of  P.  himself,  who  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  next  day  beheaded.  I 

His  wife.  Dona  Maria  <le  Pacheco,  rallied  the  wrecks  of  the  rebel  army,  nnd  for  | 


a  l(Mig  time  held  Toledo  againstt  the  royaliat  besieging  army,  aud  after  its  fall,  r»- 
tlnxi  to  Portugal,  where  she  died  aoon  aft(.*i-wai^  With  P.  and  his  wife  expired 
..    .  .  .  _.  ..      „  .^^.-_„_     _- .,  «  poeHw  and  di 

y  Google 


the  Uuit  remnant  of  th :  aactiittt  frvedom  of  Spain.    Kauteront  poesis  and  draflUM 
oeldOfate  their  deeds. 


Digitized  by  > 


^  PAUT'SHAH,  In  Tnrklsb  Padlibne  (Perislati  |>arf^,prof«»ctor  or  throne,  «/<a^. 
prince),  one  of  the  titles  of  the  Siiltnti  of.  tlie  Ottonuiii  Empire,  and  of  the^Shali  of 
PeiBla.  ForinerIy»  this  title  was  occorded  oiHv  to  the  klL^s  of  Prance"  among 
Eui*u|)enn  inuiiarciift,  tlie  others  being  called  Kral%  knig.  It  was  nubi^neDtly 
iillowed  to  tbo  Kniperor  of  Anstrin.  and  Ptlll  later,  by  ij  Fpt'cial  article  in  the  treaty 
ot  Kutnhnk-Kaiimrdji  (10th  January  177A),  to  tiie  utitociat  of  All  the  RufiHiat*. 
Padislml)  wan  tlie  title  a^{>nll)ed  by  Bahi^r  and  bh!>iucces.^orR  on  the  throne  of  Delhi. 

PADRO'N,  n  very  ancient  town  of  Spain,  in  tlie  I'roviiVco  of  Cornfia,  15  miles 
Fonth-wept  of  8antiazO}  on  the  gar,  a  few  miles  frotivHhe  cofist.  P.  bHng  iln-  phu'e 
at  whici)  thebody  ot  ^Santiago  is  said  to  liave  landed  itt«lf,  vub  furiiierly  an  im- 
portiint  place  of  pilgrimage.    Pop.  6090. 

PA'DUA  (Itnl.  Padova)^  capital  of  il»e  provhjce  of  the  Mime  name  in  Northern 
Italyt  Fttmds  on  a  bi'autirni  pla'n  on  the  Bacc-hiffiioii^,  28  inlles  by  railway.  woFt- 
Btonth-wei't  of  Venice.  Jt  '\n  snrronndt^d  by  waSif^  and  dit(heB;  and  is  fortifle'l  by 
hhHtions.  Its  honses  are  lofty,  suiiportcd  for  the  mof  upail  on  loup  rows  of  archi-f>, 
generally  pointed  ;  and  mo?t  of  its  streets,  especially  in  the  older  qnarters,  are 
narrow,  riark,  dirt>',  and  lH-|mved.  There  are,  howev<'r,  several  bat  dsi/We  gates,  as 
Ihosi'.  of  San  Giovanni,  ^avonarolo,  and  Pakonetto;  a.  number  of  Hiw  fqnanp,  of 
which  t»«ePrato  della  Valle  is  ilie  lai^fst  and  the  ftneht,  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
stream,  and  planted  with  trees;  and  several  magnificent  bnildinffs.  Of  these,  the 
Caf6  P(^r(icclii  is  estt'emed  the  fticst  tdifiee  ot  the  kii  d  in  Italy.  Porlions  of  a  Hu- 
man edifice  were  dlB<'.(»vir»d  while  the  fonndat'Otis  of  this  build  ng  were  beintr  made, 
and  the  marbles  found  now  adorn  the  pavement,  Ac  oi  the  aoM^tM.  The  I'alar.so 
della  MnniciiMilitii,  built  1178--1819.  Is  the  mo>>t  peculiar  and  mosf  national  in  the 
city.  It  is  an  immense  -bnilding,  forming  ont;  side  of  the  market-place,  rests -wholly 
on  archtH?,  and  is  >>nrronnded  by-  a  loggia  (q.  v.).  Its  east  end  is  coven  d  with  shields 
and  aimorhil  bearings,  ai<d  its  roof  is  said  lo  be  the  lamest  niien]q)6rted  by  pillars  in 
tlie  world.  Its  hull  is  267>5^  feet  long,  and  6»  feet  wide,  is  covered  with  myt-ilcal and 
uietaphoiical  paintings,  and  lontainsa  monnm<  ntof  Livy,tbeKomaii  hi>'toiian^  and 
n  bust  of  BelKoni,  the  traveller,  both  natives  of  this  city.  The  other  chief  edifices 
lire  the  cathedral,  the  church  of  Sant' Antonio,  a  beautiful  bnilding  in  the  Fohiied 
Ftyle,  with  several  Bymntine  featnres,  and  remaikably  rich  and  cplendid  in  its  in- 
ternal deeor.itions ;  and  the  chinches  of  San  Giorgio  and  of  Santa  Ginstina;  all  of 
them  richly  decoi*ated  with  paintings,  scnh)tui^es,  Ac  The  nnivt  rsity  of  P.,  the 
most  famous  establishment  m  the  city,  was  celebrated  as  early  jis  the  year  1i21.  It 
embraces  61  professoi*  and  other  teacbei-s,  and  is  attd  ded  by  about  K'OO  students. 
Connected  with  the  nniver-^ity  are  an  anatomical  theatre  and  a  botanical  garden,  b<  th 
dating  from  tht;  16tli  c,  and  ( ach  the  firpt  of  it"  kind  in  Europe.  There  is  also  a 
n  ns<"nin  of  natural  histoi-y,  an  ob!'pr%'atory,  a  chetnical  lal)onitoiy,  and  a  library  of. 
120,000  vt)lumes  and  1500  inanu'cripts.  There  are  aifeo  numeruus  pahiccs,  iheatns, 
and  liof-pitals.    Pop.  il8T2)  52^011. 

P.,  the  l?oman  Patuvium^  is  one  of  the  mos»t  ancient  towns  of  Italy.  According 
to  M  \v?de-spre.id  b-  l.ef  of  antiquity,  alluded  lo  hy  Viigi ,  it  \^as  foind^d  ly  the  1  lo- 
jan  chief  Antentu*,  but  we  n  ally  know  notiiing  of  its  history  until  it  l)€cam<  a  Ito- 
man  town.  During  the  firsi  centures  of  the  eii.pire,  it  waf  the  most  flourishing 
city  In  the  r.or.h  of  Italy,  on  account  of  its  gicat  woollen  manufacnr<H,  at  d  could 
return  to  the  ceiihus  more  persons  wealthy  enough  to  be  ranked  as  equites  than  any 
otijer  place  except  Borne.  But  in  462  Auila  utterly  razed  It  to  the  ground.  It  uas, 
however,  rebuilt  by  Narses,  aj-ain  destioyed  by  the  Lombtirds,  but  once  acain  rt.se 
from  its  ashes,  and  b.came  a  veiy  famons  citv  in  the  midd  e  ages.  It  fellinto  the 
bands  of  the  Carrara  family  lu  1«^«,  and  in  1405  it  was  conquered  by  Venice,  the 
fortunes  of  which  it  has  since  shared. 

PADU'CAH,  a  city  of  Kentndky,  tJ.  S.,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Ohio  River,  just 
below  the  tnonth  of  the  Tennessee  Kiver,  822  miles  below  Louisville.  It  is  the  cn- 
trep<it  of  a  fertile  conntiy,  and  has  a  large  tmde  by  the  riverp,  the  Loulpvllle,  Padu- 
cah,  and  8outh-we!«teru  and  the  Paducahand  Memphis  Railwayw.  It  contaluHCOUiJy 
buildings,  4  bunki*,  6  Bhipyard(>,  steam  saw-mills,  extensive  manufacturing  establish- 
ments, and  16  churches.    Pop.  (1870)  6866. 

PADtJ'LA,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Salerno,  82  miles  sonih- 
&at  Of  tiio  VowA  of  Saierno^  iu  a  luountaiuous  district.   Jklow  £uu:c  ths.cuiua  U 


Digitized  by 


Google 


tJie^opca  famous  and  magiilflcent  mouaelery,  La  Certoaa  di  8.  Loremo,  deapofled  by 
the  French  during  their  Jjicciyjatiou  of  Cttlabria.    Fop.  (1871)8556.. 

.PiE*AN  (of  donbtful  etyinoIovi>')»  ^'>«  n>inie  dveii^by  the  ancient  Grerlts  to  fl  kind 
of  lyric  pootry  brup]nally^)imt^ted  wftli  the  worship  of  Av>ol)o.  The  old*^t  pseans, 
U8  we  learn  fr6nV'Hoiner^api>ear  to  liavo  l>eeo  cither  hymns,  ad<1re»Bwd  to  that  deity 
for  thepnri>09d  of  appenwnj;  iiia  wrath  f"  Iliad,"  i.  4Th).  or  tlionkngivin^  odej*.  snng 
afrer  dauiJrerwa*  ovt^raHa  priory  won  (**Ilia<U"  ztii\.  8»J).  Nev»'Whele*«s  at  a  later  pe- 
rfv.d,  til -y  were  a(Wre»*«^taOth:T  dailies  aiao.  Tims,  accofdinjc.to  Xeiidph'*D,  tiie 
L(^ed8emoii)an<«.fiUig:a  pfBan  to  Podeidou  after  au  earthqciake,  audl&e  Greek  army 
iu  Asbi  on"  lo  Zeiii*.      '  y         -'■      ■ . 

P^EDO^BAPllSM.    4^  Baptissi,  IN7ANT.      . 

P.-E'ONY  (Pofonia^y  agenns  of  i)innf8  of  thu  natnral  order  Itaniffneitlacem  ;  hav- 
ing lMr;;«  rtow-ew,  witli  flw  porctlf^it,  aiiequjil.  leafy,  ai«l  BOMew^at  k^bery  s<'p  -Is, 
6— 10  pst»l"«.  many  staiaent",  and  )J—-*g'.*rnjen8t  which  are  crowned  with  a  fleshy 
r-cnrv.'cj  «llig4>ia.  Tlie  It^yes  are  coiuponpd,  tlie  Icafltetsoiten  iRiriously  and  irrepn- 
larly  div  d  d.  'i'he  fibren  of  ti>e  root  are  often  thickfm^  -intotnb.?r8.'  Tl»e  ppecI-'S 
ar^  iai'ff.'.  liV»rbac.eoui»  perennial??,  or  rarely  half -ahrnliby ;  HafiveS  of  Europe,  A!»ia, 
and  the  nortii-west  o?  AnitTica.  None  of  tliera  are  truly  iii(lig.<'Uoa»  in  JB»itam, 
alihofis^hrtwie  (^  cora^^w)  Yifi»  foHikl  admittjince  into  tlie  Eiurlfch  Flortu  Oa 
account  of  the  b^Mtity  of^heii-  flow^"*,  «)iHe  of  tiiem  are  mnoh  ciilttvated  in  uiirdeiis, 
part^nlarly  thejCoMMON  P.  (P.  o/M»x»^MVa  niiive  of  the  mouTjtortn-woodi  Of  the 


MOUTAK  (P. : J/»Mto«)i  1*  a  half-shruhby  plant,  a  native  of  Clwna  and  Japan.  In 
fav(>rabte  .<*trenniBia"C«*»«^tr  attains  a  V'^rylapge  etes.  and  a  height  of  tW'^ive  feet  or 
]nor<%  It  ha^  been  long  cultivated  ?ii  Chnia  and  J.ipan ';  and  -^  now  alr^o  a  favorite 
ornaraental  plant  in  thescfcthof  Etfrbpe.  and  in  t\\vi  Honth  of  England  and  Ireland ; 
bnt  the  la'e^^wrijisf-frostft  <)f  mo^^t  parts  of  Bpitain  aw?  in jofiotrs  tair,  althongh  it  <*an 
bbar  i^evere  fiost  in  winter,  when  vegetation  is  at  a  »taod.  It  flower*  in  spring.  The 
varieties  in  cultivation  %\'Q  nnmerons,  Ir,  is  propagated  by  cuttingr,  and  alr'O  by 
grtrftiuir.  It:«  germeuaare  siirronirded  by  a  cup-sliaped  laciniated  membrane, — The 
roots  of  mo->t  of  the  pieonies  have  a  nauseous  smell  when  fresh,  and  those  of  the 
Ciminion  P.  were  in  high  repute  among  the  ancients  a.*  an  antispasmodic — licnce  the 
name  Paesonv.  from  Paion^  a  Grnek  name  of  Apollo,  the  god  of  medicine— bat  thc^ir 
ntKdicinai  proi>erties  are  now  utterly  disregard  d.  The  globose,  nhiuing  black  peetls  of 
pseonies  were  formerly,  in  some  tountrie?,  stmng  into  necklaces,  and  hung  round 
the  necks  of  cliildren,  as  anod//n«  neeklaciSyio  facilitate  dentition.  The  Daarians 
and  MongoMnns  use  the  root  of  P.  a'Mfiora  in  their  sonps,  aiid  grind  the  aeeda  to 
inix  with  tJieir  tea.     . 

,  .  P^'S'l'ljM.  anciently  a  Greek  c'ty  of  Lucania,  in  fjonthem  Italy,  In  the  present 
provhjce  of  SahTno,  on  t'le -Sintw  Pmstanns.  now  the  Gulf  of  Salerno,  and  not  far 
iron!  Mount  Albumu.*«.  Itwa«  founded  by  the  TitEz  'nlans  and  the  Syharites,  j»6me 
time  ')■  iween  6?0  and  y610  B.C.,  and  was  originally  calle<l  Poseidonia  (of  which  /*«<- 
<MniJa  l>plievid  to  be  a  Latin  corruption),  in  ho  or  of  Poseidon  (Neptune).  It  was 
snixihed  by  the  Samnires  of  Luc^inia,  and  slowly  declined  In  prospenty  after  it  fell 
into  the  liands  ot  the  Romans,  who  established  a  colony  liere  al>oat  2T8  B.O.    The 

^iirttin  poets  celebrate  the^l>eauty  and  fragrance  of  its  fl<»wer»,  and  jiarticnlarly  of  its 
ro-»es,  wiilcli  bloouied  twice  a  year.  Wlhl  r?)8e8,  it  i»  wiid,  still  grow  amomr  iti  rnlus, 
which  r;^t-iin  their  an'clefot  proi>erty,  and  flower  n^giilatly  hoib  InMavand  November. 
P.  was  burned  by  the  Saracens  in  tiie  lOth  c,  and  there  U  now  only  a  siftalf  village 
balled  Pesio,  in  a  mar*hy,  u>»healthy,  and  de.*«'late  district ;  but  the  ancient  g«***at- 
nefc*  of  the  city  Is  indieat^d  by  the  min8  of  temples  and  other  bnildings.  These 
appear  to  have  been  first  noticed  In  tlje  wirly  part  of  the  18th  c.  by  a  certain  Connt 
Gazola,  in  the  service  of  tlie  king  of  Naples;  they  were  next  descrilx^d  by  Antonini. 
in  a  work  on  the  topography  of  Lucania  <n46),  and  have  since  been  visited  by  travel- 

>-lers  from  all  parts  of  Europe. 

PAQA'NI,  an.  nnJntWTist.lng  t<WTO  of   Sowth  Italy,- -province^  of  Salerno.     Tn 
the  caordi  ofStMichek  js  the  tcMub  uf  AiXoiiSo  du!  X^nDo^  foiimier  jof  tii&  oider/uf 


y  Google 


651  |;JS 

the  Kedemptioiifsts,  wbo  died  here,  1787.    The  body  is  preserved  In  a  glass  cose. 
•  Pop.  about  12,000. 

PAGANINI,  Nicolo,  a  fainpus  rlolinlet,  pod  ofva  commfsMon-broker  at  Genoa* 
where  he  wn8  Itoru  In  US^.  w  muj'lc.*}  talent  fl»«wed  itfolf  in  b^s  childbbod;  in 
bis  ninth  year,  b|j^  bad  in«4ructIoti««  from  Gofta  at  G>iioa,  and  afierwards  from  Bolhi 
at  Parma,  and  frpui  Gbiretti.  t^h  1901*  be  begsi^i-  fy»  iirofensional  tonre  In  Italy ;  in 
1838.  lie  created  a  great  pensMtlon  ouappearHit:  for  the  first  time  in  tbepriicipai 
to\vni(  ot' Gei-Q%Bny :  aiid  in  18aivl)is  violin-pttiying  created  an  equal /((rqr  in  JPaiis 
and  London,  ^i^ 4na>t<ry  over  tb«  vio(U>"uaft  utvcr  been  aqnalled,  but  (u*  wirs  toq 
much  addicted  to  iuil6g|'<ii-4i.)  i^O£»'-fef(ta  of  inii«'ical  It^rfleiUHin,  c mb  nt^  bii*'ce1e> 
brat^  performance  on  a  piii;:le  BtrinL'.  His  execntion  on  the  {guitar  was  alv.o  veiy 
lemaikiible ;  for  four  y«'ai-8  he  made  tliat  inatnuueot  hiB  constant  study*  P.died  at  - 
Kice  in  1840,  leaviutf  a  lai);e  fortune. 

PA'GANISM,  another  name  for  Heatlienlsm  or  Po1y1bei«m.  Vbe  wQrd^s 
derived  fnun  tlie  Latin  ))aganxu^tt  derignatlon  of  the  1nlii>bitant<»  of  the  country 
(jpamis).  in  contradistinction  to  the  inbablt-.tits  of  town«i.  the  nore  (dncatcd'^nd 
civiiis  d  iuiiai>iianti<  of  towns  haviut;  ^ret-u  ttiO  first  generally  to  embrace  Chrit'tianily, 
whila^.  the  old  polytheism  lingered  more  in  remoto  rural  dii5tr:ct«. 

PAGE  (derivation  variously  ats^encd  toGr.  pai*^  a  boy,  and  Lnt.  pafjux^  a  villap^, 
s  youth  I  nip  oytxi  in  tin  sei-vice  of  a  royal «  r  uol>l2  |)€n^o«iago.  'i  be  |»riiciice  of  em- 
ploying youths  o'  i.ioble  t>irth  in  pen?oiml  attending*  on  the  sovereign,  existed  iii 
« any  tTmes  among  tbe  PeiiiiMnp,  and  y:k»  revived  in  the  middle  agcft  nndt-r  f«  ndal 
iind  obivalric  usages.  The  young  nobleniiiO  parsed  in  courts  and  avsths  through  the 
d(gr<e  of  Mige.  prepar  toiy  to  ))«iiig  admitt* d  to  tb(^  fnith<r  de^'rees  of  evquird' and 
Icnuibt.  The  practice «f  educating  the  biK^^r  nobility.a8pag(*«>at  court,  iie^nto 
decline  after  tlte  lITth  c.,  till  pag<  b  oecauiM  what  they  are  now,  mere  r  lies  of  ferdal 
Q^ajfes.  Fonrjiapesof  honor,  %Aho  are  iieiYon.'il  attendautf>  of  the  Fovereipn,  form 
part  of  the  ^tateof  the  Britieb  court.  Tl-ey  rt-C'ive  asalaiyof  £1200  a  year  enrh, 
and  on  attaining  a  suitable  age,  receive  from  her  Hajct!ty  a  commi^Mon  in  the  Foot 
Guardik 

PAGET,  Fnmily  of.  This  noble  family,  tboujrh  paid  to  be  of  Normnn  extraction, 
do  not  trace  their  dej^cent  fnrtiier  back  tlum  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  in  whow  time, 
one  \^iliam  P.  held  the  oflace  of  <  neof  tie  eer»rejintH-at-niatr  of  the  city  of  London. 
HijJSfm  William,  who  was  edncat«  d  at  St  PaulV  Scl^iool,  imd  at  Cnmbrltljre,  wnf  intio- 
dnced  into  pui^lic  life  I  v  Stephen  Gaidiinr,  BiFhop  of  Wincheefer,  tarly  in 
the  reipn  of  Henry  VIIL,  who  Pent  him  j'bio»d  to  obtain  the  opinions 
of  foreign  docton*  as  to  Ids  contemplated  divoix:e  from  Catharine  of  Ara- 
gon.  Fn)m  thlB  time  forth  his  rlf'e  wjit*  rapid,  end  he  wns  conftv.ntly  on  ployed 
in  diplomatic  misfions  until  the  d«  ath  of  tlu-  kn^,  who  nm  oiiited  him  one  of  his 
executors.  He  now  adhered  to  ibe  pifrtv  of  the  Prottcior  Scmei  set,  snd  wan  uii-.  d 
to  the  peerage  in  166?,  an  LoihI  Vvgt «  ol  B<8t.de>eTt.  He  f  1  nr<  d  in  tlu'  po^^('r,  riH\ 
also  to  Ibe  fall,  of  the  Fron  ctor,  and  wnp  l^eavily  fined  by  ibf  Suir  Chun  b.  r,  wl  o 
al?ode\«1ved  him  of  ibeinFi},nia  of  tht  Order  ot  tb«-  Gaiter.  H  « cliernicr,hc.wevpi;, 
.  wap  not  of  long  conthttinnce,  md  «  ( h:  i  t.e  l:  kii  jr  pla<  e  in  ilie  roincils'  of  IiIh  oj  po- 
nents,  he  fooii  obtained  hip  pard<'n.  On  the  acc«  ^fHM!  ol  Qm  c  u  Ms  rj,  l:c  was  fwcrn 
a  men>birof  the  privy  council,  and  <'btfliD«d  n  v<  lal  hige  picnis  of  Irndp.  He  re- 
tired from  public  life  on  tl»e  accewion  of  Elizabeth,  wl  o  p  patf!fd  him  ,wJ1li  miu)i 
favor,  thonyh  lie  was  a  ptiict  «oma"  Catholic.  The  rcprepnijtive  of  the  family  nd- 
hered  to  the  caitve  of  Mary  Qneni  r,f  Scotp,  und  pnffere<l,  in  C(  u>-«  qin  ncc,  llic  c(  nfif- 
cationof  hip  property.  The  fifth  Loitl  1'.  pO  far  dcp.-rKfl  from  tin*  tnicljijnniry 
pollcv  of  the  family  as  to  ncc«  pt  fmm  the  parliam*  nt  the  Ion)-li«  ni*n!iti<  y  of  Bu'  k- 
inishamphire ;  but  he  returned  to  hi^*  allegiance  Phortly  oftei  u  jirdf.jiud  I  r'd  Ihe  ccni- 
mand  of  a  regiment  nnderthe  ro<  al  ptan'iard  at  the  ba'tleof  Edirehill  flie  gniiidfou 
Mas  «dvan<  i-d  to  the  earldon'  of  Uxbridire,  bnt  thi"  title  b«  ci  mini:  <  xtinct,  tie  n  pio- 
pentation  of  the  family  devolved  on  a  female,  who  carri<d  llie  bincuy  of  Pjpei  by 
iiiarringe  into  the  1  onpe  of  Bayly.  The  pon  of  this  marriage,  1  cw«  %•  r.  Imvii  g  ae- 
pumed  the  name  of  Pacet,  obtained  n  renewal  of  the  earldom  of  Txhridge.  and  the 
0«cou^  ea>i,  fpc  Us  gallautr;-  at  Waterloo,  was  udvauccd  to  ihc  amKjui&jite  of  Anfj^ 


y  Google 


?;£r«  652 


•ey.    Of  lute  yeaw/the  P.  family  have  n^ninlty  held  three  or  foar  seats  )u  every  pov 
Uumouti  mid  they  nave  cunstuutly  Bupported-trie  liberal  parly. 

PA'GINQ-MACHINE,  Several  macbiues  have  been  made  f6r«aglng  lK)okfl  and 
nambering  bank-notes,  cheques,  railway-tickets,  and  other  pfimijir  paijers.    The 

nt  oljject  of  these  machhies  is  to  preveut  tiie  chance  of  error  or  fraud  by  making 
npowible  that  a  pngf,  cheque,  &c;  can  be  abstracted  or  lost  vritliont  dtj- 
tectlon.  MePsra.Wuterluw  and  Sons  of  London  i>ej-fectfd  an  ingenions  inncliine, 
by  Which  pages  of  books,  saclj  as  ledgers  and  oth^r  commercml  boofcs^  and  bank- 
notes. Ac,  Ii|*e  hnmbered  in  re^ur  succei(*ion.  The  numbera  are  engraved  on 
root 81  rowels,  usually  of  sjtoel  or  brass.  A  nencs  of  th<'so  row«hj  are  so  arranged, 
that  when  the  mtichine  is  worked,  the  nnmbers  nnnt  be  impressed  on  the  ]Kip  r  in 
regular  socceseion  fhon  1  ta9fi,9M;  and  it  is  Imponsib'e  to  produce  a  duplicate 
iininber  until  the  whole  s'irics  has  b  "en  printed.  ThoinstniraeHt  Is  made  to  HUppiy 
ink  to  the  tvpes,  so  that  it  m:iy  be  locked  in  ti.ncli  a  manner  as  to  admit  of  biting 
worked  wiitiout  the  chance  of  its  being  tampered  with. 

An  exireniely  ingenious  moxliftcation  of  this  machine  has  been  pei-fected  by  M* 
Anguste  Tronillet  of  Paris,  under  th.j  name  of  **  Nnm6rrit<'ur  Mfccahiqne,"  which 
is  not  onlv  moresimplft,  but  admits  of  wider  aiTiiilcation ;  for'i:  nut  only  pasres  boo^:( 
snd  numoers  notes,  tick'^tf,  Ac,  but.  can  als=o  be  irsed  for  nmnlTcrni};  Imles  and 
other  packages  of.jnercwjdlsB.  Tire  instrument  has  six  rowels*,  on  facli  of 
which  is  a  set  of  engraved  numbc^rs*.  so  anangefl  that  llteir  revolutions  pro- 
duce iu  regolar  succefsion  the  requirca  nnrai^ers,  by  the  action  of  a  lever  which 
moves  horizoutally,  and  suppFies  the  typo  with  ink  as  it  moves  buokwards  aud 
forwards. 

PA 'GO,  an  island  belonging  to  the  Austrian  crownland  of  Bahnatia,  separated 
from  Croatia  by  the  Moriacca  Canal,  a  clmmiel  from  two  ttt  three  miles  in  width.  It 
is  long  and  uajrow,  rpns  parallel  to  the  Croatian  coast,  and  has  an  area  of  103  pqnare 
miles.  Pop.  ftl50,  who  are  most  industrious,  audbupj)6it  themselves  by  yiue-cul- 
tari,  the  m mnfactard  of  silt  aud flsUlag. 

PAQO'DA  (according  to  some  a  corruption  of  the  Banscrlt  word  hhdgavattL,  from 
hhagavatf  sacred ;  but  according  to  others,  a  corruption  vtjput-gada^  f roui  the  Per- 
sian put,  idol,  and  gatda,  house)  is  the  name  of  certain  Hindu  temples,  which  ure 
amongst  the  most  remarkable  monuments  of  Hindu  aixhitecture.  Though  the  word 
Itself  designates  but  th«  temple  where  the  deity— especially  8'iva,  and  nis  consort 
DurgAor  PArvatl— was  worshipped,  u  pagoda  Is  in  r<?ality  an  uggregatoof  varioua 
monuments,  which,  In  their  totality,  constitute  the  holy  place  sacred  to  the  g.;d. 
Sanctuaries,  porches,  colonnades,  gateways,  walls^  tant^,  Ac,  are  generally  com^ 
blued  for  this  pui*pose,  according  to  a  plan,  which  is  more  or  less  uniform.  Bevv  ral 
series  of  walls  form  an  cnclo^nsa;  between  thom  art^  alleys,  haltitations  for  the 
priests,  Ac,  and  the  Interior  is  occupied  by  the  temple  itself,  with  buildings  for  tlie 
plljrrlms,  tank«,  porticos,  and  opm  colonnades.  The  walls  have,  at  their  openings 
aojm^aSfOr  large  pyramidal  gat ewavs,  higher  than  themselves,  a< id  so  constructed 
that  the  gopura  of  the  outer  wall  Is  alway.-*  Iii<rher  than  that  of  the  succeedhig  InnfV 
wall,  tlie  paeoda  Itself  being  smaller  than  tlio  "smallest  gopura.  The eart^Mit  of  the  cii* 
closing  wrilfs  is  generally  considerable ;  lu  mo*t  instances,  they  consist  of  hewn 
Rtones  of  colossal  dim(m.'«ions,  placed  upon  one  another  without  niortiir  or  comcnt,  but 
with  such  admirable  accuracy,  that  their  joints  are  ecarcely  vinible.  The  gateways  are 
pyramidal  buildings  of  the  most  el:d)orate  workman t>hip;  they  con^in  of  several, 
eometlmefl  as  mtiuy  as  fifteen  stories.  The  pagodas  t  hejpselves,  too,  are  of  a  pyramidal 
I  Uiaiie,  vailous  layers  of  stones  having  been  piUd  n^ion  one  another  in  successive  t^' 
CAssiou ;  in  some  pa<;od.i8,  however,  the  pyramidal  form  begins  only  with  tlie  faUfher 
'     '  B,  the  Ijroad  omkIs  extending  to  about  a  third  of  the  height  of  the  whole  iMiilditie. 


The  sides  of  thedifEurent  terraces  are  veitic^il ;  but  the  transition  from  on 'to  the 
other  is  effected  by  a  vault  surmounted  by  a  sene<*  of  small  cnpola-s  which  hide  the 
vault  itself.  A  single  cupola,  hewn  out  of  the  ?tone,  and  surmounted  by  a  jrlobe, 
generally  crowns  the  whole  structure  ;  but  sometimes  the  latter  also  ends  in  fautas- 
ti?^l  spires  of  a  fanlike  shape  or  concave  roofs.  The  pairodas  are  covertid  all  over 
with  the  richest  omamenttn ion.  The  pilasters  and  columiut,  which  take  a  prom- 
inent rank  in  the  ornamental  portion  of  tbce  tenq^tes,  shew  the yreate;>t  v^rie^y  of 
fovma  rBomepsgo(&s  are  also  overlaid  with  strips  of  coppur,  having  the  appearance 


Digitized  by 


Google 


653  ggf* 


of  gold.  The  moH  cdebrated  pa?od»0  on  the  maliilnnd  of  ludia  ace  thuao  of  Xa- 
thnru,  Trichiiiopoli.  Chalanibron,  Kdfijeveram,  Jaggeniant,  anil  Dec^nr,  uKar£lIora. 
—That  of  Mathtira  cuu^ists  of  four  stories,  aud  is  about  63  fevt  high ;  ito  base  com- 
prises about  40  bquare  feet.  Its  first  siory  is  mnde  of  Iiewu  Btom**,  copper,  and  cov- 
ered with  gilt ;  t'je  others  of  brick.  A  great  iiiniiber  of  flgnres,  e»*pecially  rcpreseutiiig 
de:tiei«,  timers,  and  elephants,  cover  the  building.— The  piigodu  of  Tanjorelstbe 
xnoft  beautiftti  luoyament  of  this  kind  in  tlie  south  of  India ;  its  height  is  200 
feel,  and  the  width  of  its  basi?*  is  equal  to  two-thirds  of  its  height — The  pa- 
goda of  Trichlnopoli  is  erected  on  a  hill,  elevnted  about  800  teet  over  the 
plain;  it  differs  in  style  fron)  other  UHgodas  dedkated  to  Brahmiuical  worship, 
aud  exhibits  gviiat  similarity  with  the  Buddhistic  ntouumcnts  of  Tihet— The  great 
pajjoda  of  Ch.ilambrou,  iu  'Jaujore,  is  one  of  the  n;o--t  c<'lebrat«'d  and  one  of  tlie 
most  sacred  of  lutlia.  It  it*  dedicated  to  S'iva  und  Pftrvatl,  and  fill-  d  with  repnsen- 
tattODS  belougiug  to  the  mythical  history  of  ihe>cgod!*. '  Thi- buildings  of  which 
tliis  pagoda  \»  composed  cover  au  ol)loug  square,  860  feet  long,  and  210  feet  wide. — 
At  K'M.jev«ram,  there  are  two  pagodae— the  one  dedicated  to  S'iva,  and  the  other  to 
P&ival!.— The  pagodas  of  Juggernaut,  oih  the  north  end  of  the  coa?t  of  CoromMUdel, 
are  three;  they  are  erected  likewise  in  honor  of  S'iva,  and  are  surrounded  by  a  wall 
of  black  SI  (Mies— whence  they  are  called  by  Euro{>ean8  the  Black  Pagodas— measur- 
ing 1122  feet  iu  lengtb,  696  feet  in  width,  aud  24  feet  in  height.  The  height  of  the 
pnnci)>al  of  these  tliree  pagodan  is  caid  to  bo  S44  feet;  according  to  some,  however, 
It  does,  not  exceed  120—123  feet— The  pagoda  of  Deogur,  near  Ellora,  consists  also 
of  threepagodiis,sacr<;d  to  S'iva;  they  have  no  sculpturts,  however,  except  a  tri- 
dent, tlie  we«|)ou  of  S'iva,  which  is  visible  ou  the  top  of  one  of  these  templen.- The 
monuments  of  Mavtdipui-a,  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  are  geuerally  called  the 
Seven  Pugodas;  but  as  these  monnnienis — which  are  rather  a  whole  city,  thau 
merely  temples — are  buildings  cutout  of  the  living  rock,  they  belong  more  properly 
to  the  rock-cut  monuments  of  India,  thau  to  the  special  clat>s  of  ludiau  architec- 
ture comprised  under  the  term  pagoda. 

The  term  pagoda  is,  in  a  loose  wjiy,  also  applied  to  those  Chinese  buildings  of.  a 
toWer-form,  which  coireistsof  stiveml  stones,  each  story  containing  a  single  room, 
and  l)eing  surrounded  by  a  gallery  covered  witl)  a  pi  otruding  roof.  Tiiese  huiklhi"?, 
however,  differ  materially  (n>m  the  Hindu  pagoihu*,  not  only  eo  far  as  their  nt^le 
and  czterioi;  appenmnce  are  concerned,  but  iuiismnch  as  thev  are  buildings  iutendfd 
for  other  than  religious  purposes.  The  Cbiuf  se  call  them  Jtt,  and  they  are  gener- 
ally erected  in  commemoration  of  a  celebrated  persomige,  or  some  remarkable 
event;  and  for  this  reason,  too,  on  some  elevated  spot,  where  they  may  be  con- 
spicuous, and  add  lO  the  charms  of  the  scenery.  Some  of  these  buihlings  have  a 
heiglit  of  160  feet;  the  finest  known  i-pecimen  of  them  is  the  famous  Porcelain 
Tower  of  Nanking  (q.  v.).  The  application  of  the  name  pagoda  to  a  Chinese 
temple  should  be  discountenanced,  for,  as  a  rule,  a  Chinese  temple  is  an  insignificant 
building,  seldom  more  thau  two  stories  high,  and  built  of  wooa ;  the  exceptions  are 
rare,  ami  where  Xhej  occur,  as  at  Peking,  such  teuiples,  however  maguificent,  hove 
no  architectural  affinity  with  a  Hindu  pagoda. 

PAGU'RUS  AKD  PAGU'RlDiE.    See  Hermit  Crab. 

PAHLANPU'R,  a  town  of  India,  capital  of  the  sttite  of  the  same  name,  260 
miles  e.iftt-souJh-eae't  of  Hyderabad.  It  is  a  walled  tOAvn,  is  the  seat  of  exteusive 
ti^de  and  of  several  manufactures.  Pop.  estimat  d  at  80.(00,  utany  of  whom  an; 
arfiflceis  and  shoi)-keepers.  'i'he  state  of  which  P.  is  capital  lies  between  lat.  23° 
6T'— 24®41'  u..  and  long.  71°  61'— TS®  46'  e.  Oue-seventb  of  the  population  are 
IMoslem,  and  the  remaiHder  Hindus.  The  state,  whose  revenue,  1870—1871,  was 
X37,698.pays  au  annual  tribute  of  X5000  to  the  Quicowar,  aud  X600  per  annum  for 
the  maintenance  of  a  Biltish  political  agent.  The  exact  area  of  the  state  is  not 
known  ;  the  state,  however,  contains  800  villages;  pop.  216,000.  The  products  are 
wheat,  rice,  sugar-cane  aud  cotton.  In  the  north  aud  west,  the  soil  yields  only  oue 
crop  uuuually ;  but  in  the  south  and  east,  three  crops  are  obtained  In  the  year. 

PAILA  is,  according  to  the  Pniftn'as  (q.  v.),  one  of  the  disci|4es  of  Vyftsa  iq.vX 
the  reputetl  arranger  of  the  Vedas  (q.  v.) ;  he  was  taught  by  the  latter  the  K'igveda, 
and,  ou  his  purr,  commuutcaied  thisfeBowledj^e  to  fiftsukali  and  ludrapiomuti.    Tl^'  * 


y  Google 


.ftStag  '654 

-  tradltiou,  thevofore,  hnplles  tbat  P.  was  one  of  the  earliest  compilers  of  the  B1^ 
Teda. 

PAIN  la  an  niidcflnnble  pen^ation,  of  Uicnatnre.of  which  oil  persons  are  con- 
BCioiis.  It  resides  exclusively  m  the  uervmis  hysfi'Di,  but  may  oriKiuato  froniTari-, 
ous  sources.  IiTiiatioii,  or  excessive  exciteineirt  of  t lie  nervous  Bjrstem,  .may  pro-- 
duce  it  J  it  frequently  precedes  and  accompanies  indanitnation ;  wiiile  it  spmftinies 
occnrs  in,  and  seeniH  to  be  favored  by,  a  state  of  positive  duprefsion,  as  is  seen  in 
tl)e  intense  pain  which  is  often  experienced  in  a  limb  benumbed  M-ith  cold,  in  the  pniu 
>rbich  not  nnfrequeuMy  accompanies  palsy,  and  in  the  well>knowu  fact,  tlnit  neu- 
ralgia is  a  common  result  of  general  debility.  Hence,  painmnst  on  no  account  t)ere- . 
gat'ded  ns  a  certain  indication  of  intlummaiioo,  alihouu-h  it  rai'ely  hsppt-us  that  pain 
is  not  felt  at  some  period  or  othcu'ln  inii.immatory  disenst^s.  Moreover,  the  palai 
that  l)e1ony:8  to  inflammation,  difEiis  very  much,  according  to  the  org^in  or  tissue 
affected;  the  pain,  for  example,  in  inflammallou  of  the  lunge,  differs  al  oiretherin 
character  from  that  which  occurs  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  and  both  these 
pains  from  tiuit  occuning  in  inflammation  of  the  kidneys. 

Fain  diff.rs  not  only  in  its  character,  which  may  be  dnll,  sharp,  aching,' tearing, 
fmawing, j»tabbing.  Ae.^but  in  its  mode  of  occurrence;  for  example, -it  nmy  be  fly- 
ing or  pereiatent,  Intermittent,  remittent,  or  continued.  It  is  not  always  i hat  tlio 
pain  is  felt  in  the  spoc  where  the  cause  of  it  exists.  Thus,  inflammation  of  the  liv«r 
,  or  diaphragm  may  cause  pain  in  tho  ritrht  shoulder,  the  irritation  cansod  by  stone  iu 
the- bladder  produces  pain  at  tiie  outlet  of  the  urlmtry  passage;  disease  of  the  hip- 
joint  occasions  pain  in  the  knee,  disea?»e  of  the  heart  is  often  uccomp-inied  with  paiu 
ill  the  left  arm,  and  irritation  of  the  stomach  ol'ten  gives  rise  to  headache.  Pain  is 
differently  felt  hy  persons  of  different  constitutions  and  tem)K'rameuts*  some  p<  r- 
sons  being  little  sensitive  to  painful  impressions  of  any  kind,  while-others  suffer 
,gre:itly  from  slight  causes.  There  even  seem  to  be  nju'ional  differences  in  this  re- 
spect ;  and  before  the  introfhiciion  of  c'^lorof<jrn),  it  was  a  matter  of  common  obser- 
vatiou  that  Iii>hmen  were  always  more  tronblesonio  subjects  for  sui^ical0|»erati<m9 
tliaueiiherEuglislnnenor  Scoichmen;  and  the  negro  is  probably  less  sensitive  tx> 
pain  than  atiy  of  the  white  races. 

Although  in  most  cases  we  are  to  regard  pain  merely  ns  a  .«ymptom  to  be  removed 
only  by  meann  which  remove  the  UiSion  which  occasions  it,  there  are  cases  iu  which, 
althouirh  it  is  only  a  symptom,  it  constitutes,  a  chief  element  of  disease,  and  one 
agaio-t  which  remedies  nmst  4)e  Specially  direited.  As  (xamples  of  these  cases^ 
nuiy  he  mentioned  neuralgia,  gastraltjia,  colic,, dysmenorrhcea,  and  perforation  of  th© 
intestines;  and  in  a  less  degree,  tii*!  i*titch  of  pleurisy,  wliicli,  if  not  reljcvetl,  im- 
p<?des  the  respiration,  and  tlie  pain  i)f  tenesmus,  which  oftm  cjmses  such  efforts  to 
empty  tlie  lower  bowel,  as  seriously  to  disturb  the  functions  of  the  iutestiue,  and  to 
exiiansttiie  strength* 

For  the  methods  of  relieving  pain,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  articles  on  the 
diff  rent  diseases  in  which  it  spr^cially  occur*  (-s  Colic,  Njsuhaloia,  Pleurisy, 
&c.),  and  to  those  on  Chlorofoiui,  Ether,  Indian  Hemp,  Morphia,  Narcotics, 
Opium,  «&c. 

PAINE.  Thomas,  an  author  famous  for  h'is  connection  with  the  Americnn"and 
French  revolutions,  and  for  Ids  advocacy  of  infidel  opinions,  was  bom  2IWh  Januarr 
1T3I,  at  Thetford,  in  the  county  of  Norfolk  in  Enjrlantl.  He  was  trained  to  the  busi- 
ness of  his  father,  who  was  a  staymaker,  Imt  afterwards  ot^tatned  a  situation  in  the 
Customs,  and  the  management  of  a  tobacco-maun  factory.  His  Income,  however,  was 
small,  and  he  f.'llitrtodelit,  and  was  dismissed  in  17T4,  upon  whidi  I  e  went  to  America, 
was  favorably  received  by  a  bookseller  in  Phihideloliia,  and  in  1T76  published  a  pam- 
phlet entitled  *'  ComuKJn  Sense,"  written  in  a  popul  ir  style,  in  which  he  mahitaincd 
the  cause  of  the  colonies  agidnstthe  nK)ther-conntry.  The  success. and  influence  of  this 

ftublication  were  extraordinary,  and  it  won  him  the  fiiendsliip  of  Washington,  Prank- 
in^  and  other  distinguished  -American  leaders.  Ho.  was  rewarded  by  Congress  with 
the  appointment  of  Secretary  to  the  Committee  of  Forei'jn  Affairs,  visittjd  France 
li»  the  sumiuer  of  1787,  where  he  made  the  acciuainfanwi.  of  Bnffou,  Mileeherbes.  La 
'Bochqfoncauld,  and  other  eminent  men ;  and  In  the  antnmn  following,  went  toBnjg- 
land;  where,  in  ITVH;  h«  published  »♦  The  IHiriits  of  Man,'*  the  most  famotwof  nil  tRo 
r«^e8  to  Burke's  "  Reflections  upon  tlio  French  Revolntion."    The  work  has  goib 


y  Google 


^*^^  Painting 

tlirongh  hianmerahle  edltionti,  and  has  1)^n  trnns1at<Kl  into  almost  all  the  lan^t)|;es 
of  Europe.  His  defence  of  tiu;  principles  of  tlie  French  Revolatiou  iigainst  4he 
ina<;Diflccnt  a8s>ault  of  Bnrke  nnd  ihe  outcry  of  the  English  aristocracy  is  vigorohp, 
and  by  no  nreaoA  ujisticc<'ssfat.  But  the  value  or  at  Jea.'^t  tlie.poonlariiy  of  i&  moi  k 
h  19  been  injured  by  itsadrocncy  of  extreme  lilieral  opinions.  Bis<  a^Kaolts  on  tho 
Bdrish  constitution  exi)Os>ed  him  to  a  govc^runient  prosecution,  and  he  fled  lo  Fraiire, 
where  he  was  admitted  to  citieensMp  ;  and  in  1792,  the  department  of  Pas-dt'-Cahiis 
elected  him  a  deputy  to  the  National  Con  von  ti  on,  where  he  voted  with  the  Girondi|itsi. 
M  the  tilal  of  Louis  XVI.,  says  Madamt*  de  Stafil,  ♦'  'I'liomas  Puiue  jilone  propost  d 
what  would  liave  done  honor  to  France  if  i^hud  l>evn  accepted — the  offer  to  tlie  kjnt; 
of  an  asylum  in  America;"  by  which  be  offended  tlie  Mountain  party ;  and  in  1793, 
Bobespierre  caused  him  to  be  elected  from  the  Convemion,  on  the  ground  of  his- 
being  a  foreigner,  and  throwu  into  prison.  During  )iis  imprisonment,  he  wrote 
*'The  Age  of  Keason,"  against  Atheism,  and  against  Ctiristianity,  and  in  favor  of 
i)d8m.  After  an  imin-isonnient  of  fourteen  months,  he  uas  rehnsed,  on  the  inter- 
cession of  the  American  government,  and  restored  to  his  scat  in  the  Convention.  He 
was  chosen  l)y  Napoleon  to  introduce  a  popular  form  of  government  into  Britain, 
after  As^hould  have  invaded  and  conqneredthe  island.  Bui  as  Napoleon  did  not  cany 
out  his  design,  P.  was  deprived  of  an  opportunity  of  playing  the  part  of  le^ri^la'or  for 
his  conquered  countrymen.  He  tiieu  retired  into  private  life,  and  occupied  himself 
Avitli  the  study  of  finance.  lu  1S02,  ha  returned  to  the  United  Stated,  and  died  there 
8th  June  1809.  The  most  complete  tdition  of  his  works  is  that  by  J.  P.  Menduni 
<Bo8t.  1856) ;  the  most  noted  of  his  numerous  biogrupliers  is  William  Cobbett  (1796). 
PAINS  AND  PENALTIES.  When  a  person  has  committed  some  crime  of  yiecullMr 
enormity,  and  for  which  no  adequate  pnnisnment  is  provided  by  the  ordinair  law, 
the  mode  of  proceeding  is  by  introducing  a  bill  of  pains  and  petalties,  the  obj-  ct  of 
which,  therefore,  is  to  inflict  a  punishment  of  an  extraordinary  and  anomalous 
kind.  These  bills  are  now  seldom  resorted  to,  and  the  last  instance  of  an  nttenipt 
to  revive  such  a  form  of  punishment  was  by  the  ministere  of  George  IV.  against 
"Queen  Caroline,  an  attempt  which  was  signally  defeated.  Wlien  a  bill  of  this  kind 
Is  reso'vcd  upon,  it  is  introduced,  and  passes  throu«!:h  all  the  stages  like  any  other 
bill  in  parliament,  except  that  the  party  proceeded  against  is  allowed  to  defend  him- 
self or  herself  by  counsel  and  witnesses.  The  proceeding  is  substantiully  an  in- 
dictment, tliongh  in  form  a  bill. 

PAINTER,  in  naval  matters,  is  the  rope  by  which  a  boat  is  fastened  to  a  ship  or 
pier. 

PAINTERS'  CREAM,  a  composition  nfed  hy  artists  to  cover  oil-palntlnjs  in 
progress,  when  they  leave  off  tlieir  work  :  it  prevents  drying,  and  tiie  consequent 
showing  of  lines  where  new  work  is  beguo.  It  consists  of  six  parts  of  fine  nut  oil, 
and  one  part  of  gunt-mastic.  The  mastic  is  dissolved  in  the  oil.  and  then  is  added  u 
quarter  part  of  acetate,  or  sugar  of  lead,  finely  triturated  witli  a  few  drops  of  the 
oil.  When  well  iucor|>omted  with  the  dissolved  mastic,  water  must  be  aclded,  «nd 
thoroughly  mixed,  until  the  whole  has  the  consistency  of  cream.  It  is  applied  with 
a  soft  brash,  and  can  ea.'^ily  bo  removed  with  water  and  a  sponge. 

PAINTING,  tlie  art  of  representitig  otijets  to  the  eye  on  a  flat  eurface  by  means 
of  linei*  and  color,  %vitl)  a  view  to  convey  ideas  and  awaken  emotion?.  See  Art.  As 
one  of  the  flue  arts*,  painting  occupies  a  prominent  place;  some  claim  for  it  Ihe  first 
.place,  as  combining  the  chief  element?— namely,  form,  li^'ht  and  sliade,  and  color. 
As  compared,  however,  witli  music  and  poetrj',  jt  lacks  the  Important  element  of 
movement,  the  rtpresentation  being  confined,  in  a  great  measure,  to  one  aspect  and 
one  instant  of  time.  In  its  ruder  and  more  elementary  forms,  in  which  the  primary 
design  wan  to  communicate^  ideas,  painting  is  perhaps  the  oldest  of  the  arts,  older, 
at  all  events,  than  writing  (see  Alphabet,  Hierooltphics)  ;  and,  as  a  vehicle  of 
knowledge,  it  possesses  this  advantage  over  writing— that  no  (fe«or»pft"on.  howevir 
minute,  can  convey  so  accurate  and  distinct  an  idea  of  an  object  as  a  pictorial  repre- 
ee.itation,  nmch  less  make  so  vivid  an  impression.  Besides  this,  it  is  not  limited, 
a?  writing  is,  by  differences  of  langn:^,  but  speaks  alike  to  all  nations  and  all 
ages. 

•  -  Tbo  great  antiquity  ol  painting  is  proved  by  remains  discovered  In  Egypt,  and  by 
reference  lu  it  ia  uucieut  writings.    It  has  been  asoertalued  ihat  as  earlyacB  the  liHh  c 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Painting  g-Q 

B.O.,  tlie  walls  and* temples  of  The1>e»  were dec«ratcd  by  pa1iitrn«r  and  senTptar«k  E«6^ 
kicl,  who  orophesjed  about  C»8  years  B.C.,  refei-s  to  palutiiigs  in  Jerusalem  after  the 
manner  oc  the  BabyloufHus  aud  Cbaldteaiis.  Though  no  speciinenB  have  come  down  to 
U-,  it  i»  evident  that  paintings  of  the  liiL'best  excellence  were  esecntcd  in  Greece. 
'J  his  18  proved  by  what  is  recorded  of  them,  for  tlie  subjects  of  many  of  those  men- 
tioned required  the  putting  forth  in  a  high  degree  of  all  thoqtialUies  reqaisite  for  tl-.o 
l>roduction  of  the  greatest  historical  works,  such  as  form,  jironping,  expression, 
ffjreshortening.  From  the  immense  sums  given  for  paintings,  the  care  with  wliich 
they  were  preserved  in  temples  and  other  piiolic  bntlaingf*,  turn  from  the  fact  of  th« 
higli  ptate  of  sculpture  at  contemporary  periods,  as  proved  by  weil-knowa  works 
now  extant,  it  may  be  deduced  that  i)aiutins^,  which,  like  sealptHre,  is  based  on  de- 
>  'Sign  or  drawing,  nmpt  have  occupied  an  eq^ually  high  position.  Even  thg  imperfect 
epeciinens  of  painting  discoveretf  in  Pompeii,  where  the  stylo  andinfloenceof  Greek 
art  may  be  traced  to  some  extent,  lead  to  conclusions  highly  favorable  to  the  higli 
position  of  painting  in  classic  times.  The  chief  schools  of  painting  in  Greece  wer*i 
those  of  Slcyon,  Corintli,  Athens,  and  Rhodes.  The  flrst  great  artist  of  whO!»o 
works  there  is  nny  authentic  description,  and  from  details  of  which  an  idea  may  1)0 
formed  of  his  attjiiiimt-nt!*,  is  Polyguoius  of  Thasos  (flor.  420  B.C.),  who  painted^ 
among  other  works,  those  in  the  Pceclle,  ly^elebrated  poriico  at  Athens,  and  tho 
Lesche,  or  public  hall  at  Delpldl  ^ 

The  works  of  Ai)Olk>doriis  of  Athetis  (flor.  408  B.C.)  are  deflcril>ed  and  highly 

{M'aisetl  by  Pliny.  Zenxit*,  the  pupil  of  Apollodorus',  Enpomptis,  Androcides,  Parr- 
lusius  (q.  v.),  the  Bphe:!!iau,  and  Tiinanthes  of  Sicyou,  prosecuted  painting  withdi&> 
tingnished  saccess,  and  by  them  it  Wiis  carrit  d  down  to  the  time  of  Philip  the  father 
of  Alexander.  Of  the  same  period  was  Pamphilus,  celebrated  not  oujy  for  hif 
worlds,  but.  as  the  master  of  the  artist  universally  acknowledged  as  the  greatest  of  the 
ancient  p.unters,  Apellea  (q.  v.^,  who  was  bom  |)robably  at  Colophon,  and  flonrished 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  4»h  c.  B.C.  He  was  highly  esteemed  by  Alexander  tlie  Great, 
and  executed  many  important  works  for  that  monarch.  Protogenes  of  Rhodes  w>ia 
a  contemporary,  and  mny  be  styled  the  rival  of  Apelles.  who^  jipreaUy  admired  his 
works.  His  picture  of  lalystis  the  hunter  and  the  uyntph  Rhodes  was  preserved  for 
many  years  fn  the  Temple  of  Peace  at  Rome.  Art  in  Greece  had  now  reacj^ed  it  ft 
highest  point ;  its  course  afterM'aitis  was  dov^'iiwards. 

In  Italy,  art  was  followed  ai  a  very  early  period  by  the  Etruscans,  and  occordin^ 
to  Pliny,  painiing,  as  well  as  !-cnlpiure,  was  successfully  piactised  in  Ardea  and 
Lauuvium,  cities  of  Latium,  perhaps  more  ancient  than  Rome.  The  finest  sp^'ciT 
mens  of  Etruscan  art,  however — as  the  paintings  on  tombs,  and  the  remains  of 
armor  and  ilctile  Ware  ornamented  with  fl'^ures,  evince  nnniistakai>ly  the  influence 
of,  or  rather  are  identiail  with  Grtkjk  art.  According  to  Pliny,  ir  was  introduei  d 
from  Corinth  about  650  b.o.  No  great  national  schooFof  painting  ever  flouri.«hed  in 
Rome,  for  though  the  names  of  Romans  who  were  painters  are  cited,  the  prim-ipnl 
works  of  art  that  adorned  the  temples  and  palaces  Mf  Rome  were  oblaiui'd  froiu 
Grei-co,  aud  it  is  probable  th.it  many  of  the  paintings  executetl'there  were  by  Greek 
artists.  When  the  seat  of  empire  was  transferred  to  the  East;  such  art  as  then  re- 
mained  was  carried  with  it,  and  in  a  new  phase  Was  afterwards  recognised  as  By- 
zautino  art— a  cou ventional  style,  in  which  certain  typical  forms  were  adopt(*d  aiiil 
continunlly  repeated.  This  mode  has  been  preserved,  and  is  practised  in  churcli- 
paiuthig  in  Russia  at  this  pre-^^ent  time. 

Much  discussion  has  arisen  in  modern  tinges  as  to  the  sni)posed  technical  modes, 
or  processes  of  painting  employed  by  the  ancients.  It  seems  efltabiished  that  paini- 
ing in  fresco  was  much  practised ;  but  many  gf  the  most  vahmblo.  pictures  we  re4id 
of  were  removable,  and  t  here  are  accounts  of  some  carried  from  Greece  to  Rome. 
"The  Greeks  preferred  movable  pictures,  which  could  be  t'dcen  auayin  case  of 
fire"  ("  Wilkinson  on  Egyptian  and  Greek  Paintings ")<  and  Pliny  says  Apelles 
never  painted  on  walls ;  liesldes  fresco  paintings  on  walls,  therefore,  tl»ere  can  oe  uo 
donbt  that  the  ancients  painted  on  boards ;  indeed,  the  name  Tabula  or  Tabula 
picta  proves  this,  and  it  seems  to  be  now  generally  acknowledged  that  these  wci-q 
executed  in  tempora— that  Is,  with  size,  and  probably  fixed  or  protected  by  soiuflr*' 
kind  of  varnish,  in  ^he  preparation  of  which  oil  was  used;  or  in  encaustic,  aproie 
cess  in  which  wax  was  employed  to  flsftud  give  brilJiaucy  and  depth  to  tt)A  colon» 
Ueat  being  applied  in  working  with  It.    "  '^      '  "  — ^'     ». 


y  Google 


657 


Painting 


Pahitingwns  revived  In  Europe  in  the  IBtli  c  ;  nreviotiP  to  that  period,  Byzanf iw 
artist**  cJileily  were  emtJloJred.  On  the  conquest  of  •Con8t'uitino])le  by  the  Lntins  in 
1304,  the  BySHiitine  sciiool  Witm  broken  np.  and  innuy  Greek  artists  were  transplanted 
to  Italy,  where  nrt  wya  now  destined  to  flonrish,  no  iho  works  of  the  Italians  who 
profiled  by  their  iiistnictlon?'',  were  nocessarily,  at  tlie  cominencement,  composed  in 
the  ByBantine  style.  The  ftrst  Italian  whose  nnine  is  nwodated  with  the  revival  of 
Itjjlhin  nrt  is  Qnido  of  Siena  ;  a  work  by  him,  a  lar^e  Madonna,  inscribed  with  his 
imme  and  tlie  date  1221,  is  still  preserved  in  tliat  ciry.  The  next  is  Ginnto  da  Pisa 
(1286).  But  Giovanni  Cimabue  (q.  v.),  (1240—1800),  is  commonly  styl  d  the  founder 
of  tlie  Italian  school.  Several  works  of  conHiderahle importance  are  ascrlbod  to  him ; 
and  though  he  ioUowed  the  Byzantine  arrangement,  he  ventttred  occasionally  ont 
of  the  path,  introdnced  the  stndy  of  nature  in  his  drawin*.',  and  imparted  a  greater 
degree  of  softness  to  his  painting  than  the  Bya  ntine  niListt*.  'i'he  influence  of 
Byzantine  art  was  not  contlned  to  Italy ;  it  opt^rated  in  Germany,  Boiiemin  and 
France;  but  there'also  art  began  to  assnme  a  iiiitional  character  early  in  the  18th  c, 
and  paintings  are  still  preserved  at  Cologne,  dated  1224.  The  Italian  school  of  paint- 
ing, Or  that  etyie  in  which  so  many  of  the  highest  qnalities  of  art  have  been  so  snc- 
cesrfully  carried  ont,  received  its  cl>ief  inipetus  from  Giotto  (q.  v.),  ih<!  Fon  of  Bor- 
done,  born  in  1276  at  Vespignano,  near  Florence,  where  he  died  in  1836.  It  is  said 
that  he  was  originally  a  sheplierd-boy,  and  being  discovered  by  Citnalme  drawing  a 
sheep  on  a  slate,  was  iiiPtrncted  hy  him  in  painting.  Ills  style  is  dii«tingui.*'h<*d  from 
that  of  earlier  painters  by  the  introduction  of  natural  incidents  and  impressions,  hy 
greater  richness  and  variety  of  composition,  hy  the  dramatic  int«^rest  of  his  gronps, 
and  by  totjil  disregard  of  the  ty|)i(al  forms  and  conventional  style  of  his  predecessors. 
His  inilnence  was  not  conflnetl  to  Florence,  bnt  extended  over  the  whole  of  Iiaj;  and 
works  hy  this  artist  may  b'  tniced  from  Padua  to  Naples.  Gioito  followed  Pope 
Clement  V.  to  Avijrnon,  .nnd  is  said  to  have  executed  many  important  pictures  there, 
and  in  other  cities  in  France.  The  moetcelelirated  of  his  frescoes  now  extantare  those 
nt  Assisi ;  some  noted  works  by  hira  in  that  class  tilso  remain  at  Padua,  Florence,  and 
Naples.  Most  of  the  small  easel-pictures  a?cril)od  to  him  are  of  donhtlul  antbentio- 
ity,  but  some  preserved  in  the  gallery  at  Florence  are  acknowledged  to  be  genuine. 
Hia  high  powers  as  a  sculptor  and  urchi'ect  are  alpo  exemplified  bv  works  in  that 
city.  Giotto  had  numerous  scholars  and  imitators,  and  several  of  these  have  left 
works  which  shew  that  while  titey  profited  b^  his  instiMiction  or  examnle.  they  were 


also  gifted  with  original  talent.  Aumng  these  may  be  noticed  Tadcieo  GadBi,  the 
favorite  pn pi  1  of  Giotto  (bom  1300,  livnig  in  1862);  Slmone  Memmi  (1284—1844); 
and  Andrea  Orcagna  (1329— 1389).  one  of  ilie  artists  employed  in  the  decoration  of 


the  celehrated  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa.  Painting  in  Italy  continued  to  be  impressed 
with  the  feeling  and  style  of  Giotto  for  upwards  of  a  hundred  years;  hut 
early  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  frescoes  executed  by  Masac<io  (1401—1443) 
in  the  Brancjicci  Chapel  in  the  Carmelite  Church  at  FlorenCi.  cU^arly  prove 
that  it  had  entered  on  a  new  phase,  and  had  come  forth  strengthened  by  an  impor- 
tant clement  in  which  it  formerly  was  deficient,  viz.,  correct  delineation 
of  form,  guided  by  the  study  of  nature.  These  celebrated  frescoes, 
twelve  in  numl>er,  were  at  one  time  all  a.«crib<'d  to  Masaccio ;  hut  it  seems  now  to 
b"  acknowledged  by  judges  of  art  thai  two  of  tlicse  «re  by  MasoMno  da  Panicale 
<1378— 1415).  the  masterof  Masaccio:  and  three  or  probably  four,  and  a  small  portion 
of  one,  by  Filipi>ino  L!p])i  (1460—1506).  The  frescoes  by  Masaccio,  however,  are 
BU|)erh)r  to  those  by  Mi^oli'io  and  Lippi,  and,  indeed,  for  many  'f  the  highest 
qualities  in  art,  have,  aa^compo^lt ions,  only  been  surpassed  by  Raphael  in  his  cele- 
brated cartoons.  Iilabont  a  centuiy  from  Masaccio's  time,  painting  in  Itay  at- 
tained its  hig^rest  devel())nnent ;  but  before  referring  to  thoi«e  arlifets  who  are 
acknowledged  as  having  carried  painting  to  the  highest  elevation  it  has  attiiined 
since  the  period  of  the  middle  ages,  it  is  right  to  note  the  names  of  sonje  of  the 
painters  wlio  aid<Hi  in  raising  ir  to  that  position.  The  works  of  Pra  Giovanni  da 
Fiesole  (1887—1455)  are  highly  vatoed  and  esteemed  hy  many  critics  as  the  purest  in 

{>Oint  of  style  and  feeling,"  and  so  the  best  fitted  for  devotional  purposes.  Confining 
lis  efforts  to  simple  nnd.gracef  ul  action,  and  sweet  and  tender  expression,  he  ad- 
liered  to  the  traditional  types,  and  ventured  on  none  of  the  bold  .nnovaiions  whieh 
were  introduced  in  his.  jfttoe,  and  cari'icd  so  far  by  Masaccio.  His  example,  as  rt»- 
giU-ds  feelinifltTid  ozprecHiou,  Juflaeueed  many  ^cceediug  artiets,  particularly  Plctro 


y  Google 


Palntiag:  553 

ppHigino,  the  master  of  Raphael  (1446— 1524),  and  Francesco  Fransfa  of  TMogna, 
<14'>0  or  1453— 1617).  by  Uoth  of  \vlKmiHlu*>*«  qualitlef*,  united  to  ^really  improved, 
technital  power,  were  brbnjrlit  to  hitjli  excellence.  Giovanni  Belliilu  t  .e  fonnd  t  of 
the  etiriy  veueiittu  ichool  (14^2— 1612), dnia  li^ft  many  adin i ruble  work-*;  ho  h.id  nu- 
mercMis  8choI:«i>,  a»»'ong  tliem  'liiian.and  Gtorgione.  Domcuico  Cornwli  or  Ghir- 
Inndajo,  nudi*r  wliom  Micliacl  Angelo  Wiidieil,  euccesj'fnlly  Xollcwcd  out  ih.;t  direc- 
tion k-ven  to  art  by  Mnt»nccio,  which  liivoiVfd  individiialiiy  of  chara-tt-r  a*  d  cxjire.*- 
aion  in /he  Agares.  Ai'drea  Mantegna,  vt  liic  fcIiooI  of  Pidnn  (U30— 15UC)',  nlor^ 
with  strong  i^xpre^slon,  gave  an  iu;;ystni>  to  f  rm,  modelled  iii  Grek  or  claFSic 
art.  Lnctf  SJguoi-elii  of  Cortoua  (.iboiir  1440-1521),  sncc  ssluHy  .cxenipll- 
fled  powrrful  action  and  boUl  f&irefhorteninjr,  particnlarly  in  his  fre.*-coe» 
at  OrvieJo,  wiiicli,  with  his  othe^  works,  are  supposed  to  luivo  strongly  influunccd 
thi'  style  of  Mlclia-^l  Angelo.  Antoiiello  da  Messina  (1447— 1496)  is  paid  10  bnvo 
bi^eii  a  pnpil  of  Jan  Van  Eyck,  who  iiuiiMried  to  him  his  si-crel  in  the  preparation 
and  ust!  of  oil-color?*,  the  kuowled^o  of  which  he  spread  among  tfce  Vini'tijins.  'J  ho 
above  stat<Mnour,  however,  as  (o  I lm(:txBCf  p<:uiod  at  which  oil  pitintiig  was  first 
introdnci'd,  i»»  one  jittvndcd  wirhinnch  donbr.  P.tintin|r  with  colors  mxcd  in  oil  is 
mentioned  by  Itali  m  writers  b  for«  iho  ptrio<1  of  V»n  Eyck;  painting  in  t  mpora, 
or  siae,  w-is  continu(»d  In  Italyvn»arJ^Hrlv  in  tlu»  Fl<  runtinc  j  nd  Homan  schotils, 
to  th  r  tniiir  of  liaphael;  a«»(l  1  he  tran>'iti<n»  from  tht' one  method  to  tie  other  has,. 
b6"n  so  gr.iduni.  that  ni.ony  jndgeM  of  art  hnve  <«xprtss»ed  inability  to  determJiio 
whether  the  piciirej  of  Pertt«:'UO,  Francia,  tmd  RaphaH  are  in  oil  or  ttniiHrni.  or  iu 
l)0th.  The  practice  of  piainilug  on  canvas,  in  place  of  wooden  boards  or  pa'H'I^ 
%as  iHtrodnced  and-cirrled  iiu  for  a  consid  rahle  time  in  Venice  btiforeit  was 
a«10pted  in  otiier  pirts  of  Ifcdy,  and  canv.isis  the  m;ite.Hal  b-  st  suited  for  p'xior^-ft 
in  oil-colors  \fhei)  I  hey  are  not  of  small  dimensions;  «^o,  on  the  vhole,  Uie  con- 
clusion seems  to  b  ,  that  though  oil-painting  was  not  niikno^i\Ti  in  Floivnc<» 
and  t!ie  south  of  Italy,  painiinsr  in  tomj-oa  was  longer  pi-act ised  there 
than  in  Venice.  At  the  time  when  the  printers  ai>ove  refcrrud  to  flour- 
ished, th-te  >veretnanv  able  artints  in  Germatt>\  whose  work^  are  de><Evedly  very 
highly  prised.  Among  ili(«e,  Jjtn  Vmi  Eyck  (q.  v.),  (ai'Otit  1.H90— !44l).  deM-rves 
sp  cinl  notice.  To  hint  i^gener  illy  g'ven  the  credit  of  b  ingr  the  first  pahit  r  who 
nsed  oil  in  place  of  sise  in  his  colos.  His  works  are  r-markjib!e  for  briMant  and 
tran-'prirent  colorlnj;  and  high  finish.  He  had  nnni'-rous  scholars;  among  these, 
Jitstns  of  Ghent  (flor.  1451',  Hugo  Vander  Goes  (died  1480)— supposed  to  be  the 
painter  of  the  c -lehr  'ted  winsis  of  an  altar-piece,  now  at  Ht)lyrood  P.ilace,  cont.iin- 
fns;  |)ortrjiits  of  James  III  nnd  his  que*  n— Roger  of  Bruges  (1865—1418).  Hans  Hera- 
l.ng  or  Me:nling(di  d  14S9),  the  best  scholar  of  .the  V;  n  Kyck  mIiooI  ;  Qnintin 
Mntsy..*  (1450—1629),  Jan  Van  Mahnse  (1470 -I5a2),  Albert  Durer  (q.  v.),  (1471—1528), 
Lucas  Van  Leyd'o  (q.  v.),  (1494—1533).  The  c;.re<r  of  the  two  last-named  exlei  ded 
to  the  beni  period  Of  art.  and  for  tnany  high  qnnliiieH  lh<  h-  woiks  stronjrly  cpmp  te 
wii't  those  of  theab«>-t  of  th  ?  Itdinns;  "^vhile  portraits  by  H.ms  Holbein  (q.  v.), 
(1497— 155 1),  and  Antmio  More  (1512— 1638)  rank  with  iho-eof  «ny>chool  or  i)erit)d. 
The  leadinir  qnidities  in  German  art  arc  itivention.  individu.ilitv  of  character,  c'-ear- 
ness  01  coloring,  and  hi.:h  finish:  but  th'v  arc  ir-^ferior  to  the  Iiarai  s  in  eint>odylng 
beauty;  their  repre^ejitaiion  of  the  nid  •  is  angulirin  form  andd.  ticient  iu  I'le  ele- 
gance Jind  grace  -ittained  i>y  t'le  piiuter^  of  Italy  ;  audin  their  draperies  they  do  not 
attain  the  simplicity  and  grandeur  so  remarkable  in  the  woiks  of  their  southern 
competitors.  ' 

Anything  like  an  account  of  tlie  artist*  by  wiiom  painting  was  carried  to  its  high- 
est pitch,  ol  snfflsient  comprehensiveness  to  exhibit  their  peculi}<r  8e--thetlc  qnnl|. 
ties,  canuot  be  attempted  in  so  s)>oi:tTa  notice  tis  this;  bm  that  d  fici'-ncy  y  in  sonto 
degree  snp|)lled  by.  and  reference  is  made  to.  Hie  biogi'«phicjil  notices  <»f  distin- 
guished })ainters  given  in  this  work  under  their  names.  Keeping  thi-  reference  in 
vi«5W,  therefore,  tiie  next  step  is  to  note  the  nlative  )>o^itioiiB  generally  assignetl  to 
th<' most  distinguished  painters  of  tliat  period,  with  r  f-rence  to  the  esiniation  in 
whicli  ,their  works  are  now  held.    Leonardt»  d:i  Vinci  (q.  v.).  (1452—1519),  Michael 


Anirelo  Bnonarotti  (1474—1563).  and  llaphael  or  Kaffaelto  Satizio  of  Urhino  (14S8>- 
1620),  are  univer-ally  acknowledged  as  the  three  greatest  among  tlie  Italian  artists; 
but  two  other  names  mny  be  a<lned  as  MorMiy  to  \\e  put  in  an  equally  hitih  placer- 


1620),  are  univer-ally  acknowledged  as  the  three  greatest  among  tlie  Italian  artists; 
but  two  other  names  mny  be  a<lned  as  MorMiv  to  \\e  put  in  an  equally  hitih  placed 
those  of  Titian  (q.  v«),  (1477—1676)^  and  Antonio  A|let(ri|  samamcd  CoiTegi^o  (^.  Y.), 


y  Google 


659 


1>alntint. 


.tt4M— 1684).  Thesellve  pafiitrra  exWhft  ii>  their  worlcff.  some  of  thcih  the  vhcTc. 
oilior-*tti'?  pr<*uter  portion  of  the  varions  olcMiieiit?— which  in  ihocnrlicr  periods  of 
art  had  exists  d  apnrt,  and  composed  di-tiiict  f  tylea — united,  ntid  moro  highly  diwol- 
opo:!;  while  <'nch  of  tliem  has  t;ike!i  tip  on o  of  ihrw  rlcAuenV^  tmd  caiTi' a  It  not 
oMUfuriiMM-  than  hi?pre«lrr(  bpovb  h«ddo.ic,biit  furt''ert!»an  Jt  was  l>y  his  contempo- 
rarie-,  or  by  any  Btibmqnent arfist.  Thus  we §<?«  in  Leonardo':* c  Icbrated  pictnro  of 
ilu;  "List  !SuiM)«r  "  th:ir  thongli  he  has  adopted  the  traditional  ptylc  of  coinpo?>ition 
hnnd  d  down  from  Giotto's*  time,  and  cnrriud  out  the  religious  f«'elin|r  iiod  dignified 
expression  aimed  at  l>ythe  older  m  rter?,  t!»e  whole  Is  cr-<*f>ei»ed  and  ehvafed  by 
the  manner  in  wliich  it  ii^worU'd  out — unnicly.  1>y  A  mind  nnd  baitd  t>oBw»?«»inir 
mastery  over  all  tlio  elements  thatcnj  combineain  t'o  production  of  t'.e  highest 
works  of  art  Michael  Anjrelo  w:  »  a  i>roflciei.t  in  all  tbe  analitJi-s  that  conr'titnto  a 
p:unter.  'nt  ho  earrind  pcvral  of  them— v;«.,  prandcnr  of  de^ign,  anatr)nrcal  knowl- 
edge, ai:d  powerof  drawing— far b  yond  all  ol her  ai'ti>ta  of  his  own  orof  laier  timep. 
Tiiian  and  C'orreggio»  ag^n,  with  irrett  i»owcr  ov«r  every  art-rU-ment.  liave  each 
carried  one  aualiiy  fnrili<*r  than  j:11  other  artiets — ti»e  former,  color  ;  the  latti  r.  light 
and  8had  •.  Kaplia'l  i*»  generally  allowed  the  flr?t  place  among  paintPi-s  to: .  tbojjgli 
e  ch  of  the  four  artiptx  just  referred  to  earrli'd  oir,  or  ptirhaps  two,  of  tin*  qnaliti  a 
of  painting  turth  r  than  he  d  d.  h*  excelled  them  in  cv  17  other  elen>ent  1  nt  tl»e  one 
lor  which  cochwsu*  prri'cularly  disibignish.  d,  and  in  p»v«'  ul  of  the  liigb  ft  quallt  es 
of  art  \u'  attaim-d  to  jr reatrr  cxc«'llenc.e  tiian  nnv  ctiuTT.rtift;  t!'e<X|)ri*pJ»lon  of  dij;- 
n!iy  of  movemenr  by  broad  n.ass  e  and  grand  lines  i.ime<l  at  in  tlie  works  of  ^I^l^ac• 
cio^  is  Fuccessfully  realip  d  in  the  cartoons  ni  Hampton  Court;  and  the  plctnr<»  in 
whnh  Pi'rngiiio  and  Franc'a  to  earn<^ly  and  BncceMifi:lly  en  lx»dl"  d  female  heanty, 
in  itx'nial  a(f  "ction,  and  infaniin  •  inirits  an*  a«  luwU  interior  to  picinr^  a  of  pimilar 
PubjiC'B  by  RaiVia'-l  as  they  are  abovi;  tho«>e  executed  durinij  the  di'cad  nee  of  Italian 
art.  B  sides  ine  five  leatiimr  masters  ju>t  ref«*rrt  dto.  thwQ  \»er«  many  e  herlralutn 
urtiste'of  grt-at  talejit,  wim  may  Ix*  ranged  in  tlir«o  classes :  1,  il>e  c«)Utfmporai  k-e  of 
tho-«e  artist^*;  2,  those  influenced  by  their  ^tyle;  8,  their  »»cholar8.  Amonsr  their 
cor>temi)oraries,  the  work-*  of  Pra  Birto'omim^)  Cl4(i9— 161T)  and  Andr  a  Varnccbi, 
cdkd  Andrea  <hl  fi.irto  048S— I'S^),  b'lh  Foientin<*,  d«  strvedly  rai:k  my  h  g!'. 
Glor  Jo  Barlwrelli,  called  Gfoitiiuuo  (1473- 1511V  was,  under  Bellini,  a  fellow-pispil 
of,  and  is  genemlly  siyli-d  tb«i  riv  1  of  'litl  n;  and  his  works,  which  ur^'.  of 
gr  at  excellence,  prove  tliat  bf  was  MOtby  of  that  name.  In  cl  sa  2.  CoiTce- 
gio  himseif  miy  rank  as  being  infiiiciic  -d  by  Le«mardo'H  styh;,  but  tin-  g  eat  pi-onii- 
nence  of  liis  other  qualities  make««  his  p'y'o  or  giii  1  and  ind<p«'i;dent.  On  B  mar- 
dlnoLuiiii  (-ib-mt  1460,  IviniriM  1530;.  Lconai-do's  influence  is  dircci ;  and  as  he  was 
an  able  paint-  r.  Ills  iiicturcs  are  vcr>  vahr-bh-for  eml  odying  m.-my  (.f  thoT  gaalitics 
in  art  wh'Ch  L  on  nio  had  so  much  imi>roved.  Sebastiano  del  Pioa.bo,  a  "V  lutian 
(1483— 1517).  stadistl  under  Giovnnnl  Belli' i  and  Gorgion**;  Jsnd  afi«r  nitllig  in 
Ronje,  b.  came  intim  te  with  Michael  An«:elo,  who  empToy<d  liim  to  paint  fome  of 
his  desiL'ns,  wiih  a  view  of  bci<^fitinir  by "  his  »  dmirabu-  c<»lorinjr.  H  e  pictures  are 
crcitly  ( steemed,  as  nnitimr  rhb  col  r  to  irrjiidiur  of  design.  Cla»^s  3.  All  >he  five 
leading  artists  abovi-  refernd  to  hrd  pnp'ls  or  rcholai-s,  prriicularly  sncit  of  them  :ts; 
likn  Raphael,  were  nmch  engaged  in  rxeusive  works  in  fresco,  in  the  ex  cuHun  of 
which  a8si>tants  an*  gei'erally  emp  oyed.  A  complete  li>t  of  tlM•^e,  how«  ver,  wunM 
occut»y  100  much  !-pace  her  *.  Among  He  Bc.bolars  of  Micliael  Angelo,  D  n'el<-  da 
Volt  ira  (1509— '666)  wa«  the  b^^t :  and  among  Raphael'.-  schohirs,  the  flipt  pace  is 
g<*nerally  actorled  10  Giulio  Pippl  or  Komano  (q.  v),  (1492— 1546).  ^frer  the  first 
quart<  r  of  the  16th  c.  pdnting  in  Italy,  excpt  in  ine  Vt-netiaii  Pcbo<»l,  shewed  sym|»- 
toujs  of  r mid  decHny ;  th.it  sch«»oU  however,  continn  d  its  vitabty  longer  than  a»  y 
otiier  in  Ita'y,  having  flourished  with  nil  tbe  lif«Vof  originality  dnri'  g  the  whole  16th 
reninry.  'Ibis  is  atn-hi.  d  by  the  prwl actions  of  many  a' le  Ve»»eti«n  painters ;  hi:t 
aaiijn'z  thos'*,  thf  works  of  J:icop  »  KobiistI,  or  'llntort-'to  (q.  v.).  0512 —  594  , :  nd 
Paulo  Caliari,  or  Vcrom-se  (g.  v.).  (16'i8— 158^),  are  »»y  far  tbe  most  inuuir«ant.  Tiie 
pictures  of  thi!  former  txiiiuir  great  \igor  «n  compi  sition,  ai.d  mod  r  chness  of  color 
— the  former  quality  evincing  tin;  influfijce  of  Michael  Anirelo;  the  latter, 
that  of  Titian.  Vrroufse  ranks  before  even  Tintoretto  ;  Ins  composiiion-  are  ani- 
niated  and  full,  and  as  a  colorist  he  is  a  powerful  rival  to  'Htian.  not  aiming  at  the 
ricii  glow  of  tinit  master's  tints,  hut  exrelling  every  artist  in  producing  the  brilliancy 
aiid»paikltoS«ff«ttof  iuid-dHjUghtoaJigui:e»goig«uvijr  uttiieU,  »nd  anvu  a^aiuet 


y  Google 


1>iickgrontidB  enriched  with  lati<1«snpe  and  arclritecttiM.  Th*  0t1i«r  ffWftt  schools  of 
Ttttly,  however,  as  nlready  enid.  liiid  less  vitality  tliau  Ihe  VeiiHtliin,  ana  pliewed  eymp- 
toins  of  decay  nt  the  end  of  the  fli'8t  qanrter  of  the  iKth  century.  Kaphnel  left  nil" 
merous  flcholari and  aBsistant" ;  muuy  of  tht^ee,  iiftor  hisd(»ith  in  1890,  qnlti«d  Koine. 
The  pill.ige  of  that  citr  by  the  Fr<*fich  tuidir  Bourbon  in  IftST  bad  nleo  the  effect  of 
di«>pei»iii«;  them,  and  tiiie  naturully  led  lo  the  style  of  Kaphael,  no  far  ah  tbey  cotild 
acquire  It,  heiujr  transplanted  lino  otht-r  |);irt8  of  Italy ;  httt  Ravhael'^  Ptyle  vaa 
founded  <jU  his  own  peculiar  ItMiHiijt  f\>r  Ihe  beautiful,  and  on  liiaowniwcttliar^nce  ; 
and  all  that  his  achoiarn  had  acquired  or  could  convey  wus  a  nnro  Inntatlon  of  hia 
external  forhis,  without  the  (Spirit  and  pure  feeling  of  widch  tlteae  lorins  are  tbn  ex- 
preraiou.  The  imitation  of  Micluiel  Augelo  became  tlie  ^reat  Object  with  the  Flor- 
entines; but  bis  ooholaifk  and  imitators  lieing  nuabK:  to  compreheivd  his  iKmerfnl 
spirit,  and  not  poAsessinK  his  technical  powers  and  theoreiical  knowledge,  tht:ir  pic- 
lurea  are  merely  eXa^iU'rated  coni|K»itlons  of  academic  flu'ures.  Tim-  w<;re  Corn'-.-Kio^s 
Bcliolara  nio'e  succ«.««Pful  in  following  his  walk^  for  tliey  exaggerated  ihe  pecuHnrifii-e 
of  his  <»lyle,  which  in  their  iutnds  i»ecame  affected  and  in^ll)Td.  Leonardo's  ^cllc^ia^fl 
repeatt»a  Ills  distjnguisliing  qualities,  niod:flt'd  by  tlieiro\vn  iudividnal  pecaliaritiea, 
and  avoided  that  acadt-mic  ostcirtaiion  displayed  by  the  followers  of  the  masters  just 
named.    Their  reputation  therefore  standi  liigher. 

'JMie  Gerumn  painters  who  succecdetl  Dli«t*r,  Van  Leydeii,  and  the  other  cele- 
bratetl  artists  of  their  period,  before  referred  to,  endeavored  to  improve  their  national 
eiyl**  by  the  study  of  Italian  art,  nt  first  attempting  to  cxnnbinc  the  two  styles,  and 
afterwai*ds,  to  the  close  of  the  16ni  Ct  duvotinu  themselves  txclusively  to  the  stndy 
or  imitation  of  the  Italian  painters.  The  works  of  these  artists*  the  worst  prodiic- 
t  0!i8  of  any  school,  form  a  connecting  link  between  those,  of  the  famous  oid  Ger- 
ni.iD  masters  and  the  vigoi^us,  varied,  and  attractive  works  of  the  puiutei's  of  tiie 
«-2^etherlaiuls  In  the  Itih  century. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  16rU,  and  during  the  first  half  of  the  iTth  c,  a  revival  of 
art  in  Italy  was  attempted.  This  was  sought  for  ht  two  ways  by  two  <  lasses  of  art- 
ists;  the  larger  body  were  known  by  tlie  name  of  Ecle«:.tics,  from  their  bavingendea- 
vored  to  select  and  unite  the  best  qualities  of  each  of  the  great  uai^ters,  combined 
with  the  study  of  nainre ;  tlie  other  class  were  distingnished  by  the  name  of  Natn- 
ralisti, and  they  aimed  at  formipj?  an  independent  t-tyle,  distinct  froiu  that  of  tlie 
en rlier  masters,  based  on  the  iudn^crimlnate  imitation  of  common  life,  treated  in  a 
bold  and  lively  manner.  In  their  development,  both  classes  exercised  aii  influencfl 
on  each  other,  particularly  the  Naturalisli  on  the  Eclectics.  Eclectic  schools- arose 
In  various  parts  of  Italy,  but  the  most  celebri»ted  was  that  at  BolOirua,  founded  by 
Lodovico  Carraoci  (q.  v.),  (1.=>56— 1619),  assisted  bv  bis  two  nephews,  Agostino  Cur- 
racci  (I56S— 1602),  and  Annibale,Carraccl  (ISSO-^IBOO),  the  most  eminentof  the  three. 
Many  painters  of  mark  were  reared  in  tiiis  school;  among  those,  Dunienico  Znin- 
pierl,  called  Bomenichino  (q.  v.),  (1681—1641).  and  Guido  Reui  (q.  v.),  (16T5 
— 1642),  were  by  far  the  most  eminent*  The  art  of  the  Eclectics  has  been  greatly 
overrated.  Till  recently,  the  leaders  of  that  school  were  always  placed  on  an  <'qnaiity 
with  the  I)o8t  masters  of  the  early  part  of  thel6tli  c,  and  far  above  any  of  the  p  tint^rs 
of  the  15Mi  eeniury.  These  notions  have  recently  undergont!  a  complete  thjin^e ;  it 
is  now  acknowledged  that  the  attempt  of  the  Eclectic"  to  combine  Ihe  excellences 
of  varlims  great  ma-ters.  Involves  misat>{H'ehension  with  regard  to  the  conceplioii 
and  practice  of  art,  for  the  greatness  of  the  earlier  masters  was  brought  out  In  their 
individual  and  peculiar  qualities,  the  niiiiiug  of  which  implies  a  coutradictiou. 
Michael  Angelo  Amerighi  da  Carnvagglo  (q.  v.).  (1669—1609)  was  the  founder  of  the 
Katuralisti  school:  he  resideil  lU'inc  paliy  at  Kome,  but  at  a  later  period  went  to 
Kaples, Malia,  and  Sicily.  The  Naturalist!  were  in  theirgreatest  strength  at  Naples, 
Where  they  |>erseveriiiglv  opposed  the  followers  of  the  Carracci,  their  lender  beiim 
Qiii8:!ppl  Kibei-a  (q.  v.),  a  Spaniard,  hence  culled  Siiagnoletto  (1593—1656).  With 
much  of  the  force  of  CaravaggiO,  he  united  more  deljcacyapd  greater  vivacity  «»f 
color.  The  historical  or  Scriptural  subjects  of  Salvator  Kosa  (q.  v.),  (1616-^1673) 
are  in  the  style  of  the  school  of  the  Naturalisli ;  but  on  account  of  his  geiire  pieces 
and  landscapes,  Salvator  is  entitled  to  occupy  the  place  of  the  originator  of  a  style 
noted  for  ci^'tain  qualities  of  poetic  feeling.  Tlie  inHuence  of  the  school  of  the 
Natnralisti  bad  more  important  results  than  that  of  the  Eclectios.  for  it  affected 
to  8Qme  csteut.  Uie  IcaiUs^  n^iist^rs  of  Ui^  ^uish  .C|(bOoi.    M^9^u^  jaantdtt" 


y  Google 


Til 


661  i^intim 

l^raneWBly  with  Dometikhlno,  /Stildo,  and  other  leading  mnsteft  of  the  Bcbools  of 
the  Eclectics  nnd  Natuni list i,  the  three  ti^llowtiig  artistt«  elevated  laudscape^painting 
to  u  high  po8ition*-Nichola8  Poussin  (q.  v.)i  a  Frenchman  (1894—1665) ;  Clamle  Gel^, 
also  a  native  of  France  (1600—1682),  culled  Claude  Lorraine  (q.  v.) ;  and  Gasi^e  Dn- 
chcr,  named  Gaspar  Ponssin  (q.  v.),  bom  in  Home,  but  the  con  of  a  Frenchman 
(1613—1876).  Among  the  jireat  masters  who  occasionally  practised  landscape-paint* 
ing  art  a  distinct  branch  of  art.  the  earliest  were  Titian  and  Giorglone ;  the  Carracci 
(particularly  Annlbale)  carrieu  out  their  style  with  considerable  success;  the  laiul- 
scapert  of  Dotnenichino  ai-e  e!«teeiued,  and  other  t^cholars  of  the  Carracci  turned  their 
attention  in  that  dil*ectioJi.  Tlie  reputation  of  N.  Poussin  is  principally  based  on  his 
flvjurc-picturL'S,  f  lie  subjects  of  which  were  mythological  and  Scriptural.  Iiito  these 
picture.-,  he  endeavored,  with  considerable  suc(ess,  to  infuse  the  classical  stylt; ;  but 
lis  compos'ttion!*  were  generally  arranged  with  a  large  fpace  of  landscape  back- 
ground, which  was  in  mimy  cabes  not  the  least  important  portion  of  the  picture  ; 
and  these,  and  the  pictures  he  painted  falling  stiictiy  under  the  class  of  land- 
scapes, are  di.-tinguisned  for  largeness  of  style  and  poetic  feeling.  Claude  and  Gas- 
par  directed  all  their  efEorts  10  landscape,  and  attained  to  high  eminence  in  that  de- 
partment 01  art. 

Tlie  earlier  specimens  of  imlnting  in  Spnin  resemble  in  style  the  works  of  the  old 
German  painterif,  who  seem  to  havr  disposed  of  many  of  tluir  pictures  in  that  coun- 
try, while  Spauisih  art  of  the  16th  c.  wa:«  modelled  on  that  of  Italy,  Titian  and  liA- 
pliaelbciug  the  musters  studit-d  ;  but  when  works  of  the  Spanish  school  are  spoken 
of,  those  executed  in  the  17th  c.  are  alwiiys  understood  \o  be  referred  to,  as  it  was 
then  that  Spauii<h  art  became  entirely  national  in  feding  »nd  style,  and  that  is  the 
period  in  which  the  best  works  of  the  scltool  were  produced.  The  two  most  distin- 
guished Spanish  painters  are  Don  Diejro  Velasquc «  (q.  v.),  (1699—1660),  and  Bartho- 
loui6  Esttbau  Murillo  (q.  v.),  (1618—1682).  The  poitrait!«  t-f  the  former  are  charac- 
terised by  truthful  and  dignifl  d  expression,  great  breadth  and  vigorous  handling, 
and  rank  with  the  best  works  of  that  class  of  any  sciiool ;  while  the  Scripture  snt>- 
iects  of  the  latter,  which  are  noted  tor  tender  expression,  rich  color,  aud  pow«^rfuI 
light  and  shade,  may  he  chissed  with  himihir  works  hy  itnbena  and  Van  Dyck. 
Spugnoletto,  a  Spanish  painter,  has  already  been  releiTed  to  as  a  leading  artist  oi  the 
sciiOol  of  the  Naiuralisti  at  Naples.  Alonzo  Cano  (1601 — 1667),  Francisco  Zurbaran 
(1698—1662),  and  Claudio  Coello  (bom  between  1630  and  1640—1693),  have  a  high 
reputation.  No  name  of  a  Spanish  painter  of  eminence  occurs  after  the  close  of  the 
17ih  century. 

Veiy  soon  after  the  period  wh<n  the  Eclectic  and  Naturalistic  schools  arose  in 
Italy,  a  revival  of  art  also  occurn  d  in.the  Netherlands.  This  Mas  very  different  in 
its  effects  from  the  revival  in  Italy,  the  only  results  from  which  were  actidemical  imi- 
tation of  the  older  masters,  and  coarse  naturalism,  either  separately  or  combined  in 
varif  d  proportions ;  wliile  the  works  of  the  artists  of  the  Netherlands  executed  about 
the  same  period,  though  they  do  not  exhil)it  the  high  qualities  fonnd  in  the  compo- 
sitioLS  of  the  Italian  i.iastersof  the  best  period,  possess  many  newni.d  attractive 
feiiiures — freedom,  originality  of  treatment,  attention  to  the  peculiar  character  of 
individual  life,  and  the  daily  intercourse  of  men  with  each  other  in  all  its  variety, 
and  the  study  of  nature,  brought  otit  with  truth  and  delicacy  of  execution.    Two  iin- 

e)rtaiit  schools  of  art  were  esbiblished  by  this  inoviineiit— the  Flemish  and  the 
inch,  'i'he  FU:in1sh  school  flourished  in  Brabant,  where  the  Koman  Catholic  faith 
— ^then  making  strenuous  efforts  to  oppose  the  Reformed  religion — still 
retained  and  actively  employed  art  in  its  service.  The  Duldfi  school 
flourished  1u  Protestant  and  republican  Holland,  where  the  artist,  having 
to  trust  to  private  encouragement,  painted,  for  the  most  part,  familiar 
8ubj;'Ct'«  from  evei7day  life;  and  in  place  of  altar-pieces  for  churches, 
and  large  historical  and  allegorical  pictures  for  palaces,  produced  the  subjects  tlieu 
ill  demand— portrait*,  genre  pictures,  or  works  in  which  life  and  manners  are  de- 
picted in  vanons  phases— landscapes  with  and  without  figures,  sea-pieces,  battle- 
pieces,  compositions  representing  hunting,  animals,  game,  &c.  The  catalo^me  of 
the  names  of  the  able  artists  of  ttiese  two  schools  is  long  ;  in  the  Flemish  school, 
those  who  stand  highest  are  Peter  Paul  Rubens  (q.  v.),  (167T— 1640).  Anthony  Van 
Dyck  (g.  v.),  (1599— 1641), David  Teulei-s  (q.  v.)  the  Younger  (1610-^1690),  P.  Snyders 
<19T9— 169T).    The  following  atd  the  mo0t  emiDent  in  the  long  list  of  artitts  of  the 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


fabiting  ^g2 

Dutch  Bchooi :  R<S»liran(tt  (q.  v.),  (1608—16^9).  Vnndorhelpt  (KJtS-  tSTO),  Albert 
Cayp  (q.  v.),  (1605— 1681),  aVrburgh  (1»08-1631),  A.  V.  Ostade  (1610— 168o),  J.:ftuys- 
flael  (q.  v,>,  (1630  or  1636—1681),  Hobblma  (K29— 1670),  P.  Potter  (  625—1654),  K.  dn 
Jjtrden  (1685— 1678),"  Jan  Steen  (q.  v.),  (1636-1639),  G.  Meteu  (1615— 1H58).  ¥.  Mieris 
(1635—1681),  W.  Van  de  Velde  (1633—1707),  A-  Van  der  Neer  (1613—1684),  P.  Wonvcr- 
maiis  (q.  v.),  ('620— 1668). 

Painting  Uj>k  been  practised  for  a  very  lone  period  In  Frjince;  bnt  there,  as  in 
Sbain  jind  in  Biituin,  the  marked  preference  siiewn  in  early  times ^  the  sovereigns 
of  the  couivtrj:  for  the  works  of  foreign  artists*,  their  undfrvahiinj;  y.itive  talent,  jmd 
their  directing  it  into  a  channel  supplied  from  a  foreign  Hource,  had  the  effect  of  Jieii- 
tralising  it  a*  the  exponent  of  natioiuil  feeling.  Francis  I.  is  aekuow'.edsred  to  have 
been  a  patron  of  art ;  he  had  a  di  sire  to  possess  fine  woiks,  and  he  liberally  re- 
warded able  jirtists,  but  is  patrouajje  was  almost  entirely  confined  to  foreigners. 
Louis  XIV.  did  what  he  could  to  place  French  art  above  tirnt  of  every  other  nation ; 
but  he  had  no  knowledge  of  it  himself ;  he  diil  not  comprehend  lt&  nature  and  true 
intention,  and  imagined  that  pictures  if  painted  by  Frenchmen  must  necessarily  he 
national.  Nevertheless,  liis*  influence  wa.«,  on  the  whole,  highly  beneficial  to  Frenrli 
natictfial  ai-t.  He  always  shewed  himself  desirous  to  employ  native  rather  tiian 
foreitm  talent,  and  he  encouraged  and  enlarged  the  Acadeiwy  of  Fine  Art?,  which 
h^l  been  foinided  at  the  comm'encemeut  of  his  reign,  nnder  i  he  direction  of  Lel)rnn. 
Although  in  unmy  respects  theprincii)h-8  and  the  regulations  of  the  Academy  tended 
rather  to  the  perpetuation  of  debased  Italian,  than  to  the  development  of  gen uim? 
French  art ;  yet  the  bringing  together  of  a  body  of  influeiitial  Fn?ncli  artists,  w»is  llu» 
measure  most  likely  to  foster  the  fieling  of  natitmality  and  to  lead  to  the  foundation  of 
a  national  school  of  art.  Iji  i  he  I6th  c,  Francois  Clouet  was  distinguished  as  a  portmit- 
painter;  and  Jean  Cousin  as  a  i»aiuter,  sculptor,  and  architect,  in  the I7ihc.,  ajnoi  g 
.many  nanies,  tiiose  chiefly  dest^rving  notice  are  Simon  Voiiet,  the  brothers  Le.Na  n. 
N.  Poussin,  Claude  Lorraine,  Mignard,  S.  Bourdon,  Le  Sueur,  J.  Courtois  (call  a 
Borgognpne),  and  Coy|)el.  Among  these,  the  works  of  the  brothers  Le  Nain  alono 
p03.^ss  national  feeling  and  character,  and  they  are  held  in  very  considerable  esti- 
mation ;  those  of  the  other.-*  were  executed  under  the  influence  of  foreign  art ;.  and 
excepting  Claude's  splendid  landscape!*,  Poiissin's  learned  comjwsitions,  and  some 
of  Borgognone's  battle-pieces,  hold  a  low  nosiiion.  The  works  of  Anthony 
Watteau  (1684 — 1721)  are  truly  national,  excellent  in  execution,  and  very  highly 
valued.  This  artist  may  Ijt'  classed  as  at  the  head  of  the  school  of  the  18th  c— the 
period  in  which  art  in  France  became  really  national.  Not  only  did. most  of  the 
painters  .of  his  scIjooI — which  lai^ti'd  till  the  end  of  the  century,  when  classic  art  ruled 
for  a  time— form  their  style  upon  the  works  of  Watteau,  but  hi«  influence  also 
nflcccted  the  Bri'lsli  school,  which  arose  soon  after  that  of  France  was  developed. 
Lancret  il690— 1742)  was  the  most  successful  imitat  ir  of  Watteau ;  Pater  (1696 — 17S6) 
followed  in  the  same  course;  (}hardin  (1699— 1779>,  though  influHuced  by*j»iin, 
had  an  orighial  style  of  his  own,  and  his  works  now  stand  liigh.  The  pictures  of 
Boucher  (1704—1x10)  exhibit  tlie  defects  of  the  French  school  of  the  18th  c, 
unredeemed  by  the  delicacy  and  grace,  and  high  technical  execution 
and  truih  of  Watteau,  CharVin,  and  Greuze  (1725— 1805),  the  last  of  whom 
sustainetl  the  charactt  r  of  Fiench  national  ;irt,  and  carried  it  into  the  19th 
c,  when  it  was  re-esiab'ished,  after  the  classic  school  of  David,  founded  at  the 
Kevolution,  and  patronised  under  the  empire  of  the  firet  Napoleon,  had  in  its  tnm 
been  laid  aside.  David  (q.  v.).  (1748—1825),  the  leader  of  lhi«»  school,  carried  his  ad- 
miration of  classic  art  to  the  lengih  of  substituting  the  study  of  statues,  the  works 
by  which  the  art  of  the  ancients  is  chiefly  known,  for  that  of  niture.  He  had  numer- 
ous able  -pupils,  several  of  whom,  tired  with  this  constant  repetition  of  conv-'n- 
tiouul  form,  recurred  to  Jiature,  extended  their  range  of  subjects,  and  infused  new 
vigor  into  the  Frer:ch  school.  A  mom:  m;iny  distinguished  artists  that  have  m;!in- 
tained  the  fame  of  the  French  School  during  the  present  cenruryt.be  following 
names  may  be  pieutioned:  G6ricault,  Prud'hon,  Leopold  Robert,  Delaroche  (q. 
v.),  Horace  Vernet  (q.  v.),  Ary  Scheffer  (q.  v.),  Euii6ue  Delacroix  (q.  v.),  andlujir-  s 
^  (q.  v.).  A  number  of  artists,  chiefly  pupils  of  the  above,  now  sustain  the  hiirh  posi- 
tion of  French  <irt  in  eve  y  department ;  while  iti  that  of  land^ipe  illuBtrative.of 
French  scen€i'y,.a  branch  of  art  never  much  Htu<lled  lii  past  timi.-Jii  great  progress 
has  beeu  made,  and  the  rise  of  thid  flourishing  branch  Of  Frea«h  art  is  acknuw- 


y  Google 


_  663  painting 

lodged  hv  tlie  French  thetnselveB  to  be  due  to  ttic  works  of  the  SngHsb  iwluter 
Coiititable,  exhibited  in  Paris  in  18S4. 

TheEngliHli  school  waa  the  latest  national  pchool  I  hat  arose  in  Europe,  for  nl- 
tliou«:h  the  modern  eclioois  of  Gfrmniiy  and  Belginm  are  of  still  later  date,  htiviug 
nnsen  in  the  present  centuij,  Rtill  they  cnn  scarcely  be  classed  as  new  scliool?',  Inil 
rather  as  revivals  of  former  national  schools.  In  Engl.mcl,  as  In  Prance,  foreign 
artists  chiefly  were  in  early  times  employeti  by  the  court  and  the  nobles.  Heiii-y 
VJII.  coujpeted  with  Francis  I.  Ii)r  the  services  of  the  greatesi  of  the  Italian  artisis. 
and  permanently  secured  those  of  Uaus  Holbein,  one  of  the  nioM  ^listinguished  of 
those  of  Gi'rmany.  Charles  I.  liberally  patronised  Rubens  trnd  Van  Djck ;  and  if 
he  had  reigned  lonjrer,  wouhl  in  all  probability,  lilce  Louis  XIV  .  have  founded  a  na- 
tional school.  But  relerriug  to  the  separate  notices  In  this  work  of  the  foreign  nrl- 
isfs  under  their  names  nspectively  wiio  were  employed  in  this  country  and  to  I  lie 
ar^cle  Miniature  Painting  for  notice  of  several  eminent  native  artists  in  th:  t 
brancli  of  art,  it  is  only  necessary  here  to  touch  ou  the  subject  of  paii  tini;iu  this 
country  from  the  time  it  acquired  a  truly  national  character.  At  the  bt  ginning  of 
the  18th  c,  art  iii  Britain  was  at  the  lowest  ebb;  the  career,  of  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller 
(q.  v.),  (1648— 1T26  or  1T2«).  the  last  of  the  foreigners,  was  drawing  to  a  close;  Sir 
Jauies  '1  hornhUI  (1676—1734),  an  Englishman,  followed  out  the  decorative  kind  of  art 
on  which  Verrio,  La  Gmrre,  and  othei-s  were  so  mudi  en.ployed;  Imt  after  his 
death,  that  della^ed  style  finally  went  down..  The  time  had  nOw  anived  for  na- 
tive artists,  if  there  were  any  entitled  to  the  name,  to  assert  their  indepetid- 
ence;  and  accoidingly,  in  1(3*— 1735.  as  many  as  from  thirty  to  forty  art- 
ists coiubhjo<l  tcjgethcr  in  London,  and  instituted  an  academy  for  study- 
ing the  hunnui  l^ure.  About  the  same  time,  a  similar  movement  was  go- 
ing on  m  Edinburgh;  the  contract  or  indenture  for  e8tablish;ng  a  school  of 
art,  dated  18th  October  1729.  and  signed  by  seventeen  arti^ts,  besides  amateurs, 
i.«*  in  I  he  possession  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy.  The  effort  above  n'ferred  to, 
fjf  arlistj»  combining  to  found  a  Life  Academy,  wns  n.ainly  due  to  William  Hogai*th 


(1B97— 1764),  who,  on  this  account,  and  from  his  first  having  developed,  in  a  very 
l.igh  degree  of  excellence  in  his  worlvs.  the  leading  characteinstirs  of  the  Engl isl| 
f  ciiool.  is  justly  entitled  to  I  e  consideri  d  its  founder.    This  combination  led  to  i  li<  f-  < 


Important  results — it.  shewed  the  Jirtisis  their  strt-njrth,  and  enabled  them,  after  j| 
probation  of  thirty-fotn-  years,  tofoutid  ilic  Royal  Aead«  niy,  nn  mstiintion  manage^ 
Dv  artists,  and  intended  to  support  and  incourage  a  national  school  of  art.  'I'l^ 
means  by  which  the  Royal  Academy  projiosed  to  a't-iin  its  purpose  wen;  the  follow, 
ing:  1,  by  founding  a  school  where  artists  n»ay  learn  their  pn)fes6ion  ;  and  2,  bj 
instituting  an  exhibition  where,  indei>endently  of  private  pat  rentage  and  support, 
artists  may  bring  their  works  directly  before  tlie  public.  Hogarth  died  fom-  ycnrs 
before  the  RoyaiAcademy  ^^as  orjra'nlsi  i\ ;  h\u  h»  poweiiuliy  contritiutrd  to  its  es- 
tablishment by  his  exertions  ki  bringing  the  artists  together  in  1734,  by  support- 
ing the  modem  exhibitions  at  Spring  Gardens,  and  by  ridiculing  by  hJs 
pencil  and  pen  the  pas.-ion  of  the  cognoscenti  of  the  day  for  crying 
up  as  superior  to  the  modern  the -.doubtful  specimens  of  old  art  which 
were larirtly  imported  and  disposed  of  at  great  prices  n)  numerous  salesrooms  estab- 
lished for  the  purpose  in  London.  As  regards  technical  exef  ution,  and  indeid  in 
ptylegenerjdly,  theEnglisli  artists  were  at  firfet  indebte<l  to  the  Fretich  school,  which, 
in  the  commencement  of  the  IRth  c.,  was  in  irreat  vliror.  Hojrai-tli  himself,  in  the.-c 
respects.  looke<l  closely  at  the  works  of  Watt<'au.  engravi?  gp  from  which  were  well 
known  in  this  c  imiry  in  his  time;  indeed,  Watteau's  pictures  were  So  greatly  ad- 
mired here  that  he  came  over  and  sciait  the  year  17'20  painting  in  London.  But  Ho- 
garth, tliough  alfve  to  the  qualities  m  art  produced  by  others,  ranks  auunig  painters 
as  one  of  the  most  original,  for  he  greatly  extended  the  dramatic  element  in  paint- 
ing, and  imparted  an  originality  and  vigor  to  it  never  before  attained;  and  his  ex- 
ample has  led  to  that  element  being  one  of  the  leading  fciiturep  of  the  English  s<hool, 
as  is  exemplified  in  the  works  of  Wilkie  (q.  v.),  Ltislie  ((^.  v.),  Stuart  Newton,  Bon- 
ingron,  and  others;  and  tliose  of  many  di  tirguisbed  artists  of  the  presc?nt  day.  In 
the  department  of  portrait-painting,  many  of  the  works  of  the  British  school  nink 
with  those  of  Titian,  Van  Dyck,  and  Velasquez,  sueh,  for  instance,  as  Reynolds's 
portraits  of  Nelly  O'Brien  and  Lady  Hamilton.  Gainsborough's  Mr>  Graham  ai  d  Mrs 
SiddooB,  ajid  some  of  Raeburud  heads,  &c.  While  In  tliat  ol  laud&capv,  tiic  pobliiuu 


y  Google 


Paiailng  gg^ 

of  the  EiiVUsh  BclioolJs  ncktiowlerlgod  to  be  very  lifsh,  its  inflnpnce  now  strongly 
ttlEecting:  the  Freiicb  r'cbool— tliia  is  pioved  by  ilie  works  of  R^  Wilson,  Q.iiuabonjimh 
(a.  v.),  auU  Turner  (q.  v.),  thu  la<t  of  whom,  for  widt-  rjuij^o  of  siibj-cl,  aiul  renderini? 
of  atmospheric  effect,  stauds  aloue;  Consrable,  \yho8e  t>ovverfiil  grus^p  uf  Dniure  has 
excited  tlie  emuhitioii  of  the Freuch  artists;  Culcotr  (q.  v.),  Goliins  (q.  v.),  Nasmyth, 
J.  Thomsoii,  MiiUer,  and  others;  aud  tiieir  successor^,  the  artiste  of  ihe  da}',  who 
nblyreprescut  the  Enghsh  school.  Auiinai-p.iii)tiug  has  also  been  t^IevM ted  to  a 
high  uo:<itiou.  Aud  au  importaut  department,  that  of  painting  in  waier-colors, 
origiiiated  iu  England,  and  has  there  attaiued  far  higher  excellence  than  in  any  other 
country.  ' 

Paiurinir  is  cultivated  witli  success  and  receives  mnch  encouragement  iu 
America,  but  there  tlie  teatures  that  ni.-irk  a  national  sciiool  have  not  yet  had  time 
for  developmeut.  ^rom  the  c'ose  coimection  between  Britain  and  America,  the 
art  of  the  latter  country  was  naturally  influenced  by  and  l>ecame  assimilated  to  that 
of  the  former.  America  may,  iiow-  ver,  justly  take  credit  for  havinir  contributed  in 
no  small  degree  to  sireiigtlien  the  Britit«h  school  of  art.  as  several  very  able  members 
of  tlie  Roytu  Academy  were  Americans.  Benjamin  West  (1738 — 182<))  was  one  of 
the  oii^nal  members,  and  elected  President  of  the  Royal  Academy  iu  180«.  .T.  S. 
Copuley  (1487—1815),  elected  R.A.  In  1799;  his  ♦* Death  of  Cliaihara,"  and  *•  De- 
fence of  St  Ueliers,  Jersey,  again-^t  the  French,  and  Death  of  Major  Pier.^ou  at 
the  moment  of  Victory,"  are  excellent  works,  and  as  such  were  conserved  iu  tlie 
National  Gallery.  Lou  Ion.  C.  U.  Leslie  (179* -1859)  was  boru  in  London  of 
American  parents;  but  In  1799,  went  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  was  educat<nl.  Re- 
turuinij  to  London  in  ISll,  he  entered  tlie  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy;  was' 
el  JCietlacademiciau  in  1826,  and  professor  of  paintiuj?  in  184S  Q.  S.  Newton'  I75Ht— 
ISac)— l»e  was  admitted  a  student  of  the  Koyal  Acadv^my  in  1821,  aud  elected  acade- 
m  ciau  in  i83i.  Washhigton  Al.stou  (178J— 1843)  was  elected  au  associate  iu  1813; 
.but  alterwardrt  rettu'iied  to  An»erica,  where  he  died.  With  the  exception  of  the  last 
named,  the  feeling  evinced  in  the  works  of  all  those  artist-*,  iuflucnci'd  by  t<tndy  aud 
couiiuued  residenc.;,  was  essentially  Enjjlish  ;  indeed  few  have  eqimlled  Leslie  and 
Newton  in  their  power  uf  embonyiug  the  varloiw  iucid(«uis  made  national  by 
English  poets ;  and  in  none  of  thuir  works  can  anything  he  »*et  down  a*  contributing 
iu  any  degree  to  the  found  itlou  of  a  national  American  school.  There  is  every 
reason  to  think,  however,  that  such  a  school  is  bjln-.r  gradually  evolved,  and  will 
soon  be  developed.  Already  something  like  originality  c>t  a  national  kind  is  ex- 
hihited  in  laud-cipe  paintiu;^.  in  wliicU  som^  Amerlcm  avtisti^aro  endeavoriui;  to 
en»l)ody  scenes  eml>racin^'  a  vast  exti-ut  of  couutry^  or  of  extraordinary  ma^nitud'? — 
such  48  tljose  met  with  iu  the  An  les,  at  Niaifara,  or  t-xhihit  'd  by  floating  icel)ergs; 
and  Americau  literature,  havin^^  n  )w  assumed  impoHinij:  proportious,  and  gi-Ciit 
lii-'torical  events  l>eing  now  iu  rapid  pro^i^re."?,  illu:*l rations  of  American  poetry  and 
pictures  of  stirring  national  even t-s  will  he  called  tortli  ;  and  able  Americiui  artists 
will  doubtles*  l>e  tound  to  emhody  tlt'^m  aud  create  a  school  truly  national. 

A  general  survey  of  painting  at  the  present  time  exhibits  the  following  aspect 
and  arrangement :  1.  A  school  iuGerm  luy,  which  arose  dniiug  thepi-esent  century, 
ostensihly  a  revival  of  the  old  UMtional,  bur.  trulv  modelled  on  the  early  Italian 
BcliooU  tlie  religious  eletuent  heiu-;  prominent,  tti*  principal  works  are  mural,  of 
Iftrge  dimeiisionf*^  uud  mostly  executed  in  fresco,  or  on  a  kind  of  fr«'SCO  lately  in- 
vented, culled  slhca  or  water-*rlass  i)aiuting,  from  a  vehi<'.le  of  that  kind  being  need. 
Inveution,  compOHition,  grouping,  aud  powerful  and  lorrect  drawinir,  characterise 
the  mo<lern  Gi'rman  works;  butboiugof  necessity  execufd  from  cartoonf".  they  are 
deficient  iu  that  amount  of  individual  expression,  nud  natural  color  and  effect,  that 
can  only  he  attained  by  a  direct  and  continued  reference  to  the  object  represented. 
2.  A  Belgian  school,  which  arose  in  the  present  century,  and  is  &\hO  a  revival  of  the 
earlier  national  schools.  Some  of  the  Belgian  artists  iean  to  the  manner  of  the  very 
early  Flemish  school,  others  to  that  of  which  Rul>euB  was*  the  head.    'I'he  «rreat«r 

f^ortion  of  the  Belgian  works  are  easel-pictures,  and  many  of  them  rank  high  for 
ndividnal  expre.-^siou,  color,  and  technical  execution.  8.  A  French  school,  exhibit- 
ing iu  active  operation  the  variou><  styles  that  have  at  different  iwriods  prevailed  in 
tliat  country,  sometimes  modified  or  adapted  to  the  taste  and  feeling  of  the  times. 
ITie  works  of  the  French  school  of  the  eighteenth  ceutmy  were  utterly  condemned 
by  French  artists  at  the  close  of  that  aud   commeucemeut  of   the   preaeut 


Digitized  by 


Google 


665  .     ^»^'"« 

contnry.  Tliey  wonld  tolernte  nothing' but.  whnt  they  railed  classic  art.  VEco^e 
elofuiique^  as  it  was  styled,  w  s  in  Us  tnni  supphmtcd  by  VEcole  romantiquc. 
Now,  howevtT,  h11  etyle«  are  toleratt'd,  even  tliose  of  foreign  Bcbools— for  iuptauce, 
tht;  Euglisli  school  of  laiidsiCiipe — and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  by  ihc 
extensive  miige  of  8ul)ject,  iuveutioii.  drawing,  and  other  high  qualities  the 
French  artists  display  in  thtir  workn,  tliey  liave  now  raised  that  school  to  u  very 
-  high  po»itioii.  4.  A  Britisli  school,  which  \\t\^  been  in  existence  as  a  national  fchool 
mnirly  as  long  a«»  lh«t  of  France,  undisiurbed  by  the  convul.-ions  that  affi-cted  it. 
Vitality  in  art  In  nmiuiained  by  close  reference  to  nature,  and  this  has  all  along  been 
the  leading  chai-acteiii?tic  of  the  Englislj  school;  while  tlie  tendency  of  the  artists 
at  pn'sent  is,  taking  advantage  of  the  aid  of  .«cience,  which  has  lately  discovered 
photogni'.ihy,  ro'ptudy  nature  with  still  greater  earnestnepss  and  atre.  The  liisjli 
claims  tif  the  Britlfsh  hchool.  long  denied  abroad,  are  now  fully  admitted.  Formerly, 
foreijcners  n.iver  classed  a  Biiiisu  school  among  those  of  Europe,  bnt  now  this  is 
invariably  done.  Oiie  of  the  moyt  popular  writi-rs  on  art  in  France,  Th6opliilo 
G;iulier.  in  his  work,  "Les  Beaux-Arts  en  Europe*,"  divides  the  art  of  the  world  into 
four  strouifly  deflmd  ztmes — viz..  Great  Britaiti,  Belgium,  Germany,  and  France — 
Britain  being  disiinguished  by  •*individattlit.v,"  a  intent  element  in  art ;. Belgium, 
by  "skill*"  Gennauy,  by  *' ideality;"  and  Fnujci-,  by  ♦*  eclecticism,"  or  a  seleclioii 
ttud  comlnnation  of  the  qualities  of  all  other  pchooK 

Regarding  technical  modes  or  processes  of  painting,  reference  Is  made  to  the 
eepartite  nouces  under  FresCo,  Encaustic,  Miniature  Paikting.  '1  he  period 
when  the  nn-thod  of  mixing  up  colors  with  oil  was  introduced,  and  the  artists  to 
whom  the  invention  is  atiril)utcd,  have  been  already  alluded  to.  It  is  neoegsary, 
however,  to  enter  on  some  details  touching  tlie  mechanical  processes  in  oil-pain  ing, 
the  branch  of  the  ai  I  that  oeeupies  the  most  prominent  position  ;  and  the  practice 
of  cleaning  and  restoring  |»iciures. 

The  inipleme^its  used  hy  n  painter  in  oil  are  charcoal,  chalk,  or  lead  pencils,  for 
drawing  the  outline ;  hair-pencils  or  brushes  of  various  ^izv  s,  made  of  hog's  bristles 
or  finer  luiir,  such  as  sable;  a  knife  or  spatula  to  mix  the  colors,  and  a  palette  or 
small  tjihle  of  thin  wood,  to  be  held  in  the  left  hand,  on  which  the  cold's  and  tints 
ai'e  placed  and  mixed  ;  an  easel  or  stand  for  supporting  the  picture  is  also  required, 
and  a  light  rod  for  steadying  or  resting  the  hand  on.  Larjre  pictures  are  always  ex»:- 
cuted  on  canvas,  stretched  tightly  on  a  frame,  and  primed  or  coated  with  pnint. 
Small  picturt'S  are  oiten  paiiiied  on  board**  or  panels,  generally  of  haid  wot;d,  Hueh 
as  oak  or  mahogany,  and  fimihi'ly  primed  or  prepared  :  but  canvas,  even  for  small 
works,  seems  at  present  to  b(?  generally  preferri  d.  Panels  are  apt  to  ^wi^'t,  or  warp, 
or  split,  and  in  the  event  of  the  furface  of  a  i)icture  chipping  or  breaking  Oft  from 
the  ground,  tlie  damage  can  be  more  easily  remedied,  and  its  progress  stopped, 
when  the  picture  is  On  canvas,  by  re-lining.  The  color  of  the  ground  of  the  canvas 
or  panel  has  l)eeu  the  subject  of  u)uch  diversity  of  opinion  among  attists  in  differ- 
ent countiies  and  at.  various  periods ;  and  it  is  certaiidy  a  matter  of  great  impor- 
tance, as  it  aftecta  the  general  color  of  tlie  work,  or  makes  it  necessary  for  the  artist 
to  adopt  a  peculiar  style  of  working.  Tlie  color  of  the  ground  used  by  the  early 
masters  was  white,  or  nearly  jiure  white.  This  arose  from  tenipora  or  size  b<'ing  the 
medium  first  used  in  painting,  and  a  pure  white  ground  prepand  with  size  was 
necessary  for  that  khnl  of  work.  This  practice,  except  as  n-gards  the  Venetian 
school,  continued  till  the  decline  of  Italian  art.  •  l)ull  red  was  the  universal  color 
adopted  in  the  eclectic,  Naturalisii,  nnd  late  Italian  schools,  and  this  is 
one  of  the  causes  of  the  woiks  of  these  schools  being  characterised  by  bhu  kne^s  and 
heaviness ;  at  the  same  time,  it  is  certxtln  that  red  grounds  were  also  us*  d  by  many  of 
tlie  best  Venetian  painters,  in  whose  works  these  defec^^s  are  never  found,  probably 
from  havli  g  used  an  imp;isto  or  body  of  color  snfflciently  i)Owerful  to  bear  out  ou 
the  ground.  A  dark  ground  affords  a  facility  for  working  expeditiously,  and  that^ 
probably,  was  the  principal  cause  for  its  being  adopted.  The  Dutch  and  Fiemisli 
painters  generally  used  lijrht  grounds ;  some  ot  them  light-brown,  nearly  the  color  of 
oak.  Van  Dyck  occaslomdly  used  gray,  and  somet  ines,  when  he  painted  In  Italy,  dull 
red  grounds.  In  the  British  school,  light  g^rounds  are  preferred.  Some  artict*  use 
smooth  canvas,  others  prefer  it  rough,  and  avail  themselves  of  the  texture  to  Increase 
the  richness  of  the  surfsice  of  their  work.  All  these  varieties  in  the  materials  are 
called  for  in  consequence  of  the  uumeroos  styles  or  modes  adopted  by  painters  iu  oU 


y  Google 


tinting  (jgg 

colors.  Every  nrtV«t  has  his  pecuilar  wjiy  of  working,  and  In  bringing  ont  the  color 
or  etfect,  or  special  quality  in  Ids  picrnn-,  by  which  tlie  fi;e!iii^  or  idea  of  the  subject 
hi!  caiiceives  is  exprosAid.  No  two  iirtisis— iinifatx>r.'«  and  copiers  ure  not  refeired 
to— prO'lnce  tlieir  tints  l)y  misin«r  colors  in  the  same  proportions,  nor.  Indeed,  by 
n-(lMg  the  saiue  colors  ;  and  it.  is  difficult  to  hiy  ilown  gmeinl  rnle:<  for  Die  execution 
of  works,  seeing  tliat  depends  very  niiicli  on'  individnal  fouling  and  a|>- 
pr.rciaiion.  The  design  or  drawinj;  is  lirst  outlined  ou  the  canvas,  if  it 
is  llijht,  with  charcoal,  or  with  white  challc  when  it  is  dark,  and  tliesd 
Inies  are  eat«ily  dnsted  off  or  rubbed  out  when  correctious  jite  niade.  It.  is  tlien  put 
in  with  l)lack  chalk  or  a  lead  j)encli.    Not  numy  years  n^o  ii   was  the  pn.ci  ice  of 

Sainters,  particidarly  luudsciipe-painters— Nasmytli.  for  inStance--|o  rub  in  ti»e 
;!3ign  Willi  some  brown  color,  !»u*cli  as  a  tint  composed  of  burned  sienna  and  black; 
bin.  this*  practice  is  not  mucii  adopted  now.  Some  artists  nial^e  bnt  a  slight 
outline,  und  paint— or,  as  it.  is  calUid  technically  niU — in  the  snl)jtct  in  a  hold,  i-ouu'U 
m.inner,  afterwards  1,'radually  fluisldnir  it  up;  others  draw  the  design  very  carefully, 
and  work  tlie  pictiirt!  up  in  portions,  finishing  or  nearly  finishing  one  portion  before 
cuui'.nencing  aiiotlur.  In  urrangiiifj  the  colors  or  as  it  is  called,  selling  tlie  paleiti-, 
many  artisf*  use  a  {ireat  variety  of  colors,  others  produce  rich  tones  with  few  coIo^^' ; 
some  inir  up  tints  in  various  gradatiousi|  others  place  the  coloi*son  the  paletie,  com- 
mencing at.  the  outer  ed^e  with  white,  followed  by  yellows  and  burned  sienna  (a  red- 
dish hrown),  then  red.i,  includim?  lak  s,  such  as  pink,  madder,  next  bine,  itad 
lastly  hlack,  and  merely  mix  u|>  the  tint  ou  tlie  c^'utreof  the  paitMte  with  their 
bru3  i>  as  tliey  proceed.  In  laying  the  colors  on  the  ctuivas,  the  painter  with  his 
brush  mixes  tiv  dilutCf*  them  with  wlrtit  is  called  a  vehicle  or  mtdium.  Here,  again, 
tlje  practice  of  artists  is  very  vared;  and  this  is  a  matter  of  importance,  as  the  tono 
ami  quality  of  the  picture,  as  regards  texture  or  surfac  ;  and  transparency,  is  much 
uffecied  by  the  med.ium  employed,  and  tlie  manner  of  usln^  it  Tlie  durability  of  the 
work  also  depends  Very  mucli  on  the  mediuiu  and  the  artist's  management  of  it.  A 
medium  composed  oi  mastic  varnish  and  drying  orb  'iled  linseed  oitj  named  ina- 
gilp,  is  that  most  geiuTally  used.  This  mixture  coagulates  or  forms  a  jelly,  and  has 
the  advantage,  when  placed  on  the  palette,  of  nor  running  off  it,  or  mixiujr  with  th-» 
colors  when  the  palette  is  not  held  level.  Same  painters  prefer  u>in!?  raw  linse  d  oil 
mix«*d  with  adryer,  such  jis  lithargcj  or  d  ying  oil  mixed  >^jtli  turpentine,  or  copal 
Varnish  and  tarpeniine,  or  copal  varnish  and  oil,  with  mastic  varnish  added,  to  mako 
it  coagulate.  Oiher  ingredients  are  often  mixed  with  the  medium,  to  iiive  a  tliick 
CO n si:* ten cy  to  the  p  liut,  such  as  fiit  or  thickened  nut  oil,  paste,  &r.;  and  various 

Sreparations sold  i»y  artists'  Ci)lormeii  are  much  used;  for  instance,  Rohei'sonV  me- 
I urn,  and  Siccatif  de  Harlem,  a  preparation  imported  from  Paris.  The  mode  uf 
nsin«<  tlie  medium  is  of  ;;reat  cou.seqiicuce;  some  apply  it  very  sparingfy,  otlier«, 
pardcuhiriy  those  wlio  prefer  magilp,  or  a  medium  that  coagulates,  employ  it  lav- 
Jshly.  By  the  first  nvtifod.  fijMmi -ss  and  decision  of  touch  may  Iwj  exhihite<I,  by  tbe 
latter,  richin^ss  and  hrilllaiicy  of  lone ;  tlie  excess  tends  to  prtxluc<*,  in  the  one  case, 
a  hard  and  diy  surface,  and  the  want  of  the  protection  that  varnish  mixed  with  the 
color  gives  a.^iinst  atinospheric  action  ;  the  « ther induces  a  surface  liavioga  horny 
apjie  irance,  and. a  tendv^ucy  to  darken,  or  crack,  or  open  up. 

"Arresting  the  d  cay  of  p'ctures,  and  repairing,  or.  as  it  is  strled,  restoring  them, 
after  r hey.  liave  suffered  from  age  or  had  usage  are  mattei*8  whieh  engage  much  ai- 
tention.  Theri;  can  he  no  douht  tliar  many  painting's  of  vast  im|)Ortance  liave  baen 
Kavt^d  by  the  Care  and  skill  of  those  who  have  «'arnesrly  devoted  themselves  to  that 
kind  of  work;  but  piciure-cleinlng  is  now  a  trade  loilowed  in  nnmeroiis instances 
by  iipor.i;it  pretend  rs  ami  quacks,  who  hold  out  that  they  posse  s  some  nie;ins  Ity 
whicii  they  can  freshen  a  picture,  and  restore  it  to  the  state?  it  was  in  when  originally 
execnteJ.  Generally  speaking,  the  great  extent  to  which  this  bu'^iness  is  carried  Oii 
is  owin,r,ro  the  credulity  of  those  who  dabble  in  colleetii.g  old  pictures^  one  4rre;:t  in- 
centive to  which  being  the  hop^  of  picking  up,  or  discovering, some  picture  of  j^reat 
value  conc-baK'il  tinder  the  dirt,  and  discoloration  arquired  in  a  long  course  of  yeai-^  ; 
but.,  nevertheless,  there  can  be  no  doubt  tnat  many  proprietors  of  works  of  art  wliu 
collect  from  far  hij;lier  motive.s  are  remarkahly  prone  to  call  in  the  pictwre-cleaner 
when  bis  services  are  anythiusr  but  necessary  or  beneficial.  1'he  late  Sir  EiUviu 
Landseer,  R.A.,  when  examined  by  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
Appointed  to  iuquire  into  aUegatiOi.8  of  damage  by  cleaning,  sustained  by  the  pictures 


Digitized  by 


Google 


667 


Painting 


fn  tlie  Nntional  Gallery  of  London  (Report  and  Evidence  ordered  to  he  printed, 
1858),  stated  in  the  followiuir  terms,  iiis  idnji  of  thin  r;>jre  for  pictnre-cleaniiiL',  or 
rniliir  picture-destroying:  "Tlie  first  tiling,  vrlieiiever  a  picture  i^  sold,  I  think,  i.«, 
that  it  goes  to  II  picture-r<'8torer,  or  a  picture-liner,  or  a  picture-clejiuer,  no  n»rtter 
wliat  \V*  condition  i&  It  isexactly  tlie  same  tliinjf  ns  wlun  you  Imy  a  iiorse  ;  your 
erooni  says  lie  will  he  all  right  when  he  has  u  dose  of  pliysic  through  him,  \vh«tlier 
he  wants  it  or  not."  'J'he  niauin  for  pictun-cleanlng  is  not  confined  to  this  country  ; 
it  is  extensively  carried  on  witli  evtn  more  rujnous  consequences  al)road,  par- 
ticularly in  Italy,  where  I  liere  is  a  large  tniffic  iu  old,  and  few  commissions  for 
modern  works,  aiid  where  in  many  of  the  public  galleries  one  or  more  picturo- 
cleauers,  for  whom  work  must  l>e  found,  are  attaciicd  as  permanent  officers. 

The  proco-s  of-pictnre  cleaning,  or  the  removal  of  the  old  varnishes  or  other  In* 
cmstatious  l)y  wliich  a  painting  may  he  obscured,  is  effected  either  hy  mechanical 
or  chemi<-al  means.  'J  he  first  metliod  is  accomplished  when  the  varnish  on  the  sur- 
face is  mastic,  by  rubl)ing  with  the  fingers  the  surface  of  varnisli  when  in  a  dry 
state,  hy  whicii  action  it  is  brouglit  off  in  a  fine  wliite  powder ;  or  by  scrr.piitg  or 
era>ins£  the  surface  with  sharp  steel  instrument**  when  the  suilace  of  the  picture  is 
tolerably  smooth.  The  first  of  these  processes  is  the  best  that  can  be  employed; 
but  when  the  surface  is  rough  or  nnequal.  the  prominent  jiortions  are  apt  to  l»e  oveiv 
rubJ)ed;  eraslugorscra])ing  is  often  practised  in  Italy,  but  rarely  in  this  country. 
The  chemical  means  con8i^t  in  the  aptilication  of  r^olvents,  chiefly  alkali,  or  alcohol, 
to  dissolve  the  old  varnisb.  The  danger  here  is,  that  the  ;  ction  of  these  soivent"*  is 
not  always  sto:)pe<l  with  sufficient  promptness  and  dexterity,  and  part  of  the  surface 
of  the  picture  is  taken  off ;  consequently  it  is  hy  this  latter*  process  lliat  most  de- 
struction is  caused.  For  the  vaiitjns  methods  emph.y*  d  in  pictme-cUaning,  the  Re- 
port and  Minutes  of  Evidence,  already  referred  to,  may  be  consulted,  atid  the  "  Guide 
Tii^oriquett  Pi'atiquede  I'Amatenr  de  Tableaux,  par  Thdodore  Lejeune*'  (Paris, 
1804),  in  which  are  stated  ail  the  most  approved  methods  of  cleaning  and  restoring 
pictures. 

Works  on  painting  and  painters  :  Vasari  (Florence,  1 568) ;  BorgWn!  (Florence, 
1680;  Kodolplii  (Venice,  1648);  Zanetti  (Venice,  1T71) ;  Lonzi  (1792),  Bolsn's 
edition  of  Koscoe's  translation  ;  Von  Rumohr  (Berlin.  l'<21) ;  Kugler's  "  Hand- 
book of  Paint  in^^',  Italian  Schools  of  Painting,"  editid  hy  East  lake  (1865)  ;  "Ger- 
man, Flemish,  and  Dutch  Schools,"  by  the  same,  edited  hy  Sir  Edmund  Head,  Bart. 
(1846) ;  •'  Hand-book  to  Spanish  S'hools  and  French  Schools"  (1848) ;  **  Hand-hook 
f(u- YounsT  Painters,-'  by  C.  R.  Leslie,  R.  A.. (1855) ;  Raskin's  •»  Motlern  Painters'* 
(1843-1860). 

PAINTING  (House),  Is  one  f»f  the  useful  arte,  combining  much  that  is  artistic 
with  mucli  that  Is  absolutely  nectjssary.  Tiie  primary  ol)ject  of  painting  houses,  or 
parts  of  them,  either  internally  or  externally,  is  to  preserve  them  from  decay— to 
cover  the  parts  liable  to  suffer  from  exposure  with  a  dursible  composition.  That 
now  iiseil  i<  made  of  ground  white  le;id  mixed  with  linseed  oil.  This  produci  s  white 
paint,  whch  forms  the  basis  of  all  otheis.  The  various  colors  jriv.  n  to  it  are  pro- 
duced by  ihe  j;riiiding.  of  pi'.miei.ts  {or  Ntainers)  along  with  the  white  lead.  The 
commonest  of  thes;*  are  ochres  (yellow  an<l  red  earths),  lampblack,  Venetian  red, 
nmbiT,  Prussinn  blue,  chrome,  vermilion,  &c.  Substances  called  driers  are  also 
niixed  vritii  the  p  lint,  such  as  spirits  of  turpentine,  boiled  oil,  liilaige  and  sugar  of 
lead  ground  In  oil.  Paint  mny  he  laid  on  any  mateiial — stone,  wood,  in  n  and  plas- 
t<r  boiu::  the  ranst  usual  in  buildings.  It  has  the  effect  of  preserv  ni.  tin  se  by  filling 
np  the  pores  in  them,  and  forinini;  a  coating  on  which  the  moisture  of  iheatmos- 

}>h«*re  doe?  not  act  The  paint  is  laid  On  in  several  coats  or  layers,  eaih  being  al- 
ow'  (1  to  dry  b -fore  the  next  is  applied.  The  usual  numt>er  of  coats  for  new  wood 
or  planter  varies  from  three  to  six.  Five  coats  form  a  good  and  la^tinJ:  p;otectiou 
from  the  weather.  Plain  painting  is  generally  fiidslud  with  a  eoat  ]m  p.ire.i  with  u 
nifxture  of  oil  of  tnrp  iitlue,  which  takes  off  the  trloss  Irom  the  paint,  and  leaves  the 
surface  quite  mat  or  dead.  This  is  cailed  jiattijrg.  A  very  common  form  of  dect)- 
ratioii  in  all  ages  has  been  to  imitate  the  veins  or  colors  ot  marbles,  and  the  frrniua 
or  marks  of  growtli  of  various  wood"*.  In  modern  times,  th-se  arts  form  a  sepai  ate 
brnnch  of  nou8<'-painting.  some  men  b<-irig  grarnera,  otiiers  niarblera,  &e.  The 
niode  In  whicli  thcsf  imiation«'  are  produced  is  by  forming  i  grounding  of  several 
coat:»of  pluix  paint— u;saaliy  fuiu'— and  applying  tho  coluhugcuat  over  thia.    In 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Paints  i^i^Q 

Paisley  t>00 

mat'bliug,  the  colorinff  matter  I«  mnrked  and  veineil  with  feathen  in  jplaee  of 
brnahes;  aud  in  graining,  steel  combs  are  nsed.  Wheu  tiie  Burface  is  dry,  ft  is  pro- 
tected with  one  or  more  coats  of  copal  varnish. 

Besides  painting,  the  decorator  uses  papor-haugings  for  adorning  the  wtills  of 
houses.  These  are  applied  to  the  wail:^  witi)  paste.  Size-coloring  is  ah«o  U8e<l ;  the 
coloiiug  matter  in  tins  cat«e  l>eing  miz<'d  with  strong  Size  ^q.  v.)  in  place  of  oil ;  bat 
this  iias  tlut  disadvantage  of  being  easily  acted  on  by  moisture.  It  Is  often  used  for 
the  ceilin^fl  of  common  roonis,  and  for  the  wuU^  of  kiichcnu  and  servants'  ap;irt- 
ments,  being  much  cheaper  than  oil-paint.  In  ancient  times,  in  Greece  and  Rome, 
wax  was  used  for  mixing  the  colors  with;  imt  although  there  are  nmny  very  fine 
specimens  of  Roman  paintings  sfill  preserved  on  the  walls  of  the  houses  of  Pompeii, 
the  mode  in  which  these  decorations  were  applied  is  not  now  known. 

PAINTS,  Painters'  Colors,  or  Pigments.  These  names  are  applied  to  th» 
prepared  or  nnprepared  compositions  by  which  wood,  stone,  and  ottier  materials 
are  coated  with  a  preservative  surface  of  oil,  mixed  with  an  earthy  matter,  to  give 
it  color  aud  consistency ;  also  to  the  materials  used  by  artistes  to  produce  the 
colored  surfaces  of  their  pictures.  The  art  of  p:iiuting,  In  it's  primitive  state, 
consisted  merely  in  applying  such  natural^  mineral,  and  vegetable  colors  as  wero 
spontaneously  yielded,  without  any  vehicle  to  render  them  permanent ;  cou- 
seqii/ntly,  Ihey  had  to  l)e  renewed  as  often  as  they  were  rubbed  or  waslied  off  foom 
the  surfaees  to  which  they  were  applied.  The  paints  now  in  tise  are  nearly  all 
mixeit  with  a  liquid  vehicle,  and  are  applied  in  the  li^id  state.  The  mixing 
materials  are  varied  according  to  ttie  requirements  of  the  work.  Thus,  for  some  kindd 
of  decomtive  work,  and  for  water-color  dmwings,  gum,  glue,  size,  or  other  adhesive 
materials  dissolved  in  water,  are  empioyetl;  whilst  for  the  painting  of  building, 
&c.,  and  for  oil-paintings,  oils  of  vmioiis  kinds  are  used  for  mixing  and  thinumg 
the  colors.  IMius,  for  painted  work  exposed  to  the  weather,  it  Is  found  that  linseed 
oil  boili  d  with  the  sulphates  of  lead  (litharge)  or  zinc,  or  with  acetate  of  lead 
(sui^ar  of  lead),  is  the  best  The  pr<'paration  of  boiled  oil  is  one  i-eqniring  particu- 
lar care,  as  it  is  desirable  to  have  it  bright  and  clear.  Ilenc6'the  proportions  of  tiio 
metallic  salts  are  much  varied  by  di^Ment  manufacturers,  and  by  some  varloos 
oilier  ingredients  are  add(.*d.  The  time  of  boiling,  and  the  method»of  filtering,  arc 
also  mncii  varied.  For  indoor  work,  plain  linseed  oil  and  oil  (spirit)  of  turpentine 
are  used;  if  a  glossy  s-urfaee  is  wished,  the  linseed  oil  must  be  in  excess;  if  a  dull 
oi'flattened  surface^  then  the  quantity  of  turpentine,  or  turjM,  as  it  is  often  teclini- 
cafly  calK'd,  must  lie  fncreased;  and  it  is  usual  to  tuld  a  suiiill  quantity  of  ground  lith- 
arge and  sugar  of  lend,  which  are  prepared  for  this  purpose,  and  solduiider  the  name 
of  Driers.  For  artists'  colors,  vejy  fine  llns«ed  or  nut  oil  is  u.^ed,  unboiled,  and  in 
small  quantity,  and  tiinwntine  is  employed  to  dilute  them.  Painte  for  very  rough 
purpose.-,  sucli  as  ship- work,  stone  walls.  &c.,  are  often  mixe^l  with  whale  oil  boih  d 
wiih  white  v.triol  (acetate  of  zinc),  litharge,  uud  vinegar,  aud  they  are  diluted  with 
common  linseed  oil  and  lumentine. 

Most  of  the  paints  used  for  ordinary  purposes  are  composed  first  of  the  coloring 
matter,  then  of  a  quantity  of  white-Uad,  with  which  and  the  oil  they  are  worked 
into  a  paste  of  the  shade  required,  and  afterwards  thinnid  down  with  oi!  and  tui^- 
penthie  when  used-  The  white-lead  which  thus  forms  the  basis  of  most  paints,  and 
t)y  itself  a  color,  is  a  carlwnate  and  oxide  of  the  metal,  produced  hy^  exposing  pieces 
of  lead  to  the  action  of  the  steam  of  acetic  ncid  in  beds  of  fe4*menting  txiiu  It  is  the 
principal  white  paint  used,  but  is  liable  to  discoloration  from  the  gases  contiiined  iii 
impure  atmospheres.  Other  white  pigments  are  prenaiv  d  from  the  oxide  of  zinc,  aiul 
the  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  baiytes.  Pale  yellow  is  made  with  chromaic  of 
sti-ontian,  orange-yellow  with  sniphuri  t  of  cadmium,  whilst  several  varieties  of  this 
color  are  produced  by  chromute  of  leiid,  sulphuret  oi  .arsenic,  or  king's  yellow,  and 
various  native  earths  in  which  silica  and  alumina  are  combined ^witli  oxide  i£ 
iron.  Amongst  these  are  Yellow  Ochre,  Oxford,  Roman,  Stone,  Oi-ange,  Indian, 
and  American  Ocht  es.  Jieda  are  either  purely  mineral,  or  they  are  lake,%  i.  e.,  organic 
colors  precipitated  on  alumina  bases.  Of  the  latter,  there  are  madder-lakes,  pre- 
pared from  madder-roots,  and  carmine-lakes,  prepared  from  cochineal;  of  the  for- 
mer, vermilion  (bisulphme4.  of  mercury),  Ii.diau  red  (a  native  oxide  of  iron),  Vene- 
tian red  (also  an  oxide  of  iron),  red  had  (red  oxide  of  lead  or  ininium).  A  very 
bcuutilul  red  is  Uiied  by  artista  called  palladium  red;  it  is  formed  of  ammouio-per. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


669  .:fta«ltf 

chloride  of  palladlnm.  ShtM  conpist  of  the  artlfldal  nltramnrine*,  and  for  art^:«t8*  l>u^ 
posef>,  of  tliereal  nltramariiie,  nlso  llnt  Filu-aie  of  cobtiti,  and  fur  water-colore.  liidigo 
Hiid  Pins«s«iaD  bine.  Oreenn  ;tro  either  produced  by  iiiixiuiNti  of  yellowB  ttud  blve9,  oi 
they  are  made  directly  from  the  phof*phat«8,  cArbuiiates,  ncetate^,  and  arseoitee  of 
copper,  also  from  tlie  aesqnioxlde  of  chromium  and  from  terre  verte^  a  native  min- 
eral coDBisting  of  iron,  pihcn,  pota^^n,  nnd  magnesia.  Tlie  hist  two  are  the  best  for 
artisfp.  Brovnu  are  nnmeroii&>,  and  variousin  i  heir  composition.  Decomposed  peat, 
burned  madder,  burijed  Prussian  bine,  burned  terre  verte,  nsphait,  manganese  brown, 
cateclm,  umber  (whicli  is  an  oxide  of  iron  witli  mangauefe),  and  mummy,  or  tli€ 
a^iialt  mixed  witli  otiier  matters  taken  from  Egyptian  mummies,  and  amongst  the 
best  known  and  most  nscd.  Slacks  are  nnide  of  J^mp-l>iack  and  JBoiie-black  (q.  v.), 
peroxide  of  manganese,  and  blue-black,  which  is  untde  of  tlie  etiarcoal  oi  borned 
vine  twigs. 

In  allcases,  the  coloring  materials  of  paints  nquire  to  be  very  finely  ground,  and 
as  many  are  vory  poisonous,  great  care  is  n^qulred  in  their  preparation,  and  severaJ 
forms  of  mill  Imve  been  invented  for  the  )>urpoBo.  The  princii)ie  uuou  wi»ich  all  ar« 
made  is  to  8e<-nre  the  operator  fronf  I  he  poisonous  dust  and  exhalations,  and  to  re- 
duce the  coloring  material,  if  groimd  dry,  to  an  iu)pali>able  powder,  or  if  mixed  wiili 
the  oil,  to  a  perfectly  smooth  paste. 

.PAISIELLO,  Giovnnni,  an  eminent  mnslcinn.  son  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  at 
Taranto,  was  bom  in  1741,  and  received  his  nm.«ical  education  in  the  Conservatoric 
8t  Onofrio  at  Naples.  Of  his  earlier  operas  produced  at  Naples,  the  most  celebrated 
was  •*Dal  Pinto  al  Vero,"  composed  i:i  1777.  Some  of  his  l)cht  works,  pariienlarly 
**  II  Barbiere  de  Seviglia,"  were  written  dm*ing  nn  eight  years'  residence  at  8t  Peters- 
burg. At  Vienna,  he  eomposed  twelve  symphonies  for  a  large  orchestra,  and  the 
opera  bnflfu,  **  II  re  Teodoro."  Between  1T86  and  1T99,  he  produced  a  number  oi 
operas  for  the  Neil politan  theatre,  and  was  appointed  by  Ferdinand  IV.  his  maestri 
di  capella.  In  consequence  of  having  nccepied  under  the  revolutionary  governnienl 
the  office  of  national  director  of  mns^,  he  wat*  suspended  from  his  functions  for  two 
years  after  the  restoration  of  royalty,  but  cventua  y  restored  to  them.  In  1802,  he 
went  to  Paris  to  direct  the  iiiusic  of  the  consuhir  chapel ;  bnt  the  indifferent  recep» 
lion,  shortly  after  sriveii  to  his  opera  of  *',ProH>  rpinr,"  led  him  to  return  to  Naples, 
where  he  died  in  1816.  His  coiiii)oeitionR  are  characterised  by  sweetness  and  grace- 
fulness of  melody,  and  simplicity  of  structure.  Besides  no  fewer  than  ninety  operas, 
P.  composed  masses,  requiems,  canlatos,  :in  oratorio,  instrumental  quartet ts,  liarp- 
sichord  souatai,  concertos,  aud  a  liigiily-praised  funeral  march  in  honor  of  General 
Uoche. 

PAI'SLEYj  a  munlc1p.ll  and  parliamentary  burgh,  and  an  important  raanufac- 
luring  town  ot  Scotland,  in  t)ie  county  of  Reiifrew.  on  hotli  banks  of  the  White 
Cart,  three  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Clyde,  iind  seven  miles  west-^outh- west 
of  Glasgow  by  railway.  Tlie  pro'^ress  of  the  town  has  been  much  hindered  by  the 
fact  thai  it  was  bankrupt  for  nearly  tliirty  years.  A  hill  was  passed  in  1872.  by  wliich 
a  settlement  was  effected,  and  the  town  property  restored  to  the  corporation.  Since 
then,  extensive  improvements  have  been  made.  An.  abundant  supply  of  water  is 
brought,  from  theGleniifer  Hills,  and  jnore  recently  from  Rowbank. 

By  far  the  most  interesting  edifice  is  the  abbey.  It  was  founded  by  Walter,  the 
nigh  Steward  of  Scotland,  about  1163,  for  a  prior  j«iid  13  monks  of  the  Cloniac  order 
of  reformed  Benedictines,  and  was  deditiated  lo  St  James,  St  Mirren,  aud  St  Mil- 
bnr»a.  It  was  tlie  buiying-place  of  the  Stewarts  l)efore  tin-  accession  of  that  family 
to  tlie  throne,  and  was  occaslcmally  used  by  tliem  afterwards  as  a  place  of  sepulture. 
It  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  abbey  in  1245.  What  reniains  of  the  .building  is  the 
nave,  of  six  bays,  chiefly-in  the  First  Pointed  style.  In  1862  a  ihorougli  restoration 
of  the  Abbey  (at  a  cost  of  jC4u00)  was  made,  the  ha|)piest  fe.-itnre  of  which  was  the 
nnnoval  of  the  nusijjhtly  gailerres.  The  eastern  gable  window  represent-*  the  Ascen- 
sion. It  is  of  Munich  Manufacture.  Another  window  has  been  inserted  by  the  St 
Andrew's  Society  of  Glasgow,  in  memory  of  Sir  William  Wallace,  who,  if  he  was 
1>om  at  Ellei-slie,  was  a  native  of  the  Al)bey  parish.  Extensive  improvements  in  the 
eurronndings  of  the  abbey  are  in  progress. 

Among  the  other  edifices,  the  principal  are  the  County  Buildings,  a  qnadrangnlar 
pile  in  I  he  castellated  style;  tlieNeils«m  Edncjitioual  Institution,  a  iiobl<'  bequef 
oulii  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  aud  surmounted  by  a  flue  dome ;  the  Infirmai' 


y  Google 


j£ri.r»  C7<> 


tbo  School  of  DMigD ;  and  the  Grammar  School.  Thin  Inrt  ItiBtitntion  was  fbnoded 
by  King  Jaiiies  VI.,  mid  the  present  bnilding  wan  coiiii>lt^te<I  iu,  June  1S64.  In  1870 
a  Frt-e  riihlic  Library  and  Musttnni  wad  pQi's.uted  to  the  town,  and  is  tuaiutniiied  by 
the  commaiiitjnudertiie  Free  Libniries Act;  and  byaHlmilnr  act  of  liberality,  !t4 
amenity  w;m  increa:^  by  a  pieaHiire-^i^rouud  uaiued  tiiu  Fuuntiiin  Oarden;*.  In  1873 
a  native  of  Paieley  beqneiitbi  d  £20,000  for  the  erection  of  a  town  hall.  P.  posseftsea 
a  trust  for  the  education  of  boys  born  in  tlie  bnrtjh  and  Al)l)ey  parish,  the  revenao 
of  wiiich  amonnts  to  ^£600,  and  is  ii>pent  on  edacational  bursaries. 

In  tiie  iM^nnin^  of  tin;  last  century,  tlie  principal  nianufuctnres  xrere  coarse 
linens  and  chequered  clothe.  Al>out  ttie  middle  oc  that  centnry.  the  wttjiviug  of 
linen  and  of  silk  euuze  became  (he  rtuple  mannfacturei^.  In  1784  silk  gauze  was 
innnufactured  to  the  value  of  jGSSO.OOO,  and  employed  5000  looms.  Slntwls,  wliieU 
need  to  be  a  principal  and  are  8till  an  important  article  of  nntnufacture,  bc^i^an  to 
be  made  here  in  tno  beginnin'^  "of  the  present  centnry.  Witliin  recent  years  the 
annual  value  of  tlie  shawl  trade  of  P.  x^as  e^'timated  at  aiM)Ut  £1.000.000  sterliiijr, 
but  it  has  imw  giently  declined.  Cotton  thread  is  nnmnfaclnrud  on  a  most  e::ten»ive 
scale;  indeed  P.  may  be  considered  ilie  Feat\>f  tlie  thread  manufacture  for  the 
Jiome  and  American  markets.  Different  varietie8  of  tartan  cloths,  handkurCliicfs, 
cariietp,  Av^  are  made;  soup,  fitaich,  and  com  flour  are  largely  mannfticlured;  dye- 
ing is  au'iled  on  by  several  firms  on  an  extent ive  pcale ;  ami  powur-loom  f:>CH>ries, 
f>rint-works,  machine  siiopn,  bleacli-fields,  ship-buiidiu«;  yards,  &c.  are  in  operation 
n  the  town  and  viclnitv.  At  ilie  St  James'  Day  Pair.  Iior-e-raccs,  ori;;inuted  by  act 
Of  the  bailies  of  (lie  burgh  in  16Q8,  are  held.    Pojk  (1871)  48,257. 

PAK8,  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  in  (he  connty  of  Tolna.  60  miles  south-south- 
east of  Pehtb,  on  the  Dantilie.  The  river  is  here  very  wmdlup,  and  the  ea,*tem 
bank  a  depert  and  u»ele:i4  morass.  The  town  is  frequently  bubject  to  inundations. 
Pop.  (1809)  9434. 

PALACE,  tills  title  is  applied,  with  few  exceptions,  in  (his  coutitry  to  honses 
occupied  by  royal  personages  only.    In  Italy  tlie  uanie  is  giviMi  to  all  fine  dwellings. 

PALACKT,  Frantisek,  aBolieinian  ph  lologist.  critic,  and  historian.  wasl>om  14tb 
June  1798  at  Hodslavits,  in  Moravia,  and  t>t!idied  at  Presbnrg  and  Vienn- ,  confin- 
ing his  attention  diiefly  to  philolosrical  and  historical  investigaiicms.  lu  1S31  he  w.it 
api>ointed  by  the  f^tatesof  Bohemia  historiojrrapher  to  that  comitry.  and  was  intrusted 
witli  the  compilation  «)f  a  general  history  of  Boht^mia.  In  fnrtlierance  of  this  work, 
lie  ninsacked  all  the  libraries  and  archive;*  in  Bohemia,  and  made  louir  visits  to  G«jr- 
mnny  and  Italy  in  search  of  materials.  He  took  i)art  ii  the  political  agit:itioa  of 
1848,  and  was  the  leader  of  tlie  Slav  or  uation;il  ])art y  mh  oppo-ed  to  the  Gcnnan  at 
the  Diet  of  Kremsier,  after  the  dissolution  of  which  lie  returned  fcJ  hlsliteraiy  labors. 
His  gieat  and  justly  celebrated  work,  V  Hislory  of  Bohendu  "  (lu  German  t:nd  Bob  - 
mian,  Prague,  1836—1867,  5  vols.),  wijs  received  with  eiuhu-iasin  by  (Jie  whole  Bo^ 
hemian  nation.  Besides  an  early  tresitise  ou  festhetlcs,  P.  pnbliehed  many  volinnea 
of  documents  peitaining  to  Boliemian  history,  and  a  series  of  monographs  on  th« 
same  subject:  a  wor*  ou  ilic  most  ancient  monnnu-nts  of  the  Czech  tonjrue;  an 
account  of  n  literary  tour  to  ICily  in  ISJtf ;  and  in  1872  his  "  Political  Testament  " 
"  Father  P.,"  as  he  was  fondly  called  by  his  Cz  cli  fellow  countrymen,  was  behived 
by  them  as  the  first  to  give  acce8<a  to  the  real  history  of  Bohemia ;  and  thongh  liiiii- 
self  a  Protestant,  was  regarded  by  Catholics  with  perfect  confldencc.    Throughout 


Hay  1876. 

PA'LADIN,  a  term  originally  deiived  from  the  Counts  Palatine,  or  of  the  Palace 
(see  Paultine),  who  were  the  highest  dignitaries  in  the  Byzantine  court,  and 
thence  used  generally  for  a  lord  or  chieftain,  and  by  the  Italian  romantic  poets  Utr  u 
knight-errant. 

PAL.<EA'8TER  (Gr.  ancient  star-fish),  a  genus  of  star-fish  peculiar  to  (In?  .Silu- 
rian period,  which  in  general  appearance  resemble  the  living  bilttle  stars,  but  wbeu 
more  minutely  examined,  jaesent  so  many  anomalies,  that  (hey  cannot  be  referred 
to  any  existing  family.    Five  or  six  species  have  been  described. 


y  Google 


671 


Pales 
Palauiogiw 

PALiBO'GHAPHY  (Or,  palaiot,  old,  nml  graphic  writing),  the  science  of  audent 
vrltiogB.  It  comprelieud?  not  merely  the  art  of  i-etidiiijfThem,  but  tuch  a  crtical 
kDowli'dge  of  all  their  cfrcnumtances  as  will  serve  lo  (letermiue  thfir  ag< ,  if  tiu  y 
liiippeu  to  be  nndtited,  and  their  gcnnineness.  in  the  Jibsence  ol  «ny  fornnil  nuthentt- 
cadou.  For  these  pnn)08eN  the  palaeographer  ncudn  lo  be  ucquaiuied  with  ilieva- 
riuii.s  BQbstances,  such  >u»  bark^  leave?,  ekin^,  }>aptr,  &c.,  which  have  bten  ut^ed  for 
writing;  wilh  the  vailooj*  nianntTs  of  writing  which  havt;  ]»ivvjiikMi,  and  the  changes 
which  they  have nnder^fone ;  \\\\\\  the  various  forms  of  uutheDtieaii^ig  writings,  snch 
us  seals,  siffuetSf  cacliuls,  signatures'  i^aperbeription'',  sub>criptions,  attestations, 
Ac,  which  have  been  eraployid  at  diftereut  times ;  with  tite  various  phases  ilnoii^U 
which  the  gramntar,  vocabulary,  and  on  hogrupli  y  of  the  language  of  the  writing  with 
which  he  is  dealing,  hat  pafis>ed  ;  and  with  more  or  yr»»,  as  the  case  m  -y  bts  of  the 
bisk)i7.  laws,  institution!*,  literature,  and  art  of  thd  age  and  couutry  to  uuicb  tlte 
writing  professes  to  belong. 

Pateography  miy  be  naid  to  have  been  founded  by  the  learned  French  BeDcdic- 
tme,  Jean  Mabillon,  whose  **De  Re  Diplonnitica."  first  |  ublished  in  1681  in  1  vol. 
fol.,  reprinted  in  ITOtf,  and  again  iu  1789,  iu  2  vols,  fol.,  is  still,  perhaps,  the  iiiO^t 
inasterfv  work  on  the  subject.    Along  with   the  " Noirveau  Traitt^  dt;  Diplomat iqut: " 

iPar.  1TM--1765,  ft  vols*.  4to)  «f  the  Benedictines  of  8t  Manr,  and  the  *•  Eldment*'  de 
*al6ographie  "  (Par:  1888, 2  vols.  4to)  by  M.  Natalis  de  WaiJiy,  it  is  the  great  authority 
for  French  palsogrn|>liy.  English  palse'jgrapliy  I?  perhaps  h  »s  favoiab  y  represented 
in  Astle's  -Oiljdn  jind-Progres?*  of  writing"  (Loud.  1803),  rhan  8c<»ttit«h  palaeo- 
graphy in  Andereon's  and  Kuddimau's  "  Diplumata  Scotiie  "  (Edin.  1739).  Muratoi  i 
treats  of  Italian  palfPOgraphy  in  the  third  volume  ot  his  great  work,  the  ,'*  Antiqui- 
tates  Itaiicae  Medii  ^vS ;  '^  and  among  hitcr  workf*  on  the  ^aine  ^nbject  may  be  men- 
tioned the  "DIpIomatica  Poniidcia"  (Rome,  1841)  of  Marino  Marini.  The  jmlieo- 
gTjjphy  of  Greece  is  illnstraied  in  tlie  "Palteogniphia  Qraeca"  (Par.  1708)  of  M(Dt- 
niucon.  Spanish  pn-aeojrraphy  maybe  studied  in  the  *'Bihliotheeadela  Polygraphia 
Espanola"  (Mad.  17i)8j  of  Don  O.  Rodriguez.  Of  works  on  German  palaeograpl  y, 
It  may  be  enough  to  nn me  Bckard's  **Iuiroductioin  Rem  Diplomatic.im"  (Jen.l<42), 
Heunninn's  **  Coromentaril  de  Re  Diplomatica  "  (Norimb.  1746),  Waliher's  "  Lejti<  cu 
Diplonnitlcura"  (G(»tt.  1745),  and  Kopp's  "  Palaeogniphia  Critica"  (Manh.  1817). 
Hebi-ew  palaeography  has  l)een  elaborated  by  Ge^enins  in  his  'Geschichte  iUt 
Hebrfiischen  Sprache  und  Schiift,"  and  other  works.  The  great  work  on  palaeogra- 
phy gent'rally— one  of  the  most  s^umpinons  works  of  its  class  ever  piiblisheil — iH  ihc 
''  PaT6ograpl)le  Universelle-'  (P.-ir.  fS39— 1845,  in  5  \ol8.fol.)  of  M.  J.  B.  Silveslre. 
See  Black  Lettbb,  Contbaotions,  Palimpsest,  Paptbi. 

PAL^EOTiOGUS.  the  nanio  of  an  illustrious  Byzantine  family,  which  first  ap- 
P'-ars  in  history  about  the  Uth  c,  and  attained  to  imperial  dignity  in  the  perfon  of 
AliCHAEL  VIII.  in  1260.  This  emperor  euccrssfnlly  undertook  nniny  expeditions  to 
Greece  and  the  Archip«'lago,  and  UJ'cd  his  utu»ost  endeavor*  to  lieal  the  schism  be- 
tween the  Roin:m  and  Greek  Churches,  ihonjih  with  exceedingly  little  success,  liis 
successor  on  the  throne  was  his  son  Andeonicus  II.  (1?82 — 1829).  under  whoso 
reign  the  Turks  commenced  in  CMmesr  a  series  of  assaults  on  the  Byzantine  do- 
ininiona.  Andronicus  attempted  to  oppose  them  with  a  force  composed  of  mer- 
c<»nHrie«,  but  Ins  success  wa«  very  donbtful,  as  these  troops,  \Uth  perfect  Impaiil- 
iility,  attacked  both  his  enemies  and  his  subjects.  To  pay  thom  he  was  compelled 
to  levy  such  injposts  jia  went  far  to  de>troy  Byzantine  commerce.  He  associated 
his  son,  Michael  IX.  with  himself  in  the'goverument,  and  wa?  dethroned  by  his 
V'raud-on,  Andj  ONicUft  ITT.  (1828— 1341),  an  able  warrior  and  wise  ruhr,  who  re- 
peatedly defeated  the  Bnlguri.uis,  Tartars  of  the  Golden  Horde,  and  the  Servian.**, 
and  diminished  the  oppressive  iipposts  of  the  previous  reij^n.  He  was,  however. 
nnsHccossfnl  auainft  the  Catalans  in  Greece,  and  the  Turks  during  his  reign  ravaged 
Thiace  as  far  as  the  Balkan.  He  was  greatly  esteemed  by  his  subjects,  and  well 
merited  ttae  title  of  ♦*  Father  of  iiis  Country,"  which  they  bestowed  up<m  him.  His 
Fon,  John  VI.  (135.*J— 1.H91),  a  weak  and  voluiitnoas  prince,  attempted  in  vain,  both  by 
force  and  bribery  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  Turks;  at.  last  the  pope,  moved  by  his  ur- 
gent entreaties,  which  were  backed  I'V  a  promise  to  submit  the  Greek  Church  to  his 
(the  iKjpe's)  supremacy,  nr;red  the  Hm»gariaii8  and  Servians  to  arm  in  defence  of 
iUe  Greek  I  ni)ieror,  but  the  re&uitwaa  only  an  additional  triumph  to  bnituu  Amu> 
U.  K.,  Jt ,  22. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


'  Pal  ronlsons  (\'70 

Pal>  ontology  \J  i  ^ 

r.itli.  The  imbecile  eraporcfr  was  unveral  times  deposed,  and  on  l«is  final  reinstab*- 
ment  by  t.\w  pu^all,  nckiiowh'djyt'd  himself  ns  his  vaB8»ul  for  the  capiull  And  a  small 
tract  nUmi]:  the  Propoiitis  and  Bhu'k  Sea.  Indeed,  so  dcLniid^d  had  the  Byzantines 
become,  that  they  ol)eyt^  the  Sultan  Baj;izet'.s  summons  to  aid  him  in  tednciug  Ptiil- 
aflglpliin,  the  last  Greek  stronj^hold  in  Asi^  Minor.  His  son,  Andronicus  IV.  (1855 — 
13T3),  wlio  had  been  associated  with  him  in  thej^overnnient,  died  in  exile.  ManiteIj 
II.  (1391— 1425>  pursued  the  same  tactics  as  his  father  John  VI.,  and  with  the  same 
r 'Siilf.  The  alheil  army  of  the  Hungarians,  Germans,  and  Frejich,  which  he  had 
summoned  to  his  aid  against  tlie  Turkf,  was  totally  routed  at  Nicopolis  by  Bajazer, 
and  Constantinople  iise'f  closely  besieged,  'ilie  invasion  of  Asia  Minor  by  TimClr, 
however,  compelled  the  sniran  to  witlidraw  his  whole  force,  and  his  subseqnent 
d<^feat  and  ctiptnre  at  Angora  in  1402,  and  tlie  contests  among  his  sons  for  the  sapre- 
macy,  gave  the  Groek  empire  a  breathing  space.  Having  aided  Mohammed  I. 
In  his  contests  with  his  brothers,  Mmuel  was,  by  the  grateful  sultan,  pre- 
s'>Hte<i  witlj  some  districts  in  Greece,  Thessalonica,  and  on  the  Enxiue.  John 
VII.  (1425—1449),  on  l>eing  pn^ssed  by  t!»c  Tnrks.  again  held  out  to  thts 
pop«i  the  old  bait  of  the  union  of  the  Greek  and  Western  Churches  under  hia  sway, 
and  even  presented  himself  at  the  council  of  Florence,  whei'e.  in  July  1439,  the  nuloa 
of  the  churches  was  agreed  to.  But  on  his  returri  to  Constantinople,  the  opposition 
of  the  Greek  ecclesia!«lics  to  the  union,  supported  by  the  people,  rendered  the  agree- 
niejit  of  Florence  a  dead  letter.  The  pope,  however,  saw  that  it  Was  for  his  Interest 
to  fulfil  his  part  of  the  agr<>einent,  and  accordingly  htiiTed  up  Wladislas  of  Hungary 
to  attack  the  Tnrks  (see  JAGBLiiONS).  but  this  act  only  hastened  the  downfall  of  the 
Pa!«eologl.  John's  brother,  Constantinb  XIII.  (1449—1453),  a  heroic  scion  of  a 
dei;euenite  race,  accepted  the  crown  alter  mucli  hesitjition.  knowiitg  his  total  inabil- 
ity to  withstand  the  Turks,  and  even  then  took  Hie  precairtion  of  obttiining  the  kuI- 
lau's  consei)t  before  he  exercised  the  imperial  authority ;  but  some  rebdiions  in  Car- 
annmia  which  now  occurred,  baffling  Sultan  Mohammed  II.'s  ifforts  to  quell  them, 
the  emperor  was  willingly  persuaded  by  his  rash  advisers  tliat  thtf  tiuu;  had  new  ar- 
rivid  tor  rendering  hiuMkilf  independent  of  tl)e  Turks.  The  attempt^  howtjver,  only 
biouirht  swifter  destruction  on  tht^  wretched  remnant  of  tint  Byzanur.o  empire,  for 
Mohainraed  invented  I h(»  capital  by  sea  and  land,  and  after  a  siege,  which  lasted 
from  6th  April  to  29th  May  1453.  CDnsianlinople  was  taken  by  storm,  and  the  last  of 
tiie  Palaeolojji  fell  tJghtinfr  bravely  in  the  breach.  A  Stanch  of  this  family  ruled 
Montf-nrat  m  Iialy  from  1306,  but  becfime  extinct  in  1533.  The  PalBBologi  were  coti- 
nected  by  nnirriage  with  the  rnlinir  families  of  liungar>.  Servia,  ami  the  last  of  the 
family  married  Ivan.  Czar  of  Russia — a.fac.t  whicii  ih  -  C^ars  of  Russia  have  per- 
sisted till  lately  in  l>rinp:in<J:  forward  as  a  clain\  in  favor  of  their  pretensions  to  the 
])ossession  of  European  Turkey.  It  is  sa'd  that  clir^  ct  descendants  of  the  Palseologl 
<  xist  to  the  prcStJDt  day  iii  Franco.  (For  further  information,  see  the  separate  ar- 
ticles on  sonie  of  ih  •  emperors,  and  Byzantine  Ehpirb.) 

PALx^ONI'SCUS  (Gr.  aTicicnt  r^ea-fi,  h),  a  «:euus  of  ganoid  fi-^h,  with  a  fupiform 
body,  covered  witli  rhomboid  scaUs,  u  heterocercal  tail,  and  n*oderatcly-sized  fins, 
each  furnished  with  an  anterior  spin-.  The  single  dorsal  fin  is  opposite  to  the  inter- 
val between  the  anal  and  ventruJ  fins.  Tweniy-eight  species  have  been  descdbed 
from  the  Carboniferous  and  Perm  an  measures. 

PAL^ONTO'LOGY  ^Gr-  science  of  fossil  animals)  is  that  division  of  Geology 
(q.  V.)  whose  province  it  is  to  inq-iire  Into  the  evidence  of  organic  life  on  the  globe 
during  the  diifi^ront  bygone  geological  periods,  wlieth-r  this  evidence  arises  from 
the  actual  remains  of  the  different  plants  and  ai.imals,  or  from  recognisable  records 
of  their  existence,  sucii  as  footprints,  Coprolitos  ^q.  v.),  &c 

The  nietanifjrphic  action  which  has  yo  remarkably  altered  the  oldest  sedimentary 
rocks,  is  sufficient  to  have  obliterated  all  traces  of  orirauic  remains  contained  in  them. 
Fossils  are  consequently  extremely  rare  in  these  older  palaeozoic  stnita,  and  indeed 
it  is  only  after  long  search,  and  within  a  recent  time,  that  nndcmbted  remains  have 
br6n  found  in  the  Launmtian  rocks.  We  were  unable  to  record  their  existence  in 
the  article  Laubentian  System;  but  in  the  arfJcle  Limestone,  we  refened  to  the 
existence  of  beds  of  limestone  ns  requiring  the  presence  of  animal  life  for  their  pro- 
duction. It  is  true  that  in  1862  an  organ'c  form  resembling  a  coral  wa?  found 
in  the  limustoue  u£  the  Ottawa,  but  much  doubt  was  always  eiitertaiued  r^urdiug 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


^1  O  Palaeontology 

this  solitary  dIscoviTy.  In  1863,  however,  there  was  detected  nii  organinm' in  the 
Berpentine  liiwestoDe  of  GreuviUe,  of  true  Laureutiai!  agf,  wliich  Dr  Dawson  de- 
scribes ae  that  of  a  Foramhiifer,  growhit!:  in  large  sessile  patches  after  tlie  mmmer  • 
of  Carpentaria,  bnt  of  much  greaier  dimensious,  aud  prcseutiup  minute  points, 
which  reveal  a  utructure  reseuibling  that  of  other  foraminiferul  for  wis,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, Calcarina  aud  ^u-mrmilina.  Ltii-ge  portions  of  tiie  limestone  appear  to  l>e 
made  np  of  these  orgaDisuis,  mixed  with  other  fragmeuts,  which  suggest  compnri- 
Bons  with  criuoids*  aud  other  calcareous  fossils,  but  wliicli  liave  not  y>  t  been  dis- 
tinctly deteruiiued.  Some  of  the  limestones  are  more  or  less  colored  by  carbona- 
ceoas  matter,  exhibiting  evidences  of  organic  structure,  probibly  vejrc'tal»le.  In  , 
this  single  Foramiuifer,  and  tl»e  supposed  coral,  we  have  all  that  is  positivt  ly  know  n 
of  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  our  globe,  with  which  we  are. yet  acquainted.  'J  hal 
these  are  bat  the  smallest  fraction  of  the  fauna  of  the  pcrioclixi  which  tltey  lived,  is 
evident  from  the  undetermined  fragments  associated  with  then),  as  wejl  as  from  the 
extensive depositH  of  limestone  of  tlie  same  age.  Aud  that  coutemporanfous  wiih 
tijeni,  there  existed  equally  nunterous  rcpresentativts  of  the  vt'gerat)le  kingdom, 
cannot  be  doubto(4,  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  animal  can  obiuiu  iis  tood  oniy 
through  the  vegetable,  and  not  directly  from  iuor«fanic  matt-nals.  Bt^Mdos,  liicir 
remains  apparently  exist  in  the  limestone  at  GrenvDle,  a  rock  whicl^  from  its  very 
nature,  rarely  contains  veiretable  fossils. 

The  Cambrian  rocks,  tiiough  of  immense  thickness,  have  hitherto  yielded  indica- 
tions o€  only  a  very  few  animals,  but  these  have  a  special  interest,  as  they  are  the 
oldest  fossil  remains  yet  detected  in  Britain.  They  consist  of  an  Impression  which 
Salter  cousidera  to  be  portion  of  a  ti-ilobite,  named  by  him  Palceopyge^  of  the  bur- 
rows and  tracks  of  sea-worms,  and  of  two  8i)ecies  of  radiated  zoophytes  called  Oldr 
/lamta— animals  which  in  this  case  also  can  be  nothing  moje  than  the  most 
fragmentary  representations  of  the  fauna  of  the  period.  No'indications  of  vegetable 
life  have  yet  been  noticed  in  the  Cambrian  rocks,  for  we  cannot  consider  the  super- 
ficial markings  on  some  of  these  stratii  as  having  anything  to  do  with  f  uci. 

Undoubted  representations  of  the  four  invertebrate  sub  kingdoms  early  make  their 
appearance  in  the  Silurian  strata,  and  the  occurrence  before  the  close  of  the  period  of 
several  fish,  adds  to  them  the  remaining  sub-kingdom— the  vtriehraf a.  It  we  except 
the  silicious  frnstules  of  Diatomacc»  which  are  said  to  have  been  detected  in  thehc 
rocks,  no  satisfactoiy  traces  of  plants  have  yet  been  observed,  although  extensive 
layers  of  anthracitic  shales  are  common.  Of  the  lowtr  forms  of  the  animal  king- 
dom. Some  sponge-like  bodies  have  been  f  onnd,  nnd  corals  are  remarkably  abundant, 
chiefly  belonging  to  the  order  Rugoaa,  a  palaeozoic  type,  the  members  of  whkh  have 
horizontal  tabulae,  and  veiUcal  plates  or  septa,  either  four  in  number,  or  a  multiple 
of  four.  Graptolites,  another  family  (f  jsoophytcs,  flourished  in  the  dark  mud  of  the 
Silurian  seas,  and  did  not  survive  the  period.  All  th^  great  divisions  of  the  Mol- 
lusca  are  represented  by  numerous  genera,  several  of  which  are  not  very  different 
from  some  living  forms.  A  few  tiue  star-fishes  have  left  theii*  records  on  the  rocks, 
but  the  most  striking  feature  in  tlie  Echinodermata  of  the  period  is  the  Cysfideans, 
or  armless  sea-lilies,  which,  like  the  Grapiolifes.  did  not  pass  beyond  the  Silurian 
seas.  Tubes,  tracks*,  and  buiTOWs  of  annelids  have  been  obsei-ved  ;  and  numerous 
Crustacea,  belonging,  witli  the  excepticm  of  one  or  two  shrimp-like  spec  ies,  to  the 
characteristic  pafeozoic  Tiilobit^,  of  which  the  number  of  individuals  is  as  remark- 
able as  tl»e  vari<.ty  of  species  and  genera.  It  is  only  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  group 
(the  Ludlow  beds)  I  hat  the  flsh  remains  have  been  found.  These  hnv«;  been  refs;rrt  d 
to  six  different  genera,  aud  are  chiefly  loricate  ganoids,  of  which  Cepfialaspis  is  the 
best  known. 

The  rocks  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  period  supply  the  earliest  satisfactory  re- 
mains of  plants.  The  Fertis,  Sigiliarise,  Lycopodites,  and  Caiaraites,  so  abundant  in 
the  Coal  Measures,  make  their  appearance  among  the  newer  of  these  Ixjds.  and 
even  fragments  of  dicotyledonous  wood  have  been  observed.  The  various  sections 
of  the  invcrfebrata  are  well  represented,  but  the  remai'kable  characteristic  in  the 
animal  life  of  thQ  period  is  the  abundance  of  strange  forms  of  heterocercal-taih-d 
fish,  whose  bnckler-shields,  hard  scales,  or  bony  sptnes  occur  in  the  greatest  abund- 
ance in  some  beds.  The  reptiles  and  n'ptile  tracks  in  the  lied  Sandstone  of  Morjy, 
CB'i^'inallyr  efeiied  here,  are  now  univei'sally  coubidered  as  belonging  to  the  New 
Jitid  measures. 


y  Google 


Palaontologr  674 

The  Btriking  feature  tn  the  Vocka  of  the  CarlK>n1ferniis,period  is  the  fpreai  nhnnd- 
ance  of  pluiits,  the  remaiiis  of  which  occur  throog^liom  fhe  whole  senea,  the  conl- 
heda  heiug  composed  ftairelj  of  them,  the  elmles  l)eiug  tnrgely  chnrged  with  them, 
the  BaiidstOHeB  contftiniug  a  tew,  and  even  tiie  limestones  not  beiijj;  entirely 
without  theni.  Tiiese  plants  were  speciahy  Jiiti'd  for  pn'servaiion,  the 
balk  of  them  being  Tasciilur  cryptogams,  a  clam  which  Lindley  tiiid  Hutton 
hrtve  shewn  hy  (rxpeiinieut  to  bo  «^ipabl«  of  long  jMreservarhm  niidi>r  water. 
They  are  chiefly  terns;  some  are  snpposed  to  ha>'e  be<  u  arlwresccnt 
lycopmls,  while  otiiere  {Sigillaria  Calamiteaj  aud  AnterophylliteH)  are  ho  dif- 
ferent from  unythiug  now  known,  thitt  their  position  cttnHot  be  deflnitelj^ 
determined,  l  hough  it  is  most  pn>l)ahly  among  tlie  liigher  cryptogams.  Several 
genera  of  conifers  have  been  established  f i-oin  fossilis^^d  f ragjnents  Of  wood  ;  and 
some  singular  Impressions,  which  look  like  the  flowering  stems  of  dicoryk-douotis 
plants,  have  been  found.  The  timtHtoiu^s  are  chii;fly  coniposfd  of  crinohls,  corals, 
and  hrachiopodoas  shells.  The  corals  attain  a  great  size,  and  the  c-rinoids  are  ex- 
tremely abundant,  their  remains  makiug  sometimes  l>eds  of  limestone  1000  feet  thick, 
aud  tinudrtdfl  of  square  miles  in  extent.  Many  new  genera  of  slicUs  make  their  aiv 
pearnnce.  The  triloi>fti'S,  which  were  so  abtvndant  in  tlie  earlier  rocks,  are  n-diiced 
to  one  or  two  genera,  and  finally  disapiiear  with  this  period.  Fisti  with  polisiied 
bony  scales  are  found ;  and  others,  like  the  Port  Jacks<m  shark,  with  pavements  of 
flnt  teeth  over  their  mouth  and  gnlli-t,  fitting  them  to  crush  aud  grind  the  shell^pru* 
toctt'd  animals  on  which  they  fed.  Strang  •  fish-like  reptiles  exierted  in  the  seas,  and 
air-breathing  species  have  been  found  on  the  continent  ami  in  America.  Tiie  wing- 
cases,  and  parts  of  the  bodies  of  bisects,  have  also  b^en  found. 

The  Permian  period  is  remark  ible  for  the  paucity  of  its  organic  remains,  1)ut  this 
may  arise  from  our  comparative  igiu)rance  of  its  strata.  The  plants  emd  animals  are 
ou  the  whole  similar  to  those  found  in  the  Carboniferous  mtnisnre:',  aud  a  great  pro- 
portion of  them  belong  to  the  same  genera.  Many  ancient  forms  do  not  pass  this 
pf^riod,  as  the  Sigillaria  amc/ng  plants,  and  the  Prodtuta  among  animals. 

Tbie  red  sandstones  of  the  Triassic  period  arc  remarkably  dentitate  of  organic 
remains^the  iron,  which  has  given  to  them  thi;*  color,  st^msto  have  heeu  fatal  to 
animal  life.  In  beds,  however,  on  the  continent,  in  which  the  irou  is  abnent.  fossils 
abound.  Theso  fossils  pn^sont  a  singular  contrast  to  thoy^  met  with  in  the  older 
rocks.  The  Palpeozoic  forms  had  l)eeu  grudoally  dying  <iut,  and  the  few  th-rt  w»*re 
siili  found  in  the  Permian  strata  do  not  survive  thatpenod,  while  in  their  place  there 
appear  in  the  Trias  many  genera  which  approach  more  nearly  to  Jhe  living  formsk 
Between  the  organii^nis  of  the  Permian  and  Triassic  periods  there  exist «  more  strik- 
ing difference  than  is  to  be  found  l)etwe<.n  those  of  any  previous  |»eriodA.  Looking 
at  this  life -character,  the  rocks  from  the  Permian  downwaids  have  beei»  gronpeil 
t<»gether  under  the  title  Pa  »ozoic :  while  from  the  Trias  upwards  the  whole  of  the 
strata  have  received  the  name  of  Neozoic. 

The  extensive  genera  of  Ammonites  and  Bslemnites  make  their  first  appearance 
in  the  Trias.  Si^vend  new  forms  of  Cestraciont  fish  occur,  aud  the  reptiles  increase 
in  numhc^r  and  variety ;  among  tliem  is  the  hu«;e  hatraohian  Lahyrint))odnn,nnd  th*i 
singular  fresh-water  tortoise,  Dicynod  )n.  The  bird-tracks  on  tlie  sandstones  of 
Connecticut  are  by  some  refeired  to  this  age.  Small  teeth  of  mammali?^  li«lieve«lto 
bf  those  of  an  insectivorous  animal,  like  the  Myrmecobins  of  AusinUin,  have  been 
found  in  the  Keuper  beds  of  Germmy  and  Somerset. 

In  the  Oolitic  series  we  have  an  ahnndanc^  of  organic  remains,  in  striking  con- 
tract to  the  scanty  traces  in  the  Permian  and  Triassic  periods.  Many  new  genera 
of  ferns  take  tlu;  place  of  the  Palaeozoic  forms,  and  a  considerable  variety  of  Coni- 
fers make  their  appearance,  some  of  which  have  close  afilnities  with. living  Sfiecies, 


one,  indt-ed,  being  referred  to  a  still  existing  genus.  The  same  approximation  to 
living  types  is  to  be  found  in  the  animal  kingdom.  Several  of  ttte  foraminifers  are 
referred  to  living  genera.    Among  the  colitis,  the  repi-esentjilives  of  two  living 


families  make  their  appearance.  1^  new  genera  are  found  among  the  Brachiopodn  . 
but  the  Conchlfera  and  Gasteropoda  shew  a  great  addition  of  new  iienera,  some  of 
which  are  still  represented  by  living  species,  while  not  many  new  genera  were  ndtled 
to  the  Cephalopoda,  though  they  were  individually  very  abundant.  In  some  pl.ices 
the  lias  shale  consists  of  extensive  pavements  of  Belemnites  and  Amn>onite8  The  . 
Cxiuoids  give  place  to  the  iucreasiug  variety  of  sea-urchins  and  star-fishes.    Num- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


675 


FalnmitologT 


bere  of  iripects  have  been  foilfid.  The  Ceatrnclonts  continne  to  be  repreBeiited  in 
the  Oolitic  fteas,  but  wiih  iImjui  are  as.-ociattd  sever:il  true  shurk?  and  rays  ;  ai>d  ilie 
homocercat-t tilled  fi?h  hi-corrw  nnmerous.  Li»l)vriiithoctoi)t  reptiles  ubouiid ;  thw 
huge  Megalosaur  and  it.*  <V)mj)aiiioii!«  occupied  tlu!  land  ;  while  tljc  sea»  were 
tenanted  wiih  tlie  renuirkable  Ichthyo^-aur  and  Pleenosiiur,  iiiul  tlie  iiir  with  tb« 
immense  bat-like  PterodHotyle.  Seven  gt'oera  of  Mammalia  have  been  found,  all 
br-iieved  t«>  l>e  small  carnivorous  or  insectivorous  marsupials,  except  tlie  Stereog- 
nathns,  which  Owen  considers  to  have  been  a.  placental  mamniul,  i)robably  hooi^ 
and  herbivorous. 

In  the  Cretaceous  betls,  wldcli  are  chiefly  deep-sea  deposits,  the  remains  of  plants 
and  land  animals  are  comparatively  rare.  Tlie  Wealdt*n  beds.  howevt?r,  which  ha<l  a 
fresh-water  oHgin,  contidii  the  remains  of  sevpinl  small  maisupinls,  some  hujrc  car- 
uivbrotis  and  berbivorons  rt-ptllf s,  a  fi-w  fresh-wat'-r  hIu'IIs.  ana  sonu;  frMj^im-niB  of 
diift-wood.  The  tiue  chalk  is  remarkably  adundant  in  the  remain-  of  foramlnfferft — 
indeed,  in  some  places,  it  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  the  sliell.<  of  tbe.'«e  minutij 
creatures.^  Of  the  molinsca,  the  Brachiopoda  are  in  some  beds  very  abniidant ;  the 
Conchifefa intrcMince  several  new  forms,  the  most  slrikhg  of  which  is  the  giitiu* 
Hippurites,  which  with  its  alli'-s  did  fiot  survive  this  period  ;  the  cephalopodou* 
genera  which  apiwared  in  the  Oolite,  continue  to  ahoiind  in  i  he  chalk,  n  any  new  fwrum 
being  introduced  ;  while  oihei-s  disappear  with  the  p*  riod,  like  the  B 'lemniten  and 
Ammonites.  S  'a-urcliins  l>ecome  still  more  numerous.  In  some  beds  the  remaina 
of  fish  are  abundant,  and  while  carti'ntriiiOus  species  niill  exist,  tlie  bony  flshea  be- 
came more  numerous;  and  among  them  the  family  to  wliieh  the  s;  Inion  and  cod 
belonir  makes  its  at)pearauce.  Reptiles  are  common  in  the  Wealden.  and  the  flying 
Pterodactyles  attained  a  ^a'eater  size,  and  were  ])rohably  more  numerous  than  in  the 
former  period.  The  remains  of  n  sinirle  bird  iias  been  obtaine<l  from  the  grvcusaud^ 
but  with  this  exception,  bii-ds  as  well  as  mammals  have  left  no  traces  that  have  yet 
been  found  in  the  Cretaceous  beds,  though  doubtless  tlu'y  existed. 

In  the  Teriiarystratii,  the  genera  j-re  either  those  still  liviny,  or  forms  very  clwely 
allied  to  tliem,  which  can  be  separated  only  by  the  careful  examination  of  the  accu- 
rate scientific  observer.  The  plants  of  tiie  Eocene  be<l8  are  represented  by  dicotyle- 
donous leaves,  and  palm  and  other  frnits.  Foraminifers  at©  remarkably  abnnflant, 
whole  mountain  masses  l)eiiig  formed  of  the  large  genus  Nummnhkes.  Brachiopoda 
^ire  rare,  but  ConchitVra,  Gasteropoda,  and  Cephalopoda  increas*;  in  numbeir?  the 
new  forms  being  generically  almost  id<ntical  wiih  those  now  living.  The  piincipal 
living  orders  of  fiah,  reptiles,  and  birds  are  represented  in  t  Iks  Eocene  si  rata.  A 
considerable  variety  of  pachydermatous  inammalfl,  suited  apparently  to  live  on  mar- 
fc'hy  grounds  and  the  l)orderi*  of  lakes,  imve  been  found  in  France  and  Engiaiid,  and 
a^BOciated  with  them  are  some  carnivorons  animals,  whose  retnain^  are.  however, 
much  rarer.  An  opossum  Jias  b-en  lonnd  at  Colchester.  'J'he  fi acuK-nts  belonging 
to  the  supposed  monkey  are  portions  of  u  small  pachyderm,  hyidfotheHum  {q.  v.). 

Little  need  be  said  of  theinvertebiaia  of  the  MicK:ene  perio<l,  beyond  ivmarkitg 
their  growing  identity  in  genera  with  the  living  forums.  Among  the  nnimmal.'^,  llie 
Quadrumana  make  their  first  appearance.  The  true  elephant  and  the  allied  masto- 
don are  represented  by  several  species;  a  huge  camivoions  wliale  has  been  discov- 
ered, and  strveralCarilivora  and  deer,  with  a  liiige  erlentale  animal,  have  been  de- 
scribed. Owen  thus  s^oaks  of  these  animals:  "Our  knowledjre  of  the  progression 
of  Mammalian  life  during  the  Miocene  iM'riod,  tenches  us  that  one  or  two  of  the 
generic  forms  most  freqnent  in  the  older  Tertiary  strata  still  lingered  ontheeanl*, 
hut  ihat  the  rest  of  tiie  Eocene  Mammalia  liad  be<;n  snpers€<led  by  new  forms,  some 
of  whieh  present  charactei-s  intermediate  between  those  of  Eoceue  and  those  of 
Pliowtne  genera."  ♦ 

In  passing  upwards  through  the  Tertiary  strata,  the  oigunic  remains  become 
more  and  more  idenical  with  living  forms,  so  that  when  we  reach  the  Pliocene  and 
Pleistocene  periods,  the  gre.it  proportion  of  the  invertebrata  are  the  same  species 
which  are  found  occnpying  the  present  seas.  Among  the  higher  orders  of  animals, 
the  life  of  .a  species  is  much  shorter  than  in  tlie  lower,  and  conseqnentl}'.  though  the 
vertebrata  approach  so  nearly  to  existing  forms  as  for  the  most  part  to  be  placed  in 
the  same  genera,  yet  the  species  differ  from  any  of  the  living  represenUtives  of  the 
difieruiit  genera. 

llio  SofEolk  **  Crags,"  which  axe  the  only  British  representatlvcB  of  the  Pli 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


UlSr^     ■  676 


Palais 

period,  contain  the  relics  of  a  marine  testacea,  that  differs  little  from  the  present 
tenants  of  the  European  seas,  between  60  and  70  per  cent.  iKfIng  the  i«ame  species. 
The  eiir-bones  of  one  or  more  species  of  Ceiacea  have  been  foand,  and  at  Autwerp, 
the  remains  of  a  dolphin  have  bHcn  discovered  in  Ijeda  of  ^is  age. 

The  varions  local  deposits  whicli  togetlier  form  tiie  Pleis'toceiie  strata,  the  latest 
of  the  geoloj^cal  periods,  contain  a  great  variety  of  organic  remains.  In  tlie  snbma- 
rine  fore-^ts,  and  in  beds  of  pent,  tlie  stumps  of  trees  are  associated  witli  tlie  remains 
of  underwood  and  herbaceous  pknls  of  spt.-cies  still  living.  Nearly  all  the  mollnt'ca 
and  other  marine  invertebrata  still  survive.  It  is  among  the  verfebrata  that,  the 
raost  remarkable  forms  appear— forma  whiclt  in  the  main  diff«r  little  from  the  ex- 
i»>ting  race  of  animals  except  in  their  enormous  size.  Elephants  and  rhinoc-eroHes, 
fiitea  for  a  cold  climate  by  their  covering  of  long  coarse  hair  and  wool,  roamed  over 
the  northern  regions  of  both  the  O  d  and  tlie  New  World,  and  were  associated  with 
amimals  belonging  to  genera  which  still  exist  in  the  same  region,  as  l)ear8,  deiT, 
wolves,  foxes,  badger?,  otters,  wolverines,  weasels^  and  l>eaver8,  besides  otliers 
who»e  represenlatives  arc  now  found  furl  her  south,  as  the  hii>popotMmns,  tipir,  and 
hyena.  Conien>porary  with  these,  there  livid  in  South  America  a  group  of  animals 
which  were  ty|)e8  in  everything  bui  in  size  of  the  peculiar  existing  fauna  of  tuat 
continent.  Among  these  were  gigantic  sloth-like  animals,  fitted  to  root  up  and 
push  down  the  trees,  instead  of  (limbing  to  strip  them  of  Iheirfoliajre,  likelhe  slotn. 
The  armadillo  was  represented  by  the  huge  G  yptodon,  whose  body  was  protected 
by  a  strong  te^iSelated  coat  of  raail.  The  species  of  fossil  tapirs  and  peccaries  are 
more  numerous  than  their  living  representatives.  The  lamas  were  preceded  by  the  • 
largt?  Macrauchenia,  and  the  opossums  and  platyrhine  monkeys  were  also  prefigured 
by  related  species.  Besides  these,  thi^re  have  been  found  the  remains  of  two  masto- 
dons and  a  horse,  none  ol  which  are  represented  by  any  indigenous  living  animal  iu 
South  America.  The  peculiar  group  of  animals  confined  to  Australia  were  pn  fig- 
ured by  huge  marsupials,  some  having  close  analogies  to  the  living  kangaroos  and 
wombats,  while  others  were  related  to  the  carnivorous  native  tiger.  The  gigan- 
tic win«j;h>ss  birds  of  New  Zealand  correspond  iu  type  with  the  anomalous  apteryx, 
now  existing  only  on  these  islands. 

A8-=ocialed  with  the  remains  of  elephants,  mastodons,  cave-bears,  and  cave-hye- 
nas, there  have  been  found,  in  England  and  France,  numerous  specimens  of  flint 
implements,  which  are  undoubtedly  the  result  of  Imman  workmanship,  and  shew  at 
least  that  man  was  contemporaneous  with  these  extinct  animals.  If  more  certain 
evidence  were  needed  of  this,  it  has  been  obtained  iu  i he  discovery  of  flint  imple- 
ments, bone  implements  fashioned  and  carved  by  means  of  the  flint  knives,  the 
horns  of  a  reindeer,  two  kinds  of  extinct  deer,  Bos  primigenius,  and  other  animals, 
associated  with  numerous  bones  of  man,  inclnded  in  tht;  breccia  of  the  cave  of  Bru- 
niquel  m  France.  Owen  considers  the  evidence  of  i  he  contemporaneity  of  the  various 
remains  as  conclusive.  •  The  several  human  skulls  which  have  been  obtained  shew, 
according  to  the  same  authority,  no  characters  whatever  indicative  of  an  inferior  or 
transitional  type.  There  afe  no  certain  dat  i  to  give  probability  to  the  guesses  which 
have  been  made  as  to  the  number  of  years  which  have  elapse<l  since  these  deposits  iu 
which  the  relics  of  man  occur  were  formed.  The  whole  inquiry,  moreover,  is  so  re- 
cent, and  the  accumulation  of  facts  is  almost  every  day  going  on,  that  it  would  bo 
premature  to  speak  dogmatically  on  the  subject. 

.  PALiEOPY'Gfi  (Qr.  ancient  rump),  a  genus  of  fossil  Crustacea,  founded  on  a 
single  impression  from  the  surface  of  abed  in  the  Longmynd,  of  Cambrian  age. 
Salter  believes  it  to  be  the  cephalic  shield  of  a  trilobiie,  but  it  may  be  onlv  an  acci- 
dental marking.  If  it  be  the  impression  of  an  organism,  it  is  so  distorted  and  im- 
p>erfe<'t  that  Uttie  can  be  made  of  it:  its  peculiar  interest  arises  from  its  being  asso- 
ciated with  the  earliest  forms  of  life  that  l)ave  been  observed  on  the  globe. 

PAL^OSAU'RUS  (Gr.  ancient  lizard),  a  genus  of  fossil  saurian  reptiles  peculiar 
to  the  Permian  period.  The  remains  of  two  species  occur  In  ihe  dolomitic  conglo- 
merate at  Redland,  near  Bristol.  The  teeth  were  more  or  less  compn^ssed,  and  were 
furnished  with  serrated  cutting  margins.  ITie  vertebrae  were  biconcave,  and  bad  a 
remarkable  depression  in  the  centre  of  each  vertebra,  into  wiiich  the  spinal  canal 
•^as  sunk.    The  leg-bones  shew  that  the  Palseosanrs  were  fitted  for  moving  on  the 

d.    Owen  thus  exhibits  their  affinities:  *<Iu  their  thecodont  type  of  deutit^Lniaf 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


■  677   .  tS^'" 

biconcave  vertebrae,  don  Sip-join  ted  ribs,  and  proportionate  t^ize  of  the  bones  of  the 
exircmities,  they  «r«  allud  to  the  Teleosaorus,  bnt  with  these  ihey  combine  u  Diuo- 
6nuiiau  femur,  a  lacertiuu  form  of  tooth,  aud  a  crocodiliuu  Btiucture  of  pedorul  jind 
probably  pelvic  :ircl»." 

PAL-^OTHE'RlUM  (Gr.  ancient  wild  beast),  a  genns  of  pnclivderniatouf  mam- 
malia wliose  nmains  occnr  in  Uie  Eocene  ,heds  of  EnL'land  and  the  confinrnt.  At 
k'n^'t  ten  pp<ciB8  have  been  de-cribed,  ntngingin  Hz**  froni  that  of  a  ?hfep  to  tliat  of 
a  hoi^e.  The  upper  Eocene  jiypseous  quarries  of  Montm».rlre  tupplied  ihe  firs^t 
pcanty  matfrialf,  which  Cuvier,*l)y  a  series  of  careful  ai-td  inFtrnctive  inductions, 
built  up  into  an  aniraal,  wliose  fidelity  to  nature  was  afterwards  verified  by  the  dis- 
covery of  a  complete  series  of  fossils.  In  general  ai-pearance  ihe  Paiseoiherium  re- 
sembled the  modem  tap;r,  and  especially  in  having  the,  hnout  tenninatirg  in  a  short 
proboscis.  It  had  tliree  toes  on  each  foot,  each  termi'iated  by  a  hoof. — 'Inc  formula 
of  the  teeth  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Hyracothere,  viz., 

4  8—3        1—1  4-4        3—3 

I.  ,  C. ,  P.  M. ,  M. 44; 

8—3        1—1  4-^        8—3 

but  the  stmcttire  of  ti»e  molars  approaches  ne»rer  to  the  molars  of  tbe  rblroreros. 
It  is  supposed  that  auinials  of  this  genus  dwelt  on  the  margins  of  lakes  and  rivers, 
and  that  their  habits  were  similar  to  those  of  tiie  tapir. 

PALiEOZO'IC  (Gr.  ancient  life),  Ihe  name  given  to  the  lowest  division  of  the 
fossiliforous  rocks,  because  tliey  contain  the  earliest  forms  of  life.  They  were  for- 
merly, and  are  still  generally,  known  as  thePrinnny  rocks.  The  strata  included 
nnder  the^e  titles  are  the  Laurent ian,  Cainbrian,  Si  urian.  Old  Ked  S;inflsfone,  Car- 
boniferous, aud  Perniian  systems.  PhilJlps.  for  tlie  sake  of  uniformity,  introduced 
Hesozolc  as  equivalent  to  "Secondary,  and  Neozoic  to  Tertiary  rocks. 

PALiE'STRA,  a  building  for  gymnastic  sports. 

PALAFOX  Y  MELZI,  Don  Jose  de,  Duke  of  Snragossn,  a  Sprjiish  patriot,  was 
bom  in  1780  of  a  distinpuislied  Amgonese  family,  and  received  Hn"excellent  educa- 
tion. He  accomjianied  Ferdinand  Vll.  to  Baydnne,  and  on  seeing  Idm  made  a  pri- 
soner there,  fled  to  Saragossa,  where  he  exerted  himself  to  prevent  the  invnsion  of 
Arajron  by  the  Frencl».  His  defence  of  Sarauost-a  (q.  v.),  27th  July  1808— 21st  Feb- 
ruary 1809.  which  only  yielded  to  tlie  French  after  a  second  investment,  is  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  and  heroic  incidents  in  modem  history,  and  has  conferred  lasting 
glory  on  P.  and  the  whole  city.  Thennci<nt  fame  oi  the  Spaniards  for  obstinate 
valor  in  the  defence  of  Walled  cities  was  rivnlfed.  if  not  surpassed,  aud  Saragossa 
could  proudly  claim  to  vie  with  Numantfa.  P.,  sick  and  exiiuusted.  was  takeu  pri- 
soner aud  convey*  (t  by  the  ungenerous  .Fnnch  lo  tbedur.g<onsof  Vincennes^  where 
he  was  treated  with  great  llard^hip.  Released  in  1813,  lie  reiurned  to  Spam,  and 
was  appointed  in  the  following  year  captain-general  of  Aragon.    P.  was  no  great 

{)Olitician,  but  he  love<l  liberty  and  haten  anar<liy,  and  on  more  than  one  occasion 
le  supported  the  former  an<l  crushed  the  latter.  After  being  created  Duke  of  Sara- 
gossa, and  Grande*"  of  Spain  of  th<;  first  class  in  1836,  he  kept  hinistlf  apart  from 
poliiics.    He  <lied  at  Madrid  16ih  February  1847. 

PALAIS  ROYAL,  a  heterogeneous  mass  of  buildlnsrs  on  the  enetern  side  of  the 
Rue  Richelieu  in  Paris,  composefl  of  a  palace,  theatres,  public  gardens,  baznars, 
shops,  caf6s,  and  restaurants.  The  old  palace  was  built  between  1624  and  1686 
on  the  site  of  the  HOtel  Rambouillet  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  at  his  death  be- 
queathed it  to  Louis  XIII.  Henrietta  of  France,  widow  of  Charles  I.,  ar«d  Anne  of 
Au-tria.  the  queen  mother,  afterwards  lived  in  it  for  a  time  \vith  her  young  £0i', 
Louis  XIV.  It  subsequently  became  the  (own  residence  of  the  Orleans  branch  (^r 
the  Bourbons,  and  during  the  m;nority  of  Louis  XV.  it  acquired  a  scandalous  noto- 
riety as  the  scene  of  the  wild  ortries  in  which  the  r.  gent,  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  his 
dissolute  partisans  were  wont  to  indulge;  while  in  the  time  of  his  son,  Philippe 
Egalit6,  it  became  the  focus  of  revolutionary  intrigue,  and  the  rendezvous  fowpo- 
litical  demaerogues  of  every  shade  of  opinion.  'Ibis  prince,  partly  to  repair  his  i'" 
poverlshed  fortune,  and  partly  to  persuade  the  sans-culottes  of  Paris  of  the  sinc^ 
Of  bis  professed  sympathy,  with  their  striving  for  equality,  converted  partf 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


fjgS."^  678 

pnrden8  into  a  place  of  pnbllc  resort,  and  the  pavilions  of  t1i«  prent  court  into  bazaniv, 
which  were  dividud  into  Bliops  juid  ptalK-.  On  tlie downfall  of  Eijal  t6,  the  P.  K.  was 
taken  posHt-ssioii  of  by  ilie  republican  government,  and  U!»ed  for  the  siltings  of  the 
tri^nnos  duiing  the  Reisru  of  'IVnor.  On  the  rt'Htoraiioii  of  the  Bourhan?,  it  re- 
verti'd  to  tlie  Orh'uns  fundi v,  and  was  occuj>ied  by  Louis  Philippe  till  his  tjUcliou  to 
tlie  throne  of  Prasice  in  1830,  wlu-n  it  was  incorporated  iu  tlie  {general domains  of  .he 
Ptate,  :ind  ceas<-d  to  be  an  appanage  of  tlic  Honpe  ot  Orleans,  The  palac<5 
w.is  sacked  by  the  mob'  during  the  "Rrn'olntion  of  1848,  when  many  of 
lis  best  paiutinifB  and  mopt  prt-ciont*  works  of  art  were  destroyed.  Afr«;r 
Inving  b-3en  temporarily  appropriated  to  varions  public  purposes,  it  was 
th  .roiiLTh'y  repaired  and  magniflcenily  furnished^jad  given  by  the  lati?  emi)eror,  in 
1S55.  to  his  uncle  Jerome  Bonapaii;e,  who«e  («on  Pi'ince  Napoleon  resided  there  until 
ISTl.  The  main  eulraMce,  with  its  elegant  fagad*-,  is  In  the  Rao  St  Honore;  and  on 
passing  through  tlie  fl  st  court,  the  seconti  or  *  our  Koyale  is  reached,  to  the  left  of 
which"  Ktand-*  tl«e  Th6^tro  Frangais.  while  iinme<llately  facing  it  is  the  celebrated 
Gilerie  VitrAo,  or  GImss  Gallery,  which  contains  on  thegrnundnoort-omeof  the  most 
brilliant  shops  of  Paris,  while  the  upper  Ptones  \ive  cTiiefly  occupietl  by  cafes  and 
r  'StMunuits.  The  garden,  which  is  surrounded  by  this  and  other  galleries,  me<j.«ur«-8 
700  feet  by  300.  Tho.Rcd  Republicans  ^et  Are  W  I  lie  palace  in  March  1871  (see  Paris). 
when  all  tlie  apartmentj*  occupied  by  Prince  Napoleon  were  destroyed.  Tlie  flreiiu-n 
and  thosn  who  aide<l  them,  while  forming  into  line  to  pass  buckets  of  wutvr,  were 
fired  U]»«»n  by  the  insurgents;  bnt  kept  to  their  work,  and  succeeded  in  checking  the 
flaniv-'s  befoiv  they  spr.'ud  to  the  s^allerieg  Miid  shops,  uhich  may  almost  l>e  said  to 
lijive  remained  intact.  In  the  autumn  of  1873  tliat  part  of  the  palace  injured  by  ihe  in- 
surg^'nts  was  restored.  The  garden,  with  its  avenues  jind  parterres,  foanta ins  and 
givjss  plots,  still  constitutes  oi  eof  Hie  liv<  116*^1  at  id  rao-tfn-qnented  spots  in  the  whole 
city;  and  although  much  of  th'>ir  gloy  has  faded,  itscaf^s  still  muiutaiu,  iu  great 
measure,  ihe  world-wide  reputjiti<^i  they  loiftr  ago  acquired. 

PALANQUI'N,  or  Palkt,  tlio  vehicle  commonly  used  in  Hlndn?»tan  by  travel- 
lers, is  a  wooden  box,  about  8  f.'et  long,  4  feet  whie,  and  4  (ec't  high,  with  wootlrii 
shutf{M-s  vvhicli  can  be  opened  or  shut  at  pleasure,  and  constructed  like  Venetian 
blinds  for  the  purpose  ol  aduiitiing.fresii  air,  while  at  i  he  same  time  they  exclude  the 
scorching  rays  o(  the  sun,  and  Ihe  iieavy  showers  of  rain  so  common  iu  that  country. 
The  furniture  of  the  interior  consh»ts  of  a  cocoa  mattress,  well  stuffed  and  coverc«l 
with  morocco  leather^  on  which  the  traveller  reclines;  two  small  bolsters  are  placed 
under  his  head,  and  one  under  his  thii,'hs,  to  render  his  position  ad  comfort  ible  aa 

f)Ossible.  At  the  upp 'r  end  is  a  shelf  and  drawer,  and  at  the  sides  are  nettings  of 
arger  dimensions  than  the  ordinary  poiketa  iu  cniTia^ies,  tor  containing  those  arti- 
cles which  maybe  necessary  to  the  traveller  during  his  30urn<y.  At  encliend  of  the 
palanquin,  on  the  outside,  two  iron  rings  ar3  fix  :d,  and  the  fiammals,  or  pidatiqain- 
oearers,  of  whom  there  are  four,  two  at  ench  end,  sn|;port  the  pidanquin  by  a 
pole  passing  through  these  rings.  Travelling  in  this  mode  is  continued  both  by 
diiy  and  night.  (See  Dawk)  The  palanquin  is  also  lused  at  Iho  pi-esentday  iu 
Brazil,  with  the  prominent  exception  of  Rio  Janeira 

Similcir  modes  of  travelling  have  been  at  various  times  in  use  in  Western  Eu- 
rope, bnt  only  for  short  distances.  The  Roman  "  litter,"  the  French  ''chaise  a  por- 
teui-s,"  and  the '* sedan-chair"  were  the  forms  of  vehicle  most  in  use,  and  the  two 
latter  were  ill  general  use  in  towns  till  they  were  snivrsedidby  hackney  roaches. 
Tlie  Roman  •* Titter"  was  one  of  the  criteria  of  Its  owner'.s  wealtli,  the  rich  man 
generally  exhibiting  the  prosperous  condition  of  his  affaii's  by  the  multitude  of  the 
bearers  and  other  attendants  accompanying  him, 

PALA'PTERTX.  (Gr.  ancient  apteryx),  a  genus  of  fossil  birds  whose  rcrnahis 
are  found  iu  the  river-silt  deposits  ol  New  Zealand,  ass-ociatcil  with  the  gigantic 
Dinornis,  and  which,  like  it,  resembled  in  the  form  of  the  steriinm,  and  the  stmcture 
of  the  pelvis  and  legs,  the  living  windless  apteryx.  Two  species  have  been  de- 
scribed. 

PA'LATE,  The,  forms  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  consist*  of  two  portions,  the 

hard  palate  in  front  and  the  soft  pahite  behhid.    The  framework  of  the  hard  palcUe 

is  formed  by  the  palate  process  of  the  sni>erior  maxillary  bono,  and  by  tiie  horizon- 

\l  process  of  the  palate  bone,  an<l  is  iKmnded  iu  front  aud  at  the  Sides  by  Ih'^  ulveo- 

•  arches  aud  gums,  and  iKMtcriorly  it  is  continuous  with  the  soft  pahite.    It  is  cot- 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


67Q  Palarqul* 

i  y  Palate 

ered  by  H  dense  strnctnre  formed  by  the  perioslcnm  mid  irmc^ns  membmne  of  the 
moutji,  which  are  clo-»ely  adiieioiir.  Al  hl'  I  lie  miildle  line  i?  ai-  linear  ridge  or  raplu', 
on  elfher  nlde  of  which  the  mucons  meujbrntie  is  tiiick,  pule,  aiul  comsgated,  while 
behind  it  iB  rhin,  of  u  darker  liur,  and  eiuooth.  'i'bic  membrnue  Im  covrred  witlj 
Bcaly  epithelium,  and  ia  furnished  with  uumerous  follicles  (the  palaUil  gljinds).  The 
9oft  palate  is  a  movable  fold  of  uiucou*  membrane  enclosinar  muscuinr  fibres,  and 
BU8pende<l  from  the  posterior  border  of  tht^  hnrd  palute  po  to  form  jiu  incompli'le 
peptuni  between  the  mouth  and  the  phnrynx  ;  it*  fides  ht-iug  bl  ixled  with  the 
pharynx,  while  its  lower  boitUr  is  free.  When  occupying  its  n^ual  pohition  (thjit  is 
to  8:iy,  when  the  muscular  fibres  couttiinod  in  it  are  relaxed),  iis  anterior  mrfnce  is 
concjive;  and  when  its  iuU!?cle»  are  called  into  Hctl(»n,  as  in  swallowing  a  morsel  of 
food,  it  ij»  raised  and  made  tense,  atid  tlie  foo<l  i.«  thus  prevented  from  passing  into 
the  posterior  nares,  and  Is  at  tho  same  time  directed  obliquely  backwards  and  down- 
wards into  the  plnii ynx. 

Hanging  fron»  the  middle  of  its  lower  border  is  a  small  conical  pendulous  prb- 
CPSH,  the  uvula;  and  passing  outwaidsfrou)  the  uvula  on  each  Fide  are  two  curv«'d 
folds  of  mncous  membrane  consaining  mn^chlar  flares,  and  calkd  tl:e  arches  or  pil- 
lars qf  the  sqft  palate.  Thi':  anterior  Tillar  \s  continued  downwaidi*  to  the  Md*-  of 
the  base  of  the  tonj;ne,  and  is  fornico  by  the  projection  of  the  palnto-glossus  mus- 
cle. The  posterior  pillar  \x  larjrer  than  the  anterior,  nnd  runs  downwaids  and  back- 
wards to  the  «de  of  the  pharynx.  The  anterior  and  posterior  pilhiri*  are  clost^ly 
united  above,  but  are  separated  below  by  an  angular  interval,  in  which  the  tonsil  ut 
either  side  is  hxiged.  'Ihe  \ou^ih  {aviygdalf^)  aiv  glandular  organs  of  aroundert 
form,  which  vary  consideiably  in  eizv  m  difTertnt  individojils.  '1  hey  aie  con»|»o8<  d 
of  au  assemblage  of  mucous  follicles,  which  secrete  a  thich  gruyieh  matter,  and  open 
on  the  surface  of  the  glai^d  by  numeious  {V^  to  16)  orifices. 

The  »i  ate  hft  between  the  arclK-s  of  Ihe  palate  on  the  two  sides  is  called  the 
isthmus  of  thefaucm.  It  is  bout  ded  Jtbove  by  the  free  margin  of  the  palate,  below 
by  the  tongue,  and  on  each  side  by  the  pillars  of  the  ? oft  palate  and  tonsils. 

As  the  upper  lip  may  be  fissured  throuj^h  imperfect  development  (in  which  case 
it  presents  the  condition  knoM-n  as  hare-bp^,  so  al^o  may  there  be  more  or  less  de- 
citled  fissure  of  the  palate.  In  the  sliglitest  form  of  th  s  affection,  the  uvula  mcf  ly 
is  fissured,  wliile  in  extreme  cases  tlie  chft  extends  through  both  the  eoft  »i  d  h:  rd 
palate  as  far  forward  as  the  lips,  and  is  then  oflest  comhinid  witli  bare-lip. 
When  the  fissure  i-  considerable,  it  materially  intt-rferes  witli  the  aciB  uf  Fuckingf.nd 
swallowing,  ai;d  the  infant  runs  a  great  risk  of  l)eing  starved  ;  at'd  if  ibe  child  grows 
up,  its  articulation  is  painfully  indistinct.  When  tiie  fissure  iscoi. fined  totln-s-oft 
palate,  ret>eated  cauleijsation  of  tlje  angle  of  the  fissure  has  been  found  suflicient  to 
effect  a  cure  by  means  of  the  contraction  that  foIh>ws  each  bmii.  Asa  general  rule, 
however,  the  child  is  allowed  to  reach  the  age  of  puberty  when  the  operation  of 
staphyloraphy  (ov  f-aXxxve  of  the  soft  jiarts)  is  performed— an  operation  always  diffi- 
cult, jmd  not  always  succeBsful.  For  the  method  of  perforaiing  it.  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  tlie  "Practical  Surgery"  of  Mr  Fergu^son,  who  has  iutroducc^i  several 
most  important  modifications  1  Mo  the  old  opetation. 

Acute  inflauimntion  of  Ihe  tonsils,  popularly  known  as  Quiksy,  is  treated  of  in 
a  sepanite  urticle. 

Chronic  enlargement  of  the  tonsils  is  veiy  freqnent  in  scrofn!ons  children,  and  Is 
not  rare  in  scrofnloim  peisons  ol  more  advanced  age^  and  may  uive  rise  to  veiy 
con-^iderable lnconveniei.ee  and  diatress.  It  may  occa.^]on  difliculty  in  swallowing, 
confused  and  inarticulate  speech,  deafn^^ss  in  various  degrees  Irom  closure  of  the 
eustachian  tubes  (now  often  termed  throat  deafness)^  and  noisy  and  laborious 
respiration,  jspecially  during  sleep ;  and  it  may  even  cause  death  hy  sufi^ocati- n, 
induced  by  the  entanglement  of  viscid  mucus  between  the  enlarged  glands.  Iodide 
of  iron  (especially  in  The  fornio^  Blancard's  Pills)  and  rod-liver  oil  are  the  medicines 
upon  whose  action  most  reliance  should  be  placed  in  the*e  ca^'es,  while  a  strong 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  (a  scruple  of  the  salt  to  an  ounce  of  distilled  water),  or 
some  preparation  of  ioditie,  should  b-.^  applied  once  a  day  to  the  affected  parts.  If 
tlieee  mejisures  fail,  the  tonsils  must  be  more  or  less  leinoved  by  the  surgeon, 
either  by  the  knife  or  scit>sor8,  or  by  a  small  guillotine  specially  invented  for  the 
pnri>OBe. 

Enlaiv'^ment  or  relaxation  of  rlie  uvula  i;*  not  uncommon,  and  gives  rtes  to  a  con- 
stant tickling  cough,  and  to  expect orat  on,  by  ihe  irritation  (^thu  larvux  which  ^*^ 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


fT^**  •    ■  i680 

occasions.  If  It  will  not  yield  to  astringent  or  stimulating  gargles,  or  to  tlieAtrongrer 
IochI  applications  directed  for  eul'ir^^ed  touails,  it4  exiromiiy  mast  be  seized  wit  it 
tUe  forceps,  and  It  ma»t  be  divided  tliruugb  the  middle  with  a  pair  of  long  scissors. 

PALA'TINATE,  a  name  aj)plied  to  two  German  states,  wbicli  were  united  pre- 
viously to  tlie  year  1620.  Tliey  weie  diatin^tut'lietj  as  the  Uppt-r  and  Lower  Palati- 
nate. 'Hie  Upper  or  Bavarian  P.,  now  forming  a  circle  of  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria, 
wa'^  a  ducliy.  and  was  l)ounde«l  by  Baireutli,  Bolicmia,  Neiibiinr,  Bavaria,  and  the 
district  of  NCuiib  rg.  Area,  2730  hquare  niilef  ;  pop,  (1807)  2S3,8U0.  Atnlierg  was 
the  chitit  city,  and  the  feat  t)f  governui.nt.  'J*ha  Liiwer  P.,  or  tlie  Palaiinale  on  the 
Khine,  enibr.ic;'d  an  ar^-a  of  from  3045  to  31  Si) square  miles;  and  consist fd  of  tlnJ 
eh'Ctonil  P.,  the  principality  of  Simmera,  the  ducny  of  Zweibiufken,  the  half  of  ilio 
county  of  S|»:)iih>-im,  aod  the  principalities  of  Beldeuz  and  Lau:eni.  For  thi 
art'a  and  popttlatiun  of  the  modern  provinces  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  P.,  £ee 
article  Bavaria. 

Tiie  coaiits  pf  t)io  ph^ctoral  or  Rhenislj  P.  were  est•^bIish^'d  in  the  hereditary  pos- 
session of  the  torriiory  of  that  n.ime,  and  of  the  lands  attached  to  it,  as  early  as  the 
llrh  cenrniy,  Afier  the  death  of  lleVman  IIL,  the  Emperor  Friedrith  L  assigned 
tljo  P.  to  Ctjiiratl  of  Swabia.  After  Conrad's  death,  his  son-in-law,  Duke  Henry  of 
Bniuswiek,  came  hi  1196  into  the  prjssessioii  of  the?e  l.-inds.  but  he,  having  l)^'en 
oMilawed  in  T215  hy  Friedilch  IL,  was  succetded  by  his  son.  Olio  ill.,  Duke  of  Ba- 
varia. Liid wif^  II.-  or  the  Strong,  succeeded  the  preceding  in  the  P.  in  1353, and  was 
in  tnrii  sttccfcded  ui  1294  by  Uudolf  I.,  who.  howcvvr,  was  bani!*hid  by  Ids  brother, 
the  E;iip  Tor  LtidwiL',  b;?caii8e  he  had  takun  part  with  Friedrich  of  An.«tna.  The 
coiuitiy  was  rided  i>y  his  three  sons.  Itiiprecht  III.,  who  died  in  1410,  was  a  Ger- 
in:iri  einperur.  Of  his  four  sims,  Lndwig  IIL  received  the  elrcioral  or  Rhenish  P.; 
Joli.iuii,  the  UpiHM-  P.;  Stephan,  Zaeibruck  n  ;  and  Otto,  Mo«b  .ch.  The  second  and 
foint'i  I  lies  800U  died  out.  as  well  as  also  Itiat  of  Ludwig  IIL,  which  canie  to  a  close 
ill  iS-ia.  upon  which  the  posses^iions  of  that  princi-,  t6gether«wi.h  the  electorate, 
pa>JS4:d  to  i^'netlrich  HL  of  the  8inim:'rn  line.  He  was  f^ucceed'  d  by  Lndwig  IV.  in 
iv;6,  by  Friedrich  IV.  in  15S3,  and  by  Friedrich  V,  in  1610,  wlio,  afu-r  he  accepted 
tlie  Bohemian  crown,  was  driven  Irom  his  possej^sions  by  the  emperor  in  1619.  and 
bis  officii  of  elector  was  trauffeiTed  to  Maximilian,  Duke  of  B-ivaria.  Karl  Ludwiir, 
son  of  Friedrich  V.,  receivid  the  Lower  P.  at  the  jKjace  of  V/es^tphalia,  and  in  his 
favor  a  new  or  eighth  electorship  was  created.  With  bis  son  Karl,  the  Simmern  line 
teriniurited  in  1(}S5,  upon  which  the  P.  fell  into  the  hands  of  Phi.lpp  VVilhelm,  count 
palatine  of  Neiiburg. 

'i'he  House  of  Neiii>urg  wa«  descended  from  Lndwiir  the  Black,  count  palatine  in 
Zweibriicken,  second  sou  ((f  Stephau,  count  palatine  in  Bimmern.  Wolfgang,  a  d;v 
sctudaut  of  Ludwig'i?,  was  tlie  founder  of  all  the  other  lines  of  counts  palatine.  Of 
bis  three  sons,  Joliann  founded  the  line  of  Nen-ZweibrGcken,  Karl  the  Birkenfeld 
line,  Pliilipp  Ludwi^^  the  ^Jenburg  line.  Philipp  Lndwig  had  three  sons,  Wolfgang 
Wilh-ihii,  A ugiii^t,  and  Johann  Friedrich.  The  first  founded  the  Ncubu-g  line,  the 
second  theSulyluirh  line,  the  third  died  childle.-'S.  The  M)n  of  Wolfgang  Wilhelm 
died  ill  1690.  His  i^oi,  Johanu  Willielm,  became  heir  to  the  Beldenz  line  in  16W. 
He  was  pucc;^eded  by  hi.-*  brother,  Karl  Philipp,  who  in  turn  was  succeeded  in  1742 
by  Karl  Theortor.  from  the  Sulzbach  line,  who  united  the  Bavarian  territories  with 
the  Palatinate.  Diiktj  Maximilian  of  Zweil>rricktn  next  succeeded  in  1T99,  who  at 
tlie  pL*ace  of  Liinvville  (1301)  was  compelled  to  cede  a  portion  of  the  Ehenish  P.  to 
France,  a  part,  lo  Baden,  a  part  to  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  ti  part  to  Nassau.  Treaties 
of  Paris  of  1S14,  and  ISl.'i  re-assiirned  the  Palatinate  lands  be)-ond  t.lse  Rhine  to 
Germany,  Bavaria  r -ceiving  the  largest  share,  and  the  remainder  being  divided  be- 
tween lie.-se-D.irnistadt  and  Pinis.sia. 

PA'LATINE  (from  Lat.  pjlatinvi^  n  palace).  A  Cowm  Palatfnus.  or  Count  Pal- 
atine, was,  under  the  Merovingian  kin^s  of  France,  a  hi;rh  judicial  officer,  who  bj^d 
supreme  authority  in  allcauses  that  c  me  under  the  immediate  cogm'zance  of  the 
Bovereiffn.  After  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  a  similar  title  was  given  to  any  powerful 
feudal  lord,  ta  whom  a  province,  generally  near  the  frontier,  was  made  over  with 
jura  regalia,  or  ]m\\cm\  powers,  similar  to  what  the  cwants  palatine  had  received 
in  the  palace,  and  the  district  so  governed  was  called  a  palatinate  or  eountvpalatine. 
There  weru  thiea  counties  palatine  In  Eughind— L^iucaster,  Ciiester,  and  Dorbuiu— 


y  Google 


-681  .IS*^" 

^v!lich  W(»r?,no  cloiibt,  marie  separate  regalities  on  nCccmnt  of  ttielr  >e*pective  prox- 
imity to  the  irontkii"  of  Wales  and  to  tluit  turbulent  Northumbrian  province  which 
could  neither  be  accounted  a  poilion  of  Eu«rlaiid  nor  of  Scotland.  In  virtue  of  Ibeir 
regal  rights,  the  counta  p;ilaiine  liad  their  courts  of  law,  aep"iiJted  their  jud^ies  and 
law  officers,  and  conld  pardon  treasons,  murders,  and  felonies;  all  writs  nnd  jadicial 
process  proceeded  in  tlieir  names,  and  the  kin<!:'8  writs  were  of  no  avail  wiihin  the 
Dou.  ds  of  the  ])alaibiale.  Lancaster  peems  lo have  been  made  a  fonntj'  palatine  by 
Edward  III.  Henry,  first  Bnke,  jind  John,  second  Dnke  of  L-uicaster,  were  both  in- 
ve^Jted  by  him  with  the  dijjnity  of  count  palatine.  .Henry  VI.  was  heredi- 
tiirily  puke  and  Count  Palatine  of  L;\iica8ter,  and  on  bis  attainder,  soon 
after  Edward  IV.'s  accession,  tlto  ducliv  and  county  were  forieMod  to 
the  crown,  and  confirmed  on  Edward  I  v. — afterwaid:*  on  Henry  VII.  and 
his  heirs  for  ever.  'J'iie  Queen  is  now  Duchess  aid  Countet^s  Palatine  of  Lancis- 
tr.  There  is  still  a  chancellor  of  the  duchy  and  county  palatine,  whose  dntiea  are 
few  and  animportant,  but  the  administration  of  jtiPtice  lias  j^radiially  be«n  assin.i- 
lated  10  that  of  therest  of  Engl.ind.  See  Lancaster.  Chestir  is  supposed  to  have 
become  a  county  palatino^wheii  made  over  with  ny^al  jmi-diction  by  William  ihu 
Conqueror  to  Huirues  d'Avranches.  In  i>>e  rcijrn  of  Henry  III.  it  was  anne^ced  lo 
the  crown  by  letters  patent,  and  since  that  lime  the  earldom  palatine  of  Chester  hns 
been  vested  in  the  eldest  son  of  the  >«overeig«i,  or  in  the  crown,  whei. ever  there  is  no 
Prince  of  Wales,  Durham  seems  to  have  flivt.  become  n  palatinate  when  William  the 
Conqueror  constituted  Bishop  Walcher  Bishop  and  Duke  of  Durham,  with  power 
(ciccordingto  W^illiain  of  Malmei*bur^)  to  lestrain  the  rebellious  peoi)le  wit'.i  the 
eword.  and  reform  their  morals  wth  his  eloquence.  The  Palatinate  jurisdiction  con- 
tiimedunitt^  with  the  bishopric  till  1830,  when  it  was  separated  by  act  of  parliament, 
and  vested  in  William  IV.  and  Ida  sncce-fors  as  a  franchise  distinct  fi  om  the  crown, 
toirether  with  all  forfeitmes.  mines,  tiudjura  regalia.  It  has  nince  been  more  com- 
pletely incorporated  with  the  crown.  Pembroke  was  at  one  time  a  couniy  palatiis'-, 
but  ceased  lo  be  so  in  Henry  VIII.'s  time.  Th3  Archbishop  of  York  als-o  exeicie  d 
the  powers  of  a  palatine  in  the  county  of  nexham  in  Nortlminbt  rland,  of  which  lie 
was  deprived  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In  vcrv  early  times  there  were  a  nnir.bci  of 
similar  privileges  in  Sv^otlaud,  the  most  important  of  which  was  Miatof  the  Eai's 
Palathie  of  Strathearn.  lu  Germany,  the  P/a^rjjr^,  or  count  palatine,  extrcisrd  a 
jurisdiction  nmch  more  extensive  than  tiie  simple  Grafov  count.  A  con>id(rfil.'.e. 
district  hi  Germany  was  long  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  count  palatine,  who  was  ojie 
of  the  electors  of  the  empire.    See  Palatinate. 

PALATINE  HILL.  {Mons  palatihits)^  the  central  hill  of  the  famous  seven  on 
which  auci  lit  Rome  was  built,  and,  according  to  tradition,  tl:e  seat  of  lhee«rlie>t 
Koman  settlements.  In  point  of  historical  inn  rest,  it  ranks  next  to  the  Capitol  and 
tliL*  Forum.  Its  «ummil  is  abo:it  160»feet  above  1  he  sea.  The  form  of  tlse  hill  ;s 
irregiil.uly  quadrangular.  Its  noith-western  slope,  towards  the  Capitoline  Hill  and 
the  i'iber,  was  called  Oerma'iia  "v  Cermalus.  Thj  origin  of  the  name  is  uncertain, 
altlioagU  sev.  ral  derivations  are  given  collecting  it  witii  leg*  ndary  stories.  Eon.u- 
lus  is  saT«l  to  have  founded  t!ie  city  njion  this  hill,  and  on  G-  riMMhis  grew  the  sac  d 
fig-tree  (near  to  ibe  Lupercal)  undt.-r  which  he  and  his  brother,  Remus,  were  fonnd 
sucking  tne  she-wolf.  Upon  the  P.  H.  were  ih<!  temple  (f  Jnpi.er  iSUUur,  liu*  tei..p.e 
of  Cybele,  the  sacred  square  enclosme  cdhd  Roma  Qtiudrata,  and  other  sacrctl 
places  and  etliflces,  besides  many  ol  the  fineet  lu.uses  in  K..me.  Augustus  and  'I  i- 
beriushud  their  residences  here,  wUimic  Tacitus  termed  it  ipsa  imperii  arx  (the 
veiy  citadel  of  government);  and  at  last  Nero  included  it  entirely  within  the  j)re- 
cincis  of  his  awea  domnti^  which  Vispa^ian  subsequently  restricted  to  ti:e  hill. 
From  the  lime  of  Alexander  S-verns  it  ceased  to  he  tlie  residence  of  the  emperors, 
but  the  name  jpa<tt^«  (jHilatium),  derived  from  it,  was  given  to  the  abodes  of  sover- 
eigns and  great  princes,  and  has  been  adopted  into  modern  languag<-s.  Recent  ex- 
cavations have  brought  to  light  numerous  remains  of  Ihe  palatial  and  other  stri.c- 
tnres  with  which  the  P.  H.  was  once  covered;  and  these  are  now  among  the  most 
intereBiing  sights  of  the  et;rinal  city. 

PALAWA'N,  or  Parairoa,  one  of  the  Philippine  Islands  (q.  v.). 

PALE,  Im  Heraldry,  one  of  the  figures  known  a«  ordinaries,  consisting  of  a  pnr- 
peudicuiar  b.ud  in  tile  middie  of  the  Biiidd,  of  which  it  is  said  to  occuio  one-th.rd. 


y  Google 


Paienque  682 

Several  charges  of  nny  kind  are  snid  to  be  "  In  pale  "  when  they  stand  over  ench ' 
other  perneiidicularly,  aado  the  throe  lions  of  England.  A  shield  divided  through 
the  middle  by  a  perpendicular  line  is  said  to  be  •*  parted  per  pale."  The  Pallet  is  tlio  di- 
minutive of  th'""  pale,  and  is  mo.-t geueialiy  not  borne  si ngly.  When  the  Add  is  divUU-d 
Into  any  number  of  parts  by  p- rpcndicnlar  liues»i  it  is  caliid  **  paly  of ."  eo  many 
pieces.  Paly  of  j«ix  argaut  and  gules,  tlie  arm-t  of  the  family  of  Kuthven.  Wliea 
divided  bylines  pcrpendicuhir  and  bendways"  crosainir,  it  is  cdled  p;dy  bdndy.  Aa 
Endor!»e  is  a  further  diminuiivc  of  tlie  pallet,  and  a  pale  placed  between  two  endorses 
is  said  tobn  endorsed. 

PALAY  (CrifptoHtegiaffrandifiora),  a  climbing  plant  of  the  natnral  order  AsdepfiU 
daceoH  (q.  v.),  connnon  in  many  pnrts  of  India,  particularly  on  tlie  e.-iet*  in  co:t>t  of 
Hindnslau.  It  yield*  a  very  fine  strong  white  fibre,  re.*end)linL'flax,  and  wldchcnu  be 
8uf»u  into  th«  ftnt'St  varu.  The  fibre  i-  obtained  fnnn  the  Ptalk  ;  thf^  milky  jnicc  con- 
taius*  caoulclionc.  P.  i-*  one  of  the  moat  interesting  plants  which  have  nrCtiUtly  been 
recommend,  d  to  notice  in  Iudi:i. 

PALE,  in  Irish  history  ^'see  Ireland,  Histort),  meajie  th-it  portion  of  the  kinsr- 
dora  over  which  tJie  English  rale  and  Englisli  law  was  acknowledged.  Therw  is*  so 
much  vagueness  in  the  meaning  of  the  term,  tlnit  a  f-w words  of 'es|)]anatio.ii  appear 
nucossaiT.  'I'he  vaguenos?  arisi-s  from  the  preat  ftuciuatioun  wliidi  the  English  an- 
thorlty  underwent  in  IreUind  at  various  penods,  and  from  tlie  consequent  flariuation 
of  the  actual  territorial  llniits  of  the  Pale.  The  designation  dates  from  the  reign  of 
John,  who  disth  bated  thvj  portion  of  Ireland  then  nominally  subject  to  Enjriandinto 
twelve countieffpulathie,  Dublin,  Meath,  Kildnre,  Loutii.  CjuJow, Kilkenny,  Wt*rford, 
Waterford,  Cork,  Kerry,  Tippeniiy.  and  Limerick.  To  this  entire  dis'trior,  in  a  gt  u- 
orjil  way,  wa*  aftei-wai-ds  giveu  the  designation  of  tlie  Pale.  Bat  as  it  m»iy  be  paid 
that  tlie  term  is  commonly:  nppli  d  by  the  writers  of  eacli  ago  to  the  nctual  English 
ten-itory  of  Wie  period,  anil  as  tJiis  varied  very  mucli,  care  must  be  tnken  to  allude 
to  the  asre  of  which  the  name  Pal6  is  y.-sed.  'ihus,  very  eoon  after  the  important 
date  of  the  Stntute  of  Kilkenny,  at  the  close  (i.  the  r.  ign  of  Edward  III,  the  Eng- 
lish law  extended  only  to  the  four  counties  of  Dnbliti,  Cirl«>w,  Meath,  and  Loui  i. 
Ill  the  reign  of  Ueniy  VI.,  the  limits  were  still  further  re?*trirted.  In  a  general  w.iy, 
however,  the  Pale  may  be  considered  ns  comprisiui;  the  counties  of  Dal>lin.  Meath, 
Curlow,  Kilkenny,  and  Louth.  This,  although  not  quite  exact,  will  be  sufficient  fur 
most  purposes. 

PALA'ZZOLO  ACREI'DE,  a  town  of. Sicily,  In  the  province  <^t  Syracn8<?,  29 
miles  south-south-west  of  Catanin,  is  situated  on  the  brow  of  a  hill,  just  where  it 
overhangs  a  deep  valley.  Near  P.  are  the  remdns  of  the  ancient  Acrm,  founded  bv 
a  colony  from  Syracuse,  on  the  e'ite  of  a  Phcenician  settlement,  664  b.o.  The  mort 
curious  remains  are  to  !>e  found  in  some  fow  c'iffs  bene.dh  t!io  town  to  the  soutli, 
where  i<  a  series  of  arched  niches,  contiining"  fijrnres  carved  in  high  relief  in  the 
rock.  The  style  of  ait  appears  to  be  archaic  Greek,  with  somewhat  of  an  £g}'ptian 
character.    Pop..  9354. 

PA'LEA  (Lat.  chaflf),  a  term  emnloyed  in  Botany  to  designate  the  bracts  of  the 
florets  in  Gra^>es  (q.  v.),  called  corolla  by  the  older*  bot  lni^'ts;  also  to  desiirnate  the 
small  bracts  or  scales  which  are  attached  to  the  nceptacle  of  the  head  of  flowers  in 
many  of  the  CompoHiUa  (q.  v.).  Any  part  of  a  plant  covered  with  chaffy  scales  la 
de8cril>ed  x\%  paleaceous. 

PALEMBA'NG,  fonnerly  an  indepondent  kingdom  o'l^lje  east  coast  of  Sumatra, 
now  a  Netherlands  i*esideiicy.  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  Djimhi,  ii.  w.  by  Bencoo'en- 
s.  by  the  Lamijong  districts,  and  s.  e.  by  the  Strnit  of  Bjinca.  has  an  afeji  of  61,900 
square  miles;  and  a  population  amouniii)):,  in  1S73,  to  6X1.085  souls.  Much  of  the 
land  is  low-lying  swamp,  covered  with  a  wildern  as  of  impenetrable  busli ;  but  in 
the  south  it  rises  into  mountains,  of  which  Oeloe  Moesi  (Uln  Musi)  is  6180  feet. 
Gold-dust,  iron-ore-,  sulphur  with  arsenic,  lignite,  and  common  coal  are  found  ;  also 
clays  suited  for  makinsr  coarse  pottery,  &c.  Springs  of  pure  oil  occur  near  the  coal- 
flekls  of  Bali  Boekit  (Bukit),  and  of  miner.-il  water  in  various  pltices.  Rice,  eotion, 
sugar,  pepper,  tobacco,  and,  in  the  interior,  coco-nnts,  are  grown;  the  forests  pro- 
ducing KUtta-percha,  gum-elastic,  latans,  wix,  benzoin,  satin-wood,  &c.  The 
livers  abouud  with  fish ;  and  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  tiger,  p^iutUer,  and  leO|paid 


Digitized  by 


Google 


683  Palelqiu 

roam  the  woods^  ob  well  as  the  deer,  wild  swine,  and  goatB>  with  many  varieties  of  , 
the  inoukey. 

In  the  di-y  season  the  tliennonieter  ranges  from  80®  lo  BS*  F.,  niid  in  the  rniny 
Benson  X9P  to  SO*,  'i'lie  cliinate  is  not  unhealthy^  t  xcept  in.tiie  neifriiborho<jd  of  tlio 
swamps.  The  natives  are  desceude<l  fruiu  Javanese,  who  in  the  Itftii  Cj  or  e.-.riier, 
settled  in  ?.,  and  rured  over  tl»e  wbde  laud.  The  race,  however,  has  b(>come  mixed 
With  ol her  iMaluys.  and  tiie  iuMsrnaarrt  Uft8  loj*t  its  purity.  Ju  ihe  noith»west  interior 
is  a  tribe  caU<'d  tlio  Koel)oe8  (Kubu$>),  of  whoi^e  origin  nothiu!^  is  known,  hat  who 
are  nrobably  tine  reinaindc^r  of  the  aborigines.  'iUey  do  not  follow  after  ngilcn  dare, 
go  unoutalrootit  n.tkcd.  audlivechiffly  l)yttsiiinK  and  hunting.  No  ideaof  aSnpreine 
Being  seems  to  be  potifea&ed  by  theiu,  though  they  beiieve  in  existence  after  duAih. 

PALEMBANG,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  and.resfdency,  is  52  ndl'^s  from  the 
Sofiipang  (8nu.«-aiii?),  or  principal  mouth  of  the  riVrtr  Moesd  (Mnai),  in  iP  69'  s.  lat, 
and  104°  44' e.  long.  The  <ity  is  built  on  boih  banks  of  tl»eMoi'Si.  and  other  ^tren  ma 
Whicit  fall  into  it,  and  is  five  miles  in  lenirth  l)y  half  a  mile  in  i  readtb.  Tht^  river  is 
upwardi^  of  1000  feet  broad*  ami  from  40  to  60  iQ^t  In  depth,  so  tlii.t  the  lai^^t  vessels 
can  sail  np  to  the  Inirlxtr.  Tlie  nativo  houses  are  raised  on  |)08ti',  and  neatly  con- 
structed of  pianks  or  bamboos;  the  Chinese,  Arabiaui>,  and  EnropianH,  chiefly  liviig 
in  floating  lion»es  (Miltrd  Mkit)*,  of  wliicii  there  areppwanis  of  fii%  and  liolding  cont- 
xuunicatron  \^itli  one  another  and  witli  tlio  natives  by.  I^att*.  The  fort  is  built ~on  the 
feff  bank  of  the  river,  and  behind  it  are  an  iuotitntion  for  thf>  blind  and  a  splendid 
ino$>qae.  There  is  a  scliool,  where 50  European  chtWreu  are  e<lncated,  a  govemmei  t 
elementary  SCI  ool  for  natives/ an/i  several  good  Chinese  schools.  Miiny  of  ttto 
natives  can  read  and  write,  and  in  ^sa  a  native  priutiu^vproes  w>8  eceoted  l^Kciuaa 
."Mohamcd  Asniiel. 

p.  isi  v*?ited  annually  by  npwai^ds  of  80  000  boats  of  various  sices,  brhirii^g  pro- 
duce from  tlie  interior,  consl^ting  cliitfly  of  rice,  b  «Ko]n,annj.<*»stic,gntta-^icbn, 
raw  cotton,  ratt  ln^  t<ib.icco,  pepi>er,  war,  drittfon*8  bi«yO<l.  resin ;  alHi  gold-dust 
-fi*f)m  file  lioiindaiies  of  the  kingdom  of  Djambi,  nowinchided  in  tlie  RMdency. 
Tiieseare  obtained  chiefly  in  ezehange  for  t^alteotloiMnanufactures.  earthenware, 
Iron  and  copper  wares,  ana  provisions.  M  lie  foreign  trade  U  h\Tge,  and  cliiefly  Ciir-- 
ried  on  with- Java,  Banca,  Singapor«»,  Cliina,  andSiam.  The  colonial  report  of  the 
Dntclt  Rovemment,  published  in  18i5,  cives  the  eswrts  from  P.  for  1872,  at  jC22T,- 
885.  and  the  iuiporin  at  jC278,698.  The  natives  of  P.  are  good  ivory  carvers,  gold 
and  silver  smiilu',  jewellei-s,  eutlers.  3a])anne\:8,  painters,  hoat-bnild*  i-s.  bookbinoers, 
Aic,  and  expert  at  all  tlie  ordinary  handicrafts.  The  women,  in  addition  tn  cotton 
falM'ics,  spinning,  and  dyeing,  we;!v<^  silk  htulfe,  en  broiden  d  with  gold.  Pop.  44,- 
000,  of  whom  100  are  Enrop.-ans,  80.000  Chinese,  and  2000  Arabians. 

PALE'Ni  lA  (riio  ancient  J'allantia),  a  city  of  Spain,  in  Old  Castile,  capital  of 
the  mi»dern  province  of  the  same  name,  stai'ds  in  a  tn  eless.  but  well-watered  and 
fruitful  plain,  on  the  Carrion,  80  m  les  nolth-ea^t  of  Valljulo!  d.  It  l-*  a  bishop's 
see,  and  is  surrounded  by  old  w^l's,  86  feet  high  and  9  feit  thick,  around  which  are 
pleasant  promenades.  The  cathredal,  a  light  and  ehgant  Gothic  edifict-,  was  built 
1321—1504.  The  first  university  founded  in  Cnstlle  wjis  built  here  in  the  10th  c,  hut 
was  remov»d  to  Salamanca  in  1239.  Nearly  one-tl  ird  of  the  {>opulation  is  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  Wankets  ayd  coarse  woollen  cloths.  The  po>itiou  of  the  town 
on  the  Carrion,  and  on  tlie  Cjistilian  Canal,  is  favor.-ib'e  to  the  development  of  com- 
merce.   The  vine  is  cultivated,  and  there  is  a  good  trade  in  wool.    Pop.  13,000. 

PALE'NQU^  Buins  of.  are  on  the  Rio  Chacamas,  a  bmncb  of  the  r'ver  Usuma- 
sinta,  in  the  ?tate  of  Chiapa.",  Mrxico,  8  niiles  sonth-east  of  the  village  of  Santo 
Pominso  de  Palen%ne,  lat.  11°  30'  n.,  long.  92o  26'  w.  The  ruins  extend  over  a  large 
area,  covered  wiili  a  dense  tropical  forest,  and  are  of  difliciilt  exploration.  They 
consist  of  vast  artificial  terraces,  or  terraced  truncated  pytamids,  of  cut  stone,  sut- 
nmrnnteil  by  edifices  of  peculiar  «nd  solid  architecture,  also  of  cut  ptone.  covered 
with  figures  in  leiief,  or  fiirures  and  hieroglyphics  in  stucco,  witli  remains ot  brilliant 
colors.  Most  of  the  buildings  are  of  one  story,  but  a  few  are  two,  three,  and  some 
may  have  been  four  stories.  The  principal  stnicture,  known  as  the  Palace,  is  228 
feer  long,  180  feet  deep,  and  25  feet  high,  stan<ling  on  a  terraced  truncated  pyramid 
of  corresponding  dimensions.  It  was  fjiced  with  cut  stone,  cemented. with  mortar  of 
UXD^  fifid  eaod,  aud  the  front  covered  with  stucco  apd  paiuted.    A  borridor  ruoa 


y  Google 


r; 


Pa'crme  AQ  1 

Pald3t  116  *^0^ 

nroand  tlie  buildlnir,  ©pining  Into  fonr  Interior  conrts,  which  open  fiito  many 
smaller  rOome,  Ou  slabs  of  sione  arc  i  arved  iiunieroiis  coioseal  figures,  uud  the 
leinains  of  staiuee  more  resemble  Grecijiu  rhuii  Egyptian  or  Hindu  art.  Oih(  r  spa- 
cious ?nid  eluljoiately  omamented  buildings  appear  to  have  been  temples  of  religfou. 
These  rnJus  were  in  tiie  same  cynditiuu  when  CoitQZ  conquered  Mexico,  as  now, 
overjjrowu  with  a  forest,  and  their  site  forgotten.  They  were  only  discovered  iii 
iToO,  TUree  explorations  were  mad©  by  the  Spanish  g<^vernment,  but  they  were-Iit- 
tle  known  until  visited  by  Messrs  J.  L.  Stephens  and  F.  Caihcrwood,  and  their 
Mcconut  published  with  plans  and  drawings.  See  Stipbens's  ••  Incidents  of  Travel 
in  Central  Ani'.jrica,"  Ac.  and  Cattier\voo3'8  "Views  of  Ancient  Monuments  of  Cen- 
tral America,"  j&c  There  are  in  Mexico  dim  lra4irions  of  the  existence,  at  a  remote 
period,  of  the  Capital  of  a  theocratic  state,  the  centre  of  a  lon^;  since  estinjjuisUed 
civilisation,  of  which  the  only  traces  are  these  wonderful  rums  and  uuezpiaiued 
idcro<jlyphic8. 

PAIiE'ttMO,  an  archiepiscopal  city,  importint  seaport^  and  the  capital  of  the 
island  ot  Sicily  ;  capital  nlso  of  the  pi'6vinC4'.  of  the  same  name,  and  along  with  Na- 
>le-,  Rome,  Milan,  and  Turi::,  one  of  the  five  most  populous  cities  in  the  Kin^demof 
taly,  is  sitm^t^d  ou  the-uorrh  c  -ast  of  the  island,  135  miles  by  water  west  of  Mest'ina. 
L  it  33°  6'  n.,  long.  13<^  20'  e.  It  stands  in  a  highly-cultivated  and  fertile  plain  called 
La  Conea  d'Oro  (The  Golden  Shell),  commands  a  l)eaiitiful  view  of  the  Gnlf  of  Pa- 
lermo on  which  it  stands,  and  is  backed  towards  the  interior  by  ridges  of  mountains. 
In  shape  the  town  is  an  oblong  parallelogram,  tlie  direction  of  its  length  being  from 
south ■\yest't«porth-e^9t^  ,Ttjs  divided  into  fpnr, quadrangular  parts  by  two  great 
street:*,  Mie  osaniical  Via  Vittorio'  Emaimele,  formerly  the  Via  Toledo, ov  Ca8>iavp% 
and  the  Strada  Nuooa  or  Mucguedft,  whrcli  woss  each  other  at  rf^'ht  jmgles  b'  the 
middle  of  the  city.  It  is  upwards  of  four  iftiles  in  circumference,  ie  surrounded  .1)y 
walls  pierced  with  12  gates  and  flankerl  with  bastions,  and  is  defended  by  several  bat- 
teries. Tlie  houses  are  balconied,  fl^-t  roofed,  aiid  liaye  glass  doors  instead  of 
windows.  The  streets,  l)esides  the  two  main  thoroughfares  already  mentioned, 
are  generally  well  laid  out,  and  there  are  several  fine  promenades,  of  which  the 
famous  l^arina,  extending  along  the  shore,  on  the  line  of  tlie  ancient  fortifica- 
tions, and  boidored  by  the  palaces  of  the  nobles,  is  the  most  magnifi- 
cent. P.  contains  60  pailsh  churches;  8  ahb'»ys;  71  monasteries  and 
convents,  to  which  belong  from  20,000  to  30,000  monks  and  nuns ;  and, 
besides  these,  19  oratories.  Under  the  churches  is  counted  the  cathedral— the  church 
of  St  Rosalie.  At  the  intersection  of  the  two  principal  streets  there  is  a  largo  octa- 
gonal t«pace  or  Piazza,  lined  with  palaces,  and  adorned  with  siatnes  and  nmrble 
fountains.  The  royal  palace  is  a  huge  pile  of  bnildings,  with  a  splendid  chapel, 
built  in  1129,  and  contains  many  pillai-s  of  rare  workmanship  and  rich  mosaics  with 
Arabic  inscriptions.  The  cathedral  is  a  fine  edifice,  original Iv  Gothic,  but  to  which 
incongruous  Greek  additions  have  l>een  made,  is  adorned  with  marble  columns  and 
statue:*,  and  contains  monuments  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  IT.  and  of  King  Rc^er,. 
the  founder  of  the  Norman  monarchy  in  Siciiy.  Among  the  piinclpal  public  instltu- 
tious  of  P.  tire  the  university,  an  academy  of  arts  and  sciences,  a  medical  academy, 
an  institution  for  arts  and  antiquirie<,  a  beautiful  and  extensive  public  garden,  pub- 
lic libraries,  theatre?,  &c.  P.  is  an  archbishop's  see,  the  residence  of  the  gov<!rnoi 
of  the  island,  and  the  seat  of  the  supreme  courts.  Manufactures  of  silks,  cottons, 
oil-cloth,  leather,  gloves,  &c.,  are  canned  on.  The  harbor  is  formed  by  a  mole,  1300 
feet  in  leugth,  on  which  there  is  a  litjht-hoase  and  battery.  Vessels  of  700.000  tons 
enter  and  clear  the  port  annually,  and  the  impoi-ta  amount  in  value  to  near  £\  ,000.000. 
and  the  exports  to  about  the  same  sum.  Pop.  (1871)  of  P.  with^uburbs,  1S6,406;  of 
commune,  219,838. 

The  environs  of  P.  are  Interesting  as  well  as  picturesque,  and  embrace  many 
pleasant  villas  and  noble  mansions.  North-west  of  the  city  is  Monte  Pellegrino^  the 
Eircte  of  the  ancients,  an  abrupt  rocky  mass,  in  which  there  is  a  grotto  or  C;ive,  in 
which  Santa  Rosalia,  a  young  Norman  princess,  lived  a  life  of  nligious  retirement. 
In  P.,  Santa  Rosalia  is  esteemed  more  higlUy  than  even  Santa  Maria;  the  festival  in 
her  honor  lasts  from  the  9th  to  the  13th  July,  and  is  the  most  important  festival  held 
ou  the  island.  During  its  celebration  the  city  isillnminated,  the  streets  are  cay  and 
brilliant,  and  there  is  an  immense  influx  of  strangers  from  the  vicinity,  ^ut  the 
chief  feaUu'e  of  the  festival  is  the  piocessiou  to  ti>e  cave.    An  iiuiueusu  ailver  Ixdp 


Digitized  by 


Google 


t^QX  '  Palermo 

^^^  Palestine 

M^e  of  the  Bidnt  ift->orue4;hither  oil  a  wagon,  70  feet  long,  30  feet  broad,  and  80  feet 
high.  Its  foim  resembles  that  of  a  Koniaii  galley,  with  seats  for  a  choir.  The 
wagon  is  drawn  by  58  mules,  covered  with  tlie  gayest  trippings,  and  driven  by 
28  postillious. 

P.,  the  ancient  PanortnAM^  was  originally  a  Phoenichiii  colony,  bnt  had  become  a 
dependency  of  C«rthai;e  before  the  name  occurs  in  hiBtoiy.  Wi^h  the  exception  of 
a  short  time  about  276  B.C.,  when  it  fell  into  tli«  hands  of  the  Greeks,  it  continued 
to  be  the  head-quarters  of  tl*e  Carthaeinian  power  in  Sicily,  until  it  was  taken  by 
tlie  Romans  during  the  First  Punic  War  (2)4  B.C.).  when  it  became  one  of  the  prin- 
cij»al  naval  st^itions  of  the  Kom.Mns.  The  name  Panormus  is  derived  from  the  excel- 
lent anchorage  (Gr.  hormos),  in  the  bay ;  but  the  Plioenician  name  found  on  coins  i? 
Machanath,  mfjining  "  a  camp."  The  Vandals,  and  afterwards  the  Arabs,  made  it 
the  capital  of  tlie  island,  and  after  the  Norman  Conquest  it  continued  to  be  the  seat 
of  the  king  of  Sicily.  It  still  remained  the  royal  residence  under  the  Aragoneee 
kings  ;  but  the  court  was  removed  after  Sicily  beciime  united  to  the  then  kingdom 
of  Naples.    See  Sicily. 

PA'LESTINE  (Palcestina^  Pkilistia).  or  the  Holy  Land,  a  country  of  South- West- 
ern Asia,  comprising  the  southern  portion  of  Sym,  and  boundi  d  on  the  w.  by  the 
Mediterranean,  e.  by  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  n.  by  the  mountaiu  ranges  of  iheL-- 
bnnon  and  the  glen  of  the  Lii&nv  (Leoutes),  and  s.  by  the  desert  of  Sinai ;  Int.  SI® 
15'— 33°  20'  n.,  long.  84°  30'— 35°  30'  e.  Within  these  narrow  limits,  not  more  than 
145  miles  in  length  by  45  in  aver;ige  breadth — an  nn-a  Ic.-s  than  that  of  the  principal- 
ity of  Wales — is  comprised  the*' Land  of  Israel  "or  *' Canaan,"  the  arena  of  the 
"greatest  events  in  the  world's  history.  The  priiK'.ipal  pliyj^ical  features  of  P.  are,  (1) 
a  central  plateau  or  table-land,  with  a  mean  lieiirht  of  1600  foot,  covered  with  an  ag- 
glomeratio^i  of  hills,  which  fxtond  from  the  roots  of  the  Lebanon  to  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  country ;  (2)  the  Jordan  valloy  and  its  lakes;  and  (8)  tiie  maritime 
plain,  and  the  plains  of  Esdr:i61on  and  Jericho.  On  the  east,  the  descent  from  the 
central  plateau  is  steep  and  rugged,  from  Lake  Hnlch  to  the  Dead  Sea.  On  the  we.«t, 
it  is  more  gentle,  bnt  still  well  marked,  towards  the  plains  of  Philistia  and  Sharon. 
The  ascertained  aliitudes  on  this  plateau,  i)roceeding  from  south  to  north,  are  H«'- 
bron,  3029;  Jerusalem,  2610;  Mount  of  Olives,  2724;  Mount  Gerizim,  27pO;  Mount 
Tabor,  1900;  ISafed,  2775  feet  above  the  sea.  Ne^irly  on  the  parallel  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  the  range  of  Carmel  extends  from  tlie  central  plateau  north-west  to  theMed- 
jten*anean,  where  it  terminates  abrni)tly  in  a  promontory  surmounted  by  a  convent. 
It  rises  froni'COO  feet  in  the  west,  to  leoofeet  in  the  east,  and  is  composed  of  a  soft 
white  limestone,  with  matiy  ctivenis.  Beyond  the  boundary  of  P.  on  the  north,  but 
visible  from  the  greater  piirtof  the  country,  Moinit  Hermori  rises  to  9381  feet,  and  is 
always  snow-clad.  From  the  formation  of  the  central  plateau,  the  iliainage  is  nearly 
fQways  east  and  west  to  the  Jordan  and  the  Mediterranean.  The  streams  of  the 
plateau  are  insigniflcant,  and  generally  dry  in  summer. 

The  geolojjical  formarion  of  the  conntiy  consists  of  jurapslc  and  cretaceous  limo- 
Btone,  often  covered  with  chalk,  and  rich  in  flints,  with  occasional  interrupt  ions  of 
tertiary,  liassltic,  and  trappean  deposits.  The  upper  stmta  consist  of  limest'jue  of  a 
white  or  pale-brown  color,  containing  few  fossils,  but  abounding  in  caveras,  which 
form  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  country.  The  general  fentures  of  the  landr<cape 
exhibit  soft  round«d  hills,  separated  by  nariow  gU^ns  or  valleys  of  denudation ;  ilio 
strata  are  occasionally  level,  bnt  more  frequently  violently  eon  »ort«d,  as  "^een  on 
the  route  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho,  wh<>re  the  fissures  are  often  1000  feet  deep, 
and  only  80  rr  40  feet  ^^ido.  Ironstone  occurs  in  small  quantities;  rock-^alt. 
asphaltum,  and  sulphur  abound  near  the  Dead  Sea,  where,  as  alt'O  near  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  there  are  mafiy  hot  springs.  Volcanic  agency  is  evident  in  the  obtruded  lava 
of  former  ages,  and  In  frequent  earthquakes  of  modern  tlm<'S.  The  vast  crevass«> 
througJi  which  the  Jordan  flows,  and  which  cleaves  the  land  from  north  to  south,  is 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  fissures  on  the  surface  of  the  globe;  it  is  from  5  to  12 
miles  wi<le,  and  of  the  extraordinary  depth  of  2630  feet  at  the  bottom  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  'J'hrough  this  the  river  descends  at  the  rate  of  11  feet  in  a  mile,  with  a  course? 
BO  tortuous  that  it  travels  132  miles  in  a  direct  distance  of  W,  between  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  and  the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  the  only  perennial  river  of  P.,  except  the  Kishon, 
wbich  10  permaueut  only  iu  its  lower  cooi-fe,  aud  the  lAt&uy  ou  its  northern  border. 


y  Google 


FalMtrina 


686 


8e«  Jordan.    The  only  lakes  of  P.  are  in  the  ralley  of  the  Jordan.    See  Oekns^^ 
▲AET,  8ba  of,. and  Dead  Sba. 

Thii  plain  of  Phllistla  extends  ftrom  the  coast  to  the  first  rising  ground  of  d'ndnl^ 
ftboat  16  miles  in  uverage  width ;  tlte  soil  is  a  rich  brown  loam,  almost  without  a 
ftone.    It  i*  In  many  parta  perf«'CtJy  level ;  In  others  nndnlating,  wirh  mounds  or 
hillocks.     The  towns  6i  Oaza  and  Ashdod,  near  the  een,  are  surroanded  by  groves 
of  olives,  sycamores  and  palms.    This  plain  is  stil!,  as  it  always  wan.  a  y:iat  com* 
field,  an  ocean  of  wheat,  without  a  break  or  fence ;  its  marvellous  feriilityiiaa  prcK 
dace<1  the  same  succession  of  crops,  year  after  year,  for  forty  centuries  without  ani- 
ficial  flid.    The  plain  of  Sharon  is  about  10  miles  wide  in  Ibe  south,  narrowing 
towards  the  norrh,  till  it  is  terminated  by  the  buttress  of  CarmcL    Its  cndalating 
surface  Is  crossed  by  several  streams ;  tiie  soil  is  rich,  and  capable  of  producing 
enormns  crops;  but  only  a  smaU  portion  of  it  near  Jaffa  fs  cultivated,  and  it  is 
wpidly  being  cMicroachad  on  by  the  sea  sand,  which,  between  Ja£Ea  and  C»?area,  ex* 
tends  to  a  width  of  three  miles  and  a  height  of  800  feet.    The  famous  ancient  cities 
Of  this  region,  Ctesarea,  Diospolis  and  Antii>atri.«,  have  vanished.    JalEa  (Joppa) 
alone  remains,  supported  hy  traveIU*rs  and  pilgrims  from  the  west  on  the  way  to 
Joru^lem.    The  great  plain  of  EsdraSlon,  or  Je/.reel,  extends  across  the  centre  of 
the  country  from  the  M«'diterranean  to  tlm  Jordan.  8e|>aratin^  Ihe  mouu tain-ranges 
of  0  irmal'and  Samaria  from  tliose  of  Galilee.    Its  Furface  is  drained  by  the  Kisbon, 
wliich  fl;)\v."*  west  to  the  Mi*dit.'rraneari  at  Haif  i.    'J  he  plain  is  surrounded  by  the 
hills  of  Gilbo.i  and  Li  tie  Hermou  ;  tht;  isolated  Mount  Tabrtr  rifes  on  its  nortb-eaet 
side.  It  ii*  extremely  fertile  iu  grain  wiiere  cnliivated;  and  covered  with  gigantic  thistles 
Where  n-glected.    It  is  liche.-it  ra  the  central  p:iit,  wlich  slo|)es  eaht  to  the  Jordan^ 
the  b  ittle-lield  when-  Gideon  triumphed,  and  Sanl  and  Jonathan  were  overthrown. 
It  Is  the  home  of  wand 'rln-;  Bulonins,  who  camp  in  it-  fields,  and  gallop  over  itsgrem*- 
Svvard  in  search  of  pliindtir.     Maiiv  placasof  deep  historical  interest  are  connected 
with  thU  i)liin.    ShuiKMn,  Nain,  Endor,   Jezrecl.  Gilboa,  Bcthshan,  NnKareth,  nnd 
1'abor  are  all  in  its  vicinity.    'J'he  plain  of  Jericho  is  a  vast  level  expanse,  covered 
with  tie  richest  soil,  now  quit-;  ne^^lec^fed.     Around  the  Kite  of  Jericho,  '*  the  city  of 
palm-'rees,"  th  a'e  is  not  now  a  single  palm;  but  a  ricent  experiment  proved  its 
capability  of  produciujj  in   aimiidauce  a  1  the  croi)s  for  which  it  wa**  formerly  fa- 
n)0U'«.    Tiie  climate  of  P.  is  ve  y  varied  ;  January  is  the  coldest  nnd  eTnly  the  hottest 
mputh.  The  mean  amiiMl  t'3:npiratufo'  of  the  ye  ir  at  Jerni*alem  iy  65^  Fahr.,  resem- 
bling that  of  Madeira,  the  Bjrnmdas,  and  California.    'J'he  extreme  heat  of  the  sum- 
mer mo;.i!)8  i«  modifl  d  by  rt3a-br«ivZ iS  from  the  north-west.    In  the  plain  of  Jericho 
and  the  Jordin  V  dley  it  is  extranely  hot  and  relaxini;.    The  xiroceOf  a  south-east 
wind  l<  oft  n  o;)P"e8!»iv<i  iu  early  ^UTinar.     Snow  falls  in  the  nplamls  in  Jannanr 
and  February,  and  thin  ice  Is  often  fomid  at  Jerusaleni,  where  the  annual  rainfall  in 
61  inches.    II -avy  d3ws  fall  in  .summer  and  the  nights  are  cold.    Violent  tbnnder- 
storm-(  occur  in  winter.    In  th  •  soath,  Judah  and  part  of  Benjamin  is  a  d»7  parched 
land  ;  the  l)are  iinidsione  rook  is  c  tvered  hsro  and  there  with  a  t'canty  soil,  and  the 
vast  remaiuHOf  terracaa  shjw  how  assiduon.-'Iy  it  must  have  been  cultivated  in  an- 
cient tiui  IS  to  support  the  teeming  popnlatiim  indicated  by  the  rnin«  of  cities  with 
which  every  eminenct!  is  crowned.    To  the  north  of  Jndea  the  coujitry  is  niore  open, 
the  plains  are  wider,  the  boil  richej-.  aiid  the  produce  more  varied,  till  at  Nablou.'*  the 
rimuing  streams  and  exu  Hirant  vegei  ition  recall  to  the  trax'feller  the  8C«  nery  of  ll»e 
Tyrol.    Even  in  its  d.*.-*o!ation,  P.  is  aland  flowing  with  milk  and  honey.    There  is 
no  evidence  of  Jt*  clltnate  having  chang -dor  deteriorated,  nor  any  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  it  wou'd  fail  to  support  as  great  a  population  »«  «'ver  it  did,  prov'ded  the 
same  means  as  formerly  were  used  for  its  cultivation.    It  has  aire  same  bright  surt 
and  uncloaded  sky,  as  well  as  the  early  and  latter  rain,  which,  however,  is  dimin- 
ished ii)  quantity,  ow'n?  to  the  destruction  of  trees. 

The  botany  of  P.  is  rich  and  varied,  resembling  that  of  Asia  Minor.  Amoivff  its 
trees  are  the  pine,  oak,  elder,  and  hawthorn  in  the  norihern  and  higher  districts, 
and  the  olive,  fig,  c nob,  and  syamore  elsewhere.  The  cultivated  fruits  are  the 
vine,  api)le,  pear,  apricot,  quince,  plum,  orange,  litne,  banana,  almond,  and  prickly 
pear.  Wlieat,  barley,  peaa,  potatoe?,  and  European  vegetables,  cotton,  millet,rice, 
maize,  and  suirar-cane  are  among  its  prod rK*.'s.  The  date  now  rip  ns  its  frn;t  only 
in  the  south  and  on  the  sea-board.  The  brilliant  flowers  which  in  -prinsr  euame)  Hio 
surface  and  tinge  the  entire  landscape,  comprise  the  adonis,  rauuuculns,  mallow, 


Digitized  by 


Google 


687 


Palestriaa 


poppy*  I^nk,  nnemone,  nnd  ^rauinm.  In  the  Jordan  vall^,  MO  or  1000  feet  1>elo\v 
the  Bea-levcl,  the  vegetation  is  tropical  iu  Its  character,  recembiing  that  of  Arabia ; 
the  iinbk  (Spiita  CAW«<i),  the  oleauder.  aud  the  t'lnall  yellow  **a|>t)le8  of  6odom"  are 
conspicnoas.  The  most  valnable  proaacts  of  the  v»'gotab!e  kingdom  are  dorivfcl 
from  the  vihe,  fic«  olive,  and  mullwrry  uxe*>.  "Wine  for  home  use  Is  made  iu  all  the 
central  and  soatbem  districts ;  the  best  is  made  at  Hebix>u  from  the  grapes  of 
£shco1.    Olive  oil  is  a  valuable  export. 

The  wild  animaln  of  P.  comprise  tlic  Syrian  bear  in  Lt^banon,  the  panther,  jackal, 
foXf  hyena,  wolf,  wild  boar,  gnselle,  and  fallow-doer;  the  lion  is  now  unknown. 
The  domestic  animals  are  the  Arabian  camel,  at^s,  ninle^  horse,  buffalo,  oz.  nnd 
broad-tailed  sheep.  Among  the  birds  are  the  eagle,  vulture,  kite,  owl,  uiuhtingale, 
jajf  and  kingfisher— the  latter  of  brilliant  plumage— the  cuckoo,  heron,  stork,  crow, 
partridge  aud  sparrow.  Fish  swarm  in  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  bats  and  lizards 
abound. 

Tlie  divisons  of  P.  In  Old  Testament  times  were  into  9}^  tribes  in  the  west,  and 
8>^  tribes  in  tlie  east  of  the  Jonlan.  In  Now  Testament  times,  on  ihe  west  of  the 
Jordan,  the  provinces  of  Galilee  in  Ihe  north,  Samaria  in  lUe  middle,  and  Jud-  a  iu 
the  south  ;  on  tlie  east  of  the  Jordan,  Perea  and  Decapolis.  Tl»e  lK)undarie8  of  the 
tri>)Qj3>  and  proviuces  are  very  uncertain.  Its  modern  divisiGna  have  changed  with 
every  new  race  and  dyinisty  of  conquerors.  Under  Tnrkish  riilc^  P.  is  comprised  In 
the  vilayet  of  Syria,  and  contains  the  two  8iil)-p!ishalic9  of  Acre  and  Jernsaleu).  The 
present  population  is  very  mixed,  comprising  Syrians,  Mohanjmedans.  Alnronites, 
Druses,  Christians,  Jews,  and  Turks.  'I'h<'  J«'ws  a  refill  foreigners,  almost  exclu- 
sively inhabiting  the  four  holy  cities— Jerusalem.  Hebron.  I'iberius,  aud  Safcd  ; 
their  whole  number  was^,  in  18. 1,  estimated  at  only  10,000.  The  country  is  oppressed 
by  Turkish  avarice,  and  overrun  by  the  predatory  Arabs.  The  Palestine  exploration 
has  done  good  work  iu  the  ideutlflcatiou  of  Biblical  and  classical  sites,  «c.  Sue 
Sybia. 

PALESTRI'NA  (the  ancient  PrceneAte)^  an  episcopal  city  of  the  present  kingdom 
of  Itidy,  iu  the  province  and  22  miles  east-south-east,  of  the  city  of  lt«»mt ,  occupies 
a  strong  position  on  the  souih-west  slopi  of  a  high  hiP,  an  offset  <»f  the  Apennines. 
Besides  seveml  inierestiwg  churches,  the  town  contains  a  castle,  once  the  chief 
stronghold  of  the  Colonuji,  to  whom  the  town  l)elonged  ;  and  the  palace  and  garden 
of  the  Barberini  family.  The  viiw  across  the  Oampagna  j:ud  toward  the  Albau  Hills 
is  nxigniflcent.    Pop.  6000,  wIjo  manufacture  coarse  woollen  goods, 

P.  is  built  almost  entirely  upon  the  site  and  the  g5»;:antic  substmctlons  of  the 
Temple  of  Fortune,  one  of  the  great  e'liflces  of  tlie  former  city  of  PraBuente.  This 
city  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  as  well  as  powerful  and  important  cities  of  Ljitinm. 
It  covered  the  hill  (2400  feet  above  sea-levi'l)  on  the  slope  of  which  the  moderti  town 
stands,  and  was  overlooked  by  a  citadel  of  great  strength.  Tlie  site  of  this  citadel 
on  the  pummit  of  the  hill  is  now  occnpied  by  a  cnstlo  of  Ihe  middle  ages,  called 
Caatel  S.  Pietro  ;  but  remains  of  the  ancient  walls  :ire  still  visible.  We  first  hear  of 
Pi-eeneste  as  a  member  of  the  Latin  League  ;  but  in  499  bo.  it  quilted  thecojifederncy. 
and  joined  the  cause  of  the  Komans.  In  880  B.c..  the  Praneetines.  haviiig  i  ejoined 
their  ancient  allies.  opene<l  a  war  with  Rome;  but  were  completely  routed  on  the 
banks  of  the  Allia  oy  T.  Quintius  Clncinntitus,  and  beaten  back  to  their  own  gates. 
They  took  a  preminent  part  in  the  famous  Latin  Wiir,  840  B.C.  Hnving  given  shel- 
ter to  the  younger  Marins  in  the  year  82  b  c,  this  city  wmb  besieged  by  the  forces  of 
Sulla,  and  ou  its  being  t  ikeu  all  *th(i  inhabitants  were  put  to  the  sword.  A  military 
colony  was  then  estamlshed  In  their  place,  and  soon  the  city  began  to  flonrli*h  am  w. 
Its  elevated  and  healthy  situation,  at  no  great  distance  from  the  capital,  made  it  a 
favorite  place  of  resort  for  the  Romans  duriuir  summer.  Augustus  frequented  it ; 
Horace  often  found  this  citv  a  nlejisnnt  retreat :  and  here  Hadrian  built  an  extensive 
yilla.  The  Templ*^  of  Fortune  is  described  by  Cicero  as  an  edifice  of  great  antiquity 
as  well  as  snlendor,  and  lis  oracle  was  ujuch  Consulted.  The  town  became  the 
stronghold  of  the  family  of  Colonna  iu  the  middle  ages ;  but  was  given  to  the  Bar- 
berinf  family  by  Urban  VlIL 

PALB8TR1NA,  Giovnnni  Pierlugl  da,  a  distingnished  musical  composer  of  the 
l«th  century.  He  derived  his  sunmme  from  the  town  of  Palestrinn,  in  the  Roman 
StAtee,  wkere  he  was  bom  iu  1624.    At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  went  to  Rom«  and 


y  Google 


Paleatro  .  ijOO 

Palgrava  ^^^  * 

ptiKlIed  music  nndat  .Claude  Qoudimel,  afterwards  one  of  the  vfctima  of  the  St  Bar- 
tholoinew  niassncre.  lu  1551  he  was  made  mtiestro  di  capella  of  the  Julian  Chapei; 
and  in  1554  he  pnbll8hi:d  a  collection  of  Mas:*ep,  so  Inghly  approved  of  by  Pi»pe 
Julius  III.,  to  whom  they  were  dedicated,  that  he  appointed  their  author  one  of  lh6 
singers  of  the  pontifica!  chnpel.  Being  a  inarrie<l  man,  he  lost  that  office  on  the 
accession  to  tho  pontificate  of  Paul  IV.,  in  wliose  eyes  celibacy  was  a  uecessaiyqnali- 
fic^t.ion  for  its  duties.  In  1665  lie  was  made  choir-master  of  St  Maria  Maggiore,  and 
held  that  position  till  15T1,  when  he  was  restored  to  his  office  at  St  Peter's.  In  1563, 
the  council  of  Trent  having  imdcrtakon  to  reform  the  nmsic  of  the  church,  and  con- 
demned the  profane  words  and  music  introduced  into  masses,  some  compositions  of  P. 
were  pointed  to  as  models,  ami  their  author  was  intrusted  with  the  task  of  remotlet- 
lingthis  part  of  religions  worehip.  He  compo.^ed  three  musses  on  the  reformed  plan  ; 
one  of  them,  known  as  the  Ma^s  of  Pope  Maicellns  (to  whose  nieinoryit  isdedicsitedV, 
may  he  considered  to  have  saved  ninsic  to  the  church  byeslabrishingatypeinfiuiU^ly 
beyond  anything  tliat  had  preceded  it,  and,  amid  all  the  changes  uhich  music  hat* 
B'nce  gone  through,  continues  to  attract  admiration.  During  the  remaining  year^  of 
his  life,  the  number  and,the  quality  of  the  works  of  P.  are  equally  remarkable.  His 
published  works  consist  or  la  books  of  Masses,  6  books  of  Midett*,  1  book  of  Lamen- 
tatltms,  1  book  of  Hymns,  1  book  of  Offertories,  1  book  of  Magnificats.  1  book  of 
JLltiinies,  1  book  of  Spiritual  Madrigals,  and  3  books  of  Madrigals.  P.  must  He  coih 
sidered  the  first  musician  who  reconciled  musical  science  wiih  musical  art^  and  his 
works  form  a  most  important  eyioch  in  the  history  of  music.  Equally  estimable  in 
private  life,  and  talented  a-*  a  musician,  P.  struggled  through  a  life  of  povjjrty  durii-.g 
eight  pontificates;  his  appointmentH  were  meii^re,  and  his  publications  unremuner- 
ative.  He  died  in  1594.  A  memoir  of  his  life  and  writings  has  been  wriiteu  by  tlie 
Abbe  Baini. 

PALE'STRO,  a  village  of  Piedmont,  8  miles  south-east  of  Vercelli,  famous  ns  the 
scene  of  a  battle  bi.tween  tlie  Sardinians  and  Austtians  in  May  1859.  On  the  30lh  of 
that  month  the  Piedmontese  drove  the  Ausirians  from  this  village,  and  on  the  8lSt 
defended  it  with  great  bravery  a-rainst  an  Austrian  attack.  'Jlie  Piedraontebe  iu  the 
battle  of  the  3l^t  were  assisted  by  8000  French  Z  maves,  and  on  that  occa>ion  tlve 
Austrians  lost  2100  men  killed  and  wounded,  950  prisouers,  und  6  pieces  of  cauuun. 
Ou  June  1st  the  aj^ies  entered  Novara. 

PA'LETTE.    See  Painting. 

PALEY,  Dr  William,  a  celebi-ated  English  divine,  was  born  at  Peterborough  in 
1743.  Uis  lather  was  a  Yoik^hireman.  and  not  long  after  P.  was  born  reiunied  to 
his  native  parish  of  Gigiile^wick,  one  of  the  wildest  and  most  sequestered  districts 
in  the  Wvst  R?diug,  to  become  master  of  the  jirammar-school  there.  Young  P.  was 
T3P0iight  ai>  amouir  the  shre,wd,  hard-headed  peasantry  of  York.shire;  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  he  either  naturally  posi*essed,  or  insensibly  ac(^uired  tht  ir  numil  and  ment-nl 
characteristics.  At  al!  events,  he  soon  became  conspicuous  iu  the  family  for  Ms 
good  sense;  and  when  he  left  to  enter  Christ's' College.  Cambridge,  as  a  sizar,  in  his 
sixteenth  year,  his  father  said:  "He  has  by  far  the  dearest  head  1  ever  met 
Willi."  At  Cambridge,  P.  led  for  the  first  two  years  a  gay,  idle,  and  dissipated  life, 
but  ihereafter  l>ecame  a  severv^  student,  and  took  his  bttchelor  degree  in  1763  with 
highest  honors.  He  then  taught  lor  three  years  in  an  acaden.y  at  Greenwich. 
In  1765  he  obtained  the  first  prize  for  a  prose  Latin  dissertation— the  subject  being 
"  A  Comparison  between  the  Stoic  and  HJpicurean  I'hilosophy  with  respect  to  tlic 
Influence  of  each  on  the  Morals  of  a  People,"  in  which  he  charact-tjristically  argued 
hi  favor  of  the  latter.  Next  year  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Christ's,  and 
also  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  In  1767  he  was  ordained  a  priest.  His  career  as  a 
college  tutor,  winch  lasted  about  ten  years,  was  eminently  successful ;  and  it  n\)- 
pears  to  ha^o  been  during  this  period  that  he  systematised  his  jjrinciples  iu  moral 
and  political  philosophy.  In  1776,  P.  married,  and  was  of  course  obliged  to  give  up 
his  fellowship,  but  was  compensated  by  a  presentation  to  the  livings  of  Mosgrovo 
and  Appleby  in  Westmoreland  and  of  I)alston  in  Cumberland.  Four  years  lat^^r  he 
was  collated  to  a  prebeudal  stAll  in  the  cathedral  church  of  .Carlisle,  in  1782  ho  be- 
came archdeacon,  and  iu  1785  chancellor  of  the  diocese.  The  last  of  these  years 
witnessed  the  publication  of  his  **  Elements  of  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy."  Iu 
this  work  ha  propoonds  his  ethical  theory,  which  la  commouly  called  utilitarianism. 


y  Google 


689 


Patettro 
Falgravo 

hut  in  real!}'  a  mixture  of  utility  and  theology.  He  begins  hy  renouiiciiig  the  favorito 
doctrine  of  tlie  Moral  Sensi-,  agaiutst  wlilch  lie  adduccH  a  series  of  strong  ol>jectioiis. 
He  tl)«n  takes  up  t!ie  qm-stioirof  the  source  of  oblijration,  and  r>  solves  it  into  the 
will  of  God,  enforced  hy  future  punishment,  iidmitting  eandldly  that  virtne  Is  pru- 
dence directed  Lo  the  next  world.  The  will  of  God,  in  so  far  as  it  is  not  rendered  ex- 
f)lici».  Hy  revelation,  is  to  tie  interpret<'d  by  the  tendetscy  of  actions  to  pi-omote  human 
lappinets ;  the  benevolence  of  the  Deity  being  supposed.  Objection  has  frequently 
been  tiijcen  to  the  principles  on  which  P.  rcfis  his  sy^t«l^,  but  the  lucidity  ana  appo- 
tlteneHS  of  his  illnstraiious  are  beyond  all  praise.  If  his  treatise  cannot  l>e  regarded  as 
a  profoundly  plijlosophiod  work,  it  is  atnnyrale  one  of  the  clearest  and  most  sensible 
ever  written,  even  by  an  Englishman  ;  and  if  it  failed  to  sound  the  deptlis  of  "moral 
obligation,"  it  at  least  brushed  ofE  into  oblivion  the  sUallow  and  muddy  mysticism 
that  Imd  long  enveloped  tlie  philosophy  of  politics.  P. 'a  plain  sarcastic  view 
of  the  ** divine  righr  of  kings,"  which  he  puts  on  a  level  with  the  "divine  right  of 
conatJibles,"  gave  extreme  ofEtaice  to  George  III.,  but  was  nevertheless  muclj  ad- 
mired by  not  a  few  of  his  maJL-sty's  subjects,  and  is  now  held  by  everybody  to  be  be- 
yond qnestii  mi.  In  17»0  appeared  his  most  original  and  valuable  work— the  '*  Horse 
Paulince,  or  the  Truth  of  the  Scripture  History  of  8r  Paul  evinced  by  a  Comparii^ou 
of  the  Epistles  which  bear  his  Name  with  the  Acts  of  the  i^postles,  and  with  one  an- 
ot.ier."  The  aim  of  this  admirable  work  is  to  prove,  by  a  great  variety  of  *'imde- 
signed  coincideuceB,''  the  improlwihiliiy,  if  not  impossibility,  of  the  u>^ual  infidel  hy- 

S)othesi8  of  his  time— viz.,  that  the  New  Testament  is  a  "cunningly-devised  fable." 
[t  WHS  dedicated  to  his  friend  John  Law,  then  Bistiop  of  Killala  in  Ireland,  to  whose 
favor  he  had  been  indebted  for  most  of  his  preferments.  P.'s  next  important  work 
was  entitled  **A  View  of  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,"  published  in 
1194.  It.  is  not  equal  in  originality  to  its  pretlece^sor,  but  the  use  which 
the  author  has  made  of  the  lalwrs  of  such  eminent  scholars  as  Larduer  and 
Bishop  Douglas  is  eeuerally  reckoned  most  dexterous  and  effective.  Later 
and  keenei' critcism  is  iudeod  anything  but  satisfied  with  P.'s  "Evidences;" 
but  in  P.*ri  own  day  he  was  held  to  Wave  achieved  a  splendid  triumph  over 
Foeptics,  and  was  handsomely  rewarded.  The  Bishop  of  London  appointed  him  a 
prebend  of  St  Pancias;  shortly  after  he  was  promoted  to  the  subdeant-ry  of  Lincoln 
(worth  X700  p(!r  annum);  Cambridge  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  D.D. ;  and  the 
Bishop  of  Durham  the  rich  rectory  of  Bishop  VVearmoiith  (worth  jei200  per  annum), 
in  consequence  of  which  he  hoiJoral)ly  resigned  his  livings  in  the  diocese  of  Carlisle. 
After  18(»0  he  became  subject  to  a  pninful  disease  of  the  kidneys,  but  notwiihstand- 
ing  he  continued  to  write,  and  in  1802  published  vierhaps  the  most  widely  popular  of 
all  his  works,  "Natural  Theology,  or  Evidences  of  the  Existence  and  Attributes  of 
the  Deitv,"  which,  h()wev»-r,  is  based,  and  to  a  largo  extent  borrowed  from  the  "  Re- 
ligio;is  f*hilo3ophsr."  the  work  of  a  Dutch  philof^onher  named  Nieuwentyt,  an 
Knglish  translation  of  which  appeared  in  1T18 — 1719.  The  plagiarisms  are  most 
palpable,  but  have  been  accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that  the  "  Natural  The- 
ology "  was  **made  up"  from  his  loose  papers  and  notes  written  when  P.  was  a  col- 
legt!  tutor,  and  that  he  had  forgotten  the  sources  from  which  he  derived  them.  It  is 
also  but  fair  to  state  that  he  has  taken  nothing  wlilch  he  has  not  greatly  improved  ; 
nihil  teligitf  quod  v(yn  ornavit.  A  somewhat  noted  edition  of  this  work,  enriched, 
or  at  least  expanded  by  annotations  and  dissertations,  is  that  by  Lord  Broughaiu 
and  Sir  Charles  Bell  (1836—1^.39).  P.  died  May  26,  1806.  He  had  a  family  of  four 
6ons  and  three  daughters.  A  complete  edition  of  his  woi*8  was  published  in  1888 
by  one  of  his  sous,  the  Rev.  Edmund  Pjiley.  The  best  biography  is  that  by  Meadley 
(1809). 

PALGRAVE.  Sir  Francis,  a  distlngtiished  antiquary'  and  historian,  was  bom  in 
London  in  July  1788,  of  Jewish  parentage,  being  the  son  of  Mr  M<yer  Cohen,  a 
member  of  the  Stock  Exchaufxe.  He  was  educated  at  home  under  a  Dr  Montucci, 
and  even  when  a  child  shewed  extraordinarv  genius.  When  only  eight  yejirs  old,  he 
made  a  translation  into  French  of  the  "Battle  of  the  Fro^s  and  Mice "  from  the 
Ltitin  version  of  Beauclerc.  which  was  printed  by  his  father  m  1797.  Jn  1803  he  was 
articled  as  a  clerk  to  a  legal  firm,  and  at  the  expiration  of  his  articles,  continued  with 
the  same  firm  as  managing  clerk  until  1822^  when  he  took  chanHiers  in  the  Temple, 
and  was  employed  under  the  Recortl  Commission.  He  l-ad  previously  made  hinist-lf 
known  as  a  iiteraiy  antiquarian,  by  the  publication,  iu  1818,  of  aome  Auglo-Normau 


Digitized  by 


Google 


PalimpMft  690 

ChatifoiiP,  which  he  edited  with  mnch  carr*.  On  the  ocra«ion  of  his  marring  te 
1823.  he  chHiigt^  bis  nami^  of  Cohen  to  Pm  tiint  being  t  lo  iniidm  name  of  bis 
wile's  mother.  He  was  calletl  to  the  bar  in  182T,  and  Imd  cou!»lilernble  practice  for 
some  years  in  pedigree  casen  before  the  House  of  Lonis.  In  1881  he  published  a 
♦*  Hisiorv  of  Bmriaud,"  which  forimd  n  pint  of  the  **Fnniily  Library;*'  and  in  18M 
appeared  hi3  *•  ttlse  and  Proijn-ss  of  the  Bnglsh  Commonwealth;"  «l-o  •*  Obwnra- 
tious  on  tiie  Principles,  Sk.*  of  New  Mnmcipal  Corporations."  In  that  yi^ar  lie 
reci'lyt^  the  honor  of  knigliMiood,  and  win*  Hub^fqu-i.t y  one  of  the  Municipal 
Cornoratlon  Commissioners.  In  18W,  tlio  CommtttHioncrs  ii'i^necl  their  Reiioit. 
wliich  was  S'^ned.  however,  by  only  >«lxtoen  of  the  nn  inb<»rs— Sir  F.  P.  beinp  one  of 
tin*  fonr  (liswMitlenta.  In  the  wime  year  h«  piihlished  a  •*  Protect'*  against  tlie  rom- 
mis-iuuera'  Iltport,  in  which  he  called  in  question  several  of  its  K'atemcnt:-,  viewi", 
and  .irgirneuis.  In  1833.  on-the  recon-trnction  of  tiie  Uocord  S^rvioe.  Sir  P.  P.  wst 
apKUnted  danuty-lct-eprr  of  H-r  Maj«sty»B  Record:*,  and  he'd  that  (»ra«'e  durii  g  tb« 
r.>t  of  his  life.  Be^iae^  the  worlts  aJi  ;d<ly  nnntionecl.  Sir  P.  P.  editfd  for  the  pov- 
enim-ntth"  following:  ** Cilfudarn  of  the  'Vr  asnryof  iIik  Excheqn  t."  ''Pailia* 
nittntarv  Writ-',"  *Cai-ia  Ri'gi^  Uecord?."  and*' Documents  Illusinttive  of  tin*  His* 
tory  of  Scotland."  In  his  private  cnpacit J.  he  prodQced  the  **Merchiint  and  ih« 
Friar,"  an  unnginary  history  of  Mirco  Pol'»  and  Prar  B>con;  also  a  **Hjind-book 
for  rravellers  ni  Northern  Ifaly,"  and  a  *  History  of  Bxgiand  nn«l  Nonnmidy."  01 
this  I:iSt  work  a  volume  appoired  in  1851.  and  a  second  ]<>  1857;  and  the  third  and 
fo  >rih  vjilumes  wero  published  wiihin  tliree  years  after  their  author'i*  deatb.  Sir  P. 
P.  al3o  wrote  numerous  articl<"8  for  the  *Blinlmrgh"  and  "Quarterly  Review-," 

Erniclpaly  of  an  «nf  lqnari:in  char  icier,  but  some  of  them  purely  literary  or  artistic 
lis  gn-at  nn'rit,  in  his  historic  writings.  consi»*t8  In  tlia  exteuHive  use  iniade  by  him 
of  ondnal  docninent*.  by  jild  of  which  he  not  on'y  him-ell  very  n>uch  <*nl:«rge«l  oui 
acqnanitanc  •  with  the  history  and  social  aspects  of  the  middle  ages.  bnt.  pointed  out 
to  oth'T!*  t  le  advuntaiie  to  Imj  deriv-d  from  a  car»-ful  study  of  the  urisrinat  •'onrcej*  ol 
information  now  known  to  abound  amouj;  oar  public  records.  Sir  P.  P.  died  ut 
U;>mpsti'ad,  on  the  tftli  of  Ja  y  1861. 

PALI  (a  corruption  of  the  Sjtnacrit  Prdkrit  q.  v.)  is  tho  name  of  the  sacred  l-tn- 

{rna  r  •  of  tJi  •■  Budatiists.  lis  origin  must  i>e  souirht  lor  in  one  or  several  of  the  ponn- 
ar  dialect'  of  nnci  nt  Indi-i.  which  are  rompriSi4  under  the  general  nanie  of  P  ftk- 
rif.  and  st-md  In  m  ;xi  iiihr  relation  to  Sinxc  it  as  tha  Ro  nance  laniL^nages.  i<i  tli<-ir 
earlier  neriod,  to  L  tin.  It  hasb^en  form  rly  assumed  that  P.  aro*"  from  the  site- 
rial  Pr&kritdial  ct called  Mkx  di  1.  or  the  lanuua.'f  spoken  in  Miigadtia;  bui,acrord- 
ing  to  t'l  •  vi(nv  cix  )r'S*eil  b--  Lias-n  in  hi?»  •*  I  id  bc'i  j  Alt  ^r'hum-ktnnl-,"  an  hypo- 
the^i"*  of  thij*  knd  is  not  lena'd  •,  since  the  pecul  ariries  of  thi"  dial  'ct  are  not  coia- 
])  ti'»l  •  wit '  tli0"«e  of  1 1"  P.  l.-mi«ua-;2.  Tn  ^a  n  •  (1141  k"'  h 'd  scholar  Imld"  that 
th  •  Prakrit  lialect^,  ca  lei  t  lo  S'i;ira  enl  an  1  MA'ift  3L'  it'ii  liav?  a  c!o-»er  r«'lation  iQ 
thj  P.  th  :u  any  i.tluM*,  and  that  the  onjrn  of  th  •  la'ter  m  st  theretore  Ih*  trac  d  to 
th  •  country  of  We!«lern  ll-ndu-tau.  b  twe  ii  the  Jumna  rivr  r  and  the  Vio  Mija 
inoiititain  :  t  loni^li  he  db^erve-',  at  he  same  tinn\  th  t  tlx-  P.  i-i-old^r  than  tln^se  din- 
lcet«,  and  that  th  •  latt  r  an;  th«refore  iwfire  remote  from  Sanpcdt  than  the  foranT. 
Whether  the  oldest  woik<  of  th-  Biidd'iist  relijilon  wer^  wriitrn  in  P.  nniy  b-*  matt  t 
of  doii')t.  It  i«*  more  pro')  ble,  on  th'  c  ntnry.  that  the.laiiL'naize  in  wliich  the 
found-r  of  the  Buddhist  r<'ligi  .n  conv.'ved  his  doctrine  to  the  p  -ople  was  not  yet  that 
^pi'cial  lanjuags  hut  a  tnixtare  of  c'a?sical  and  popular  Sanscri  ,.s«ch  as  it  stid  a|>> 
p  -M-<  ill  th  5  Buililliisric  sflr  a*.  At  a  later  i)eiiod,  however,  P.  h  came  the  classical 
language  in  whnh  the  Buddhifts  wrote  tiieirscred,  metaphysicalj  and  profnne 
works.  Tlie  n»0-*t  importjint  historical  work  writ'en  in  tiiis  languag  •  is  the  **  Mali&- 
vans'a"  (q.  V.) ;  oi her  P.  works,  which  have  lately  b<'COine  known  in  Europe,  mid 
d3fl  rve  esp-icial  mention,  are  the  "  Dhnramapada,"  on  the  Buddhist  doctilue,  .-md  five 
"  J&r.ikas"  coii'aininir  a  f  dry  tale,  a  roinmical  story,  and  three  fables — '  otii  works 
edited  and  trnnsated  by  V.  Fan-^'^Oll  {Co|»en.  1S55  and  1861).  P.  ceased  to  be  a  liv- 
injj  lan.'u  i<r"  of  Ind  a  when  Buddhistn  was  rooied  out  of  it;  it  was  caniid  by  the 
fiisiitive  Buddhists  to  other  cou'  tries,  especially  Ceylon,  Biinnah,  and  Siam;  but  in 
these  conntrie-*,  too,  it  ha<l  to  give  way  before  the  native  tongues,  in  which  tb3  later 
Buddhist  I'tirattire  was  composed. 

PAXXMPjdSST  (Gr.  paUmpteHoe,  ^  rubbed  a  second  Ume"),  the  name  giren  to 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


691 


PaU 
.    Palimpsest 

parchment,  papyrnp,  or  other  writing  material,  from  which,  after  it  had  l>een  written 
^|)on,  ti«e  first  writing  wiiB  wholly  or  iu  part,  it-moved  for  tho  purpo!«e  of  the  page 
boin;:  written  npon  a  toecoud  tinio,  Wlicii  ihe  MS.  Iwid  been  written  with  one  epo- 
cies  of  ink  employed  by  the  nncientf,  which  wan  niert^ly  a  fatty  pigment  composed 
chii  fly  of  lara|)l)lack,  and  only  coloring  the  rorfare,  but  not  producing  a  chemical 
cinmgf,  there  was  li  tUMlfflcnlty  In  ol)literatli:g  the  writing.  It  was  acconii)lislied 
by  tlieuse  of  a  sponge,  and,  if  luce-purj',  of  u  Kcuiper  nnd  poliahing  tool ;  and,  where 
lU'OjM'r  pjiine  Nvt*re  tak  n.  Ihe  erasure  nf  tl>e  firnt  writing  wa>*  complete.  Bnt  when 
tlif'ink  wns  mineral,  its  effect  renche«l  beyond  Ihe  Burfjice.  In  tliut  cjiee  n  'crapiig- 
tool  or  pumice-stone  was  iiidiep«n?able;  if  tlicse  were  la^tily  or  In-ufflcieitTy 
.•ipp'ied.  the  erasnrti  was  neeeHsarily  impetiect;  and  ihn:<  it  often  lin))peitB  in  ancient 
]VJ«S.  that,  from  the  wai.t  of  proper  car«  on  the  pait  of  the  copyist  in  preparing  the 
parehmentfor  re-writlng,  the  original  writing  may  btill  be  read  without  Ihe  slightest 
difiiulty. 

The  practice  of  re-preparing  used  parehmentfor  Fccond  nse  existed  among  the 
Romans.  'I  In*  inat<  rial  thus  re-prepnred  was  of  conr.-e  res-ervtd  for  tin-  mea- er 
nses.  We  nufet  Inqtn-nt  ilhifiou!*  in  th  *  chisnical  writers,  as  Plu'arch.  Cicero  (**  Ad 
F«iuiliar.  a."  vii.  18),  Catullus  (xxii.  115).  and  others,  lo  Ihe  paliinp-eft.  in  the  h  nse 
of  a  nloiter  or  first  draft-book,  on  which  the  rough  outline  or  first  copy  ot  a  doe.n- 
m^•llt  was  writien,  pn  pa  atoiy  to  tlie  aecurat*^  transcript  which  wa.««  intend- d  for 
actmduse;  audit  appears  iqually  c  ria'ii  that  in  many  cases  whole  books  uere 
written  upon  ri'-prep..red  parchment  or  papyrus,  not  only  among  the  Greeks  jmd 
J<oman8.  but  alto  among  ihe  an(  lent  Egyptians. 

Of  pfiMmpsests  of  ihe  (lassie  period,  h(  wever,  it  is  l^ardly  necesf^ary  to  say 
no  specim.  n  nas  ever  l)et  u  discover  d  It  is  to  the  itecessities  ot  the  nn  dieval  penod 
that  literature  owe^  t.i«e  iinqne>tionaby  impoitant  adMmtages  wliirh  bav<'  ailseii 
from  tho  revival  of  Ihe  a' cjent  pmctie*-  of  re-preitaring  already  us  d  material  for 
writing.  Under  the  <4irly  emperors,  the  i?  icreourse  witli  Egypt  an<l  the  cast  secure  d 
a  tolerably  cheap  and  aburd.-.nt  supply  of  Papyrus  (q.  v.),  which  rendered  it  unncns- 
s.iry  to  r  cur  to  tin-  expedient  oi  ti  e  palinii>s<8t  ;  and  'his  bee:  me  still  more  the 
casein  the  6th  ard  6th  e<ntnries.  when  the  tax  on  papyrus  was  al  olislnd.  But. -.Iter 
the  ^eparation  of  east  and  west,  and  !-till  more  after  the  Mohamnn  dan  conque  t  of 
Ej-'j'pT,  tli.-  Knm)'y  of  ]»aiyrus  .rlmost  comp'etely  eea^d  ;  and  from  the  7th  c.  in  tlie 
w\  »t,  and  the  lOih  or't  th  in  the  ea^t.  the  i  alimpse^t  is  foiind  n  comparativeiy  fre- 
quent u-e ;  and  its  frequency  in  the  15ih  c.  m.iy  be  estinuiieo  from  the  lad  th;.t  .-oine 
of  the  earliest  hooks  were  printed  on  pamiipsi  fit.  Some  writi  r-  have  ascrihcd  the  pre- 
VMlence  of  its  use  to  the  !iidiffer«'i;ce,  and  i  veu  to  the  hostility  of  the  monks  j.nd 
cleigv  10  classical  literature,  ai  d  have  atlrihutcd  to  tluir  nckless  destrnciion  at 
classic  WS8.,  in  order  t(»  provide  n:alerial  for  tlie.r  own  service- l>ooks  and  Icgeii- 
d:iri.!s.  th"  deldencins  in  the  re^iiains  of  ancient  1  arning  wliich  scholars  have  now 
to  d  plore.  Thrit  some  i»rirt  of  ilie  loss  may  have  so  arisen, it  is  lmpo^'^ib  e  to  do  .bf, 
iili hough  it  is  «  qurtlly  certain  that  we  owe  to  the  medieval  monks  and  cleryy  w  hat- 
ever  of  aiicieiit  iiieratnr<'  has  been  preserved  'o  our  day.  Bni  tlx-  condition  in  which 
tlie  exi.-t  ng  palimpsests  are  uni:ormly  found— t«r  tl  e  uiost  parr  m.  re  fia;.m.  i  ts  rf  . 
the  at  cient  writers  whose  works  tiny  originally  conlaiin-d— goes  far  in  itself  losliew 
that  the  AiSS.  which  were  broken  up  by  the  im  dieva!  copyists,  for  tht  impose  of 
being  re-wr'tten,  werealirost  always  already  impc  riect.  or  otherwise  oam.  ged:  nor  is 
there  anything  in  Ihe  condition  of  any  eingh-  iialimpsest  which  has  reach;  d  (uir  day 
to  justify  the  b<*lief,  that  wh  n  it  was  taken  up  for  the  purpt  se  of  re^cr■plion.  the 
ongina)  work  whicti  it  contained  was  in  a  Btat«'  at  all  approaching  to  completeness. 
FoHuuat*  ly,  however,  there  are  many  of  the  relics  ot  anci- nt  learning  of  which 
ev«'ii  tlie  mntMat.ed  members  have  an  independent  value  ;  and  this  is  espieially  true 
of  Biblical  MSS.,  particularly  under  the  critical  aspect,  and  in  a  still  bonider  sense, 
of  all  the  remains  of  the  ancient  liistorians. 

It  will  f  a*1ly  be  understood,  therefore,  that  the  chief,  if  not  the  sole  interest  of 
palimpsest  MSS.  lie-in  the  jiicienl  writing  which  they  had  contained,  and  that  their 
valne  to  l.tenitiire  mainly  d'pends  on  the  degree  of  legibh  ne-s  which  the  an- 
cient writing  still  retahis.  It  is  difficuli  to  make  this  fully  inielligihle  to  the  reader 
without  an  actual  inspection.  As  very  commonly  occurs,  the  original  writing  is 
much  hirger  than  the  modern  ;  the  modern  lines  and  letter-*  do  not  cover  those  of 
th©  old  MS.,  but  they  follow  tlic  eame  order.    In  other  specimens  lU©  new  writing 


y  Google 


Pallmpiait  .    gho 

Is  transverse ;  In  some,  \he  old  paao  is  tufned  upside  down.  Someh'meji,  wlierd  the 
old  page  is  divided  iuto  colninii»,  tlie  Dew  writing  is  canled  over  tJiein  all  lii  a  einfle 
line  J  sometimes  the  old  page  is  doubled,  so  as  to  form  two  paires  iu  the  Hew  MS. 
Soraelimes  if.  is  cnr.  into  two,  or  even  tlirne  nages.  The  most  perplexiiiir  case  of  all 
for  the  decjplu-rer  is  tliat  iu  wliich  tlio  new  lurtePH  are  of  The  same  i»iz^-  "and  are  writ- 
ten upon  the  same  lines  witli  tho-e  of  tlie  origlunl  M8.  Examples  of  this  are  ran*, 
and  evrn  wluMi  tht;y  occur,  tlie  difference  bet wf en  the  form  of  the  ancient  charac- 
ters, which  are  oroinarily  uncial,  and  that  of  tlie  raoderu,  is  in  irself  a  greafi  aid  to 
the  decipherer.  Some  variety,  ali«o,  is  found  iu  the  lauguaj^e  of  tne  palimpsests.  In 
tho^e  which  are  found  in  tlie  western  libraries,  the  new  writing  is  almost  invariably 
Latin,  while  the  orij^inal  is  sometimes  Greek,  and  sometimes  Latin.  Iu  the  paiiu)p'' 
sesia  tliBCovered  in  the  east,  the  oritriual  is  con»monly  Greek,  the  new  >vritin{j  being 
sometlmGa  Gri^ek,  sometimes  Syriac,  sometimes  Armenian ;  and  one  paiimpae??, 
the  maierial  of  which  is  pap.viu.-*,  ia  found  iu  which  the  orijjiual  was  the  enchorial 
B^yutian  lausjiiage,  wldlo  thcj  jjoderu  writiiiir  ia  Greek. 

The  pos?ibility  of  turning  palimpsest  Mi^.  to  account  aa  a  means  of  extending 
our  store  of  ancient  literature,  was  auirijested  as  far  back  as  the  days  of  Monifancci ; 
but  the  idea  was  not  turned  to  practical  accoimttili  the  latterpart  of  the  18tli  century. 
The  fli'st  palimpsei*t  editor  was  a  Gennan  scholar,  Dr  Paul  Bruns,  who  havluf,'  di:^ 
covered  that  one  of  the  Vatican  MSS.  was  a  palimpsest,  tl>e  effaced  matter  of  whicii 
wa«a  fragment  of  the  91st  hook  of  Livy's  **  Komau  History,"  printed  it  at  Hamburg 
In  1T73.  In  the  field  of  discovery  tlms  opened  by  Brans  but  little  progicss  was  mada 
until  the  following  c,  when  Dr  Barrett  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  published  his  pa- 
limpsest Fraffment.s  of  St  Matthew,  and  when  palimpse,«»t  literature  at  once  rose 
into  interest  aud  importance  in  tile  haiids  of  the  celebrated  Augelo  Mai  (q.  v.).  A 
detailed  account  of  Mai's  successes  will  be  given  hereaftt  r,  wheu  we  shall  ennmeratj 
the  principal  pahlicsiiious  iu  this  curious  department  of  I'trcrs;  and  under  liisowa 
name  will  be  found  the  history  of  his  personal  labors.  The  great  historian  Niebnlir 
about  the  same  time  applied  himself  to  the  subject,  and  was  followed  by  Bin  me, 
Pertz,  Gaupp,  and  other  German  scholars,  whose  labors,  however,  were  for  the  mo^t 
part  conflnetl  to  the  department  of  ancient  Roman  law.  More  recently,  the  discov- 
eries of  Dr  Tischendoi-f  in  Biblical  literature,  and  those  of  Dr  Cureiou  as  well  iu 
Bacred  as  in  profane  literature,  have  contributed  still  more  to  add  importance  to  the 
palimpsest  MSS.  which  iiuve  been  supposed  to  exi^t  in  the  monasteries  of  the  Levant. 
Herr  Alone  has  had  similar  success  in  the  department  of  litur<:ical  literature,  andDr 
Frederick  Augustus  Pertz,  son  of  the  scholar  already  mentioned,  maybe  said  to 
have  carried  to  its  highest  point  the  Interest  which  attaclies  to  ihoso  cnrious  re- 
searches, by  edi  ling  fvom  ii^thrice  written  palimpseat  a  veiy  considerable  series  of 
fragmjuts  of  the  Roman  annalist,  Gains  Granius  Li<-iuianus. 

It  remains  to  enumerate  briefly  the  mo*t  important  palimpsest  pnblicstions 
which  have  hitherto  appeared,  distributed  according  to  the  language  of  ihc  effaced 
original. 

T.  Greek  Palimpsests.— Among  these,  the  first  p^ace  of  course  l^eloTigs  to  the 
Greek  Biblical  palimpsests,  the  earliest  of  which  was  (1)  **Frajrments  of  the  Go^'pel 
of  St  Matthew,"  in  facsimile  as  well  as  in  ordinary  type,  painted  from  a  palinipse>t 
MS.  of  Trimly  College,  Dublin,  by  the  Rev  I.  Barrett,  J).D.  (4to,  Dublin,  tSOi).  The 
original  writing  appears  to  be  of  the  6th  century.  Dr  Barrett's  transcript  of  tlie  text 
has  not  proved  iu  all  respects  correct,  but  the'original  has  since  l)een  carefully  re- 
examined, and  the  ancient  writing  fully  brought  out.  It  is  chiefly,  however,  to  a 
collection  of  Syiiac  MSS.  brought  from  the  east  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  more 
recent  palimpsest  restomtions  of  the  ancient Bihjical  readings.  In  this  Hue  the  chief 
digicoverer  has  been  Dr  Constantine  Tischeuflorf.  From  his  pen  we  have  (2)  the 
celebrated  *' Codex  Ephremi "  or  *' Codex  Regius"  of  the  Royal  Library  at  Pim?. 
This  MS.  had  been  early  observed  to  be  pjilimpsest,  and  the  ortginal  Greek  text  was 
collated  in  part  by  Wetstein  and  by  Kuster.  It  was  still  more  carefully  examined 
by  M.  Hase  iu  1835 ;  andflually,  iu  1840,  by  Dr  Tischendorf,  by  whom  the  Now  Tes- 
tament was  printed  in  1843,  and  the  fragments  of  the  Old  in  1845.  The  mod'*rn  writ- 
in<r  of  this  palimpsest  consisted  of  the  works  of  StEphi-em  the  Syrian.  (8) 
*'Fragmenta  Sacra  Palimpsesta"  (4to,  Leipsic,  1855),  containing  frngments  of  tlie 
Books  of  Numbers,  Denterrmomy,  Joshua,  Judges,  Kings,  Isal all,  together  with  48 
paries  of  fragments  of  the  New  Testament,  the  Gospels,  the  Acts,  and  the  Epii^es 


y  Google 


nCj'l  Padmj>te«t 

of  St  Panl  to  the  Corinthians  and  to  Titus.  The  modern  writing  of  these  pallmp- 
Besta  was  partly  Greek,  partly  Arnieni.in.  iind  Arabic  (4.)  *-!Fra>j:meiita  Eviingolil 
Lues  et  Libri  Geueeia  (4tOt  Leipsic,  1867).  Tiie  Iraurmeiits  of  St  Luke's  Qcuipei 
amount  to  95  pages.  'J'he  volnme  also  contains  fntgmeiits  of  St  Joint's  Gospel  ana 
of  Ezekii'l  aud  the  Tliird  Book  of  Kings.  The  inodijrn  writing  is  partly  Syridc, 
partly  Coptic.  Along  with  these  Biblicitlpaliinp^iests  (5)  may  l>e classed  another,  the 
original  of  w  hicii,  however,  coutaius  not  only  some  Gr^ek  trtienients,  bnt  also  por- 
tios<s  of  the  ancient  Gothic  version  of  the  Bible  bv  Ulplnlas.  The  MS.  from 
which  this  is  fc^ken  Is  known  from  its  place  in  tl>e  Wolfrnb&ttel  Library  as  tlio 
.  **  Codex  Ouelpherbytanu?."  It  was  first  noticed  in  1T65  by  Knittel,  by  whom  n  por- 
tion of  tiie  Gothic  verrijou  was  puldisiied  in  1T63.  These  fragmoms  were  reprinted 
iji  17T2,  and  again  in  1805.  'I'lie  uiolern  writing  of  the  M3.  conHJel^d  of  tlie  "  Orig- 
cues  "  of  Isidoru3  Hispalensis.  A  large  addition  to  the  text  of  Ulplnlas  was  n)ade 
in  1817  by  Mai  and  Custiglione,  from  palimpsests  discovered  in  the  Amhrosian  Li- 
brary at  Atilan;  and  f.ie' whole  have  since  been  combined  intf)  One. edition  by  Dr 
G  ibdeiitz.  and  finally  l>y  Dr  Mnsfiiuann  (4to,  Stuttgart,  1S55).  We  may  alpo  mention 
under  the  same  head  (*o'uv:  intere  ting  Greek  liturgical  remains  edited  by  F.  I.  Moue 
(Frankfort.  1850),  from  u  palimpsost  discovered  at  Cailaruho. 

Ju  Greek  classical  literature*,  al.^o,  wi'  owe  sometliing  to  the  labors  of  palimpsest 
editors.  From  one  of  the  8yrinc  MSS.  already  referred  to,  Dr  Cnreton  has  edited 
1  rge  fragments  of  the  '*  Iliad  "  of  Homer,  umonuting  in  all  to  nearly  4000  lines ;  and 
altliongh  all  thes-.?,  ii  need  hardly  b^  said,  were  known  before,  yit  the  text  is  of  the 
utmost  value  as  a  source  of  c.-iticism,  being  cert^iinly  of  nmch  greater  antiquity 
than  the  vexj  eailiej't  known  MSS.  of  the  **  Iliad."  A  still  lartrer  aud  more  original 
contribution  to  Greek  classical  literature  was  made  by  Mai  in  the  fifth  volume  of 
Ills  •*  Scriptorum  Vetrnni  Nova  CoUeciio  "  (Itome,  ISSi — 1838).  From  a  very  largo 
pilimpSJSt  discovert  din  the  Vatican  Library  hehasprinttd  in  this  vohime  copious 
iracfinenls  of  idnmst  all  the  Greek  writers  ou  Roman  history — from  the  lost  books 
of  Polybius  no  Jess  than  100  4to  \y.igen ;  180  pages  of  D'odorus  Siculus  ;  64  of  Di(my- 
piiu**  of  Ilalicarnassus;  100  of  Dion  Cassins:  together  with  considerable  fragments 
of  Appian,  lamlilichus,  Dexippuss,  Kunapiup,  and  other.-.  This  i.«,  perhaps,  after 
the  "  De  Kepublica"  of  Cicero,  the  most  ituportant  accession  to  the  existiug  store 
of  classic  learning  which  the  palimpsests  have  hirheito  supplied. 

II.  Latin  Palimpsests. — (1.)  The  earliest  fragment  of  Latin  literature,  printed 
from  a  palinjpse^t  oriffina!,  is  the  portion  of  the  9l8t  hook  of  "  Livy  "  already  refer- 
red to,  publishtd  at  Hamburg  and  also  at  Kome  in  1773.  It  was  re-edited  in  a  more 
complete  form  by  Niebuhr  in  1S20.  (2.)  Of  the  Latin  palinipi»ests  edited  by  Mai,  the 
earliest  were  some  frasiments  of  lost  OraticmH  of  Cicero  fioni  two  different,  palimp- 
sests in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan,  in  the  latter  of  which,  the  second  writing 
consipted  of  the  acts  of  the  council  of  Chalcedon.  These  Orations  were  published  in 
two  successive  volumes  in  18  4.  (3.)  Eight  Oratlbusof  Symmaehnp  (1816.  (4.) 
Th«  Comedies  of  Plaiitu:*,  including  a  fragnient  of-the  lost  play  entitled  *•  Vidularia  " 
<1815).  (5.)  The  works  of  M.  Corn.  Fronto,  togetlier  with  the  E  is'les  of  Aiitouy 
inus  Pius.  Lucius  Verus,  M.  Aurelius,  and  others  (1815).  (6.)  The  celebrated  Dia- 
lojueof  Cicero,  "Do  Republica,"  from  a  palimpsest  of  the  Vatican,  the  motlern 
WTifinz  of  which  is  the  commentary  of  St  Auguntine  on  the  Ps«aims.  There  is  none 
ot  Mars  publications  which  presents  his  critical  abilities  in  bo  favorable  a  light  as 
t;iis  precious  volume,  which  appeared  at  Rome  In  1821.  (7.)  Soon  after  the  '^De 
3tei)ubllca"  he  publl^hed  another  volume  from  palimpsest  sources,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  whose  contents  were  some  fragmeiits  of  ancient  Roman  law,  which  prepared 
tlie  way  for  the  more  dij'tinguis'hed  success  of  Niebuhr;  who,  in  a  palimpsest  of  the 
library  of  Verona,  recognised  a  p  rtion  of  (8)  the  **  Institntiones  "  of  Gains,  and 
nrocured  an  accurate  transcript  for  the  press,  which  was  printed  at  Berlin  iu  1S20. 
The  latest  considerable  Latin  ptiblication  iu  this  department  is  (9)*'  Gai  Granii  Li- 
tiniani  Annalium  qine  eapersuut  (Berlin,  1867),  edited  from  a  palinip#sest  of  the 
Briti.*h  Museum  by  the  youuger  Pertz.  This  palimpsest,  as  was  already  stated,  is  a 
thrice  written  codex,  The  earliest  and  original  contents  being  the"  Annales  "of  Gains 
Granius.  The  second  writing  was  also  in  Latin,  and  the  work  is  a  grammatical 
treatise,  of  which  the  chapters  "  De  Verbo  "  and  ^'  De  Adverbio  "  are  still  legible.  The 
most  modem  writing  is  Syriac.  written  iu  the  cursive  character,  Qaius  Granius  is  a 
writer  uuiiivd  by  Hacrobios,  ot  wLom  nothing  else  ii  known. 


y  Google 


Pallndromo  AQ_1 

Pal.uru.  '^^^ 

It  will  be  gathered  from  the  above  that  the  anch^t  works  recovered  by  meaos  of 
|>aliuip5el8  M38.  are  ull  fragiiientury,  aod  uitu  u  uaturaliy  led  to  rate  at  u  low  value 
Slie  result  thereby  ohtuined.  Bat  it'must  be  reiUKiui>ered  that  in  poinc  of  the  depart* 
xneiita  to  which  these  fragments  belong,  every  porap,  no  matter  how  trifling,  has  an 
iudependent  value.  So  it  is,  furexanipic)  in  Biblical  remains — a  single  text  may  pre« 
eeut  a  vaiaahle  reudiug,  tlie  merest  fr^ment  may  throw  light  ou  an  important  crit- 
ical question.  In  history,  in  lllte  jnaiiuer,  a  small  fragment  may  di»<closuan  intereht- 
iug  tact,  or  supply  a  siguiflcaut  commentary  upoti  facts  otherwise  ascertained.  And 
as  regards  critical  WM^fi  especially,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  obliterated  text 
of  the  palimpsest- MSS.,  for  the  most  part,  far  exce'^ds  in  anti<^uity  the  very  oldest 
known  codices  which  we  possess,  and  is,  probuhly,  second  only  in  a;;o  to  tljc  papyri 
of  fiercolaueum. 

The  mt;thod  of  treating  palimp«est  MSS.,  with  a  view  to  decii)herir»g  tlielr  con- 
tents, has  bee.n  fully  (lescrTbed  by  different  editor--.  Mai,  after  haviui'  Wjished  tlie 
paliippseet  witli  au  infusion  of  gulls,  exposed  it  to  the  li^^ht  and  air,  n.id,  gi^neraliy 
ftpeakiuiT*  found  this  siiffi  lent  ^>r  his  ptt^)Obo.  Pcyron  waahed  the  parchment  in 
water,  afterwards  in  dilut  <■■  muriatic  acid,  and  Anally  in  prurtsiate  of  potash.  A  mix- 
ture, compounded  ou  this  principle,  iscalhd  from  Its  inventor,  M.  Gioberti,  TinctJira 
Oiobertina.  Sometimes  the  same  treatment  docs  not  succewi  equally  well  on  Iwtli 
8ide«  of  the  parchment ;  the  inner  sni-fice,  from  its  Softr  texture,  8onietime#  re- 
quiring a  more  active  preparation.  When  the  ink  contained  animal  eubsUuices,  ::s 
milk,  or  the  blood  of  tlie  cuttle-fish,  Dr  Mone  plunged  the  parchnnut  In  a  cloj*e  vcs- 
Bel  filled  with  oil,  which  he  beared  to  a  temperature  of  400°  R.  In  th<^  prefaces  of 
Mai*8  volumes  willb '  found  many  a.nusiug  and  intercKHu^  facts  iliustrutiug  ihedif- 
ficaliies  which  attend  ibi*  curious  liranch  of  litt-rary  labor. 

PA'LTNDROME  (Qr.  palin^  backwards,  and  dromos^  a  running),  the  n:ime  given 
to  n  kind  of  verne  very  common  in  Latin,  the  peculiarity  of  whicti  is  that  it  may  be 
i'ead  the  same  backwards  as  forwards.    A  iew  example:i  Avill  suffice. 

Si  bene  ta  tii^  laus  taxat  foia  lauU  tenebis, 

Et  necat  erf 21-  ainor  twn  Ronui  rege  tacenU, 

Jicnia  regea  una  non  anus  eger  amor, 

A  Roman  lawyer  gets  the  credit  of  t'i"  following  : 

Si  ntiiiivii  inimunis, 
which  Camden  translates : 

"  Give  me  my  fee,  and  I  warrant  you  free." 
It  is  said  that  in  the  reifn  of  Qiecn  Eliz  ibeth  a  certain  lady  of  rank,  having  been 
compelled  to  retire  from  the  court  on  account  of  8ome/anu»,  the  truth  of  which  the 
denied,  took  for  her  motto : 

Ablata  ai  alba. 
**  Retired  but  pure." 

The  Engli!»h  language  has  fow  palindrome*,  but  one  at  least  is  Inimitable.    It  reprc- 
8eut6  our  fii-sr  puteut  politely  introducing  hinisilf  to  Eve  in  these  words : 

•'Madam,  I'm  Adam." 
Compare  Henry  B.  Wheatley's  book  ou  *'  Anagr  img  "  (!S62>. 

PALINGENE'SIA  (Gr.  pa'in.  asain,  and  gcneMH,  birtli)  is  a  term  that  appenr*  to 
have  originated  amonjic  the  Stoics,  who  employed  it  to  denote  the  act  '4  the  D^m- 
nrjjus,  or  Creator,  by  which,  huv  ng  ahsorlud  all  l>ein;{  into  bimpelf,  he  reproduc  d 
it  in  a  new  creation.  Th"  occurrence  of  the  word  in  the  New  Tistament  (Titus,  i  •. 
6,  where  it  is  used  to  denote  rej^eneratiou)  has  mven  it  a  placein  Christian  theologv. 
and  divin^-s  have  variously  used  it  to  <xpres8  tin*  resurrect  ion  of  men,  the  new  binii 
of  the  iudlvidn  il  soul,  and  the  restoration  of  the  world  to  that^  perfect  state  th  i  it 
lost  by  the  Fall — '*  the  new  heavens  and  the  new  earth  wherein  dwelleth  righteous- 
ness." Savaus  have  also  applied  the  term  to  (lesignate  both  the  great  gtolOiri«il 
changes  which  the  earth  has  u  dergone  and  the  truusformatious  in  the  insect  king- 
dom, such  as  of  caterpillars  into  butterflies,  &c. 


y  Google 


/?,Qe;  Palindrome 

^^O  Palituua 

PAXINODB,  In  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  a  peculiar  practice  by  which,  In  octlonefor 
damages  on  acHJOunt  of  slander  or  difamatiou  raist^d  in  the  ConnnitsHary  Court,  and 
even  in  the  Sheriff  Court,  the  jmrsucr  may  conclude  not  only  for  damages  but  for 
paliuodo,  I.  e..  a  polomn  recantation.  On  a  recent  case,  the  qnebtion  arose  whither 
this  ancient  pinctico.  Piiil  oxlstcd  as  part  of  th'j  law  of  Scoliand,  and  it  was  held  that 
t  did.  In  actions,  however,  in  the  Court  of  Session,  damages  only  are  given  as  tho 
rv.'m;dy. 

PA'LISADE,  a  pnilingof  strong  timbrr,  used  in  Foitiflciition.  For  tho  mode  in 
wliich  tne  piilisatle  is  employed  see  Foutipication  under  the  head  Stockade. 

PALISANDER  WOOD,  the  continental  name  for  Rosewood  (q.  v.).  By  some 
of  the  Fivncii  cabinet-makers  the  name  bois  de  Paliaandre  is  aleo  applied  to  violet 
wood  and  ^o  a  kind  ot  striped  ebouj. 

PALISSY,  Bernard,  a  French  potter,  famotis  for  his  glass  paintings  and  beanti- 
ful  figured  poitrrv,  was  born  near  Ageji,  now  in  the  department  of  Lot  et  Gai-onnt*, 
France,  aboiin510.  and  at  an  early  uge  was  apprenticed  to  a  potter.  He  devoted 
himself  to  cUvmix:al  researdies  for  the  improvement  of  his  art,  and  made  many  jour- 
iiuys  through  Franco  and  Germany  for  tlie  sauje  purpose;  at  the  i^ame  time  carrying 
on  the  business  of  a  land-surveyor.  An  enamellt  d  cuj)  of  ** Faience,"  which  he  saw 
by  chance,  inspired  him  with  the  resolution  to  discover  the  mode  of  producing  white 
eni4mel.  Neglecting  all  other  labors,  he  devoted  himself  to  investigations  and  ex- 
periments for  the  long  period  of  16  years.  He  liad  by  this  time  <xhausted  all  his 
resources,  and  for  want.of  money  to  buy  fuel  was  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  burn- 
ing his  household  furniture  piece  by  piece;  his  neighbors  lauglu-d  at  him,  his  wife 
overwhelmed  him  with  reproaches,  and  his  starving  family  surrouiKled  him  cryin«r 
for  foo<l ;  but  in  spHe  of  all  these  discouragements  he  persisted  in  th<'  search,  and 
was  in  the  end  rewarded  by  euccciss.  A  few  vessels  adorned  with  figures  of  animals, 
colored  to  represent  nature,  sold  f  jrhigh  piicet',  and  enabled  him  to  compleie  his  in- 
■ve-tlgations.  after  which  he  became  famous;  and  though  a  Huguenot,  was  protctid 
and  euconruged  by  the  king  and  the  nobility,  who  en. ployed  him  to  eml>elliph  their 
mansions  with  specimens  of  his  art.  He  was  lodired  in  or  near  tl»e  Tuileriee,  and 
was  specially  exempt ed"by  Queen  Catharine  from  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew, 
more  from  a  regard  to  her  own  bciutfit  than  from  kindnej's.  In  March  1575  he  com- 
menced a  course  of  lectures  on  natural  history  and  physic^,  and  was  the  first  in  France 
to  substitute  positive  facts  and  rigorous  demonstrations  for  the  fancilul  inteipreta- 
tions  of  philosophers.  In  the  course  of  lhe?e  hctures,  hp  gave  (1584)  ihe  first  right 
noiious  <;f  I  lie  origin  of  sprinj;s,  and  the  fornnition  of  stones  and  fosbil  shells,  and 
strongly  advocated  the  importance  of  n.arl  as  a  fvriilising  agent.  These,  along  with 
his  theories  regarding  the  best  nvaus  of  purifying  wati-.-,  have  been  fully  supporied 
by  recent  discovery  and  Investigation.  In  1588  he  was  arresttd  and  thrown  into  the 
Bastile  as  a  hereiic,  but  died  in  1590  before  his  sentence  was  pionounced. 

P.  left  a  colleciion  of  objects  of  jiatmal  history,  the  first  that  had  been  formed  lu 
France.  His  works  are  at  the  present  day  almos't  b^'yond  price,  and  his  ornaments 
and  arabesques  arc  amongst  the  most  beautiful  of  the  "renaissance.''  As  a  sincere, 
earnest,  and  courageous  man,  he  was  no  less  eminent  than  as  an  arti^t. 

PALIU'RUS.  a  genus  of  trei^s  and  shrubs  of  the  natural  order  iJ/famnac«flP,  nearly 
allied  to  Zizyvhua  (see  Jujube),  Dnt  very  different  in  tlie  fruit,  which  is  dry,  orbicu- 
lar, and  girded  with  a  broad  membrnnous  wing.  P.  acnleatun  is  often  called 
Christ's  Thorn,  and  by  the  Germans,  Jews'  Thorn  {Judendoin)^  fiom  an  imag- 
ination that  it  supplied  ttu»  crown  of  thoi'ns  with  wliicn  onr  Saviour  was  crowned. 
It  is  a  deciduous  sln-ub  or  low  tree,  with  slender,  pliant  branches  and  ovate  3-nerved 
leaves,  each  <  f  which  has  two  .«harp  sjiines  at  tiie  base,  one  straight  and  the  otiier 
re-curved.  It  is  a  native  of  the  countries  around  the  Miditerraneau,  of  India,  and 
many  p.irta  of  Asia.  It  is  often  usetl  for  hedges  in  Italy  and  otljer  countries;  iis 
sharp  ^'pine8  and  pliant  branches  a<lmirably  adapting  it  for  this  purpose.  Thefrnit 
has  aslngulai"  api)earance.  bein*'  flat  and  thin,  attached  by  the  middle  to  the  loot- 
stalk,  the  middle  being  raised  like  the  crown  of  a  hat,  whilst  the  expansion  resembles 
tiie  brim.  The  seeds  are  sold  by  the  druggists  of  the  east,  and  are  used  medicin- 
ally, but  their  gualities  are  doubiful.  Thisslirnb  is  not  uncommon  in  shrubberiea 
iu  England,  beiug  veiy  ornamental  when  in  flower,  but  the  fi'uit  does  not  ripuu.  • 


y  Google 


Pallas  696 

PALK  STRAIT,  or  Palk's  Passage,  the  Dorfheni  portion  of  the  pn88ag:e  between 
the  sonth  coast  of  Hindushm  nud  ilie  island  of  Ceylon.  Tliis  pasHHjjiT  ia  coutiuued 
80iithwai-d  by  the  Gulf  of  Mannar  (q.  v.)-  H  is  from  40  to  80  miles  iu  width,  and 
U  80  miles  iu  length.  It  is  ^o  shallow— in  some  places  i>eiDg  no  more  than  two 
fathoms  in  depth— tliar  it  cannot  be  navigated  iu  safety  by  large  vessels.  Iu  P.  S. 
there  are  several  pearl  fisheries. 

PALL  (Lat.  pallium,  n\so  pallet,  a  clonk),  the  name  given  in  English  to  two  very 
different  portions  of  the  vesture  employed  iu  the  reliffjous  use  of  the  Roman  asid 
some  other  churches.  One  of  these  is  the /ti7i^al paU^  an  nniple  covering  of  black 
velvet  or  otiier  stuff,  which  is  cast  over  tlie  coffiu  while  being  borne  to  burial.  The 
ends  of  t lie  paH  are  held  during  tlie  funeral  procession  by  Uie  most  distinguishvd 
among  the  friends  of  the  deceased,  generally  selected  from  among  tlJO»«  uncon- 
nected by  blood.  Iu  its  second  and  most  strictly  liturgical  use,  the  word  pail  is 
applied  to  one  of  the  coverings  used  at  the  altar  in  tlie  celebraiion  of  the  niaej*. 
Primitively,  a.s  appears  from  Optatus  and  other  ejirly  writers,  the  nlt^ir  was  covered 
with  a  large  linen  cloth— called  by  the  Latins  paUi^vm,  and  by  tlie  Greeks  eii€ton— 
the  extremities  of  which  were  folded  back  so  as  to  cover  the  bread  and  wine  prt*- 
pti red  for  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist.  In  later  times  a  separate  covering  was 
employed  for  the  sacramenttil  chalice,  to  which  latter  the  name  pall  is  now  reserved  iu 
the  use  of  the  Roman  Church.  The  modern  Roman  pall  is  a  square  piece  c  f  lineu 
cloth — sometimes  limber,  sometimes  made  stiff  by  inserting  pasteboard— saffld»:ntly 
lar^e  to  cover  the  month  of  the  chalice.  The  upper  surface  is  often  of  silk  em- 
broidered, or  of  cloth  ot  gold.  The  surface  iu  contact'  with  the  chalice  must 
always  be  of  linen. 

PALL,  in  Heraldry,  the  upper  part  of  a  Fftltire  conjoined  to  the  lower  part  of  a 
pale.    It  appears  much  in  the  arms  of  eccleshibtical  sees. 

PALL-MALL.    See  Mall. 

PALLADIO,  Andrea,  a  famous  Itnlian  architect,  was  bom  at  Vicenza,  30th  No- 
vember 1513.  After  having  studied  with  tint  greatest  care  ihe  writings  of  Vitrnvius, 
and  the  mouumcnts  of  antiquity  at  Rome,  he  settled  iu  his  native  city,  and  fiiVf  ac- 
quired a  reputation  l)y  his  restoration  of  the  Basiilica  of  Viceuza,  Pope  Paul  III. 
tnen  invited  him  to  Home,  d.-signing  to  intrust  him  with  the  execution  of  ihe  works 
then  going  on  at.  S.  Peter's,  but  his  holiness  dying  before  the  arrival  of  P.,  tl»e  latter 
had  to  return  home.  Ho  was  employed  for  unmy  years  in  the  construction  of 
numerous  buildings  in  Vicenza  and  the  neighborhood,  in  all  of  which  he  displayed 
the  most  exquisite  taste  combined  with  the  most  ingenious  and  imaginative  omi- 
menfation.  Hjs  style,  knowti  as  the  Palla<lian,  is  a  composite,  and  is  characterised 
by  great  splendor  of  execution  and  justness  of  proportion,  and  it  exercij'(^  an  im- 
mense influence  on  the  architecture  of  Northern  Itaiy.  His  principal  works  are  the 
Rotonda  Caprj,  outside  Vicenza  ;  the  Palazzo  Chiericado  and  the  Palazzo  Tiene,  iu 
the  city;  the  Palazzo  Barbara,  at  Maser  in  the  'IVevigiano,  the  Teatio  Olynipico  at 
Vicenza  (his  last  work),  the  Palazzo  at-  Moutagnaua  for  Francesco  Pisana;  the 
churches  of  San  Giogio  Mag<^ior«  and  11  Smtissimp  Redemptore  at  Venice,  tho 
atrium  and  cloister  at  the  convent  Delia  Cariii,  and  the  taqade  of  San  Fnincesco 
delhi  Vi^a  in  tlie  shme  city.  P.  died  at.  Vicenza,  August  6,  iSSO.  He  wrote  a  work 
on  architecture,  which  is  highly  prized. ,  The  best  edition  is  that  published  at 
Vicenza  in  4  vols.,  1776. 

PALLA'DIUM  (symb.Pd,  eq.  53— new  system,  106 — spe.  grav.  11 '8)  la  one  of  the 
so  called  noble  metjds,  which  in  its  color  and  ductility  closely  re^eml>les  platiimui. 
It  is  not  fu9il)le  in  au  ordinary  wind-fnrnace,  bur.  molts  at  n  somewhat  lower  tem- 
perature than  the  last-named  metal;  and  when  heated  beyond  its  fusing-point,  it 
volatilises  in  the  form  of  a  green  vapor.  It  undergoes  no  change  in  th"  t^pvu  air  at 
ordinary  temperatures ;  hut  at  a  low  red  hent,  it  becomes  cov(M-ed  wiih  a  pnr))]e  fli.ii, 
Owing  to  superficial  oxidation.  It  is  soluble  in  nitric  and  iodic  acids,  and  iu  aqaa 
regia.  It  combines  readily  \vith  gold,  which  it  has  the  properly  of  renderiuir  briule 
and  white.  (When  It  forms  20  percent,  of  the  mass,  the  alloy  is  perfe<tiy  white.) 
When  alloyed  with  twice  its  weight  of  silver,  it  forms  a  ductile  compound,  which  has 
been  employed  for  the  construction  of  small  weights;  but  for  this^pnrpose  nlnroini- 
um  is  sapdilor.    Professor  Miller  states  that  it  **  has  been  applied  ii^a  few  cium  to 

Digitized  by  VjQOQ  IC 


697 


Palk  . 

Paliaa 

%^  c-onPtrnctlon  of  grndnnted  scales  for  aBtronomlcftl  Instrmneure,  for  which,  by  its 
whiteiie^s.  harduesB,  aud  nualtiTability  in  the  air,  it  is  well  adapted;"  its  scarcity 
lunsT,  however,  prevent  il.«  geueral  use  for  this  purpose. 

It  was  discovered  iii  1803  by  WoUaston  in  the  ore  of  platinum,  of  which  it  seldom 
forms  80  much  as  1  per  cent.  Another  source  of  this  metal  is  the  lialive  alloy  which 
it.  forms  with  gold  in  certain  mines  in  Brazil,  and  which  is  termed  ouropoudre;  and 
it  is  from  this  alloy  that  the  metal  is  chiefly  obtained. 

Palhidlnm  forms  with  oxygen  a  protoxide,  PdO,  which  is  the  base  of  the  salts  of 
the  metal;  a  hinoxide,  PdOj:  and  according  to  some  chemists,  a  suboxide,  PdjO. 
On  exposure  to  suffieieiit  heat,  thrse  compounds  give  off  their  oxygen,  aud  yield  the 
metal.    The  salis  of  the  protoxide  are  ot  a  brown  or  red  color. 

PALLADIUM,  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  an  image  of  Pallas,  who 
was  generally  identified  with  Athene,  upon  the  careful  keeping  of  which  in  a  eauc- 
tnary  the  public  welfare  was  believed  to  depend.  'J'he  Palladium  of  Troy  is  particu- 
larly celebrated.  According  to  the  current  myth,  it  was  thrown  down  from  heaven 
by  Zens,  aud  fell  on  the  plain  of  Troy,  where" it  Wns  picked  up  by  Ilius,  the  founder 
of  that  city,  as  a  favorable  omen.  In  the  lourse  of  time,  the  belief  spread  that  the 
loss  of  it  would  be  followed  by  the  f.tU  of  the  city  ;  it  was  therefore  stolen  by  Odys- 
seus and  Diomedes.  Several  cities*  afterwards  boasted  of  jjossessing  it.  particnhirly 
A rgos  and  Athens.  Other  accounts,  however,  affirm  that  it  was  not  stoli«i  by  the 
Greek  chiefs,  but  carried  to  Italy  by  ^neas;  and  the  Romans  >^aid  that  it  was  pre- 
served iu  the  temple  of  VestJi,  but  so  secretly,  that  even  the  Pontifex  Maxiums  miglit 
not  behold  it    All  images  of  this  name  were  somewliat  coarsely  hewn  out  of  wood. 

PALLA'DTUS,  Rutiliu^  Taurus  ^Eniilianus,  a  Romnn  author,  who  probably  liv(  d 
in  the  4th  c.a.d.,  under  Valeuiinlan  and  Theodosius.  He  wrote  a  work,  -^'De  Re 
Ku8:ica"(On  Agriculture),  in  l4books,  the  lastof  which  is  apocMU  of  85  elegiac  coup- 
lets. It  is,  from  a  literary  and  grammatical  point  of  view,  full  of  faults;  but  as  it 
was  a  complete  calendar  of  Roman  agriculture,  it  was  very  useful  for  its  time,  nnd 
was  much  read  and  followed  during  the  middle  ages.  P.  has  borrowed  largely  from 
lijapiedecessors.  The  best  edition  is«  that  by  J.  G.  Schneider  iu  hla  **  Scripiores  Rei 
Kuaticae  Vcteres  Latini"  ^4  vols.,  Leip.  1794). 

PA'LLAS.    See  Minekva. 

PALLAS,  Peter  Sitnon,  an  eminent  traveller  and  nattiralist,  was  born,  22d  Sep- 
tember, 1741,  at  Berlin,  where  his  father  was  a  physician.  'He  Ftiidied  medicine, 
natural  history,  aud  other  branches  of  science,  at  the  universities  of  B  rlin,  GOL- 
tingen,  and  Leyden,  and  was  employed  in  chissifying  many  valuable  collections  of 
ol>]ects  of  natural  hij^tory,  both  in  Holland  aud  England.  He  gained  a  high  repnt:i- 
tiou  by  the  publication  of  his  '^EIt■nchus  Zoophytorum"  (Hague,  1766).  a 
work  still  much  valued;  "MisccHatiCa  Zoologica"  (Hague,  1766),  and  "  Spi- 
cilegiaZoologica  "  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1767—1804).  'JM.e  Empress  Catharine  invited  him, 
in  1768,  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  was  well  received,  and  had  honors  conferred  on 
him,  Mnd  he  was  subsequently  appointed  nat^iralist  to  a  scientific  expedition  bound 
for  Siberia,  there  to  observe  the  tratisit  of  Venus.  P.  spent  six'  years  on  this 
journey  (1768— 1T74),  exploring  in  suecession  the  Ural  MounlJims,  the  Kirghis 
Steppes,  great  part  of  the  Altaian  ranjjie,  and  the  country  around  Lake  Bnikal 
as  far  as  Kiachta,  great  part  of  Siberia,  and  the  steppes  of  the  Volga,  return- 
ing to  St  Pele.sburg  in  1774,  with  an  extraordinary  treasure  of  specimens  iu 
natural  history,  which  form  the  nucleus  of  the  Museum  of  the  Academy  of  St 
Petersburg.  His  travels  ("'Reisen  durch  verschiedene  Provinzeu  des  iiuss. 
Reichs")  were  published  at  St  Petersburg  (1771—1776),  in  three  volumes,  and  were 
followed  by  his'^SammlunghistorischerNachriehten  Uber die  Mongol.  VOIkerschaf- 
ten"  (2  vols.,  St.  Petej-sb.  1776— 1802), and  his  *•  Neiie  nordische  Beitrfigezur  phy?ik- 
alischen  und  geographisr'chen  Erd-  und  VOlkerbt  schreibnng,  Naturgescliichte  and 
Oekonoraie  (6  vols..  8t  Petersb.  1781—1798).  Without  positively  neglecting  any  branch 
of  natural  history,  he  now  devoted  himself  more  particularly  to  botany ;  and  his  mag- 
finicent  **  Flora  Rossica"  (St.  Petersb.  J784 — 1788),  a  work  whichj  how.ver,  he  was  not 
able  to  complete,  aud  his  *•  Species  Astraga forum"  (14  parts,  Leip.  1800—1804),  were 
among  the  results  of  his  studies.  He  puDlished  also  **Icones  lusectorum  praecipue 
.  Rossiee  Sibiriaeque  Pecniiarium"  (Erhtngen,  1781, 1788,  and  1806) ;  and  contributed  to 
Aglossaiy  ol  all  the  languu^^es  of  the  Russian  empire,  which  \n\»  published  at  St. 


y  Google 


Pa-laxriclno  fiQR 

Pcter<*bnrg.  As  he  wished  to  Vive  in  tlie  Crimen,  i he  Empress  Cathnrine  presented 
bim  with  ail  eptjitein  the  fiiust  part  of  that  pen  insula .  whrre  he  resided  gi-iierally 
from  1796.  His  **  Travels  in  the  South  of  Rn>»!*ia"  wer<^  published  in  1T99  (2  vol*., 
L<»ip..  wilh  volume  of  pates).  After  the  death  of  his  wife,  be  weur  to  Bfrliii^where 
h  ■  died,  SIh  SL'pteml"»ei-  1811.  A  largo  and  Vidua ble  work  of  bis,  on  the  F»uiia  of 
Rus-ia,  lias*  n  >t  yet  been  publisUad. 

PALLAVICINO,  Pieiro  Sforza,  an  Intalian  Idstorian,  pod  of  the  Marqui?  Ale»- 
pandro  Pall.tvleiiio  of  Parma,  wis  tK>ru  at  Ifouie.  20th  Novein!>er  160T.  Much  to  the 
dis*ifu^t  of  Ids  f:ither,  lie  took  pri<'St'8  orders,  and  \nA<]  sevwral  imjMJiiaiit  eccU'siasti- 
cal  appoiutiiieiiis«  daring  I  lie-pontificate  of  Urb-iu  ViII,  Ii>  163T.  he  be<"ain**  a  mem- 
h'v  of  th.'  .L'stiil  Society,  aiul  was  created  a  cardinal  in  1657  l)y  Pope  Alcxaud-r  ViL 
HiMliedat  Rome,  5ib  .lune  1667.  P.  was  a  tin;  scholar,  and  often  presided  in  the 
fatr.ons  R..man  academy  of  lb?  UmorUti.  Tlit*  be^t  known  of  tUl  his  writ  n<;<  is  liiii 
*•  Istoria  del  Concilio  de  Tr  nto  "  (Rome,  1656—1657),  iutend-d  as  »»  r.  ply  lo  the  still 
more  c.  It-braied  and  lib  ral,  althoiiirh,  by  Catholics,  d-^cplv  euspi-ctcd,  work  of  Paul 
SrirMj.  Among  his  otlu'r  works*  may  be  mentioned  ""Vlndicatione-*  Soc.  Jes."  (Rome, 
1649);  "'Artedelia  Perfezioue  Cristiuna— I  Fasti  Sacri  "  (th-!  uupul>lis*bcd  MS.  is  iu 
the  library  of  Parinn);  '*  Ermenjrilda,"  a  tragndy  (ROiiie,  1644) ;  •*  Gli  Avvertimenii 
Grammaticati "  (Rome,  1661);  " Tratttto  dello  Stilo  e  del  Diaio^'o"  (Rome,  1662); 
and  "Lettere"  (Rome,  1668). 

PA'LLI.  a  town  of  Riijpntana,  in  Jndpore,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  a  branch 
of  the  Luni  River,  in  lat.  25°  4S'  n.,  long.  73=^  24'  e.  It  U  an  entrepfit  for  the  c^ium 
sent  from  Malwa  to  Bombay,  and  is  the  seat  of  exten»«ive  comuicrc'-.  It  imports 
European  manufactured  goods  extensively,  and  is  estimated  10  contain  aboui  50,000 
inhabitants. 

PALLiOBRANCHIA'TA.    See  Branohiopoda. 

PA'LLIUM,  the  name  given  in  tht»  Roman  Cithollc  Church  to  one  of  the  eccle- 
siastical ornaments  worn  by  tlie  pope,  by  pairiarciis,  and  l)y  arfbbi«hops.  Its  as  •  is 
held  by  Roman  Catholics  to  desc^jd  from  a  very  early  penod.  It  i-»  worn  by  tha 
pope  at  all  times,  as  a  symbol  of  his  reputed  imivei-Ma!  and  abi<iing  jurisdiction."  By 
arclibihhopsit  cannot  b.^  worn  until  it  hasbivn  solemnly  asked  t  r  and  granted  by 
the  pope,  and  even  flieii  only  during  th-*  solemn  s  rvice  of  tho  great  cluu^K  festivala, 
and  on  occa.«ioiis  of  tho  ordination  of  bishops,  or  of  pri'sts.  and  other  similar  acts 
of  the  arciilepiscopal  order.  The  pallium  is  a  narrow  annular  band  of  white  woollen 
web,  about  three  inches  wide,  upon  which  black  crosses  are  emb"oidered.  which  <'ii- 
circles  tlie  neck  of  the  archl)ishop.  and  fro.n  which  two  narrow  bands  of  the  ^auje 
material  depi^nd,  one  faHin<;  over  the  brast,  thepther  over  the  back  of  the  wearer. 
Its  material  Is  the  puhj,ct  of  much  care  and  ceremonial.  It  is  made  wholly  or  in 
part  from  the  woo!  of  two  1  imbs,  wirlch  are  blessed  ammally  on  the  festival,  and  in 
the  church  of  St  Agues.  During  the  night  of  the  vigil  of  tin.' feast  of  8r  Peter-and 
St  Paul,  the  pallia  made  of  this  wool  are  placcsd  on  the  altar  ai>ove  tlie  tomb  of  th  se 
apostles,  and  on  tlie  fea3t*of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul  are  delivered  by  the  pope  to  tiie 
subdeacon,  whose  duty  it  is  to  keep  them  in  charge.  Within  three  months  of  his 
consecration,  every  new  archl)ishop  i-*  obliged  to  ap»ly  to  the  pop",  in  person  or  by 
proxy,  for  the  pallium;  nor  is  it  lawfid  for  him,  until  he  sliaU  have  r<Kj<'lv<d  it.  to 
exereiseuny  act  of  what  is  properly  archiepiscooal,  ju'cou'radistiiiguished  fromepi;*- 
copal  jurisdiction.  Thus,  he  cannot,  for  example,  call  a  prooiru:ia7  siyn)i\.  The  pal- 
lium caimot  be  transferred  from  one  archbishop  to  another,  but  must  be  received 
direct  from  the  pop3.  On  the  Mrchl>isliop's  death,  his  pallium  is  interr-d  with  him. 
Its  use  is  held  to  symbolise  the  office  of  the  *'  good  sheplierd," bearing  tiJelostsh^^  p 
0!i  hie  shoulders,  and  is  connected  hy  POme  writers  with  the  vesture  of  the  Ji'wish 
high-priest  in  Exod.  xxviii.  4.  In  t  ••  m<*dieval  cliurch,  the  granting  of  the  pallium 
to  arclibishops  was  one  of  the  cliiif  occasions  of  th<'  tribute  which  was  paid  hy  tlie 
national  churches  to  tlie  support  of  the  great  central  office  and  dignity  of  ih-'  papacy. 
In  some  sees,  as,  fur  Instance,  tiiose  of  the  great  priitce-bislM^ps  of  theRhin<',  tlie 
tribute  was  as  much  as  20,000  florins.  Roman  Catholics,  tiowever,  maintain  that 
this  tril)ute  was  not  a  payment  for  the  pallium,  b.ii  an  offering  to  the  holy  see,  made 
on  occasion  of  the  grant  of  that  emblem  of  jurisdiction. 

PALM,  a  measure  of  length,  originally  taken  from  the  width  of  the  hand, 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


measured  across  the  joints  of  the  four  fingers.  In  Greece,  !t  ^as  T<nown  as  palaMi^ 
ami  \v«8  recUoned  nt  3  inchcf,  or  1-6  of  a  cubit,  which  \\i\s  tlieir  etjinciard  unit.  'J  he 
Kotiiaut«  adopted  two  nx'Msnres  of  tbia  name— the  one  Mas  tlie  Grrek  palaistiy  and 
vaf<calle<l  jmlmus  minor ;  tlif  other,  which  wjib  noi  introduce*!  till  later  tiinec,  \yaa 
calltd  paltMis  major^  or  palniOy  and  was  taken  from  the  lemjthoi  the  liand,  beinj^ 
therefore  usually  t;8.-iui«ted  at  thri:e  times  the  length  of  the  other.  Ai  the  pn  sent 
day.  this  ineasiir«t  vai-ies  in  a  mos't  arbitrary  manner,  being  different  in  eiicli 
country,  and  occasionally  varjing  in  tlie  pame.  The  English  palm,  when  n?ed  at  all. 
Vhich  is  seldom,  is  considered  to  be  tl>€  fonrth  part  of  any  Engli.-h  toot,  or  8 
inches.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most  common  measures  to  which  the  name 
palm  is  given :  ^p 

Valne  in  Eng. 
inches. 

Qreekpalaiate -      8  03376 

Roman  p«ZT*m«,  or  lesser  palm —        2-9124 

**       pa/wa.  or  givater  palm —        8-78T2 

English  palm  (3^  of  afoot) -        8-0000 

Hambti:  g  palm  (>i  of  a  foot) -        8-7683 

Amsterdam  •*  round  "  palm » . .    —        4-1200 

*•  "  diameter  "  palm ^ -      119687 

Lo&C'n,  }P™'^''y""'  ""^'^'^ -        *■»"' 

Spanish  palm,  or  palmo  major ' —        8-8450 

"  **      OY  palmo  minor         —        2-781T 

Portuguese  palm,  or  imlmo  de  Craveira —        8.6616 

In  Qernn»uy  and  the  Low  Countries,  the  palm  Is  generally  confined  to  wood-measure- 
ment, while  iu  Portugal  it  used  to  be  the  standard  of  linear  measure. 

PALM.  Johnnn  Philipp,  a  bookseller  of  Nuremberg,  who  has  acquired  an  his- 
toric Celebrity  as  a  victim  of  Nnpoleonic  jusiice  in  Germany.  He  was  born  at 
Schorndoif  in  1766,  and  succeeded nisfa«hcr-in-law,  Stein,  as  abookseller  in  Nurem- 
bei^,  the  old  name  of  the  firm  being  retained.  In  the  spring  of  1806,  a  pampldet, 
entitled  **Deutsehland  in  peiner  tiefsten  Erniedriunng*'  (Germany  in  its  Deepest 
Humiliation),  which  contained  some  bitter  truths  concerning  N:»j)<)leon,  and  con- 
cerning the  conduct  ol  the  French  troop-  In  Bavaria,  was  ?ent  by  this  firm  to  a  book- 
seller in  Augsburg  in  the  ordinary  course  of  ti-jide,  and,  as  P.  to  the  lai<t  moment  of 
his  life  averred,  without  any  rcirnrd,  on  his  part,  to  its*  contents.  Napoleon's  police 
tnic^  it  to  the  shop  in  Nuremberc,  and  an  inve.<tlgatiou  was  ordered,  from  which 
nothing  resulted.  Palm  was  in  Munich,  and  p*:rha|>s  e6cai)ed  imprisonment  there 
because  his  name  was  not  the  same  with  that  ol  the  firm ;  but  supposing  all  safe,  he 
returned  to  Nuremberg,  and  was  there  takejj  prisoner,  and  examined  before  Marshal 
Bernadotte,  whose  ad]  itnnt  represented  his  arrestment  as  the  consequence  of  direct 
ordet-H  from  Paris.  An  extraordinary  conn-martial,  held  at  Brunau.  to  which  In;  was 
removed,  condemn-  d  him  to  denih,  without  any  advocate  being  heard  in  his  defence. 
All  Intercess^ion  on  Ids  behalf  was  in  vain.  General  St  Hihiire  declared  thai  the 
orders  of  the  emperor  w«M-e  positive  ;  and  the  sentence  was  executed  at  two  o'clock 
on  the  nanie  day  on  wiiich  it  whs  pronounc-d.  Snbsciipiions  were  raised  for  the 
faujlly  at  St  Petersburg,  to  which  the  Emperor  and  Empress  of  Rus.«ia  pcri-onally 
contiibute<l ;  in  England,  and  in  several  German  towns,  as  B -rlin.  Leipzig,  Dresden, 
and  Hamburir.  Some  French  writert*  have  endeavored  to  throw  the  Dlame  of  this 
murder  on  Marshal  Berthier,  instead  of  Napoleon. 

PALM  OIL.    See  Oil  Palm. 

PALM  SUNDAY  (Lat.  Dominica  Palmarum^  or  Dom.  in  Palmis),  the  la«t  Sun- 
day of  Lent,  is  so  called  from  the  custom  of  hles^hig  branches  of  the  palm  tree,  or 
of  other  trees  substituted  in  thoise  cotmtries  In  wtiich  palm  cannot  be  procured,  and 
of  carrying  the  Ijlessed  branches  in  procession,  in  commemoration  of  the  triumphal 
entry  of  our  I.ord  into  Jerusalem  (John  xii.).  The  dale  of  the  orijjrin  of  this  custom 
Js  uncertain.  The  first  writer  in  the  Wext  who  expressly  refers  to  It  is  Venerable 
Bede.  The  n»»age  certainly  existed  in  the  7th  century.  A  special  service  is  found  lu 
tbe  Boman  missal,  and  also  iu  the  Greek  euchologies,  for  the  blessing  of  '^laranche^ 


Digitized  by 


Google 


PaliSinton  700 

of  palms  and  olives ;"  bnt  In  many  countries,  other  trees,  as  In  England,  the  yew  or 
the  willow,  and  in  Brittany  Ihe  l)ox,  are  blessed  Instead.  A  proceBsioii  is  formed, 
themembersofwliicli  issue  from  Ihechnrcli  Ciirryiiig  l)ranches  in  their  bunds,  and 
flinging  a  hvmn  suited  to  the  occasion,  of  very  ancient  origin.  In  tlie  Greek 
Church,  \he  book  of  the  Gospds  is  borne  in  front.  In  t«ome  of  theCatliolic  conntries 
of  tlie  West,  a  priest,  or  occasionally  a  lay  flgnn;,  was  led  at  tiie  bend,  monnied  u\hhi 
an  ass,  in  coiniuenioration  of  onr  Loi*d's  entry  into  the  city — ^a  u^^age  wliich  still  ex- 
ists in  Spain  and  in  Spanisli  America.  Before  tlieir  return  to  the  churcli  the  doors 
have  been  closed,  and  certain  ftrophes  of  tlie  hymn  are  sunff  alteniately  by  a  choir 
within  tlie  chnrcli  and  by  tlie  procession  without,  when,  on  the  sub-deacon's  knock- 
ing at  The  door,  it  is  ajrain  thrown  open,  and  th«i  procession  ru-enters.  Burine  the 
singing  of  ihe  Passion  in  tlt^olemn  mass  which  ensues,  tlie  congregation  hold  the 
palnx  branch  in  their  hand*,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  the  service  it  is  carried  home  to 
their  respective  houses,  where  it  is  preserved  during  the  year.  At  Rome,  riie  Pro- 
cession of  the  Palms,  in  which  the  pope  is  carried,  is  among  the  most  striking  of  the 
picturesque  ceremonies  of  the  Holy  Week.  In  England,  Palm  Sunday  anciently 
w-as  celebrated  with  mncli  crn'monial ;  but,  the  blo^<s'il^g  and  procession  of  the  palms 
was  discontinued  in  Ihe  Church  of  England,  together  with  the  other  ceremonies 
abilished  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. 

PA'LMA.    See  Canabies. 

PALMA,  the  capital  of  the  isiand  of  Majorca  (q.  v.)  nnd  of  the  province  of  Ba- 
leare:',  is  situated  un  the  south-west  coast  of  the  isiand,  on  the  Gulf  of  Pulma,  which, 
between  Capes  Piguera  and  Blanco,  is  18  miles  long,  and  sweeps  12  miles  inland.  • 
The  city  is  surrounded  by  orange  plantations,  and  is  walled  and  fortified.  The 
liouses,  some  of  which  are  buiit  of  marb?e,  are  mostly  in  the  Moorish  style  of  archi- 
tecture, and  a  number  of  the  streets  are  wide  and  regular.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop, 
and  contains  a  Gothic  cathedral,  simple-but  beautiful  in  style,  tmd  with  a  spire  wliicli, 
from  the  del'cate  and  airy  cliaracter  of  its  construction,  is  ciUled  tlie  AngePs  Tower, 
Besides  other  ecclesiastical  editic.  s,  the  town  contains  an  Exchange — a  beantiful  and 
ornate  structure  in  Germano-Gothic — the  governor's  palace,  an  academy  of  medicine 
and  surgery,  and  a  large  number  of  excellent  educational  institutions,  including 
three  colegiof!.  In  the  port,  a  mole,  500  yards  in  length,  runs  out  from  tlie  basrions 
facing  the  south  ;  and  O'l  each  side  of  it  are  ship-building  yards,  for  the  constrnction 
of  the  swift  luteen  vessels  so  well  known  in  Ihe  Mediterranean.  The  port  is  small. 
The  first  railway  in  Majoic.i  was  opened  from  P.  to  Inca  in  1875.  Wool,  silk,  and 
the  cordage  for  the  Sp  .nishnivy  are  manufactured.  Though  one  of  tlie  chit^  mart^i 
of  Europe  in  the  18th  c,  P.  now  carries  ou  but  little  commerce.    Pop.  60,000. 

PA'LMA,  or  Palma  di  Montechiaro,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Gir- 
genti,  14  miles  south-east  of  the  town  of  Girgenti,  near  the  south- west  coasT.  It  is 
entirely  a  modern  town,  its  foundation  datiut,'  only  from  1637.  There  is  a  ti'ade  in 
almonds,  dried  fruits,  soda,  wine,  and  sulphur.    POp.  (1871)  18,468. 

PA'LMA  CHRPSTI.    Sse  Castor-oil  Plant. 

PALMBLAD,  Vilhelm  Fredrick,  a  Swedish  writer  of  considerable  merit,  and  one 
of  the  earliest,  and  most  zealous  promoters  of  the  literature  of  his  native  couutm-, 
was  born  in  1788  at  Liljested,  in  East  Gotland,  whore  his  father  held  a  post  under  the 
government  While  still  a  student  at  Upsala,  P.  purchased,  in  1810,  the  university 
printing-press,  and  imm<;diately  entered  upon  the  publication  of  sevenil  literary  and 
scientific  periodicals,  which,  being  the  first  of  the  kind  that  had  ever  appeared  in  the 
Swedish  language,  attracted  considerable  notice,  and  by  their  intrinsic  merit,  con- 
tributed materially  to  the  diffusion  of  general  information  and  the  creation  of  a 
taste  for  learning' among  the  general  Swedish  public.  The  earliest  of  these  were 
the  *' Phosphoros,"  »  mixed  literary  journal;  the  "Poetisk  Kalender,"  an  annual ; 
and  the  *' Svensk  Litteraiur  Tiduii^,"  a  literary  review,  which  lasted  till  1824. 
The  Swedish  writers  Atterbora  and  Hammarskjold  were  associated  w  th  P.  in  the 
management  of  these  journals,  and,  like  him,  directed  all  their  effortlB  to  sup- 
plant the  pseudo-classical  school  of  literature,  in  favor  of  the  romantic  style, 
and  to  counteract  the  false  French  taste  of  that  period,  which,  under  GustaVa-* 
III.,  had  been  universally  followed  in  Swedisii  literature  nnd  arr.  P.  sncc's- 
^Bively  occupied  the  chairs  of  Uistory  and  Qeogi-aphy  and  of  Greek  LJteraiui-e  in  the 


y  Google 


701 


Falma 
PalmerAton 

tiDiversity  of  Upsala  ;  mid  at  his  dpntli  in  1852,  he  left  the  character  of  having  been 
one  of  the  most  industdoue  and  inflututial  Swedish  writer*  of  his  day.  Hib  princi- 
pal works  are — "Minnestafla  ofner  Svcriges  Regi-ntt-r"  (1831);  •*  L&robok  i  nyare 
Historien"  (Ups.  1832);  "H.mdboki  phy8i»ka*OirMOliti8kttGeographlen"(1837);  "Lft- 
robok  i  Geogiaphieu"  (Orebro,  1847);  ♦•  Gre'kisk  Formkunefeab  "  (Ups.  1846);  and 
in  addition  to  these  purely  insrnictiA^e  works,  amon^  his  various  novels  we  may 
instance  his  "Familjen  Falkensvard  "  (Oreb.  1844) ;  *'  Aurora  KOningsmark  "  (Oreb. 
1846),  which  rank  among  the  best  of  their  class  in  Swedish  literature.  P.  was  the 
editor  of  the  great  Swettish  biogrraphy,  "  Naninkunnige  S^teneka  M&u  "  (Slock.  1835 
—1852);  and  besides  I)eing  an  active  condjntor  in  ilie  direction  of  the  Swedish 
Literary  Society,  for  wiilch  he  wrote  numerous  papers,  he  was  an  active  comibu!or 
to  various  German  works  of  ceLel)riiy,  as  Ersch  and  Gifiber's  **  Allgemeiue  EncykJo- 
padie,''  the  '*  Conversations-Lexicon,"  &c. 

PA'LMfi,  or  Palral,  a  royal  city  of  South  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Reggio-Cala- 
bria,  20  miles  north- north-east  of  Keggio,  on  tlie  coast  of  tii«  Bay  of  Gioja.  1  lie  town, 
by  means  of  its  port,  carries  on  an  active  trade.    Pop.  13,500. 

PALMELLA'CEJB.  a  famiiy  group  of  Algce^  of  the  order  or  sub-order  Con- 
fe^-vaeece.  In  orgauitation.  they  are  among  tlie  lowest  of  plants ;  they  ar«v  how- 
ever, universally  n-^irded  as  vegetable,  and  do  not,  like  the  Diatomacece^  occupy  a 
somewhat  doubtful  position  between  the  animal  and  vt-gctabie  kingdoms.  'J'he  P. 
ail  grow  on  damp  surfaces,  bat  some  under  the  influence  of  fresh  water,  and  some 
of  salt.  Some  appear  as  a  mere  powdery  layer,  the  granules  of  which  have  little 
adiierence  to  each  other,  as  Red  Snow  (q,  v.) ;  some  of  them  assunte  the  form  of  a 
slimy  film  or  gelatinous  uitu<s,  as  Gory  Dew  (q.  v.) ;  and  some  are  more  firm  aud  mem- 
branous, so  a.H  to  liave  something  of  the  character  of  a  frond.  The  P.  bear  so 
§rei»t  a  nsemblance  to  the  early  stages  of  plants  higher  in  organisation,  that 
oubts  are  entertained  of  their  right  to  a  distinct  place  in  the  botanical  system, 
particularly  as  their  mode  of  reproduction  is  not  yet  well  understood.  Coujiigatiou 
nas  been  observed  in  9ome  of  them.  Tliey  propj.gate  with  great  rapidity  by  gem- 
nirttion,  or  something  like  it,  some  of  theip  sending  forth  tubular  filaments  from 
tlieir  cells,  tl»e  extremities  oi  which  dilate  into  new  cells,  after  which  the  connect- 
ing iul)e  closes,  and  ceases  to  exist;  whilst  in  others  the  multiplication  of  cells 
takes  place  by  division  or  segmentation  (see  Monad),  and  the  voung  plants  (  xhibit 
remarkable  powers  of  niotion  for  a  sliort  time,  like  zoospores,  being  furnished  with 
vibratile  cilia,  by  whicli  their  motion  is  jjrodnced.  Ere  long,  however,  their  wiotion 
ceases,  and  tlie  process  of  segmentation  is  ready  to  begin  anew.  The  motile 
oi-gaus  and  powers  of  some  of  the  P.  in  the  earlier  part  of  their  existeuce,  have  led 
to  their  being  mistaken  for  animalcules. 

PALMER  (Lat.  palmifer,  a  palm-bearer),  the  name  of  one  of  those  numerous 
classes  of  Pilgrims  (q.  v.),  whose  origin  and  history  form  one  of  the  mostinteresiing 
studies  in  the  social  life  of  medieval  Euiope.  The  Palmer,  jiroperly  so  called,  was  a 
pilgrim  who  had  performed  the  pilgrimage  to  the  Holt  Sevulchbe  (q.  v.),  and  had 
returned,  or  was  returning  home  after  the  fulfilment  of  his  vow.  The  Palmers  were 
80  called  fr©m  their  carrying  branches  of  tiie  oriental  palm,  in  token  of  their  accom- 
plished expedition.  On  aniving  at  their  home,  they  repaired  to  the  church  to  rt turn 
thanks  to  God,  and  oflfered  the  palm  to  the  pritsT,  to  be  placed  upon  the  altar.  The 
palms  so  offered  were  frequently  used  in  the  procession  of  Palm  Sunday.  Even* 
after  the  time  of  his  return,  the  religious  character  of  the  Palmer  stil!  continued; 
and  although  his  office  might  be  supposed  to  have  cesised  with  the  fulfilment  of  his 
vow,  nuiny  Palmers  contniued  their  religions  peregrinations  even  in  their  native 
country.  They  were  thus  u  class  of  itinerant  nionks,  without  a  fix<d  residence,  pro- 
fesj-in*;  voluntjiry  poverty,  observing  celibacy,  and  visiting  at  stated  times  the  most 
i"enmrkable  Sanctuaries  (q.  v.)  of  the  several  countries  of  the  West.  Their  cost  ume 
was  commonly  tlie  same  as  that  of  the  ordinary  PiLaRiM  (q.  v.),  altltough  modified 
in  different  countries. 

PALMERSTON,  Viscount,  Henry  John  Temple,  an  English  politician,  was  born 
at  the  family  mansion,  Broadlands,  near  Romsey.  Hants,  October  20, 1784.  The 
Temples  are  of  Saxon  origin,  and  the  family  claim  clescent  from  Edwyu,  who  was 
deprived  «»f  tlie  earldom  of  Mercia  by  the  Conqueror,  and  lost  his  life  in  defending 
nimi^lf  agulust  the  Normans  in  1071.   Sir  W.  Temple,  the  diplomatiBt  aud  patron  O' 


y  Google 


Palmar  ^Ao 

Swift,  was  n  member  of  this  family,  which  removed  to  Ireland  in  the  time  of  Efitt- 
beth.  Tbe  family  was  ennobled  1722,  when  Hennr  temple  was  created  a  {)eer  of  Ire- 
)und,  with  Ihe  dii;nities  of  Baron  Temple  and  Viscount  Palmerstoi'.  His  grandson, 
the  second  vtscodnt,  father  of  ihe  prestmt  peer,  superiurended  hie  sou's  ednciiiion  at 
Broadlands,  and  then  sent  him  to  Harrow.  P.  afierwanls  went  to  thts  university  of 
Edinburgh,  where  he  attended  the  pret<?ctlon8  of  Dug  «Id  Stewart  and  other  profes- 
sors. He  next  matriculate<l  at  St  Jolin's  College,  Cambiidge,  whenc  •  he  was  sum- 
moned to  attend  the  deathljed  of  his  father,  on  whose  decease,  iu  1805,  P.  succeeded 
to  the  title.  His  emineut:  abilities  wei-e  early  recognised,  for  he  was  scarcely  of  asre 
when  the  T017  party  in  the  nniveri«ity  selected  him  (1806)  as  their  candi- 
date to  succeed  Mr  Pitt  iu  the  represent^itiou.  The  iate  Marquis  of  Lansdowne 
was  the  Whig  candidate ;  and  Lord  Byron,  then  at  Cambridge,  in  hi*  **  Hours 
of  IdleneSJ*,"  evinces  the  interest  he  took  in  the  election.  P.  was  nnsncces2»- 
fill,  and  ajjain  iu  1807.  He  entered  parliament,  howev  r,  in  the  same  year 
for  thu  )>orongh  of  Newport,  his  coUeajrne  liein^  Arthur  Wt  iK-sl  y,  then  chief  secre- 
tary of  Ireland.  Inlslljhe  exchan'^ed  Newport  for  the  university  of  Cambridge, 
enjoyed  the  d  St liiction  of  representing  his  alvux  nwi^r  f ur  20  years,  and  only  li«c 
his  seat  when  he  became  a  member  of  th<5  Grey  admluisiraiion,  ami  supported  the 
Reform  Bill.  For  the  la*t  two  years  of  the  unrefornied  parliament,  he  »«at  for  tho 
now  extinct  i^oi-ough  of  B'etchiiigly.  At  the  "first  election  after  the  lieforni  Act,  ho 
was  returned  for  South  Hampshire,  but  lost  his  seat  at  Ihe  general  election  of  1SS5, 
"He  Immediately  afterwards  found  a  seal  for  the  borough  of  'Hvertop,  which  he 
promised  never  to  leave  as  long  as  the  electors  would  iiermil  him  to  represent  them. 
Having  traced  his  representative,  we  now  turn  to  his  official  carcier.  P.  entered  life  as 
a  member  of  the  Tory  party,  and  accepted  the  office  of  Secretary  at  War  in  the 
Duke  of  Porthmd's  tidministration  in  1809.'  This  office  he  held  diiriiig  the  succe&sive 
governments  of  Mr  Perceval,  the  Earl  of  Liverpool,  Mr  Canning,  Lord  Goderlcli, 
and  the  Dnke  of  W«'Ilington— A  period  extending  from  1809  to  1828.  'JTiere  wa» 
ample  scope  nr  the  War-office  for  P.'s  aduiinistrativo  tjJent^  and  activity.  Our  mili- 
tary system  swarmed  with  abuses,  and  the  labor  thrown  upon  the  Secretary  at  War 
during  tlie  Peiiinsnlar  campaigns  was  prodiL'ions.  In  1817,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
assas>*inate  P.  by  an  Insane  army  lieutenant,  named  Davis,  who  fired  a  pistol  at  him 
as  he  was  entering  the  Horse  Guards,  the  bullet,  however,  only  inflicting  a  sMglit 
wound.  P.  early  attached  himself  to  the  Canning  section  of  the  Liver- 
pool ndmlnistvation,  and  he  accepted  a  sent  in  tlie  cabinot  of  Mr  C.iu- 
ning.  His  official  connection  wiili  the  Tory  party  ceased  in  1828,  when 
the  "Great  DuUe  "  insisted  on  acceptlnir  Mr  HuskissonM  resli;natlon,  which 
was  followed  by  P.'s  retirement.  The  Dnkj's  government  was  swept 
away  in  the  retonn  flood  of  1830;  and  Ear!  Grey,  who  become  Prime 
Minister,  offered  the  seals  of  the  Foremn  Office  to  Palmerstoiu  The  E«roi)ean  horl- 
eon  was  so  disturbed  at  tins  crisis,  that  a  irreat  pojitical  authority  dechired  that  if  .^n 
angel  from  heaven  were  in  the  Foreign  Offl  re.  he  rould  not  preserve  peace  for  three 
months.  P.  falsified  Ihe  prediction.  Louis  Philippe  then  filled  the  throne  of 
France;  and  for  the  first  time  on  record,  England  and  France  acted  in  cOucert,  and 
without  jealousy,  under  P.'s  foreiiin  ministry.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  effecting 
the  independence  of  Belginm,  and  in  establishing  the  thrones  of  Queen  Is:ii>e]la  of 
Spain  and  Queen  Maiia  of  PortngaJ^on  a  constitutiotml  l)a.-is.  In  1841.  P.  went  out 
of  office  with  the  Whigs  on  the  question  of  free  "trade  in  corn  ;  but  on  their  r.turu  in 
1846,  he  resumed  the  seals  of  the  Foreign  Office.  HI"  second  foreign  administration 
furnished  various  eubit^cts  of  hostile  party  criticism,  among  which  n»ay  be  men- 
tioned the  civil  war  In  Switzerland,  the  Spanish  marriages,  the  European  revolutions 
In  184S.  the  rnptnre  of  diplomatic  relaiioiis  between  Spain  and  Gre.-.t  Britain,  and 
finally,  the  affair  of  Don  Paciflco  and  the  qnarre!  wiih  Greece.  A  vote  of  ceusnre  on 
the  foreig^i  policy  of  the  vovernmeut  w:i8,  in  I85O,  carried  in  the  House  of  Lords  on 
the  motion  of  Lord  Stanley  (atterwards  Earl  of  Derby).  A  connter-resolni'on.  ap- 
proving the  foreign  policy  of  the  government,  was  thereupon  moved  by  Mr  Roebuck 
in  the  Lower  House.  The  debate  I  isted  four  nights.  In  a  speech  <'f  five  hont;s'  du- 
ration— *•  that  speech."  said  Sir  Rol»ert  Pe«fl,  *'  wiuch  made  u#all  so  proud  of  him  " 
— P.  entered  upon  a  manly  and  dignified  vindication  of  his  foreign  policy;  and  Mr 
Roebuck's  motion  was  carried  by  a  majority  of  46.  In  December  1861. 1  be  publ  ic  were 
startled  at  the  news  that  P.  was  uu  longer  a  member  of  the  RuBsell  cabluet  He  hud  ex- 


y  Google 


iTiyj  Palmer 

•  ^*^  PalniJpedei 

pressed  Ids  approval  of  tl»e  coitp  d'Mat  of  Louis  Napolron,  without  ConsnltiDg  eirhff 
the  premier  or  the  ^n'eeii ;  and  us  exphmatious  were  refused,  her  ^Iflje^ty  exerclsi  d 
her  constitutional  right  of  disiniefaiiig  her  miui^ter.  P;  aveu^eti  hliuself,  a^  soon  as  \wt- 
liainent  met,  by  sbatteiin^  the  Kussell  adniinistratidu  to  pieces  on  u  comparativ<>ly 
tHflinj;  question  regarding  the  mllilia.  He  refused  aii  offer  from  llie  Earl  of  Derby 
lo  join  tnc  govemmeuf^wuich  he  wat*  commissioned  «o  form,  but  accepted  the  post 
of  Home  Secretary  in  tlie  coalition  administration  of  tlie  Earl  of  Aberdeen  in  1852. 
The  fall  of  this  government,  on  Mr  Roebuck's  motion  for  a  Sebastopol  committee^ 
placed  P.  in  his  ilst  yeai*  in  tlie  position  of  prime  minister,  to  whicli  he  was  unani- 
mously cAlled  by  the  voice  of  ihe  nation.  He  vigorously  prosecuted  the  Russian  war 
uniil  Sebastopol  was  taken,  and  peace  was  made.  His  goverament  was  tlefeated  in 
March  1867,  on  Mr  Cobden's  motion,  condemnatory  of  the  Chinese  war.  Parliament 
was  dissolved,  and  V.  met  the  House  of  Commons  with  a  large  majority.  But.  his 
administration  fell  in  February  1858,  uj)on  the  Conspiracy  Bill,  luteuded  to  protect 
the  French  emperor  against  the  machmations  of  plotting  refugees.'  A  short  Con- 
servative itdministratiou  followed  ;  but  in  June  18fi9,  P.  was  again  called  to  tliei>o.'-t 
of  First  Lord  Gt  I  lie  Treasniy,  which  he  continued  to  fill  up  to  his  deatli.  It  was  his 
ambition  to  be  considered  the  minister  of  a  nation  rather  than  the  minister  of  a 
political  party ;  and  bis  oppon^its  liave  l)een  c(mst rained  to  admit  tlnit  Ira  held  office 
with  more  general  acceptance  than  any  Englisli  minister  since  the  time  of  the  great 
LonI  Clmtham.  As  an  orator,  he  was  usually  hcmiely  and  unpretending,  but  always 
sensible  an«l  practical  He  was  a  dexterous  tactician,  and  a  i-eady,  witty,  and  often 
brilliant  debater.  He  was  popular  as  n  minister,  because  lie  wns  thoroughly  Eng- 
lish in  his  ends  and  aims.  Even  bis  rohnst  health,  manly  l^earlng,  and  physical 
vigor  were  elements  of  his  popularity,  because  they  were  regarded  as  a  glonllcaiiou 
of  the  English  sports,  wiiich  he  was  never  asliamed'to  ))alronise.  He  desired  notliing 
BO  ardently  as  to  promote*  tlie  wealth  and  grandeur  of  Great  Britain,  and  his  national 
character  and  national  spirit  were  thoi-oughly  appreciated  by  his  countrymen.  Ho 
married,  in  1K>9,  tlie  widow  of  the  flitli  Earl  of  Cowper,  daugiitef  of  the  first  Vis- 
count Melltouriie.  As  he.  died  without  issue,  and  his  only  l>rother  died  unmarried, 
tlie  title  l)ecame  exihict  on  P.*a  decease,  Oct.  18.  1865.  See  **  Life  of  P."  by  Sir 
Henry  Lytton  Bulwer  (Lord  Hailing),  continued  by  Evelyn  Ashley. 

PALMER- WORM,  a  nan  e  given  to  many  large  kinds  ot  grub,  the  lai-vae  of 
coleopterous  Insects  desjractive  to  vejjeiable  substances  of  various  kinds.  It  is  usi  d 
in  the  English  version  of  the  Old  Testainetit  as  ttie  translation  »f  the  Hebrew  gazavt, 
reuderrd  kani]je  by  the  Septuagint,  wh  ch  modern  Hehr«;w  "^-riters  and  ©there  verv 
generally  n  gard  as  as  a  kind  of  locust,  although  more  probably  it  is  either  the  grub 
of  a  coleoptei*ous  or  tlie  caterpillar  of  a  lepidopterous  insect. — SeeKitto  iu  "Picto- 
rial Bible,»^on  Joel  i.  4. 

Palmer-flies  are  much  used  by  anglers  on  the  English  streams,  and  are  at  certain 
seasons  excellent  lures  for  trout,  &c.' 

PALME'TT  O  {Sabal  jmfmetto^  or  Chamcerop6  pcUmetto).  a  spfHiies  of  palm,  a  na- 
tive of  maritime  parts  of  North  America,  as  far  north  as  lat  35°,  which  is  further 
"  itortli  than  aty  other  American  species  of  palm  is  found.  It  attains  a  height  of  40 
—60  feet,  and  h-  s  a  crown  of  large  palmated  leaves,  the  blade  from  ene  foot  to  fl\e 
feet  in  U-nglh  and  bnadth,  and  thi-  footstalk  long.  .The  flowers  fti'S  small,  greenish, 
and  in  long  rac<nies;  the  fruit  black,  about  as  long  as  a  pea-pod,  and  uneatable. 
The  leaves  art'  made  into  hats.  The  terminal  bud  or  cabbage  is  eaten.  The  wood  is 
extremely  porous;  but  is  pn^feiTf  d  to  every  otlier  kind  of  wood  in  North  America 
for  wharfs,  as  it  is  very  durable,  and  not  liable  to  be  attacked  by  worms.— The 
Vhamceo'ojift  (q.  v.)  humilia  of  the  poulh  of  Europe  is  also  called  Palmetto. 
.  PALMETTO-LEAVES,  the  leaves  of  the  Palmyra  (q.  v.)  palm,  BorofuniA  flabeUi- 
/o»WM«,  whicli  grows  extensively  in  India  and  I  oIyn<sia.  The  leaves  have  great, 
valuw  as  a  material  for  the  m.-inufactiu**'  of  hats*,  mats,  &c.,  and  for  this  purpose  are 
frequently  imi>ortid  into  Europe.  In  tlien-  native  countiy,  tliey  are  used  as  tliateli, 
and  for  a  great  variety  of  othc^  useful  applications. 

I'ALMl^PEDfiS.  or  W«b-Footed  Birds  also  called  Natatobes,  or  Swimjceks, 
an  Older  of  IMids.  the  v<?i«er^«  of  Linueens.  ver\-  natural  :nd  universjilly  recognised 
by  omithologj»-ts.  laving  »li«  feet  ►iierially  fonned  for  swiintning,  and  the  toes 
tvebM,  I.  e.,  connected  by  a  membrane,  at  least  lliobc  which  are  directed  forwardt 


V.  K.,  z.,  23. 

Digitized  by 


Google 


Palmtllc  hr\A 

FalBW  •^^ 

In  Bwlinming,  the  feet  are  contracted  when*drawn  fonrarda,  the  toe*  beitie  tyroo^ht 
together,  ana  expanded  to  their  atinoat  exteut  in  the  backwani  stroke.  Tu  accord- 
auc«  with  ttieiraqnatlc  hrtbit?,  tl»e  P.  are  farther  characterised  by  a  b<>at-h"ke  form, 
calculated  to  more  through  the  Water  with  little  resistauce ;  and  by  a  denize  uud  i>oi- 
iehed  plumage,  oiled  by  a  secretion  from  certain  glaiidt^near  tlie  tail,  very  iiuyerviou^ 
to  water;  ^illat  wannth  is  further  secured  by  acloihing  of  duwu,  moru  or  less 
abundant,  beneuth  the  feathers.  Tliey  are  remarkable. for  the  length  of  the  breast- 
bone istemwii),  and  the  neck  is  often  longer  than  the  legs,  a  thin;;  very  unusual  in 
birds,  so  that  they  can  plunge  tiie  head  far  down  iu  search  of  food,  'fhe  length  of 
the  wingH  differs  very  niuchin  different  sections  of  llie  order,  and  witlj  it -the  power 
of  flying ;  as  does  als^o  tl)e  pu>»^er  of  diving,  which  some  possess  iu  a  liieh  degree, 
and  others,  even  of  the  Mime  faihiiy,  in  a  very  hiferfor  degree.  To  this  order  belong 
geese,  swans,  ducks,  divers,  auks,  guillemots,  puflin>s  penguins,  petrels,  allmtrossea, 
^lls,  terifs,  sliearwaterB,  noddies,  pelicans,  coi  murants,  frigate-birds,  gauuet'S 
darters,  tropic-binis,  &c. 

PALMITIC  ACID  (aO.CaiH,.0,)  is  one  of  tiie  most  iuiDortant  of  Wie  Fattf 
Acids,  represe&ted  by  th^  general  foriaula  IlQ,C]iUn-iOi  (0:0  Oils  aud  Fati}).  In 
a  pure  state,  when  crvatolIUod  from  atouhol,  it  occurs  In  the  form  of  bt^utifnlly 
wbite  acicalar^crystafi  acrang.id  iu  tuft^-like  groups.  Tliebejcryatals  are  devoid  Of 
odur  or  taste,  coHnnnnicate  a  ftitty  feeling  to  the  fiu^r,  fuse  nt  14d0'6.  and  BOlldtf^ 
on  cooling  in  the  fprm  of  crys|.alliue  scales,  'i  hta  acid  is  lighter  tliau  water,  in  wiiicli 
It  is  perfectly  liisutuMe;  but  it  dissolves  freely  iu  l)oiliBg  alcohol  and  m  tither,  and 
tlie  <*oint>oiis  have  a  distinctly  ftcid  reaction.  Iu  small  quantitiea  it  may  be  distilled 
without  ducompoaing.  if  the  heat  be  carefully  regulated.  Tlte  neutral  paimltates  of 
the  alkalies  couatitute  sOap*,  and  are  soluble  in  water;  if,Jiow«'ver,  itieir  sotntionti 
are  liuxely  diluted  with  additional  water,  they  nre  ileconiposed,  an  insoluble  acid 
salt  being  precipitated,  while  a  portion  of  the  base  remaiin»  in  solution,  lira  addi- 
tion of  chloride  of  sodlu  n  (common  sa.t)  to  a  solution  of^an  aikaline  palmitate  pro- 
ducer a  si  mibtr  effects  The  other  most  imnorlunt  coui)>ohi>d8  of  palmitic  actd  ate 
those  which  it  forms  with  glycerine  and  wltli  cetylic  ether.  With  glyci'rine  this  acid 
forms  three  compounds,  viz.,  a  triglyceikle  or  tripa1niitat('(constiintlnr  the  Ordiniuy 
Palmitinx  ot  cl)emi:4ts),  a  diglycerid",  and  a  niono};]yceride.  In  addhiOD  to  its  ex- 
istence iu  tlie  fc^  of  palmitint*,  palmitic  acid  is  found  iu  a  free  state  iu  old  palui 
oil.  In  combirfatiou  with  cetyl'c  ether,  or  of  oxide  of  wfyl,  \vho*«e  composition  i« 
represented  by  the  formula  Cstii^aaO,  it  in  the  main  constituent -of  Sixinnac  tl  (q.  t.), 
which  is  in  fact  essentially  a  palmitate  of  oxide  of  cetyl  ((Va^laflOjCiaHg  (Os) ;  and 
as  a  palmitate  of  oxide  of  melissyl— a  substance  which  whi  be  noticed  in  the  article 
Wax— it  is  tiie  chief  iugredient  of  bees-wax. 

PA'LMltlNE  is  a  white  fat,  usually  occurring,  wlie'n  crystallised  from  rther»  in 
the  fofm  of  a  mass  of  smntl  scaly  crydt-als.  According  to  i)fi&y,  it  occurs  like  ttie 
allied  fat  Stearine  in  three  inOdlflcations,  each  of  which  has  a  different  melting-point 
—viz.,  1140  8, 1430,  and  145«>.  0!«  cooling,  it  solidifies  into  a  wax- like  mass,  ot  lower 
sp:{cific  gravity  ttiau  water,  and  insoluble  In  that  fluid,  but  readily  soluble  in  efht*r 
and  in  iMiliiii;  alcohol.  It  is  a  constituent  of  alaiost  every  kind  of  fat,  and  is  the 
preponderating  higredleut  in  those  of  a  semi-solid  consistence,  and  iu  many  oils.  It 
receives  its  name  fix>m  the  abundance  iu  which  it  occnrs  in  palia  oil,  and  It  may 
^  readily  be  obtaiued  from  this  source  by  removing  tiie.liquid  portion  (the  olehie)  ^ 
-'  pressure,  and  purifying  tlie  remaining  palinitfne  by  cr^srallisation  from  etlicr.  or  a 
inixture  of  ether  aud  alcohol.  It  has  been  stated  in  the  aillcle  on  Qlyctrlne  (q.  v.) 
that  the  compoftitiou  of  that  substance  may  be  represented  liy  the  formula  CgHsOs, 
3H0.  When  palmitic  acid  unites  with  It  to  form  a  triglyceride  (or  the  BubsUiuce 
usually  recogntSiid  as  paliuitine),  three  atoms  of  tlie  ailhydrons  acid  expel  and  re- 
place the  three  atoina  of  wtiter  in  the  glyt:etine,  and  the  re!>nltitig  compound,  palfui-' 
tine,  is  conse^iRiutly  represented  by  tlie  funnuhi  CgHjO,  +  8(C,jH,iO^,  or  C^o, 

PALMS  (Pa/wMJP  or  PahnacecB)^  a  natural  order  of  efidogenous  plants,  not  excelled 
in  importance  by  any  order  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  except  Gras-xea.  They  are 
genuraliy  tall  and  slender  trees,  often  of  gigantic  height,  without  a  branrji,  und 
bearing  at  the  sinninit  a  umgniflccut  and  gtaceful  crowu  of  verv  larjre  It^aves.  The 
■turn  is  sometimes,  however,  of  humble  gro\vtU,  aud  more  rarely  U  is  lidck  in  i>ropor- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


105  l^*^ 

lion  to  Hn  height;  BometinieA,  but  rarely,  it  Is  branched,  as  In  the  Doom  (q.  v.) 
Piihn  ;  and  BOiiietlinest,  ns  in  KiittanB  (q.  v.)*  it  1»  flexible,  and  scekn  su|>port  from 
treed  iiiid  bus*he»,  over  which  it  cliiiibH  iii  juiiglet)  and  denim  fure^tF,  Cliugiug  to 
them  l»y  means  of  hooked  spines.  Some  of  tlie  Kpedes  with  flexible  stem  attain  a 
prodigious Jength,  ascending  to  the  tops  of  tht*  highest  tree?,  aird  falUngdoAvn  iigain. 
Rnmphins  assertt*  tliut  tliey  are  Kometimes  1200,  or  evm  ISOO  feet  long.  Wiiaieyer 
tlie  form  or  mtignirude  of  tliestem  of  a  palm,  it  is  always  woody,  and  tbe  roi)t  is 
alwavB  flbroHR.  It  is  only  towards  its  circumference,  however,  tltat  the  stem  is  liard 
and  there  in  many  s(>ecie8  it  is  extremely  hard  ;  bnt  lite  centre  1s  soft,  often  contiiin- 
ing,  wiien  yonii^  a  grent  qimntity  of  srarcli  (sago),  and  fometimes  filled,  when  old, 
with  a  muFS  of  fiores  wliich  cnn  be  6c|>ai-nted  uithont  difficulty.  Conteming  the 
structure  of  the  stem,  see  Endooehous  Pi^nts.  The  stem  is  gewrnlly  marked 
exttrniilly  with  rings  or  scare,  where  former  leaves  have  been  ntftichod  ;  sotnetimea 
it  is  rough  with  the  reinaiuiug  buses  of  ttie  leaves,  and  part  of  It  is  sometimes 
covered  with  their  fibrous  nppendajfes.  No  other  ]>lflnts  have  lenvrs  so  large  as 
many  of  the  P. ;  the  liirgcst  of  all  are  tbof  e  of  Eon  e  of  tfce  fan-lrevcd  P.,  but  there 
are  P.  with  pinnate  leaves  £0  feet  long  and  8  f<  et  Urotid,  and  nt  drvM<  d  Knaves  are  to 
be  sefu  30  leet  long  by  4  or  6  feet  t)road.  'Hiiro  are,  be  wevir,  also  s»:«ll  P.,  iind  P. 
with  flexible  stem)*,  which  have  small  leaves,  'i'he  numlier  of  the  largt*  K>tives  which 
forui  the  crown  of  even  the  roost  mngniflcent  palm  is  never  gt^eat  Whatever  tlie 
9ize  or  form  of  the  kavts,  th^v  are  always  stalked,  the  stalk  beiue  oft(  n  in  dimen- 
sions equal  to  a  large  bough  or  a  great  oak  or  other  puch  tree.  The  lenves  are  com- 
moulv  pinnated,  the  nummr  of  piunu  lea  or  leaflets  hiSvg  often  very  great;  bnt  about 
one  sixth  of  the  ^bole  number  of  known  species  of  P.  have  fat^'Mtoped  leaves,  »nd 
a  few  species  have  undivided  leaves.  Tlie  leaves  are  in  all  oases  |>ei'sfBtent,  only  fall- 
ing off  in  succession  as  the  palm  advances  in  growtti,  and  new  ones  are  fornit^d  at 
the  summit  The  flowej's  are  soraet lines  lierii  aphrodite,  sometimes  tmlsexnal ;  tlio 
eanic  tree  liaving  sometimes 'male,  f»»malp,  and  hermai'hrodI(?e  flowers,  whilst  other 
f-peciea  are  moncadcms  and  others  dloeclt  us.  'J  hi;  peilanth  ha^  six  divit-ious,  tliree 
outrr  and  three  iniur;  there  are  generaHy  six,  rarely  tl.ree  stanieiiH;  theovniy  i^ 
composed  •£  three  carpehfi,  distinct  or  ui  Ited,  each  with  om'<>  cell  contrtltiing  one 
ovule.  The  flowers  are  amnll,  but  are  often  produced  in  dense  masses  of  very  strlk- 
ixig  appearance.  Hnmboldt  rcckeiis  the  nninl>er  of  flowers  on  a  single  palm  {A  ffvn* 
9ia  amygdaUva)  as  aiiont  600 COO.  and  evei7  bnncli  of  the  Sefe  Palm  of  tht;  Oronocu 
oou.«ists  of  ttbont  8000  fruits.  The  flowt*rs  are  prodnced  on  scaly  spadicew,  often 
much  branched,  and  enclosed,  lifore  expanding,  in  leathery  or  woody  spatlres, 
often  very  large,  and  somet  ims  op«'uing  l>y  bursting  witli  a  lond  explosion.  Tim 
flowers  of  some  P.  emit  a  very  powerful  cdor,  which  attracts  mnltitud*  s  of  insects. 
The  fruit  ia  sometHucs  r  kiml'of  berry,  sometimes  a  diniw,  either  wtth  a  fleshy  or 
a  flbrons  covering ;  and  sometimes  contains  a  very  hard  and  bony  cut.  The  fruit 
ia  sometimes  only  of  tlie  size  of  a  pea  or  a  cheny;  sometimes,  notwithstanding  the 
emallness  of  the  flowers,  it  is  of  very  large  sisse,  of  which  the  cocoa^^iut  is  a  familiar 
example.  ..  | 

Palms  are  mostly  natives  of  tropical  conntrios,  being  found  almost  every^^he^e 
Mitbin  the  tropics,  and  forming,  pt  ri)ui»s,  (!)«  most  striking  charnctcristic  of  ironical 
vegetution.  The  tropical  parts  of  America,  however,  particularly  abonnd  in  them, 
producing  a  far  greater  number  of  s|)ecies  tlian  a»»y  otiur  part  of  the  world.  A  few 
Biiecies  are  fOQud in  tem|)erute  region?;  one  8i)ecie8  only,  Chamceropt  humills^he-  . 
Ing  a  native  o€  Europe,  and  extending  as  far  north  as  let  44°,  whilst  the  northern 
limit  of  P.  in  Asia  is  nbont  iat.  84°,  ami  in  North  America,  Int:  86°.  In  Sontli 
Americn,  the  southern  limit  of  P.  ia  hit.  30° ;  iu  Australia,  it  is  hit.  85" ;  Jn  Africa, 
no  native  si^edes  is  found  further  south  th:in  Iat.  SO'';  bnt  in  New  Z-aland,  one 
pp'.'cteH  extends  as  far  sontli  af»  Iat.  33°  22'.  Some  of  the  species,  however,  which 
are  found  in  tropical  America  gi'ow  in  inonntain  regioiis  bordf>rln|^  npou  the  limita 
of  periH,tu:il  snow.  SojneP.  havovery  narrow  geoirrapliical  limits;  the  cocoa- i)ut 
palm  is  by  far  the  mo^t  extensively  disirilnitcd  species.  $ome,  like  the  cocoa-nut, 
prow  In  maritime,  other«  in  inland  districts."  Some  grow  hn  diy  and  pandy  trroimd, 
oiiiers  iu  the  ricliest  alluvial  soil^and  boiitu  in  swampy  situations;  some  in  open  dis- 
tricts, otliers  in  dense  fores»t.««.    8ome  species  are  generally  found  singly,  some  in 


groups;  some  even  covt-r  tracts  of  couni.ry  in  wiijch  no  other  tree  appears. 
The  nsea  of  P,  are  many  and  varioud ;  tliore  is  almost  no  specpsf  wh 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


i-c 


oApab'^of  be^Qg  npt)liod  to  Kome  uw.  Trlbe«  hi  tbr*  lowest  gr^l\e  of  clYlIIflatfon  cte* 
I>uiid  Mliuopt  eiiiln'iy  ou  particular  fipeci4*B  of  pulm.  as  tbe  coooa-iint  )>alxa,  for  th<^ 
8u|>p)y  of  all  their  waiitfi,  Tlie  frnlt  of  some  ftpecifg  is  eati^rr;  Hometimes  tli«  flcpliy 
)>?irt  of  the  fruit,  tH>inetiines  the  kernel  of  the  unt.  The  iii^portauce  of  the  dnte  and 
the  cocoa-nat  needs  oii]j  to  be  ulladed  to  ;  bnt  in  this  reB|)ect  they  far  exc«l  the 
fmits  of  all  otlier*  palmi«.  A  grateful  b^^vernge  is  made  from  the  fruit  of 
some  P.  (see  AssAi),  consistfnsr  simply  of  a  mixture  of  t!ie  palp  with  water ;  bnt  a  . 
kind  of  wiue  can  be  obtnined  also  by  fernieuttitiOQ  (see  Datek  A  kind  of  heren^  I 
more-generally  used  is  the  sap  of  palm-trees,  eittier  fresli  or  fermentetl  {palm^wiite  \ 
or  todoff),  from  which  also  a  kind  of  spirits  culled  Arrack  (q.  v.)  is  ubtuined  by  di^^ 
t illation  ;  whilst  from  the  fresh  sap.  boiled  down,  sugnr  is  obtained— the  joffiiery  of 
the  B'.ist  Indies.  The  sap  of  various  species  of  palm  is  collected  and  used  fur 
tiiese  purposes,  and  tlist  of  many  others  is  iirobahly  not  less  suitable.  The  pulp  of 
the  frnii  of  some  species,  and  the  keni»*l  of  otliers,  yield  bland  fixed  oil  nsdfnl  for 
vuiions  purposes.  Seo  Oil  Palm  and  Cocoa-Nut.  The  soft  and  starchy  centre  of 
the  stem  of  somtf  P.  affuttls  a  verj  ]m|>oriant  and  abnndant  article  of  food.  See 
Saoo.  The  terminal  bud,  or  cabbaife,  of  some  species  is  boiled  for  the  table ;  and 
although  the  taking  of  the  bud  is  death  to  the  tree,  this  is  little  regHrded  wtiere  veee- 
tntionYo^  on  with  a  rapidity  and  luxuriance  unknown  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  world. 
The  young  sprouts  arising  from  the  seeds  of  P.,  wlien  ihey  have  begun  to  vegetate, 
are  unotb^  esculent  of  tropical  countries.  From  the  ^tems  of  soioe  species  of  palm,  as 
the  Wax  Palm  (q.  v.)  of  the  Andes,  and  from  the  letives  of  some,  as  ttie  Caruabuba 
Palm  (q.v.),  wax  is  obtained,  which  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  ns  bees-wax. 
The  wood  o£  P.  is  used  in  house  building,  and  for  many  other  purposes;  some  af- 
fording very  hard  and  beautiful  wood  for  ovnamental  ^K'ork,  whilet  otliersai-e  suitable 
only  for  coarse  pnrpoaos.  The  great  leaf-stalks  are  also  used  for  some  of  the  pur- 
po:»es  of  timl»er.  The  stems  of  the  most  slender  species  are  used  for  walkiiig-'Sticks, 
<fec,  and,  split,  or  nnsplit,  for  wickw-work.  8ee  Ratvan.  The  leaves-of  many  P. 
are  tised  for  tliatohlug  houses.  The  spathea  of  some  species  are  used  as  vessels  or 
bag!>.  The  fibres  of  the  leaf,  the  fibres  couliected  with  the  leaf-stalk,  tlie  fibres  ot 
the  rind  of  the  fruit,  and  tiie  fibres  of  the  stem  of  difllercnt  kinds  of  P.  are  used  fOr 
making  conh^,  mats,  nets,  ciotii,  &c.  The  most  important'  of  these  fibres  are  Cnlr 
(q.  V.)  or  CoiXM  nut  Fibres  Qomuta^.  v.)  or  Ejoo  Fibre,  and  Pnissaba  (^.  v.>.  The 
coarsest  fibres  ore  employed  as  bristles  for  making  brushes;  &c.  Stripes  of  the 
delicate  epidermis  of  the  young  unopened  leaves  of  some  South  American  P.  are 
twisted,  and  so  used  for  making  H  kind  of  thread;  hammocks  made  of  which  aie 
highly  valued.  See  Astbooabtux.  The  leaves  of  the  Palmyra  Palm  and  Ttilipot 
Palm  are  used  iu  some  parts  of  the  east  for  writing  upon,  an  iron  style  being  em- 
ployed instead  of  a  pen.  One  of  the  kinds  of  the  resinous  sulistrance  called  Dragon*a 
Blood  is  obtained  from  the  fruit  of  a  p^lm.  The  Betel  (q.  v.)  Nut,  abounding  in 
catechu,  is  the  fruit  of  a  palm.  Tlie  fmit  of  many  P.  is  very  acrid.  The  ashes  of 
the  fruits  of  some  Aiuericau  species  are  used  by  the  Indians  as  a  sut)6titute  for  salt, 
probably  on  account  of  potash,  or  some  salt  of  potash,  whicli  they  contain  ;  and 
much  potash  may  )>d  obtained  from  the  stems  and  leaves  of  palms.  Vesretable  Ivory 
(q.  v.)  is  the  keniel  of  the  fmit  of  a  palm;  and  somewhat  siuilktr  to  it  in  quality  is 
the  Ooqnilla  Nut  (q.  v.).  But  a  complete  enumeration  of  the  useito  which  P.  and 
their  products  are  applied  is  almost  Impossible. 

Some  of  the  more  important  species  of  P.  are  noticed  in  separate  articles. 

A1x>ut  five  hundred  species  are  known ;  hut  it  Is  probable  that  many  are  still  no* 
»loscribed.  The  most  complete  work  on  P.  is  the  monograph  by  Martins,  **  Glenera 
« t  Species  Palmarum  "  (8  vols.,  large  {<ilio,  Muuicli,  V823— 1845),  a  mag^iiflcent  work, 
tvith  319  colored  plates ;  bnt  many  new  species  have  been  discovered  since  its  pal>- 
licHiion. 

Tlje  cultivation  of  P.  in  hothouses  is  attended  with  great  expense,  Sr^pnrate 
houses  are  devoted  to  them  In  a  few  gardens,  of  which  the  greatest  la  that  at  Kew. 
A  veiy  fine  palm-house  has  been  erected  in  the  Botanic  Garden  of  Edinburgh.  P. 
are  cultivated  in  hothouses  merely  as  objtfcti*  of  interest,  and  tor  the  gratification  of 
a  refined  taste,  never  for  the  sake  of  their  fruit  or  any  other  product. 

PALMY'RA,  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  a  great  and  splendid  «Ity  of  "Dpoer 
Syria.  Its  original  Hebrew  name  was  Tadrmr.,  whivh,  like  the  Grt^k  wOrd.  means 
♦'  city  of  palms.*'    It  was  built,  according  to  the  writers  of  KiuM  (Book  I.  chap,  ix. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


TO  7  "  Palmyra 

verse  13)  and  Chronicles  fBOok  IT.  chap.  vlil.  verse  4),  by  Solodion  in  tlie  10th  c. 
B.C.;  bul it  Ib  more  prubnble  that  he  only-  enlur^^  it.  It  o<:<>u|)K:(l  a  fertile  cKtsis, 
wtll  watered,  and  jibonmlliig  In  |>alm-ti*eeri.  Bai-ren  and  naked  mountaina  overlook 
it  from  the  west, and  to  the  east  and  south  stretches  the  illinjTtable  windy  desert.  P. 
w^l^',  in  the  Solomonic  atie,  a  bulwark  of  (he  Hebrew  kinirdom  asriiintt  the  Mauder- 
lug  hordes  of  Bedulns  j  but  its  early  history  is  obscure  and  insignificant.  After  Hie 
fall  of  Scleucia,  it  became  a  great  centre  of  commercial  intei-course  between  the  €«i=t 
and  the  weat  of  AiAiu  Its  comnierciul  importance,  wealth,  and  m:ienificetice  greatly 
increased  after  the  time  of  Trajan,  who  BubjeclGd  the  wliole  country  to  the  Romnh 
cmpii-e.  Ib  the  3d  c,  Odenathus,  a  Syrian,  founded  here  aa  empire,  which,  irfter  his 
murder,  Vose  to  great  prosperity  under  his  wife,  Zenobia  (q.  v,)i  and  Included  both 
Syria  and  Mesopotamia;  bnt  this  wns  not  of  long  duration,  for  the  Koman  Emperor 
Anrelian  conquered  it  In  the  year  275,  and  the  city  was  soon  after  almost  entirely 
destroyed  in  revenge  for  the  plangliter  of  a  Roman  gjirr'iFon.  It  never  recovered 
from  this  hlow,  although  Justinian  fortifie<l  it  anew.  The  Samcens  destroyed  it  iu 
744.  A  villajje  called  Tedmor,  inhabited  by  a  few  Arab  families',  now  occupies  the 
Bite.  The  rums  of  the  ancient  city,  white  and  dazzling  in  the  Syrian  sun,  excite  at  a 
little  distance  the  admiration  of  all  beholders ;  but  when  examined  in  detail,  they  are 
sahl  to  be  far  from  iinp- sing,  though  in  regard  to  this  latter  point  opinions  differ. 
Q'h(qr  were  visited  by  English  morchants  resident  at  Aleppo  In  1691,  and  again -by 
Messrs  Wood  and  Dawkius  iu  1761,  and  since  then  by  a  vast  number  of  travrllors. 
The  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Baalfthe  sun  god,  are,  however,  confessedly  magnificent.  - 
The  language  of  ancient  Palmyrene  appears,  from  inscriptions  which  I'eniaiji,  to 
have  been  an  Aramaic  language.  See  Murray's  or  Baedeker's  '*  Handbook  for  Syria 
and  Pale*?tiue ; "  Vogiie's  **Syr!c  Centrale." 

PALMTRA  PALM  (Dorasetis  fiaheUiformiH\  a  species  of  palm  wtth  a  magnifi- 
cent crown  of  fan-gh:i|>ed  leaveB,*a  native  of  the  East  Indies.  The  stem  attains  a 
height  of  25—40,  or  even  60  feet^  and  tapei-s  slightly  upwards.  The  leaves  aie  about 
four  feet  long,  with  stalks  of  about  the  same  length,  the  stalks  spiny  at  the  edges ; 
each  leaf  having  70— -80  rays.  The  fruit  is  somewhat  triangular,  about  the  size  of  a 
chiUPs  head;  having  a  thick,  fibrous,  and  rather  succulent  yellowish-brown  or  glossy 
black  rind,  and  containing  three  seeds  each  stsiarge  as  a  goose's  egg.  The  P.  P.  is 
the  most  common  mlm  of  India,  gi-owing  spontaneously  :r  many  distdcts.  cultivated  - 
in  others,  aiid  reacniug  as  far  north  as  lat,  30°.  It  is  of  slow  growth  ;  and  the  wood 
near  the  circumference  of  thq  hteni  in  old  trees  is  very  hard,  black,  heavy,  durable, 
susceptible  of  a  high  polish,  aud  valuable,  easily  divided  in  a  longitudinal  dlre<*tion, 
but  very  difficult  to  cut  across.  .  The  P^  P.  at)OUnds  gi-eatly  in  the  north  of  Ceylon, 
forniing  extensive  forests ;  and  the  timber  is  exportwl  to  the  opposite  coast  of  India, 
iHiinsr  of  superior  quality  to  that  which  is  produced  there.  It  is  much  used  in  house 
building.  Tiie  stalks  of  the  leaves  are  used  for  making  fences,  &c.  The  lea  veh-  are  us-ed 
for  thJitc^iug  houses;  for  making  baskets,  hats,  mats^^nmbrellas,  and  large  fwus ;  and 
for  wriiing  upon.  Their  fil)re8  are  employed  for  making  twine  and  small  rope ;  they 
are  about  two  feet  long,  and  very  wiry.  A  fine  down  found  at  the  base  of  the  leaf- 
stalks is  used  for  stniiuing  liquids,  and  for  stanching  wounds.  IMie  P.  P.  yields 
palm-wine,  and  of  conive  also  arrack  and  sugar  (jaggery).  •  It  furnishes  gi-eat  part  of 
the  ixilm-wiue,  sugar,  and  M'rack  of  India.  See  Abrack.  1'he  fruit  is  cooked  in  a 
great  vnrlity  of  ways,  and  used  for  food.  The  seeds  are  i'lly-like,  and  palatable 
when  vimng.  A  bland  fixed  oil  is  extractc*d  fi*om  tiie  fruit.  Tho  young  plants,  when 
a  few  inches  high,  are  esteemed  as  a  culinary  vegetable,  bein^  boiled  and  eaten  gen- 
erally with  a  little  of  the  kernel  of  the  cocoa-nut ;  and  sometimes  they  are  dried  and 
Sounded  into  a  kind  of  meal.  Multitudes  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  north  of  Ceylou 
opend  ahnost  entirely  on  the  P.  P.  for  the  supply  of  all  their  wants.  In  the  *' Pjil- 
myra  Regions'^  of  the  Southern  Dekkau  vast  numbers  of  the  people  subsist  chiefly 
on  the  fruit  of  this  palm. 

The  Deleb  Palm  (^.  v.>,  bo  Important  to  the  iuhabitauts  of  Central  Africa,  Is  be- 
lieved to  be  nearly  allied  to  the  Palmyra  Palm.  ^ 
PA LMYRA  WOOD.  Properly  this  name  applies  only  to  the  wood  of  the  Falmyra 
palm  {BofWiftuft  flaheUiformist.)^  but  it  Is  generally  used  for  all  kinds  C)f  imlm-treo" 
wood  im|K>rt*'d 'into  this  country,  amongst  which  veiy  much  is  the  wood  of  the 
cocoa-nut  palm.  Cocon  nncifera^  and  the  allie«l  species  C  ^^limoMt.  These  woods 
ar<3  also  caued  Speckled  Wood  and  Porcupirie  Wood  by  the  dealers— the  former  name 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Palo  'taq 

PampM  (KJO 

beiDff  nnpli<>d  to  VtiOM  venet^t  cnt  trnupveraely,  and  d^teiring  \he  ends  of  unm^tws 
bkLck  fibres  mlxe<l  with  rhc  ii(;ht^F-colortid  poitloiifl;  au^l  the  latter  lo  longltiidteal 
Fectiona,  in  wbicb  tlie  mixed  blucls  and  wliite  fibrea  pnucli  reeetuble  porcapiuea' 
qailla. 

PA'LO  BLA'NCO  (Plotovia  dieanthoides).n.  large  tree,  a  native  of  ChlH,  the  wood 
of  which  is  Avhite,  aod  very  ni«ef 111  and  duninle.  It  is  remarkable  ae  oue  of  the  few 
large  trees  btloiiji^ng  to  the  iiatarol  oi-der  Compositce. 

PALO'LO,  or  Balolo  (Palolo  viiidis),  a  dorsibrancliiato  annelid,  aHi<^d  to  (be 
Lnif-w:)rni,  cxireinely  abniidaiit  at  certain  peaeous  in  il»e  seji  ahov^  and  near  the 
coral  r^efs  which  eurround  many  of  the  South  Sea  lalands,  a«  the  Samoa  I»landn 
aud  the  Fiji  Islands.  The  biidy  i'a  cylindrical,  sliglitly  tapenug  at  both  ends,  dividi-d 
into  nciirly  equal  joints  each  joint  with  a  amaU  inft  of  grils  an  eacti  aide.  lu  tiiick- 
aeaj»,  the  P.  reeemblee  a  vei*y  fine  eiraw ;  it  is  about  thrue  Indies  lonjr,  generally  of  a 
greenish  color,  with  a  row  of  rouihi  black  spots ;  but  ihe  color  varies  to  red,  broMm, 
and  white.  These  annelids  make  tlnlr  appcaranc*)  in  jrrejit  multitudes, apparently 
rising  out  ot  the  coral  reefs,  and  with  a  periodical  regularity  which  is  very  remark- 
able. They  ate  eagerly  sought  after  bv  the  islapders,  who  are  on  ihe  watch  for  thrir 
appearance,  aud  go  out  in  canoes  early  in  the  morning  to  taketliem  by  means  of 
nets ;  but  they  often  occur  in  »*ueh  i>unil>ers  that  the  water  seema  to  he  full  of  tliem, 
and  Ihey  maybe  grasp  d  by  hjiiidfTils.  Thev  are  a  delicacy  of  whicl»  the  Sonth  Sea 
islanders  are  very  fond.  To  prepaic  them  for  use,  Hwy  are  wrapped  in  bread-fruit 
leaves,  and  cooked  for  twelve  orei^liUnin  hours  in  an  oven, 

PA'LPI  (from  tfie  Lat.  palpo,  1  tonc.li)  nre  organs  occurring  in  Insects,  Crusta- 
ceans, aud  Arachnidaus.  In  InsrHts.  one  or  two  pair  of  jointeil  appendages  bearinflp 
this  name  are  attached  to  the  maxil  ee,  wliile  one  pair  is  attached  lo  tiie  laliium ;  and 
in  the  higher  Crustaceans,  similar  appeud.agos  are  atttiched  to  tlie  mandibles  and 
foot-jaws.  In  both  these  classQp.  the  palpi  probably  serve,  through  tlie  sense  of 
t<jncii,  10  take  cognizance  of  tlie  qualities  ot  the  substances  whicli  are  employed  aa 
food.  In  the  Arachnidans,  the  paJpi  are  attached  to  the  raaxillie  only ;  and  vary  ex- 
ceedingly in  form  and  functions.  In  the  scorpions,  for  ins«tanci'«,  they  are  extremely 
developed^pd  terminate  in  pincers  whicli  resemble  the  chelae  ((»r  pincerp)  of  crabs 
and  loDsteVs;  while  in  the  spiders,  they  terminate  in  a  sing'e  movable  claw  iu  tho 
female,  and  iu  the  male  the  last  joint  ie  dilated,  and  acts  as  aui  accessory  gencrativa 
organ. 

PALPITA'TION  iathe  term  used  to  %iiniify  inordinately  forcible  pulsations  of 
tlie  heart,  so  as  to  make  themselves  felt,  an<l  freqiuintly  to  give  risSe  to  a  must  tix>ul>le- 
some  ana  disagreeable  sensation.    It  may  b«  eitlier  functional  or  a  symptom  of  or- 

5anic  disease  of  thft  in-art.  Here  we  shall  merely  consi<ler  it  as  a  fimctionul  disortler. 
.Ithongh  it  may  be  persistent,  it  fin*  more  frequently  comes  on  in  pjiroxysms,  wiiich 
usually  terminat-e  witldn  half  an  hour,  recnrriugafterwarfls  quite  irreunlarly,  some- 
time daily  or  several  times  a  day,  and  soifletimee  not  till  after  along' TMti'i*>ai.  Tho 
attackofien  comes  on  under  some  menial  or  phy¥ieal  excitement,  but  somefimen 
when  the  ))atiunt  is  quite  composed,  or  even  asleep.  If  the  paroxysm  is  a  severe  one, 
tlie  heart  feels  as  if  i>onnding  upwards  into  the.  thrant;  anil  tiiere  is  a  se^isaiion  of 
oppression  over  the  cardiac  region,  with  hurrietl  or  even  diiltcHlt  i-espiratlou.  Ex- 
cluding organic  diseases,  the  causes  of  this?  i.ffeetion  are  either  (I)  an  abnormally  ex- 
cittil^U;  condition  (^  tlie  nerves  of  the  heart,  or  (^2)  an  unhealthy  condition  oC  the 
blood. 

1.  Amongst  the  causes  of  disturbed  nnt-rvRtion  may  l>e  e-peclally  noticed  the 
abuse  of  tea  (especially  green  tea),  coffee,  erxrits,  :.nd  tobacco.  Any  irrigation  of 
tho  stomach  and  inttiHtiual  canal  may  l>o  rellrtctod  to  tlio  heart ;  and  hence  palpita- 
tion may  frequently  be  traced  lo  flatuleucej  uuduo  acidity,  and  intestinal  worms,  es- 
pecially tape-worms.  Evei-ythijig  that  cau.-es  presf^uro  on  tiie  heart,  such  as  t^ht 
lacing,  abdominal  dropsy,  of  an  cnlai'gsd  uterus,  is  also  liable  to  occa^on  this 

tff.CtlOl!. 

2.  If  the  l>lood  is  abMOi*mally  rich  and  stimu.atiuff  it  may  give  ripe  to  palpitation, 
as  111  Plethora  (q.  v.);  but  the  opposite  soiidit.on,  kjiown  as  Amemia  (q.  v.),  is  a 
much  mon?  common  cause  of  this  affection.  5n  :in»mla  the  blood  ia  waWry  and  d«- 
llcieut  in  fibrine,  and  (far  more)  in  red  co:T>ar.c.<-  ;  und  being  thiu*  in  an  uiimitnm] 
state,  ii  acts  as  an  unuutiiral  siimulant,  tiuu.  iuducea  frequent,  aUhongii  uol  r      "' 


y  Google 


109 


Pmlo 
Pampat 

strong  pnlsutiouii.  Iii  cases  of  this  kind,  plogultir  raurmDrs  (not  aniiktt  tiiusti  whicli 
ure  heard  whcu  we  upply  certain  shelJK  to  the  eur)  are  heard  ou  applying  the  stcllio- 
scope  lo  the  neck  over  the  courue  of  the  great  jtignlar  veins. 

The  age  at  which  pnlpitutiou  most  usually  comes  on  is  from  16  to  26  years ;  and  the 
affeciiou— e*|)eclally  if  ft  arise  from  aiiaemiar-is  very  mncli  more  common  in  the 
feinale  than  :u  the  male  sex. 

The  trejitment  of  palpitulion  must  entirely  depend  upon  lis  canse.  The  nse  of 
all  iiervuns  stiumlants  (tea,  coffee,  alcohol,  and  totjacco)  should  be  suspended  or 
ttlmudonud.  If  the  patient  is  clearly  i)lethoriCt  with  a  full  strong  pulne,  he  should 
take  5aline  aithartice,  and  live  upon  comparatively  low  diet  (including  little  animal 
food)  until  this  condition  is  removed.  When,  on  the  other  liand,  the  palpitation  is 
due  to  an  unaetnic  condition,  the  remedies  are  prenarations  of  iron,  aloetlcpurgatlvos, 
an  ahundanoeof  animal  food,  bitter  ale,  the  told  shower-bath,  and  ex^rcTsi',  short  of 

fM'oduciug  positive  faiigue,  in  a  pure  bracing  air.  In  the  parOxysms",  relief  will  often 
»e  afforded  h^  the  administration  of  a  diffusible  stimulant,  such  as  ammoniatod 
tincture  of  vaTerian,  aromatic  spirit  of  nuimouia,  ^c 

PA'LSY.    See  Paralysis. 
PA'LY.    See  Palk. 

PA'MLICX)  SOUND,  a  large  bay  on  the  const  of  North  Carolina,  U.  8.,  separated 
from  the  ocean  by  loir;;,  narrow  islands  of  sand,  an  angle  of  the  largest  forming 
Cape  Hatteras,  and  connected  with  tlie  ocean  by  narrow  passasfs.  the  chief  of 
which  IsOcracoke  Inlet,  and  om  the  north  wUh  Albeinnrlo  Sound  ;  it  is  80miie8  long, 
and  from  10  to  80  nriles  wide,  and  receives  the  Nouse  and  Pamlico  Rivers. 

PA'MPAS  (in the Qnichua tongue,  *' a  valley*'  or  "plain'*)  is  a  term  employed 
in  a  general  8<!nseas  a  designation  of  Southern  American  plains,  in  coutradistiuction 
to  the  "prairies"  of  North  America,  and  in  this  sense  it  is  frequently  employed  l)y 
geOi£raphert<.  It  is  also  used  in  Pern  as  a  general  designation  of  tracts  of  level  hiUd 
either  on  the  coast  or  among  the  mouiitafnM,  and  in  this  sense  occnrs  as  a  compo- 
nent of  Hiaijy  proper  names,  being  then  tnmsforined  into  baiiiba.  The  chl^f  ]>aiii})us 
ill  Peru  nre  those  of  the  Sacmmento.  But  iu  its  uioru  8i)ecial  and  ])roper  Hig- 
B  ticatioj,  the  word  punpaa  is  given  tu  tie  i  r.mense  and  putly  uudulallug 
))laiu8  bounded  by  tiie  Kio  N(^ro  of  P..tagouia,  the  La  Plata  and  Par- 
aguay, aud  the  base  of  the  Cordilleras,  'i'hese  plains  during  tlie  wet 
se.isou  afford  abundant  pasturage  to  the  many  herdd  of  wild  o.xen  and 
horses  wliich  roam  over  them,  but  they  become  iapidly  parched  under  the  burning 
lieat  of  the  BUM,  cxct'pt  in  the  low-lying  tracts,  or  along  the  banks  of  rivers.  'J'he 
most  fertile  of  the  pampas  h«  wt!s:  wards  lowai"<l>»  tlie  CoixliHeraH.  From  the  rapid 
alternation  of  vigorous  growth  with  parcbitig  drought,  the  growtlj  of  trees  Is  itnpos- 
sible,  ami  tlieir  place  is  accordingly  Mipplicd  by  sparse  groups  of  stunted  shrubs, 
'i'lie  soil,  which  is  in  general  poor,  is  a  diluvium  coinposetl  of  candy  cby,  aud  abounds 
in  thebouesof  extinct  mammals.  Strips  of  waterless  desert,  known  as  fravMiew, 
sti-ctch  across  the  pampas;  these  traveslas  are  destitute  of  all  vegetation  with  the  ex- 
ce^jlion  of  a  few  bushe.*.  and  are  markedly  di-^titict  iu  geological  character.  The 
soil  .of  the  pampas  is  more  or  less  impregnated  with  salt,  aud  saltpetre  abounds  in 
many  places.  The  wild  animals  of  the  pampas  are  hoj-se-,  oxen  (hoth  introduced  by 
the  Spaniards),  iiandous,  and  gnamicos.  The  skins  of  the  horses  and  oxen,  and  the 
fl  sii  of  the  latter,  form  a  most  inipoi-taut  item  in  the  trade  of  thisrv-ffion.  Tiie  half- 
white  inhabitants  of  tiie  piiinpas  are  called  Unacbos  (q.  v.).  The  whole  area  of  the 
IKiuipas  has  been  estimated  at  about  1,500,000  square  miles. 

PAMPAS  GRASS  {Gp^ieHmn  argent^tivi),  &  grass  which  covers  the  prnnjiaa  In 
the  south  of  Brazil  and  more  siaiihem  paitsi  of  South  America,  and  luis  i>eeii  intro- 
duced into  Britain  as  an  ornumenlal  plant.  Ills  quite  hardy,  and  its  tnft.s  have  a 
splendid  ap|)earance.  1'he  leaves  are  six  or  eight  leet  long,  the  ends  hanging  grace- 
fully over;  the  flowering  stems  ten  to  fourteen  feet  high;  the  panicles  of  flowers 
silveiy  wiiite,  and  from  eight<-en  inches  to  two  feet  louir.  'i'he  herKige  is  loo  coarse 
tq  be  of  any  agricultural  value.  The  m^de  aud  female  flowers  are  on  separate 
plants;  iu  paideles;  the  spikel^ts  ^-floWej-ed.  one  floret  stalked,  and  the  otli-r 
tjessile ;  the  i>alc«  of  the  female  florets  elohgatcd,  awn-shaped,  aud  woolly.— Auothet 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Panama  ^  ■»  v^ 


Panama 

epedes  of  the  Mime  genas,  G.  saecfiai'oideSf  also  a  Brnz!lian  gvaM,  yields  a  sonslder- 
able  qu  intity  of  augur. 

PAMPELU'NA,  or  Pumplo' na,  a  fortllled  city  of  Spain,  cnpifalof  Navarre,  of 
"which  it  ia  the  key,  occupies  an  einlnenc«  not  coinnumded  hy  nuy  iieighburiii^ 
lifiglit,  oil  the  lefi  bank  of  the  ArgH,  a  tributary  of  the  Ebro,  111  m.  ii.n.w.  of 
Zaragoza  by  railway,  and  200  mile-*  nortli-north-east  of  Madrid.  The  citiidet,  over- 
looking tlie rivur  and  coimnaucliug  ilie pliiio,  is  a regn  ar  pentagon,  each  side  beiig 
1000  feet  in  extent,  and  is  connected  with  the  city  by  an  eHpianade  or  glacis.  Mag- 
niflcent  views  of  tlie  Pyrenees  on  tlie  north  art*  obtained  from  tlie  citadel,  and  theT-e 
are  several  vttry  pleasuiit  promenades.  The  Ouetica  (plain)  of  P.  i8  abont  BO  mi  leu 
iu  ci re u inference;  and  altlionffli  tlie  cliniHle  is  somewhat  chilly  and  damp,  the  gar- 
dens are  fiiiitfal  and  the  meadows  verdant  The  city  is  well  bnili  and  clean  ;  water 
is  brought  from  bills  abont  nine  miles  distant,  by  means  of  an  aqueduct  baiit  after 
tiie  solid  Bomau  style  by  Ventura  Rodriguez,  and  a  portion  of  which,  2300  feet  in 
lengtli,  is  supported  on  97  arches,  S6  feet  in  span,  and  65  feet  iu  heigltt.  The  town 
coiit-iins  a  number  of  souares.  with  fQuutalne:,  a  theat-re,  and  tlie  regnlur  plaza  de  toron 
— bull  arena — cai>able.  It  is  said,  of  containiiiK  10,000  i>eople.  Agricaltiiie,  the  wine 
trade,  and  the  manufacture  of  linens  and  Icatht^r  are  the  only  noteworthy  brauches 
of  industry.     Pop.,  before  the  ruinous  Cariist  blockade  iu  1874,  al)ont  23.000. 

P.  watt  called  by  the  ancients  PompeiopoliSf  from  the  cli*cunu»tancc  of  its  having 
been  rehniU  by  the  sons  of  Pompey  in  6S  b.o.  It  was  taken  by  the  Goths  iu  46C 
by  tiie  Franks  under  Cbildebert  In  642,  and  again  under  Charlemugne  in  T7&  It 
was  sulisequently  for  a  time  in  possession  of  the  Moanr>,  who  corrupted  the  name 
PomiMiiopolis  into  ^ni&t^oiiaA,  whence  the  modern  Pamplona.  In  later  times  it 
was  seized  by  the  Frencli  in  180^  and  licid  l)y  tliem  till  1813,  when  it  iell  into  the 
bands  of  the  allies  under  the  Duke  of  Weilhigtou. 

PA'MPHLET  (variously  deiivjui  from  Spanish  papaleta,  slip  of  paper  on  which 
anythiii^is  written,  and  pagitM  filata^  threaded  page),  a  nmall  book  consistim;  of  a 
sheet  of  paper,  or  a  few  sheets  stitched  together,  but  not  lioiind.  It  generally  con- 
tains a  short  treatise  on  «*om«  subject,  political  or  otherwise,  which  Is*  exciting  public 
attention  at  the  time  of  its  appearance.  The  word  is  of  considerable  antiquity,  as 
it  is  to  be  met  with  in  Chaucer ;  but  it  was  not  until  about  the  middle  of  the  16tb  c 
that  pamphlets  began  to  be  of  common  us  >  in  political  and  religious  c<>ntrov6r^y  in 
England  and  Frjince.  Under  the  second  French  Empire,  pontical  pamphlets  ap- 
peared from  time  to  time  whicli  were  gcmerally  believed  to  be  written  under  imperial 
dictation,  and  either  to  speak  tiie  sentiments  of  the  emperor,  or  to  l>e  feelers  of  pub- 
lic opinion. 

•PAMPHY'LIA,  anciently  a  country  on  the  south  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  with  Cilicin 
on  the  east  and  Lycia  on  the  west.  It  was  originally  bounded  on  the  iui>ind  or 
iiortheiii  side  by  Mount  Taurus,  but  afterwards  enlarged,  so  as  to  reach  the  confines 
of  Phrviria.  P.  is  inouutninom*,  was  formerly  well  wooded,  and  had  uumeroue  mari- 
time cities.  The  inhabiiuuts — a  mixed  i-ace  of  aborigines,  Cilicians,  and  Greek  colo- 
nists— spoke  a  language  tlie  basis  of  which  was  probably  Greek,  but  wliich  was  dis- 
figured and  corrupted  i)y  the  infusion  of  barbaiic  elements.  Their  coins  shew  that 
they  hud  adopted  to  some  extent  the  religion,  arts,  and  games  of  the  Hellenic  race. 
Ita l)olitical  history  is  unimportant  Along  with  Phrygia  and  I-y<ia  It  fell  to  the 
sliaro  of  Antigonus  on  the  partition  of  the  Macedonian  empire.  It  afterwards  passed 
successively  into  the  hands  of  the  Gi-seco-'Syriau  princes,  the  kings  of  Pergumus, 
and  the  lionmns. 

PA Nj  among  the  Greeks,. tlie  chief  crod  of  pastures,  forests,  and  flocks.  Tlie 
later  rationalising  mythologist^,  misccmceiving  the  inenuhig  of  his  name,  which  they 
confounded  witb  tu  pan.  ••  the  whole,'*  *»r  '^ihe  universe,"  whereas  it  is  nu>re  prob- 
ably connected  with  jw*  (Lat.  paHao),  **  to  feed."  "to  pasture,"  represented  him  hb 
a  |>ersoniflcation  of  the  nniverse,  bii»  there  is  absolutely  nothing  in  the  myth  to 
warrant  such  a  notion.  Pan  neither  in  his  jj^enius  nor  his  history  figures  as  one 
of  the  great  principal  deities,  and  his  woi*ship  Ix'came  general  only  at  a  compara- 
tively late  iHjrIod.  He  was,  ac<-oniing  tjo  the  most  common  belief,  a*  sou  ©f  Hermch 
(Men*.ni7)  by  the  daughter  of  Dryops  ;  or  bj'  Penelope,  t<ie  wife  of  tHysses  :  wbM« 
other  oeconuts  make  Penelope  the  mother,  but  Ulysses  himself  the  father— <tliuiiirb 


y  Google 


^11  PaiQpaluna 

I  A  A  Panama 

tiepateroitvoltbeeodid  iUf)0  aecrDK^d  to  the  namerone  wooers  ot  Penelope  in 
common.  The  oiigniul  seat  of  bia  worship  wuii  tlieVild  hilly  and  wooded  solitudes 
of  Arctulid,  whence  it  gradually  spread  ovtr  the  rest  of  Greece,  hut  was  not  infro- 
dnced  into  Athens  nntil  after  the  battle  of '.Marathon.  Homer  docs  not  mention 
niiu.  From  liis  very  l)lrth  his  appearance  mis  pecnliar.  He  came  into  the  world 
with^hornt*,  jt  goat's  beard,  a  crooked  no.«e,  pointed  ears,  n  tail,  and  ^raat's  feet ;  and 
sofrightened  nis  mother  that  slie  ran  off  f op  fear,  but  his  father,  Hermes,  carried 
hiui  to  Olympus,  where  all  the  god?,  e8i)eclally  Dit)ny8us  (Bacchus),  were  charmed 
with  tl)e  little  monster.  When  he  grew  up,  he  had  a  grim  shaggy  aspect,  and  a 
terrible  voice,  which  bursting  abraptly  on  the  ear  of  the  traveller  in  solitary  places 
—for  Pan  was  fond  of  nialcing  a  great  noise— inspired  liim  with  a  sudden  fear 
(whence  tlie  word  panic).  It  is  even  related  that  the  alarm  excited  l)y  his  blowing 
nnon  a  shell  decided  the  victory  of  the  gods  over  tlie  Titans.  He  was  tl^e  patron  6t 
all  {)erson8  occupitd  m  the  care  of  cuttle  and  of  bees,  in  bunting  and  in  fishing. 
During  the  heat  of  the  day  he  used  to  lake  a  nap  in  the  deep  wdods  or  on  the  lonefy 
hillsioes,  and  was  exceednigly  wroth  if  his  slumber  was  distnrbcd  l)y  the  lialloo  of 
the  hunters.  He  is  also  represented  as  fond  of  music,  and  of  dancir>.g  with  the  forept 
nymphs,  and  as  the  inventor  of  the  syrinx  or  sheplierd's  flute,  al?o  called  Pan's  pipe. 
Cows,  goats.  Iambs,  milkj  lioney,  and  new  wine  were  offered  lohim.  Theflr-ti^ee  was 
sacred  10  him,  and  he  had  sanctuaries  add  temples  in  various  parts  of  Arcadia,  at 
Ti'OPzene.  at  Slcyon,  at  Athens,  &c.  The  Romans  identified  tne  ureek  Pan  with 
their  own  Italian  god  Inuns,  and  sometimes  also  with  Faunns.    See  Faun. 

When,  after  tlie  es'tablishment  of  Christianity,  the  Iieathen  deities  were  degraded 
by  tiie  cliiirch  Into  fallen  angels,  the  characteristics  of  Pan— viz.,  the  horns,  the  goat's 
Iward,  the  pointid  ears,  the  crooked  nose,  the  tail,  and  tlie  goat's  feet — were  trans- 
ferred to  the  Devil  himself,  and  thus  the  "  Auld  Homie"  of  popular  superstition  is 
simply  Pan  in  dieguise. 

PANAMA',  a  city  and  seaport  of  the  republic  of  Golovnbia.  in  S.  America,  capital 
of  the  **  st:it<? "  of  the  same  name,  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Panama,  on  the  south- 
ern ^hore  of  the  isthmus  of  the  same  name,  in  lat.  8<'  Se*^  n.,  long.  79^  31'  w.  It  oc- 
cupies a  ton^e  of  land  which  extends  some  distance  out  to  sea  in  shallow  waters. 
The  harbor  is  pafe.  but  vessels  of  more  than  80  tons  burden  cannot  approach  within 
two  miles  of  the  snore.  Lai-ge  vessels  anchor  at  a  distance  of  three  miles,  near  the 
island  of  Perico.    The  imporiimt  edifices  of  the  city  inclnde  a  beautiful  cath<'dral,  a 


the  Panama  railway.  This  railway  was  completed  In  1855,  is  ftbout48  miles  in  length, 
and  connects  P.  on  tlie  Padfic  with  Aspinwall  colony  on  the  Atlantic.  By  means  of 
it  the  ronte  to  California  was  much  shortened,  and  mails  werere  carried  over  it  till 
tlie  completion  of  the  Pacific  Rjjilway.  Pop.,  (1870)  18,378.  The  former  city  of  P., 
the  seat  of  the  Spanisli  colonial  government  dBtabtished  in  1518,  stood  six  miles  u.  e. 
of  P..  and  is  now  a  heap  of  ruins. 

PANAMA,  Mhmus  of,  is  that  portion  of  the  narrow  ridge  of  monntainons 
country  connecting  Central  and  South  America,  wliich  is  bounded  on  the  w.  by 
the  fjontier  of  Costa  Rica,  and  on  the  e.  by  the  surveyed  inter-oceanic  route  from 
the  Bay  of  Caledonia  on  the  n.  to  the  Gulf  of  San  M'gnel  on  the  s.  or  Pacific  side. 
It  extends,  in  long,  from  77°  to  83°  w.  The  "  State  "  of  P.,  one  of  those  which  form 
the  United  States  of  Colombia,  is  co-extensive  with  the  isthmns  of  the  same 
name.  Area,  29,756.  Pop.  (1870)  220,M2.  P.  containi*  the  provinces  of  Panama, 
Azuoro,  Chiriqui,  and  Veragtias.  The  isthmus  is  traversed  throughout  by  a  chain 
of  mountains,  forming  the  barrier  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  and  of 
wliich  the  highest  peak  is  thftt  of  Pic^icho  (7200  feet)  in  the  wet^t.  Numerous 
Btreams,  the  largest  of  which  is  the  Tnira  (162  miles  long,  and  navigable  for  102 
miles),  fall  into  both  oceans.  On  the  Pacific  shons  are  numerous  l>eantifnl  islands, 
among  which  Las  Perlas,  so  called  from  rheir  pearl  flsheriep,  and  the  island  of 
Coilm,  are  the  chief.  On  the  north  coast,  t*»e  principal  harbors  .tre  the  Chiriqui 
Lagoon,  Ban  Bias,  and  Caledonia;  on  the  south  8hoi>e,  Damas  in  the  island  of  Coiba, 
the  Bay  of  Saii  Miguel,  and  Ootfo  Dnice.  Gold,  which  in  ancient  times  was  ob- 
tained here  in  gretit  quantities,  is  still  found,  and  mines  of  i*alt,  copper,  iron,  coal, 


y  Google 


PanaikMiTa  T 1  O 

&c.y  are  workftd.  T^te  cHninte  U  niihpalthVf  pxce|4  in  the  iitieHor  and  on  the  flanks 
of  ihenioinitain^.  Aliuoft  all  tlie  piaots  of  tin;  Torrid  zone  mny  l)e  rais>ed  lier«,  1>ut 
muljse,  rice,  plnuUiint*,  Ac  (jfrown  for  the  puipose  of  «iupi>)yii.g  tlie  tr«ii*»it)y  are  the 
chief  crops,  'i'he  total  iiuporrs  in  1872  anioniited  to  X50O.00O,  and  the  exports  to  1 1)9 
i>am«  value.  .Tlje  latter  coniMi*tud  of  cotton,  india-rnbber,  cloth  and  grasa  haiii« 
inot'ks  irrasB  (Pituama)  hat^,  matting,  Ac    Commerce  !»  the  cliief  cTipluyraent. 

Ill  1S55  a  railway  acros«^  the  Idthnuia,  from  Asplnwall  city  on  ilic  Atlantic  to 
Panninaon  the  Piiddc,  waa  opened.  Tiie  BUiuniitof  the  railway  is  250  feet  above 
the  level  of  (he  sea ;  and  the  average  value  of  tlie  goo<1s  tliat  annually  pass  over  it  la 
esliinatcd  at  £11,000,600.  The  Ipthnms  has  frequently  been  sar\'eyed  with  the  object 
of  finding  a  route  for  i\u  imer-ocej«nic  canal.  The  name,  Isthmots  of  P.,  is  generally 
used  as  interchangeable  wlt>.  Isthmus  of  Darten  (q.  v.). 

PANATUEN^E'A,  the  most  fjjmous  fwtival  of  Attica,  celebrated  at  Athens  in 
honor  of  Athene,  ^)Jltron  goddosss  of  the  city*  and  intended  to  remind  the  people  of 
Attica  of  their  union  into  one  community  by  the  mythical  Theaeus.  Before  the 
time  of  Theseus,  or— to  f«peak  more  criiically— before  tlie  formation  of  the  AtJic 
confederacy,  thid  festival  was  only  for  the  citizens  of  Athens,  jyid  was  calld 
simply  Athencea.  AecordiuK  to  irndilion,  the  Atheuici  owed  its  origin  tt)  King 
Erichthouius  about  1506  or  r521  B.C.  The  Iat«r  Panatheusea  uppcitrd  to  have  been 
a  double  festival.  All  writers  who  mention  it,  8|)eak  of  a  Lesser  and  Givater  Pana- 
thensea,  the  former  held  annually,  the  latter  every  fourth  year.  Both  took  place  in 
the  mo  ith  Ilecatombceon  (July),  aud  lasted  ?evcj-al  days.  The  Lesser  Panatheusea 
was  celebratj'd  with  gymnastic  games,  musical  com  petitions,  declrtinations,  and  a 
torch  race  in  the  evening,  the  whole  conclnding  with  the  sacrifice  of  an  ox.    The 

^^rlze  of  the  victors  wms  a  vessel  filled  with  oil  from  the  sacred  tree  on  the  Acropolis. 
The  Greater  Pan.«then«ea  onlydifferttd  from  th«!  Lesser  in  l>eing  more  solemn  and 
niagnificeMt,  Hhapsodists  sang  the  Iloineric  ix>ems ;  dnimatic  repr<'sent«tfons  were 
given  ;  and  a  stilendid  procession  took  place  to  the  temple  of  Athene  Polias,  on  the 
ML-M;  day  of  the  festival,  to  present  rho  gt>d<les8  with  a  peplua  or  embi-oidei*ed  rol)e, 
of.  crocus  color,  woven  by  the  mald<  n«  (n-ffiMtinai)  of  tlie  city.  Not  alone  the 
Athpni.MUs,  but  the  whole  population  of  Attica  poured  forth  on  this  occasion.  Mlie 
procession  is  grandly  sculptured  on  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  by  Phidias  and  his 
disciples. 

PANAX.    See  Ginseng. 

PA'NOAKK.  This  srticle  of  food  Is  prepared  by  pouring  a  rich  batter  of  flour, 
•gg»^  and  milk  into  a  frying-nan,  so  as  to  cover  it  alK>ut  liaff  an  inch  in-thickiuMs; 
the  pan  having  bewn  previously  heated,  and  well  supplied  with  butter,  lard,  or  olive 
oil.  A  quick  Are  is  necessary  to  cook  it  well,  and  when  the  under  side  Is  done,  a 
dexttM'uuH  cook  by  jerking  the  frying-pan  managt'S  to  reverse  the  cake,  so  as  tobiin}; 
ttie  nppor  side  downward  to  bo  ^fbokcd  iu  its  tiurn.  It  is  now  a  common  practice  to 
make  ptmciikes  rather  smaller  than  tlie  bottom  of  the  pan,  and  fr(*quentiy  to  adil 
ininced  applet  and  other  materials  to  vary  and  ILivor  them ;  these  are«  however,  bet- 
ter known  under  the  name  of  Fritters. 

This  dish  is  particularly  associated  with  Shrove  Tuesday,  but  the  origin  of  tlie 
connection  is  bv  nO  means  clear.  Perhaj;)8  it  is  the  relic  of  a  heathen  custom.  The 
ftjixons  calletl  Ij'ebruaiy,  Sohnmiath^  **  which,"  says  a  writer  in  ♦'  Notes  and  Q.uerie** " 
(First  Series,  vol.  v.  p.  491),  "Br  Prank  Sayers,  in  his  *  Dlsqnleitloue.*  says  is  ex- 
nliined  by  Bede,  * Meusis  Placentarura,' and  rendered  by8pelman,in  an  inedit*^ 
Ms.,  *  Panctke  nioiiih,*  because,  in  the  course  of  it,  pancakes  were  offered  by  iho 
pagan  Saxons  to  the  sun." 

PA  NCn  AT  ANTRA  (literally,  tlie  five  books)  is  the  name  of  the  celebrated  San- 
scrit fable-book  of  tlie  Hindus  whence  the  HiU>pad€H'a  (q.  v.)  was  compiled  and  en- 
larged. Its  authorship  is  ascribed  to  a  Bralunau  of  the  name  of  Visliii'as%rinaii, 
who,  as  its  introdiiciion  in  a  later  recension  relates,  luid  undertaken  to  instruct, 
within  six  moiilhs,  the  unruly  sons  of  Amaias'ukti,  a  king  of  Mahil&ropya  oc 
Mihil&ropya,  in  all  branches  of  knowledg«f  re()nired  by  a  king,  and  for  this  pnrpoeie 
<omposed  this  work.  If  the  latter  part  of  this  story  be  true,  it  is  more  proliable, 
however,  as  Professor  Boufey  assumes,  that  Vislin'us'arinjm  was  merely  the  teachvr 
of  the  princes,  and  thatttio  existing  work  itself  was  compel  by  some  other  p  rsoij- 
age;  for  an  older  receusiou  of  the  work  does  not  speak  of  Ui^  having  brought  his 


Digitized  by 


Google 


m 


FanatheA»a 
PandanacMB 

talcfl  itifo  the  ahapft  of  a  wOfk.  Tlie  arraiipremcnt  of  lh<»  T  is  qnite  similar  to  that 
of  tlMj  '•  IlitopaUf'p'a."  The  fables  ai«  narrated iu prosf,  unci  i lie  uioruls  dmwn  from 
or  connected  witii  them  are  iuterwoveu  wlili  tl>o  nnrmtjvJ  in  verae;  many  such 
versea,  if  not  «ll,be»ny  ouotatiofiB  fruni  older  workK. — On  the  ijislory  of  the  F.,  uud 
if-s  ix'Iatidn  to  the  fubli^nooks  and  fublea  uf  other  nations,  nee  the  excellent  work  of 
Professor  Theodor  Bonfoy,  **  runclmtautru :  f &iif  BCicher  iM(li:<clier  Fabehu,  M&rriieu 
mid  BrKahlniiicen  "  (2  vols.,  Leip.  1859  ,  tlie  firatvQinuiK  containitiL^  hia  bietoric.il  aud 
criticiri'  researches  OU)  aud  the  latter  his  literal  traiisUUou  iuio  Oefmau  of  the  *'  l^au- 
chatautra."  i  . 

PANCREAS  (from  the  Gr.  pan,  nil,  and  kreas,  flesh)  i$<  r  conglomerate  glaiidi 
lying  trauBverscly  acrOH."  the  iKMSterior  wall  of  the  abduiuem,  vciryinjr  in  length  from 
6  to  8  iuchesj  having  a  brt^adtli  uf  about  au  inch  and  a  half,  and  a  ihickucbs  of  from 
half  an  inch  to  au  inch.  Its  usual  weight  is  about  three  ounces.  The  head  of  the 
pancreas  lies  in  the  concavity  of  the  duodenum. 

The  secretion  of  this  gland,  or  the  pancreatic  fluid,  is  con\*ey«*d  from  its  Tarious 
parts  by  means  of  the  pancreatic  duct  to  the  duodt-num.  'i  his  glalid  is  fomid  in 
all  mammals,  birds,  i-cptfles,  amphloiaus,  aud  osseous  fishes,  and  iu'  some  cavtila- 
giL0usfli«hes* 

The  physical  and  chemical  characters  of  the  pancreatic  fluid,  and  its  uses  in  the 
animal  economy,  are  sufllcicutly  noticed  in  the  article  Digestion. 

The  diseases  of  the  pancreas  arc  few,  and  do  not  signify  their  existence  by  any 
very  marked  sym])toms.  The  presence  of  imdigested  tat  in  the  ^tools  has  been  fre- 
craently  observed  in  cases  iu  which  after  death  the  pancreas  has  been  found  to  l>€ 
diseased ;  and  if  Bernard's  views  ix'gariUn^  the  saponifying  iK)wer  of  the  piincreatic 
ju ice  on  fatty  matters*  (descrilHjd  in  the  article  already  releired  to)  be  correct,  the 
.  r-'Ej'on  why  the  fat  should  anpv-'ar  in  tlie  evacuations  in  these  ca^'ea  is  sufficiently  ob- 
vious. The  most  commoir  form  of  disease  is  cancerous  deposit  iu  the  head  of  the 
t^'laud,  which  frequently  induces  jaundice  l)y  obstVuctiiiij  the  common  biliary  duct 
near  its  ojteuing.  Au  accurate  diagnosis  of  disease  of  this  orjran  is  extremely  diffi- 
ctilt)  but  zortanately  is  of  comparatively  little  importance,  as  it  cannot  lead  to  effi- 
cient treatment :  all  that  can  be  done  iu  these  cases  beiug  to  palliate  the  most  dis* 
tresstug  symptoms. 

.  The  pancreas  of  rumiuating  animals  is  a  favorite  article  of  food  undar  tlie  name 
of  sweetbread.  That  of  the  calf  is  most  highly  esteemed,  but  (hat  of  #ie  lamb  is 
often  substituted  for  it  Dr  £dward  Smith  questions  whether  the  very  high  price 
often  paid  for  C4i!f'8  sweetbread  is  warranted  by  its  nutritive  qualities,  or  even  by  its 
flavor ;  although  he  allows  tliat  the  flavor  is  i>eihaps  the  most  delicate  of  any  meat 
we  are  acquainted  witli.  It  is  cither  boiled  or  filed.  The  thyroid  and  sublingual 
glands  are  also  used  as  sweetbread. 

PANCSOVA,  an  active  trading  town  of  Austria,  in  the  Seman  military  frontier, 
70  miles  soutlt-sotith-west  of  Temesvar,  and  close  lo  the  mouth  of  the  Temes  In  the 
2>ai>ube,  which  is  lrei*e  a  mile  wide.  It  is  a  military  station,  contains  several 
churches,  a  high  school,  aud  a  quarantine  estfibiihhmeiit.  8ilk  spinning,  brandy 
distilling,  and  au  active  trade  iu  cattle,  pigs,  aud  corn  are  carried  on.  Pop.  (1809) 
13,40S. 

PANDA  (AiluruH  fulgens)^  tiqu&^ruped  of  the  family  UrsidoB  (see  Beab),  a 
native  of  the  Himalaya,  the  only  known  species  of  its  genus,  wliicli  has  a  ve«7  sliort 
muzzle,  simdl  rounded'  ears,  a  moderatxrly  long  tall,  covered  with  long  hair,  semi- 
retractile  claws.  The  P.  is  about  the  size  of  a  lar»e  cat.  It  dwells  chiefly  in  trees, 
preying  much  on  birds,  but  it  also  eats  small  quadrupeds  aud  large  insects.  It  lias 
a  thick,  flue,  woolly  covering,  adapting  it  to  a  cold  climate,  concealed  by  long,  soft, 
glistening,  and  richly  coloreK  hair,  mostly  chestnut  brown,  which  })asses  into  black 
otr'tiie  sides  and  l^s,  and  into  white  on  the  head.  The  P.  is  Sidd  to  excel  all  other 
animals  iu  tlie  iM-illianey  of  its  fur,  whicli,  however,  has  not  yet  ac^nir^d  any  com- 
mercial value.  Tlie  soles  of  the  feet  are  thickly  covered  with  woolly  hair.  The  P. 
is  also  called  Wah  aud  ChiUton,  from  a  peculiar  cry  which  it  utters. 

PANDANACEJS,  a  natural  order  of  endogenous  plautn,  constituting  a  remark- 
able feature  iu  the  scenery  of  many  tropical  countries,  but  unknown  iu  the  colder 
regions  of  the  globe.  They  are  trees  or  bashes,  of  ten  sending  down  adventitious 
routtt,  sometluiett  weak  aud decumbiiut,  or  cllmbmg.    Thuie are  twosecuou^  cl  ih' 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Paxig«  '  •  -*■* 

order,  owe  (Pandnnem)  inclndinc  the  conera  Pawfomw,  Freycfnetia.  &G.iimvii>gJ«Mig, 
eimple.  imbricated  Icuves,  usually  npfiiy  r)ii  the  back  and  margiu.  their  ba»e«iiibrac- 
in<5  tbft  Bteiii,  theJr  spirul  nri-iingement  of t<»ii  notably  vjsil^Je ;  Ute  other 
idjfclanthece)  coutairiiug  the  genera  Cyclanthrts^  Xipa  (q.  y ),  Carhidoryica^  Phyte- 
Uphas*  &c«,  hnyiiig  pinnate  or^tiau-ehu{>ed  leaves,  and  lu  ^t;ileral  ()]>pearaiicc  mncii 
ru*einbliujf  pulius,  witli  which  tliwy  liavebeou  oft«ij  ranked.  The  twoeectionVjhow- 
OTer,  are  very  Biinilar  iii  tiieir  floweiii  and  fiuit,  in  which  they  not  a  little  teseinble 
the  l\nmb\*!T  Araeem  and  TypIuusuB.  The  flowers  ur^  nioetly  uuisexii:'!,  naked,  or 
with  only  a  few  scales,  arranged  on  a  spadix,  nud  wholly  covering  It.  The«taulen^ 
are  nttinerous;  the  ovaries  iisnally  clustered,  one-celled,  each  crowned  with  a 
stignta;  the  fruit cousiHta  of  flbrout*,  ouersueded  drupes,  collected  or  .ilniost  com- 
bined, or  of  beiTies  with  many  setids. — There  are  not  quite  10:)  known  8p»;tiej*. 
Home  are  valuable  for  the  fibre  of  tht^ir  leaven,  some  lor  their  edible  fruit,  Ac  S**© 
Screw  Pine,  Kibkib,  and  Nipa.  The  unexpauded  leaves  of  Carlndoviea  pulmitia 
rnrnish  the  material  of  which  Panama  hcUs  are  ni&de.  The  tree  which  yiekU  Vbge- 
TABLE  IvoBY  (q.  V.)  is  auother  of  the  palm-lik«  sectionjof  this  order. 

PAN'D'AVAS,  or  the  descendimts  of  P&n'd'u  (q.  v.),  is  the  name  o^  the  five 
princes  whose  conteti(t  for  regal  MUiirelhacy  with  their  cousins,  tiie  Kurus,  the  fK>us  of 
Dhr'ltJirft^ht'ra,  forms  the  foundation  of  the  narrative  of  the  great  epic  poem,  the 
**  Mah&bhanita  "  (q.  v.).  Their  names  are  Yttdhiskt'hira„  Bhivui^  ArjuruL,  Nakula, 
and  Sahad.eoa^ihe  former  three  l)eiug  the  sons*  of  PAn'd'u,  by  one  of  iiis  wives, 
Pr'itha;  and  the  latter  two,  by  his  other  wife,  MMri.  But  though  Paii'd'u  i*  thus 
the  recognis«ed  father  of  thwe  princes,  the  legend  of  the  "Mah&bij&nita"  looks  upon 
him,  in  truth,  merely  as  their  father  by  courtesy;  for  it  relates  that  Yudhiaht'lura 
was  the  son  of  Dharma,  tl»e  god  of  ju^ce ;  Bhiiiui,  of  Vayu.  the  god  of  \viud  ;  Ar- 
jnna,  of  ludra,  the  god  of  the  firmament;  and  Naknla and  tiahadeva,  of  the  As'wins, 
the  twiu-Bons  of  the  sun. 

PANDEC !  8  {Gf.  Pandecton,  all  receiving ;  from  pan,  all,  and  deehomaiy  I  re- 
ceive), one  of  thecHebniied  legislative  works  of  the  Bmperor  Justiuian  (q.  v.),  galled 
ulso  by  the  name  Digestuti^  or  Digest.  It  was  an  attempt  tofonn  a  complete  system 
of  law  from  the  authoritative  commentaries  of  the  jurists  upon  the  laws  of  Rome. 
The  compilation  of  the  Pandect  wns  undertaken  after  that  great  collection  of  the 
laws  themselves  whicli  is  known  as  the  Codex  Justinianeus.  It  was  intrusted  to  the 
celebrated  Tribouianus,  who  had  already  distinguished  himself  in  the  prepamlioo  of 
the  Codex.  Tribonianus  formed  a  conunission  consisting  of  IT  meinl>ers,  wlio 
were  occupied  f  a)m  the  year  630  t  ill  533  in  examining,  selecting,  compress'n-^ ,  and  sy?^- 
tematising  the  authorities,  connlstlng  of  upwards  of  2000  treatises,  whose  niterpr«- 
tation  of  the  ancient  laws  of  Rome  was  from  that  time  forward  to  be  adopted  with 
the  authority  of  law.    A  period  of  ten  years  liad  been  allowed  them  for  the  coui- 

{►let.ion  of  their  work  ;  but  so  diligently  &ld  they  prosecute  it,  that  it  was  completed 
n  le^s  than  one-third  of  the  allotted  time ;  and  nnme  idea  of  its  extent  may  be 
formed  from  the  fact  that  it  contains  upwards  of  900<)  separate  extracts,  selected  ac- 
cording to  subjects  from  the  2000  treatises  referred  to  above. 

The  Pandects  are  divided  into  50  Books,  atod  also  into  T  Parts,  which  corr(«*pond 
respectively  with  Books  1—4,  5—11, 12—19,  20—27,  ?8-85,  86-44,  and  45-50.  Of 
these  divlsious,  however,  the  latter  (into  Part*0  is  seldom  attended  to  in  citations. 
Each  Book  is  suMividea  iifto  Titles,  under  which  are  arranged  the  extracts  from  the 
various  jurists,  who  are  39  in  number,  and  are  by  some  called  the  chissical  juristi*,  al- 
thoogli  other  writers  on  Roman  law  confine  that  appjellationto  five  of  the  numi)er. 
Papinian,  Panlu?,  Ulpian,  Qains  (q.  v.),  and  Modestinns.  The  extracts  from  these 
ind-ed  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  coPection;  those  from  Ulpian  alone  making  one- 
thiixl  of  the  whole  work,  those  froili  Panlus  one-sixth,  and  those  from  Paplnian  one- 
twelfth.  Other  writers  besides  these  39  are  cited,  but  only  indirectly,  1.  «.,  when 
cited  by  tlie  jurists  whose  works  form  the  ba>*l8  of  the  collection.  The  principle 
upon  which  the  interual  arrangement  of  the  extractw  from,  individual  writers  was 
made  liad  long  been  a  subdect  of  controversy.  The  questidrf  seem!*  now  to  be  satis- 
factorily solved;  but  the  details  of  the  discussion  would  carry^  as  beyond  tl»e  pre- 
scribed limit*.  Of  the  execution  of  the  work,  it  may  lie  siid  that,  altbotigh  notrfree 
from  repetition  (the'^me  extracts  occurring  under  different  hea<ls>,:a«it Irhm  Occa- 
•toual  iuaptscas  of  citation,  and  Qth«r  iucouttjeteticios,  yet  itdcserTea^iia  7«ry  bigUeet 


y  Google 


^1  K  Pandavat 

•  ^^  Panga 

cominendniioM.  In  its  relntions  to  the  history  and  literatnre  of  anclPiit  Kome  H  is 
JBvsiinabli? ;  uiul  taken  jilouji  wlilj  itf  uecesajiry  cuuipIeiDeiit  the  Codex,  it  may  jnstly 
be  regardt-d  (having been  the  hi\»\»  of  ail  the  medieval  legislation)  a8  of  the  utmost 
value  to  the  study  of  the  principles  not  aloue  of  Koinun,  but  of  all  European  lavr. 

PANDORA.  (I.  e.,  the  **  All-eiMliowed  '*),  accorcUng  to  Grecian  mytli,  was  the  first 
woman  on  i  he  earth.  When  Prometheus  had  stplf nflre  from  Jupiter,  Zi^us  inatiijwted 
Hephaestus  lo  malco  yvonian  out  of  earthto  bring  vexation  upon  imin  by  her  graces. 
Thtj  gods  ttiidowed  her  with  every  gift  nacessary  for  this  purpose,  beauty,  l)oUhTCM«, 
cnnnms,  &c;  and  Z(?oh  t^ent  iicr  to  Epimetlieus,  t lie  brother  of  I^oniethens,  who 
forgot  his  brothel's  warning  ngtiiust  receiving  any  gift  from  Zeus.  A  later  form  of 
•tlio  myth  repreHonts  P.  as  possessing  a  vessel  or  box  filled  jvith  winged  blessings', 
which  manlcind  would  btiyt;  continued  to  enjoy  if  curipsily  had  not  prompted  her  to 
open  it,  when  all  the  bl«6»ing8  flew  out,  txctpt  Hope. 

PANBOURS,  a  ppople  of  Servian  origin  who  lived  scattered  among  the  moun- 
tains of  Hungary,  n<'ar  the  vilh»ge  of  Pandour  in  the  county  of  i^Ul  The  name  used 
to  be  applied  to  that,  portion  of  the  light^arroed  infantry  in  the  Austrian  service 
which  is  raised  in  the  Slavonian  districts  wn  the  Turlcish  frontier.  The  P.  originolly 
fought  under  the  order*  of  their  own  proper  chief,  who  was  called  Hartln-Baaba.  and 
rendered  essential  service  to  the  Austrians  during  tlie  Spanish  War  of  Succession, 
and  aft«TwardB  in  the  Seven  Years'  War.    They  originally  fought  aft«r  the  faslitou 


poinards.  Tlieir  habits  of  brigandage  atid  cruelty  rendered  them,  however,  as  much 
a  t«iror  to  the  ^ople  they  defended  us  to  the  enemy.  Sinoe  1760  they  have  been 
gntdnatly  put  nuaer  a  stricter  discipline,  and  are  now  incorporated  with  the  Anstiiau 
frontier  regiments.    The  name  is  now  obsolete. 

PAN'DT,  literally,  "  white,*'  is  the  name  of  the  father  of  the  Pftu'd'avas  (q.  v.), 
and  the  broll>er  of  Dtir'ittu'asht'ia.  Although  the  elder  of  the  two  princ<  g^  he  \va» 
rendered  by  his  "pallor  "—implying,  perhaps,  a  kind  of  disease — incapable  of  suc- 
cession, and  therefore  obliged  to  rellnqaish  his  claim  to  his  brother.  He  ivtired  to 
the  Himalaya  Mountains,  where  his  sons  were  l)orn,  and  where  he  died.  His  renun- 
ciation of  the  throne  ))eeumethns  the  Ciinse  of  contest  between  the  P&uM'avas,  hia 
eons,  and  the  Kuriis,  or  the  spus  of  Dhr'itar&sht'ra. 

PANEL  (through  Fr.  from  Lat.  jianfiva,  a  piece  of  cloth  or  patch),  a  space  or 
compartment  of  a  wall,  ceiling,  woodwork.  &c.,  enclosed  by  beams,  mouldinea, 
framing,  and  so  forth.  It  is  generally  sunk  under  the  plane  of  the  surromidmg 
styles.  In  woodwork,  panels  are  thinner  parts  used  to  flu  in  strong  framing,  as  in 
doors,  shutters,  &c.  These  are  sometimes  highly  ornamented  with  tracery,  shields, 
Ac  In  late  Gothic  architecture,  the  panel  is  very  often  carved  into  the  *•  Itneu  pat- 
tern." Paneling  is  a  style  of  ornament  greatly  used  in  £lizal)ethan  architecture. 
The  ceilinga  and  walls  are  covered  with  it,  and  every  piece  of  fnmitnre  is  cut  up  into 
panels  of  every  variety  of  form.  Panels  are  said  to  be  *' fielded  "  when  the  centie 
of  the  panel  is  raised' with  mouldings,  &c' 

PANEL  (properly  the  slip  or  "pane  "  of  parchment  on  which  the  names  of  the 
jurors  are  writt^'n)  is,  fu  the  practice  of  tlie  English  TaWj  used  to  denote  the  \vo6y  or 
set  of  jurors,  consisting  of  twelve  men,  who  try  a  cause,  civil  or  criminal.  In  Scotch 
crimiiuil  law,  the  prisoner  is  u^ually  called  the  panel. 

PANGfi  LINGUA  (Lat.  "Proclaim,  O  TonL^ue  '0,  one  of* the  most  remarkable 
of  the  hymns  of  the  Roman  Breviaiy,  and  like  its  kindred  hymn,  "LaudaSion," 
a  most  characteristic  example  as  well  of  the  medieval  Latin  versification  as  of  tliat 
union  of  theology  x^ith  asceticism,  which  a  larjre  class  of  these  hynms  present.  The 
Pang6  Lfaigna  is  a  hymn  in  honor  of  the  Enchari.-'t,  and  l)elong8  to  the  service  of  the 
Festival  of  Coi-pus  Christ!.  It  is  from  the  i)en  of  th«  great  angelic  doctor,  Thomas 
Aquinas  (q.  v.>,  and  consists  of  six  strophes  of  verses  in  alteiuaie  rhyme.  Besides 
itspl&ee  in  the  office  of  the  Bre.viary,  this  hymn  foims  part  of  the  service  called 
Benediction  with  the  Blessed  Sacramest,  and  is  sung  on  all  occafiioufi  of  the  exposi- 
tion, procesaiou,  and  other  public  acts  of  Euchartetic  worahip.  .     .  _ 

■    ;•     .      .  Digitized  by'VJiOOQlC 


Twtm 


716 


grdniid.    IMiiCiipnbie of  cli Dicing  trees,  and  tli« tail  is preiwusHe.  Ttie  whole )eugth 
of  the  animfti,  iuclndlug  the  tail,  is  nhiioet  Ave  fe«t,  tlie  tall  be'mr  u " 


I^A'NGOLtN,  orl^engOlin,  u  ttame  sometlniAs extended  to  n^tlie  spedi^  of  ifoiHIi 
(Q.  t.),  bat  orij^iUiilfy belougiitg  to  M.  pentadact^la,  also  called  SBORT-TAiuei}  ILurts, 
and  Xa  f>oinu  parts  of  India  Bajjbrkext  ;  this  t<peciep  beiifg  a  uative  oi  most  patis 
Of  tbe  East  Iu<lius,  nud  P.,  iis  Malnyan  uaine,  denved  from  a  wOrri  wlilcfa  signifles  to 

eli  np ;  tlie  aniimil  baving  the  habit  uf  rolling  itself  up,  ou  appreheuslon  of  dangec* 
to  a  compact  bull,  the  luad  in  tb^  centre,  aud  its  ninscalar  roail^covered  lan . 
erifoldinjr  all.  The  food  of  tbie  P.  coueli«t8  chiefly  of  uuts,  and  like  the  re»t  of  tire 
geims^  it  is  entirely  desttttite  of  tceth^  and  bas  a  round,  ezTeneSIe  tongue.  Its  claws 
are  long  aud  strong;  it  doubles  tliem  up  like  the  Aineilcun  ant- eaters  when  itwa]k«. 
It  resits  in  bun'o\%'i>  wbich  It  excavates  to  the  depth  of  sev^n  or  eight  fdet  in  fii6 
.     ,^. .        ^.      -   „  ^.  ^ -j^  The  whole  length 

nr  not  quite  half  the 
length  of  the  body.  "It  is  a  gentle  animal,  easily  tamed,  aud  of  an  affectionate 
disposition. 

PAKIC  is  wberiB  fear,  whether  arisiufir  from  an  adequate  or  iuadeqoafe  cause,  ob- 
tains thetuttstei-y  over  every  other  consideration  and  motive,  audnrges^to  dastard 
extrav)igiu)C«%  or  hurries  into  danger,  or  death.  An  inexplicable  sound  ctinses  a 
roBh  from  a  chnrch,  a  vagtie  rei>ort  iu  the  market-place  causes  a  nin  ou  a  bank,  and 
{nreclpitate  the  very  «veuts  that  are  dreadud.  This  emotion  eitlier  dilfers  from  natu- 
ral appreheusiun,  or  preseuis  so  intense  and  nucoutrolhible  aiorm  of  the  feeling, 
that  It  is  propa^ralrie  f  rom  one  person  to  another,  and  involves  alike  tbe  educated 
and  ignorant — those  who  act  from  jud^iinent  as  well  as  tiiose  wbo  act  from  impulse. 
There  are,  besides  this  feature,  several  grounds  for  believing  tlmt  snoh  maiiifesta" 
tions  of  involuntary  terror  are  of  morbid  ori^n,  aud  should  l>e  regarded  as  moral 
epidendcs.  Tlit^  have  geuerally  arisen  4ai'iug«  or  have  fbllowed^  seatrona  of 
scarcity  andj)hysical.wanraud  disease,  the  ravages  of  war,  or  peruMU  of  great  reli- 
gious fervor  and  superstition.  The  dancing  mania,  the  retreat  .of  the  Freuch  army 
noin  Moscow,  and  rt^ent  and  familiar  commercUU  panics  aSoi^  illuste^ttoaa  of  cer- 
tain of  these  relations.  The  uKMSt  notable  instance  of  univursul  pauic,  aud  that 
which  denionstratos  most  nntly  tlie  cuUnectiou  licre  iudlcated,  is  the  dread  of  tlie 
approaching  end  6f  the  world  which  pervaded  all  minds,  aud  almost  broke  up  huuiau 
society  In  the  lOtii  century.  Tlie  empire  of  CharlemaKne  had  fallen  to  pieces ;  pub- 
He  misfortune  and  civil  discord  merged  into  misery  and  famine  so  extreme  that  cau- 
nibali^ni  prevailed  eVen  in  Paris;  superstitions  aud  va^ue  predictions  because  for- 
ma'lsed  into  a  protiltfcy  of  the  end  of  all  things  aud  univer-aldoom  iu  the  year  lOOOi 
Thii*  pxpectation  suspended  even  vengeance  and  way.  The  "  truce  of  God  "  was 
proclaimed.  Enormous  riches  were  placed  upon  the  altars.  .Worship  and  praise 
never  ceased.  The  fields  were  luft  uncultivated ;  serfs  WiTc  set  free ;  four  kiugs  and 
thousands  of  nobles  retired  to  tlie  cloister ;  and  all  men,  accojrdiug  to  their  tenden- 
cies, prepared  to  die.  ^ 

It  18  wortliy  of  note  that  during  all  pestilences  Wxufm  have  arisen  epidemic  terrors, 
not  so  much  of  the  devastations  of  disease,  as  of  plots,  and  poisouiujfS  directed  by 
the  rich  against  the  poor.  Even  where  these  epidemic  tenors  are  legitimately  traoe- 
«ble  to  Ideal  and  physical  causes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  singular  aaection  ^moria, 
whicii  occurs  iu  the  marshy  aud  unhealthv  districts  in  Sai'diuia,  the  tremor,  and  tre- 

IMdation,  aud  other  phenomeiia,  are  ascribed  to  the  magical  Influeuoe  ol  euenii<«. 
Tor  the  origin  of  the  name,  see  Pan.  ^^ 

PA'NICLiSJ,  in  Botauy,  a  mode  of  Inflorescence  (q.  v.)  in  which  the  floral  axis  is 
not  only  divided,  but  also  snl)divided  more  or  less  frequently.  The  panicle  may  thus 
be  regarded  as  a  Raceme  (q.  v.),  of  which  the  branches  ^r  flower-stalks)  are  branched. 
The  panicle  is  a  very  common  kind  of  inflorescence,  jilost  of  the  gnisses  exhibit  it, 
aud  auaiiy  other  plants,  both  eudogeuous  aud  exc^enous.  The  connnou  lilac  affords?^ 
a  good  example  of  it.  The  panicle  variously  modified  as  to  Its  form,  aud  the  ai> 
raugeraent  and  i-ielative  lengths  of  its  brunches  aud  brauchlets,  becomes  a  Cyme  • 
^q»  v.),  ThyiTSUS  (q.  v.),  &c 

PA'NICUM.    See  Millet. 

PAN  INI,  the  greatest  known  grammarian  of  ancient  India,  whose  work  on  the 
Bauisi^it  language  has  up  to  the  present  6iiy  reniaiued  the  atmidard  of  ftinaoU 

{t^ammar.    its.meetts  are  so  great,  that  P.  was  rnukud. Among  the  R'isbia  (q.  T.),  or 
uspired  seers^^iud  at  a  later  period  uf  ttuuscrit  literature,  vfas  stq»poasd  to  itam  ZB^ 


y  Google 


ri7  isc 

©elved  tiro  |nii(iana{»ntal  njleg  of ijla  work  from  th«  god  S'iya  Wmsclt  Of  the  per- 
sonal lifsfojyot  P.,  uotainjf  positive  is  known,  except  that  he  wa«  a  natlyeottho 
village  8'ttlttnrat,  situated  iiorthrwest  of  Atrock.  on  the  IiiduB— wheuce  he  is  alsff 
snrnamed  S'ai&tiiilya-^and  that  his  mother  was  called  D&ksht.  wherefore,  on  hiflr 
mother's  Ride*  he  imi?t  have  b^ii  a  de««ceudaut  i.f  the  cek-brated  family  of  Di^sha. 
A  tjilerbook,  ttie  "  Kathft^aritpa^ara  *'  {].  e.,  the  ocean  for  tlio  livea  of  tales)»  jrivet^ 
Indeed,  some  Qircumstautial  acconnt  (»f  the  life  and  deutii  of  P. ;  but  ita  nurraiive  is 
BO  ab&ui'd,  jiiid  the  work  itself  of  so  modern  a  date— it  was  written  in  Gnshmere,  at 
the  bigiuning  of  the  I2lh  c— tliat  iid  credit  whatever  can  l>e  attaclied  to  the  fucts 
Jrtlatedby  it,  or  to  the  inference?  which  modern  sclioUirs  have  drawn  from  them. 
According  totlie  views  expressed  by  Goldstucker  (♦'  PAn'ini,  Ids  |*lac«!  in  Sanscrit 
Literature:'*  London,  1861),  it  is  probahU;  th:it  P.  lived  Iwfore  S'ftkyamuni,  th» 
founder  of  the  Bnddhist  felijridn,  whose  death  took  plncc  about  ^8  b;c.,  but  that  a 
more  definite  date  of  tlie  great  gr.iunnarian  has  but  little  cliance  of  "ascertainment 
in  the  actual  condition  of  Sanncfit  philology.— The  gmmmar  of  P.  consiets  of  eight 
AtlhyAyus.  or  books,  each  book  compriHine  four  PAdus.  or  chaptei-s,  pnd  each  chap- 
tor  a  number  of  Sfttras  (q.  v.),  or  aphoriBtiCiil  rules.  Tlie  lait^-r  nnioon-^  in  tlie  wijoie 
to  MW;  but  three,  pt'rliaps  fcmr,  of  them  did  pot  orfginaliy  belong  rd  the  work  of 
Pftn'iui.  The  arrangement  of  these  rules  differs  cowpletely  from  wJiat  a  Euro- 
pnean  would  expect  in  a  grammatical  work,  for  it  Is  based  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  tracing  linguistic  phenomena,  and  not  "concerned  in  the  cmssi- 
flcati(m  of  the  linguistic  imUerial,  according  to  tiie  no-called  parts  of  ppcech. 
A  chapter,  for  instance,  treating  of  a  proloncation  of  vow«1p,  will  deal 
with  Huch  a  fact  wh^revfifit  occurs,  be  it  In  the  formation  of  base  s.  or  in  con- 
jugation, declension,  composition,  &c.  The  rules  of  conjugation,  declension,  &c., 
are,  for  the  same  reason,  not  to  Jt>e  met  with  in  tlie  same  chapter  or  hi  the  same 
oi-der  In  which  European  gramrtiins  would  teach  them ;  m)r  would  anriilngle  book  or 
'  chapter,  however  apparently  more  systcmaticaUy  arranged — from  a  Enroptan  point 
of  ▼lew— such  as  the  chapters  on  affixes  or  composition,  suffice  by  Itself  to  convey 
the  f  till  liRgnistiG  material  concerned  in  it,  apan  from  the  rest  of  the  work.    In  a 

Eenerai  manner,  P.'s  work  may  tijerefore  b«  called  a  luilural  htetory  of  the  Sanscrit 
inguago;  in  the  sense  that  it  has  the  strict  te^idency  of  giving  an  accurate  dewiription 
of  faets,  instead  of  makh^gsnch  a  descripHou  Bu^>^4ervlent  to  the  theories  according 
io  which  the  linguistic  maFerial  is  usually  distrilmted  by  ^Emopean  grammarians. 
Whatever  objecnons  may  be  raised  against  such  an  arrangement,  the  veiy  fact  of  its 
diftcriiig  from  that  in  our  grammars  makes  it  i)eenliMrly  in^tructlve  to  the  European 
fttndent,  as  it  accustoms  his  mind  to  survey  language  from  another  point  of  view 
than  that  usually  presented  to  him,  and  as  it  ntusr  induce  him,  too,  to  question  the 
souiidnuss  of  many  linguistic  theories  now  looked  upon  as  axiomatic  truths.  As  ' 
the  method  of  P.  requires  in  a  student  tlie  pow«;r  of  combining  manj  rules  scattered 
all  over  the  work,  and  of  combining,  also,  nwmy  inferences  to  be  drawn  from  these 
fules,  it  exercises,  moreover,  on  the  mind  of  the  student  an  effect  analogous  to 
that  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  peculiar  arivantjige  of  the  study  ctf  mathenmilcs. 
The  rnlesof  P. '  were  criticised  and  completi-d  by  KAtyftyana  (q.  v.J,  who, 
according  to  all  pi  obabillty,  'was  the  teacher,  and  therefore  the  contemporai^', 
of  Patanjali ;  and  he.  ill'  hfS.  turn,  was  criticised  by  Patanjall  (q.  v.). 
who  sides  fn-qnently  %vith  Pfts'ini.  These  three  authors  are  the  canonical  triad  of 
the  gmmniariajis  of  India;  aiid  their  works  are.  in  truth,  so  remarkable  in  their 
own  department,  that  they  exceed  in  literary  merit  nearly  all,  if  not  all,  gramnmti- 
C'd  productions  of  other  nations,  so  far  as  the  two  classes  are  comparable.  The 
rules  of  p.  were  comiiteMted  on  by  manv  authors.  The  best  existing  comuientary  on 
them  that  is  called  the  **K&s'ikftvr'itti,"  by  V&mana  Jay4dltya,  which  follows  these 
ruler*  in  their  original  order.  At  a  later  period,  attempts  were  made  to  arrange  the 
rtUe^  of  P.  in  a  manner  which  approaches  more  to  the  European  method;  the  chief 
work  of  this  category  is  the  *'  Sidchanta-B^nmndt,"  by  BhatToji-dlkshltJi.  P.  meu- 
thins,  in  his  SCitras,  several  grammarians  who  preceded  him,  amongst  others, 
S'&katftyana.  ManuhCripts  of  a  gvamniar  ascribed  to  a  gramtnartan  of  tills  name 
exiKt  in  the  LIbrarv  of  the  India  Office  in  Loudon,  and  in  the  Librair  Of  the  Board 
of  ExamiHtys  at  Madras.  On  the  ground  of  a'  few  pages  ouljr  of  the  latter  an  at- 
tanipt  ha^l)cen  very  recently  made  to  prove  that  this  grammar  is  Ihe  on©  referred  to 
l^  P.,  and  therefore  older  than  ttie  work  of  the  latter.    But  the  facts  adduced  in 


y  Google 


Panipat  ^  I  ft 


Pannonia 

proof  of  this  hypofiiesis  are  so  Indlcrouftly  weiik>  and  tne  reasoning  upon  them  so 
reeble  aud  lucpnclnpive,  wiiei-enB  the  evidence  hi  favor  of  the  comi^rutiveiy  recent 
date  of  this  woihf  i»  80  stroug,  tliat  no  value  whatever  caii  be  atlac^ied  to  tins  hnBty 
hypothesis.  For  the  nreseMt,  therefoi*e,  P.'s  work  rtill  remains  the  oldest  existing 
gramniatical  worlv  of  rudia,  aud  probnblrof  tiie  liuinftn  race.  The  SAtriMof  P., 
with  a* modern  comineniury  by  two  native  pandii?,  and  w[th  eHructs  from  the 
"VArttikas  "  of  EAtyAyana  aud  the  '♦MnhabbAshya"of  Patanjalf,  were  edited  at  Cal- 
cutta m  1809.  iTiis  t*ditiOJt»  together  with  tijc  modern  coui'inoiaary,-bot  with 
f!iri»led  extracts  from  the  extracit«  mentioned,  waa  .repduted  at  IJoun  iM^l83»— 1840 
y  DrO.  Boehtlingk,  who  added  toil  reniarks  of  his  own  and  some  ijidt<;e8. — ^For 
the literatnre  connected  witli  P..  see  Colehroolte's  preface  to  his  ** Gnimiuur  of  the 
HauH^rit  Language  "  (Calc  1806),  aud  Gold8tuckcr*a  "PAn'uini,  &c»,  as  mentioned 
above. 

.  PANIPU'T,  the  diief  town  of  the  district  Kiimal  in  tlie  division  of  D-.  Ihi,  Pnnj:ib, 
)b  situated  54  miles  (by  n>ad  78  milt  s)  nortli  by  we!<t  fi*om  Delbi^  in  a  f^rrtile  tract, 
tht;  resonrccs  of  which  arc  largely  developed  l>y  artifl(*4al  irrigation.  ■  Pop.  (18«8) 
25,276.  Being  a  station  on  tl)e  gi'eat  niiiitury  road  between  Afghanistan  and  the  Pun- 
i&h,  and  to  some  extent  an  ontpost  of  Delhi,  it  has  been  at  various  times  the  scend 
of  strife I>etwcen  the  inhabitants  of  Lulia  and  invaders.  The  ytr«t  great  battle  of 
P.  was  fought,  in  1526^  and  gained  by  Mirza  Baber^  tlie  ex-rnler  ^f  Pt?rghann,  at  tho 
head  of  12^00  Mongols,  over  Il>rahim  the  emperor  of  DeHii,  whose  Qn  warlike  array 
numl)ered  100,000m«n,  with  liMM)  elephants.  This  victory  seated  Bal>ernn  the  throne 
of  Hindustan  as  the  first  of  tlie  **  Great  Mognl''  dynasty.  Tlve  eeeond  ^Teat  battle 
was  fonghU  in  165S^  by  the  Mongols  nnder  Akbar,  grandson  c^  Baiter,  and  third  6i 
the  Mogul  emperors,  against  Humu  an  Indian  prince  who  had  nsurped  the  tlirone  of 
Ddlii.  Hvmu's  army  was  defeated  with  great  slaughter,  and  hiin^if  slntn.  IHio 
f/a'/d  battle  waa  fouKht  on  the  Uth  of  January  176l,l>etweep  Ahmed  Abdaili,  mler  ' 
of  Afffhanistau,  and  the  till  then  invincible  Mahrattas.  The  JatSi  who  hod  been 
forced  t(i  loin  tlie.Mahrauas,  deserted  to  tlje  Afgtiaasata  time  when  victory  seemed 
to  be  de.  lining  lor  the  former ;  and  tliis  act  of  t4'«achery.  together  with  the  loss  oi 
thoirload«rs,.n»r«w  the  Mahrattas  into  confnsion,  and  in  spite  of  their  most  resolute 
yalor  they  sutfered  a  total  defeat.  They  left  50,000  shdn  on  the  field  of  battle,  in- 
clnding  all  their  leaders  except  Holkar.  and  dO,000  nien  werekiUed  in  the.ptirsnit, 
which  waa  con timted  for  four  days.  The  Mahrattas  never  recovered  this  crasldnig 
blow.  It  wiui  at  Knrnaul,  a  town  a  little  to  tlie  nortli  of  P.,  that  Nadir  8l>ah  of  Per* 
sia,  in  17^,  won  the  celebrated  battle  over  tite  Mogul  emperor,  whicli  pUiced  North- 
western India  at  his  feet. 

PANIZZI,  Sir^ntonio,  principal  iibrarinn  of  the  British  Museum  ft-om  18R6  to 
1S66,  waa  horn  on  10th  Sapt.  1797,  at  Brescetlo,  in  the  ci-devmit  duchy  of  Modena. 
For  liis  educatiohjie.was  sent  first  to  the  pul)lic  school  of  Regirio,  and  afterward  to 
the  university  of  Padua,  \^ere,  in  1818,  he  took  the  degree  of  Docior  of  Lawp,  with 
a  view  to  practii'ing  at  the  bar.  Early  in  life  hi^  sympathies  were  enlisted  on  behalf 
of  tiie  friends  of  Italy,  HS  opoosed  to  domestic  tyranny  and  foreign  intrusion,  and 
when,  in  1821,  the  popular  revolution  broke  outln  Piedmont  the  young  ailvocate  be- 
came one  of  Its  leaders.  The  attempt^  however,  fnile<l ;  m\A  P.,  who  l»ad  betm  de- 
nounced by  a  pretended  friend,  was  arrested  at  Cremona.:  Having  by  some  nMmns 
contrived  to  escape,  lie  took  nfuge  in  Lugano,  and  from  thence  in  a  sliort  time 
found  his  way  to  Geneva.  Meanwhile,  during  his  absence,  he  was  tried  at  home 
})er  con<uma<»'am,  as  it  is  called,  and  sentenced  to  death,  with  confiscation  of  pro- 
perty.  Nor  was  he  allowed  to  remain  at  Geneva.  The  gov<  rumeuts  of  Austria  and 
Sardinia  demanded  from  the  Swiss  Coiifederatloti  the  expulsitjn  of  all  concerned  iu 
the  recent  outbreak,  and  among  these  P.  was  obliged  to  depart.  Forbidden  to  pass 
through  France,  he  reached  England  by  way  of  Germany  ajid  tlie  Netherlands,  He 
now  resided  for  about  a  montli  in  London,  whence  he  proceeded  to  Liverpool,  with 
an  introduction  from  Ugo  Posco'o  to  Koscoe  the  historian,  who  received  mm  with 
the  utmost  hospitality.  At  Livei-pool,  where  he  was  Introduced  into  the  best  circlee 
by  Mr  Roscoe,  he  taufi:lit  It'iliau,  anil  coniinned  to  reside  in  that  town  nuttl  1828, 
when  he  came  to  Lonaon  again,  and  was  ciiosen  professor  of  Italian  hi  ttie  nniver- 
sity  of  Ixindon,  jurt  then  opened  for  students.  In  1831,  tJirongli  the  insrrnmentalily  <>f 
Lord  Brpogbaiu,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the^sistaut-Jibrariansiu  the  British  Mur- 


y  Google 


710  Panput 

*  *  ^  Panuouia 

seam ;  and  np«n  tlio  retirement  of  the  Rev.  Mr  Baber,  In  1887,  from  the  oftice  ^f  KeciM'r 
of  the  PriDtfed  Bo«)k!«,  P.  was  appointed  hiH  successor.  lu  thu  previous  your  tlu  vo  h»id 
been  a  parliamentary  comhiittee  on, the  suite  of  the  British  Mnseuin  before  >vhhh 
P.  gave  vatnabie  evidenc<»,  and  likcwiBu  urged  the  adoptiou  of  measarea  for  the  im- 
prownient  and  aairmeutaiiou  of  the  library,  wljich,  npon  becoming  keeper,  Jie  was 
in  a  atill  bitter  po;*it^on  to  advocate.  In  1838  he  siipeTintendea  the  removal  of 
the  prl«jt»d  booki  fixjin  the  old  suite  of  rooms  in  Monragiie  Houae  to  the  new  library ; 
'  and  in  the  aame  year,  In  conjaiiction  witli  aome  of  bis  assistautSf  be  drew  ui>  tin} 
well-known  91  rnles  for  the  formatioti  of  a  new  ciitaloff ne  of  the  library.  These 
ridca  were  npproved  by  the  tnistee!*,  and  the  flral  volume  of  a  cataloirue  framed  after 
them  was  ])rinted  ai»d  pnbli!«ljed  in  1841.  No  other  volume  has  been  since  pu:>liBiied, 
and  P.,  befcjfe  a  royal  commij*si6u  of  inqniry  intb  the  Museum  in  1847.  jui^tificd  Ibo 
sn-^pension  of  the  printing  until  the  whole  catalogue  should  be  Unishea.  In  1845,  P. 
drew  up  aw  elaborate  r«'port  of  the  deflci<»Bcie8exlstiug  In  the  library,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  truntef's  applied  to  the  Lcirds  of  the  Treasury  for  **jin  aunuiil  gr.:Ut  of 
£10,000  for  some  yeara  to  ccmie,  for  the  purchase  of  books  of  all  descriptions." 
This  gnmt  having  been  obtained,  the  library  rapidly  increased  in  nnuibern,  1q  such  a 
degree  that  in  1849  the  books  amounted  to  436,000,  aa  compared  with  235,000,'  the 
asceriained  numlKir  in  1838.  The  uuml)er  of  volumes  it»  now  estimated  at  between. 
600,000  and  700,000.  Upon  the  resignWiou  of  Sir  H.  Ellis,  lu  185«,  P.  was  ai)poii)ted 
to  the  post  of  principal  librarian  of  the  British  Museum,  an  office  lie  held  ten 
years.  In  a  literai-y  cap;»clty,  P.  is  known  by  an  edition  of  the  *•  Orlando  Inuamo- 
rato  di  Boiardo,  and  Orlando  Fnrioso  di  AriOi«tx):  vinth  an  Essay  on  the  Romantic 
Narrative  Poetry  of  tlie  Italians,  Memoirs  and  Notes,  by  A.  Panizzi"  (9*  vols.  Lond: 
1880—1834).  He  has  also  edited  the  *'  Sonetti  e  Cansone  "  of  Boiaitlo  (Ix>nd.  18S5), 
and  a  coiieotion  of  reprints  of  tiie  first  lour  edltinns  of  the  **Divina  Cominedia," 
printed  at  ihit  exixjuse  of  Lotd  Vernon  <I.ond.  18r)8).  He  Is  also  the  author  of 
a  privately-piiutKl  pamphlet,  "Chi  era  Pnui«eecod«  Bologna,"  tending  to  prove  tlie 
Identity  of  the  type-founder  employed  by  Aldus,  and  the  inventor  of  the  well-known 
AWine  or  Italic  tyije,  with  the  painter  France>co  Francia.  P.  is  also  understood  to 
have  written  artlelen  for  some  of  the  Quarterly  Reviews.  P.  retired  on  a  pension  in 
1866.    In  1889.  he  received  the  order  of  K.C.B. 

PA'NJIM.    SeeGoA. 

PA'NNAH,  or  Pu'nnah,  a  decayed  town  of  India,  in  the  district  of  Bnndelcund, 
stands  on  the  north-eastern  s=lope  of  a  plateau,  115  miles  south-west  of  AlfaMabad. 
It  was  fornierly  a  large,  thriving,  and  well-built  town ;  but  whole  streets  are  now 
desolate,  or  are  tenanted  only  by  monkeys,  which,  posted  on  the  roof  dt  at  the  win- 
dow?, view  the  town's-]>eople  without  alarm.  The  palace  of  the  rajah  is  a  beautiful 
building,  surmounted  by  eTe^uit  kiosks,  but  is  in  many  places  ruinous.  The.sonrce 
of  the  former  prosperity  of  P.  was  its  rich  diamond  mmes.  Owing  to  the  dimin- 
ished value  of  the  gem,  however,  and  the  incrwiscd  tax  upon  the  produce  of  the 
mines,  this  branch  of  Industry  has  much  fallen  off.  The  diamonds  are  generally 
tinted  with  color;  very  few  of  them  being  of  first-water,  or  completely  cClorlesa. 
This  town  is  the  chief  place  of  a  territory  of  the  same  name,  which  is  bounded  oh 
I  he  north  by  tlie  British  district  of  Banda,  and  on  the  south  by  the  British  district 
of  Nerbudda.    See  BuNDEIiCUND. 

PANNELS,  in  Artillery,  are  the  carriages  upon  which  mortars  and  their  beds  are 
conveyed  on  a  march. 

PANNO'NIA.  a  province  of  the  ancient  Roman  empire,  bound  on  the  n.  snd  e.  by 
the  Danube,  on  the  w.  by  tiie  mountains  of  Norlcum,  and  on  the  s.  reaching  a  little 
way  across  the  Save;  and  thus  including  part  of  motlern  Hungaiy,  Slavonia,  parts 
of  bosnia,  of  Croatia,  and  of  Camiola,  Styria,  and  Lower  Austria.  It  received  its 
name  from  the  Pannouians,  a  race  of  doubtful  origin,  but  who  at  first  dwelt  In  the 
country  between  the  Dalmatian  Mountains  and  the  Save,  In  modem  Bosnia,  and 
afterwards  more  to  the  south-east  in  Moesla.  Tlie  Roman  arms  were  first  turned 
against  them  and  their  neighbors,  the  lapydes,  by  Augustus  in  86  B.C.,  and  after 
the  conquest  of  Segestica  or  Sistda  (Siszek)  he  suMued  them.  An  insurrection  took 
place  in  12  bc,  which  'liberius  crushed  after  a  long  struggle;  and  a  more  formid- 
able ouu  of  the  Dalmatians  and  Pannouians  together  in  6  a.d.,  which  wai  sup- 


y  Google 


Panorama  ^OA 

PaniagrAph  <  -U 

pr^fiMod  bv  TIbcrinp  and  Germanlcu«»,  bill  not  till  8  4.IX  Piftewi  legU>n«  had  to  be 
nssemblcd  ngaiuft  t\u*.  PuuiiOiiiatiis  wbo  mnsterNl'  200,000  vrarriof^  HtHxupou  the 
Puunooiaus  scttJvd  In  tUe  more  iiortiieru  coautries,  wiiicb  received  tltelr  name, 
aud  of  which  tl>€  former  inhjibitiiuts,  tiie  Celtic  Boii,  bad  been  in  great  part 
d^troyed   io    Catsar's    time.    The    conntry    was    now.  formed    inio  n  Roman 

Suvince,  which  was  secnred  a^aioat  the  inroudaof  theMarcomauui  and  Qnadi  by  ttie 
Hunbe,  and  Ou  its  other  froiuiers  bad  a  liu9  oi  fortre^^ees.  Military  roads  werecoii- 
^  atracted  by  the  conquerors,  who  al^'O  plnitted  iu  Che  coaotrv  many  colouics  and 
mnuicipia^  nud  tlm^gave  it  a  rough  couilug  of  dvlHsation.  Gretit  numbers  of  tlie 
Paimoniaii  yontb  were  drafted  into  the  Eomau  lcgi6>iB,aud  proved,  when  dit<ciplint-d, 
ainoitg  the  bravest  and  most  effective  (H}idicrs  in  the  ijnperial  aru^.  P.  was  9nb8e- 
qneutiy  divided  into  Upi»et  (or  Weatern)  and  Lower  (or  Bas'torri)  P.,  and  under  Oid- 
eriuH  and  Constiuitine  tiDd»*rwent  other  changes.  Upper  Pannonia  was  the  scene  of 
tlie  Marconiannic  war  in  tin*  2d  century.  In  the  5th  c  it  \va»  transferred  from  the 
Wctft4>ru  to  tlie  fiastern  Bnipiro.,  and  afterwards  ^iven  up  to  the  Hnns.  After 
Attila*s  death,  in  4^  the  Oturogotbs  dlitained  potfsession  of  it  'i'he  Longobards 
under  Albuin  nuide  tliomselvee  nia^terti  of  it  in  627,  and  relinquished  it  to  the  Avari 
upon  commencing  their  expedition  to  Italy.  Slavonian  tribes  also  settled  in  the 
sooth.  Charlemagne  bronglit  it  under  liis  sceptre.  In  tiie  reignn  of  his  snccessor^, 
the  Slavonians  spread  northward,  and  the  conntry  beaime  a  purt  of  the  great  Mora- 
vian kingdom,  till  the  Xngyars  or  Hungarians  took  it  in  the  end  of  the  ^ib  century. 
In  the  time  of  tiio  Homans?  Siscia  (Siseek),  Vindobonu  (Vienna),  Camuntum  (near 
Hainiburg),  and  Armbo  (Uaab)  were  among  its  principal  towns. 

PANORA'MA  (Qr.  jwm,  all,  orama^  a  view),  a  pictorial  repiiescntatlon  of  the 
whole  purrouudiug  landscape  us  seen  from  one  point.  The  invention  (^  tiie  pano- 
rama is  claimed  by  the  Germans  for  Professor  Breisig  of  Danzig,  b«t  it  does  not  ap- 
pear that  he  over  constructed  one.  The  real  inventor  was  Mr  Barker,  an  ingonions 
artist  of  Bdinburgli,  to  whom  the  Idea  occurred  while  talcing  n  skeicl)  of  the  city 
from  tlie  top  of  Arthur  Seal.  Aftei"  surmounting  immerous  difficultiet»*-one  of 
which  was  the  invention  of  a  new  kind  of  persfKJCtivti  fop  the  bprieoutttl  lines-^e 
succeeded  in  producing  an  effective  panoramic  view  of  EdlnbitfgliV  wnich  wasexbib- 
ited  in  that  city  in  11^,  and  in  London  the  following  yi>ar.  The  next  panorama 
executed  by  Barker  was  &  view  of  London  from  the  top  of  the  Albion  Mills.  A  lame 
building  was  now  erected  in  Leicester  Square  for  the  exnibition  of  such  views.  On  Mr 
Barker^  death,  in  1806,  he  wa:«  succeeded  by  his  i^on.  in  partnership  withapu(iit, 
Burford,  tl»e  painter  of  tbe  cliief  modern  panorannis.  The  first  step  in  tiie  coni»tmc- 
tion  of  a  panorama  is  to  ol)tain  sketclies  of  tiie  entire  region  to  be  represented ;  ^ 
each  sketcli  U  a  representation  of  a  portion  of  the  landscape  in  the  form  of  a  sec'or 
of  a  circle,  with  the  sketcher's  position  a^  a  centre,  and  tbe  hor  «on  for  circumfer- 
ence. Tlie  canvas  to  which  tiie  sketches  are  to  l>e  transferred  is  huno:  round  the 
sides  of  a  circular  room,  and  fomis  tlie  surface  of  a  cylinder,  on  tlie  inside  of  which 
the  panorama  is  painted.  Tlie  canvas,  bnisiiea,  &c,  are  of  tbe  finest  description 
nninnfiictured,  and  the  pdnting  and  coloring  are  elaborated  iu  the  most  careful 
manner,  in  order  to  render  tiie  optical  iUui<ion — wlilch  every  one  who  has  seen  a 
good  panorama  must  liave  experienced — as  complete  as  possible.  The  stige  from 
which  the  picture  is  viewed  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  room,  about  80  feet  on  every 
side  from  tlie  picture;  the  picture  itself  is  fastened  above  to  a  strong  circular  hoop, 
and  hanging  down,  has  its  lower  edge  fa!iteued  to  a  similar  hoop,  which  is  heavity 
weiehted  to  keep  the  picture  8tead3%  Tlie  light  is  admitted  l)y  an  aperture  in  the 
roof,  wliicli  is  concealed  by  an  awning  from  the  spectators  on  the  stige.  Notwith- 
stamliug  imiX)rtant  defects  in  tlie  panorama,  one  of  wliich  is  that  the  light  more 
strongly  illumines  the  upper  than  the  lower  parts  of  the  plctnre— thus  tlirowing  the 
foreground  comparatively  into  shade— many  cases  are  ou  record  of  «i)ecfator8  being 
for  the  time  completely  under  the  influence  of  mcnUiI  illusion.  One  of  tiie  best  In- 
siauces  of  tliis  occurred  during  the  cxliibition  of  the  tlrird  panorama  in  London. 
Part  of  the  view  consistecl  of  a  repre»»eutation  of  the  wreck  of  a  sliip's  boat,  with 
sailorri  struggling  in  the  waves ;  and  at  i>ighr  of  this,  a  dog  befonging  to  one  of  the 
spiiCtator»  at  once  leaped  over  the  handr  ill  to  the  rescue  of  the  supposed  drowning 
men.  Panoramas,  ihougii  frequently  exhibitt«d  in  Prance,  (Jermany. and  other £niX>- 
pean  countrii  84  iiave  met  with  liftle  success  out  of  Great  Bril^iin.  The  most  popular 
pauoranui  ever  executed  was  that  ot  the  Battle  of  NVaterioo,  the  exliibllk>u  oi  which 


y  Google 


721 


brbnelit  iti  f»ti  tboofeand  ponndi.    There  are  iriady  tiio<Ufica^^B  6t  fhe  panoruUiO, 
bnt  tliut  above  duhcribed  » the  moet  importaut. 

PAI^SLAVISM.    ITiifi  term  is  applied  to  the  movement  lately  set  on  foot,  dfid 

generally  asfciilnjd  to  Kussian  influence,  for  the  anlalj,niinatl0u  of  all  races  of  Slavoi»lc 
f^cent  into  one  body,  having  one  lanjeua^e,  one  literature,  and  one  BOrial  polity. 
The  writings  of  Adam  Gnrowski  and  Kollar,  and  the  anonymous  pamphlet  which 
appeared  at  Li^ipzij?  in  1837,  under  tbe  title  of  *'Die  EuropflBi>che  Pentarchie,"  have 
exercised  9,  very  widespread  influence  In  this  direction  amftiig  nil  ihc  Slisvouic  people 
of  the  German  states;  and  tiltbough  the  other  uatioim  of  Europe  havi;  liitherla  ti;id 
no  fi-anon  to  anticipate  any  practical  rcflulta  from  a  movement  towards  Paiiplnvisni, 
the  Slavonians  of  the  Austrian  empire  havo  always  taken  occaeion  to  Pliew  that  they 
regarded  themse'.ves  as  standing  apart  from  German  intereHte  in  tinier  of  public  dis- 
.turbance.  Thus,  in  1848,  instead  of  taking  part  with  th«ir  fellow-citizeuH  iu  the 
election  of  representatives  to  thtj  Gertmui  parliament  at  Frankfurt,  the  leading  pro- 
moters of  Panslavism  suumioned  a  Slavonic  congress  at,  Pnijrue,  which  was  attended 
by  Slavonians  from  Boliemia,  Moraviu.  and  Hilesia,  and  by  Slavonic  Poles,  Crontf, 
Servians,  and  Dalmatians,  who  appeared  iu  their  national  costumes.  The  impracti- 
cability of  the  grand  schenjes  promulgaied  in  tiie  niauiteBtoes  of  the  conclave,  had 
been  sulficiently  nbewn  ere  the  cougre«8  was  intt^Tupted  by  a  dcmocralic  rebellion, 
which  was  suppressed  with  much  bloodshed.  Since  i860,  when  questions  of  nation- 
ality began  to  come  more  Into  tlie  foroj^round,  P.  line  exercised  t«onie  direct  inftnonc* 
On  Austrian  affairs  ;  both  northern  and  .Moutlieru  Slnve-tending  towards  united  nctiou 
in  opposition  to  the  ceutralistic  and  duahetic  aims  of  Germans  and  Magyars  respec- 
tively. In  1867,  a  grwat  Slavonic  congress  was  held  at  Moscow,  but  the  nieetiDg  had 
DO  diw-'ct  result.  Pauslavistlc  tendencies  contributed  iu  aome  measure  to  the  diffi- 
culties of  Turkey  iu  1876. 
PAi^SY.    See  Violet. 


PA'NTAGRAPU  (Gr.  panta,  all,  graphein^  to  delineate),  an  ins»trnmeat  by  tbe 
aid  of  which  any  engraving  may  be  copied  on  paper,  though  its  use  is  in  practice  ro- 
0tricted  to  the  copying  of  maps  and  plans.    The  copy  can  be  drawn  to  any  scale. 


he  ^n-trument-consists  of  tour  rods,  A9»  AC,  DJV  and  BF,  jointed  toeether  ai 
M  fignte';  tUe  points  v  aud  S  are  eo  taken  that  AP  is  equal  to  EF«  ana  AE  to  J 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


PanthAlim  I  ^-^ 


Panth«iiin 

aod  coufcquently  ADEF  le  olwaye  a  parallj'logram.  If  C  be  a  determinate  point 
near  the  umi  of  the  rod  AE,  and  any  line.  CHB«  be  drawn  cutting  Ibe  other  three 
rbdN  tbe  triaiisles  BAC  uod  BDIl  are  eiinilnr ;  so  tbut  when  the  point  B  !»  fisced,  the 
points  C  Mnd  ff,  which  chu,  from  tlie  stinicture  of  the  iiistmnient.  move  in  any  di- 
rection, vvill  def'cribe  elniilar  figures  different  in  size ;  that  deiscribi-d  by  C  being  to  that 
deacribed  by  H  in  the  proportion  of  CB  to  IIB.  T.^e  pnictical  working  of  tbe  instru- 
ment iH  lis  followa :  The  points  H  «nd  B  are  deter\niued  by  the  ratio  JJll  to  BC,  which 
is*  the  proportion  the  scale  of  the  copy  bears  to  thiit  of  the  original ;  a  socket,  which 
8lideaitlon{{  the  arm,  is  fastened  exactly  at  B  on  t(ie  nnd -rside;  below  this  ie  placed 
a  heavy  weight,  with  a  stalk  fitting  into  the  socket,  thus  rendering  B  the  centre  of 
niotiQu  of  the  instrument^  if  the  weight  be  heavy  enough.  A  pencil  is  fitted  into 
another  socket  at  II,  and  a  rod  of  mewl  with  a  sharp  point,  called  tlie  tracer^  is  fast- 
ened at  C,  and  the  instrument  is  fitted  with  castors  at  various  points  underneath,  to 
allow  of  its  being  moved  freely.  ITie  operator  tlien  pjisaea  the  tracer  over  the  out- 
line to  l>e  copied,  and  simultaneously  the  pencil  at  H  makes  the  copy  on  tlie  required 
scale.  .  If  a  C(>py  on  a  scale  nejirly  as  large  as  the  ori^ual  l)e  required,  the  fnlcinim 
must  be  placed  in  DF,  and  tlie  pencil  in  DB ;  while  if  a  nia;rnifled  copy  be  required, 
the  pencil  aird  tracer  must  exchange  the  positions  asniuued  thein  in  the  first  case. 
Tlie  defects  of  this  instrument  are  its  weight  and  the  difficulty  of  rendering  It  per- 
fectly mobile,  l)()th  of  which  prevent  that  steady  motion  of  the  tracer  which  is 
nece-'sary  for  making  an  accurate  copy. 

To  remedy  these  defects,  the  punra?rnph  has  been  constructed  in  a  variety  of 
forms,  an  of  which,  however,  like  the  one  described,  depend  upon  tlie  principle  that 
the  two  triangle*  which  have  for  their  angular  points  toe  fulcrum,  the  pencil  point 
and  a  pint,  and  the  fulcrum  the  tracer  pomt  auaa  joiu|,  must  always  preserve  their 
similarity. 

PANTELLA'RIA,  a  volcanie  island  in  the  Mediterranean.  36  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  lying  60  miles  s.  w.  of  the  Sicilian  coast  The  chief  products  are  wine, 
oil,  cotton  and  fmlt. 

PANTHAYS.  a  Mohammedan  commnnfty  occupying  tl»e  province  of  Ynn-nan  in 
the  south-west  of  China,  who  afl'«<'.rted  their  ImlejvndeJice  In  1855.  In  1859  they  cap- 
fnred  Talifoo.  the  second  city  of  the  pi'ovince,  and  in  185S.  the  capital.  Their  leader 
Wen-soai  (King  Suleiman)  established  his  authority  over  about  4,1)00,000  of  )>eople, 
of  whom  not  above  a  tenth  were  Mo'tanimedan-'  In  1863  ihis  Chinese  govvirnment 
recognised  the  independence  of  the  P.,  and  In  1872  their  king  sent  his  son  Hnssan  on 
a  mission  to  Europe.  Meanwhile  the  Chinese  ag:dh  attacked  the  P.,  defe«ted  them 
utterly,  and  finally  suppressed  tiieir  empire.  P.  is  an  anglicised  form  of  Pan-ai,  the 
xmme  by  which  the  M:ohammedMUS  called  themselves. 

PA'NTHEISM  (Gr.  pan^  al',  and  tlieos^  Gotl),  the  name  given  to  that  system  of 
Bt)ecnlMtlon  which,  in  its  ^irltual  form,  identifies  the  universe  with  God  (aJfcosmwro), 
»nd4n  its  more  material  form,  God  with  the  universe.  It  is  only  the  latter  kind  of 
pantlielsin  that  is  logically  open  to  the  accusation  of  Atheism  (q.  v.) ;  the  former 
fnis  often  been  the  expression  of  a  profound  religiosity.  The  antiquity  of  pantheism 
is  undoubtedly  great,  for  it  is  prevalent  in  the  oldest  known  civilisation  in  tile  world 
— the  Hindu.  Yet  It  is  a  later  dev<lopment  of  thought  than  Polytheism  (q.  v.,\  the 
natural  instinctive  weed  of  primitive  races,  and  most  probably  originated  in  the  at- 
tempt to  divest  the  popular  system  of  its  grosser  features,  and  to  eive  it  a  form  that 
would  satisfy  the  requirements  of  philosophical  speculation.  Hinuu  pantheism  an 
akoi^imn  is  taught  especially  by  the  Upanishads  (q.  v.),  the  Vedftnta  (q.  v.),  and 
Yoga  (q.  V.)  philosophies,  and  by  those  poetical  works  which  embody  the  doctrint« 
of  these  systems;  for  instance,  the  Biiagavads^tft,  which  follows  the  Yoga  doctrine. 
It  is  poetical  and  religious,  rather  than  scientaflc,  at  least  in  itsphmseolojfy ;  bnt  it 
iB  substantially  similar  to  the  more  lojjical  forms  developed  in  Europe.  The  Hindu 
thinker  regards  man  as  bom  into  a  world  ot  illusions  and  entanglements,  from 
which  his  great  aim  should  be  to  deliver  himself.  Neither  sense,  nor  reason,  how- 
ever, is  capable  of  helping  him;  onlytbroa^li  long  continued,  rigoron8,jind  holy 
contemplation  of  the  t<upreme  unity  (Brahma)  can  he  become  emaucip-rted  from 
tlie  deceptive  influence  of  phenomena,  and  fit  to  apprehend  that  he  and  tiiey  are 
alike  but  evanescent  modes  of  existence  assumed  bv  that  infinite,  eternal,  and 
nuchftogeable  Spirit  ^ho  is  all  in  all.    Hindu  pauth^ife'm  UthOfi  purely- Bpirttual  In 


D^S^H^Googk 


*rO^  PantaUtrla 

•  -*^  Pantheism 

its  character ;  matter  a«d  (finite)  mUrd  are  both  alike  absorbed  in  the  fathomless 
Abyss  of  illiiuitaltlo  and  nbeolute  Iwing. 

Greek  p.inthelt*m,  tli0U!;h  it  doubtlens  oHginjitfd  in  the  same  wny  as  tliot  of 
IndJit,  In  at  once  more  vmied  In  itB  lonn,  :iiid  more  ratiodnHtive  {n  iis  method  of  ex- 
posiiion.  Tlie  uhilosophy  of  AnnXimunder  (q.  v.)  t.tie*M11ei*inn  mny  almost,  with 
equal  accnracy,  f>e  described  as  a  system  of  atlieixtic  physics  or  of  mareri«Hst1c  pan- 
theism. Its  leading  idea  ^is,  that  from  the  inflnlte  or  indetennlnatc  (to  apdrmr), 
which  \6  "  one  yet  oU,"  pr.OCeod  tlie  entire  phenomena  of  thetinivtree,  and  to  it  tboy 
ri'turn.  Xcnqphai^es  (q.'MJ',  however,  the  founder  of  the  Eleatlc  scliool,  «t)d  anthor 
of  the  famous  metnpl»y«<l(.ai  viot^  Ex  tiihifOy  nihil  ilt-^  is  the  flrrt  claHslca!  tliinktr  who 
)>romulgat(d  the  higher  of  idealibtic  fonn  of  pnntlieism.  Denying  the  posefbiiity  of 
creation,  he  argued  that  there  exists  only  an  vtornal,  infinite  One  or  All,  of  which 
iodividunl  ol)je(:tsand  existences  are  hierely  illusory  modes  of  repret«entation  ;  but 
as  Ari(*toile finely  expresses  if — aud  it  is  this  Inst  conception  which  gives  to  the 
pantheism  of  Xeuonhanes  its  distinctive  chanicter — "casting  his  eyes  wistfully  upon 
the  wliole  heaven,  Le  prononnced  that  unity  to  be  Ood,^  Heracleitns  (q.  v.)i  who 
flourished  a  c<Milury  later,  reverted  to  the  material  pantheism  of  the  lopic  school, 
aud  apiM'ars  to  have  held  that  the  "All"  fli"st  arrives  at  coiifci  on  suck's  in  man, 
whereas  Xenophanes  attributed  to  the  same  universal  entity,  intelligttnce,  and  self- 
existence,  denying  it  only  personality.  But  it  is  often  extremely  difficult,  if  not  im- 
possible, to  draw  or  to  so<^  the  dlctiuction  between  the  panttieism  of  theeartiei  Gr«  ek 
philosoi>her8  and  sheer  atheism.  In  general,  however,  we  may  aflirin  tliat  the  pan- 
theism of  the  Eleatic  school  was  penetrated  by  a  religious  sentiment,  and  txMided  to 
absorb  the  world  in  God,  \%hile  that  of  the  Ionic  school  was  tiroroughly  mati*riaJlstlc, 
tended  to  al>8orb  God  in  the  world,  and  differed  from  atheism  rat  her. in  name  than  in 
fact.  But  the  most  decided  and  the  most  spiritual  representatives  of  this  philO!<ophy 
among  the  Greeks  were  the  so-called  *•  Alexandrian  "  Heo-PfatadiitfUt  (q.  V.>,  in  whom 
we  see  clearly,  forth©  first  time,  tiie  influence  of  the  East  upon  Greek  thoncht.  Tlic 
doctrines  of  Euniimlion.  of  Ec^tat-y,  expounded  by  Plotmus  (q.  v.)  and  Produs 
(q.  v.),  no  less  than  the  fantastic  Dfemonism  of  Ismbliclms  (q.  v.),  point  to  Pernia 
and  ibdia  as  tlieir  birtliplace,  and  in  fact  differ  I  rout  the  mystic  teaching  (Xf  the  Ve- 
danta  only  by  being  presented  in  a  more  logical  aud  intelligible  form,  and  divested 
of  tlie  peculiar  mythological  allusions  iu  which  the  philosophy  oi  the  latter  ia  i»omt> 
times  dressed  up. 

Dnring  the  middle  ages,  speculation  was,  for  the  most  part,  held  iu  with  tight 
reins  by  the  church,  and  in  consequence  we  hear  little  of  pantltci-m.  Almost,  the 
only  philosopher  wIjo  advocated,  or  who  even  se<Mns  to  have  thought  abOnt  it,  is 
John  Scotus  Erigena  (see  Erioema),  who  was  probably  led  to  it  by  his  study  of  tiie 
Alexandiitms.  but  his  speculations  do  not  ap)H>ar  to  have  been  thought  by  him  it:* 
(;ompatible  with  n  Christian  faith;  aud  in  point  of  fact  there  are  several  profoundly 
mystical  expressions  employed  iu  the  New  Testament,  especially  in  the  Epistles  of 
John,  In  which  the  soaring  spiritualism  of  Christianity  culminates  iu  language  that 
has  at  least  «  pantheistic  form:  eg.,  "God  is  love;  and  he  that  dwelleth  in  love 
dwelleth  in  God,  and  God  in  him."  Erigena  Is  regarded  as  tlie  link  that  unites  ancient 
aud  modem  pantheism.  We  find  In  him  now  a  reflection  of  the  East  and  of  Greece, 
aud  now  a  foreshadowing  of  the  doctrines  of  Schelling  and  Hegel.  His  opinions 
were,  with  some  scholastic  modificitions.  introduced^  in  the  l«tli  and  13th  centuries, 
into  theology  by  Amalric  or  Amaury  de  Chartres  (a  disciple  also  of  Abelard),  aud  Ids 
pupil  Da>'ia  de  jDiuant,  who  were  condenmed  as  heretics  oy  a  council  held  at  Paris. 

Modem  pantheism  first  shews  itself  in  Giordano  Bruno  (q,  v.),  burned  at  Kome 
for  his  opinions  iu  1600.  In  Bruno  reappear  the  spcculatiohs  of  the  EleaUcs  atid  of 
the  Neo-Platoni'ts,  \)ut  with  a  still  more  definite  recoirnltiou  than  we  meet  with  iu 
them  of  an  absolutely  iHTfecl  supreme  spirit,  Tlie  universe,  in  the  eyes  of  the  un- 
fortunate Italian,  is  not,  properly  speaking,  a  creation,  but  only  an  ematuitlon  of 
the  Infinite  ntijKl— the  eternal  expression  of  its  infinite  atttivity  ;  and  hence  tl>e  Infi- 
nite mind  penetrates  and  fills,  with  different  degrees  of  consciousness,  all  the  heigijts 
and  depths  of  the  universe.  To  see  God  everywhere,  to  realise  that  He  alone  i.«,  and 
that  all  else^s  but  a  perishable  phenomenon  or  passing  illusion— tln»t  there  is  but  one 
lutenisonce  m  God.  man,  beast,  and  what  we  call  matter— this  should  be  the  aim  of  all 
tnie  philosophy.  Spinoza  (q,  v.)  comes  next  among  pantheists  in  the  oider  of  time, but 
he  is  perhaps  the  ^iteatest,  certainly  the  moetrij^rous  aud  precise  of  the  wbolt  claea 


y  Google 


Pttlt] 

Paoli 


724 


tiiat  either  the  ftuciciit.  or  th«  modern  wodd  bail  seen.  Hta  iTstemls  hssed,  Iflre  the  ^«o- 
meti  V  of  Euclid,  on  cc^rtaiii  duttiiitiou:^  a  <d  azi(>m(>t  and  lie  cluiuu  tu  Uave  ghreu  it  a» 
GOiiClusive  and  iiiatbeiimticiil  a  derauuettratiuu  ao  the  luttec  None  will  denv  the  keeu 
HUM!*  and  coj^eucy  of  hit»  ratiocinatioti.  But  human  beluss  wHI  not  be  foiwd  into  )au- 
t  ix-istic  convictiouii  by  uny  iilei-e  logical  i/^otul^  lioMwer  sharp ;  and  the  ffystem^  iui|ireg>- 
lia')lea.H  it  eeern^  haainn'or  b2iduu>rinal  adUereut.  Tbeixrinc:palreMiltatiriiicb,afler 
a  loug,  finn-liiiked  cliaiu  of  ruaM)uhig,  bpiuoza  arrivei*,  ia,  that  there  ifl  but  one  Kiib- 
Bt.'iMcc',  hifiiiit^,  »e]f-ezM^^nt,  eternal,  iieoeeaiiry,  simple,  and  iiidiviKible,  of  widcfa  i.H 
f:l8e  ure  bat  thu  iiKKle?.  Tiiii»8Qbsutioe ie  t tie ee.f -exist ei it  Ood.  I'ocall Spiuoi::i  an  atho- 
I.Ht  is  ridiculous.  Thi:  vx\  ravaguiit  Dhrase  of  SchleieriiHiciiQr,  *'  :i  God-iutoxicated  inatj" 
{»in  gotUlrutifcSfner  inann),  would  on  greailv  nearer  the  tnuh,  for  no  bnmaii  aysteiii 
of  philosophy  whatever  exhibits  sneh  nu  all-controliug  aud  eveir  overwhelming MiiiM 
of  the  omnipreseut  God.  Many  critics  have' said  that  he  was  far  more  of  an  old 
Utthrew  in  his  Kyntem  than  he  dreumed.  Although  he  had  uo  direct  foUowen^,  ho 
exercised  great  iuflaeiice  on  thu  develO)Hnent  of  metaphysical  Hpecttiatiou  in  Ger- 
many, where,  with  the  exemption  of  Kant  (q.  v.),  the  three  greatest  pldlOM^yhers  of 
recent  times— Fichte  (q.  v.),  Scheiling  (q.  v.),  aud  Hegel  (q.  v.) — have  jdi  j>romuW 
c;»ted  syeteins  of  a  thoroni;h  y  pimthetoiic  aud  ideal  churacter.  Neither  Snglaud, 
Ffance,  nor  America  has  pnHtucod  a  ^in^le  great  pautueistic  philoeopiter  (unless 
Hr  Etndrflon  be  regdunted  as  such);  but  there  is  an  immense  ainonut  of 
lumtlieisilc  sentiment  floating  about  In  the  poetry,  criticism,  titeology,  and 
even  in  the  sp^culitive  thinking,  In  these  and  ail  European  conutriuB  in  the 
preseut  age.  This  is  attributtible  to  the  ravages  mude  by  biblical  critioi^nl,  and  the 
progieM^  the  physical  sciences  in  th J  region  of  I'eligions  beliefii.  Multitudtis  of 
men  nre  imzzled  what  to  think  and  what  to  ix^lieve.  Tney  do  not  like  to  fac«  the 
fact  that  tiiey  have  actually  lost  faith  in  revelation,  and  are  no  longer  refyiug  for 
helpatidgnldanceon  the  Spirit  of  Qod,  but  on  ttie  hiwK  of  nature  ;  so  they  taka 
refuge  from  the  abhorred  as(>ect  of  the  naked  trnth  that  they  are  ^  atheists"  in  a 
cloud  of  rose-colored  poetical  phrases,  which,  if  they  mean  anytlilug,  mean  {Mm** 
theism. 

PANTHE'ON,  a  Greek  or  Homan  temple  dedicated  to  nil  the  gods.  The  **Pan- 
fbeou"  of  Koine  now  the  church  of  Santi  Maria  R  itonda,  is  the  only  ancient  edific6 
in  Rome  that  ha»  l»en  perfectly  preserved.  The  P.  Is  lighted  through  one  aperture 
in  the  centre  of  its  magnificent  dome.  It  was  erected  by  Agrippa,  son-in-law  of 
Augustus,  27  B.C. 

PANTHER  (Felis  pardiut),  one  of  the  largest  "FelidoB.  now  supposed  to  be  identi- 
cal with  the  Leopard  (q.  v.).  or  a  mere  variety  of  it,  differing  only  in  its  larger  Piae 
aud  deeper  color.  Cuvier  distinguishes  tlie  P.  from  the  leopard,  but  without  stating 
any  characters  other  than  those  of  color.  The  name  P.  (vulg.  **  Painter '')  is  giveu 
to  the  Puma  in  America. 

PANTHER,  in  Heraldry,  is  borne  gardant,  and  incensed,  i.  e.,  with  fire  iMuiug^ 
from  his  mouth  and  ears. 

PA'NTOMIME,  among  tlie  ancient  Romans,  d  Minted  not  a  spectacle  but  a  per- 
son. The  pantomimes  were  a  cla^  of  actors  who  (as  tlie  name  implies)  acted  not 
by  speaking,  but  wholly  by  mimicry— gesture,  movements,  juid  posturing* — corre- 
sponding therefore  pretty  closely  to  the  modern  bailet-dancers.  When  they  tinst 
made  their  appearance  in  Rome  cannot  be  awertahied ;  probably  the  Ai'sMones 
(Etrusc.  hiitUi\  a  dancer)  brouglit  from  Etrnria  to  Rome  364  B.C.  were  pantomimtis; 
but  the  name  does  not  once  occur  during  the  republic,  though  it  is  common  enough 
from  ttie  very  dawn  of  the  empire.  Am^ustus  sliewed  great  favor  to  this  chiiv  of 
performers,  and  is  couscousnily  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  been  himself  the 
inventor  of  the  art  of  dumb  acting.  Tlie  ini)^t  celehnited  panK>mimes  of  the 
Augustan  age  were  Bathylins  (a  fre^nnin  of  Mascenas),  Pylades,  and  Hylas.  Ttie 
cbms  soon  spread  over  all  Italy  and  the  provinces,  and  became  so  iKnmlar  with  tho 
Koman  nobles  and  knights  twho  used  to  invite  male  and  female  performers  to  thctr 
iiouses  to  entert.iin  tlieir  guests),  that  Tiberius  reckont;d  it  necessary  t»  administet 
a  check'to  their  vanity,  by  issuing  a  decree  forbidding  the  aristocracy  to  frequent 
their  hoU!*es,  or  to  be  Seen  walking  with  tbein  in  the  streets.  Under  CatigUla  th^ 
were  again  received  Into  the  imperfal  favor;  and  Nero,  who  carried  every  nnwortliy 
weakaeM  and  vice  to  the  extremity'  of  caricatare,  iuotteH  aetecb  at  a  imntouiiiixv 


Digitized  by 


Google 


^70'"^  Patith«cn 

i  ^*J  '  PaoU 

From  I hiB  period  lheye»joy<cd  uniuterrnpfeed  popolarHy  as  long  as  p&ganiBm  bcUl 
Bway  hi  the  empire. 

As  tlio  ptiiitoiuiuies  wore  niapks,  iio  facial  mimicry  was  pOBsible;  everything  de- 
pejidt'd  ou  the  movement*  of  Ihe  l)ody.  It  wh?  the  ^uiiida  and  fingers  chkfly  that 
e>polce;  heuoe  the  exptx^^ioos,  manus  loqicaetstfinuBj  digiti  elameeh  4^c  To  such 
perfection  was  this  ait  ctirrie<},  that  it  is  said  th«  pahtomimei»  could  give  a  finer  and 
inon;  prrcise  espreeeion  to  passion  aud  action  than  the  poets  themeelves.^  The  fsabr 
)ects  thus  repremnted  tii  dumb  sliow  were  always  mythologicitl,  and  copseqtieiitly 
pretty  weH  knowu  to  the  t^pcctators.  The  dress  of  tlie  actors  wnn  made  tojrevcftl,  aiid 
not  to  conceal  tbe  beauties  of  tlieir  pei-sou  ;  and  its,  after  the  2d  c,  women  began  to 
8p))eiu*  in  imblic  as  pantomimes,  the  effect,  as  may  easily  l)e  suppot<cd,  of  the  festhet- 
icol  coHtame  was  injnrioiis  to  momlity*  Sometimes  tlie«e  pairtomimic  actresses 
ifVMi  appcai'ed  xjuite  iiaked  l)efore  aH  audience— a  tiling  wliich  could  never  have 
happened  had  tuo  Roman  communities. not  ^become  thoroughly  base,  sensual,  and 
impure.  It  was  quite  natural,  tliereforc,  that  pantomimic- exhibitions  shoald  have 
been  denounced  by  the  eui'ly  Chi'istiau  writerst<as  they  even  were  by  pagan  moralists 
like  Juvenal.  • 

Under  Harlequin  is  described  the  character  of  the  modern  pantomimes,  which 
word  denote!*  not  the  iMjrfonners,  but  tlie  pieces  performed.  A  few  additional  facts 
are  liere  given  to  coiuplete  tiiat  notice.  The  Christmas  Pantomime,  j)r  Harlequinade. 
Is,  in  its  present  shape*,  essentially  a  British  entertainment,  and  was  first  introduced 
into  this*  country  by  a  dancing- master  of  Shrewslmry  named  Weaver,  in  1702.  One 
of  his  pnutomimes,  entitled  "The  Loves  of  Mars  and  Venus."  met  with  great  suc- 
cess. The  arrival,  iti  the  year  ITIT,  in  London  of  a  troupfi  oi  French  pantumlmists 
with  performing  dog!<  gave  an  impetus  to  this  kind  of  drama,  which  was  further  de- 
veloped in  1758  by  the  arrival  of  tlie  Grimaldi  family,  the  bend  of  whicli  was  a  pof^ 
ture-raafter  and  dentist  Under  the  auspices  of  this  faniily,  the  art  of  prodnciiig 
pjmtomimes  was  grojttly  cultivated,  and  the  entertainment  much  relished.  Josf'pu 
Grimaldi,  the  son  of  tlie  dentist^  was  clever  at  inventing  trickei  and  devisiue  machi- 
nery, and  "Mother  Goose,"  and  others  of  his  harlequinades,  had  an  extended  run. 
At  liat  time  the  wit  of  the  clown  was  thegi'eat  feature;  but  by  and  by,  as  good 
clowns  beca.me  scarce,  oiher  adjuncts  were  supplied,  such  as  panoramas  or  dioramic 
views ;  and  now  the  chief  reliance  of  the  mansiK©*'  is  on  scenic  effects,  large  gums  of 
money  being  lavished  on  the  miBe  en  scent,  Tnis  Is  particularly  the  case  as  regards 
the  transformation  scene — i.  e.,  the  scene  where  the  characters  are  changeaiiito 
clown,  harlequin,  &c.— as  much  as  £1000  being  frequently  spent  on  this  one  effort. 
In  London  alone,  a  sum  of  about  iI40,000  is  annually  exj)ended  at  Christmas  time  ou 

giiutoraimes.  The  "  King  of  the  Peacocks,"  a  pantomime  produced  at  the  London 
yceum  Theatre  during  the  management  of  Madame  Veatris,  cost  upwards  of  ^68000. 
Even  provincial  theatres,  such  as  those  of  Manchester  or  Edinburgli,  consider  it 
rij'l^t.  to  go  to  considerable  expense  in  the  production  of  their  Christmas  pauto- 
nurae. 

PA'OLI,  Pascal,  a  famous  Corsican  patriot,  was  bom  in  1726,  at  MorosapHa,  in 
Corsica.  His  fatiier,  having  taken  a  leading  part  in  the  unsuccessful  inpurrection  of 
the  Islanders  against  the  Genoese  and  their  French  allies,  was  obliged  to  retire  to 
Naples  in  1  39,  taking  his  son  with  him.  Here  P.  received  an  excellent  education. 
In  Julv  17»>o,  he  was  summoned  by  the  supreme  magistracy  to  Corsica,  and  wa» 
elected  cHptain-geueral  of  the  island,  and  the  chief  of  a  democratic  government, 
possessing  all  tlie  |)Ower  of  a  king,  but  without  the  title.  He  energetically  and  snc^ 
ces^uUy  appHed  himself  to  the  |-eformation  of  the  barbarious  laws  and  customs  of 
the  island,  and  at  the  sum«i  time  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Genoese,  who,  notwith- 
standing the  aid  they  received  from  an  influential  section  of  the  islanders,  were  de- 
prived of  nearly  all  their  strongholds,  their  fleet  was  defeated,  and  they  were  finally 
obliged  to  seek  help  from  France.  After  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troo|;8,  tln»y 
were  again  spmjdily  deprived  of  the  places  they  had  recaptured,  and  in  1768  ihty 
cedfd  the  island  to  Fmnce.  P.  refused  all  the  advantageous  offers  l)y  which  tjie 
French  government  sougitt  to  bribe  hira,  as  he  Iwtd  t)efore  refuned  those  of  tbe 
Go:ioe«e,  and  continued  to  struggle  for  tlie  independence  of  his  conntry,  but  he  was 
sfarnally  defeated  hy  the  Oorate  d5  Vaux,  at  the  head  of  the  French  troojM*,  and  the 
Freinh  Ix^came  masters  of  the  island.  After  one  year's  stiuggle,  P.  was  compelli?d 
to  lake  refuge  on  board  of  a  British  frigate,  in  which  he  saiK  d  for  England,  where 


y  Google 


he  WM  lr<mt«d  with  mneral  pympalhy.  Twenty  years  afterwards,  tlie  French  r««vo- 
hitioii  of  1789  re<>4ilU'<l  Itiiit  to  Ck>refen,  and  its  a  Kealous  repn>>Ucuu  h«  eut«red  Into 
the  scbcMiies  of  th«  r«fyolatlonary  iwirty  ;  bntdoriiig  the  auurcby  of  Prauca  iu  1798 — 
1  93,  he  coiiceivHl  a  scheme  .tor  makius  Oori«ica  au  indepeudetit  repabltc  Until 
this  time  he  had  been  on  the  b<n<t  ternia  with  Die  Bouapurte  family,  oat  they  now 
joined  the  Jacobin  party  whilst  he  alli(*d  himself  with  Britain,  Cavoredibe  landfuKOf 
8000  British  troops  in  ths  island  in  1794,  and  joined  tbeiu  in  drivtng  oat  the  French. 
He  then  sarrendtired  the  island  to  Qeorge  III .^  but  l>ccoining  dissutisfisd with  tiie 
government,  he  qiiarretled  witli  the  British  viceroy,  whiisjt  many  of  bis  conntry- 
meu  were  displeased  witli  rbe  conrae  lie  tiad  iidoi>t(^  iu  allying  himself  with 
the  Biitlsh.  He  thetefomretin^  from  the  island  in  179C,  and  spent  the  renuUnder 
of  liis  life  iu  tbe  ueighbortiond  of  London.    P.  died  near  London,  Febmary  6, 1807. 

PA'PA,  a  large  marlcet-town  in  tlie  west  of  Hnngnry,  »tai»d8  in  a  beautifnl  dis- 
trict on  the  Tapolcza^  an  affluent  of  tbe  Mnrcxal,  60  miles  sonth-soath-enst  of  Prey- 
bni'g.  It  contains  a  stiiteiy  castle,  with  a  boimtifnl  garden,  handsome  Catholic  and 
Lutheran  c'harch(*s,  n  Catholic  gynma^am,  Ru formed  college,  and  an  fao$>i>it:il.  Stone- 
ware, cfoth,  and  pipes  are  muuufactnred,  and  a  trade  iu  wine  is  carded  on.  Pop. 
(1869)14,223. 

PAPA,  the  Latin  form  of  the  title  now,  iu  the  Western  Church,  given  fxcluFively 
to  the  Bishop  of  Rome.  Orijriually^,  however,  meaning  simply  **  father,"  it  was 
given  hidiscriminately  to  all  lni*hops.  Tertulliuu  (/>«  Piidicitia.  cxiiL)  so  employs 
It  Dionysins,  a  prit^st  of  Alcxundnai  CiUls  hitu  bisiiop  Pap:i  Heraclias.  8t  Cyprian^ 
it»  the  letters  of  hl»  cler^ry.  is  addressed  Beatvttiinio  Papas  Cypriano.  The  same  form 
is  employed  towardr*  him  oy  the  clerj/y  of  Home  its^elf.  Kven  Ariiis  so  addresses  his 
own  bit'hop  Alexander.  In  the  next  century,  St  J<rome  addieas«s  iho  same  title  to 
Athnnaeins,  to  Epipbauius,  and  most  of  all  to  Aagnstiue.  Indeed  it  would  appear 
certain  that  down  to  the  ti«ne  of  Gregory  of  Tours  it  was  ut»ed  not  uncommoniy  of 
bishops  in  tlie  Western  Olinrch.  And  there  are  evidences  of  its  l>ehi<;  occasionally 
applied  to  the  infeiior  clergy,  for  whom,  iiowever,  some  adjunct  was  employed,  iu 
order  to  distinguish  them  from  bishops.  Thus,  we  sometimes  read  ol  papoe  pitrimii^ 
minor  popes;  and  the  tonsure  was  called  by  tiic  name  papa  letra.  In  the  Gretek 
Ctnircli,  as  is  well  known,  whether  in  Greece  Proper  or  in  Kussia,  papa  is  tlie  com- 
inou  appellation  of  the  clei^y.  Tlw  circumstance  of  Ir.M  having  biten  originally  of 
general  application,  is  ackuo'wledged  by  ail  karued  Homan  Catholic  coutrovershilists 
and  historians. 

PA'PACY.    SeePoPBS. 

PAPAL  STATES  (Italian,  Stati  deli^  Chiesa.  o^-Stati  Pontifici),  a  terri- 
tory, or  rather  group  of  states  in  Central  Italy,  formerly  united  into  one  soverelsnity, 
with  the  )>ope  wr  its  heiid.  It  was  of  au  irregular  form,  resembling  the  letter  Z,  tho 
upper  portion  lying  to  the  east  of  the  Apennines,  the  lower  to  tiie  west  of  that  range, 
these  two  being  connected  by  a  third  strip,  which  crossed  the  peninsula  from  east  to 
west.  Tlie  P.  S.  were  bounded  on  the  n.  by  the  Po,  on  thes.  by  Naples,  on  the  e.  by 
the  Gulf  of  Venice  and  Naples,  add  on  tlie  w.  by  Modena,  Tuscany,  and  the  Tyrrhe- 
nian Sea.  Detached  portions,  as  Beuevento  and  Pontecorvo,  lay  within  the  Neapoli- 
tan territory.  U'he  country  Is  traversed  by  the  Apennltie;*,  which  attain  Ihehr  highest 
clev:iti(m  In  the  Monts  della  Sibilla,  which  is  about  7402  ft^et  above  sea-level.  Owing 
to  this  range,  which  traverses  the  peninsula  fn  the  direction  of  its  length.  lying  fo 
much  neat  er  the  east  than  the  west  const,  the  streams  to  the  east  of  it  have  a  short 
course  and  little  volume,  being,  in  fact,  mere  mountain  torrents;  wiiileon  the  we^t 
side  a  few  of  the  rivers  are  of  considerable  size.  Of  tbe  latter,  the  I'iber  (q.  v.)  is  tho 
largest.  The  eastern  coast  is  bold  and  ruirped,  and  destitute  of  proper  harbors,  that 
of  A ncona  alone  excepted ;  toward>«  the  north,  at  tlie  mouth  of  thePo,  it  gradually 
subsides  into  a  low,  level,  marshy  tract,  with  numerous  lagnnes.  The  country  we»t 
of  the  Apennines  is  traversinl  by  ranges  of  hills  parallel  to  them,  and  gradually  d<;- 
crea'^iug  in  elevation  as  they  approach  the  sea.  Tbe  coast  itself  is  almost  whnlly  flat, 
sandy,  or  marshy,  with  no  deep  bays  and  few  good  harbors  besides  Oivita  Vecchia. 
There  are  numerous  small  )ake<*,  prkMnpallvin  the  noribem  portion  of  the  comitry, 
tiie  chief  of  which  are  Lalce  Botsi*na,  Lake  Pemgia.  and  Lake  Bracciano,  tlie  last  an 
old  crater,  situated  almost  1000  feet  above  ses-level. 

The  country  was  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into 20 districts,  as  follows: 


Digitized  by 


Google 


^27  ll^ 

1  Comarca,  including  Rome  nnd  the  Agro  Romano ;  or  £f*giitions,  Bologna,  Forrara, 
Forli,  Ravenna  Urbmo,  Velletri ;  ana  18  Beh^ationB,  Anconn,  Ascoli,  Benevt-nto, 
Camerino,  Civita  Vecchia,  Fermo,  Frot»tnonet*  Macerata,  Orvieto,  Pernjria.  Spoleio, 
KIcti,  VlteriK) ;  wit li  a  totiil  ari;a  of  IS JT4  Eiiglinh  sqnare  mileis  and  a  poi)alHti()i»  of 
almve  8,000,000.  The  Legations  of  Bologna,  F«!iTara,  Forli,  and  Kavvnna  con- 
fitH\\te<\  the  jRoinagna ;  ^$pole^o  and  Perogiu  wem  known  ae  Ifmbria;  and  Ancona, 
Fernio,  Macerata,  and  Ascoli  cousrituted  the  March  ^  Ancona.  The  iijIi.iWtant.s 
with  the  excseptlon  of  16,000  Jews,  were  of  Italian  race,  and  of  the  Roman  Catijolic 
religion.  Tlie  only  provinces  which  latttTly  remained  under  the  papal  rnle  were, 
Rome  with  the  Coiiiarci,  the  legation  of  Vclh'tri,  and  the  delegations  of  Civita 
Vecchia,  Froslnone  (excepting  Pontecorvo)^  and  Vit«rbo,  with  a  total  area  of  4493 
English  Fquare  miles,  and  a  population  of  about  700,000.  The  chief  citief*  ui.d 
towns  in  the  territory  were,  Rome,  (the  capital),  Viterbo,  Velletri,  Alatri,  and  Civita 
Vecchia. 

Climate  and  Products.— -The  climate  of  the  P.  S.  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world, 
and  the  heat  of  summer  is  tempered  by  the  mild  and  cooling  Sfa-breeatw ;  but  in  the 
flats  south  of  the  Po  and  in  the  Camtuigua  of  Rom;-,  the  noxious  ntmoephere  pro- 
duced by  the  exhalations  from  flie  miirshes  is  most  destructive  of  human  life. 
Fever  and  ague  are  very  prevalent  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  nelifUbodng  dis- 
tricts, and  notwithstanding  the  attempts  to  remedy  the  deadly  1nfluen(«  of  the 
marshes  by  draiuiige  and  cuftivation,  it  has  hithertx)  been  undiminished  (st-e  IMa- 
BBUMA).  Violent  siroccos  are  ocdwlonally  exp<^rieiiced  on  the  west  coast.  The 
northern  portion,  from  its  elevation,  is  exposed  to  severe  cold  during  winter.  The 
soil  of  the  P.  8.  is  in  genend  extremely  fertile;  but  the  higher  mountain  districts  are 
either  quite  barren,  or  only  adapted  for  pasture ;  and  not  more  tJian  oue'third  of  the 
whole  surface  is  uiider  cultivation.  The  practice  of  agriculture  is  in  lis  most  primi- 
tive state,  notwithstanding  the  fsict  that  agriculture,  as  a  science,  originated  htie, 
and  wasjnractised  for  many  centuries  before  it  was  introduced  into  the  other  coun- 
tries of  Europe;  btit  the  many  political  clianges  and  revolutiuns  which  liave  cun- 
vulaed  the  country,  have  acted  as  a  bjir  to  all  enterprise.  It  must,  howOver,  be  nton- 
tioited.  that  the  prej*ent  pope  has,  by  salutary  enactments,  and  by  the  establishment 
of  agricultural  societies,  dotie  much  for  the  improvement  of  thife  bran'ch  of  Indin*- 
try.  The  productj^  are  shnilar  to  those  of  the  rent  of  Italy.  The  lunuufuctures  are 
comparatively  unimportant — fUlk*-,  woollens,  and  leather  are  the  chief;  but  plate- 
glass,  rope,  sailcloth,  cotton  goods,  paper,  artificial  flowers,  wax-caudles,  soap, 
atoneware,  &C.,  are  also  manufacture<l  ln> various  places.  The  fisheries  are  lmi)or- 
tant.  The  chief  minerals  ar6  alum,  vitriol,  saltpetre,  sul{>hm',  coal,  rock-salt,  Uiar- 
bie,  and  alabaster^ 

Many  of  the  manufactured  goods,  and  wine,  olive  oil,  wool,  hemp,  tobacco, 
bread-stuffs,  catgut.  Ac,  were  exported,  the  total  exports  amounting  to  about 
jC«,«00,000,  while  the  imports  reached  nearly  ^14,000,000.  'J'he  statistics  were 
latterly  very  unreliable,  but  the  fact  thtit  the  P.  S.  are  n()w  no  more,  renders  de- 
tails of  trade  under  {lontlflcal  rule  a  matter  of  little  importance.  Indeed,  no  in- 
formation on  such  topics  was  issued  under  the  latest  years  of  the  polllical  power  uf 
Ihepope. 

OcvemmenL — ^The  pope  ))os6eseed  absolute  and  unlimited  power,  but  the  mem- 
bers of  the  college  of  cardinals,  who  elected  him,  generally  kept  the  chief  offices 
of  state  in  their  own  liands,  and  assisted  the  poi>e  in  the  government  of  his  states,  as 
well  as  in  the  afEairs  of  tlie  church.  The  secretary  of  state  wa^  at  the  head  of  polit- 
ical affairs,  and  was  nominated  by  the  pope.  He  presided  over  both  the  ministerial 
council  and  the  council  of  state.  T4ie  former  council,  which  cone»isled  of  five  or 
more  mlniaters,  heads  of  depxtrtments,  selected  by  tlie  vnm,  had  a  voice  in  legisla- 
tion, and  also  the  right  of  authodtative  interpretation  of  the  laws ;  the  latter,  which 
consisted  of  thirteen  members,  also  nominatt:d  by  the  pope,  had,  in  matters  of 
legislation  and  finance,  only  the  right  of  giving  advice ;  but  it  settled  any  ques'tion  of 
competency  that  might  arise  between  the  various  iH-anches  of  the  administration. 
After  1850.  there  was  also  a  aeip&mte  finanz-constitta  for  the  regulatioirof  financial 
affairs.  Tlie  Comarca,  which  was  more  directly  under  the  c<?n»ral  v^overnment.  was 
ruled  liy  acardiiml-nresident;  th«  Legation  was  ruled  by  a  cardinaUhpate,  aided 
by  a  provincial  chamber  of  deputies.  There  were  civil  and  criminal  conrts  In  all  tb« 
provinoea,  minor  courts  in  the  commutes,  with  courts  of  appeal  iu  all  tho  chief 


y  Google 


clilei*,  uiid  a  centr.il  tribiinaf  at  Roin<^.  All  tlie  proceedIiig:8  of  these  cmirte  were ptilv 
lie,  excei)t  It  lull*  for  political  offffiicc*^ 

Tiie  papal  army,  which  fornierly  ainomited  to  80,000  xnem  in  June  18®,  num- 
bered only  8513  raeu,  infantry,  cavalry,  artillery,  &c  Indnded,  anri  a  coiiHicteraMe 
portion  of  thu  p;ip:il  tHrritory  was  garrisoned  by  French  iroopui,  without  whose  aid 
the  pope's  i>ower  could  not  have  bt^en  inaiiHained. 

The  income  and  oxpriidiUire  f(»r  1869,  the  la«t  year  of  the  witlrcty  of  the  P.  S., 
were  resi>ectlvely  14,453,828  scndi  $£3,126,028),  jind  15,019,846  scudi  (jC3.«48,03S)  J  hut 
the  three  succeeding  yeai-s  showed  a  widely  different  result;  the  expeiie»e.H  l)eiiig 
largely  increased  by  tlie  coet  of  the  war,  while  from  the  relielliou*  provmces  scarcely 
any  laxcfi  were  collected.  The  iucouie  and  exiieuditurea  fof  these  three  yejira  were 
nearly  as  follows : 

Bxpcndittire.  Income. 

1860 X4,7^80l Xl.716,658 

1861 4,291,644 1.716,658 

1S62 2,145,822 1,072.911 

The  flumces  coutiuo«d  Id  the  same  deplorable  condition,  and  the  natSonal  debt 
amounted  to  :ii)ont  iC17,000,000.  The  (ax  known  as  *'  Peter's  pence,'*  which  wna  cot- 
hcied  from  all  the  Rumau  CuthoUe  eoautries,  had  produced  at  the  begiuuing  of  IMS 
about  ^1,080,000. 

JB^i«f<^ry.— During  the  rule  of  the  Gk>th8  and  Lombards^  In  Italy,  the  inhabitants  ol 
Rome  and  all  who  desired  to  live  free  from  the  b.irbariau  yoK^it  feeling  tli«t  the 
Oreek  empire  was  Incapable  of  protecting  them,  and  at  the  sauie'time  obb.Tviiii:  the 
pertinacity  and  energy  with  which  the  pope  asserted  tlie  importance  and  digutty  of 
jkome,  naturally  looked  up  to  him  as  in  some  sort  a  iirotector;  and  it  is  ro  tlj« 
gr.-idual  growth  and  spread  of  tJiis  feeling  that  tlie  im|>oriaut  position  8ub-«cqueBtly 
-  tiiken  by  t1ie  p0i)cs  as  authoritii^s  in  temporal  matters  Is  chiefly  dn-f.  About  720  a-d., 
Gregory  IIL,  having  qunn-elled  with  the  Emperor  Leo  the  Ii*anrinn,  dechired  the  in- 
dependence  of  Home.  In  72t5,  Pepin  le  Bref  cnnpoiled  the  Lombard  king  to  hand 
over  Ravenna,  Rimini,  Pesaro,  Fano,  Cesena,  Urbiuo,  Forll,  Comacchio.  uud  fifleeu 
other  towu9  to  rhe  pope,  who  now  iissumed  the  state  of  a  temi>oral  aovereigu. 
Pepin'tk  example  wa4  followed  by  his  eon  Cnarlemague;  but,  notwithsiaudiug  tlie 
pop;i'8  sovereignty  was  more  nominal  than  real,  as  tne  towns  were  nut  in  his  po»- 
fiessiou,  and  he  oidy  obtained  a  small  share  of  th^r  revenues.  In  tiie  11th  c,  tlie 
Normans  <rreatly  aided  to  increase  the  prtpal  tem)K>ral  authority,  ajid  in  1053  tb« 
duchy  of  Benevento  waM  annexed.  In  1102,  the  Couirtess  Matilda  of  Tuscany  k.*ft 
to  the  pope  herftefsof  Pnrnia,  Mantua.  Modeua.  and  Tu.-cauy ;  but  these  were  im- 
mediately seized  by  the  Qerman  em]>eror,  and  of  this  magnificent  b«>que8t 
oulv  a  few  estates  came  into  the  pope's  hand:*.  Between  Ihis  period  and  the 
end  of  tlie  13th  c,  the  popes  mcceeded,  often  by  unscmpnlons  nie.nne,  hi 
ohtalnli  g  from  many  of  the  free  towns  of  Italy  an  acknowl«dginent  of 
the  8ui>ei1orit3'  of  the  Roman  sec  over  them  ;  and  in  1278  the  Emperor 
Bodolf  I.  confirmed  the  pope^i  In  the  acquisitions  thus  .obtaiuetl,  deflnea  au> 
thoritatively  the  boundaries  of  thj  P.  S.,  and  ackitowledged  the  iM)pe*8  exclusi^^i 
authority  over  them,  by  ab5»olvin^  their  inhabitants  from  Jheir  oath  of  aUegtance 
to  tlie  empire.  The  P.  8.  at  tins  time  included  Penigia,  Bologna,  Bertiimro^  the 
Duchy  of  Spoleto,  the  E.xarciiy  of  Ravenna,  and  the  March  of  Ancona;  but  many  of 
the  towns  were  either  repuhllcs  or  hereditary  priuci)>alitie8,  and  in  none  did  the  pope 

Kwsess  real  authority.  Sixtus  IV  ,  in  the  ena„i)f  ili«  15th  c,  managed  to  annex  tlie 
omagna  to  his  dominions;  in  effecting  whichMie  is  accused  of  having  entpioyed  in- 
trigue, perjury,  and  murder.  His  successorj*,  Alexander  VI,  and  Julius  IL,  iucreaa.  d 
the  P.  S.  by  the  addition  of  Pesjiro,  Ritnini,  Paetiza,  Parma.  Placentia,  and  Reggio. 
By  the  victory  of  the  Pi-ench  at  Marignan  (1515),  the  very  existence  of  thejiapal 
power  was  thnmtened ;  but  ihe  able  iwlicy  of  Leo  X.  averted  the  thnuiieued  dau>>[er. 
In  1546,  Paul  III.  alienated  PaTma  and  Placentia,  and  erected  them  into  a  duchy  for 
his  son,  Pietro  Luigi  Parnese ;  but  this  loss  was  p  .rtiv  m«de  up  by  the  acqnjititions 
of  Gregory  XIII.  In  1698,  the  ijossewlons  of  the  House  of  Este,  viz.,  Ferrara, 
Comacchio,  and  a  part  of  the  Romagna,  were  Hci«'*d  by  Pope  Clement  VIIL:  ui-d  the 
P.  8.  ivciMveil  their  final  additions  m  iTrbino  (IH28),  Ronclglione,  and  tht;  dncliv  of 
Castro  (1650).    The  Rom.igua  was  seized  bv  Napoleon  hi  1797,  uud  incorporated  in 


y  Google 


•  ^  ^  Papaw 

tlm  OI?alpl*>  Repnblk;  aad  1«  the  fom>«>ine  y«nr,  Rome  was  t«k»n  Hy  Hie  Fi-eufMi, 
and  tJie  P.  S.  erectttl  fiitx)  ilte^/fotMOvi  Republic,  Pins  VIL,  In  1800,  obtained j)0.-f*ee- 
pion.of  hi8  BTfttes,  bnt  tiitty  were  nltuos't  immediately  i*etakfU  by  tbe  Frencli. 
and  flinilly  (180»)  }iiroi'porjit4»d  witli  France,  Rome  belug  reckoned  the  socond  ciiy  of 
the  empire.  In  1814,  the  pope  remrued  to  liis  doniiniuns,  and  waa,  formally  reina  a- 
t<*<l  by  the  trenty  of- Vienna,  mainly  tbrongb  the  exertions  of  tlie  ^um-Roman  Catholic 
powers,  Roaaia;  Prussia,  and  l^r  tain ;  bnt  tlie  clerical  miajroveriimeiit  contnistid  fo 
strongly  with  tlie  liberjd  iidmiuietration  of  France,  that  in  1880  the  people  erf  Ancona 
and  Bologna  rose  in  rebellion.  They  were  pnt  down  by  the  ajd  of  nn  Anetrian 
Hrmy,  bnt  the  abn^'es  In  the  tidministraticm  were  so  flagrant,  titat  even  Austria  urged 
the  nec^psity  for  reform.  Her  rtnnonati'ancee,  however,  were  not  attended  to,  and 
the  Bolngneee  iigniii  rebelled.  This  ^?econd  revolt  an  ppl  led  Austria  with  a  pret«zt  for 
0C(*u«)ying  the;  northern  Legation.%  and  the  Fre4)ch  at  the  same  time  garrisoned  An- 
cona.  Occasional  risings  took  place  from  time  to  time  up  to  1846,  when  pope  Pius  IX. 
ai'sumed  the  tiarn,  and  bnrst  upon  the  astonialied  world  in  the  new  character  of  a  re- 
forming pope..  Ilia  projecta  were  of  n  most  libend  character,  and  were  put  in  force 
with  great  energy,  despite  the  opposition  of  Austria ;  but,  alarmed  at  the  spread  of 
revolution  in  Enroi)e  duiing  1848,  he  halted  in  hie  career,  juPt  at  the  critical  moment 
when  to  halt  was  to  l>e  lost.  The  people  rose,  and  Pius  IX.  fled^to  Qaeta,  whilst 
Rome  was  proclaimed  a  rei)nblic.  Ue  was  re8t(>re<l,  and  his  subjects  reduced  to  snb- 
mi>«sion,  by  the  arms  of  France,  Austria,  Naples,  and  Spain.  The  Austrians  held 
the  Li^tions  in  subjection  tothe iK)pe'8 autliority  till  1859;  and theJPrench occnpied 
Rome  in  his  behalt  for  ten  years  moi'e.  In  July  1869,  the  fonr  northern  Legations 
(the  Romagnn),  taking  advantage  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  Austrian  troops,  quietly 
threw  olf  the  papal  authority,  and  proclaimed  their  annt-xation  to  Sardinia,  whicU 
was  formally  acknowledged  by  Victor  Enunflnnel  in  Mnrcli  1860.  'i'he  pope  now 
raised  a  kii-ee  body  of  troops,  appointing  Lamoricldre,  an  eminent  Frenclt  general,  to 
command  them,  for  the  i)nr|)Ose  of  resisting  any  further  encroachmi^nts  on  his  do- 
minions; bnt  the  news  of  Garibaldi's  success  in  Sicily  and  Naples  produced  revolt  in 
the  I^gatioit  of  Url)ino  and  in  the  Marches,  the  people  proclaiipiig  Victor  Em- 
m^nueh  I'he  Sardinians  accordingly  mdrched  into  the  P.  S.,  d^feaietl  Lahiorieidro 
in  two  encounters,  and  finully  compelled  him  to  retire  into  Ancona,  where,  after  a 
sieee  of  seven  days,  he  waa  compelled  to  surrender  with  his  whole  army.  The  re- 
von«  d  provinces  of  Umbria,  Urbfno,  and  the  Marches  were  imraediutely  annexed  to 
Sardinia;  and  the  Isolated  provinces  of  Benevento  and  Ponteeorvo  (a  part  of  Frosi- 
n<me),  which  were  sliuatea  within  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  shared  the  same  fate. 
In  OctolMT,  1870,  the  French  having  withdrawn,  the  renjuantof  the  P.  S.  voted  for 
aunexiitioa  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

PAPAVERA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  herbaceous  or  ball 
Bbrubhy,  usually  with  a  milky  or  colored  juice.  The  leaves  are  alternate,  without 
stipules ;  the  flowers  on  long  one^flowered  stalks.  The  fruit  is  podnshapcd  or  capsu- 
lar ;  the  aeeds  nnmei  ons.  The  order  is  distinguished  for  narcotic  properties.  Opinin 
(q.  v.)  Is  Ita  most  important  product.  The  juice  of  Celandine  jq.  v.)  is  very  acrid. 
A  number' of  species  are  used  in  iheir  native  countries  for  medicinal  purposes.  Tlio 
seeds  yield  fixed  oil,  which,  with  the  exception  of  that  obtained  from  ^r^rffwww 
Mexicana,  is  quite  bland.  See  Poppt.  The  flowers  of  many  species  are^  large  and 
she%vy,  moat  frequently  white  or  yellow,  sometimes  red.  Several  kinds  of  poppy 
and  Eschschoitzia  are  fn^quent  in  our  gardens.  ThertJ  are  in  all  abont  130  known 
Kpecies,  natives  of  ail  quarrei-s  of  the  wond,  and  of  tropical  and  temperate  climates, 
but  th«y  abound  most  of  all  in  Europe. 

*- 

PAPA  W'-(CaWca  Papaya)^  a  South  American  tree  of  the  natural  order  Papayaceat 
— f»f  which  order  about.  80  specie^  are  known— which  has  now  been  introduceii  into 
iitinv  tropical  and  f^nbtropical  countries.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  15— 80  feet,  with 
U»j'»v»*»^  only  at  the  top,  whei*e  al^o  the  fruit  grows  close  to  the  stem.  The  hwves  are 
»|i— 80  inchea  long.  The  f rnit  is  of  a  ureen  color,  very  similar  in  appe.«rauee  to  a 
small  melon,  and  with  a  somewhat  similar  flavor.  It  is  eaten  either  raw.'or  boiled. 
'JMn*  seeds  are  round  and  black,  and  when  cliewed,  have  in  a  hi^h  degree  the  pnn-- 
geiicy  of  cresses.  Thejjowdered  seed:*  and  the  juice  of  the  nnnpe  friiit  are  nvost 
powerful  anthelmintics.  A  cx>nstituent  of  this  juice  is  Fibrim^  otherwise  imknown 
m  tb«  vegatable  kingdom,  except  In  the  Fungi.    The  milky  juice  of  the  tree  is  vezy 


y  Google 


ISS?"""  730 


Paper 

acrid.  The  leaves  are  nsed  by  n>firroei»  lostead  of  soap'  to  wash  linen.  4^e  jnice  of 
Vie  fruit  ai)d..tti<i  Bap  of  tiie  tree  have  (heaiuealar  property  of  rendering  the  tongliest 
merit  tender  in  a  abort  time.  Even  tbe  ozhalarionB  from  the  tree  tinve  thia  propeny ; 
and)(4nt8  of  meat,  fowls,  &c,  ureliong  among  its  brnuches  to  prepare  tliem  for  the 
table.  It  1»  a  tree  of  extremely  rapid  growth,  bears  frnit  iifl  the  year,  and  is  exceed- 
Jiigly  prolific  The  fmlt  is  often  cook*d  in  various  way>«. — Tbe  Chambwrn  <d  digi' 
toM),  another  species  of  the  same  gemts,  a  native  of  Brazil,  is  renuUrkaUe  for  the 
extremely  acrid  and  poisouons  character  of  its  Juice,  and  tlx;  disgusting  stei^coraceons 
odor  of  itH flowers. — In  the  middle  and  southern  states  of  America  the  name  P.  is  ^ 
sivento  the  Uociria  (or  Aaimina)  triloba,  a  small  tree  of  the  mitorul  (M'der  Anonaeem^ 
(lie  fruit  of  whicli,  a  large  oval  berry,  three  inches  long,  iseateh  by  negroes,  bat  not 
genesally  relisheil  by  others.    All  parts  of  the  plant  have  a  rank  smotl. 

PA'PKNBURG,  a  small  town  of  Hanover,  in  the  bailiwick  of  Osnabrfick,  on  a 
CMial  navigable  for  sea-going  vessels.  27  miles  ^uth-sorfth-east  of  Bmdeu,  on  Dollnrt 
Bay,  by  tbe  fimden  and  Uanover  Railway.  It  origiimted  in  a  s^nall  colony  vrhich 
sprang  np  here,  and  wan  supported  principally  by  peutt-cntting,  an  employment  for 
which  the  fens  and  moors  of  the  vicinity  afford  auundant  facilities.  Ttie  town  is 
cleanly  built,  after  the  pntch  model ;  its  houses  stretch  uloiig  tbe  banks  of  the  cnuaL 
It  possessed,  in  1874, 185  ships,  and  carries  on  tnauuf act  ares  of  sailcloth  and  ropes. 
Its  commerce  is  considerable.    Fop.  (1871)  6077. 

PAPER.  This  well-known  fabric  is  usually  composed  of  vegetable  fibres  mi- 
nnteiy  divided  and  recombined  in  thin  sheets,  eitiier  bv  edmple  drying  in  contact,  or 
with  the  addition  of  size  or  some  otlief  adhesive  materiaL  Probably  the  earTi«Bt  use 
of  paper  was  for  the  purpose  of  writing  npoii.  and  its  earliest  form  was  the  Papyros 
(q.  vO  of  tite  EWptians.  The  stems  of  the  Papyrus  plant,  wliich  are  ofteneight  or  ten 
feet  iong,  are  soft^and  green,  externally  like  tne  common  rash ;  and  the  Interior  con- 
sist'^ of  acomimctcellii]artissneori)ith.  At  the  bottom  ci  each  stem  the  portion 
immersed  In  the  mad  and  water  is  whiter  and  more  compact;  and  under  theoutejr 
sldii  a  immber  of  thin  pellicles  lie  one  above  the  other.  These  were  renioved,  and 
laid  side  by  aide  with  their  edges  overlappfne  each  other,  and  crosswise  npou  these 
was  placed  one  or  more  similar  layei-Sj  until  tTie  sheet  was  sufficiently  thick ;  pressnre 
was  then  applied  for  a  time,  and  afterwards  the  sheet  w>is  dried  In  tlie  sno.  Tlie 
width  of  such  sheets,  of  course,  depended  upon  the  length  of  tlie  portion  of  papynis 
stems  taken ;  but  they  could  be  made  any  length  by  joinilig  a  number  of  the  squares 
end  to  end  by  glne  or  any  other  adhesive  matertal.  The  acajww,  or  roll,  usually  con- 
sisted of  about  20  of  them. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  various  layers  of  the  papyrus  do<»«(ise  in  thickness  as 
they  are  nearer  to  the  centre  of  tbe  sttiui,  the  makers  were  enabled  to  produce  pikers 
of  different  qualities :  and  in  the  time  of  the  Kotuans  many  varieties  were  known, 
which  differed  as  to  the  quality  of  the  material,  and  the  size  of  the  pieces  of  wbiCh 
tlie  sheets  were  composed.  The  finest  quality  was  made  from  tiie  innermoa^t  layer 
of  membrane,  and  was  called  Hieratica.  or  paper  of  the  priests.  This  was 
made  for  tlie  Sgyptian  priests,  who  interdicted  its  sale  until  covered  w4th  sacred 
writing.  In  this  state  it  was,  however,  an  article  of  trade,  and  tlie  Romans 
found  a  means  of  removinsf  the  writing,  and  sold- tbe  palimpHest  sheets  in 
Rome  undjsr  the  name  of  Atigiifttvs  paper,  used  as  a  Latin  equivalent  for  its 
former  Greek  name  of  hieiatica.  It  was,  however,  supposed  oy  imuiy  that  it 
was  named  after  the  Emperor  Augustus,  and  in  confltM^uence  a  second  qnalitjr'^aB 
called  after  bis  wife^Livmia;  an4  the  original  name  of  the  first  qwtitty  came  iu 
time  to  l>e  applied  to  the  third  quality.  The  next  qnality  was  c&Wed'Amphiihiatriea^ 
it  is  supposed,  from  ita  having  been  made  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Alexandrian  amphi- 
theatre. This  last,  when  fmported  to  Rome,  Was  partly  remaunfactored  hy  Q.  Rem- 
mius  Fanuins  t'tdsemou,  the  schoolmaster  and  paper-maker,  who,  by  a  peonhar  pro- 
cess of  his  own,  reduced  its  thickness,  and  rendered  it  equal  to  tlie  first  qu4Uity, 
when  it  was  sold  under  the  name  of  Fanniana,  lliere  were  other  inferior  qoalitiesy 
of  which  one  called  Emporetica  was  usad  as  shop^paper. 

Pliny,  from  wiiom  we  get  these  very  interesting  particulars,  tells  ns  that  all  these 
kinds  were  niMnufactured  inE'^Trpt,  and  required  the  Nile  water  for  their  formation. 
He  sjiysy  that  »*  when  it  is  in  a  nmddy  state  it  has  the  pijculiar  qualities  of  glae,  and 
tbe  varioua  kinds  of  paper  are  made  on  a  table  wher^  they  are  moistened  With  tUa 
water.    The  loaves  or  sheets  of  membrane  are  laid  upon  it  leugthwiBe,-a8  long  in. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


deed  aj>  tho  papyrnp  will  adrait  of,  Ibfe  jagced  ed^cebelug  cut  off  at  either  end  ;'aftar 
Which tf<*.n«a  layer  1b  placed  over:  the  same  way,  in  tnct,  that  hnrdlfn  ai"e  mftde. 
Wheu  thisi  U  done,  tl»e  leaver  iire  pressed  togelheV,  and  dried  in  the  pnii."  'llie  Idea 
of  tlie  adhesive  quality  of  the  Nile  water  i«  errOneons,  but  it  is  very  probable  the 
li^nrptiau  mannfacturer«  euconraged  the  error.  It  Is  obvious  tlie  wljole  merit  coii*« 
listed  iu  using  tiie  inembraueH  fresh,  whilst  their  own  uatural  gnm  waa  in  proper 
condition  to  make  theui  adiiere  togettier. 

In  India  and  i^hina,  the  art  of  writing  with  a  style  or  pharp  point  upon  dried  paint 
and  otiier  leaves,  and  also  some  kinds  of  bark,  is  common  even  at  the  present  day, 
especially  in  Ceylon,  where  we  find  it  comuioo  to  employ  the  leaves  or  the  talipot 
and  other  palma  as  paper.  Perhaps  it  was  from  the  employmentof  these  materials. 
or  it  is  even  possible  from  watching  the  operations  of  tiie  pftper-mnklng  wasps  and 
other  insects,  that  the  manufacture  of  largtn*  pieces,  by  pulping  the  materials  and 
spreudlni;  them  out  to  a  greater  extent,  was  suggested.  Whatever  was  tlie  true 
origin  of  the  art,  it  Is  now  lost  in  the  vista  of  time. 

Jt  is  known  that  the  Chinese  were  acquainted  with  the  art  of  making  paper  from 
pulp  artificially  prepared  as  early  as  the  commencement  of  tlie  Christian  era ;  and  It 
IS  thought  that  tlM-y  used  the  bark  of  vailous  trees,  the  Koft  parts  of  haiuboo  stems, 
and  cotton.  In  tlie  7th  c,  the  Arabians  learned  the  art  of  making  it  of  cottou  from 
the  Chinese,  and  the  first  manufactory  was  established,  about  706  a.».,  at  SainarcaAid^ 
From  thence  it  was  transplanttid  to  Spliln,  where,  under  the  Mooi-s,  pajwr  was  made 
not  only  of  cotton,  but  it  Is  thought  also  of  hemp  and  flax.  The  exact  time  of  the 
iutrpdttction  of  paper  mad(t  of  linen  rags  i$  very  uncertain  ;  but  the  best  evidence  is 
offered  by  the  Arabian  pliysician  Abdollntlph,  who  writes,  in  an  account  of  his  visit 
to  Egypt  in  rl»e  year  1200,  »'that  the  clotli  loitnd  iu  the  Catacombs,  and  used  to  en- 
velou  mummies,  was  made  into  garments,  or  sold  to  the  Be\ihG8  to  make  paper  for 
sfiopkeepers ;  ^^  and  as  there  is  no  doubt  that  these  mummy-cloths  were  linen,  it 
proves  that  the  use  of  this  material  is  of  no  mean  antiquity.  Of  tlie  use  of  linen 
i-ags  in  ^Europe,  the  earliest  proof  Is  intjie  celebrated  document  found  by  Ichwaudner 
in  tiie  monastery  of  Goss,  in  Upper  Stjri''a,  which  purport^  to  be  a  mandate  of  Ei*ed* 
erlck  n.,  emperor  of  tlie  Komuna,  aiid  is  dat^d  1242.  It  is  written  on  paper  which  has 
iHien  proved  to  be  made  of  linen.  The  practice  oi*  making  a  dii-tinctive  water-mark 
on  the  paper,  by  means  of  an  impression  on  the  flue  eieve  of  tlireads  or  wires  upon 
which  the  floating  pulp  is  received,  v. as  also  of  very  eirly  date,  as  ySS.  as  old 
as  the  13tli  c.  bear  it.  But  then;  is  really  no  satisfactory  information  respecting  the 
exact  time  or  place  of  the  introduction  of  paper-making  into  Eun)pe ;  by  some  it  is 
suppoSiMl  that  Spain  was  the  first  to  receive  the  art,  and  tliat  thence  it  spread  to  Prance 
and  Holland,  and  afterwards  to  England.  It  is  quite  certain  thai  England  was  a  long 
time  beldnd  thest;  countries.  As  a  proof  of  ibis,  we  find  that  the  first  patent  for 
paper-making  was  taken  out  in  166.5,  by  one  Cimrles  Hikleyerd,  but  It  was  for  **  The 
way  an()rart  of  making  blew  paper  tised  by  sugar-bakers  and  others."  ITie  second 
was  in  1675,  l)y  Eustace  Barneby,  for  **  Th.*  art  and  jskill  of  nniking  all  sorts  of  white 
pat>«i'  tor  the  use  of  writing  and  printing,  being  a  new  mauufac  ture,  and  never  prac- 
tised in  any  way  in  any  of  our  klngdomt  s  (.r  dominions."  This,  then,  was  the  first 
commencement  of  the  making  of  writing  and  printing  paper;  bit  t  that  it  did  not 
equal  the  manufactures  of  other  countries  is  shewn  by  the  specification  of  anotlier 
patent,  taken  out  by  Johu  Briscoe  in  tlie  year  1685,  which  is  ttius  expressed:  ''llio 
true  art  and  way  for  making  English  paper  for  writlnfr,  printing,  and  other  uses, 
both  an  good  and  as  Hermceahle  in  all  reftpevttt,  and  fnptriaUy  as  white  rt«  a»w/  Fre^uth 
vr  Dutch  paper."  As  a  general  rule,  it  was  the  custom  of  paper-makers  to  employ 
linen  nigs  for  fine  papers,  but  a  great  variety  of  other  materials  iuive  been  in  use 
from  its  fii-st  introduction  ;  for,  as  early  as  16S0,  Nathaniel  Bladen  took  out  a  patent 
for  "An  engine  method  and  mill,  wliereby  iremp,  flax,  lynnen,  cotton,  c(»rdage,^ 
sllke,  woollen,  and  all  sorts  of  materials"  might  be  made  into  paper  and  pasteboard  ; 
and  from  that  time  Innumerable  efforts  have  been  made  to  prepare  other  materials 
than  cotton  and  linen  rags  for  the  manufacture  of  paper.  The  following  is  a- sum- 
mary of  the  ]>atents  which  have  been  takem  out  in  Britain  for  making  paper  from 
various  materials,  with  the  dates,  which  will  shew  to  tljose  ensragcd  in  tliis  investi- 
gatiim  iit  what  directions  the  inquiry  lias  been  previously  conducted.  The  arrauge- 
metit  is  alphal>etical,  and  ccmseqneutly  not  in  the  order  of  dates. 

The  foltowing  are  Materials,  Names  of  Inventors,  and  Dates  of  Pntnits : 
Aibe  Fibre,  Berry,  1838 ;  D'Hurcourt,  1838;  Small,  1838 ;  May,  1862  L-4iurke,  1866.  J 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


A»)iefltQ8,  Maniere,  186& 

BtiKinK  or  Sacking,  Stiff,  185$;  Wbeeler  and  Ca,  1864;  RossUer  and  Coi,  1S54 : 

Sinitli  and  Co.,  1866. 
Bnnnna  Fibre,  Berry,  1838 ;  Lilly,  1864 ;  JnlUon,  1856 ;  Burke,  ia55 ;  Hook,  185T. ' 
Barks  oe  varioat)  kiods,  Kuops  ISOO;  Balinanti,  18ft8;  Nerot.  1846;  Cuapier,  1862; 

Johu:<on.  1856;  Keik,  1865;  Lotteri,  1855;  Nive%  1856;  Broad,  1857;  Hope 

and  Co.,  185T. 
Basn  or  Bust,  Rack  and  Toache,  1866;  Tonciie,  1857. 
Be:in-8talkB,  &c,  D'Uarcoiirt,  1838;  Brooman,  1855. 
Cane  (So^ar),  Berry,  183S;  Coapier,  1862;  Johnaon,  1855;  Jallion,  1855  *.  Btfck  and 

Tonche,  1^56;  Hook,  1857. 
Cocoa-unt  Fibre,  Newton,  1852;  Holt  and  Forster,  1854. 
CocOii-nnt  Kt-mel,  Diaper,  1854. 

Clovor,  Uouphmd,  1854:  Holt  and  Fraaer,  1854;  Plunkett,  1857. 
Corton.  Bladftn,  16v^2 ;  Williams,  1833 ;  Coupicr,  1862 ;  Crosaley,  1854 ;   SIblet,  1857. 
Dung,  Jones,  180'»;  Zander,  1839 ;  Lloyd,  1852;  Hill,  1854. 
K.-«pttrto  or  Alfa,  RoutUidge,  1866. 
Flax,  Bladen,  1682 ;  Koops,  1800;  Jonei«,1805;  Ball,  1817;  Berry,  1888;  Gihb«,1898; 

De  lu  Gitrtle,  1825 ;  Conpier,  1852 ;  Collins,  1858 ;  PowuiO,  1862 ;  Couplaud, 

1854 ;  Broa<l,  1857. 
Flax.  New  Z>  aland.  Berry,  1838 ;  Gibbs,  1833  and  1867;  Gillman,  1864, 
Fresh -water  WetMis,  Archer,  1865, 
Fur,  WiillaniB,  1833. 
(irasses,  Stiff.  1853 ;  Evans,  1854 ;  Cllft,  1854;  Conpland,  1854;  Jeye^  1894 ;  Crora- 

ley,  1854;  Jackson,  1854;  Joluisou,  1856;  Fraser,  1856;  GUbee,  1866;  Hcdr 

and  Fr:iser,  1854 ;  Par'set,  1856. 
Gnita-percini,  Hancock,  1846. 
Hair,  Williams,  1S83. 

Hay,  Koops,  1800 ;  Caatelabi,  1854 ;  Parlset^  1866. 
Heath,  Cro.-sley,  185i. 
Hemp,  Bladen,  1682;  Hooper,  1790;  Koops,  1600;  Dc  la  Garde,  1826;  Gibbs,  18921 

Coupler,  1S52;  Collins,  185S;  Bargnuno,  1863;  Jacksoii,  1864;  HeUn,  18^; 

Broiid,  186T  ;  Ball,  1817. 
Hops  and    Flop-iines,   De   l:i   Garde^   1825;   D'Harcoiurt^   1838;   Balmano,  1838: 

M'Quoran,  1839;    Sbqldon,  1843;  Barling,  1864;   Crossley,  1864;  Holt  und 

Fraser,  1854;  Taylor,  1864:  Broad,  1857;  Plunkett,  1857. 
Husks  of  Grain,  Wilkiai*on.  1852. 
Jute,  Calvert^  1846;  Nerot,  1846;  Coupler,  1852;  Helln,  1854;  Jackson,  1SS4;  Smith 

and  Hollingworili,  1856. 
Leather,  Hooper,  1790 ;  Trappes,  1854 ;  Ocks,  1856 ;  Van  den  Hout,  1856 ;  Licbton- 

stadt,  1857. 
Leave!*.  Halmauo,  1838;  Warner,  1858;  Vivien,  1853;  Johnson,  1856;  M^l,  185B; 

Ruck  and  Touche,  1857. 
>Iaize,  Husk,  and  Stems,  D'Harcourt,  1838 ;  Balmauo,  1938 ;  Back  a^d  Tooclte, 

1857.  ^  ^ 

Manilla  Hemp  or  Plantain  Fibre.  Newton,  18{>2. 
Moss,  Ne^'bitt,  1824;  Bellfoid,  18.'>4;  JoIiuhou,  1855. 
Nettles,  Jones,  1805  ;  De  la  Garde,  1825;  Cliit,  1854. 
Old  Writing  Pipiir,  Koops.  1800. 
Pa  Stalk,  D'Harcourt,  1838. 
Piat  or  Turf,  Ley,  1852 ;  Clarke,  1853 ;  Lallemande,  1863  ;  Crossley,  1854 ;  HenmUag, 

185T ;  Werterraan.  1852. 
Roots  of  various  kinds,  Baim-iuo,  1833 ;  De  la  BertocUc,  1865  ;  Jobuson,  1856;  Aisk* 

land.  1854;  Barling,  1855;  Dui)us,lS67. 
Sawduat,  Wiikiusun,  1852;  Johnson,  1865. 
3  ia-vveods  Murtenoii  de  Martonoi,  1855  ;  Arcber,  1865. 
iilk.  Bladen,  1682;  Bull.  1817;  Williams,  1833. 
6U-aw,  Koops.  ISOO ;  Lambert,  1824 :  Zander,  1839 ;  Coupler.  1862;  Stiff,  1853;  Poq^e, 

1853 ;  Helin,  1854 ;  Fraser,  1856 ;  CuaucUard,  1856 ;  Custtiiain,18iS4;  Qruad,  1337 ; 

Wbeeler,  1867.  ^        ,^        ,  , 


y  Google 


733  '^ 

Tan  (Siieiit  Bntk),  Croueley,  1854 ;  Jeyev,  3854;  Holt  and  Forater,  ISM;  Horton, 

1855 ;  Koiwiter  aiui  BiatuH).  1864. 
Thiftle-oowu,  Bdlford,  1864. 

Tliiatleo,  Koops,  18u0 ;  Lord  Berridale,  1854 ;  Lilie,  1864. 
'j'obucco-siulka,  Adcock,  1864. 
Wood,  Kojia.  laHrDu^graiid,  188S;  Broomaii,  1868;    Swiiid- lis.  1854 ;  Newton, 

1852;  Johnson,  1865;  Kelk,  1{>55:  Mnrtin,  1856;  Pi-edeval,  1865;  De  Fn»ufur, 

1S55;  Clmuclmrd,  1866;  Amyot,  1866;  N«wton   (Voelier),  1867;  Poiaat,  I86T: 

Ccmpier,  1862. 
Wool.  Bladen,  1682 ;  Williauip,  18S3 ;  Dickenson,  18U7  ;  CroeBlcy,  1854. 
Wnick  Gruda  or  Zoateru,  cJpoomT,  1861. 

Bat  whatever  the  matcriul  employed,  the  process  for  nearly  all  is  the  enme.  The 
rng*,  »mrk,  fibres,  or  other  substance,  have  to  be  reduced  with  Nvafcr  Into  a  fine 
(*iuooth  pulp,  'riija,  In  iheeariystjigis  of  the  nmnnfacture,  \vnf«  acc<)nlp^18h^^d  t»y 
niacerutiug  iiud  borllue  the  nrnterlul.  until,  in  the  case  of  l)ark,  fibres,  fr  other  raw 
niaierlal.  Hie  fibres  could  be  druwii  out  from  the  cellultjse  mattcl",  afttr  whlcTi  It  was 
bealeu  with  nutllets,  or  wUU  pet»tle»  in  mortars,  or  ftanipers  movod  by  so  i  e  power. 
Water  isgtmemlly  n«tl,  but  in  Hf)l!and  wtnd-miils  do  this  work.  The  beating  ia 
rontinned  nntU  tlie  nmttrial  is  n  duced  to  a  vei-y  Mnooth  nnli>.  The  pnlpin>r»  in  our 
nmcbine  piiper-niills,  is  mnch  moi-e  nip-dly  accomplished  ny  boiling  the  linen  <»r  cot- 
ton  rags,  or  oth<T  raateriul,  in  a  i'trong  lye  of  canniic  alkali.  'I^iis  effect u:illy  cleans 
the  rags,  and  other  vegetable  fi»>roH  nre  i»o:tened  and  separatid  .in  u  remarkable 
manner  oy  It ;  ther  are  then  put  into  a  machine  called  the  waf»hing-nnichlne,  wlilch 
Washes  out  diit  and  everything  but  the  pure  vegetal)le  fibre.  '1  liis  nuichine  is  a 
large  cast-iron  vessiH,  UHUally  about  JO  feet  in  length,  4)^  ieet  in  width,  and 
2>i  feet  in  depth.  In  the  middle,  occupying  about  two-thirds  of  Ifi«  len;.'th,  is  a 
partition,  always  cast  with  it,  call«d  the  mid-feather,  to  support  the  axle 
or  driving  shaft.  This  turns  tl»o  cylinder  which  has  a  large  imiuber  of  te<*th 
or  ridges  running  across  it,  which  grip  and  tear  the  rags,  or  other  matu- 
ria's,  as  they  are  drawn  under  it  by  the  current  forujcd  by  its  revo- 
iniioufi.  In  oi*der  to  facilitate  inis,  a  peculiar  form  is  given  to  tlie  bottom 
of  the  part  in  which  tlie  cylinder  works.  The  ri-c  is  called  the  back-fall,  and  the 
materials  are  dniwn  up  to,  and  through  the  narrow  i^pace  by  the  current ;  then,  as 
they  pass  over  the  ridged  surface,  they  come  in  contact  with  the  rfdired  surface  of 
the  cylinder,  and  are  thus  violently  ground  and  drawn  through,  the  stream  carryluff 
lliem  round  and  round  until  they  jue, thoroughly  w:n«lied  and  partly  pulped ;  or.  as  fl 
is  technically  called,  broken  in.  Tire  washing-machine  is  supplied  witli  a  continued 
flow  of  clean  water,  and  the  Molled'water  as  r«  gnlarly  escapes  throngli  a  fine  gauze 
S'-ri.'en,  In  the  ends  of  the  cylinders,  in  which  is  an  ingenious  arfangeinent  for  r  ising 
It  and  carrying  it  away  tlirough  the  axis,  which  is  hollow.  The  contents  of  the 
waBliine-mnchme  are  then  .Mllowed  to  flo^v  out  through  a  laree  valve,  opening  down- 
wards into  the  draining-chesL  Here  the  water  is  dmined  away,  and  the  NttiJ^  is 
then  placed  in  the  bleaching  vat p,  whicli . -ire  made  of  t*ton<*,  and  ejich  calculated  to 
contain  a  hundredweight  of  stuff,  whicii  Ij«  liere  submitted  to  the  acrion  of  a  strong 
holutiou  of  chloride  of  lime  for  about  twenty-four  hours,  and  frequently  agitjited  ; 
after  which  it  Is  transferred  to  a  hydraulic  prens,  and  pressed  so  as  to  i-emove  the 
greater  portion  of  the  liquid  and  chloride  of  lime.  It  is  then  placed  hi  another  wuphing- 
e:igine,  and  for  an  hour  is  submitted  to  the  same  process  as  in  the  fii-st;  by  which 
Jill  vestiges  of  the  l>le::Chlnc  materials  are  removed,  and  the  Stuff  so  inuclj  more 
broken  down  as  to  be  CAllexi  half-atvff.  From  tliis  engine  it  is  let  out  by  a  valve,  ;ind 
finds  its  way  into  the  heating-engiiie,  which  is  placed  at  a  lower  level  ?o  as  to  i-eceive 
it  Here  the  arrangement  is  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  wasliing  and  intennediate 
engines; -but  the  ridges  on  the Jf)ar8  l>elow  the  cylinder,  and  on  the  rylhidei-  itself, 
lire  much  sharper,  and  the  disintegnition  of  the  fibres  is  carried  on  with  great  rapid- 
ity until  they  are  quite  separated  ;  and  the  flow  of  water  in  a  rapid  curix^nt,  as  it 
passes  (he  cylinder,  draws  them  out  and  arranges  them  in  thewnterin  much  the 
hanie  way  as  wool  or  cotton  is  laid  on  tlie  carding-cylintlers  of  a  carding-machine. 
Ilils  operation  takes  about  five  hours,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  maierials  have 
been  worked  up  with  the  water  into  an  almo^t  imnalpable  pulp.  This  is  theii  let 
Out  Into  the  pulp  vat,  where  it  is  kept  continually  agitated  by  a  wooden  wheel 
r«Tol\ing  in  it,  called  a  hog^  audfrom  this  the  band-workman  or  machine  is  eupplicdr 


y  Google 


paper 


734 


We  will  now  euppone  the  pnlp  foiTOeil  and  ready  for  use  in  the  vnt,  and  will  flmt 
de»crU>e  the  proccM  of  haiid-iuaKiti^,  us  formerly  practiHed  in  all  countries,  and  .••till 
in  u«e,  more  or  It^ss,  in  all  p;ii>er-inakin^  conntries.  The  MOrknian  or  vatinnu  rakes 
an  implement  called  a  mould,  which  conHifts  of  a  s'.ieot  of  verv  fine  net- 
work, attached  to  a  frame.  In  £uroi>e  this  net-work  waa  always  made  of  very  fine 
wire ;  but  in  India,  China,  and  Japan  it  ii«  usually  mude  of  fine  tibre«  of  banilMio, 
which  the  workmen  of  these  conntries  Hplir  and  weave  with  rrnnirkable  skill,  'i'lu  re 
are  nBually  two  kinds  of  moulds  employed.  In  one  the  wires  are  woven  ucroi^s  *'acli 
otlier,  forming  a  very  fine  gauze  ,and  paper  made  wMh  them  is  known  as  vsrce.  In  the 
other,  there  are  several  ci'Oss-lmrs  in  the  frame,  and  straight  wires  arc  laid  from  s.de 
to  side,  and  abqjit  four  or  five  to  each  half  sheet  are  laid  across  them  lengthwiHe,  to 
keep  them  in  position  ;  the  transverse  wires  are  about  twenty  to  tlie  inch ;  the  longi- 
tudinal ones  are  a  little  more  than  an  inch  apart.  Paper  made  on  such  mould**  is 
called  laid,  and  is  easily  known  by  the  impression  of  the  wires  upon  it.  Whicliever 
kind  of  mould  is  used,  another  implement  called  the  deckWi^  required.  It  is  a  thiii 
frames  which  exactly  corresponds  to  the  frame  of  the  mould,  and  the  workman  fl^^^' 
places  the  deckle  oiijhe  mould,  and  then  dips  them  into  the  pulp ;  the  deckle  formi^ 
a  ridge  whicli  retains  last  enough  of  the  liquid  pulp  for  the  sheet  of  paper.  The 
water  Of  the  pulp  speedily  dm  ins  through  the  wire  gauze,  and  after  ft  has  stood  In  au 
inclined  position  for  a  few  minutes,  another  workman,  called  the  enucher,  uppliet«the 
fare  of  tue  sheet  of  5;>uip  to  a  piece  of  felt  or  flannel  cloth  strc^tched  on  a  boardr 
called  the  couch,  and  the  sheet  thus  pre.^sed,  leaves  the  mould,  and  is  left 
on  the  cotich,  EWy  successive  sheet  is  similarly  treated,  and  they  are  piled  one 
ou  anoth-r,  with  a  sheet  of  felt  between  each,  until  from  four  to  eight  quires,  or  a 
pout,  as  it  is  called,  is  formed.  Each  post  is  put  in  a  press,  and  uuderpressui-e  parts 
wlrh  nearly  all  the  ntolature  in  the  sheets  of  paper.  The  felts  are  then  remove^, 
and  after  several  press! II <rsv and  other  minor  operations,  the  paper  is  bun?  ou  hair 
ropes,  called  tHbble*,  in  tlie  dryih«:-loft;  and  when  dried,  resembles  blottiug-pajier, 
aud  cannot  Ixi  written  upon.  This  is  remedlj^d  bv  dipniiig  it  in  a  weak  solution  of 
liot  size,  sometimes  tinged  with  color,  after  which  It  is  pressed,  dried,  folded,  and 
made  up  into  quires.  Hot  pressing  and  glazing  arc  done  by  passing  the  sheets 
through  hot  and  polished  iron  rollers. 

In  Britain  very  little  paper  is  now  made  by  hand,  the  paper-machine  having 
changed  the  character  of  the  manufacture.  It  is  usually  stated  that  Louis  Robert,  u 
Freuclnnau,  invented  the  papd-machine,  and  that  it  was  brotight  to  Uiis  country  by 
Didot  of  Palis  in  an  imperfect  statts  but  received  improvements  from  Pourdri«iler. 
But  it  must  not  be  overlooked  that  Bramali  took  out  a  patent  in  1805,  rather  more 
than  a  year  before  Fourdrinier,  for  very  similar  improvements  to  those  de8oril>ed 
in  Fourdrinier's  specification.  The  object  of  all  was  to  cause  an  equal  suppiy  of  the 
pulp  to  flow  upon  an  endless  wire  gauze  apron,  which  would  revolve  and  carry  on 
the  paper  until  it  is  received  ou  an  endless  hheet  of  felt,  passing  around  aud  between 
large  couching  cylinders.  These  machines  have  now  l)een  brought  to  such  perfec- 
tion, that  paper  can  be  made  in  one  continuous  weh  of  any  length ;  and  before  leav- 
ing the  machine,  is  sized,  dried,  calendered,  hot-pressed,  and  cut  into  stieets. 
Different  engineers  have  contrived  variations  of  construction  in  the  paper-machin**, 
but  the  general  principh^s  of  all  are  the  same.  The  machine  which  was 
exhibited  by  Mr  George  BtTtram  of  Edinbm*gh,  was  universally  acknowledged 
to  be  by  far  the  nu>9t  complete  and  perfect  which  was  presented  in  the  Inter- 
national ExhibitiuM  of  1863.  Since  then  no  very  important  improvements 
have  been  made  in  the  main  part  of  the  machine,  but  the  drying  portion  has 
been  greatly  extended. 

'i'^e  principle  of  the  machine  is  very  siinple;  it  contains  a  pulp  vat.  with  a  hog 
or  wheel  inside  to  agitate  the  pulp,  and  an  armngemeut  for  pouring  tfte  pulp  over 
I  lie  wire-gauze  mould,  which  instead  of  being  in  single  squares,  as  in  the  naud-pro' 
cess,  is  an  endless  alieet  moving  round  two  rollers,  which  keep  it  stretclied  out  and 
revolving  when  in  operation.  Under  the  ptu-t  which  receives  the  pulp  there  is  a  se- 
ries ol  small  brass  rollers,  thej^e,  beins  u<'arly  close  together,  keep  it  perfectly  level. 
which  is  a  most  m-cessjiry  condition  ;  besides  which,  there  is  a  shallow  troutfh^callcci 
the  Maoe  (UU  which  catches  and  retains  the  w^ter,  which  always  esa>pc8  with  soni*^ 
pup  in  Mispeiision  :  and  an  arrangenu-nt  of  suction  boxes  and  tul)esj  worked  by  air- 
puiup.-,  which  draw  urnch  of  the  water  out  aa  tiue  pulp  passes  over  tnem.    The' pulp 


y  Google 


735 


Pfepeff 


i9  kept  from  rnnnfng  ovftr  the  s!df»P  by  strape  called  the  deckles,  which  nre  also  end- 
]«fl8  bands.  iTvually  of  vulcanised  Iiidiu-nibi>er,  carried  round  nioviug  rollers,  so  that 
tliey  Iriivel  with  the  wire-gauze,  ami  therefore  offer  no  reHietauco  to  it.  In  «dditiou 
to  all  tlds,  the  frame-n-ork  on  which  tlw.  surface  of  the  wir«-ganse  rests  has 
a  sliOL'giiifg  motion,  or  side-shake,  which  has  au  important  effect  in  working; 
the  flbrcfj  tog<;rher  before  the  pulp  finally  setJh-s  down.  When  it  readies  the 
ewiehinftJ(roU«y  which  prtss  out  most  of  the  remaining  moisture,  and  carry  it  forward 
to  the  first  and  second  series  of  pre»*s-rollj5  by  means  of  an  endless  weD  of  felt 
which  pa>*se8  round  them,  the  siieedof  these  rollers  and  the  ths  veiling  sheet  of  felt  is 
iiicvly  oticuiated.  so  as  to  prevent  a  strain  upon  the  still  very  tender  web  of  paper. 
Somt^times  the  upper  rollera  of  these  two  series  are  filled  with  steam,  in  oraer  to 

.  comnunce  drying  the  web.  The  pai)er  is  now  trusted  to  itself,  and  nafses  on  from 
the  second  pnrss-rolls  to  the  first  set  of  dryifig  cylindarSf  where  it  aguiii  meets  withn 
felt  sheet,  which  keeps  it  in  close  contact  with  the  dxyinff  cvlinders,  which  are  of 
Inr^^e  size,  and  filled  with  steam.  Around  these  it  passes,  drying  as  it  goes;  is  then 
received^ between  the  two  snioothing-roUay  or  damp  calenders,  which  press  l>oth  snr- 

^  faces,  aiid  remove  tlie  murks  of  the  wire  and  felt,  which  are  until  then  visible  on  the 
paper.'  This  is  necessurilv  done  before 'the  drying  is  quite  completed;  and  from 
ttie  smoothing-rolls  it  passes  to  the  second  series  of  drying  cylinders,  where 
the  drying  is  fiuish<d,  and  thence  to  the  calenders,  which  are  polished  rollers 
of  hard  cast-iron,  so  adjusted  as  to  give  a  considerable  i>ressure  to  the  paper, 
and  at  the  same  time  a  glossiness  of  surface.  For  writing-papei-s,  Uie  paper 
{>as8e8  through  a  shallow  trough  of  sixe  after  leaving  the  diyin*;  cj'Unders,  and 
then  passes  over  anotlver  series  of  skeleton  cylinders,  with  fans  moviig  iu»>ide,  by 
which  it  is  again  dried  without  heat,  and  afterwards  pusses  through  the  calenders. 
Priutiui;  and  other  papers  are  nsmilly  sized  by  mixiiig  the  size  in  tlie  pul|i.  in  whiah 
staire  the  coloring  mat^rialg — such  as  ultramarine  for  the  blue  tint  of  fouIsca|i — are 
also  introduced.  Still  following  the  paper  wel>.  it  is  seen  to  pass  from  the 
calendi4i!)  to  ai  other  machine;  this  slits  the  web  into  widths,  which  are  again  cross 
cut  into  sheets,  the  size  of  which  is  regnlati  d  at  will.  The  water-mark  is  impressed 
on  machine-made  paper  by  means  of  a  fine  light- wire  cylinder  with  a  wire-woven  pat- 
tern ;  this  Is  plucea  over  the  wire-gauze  sheet  upon  which  the  pulp  is  spread,  but 
wear  the  other  end  of  it,  so  that  the  light  impression  of  the  marker  may  ai^t  u]K)ii 
the  papt^r  jhst  when  it  ceases  to  l>e  pulp,  and  this  remains  all  tlirongh  its  course. 
There  are  many  other  interestiuif  pomtn  about  the  paper-machine,  but  their  intro- 
duction here  would  rather  tend  to  confuse  the  reader.  Its  productive  power  is  vqiy 
great;  it  povesat  a  rate  of  from  80  to  70  feet  per  minute,  spreading  pulp,  couching, 
drying,  and  calendering  as  it  goes,  so  that  tite  stretim  of  pulp  flowmg  in  at  one  end 
is  in  two  minutes  passing  our  finished  pa|)er  at  tl/b  other.  It  has  l)een  computed 
that  an  ordinary  machine,  making  webs  of  pamfr  54  inches  wide,  \vi\\  turn  out  four 
miles  a  day,  nncl  that  the  total  prodnction  of  all  the  mills  in  Britain  is  not  less  than 
6.00rt,(K)0  of  yai-da,  or  8400  miles  daily. 

For  very  obvious  reasons,  the  manufacture  of  paper  has  been  localised  on  the 
banks  of  streams  that  afford  an  abundant  supply  of  pure  water  for  washing  and 
]>ulping.  Kent  is  celebrated  for  its  puper-miMs  and  for  the  fine  qnality  of  its  paper, 
and  is  the  chief  ^unty  in  this  respect  Next  follow  Hertfordshire,  (where  it  was  fh»t 
coiiimenced  in  England  in  1490  by  John  Tate  of  Stevenage,  of  whom  it  is  said  in  a 
book  printed  by  Caxton, 

Which  late  bathe  in  England  doo  make  thya  paper  tliynne, 
I'hat  now  iu  our  Euglyssh  tliys  booke  is  printed  iune ; 
and  the  same  John  Tate  is  mentioned  in  Henry  VII.'s  Household  Book,  under  dates 
If  ay  dS.  1498  and  1499,  ♦*for  a  rewarde  geven  at  the  imper-mylne,'*  and  "geven  iu. 
rewarde  to  Tate  of  tlie  mylne,  Us.  8«L'*),  Buckinghamshire,  Oxfordshire,  and  Lan- 
cashire.   It  was  introduCfQd  into  Scotland,  in  the  year  1696,  when  a  company  was 
formed  for  carrying  it  on  under  "Articles"  signed  at  a  general  meeting  held  in 
}^inburgb,wiiich  articles  are  now  in  the  Library  of  the  British  Museum.    It  has 
became  a  very  important  branch  of  manufacture ;  and  not  only  is  paper  of  u  very 
floe  quality  made  from  rags  and  the  new  material  Bs|)arto,  Alfa,  or  Spanish  Grass 
(ttie  Lygeum  Sparteum  ot  botanists),  but  also  the  manufacture  of  paper-inachiLes  is 

.carried  ou  most  successfully  lx>th  for  foreign  and  home  use.    Both  of  these  maua- 
CJ.  K.,  X.,  24. 


y  Google 


736 

f«Ctnrwar»>  carri«rt  on  h»  the  imvcmWafe  nefghborliood  of  Bdiiibiir^li.  fvTnce  the  In- 
troduction uf  th'.i  iteiiny  po-tage,  ixiitny  ]ia|>vn>,  and  otlier  ttcono.iiical  iiie.-miires,  es- 
IMici.illy  the  abolitloii  of  tUe  (^xiinv-ilutyy  ou  eiioriuoiiB  iiupiftiis  Ime  l>efi)  i^iveii  to 
his  branch  of  our  liome-mnniilnctnre,  and  coiiBiderable  difHciiIty  has  bi>eii  found  in 
f>npi>lyiii>z  tb<;  inakttrs  witli  raw  matoritd  :  f his  difttculty  baa  been  uinch  incfea^ed  by 
the es^rtdutiea laid  by  other  coaiitriia  npOii  the  «'xyort  of  rag>«.  The  irreatest  re- 
lief h^*l»efn  ezpepienced  J>y  iiaprovwl  methods  for  preparing  paper  pnlp  from  ntraw, 
and  Ironi  the  tiitrodiicliou  of  the  Ee»parto,  which  yielda  lialf  Ita  uvight  of  pai>er. 
Of  lhl»  material  our  in>port!<  have  ria  u  to  140.000  tons  per  aunnni,  wliick  n-pn*- 
seuta  T5,00O  tons  of  paper.  The  iinporti*  of  niKa,  notwithi*landinK  the  foreign  iui- 
pcdinienia.  arit  alao  very  large.  Duriui;  the  flvo  vi'ars  ending  in  187.%  they  wuro  as 
foUow>*7  1871,  2«,8«8  tons;  1872,22,254  tons:  1873,  16,^51  Umn;  1874,  17,232  lon^; 
and  iS7i».  15379.  In  1863,  the  ini|H>rl  of  rage  waH  as  high  as  45,448  tons.  Judifing 
from  good  d;ita,  this  maunfactnre  hasinorethan  trebUKl  since  the  alwlitioii  of  the 
paper-duty,  at  wldch  time  it  was  very  nearly  100,000  tone,  a  qnantity  so  viwt,  that 
u  will  rtnnove  all  surprise  at  tti«;  d:mcu)ty  of  AU|H>lying  the  raw  materialj^. 

Tih  foUowini^  are  tiie  principa)  vaiietiea  of  ordinary  paiM:r,  and  ttie  siases  of  the 
Bheet«i-&ivini  in  inches:  * 

1.   Wnth.g  aiid  Pt-iJitinff  Pap^a.— Pot  (ik>  named  from  its  original  fvater-mark.  a 
tiiikird),  12)4  l»y  15;  Double   Pot,  15  by  2tf.,   Foolj*cap,   ie}4  by  ISJ^ ;  Sheet-and- 


PoHt  C«>  caleil  from  its*  mm  in  letter-writing;  one  of  itH  onu'inal  water-marks  was  a 

Bwtman's  horn).  18?^  bv  15X  ;  Ljirge  Do.,  20%  by  U}^ ;  Medium  Do.,  18  by  22>i; 
oubJe  Do.,  80>i^  bv  19. '  Copy.  20  bv  le^^.  Double  Crown,  20  by  30.  IXnny,  20  by 
15:  IMnling  Do.,  k2j<^  by  U^ ;  Medium  Do.,  22  bv  11)4 1  Medium  Printing  Do.,  23 
38)^.  .•ll'.yal,24by  19;  Printing  Di>.,  25  by  20;  Sup^r-royal,  27  hy  19;  Super-royal 
Piiming,  21  by  27.  laiperial,  »)  by  22.  Atlas,  34  by.^  Columbier,  34)^  by  23^. 
Slephanti  23  by  23;  Doable  Do.,  ^%  by  40.  Autiquariau,  53  by  31 :  tbia  is  geueraUy, 
if  uol  always,  hand-mad*. 

Tbt^tfe  sisei)  are  soinewbat  lessened  by  ploa;;hing  ami  flniohing  off  the  edges  pie- 
yioiu  1 1  sale. 

9.  Coante  Papers  for  vnrapping  and  other  pwrpwe*. — Kent-rap,  21  by  18 ;  Bag-cap, 
19}4  hy  24:  Havou-c.ip,  21  by  16;  Ini|Mrial-cai>,  2a>tf  by  29  Doo^'le  2-Ib..  17  l»y  fe4; 
DouMe  4-lb.,  21  by  81 ;  Doul>lc  6-lb.,  19  by  28.  -  Cartridge,  Cat'ing,  and  Middle-luind, 
&c.^  21  by  16.  Lumber-band,  19^  by  22><^ ;  Boyal-hund,  20  by  25 ;  Doable  Buoall- 
Land,  19J»y29. 

Purule  p:ipe>i« Of  a  soft  texture,  unsiai^.  are  u«ed  In  very  la rg.*  quantities  by 
sngjir-reflner.-,  of  the  foUowinir  sises :  Copy-lqaf,  16.\'  by  215!^ ;  l»owdei^WKkf,  18  by 
26;  Doublvi-loaf,  16>^  by  23;  Singkvloaf,  21^  by  27  ;  Lump,  23  by  33;  Uambro\  16>^ 
by  28 ;  'iMiler,  29  bv  85 ;  Pra^sian.  or  Double  JLump,  82  by  42. 

BkHtinffatid  FitUi-itig  i^P^r.— This  is  unsiz  d  pnp^r,  mndo  of  good*  quality,  aiMl 
usually  colored  pink  or  red,  and  of  the  same  sizp  as  demy- 

Btisidfts these,  which  are  well-knowp^tradatleftnitionB,  then*  are T»>ry  many  cbern, 
'  amounting,  if  we  include  po^  and  mUl  boards,  to  at  least  twelve  or  fifteen  hundred, 
so  that  even  pai>er-manufiicturers  require  the  aid  of  a  treatise  aiM>n  the  subject  of 
the  size^,  qualities,  &c.,  and  such  a  treatise  is  in  commonnse. 

Bven  as  regard?  mitterinis,  varieties  are  endless.  In  jm  <rid  German  book  by 
Jacob  Clu*istian  SchSffere.  published  at  Regensburg  in  1772,  there  are  no  less  th  in 
eighty-one^  samples  of  dlfiEt-rent  kinds  of  paptr  bound  up  and  forming  part  of  the 
book,  and  innumerable  otiiers  huve  been  made,  piuce. 

Rice  paj)er  is  a  beautiful  materinl  imported  from  China,  about  which  nnmlv^rless 
errors  have  been  written.  It  i.s  now  known  to  be  form<d  of  thin  slices  of  thf  pith 
of  the  plant  called  Aralia  papyri/era.  This  pith  can  be  obtained  from  tbe^'f>temH  in 
beautiful  cylinders,  from  one  to  twoincli«s  in  dia-neter,  and  seTeral  inches  in  Ivnfftli. 
The  Chinese  workmen  ai^ly  the  bhufeof  a  sharp,  stmigbtknife  to  these  cy1ina«ra 
of  pith,  and,  tnming  them  raund  dext«'roui<Iy,  «are  them  from  the  circnuifer«nce  to 
the  cenfiv,  making  a  rolled  laver  of  equal  thirkness  thronghont.  This  it^  nurollwl, 
and  weights  are  puiced  upon  it.  until  it  Is  rendi»red  perfecWy  smooth  and  flat.  Some- 
times a  number  ai*e  joined  .together  to  in^Tease  the  m'lzt  of  tlie  i^heets.  It  will  l>e  seen 
that  this  more  nearly  resembW  the  ancient  p.-ipyrus  than  ra*>dern  |xi|)er:  but  it  is 
more  Ivautlfal  ttian  the  former,  b<'ing  a  very  pure  pearly  white,  and  admir.ibly 
adapted  to  the  peculitu:  style  of  painting  of  the  Chinese. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


737 


Pmp«r 


The  ordiniiry  papers  of  the  Chliicfle,  Japanese,  mid  Enst  Indinu6  hare  mnch  re- 
•emblaiice  to  eticli  other,  which  arises  from  tlie  inuunfHcture  aud  inatorial  bolug 
similar;  the  baric  of  ihe  paper  inaiberry  (BrotiMtntetia  papifri/era)  Iniiig  ehit'flv 
uaed.  Tlie  Cliiiie««e  wid  Japaiieae  are  ilie  nioft  slcilfn)  paper-inalcerM  in  the  uorlti, 
mid  some  of  the  Eaut  Indian  papers  surpass  the  £uropeau  uianiifactores  coln- 
pletel}'. 

Some  nseful  kinds  of  paper  are  the  repult  of  roaulpfilatious  sobseqneut  to  tlio 
paper-maker's  worlc    Thu>« : 

LUhoffrapkie  Paper  is  prepared  from  good  prliitiiig-pHp«r  by  laying  on  one  side 
of  the  HhiHiis  a  preparation  cousistiug  of  six  parts  of  i»tj«rfh.  tme  of  aUini,  atfd  two  of 
gum'4ural>ic  di8if>olved  in  warm  wntcr,  and  applied  virliilst  not  Mitli  a  prosier  bmsb. 
Ucnerullv  a  little  gamboge  is  ndded,  to  give  it  a  slight  yellow  color. 

Copping  Paper ^  for  munifold-writers.  is  made  by  applying  a  composition  of  lard 
and  black-lead  to  one  side  or  lK>th  of  uttiet-tsof  wriiin<^p»|H'r;  aud  uftt*r  leaving  it 
on  f(ir  a  day  or  to,  it  is  ciirefully  and  smoothly  sci-apcd  off  uud  wiped  with  a  foft 
cloth. 

Traehig  Paper  Is  goo<l  priiiting-jMi]>er  rendere<l  transparent  by  brnpbing  It  over 
with  a  uiixtnre  of  Canada  balsam  aud  oil  of  turpt-nllne,  or  nut  oil  and  tnipentlne.  In 
either  cise  it  must  l»e  carefully  dried  liefore  using. 

There  ar«  two  cli:*tinct  clai^ses  of  coloroxl  i>ap.  n«.  In  oi:e,  the  color  is  Introduced 
into  tho  pulp,  aud  is  consequently  in  the  iKHly  of  the  paper;  in  the  other,  the  colors 
are  uiixtHl  with  size,  and  applied  to  tlie  surface.  Tliere  have  heew  many  ingenious 
and  tasteful  inventions  for  dccx>rating  the  t^nifaceof  paper,  such  as  i>y  giving  it  a 
marbled  and  even  a  bfaotiful  inciescent  appeannice,  but  th(^  are  too  numerous  for 
the  limits  of  thin  article. 

Paper  is  subject  to  much  adulteration.  Cliina-clay  and  gypsniu  are  generally 
ns(M  for  the  white  sorts,  aud  thu  bi-avy  femigiuous  ociires  for  the  coarse  aud  lHt>wu 
kuuU. 

.     PAPEU-BOOK,  in  English  Law.  is  tlieniame  eivon  to  the  pleadings  on  both  sidcp 
in  an  acton  at  law,  wheu  thu  issue  is  one,  not  of  fact,  bat  of  hiw. 

PAPER-EIANQINGS.  'Ibis  name  is  applied  to  the  webs  of  paper, pttpitmrn peinU 
of  tiie  Preucii,  usu  illy  decorat'd,  with  which  interior  walls  are  often  coveretl.  Pre- 
vious to  the  invention  of  the  ptiiier-machine,  sheets  of  paper  of  tite  size  calU  d 
Elephant,  22  by  82  inches,  were  pasted  t(^cther.  to  make  13  yard  leiniths,  before 
tlie  pattern  was  imprintt^d ;  but  this  is  now  rendered  unnece>«:uy  by  the  facility  of 
inakhig  webs  of  any  length.  U|m>u  the  paper  it  is  usual  first  to  spread  a  ground- 
color, with  pro|>er  brushes,  tubdlig  care  to  procluce  a  perfectly  smooth  surface.  Tlio 
colors  employed  are  o{)aqu<%  and  are  mixed  with  size,  ana  sometimes  also  with 
starch,  and  most  of  the  ordinary'  pigments  are  used.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  art 
it  was  usual  to  have  tile  pntt(*rns  steuciiled  (see  BrENCiLLiMa)  on  the  grouud-color. 
The  stencilling  plates  w<re  usually  pie<*es  of  pasteboard,  one  being  required  for 
eveiy  difffreutly  colored  portion  of  the  paitei'n.  Afterwards,  i%oodetr  block* 
were  ^opted,  similar  to  those  used  in  catieo-priiitioir,  made  of  pear  or 
poplar  wood,  generally  the  width  of  the  paper,  forming,  indeed,  hutie  wood 
cuts,  ou  which  the  pattern  is  iu  high  relief.  As  many  bU)cks  am  ■  re- 
quirt^  as  there  are  colors  in  the  pattern,  each  beariue  only  so  *  mnch 
of  the  pattern  as  is  represented  bv  the  color  to  which  it  is  arsiened.  Of 
coiurse,  the  whole  lieHUty  of  the  work  depends ^iixm  the  nice  adjustment  of  one  por- 
tion of  the  pattern  to  another;  aiid  this  is  determiueil  by  gnide<pins  in  the  blocks, 
which  are  so  managed  as  not  to  disfigure  the  surftioe  with  their  points.  The^ttttern- 
block,  being  coat<*d  with  its  particular  color  from  the  color-tub,  is  laid  on  the  paper^ 
which  is  stretched  out  for  tlie  purpose  on  a  table,  aud  a  lever  is  brought  to  bear  upou 
it  with  suffieieut  pressure  to  make  the  whole  of  the  block  bear  equally  uptm  the 
paper.  Whcn^ue  block  has  l)een  printed  the  whole  length  of  the  paper  by  a  succes- 
Biuu  of  impressiou!*,  tlie  piece  is  tidceo  to  the  drying-room,  and  dried,  previous  to 
receiving  the  next  color ;  and  it  often  huppeos  that  tlie  same  operations  have  to  be 
rcpeateda  dozen  different  times  before  the  pattttm  is  coinplettML  This  process  i^ 
DOW  being  rapidly  superseded  by  tiie  cylinder  printing-machines,  which  are  of  the 
same  kind  as  are  used  in  printing  textile  fabrics.  In  th«>so  machines,  the  pattern 
is  engraved  ou  a  series  of  copper  cylindei-s,  and  each  part  or  color  baa  a  sepan'^'' 


Digitized  by 


Google 


l>api«r  *  ''^ 

cylinder,  aiwl  an  arrnnwi^mciit  for  keeping  it  coost.intly  siipplifd  ^  Itli  color  whon 
M'urkiui;.  Thtt  cyliiulcra  ai'e  f>o  arraugi d  kb.  by  tUe  i*iun uf  their  ceTOiutiout,  to  inalce 
Die  piittem  cuiuphfte ;  ho  that  a^  the  web  of  papt* r  paa8H»  the  flr»t»  it  receivc»t  tht* 
color  for  one  i>oiiiou  of  the  |>»tteru,  aiut  reacheA  the  second  in  exact  timt>  to  hiive 
the  next  color  upi>lie<l  hi  the  right  pluct>8.  In  riiit*  way  the  eutire  piece  only  occapies 
a  few  Becoudn  In  receiving  the  complete  decoratiou. 

Tiie  polished  or  glasi^iiaperK  have  ttie  ground  n^parcd  with  gyp^ntn  or  piayter 
of  Paria,  and  the  Huifuce  dakitfd  witii  finely -iiowdercd  »t«atite«  or  French  chatk 
Wlien  perfectly  dry,  this  ii»  rnbl)ed  hard  witli  u  biiriiia)iing-i>ras)iy  nufil  the  witole  is 
evenly  polished.  Tlila  ia  geuerally  done  before  the  paiieni  is  pnuttKl,  bnt  In  itonie 
cases  pattern  and  gxound  are  both  poiiaheil.  lu  luukUig  the;(o(ik-f}a|Mr«,  the  printing 
la  done  in  ilie  same  way  &a  in  tlie  hlock-priutiug,  <»iiy,  iiMiead  uf  colored  uiatiiriaJ, 
a  coinpoaitiou  called  encauMtie  la  priuied  on.  It  conaiptaof  liatteed-uli,  boiled  wiih 
litharge,  and  ground  ui>  wiih  white-lead :  aulHcient  liihaige  is  used  to  uiakbit  dry 

SnickTy,  as  it  is  very  aalief^ive.  The  iludc  ia  prepared  from  the  slieaeiugs  of  vrooileii 
oths  from  the  cIotli-milIi>,  by  wa»liing  and  dyeing  tlie  shearings  to  the  variona  col> 
ors,  tlieu  stove-dryliiK  and  gcindiug  tltem  in  a  pttCHliur  mill,  which,  in  tlieirbritile 
titate,  after  leaviuff  the  stove,  bi-eaks  th«^in  short.  After  this  tli«y  are  sifted,  to  obtain 
varions  degrees  of  fineneits.  By  nice  management,  iJie  prepared  flock  is  so  sprinkU-d 
over  the  whole  of  the  printeti  f^nrface  as  to  coat  ttk;  encanatic,  and  adhere  evenly 
and  firmly  to  it.  The  same  adiiesive  material  is  nsed  for  priiitii^  hi  gold  a^id  other 
metaK  Tiie  pattern  being  printed  with  the  encanstie,  «o.d  or  other  metallic  leaf  is 
applied,  and  when  U  Is  propt^riy  Axt.>d,  tlie  loose  ntetal  is  bmnht-d  away  with  a  ila^•'8- 
foot  or  other  soft  brnsh.  Some  of  the  finest  French  papers  liave  much  of  Uie  p.itteru 
actually  patnte(\  in  by  iiand,  a  process  whicii,  of  course,  renders  them  very  coatly. 

PA  HER  JillLBRRRY.    8ee  Mulberbt. 

PA  PBR  N AimLXJS.    See  A roon  aut. 

PAPHLAGO'NIA,  aucienUv  a  province  of  Asia.  Minor,  extenAng  along  the 
soHtliern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  from  tiie  Halys  cm  the  east,  to  the  Partiieniaa 
on  the  west,  (wlilch  separates  It  from  Bitiiyuia),  and  Inland  on  tt^  fontii 
to  (4alnthi.  Its  Ihults,  -however,  w<;re  somewhat  dlff  rent  at  different  times. 
The  Pa|)hlagoniau  monntjiins  were  cover»'d  witli  forests,  and  the  inhabituntB 
were  famous  as  iinntrrs.  Crce-ns  made  P.  »  part  of  tlie  kingdom  of  Lydiit, 
and  Oyros  aniteil  It  to  Persia;  it  subseunently  bt>caine  part  of  the  empire  of 
Alexander  the  Groat,  and  nftenvards  of  the  kingdom  of  Pontns,  was  included  in  the 
Roman  province  of  Oalatin,  and  in  tlie  4th  c.  of  the  Christian  em  was  madt*  u 
separate  province  by  Oonstantiiie.  Its  capit^il  W2is  S!no()e.  The  FaplilagoulaDs  are 
siippos<^l  to  have  been  of  Svrluii,or  at  leant  of  Semitic  orii^ln,  like  the  Cappadociana. 
They  tvere  |>OTerhiany  ru(U>,  eoarse,  and  deficient  in  uudeTBtandiug,  hot  tltia  pro- 
bably refers  only  to  tlie  country-people  In  the  interior. 

PA'PHOS,  anciently  tlie  name  of  two  cities  in  the  isle  of  Cyprus.  The  older 
city,  Boineilmes  called  Pa'aipaphint  (now  Kvkli>%  or  Kow»hHa).  wa"*  sitnateil  in  the 
westi'iTi  part  of  the  i^nd,  alwut  IJ^  miles  from  lh(«  eoist.  It  was  probably 
lotinded  by  the  Phanicians,  and  w;is  faiuoos,  even  before  Homer's  time,  for  a 
tifinpltt  of  Vi'Mis,  who  was  said  to  have  here  risen  from  the  sea  close  bv,  whence 
her  epithet  ^/>i^>-odirf,*^foani-snnint;,"  and  who  was  designated  tlie  Paphiaii  god- 
iless.  Tills  was  her  chief  resldeiKM;,  and  hither  crowds  of  pilgrims  us  d  to  come 
hi  aiici<'nt  tlmaa.— The  other  Paphor*,  called  Xeopaphoa  (now  Bafti),  was  oi>  the  sea- 
roast,  about  seven  or  eight  miles  north-west  of  the  older  city,  and  w»\s  the  place  in 
which  the  apostle  Paul  proclaimed  the  gospel  before  the  proconsul  Sergius. 

PA'PIAS.  Bishop  of  Hierapolisin  Phryghi,  was  a  Ohristlsn-wrlter,  wlio  fUmr- 
Ished  in  the  2d  century.  According  to  Ireussns,  be  was  a  disciple^  tlie  }>f>t)stU> 
7obn ;  but  Busebins,  wlio  quotes  (^*  Uistoria  fi  .-oleitListica.''  chap.  S»)«the  wni:^  of 
IreiiflDoa,  immediately  subjoins  a  paasf^i^  from  P.  himself,  in  which  the 
laUer  distinctly  states  that  he  did  not  receive  his  doctrines  from  apy  of 
Ihe  apostles,  hut  from  the  "living  voice"  of  such  followers  of  theirs* 
•«  "are  still  surviving."  He  waa,  however,  an  ** associate"  of  Polycirp, 
B  bishop  iu   the  same  pi-ovince  uf  procousolar  Asia;  and  as  the  latter  was  a 


y  Google 


^oq  Paper 

<*>«'  Papier 

disciple  of  tlio  npostle  .Tofii,  it  i*  piobiible  tliat  Ireiiteaf* — n  pomewhftt  hapty 
wriiei—iuf erred  that  his  compauiou  iniiHt  have  been  the  t>aine.  The*'Panchal  or 
Alexaiidriau  Chronicle"  eiatem  that  he  Bnflfi^red  martyrdom  at  Pergamu^,  163  ▲.!>. 
Ensebius  describes  P.  :i8  *' well-skiiled  iu  all  nianuer  of  learnii  ^,:iud  well  scouiilDled 
with  the  Scripturec ;"  but  a  liitle  further  op,  be  speukn  of  him  as  a  mau  *' of  limited 
imderftandiiig "  IsntiktOM  <m  (dn  nu{in)f  MJid  a  very  crednlons  chronicler  of  "unwrit- 
ten truditi<  u,"  WHO  b:>d  collected  **  certain  hi  range  parables  of  our  Lord  and  of  bis 
d(jctriiie,  and  some  other  matters  rat/ier  twt  falmloiiff."  The  work  iu  which  these 
were  contained  was  entitled  ''Logiiiu  Knriakdn,  B;x«>g68e6t»  Biblia  E'."  (Fivo 
B(i0k8  of  Commentaries  on  the  Sayings  of  our  Lord.)  It  is  now  lost,  but  cert^iiu 
fragments  of  it  liave  been  pretierved  by  Treiisens,  Ensebius,  Maximus  Confehsor, 
and  other  writerc.  Tliese  fragments^re  extremely  Interesting,  l^ecause  of  the  light 
which  they  tlir(>w  on  the  origin  of  the  New  Testament  Scriptures,  and  ihelr  import* 
ance  may  be  estimated  from  the  fact,  that  they  conttdn  the  eariiek't  information 
wbicti  we  iiossesson  the  subject.  It  Is  P.  vhols*  our  authority  for  the  statement 
that  the  evangelist  MafCliew  drew  up  a  co'lcction  of  our  Lord's  sayings  and  dohigs'  (ta  . 
logia)  in  the  Hebrew  (probably  Syro-ChaUlaic  or  Aramaic)  dialect,  and  that  every  one 
transhitefl  it<as  he  was  able.  There  can  be  no  doubt  thnt  this  is  a  p(  rplexing  state- 
ment, «ngge>ting  as  itdoi'sthe  delicate  question :  **If  Paplas  is  correct,  who  wrote 
ourpretteni  Matinew,  wliich  it*  iu  Greek,  and  not  in  Hebrew t"  (For  a  ccn8id<'rattoii 
of  this  point,  nee  Matthew.)  P.  al*«o  tells  us.  either  on  the  authority  of  John  the 
Presliyter.  or  mor«!  prolwbly  on  that  of  one  of  his*  followers,  that  the  evangelist  Mark 
was  the  inteit>reter  (Hernuneute»»)  of  Peter,  and  wrote  "  whatsoever  he  [Peter]  re- 
corded, with  great  accuracy.'^  But  the  patisage  is  far  from  implying  that  Mark  waa 
a  mere  amnnnensis  of  Peter,  as  some  have  assert«  d,  but  oiihr,  as  Valesius  has  shewn, 
that  Mark  listened  att»ntively  to  Pet  r  's  preaching,  culled  from  it  such  things  as 
most  strictly  coi^cerned  Christ,  and  fo  drew  up  his  gospel.  P.,  it  remuint  to  be  »aid, 
was  an  extreme  millennari:iu.    See  Muxekmium. 

PAPIER-MACHfi  (Fr.  mashed  or  pulped  paper).  This  manufacture  has  certainly 
bei'n  iu  use  for  more  tlian  a  century  In  Europe ;  but  it  If  not  improbable  thnt  it  was 
first  sngg^ted  by  some  of  the  be:tntlfnl  productions  of  Sindeand  other  parts  of  India, 
wlien*  K  is  eni)d6yed  in  making'  box<-s,  trays.  &c.,  as  well  as  in  China  and  Japan.  Its 
fir:«t  a|»p]ict)tion,  as  far  as  we  know,  was  to  the  mannfactnre  of  snuff-boxes  by  a 
German  nainetl  Martin,  in  1740,  who  learned  it  of  a  Frenchman  named  Lefevre ;  but 
the  French  say  that  he  leariM^d  the  art  in  Ei»glaiid.  Properly  S|>eaking,  paper-niAc  6 
is  paper-pulp  moulded  into  shape,  and  it  lias  been  n^ed,  not  on'y  to  make  small  arti- 
cles, such  as  lK)xes,  tniys,  &c.,  out  In  the  interior  decoration  of  houses  for  cornices. 


ceillngK,  &c.  The  ceilings  in  Chesterfield  Hou»'e,  and  some  other  fine  Elizal>ethan 
stnutture^.  are  made  of  this  n  atcrial,  wliicb  at  one  time,  owing  to  a  combination  of 
the  stucco-workers  to  raine  the  price  of  their  labor,  took  the  place  almost  entirely  of 


sincito  in  house  omameut'ition.  At  present,  a  conibinatiou  of  both  stucco  and 
paper  is  similarly  employed  under  the  name  of  Carton-pierre,  From  the  extension 
of  the  appIic:itioiii(  of  pni>ier-n)ftcli6  to  the  manufacture  of  a  numl)er  of  light  and 


u»«ernl  articles,  modifications  have  taken  place  in  its  composition,  ai:d  it  is  now 
cf  three  kinde— 1st,  tl»e  true  kii  d.  made  of  pajM  r-pulp;  2<1,  Fheets  of  paper  pasted 
t<  i-ether  after  tbi'  manner  (»f  pasteboaixl,  l)ut  submitted  to  far  greater  pressure ;  and 


8d,  hheets  of  thick  mtt)i>oaKl  cast  from  the  pulp  are  also  heavily  pressed.  The 
U'vm  papier-miche  is  hi  trade  held  to  apply  rather  to  the  artleles  nmde  of  the  pn'p 
tl^n  to  the  pulp  itself ;  and  a  vast  mannfactnre  has  sprung  up  during  the  present 
c«  ntniTi,  particularly  In  Birmingham,  in  which  a  great  variety  of  articfes  of  use  and 
oi'iHiment  are  made  of  this  material.  They  are  coated  with  snecessiYe  layers  of  asphalt 
varnish,  which  is  acted  upon  by  heat  in  ovens  until  its  volatile  parts  are  dissipated, 
and  it  becomes  linrd.  and  cjipable  of  receiving  a  hij.h  potfsh.  Mother-of-p<arl  is 
much  used  in  their  decoration,  for  which  pur|K)se,  wlien  srveral  layers  of  the  var- 
irsh  still  remain  to  l>e  applied,  thin  fiaket*  of  tl»e  shell  of  the  fom  of  the  patteni  are 
j)l:u  ed  on  the  varnish,  and  are  covertHi  by  the  succeeding' layers,  giving  rise  to  elc- 
V  t'ions  where  they  are' bidden  by  the  cojits  of  varnish.  The  surface  is  tlien  ground 
down  smooth  and  polished,  and  the  grinding  down  brings  to  light  the  pieces  of 
niotlK-r-of-pearl  tihell,  which  thus  present  the  apjjearance  of  inlaid  patterns.  The 
fii-o  Furfacc  which  can  Iv  given  to  the  asphalt  varnish,  alno  permits  of  burnished 
gliding  and  other  detorutivo  appliJUitions  with  excelKut  effect. 


y  Google 


Papilio  *"J.r> 

Fappeaiieim  <  **^'^ 

PAPI'LIO.    Sre  Buttkrflt. 

PAPTLIONA'CEiE.  a  suboriler  of  the  natural  order  of  plants  generally  called 
LeguminoHoe  (q.  v.).— 'IMie  plaits  of  this  sulwrder  are  the  only  plants  known  which 
have  flowiTs  of  the  pecnllar  structure  calletl  papitioTuiceous^  and  of  which  the  Pea 
and  Bean  afford  familiar  examples.  'I'he  name  is  derived  from  La.t,  papilio.s^. 
btiiteifly.  Papilionnreoiis  flowers  have  Ave  pelals,  imbricated  lu  estivaliou  (bnd), 
one  of  which,  called  tht;  vexillxtniy  or  vtandara.  Is  superior,  turned  next  to  ihe  axh», 
and  in  estiv.itiou  folded  over  the  rest;  two,  called  the  aloe^  or  wiiiga,  axq  lateral; 
and  two  fire  inferior,  which  are  often  united  by  their  lower  margins,  forming  tlie 
carina,  or  keeL  The  numl)er  of  the  P.  is  very  gi-eat— about  4800  s|)ecies  bein>j  known. 
They  are  round  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  tiboundiugv  in  the  tropics.  Many  Inive 
superi)  and  biautiful  flowers ;  many  are  plants  of  beautiful  form  and  foliage,  tree^, 
8hru)>s.  or  iicrbaceous  plants;  many  i>oss<'BS  valuable  medicinal  properties;  and 
nniny  arc  of  great  importance  a-^  furnishing  food  for  man  and  for  domestic  animuls, 
others  a«(  ftn'nl!«hing  dyes,  fibre,  timber,  &c.  See  Bboom.  Labubnum,  Clover, 
Bkan.  Pea,  Lucerne,  Lk^uobice,  Indioo,  SaMdal-wood,  &u. 

^kV\'L\JE>.  I'his  term  is  applied  by  anatomist*  to  minute,  elongated,  conical 
proci^st$i-r<,  projjctin};  from  the  surface  of  the  troeskiu  into  the  epidermis,  iii<rbiy 
vusciilar  and  nervous  in  th«'ir  cliaracter,  and  taking  an. active  part  in  the  aenae  of 
toucli.  lUKur  form  and  strnclnre  are  de8cril>ed  in  the  article  6kin.  The  mueous 
membrane  of  1h  ton.u'^  also  cont^iins  three  varieti^of  papilhe,  wiiich  are descnbcd 
in  the  article  Taste,  Obqan  and  Sense  of.  * 

PA  PIN,  Denis*,  a  celebrated  French  physicist,  was  born  at  Biois,  22d  Auirnst 
164T,  and  studied  ujediciue  in  Paris,  where,  after  receiving  his  degree,  he  practisd 
forborne  time  as  a  physieiau.  He  now  becime  acquainted  with  Ilnyghens — en  in- 
cident which  strengthenejl  in  him  an  original  predilectiiai  for  physical  sciences ;  and 
from  this  tiin<s  lie  (lev  ited  himself  ulmmt  exclusively  to  his  favorite  htmly.  Before 
P.'s  time,  the  intense  force  which  ctiii  be  geiterated  in  water,  air.'&c,  under  the  ac- 
tion of  heat,  was  weh  known,  but  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  indicate  the  principal 
features  ofiA  machine  by  which  this  property  could  be  nwde  of  practieAl  utiUty.  He 
s«>0!i  acquired  «  wide  reputation  ;  and. on  visiting  Bngland,  was  received  with  open 
ann^by  th«  philo*opheri>  of  that  country,  and  l)ecame  a  member  of  the-  Koyal  80- 
cii!iy  in  1631.  While  in  Ifingland,  P.  and  Boyle  (q.  v.)  together  repejit^nl  their  experi- 
ment* ou  the  properties'  of  air,  &c. ;  but  in  168T,  P.  was  called  to  the  chair  of  Mathe- 
nniticrt  ill  ihe  uuiver.'^ity  of  Marburg  iu  Hesse-Casi^el,  thednties  of  which  office  he 
'discharge<l  with  7..'a\  and  success  for  nmny  year.".  Ue  died  at  Marburg  atxmt  1714. 
TUf^  Frencli  Academy  of  Sciences,  withholding  from  P.  ^he  honor  of  ^'aawMjIate," 
en^oiled  hlin  among  its  '^  corres))ondv'nt<« " — a  procceding^ou  the  pan  of  the  Academy 
wh'ch  has,  with  ieA:*on,  excited  Ihe  astonishment  of  Amgo.  To  P.  nndoubt<tdly  Imj- 
lon^s  the  hi^h  honor  of  having  first  applied  steam  to  pro<iuce  motion  by  i-aising  a 
piston  ;  he  combined  with  this  the  simplest  means  of  produciiiga  vacimm  beneath  the 
raisctl  pisioii— viz.,  by  condenaatiou  of  aqueous  vapor;  lie  is  alt-o  the  Inventor  of  the 
*•  safe ry- valve,"  an  e,ss<-ntial  part  of  his  **  Digestt.tr  "  (q.  v.).  By  thii!«  latter  machine, 
P.  nhewed  that  liquids  In  a  vacuum  cau  be  (nii  In  astate  of  elmUitionata  much  lower 
temperature  than  when  freely  exposed  to  the  air.  P.'s  sagacity  led  him  to  many 
other  discover!'  s  ;  he  discovered  the  principle  of  action  of  uie  siphon,  improved  the 
pneumatic  machine  of  Otto  de  Guencke  (q.  v.),  and  took  part  against  Leibnits  in  the 
discussion  concerning  "  living  "  and  *•  dead  "  forces.  Unfortunately  for  science,  P.»s 
nuinerons  wrltiUL's  have  not  yet  been  collecte<l,  but  many  of  them  will  l>e  found  in 
the  '*  Philosophical  Transact  ions,'"*  Acta  Eruditorum,"  and  the  *'Recneil  de  Di- 
v^rsee  Pieces."  He  nnblished  two  work.**-  one  being  an  explanation  of  the  con- 
stnictlou  and  uses  of  uIh  "digester  "^  (Loud.  1081),  afterwards  (168^)  translated  into 
Fjencb,  and  his  exp.riments  eniitled  **  Nouvelles  fixp6rience8du  Vide"  cParis,  1674). 
It  was  not  till  nearly  a  century  after  tbiit  the  great  value  of  P.'s  diBcoveriea  was 
puj-ceived. 

PAPINIA'NUS,  ^mllius  Paiillnf,  the  most  celebrated  of  Roman  jurists,  was 
bnrn  towards  the  middle  of  the  Sd  e. ;  and  during  the  reign  of  tlie  £inp>'i-or'Severns 
(q.  v.).  whom  he  succeeded  as  AfiroeatiM  FiMcf,  atid  wliose  sec  nd  wile  is  said  to 
have  iMHiu  P.'s  relativi',  he  held  the  office  of  Libellorum  MagiUeri  and  afterwards  thaX 


y  Google 


«  ^  *  i*ap  enheim 

of  FrcpfectUB  Pratmio,  Aft«r  the  deatli  of  Severns,  his  «)d  and  snc C!'S.«or, X^arncalUi, 
diainii«8vd  P.  from  liis  office,  jiud  soou  aftenvanls  •  auscd  him  to  be  put  to  di*aili  on 
variouR  pret'xtB,  the  real  rojison,  howevnr,  appearing  to  Im?  tlmt  the  empt-ror  was 
Hfraid  tlie  iufluence  of  a  man  *«<)  able  and  upright  would  he  daugf  roue  to  \\\»  pow  t-r. 
P. '8  works  consist  diieily  of  37  bookH  of  "  Qiisestiones,*'  19  of  "Jiei'ponsa,!'  2  of 
**  Definitiont!8,"  two  works,  •*  Be  Adulteriia,''  and  a  Greek  fragment ;  Jiud  from  tlic.-c 
works  there  ar«  in  all  695  excei*prs  in  Iho  Digest  (q.  v.).  The  pupilt<  of  I',  iiichido 
the  mos»t  fanions  names  in  Roman  jurisprudence,  such  as  Ulpian,  Paullnp,  Ponipo- 
nhis,  Africauua,  Floreuthms,  andMode8t^lU^*,  but  the  master  stands  ^uperror  lo  tin  in 
all.  The  high  repntntioii  !»c  enjoyed  among  his  rontemporaries  and  Mucct^xsors  nniy 
be 'jathcred from  the  epithets  /*/f«/entM«»mtt«,  6*'w»««/«i.s«7nm«,  DieettiimnniiM^  h- - 
stowe<l  npon  him  i>y  varitms  emperors,  and  frtmi  the  flret  book  of  the  Codex  1 1n-o- 
dosli,  **  De  Responsis  Priidentnm,"  in  whicii,  aftt-r  dtclaring  the  works  of  P.,  P.iil- 
his",  Cains,  Utpfan,  Modostinns,  and  four  otiiers,  to  be  authuriry  for  a  jndge*»  d»  - 
cision,  it  is  declared  tliTit  should  tliese  jurists  be  equally  divided  in  opinion,  thtit 
opinion  whirh  was  maimained  by  P.  was  to  be  considered  nght ;  while  his  com- 
mentator, the  celebrated  Cujacius  (q.  v.),  got^t*  so  lar  ns  to  declare  *'that  Papii)iann^ 
was  the  flrsr  of  all  hiwyers  who  have  lut«n,  <»r  an-  to  be,"  an<l  that  "  no  one  ever  will 
equal  him."  His  high  refmtation  as  a  jurist  was  much  enhanced  by  the  Biting  moral 
feeliuglntd  stem  nuoendiug  bonestjr  which  were  equ-illy  characterlctir.  of  him,  and 
which  have  stampe«l  \\\»  works  with  an  ineffaceable  impress.  P.'s  works  \ver«? 
studied  both  liefore  and  after  Justinian's  time  by  Roman  le^al  students  of  the  third 
yejir,  who  were  for  this*  reason  denominated  Papinianistfe.  The  fnigments  of  P.'s 
works  whieh  now  remain  are  somewhat  obscmv,  and  the  excrpts  from  them  in  the 
l)iger«t  are  in  general  so  brief,  that  the  aid  of  a  connncntator  is  required. 

PAPIST  (Lat,  jHii/iatay  an  adherent  ol  the  pope)  is  a  name  npplled,  generally 
witli  some  admixture  of  contempt,  to  members  of  tl»c  Roman  Church.  Of  it}»elf,  it 
implies  notliing  more  than  that  they  are  adhen  nt»»  of  the  i)ope  :  but  in  its  popular 
use  It  includes  ail  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  Roman  Catholics,  and  er^pecially  thone 
which  are  supposed  to  be  peculiarly  cherislied  i»y  the  supporters  of  the  papal  author- 
ity. It  is  therefore  in  many  cases  held  to  bi-  synonymous  witli  the  pmfestfion  of  the 
exiremest  opinions  permitted  in  the  Ciiurcb  of  Rome,  and  even  those-whicli  are 
jMipnlarly  regarde<l  as  pqpers'irions.  Underst-od  literally,  no  con8i^tPnt  Roman 
Catholic  woind  disclaim  it;  but  in  the  imputed  tignifl  atiou  explained  above,  it  is 
luiM  to  be  offensive. 

PAPPENHEIM.  Gottfried  Heinrich,  Count  von,  <n  imperial  general  of  great  note 
in  tim  Thirty  Years'  War,.was  bom  at  Papp-uheim,  in  Middle  Franconia,Bavajia, 
99Vt  May  1594,  of  a  vety  ancient  Swaoian  family,  in  which  the  dignity  of 
Marshal  of  the  Empire  be<*ame  hendltiiry  about  .the  13ih  or  14th  c,  «nd  n.any 
i»f  whose  members  had  greatly  distinguish-^  tbemnelveB  in  the  wan*  of  the 
middle  aires.  When  a  )out  5>0  years  of  age,  P.  went  over  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  thencefcu'th  siunalisud  himself  by  his  fiery  zeal  in  it- "  cause. 
Alt  r  serving  under  the  king  of  Poland  in  his  wars  with  the '  Russians 
nnd  Turks,  P.  joined  the  anny  of  the  Catholic  League,  and  in  the  battle 
of  PragU'.i  (1620)  stayed  the  flight  of  the  Austrian  cavalry,  and  by  a  well-timed 
and  furious  charge  turned  the  Fid«!  of  battle  against  the  boheniians.  In  162S.  he 
receiw^t  fronj  the  emperor  the  command  of  a  cavalry  regiment  of  the  famoiis 
"I*appenheimer  Dragoons;"  and  in  1625,  became  general  of  the  Spanish  horse  in 
Loinbanjy  ;  but  In  1^6  re  entered  th*  Austrian  service,  and  after  suppi-essiLg  a  dan- 
g-rous  r  volt  of  the  peasant?  of  Upper  Austria,  in  which  40  000  of  the  peasants  per- 
ished, he  joined  the  army  Which  was  oppoS'  d  to  ihe  Protestant  league,  and,  in  as^<)- 
ciation  with  Tlllv,  carrieci  on  many  campaigns  ag.ilnst  the  Danes,  Swedes,  and 
Saxons.  It  was  P.  who  u?ged  and  induced  Tilly  to  ako  Magdeburg  by  assault,  and 
liims  -If  led  and  directe<l  the  attack.  Moreover,  it  Is  he,  rather  than  'lilly,  who  was 
to  blame  for  the  feft)cious  massatTes  which  followed,  liis  reckless  bravery  involved 
Tilly,  against  his  will,  in  the  disastrous  battle  of  Brcitt-nfeld;  but  to  ^ou^e  extent  he 


retri -viyd  his  character  by  .ills  str<;nu(ms  efforts  lo  renvdy  the  loss,  and  protect  the 
retieatof  the  army.    After  Tilly's  dea'h.  he  was  a-sociated  with  Wallensteijj,  who 

'ng  of  rheadvaii 
Aiiii  ai  the  mu  lilt 

y  Google 


deiaeh.'d  hjni  with  eight  regiments  to  prote*  t  Cologne,  but  on  hearing  of  rheadvan<-e 
Of  G.jHtavus,  yvnl  an  urgent  order  for  hit*  return.    1*.  arrived  at  Lutsjen  \a  the  moment 


Pappus  ^TAO 

Papua  *  *-^ 

when  Wallenstriif^  army  wnii  on  the  point  of  being  completely  ronted,  and  at  the 
head  of  his  cnirai»8ie"8,  charged  the  left  wing  of  the  Swt-de:*,  thro\nng  it  intocon- 
fnHiou,  and  alniOBt  changing  ihe  fortune  of  cho  battle  by  his  extraordinary  bi*:ivery. 
He  wae  mortiiHy  wonnde<l  In  the  last  chaise,  and  died  a  few  hours  aftei-wUTda  at 
Leipzig.  Nt)venjber  7,  1632,  wi;h  a  smile  on  liis  countenance,  after  learning  that 
Qu:*tava«  Adolphns  had  died  before  him.  **God  be  praised  I"  he  paid;  **I  can  go 
ill  iieace,  now  that  that  mortal  enemy  of  the  Catholic  faith  has  bad  to  die  before 
me.'* 

PA 'FPUS,  in  Botany,  an  appendnge  of  the  frnit  of  plants  l)donging  to  certun 
tiattiral  orderi*,  of  which  the  $rreat  natnra)  order  ComponiUB  is  the  clHet.  It  coD<«if«ts 
either  of  simple  or  featiiery  hairs,  ses^ilct  or  Ptalked,  arising  from  tlie  summit  of  ti  » 
fmit^  and  is  produced  by  a  development  of  thC'tabe  and  limb  of' the  persistent  calyx. 
Its  object  appears  to  be  to  waft  the  ripened  seed  to  the  new  situation  in  which  it  is 
to  grow.  ThistU-dovm  is  the  pappus  of  the  tliistlu.— The  pdppns  is  eometimee  rep- 
resented by  mere  teeth  or  scales. 

PAPPUS  of  Alexandria,  one  of  the  Inter  Greek  geometers,  of  whose  history  noth- 
ing is  known  ;  he  is  paid  by  Snidns  to  have  lived  during  the  reign  of  Theodosins  the 
Great,  empeior  of  the  Eant  (3T9— 81»).  Sonte  writer^  are  of  opinion  that  he  lived  two 
centnrieH  earlier,. but  the  former  is  much  the  more  probable  opinion.  I'he  cliief  woiic 
of  P.  is  hip  **  Mathematical  Collections,"  of  which  the  last  six  out  of  eight  bo6kB  are 
extiuit.  I'he  **  CoUections,"  as  their  name  implies  are  an  as8emi>lage  into  one  book  o€ 
pcattered  problems  and  theorems,  the  work  of  Apol  oiiins,  Archimedes,  Bnciid,  'I'lieo- 
dosins,  &  .,  to  winch  he  has  joined  his  own  discoveries.  The  first  two  Iwoksare  sap- 
po.se(I  (tm  inMutncieiit  grounds)  '.ohavetreat<>rl  ot  arithmetic  and  arithmetical  probl  Mue, 
but  only  a  small  fragment  of  the  second  book  is  extiint ;  thethird  b;>ok  in  a  col  lectio  i  of 
problems,  mostly  of  solid  geomeiry ;  the  fourth  treats  of  carves  other  than  the  circle, 
ac  ording  to  the  ii^tliod  of  pure  geometry  ;  the  fifth  contains  problems  of  maxima 
and  minima;  the  ^tb  treats  of  the  geometry  of  the  sphere:  the  seventh,  which  is 
by  far  the  most  iinjiortimt  to  modern  geomi-tcrs,  as  It  is  almost  the  sole  authority  we 
possess  on  the  subject  of  the  history  iind  methods  of  the  Greek  geometrical  analysis, 
treats  principally  of  analyj^is;  it  also  contains  the  proposition  now  known  h»  '•  Gal- 
dinus*  Theorem,"  which  was  plajjiarised  from  P.  by  Father  Guldin  :  the  eijrhth  and 
last  book  trciits  of  niachines.  P.  was  the  author  of  several  other  wprks  which  are 
lost,  exceptinjr  only  a  fragment  of  his  *•  Commentjiry  on  Pour  Books  of  Ptolemy's 
Syntaxis."  P.,  as  an  independent  iiivcstigtiior,  enjoys  a  high  repuration.  and  is  con- 
pidi^red  by  Des  Cartes  as  one  of  the  most  excellent  •geometer.*  of  antiquity.  Some  of 
his  problems  have  Ijeen  looked  upon  with  high  interest  by  all  succeeding  gt'Ometers. 
The  **  Mathematical  Collections  "  have  l>een  published  in  whole  or  pjirt,  at  varfcms 
periods,  but  the  only  complete  editions  are  the  two  L«iin  versions,  the  first  by  Coni- 
mandine  (Pisa,  1588),  nud  the  secoml  by  ManolesPius  (Bolognn,  lfi«0),  and  the  Greek 
ediiicm  of  H,  J.  Bisenmann  (Paris,  1824).  The  portion  Of  the  Greek  text  of  the  2d 
book,  which  was  wanting  in  Commaudiuc's  MS.,  was  published  (1688)  In  L(mdon  by 
Dr  Wall  Is. 

PA'PUA,  or  New  Guinea,  is,  with  the  exception  of  Australia,  the  largest  island 
on  the  globe.  It  lis-s  In  lat.  0©  30'— 10°  40' p..  and  long.  131°— 130°  ?0*^e.,  and  is 
about  1300  miles  in  length.  In  outline  the  island  is  very  irregular,  the  wesiern  part 
being  nenrly  insulated  by  Ge«'lvink  Bay,  on  the  north,  tuid  M'Clure^s  Tnlet  from  the 
west.  The  head  of  Geelvink  Bay  is  ppn  rated  from  the  podth  coast  by  an  isthmus 
only  .15  miles  in^  breadth.  Eastward  from  thS-,  the  island  increases  in  breadth  from 
200  to  360  miles,  and  terminates  in  the  south-east,  iu  a  long  narrow  peninsula 
of  lofty  monntains. 

There  is  probably  no  region  of  the  globe  so  little  known  as  P. ;  the  coast  has  ^^ot 
even  been  visited  in  some  parts,  and  the  maps  published  to  thip  date  shew  nnsurvert^ 
portions.  It  is  not  known  with  certainty  who  cliscovered  Papua.  It  is  attribnted  to 
a  Spaniard,  Alvaro  de  Saavadra.  To  him  the  first  d»:tailrd  notice  of  the  island  is  due, 
and  it  was  he  who  first  noticed  the  resemblance  of  the  inhabitant"*  to  African 
negroes,  and  for  that  reason  gave  the  country  the  name  of  New  GniUea.  In  IflOS, 
the  Spanish  frigate  2/a -<4  ^miVawto,  Captain  Lniz  Vaes  de  Torres,  ma<le  the  island, 
and  sailed  along  the  southern  shore  to  the  strait  tliat  \>enr»  his  name.  In  1676,  tlio 
Dutch  captains,  Schonteu  and  Le  Maire,  landed  on  the  island  to  obtain  freah  water. 


y  Google 


^43  S?Sr 

The»y  wtremiexpfHjtedlyattncked  by  thenatlyea,  who  killed  18  of  their  men.  M. 
De  Boiig8«iiiville,  in  1T68,  alHO  mude  th«  ^outh  coast  of  the  island,  aud  woAcd  to 
wiudwjird  along  it  The  KugliBh  uavigatoro.  Cook  in  1770,-  and  Forrest  in 
1T74,  Edwards  iu  1791,  and  the  following  year  Cjiptain  Bligh,  of  JBtnmtff 
loonety,  saw  portions  of  the  sonth  const.  Flinders  iu  1799  visited  the 
ittbtud,  and  udded  a  few  facts  to  our  pcauty  iutoimution.  Id  the  coarse  uf 
the  voyage  of  the  French  ship  Atlrtt/abe.  under  the  connnand  of  J.  Dumont  d'Uf- 
Tilic,  the  dmtinguished  natarali»'ts,  Qnui  and  G-iyniard,  studied  the  natural  history  of 
the  island,  and  more  ospeciully  its  zoology.  A  l)utch  expedition  in  1828 added  to  the 
iuformatiou  of  the  western  coast.  In  1845.  Capiain?  Bl.tckwood  ^d  Owen  StanU  y, 
of  Hur  Majesty's  shi|)8  JP/y  and  Bramble,  Hurv^yed  pari  of  the  suuthcru  coast;  and 
between  1846  aud  1860,  the  latt-named  officer  survey*  d  the  t'OntUeru  t-tiores  of  the 
eaftem  peninsultu  Iu  18r>8,  the  Dutch  government  sent  a  survey  lug  expedition  iu 
the  steamer  £7na  to  tfan  north  and  north-west  eoasts.  Iu  1869,  at  ten  ■  ion  wassailed 
to  our  lack  of  information  on  P.,  and  to  the  fact  that  so  little  had  been  done  to  ex- 
plore this  great  and  fertile  Island,  which  layahno«t  witliin  sight  of  Australia,  and 
might  be  looked  on  as  lyelougJug  to  tinit  continent  Sir  Charles  Nichol:<ou  esiie- 
cially  directed  the  attention  of  our  Ansitralian  colonists  to  the  hnportance  of  tlieir  be- 
coiniug  acquainted  With  the  i.Iand.  Iyin»r,  as  it  does,  on  the  hiifhway  to  India  aid 
China,  aud  lielievod  to  be  rich  Iu  minerals  aud  commenial  products.  The  import- 
ance of  exploring  the  inland  was  generally  admitted.  In  1871,  the  Russian  steam 
corvelle.  the  Vittaz^  left  on  the  north-«a>»t  shores  the  inituralist,  Miklouka  Macl.  y, 
who  undertook  10  penetrate  w-stward  into  the  Dutch  territory.  *rhe  Italian  ir:iv- 
ellerH,  Messrs  Beccarf  and  jyAlhertis.  aud  the  ItAlrau  corvette  VUtor  Pminiy  also 
vl%»!t«  d  the  island.  iSarly  iu  1873,  H.M.S.  Basilisk,  Captain  Moresby,  was  sent 
to  suppress  the  system  of  kidna|>ping  natives  in  the  nei^rhborhood  of 
I'orres'  Strait ;  and  this  being  accomplished.  Captain  Moresby  emploj-ed 
his  time  in  continuing  the  survey  of  the  eastern  coa>ta  commeiic<d 
by  C^iptain  Owen  StAuley.  He  found  the  eastern  part  of  the  ishmd  diff  rent 
in  (orm  from  the  representations  as  giveu  on  our  ma|)S,  in:isninch  as  a  considerable 
portion  of  tlie  eastern  promontory  consisted  of  islsitds  with  deep  cliannels  Initwecn, 
instead  of  being  a  continuous  line  of  coast  But  little  is  known  of  t  he  geograpliy  of 
tlie  island  beyond  the  coast.  The  northern  side  is  hilly  and  densely  covered  with 
wood,  whilst  sucli  |)ortions  of  the  f  ouiheni  coasts  us  have  been  visited  are  low,  and 
apiMirently  swampy,  but  still  densely  wooded.  A  range  of  mountains,  the  Charlts 
Irfmis  Mountains,  commences  on  the  south  coast  near  Oeelvink  Bay,  and  extends 
due  east,  rising,  gradually  to  a  height  of  nearly  17,000  feet,  wk're  it  is  loct  ^ight  of 
at  a  distau'  e  at  100  miles  from  the  coast;  bnt  it  is  not  improbable  that  this  range 
continues  through,  unU  sul)divides  the  island  until  it  joins  the  hi*.'!!  land  of  ttie 
e  istem  penii»snla,  where  a  succession  of  mountains,  fnim  14,000  to  5ti00  feet  high, 
continue  to  the  eastern  extreme.  A  large  island-  Frederick  Henry*  Island,  100  miles 
long  by  aboiu  60  broad,  on  the  80Uih-w<?«'t  coasts  was  supposed  to  b<'  part  of  the 
mainlaml  mitil  Lieutenant  Kool,  of  the  Dutch  navy,  passed  through  the  strait  that 
8iM>ai'ated  it.  The  London  Missionary  Society's  auent*.  in  their  steamer  the  Ellan- 
gowmiy  have  also  lately  found  tbtit  what  was  considi  rea  the  south  otpeof  P.  is  de- 
tached from  the  mainland,  and  have  called  it  Stacey  Ishmd.  1*e  Fly  River  ha« 
l?een  ast^nded  160  miles  by  the  same  trart.iea.  The  whole  of  the  south-eastern  coa.vt 
to  the  east ern  extreme  of  the  island,  and  continuing  to  the  LoaisltHEle  Arcliii>elago 
lieyond,  is  fringt^d  with  dangerous  coral  reefs,  and  as  during  the  monsoons  the 
currents  acquire  great  velocity,  the  danger  of  navigating  is  considerable.  Captain 
Moresby  has  discovered  a  new  passage  at  tiie  south-east  i>oint  of  the  main  Island, 
China  Strait.,  which  is  navigable  for  large  ships,  and  apparently  fr^  from  dan^rers ; 
it  is  considered  that  this  discovenr  will  lead  to  njore  rapid  commriuication  between 
China  and  Australia.  The  tides,  however,  at  sDrings,  mn  at  the  rate  of  5  or  6  knots, 
bnt  more  careful  and  e.alx>rate  surveys  will  doubtless  render  navigation  more  safe 
and  exiieditious  in  these  waters. 

There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  in  an  island  of  such  vast  extent  as  P.,  not  only  does 
the  character  of  ihe  human  family  greatly  diverge,  but  there  may  possibly  exi>t 
Btiverul  distinct  race;'.  With  our  little  knowledge,  two  distinct  races  are  admitted, 
viz.,  the  Papuans,  so  called  from  the  Malayan  **  inzmWA  hair,"  and  the  Haraforas. 
>£iM  Pai)Utta«'ar«  tuidrto  tosemble  the  JLo^alian  aborigines,  but,^  a  rubs,  are 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


PapolA  (J-^^ 

stouter.    The  Hnrnforas  nni  dietiiifriiiBhable  from  the  Papuans  by  lighter  color  and 
straizhter  hair ;  they  also  exhibit  gre^iter  activiiy  of  body. 

Except  in  the  swampy  c1istrlct'<,tnu  climate  is  not  nii  healthy,  thotigh  ttie  tempera- 
ture varies  ifrently,  the  tlieriaomet«r  sometioiea  tudiCiitiiig  95^  F.  by  day,  aud  falling 
to  76^  by  night.  On  tlie  sontti-weet  coast,  tite  east  moitsoon  or  rainy  seiisoii 
begins  about  Uie  middle  of  April,  mid  ends  in  September ;.  the  dry  season  is  from 
September  to  April,  and  on  the  north  coast  tliey  are  just  reversed. 

The  island  is  evirywhure  clothed  with  tlie  most  Itixnriant  vegetation,  cocoa-nut, 
betel,  sago,  banana,  Im^ad-frult,  orange,  lemon,  and  other  fmlt-lrees  lining  the 
shores;  wJiils^  in  the  interior  arc  abundance  of  fine  timber  trees,  as  the  iron* wood, 
elM)uy,  canary*w(>od,  the  wifd  nutmeg,  and  the'inasooi,  the  fragrant  bark  of  which  is 
a  leading  article  of  export  from  the  south-west  coast.  In  the  districts  of  the  Ariak 
aud  AniDorhakin  Monniains  ih«  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  and  rice  ni*e  cultivated. 

The  natnnil  hisiory  of  the  \ve!*t.  ru  part  of  P.  has  l>eeu  recently  examined  by  Mr 
Wallace.  This  imtnran.-«t  esta'>lir>htNl  the  fact  that  a  deep  clii|iinel  in  the  bed  of  tlio 
qpcan,  running  west  of  Celei>eH,  and  oast  of  the  great  islands  of  Java  and  Borneo, 
now  known  as  Wallace's  Lin<>,  separates  two  regions,  in  which  the  islands  rise  from 
shallow  waters,  and  which  are  totally  unlike  eac  i  other  in  their  botany  and  zoology. 
The  islands  on  either  side  of  tiiis  line  lie  suppo^^es  to  be  th«'  relics  of  anbrner^t-xl  con- 
tinents. Those  on  th  •  west,  or  the  Great  Aialay  Islands,  belong  to  tlie  contm^nt  of 
Asia,  and  have  it«*  plants  and  animnls.  Those  to  the  etist  vt  the  line,  on  the  other 
hajid.  including  P.,  have  a  flora  and  fatma  resembling  those  of  Australia.  Ttie  hitter 
island  has  aflry-climate  an<l  stunted  v«*g«'intion.  P.,  on  the  ctmtrary,  has  a  warm 
and  moist  cliniare,  pre^-eminently  fitted  to  produce  a  varied  luxuriant  vegetation ;  antl 
it  IS  clothed  from  end  to  end  with  ma^rniflcent  forests.  Insett  hfe  is,  as  might  he 
cxpi'ctcd,  ahunilant  and  varied ;  the  Papuan  species  behig  remarkable  for  fine  forms 
ami  beautiful  color:*.  h»till  more  interesting  to  thenatundist  Is  the  variety  of  birds, 
of  which  120  s|H}Cies  are  sini;ers,  3'J  parrots,  and  23  pigeons,  i  Those  of  laud  s|>eci<  s 
which  have  been  examined  belong  to  108  genera,  29  of  which  are  found  exclusivelv 
in  Papua.  The  beautiful  bird-^  of  paradise  are  peculiar  to  the  island,  and  distinguish 
it  from  all  other  regions.  In  contract  to  this  variety  of  birds  is  the  small. nuiniier  of 
mammals.  The  great  pachyderms  aud  quadruntanaof  the  Malay  Islands  are  wasting , 
and  tlie  niamraaU  are  8  bats,  1  pig,  10  marsupials,  1  cetacea,  aud  1  caruivora. 
There  is  one  true  k.ingarcM)  similar  to  those  of  Australia.  The  climbing  kangaroos 
take  the  place  c^  the  nionkey»  of  the  Asiatic  area.  It  is  believed  that  Wnllace^s 
Line,  or  one  nearly  coincident  with  it,  separates  twovai;ieti«s  of  tlie  hunuin  race,  the 
Mai  ivs  and  the  Papuans,  or  rather  areas  in  which  one  of  ihoae  races  predominates. 

MV  Alfred  Wallace,  in  his  **  Malay  Archi|)ehigo,"  says  of  the  Papuans :  »*  There 
has  been  much  difference  of  opinion  about  the  races  of  the  Oceanic  region,  but  it  is 
genenilly  admitted  that  they  l)eIong  to  four  different  types — tlioseof  (1)  the  Malays;. 
(2)  the  Negiitosor  Papi^ns;  (8)  t^  Polynesians;  (4)  tlie  Australians.  The  most 
distinguished  of  recent  ethnologists  class  the  Malays  with  the  Mongols ;  the  Nt^gritos 
or  Papuans,  and  the  Polynesians,  witli  tlie  negroes  of  Africa :  and  distineuisli 
widtdy  the  Australians  from  both.  They  do  not  recognise  any  fnndanaent:iil  dis- 
tinction between  the  dark  Papuans  and  the  light-compTexione<l  Polynesians.  The 
western  parts  of  th^*  island  are  inhabited  by  tlie  former,  tlie  eastera  parts  by  the 
latter,  inie  l^apiians  are  well  nnide,  have  regular  features.  Intelligent  blMdc  ey^ 
sm'all  white  teeth,  curly  hair,  thick  lips,  and  large  mouth;  the  nose  is  snarp,  but 
flat  beneath,  the  no-«trils  large,  and  the  skin  dark  brown.  **  They  are,"  Mr.  Wkllace 
stiys,  **  superior  in  stature  to  averai;e  Buropetms,  but  have  loftg  and  thin  lefp^  and 
the  splay  foot  of  the  negro."  He  thinks  the  Papoaus  superior  to  tiie  Malays  in  in- 
telligence. In  the  western  parts,  ttiey  are  divided  into  sun^il  distinct  tribes,  fre- 
quently at  war  with  each  other.  The  men  build  the  houses,  hollow  the  Iriiuks  of 
trees  into  canoes,  hunt  and  ft^h ;  while  the  women  do  all  the  heaviest  work,  culti- 
vating the  fields,  making  mats,  pots,  and  cutting  wood.  Their  food  consists  of 
maize,  siigo.  rice,  fl^b,  birds,  the  flesh  of  wild  piixs,  and  fruits,  &c  *'  They  are  eop- 
por  eoloretl,  of  a  liglit  active  build,  often  with  very  good  featui?es,  which  they  jwint ; 
hirt  the  mju's  tetrth  niul  nmuths  are  much  disfigur^  by  constant  use  of  l^tei-naU 
'I'lie  h:iir  is  usually  worn  frizzled  out  into  a  huge  mop.  Th(^  women's  hair  is  always 
cut  short.  Their  weapons  appear  to  be  si^ears.  swords,  < iubs,.and  stone  hatchets, 
but  ud  bows  aud  arrows  were  seen  amongst  them.    OccasloniUIy  hiuaiui  juw  mm 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


Y45 


Fapals 


Bpina\  hon^a  are  worn  as  bracelets  and  ornnments.  'fhey  appeared  to  take  pleasnre 
ill  inakirij^iis  rawlerBtaud  that  tli«*y  liad  tialeii  the  iriginal  owuera  of  Uie  boii«8;  but 
thepe  i)Oiic's,  as  well  as  the  few  skulls  exhihited  in  their  villages,  appeared  to  l>e  of 
an  ancient  date.  The  honscH  are  bnili  after  the  Malay  fjiehlon,  tm  puleH  raiwd  6  or 
6  feet  above  the  ground,  and  consist  of  one  large  apartment."  The  natives  of  Hura- 
bo'dl's  Bay  have  a  temple  in  every  village,  though  nothing  is  known  of  their 
religion. 

In  the  eafitern  part  of  the  island^  the  negro  type  of  the  inhabitants  passes  into 
thafof  the  Pohrnesians.  Captain  Moresby  say  sof  them,  that  they  have  the  Jijrht 
complexion  au«l  in  all  respects  the  appearance  of  the  Polynesians,  typicjilly  repre- 
stHited  by  the  New  Zealanders,  that  they  are  a  friendly  and  intelligent  people,  ami 
gladly  receive  the  English  seainen  at  their  villages,  where  they  mixed  freely  with 
t  liein'.  'J'hey  practice  several  useful  arts,  such  as  pottei-y,  and  possess  extensive, 
well-fenced  plantations.  In  tire  north-eastern  part  of  thei^land,  theijr  villages  are 
terraced  and  cultivated  to  a  great  height,  in  a  manner  which  a  ChiJianian  nii^ht  envy. 
Captain  Moresbjr  beheves  them  to  be  a  fine,  promising  race,  and  thinks  that,  with 
the  aid  of  civilisii»g  influences,  a  prosperous  future  is  In  store  for  them. 

The  Dutch  hcientiflo  ^xp«i<lititm  of  186S  api)eude<l  to  their  report  a  vocabulary  of 
the  Myfoi-e  language,  of  ab«ni  1200  words,  collected  by  Ottow  and  Geisler,  mission- 
aries at  Doroh,  on  tlie  west  of  Giselviok  Bay.  It  is,  howevtn*,  known  to  differ  greatly 
li-oni  languages  s{)okeu  in  other  j  artt«;  and  natives  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  have  a 
facility  in  communicating  with  the  Papuans  on  the  Torres  Strait  The  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  has  therefore  b; 'gun  to  Christianise  them  through  Samoau  teachers 
directed  by  British  missionaries.  The  first  chapel,  on  Murray  Island,  was  o|)en^ 
in  18T6.  j^ 

The  population  of  P.  and  the  immediatelr  adjacent  islands  has  been  estimated  at 
800,000,  but  no  corrtjct  estimate  ott  the  uumi)er8  can  be  formed.  The  exports  are 
masooi  bark,  trepang  or  hdche^emer,  tortoise-shell)  pearls,  nutmegs,  birds  of  para- 
dise, crown-pigeons,  elK>ny.  resin,  slaves,  &c. 

The  iuhablTants  seem  to  l>e  divided  into  a  great  number  of  petty  tribes,  quite  in- 
dependent of  each  oiher.  No  native  government  is  known  to  extend  over  a  great 
part  of  the  island.  The  Dutch  acquii'ed  the  rights  of  tlieir  tributury,  the  saltan  of 
Tidore,  and  it  wasptirtly  to  assert  them  that  an  expedition  was  undertsikeu  iu  1828. 
At  this  time,  the  Dutch  built  a  fort  cidled  Du  Bas,  in  Triton  Bay,  8°  46'  s.  lat.,  and 
134°  e^  long.,  and  declared  the  whole  island  west  of  a  line  running  from  Cape  Bonp- 
land  in  the  north,  along  141o  e.  long.,  to  Torre;*  StJ-ait,  to  belong  to  the  Netherlands, 
but  the  settlement  w.-s  abandoned.  In  1858  the  Dutch  made  auother  atrempt  lo  es- 
tablish a  colony.  The  Etna  wastltted  out  for  tliat  i>urpose.  Ttie  expedition  visited  a 
great  part  of  the  north-western  coast,  and  sailed  eastward  toHmuDolUVs  Bay,  140<* 
64'  e.  long.,  the  boundary  claiaied  by  the  Netherlands. 

That  a  great  future  is  open  to  this  vast  territory  is  undoubted.  Rich  in  natural 
productai  and  mineral  wealth  to  an  extent  of  which  we  can  have  no  conception,  sit- 
nat.^d  in  such  close  contiguity  to  one  of  our  largest  possessions,  and  between.it  and 
China,  Japan,  and  India,  it  is  of  immediate  consequence  to  England ;  and  if  we  are 
to  profit  by  intercourse  and  trade,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  detaching  a  strong,  sur- 
veying exp'.>diiion,  furnished  with  scientific  explorers,  to  complete  the  survey  of  the 
coasts,  and  to  ascertain  its  capa^iilities. 

See  »*De  Zuid-Weai  kust  van  N.  Guinea,  door  J.  Modera  "  (Haarlem,  1830) ;  "If. 
Guinea  ouderzocht  en  beschreven.  door  eene  Nederlandsche  Commi.^sie  "  (Amster- 
dam, 1862) ;  **De  Papoewa's  van  de  Geelvinksbtiai,"  by  A.  Goudswaiud  (Schiedam, 
1863);  "The  Makiy  Arcldpelago,"  by' A.  R.  Wallace;  **Neu  Guinea  uud  seine 
Bewohner,''  by  Otto  Finsch  (Bremen.  1866) ;  •*  Dull'  Italia  alia  Nuova  Guinea— Viag- 
fflo  della  Corvetta  *  Vittor  Plsani '"  (Florence,  1873) ;  Paper  oh  ** Beccari's  Explora- 
tion of  Papuasia,"  by  Prof.  H.  H.  Giglioli,  in  **Otfean  Hiahways"  for  December 
1873;  "Dlwoveries-and  Surveys  in  New  Guinea  and  the  D'EntrQcasteanX  Islands,^* 
by  Captain  Moresby  (1876) ;  *♦  Chronicle  of  London  Missionary  Society  "  for  1876. 

PA'PULuE  AND  PAPULAR  DISEASES.  Papulie,  or  pimples,  constitnte  one  of 
the  eight  orders  of  Bateman  and  Willau's  classification  of  cotant^oull  dis(*ase8.  'J'hey 
occur  as  little  elevations  of  the  cuticle,  of  a  red  color,  containing  neither  pus  nor 
any  other  fluid,  and  ending  usually  in  a  scurf.  They  are  generally  supposed  to  de- 
note iuflummatiou  of  the  papillee  of  the  skin  ;  but  Erasmus  Wilscu  believes  that  they 


Digitized  by 


Google 


PapTTaf  •  '^'^ 


represent  an  {nltamtnatory  condHton  of  the  secretory  orificefi,  whether  BtHlarlfemot 
or  sebjicions.  The  diseHSHii  reiiarded  ;««  iwuular  are  Stropliulns.  Lichen,  and  Pni- 
rigo ;  hnt  there  are  otht-r  diseases  iu  which  the  fli-st  ext^jrniil  Byiuptora  is  a  papular 
eraption,  asi  for  example,  Sinalkpox,  iu  wliich  the  papula  speedily  develops  itself 
into  a  pn«>t4iie. 

PAPTRI.  Rolls  made  of  the  paper  of  the  papyrus  plant  are  coninionty 
known  as  papyri,  correspondiuK  to  the  Gr  -elv  biblia.  The-«  rolUare  of  a  very  remote 
nntiqnity,  some  of  the  still  remainin;;  G.'yptinn  |iapyri  l)ein<r  certainly  as  old  as  the 
6th  dynasty,  and  others  as  old  as  tite  12rh,  or  from  about  2000  b.0.  I'his  is  owing  to 
their  mode  of  prfservation,  an<i  to  tiie  peculiarly  dry  chanictcrof  Egypt.  Tlierm 
rolls  have  been  found  deposited  in  dilforent  ways,  tiione  of  a  ivligions  iiutnre  beini; 
placed  upon  the  bodies  of  nmmmiei*,  at  the  feet,  arms,  or  even  lii  the  hands,  some- 
times, indeed,  packed  or  laid  l>etweeu  the  iiaudages,  or  even  spread  over  tlie  whole 
bandages,  like  a  shroud.  At  the  time  of  the  19th  and  2(Hh  dynasties  (1820—1200- 
B.O.),  th^^  were  of ^  n  depofdted  in  hollow  wofM3en  figures  of  the  god  Pt.ili 
8ochnris  0:«iris,  or  of  the  god  0:<iri8,  whicli  were  placed  near  the  mammies.  Papyri 
of  a  civil  nature  were  depo:'ited  in  jnrs  or  lx)xes,  which  were  placed  near  tlie  mam< 
mies,  or  haVe  l»een  found  In  the  remains  of  ancient  libraries.  'J'he  following  are 
the  principal  kinds  of  Egyptian  papyri:  I.  Hieroglypliical  papyri,  always  accoin- 
imnied  1)y  pictures  or  vignettes,  aiid  consisting  of  three  classes:  1.  S<rfar  litanies 
or  text«,  and  pictures  relating  to  and  describing  the  suu^s  p.'tseage  throH]^  the 
Itoui-s  of  the  night,  when  that  luminary  was  supposed  to  enter  the  Biryptinn  Hades 
or  Hell.  2.  Bobks  of  the  empyreal  gate,  or  beiiven,  with  vigneiics  of  deities,  and 
otlier  represeotations  referring  to  tlie  genesis  of  the  cosmos  or  universe.  8.  The 
0O-caII  Ritual,  consisting  of  a  series  of  sacied  or  hyinutic  books,  some  of  a  verr  re- 
mote antiquity,  accompanied  with  rnhilc^il  titles  and  directions  as  \jo  their  efficacy 
and  eniploym^it.  and  comprising  various  formulas  ordered  to  be  {riac  il  on  tlie  cof- 
fins, anuilets,  a>id  other  fnrnitore  of  the  dead,  for  the  better  pre«ervatiou  of  the  souls 
of  the  dead  and  of  the  mummies  in  the  future ^state.  In  this  book,  clMpters  gtving 
an  nrconnt  of  the  future  jadgran»ut,  of  tlie  makhenu^  or  boafe  of  the  dead,  of  the 
Bly:>ian  Fields,  and  of  tbe  Halls  through  wliieh  the  dead  had  to  pass,  are  also 
found.  The  work  was  considered  by  the  IWptians  tliemselves  mystic,  and  parts 
were  supposed  to  be  written  by  the  god  Thotli  idinseif.  A  copy  more  or  less  com- 
plete, according  to  the  wealth  of  the  deceased,  was  deposited  with  all  the  priii^pal 
mummies ;  and  from  the  blank  spices  left  for  the  name,  which  were  afterwards 
filled  tip,  it  is  evident  they  were  kept  remly  made. — II.  Hieratic  papvri,  writt-«»n  in 
the  hieratic  or  carsive  Egyptian  hand,  comprising  a  more  extensive  fiterature  than 
the  hieroglyphic  papyrf.  This  liand-writin|9  being  used  for  civil  as  well  asi  rtdi^ns 
porposei*.  the  |)apyri  foimd  in  it  differ  considerably  from  one  another,  and  comprise 
rituals  of  the  class  already  mcutioned.  principally  iu  use  aoout  the  26lh  dynasty,  or 
the  «th  c.  B.O.,  but  found  also  on  some  few  papyri  of  a  remote  period ;  a  book  called 
the  **  Lamentations  of  Isis;"  magical  papyri,  containing  direc4;:ons  for  the  prepara* 
tion  of  charms  and  amulets,  and  the  adjuration  of  deities  for  their  protection; 
civil  documents,  consisting  of  the  examination  of  persons  charged  with  crimi* 
nal  offences,  the  most  remarkal>1e  of  whi«h  are  that  of  an  offender  charged  with 
the  practice  of  magic  in  the  19tli  dynasty,  another  of  a  crinvinal  charged  with 
various  crimes,  iu  tlie  reign  of  Sethos  I.,  the  examination  of  a  conspiracy  iu  tlw 
pa'ace  of  Rameses  II.,  and  tlie  proeen^verhal  of  an  offmider  charged  with  vioIuUiiv 
tlie  sepulchres  of  the  kings  in  the  reign  of  Rameses  IX.  Besides  these,  there  ars 
several  letters  of  various  scrilies  upon  subjects  connected  with  the  admhiistration  o(> 
the  country  and  private  affairs;  Iiudntory  p'oeins  of  Bgjrptian  nionarchs,  one  de- 
scribing the  campaigu  of  Kameses  IL  against  the  Kliita  or  Hltiites;  historical  docu- 
mentSf  the  joomeys  in  foreign  parts ;  the  endowment  of  temples  by  Rameses  IIL ; 
works  of  fiction,  one  of  the  adventures  of  two  brothers,  the  deatb  of  the  younger, 
owing  to  the  false  accnsation  of  tlie  wifti  of  the  elder,  his  revival,  and  transforma- 
tion into  a  bull  and  a  Persea  tree ;  another  the  story  of  a  doomed  prince,  and  the 
adventures  of  different  persono.  Works  on  plante  and  medical  subjects,  books  of 
^^verbs,  lists  of  kings,  Iiistorical  accounts,  are  amontrst.  t.liese  docnineuta. — ^lU. 
The  last  class  of  Bgyptian  papyri,  those  written  in  the  demotic  or  enchorial  charaO'" 
ten  consist  of  rituals,  contracts  for  the  stile  of  mummlea  and  lands,  accounts  and 
letters,  and  miscellaneous  documents.  1'hese  psipyri  are  often  biliiignai,  someCmef 
accompanied  with  hieratic  or  Greek  versions. .  Many  of  these  WT^  hare  bee« 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


747  ?g^ 

translnteclby  De  Roxig',  Cbahas,  Hcatli,  Goodwiu,  Birdi,  and  others.  Mnny  Greek 
papyri  have  been  lound  bcioisgiiig  to  tin;  archives  of  Ihe  SerapeiOD,  nfcrring  to  the 
ndiuiuistrutiou  of  that  tempUs  the  oratious  of  Uypert.'ideis  and  some  of  the  books  of 
Uoiiior.  Ataii  timesm  the  hiHtory  of  figypt,  libraries  of  papyri  seem  to  have  fa- 
existed,  aiid,  ander  titu  Ptolemies,  are  huic!  to  have  coiitahied  ha  mauy  as  700,000 
rolls. 

Another  class  of  ancient  papyri,  thow  of  Pompeii  nod  Hercalnnenm,  nre  of  con- 
siderable  interest,  as  shewiuij;  the  condition  and  amiogement  of  a  lioiuau  iibritry. 
Tlie  papyri  of  Hercnlaneuni  are  from  8^  to  12%  Indies  wide,  nnd  are  rolU^l  up  iu  a 
cyiiiidricul  roll,  volunien^  npon  a  stick  or  inner  roll,  bacillus,  umMlictts,  having 
u  stufi  at  the  end,  cornu.  Tlioy  had  their  titles  written  on  a  strip.  tort«m,  in  red 
leiters,  and  the  writing  was  either  on  blind  lines,  or  else  on  lines  rt^d  with  lead. 
About  1800  panyri  were  discovered  at  Hercnlancnm,  iu  1758,  in  the  library  of  a  small 
house,  charred  to  a  cinder,  and  some  of  th'-se,  by  the  greatest  skill  and  care,  have 
been  unrolled  by  a  very  laiiorious  process  at  Naples.  Unfortnuately,  they  have  not 
answered  the  literary  expectations  formed  of  them,  consisting  of  tlie  works  of 
philosophers  of  the  Epicnri^au  school,  which  the  proprietor  of  tlK^  library  seems  to 
have  collected.  Some  of  the  papyri  were  in  Latin,  and  more  difficult  to  nnroll. 
Many  ot  ibeni  have  iM^en  published.  They  ar«  only  written  on  one  side.  When  a 
small  nnml)cr  were  requirt-d,  they  were  placed  in  a  cylindrical  bronze  chest,  (ctsto), 
pacivi'd  t'glnly  in  a  ptM-jiendiculHr  position,  and  were  taken  out  single,  and  read  by 
unrolling  from  one  end.  These  papyri  were  of  various  prices;  old  ones,  like  old 
books,  being  of  immense  value,  l)ut  those  containing  the  works  of  contemporary 
autlion*  were  hot  dearer,  pcrha|)s,  than  modem  books.  Many  extensive  private  and 
public  librarlt^s  existe<i  in  Greece  and  Kome,  but  all  liaTe  perished  except  those 
exhumed  from  HcrculaDeum. 

Wilkinson,  '*Mriti.  and  Cnst,"  iii.  62. 14T,,188,  v.  482-  Winckelmnnn,  1i.  Bd.  i.  1 ; 
Chflbas,  "Paj).  d'Harris"  (Chaloti,  1800  ;  **  Papyrus  Hieratlques"  (8vo.  Chahm, 
1863) ;  **  VoyA^c  d»nn  Epyptlen  »» (1866) ;  Pleyte,  ^*  Papyrtis  de  Turin  »♦  (1869—1874) : 
♦*  Cambridge  iBssays  "  (1858),  p.  227;  De  Rong^.  »*Rev.  Contemp."  xxvii.  p.  889; 
Devena,  *•  Papyrus  Judicione  de  Turin  »•  (1863);  **  Trans.  Soc  Bibl.  Arch."  (1874). 

PAPY'RtJS,  ft  genuH  of  plants  of  the  natural  onier  CyperactcR^  of  which  there  are 
several  s|»ccie8.  the  most  important  lieing  the  Egyptian  P.  or  Papyrtis  of  the 
ancients  (P.  a^Uiquoruni,  Cypertis  papyrus  of  Linnsens) ;  a  kind  of  sedge,  8  to  10  feet 
high ;  with  a  very  strong,  woixly,  aroumtic,  creeping  root;  long,  sharp-keeled  leave.*< ; 
and  naked,  leaflets,  iriaiig^nlar,  soft,  and  cellular  stems,  as  thick  as  a  man's  arm  at 
the  lowwr  part,  and  at  their  upper  extremity  l>earing  a  compound  umbel  of  extremely 
nnnienms  drooping  spikelets,  with  a  general  involucre  of  8  long  filiform  leaves,  each 
spikclet  containing  6—18  florets.  By  i  he  ancient  Egyptians  it  was  called  papu,  from 
which  the  Greek  pa|)yrt«/(  Is  derived,  although  it  was  also  called  by  them  byblo9  or 
deltos.  Tlie  Hebrews  called  it  gorni,  a  word  resembling  the  Coptic  flrcmi,  or  volume ; 
its  modem  Arabic  name  is  Berdi.  So  rare  is  the  plant  in  the  present  day  iu  Egypt, 
that  it  is  snp}>osed  to  have  been  introduced  either  from  Syria  or  Abyssinia ;  but  it 
has  been  seen  till  lately  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Lake  Menzaleh,  and  specimens  sent  to 
Eng  and ;  and  as  it  formerly  was  ionsldered  the  emblem  of  Northern  Egypt,  or  tl»e 
Defia,  and  only  grown  there  if  introduced,  it  must  have  come  from  some  country 
lying  to  the  north  of  Egypt  It  has  been  fotiiid  in  modem  times  in  the  ncighbor- 
'hood  of  Jaffa}  on  the  banks  of  the  Anapas,  in  the  poolnof  the  Liane,  ue:ir  Syracuse, 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Lake  Thrasymenus.  It  is  repn-senied  on  the  oldest  EL'ypt- 
ian  monuments,  and  tis  reaching  the  neight  of  about  ten  feet.  It  was  git)wn  iu  pools 
of  Rtiir water,  growing  ten  feet  above  the  water,  and  two  benciith  it,  and  restricted 
to  tlie  districts  of  Sais  and  Sebennytus.  The  P.  was  used  for  many  purposes  l>oth 
oraamenttil  and  useful,  such  as  crowns  for  the  head,  sandals,  boxes,  boats,  and  cord- 
age, but  principally  for  a  kind  of  paper  called  by  its  name.  Ifc»  pith  was  boiled  and 
eaten,  and  its  root  dried  for  fuel,  ^rhe  pajiyrus  or  paper  of  the  Egyptians  was  of  the 
greatest  reputation  in  antiquity,  and  it  apiiears  on  the  earliest  monuments  in  tlie 
shape  of  long  rectangular  sheets  which  were  rolled  up  at  one  end.  and  on  which  the 
serine  wrote  with  a  reed  called  fcash^  with  red  or  hlacK  ink  made  of  an  animal  car- 
bon. The  nrocess  of  making  p  iper  from  the  papyms  Is  described  in  the  article 
Papeb.  When  newly  prepared,  it  was  white  or  nrownish  white  and  lissom :  hut  in 
the  procCHS  of  time,  tliose  papyri  which  have  reached  the  present  day  have  become  t»f 
a  light  or  dai  k  brown  color,  and  exceedingly  brittle,  breaking  to  the-touch.  AVhiie 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


^^  'rift 

pnpynis  was  commouly  used  !n  Egyp*  for  the  pnrpos(*8  of  writing,  and  wnft,  in  fnrt, 
the  paper  of  the  pHiiod,  although  mcmtioued  by  farly  Greek  HUtliors,  it  does  not 
iiptHSiir  to  have  come  into  general  use  aniofig  the  Greeks  till  aft^r  the  time  of  AliiX- 
Huder  the  Great,  when  it  was  exteiii^lvely  exporte<i  from  the  Egyptian  ports  under 
the  Ptolemies.  Fragincnts,  indeed,  have  been  foand  to  have  been  ustd  liy  the 
Greeks  centuries  belore.  It  was,  hoyvfver,  always  an  expensive  article  to  the 
Greeits,  and  a  sheet  cost  more  than  the  value  of  a  dollar.  Araon<j  the  liuman;:,  it 
doer  not  api>ear  to  have  been  in  n?e  at  an  early  peiio*!,  although  the  Sibylline  lK>oks 
are  said  to  have  been  written  on  ft,  and  it  was  cultivated  in  Calabria,  Apulia,  and 
the  marshes  of  the  Tiln-r.  But  the  stable  waft  no  doubt  imported  from  Alexandria, 
and  improved  or  adapted  by  the  Komun  manufacturers.  So  extensive  was  the 
Alexandl'ian  manufactory,  that  Hadrian,  in  his  visit  to  that  city,  was  struck  bv  its 
extent ;  and  later  in  the  empire,  aii  Egyptian  usurper  (Pinnn.-,  278  a.d.)  is  paid  to 
have  bossted  that  be  could  supttort  an  army  off  his  materials.  It  continued  to  1>6 
emp^oj^  ip  the  Eastern  ami  Western  Empire  till  the  I2th  c,  and  wiis  used  amongst 
the  Arabs  in  the  8th ;  but  aft"r  that  |)eriod,  it  was  quite  superseded  by  parchment. 
At  the  later  periods,  it  was  no  lonjirer  cmp  oyetl  in  the  shape  of  rolls,  but  cut  up  into 
square  pages,  awT  bound  like  raod«'rn  bfKjfo*. 

As  a  mattCT  of  sclentiflc  inter*fst.  ex|>ennicnts  on  the  manufacture  of  paper  from 
the  P.  have  l)een  made  in  recnt  times  by  ^andolina,  Seytfarth,  and  oiliern. — 
Another  species  of  P.  (P.  corfpnbofntH  or  P.  Pafigor€i)i»  much  used  iu  India  for 
nwkin^^mats.    See  Indian  Grass  Matting. 

PAR,  or  Parr,  a  email  fl.-'h,  al?o  called  Brandling  and  Fingeblino  In  different 
parts  of  Britain,  inhabiting  liver*  and  streams,  jiud  at  one  time  believed  to  Ik:  a  dis- 
tinct species  of  the  geims  Salmo^  but  now  almdnt  nniVen'ally  rgartlcd  as  the  yonng 
of  the  Sidnioh.  The  question  will  be  noticed  in  the  article  Salmon.  It  may  tn^re, 
however,  1)6  mentioned,  that  it  is  difficult  to  discriminate  the  young  of  different 
species  of  tills  geims.  The  par  rises  with  exrraordinaiy  readiness  to  the  artificial 
fly ;  and  until  it  began  to  receive  protection  as  the  fry  of  the  salmon,  vast  uuuibera 
were  killed  both  by  youthful  Jind  adult  anglers. 

PARA',  or  BelI'm,  a  thriving  city  and  seaport  of  Brazil,  capital  of  tiie  province 
of  thi:  same  name,  stands  on  tiie  east  bank  of  the  river  Para,  80  miles  from  its 
nioutlu  Lat.  IP  28' 8.,  lonj?.  43"*  28' w.  The  harbor  is  formed  by  an  aln-iipt  curve 
or  inlet  of  the  channel  of  the  river,  which  i-*  lure  20  miles  broad.  Vessels  of  the 
largest  si|!§^  are  admitted ;  the  anchorage  is  roomy,  safe,  and  easy  of  access.  The 
streets  are  paved  and  macadamised;  the  hou:»e.-,  like  those  of  moat  Brazilian  towns, 
have  whitened  walls  and  red-tiled  roofs.  Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the 
palace  of  the  president,  the  cathedral,  and  the  churiHies,  all  ample  In  size,  and  im- 
posing in  structure.  There  are  also  numerous  public  squares,  a  college,  and  a  beau- 
tiful botautc  garden.  The  city 4s  supplied  with  water  by  water-carts  that  i)erambu- 
late  the  stieets.  The  ''Amazon  Navlfjatiou  Company,"  a  Biazilian  association, 
has  erected  large  workshops,  coal  dep6ts,  and  wharfs;  and  steam  navigation  is 
i-apidly  extending.  In  1805,  the  total  number  of  ship:*  wliich  entered  and  cleared 
the  port  of  P.  was  90,  with  39,709  toimage ;  and  in  186T,  TBO  of  5S,79S  ttma.  '1  ho  ex- 
ports in  1870  amounted  in  value  to  7,043,395  dollars;  6  000,000  of  which  were  for 
india-rubber,  'i'he  imports  are  principally  cotton  m  inuCactures,  wheat  and  flour,  j 
cutlery  and  hardware,  wool,  gold  and  silverwares,  coins,  and  wine.  The  exports  are  . 
india-rui>ber,  coffee,  sn«j:ar,  raw  cotton,  hides,  tobacco,  diamonds,  and  cocoa.  Po»».  * 
85,00u.  P.  is  the  nniri  tnrougli  which  passes  the  whole  commerce  of  the  Amazon 
and  its  affluents*.  The  city  was  the  seat  of  revolution  during  Ihe  whole  of  tliL'  year 
1835,  \vh(ivi  a  grei<t  number  of  lives  were  lost  and  houses  destroyed,  and  grjiss  gn-w 
iu  8tr<?ets  that  previously  had  bet;n  the  centre  of  imsincss.  It  is  only  since  the  yt-ar 
1848  th  It  t^  cjty  can  l)e  said  to  have  fairly  euttred  upon  tho  patti  of  ord  'rly  coni- 
inercial  progress ;  and  since  that  period,  its  advance  has  been  continuous  and  ntpid. 

PAKA',  an  imrort^mt  province  of  the  empire  of  Brazil,  in  the  extreme  north  of 
the  country,  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  Guiana  and  i  he  Atlantic,  on  the  e.  by  Maranhao 
and  Goyaz,  on  the  s.  by  Matto  Qrosso,  and  on  the  w.  by  Amazonas.  Area,  4  0,000 
square  miles ;  |)0|).  (1872)  280,000.  It  is  <me  of  the  lacju'est  provinces  of  Brazil— liav- 
iufT  an  area  nearly  twice  the  extent  of  Austria— Is  waterwl  by  the  Amazon  and  ita 
great  affluents  the  Tapajos,  Xingn,  and  Tocunlius ;  and  forms  a  portion  ol  a  (fistrict 


y  Google 


7J.Q  '     ^»' 

—the  Amazon  Vall«y— which  has  been  described  by  the  most  thon)Ugh  explorer  of 
this  region  as  cnequalled  forricliiieBs  of  vegetable  productiou  aud  fcitility  of  soil. 
The  surface  of  tlie  country  i«  level,  and  consists  of  great  plains,  intersected  byjrlvw 
ers,  aud  covered  with  primeval  forests,  and  iu  some  caseH  with  rich  pasture.  The 
climate,  thougli  warm,  is  not  unhealthy.  The  precious  metals^  wiUi  diamonds,  iron, 
andcoal^are  found,  but  are  not  worked.  The  timber  is  valuable,  aud  tite  cliief 
croiw  raised  upon  the  very  limited  area  as  yet  brought  under  cultivation  are  coffee, 
rice,  millet,  and  cotton. 

PAUA',  the  name  of  the  south  arm  of  the  Amazon,  forming  an  outlet  for  that 
river  into  the  Atlantic,  on  the  soutliern  side  of  the  island  of  Marajo  (q.  v.).  It  is 
•200  milt's  in  length,  is  20  miles  broad  ()i>po8ite  tiie  city  of  Para,  ajid  is  40  miles  broad 
.-•r  its  mon!h.  Its  mos>t  im|)Oi'tant  affluvnit,  and  the  source  when^  it  draws,  perhaps, 
the  great  mass  of  its  volume  of  watei-s,  is  the  Tocautins.  Formerly,  the  name  Pani, 
whicli  is  said  to  si^^iiify  *'fatlier  of  waters,"  was  api^ied  in  a  geheralwuy  to  the 
river  Annizon.  At  the  time  of  the  spring-tides,  the  bore  rashes  up  the  r^ver  with  enor- 
mous force,  forming  a  wave  15  feet  high. 

PARA',  a  coin  of  copper,  silver^  or  mixed  metal,  though  mqst  rener.'illy  of  cop- 
per, in  use  iu  Turkey  and  Egypt ;  it  is  tlie  40tii  part  of  a  pinstri>,  Ps  dividt  d  into  3 
asprr:',  and  varies  much  iu  value,  owin<;  to  the  debased  and  compiicat<  d  condition 
of  the  Turkish  coinage.  Pieces  of  5  paras  ar^alsa  in  use.  The  para  is  equal  to 
about  l-18th  of  a  penny  sterling  iu  Turkey,  aud  l-]6th  of  a  penny  sterliifg  iu  Egypt 
See  Piastre. 

PAKA  GRASS.    See  Piassaba. 

FA' RA^^LE  (O.  paraboU,  a  comparison)  was  Originally  the  name  given  "by  the 
Greek  rhetoricians  to  an  illustration  avowedly  introduced  as  such.  In  Hellenistic 
and  New  Testament  Gretk, it  came  to  sieuify  an  indtpendeut  fictitious  narrative, 
employed  for  the  illustiatiou  of  a  moral  rtne  6r  princinle.  This  land  of  iliustratiou 
is  of  Eustem  origin,  and  admirable  examples  are  to  be  found  in  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  particularly  in  the  di^cour8e8  of  our  Lord.  It  is  no  Ictut  Interesting  than 
curious  to  learn  that  many  of  Christ's  pju*able8,  or  at  least  umch  of  his  parabolic 
imaeery^  are  to  be  tound  in  tlie  writings  of  Hille),  Shammai,  and  other  gnat  rabbis, 
as,  for  <'3cample,  the  parables  of  the  Penrl  of  Greiat  Price,  the  Laborerj*,  the  Lost 
Piece  of  Money,  the  Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins,  Ac  Among  modern  writers,  tha 
German  divine  Krummacher  (q.  v.)  tias  greatly  distinguished  himself  iu  tlils  speciea 
of  composition.  'I  lie  parabh^  differs  froin  tlie  Fable  (q.  v.)  iu  the  probability  or 
verisimilitude  of  the  story  itself,  and  agrees  witti  it  in  the  essential:  rtquisitcs  of 
simplicity  and  Iwevity.  In  the  course  61  time,  the  word  parable  came  to  lose  its 
signiticunce  of  figtnative  H))ecch,  and  to  mean  speech  gtmerally.  From  the  parabola 
or  ttie  I^tin  Vul^iite,  came  the  medieval  Ditin  parabotare^  whence  the  modi-ru 
French  ptirler  and  pai'ole^  An  excelletit  work  on  the  purable4a  of  the  New  1'esta- 
nient — probably  the  oest  in  the  English  language — is  that  l)y  Archbisliop  Trench. 

PARA'BOLA,  one  of  the  conic  section?',  i>*  produced  hy  a  phiue  not  pasginij 
Wirou^h  the  vurfex,  which  cuts  the  cone  !ii  adinction  ptirallel  to  that  of  a  pluue 
touchmgtlie  convex  surface  of  the  cone.  A  little  conrnderation  will  shew  tlnit  a 
section  so  produced  cannot  he  a  closed  curve,  but  its  two  branches,  thoni^h  contiu- 
mdly  widening  out  from  each  other,  do  not  riivt'rtre  so  rj'.fiidly  as  iu  the  Hyptnbola 
(q.  v.).  Tlie  nearer  the  cutting  plane  is  to  that  wliich  tonchea  the  cone,  the  less  do 
the  two  brandies  diverge;  and  wh«-n  the  two  phuies  coincide,  the  hrancbes  also 
coiuci<Ie,  forming  a. straight  line,  which  is  thereiore  the  limit  of  the  parabola.  It 
may  otherwise  be  considered  as  a  curve,  eveiy  point  of  which  is  cqunily  distant  ficnii 
a  fixed  straight  line  «ud  a  given  point;  the  flxid  straight  line  is  lulled  tlie  directrix^ 
and  the  given  point  the  focriB.  Thus  (t=ee  tig.)  PAF'  is  a  paral>o!a,  any  point  P  iu 
which  is  equally  distant  from  the  focus  S  aud  the  riirtcirix  CB,  or  PS  =  PI), 
if,  from  8,  a  perpendicular,  8E,  be  drawn  lo  rhe  directrix,  aud  produced  backward.^, 
tills  line,  AO,  is  the  axis  iyr  principal  diameter  of  the  parabola,  and  the  curve  is 
synimetncal  on  both  sides  of  it.  As  A  is  a^  point  iu  the  paralmla,  AS  —  A%,  or  the 
vertex  of  a  parabola  bisects  the  perpendicuhir  from  the  focus  to  the  dlricHix. 
All  lines  in  a  parabola  which  are  p.rallel  to  the  axis  cut  the  curve  iu  only  one 
point,  ftud  arc  caiLd  diametern.    Ail  lines,  such  as  PP',  which  cat  the  curv«  iu 


y  Google 


Farabokani 


750 


9 

D                      ^ 

V\ 

V 

$      1 

Of 

^                c 

two  iMiinrs,  nre  ordinate,  and  tlie  ilKiniet«*r  4o 
wlddi  th»*y  are  ordimttei*,  la  thwl  ouc  wUicli  W- 
serfi*  tbeiu;  tlift  portion  of  tliis  diameter  which 
is  ititerceuted  between  the  ordinate  iiiid  ttie 
carve,  if>  tlie  correnixMidimf  alNtdwti.  From  ttie 
Jq property  of  the  iwirabola  timt  P8  ^  PD,  the  e<ja- 
'  tioi)  tu  the  ciinre  ukiy  U;  nr.  once  deduced ;  tor 
PS  -  PD  -  EN.  tlierefore  P8»  (which  -  PKt  + 
TSS»)  -  EN«;  hence  PN*  -  EN»  —  NS«   - 

glS  -f  8N)»  —  NS8  -  E8J5  +  2ES .  8N  -  (siurti 
8-2AS)4ASs  -f-  4A8.  SN-4AS(AS  +  SN) 
—  4AS  .  a!N  ;  and  cuIUii^e  PN,  the  eeraiordiuaie, 
y  ;  AN,  the  al)8cissa,  % ;  nua  AS,  a ;  the  eqa:t> 
tiou  to  the  puraboiu  becomes  y^  «=4(ia;,  wtiert;  a 
E  (the  distauce  of  the  vtrtex  (rotn  tUe  fot  uk)  ^- 
mnlutt  the  same  for  all  points  in  the  SHme  carve. 
Il  is  evident  froi^i  tiie  i-qnution,  as  well  «t«  from 
the  geometrical  derivation  of  the  p:inibola,  tliut 
it  must  have  two,  and  only  two  nrauctivs.  and 
tl»at  tlie  further  it  is  fxi  ended  tire  nearer  its 
branches  approjich  to  the  condition  of  stiuight 
Hnes -parallel  to  the  axis,  tliongii  they  never  fu> 
tually  become  eo.  Tlie  parabola  has  no  'Msynip- 
totep,  like  tlMJ  hyper l)Ola,  but  it  possessed,  imuiy 
properties  whicli  are  common  to  it  wi»ti  tli:«t 
curve  and  the  <nip!»e.  in  fact,  the  paralnihi  is 
nothing  uiorc  th:tn  an  ellipse,  whose  major  axis 
is  infinitely  long. 

If  pamllH!  ravB  of  llffht  or  heat  fall  upon  the  concave  surface  of  a  paraboioidal 
(see  Paraboloid)  niiiTor,  they  are  refl  eted  to  the  focus,  and  conversely,  if  a  light 
b ".  place!  in  tlie  focus  of  a  paraboioidal  reflector,  its  rays  will  be  refli?cted  in  patiiilel 
directions,  and  would  appear  equally  bri^rht  at  all  di«tanc«'S  did  light  move  without 
deviation,  and  nnahsorbed.  Ali»o,  if  a  Iwdy  be  projetrt*d  in  a  direction  not  vertical, 
but  incined  to  th<;  direction  of  gravity,  it  would,  if  nndii*turl)ed  by  tlie  resisiii^ 
force  of  the  atmosphere,  describe  accurately  a  parabola  who-«i*  axis  is  vertical,  and 
whose  vertex  is  the  highest  point  reached  hy  the  body  (^ee  Pbojectiuss). 

'I'he  term  i)anibola  IS  used  in  analysis  in  a  geuer  »l  se.nsi',  to  denote  that  class  of 
curves  in  which  some  power  of  the  ordinate  is  proportional  to  a  lower  power  o^f  the 
ab!*d88a.  Thus,  the  curve  we  liave  just  descrilwd,  and  whi'  h  is  distingiiisliedas  ttje 
e&nimon  or  ApoMonian  parabola,  has  the  square  of  iis  ortlinate  propo  tiotjal'to  fts 
abscissa.;  the  cubical  imrabola  has  t^e  cube  of  its  ordinate  proportional  to  i ;« &i)agiss:i ; 
and  the  6vnii--eubicat  puraboiu  lias  the  cube  of  its  ordinate  proi)ortioual  to  the  fe-qoare 
of  \X»  absciB.«a. 

PARABOLA'NI  (Gr.  paraholoa,  a  desperate  person),  a  class  of  fnncttonaries  m 
tlie  early  church,  by  some  writers  reckoned  a«  menihers  of  the  clergy,  and  included 
ill  the  ranks  of  the  minor  orders,  but  more  probably  religious  a.*<sociatiouB,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  assist  the  clergy,  especially  in  the  more  laborious  and  the  menial 
offices  of  religion  or  of  cliarity.  The  elymolOiry  of  the  name  is  somewhat  cnrlou:*, 
lieliig  jlerlvedTor  applied  from  that  of  tliose  desiiernte  adventurer*  of  the  arena  who 
hired  themselves  for  the  wild-beast  fl«lit8  of  the  amphitheatre.  The  cluef  <\\\\y  of 
tlie  narabolani  was  the  tending  of  the  sick,  whf.th  r  in  ordiimry  disease^  or  in  limes 
of  i)estileiice.  By  some,  the  ansociation  is  believed  to  have  originated  at  Alexandri-i, 
and  perhaps  to  have  been  peculiar  to  tlnit  church;  but  aithoiiirh  the  piirabolani  w>  re 
CiTtainly  very  numerous  at  Alexandria,  amounting  to  some  600  or  «»H»,  it  Is  beyond 
all  qnestion  that  they  were  also  enrolled  in  other  churdies.  We  find  th<'m.  at  Epiie- 
6US,  at  the  time  of  the  council  in  449.  They  held  the  same  place  in  regard  of  m:iiis- 
tr&tions  to  the  living,  that  the  Fo%»mre8  of  Home  or  the  Kopiatoi  of  the  Greeks  did 
in  relation  to  the  burial  of  the  dead.  The  paraboluni  are  inatle  the  subjecr  of-forin^il 
legislation  by  Theodosiiis  the  younger.  At  first  they  were  subject  to  the  Prmfectiis 
Augustalis,  but  a  later  decree  placed  them  diiectly  under  the  aai^Mrity  o£  the 


y  Google 


rr  ?:  1  Parabolani 

I  O  L  Parachute 

The  n ante  parftl>oliu)i  mast  not  1)«  ©onfouurlrd  wilh  the  epithet  parabolarnMf 
whu^  the  imir.-iu:*  npp1ie<l  to  the  Christiuii  uiitriytts  from  the  leckleBfiueflB  with  which 
tliey  ^jave  1 1 lei  r  livfs  for  thel r  f ai « h. 

PAEA'BOLOlD,  a  solid  flsnire  tracd  ont  hy  n  Parnbola  (q.  v.>  r<'volvii)g  round  Its 
principnl  tixit*.  Sections  of  this  solifi  {mfallei  to  the  pruicipal  axis  are  uaraoohis,  nnd 
tliost*  perpendicular  to  it,  circles.  The  term  "  pttralK)loidjil."  for  widen  "  parabolic  " 
is  frequently  hut  improperly  eubstitnted,  is  apidieil  either  to  ImkUj'S  having  tl>€  forrii 
of  n  puraboloid,  nr  to  concave  snrfncf  s  which  seem  to  have  taken  their  peculiar  hol- 
low shape  from  the  impress  of  a  paraboloidal  body. 

PARACE'LSUS.  Ahont  the  end  of  th«^15Jh  c.  there  lived  in  the  small  town  of 
Mari«ii-Ehif»edeln,  netir  Zarich  in  Switzerland,  William  Bombast  vou  Holu-nhelm,  a 
phvsicmn  and  chemist ;  he  was  married  to  the  lady-s«up»rintendeut  of  the  hospital 
artacJied  to  the  convent  of  Eins«  dcln  ;  they  had  an  (mly  son,  Philip  Anivolus  Theo- 

1)hrfiStns,  bom,  ir  is  thoti«rht,'abont  1493.  Ttie  name  Paracelsus,  hy  which  he  is  now  i 
Enown.  is  a  rude  nMiderinir  into  Greek  and  Lntiu  of  hi8  patronymic.  It  seems 
doubtful  if  he  evrr  attended  any  rojrular  school,  but  he  rccmed  from  his  fnlher  the 
rudime»it»  of  Latin,  and  whatever  else  he  could  teach.  H«  poon  took  to  roamiig, 
and  even  pursued  his  travel."*  into  Asia  and  Africa.  How  he  maintained  hims«  If 
during hi>«  pilgriraag'  is  unknown  ;  probably  by  neciomancy  and  quack  cures— that 
is,  procl.iiming  h  •  had  certain  specifics,  and  barjraining  for  the  amount  he  was  to 
r.  ci'ive  if  he  iwjrformpd  a  «  ure.  He  was  a  diligent  chemist,  investigating  tlje  pro- 
ce>«s«'6  of  the  pr.  pnration  of  metals,  nnd  making  exi)eriments  as  to  their  medicinal 
virtues  ;  also  to  di.-cover  the  philosopher's  stone.  As  a  chemist  he  lived  with  Slgis- 
mund  Pugger,  tme  of  a  family  celt;brat<'d  for  its  patronage  of  art  and  science.  His 
cures,  rejil  or  pritended.  becamed  noised  abroad,  find  he  was  called  to  prescribe  for 
all  the  grejit  men  or  his  day.  When  he  was  thirty-three,  he  l>oa6ted  of  haviug  cnn  d 
thirteen  ptinccs.  wliose  cases  hud  In-en  d<  clared  hopeless.  He  was  then  at  hii*  zenith, 
and  at  the  lecomnieudation  of  Ecolampadius  was  apjwiuted  professor  of  physic  and 
hunriery  at  Bas^l.  He  commenced  his licademic  career  by  imblidy  burning  Galen'a 
works,  exclaiming  Gnleu  did  not  know  as  much  as  hia  shoe-latchets.  *' Heading 
n«ver  made  a  physician,"  lie  paid ;  "  countries  are  the  leaves  of  nature's  code  of  laws 
— imtients  his  only  books."  His  classroom  at  first  was  full  to  evei*flowing,  but  was 
soon  deserted,  ait"dlu^  fell  into  habits  of  excessive  intem}>erauce ;  indeed  liis  secre- 
tary a.«serts  he.  was  drunk  every  day  ;  never  undressed,  aiid  went  to  bed  with  his 
fanious  sword  by  hij«  side,  which  he  would  draw,  and  flourish  about  the  room.  The 
reason  of  Ids  dieimriure  from  Basel  wjis,  that  a  certaiu  dignltiiry,  suffering  from 
■gout,  in  his  agony  sent  for  Paracelsus,  and  promised  to  give  him  100  florins  if  he 
cur(^  him.  Paracelsus  gave  him  three  lartdartum  piU8;the  canon  felt  contfortablc, 
amHhe  docror  claimed  hi!«  fee.  but  thf  churchman  refused  to  pay.  Paracelsus  took 
him  Into  court,  but  the  judge decideii  aguiiist  the  professor,  wlio  lost  his  temper,  and 
abused  the  legal  functionni-y  in  such  a  nnfnu«r  that  the  matter  was  taken  up  by  the 
town  council,  and  ended  in  the  expulsion  of  Paracelsus.  He  recommenced  his  wau- 
drringa.  Wherever  lie  went  he  excited  the  regular  faculty  to  a  state  of  violent 
hatrtd,  not  wholly  undeserved.  At  Salzburg  he  had  given  offence  in  the  usual  way, 
and  ithe  result  was,  *^he  was  pitched  out  of  the  wiiidow  at  an  inn  by  the  doctor's 
servants,  and  had  his  neck  broken  by  the  fall.'*    This  took  place  in  1541. 

That  a  man  whose  life  was  such  an  incoherent  medley  should  exert  an  influence 
for  centuries  after  his  death,  may  well  be  a  matter  of  surprise,  but  he  and  tiie  age 
were  fitted  for  each  other.  He  struck  the  weak  point  of  the  prevailing  system  of 
medicine;  he  appealed  to  the  public  aa  to  whether  it  were  not  a  false  system  thai 
coiU4  only  1^'d  to  failure,  and  b«  proposed  a  nystem  of  his  own,  which,  though 
shrouded  in  absurdity  and  obscurity,  inaugurated  a  new  era  of  medicine.  Tlie  pro- 
minent ideii  of  his  system  is,  timt  disease  does  not  depend  upon  an  excess  or  de- 
'ficiency  of  bile,  phlegm,  or  blood,  but  that  it.  is  an  actual  existence,  a  blight  upon 
the  body  subject  to  its  own  laws,  and  to  he  oppos<"d  by  some  si>eciflc  medicine.  S  e 
the  works  of  Parncelsus;  alfo  of  Schuiz  (1831) ;  Leasing  (1839; ;  Rademacher  (1848) ; 
and  Russell  ("  History  and  Heroes  of  Medicine,"  (1861). 

PA'RACBUTE  (Pr.  chute^  a  fall),  a  machine  invented  for  the  purpa«c  of  retard- 
ing the  velocity  of  descent  of  any  body  throui(h  the  air,  and  employed  by  afironauts 
as  a.  means  of  descending  from  balloons.  It  is  a  gigantic  umbrella,  stron{;:y  made, 
and  havUig' the  outer  eltremities  of  the  rod^  ou  which  the  canvas  is  stretched} 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Parade  ^rXO 

Paraguajr  i  Ou 

flmily  coiiuected  by  ropes  or  pfciyn  to  the  lower  part  of  the  l^niidle.  Tlie  handle  of 
the  paractiute  in  a  hollow  iron  tube,  throuu'li  which  passes  a  roj>c  <M)n- 
nectiii^  the  balioou  uiK>vc  with  the  air  (in  which  are  the  a^rouauts 
aud  their  appuratiix)  i>eiieatli,  bnt  s*o  fH5tt«ue<l,:  that  when  the  ))alloon  in 
cut  loose,  the  car  and  pamcliute  still  rtmaiu  couuucted.  -When  the  l>alloon 
asceiidts  the  purachntu  collapses  like  iiii  unibreba ;  bat  when  tiie  btUlooii 
rope  Ih  severt'd^  and  the  car  betpus  to  descend,  the  paruchflte  is  extended  by  the 
action  of  the  air, Jtnd  prevents  the  car  from  acquirii^  a  dangerous  velocity  of  de- 
scent :  the  fin:d  velocity  in  those  cases  where  the  maCMine  is  of  iksize  proportioned 
to  tiie  weight  it  httt»  to  i^upport,  being  no  more  than  would  he  acquired  by  a  person 
leaping  from  a  height  of  betwet-u  two  and  three  feet.  But  the  slightest  derange* 
nienr  of  the  parachuted  equilibrium,  hucIi  as  might  be  caused  by  a  ureath  of  wind, 
or  the  Smallest  deviation  fi-ooi  perfiict  symmetry  in' the  paraphute  itself,  imiiie- 
diately  produi-es  an  osciiintory  motion  of  tlie  car,  hav>i}g  the  ap$x  of  the  parachute  as 
a  v-eui  re,  nnd  tiie  osclila  i  ns  her.omiug gradually  greater  and  more  rapid,  the  occupants 
of  the  car  are  in  most  cas  s  either  pitched  oiit^  or  are  along  with  It  dashed  on  the 
gi  out  I'd  with  frightful  force.  This  defect  in  the  parachute  tias  been  attempted  to  be 
reuiedid  iu  various  way.<«,  but  hitherto  without  success.  The  first  successful  ex- 
periment wHh  the  panu:hute  was  made  by  Blauchard  at  Strasburg  in  US7,  and  the 
experiment  htxn  been  often  repeated  by  Gai-ueriu  aud  others ;  very  frequently,  bow- 
ever,  with  fatiU  results. 

Th6  paraclmte  was  employed  by  Captain  Boxer,  R.N.,  Jis  an  jesssential  part  of  his 
patent  light-ball,  for  discovering  the  movements  of  an  enemy  tit  night,  and  was  so 
arniuged  as  to  open  ui>  when  the  lighted  ball  tiad  attaim^d  its  greatest  elevation,  so 
aa  to  keep  it  for  a  considerable  period  almost  suspended  in  the  air. 

PARA'DB  tfiom  pavare)  signified  iii  its  original  sehse  a  prepaced  ground,  and  was 
applied  to  the  courtyard  of  a  castJe,  or  to  any  enclosed  and  level  plain.  From  thj 
practice  of  reviewing  troops  at  sucli  a  i«pot,  the  review  itself  h;is  acquired  tlie  uuuie 
9f  p.-iitide.  In  its  modern  military  acceptation,  a  parade-  is  tlie  turning  out  of  tbe 
garrison,  or  of  a  regiineiit  in  full  cquipmetit,  for  mspection  or  evolutions  befun;  f«onie 
superior  officer.  It  is  the  itoast  of  British  trotips  that  ttieir  line  and  disci|iUue  are  a« 
perfect  uuder  au  enemy's  fire  as  on  the  parade  ground. 

PA'RADISE.    SeeEDKN. 

PARADISE,  Bird  of.    See  Bibd  of  Pabasiss. 

PARADOS— luiother  name  for  Traverse-— i^  an  iiiterccptiug  monnd,  erected  in  va* 
rions  imrta  of  tv  fortificntiou  for  the  pnri)ose  of  protecting  the  defenders  from  a  rear 
of  ricochet-fire.    See  Forti|'ioation. 

PARADOX  (Or.  para^  besside,  or  beyond,  and  doxa,  an  opinion),  a  t(*rm  applied 
to  whatever  is  contrary^  to  the  received  belief.  Cicero,  In  his  boOk  on  (laradoxes, 
states  ihat  the  Stoics  called  by  this  name  all  tliose  unusual  opinions,  which  contra- 
dict tlie  notions  of  the  vulgar.  It  follows  from  this  th..t  a  paradox  is  not  neces^ 
sarily  an  opinion  contrary  to  truth.  Thi're  have  been  bold  aud  happy  paradoxes 
whorte  fortune  it  has  been  to  ovt*rthrow  accrcdit«id  errt>r!»,  aud  in  the  course  of  time 
to  lieoome  universally  accepted  ab  trutiis.  It  is,  perhaps,  even  one  of  the  preroga- 
tives of  genius  "o  bring  such  into  the  world,  aud  thereby  to  alter  the  character  of  au 
art,  a  science,  or  a  lejrislation  ;  but  this,  the  highest  form  of  |)aradox,  which  Is  only 
another  name  for  originality  of  thought,  or  for  novelty  of  scientific  discovery,  is  rare. 
The  paradox  which  spiiUifS  from  a  passion  for  distinction,  and  winch;  in  its  efforts 
to  achieve  it,  def>pises  good  sense  and  the  lessons  of  experience,  is  far  more  frcqutait. 
It  may  not  he  at  bottom  a  positive  eiTOr  in  tliought,  but  it  is  so  exa<jgcriited  in  expre*^ 
sion,  that  if  takeu  literally  it  actually  does  mislead.  This  Is  the  besetting  sni  of  the 
brilliant  and  epigrammatic  class  of  Writers,  abundant  examples  of  which  are  to  be 
found  iu  modern  French  literature. 

PA 'R AFFIX  is  the  name  given  to  several  closely-allied  Ku1>stance8,w'iich  are 
composed  of  mixtures  of  t)Olymeric  hydrocarbons,  of  the  oU-flant  gas  series  (that  is 
to  sjiy,  of  the  foruiu  a  Cga  iliO',  and  are  obtained  li'oni  the  dry  distillatioii  of  wood, 
peat,  bituminous  coal,  wax.  <»c.  P.  is  particularly  ahundant  iu  beech  tar,  bnt  accord- 
\\i^  to  Reichenbach,  to  wiiom  itx  name  (wiiich  is  formed  from  pcu:^um  ajfinii,  "little 
uHicd,"  iu  couweqauuce  of  its  reitisiing  ihc  action  of  the  stiougest  acids  aud  uikulies) 


y  Google 


753 


Parade 
Faragnajr 

i"  due,  and  vfho  may  he  regarded  as  it«  discoverer;  it  If  also  found  in  the  tar  of  l)oth 
luiiiual  Miul  vegetable  suDstancts.  '  At  ortliuary  tem|)eraturea  paraffin  Is  a  hard, 
Mrliif e,  cryatjilliue  pubstuiice,  devoid  of  tni*te  or  odor,  and  reoenibling  spermuceti, 
l»oth  to  the  toncta  and  in  app -anince.  'J'he  parjiffin  obtained  from  wood  fnsts  at 
a»K)ut  111°,  but  the  varieties  obtained  from  other  8ubi!>t2mces  have  considerablj 
liigber  boiling-points.    When  cantfully  heated,  it.  nnblintes  unchanged  at  a  little  J)e- 


low  TOO®.    It  dissolves  fi-eeiy  in  hot  olive  oil,  in  oil  of  tnrpeutiue,  in  benzol,  and 

wt  it  is  only  slightly  soluble  I u  Iwiling  alcohol,  and  is  quite  insoluble  iu 

water.    It  does  not  bum  readity  in  the  air,  nnietis  witli  the  addition  of  a  wick,  when 


in  ether,  but  i 


it  evolves  so  brilliant  and  sn)ok(  less  a  flume  that  it  has  l)een  ajmlied  to  the  roannfiu- 
ture  of  candlef,  wliich  rival  those  niatle  of  the  finest  wax.  Tlie  main  supply  of 
the  parafflu  of  commerce  is  obtained  in  this  conntry,  from  tlie  Boghead  cnnnel-ccal, 
nudtrom  the  bitunihions shale  of  West  Calder.  See  Naphtha.  A  bitnmiuons 
eiiale  near  Bonn  supplies  much  of  the  continental  demand.  ^ 

PARAFFIN  OIL  is  the  term  applie<l  to  tlie  oily  matter  which  is  given  off  in  large 
quantity  in  th  :  dlBtillotioii  of  Botrtuad  caunel>coal.  By  rectificatiOM  it  may  1)6  sepa- 
rated into  three  poition»»,  one  of  which  remains  liquid  at  very  low  temperatures,  boils 
at  a>K)tit  420<^,  and  is  mucli  used  under  a  variety  of  names  for  illuminating  nnr|K)ses, 
while  a  nij.xture  of  thetwo  htrs  volatile  )>ortion8  (which  may  b;'  regardea  as  com- 
posed of  paraffin  dis.-Olved  in  a  mixture  oi  hydrwarbons  of  nearly  the  same  com- 
IKXtiiion  as  paraffin)  is  larjrely  employed  for  the  puri)Oseof  lubricating  machinery, 
or  wliicli  it  18  admii*ubl}r  .adapted  by  its  power  of  resisting  the  Oxidisuig  action  ot 
tl»e  atmosphere,  and  l)y  its  very  slow  evaporation.    See  Naphtha. 

PARAGUAY',  a  republic  of  South  America.  Its  frontiers,  previous  to  tiie  war 
of  1866— 18T0,  were  not  well  defined,  but  on  its  conclusion  were  tlxed  by  treaty.  P. 
now  extends  from  2SP  to  21°  W  s.  lat,  and  f'om  54°  88'  to  68°  40'  w.  long.,  forming 
the  peninsula  between  the  rivei-s  Parngmiy  and  Parnna.  It  is  bounded  n.  and  n.e.  by 
Brazil,  s.e.  s.,  and  s.w.  by  the  Argentine  Confederation,  and  n.w.  by  Bolivia.  Its  area 
])revions  to  tlie  war  was  alK)ut  103,148  t*quare  miles,  and  is  now  variously  et>tii!.ated 
at  from  67,000  to  90  OOt/sqnare  miles.  Before  the  war,  the  population  was  variously 
estimated  at.  from  460,000  to  1,800,000,  consi:<ting  of  whites  of  Spanisli  descent,  na- 
tive Indians,  negroes,  and  a  mixture  of  these  several  races.  In  18*8.  according  to  an 
official  return,  it  had  fallen  to  221,079.  A  mountain-chain  called  Sierra  Amambay, 
running  in  the  g(>nerat  direction  of  ironi  north  to  south,  and  bifurcating  to  the  east 
and  west  towardK  the  southern  extremity,  imder  tlie  name  of  Sierra  Maracayu. 
divides  the  tributaries  of  the  i*arauM  from  those  of  the  Paraguay,  none  oi 
which  are  very  considerable,  altliongh  they  are  liable  to  frequent  and  de- 
htructive  overflows.  Tlte  northern  portion  of  P.  is  in  general  uidulatitig, 
covered  by  low,  gently-swelling  ridges,  separated  by  hirge  grass  plains, 
doited  wi-li  palms.  Tnere  are  mountains  in  the  north-east  and  norlh-wet-i 
corners.  The  soul  hem  portion  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  distilcts  of  South  A  lucrica. 
consisting  of  hills  and  gentle  slopes  richly  wooded,  of  wide  savannahs,  wliich  afford 
excellent  pasture-ground,  ai'd  of  ricli  alluvial  plains,  some  of  which,  indeed,  are 


mar^:hy,  or  eovert'd  with  shallow  pools  of  water  (only  one  lake,  that  of  Ypao,  de- 
'  '      '        linary  fertility  and 


mar^:ny,  or  eovert-u  wnn  snanow  poois  oi  water  ^oniy  one  laKe.  ii 
serving  Miecial  notice*),  but  a  large  proportion  are  of  extraoruin 
liiehly  cultivated.  The  Imnlcs  of  the  nvers  Parana  and  Pantgnay  are  occasionally 
Itelted  with  forest ;  but,  in  general,  the  low  lands  are  destitute  of  trees.  The  climate, 
for  a  tropical  country,  in  temiierate,  tlie  temperature  occasionally  rising  to  100°  in 
summer,  but  in  winter  being  usually  aiwut  45*.  In  geological  structure,  the  poufhem 
part  lielongs  generally  to  tlie  tertiary  fornuition ;  the  north  and  east  presenting  grey- 
wacke  rock:*  in  some  districts.  The  natural  productions  are  Very  varied,  alf  liough  they 
do  not  include  the  precious  metals  or  other  minerals  common  in  South  America. 
Much  valuable  timber  is  found  in  the  forests,  and  the  wooded  distiicts  situated  upon 
the  rivers  possess  a  rt;ady  means  of  transport  Among  the  trees  are  several  species 
of  dye-wood,  several  trees  whieh  yi<"ld  valuable  juices,  as  the  India-rubber  and  its 
cognate  trees;  and  an  efiwcially  valuable  shrub,  called  the  MdU  (q.  v.),  or  Para- 
guay tea-tree,  which  forms  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  commerce,  being  in  vreneral 
use  throughout  l.a  P  aia,  Cliili,  Peru,  and  other  parts  of  South  America.  The  tree 
grows  wild  in  the  nortii-castem  districts,  atid  the  gathering  of  its  leaves  gives  em- 
ployment in  the  season  to  a  large  uainl)cr  of  the  native  population.    Many  trees 


Digitized  by 


Google 


ISKT  ^64 


also  yield  Talnahlegnm".  Wax  and  boney  are  collected  ^n  almndance,  ae  ie  alsa 
cochineal,  >iud  thu  incdicin&l  pluut«  are  very  iininerouH.  Tlie  chief  ciiltivate<i  cropa 
are  maize,  rice,  coffee,  cocou,  iudigo,  mandioc,  tobacco,  epgiir-cane,  mid  cotton. 
Nearly  three -foai-tb»  of  the  iatid  iauatioual  prop^'jrty,  cousistiug  partly  of.  the  lands 
formerly  held  by  the  Jesait  niiKsioDS,  partly  of  luudtt  never  astdgtied  to 
in(iivida»Is,  partly  of  luuds  corfl^catcd  in  the  coonHi  of  tke  revolutiou- 
«ry  -ordeal  through  which  tiic  country  h:i»  paf*8ed.  The  iiaUonal  ee'tafes 
huve,  for  the  roost  jwrt,  l>ei>n  let  oat  lu  small  tedemeotc>,  at  inode^e  rentK. 
U«(ler  the  dictntor  Fnuieia  (1814 — ^1840),  agricnUure  made  convi^entbie  progress, 
and  tho  breed  of  cattle  and  liorsea  wau  mach  improved,  and  tlie  e^ook  inareaaed. 
The  ftjw  manufuctiirep  are  euirar,  mm.  cotton  imd  woollen  cloths,  and  leatlier.  The 
commerce  of  the  conntry  ii*  chiefly  in  the  hiuids  of  tite  govemnieut,  which  holds  a 
nionopo  y  of  the  export  of  P.  tea.  In  1873,  the  totiU  value  of  the  exports  Hmoirated 
to  ^220,0B2,  and  the  import.^  to  X229,536.  The  chief  exports  were  mfite,  tobacbo, 
hiden,  and  bark  for  tauninir;  imports,  cotton  good.*},  haberdashery.  irroceriej«,  Ac 
Up  till  the  war  of  IS&V— 1870,  P.  had  no  national  debt,  bnt  the  terrible  losses  then 
incarred  coiupelliKi  it  in  1871—1872  lo  contract  obligntions  amonnting  to  upwards  of 
^647,000,000.  ^i'hree  millions  were  contracted  in  England  on  tho  security  of  the 
public  lands  of  P.,  estimated  tit  upwards  of  ^19,000.000;  bat  the  Foreign  Loans 
Cinnniiriee,  1875,  reports  ihar.  payment  of  Int-crt^  and  sinking  fund  has  ceased 
since  1874*  Tlie  military  force,  which,  during  tlie  five  years'  war.  was  raiPed  to 
60  0:N>  men,  has  now  been  redacerl  to  2<XH).  The  established  religion  U  tlie  Roman 
Caihoiic,  the  eccleaiHstical  head  of  which  is  the  Bishop  of  Asnuciou.  Education  is 
very  widely  diffused  ;  and  it  is  said  that  there  are  bui  few  of  the  people  who  are 
not  able  to  read  ami  write. 

The  history  of  P;  is  highly  interesting.  It  was  discovered  by  Sobasti»u  Cal>ot  in 
1526,  hut  the  first  colony  was s^ttilid  iu  1535  by  Pedro  de  Mendoz i,  who  ioiinded  the 
city  of  Asuncion,  and  established  P.  as  a  province  of  tha  viceroyalty  of  Peru.  The 
warlike  native  trilw  of  the  Goarania,  liowover,  a  peop!^  who  po.«*8ess<)d  a  certain 
de<;ree  of  civilisation,  and  professed  a  dualistic  religion,  long  Miiccessfolly  retustetl 
the  Sp:misli  arms,  and  refnseil  to  receive  oltht'i'  the  religion  or  tlie  sociai  nsagea  of 
the  iuvadc^rs.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  16tli  c.,  the  Jesuit  missionaries  were  sent 
to  the  aid  ot  the  ftr^jt  preachers  of  Chri>t.iani4y  in  P. ;  but  for  a  long  time  tbey  vf ere 
almost  entirely  unsnccesi»fiil.  the  effect  of  tiieir  preacliiug  being  in  a  great  degree, 
marred  by  the  profligate  and  cruel  conduct  of  the  Hp;inish  ariventurers,  m^o  f<>med 
the  staple  of  the  eany  colonial  popul.ition.  In  the  17th  c.  the  home  gOveoptiheut 
consented  to  place  in  their  hands  the  entire  admiuistr.-ition,  civil  as  well  iv^  reOgjibus, 
of  the  province ;  which,  from  its  not  nosses-ing  any  of  the  p  ecious  meUiis.  was  of 
little  value  aa  a  source  of  reveiu»e :  and  in  order  to  guard  the  natives  again^t'tiid  evil 
influeiici^  of  the  bad  example  of  £aro|M'.an  Christians,  gave  to  the  Jesuits' the  right 
to  exclude  all  other  Europeans  irom  the  coloivy.  From  this  time  forward-t>»e  pro- 
gress of  civilisation  as  well  as  of  Christianity  was  rapid.  The  legislation;  tlw  ad- 
ministration, and  the  social  or^nisation  of  the  settlement  were  sha(>ed  according  to 
the  mod'!l  of  a  primitive  Chrisiian  community,  or  rather  of  many  (ominunities  imder 
one  itdministration ;  and  the  accounts  which  have  been  preserved  of  its  cond'tioiT, 
appear  to  present  a  realisation  of  the  ideal  of  a  ChriKlian  Utopia.  On  the  expnlsiou 
of  the  Jertuits  from  P,  in  176S,  ih  t  history  of  which  is  involved  U\  much  controversy, 
the  province  wa-*  ag.iln  inudu  suoject  to  the  Spanish  viceroys.  For  a  time  the 
fruits,  of  the  older  civilis:ition  maintained  themselvi's;  but  ut^  the  ancient  organi- 
sation fell  to  the  around,  much  of  the  work  of  so  nnmy  yenr» '  was 
undone ;  the  communities  lap^  iLulo  disorganisation,  and  by  degrees  nmch  of  the 
old  barbari»«m  returned.  In  1776.  P.  wast  ran  sferretl  to  the  newly-formed  viceioyaliy 
of  Riode  La  Plata;  aud  in  1810  it  joined  with  the  other  8tjile>«  in  declaring  its  inde- 
))endence  of  the  mother  kingdom  of  Spain,  which,  owing  to  its  isolated  position,  it 
was  the  earlieht  of  them  all  to  establish  completely.  In  1814.  Dr  Francia  (q.  v.), 
orien  dly  a  lawyer,  and  the  secretary  of  the  fir««t  revolutionary  junta,  w.:8pr<H>.laimi-d 
dictator  for  three  years ;  and  in  1817,  his  term  of  ofilce  wa-*  nwide  perpetual.  He 
continued  to  hold  it  till  his  death  in  1840,  when  anarchy  ensne<l  for  two  years ;  but, 
in  1842,  a  national  congress  elected  two  nephews  of  the  dictator,  Don  Aionso  and 
Don  Carlos  Antonio  Lonez.  joint  consuls  of  the  republic  In  1844,  a  new  constitution 
was  proclaimed,  and  Don  Carlos  wat*  elected  sole  president,  with  dictatorial  power, 
which  he  exercised  till  his  dt-ath  in  1862,  when  he  \ras  succeeded  by  his  sou,  0Ou ' 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


.     .     K-«  Paragnay 

•  ^  ^  Parallax 

Fra«ci*»co  Solano  Looejs,  whose  namfi him  Vcoms  notorlon^in  connection  with  the 
trtigfc  struggle  of  1865— 18-0,  in  wnicti  the  Fai-agiiaynnn  made  n  heroic  but  unavailing 
fijjnt  agaiiist  the  cojnbinid  fon'ea  of  Brazil,  the  Argentine  Confederation,  anil  Uru- 
if nay.  The  wnr  was  brbttjiht  to  a  clow  by  the  defeat  and  <lesith  of  Lopez  at  the  bai  tie 
of  Aqttidubsui,  March  iBt  1870.  In  June  18T0.  a  conereHs  voted  a  new  constitntiou, 
which  .was  proclaimed  on  tlie  25th  Nov.  It  is  moclelled  on  timt  of  tlie  Art,entin€ 
Confederation,  the  legSelalive  authority  lieing  vestgrt  Iii  a  congre^?  of  2  bou^eB,  and 
the  execndvtj  in  a  presidentr  elected  for  6  ywirs.  Pi.niay  be  now  considered  virtually 
a  Brazilian  protectorate,  and  its  oipital  is  occupied  by  Brazilian  troops.  ^ 

The  central  depirtuieut.  in  which  the  cnpita),  Annncion,  Ib  situated,  contains 

nearly  one^third  of  rtie  whole  inhabltintH  ;  and  the  capital  itself,  10,000  to  20,000. 

Apuncion  is  coiinertcd  by  railw  y  with  P«ragn:iri.    The  inhabitHnts  of  the  towns, 

consist  chiefly  of  wliitejrt,  or  of  haif-bieeds,  speaking  Spanish.    The  nntive  popnla- 

;  lion  of  tlie  provinces  aru  chiefly  Giiurunis,  spealiing  rhe  Guarani  langnnge. 

PARAGUAY,  an  importJint  river  of  South  Ameripn,  tin  aflflnent  of  the  Parana 
(q.  v.),  rises  in  tin;  Brazilian  provln-e  of  Matto  (irosso.  on  a  plateau  of  rid  satid- 
81  one,  in  hit  ISoSO's.,  long,  finout  55®  60'  w..  9535  feet  above  sea- level.  The  sources 
of  the  river  are  a  number  of  deephike.-',  ana  eight  miles  from  its  source,  the  stream 
already  uas  conslderal>lc  volume.  Pursuing  a  soutii-wej*t  course,  and  after  flowing 
^through  a  level  counirj'  co-.-ored  with  thicU  forest"*,  the  P.  is  joined  from  the  wei?t 
-by  the  Jauru,  in  lat  Id"  30'  s.  It  then  continues  to  flow  south  through  the  Marsh 
of  Xarayes,  which,  durinir  the  reason  when  the  st^vpm  rises,  is  an  ex|>an.«ive  waste 
of  waters,  St  retch  in  tr  far  on  each  side  of  tlie  stream,  and  <xtending  ifroin  north  to 
south  ovur  about.  200  miles.  The  river  still  pursues  a  circuitous  Wut  generally  south- 
ward conrHe,  forming  trom  20oto22  °  s.  the  boumhirj--linel)<  tw«en  Brazil  and  Bolivia, 
thence  flowing  south-south-^re^tthrougli  the  territories  of  Pnr.iguay  to  its  junction 
with  the  Parana,  in  lat  21°  17'  s.,  a  ftrw  miles  above  the  town  of  Corrientc-s.  Its 
chief  aflUneiits  are  tije  Cuyaba,  Tacoary.  Mondego.  and  Ai>a  on  the  left,  and  the 
Ja«rn,.Pdct)mayo,  and  Vermejo  on  the  rijrht.  Except  in  tlie  marsliy  districts,  the 
c^unti^  on  both  banks  of  the  river  is  rich  and  fertile,  and  alxxulds  in  excellent  tim- 
ber. The  entire  length  of  the  river  is  cstim.ited  at  ISOd  miles  ;  it  is  on  an  avi  nige 
about  half  a  mile  in  width,  atid  is  navigable  for  steamers  to  the  moutSi  of  the  Cuy- 
aba,  lOU  tni.'os  above  the  town  of  Commba.  The  \>:atei:8  of  the  P.,  which  are  quite 
free  from  obstructions,  were  declared  open  to  ail  nations  in  1852;  and  now  Br.>- 
zilian  mriil-steamers  ply  monthly  l»etween  Monte  VKieo  »md  Cuyaba,  on  the  river  of 
the  saum  n  ime,  one  of  the  head-wafers  o^  the  P.;  and  tltere  are  several  lines  of 
steamers  b  •tween  Buenos  Ayres  and  A»>uuciou. 

PARAGUAY  TEA.    See  MATjg. 

PARAHI'H.A,  one  of  the  nlo^t  eastern  maritime  provinces  of  Brazil,  Iwunded  on 
the  n.  by  Rio  Grande  do  Norte,  on  the  s.  by  Perna  .  Inico,  on  ihe  w.  by  Ceara,  and 
on  the  e.  by  the  Atlantic.  Area,  31.500  sq.  m.;  \)0\y,  (l-«72)  876,226.  It  is  traversed 
by  a  river  of  the  same  mime,  by  a  inimber  of  smaller  streams,  and  by  mountainous 
ridges,  bc^tween  whicli  are  valleys,  the  soils  of  which  are.  for  the  most  part,  chy  and 
sandy.  Cotton  of  exce. lent  quality,  mandioc,  anA  tobacco  are  grown  ;  and  cotton, 
sugjir,  and  timljer  are  exported.    Capital,  Panthiba  (q.  v.). 

PARAHIBA,  a  seaport  of  Brazil,  capitd  of  the  province,  and  situated  on  the 
river  of  the  same  name,  alionf  10  miles  trom  the  sea.  Besid'S  the  cathedral,  it  con- 
tains a  number  of  religirms  houses,  two  colleges,  and  other  educational  institutions. 
lu  1874, 106  X'essels,  of  34,683  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  port    Pop.  16,000. 

PA'KALLAX  is  the  i^jpareal  displacemeut  of  an  object  caused  by  a  change  of 


y  Google 


Parallel  ^t\fL 

Parallel*  *  ^^ 

place  In  the  o*t>?erTer.  When  an  object  at  M  is  looked  at  from  P,  it  app<»arff  fn  Bne 
with  poine  object,  S;  but  after  the  olwerverhnis  uioved  to  E,  M  has  appart-nily  retro- 
;;raded  to  a  position  in  Huo  with  9';  tlU?  apparent  rctrof^reseioii  i«  deiioinir.afed 
jHiralkix.  The  angle  PME  is  called  the  "angle  of  parallax,"  or  (he  •*  parallactic 
auifh!,"  and  is  the  measure  of  the  ainonnt  of  parnlhuc.  'J'o  astronomers,  the  d'ttT- 
niihation  of  the  parallax  of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  of  the  ntraest  import^itice,  for  two 
rent'ons— first,  from  theneceseity  of  referring  all  observations  to  the  earth's  ci-ntre, 
i.  e.,  so  modifying  them  as  to  make  it  appear  as  if  they  had  l>eeii  actually  mad  •  at 
the  earth's  centre  ;  and  secondly,  becam^e  parallax  is  our  only  means  of  fk-tennining 
the  miignitude  and  distance  of  tht?  heavenly  bodies.  Tlui  geonentric  or  daili/  par.-ilinx 
— UH  the  iippareut  displaci'ment  of  a  heavenly  body,  dne  lo  iU  being  ohservfd  froui 
a  point  on  the  surface  of  the  eai'th  instead  ot  from  its  centre.  Is  called— i?*  deter  mi  ninl 
as  ioiiows :  Let  P  and  P'  be  two  staiious  on  th^  surface   of  the  earth  (tig.  ii),  E  its 


centre,  M  the  object  to  be  observed^  and  Z  and  Z'  the  Benltbs  respectively  of  the  ob- 
serverB  at  1*  and  P'  (jpoints  wliich,  if  possible,  shonlil  be  on  the  same  meridhtn  ex- 
actly) ;  then  at  F  andP'  let  the  zenith  distances  ZPM  and  Z'P'M,  bo  observed  ftimiil- 


t.nieously,  and  since  the  latitudes  of  P  and  P',  and  consequently  their  difference  of 
i.Uiiarle,  or  the  angle  PEP'^  is  known,  from  tlieeo  three  the  angle  PMP'  (U)e  sum  o£ 
the  p.iraliaxes  t\t  Paud  P')i8  at  once  found;  and  then,  by  a  trigonometrical  process, 
the  bjiDHratc  auglos  or  parallaxes  PME  and  P'ME.    When  the  parallax  of  M,  as  ob- 
sjrved  from  P,  i?  known,  its  distance  from  E.  tliecentre  of  the  earth,  can  be  at  once 
f  niud.    WMkmi  the  heavenly  l)ody  Ison  the  horizon,  as  at  O,  its  parallax  is  at  a  maxi- 
intiin,  and  i 8  known  as  tin;  horizontal  parallax.    The  geocentric  parallax  is  of  u:<e 
only  in  determining  the  distances  of  tiiose  heavenly  bodies  at  which  the  earth's 
radius  snbt  nds  a  consid  rab'e  angle ;  and  as  the  moon  and  Mars  (when  in  oppo- 
sition) are  t'le  only  such  bodies,  the  pjirallax  of  the  other  celestial  bodies  must . 
be  determined  in  a  different  manner.    'JMie  parallax  of  the  Sun  (q.  v.)  is  found  by  v!  ' 
ol>servatioi  oi  the  tratmt  of  Venus  across  hij<  disk,  a  much  more  accurate  metfiodi 
than  that  above  described.    The  parallaxes  of  the  other  planets  ar9  easily  deter- 
mined from  that  of  Mars. 

In  the  case  xit  the  flx^nl  stars,  at  which  the  earth's  radius  subtends  an  infinitesi- 
mal an  ^le,  it  becomes  necessary  to  make  u-e  of  a  much  larger  base-line  than  the 
rarth's  radins,  and  as  the  largest  we  can  employ  is  the  radius  of  the  earth's  orbit,  jt 
accordingly  is  miule  use  of,  and  the  displacement  of  a  star,  when  observed  from  a 
TK)int  in  the  <;arMi'8  orbit,  instead  of  from  it-'cemre,  the  sun,  Is  called  the  annual  or 
heliocentric  "p.iraWax.  Here  the  base-line  1ii3tea»l,  a^  in  the  former  case,  of  being 
4000  miles,  is  about  92,000,000  miles,  and  the  two  ol)servatioi>8  necessary  to  deter- 
mine the  i)arallactic  angle  are  made  from  two  points  on  opposite  sides  of  ttic  earth's  - 
orbit,  at  an  iuterval  as  nearly  as  possible  oi  ha:i  a  year.     Yet,  uotwithstaudiug  tho 


y  Google 


hr.>7  Parallel 

«  «^  •  PaiaUeia 

etiorinoiia  lenghi  of  the  base-lino,  it  bears  so  small  n  proporti<»ii  to  the  distances  of 
the  stars,  that  only  in  three  or  four  cases  have  they  been  found  to  eziiiUt  J.ny  pnr- 
ulUctrc  motion  whatever,  and  in  no  case  does  ihe  angle  of  parallax  an»ouut  to  1" 
(s»^  Stars).  Tlie  geocentric  hor  aontal  parallax  of  Ihe  nioon  is  about  57' 4" -2; 
that  of  the  sun,  about  8"  6;  and  of  the  double  siar,  61  CygnU  the  hdiocenirlc  par- 
allax has  been  determined  by  Bess<-1  to  be ?B48",  i-quivalent  to  about  16  mill:onths  uf 
a  becoud  ot  g<  ocenlric  horizontal  parallax.'  Parallax  affects  ever}'  observation  of 
angular  measurement  in  ihe  heavens,  an'd  all  obscrvaiious  nmst  Imj corrected  for  par- 
allax, or,  in  ai^tronomical  phrase,  referred  tb  the  etirth's  centre  btfore  they  can  be 
ni.ide  use  of  in  calculation.  The  position  of  a  body,  when  notrd  from  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  is  called  itAappwent  position;  u^d  when  referred  to  the  centre,  its reoZ 
pof-iituu. 

PA'RALLEL  FORCES  are  those  forces  which  act  upon  a  1  ody  in  directions  par- 
allel to  eueh  other.  Evtrjr  bo<ly,  being  an  a^semhln^re  of  sepamte  particles,  each  of 
which  is  acted  on  by  gravity,  may  thus  bo  considered  as  inipressed  upon  by  a  sys- 
tem of  parallel  forces.  If  tliere  l)e  more  than  two  parallel  forces,  the  rei^ltant  of 
the  wiiole  is  found  by  compounding  the  resuUant  of  the  first  two  with  the 
third,  thus  obtaii^ine  n  new  resultant,  which  is  similarly  ccmbined  with 
the  fourth  force;  and  so  on  till  the  final  resultant  is  found.  'Ihe  centie  of 
gravity  is  only  a  special  name  for  tlio  point  of  Application  of  the  final  resuitant  of  u 
number  of  parallel  forces. 

PARALLELEPI'PED  (Or.)  frequently,  but  Improperly  written  Parallelopiped, 
is  a  solid  fii^nre  having  six  faces,  the  faces  being  invaiiaWy  parallelograms,  and 
any  two  opposite  faces  equal,  similar,  and  pHrallel.  If  the  faces  nre  all  gquares,  and 
consequently  equal,  the  parallelepiped  becomes  a  cnln*.  The  volume  of  a  parallele- 
p'l^ed  is  found  by  multiplying  the  area  of  one  face  by  its  distance  from  the  opposite 
one. 

PARALLE'LOGRAM,  in  Mathematics,  Js  a  qnadiilaterol  rectilineal  figure  which 
has  its  opiMfSite  »i<U?s  parallel ;  the  opposite  sides  are  tlierefore  equal,  and  so  are  the 
oppositr  auL'l<;s.  If  one  angle .  of  a  parallelogram  he  a  right  angle,  all  its  angles 
are  riirht  an  tries,  and  th<*  figuru  is  then  cnUed  a  rectangular  pat  aliei<Kframj  or  shortly, 
a  rectangle;  and  if  at  the  same  time  all  the  ndis  are  equal,  the  figure  is  a  «5t<ar«, 
o  herwi.Hc  it  in  an  oblong.  If  the  airgles  aiu  not  n'ght  ang|e.«,  hut  all  the  sides  are 
equal,  it  is  cjiUed  a  rhiymbiut;  and  if  the.  oitpotdte  sides  only  ai-e  equal,  a  rkoni' 
boid.  The  twO  lines  which  connect  the  opposite  coiners  of  a  parallelogram  are 
called  \t8  diagotig,lftf  each  bisects  the  parallelogram,  and  thty  bisect  each  other;  the 
ram  of  their  squares  also  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  tbqnares  of  the  sides  of  the  paral- 
lelogram. 

All  parallelogrnms  which  have  equal  bases  and  equal  altitudes  are  equal  in  area, 
whetht  r  they  iw  similar  in  sha|>e  or  not,  and  the  area  of  a  parallelogram  is  found  by 
njultiplying  it-'  bai^e  by  the  height. 

PARALLELOGRAM  OP  FORCES.    See  Composition  OF  Forces. 

PARALLELS,  in  Military  language,  are  trenches  cut  in  the  ground  before  a 
fortress,  ronirhly  parallel  to  its  defencep,  for  the  purpose  of  j:iving  cover  to  the  he- 
siegers*  frtim  the  guns  of  the  place.  The  jmrallels  are  usujilly  three,  with  zigz;  g 
trenches  leading  irom  one  to  another.  The  ohi  rule  used  to  be  to  dig  the  ftr^t  nt  600 
yardH  distance,  but  the  improvements  in  artillery  have  rendered  a  greater  distance 
necessarv  ;  and  at  Sebai^topol,  the  allies  made  their  first  trench  2000  ynrds  from  tho 
walls.  The  third  trench  is  very  near  to  the  besieged  works,  and  from  it  snps  nnd 
zigzag  approaches  are  directed  to  tne  covert- way. —The  bearing  of  parallels  in  the 
geneml  c<mdnct'of  a  Siege  will  be  found  desciibed  under  that  liead. 

PARALLELS  or  Circles  of  Latitutc  are  circles  drawn  round  the  surface  of  the 
^nth  parallel  to  the  equator.  They  may  l)e  supposed  to  be  the.  intersections  with 
the  earth's  surface  ca.  planes  which  cut  the  earth  at  right  angles  to  its  axis.  The 
greatest  of  these  circles  is  the  equator,  which  has  the  centre  of  Ihe  earth  for  its  cen- 
tre, the  radius  for  ita  radius,  and  is  equally  distant  at  all  points  from  each  pol^.  It 
is  evident  that  of  the  others,  those  next  ttie  equator  are  greater  Mmn  those  more  re- 
mote, and  that  tliey  become  less  and  leas  till  at  the  poles  thev  vanish  altogether. 
The  radius  of  any  one  circle  ia  evidently  equal  to  the  earth*!  f adlua  luullipHcd  into 


Digitized  by 


Google 


p«airrt.  jr-g 


thocoshicof  It*  lalitudo  or  clistaiicn  from  tho  equator.  The rotiiry  velocify  ot  tl»e 
earth's  surface,  which  is  about  17>^  mi li«  por  miiiutc  at  tlie  eqiuito-,  iti  only  8^ 
mllcfl  in  i:«t.  lO*^,  in  1 't.  8'i)^o  (t^c  n.osf-  uonhirly  jioiiit  yet  reached)  iB.<nily  8i^ 
miU'H ;  au(X  iu  lut.  80>^o  (within  35  milois  of  tlie  pole)  is  u^t  more  thau  267  yard*-^^ 
minoto. 

Tlii'mostt  important  pvral1;l8  0f  latHud  ?  are  ihe  Tiopien  of  Caiiccr  (^o  86' n. 
Int.)  and  Capricorn  <23*>  23'  a.  IaL),  and  tlie  yiretie  (6G*  3J'  u.  lat.)  and  AiUaretie  Cir^ 
cles  (06°  32'  ^  lar.). 

PARA'LYSIS  (Or.  a  looslnjr  or  rolaxiiiy:),  or  Paby,  i?  a  lose,  more  or  less  cmii- 
plot .  of  tlie  powrr  of  motion  ;  IVut  by  some  writers  th.^  term  is  employed  to  exprean 
al-o  losH  of  Hensaiiou.  Wljen  the  npper  and  lower  extreraltien  on  biith  pides.  aiid 
more  or  1  a-*  of  thu  trunk,  are  involv  -d,  the  affection  ia  U^rniitd  Oeiieral  ParalyvU. 
Very  freqiiently  only  oue>hatf  of  flie  liody  laterally  iaaffecttd, 'the  other  side  renmni- 
ing  sMHud;  to  this  cotidiliou  the  term  HemipUgia  ^  given.  When  ti«e  piIr^yM 
couflued  to  all  th»pu*t0  l,elowan  imaginary  traiiHvertse  Ime  drawn  thromrh  the  body, 
or  to  t!ie  two  lower  extremities,  the  cbu<litJon  is  ternted /^araji^i^nt.  Wlien  one  p.:rt' 
of  I  lie  body,  as  a.liu»h,ouewde  ol  the  face,  &c,  is  exclnsiyiily  atticked,  the  aifection 
is  known  as  l^dal  palsy.  In  Mome  cases,  ttie  l0£«  of  sensation  and  the  power  of  miv- 
tioji  in  the  paralysed  part  is  entire,  while  in  otliers  it  is  not  bo.  In  the  forir.er  the 
p  tralyais  is  «.aid  to  l)e  complete,  in  tha hitter, jMittia/.  In  mt^t  casep.  but  not  inva- 
riably, sensibility  and  njotion  are  simultaueotisly  lost  or  imiiairecl.  When  iriotion  is 
lost,  but  i>eu.*«atiou  remains  Tinimpaire<l,  the  affection  ha?*  received  the  uniue of 
akiuRida  (Qr.  a,  not,  and  kiiiesiH^  motion).  More  ranly  there  is  a  loss  of  sensibility 
while^t  '.e  powT  of  motion  is  retained ;  and  to  such  cases  the  term  aiMiHthefria  (Gr.  a, 
not,  and  aintfusia,  sensHlon)  is  applied.  This  affection  occurs  most  frequently  iu 
the  or^an^  of  sense;  a-*  in  tiie  tongue,  for  example,  iu  which  the  sense  of  taste  may 
ba  lost.  with(mt  any  defect  of  movement. 

Paralysis  is  in  most  cas'S  a  mere  sympton  of  disease  existing  in  some  other  part 
than  that  apiwrently  affected ;  as,  for  examine,  in  the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  or  In  tho 
condacHnjr  nerves  Iwtw.^n  «*ith«T  of  these  oi'g:tu8  and  the  palsitn!  organ.  Some- 
times, however,  it  is  a  pnrdy  local  affection,  depending  npon  a  morbid  condition  of 
the  terminal  extremities  of  the  nerves.  The  varieties  m  the  condition  of  the  brain' 
ami  spiral  cord  which  occision  paralysis  are  somewhat  imnietoas ;  a«>,  for  example, 
cojigestioil,  hemorrltagic  and  serous  effusion,  softeniiig,  fatty  degeneration,  fibrin- 
ous exndition,  suppuration,  hvdatids,  vaiious  morbid  growths,  depressed  bone  from 
external  vloleitce,  &c  It  is  hfirhly  pro')a  Me,  also,  that  palsy  irt&y  sometinfes  rt!snlt 
from  mere  functional  disorder  of  the  nervous  centres— a  view  which  is  confirmed  by 
t  l»e  fart  I  hat  a  ^ow^fno/'tem  examination  of  a  patient  who  has  suffered  f/om  thiW 
affection  souietime?*  fails  to  detect  any  apparent  lesion.  Paralysis  may  originate  iii 
a  iK-rvous  trunk,  if  it  Is  compi-essed  ijy  a  tnmor,  or  otherwise*  mechanically  affected, 
or  if  it  is  the  svat  of  morbid  ictioi  tending  in  anjr  way  to  disorganise  it ;  or  it  may 
l)edue  to  an  alniormal  condition  of  the  terminations  of  the  nerves,  which  maybe 
rendered  unfit  for  receiving  impi-essioim  either  from  the  external  world  tnc  from  the 
brain  by  prolonged  disuse,  by  tjtmtinuous  or  severe  pr  ssnro,  by  expo^nre  t  •  cold,  by 
disorganisation  of  their  own  tissue,  or  by  the  depressing  action  of  various  metsUlic 
poisons,  especially  lead. 

We  shall  hi  ieflv  notice  the  syjivptoms  and  causes  of  the  most  imiiortant  forms  of 
paralysis,  before  offering  any  remarks  on  the  general  principl*^  of  tr'aluMni. 
Hemiplegia  (Gr.  he<nti^  half,  pliHHO,  I  i»triki')  affects  one  lateral  Aa//of  the  lK)dy, :  xid 
is  tiiat  form  of  i>alsy  to  which  tiie  t4'rm  paralytie  stroke  is  commonly  applied.  Tins 
parts  generally  affeeted  are  the  upper  and  lower  exfivmities,  the  nmsc'es  of  masri- 
c^tion,  and  the  muscles  of  the  tongue  on  one  side.  In  a  well-mirked  case  ihe 
patient  wluMi  seized  fills  to  th?  ground,  all  power  of  motion  in  tli.*  affected  arm  and 
log  b  ing  lost.  The  palsy  of  tlie  fac  •  which  accompanies  hemiplrgia  is  usually  qnife 
distinct  from  the  affection  known  a"  fadiil  palsy,  wbidi  is  an  :ine<-.tion  of  thefa(?ial 
nei-ve  or  portin  dvra.  See  Nbkvous  8ystem.  It  is  t he  motor  branches  of  the  filth 
or  trifacial  in-rvf  going  to  the  nm-cles  of  mastieation  which  are  genendiy  involved 
iu  hendplegiaj  and  eons«  quen-ly  tl"*  che«:k  Is  flaecid  and  hangs  down,  ana  the  angle 
of  the  mouth  is  depressed  on  tlu}  afft;cted  aid*'.  The  tongue  when  protruded  points 
towards  the  paralynvd  side,  and  there  is  often  imperfect  articixlatiiw,  iu  vonsequenoo 


Digitized  by 


Google 


759 


Paralysis 


of  the  legion  cotnmonlT  nfferting  the  hypogl08!»a]  nerve.  Honilpli'pia  may  nri?e 
from  lesions  of  various  kindn,  as*,  for  vxaiHple,  (1)  from  hemoiTliagf,  or  ponHJ  oiher 
nwrbid  change  in  the  bniiii,  in  which  cjih«  the  pil*«y  is  on  the  >-U\v  of  thr  body  oppo- 
Hit*'  10  fhe  lesion,  in  consequence  of  the  decnesntion  or  ero-£i"g  over  or  nt-rvous 
flbten  froin  one  side  to  the  oIIkt  iliat  occnrn  nt  tlie  upper  |)«rt  of  the  Spinal  Cord: 
(q.  v.);  ('ii)  from  fpina!  disease  l^elow  the  ]na>tt  of  de<ti>'>'iiti(in  juri  noticed  ;  in  this 
ca^i)  I  tie  palsy,  and  the  legion  causii'g  it.  :'re  on  the  narae  side  ol  the  hod  v.  If  is  also 
SiiniatiMje.'*  HS:«ociated  with  hystrrin,  epilepsy,  and  chorea,  but  in  tliese  cases  It 
usually  disdpiiean*  in  a  few  hour?*. 

Paraplegia  (Gr.)  is  nsaally  confined  to  the  two  lower  extremities,  bnt  the  mus- 
cles of  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk  and  of  ih«'  bladder  and  rectum  are  eometiines 
aff.cted.  'J'here  are  at  lea^t  two  diptintt  foms  of  pMsphgia,  viz.  (1)  J  ant  W  p'ji 
dependent  on  primary  disease  of  the  ppinal  cord  or  its*  membranes,  and  eppecii  I'y  on 
Wy<'liti»  (q.  v.) ;  and  (2)  Reflex  Paraplejjia,  i.  e.,  p:irai»l€gia  consequent  on  riietafi-  of 
tlie  kidnijys,  bladder,  lu'ethra.  prostate,  womb,  &c.  Tln-se  two  forms  of  parapleRiii 
differ  in  many  of  their  ph<  nomeua.  and  the  tno.-t  important  of  these  points  of  differ- 
ence have  been  arranged  in  a  tabular  form  by  Ih*  Biown  Stquard  in  his  •*  Lectures 
on  Pandysis  of  the  Lower  Extreniitics,"  to  w  liich  we  mu>t  refer  for  the  beet  inf<.r- 
juatioji  on  this  form  of  palsy.  Paraplrgia  usually  conu's  on  slowly,  with  a  gmdiial 
increase  of  itn  symptoms.  The  r  flrx  lomi  is.  of  conr>e,  by  far  the  most  favon.blr, 
a«  It  u-ually  al»at»'s  ?»poMtaneonsly  on  the,Bub>ldence  of  tlieprin.a»y  d  sease. 

Facial  rainy,  ahhough  locally  nffectingonly  a  ^ma^  part  <.f  thrbo<!y,  is  a  disor- 
der of  sufficient  importance  to  require  a  definite  in  tice.  In  ihi."  :!ff»  ctioi:  tlure  is  a 
niot^  or  ieris  perfect  loss  of  powtT  over  all  the  v.  usrhs*  supplit  d  by  iln  portio  Onra^ 
or  facial  nerve.  The  following  graphic  aeoounf  of  ifle  aipearmce  of  th<-  paiicnt  is 
condensed  from  Dr  Watson's  "Lectures  on  the  Practice  of  Physic."  Front  one- 
half  of  the  coutitenance  all  power  of  expression  is  gone;  the  features  are  blaik, 
still,  and  unmtjaning;  the  eyelids  apart  and  lnotionle^&.  1  be  other  half  retains  its 
natural  cast,  except  that,  in  some  eases,  the  anjrle  of  the  mouth  on  that  side  se<  ms 
drawn  a  little  awry,  in  conseqoeirce  of  tin-  want  of  coutiterpoisefrom  the  corrcs]»(ind- 
ing  mnscnlar  fibres  of  the  palsied  side.  Tlie  patient  cannot  laugh  or  weep,  or  frown, 
or  express  any  feeling  or  emotif>n  with  one  side  of  his  face,  while  the  feature>  of  the 
other  may  be  in  full  play,  nor  can  he  spit  or  whistle  properly.  One-half  of  the  as- 
)>ect,  with  it"  unwinking  (;ye,  its  flx'  d  and  K)lemn  stafe,  mij:htbe  that  of  a  dead  p«  r- 
son  ;rtlie  other  lialf  is  alive  and  merry.  To  those  wl)d  do  noi  comprehend  the  ])0ssi- 
ble  est«'nt  of  the  n»>**fortune,  the  whiniHical  apiieaiance  t;t  the  path  nt  is  a  matt<  r  of 
mirth  and  laughter;  whih*,  on  the  oUier  hand,  1  is  friends  in  agine  that  he  lias  had  a 
Btroxe,  atidthatheisin  a  verydangeronsstJite.  1'he nerve,  may  ne  unable  to  discharge 
it«  duties  in  cons<»qnence  of  cHsease  \tithin  the  cavity  «  f  the  hkull,  and  in  that  ca.-e 
there  is  very  serious  clanger;  but  in  the  gr«  at  majority  of  easen  the  mrvous  functiim 
i.«» interrupted  intlmt  parr  of  \ho,  portio dwa \\h\c\\  lies  enca^d  in  the  teuiporal  bone, 
or  in  tlie  more  i-xposed  part  which  issue-  in  front  of  the  ear ;  and  h  nee  tfilt*  lonn  of 
palsy  is  generally  utnitiended  wi»h  any  danger  to  Hie.  It  may  arise  from  varioDs 
causes.  Sometimes  it  is  the  eonseqneiiceoT  mech:>niral  violence,  sometimes  of  tu- 
mors, praising  on  it  in  the  region  of  the  parotid  g^and,  and  it  very  fn  qm  ntly  arisi  s 
from  the  tnere  exposure  of  the  s'de  of  the  face  for  some  lime  to  a  f^tream  ol  coid  air. 

It  yet  remains  to  notice  certain  kinds  of  paralysis  which  differ  in  either  of  th(  ir 
chanicters,  or  in  their  causes,  from  those  which  have  been  already  dehcribed— viz  , 
Shaking  Pahy^  or  Paraly»ift  Anitana;  and  the  palsies  induced  by  various  poisoiiS. 
ShdHntj  Pa'fty  has  l>een  (iefimci  as  "  involuntary  tremulous  motion,  with  le*-sei-.<d 
muscular  [jower  in  parts  not  in  action,  and  even  wln-n  s.upported  ;  with  a  propensity 
t.o  bend  the  trunk  forwurds,  and  to  pass  from  a  walking  lo  a  running  pace  ;  flie  sen.»-t8 
and  inielleet  b<'ing  uninjured  "  It  is  chiefly  an  affeclloti  <  f  old  age,  j-nd  often  iroes 
no  further  than  to  caust^  an  unceasing  nodding  andwaffirini:  of  the  head  in  all  direc- 
tions. Homewhat  analogous  to  this  form  of  palsy  is  iiiat  j)eculiarkin(l  of  trembliig 
whiel»  is  oft«ii  noticed  in  persons  who  are  much  expoa«  d  to  the  vapor  of  mercury  ; 
Mercurial  Trevtor.  as  it  is  termed  by  llie  physicians,  and  The  Ttc^hblcs.  as  the  pa- 
tient usually  cidls  it.  It  coiir'ists  in  a  convute  ve  aidtation  of  the  voluntary  mns<lts, 
esiM'Cially  when  an  attempt  is  made  to  cans*'  them  to  act  under  the  ii  fluenee  of  the 
will ;  a  patient  witli  this  affiCtion  walks  with  unc«rtain  nteps,  his  limhs  trembling 
ftud  dancing  as   if  they  had  been  hung  upon  wires.     When  wtt;i  g  down  he  ex- 


y  Google 


Paramaribo  ^  fXO 

Paramatta  •  ^'^ 

hihit<<  little  or  no  iiul\catIon  of  his  dlspaoe,  bat  on  rinng  he  cannot  hold  hk«  lests 
Bt  atly.  nor  direct  Uieiii  with  precision  ;  and  in  eevere  caseb  Ij«  falle  to  tl»e  gronnd  if 
not  Hiippurted.  The  arms  are  niniilarl^v  agitated,  and  the  tonjL'oe  Jb  ut^initly  ho  trcnin- 
]ou8  as  t«)  render  tlie  nrticnltti  ion  hurried  and  un natural,  'i  he  diseascj  is  e*peclaUy 
foiuinou  in  .-irrisans  eunp  oyed  in  the  gihling  of  metals,  and  puiticulariy  of  eiiv;r,  by 
means  of  that;  it  is  ai.->o  frequ'Ut  anionj;  the  workerit  ol^  quickvilver  mines,  in 
vhica  the  r.rude  nieial  in  purifliid  by  h«Mt.  The  time  requirt^d  for  Tlie  product  ion  of 
the  disease  varies  extremely  in  tliffen-ut  cases  (according  to  Dr.  Watson,  from  iwo 
y^iars  to  flve-aud-t\v«nty).  The  duration  of  the  complaint  is  considerable;  it  may 
I.i:*t  (wo  o:-  tlire    monthSt  or  lon^^er,  l)at  it  is  ^eldom  fatal. 

The  p  ilsy  arising  from  the  absorption  of  lead  has  been  already  noticed  in  the 
article  IJ:ad-;^oisonimo. 

A  r'p  (iftc  form  of  paralysis  of  the  lower  extremities,  consequent  on  tlie  ai*e 
of  Hon  I'  from  the  beans  of  tiie  Ltthyriis  ttativvs,  is  common  in  certain  parts  of 
Jndi  I  and  in  Thibet.  Tlie  ri()e  bean  is  an  ordinary  article  of  food  wlien  made 
into  flour,  but  it  is  generally  us  d  with  wheat  or  barley  flour |  it  is  only  when  it 
exc'-eil-*  oiie-uvelfth  part  that  ii  i>*  at  all  injurious,  a?id  when  it  exc^ds  one-third 
that  the  paralysis  s.-tt*  in.  Other  specii^s  of  Lathyrua  have  been  known  occai<>oti- 
ally  to  induce  similar  symptoms  in  Enrom^an  countries. 

Wc  shall  enter  into  no  det.dls  regarding  the  treatment  of  hemiplegia  and  para> 
plegi  >,  MS  ihu  mana^einent  of  these  serious*  affections  should  l)e  exclusively  re- 
Hi rioted  to  the  phy^iiclan.  When  a  pitient  Ims  an  attack  of  hemiplegia  (or  a 
paralytic  stroke)  all  that  shotdd  1>e  done  before  tlie  physician  arrives  is  to  place 
him  in  a  horizontal  no-^itioii,  with  the  head  sli^litly  raised,  and  to  remove  any  ini- 
ludiimmts  presented  by  tke  dress  to  the  free  circulation  of  the  b:(X>d.  Should  Uie 
physician  not  arrive  In  an  h<nir  or  two,  it  may  b-t  expedient  to  give  th-j  patient  a 
Siiarp  purge  (haif  a  scruple  of  c;domel,  followed  in  a  few  hours  l>y  a  black  dnui^ht, 
if  he  can  swallow ;  and  two  drops  of  crotou  oil,  mixed  with  a  littie  melted  butter, 
and  placed  on  the  back  of  his  tou^^ue,  if  the  p  >wer  of  deglutition  is  lost),  and  with- 
out waiting  lor  its  action,  to  administer  an  iniection  (or  clyster)  consisting  of  ha  f 
an  ounce  of  oil  of  turpentine  saspc^nd'  d  (by  rubiiinirit  with  theyt)lkol  an  egg)  in  half 
n  pi  it  of  thin  ^fruel ;  and  cold  lotions  may  be  applied  to  the  head,  i  s|»ecially  if 
itA  surface  be  hot.  The  question  of  blood-l-^fiiig— tht;  nnivers^  treirtmont  a  quarter 
of  a  century  agOx-must  be  left  solely  to  tlu>  physician.  It  should,  how -ver,  b  J 
gen- ;rally  known,  thai  if  the  patient  ni  cold  and  collipsed;  if  the  heart's  ct  on  bt) 
feeble  and  intermittent;  if  there  be  an  amemic  state;  if  the  piiiieiit  l)e  of  advanced 
age;  if  there  Is  cvid  :nce  of  extensive  disease  of  the  heart  or  arteriiU  syr'tem ;  or 
1-istly,  iC  tluire  is  reason,  from  the  symptoms,  to  believe  that  a  large  annxunt.  of 
heniorr  nige  has  already  taken  place  in  the  brain ;  the.se  singly,  and  a  fortiori  con- 
jointly,  are  reasons  why  blood  should  not  lie  abstracted. 

Kacial  palsy.  un1e:*s  the  seat  of  the  disease  be  within  the  cavity  of  the  cmniura, 
\vil!  usually  yicid  in  the  coui"»e  of  a  few  weeks  to  cupping  and  blistering  l)ehiud  the 
ear  of  the  aff  cted  side,  punrative?*,  and  small  doses  of  corrodve  sublimate  (one- 
twelfth  of  a  grain  three  times  aday,  combined  with  a  little  of  the  compound  tincture 
of  hark),  wnlcn  must,  be  stopped  as  s«o(m  as  the  gums  are  at  all  affected.  Exposure 
to  cold  air  must  Im»  carefully  avoided  during  treatment. 

Litihf  or  nothing  can  l)e  done  to  cure  Paralysis  Agitana.  In  the  trc>atmcnt  of 
Mercuri'il  Tremor,  tlie  fli*8t  step  U  to  remove  the  patient  from  the  fuHher  operatioDof 
the  |Knson,  while  the  second  is  to  remove  the  poison  already  absorbtnl  into  the  system, 
which  is  eff  *cted  by  the  administration  of  iodide  of  potas^iu  r.  This  salt  (ombiiies  witli 
the  metallic  poison  in  the  system,  and  forms  a  soluble  salt  (a  double  iodide  of  mer- 
cury and  potassium),  vhich  is  eliminat.ed  thrcmirh  the  kidneys.  Good  food  and  ton- 
ics (steel  or  quinia,  or  the  two  comi)iiied)  should  be  at  the  same  time  Iretly  given. 

The  writer  of  this  article  ha-*  no  pemonal  knowledge  of  the  treatment  that  shonld 
be  recommend  d  in  the  paralysis  produced  by  the  use  of  Lathyriis  aativuit,  bat  cases 
are  reported  which  seem  to  have  been  bcueflied  by  good  diet,  tonica,  strychuiu,  and 
the  application  of  blisters  to  tne  loins. 

PARAM.VRIBO,  the  capital  of  Dutch  Guiana,  is  sitnated  on  the  western  bank 
of  the  river  Suriuain,  about  10  miles  fnmi  its  mouth,  in  5°  4fi'  n.  lat,  and  55°  15'  w, 
loii'^.  It  foi  nis  a  rectangle  of  nearly  a  mile  a*»d  a  half  In  length  by  ihrefvquarters  in 
breadth.    The  streets  arc  bru.d,  covered  with  shell-simd,  and  ]i!aulcd  on.  both  eides 


y  Google 


.    ^p.l  Paiamailbo 

^^^  Paxamatln 

with  oranjroj  lemon,  tniimrind,  and  other  fivee.  Near  the  river,  the  hoiiHep,  "which 
are  chiefly  of  wood,  ^taiid  Hoiuewhat  closely  together,  but  In  the  remoter  parts  each  is 
forrouuded  by  its  own  e^urdeu.  The  rooms  are  waiuscoted  with  the  choicest  woods, 
and  ek-gautly  f  aruisheo. 

In  approaching  P.  from  the  sea.  Fort  Zeelaudia  is  first  readied;  then  the  Bureau 
of  Finance  and  Court  of  Justice  on  the  Government  Plain,  wliich  is  surrounded  I  y 
Fiately  c.-ibbage-palms;  tl>e  governor's  bouf^e,  witli  slmdy  donbl«»  avenue  of  tamarind- 
t-ee» ;  and  hist]y,  the  business  streets  stretching  alonjr  tin-  river  side.  There  are  a  Dutch 
R'  forniod,  a  Lutheran,  Moravian*,  two  Ronian  Catli<  11  c  urches,  and  two  synagojjuts. 
F(»rt  Zeelandia  has  a  large  and  l)eauiiful  l>arr.ick,  witti  Btveral  roomy  houses  for  iho 
j-fflcers.  P.  has  a  neat,  pleasant,  and  picturesque  appearance,  the  white  painte/l 
houses,  witli  bri^lit-gruen  doors  and  windows,  pet  pi n^'  out  from  tiie  i^ady  tri:es,  at  d 
the  riv.r  being  thronged  with  the  tent-boats  and  cauogs  which  are  constantly  arriv- 
ing and  depaiting. 

On  1st  January  1375,  tho  population  amounted  to  21,766.  By  i*oyal  decn-e  of 
61  h  Felwnary  1861,  tlio  flowing  of  slaves  in  tlie  Netlierlands  West  Indies  wuh  for- 
bidden, except  through  officers  appointed  for  the  puiitose,  and  the  number  of 
l.iShcs  was  limited.  This  check,  however,  was  fre<iueutly  evaded,  and  the  gnate>t 
barbarities  practised,  so  tiiat  tlie  feeling  in  favor  of  enunicipation  increas^  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  a  bill  was  passed,  8th  August  1862,  for  emancipating  Uie  slaves  on 
the  Wt  July  18l3. 

P.  being  tlie  only  port,  except  Nickeiie  Polnt,,at  the  month  of  the  Corentyn, 
enjoys  a  conf'iderabW!  trade.  In  1874,  the  total  arrivals,  in  Dutch  Guiana  were  204 
ships,  measuring  26,472  tons,  the  departures  212,  of  27,593  tons.  By  ftir  the  largest 
number  were  British.  AI>out  a  fourth  pnrt  cleared  at  Nickerle,  a  very  prodi'.ctive 
portion  of  the  colony,  in  whlcU  t^ugar,  molasses,  and  rum  are  maunfactured  in  large 
quantities. 

The  ciinnite  of  D.  Guiana  is  not  hcalthj'.  From  this  and  other  causes  the  deaths 
annaally  exce*  d  tht;  i>irths.  In  1874,  there  were  1548  births  and  8864.  deaths.  Of  the 
births,  119S  wire  not  in  wedlm-k.  In  Curasao,  Aruba,  St  Mnrtin,  St  Eustatius,  and  Sabn, 
there  were.  14;{9  liirths  and  653  dejiths.  Of  the  births,  1058  were  illegitimate.  Dining 
tlmt  year  U^'S  coolies  arrived  in  the  Qolony,  of  whom  1384  were  from  British  India. 
Among  these  1.  borers,  the  avenig<!  death-rate  was  13-85  percent.,  and  on  three 4>lan- 
t-itions  47-70 ;  while  that  of  the  Creoles  averaged  570.  Elephantiasis  Arabum  and 
Lepra  are  fearfully  prevalent  among  the  black  population  of  P.  and  neighborhood. 

The  maxinmm  f.ill  of  rain  is  in  Alay,  the  minimum  in  September  and  October. 
By  observations  m  de  at  five  difCjrent  points,  duHng  eight  successive  years,  it  was 
found  that  the  Quantity  varies  mucUv  being  smallest,  at  Nickerle,  in  the  west,  and 
largest  at  Montbvou  \u  the  east  of  the  colony.  The  avenig^'s  of  the  ei«:ht 
year-",  from  1S4T  to  1854,  were,  Nickerle,  66*70  inchest;  Groningen,  on  therivir 
Samnmcca,  90  50;  Paramaribo,  99*S6;  Gelderlaud,  on  the  river  Surinam,  108*25; 
and  Moutbyou,  127:76.  lu  Georgetowli,  British  Guiana,  the  average  fall  is  100-50 
incites. 

'i'ho  coast  of  Dutch  Guiana  is  an  alluvial  deposit  formed  by  the  rivers  and  equa- 
torial stream  which  flows  eastwards,  i^irther  inland,  the  soil  is  diluvial  loam,  bea:  • 
ing  the  finest  timber  trees;  and  south  6f  this  line  are  extens-ive  savaninihs  of  white 
sand,  stretching  toward  tlie  hills  and  mountains  of  the  interior,  which  are  chiefly  of 
gneiss  and  granite. 

Exports  (1874),  24,135,503  lbs.  sugar,  8,435,483  lbs.  cocoa,  127,460  lbs.  cotton, 
67,549  lbs.  quasHia-woodf  273,159  gallons  mo.ass.«,  201,780  gallons  rum,  4&c 

PARAMA'TTAisa  light  woi*sted  twilled  fabric  for  female  dress.  It  was  in- 
vented at  Br..dford,  in  Yorkshire,  and  hasl>econie  an  important  manntacture  of  tliat 
])lact\  The  weft  consists  of  combed  merino  wool,  and  the  warp  of  cotton.  It  re- 
sembles in  texture  the  Coburg  and  Orleans  ck>ths. 

PARAMATTA,  a  pleasantly  situated  town  of  New  South  Wales,  stands  near  tho 
wesi  extremity  of  Port  Jackson,  on  a  small  river  of  the  same  name,  and  is  15  mil«  s 
by  laud  west-north-west  of  Sydney,  with  which  it  is  connected  both  by  stenmer  and 
railway.  The  houses  are  mostly  detached,  and  the  streets  are  ^vide  and  regnhsr.  the 
princij)al  one  being  about  a  mile  in  length.  The  Institutions  comprise  churc 
schools,  an  orphan  oud  a  lunatic  asyltuu,  and  a  prison,    'i'here  was  furuierly  t' 


y  Google 


Parameter  7i\0 

Tarasara  •  v*-^ 

eervatory  here ;  but  It  wjifi  reiiwved  to  jSydney  id  1S38.  **  Colonial  tweed.-,"  "  Par»« 
lutttfu  cloMiH,"  and  salt  are  innniifnctured.    Fop.  (1>}<1).6:03. 

The  town  of  P.,  fonnerly  caiiud  Ko*«hHI,  ii».  wiih  the  exception  of  Sydney^  the 
olde.^c  in  the  colouv.  Th.;  first  grain  raised  in  the  coluuy  was  grown  beru,  aud  the 
first  tcrauts  of  hmJ  made. 

PARA'MBTBR,  or  Lams  HectaiUt  a  tenn  nsed  in  conic  sections,  denotes,  in  the 
caseof  the  parabola,  a  tliint  proportional  lo  the  alx'^cisaa  of  any  diameter  uud  its 
correspond ;ni;  ordinate  ;  in  tlio  ellipse  arid  hyi>erb.ohi,  a  third  proportional  to  a  di- 
ameter aud  it8  conjugate.  Th  ;  parameU^r  of  anv  diameter  is,  in  the  case  of  the 
parai>ola,  the  same  as  tlie  double  ordinate  of  tijat  diameter  whidi  passes  tbroiijjii  Hut 
focus,  and  is  four. times  as  loiitf  as  tiic  distance  between  the  diameter's  vertex  an«l 
tl»e  directrix.  Tlie  term  paraiiKter  w  is  also  at  one  lime  nstid  to  denote  nny  Btraisrht 
line  abont  a  curve,  upon  whicli  its  tjvm  could  b:<  imide  to  depend,  or  any  constant 
in  its  equation,  the  value  of  wliich  drterniined  the  individual  curve;  but  its  emnkiy- 
inent  in  tliis  sense  is  now  discorttinned.  excpt  in  the  theory  of  homogeneous dlffer- 
ehtial  eqiuitions,  where  the  constants,  for  the  pur|K)»<e  of  aiding  tlie  solution,  are 
supposed  to  vary ;  and  the  method  is  conseqn -uHy  denominated  tlie  "  Variation  oC 
tlie  Parameters."  In  tlij  application  of  this  method  to  detenniL'e  ttie  orbital  mo- 
tions of  the  planets,  the  •*  S3V(?u  necessary  data"  (see  Qbbit)  were  called  purameiera, 
but  for  this  the  term  *'*'  elements  "  is  now  snbsfitated. 

PARANA',  a  province  iu  the  south  of  Brazil,  Is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  the  province 
of  8ao  Paulo,  on  tne  e.  by  the  Atlantic.  8.e.  by  Sauui  Catharina,  s.  by  Bio  Grande 
doSuI.  w.  by  Paraguay  and  Matto  Grosso.  Area  stated  at  T2  000  ^q.  m.  Pop, 
(1S72)  ii6,T22,  one  sixth  of  whom  are  slaves.  Tlie  capital  is  Cu.itiba,  and  previoosQr 
to  1852  this  province  formed  a  territory  called  the  Comarca  of  Cnritibji,  included 
iu  tlie  province  of  Sao  Paulo.  It  lully  conimencetl  its  pniyjiicial  career  in  1853. 
The  sea  coast  is  ind^ited  by  sev«'ral  b:iys,  but  the  chief  aud  almost  the  otdy  port  a9 
yet  is  Paranagua.  A  line  of  mountains  runs  parallel  to  the  co:ist  at  a  dtsiauce  of 
about  80  miles  iuland,  aud  throws  out  spurs  and  branches  westwtird.  The  streau^ 
flowinsr  east  from  ibis  water-shed,  though  numerous,  are  inconsiderable;  wlille  the 
rivers  flowing  westward,  into  the  P.traia  (q.  v.),  which  forms  the  western  boundary 
of  the  province,  are  all  abont  or  upwards  of  400  miles  in  length.  The  prinei|>al  nvo 
the  Paranapanema,  Ivay,  Piqnery,  aud  Tguassu.  Ttie  climate  is  nnusiuilly  he-ilihy ; 
the  soli  is  fertile;  and  uericuliuro,  rearing  cattle  and  swhie.  and  gathering 7>ta/^  or 
Paragttiiy  teji  are  the  chief  eniploymen-s.  The  capital,  Curitiba,  has  mairufacntvs 
of  coarse  woollens,  and  with  its  agricultural  surroundings  has  a  j)Op.  of  12,^*00.— The 
chief  port,  Parana>;ua,  on  a  t>ay  of  the  sauiename.  is  abotit  400  miles  south-west  of 
Kio  d(!  Janeiro.  It  contains  about  3i)00  iuhabituuts,  and  ^  xi)orts nidti  to  the  value  of 
l,OO0,0!in  dollars  annual^'. 

PARANA,  an  important  river  of  Bradl.  rises  in  the  province  of  Minas  Or'raee, 
about  100  mites  nortli-wesi  of  Rio  <le  Jani?iro.  It  flows  west  for  upwards  of  500  miles 
through  the  provinces  of  Minas  G«;raes  and  Sao  P.iulo.  In  the  latter  it  is  joined  by  the 
Parnahiba,  After  which  its  course  alt'  I's.  aud  it  flows  smith-south- west  to  Caudelaria. 
Passing  this  town,  it  flows  west  for  200  miles  to  its  confluence  with  the  Pan^iay 
(q.  v.),  and  tiien  bending  southward,  ikiss-js  Santa  Pe,  b  low  whieh  its  cliannel  fre- 
quently divides  and  encsose^  nuuiercui"*  islands.  After  pussiug  S.»nta  Pe,  it  rolls  on- 
ward iu  a  south-east  dirfcti«m.  und  unites  with  the  Uruguay  in  forinii^  the  Rio  de 
La  Platji.  Bnilre  length  about.  2400  miles.  It  draws  a  nnmf>er  of  considerable  tribu- 
taries from  the  province  of  Parana  (q.  v.) ;  and  of  the  others,  the  chief  are  the  Pani- 
gnay,  Uruguay,  P;irdo,  Tiete,  and  Parnahib-u  For  vessels  drawing  16  feet  it  is  uavi- 
guble  to  Corrieuies,  upwards  of  600  miles  from  it^s  month. 

PA^RAPET  (Itul.  para-petto,  from  parm\  to  protect,  jiiid  petto,  the  breast),  a  wall 
raised  higher  than  the  gutter  of  a  r«»of  for  proMciiou ;  in  mllit-«ry  works,  for  defence 
aifidust  missiles  from  without  (see  Fobtifioation)  ;  in  domestic  buildings,  churches, 
Ac,  to  prevent  accident  by  falling  frojn  the  roof.  Parap  ts  are  of  very  ancient 
date.  Thp  Israelites  wore  couimanded  to  build  *'a  battlement "  round  their  flat 
roofs.  Ill  classic  architecture,  balustrades  were  used  as  parapets.  In  Gothic  tircld- 
tecture,  parapets  of  all  kmds  are  used.  In  early  work  they  are  generally  plain,  bat 
iu  later  buildings  they  are  pierced  aud  ornamented  with  trucury,  which  hs  freqauhUy 


y  Google 


frf\<l  Parameter 

<  "^  Parasara 

of' elaborate  desicr",  efpeclnlly  in  I'tvnch  Flniiil>oyj;iiJt  work,  ShleUUaiul  little  ar- 
cadei^  aiv  al80  ii^ed  hi*  ornttiueiit^  to  p.-iiapt^ts  ;  and  tiic  IxittleraeutB  uf  cadtles  are 
iiuitatfd  in  tne  parapets  of  religions  and  domeatic  buildiugs. 

PA'RAPH  (Or.  para,  beside,  and  Jiapto^  to  touch),  an  addition  to  tho  pignature 
f ormed  by  a  flonriHli  of  the  t>en,  which,  dnrin«r  tne  middle  a<ie^,  const  itnted  nomo 
Fort  of  provifilon  agninftt  forgery.  Its  nse  is  n(»t  altogether  uxiiuct  in  diplomacy,  and 
in  Spain  the  paraph  ie  still  a  osu/il  part  of  a  signature. 

PARAPUEKNA'LIA  (Gr.  para,  beside,  or  l)eyond ;  pheriie,  dower)  Lsn  term  bor- 
roividfrOni  llie  liomun  law  to  denote  certain  aitich'S  of  personal  adornmont  and 
anpai-cl  belonging  to  a  marrie<l  woman.  According  to  the  usual  nde  in  the  law  of 
England,  all  ihe  personal  property  of  a  woman  becomes  the;  property  of  her  hus- 
■b:ird  when  the  marriage  takes  place,  unless  thi^re  is  a  marriage  setilement;  but 
tlu-re  is  an  exception  as  rei-ards  the  tiinkcts  and  dress  of  the  wile  so  tar  as  snitnblo 
to  h«  r  rank  in  llf«j  and  which  she  ccmiinucH  to  use  during  the  marriage.  In  such  a 
case  the  property  ni  these  «j-tic:«'8  do<'s  noi  vi>t  absohiiely  in  the  husband.  He  can- 
not iM'quiath  them  by  his  will  to  a  third  p«*r»*on,  but  if  he  gave  them  to  tlie  wife,  ho 
may  pawn,  or  sell,  or  give  them  away,  and  they  can  be  seized  in  cxtcution  to  pay 
his  debts,  rxcept  ^'O  far  as  they  constiiute  necessary  clolhing.  And  if  he  were  to 
die  insolvent,  tliey  may,  except  that  part  which  is  necessary  clothing,  be  taken  by 
the  hu.-'band's  creditors.  Jf  the  |  anipliemalia  were  given,  not  by  the  hu^b:lud  but 
by  a  third  party  before  or  during  marria^',  ilien  they  are  ]>resnnied  to  be  giv  n  for 
the  wife's  separat**  use,  and  the  husband  or  his  oreditore  cannot  in. any  way  inb-r- 
fere  with  them.  In  the  law  of  Scoliai  d,  the  paraphernalia  of  a  married  womnn  in- 
clude not  n»ere'iy  |x!rj^onal  clothing  and  trinkets,  but  articles  of  fnmiiupe,  such  as  a 
chest  of  drawers.  The  husband  tnere  can  neitber  pawn,  nor  plwl^e,  nor  give  away 
the  paraphernalia,  nor  can  \im  creuitovs  attach  them  eith«>r duiing  his  life  or  uftei*  hia 
deatn. 

fA'RAPHRASE  (Gr.  ;wirrt,  beside,  and  phrazein,  to  speak)  is  the  name  given 
to  a  verbal  cxpauijion  of  the  meaning  eiih'-r  of  a  whole  book,  or  of  n  separate  \m&- 
sage  in  it.  A  paraphrase  const  quen I ly  differs  f rom  Metaphra8<>,  or  stilcily  literal 
translaii5n,  in  t  ie,  that  it  alms  to  make  the  sense  of  the  text  clearer  by  a  lucid  cir- 
cnudocution,  without  actmdiy  pansing  into  commentary.  The  versifled  passages  of 
Script uri",  forming  part  of  tl«e  P.-almody  of  the  l:icottisli  Church,  are  pqpumrly  known 
.as 'Mhera:aphrases." 

PARAPLE'GIA.    See  Paraltbis- 

PARAS'ARA  is  tbename  of  several  celebrated  personages  of  ancient  India,  met 
within  the  ** Mahiblifii-ata "  (q.  v.),  the  *-Pur&n'a8"  (q.  v.),  ano  other  works.  Of 
one  nersonaare  of  this  name,  the  •*  Mahftbh&rHta"  r  lates  that  he  was  the  son  of 
8'akti,  who  was  the  son  of  the  patriarch  Vasishl'lia.  King  Kalmfishap&da  once  nieet- 
injg  wiih  S'akti  in  a  naiTOW  path  in  a  thicket,  de^lrc•d  hitn  to  stand  out  of  tlie  way. 
Tno  sagt>  r«  ^used:  on  wliich  the  Efija  beat  bin)  witb  his  whip,  and  S'akii  cursed  hini 
to  become  a  Sftkshasa.  or  demon.  The  Rtlja,  in  this  transformation,  killed  and  ate 
S'akti,  together  with  the  other  sons  of  Vasislifha.  S'r.kti,  however,  had  left  hia 
wife,  Adns'yantL  pregnant,  and  she  gave. birth  to  Parfi^'ara.  who  was  brought  up 
by  l»is  grandfather.  When  he  gr<w  np,  and  was  infonned  of  his  latheris 
death,  he  instituted  a  sacriflcofor  thed  struction  of  all  tlie  Rftk^hasas.  but  was  di>- 
6nad<  d  fixnn  its  completion  by  VasiKht'ha  and  other  SMire^.  Tlie^ame  legend  Is  re- 
ferred to  by  the  ^w^7^'^^■P»wrt«a,  where  P.  isiutrofluced  as  rt^lating  himself,  i>art  'f 
this  story,  and  adding  thai  the  saint  Pulastya,  one  of  the  mind-born  sons  of  Bnihma, 
in  reward  of  tlie  clemency  lu;  had  shewn  even  towards  such  beings  as  the  Eakshasar;, 
Iwstowetl  on  him  the  boon  of  becomhig  the  author  of  a  compendium,  or  rather  the 
compiler  of  the  '*  Pnrftn'a?,"  and  of  the  *' Vishn'u  Pmftn'a  in  p:aiicular.  *'This 
tradition."  Professor  Wil^on  observes  (♦*  Vishn'u-Purftn'a. "  ed.  Hall,  vol.  I-  p.  10  , 
"  is  incompatible  with  the  general  attribution  of  .all  the  "Pnrftn'as  "to  Vyft««a ;  but 
it  may  p*  rhaps  point  to  a  later  recension  when,  to  the  native  mind,  VyAsa  would  Ftill 
r<-n:aln  the  reputed  author  of  the  older '*  Put ftn'as,"  aUhough,  of  cours  •,  even  this 
assumption  has  little  claim  to  historical  truth.— A  P..  probably  different  from  tho 
one  nam(>d,  is  tlie  author  of  a  roi  brated  code  or  laws;  he  is  mentioned  by 
YAjuttvalkyu  in  his  standard  work,  and  often  q noted  by  the  cowmeutarieii.— A 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Paraffita  ^f\X 

Parasitic  <  u^- 

probal)ly  third  P.  ie  tiie  reputed  anther  of  a  TmiTnt  (q.  v.);  and  a  fonrth  the 
unthorof  »ii  ustroiiuinicul  work.— Piiras'arotf  (iu  the  plural)  deeiguatcs  the  whole 
faioily  to  which  the  difDurtiiit  Parfts'aras  belong. 

PARASI'TA,  or  Aiiopla'ra,  an  order  of  iiiaectf),  to  nil  of  which  the  name  Lonpe 
Is  popnlurly  given.  All  live  a»  panisitesou  quadrupeds  aud  birds.  The  charactera 
of  tlie  order  ure  noticed  in  the  article  Louse.  It  reiimhih,  liOwever,  to  be  added  that 
the  order  is  divided  into  two  sect  ions  ;  iu  the  fir^.  of  which,  P^tcu/ideo,  the  moaiU 
U  small  and  quite  suctorial ;  whil:»r  in  the  seceua,  Strmidea,  it  is  furnished  willi 
mandibles  and  hooked  maxillffi.  The  «p«K'-ies  of  i  he  fli-st  section  are  found  only  on 
munaudmanininls;  those  of  thesitcoud  section,  almost  exclusively  on  birds,  al- 
though one  infests  the  dog.  The  Kirmidea  shew  much  givater  activity  tnou  the 
Pediculidea.  Wlien  a  bird  dies,  the  bird-IIoe  congregate  neav  the  beuk,  and  seem 
disquieted,  apparently  auxiou:)  to  change  their  abode. 

PA'RASri'E  ((Jr.  from  para,  beside ;  sitos^  fot)d ;  one  who  eats  witii  another ; 
hence  oue  who  eut.sat  the  expense  of  another),  a  coniiiiou  character  in  the  Greek 
comedies ;  u  low  fellow,  who  is  rea<ly  to  submit  to  any  iniiignity,  that  he  ni«j'  l>e 
permitted  to  partake  uf  a  banquet,  and  who  lives  ad  nmch  as  posMbleat  the  expense 
of  others. 

PARASI'TIC  ANIMALS  nre  numerous,  Some  of  them  are  Entozoa,  and  some 
are  Epizoa.  See  the^e  heads.  They  belon*;  to  different  cla.'wes,  and  even  ta  diflEer- 
ent  divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom;  all,  however,  are  invertehrate.  Many  are  of 
the  division  Articulata^  and  many  of  the  division  Radiata.  Besides  worms  of  vari- 
ous kinds,  there  areunnmg  {Mtrasites  not  a  few  cru^iaeeiiua,  as  the  Lemaeans,  Ac, 
and  not  a  few  insects,  as  tlie  Louse.  These  insects  con^t»tute  tl»e  ortler  Paraitita  or 
Anoptnra.  The  character*  of  the  order  are  noticed  in  the  article  Louse.  It 
remains,  however,  to  be  addttd,  that  the  order  is  tlivkle<l  into  two  sections — iu  the 
first  of  w\t\ch,  Pediculidea,  the  mouth  Is  snndl  and  quit<!  suctorial;  whilst  in  the 
second,  Mmtidea,  it  is  farnislied  with  mandibles  and  hotjked  nnixiUse.  'iHie  siieciea 
of  the  flt'Ht  section  are  found  only  on  raan  and  mamnuils ;  those  of  the  second  sec- 
tion, al.uost  exclusively  on  bh'ds,  although  one  infests  Xhe  dog.  The  Ninnidett  shew 
much  tir*  titer  activity  than  the  FedieuiidM.    When  a  bird  diet*,  the  bird  lice  cougre- 

gate  nertr  the  >)eak,  and  seem  disquited,  apparently  auxions  to  change  their  al)ode. 
ome  of  the  cirrhappds  which  live  in  the  skin  of  hu-ge  murine  aiiimnift,  as  whaler, 
can  8cai*c  My  iW^  regarded  as  parasitic  animals,  but  rather  hear  to  them  n  relation 
such  as  EpipkyteAAo  to  parasitical  plants,  not  deriviiuf  their  food  from  the  animal 
on  whicli  they  live.  Tape-worms,  ascarides,  and  ottler  intestinal  worms,  do  not 
directly  draw  su^tenanct!  from  the  animal  in  which  tliey  live,  by  extracting  its  juices, 
but  they  live  at  its  expense^  by  con.-mming  its  food,  aftvJ  the  food  has  uudei^one,  iu 
great  part,  the  process  of  digestion. 

PARASITIC  DISEASES  constitute  one  of  the  recognised  orders  of  disease  in 
Dr  Farr's  cl.issillcation.  See  NosoLoar.  In  these  diseases,  certain  morbid  condi- 
tions are  induccil  by  the  presence  of  animals  or  vegetables  which  inwe  found  a  pla<-e 
of  sul>siatence  within  some  tissue  or  oi-gan,  or  apon  some  surface. of  the  body  of  man 
or  of  other  aniui  lU.  Even  plauL^^  are  not  exempt  from  disordea's  of  this  nature  (se<» 
Pabasitio  Plants).  Tlie  forms  of  animal  life  jriving  rise  to  parftsitic  diseases  are  d-*- 
scribed  in  arti«  l«;8  Asoabidss,  Cestoid- wobm,  Entozoa,  Spizoa,  Guinea- wobk, 
Itch-Insect,  TiOiisB,  Nematelmi a,  Stbongylus,  Tapewobms,  Trichina,  Ac  With 
the  vegetable  structures  wliich  give  rise  to  special  disejises  we  are  less  accurately  ac- 
quainted, in  conHeqnence  of  the  liaiited  knowledge  of  cryptogamic  botany  possef^ped 
by  many  writers  who  have  recorded  their  experience  of  these  cases.  These  parasites 
are  either /un//i  or  algce^  and  are  composed  of  simple  sporules,  germs,  or  cells,  or  of 
cells  arranged  in  rows  or  groups,  which  are  so  minute  as  to  require  the  microscope 
for  tluir  recognition.  Pung;i  are  the  most  numerous  o!  all  plants  in  iveard  to 
genera  and  speci,;s,  and  their  growth  is  aA.«ociated  with  serious  injiiry  both  to 
animal  and  veiietvibie  life.  It  is  not,  however,  always  easy  to  det  rmine  wln-tlier 
they  jire  the  direct  cause  of  disease,  or  whether  tl»e  diseased, tissue  has  merely 
affordetl  a  suitable  nidus  for  their  development.  "It  is  certain,"  says  Dr  Aiilcen, 
who  has  entered  more  fully  into  this  subject  than  any  other  Englisli  writer  on  the 
practice  of  medicine,  *•  that  whenrver  the  normal  chemical  projcesses  of  nutrtticjti 
are  impaired,  and  the  iucssaut  cliauijes  Ikiivveen  solids  and  fluitls  slacken,  then,  if 


y  Google 


'Tl^x  Paraft-ta 

I  ^'«^  Parasitic 

the  part  cnn  fnrnif«h  a  proper  soil,  lh«  crj-ptosramic  pnra?lte»  will  appear.  The  w)il 
limy  Helect  ia,  for  rhe  most  part,  couiposi'd  of  cpiilieiiiiin  or  cuficl» ,  acid  iiuicns  or 
«xnd:itioi).  Acidity,  however,  thougli  favorable  to  their  growiti,  in  not  1udiFt)eii»:i- 
ble,  8ii)ce  eoiiie  of  the  vogctabie  parasites  grow  upon  alkallue  or  iieiitrul  ground,  an 
oil  olrenitioDS  of  the  trachea,  or  in  flnid  in  tlie  ventricles  of  the  bniin.  Certain  at- 
wopplieric  conditions  pet'in  fav(mible  to  the  occurrence  of  these  vegetibl  •  paraxit  x. 
For  example,  Tinea  tonsurans  may  be  quite  ul)Hent  for  yea r^  in  ]>hice.H  such  as 
workhouses,  wliere  it  coininonly  exi>tB.  and  then  for  several  mouths  every  second  or 
third  child  in  the  place  gets  tlie  liisease." 

Tliere  is  nndonbtt^  evidence  from  tlie  ol^servations  and  experiments  of  Deverffi'*, 
Yon  Barenspruiig,  and  others,  tjint  tlu-se  parasitic  diseases  may  be  transiniited  by 
contagion  from  liorses,  oxen,  and  other  auimais  to  man  ;  while  convt^'H.  ly,  Dr  Fox 
mentions  an  instance  of  a  wliite  cat  whicli  contracted  Vaoniangf  from  7\'nea  tonsur-- 
atM  (ringwunnof  the  seal p)f  which  aif'  cted  tin*  children  of  ino  family  to  wld*  li  it 
belonged— tiie  fiingns  of  the  mange  in  the  cat  being  tlie  same  fnn^s  as  tliat  of  Tinea 
in  tiie  haman  subject,  vis.,  the  Irieophyton  {(ir.  trie  (trie-),  of  a  hair,  tkudphj/ton^  a 
plant). 

Tlie  principal  vegetable  parasites  associated  in  man  with  sp'^cial  morbid  states 
are  arraiige<1  by  Aitken  (*  I'lie  Science  and  Practice  of  Meiliciue,"  3863,  2il.  edit.  vol. 
i.  i.  p.  1T7)  as  follows:  1.  'I  he  TricophyfAm  tonsurans^  Mliicli  is  pn^eiit  in  the  three 
varii  ties  of  Tinsa  to«d«M— vix.,  T,  circinatua  (ringworm  of  the  body),  T.  Unisitrans 
(iugworm  of  the  rcaip)^  and  T.  sucosis  menti  (ringwonn  of  tlie  Inard).  2.  Tlie  Tnco- 
phyton  iip<rruloide8 f  which,  together  with  the  nhove,  in  pre»<ent  in  the  dis.*tt>>e  known 
as  Plica  Poionioa,,  3,  '1  he  Achorimi  Hehdnleinii  and  Ptie.fiinia /avi^  wliich  are  present 
in  T./avofta,  known  also  as  i^'avftfiq.  v.),  imdPorrigo  scutulata  (the  honcycoini)  ring- 
worm). 4.  I  he  Microsporon  inentagrophitta^  which  i?  pn-Si-nt  in  Mentagra.  ft.  The 
Jifierotv^Myrunfurfur^.yimch  occurs  in  PityriasU  vervicohrr.  6.  'ihe  Microsporon 
Audouini,  which  is  piesent  in  porrigo  deccuvans*  7.  The  Mycetmua  or  Chiovi/phe 
Cartti%  which  gives  rise  to  the  disease  known  as  tlie  '*  fnnu'iiF  toot  of  India."  &c.  8. 
•JMie  Oidium  a.oiu?a-/M  of  diphtheria  and  aphtha.  9.  Tlie  Crif)itor.ocqjis  Cerecinim^ 
Yea/ft  P'anl,  occurring  in  tiie  urine  and  contents  of  the  ntomnch,  if  tliere  is  SJicclmr- 
ine  fermentation.  10.'  Ttie Sarcina  Goodmrii.  or  Merittpo'dia  ventritu'i  (of  ]{obin), 
found  in  vomited  nuitters  and  in  the  nrine.  There  are  strong  gronndf*,  b  sod  jiartly 
on  botanical  and  iK^rtly  on  clipical  o))servation,  for  b*  licving  liiat  the  various  fungi 
already  de«-cribed  are  mere  wieties  of  two  ov  more  species  in  various  plmses  of  de- 
velopment. '  • 

We  shall  conclude  this  aKiicle  with  a  brief  notice  of  the  most  dangerous  of  all 
the  parasite  dis«»aKe»— the  Fvtngus  l^'ootov^uiujuun  JMnettAe  o/JtuVia.  It  occurs  in 
many  parts  of  Ii'di.-»,  and  the.  north-east  shores  <if  tie  IVrsijiu  (iiilf.  It  i»  a  d:s- 
rase  wbicli  o<-cur*i  among  natives  only,  so  far  as  has  he<;n  yet"  observed,  and  is 
nndonhtedly  due  to  tjie  prnsenee  of  a  fungus  which  ents  ii^  way  Into  the  bones  of 
the  foot  and  tlie  lovviT  ends  of  the  tibia  and  fl'^nla,  penetrating  by  numerous  fis- 
tulous canals  tlirong'v  the  tissue  of  the  entire  foot,  and  tiuding  to  cause  deatli  by 
exhaustion,  unless  amputation  Is  iwrforme*!  in  due  time.  Dr  Carter  lias  dcscriin  d 
three  forms  of  tliis  diseape,  in  winch  both  the  symjitoms  ami  the  fiiui-oid  mateilal 
differ  considerably  from  each  other.  A  f«  w  remarks  on  tJc  ffrst  of  these  fonns  will 
suffice  as  an  illustration  of  parasitic  dis«ase.  In  this  form,  the  hones  of  the  foot 
and  the  lower  ends  Of  the  leg-bones  are  perior:it«"d  in  eveiy  d.rcction  with  roundish 
cnvities,  varying  in  size  fron*i  thai  of  a  jiea  to  that  of  a  jiistol-bnllet,  the  cavities 
being  filled  with  the 'fungoid  matter.  The  surrounding  muscles,  and  subsequently 
the  tendinous  and  fatty  s'ruciures,  are  coiivtrte<l  into  a  gelatiniform  mass,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  toot  presents  a  peculiar  turgid  appearanre.  Examined  nnd'  r 
the  microscope,  the  fungoid  niass  is  found  to  consist  ol  short,  beaded,  tawny  threads 
or  filaments,  arising  from  a  common  centre,  and  havbig  at  their  tips  large  spon- 
like  cells.  For  further  infonnatmn  regarding  this  remark  i hie  form  of  disca«(%  the 
reader  is  refen*ed  lo  Dr  Carter's  paper  in  the  fifth  volume  (new  series)  of  the  '•  Tnui  - 
actions  of  the  Medical  and  IMiysieal  Society  of  Bombay,"  and  to  the  Kev.M.  J. 
Berkeley's  accoui  t  of  his  exann nation  of  the  fungus,  in  the  second  volnmo  of 
'*The  Intelle<MU:il  Ob-erv«rr,"  p.  24vS. 

Further  noiie^  of  tie  parasitic  (rseas**?  of  the  skin  will  be  found  in  the  articles 
Pity  ill  A8i»(var.  mrsicoku)^  Kinowoiwi,  Scald-head,  &c  v 


Digitized  by 


Google 


PARASITIC  PLANTS  are  plants  which  prow  on  other  pUiiit4»^and  d<*rive  snb-^ 
8l8t;juce  f roui  tlioir  jiiicen;  tiie  plant**  which  live  p;ira8i!icnlly  oiiamtuaHiBsuee  being 
geu  !i-ally  called  EutopMvte^  (q.  v.).  Hlrboa&;h  the  distiuctioii  between  thesti  t-ernii*  is 
not  always  preserved.  E|>ipliytes  (q.  v.)  diffnr  from  ptinu^iticaL  piauts  in  not  hubaipt- 
insr  on  the  jtiices  of  th©  plntil  wiiich  support*  them,  Imi  meri'ly  on  decnyed  portions 
of  its  hark,  Ac,  or  «irawin^  all  their  nonrishintMit  from  tlie  tiir.  Parasitical  plantB 
are  uumero  leand  very  variotisi ;  tlie  jrrcntGr  nunib-r,  Imwever,  and  the  nios>t  import- 
iUH,  behit;  small  fungf,  as  Rnst,  Bralid,  Bn^t,  Smnt,  &c.;  the  miuute  spores  of  which 
lire  su|);>o^*d,  in  some  caxe**,  to  circulut» through  the  jaices of  tlie  plants  which  they 
attack.  Concerning  some  tninnte  fnngi,  a*  tlie  Mildews,  it  is  dou1>ted  if  tliey  arc 
truly  prjrasitical,  or  if  Mieir  attacks  are  not  aiwiy^  pr«ced»Hl  hy  wmwj  measure  of  tle- 
cay.  Bnt  among  pirasTtic  plants  iire  not  a  few  phan  rogamoo."*  plaits*,  sonie  of 
wn1ch  have  green  l«'ave.<;  au  I  some  are  even  shrnbby,  as  th.j  Mistleioe,  Lor'nthus, 
&■. ;  wlillst  in-^  gr-ater  unmlMjr  hav^i  brown  M;ales  instead  of  Itaves,  as  Dmider, 
Broom-nips  Lathi-sea.  Ac.  and  the  whole  ot  that  remarkable  order  or  class  of  plants 
called  RhitatUheoi  or  Rhizoij^ns,  ot  which  the  g mas  Rajftena  is  distinguished  atwve 
all  other  plants  for  the  magnltiid  '  of  its  flowers.  Some  parasitic  planif,  as  ttic  j-po- . 
cies  of  Dodder,  b<»<iln  their  eri:<tence  by  Independent  growth  from  the  ground ;  but 
when  they  havo  foiind  suitable  plants  to  take  hold  of  aiid  |»ny  on.  the  coni;ecticm 
with  the  groand  cejis<js.  Not  a  few.  as  Broom-rape  and  Lathrsea,  aie  root-pariisJies, 
generally  attaching  them;*  Ives  to  the  roots  of  tn^es  or  sliralH ;  whilst  POme,  as  the 
Byehright  (Euphrasia  oJHeitutfin),  Yellow  Rattle  {RMrutntMia  erittta  goUi)^  Cow- 
yvhent  {Mtlamp^uin  arvenm),  &c.,  are  parasitical  only  occjisionally  and  parti  illy, 
and  are  cUlt'fly  found  on  iieglectisd  grass  lands.  Root-jmKk«ites  generally  attiitU 
themselves  by  lAeaus  of  little  I nbercles,  whicli  bury  themselves  under  thelmrk. 

PARATY',  a  seaport  town  of  Brazil,  in  the  Province  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  on  th'^ 
west  coa^t  of  the  Bay  of  Augr.,  90  miles  south-west  of  Rio  dir  Janeiro  city.  It  bus 
extensive  commerce,  and  umnerous  dlslillcries.    Pop.  said  to  b  *  10,000. 

PARAY-LB-MONIAL,  a  town  of  Burgandy,  departmeni  of  SaAue-et- Loire,  cole- 
l>rat«d  for  Its  Beneilictino  Ahhey,  founded  in  97^  whicli  cont-ains  I  lie  tomb  of  M  iry 
Margaret  Aiocque,  the  ceutre  of  recent  pilgrimages  by  the  coufrateruited  ot  the 
Saci-et  Heart  (q.  v.).    Pop.  of  town  and  commune  (1872),  3^. 

PA'RBUCKLE  is  a  mode  of  dniwlng  n!>  or  loweflng  dONvn  an  inclined  plane  any 
cyliiulrical  object^  as  a  btirrt?!  or  a  h  •  vy  gnu,  witiiont  ine  aid  of  a  crane  or  lackUi. 
It  consisis  in  passing  a  stout  rope  round  a  poat  or  nonie  snitahie  object  attheiop  of 
ihe  incline,  and  then  doubling  the  ends' nnder  and  over  the  object  to  be  moved..  This 
convert-*  the  cast  or  gun  into  a  pulley  in  its  own  behalf,  and  limits  the  i  ressure  at 
••acli  end  of  tlie  rope  to  one-fourth  the  weight  of  the  object  moved,  as  fdt  on  the 
incline.    By  hauling  in  the  ends  equally,  the  cask  ascends,  or  r  a  cerad. 

PA'RCJE  (from  the  root  par*,  apart),  the  name  given  by  the  Romans  to  the 
goddesses  of  Fate  or  Destiny,  who  assigned  to  every  one  his  •*part"  orlotl  The 
Greek  name,  Moirm,  ha?*  the*  same  meaning  (from  meros^  a  hhare).  Tliey  are  only 
once  nientiout^d  '>y  Homer,  who  in  every  other  instance  speaks  of  Fate  (Moira)  in 
the  siu<^ular.  and  wiiO:»e  Fate  \va8  not  a  deity  but  a  mere  persopiflcation,  thedi^s  inies 
of  men  beini;  made  by  him  to  dei>end  upon  the  will  of  the  gods;  whilst,  according 
to  the  later  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  the  gods  themselves  were  Hubject  to  the  control 
of  the  P.  orMoirse.  Hesiod,  however,  who  \^  almost C(mtemporary  with  Homer.  s]M'akB 
of  three  Pates,  whom  he  calls  daughters  of  Night— Clotlio,  the  spinner  of  the  thivad 
of  life;  Lachesis,  who  determines  the  lot  of  life;  and  At  ropos,  the  inevitable.  They 
were  a!*nally  represented  as  young  women  of  serious  aspect;  Olotho  with  a  spindle, 
L  ichesis  {lolutiug  with  a  Ptaff  lo  the.horoscope  of  man  on  a  globe,  and  Atrop«>s  with 
a  pair  of  scales,  or  sniMlial,  or  an  instrunn'iitto  cut  the  thread  of  l|fe.  In  tlie  old:st 
r  pi-e^entatloHS  of  them,  hovvever,  they  appear  as  matrons,  with  stafEs  or  sceptrcii. 
'iMiey  had  places  consecrated  to  them  throughout  all  Greece,  at  Coriiith,  Spartji^ 
Tliehe>.  Olympia,  &c 

PAKCKLH.  in  the  law  of  England,  is  the  technical  word  for  the  article  in  a  cou~ 
veyanc   d -scribing  the  laiuls,  &c  c<mveyed. 

PA'RCKNEH.    8t!e  Ooparcenaby. 

PA'RCHIM,  a  towuof  the  graud-iluchy  of  ileckleuburg-Scliweriii,  stands  on  th« 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


767 


Farasitio 
Pare 

Bide,  wMch  is  hero  difided*  into  two  arms,  23  miles  Bonth-oost  of  Scliwerin.    It  la 
very  old,  is  irregularly  bnilt,  surrounded  by  beautiful  gardens,  audlias  a  gyraimsium. 
and  two  chniches.    Pop.  (1871)  7976,  emj^loyed  in  ugriculture,  iu  the  manufacture  of  . 
tobacco,  cloth,  leather,  and  bruudy,  and  iu  weaving. 

PA'RCITMENT,  one  of  the  oldest  inventions  of  writing  materials,  was  known  nt 
least  as  early  as  600  years  B.C.  Herodotus  speaks  of  books  written  upon  f  klus  iu 
his  time,  Pliny,  without  good  grounds,  places  the  iuvention  as  late  as  196  B.C., 
stating  that  it  was  made  at  Perganios*  (hence  the  uame  J'trgamenOj  corrupted  into 
Bug.  parchment)  iu  the  reign  of  Ennienius  IL,  iu  c(m8«'queuce  of  Ptolemy  of  Egypt 
having  prohibited  the  ezpurtatiou  of  papyrus.  Possibly  the  Pei"gamian  invention 
\vs»  au  improvement  in  the  prepanitiou  of  skius  wlilcli  had  certtiiuTy  been  used  ccn- 
tniies  before.  The  munufaccnre  rose  to  great  Importance  in  Bonie  about  a  century 
B.C.,  and  goon  bi-came  tlie  chief  material  for  writing  on ;  and  its  use  spread  all  over 
Europe,  and  retaiued  its  pre-eminence  until  the  invention  of  paper  from  ragis  wliicii 
from  its  great  durability  proved  a  fortunate  circumstance  for  literature. 

Uliereareeevenilkimtaof  parchment  prepared  from  the  skins  of  different  nni- 
raals,  according  to  their  intended  Ui'es.  The  ordinaiy  writinjg  parchment  is  made 
frem  those  of  the  e^heep  and  of  the  she-goat;  the  finer  kiii^kuowii  as  t;e//t{m,  is 
madefrom  those  of  very  young  calves,  Idds  and  Iambs:  the  thick  common  kirds, 
for  drums,  tambourines,  battledores,  &c,  from  those  of  old  he-goats  and  8he-goate>, 
and  in  Northern  Europe  from  wolves ;  and  a  peculiar  kind  is  mnde  from  asses' 
ek:u»,  tite  surface  of  which  is  enamelled.  It  is  used  for  tablets,  as  blacklead  writing 
can  be  readily  removed  from  it  by  moipture.  The  method  of  making  parchment  i:* 
at  fiiKt  the  same  as  in  dressingpkins  for  leather.  Theskiissare  lim^  ni  the  lime> 
pit  until  the  hair  is  easily  removed.  They  are  then  stretched  tightly  and  equally, 
and  the  flceh  side  is  dressed  as  in  currying,  until  a  pi-i-fecily  smooth  surface  is 
obtained.  It  is  next  oroiind  by  rubbing  over  it  aflat  piece  of  pumice-stonej  pre- 
viously dressing  the  flesli  side  only  with  powdered  chalK,  and  slaked  lime  spniikled 
over  it  It  is  next  allowed  to  dry,  still  tightly  slretclied  on  the  frame.  The  drying 
process  is  an  important  one,  and  must  l>e  rather  slowly  cairied  on,  for  which  jmr- 
poseitmust  be  in  the  shade.  Sotnetimes  these  operations  have  to  be  repeated 
several  times,  in  order  to  insure  an  ezcelli'ut  qtiality,  and  much  depends  npr;n  the 
skill  with  which  (he  pumice-stone  in  used,  and  also  upon  the  fineness  of  tlie  pumico 
itself.  When  quite  arled,  the  lime  and  clialk  are  removed  by  rubbing  with  a  soft 
lambskin  with  the  wool  on. 

PARCHMENT,  Vegetable.  Tins  remarkable  puhstance  was  made  known  by  Mr 
W.  E.  Gaiue  in  1864,  and  again  by  the  Rev.  J.  Bariow  in  185T.  It  resembles  animal 
parchment  so  clostly,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  the  difference.  It  is  made 
from  the  water-leaf,  or  unsized  pai>er,  oy  immersing  it  only  for  a  few  seconds  iu  a 
bath  of  oil  of  vitriol,  diluted  vtdth  one-half  its  volume  of  water.  The  eziictues.H  of 
this  dilution  is  of  the  (greatest  importance  to  the  success  of  the  results.  The  dilute 
acid  must  not  be  used  immediately  after  mixing,  but  must  be  suffered  to  cool  to  the 
ordinary  temperature;  vdthout  attention  to  these  apparently  trifling  points,  the 
opemtor  will  not  succeed. 

The  alteration  which  takes  place  in  the  paper  is  of  a  very  remarkable  kind.  No 
chemical  change  is  offi  cted,  nor  is  the  weight  increased ;  bnt  it  appeals  i  lint  n  mole- 
cular change  takes  place,  and  the  materialis  placed  in  a  transition  state  between 
the  cellulose  of  woody  fibre  and  dextrin.  Vegetable  parchment  is  in  some  resiwcis 
preferable  to  the  old  kind,  for  insects  attack  it  less,  and  it  can  be  made  so  thin  a^  to 
oe  used  for  tracing  pa))er,  and  1>ear8  wet  without  injui'y.  Messrs  De  Iu  Hue  have 
the  credit  of  giving  practical  effect  to  the  invention. 

PARDUBITZ,  a  town  of  Austria,  fn  Bohemia,  61  m.  e.  of  Prague.    It  has  cop- 

?er,  iron,  and  i)aper  manufactures.  P.  was  the  headquarters  of  the  king  of  Pnissia, 
th  June  1S66.  Pop.  (1S69)  7930. 
PARfi,  Ambroi8e,a  renowned  French  surgeon,  and  the  father  of  modenisurgery, 
was  bora  about  the  beginning  of  the  16th  c,  at  Laval,  department  of  Ma^cnno, 
France.  His  father,  who  Nvas  a  trunk-maker,  was  unable  to  affjrd  him  a  literary 
education,  and  apprenticed  him  to  a  barber  and  surgeon.  P.,  after  a  brief  terra  of 
service,  acquired  Hich  a  fondness  for  surgery  and  anatomy,  that,  abamloning  his 
master,  he  went  to  Paris  to  prosecute  his  studies.    UIs  mea^s  ij^  doiuk^so  were 


U.  K.,  Z., 


t  to  Paris  to  prosecute  his  studies,    liis  mea^s  lox^  doiuk^so  « 

25.  Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


^js"^  res 


Parent 

very  limited ;  ho  could  nflEord  to  obt;iin  iu?trnction  Irom  only  the  more  obscure 
teachors ;  f«w  books  \v»»r«  >vithiii  hi;*  rtacli,  jret  by  dint,  of  persevoraijce  and  the 
ex^!rci:*eof  ft  rnri!  dlscrimiiiatiou,  ooinbiued  witrt  the  valnabie  practice  in  tlie  Hdtel 
de  Dlen  of  Pari?,  he  laid  u  solid  fonudntioii  for  future  eiuiiionce.  In  1636,  P.  was  re- 
ceived as  a  nia.-«tt!r  barb  ;r-sargeoii,  and  joined  in  this  capacity  the  arioy  of  Marshal 
Ken6  do  Moiite-.Tcau,  wliich  was  ou  th.:  point  of  starting  for  luly.  Duriujif  this 
campaign  he  Jraprovod  the  mode  of  treainient  of  gun-shot  woundn,  which  had  up 
to  this  time  been  of  tlie  mo^st  barbarous  Icind— namely,  c^iuterisation  with  bolliug 
oil.  His  reputation  as  well  as  liis  skill  were  greatly  h(;igl»tene(l  during  this  cim- 
paign,  and  as  he  himself  says :  *'  If  four  persons  were  seriously  wounded  I  had 
always  to  attetid  three  oL  tln'm ;  and  if  it  were  a  case  of  lirokeu  armor  hg,  fractured 
skull,  or  fructu«-e  with  dislocaiiou.  I  was  invarial)ly  summoned."  In  1639. 
he  returned  to  Paris,  whitlier  iiis  higU  renown  had  preceded  him,  and 
was  received  wirli  dis«tinction  by  the  Royal  Collfge  of  Cliirurgei^,  of  which 
he  was  subseqaetitly  appoint  id  president.  Ou  tlie  war  being  renewetl,  he 
WMS  again  attached  to  th;;  army,  under  tlie  Vicointe  de  Rorian,  attcnvardH 
under  Autoine  d  •  B3urb(m,  Dakc  of  VeudOmo.  It  was  during  this  campaign, 
that  he  cured  Franyoip.  tlic  st-cond  Duke  of  Guise,  of  the  wound  which  cou- 
fi*rred  u|Km  him  the  sobriquet  of  BaUtfre,  and  that  he  hubsiituted  ligature  o^  the 
arterii-8  for  cauterisation  with  a  red-hot  iron  after  amputation.  Tiie  id'3a  of  this 
mode  of  repri-SMinjg  he  iiorrhage  Imd  long  been  in  existenci*,  l»tjt  he  was  the  first  to 
shew  that  it  could  saf.tly  b;;  applied  to  praeiic«.  Many  otlier  important  improve- 
ments in  surgery  wer^j  introduc^id  by  him  at  this  time.  In  September  1562  he  was 
appoint»!d  !»nri|eon  to  King  Hemy  II.,  and  in  the  followinj'  year  w;i8  taken  prisoner 
at  Hesdln :  he  was  how.^ver  releas.'d,  in  considoratiou  of  his  having  cured  Colonel  de 
Vaudev  lie,  after  rejictln.,'  the  brilliant  off  irs  njade  liim  by  tlie  Duke  of  Savoy  to  re- 
main in  his  si-rvlce.  R  Jtuniing  to  Paris,  liouor-s  were  siiowjred  upon  him  ;  and 
tliougli  he  was  Iguorani  of  Latia,  the  conditio  tsitie  qiid  iion  of  a  liberal  education  at 
that  time,  no  hesitation  was  shewn  in  ct)nferring  upon  him  learned  titles  and  degi'ees. 
He  atieimed  Frauds  II.  on  hU  deaiii-bed,  and  cctutiuued  to  hold  the  office  of  king's 
Burgeon  to  his  su.  ccsnors,  Ciiarles  IX.  and  Henry  III.  Tlie  former  of  these  moii- 
nrcsis,  wlios^j  life  had  b3wM»  gravely  thraatt-n  '.d  l>y  an  injury  inflictt^d  by  liis  pliy&iciau 
Portiil,  and  w!io  h.-ul  been  preiervi^d  by  P.,  testifled  for  him  ihe greatest fsteem, and 
Biivcul  iiim  diirini;  the  massacre  of  Si  Bartliolomew  by  locking  him  up  in  hi"*  own 
chamb3r.  Daring  tlie  latter  pan  of  P.'s  lift^  he  was  niucli  employed  in  the  publica- 
tion of  his  variou>-»  writings,  and  .suff  ^r.id  con^idarab'e  annoyance  from  the  envious 
spirit  disphm*d  towards  him  l)y  liis  profe-'sioaal  brethren,  avIio  showered  obloquy 
upon  him  for  havIu-T,  «s  they  said,  *•  dishonored  s?cience  by  writing  in  the  vulgar - 
tougu  •."  P.  died  at  Pari*,  D-cemb.-r  22.  1590.  His  writing  iiave  exercised  a  great 
influence  on  the  practiei-  of  xnrg<^;ry  in  all  conntri(;s  to  which  they  have  penjtrated, 
atid  are  held  of  tli-?  hij^hf^st  authority  on  the  subject  of  gun-.^hot  wounds.  'J'he  first 
complete  edition  of  tli-m  appvirad  at  Lyon  in  15  J3,  ana  the  la-'t,  edited  by  M.  Mal- 
gaigne,  at  Paris  (18*0-1841.  8  voU).  Bo-id.'S  these  there  are  8  Lafii:  editions,  and 
more  than  15  trainlaiions  into  JSnglisb,  Dutch,  Gi-rman,  &c.  As  an  instance 
of  his  great  popularity  in  th^j  army,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  hoWi^rs  of  tlie 
garrison  of  ltt^.!tz,  of  tlieir  own  accord,  gave  him  a  triumphal  reception  on  his  enter- 
ing tliat  town. 

PAREGO'RTC,  or  Paregoric  Elixir  (from  the  Gr.  par^goricoa,  soothing),  the 
Compound  Tincture  qf  Camphor  ot  the  London,  and  the  CampliorcUed  Tinct/ure  of 
Opium  ot  the  British  Pharmacopoeia,  consistn  of  an  alcoholic  solution  of  opium, 
benzoic  acid,  camphor,  and  oil  of  anise,  evory  fluid  ounce  containing  two  grains  each 
of  opium  and  benzoic  acid,  and  a  grain  and  a  half  of  camphor.  This  preparation 
is  much  used  both  by  the  profe.-^sion  and  the  public.  In  doses  of  from  one  to  three 
diac'iiiis',  it  is  an  excellent  remedy  for  the  chi-onic  winter-cough  of  old  people,  the 
opium  dimiiiibhing  the  bronchi.al  secretion  and  the  scaisibility  of  the  pulmonary  mn- 
coiis  membrane,  while  thv;  benzoic  acid  and  oil  of  ani!<e  net  as  stimulating  expector- 
ants.   It  has  also  been  found  useful  in  clironic  rheuiuatuim. 

PAREl'RA-BRA'VA.    See  Ci88AMPEIX)s. 

PARB'LLA  (Fr.  parelle  or  perelle)^  a  name  often  fi^vcn  to  some  of  those  cms- 
taceoos  lichens  which  are  used  to  produce  Archil,  Cauucar,  and  litmus ;  hut  which 


y  Google 


V69 


Parego-io 
Parent 


Liclien— to  which  it  is  far  supenor  in  the  qnaliiy  of  the  clye-istnff  obtained  from  it- 
it  grows  on  rocks  in  mountainous  districts  i)oth  in  Britain  and  on  the  continent  of 
EuropCf  being  purticularly  abundant  iu  Auvergne  and  other  parts  of  France. 
PARE'NCHYMA.    See  OELLUiiAR  TissuB. 

PARENT  AND  CHILD.  The  legal  relation  between  parent  nnd  child  is  one  of 
the  incidents  or  consequences  of  the  relation  of  husband  and  wife,  and  flows 
out  of  th«  contract,  of  nitirriage.  The  legal  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  naturnl' 
relation,  for  two  per:^ous  may  be  by  the  Taw  of  nature  parent  and  child,  while  they 
are  not  legally  or  legitimately  so.  Hence  a  radical  distinction  exists  between  nat- 
ural or  ill».gitimatcand  lejjiiimate children,  and  their  legal  righia  as  against  their 
parent?  respectively  are  very  different.  Legitimate  children  are  the  cliidren  of  two 
parents  who  are  recognised  as  married  according  to  the  laws  of  the  conutnr  in  whicli 
tljey  are  domiciled  at  the  time  of  the  birth  ;  and  according  to  the  law  of  England,  if 
a  child  is  illegitimate  at  the  time  of  the  birth,  nothing  that  can  iiappeu  afterwards 
will  ever  vinake  it  legitinutte,  the  maxim  being  **  once  illegitimate  always 
illegitimate" — a  maxim  which,  as  will  be  staud,  liaa  some  exceptioi.s  in 
Scotland.  In  treating  of  ihe  laws  affecting  the  mutual  relatinu  of  parent  and 
child,  tl«e  laws  of  England  and  Ireland,  which  differ  from  the  laws  of  Scotland  iu  ma* 
terial  respects,  will  flrsr  be  stated. 

1.  As  to  Legitimate  Childreii. — These  laws  relate  first  to  the  liability  of  the  parent  - 
to  maintain  tiie  child,*and  the  rights  of  the  child  in  the  event  of  the  j)are}it's  <l«  atli. 
Am  regards  the  maintenance  of  the  child,  it  is  somewhat  singular  that,  according  to 
the  law  of  England,  there  is  no  duty  whatever  on  the  parent  to  support  the  child, 
and  consequently  no  n;ode  of  enforcing  such  maintenance.  The  law  of  nature  was 
probably  considered  snflicient  to  supply  the  motives  which  urge  a  pareut  to  support 
the  child,  but  the  municipal  hiw  of  England  has  nor  made  this  duty  compulsory. 
This  defect  was  to  some  extent  remedied  when  what  is  called  the  Poor- 
Law  was  created  by  statute  iu  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  by  which  law  pa- 
rents and  childri'n  arc  compellable  to  a  certain  snuUI  extent,  but  only 
when  having  the  pecuniary  n)eau8  to  do  so,  -to  support  each  otlier.  or 
ratlier  to  help  the  parish  authoritits  to  do  so.  But  apart  from  the  Poor- Law 
statutes,  there  i««  no  1  gal  obligation  on  the  pareut  to  support  the  child,  nor 
on  the  child  to  support  the  parent  Hence  it  follows,  that  if  Ihe  child  is  found  iu  a 
destitute  state,  and  is  taken  up,  fed,  clothed,  and  saved  from  stai'vation  by  a 
stranger,  such  stranger  cannot  sue  the  parent  for  the  expense,  or  any  part  of  It, 
however  necessary  to  the  child's  existenc<*.  In  order  to  malte  the  father  liable  for 
maintenance,  there  must  in  all  cases  be  made  out  against  him  some  contmct,  express 
or  implied,  by  which  he  undertook  to  pay  for  such  expense;  in  other  wordSj  the 
mere  relationship  between  the  parent  and  chiid  is  not  of  itself  a  pround  of  liability. 
But  when  the  child  is  living  in  the  father's  house,  it  is  always  held  by  a  jury  or  court 
th  t  sliirht  evidence  Ls  sufficient  of,  at  least, an  implied  promise  by  the  father  to  pay 
for  sucli  expense?.  As,  for  example,  if  the  ehild  orders  clothes  or  provinions,  and 
the  father  see  these  in  use  or  in  process  of  consumption,  it  will  l>e  taken  that  he  as- 
sented to  and  itdopted  the  contract,  and  so  will  be  bound  to  pay  for  them.  So  if  a 
Earent  put  a  child  to  a  boarding-school,  very  t^light  evidence  of  a  contract  will  bo 
eld  sufficient  to  fix  him  with  liability.  Nevertheless,  in  strictness  of  law,  it  is  as 
necessary  to  prove  a  contmct  or  agreement  on  the  part  of  tlie  parent  to  pay  for 
these  expenses  as  it  is  to  fix  him  with  liability  in  respect  of  any  other  matter.  When 
it  is  said  that  a  parent  is  not  compellable  by  rhe  conjmon  law  to  maintain  his  child, 
it  must,  at  the  same  time,  be  observed  that  if  a  child  is  put  under  the  can?  and 
dominion  of  an  adult  pei-son,  and  the  latter  wilfully  neglect  or  n-fuse  to  feed  or 
maintain  such  child,  whereby  the  child  dies  or  is  injured,  such  adult  will  incur  the 
penalties  of  misdemeanor ;  but  this  offence  does  not  result  from  the  relationship  of 
parent  and  child,  and  may  arise  between  an  adult  and  child  in  any  circum- 
stances, as  where  a  cliild  is  an  apprentice  or  servant.  The  change  as  to  the  liability 
of  parents  to  maintain  their  children,  created  by  the  Poor- Laws  amount!*  merely  to 
'  this,  that  if  a  person  is  chargeable  to  the  parish,  that  i.^,  uoi  able  to  work  as  Wi:il  as 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Parent 


110 


destitnte.  and  If  the  ovorscerJi  or  gnai'dians  nre  honnd  to  unpport  h!ra  or  her.  then 
the  purisn  aatlioririeB  may  reimbnrfle  thempelves  this  outlay,  or  pnrt  of  It,  by  oDta?ii- 
ing  trora  jii8tice»  of  the  |>«nce  an  order  coiiiinandiu^the  parent  or  ciiild  of  such  pau- 
per to  pay  a  certain  pdmi  per  week  towards  the  relief.  This  ip,  however,  only  com- 
petent when  tiie  relative  is  able  to  pay  snch  sum,  and  in  all  cases,  the  nam  is 
of  necessity  very  small.  Not  only  parents,  but  grand-parents,  ai'e  liable  Under  tlic 
Poor-Law  Act  to  the  extent  mentioned.  Another  provision  In  the  Poor-Law 
and  oilier  kindred  acts  is,  that  if  a  purenti'Dna  away  and  deserts  his  children,  leaving 
them  destitute  and  a  burden  on  the  parish,  the  oyersueri<  are  entitled  to  seize  and 
sell  his  goods,  if  any,  for  the  l)eneflt  and  n^ainteuance  of  such  children;  and 
if  tiie  parent^  so  deserting  the  childpen,  is  able  by  work  or  other  means  to  support 
them,  Kuch  parent  may  l^  committed  to  prison  as  a  rogne  and  Tagnbond.  Not  only, 
therefore,  is  a  parent  during  life  not  bound  to  maintain  his  or  ner  child  (with  the 
above  exceptions),  but  also  alter  the  parent's  death  the  executors  or  other  repre- 
sentatives of  the  parent,  though  in  possession  of  funds,  are  not  bound.  It 
is  true  th.it  if  the  parent  die  intestate,  both  the  real  and  personal  property  will  go 
to  the  children  ;  but  the  parent  is  entitled  If  he  choose,  to  disinherit  the  children, 
and  give  away  all  his  property  to  strangers,  provided  he  execnte  his  will  in  due  form, 
wliich  lie  mav  competently  do  ou  death-bed  if  in  possession  of  his  faculties. 

Another  iini)ortant  point,  of  law,  affecting  the  mutual  relation  of  parent  and 
child,  is  the  right  of  the  parent  to  the  custody  of  the  child.  At  common  law  it  is  the 
father  who  has  the  right  to  the  custody  of  the  child  until  majority  at  least,  as  against 
third  parties  and  no  court  will  deprive  him  of  such  custody  except  ou  strong 
grounds.  Whenever  the  child  is  entitled  to  property,  the  Court  of  Chancery  so  far 
controls  hi^  p  irental  riglit,  timt  if  the  father  Is  shewn  to  act  with  cruelty,  or  to  be 
guilty  of  immorality,  a  gu  irdiim  will  be  a)>pointed.  A  court  of  common  law  also  has 
otteu  to  decide  in  c:ises  of  children  brought  before  it  by  habetM  corjnu,  wht>n  parties 
liave  had  the  custody  against  the  father^  will.  In  snch  cases,  if  the  chiki  is  under 
fourt^ien,  called  the  agt>  of  nurture,  and  the  father  is  not  shewn  to  be  cruel  or  im-. 
moral,  the  court  will  order  the  child  to  be  delivered  up  to  him  ;  hut  if  the  child  is* 
above  fourteen,  or,  as  some  j»ay,  above  sixteen,  the  court  will  allow  the  child  to 
choose  whore  to  gO.  So  the  father  is  entitled  by  his  will  to  appoint  a  guardinn  to 
his  children  while  they  are  under  i^e.  The  mother  had,  at  common  law,  no  right 
as  against  the  father  to  the  custody  of  the  children,  however  young ;  but  under  a 
otatote  of  36  and  3T  Vict  c.  12,  she  is  entitled  to  the  custody  of  the  child  while  . 
under  sixteen  years  of  age,  or  rather  she  is  entitled  to  apply  to  the  Contt  of  Chan- 
cery for  leave  to  keep  the  children  while  under  that  age,  provided  she  is  unobjec- 
tionable in  point  of  character  ;  and  access  may  1>e  allowed  to  the  father  or  guardian. 
If  the  parents  separate  by  agreement,  no  stipnlatJou  will  be  enforced  which  is  ))re- 
judiciAl  to  the  child.  In  case  of  divorce  or  judicial  separation,  the  Court  of  Divorce 
lias  power  to  direct  who  is  to  have  the  custody  of  the  children. 

2.  IHegHimate  Children. — It  lias  l)een  already  staled  that,  at  common  law,  the 
parent  of  a  h^ilimatci  child  is  not  hound  to  maintain  it,  and  this  is  equally  tnie  of 
»u  illegitimate  child — i.  e.,  a  child  l)orn  not  in  wedlock.  In  strictness  of  law,  aii 
illegitimate  child  has  no  father,  which  means  practically  that  in  Case  of  the  death  of 
the  father  without  making  a  will,  the  law  will  not  treat  such  child  as  entitled  to  the 
ordinary  le^al  rights  of  a  legitimate  child— -i.  e.,  to  a  share  of  the  father's  property. 
Tlie  child  is  not  legally  related  to  the  father  in  this  sei  se.  With  regard  to  the 
mother, -she  also  is  not  lioiind  to  maintiun  her  child  according  to  the  common  law ; 
but  the  Poor-Law  Acts  have  made  an  important  qualification  of  her  rights  ami 
dulles.  As  between  the  father  and  mother  of  th<j  child,  the  law  is  this :  The 
father  is  not  bound  oven  by  the  Poor-Laws  to  maintain  the  child,  and  the  parish 
officers  cannot  now  iustitnte  any  proceeding  whatever  against  him  for  this  pur- 
pose ;  but  the  mother  can,  to  a  certain  extent,  enforce  against  him  a  contribution 
toward's  the  child's  maintenance  and  education,  or  the  guardians  may  do  so.  It  is 
entirely  discretionary  on  the  mother  to  take  any  proceeding  against  the  father,  bnt 
if  phe  chooses  she  can  do  so;  and  the  first  step  is  to  go  beifore  a  justice  of  the 
peace,  and  obtain  a  summons  of  affiliation.  The  father  is  thus  cited  before  the 
magistrate,  and  if  the  mother  sweai-s  that  he  is  the  father  of  the  child,  and  Is  corw 
roborated  in  some  material  part  of  this  statemeiit  by  a  third  party,  the  magistrate 
may   make  an  order  agaiuut  the  father  to  pay  the  expenses  of  lylng-ui,  and 


y  Google 


nl 


Parent 


a  weeltfy  sum  not  exceodtng  live  shillings  till  the  child  attnins  the  age 
of  sixteen.  The  mother  may  make  this  application  either  a  few  months  be- 
fore the  birth,  or  within  twelve  months  after  the  birth;  and  even  after 
that  time,  provided  she  can  prove  that  the  pntative  father  paid  her  some 
money  on  accoant  of  the  cliild  within  such  twelve  months.  The  pntative  father, 
in  these  case?,  is  a  competent  aijd  compellable  witness.  The  ntujost,  therefore,  th.it 
tlie  father  can  be  made  to  contribute  towards  the  cl»ild's  maintenance  is  only  a  portion 
of  the  whole,  the  chief  burden  being  thrown  on  the  mother,  who  is  assumed  to  b« 
the  more  blameable  party.  Though  she  is  not  bound  by  the  common  law  to-maintain 
her  child,  yet  the  Pour-Laws  make  her  liable  to  maiutam  the  child  till  it  attains  six- 
teen ;  and  not  only  is  she  bound,  but  any  man  who  marries  her  is  also  by  statute 
bound  to  support  all  her  illegitituate  (and  also  ]e<ritiinate)  children  till  they  attain 
sixteen.  The  result  is,  that  illegitimate  children  under  sixteen  are  better  provided  for 
by  the  present  state  of  the  law  than  legitimate  children,  inasmuch  as  the  mother- 1:4 
positively  bound  to  suppoit  her  illegitimate  child,  and  only  to  a  less  extent  her  legiti- 
mate child.  As  regards  the  cnstody  of  illegitimate  children,  the  mother  is  the  party 
exclusively  entitled,  for  the  father  is  not  deemed,  in  point  of  law,  to  be  related  to 
such  child.  Yet  if  the  father  has,  in  point  of  fact,  ot)tained  the  custody  of  such  child, 
and  the  child  is  taken  away  by  fraud,  the  conrts  will  restore  the  child  to  his  custodv, 
so  as  to  put  him  in  the  same  position  as  before.  Though  illegitimate  children  will 
not  succeed  to  the  father's  property  in  the  event  of  his  dying  without  a  will,  there  I.^ 
nothing  to  prevent  him  making  his  will  in  their  favor,  provided  he  expressly  name 
and  identify  them,  and  not  leave  it  to  them  by  the  description  of  **  his  children," 
.  which  in  point  of  law  they  are  not. 

iScotlaitd. — The  law  of  parent  and  child  in  Scotland  differs  mateHally  from  the 
law  of  England  and  Ireland.  In  Scotland,  a  child  may  }ye  bom  aba**tiird,  and  yet  if 
the  parente  afterwards  marry,  this  will  legitimise  the  child,  and  giyt;  the  child  the 
right  to  succeed  to  the  father's  property.  A  difficulty  sometimes  arises  where,  bo- 
fore  the  father  and  mother  of  a  bastard  marry,  the  father  has  had  a  legitimate  family 
by  another  woman,  in  which  case  it  is  held  that  the  bastard,  though  oldest  in  point; 
of  age,  does  not  take  precedence  of  the  legitimate  children.  The  Taw  of  Scotland 
also  differs  from  that  of  England  as  regards  the  obligation  of  parent  and  child  to 
maintain  each  other.  There  is  a  legal  obligation  on  both  parties  to  maintain  each 
other  if  able  to  do  so,  and  either  may  sue  the  other  for  alim<  nt  at  common  law ;  but 
this  obliiiation  extends  only  to  what  may  be  called  subsistence  money,  antl  does  not 
vary  according  to  the  i-ank  of  the  party.  Thus  an  earl  is  bound  to  pay  no  more  for 
the  aliment  of  his  sou  than  any  other  father.  As  regards  all  maintenance  beyoikl 
mere  subsistence,  the  law  doe«  not  n)aterially  differ  from  that  of  England,  and  a  con- 
tract must  be  proved  against  the  father  before  he  can  be  held  liable  to  pay.  The 
legal  liability  as  between  parent  and  child  is  qualified  in  this  way  by  the  common 
law,  that  if  a  person  has  both  a  father  and  a  child  living  and  able  to  snpport  him, 
then  the  child  is  primarily  liable,  and  next  the  grandchild,  after  whom  comes  the 
father,  and  next  the  grandfather.  Not  only  are  parent  and  child  liable  to  support 
each  other  while  the  party  supporting  is  alive,  but  if  he  die,  his  executors  are  alFO 
liable ;  and  this  liability  is  not  limited  by  the  age  of  majority,  but  continues  during 
the  life  of  the  party  supported.  Such  being  the  common  law  of  Scotland,  it  waa 
scarcely  necessaiy,  as  in  England,  for  the  Poor-Law  to  supply  any  defect;  but  the 
Scotch  Poor-Law  supplements  the  comm^on  law,  by  imposmg  a  penalty  on  a  father 
or  ntother  (though  not  vice  versa)  who  neglects  to  support  a  child. 
Another  advantage  which  a  Scotch  child  has  over  an  English  child  if, 
that  the  father  cannot  disinherit  it— at  least  so  far  as  Concerns  his  movable 
property ;  and  even  in  case  of  heritable  property,  the  rights  of  the  child  were  so  pro- 
tected, that  unless  the  father  made  away  with  his  heritable  property  sixty  days  be- 
fore hia  death,  or  while  in  sound  health,  it  was  too  late  to  prejudice  his  heir-at-law ; 
this  rule  was,  however,  al)0lished  in  1870  by  34  and  85  Vict.  c.  81.  This  was  called 
the  Law  of  Death-l)ed  (q.  v,) ;  but  as  regards  the  father's  movable  property,  he  can- 
not by  any  will  he  can  make  at  any  time  of  his  life  deprive  the  children  of  one-third, 
ov,  if  their  mother  is  dead,  of  one-half  of  such  property.  This  f  s  called  the  children's 
risrht  to  Legitim  (q.  v.),  a  right  which  they  can  vindicate,  whatever  may  be  their  age 
when  the  father  dTes.  With  regard  to  the  custody  of  ebildren  iir  Scotland,  the  rule 
is,  that  the  father  is  entitled  to  me  custody  as  between  him  and  the  mother ;  but  t^ 


y  Google 


Parenthesis  ^770 

Paris  '  i  -^ 

Conrt  of  Session  has  power  Co  regulate  the  custody  )n  caee  the  children  are  entitled 
to  property,  and  the  futlier  ie  of  nii  iinmorul  or  cruel  character ;  and  the  court  will 
also  interfere  to  allow  to  the  mother  access  to  the  children  at  certtiiii  times  and  neat- 
sons.  Another  important  difference  bet  ween  a  Scotch  and  Euelisli  child  is  this,  that 
•whereas  in  Englaml  the  father  or  guardian,  or  tiie  Court  of  Chanceiyj  has  power  to 
control  the  custody  of  tlje  person  of  tlie  cliild  to  a  certain  extent,  uutil  the  child  at- 
tains  the  age  of  .21,  in  Scotland  8ucli  power  entirety  ceases  when  tlie  child  attains  the 
age  of  14  or  12,  according  as  such  cinid  is  male  or  female.  At  the  age  of  14,  a  boy, 
and  Ht  12.  a  girl,  in  Scotland,  is  uniire  master  or  mii»trep8  of  his  or  her  movements, 
and  can  live  where  he  or  she  pleases,  i-egardless  of  any  parent  or  court.  Tliey  can 
marry  at  that  age  at  tlieir  own  nncontroTled  discretion,  and  act  in  all  respects  witJi 
the  saujp  freedom  as  adults.  As  regards  tlie  disposition  of  their  property  thcrre  are 
some  restrictions,  but  as  regards  the  disposal  ol  their  persons  there  are  none,  after 
the  ages  of  14  and  12  respectively. 

2.  Illegitimate  Children, — ^The  law  of  Scotland  as  to  illegitimate  children  also  dif- 
fers in  some  respects  from  that  of  England.  Both  the  father  and  mother  of  >i 
bastard  are  bound  by  law  to  support  sach  child,  and  the  obligation  transmits  to  the 
i>ersonal  representatives  of  the  father  or  ntother.  Moreover,  by  the  Poor-Law  st^itnte 
DOth  are  liaole  to  a  penalty  for  neglecting  to  8um)ort.  the  child.  The  mother  of  ille- 
gitimate children  is  entitled  to  th^r  cusU)dy  tfll  the  age  of  ten,  if  daughters,  and  if 
eona,  till  the  age  of  seveti ;  but  the  limit  is  not  clearly  defined.  If  the  nither  support 
the  child  after  the  above  age,  he  is  entitled  to  the  custody.  ITie  mother  does  not 
apply  to  a  magistrate  for  a  summous  of  affiliation  in  order  to  fix  the  patei  nlty ;  but 
she  may  brim?  aa  action  of  filiation  and  aliment,  in  which  the  question  of  pateralty 
is  settled.  The  father  may  l)e  judicially  examined,  and  is  a  competent  witness ;  and 
it  is  usual  for  the  court  to  decree  an  aliment,  varying  from  £^  per  annum  against 
laborers,  up  to  jCIO  against  pei^ons  in  b«'iter  clrcumstanciMy.  In  Scotland,  as  in 
£ni|:Iand.  the  father  of  a  bastard  child  is  not  deemed  related,  in  point  of  law,  to  such 
child  ;  and  if  he  desires  to  provide  for  such  child,  it  must  be  done  by  deed  or  will,  in 
which  the  child  is  identified,  aud  not  merely  described  under  the  general  designation 
of  **  child,"  which  he  is  not. 

PARE'NTHESIS,  a  term  originally  Greek,  and  signifying  insertion  or  intercalO' 
Hon,  is  in  composition  a  clause,  or  part  of  a  sentence  or  argument,  not  abstolntely 
essential  to  tlie  sense,  but  generally  serving  either  for  explanation  or  confirmation, 
sometimes  chi^y  for  rhetorical  effect.  A  parenthesis  is  usually  included  l>etween 
the  marks  (  ),  instead  of  which  the  dash  (— >  at  the  begiuulug  and  end  of  the  par- 
enthesis is  frequently  but  improperly  employed. 

PA'RIAH  DOG.    See  Cub. 
i     PA'RIAN.    See  Pottbrt. 

PARIAN  CHRONICLK    See  Arundel  Marbles. 

PA'KIAS  is  the  name  given  to  the  lowest  class  of  the  population  of  India— to 
that  class  which,  not  belonging  to  any  of  the  castes  of  the  Brahminical  systeniy  is 
shunned  even  by  the  lowest  Hindu  professing  the  Brahminical  religion,  as  touching 
a  Paria  would  render  him  impure.  The  P.  seem  to  belong  to  a  negro  i-ace,  as  nj)- 
pears  from  their  short  woolly  hair,  flat  nose,  and  thick  lips;  they  are,  besides,  of 
short  stature,  and  their  propensities  are  of  the  coarsest  kind.  Despised  by  the 
Hindu!*,  and  ill  used  by  the  congnerors  of  India,  thcjr  have,  in  some  parts  of  India, 
gradually  sunk  so  low  that,  to  judge  from  the  ilescripliou  which  is  given  of  their 
mode  of  living  by  different  writers,  ir  is  scarcely  possible  to  imagine  a  more  de- 
graded position  than  that  which  is  occupied  by  these  miserable  bciugs. 

PA'RID^  AND  PARUS.    See  Tit. 

PARING  AND  BURNING  consists  in  cutting  off  the  surface  of  the  soil  In  thin 
slicet>,  which  are  then  dried  and  burned.  This  is  the  most  effectual  way  of  reclaim- 
ing peat  and  otiier  waste  land,  the  surface  of  which  is  miitted  with  coarse  plains, 
ditlcnlt  of  decay.  It  is  also  applied  advantageously  to  cold  clay  soils,  apt  to  produce 
rt^ik  weeds  and  coarise  grasses,  which  are  to  be  broken  up  after  lying  foraome  time 
in  grass.  The  ashes  Of  the  plants,  consisting  of  potash  and  other  salts,  act  us  a 
powerfid  matmre;  while  the  day  being  reduced  to  the  state  of  brick-<1ust,  boib  im- 
proves the  textura  of  the  soil,  aud  acts  as  an  absorbent  for  retaining  moisture  aud 


Digitized  by 


Google 


773 


Parenthesia 
Paris 

nnfrftive  gases,  and  giving  thom  out  to  the  roots  af  growing  plants.  On  lliin  light 
Roil«  The  openition  is  rarely  advisable,  for  nincb  of  the  scanty  vohitile  vegetable  mat- 
ter is  difsiputed ;  however  if  care  is  t^ikeu  to  make  the  turfs  merely  smoulder  witliont 
flame,  BO  that  the  plants  are  rather  charred  tfmn  bnmed,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
more  dissipation  takes  place  than  if  the  plant«  were  ploughed  down,  and 
allowed  slowly  to  decay.  The  plot  to  be  reclaimed  should,  If  necessary,  be 
dried  by  stone  or  tile  drains ;  and  all  large  stones  grubbed  up,  and  carted  or 
conveyed  off  upon  sledg«s.  The  paring  is  to  be  done,  if  possilile,  in  the  months  of 
April  and  May,  in  order  to  have  the  most  favorable  part  of  the  year  for  drying  tlie 
purines  well  before  burning.  There  are  ploughs  specially  mude  for  paring,  with  a 
vei-y  flat  share;  but  th<!  best  method  is  to  employ  the  breast-plough  or  paring-«pade, 
lis  the  surface  is  in  most  cases  very  irregnLir,  and  it  is  desiri»blu  to  have  the  shoes 
very  thin.  'J'he  parings  should  be  burned  directly  they  are  sufficiently  dry,  as,  after 
lying  a  mouth  or  six  weelcs,  they  begin  to  unite  with  the  ground,  and  imbibe 
moisture  from  the  young  gfass  vegetating  beneath  them.  Sometimes  they  can  be 
burned  us  tlioy  lie,  without  l>eiue  cullecced  into  heaps ;  and  in  tliUs  wav,  the  fire,  iu 
cousuining  the  lingy  side,  wliicu  is  undermost,  chars  the  surface  of  the  soil  at  t ho 
sairiu  time.  If  burned  in  heaps,  the  heaps  should  be  very  small,  In  order  to  secure 
u  ^'OOd  black  ash,  instead  of  the  bard  lumps  of  red  ash  produced  by  large  flres. 
Tile  weeds*  or  refuse  orgjmic  matters  are  thus  only  charred,  instead  of  being  en-- 
tirely  burned  away ;  whilnt  the  mineral  matters  are  loft  in  a  soluble  state  instead  of 
being  reduced,  ati  is  too  apt  to  be. tlie  case  where  the  0})eratioB  is  carelessly  con- 
du<led,  into  an  int«oiuhl«  somi-vitrified  slag,  "i'o  attain  these  desirable  results  a 
smouldering  Are  must  be  maintniued,  by  keeping  the  outside  layer  of  sods  so  close 
ns  to  prevent  the  flre  from  kindling  into  flame.  The  ashes  should  be  spread,  care 
being  taken  to  cUar  the  bottoms  of  the  heaps  well  out,  so  that  the  first  crop  may  l>o 
free  from  patches.  The  cost  of  thus  paring,  burning,  and  spreading  is  about  X'l 
per  aci-e. 

PA'RIS,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  small  endogenous  or  dictyogenous  natural  order 
Ti-illiacecBf  of  which  one  species,  P.  quadrifolia.  culled  Hebb  Paris,  is  not  uiicom- 
inon  ill  moist,  shady  woods  in  some  parts  of  Britain.  It  is  rarely  more  than  a  foot 
liigh,  with  one  whorl  of  generally  four  leaves,  and  a  solitary  flower  on  the  top  of  the 
stem,  followed  by  a  berry.  The  berry  is  reput<?d  narcotic  and  poisonous,  but  iis 
juice  has  lieen  employed  to  cure  inflammation  of  the  eyes.  The  root  has  been  used 
as  im  emetic. 

PARIS,  also  cjilled  Alexander,  was,  according  to  Homer,  the  second  son  of 
Priam  and  Hecabe,  sovereigns  of  I'roy.  His  mother  dreamed  during  her  pregnaucy 
that  she  gave  birth  to  a  firebrand,  which  set  the  whole  city  on  fire*  a  dream  inter- 
preted by  ^sacus  or  Cassandra  to  signify  that  P.  should  originate  a  warwliicU 
should  end  in  the  destruction  of  his  native  city.  Tq  prevent  its  realisation,  Priam 
caused  the  infant  to  be  exposed  upon  Mount  Ida  by  a  shepherd  named  Agclaus,  who 
found  him.  five  days  after,  alive  and  well,  a  she-bear  liaving  given  him  suck.  Age- 
lans  brought  him  up  as  hts  own  son,  and  lie  became  a  shepherd  on  Mount  Ida,  dis- 
tinguishing hiniselt  by  his  valor  in  protecting  the  other  shepherds  from  their  enemies 
— whence  hiH  name,  Alexander,  *' the  defender  of  men."  An  accident  having  re- 
vealed his  parentage,  old  Priam  became  reconciled  to  his  son,  who  married  (Enoue, 
d:mght('r  of  the  river-god  Cebren,  But  his  mother's  dream  was  to  come  true  for  all 
tliat.  He  was  appealed  to.  as  umpire,  in  a  strife  which  had  ansen  among  the  throe 
goddesses,  Hera  (Juno),  Athene  (Minerva),  and  Aplirodito  (Venus),  as  to  Which  of 
tliem  was  the  most  lieautiful,  the  goddess  Eris  <Stnfe)  having  revengefully  flnng 
among  them,  at  a  feast  \o  which  she  had  not  been  invited,  a  golden  apple  (of  discord) 
inscrihed  To  the.  Most  Beautiful.    Each  of  the  three  endeavored  to  bribe  him.    Hera 

Sroniised  him  dominion  over  Asia  and  wealth;  Athene,  military  renown  and  wis- 
om  ;  Aphrodite,  the  fairest  of  women  fof  his  wife— to  wit,  Helene,  the  \iife  of  the 
LacedsBinonian  »ng.  Menelaus.  P.  decided  in  favor  of  Aphrodite,  hence  the  ani- 
mosity which  the  otner  two  goddesses  displayed  against  the  Trojans  in  the  war  that 
followed.  P.  now  proceeded  to  seek  Helene,  whom  ho  carried  away  from  Laced«- 
mon  ill  her  husband's  absence.  *^  I'lie  rai>e  of  Helen  "  Is  tlie  legendary  cause  of  the 
Trojan  war,  on  account  of  which  P.  incun-ed  the  hatred  of  his  countrymen.  He  de- 
ceitfully slew  Achilles  in  the  temple  of  Apollo.  He  was  himself  wounded  by  a 
poisoned  urrow;  mid  went  to  Mount  Ida  to  be  cured  by  CBuoue,  who  posBcsBcd  great 


y  Google 


Paris 


774 


X>ower8  of  heallne;  but  she  nvonged  herself  for  hia  nnfaithfnlnesw.to  her  hy  recusing 
to  a8si8t  hhn,  and  he  retnrned  to  Troy,  and  died.  He  was  often  represented  in 
ancient  works  of  art  generally  as  a  bearaless  youlli«  of  somewhat  effeminate  beanty. 

PARIS  (the  ancient  LuteUa  Parikionim),  the  metropolis  of  France,  ie  sitnated  in 
48°  60'  n.  lat.,  and  2°  20'  e.  long  ,  on  the  Sttiiie,  about  UO  miles  from  its  month.  The 
population  of  the  city  was,  in  1866, 1,799,980 ;  m  1869  ,1,875,000 :  and  in  the  spring  of 
1872,1,799,250.  Its  circumfereuce  is  upwards  of  25  miles.  It  lies  in  a  hollow,  dbont  200 
feet  aboTe  the  lerel  of  the  sea,  and  is  surrounded  by  low  hills,,  which  in  their  higfaest 
I'aneus  to  the  north  only  attain  an  etevation  of  290  or  BOO  feet,  as  at  Montmartre  and 
Belleville.  Tliese  hills,  which  are  separnted  by  nairow  vnlleya  or  {bateaux,  as  those 
of  St  Deuis;  to  the  north,  Ivry  to  the  east,  Montrouge  to  the  south,  and  Orenrile  to 
the  south-west,  are  encircled  at  a  distance  of  from  tvi'o'  tafive  miles  by  an  ooter  range 
of  heighta,  uicludiug  Villeiaif,  M«^udon.  St  Cloud,  and  Mont-Val6rien,  the  highest 
point  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  city.  The  Seme,  which  enters  P.  m  thesontli- 
east  at  Berey,  and  leaves  it  at  Passy  in  the  west,  divides  the  city  into  two  parts,  imd 
fornots  the  two  islands  of  La  Cit6  and  St  Louis,  which  arc  both  covered  with  build- 
ings. 

The  earliest  notice  of  P.  occurs  in  Julus  Caesar's  ♦*  Commentaries,"  in  which  it  is 
described  under  the  name  of  Lutetia.  as  a  collection  of  mod  huts,  composing  the 
chief  settlement  of  the  Parisii,  a  Gallic  tribe,  con<inered  by  the  Romans.  The  ruins 
of  the  Palatium  Hiermarum  (Palais  des  Thermes),  and  of  ancient  altars,  aqueduct.**, 
and  other  buildings,  shew  t'lat  even  in  Roman  times  the  ton'U  extended  to  botli 
banks  of  the  Seine.  Lutetin  began  in  the  4th  c.  to  be  known  as  Parisia,  or  P.,  from 
Ute  Celtic  tribe  of  the  Parisii,  to  whom  it  belonged.  In  the  6th  c,  P.  was  chOMcn  by 
ClovisAs  the  seat  of  eovcmment;  and  after  having  fallen  into  decay  under  the  Car- 
lovingian  kings,  in  wliose  time  it  suffered  severely  from  frequent  invasions  of  the 
Northmen,  it  finally  l)ecMme  in  the  lOlh  c  the  residence  of  Hugh  Capet, 
the  founder  of  the  Capetian  dynasty,  and  the  capital  of  the  Prankish  monarchy. 
From  thifr  period.  P.  oontinui'd  rapidly  to  increase,  and  in  two  centuries  it  had 
doubled  in  size  and  population.  In  the  middle  ages,  P.  was  divided  into  three  dis- 
tinct parts— Li  Cit6,  on  the  islands;  the  Ville,  on  the  right  bank;  and  the  Quartier 
Latin,  or  Univmsity,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  riyer.  Louis  SX  did  much  toenlnrgii 
P.,  and  to  efface  the  disastrous  I'esuita  of  its  hostile  occupation  by  the  English  dur- 
ing the  wars  under  H^eniy  V.  and  Henry  VI.  of  I^glaud ;  bat  its  progress  was 
again  checked  during  the  war.^  of  the  hist  of  the  Valois,  when  tiie  city  nad  to  sus- 
tain several  sieges.  On  the  accession  of  Henri  IV.  of  Navarre,  in  1589,  anew  era 
was  opened  to  Paris.  The  improvements  commenced  under  his  reigu  were  con- 
tinued under  the  minority  of  his  son,  Louis  XIII.  Louis  XIV.  converted  the  old 
ramparts  into  pitblic  walks  or  boulevards,  organised  a  rcOTlar  system  of  police, 
estnolished  drainage  and  sewerage  works,  founded  hospitals,  alms-houses,  public 
schools,  scieniiflc  societies,  and  a  library,  and  thus  gave  to  P.  a  claim  to  be  regaided 
as  the  focus  of  Eui-opean  civilisatioo.  The  tiirrible  days  of  the  Revolution  omsed  a 
temporary  reaction.  The  improvement  of  P.  was  recommenced  on  a  new  and 
grander  scale  under  the  first  Napoleon,  when  new  quays,  bridges,  markets,  street  s* 
squares,  and  pnblic  gardens  were  created.  All  the  treasures  of  art  and  science  whicli 
conquest  placed  in  his  power  were  applied  to  the  embellishnientof  P.,  in  the  restora- 
tion of  which  he  spent  more  than  ^£4,000,000  sterling  in  twelve  years.  His  downfall 
again  arrested  progress,  and  in  many  respects  P.  fell  behind  other  Snrope:iu  cities. 

Renovation  of  various  sorts  was  recommenced  under  Louis-Philippe;  but  as 
lately  as  1834,  much  of  tlie  old  stylo  of  things  remained ;  the  gutters  ran  down  the 
middle  of  the  streets,  there  was  littie  underground  drainage  from  the  houses,  oil- 
lamps  were  suspended  on  coids  over  the  middle  of  the  thoroughfares,  and,  except  in 
one  or  two  streets,  there  were  no  sido-pavements.  It  was  reserved  for  Napoleon  III. 
to  render  P.  the  most  commodious,  splendid,  and  beautiful  of  modern  cities.  When 
he  commenced  his  improvements,  P.  still  consisted,  in  the  main,  of  a  labyrinth  of 
narrow,  dark,  and  ill  ventilated  streets.  He  resolved  to  pierce  broad  and  straight 
thoroughfares  through  the  mid^t  of  these,  to  preserve  and  connect  all  the  finest  ex- 
isting squares  and  boulevanis ;  and  in  lien  of  the  old  houses  pulled  down  in  the 
hcmrt  ottlie  town,  to  constrnct,  in  a  ring  outs^ide,  of  it,  a  new  city  in  the  most  up- 
proved  style  of  modem  architecture.  With  then s.«iJ»tance  of  Baron  Hnussman,  the 
Prefect  of  the  Seine,  his  schemes  were  carried  out  with  rare  cuei-gy  and  good  taste. 


y  Google 


775 


Paris 


Two  Btralglit  and  wide  tliorongh fares,  parallel  to  and  near  each  other,  crosi^ed  th^ 
whole  wicftii  of  PariB  fromnorfti  to  sonih  tbrongh  the  Cit6 ;  a  ftlll  ^ejjter  thorongli- 
fare  was  made  to  run  the  whole  length  of  the  town,  north  of  the  Seine,  from  east  to 
west.  The  old  honlevards  were  completed  eo  far  as  to  form  onter  and  inner  circles  of 
spacious  streets — the  former  chiefly  lying  along  the  ootskirts  of  tlie  old  city,  the  lat- 
ter passing  through  and  connecting  a'long  line  of  distant  subnrbs.  In  the  year  1SG7, 
wlien  the  iuternational  exhibition  was  opened,  P.  had  become  in  all  respects  the 
most  8|>leudid  city  in  Enrope;  and  in  that  year  it  was  visited  by  upwards  of  n  million 
and  a  half  of  foreigners*.  Many  further  improvements  were  then  conteihplated.  New 
botanical  and  zoological  gardens  were  to  be  formed ;  the  museums  and  class-rooms 
of  the  Jurdin  des  Plautes  were  to  be  rebuilt ;  an  underground  railway  wns  to 
be  formed,  cro>sing  P.  from  east  to  west;  Montmartre  was  to  be  levelled, 
and  the  Seme  was  to  be  deepened  np  to  Grenellc,  the  point  where  it  leaves 
the  town ;  and  there  a  harbor  was  to'  be  formed  for  sea-going  ships,  which  ' 
was  to  convert  P.  into  apoit  de  mer.  Financial  and  political  difficulties  were,  how- 
ever, at  hand  (see  France),  and  these  great  schemes  had  to  be  postponed.  1'he 
siege  of  P.  by  the  Germans,  which  lasted  from  19th  Septeml)er  18T0  to  2Sth  January 
1871,  caused  much  Jess  injury  to  the  city  than  might  have  been  expected — it  was  re- 
served for  a  section  of  tlie  Parisian  population  to  commit  an  act  of  Va'ndalism  M'ith- 
out  a  parallel  in  modern  times.  On  the  18th  of  March,  tlie  Red  Republicans,  who 
had  risen  against  the  government,  took  possession  of  Paris.  On  the  27th  March,  tho 
Commune  Wits  declared  the  only  lawful  government.  Acts  of  pillage  and  wanton 
destruction  followed.  On  tlie  15th  of  May,  the  column  erected  to  the  memoi7  of 
Napoleon  and  the  Great  Army,  in  the  Place  VendOmo,  one  of  the  principal  squares 
of  P.,  was  solemnly  pulled  down  as  "a  monument  of  tyranny."  The  government 
troops  under  Marshal  MacMahon  attacked  the  insurgents,  and  kept  them  from  doing 
furflier  mischief.  Tiie  former  succeeded  In  entering  Paris  on  the  20th  of  May,  and 
next  day  the  Communists  began  systematically  to  set  fire  with  petroleutn  to  it  great 
number  of  the  chief  buildings  of  P.,  public  and  private.  The  fire  for  a  time  threat- 
ened to  destroy  the  whole  city.  It  raged  with  the  greatest  fury  on  the  24th,  and  was 
not  checked  mi  til  property  hiul  been  lost  to  the  value  of  many  millious  sterling,  and 
liistorical  monuments  were  destroyed  wiiicli  never  can  be  ro])laced.  T\\e  horror  in- 
spired Ivy  the  Commune  for  a  time  drove  the  wealthy  classes  from  Paris,  and  it  was 
feared  that  it  would  l(»e  its  prestige  as  a  European  capital.  This,  however,  has  not 
proved  to  be  the  case.  In  the  autunm  of  1878,  all  the  private  houses  burnt  had  been 
i-ebuilt— the  monuments  only  partially  injured  had  been  restored,  and  the  streets 
and  public  places  were  as  splendid  and  gay  as  in  the  best  dajrs  of  the  Empire.  There 
remained,  however,  to  recall  the  Commune,  the  blackened  ruins  of  the  Tuileries,  the 
H6tel  de  Ville,  aiid  two  or  three  other  buildings  to  which  we  are  about  to  refer. 

The  Seine,  in  passing  through  P.,  is  spanned  by  28  bridges.  The  most  celebrated 
and  ancient  are  the  Pont  Notre-Dame,  erected  in  1500,  and  the  Pont-Nenf,  begun  in 
1578,  completed  by  Henri  IV.  in  1604,  and  thoroughly  renovated  in  1862.  This  bridge, 
which  crosses  the  Seine  at  the  north  of  the  He-de-lSr-Clt^,  is  built  on  12  arches,  and 
abut*  near  the  middle  on  a  small  peninsula,  jutting  out  into  the  river,  and  planted 
with  trees,  which  form  a  backgroimd  to  the  statue  of  Henri  IV.  on  horeeback, 
which  stands  in  the  central  open  space  on  the  bridge.  Among  the  other  bridges,  the 
Imndsomest  are  the  Pont  de  la  Concorde,  160  yards  long,  built  in  1787—1790  ;  the 
Pont  du  Carrousel,  Pont  d'Austerlitz,  and  the  Pont  d'J6na,  both  of  the  time  of  the 
Pii-st  Empire;  and  the  Pont  des  Invahdes,  Poutde  FAlma,  and  Pout  de  Solf6rino —  " 
^  all  handsome  structures,  adorned  with  military  and  naval  trophies,  commemorative  § 
of  events  and  victories  connected  with  the  Second  Empire.  These  bridges  all  com- 
municate directly  with  the  spacious  qimys,  planted  with  trees,  which  line  ooth  banks 
of  the  Seine,  and  which,  together  with  the  Boulevards,  give  special  characteristic 
beauty  to  the  city.  Although  the  most  ancient  quays— as  those  des  Augustlns  and 
de  la  Mdgisaerie— date  from  the  14th  c,  the  greater  part  of  these  magnificent  embank- 
nieuts,  measuring  12  miles  in  extent,  is  due  to  the  first  Napoleon  and  the  late 
emperor. 

Before  speaking  in  detail  of  the  streets,  boulevards,  and  places  or  squares  of  P., 
It  is  proper  to  mention  that  the  private  houses  as  well  as  the  public  buildings  we 
built  of  a  Hght-coloi'ed.  kind  of  limestone,  easilv  wrought  and  carved  ornamentally. 
With  this  muteriul,  they  are  reared  in  huge  blocks,  rising  to  a  height  of  six  or  seveu 


Stories ;  eacb  ioor  constitnting  n  distinct  dwelUDg ;  access  to  all  the  floors  !n  a  f^ne- 
meDt  being  gained  by  a  coiunion  stair,  wUich  is  usaally  placed  under  tiie  charge  of  a 
porter  at  the  entrance.  Vury  freqaently,  the  lenemeuts  sni-ronud  an  open  qnadt  an- 
gle, to  which  there  is  a  spacions  eutrv,  the  gate  of  which  is  kept  by  a  port€r  for  tlie 
whole  inhabitants  of  the  sevonil  btairs.  lu  these  respects,  therefore,  P.  differs  en- 
tirely from  London;  for  instead  of  extending  rows  of  small  brick  bni]diiii;s  of  a 
temporary  kind  over  vast  spaceis  the  plan  consists  of  piling  durable  houses  on  the 
top  of  each  other,  and  confining  the  poualstion  tu  a  comparatively  limited  area.  Iii 
the  great  new  streets  which  were  formed  in  tlie  time  of  tlie  late  euiperot-,  this  general 
plan  has  been  adhered  to,  bat  with  this  difference,  thai  instead  of  beiiij;  naiTOw  and 
crooked,  they  are  wide  and  straight  Among  tlie  finest  of  them  are  the  Rue  de 
Rivoli,  two  miles  in  length,  the  Rue  de  la,  Paix,  the  Rue  du  Faubourg  St  Honoro, 
.  and  the  Rue  Royale.  'Vne  Boulevards,  which  extend  in  a  semicirciil.'ir  line  on  the 
t  right  fide  of  the  Seine.  l>etween  the  nucleus  of  the  city  and  its  surrounding  qnarters, 
present  the  most  striking  feature  of  Paris  lifi'.  lu  .ill  the  better  parts  of  the  city 
they  are  lined  with  trees,  seats,  and  little  touers  called  JTespasiennes^  covered  with 
advertisements.  Restaurants,  caf6i*,  shops,  and  various  places  of  amusement  snc- 
ceedoue  another  for  miles,  their  clniracter  varying  from  tl»p  height  of  luxury  and 
elegance  in  tAe  western  Boulevard  des  Itidieuf,  to  the  homely  simplicity  of  tlie 
eastern  Boulevards  Beaumarchais  imd  St  Denis.  Among  the  public  squares  or 
places^  the  most  noteworthy  is  the  Place  de  la  Concoixlr,  which  connects  the 
Oai*dens  of  the  Tuileries  with  the  Champs-Ely s^es,  and  embraces  a  magni- 
ficent view  of  some  ot  the  finest  Iniildings  and  gtirdens  of  Paris.  In  the  centre 
U  the  famous  obelisk  of  Luxor,  covered  over  iis  entire  hei&Ut  of  73  feet  wiih  Iiiero- 
glyphics.  It  was  brought  from  E^ypt  to  France,  and  in  i836  placed  where  it  now 
stands.  On  the  site  of  this  obdllsk  stood  the  revolutionary  enillotiue,  at  which  per- 
isheJ  Lonis  XVL,  Marie  Antoiuett.\  Philippe  Egalitfr,  Dauton,  Robespierre,  and  a 
host  of  other  victims.  Of  the  other  squares,*  the  following  are  some  of  the  most 
handsome :  the  Place  du  Carrousel,  between  th')  Tuileries  and  Louvre ;  the  Place 
VeudOnie,  already  referred  to,>vith  Napol  on's  Column  of  Victory ;  the  Place  de  la 
Bastille,  wliere  once  stood  that  famous  prison  and  fortress;  the  Place  Royale,  with 
its  twQ  fountains  and  a  sttitne  of  Lotus  XIIL  ;  the  Place  de  PH6tel  de  ville,  for- 
merly Place  de  laGrdve,  for  many  ages  the  scene  of  public  executions,  and  the  spot  at 
which  some  of  the  bloodiest  deeds  of  the  Revolution  were  pen>etrated.  The  Porte 
St  Martin  and  Porte  St  Denis,  which  were  erected  by  Louis  XlV.  to  commemorate 
his  victories  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  are  adorned  with  bas-reliefs  representing 
events  of  these  oimpaigns,  mark  the  ancient  limits  of  the  inost  turbulent  auarters 
of  the  Paris  of  the  past;  while  the  Arc  de  rEtr>ile^  b^iin  by  Napoleon  in  1806,  and 
completed  iu  1886  at  a  cost  of  more  than  XiOO.OOO,  may  be  said  to  form  the  extreme 
western  boundary  of  the  aristocratic  quarters.  This  arch,  which  bounds  the 
Champs-Elyu^es,  has  a  total  heiicht  of  164  feet,  and  a  breadth  of  137.  It  is  profusely 
adorned  with  bas-reliefs  and  nlto-reiiefs,  representing  victories  of  Kapoleon, 
which  were  injured  during  the  bombardment  of  Paris,  but  which  have  since  under- 
Kone  a  complete  restoration.  The  great  streets  wliich  radiat«  from  the  Arc  do 
Triomphe  were  among  the  most  magnificent  of  those  constructed  during  the  recent 
improvements,  and  tliey  still  form  the  finest  quarter  of  Paris.  A  great  avenue 
it  runs  east  from  it  to  the  Palace  of  tlie  I'ulleries,  in  the  heart  of  the  city. 
{I  The  Palace  of  the  Tuileries  (q.  v.)  was  begun  in  1566  by  Catherine  de'  Medici, 
;  and  enlarged  by  successive  monarclts,  while  used  as  a  royal  residence,  until'it  formed 
I  a  structure  nearly  a  anarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  running  at  right  angles  to  the  Seine. 
To  the  east  of  the  Tuileries,  at  a  distance  of  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  avus  ' 
erected  the  palace  of  the  Louvre,  foiming  a  square  of  676  feet  by  638  feet, 
remarkable,  especially  the  eastern  fapade,  for  its  arcnitectunU  beauty.  Tlie  Louvru 
long  since  ceaced  to  be  a  royal  residence,  and  has  been  converted  into  a  public  mu- 
seum of  antiquities.  It  was  connected  with  the  Tuileries  by  a  great  picture  gallery 
overlooking  the  Seine,  and  1456  feet  in  length.  North  of  the  picture  gallery,  and 
between  the  two  pilaces,  lay  the  Place  du  Carrousel, into  the norihem side  of  which, 
at  the^icceseion  of  Napoleon  III.,  thei*e  intruded  a  mass  of  poor  :uid  narrow  streets. 
One  of  the  emperor's  earliest  improvements  woe  to  remove  these  bnildlugs,  and  cou- 
n^ct  t|ie  Tuileriea  and  Louvre  on  ttie  northern  side.'  throwing  them  into  one  vast 
>al.dUig»  forming  the  moat  maguificciit  palatial  structure  lu  the  wq^-IO.    The  Tuila- 

Digitized  by  LjOOQ  IC 


h'j^  '    .    Paris' 

rios  continued  to  be  occupied  as  the  residence  of  theimpcrialfamily ;  but  tlieLoavre 
]>roper  fonntHl  a  eeriea  of  grent  galleriee  filled  witu  p1ctnret>,  Bculfitares,  and  colidc- 
tioiis  of  Egyptian,  Greeks  and  Roman  iintiqiiities.  Tbe  Commanists  «tt6inpte4 to 
l)uru  the  uliole  pile,  but  fortunately  only  succeeded  in  destroying  the  Toilencs 
(nowbt'ing  vesrored)  and  the  north-western  conjer  of  tlie  Louvre*  The  library  o'f 
the  Louvre,  with  its  contents,  was  burned,  but  tlie  rest  of  the  building  and  its 
})riceless  treni^ures  were  ^'aved.  A  large  stim  was  voted  by  the  government  for 
th:^  nstoration  of  the  Louvre,  and  tbis  work  was  at  onceundertaKeu  and  airtled 
forwjird  with  the  utmost  dt  ppatch.  North  of  the  injured  part  of  the  Lonvre  is 
Ihe  P.iluis  Royjil  (q.  v.),  the  most  valuable  part  of  wljich,  fronting  the  Rue  St 
Honor6,  was  set  fire  toby  order  of  tbe  Couitnnne  in  18T1.  The  Palace  of  tbe  Luxem- 
botirg,  on  the  south  Mde  of  the  Seine,  was  built  by  Marie  de'  Medici  in  the 
Plorentino  style.  It  contains  many  magnificent  rooms,  some  df  which  have  been 
employed  as  picture  galleries  for  (he  worlss  of  modem  artists.  The  Luxembourg 
was  formerly  the  Hous«e  of  the  Peers,  but  since  1871  it  has  been  used  as  the  HOtel  de 
Vjjle.  On  the  north  hank  of  the  Sfine,  opposite  the  Island  of  the  Cit6,  is  the  site  of 
the  Hotel  de  Ville,  which,  beforo  its  destriictiou  by  the  Comumne,  was  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  buildings  in  Paris.  It  was  the  residence  of  tlie  Prefect  of  the 
Sijne,  who  held  a  sort  of  court  there,  and  it  included  all  the  ofl^cis  for  the  transaction 
of  tlie  municipal  business  of  Paris.  It  was  commenced  under  Francis  L,  but  had 
been  trebled  in  extent  by  recent  additions.  The  statues  and  rich  ornaments  with 
w^hich  it  was  decoraied  have  l>een  almost  entirely  destroyed,  l)ut  the  bulldiug  is  now 
(1877)  more  thiin  half  rebuilt  iu  the  style  of  iis  pndeccssor.  Not  far  fix)m  the  Edtol 
do  Villej  on  the  noHhern  bank  of  the  Cit6,  staindsthe  Palais  de  Justice,  a  vast  build- 
ing, also  set  fire  to  by  the  Commune ;  sopie  parts  of  it  date  from  the  fonrteeuth  cen- 
tnry,  and  others  are  modern.  It  is  the  seat  of  some  of  tlie  courts  of  law,  as  the 
Court  of  Cassation,  the  Imperial  Court,  the  Tribunals  of  the  First  Appeal  and  of  Po- 
lice. The  old  palace  was  not  nmch  injured  ]w  the  fire;  but  the  new  portion  which 
was  cons=trncted  during  thereiffu  of  Napole^IIL,  and  much  admired  for  iis  archi- 
tecture, was  left  in  ruins.  Within  the  precincts  of  this  palace  are  the  Sainte  Cha- 
liclle,  and  the  noted  old  prison  of  the  Couciei-gerie,  in  which  Maiie  Antoinette,  Dan- 
ton,  and  Robespierre  were  successively  confined. 

The  Conciergerie,  just  mentioned,  in  which  prisoners  are  lodged  pending  their 
trial,  constitutes  one  of  the  eight  prisons  of  P.,  of  which  the  princi|)al  Is  La  Force. 
The  Nouveau  Bic§tre  is  designed  for  convicts  sentenced  to  penal  servitude  for  life; 
8t  Pelagic  receives  political  offenders,  St  Laznre  is  exclusively  for  women,  the  Ma- 
delouuettes  for  juvenile  criminals,  and  CHchy  for  debtors. 

The  numb(;r  of  the  institutions  of  benevolence  is  enoimous.  The  largest  of  tbe 
numerous  hospices  or  alms-houses  is  La  Salp6tri6rc,  probably  the  largest  asylum  iu 
the  world,  extending  over  78  acres  of  land,  and  appropriated  solely  to  old  women, 
1300  of  its  4500  inmates  being  insane  patients;  BicStre,  with  nearly  3600  beds,  re- 
ceives only  men.  The  Honpice  des  Enfans  Trouv6s,  or  Foundling  Hospital,  pi*o- 
vitles  for  the  infants  brought  to  it  till  they  reach  the  age  of  maturity,  and  only  de- 
mands payment  iu  the  event  of  a  child  being  reclaimed.  The  Creches,  or  public 
nurseries,  first  established  in  1844,  of  which  there  are  now  18,  receive  the  infants  of 
j>oor  women  for  the  day  at  the  cost  of  20  centimes.  Besides  institutions  for  the 
blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  convalescents,  sick  children,  &c.i  P.  has  17  general  and  special 
hospitals.  Of  these  the  oldest -and  most  noted  are  the  UOtcl  Dieu,  receiving  anmi» 
iilly  13,000  patients ;  La  Chant6,  and  La  Piti6. 

The  chief  institutions  coiiiiected  with  the  University  of  France,  nnd  with  education 
generally,  are  still  situated  in  the  Qnartier  Latin.  The  Sorbonne<q.  v.),  a  large  •  nild- 
luj^  erected  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  for  the  faculties  of  the  old  university  of  Pari?,  con- 
lams  lecture-halls  and  class-rooms,  and  an  extensive  library  open  to  the  public. 
There  degrees  are  granted  bjr  the  University  of  France  in  the  faculties  of  science,  let- 
ters, and  theology,  and  gratuitous  public  lectures  are  delivered,  which  are  attended  by 
a  large  number  of  students.  Near  the  Sorbonne  is  the  College  de  France,  where giatn- 
itons  lectures  are  also  delivered  by  eminent  scholai-s  and  men  of  letters.  The  jEcolo 
Polytechniaue,  the  School  of  Medicine  and  the  School  of  Law,  the  Observatory,  and 
the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  with  its  great  museum  of  natund  history,  lecture-rooLn8,and 
botanical  and  zoological  gardens,  are  situated  iu  the  same  quarter  of  Paris.  Tho 
principal  of  the  pobiic  libraries  are  those  of  the  Ruo  Richelieu,  now  called  the  Bii- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Fsita- 


778 


lioth^Ke  l(atlcma)e,'  whldiooDtnina^more  than  1,3Q0,00(V  Tolnmes,  TSQ,000  mano- 
BcdpioK.Bitffl^  I?ortifolioso(oiigraviiig8f-nnd  a  great  collection  of  eoii)»  and  medals 
(aee  LiMk4BBa>f  M^icli  <n1ginat;e&  iii  a  small  co)loct)on  of  books  plucud  by  Louis  XL 
ill  the  Looyrti.  No  city  on  this  side  of  tlie  Alps  is  riclier  tliaii  P.  in  fiue-an  collec- 
tnSnff,  and  aiuous^  t4iese  tlie  inusetims  at  the  Louvre  stand  pre^mineuk  'I'ke  Palais 
des  BeauX'Arts  is  used  as  au  eshibiUou  of  art,  mnuufactures,  and  architectural 
models.  The  BOtel  Cluiiy,  conoected  under^ionnd  with  tlie  Palais  des  'i  herraes,  in 
»dditk)u  to  its  hc^ng  in  itself  a  most  interesting  roounment  of  medieval  art,  contains 
cnrions  reUcsof  the-arts  and  usages  of  the  French  people,  front  the  etirliest  sges  <^ 
their  hifStory  to  the  Reuaiseawce peiiod.  The  Mint  deserves  notice  for  the  pertect!on 
of  itsmftcUuery.  The  Gobeliiw,  or  tapestry  mauufactoiy,  may  be  Included  nuder 
the  fine  arts, as  theprodnctionsof  its  looms  are  all  mannal,  and  demand  great  artistic 
skill.  The  Cou&ervafoire  -des  Arts  et  Metiers,  in  the  Rue  St  Martin,  contains  a  great 
collection  of  models  of  mjvchinery,  and  class-rooms  for  the  instruct  ion  of  workmen 
in  all  department*  of  applied  science.  The  Palace  of  Industry,  buiit  iu  1854  for  .the 
Universal  Exhibition^  now  forms  a  permanent  exhibition  of  the  products  of  Algeria. 
It  forms  au  immense 'parallelogram  iu  tlie  Ctiamps  Elysee. 

Among  the  parish  churches  of  P.  (upwards  of  60  in  number),  the  grandest  and 
most  interesting,  in  au  historical  point  of  view,  is  the  cathedral  of  Notre-Dame,  which 
stands  on  a  site  successively  occupied  by  a  pagan  temple  and  a  Christian  bai'iiica  of 
the  time  of  tho  Meroviugkm  kings.  The  present  building  was  constructed  between 
the  12th  and  15th  centuries;  and  m  its  nresent  state  of  restored  magnificence,  it  may 
rank  as  one  of  the  noblest  species  ot  Gothic  arcliitecture.  St-Gt'rmain-des-Pr^s, 
which  is  probably  the  most  anaent  church  hi  P..  was  completed  in  1163 ;  St  Etienne 
da  Mont  and  St  Qermain  l'Anxerroi8»  both  ancient,  are  interest! ug— the  former  for 
its  picturesque  and  qaa^nt  decorations,  and  for  containing  the  tomb  of  St  Gtenevidve, 
the  patron  saint  of  P.;  and  the  latter  for  its  rich  deconitions  and  the  frescoed  por- 
tal, restored  at  the  wish  of  Margaret  of  Valois.  ITie  Sainte  Chapelle,  hnilt  by  St 
Louis  in  1246—1248,  for  the  receptiotHbf  the  various  rclics  which  he  had  bronght 
from  the  Holy  Laud,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  buildings  in  Paris,  profusely 
di-corated  in  all  parts  with  brilliantly  colored  materials.  Its  present  beauty  is 
entirely  doe  to  the  restorations  completed  by  the  late  emperor  at  a  cost  of  X50,000. 
It  was  thrent«ned  by  the  Commnne,  but  saved.  Among  modern  churches  are  the 
JSIuduleioe,  built  in  imitation  of  a  Greek  temple,  and  gorgeous  with  gildings, 
frescoes,  carvings,  marbles,  and  statues ;  and  the  Pantheon,  which  Was  begun  as 
a  church,  but  converted  by  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  republican  France  into 
a  temple  dedicated  to  tlie  great  men  of  the  nation— it  was  restored  to  the  church 
by  the  late  emperor,  and  rodedicated  to  St  Genevi6ve ;  Notre-Dame  de  Lorette, 
erected  in  1823,  a  flagrant  specimen  of  the  meretricious  taste  of  the  day ;  and  St 
Vincent  de  Paul,  completed  in  1844.  somewhat  less  gaudy  and  more  imposing  in 
style ;  &c.  Among  the  few  Protestzint  churches,  I'Oratoire  is  the  largest  and  the 
best  known. 

P.  abounds  in  theatres  and  places  of  amusement  snitrd  to  the  tastes  and  me:nm 
of  every  class.  The  leading  houses,  as  the  Op6ra  Th^Atre  Franpais — chiefly  devoted 
tocleu^sical  French  drama— Odeon,  Theatre  Italian,  Ac,  receive  a  subvention  from 
government,  ai>d  all  are  under  strict  police  supervipion.  The  new  opera-honse, 
completed  in  1876,  is  a  wonderfully  raagniflcent  building,  costing,  exclusive  of  the 
site,  jCl,120,000.  Cheap  Qoucerts,"  egnestrian  performnnc^  and  public  balls,  held 
ill  the  open  air  in  summer,  supply  a  constant  round  of  gaiety  to  the  bnr||her  and 
working  classes  at  a  moderate  cost,  and  form  a  characteristic  feature  of  P.  life ; 
while,  iu  addition  to  the  noble  crardeus  of  the  various  imperial  palaces,  the  most 
densely-crowded  parts  of  the  city  liave  public  gawlens,  sh:)ded  by  trtjes,  and  adorned 
with  fountains  and  statues,  which  afford  the  means  of  health  and  rtscreatioii  to  the 
poor.  Beyond  the  foriifications  to  the  west  of  P.  is  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  con- 
verted by  the  late  eini)eror  from  a  wood  covered  \iith  stunted  trees  into  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  gardens  in  Europe.  That  part  of  it  which  skirted  the  fortifications 
wius  cut  up  and  destroyed  during  the  siege,  but  since  then  it  has  been  replanted,  and 
is  now  as  attractive  to  vinitors  as  it  has  ever  been. 

P.  has  three  large  and  twelve  lesser  cemeteries,  of  which  the  principal  one  is 
PAre-la-Chaise,  extending  over  200  acres,  and  filled  in  every  part  with  numumenta 
erected  to  the  memory  of  the  couutle&i  number  of  celebrated  pcrsoub  wlio  have  beeu 


y  Google 


779 


Paris 


buried  here.  The  Morgno  Is  a  bnilding  in  which  thobodii-sof  unknown  .persons 
wlio  have  mot  with  a  violent  death  are  placed,  and  wliich,  if  not  claimed  within 
three  days,  are  buried  at  llie  ])ablic  expense.  The  southern  parts  of  tjio  city  are 
built  over  beds  of  limestone,  rich  in  foasile,  whicli  liave  been  so  extensively  quarriid 
as  to  have  become  a  mere  network  of  vast  caverns,  which  in  sojue  cases  scarcely 
afford  suflScieut  support  to  the  houses  above.  These  qnarrios  were  fir^t  converted 
in  1784  into  catacombs,  iu  which  are  deposited  the  bones  of  the  dead,  collected  from 
the  ancieut  cemetenVa  of  Paris. 

P.  was  euri-ouuded,  under  Louis-Philippe,  witlj  fortifications  extending  30  mUes 
round,  and  costing  £5,500,000  sterling,',- and,  iu  addition  to  the^e,  16  detached  forts 
have  been  erected  at  definite  distances  from  one  another.  Tlie  C'lu«up-de-Mars  is  a 
vast  sandy  plain  near  the  Qual  d'Orsay,  on  which  reviews  and  other  military  dis- 
plays and  national  festivals  are  held.  Close  to  it  stands  tiio  Ecole  Militairo,  founded 
in  1752,  and  u^sed  as  barrack**  for  infantry  and  cavalry,  of  wliich  it  can  accommodate 
10,000  men,  ^\'ith  space  for  800  horses.  The  JHOtel  des  luvalides,  founded  in  1670 
for  disabled  soldiers,  is  fciltuatcd  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  The  crypt  of  the 
churcli  C(;ntaius  the  sarcophagus,  hown  from  a  huge  block  of  Kussiau  granite,  iu 
which  lie  the  remains  of  Napoleon,  deposited  there  iu  1840. 

P.  is  divided  iuto  20  arrondissements.  The  prefect  of  the  Seine  is  the  chief  of 
the  municipal  government,  and  is  appointed  by  the  government.  'J'here  is  a  large 
mnnici{)al  council,  chosen  by  popular  election.  Each  anoudissemeut  has  a  mnire  and. 
two  assistant  councillors.  The  prefect  of  police  is  at  the  luad  of  the  civic  guard  or 
gensdai-mes,  the  fire-brigade,  and  the  sergents  deville  or  city  police,  who  are  ai-med 
with  a  sword.  The  cleaning,  sewerage,  and  water  supplies  of  P.  ai'c  midiT  the 
charge  of  the  prefect.  P.  is  now  abundantly  eupplied  with  pure  and  whdesomo 
water ;  Bince  1854,  the  length  of  vaultid  sewers  has  been  doubled,  and  now  amounts 
to  upwards  of  260  miles.  The  same  may  be  said  iu  regard  to  the  uaving  of  tlus  city, 
aud  the  street  lighting  is  now  adequately  f&ect^'d  by  means  of  some  15,000  gas- 
lights. In  1818,  public  slaughter-houses,  or  abattoirs,  were  established  at  different 
suburbs,  where  alojie  animals  are  allowed  to  be  slaughtered.  Large  catilc- markets 
are  held  near  the  liceufed  Abattoirs  (q.  v.).  There  are  in  the  heart  of  the  city  nu- 
merous Jtalles,  or  ^vholesale,  and  marclC&s,  or  retail  markets.  The  principal  of  these 
is  the  Halles  Centrales,  near  the  church  of  St  Enstache,  covering  nearly  20  acres. 
Amonff  the  older  markets,  the  Halle  aux  Vins,  in  which  500,000  casks  of  wine  can  be 
stowed,  and  the  Marcbe  auxFleurs,  aic  perhaps  the  most  iuteresfmg. 

For  an  account  of  P.,  see  **  Le  Nouveau  Paris,"  by  Labedolidre ;  -*  Paris  Illustr6 
cu  1870,"  by  Ad.  Joanne  (Paris,  1870  and  1871)  ;  and  Moriac's  "  Paris  sous  la  Com- 
mune "  (Paris,  1871).  A  great  work,  which  was  to  Include  all  the  principal  docu- 
ments connecred  with  the  history  of  P.,  was  commenced  during  the  late  empire, 
under  the  supervision  of  M.  Hanssman.  Seven  large  quarto  volumes  had  appeared 
when  the  work  was  iuterrupted  by  the  events  of  1871. 

PARIS  BASIN,  the  collective  name  of  the  beds  of  Eocene  age,  which  rest  in  a 
hollow  of  tlie  chalk  in  the  district  around  Paris,  where  they  occupy  an  oblong  area 
measuring  180  miles  in  greatest  length  from  north  to  south,  and  90  miles  in  breadth 
fi-om  east  to  west.  'J  he  different  sections  into  which  the  serit^s  has  been  divided 
are  given  under  Eocene  (q.  v.).  The  beds  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  rich  har- 
vest of  organic  remains  which  tliey  supplied  to  Cavier,  and  which  led  to  the  foimda- 
tiou  qf  the  modem  science  of  Palieoutology.  The  strata  from  which  these  were 
principally  obtained  consist  of  a  series  of  white  and  green  marls  with  subordinate 
beds  of  gypsum ;  they  are  largely  developed  at  Monimartre,  wiiere  the  gypsum  has 
been  extensively  quarried  for  the  nianuf:ictur«  of  plaster  of  Paria.  The  fossils  con- 
sist of  limd  and' fluviatile  shells,  fresh- water  fish  and  crocodiles,  and  the  bones  of 
birds  aud  quadmpeds,  besides  a  few  land^plants,  among  which  are  some  palms. 
The  mammals,  of  which  about  60  species  have  been  descril^d,  bi^long  to  the  order 
l*achyderinata.  ITie  Paris  Basin  has  for  some  time  almost  ceased  to  supply  the  j 
remains  of  vertebi'ate  animals.  ; 

PARIS,  Matthew,  the  best  Latin  chronicler  of  the  18th  c.,  was  bom  about  1195, 
and  in  1217  entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  St  Albans.  After  the  departure  of 
Roger  of  Wendover,  iu  1235,  P.  was  chosen  to  succeed  him  as  annalist  of  tho 
monastery,   lie  discharged  his  f unctiuus  with  Teracljy  and  boldueai, in  consoquenc- . 

Digitized  by  VjOO^, 


Failah 


780 


of  which  he  crenlly  displeased  some  of  hfs  contemporaries.  The  principal  eztprcal 
incident  of  lHa  life  was  hLn  voyage  to  Noi-way,  whither  he  was  invited  by  King 
HakoD,  to  repair  the  flnnncial  disorders  in  tiie  Benedictine  monastery  of  Holm.  P. 
l.njdi.'d  nt  Bereen,  lOlh  July  1248,  wns  conrleonsly  received  by  the  Norwegian  mon- 
arch, «nd  settled  the  Inisines*  nhont  which  he  ciime  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  After 
l^i^*  retnrn  to  England,  he  stood  high  in  the  favor  of  Henry  III.,  who  used  M  con- 
verge with  him  in  the  most  familiar  manner,  and  from  whose  lips  he  derived  not  a 
little  of  the  Information  that  makes  his  **  Chronicle  "  so  valuable.  H<^  had  also  a 
wide  circle  of  influential  friends  and  acqaaintauces  among  tlio  clergy,  from  whom  he 
ubtdinsd  materials  for  his  work.  His  death  oc-carred  in  1259.  P.  Iiad  a  great  repu- 
tation in  bis  day  for  his  virtnes  and  abilities.  He  was  considered  a  univerftal 
scholar,  and  is  said  by  his  landatorr  bioj^rapliers  to  have  been  versed  in  mathe- 
matics, poetry,  oitttory,  divinity,  history,  painting,  and  architecture.  One  thing 
abont  him  long  kept  his  memory  green  In  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen — he  was  a 
patriotic  Englisltman,  an:l  though  a  sincere  Cuihoiic  (like  all  i,'Ood  men  of  his  age), 
yet  he  loved  liis  country  biMter  than  the  pope,  and  wrut^  so  fiercely  against  the  en- 
croachnieuts  of  the  court  of  Kome  in  ecclesiastical  matters,  that  his  **  Chronicle  " 
became,  in  after  times,  a  great  favorite  with  the  Reformers.  P.'s  princliml  work 
U  Ills  "Hii*toria  Major."  which  begins  with  the  Norman  Conquest,  and  extends 
to  the  year  of  the  author's  d«ath.  It  was  continned  by  William  Rishauijcer,  also  a 
monk  of  St  Albans,  till  the.dtaih  of  Henry  III.  in  1272.  The  fiist  t  dition  was  pnb- 
llshed  at  London  by  Archbishop  Parker,  lu  1671,  and  was  reproduced  at  Z&tlch  in 
1003;  later  and  more  complete  editions  are  those  of  London  in  1640—1641,  and  in 
1684.  Tlie  only  portion  of  the  "  Historia  Major,"  howevir,  which  is  properly  the 
work  of  P.,  U  that  extending  from  1285  to  1239;  the  previou**  part  beiuir  nearly  a 
transcription  from  tiie  "Flores  HiatoHarn:n,"  attribnred  to  Roger  of  Wendovcr, 
whence  some  critics  have  supposed  that  P.  is  really  the  author  of  that  work  too. 
Bn t  this  opinion  Is  Btrennously  contested  by  the  most  recent  editor  of  the  "Flores 
Hii^toriaratn,"  the  Rev.  H.  O.  Coxe  (4  vols.  1841—1842).  Translations  both  of  P.'s 
Chronicle  and  that  of  Roger  of  Wenaover  have  been  pnblished  by  Bohn  in  his  An- 
tiqnaiian  Library.  The  Biitish  Mu««euni,  and  the  library  of  Corpus  Chrlsti  College 
nt  Cambridge,  contain  manuscript  abridgments  of  the  *•  Historia  M.ijor,"  made  by 
P.  himself,  and  entitled  •*  Chronic;!  Majora  Sanctc  Albjmi;"  u  second  abridzment 
is  known  as  the  **HI-toria  Minor."  Other  works  of  P.'s  are  *'Dnornm  Offarnni 
Mercioruin  Rr^umVitie;"  *»  Viginti  trium  Abbatuw,  S.  Albani  Vit» ; "  and  '*Ad- 
ilitunienta,"  bemg  explanatory  aaditious  to  his  **  Historia  Major." 

PA'RISH  (Or.  paroikiuy  habitation,  from  para,  near,  and  oikeomaij  I  dwell ;  Lat, 
parochia),  the  district  assigned  to  a  particular  church,  wiiere  the  inhabitants  of  tlie 
district  may  attend  at  nubnc  woraiiip,  and  receive  the  sacfatnental  or  other minit>ti'a- 
tious  of  the  cler^^y.  The  name  originally  seems  to  have  l)een  interchangeable  with 
dicecesU,  "di  »cese,"  and  to  have  been  applied  to  the  district  sultject  to  the  Rpir.tual 
jurisdiction  of  a  bishop ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  at  a  later  period,  dioecesin  wan 
sometimes  used  to  signify  a  parochial  church  or  disti-ict*  The  distribntion  into  par- 
ishes appear.-*  to  be  comparatively  mod'Tu.  Originally,  all  the  clergy  were  (in  the 
opinion  of  the  Episcopalian  chnrchae)  bm  coadjutors  of  the  bishop,  and  served  iu 
his  church,  at  which  all  the  faithful  assembled.  At  Alexandria,  aiid  afterwards  at 
Rome,  a  number  of  minor  churches  were  opened  (called  at' Rome  tituli)^  which  were 
served  by  clergy,  originally  not  permanently  attached  to  them,  but  sent  from  the 
principal  or  bishop^s  church,  but  m  progress  of  time  fixed  permanently  in  the  charge. 
This,  however,  was  not  common;  and  we  find  churches,  with  clergy  permanently 
aft  iched,  nmch  earlier  in  rand  districts  than  in  cities.  Tite  institution  does  not  ap- 
i><?ar  to  have  become  general  till  the  9ih  or  lOtli  century.  In  England,  the  first  \e^is- 
latioi)  0!i  the  subject  occnrs  in  the  laws  of  Edgar,  abont  970.  The  parochial  division 
of  di.-ti'icts  seems  in  great  measure  to  iuive  followed  the  civil  distribution  into  mar 
nor.-<,  or  other  feudal  divisions  of  territory ;  and  it  is  probable  that  it  is  to  the  same 
state  of  things  we  owe  the  practice  of  lay  patronage,  the  priest  otficiHtiug  in  a  ma- 
norial church  being  chosen,  with  the  bishop's  consent,  by  the  lord  of  tlie  manor.  Tlie 
parochial  revenue,  however,  by  no  means  followed  the  same  rules  which  now  pr«?- 
vaiL  At  fli>t,  all  ecclesiastical  income,  from  whatever  district,  was  carried  into  a  . 
co'nmon  fund,  wldch  was  placed  at  the  disiiosal  of  the  bishop,  and  was  generally 
"Hvided  into  four  partd*-tor  tbe  bUhop,  for  the  clergy,  lor  the  poor,  aniffor  the 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


781 


Parish 


churob.  By  degree',  however,  beginulng  first  ^vitll  the  rural  parishes,  and  ultimate- 
ly oxteu'diug  to  those  of  the  cities,  the  parochial  revcDues  were  piticed  at  the  dis- 
po*al  of  the  parisji  clergy  (subject  to  the  same  general  threefold  divinion,  for  tlie 
clergy,  for  the  poor,  and  tor  the  cliurcti) ;  and  in  some  places  an  abusive  claim,  whicli 
was  early  reprobated,  arose  upon  tlte  part,  of  the  loi-d  of  tiie  mifnor  to  a  portiou  of 
the  revenue.  Properly,  a  parish  has  btit  one  church ;  but  wlien  the  tiistrict  is  exten- 
sive. One  or  more  minor  {succursal)  churches,  sometimes  called  "chapels  of  ease," 
are  permitted. 

In  the  law  of  England,  a  parish  is  an  important  subdivision  of  the  country,  for 
purposes  of  local  self-government,  most  of  tlie  local  rat«»  and  taxes  being  confliied 
within  that  area,  and  to  a  certain  extent  self-imposed  by  thepurti^B  who  pay  them. 
The  oiigin  of  the  division  of  J£ngland  into  parishes  is  not  very  clearly  ascertained  by 
the  anthoiitius.  Some  liuve  anserted  that  the  division  had  an  ecclesiastical  origin, 
and  that  a  parish  was  merely  a  district  sufficient  for  one  priest  to  attend  to.  But 
others  have  asserted  that  parishes  had  a  civil  origin  Jong  anterior  to  ecclesiastical 
distinctions,  advantnge  being  nierely  taken  10  iujiraft  these  on  so  convenient  an  ex- 
isting subdivision  of  the  country ;  and  that  a  parisli  was  a  snbdivlt'ion  of  the  ancient 
hundred,  known  as  a  vill  or  town,  and  tlirough  its  machinery,  the  public  taxes  were 
anciently  collected.  Hobart  fixes  the  date  of  the  institution  of  civil  paiishes  in  1179, 
and  his  account  has  been  generallv  followed.  Much  difficulty  has  ocaislonally  arisen 
in  fixing  the  Iwundnries  of  parishes,  Blackstouo  says  the  boundaries  of  pai  ishee 
were  originally  ascertained  by  those  of  manors,  and  that  it  very  seldom  Itap- 
pened  that  a  manor  extended  iti^elf  over  more  parishes  than  one,  though 
there  were  often  many  manor?*  in  one  parish.  Nevertheless,  the  boundaries 
of  purisltes  are  often  intermixed,  which  Blackstone  accounts  for  by  the 
practice  of  tlie  lords  of  adjoining  manors  obliging  their  tenants  to  appropriate 
tlieir  tithes  towards  the  officiating  minister  of  the  churdt,  which  was  built 
for  tlie  whole.  Eveii  in  tlie  present  day,  these  boundaries  often  give  rise  to 
litigation,  and  the  courts  have  always  decided  the  question  according  to  the  proof  of 
custom.  This  custom  is  chiefly  established  by  th«  ancient  pnictloe  of  peramonlating 
the  parish  in  Rogation-week  in  each  year.  See  Perambulation.  There  are  some 
places  as  to  which  it  is  uncertain  whether  they  are  parishes  or  not,  and  hence  it  has 
been  usual  to  call  them  reputed  parishes.  There  are  also  places  called  extra-paro- 
chial pidces,  which  do  not  belong  to  any  parish,  such  as  forest  and  abbev  lauds.  In 
these  cases,  the  persons  inhabiting  were  not  subject  to  the  usual  parochial  mtes  and 
taxes,  and  other  incidents  of  parochial  life.  But  iu  1867,  a  statute  was  passed  which 
put  extra-parochial  places  upon  a  sinnlar  footing  to  parit^bea,  by  giving  power  to 
justices,  and  iu  some  cases  to  the  Poor-law  Board,  to  annex  tliem  to  adjoining 
parishes,  after  which  they  are  dealt  with  in  much  the  same  way  as  other  places.  One 
of  tlie  chief  charnct«ristic8  of  a  parish  is,  that  there  is  a  parish  church,  and  an  in- 
ci:ml)ent  and  church wai-dens  attached  to  it,  and  by  this  machinery  the  spiritual  wants 
of  the  parishioners  are  attended  to.  These  several  parish  chnrohes,  and  tlie  endow- 
meuts  connected  therewith,  belong  in  a  certain  sense  to  the  nation,  and  the  incum- 
bents are  members  of  the  Established  Church  of  !E<ng]und,  ajid  amenable  to  the  dis- 
cipFiue  of  the  bishops  and  the  spii-itual  courts.:  The  private  patronage,  or  right  of 
presenting  a  clergyman  to  an  incumbency,  is  technically  called  an  advowson,  and  is 
generally  held  by  ini  individual  as  a  sjileuble  prcperty,  having  a  market  value.  The 
patron  has  au  absolute  right  {quite  iiTespective  of  the  wishes  of  the  parishioners)  to 
present  a  clerk  or  ordained  priest  of  the  church  of  England  to  a  vacant  benefice,  and 
It  is  for  the  bishop  to  see  to  his  qualifications.  The  bishop  is  th^  sole  judge  of  these 
qualifications,  and  if  he  approves  of  them,  the  clerk  or  privst  is  inetitnted  and  in- 
ducted into  ine  benefice,  which  ceremony  completes  his  legal  title  to  the  fiuits  of 
the  benefice.  The  incumbents  of  parish  churches  are  called  rectors,  or  vicars,  or 
per|>etual  curates,  the  distinction  beinj'  chiefly  iounded  on  the  state  of  the  tithe.*. 
When  the  benefice  is  full,  then  the  freehold  of  the  church  vests  in  the  rector  or  par- 
son, and  so  does  the  churchyard;  but  he  holds  the?e  only  as  a  trustee  for  the  use  of 
the  parishioners.'  There  are  certain  duties  which  the  incumhent  of  the  parish  church 
is  bound  by  law  to  perfoim  for  the  benefit  of  the  parishioners.  He  is  bound,  as  a 
general  rule,  to  reside  in  the  parish,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  udministei"  the  rites 
.  of  the  church  to  them.  .  See  Non-rbsidbkce.  .  The  first  duty  of  the  iucumbent 
is  to  perform  public  worship  In  the  parish  church  every  Sunday,  according,  to  the 


y  Google 


Firifb  /^g2 


form  pi-ewjrtbed  l>y  the  Book  of  Common  Pniyer,  wlifcfi  is  part  of  the  sfntnfe-Iawof 
England.  He  vanut  odMere  ^tricDy  to  ihe  fonns  jiud  oereinoiiies,  md  even  to  the 
flrctiB  preseriljed  hj  ^i  Book  of  Coininoii  Prayer  and  Canous.  The  incainbeiit 
Is  &\}^  bound  to  btipU^e  tiie  <^ildren  of  all  the  pariafaioiierB.  and  to  adiiiiiiis'ter 
ihe  rlt«  oi  the  Lord's  Snpper  to  the  parisbioiiers  not  less  than  tbree^  tinnes  each 
year.  Tl>e  incambent  fs  also  iMMind  to  allow  the  parishioners  to  be  J>qried  in  the 
churchyard  Ctf  tl»e  piirlBb,  if  there  is  nccoiiimodatiou,  and  to  read  the  biiriai-eenrico 
»t  each  totennenl  He  i«  also  bound  to  marry  tlic  purishioners  ou  their  tendering 
themselves,  and  comi^yingf  with  the  marriage  acts,  i^rithiii  the  parish  church  ana 
dining  canonicnl  hours,  and  it  is  said  he  is  liable  to  an  actioo  of  damages  if  be  re- 
1  i»!*e.  lu  res|>ect  of  Imrials  and  mai-riages,  certain  fees  are  frequently  pjiyable  by 
custom :  but  iiiriess  such  a  custom  exists,  no  fee  Is  exigible  for  perfonnance  of 
these  duties.  In  many  cases,  where  one  ciiurch  had  become  insufficient  for  the 
increased  popdiutiou,  the  old  parish  has  l>een  subdivided  under  the  Church  Building 
Acts,  the  first  of  which  was  passed  in  1818.  into  two  or  more  ecclesiastical  dis^ 
tricts  or  ixirishes,  for  each  of  which  a  new  cnurch  was  Irailt,  and  an  incumbentrnp- 
pointed.  The  incumbents  in  titese  ecclesiastical  p^irishes  liuve  generally  been  pro> 
vided  for  by  tlie  incumbent  of  tlie  uootlier-parish  or  by  volnntary  iHoaefactors,  and 
by  the  aid  o(  pew^rent^.  But  these  eccle&iusiical  iMiiishes,  so  far  as  the  poor  and 
other  secular  purposes  are  concerned,  make  no  change  on  the  old  law.  Anotlier  in- 
cident of  the  parish  clnireb  is,  that  tliere  must  be  churchwardens  appointed  an- 
nually, who  are  accordingly  lending  parochial  officers,  and  whose  du^  is  partly 
ecelesiasticttl  and  partly  civil.  Their  civil  duties  consist  chiefly  in  this,  that  they  must 
join  the  overseers  in  n):in]r  of  tli«  duties  arisiiig  oat  of  the  management  of  the 
poor,  and  incidental  duties  imposed  by  statute.  But  tliehprinuiry  duty  is  to  attend 
to  the  repair  and  good  order  of  the  fabtic  of  the  church.  The  tx>m!non  hiw  requires 
that  there  should  be  two  cnnrchwurdens,  one  of  whom  is  ap|>ointei1  by  the  incum- 
bent, and  the  other  is  chosen  lyjr  the  parisliionora  in  vestry  assembled,  but  some- 
times this  rule  is  varied  by  a  local  cnslom.  This  f^>|>ointment  and  election 
tjike  place  in  Easter-week  of  teach  year.  In  electing  the  people's  churchwarden, 
there  is  often  much  local  excitement,  und  it  is  common  to  poll  the  nurish,  all  thost:^ 
who  pay  poor-rates  being  entitled  to  vote,  the  number  of  votes  varying  according  to 
the  rent,  hut  no  person  having  more  than  six  votes.  See  CmjBCBWABDSKs ; 
Chuboh  Katkb. 

The  next  most  important  business  connected  with  the  parish  is  that  which  con- 
cerns tlie  poor,  the  leading  principle  being,  that  6uch  union  is  bound  to  pay  the  ex- 
panse of  relieving  its  own  poor.    See  Oterskebs  ;  Gvabdian  ;  Poon. 

Another  important  feature  of  the  parish  is,  that  all  the  highways  wiUiin  the  pansh 
must  be  kept  in  repair  by  the  parish,  i.  e.,  hy  the  inhabitants  who  are  rated  to  the  jioor. 
For  this  purpose,  the  inhabitants  of  each  parish,  in  vestry  atisembl^,  ap{>oiiit  «ach 
year  a  surveyor  of  hii^hways.  wliose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  tlie  highways  are  kept  in 
good  repidr;  and  he  is  authorised,  by  the  General  Highway  Act,  to  le\'y  arateon  all 
the  proi>cr»y  within  the  parish.  Theofttce  of  a  surveyor  of  highways  is,  like  those 
Mf  churchwarden,  ovei'seer,  and  guardian,  a  compulsory  and  grjitulton*  office.  Wlien 
a  highway  is  out  of  repair,  the  mode  of  enforcing  the  repair  is  by  summoning  the 
surveyor  of  highways  before  justices,  to  shew  cause  why  he  has  not  repaired  the 
road  ;  and  if  the  facts  are  not  disputed,  the  justices  either  fine  him,  or  order  an 
indictment  to  be  laid  against  the  inlnibitants  of  the  parish.  This  iiWictment  is  tried, 
and  the  expense  of  it  is  defrayed  out  of  the  highway-rate,  which  is  subsequently 
made.  The  highways  of  eacli  parish  being  thus  exclusively  underthe  control  of  the 
ratepayers  and  their  officers,  it  nappened  tliat  great  inequality  prevailetl  in  thertjind- 
ard  of  repairs  which  each  parish  set  up  for  itself.  This  Jed  to  the  late  Highway 
District  AcCs,  first  passed  in  1862,  the  object  of  which  is  to  enable  the  justices  of  the 
puace  of  the  district  to  combine  several  parishes  into  one  district,  and  thus  secure 
more  uniformity  in  the  repairs  of  the  hitfhways.  A  way-warden  U  now  appointed  to 
represent  each  parish  at  the  Highway  B(Mtrd,  ini^tead  of  the  old  high-way  surveyor; 
but  the  expenses  of  maiutainiug  the  highways  Is  still  nitimitely  paid  by  the  parish  in 
which  they  are  situated,  the  onfy  change  being,  that  the  expenses  are  ordered  to  be 
incurred  by  the  Highway  Board,  instead  of  the  parochial  officer. 

The  above  duties  m  reference  to  the  parish  chnrch,  the  poor,  and  the  highways, 
are  the  loading  duties  attaching  to  the  parish  a»  a  parish ;  bat  over  and  above  thenef 


y  Google 


783 


Parish 


mnny  mJs^cellaneoup  diitli'S  have  Ix^en  imposed  on  tlie  parish  offlccru,  pjirticniar'y 
OM  the  overseers  and  churchuardeiiB,  which  will  bo  founci  t'pecifiid  under  the  hi-iid 
of  OvEBSEEBs.  lu  nearly  all  cases  >vliere  the  parish,  as  a  parish,  is  required  to  act., 
the  mode  in  which  It  does  so  is  by  the  iiiacliinery  of  a  vesti-y.  A  vestry  is  a  nieetinjj 
of  all  the  inhabitiint  householders  rated  to  tlie  poor.  It  is  called  by  the  cliurcbwnr«l- 
enK,  and  all  qiiestions  are  put  to  the  vote.  Any  rutepayer  who  thinks  the  majority 
of  those  present  do  not  represent  tl»e  majority  of  the  whole  i)ariBhionerg,  fe  cutith  d 
to  demand  a  poll.  At  these  .meetings,  great  excitement  oft^n  prevails,  especinlly 
when  I  here  cxisti-d  church-rates.  Wlierever  a  parish  improvement  is  found  to  be 
desirable,  the  veetry  may  meet  and  decide  whether  it  is  to  be  proceeded  with,  in 
which  c:ise  Ihry  have  powers  of  rating  tliemserves  for  the  expense. ,  Such  is  the  case 
as  to  the  esiabliflinient  of  baths  and  wash-houses,  watching;,  and  lighting.  Betnrns 
are  made  af  all  parish  and  local  rates  to  parliament  every  year.  'J'he  parish  pro- 
])erty,  except  the  goods  of  the  parish  church,  which  are  vested  in  the  churchwardens, 
is  vested  in  the  overseers,  who  hold  and  nninage  the  same,  requiring  the  consent  of 
the  Poor-law  Board  in  order  to  sell  it.  Of  late,  a  statute  has  jiuthoiised  benefactors 
to  d^^dicate  greens  or  playgrounds  to  the  inhabilants  of  parishes,  through  the  iuler- 
ventJon  of  trustees. 

In  Scotland,  the  division  into  parlsheshas  existed  from  the  most  ancient  thnes, 
and  is  recojjnised  for  certain  civil  purposes  relaiive  to  taxation  and  otherwise,  as 
Well  as  for  purposes  purely  ecclesiastical.  The  Court  of  Session,  acting  as  the  Com- 
mission of  Teinds,  may  unite  tu  o  or  more  parishes  into  one ;  or  mav  divide  a  parish, 
or  disjoin  part  of  it,  with  consent  of  the  heritors  (or  landholder.-)  of  a  major  jjart  oi 
the  valuation  ;  or  jipart  from  their  consent,  if  it  be  she«n  that  there  is  within  the 
disjoined  part  a  sufincient  ])lace  of  worship,  and  if  tlie  Titulars  of  'J'einds  (q.  v.),  or 
others  who  have  to  pay  no  less  than  three-fourths  of  the  additional  stipt  nd,  do  not 
object.  By  Act  7  and  8  Vict,  c  44,  any  district  where  there  is  an  endowed  chniK^h 
m.iy  be  erected  into  a  parish  quoad  sacia.  for  such  purposes  as  aie  purely  ecclesi- 
astical. Endowed  Gaelic  congregations  in  the  large  towns  of  the  Lowlands  may 
similarly  be  erected  Into  parishes  qxioad  aacrcu 

The  principal  application  of  the  parochial  division  for  civil  purposes  relates  to 
the  administration  of  the  poor-law.  Under  the  old  system  the  aoministrators  of  the 
poor-lajv  where  the  kirk-session  in  county  parishes,  and  the  magistrates,  or  certain 
managers  selected  by  them,  in  burghal  parishes.  The  Act  8  and  9  Vict  c  88,  which 
remodelled  the  poor-law  of  Scosland,  retainwl  the  old  adniinistraiive  body  so  long  ub 
there  was  no  asfic^smeut;  but.  on  a  parish  being  assessed,  substituted  for  it  a  new 
one,  consisting  in  rural  parishes  of  the  owners  of  heritable  property  of  X20  yearly 
value,  of  the  magistrates  of  any  royal  burgh  within  the  bounds  of  the  kirk-session, 
a  certain  number  of  members  cho^^en  by  the  persons  assessed ;  and  in  bnrghtd  par- 
ishes of  members,  not  exceeding  30.  chosen  by  the  |)erson8  assessed,  four  meml'ors 
named  by  the  magistrates,  and  not  above  four  by  the  kirk-session  or  sessiiins.  The 
Board  of  Supervision  may  unite  two  or  more  parishes  into  a  combination  for  poor- 
law  purposes.  There  is  not  the  same  extensive  machinery  for  parochial  self*  govern- 
ment that  exists  in  England.  The  burden  of  supporting  the  fabric  of  the  chnrcli 
falls  on  tlie  heritors,  and  there  are  no  churchwardens.  Highways  are  not  repairable 
bv  the  parish,  and  there  are  no  elections  of  surveyors  or  way-wardena.  The  meeting 
of  the  nihabitants  in  vestry,  which  so  often  takes  place  in  En^jland,  is  unknown  in 
Scotland,  and  hence  the  ratepayers  do  not  interest  themselves  so  much  in  local 
affairs.  Many  of  the  duties  which  in  Enghind  are  discharged  by  parochial  officers, 
are  in  Scotland  discharged  by  the  sherift-clerk,  a  county  officer.  The  ^stem  of 
having  a  Parish  School  (q.  v.)  in  every  ])arish  (a  system  <'Xti  nded  by  the  Education 
Act  of  1S72)  has  iongprte^^jed  in  Scotland,  though  unknown  iu  Enghiud  till  the 
year  1870. 

PARISH  CLERK,  in  England,  is  nn  officer  of  the  parish  of  some  importance, 
his  duty  being  to  lead  the  resiionses  durinu  the  reatling  of  tl>e  service  iu  the  parish 
cliurch.  He  Is  appointed  by  the  parson,  unless  some  otiier  custom  of  a  peculiar  kind 
exists  in  the  parish.  He  n«iist  be  20  years  of  age,  and  has  his  office  for  life,  but  is 
removable  by  tlie  parson  for  sufficient  causi'.  By  the  statute  7  and  8  Vict,  c  69,  a 
pfti-son  in  holy  orders  liiay  he  <'lectod  a  parish  clerk.  Under  some  of  the  Church 
Buiidmg  Acts  goveruing  the  new  churches  built  in  populous  parishes,  he  is  annually 


y  Google 


Parish  *7C  t 

Parker  «  0"t 

api)oiuted  bjr  the  miulster.    The  salaiy  of  the  parinU  clerk  iSLpuXd  out  of  the  church- 
rate. 

PARISH  SCHOOL.    In  England,  prior  to  the  receut  Edncation  Act,  there  was 
no  such  thing  as  a  parish  school — that  is,  a  school  existing  for  the  benefit  of  the 

Sirishloners,  endowed  by  the  sUite,  or  supported  by.  taxes  on  the  pai'i>hioner& 
very  school  beyond  charity  schools  was  mor«  or  less  voluntary  in  its  character,  and 
endowed,  it:  at  all,  by  private  benefactors.  In  Scotland,  however,  it  was  essential 
that  in  every  pariah  there  should  be  a  parish  school,  for  a  statute  of  1696  nmde  it 
compulsory  on  the  heritors — i.  f.,  the  chief  proprietor? — (o  provide  a  school-hoast-, 
and  to  fix'a  salary  for  the  teacher.  If  the  heritors  neglected  to  supply  a  school- 
house,  the  presbytery  was  empowered  to  order  one  at  ihe  expense  of  tiie  heritor:*. 
The  schoolmaster's  salary  was  fixed  according  to  a  certain  proportion,  half  of  the 
rate  or  cess  being  paid  by  the  landlord,  and  uaU  by  the  tenant.  In  1S08,  a  statute 
was  passed  to  regulate  the  salaries,  and  to  give  a  right  to  the  sciioolmaster  to  have  a 
house  and  garden.  'J'he  office  was  further  regiilattid  by  a  later  act,  24  and  25  Vict.  c. 
107.  The  sjdary  was  fixed  to  be  from  £35  to  £10  per  auuani,  to  be  varied  and  fixed 
by  the  heritors  and  ministers  of  the  parish,  in  the  case  of  future  vacancies.  '1  he 
qualification  of  the  sclioolmaster  coni>rsted  in  pas^ing  an  exiuuiuation  conducted  by 
the  examiners  of  parochial  schoolmasters,  who  were  professors  of  the  uuivei-isities, 
who  made  regulations  as  to  the  time  and  mode  of  examination.  For  this  purpose, 
Scotland  was  divided  into  four  districts,  eacli  in  connection  with  one  of  tht> 
Scotch  universities.  When  examiued,  t\\o  person  obtained  a  ceirtiflcute  of  fl(/- 
ness  from  these  examiners.  The  schoolmaster,  who  had  formerly,  before  ad- 
mission to  office,  been  required  to  sign  the  Confession  of  Faith  and  the 
fornmhi  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  to  profess  that  ho  would  submit  to  ita 
government  and  discipline,  had  by  this  act  merely  to  make  a  declara^on  that  be  would 
not,  in  his  office,  endeavor,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  leach  or  inculcate  opinions  op- 
posed to  the  divine  authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  or  to  the  doctrines  contained  lu 
the  Shorter  Catechism,  agreed  upon  by  the  As^'^embly  of  Divines  *at  .^WestmiuBter, 
and  approved  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  that  he  would 
not  exerci:»e  the  functions  of  his  office  to  the  prejudice  or  subversiou  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland  as  by  law  established.  In  case  of  misconduct,  the  Presbytery  mlglu  com- 
plain to  the  Secretary  of  State,  who  would  institute  a  commission  to  Inquhre  and 
repOrtj  and  to  censure,  suspend,  or  deprive  such  schoolmaster  accordingly.  The 
8herifit«f  the  county  was  made  thu  sole  judge  of  charges  of  immorality,  or  cruel  or  im- 
proper treatment  of  the  scholars,  offences  formerly  cognizable  by  the  Presbytei-y  ; 
and  the  heritors  and  minister  might  permit  or  require  him  to  resign,  and  allow  liim  a 
retiring  allowance.  Notwithstanding  all  these  improvements,  however,  it  continued 
to  be  apparent  that  the  system  of  parish  schools,  however  well  adapted  to  Scotland 
at  the  Revolution,  had  fallen  behind  the  requirements  of  the  country,  when  the 
population  had  tripled,  and  large  manufacturing  villages  and  towns  had  sprung  np 
m  rural  districts.  But  for  denominational  and  other  schools^  vast  numbers  of  chil- 
dren would  b)ive  been  left  without  the  rudiments  of  edncatioiK  By  tlie  Education 
(Scotland)  Act,  35  and  87  Vict  c.  62  (1872),  the  parish  schools  were  placed  under  the 
management  of  the  SchoOl  Board  of  each  iwrisli,  the  jurisdiction  of  Jieritors,  miuis- 
.|ter.«<,  &i\d  church  couits  was  abolished,  and  every  school  under  the  management  of 
I'/.the  School  Board  was  declared  to  be  equally  a  parish  school.  Teachers  in  office  be- 
1  fore  the  act  are  not  to  be  prejudiced  by  its  provisions ;  those  whom  the  School  Boards 
!  appoint  are  to  have  such  salaries  assigned  them  as  the  Boards  tiiink  fit,  and  to  hold 
'  office  at  pleasure  of  the  Board. 

PARK  (Fr.  pare),  a  term  still  employed  in  some  part^of  Britain,  in  its  original 
sense,  to  denote  a  field  or  enclosure,  but  more  generally  applied  to  the  enclosed 
grounds  around  a  mansion,  designated  in  Scotland  by  another  tenn  of  French 
origin,  policy.  The  park,  in  tills  sense,  includes  not  only  the  lawn,  hut  all  that  is 
devoted  to  the  growtn  of  timber,  pasturage  for  deer,  sheep,  cattle,  &c.,  in  connection 
with  the  mansion,  wherever  pleasure- w5ks  or  drives  extend,  or  the  purpose  of  en- 
joyment prevails  over  that  of  economical  use.  Public  parks  axe  those  in  the  vicinity 
of  towns  and  cities,  open  to  the  public,  and  intended  for  their  benefit.  An  increase 
of  Rubhc  piuks  is  a  pleasing  feature  of  the  present  age,  aud.not  a  f^w  towns  eujoy 
park;}  recently  bestowed  by  wealthy  persons  somehow  conaecivd  with  them.        


y  Google 


785 


Parish 
Parker 

PARK,  Mnngo,  a  celebrated  African  traveller,  was  Vtxe  eon  of  a  Scottish  farmer, 
and  was  born  lOih  Se])tpmbor  1771  at  Fowlsliielfi  near  Selkirk.  He  stndied  medicfne 
in  Edinburgh,  and  afterwards  went  to  Loudon,  wbere  be  obtained  the  situation  of 
assi&tant-snreeon  in  u  vessel  bound  for  the  East  Indies.  When  lie  retnrnid  in  1793, 
the  African  Association  of  London  had  received  intelligence  of  the  death  of  Major 
Honghf  on,  who  had  undertaken  a  journey  to  Africa  at  their  e;£pense.  P,  off*  red 
himself  for  a  similar  undertaking,  was  accepted,  and  sailed  from  Englimd  22d  May 
1795.  He  S|wnt  some  months  at  the  English  factoiy  of  Pisania  on  the  Gambia  in 
making  preparations  for  his  further  travels,  and  in  learning  the  Mandingo  language. 
Leaving  Pisania  on  the  2d  of  December  he  travelled  eastward;  but  wlun  he  had 
i>early  re^iched  the  place  where  Honglitou  lost  his  life,  he  fell  into  the  hands  (f 
a  Moorish  king,  who  imprisoned  him,  and  ireated  him  so  roughly,  that  P.  t-eiztd 
an  opportimity  of  ewaping  (Ist  July  1796).  In  the  third  week  of  his  fl  ght, 
he  reached  the  Niger,  the  great  object  of  his  search,  at  S(  go  (in  the  kingdom  of 
Bambarra),  and  foUowtd  its  course  downward  as  far  as  SiTla;  but  meeting  with 
hindrances  that  compelled  him  to  retrace  his  steps,  lie  pmrsued  his  way  westwards 
aloiig  its  banks  to  Bammakoe,  and  th«n  croS9<^d  a  mountainous  country  till  he  came  - 
to  Kamalia,  in  the  kingdom  of  Mandingo  (14th  September),  where  he  was  tak<n  ill, 
and  lay  for  seven  months.  A  slave-trader  at  last  conveyed  him  again  to  the  English 
factory  on  the  Gambia,  where  he  arrived  10th  June  1797,  after  an  abi-tnce  of  nine- 
teen mouths.  He  published  an  account  of  his  travels  after  his  return  to  Britain, 
under  the  title  of  *' Travels  in  the  Interior  of  Africa"  (Lond.  17^9),  a  woik  which 
at  once  acquired  a  high  jjopularity.  He  now  marrii  d  and  f-ettled  as  a  f-uigeon  at 
Peebles',  where,  liowevei-,  he  did  not  acquire  an  extensive  practice  ;  fo  that,  m  1606, 
he  tiudertook  another  journey  to  Africa,  at  the  <  xpeus^e  of  the  government.  When 
l»e  started  from  Pisauia,  he  had  a  compiauy  of  46,  of  whom  86  w  ere  European  sol- 
diers; but  when  he  reached  the  Niger  in  August,  his  attendants  were  reduced  to 
p.  veti,  so  fatal  is  the  rainy  season  in  those  regions  to  Enroptans.  From  8ansandn)g 
(  n  the  Niger,  in  the  kiugdom  (.f  Bambarra,  he  Fent  hack  his  journals  )ind  letters  in 
Kovemb  r  1805  to  Gambia;  and  hnilt  a  boat,  in  which  he  embarked  with  four  Euio- 
]K  an  co-.npanions,  and  reached  the  kingdom  of  Housea,  where  he  and  they  are 
iK'lieved  to  have  been  murdered  by  the  natives,  or  drowned  as  they  aitcjnpted  to  sail 
through  a  narrow  channel  of  the  river.  The  fragments  of  information  and  other 
<'>idence  picked  up  among  the  natives  byCJappeiton  and  Lander  (q.  v.),  strongly 
t:ontirm  this  view  of  the  fate  of  P.  and  his  companions.  An  account  of  P.^s  second 
jourmy  was  published  at  Ix)ndon  in  1815.  P.\*  narratives  are  of  no  inconsiderable 
value,  particularly  few  the  light  which  they  throw  upon  the  social  and  domesiic  life 
of  the  negroes,  and  on  the  Iwtany  atid  meteorology  of  the  regicms  through  which  he 
l»MSSed;  hut  he  was  unfortunately  cut  off  before  he  had  determined  the  grand  object 
of  his  explorations— the  discoveiy  of  the  course  of  the  Niger. 

PARK  OF  ARTILLERY  is  the  whole  train  of  great  guns  wit li  equipment,  am- 
munition, horses,  and  gimuers  for  an  army  in  the  fleld.  it  is  placed  in  a  situation 
whtnce  rapid  access  ctm  bo  had  to  the  line  of  the  army  in  any  part ;  and  at  the  same 
lime  where  the  divisions  of  tlie  force  can  easily  mass  for  its  protection.  The  hoi-ses 
of  the  park  are  picketed  in  lines  in  its  rear. 

PA'BKA,  the  name  given  by  Fleming  to  a  fossil  from  the  Old  Red  Sandstone* 
about  which  there  hasrbeen  consldcjrable  difference?  of  opinion.  The  quarrjmen  call 
them  *•  berri<:s,"  fi'om  their  resemblance  to  a  compressed  raspberiy.  They  were 
compared  by  Fleming  to  tlie  panicles  of  a  Juncns,  or  the  globose  head  of  a  Spar- 
gnniuni.  Lyell  thinks  tiny  resemble  the  egg-canes  of  a  Natica,  while  ManteH  sug- 
gisted  that  they  were  theejjsBOf  a  batrachiai).  The  opinion  now  most  generally 
entertained  is  that  they  are  the  eggs  of  the  Pierygotus. 

PARKER,  a  family  of  distinction  in  the  nnnals  of  the  British  nnvy.  The  founder 
of  the  family  was  Sir  Hugh  Parker,  an  alderman  of  London,  who  received  a  bar- 
onetcy in  1081.— His  grand-nephew,  Sir  Htde  Parker,  commanded  the  British 
fleet  in  the  uctiOii  off  the  Dogger  Bank,  5tb  August  1781,  in  which  three  Dutch  ships 
were  destroyed,  and  the  rest  of  the  Dutch  fl  et  ( ompellcd  to  retreat  into  lirtrbor.  In 
1783,  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the'Britihh  fleet  in  the  East  Indies;  but 
the  ship  in  widcli  he  sailed  thither  was  lost,  with  all  on  b(}ard.— His  second  son. 
Sib  Ht]>e  Paekei?,  diBtlugalshed  himself  in  the  American  war ;  blockaded  the  Dutch 


Digitized  by 


Google 


FortcwK 


786- 


harhot^  wHh  n  sinnH  wjmidrou  in  1788 ;  commanded  tbe  BritisTi  fleet  in  t^e  "West 
ludies  111  1795;  ai)d  in  1801  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  tlie  fleet 
wbirh  was  sent  to  tlie  Baltic  to  act  against  the  armed  coalition  of  the  three 
northeni  states  of  Kui-sia,  Sweden,  and  Deninsirk.  He  h»d  no  share  in  the  battle  of 
Oopeiihngen,  in  which  Nelson  enj^uged  coutniry  to  hl8  0i*dera;  but  by  hij^appenranco 
b  "tore  Cui  l:»Gron«,  he  compelled  the  nentralitv'  of  Sweden  ;  and  he  was  on  the  point 
of  sailing  for  Cornstadt,  when  the  news  of  Panrs  death  put  an  end  to  hostilitit'S. — 
His  kinsman.  Sib  William  Pabker.  was  also  a  British  admiral  of  hieh  repnte  for 
his  skill  and  braveiy,  and  contributed  to  some  of  the  ei*eut  victories  of  the  close  of 
the  last  centmy-i — Sib  Pbtbb  Parsbr,  who  was  bom  Tn  1716,  and  died  in  1811,  with 
the  rank  of  admiral  of  the  fleet,  served  witli  distinction  dnriugthe  Seven  Years* 
and  the  American  wars;  and  in  1782  brought  the  French  admiml,  De  Grjisse,  a 
prisoner  to  England,  for  which  he  receired  a  baronetcy. — Sib  William  Parkbb, 
born  In  1781,  commanded  the  frigate  Amazon  iu  1806,  and  took,  after  a  hard  b.itfle, 
the  French  frigate  La  Belle  Poule,  belonging  to  the  squadroti  of  Admiral  Linois  ; 
and  in  1809  captured  th.-  citadel  of  Ferrol.  In  184l,he  i^uccef^ded  to  Admiral  Elliot 
in  the  command  of  the  fleet  in  the  Chinese  seas  during  the  first  Ohinepe  war.  ^He 
took  poss  ssiou  of  Clmsan,  Ningpo,  and  Shapu;  forced  the  entrance  of  the 
Tauir-tse-kiaug ;  and  arrived  under  the  walls  of  Nanking,  where  the  treaty  of  pf^ace 
was  agreed  upon.  For  these  services  he  received  a  baronetcy  in  1844.  He  was  after- 
ward-^  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  fleet  In  the  MediteiTanean,  and  exerted 
himself,  although  iu  vain,  to  mediate  l>etWv?ea  the  Neapolitan  government  and  the 
insurgent  ^clllans.  In  autumn  1849,  he  sailed  to  the  Dardanelles,  at  the  request  of 
Sir  Stratford  Canning  (now  Lord  Stratford  de  Redcllffe),  to  support  the  Porte 
ag  linst  the  threatening  demands  of  Austria  and  Rnssia  concerning  political  fugi- 
tives ;  and  in  January  1850  he  compelled  the  Greek  government,  bv  a  blockade  of 
their  ports,  to  comply  with  the  demands  of  Britnin.  Named  in  1851  Atlmlnil  of 
the  Blue,  he  resijrned  the  command  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet  to  Admiral  Dun- 
das,  was  created  Admiral  of  the  White  in  1868,  Admiral  of-the  Red  iu  1868,  and 
Rear-admlrjU  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  1862.    He  died  in  1866. 

PARKEEl,  Matthew,  the  second  Protestant  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  bom 
at  Norwich,  Augn!*t  6, 1504,  studied  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Caml>ridge.  and  was 
ordained  a  priest  in  1527.  At  the  university,  he  was  a  distinguished  student,  espe- 
cially of  the  Scriptures,  and  of  the  history  of  the  church,  even  to  antiquarian  minute- 
net* 8 ;  yet,  in  spile  of  his  strong  leaning  to  the  past,  he  was  from  an  early  peiiod 
favoraoly  disposed  towards  the  doctrines  of  the  Refornmtion,  and  lived  in  close 
intimacy  with  some  of  the  more  ardent  reformers.  In  1533,  he  was  appointed  chap- 
lain to  Queen  Anne  Boleyn,  who  thonght  very  hijihly  ot  him.  and  not  hnig  before 
her  death,  exhorted  her  daujjhter  Elizabeth  to  avail  herself  of  P.'s  wise  and  pions 
counsel.  In  1635,  he  obtained  the  deanery  of  the  monastic  college  of  Stoke-Clare  in 
Hn^olk^- Jiomcm  Catholidam^  \t  must  not  be  forirot ten,  being  still  the  prof ossc«i  re- 
ligion of  the  land,  for  Henry  had  not  yet  formally  broken  with  the  pope — and  here 
the  studious  clerk  continued  his  pursuit  of  classical  and  ecclesljistical  literature,  and 
at  the  same  time  set  himself  to  correct  the  prevailing  decay  of  morals  and  li-aming 
in  the  church,  by  founding  a  school  in  the  locality  for  the  ]mrpose  of  instructing 
the  youth  in  the  study  of  grammar  and  humanity.  Here,  too,  he  appears  for  the 
first  time  to  have  deflnirely  sided  with  the  reforming  party  in  the  church  and 
stale,  tlie  sermons  which  he  preached  containing  hold  attacks  on  different  Catholic 
tenets  and  practices.  In  1538,  P.  took  the  degree  of  D.D.;  and  in  1544,  after  some 
minor  change's,  became  master  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge,  which  lie 
ruled  admirably.  Three  years  later,  he  married  Margjiret  Harlstone,  the  daughter  of 
a  Norfolk-^hire  gentleman.  It  was  probably  about  this  time  that  tie  drew  up  his  de- 
fence of  the  marriaire  of  priests,  entitled  *''De  Conjugio  Sacerdotum."  In  1552,  he 
was  presented  by  King  Edward  VI.  to  the  canonry  aijd  prebend  of  Covingham,  iu 
the  clmrch  of  Lincoln.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  he  refused  to  conform  to 
the  re-established  ord<'r  of  things,  and  was  (like  many  others  of  the  new  school  of 
divines)  d^irived  of  his  preferments,  and  even  obliged  to  conceal  himself.  It  docs 
not  appear,  however,  that  he  was  eagerly  sought  after  by  the  emissaricis  of  Mary ;  for 
he  was  no  fanatic  or  iconoclast,  but,  on  the  conti-ary, "though  sincerely  attacbetl  to 
the  eominou  Protestant  doctrines,  very  unwilling  to  disturb  the  framework  of  the 
church.    P.  spent  at  leo&t  some  portion  of  Ills  compulsory  secluslou  from  public  life 


y  Google 


787 


Parker 


In  the  enlargement  of  liis  **  De  Conjusrio  Sacerdotnm,"  nnd  In  trniiplating  the  Psalms 
Into  English  metre.  The  death  of  Mary,  and  Ihe  ac<  es^iou  of  Elizabeth,  callrd  him 
from  That  lennuid  retirtMneni  of  which  he  weenie  to  hav«  been  sincerely  fond.  Sir 
Nicholas  Bacon,  now  Lord-keeper  of  ihe  Gri  at  Seal,  and  Sir  William  Ci  cil.  Secretary 
of  Slate,  both  old  Cambr4dge  frIendB,  knew  what  a  eolid  and  nnre  judgment,  what  a 
moderate  and  eqnable  epirit,  and  above  all,  what  a  thorough  faculty  for  bnsineps, 
ecclesiastical  and  secular.  P.  hud,  and  by  their  recommendjition  he  was  appointed,  by 
the?  qneen,  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  consecration  loo^  place  in  Lambeth  . 
chapel,  December  17,  j  559.       *  1 

Tlie  subsequent  history  of  Archbishop  Parker,  it  has  been  justly  remarked,  "is 
that  of  the  Ciinrch  of  England."  The  difficnltiee  that  beset  him  were  very  great. 
Elizabeth  herself  was  much  addicted  to  various  *' popish  "  practices,  such  as  th^ 
idolati'ons  use  of  images,  and  was  strongly,  we  mi^ht  even  say,  violently,  in  lavor  - 
of  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy.  She  went  bo  fur  as  to  lusult  P.'s  wife  on  one  occasion.  • 
But  his  greatest  anxiety  was  in  regard  to  the  spirit  of  sectaiian  dissension  within  the 
bosom  of  the  church  iiself.  Already  tlie  geime  of  ptcritaiiihin  were  beginning  a 
to  spring  up,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  their  growth  was  fostered  by  the  des- 
l)0tic  capnces  of  the  queen.  P.  himself  was  manifestly  convinced  that  if  ever  Pro- 
testantism was  to  be  firmly  established  in  the  land  at  all,  some  definite  ecclesiastical 
forms  and  methods  must  be  sanctioned,  to  secure  the  triumph  of  order  overimarchy, 
and  80  he  vigorously  set  about  the  repreeflion  of  what  he  thought  a  nmtinous  indi- 
vidualism incompatible  with  a  catholic  epiiit.  That  be  always  acted  wisely  or  well, 
cannot  b«aflli-med;  he  was  forced,  by  virtue  of  his  veiy  attitude,  into  inlolerj.nt 
and  inquisitorial  courses,  and  as  lie  grew  older,  he  grew  harsher,  the  conservative 
spirit  increasing  with  his  years.  To  forbid  *•  pmphesyings,"  or  meeting  for  religious 
discourse,  was  something  very  like  ptrsecntion,  though  probably  enough  something 
very  like  treason  to  the  cimrch  was  talked  in  these  pious  conveuiicles.  Fuller  (wlio 
must  have  his  pim,  however  bad)  says  of  him  :  **  He  was  a  Parker  indeed,  careful  to 
keep  the  fences."  Yet jt  must  not  be  forgotten  that  it  is  to  P.  we  owe  the  '•  Bi>^hoi)8' 
Bible,"  undi-rtaken  at  his  request,  carried  on  under  Ids  iusi)ection,  and  published  at 
Ills  expense  in  156S.  He  had  slso  the  principal  share  in  drawing  up  the  ''Book  of 
Common  P*rayer,"  for  which  his  skill  in  ancient  liturgies  peculiarly  fitted  him,  and 
whie.h  strikingly  bears  the  imjjress  of  his  broad,  moderate,  and  nnsectarian  intel- 
lect. It  was  under  his  presidency,  too,  tliat  the  *•  Thirty-nineArticles"  were  finally 
reviewed  and  subscribed  by  the  clergy  (1562).    P.  died  May  17, 1675. 

Among  other  literary  performances,  P.  published  an  old  "Saxon  Homily  on  the 
Sacrament,"  by  ^Ifric  of  8t  Albans,  to  prove  that  Transubstantial ion  \\ as  not  the 
doctrine  of  the  ancier*  English  church  ;  edited  the  histories  of  Matthew  of  West- 
ndnster  and  Matthew  Paris  (a.  v.) ;  and  superintended  the  public:)  I  ion  of  a  most  valu- 
ai)lework,  "De  Autiguitate  BrilannitaB  Ecclesise,"  probably  printed  at  Lambei h  in 
1572,  where  the  archbifhop,  we  .-.re  told,  had  an  establishment  of  printers,  engrav- 
er.*, and  illuninators.  He  also  founded  the  "Society  of  Antiquaries,"  and  v  as  its 
first  president ;  oidowed  the  univer-^ity  of  Cambridge,  and  pariicnJarly  hit*  own  col- 
ic gc.  with  many  fellowships  and  scholarships,  and  with  a  magnificent  collection  of 
WSS.  relating  to  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  condition  of  England,  and  belonging  to 
nine  different  centuiies  (from  tlie  8th  to  the  16th).  Of  this  collection,  Fuller  said 
that  it  was  "the  sun  of  English  antiquity  before  it  was  eclipsed  by  that  of  Sir  Kobcrt 
Cotton." 

PAEKEB,  Theodore,  an  American  clergyman  and  scholar,  was  bom  at  Lexing- 
ton, Mas.^acluiJ'etif,  August  24,  ISIO.  His  grandfatiier  was  captjiin  of  a  militia  coin- 
imi  y  at  the  battle  of  Lexlngion,  hisfather  \\a>*  a  farmer  and  mechanic,  and  his  own 
boyhood  was  spent  at  the  district  school,  on  the  farm,  and  in  the  workshop.  At  the 
jiire  of  17,  he  taught  a  school,  and  earned  money  to  enter  Harvard  College  in  1830. 
During  his  colleL'iate  course,  he  supported  himself  by  teaching  piivate  classes  and 
schools,  a:.d  studied  metiiphysics,  theology,  Anglo-Saxon,  Syriiic,  Arabic,  Danish, 
Swedish,  Grrman,  French,  Spanish,  and  modem  Gr«  ek.  Entering  the  divin- 
ify  clas.-^,  at  the  end  ol  his  collegiate  course,  he  commenced  to  preach  in  1886, 
was  an  edit(jr  of  the  "Scjiptural  Interpreter,"  and  settled  as  Unitarian 
minister  at  West  Koxbuiy  in  1837.  'i'hc  naturalistic  or  rationalistic  views  which 
separated  him  from  the  more  consi'i-vative  portion  of  the  Unitarians,  first  attrjicted 
wide  notice,  in  coucequeuce  of  au  ordiuiitiou  sei'mou,  in  1841,  on  ^*  The  Traueient 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Parketioe  >r  Q  Q 

Pftrliameat  ^OO 

and  PerniaDent  In  Christlauity."  The  coiitedl  whfch  arose  on  the  anti-saper- 
naturalism  of  this  discourse,  led  him  to  further  develop  his  tlieologlcal  views  in  Ave 
lectures,  delivered  in  Bostou,  and  published  (1841)  under  the  title  of  "  A  Di.-conrae 
of  Matters  Pertaining  to  Keliirlon,"  which  was  followed  by  "Sermons  for  ilie 
Times."  Failing  healtn  induced  liim  to  malse  an  extended  tour  in  Europe,  In  1845, 
lie  retnrned  to  Boston,  preached  to  large  audiences  at  tlie  Melodeon,  and  wnite  f  .r 
the  **Dial,"  "Christian  Kegister,"  *' Christian  Examiner,"  and  ^'Ma^suchnsetts 
Quiirierly."  He  became  also  a  popular  lecturer,  jind  mwis  active  and  eanief«i  in  oj»- 
])Osiiiou  to  slavery,  the  Mexican  war,  and  the  Fu^iive  Slave  Lnw,  for  resisting 
which,  by  more  than  words,  hii  was  indidtcd.  In  tlie  midst  of  iiis  work,  h»-  was 
uttaclced,  in  1859,  with  bleeding  trom  the  lung?*,  and  niade  a  voyage  to  Mex-co, 
where  ho  wrote  his  "  Experience  as  a  Minister,"  whence  he  sjiih  d  lo  Italy,  v  ht  re 
he  died  at  Florence,  May  10,  1860.  His  works,  consisting  chiefly  of  miscellanies, 
'  lectures  and  sermons,  liave  been  collected  and  published  in  America  and  England, 
iii  wliich  his  peculiar  views  in  theology  and  j)olitics  are  sustained  with  grent  force 
of  logic  and  felicity  of  illustration.  His  learning  was  equal  to  his  enei^y  and  philan- 
thropy, and  his  influence  was  also  great,  ^is  lil)riry  of  13,000  volumes  he  be- 
queathe<l  to  the  Boston  Free  Library.  See  P.'s  "  Lite  and  Correspondence,"  by 
.  Weiss  (1864). 

PA'RKESINE,  the  name  given  to  a  substance  introduced  for  mannftu^turing 
purposes  by  Mr  Parlces  of  Birmingham.  It  is  a  combination  of  various  vegetable 
ingredients,  the  number  and  proportions  of  which  differ  according  to  the  qualities 
reqnired  to  bt;  ^Iv.mi  to  the  snt>stauce.  Parkesine  was  fli'st  shewn  m  quantity  at  the 
International  Exhibition  of  1862.  Tiie  basis  i<  almost  any  vegetable  fibre — sach  as 
cotton  or  flax  waste,  old  rags,  &c.  The  inflammable  nature  Qf;  tliese  fibres  is  snb- 
dned  l)y  the  addition  of  certain  nineral  neutral  salts — sulphates,  tunsfstates,  &c 
Naphtha  is  used  as  a  solvent.  Ai>other  component  is  oil.  animal  or  vegetable,  which 
may  or  may  not  be  hardened  by  chloride  of  sulphur.  The  inventor  has  not  mude 
public  the  exact  mode  In  which  the  various  ingredients  are  comhiaed;  but  it  ap- 
pears that  the  elasticity  mainly  depends  on  the  oil,  aud  tiie  non-inflammability  on 
the  kind  of  neutral  salt  employed. 

In  a  paper  read  before  the  Society  of  Arts  on  the  subject  of  Parkesine,  and  in  a 
discussion  which  followed  the  reading,  it  was  stated  that  this  substance  is  not  afifect- 
M  by  sea-water  ;  it  does  not  soften,  like  gutta-percha,  by  heat ;  it  is  n  good  insula- 
tor of  electricity,  even  at  a  temperature  of  212°  F. ;  it  may  be  made  either  opaque  or 
transparent,  plahi  or  colored;  It  will  make  a  very  strong  )0int  after  fracture ;  it  will 
resist,  most  of  the  common  acids;  its  tensile strens^th  is  gretiter  than  tttat  of  india- 
rubber  or  i{ntta-percha.  In  its  h*rd  form  the  surface  can  be  so  treated  as  to  imitate 
inaibie,  tortoisesliell,  amber,  or  malachite. '  It  may  l3e  moulded,  pressed,  turnei^  sawn, 
planed,  carved,  rolled,  engraved^  inlaid,  or  polished,  according  to  tlie  consistency 
given  to  it  in  the  coiu'se  of  manufacture  ;  or  it  may  be  made  tbin  enough  to  nse, 
wiiei)  melted,  as  a  varnish  or  protective  coating  or  waterproofing.  Among  the  many 
articles  into  which  it  may  be  fashioned,  are  Included  spinners'  rolls  and  Itosses, 
knife-handles,  combs,  bhish-backs,  shoe-soles,  umbrella  and  parasol  bandies,  but- 
tons, bookbinding,  tubes,  galvanic-battery  ceiia,  waterproof  fabrics,  surgical  imple- 
ments, and  telegraphic  insulators. — ^It  is  prol)able  tliat  the  eventual  success  of  com- 
positions such  as  this  wjll  mainly  depend  on  the  price  at  whicli  the  material  can  be 
supplied  i>er  pound,  compared  with  theja-ices  of  gutta-percha  and  india-rubber,  the 
two  subi^tilnces  which  it  is  mainly  intended  lo  imitate  or  snpersede.  The  si^)ply  of 
thest!  two  is  wholly  dependent  on  the  sap  of  certain- forest  trees  in  torrid  climates ; 
the  mode  of  obtaining;  the  sap  is  recklessly  wasteful;  aud  it  is  not  yet  known  how 
far  a  continuance  of  the  supply  can  l)a  relied  on. 

PARKHURST,  John,  an  English  biblical  scholar,  the  second  son  of  John  Park- 
I  hin-st,  Esq.,  of  Catesby,  in  Northamptonshire,  was  bom  iu  June  1T28,  educated  at 

•  Ru-rby  and  at  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  M.  A,  in  1T52,  and 
]  in  1753  published  *' A  Serious  aud  Friendly  Address  to  the  Rev.  John  Wesley,  in 
}  Relation  to  a  Principal  Doctrine  advanced  and  raaintjiined  by  Idm  and  his  Assist- 
ants."   The  doctrine  assailed  in  P.'s  pampelet  was  the  favorite  Weslcyan  doctrine  of 

•  "  Assurance."    In  1162  app.^ared  his  principal  work— indeed  the  onif  thing  that  baa 
- 1  preseiTed  hia  name—"  A  llebrew  aud  English  L;jxicou,  virithout  points,  adapted  to 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


789 


Farkesine 
Parliament 

the  tJse  of  Learners."  P.  kept  mending  this  Hebrew  lexicon  nil  his  Fife.  It  was  a 
very  creditable  pKerforuiance  for  its  time,  and  Jong  coutiuued  to  be  the  standard 
uork  on  the  subject  among  biblical  students  in  this  country ;  bat.  it  is  disfigured  by 
its  fanciful  etymologies,  partly  the  result  of  his  having  (like  many  otiter  divines  of 
bis  time)  adopted  the  irrational  and  presnmptnous  theories  of  Hutcliinson  (q.  v.). 
and  is  now  entirely  superseded  by  the  works  of  Gtjsenius,  Ewald,  and  other  critical 
scholars.  P.  also  wrote  a  treatise  (1787)  against  Dr  Priestley,  to  move  the  divinity 
and  pre-existeuce  of  Jesas  Christ.     He  died  at  Epsom,  in  Surrey,  March  21,  1791. 

PAKKINSO'NIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  t^e  natural  order  Leguminosce,  sub-order 
CcBscUpinie<»,—P.  aciUeata  i-  a  West  Indian  shrub  or  small  tree,  v^wbich,  wiion  iu 
flower,  is  one  of  the  most  splendid  objects  in  tlie  vegetable  kingdom.  It  has  pinnated 
leaves,  with  winged  leaf-stalk,  a ud  large  yellow  flowers  spotted  with  red.  It  is  fur- 
nished with  sirong  spines,  and  is  often  used  for  liedgej*.  whence  it  is  called  the  Bar- 
badoes  Flower  Pence.  It  is  now  common  in  India.  Tlie  bark  yields  a  beautiful 
while  fibre,  which,  however,  is  not  very  strong;  but  it  has  been  suggested  that  it 
might  be  found  suitable  for  paper-making. 

PA'RLBY,  in  Milibiry  Language,  is  an  oral  conference  with  the  enemy.  It  takes 
place  under  a  flag  of  truce,  and  usually  at  some  spot— for  the  tijue  neutral— between 
the  lines  of  the  two  armies. 

PA'RLIAMENT  (Fr.jparl&ment,  from  parler^  to  talk),  the  supreme  legislature  of 
the  United  Kiugdoni  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  word  was  first  applied,  ac- 
cording to  BlackstOne,  to  general  assemblies  of  the  states  under  Louis  VII.  iu 
France  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  c  ;  but  in  that  country  it  came  eventually  to  be 
ttie  designation  of  a  body  which  peiformed  certain  administrative  functions,  but  whose 
principal  duties  were  tliose  of  a  court  of  instice. 

The  origin  of  the  Parliament  of  England  has  been  traced  to  the  Saxon  great  coun- 
cils of  the  nation,  called  **  Wittena-gemote,"  or  meeting  of  M^li^e  men.  I'hef e  had, 
however,  little  iu  common  with  the  parliaments  of  a  later  date :  autoiig  other  points 
of  differencet  they  bad  a  ri^lit  to  assemble  when  tliey  pleased  without  royal  warrant. 
Even  under  the  Korroau  kings,  the  Great  Council  formed  a  judicial  and  miuisterlal 
as  well  as  a  legi|i>iative  body,  and  it  was  only  gradually  that  the  judicial  functions 
were  transferred  to  courts  of  justice,  and  the  ministerial  to  the  privy  council— a  rem- 
nant of  the  judical  powers  of  parliament  being  still  preserved  in  the  api)ellate  juris- 
diction of  the  House  of  Loi-ds.  Under  the  Norman  kings,  the  council  of  tlie  sover- 
eign consisted  of  the  tenuuts-in-chief  of  the  crown,  who  held  their  lauds  per  ba- 
rotu'am,  lay  and  ecclesiastic.  It  was  the  principle  of  the  feudal  system  that  every 
tenant  should  attend  tii«  court  of  his  immediate  superior ;   and  he  who  held  per 


baronicmi,  havinn^  no  superior  but  the  crown,  was  bound  to  attend  his  sovereign  in 
tlie  Great  Council  or  Parliament.  In  the  charter  of  Kins  John,  we  for  the  first timo 
trace  the  i^erm  of  a  distinction  between  the  peerage  and  tlie  lesser  nobility,  the  arch- 


bishops, bishops,  abbots,  earls,  and  greater  barons  being  required  to  attend  by  a 
writ  addressed  to  each,  and  the  other  teiiauts-in-chief  by  a  general  summons  by  tlie 
sheriffs  and  bailiffs.  Baronial  tenure  originally  made  a  man  a  baron  or  lord  of  par- 
liament. When  the  offices  or  titles  of  Earl,  Marquis,  or  Dukis  were  bestowed  on  a 
baron,  they  were  conferred  by  royal  writ  or  patent,  and  at  length  barony  came  also 
to  be  conferred  by  writ  instead  of  by  tenure.  During  the  13th  c,  the  smaller  barons 
were  allowed,  instead  of  pei>oually  attending  the  national  council,  to  appear  by 
representatives ;  but  the  principle  of  rejireeentation  seems  first  to  have  been  reduced 
to  a  system  when  penuission  was  also  given  to  the  municipalities,  which,  as  corpor- 
ations, were  chief  tenants  of  the  crown,  to  appear  by  representatives.  It  is  not  quite 
clear  when  the  division  of  parliament  into  two  Houses  took  place ;  but  when  th« 
representatives  of  the  minor  barons  were  joined  by  those  of  the  municipalities,  the 
term  Commons  was  applied  to  both.  The  Lower  House  was  early  allowed  to 
deal  exclusively  with  questions  of  supply ;  and  seems,  iu  the  reign  of  Kichard  II., 
to  have  established  the  right  to  assign  the  supplies  to  their  proper  uses.  As  the 
Commons  became  more  powerful,  they  came  to  insist  on  the  crown' redressing  their 
grievances  before  they  would  vote  the  supplies.  The  influence  of  parliament  was 
on  the  increase  during  the  I'udor  period,  while  the  reign  of  the  Stewarts  was  char- 
acterised by  a  strugg^  for  supremacy  lH'tW<^u  the. parliament  and  the  crown,  each 
itriviug  to  ucquicu  the  control  of  the  mllitury  force  of  the  country.    The  powe^' 


y  Google 


Parliament 


790 


the  different  estntes  came  to  be  more  shnrjily  defined  at  the  Rcvolntlon  of  1688» 
Itineteen  years  later,  ou  the  Union  with  bcotlund,  the  Purlianient  of  England  was 
merged  into  that  of  Great  Britain. 

Li  its  early  history,  prior  to  the  War  of  Independence,  the  Parliament  of  Scotland 
had  probably  not  been  very  nnlJke  that  of  Bogfaud:  it  assembled  without  warrant, 
and  consisted  of  bishops,  eurl9,  prioi's,  abbot:^,  and  barons.  At  the  ckn^  of  the  181 U 
c,  the  constitutional  history  of  Scotland  diverges  from  that  of  England.  The  ad- 
dition of  the  burghs  to  the  national  couiicil  seems  to  date  from  the  beginning  of  ili» 
14th  c,  but  it  was  not  till  much  later  that  the  lesser  barons  began  to  be  excraptc d 
from  attendance.  The  firnt  act  excusing  tliem  belongs  to  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and 
allows  them  to  choose  representatives  called  S[>eMkers,  two  for  each  county,  except- 
iufirsome  small  counties,  wliich  were  to  liave  but  one,  the  exi^nses  of  the  represent- 
atives being  defrayed  by  the  constituency.  The  Scottish  Parliament  wa.**  never, 
like  the  Engliiih,  divided  into  two  Houses  ;'all  sat  in  one  hall,  and  though  it  consisted 
of  three  eettates,  a  g^ioral  nnmercial  majority  of  memt)ers  was  considered  siifSclL-nt 
to  carry  a  measure.  Tlie  greater  part  of  the  business  was  transacted  by  the  Lords 
of  the  Ariicles,  a  committee  named  by  the  parliament  at  tlie  begiiniing  of  each  sos- 
siou,  to  consider  what  measures  should  be  passed ;  and  whatever  they  recommended 
was  generally  pas-ned  without  discussion.  It  was  never  held  indispensable  that  tho 
p;irliament  should  be  summoned  by  tlie  crown,  and  it  has  even  l)eeu  thou};ht  tliat 
the  royal  assent  to  the  measures  carried  was  not  absolutely  essential.  Tho 
pkirliament  which  carried  the  Reformation  had  no  roval  sanction.  The  Union  wtui 
adjusted  by  commi!»sioiiers  for  eacli  country  pelected  by  the  crown,  and  passed  firsr, 
after  strong  and  protracted  opposition,  tn  Scotland,  and  afterwards  more  easily  iu 
England. 

By  the  act  of  union  with  Ireland  fn^  1800  (Act  39  and  40  Geo.  III.  c  6T),  the  Irish 
Parliament  was  united  with  that  of  Great  Britiin  as  the  Parliainent  of  the  Unit,  d 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  l*arliament  of  Ireland  had  byeu  oritri- 
iially  formed  ou  the  model  of  that  of  England  about  the  close  of  the  IStli  c,  bat  it 
was  merely  the  very  small  portion  of  Ireland  occupied  by  the  English  settlers  that 
was  represented,  which,  as  late  as  thft  tinie  of  Henry  VIl.,  hardly  extended  beyond 
the  counties  of  Dublin,  Louth,  Klldare,  and  Meatb,  and  constituted  what  was  called 
the  Pale.  It  was  only  for  the  last  few  years  of  its  existence  that  the  Irish  Parlia- 
ment was  a  supreinejogishiture ;  the  Euglish  Parliament  havinir,  down  to  1793,  had 
power  to  legislate  ior  Ireland.  By  one  of  the  provisions  of  Poyning*s  Act,  passed 
In  1495,  no  legislative  proposals  could  be  made  to  the  Iri5»h  P-arliament  until  they  h;id 
received  the  sanction  of  the  kin;yr  and  council  In  England.  Act  28  Geo.  IlL  c  28 
gave  the  Irish  Parliament  exclusive  authority  to  legislate  for  Ireland,  and  the  abuse 
of  this  power  so  obstructed  the  machinery  of  goveriunent,  as  to  render  tlie  Union  of 
18(K)  matter  of  necessity. 

The  power  of  parliatnent  is,  according  to  Sir  Edward  Coke,  so  f  rnn?cendent  and 
absolute,  that  it  cannot  be  confined  either  for  persons  or  causes  within  any  bouuils. 
All  remedies  which  transcend  the  ordinary  courts  of  law  are  within  its  reach.  It  can 
alter  the  succession  to  the  throne,  the  constitution  of  the  kingdom  and  the  con- 
stitution of  parliament  itself.  It  has  its  own  law,  to  ba  learned  from  the  rolls  and 
records  of  parliament,  andby  precedents  and  experience.  One  of  the  most  thoroughly 
established  maxims  of  this  law  is,  that  whatever  question  arises  concerning  either 
House  of  Parliament  ought  to  be  discussed  and  adjudged  there,  and  not  elsewhere. 
The  House  of  Lords  will  not  allow  the  Commons  to  interfere  in  a  question  rcL'ard- 
ing  an  election  of  a  Scotch  or  Irish  peer ;  the  Commons  will  not  allow  the  Lords 
to  judge  of  the  validity  of  the  election  of  a  member  of  their  House,  nor  will  either 
House  permit  courts  of  hvw  to  examine  such  cases.  The  authority  c)f  parliament 
extends  to  British  colonies  and  foreign  possessions.  In  the  ordinary  course  of  gov- 
ernment, however,  parliament  does  not  make  laws  for  the  colonies.  For  some  the 
Queen  in  Council  l^islates;  others  have  legislatures  of  their  own,  which  propound 
laws  for  their  internal  government,  subject  to  tlie  approbation  of  the  Queen  iu 
Comicil ;  but  these  may  be  repealed  And  amended  by  parliament 

The  constituent  parts  of  piirl lament  are  the  sovereign,  th^  House  of  Lords,  an4 
the  House  of  Commons.  In  the  soveieign  is  vested  the  wholtt  executive  power :  tlie 
crown  is  also  the  fountain  of  justice,  from  whence  the  whole  judicial  authoritv  flows. 
To  the  crown  is  euirusttd  the  peimaueut  duty  of  government,  to  be  fuifilied  in  ac- 


y  Google 


791 


Parliament 


cordatice  with  the  law  of  the  ronlm,  and  by  the  ndvfce  of  ministers  refponsiblo  to 
purlianietit.  The  sovereign  is  also  invested  with  the  character  of  the  represeutation 
of  the  majesty  of  the  htate.  The  sovereign's  share  in  the  legislature  iuchides 
the  sninnioniiiff,  pronging,  and  dissohing  of  parliament  Parliament  can 
only  at«pemble  by  act  of  the  K>vereign;  in  bnt  two  iii{>tauces  have  the  Loixls 
and  ConimouB  met  of  their  own  anthority— viz.,  previously  to  the 
Restoration  of  Charles  II.,  and  at  the  Convention  Pnrliament  summoned  at  the 
Revolution  of  1688 ;  and  in  both  instances  it  was  considered  i)ece>'sary  afterwards 
tapasH  an  act  declaring  the  parliament  to  be  a  legal  one.  Though  the  queen  mry 
determine  the  period  for  assembling  parliament,  her  prerogative  is  ree>trained  within 
certain  limits.  She  is  bound  by  statute  (16  Chas.  II.  c  1 ;  and  6  and  7  Will,  iind 
Maiy  c.  2)  to  issue  writs  within  three  years  after  the  determination  of  a  parliament ; 
and  the  pnictice  of  voting  money  for  the  public  service  by  annual  enactments,  ren- 
ders it  compulsory  for  the  sovereign  to  meet  parliament  every  year.  Act  43  Geo.  III. 
c  90  provides  that  tlui  sovereign  shall  assemble  parliament  within  fourteen  days, 
whenever  the  piilitia  shall  he  drawn  out  and  embodied  in  case  of  apprelierded  inva- 
sion and  rebellion  ;  and  a  similar  proviso  is  inserted  in  Act  16  ano  16  Vict  c.  60.  in 
case  the pnsent  militia  force slionld  be  raised  to  120,000  men,  and  embodied.  The 
royal  assent  is  necessary  before  any  measnre  can  pass  into  law.  The  crown,  as  the 
executive  power,  is  charged  with  the  maua^'ement  of  the  revenues  of  the  state,  and 
with  all  paynients  for  the  public  semce ;  it  is  therefore  the  crown  that  makes  known 
to  the  Commons  the  jiecnniary  necessities  of  the  government,  without  which  no 
Bni)]}lies  can  be  granted.  The  sovereign's  prerogative  also  includes  the  fending  and 
receiving  of  aniouHsadors,  entering  into  treaty  with  foreign  powers,  and  declaring 
war  or  peace.  Ail  the  kings  and  queens  siiK-e  the  Revolution  have  taken  an  oath  at 
their  coronation  **  to  govern  according  to  the  statutes  in  parliament  agreed  on,  and 
the-4aw8  and  customs  of  the  same."  Tiie  sovereign  is  further  bound  to  an  adherence 
to  the  Protestant  faitl>,  i»nd  the  maintenance  of  the  Protestant  religion  as  established 
by  law.  By  the  Bill  of  Itights  (1  Will,  and  Mary  c.  2,  s.  6),  and  the  Act  of  Settle- 
ment (12  and  18  Will.  III.  c  2,  s.  2)  a  person  professing  the  popish  religion,  or  mar- 
rying-a  papist,  is  incai>able  of  inheriting  the  crown,  and  the  peopje  are  absolved 
from  their  allegiance.  This  exclusion  is  further  confirmed  by  tlie  Act  of  Union  with 
Scotland ;  and  in  addition  to  the  coronation  oath,  every  king  or  queen  is  required  to 
take  the  declaration  against  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Chnrch  prescribed 
by  80  Chas.  II.  c.  2,  cither  on  the  throne  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  the  presence  of 
both  Houses,  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  first  parliament  after  the  accession,  or  at 
the  coronation,  whichever  event  shall  firj*t  happen.  'J'be  sovereign  is  lM>uiid  by  simi- 
lar sanctions  to  maintain  the  Protestant  religion  and  Presbyterian  church  govern- 
ment in  Scotland. 

The  province  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament  Is  to  legislate  with  the  crown,  to  pi"d- 
▼ide  supplies,  to  exercise  a  snpervipion  <tver  the  ministers  of  the  crown  and  all  other 
functionaries,  and  to  advise  the  sovereign  on  matters  of  pnltlic  moment  The  Upper 
House,  from  Its  Itereditaiy  and  aristocratic  character,  is  a  check  on  the  popular 
branch  of  the  legislature  and  on  hasty  legislation. 

The  House  of  Lords  may  originate  legishitivc  measures  of  all  kinds,  excej)t 
money-bills.  Acts  of  grace  and  bills  affectfiigthe  rights  of  peers  must  originate  m 
this  House.  In  its  judicial  capacity,  defined  by  the  Appellate  JuriE^iction  Ac4, 
1876,  it  forms  a  court  of  final  appeal  from  Her  Majesty's  Court  of  Appeal  in  Eul'- 
land,  from  the  Com't  of  Sespion,  Scotland,  and  the  superior  courts  of  law  and  equity 
of  Ireland.  It  has  a  judicature  in  claims  of  peei'age  and  offices  of  honor  under  ref- 
erence fiom  tlje  crown.  Since  the  union  with  Scotland  and  Ireland,  it  has  had  the 
power  of  deciding  disputed  elections  of  represent^itive  peers.  It  tries  oflfendci-s  im- 
peached'by  the  Honse  of  Commons,  and  members  of  its  own  body  on  indictment 
found  by  a  grand  jury.  The  Honse  of  Lords  is  composed  of  lords  spivltnal  and 
temporaL  According  to  a  declanition  of  tlie  Honse  in  1672,  the  lords  spiritual  are 
only  lords  of  parliament  and  not  pters,  a  distinction-  which  seems  not  to  have  been 
known  in  ancient  times.  They  consist  of  2  archinshops  and  24  bishops  for  England, 
who  are  said  to  have  seats  in  virtue  of  their  temporal  baronies.  (By  the  act  of  1669, 
tlie  Irish  Chur'-h,  which  formerly  pent  4  bishops,  is  no  longer  represents  d.)  'J  luj 
Bisliep  of  Sodor  and  Man  has  no  seat  in  parliament,  and  on  Manchester  being  mado 
a  Bcc  iu  1647,  it  was  urruiijied  that  one  other  bishop  should  be  iu  the  same  position, 


y  Google 


Parliament 


792 


according  to  a  rotation  not  Including  the  bisliops  of  London,  Dnrbam,  and  Win- 
chester, i^o  a*  not  to  inerejise  the  iimul)or  of  the  lords  spiritliaL  The  lords  temporal 
tonMst  of— 1.  The  \ieen  of  England,  of  Qi-eat  Britain,  and  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
of  whom  tJiere  were,  in  1876,  5  nrinces  of  the  royal  blood,  21  dukee,  17  marquises, 
li>9  carls,  S4  visconnis,  and  *^82D:iron8.  The  unniber  of  the  peers  of  the  United 
Kingdom  may  be  increased  without  limit  by  new  creations  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
eovcreigi).  2.  Sixteen  representatives  chosen  from  their  own  body  by  the  peers  of 
Scothnifl  for  each  parliament.  As  no  provision  was  made  at  the  Union  for  any  snb- 
poqnont  creation  of  Scottish  peers,  the  peerage  of  Scotland  consists  exclusively  of 
tho  descendants  of  i)eer8  existing  l>efore  the  Union.  By  order  of  the  House  of  Lords, 
an  authentic  list  of  the  Scottish  peem  was  entered  on  the  roll  of  peers  on  IStb  Peb- 
rnary  1708,  to  which  all  claims  since  eshtblished  have  been  added;  and  in  order  to 
prevent  the  assnniption  of  dormant  and  extinct  peerages  by  persons  not  having  riglit 
to  them,  statute  10  and  11  Vict.  c.  52,  provides  that  no  title  standing  hi  the  roll,  in 
ilg'it  of  which  no  vote  has  been  given  since  1800,  shall  be  caUed  over  at  an  election 
wirhont  an  order  of  the  House  of  Lords.  3.  Twenty-eight  representatives  of  the 
Irish  |)eerage,  elected  for  lite.  Moat  peerages  are  still  hereditary.  Life  peerages  were 
in  eariy  times  not  unknown  to  the  constitution ;  bnt.  in  1866,  Her  Majt-sty  having 
creatwl  Lord  Wensleydale  a  peer  for  life,  the  House  of  Lords  decided  he  could  not 
sit  and  vote.  Bnr  in  1876.  peers  to  sit  as  mem1)era  of  t'le  House  \vl»ile  they  held  the 
office  of  Lords  of  Api>eal  in  Ordinary— i.  e.,  for  judicial  business,  but  on  ceasing  to 
act  as  judges  to  l)e  peers  no  longer — were  ci-eateil  by  statute.  The  House  lias  also 
power  to  call  to  its  assistance  in  legal  and  constitutional  questions  the  judges  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Jndicatare  of  all  the  four  divisions,  who  advise  what  should  be 
done.  The  House  has  power  also  to  sit  for  judicial  business  diuring  the  prorogation 
of  parliament  The  votes  of  spiritual  and  temporal  lords  are  interudxed,  and  the 
joint  majority  determine  every  question  ;  bnt  they  sit  apart  on  separate  l>enches— 
the  place  assii^netl  to  the  lords  spiritual  beinsr  the  upper  part  of  the  House  on  the 
right  hand  of  the  tiiroue.  A  lord  uniy,  by  license  from  the  sovereign,  appoint  an- 
other lord  as  his  proxy  to  vote  for  him  in  his  absence;  bnt  a  lord  s^niltnal  can  only 
be  proxy  for  a  lord  spnitual,  and  a  lord  temporal  for  a  lord  temporal,  and  no  mem- 
ber of  the  House  can  hold  more  than  two  proxies  at  the  same  time.  Proxies  cannot 
vole  in  judicial  questions  or  iu  committees  of  the  whole  House.  There  are  other 
rnlfs  and  restrictions  incident  to  the  right  of  vote  by  jiroxy ;  a  Lords*  committee  iu 
1867  reported  that  the  practice  of  using  proxies  should  be  discontinued,  bnt  no  altera- 
tion to  the  rules  was  agreed  to.  Peerages  are  lost  by  attainder  for  high  trensnn. 
Neither  the  issne  of  the  body  of  the  person  attainted,  nor,  on  their  failure,  the  de- 
Bcei.dants  of  the  person  firet  called  1o  the  dignity,  will  be  admitted  to  it  \vithont  a 
reniov.il  of  the  attjiluder.  But  where  the  attainted  )>cr8on  is  tenant  in  talKmaie,  willi 
a  remainder  iu  tail-male  to  another,  thp  dignity  becomes  vested  in  the  remainder 
man  on  failure  of  tlie  issue  of  the  person  attainted.  A  peerage,  whether  by  imtent 
or  writ,  is  forfeited  by  attainder  for  high  treason  ;  attainder  for  felony  forfeits  a 
peerage  by  writ,  not  one  by  patent  An  attainted  i)eeiage  cannot  be  restored  by  the 
crown,  only  by  an  act  of  parliament. 

The  House  of  Commons,  besides  its  general  power  to  introduce  legislative  meas- 
ures, has  the  sole  right  to  orifrinate  bills  levying  taxes,  or  affecting  the  public  income 
and  expenditure,  and  to  examine  into  the  valiitity  of  elections  to  Its  own  body.  The 
question  whether  it  has  any  control  over  the  rights  of  electors  was  the  subjt'ct  of  a 
memoral)le  contest  between  the  Lords  and  Commons  in  1704,  iu  the  cases  of  Ashby 
and  White,  and  of  the  '*  Aylesbury  men  "  (••  Hatsell's  Precedents,"  vol.  ili.),  a  con- 
test ended  by  the  queen  proroguing  parliament.  When  inquiring  itito  the  conflict- 
ing claims  of  candidtites  for  seats  in  parliament,  the  Comuions  have  an  nndonbtf^ 
gower  to  determine  whether  electors  have  the  right  to  vote.  The  House  of  Commons 
as  the  riglit  to  expel  or  commit  to  prison  its  own  members,  and  to  commit  other 
persons  who  offend  by  breach  of  Its  privileges,  contempt  of  its  authority,  dipOl>edi- 
enc&of  Its  orders,  or  invasion  of  its  rights;  but  this  power  is  limited  to  the  dura- 
tion of  the  ffession.  Expulsion  does  not,  however,  create  any  disability  to  serve 
again  in  parliament.  Tlie  House  of  Commons  has  also  the  nower  of  imi)euciiing 
offender.*,  who,  however,  are  tried  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords. 

The   number  of   niemlwrs   of   the  House  of   Commons  has  varied  greatly  at 
different   times.    In   the  reign  q£  Edward  L   it  seems  to  have   been  276;   in 


y  Google 


793 


Farliament 


that  or  fidward  m.,  250 ;  jwd  of  Henry  VI,,  3Q(r.  In  the  refgn  of  Hei;ry 
VIIL,  27  luenibera  were  added  foi*  Wtilcks,  und  4  for  t^e  coaniy  and  city  of 
Chester;  4  were  added  for  tlie  coimty  and  city  of  Durham  in  the  reign  of  Chiirles  11; 
,  Between  the  reign  of  Henry  VI II.  and  that  of  Charles  II.»  180  new  members  were 
addtd  by  the  granting  of  royal  chnrtere  to  boronghs  which  had  not  previously  re- 
turned repref^entntivep.  Foriy-flve  menibei-s  were  assigned  as  her  proportion  lo 
Scotland  at  the  Union,  and  100  to  Ireland,  making  the  whole  number  of  memltei^  of 
the  House  of  Commons  of  the  Unite<l  Kingdom  658.  The  Reform  Acts  of  1832,  2 
WiU.  IV.  c.  45  tor  Buglaud,  2  and  3  Will.  IV.  c.  65  (amended  by  4  and  5  Will.  IV.  «-.. 
88,  and  5  and  6  Will.  IV.  c.  78)  for  Scotland,  and  2  and  3  Will.  IV.  c.  88  for  Irehunl, 
while  leaving  onuliered  the  whole  number  of  members  of  the  House  of  Commonp, 
made  great  changes  in  the  distribution  of  their  seats.  Fifjy-six  boroughs  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales  were  entirely  disfranchised ;  30  which  had  previoui-ly  returued  two 
members  were  restricted  to  one ;  while  42  new  boroughs  were  created,  of  which  22 
were  each  to  return  two  members,  and  20  a  single  member.  Several  small  boroughs 
in  Wales  were  united  to  elect  one  menil)er.  Four  membei-s  were  assigned  to  the 
city  of  London,  2  to  each  of  tho  nniverfiiies  of  Oxford  and  Cnnibridge,  and  1  to  133 
cities  and  boroughs.  The  number  of  nienibt*r8  for  Scotland  was  increased  from  45 
to  53,  30  being  county  and  23  borough  members,  some  of  the  latter  reprt'senting 
Several  comlSijied  borough.-.  The  number  of  members  for  Ireland  wat*  in- 
creae-ed  from  100  to  1C5,  64  represenling  counties*,  54  cities  and  boroughs, 
and  2  the  University  of  Dublin.  Further  extensive  changes  jn  the  dis- 
iribution  of  seats  wore  made  by  the  recent  Kefonn  Acta  of  1867  and 
1868,  30  and  31  Vict.  c.  102  for  England,  and  31  and  32  Vict.  c.  48  for  Scotland.  The 
English  act  deprived  of  its  second  member  each  borough  of  less  than  10,000  in- 
habiiants,  and  altogethirdisfriinchisrd  seven  borouirhs,  giving 45  seats  for  re-dis- 
tribuiion,  of  which  25  wi  re  given  to  the  larger  counties, -11  to  new  boroughs,  8  to 
borrough*«  already  repnsenied,  and  one  to  the  University  of  London.  The  Scotch 
act  united  the  counties  of  Selkirk  and  Peebles  into  one  constituency;  gave  a  mem- 
ber to  I  he  universities  gf  Edinburgh  and  St  Andrews,  and  another  to  the  universi- 
ties of  Glas-gow  and  Aberdeen,  a  second  member  to  each  of  the  counties  of  Lanark, 
Ayr,  and  Alxjrdeen,  and  lo  ihetown  of  Dundee,  and  a  third  member  to  Glasgow; 
and  constituted  Hawick,  G.dashiels,  and  Selkirk  into  a  new  distnctof  l>oroughs; 
the  seven  new  seals  required  being  provided  for  by  a  further  disfranchisement  of 
small  English  boroughs.  The  Irish  Refonn  Act,  31  and  82  Vict.  c.  49,  made  no 
change  iif  the  disiribution  of  seats.  The  whole  ntimber  of  658  seats  was  thus  left 
unalt«red,  but  li'C  ditfrancljisonient  of  two  Engli«ih  and  two  Irish  boroughs  for 
bribry  has  since  reduced  the  number  to  652,  which  are  thus  aii^tributed : 

Counties.  Boroughs.  .  Universities.  I'otal. 

England  and  Wales 187                 '295                       6  48T 

Scotland 32                    26                         2    ^  60 

Iieland 64                    39                         2  1()5 

283  360  9  652 

In  English  counties,  prior  to  the  act  of  1832,  the  electoral  quiUiflcation  was 
founded  on  the  holding  of  freehold  property  of  the  yeai'ly  value  of  40«.  :  by  that  act 
'*  everv  pereon  who  at  tlie  d.ite  was  St-ised  for  his  own  life  and  that  of  another,  or  for 
any  lives  whatever,  of  n40s.  freehold,  or  who  might  be  seised  subsequently  to  the 
act  if  in  occupation,  or  who  might  come  into  such  freehold  estate  by  marriajre, 
mai-riaiie-settlement,  device,  or  promotion  to  any  benefice  or  ofllce,  could  still  vote 
as  a  freeholder ;  but  a  person  not  included  in  these  classes,  acquiring  a  freehold 
subsequently  to  the  act,  had  only  the  franchise  when  it  was  of  the  clear  yearly  value 
of  jCIO,  which  value  was  reduced  to  £5  by  the  act  of  1867.  Copyholders  holding  an 
estate  of  XIO  a  year,  leaseholders  of  tiiai  value  whose  leases  were  originally  granted 
for  60  yews,  leaseholdere  of  £50  with  20  years'  leases,  and  tenants  at  will  occupying 
iands  or  tenements  paying  a  rent  of  £50,  had  the  franchise  under  the  act  of  18;-{2; 
and  the  act  of  1867  reduced  the  franchise  of  copyholders  and  leaseholders  from  £10 
to  £5,  and  the  occupation  franchise  from  £50  to  £12.  In  boroughs,  the  old  qnaliti- 
cation  vaded  according  to  local  usage,  and  some  of  the  ancient  rights,  as  tliat  of 
freemen,  were  retained  in  1SB2,  wlieu  the  franchise  was  bestowed  ou  all  occupiers 


y  Google 


FarUament 


794 


Of  lionseB  of  jCIO  yeai^y  valne.  The  act  of  186T  oxfeoded  the  horoneh  francliiae  to 
all  occnpiers  of  dwelJiiijj-liou8c8  who  have  resided  for  13  monrha  ou  the  Slst  of  July 
In  any  year,  and  have  been  rated  to  the  poor-rates  us  ordinary  occnpiers,  aad  have, 
ou  or  before  the  20th  July,  paid  such  ratee  up  to  the  preceding  6th  January,  and  to 
lodgers  who  have  occupied  for  the  same  ptMiml  lodging  of  the  annual  vaJoe,  nn- 
f  nrniflhed,  of  .£12.  In  Scotland,  the  old  county  qualification  consisted  in  being  iufeft 
in  lands  or  superiorities  holding  directly  of  tf»e  crown  of  40».  old  extent  (see  Valu- 
ation), or  jC400  Scots  valued  rent :  and  the  Scoteh  act  of  1832  reserved  the  rights 
of  persons  theu  on  the  roll  of  freeholders,  or  entitled  to  be  pat  on  it^  and  extend;^^ 
the  franchise  to  all  owners  of  property  of  the  clear  yearly  value  of  £^0,  and  to  cer- 
tain classes  of  leaseholders.  By  the  act  of  1868,  the  county  franchise  was  fortiter 
extfende<l  to  proprietors  of  lands  of  £6  yearly  value,  and  occupiers  of  the  rateable 
valne  of  je20.  The  Scottish  bnrghal  franchise  had,  prior  to  1832,  been  vested  in  the 
town-councils:  the  act  of  1832  substituted  a  XIO  household  franchise,  and  that  of 
1868  conferred  the  franchise  on  all  occupiers  of  houses  paying  rates. 

By  the  Irish  Reform  Act  of  1832,  various  classes  of  freeholders  were  invested  with 
the  county  franchise,  to  whom  were  added,  by  18  and  14  Vict.  c.  60,  occupiers  of  laud 
rated  for  the  poor-rate  at  a  net  animal  value  of  jC12.  and  persons  entitled  to  estates  in 
fee,  or  in  tail. or  for  life,  of  the  rated  value  of  £5,  The  Irish  borough  gualificatiou  was 
nearly  the  same  as  the  English,  but  the  above-mentioned  statute  of  Victoria  added  to 
the  constituency  the  occupiers  of  lands  and  premises  rat»d  at  £S.  Tl»e  act  of  1868 
made  no  change  in  the  county  qualification,  but  gave  the  borough  franchise  to  occu- 
piers of  houses  rated  at  £4,  and  of  loilgings  of  tlie  annual  value  of  jCIO  nnfnmislied. 
Certain  disqualifications  exist  from  exercising  the  franchise  on  thegrouudsof  infamy, 
alienage,  conviction  of  felony,  and  the  holding  of  government  ofloces*  Peers  cannot 
vote.  In  the  universities  of  Cambridg<!  and  Oxford,  the  constituency  consists  of  the 
doctors  and  masters  of  in*ts ;  in  Dublin,  of  the  fellows,  scliolars,  and  gradnaies 
of  Trinity  College.  In  London  University,  the  graduates  form  the  constituency  ;  in 
the  Scotch  universities,  the  ciiancellor,  the  members  of  the  university  courts,  the  |at)- 
fessors,  and  the  members  of  general  council.  Under  the  acta  of  186T  and  1868,  in 
London,  where  four  members  are  returned,  each  elector  has  only  three  votes ;  and  iu 
(ilasgo\v,  which  returns  three  members,  each  elector  ims  but  two  votes. 

Tlie  Keform  Acts  of  1832  introduced  a  system  of  registration  of  voters  for  the 
three  divisions  of  the  United  Kingdom.  In  ^Bnglaud,  lists  of  voters  are  prepared  by 
the  overeeers  of  each  parish,  and  on  ceitiiin  days  courts  are  held  by  barristers  ap- 
pointed by  the  chief-justice  and  the  senior  judge  of  each  summer  circuit  to  n^vise 
these  li^ts,  when  claims  may  be  made  for  persons  omitted,  and  objections  offered  to 
names  standing  on  the  list.  If  an  objection  be  sustained,  the  name  is  struck  off  the 
list,  there  being  an  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  revising  barrister  to  the  Court 
of  Common  Pleas,  In  Scotland,  a  register  of  persons  entitled  to  vote  is  made  up 
animally  iu  counties  and  boroughs  in  terms  ot  the  Kegistratiou  of  Voters  (Scotland) 
Act,  24  and  25  Vict.  c.  23,  which  register  is  printed,  and  may  be  bad  for  a  ginall 
price.  Voters  are  thus  put  on  the  roll  without  trouble  to  themselves,  and,  in  point 
of  fact,  without  their  consent  Enrolment,  however,  may  \>e  challenged,  in  >vhich 
case  ol)jections  are  heard  and  determined  by  the  sheriffs,  subject  (under  the  act  of 
1868)  to  appeal  to  a  tribunal  composed  of  three  judges  of  the  Court  of  Seissioij. 
The  registration  system  of  Ireland  introduced  by  the  Reform  Act  resembles  that  of 
England;  and  by  16  and  17  Vict.  c.  58,  provision  is  made  for  the  annual  revi&>ion  of  ' 
the  list,  of  voters  for  the  city  of  Dublin. 

A  property  qualiflcationof  £600  a  year  in  candidates  for  counties,  luid  jESOO  in 
candidates  for  boroughs,  which  had  previously  existed  in  England  and  Ireland,  was 
loft  untouched  in  1831,  but  has  been  alwlisned  by  21  and  22  Vict.  c.  26.  Scott-h 
peers,  though  not  representative  peei-s,  are  disqualified  from  sitting  in  the  House 
of  Commons.  Iris?h  peere  may  represent  any  constituency  in  Grreat  Britain,  but  not 
iu  Ireland.  A  disqnaliflcation  is  also  attjiched  to  judges  (except  the  Master  of  tlie 
Kolls),  clergymen  of  the  Established  Church  of  any  oi  the  three  kingdoms,  Roman 
Catholic  priests,  revenue  officers,  persons  convicted  of  treason  and  felony,  and 
aliens  even  when  iinturahsed,  unless  the  right  have  been  conceded  in  express  terms. 
Sheriffs  cannot  sit  for  their  own  counties,  and  government  contractors  are  disquali- 
fied, a  disqualification  which  does  not  extend  to  contractors  for  government  loiUiS. 
A  membttr  bucouuns  J^ftxUuiiptift  iucaoacitated  from  sitting  or  voting. 


y  Google 


795 


Parliament 


When  a  Dew  parimmeiit  has  to  be  assembled,  the  Lord  Chancellor,  by  order  of 
the  sovereign,  directs  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown  to  prepare  nnd  issue,  under  the  Great 
St'al.  writs  to  the  sheriffs  t)f  counties,  both  for  the  counties  and  the  boronghs.  A 
slieiiff,  on  receiving  l  he  writ  for  ii  county,  nppoints  a  day  for  the  election,  and  by  the 
practice  prior  to  tlie  Ballot  Act,  1872  (86  and  36  Vict.  c.  88),  on  the  day  fixed,  he  pro- 
claimed the  writ.  If  no  more  candidates  wertr  then  projwsed  than  were  to  be  elected, 
IjcTleclaired  them  duly  elected ;  if  there  wiis  opjKwitlon,  a  sJiow  of  hands  was  asked, 
•and  the  sheriff  declared  who  had  the  majority.  If  a  poll  was  demanded  by  the  oppo- 
site party,  the  electiOD  was  itdjoumed.  The  electors  of  each  district  voted  at  their 
several  polling-places,  and  at  the  termination  of  the  poll,  the  return  ,was  trnnsraitt«^d 
to  the  sheriff,  who  proclaimed  the  succesnful  candidate.  In  borough  elections  in 
England  and  Ireland;  the  sheriff,  on  receiving  the  writ,  issued  his  precept  to  the 
returning  officer  of  the  hiunicipalitv,  who  superintended  the  election ;  in  Scotland, 
the  sheriff  himself  sni)erin tended  the  Iwrongh  as  well  as  the  connty  elections.  T!)<p 
names  of  the  persons  elected,  both  in  counties  and  boroughs,  wire  returned  by  the 
Bheriff  to  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown.  The  candidates  are  now  nominated  by  a  writing 
signed  by  two  electoi-s,  as  proposer  and  seconder,  and  eight  others  as  consenting, 
and  delivered  to  the  returning  officer ;  if  on  expiry  of  an  hour  from  the  time  fixed, 
there  are  more  candidates  than  vacancies,  the  election  is  adjourned,  and  n  poll  taken. 
The  vote  is  given  by  Bailot  (q.  v.),  and  the  result  announced  by  the  retnrnnig  officer, 


ft 


and  returned  to  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown  in  Chanctiy.  Vacancies  occurring  after  a 
^'neral  election  are  supplied  by  new  writs  issued  by  authority  of  the  House.  When 
t  is  determined  that  a  writ  shotild  be  amended,  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown  is  ordered  to 
attend  the  House,  and  amend  it  accordingly. 

A  member  of  the  House  of  Commons  cannot,  in  theory,  resign  his  seat;  but  on 
the  acceptance  of  airy  office  of  profit  under  the  crown,  his  election  is,  by  an  act  of 
Queene  Anne,  declared  void,  and  a  new  writ  issues,  he  being,  however,  eligible  for. 
re-election.  By  the  Reform  Act  of  1867,  members  who  already  hold  certain  offices 
do  not  vacate  their  seats  on  the  acceptance  of  certain  other  offices  enumerated,  the 
list  seenjingly  comprehending  all  offices  usually  held  by  members.  The  resignation 
of  office  islield  not  to  be  complete  until  the  appointment  of  a  successor;  ana  on  the 
resnmption  of  office,  the  seat  is  held  not  to  have  hevn  vacated.  A  first  commission 
in  the  army  or  navy  vacates  a  seat ;  subsequent  commissions  do  not  do  so.  A  mem- 
ber wishing  to  resign  usually  applies  for  the  stewardship  of  the  Chillem  Hun- 
dreds (q.  v.). 

Privilege. — Both  Houses  of  Parliament  possess  extensive  privileges  for  the  main- 
tenance of  their  autliority  and  the  protection  of  individual  members.  Some  of  these 
privilegej*  have  well-defined  limits ;  others  are  so  vague  in  their  extent  as  occasionally 
to  lead  to  conflicts  between  pariiament  and  the  courts  of  law.  The  privilege  of 
B|>eech  is  claimed  of  the  sovereign  by  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons 
nt  the  opening  of  every  new  parliament  At  the  same  time,  any  member  using  of- 
fensive expressions  nmy  l>e  called  to  the  bar  to  receive  a  reprimand  from  the 
S|)eaker;  or.  If  the  offence  be  grave,  may  be  committed  for  contempt,  in  which 
case  he  is  sent  eitiier  to  the  Tower  or  to  Newgate.  Persons  not  members  of  the 
House  may  also  be  committed  for  breach  of  privilege,  and  no  one  committed  for 
contempt  can  be  admitted  to  ball,  nor  can  the  cause  of  commitment  be  inquired  into 
by  the  court43  of  law.  The  publication  ol  the  debates  of  either  House  has  repeatedly 
been  declared  a  breach  of  privilege ;  but  for  a  long  time  back  this  privilege  has  been 
practically  waived,  except  where  the  reports  are  false  and  jiervei-ted.  Publication 
of  the  evidence  before  a  select  committee  previously  to  its  being  reported  is  pun- 
ished as  a  breach  of  privilege.  Libellous  reflections  on  the  character  and  proceed- 
ings of  parliament  or  of  members  of  the  House,  come  imder  the  same  category,  as  - 
also  does  assaulting  or  threatening  a  memljer.  Wilful  disol)edience  to  the  orders  of 
the  House  is  punishable  as  a  breach  of  piivilege ;  but  if  orders  be  given  beyond  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  House,  their  enforcement  may  be  questioned  ni  a  court  of  law. 
Q'he  offer  of  a  bribe  to,  or  its  acceptance  by  a  member  is  a  breach  of  privilege  ;  so 
also  is  any  interference  with  the  officers  of  the  House  in  the  execution  of  their  duty, 
or  tampering  with  witnesses  who  are  to  be  examined  before  the  House,  or  a  com- 
mittee of  the  House.  Members  of  both  Houses  are  free  from  arrest  or  imprisonment 
in  civil  matters,  a  privilege  which  is  permanent  in  tJie  case  of  peers,  extending  also 
to  peeresses,  whetlier  by  creation  or  marriage  (though  the  lauer  lose  it  by  suhse- 


y  Google 


Parliam«nt 


^96 


qtiently  mnrn'mg  a  commoner),  ftnd  to  peers  ana  peeresses  of  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
whether  repres?  nrjitlves  or  not  It  contiiines  In  the  case  of  members  of  the  Hons^  ut 
Cofnmons  (luring  the  >«ittiDg  of  purliameiit,  fur  40  dujs  after  e.ich  prorogaiiou.  for 
40  dayH  prior  to  tlie  day  to  which  parliament  is  prorogued,  and  for  a  rea.-ODablc 
time  after  a  dissolntioii.  Witnesset*  snmmoned  to  attend  before  parliament  or  par- 
liamentary comiiiiitees,  and  other  persons  in  attendance  on  the  bubinesa  of  parJia- 
ment,  arc  also  protev  ted  from  arrest.  Protection  is  not  claimable  from  arrest  l«r 
any  iudickible  offence.  Counsel  are  protected  for  any  statements  tliat  they  m:iy 
make  professionally. 

Meeting  of  a  Nno  Parliament.— Ou  the  day  appointed  for  the  meeting  of  a  nt-w  ' 

Farliauient,  the  members  of  tiie  two  Houses  assemble  in  their  respective  cliaml)ers 
n  the  Lords,  the  Lord  Chimcellor  acqnaints  the  House  that  **  ner  Majesty,  not 
thinking  it  tit  to  be  |)ereonal]y  present  here  this  day,  had  been  pleaseil  toe.  use  a 
conmiisslon  lo  be  issued  under  the  Great  Seal,  in  order  to  the  opening  and  lioldinjj 
of  the  .parhament."  The  Lords  Commipsioners,  bein^  in  their  robes,  and  seated 
between  the  throne  and  woolsack,  then  command  ti»e  Genthnnan  Usher  of  tht; 
Bhick  Kod  to  let  the  Commons  know  that  the  "  Lords  Conunisi^ioners  desire  their 
immediate  attendance  in  this  House  to  hear  the'Commission  read.''  Meantime,  in 
the  Lower  House,  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown  in  Chancerj'  lias  delivered  to  the  Clerk  ot 
thrt  House  a  list  of  the  miMiibers  returned  to  serve  ;  and  on  receiving  the  messa<>;e 
from  Black  Kod,  the  Commons  gonplo  the  House  of  Lords.  The  commission 
having  been  Tt-,«d  in  presence  of  the  members  of  both  houses,  the  Lord  ChanceUor 
opens  the  parliament  by  etating  '*  that  her  Majesty  will,  as  soon  as  the  members  i>f 
both  Houses  shall  be  sworn,  declare  the  causes  of  her  calling  this  parliament;  and 
it  being  necessary  that  a  Sj>eaker  of  the  House  of  Connnons  should  first  be  cho»«en, 
that  yon,  gentlemen  of  tiie  Honse  of  Commons,  repair  to  the  pbice  where  you  are  to 
sit,  and  there  proceed  to  the  appointment  of  some  proper  person  as  yonr  Speaker, 
and  that  yon  present  such  person  whom  yon  shall  so  cnooso  here  to-morrow  at 
o'clock,  for  her  Majesty's  royal  approbation."  The  Commons  immediately  with- 
draw, and,  returning  to  their  own  House,  proceed  to  elect  a  Speaker. 

Till  a  speaker  be  elected,  the  clei-k  acta  as  S|jeaker,  standing  and  pointing  to 
members  as  they  rise  to  speak,  and  then  sitting  down.  If  only  one  candidate  be 
proposed  for  the  office,  the  motion,  after  l>eing  seconded,  is  snpporh;d  b^  an  influen- 
tial member,  generjilly  the  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons ;  and  the.meml>er  pr«i- 
posud.  havibg  expressed  his  sense  of  the  honor  meant  to  be  conferred  on  him,  is 
called  by  the  Honse  to  the  chair,  to  which  he  is  lead  by  his  proposer  and  seconder. 
If  another  member  be  proposed  and  seconded,  a  debate  ensues ;  and  at  its  close,  the 
clerk  puts  the  que:'tion,  tliat  the  member  first  proposed  "do  take  the  chair  of  the 
House  as  Speaker."  If  the  House  divide,  he  directs  one  party  to  go  into  the  ii«.'lil 
lobbj',  and  the  other  into  the  left,  and  appoints  two  tellers  for  each.  If  the  majority 
be  in  favor  of  the  member  first  proposed,  he  is  led  to  the  chair;  if  not,  n  similM" 
question  being  put  regarding  the  other  member,  and  tmswered  in  tlie  aflSrmative,  lie 
la  conductecl  to  the  chair.  The  Speaker-elect  exi)resse8  his  thanks  for  the  hf)nor 
conferred  on  him,  and  tikes  his  seat ;  on  which,  the  mace  is  laid  on  the  table,  where 
It  is  always  placed  durin<r  the  sitting  of  the  Honse  with  the  Speaker  in  the  ch.tir. 
He  is  then  congratulated  by  some  leading  member,  and  the  House  adjourns.  The 
next  day,  the  Spetiker-elect.  on  the  arrival  of  Black  Rod,  proceeds  with  the  Com- 
mons to  the  House  of  Lords,  where  his  electhm  is  ai>proved  by  the  Lord  Chancellor. 
Ho  then  lays  claim,  on  behnlf  of  the  Comn»ons,  to  their  ancient  rights  and  privileges, 
■wiilch  being  confirmed,  he  retires  with  the  Commons  from  the  bar.  Nearly  the 
same  forms  are  observed  on  the  election  of  a  new  Speaker,  when  a  vacancy  occui? 
by  death  or  resignation  in  the  course  of  the  session. 

The  members  of  both  Houses  then  take  the  oath  prescribed  by  law.  See  Oath; 
Abjuration.  In  the  Upper  House,  the  Lord  Chancellor  fii-st  takes  the  oath  singly 
at  the  table.  The  Clerk  of  the  Crown  delivers  a  certificate  of  the  return  of  the  Si  ot- 
tiali  representative  peers,  and  Garter  Kinir-:it-arms  the  roll  of  the  lords  lemporal, 
after  wlu'cli  the  lords  present  take  and  subscribe  the  oath.  Peers  who  have  been 
newly  created  by  letters-patent  present  their  patents  to  the  Lord  Chancellor,  art;  in- 
troduced in  their  robes  between  two  other  peers  of  their  own  dignity,, preceded  by 
Black  Rod  and  Garter,  and  conducted  to  their  places.  The  same  ceremony  is  ob- 
served in  the  case  of  peers  who  have  received  a  writ  of  summons— a  formality  ueces- 


y  Google 


797 


Parliament 


Bavy  w6cn  a  iliemTjer  of  the  Lower  Honse  snceeetfs  to  n  peernge :  otlierwiso  his  sent 
does  not  becoino  vacant.  A  bishop  is  introduced  by  two  other  bishops  without  the 
forraalities  observed  with  tenipoi'jd  lords.  Po(?rs  by  descent  have  a  rijjht  to  take 
thdr  i'cnts  without  introduction  ;  peers  by  special  lindtaiion  in  remainder  httv6  to  be 
introduced.  In  the  Commons,  the  S|>CHker  first  subscribes  the  oath,  standing  on  the 
upper  step  of  the  chair,  and  is  followed  by  the  other  members.  Members  on  taking 
the  oath  are  introduced  by  the  Clerk  of  the  House  to  the  Speaker.  Members  re- 
turned on  new  writs  in  tlie  course  of  tlie  session,  afier  taking  the  oath,  are  introducd 
between  two  membi-rs.  They  must  biing  a  certificate  or  their  return  from  the 
Clerk  of  the  Crown.  On  the  demise  of  the  crown,  the  oaths  must  be  taken  anew  in 
both  Houses. 

When  the  greater  part  of  the  members  of  both  Houses  have  been  sworn,  the 
causes  of  calling  the  parliament  are  declared  by  tin:  sovereign  either  in  person  or  by 
conunii'siou.  In  the  former  case,  the  Queen  proceeds  in  state  to  the  House  of  Lords, 
and  conimnnds  Black  Kod  to  let  the  Commons  know  '*  that  it  is  lier  Majesty's  pleas- 
ure tinit  they  attend  her  immediately  in  this  House."  Black  Kod  proceeds  to  the 
House  of  Conmions,  and  formally  commands  their  attendance,  on  which  the  Speaker 
and  the  Commons  go  up  to  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and  the  queen  reads  lier 
speech,  which  is*  delivered  to  her  by  the  Lord  Chancellor  kneeling  on  one  kuee.  Of 
Lite  years  the  pnictice  has  been  revived  of  the  Lord  Chancellor  reading  the  royal 
Bl>e('ch  in  the  Queen's  presence.  When  parliament  is  opened  by  commission,  the 
sovereign  not  being  personally  present,  the  Lord  Chancellor  reads  the  royal  speech 
to  both  Houses.  Immediately  afier  the  royal  speech  is  read,  the  house  is  adjourned 
during  pleasure;  but  both  Houses  are  resumed  in  the  afternoon,  for  the  purpose  of 
voting  an  address  in  answer  to  the  speech  from  the  throne.  In  each  House  it  is  com- 
mon to  begin  business  by  reading  some  bill  pro  forma,  in  order  to  assert  the  right 
of  deliberating  without  reference  to  the  immediate  cause  of, summons.  The  loyal 
speech  is  then  read,  and  an  address  moved  in  answer  to  it.  Two  menjbera  in  liich 
House  are  chosen  by  the  ministry  to  move  and  second  the  address.  The.  prepai'ation 
of  the  address  is  referred  to  a  select  committee ;  it  is  twice  read,  may  be  amended, 
and  when  finally  agreed  on.  it  is  ordered  to  be  presented  to  her  Majesty. 

Aifjovrnmeiit,  PrbrogatfoT},  and  Ih'sftohUion. — Adjournment  of  parliament  is  but 
the  continuMUce  of  the  session  from  one  day  to  another.  Either  House  may  adjourn 
SH>'-iratHy  on  its  own  authority,  with  this  restri  ti  on,  introduced  by  Act  39  .-md  40 
Geo.  Ill  c.  14,  that  the  sovereign,  with  advice  of  the  privy  council,  may  issue  a 
l»roclamatlon  a()i>oin.ting  prirliament  to  meet  within  not  less  than  14  days,  notwith- 
standing an  aaj6uVnm(!nr  l)eyond  that  period.  On  reas^emblijig,  tlie  House  can 
airain  tiike  up  business  which  was  left  unfinished.  A  prorogation  difl:ers  from  an 
adjouniment  in  this  respect,  that  it  not  merely  suspends  all  business,  but  quaslies 
ali  proceedings  in:pcnding  at  the  lime,  exc<'pt  impeachments  by  the  Commons,  and 
appeals  and  writs  of  error  in  the  Lords.  Willi:im  III.  prorogued  parliament  frcmi 
.'Jlst  Octwlierto  23d  October  1689,  in  order  to  renew  the  Bill  of  Rights,  regnrding 
which  a  difference  had  arisen  between  the  two  Houses  that  was  fatal  to  its  progress. 
It  being  a  rule  that  a  bill  of  tl»e  same  substance  cannot  be  introduced  twice  in  the 
siame  session,  a  prorogation  has  sometimes  been  resorted  to,  to  enable  a  second  bill 
to  be  brought  in.  Parliament  can  onlj  be  prorogued  by  the  sovereign ;  and  this  may 
be  done  by  having  her  connnnnd  signified  in  her  presence  by  the  Lord  Chancellor  to 
both  Hou.«es,  by  writ  under  the  Great  Seal,  by  commission,  or  by  proclamation.  Till 
recently,  a  proclamation  for  the  prorogation  of  parliament  from  the  day  to  which 
it  stood -ummoned  or  |)rorogued  to  another  day,  was  lollowed  by  a  writ  or  commis- 
sion ;  but  by  30  and  3t  Vict,  the  royal  proclamation  alone  prorogues  parliau»ent,  ex- 
cept at  tlie  close  of  a  ses.<iou. 

Parli:ini'ut  comes  to  an  end  by  dissolution.  T))i8  dissolution  may  be  by  the  will 
of  the  sovereign  expressed  In  person  or  by  her  represent ativts.  Having  been  first 
-)rorogued,  it  is  dissolved  by  a  royal  proclamation,  and  by  tlie  same  instrument  it  is 
lecUii'td  that  the  chancellor  of  Gre.it  Britain  and  chancellor  of  Ireland  have  been 
respectively  ordered  to  issue  out  writs  f<  r  calling  a  new  parliament.  By  6  Anne  c 
3T,  a  parliament  was  determined  six  months  after  the  demise  of  the  crown  ;  but  by 
tlie  Refonn  Act  of  186T,  the  parliament  in  being  at  any  future  demise  of  the  crown 
shall  not  be  determined  by  such  demise,  but  Shall  continue  as  long  as  it  would 
otherwise  have  continued  unless  dissolved  by  the  crowu.    Were  the  power  of  dis- 


s; 


y  Google 


Parliament  TQft* 

poWIng  the  pnrliament  not  ve«tcd  In  the  expcnflvr,  there  wonid  be  adnn!;er  of  ite 
l)ecoiniug  pennaneiit,  and  eiicroiiching  on  tlie  royal  aathority,  so  ae  to  destroy  the 
balance  of  the  constitution.  An  example  of  riiis  danger  is  shewn  iu  the  Long 
Parhament  to  which  Charle8  I.  conceded  that  it  shonid  not  be  dissolved  till  mich 
time  as  it  dissolved  itself.  If  the  Houses  of  Parliament  encroach  on  the  executive, 
or  act  factiously  or  injudiciously,  the  c»*own  may,  by  a  dissolutiou,  bring  their  pro- 
ceedings to  an  end,  and  appeal  to  the  people  by  sending  the  members  of  the  Honse 
of  Commons  to  give  an  acconnt  of  their  c>*ndnct  to  tlieir  constituents. 

Thei-e  was  originally  no  limit  to  the  duratibu  of  a  parliament  except  the  will  of 
the  sovereign.  By  6  Will,  and  Mary,  c.  2,  the  continuance  of  a  parliament  was 
limited  to  three  years,  a  term  afterwardb  extended  bv  1  Geo.  I.  c.  88,  to  seven  year*. 
IHie  same  act  of  William  and  Mary  enacts  that  parliament  shall  assiemhle  once  iu 
three  years  at  the  least  j  but  the  practice  of  granting  the  Mutiny  Act  and  the  Bndget 
for  a  year  only,  makes  it  necessary  tiiat  it  should  assemble  Minmally. 

Conchtet  of  BuftineHs. — Eaoh  House  is  presided  over  by  itc  S|)e.iker.  The  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Commons  does  not  inke  part  in  a  debate,  offer  his  opinion,  or  vbte 
on  ordinary  occasions;  hut.  in  ca-^e  of  equality,  he  has  a  castin«r  vote  :  his  duty  ia 
to  decide  nil  questions  whicli  relate  to  order,  putting  the  matter  at  issue  in  a  pulwtan- 
tive  form  for  tlie  decision  of  the  Hou«i>e.  if  liis  own  decision  is  not  assented  to.  Ho 
explains  any  doubts  that  may  arise  on  hills.  He  determines  tlie  precedence  of  mem- 
bers rising  to  address  the  House.  He  examines  witnesses  at  the  biir.  At  tlje  close 
of  the  session,  he  addresses  the  sovereign  on  prepenting  the  money-bills  passed  dur- 
ing the  session  for  the  royal  assent  He  nominates  the  tellei«  on  a  division,  and 
makes  known  the  votes  to  the  House.  He  may  commit  members  to  custody  during 
tlie  pleasure  of  the  House,  a  conflnement  which  terminates  with  the  clost;  of  the  ses- 
sion. When  a  vacancy  occurs  by  deatii,  he  signsUhe  warrant  to  the  Clerk  of  the 
Crown  to  make  out  the  writ  for  the  election  of  a  new  member.  He  audits  the 
accounts  of  the  receiver  of  fc^es,  and  directs  the  printing  of  the  votes  and  jiroceed- 
ings  of  the  House.  The  Lord  Chancellor,  or  Lord  K«^per  of  the  Great  Seal,  is  the 
Speaker  of  thi?  House  of  Lords;  in  his  absence,  the  Chairman  of  the  Committee  of 
ways  and  Means  takes  the  chair.  The  Speaker  is  not,  as  in  the  Low«r 
House,  charged  with  the  maintenance  of  order,  or  the  decision  who  ia 
to  be  heard,  which  rest  with  the  Honse  itself.  The  Chairman  Of  Ways 
and  Means  of  the  House  of  Commons  as  Deputy-speaker,  performs  the 
Speaker's  duties  hi  his  absence.  The  chief  officers  oi  tlie  House  of  Lords  are  the 
Clerk  of  the  Parliaments,  who  takes  minutes  of  the  proceedings  of  the  House ;  the 
Gentleman  Usher  of  tlie  Black  Rod,  who,  with  his  deputy,  the  Yeoman  Ushor,  ia 
sent  to  desire  the  attendance  of  the  Commons,  executes  orders  for  committal,  and 
assists  in  various  ceremonies;  the  Clerk-assistant;  and  the  Serireant-at-arms,  who 
attends  the  Lord  Chancellor  with  llie  mace,  and  executes  the  orders  of  the  Honse  for 
the  attachment  of  delinquents.  The  chief  officers  of  the  Commons  are  the  Clerk  of 
the  House,  the  Sergeaut-at- arms,  the  Clerk-assistant,  and  Second  Clerk-assistant. 

Each  Honse  has  its  Standing  Orders,  or  regulations,  adopted  at  different  periods, 
relating  partly  to  internal  order,  partly  to  certain prelimicaiies  requiivd  in  the  intro- 
duction of  bills  and  ])romnlgation  of  statutes.  A  standing  order  endures  till  re- 
pealed (or  ''vacated,"  as  it  is  called  in  the  Upper  House) ;  but  each  House  is  also 
in  the  practice  of  agreeing  to  certain  oi-ders  or  resolutions  of  uncertain  duration 
dechiratory  of  its  practice,  which  are  considered  less  formally  binding  than  standing 
orders. 

The  House  of  Lords  usually  meets  at  5  p.m.;  the  Commons  at  a  quarter  before  4, 
except  on  Wednesdays  and  other  davs  speclnlly  appointed  for  morning  sittings.  In 
the  Lords,  the  Chancellor,  as  S|>eaker,  sits  on  the  woolsack.  A  stimdlng  order, 
which  is  never  enforced,  requires  the  Lords  to  take  place  according  to  precedeuce. 
Practically  the  bishops  sit  together  on  the  right  hand  of  the  throne ;  the  memSera 
of  the  administration  on  tJie  front  bench  on  the  right  hand  of  the  woolsack  adjoin- 
ing the  bishops,  and  the  peers  who  usually  vote  with  them  occupy  the  other 
benches  on  that  side.  The  peers  in  opposition  are  ranged  on  the  opposite  side,  and 
those  considered  politically  neutral  occupy  the  cross  henches  between  the  table  and 
the  bar.  In  the  House  of  Commons,  the  front  bench  on  the  right  hand  of  the  chair 
is  reserved  for  the  ministry,  and  called  the  Treasury  Bench,  the  front  bench  on  tlie 
opposite  side  being  occupied  by  the  leaders  of  the  opposition.    By  ancient  custom 


y  Google 


frqO  JParUamenf 

and  owlers  of  both  Hoiwee,  rarely  enforced,  elrangers  toe  exdiTded  while  tlie  Honsies 
are  sitting. 

PrayeiBJire  rend  before  biipiufps  Is  bj-gjin— in  tlie  IIon!»«  of  Loi-ds  by  a  bipliop ; 
i7)  the  House  of  Commons  by  the  chaphnu.  EvtM-y  member  is  fxMjnd  to  tittcnd  the 
llou-^e — i  I  the  Lower  House,  per^'onally  ;  in  the  Upi)(n-pe«><)nj»lly,  or  by  proxy;  hot 
in  ordijmry  circnmetancrP,  thie  obligation  i»  not  eiiior<<'d.  The  H<>iit<c  of  Lords  may 
proceed  to  bnsiiiesis  when  three  peiM-fl  are  pret<ewt ;  iu  the  Commons,  forJy  member* 
are  nqniretl  to  constitute  a  Houj»e  for  the  despntch  of  iMir'inesa.  The  Speaker 
coimts  the  house  at  four;  nud  if  that  nnml>erbe  not  tlkcn  present,  or  if  it  be  noticed, 
cr  appear  on  a  division,  that  fewer  than  forty  members  are  prtsent.  H"k»  llouye  is 
adjourn>  d.  A  call  of  the  Hoaf*e  is  an  expedient  to  secure  attendance  on  Important 
oeciisions;  wlien  it  U  made,- members  absent  without  leave  may  be  ordered  to  Iw 
taiien  into  custody.  When  inattei-s  of  gieat  interest  are  to  be  debated  iu  the  Upper 
llout*e,  tl)e  Lordnare  **  summoned.** 

To  make  a  motion,  or,  mor<-  properly,  to  move  the  Houf*e,  is  to  propose  a  qnos- 
tion,  2iud  notices  of  mc)tious  should  be  given  on  a  pnvioun  day.  The  Commous  are 
111  the  practice  of  scttinij:  apart  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  TiuH>day.*«,  and  Fridays  for 
considering orde»«  0/  tfie  day,  or  matters  whicli  tlie  Hou^e  liad  alr<  ady  agveeAUi  con- 
sider on  a  particular  diiy,  and  to  resei-ve  Tuesdays  for  nu)tions.  Gk>ven>Mient  orders 
take  precedence  of  otbers  on  all  order  days  except  Wednesdays,  which  aregeuera'lv 
rvHerved  for  tlie  ordei-s  of  independent  members.  Notices  of  motions  are  by  a  stand- 
ing order  sot  allowed  to  be  given  for  aijy  pefiod  beyond  the  four  ilays  next  follow- 
ing on  which  motions  are  entitled  to  precedence.  Qui'stions  of  pridlege  maybe 
considered  witiiout  previous  notices,  and  take  precedence  l)Otli  of  other  motions  and 
ordt!rs  of  the  day.  A  motion  may  be  accompanied  by  a  t^peccli,  and  must  iu  the 
.  Lower  House  be  seconded,  otherwise  Ihei-e  is  no  ouestion  l)ef ore  tlie  House.  In 
purely  fonnai  motions  this  rule  Is  not  ol)8erved,  ancf  an  order  of  the  day  maybe 
moved  without  a  seconder.  A  seconder  is  not  required  in  the  House  of  L<irds.  A 
motion  in  the  Commons  must  l>e  reduced  to  writing  by  the  mover,  and  (lelivei-ed  to 
the  Si>eaker,  wl«o,  when  it  has  been  seconded,  pnts"^it  to  the  House ;  it  cannot  tljea 
be  withdrawn  without  leave  of  tlie  House.  In  the  Ix)rds,  wlien  a  motion  iias  tjeea 
made,  a  question  is  proposed  "  that  the  motion  be  agned  to.*'  Wlien  an  aniecd- 
ment  is  proiMJ-'ed  to  a  question,  the  original  motion  cannot  be  witlidrawn  lill  the 
amendment  has  lieen  eitlier  withdrawn  or  ne;r!itlved.  An  amendment  is  pro|>erly 
eueh  an  alteration  on  a  motion  by  striking  out  or  adding  woids,  or  both,  as  may  eu- 
abh?  mcnibe.i-s  to  vote  for  it  who  would  not  iiave  done  so  otherwise. 

A  question  may  be  evaded  or  superseded  in  four  ways:  1.  By  adjourmnent.  Any 
member  in  po^^ession  of  tlie  House  may  m(  v  *  t  at  i^^e  Honsedo  nowadjourn.'*  'i'ii« 
House  may  also  be  adjourned,  even  wliile  a  member  jm  sper.king,  on  its  beini:  notic<4 
that  tljere  are  fewer  thaii  forty  members  pres-ent.  The  motion,  **  that  the  debate  be 
wow  adjourned,'*  does  not  supersede  the  question,  but  merely  defers  the  deci>ion  of 
the  House.  2.  By  a  motion,  that  the  order.-*  of  the  day  be  now  read,  which  may  l>e 
pot  and  earned  on  days  on  whicli  notices  of  motion  have  precedence.  8.  By  what 
J-  called  moving  theprevimis  q-uestion.  The  act  of  the  Speaker  in  putting  the  question 
i.-«  inti^rceiited  by  a  moticm,  '•  tliat  the  question  be  now  put."  The  mover  and  see- 
iinder  of  this  motion  vote  against  it;  and  if  it  be  resolved  in  the  negative,  Hie 
Speaker  is  prevented  from  putting  the  main  question,  which,  however,  maybe 
brought  forward  on  another  day.  4.  Bj'  an  au>endmcnt  substituting  words  of  an 
entirely  different  linj)ort  for  those  of  the  motion,  so  that  the  sense  of  the  House  is 
taken  on  a  totally  different  question. 

When  the  question  is  put  by  the  Speaker  in  the  Lord-^  the  respective  parties  ex- 
claim "  content"  or  '* non-content :"  in  the  Comiuons,  the  expression  us^-d  is  '*aye** 
or  •*  no."'  The  Speaker  signifies  his  opinion  which  pariy  have  the  majority,  and  if 
tlie  House  a<quiesce,  the  question  is  said  to  be  resolve<l  in  the  affirmative  or  nega- 
tive; wlien  his  decision  is  disputed,  the  numbers  must  be  counted  by  a  division. 
Both  Houses  now  divide  by  the  content  or  ayes  going  into  the  right  lobby,  and  the 
11 1  )U-con tents  or  noes  into  the  left,  each  being  counted  by  tellers  appointed  by  the 
{Speaker.  In  the  House  of  Commons,  two  clerks  with  printed  lisis'of  the  membt-ra 
put  a  mark  to  tlie  name  of  each  as  he  re-enters  the  Houf^e,  so  as  to  seciiru  accuracy 
11!  the  division-lists  The  Sjieaker  of  the  Commons,  who  does  not  otherwi  e  vote 
or  take  part  in  a  debate,  has  a  casting-vote  in  case  of  ^-quality.  In  the  ficmse 
c-  K.,  X.,  2d.    . 


D 


y  Google 


pTlliimtnt 


800 


of  Lords,  the  Speaker  is,  on*  ftxe  otYier  band,  not  di^qtialffied  from  (atcing  patt 
ill  a  debute ;  he  vore«  on  dirisions,  bnt  has  no  cieting  vote ;  nud  ou  stu  (>qnnlity,  the 
iioiirCOiitents  pi-evaii.  The  ajHteiii  of  pairing  QOiniuonly  practised,  thoagli  iievi  r 
directly  recognised  by  ttie  House,  enables  nieinbera  ou  opposite  sides  to  absent  titeiu- 
selvcs  for  a  time  agreed  od,  each  nentndisiiig  tlid  voles  of  riie  other.  A  member  of 
the  Upper  House  may,  with  leave  of  the  House,  i)y  a  protest  enter  his  dissent  from 
a  vote  of  the  Honse,  and  its  groaud!>.  Every  protest  is  entered  on  the  Juarnals  of 
the  Honse,  together  with  the  nuines  of  all  ttie  lordn  who  concur  fn  it. 

No  question  or  bill  is  allowed  to  be  offered  in  either  House  substantially  the  same 
with  one  ou  which  the  jodgment  of  that  House  ^as  already  bc^en  expressed  in  the 
current  session.  A  resolation  of  the  Honse^  however,  may  be  rescinded,  and  au 
order  discliarsed ;  and  Ijy  18  and  14  Vict  c  21,  it  is  provided  that  every  act  may  ba 
altered,  ameuded,  or  repealed  in  the  same  session  of  parliainent. 

In  Qebnte,  a  member  of  the  Commons  addres.-'es  ttie  Siieaker;  a  member  of  the 
UptMsr  House  tlie  lords  generally,  hi  l)oth  cases  standing  and  uncovered.  No  uieni- 
bCT  may  speak  except  wlicn  there  is  a  question  l)efore  the  Hoase,  or  with  the  view  to 
propose  amotion  or  ainciulinent,  the  only  admitted  exceptions  being  in  patting 
questions  to  ministers  of  the  crown,  or  to  membn-s  concerned  in  some  basiiu ■^<j:) 
wliicli  is  befr)re  the  House,  and  in  explaining  p;  rson.il  matters.  A  meml>er  is  not 
allowed  to  speak  twice  to  the  same  quft-^tion  except  in  explanation,  and  the  propo-^cr, 
in  Si)me  cases,  in  reply— a  restriction  which  does  not  apply  in  committee.  By  the 
rules  adopted  by  both  Houses  for  preserving  order  in  deb  ite,  no  idlnsioii  is  allowe<l 
to  delates  of  the  same  session  on  a  question  not  under  discussion,  or  to  debutes  in 
the  other  Hon^  of  Parliament  All  refloctious  on  any  determination  of  the  Hon>o 
ar  prohibited,  except  wht'ii  made  with  a  view  of  moving  ^hat  the  determination  l>e 
rescinded;  so  is  tlie  mention  by  a  member  of  her  Majesty's  name  cither  irreverently, 
or  to  Influence  the  debate,  and  the  nso  of  offenslw!  and  insnltiu":  words  against  par- 
Uaitient  or  either  House,  or  a  member  of  the  House  in  which  he  is  spejiking.  No 
member  Is  nliowed  to  refer  to  anotlier  by  name,  or  otiierwise  than  by  tlie  rank  or 
office  which  h«?  enjoys,  or  place  which  be  represents.  The  Speaker  naming  a  men), 
her  to  the  House,  is  an  olcl-establlshed  form  of  cenj^nre,  which  was  last  used  when 
Mr  Feai*gus  O'Connor  struck  the  member  beside  him. 

Memigei.—lt  is  often  found  necessary  for  the  Houses  to  communicate  with  each 
other  n^garding  matters  occurring  in  the  course  of  busini>ss.  Messages  from  the  Lords 
were  formerly  sent  by  Masters  in  Chancery  or  junges,  while  tlie  Commons  sent  a 
deputation  rf  their  own  memburs.  According  to  a  new  arrangement  adopted  in 
1855,  one  of  the  clerks  of  either  House  may  be  the  bearer  of  a  messat^e. 

Cornmtttces.— Parliamentary  committees  are  either  *'  of  the  whole  Honse,"  or 
"  select"  A  committee  of  the  whole  House  is  the  House  itself,  with  a  chairman 
Instead  of  the  Speaker  presiding.  The  chair  Is  taken  in  the  Lords  by  the  cbairmau 
of  committees  appointed  at  the  oeginning  of  each  session,  in  the  Commons  by  the 
chairman  of  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means.  Matters  relating  to  religion,  trade, 
the  imposition  of  taxes,  or  the  granting  of  public  money,  are  generally  considered  in 
committee  before  legislation,  as  also  are  the  provisions  of  any  public  bilL  Proceed- 
ings are  conducted  nearly  as  when  the  House  is  sittini^,.the  Lords  being  ad- 
dressed in  the  Upper  Honse,  and  In  the  Lower  the  chairman,  who  has  the  same  pow«i-3 
to  maintain  order  as  the  Speaker,  and  a  casting  vote  in  case  of  equality.  In  commit- 
tees of  the  Commons,  as  iu  the  House  itself,  a  quorum  of  forty  members  is  required; 
but  if  that  number  are  not  present,  the  Speaker  must  resume  the  chair  to  adjourn  the 
House.  A  motion  in  committee  need  not  be  seconded,  and  there  is  a  more  unlimited 
power  of  debate  than  in  the  House,  members  being  at  liberty  to  speak  any  number 
of  times  on  the  same  question.  A  motion  for  '*  the  previoda  question  "  is  not 
allowed.  When  the  bnsniess  of  the  committee  is  not  concluded  on  theday  t)f  sitting, 
the  House  is  reituinexl,  and  the  chairnnin  moves  'Hhatthe  House  be  again  put  into 
committee  on  a  future  day,"  iu  the  Lords,  uud  iu  the  Commons  reports  progress,  and 
asks  leave  to  sit  again. 

Select  comraitleef^  are  composed  of  a  limited  number  of  members  appointed  to 
inquire  into  any  nmtter,  and  report.  In  the  Commons,  it  is  usual  to  give  select 
CQunnittees power  to  send  for  persons, pai>er8,  and  records;  in  the  Lords,  they  may, 
"Without  any  si>eciul  authority,  summon  witnesses.  In  ncather  House  can  a  com- 
uvitteo  enforce  the  atteudance  of  a  witness ;  this  most  be  done,  when  necessary,  by 


y  Google 


801 


ParliuMiit 


the  Home  itpelf.  The  Oommonft  liave  cert'ilii  stundinj;  ordera  for  iiu«uring  tbe 
efficiency  of  cuinmitteu.>'.  and  impartiality  In  their  appuiiitmeiit.  No  coiittuiitce  is 
to  cunsist  of  more  than  nfleeii.  Members  moviug  for  a  cominittee  must  asa^rtaiu 
whether  the  members  whom  they  propose  to  name  will  attenil.  Llets  of  ihe  meiu- 
bera  serviug  on  each  coiiiuiiitee  are  to  be  afllxud  iu  tlie  committee  clei-k'e  office  aixl 
the  lobby.  To  every  questiou  asked  of  a  \vitue88,  the  uame  of  tbe  member  who 
asks  it  is  to  be  prefixed  iu  tlie  miuutes  of  evidence  laid  before  tlie  House;  and  the 
iiameH  of  the  members  pre^nt  at  each  dttiu;;,  and,  In  the  event  of  a  dlvi«ion,  tlie 
question  proposed,  the  name  of  tlie  proposer,  and  the  votes  of  each  member,  are  to 
l>e  entered  on  the  minuteii^  and  repoited  to  the  House.  In  the  Lords  there  are  no 
special  rules  regarding  the  ap|;ointment  and  constitution  of  commiitees ;  but  resolu- 
tions containing  amingements  similar  to  those  of  the  Commons  regarding  ques- 
tions to  witnesses,  minutes  of  proceedings,  and  divisions,  have  been  adopted  siui'e 
1852.  Select  committees  have  the  power  of  adjournment  from  time  to  time,  and 
BOinetimes  from  place  to  place.  By  an  anomaly  not  easily  explained,  tlie  Commons 
have  always  been  cons^ideied  not  to  have  the  ^lower  of  nd ministering  oaths;  a  power 
of  examining  on  oath  has,  however,  by  Ftatute  been  granted  to  election  cominitket-fi, 
and  committees  on  private  bills.  In  the  House  of  Lords,  witnesses  had  formerly  to 
attend  at  the  bar  of  the  House  to  be  sworn ;  but  ti  e  oatti  may  now  be  admiuistert^ 
by  any  committee  of  the  House.  Except  where  leave  of  absence  has  been  ob- 
tained, no  member,  mi  less  al)Ove  the  :ige  of  sixty,  can  excuse  himself  from  servifife 
on  committees,  or  for  not  attending  when  hisi  attindance  has  been  made  coinpnIsor3r 
by  order  of  the  House.  In  commiitees  on  pHvate  bills  in  the  Commons,  the  cbnirraan 
has  a  deliberative  as  well  as  a  casting  vote.  Since  1864.  joint  commit  lees  of  both 
Houses,  composed  of  an^equal  number  of  meml>er8  of  each,  have  occasionally  been 
apiM)inted. 

Billn.—The  nrincipal  business  which  occupies  both  Houses  is  the  passing  of  bilK 
In  earl^  times,  laws  were  enacted  in  the  form  of  p-titions  from  tlie  Comn.ons, 
which  were  entered  on  tlie  Uolls  of  Parliament,  with  the  tting's  answers  subjoined ; 
and  «t  the  clo>*e  of  the  session,  these  imperfect  records  were  m-awn  up  in  tiieform  of 
a  statute,  which  was  entered  on  the  Statute  Rolls.  It  was  fouud  that,  on  undergoing 
this  process*,  the  nets  passed  by  the  parliament  were  often  both  added  to  and  muti- 
lated, and  much  of  the  legislative  power  practically  came  into  the  bauds  of  tlie 
judges.  Bills  in  the  form  of  complete  stamtt's  were  first  introdnced  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VI.  Bills*  are  either  public  or  private;  tlie  former  affect  tlie  general  inter- 
ests of  the  community,  the  latter  relate  to  local  matters.  Public  bills  are  introduced 
directly  by  members;  private  bills  by  petitions  from  the  parties  interested,  preseute<l 
by  members.  Bills  may  orl^nate  in  either  House;  but  the  exclusive  right  of  tlie 
Commons  to  deal  with  all  lejjislation  regarding  taxes  or  supplies,  makes  it  nece8^a^y 
and  expcdieni  that  by  far  the  greater  part  of  both  public  and  private  bills,  exceiit 
sucli  as  are  of  a  purely  personal  nature,  should  originate  in  the  Lower  House.  Bills 
r^ardine  restitution  of  luaioi-s  originate  iu  the  House  of  Lords.  One  description 
or  act  alone  originates  with  tiie  crown — :in  act  of  grace  or  pardon.  It  is  read  only 
once  iu  each  House,  and  cannot  be  amended,  but  must  be  accepted  in  tlie  form  in 
which  it  is  received  from  the  crown,  or  rejected.       * 

Public  BilU.—lu  the  Hou^e  of  Lords,  tiny  member  may  present  a  bill.  In  the 
Commons,  any  member  may  move  for  leave  to  bring  in  a  bill,  except  it  be  for  im- 
}K}sing  a  tax,  when  an  ordi.r  of  the  House  is  reqnireo.  When  the  motion  is  seconded, 
and  leave  given,  the  mover  and  secoudt-r  are  ordered  to  prepare  and  bring  in  the  bill. 
Such  bills,  however,  as  relate  to  religion,  trade,  grants  of  iMiblic  money,  or  taxation, 
are  required  to  be  inti'odnc<>d  by  the  House  itself,  on  the  report  of  a  committee 
of  the  whole  House.  A  bill  is  drawn  out  on  pafier,  with  blanks  or  italics  where  any 
part  is  doubtful,  or  where  sums  have  to  be  instated.  It  is  read  a  first  time,  and  a 
day  fixed  for  a  second  readinjr,  allowing  a  sufficient  interval  to  let  it  he  printed  and 
circulated.  When  ready,  which  is  often  us  soon  as  the  motion  for  leave  to  In'ing 
it  in  has  been  agreed  to,  it  is  presented  at  the  bar  by  one  of  the  menibeis  who  were 
ordered  to  prepare  and  bring  it  in,  and  aftt;rwai-ds,  on  an  intimation  from  the 
Si)eak(  r.  brought  up  to  the  table.  Tlie  question  is  put.  "  That  the  bill  be  now  read 
a  first  time,"  which  is  ranUy  objected  to ;  and  in  the  Commons  can  only  be 
opposed  by  a  division.  The  short  title  of  the  bill,  as  entered  in  the  orders  of 
the  day  and  endorsed  on  the  bill,  is  then  read  aloud,  which  is  accounted  suffi- 


y  Google 


fturHalTWilit 


803 


dent  compliance  with  f  he  orrter  of  the  House.  A  day  fs  then  appointed  for  ooa- 
videriDg  tlie  question.  *^  tlmt  the  bill  be  rei%6  u  second  tiine,''  allowiug^  a  sofficieiifi 
hatorTuT  to  ehtpse  to  )et  it  be  printed  and  circnlated.  At  tiie  second 
leading,  the  meinl)er  in  charge  of  the  1>1))  moves  '^that  the  bill  be  now  read  a 
MK^ndtiine."  This  is  the  asa-t)  time  for  opposfng  a  bill  whose  i^cneral  principle  ^ 
dUmpproved.  This  is  ilone  hj  an  amendment  to  the  qnestion,  by  leavintr  oai  tlie 
word  **i>o\v,"  and  addin};  **tlns  day  three  incutbSy''  "this  day  kIx  monilis,"  or  some 
other  time  bi;yond  the  iMx>biible  dnratioii  of  tlie  sessioii.  Uunusel  are  sometimes 
aOovTed  to  pl^l  at  the  second  reading  or  <rther  stagep.  If  tlic  bill  be  approvtil  on 
the  necoud  reading,  it  is  coi)unicti>d,  either  to  a  select  committee^  or  to  a  committes 
of  the  witole  HoiiS(>,  to  consider  its  provisions  in  detail.  When  tl^e  procetsdiugs  in 
committee  are  terminated,  the  bill  is  reporiect  to  the  Hoase  with  amendments,  which 
may  be  agreed  to,  aiueuded,  or  disagreed  to.  It  {<  then  ordered  to  i)e  reikd  a  third 
finie,  when  tlie  entire  measure  is  reviewed.  No  amendments,  except  wliat  tti^ 
ferbal,  can  then  be  mado,  and  ttie  question  is  put  to  tlie  House,  ^^That  this  bill  da 
BOW  pass."  The  title  of  the  bill  is  hist  settled.  The  bill,  whtm  passed  by  the  Ooiu> 
niODS,  is  sent  to  tlie  LortK  where  It  goes  throi^h  the  ^^ame  forms :  if  rt^ected,  no 
fiirt her  notice  is  taken  of  it;  if  passecf,  a  messiigc  is  sent  to  the  Commons  that  tlie 
biil  is  agreed  to.  If  amendments  iiave  l)eei»  made,  th"y  aro  sent  down  along  with 
tlie  bill  to  l)e  discu-^sed  l)y  the  Commons :  and  if  they  are  not  agreed  to,  a  cou- 
Tferenoe  is  demanded  hy  the  Commons,  to  offer  reasons  for  disagreeing  to  the 
amendmcnti).  A  conference  is  a  mode  of  eommnnical  ing  on  impoi-taut  matters  bc- 
tfKen  the  Hoa'*es,  in  which  ejich  House  is  broui^ht  into  direct  contact  with  tlia 
©Ou^rbya  deputation  of  its  own  mcmbei s— the  iime  and  place  ci  meeting  being 
Jitwsys  fixed  by  tlie  Lords.  A  conference  is  conductt^d  for  both  Iloases  hy 
nanairers,  who,  on  the  part  of  the  House  desiring  tlie  conference  (in  the  case  »aii- 
posed.  the  Commons),  consist  of  the  memh;>ri«  who  havedniwn  up  the  reasons,  wirU 
otliers  sometimes  added.  If  the  Lords  b ;  not  satined  with  the  ronsous  on  'red,  a 
fecond  conference  is  desired,  after  which  what  is  called  a  '*  free  conference  "  may 
be  demanded,  in  which  the  managers  have  more  discretion  vested  in  them  to  ad- 
vance what  arguments  they  pletise.  No  free  confenmce  iiasbeen  held  bince.  1740.  By 
rest^utious  of  hoth  Houses,  a>;reed  to  in  1851^  reasons  for  disagreement¥rom  amend- 
ments m<ty  be  communicated  by  messjiges  without  a  conference,  nnli-ss  the  other 
House  sliould  desire  a  conference;  and  since  that  time,  there  has  been  hot  omu  in- 
stance of  a  conference  where  a  mes!:<age  would  Iiave  been  available.  If  tbe  Com- 
mons eventually  agree  to  the  amendments,  the  bill  is  sent  back  to  tlie  Lords ;  if 
not,  it  is  dropp  -d.  The  same  forms  sire  gone  tlinmgh  when  a  b  11  originates  in 
the  House  of  Lords.  The  offi  ial  record  of  the  tissent  of  one  Hou.«e  to  the  Vdls 
passetK  or  amendments  madt;  by  the  otl;er,  is  an  endorsement  on  the  hill  in  Nor- 
man French.  Thus,  when  a  bill  is  passed  l»y  tlie  Commons,  the  Clerk  of  the 
Houi^e  writes  on  the  toji  of  it^  "Solt  t)»ill6  aux  8eignlea^^*."  When  tht;  Lord» make 
amendment  to  a  bill,  it  is  returned  with  the  endorsement,  "A  cej«te  bille  avesqne 
des  amendmontfl  le3  stiignieurs  sont  at«sentn«».'*  When  it  is  sent  baeU  with  the.*e 
aiOendnK-nts  ajjreed  to,  the  Clerk  of  the  House  of  Commons  writes*,  "  A  ces  am<M»d- 
nK'nts  Jes  Comnmnes  sont  assentus."  When  both  Houses  have  agi'eed  to  a  bill,  it 
is  deposited  in  the  House  of  liOrds,  to  await  the  royal  assent,  unless  it  be  a  money- 
bill,  which  is  sent  buk  to  the  Commons. 

iViPofe  Bills. — In  private  bills,  thtj  functions  of  parliament  partake  of  the  judicial 
as  well  ?is  tlie  lejrislative  character,  and  the  difficulties  in  reconciling  tlie  iut  rests  frf 
the  public  and  of  individuals,  often  give  rise  to  inquiries  too  extensive  for  the  House 
to  undertake,  which  therefore  delegates^  them  to  coimnittees.  The  sfcmding  ordci-s 
lequirecertain  notices  to  be  given  lo  pirtii  s  interested  by  pt^rsopal  service,  and  lo 
the  public  by  advertisement.  The  practice  in  both  Hoivses  n(»w  is  for  all  jie  tit  ions 
lor  private  bills  to  be  referred  to  lour  ''examiners,"  two  from  the  Loi'ds,  and  two 
from  the  Commons,  whose  duty  it  is  to  examine  whether  eerl^iin  notices  and  other 
iimns  required  by  the  standing  orders  of  the  House  have  b(»en  complied  with.  If 
the  report  Ixj  f.-ivorabltt.  Ic^ave  is  given  to  bring  in  the  bill :  if  unfavonable,  It  is  r«»- 
ft-rrcd  to  a  Committee  (-allitd  ihe  Committt-e  on  8landin;r  Oixler»«,  who  reinirt  on  ihe 
propriety  ot'  relaxing  the  standing  orders  in  this  individual  case — should  they  rejiort 
«nfiivorably.  it  is  stiil  in  tbe  }>ower  of  the  House  to  relax  the  Ktandinjr  orders, 
tboagh  tkfe  18  rarely  dozie.    Ihax  days  most  elapse  between  tiie  fifbt  and  aecond 


y  Google 


803 


Parli&moQl 


rending.  At  the  second  ronding,  the  principle  is  couBldered,  n?  In  the  case  of  pnblic 
bills;  and  if  the  bill  be  curried,  it  is  referred,  if  not  &  railwny,  cnnal,  or  di\'orce 
bill,  !o  the'- Commit  tee  of  Selection,"  coneihtirg  of  the  chnirra.'iii  of  tie  Stand  iu{< 
Orders  Committee,  and  five  other  niembirs  iiominj.t«'d  nt  llie  l)e<riniiing 
of  the  sess'ioD,  whose  fnnctious  iire  to  cla>8ify  the  i)ills,  lo  nominate  tie 
Committt-es  on  tben»,  mid  to  arramre  their  lime  of  pitting.  A  railvvjiy 
or  canal  bill  is  nftrn^d  to  the  "General  Committee  of  Railway  aid 
Canal  Bills."  This  comnuttee  forms  hills  of  this  class  into  groups,  uml 
appoints  tilt;  cliair man  of  the  committee  which  is  to  sit  on  each  bill  from  its  own 
body,  the  remaining  liiembers,  four  in  numbt  r,  being  chosen  from  the  Commiitce 
of  Silection.  Before  the  sitting  <  f  the  committe*-,  every  private  bill,  wluther  <  p- 
posed  or  unopposed,  mutrt  be  examined  l>y  the  chairman  of  the  Committee  «»f  Ways 
and  M^ans  and  his  conncll.  It  is  also  laid  bifon-  the  chairman  of  the  Loids'  Com- 
mitt  e  and  his  council,  and  eft',  ctis  giv«'U  to  ihcir  obsti-vations,  a  proceecling  whicii 
greatly  facilitates  the  after-progress  of  the  bill  in  the  Houst;  of  Lords.  The  Boaid 
of  Trade,  tlie  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Department,  the  Lords  Commls.-ione4-s 
of  the  Acbniraliy.  and  the  Commissioners  of  Woods  and  Forests,  also  exercij^e  a  su- 
l)ervision  over  private  bills  of  various  Icinds.  by  which  the  respective  r"ghts  of  tluir 
departments  may  be  supposed  to  he  encroached  on.  In  the  House  of  Lords,  estate 
bills  are  ref«'rred  to  the  judges.  Every  bill,  at  the  fli-st  reading,  is  rcrft-rred  to  the 
Examiners,  before  whom  compliance  with  such  standing  orders  as  have  not  hecu 
previon>«ly  inquired  into  must  be  proved.  The  Si andin*;  Orders  Committee  of  tUo 
Lords  is  now  assimilated  in  functions  to  that  of  the  ComnK.ns.  The  bill  is  return(  d 
'  to  the  Commons  either  with  iimendmeulH,  or  with  a  message  that  Vt  is  agre«-d  to 
without  amendments.  In  case  of  disagreement  between  the  Houses,  the  sawio 
forms  are  observed  as  in  public  1  ills. 

In  recent  lime*,  the  n.  cessity  for  obtaiuivg  i>rivate  acts  has  been,  in  many 
cases,  obviated  by  general  lawh  adapted  lo  differ*  nt  <  last:es  of  objects,  of  which  pai  tii  a 
are  t-mibled  to  avail  iliemselves,  iuhtead  of  applying  to  j^ariiameut  for  special  powers. 

Royal  AHHent.~^A  l)ill  bec('mes  a  htatute  (-raci  of  parlianicnt  on  receiving  the  royal 
asst-ut,  which  is  givt-u  in  th.e  House  of  Lords,  the  Commons  being  als'O  present  at  the 
bar.  It  is  given  in  either  of  two  ways:  hy  N  ttir.--p:itent  under  the  Gr.  at  Si-a', 
signed  by  the  sovereign's  own  hand,  and  comnunicattd  to  the  two  Houses  by  com- 
missioners; or  by  the  sovereign  pnsent  in  i>erson  in  the  House  of  Lords,  W^heii 
the  royal  assent  is  given  l>y  commission,  three  or  more  of  the  Lordf  Commissioners 
command  Black  Rod  to  signify  to  the  Counnons  that  their  attendance  is  desin?d,  on 
wh'ch  the  Commons,  with  the  Si)eaker,  immediately  cone  to  the  bar.  The  commis- 
sion is  then  read  at  length  ;  and  the  titles  of  all  the  •  ills  being  read  by  the  Clerk  of 
tne  Crown,  the  royal  assent  to  each  is  signified  by  the  Clerk  of  the  Parliaments  in 
Norman-French,  and  so  entered  on  the  Lords'  Jotirnals.  In  assenting  to  a  pnblic 
bill,  the  words  used  are :  *•  Le  roy  [la  reyue]  le  venlt ;"  to  a  private  bill  i  "  Soit  fait 
commc  ii  est  d«'»«ir6;"  and  to  a  bill  of  supply  (which  is  presented  by  the  Si>eak<r 
and  receives  the  royal  assent  hefore  all  other  hills):  "Le  roy  remercio  ses  bons 
snj*  ts,  accepte  leur  benevolence,  et  ainni  le  veult."  In  the  case  of  aii  act  of  grace, 
which  h',18  originated  with  the  crown,  there  was,  till  lately,  lo  further  expivssion  of 
the  royal  assent;  but  the  (  lerk  of  the  ParMansents,  having  r«ad  its  tiMe,  s^aid  :  "I^'s, 
pi-dlateSj-peignifHr.-*,  et  coramimes,  en  ce  present  parliament  assembles,  an  iK)m  do 
tons  vosttuci res  sujets,  remendent  tr6s-l!umh!eraent  vostre  MajeslA,  et  prient  k  Dieu 
vous  donner  en  sant6  bonne  vie  et  lougne :''  the  royal  aasint.  In  wever,  has  het-n 
latterly  given  to  acis  of  srrace  in  the  usual  form,  'i'tie  nfusal  of  the  r(»yal  assent  is 
announced  by  the  words,  "Le  roy  s'aviseiiu"    But  the  necessity  for  such  refusal  is 

f generally  removed  by  the  observance  of  the  constitutional  pnnci|)le,  that  the  Qnc<n 
ms  no  will  but  that  of  her  ministtT;*,  who  only  continue  in  office  so  long  as  they 
have  the  confidence  of  parliatnent.  The  last  instance  in  which  the  royal  sisseiit 
was  refused  was  by  Queen  Anne  in  170T,  regarding  a  bill  for  settling  the  militia 
in  Scotland. 

The  royal  assent  js  seldom  given  \\\  i>erson,  except  at  the  close  of  n  se<^sion,  wl  ( n 
the  Queen  attends  t<)  prorogue  parliament,  and  then  signifies  lier  assent  to  Such  bills 
as  havrt  l>een  passed  su J ce  the  last  commission  was  Issued;  Imt  bill**  providing  for 
the  honor  and  dignity  of  the  crown,  and  hills  for  settling  the  civil  listn,  huYe^<  ncr- 
Ally  been  asscuted  to  by  the  sovereign  iu  person,  immediately  after  they  have  passed 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


Parliament 


804 


g 


both  houses.  When  the  royal  a!>8ent.  is  ^ven  in  person,  the  Clerk  of  thn  Crown 
re:>ds  the  tijie"?  of  the  bills;  aud  the  Clerk  of  ihe  Parliaujeiiis«,  who  has  previously 
received  her  Muj.^sty '8  commaiKls  in  tlie  niwiuw  room,  m:ike,8  an  o'H'is»aiice  lo  the 
throne^  aud  signifies  her  Majusty'a  asgeul,  as  afi'eady  described,  the  queen  giving  u 
gentle  mcliiintiou. 

Supplies.— Pv\oT to  1638,  in  addition  to  parliamentaiy  taxation,  imposts  were  eoine- 
times  U'Vled  by  au  ex^^rcife  of  the  royal  prerogative.  Since  Ihe  Revolution,  no  taxfj< 
have  bei*n  raided  otherwise  than  by  parliamentary  authority.  Tlie  Coiumoi).-*  have  ilio 
exclusive  rig!>t  to  imposie  taxes  aud  vote  money  for  the  pnt)llc  wi-rvice.  The  Loi-da 
c.innot  even  make  au  alteration  in  a  bill  of  supply,  except  to  correct  a  clerifal  eiror. 
The  Lords  are  not  evt;n  entitled  to  insert  in  a  l)ill  any  pecuniary  penalties,  or  to  alter 
the  amount  or  application  of  any  penalty  imposed  by  tlie  Commons;  a  rule  whose 
ri«i:id  assertion  has  been  found  to  be  attended  with  so  much  incoiiveuience  that  thera 
has  latterly  been  a  di^po^^ition  to  relax  it  If  a  bill  containing  provisions  which 
make  a  pecuniary  charge  on  the  ]mblic  originate  in  tbi;  Lords,  any  such  proviaions 
are  struck  out  In  the  bill  as  sent  to  the  Common?.  In  the  Commons,  tbe^e  pro v.- 
bIous  are  prlr.ted  in  red  ink,  and  supposed  to  be  l)hink,  and  may  be  agreed  «o  i:i 
committee.  But  though  the  Commons  has  the  exclusive  right  t-o  grant  supplies,  a 
grant  requires  the  ultimate  assent  of  the  queen  aud  the  House  of  Lords. 

The  public  revenue  of  the  crown  is  derived  in  part  from  iiermanent  charges 
on  the  consolidated  fund,  and  in  part  from  actual  grants  for  epecillc  piitilc 
services,  wuich  require  the  yearly  sanction  of  parliament.  On  tlie  opeuiuj^r  of 
narliameiit,  the  queen  demands  from  the  Commons  the  annual  proviKit)u 
_or  the  public  services,  and  directs  estimates  to  be  laid  before  them.  O.i 
agreeing  to  the  addres.^  in  answ<r  to  tlie  royal  speech,  the  Commons  order  the 
speech  to  be  taken  into  consideration  on  anotiier  da^'.  On  the  arrival  of  that  day, 
a  motion  is  made:  '*  That  a  supply  b^  granted  to  her  Majesty,*'  and  the  House  i\^ 
solves  into  a  committee  to  c.onsidei  thaf  motion.  On  the  dsiy  appointed,  the  com- 
milterf  sils  and  agrees  that  a  supply  be  granted,  which,  b  ;in_'  reported,  is  agreed  to  by 
the  House.  The  House  tlieii  appoints  another  day  on  which  it  re^ol\•es  iis.iU  into  a 
"Committee  of  Supply."  The  estimates  for  the  army,  navy,  and  ordnance  depart^ 
ments,  are  first  laid  before  the  committee;  then  the  estimates  for  civil  services, 
known  as  the  miscellaneous  estimates.  The  first  business  of  the  Committee  ot  Suji- 
ply  is  to  elect  a  chairman,  who  Is  kno  a  n  as  the  Chairman  of  the  Committee  of  Ways 
and  Means,  over  which  he  also  presides.  When  the  first  report  of  the  Coinmlttej 
of  Supp'y  has  been  received  auci  agreed  to,  a  day  id  appoinJed  for  the  House  to  re- 
solve ilstdf  into  a  "Committee  ot  Ways  and  Means."  Tnis  committee  is  not  ap- 
pointed til!  a  sutn  has  b«sen  voted  by  tlie  House,  nor  is  it  afterwards  allowed  t««  votJ 
in  excess  of  the  expenditure  voted  by  the  Committee  of  Supply.  It  i-«  the  fusic- 
tion  of  the  Committee  of  Supply  to  consider  what  specific  irrants  are  to  be  vtjt.'d, 
and  of  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Memis  to  determine  how  the  funds  ^ha II  luj 
raised  which  are  voted  by  the  Committee  of  Supply.  Without  special  narliam«'ntary 
uuthority,  the  consolidated  fund  could  not  be  applied  to  meet  the  supplies  voted  (or 
the  surface  of  the  year ;  but  to  miike  it  so  available,  the  Committee  of  Ways  jiud 
Means  votes  several  grants  from  time  to  tliie  out  of  the  conso!idat<-d 
fund  "towards  making  L'ood  the  siipply  granted  to  her  Majesty;"  and  bills  aro 
founded  on  the  resolutions  of  the  cominiitee,  by  which  the  treasury  receives 
authority  to  issue  Ihe  requisite  amount  from  the  consolidated  fund  f(ir  the  service 
of  the  year.  It  belongs  to  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  to  deteruiJue  what 
sums  shall  ba  rai.-»ed  by  exchequer  bills  in  anticipation  of  the  annual  reveune,  to 
make  up  the  supply  grairte<l  to  her  Maje">ty.  When  the  Committee  of  Supply  iiaa 
determined  the  number  of  men  that  shall  be  maintahied  duilug  the  year  fur  the  army 
and  sea-service,  and  its  resolutions  have  been  agreed  to,  the  Mutiny  Bill  and  Mai-ine 
Mutiny  Bill  &\'^  hvowzht  tn,  providing  respectively  for  the  discipline  of  the  troops 
and  marines  when  on  shore.  Apart  from  this  annual  sancfioji,  the  maintenance  of 
a  standing  army  in  time  of  peace  would  be  illegal,  and  the  army  and  marines  won  d 
be  relieved  from  all  martial  discipline.  The  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  rec -ives 
the  annual  financial  staiement  from  the  Chancellor  of  the  Kxchcquer,  poptilarly 
called  the  "Bndg-t."  That  minister  give*  a  general  vieTV  of  the  resources  of  tho 
country,  and  of  the  financial  policy  ot  the  govenrment,  and  presents  ^i  probable  es- 
timate of  income  aud  cxpeu'iiture  for  the  twelve  mouths  ending  on  the  12iU  oi  ApHl 


y  Google 


805 


VParliamen^ 


of  the  followfng  yei^r.  He  states  what  taxes  1»e  intends  to  reduce,  and  what  new 
Ones  hu  means  to  impose,  and  ends  by  proposing  re^yhitions  for  tiu'  adoption  of  the 
coinnurtee,  wjjicli,  when  reported  10  tlie  House,  form  the  groundwork  of  bUls  for 
accompli^l^in^  t lie  fill smcial  obiect;*  proposed.  Tlic  charges  for  collecting  the  rev- 
enue, have,  f  nice  1S54,  been  bronglit  under  the  8iipervi?ion  of  the  Ilousie  of  Com- 
nioiiH  ;  and  esiimates  are  voted  for  Jhe  revenue  dc^parnueuts.  A  new  tax  canipt  be 
proposed  ex'ept  by  a  minister  of  tlie  crown.  The  resolutions  of  Committees  of  Snj)- 
ply  and  of  Ways  and  Means  are  reported  on  a  day  appointed  by  the  House,  andn  ;  d 
a  firj<t  lime  withonta  question,  and  a  second  time  on  a  euestion  put  fiom  tlie  clioir, 
and  are  agreed  to  by  the  House,  or  maybe  disagrct  d  to,  amendtd,  postponed,  or 
recommitiev'..  When  the  Comn\ittee  of  Supply  is  closed,  tiie  Committee  of  Ways 
and  Means  authoiises  the  application  of  money  from  tlie  consolidatt  d  fund,  the  enr- 
plus  of  ways  and  means,  and  sums  in  the  Exchrquer,  to  meet  the  grant  and  services 
ot  I  lie  year,  and  tlie  resolnt'ons  of  the  cqmmiitee  are  carried  into  tfEeCt  by  the  Con- 
solidated Fund  Bill,  or  as  it  is  often  called,  the  Appropfiatiwi  Bill.  By  a  standing 
onUr  of  April  3, 1862,  asUmdin;^  Committee  of  Public  Ac<0Unt8  is  appointed  at  the 
beginning  of  each^i-ssion  to  examine  into  the  appropriation  of  the  sums  granted  by 
parliament  to  meet  the  public  expenditure.  Taxes  of  a  permanent  and  g*  neral  char- 
acter are  not  now  considered  In  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  M<'ans. 

Petitim^s.-r-K\\^o\^Q  the  duties  of  parliament  is  the  receiving  of  petitions.  A 
petition  mu.<t  be  presented  by  a  member  ot  the  H(  use  to  which  it  is  addressed. 
Petitions  from  the  corporation  of  London  are,  how  ver,  presented  to  the  House  of 
Commons  by  the  slieriffs  at  the  bar,  or  by  one  sheriff,  if  the  other  bii  a  member  ol 
the  House,  or  unavoidably  al)sent.  In  1840,  a  petition  was  allowed  to  be  presented 
by  the  Lord  Mayor  and  Aldermen,  when  the  sher.ffs  were  in  custody  of  the  ser- 
jeant-at-arms. The  Lord  Mayor  of  Dublin  has  been  allowed  to  present  a  petition  at 
the  bar  of  the  House,  and  the  same  i)rivilfge  would  probal)Iy  be  conceded  to  the 
Lord  Provo.'^t  of  Edinburgh.  Petitions  which  violate  any  of  the  rules  of  the  House, 
are  not  brought  up,  but  ret unnd  to  the  i)etitioners ;  and  if  an  irregularity  l>e  dis- 
covered after  a  |>etitlon  is  brought  up,  its  presentation  is  not  recorded  in  the  votes. 
In  the  Hou>'e  of  Lords,  when  a  petition  if  laid  on  the  table,  an  entry  is  made  in  the 
Lords'  minutes,  and  atterwards  in  the  Journals  of  the  House,  which,  however,  does 
not  describe  its  nature  and  substance.  A  petition  nmy,  on  pn  sentation,  be  made  a 
subject  of  debate,  but  unless  this  is  done,  there  remains  no  public  record  of  it*  im- 

J)oit,  or  of  ihe  parties  by  wloni  it  was  signed.  In  the  House  of  Conunons,  accord- 
ng  to  standing;  orders  adopted  in  1842,  the  memb(  r  presenting  a  petition  is  to  con- 
fine himself  to  a  statement  of  who  the  petitioners  are,  ti'e  nun.ber  of  s  guatuies,  the 
material  allegations  of  the  petition  and  its  prayer.  In  cj^se  of  urgency,  or  where 
questions  of  privilege  are  involved,  the  matter  of  the  petirion  niay  be  discussed ; 
but  In  ordinary  cases  no  debate  is  allowed,  and  it  is  refernd  to  the  Committee  on 
Public  Petitions,  and  if  relating  to  a  subject  with  rej:ard  to  w hich  the  member  pre- 
Si'iitmgit  has  uiven  notice  of  a  motion,  it  nmy  be  ordered  to  be  printed  with  the 
votes.  The  reports  of  the.Conunittee  on  Public  l*etition8  are  printed  twice  a  week, 
and  point  out  the  name,  the  subject,  and  the  number  of  signatures  of  each  petition, 
and  the  total  number  of  signatures,  and  petitions  relatin«j  to  each  subject ;  and, 
in  some  cases,  the  p.Uition  itself  is  printed  at  full  l-'ugth  in  the  appendix. 

Communications  tcith  the  Cnntyii. — Besides  at  the  opening  and  prorojruing  of 
parliament,  and  Hiving  of  the  royal  assent,  there  are  other  occasions  on  which  tlio 
crown  communicates  witli  parliann  nt  by  a  message,  under  the  sign-manual,  to  either 
House  singly,  or  both  Houses  separately.  Mchsages  artr  brought  by  a  member  of  the 
House,  being  a  n)inister  of  the  crown,  or  one  of  the  royal  household,  and  may  re- 
late to  important  public  events,  the  prerogatives  or  property  of  the  crown,  provision 
for  the  royal  family,  &c.  An  address  is  the  mode  in  which  tne  resolutions  cf  par- 
liament are  communicai^ed  to  the  crown.  Addresses  may  be  joint,  of  both  Houses, 
or  separate,  of  either  House. 

Heturits.—E&ch  House  has  the  power  of  ordering  retunis  from  all  those  public 
departments  which  are  connecte<l  with  the  revenue,  under  control  of  the  Treasury, 
or  regulated  by  statute ;  but  returns  of  matters  connecied  with  the  exercise  of  royal 
prerogative,  as  from  pul>lic  departments  "subject  to  lur  Majesty's  secr<tJ»rie8  of  state, 
are  o^iiued  by  nit;ans  of  a<ldre8ses  to  the  crown.  A  return  is  not  allowed  to'  be  or- 
dei*ed  in  Que  Mouse  regarding  the  proceedings  of  the  other ;  when  such  return  is 


y  Google 


\vi8lied,  It  In  nenal  To  make  an  airoo^ement  by  which  ft  !s  moved  fn  the  HoTweto 

wiiQoe  iirocioilhiics  it  relrites,  and  after  it  ha-s  boeii  pro-seuted,  a  n)ef«.«iigc  is  a;.:Dt  to 
ri'qaL't't  that  it  uiay  b3  coinuiuuicnti  d.  Ketunis*  cjiKiiot  ho  ino\*ed  from  private  ii8»o- 
cltttious,  or  persouo  not  exercii«iiig  public  ftincriou!*;  and  the  pai>ei:«aud  correspond- 
ence ."-ought  from  public  depart nieuts*  must  be  of  an  nfflcial,  not  a  private  or  conft- 
dential  djacription.  Tliis  rultt  wa-",  under  s])eclal  circumstance.'*,  departt  d  from  iii 
1853  in  rej^ata  to  tlie  opinion  of  the  iaw-officers  of  the  crown  in  the  ca.'»e  of  tlie 
Cajliari.  Accounts  nud  i)aper8  present  d  are  ordered  to.Jie  (tn  the  table,  and  when 
nocoflsary,  ordered  to  be  printed,  or  in  t'le  Commons  reieri-ed  to  tlie  Priutiuj^  Coni- 
luittee  appointed  at  the  l>eginning  of  each  session. 

Election  Petitions. — Utitil  ITTU  all  questitms  regaiding  coutrovert«:d  elections 
were  decided  l)y  the  \vh(de  House;  tlie  Geuville  Act  of  that  year  introduced  tho 
practice  of  appointing  committees  for  their  trial,  and  the  proci-cdinga  of  election 
committees  \v«'.re  furtri<-r  regulated  by  11  and  12  Vict.  c.  98.  By  the  *•  Parliament- 
ary Elections  Act  1868"  (31  and  82  Vic  c  124).  election  petitions  are  now  pre- 
n.Mited  to  thu  C  )Urt  of  Commoii  Pleas  in  Westminster  or  l)ul)liu,  or  the  Ck)urt  of 
Session  in  Scotlind,  aud  tried  by  a  8in:zle  judge  appoinied  by  tlie  court,  and  6ii< 
ting  in  the  borough  or  county  whose  election  is  conti-nted.  Aii  election  petition 
Inust  l>e  aij^fned  by  some  perj*on  who  vott^d,  or  had  a  right  to  vote  tit  the  election. 
Or  by  Pome  jierson  wlio  claims  to  be  returned,  or  allc^giS  liinu*elf  to  liave  l^eeu  a 
candidate,  and  presented  witjjin  twenty-one  days  after  the  return  objected  to,  or, 
if  Itprociiedsou  the  allegation  of  bribery,  wiiliin  28  days  after  the  alleg  d  pay- 
ment. Security  is  to  be  loutid  for  costs  to  the  extent  of  jGIUOO,  lither  by  surciiea 
iiot  exceeding  four,  or  l>y  a  deposit  of  money,  or  pitrtiy  in  eucli  way.  Tlie  jud^e 
determines  whether  the  meml)er  w  ••-  duly  elected,  and  certifies  to  the  Spt^uker  liis 
determination,  wliich  is  final.  Should  tlie  petition  allege  corrupt  practice*.,  tlie 
judge  shall  also  rejwrt  to  the  Speak  r  whether  there  has  been  any  corrupt  practice 
within  the  knowledu'e  and  coisent  of  any  candid  '.te,  the  names  of  persons  proved 
guilty,  and  whethi-r  corrupt  practiees  have  prevailed  extensively  at  (he  el«'Ctiou  : 
also  the  judge  may  sp  -cialiy  report  any  matter  for  consideration  of  th:-  Hou::»e  of 
Commons.  Where,  on  application  of  any  party  to  a  petition,  it  appears  lliui  llie 
casj  r.iitfed  can  be  conveniently  stated  a:<  a  special  case,  it  may  l>e  so  stated  and 
determined  by  the  court,  who  certify  th^ir  decision  to  the  Speak  r,  which  is  final. 
An  election  petition  cannot  l)e  witlidrawn  witliout  leave  of  the  court  or  jud«?e  on 
special  application  :  and  a  person  wlio  miijht  liave  been  a  petitioner  may  apply  to  be 
Buhsiliuted  for  the  person  withdrawn.  Tlie  court  or  judge" is  to  reiwrt  to  the 
8p . 'alter  wheth-r  in  their  opinion  the  withdrawal  of  the  petition  lias  been  iuductd 
by  any  coiTupt  arranjiement.  The  most  frequent  subjects  of  special  report-*  are 
bribery,  treatinor,  and  the  use  of  undue  influence,  ma'ters  regatxliui;  whicli,  prior  to 
1868.  varipus  acts  liad  been  pa-sed,  the  most  importmt  being  17  and  18  Vict.  v.  102 
(  854)  21  and  22  Vici.  c.  87  (1853),  and  26  Vict.  c.  29  (18G3>,  three  statutes  known  as 
the  ••  Corrupt  Practices  Prevention  Acts."  By  the  act  of  1868,  a  candidate  convicted 
of  hnhitry  is  punished  by  voidance  of  his  elec,'.!ion,  incapacity  during  7  3'eMrs  to  Ihj 
elected  or  to  vote,  to  hold  any  office  under  5  and  6  Will.  IV.  c.  76,  or  S  and  4  Vict  c. 
108,  or  any  municipal  or  judicial  office,  or  to  act  as  justict^  of  the  peace;  and  tlio 
same  disqinilittcatons  to  vote,  to  be  elected,  :ind  to  hold  office,  are  incurred  by  any 

Iierson  oilier  than  a  cand.date  found  guilty  of  bribery.  If  a  candidate  is  proved  to 
jav(!  knowingly  engaged  as  canvasser  or  election-ajrent  a  persoirfound  guilty  within 
tiu!  pr  viouH  seven  years  of  any  corrupt  practict^,  his  election  is  void.  Act  15  and  16 
Vict  c.  51  enact"  that  upon  the  joint  address  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  repn*- 
ectitlnjr  lo  her  Maj'Hty  that  a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  has  reported 
that  corrupt  prat  ticeti  have  extensively  prevailed  at  any  election,  her  Majesty  may 
appoint  couimissioners  to  make  inquiry;  and  by  the  act  of  J  868,  the  judge's  ri'port 
to  the  eff  ct  that  corrujit  practices  liave  prevailed,  or  that  there  is  rea.-'On  to  b  hev« 
they  have  prevaiieil,  is  to  he  accounied  equivalejit  to  t^ie  report  of  the  Houst?  of 
Common-*'  Committee  lo  tlnit  efCeoi  under  the  previous  act  It  is  further  provided 
b^  tlie  act  of  1868  that  within  91  days  of  the  return  tw  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown,  or 
within  14  days  after  the  me-tiug  of  parliament,  a  p  'tition  may  be  presented  by  any 
two  electors,  alleging  that  corrupt  prnctlees  Imve  extensively  prevailed  at  their  biet 
election,  or  thnt  there  is  reason  to  heli.vi*  this  to  have  l>een  the  cllse.  If,  on  snch 
petition,  an  address  by  both  liousefii  of  Parliament  be  presented  to.  the  d'uWu,  pruy- 


y  Google 


8or 


FarUamenf 


lug  for  Inqnlry  hito  «nch  allegntiofi,  the  crowU  rany  smjbfnt  coinin!M<ioners  to  iu- 
qnTre,  with  the  powciH  and  j«nl)j  ct  to  the  provisions  of  Act  15  and  \%  Vict,  c  67. 

By  the  Act  of  1854,  the  «)fferiHg  of  money,  office,  <  mpluynieui,  Ac,  to  a  voter  to 
Induce  hi)n  to  vote  or  abstain  from  NOtin^r,  or  the  offoHng  of  a  pimiiar  cunsideratiou 
•  to  any  person  to  indnce  him  to  procnre  the  returu  of  a  caudidnte  or  the  vote  of  an 
elector,  tlie  acceptance  of  i*i\ch  tonsidenition,  and  the  payn.eut  of  money  in  the 
knowirdge  that  It  is  to  be  expended  in  bril)ery,  or  tlie  rep-iyment  of  mouty  wliich 
has  !>eeu  spt^ni  in  bribery,  are  all  declar*  d  to  l>e  uofs  of  bribery  punisliable  by  fine 
and  imprisonment,  as  well  as  by  the  forfeiture  of  jCiOO  with  costs  to  any  i)erFou 
wiio  will  pue  for  the  same.  Any  voti'i*  who  agrees  to  receive  money,  office,  or  em-  . 
ployment  for  voiing  or  abptaining  ironi  voting,  and  any  person  who,  i  fier  i\n  elec- 
tion, receives  money  or  other  consideratii»n  on  account  of  any  pei*sou  having  voud 
or  refrained  fro ni  voting,  is  also  guilty  of  bribery,  and  liQl>le  lo  forftit  jCIO  wiid  co-ta 
to  any  one  who  will  sne  for  I  lie  same.  Treating,  which  is  defined  as  the  providii  g 
of  meat,  drink,  or  othir  entertainment  to  any  pert'on  in  order  to  he  elected,  or  in 
consideration  for  any  i)er8on  voiing  or  ab»«tJiiniiigfrom  voting,  involves  a  nennhy  of 
ie50  slmiliirly  rccovera.ole,  as  aleo  does  ui.dve  infliieticef  or  intei-fertuce  by  intimi- 
dation, aMnction,  or  otherwise,  with  the  freedom  of  i lectors  Perwms  «;niltv  of 
anjr  of  these  offences  are,  by  the  pnivisions  of  the  pame  acts,  to  be  struck  oft  th« 
register,  an<l  their  names  insertecl  in  a  separate  *•  list  of  peivons  disquiilified  for 
brii)ery,  ireatmcnt,  and  undue  influence,"  which  is  to  l>e  appended  10  the  reyisier  of 
voters.  Cockades  are  proJiibited,  as  is  the  fnrnigldng  of  refreslmunt  on  the  da\'  of 
election  to  a  voter  in  consideration  of  hi."  being  .ibout  to  vole.  By  the  Corrupl  rr.-.c- 
ticiis  Act,  1854,  it  is  however  declared  lawful  to  provide  a  conveyance  for  a  vot-r, 
tliongh  not  to  pay  him  a  sum  of  money  for  travelling  expenses.  By  the  Act  of  IStiS, 
no  payment  is  allowed  to  be  made. on  behalf  of  a  candidate  except  through  his 
authorised  agent,  and  all  claims  against  a  candidate  in  reBpcct  of  nn  election  mn>'t 
be  nettled  witliin  a  mouth,  otherwise  the  right  to  r3<'over  them  Is  barred.  A  detailed 
account  of  eloetlon  expenses  with  vouchers  Is  required  to  be  deliv«red  within  iwo 
monihs  of  the  election  to  the  returning  officers,  by  who  it  is  imblisht  d  in  a  local 
newspaper,  and  the  voncln  rs  are  lo  be  open  for  a  month  to  thein^pection  of  v»itt  rs. 
The  act  of  1863  provides  that  when  an  election  committee  has  reported  that  certain 
p}r"«ou3  na  iii^'l  have  bjen  guilfy  of  bribery,  and  their  report  is  confirmed  by  a 
comaiissiou  of  inquiry,  snch  report,  with  the  evidence  taken,  is  to  be  laid  before  thd 
Attorney-geiuTjd  with  the  view  of  insiitnting  a  prosecution. 

Itiipeachment. — There  are  instances,  as  far  back  as  the  times  of  the  Plantagenet 
princes,  of  the  supreme  power  of  parliament  being  fxer<  ised  to  punish  omnccs 
where  homething  extraordinary  in  tbe  nature,  or  some  unforeseen  ob:»tacle  to  the 
execution  of  the  oruinary  laws.  wjiS  deenied  to  reudi  r  this  advisable.  This  wa.< 
done  by  a  bill  of  attainder,  which  in  the  reign  ot  Henry  VU I.  became  the  uhual 
mo<Ie  of  proceeding  :  gain>t  stjite  cffenct  s.  A  bill  of  attainder  sometimes  follow*  d 
a  regular  trial  and<:ouvlction,  as  in  tin-  case  of  Empson  and  Dudley,  but  was  oft»  n 
pas^eil  without  ir  al,  examination  of  witnesses,  or  hear  ng  the  licensed  party,  as  in 
the  attainder  of  Pis'  er  imd  Sir  Thomas  More.  Bills  of  attainder  were  sonretimes, 
but  rarely,  Imd  re(  onrse  to  under  the  Stuart  kini  s;  the  last  int'tance  was  the  cj.se 
of  Sir  John  Fenwick.  in  1696.  1'he  practice  of  impeachment  of  extraordinary 
offenders  before  the  Lords  l>y  the  Conunons,  which  had  bei-n  frequent  during  the 
14ih  and  15ih  ceutuiles,  wai*  revived  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  This'procetd  ng  is  not 
like  bills  of  ailahxler  or  pains  and  penalties,  the  making  of  a  new  law_p»'o  re  vataf 
but  a  cariying  out  of  the  nlrersdy  known  and  established  law.  The  great  represc  nt- 
ative  inquest  of  the  nation  first  find  the  crime,  and  then  as  prosecutoi-s  nnpport  the 
charge  before  the  highest  court  of  criminal  jurisdiction.  It  lias.dways  hi  en  .-.llowtd 
that  a  j>eer  may  be  mipeachc  d  for  any  crinie  wnether  recognisable  by  tlie  ordinary 
courts  or  not.  The  rl;: lit  of  the  Commons  to  Impench  a  commoner  of  a  caiiitjil  of- 
feuc<?,  which  was  at  one  time  doubted,  lias  b«  en  soli  ninly  affirmed  by  the  Hon^c  of 
Lords.  '1  he  trial  is  conducted  by  m majjers  for  the  Commons.  Witnesses  are 
summoned  by  the  Lords  at  the  desir--  of  the  Conmions,  and  We^tmlnster  Hall  l>as 
usually  b  en  ibc  ph'ce  of  tilal,  the  Lord  High  Steward  presiding.  Tl.e  maiiagera 
nnike  their ch.irges  and  addu' o  evidence;  the  accused  answers,  and  may  defend 
biinself  by  conns*! ;  "ud  the  manageit  have  a  right  to  reply.  In  giving  jndgmenf, 
tb«  qu«i»tL&  is  pat  by  tu«  Lord  Higli  Steward  to  each,  pMnr,  bediming  with  tbe 


p„^«B«u,r  g08 

iniiiOr  baron,  on  each  article  separntely,  whether  Yhe  accnsed  he  ffiinty.  The  anfiw'er 
!:»,  "  Quill >',  ou  my  honor,"  or  "Not  Guilty,  on  my  honor,"  the  Lord  High  Siuwnrd 
giving  his  opinion  the  iast,  and  ttic  unuibers  heing  cost  up,  the  accused  is  ucqiinfjitt  d 
witii  the  result  Imin^achnieiits  have  not  been  common  in  later  times,  though  iliey 
are  still  a  competent  proceeding ;  tlie  latest  memorable  cases  are  those  of  Warren 
llastlnes  in  1783,  and  Lord  Merville  in  1805. 

Tiidl  of  Peers.—I'eei-B  are,  in  all  cases,  tried  by  their  peers  for  treason,  misprision 
of  ti-feason,  felony,  or  misprision  of  felony.  For  misdemeanors,  lioweyer,  thi-y  1^^J. 
tried  l>efore  the  ordinnry  courts  of  law ;  and  the  Lords  Spiritual,  are  in  all  cadet*  ti^tnl 
before  tlie  ordinaiy  court"*  of  the  conutiT-  Dniing  tlw  silting  of  parliameDt,  the 
trial  proceeds  before  the  House  of  Lords,  or  more  pro|)erly  before  tlie  Ck)urt  of  Par- 
liament presided  over  by  tJie  Lord  High  Steward.  When  imrliameut  is  not  sittinL', 
tl»e  trial  takes  place  before  the  Court  of  the  Lord  Higii  Steward— a  tribunal  wljo.-e 
constitution  was  at  one  time  very  oi)jcctionabl(',  that  otficer  Ixiing  allowed  to  sum- 
mon what  peers  he  pl«-a.«ed,  only  wilii  the  proviso  that  the  uumbfr  should  amonufe 
In  all  to  23.  Act  T  Will.  III.  c.  8  requires  that  all  the  peers  who  iiave  a  right  to  sit 
and  vote  In  parliament  b.;  summout^.  Peers  of  Scotland  and  L'eland  are,  in  tt'rms 
of  the  Acts  of  Union,  tried  in  the  s.atne  way.  Bv  4  aiul  6  Vict  c  22,  a  peer  is  liable 
on  conviction  to  the  sanie  punishment  as  any  other  of  the  lieges. 

See  Sir  T.  Erskine  May's  "  I^aws,  Privileges,  Proceeding;*,  and  tJsage  of  Parlia- 
ment," 6  h  edition,  1868. 

PARLIAME'NTARY  CHTTKCH  is  a  church  erected  under  the  authority  of  an 
act  of  parliament  In  England  sncli  a  clmrch  is  generally  cjilled  a  dietiict 
church;  and  the  acts  of  parliament  authori.*ing  such  churchesyare  known  as  the 
Church  Building  Acts.  See  Parish.  In  Scotland  similar  churches  are  culled  Quoad 
Sacra  (q.  v.)  churclies. 

PA'RMA,  a  former  sovereignty  of  ITpper  Italy,  liavlng  the  rank  of  ft  duchy,  and 
bcmndod  on  the  n.  by  Lomb.ircjy  and  Venice.  (?.  by  Modena,  s.  by  Genoa  and  'I'us- 
c;»ny,  and  \v.  by  Piedmont,  consisted  of  the  anchies  of  Parma  and  Piacenza,  which 
wiM-f  subdivided  into  5  (list  icts,  and  contained  in  all  2268  English  square  miles,  with 
a  population  (1871)  of  490,259.  'Ihe  Apennines,  which  cross  the  soutliem  divi.-ion 
of  the  durhies,  send  off  spurs  northward**,  and  give  to  the  nortliern  part  of  tho 
country  the  character  of  a  plain,  gently  undulating,  hut  sJorang  uniformly  to  the  Po^ 
which  is  the  re«  ipient  of  all  the  rivers  of  the  country.  The  highest  peaks  of  the 
Ap  nniucs  in  P.  are,  Monte  Alpe  di  Succisio.  about  TOOO  f«et ;  and  Monte  Paiina 
and  Mobte  Orsajo.  both  more  than  5250.  The  mountain -range  is  richly  chid  with 
Oak  and  chestnut  forests.  The  j)Iain,  which  *^s  wry  fertile,  produces  rich  crops  qt 
grain  (including  rice),  leguminims  plants,  fruits  of  all  kinds,  olives,  and  grapes; 
while  marble,  alabat*t-r,  salt,  and  petroleum  are  the  chief  miueral  products.  Next 
to  ajjrlcu  ture,  tlie  production  and  manufacture  of  silk,  the  rearing  of  cattle  a ud 
poultiy,  chees<^-makiug,  and  the  extraction  of  the  mineral  products  afford  the  chief 
employnient  Silk  and  checso  are  the  chief  exports.  The  clieese,  however,  known 
as  Parmesan,  is  not  made  h  re,  but  in  the  neighnorhood  of  Lodi  (q.  v.). 

The  form  of  government  was  monarchical,  and  the  Koman  Catholic  rcligibt*  the 
only  one  tolerated,  though  a  few  Jews  are  found  here  and  there  through  the  country. 
The  condition  of  educaiion,  thnugii  improved  of  late,  is  still  very  defective.  The 
administrative  power  was  iii  the  hands  of  a  council  of  state,  which  was  divided  Into 
two  sections — one  for  interuiil  administration,  which  acted  as  a  couft  of  Hual  S])peal 
in  matters  of  justice,  the  otiier  for  finance  and  military  and  foreign  atfairs.  The 
revenue  of  P.  in  1859  was  estimated  at  11.666,648  liras  (jC458/)86),and  the  expenditure 
at  11,273,883  liras(jG446,490).  The  toUil  <lebt,  funded  and  red  •eniai)le,  amounted  to 
16,558,218  liras  (£616,167).  The  army  (1859)  befor(?  th«!  aunejcation,  according  to  the 
stutistics  of  1S63,  con^i8te(l  of  8290  soidiers;  the  duke  had  also  the  oecasibn.nl  to:  n 
of  tni  Austrian  regiment,  and  the  fortress  of  Piacenza  was  gai'rfsOncd  by  tiie  troops 
of  thai  power. 

Hi9toty.—V.  and  Piacenza  belonged  Intlie  time  cif  thelioraan  Emigre  to  Cis^al- 
pine  Gaul,  and  after  it«*  fall  came  under  the  rule  of  the  Lombards,  10  whose  rule 
succeeded  thijt  of  the  kin  as*  of  Italy  and  tlie  German  emi^rors.  In  tho  12th  untl 
fellowing  ci-nturles,  tliey  joined  the  other  lerritoiies  "of  Northern  Iialr  which 
«^re  stmggliug  for  liberty  and  independence,  and  cou£equeutlJ^hecaaie  wvolTiBd 

Digitized  by  VjjOOQIC 


809  JS?""*^ 

In  the  Onelph  and  GhlbelUne  conto^-ts.  Weakened  by  ffieee  Btrifep,  they  Ml 
wnrler  th»«  domination  of  thu  )K)we«ful  lionsei*  of  Eete,  Visconti,  and  Storxn ; 
but  ill  1499  ihi-y  pa^»cd  nnd<r  tlie  yoke  of  tlin  French  monwch,  Louie  XH.*  from 
^\iiom  tliey  were  pooti  recovered  by  tm  Emperor  Maximilian,  luid  handecl  ov<r 
to  Vo])e  Leo  X.  In  1613.  They  continued  under  tlie  sovereignty  of  the  popes  lill 
1543,  when  they  wtre  alienated  by  Pope  Paul  HI.,  smd  witl»  the  tsurroundlng  terri- 
t(My  were  erected  into  a  duchy  for  his  natural  eon  Pier-Luigi  Faruese,  tho 
rrandfatlier  of  AlessuDdro  Fanicse,  the  celebiafed  regeur  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries. On  the  extiuetlou  of  the  nnde  line  of  Fnnn-ae,  in  1731,  bv  the  death  of 
the  eiglith  duke,  Antonio,  hi*  nloce  Klieal>etli,  ih«  queen  of  Pliilfp  V.  of  Spain, 
obtained  the  duchies  for  her  fon  Don  Carlo?,  wlio,  Jiowever,  exclmnged  them  in 
1736  with  Austna  for  tiie  thi-One  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  In  1748  they  were  re- 
stored along  with  Gnastalla  to  Spiiii.  and  became  a  duchy  for  the  Infttnte  Don 
Piiilip,,witli  a  reversion  to  Austria  in  case  of  the  failure  of  his  maie  descendant?,  or 
of  aity  of  tliem  ascendinsj  tiie  Spiinish  or  Nea)>ohtan  tlirone.  Philip  was  Hucceeded 
ill  1765  by  his  son  Ferdmynd.  wlio  was  an  ab  e  and  enlightened  ruler,  and  expelled 
theJeSiifts  in  1763.  He  dien  in  1S02,  and  his  dominions  were  immediate^  taken 
liossessipn  of  by  the  Frencli,  and  were  iucorporatt-d  with  France  under  the  desijrna- 
tion  of  the  department  of  Tnro  m  1806.  Ii.  1814,  by  tiie  treaty  of  Paris,  P.,  Pia- 
^cenza,  and  Quastalln  were  presented  as  a  sovenign  dneliy  to  tlie  ex-empress  Maria 
*L')ui^a,  a  proceeding  sf^'ougly  opp()<»ed  by  the  kinj?  of  Spain,  who  demanded  them 
for  Ins  sifter,  Maria  Louisa,  rlie  widow  of  Loui.*,  king  of  Etruria,  the  son  of  Duke 
Ferdinand.  Ilowever,  in  1817,  itwa-*  settled  that  Maria  Louisa  of  Austria  slionid 
pos.'-ess  the  duchies,  and  tiiat  on  her  deatli  they  slioiild  descend  to  Ferdinand 
Charles,  Dake  of  Lucci,  the  son  of  Maria  Louisa  of  Spain,  ard  the  rightful  lieir; 
and  on  failure  of  his  lieirs,  P.  should  revert  to  Austria,  and  Piacenza  to  Sardinia. 
Tlie  empress  governed  very  much  after  tlie  Austrian  fasliion,  but  witli  gentleness, 
thouirh  liberal  sentiments  were  looked  upon  by  her  with  little  favor.  On  her  dealli, 
in  1847,  tlie  Duke  of  Lucca  succeeded  as  Charles  IL,  and  certain  (xchanges  of 
territory,  pniviously  settle<l  by  the  great  powers,  took  place  with  Tuscany  and 
Modena — the  chief  of  which  being  the  transfer  of  GnBt<taIla  to  Modena  in  excnango 
for  tlie  districts  of  Villa-franciu  Treschietto,  Castevoli.  and  Melazro,  all  in  Massa- 
Carrara,  resulting  in  a  loss  to  T.  of  alK)Ut  77  English  square  miles  of  territory, 
and  a  pain  of  193  English  square  Guiles.  This  transfer  was  not  made  withimt 
gnat  discontent  on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants.  Tlio  dnke's  rule  was  severe 
aud  tyrannical,  and  on  an  address  being  pret'euted  to  him  witli  a  view  of  obtaininc  a 
reform  of  certain  al)uses,  and  a  more  liheral  political  coiiPtitutioi!,  similar  to  what 
Tusamy  had  (February  1848)  obtained  from  ils  grand-duke,  he  tlireW  himself  into 
tliearmsof  Austria,  and  consented  to  the  occupation  of  his  territoi-y  by  Ausinair 
troops.  In  March  184S  a  revolution  broke  our,  and  the  duke  was  compelled  lo  grant 
the  popular  demands^  but  he  almost  immediately  after  retired  from  tlie  country.  P. 
joined  with  Sardinia  in  tiie  war  of  1848—1849  jgainst  Austria,  but  on  tlie  triumph  of 
the  latter  power  was  comnelled  to  nKJeive  Charles  III.  (ids  father,  Charles  IL.  hav- 
injr  resigned  liis  throne,  M;irch  1849)  as  its  ruler.  The  new  duke  recalletl  the  consti- 
tution which  Ids  fatiier  had  b*en  ccjmpelled  to  grant,  and  punislied  with  gn-at 
Bevj'rity  the  active  ag^*nts  of  tlie  revolutionary  movements  iu  liiis  dominifms.  Ilia 
arldtrary  measures  were  e tfectivoly  seconded  by  his  chief  minister,  an  Englishman 
named  Ward,  who  shared  tlie  public  obloquy  with  his  master.  After  Charles  Ill.'a 
il8^!assination  in  Marcii  1864,  hisAvidow  Louise-Marie-Therese  de  Bourl)on,dauglitcr 
of  the  last  Duke  of  Berry  (q.v.*,  assumed  the  government  for  the  Iwdioof  of  her  son 
liobert  I.,  and  made  some  attempts  at  politicjij  reform;  but  owing  to  tlie  exeittd 
state  of  tlie  i>eopl<j  they  were  littlo  effective,  and  she  and  her  son  were  compelled  to 
lejiye  the  couiitiT^  iu  1869,  on  the  outbreak  c  f  a  new  war  between  Sardii  i  t  and  Aufit- 
tria.  In  Marcli  ISth  of  the  following  year  the  country  was  annexed  to  Sardinia,  and 
it  now  forms  a  part  of  tlie  kingdom  of  Italy,  constitutinu:  tlie  two  provruces  of 
Parma  (area  1261  Eiiglisii  square  miles,  pop.  in  1871,  264,609),  and  Piac  nza  (area  966 
Engl it*h  square  miles,  pop.  22.%776),  a  few  ol?  the  outlying  districts,  amounting  to 
«t)0ut  160  square  miles,  being  incorporated  with  otlier  provinces. — **  Official  Staiis- 
tics  of  tiie  Kingdom  of  Ittly  "  (Turin,  186!) ;  »♦  Budget  of  the  .fimlllas  ;  Report  of 
the  M-irauis  Pcpoli  to  tlic  Minister  of  Finances"  (Tuiiu,  1860) ;  idem,  ♦*  Report  of 
jGeaeral  Xoaea  to  tbe  Minlbter  of  War**  (1868), 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


?^r  810 

PARMA,  the  cliirf  totrti  of  the  prciviuce  of  the  f>{imennnie  In  Italv.  ft»»^  fonnerly 
tlio  caplfcil  of  thti  duchy  of  PiintU!,  Jseitnatetl  ou  both  sides  of  the  river  Piirnui,  li 
milctf  south  fromti'e  Po,  75  miles  ««oiith-east  from  Milan,  aud  a1)0Ut  the  earn©  dls- 
tviiic^  &i8t-U()rih-eai«t  from  Oi-noa,  with  a  popuhition  (1872)  of  45,609. 

'I'ho  town  is  of  a  circular  form,  ond  i«  i»nrntuuded  hy  vfu\\»  and  ditches  flaoked  by 
ha-tiona;  tlu?  Btr«^et?  are  straght  and  \vid<'»  aud  me  t  at  right  angtes,  the  chidf  ot 
themj  a  part  of  ih«!  Komau  Vin  ^fimilla,  cro.«*5hijr  the  city  mmi  eaj»t  to  west,  and 
dividnig  it  luto  two  nearly  eqnd  oartA  P.  i»«  celebrated  for  its  churchi'S.  10  in  num- 
ber, the  chef  of  which  .-iretlie  jjmmo,  or  Cafliedral  (consecrated  1106  a.i>.),  built 
chiefly  In  the  Loint)Hrd  Ptyle,  hating  the  interior  udorued  with  niiigniiceut  fre«;oc8 
by  Uilrre^jiio.  and  paiutinga  by  other  artist?,  and  gurmonnted  by  a  beamifnl  dome: 
tne  Battwteiio,  or  Baptistery,  one  of  the  nioett  splendid  in  Italy,  itegnn  in  1106 and 
completed  in  1281 ;  the  church  of  the  Madonna deUa  Steccatt^^  courniuing  tbefumoim 
jminting of  ** Mo:<e8  breaking  the  Tubhs  of  the  Law,*'  by  Parmigiaulno.  Ttar other 
celebrated  huildlngs  are,  the  Fjirnese  Palace,  a  gloomy  and  iil-coiistrncted  edifice; 
the  Farneso  Tlieatre,  built  (1618 — 1628)  of  wood,  aud  now  in  a  mopt  dilnprdnted  con- 
dition. P.  has  a!so  a  library  containing  120,000  vohnnef,  tncstly  well  selected,  and 
many  of  tiiem  rare  and  valuable  works ;  a  museum  of  antiquities ;  a  botanic  garden  ; 
a  t-heatre  (Teoiro  xVieow) ;  an  academy  of  flue  arts,  fonnocd  in  1762,  po^sej^sing  a 
collection  of  600  pictures,  many  of  which  art*  exceedingly  valuable.  ITie  picturp*^ 
most  highly  esteemed  are  the  "Madonnas"  of  Corr<^ggio  aud  Frauck,  the  •*  St 
Jorome  "  of  Correggio,  and  the  '•  Jesus  Glorified ''  of  Raimael. 

Ilie  mamifnctnrera  of  P.  ar«  stockings,  porcelain,  eugnr^  wax-candles,  and 
vsr^eis  of  crystal,  a'ao  silk,  cotton,  and  fustian  stuffs.  The  cliuf  exports  are 
ciieese  and  silk  goods ;  and  in  June  there  is  an  anuiuil  silk  f^ir. 

PARMA,  Battlf?  of.  An  indecisive  engagement  took  place  her"  June  29, 1484» 
b  •twi'en  tlie  confederattid  armifs  of  England,  France,  and  Sitftin,  andttie  Austri.-iite't 
and  on  June  19,  1799,  the  French  undt  r  Macdtmald  were  routed  by  the  Rns^imis 
under  Sawarof,  with  a  loss  of  10,000  men  and  4  generals. 

PARME'LIA,  a  g^'nus  of  Llchvns.  with  a  leafy  horieontal  tballus  whleh  is  lobcd 
and  cut:  and  orbicular  shields  {anotheoia)  flbced  by  a  cmtral  jwint,  concave,  and 
bordered  by  tlie  inflext^d  thallus.  Ttie  species  pre-  numerous,  and  many  are  found 
in  Bdtaln.  Some  of  them  are  occasionally  emphiycd  in  dyeing.  Various  chemi- 
cal priiicipl  "8  have  bet-u  disc<)ver«'d  in  li  "lien<<  of  this  genus,  as  Usntne  or  Uvnio 
Add  (also  found  In  sp'.^cies  of  the  genus  (funea),  and  Parietin.  Valuable  medicinal 
•^rdpt-rtles— tonic  and  febrifugal— I lave  b -en  a-^crihjd  to  P.  parietinoy  the  Comnvon 
Tellow  Wall  Lichen,  or  Ciunmon  Ydlow  Wall  Moss  of  the  herb  sliops.  a  bright 
yellow  sp(!cies  with  deep  orange  ahiekls,  plentiful  ou  walls  and  trees  in  Britain  aud 
most  pa  lis  of  Europe^ 

PARME'NIDfiS,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  Elca,  in  Lower  Italj',  and  in  thcopinionof 
the  ancients  the  preaiesf  member  of  the  Eleatie  school,  /!onrii*he<l  ahoui  the  middle  of 
the  5th  c,  B.C.  Nothing  is  kuowu  witli  certainty  n-garding  his  life,  hut  hf;  is  said  to 
have  visiti'd  Athens  in  his  old  ag  •,  and  to  h  ive  c  •nvi'rs"d  with  Socrates,  then  quiie  a 
youth.  The  story,  though  it  n-sts  on  the  authority  of  Plato,  has  a  suspicious  air,  and 
setMus  as  If  it  were  Intended  to  account  for  tne  influ  uce  which  thi-.  philosophy  of  P. 
undoubtedly  exercised  on  that  of  Socratrs  and  Plato  themselves.  P.,  like  X<«o- 
p'laues  of  Colopbon,  sometimes  re^sinlfd  as  the  fir^t  of  tiie  Eleaiics,  expounded  liis 
philosophy  in  verse— his  only  work  being  a  di<lactic  poem  **0n^  Nature."  The  lead- 
in*^  d«rsig»i  of  this  poem  is  to  demonstrate  the  reali'y  of  At>so!uto  Beins,  the  noii- 
exi-*t  nee  of  which  F.  declares  to  be  inconc -Ivable,  but  th«^  nature  of  which,  on  tlio 
otiier  hand,  he  admits  to  be  equally  inconceivable,  inasmuch  as  it  is  dissoci.-ded  from 
every  limitation  rinder  whic'i  man  thinks.  P.  is  not  a  tlwologist  in  speculation,  seek- 
ing rather  lo  indeniify  his  •*  Absolute  Being  "with  '*Tlious;ht"than  With  n  '*  Deity." 
Only  frairmcntJ*  of  liis  poem  remain,  wliich  have  been  8ei>araiely  edited  by  FfiHeboru 
(Zmiiehnn.  1795);  another  coll  ction  is  that  by  Brandis,iu  his  **ComnjentatiouesEle- 
ancjE"  (Altcnn,  1815);  but  th  ■  host  is  to  be  found  in  Karslen's  " Philosophorum 
GnBcorum  veterum  R.'liqulae"  (Am.«-tel(jd.  1835). 

PAEMIGIANO,  G  rolamo  Francc'^co  Maria  Mazxola.  call'd  Parmigiaiio,  orPnrmi- 
giauino,  boru  at  Parma  in  1503^  uu  able  }>iiiutcr  of  tlie  Lombard  8cIig«1,  and  tbe  moat 


?: 


y  Google 


CI  1  Tarxnm 

Oil  Parodf 

dirttognishcd  of  tlioM  wbo  followed  the  style  of  Corregglo.  'B3{»  plctnrca  attracted 
much  uttmiiioii  w^cii  be  \v««  little  more  than  fourteen  years  of  Jige.  In  1528  he  went 
to  Rome  to  follow  out.  hi«  ftudies,  aud  wjjs  soon  favorably  notice<l  and  employed  by 
Ciemeut  VII.  He  was  iu  that  city  wlieti  ii  wa*  atormed  by  (he  imi>erialist8  nnfler 
Bourbon  lu  152T,  and,  It  is  said,  was  cahnly  at  work  on  his  pfcluro  of  **The 
Vi.*!on  of  St  Jeixime"  (now  in  the  National  Gallery.  London)  when  eoldiers,  bent 
on  iiilla^'e,  bnr?st  Into  his  studio.  He  was,  however,  protected  by  their  leader. 
After  this  event  be  left  liome  for  Boloirua,  where  he  ])ainted  vadous  important 
worlcs,  and  returned  to  Parma  in  1531.  Having  engaged  to  execute  several  exten- 
eive  frescx)e8  hi  the  clinrch  of  S.  Maria  Steecata,  after  re|)eated  delays,  he  was 
thrown  into  prison  for  breach  of  contract,  and,  on  biiuir  released,  iu  place  of  car- 
rying out  his  undertaking^  he  fled  to  Canal  Masgiore,  in  the  tenMloiy  of  Cremona, 
where  lie  died  sotm  aftejwaids  in  1540.  VuHiri,  in  ids  notice  of  P.,  nitribiitei 
Ms  misfortunes  and  premature  death  to  his  passion  for  alchemy;  but  this  oft-re- 
peated story  Ims  been  dispi-ovid  by  the  resejirches  of  late  biogniphers.  He  ex- 
ecuted several  etchings,  and  some  wood-cuts  are  attributed  to  h.m. 

PARNAHI'BA,  or  Paranabyba,  a  river  of  Brazil,  rises  in  the  Sierra  dosCoroar 
dos,  between  the  pttjvinces  of  Groyas  and  Piauhi,  about  U°  s.  It  fttiws  nortli-east 
and  north,  und  enters  the  Atlantic  in  lon<;.  about  4!®  40'  w.  by  five  mouths,  widck 
«ndose  a  delta  al)ont  30  miles  wide  along  tlio  shore.  Thesu  months,  however,  vxm 
only  from  two  to  four  fathoms  deep.  It  drains  tlie  province  of  Piauhi,  and  formft 
the  t>onndMiy-]ine  between  it  and  the  nrovince  of  Marauhao.  Total  length  esti- 
Birtted  at  7*M)  miles.— A  chief  tributary  of  the  Parana  also  bears  the  name  of  Par- 
tialiiba. 

.  PARNA'SStJS,  a  mountain  greatly  celebrated  among  the  ancisnts,  and  regarded 
by  the  Greeks  as  the  central  |)Oint  of  their  country.  It  war*  in  Phocis.  it  Utm 
three  steen  {}eaks,  almos*  always  covered  with  snow,  and  seen  from  a  great  dis- 
tance, the  lii^hest  iHjing  fully  8000  feet  above  the  level  of  tlie  sea;  hut  a.'*  only  two 
of  chem  are  visible  from  Delphi,  it  was  customary  among  the  Greeks  to  speak  of 
the  two^peaked  Pannissns.  On  its  southern  sloj»e  lay  Delphi  (q.  v.),  tlie  stait  of 
the  fatoous  oracle,  and  the  fountiun  of  Castalia  (q.  v.).  Tlie  hi<rhcst  j)eak  was  the 
scene  of  the  oi^ies  of  the  worsliip  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus);  all  the  rest  of  th« 
moontain  was  sacred  to  A^ioUo  ana  the  Muses,  whence  i>ottd  were  said  to  "climb 
Parnassus,"  a  phrase  still  thus  employed. 

PARO'CHIAL  BOARD,  in  Scotland,  is  the  board  in  each  parish  which  man- 
a;jes  the  relief  of  the  poor.  In  England,  the  eanie  duty  is  performed  by  over- 
seers, and  in  tome  cases  hy  gnardiaus  of  ihe  poor. 

PAROCHIAL  RELIEF  is  the  relief  given  to  paupers  by  the  piiristb  authorities. 
See  Poor. 

PA'RODY  (Gr.  par€L,  l)eside,  and  orf«,  a  song),  the  name  given  to  a  burlesque  imi- 
tation of  a  serious  poem.  Its  peculiaiity  is  iliat  it jmsorves  the  form,  and  as  far  as 
possible  the  words  of  the  original,  and  thereby  ditfers  from  a  Traves^,  w.t>ich  is  a 
looser  and  less  litend  kind  or  burlesque.  The  invention  of  piiodies  is  eommonly 
a'-cribed  to  the  Greeks  (from  whom,  1 1  least,  we  have  derived  the  name) ;  the  first 

i>arodist,  accoixiing  to  Aristotle,  Iw.ing  Hegemon  of  Thasos,  who  flourished  during 
he  Pj^io))onne8ian  war ;  according  to  others,  Hipponax.  From  the  fragmenta  that 
are  extant  of  ancient  parody,  we  infer  that  Homer  was  the  favorite  sulgect  of  comic 
imitati<m.  Thus  Hippcmax,  in  bis  picture  of  a  glutton,  ludicrously  insinuates  a  com- 
parison 1) 'tween  the  feats  of  ins  hero  iu  editing  and  tliose  of  Achilles  in  fighting,  by 
QommeDciiig  as  follows : 

Sing,  O  celestial  goddess,  Euiymedon,  foremost  of  gluttons, 
Wlio.-e  stomach  devours  like  Charybtlis,  enter  nnuiatched  among  morials. 
The  **  Batracltomyomaclpa "  (Battle of  the  Frogs  and  Mice). eiroueonsly  ascribed 
to  Homer,  is  also  a  happy  and  harmless  specimen  of  the  paro<l3r,  wliich,  however, 
soon  beg;m  to  exchange  its  jocose  and  inoffcinsive  raillery  for  a  biting  and  (^rcastic 
banter,  of  whicli  numerous  spoeinjena  may  be  s?een  in  the  comedies  of  A listobjbanes; 
while  tbe  philosoiiher  Tiiuon  of  Phlias  invented^  audet  the  name  of  **SilJa,'^  a  slew 
9peciea  of-  eaadciU  patx)^    Aiuong  tbe  Ro&^aaia  n^  flr»t  meet  witli  tliU»  form  of  Ur 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


PvnkMC  ^  812 

eratare  In  the  period  of  the  decline.  AH  the  power  of  Nero  eonid  not  OTerent  biff 
Vcrsea  from  1>eiug  parodied  byP6rriu8.  Ainon^  moderu  nations  llie  French — as 
might  nntnrally  bo  expected  from  their  character— have  lieen  moat  a<ldictcd  to  tlify 
literanr  mimlcrj.  Corjcille  parodied  Cliapelain  in  Jiis  "  Cid,"  and  liacine  parodied 
Comefile.  The  potpmtrris  of  Dosangiers  are  considered  by  liis  criuntryracti  motlc's 
of  this  nugnicious  kind  of  iiteratare.  Schiller's  famouifi  poem  of  tbe*^JBeli"  has 
been  often  parodied  ])y  German  wits*.  In  England,  peritiips  tlie  best  compositions  uf 
this  natnre  are  the  •*  Rejected  Addresses  "  of  t  lie  b  otIuTs  James  and  Horace  Smith. 
Hai^y  will  remember,  iu  particular,  the  parody  ou  Scott's  **  Bottle  o£  Piodden  *'  in 
**  MarmioD,''  endings 

**  .  'od  rot  *em 

Were  the  last  words  of  Higgiulwthara, 
Bnrliam's  **  Ingoldoby  Legends  "  <  ontMina  a  felicitoas  pnrody  on  Wolfe's  "Unes  on 
the  Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore."    We  quote  the  first  stanza  as  a  specimen : 
Not  a  son  i«ad  he  got,  not  a  guinea  or  note, 
And  he  looked  ii.os»t  ctmfoimdediy  flurried 
As  h:;  holtod  away  witliont  piiyiiiir  his  shot. 
And  hid  laudludy  after  him  hun  led. 
Thackeray's  "  Miscellanies  "  also  contain  some  very  clever  and  satirical  prose  partH 
dies  upon  certain  cf  liis  brotlier  novdi^ts. 

The  hiBtoricul  development  of  iht;  purody  has  been  treated  by  Moscr  in  Dnnb^ 
and  Crenzer's**  Stndien  "  (6th  vol.).  See  also  Moscr'a  "  Parodiarnm  Exeuipla  *•  <Ulm. 
IS  1 9),  and  Weiaud's  **  De  Prsecipuis  Parodlaram  Homericarum  Scriptoribus  "  cGOtC 
1833). 

PARO'LB  (literally,  a  word)  Is  tiie  delaration  made  on  honor  by  nn  officer,  fn  a 
case  in  which  there  is  no  more  than  his  sense  of  iionor  to  restrain  hin\  from  hre.-ik- 
ing  his  word.    Thus  a  prisoner  of  war  may  be  rcleaj»ed  fi-om  actual  prisou  on  his 

r:iroIe  that  he  will  not  gob<;yojid  ccriain  designated  limits;  or  he  may  even  be  al- 
»we<l  to  retnrn  to  his  own  country  on  his  parole  not  to  flght  a«?ain,  during  the  exist- 
ing war,  against  his  captors.  To  break  parole  is  acconuti^d  infamous  in  all  civilised 
n  itions,  and  an  offlc(?r  who  has  so  fur  forgotten  his  i>o:4ition  as  a  gentlemen  ceases 
to  have  any  claim  to  the  treatment  of  an  honorable  man,  nor  can  he  expect  quarter 
should  he  again  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy  he  has  deceived. 

PAROLB  EVIDENCE,  In  Law.  meftns  sncli  evidence  as  ia  given  by  witnesses  hj 
word  of  month  at  a  trial  or  hearing  of  a  cause.  Parole  Agreement,  in  English  Law, 
means  any  agreement  mad;?  either  l)y  word  of  mouth  or  by  writing  not  under  i-eal. 
If  the  ngreement  is  nmdc  by  writing  undcM*  seal,  it  is  called  a  deed,  or  indenture,  or 
covenant,  according  to  the  natnrv.*  uf  its  contents. 

PAKOPAMISA'N  MOUNTAINS.    See  Apohanistan. 

PA'ROS,  one  of  the  larger  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archiptlago,  is  situated  west  of 
Naxos,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  channel  fromiour  to  six  miles  W;dc  Great- 
est  iensth,  15  miles;  ;;reaiest  br«adtii,  9  miles;  area,  al>out  93  square  ndles;  popw 
tfOOO,  Ttie  sorface  is  hilly,  the  scenery  picturesque,  and  the  soil  naturally  fertile,  but 
Imperfectly  cultivated.  The  island  is  e!<|>ecially  |>rodn<'tive  in  cotton*  wax,  honey, 
))artridges,  and  wild  pigeons.  Near  the  middle  of  the  island,  the  mountuin  Cnpres^o 
(ancient  MarpeMa)^  abounds  in  the  famous  Parian  marble,  whicli  was  used  by  many 
of  the  greatest  sculptors  of  antiquity.  Parekhia.  on  the  west  coast,  is  the  principal 
town,  and  Naiiesa,  on  the  north  coast,  is  the  chief  port 

In  ancient  times.  P.,  which  is  said  to  liave  been  colonised  by  Cretans,  attained 
araat  maritime  prosperity,  and  became  woaUli^  and  powei'fnl.  It  submitted  to  tbo 
Persians :  and  after  the  battle  of  Marathon  was  assailed  ineffectually  by  Miltiad^, 
who  received  here  the  wound  of  \jrhich  he  soon  after  died.  After  the  defeat  of  Xeiw 
xes,  P.  came  under  the  supremacy  of  Athens,  and  siiared  the  fate  of  the  oUier  Cy- 
dadesi.  ArchilochnSythe  inventor  of  Iambic  verse,  was  bom  here. 
„    PARiyTip  GLAND.    See  SAUVigat  Gu^mds. 

PA'RQXJETRY,  a  kind  of  wood  moeidc  used  only  for  flooring.  The  art  of  mak- 
ing ittlaicrwood  floors  has  until  lately  inach  declined  in  this  6oiuibr]^,  bat  Oii  flie  cda-i 


y  Google 


.813 


Parol* 
farrakoAt 

tlnenl  H  has  been  mach  in  n»e.  and  hna  been  carried  to  erent  perfection,  parquetry 
floors  are  n^mnlly  of  uak,  but  otiicr  and  more  oriiuuietiUiT  woods  have  a  8o  be«'u  nmcli 
U{«e«l  for  giving  variety  and  beaaty  to  tlie  pattern.  In  the  nior«  elaborate  kfiids  of 
parquetry,  veneers  are  u»edj  bnt  it  U  inncn  more  generally  composed  of  bhjcke  of 
vioiyd  ^quarrd  ftt  the  side?,  and  laid  down  so  Jis  to  combine  and  form  u  geometric 
pattern.  Of  late,  the  tasti;  for  tills  work  has  revived  in  Britain,  and  it  is  beginning 
to  he  extensively  employed  lu  the  belter  class  ot  buildings. 

PAHK,  Samnel.  LL.  D.,  a  once  notable  scliolar,  was  born  Jannnry  15,  1747,  at 
Harrow-ou-tlie-Uill.  He  entered  Emmannei  Colh^ge,  Cambridge,  in  1705;  but  the 
death  of  his  father,  two  yeai-s  afterwards,  necessitated  his  doing  fomctliinu  for  him- 
self, and  he  was,  in  consequence,  induced  to  accept  an  assixtant-niaslersliip  at  liar- 
row,  where  ho  remained  tlve  years.  The  head-mastersldp  tlien  becoming  vacant,  P. 
applied  for  it,  hnt  wm«  rejecti'd,  wherejiijon  he  left,  and  started  as  an  iiidependent 
school niafiter.  In  1777,  he  wasam>ointed  Master  of  Colchester  School,  wlicre  he  was 
ordained  priest,  and  obtaim-d  the  curacies  of  Ilytlie  and  Trinity  Church.  Next 
year,  he  became  Master  of  Norwich  School;  but  in  1786,  settled  ai  Hatton  in  Wan* 
wickshire,  wliere  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  In  1787,  he  pnbllplied  an  edition  of 
Bellenden,  to  which  he  prefixed  his  celel)rat<  d  preface,  which  is  as  remarkable  for  its 
uncompromising  advocacy  of  Wliig  principles  as  for  the  scrupulous  Ciceroniuniam 
.  of  its  La'tinity.    He  died  March  6,'  1826. . 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  underbtand  the  reputation  which  P.  once  had.    None 


and  even  a  };reat  scholar,  10  undoubted,  for  he  could  write  Lntinof  Clceroiilan  purity 
and  finish ;  but  it  is  equally  undoubted  that  he  never  did  anything  with  his  l)oastea 
scholarship.  P.  has  left  the  world  absolutely  nothing  to  ke<  p  it  m  remembrance  of 
him,  yet  his  complete  works  (edited  by  Dr  J.  Johnstone  in  1828)— exclusive  of  his 
contdbntlons  to  periodicals— form  eight  enormous  tomes,  and  contain  67S4  octavo 
pages,  many  of  them  printed  in  smalltype.  They  relate  to  matters  historical,  cilticul 
and  metaphysical,  bnt  in  all  of  them  *^  the  thread  of  Parr's  verbosity  is  finer  than  tfte 
staple  of  his  argument."  What,  then,  gave  him  the  fame  tliat  he  certaiulv  enjoyed 
during  his  life  7  Beyond  all  question,  it  was  his  convcrsaitional  powei-s.  Uu  wax  an 
amaziiig,  an  overwiielming  talker.  Bold,  dogmatic,  ari-(>g»nt,  with  a  memory  pro- 
foundly and  minutely  nitentive,  and  \vith  a  genuine  gift  of  ephemeral  epigram,  he 
seemed,  at  the  tables  of  statesmen,  and  wits  and  divines,  to  be  u  man  of  tremendous 
talent,  capable  of  any  literary  feat ;  bnt  the  learning  antl  the  nparlee  have  left  little 
trace  of  tlieir  existence,  and  pnpterity  declines  to  admire  the  wonders  that  it  has 
neither  seen  nor  hcjird.  See  De  Quincey's  famous  es-ay  on  •*  Dr  Samuel  Parr  on 
Whiggism  in  iti»  Relations  to  Literature  "  (Author's  edition,  vol.  6,  Ediu.  Adam  and 
Charies  Black,  1862). 

PA'RSA.    SeeJACAMA. 

PARRAKEE'T,  or  Parroquet,  a  name  very  commonly  given  to  many  of  the 
smaller  species  of  the  parrot  family ;  generally  to  species  having  long  tills,  and 
natives  of  the  Bust  Inahs,  Africa,  and  Australiis  not  so  frequently  to  American 
species  ;  although  it  is  sometimes  also  api^li*  d  to  t-ome  of  these,  ind  fferontly  with 
tfic  name  Parrot. — Otieof  the  most  beautiful  groups  of  the  PiHtt io'da.  combinifg 

rbcefulness  of  form  with  splendor  of  plutnttge,  is  that  to  which  the  Aubxandrima 
or  Kino  P.  {PalcB&i'nis  AlexandH)  1>elongs.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  common 
pii;eon,  green,  with  a  red  collar,  whence  its  name  lling  P.,  and  is  a  native  of  the 
jSast  Indies.  It  is  said  to  have  been  brought  to  Europe  by  Home  of  the  members  of 
Alexander  the  Great's  expedition  to  India,  and  to  have  been  tlie  first  of  the  parrot 
tribe  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Homann,  by  whom  it  was  highly  prised,  as  it  still  is, 
not  only  for  its  beauty,  but  for  its  docility  and  its  power  of  imftaiing  human  K])eech. 
L'ke  many  of  its  tribe,  it  ix  greuarious,  and  immense  flocks  make  their  abode  In 
some  of  tJie  cocoa-nut  groves  of  tlie  western  jmris  of  Ceylon,  filling  the  air  with  the 
most  deafening  screams.  Tlie  Ring  P.  has  many  congeners,  natives  cidefiy  of  tlie 
East  Indies,  exhibiting  much  variety  of  si)]endi<l  plumage.--^mewhat  like  them 
in  leiigtli  and  form  of  tall,  but  ^ith  longer  and  stronger  legs,  is  the 
OBOUifS  P.,  or  Gbouno  PAimor  {f^tzophorti^  /bnmonui)t  of  Aostnuui^  a  bird 
very  common  in  all  tbe  southern  put  ts  of  New  Holltind  and  In  Van  Diemdi's  Laud, 


Digitized  by 


Google 


iiibabitiujT  9crvb$  or  gnam^  covered  with  ver>'  low  ni»^erwo©cf.  Ite  b^hi^  are  t*'"7 
«»Iiktt  tiMNie of  p:irri>rs  in  gene  si;  it  rvkvt*  nloiii;  the  groand,  and  «*Ten  seeks  ><> 
cbcipe  f»^ni  eneiuh'S  by  riiiiiiriiir,  Hnwjlllugly  takes  wJnj;^  nml  Oion  only  for  a  »^!0"t 
low  night.  It  iiiiikeo  Dr>  nc^t.  bat  Iay»  ite  egirs  in  a  htrie  in  tlie  spoaiid.  It  is  n  tomII 
bird,  not  mucli  more  than  12  luchcs  in  en  in:  I«'ngtii,  otie  half  or  wliidi  is  fjccnpietl  by 
tlie  tell ;  itH  color,  dark  green  aUove,  yillowi-h  below,  k««  brilliant  than  in  many  of  i  Iw 

Srrol  trilx*,  bat  fluely  marked  and  moitled.  Its  fleph  lia«  w  very  stron*?  goine 
vor.  Thpre  are  nnrnt-rniis  other  Aiisiraliau  i»pcciep»  distrfbntod  in  9ev«  ral  irenera, 
some  of  wliicli,  iilthouj^h  lew  PxcltwiTely  Wiaii  that  ji'.nt  no(i<*«d,  live  and  «eek  th»  ir 
food  (HI  tfao  groiitrd.  Some  of  tiiem  exbilrit  tlie  an-alctst  ^pl  ndor  of  pliinmjje.  'Hiu 
only  one  we  hIi»H  notice  is  tl)e  Zesba  P.  {iVelopttiftacttM  nntJuItUim)^  a  very  l>«tnif- 
fnllittie  apecied,  whi<b  bins  ottm  bet  ii  bronght  to  SiiiclAod,  and  has  ^onietimej>  br  d. 
in  it.  In  tin;  TttHt  inland  plains  of  AoBtrilia,  tiiis  P.  is  to  l>e  seen  in  flocki*  of  ui.  uy ' 
biindiv.ds  feeding  on  the  seeds  of  the  gruSHe*,  wkicli  afford  food  also  to  tunny  otlier 
iiii:in  sptcies. 

PA'RRAS,  a  well-biriH  town  of  M<xfco,  in  the  static  of  Coahnila,  4T0  miN's 
Borth-we»«t  of  Mexico,  near  the  e:n«i  »l»or«  of  Lake  Pjirras.  It  derives  i»8  uaine 
froni  a  species  ol  ftidiirenons  vino  much  cultivated,  ami  has  iiIwayK  l>eeii  oelebmn-d 
ior  its  wines  and  l>randies.    Tl»epe  are  many  oltl  Bpjinish  famil.es  here.    Pop.  8000. 

PARRHA'SlUSi,  one  of  the  greatest  painters  of  nnciettt  Greece,  wai^  the  fou  of 
JBvenor.  hinwelf  an  arifsr,  and  wa?  lK>ro  yt  Ei»he.-<a.-*  in  tlie  5ih  c  B  c.  He  practis<d 
bis  profefS'On,  however,  at  A|hea«,  the  iiUwihitJiirt!*  of  wbicli  held  him  in  liigb  e>ti- 
matTon,  and  conferrid  o»  bini  the  right*  of  citizenshipi  He  wa*«  already  celebrate 
in  tlietimH  of  Socr.iies,  with  whom,  according  to  Xenophon.  he  held  a  con  versa  tio:» 
("Mem."  S,  10).  and  was  alfo  a  youuirer  con  emponiiy  of  ZiBXis.  The  date  of  hi* 
death  is  nnknown.  Seneca,  who  Kvcd !»('V«*rj«I  hnndred  ^e«r«  after,  tell* a  nM>n8ifon-< 
story  aboat  him.    IleSJiys  that  when  P.  was  painting  his  ♦•  I'roui'-iheas  Vinc'nsy  he 

Stt  bold  of  one  of  the  prisoners  tiiken  at  tiie  cipture  of  Olyiithns  by  Phihp  t>f 
acedon  ;34T  B.C.).  and  cnicifl.id  hiui  in  bis  studio  that  h«i  iniijht  copy  f ro  :<  life  the 
expression  of  agony.  FortiniateJy  for  P.'.«*  memory,  the  am^cdote  is  almos'  certiinly 
ttntme,  as  it  wonld  n^q'iini  n"  to  suppose  that  he  was  ftill  alive  aisd  painiinir  when 
Upwards  of  109  years  old.  P.  app-^ar'^  to  liave  »iirpir«sed  all  hi<  i>redece«<«»or8  in  pnii  v 
«  design,  accnncy  of  dm  wing,  force  of  t;xi>r<-ssit)n,  and  what  is  technirally  cjdl<Hl 
*•  ftnish."  Accordin«^io  Pliny,  he  was  ihc;  first  who  estihlished  a  trne  proponion  bi- 
fween  the  different  parts  of  a  picture,  and  delinested  witii  eic^uiic*?  and  pr.'Cision  all 
the  ndiintite  uf  tli  t  faitares.  even  to  {ho*e  evaii»'scei»f  motions  that  betray  the  mo-'t 
delicate  sentimonts  of  tin;  s'onl.  H^'■■  {vainted  the  extremities,  snch  as  the  hands  and 
fingers.  In  so  exquisite  a  stvlc.  tiiat  tue  int<»nn  "diate  nnrts  sci'ineil  relativdv — hrit 
4hiTy  relatively — ^Inferior.  QtrincliHan  calls  liim  the  legislator  of  his  art.  b-  cjinse  his 
canon  of  pi-oportion  for  ginls  and  h  roo-»  was  followed  by  all  contemporary  and  Mib- 
Seqnent  painters.  Amon-r  hi-*  wo:k^  w<'re  an  apparently  symboHcid  picMire  of  Jin 
Athcoian  *'  pemos  "  (**  People"),  a  **  Thesen-*.'**  Naral  Commander  in  full  Armor.'* 
**Uly}*ses  feizning  Madne^**."  -Castor  and  Pollnx,''  "JBacchrt-*  and  Virfne,"  a 
•*  Melejigt-r,  Hercnies.  and  Perfeeifs'*  on  one  «  anvas,  a  "Ciretan  Nnrs^  will  .•>  Child 
in  lier  Arni>«,"  a  ♦•  Pri«»t  ofliciatiug  with  n  Child  b  arinff  Inc<'ns<',"  "  Two  Yonnsr 
Childi-en,"  an  *'  Acliilles,**  an  '  AgaratMnuon,"  Ac.  Bat  his  snhjects  were  wot  alw  ys 
of  a  pnre  or  lofry  cliararter.  Hi-  **  Arch iga lias"  (hiirh-prie!*t  of  Cyhele)  and  his 
••Meieager  and  Atalanta"  were  nM>«t  licentlcras  repH-fsenlaiions,  and  gave  snob 
iHeasare  to  the  Empj^ror  Tiberius,  a  man  of  nnbonnded  sensn.dity,  that  be  kept 
them  in  his  bedroom,  and  valued  the  second  in  particnlar  at  more  than  a  millioii 
■e^Fterctts. 

P.  was*  of  an  excessively  p»'ond  and  avrosrant  dispositiotT.  He  called  hims'-If  the 
prince  of  painters,  and  claiined  to  l>e  det^cended  from  Apollp  ;  he  also  pjiinted  hiin- 
•elf  as  the  god  l^Qrcni^,  and  then  exposed  his  own  portrait  for  the  adorjstion  of 
the  criiwd.  His  vanity  was  eqnal  to  his  prid",  and  shewi-d  itself  i-ven  in  his  a|j|>a  p'. 
Which  wag  uf  tlic  kind  called  "gorgeoos.*'^  Hi*  ^iUerally  dress-d  In  a  pnrj)!**  rob  ; 
with  a  golden  Cringe,  sported  a  gold-^beaded  caiie,  and  wops  boots  tKd  with  gokl  a 
clasps. 

PA'RSICI0B'4Lat,  paridda)  is  rather  ajx>pnlar  than  a  legal  t<.rOT.  In  the  Komaa 
ktm  U  conqvslisudiMl  «vefy  one  wbo  mordsn-d  ft  ueoir  reiailve ;  but  in  Bt^g.'ish  thm 


y  Google 


01^  Farrrs 

term  \n  nsuNlly  confined  to  the  murderer  of  oih-'h  fatlier.  or  of  one  who  is  in  loco 
parentis.  The  parricide  doe*  not,  in  nny  respect,  diff.  r  in  Britain  from  tiie  nnirdcrcr 
of  a  stranger;  in  both  caecH,  tlie  pniiiflhnieiit  is  dt-ath  by  hanginjr.  In  tlic  Komau 
law,  a  parricide  was  punished  iu  a  nmcii  mure  i^evcre  manner,  hcin^  8ew(  d  np  in  a  ' 
leather  saclc,  along  with  a  live  cock,  viper,  dog,  and  ape,  and  cast  into  the  sea  to  take 
bis  fate  vdih  these  companions. 

PAKRISH'3  CHEMICAL  FOOD  is  the  popular  name  for  a  umi-ofRcinal  prepa- 
ration mi'dicinally  known  as  Compound  Syrup  of  Phospimte  of  Iron,  tvei-y  drachm 
of  which  contains  1  grain  of  pliosphate  of  iron,  2}^  ol  pliospiiate  of  lime,  besides 
soda  and  potash.  Mr  Par^i^h  of  Piiiladelphiu  was  the  firctto  pul)li8h  a  formula  for 
tliis  veiy  useful  compound. 

PA'KROI'  {Psiit-acuA),  a  Linnieun  cfenus  of  birds,  now  the  family  Psittacidce.  of 
the  ord>""l"  ScaTutiyres.  or  Cliuibere  (q.  v.),  con»pr»-hending  a  vnet  nnniber  of  spi  ci<'S, 
naiivesof  almost  all  tropica!  and  subtropical  rfgions;  af«'W  ppecics  extending  furthtr 
noiih  and  souili,  in  America,  iu  New  Zealand,  and  in  Van  Diemen's  Land,  tveu  to 
the  u  ighboihood  of  Lake  Michigan  in  Nortii  Au»enca,  and  lo  Terra  di-l  Pue{;o  iu 
Soutu  America.  They  are  mostly  birds  of  splendid  plumage;  tli^-y  vary  very  much 
in  size,  from  the  Great  Macaw,  njore  tljan  three  feet  in  lenirih,  tail  included,  to  the 
little  Love-hii-ds,  not  larger  than  sparrows.  They  are  mostly  gregarious,  .•  nd  are 
often  seen  in  vast  flocks,  generallv  inhabiiing  forests,  and  making  then- nests  in  trees, 
feeding  chii  fly  on  fruits  and  seeds,  partly  also  on  leaves  and  buds  ;  but  .-ome  of  theui 
dwe  ling  in  open  plains,  feediui:  <m  the  seeds  of  grast^es  and  other  plants  pf  liun.ble 
ei'owth,  bulbs  and  succulent  parts  of  vegetables,  and  living  mo^  tly  on  tl»e  ground. 
The  voice's  of  the  P.  ti'ib*  are  generally  har^h  and  discordant,  althouirh  some  of  iho 
eraaller  kinds  have  not  unpleasant  voices ;  but  many  of  the  larger  have  a  remarkable 
pi.wer  of  imitating  liuraan  speech,  and  in  domestication  become  capable  of  articulat- 
ing not  only  words  but  aeuteuccs.  They  exhibit  a  greater  d  gree  of  intelligence  than 
is  usual  iu  birds,  with  a  monkey-like  restlessness  and  love  of  trick;  and  aliliongh 
docile  and  affectionate,  are  generally  of  capricious  irritable  temper.  They  have  a 
ihort,  stout,  hard  i)eak.  rounded  on  all  sides,  and  enveloped  at  the  base  in  a  mem- 
brane in  which  the  nostrils  are  pierc  d ;  the  upp  r  mandible  geterally  much  loug<r 
than  the  lower,  much  curved,  and  sharp  point*  d.  The  tongue  is  aln:osi  always  vi  ry 
large,  thick,  round,  and  fl  shy;  the  muscles  wliich  n»ove  the  mandibles  are  more 
numerous  and  powerful  than  in  most  other  birds.  They  make  use  of  the  powerful 
booked  bill  as  well  as  of  the  feet  in  climbing  trees;  and  employ  their  feet  as  hands 
for  ho'ding  their  food,  and  bringing  it  up  to  tlie  mouth.  Their  feet  differ  from  those 
of  all  the  other  climbers,  in  l>eing  covered  with  small  tubercle- like  scales  insteiul  of 
plates.  Some  have  short  and  some  have  lonjr  tails.  Most  of  tljem  have  i^ort  wings. 
Their  intestines  a.  e  very  l(»ng  and  slend'  r.  and  without  coeca. 

The  PaiUaddm  are  easily  distinguished  Irora  alloiher  birds;  but  their  division 
into  distinct  subordinate  groups  has  not  Ijeen  fouiKl  so  ejisy.  Whilst  the  name  P. 
popularly  includes  all,  exc«'pt  that  it  is  seldom  given'  to  some  of  the  smalle:  t 
species,  soute  are  known  by  the  names  Macaw,  Cockatoo,  Parrakeet,  Lory, 
Love-bird,  &c.  See  these  heads.  But  some  of  tnase  names  are  very  vaguely 
applied.  And  although  the  P.  family  is  regarded  as  consisting  of  a  number  of  v«rv 
natural  groups,  the  characters  and  limits  or  these  groups  have  not  yet  been  very  well 
defined. 

The  uame  P.,  in  -its  most  restricted  sens^,  is  sometimes  applied  only  to  tl;o  e 
species  which  have  the  upper  mandible  veiy  distinctly  toothed,  the  lower 
mandible  longc-r  than  it  is  high:  and  the  tail  short,  and  square  or  rounded; 
but  this  use  is  rather  ornitholosical  than  popular,  the  most  restricted  yopnlar 
use  equally  including  long-tailed  spec'e^^,  such  as  the  Caroline  P.,  which 
are  o  nitholo^ically  ranked  with  the  macaws. — The  Carolikb  P.  (Covvrvs 
CaroHnen^in)  is  the  sp  cies  of  wtdcli  tlkj  northern  rangi'  extends  far  beyond  all 
others  of  its  tribe  to  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan;  although  l)y  the  increase  of 
cultivation,  and  the  war  wagetl  against. these  birtls  for  their  depredations  on 
orrlmrfls  and  com-ricks,  their  numbers  hav«  been  greatly  diminished  hi  regions 
where  tjiey  werfe  once  plentiful.  .  Its  whole  length  is  about  14  inches,  of  whicft 
mbimt  one-half  i«  ocrniMed  by  the  tail;  the  general  color  is  green,  shad<'d  wbh 
Mile,  and  diiransfiled  with  ontnfet  tlie  wing  primaries  ftlok>st  biiidc  It  is  gregaxioas. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Parrot  O  t  H 

ParaeM  OlO 

f>i-ef«r8  to  roost  in  the  hoies  of  holldw  trees,  and  in  tncb  sftttfttlonB  also  the  femalefl 
aj  their  egjTB.  It  seems  to  love  a;iltf  freqaeiitiii{f  eulc  lickH  like  pireo^s.  -  It  is  eaeily 
tamed,  but  does  not  acquire  the  power  of  articulatiou.— Of  the  Buort-talied  parrots, 
cue  of  the  best  knowu  is  the  Gbay  P.  (PsiUacnHeri/thacn«)^ a  We^t  African  sped  -a, 
'about  the  t«iSBeof  a  small  pigeun>  of  an  asli-;^ray  color,  with  a  criiiu^ii  tail.  It  is 
famoa><  for  its  docility,  its  power  of  articolntiou  and  of  imituting  iioi^eft  of  «Il 
kinds,  its  loquacity,  hii(,I  it^s  mischievousiicsf^  It  is  vi*ry  often  broui^lit  to  Europe, 
and  often  lives  to  a  great  age  in  confinement.  Individuals  imve  been  known  to 
attain  the  a^je  of  nearly  100  ye.-irs.— 'i'lie  Gbebn  Fabbots  {ChrytiQtiis\  natives  of 
the  tropical  parts  of  South  America,  are  also  auiung  lUe  short-tailed  parrots  most 
freqiieutly  seen  in  Britnin. 

PAURO  T-PISfl  {Scarua)^  a  genns  of  fishes  of  the  f.nnily  Jxibridc^  (q.  v.)  or  Cffclo 
Labridrey  of  ohiong  aud  maai.--ive  forin^  with  large  fcalets  aud  remsirkiible  for  tUe 
structure  of  their  jawH  and  teith,  the  jaws  beiug  divided  Info  halves  by  a  median 
suture,  th<;  t  -eih  incorporated  with  the  boue  in  crowded  quincunciai  ortler,  the  sur- 
face even  and  poll-'hea  iu  some  species  aud  rouirh  iu  othei-f,  the  oldest  teetlj  forming 
tht!  ironchaiit  l>ordcr  of  the  jaw,  nnd  being  giicceeded  by  othisrn  as  they  are  worn 
away,  whilst  new  ones  are  formed  l>ehiud.  The  species  are  numerout*.  Some  of 
them  fi?ed  on  fuci.  and  some  on  coral.«»,  tlie  younger  branched  of  which  lliey  crash, 
so  that  the  animal  part  affords  them  nourishment,  whilst  the  calcareous  part  is  re- 
jected. Thfv  are  flshes  gen  rally  of  brilliants  colors,  some  of  them  of  wonderfal 
splendor,  and  liave  receivtui  the  name  parrot-fish  partly  on.  this  account,  aud  paiily 
ou  account  of  a  fancied  resemhiauce  iu  their  jaws  to  a  narrot's  bill.  Most  of  thefn 
are  natives  of  tropical  seas.  One  species  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean  {S.  Creticui), 
the  ScariM  of  the  aucieDt-»,  of  which  nmny  wonderful  t^torieswere  told,  as*  to  its  love, 
its  wisdom,  its  ruminating,  its  emitting  of  sounds,  &c.,  and  which  w^as  esteemed 
th<j  most  savoiy  and  delicate  of  all  fi>»hes.  It  is  still  held  in  hii;h  esteem  for  t^c 
table.    The  Greeks  cook  it  with  a  sauce  made  of  its  own  liver  ana  intestines. 

pAKRY,  Sir  William  Edward,  commonly  known  ao  Sir  Edward  Parry,  a 
celebrated  Englisli  luivigator,  was  born  ut  Bath,  l»t.h  D-cembcr  17  0.  His  Inth^r, 
who  was  a  physiciiiii  of  some  emineuce,  destined  liim  for  the  medical  profession  ; 
but  acting  ou  the  advice  of  a  friend,  tntered  him  as  a  flii-st-class  volunteer  on  botrd 
the  Ville-de-Paris,  the  flag-ship  of  the  Channel  fleet,  in  ISt'S.  After  several  years' 
service,  he  received  hia  commission  as  limitenant,  January  6,  ISIO.  Though  tbQs 
early  engaged  inactive  sei-vice,  bis  education  liad  not  been  neglected;  he  bad  at- 
tained at  school  to  considerable  eminence  in  clasnical  knowledge;  and  for  tlie  first 
five  years  after  entering  the  navy,  he  Iiad  particularly  studied  Frtncli  and  niathp- 
inatics  under  the  chipfiin's  superintendence,  after  wliich  he  conptantly  employod 
his  lei!»ure  time  in  nautical  nnd  EHtrouomical  sindiei*.  In  Pe^)nwry  1810.  he  w.hs 
sent  to  the  Arctic  regions  in  fiommnnd  of  a  thip.  for  the  purj^bse  of  protecting  the 
Britii^h  whale  fi.'iheries  and  improving  tlie  admini  ty  charts  of  tlto^e  i-egious;  bnt 
in  1813,  he  was  recalled  and  despatched  to  j  >in  the  fleet  tiienbldcl^ding  tlie  coast 
of  the  United  States.  He  remained  on  the  North  Ameriain  station  1111  tlie  spriiig 
of  1817.  and  during  this  time  he  wrote  and  distribntecl  MS.  copies  of  a  wo^ 
cutitled  "Nautical  Astronomy  by  Night,"  iu  which  rules  were  given  f6r 
determining  accurately  the  altitude  or  the  pole  by  oliserv^t^ns  of  tlie 
fixed  stars.  .  This  work  he  subsequently  published  iu  London.  Having  re- 
turned to  England  too  late  to  take  part  in  the  African  exploring  expedition,  he 
was,  at  hid  urgent  vequesit,  backed  by  the  recommendations  of  Mr  Barrow,  stcre- 
tary  to  the  Admiralty,  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  AleMttufery  under  the  orders 
of  Captain  John  Ross  in  the  Itiabella,  and  despatched  in  search  of  the  *' North" Weet. 
Passage"  (q.v.)  in  April  1818.  The  expedition  retnnied  to  England,  having  made 
no  important  discoveries.  Tlie  ndmlrtUty  were  dissatisfied  with  the npoi t  of  Cai>tjiln 
lloas;  and  P. *s  opinion,  though  only  communicated  to  his  private  triend>«,  having 
become  known'  to  them,  he  was  again  sent  out  (May  1819),  and  this  time  comtneuced 
that  career  of  di.-«<«very  (nee  North-WXst  Passage)  wi»i«li  has  immortall«»ed  liitn 
as  the  greatt^t  of  all  Arctic  explorers.  P.  on  his  return  to  Britain  was  haUed  witti 
the  utmost  enthusiasm,  and  was  made  commander  (4ih  November  l^)  nm\  a  luem- 
l>erof  the  Royal  Bocie^v.  He  subst-quently  made  i  sectMid  and  a  third  voyage  to 
the  same  regions,  bat  effected  nothhig  further  of  Importance.    P.  4iow  devoted  MJBi 


Digitized  by 


Google 


817 


polf  to  the  dlFclinrge  of  Mb  dniloi  nK  liydrogrnphor,  Ijtit  pncli  labors  M^cre  too  monotor 
itoYis  for  one  of  his  tcmpKniment,  uticl  he  accordiuKly  pi'eptired  a  jplim  of  nn 
expedition  for  reactiint;  the  nortli  polf,  which  bcinp  suDuiitted  to  the  ndniirultv  and 
approved  of  by  them,  his  old  ship  the  Jieela  whs  fitted  out  for  a  j)olur  <'Xj)ediiioi), 
and  P.  set  Pail  in  lier,  nccorapanicd  by  LifUtriiant  J.  C.  Kosp,  4ih  April  182T.  Sih5 
PoLAn  VoTAQEa.  The  "  Jonruuls  "  of  i  hese  voyagus  were  published  by  oi-der  of  tt.o 
admiralty. 

P. '8  career  ab  on  rxplorer  was  now  closed,  and  he  again  retnrncd  to  his  duties  ns 
hydiograplicr,  but  IiIh  health  now  guv«  way  mider  tliis  sedentary  mode  of  life,  and 
he  exchanged  his  office  for  that  of  commissioner  to  the  Agricuilural  Company  of 
Australia,  for  which  country  ho  saihul  20ih  July  1829.  He  returned  to  England  in 
l^ovember  1834,  and  filled  in  succession  various  government  up})olntmeniH  up  till 
December  1846,  when  he  retired  Ironi  active  sii"vice,  receiving  a  sinecure  office.  On 
4th  June  1852  lie  was  raised  to  tlie  rank  of  Reur-udniiral  of  the  White,  and  in  ihe  fol- 
lowing year  was  ap)>ointed  lieuienani-trovernor  of  Greenwich  Hospilul— an  office 
which"  he  held  till  ids  ilcath,  Tth  July  1555,  ut  Eros  in  Germany  whilbcr  he  had  gone 
for  the  beiieflr  of  his  health.  A  complete  ediiion  of  hi?  voyagoa  was  pubilsln  d  in 
1833  (Lond.  5  vols.).  Hit*  life  has  been  written  by  his  son,  the  Rev.  Edward  Parry, 
M.A.  of  Balliol  Cclloge,  Oxford  (186T). 

PA'RSEES.  (People  of  Pars  or  Far.-*,  i.  o.,  ancient  Persia)  is  the  name  of  the  small 
remnant  of  the  followers  of  the  ancient  Peri-ian  religion,  as  reformed  by  Zerdnnht, 
Zoroaster,  as  he  is  commonly  called.  They  arc  also  known  under  the  denomination 
of  Guebres,  under  which  head  some  aceount  will  be  louiid  resp<cting  their  recent 
history  and  present  nnnibers.  The  prc-Zoronstrain  phase  or  phafsea  oi  their  prime- 
val religion  will  probablv  for  ever  remain  shrouded  in  deep  obscurity ;  so  much,  how- 
ever, is  fully  establishorf  by  recent  investigations,  that  thir^,  and  what  afterwards  l)e- 
CJime  the  Brabmanlc  religion,  were  ortghially  identical ;  that  in  con8(  quence  of  cer- 
tain social  and  political  conflicts  betwi  en  the  Iranians  aiul  the  Aryans,  who  after, 
wards  peopled  Hindustan  Proper,  an  undying  fend  arose,  in  the  course  of  which  the 
form- rfoi-swore even  the  hitherto  common  faith,  and  established  a  counter  faith 
(Ahnra),  a  principal  do^ma  of  which  wan  the  transformation  of  the  ancient  now  hos- 
tile, pods  into  demons,  and  the  branding  of  tho  entire  l>eva  religion  as  the  source  of 
all  niischief  and  wickedness.  Zerdnsht,  the  prophet,  whose  era  is  given  verj-  difEer- 
ently  by  ancient  writers  and  by  modern  investigatoi-s,  placed  variously  between  500  or 
60t)  B.O.  (Rotit)  and  1200  b.".  (iJau<{),  liad,like  all  prophets  and  reformers,  many  pre- 
decessors, chiefly  among  the  Sos'.iyantos  or  Fire-pricfta  (Atharvans) ;  yet  to  him  be- 
longs the  decisive  act  of  separating  forever  the  contendinir  parties,  and  of  istabli^hing 
a  new  community  with  a  mw  faith — the  Mazdayasnaor  Parsee  religion  proper,  which 
at)>'Orbed  the  old  Ahuva  religion  of  the  fire-pries  is.  Referring  for  a  summary  of  what  is 
known  and  stiecluated  about  the  |>erson  ot  tlie  great  reformer  to  t\\fi  article  under  his 
narae,we  shall  lure  confine  ourselves  to  pointing  out,  as  the  characteristics  of  his  lead- 
ing doctrines,  that  the  principle  of  his  theology  was  as  pure  a  Monotheism  as  ever  the 
followers  of  I  lie  Jehovistic  faith  were  enjoined.  He  tttught  the  existence  of  but  oi  o 
dtity,  tlie  Ahiira,  who  is  calleti  MazdaO  (see  Ormuzd),  the  creator  of  all  things,  to 
whom  all  good  things,  spiritual  and  worldly,  belong.  1'he  principle  of  his  s|)ecnTativo 
)>hiIosophy  is  dualism,  i.  e.,  the  sitpposiilon  of  two  primeval  causes  of  the  real  and  iu- 
tellectnal  world ;  the  Vohu  ManO,  the  Good  Mind  or  Reality  (Gaya),  and  the  Akem 
ManO,  or  the  Naujiht  Mind,  or  Non-reality  (Ajy&iti);  wliiletlie  principle  of  his  moral 
philosophy  is  the  triad  of  Thought,  Word,  and  Deed.  Not  long,  however,  did  tho 
pure  idea  of  Monotheism  prevail.  The  two  sides  of  Ahura  Masds.A's  beinj^  were 
fcikeu  to  be  two  distinct  personages— God  and  Devil— jind  they  each  took  their  duo 
])laces  in  the  P.irs«*c  pantheon  in  the  couim!  of  time :— chiefly  through  the  influence 
of  the  sect  of  the  Zendiks,  or  followers  of  the  Zend,  i.  e..  Interpretation.*  Accord- 
ing to  Zerdusin  there  are  two  intellects,  as  there  are  two  lives—one  mental  and  one 
I>oa%/ and,  asain,  there  must  be  distinguished  an  earthly  nnd  a  future  Wtc,  Tho 
immortality  of  souls  was  taught  long  before  the  Semites  Imd  adopted  this  belief. 
There  are  two  abodes  for  the  departed— Heaven  (GarA'Dem&na,  the  House  of  tho 
Angels*  Hymns,  Tuzna,  xxviil.  10;  xxxiv.  2;  cf.  Is.  vi.,  Revelat,  &c.)  and  Hell 
(Dr&jd-Deinftna.  the  reside?: ce  of  Beviis  and  the  priests  of  the  Deva  religion).  Bo- 
twetni  the  tu'O  there  is  the  Bridge  of  the  Gatherer  or  Judge,  which  the  souls  of  tho 
pious  aloue  can  puss.     There  \<'i\\  be  a  geueral  resurrection,  which  is  to  precede  the 


y  Google 


ParteM 


818 


lart  jndguiRiit,  to  fortell  wh!cli  Soetosh  (Sopkyans),  the  pon  of  Zerdnslit 
f«pii-]M«ally  bejjorteii  (hy  later  prhiita  divided  into  ibr«e  l)Cl•80^^),  will  b;  sint 
by  Aluiraiujiz  lao.  Tne  M'orld,  wbicli  by  tliat  time  will  be  utterly  steeped 
\n  wi-etcliediices,  darkne??,  nnd  bIu.  will  then  b6  renewed;  deatb,  the  arch- 
ficHd  of  creaiioii,  will  bo  Plain,  ana  life  will  be  everlaBt  ng  «ud  holy.  Tbcfte 
i  .0  the  outlines  of  the  Zoi-oaHfi'Jnu  crevA,  as  It  floiiri«lied  up  to  the  rime 
of  AlexandtT  the  Oreiit,  thrtjuuhout  aucieut  Irania,  iuclnding  ITppor  Tibet, 
<.'abuli>tau,  Sogdiaiiaj  Bactiir.iia,  Mutlia.  Pf.r.sif«,  &c.;  and  it  ia curious  tostpecnlat«*  on 
the  cou!»eqiieuce8  which  ujight -have  followed  Mjirtitbon  and  Salaniin  had  the  Pcr- 
tiaus b-ou  victorioua.  The  reli^riou  of  Orrauud  would  have  dethroned  tliu  Olyinpi- 
ini.-',  a9  it  deThroned  the  gods  of  the  Assyrians  and  Bahyjoniaus ;  and  It  x^'ould  cer- 


tainly have  left  its  traces  upon  thewiiolc  civilised  world  unto  this  day  in  ti  much 
more  direct  and  pttlpablc  sl»ape  than  it  now  dors.  From  the  death  Of  Alexander, 
howevei,  it  L'radually  lost  gromul,  and  rapidly  declined  under  his  succej'S0r>,  until. 


in  the  time  of  Alexander  Sc!veru%  Ardshir  ♦*  Arianos  "  (^f.  Miikhond  ap.  de  Sacv, 
*•  MAmoJres  eur  div.  Aut  de  la  Perse,*'  &c.,  p.  59  ,  the  80u  of  Babv  gan,  called  by  the 
Greeks  and  Koman:«  ArtaxTxea  or  Artaxan  s.  who  claimed  descent  from  the  ancient 
royul  lineage  of  Persia,  took  the  field  againnt  Ariabauus.  and  slew  him  (225),  ihna 
puttiueau  end  to  the  four  hundred  years'  ruleof  tlie  Parthiaiis?,  and  foundtd  the 
Bassamde  dynasty,  'i'his  he  effected  in  conjuction  with  the  national  Persian?,  wha 
liated  the  "semi-Greek"  dynasty  of  the  Ai-sacidB5,  their  leaning  to  the  foreign?  and 
contempt  for  the  Zend  relijfion,  and  flnaUy  for  their  i)OvvfcrIe.8sncs'8  against  tiie 
Fpreading  conquests  of  tlie  llomaus.  U'he  first  act  of  the  new.  king  was  the  general 
and  complete  Vv'storatiou  of  the  jjarMy  lost,  partly  forgotten  books  of  Zeixlnsht, 
which  ho'effected,  it  is  related,  chiefly  through  the  inspiration  of  a  Ma^u  Saire, 
cliosen  out  of  40,000  Magians.  The  hacivd  volumes  wer«  ti-anslatt.d  Out  of  t.he  orig- 
inal Zend  ir.to  the  vernacular,  and  dlssi^minated  ambng  the  people  at' large,  jaud  fir& 
tempK-s  were  reared  throughout  the  length  and  tiie  breadth  of  the  laiicL  The  Magi 
or  priestd  were  all-powerful,  and  their  hatred  was  directed  principally  against  the 
Greeks.  "Fur  too  long."  wrote  Ai-dsliir,  the  king,  to  all  the  provinosof  the  Per- 
siau  empire,  "for  more  than  five  hundred  years,  has  the  poison  of  Ar!i>totle  spread." 
The  fanaticism  of  the  priests  often  also  fmiud  Tent  against  (Christians  and 
Jiws.  The  latter  have  left  us  some  account  of  th ;  tyranny  and  oppn-s- 
eion  to  which  they  as  unbelievers  were  exposed— such  as  the  prohibition,  of  fire 
and  light  in  their  houses  on  Persian  fast-days,  of  the  slaughter  of  an- 
imals, tlie  baths  of  purification,  and  the  burial  of  the  dead  according, 
to  the  Jewish  rites— prohibitions  only  to  be  bought  off  by  h«av\  bi-il>es.  In  return, 
the  Magi  weie  cordial  y  hated  by  the  Jews,  and  rem  lin  branded  in  their  writings  by 
the  title  of  demons  of  hell  {Kidtf^hiu,  72  a).  To  accept  the  instruction  of  a  Ma^riau 
is  pronounci  d  by  a  Jewish  sag  ;  to  be  an  offence  wortliy  of  deuJh  (Skahb.  75  a. ;  156 
b.).  This  mutual  animosity  does  not,  however,  apjiear  to  have  long  continued,  ^iuce 
in  subsequent  times  we  frequently  find  Jewish  sages  (Samuel  the  Arian  &<\)  on 
terms  of  friendship  and  confidence  with  the  l;:ter  Sassanide  kings  (cf.  A!o«i  Kataii, 
26,  a.  Ac)  From  ihe  period  of  its  re-eslablishm.rnt,  the  Zoroaairian  religion  flour- 
isiied  uninterruptedly  for  about  400  year",  till,  in  651  a.d.,  at  the  great%battle  of 
Nahavand  (near  EcbHtaua.-,  the  Persi'in  army,  under  Yezdezird,  was  routed  by  tlie 
CillfOmar.  Th;  substtqiient  file  of  those  that  remaiu'd  faithful  to  the  creed  of 
their  fathers  has  b.  en  described,  as  we  said  before,  und  r  Gtjebres.  At  present, 
8(mie  remnanta  inhabit  Yezd  and  Kirm&u.  on  the  ancient  soil  ot  their  race;  others, 
who  preferred  euiigratiou  to  the  eiid'ess  tribulations  inflicted  upon  them  by  the 
conqiii'riuj'  race,  lound  a  nstlug- place  along  the  western  coast  of  India,  chiefly  nt 
Bombay,  Sumf,  Nawsari,  Achmed&l)Ad,  anaihe  vicinity,  where  they  now  live  under 
Kuglish  rqle,  and  are  recognised  as  one  of  the  most  respectable  and  thrking  sections 
of  the  connuunity,  l>eingfor  the  most  part  merchants  and  landed  proprietors.  TJiey 
bear,  eqinilly  with  their  poorer  brethren  in  Persia,  with  whom  they  have  of  late  re- 
newed some  slight  intercourse  for  religious  and  other  ptu'posea — such  as  their  Riv$- 
yets  or  corresixjude;  ces  on  important  and  obscure  dO!:irinal  points — the  very  highest 
characterfor  honesty,  industry,  and  pc!»cefulness,^vhiie  their  beuevolence,  iuielU- 
gence,  and  mairnificence  outvies  that  of  most  of  their  European  fellow-subjiiicta. ' 
I'heir  ge'^jeial  appearance  is  to  a  certain  degree  prepnssessing,  and  many  of  their  ' 
women  are  etriknigly  beautiful.    In  all  civil-matters  they  are  sdbjt^t  to  the  la^"  dt 


y  Google 


B19 


Paneet 


the  conntjy  rtiey  iii1vib!t ;  and  ite  langtmge  is  also  thefrs.  except  In  the 'ritual  of 
their  religion,  wi.en  the  iiolv  hi  guuj^e  v(  Zeud  i»  used  by  the  inicsts,  who,  asa  rule, 
have  no  more  knowledge  of  it  tliau  the  hiity. 

We  tiave  ppokm  of  the  lojiding  fundamental  doctrines  &9  laid  down  by  their 

Sn)i»ht?t.  Rtt.<p<!ctiiig  lire  praclical  side  of  their  nligion,  W(i  cannot  hcr<i  enter  into  a 
©tailed  description  of  tlnar  very  cop>iou»  ritnnl^«,  wiiicli  have  partly  found  ihfir  w:»y 
hiio  otht:r  creeds.  Suffice  li  to  inunyon  the  following  few  points.  They  do  not  eat 
anything  cookfd  by  a  pei-son  of  another  religion;  they  alj*o 'object  to  l)eef,  pork, 
rfjMC  ally  to  h.itti.  Marriages  can,  only  bo  centractcd  with  persons  of  their  own 
Caste  and  creed.  Polygamy,  except  afti-r  nine  yi-ars  of  eti-rility  and  divorce,  is  for- 
b:<ldeli.  Fornication  and.adulleiy  are  llUni^hlll>le  with  death,  'i'heir  dead  are  not 
buriedv  but  exposed  on  an  iixMi  grating  in  the  Dokhnia,  or  Tower  of  Silence,  to  the 
fowls  of  the  air,  to  the  dew,  and  to  the  sun,  until  the  flesh  has  dlsuppeared,  and  the 
blfaching  bones  fall  through  into  a  pit  beneath,  from  which  they  are  afterwards  i-e- 
liioved  to  a  sui>terra»iL'an  cavern. 

Ahuianiazdao  being  the  orii>:h)  of  light,  his  syml)Ol  Is  the  sno,  with  the  moon  and 
the  planets,  and  tu  defiiult  of  them  tlie  Are.  and  the  l)eliever  is  enjoined  to  face  a 
luminous  object  during  ids  prayci-s.  Hence,  also,  the  temples  and  altars  must  for 
ever  be  fed  with  tbe  holv  fire,  brought  down,  according  to  tradition,  from  heaven, 
and  the  8ul  yiuK  of  whose  flame  is  punisliable  with  de.ith.  The  priests  themselves 
n|)\)ibach  it  on^  with  a  ha'f-mask  (Penom)  over  the  face,  lest  tlielr  breath  should 
dcflle  it,  and  luver  tou^h  it  with  their  hands,  but  with  holy  instruments.  The  fires 
nreijf  five  kinds;  but  howiver  great  the  awe  felt  l)y  Parsees  with  r<  si>ect  to  fire  and 
light  (they  are  the  only  eastern  nation  who  abstitin  from  smoking),  yet  they  never 
cousl'ler  these,  as  we  said  befovf,  as  anything  but  emblems  ot  Divmity.  There  are 
also  five  kinds  of  "Sacrifice,"  which  term,  however,  is  rather  to  be  understood  in  the 
sense  of  a  sacred  action.  Ibese  are— tiie  slaughtering  of  animals  for  public,  or  pri- 
vate solemnities ;  prayer ;  the  Duruus  sacrament,  which,  with  its  consecrati'd  hrtad 
and  win^'  in  honor  of  the  piimeva'  founder  of  the  law;  Hom  or  Fleomoh  (ihe  Sanecr. 
SoiHa)y  and  Dahi.iaii-,  the  per>onified  bUs.'-ii.g,  l>ears  a  striking  outwaitl  lesemhlance 
to  tbesjcrament  of  the  Loid's  Supper;  the  hucrifice  of  Expiati(m,  consisting  either 
in  flagellation,  or  in  jjifts  to  the  priest;  and,  lastly,  the  Kicrifice  for  the  souls  of  the 
dead.  The  purification  of  phyJcal  and  moral  impurities  is  efllicted,  in  the  first 
place,  by  clejinshig  with  holy  water  (Nining),  eanh,  &c. ;  next,  by  prayers ^of  whieh 
sixteen,  at  least,  are  to  be  recited  every  day)  and  the  recibdion  of  the  divine  word  ; 
but  other  self-castlgations,  fasting,  celibacy.  &c.,  are  cotisidered  hateful  to  the  Di- 
vinity. The  ethicjil  code  may  l>e  summed  up  in  the  three  words— purity  of  thought, 
of  word,  and  of  deed  :  a  reliiiion  **  that  is  for  all.  and  not  for  amy  particular  nation," 
as  the  Zoroastrians  say.  It  ne<Ki  hardly  he  added,  that  supcretiticns  of  all  kitJds 
have,  ill  the  course  of  the  tribulations  of  age-,  and  the  intimacy  with  ueighlwting 
countries,  greatly  defiled  the  original  purity  of  this  cr  ed,  at.d  that  it  forms  now  vary 
much  among  the  different  communities  of  the  present  time. 

Something  like  a  very  serious  schism,  however,  has  lately  broken  out  in  the 
Parsee  communities,  and  the  modern  terms  of  Conservative  and  Liberal,  or  lather 
bigot  and  infidel,  are  ahnost  as  freely  used  with  tern  as  in  Europe.  The  sum  and 
siibstanceof  these  ii  mo  vat  ions,  stoutly  advocated  by  one  side,  and  as  stoutly  re- 
sisted I)y  t  lie  oi  her,  in  the  desire  to  abolish  the  purification  by  the  Nirang— a  filtny 
substance  in  itself— to  reduce  the  large  number  of  obligatory  pnsyers,  to  stop  early 
b.ti-Qthal  and  marriage,  to  suppress  the  extravagance  in  funerals  and  weddings,  to 
•  t  ducate  women,  and  to  admit  them  into  soci«ty.  Two  counter  alliances  or  societies, 
tiie  "Guides  of  the  Worshippers  of  God"  and  **  the  True  Guides"  respectively,  are 
trying  to  carry  out  at  this  moment,  by  means  of  meetings,  speeches,  trac  s,  &c.,  the 
oi)j"Cts  of  their  different  oarties. 

The  literature  of  the  Parsees  will  be  found  noticed  under  Persian  Lanouagb 
AND  LiTERATtJBB,  «nd  Zend-Avbsta.  Besides  the  laiter,  which  is  wiitten  in 
Biicient  Zend,  and  its  Gujarati  translation  and  commentarit^s,  there  are  to  be 
mentioned,  as  works  specially  treating  of  religiotis  niatters,  the  "Zardnsht-Nameh," 
or  Legendary  History  of  Zerdusht;  the  *•  Sadder,"  or  Summary  of  Parsee  Doc- 
tiines;  the  *'Dabi8tan,"  or  School  of  Manners;  the  "Desatir,"  or  Sacred 
W  ritings,  £c  All  ttiese  have  been  translated  into  English  and  other  European 
laugoages. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


?^  830  \ 

On  th(^  Inllnencd  Pal>8i8m  has  hnrl  npon  Judalum  mid  its  later  doctrin<*s  and  cero* 
moiiialt  nnd,  Ihron^h  it^  ti|>oii  Cliristuiiiity  "nird  MuiiainmedttuiBm— which  besides 
diHW  from  It  direcily— wo  casMiOt  dwell  here  at  :»ny  length.  80  iniu-b}  however,  may 
b  !  j«late(l,  that  th«  moat  cun»or»  rcadiinf  of  tlia  siicred  Parsee  books  will  shew,  In  a 
variety  of  points,  tlioirdirtHSt  influcuce  tipon  tbe  three  Beiuiticcreeils.  Of  uorka 
treaiing  on  the  pubjrct  of  tlili«  nrtUle,  we  mention  principallvt  Hyde,  **  Vet.  Rel. 
Peis.  liiBt."  <Oxon.  1760,  4to) ;  OUt'ely,  "  TruVAila  in  the  Eust'^  (Lond.  1819);  An- 
quetil  dn  Perron,  *•  Kxposltion  dea  Uwij^en  di;8  Pursfs;"  Rlioile,  •' JDieheil.  Sage  d  r 
Hi  en  Btilttrler,"  "Metlt-r  a.  Pv^rs.r."  Ac.  (b'raiiJi.-a*M.,  1S20,  8vo);  Ikwablioy  Fnim- 
j;e,  •*'rhe  ParHees,"  &c  (Loudi  185S):  Dadublnii  Nuoroji.  *-The  Manners  niid  Cn- 
tomsof  the  Parsees;"  and  "The  ParBi'e  Religion"  (Liverpool,  1861,  8vo) ;  and 
lAr«tlv,  Uau!<'a  "  E!»^aya  on  the  Pardoo  Keligiou "  (Bombay,  1862),  and  Spit  gel'a ' 
•' Eiilu  "  (Bi!rl.  1863).  '" 

PA'RSLEY  (l^ttowlinHni),  a  gonitis  of  plants  of  the  nnHiral  order  Umbellifera* 
The  spcdcparo  annual  or  bu'uui.il.  bmnchiug,  smooth,  herb;iccotis  plants,  wiUi  vari- 
ously piimattd  leaves*,— Common  P.  (P.  eaHvum),  whU-hhaa  tripiunate  shining  leaves, 
out!  «)t  our  l)e.-t  known  culinary  plants,  is  a  native  of  tlio  south  of  Earoi>e,  jn'owini^ 
clilefly  on  rocks  and  old  wall?,  and  naturalised  In  some  parts  of  England.  The  cul* 
tivatioii  of  P.  is  extremely  simple,  and  an  annual  sowing  is  generally  made,  allboogh 
when  cur  over  and  prevented  from  flowering,  the  pliuit  lives  for  several  yeat«.  A 
v:ui"ty  with  curled  leaflets  is  •r»'neral  y  prewrred  to  the  common  kind  with  pl»»iu 
k  ifl -ts,  as  fluer  and  more  t>eantiful,  be  ng  often  U:**^  tm  a  garnish ;  it  is  al»o  Mtfer, 
a-«  tlie  poisonour>  Fool's  P.  (q.  v.)  is  sometimes  gathered  by  misiake  instead  of  the 
oilier.— Hambcr©  P.  is  a  viniety  with  a  large  white  carrot-like  root,  cultivated  for 
the  sake  of  its  root,  and  much  in  the  same  way  as  the  c:irrot  or  parsnip.  To  produce 
larjre  roots  an<l  of  delicate  flavor,  a  very  rich  soil  is  required,  'i  he  foliage  of  P.  is 
not  merely  of  uau  for  fl:ivoritig  soniis,  &c.,  Imt  is  untritious,  at  the  same  time  that 
it  is  :'timul:iiing,  a  quality  wliich  it  seem 4  to  derive  from  an  onsentinl  oil  present  in 
evcr;^  parr  of  tlie  plant.  P.  contains  also  a  pecaiiar  geiatinotis  sabatouce  called 
Apiine.  The  bruisfd  leave:*  of  I*,  are  sometimes  employed  asa  stimolating  poulti^  o. 
'i'liu  i>eeds  are  a  deadly  poieou  to  many  bird^,  and  when  powdered  they  ore  some- 
times  used  for  killing  lice. 

PA'KSNIP  iPaHtinaoa)^  a  genua  of  platits  of  the  imturnl  order  UmitUiferm,  hav- 
ing compound  urn  i)e]rt  with  neither  general  nor  partial  involucres;  yellow  flowers 
with  roundish,  involute,  sharp-pointed   putals;    calyx  almost  without  teeth  ;  fruit 


dorsally  compressed  and  fl.tt,  with  a  broad  I>oit1er,  the  ridges  v>'ry  flue.  The  specie?) 
ar;  annual,  biennial,  or  (lerunial  herb  iceous  plant?,  with  cirrot-like,  often  fl  islir 
roots,  and  pinn  it 3  Is.iv  !3.— IMio  Comuiou  P.  (P.  aatioa)  Is  a  native  of  England,  nf- 


tUongh  not  of  Scotland,  and  is  abundant  in  some  districts,  parricularly  In  chalky 
and  gravelly  soils.  It  is  also  found  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  of  the  north  of 
Asiiu  It  is  a  biennial,  with  aiiirular  farrowetl  stem,  % — 3  feet  high,  pinnate  leaves 
with  ovsit!  leaflets,  rather  shiidng,  cut  and  serrated,  and  a  three-lol>ed  terininiU 
le  ifl„'t  Till!  root  of  the  wild  plant  is  white,  aromatic,  mucilaginous,  sweet,  but 
with  wme  acri^lness;  and  injurious  effects  liave  followea  from  its  use.  Cultivation 
has  greatly  mo'liile<i  the  qualities  both  of  the  root  and  ftdlage,  renderirg  litem  much 
more  bland.  The  P.  has  lone  been  cultivated  f6r  the  sake  of  its  root^  which  in  cul- 
tivation has  gr<.-atly  increased  in  siee,  and  become  more  flesiiy.  The  flavor  in  dia- 
iiked  by  some,  as  well  as  the  too  great  sweetness,  l)ut  highly  relished  by 
others ;  and  the  root  of  the  P.  is  more  nutritions  than  that  of  the  carrot.  The'pro- 
duce  is  also,  on  many  soils,  of  larser  quantity ;  and  although  the  P.  delights  in  a 
very  open  rich  soil,  it  will  succeed  In  clayey  soils  far  too  stitt  for  the  carrot.  It  is 
rather  remarkable  that  it  has  not  been  extensively  cultivated  as  a  field-crop,  and  for 
the  feeding  of  cattle,  except  in  the  Channel  Islands  and  in  limited  districts  of  con- 
tinent<d  Euro|)e ;  more  particularly  as  cattle  are  very  fond  of  it,  and  not  only  the 
flesh  of  cattle  fed  on  it  is  of  excellent  quality,  but  the  butter  of  dairy-cows  fe<l  on 
ptu-suips  in  winter  is  far  superior  to  that  produced  by  almost  any  other  kind  of  win- 
ti-r-feeding.  The  moile  of  cultivation  of  tlu;  P.  scarcely  differs  from  that  of  tlie  car- 
rot. There  are  several  varieties  in  <  nitivalion.  A  very  large  variety,  cultivated  in 
the  Chaimel  Islands  on  deep  sandy  soils,  ha:*  roots  somtime?  three  or  f<»ur  feet  long; 
but  this  is  fully  twice  the  oixliuary  length,  and  there  is  a  smaller  ittrnlp-rooled  variety 


y  Google 


O01  Thrnief 

OwX  part 

sometiniefl  cultivated  in  giirdcns  where  the  fo!!  Is  very  dhallow.  Tho  P.  is  used 
chiefly  iu  ^iiitiT.  wljether  for  the  table  or  for  feedinir  cattle.  It  is  improved  rather 
than  iiijnrt!d  by  froat ;  but  ie  apt  to  become  rnnty^  u  allowed  to  remain  too  Iod^  in 
tlvegrouud;  and  exliibits  acrid  c^nalitieii  after  it  hns  bi'gnu  1o  erow  again  in  Bprirg. 
.^'he  root  of  the  P.  is  much  ust-d  iutheii(;rth  of  Irelnnd  for  making  feniiciitcd  iKjuor, 
witli  yeast  and  hops;  and  l»otli  in  Eughuid  and  Ireland,  for  making  /*.  totne,  which 
has  poine  re8eml)lance  to  Malmst'y  >vi.je.— -Anoilior  specie?,  the  Cut-leaved  P.  or 
8EKAKUL  (P.  iSf«A:aX*T£/),  havii.g  piuntiiifii)  cut  leaflets,  a  native  of  India,  8yria,  and 
E^ypt,  is  caltivated  iu  the  Levant,  and  is  very  similar  iu  iis  uses  lo  the  common  pars- 
nip. 

PARSON,  in  English  Ecclesiasticnl  Law,  means  the  incumbent  of  a  benefice  m 
a  paristli.  ^e  i.s  called  par!<ou  (L^t.  persona)  becaut>e  iie  renret>ent8  the  church  for 
B''venil  purposes.  He  requires  to  be  a  member  of  the  Eetublielied  Cliurch  of  Eng- 
land, and  to  Ik?  duly  admiftrd  to  holy  orders*,  im'seiiled,  instituted,  and  inducted: 
and  requires  to  be  28  years  of  age.  Wlien  lie  ie  indncted,  and  not  before,  he  in  said 
to  be  in  full  and  comnlete  poHsussion  of  the  incumbency.  The  theoi-y  is*,  that  the 
freehold  of  the  parish  church  U  vested  iu  him,  and  us  the  legal  owner,  he  has 
various  rights  of  control  over  the  chancel.  He  ie  also  the  owner  of  the  chnr«  hyardt 
and  as  sucn  is  entitlt-d  to  tho  grass.  As  owner  of  the  body  of  th«!  church,  he  lias  n 
right  to  control  of  the  chui-ch  biHIs,  and  is  entitled  to  prevent  the  churchwardens 
from  ringing  them  against  his  wDL  The  distincUun  between  a  pai'son  and  vicar  is, 
that  the  parson  has  geuerally  the  whole  rigiit  to  the  ecclesiasiicai  dues  in  the  parish, 
wliereas  the  vicar  him  an  apprOpriator  over  him,  who  is  the  real  owner  of  the  dues 
and  titlies,  and  the  vicar  has  only  an  iuferior  portion.  The  duty  of  tlie  parson  is  to 
perform  divine  service  in  the  parinh  church  under  the  control  of  thebitOtop,  to  ad- 
minister tlie  ^acnimeuts  to  panshion*  rs,  to  read  the  burial-service  on  request  of  the 
parisliioners,  tomarr>  them  in  the  parish  church  when  they  tender  themselves.  He 
18  hound  to  reside  in  the  parish,  and  is  Fuhjoct  to  p«*i:alties  and  foi-feituie,  if  he 
without  cause  absent  himself  from  the  parish.  He  is  subject  to  the  Clergy  Disci- 
pline Act,  in  case  of  misconduct. 

PA'RSONSTOWN  (anciently  called  Birr),  a  considerable  Inland  town  on  the  river 
Brosua,  in  King's  County,  Ireland,  69  miles  west-t-outh-west  from  Dublin,  with 
which  city  it  is  connected  by  a  branch  line  issuing  from  the  Great  Southern  and 
Western  Railway  ut  Ballybrophy.  Pop.  in  1871,  4939 ;  of  whom  4049  wt-re  Roman 
Catholics,  725  Protestant  Episcopidians,  and  the  rest  Protectants  of  otiier  denomina- 
tions. Birr  bad  its  origin  at  an  early  i.eriod  in  a  nuinusteiT  foundi  d  by  8i  Brei  dan, 
and  was  the  scene  of  many  Important  events,  both  in  the  Irish  and  in  the  iJO»=t-hiva- 
siou  peiiods.  The  castle,  wliich  was  anciently  the  seat  of  tlie  O'Carrol's,  was 
granted  by  Henry  II.  to  Philip  dc  Woifcester;  but  it  freqnently  changed  ir.ai'lers, 
and  eveu  alternated  between  English  and  Irish  hands.  By  James  I.,  It  was  granted 
to  Lnwrenoe  Parsons,  ance-tnr  of  the  present  ])roprietor,  the  Earl  of  Roste ;  but 
through  the  entire  period  of  tbe  civil  wars,  its  ))08session  was  constantly  disputed, 
until  after  1690,  when  the  Parsotm  family  was  finaUy  establish(d  in  possession. 
Al>out  this  time  Birr  returned  two  members  to  ])arliament,  but  the  privile|«e  was 
temporary.  The  castle  has  b  en  rebuilt.  P.  is  one  of  tbe  handsomest  and  beet  built 
inland  towns  in  Irehiud,  with  several  fine  cburclies  and  chapels,  a  nunnery,  a  t-tatae 
of  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  a  bronze  statue  <erecl(d  in  18  6)  of  tlie  tit  lid  Earl  of 
Rosse,  a  town-hall,  a  library,  literai7  institute,  a  mo<lel  and  other  schools.  But  the 
great  attractions  of  P.  are  the  castle,  the  observatory,  and  the  laboratory  of  the  late 
Earl  or  Rosse  (q.  v.),  still  maintained  in  active  use  by  the  present  earl.  P.  is  an  im- 
portant corn-market,  a  considerable  centre  of  inland  commerce ;  but  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  distillery  and  broweiy,  it  is  almost  entirely  witlioat  manufactures.  It  is  a 
military  station,  and  the  seat  of  a  uniim  workhouse. 

PARS'WANATHA,  the  twenty-third  of  the  deified  snlnts  of  theJainap,  In  the 
pesent  era.  He  and  JUahavira^  the  twenty-fourth,  are  held  !n  highest  esteen>,  rs}>e- 
claily  in  Hindustan.  In  a  suburb  of  Benares,  called  Bellnpnra,  there  Is  a  temple  hon- 
ored as  the  birthplace  of  Pftrs'wanfttlia.    See  Jainas. 

PART,  !n  Music  When  a  piece  of  music  consists  of  several  series  of  sounds  per- 
formed slmoliaueouly,  each  series  is  called  a  pait.  ,  ^.^ 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Partaana  SiOO 

Partisan  O--' 

P  VRTA'NNA,  a  niwlceMowii  of  tho  is^laud  t)f  Sfdly,  In  the  province  of  Trnpairt, 
86  luik'B  Boatli-weet  of  Pnlttrino,  ou  a  fk>pe.    Pop.  I2,4«7. 

PARTERRE,  in  t'ardtins  laW  ont  in  ihe  old  Fref'.ch  style,  the  ofieh  pjirt  iu  front 
of  the  hoase,  iu  wliich  fluwor-b«da  aud  closcly-cu^  lawu  were  intermingled  according 
to  a  regular  plan. 

PA'RTHKNOQE'NESIS  (from  the  Gr.  partfienos^  a  virdfi,  and  gemms,  the  act  o£ 
prodactioii)  is  a  term  iiiymted  by  Profeshor  Owen  to  indicate  propa^ntion  by  self- 
ppliiring  or  self  dividing,  by  budding  from  without  or  within,  and  by  any  uiodie  save 
by  the  act  of  iinpre}.'niition;  the  parti iciiogeiietic  individnnla  b^-ing  sezless  or  viri^H 
females.  See  thu  articles  Generations,  Alternation  of.  For  many  remirkablf , 
facts  in  relation  to  piirthenogene^is  in  insect*,  Hie  reader  Is  referred  to  I*rofe^K; 
Owen'rt  eighteenth  lecture,  *'Oii  the  Conipurative  Anutoniy  and  Pliy^'olo  y  of  Inver- 
tebrate Animals ;"  and  to  Siebold,  "  On  Partlienogenesis,"  translated  by  Dnllas. 

PA'RTHENON,  the  temple  of  Minerv.i  at  Athens ;  one  of  tl:e  mort  celebrated 
of  the  Greek  temples,  «nd  usually  regarded  as  the  most  perfect  specimen  of  Gn-ek 
aic'iitedure.  Many  of  the  seulptun'S  liave  been  brought  to  England,  and  are  now 
in  the  British  Musenni.    Sec  Grecian  Architecture. 

PAHTHENOPE'AN  REPUBLIC  (from  Partheiwpe,  the  oldest  name  of  t$e  city 
of  Naples)  was  the  name  given  to  th  •  state  into  which  the  kingdom  of  Naples  W8« 
transformed  by  the  French  Republicans,  23d  January  1799,  and  which  only  lasted  til! 
the  following  Jnue.  wlicn  the  invad  ng  army  was  forcetl  to  retreat 

PA'RTHIA,  anciently  a  country  of  Western  Asia,  lying  at  the  sonth-east  end  of 
the  Ca.xpain  Sen,  fro: n  which  it  was  separated  by  a  narrow  strit>  known  a»  Hyrc:«n  a. 
now  fornjs  the  northern  portion  of  the  provin  e  of  Khorassan,  and  is  an  alm«>  t 
wholly  mouutainouH  regiou.  Its  rlvcns  are  ercly  mimntain  torrents,  which  are8U|)« 
plied  by  the  meiti  g  snow  ou  the  Eiburai  range  during  winter  and  spring,  but  ur« 
mostly  dry  in  summer  and  autumn. 

The  original  inhabitant?*  are  b-lieved  to  have  i)een  of  Scythian  race,  as  shown  by 
their  language  a<  well  as  by  tlu^ir  manners,  and  to  belong  to  tl»e  great  Indo-Qer- 
manic  family.  If  this  be  the  case,  as  is  very  probable,  the  term  Parthian,  Trom  ita 
analogy  to  the  S<ythiau  wovi\parthe,  banished,  seems  to  Indicate  that  they  wt-re  a 
tribe  who  bad  been  driven  to  P.  out  of  Schytliia  (i.  e.,  Central  Asia).  The  Par- 
thians,  during  the  time  of  the  Roman  Republic,  were  distinguished  by  primitive  sim- 
plicity of  life  and  extreme  bravery,  though  at  the  same  time  nnich  given  to  b-icclui- 
n:i  ian  and  voluptuous  nlea.-ures.  They  neglected  agriculture  and  eomnierre, 
dvivoting  their  whole  timo  to  pr  datory  expeditions  and  warfare.  They  fouglit 
on  horseback,  and  after  a  peculiar  fashion.  Being  armed  solely  x\iih  boxs* 
and  arrows,  they  were  render  d  d-feuceless  utter  the  first  d^schaive : 
and,  to  gain  time  for  adjusting  a  second  arrow  to  the  bow,  turned  tSeir 
horses  and  retire*!,  as  if  in  full  flight,  but  an  enemy  iucantionsly  pursnlng. 
was  immediately  ass:>il<>d  by  a  second  fliifht  of  arrows;  a  secoixl  pretet.ded  flig^iit 
followed,  and  theconfliet  was  thus  carried  on  till  the  Parthians  gained  the  victory, 
or  exhanstod  their  quivers.  They  generally  di''cl»arged  their  arrowy  backward*, 
hoMiug  the  bow  behind  the  shoulder;  a  mode  of  attack  more  dangerous Yo  a  pur- 
suing enemy  than  to  one  in  order  of  battle.  The  Panhians  first  appear  In  bistoiTr 
as  subject  to  tlie  great  Persian  Empire.  After  the  deatli  of  Alexander  the  Qre».t, 
P.  formed  part  of  the  Syrian  kingdom,  but  revolted  under  Antiochus  II.,  and  con- 
stituted itself  into  an  independ  -nt  kingdom  under  the  Arsacidof  (se«!  Arsaces),  250 
B  c,  a  race  of  kings  who  exercised  the  most  completely  despotic  authority  «ver 
known,  treating  their  subjects  as  if  the  vilest  of  slaves;  yet  so  s'lccnstomed  did  tb'j 
Parthians  become  to  this  odious  rule,  that  some  of  the  later  monarchs,  who  litid  n»- 
ceived  a  Roman  education,  and  after  their  accessi(m  treated  their  Kubjeets  with 
ordinary  jU'tlce  a:.d  humanity,  were  completely  de^pise<I.  The  capital  of  the  Par-  ' 
thlan  monarchy  was  Hecatompylos  (*Miiecity  of  the  hundred  gates"),  now  Dani- 
gau.    The  Parihian  dominion  rapidly  ^^^Etended  to  tiie  Enphr..tes  on  tlie  west :  nd 


the  Indus  on  the  east,  and  i>o^iu\e  a  most  powerful   and   flpurisldng  empire : 
Selencia.  Cteslphon— the  capital  of  the  Persian  emperors  of  the  Sj.ssanidflB— «i  d 
«-    .c-     ...._^   a- »  .        .  p^^^  eciipstHi,  " 

Ldattaciu  out 

y  Google 


Other  eel«br«ted  cities  date  their  rise  from  this  period,  and  soon  eclipsed,  fn  mi» 
and  spleudor,  tUe  aucltut  HeciUompykM.    In  spite  of  repealed  attac&s  ou  the  part 


Digitized  by  > 


80  Q  Fartanoa 

-*5  Partisan 

of  the  "Romans,  the  ParthUna  maintained  tiielr  .iiidopendence  (see  Cbassus, 
Kurena);  and  tlioagli  Trajan,  in  115^116  a.d.,  p«iz«l  certain  ]>onions  of  tlie 
count  ry,  the  K'nnane  we  e  so  on  ronipill- cl  to  abandon  them.  In  214  a. D..  during 
thi'  reijrn  of  Ariabanus  IV..  tin*  ln!»t  of  the  Areacidre.  a  revolt,  headed  l)y  Aidsiiir, 
eon  of  B.il><?g«n,  In-oliC  out  in  Persia,  and  tl>e  Parthian  nion.irch,  beaten  in  rliree 
cngagenuruts.  lost  hU  throni!  and  life,  while  thfe  victor  .Bu1>Blit'nted  1  lie  Persian 
dyna.«ty  of  Ine  Sassanid^  (q.  v.)  for  llnit  of  the  ArfacidsB.  Some  scions  of  the 
Parthian  royal  family  continued  for  several  centuries  to  rule  over  the  mountainous 
di>trict  of  Armenia,  under  the  protection  of  tlie  Romans,  and  made  frequent  de- 
scents upon  Assyria  and  Babylonia;  but  their  history  is  ol>8cure  and  of  Jitlle  im- 
portance. 

PARTIAL  LOSS,  in  tlie  law  of  Marine  lupurance,  is  a  Iops  which  is  not  to'al; 
and  therefore  the  insurer  is  not  entitled  to  abandon  oreivcnpthe  remains  (/I  the 
ship  or  cargo,  and  c'aim  the  entire  iusnrance  money;  hiit  he  is  bound  tokeephia 
ship  or  goods,  and  claim  only  in  proportiou'to  his  yctual  loss  or  dantage. 

PA'RTICIPLE  (Lat.  partidpivm,  part-taking),  the  name  of  a  class  of  words 
wliich  have  the  meaning  of  a  verb  with  the  form  of  an  adjeciive.  The  name  is  said 
to  iiave  b>:en  given  from  their  partaking  of  the  nature  both  of  a  verb  and  of  an 
adjective.  Some  grammarians  make  the  participle  a  distinct  part  of  speech,  but  it  is 
int)ro  commonly  classed  as  a  part  of  the  conjugation  of  the  verb.  There  ar«'  in 
English  two  participh's,  one  in  incj.  u.'^uiUly  calli  d  the  prt-sent,  but  properly  theim- 
perf;'ct,  because  it  expresses  ctrntinned,  unfinished  action,  e.  g*,  loving,  iciiiing; 
and  thtt  other  ezpresaiug  past  action,  and  ending  either  in  ed  {t)  or  in  en,  e.  g..  loved^ 
written.  In  Ang.-Sax.  and  Old  Eng.,  the  impeifict  participle  inded  in  a»icf,  e.  g., 
habaiid  (having),  corresponding  to  the  modem  Ger.  hahend,  Gr.  echont  (os),  Lat. 
hab&nt  (is).  In  the  sentence,  *•  He  is  ucritiiig  a  hotter,"  writing  is  the  imperfect  par- 
t  cii)Ie;  in  "  the  lortWwflr  of  the  letter  occupies  him,"  or  **  writing  is  i\  difficult  art," 
it  Is  A  substantive,  and  had  a  different  origin;  In  the  latter  case,  -ing  corresponds  to 
the  Ang.-Sax.  termination  -ung,  used  in  forming  stibsiantives  from  a  large  class  of 
verbs;  thus,  Ang.-Sax.  kalgnng  (hallowing)  is  equivalent  in  meaning  and  in  ety- 
mology to  Lai.  coiiaccratio ;  si milarl}',  modern  Ger.  Fern?cA<wjflr,  annmilation,  from 
vernichtcn,  to  annihilate.  Such  a  phrase  as,  *'  whjle  tlie  letter  is  writing,"  seems  to 
b  !  ashorti-ncd  form  of  the  now  antiquated,  *'iR  a-wiiiing,"  which  was  originally, 
"isin  wiiiing."  Although  this  mode  of  expression  is  liable  in  some  cases  to  auj- 
bignity,  it  is  terser  and  more  idiomatic  than  the  circumlocution  of  ''  is  being  writ- 
t  n."  which  is  often  substituted  for  it.  1'he  verbal  substantive  in  -i^tg  is  oft^n  ex- 
actly equivalent  to  the  infinitive;  thus,  **«to?idmflr  long  in  one  position  is  painful  " 
=  "  to  stand,"  &c.  It  has  this  advantage,  that  while  it  can  be  constructed  as  a  noun 
(e  g.,  with  apossessive  case),  it  can  ret-ihi  at  tlie  same  time  the  usual  adjuncts  of  a 
verb;  as,  **  what  are  we  to  infer  from  the  Icing's  dismissing  liis  minister?"  The 
n^M  o^  tills  form  contributes  not  a  little  to  the  peculiar  brexity  and  strength  of  the 
Enjl  s'»  langa  ige. 

PA'RTICK,  a  town  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Lanark,  prettily  situated 
chit  tly  on  a  rising  ground  on  the  Kelvin,  imniediafely  alwve  its  junction  with  the 
Clyde,  and  about  three  miles  west-north-west  of  the  Cross  of  Glasgow,  of  which  city 
it  now  forms  a  suburb.  Nine-tenths  of  the  workmen  of  P.  aru  engaged  in  sl»i|)- 
building,  and  there  are  numerous  ship-building  yards,  flour-mills,  cotton  factories, 
and  hleach-fields.  A  large  proportion  (»f  the  iutuibifants  are  engaged  in  business  in 
Glasgow,  and  for  tlieir  acoomniodalion  extensive  riingrs  of  handsome  villas  have 
boon  built  here.    Pop.  (IS.^l)  3131 ;  (1861)  81S3 ;  (1871)  17,691. 

PARTI'NICO,  Snla  di,  a  posl-town  of  Sicilv,  in  the  jnovince  of  Palermo,  and  19 
miles  south-west  of  the  city  of  that  name,  at  the  foot  of  a  gran<l  pnci])ic.e  of  nd 
limestone.  The  plain  in  the  vicinity  is  of  sui-passing  fertility ;  corn,  wine,  oil.  fruit, 
and  sumach  are  produced  in  rich  abundanct^ ;  and  linen  and  woolhin  goods  are  man- 
ufactured. Pop.  (1872)  20,164.  Scattered  vestiires  of  ancient  habitations  are  still  to 
be  seen  on  the  summit  of  the  height  above  the  towii,  and  are  said  to  be  the  ruins  of 
tiie  ancient  Farthenicum  mentioned  in  the  *' Itiiierary  "  of  Antoninus,  and  there 
only. 

PA'RTISAN  is  n  name  for  a  halberd  or  pike,  or  for  a  mni-shal's  baton.  Tlie 
same  is  also  given  to  the  leader  of  a  dutacUed  body  of  light  troops,  who  make  war 


Digitized  by 


Google 


ParHtlon  OOJ. 

Partridgt  0-54 

bv  har.isulits  the  enemy,  rntber  than  comfnz  to  direct  fighting,  by  cnitins^  off  sfrag- 
gletf,  iinerriipliiig  liis  i*iipi)liefl,  iiiid  coiifuslu^  him  by  rapid  strategy.  The  actiou  of 
Buch  a  corps  is  kiiuwii  as  Partisan  war/are. 

PARTI'TIOX,  a  thin  iiitfrlor  wall  dividing  one  apartment  from  another.  It  Is 
nsn.illy  «if  brickwork.  4^  or  9  luche-*  thick,  or  of  timber  with  standards  about  4X 
iiichc*  thick  covenrd  witli  latli  and  piaster.  .Wooden  paititioDs  are  used  when  tliere 
is  no  snfficient  support  for  lirick.  When  these  have  to  i-Arry  joists  or  any  otiier 
weight,  thry  ought  to  be  constructed  in  the  form  of  a  truss  (q.  v.). 

PAUllTION,  or  Partltura,  iu  Music.    S«:e  Score. 

PAUTITION  LINES,  iu  Heraldry,  lines  dividing  the  shieM  in  directions  corre- 
sponding to  the  ordinai'iuit.  Accordiug  to  the  dinction  of  the  partition  iiiit.*s.  a 
Bhinld  is  ^aid  to  be  imrly  or  parted  p<^r  fi*8s,  pi*r  pale,  p;r  bend,  per  cheveron,  |kt 
Baltiru ;  a  shield  divided  by  lines  in  the  direction  of  a  cross,  is  said  to  be  quartcnnl ; 
and  a  shield  parted  at  once  per  cro^s  and  per  suit  ire,  is  said  to  Gironn^  (q.  ▼.}  of 
eight.  The  partition  lines  are  not  alwavt*  plain  ;  they  nitiy  be  engmiled,  invectcd. 
embattlfd,  wavy,  nebuly.  indent.-d,  daucett6  or  i-aguly— form?  which  will  be  fouiid 
explained  undt*r  .^eimrate  unicles. 

PA'RTNER8HIP,  in  the  law  of  England,  is  the  union  of  two  or  more  individu- 
als acting  under  a  contract,  whereby  tiny  ni(itnaily  contribute  their  prouert)'  or  labor 
for  the  purpose  of  making  profits  jointly.  When  a  partnership  is  ronnned  to  a  par- 
ticular transaction  or  speculation,  it  is  usually  culled  a  joint-adventure,  and  the 
parties  are  joint-ad v«*nturerj*.  'I'he  usual  criterion  by  which  a  pitrtnerslnp  is  as^cer- 
tained  to  exist,  as  distinguished  from  other  arrangement*,  is  that  there  is  a  conimn- 
liiy  of  profit;  it  is  not.  essential  that  both  slnmld  suffer  losses  equally  or  j>ropor- 


tiouably,  for  one  p  vrtner  nniy  stipulate  that  he  shall  not  be  liable  to  loss.  This  Klip- 
nlation  is  binding  l)etween  the  partners,  but  of  course  is  insuflBictent  to  prevent  tho 
partn  rs  from  being  all  Ha  hie  to  thirQ  parties.    So  one  j)artner  may  contnbute  all  the 


capital  or  all  the  labor.  A  dormant  partner  is  one  whose  name  does  not  generally  ap- 
pijar  to  the  world  as  a  partner,  but  who  nevertheless  is  to  all  int^ent-*  and  purposes  a 
P'lrtner,  with  equal  rights  and  liabilities  to  the  re-t.  In  order  to  constitute  that  kind 
of  comnmnity  of  pi«)flt  which  is  tlie  chief  iii:rredlent  in  a  partnership,  it  is  ueccssaiy 
that  the  paitner  share  in  the  profits  as  a  partner ;  for  in  many  cases,  clerks,  servants, 
or  agents  receivi?  a  conimis.'*i(m  or  remuneration  proportioned  to  profits,  and  yci  are 
not  partners,  for  this  is  merely  one  mode  of  ascertaining  the  sadary  which  they  are 
to  receive.  In  all  such  cases,  therefore,  the  distincti<m  as  to  whether  there  Is  a 
partnership  or  not  lunjs  on  the  consideration  whether  the  allege^^rtner  receiveii  a 
share  of  the  profits,  as  sueh,  or  merely  i*eceives  a  salary  proiwrtioned  to  profits,  with- 
out having  a  specific  interest  in  the  firm.  The  contract  of  partnership  m^y  oe  en- 
t<Ted  into  either  by  word  Of  mouth  or  in  writing.  If  no  specified  term  b2  agreed 
ni)on.  it  is  a  partnership  at  will,  and  may  b<j  dissolved  by  either  of  the  partiefl  at 
pleasure.  Sometimes,  al  o,  the  Court  of  Chancery  will  interfere  to  dissolve  the  part- 
n  rsliip  before  the  time  appointed  ;  butthis  only  liappons  when  some  unforeseen  and 
urger.t  n-asoii  exists,  a«  that  mie  of  the  ])artnerd  has  become  a  lunatic,  or  hasprovi  d 
gror's'ly  dishonest,  or  the  oi»i  'Ct  of  the  partnership  cannot  bb  carried  out.  Mere 
diffijrences  of  opinion  on  minor  matters  are  no  ground  for  seeking  a  dit^solution. 
I'he  partners  m.iy  make  any  kind  of  arrangement  between  themselves  that  they 
think  proper;  but  if  those  are  unuieual  and  >»necial  rtipulations.  there  is  no  Certainly 
of  securing  the  same  l>elng  adhered  to,  wff.hout  a  formal  deed  or  indenture  of 
partnership  heing  executed.  Thus,  it  is  common  to  stipulate  as  to  the  capital  each 
Is  to  contnbute,  and  as  to  the  proportion  of  profits  he  is  to  receive,  as  to  what  Is  to 
bo  done  in  case  of  the  deat.ti  of  a  partner,  &c.  Unless  a  stipnhiiion  is  made  to  tlia 
contrary,  the  rule  is,  that  the  death  of  one  of  the  partners  dissolves  the  partnership. 
So  does  his  bankruptcy.  It  is  also  a  rule  that  no  new  partner  am  h".  introduced 
wiihouttlie  consent ot  the  rest.  There  was  once  a  ])ecuiiarity  In  the  law  of  Eng~ 
knd  as  to  the  form  of  remedy — the  rule  being,  that  partners  cannot  sue  e:(Ch  other 
in  a  court  of  law  in  respect  of  partnership  transactions.'but  the  oidy  remedy  is  by  a 
bill  in  Ch;nicery.  As  against  third  parties,  whatevi-r  may  be  the  secret  arrange- 
ments hetween  I hemxelves,  the  rule  is,  that  any  partner  can  bind  the  firm  In  all 
mattei-s  which  are  wirldn  the  bcoimj  of  the  partnership,  each  baiug  by  tho  nature  of 
iha  contract  made  the  agent  of  ftll  tiie  rest  lor  busiutiss  purposes.    Thus,  any  cue 


y  Google 


oof;  Partition 

OJO  Partridge 

mny  ncccpt  n  bill  In  the  name  of  the  firm,  provided  iuch  be  one  of  the  modes  of 
doing  buhiucfS.  It  ic,  I  owovur,  to  be  Jioriie  in  niind,  that  the  firm  is  only  botmd  by 
one  of  tli«  pnrtiK-ri*  iu  those  raaJicrd  wiiifh  are  strictly  within  tUe  proper  business  of 
tiie  firm,  wliiclt  1^  tin  iuipoittuit  qualification  of  the  K^uural  power.  Within  tlie 
iibovc  limits,  each  partner  can  bind  ihe  n  st  of  l»is  copartners,  liowcver  imprudent 
or  foolish  may  be  his  act,  f6r  it  is  one  of  the  implied  conditions,  that  all  liave  full 
confid^Mice  in  each  otlu'r.  It  follows  fiom  this  principle,  ilinl.  the  firm  is  liable  fi.r 
the  dealings  of  each  partner  on  its  behalf  within  the  scope  of  the  partnership,  and 
each  is  lial)l«!  to  tlie  full  extent  for  all  the  debts  of  the  firm;  in  short,  each  is  liable 
t*  his  last  shilling  for  the  tsolveucy  of  tlie  firm.  Heme,  iris  oft(Uof  importance 
for  a  p  rtner,  on  leaving  the  firm,  to  know  how  1o  tenninaie  tliia  liability.  'J  ho 
rule  ie,  that  as  regards  all  strungei-s,  a  notice  iu  the  "  Gassetlc"  is  gootl  notice:  btit  n* 
between  the  firm  and  those  who  have  had  dealings  with  it,  the  **  Guzotte'*  notice  !s  of 
no  use,  un.ec^s  it  can  be  proved  that  the  party  had  actual  rotice  given  to  him — ai;d 
lu-nce  u  circular  notice  sent  to  customers  uunouucing  the  fact  of  retirement,  is  tho 
o..ly  course  f  ffectiiaU 

The  practice  of  individuals  entering  into  large  associaticns,  now  called  joii  t- 
Fioclc  con>panie.«,  which  wi-re  orlgimilly  only  extended  partnershijw,  i.a^i  hd  to  a 
separate  code  as  to  i  liesc  being  framed  for  llie  United  Kingdom.  See  Joint-stock 
Cdupamies.  The  praciice  of  limiting  the  liability  of  pait!»ers  or  ehareholdei  s  in  joii.t- 
Fiock  companies  had  of  late  ycar^  led  to  the  belief,  that  a  similar  restriction  mig'  t 
well  be  exti-nded  to  ordinary  partneri«hips,  and  accordingly  a  bill  was  introdue«d 
into  parliament  in  1S64  to  enable  this  to  be  done.  But  that  view  was  not  carriid  out 
except  to  a  limit  d  extent,  though  an  attempt  was  made  to  simplify  some  of  the 
rules  as  to  partnership  liability,  which  are  somewhat  jKjrplexing.  It  had  long  bt'eu 
matter  of  complaint  that  every  man  who  had  a  siiare  of  the  profits  of  atiudewas 
said  to  be  liable  al^o  to  bear  his  shar^  of  the  loss;  whei-eas  by  lending  money  a'  a 
fixed  nite  of  Interest  he  was  a  mere  creditor,  and  could  be  exposed  to  no  risk  but  tbe 
loss  of  his  advance.  IMie  Ilou^e  of  Lords,  howover,  in  1860,  had  h.eld  it  to  l)e  a  lui^'- 
tako  lb  suppose  that  a  per.-on  who  advance  d  money  on  terms  of  sharing  profits  Wi.s 
necessarily  a  partner.  To  remote  part  of  the  difiiculty,  however,  an  act  of  28  and 
29  Vict  c.  86  was  passed,  which  enacts  that  if  advances  are  made  by  written  contract 
to  a  pennon  in  trade  on  terms  of  sharhig  profits,  that  of  itself  will  not  make  the  lender 
a  partner.  Nor  will  the  payment  of  a  servant  or  agent  by  a  share  of  profiis,  nor 
the  receipt  by  a  di-ceased  partner's  widow  or  ciilld  of  part  of  the  profits  as  annuity, 
make  any  of  these  a  parinor.  But  tin;  bemflt  of  this  act  was  confl  ed  in  most  easts 
to  writieu  contracts,  and  thus  the  old  law  rcmainff  as  to  other  cases.  It  is  still  the 
law  that  ivi>er80n,  not  a  partner,  becomes  li..ble  as  one,  it  helms  either repres  nted 
himself  as  a  partner,  or  authorised  another  so  to  represent  him;  and  the  third  p  r- 
Bon  dealing  with  the  firm  ntust  have  known  this  representation  to  enable  him  to 
hold  the  dormant  partner  liable.  In  ISTO,  a  bill  was  pa^(sed  *'  to  facilitate  eompro- 
inises  and  an'angements  l)etween  creditors  and  shareholders  of  joint-.-tock  andolhir 
companies  in  liquidation,"  hut  these  i>ointsdo  not  call  for  notice  here. 

In  Scotland,  the  law  of  p:u'tnership,  though  in  its  essential  features  the  same  with 
the  law  of  England,  diffijrs  iu  one  or  two  particulars.  Tlie  partnership  is  treated  as 
a  distinct  person  in  law,  the  partners  being  only  its  sureties  or  cautioners ;  and  the 
consequence  of  this  i.-*,  that  in  actions  by  or  against  the  firm,  the  individual  ])artuers 
ne»d  not  be  n.imed,  though  In  praciice  one  or  two  of  them  generally  are  naund. 
Each  partner  may  also  sue  the  firm  as  if  it  were  a  distinct  pt-rsuu  ;  an<l  the  firm  may 
b !  nuide  bankrupt  without  any  of  the  partners  being  scqncstruied.  See  Patersou's 
»*  Comp.  of  E.  &  S.  Law,"  p.  214.  ^ 

PA'UTRIDGE  {Perdix)  a  genus  of  gallinaceous  birds,  of  the  family  Tttraonidw^ 
laving  a  short,  strong  bill,  mrked  at  the  ba?e;  the  upper  mandible  eonvix,  bent 
down  at  the  tip;  the  wings  and  tail  short,  the  tarsi  .-.s  weU  as  the  toes  naked,  t!jo 
tarsi  not  spurred.— The  Common  P.,  or  Gray  P.  (P.  cinerm)^  is  the  most  plentUul 
of  all  game-birds  in  Britain,  and  becomes  increasingly  plentiful  as  cultivation  is  ix- 
tende<l,  whilHt  the  range  of  the  moorfowl  ia  restticted.  it  is  not  found  in  the  Outt  r 
Hebrides.  On  the  continent  of  Europe,  if  is  abundant  in  almo-"!  all  districts  suitublo 
to  its  habits  from  Scandinavia  to  the  Meditevraneuu,  and  is  foiiiul  also  iu  tlie  north 
of  Africa,  and  iu  some  parts  of  the  west  of  Asia.  It  varies  considerably  in  size; 
tho.^  found  in  rich  iowland;*  heing  generally  tlie  lai'gesi,  and  about  12)^  inches  in 
eutirtf  length ;  whili>(  tliose  which  iiwm>it  poorer  aud  more  upkud  districts  are  rather 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


fSSf"  826 

ttntilter.  The  femnlo  is  rn'her  smalU'r  than  the  male.  The  Tipper  parts  of  twth  afe 
ash-gray,  finely  varied  with  brown  and  black;  themalehasatleepchedliinfccre.-cent- 
Bbup.id  spot  ou  llie  broa:*!,  whicli  is  nluiosi  or  nltugeiher  wnnting  iu  the  female.  A 
vano^  called  the  Mouutiiiii  P.  hus  the  plamajje  brown.  The  P.  is*  seldom  foniid  far 
from  cnltivaied  land.    It  feeds  on  f?raln  and  other  seed;,  insects  and  their  larvae  ai  d 

?upie,  and  I  lie  pupse  of  ants  are  generally  the  food  sought  at  first  for  the  yonii';. 
'lie  nest  is  a.snally  on  the  i^round»  among  brushwood  and  ]ong  ^:iS9,  or  in 
fields  of  clover  or  com,  and  geuemlly  contains  from  twelve  to  twenty  fggs«.  'i'ho 
young  run  as  s«oon  aa  tht;y  are  hatclied.  Both  parents  shew  a  v^ry  strong  atiachnieiit 
to  their  yonuir,  and  gi^ut  courage  in  repelling  awaailants;  they  have  afooivcOtlrHe, 
like  many  other  birds,  10  strataj^em,  to  draw  off  the  niost  powerful  and  daei^tnous 
enemies*,  such  an  dogs,  in  anotber  dii-ectiou,  flirttering  close  before  tb»  m  us  if 
broken-winged,  whilst  the  brood  escape.  Until  the  end  of  autumn,  tt>e  i)avent  bii'<fa 
and  thuh  brood  keep  togei  lu-r  inacot?^^;  lati:  in  the  reason,  several  coveys  oCiiii 
unite  intoa  j)atf/b,  when  it  becomes  much  moredifilcult  for  the  sportsman  toapiH'oach 
them.  The  flight  of  the  P.  is  strouo;  and  rapid  lor  a  short  distance,  but  it  does  i.ot 
seem  to  l)e  cap-.i  bie  of  a  loivg-sustaiued  flights  Tlie  eggs  of  pariridgee  are  often  hfttcheil, 
and  tlie  young  birds  reared,  by  the  domestic  hen.  the  chief  r  qni>iie  b«'iug  a  plentiful 
8  i|)plyof  ants  when  the  birds  are  v-  ry  yonng.  Partrid»resTh^l^  re  .red  b  come  very  ta:n(?, 
but  they  neldonj  lireed  in  the  aviary. — 'I'be  liED-LEaaEo  i .  (,P.  itf/us,  or  Caecahis 
ttt/ua,  the  geuuM  or  sub-:?enus  Caccabis  being  disianjjuisn  d  by  a  rudimeutMry  blniit 
spur  on  the  tar-i)  is  a  native  of  ttie  sontli  of  Enrope  and  of  the  Channel  Ishmus,  :>ntl 
is  now  also  plentiful  in  someparlH  of  England,  particularly  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  into 
which  it  has  been  introduced.  It  is  rattier  larg.r  than  the  common  P.,  stronger  on 
the  wing,  and  less  easily  approached  by  the  sportsman,  whilst  it  i?  al.»o  less  esteenu-d 
for  the  table.  The  upper  parsui-eof  a  reddish-ash  color;  the  timait  attd  cheeks 
wliitf,  bounded  by  a  collar  of  black,  whlcli  expands  in  black  Kpois  ou  the  bre4i**t :  and 
the  tfides  cxbiblt  bars  of  black.  Th(?  plunmge  is  smoo.h. — Two  other  specie?,  nearly 
allie<l  to  this,  jure  found  iu  some  of  the  south<;rn  parts  ot  Europe.  India  has  a  nnn:- 
ber  of  species.  -The  habits  of  all  the  j»pecies  nuich  resemble  tl>ose  of  the  Common 
Partridge.— The  name  P.  is  nometimes  extend'  d  so  as  toijclnde  the  species  otOrtyH 
(see  ViRQiNiAN  Quail),  and  iu  South  America  is  sometimes  given  to  the  Tinumoua. 

PARTUIDGE  BERRY.    See  Gaulthbria. 

PARTRIDGE  PIGEON  (GeophapH)^  an  Australinn  genus  of  Cot'ttwiWd^, approach- 
ing more  than  most  of  the  pigeoiis  in  cHiantcter  and  liabits  to  the  iruc  galliuuceous 
birds,  imd  particubu'ly  to  parfrldges.  Their  iJumage  is  l)e;iutitul,  and  t'enendly  witi 
a  bronze  tinge  and  lustre  on  the  wings,  which  causes  them  to  be  sometime.^  callel 
Bronze-wings.  'J  here  are  several  8j)ecies.  They  live  mostly  ou  tiie  grouxid.  aiul 
rise  with  a  whirring  noi.*»e.  like  the  pheasant,  when  disturbed.  They  are  hiirh'y 
esteemed  for  the  table.  Oeotryffon  motitana.  a  sjKicies  of  anotbep genus  of  Column 
bidce.  b(!ar8  the  name  of  PartrhJ«e  Dove  in  the  West  Indies.  It  iiUo  seeks  its  food 
chiefly  on  the  ground,  although  it  affects  well-wooded  di^trict3. 

PARTRIDGES,  in  Artillery,  were  very  larire  bombards  formerly  in  use  at  sieges 
and  in  defensive  works.    They  are  mentioned  in  Prui8i«art. 

PAR'PRIDGE-WOOD,  a  very  pretty  hard-wood  from  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil ; 
It  5s  usually  of  a  reddish  color,  iu  various  Bhades  from  light  to  dat  k,  the  nh.ides  baiug 
mujgled  111  tlnu  streak.-* ;  but  In  gomo  choice  sort-*  they  are  curled  upon  one  another 
so  aa  to  resemble  the  feathers  of  the  partridge,  whenc-i  its  name.  One  variety  occurs 
In  which  the  colors  arc  remarkably  bright,  and  it  is  '•onseqiiently  called  Pheas-mit- 
wood.  In  Brazd  this  benutitel  wood  is  so  i>lentifnl  thai  it  i«  employed  In  shipbuild- 
ing', and  It  is  said  to  be  used  in  our  navy-yards  nnd.-r  the  name  of  C.»bhajre-wood,  but 
this  18  doubtful ;  many  woods  are  known  as  partridge,  and  several  as  cabbajre  wo(4. 
Among  the  Brazilian^  it  Is  called  "  * .s- "..-»..--  ^     ...     -  .     *-,       ,. 


wiiich  its  beauty  i-ecommends  it.    It  i«  .^aid  to  Iv  vVl.led  bv  th-  l.'guminous  tree 

ilneS'rrtll'eV^'sa  ""^  ""'^^  ^"  the  Brazils,  but  in  otlujr  parts  of  South 

PARTS  OF  SPEiCCH  are  the  several  kinds  or  clacsei  into  jvhlch  the  ^oidM  of  A 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


80  >7  Partridge 

-^  i  Pascal 

langnage  are  div'tled.  There  is  notliin^  in  tlie  ontward  fonn  of  words  that  would 
ejjnble  us  to  dividtj  them  iulo  chiss'ea.  The  diHtincilon  ln-s  in  the  o/7?cc«  that  the  pey- 
eral  words  pei-forra  in  a  senteuce  (q.  v.).  All  words  pi-rforujing  the  same  office  in 
sentences  belong  to  the  same  class.  The  easmilal  parts  of  speech  ai-e  the  Noun. 
AdjocJive,  Pronoun,  Verb,  Adverb,  Preposition,  Coiijnnciion  («ee  these  sevc-rnl 
hesid.-).  The  An  ides  (q.  V.)  arc  not  distinct  parts  of  speech,  being  e88<'ntiany  pro- . 
nouns;  and  Interject  ions  (q.  v.)  hardly  Ix'long  to  ariiculale  speecli.  To  name  lh(? 
class  or  part  oC  speech  to  which  each  word  of  a  seuteuco  belongs,  is  culled  to 
T^Tse  it. 

PARTURI'TION.    See  Midwifery. 

PARTY,  in  Heraldry.    See  Partition  Lines. 

PARTY- WALL  is  the  M'all  dividing  two  liouses.or  tenements,  and  which  is,  in  a 
certain  sense,  one  and  indivisible,  though  the  property  of  two  or  m(»re  parties.  Tne 
question  as  to  who  js  the  owner  of  any  jianicuiar  part  of  the  pariy-wall,  is  solved  by 
ascertaining  who  is  the  owner  of  the  soil  on  which  it  is  built.  In  the  absence  of  evi- 
dence to  the  contrary,  it  is  presumed  that  half  of  the  soil  belongs  to  the  owner  on  one 
side,  and  the  other  half  to  the  owner  of  the  other  nide;  and  unless  the  wall  has 
»tood  twenty  years  and  upwards,  each  owner  can  do  what  he  likes  with  liis  own  half, 
and  can  pare  it  away  if  he  likes.  But  in  general,  mutual  interest  prevents  each  party 
from  resorting  to  his  strict  l(^al  rights.  A  practice  exists  for  one  who  builds  a  house 
adjoining  the  wall  of  a  neighbor,  to  pay  for  half  the  expense.  In  Scotland,  a  party 
building  close  to  the  wall  of  another  s  house,  can  (ompel  the  owner  of  the  first  house 
to  give  him  half  of  the  wall  or  gable,  on  payinir  half  the  expense ;  while  in  England 
there  is  no  such  compulsion.  In  Scotland,  where  the  practice  exists  of  building 
houses  in  fiats  lying  each  upon  the  other,  tiielaw  is  not  clearly  settled,  and  requires 
to  be  cleared  uj)  as  to  what  is  the  nature  of  the  property  or  interest  which  each  pro- 
prietor of  a  flat  has  in  that  part  of  the  gable  bounding  his  own  flat.  The  better  opin- 
ion is,  that  each  is  the  entire  owner  of  hie  half  of  the  gable,  the  others  having 
merely  cross  servii ndes ;  and  h«  nco  it  follows,  that  if  the  flats  on  both  sides  of  a 
gable  belong  to  one  owner,  he  can  make  a  communication  through  the  gable,  pro- 
vided he  do  not  Injure  the  chimney-flues  of  the  lower  flats,  or  the  i'tablllty  of  the 
Btructure. 

PARVATt  (from  the  Sanscrit  paruafa,  mountain,  literally,  monntain-boni)  is  one 
of  the  names  by  w  ich  Diirg^  the  cout^ort  of  S'iva,  is  usually  called,  she  being  the 
daughter  of  the  mountain  Himalaya. 

PA'RVISE,  a  porch  or  open  space  in  front  of  the  door  of  a  church. 

PASCAGOU'LA,  a  river,  and  bay  at  its  month,  in  Mis?*L*sippi,  U.S.  The  river, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  I^af,  the  Chickahay,  with  nunurons  branches,  drains 
the  south-eastern  portion  of  the  state,  and  flows  into  the  MIssIshipni  Sound  through 
two  mouths  which  form  the  bay.    It  is  navigable  100  miles  through  a  sandy  re|»iou 


of  pine-forests,  supplying  turpentine.    The  villages  on  the  l>ay  are  summer  refibria 
from  Mobile  and  J^ew  Orleans;  and  on  the  shores  at  niehi  are  her    '  "'  '*     " 

^olian  harp,  supposed  to  be  caused  by  some  kind  of  shell-flsh. 


PASCAL,  Blaise,  one  of  the  mont  distinguished  philoi^ophers  and  scholars  of  the 
ITlh  c.  was  l)orn  at  Clermont,  in  Auvergne,  France,  June  19.  162a.  Ills  father, 
EMeune  Paacal,  was  presidi-nt  of  the  Cour  des  Aides  at  Clermont.  His  moiher,  An- 
toinette Bezon,  died  while  he  was  little  beyond  infancy.  He  had  two  slstert*— tho 
elder.  Gilberte,  Madame  Perier,  afterwards  his  biographer;  theyomiger.  Jacqueline, 
who  became  a  nun  of  Port  Royal,  under  the  celebrated  Mdre  An^elique,  eistev  of 
Antoine  Arnauld.  Prom  childhood,  Blaise  pave  evidence  of  extraordinary  abili- 
ties; and  when  he  r-  ached  his  eighth  year,  his  father  resigned  bin  oflice  at  Clermont, 
and  came  to  Paris,  in  order  personally  so  direct  the  boy's  education.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  concentrating  all  the  bo^'s  efforts  upon  langjiagos,  fiis  fat  In  r  kept  out  of  his 
reach  all  l>ooks  ireatim^  the  fiHltiect  of  mnthemaiic^:,  for  which  he  had  early  evinced 
a  derided  taste ;  and  it  is  recorded  that  by  his  own  unaidetl  speculations.' drawing 
the  dirtgrjuns  with  charcoal  upon  the  floor,  he  made  nome  progress  in  geometry. 
One  account  represents  him  as  having  thus  mastered  the  flrst  tliirty-two  proposi- 
tions of  the  flrsi  book  of  Enelid's  *•  Elements  "—a  statement  which  cmles  its  owu 
refutation  with  it.    Theuc«forward|  he  was  peimiitecl  freely  to  follow  the  bent  of 


y  Google 


Pasch; 
Pasha. 


hal 


828 


bis  geu]u9.  In  his  sixteenth  year,  ho  produced  a  trrati*c  on  Conic  Sectioiifl,  which 
extorted  the  Jihnost  iitcndulous  mluiiraJiou  of  Df>carte8.  lu  liie  uinetotuth  yejrr, 
bu  invented  a  calculutiiig-ui^cbiiic;  iiikI  turning  his  attention  to  tlio  noviM  ques- 
tions us  to  the  nature  of  fluids,  whicli  Torricelli'!*  tbeorret*  h.jd  raised,  ho  producod 
two  cfSiiys,  which,  ultliough  not  pi<h!ished  till  nftcr  his  death,  liavc  establisli'  d  iiis 
reputation  as  an  cxperiuHiital  plivsiciar.  Ills  father  having  accepted  an  office  at 
Itoiien,  P.  was  there  l>rougla  much  iulo  intercour.-e  with  a  distinguisiicd  pntncher, 
Abi>c  Qnillebert  a  nienib^-r  of  Iho  •Xansenisis,  l)ut  a  man  of  grfut  eloquence,  a  great 
musttr  of  ascitic  thfolojry,  from  wliom  and  from  otiier  ni  inbi-rd  of  tlie  e-ane  rigd 
Feet,  as  well  as  from  the  writings  of  Arnau'.d,  StC'vrau,  and  Kicoie,  P.'s  mindri-oJve'd 
a  deeply  religiouHtnrn  ;  and  his  health  having  eufferud  much  from  excessive  study,  ho 
gave  himself  up  in  gnat  measure  to  retirement  and  theologicai  reading,  and  to  the 
practice  of  ascotTcisiu.  Tlie  deatit  of  bis  father,  and  his  slitter  Jacqu  liu<;'8 
withdrawal  to  Fort  Koyal,  conflrmed  thesi;  habits;  and  It  Is  to  tbis  periol  that  wo 
owe  his  niagniflcent  thous;h  unfinitihed  **  PenF^es,'*  which  fiave  extorted  the 
iidudration  even  of  his  unbelieving,  and  therefoi*o  un8ympathli»fhg  iTiti.-s.  Having 
fullv  identlflod  liimselt'  with  the  Janseiiist  p!>rly,  he  M'Us  indticed  (IG55)  to  take 
up  hi*  residence  at  Port  Hoynl,  althoiigh  not  us  a  member  of  the  bod}', 
where  he  resided  till  his  death,  entirely  given  up  to  prayer  and  practices 
of  mortification,  among  which  ])ractices  may  be  mentioned  that  of  wearln"^  an  Iron 
Ldrdle,  studded  with  sharp  polutn,  which  he  forced  into  hiM  flesh  wl»«novcr  b-?  felt 
Idinself  assadcd  by  sinful  tlM)Ught8.  In  the  controversy  to  which  the  condemnation 
of  ArnauUi  by  the  Sorbonne  (1655)  gave  rise,  P.  took  a  lively  interest;  and  it  was  lo 
this  controversy  that  hecontriimted  the  niemorable  **  Letires*  Provimiales," published 
under  the  psendonyni  of  I^uis  de  Mout:ilt,  These  famous  Letter:*  (eighteini  in  num- 
ber, not  reckoning  the  nineteenth,  which  Is  a  fragment,  and  the  twentieth,  which  is 
by  Lemaisire),  ai*e  written,  ns  if  t'>  a  provincial  friend,  on  the  absorbing  controver- 
h\i\\  topic  of  the  day.  The  first  three  are  devoted  to  the  vindication  of  Arnauld.  and 
the  demonstration  of  the  Identity  of  h\n  doctrit:e  wirli  that  ot  St  Augustine.  But  It 
was  to  the  hiter  lettv^rs  that  the  collection  owed  both  iU  contemporary  popularity  and 
its  abiding  fame.  In  thesfe  P.  addresses  lilmst'lf  to  the;  casuii«iry  and  to  t!ie  direc- 
torial system  of  Arnauld'.-  gre.it  antag<)iiis<ts.  tiicTt'Sultj*;  and  in  a  strain  of  humor- 
ous irony  which  has  seldo  n  been  surpassed,  lie  holds  up  to  ridicule  their  imputiHl 
laxity  of  principle  on  the  obligation  of  restitution,  on  simony,  on  probable  opinion^, 
on  dinMJtfng  the  int -ntion,  on  equtvcKjation  and  mental  reservation,  &c.  In  all  this, 
he  professes  to  prodace  the  autboritie-*  of  t'leir  own  authors.  Of  the  extraordinary 
ability  displayed  In  these  celebrated  Letters  no  question  can  bo  entertalntHl ; 
but  the  Jesuits  and  th  ir  friends  loudly  complain  of  their  unfairness, 
and  represent  them  as  in  great  part  tlie  work  of  a  special  pleader.  Tkc  quotatiuiis, 
with  the  exo'ption  of  those  fro:a  Escobar,  were  confessedly  supplletl  by 
P.'s  friends.  It  is  complain- d  that  macy  of  tht;  authors  cited  are  not  tTt^suiis  at  all; 
that  nniny  of  the  opinions  ridiculed  and  reprobated  as  opiiiions  of  the  Jesuit  order, 
had  been  in  reality  formally  repudiated  and  condemned  in  the  Society;  tb«t  many 
of  the  extmctH  are  garbled  anddi  tort  d  ;  that  It  treats  as  though  they  had  been  de- 
signed for  tlie  pulpit  and  as  manuals  for  teacliiu''  works  which  in  reality  were  but 
jueant  as  private  aireciions  of  the  judgment  of  tne  confessor;  and  t!:a',  In  almost 
all  cases,  stiitements,  facts,  and  cin  umstanccs  are  witliheld,  which  Would  modify,  If 
not  entirely  remove,  th.;ir.obi  ctiomible  tendency.  See  Jesuits.  To  all  whicli  ti.e 
enemies  of  the  Jesuits  reply  l)y  arguments  int«nded  thoroughly  to  vhidicnie  P:i»caL 
P.  himself  entertained  no  compunctious  feeling  for  the  production  of  these  Letters, 
but  even  at  the  approach  of  death  declai-ed  his  full  Ckitistiction  of  the  work,  such  as 
It  was.  His  later  years  were  made  very  wretched  by  continued,  or  at  least  (re- 
qtUMitlv  recurring  liypochoudriH,  under  il»6  influence  of  which  he  sufferetl  from  wry 
painful  fantasies,  which  he  was  unable  to  control.  His  sti*en«rth  was  completely 
worn  out  »)y  thes  'and  other  iuflrmities,  and  i)rematurely  old.  he  died  attheearly  age 
of  tlnrty-Uiue  in  Paris,  in  the  year  1662.  Ilis  •*  Pi-nsdes  siirla  Religion,  et  snr  qn<n- 
ques  nutres  Snjuts.''  buing uwflnishod,  wer.;  pnbli^li*d  with  suppressions  and  moidift- 
Ctions  in  16*59;  but  their  full  value  was  only  Jcurned  from  the  complete  edition 
which  was  pul»lislied  at  the  Instance  of  M.  Cousin  (Paris.  1844).  Of  all  his  works, 
the  '*  Lettpes  Provincialet* "  havti  been  the  most  frequently  repiintw'.  They  were  trans- 
lAted  into  Latin  iu  the  lifetime  of  P.  by  Kicoie  under  the  pdcudonym  of  a  OcrmuA 


y  Google 


O^U  Pasha 

professor,  "Willielm  Wendroc;"  and  an  edition  In  four  longuogee  appeared  at 
CjlOi^uo,  ill  I63f. 

PASCIIAU    See  Fabsoter. 

PAS'CO,  or  Ce'n'o  De  Pasco,  nn  important  mUiiiig  city  in  Peni,  !n  the  depart- 
ment of  Jiiniu,  Ptiiuda  iit  an  elevaiion  of  about  14.000  feet  above  sen-level,  80  miles 
iiorth-eaft  of  Linuu  in  a  direct  Hue.  but  npwards  of  130  miles  by  the  winding  raonn- 
ta.n  road.  It  couBlt  ts  of  a  collection  of  hafs  ppread  ovit  an  area  that  has  been  hol- 
liAved  ont  and  pe^f<)I•ated  in  all  directions  by  mines.  The  nuuiber  of  the  Inhabitants 
vnrh'S  accordlnt*'lo  tlie  state  of  the  mines ;  bcinir  pomeiimes  conniderably  more  than 
12,000 :  nd  often  much  le!«f«.  It  p< J88esf»r8  a  j<iur..a!  of  literaiure  and  miiiinf.  The  Cerro, 
or  '*  mountain  lc6ot,"of  Pasco  ribcs  in.Sacsljuanata,  16,000  feel  above  tlie  level  of  the 
Bea.    Coal  is  found. 

PAS-DE-CALAIS  (Fr.  for  Strait  of  Dover),  a  department  in  the  north  of  France* 
bonmU-d  on  the  ri.  by  the  department  of  Nord  and  the  Strait  of  Dover,  and  on  tl»e  \v. 
by  theSirait  of  Dover  and  th«^  Knglish  Channel.  Area,  1,631,690  acrep,  of  which 
*&S3,300  acres  are  caltivatetl,  and  236, TOT  in  nie;idow.-.  Fop.  (18T2)  761,158.  Tlie  snr- 
face  is  level,  with  the  excepiipu  of  n  rld;:e  of  hil's  running  from  tlie  south-eaBt  to  the 
north-west,  emlinein  Grin-nez  Cape  (q.v.)»  and  forming  Ihe  waler-shed  between  the 
Korth  SeaandtheEiigjllf  h  Channel.  The  rivers,  whicli  are  of  no  considerable  length, 
are  the  Scarpe  and  Lys  in  the  basin  of  the  North  Sea,  and  the  Autbie  and  Caneho 
belonging  to  the  hasin  of  the  English  Channel.  The  rivers  are  navigable 
within  the  department,  and  are  connect*  d  l^y  canals.  Tlie  coast-line  is  80  mile)«  in 
length,  and  the  sliore.^  are  in  certain  parts  low  and  sandy  ;  while  for  »(;verarmiles  on 
cither  side  of  6ri!f>-nuz,  cliffs  similar  to  lho.<$e  of  Dover  front  the  sea.  The  elinnito 
is  mild,  but  exceedingly  inconstant.  The  soil  is  veiy  fertile — all  the  usual  cei-enl  and 
leirtimiuous  crops  are  produced  in  abuiuhmce — and  the  country  is  very  productive 
both  as  regards  a.!.'riculturo  and  manufactures.  Fishing  is  actively  cairied  on,  ou  tlie 
coast,  particularly  in  the  neighborhood  of  Boulogne.  Coal  of  .an  iiid.fferent  quality 
is  raised,  the  excellent  quarnes  of  the  departntent  are  worked,  and  eousiderable 
quantities  of  turf  are  cut.  Tlie  indnstrial  esiablishments  are  numerous  and  im- 
portant, as  lrou-fotfndric!»,  glass-works,  pottieSries,  tanneries,  and  numeroue  bleach^ 
works,  and  millH  and  factories  of  various  kindts.  Boiilogue  and  Calais  are  tlie  prin- 
cipal harbors.  The  are  six  arron(lis=sement8— Arras,  B^tbuue,  St  Omer,  St  Pol, ' 
Boulogne,  and  Moutrenil.    The  capital  Is  At  ras. 

FASEJSG.    See  Goat. 

PA'SEWALK,  a  town  of  Prussia,  In  the  government  of  Stettin,  25  miles  west- 
north-west  of  thecitvof  that  name,  on  the  uker.  It  contains  two  churches,  two 
ho.^pitals.  atid  several  woolh-n-cloih  and  leather  factories;  and  carries  ou  an  active 
general  trade.    Pop.  (1871)  8049. 

PASHA',  or  Pacha,  a  title  used  in  the  Ottoman  empire,  and  applied  to  governors 
of  provinces,  or  milit4iry  or  naval  commanders  of  higli  rank.  The  name  i:«  s  id  to 
be  uerived  from  two  Persian  words— pa,  loot  or  support,  and  shah,  luler — ai.d  sig- 
nifies "the  support  of  the  ruler."  The  title  was  limited  in  the  early  |)eiiod  of  the 
OUoman  empire  to  the  princes  of  the  hlood,  but  was  subsequc  ntly  « xtende'1  lo  U.e 
irrand-vizier,  the  members  of  the  div&u,  the  seraskier,  capitan-pashu^  the  begier- 
Dej^s,  and  other  civil  and  military  authoritii'S.  The  distinetive  bailge  ot  a  pa^ha  is  a 
horse'rt  tail,  waving  from  the  end  of  a  staff,  crowned  with  a  gilt  ball ;  in  war,  this 
bad«;e  is  always  carried  before  hiui  when  he  goes  abroad,  and  is  at  otiier  times  planted 
in  front  of  hid  tent.  The  three  grades  of  pashas  are  disiinguishcd  by  the  nuuib«T  of 
the  horse-tails  on  their  etandards;  ilxosu  of  the  highest  r.ink  are  pashas  of  three 
tails,  and  include,  in  general,  the  highest  functionaries,  civil  ana  military.  All 
p:ishas  of  this  class  have  the  title  of  vizier;  an<l  the  grand-vizier  is,  par  exeelieiiee^  a 
]msha  or  three  tails.  The  pashas  of  two  tails  are  the  jjoveniors  of  provinces,  who 
generally  are  called  by  the  simple  titie  *'  pneha."  The  lowest  rank  of  pasha  is  the 
jiasha  of  one  tail ;  the  sanjaks,  or  lowest  class  of  proviucinl  govt  mor^,  are  of  this 
rank.  The  pasha  of  a  province  has  authority  over  the  miliiury  force,  the  revenue, 
and  the  adininistrution  of  iustice.  His  authority  was  formerly  absolute,  bat  recexitly 
a  check  was  imposed  on  him  by  the  appointment  of  local  councils.  Tue  pasha  is  in 
hxi  own  peiiou  the  military  leader  and  adiuiuibtrutor  of  justice  for  the  province  under 


y  Google 


P^^^  830  ^ 

his  chai-jfe,  and  ))0^(\n  otBeft  dniiiig  the  plenBure  of  the  Bultan—a  most  precarmoa 
tenure,  u;*  the  Bultun  can  tit  any  moment.  In  the  cx-Tcise  of  liis  despolic  |>ower,  exile, 
imprieoii,  or  put  iiim  to  death;  and  this  ha?*  freqiienily  been  done  in  cuf^es  where 
the  1)  isha's  power  has  excited  tho  apprehension,  or  his  wealth  tlie  avarice  of  hia 
royal  master. 

PASKEVITCH,  Ivan  Feodorovitch,  Count  of  Eii van.  Prince  of  Warsaw,  and  a 
Ru8.<iaM  fleld-marahul,  was  horn  at  Poltava,  May  19,  \18i.  He  was  descended  from 
a  Po  ish  family,  and  wn!«  at  first  a  pae«;  lo  the  Czur  Paul,  hut  entered  the  army,  and 
8.  rved  in  the  cainpid^n  in  1805,  which  was  ended  hy  the  defeat  of  Austerlifz;  and 
then  against  the  Turks.  He  took  a  prominent  parr,  in  the  campaign  of  1812,  and 
Beverartimoa  dt'feaied  the  French  under  Engdu  •,  Ney.  and  St  Cyr;  he  was  slso 
present  at  Leipzig,  and  the  cotiflicts  under  the  walls  of  P.u  is.  In  1835.  he  was  jip- 
pointed  commander-in-chief  against  ihe  Per.«»iaus.  whom  he  completely  4''fca ted. 
conquering  Persian  Armenia,  taking  Erivan,  and  ending  the  war  oy  the  peace  of 
TurknianBliai  (q,  v.),  a  peace  exceedingly  favorable  to  Russitu  In  recompense  for 
these  services,  he  was  created  Count  of  Ervian,  and  rec-'ivi'd  a  grant  of  1.000,000 
rubles  (jei58,600).  In  1S28  and  1829,  he  inside  two  i;o4npaign«  agjdnst  the  Turks  in 
Asia,  Hignalised  by  the  taking  of  Kara',  Erzerum,  and  oth<-r  important  provinces, 
and  ierminate<l  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople  in  1829.  In  1831,  P.,  now  a  field-mar- 
Bhal,  was  appointed  viceroy  of  Poland,  put  an  end  lo  the  revolt  within  thi"ee  mouthR 
after  his  appolntmenr,  and  reconstruct  d  tlie  administration  on  the  basis  of  a  com- 
plete incorporation  with  Russia.  Such  was  the  vigor  and  sc-vi^rity  of  his  rule,  that 
the  eventful  year  1848  passed  over  without  any  attempt  at  revolution.  When  Russian 
intervention  in  Hungary  Isad  been  resolved  ui)o:>,  P.,  though  now  CT  yeara  of  jtge, 
marched  into  that  country  at  the  head  of  2()0  000  men,  and,  after  a  junction  witli  the.. 
Austriane,  defeated  the  Hnngarians  in  several  battles,  and  by  mere  force  of  num- 
bers crushed  out  the  last  spark  of  insuvrectlon.  The  50th  anniversary  of  his  military 
service  was  celebrated  at  Warsaw,  in  1850,  with  the  utmost  rejoicings,  and  on  this 
occasion  the  sovereigns  of  Austria  and  Prussia  conferred  on  lum  the  rank  of  fi  d- 
mar."<hal  In  their  respective  ariuies.  In  1864,  he  unwilling  took  the  comnnind 
of  the  Rnsr'ian  army  on  tJie  Danul)e ;  but  fortune,  whicli  had  hitherto  invariably 
Biniled  upon  hlin.  dv.*33rted  hiiii  at  Sllistri;i ;  and  after  undergoing  a  succession  of 
Banguinary  repulses,  and  being  himself  grevionsly  wounded,  he  witlidrew  his  army, 
and  rosigiiing  the  command,  retired  to  W.irsaw,  where  he  fell  into  a  sfcjte  of  pro- 
found melancholy,  and  died  January  29,1853. 

PA'SMA  is  the  name  given  to  a  non-officinal  healing-powder,  which  is  regard'-d 
as  vory  serviceable  in  burns,  ulcers,  excoriations.  Ac.  It  is  composed  of  3u  parts 
of  silica,  12  of  magnesia,  6  of  alumina,  2  of  protoxide  of  iron,  and  50  of  starch  from 
the  olga  root. 

PA'SPALUM,  a  «jrenu9  of  grasses,  with  spikes  either  solitary  or  variously 
grouped,  one-flowt.-red  spikelets,  and  awnless  pjdeie.  The  species  are  numerous, 
natives  of  warm  climates.— P.  Hcrobieu'atuin  ix  cuhivate  I  as  a  cereal  in  India,  where 
it  is  called  Koda.  See  Millet.  It  will  grow  in  very  barren  soils,  and  dolighta  in  a 
dry,  1  >09e  soil.  P.  exile  is  cultivated  in  Tike  m  iniuir  In  the  west  of  Africa,  where  it 
isca'l'd  Fundi  (q.  v.)  or  Funtlungi. — Other  .species  are  valuable  as  fodder-grasses. 
P.  parpureuni  is  a  very  important  fodder-grass  Iti  the  coast  districts  of  Pern,  during 
the  dry  months  of  Februai-v  and  March.  P.  stoUmifenim^  also  a  Peruvian  spi^cies, 
boa  been  introduced  into  France;  but  is  apt  to  be  injured  by  frosts,  and  seldom 
ripens  its  seeds  in  the  neighborhood  of  Paris. 

END  OF  VOLUME  TEN. 


y  Google 


Digitized  by  VjOOQI^ 


\r *>.7:i  :-*:.  nv*' *  5^.^.^- 


y  Google 


Digitized  by  VjOQQI^ 

■■'■■  '^^--